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PRIVATE  LIBRARY 
RICHARD  C.  HALVERSON 


CYCLOPEDIA 


BIBLICAL, 

THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 
LITERATURE. 

PREPARED  BY 

THE  REV.  JOHN  M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 

AND 

JAMES  STRONG,  S.T.D. 
Vol.  I.— A,  B. 
WARD  C  HAu 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER    &    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN    SQUARE. 

18  80. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  sixty-seven,  by 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


P  E  E  F  A  C  E. 


This  work  was  commenced  in  1853.  From  that  time  to  this,  the  editors  have  been 
engaged,  with  the  aid  of  several  regular  collaborators,  and  of  numerous  contributors 
of  special  articles,  in  its  preparation. 

The  aim  of  the  work  is  to  furnish  a  book  of  reference  on  all  the  topics  of  the 
science  of  Theology,  in  its  widest  sense,  under  one  alphabet.  It  includes,  there- 
fore, not  only  articles  on  the  Bible  and  its  literature,  but  also  upon  all  the  subjects 
belonging  to  Historical,  Doctrinal,  and  Practical  Theology.  There  is  no  Dictionary 
in  the  English  language  which  seeks  to  cover  the  same  ground,  except  upon  a  com- 
paratively small  scale.  The  Encyclopaedia  of  Religious  Knowledge,  published  sev- 
eral years  since,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Rev.  J.  Newton  Brown,  is,  indeed,  quite 
comprehensive  in  its  aim ;  but,  as  it  is  confined  to  a  single  volume,  it  could  not  give 
full  treatment  to  the  vast  range  of  topics  embraced  in  its  plan.  Besides  this,  there 
is  but  one  other  attempt  in  English  at  a  comprehensive  Dictionary  of  Theology,  and 
that,  unfortunately,  remains  incomplete.  We  refer  to  the  translation  of  Herzog's 
Real-Encyklopadie,  commenced  in  1856  by  the  Rev.  J.  H.  A.  Bomberger,  D.D.,  the 
publication  of  which  was  suspended  during  the  war.* 

In  the  preparation  of  this  Cyclopaedia,  Dr.  Strong  has  had  exclusive  charge  of  the 
department  of  Biblical  literature,  and  for  the  articles  in  that  field  he  is  responsible. 
Twenty  years  ago,  before  the  publication  of  Kitto's  Cyclopaedia  of  Biblical  Litera- 
ture, the  student  of  the  Bible  had  no  better  Dictionary  to  consult  than  the  various  re- 
censions of  Calmet.  The  great  work  of  Dr.  Kitto  brought  together  the  results  of 
the  critical  labors  of  the  preceding  century,  in  which  Biblical  literature  had  become 
substantially  a  new  science.  Notwithstanding  many  and  grave  defects,  Kitto's  Cy- 
dopaidia  gave  a  new  impulse  to  Biblical  studies,  and  supplied  a  want  almost  univer- 
sally felt.  The  lapse  of  twenty  years,  in  which  vast  advances  have  been  made  in  the 
literature  of  the  Bible,  has  made  a  new  edition  necessary,  and  it  has  been  well  pre- 
pared under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Alexander.  In  the  mean  time,  Smith's  Dictionary 
of  the  Bible  (3  vols.  imp.  8vo)  has  been  issued,  on  a  plan  somewhat  similar  to  Kitto's 
Cyclopaedia.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  present  work,  as  a  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  to  com- 
bine the  excellences  of  both  the  great  works  named,  and  to  avoid  their  faults.  Free 
use  is  made  of  their  matter,  so  far  as  it  has  been  found  suitable  to  our  plan  ;f  but 
every  article  has  been  thoroughly  revised,  and  more  than  half  the  articles  on  Biblical 
topics  are  entirely  original,  while  most  of  the  others  are  so  in  part.  We  acknowledge 
similar,  though  not  quite  so  extensive  obligations  to  Winer's  Biblisches  Real-wbrter- 
buch,  a  book  whose  discrimination  and  compactness  are  unrivalled  in  this  branch  of 
literature.  It  will  be  perceived  that  the  Biblical  department  of  this  Cyclopaedia 
embraces  many  subjects  and  names  not  contained  in  any  of  these  three  works. 

For  the  treatment  of  all  the  topics  in  Systematic,  Historical,  and  Practical  Theolo- 
gy, Dr.  M'Clintock  is  responsible.  In  this  field  there  has  heretofore  been  no  copi- 
ous Dictionary  answering  to  the  Bible  Dictionaries  of  Kitto  and  Smith.  The  Real- 
Encyklopadie  of  Herzog,  and  Wetzer  und  Welte's  Ivirchen-Zexikon,  have  been  the 
fullest  sources  of  material  in  this  form.     Besides  these,  all  other  Encyclopaedias  and 

*  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  translation  of  this  vast  repository  of  modern  theological  science  may  be  re- 
sumed and  completed. 

t  Due  credit  is  given  in,  or  at  the  end  of  each  article,  for  the  use  made  of  the  works  cited.  In  some 
instances  the  above  general  credit  to  Kitto  and  Smith  is  all  that  could  justly  or  conveniently  be  given. 
We  have  intended  to  reproduce  all  that  is  valuable  in  their  works. 


iv  PREFACE. 

Dictionaries  of  importance,  both  general  and  special,  have  been  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  work.  Every  article  lias  cither  been  written  cle  novo,  or  thoroughly 
revised,  with  reference  to  the  more  recent  literature  on  each  topic.  Great  pains 
have  been  taken  with  the  verification  of  references,  hut  we  cannot  hope  to  have  en- 
tirely avoided  error  in  this,  or  in  other  points  of  minute  detail  in  so  vast  a  labor. 

The  whole  work  is  of  course  prepared  from  the  editors'  point  of  view  as  to  theolo- 
gv,  but,  ;it  the  same  time,  it  is  hoped,  in  no  narrow  or  sectarian  spirit. 

The  articles  on  the  several  Christian  denominations  have  either  been  prepared  by 
ministers  belonging  to  them,  or  have  been  submitted  to  such  ministers  for  examina- 
tion ami  correction.  Many  of  the  papers  on  the  various  branches  of  Christian  art  and 
archaeology  are  written  or  revised  by  Professor  George  F.  Comfort.  Most  of  the 
articles  on  Bible  Societies  have  been  prepared  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  Holdich,  D.D. 
Many  of  the  short  biographical  sketches  of  ministers  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  are  due  to  the  Rev.  George  Lansing  Taylor;  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church,  to  the  Rev.  H.  Harbaugh,  D.D. ;  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Congregational 
Churches,  to  Mr.  A.  Merwix  ;  of  the  Prot.  Epis  Church,  to  Mr.  TV.  Major.  In  this 
department  Dr.  Sprague's  Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit  have  been  of  great  service. 
Our  thanks  are  due  to  the  Rev.  O.  H.  Tiffany,  D.D.,  and  to  Mr.  J.  K.  Johnston,' for 
contributions,  especially  in  Church  history  and  early  ecclesiastical  biography.  Pro- 
fessor Alexander  J.  Schem  and  Mr.  J.  N.  Proeschel  (of  Paris)  have  been  regular 
collaborators  throughout  the  work.  The  articles  relating  to  Roman  Catholic  topics 
have  all  been  prepared  or  revised  by  Professor  Schem,  who  has  also  had  entire  charge 
of  Church  and  national  statistics,  and  of  reading  the  proofs  in  all  departments  of  the 
work  except  the  Biblical  Many  of  the  articles  drawn  chiefly  from  German  or  French 
sources  are  due  to  Mr.  Proeschel's  careful  and  intelligent  industry,  both  as  compiler 
and  translator.  In  succeeding  volumes,  articles  will  be  found  from  other  contribu- 
tors whose  services  were  enlisted  at  a  later  period  in  the  progress  of  the  work  than 
that  covered  in  this  volume. 

The  literature  of  the  subjects  treated  has  been  a  special  object  of  care.  Our  aim 
has  been  to  give  the  names. of  the  most  important  works,  both  old  and  new;  but  we 
have  especially  sought,  in  view  of  the  wants  of  the  majority  of  those  who  will  proba- 
bly use  this  Cyclopaedia,  to  refer,  on  all  essential  points,  to  accessible  books,  which 
ordinary  students,  seeking  to  enlarge  their  knowledge,  would  be  likely  to  fall  in  with 
or  could  readily  obtain.  It  would  have  been  easy  to  enlarge  the  lists  of  books  by 
emptying  the  works  on  Bibliography  into  them,  but  we  have  preferred  the  more  la- 
borious, and,  we  trust,  the  more  satisfactory  plan  of  discrimination  and  selection. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  of  such  a  task  as  this  is  the  adjustment  of  the 
relative  length  of  the  articles.  We  have  sought  to  keep  in  mind  the  relative 
importance  and  interest  of  the  various  topics  as  the  only  safe  guide  in  this  respect. 
Long  articles  are  given  on  certain  of  the  more  important  subjects;  but  we  have 
never  sacrificed  to  this  end  our  chief  purpose,  viz.,  to  give  as  complete  a  vocabulary 
as  possible  of  all  the  branches  of  theological  science.  This  is  what,  according  to  our 
riew,is  mosl  wanted  in  a  Dictionary.     No  essay,  however  elaborate,  in  a  Cyclopaedia, 

can  satisfy  the  wants'  of  the  student  who  seeks  to  master  any  special  topic;  he  will 
and  mas!  go  beyond  the  Dictionary  to  its  sources.  But  students,  and  even  theologi- 
ans, are  in  constant  need  of  accurate  information  upon  minor  points;  and  upon  all 
these  we  have  sought  to  give,  in  all  cases,  statements  that  may  be  relied  upon. 

If  the  work  shall  he  found,  in  actual  use,  to  have  gathered  into  a  convenient  and 
char  summary  the  mass  of  knowledge  accumulated  in  its  several  departments,  and 
shall  likewise  Berve,  to  some  extent  at  least,  to  advance  the  cause  of  sacred  truth,  it 
will  have  nut  the  expectations  of  the  authors,  who  have  expended  upon  it  many 
years  of  earnest  toil  and  solicitude. 


LIST  OF  WOOD-CUTS  IN  VOL.  I 


English  Abbess Pag3 

English  Abbot 

Coin  of  Abila-Leucas 

Coin  of  Abila-Claudiopolis 

Vessels  for  Ablution 

Roman  Standards 

Gnostic  Gem 

Absalom's  Tomb 

Akker-kuf 

Map  of  Acre 

Coins  of  Accho 

Roman  Dinner-bed 

Family  Eating-couch 

Kissing  the  Hand 

Coin  of  Adramyttium 

Map  of  Africa 

Rabbinical  Planting 

Jewish  Corn-field 

Oriental  Hoeing 

Syrian  Ploughing 

Egyptians  Planting 

Egyptian  Ploughing 

Egyptians  Hoeing 

Egyptians  Sowing 

Field  in  Clumps 

Treading  in  Grain : 

Harvest-scene 

Gathering  Wheat 

Binding  up  Wheat 

Jewish  Grain-field 

Egyptian  Reapers 

Treading  out  Grain 

Egyptian  Threshing-floor 

Egyptian  Threshing-machine 

Egyptian  Winnowing 

Coin  of  Agrippa  I 

Coin  of  Agrippa  II 

Aisle  in  Melrose  Abbey 

Alabaster  Vessels 

The  Alb 

Badge  of  Alcantara 

Coin  of  Alexander  the  Great 

Coin  of  Alexander's  Successor 

Coin  of  Alexander  Balas 

Coin  of  Alexander  Zebina 

Coin  of  Alexander  Jannseus 

Medal  of  Alexander  VI 

Map  of  Alexandria 

Alexandrian  Ship 

Specim  'ii  of  Codex  A  lexandrinus . . . 

Map  of  Algeria 

Almond-tree 

Almond  Branch 

Sandal-tree 

Eagle-wood 

Aloe  Socotrina 

Forms  of  Alpha 

Christian  Monograms 

Derivation  of  Alphabets 

Druidical  Circle 

Druidical  Cromlech 

Druidical  Cairn 

Persian  Fire-altar 

Egyptian  Altar  of  bloody  Offerings. 

Egyptian  Altar  of  Burnt-offering  . . . 

Gi  se  -ii-  I  Egyptian  Altar  of  Incense . . . 

Altars  on  1  ligh-places 

Altars  on  Roman  Coins 

Various  Heathen  Altars 

Forms  of  the  Altar  of  Burnt-offering. 

Jewish  Altar  of  Incense 

Various  Oriental  Altars 

Amber  containing  Flies 

Ambo  in  St.  Clement's 

Map  of  North  America 

Map  of  South  America c 

Image  of  Amnion , 

Coins  of  Amphipolis , 

Amphora 

Oriental  Amulets 

Egyptian  Ear-rings 

Cabalistic  Amulet , 

Ancient  Anchor 

Ancient  Galley 

Egyptians  Angling 

of  the  "  Durham  Book"  . . 


0  Animal  Worship Page 

6'Anetlmm  Graveolens 

17 !  Pimpinella  A  n  isum 

17  Oriental  Anklets 

22  "  Love-knot"  Star 

25  Badge  of  Annunciada 

34|  Anointing  a  King 

30  Perfuming  a  Guest 

42 1  Anointing  a  Statue 

45  Indian  Ant 

45  Brown  Ant 

47  Hills  of  Termites 

4S  White  Antelope 

79 1  Nubian  Antelope 

81  Pygarg  Antelope 

95  Map  of  Antioch 

108  Coins  of  Antioch  in  Syria 

Ins  (rate  of  St.  Paul 

109  Emblem  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia 

109  Coin  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia 

109  ( Join  of  Antiochus  Theos 

109  Coin  of  Antiochus  the  Great 

110  Coin  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 

110  Tetradrachm  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 

110  Coin  of  Antiochus  Eupator 

111  Coin  of  Antiochus  Dionysus  .  •. 

Ill  Coin  of  Antiochus  Sidetes 

111  Coin  of  Antiochus  Grypus 

112  Coin  of  Antiochus  Cyzicenus 

112  Coin  of  Antiochus  Eusebes 

112  <  ^oin  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  II 

112  Coin  of  Antiochus  Callinicus 

112  Coin  of  Antiochus  of  Commagene. . . 

113  Coin  of  Herod  Antipas 

US  Coin  with  Bust  of  Antonia 

114  Coin  of  L.  and  M.  Antony 

114  Coin  of  Antony  at  Antioch 

l'JO  Coin  of  Antony  as  Bacchant 

129  Image  of  A  nubia 

1 30  Vulcan  at  the  Forge 

135  Medal  of  Apamea  Cibotus 

139  Monkey  on  the  Prsenestine  Tablet  . . 

140  Baboons  on  the  Egyptian  Monuments 

141  Monkeys  on  the  Assyrian  Monuments 

141  Figure  of  Apis 

141  Mummied  Bull 

145  Apothecary  Shop 

150  Arab  of  the  Desert 

151  Inhabitants  of  Nablous 

155  Levantine  Costumes 

1C0  Mountaineer  of  Lebanon 

170  Female  of  Lebanon 

170  Apple  of  Sodom 

173  Apse  at  Dalmeny 

174  Map  of  Arabia 

174  Bedouin  Arabs 

175  Mount  Ararat 

175  Norman  Arcade 

175  Arched  Door-ways 

17S  Arched  Ceiling 

178  Stone  Arch 

178  Arched  Roof 

17s  Arched  Drain 

17S  Arched  Wall 

179  Arch  of  Titus 

179  Coin  of  Herod  Archelaus 

179  Coin  of  Archelaus  of  Cappadocia 

lso  Egyptian  Archer 

ISO  Assyrian  Archer 

181  Egyptian  Villa 

IS!',  Grecian  Walls 

183  Greek  Orders  of  Architecture 

191  Diocletian's  Palace 

191  Basilica  of  St.  Peter 

195  Court  of  the  Lions 

196  Apostles'  <  Ihurch  at  Cologne 

202  Environs  of  Athens 

200  Vicinitv  of  Areopagus 

200  Acropolis  of  Athens 

207  Coin  of  Aretas  II 

208  Coin  of  Aretas  III 

20S  Coin  of  a  later  Aretas 

220  Coin  of  Aria'athes  V 

220  Druidical  Altars 

.  231  Coins  representing  the  Ark 

231  Ai  k  of  the  Covenant 


233iEgyptian  Ark Pag3 

234  Ark  in  Procession 

234  Egyptian  Shrine 

235  Map  of  Armenia 

23S  Assyrian  Armlets 

23S  Egyptian  Armlets 

239  Oriental  Armlets 

240  Striking  Weapons 

241  Cutting  Weapons 

245  Projectile  Weapons 

240  Assyrian  Bowmen 

240  Implements  of  Archery 

249  Stringing  the  Bow 

249  Assyrian  Row,  etc 

250  Egyptian  Sling 

267  Assyrian  Slingers 

208  Ancient  Shields 

208  Assyrian  Shields 

209 1 Armor  for  the  Head 

270  Ancient  Armor 

270  Coats  of  Mail 

271 '  Parthian  Horseman 

271  Cuirasses  and  Helmets 

272  Roman  Armor 

273' Egyptian  Reed-arrows 

273  Egyptian  Sportsman 

274  Egyptian  Arrow-heads 

274|Coin  of  Arsaces  VI 

2741  Cuneiform  and  Hieroglyph  of  Arta- 
274J     xerxes 

275  Coin  of  Aradus 

275' Map  of  Asher 

275  Medal  of  Astarte 

270  Medal  of  Ashtoreth 

251  Medal  of  Female  Baal 

283  Map  of  Asia 

284  Map  of  Asia  Minor 

284  Coin  of  Hypsepa 

2S4The  Asp 

2S5!  Asp  as  Agathoclcemon 

285  I  (omestic  Ass 

2S0  She-Ass 

280  Wild  Ass 

286  Cuneiform  of  Asshur 

28S  Coin  of  Assos 

289  Figure  of  Asshur 

319 1 Map  of  Assyria 

519  Assyrian  Palace 

319iGem  of  Astarte 

320, Medal  of  Atergatis 

320'Coin  of  Athens,  1 

320'Coin  of  Athens,  2 

325  Athens  Restored 

320 1  Map  of  Athens 

330 1  Ancien  t  Oriental  Attire 

346 1  Modern  Oriental  Attire 

357  \  Mohammedan  Postures 

361  Egyptians  Praying 

G64  Persian  and  Roman  Praying 

;  04  Egyptian  Kneeling 

364  <  Iriental  Prostration 

366  Smiting  the  Breast 

365  Reverential  Sitting 

305  Egyptian  Suppliants 

:r>5  Kissing  the  Feet 

371  — 

371 

371 

372 

371 

375 

375 

370 

379 


Kissing  the  Hand 

Orientals  Bowing 

Egyptians  Bowing 

Oriental  Blessing 

Augustine  Hermits 

Coin  of  Augustus 

Coin  of  Augustus  with  Agrippa. 

Map  of  Austria 

Badge  of  Avis 

Egyptian  Aivh 

379  Egyptian  Axes,  etc 

382  Assyrian  Axe-head 

383  Egyptian  Chariot 

3-::  Medals  of  Baal 

885  Gem  of  Baal 

385  Ruins  of  Baalbek 

3S0  Octagonal  Temple  at  Baalbek  .  . 
393  Plan  of  Temple  at  Baalbek 

401  Effigies  of  Baal 

402  Ruins  of  lirs  Nimrud 

402,  Elevation  of  Bira  Nimrud 


530 
545 
54  s 
54S 
551 
509 
571 
572 
572 
572 
578 


5S2 
533 
5Sfl 
591 

5.2 


VI 


LIST  OF  WOOD-CUTS  IN  VOL.  I. 


East  Indian  Pyramid Page  503 

Mexican  Pyramid 593 

Plan  of  Ruins  of  Babylon 59S 

Portions  of  Ancient  Babylon 599 

View  of  Babil 599 

View  of  the  Kasr 6U0 

Chart  of  Babylon 600 

The  Badger 614 

Halirore  Tabemaculi 615 

The  Tachaitze 615 

Egyptian  Money-bags 616 

Egyptian  Bakery 620 

Egyptian  Weighing 024 

Egyptian  Balls 626 

Balm  of  Gilead 62T 

Balsam-twigs 628 

Ancient  Banners 634 

Egyptian  Banquet 636 

Assyrians  Drinking 638 

Egyptian  Barber 662 

Shekel  of  Bar-cocheba 665 

Dress  of  Barnabites 6T2 

Specimen  of  L'ncial  Basilian  MS....  684 
Specimen  of  Cursive  Basilian  MS. . .   6S4 

Habit  of  Basilian  Nun 6S5 

Basilica  of  St.  Paul 6S5 

Egyptian  Bread-baskets 6S7 

Egyptian  Grape-baskets 687 

Egypt  ian  Farm-baskets 68S 

Various  Egyptian  Baskets 688 

Oriental  Baskets 68S 

Egyptian  Bastinado 692 

Common  Bat 693 

Ancient  Egyptian  Bats 693 

Modern  Egyptian  Bats 693 

Egyptian  Lady  Bathing 694 

Ordinary  Battering-ram 696 

Assyrian  Battering-ram 696 

Assyrians  hewing  a  Figure 697 


Egyptian  Archers Page 

Oriental  Battlement 

Bazaar  at  Alexandria 

Syrian  Bear 

Beard  of  Assyrian  King 

Ancient  Beards 

Egyptian  False  Beards 

Oriental  Sleeping-room 

Egyptian  Lattice  Bedstead 

Egyptian  Couch 

Greek  Couch 

Oriental  Bed 

Honey-bee 

Truxalis  Nasutus 

Egyptian  Talismanic  Beetle 

Oriental  Santon 

Beguine  of  Amsterdam 

Inscriptions  at  Behistun 

Worship  of  Bel 

Map  of  Belgium 

Assyrian  Bells 

Egyptian  Bellows 

Early  Benedictine 

English  Benedictine 

Benedictine  Nun 

Map  of  Benjamin 

Coin  of  Bercea 

Coin  of  Berytus 

Plan  of  Beirut 

Pool  of  Bethesda 

Bethlehemite  Monk  in  England 

Bethlehemite  Monk  in  Guatemala.. 

Bethlehemite  Nun 

Coins  of  Bithynia 

Bittern 

Helix  Ianthina 

Wild  Boar 

Ancient  Books 

Specimen  of  Boreel's  MS 


6.17  Egyptian  Skin-bottles Page 

69S  Italian  Skin-bottles 


Oriental  Water-skins  . 


705 

707  Egyptian  Bottles 

Tin  Assyrian  Glass  Bottles 

Tos  stringing  the  Bow 

7(i<)  <  >riental  Bowing 

7 1 6  Egyptian  Bowls 

718  Assyrian  Bowls 

7  111  Egyptian  Toilet-box 

719  Branch  of  Box-tree 

7111  Egyptian  Bracelets 

719  Assyrian  Bracelets 

7_r>  Unman  Bracelets 

7 •_'(',  « »riental  Bracelets 

7'.'C.  Southern  Buckthorn 

727  Brazen  Sea  

7'N  Bread  from  Pmnpeii 

7 -JO  1 1  igh-priest's  Breastplate 

7.':  1  Babylonian  Brick 

7.:5  Egyptian  Brick-making 

739  .Jacob's  Bridge 

7  10  Assyrian  Bridle 

740  Assyrian  Bucket 

710,  Reman  Buckles 

754  ( 'ulossal  Gotama 

705  Buddhist  Cave-temple 

70S  Buffalo  of  Palestine 

709  Jewish  Funeral  Procession 

777  Egyptian  Mummy-pit 

7s4  <  iriental  Grave-clothes 

7s4  Sarcophagi  in  Palestine 

784  Egyptian  Bier 

s-25  Egyptian  Females  Mourning 

X'jo  (  iriental  Women  at  a  Tomb 

S::9  Altar  of  Burnt-offering,  according  to 

S39|     Meyer 

S51  Altar  of  Burnt-offering,  according  to 
S54     Friederich 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.  V.  stands  for 

Authorized  Version. 

eod.            l 

eodem 

=  in  the  same  (year). 

ib.               i 

ibidem 

=  in  the  same  (place). 

id.              ' 

idem 

=  the  same 

i.  q. 

idem  quod 

=  the  same  as. 

I.e.            ' 

loc.  Clt. 

=  the  passage  quoted. 

n.  d.           ' 

no  date. 

q.  d. 

quasi  dictum  —  as  if  it  were  said. 

q.  v. 

quod  vide 

=  which  see. 

s.  a.            ' 

sine  anno 

sine  loco 

^ap&^P**"*-. 

8.  an.          ' 

sub  anno 

=  under  the  year. 

eq.              l 

sequent. 

=  following. 

s.  v.           ' 

sub  ixrbo 

=  under  the  word. 

v.  r.          l 

various  reading. 

CYCLOPAEDIA 


BIBLICAL,  THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATURE. 


A.     See  Alpha. 

Aadrak.     See  Aazrak. 

A'alar  ('AaAdp),  a  person  -who  (or  a  place  from 
•which  some  of  the  Jews)  returned  after  the  captivity 
(1  Esdr.  v,  36) ;  more  correcth-  called  in  the  parallel 
list  (Neh.  vii,  61)  Islmer  (q.  v.). 

Aara  (JOXX),  a  factitious  term  used  by  the  Eab- 
bins  (Lex.  Talm.  Aruch,  s.  v.)  as  an  example  of  a 
■word  beginning  with  two  X's,  like  Aazrak  (q.  v.). 
In  the  Talmud,  according  to  Buxtorf  {Lex.  Talm.  col. 
2),  it  is  written  A  vera  (K^IX),  perhaps  only  a  sing. 
Chaldaic  form  of  the  plur.  Urim  (q.  v.),  light. 

A'aron  [vulgarly  pronounced  Ar'ori]  (Ileb.  Aha- 
ron, ■pn.N,  derivation  uncertain :  Gesenius,  Thesaur. 
Heb.  p.  33,  thinks  from  the  obsolete  root  "lilX,  to  be 
libidinous  [so  the  Heb.  Lex.  Aruch,  from  !"H!~l,  refer- 
ring (erroneously)  to  his  conception  during  the  Phara- 
onic  edict] ;  but  in  his  Heb.  Lex.  s.  v.  compares  with 
*|iin,  mountaineer ;  Filrst,  Heb.  Handwi'irterbuch,  s.  v., 
makes  it  signify  enlightener,  from  an  obsolete  root 
*inx  =  "list,  to  shine.  Sept.,  N.  T.,  and  Josephus, 
'Aapwi'). 

I.  History. — Aaron  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Levite 
Amram  by  Jochebed,  and  the  brother  of  Moses  (Exod. 
vi,  20;  vii, '7-  Num.  xxvi,  59)  ;  born  B.C.  1742.  He 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  account  of  Moses'  vision  of 
the  burning  bush  (Exod.  iv,  14),  where  the  latter  was 
reminded  by  the  Lord  that  Aaron  possessed  a  high 
degree  of  persuasive  readiness  of  speech,  and  could 
therefore  speak  in  His  name  in  his  behalf.  Dur- 
ing the  absence  of  Moses  in  Midian  (B.C.  1698-1658), 
Aaron  had  married  a  woman  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
named  Elisheba  (or  Elizabeth),  who  had  borne  to  him 
four  sons,  Nadab,  Abihu,  Eleazar,  and  Ithamar;  and 
Eleazar  had,  before  the  return  of  Moses,  become  the 
father  of  Phinehas  (Exod.  vi,  23-25).  Pursuant  to  an 
intimation  from  God,  Aaron  went  into  the  wilderness 
to  meet  his  long-exiled  brother,  and  conduct  him  back 
to  Egypt.  They  met  and  embraced  each  other  at  the 
Mount  of  Horeb*(Exod.  iv,  27),  B.C.  1658.  When  they 
arrived  in  Goshen,  Aaron,  who  appears  to  have  been 
well  known  to  the  chiefs  of  Israel,  introduced  his  broth- 
er to  them,  and  aided  him  in  opening  and  enforcing 
his  great  commission  (Exod.  iv,  29-31).  In  the  subse- 
quent transactions,  Aaron  appears  to  have  been  almost 
always  present  with  his  more  illustrious  brother,  as- 
sisting and  supporting  him  ;  and  no  separate  act  of  his 
own  is  recorded,  although  he  seems  to  have  been  the 
actual  instrument  of  effecting  many  of  the  miracles 
(Exod.  vii,  19  sq.).  Aaron  and  Hur  were  present  on 
the  hill  from  which  Moses  surveyed  the  battle  which 
Joshua  fought  with  the  Amalekites  (Exod.  xvii,  10- 
12) ;  and  these  two  long  sustained  the  weary  hands 
upon  whose  uplifting  (in  order  to  extend  the  official 
od,  rather  than  in  prayer,  see  ver.  9)  the  fate  of  the 
A 


AARON 

battle  was  found  to  depend.  Afterward,  when  Moses 
ascended  Mount  Sinai  to  receive  the  tables  of  the 
law,  Aaron,  with  his  sons  and  seventy  of  the  elders, 
accompanied  him  part  of  the  way  up,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  behold  afar  off  the  symbol  of  the  Sacred 
Presence  (Exod.  xxiv,  1,  2,  9-11).  During  the  ab- 
sence of  Moses  in  the  mountain  the  people  seem  to 
have  looked  upon  Aaron  as  their  head,  and  an  occa- 
sion arose  which  fully  vindicates  the  divine  prefer- 
ence of  Moses  by  showing  that,  notwithstanding  the 
seniority  and  greater  eloquence  of  Aaron,  he  wanted 
the  high  qualities  which  were  essential  in  the  leader 
of  the  Israelites  (see  Niemeyer,  Charakt.  iii,  238  sq.). 
The  people  at  length  concluded  that  Moses  had  perished 
in  the  fire  that  gleamed  upon  the  mountain's  top,  and, 
gathering  around  Aaron,  clamorously  demanded  that 
he  should  provide  them  with  a  visible  symbolic  image 
of  their  God,  that  they  might  worship  him  as  other  gods 
were  worshipped  (Exod.  xxxii).  Either  through  fear 
or  ignorance,  Aaron  complied  with  their  demand  ;  and 
with  the  ornaments  of  gold  which  they  freely  offered, 
cast  the  figure  of  a  calf  (see  Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illnst. 
in  loc).  See  Calf.  However,  to  fix  the  meanin  ; 
of  this  image  as  a  symbol  of  the  true  God,  Aaron  was 
careful  to  proclaim  a  feast  to  Jehovah  for  the  ensuing 
da}'  (see  Moncaeius,  A  aron  pu iff  it us  she  de  vitulo  aureo, 
Atreb.  i605,  Franckf.  1675).  At  this  juncture,  Moses' 
reappearance  confounded  the  multitude,  who  were  se- 
verely punished  for  this  sin.  Aaron  attempted  to  ex- 
cuse himself  by  casting  the  whole  blame  upon  the 
people,  but  was  sternly  rebuked  by  his  brother,  at 
whose  earnest  intercessions,  however,  he  received  the 
divine  forgiveness  (Deut.  ix,  20).  During  this  and  a 
second  absence  in  the  mountain,  Moses  had  received 
instructions  regarding  the  ecclesiastical  establishment, 
the  tabernacle,  and  the  priesthood,  which  he  soon 
afterward  proceeded  to  execute.  See  Tabernacle  ; 
Worship.  Under  the  new  institution  Aaron  was  to  be 
high-priest,  and  his  sons  and  descendants  priests ; 
and  the  whole  tribe  to  which  he  belonged,  that  of 
Levi,  was  set  apart  as  the  sacerdotal  or  learned  caste. 
See  Levite.  Accordingly,  after  the  tabernacle  had 
been  completed,  and  every  preparation  made  for  the 
commencement  of  actual  service,  Aaron  and  his  sons" 
were  consecrated  by  Moses,  who  anointed  them  with 
the  holy  oil  and  invested  them  with  the  sacred  gar- 
ments (Lev.  viii,  ix),  B.C.  1657.  The  high-priest  ap- 
plied himself  assiduously  to  the  duties  of  his  exalted 
office,  and  during  the  period  of  nearly  forty  years  that 
it  was  filled  by  him  his  name  seldom  comes  under  our 
notice.  But  soon  after  his  elevation  his  two  eldest 
sons,  Nadab  and  Abihu,  were  struck  dead  for  daring, 
seemingly  when  in  a  state  of  partial  inebriety,  to  con- 
duct the  service  of  God  in  an  irregular  manner,  by 
offering  incense  with  unlawful  fire.  On  this  occasion 
it  was  enjoined  that  the  priests  should  manifest  none 
of  the  ordinary  signs  of  mourning  for  the  loss  of  those 
who  were  so  dear  to  them.     To  this  heavy  stroke 


AARON  ! 

Aaron  bowed  in  silence  (Lev.  x,  1-11).  Aarnn  joined 
in,  or  at  least  sanctioned,  the  invidious  conduct  of  his 
sister  Miriam,  who,  after  the  wife  of  Moses  had  been 
brought  to  the  camp  byJethro,  became  apprehensive 
for  her  own  position,  and  cast  reflections  upon  Moses, 
much  calculated  to  damage  his  influence,  on  account 
of  his  marriage  with  a  foreigner — always  an  odious 
thing  among  the  Hebrews.  For  this  Miriam  was 
struck  with  temporary  leprosy,  which  brought  the  high- 
priest  to  a  sense  of  his  sinful  conduct,  and  he  sought 
and  obtained  forgiveness  (Num.  xii).  See  MlRIAM. 
Subsequently  to  this  (apparently  B.C.  1G20),  a  formi- 
dable conspiracy  was  organized  against  Aaron  and  his 
sons,  as  well  as  against  Moses,  l>y  chiefs  of  influence 
and  station — Korah,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  Dathan 
and  Abiram,  ofthe  tribe  of  Reuben.  See  Korah.  But 
the  divine  appointment  was  attested  and  confirmed  by 
the  signal  destruction  of  the  conspirators ;  and  the 
next  day,  when  the  people  assembled  tumultuously, 
and  murmured  loudly  at  the  destruction  which  had 
overtaken  their  leaders  and  friends,  a  fierce  pestilence 
broke  out  among  them,  and  they  fell  by  thousands  on 
the  spot.  When  this  was  seen,  Aaron,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Moses,  filled  a  censer  with  fire  from  the  altar, 
and,  rushing  forward,  arrested  the  plague  between  the 
living  and  the  dead  (Num.  xvi).  This  was,  in  fact, 
another  attestation  of  the  divine  appointment ;  and, 
for  its  further  confirmation,  as  regarded  Aaron  and  his 
famih',  the  chiefs  of  the  several  tribes  were  required 
to  deposit  their  staves,  and  with  them  was  placed  that 
of  Aaron  for  the  tribe  of  Levi.  They  were,  all  laid  up 
together  over  night  in  the  tabernacle,  and  in  the  morn- 
ing it  was  found  that,  while  the  other  rods  remained  as 
they  were,  that  of  Aaron  had  budded,  blossomed,  and 
yielded  the  fruit  of  almonds.  The  rod  was  preserved 
in  the  tabernacle  (comp.  Heb.  ix,  4)  as  an  authentic 
evidence  of  the  divine  appointment  of  the  Aaronic  fam- 
ily to  the  priesthood — •■huh,  indeed,  docs  not  appear 
to  have  been  ever  afterward  disputed  (Num.  xvii). 
Aaron  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  Promised  Land,  on 
account  ofthe  distrust  which  he,  as  well  as  his  1  roth- 
er,  manifested  when  the  rock  was  stricken  at  Meribah 
(Num.  xx,  8-13).  When  the  host  arrived  at  Mount 
Hor,  in  going  down  the  Wady  Arabah  [see  Exode],  in 
order  to  double  the  mountainous  territory  of  Edom,  the 
divine  mandate  came  that  Aaron,  accompanied  by  his 
brother  Moses  and  by  his  son  Eleazar,  should  ascend 
to  the  top  of  that  mountain  in  the  view  of  all  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  that  he  should  there  transfer  his  pontifical 
robes  to  Eleazar,  and  then  die  (Num.  xx,  2"-  29).  He 
was  123  years  old  when  his  career  thus  strikingly  ter- 
minated; and  his  son  and  his  brother  buried  him  in  a 
cavern  of  the  mountain,  B.C.  1619.  See  Hon.  The 
Israelites  mourned  for  him  thirty  days  ;  and  on  the 
first  day  ofthe  month  Ab  the  Jews  yet  hold  a  fast  in 
commemoration  of  his  death  (Kitto,  s,  v.").  The  Arabs 
still  Bhow  the  traditionary  site  of  \'\-  grave  (Num.  xx, 
28;  xxxiii,  38;  Dent,  xxxii,  5(1),  which  in  the  time  of 
Etiseliius  was  reputed  to  be  situated  in  Petra,  in  the 
modern  Wady  Mousa  (ftnomast.  s.  v.  <  >r ;  .1  m.  Bib.  Re- 
pos.  1838,  p.  132,  640).  lie  is  mentioned  in  the  Koran 
(Hottinger,  Hist.  0re'e«tf.p.85  sq.),  ami  the  Rabbins  have 
'many  fabulous  stories  relating  to  him  (Eisenmenger, 
Ent.Judenth. 1,342,855,864).  For Talmudical references, 
see  Real-Enojld'ip.  s.  v.  For  an  attempted  identification 
with  Mercury,  Bee  the  Eur  op.  Mag.  i,  1G.  See  Moses. 
In  1'sa.  exxxiii,  2,  Aaron's  name  incurs  as  that  of 
the  first  anointed  priest.  I  lis  descendants  ("sons  of 
Aaron,"  Josh,  xxi,  4,  10,  13,  etc.;  poetically,  "house 
of  Aaron."  Pea,  <xv,  10,  12;  cxviii,  3,  etc.)  were  the 
priesthood  in  general,  his  lineal  descendants  being  the 
high-priests.  Sec  Aabonite.  Even  in  the  time  of 
David,  these  were  a  very  numerous  body  (3  Chron. 
xii,  27).  The  other  branches  ofthe  tribe  of  Levi  were 
assigned  subordinate  sacred  duties.  See  Levitk.  For 
the  list  ofthe  pontiff*,  including  those  ofthe  line  of 
Ithamar  (q.  v.),  to  whom  the  office  was  for  Mine..'  rca- 


AARON  BEN  ASER 

son  transferred  from  the  family  of  the  senior  Eleazar 
(see  Josephus,  Ant.  v,  11,  5  ,  viii,  1,  3),  but  afterward 
restored  (comp.  1  Sam.  ii,  30),  see  High-priest. 

II.  Priesthood. — Aaron  and  his  sons  were  invested 
by  Moses  with  the  priestly  office,  which  was  to  remain 
in  Aaron's  line  forever  (Exod.  xxix).  This  was  alto- 
gether distinct  from  the  semi-sacerdotal  character  with 
which  his  mere  seniority  in  the  family  invested  him 
according  to  patriarchal  usage.  The  duty  and  right 
of  sacrificing  to  God  was  thereafter  reserved  to  that 
family  exclusively.  The  high-priesthood  was  confined 
to  the  first-born  in  succession  ;  and  the  rest  of  his  pos- 
terity were  priests,  simpl}-  so  called,  or  priests  of  the 
second  order  (Ernesti,  Be  Aarone,  Wittenb.  1688-0). 
See  Sacerdotal  Order. 

III.  Typical  Character. — Aaron  was  a  type  of  Christ 
(see  Il'ylandcr,  De  Aarone  summisque  Judceor.  ponti- 
ficibus,  Messice  typis,  Lond.  and  Goth.  1827) — not,  in- 
deed, in  his  personal,  but  in  his  official,  character  :  1. 
As  high-priest,  offering  sacrifice ;  2.  In  entering  into 
the  holy  place  on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  and  rec- 
onciling the  people  to  God;  in  making  intercession 
for  them,  and  pronouncing  upon  them  the  blessing  of 
Jehovah,  at  the  termination  of  solemn  services  ;  3.  In 
being  anointed  with  the  holy  oil  by  effusion,  which  was 
prefigurativc  of  the  Holy  Spirit  with  which  our  Lord 
was  endowed ;  4.  In  bearing  the  names  of  all  the 
tribes  of  Israel  upon  his  breast  and  upon  his  shoulders, 
thus  presenting  them  always  before  God,  and  repre- 
senting them  to  Him;  5.  In  being  the  medium  of 
their  inquiring  of  God  by  Urim  and  Thummim,  and  of 
the  communication  of  His  will  to  them.  But,  though 
the  offices  of  Aaron  were  typical,  the  priesthood  of 
Christ  is  of  a  fur  higher  order.  Aaron's  priesthood 
was  designed  as  "a  shadow  of  heavenly  things."  to 
lead  the  Israelites  to  look  forward  to  "  better  things 
to  come,"  when  "another  priest"  should  arise,  "after 
the  order  of  Melchizedek"  (Heb.  vi,  20),  and  who 
should  "  be  constituted,  not  after  the  law  of  a  carnal 
commandment,  but  after  the  power  of  an  endless  life." 
(See  Hunter,  Sacred  Biog.  p.  282  sq. ;  Evans,  Scrip. 
Biog.  iii,  77 ;  Williams,  Characters  of  O.  T.  p.  97  ;  Gor- 
don, Chist  in  the  Ancient  Church,  i,  271.)     See  Priest. 

Aaron  Acharon  (i.  e.  the  younger),  a  rabbi  born 
at  Nicomedia  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
He  belonged  to  the  sect  of  the  Caraites.  We  have 
from  him  several  Hebrew  works  on  mystical  theology 
(The  Tree  of  Life,  The  Garden  of  Faith,  The  Garden  of 
Eden),  and  a  literal  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch, 
entitled  fflitl  1HG  (vail  of  the  law).  — Hoefer,  Bio- 
graphie  Generate,  i,  G. 

Aaron  ha-Rishox  (i.  e.  the  elder),  a  celebrated 
rabbi  of  the  sect  of  the  Caraites,  practiced  medicine  at 
Constantinople  toward  the  close  of  the  13th  century. 
He  had  the  reputation  of  being  a  great  philosopher 
and  an  honest  man.  lie  is  the  author  of  an  Essay  on 
Hebrew  Grammar  pS"1  ?"1^S,  "  perfect  in  beauty," 
Constantinople,  1581),  and  of  a  Jewish  prayer-book  ac- 
cording to  the  rites  ofthe  Caraitic  sect  (ni*>SPl  "lEO, 
Venice,  1528-29,  2  vols.  4to).  He  also  wrote  com  mi  n- 
taries  on  the  Pentateuch,  the  first  prophets  (Joshua, 
the  Judges.  Samuel,  and  the  Kings), on  Isaiah  and  the 
Psalms,  and  on  Job,  all  of  which  are  still  inedited. — 
Hoefer,  Biographie  Generate,  i,  6. 

Aaron  ben-Aser,  or  Aaron  t>ar-Moses,  a 
celebrated  Jewish  rabbi,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
1  1th  century.  He  is  the  author  of  a  Treatise  on  the 
Accents  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  printed  in  1517. 
Aaron  collected  the  various  readings  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  manuscripts  of  the  libraries  ofthe  West, 
while  his  colaborator,  Ben-Nephthali,  searched  for  va- 
rious readings  in  the  Eastern  libraries.  These  varia- 
tions of  the  text,  though  purely  grammatical,  gave 
rise  to  two  celebrated  sects  among  the  Jews — that  of 
the  Occidentals,  who  followed  Ben-Aser  ;  and  that  of 


AAROX  BEN-CIIAYBI 


3 


ABADIAS 


the  Orientals,  which  only  admitted  the  authority  of  I 
Ben-Nephthali.  Their  editions  give  for  the  first  time 
the  vowel  signs,  the  invention  of  which  lias  therefore 
frequently  been  ascribed  to  them.  The  works  of 
Aaron  ben-Aser  have  been  printed,  together  with  those 
of  Moses  ben-David,  at  the  end  of  the  Biblia  Rab- 
binica  of  Venice. — Hoefer,  Biographie  Ghiercde,  i,  7. 

Aaron  ben-Chayirfl,  a  celebrated  rabbi,  born  at 
Fez  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  He  was  the 
head  of  the  synagogues  of  Fez  and  Morocco.  In  order 
to  superintend  the  printing  of  his  works,  he  made,  in 
1609,  a  voyage  to  Venice,  where  he  died  soon  after. 
His  works  are  (in  Hebrew),  The  Heart  of  Aaron,  con- 
taining two  commentaries  on  Joshua  and  the  Judges 
(Venice,  1609,  fol.)  ;  The  Offering  of  Aaron,  or  remarks 
on  the  book  Siphra,  an  ancient  commentary  on  Levit- 
icus (Venice,  1609,  fol.);  The  Measures  of  Aaron,  or  an 
essay  on  the  13  hermeneutical  rules  of  Rabbi  Ismael. — 
Hoefer,  Biographie  Generate,  i,  7  ;  Fiirst,  Bih.Jud.  i,159. 
Aaron  ben-Joseph  Sason  (Schascon),  a  rab- 
bi of  Tbessalonica,  lived  at  the  close  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. He  is  the  author  of  several  celebrated  Jewish 
works,  among  which  are  FiESt  T'nip  (the  law  of 
truth),  a  collection  of  232  decisions  on  questions  re- 
lating to  sales,  rents,  etc.  (Venice,  1616.  fol.) ;  and 
P"3X  ~15S  (the  book  of  truth),  explicatory  of  the 
Tosaphoth  of  the  Gemara  (Amsterd.  1706,  8vo). — 
Hoefer,  Biographie  Generate,  i,  7. 

Aaron  Zalaha,  a  Spanish  rabbi,  died  1293.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  commentary  published  under  the 
title  Sepher  Hachinak,  id  est  Liber  Institutionis,  recensio 
613  legis  Mosaicai  prweeptorum,  etc.  (in  Hebrew,  Ven- 
ice, 1523,  fol.) — Hoefer,  Biographie  Generate,  i,  7. 

A'aronite  (Heb.  same  as  Aaron,  used  collective- 
ly), a  designation  of  the  descendants  of  Aaron,  and 
therefore  priests,  who,  to  the  number  of  3700  fighting 
men,  with  Jehoiada  the  father  of  Bonaiah  at  their 
head,  joined  David  at  Hebron  (1  Chron.  xii,  27). 
Later  on  in  the  history  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  17)  we  find 
their  chief  was  Zadok,  who  in  the  earlier  narrative  is 
distinguished  as  "a  young  man  mighty  of  valour." 
They  must  have  been  an  important  family  in  the  reign 
of  David  to  be  reckoned  among  the  tribes  of  Israel. 
— Smith,  s.  v.     See  Aaron  ;  Priest. 

Aazrak  (~plXX),  a  Cabalistic  word  found  in  the 
Talmudic  Lexicon  Aruch,  and  apparently  invented  by 
the  Rabbins  in  order  to  correspond  to  a  prohibition 
found  in  the  Mishna  {Shabbath,  xii,  3)  that  no  person 
should  write  on  the  Sabbath  two  letters,  this  word  be- 
ginning with  the  letter  X  repeated.  In  the  Talmud, 
however,  it  is  written  Aadrah  (~T1XN).  Buxtorf 
{Lex.  Talmud,  col.  2)  thinks  it  is  merely  the  Biblical 
word  ""^XX,  aiizzerlm',  I  loill  gird  thee  (Auth.  Vers. 
"  I  girded  thee"),  found  in  Isa.  xlv,  5. 

Ab  (-N,  prob.  i.  q.  "the  season  of  fruit,"  from 
22X,  to  ha  fruitful,  and  apparently  of  Syriac  origin, 
D'Herbelot,  Bill.  Orient,  s.  v.  •  romp.  Abib  ;  Jose- 
phus,  'A[3[i(i,  Ant.  iv,  4,  7),  the  Chaldee  name  of  the 
fifth  ecclesiastical  and  eleventh  civil  month  of  the 
Jewish  year  (liuxtorf,  Lex.  Tahn.  col.  2);  a  name 
introduced  after  the  Babylonian  captivity,  and  riot 
occurring  in  Scripture,  in  which  this  is  designated 
simply  as  the  fifth  month  (Num.  xxxiii,  38;  Jer.  i,  3; 
Zech.  vii,  3,  etc.).  It  corresponded  with  the  Macedo- 
nian month  Lous  (A woe),  beginning  with  the  new  moon 
of  August,  and  alwa3'S  containing  thirty  days.  The 
1st  day  is  memorable  for  the  death  of  Aaron  (Num. 
xxxiii,  38);  the  9th  is  the  date  (Moses  Cozenzis,  in 
Wagenseil's  Sota,  p.  736)  of  the  exclusion  from  ( !anaan 
(Num.  xiv,  30),  and  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  (Zech.  vii,  5 ;  viii,  19 ;  comp.  Reland, 
Antiq.  Sacr.  iv,  10;  but  the  7th  day,  according  to  2 
Kings  xxv,  8,  where  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  read  9th ; 


also  the  10th,  according  to  Jer.  lii,  12,  probabh'-  refer- 
ring to  the  close  of  the  conflagration,  Buxtorf,  Synag. 
Jtidenth.  xxxv),  and  also  by  Titus  (Josephus,  War,  vi, 
1,  5);  the  15th  was  the  festival  of  the  Xylophoria,  or 
bringing  of  wood  into  the  Temple  (Bodenschatz,  Kirch- 
liche  Verfassung  der  Juden,  ii,  106;  comp.  Neh.  x,  VA  ; 
xiii,  31;  on  nine  successive  da3"S,  according  to  Otho, 
Lex.  Rail.  p.  331 ;  on  the  14th,  according  to  Josephus, 
War,  ii,  17)  ;  the  18th  is  a  fast  in  memory  of  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  western  lamp  of  the  Temple  (luring 
the  impious  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxix,  7). — Kit- 
to,  s.  v.  See  Month. 

Ab-  (3N,  father),  occurs  as  the  first  member  of 
several  compound  Hebrew  proper  names,  e.  g.  Abner, 
Absalom,  etc.  not  as  a  patronymic  [see  Ben-],  or  in 
its  literal  acceptation,  but  in  a  figurative  sense,  to  des- 
ignate some  quality  or  circumstance  of  the  person 
named  ;  e.  g.  possessor  of  or  endowed  with  ;  after  the 
analogy  of  all  the  Shemitic  languages  (Gesenius,  Thes. 
Heb.  p.  7;  in  Arabic  generally  Abu-,  see  D'Herbelot, . 
Biblioth.  Orient,  s.  v.).  See  Father  ;  Proper  name. 
Hence  it  is  equally  applicable  to  females ;  e.  g.  Abi- 
gail (as  among  the  Arabs ;  comp.  Kosegarten,  in 
Ewald's  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Kunde  des  Morgenl  mdes,  i, 
297-317).  In  all  cases  it  is  the  following  part  of  the 
name  that  is  to  be  considered  as  the  genitive,  the  pre- 
fix 2X  being  "in  the  construct,"  and  not  the  reverse. 
See  Abi-. 

Ab'acuc  (Lat.  Abacuc,  the  Greek  text  being  no 
longer  extant),  one  of  the  minor  prophets  (2  Esdr.  [in 
the  Vulg.  4  Esdr.]  i,  40),  elsewhere  Habakkuk  (q.  v.). 

Abad'don  (AflaScwi>,  for  Heb.  *"ri?x.i  destruc- 
tion, i.  e.  the  destroyer,  as  it  is  immediately  explain- 
ed by  'AttoWvcov,  Apollyon),  the  name  ascribed  to 
the  ruling  spirit  of  Tartarus,  or  the  angel  of  death, 
described  (Rev.  ix,  11)  as  the  king  and  chief  of  the 
Apocalyptic  locusts  under  the  fifth  ti  umpet,  and  as  the 
angel  of  the  abj'ss  or  "  bottomless  pit"  (see  Critica  Bib- 
lica,  ii,  445).  In  the  Bible,  the  word  abaddon  means 
destruction  (Job.  xxxi,  12),  or  the  place  of  destruction, 
i.  e.  the  subterranean  world,  Hades,  the  region  of  the 
dead  (Job  xxvi,  6;  xxviii,  22;  Prov.  xv,  11).  It  is, 
in  fact,  the  second  of  the  seven  names  which  the  Rab- 
bins apply  to  that  region  ;  and  they  deduce  it  partic- 
ularly from  Psa.  lxxxviii,  11,  "  Shall  thy  loving-kind' 
ness  be  declared  in  the  grave,  or  thy  faithfulness  in 
{abaddon)  destruction?"  See  Hades.  Hence  they 
have  made  Abaddon  the  nethermost  of  the  two  regions 
into  which  they  divided  the  under  world.  But  that 
in  Rev.  ix,  11  Abaddon  is  the  angel,  and  not  the  abyss, 
is  perfectly  evident  in  the  Greek.  There  is  a  general 
connection  with  the  destroyer  (q.  v.)  alluded  to  in  1 
Chron.  xxi,  15 ;  but  the  explanation,  quoted  by  Ben- 
gel,  that  the  name  is  given  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  to 
show  that  the  locusts  would  be  destructive  alike  to 
Jew  and  Gentile,  is  far-fetched  and  unnecessary.  The 
popular  interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse,  which  finds 
in  the  symbols  of  that  prophecy  the  details  of  national 
history  in  later  ages,  has  usually  regarded  Abaddon 
as  a  symbol  of  Mohammed  dealing  destruction  at  the 
head  of  the  Saracenic  hordes  (Elliott's  Uora  Apoca- 
hjpticcv,  i,  410).  It  may  well  be  doubted,  however, 
whether  this  symbol  is  any  thing  more  than  a  new 
and  vivid  figure  of  the  same  moral  convulsions  else- 
where typified  in  various  ways  in  the  Revelation, 
namely," those  that  attended  the  breaking  down  of 
Judaism  and  paganism,  and  the  general  establishment 
of  Christianity  (see  Stuart's  Comment,  in  loc).  See 
Revelation,  Book  of.  The  etymology  of  Asmo- 
da>us,  the  king  of  the  daemons  in  Jewish  mythology, 
seems  to  point  to  a  connection  with  Apollyon  in  his 
character  as  "  the  destroyer,"  or  the  destroying  an- 
gel.    Compare  Ecclus.  xviii,  22,  25.     See  Asmod.eus. 

Abadi'as  {'Aftaciac),  a  son  of  Jazelus,  and  one 
of  the  descendants  (or  residents)  of  Joab,  who  returned 


ABAD  Y  QUEYPEO  4 

with  212  males  from  the  captivity  with  Ezra  (1  Esdr.  | 
viii,  35)  ;  evidently  the  same  -with  the  Obadiah  (q.  v.) 
of  the  parallel  list  (Ezr.  viii,  9). 

Abad  y  Queypeo,  Manuel,  a  Mexican  bishop,  ) 
horn  in  the  Asturias,  Spain,  about  1775.  Having  be- 
come priest,  he  went  to  Mexico,  where  he  was  at  first 
judge  of  wills  at  Valladolid  de  Mechoacan,  and,  in 
1809,  appointed  bishop  of  Mechoacan.  Upon  the  out-  [ 
break  of  the  war  of  independence,  Abad  favored  the 
national  party,  and  declared  himself  against  the  In- 
quisition. When  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  VII 
was  proclaimed,  Abad  was  sent  to  Spain  and  impris- 
oned at  Madrid.  He  succeeded  in  winning  the  favor 
of  the  king,  and  was  not  only  released,  but  appointed 
minister  of  justice.  In  the  night  following,  however, 
he  was  again  arrested  by  order  of  the  Grand  Inquisitor, 
and  shut  up  in  a  convent.  He  was  liberated  in  conse- 
quence of  the  events  of  1820,  and  elected  a  member  of 
the  provisional  junta  of  the  government.  Subsequent- 
ly lie  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Tortosa.  In  1823  he 
was  again  arrested  by  order  of  the  Inquisition,  and  j 
sentenced  to  six  years  imprisonment.  He  died  be- 
fore this  time  had  expired.' — Hoefer,  Biographie  Gent- 
rale,  i,  17. 

Abaelard.     See  Abelard. 

Abagarus.     See  Abgarcs. 

Abag'tha  (Heb.  Abagtka,  XP52X,  prob.  Persian 

[comp.    BlGTHA,     BlGTHAK,     BlGTHAXA,     BAGOAs], 

and,  according  to  Bohlen,  from  the  Sanscrit  bagaddta, 
fortune-given ;  Sept.  'AfiaTa^a),  one  of  the  seven  chief 
eunuchs  in  the  palace  of  Xerxes,  who  were  commanded 
to  bring  in  Vashti  (Esth.  i,  10),  B.C.  483. 

Aba'na  [many  Ab'ana~]  (Heb.  Abanah',  i"t3-X ; 
Sept.  'Ajiavct ;  Vulg.  A  bana ;  or  rather,  as  in  the  mar- 
gin, Amanah  [q.  v.]  ;  Heb.  Amanah' ',  !t2"2X  [comp. 
Isa.  xxiii,  16],  since  the  latter  means  perennial;  Ge- 
senius,  Thesaur.  Heb.  p.  116),  a  stream  mentioned  by 
Naaman  as  being  one  of  the  rivers  of  Damascus  ;  an- 
other being  the  Pharpar  (2  Kings  v,  12).  The  main 
stream  by  which  Damascus  is  now  irrigated  is  called 
Barada,  the  Chrysorrhoas,  or  "golden  stream"  of  the 
ancient  geographers  (Strabo,  p.  755),  which,  as  soon  as 
it  issues  from  a  cleft  of  the  Anti-Lebanon  mountains, 
is  immediately  divided  into  three  smaller  courses. 
The  central  or  principal  stream  runs  straight  toward 
the  city,  and  there  supplies  the  different  public  cis- 
terns, baths,  and  fountains ;  the  other  branches  diverge 
to  the  right  and  left  along  the  rising  ground  on  either 
hand,  and,  having  furnished  the  means  of  extensive 
irrigation,  fall  again  into  the  main  channel,  after  dif- 
fusing their  fertilizing  influences,  and  are  at  length 
lost  in  a  marsh  or  lake,  which  is  known  as  the  Bahr 
el -Mi  //,  or  Lake  of  the  Meadow.  Dr.  Richardson 
(Travels,  ii,  499)  states  that  the  "  water  of  the  Barada, 
like  the  water  of  the  Jordan,  is  of  a  white,  sulphureous 
hue,  and  an  unpleasant  taste."  Some  contend  that 
the  Barada  is  the  Abana,  and  are  only  at  a  loss  for 
the  Pharpar;  others  find  both  in  the  two  subsidiary 
streams,  and  neglect  the  Barada;  while  still  others 
seek  the  Abana  in  the  small  river  Fijik,  which  Dr. 
Richardson  describes  as  rising  near  a  village  of  the 
same  name  in  a  pleasant  valley  fifteen  or  twenty  miles 
to  the  north-west  of  Damascus.  It  issues  from  the 
Limestone  rock,  in  a  deep,  rapid  stream,  about  thirty 
feet  wide.  It  is  pure  and  cold  as  iced  water;  and, 
after  coursing  down  a  stony  and  rugged  channel  for 
above  a  hundred  yards,  falls  into  the  Barada,  which 
comes  from  another  valley,  and  at  the  point  of  junction 
is  only  half  as  wide  as  the  Fijih.  The  Abana  or 
Amana  lias  been  identified  by  some  (especially  Ge- 
senius,  Heb.  Lex.')  with  the  Barada,  from  the  coinci- 
dence of  the  name  Amana  mentioned  in  Cant,  iv,  8, 
as  one  of  the  tops  of  Anti-Lilianus,  from  which  the 
Chrysorrhoas  (or  Barada)  flows;   and  the  ruins  of 


ABAUZIT 

Abila,  now  found  on  the  banks  of  that  stream,  are 
thought  to  confirm  this  view.  A  better  reason  for  this 
identification  is,  that  Naaman  would  be  more  likely  to 
refer  to  some  prominent  stream  like  the  Barada,  rather 
than  to  a  small  and  comparatively  remote  fountain 
like  the  Fijih.  See  Pharpar.  The  turbid  character 
of  the  water  of  Barada  is  no  objection  to  this  view, 
since  Naaman  refers  to  Abana  as  important  for  its 
medicinal  qualities  rather  than  on  account  of  its  limpid 
coldness.  The  identification  of  the  Abana  with  the 
Barada  is  confirmed  by  the  probable  coincidence  of  the 
Pharpar  with  the  Arvaj ;  these  being  the  only  consid- 
erable streams  in  the  vicinity  of  Damascus  {Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  1849,  p.  371 ;  Robinson's  Researches,  new  ed.  iii, 
447).  This  is  the  view  taken  by  the  latest  traveller 
who  has  canvassed  the  question  at  length  (J.  L.  Por- 
ter, in  the  Jour.  ofSacr.  Literature,  July,  1853,  p.  245 
sq.).  According  to  Schwarz  {Palest,  p.  54),  the  Jews 
of  Damascus  traditionally  identify  the  Barada  with 
the  Amana  (q.  v.).  The  Arabic  version  of  the  passage 
in  Kings  has  Barda.  According  to  Lightfoot  {Cent. 
Ckor.  iv)  the  river  in  question  was  also  called  Kirmi- 
jon  CP'"?"1!?),  a  name  applied  in  the  Talmud  to  a  river 
of  Palestine  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  2138).  See 
Damascus. 

Abarbanel.     See  Abrabenel. 

Ab'arim  (Heb.  Abarim',  n"n2",  regions  beyond, 
i.  e.  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  Sept.  'A/fopi/i,  but  to  irtpav  in 
Num.  xxvii,  12,  Vulg.  Abarim;  in  Jer.  xxii,  20,  Sept. 
to  Tvtpav  TtiQ  Sa\uoor)c,,  Vulg.  transeuntes,  Auth.  Vers, 
"passages"),  a  mountain  (t^"i3"il  in,  Num.  xxvii, 
12;  Deut.  xxxii,  49),  or  rather  chain  of  hills  (n*n 
D","l3"fl,  Num.  xxxiii,  47,  48),  which  form  or  belong 
to  the  mountainous  district  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  lower  Jordan,  being  situated  in  the  land  of  Moab 
(Num.  xxi,  11),  on  the  route  to  Palestine  (Num.  xxvii, 
12).  It  was  the  last  station  but  one  of  the  Hebrews 
on  their  way  from  Egypt  to  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiii,  47, 
48).  See  Ije-abarim.  The  range  presents  many 
distinct  masses  and  elevations,  commanding  extensive 
views  of  the  country  west  of  the  river  (Irby  and  Man- 
gles, p.  459).  From  one  of  the  highest  of  these,  called 
Mount  Nebo,  Moses  surveyed  the  Promised  Land  be- 
fore he  died  (Deut.  xxxii,  49).  From  the  manner  in 
which  the  names  Abarim,  Nebo,  and  Pisgah  are  con- 
nected (Deut.  xxxii,  49,  and  xxxiv,  1),  it  would  seem 
that  thejr  were  different  names  of  the  same  general 
mountain  chain.  See  Nebo.  According  to  Josephus, 
who  styles  it  Abaris  {'A/iapiv,  Ant.  iv,  8,  48),  it  was 
"a  very  high  mountain,  situated  opposite  Jericho," 
and  Eusebius  {Onomust.  'Safiav)  locates  it  six  miles 
west  of  Heshbon.  The  name  Abarim  has  been  tor- 
tured by  some  disciples  of  the  Faber  and  Bryant  school 
of  etymologists  into  a  connection  with  the  name  of  a 
district  of  Egypt  called  Abaris  or  Aran's  (Josephus, 
Apicn,  i,  14),  and  so  with  the  system  of  Egyptian  idol- 
atry, from  the  deity  of  the  same  name.  Affinities  be- 
tween the  names  of  two  of  the  peaks  of  this  range, 
Nebo  and  Peor,  have  also  been  traced  with  those  of 
other  Egyptian  deities,  Anubis  and  Horis.  There  is 
no  good  foundation  for  such  speculations. 

Abaris.     See  Abarim  ;  Avaris. 

Abauzit,  Firmin,  a  French  Unitarian,  was  born 
at  I'/.cs,  in  Languedoc,  Nov.  11,  1G79.  Though  his 
mother  was  a  Protestant,  he  was  forcibly  placed  in  a 
Roman  Catholic  seminary,  to  be  educated  as  a  Papist. 
His  mother  succeeded  in  recovering  him,  and  placed 
him  at  school  in  Geneva.  At  nineteen  he  travelled 
into  Holland  and  England,  and  became  the  friend  of 
Bayle  and  Newton.  Returning  to  Geneva,  he  ren- 
dered important  assistance  to  a  society  engaged  in 
preparing  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
French  (published  in  1726).  In  1727  he  was  appointed 
public  librarian  in  Geneva,  and  was  presented  with 


ABBA  £ 

the  freedom  of  the  city.  He  died  at  Geneva,  March 
20, 1767.  Though  not  a  copious  writer,  he  was  a  man 
of  great  reputation  in  his  day,  both  in  philosophy  and 
theology.  Newton  declared  him  "  a  fit  man  to  judge  ; 
between  Leibnitz  and  himself."  Rousseau  describes 
him  as  the  '"wise  and  modest  Abauzit,"  and  Voltaire 
pronounced  him  "  a  great  man."  His  knowledge  was 
extensive  in  the  whole  circle  of  antiquities,  in  ancient 
history,  geography,  and  chronology.  His  manuscripts 
were  burned  after  his  death  by  his  relatives  at  Uzes, 
who  had  become  Romanists ;  his  printed  works  are 
collected,  in  part,  in  (Euvres  Diverses  de  Firmin  Abauzit 
(Amsterdam,  1773,  2  vols.).  Many  of  his  theological 
writings  arc  contained  in  a  volume  entitled  Misct  lla- 
nies  on  Historical,  Theological,  and  Critical  Subjects, 
transl.  by  E.  Harwood,  U.D.  (Lond.  1774,  8vo).  A 
list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Haag,  La  France  Protes- 
tanie,  i,  3.     See,  also,  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale,  i,  38. 

Ab'ba  ('A/3/35,  N3X)  is  the  Hebrew  word  ^fa- 
ther, under  a  form  (the  "emphatic"  or  definite  state 
—the  father)  peculiar  to  the  Chaldee  idiom  (Mark 
xiv,  36 ;  Rom.  viii,  15  ;  Gal.  iv,  6). 

1.  As  such,  it  was  doubtless  in  common  use  to  express 
the  paternal  relation,  in  the  mixed  Aramaean  dialect  of 
Palestine,  during  the  New  Testament  age.  Especially 
would  it  be  naturally  employed  from  infancy  in  ad- 
dressing the  male  parent,  like  the  modern  papa ;  hence 
its  occurrence  in  the  New  Testament  only  as  a  vocative 
(Winer,  Gram,  of  the  New-Test.  Diction,  §  29).  Its 
reference  to  God  (comp.  Jer.  iii,  4;  John  viii,  41)  was 
common  among  the  later  Jews  (Hamburger,  ReaU 
Encyklop.  s.  v.).  To  guard  against  the  appearance  of 
too  great  familiarity,  however,  the  writers  of  the  Newj 
Testament,  instead  of  translating  the  title  into  its  j 
Greek  equivalent,  ttu-ku,  have  retained  it  in  its  foreign 
form — one  of  emphasis  and  dignity ;  but  they  have  in  ' 
all  cases  added  its  meaning,  for  the  convenience  of 
their  merely  Greek  readers.  Hence  the  phrase  "Abba,  I 
father"  in  its  two-fold  form  (Critica  Biblica,  ii,  445).     I 

2.  Through  faith  in  Christ  all  true  Christians  pass  j 
into  the  relation  of  sons  ;  are  permitted  to  address  God  j 
■with  filial  confidence  in  prayer ;  and  to  regard  them-  J 
selves  as  heirs  of  the  heavenly  inheritance.  This 
adoption  into  the  family  of  God  inseparably  follows 
our  justification  ;  and  the  power  to  call  God  our  Father, 
in  this  special  and  appropriativc  sense,  results  from  the 
inward  testimony  of  our  forgiveness  given  by  the  Holy 
Spirit.     See  Adoption. 

3.  The  word  Abba  in  after  ages  came  to  be  used  in 
the  Syriac,  Coptic,  and  Ethiopic  churches,  in  an  im- 
proper sense,  as  a  title  given  to  their  bishops  (D'Her- 
belot,  Bibl.  Orient,  s.  v.),  like  padre,  etc.,  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries.  The  bishops  themselves  bestow 
the  title  Abba  more  eminently  upon  the  Bishop  of 
Alexandria;  which  gave  occasion  for  the  people  to 
call  him  Baba,  or  Papa,  that  is,  grandfather — a  title 
which  he  bore  before  the  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Abbadie,  James,  born  in  1654,  at  Nay,  in  Beam, 
studied  at  Saumur  and  Sedan.  His  proficiency  was  so 
early  and  so  great,  that  at  seventeen  he  received  the 
title  of  D.D.  from  the  Academy  at  Sedan.  In  1676  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  the  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg, and  was  for  some  time  pastor  of  the  French 
Protestant  church  at  Berlin.  The  French  congrega- 
tion at  Berlin  was  at  first  but  thin ;  but  upon  the  rev- 
ocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes  great  numbers  of  the 
exiled  Protestants  retired  to  Brandenburg,  where  they 
were  received  with  the  greatest  humanity ;  so  that 
Dr.  Abbadie  had  in  a  little  time  a  great  charge,  of 
which  he  took  all  possible  care;  and,  by  his  interest 
at  court,  did  many  services  to  his  distressed  country- 
men. The  Elector  dying  in  1688,  Abbadie  accepted  a 
proposal  from  Marshal  Schomberg  to  go  with  him  to 
Holland,  and  afterward  to  England  with  the  Prince  of 
Orange.  In  the  autumn  of  1689  he  accompanied  the 
Marshal  to  Ireland,  where  he  continued  till  after  the 


ABBESS 

Battle  of  the  Boyne,  in  1609,  in  which  his  great  patron 
was  killed.  This  occasioned  his  return  to  London, 
where  he  was  appointed  minister  of  the  French  church 
in  the  Savoj\  Some  years  after,  he  was  made  Dean 
of  Killaloe,  in  Ireland,  and  died  at  London,  1727.  His 
chief  work  is  his  Traile  de  la  Verite  de  la  Religion  Chre- 
tknne  (Rotterd.  1692,  2  vols.  12mo),  which  has  passed 
through  several  editions,  and  has  been  translated  into 
several  languages  (in  English,  Lond.  1694-8,  2  vols. 
8vo),  Madame  de  Se  vigne  called  it  "the  most  charm- 
ing of  books  ;"  and,  though  written  by  a  Protestant,  it 
found  just  favor  among  French  Romanists,  and  even 
at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.  His  other  principal  writ- 
ings are :  Reflexions  sur  la  Presence  du  Corps  de  Jesus 
Christ  dans  V  Eucharistie ;  Les  Caracteres  du  Chretien  ct 
du  Christianisme ;  Traite  de  la  Divinite  de  Notre  Seigneur 
Jesus  Christ;  E  Art  de  se  connaitre  (Rotterd.  1692, 
translated  into  different  languages) ;  La  Verite  de  la 
Religion  Reformee  (Rotterd.  1718,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Le 
Triomphe  de  la  Providence  et  de  la  Religion,  an  explana- 
tion of  a  portion  of  the  Apocalypse  (Amst.  1723, 4  vols. 
12mo);  Accomplishment  of  Prophecy  in  Christ  (Lond. 
new  ed.  1840,  12mo).  A  full  list  of  his  writings  is 
given  by  Haag,  La  France  Proteslante,  i,  7. — Hoefer, 
Biog.  Generale,  i,  38. 

Abbas.  Two  different  authors  are  frequently 
quoted  by  this  title. 

1.  A  celebrated  canonist  who  flourished  in  1250, 
and  wrote  a  Commentary  on  the  Five  Books  of  Decre- 
tals, printed  at  Venice  in  1588,  folio.  He  is  known 
as  Abbas  antiquus. 

2.  The  celebrated  Nicholas  Tudeschi,  the  Panor- 
mitan,  known  as  Abbas  Siculus  or  Abbas  junior.  See 
Panormitan. 

Abbe,  the  French  name  for  abbot  (q.  v.).  It  is 
used  in  France  not  only  to  designate  the  superior  of 
an  abbey,  but  is  also  the  general  title  of  the  secular 
clergy.  Before  the  French  Revolution  it  was  even 
sometimes  assumed  by  theological  students  -  (unor- 
dained)  in  the  hope  that  the  king  would  confer  upon 
them  a  portion  of  the  revenues  of  some  abbey.  There 
were  at  one  time  in  France  so  many  unordained  abbes, 
poor  and  rich,  men  of  quality  and  men  of  low  birth, 
that  they  formed  a  particular  class  in  society,  and 
exerted  an  important  influence  over  its  character. 
The}'  were  seen  everywhere ;  at  court,  in  the  halla 
of  justice,  in  the  theatres,  the  coffee-houses,  etc.  In 
almost  even'  wealthy  family  was  an  abbe,  occupying 
the  post  of  familiar  friend  and  spiritual  adviser,  and 
not  seldom,  that  of  the  gallant  of  the  lad}-.  They 
corresponded,  in  a  certain  degree,  to  the  philosophers 
who  lived  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  Romans  in  the 
time  of  the  emperors. 

Abbe  commendataire.     See  Abbott. 

Abbess  (Lat.  abbdtissa),  the  superior  or  head  of 
an  abbey  of  nuns,  bearing  the  same  relation  to  them 
as  the  abbot  to  the  monks.  An  abbess  possesses  in 
general  the  same  dignity  and  authority  as  an  abbot, 
except  that  she  cannot  exercise  the  spiritual  functions 
appertaining  to  the  priesthood  (Cone.  Trident.  Sess. 
xxv,  c.  vii).  Generally  the  abbess  must  be  chosen 
from  the  nuns  of  the  same  convent ;  she  must  be 
sprung  from  legitimate  marriage,  must  be  over  forty 
years  old,  and  must  have  observed  the  vows  for  eight 
years.  I  n  case  of  emergency,  however,  any  nun  of  the 
order  who  is  thirty  years  old,  and  has  professed  five 
years,  may  be  elected.  In  Germany  fifteen  abbesses 
(of  Essen,  Elten,  Quedlinburg,  Herford,  Gandersheim, 
etc.)  had  formerly  the  right  of  sending  a  representative 
to  the  German  Dint,  ami  possessed  a  kind  of  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  which  they  exercised  through  an  official. 
After  the  Reformation  the  superiors  of  several  German 
abbeys,  which  were  changed  into  Protestant  institu- 
tions of  ladies  living  in  common,  retained  the  title 
"abbess."     See  Abbey ;  Abbot. 


ABBEY 


Costume  of  an  English  Abbes?. 

Abbey  (Lat.  abbat'ut),  a  monastery  of  monks  or 
nuns,  ruled  by  an  abbot  or  abbess  [for  the  derivation 
of  the  name,  see  Abbot].  The  abbeys  in  England 
were  enormously  rich.  All  of  them,  100  in  number, 
were  abolished  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  The  abbey 
lands  were  afterward  granted  to  the  nobility,  under 
which  grants  they  are  held  to  the  present  da}-.  Cran- 
mer  begged  earnestly  of  Henry  VIII  to  save  some  of 
the  abbeys  for  religious  uses,  but  in  vain. 

In  most  abbeys,  besides  the  Abbot,  there  were  the 
following  officers  or  obedicntarii,  removable  at  the  ab- 
bot's will : 

1.  Prior,  who  acted  in  the  abbot's  absence  as  his 
locum  tenens.  In  some  great  abbeys  there  were  as 
many  nsjive  priors. 

2.  Eleemosynarius,  or  Almoner,  who  had  the  over- 
sight of  the  daily  distributions  of  alms  to  the  poor  at 
the  gate. 

3.  Pitantarius,  who  had  the  care  of  the  pittances, 
which  were  the  allowances  given  on  special  occasions 
over  and  above  the  usual  provisions. 

•].  Sacrista,  or  Sacristan  (Sexton),  who  had  the 
care  of  the  vessels,  vestments,  books,  etc. ;  he  also 
provided  for  the  sacrament,  and  took  care  of  burials. 

5.  Camerarius,  or  Chamberlain,  who  looked  after 
the  dormitory. 

G.  Cellararius,  or  Cellarer,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
procure  provisions  for  strangers. 

7.  Thesaurarius,  or  Bursar,  who  received  rents,  etc. 

8.  Precentor,  who  presided  over  the  choir. 

9.  Hospitularius,  whose  duty  it  was  to  attend  to  the 
wants  of  strangers. 

10.  Iufirmarius,  who  attended  to  the  hospital  and 
sick  monks. 

11.  Refectionarius,  who  looked  after  the  hall,  and 
provided  every  thing  required  there. 

For  the  mode  of  electing  abbots,  right  of  visitation. 
etc.,  Bee  Cone.  Trident.  Sess.  xxiv.  <»n  the  most  im- 
portant English  abbeys,  Bee  Willis,  History  of  Mitred 
Abbeys  vol.  i;  A.  Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  ii,  638.  See 
Cohvent;  Monastery;  Priory. 

Abbo,  Abbot  ofFleury,  in  France,  born  958,  slain 
in  a  tumult  at  Reole,  in  Gascony,  1004.     lie  presided 

two  years  cis.",  987)  over  a  monastic  school  in  Eng- 
land, and  returned  to  Fleury,  where  he  was  made  ab- 
bot. H«'  was  so  celebrated  for  bis  wisdom  and  virtues 
that  people,  even  in  far-distant  parts,  had  recourse  to 
him  foi  advice  and  assistance,  especially  in  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  monastic  discipline,  his  Zeal  for  which 
caused  the  tumult  in  which  lie  was  slain. — Neander, 


ABBOT 

Ch.  Hist,  iii,  404,  470;  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  c.  x,  pt.  ii, 
ch.  i,  §  5  ;  Acta  Sanctorum,  t.  viii. 

Abbot  (Lat.  abbas;  from  Chaldee  N2X,  the/o- 
ther'), the  head  or  superior  of  an  abbey  of  monks. 

1.  The  title  was  originally  given  to  every  monk, 
but  after  the  sixth  century  was  restricted  to  the  heads 
of  religious  houses.  At  a  later  period  the  title  was 
not  confined  to  the  superiors  of  monasteries,  but  was 
also  given  to  the  superiors  of  other  institutions  (as 
abbas  curice,  palatii,  seholarum,  etc.),  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  several  other  terms,  as  provost,  prior, 
guardian,  major,  rector,  etc.,  were  adopted  to  designate 
the  superiors  of  the  convents  of  the  several  orders. 
The  Greek  Church  uses  generally  the  term  archimaii- 
drite  (q.  v.).  The  name  abbot  was  especially  retained 
by  the  order  of  the  Benedictines,  and  its  branches,  the 
Cistercians,  Bernhardines,  Trappists,  Grandmontanes, 
Pramionstratenses.  But  the  congregation  of  Clugny 
(q.  v.)  reserved  the  title  abbot  to  the  superior  of  the 
principal  monastery,  calling  those  of  the  other  monas- 
teries coabbates  and  proabbates.  The  Abbot  of  Monte- 
Cassino  assumed  the  title  abbas  abbatum.  A  number 
of  religious  orders  are  governed  by  an  abbot-general, 
e.  g.  (according  to  the  Kotizie  per  V Anno  1859,  the 
Official  Roman  Almanac),  the  regular  canons  of  Lat- 
eral!, the  Camaldulenses,  the  Trappists,  the  Olive- 
tans,  the  (Oriental)  order  of  St.  Antonius,  and  the  Ba- 
silians.  Regular  abbots  are  those  who  wear  the  re- 
ligious habit,  and  actually  preside  over  an  abbey,  both 
in  spiritual  and  temporal  matters.  Secular  abbots  are 
priests  who  enjoy  the  benefices,  but  employ  a  vicar 
(q.  v.)  to  discharge  its  duties.  Lag  abbots  are  laymen 
to  whom  the  revenues  of  abbeys  are  given  by  princes 
or  patrons.  Field  abbots  (abbates  cast  reuses)  are  regu- 
lar abbots  appointed  for  army  service.  Arch  abbot  is 
the  title  of  the  abbot  of  St.  Martini,  in  Hungary.  The 
abbots  are,  in  general,  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  diocesan  bishop,  but  formerly  some  were  exempt, 
and  had  even  a  kind  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  (jurisdic- 
tio  quasi  episcopalis),  together  with  the  right  of  wear- 
ing episcopal  insignia  (mitred  abbots,  abbates  mitrati). 
Some,  as  the  abbot  of  St.  Maurice,  in  Switzerland, 
have  even  a  small  territory.  Abbots  with  episcopal 
jurisdiction  have  the  right  of  taking  part  in  general 
councils,  and  the  right  of  voting  in  provincial  synods. 
The  privileges  and  duties  of  abbots  are  determined  by 
the  rules  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong,  as  well  as 
by  canonical  regulations. 


Mitred  Abbot. 


The  commendatory  abbots  (abbates  commendatarU; 
Fr.  abbes  commendataires),  in  France  and  England, 
were  secular  ecclesiastics,  to  whom  abbeys  were  given 
in  commendam,  who  enjoyed  a  portion  of  the  revenues, 
together  with  certain  honors,  but-without  jurisdiction 


ABBOT 


ABBREVIATION 


over  the  inmates  of  the  abbeys.  This  became  latter- 
ly so  common  that  most  abbeys  were  thus  held  perpet- 
ually in  cominendam.  In  England  many  abbots,  among 
other  privileges,  had  the  right  of  sitting  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  According  to  Fuller  (Ch.  Hist.  b.  vi,  p.  292, 
ed.  1655),  there  were  sixty-four  abbots  and  thirty-six 
priors,  besides  the  Master  of  the  Temple  summoned  to 
Parliament,  which  he  terms  "a  jolly  number."  Ed- 
ward III  reduced  them  to  twenty-six.  In  Germany, 
ten  prince-abbots  (of  Fulda,  Corvey,  etc.)  were  mem- 
bers of  the  German  Diet  till  1803.  See  Bingham, 
Orig.  Eccles.  b.  vii,  ch.  iii;  Cone.  Trident.  Sess.  xxv, 
and,  for  full  details,  Martene,  De  Ant.  Monach.  Bit. 
lib.  v.  The  forms  for  the  benediction  of  abbots  (i.  q. 
inauguration)  are  given  in  Boissonnet,  Diet,  des  Cere- 
monies, i.  22  sq. 

2.  The  title  of  Abbot  is  still  used  in  some  Protestant 
countries.  -  In  Germany  it  is  sometimes  conferred 
upon  divines,  especially  if  they  enjoy  the  revenues  of 
former  abbeys.  Thus  the  late  Professor  Liicke  of 
Gottingen  was  an  abbot. 

Abbot,  Abiel,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  born 
in  Wilton,  N.  H.,  Dec.  14,  17G5.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1787,  was  assistant  in  the  Phillips  Andover 
Academy  from  1787  to  1789,  and  became  pastor  of  Cov- 
entry, Conn.,  1795.  Having  been  brought  up  a  Trini- 
tarian Calvinist,  Mr.  Abbot  became,  1792,  a  decided 
anti-Trinitarian,  and,  in  1811,  was  deposed  by  the  Con- 
sociation of  Tolland  County  from  the  ministry  on  ac- 
count of  heretical  doctrines.  From  Sept.  1811  to  1819, 
he  had  charge  of  Dummer  Academy,  and  from  1827  to 
1839  he  was  pastor  of  Peterborough,  N.  II.  He  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Harvard  in  1838,  and 
died  Dec.  31,1859.  He  published  in  1811  a  "State- 
ment of  the  Proceedings  in  his  Church  at  Coventry 
which  terminated  in  his  Removed,''''  and  some  occasion- 
al pamphlets. — Sprague,  Unitarian  Pulpit,  p.  229  sq. 

Abbot,  Abiel,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  born 
at  Andover,  Mass.,  Aug.  17,  1770.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1792,  and  was  pastor  at  Haverhill  from  1794 
to  1803,  and  at  Beverley  from  1803  until  1826.  His 
health  failing,  he  spent  the  winter  of  1827-8  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  and  in  Cuba,  but  died  just  as  the  ship 
reached  quarantine  at  New  York,  June  7, 1828.  He 
was  a  man  of  taste  and  culture,  and  an  eloquent 
preacher.  His  Letters  from  Cuba  were  published  after 
his  death  (Boston,  1829,  8vo);  and  also  a  volume  of 
Sermons,  with  a  Memoir  by  Everett  (Boston,  1831, 
12mo). — Sprague,  Unitarian  Pulpit,  p.  309  sq. 

Abbot,  George,  D.D.,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
brother  of  Robert  (inf.),  one  of  the  translators  of  the 
English  Bible,  and  a  man  of  great  ability  and  learning, 
•was  born  at  Guildford,  October  29, 1562,  and  entered  at 
Baliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1578 ;  subsequently  was 
made  Master  of  University  College,  and,  in  1599,  Dean 
of  Winchester.  At  the  university  he  was  first  brought 
into  contact  with  Abp.  Laud,  whose  ecclesiastical 
schemes  he  opposed  through  life.  In  1601,  Dr.  Abbot 
was  the  second  of  eight  learned  divines  at  Oxford, 
chosen  by  King  James,  to  whom  the  care  of  trans- 
lating all  (but  the  Epistles  of)  the  New  Testament 
was  committed.  In  1608,  he  assisted  in  a  design  to 
unite  the  churches  of  England  and  Scotland  ;  in  which 
bis  prudence  and  moderation  raised  him  high  in  the 
favor  of  the  king,  who  bestowed  upon  him  successively 
the  bishoprics  of  Lichfield  (1609)  and  of  London  (1010). 
In  1611  his  majesty  elevated  him  to  the  See  of  Can- 
terbury. As  archbishop,  he  had  the  courage  to  dis- 
please the  king  by  opposing  the  Book  of  Sports,  the 
divorce  of  the  Countess  of  Essex,  and  the  Spanish 
match.  In  1627,  he  ventured  the  displeasure  of 
Charles  I,  by  refusing  to  license  a  sermon,  which  Dr. 
Sibthorpe  had  preached,  to  justify  one  of  Charles's  un- 
constitutional proceedings.  For  this  act  he  was  sus- 
pended from  his  functions,  but  was  soon,  though  no; 
willingly,  restored  to  them.     A  cause  of  deep  sorrow 


to  him,  in  his  latter  days,  was  his  having  accidentally, 
while  aiming  at  a  deer,  shot  one  of  Lord  Zouch's  keep- 
ers, lie  died  in  1633.  He  was  a  Calvinist  in  theol- 
ogy, and,  unfortunately,  very  intolerant  toward  Ar- 
minians  and  Arminianism.  His  Life,  with  that  of  his 
brother  Thomas,  was  published  at  Guildford  (1797. 
8vo).  His  chief  works  are:  Six  L,ectures  on  Divinity 
(Oxford,  1598,  4to)  ;  Exposition  of  the  Projilat  Jon  li 
(1600,  4to,  new  ed.  Lond.  1845,  2  vols,  with  Life);  A 
brief  Description  of  the.  World  (Lond.  1617, 4to,  et  al.); 
Taatise  of  the  perpetual  Visibility  and  Succession  of  the 
trite  Church  (1624,  4to);  Judgment  of  the  Archbishop 
concerning  Bowing  at  the  Name  of  Jesus  (Hamburg, 
1632,  8vo).  —  Middleton,  Evang.  Biog. ;  Collier,  Eccl. 
Hist.  vol.  ii ;  Neal,  Hist,  of  Puriteins,  i,  556  ;  Mosheim, 
Ch.  Hist,  iii,  409. 

Abbot,  Robert,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  was 
born  at  Guildford,  in  Surrey,  in  1560,  took  the  degrees 
of  M.A.  in  1582,  and  that  of  D.D.  in  1597.  He  won 
the  good  opinion  of  James  I  by  a  work  in  confutation 
of  Bellarmine  and  Suarez,  in  defence  of  the  royal  au- 
thority, and  was  soon  after  made  Master  of  Baliol  Col- 
lege, and  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Oxford.  As 
Vice-chancellor  of  the  University,  he  favored  the  Cat 
vinistic  theology,  and  opposed  Laud  to  the  utmost.  In 
1015  he  was  appointed  by  his  brother  (then  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury)  to  the  bishopric  of  Salisbury,  which, 
however,  he  enjoyed  but  a  short  time,  and  died  on  the 
2d  of  March,  1617.  His  works  are:  1.  Mirror  of  Po- 
pish Subtilties  (Lond.  1594,  4to)  ;  2.  Antichristi  Demon- 
stratio,  contra  Fabulas  Pontificias,  etc.  (1603,  4to) ;  3. 
Defence  of  the  Reformed  Catholic  of  W.  Perkins  against 
Dr.  W.  Bishop  (1600,  1009,  4to);  4.  The  Old  Way,  a 
Sermon  (1610,  4to)  ;  5.  The  true  Ancient  Roman  Catho- 
lic (1011,  4to)  ;  6.  Antilogia  (against  the  Apology  of 
the  Jesuit  Endemon,  for  Henry  Garnett,  1613,  <lto); 

7.  De  Gratia  et  Perseverantia  Sanctorum  (1018,  4  to) ; 

8.  De  amissione  et  intercessione  Justification's  <t  C rutin; 
(1018,  4to)  ;  9.  De  Svprema  Potestafe  Regit  (1619.  4to). 
He  left  in  MS.  a  Latin  commentary  on  Ron  ans  which 
is  now  in  the  Bodleian  Library. — Middleton,  Eccl. 
Biog. 

Abbott,  Benjamin,  one  of  the  most  laborious  and 
useful  of  the  pioneer  Methodist  preachers  in  America, 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1732,  and  died  1796.  He 
preached  for  twenty  years  with  great  zeal  and  suc- 
cess, chiefly  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary- 
land. Though  an  illiterate  man,  he  was  earnest,  elo- 
quent, enthusiastic,  and  self-sacrificing,  and  thousands 
were  added  to  the  Church  through  his  labors. — Firth, 
Life  of  B.  Abbott  (N.  Y.,  12mo);  Minutes  of  Confer- 
ences, \,  68;  Stevens,  Hist,  of  M.  E.  Ch.  i,  382  sq. ; 
Sprague,  Annuls,  vii,  41. 

Abbreviation,  or  the  use  of  one  or  two  initials  for 
the  whole  of  a  word.  These  first  occur,  in  a  Scriptural 
connection,  on  some  of  the  Maccabaean  coins  (Bayer, 
De  nummis  Hebraio-Samaritanis),  and  in  a  few  MSS.  of 
the  O.  T.  (especially  W  for  ttirr).  They  have  been 
frequently  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  explaining 
supposed  discrepancies  or  various  reading,  both  in 
words  (Eichhorn,  Einleit.  ins  A.  T.  i,  323;  Drusius, 
Qucest.  Ebraic.  iii,  6)  and  numbers  (Vignoles,  Chronol- 
ogic, pass. ;  Capellus,  Critica  Sacra,  i,  10 ;  Scaliger,  in 
Walton's  Prolegomena,  vii,  14  ;  Kennicott's  Disserta- 
tions), on  the  theory  that  letters  were  employed  for 
the  latter  as  digits  (Faber,  LJterce  olim  pro  vocibits  ad- 
hibita,  Onold,  1775),  after  the  analogy  of  other  Orien- 
tal languages  (Gesenius,  Gesch.  d.  Ileb.  Sprache,  p. 
173).  In  later  times  the  practice  became  very  com- 
mon with  the  Rabbins  (Selig's  Compendia.  VOCUm  //<- 
braico - Rabbinicarum ;  also  Colleetio  abbreviaturarum 
llcbrtticartim,  Lpz.,  1781).  and  was  abused  for  cabal  is- 
tieal  purposes  (Danz,  Rahhinismtis  Enucli atus).  An  in- 
stance of  its  legitimate  numerical  use  occurs  in  Rev. 
xiii,  18  (Eichhorn,  Einleit.  ins  N.  T.  iv,  199),  and  the 


ABBREVIATOR  i 

theory  has  been  successfully  applied  to  the  solution 
of  the  discrepancy  between  Mark  xv,  25,  and  John 
xix,  14  (where  the  Greek  f  [gamma  =  3]  has  doubt- 
less been  mistaken  for  t  [stigma  =  6]). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Abbreviator,  a  clerk  or  secretary  employed  in 
the  Papal  Court  to  aid  in  preparing  briefs,  bulls,  etc. 
They  were  first  employed  by  Benedict  XII  in  the  14th 
century.  Many  eminent  men  have  iilled  the  office. 
Pius  II  (vEneas  Sylvius)  was  an  abbreviator  for  the 
Council  of  Basle. 

Ab'da  (Heb.  Abda,  SO  3?  [a  Chaldaizing  form], 
the  servant,  i.  e.  of  God),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'AftSa.)  The  father  of  Adoniram,  which 
latter  was  an  officer  under  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv,  6). 
B.C.  ante  995. 

2.  (Sept.  'A/3£iac.)  The  son  of  Shammua  and  a 
Levite  of  the  family  of  Jeduthun,  resident  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi,  17);  elsewhere  called  Oba- 
DIAH  (q.  v.),  the  son  of  Shemaiah  (1  Chron.  ix,  1G). 

Abdas,  a  Persian  bishop  during  the  reign  of  Yez- 
degird  (or  Isdegerdes),  King  of  Persia,  under  whom  the 
Christians  enjoyed  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion. 
Abdas,  filled  with  ill-directed  zeal,  destroyed  (A.D.  414) 
one  of  the  temples  of  the  fire-worshippers;  and  being 
ordnred  by  the  monarch  to  rebuild  the  temple,  refused 
to  do  so,  although  warned  that,  if  he  persisted,  the 
Christian  temples  would  be  destroyed.  Yezdegird  put 
the  bishop  to  death,  and  ordered  the  total  destruction 
of  all  the  Christian  churches  in  his  dominions ;  upon 
which  followed  a  bitter  persecution  of  the  Christians, 
which  lasted  thirty  years,  and  was  the  occasion  of  war 
between  Persia  and  the  Roman  empire.  In  the  Romish 
and  Greek  Churches  he  is  commemorated  as  a  saint  on 
May  16.  See  Socrat.  Ch.  Hist,  vii,  18;  Keander,  Ch. 
Hist,  ii,  110;  Theod.  Hist.  Eccl.  v,  39;  Butler,  Lives 
of  Saints,  May  16. 

Ab'deel  (Heb.  Abdeet,  ^SOO:?,  servant  of  God; 
Sept.  A/3<V/\),  the  father  of  Shelemaiah,  which  latter 
was  one  of  those  commanded  to  apprehend  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  xxxvi,  26).     B.C.  ante  605. 

Ab'di  (Heb.  Abdi',  ^"ZV,  my  servant ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  Gesenius,  for  tl^'ZV,  servant  of  Jehovah;  but, 
according  to  Fiirst,  properly  "l'n^i:*,  bondman),  the 
name  of  three  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'Afiri  v.  r.  'Aflat.)  A  Levite,  grandfather 
of  one  Ethan,  which  latter  lived  in  the  time  of  David 
(1  Chron.  vi,  44).     B.C.  considerably  ante  1014. 

2.  (Sept.  'Aftci.)  A  Levite,  father  of  one  Kish  (dif- 
ferent from  Kishi,  a  son  of  the  preceding),  which  latter 
assisted  in  the  reformation  under  Hezekiah  (2  Chron. 
xxix.  12).      B.C.  ante  726. 

3.  (Sept.  'Afiiia.)  An  Israelite  of  the  "sons"  of 
Elam,  who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  x,  26),  B.C.  459. 

Abdias,  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  Abdi'as  (Lat.  Abdias,  the  (iroek  text  not  being 
extant),  one  of  the  minor  prophets  (2  Esdr.  [Vulg.  4 
Esdr.],  i,  39),  elsewhere  called  OBADIAH  (q.  v.). 

2.  Ab'dias,  of  Babylon,  is  said  to  have  flourished 
about  the  year  59,  and  to  have  been  one  of  the  seventy 
disciples;  but  his  very  existence  is  somewhat  doubt- 
ful. The  work  attributed  to  him,  viz.  Historia  Cer- 
taminia  Apostolici,  in  ten  books,  was  written  in  the  8th 
or  9th  century.  It  may  lie  found  in  Fflbricii  Cod. 
Apocryph.  Nov.  Test,  ii,  888;  and  was  published  also 
by  Lazius  (Basle,  1551,  and  Paris,  1580).  A  German 
translation  is  (riven   in   Barbery,  Bibliotheh  d.  N.-T. 

Apohryphen  (Stnttg.  1841),  p.  :i'.'l   sq Gieseler,  Ch. 

Hist.  i.  (17;  Cave,  Hist,  Lit.  anno  59;  Baronius,  .  I  rmol. 
ann.  44. 

Ab'diel  (Heb.  Abdid',  i»p?a?,  servant  of  God; 
Sept.  'A«^"i/;>),  a  son  of  (Juui  and  father  of  Alii,  one  of 
tin'  chief  Gadites  resident  in  Gilead  (1  Chron.  v,  15), 
B.C.  between  1093  and  782. 


ABED-NEGO 

Ab'don  (Heb.  Abdon',  I'faM  and  1112?,  servile; 
Sept.  'Aficuw),  the  name  of  four  men  and  one  city. 

1.  The  son  of  Hillel,  a  Pirathonite,  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  and  the  twelfth  Judge  of  Israel  for  eight 
years,  B.C.  1233-1225.  His  administration  appears  to 
have  been  peaceful  (*A/3oW,  Josephus,  Ant.  v,  7, 15); 
for  nothing  is  recorded  of  him  but  that  he  had  forty 
sons  and  thirty  nephews,  who  rode  on  young  asses — a 
mark  of  their  consequence  (Judg.  xii,  13-15).  He  is 
probabty  the  Bedan  referred  to  in  1  Sam.  xii,  11. 

2.  The  first-born  of  Jehiel,  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min, apparently  by  his  wife  Maachah,  and  resident  at 
Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii,  30;  ix,  36),  B.C.  ante  1093. 

3.  The  son  of  Micah,  and  one  of  the  persons  sent  ly 
King  Josiah  to  ascertain  of  the  prophetess  Huldah  the 
meaning  of  the  recently-discovered  book  of  the  Law 
(2  Chron.  xxxiv,  20),  B.C.  628.  In  the  parallel  pas- 
sage (2  Kings  xxii,  12)  he  is  called  Achbor,  the  son 
of  Michaiah. 

4.  A  "son"  of  Shashak,  and  chief  Benjamite  of  Je- 
rusalem (1  Chron.  viii,  23),  B.C.  ante  598. 

5.  A  Levitical  town  of  the  Gershonites,  in  the  tribe 
of  Asher,  mentioned  between  Mishal  or  Mashal  and 
Helkath  or  Hukkok  (Josh,  xxi,  30;  1  Chron.  vi,  74). 
The  same  place,  according  to  several  MSS.,  is  men- 
tioned in  Josh,  xix,  28,  instead  of  Hebron  (Reland, 
Palast.  p.  518).  Under  this  latter  form  Schwarz  (Pa- 
lest, p.  192)  identifies  it  with  a  village,  Ebra,  which  he 
affirms  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Leontes,  south  of  Ku- 
lat  Shakif;  perhaps  the  place  hy  the  name  of  Abnon 
marked  in  this  region  on  Robinson's  map  (new  ed.  of 
Researches).  It  is  probably  identical  with  the  ruined 
site  A  bdeh,  8  or  9  miles  N.  E.  of  Accho  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  280). 

Abecedarians  (Abecedarii),  a  branch  of  the  sect 
of  Anabaptists,  founded  by  Stork,  once  a  disciple  of 
Luther,  who  taught  that  all  knowledge  served  to  hin- 
der men  from  attending  to  God's  voice  inwardly  in- 
structing them  ;  and  that  the  only  means  of  prevent- 
ing this  was  to  learn  nothing,  not  even  the  alphabet, 
for  the  knowledge  of  letters  served  only  to  risk  salva- 
tion.    See  Anabaptists. 

Abecedarian  hymns  or  psalms — psalms,  the 
verses  of  which  commence  with  the  consecutive  letters 
of  the  alphabet.  See  Acrostic.  In  imitation  of  the 
119th  Psalm,  it  was  customary  in  the  early  Church  to 
compose  psalms  of  this  kind,  each  part  having  its  prop- 
er letter  at  the  head  of  it :  the  singing  of  the  verses 
was  commenced  by  the  precentor,  and  the  people  join- 
ed him  in  the  close.  Occasionally  they  sang  alternate 
verses.  This  mode  of  conducting  the  psalmody  was 
sometimes  called  singing  acrostics  and  acroteleutics, 
and  is  the  apparent  origin  of  the  Gloria  Patri  repeated 
at  the  end  of  each  psalm  in  modern  liturgical  services. 
See  Chorus.  Some  of  the  psalms  of  David  are  abe- 
cedarian, and  others  so  constructed  as  to  be  adapted 
to  the  alternate  song  of  two  divisions  of  precentors 
in  the  Temple.  See  PSALMS.  The  priests  continued 
their  services  during  the  night,  and  were  required  oc- 
casionally to  utter  a  cry  to  intimate  that  they  were 
awake  to  duty.  Psalm  exxxiv  appears  to  be  of  this 
order.  The  first  watch  address  the  second,  remind- 
ing them  of  duty.  "Behold,  bless  ye  the  Lord,  all 
ye  servants  of  the  Lord,  which  by  night  stand  in  the 
house  of  the  Lord.  Lift  up  your  hands  in  the  sanc- 
tuary, and  bless  the  Lord."  The  second  respond, 
"The  Lord  that  made  heaven  and  earth  bless  thee 
out  of  Zion."  This  custom  was  probably  introduced 
into  the  Christian  church  from  the  Hebrew  service, 
and  was  intended  to  aid  the  memory.  Hymns,  com- 
posed in  this  manner,  embodying  orthodox  sentiments, 
were  learned  by  the  people,  to  guard  them  against 
the  errors  of  the  Donatists  (Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  xiv, 
1,  12).     See  Hymn  ;  Psai.ter. 

Abed'-nego  (Heb.  Abed'  Xego'  l."?  IS?)  servant 


ABEEL  i 

of  Nego,  i.  e.  of  Nebo,  or  the  Chaklaic  Mercury,  Dan. 
i,  7,  and  Chald.  id.  X153  ^2";  Sept.  and  Josephus 
'AflStvayw),  the  Chaklee  name  imposed  by  the  king 
of  Babylon's  officer  upon  Azariah  (q.  v.),  one  of  the 
three  companions  of  Daniel  (Dan.  ii,  49;  iii,  12-30). 
With  his  two  friends,  Shadrach  and  Meshach,  he  was 
miraculously  delivered  from  the  burning  furnace,  into 
which  they  were  cast  for  refusing  to  worship  the  gold- 
en statue  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  caused  to  be  set 
up  in  the  plain  of  Dura  (Dan.  iii).  He  has  been  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  the  same  person  as  Ezra ;  but 
Ezra  was  a  priest  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Ezra  vii,  5), 
while  this  Azariah  was  of  the  royal  blood,  and  conse- 
quently of  Judah  (Dan.  i,  3,  6). 

Abeel,  David,  D.D.,  an  eminent  missionary,  was 
horn  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June  12th,  1804,  stud- 
ied theology  at  the  seminary  in  that  place,  and  in 
1826  was  licensed  to  preach  in  the  Dutch  Reformed 
churches.  In  October,  1829,  he  sailed  for  Canton  as 
a  chaplain  of  the  Seamen's  Friend  Society ;  but  at  the 
end  of  a  year's  labor  placed  himself  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions.  He  visited  Java,  Singapore,  and 
Siam,  studying  Chinese,  and  laboring  with  much  suc- 
cess, when  his  health  failed  him  entirely,  and  he  re- 
turned home  in  1833  by  way  of  England,  visiting  Hol- 
land, France,  and  Switzerland,  and  everywhere  urg- 
ing the  claims  of  the  heathen.  In  1838  he  again  re- 
turned to  Canton.  The  "opium  war"  preventing  his 
usefulness  there,  he  visited  Malacca,  Borneo,  and  oth- 
er places,  and  settled  at  Kolongsoo.  His  health  giv- 
ing way  once  more,  he  returned  in  1845,  and  died  at 
Albany,  Sept.  4,  1846.  He  published  Journal  of  Res- 
idence in  China,  in  1829-1833  (N.  Y.  8vo)  ;  The  Mis- 
sionary Convention  at  Jerusalem  (N.  Y.  1838,  12mo)  ; 
Claims  of  the  World  to  the  Gospel  (N.  Y.  1838).  See 
Williamson,  Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  D.  Abeel  (N.  Y.  1849, 
18mo);  Amer.  Missionary  Memorial,  p.  338. 

Abeel,  John  Nelson,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church,  who  was  born  in  1769,  grad- 
uated in  1787  at  Princeton,  and  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  April,  1793.  In  1795  he  became  one  of  the  clergy 
of  the  Collegiate  Dutch  Church  in  New  York,  where 
he  continued  until  his  death  in  1812.  He  was  an  elo- 
quent preacher,  and  a  man  of  great  and  deserved  in- 
fluence. 

A'bel  (Heb.  He'bel,  bltl,  a  breath,  i.  q.  transitory; 
as  Gesenius  \Heb.  Lex.^\  thinks,  from  the  shortness  of 
his  life ;  or,  as  Kitto  \_Daily  Bible  Illust.~]  suggests,  per- 
haps i.  q.  vanity,  from  the  maternal  cares  experienced 
during  the  infancy  of  Cain ;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  "A/3f  A  ; 
Josephus, '  A/3tXoc),  the  second  son  of  Adam  and  Eve, 
slain  by  his  elder  brother,  Cain  (Gen.  iv,  1-16),  B.C. 
cir.  4045.     See  Adam. 

I.  History.—  Cain  and  Abel,  having  been  instructed, 
perhaps  by  their  father,  Adam,  in  the  duty  of  worship 
to  their  Creator,  each  offered  the  first-fruits  of  his  la- 
bors :  Cain,  as  a  husbandman,  the  fruits  of  the  field ; 
Abel,  as  a  shepherd,  fatlings  of  his  flock  (see  Fritzsche, 
De  Sacrijiciis  Caini  et  Habelis,  Lips.  1751).  God  was 
pleased  to  accept  the  offering  of  Abel,  in  preference 
to  that  of  his  brother  (Heb.  xi,  4),  in  consequence  of 
which  Cain,  giving  himself  up  to  envy,  formed  the 
desi-rn  of  killing  Abel;  which  he  at  length  effected, 
having  invited  him  to  so  into  the  field  (Gen.  iv,  8,  9; 
comp.  1  John  iii,  12).  See  Caix.  The  Jews  had  a  tra- 
dition that  Abel  was  murdered  in  the  plain  of  Damas- 
cus ;  and  accordingly  his  tomb  is  still  shown  on  a  high 
hill  near  the  village  of  Sinie  or  Seneiah,  about  twelve 
miles  northwest  of  Damascus,  on  the  road  to  Baalbek 
(Jerome,  in  Ezech.  xxxvii).  The  summit  of  the  hill  is 
still  called  Nebi  Abel;  but  circumstances  lead  to  the 
probable  supposition  that  this  was  the  site,  or  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  site,  of  the  ancient  Abela  or  Abila  (Po- 
cocke,  East,  ii,  168  sq. :  Schubert,  Rcis.  iii,  286  sq.). 
See  Abila.     The  legend,  therefore,  was  most  likely 


ABEL 

suggested  by  the  ancient  name  of  the  place  (see  Stan- 
ley, Palest,  p.  405).  See  Abel-.  (For  literature,  see 
Wolf,  Curce  in  N.  T.,  iv,  749.) 

II.  Traditional  Views. — Ancient  writers  abound  in 
observations  on  the  mystical  character  of  Abel;  and 
he  is  spoken  of  as  the  representative  of  the  pastoral 
tribes,  while  Cain  is  regarded  as  the  author  of  the  no- 
madic life  and  character.  St.  Chrysostom  calls  him 
the  Lamb  of  Christ,  since  he  suffered  the  most  grievous 
injuries  solely  on  account  of  his  innocency  (Ad  Staffir. 
ii,  5) ;  and  he  directs  particular  attention  to  the  mode 
in  which  Scripture  speaks  of  his  offerings,  consisting 
of  the  best  of  his  flock,  "  and  of  the  fat  thereof,"  while 
it  seems  to  intimate  that  Cain  presented  the  fruit 
which  might  be  most  easily  procured  (Horn,  in  Gen. 
xviii,  5).  St.  Augustin,  speaking  of  regeneration,  al- 
ludes to  Abel  as  representing  the  new  or  spiritual  man 
in  contradistinction  to  the  natural  or  corrupt  man,  and 
says,  "  Cain  founded  a  city  on  earth  ;  but  Abel,  as  a 
stranger  and  pilgrim,  looked  forward  to  the  city  of  the 
saints  which  is  in  heaven"  (De  Civitate  Dei,  XV,  1). 
Abel,  he  says  in  another  place,  was  the  first-fruits  of 
the  Church,  and  was  sacrificed  in  testimony  of  the  fu- 
ture Mediator.  And  on  Psa.  cxviii  (Serm.  xxx,  §  9)  ' 
he  says:  "This  city"  (that  is,  "the  city  of  God") 
"  has  its  beginning  from  Abel,  as  the  wicked  city  from 
Cain."  Irenanis  says  that  God,  in  the  case  of  Abel, 
subjected  the  just  to  the  unjust,  that  the  righteousness 
of  the  former  might  be  manifested  by  what  he  suffered 
(Contra  llmres.  iii,  23).  Heretics  existed  in  ancient 
times  who  represented  Cain  and  Abel  as  embodying 
two  spiritual  powers,  of  which  the  mightier  was  that 
of  Cain,  and  to  which  they  accordingly  rendered  divine 
homage.  In  the  early  Church,  Abel  was  considered 
the  first  of  the  martyrs,  and  many  persons  were  accus- 
tomed to  pronounce  his  name  with  a  particular  rever- 
ence. An  obscure  sect  arose  under  the  title  of  Abelites 
(q.  v.),  the  professed  object  of  which  was  to  inculcate 
certain  fanatical  notions  respecting  marriage ;  but  it 
was  speedily  lost  amidst  a  host  of  more  popular  par- 
ties. For  other  mythological  speculations  respecting 
Abel,  see  ^\\ttmz.nn's-My1h<>logus,  i,  55  sq. ;  for  Rab- 
binical traditions,  see  Eisenmenger,  Entdeckt.  Judenth. 
i,  462  sq.,  832  sq. ;  for  other  Oriental  notices,  see  Ko- 
ran, v,  35  sq. ;  Hottinger,  Hist.  Orient,  p.  24  sq. ;  comp. 
Fabric.  Pstudepigr.  i,  113;  other  Christian  views  may 
be  seen  in  Irenaeus,  v,  67 ;  Cedrenus,  Hist.  p.  8  (Kitto). 

The  general  tenor  of  these  Eastern  traditionary  fic- 
tions is  that  both  Cain  and  Abel  had  twin  sisters,  and 
that  Adam  determined  to  give  Cain's  sister  to  Abel, 
and  Abel's  sister  to  Cain  in  marriage.  This  arrange, 
ment,  however,  did  not  please  Cain,  who  desired  his 
own  sister  as  a  wife,  she  being  the  more  beautiful. 
Adam  referred  the  matter  to  the  divine  arbitration,  di- 
recting each  brother  to  offer  a  sacrifice,  and  abide  the 
result.  Abel  presented  a  choice  animal  from  his  flock, 
and  Cain  a  few  poor  ears  of  grain  from  his  field.  Fire 
fell  from  heaven  and  consumed  Abel's  offering  with- 
out smoke,  while  it  left  Cain's  untouched.  Still  more 
incensed  at  this  disappointment,  Cain  resolved  to  take 
his  brother's  life,  who,  perceiving  his  design,  endeavor- 
ed to  dissuade  him  from  so  wicked  an  act.  Cain,  how- 
ever, cherished  his  malice,  but  was  at  a  loss  how  to 
execute  it,  until  the  devil  gave  him  a  hint  by  a  vision 
of  a  man  killing  a  bird  with  a  stone.  Accordingly, 
one  night  he  crushed  the  head  of  his  brother,  while 
sleeping,  with  a  large  stone.  He  was  now  at  a  loss 
how  to  conceal  his  crime.  He  enclosed  the  corpse  in 
a  skin,  and  carried  it  about  for  forty  days,  till  the 
stench  became  intolerable.  Happening  to  sec  a  crow, 
which  had  killed  another  crow,  cover  the  carcass  in  a 
hole  in  the  ground,  he  acted  on  the  suggestion,  and 
buried  his  brother's  body  in  the  earth.  He  passed  the 
rest  of  his  days  in  constant  terror,  having  heard  a  voire 
inflicting  this  curse  upon  him  for  his  fratricide.  (See 
D'Hcrbelot,  Bibliotheque  Orientate,  s.v.  Cabil.) 

III.  Character  of  his  Offering.— -The  superiority  of 


ABEL 


10 


ABELARD 


Abel's  sacrifice  is  ascribed  by  the  Apostle  Paul  to  faith 
(Hcb.  xi,  4).  Faith  implies  a  previous  revelation :  it 
comes  by  hearing,  and  hearing  by  the  word  of  God. 
It  is  probable  that  there  was  some  command  of  God, 
in  reference  to  the  rite  of  sacrifice,  with  which  Abel 
complied,  and  which  Cain  disobeyed.  The  "more  ex- 
cellent sacrifice"  was  the  firstlings  of  his  flock  ;  in  the 
offering  of  which  there  was  a  confession  that  his  own 
sins  deserved  death,  and  the  expression  of  a  desire  to 
share  in  the  benefits  of  the  great  atonement  which,  in 
the  fulness  of  time,  should  be  presented  to  God  for  the 
sins  of  man.  By  his  faith  he  was  accepted  as  "right- 
eous," that  is,  was  justified.  God  testified,  probably 
by  some  visible  sign — the  sending  of  fire  from  heaven 
to  consume  the  victim  (a  token  that  justice  had  seized 
upon  the  sacrifice  instead  of  the  sinner) — that  the  gift 
was  accepted.  Cain  had  no  faith  :  his  offering  was 
not  indicative  of  this  principle.  Although  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  we  can  render  the  clause  in  God's  expos- 
tulation with  him — "sin  lieth  at  the  door" — by  the 
words,  "  a  sin-offering  lieth  or  croucheth  at  the  door," 
that  is,  a  sin-offering  is  easily  procured,  yet  the  sin  of 
Cain  is  clearly  pointed  out;  for  though  he  was  not  a 
keeper  of  sheep,  yet  a  victim  whose  blood  could  be 
shed  as  a  typical  propitiation  could  without  difficulty 
have  been  procured  and  presented.  The  truths  clearly 
taught  in  this  important  event  are,  confession  of  sin  ; 
acknowledgment  that  the  penalty  of  sin  is  death  ;  sub- 
mission to  an  appointed  mode  of  expiation;  the  vica- 
rious offering  of  animal  sacrifice,  typical  of  the  better 
sacrifice  of  the  Seed  of  the  woman  ;  the  efficacy  of  faith 
in  Christ's  sacrifice  to  obtain  pardon,  and  to  admit  the 
guilty  into  divine  favor  (Wesley,  Notes  on  Heb.  xi, 
4).  The  difference  between  the  two  offerings  is  clear- 
ly and  well  put  by  Dr.  Magee  {On  the  Atonement,  i, 
58-61):  "Abel,  in  firm  reliance  on  the  promise  of 
God,  and  in  obedience  to  his  command,  offered  that 
sacrifice  which  had  been  enjoined  as  the  religious  ex- 
pression of  his  faith;  while  Cain,  disregarding  the 
gracious  assurances  which  had  been  vouchsafed,  or,  at 
least,  disdaining  to  adopt  the  prescribed  method  of 
manifesting  his  belief,  possibly  as  not  appearing  to  his 
reason  to  possess  any  efficacy  or  natural  fitness,  thought 
he  had  sufficiently  acquitted  himself  of  his  duty  in  ac- 
knowledging the  general  superintendence  of  God,  and 
expressing  his  gratitude  to  the  supreme  Benefactor, 
by  presenting  some  of  those  good  things  which  he 
thereby  confessed  to  have  been  derived  from  His 
bounty.  In  short,  Cain,  the  first-born  of  the  fall,  ex- 
hibits the  first-fruits  of  his  parents'  disobedience,  in  the 
arrogance  and  self-sufficiency  of  reason,  rejecting  the 
aids  of  revelation,  because  they  fell  not  within  his  ap- 
prehension of  right,  lie  takes  the  first  place  in  the 
annals  of  Deism,  and  displays,  in  his  proud  rejection 
of  the  ordinance  of  sacrifice,  the  same  spirit  which,  in 
later  days,  has  actuated  his  enlightened  followers  in  re- 
jecting the  sacrifice  of  Christ."  See  Sacrifice.  There 
arc  several  references  to  Abel  in  the  New  Testament. 
Our  Saviour  designates  him  "  righteous"  (Matt,  xxiii, 
35 ;  comp.  1  John,  iii,  12).  He  ranks  among  the  il- 
lustrious elders  mentioned  in  Heb.  xi.  According  to 
Heb.  xii,  24,  while  the  blood  of  sprinkling  speaks  for 
the  remission  of  sins,  the  blood  of  Abel  for  vengeance : 

the  blood  of  Sprinkling  speaks  of  mercy,  the  blood  of 
Abel  of  the  malice  of  the  human  heart. — Watson,  In- 
stitutes, ii,  171,  1D1  ;  Whatclv,  Prototype*,  V-  29;  Home, 
1  Death  of  Abel,  Wbrks,1812,  vol.  iv:  Hunter, 
Sacred  Biography,  p.  17  sq.  ;  Robinson,  Script.  Charac- 
ter*,\,  Williams,  Char.ofO.  T.  p.  12;  Simeon,  Works, 
xix,  371;  Close,  Genesis,  p.  46;  Nicnieyer,  Charakt. 
ii,  87. 

Abel,  Thomas.     See  Able. 

A'bel-  (Heb.  .!/»/'-,  ~b^X,  a  name  of  several 
villages  in  Palestine,  with  additions  in  the  case  of  (he 
more  important,  to  distinguish  them  from  one  another 
(sec  each  in  its  alphabetical  order).      From  a  compar- 


ison of  the  Arabic  and  Syriac,  it  appears  to  mean  frsh 
grass ;  and  the  places  so  named  may  be  conceived  to 
have  been  in  peculiarly  verdant  situations  (Gesenius, 
Thes.  Heb.  p.  14 ;  see,  however,  other  significations  in 
Lengerke,  Kenaan,  i,  358;  Hengstenberg,  Pentat.  ii, 
201).     See  Abila. 

In  1  Sam.  vi,  18,  it  is  used  as  an  appellative,  and 
probably  signifies  a,  grassy  plain.  In  this  passage, 
however,  perhaps  we  should  read  (as  in  the  margin) 
"2X,  stone,  instead  of  73X,  Abel,  or  meadow,  as  the 
context  (verses  14,  15)  requires,  and  the  Sept.  and 
Syriac  versions  explain ;  the  awkward  insertion  of  our 
translators,  "the  great  [stone  of]  Abel,"  would  thus 
be  unnecessary. 

In  2  Sam.  xx,  14,  18,  Abel  stands  alone  for  Abel- 
Beth-Maaciiaii  (q.  v.). 

Abela.     See  Aeel-beth-maachah. 

Abelard,  Pierre  [or  Abaelard,  Abaillard, 
Abelhardus],  born  at  Le  Pallet,  or  Palais,  near 
Nantes,  1079,  was  a  man  of  the  most  subtle  genius,  and 
the  father  of  the  so-called  scholastic  theology.  In 
many  respects  he  was  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  After 
a  very  careful  education,  he  spent  part  of  his  youth  in 
the  army,  and  then  turned  his  attention  to  theological 
stud}',  and  had  for  his  tutor  in  logic,  at  thirteen  years 
of  age,  the  celebrated  Roscelin,  of  Compiegne.  He 
left  Palais  before  he  was  twenty  j'ears  of  age,  and 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  William 
of  Champeaux,  a  teacher  of  logic  and  philosophy  of 
the  highest  reputation.  At  first  the  favorite  disciple, 
by  degrees  Abelard  became  the  rival,  and  finally  the 
antagonist  of  Champeaux.  To  escape  the  persecution 
of  his  former  master,  Abelard,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
two,  removed  to  Melon,  and  established  himself  there 
as  a  teacher,  with  great  success.  Thence  he  removed 
to  Corbeil,  where  his  labors  seem  to  have  injured  his 
health ;  and  he  sought  repose  and  restoration  by  re- 
tirement to  Palais,  where  he  remained  a  few  years, 
and  then  returned  to  Paris.  The  controversy  was 
then  renewed,  and  continued  till  Champeaux's  schol- 
ars deserted  him,  and  he  retired  to  a  monastery. 
Abelard,  having  paid  a  visit  to  his  mother  at  Palais, 
found  on  his  return  to  Paris  in  1113  that  Champeaux 
had  been  made  Bishop  of  Chalons-sur-Marne.  He 
now  commenced  the  study  of  divinity  under  Anselm 
at  Laon.  Here  also  the  pupil  became  the  rival  of  his 
master,  and  Anselm  at  length  had  him  expelled  from 
Laon,  when  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  established  a 
school  of  divinity,  which  was  still  more  numerously 
attended  than  his  former  schools  had  been.  Guizot 
says,  "In  this  celebrated  school  were  trained  one 
pope  (Celestine  II),  nineteen  cardinals,  more  than 
fifty  bishops  and  archbishops,  French,  English,  and 
German;  and  a  much  larger  number  of  those  men 
with  whom  popes,  bishops,  and  cardinals  had  often  to 
contend,  such  men  as  Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  many 
others.  The  number  of  pupils  who  used  at  that  time 
to  assemble  round  Abelard  has  been  estimated  at  up- 
ward of  5000." 

Abelard  was  about  thirty-five  when  he  formed  an 
acquaintance  with  Ileloise,  the  niece  of  Fulbert,  a 
canon  in  the  Cathedral  of  Paris.  She  was  probably 
under  twenty.  He  contracted  with  her  a  secret  and 
unlawful  connection,  the  fruit  of  which  was  a  sen 
named  Peter  Astrolabus.  Soon  after  Abelard  mar- 
ried Ileloise;  but  the  marriage  was  kept  secret,  and, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Abelard,  Ileloise  retired  into  the 
convent  of  Argenteuil,  near  Paris,  where  she  had  been, 
as  a  child,  brought  up.  The  relatives  of  Ileloise,  en- 
raged at  this,  and  believing  that  Abelard  had  de- 
ceived them,  revenged  themselves  by  indicting  the  se- 
verest personal  injuries  upon  him.  He  then,  being 
forty  years  old,  took  the  monastic  vows  at  S.  Denys, 
and  persuaded  Ileloise  to  do  the  same  at  Argenteuil. 
From  this  time  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the- 
ology, and  before  long  published  his  work  Intruductio 


ABELARD 


11 


ad  Theologiam,  in  which  he  spoke  of  the  Trinity  in  so 
subtle  a  manner  that  he  was  openly  taxed  with  heresy. 
Upon  this  he  was  cited  to  appear  before  a  council  held 
at  Soissons,  in  1121,  by  the  pope's  legate,  where,  al- 
though he  was  convicted  of  no  error,  nor  was  any  ex- 
amination made  of  the  case,  he  was  compelled  to  burn 
his  book  with  his  own  hands.  After  a  brief  detention 
at  the  abbey  of  St.  Medard,  he  returned  to  his  monas- 
tery, where  he  quarrelled  with  his  abbot,  Adamus, 
and  the  other  monks  (chiefly  because  he  was  too  good 
a  critic  to  admit  that  Dionysius,  the  patron  saint  of 
France,  was  identical  with  the  Areopagite  of  the  same 
name  mentioned  in  the  Acts),  and  retired  to  a  solitude 
near  Nogent-sur-Seine,  in  the  diocese  of  Troves,  where, 
with  the  consent  of  the  bishop,  Hatto,  he  built  an 
oratory  in  the  name  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity,  which 
he  called  Paraclete,  and  dwelt  there  with  another  clerk 
and  his  pupils,  who  soon  gathered  around  him  again. 
His  hearers,  at  various  periods,  were  numbered  by 
thousands.  Being  called  from  his  retreat  (A.D.  1125) 
by  the  monks  of  St.  Gildas,  in  Bretagne,  who  had 
elected  him  their  abbot,  he  abode  for  some  time  with 
them,  but  was  at  length  compelled  to  flee  from  the 
monastery  (about  1134)  to  escape  their  wicked  designs 
upon  his  life,  and  took  up  his  abode  near  Paraclete, 
where  Heloise  and  her  nuns  were  at  that  time  settled. 
About  the  year  1140,  the  old  charge  of  heresy  was  re- 
newed against  him,  and  by  no  less  an  accuser  than 
the  celebrated  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  who  was  his  op- 
ponent in  the  council  held  at  Sens  in  that  year. 
Abelard,  seeing  that  he  could  not  expect  his  cause  to 
receive  a  fair  hearing,  appealed  to  Borne,  and  at  once 
set  out  upon  his  journey  thither.  Happening,  how- 
ever, on  his  route,  to  pass  through  Cluny,  ho  was 
kindly  received  by  the  abbot,  Peter  the  Venerable,  by 
whose  means  he  was  reconciled  to  Bernard,  and  final- 
ly determined  to  pass  the  remainder  of  his  days  at 
Cluny.  He  died  April  21,  1142,  aged  sixty-three 
years,  at  the  monastery  of  S.  Marcel,  whither  he  had 
been  sent  for  his  health. 

As  Bernard  was  the  representative  of  Church  au- 
thority in  that  age,  so  Abelard  was  the  type  of  the  new 
school  of  free  inquiry,  and  of  the  use  of  reason  in  the- 
ology. His  philosophy  was  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  dia- 
lectics. In  the  controversy  between  the  Realists  and 
the  Nominalists  he  could  be  classed  with  neither;  his 
position  was  the  intermediate  one  denoted  by  the  mod- 
ern term  Conceptualism.  In  theology  he  professed  to 
agree  with  the  Church  doctrines,  and  quoted  Augus- 
tine, Jerome,  and  the  fathers  generally,  as  authorities  ; 
but  held,  at  the  same  time,  that  it  was  the  province 
of  reason  to  develop  and  vindicate  the  doctrines  them- 
selves. 

"At  the  request  of  his  hearers  he  published  his  In- 
troductio  ad  Theologiam ;  but  in  accordance  with  the 
stand-point  of  theological  science  in  that  atce,  the  idea 
of  Theologia  was  confined,  and  embraced  only  Dogmat- 
ics. The  work  was  originally,  and  remained  a  mere 
fragment  of  the  doctrines  of  religion.  He  agreed  so 
far  with  Anselm's  principles  as  to  assert  that  the  In- 
tellects can  only  develop  what  is  given  in  the  Fides ; 
but  he  differs  in  determining  the  manner  in  which 
Faith  is  brought  into  existence ;  nor  does  he  recog- 
nize so  readily  the  limits  of  speculation,  and,  in  some 
points,  he  goes  beyond  the  doctrinal  belief  of  the 
Church;  yet  the  tendency  of  the  rational  element  ly- 
ing at  the  basis,  and  his  method  of  applying  it,  are  dif- 
ferent. The  former  was  checked  in  its  logical  devel- 
opment by  the  limits  set  to  it  in  the  Creed  of  the 
Church  ;  many  things  also  are  only  put  down  on  the 
spur  of  the  moment.  The  work  not  only  created  a 
prodigious  sensation,  but  also  showed  traces  of  a  pre- 
ceding hostility." 

He  treated  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (in  his  The- 
ologia Christiana)  very  boldlj'',  assuming  "unity  in 
the  Divine  Being,  along  with  diversity  in  his  relations 
(relationum  diversitas),  in  which  consist  the   Divine 


ABEL-BETII-MAACIIAH 

Persons.  He  also  maintains  a  cognition  of  God  (as 
the  most  perfect  and  absolutely  independent  Being),  by 
means  of  the  reason,  which  he  ascribes  to  the  heathen 
philosophers,  without  derogating  from  the  incompre- 
hensibility of  God.  He  also  attempted  to  explain  (in 
his  Etkica),  on  philosophical  principles,  the  chief  con- 
ceptions of  theological  morality,  as,  for  instance,  the 
notions  of  vice  and  virtue.  He  made  both  to  consist  in 
the  mental  resolution,  or  in  the  intention  ;  and  main- 
tained, against  the  moral  conviction  of  his  age,  that  no 
natural  pleasures  or  sensual  desires  are  in  themselves 
of  the  nature  of  sin.  He  discovered  the  evidence  of 
the  morality  of  actions  in  the  frame  of  mind  and  max- 
ims according  to  which  those  actions  are  undertaken." 
A  pretty  clear  view  of  Abelard's  theology  is  given  by 
Neander,  Hist,  of  Christian  Dogmas,  478  sq.  (transl. 
by  Ryland,  Lond.  1858,  2  vols).  Abelard  founded  no 
school,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word  ;  the  results  of 
his  labors  were  critical  and  destructive,  rather  than 
positive.  The  later  scholastics,  however,  were  greatly 
indebted  to  him,  especially  as  to  form  and  method. 
His  writings  are  as  follows  ;  Epistolce  ad  J/eloisam,  4 ; 
Epistolce  alive-  ad  diversos;  Historia  Calamitatuni  sita- 
rum  ,  Apologia  ;  Expositio  Orationis  Dominica; ;  E.iposi- 
tio  in  Symbolum  Apostolorum ;  Expositio  in  Symbolum 
Athanasii;  Solutiones  Problematum  Helotsce;  Adversus 
Ihereses  liber;  Commentariorum  in  Epistolam  ad  Roma- 
nos,  libri  5  ;  Sermones  32  ;  Ad  Heloisam  ejusqiie  Yirgines 
Paracletenses ;  Introduetio  ad  Theologiam,  libri  3 ;  Epi- 
tome, Theologia  Christiana. 

The  philosophy  and  theology  of  Abelard  have  been 
recently  brought  into  notice  anew;  in  fact,  the  means 
of  studying  them  fully  have  only  of  late  been  afford- 
ed by  the  following  publications,  viz. :  Abaelai'di  Epit- 
ome Theologian  Christiana;  nunc  primum  edidit  F.  H. 
Rheinwald  (Berlin,  1835) ;  Cousin's  edition  of  his  Ou- 
trages inedits  (Paris,  1836.  4to);  by  the  excellent  Vie 
cT Abelard,  par  C.  Remusat  (Paris,  1845.  2  vols.);  and 
by  P.  Abaelardi  Sic  ct  X«n,  primum  ed.  Henke  et 
Lindenkohl  (Marburg,  1851,  8vo).  The  professedly 
complete  edition  of  his  works  by  Amboesius  (Paris, 
1616,  4to)  does  not  contain  the  Sic  et  Non.  Migne's 
edition  (Patrologice,  torn.  178)  is  expurgated  of  certain 
anti-papal  tendencies.  A  complete  edition  in  three 
vols.  4to,  was  begun  in  1859  by  MM.  Cousin,  Jour- 
dain,  and  Despois.  See  Berington,  History  and  Let- 
ters of  Abelard  and  Heloise  (Lond.  1784,  4to);  Nean- 
der, Ch.  Hist,  iv,  373 ;  Meth.  Quar.  Review,  articles  In- 
stauratio  Nova,  Jv\y  and  Oct.  1853 ;  Bobringer,  Kir- 
cheng.  in  Biog.  vol.  iv;  Presb.  Quarterly,  Philada.  1858 
(two  admirable  articles,  containing  the  best  view  of 
Abelard's  life  and  philosophy  anywhere  to  be  found 
in  small  compass) ;  The  English  Cyclop. ;  Wight,  Ro- 
mance of  Abelard  and  Heloise  (N.  Y.  1853,  12mo) ; 
Guizot,  Essai  sur  Abelard  et  Heloise  (Paris,  1839); 
Edinb.  Rev.  xxx,  352 ;  Westm.  Rev.  xxxii,  146. 

A'bel-beth-ma'achah  (Ileb.  Abel'  Beyth-Maa- 
hah',  fcr^-mS  biX,  Abel  of  Beih-Maachah ;  Sept. 
A/3i\  o'/ray  Mox«  in  1  Kings  XV,  20,  A/3tX  Bai9/ja- 
axd  v.  r.  Ocipaaxd  in  2  Kings  xv,  29),  a  city  in  the 
north  of  Palestine,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dan,  Ka- 
desh,  and  Hazor.  It  seems  to  have  been  of  considera- 
ble strength  from  its  history,  and  of  importance  from 
its  being  called  "a  mother  in  Israel"  (2  Sam.  xx,  19), 
i.  e.,  a  metropolis ;  for  the  same  place  is  doubtless  there 
meant,  although  peculiarly  expressed  (ver.  14,  rt5^!< 
FDSB  tVQI,  toward  Abel  and  Beth-Maachah,  Sept. 
eig  'AftiX  mi  a'c  Bai0/<«\'rf,  Vulg.  in  Abelam  et  Beth- 
Maacha,  Auth.  Vers,  "unto  Abel  and  to  Beth-Maa- 
chah;" ver.  is,  nzran  nia  n^xa, »'»  AbeM  of 

the  house  o/Maachah,  Sept.  tv  'A/3t\  Bai0/i«x«i  VulS- 
in  Abela  et,  in  Beth-maacha,  Auth.  Vers,  "in  Abel  of 
Beth-maachah").  See  Beth-MAACHAH.  The  same 
place  is  likewise  once  denoted  simply  by  Adel  (2  Sam. 
xx,  18)  ;  and  in  the  parallel  passage  (2  Chron.  xvi,  4), 


ABEL-CERAMIM 


12 


ABEL-MIZRAIM 


Abel-maim,  -which  indicates  the  proximity  of  a  foun- 
tain or  of  springs  from  which  the  meadow,  doubtless, 
derived  its  verdure.  See  Abel-.  The  addition  of 
"Maaehah"  marks  it  as  belonging  to,  or  being  near 
to,  the  region  Maachah,  which  lay  eastward  of  the 
Jordan  under  Mount  Lebanon.  See  Maacah.  It 
was  besieged  by  Joab  on  account  of  its  having  shel- 
tered Sheba,  the  son  of  Bichri,  a  Benjamite,  who  had 
rebelled  against  David;  but  was  saved  from  an  as- 
sault by  the  prudence  of  a  "wise  woman"  of  the 
place,  who  persuaded  the  men  to  put  the  traitor  to 
death,  and  to  throw  his  head  over  the  wall;  upon 
which  the  siege  was  immediately  raised  (2  Sam.  xx, 
14-22).  At  a  later  date  it  was  taken  and  sacked  by 
Benhadad,  king  of  Syria  ;  and  200  years  subsequent- 
ly by  Tiglath-pileser,  who  sent  away  the  inhabitants 
captives  into  Assyria  (2  Kings  xx,  29).  The  name 
Belmen  (BsXfiiv),  mentioned  in  Judith  (iv,  4),  has 
been  thought  a  corruption  of  Abel-maim;  but  the 
place  there  spoken  of  appears  to  have  been  much  more 
southward.  Josephus  {Ant.  vii,  11,  7)  calls  it  Abel- 
machea  CAj3iXi.iaxta),  or  (Ant.  viii,  12,  4)  Abellane 
C  AjiiXXiwii)  ;  and  Theodoret  (Qua>st.  39  in  2  Reg.}  says 
it  was  still  named  Abela  (AfiiXci).  Eeland  (Palest. 
p.  520)  thinks  it  is  the  third  of  the  cities  called  Abela 
mentioned  by  Eusebius  (Onomast.)  as  a  Phoenician  city 
between  Damascus  and  Paneas;  but  Gesenius  (Thes. 
Heb.  p.  15)  objects  that  it  need  not  be  located  in  Gali- 
lee (Harenberg,  in  the  Nov.  Miscel.  Lips,  iv,  470),  and 
is,  therefore,  disposed  to  locate  it  farther  north.  See 
Abila.  Calmet  thinks  it,  in  like  manner,  the  same 
with  Abila  of  Lysanias.  But  this  position  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  proximity  to  Dan  and  other  cities  of 
Naphtali,  implied  in  the  Biblical  accounts.  It  was 
suggested  by  Dr.  Robinson  (Eeseai-ches,  iii,  Appendix, 
p.  137)  that  Abil  el-Karub,  in  the  region  of  the  Upper 
Jordan,  is  the  ancient  Abel-Beth-Maachah ;  this  con- 
clusion has  recently  been  confirmed  almost  to  certain- 
ty by  Mr.  Thomson  (Bibliothecn  Sacra,  1846,  p.  202). 
It  is  so  productive  in  wheat  as  to  be  called  likewise 
Abel  el-Kamch  (ib.  p.  204).  This  place  "is  situated  on 
the  west  side  of  the  valley  and  stream  that  descends 
from  Merj-Ayun  toward  the  Huleh,  and  below  the 
opening  into  the  Merj.  It  lies  on  a  very  distinctly 
marked  tell,  consisting  of  a  summit,  with  a  large  offset 
from  it  on  the  south"  (Rev.  E.  Smith,  ib.  p.  214).  It 
is  now  an  inconsiderable  village,  occupying  part  of 
the  long  oval  mound  (Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  i, 
324  sq.).  This  identification  essentially  agrees  with 
that  of  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  G5),  although  he  seeks  to 
find  in  this  vicinity  three  towns  of  the  name  of  Abel 
[Palest,  p.  203),  for  the  purpose  of  accommodating  cer- 
tain Rabbinical  notices.  (See  Eeineccius,  De  urbe 
Abel,  Weissenfels,  1725.) 

A'bel-cera'mim  (Heb.  Abel'  Keramim'.  ^2i< 
b^XHS,  meadow  of  vineyards;  Sept.  'AfiiX  dfjnrtXwvwv; 
Vulg.  Abel  awe  est  vineis  consita;  Auth.  Vers,  "plain 
of  the  vineyards"),  a  village  of  the  Ammonites  whither 
the  victorious  Jephthah  pursued  their  invading  forces 
with  great  slaughter;  situate,  apparently,  between 
Aroer  and  Minnith  (Judg.  xi,  33).  According  to  Eu- 
sebius (Onomast.  "  AfiiX),  it  was  still  a  place  rich  in 
vineyards,  (5  (Jerome  7)  Roman  miles  from  Philadel- 
phia or  Rabbath-Ammon  ;  probably  in  a  south-west- 
erly direction,  and  perhaps  at  the  present  ruins  Merj 
(meadow)  Ekkeh.  The  other  "wine-bearing"  village 
Abel  mentioned  by  Eusebius,  12  If.  miles  E.  of  Ga- 
dara,  is  probably  the  modern  Abil  (Ritter,  Erdk.  xv, 
1058);  but  cannot  be  the  place  in  question,  as  it  lies 
north  of  Gilead,  which  Jephthah  passed  through  on 
his  way  south  from  Manasseh  by  the  way  of  the  Up- 
per Jordan.      Sec  Abila. 

Abelites,  Abelians,  or  Abelonians,  a  sect  of 
heretics  who  appeared  in  the  diocese  of  Hippo,  in  Af- 
rica, about  the  year  870.  They  insisted  upon  marriage, 
but  permitted  no  carnal  conversation  between  man 


and  wife,  following,  as  they  said,  the  example  of  Abel, 
and  the  prohibition  in  Gen.  ii,  17.  When  a  man  and 
woman  entered  their  sect  they  were  obliged  to  adopt  a 
boy  and  girl,  who  succeeded  to  all  their  property,  and 
were  united  together  in  marriage  in  a  similar  manner. 
Augustine  says  (De  Hair.  cap.  87)  that  in  his  time  they 
had  become  extinct.  The  whole  sect  was  at  last  re- 
duced to  a  single  village,  which  returned  to  the  Church. 
This  strange  sect  is,  to  some  extent,  reproduced  in  the 
modern  Shakers.— Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  c.  ii,  pt,  ii,  ch. 
v,  §  18. 

Abellane.  See  Abel-beth-maachah. 
Abelli,  Louis,  Bishop  of  Rodez  (South  France), 
was  born  at  Vez,  1604.  He  was  made  bishop  in  1664, 
but  resigned  in  three  years,  to  become  a  monk  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Lazare,  at  Paris.  He  was  a  violent  op- 
1  poser  of  the  Jansenists,  and  author  of  a  system  of  Dog- 
matic Theology,  entitled  Medulla  Theologica  (repub- 
lished in  Mayence,  1839),  and  also  of  Vie  de  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,  4to.  He  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  wrote,  in  its  defence,  La 
Tradition  de.  Veglise  touchant  le  culte  de  la  Vierge,  1652, 
8vo.     He  died  in  his  convent  in  1691. 

i      Abelmachea.     See  Abel-beth-maachaii. 

\  A'bel-ma'im  (Heb.  Abel  Ma'yim,  D^E  ^SS, 
meadow  of  water ,•  Sept.  A/SfX^aiV,  Vulg.  Abelmain), 
one  of  the  cities  of  Naphtali  captured  by  Bendahad  (2 

.  Chron.  xvi,  4);  elsewhere  (1  Kings  xv,  20)  called 

\  Abel-beth-maachah  (q.  v.). 

Abelmea.     See  Abel-meholah. 

\  A'bel-meho'lah  (Heb.  Abel'  Meclwlah',  -l?a» 
tisinp,  meadow  of  dancing;  Sept.  'Aj5iXf.iiovXa  and 
'AfiiXpaov?.a,  Vulg.  Abelmehula  and  Abelmerda'),  a 
place  not  far  from  the  Jordan,  on  the  confines  of  Issa- 
cliar  and  Manasseh,  in  the  vicinity  of  Beth-shittah, 
Zeredah,  and  Tabbath,  whither  Gideon's  three  hun- 
dred picked  men  pursued  the  routed  Midianites  (Judg. 

,  vii,  22).  It  was  the  birthplace  or  residence  of  Elisha 
the  prophet  (1  Kings  xix,  16),  and  lay  not  far  from 
Beth-shean  (1  Kings  iv,  12);  according  to  Eusebius 
(Onomast.  liift/.iatXa'),  in  the  plain  of  the  Jordan,  16 
(Jerome  10)  Roman  miles  south,  probabh-  the  same 
with  the  village  Abelmea  mentioned  by  Jerome  (ibid. 
Eusebius  less  correctly  'A(3tX  via)  as  situated  between 
Scythopolis  (Cethshean)  and  Neapolis  (Shechem).  It 
is  also  alluded  to  by  Epiphanius  (whose  text  has  inac- 
curately 'ApiXpoiiS  v.  r.  'A/.iinovi]X,  and  wrongly  lo- 
cates it  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben),  and  (as  'A/3fA/<«oi''A) 
in  the  Past  hid  Chronicle  (see  Reland,  Palazst.  p.  522). 
It  Mas  probably  situated  not  far  from  where  the  Wady 

!  el-Maleh  (which  seems  to  retain  a  trace  of  the  name) 

!  emerges  into  the  Aulon  or  valley  of  the  Jordan  ;  per- 
haps at  the  ruins  now  called  Kkurbet  esh-Shuk,  which 
are  on  an  undulating  plain  beside  a  stream  (Van  de 

I  Velde,  Narrative,  ii,  340).    This  appears  to  agree  with 
the  conjectural  location  assigned  by  Schwarz  (Palest. 
p.  159),  although  the  places  he  names  do  not  occur  on 
any  map. 
A'bel-miz'rai'm  (Heb.  Abel'  Mitsra'yim,  b^ 

1  d^S'O,  meadow  rf  Egypt;  but  which  should  probably 
be  pointed  D",^i^*2  ?3N,  E'bel  Mitsra'yim,  mourning  of 
the  Egyptians,  as  in  the  former  part  of  the  same  verse  ; 
and  so  appear  to  have  read  the  Sept.  irivGoc,  Aijvtctov, 
and  Vulg.  Planctus  sEgypti),  a  place  beyond  (i.  e.  on 
the  west  bank  of)  the  Jordan,  occupied  (perhaps  sub- 
sequently) by  the  threshing-floor  of  Atad.  where  the 
Egyptians  performed  rheir  seven  days'  mourning  cer- 
emonies over  the  embalmed  body  of  Jacob  prior  to  in- 
terment (Gen.  1, 11).  See  Atad.  Jerome  (Onomast. 
Area  Atad)  places  it  between  Jericho  and  the  Jordan, 
at  three  Roman  miles  distance  from  the  former  and 

1  two  from  the  latter,  corresponding  (Reland,  Pala?st.  p. 

!  522)  to  the  later  site  of  Beth-hoglah  (q.  v.). 


ABEL-SHITTIM 


13 


ABERNETHY 


A'bel-shit'tim  (Heb.  Abel'  hash-Skittim',  ^2X 
d^lSil,  meadow  of  the  acacias;  Sept.  'A/SfArxarraV, 
Vulg.  Abel-satini),  a  town  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  on 
the  east  of  the  Jordan,  between  which  and  Beth-Jesi- 
moth  was  the  last  encampment  of  the  Israelites  on 
that  side  the  river  (Num.  xxxiii,  49).  See  Exode. 
The  place  is  noted  for  the  severe  punishment  which 
was  there  inflicted  upon  the  Israelites  when  they  were 
seduced  into  the  worship  of  Baal-Peor,  through  their 
evil  intercourse  with  the  Moabites  and  Midianites.  See 
Baal.  Eusebius  (Onomast.  Saryeiv)  says  it  was  situ- 
ated near  Mount  Peor  (Reland,  Palcest,  p.  520).  In  the 
time  of  Josephus  it  was  a  town  embosomed  in  palms, 
still  known  as  Abila  or  Abile  ('A/3i\a  or  'A/3i'X?;),  and 
stood  sixty  stadia  from  the  Jordan  (Ant.  iv,  8, 1 ;  v,  1, 
1).  Rabbinical  authorities  assign  it  the  same  relative 
position  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  229).  It  is  more  fre- 
quently called  Shittim  merely  (Num.  xxv,  1 ;  Josh, 
ii,  1 ;  Mic.  vi,  5).  From  the  above  notices  (which  all 
refer  to  the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  there),  it  appears 
to  have  been  situated  nearly  opposite.  Jericho,  in  the 
eastern  plain  of  Jordan,  about  where  Wady  Seir  opens 
into  the  Ghor.  The  acacia-groves  on  both  sides  of 
the  Jordan  still  "  mark  with  a  line  of  verdure  the  up- 
per terraces  of  the  valley"  (Stanley,  Palestine,  p.  292), 
and  doubtless  gave  name  to  this  place  (Wilson,  Lands 
of  the  Bible,  ii,  17). 

Abendana  (i.  e.  Son  of  Dana),  Jacob,  a  Jewish 
rabbi,  born  in  Spain  about  1630,  died  in  London  in 
1696.  He  was  rabbi  first  in  Amsterdam,  and  from 
1685  till  his  death  in  London.  He  translated  into 
Spanish  the  book  of  Cusari  as  well  as  the  Mishna,  with 
the  commentaries  of  Maimonides  and  Bartenora.  His 
Spicxleyium  rerum  prateritarum  el  intermissarum  con- 
tains valuable  philogical  and  critical  notes  to  the  cele- 
brated Michlal  Jophi  (Amsterdam,  1685).  A  selection 
from  his  works  appeared  after  his  death,  under  the 
title  Discourses  of  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil  Polity  of 
the  Jews  (Lond.  1706). 

Aben-Ezra  (otherwise  Aben-Esdra,  or  Ibn- 
Esra,  properly,  Abraham  ben-Meir),  a  celebrated 
Spanish  rabbi,  called  by  the  Jews  the  Sage,  the  Great, 
etc.,  was  born  at  Toledo  in  1092.  Little  is  known 
of  the  facts  of  his  life ;  but  he  was  a  great  traveller 
and  student,  and  was  at  once  philosopher,  mathema- 
tician, and  theologian.  His  fame  for  varied  and  accu- 
rate learning  was  very  great  in  his  own  day,  and  has 
survived,  worthily,  to  the  present  age.  He  died  at 
Rome,  Jan.  23,  1167.  De  Rossi,  in  his  Hist.  Diet,  of 
Hebrew  Writers  (Parma,  1802),  gives  a  catalogue  of 
the  writings  attributed  to  him.  Many  of  them  still 
exist  only  in  MS.  A  list  of  those  that  have  been 
published,  with  the  various  editions  and  transla- 
tions, is  given  by  Fiirst  in  his  Bibliotheca  Judaica 
(Lpz.  1849,  i,  251  sq.).  A  work  on  astronomy,  enti- 
tled fl-OSn  rPdxna  (the  Beginning  of  Wisdom),  part- 
ly translated  from  the  Arabic  and  partly  compiled 
by  himself,  greatly  contributed  to  establishing  his 
reputation  (a  Latin  translation  of  it  is  given  in  Wolf, 
Bibliotheca  J/ebraica,  t.  iii).  He  also  wrote  a  "  Com- 
mentary on  the  Talmud,"  and  another  work  on  the  im- 
portance of  the  Talmud,  entitled  NTia  TitJi  (the  Basis 
of  Instruction),  several  times  printed  (in  German,  F.  ad 
M.  1840).  His  most  important  work  consists  of  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Old  Testament"  ('b'J  d^S,  in 
several  parts),  a  work  full  of  erudition.  Bom  berg, 
Buxtorf,  and  Moses  Frankfurter  included  it  in  their 
editions  of  Hebrew  texts  and  annotations  of  the  Bi- 
ble (Venice,  1526;  Basil,  1618-19;  Amst.  1724-7). 
His  "Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch"  (rTiipn  Ufo'lB) 
is  very  rare  in  its  original  form  (fol.  Naples,  1488; 
Constantinople,  1514),  but  it  has  often  been  reprinted 
combined  with  other  matter,  overlayed  by  later  an- 
notations, or  in  fragmentary  form.     None  of  the  other 


portions  of  his  great  commentary  have  been  published 
separately  from  the  Rabbinical  Bibles,  except  in  de- 
tached parts,  and  then  usually  with  other  matter  and 
translated.  Aben-Ezra  usually  wrote  in  the  vulgar 
Hebrew  or  Jewish  dialect ;  but  that  he  was  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  original  Hebrew  is  shown  by  some 
poems  and  other  little  pieces  which  are  found  in  the 
preface  to  his  commentaries.  The  works  of  Aben- 
Ezra  are  thoroughly  philosophical,  and  show  a  great 
acquaintance  with  physical  and  natural  science.  He 
also  wrote  several  works  on  Hebrew  Grammar  (es- 
pecially D^tNt  ^SO,  Augsb.  1521,  8vo;  nn?  nso, 
Ven.  1546,  8vo ;  fi^ia  HEO,  Constpl.  1530,  8vo), 
most  of  which  have  been  re-edited  (by  Lippmann, 
Heidenhein,  etc.)  with  Heb.  annotations.  Some  of 
his  arithmetical  and  astronomical  works  have  been 
translated  into  Latin. — Hoefer,  Biographic  Generate. 

Abercrombie,  James,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  divine 
and  accomplished  scholar,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1758,  and  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, 1776.  He  then  studied  theology,  but,  on  account 
of  an  injury  to  his  eyes,  he  entered  into  mercantile 
pursuits  in  1783.  In  1793  he  was  ordained,  and  be- 
came associate  pastor  of  Christ  Church  in  1794.  From 
1810  to  1819  he  was  principal  of  the  "Philadelphia 
Acadenry."  In  1833  he  retired  on  a  pension,  and  died 
at  Philadelphia,  June  26, 1841,  the  oldest  preacher  of 
that  Church  in  the  city.  He  was  distinguished  as 
well  for  eloquence  and  liberality  as  for  learning.  He 
wrote  Lectures  on  the  Catechism  (1807),  and  published 
a  number  of  occasional  sermons. — Sprague,  Annals, 
v,  394. 

Abercrombie,  John,  M.D.,  author  of  Enquiiies 
concerning  the  Intellectual  Powers,  published  1830,  and 
|  the  Philosophy  of  the  Moral  Feelings,  published  1833, 
i  was  born  at  Aberdeen,  Nov.  11, 1781,  and  attained  the 
highest  rank  as  a  practical  and  consulting  physician 
at  Edinburgh.  He  became  Lord  Rector  of  Marischal 
i  College,  Aberdeen,  1835.  Besides  the  works  above 
|  named,  he  wrote  Essays  and  Tracts  on  Christian  Sub- 
jects (Edinb.  18mo)  ;  Harmony  of  Christian  Faith  and 
I  Character  (reprint  from  preceding,  N.  Y.  1845, 18mo). 
!  He  died  Nov.  14, 1844.— Quart.  Rev.  xlv,  341. 

Aberdeen  (Aberdonia  Dcvana),  the  seat  of  a 
Scotch  bishopric,  formerly  suffragan  to  the  Archbish- 
opric of  St.  Andrew.  The  bishopric  was  transferred 
to  Aberdeen  about  the  year  1130,  by  King  David,  from 
Murthilack,  now  Mortlick,  which  had  been  erected  into 
|  an  episcopal  see  by  Malcolm  II  in  the  year  1010,  Bean- 
\  cus,  or  Beyn,  being  the  first  bishop. 

Aberdeen,  Breviary  of.  While  Romanism  pre- 
vailed in  Scotland,  the  Church  of  Aberdeen  had,  like 
1  many  others,  its  own  rites.  The  missal,  according  to 
Palmer,  has  never  been  published ;  but  an  edition  of 
the  breviary  was  printed  in  1509. — Palmer,  Orig.  Li- 
turg.  i,  188,  who  cites  Zaccaria,  Biblioth.  Pituulis,  torn. 
i;  A.  Butler,  Lives  >f  Saints,  i,  113. 

Abernethy,  John,  an  eminent  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  aft- 
erward at  Edinburgh.  Born  at  Coleraine,  in  Ireland, 
1680 ;  became  minister  at  Antrim  in  1708,  and  labored 
zealoush'  for  twenty  years,  especially  in  behalf  of  the 
Roman  Catholics.  The  subscription  controversy, 
which  was  raised  in  England  by  Hoadley,  the  1  mous 
Bishop  of  Bangor,  and  the  agitation  of  which  kindled 
the  flames  of  party  strife  in  Ireland  also,  having  led 
to  the  rupture  of  the  Presbytery  of  Antrim  from  the 
General  Synod  in  1726,  Abernethy,  who  was  a  warm 
supporter  of  the  liberal  principals  of  Hoadley.  lost  a 
large  number  of  his  people;  and  these  having  formed 
a  new  congregation,  he  felt  his  usefulness  so  greatly 
contracted  that,  on  his  services  being  solicited  by  a 
church  in  Wood  Street,  Dublin,  he  determined  to  ac- 
|  cept  their  invitation.  Applying  himself  with  re- 
doubled energy  to  his  ministerial  work,  he  soon  col- 


ABESAR 


14 


ABIASAPH 


lectcd  a  numerous  congregation.  His  constitution 
tailed  under  his  excessive  labors,  and  he  died  sud- 
denly in  December,  1740.  His  discourses  on  the  be- 
ing and  attributes  of  God  have  always  been  held  in 
much  esteem.  His  works  are:  1.  Discourses  on  the 
1U  ing  and  Perfections  of  God  (Lond.  1743,  2  vols.  8vo)  ; 
2.  Sermons  on  variant  Subjects  (Lond.  1748-'51,  4  vols. 
8vo) ;  3.  Tracts  and  Sermons  (Lond.  1751,  8vo). 

Abesar.     See  Abez. 

Abesta.     See  Avesta. 

Abeyance  signifies  expectancy,  probably  from  the 
French  Layer,  to  gape  after.     Lands,  dwelling-houses, 

or  g Is,  are  said  to  be  in  abeyance  when  they  are 

only  in  expectation,  or  the  intendment  of  the  law,  and 
not  actually  possessed.  In  the  Church  of  England, 
■when  a  living  has  become  vacant,  between  such  time 
and  the  institution  of  the  next  incumbent,  it  is  in 
abeyance.  It  belongs  to  no  parson,  but  is  kept  sus- 
pended, as  it  were,  in  the  purpose,  as  yet  undeclared, 
of  the  patron. 

A'bez  (Heb.  E'bcfs,  yzt<,  in  pause  "j"3X,  A'bets, 
lustre,  and  hence,  perhaps,  tin;  Sept.  'Aeptx,  Vulg. 
a  1 6i  s),  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  apparently  near 
the  border,  mentioned  between  Kishion  and  Remeth 
(Josh,  xix,  20).  It  is  probably  the  Abesar  ('A/3ecra/)oc) 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (Ant.  vi,  13,  8)  as  the  native 
city  of  the  wife  whom  David  had  married  prior  to  Ab- 
igail and  after  his  deprival  of  Michal;  possibly  re- 
ferring to  Ahinoam  the  Jezreelitess  (1  Sam.  xxv,  43), 
as  if  she  had  been  so  called  as  having  resided  in 
some  town  of  the  valley  of  Esdraelon.  According  to 
Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  167),  "it  is  probably  the  village 
of  Kwiebiz,  called  also  Karm  en-Abiz,  which  lies  three 
English  miles  west-south-west  from  Iksal ;"  meaning 
the  Khuneifis  or  ULhneijis  of  Robinson  (Research's,  \\\, 
167,  218),  which  is  in  the  general  locality  indicated  by 
the  associated  names. 

Abgarus  (Abagarus,  Agbarus  ;  sometimes  de- 
rived from  the  Arabic  AJcbar,  "greater,"  but  better 
from  the  Armenian  Avag,  "great,"  and  air,  "man;" 
see  Ersch  unci  Gruber,  s.  v.  Abgar),  the  common  name 
of  the  petty  princes  (or  Toparchs)  who  ruled  at  Edes- 
sa  in  Mesopotamia,  of  one  of  whom  there  is  an  East- 
ern tradition,  recorded  by  Eusebius  (Eccl.  Hist,  i,  13), 
that  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Christ,  who  transmitted  a  re- 
ply.   Eusebius  gives  copies  of  both  letters,  as  follows  : 

"  Abgarus,  Prince  of  Edessa,  to  Jesus,  the  merciful 
Saviour,  who  has  appeared  in  the  country  of  Jerusa- 
lem, greeting.  I  have  been  informed  of  the  prodigies 
and  cures  wrought  by  you  without  the  use  of  herbs  or 
medicines,  and  by  the  efficacy  only  of  your  words.  I 
am  told  that  you  enable  cripples  to  walk;  that  you 
tone  devils  from  the  bodies  possessed;  that  there  is 
no  disease,  however  incurable,  which  you  do  not  heal, 
and  that  you  restore  the  dead  to  life.  These  wonders 
persuade  me  that  you  are  some  god  descended  from 
heaven,  or  that  you  are  the  Son  of  God.  For  this 
rea  on  1  have  taken  the  liberty  of  writing  this  letter 
to  you,  beseeching  you  to  come  and  see  me,  and  to 
cure  me  of  the  indisposition  under  which  I  have  so 
long  labored.  I  understand  that  the  Jews  persecute 
you,  murmur  at  your  miracles,  and  seek  your  destruc- 
tion. I  have  here  a  beautiful  and  agreeable  city 
which,  though  it  be  not  very  large,  will  be  sufficient 
to  Bupply  you  with  every  thing  that  is  necessary." 

To  this  letter  it.  is  said  Jesus  Christ  returned  him 
an  answer  in  the  following  terms :  "  You  are  happy, 
Abagarus,  thus  to  have  believed  in  me  without  having 
Been  me  :  for  it  is  written  of  me,  that  thev  who  shall 
see  me  will  not  believe  in  me,  and  that  they  who  have 
never  Been  me  shall  believe  and  be  saved."  As  to  the 
desire  you  express  in  receiving  a  visit,  from  me,  I  must 
tell  you  that  all  things  for  which  I  am  come  must  be 
fulfilled  in  the  country  where  [  am  ;  when  this  is  done, 
I  must  return  to  him  who  sent  me.     And  when  I  am 


departed  hence,  I  will  send  to  yon  one  of  my  disciples, 
who  will  cure  you  of  the  disease  of  which  you  com- 
plain, and  give  life  to  you  and  to  those  that  are  with 
you."  According  to  Moses  of  Chorene  (died  470),  the 
reply  was  written  by  the  Apostle  Thomas. 

Eusebius  further  states  that,  after  the  ascension  of 
Christ,  the  Apostle  Thomas  sent  Thaddasus,  one  of  the 
seventy,  to  Abgar,  who  cured  him  of  leprosy,  and  con- 
verted him,  together  with  his  subjects.  The  docu- 
ments from  which  this  narrative  is  drawn  were  found 
by  Eusebius  in  the  archives  of  Edessa.  Moses  of  Cho- 
rene relates  further  that  Abgarus,  after  his  conversion, 
wrote  letters  in  defence  of  Christianity  to  the  Empe- 
ror Tiberius  and  to  the  king  of  Persia.  He  is  also  the 
first  who  mentions  that  Christ  sent  to  Abgarus,  to- 
gether with  a  reply,  a  handkerchief  impressed  with 
his  portrait.  The  letter  of  Christ  to  Abgarus  was  de- 
clared apocryphal  by  the  Council  of  Rome,  A.D.  494, 
but  in  the  Greek  Church  many  continued  to  believe 
in  its  authenticity,  and  the  people  of  Edessa  believed 
that  their  city  was  made  unconquerable  by  the  posses- 
sion of  this  palladium.  The  original  is  said  to  have 
later  been  brought  to  Constantinople.  In  modern 
times,  the  correspondence  of  Abgarus,  as  well  as  the 
portrait  of  Christ,  are  generally  regarded  as  forgeries  ; 
yet  the  authenticity  of  the  letters  is  defended  by  Til- 
lemont,  J/emoires  pour  Servir  a  VHist.  Eccles.  i,  p. 
362,  615 ;  by  Welte,  Tubing.  Quartalschrift,  1842,  p. 
335  et  seq.,  and  several  others.  Two  churches,  St. 
Sylvester's  at  Rome,  and  a  church  of  Genoa,  profess 
each  to  have  the  original  of  the  portrait.  A  beauti- 
ful copy  of  the  portrait  in  Rome  is  given  in  W.  Grimm, 
Die  Sage  vom  Ursprung  der  Christusbilder  (Berlin, 
1843).  The  authenticity  of  the  portrait  in  Genoa  is 
defended  by  the  Mechitarist,  M.  Samuelian.  Hefele 
puts  its  origin  in  the  fifteenth  century,  but  believes  it 
to  be  the  copy  of  an  older  portrait.  See  the  treatises 
on  this  subject,  in  Latin,  by  Frauendorff  (Lips.  1693) ; 
Albinus  (Viteb.  1694);  E.  Dalhuse  (Hafn.  1699), 
Schulze  (Regiom.  1706)  ;  Semler  (Hal.  1759)  ;  Heine 
(Hal.  1768) ;  Zeller  (I'rnkf.  ad  0.  1798)  ;  in  German, 
by  Hartmann  (Jena,  1796)  ,  Rink  (in  the  Morgenblalt, 
1819,  No.  110,  and  in  Ilgen's  Zeitschr.  1843,  ii,  3-26) ; 
and  comp.  Bayer,  Hist.  Edessana,  p.  104  sq.,  358  sq. 
See,  also,  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  80 ;  Mosheim,  Comm. 
i,  95;  Lardner,  Works,  vi,  596  ;  Stud.  v.  Kril.  I860,  iii ; 
and  the  articles  Ciikist,  Images  of:  Jesus. 

A'bi  (Heb.  Abi' ',  "^X,  my  father,  or  rather  father 
of  [see  Abi-];  Sept.  'A/3t,  Vulg.  Abi),  a  shortened 
form  (comp.  2  Chron.  xxix,  1)  of  Abijaii  (q.  v.),  the 
name  of  the  mother  of  King  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xviii, 
2,  where  the  full  form  is  also  read  in  some  MSS.). 

Abi-  (~^X>  an  old  construct  form  of  ZH,  father, 
as  is  evident  from  its  use  in  Hebrew  and  all  the  cog- 
nate languages),  forms  the  first  part  of  several  Hebrew 
proper  names  (Bib.  Repos.  1846,  p.  760) ;  e.  g.  those 
following.     See  Ab-. 

Abi'a  ('Aftiu),  a  Grrccized  form  of  the  name  Abi- 
jaii (Matt,  i,  7  ;  Luke  i,  5).  It  also  occurs  (1  Chron. 
iii,  10)  instead  of  Abiah  (q.  v.). 

Abi'ah,  a  less  correct  mode  (1  Sam.  viii,  2 ;  1 
Chron.  ii,  4  ;  vi,  28 ;  vii,  8)  of  Anglicizing  the  name 
Abijaii  (q.  v.). 

A'bi-al'bon  (Heb.  Abi'-ATbon',  "pa^S-iaS,  fa- 
ther of  strength,  i.e.  valiant;  Sept.  'Afil  'A/fit'ov  v.  r. 
'A/31  'Apf3uv,  Vulg.  Abialboii),  one  of  David's  bouV- 
guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  31)  ;  called  in  the  parallel  passage 
(1  Chron.  xi,  32)  by  the  equivalent  name  ABIEL  (q.  v.). 
Abi'asaph  (Heb.  Abiasaph',  t)OX"'3X,  father  of 
gathering,  i.  e.  gatherer;  Sept.  'Apiuaacj),  Vulg.  Abi- 
asaph), the  youngest  of  the  three  sons  of  Korah  the 
Levite  (Exo'd.  vi,  24);  B.C.  post  1740.  He  is  differ- 
ent from  the  Ebiasaph  of  1  Chron.  vi,  23,  37 ;  ix,  19. 
See  Samuel. 


ABIATHAR 


ABIEZER 


Abi'athar  (Heb.  Ebyathar',  "tt^ax,  father  of 
abundance,  i.e.  liberal;  Sept.  'A/JmOup  ur  'Afiiatlup, 
N.  T.  'AjSiddap,  Josephus  'AjhuOapoc'),  the  thirteenth 
high-priest  of  the  Jews,  being  the  son  of  Ahimelech, 
and  the  third  in  descent  from  Eli ;  B.C.  1060-1012. 
When  his  father  was  slain  with  the  priests  of  Nob,  for 
suspected  partiality  to  David,  Abiathar  escaped;  and 
bearing  with  him  the  most  essential  part  of  the  priestly 
raiment  [see  Ephod],  repaired  to  the. son  of  Jesse,  who 
was  then  in  the  cave  of  Adullam  (1  Sam.  xxii,  20-23  ; 
xxiii,  6).  He  was  well  received  by  David,  and  be- 
came the  priest  of  the  part)-  during  its  exile  and  wan- 
derings, receiving  for  David  responses  from  God  (1 
Sam.  xxx,  7  ;  comp.  2  Sam.  ii,  1 ;  v,  19).  The  cause 
of  this  strong  attachment  on  the  part  of  the  monarch 
was  the  feeling  that  he  had  been  unintentionally  the 
cause  of  the  death  of  Abiathar's  kindred.  When  Da- 
vid became  king  of  Judah  he  appointed  Abiathar  high- 
priest  (see  1  Chron.  xv,  11 ;  1  Kings  ii,  26),  and  a 
member  of  his  cabinet  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  34).  Mean- 
while Zadok  had  been  made  high-priest  by  Sanl — an 
appointment  not  only  unexceptionable  in  itself,  but  in 
accordance  with  the  divine  sentence  of  deposition 
which  had  been  passed,  through  Samuel,  upon  the 
house  of  Eli  (1  Sam.  ii,  30-36).  When,  therefore, 
David  acquired  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  he  had  no  just 
ground  on  which  Zadok  could  be  removed,  and  Abia- 
thar set  in  his  place  ;  and  the  attempt  would  prob- 
ably have  been  offensive  to  his  new  subjects,  who 
had  been  accustomed  to  the  ministration  of  Zadok, 
and  whose  good  feeling  he  was  anxious  to  cultivate. 
The  king  appears  to  have  got  over  this  difficulty  by  al- 
lowing both  appointments  to  stand  ;  and  until  the  end 
of  David's  reign  Zadok  and  Abiathar  were  joint  high- 
priests  (1  Kings  iv,  4).  As  a  high-priest,  Abiathar  was 
the  least  excusable,  in  some  respects,  of  all  those  who 
were  parties  in  the  attempt  to  raise  Adonijah  to  the 
throne  (1  Kings  i,  19) ;  and  Solomon,  in  deposing  him 
from  the  high-priesthood,  plainly  told  him  that  only  his 
sacerdotal  character,  and  his  former  services  to  David, 
preserved  him  from  capital  punishment  (1  Kings  ii,  26, 
27).  This  completed  the  doom  upon  the  house  of  Eli, 
and  restored  the  pontifical  succession — Zadok,  who 
remained  the  high-priest,  being  of  the  elder  line  of 
Aaron's  sons.     See  Eleazar. 

In  Mark  ii,  26,  a  circumstance  is  described  as  occur- 
ring "in  the  days  of  Abiathar,  the.  high-priest"  (t7n 
'Ajiia^ap  too  apx'tpiwg — a  phrase  that  is  susceptible 
of  the  rendering,  in  [the  time']  of  A  biathar,  [the  son]  of 
the  high-priest),  which  appears,  from  1  Sam.  xxi,  1,  to 
have  really  occurred  when  his  father  Ahimelech  was 
the  high-priest.  The  most  probable  solution  of  this 
difficulty  (but  see  Alford's  Comment,  in  loc.)  is  that 
which  interprets  the  reference  thus:  "  in  the  days  of 
Abiathar,  who  was  afterward  the  high-priest"  (Mid- 
dleton,  Greek  Article,  p.  188-190).  But  this  leaves 
open  another  difficulty,  which  arises  from  the  precise- 
ly opposite  reference  (in  2  Sam.  viii,  17;  1  Chron. 
xviii,  16  ;  xxiv,  3,  6,  31)  to  "Ahimelech  [or  Ahime- 
lech] the  son  of  Abiathar,"  as  the  person  who  was 
high-priest  along  with  Zadok,  and  who  was  deposed 
by  Solomon;  whereas  the  historj'  describes  that  per- 
sonage as  Abiathar,  the  son  of  Ahimelech.  Another 
explanation  is,  that  both  father  and  son  bore  the  two 
names  of  Ahimelech  and  Abiathar,  and  might  be,  and 
were,  called  by  either  (J.  C.  Leuschner,  De  Achime- 
lecho  binomimi,  Hirschb.  1750).  But  although  it  was 
not  unusual  for  the  Jews  to  have  two  names,  it  was 
not  usual  for  both  father  and  son  to  have  the  same 
two  names.  Others  suppose  a  second  Abiathar,  the 
father  of  Ahimelech,  and  some  even  a  son  of  the 
same  name ;  but  none  of  these  suppositions  are  war- 
ranted by  the  text,  nor  allowable  in  the  list  of  high- 
priests.  See  High-priest.  The  names  have  prob- 
ably become  transposed  by  copyists,  for  the  Syriac 
and  Arabic  versions  have  "  Abiathar,  the  son  of  Ahim- 
elech."    The  mention  of  Abiathar  in  the  above  pas- 


sage of  Mark,  rather  than  the  acting  priest  Ahime- 
lech, may  have  arisen  from  the  greater  prominence  of 
the  former  in  the  history  of  David's  reign,  and  he  ap- 
pears even  at  that  time  to  have  been  with  his  father, 
and  to  have  had  some  part  in  the  pontifical  duties.  In 
additional  explanation  of  the  other  difficulty  above  re- 
ferred to,  it  may  be  suggested  as  not  unlikely  that 
Ahimelech  may  have  been  the  name  of  one  of  Abi- 
athar's sons  likewise  associated  with  him,  as  well  as 
that  of  his  father,  and  that  copyists  have  confounded 
these  names  together. — Kitto,  s.v.     See  Ahimelech. 

A'bib  (Deb.  Abib',  3"'3X,  from  an  obsolete  root 
3^X,  to  fructify),  property,  a  head  or  ear  of  grain  (Lev. 
ii,  14,  "green  ears;"  Exod.  xiii,  31,  "ear");  hence, 
the  month  of  newly-ripe  grain  (Exod.  xiii,  4;  xxiii, 
15 ;  xxxiv,  18  ;  Deut.  xvi,  1),  the  first  of  the  Jewish 
ecclesiastical  year,  afterward  (Neh.  ii,  1)  called  NiSAN 
(q.  v.).  It  began  with  the  new  moon  of  March,  accord- 
ing to  the  Rabbins  (Buxtorf, Lex.  Talm.  col.  3),  or  rath- 
er of  April,  according  to  Michaelis  (Comment,  ih  M<  n- 
sibus  Ilebrmor.,  comp.  his  Commentat.  Bremae,  17<;'.>,  p. 
16  sq.)  ;  at  which  time  the  first  grain  ripens  in  Pales- 
tine (Robinson's  Researches,  ii,  99, 100).  See  Month. 
Hence  it.  is  hardly  to  be  regarded  as  a  strict  name 
of  a  month,  but  rather  as  a  designation  of  the  sea- 
son ;  as  the  Sept.,Vulg.,  and  Saadias  have  well  render- 
ed, in  Exod.  xiii,  4,  "the  month  of  the  new  grain  ;" 
less  correctly  the  Syriac,  "the  month  of  flowers" 
(comp.  Bochart,  Jliei-oz.  i,  557).  Others  (as  A.  MiiU 
ler,  Gloss.  Saa*a,  p.  2)  regard  the  name  as  derived 
from  the  eleventh  Egyptian  month,  Epep  Qeiri(j>i,  Plot. 
de  Iside,  p.  372)  ;  but  this  corresponds  neither  to  March 
or  April,  but  to  July  (Fabricii  Menologium,  p.  22  27  ; 
Jablonsky,  Opusc.  ed.  Water,  i,  65  sq.).    See  Tel-aeib. 

Ablbas,  a  martyr  of  Edessa,  burned  in  322,  under 
the  Emperor  Licinius.  He  is  commemorated  in  the 
Greek  Church,  as  a  saint,  on  15th  November. 

Ab'ida  [many  AW da]  (Heb.  Abida,  rn-zx.  fa- 
ther of  knowledge,  i.  e.  knotting;  1  Chron.  i,  S3,  Sei  t. 
'A/3idd  ;  Gen.  xxv,  4,  'Afitida,  Auth.  Vers.  "Abidah"), 
the  fourth  of  the  five  sons  of  Midian,  the  son  of  Abra- 
ham by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv,  1 ;  1  Chron.  i,  33),  and 
apparently  the  head  of  a  tribe  in  the  peninsula  of 
Arabia,  B.C.  post  2000.  See  Arabia.  Josephus  (A nt. 
i,  15,  1)  calls  him  Ebidas  ('E/M5t).  For  the  city 
Abida,  see  Abila. 

Ab'idah  [many  Abi'dah],  a  less  correct  mode  of 
Anglicizing  (Gen.  xxv,  4)  the  name  Abida  (q.  v.). 

Ab'idan  (Heb.  Abida?/,  'fi^K,  father  of  judg- 
ment, i.  e.  judge;  Sept.  'AfiiSdv),  the  son  of  Gideoni, 
and  phylarch  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  at  the  exodo 
(Num.  i,  11 ;  ii,  22 ;  x,  24).  At  the  erection  of  the 
Tabernacle  he  made  a  contribution  on  the  ninth  day, 
similar  to  the  other  chiefs  (Num.  vii,  60,  05),  B.C.  1657. 

A'biel  (Heb.  AbieT,  ^1%  lit.  father  [i.  e.  pos, 
sessor]  of  God,  i.  e.  pious,  or  perhaps/////*  r  ofstn  ngth, 
i.  e.  strong;   Sept.  'Apu)\),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  son  of  Zeror,  a  Benjamite  (1  Sam.  ix,  1 ),  and 
father  of  Ner  (1  Sam.  xiv,  51),  which  last  was  the 
grandfather  of  Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel  (1  Chron. 
viii,  33;  ix,  39).  B.C.  1093.  In  1  Sam.  ix,  1  he  is 
called  the  "father"  (q.  v.)  of  Kish,  meaning  grand- 
father.    Sec  Nee. 

2.  An  Arbathite,  one  of  David's  distinguished  war- 
riors (1  Chron.  xi,  32).  B.C.  1053.  In  the  parallel 
passage  he  is  called  Abi-ALBON  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  31). 
See  David. 

Abie'zer  (Heb.  id.,  "j"*^  father  of  hip.  i.  e. 
helpful;  Sept.  'A/3t6&p),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  second  of  the  three  sons  of  Hammoleketh, 
sister  of  Gilead,  grandson  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii, 
18).  B.C.  cir.  1618.  He  became  the  founder  of  a 
family  that  settled  beyond  the  Jordan  [see  Opheah  |, 
from  which  Gideon  sprang  (Josh,  vii,  2),  and  which 


ABIEZRITE 


16 


ABI.TAH 


bore  this  name  as  a  patronymic  (Jndg.  vi,  34),  a  cir- 
cumstance that  is  beautifully  alluded  to  in  Gideon's 
delicate  reply  to  the  jealous  Ephraimites  (Judg.  viii, 
2).  See  Abiezrite.  He  is  elsewhere  culled  Jeezer, 
and  his  descendants  Jeezerites  (Num.  xxvi,  30). 

2.  A  native  of  Anathoth,  one  of  David's  thirty 
chief  warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  27;  1  Chron.  xi,  28), 
B.C.  1053.  He  was  afterward  appointed  captain  of 
the  ninth  contingent  of  troops  from  the  Benjamites 
(1  Chron.  xxvii,  12),  B.C.  1014.     See  David. 

Abiez'rite  (Heb.  Abi' ha-Ezri' ,  ^tSil  "i^X,  fa- 
ther of  the  Ezrite ;  Sept.  7rar//p  tov  'E£pi,  Vulg.  pater 
familiar  Ezri ;  but  in  Judg.  viii,  32,  'Atji  'E£pt,  de  fa- 
milia  Ezri),  a  patron}-mic  designation  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Abiezer  (Judg.  vi,  2,  24 ;  viii,  32). 

Ab'igail  (Heb.  Abiya'yil,  ^"OX,  father  [i.  e. 
source']  of  joy,  or  peril,  i.  q.  leader  of  the.  dance,  once 
contracted  AbigaV ',  br^N,  2  Sam.  xvii,  25;  Sept. 
'AfiiydiX  v.  r.  'Afiiyaia,  Josephus  A/3(y«<«),  the  name 
of  two  women. 

1.  The  daughter  of  Nahash  (?  Jesse),  sister  of  Da- 
vid, and  wife  of  Jether  or  Ithra  (q.  v.),  an  Ishmaelite, 
by  whom  she  had  Amasa  (1  Chron.  ii,  1G,  17 ;  2  Sam. 
xvii,  25).     B.C.  1068. 

2.  The  wife  of  Nabal,  a  prosperous  but  churlish 
sheep-master  in  the  district  of  Carmel,  west  of  the 
Dead  Sea  (1  Sam.  xxv,  3).  B.C.  10G0.  Her  prompti- 
tude and  discretion  averted  the  wrath  of  David,  which, 
as  she  justly  apprehended,  had  been  violently  excited 
by  the  insulting  treatment  which  his  messengers  had 
received  from  her  husband  (comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  vi, 
13,  6-8).  See  Nabad.  She  hastily  prepared  a  lib- 
eral supply  of  provisions,  of  which  David's  troop 
stood  in  much  need,  and  went  forth  to  meet  him, 
attended  by  only  one  servant,  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  her  husband.  When  they  met,  he  was 
marching  to  exterminate  Nabal  and  all  that  belonged 
to  him ;  and  not  only  was  his  rage  mollified  by  her 
prudent  remonstrances  and  delicate  management,  but 
he  became  sensible  that  the  vengeance  which  he  had 
purposed  was  not  warranted  by  the  circumstances,  and 
was  thankful  that  he  had  been  prevented  from  shed- 
ding innocent  blood  (1  Sam.  xxv,  14-35).  The  beauty 
and  prudence  of  Abigail  (see  11.  Hughes,  Female  Char- 
art '( r.-;,  ii,  250  sq.)  made  such  an  impression  upon  Da- 
vid on  this  occasion,  that  when,  not  long  after,  he 
heard  of  Nabal's  death,  he  sent  for  her,  and  she  lie- 
came  his  wife  ( 1  Sam.  xxv,  39-42).  She  accompanied 
him  in  all  his  future  fortunes  (1  Sam.  xxvii,  3 ;  xxx, 
5;  2  Sam.  ii,  2).  See  David.  By  her  he  had  one 
son,  Chileab  (2  Sam.  iii,  3),  who  is  probably  the  same 
elsewhere  called  Daniel  (1  Chron.  iii,  1). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Abiha'il  (Heb.  Abicha'yil,  ^Tl^^,  father  of  [I  e. 
endowed,  with]  might,  or  perhaps  leader  of  the  song),  the 
name  of  three  men  and  two  women. 

1.  (Sept.  'AfitXai\.)  The  father  of  Zuriel,  which 
latter  was  the  chief  of  the  Levitical  family  of  Merari 
at  the  exode  (Num.  iii,  35).     B.C.  ante  1657. 

2.  (Sept.  'Aftiyaia  v.  r.  'Afiixaia.)  The  wife  of 
Abishur  (of  the  family  of  Jerahmeel),  and  mother  of 
Ahban  and  Molid  ( 1  Chron.  ii,  29,  where  the  name  in 
some  MSS.  is  A  biha'yil,  b^(l"2X,  apparently  by  error). 
B.C.  considerably  post  1612. 

3.  (Sept.  'A/3iy/n'rr.)  The  son  of  Huri,  and  one  of 
the  family  chiefs  of  the  tribe  of  Gad,  who  settled  in 
Bashan  (1  Chron.  v,  14),  B.C.  between  1093  and  7.S2. 

4.  (Sept.  'A(3ia'id\  v.  r.  'Afitaia  and  'Aftixaia.) 
The  second  wife  of  king  Rehoboam,  to  whom  she  or 
the  previous  wife  bore  several  sons  (2  Chron.  xi,  18). 
B.C.  972.  She  is  there  .ailed  the  "daughter"  of 
Eliab,  the  son  of  Jesse,  which  must  mean  descendant 
[see  Father],  since  David,  the  j-oungest  of  his  fa- 
ther's sons,  was  thirty  years  old  when  he  began  to 
reign,  eighty  years  before  her  marriage. 

5.  (Sept.  'Ajuvaddfi  v.  r.  'Afiixaia.)      The  father 


of  Esther,  and  uncle  of  Mordecai  (Esther  ii,  15 ;  ix,  29 ; 
comp.  ii,  7).     B.C.  ante  479. 

Abi'hu  (Heb.  Abihu',  &MSTOK,  lit.  father  [i.  e. 
worshipper]  of  Him,  sc.  God;  Sept.  'Afiiove,  Josephus 
'Afiiovc,  Vulg.  Abiu),  the  second  of  the  sons  of 
Aaron  by  Elisheba  (Exod.  vi,  23 ;  Num.  iii,  2 ;  xxvi, 
60;  1  Chron.  vi,  3;  xxiv,  1),  who,  with  his  brothers 
Nadab,  Eleazar,  and  Ithamar,  was  set  apart  and  con- 
secrated for  the  priesthood  (Exod.  xxviii,  1).  "With 
his  father  and  elder  brother,  he  accompanied  the  sev- 
enty elders  partly  up  the  mount  which  Moses  ascend- 
ed to  receive  the  divine  communication  (Exod.  xxiv, 
1,  9).  "When,  at  the  first  establishment  of  the  cere- 
monial worship,  the  victims  offered  on  the  great  bra- 
zen altar  were  consumed  bjr  fire  from  heaven,  it  was 
directed  that  this  fire  should  always  be  kept  up,  and 
that  the  daily  incense  should  be  burnt  in  censers  fill- 
ed with  it  from  the  great  altar  (see  Lev.  vi,  9  sq.). 
But  one  day  Nadab  and  Abihu  presumed  to  neglect 
this  regulation,  and  offered  incense  in  censers  filled  with 
"strange" or  common  fire,  B.C.  1657.  For  this  they 
were  instantly  struck  dead  b}'  lightning,  and  were  tak- 
en away  and  buried  in  their  clothes  without  the  camp 
(Lev.  x,  1-11 ;  comp.  Num.  iii,  4 ;  xxvi,  61 ;  1  Chron. 
xxiv,  2).  See  Aaron.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
this  severe  example  had  the  intended  effect  of  en- 
forcing becoming  attention  to  the  most  minute  observ- 
ances of  the  ritual  service.  As  immediately  after  the 
record  of  this  transaction,  and  in  apparent  reference 
to  it,  comes  a  prohibition  of  wine  or  strong  drink  to 
the  priests  whose  turn  it  might  be  to  enter  the  taber- 
nacle, it  is  not  unfairly  surmised  that  Nadab  and  Abi- 
hu were  intoxicated  when  they  committed  this  serious 
error  in  their  ministrations. — Kitto,  s.v.     See  Nadab. 

Abi'hvid  (Heb.  Abihud' ',  "WmiS,  father  [i.  e.  pos- 
sessor] of  renown,  q.  d.  n«rpoic\oe ;  Sept.  and  N.  T. 
'Af3touo),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bela,  the  son  of  Benjamin 
(1  Chron.  viii,  3) ;  apparently  the  same  elsewhere 
called  Ahihud  (ver.  7).    B.C.  post  1856.     See  Jacob. 

2.  The  great-great-grandson  of  Zerubbabel,  and  fa- 
ther of  Eliakim,  among  the  paternal  ancestry  of  Jesus 
(Matt,  i,  13,  where  the  name  is  Anglicized  "  Abiud")  ; 
apparently  the  same  with  the  Juda,  son  of  Joanna 
and  father  of  .Joseph  in  the  maternal  line  (Luke  iii, 
26)  ;  and  also  with  Obadiaii,  son  of  Arnan  and  father 
of  Shechaniah  in  the  O.  T.  (1  Chron.  iii,  21).  B.C. 
ante  410.  (See  Strong's  Harmony  and  Ej-pios.  of  the 
Gosp.  p.  16.)      Comp.  Hodaiaii. 

Abi'jall  (Heb.  Abiyah' ' ,  fl*'2S..father  [i.  e. possess- 
or or  worshipper]  of  Jehovah ;  also  in  the  equivalent 
protracted  form  Abiya'liu,  ^in^HX^  2  Chron.  xiii,  20, 
21 ;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  'Afiid,  but  'Ajiia  in  1  Kings  xiv, 
1 ;  Neh.  x,  7  ;  'Afiiac  in  1  Chron.  xxiv,  10  ;  Neh.  xii, 
4,  17  ;  'Afiiou  v.  r.  'AfiiovS  in  1  Chron.  vii,  8 ;  Jo- 
sephus, 'A/Sicrc,  Ant.  vii,  10,  3;  Auth.  Vers.  "Abiah." 
in  1  Sam.  viii,  2 ;  1  Chron.  ii,  24 ;  vi,  28 ;  vii,  8 ; 
"  Abia"  in  1  Chron.  iii,  10;  Matt,  i,  7  ;  Luke  i,  5),  the 
name  of  six  men  and  two  women. 

1.  A  son  of  Becher,  one  of  the  sons  of  Benjamin 
(1  Chron.  vii,  8).     B.C.  post  1856. 

2.  The  daughter  of  Machir,  who  bore  to  Hezron  a 
posthumous  son,  Ashur  (1  Chron.  ii,  24).    B.C.  cir.  1612. 

3.  The  second  son  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  viii,  2 ;  1  (  hron. 
vi,  12).  Being  appointed  by  his  father  a  judge  in  Beer- 
sheba,  in  connection  with  his  brother,  their  corrupt  ad- 
ministration induced  such  popular  discontent  as  to  pro- 
voke the  ciders  to  demand  a  royal  form  of  government 
for  Israel,  B.C.  109;!.     See  Samuel. 

4.  One  of  the  descendants  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of 
Aaron,  and  chief  of  one  of  the  twenty-four  courses  or 
orders  into  which  the  whole  body  of  the  priesthood 
was  divided  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  10),  B.C.  1014. 
Of  these  the  course  of  Abijah  was  the  eighth.  Only 
four  of  the  courses  returned  from  the  captivity,  of 


ABTJAII 


17 


ABILA 


which  that  of  Abijah  was  not  one  (Ezra  ii,  36-39 ; 
Neh.  vii,  39-42;  xii,  1).  But  the  four  were  divided 
into  the  original  number  of  twenty-four,  with  the 
original  names ;  and  it  hence  happens  that  Zacharias, 
the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  is  described  as  belong- 
ing to  the  course  of  Abijah  (Luke  i,  5).     See  Priest. 

5.  The  second  king  of  the  separate  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah,  being  the  son  of  Rehoboam,  and  grandson  of 

•Solomon  (1  Chron.  iii,  10).  He  is  also  called  (1  Kings 
xiv,  31 ;  xv,  1-8)  Am  jam  (q.  v.).  He  began  to  reign 
B.C.  956,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  Jeroboam,  king 
of  Israel,  and  he  reigned  three  years  (2  Chron.  xii, 
16;  xiii,  1,  2).  At  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
looking  on  the  well-founded  separation  cf  the  ten 
tribes  from  the  house  of  David  as  rebellion,  Abijah 
made  a  vigorous  attempt  to  bring  them  back  to  their 
allegiance  (2  Chron.  xiii,  3-19).  In  this  he  failed; 
although  a  signal  victory  over  Jeroboam,  who  had 
double  his  force  and  much  greater  experience,  enabled 
him  to  take  several  cities  which  had  been  held  by 
Israel  (see  J.  F.  Bahrdt,  Be  bello  Abice  et  Jerob.  Lips. 
1760).  The  speech  which  Abijah  addressed  to  the 
opposing  army  before  the  battle  has  been  much  ad- 
mired (C.  Simeon,  Works,  iv,  96).  It  was  well  suited 
to  its  object,  and  exhibits  correct  notions  of  the  theo- 
cratical  institutions  (Keil,  Apolog.  d.  Chron.  p.  336). 
His  view  of  the  political  position  of  the  ten  tribes  with 
respect  to  the  house  of  David  is,  however,  obviously 
erroneous,  although  such  as  a  king  of  Judah  was  like- 
ly to  take.  The  numbers  reputed  to  have  been  pres- 
ent in  this  action  are  800,000  on  the  side  of  Jeroboam, 
400,000  on  the  side  of  Abijah,  and  500,000  left  dead 
on  the  field.  Hales  and  others  regard  these  extraor- 
dinary numbers  as  corruptions,  and  propose  to  reduce 
them  to  80,000,  40,000,  and  50,000  respectively,  as  in 
the  Latin  Vulgate  of  Sixtus  V,  and  many  earlier  edi- 
tions, and  in  the  old  Latin  translation  of  Josephus  ; 
and  probably  also  in  his  original  Greek  text,  as  is 
collected  by  De  Vignoles  from  Abarbanel's  charge 
against  the  historian  of  having  made  Jeroboam's  loss 
no  more  than  50,000  men,  contrary  to  the  Hebrew 
text  (Kennicott's  Dissertations,  i,  533 ;  ii,  201  sq., 
564).  See  Number.  The  book  of  Chronicles  men- 
tions nothing  concerning  Abijah  adverse  to  the  im- 
pressions which  we  receive  from  his  conduct  on  this 
occasion ;  but  in  Kings  we  are  told  that  "  he  walked 
in  all  the  sins  of  his  father"  (1  Kings  xv,  3).  He  had 
fourteen  wives,  by  whom  he  left  twenty-two  sons  and 
sixteen  daughters  (2  Chron.  xiii,  20-22).  Asa  suc- 
ceeded him  (2  Chron.  xiv,  1 ;  Matt,  i,  7).  See  Judah. 
There  is  a  difficulty  connected  with  the  maternity 
of  Abijah.  In  1  Kings  xv,  2,  we  read,  "  His  mother's 
name  was  Maachah,  the  daughter  of  Abishalom" 
(comp.  2  Chron.  xi,  20,  22) ;  but  in  2  Chron.  xiii,  2, 
"  His  mother's  name  was  Michaiah,  the  daughter  of 
Uriel  of  Gibeah."  Maachah  and  Michaiah  are  varia- 
tions of  the  same  name ;  and  Abishalom  is  in  all  like- 
lihood Absalom,  the  son  of  David.  The  word  (P2) 
rendered  "  daughter"  (q.  v.),  is  applied  in  the  Bible 
not  only  to  a  man's  child,  but  to  his  niece,  grand- 
daughter, or  great-granddaughter.  It  is  therefore 
possible  that  Uriel  of  Gibeah  married  Tamar,  the 
beautiful  daughter  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xiv,  27 ),  and 
by  her  had  Maachah,  who  was  thus  the  daughter  of 
Uriel  and  granddaughter  of  Absalom.  See  Maachah. 

6.  A  son  of  Jeroboam  I,  king  of  Israel.  His  se- 
vere and  threatening  illness  induced  Jeroboam  to  send 
his  wife  with  a  present  [see  Gift]  suited  to  the  dis- 
guise in  which  she  went,  to  consult  the  prophet  Abi- 
jah respecting  his  recovery.  This  prophet  was  the 
same  who  had,  in  the  days  of  Solomon,  foretold  to 
Jeroboam  his  elevation  to  the  throne  of  Israel.  Though 
blind  with  age,  he  knew  the  disguised  wife  of  Jero- 
boam, and  was  authorized,  by  the  prophr  tic  impulse 
that  came  upon  him,  to  reveal  to  her  that,  because 
there  was  found  in  Abijah  only,  of  all  the  house  of 
Jeroboam,  "some  good  thing  toward  the   Lord,"  he 

B 


only,  of  all  that  house,  should  come  to  his  grave  in 
peace,  and  be  mourned  in  Israel  (see  S.  C.  Wilkes, 
Family  Sermons,  12;  C.  Simeon,  Works,  iii,  385;  T. 
Gataker,  Sermons,  pt.  ii,  291).  Accordingly,  when  the 
mother  returned  home,  the  youth  died  as  she  crossed 
the  threshold  of  the  door.  ' '  And  they  buried  him,  and 
all  Israel  mourned  for  him"  (1  Kings  xiv,  1-18),  B.C. 
cir.  782. — Kitto,  s.  v.     feee  Jeroboam. 

7.  The  daughter  of  Zechariah,  and  mother  of  King 
Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix,  1),  and,  consequently,  the 
wife  of  Ahaz,  whom  she  survived,  and  whom,  if  we 
may  judge  from  the  piety  of  her  son,  she  excelled  in 
moral  character.  She  is  elsewhere  called  by  the 
shorter  form  of  the  name,  Am  (2  Kings  xviii,  2). 
B.C.  726.  Her  father,  may  have  been  the  same  with 
the  Zechariah,  the  son  of  Jebercchiah,  whom  Isaiah 
took  as  a  witness  of  his  marriage  with  "  the  prophet- 
ess" (Isa.  viii,  2 ;  comp.  2  Chron.  xxvi,  5). 

8.  One  of  those  (apparently  priests)  who  affixed 
their  signatures  to  the  covenant  made  by  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  x,  7),  B.C.  410.  He  is  probably  the  same  (not- 
withstanding the  great  age  this  implies )  who  returned 
from  Baln-lon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii,  4),  B.C.  536, 
and  who  had  a  son  named  Zichri  (Neh.  xii,  17). 

Abi'jam  (Heb.  Abiyam' ',  ti^Ztk,  father  of  the  sea, 
i.  q.  seaman;  Sept.  'A[3ta  v.  r.  'Afiwv,  Vulg.  Abiani), 
the  name  always  given  in  the  book  of  Kings  (1  Kings 
xiv,  31 ;  xv,  1,  7,  8)  to  the  king  of  Judah  (1  Kings 
xiv,  1,  refers  to  another  person),  elsewhere  (1  Chron. 
iii,  10;  2  Chron.  xiii,  1-22)  called  Abijah  (q.  v.). 
Lightfoot  (Harm.  O.  T.  in  loc.)  thinks  that  the  writer 
in  Chronicles,  not  describing  his  reign  as  wicked,  ad- 
mits the  sacred  Jah  into  his  name  ;  but  which  the  book 
of  Kings,  charging  him  with  following  the  evil  ways 
of  his  father,  changes  into  Jam.  This  may  be  fanci- 
ful; but  such  changes  of  name  were  not  unusual 
(comp.  Bethavex  ;  Sychar). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Abila  (ra  "AjStXa  and  r)  'Aj&Xif,  Polyb.  v,  71,  2; 
Ptol.  v,  18),  the  name  of  at  least  two  places. 

1.  The  capital  of  the  "Abilene"  of  Lysanias  (Luke 
iii,  1),  and  distinguished  (bvv  Josephus,  Ant.  xix,  5,  1) 
from  other  places  of  the  same  name  as  the  "Abila  oi' 
Lysanias"  ("AjSiXa  r)  Avoavlov).  The  word  is  evi- 
dently of  Hebrew  origin,  signifying  a  grassy  plain. 
See  Abel-.  This  place,  however,  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  any  of  the  Biblical  localities  of  the  O.  T. 
having  this  preiix,  since  it  was  situated  beyond  the 
bounds  of  Palestine  in  Coele-Syria  (Antonin.  Kin.  p. 
197,  ed.  Wessel),  being  the  same  with  the  "Abila  of 
Lebanon"  (Abila  ad  Libanum\  between  Damascus  and 
Baalbek  or  Heliopolis  (Roland,  Palcest.  p.  317,  458). 
Josephus  (see  Hudson's  ed.  p.  864,  note)  and  others 
also  write  the  name  Abella  ('AfitWa),  Abela  (A/3s\o), 
and  even  Anbilla  C AvfiikXa),  assigning  it  to  Phoenicia 
(Reland,  ib.  p.  527-529V  A  medal  is  extant,  bearing  a 
bunch  of  grapes,  with  the  inscription,  "Abila  Leucas," 


nfAliila-Leuca 

which  Believe  (in  the  Transactions  of  the  A  cad.  of 
Belles  Lettres)  refers  to  this  city;  but  it  has  been 
shown  to  have  a  later  date  (Eckhel,  iii,  337,  345);  for 
there  is  another  medal  of  the  same  place,  which  bears 
a  half  figure  of  the  river-god,  with  the  inscription 
"  Chrysoroas  Claudiaion,"  a  title  which,  although  iix- 

M 


Coin  of  Abila-Claudiopolie. 


ABILENE 


IS 


ABIMAEL 


ing  the  site  to  the  river  Chrysorrhoas,  yet  refers  to 
the  imperial  name  of  Claudius.  Perhaps  Leucas  and 
Claudiopolis  were  only  later  names  of  the  same  city ; 
for  we  can  hardly  suppose  that  two  cities  of  the  size 
and  importance  which  each  of  these  evidently  had, 
were  located  in  the  same  vicinity  and  called  by  the 
same  name.  The  existence  of  a  large  and  well-built 
city  in  this  region  (Hogg's  Damascus,  i,  301)  is  at- 
tested by  numerous  ruins  still  found  there  (Bankes,  in 
the  Quart.  Review,  vol.  xxvi,  p.  388),  containing  in- 
scriptions (De  Saulcy,  Narrative,  ii,  453).  Some  of 
these  inscriptions  (tirst  published  by  Lebronne,  Jour- 
nal des  Savans,  1827,  and  afterward  by  Urelli.  Jnscr. 
Lat.  4997,  4998)  have  lately  been  deciphered  (Trans. 
Roy.  Geoff.  Soc.  1851 ;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  July,  1853,  p.  248 
sq.),  and  one  has  been  found  to  contain  a  definite  ac- 
count of  certain  public  works  executed  under  the  Em- 
peror M.  Aurelius,  "at  the  expense  of  the  Abilenians;" 
thus  identifying  the  spot  where  this  is  found  with  the 
ancient  city  of  Abila  (Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  85 
sq.).  It  is  the  modern  village  Suk  el-Barada,  not  far 
from  the  south  bank  of  the  river  Barada  (the  ancient 
Chrysorrhoas),  near  the  mouth  of  the  long  gorge 
through  which  the  stream  flows  from  above,  and  di- 
rectly under  the  cliff  (800  feet  high)  on  which  stands 
the  Wely  of  Nebi  Abil,  or  traditionary  tomb  of  Abel 
{Bib.  Sacra,  1853,  p.  144).  This  tradition  is  an  an- 
cient one  (Quaresmius,  Eleucid.  Terra  Sanctm,  vii,  7, 
1 ;  Maundrel,  May  4),  but  apparently  based  upon  an 
incorrect  derivation  of  the  name  of  the  son  of  Adam. 
See  Abel.  This  spot  is  on  the  road  from  Heliopolis 
(Baalbek)  to  Damascus,  at  a  distance  corresponding  to 
ancient  notices  (Reland,  Palast.  p.  527,  528).  The 
name  Suk  '(i.  e.  market,  a  frequent  title  of  villages 
where  produce  is  sold,  and  therefore  indicating  fertil- 
ity) of  Wady  Barada  first  occurs  in  Burckhardt  ( Syria, 
p.  2),  who  speaks  of  the  lively  green  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, which,  no  doubt,  has  suggested  the  name  Abel 
in  its  Hebrew  acceptance  of  meadow  (see  Robinson. 
Researches,  new  ed.  iii,  480  sq.).     See  Abilene. 

2.  There  are  two  or  three  other  places  mentioned 
in  ancient  authorities  (Reland,  PaUest.  p.  523  sq.)  by 
the  general  name  of  Abel,  A  beta,  or  Abila  (once  Abida, 
'Aftica,  apparently  by  error,  Reland,  ib.  p.  459),  as  fol- 
lows : 

(a.)  Abela  of  Phoenicia  (Jerome,  Onomast.  s.  v.), 
situated  between  Damascus  and  Paneas  (Csesarea 
Philippi),  and  therefore  different  from  the  Abila  of 
Lysanias,  which  was  between  Damascus  and  Heliop- 
olis (Baalbek).     It  is  probably  the  same  as  Abel- 

BETH-MAACIIAH  (q.  v.). 

(6.)  Abila  of  Per.ea,  mentioned  by  Josephus 
{War,  ii,  13,  2)  as  being  in  the  vicinity  of  Julias 
(Bethsaida)  and  Besimoth  (Bethjeshimoth)  {ib.  iv,  7, 
G).    It  is  probably  the  same  as  Abel-siiittim  (q.  v.). 

(c.)  Abila  of  Batan.ea,  mentioned  by  Jerome 
{Onomast.  s.  v.  Astaroth  Carnaini)  as  situated  north 
of  Adara,  and  by  Josephus  (quoting  Polybius)  as  be- 
ing taken  with  Gadara  by  Antiochus  {Ant.  xii,  3,  3). 
It  is  apparently  the  same  with  the  "Abila  of  the  De- 
capolis"  (comp.  Pliny,  v,  18),  named  on  certain  Palmy- 
rene  inscriptions  (Reland,  Paloest.  p.  525  sq.),  and 
probably  is  the  Abel  ('AjSfXa)  of  Eusebius  (Onomast. 
s.  v.),  situated  12  miles  E.  of  Gadara,  now  Abil.  See 
under  Abel-ceramim. 

Abilene  {'AfiiSrjvri  sc.  xi''Pai  Luke,  iii,  1),  the 
small  district  or  territory  in  the  region  of  Lebanon 
which  took  its  name  from  the  chief  town,  Abila  (Po- 
lyb.  v,  71,  2  ;  Josephus,  War,  ii,  13,  2  ;  iv,  7,  5  ;  Heb. 
Abel',  h^at,  a, plain),  which  was  situated  in  Coele-Syria 
(Ptolom.  v,  IS),  and  (according  to  the  Antonine  Itin.) 
18  miles  N.  of  Damascus,  and  38  S.  of  Heliopolis  (lat. 
68°  45',  long.  33°  20') ;  but  which  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  Abila  of  the  Decapolis  (Burckhardt,  p. 
269;  Bitter,  xv,  1059).  SeeAniLA.  Northward  it  must 
have  reached  beyond  the  upper  Barada,  in  order  to 


include  Abila;  and  it  is  probable  that  its  southern 
border  ma)r  have  extended  to  Mount  Hermon  (Jebel 
es-Sheikh).  It  seems  to  have  included  the  eastern  de- 
clivities of  Anti-Libanus,  and  the  fine  valleys  between 
its  base  and  the  hills  which  front  the  eastern  plains. 
This  is  a  very  beautiful  and  fertile  region,  well  wood- 
ed, and  watered  by  numerous  springs  from  Anti-Leb- 
anon. It  also  affords  fine  pastures;  and  in  most  re- 
spects contrasts  with  the  stern  and  barren  western 
slopes  of  Anti-Lebanon. 

This  territory  had  been  governed  as  a  tetrarchatc 
by  Lysanias,  son  of  Ptolemy  and  grandson  of  Men- 
nanis  (Josephus,  A  nt.  xiv,  13,  3) ;  but  he  was  put  to 
death,  B.C.  33,  through  the  intrigues  of  Cleopatra, 
who  then  took  possession  of  the  province  (Ant.  xv,  4, 
1).  After  her  death  it  fell  to  Augustus,  who  rented  it 
out  to  one  Zenodorus ;  but  as  he  did  not  keep  it  clear 
of  robbers,  it  was  taken  from  him,  and  given  to  Herod 
the  Great  (Ant.  xv,  10,  1;  War,  i,  20,  4).  At  his 
death  a  part  (the  southern,  doubtless)  of  the  territory 
was  added  to  Trachonitis  and  Iturrca  to  form  a  tet- 
rarchy  for  his  son  Philip ;  but  by  far  the  larger  por- 
tion, including  the  city  of  Abila,  was  then,  or  shoitly 
afterward,  bestowed  on  another  Lysanias,  mentioned 
by  Luke  (iii,  1),  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  de- 
scendant of  the  former  Lysanias,  but  who  is  nowhere 
mentioned  by  Josephus.  See  Lysanias.  Indeed,  noth- 
ing is  said  by  him  or  any  other  profane  writer  respecting 
this  part  of  Abilene  until  several  years  after  the  time 
referred  to  by  Luke,  when  the  Emperor  Caligula  gave 
it  to  Agrippa  I  as  "the  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias"  (Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  xviii,  6, 10),  to  whom  it  was  afterward  con- 
firmed by  Claudius.  At  his  death  it  was  included  in 
that  part  of  his  possessions  which  went  to  his  son 
Agrippa  II.  (See  Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  10,  3;  xiv,  12, 
1  ;  3,  2 ;  7,  4  ;  xv,  10,  3;  xvii,  11,  4  ;  xix,  5,  1 ;  x,  7, 
1 ;  War,  i,  13,  1;  ii,  G,  3;  11,  5  ;  Dio  Cass,  xlix,  32; 
liv,  9.)  This  explanation  as  to  the  division  of  Abilene 
between  Lysanias  and  Philip  removes  the  apparent 
discrepancy  in  Luke,  who  calls  Lysanias  tetrarch  of 
Abilene  at  the  very  time  that,  according  to  Josephus 
(a  part  of)  Abilene  was  in  the  possession  of  Phil- 
ip (see  Noldii  Hist.  Idum.  p.  279  sq. ;  Krebs,  Observ. 
Flav.  p.  110  sq. ;  Siisskind,  Symbol,  ad  Illustr.  Quas- 
dam  Evany.  Loca,  i,  21 ;  iii,  23  sq. ;  also  in  Pott,  Syl- 
log.  viii,  90  sq. ;  also  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krit.  183G,  ii, 
431  sq.  ;  Mi'inter,  Be  Rebus  Iturceor.  Hafn.  1824,  p. 
22  sq.;  Wieseler,  Chronol.  Synopsis,  p.  174  sq.;  Ebrard, 
Wissenschaftl.  Kritik,  p.  181  sq. ;  Hug,  Gutachten  iib. 
Strauss,  p.  119  sq.).  In  fact,  as  Herod  never  actual- 
ly possessed  Abilene  (Josephus,  Ant.  xix,  5,  1 ;  War, 
ii,  11,  5),  and  Zenodorus  only  had  the  farming  of  it, 
this  region  never  could  have  descended  to  Herod's 
heirs,  and  therefore  properly  did  not  belong  to  Philip's 
tetrarchy.  The  same  division  of  the  territory  in  ques- 
tion is  implied  in  the  exclusion  of  Chalcis  from  the 
government  of  the  later  Lysanias,  although  included 
in  that  of  the  older  (Josephus,  .1  nt.  xx,  7, 1).  We  find 
Abila  mentioned  among  the  places  captured  by  Placi- 
dus,  one  of  Vespasian's  generals,  in  A.D.  69-70  (Jo- 
sephus, War,  iv,  7,  5) ;  and  from  that  time  it  was  per- 
manently annexed  to  the  province  of  Syria  (Smith's 
Diet,  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v.).  The  metropolis  Abila  is 
mentioned  in  the  lists  of  the  Christian  councils  as  the 
seat  of  an  episcopal  see  down  to  A.D.  634  (Reland, 
Palast.  p.  529). — Winer,  s.  v. 

Ability.     See  Inability  ;  Will. 

Abim'ael  (Heb.  AbimaeV ,  \>\X^O»,,  father  of 
Maeli  Sept.  'Aj3i/.tai\,  'A/3i/t«ijX,  Josephus  'Afii/id- 
r/Xoc),  one  of  the  sons  of  Joktan  in  Arabia  (Gen.  x, 
28 ;  1  Chron.  i,  22).  B.C.  post  2414.  See  Arabia. 
He  was  probably  the  father  or  founder  of  an  Arabian 
tribe  called  Ma'el  (^X"0,  of  unknown  origin),  a  trace 
of  which  Bochart  (Phaleg,  ii,  24)  discovers  in  Theo- 
phrastus  (Hist,  riant,  ix,  4),  where  the  name  Mali 
(MciXi)  occurs  as  that  cf  a  spice-bearing  region.     Per- 


ABIMELECH 


1!) 


ABIMELECH 


haps  the  same  is  indicated  in  Eratosthenes  (ap.  Strabo, 
xvi,  1112)  and  Eustathius  (ad  Dionys.  Periegetes,  p. 
288,  ed.  Bernhardy)  b}r  the  Minwi,  (Muraloi).  So 
Diodorus  Siculus  (iii,  42);  but  Ptolemy  (vi,  7)  dis- 
tinguishes the  Manitce  (Mavlrai)  from  these,  and  at 
the  same  time  refers  to  a  village  called  Mamala 
(MdfiaXa  taifirf)  on  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea.  Hence 
Schneider  proposes  to  read  Mamali  (Ma/.ui\i)  in  the 
above  passage  of  Theophrastus  ;  perhaps  we  should 
rather  read  Mani  (Mdvi),  a  natural  interchange  of 
liquids  ;  and  then  we  may  compare  a  place  mentioned 
by  Abulfeda  (Arabia,  ed.  Gaguier,  p.  3,  42),  called 
Minay,  3  miles  from  Mecca  (Michaelis,  Sjncileg.  ii, 
179  sq.).— Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p.  9. 

Abim'elech  (Heb.  Abime'lek,  T^^X,  father 
[i.  z.  friend]  of  the  king,  or  perhaps  i.q.  royal  father ; 
Sept.  'Aj3iuE\ex,  but  'AxipiXex  in  1  Chron.  xviii,  16 ; 
Josephus  'A/3(/.<eA«x°c))  the  name  of  four  men.  From 
the  recurrence  of  this  name  among  the  kings  of  the 
Philistines,  and  from  its  interchange  with  the  name 
"  Achish"  in  the  title  to  Psa.  xxxiv,  it  would  appear 
to  have  been,  in  that  application,  not  a  proper  name, 
but  rather  a  general  title,  like  Pharoah  among  the 
Egyptians.  Compare  the  title  Padishah,  i.  e.  "father 
of  the  king,"  given  to  the  kings  of  Persia,  supposed 
by  Ludolf  (Lex.  sEthiop.  p.  350)  to  have  arisen  from 
a  salutation  of  respect  like  that  among  the  Ethiopians, 
abba  ?iagasi,  equivalent  to  "  God  save  the  king"  (Si- 
nionis  Onomast.  p.  400).     Comp.  Ahasuerus. 

1.  The  Philistine  king  of  Gerar  (q.  v.)  in  the  time 
of  Abraham  (Gen.  xx,  1  sq.),  B.C.  -080.  Al  raham 
removed  into  his  territory  perhaps  on  his  return  from 
Egypt ;  and,  fearing  that  the  extreme  beauty  of  Sa- 
rah (q.  v.)  might  bring  him  into  difficulties,  he  de- 
clared her  to  be  his  sister  (see  S.  Chandler,  Vind.  of 
0.  T.  p.  52).  The  conduct  of  Abimelech  in  taking 
Sarah  into  his  harem  shows  that,  even  in  those  early 
times,  kings  claimed  the  right  of  taking  to  them- 
selves the  unmarried  females  not  only  of  their  natu- 
ral subjects,  but  of  those  who  sojourned  in  their  do- 
minions. The  same  usage  still  prevails  in  Oriental 
countries,  especially  in  Persia  (Critical  Review,  iii,  332). 
See  Woman.  Another  contemporary  instance  of  this 
custom  occurs  in  Gen.  xii,  15,  and  one  of  later  date 
in  Esth.  ii,  3.  But  Abimelech,  obedient  to  a  divine 
warning  communicated  to  him  in  a  dream,  accompa- 
nied by  the  information  that  Abraham  was  a  sacred 
person  who  had  intercourse  with  God,  restored  her  to 
her  husband  (see  J.  Orton,  Works,  i,  251).  As  a  mark 
of  his  respect  he  added  valuable  gifts,  and  offered  the 
patriarch  a  settlement  in  any  part  of  the  country;  but 
he  nevertheless  did  not  forbear  to  rebuke,  with  min- 
gled delicacy  and  sarcasm  (see  C.  Simeon,  Works,  i, 
103),  the  deception  which  had  been  practised  upon  him 
(Gen.  xx).  The  present  consisted  in  part  of  a  thou- 
sand pieces  of  silver,  as  a  "covering  of  the  eyes"  for 
Sarah ;  that  is,  according  to  some,  as  an  atoning  pres- 
ent, and  to  be  a  testimony  of  her  innocence  in  the 
eyes  of  all  (see  J.  C.  Biedermann,  Meletem.  Philol.  iii. 
3  ;  J.  C.  Korner,  Exercitt.  Theoh  ii;  J.  A.  M.  Nagel,  Ex- 
ercitt.  Philol.  Altd.  1759;  J.  G.  F.  Leun,  Philol.  Exeg. 
Giess.  1781).  Others  more  happily  (see  Covering 
of  the  Eyks)  think  that  the  present  was  to  procure  a 
veil  for  Sarah  to  conceal  her  beauty,  that  she  might  not 
be  coveted  on  account  of  her  comeliness  ;  and  "thus 
was  she  reproved"  for  not  having  worn  a  veil,  which, 
as  a  married  woman,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
country,  she  ought  to  have  done  (Kitto's  Daily  BibU 
Illust.  in  loc).  The  interposition  of  Providence  to 
deliver  Sarah  twice  from  royal  harems  (q.  v.)  will  not 
seem  superfluous  when  it  is  considered  how  carefully 
women  are  there  secluded,  and  how  iiripossible  it  is  to 
obtain  access  to  them  (Esth.  iv,  5)  or  get  them  back 
again  (Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illust.  in  Gen.  xii).  In 
such  cases  it  is  not  uncommon  that  the  husband  of  a 
married  woman  is  murdered  in  order  that  his  wife  may 
be  retained  by  the  tyrant  (Thomson's  Land  and  Book, 


ii,  353).  Nothing  further  is  recorded  of  King  Abim- 
elech, except  that  a  few  years  after  he  repaired  to  the 
camp  of  Abraham,  who  had  removed  southward  be- 
yond his  borders,  accompanied  by  Phichol,  "  the  chief 
captain  of  his  host,"  to  invite  the  patriarch  to  contract 
with  him  a  league  of  peace  and  friendship.  Abraham 
consented  ;  and  this  first  league  on  record  [see  Alli- 
ance] was  confirmed  by  a  mutual  oath,  made  at  a 
well  which  had  been  dug  by  Abraham,  but  which  the 
herdsmen  of  Abimelech  had  forcibly  seized  without 
his  knowledge.  It  was  restored  to  the  rightful  own- 
er, on  which  Abraham  named  it  Beersheba  (the  \\'<ll 
of  the  Oath),  and  consecrated  the  spot  to  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  (Gen.  xxi,  22-34).  (See  Origen,  Opera,  ii, 
76 ;  Whately,  Prototypes,  p.  197).    See  Abraham. 

2.  Another  king  of  Gerar,  in  the  time  of  Isaac  (Gen. 
xxvi,  1-22),  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding. B.C.  cir.  1985.  Isaac  sought  refuge  in  his  ter- 
ritory during  a  famine ;  and  having  the  same  fear  re- 
specting his  fairMesopotamian  wife,  Kebekah,  as  his  fa- 
ther had  entertained  respecting  Sarali  (supra),  he  re- 
ported her  to  be  his  sister.  This  brought  upon  him  the 
rebuke  of  Abimelech  when  he  accidentally  discovered 
the  -truth.  The  country  appears  to  have  become  more 
cultivated  and  populous  than  at  the  time  of  Abraham's 
visit,  nearly  a  century  before ;  and  the  inhabitants  were 
more  jealous  of  the  presence  of  such  powerful  pastoral 
chieftains.  In  those  times,  as  now,  wells  of  water  were 
of  so  much  importance  for  agricultural  as  well  as  pasto- 
ral purposes,  that  the}"-  gave  a  proprietary  right  to  the 
soil,  not  previously  appropriated,  in  which  they  were 
dug.  Abraham  had  dug  wells  during  his  sojourn  in 
the  country  ;  and,  to  bar  the  claim  which  resulted  from 
them,  the  Philistines  had  afterward  filled  them  up; 
but  they  were  now  cleared  out  by  Isaac,  who  proceed- 
ed to  cultivate  the  ground  to  which  they  gave  him  a 
right.  See  Well.  The  virgin  soil  yielded  him  a 
hundred-fold ;  and  his  other  possessions,  his  flocks  and 
herds,  also  received  such  prodigious  increase  that  the 
jealousy  of  the  Philistines  could  not  be  suppressed, 
and  Abimelech  desired  him  to  seek  more  distant  quar- 
ters. Isaac  complied,  and  went  out  into  the  open 
country,  and  dug  wells  for  his  cattle.  But  the  shep- 
herds of  the  Philistines,  out  with  their  flocks,  were  not 
inclined  to  allow  the  claim  to  exclusive  pasturage  in 
these  districts  to  be  thus  established ;  and  their  oppo- 
sition induced  the  quiet  patriarch  to  make  successive 
removals,  until  he  reached  such  a  distance  that  his 
operations  were  no  longer  disputed.  Afterward,  when 
he  was  at  Beersheba,  he  received  a  visit  from  Abime- 
lech, who  was  attended  by  Ahuzzath,  his  friend,  and 
Phichol,  the  chief  captain  of  his  army.  They  were  re- 
ceived with  some  reserve  by  Isaac ;  but  when  Abime- 
lech explained  that  it  was  his  wish  to  renew,  with  one 
so  manifestly  blessed  of  God,  the  covenant  of  peace 
and  good-will  which  had  been  contracted  between  their 
fathers,  they  were  more  cheerfully  entertained,  and 
the  desired  covenant  was,  with  due  ceremony,  con- 
tracted accordingly  (Gen.  xxvi,  26-31).  From  the 
facts  recorded  respecting  fhe  connection  of  the  two 
Abimelechs  with  Abraham  and  Isaac,  it  is  manifest 
that  the  Philistines,  even  at  this  early  time,  had  a  gov- 
ernment more  organized,  and  more  in  unison  with  that 
type  which  we  now  regard  as  Oriental,  than  appeared 
among  the  native  Canaanites,  one  of  whose  nations 
had  been  expelled  by  these  foreign  settlers  from  the 
territory  which  they  occupied.  (See  Origen,  Opera, 
ii,  94r-97;  Saurin,  Discours,  i,  308;  Dissert,  p.  207.) 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     Sec  Philistine.  h 

3.  A  son  of  Gideon  by  a  concubine  wife,  a  native 
of  Shechem,  where  her  family  had  considerable  influ- 
ence (Judg.  ix).  Through  that  influence  Abimelech 
was  proclaimed  king  after  the  death  of  his  father,  who 
had  himself  refused  that  honor  when  tendered  to  him, 
both  for  himself  and  his  children  (Judg.  viii,  22-24). 
In  a  short  time,  a  considerable  part  of  Israel  seems  to 
have,  recognised  his  rule  (Ewald,  Gesch.  Jsr.  ii,  444), 


ABIMELECH 


20 


ABISHAG 


which  lasted  three  years  (B.C.  1322-1319).     One  of 

the  first  acts  of  his  reign  was  to  destroy  his  brothers, 
seventy  in  number,  being  the  first  example  of  a  sys- 
tem of  barbarous  state  policy  of  which  there  have 
been  frequent  instances  in  the  East,  and  which  indeed 
has  only  within  a  recent  period  been  discontinued. 
They  were  slain  "  on  one  stone"  at  Ophrah,  the  native 
city  of  the  family.  Only  one,  the  youngest,  named 
Jotham,  escaped  ;  and  he  had  the  boldness  to  make 
his  appearance  on  Mount  Gerizim,  where  the  Shechem- 
ites  were  assembled  for  some  public  purpose  ( perhaps 
to  inaugurate  Abimelcch),  and  rebuke  them  in  his  fa- 
mous parable  of  the  trees  choosing  a  king  (sec  Jose- 
phus,  Ant.  v,  7,  2) ;  a  fable  that  has  been  not  unaptly 
compared  with  that  of  Menenius  Agrippa  (Livy,  ii, 
32  ;  comp.  Herder,  Geist  der  Ilebr.  Poesie,  ii,  2G2).  See 
Jotham;  Parable.  In  the  course  of  three  years 
the  Shechemites  found  ample  cause  to  repent  of  what 
they  had  done;  they  eventually  revolted  in  Abime- 
lech's  absence,  and  caused  an  ambuscade  to  be  laid  in 
the  mountains,  with  the  design  of  destroying  him  on 
his  return.  But  Zebul,  his  governor  in  Shechem, 
contrived  to  apprise  him  of  these  circumstances,  so 
that  he  was  enabled  to  avoid  the  snare  laid  for  him ; 
and,  having  hastily  assembled  some  troops,  appeared 
unexpectedly  before  Shechem.  The  people  of  that 
place  had  meanwhile  secured  the  assistance  of  one 
Gaal  (q.  v.")  and  his  followers,  who  marched  out  to  give 
Abimelcch  battle.  He  was  defeated,  and  returned  into 
the  town ;  and  his  inefficiency  and  misconduct  in  the 
action  had  been  so  manifest  that  the  people  were  in- 
duced by  Zebul  to  expel  him  and  his  followers  (comp. 
Josephus,  Ant.  v,  7,  4).  But  the  people  still  went 
out  to  the  labors  of  the  field.  This  being  told  Abime- 
lech,  who  was  at  Arumah,  he  laid  an  ambuscade  in 
four  parties  in  the  neighborhood ;  and  when  the  men 
came  forth  in  the  morning,  two  of  the  ambushed  bodies 
rose  against  them,  while  the  other  two  seized  the  city 
gates  to  prevent  their  return.  Afterward  the  whole 
force  united  against  the  city,  which,  being  now  de- 
prived of  its  most  efficient  inhabitants,  was  easily 
taken.  It  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  exasper- 
ated victor,  and  the  ground  strewn  with  salt  (q.  v.), 
symbolical  of  the  desolation  to  which  it  was  doomed. 
The  fortress,  however,  still  remained ;  but  the  occu- 
pants, deeming  it  untenable,  withdrew  to  the  temple 
of  Baal-Berith,  which  stood  in  a  more  commanding 
situation.  Abimelcch  employed  his  men  in  colleetin 
and  piling  wood  against  this  building,  which  was  then 
set  on  fire  and  destroyed,  with  the  thousand  men  who 
were  in  it.  Afterward  Abimelcch  went  to  reduce 
Thebez,  which  had  also  revolted.  The  town  was 
taken  with  little  difficult^-,  and  the  people  withdrew 
into  the  citadel.  Here  Abimelech  resorted  to  his  fa 
vorite  operation,  and  while  heading  a  party  to  burn 
down  the  gate,  he  was  struck  on  the  head  by  a  large 
stone  cast  down  by  a  woman  from  the  wall  above- 
Perceiving  that  he  had  received  a  death-blow,  he  di- 
rected his  armor-bearer  to  thrust  him  through  with  his 
sword,  lest  it  should  be  said  that  he  fell  by  a  woman's 
hand  (.ludg.  ix).  Abimelech  appears  to  have  been  a 
bold  and  able  commander,  but  uncontrolled  by  relig- 
ion, principle,  or  humanity  in  bis  ambitious  enterprises 
(Niemeyer,  Charakl.  iii.  324).  His  fate  resembled  that 
of  Pyrrhus  II,  king  ofEpirus  (Justin,  xxv,  5;  Pausan. 
i,13 ;  Val.  Max.  v,l,  4 ;  comp.  Ctesias,  Ere.  42 ;  Thucyd. 
iii,  74) ;  and  the  dread  of  the  ignominy  of  its  being 
said  of  a  warrior  that  he  died  by  a  woman's  hand  was 
very  general  (Sophocl.  Track.  10G4;  Senec.  Here.  (F.t. 
1176).  Vainly  did  Abimelech  seek  to  avoid  this  dis- 
grace (Saurin^  Disc.  Ili-t.  iii,  400);  lor  the  fact  of  his 
death  by  the  hand  of  a  woman  was  long  after  associ 
ated  with  his  memory  (2  Sam.  xi,  21).  See  Shechem. 
4.  In  the  title  of  Psa.  xxxiv,  the  name  of  Abimelech 
Is  interchanged  for  that  of  Achish  (q.  v.),  king  of 
Gath,  to  whom  David  iled  for  refuge  from  Saul  (1  Sam. 
xxi,  10). 


5.  The  son  of  Abiathar,  and  high-priest  in  the  time 
of  David,  according  to  the  Masoretic  text  of  1  Chron. 
xviii,  10  [see  Abi-],  where,  however,  we  should  prob- 
ably read  (with  the  Sept.,  Syr.,  Arab.,Vulg.,  Targums, 
and  many  MSS.)  Ahimelech  (as  in  the  parallel  pas- 
sage, 2  Sam.  viii,  17).     See  Abiathar. 

Abin'adab  (Heb.  Abinadab' ,  Snrnx,  father  of 
nobleness,  i.  e.  noble  ;  Sept.  everywhere  'Afiivadd[3, 
Vulg.  Abinadab.  Josephus  ' ' AfiivaSafioc,  Ant.  viii,  2, 
3),  the  name  of  four  men. 

1.  A  Levite  of  Kirjath-jearim,  in  whose  house, 
which  was  on  a  hill  [see  Gibeah],  the  ark  of  the 
covenant  was  deposited,  after  being  brought  back 
from  the  land  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  vii,  1),  B.C. 
1124.  It  was  committed  to  the  special  charge  of  his 
son  Eleazar ;  and  remained  there  eighty  years,  until 
it  was  removed  by  David  (2  Sam.  vi,  3,  4 ;  1  Chron. 
xiii,  7).     See  Ark. 

2.  The  second  of  the  eight  sons  of  Jesse,  the  father 
of  David  (1  Sam.  xvi,  8 ;  1  Chron.  ii,  13),  and  one  of 
the  three  who  followed  Saul  to  the  campaign  against 
the  Philistines  in  which  Goliath  defied  the  army  (1 
Sam.  xvii,  13),  B.C.  1063. 

3.  The  third  named  of  the  four  sons  of  King  Saul 
(1  Chron.  viii,  33 ;  ix,  39),  and  one  of  the  three  who 
perished  with  their  father  in  the  battle  at  Gilboa  (1 
Sam.  xxxi,  2 ;  1  Chron.  x,  2),  B.C.  1053.  His  name 
appears  to  be  omitted  in  the  list  in  1  Sam.  xiv,  49. 

4.  The  father  of  one  of  Solomon's  purveyors  (or 
rather  Ben-Abintdab  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  name 
of  the  purveyor  himself),  who  presided  over  the  dis- 
trict of  Dor,  and  married  Taphath,  Solomon's  daughter 
(1  Kings  iv,  11),  B.C.  ante  1014. 

Abin'oam  (Heb.  Abino'dm,  bSb^SX,  father  of 
grace,  i.  e.  gracious;  Sept.  A/3ivwe/n),  the  father  of 
Barak  the  judge  (Judg.  iv,  6, 12  ;  v,  1, 12).  B.C.  ante 
1409. 

Abi'ram  (Heb.  Abiram',  dT^S,  father  of  height, 
i.  e.proud^,  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'A/3f(.o(.jj',  Vulg.  Abiron,  Josephus  'Afii- 
papoc,  Ant.  iv,  2,  2.)  One  of  the  sons  of  Eliab  of  the 
family-heads  of  Reuben, who,  with  his  brother,  Dathan, 
and  with  On  of  the  same  tribe,  joined  Korah  the  Le- 
vite in  a  conspiracy  against  Moses  and  Aaron,  which 
resulted  in  their  being  swallowed  up  with  all  their 
families  and  possessions  (except  the  children  of  Korah) 
by  an  earthquake  (Num.  xvi,  1-27;  xxvi,  9;  Deut. 
xi,  6  ;  Psa.  cvi,  17),  B.C.  cir.  1620.     See  Korah. 

2.  (Sept.  'AJ3tpti)V,  Vulg.  Abiram.)  The  eldest  sen 
of  Iliel  the  Bethelite,  who  is  remarkable  as  having 
died  prematurely  (for  such  is  the  evident  import  of 
the  statement),  for  the  presumption  or  ignorance  of 
his  father,  in  fulfilment  of  the  doom  pronounced  upon 
his  posterity  who  should  undertake  to  rebuild  Jericho 
(1  Kings  xvi,  34),  B.C.  post  905.     See  Hiel. 

Abi'ron  (*A/3£ipwv),  the  Grtccized  form  (Ecclus. 
xl,  18)  of  the  name  of  the  rebellious  Abiram  (q.  v.). 

Abis.     See  Caphar-abis. 

Abis'ei  [many  Abise'i]  (Lat.  Abisei,  for  the  Greek 
text  is  not  extant),  an  incorrect  form  (2  [Vulg.  4] 
Esdr.  i,  2)  of  the  name  of  the  priest  Abishua  (q.  v.). 

Ab'ishag  (Heb.  Abishag' ',  Z^^fatJier  of\\.  e. 
given  in]  error,  i.  q.  inconsiderate  ;  Sept.  'Afiiady),  a 
beautiful  young  woman  of  Shunem,  in  the  tribe  of 
Issachar,  who  was  chosen  by  the  servants  of  David 
to  be  introduced  into  the  royal  harem,  for  the  special 
purpose  of  ministering  to  him  and  cherishing  him  in 
his  old  age,  B.C.  cir.  1015.  She  became  his  wife, 
but  the  marriage  was  never  consummated  (1  Kings  i, 
3-15).  Some  time  after  the  deatli  of  David,  Adonijah, 
his  eldest  son,  persuaded  Bathsheba,  the  mother  of 
Solomon,  to  entreat  the  king  that  Abishag  might  be 
given  to  him  in  marriage,  B.C.  cir.  1013.  But  as 
lights  and  privileges  peculiarly  regal  were  associated 


ABISHAI 


21 


ABLUTION 


with  the  control  and  possession  of  the  harem  (q.  v.) 
of  deceased  kings  (2  Sam.  xiit  8>,  Solomon  detected 
in  this  application  a  fresh  aspiration  to  the  throne, 
which  lie  visited  with  death  (1  Kings  ii,  17-22;  Jose- 
phus,  ' AfiijaciKi],  Ant.  vii,  14,  3).     See  Adonijaii. 

Ab'ishai  [many  Abish'a'i~\  (Heb.Abishay',  "lia",2S, 
father  [i.  e.  desirous]  of  a  gift;  Sept.  'Afiiffat,  hut 
'Afitrrcd  in  1  Sam.  xxvi,  C,  7,  8,  1) ;  1  Chron.  xix,  11, 
15 ;  'Ajiiaaa  in  1  Chron.  ii,  10 ;  'Afitooui  in  1  Chron. 
xi,  20 ;  'Ajiiaa  in  1  Chron.  xviii,  12  ;  and  'Aftiact  in  2 
Sam.  xx,  G;  also  contracted  Abshag',  "I1I33K,  in  the 
text  of  2  Sam.  x,  10;  1  Chron.  ii,  1G  ;  xi,  20  ,  xviii,  12  ; 
xix,  11,  15 ;  Josephus  'A/3t<T«7or),  a  nephew  of  David 
(by  an  unknown  father,  perhaps  a  foreigner)  through 
his  sister  Zeruiah,  and  brother  of  Joab  and  Asahel 
(2  Sam.  ii,  18 ;  1  Chron.  ii,  16).  The  three  brothers 
devoted  themselves  zealously  to  the  interests  of  their 
uncle  during  his  wanderings.  Though  David  had 
more  reliance  upon  the  talents  of  Joab,  he  appears  to 
have  given  more  of  his  private  confidence  to  Abishai, 
who  seems  to  have  attached  himself  in  a  peculiar 
manner  to  his  person,  as  we  ever  find  him  near,  and 
ready  for  council  or  action,  on  critical  occasions  (2 
Sam.  ii,  24 ;  1  Chron.  xix,  11).  Abishai,  indeed,  was 
rather  a  man  of  action  than  of  council ;  and,  although 
David  must  have  been  gratified  by  his  devoted  and 
uncompromising  attachment,  he  had  more  generally 
occasion  to  check  the  impulses  of  his  ardent  tempera- 
ment than  to  follow  his  advice  (2  Sam.  iii,  30).  Abish- 
ai was  one  of  the  two  persons  whom  David  asked 
to  accompany  him  to  the  camp  of  Saul,  and  ho  alone 
accepted  the  perilous  distinction  (1  Sam.  xxvi,  5-9), 
B.C.  1055.  The  desire  he  then  expressed  to  smite  the 
sleeping  king  identities  him  as  the  man  who  afterward 
burned  to  rush  upon  Shimei  and  slay  him  for  his  abuse 
.of  David  (2  Sam.  xvi,  0,  11 ;  xix,  21).  When  the  king 
lied  beyond  the  Jordan  from  Absalom,  Abishai  was  by 
his  side  ;  and  he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of 
one  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  army  which  crushed 
that  rebellion  (2  Sam.  xviii,  2-12)^  B.C.  cir.  1023. 
When  the  insurrection  of  Sheba  occurred  David  sent 
him,  in  connection  with  Joab,  to  quicken  the  tardy 
preparations  of  Amasa  in  gathering  troops  against 
the  rebel  (2  Sam.  xx,  6-10),  B.C.  cir.  1022.  During 
the  last  war  with  the  Philistines  David  was  in  immi- 
nent peril  of  his  life  from  a  giant  named  Ishbi-benob, 
but  was  rescued  by  Abishai,  who  slew  the  giant  (2 
Sam.  xxi,  15-17),  B.C.  cir.  1018.  Ho  was  also  the 
chief  of  the  second  rank  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  10 ;  1  Chron. 
xi,  20)  of  the  three  "mighties,"  who,  probably  in 
some  earlier  war,  performed  the  chivalrous  exploit  of 
breaking  through  the  host  of  the  Philistines  to  pro- 
cure David  a  draught  of  water  from  the  well  of  his 
native  Bethlehem  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  14-17).  Among  the 
exploits  of  this  hero  it  is  mentioned  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  18) 
that  he  withstood  300  men,  and  slew  them  with  his 
spear;  but  the  occasion  of  this  adventure,  and  the 
time  and  manner  of  his  death,  are  equally  unknown. 
In  2  Sam.  viii,  13,  the  victory  over  the  Edomites  in 
the  Valley  of  Salt  tB.C.  cir.  1037)  is  ascribed  to  Da- 
vid, but  in  1  Chron.  xviii,  12,  to  Abishai.  It  is  hence 
probable  that  the  victor}'  was  actually  gained  by 
Abishai,  in  connection  with  Joab  (1  Kings  xi,  16),  but 
is  ascribed  to  David  as  king  and  commander-in-chief 
(comp.  2  Sam.  x,  10,  14).— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  David. 

Abish'alom,  a  fuller  form  (1  Kings  xv,  2,  10)  of 
the  name  Absalom  (q.  v.). 

Abish'ua  (Heb.  Abishuii,  9^"&^&,  father  of 
■welfare,  i.  e.  fortunate ;  Sept.  'Afttaov  or  'Afiioov,  but 
in  1  Chron.  viii,  4  [v.  r.  ' Afiirjaovt]  and  Ezra  vii,  5, 
'Afiiaovi),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  A  son  of  Bela,  and  grandson  of  Benjamin  (1 
Chron.  viii,  4) ;  possibly  the  same  as  Jerimoth  (1 
Chron.  vii,  7).     B.C.  post  185G.     See  Jacob. 

2.  The  son  of  Phinehas  (grandson  of  Aaron)  and 


father  of  Bukki,  being  the  fourth  high-priest  of  tha 
Hebrews  (1  Chron.  vi,  4,  5,  50;  Ezra  vii,  5).  Jose-. 
phus  calls  him  Abiezer  (A/3i££sp//c,  Ant.  v,  11,  4),  but 
elsewhere  Josephus  (Iuhjijttoc,,  Ant.  viii,  1,  3,  ed. 
Havercamp).  He  appears  from  the  Chronicon  of  A  A  ./- 
amlria  to  have  been  nearly  contemporary  with  Ehud, 
B.C.  cir.  1523-1466.     See  High-piuest. 

Ab'ishur  (Heb.  Abishur' ,  "irj^nx,  father  of  the 
wall,  i.  e.  perhaps  mason ;  Sept.  '  Afiiaom)),  the  second 
named  of  ths  two  sons  of  Shammai,  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah,  who  married  Abihail,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons 
(1  Chron.  ii,  28,  29),  B.C.  considerably  post  1612. 

Ab'isum  ('A/3iffat  v.  r.  'Afiurovai),  the  son  of 
Phinees  and  father  of  Boccas,  in  the  genealogy  of 
Ezra  (1  Esdr.  viii,  2) ;  evidently  the  high-priest  Abish- 
ua  (q.  v.). 

Ab'ital  (Heb.  Abital' ',  Vj*~X,  father  of  dew,  i.  e. 
fresh}  Sept.  'AfiirdX),  the  fifth  wife  of  David,  by 
whom  she  had  Shephatiah,  during  his  reign  in  Hebron 
(2  Sam.  iii,  4 ;  1  Chron.  iii,  3),  B.C.  1052. 
'  Ab'itub  (Heb.  Abitub',  ^B^St,  father  of  good- 
!  ness,  i.  e.  good;  Sept.  'Afiiriiifi  v.  r.  FA/3trouX),  a  Ben- 
jamite,  first  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Shaharaim  by 
|  his  second  wife,  Baara  or  Hodesh,  in  Moab  (1  Chron. 
viii,  Hi.     B.C.  cir.  1612.     See  Shaharaim. 

Abi'ud,  a  Grxcized  form  (Matt,  i,  13)  of  the  name 
Abiiiud  (q.  v.). 

Abiyoiiah.     See  Caper. 

Abjuration  (I),  in  the  Roman  Church,  a  formal 
and  solemn  act  by  which  heretics  and  those  suspected 
of  heresj'  denied  and  renounced  it.  In  countries  where 
the  inquisition  was  established,  three  sorts  of  abjura- 
tion were  practised:  1.  Abjuratio  de,  formal/.,  made  by 
a  notorious  apostate  or  heretic;  2.  Abjuratio  (A  vehe- 
ment/', made  by  a  Roman  Catholic  strongly  suspected 
of  heresy  ;  3.  Abjuratio  de  lev/',  made  by  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic only  slightly  suspected.  (II.)  In  England,  the 
oath  of  abjuration  is  an  oath  by  which  an  obligation 
was  come  under  not  to  acknowledge  any  right  in  the 
Pretender  to  the  throne  of  England.  It  is  also  used  to 
signify  an  oath  ordained  by  the  25th  of  Charles  II, 
abjuring  particular  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
(See  S.  G.  Wald,  De  Hmresi  Abjuranda,  Regiom.  1821 ; 
low  d.  Absehirdrung  der  Simonie,  in  Henke's  Eusebia, 
i,  184  sq.)     Sec  Heretic. 

Able  (or  Abel),  Thomas,  chaplain  to  queen  Cath- 
arine, wife  of  Henry  VIII  of  England.  He  took  the 
degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford,  in  1516,  and  subsequently 
that  of  D.D.  He  vehemently  opposed  the  divorce  of 
the  king  and  queen,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject in  1530,  entitled  De  non  dissolvendo  Henrici  et 
Catharines  matrimonio.  He  was  also  a  strenuous  op- 
ponent of  the  king's  supremacy,  for  which  he  was 
hanged  at  Smithfield  in  1540  (Hook,  Ec.cl.  Biog.  i,  45). 

Ablution  (I),  the  ceremonial  washing,  whereby,  as 
a  symbol  of  purification  from  uncleanness,  a  person  was 
considered  (1.)  to  be  cleansed  from  the  taint  of  an  in- 
ferior and  less  pure  condition,  and  initiated  into  a  high- 
er and  purer  state ;  (2.)  to  be  cleansed  from  the  soil 
of  common  life,  and  fitted  for  special  acts  of  religious 
service  ;  (3.)  to  be  cleansed  from  defilements  contract- 
ed by  particular  acts  or  circumstances,  and  restored  to 
the  privileges  of  ordinary  life;  (4.)  as  absolving  or 
purifying  himself,  or  declaring  himself  absolved  and 
purified,  from  the  guilt  of  a  particular  act.  Wc  do 
not  meet  with  any  such  ablutions  in  patriarchal 
times  ;  but  under  the  Mosaical  dispensation  they  arc 
all  indicated.      See  LUSTRATION;  Sprinkling. 

A  marked  example  of  the  first  kind  of  ablution  oc- 
curs when  Aaron  and  his  sons,  on  their  being  set  apart 
for  the  priesthood,  were  washed  with  water  before  they 
were  invested  with  the  priestly  robes  and  anointed 
with  the  holy  oil  (  Lev.  viii,  G).  To  this  bond  we  arc 
inclined  to  refer  the  ablution  of  persons  and  raiment 


ABLUTION 


22 


ABLUTION 


■which  was  required  of  the  whole  of  the  Israelites,  as 
a  preparation  to  their  receiving  the  law  from  Sinai 
(Exod.  xix,  10-15).  We  also  rind  examples  of  this 
kind  of  purification  in  connection  with  initiation  into 
some  higher  state  both  among  the  Hebrews  and  in 
other  nations.  Thus  those  admitted  into  the  mys- 
teries of  Eleusis  were  previously  purified  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ilissus  by  water  being  poured  upon  them  by 
the  Hydranos  (Polysen.  v,  17 ;  iii,  11).  See  CONSE- 
CRATION. 

The  second  kind  of  ablution  was  that  which  required 
the  priests,  on  pain  of  death,  to  wash  their  hands  and 
their  feet  before  they  approached  the  altar  of  God 
(Exod.  xxx,  17-21).  For  this  purpose  a  large  basin  of 
water  was  provided  both  at  the  tabernacle  and  at  the 
temple.  See  Laver.  To  this  the  Psalmist  alludes 
when  he  says,  "  I  will  wash  my  hands  in  innocency, 
and  so  will  I  compass  thine  altar"  (Ps.  xxvi,  6).  Hence 
it  became  the  custom  in  the  early  Christian  Church  for 
the  ministers,  in  the  view  of  the  congregation,  to  wash 
their  hands  in  a  basin  of  water  brought  by  the  deacon, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  communion  (Jamieson,  p. 
126) ;  and  this  practice,  or  something  like  it,  is  still 
retained  in  the  Eastern  churches,  as  well  as  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  when  mass  is  celebrated.  See  Holy 
"Water.  Similar  ablutions  by  the  priests  before  pro- 
ceeding to  perform  the  more  sacred  ceremonies  were 
usual  among  the  heathen  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class. 
Anliq.  s.  v.  Chernips).  The  Egyptian  priests  indeed 
carried  the  practice  to  a  burdensome  extent  (Wilkin- 
son, i,  324,  abridgm.),  from  which  the  Jewish  priests 
were,  perhaps  designedly,  exonerated;  and  in  their 
less  torrid  climate  it  was,  for  purposes  of  real  clean- 
liness, less  needful.  Reservoirs  of  water  were  at- 
tached to  the  Egyptian  temples;  and  Herodotus  (ii, 
37)  informs  us  that  the  priests  shaved  the  whole  of 
their  bodies  every  third  day,  that  no  insect  or  other 
filth  might  be  upon  them  when  they  served  the  gods, 
and  that  they  washed  themselves  in  cold  water  twice 
every  day  and  twice  every  night ;  Porphyry  says 
thrice  a  day,  with  a  nocturnal  ablution  occasionally 
This  kind  of  ablution,  as  preparatory  to  a  religious 
act,  answers  to  the  simple  wadu  of  the  Moslems,  which 
they  are  required  to  go  through  five  times  daily  before 
their  stated  prayers  (see  Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  i,  94  sq.),  be- 
sides other  private  purifications  of  a  more  formal  char- 
acter (see  Reland,  I)e  Relig.  Moh.  p.  80-83).  This 
makes  the  ceremonies  of  ablution  much  more  con 
spicuous  to  a  traveller  in  the  Moslem  East  at  the  pres- 
ent day  than  they  would  appear  among  the  ancient 


Yes.-i'U  fur  M  ih.'iinini'dan  Ablution. 


Jews,  seeing  that  the  law  imposed  this  obligation  on 
the  priests  only,  not  on  the  people.  Connected  as 
these  Moslem  ablutions  are  with  various  forms  and 
imitative  ceremonies,  and  recurring  so  frequent!}'  as 
they  do,  the  avowedly  heavy  yoke  of  even  the  Mosaic 
law  seems  light  in  the  comparison.     See  Bathe. 

In  the  third  class  of  ablutions  washing  is  regarded 
as  a  purification  from  positive  defilements.  The  Mo- 
saical  law  recognises  eleven  species  of  uncleanness  of 
this  nature  (Lev.  xii-xv),  the  purification  for  which 
ceased  at  the  end  of  a  certain  period,  provided  the  un- 
clean person  then  washed  his  bocty  and  his  clothes ; 
but  in  a  few  cases,  such  as  leprosy  and  the  defilement 
contracted  by  touching  a  dead  body,  he  remained  un- 
clean seven  days  after  the  physical  cause  of  pollution 
had  ceased.  This  was  all  that  the  law  required  ;  but 
in  later  times,  when  the  Jews  began  to  refine  upon  it, 
these  cases  were  considered  generic  instead  of  specific 
— as  representing  classes  instead  of  individual  cases 
of  defilement — and  the  causes  of  pollution  requiring 
purification  by  water  thus  came  to  be  greatly  in- 
creased. This  kind  of  ablution  for  substantial  un- 
cleanness answers  to  the  Moslem  glmsl  (Lane,  ib.  p. 
90 ;  Reland,  ib.  p.  CG-77),  in  which  the  causes  of  de- 
filement greatly  exceed  those  of  the  Mosaical  law, 
while  they  are  perhaps  equalled  in  number  and  mi- 
nuteness by  those  which  the  later  Jews  devised.  The 
uncleanness  in  this  class  arises  chiefly  from  the  nat- 
ural secretions  of  human  beings  and  of  beasts  used 
for  food,  and  from  the  ordure  of  animals  not  used  for 
food  ;  and,  as  among  the  Jews,  the  defilement  may  be 
communicated  not  only  to  persons,  but  to  clothes, 
utensils,  and  dwellings — in  all  which  cases  the  purifi- 
cation must  be  made  by  water,  or  by  some  representa- 
tive act  where  water  cannot  be  applied.  Thus  in 
drought  or  sickness  the  rinsing  of  the  hands  and  face 
may  be  performed  with  dry  sand  or  dust,  a  ceremony 
that  is  termed  layemmum  (Lane,  ib.).  See  Un'CLEAN- 
ness. 

Of  the  last  class  of  ablutions,  by  which  persons  de- 
clared themselves  free  from  the  guilt  of  a  particular 
action,  the  most  remarkable  instance  is  that  which  oc- 
curs in  the  expiation  for  an  unknown  murder,  when 
the  elders  of  the  nearest  village  washed  their  hands 
over  the  expiatory  heifer,  beheaded  in  the  valley,  say- 
ing, "  Our  hands  have  not  shed  this  blood,  neither 
have  our  eyes  seen  it"  (Deut.  xxi,  1-9).  It  has  been 
thought  by  some  that  the  signal  act  of  Pilate,  when 
he  washed  his  hands  in  water  and  declared  himself 
innocent  of  the  blood  of  Jesus  (Matt,  xxvii,  24),  was  a 
designed  adoption  of  the  Jewish  custom  ;  but  this  sup- 
position does  not  appear  necessary,  as  the  practice  was 
also  common  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (see 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Lustratio).  See 
Murder. 

Other  practices  not  indicated  in  the  law  appear  to 
have  existed  at  a  very  early  period,  or  to  have  grown 
up  in  the  course  of  time.  From  1  Sam.  xvi,  5,  com- 
pared with  Exod.  xix,  10-14,  we  learn  that  it  was 
usual  for  those  who  presented  or  provided  a  sacrifice 
to  purity  themselves  by  ablution  ;  and  as  this  was 
everywhere  a  general  practice,  it  may  be  supposed  to 
have  existed  in  patriarchal  times,  and,  being  an  estab- 
lished and  approved  custom,  not  to  have  required  to 
be  mentioned  in  the  law.  There  is  a  passage  in  the 
apocryphal  book  of  Judith  (xii,  7-9)  which  has  been 
thought  to  intimate  that  the  Jews  performed  ablutions 
before  prayer.  Rut  we  cannot  fairly  deduce  that 
meaning  from  it  (camp.  Ruth  iii,  3);  since  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  anointing  (q.  v.),  which  was  a  custom- 
ary token  of  festivity  (see  Arnald,  in  loc.).  It  would 
indeed  prove  too  much  if  so  understood,  as  Judith 
bathed  in  the  water,  which  is  more  than  even  the  Mos- 
lems do  before  their  prayers.  Moreover,  the  authority, 
if  clear,  would  not  be  conclusive.     See  Pitrification. 

Put  after  the  rise  of  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  the 
practice  of  ablution  was  carried  to  such  excess,  from 


ABLUTION 


23 


ABNER 


the  affectation  of  extraordinary  purity,  that  it  is  re- 
peatedly brought  under  our  notice  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment through  the  several  animadversions  of  our  Sav- 
iour on  the  consummate  hypocrisy  involved  in  this  fas- 
tidious attention  to  the  external  types  of  moral  purity, 
while  the  heart  was  left  unclean  (e.  g.  Matt,  xxiii,  25). 
All  the  practices  there  exposed  come  under  the  head 
of  purification  from  uncleanness ;  the  acts  involving 
which  were  made  so  numerous  that  persons  of  the  strict- 
er sect  could  scarcely  move  without  contracting  some 
involuntary  pollution.  For  this  reason  they  never  en- 
tered their  houses  without  ablution,  from  the  strong 
probability  that  they  had  unknowingly  contracted 
some  defilement  in  the  streets  ;  and  they  were  especial- 
ly careful  never  to  eat  without  washing  the  hands 
(Mark  vii,  1-5),  because  they  were  peculiarly  liable  to 
be  defiled ;  and  as  unclean  hands  were  held  to  com- 
municate uncleanness  to  all  food  (excepting  fruit) 
which  they  touched,  it  was  deemed  that  there  was 
no  security  against  eating  unclean  food  but  by  al- 
ways washing  the  hands  ceremonially  before  touch- 
ing any  meat.  We  saj-  "ceremonially,"  because 
thjs  article  refers  only  to  ceremonial  washing.  The 
Israelites,  who,  like  other  Orientals,  fed  with  their 
ringers,  washed  their  hands  before  meals  for  the 
sake  of  cleanliness.  See  Eating.  But  these  cus- 
tomary washings  were  distinct  from  the  ceremonial 
ablutions,  as  they  are  now  among  the  Moslems.  There 
were,  indeed,  distinct  mimes  for  them.  The  former 
was  called  simply  f^^Xii,netilah',  or  washing,  in  which 
water  -was  poured  upon  the  hands  ;  the  latter  was  call- 
ed rtb"Q::,  tebildh',  plunging,  because  the  hands  were 
immersed  in  water  (Lightfoot  on  Mark  vii,  4).  It  was 
this  last,  namely,  the  ceremonial  ablution,  which  the 
Pharisees  judged  to  be  so  necessary.  When,  therefore, 
some  of  that  sect  remarked  that  our  Lord's  disciples  ate 
"  with  unwashen  hands"  (Mark  vii,  2),  it  is  not  to  be 
understood  literally  that  they  did  not  at  all  wash  their 
hands,  but  that  they  did  not  plunge  them  ceremonially 
according  to  their  own  practice  [vvyfiy,  not  "oft," 
as  in  the  Auth.  Vers.,  but  with  the  fist,  q.  d.  "up  to 
the  elbow,"  as  Theophylact  interprets).  And  this  was 
expected  from  them  only  as  the  disciples  of  a  religious 
teacher ;  for  these  refinements  were  not  practised  by 
the  class  of  people  from  which  the  disciples  were 
chiefly  drawn.  Their  wonder  was,  that  Jesus  had 
not  inculcated  this  observance  on  his  followers,  and 
not,  as  some  have  fancied,  that  he  had  enjoined  them 
to  neglect  what  had  been  their  previous  practice. 
(See  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  s.  v.  Lotio.)     See  Wash. 

In  at  least  an  ecpual  degree  the  Pharisees  multiplied 
the  ceremonial  pollutions  which  required  the  ablution 
cf  inanimate  objects — "cups  and  pots,  brazen  vessels 
and  tables" — the  rules  given  in  the  law  (Lev.  vi,  28 ; 
xi,  32-36;  xv,  23)  being  extended  to  these  multiplied 
contaminations.  Articles  of  earthenware  which  were 
of  little  value  were  to  be  broken,  and  those  of  metal 
and  wood  were  to  be  scoured  and  rinsed  with  water. 
All  these  matters  are  fully  described  by  Buxtorf, 
Lightfoot,  Schottgen,Gill,  and  other  writers  of  the  same 
class,  who  present  many  striking  illustrations  of  tb 
passages  of  Scripture  which  refer  to  them.  The  Mo- 
hammedan usages  of  ablution,  which  offer  very  clear 
analogies,  are  fully  detailed  in  the  third  book  <  f  the 
Mishkaf  id-Masdbih  (or  "  Collection  of  Musselman  Tra- 
ditions" translated  from  the  Arabic  by  A.  N.  Matthews, 
Calcutta,  1809,  2  vols.  4to),  and  also  in  D'Ohsson's 

Tableau,  liv.  i,  chap,  i Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Babtism. 

(II.)  In  the  Roman  Church  ablution  is  a  liturgical 
term,  denoting  the  use  of  wine  and  water  by  the  priest, 
after  communion,  to  cleanse  the  chalice  and  his  lin- 
gers. Two  ablutions  are  made  in  the  mass.  1.  Wine 
alone  is  poured  into  the  chalice,  in  order  to  disen- 
gage the  particles,  of  either  kind,  which  may  be  left 
adhering  to  the  vessel,  and  is  afterward  drunk  by  the 
priest.    2.  Wine  and  water  are  poured  upon  the  priest's 


finders  into  the  chalice  (see  Boissonnet,  Diet,  des  Rites, 
i,  Go).     See  Mass. 

(III.)  In  the  Greek  Church,  ablution  is  a  ceremony 
observed  seven  days  after  baptism,  wherein  the  unc- 
tion of  the  chrism  is  washed  off  from  those  who  have 
been  baptized  (King,  Greek  Church).     See  Chrism. 

Lor  the  literature  of  the  subject,  in  general,  see  T. 
Dassorius,  Be  lust  rat  ione  Judmorum  (Vitcb.  1692);  A. 
Froelund,  l)e  yuooKuiiToooi'i^ia  sacerdotvm  Hebraso- 
rum  (Hafn.  IG',15);  O.  Sperling,  lie  baptism)  ethnico- 
ruiii  (Hafn.  1700);  J.  Behm,  De  lotione  Judceorum  et 
Christianorum  (Kegiom.  1715) ;  J.  G.  Leschner,  Di  Ins. 
trationibus  rett.  g<  utilium  /mrcidaneis  (Viteb.  1709)  ;  J. 
Lomeier,  lie  rett.  g<  nti/iuni  lustratimvbus  (Ultraj.  1G81, 
1701)  ;  II.  Lubert,  lie  antiquo  larandi  ritu  (Lubec, 
1G70);  J.  J.  Midler,  De  igne  lustrico  (Jen.  1GG0)  ;  T. 
Pfanner,  De  lotionibus  Christianorum,  in  his  Observ. 
Eccks.  i,  364-421.     See  Water. 

Abna'im  (rather  Ohxaim).  See  Stool. 
Ab'ner  (Ileb.  Abner' ',  "02X,  once  in  its  full  form 
Abint  / ',  "llpas,  1  Sam.  xiv,  50,  father  of  light,  i.  c.  en- 
lightening; Sept.  'A/3f  vi'i'ip,  Josephus  'Aj3fivapog,  Ant. 
vi,  4,  3,  elsewhere  '  Afiivijpoc),  the  son  of  Ner  (q.  v.) 
and  uncle  of  Saul  (being  the  brother  of  his  father  Kish), 
and  the  commander-in-chief  of  his  arm}'  (1  Sam.  xiv, 
50  sq.),  in  which  character  he  appears  several  times 
during  the  early  history  of  David  (1  Sam.  xvii,  55  ; 
xx,  25  ;  xxvi,  5  sq. ;  1  Chron.  xxvi,  28).  It  was 
through  his  instrumentality  that  David  was  first  in- 
troduced to  Saul's  court  after  the  victory  over  Goliath 
(1  Sam.  xvii,  57),  B.C.  10G3;  and  it  was  he  whom 
David  sarcastically  addressed  when  accompanying  his 
master  in  the  pursuit  of  his  life  at  Hachilah  (1  Sam. 
xxvi,  14),  B.C.  1055.  After  the  death  of  Saul  (B.C. 
1053),  the  experience  which  he  had  acquired,  and  the 
character  for  ability  and  decision  which  he  had  estab- 
lished in  Israel,  enabled  him  to  uphold  the  falling  house 
of  Saul  for  seven  years  ;  and  ha  might  probably  have 
done  so  longer  if  it  had  suited  his  views  (2  Sam.  ii,  6, 
10;  v,  5;  comp.  vi,  1).  It  was  generally  known  that 
David  had  been  divinely  nominated  to  succeed  Saul  on 
the  throne  :  when,  therefore,  that  monarch  was  slain 
in  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  David  was  made  king  over  his 
own  tribe  of  Judah,  and  reigned  in  Hebron,  the  old 
capital.  In  the  other  tribes  an  influence  adverse  to 
Judah  existed,  and  was  controlled  chief!}'  by  the  tribe 
of  Ephraim.  Abner,  with  great  decision,  availed  him- 
self of  this  state  of  feeling,  and  turned  it  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  house  to  which  he  belonged,  of  which 
he  was  now  the  most  important  surviving  member. 
He  did  not,  however,  venture  to  propose  himself  as 
king;  but  took  Ishbosheth,  a  surviving  son  of  Saul, 
whoso  known  imbecility  had  excused  his  absence  from 
the  fatal  fight  in  which  his  father  and  brothers  perish- 
ed, and  made  him  king  over  the  tribes,  and  ruled  in 
his  name  (2  Sam.  ii,  8).  This  event  appears  to  have 
occurred  live  years  after  Saul's  death  (2  Sam.  ii,  10 ; 
comp.  11),  an  interim  that  was  probably  occupied  in 
plans  for  settling  the  succession,  to  which  Ishbosheth 
may  have  been  at  first  disinclined.  See  ISHBOSHETH. 
Nor,  perhaps,  had  the  Israelites  sooner  than  this  re- 
covered sufficiently  from  the  oppression  by  the  Philis- 
tines that  would  be  sure  to  follow  the  disaster  upon 
Mount  Gilboa  to  reassert  their  independence,  at  least 
throughout  Palestine  proper.  Accordingly  Ishbosheth 
reigned  in  Mahanaim,  beyond  Jordan,  and  David  in 
Hebron.  A  sort  of  desultory  warfare  continued  for 
two  years  between  them,  in  which  the  advantage  ap- 
pears to  have  been  always  on  the  side  of  David  (2 
Sam.  ii,  1).  The  only  one  of  the  engagements  of 
which  we  have  a  particular  account  is  that  which  en- 
sued when  Joab,  David's  general,  ami  Abner  met  and 
fought  at  Gibeon  (2  Sam.  ii,  12  sq.),  B.C.  1048.  Ab- 
ner was  beaten,  and  tied  for  his  life;  but  was  pursued 
by  Asahel  (the  brother  of  Joab  and  Abishai),  who  was 
"'swift  of  foot  as  a  wild  roe."      Abner,  dreading  a 


ABNER 


24 


ABOMINATION" 


blood-feud  with  Joab,  for  whom  he  seems  to  have  en- 
tertained a  sincere  respect,  entreated  Asahel  to  desist 
from  the  pursuit ;  but  finding  that  he  was  still  fol- 
lowed, and  that  his  life  was  in  danger,  he  at  length 
ran  his  pursuer  through  the  body  by  a  back  thrust 
with  the  pointed  heel  of  his  spear  (2  Sam.  ii,  18-32). 
This  put  a  strife  of  blood  between  the  two  foremost 
men  in  all  Israel  (after  David);  for  the  law  of  honor, 
which  had  from  times  before  the  law  prevailed  among 
the  Hebrews,  and  which  still  prevails  in  Arabia,  ren- 
dered it  the  conventional  duty  of  Joab  to  avenge  the 
blood  of  his  brother  upon  the  person  by  whom  he  had 
been  slain.     See  Blood-revexge. 

As  time  went  on  Abner  had  occasion  to  feel  more 
strongly  that  he  was  himself  not  only  the  chief,  but 
the  only  remaining  prop  of  the  house  of  Saul ;  and 
this  conviction,  acting  upon  a  proud  and  arrogant 
spirit,  led  him  to  more  presumptuous  conduct  than 
even  the  mildness  of  the  feeble  Ishbosheth  could  suf- 
fer to  pass  without  question.  See  Absalom  ;  Adoxi- 
jaii.  He  took  to  his  own  harem  a  woman  named 
Rizpah,  who  had  been  a  concubine-wife  of  Saul  (2 
Sam.  iii,  7  sq.).  This  act,  from  the  ideas  connected 
with  the  harem  of  a  deceased  king  (comp.  Josephus, 
Apion,  i,  15 ;  Herod,  iii,  68),  was  not  only  a  great  im- 
propriety, but  was  open  to  the  suspicion  of  a  political 
design,  which  Abner  may  very  possibly  have  enter- 
tained. See  Harem.  A  mild  rebuke  from  the  nom- 
inal king,  however,  enraged  him  greatly;  and  he 
plainly  declared  that  he  would  henceforth  abandon  his 
cause  and  devote  himself  to  the  interests  of  David. 
To  excuse  this  desertion  to  his  own  mind,  he  then  and 
on  other  occasions  avowed  his  knowledge  that  the  son 
of  Jesse  had  been  appointed  by  the  Lord  to  reign  over 
all  Israel ;  but  he  appears  to  have  been  unconscious 
that  this  avowal  exposed  his  previous  conduct  to  more 
censure  than  it  offered  excuse  for  his  present.  He, 
however,  kept  his  word  with  Ishbosheth.  After  a 
tour,  during  which  he  explained  his  present  views  to 
the  elders  of  the  tribes  which  still  adhered  to  the 
house  of  Saul,  he  repaired  to  Hebron  with  authority 
to  make  certain  overtures  to  David  on  their  behalf 
(2  Sam.  iii,  12  sq.).  He  was  received  with  great  at- 
tention and  respect ;  and  David  even  thought  it  pru- 
dent to  promise  that  he  should  still  have  the  chief 
command  of  the  armies  when  the  desired  union  of  the 
two  kingdoms  took  place  (De  Pacto  Bavidis  ct  Abneri, 
in  the  Crit.  *S'ac.  Thes.  Nov.  i,  G51).  The  political  ex- 
pediency of  this  engagement  is  very  clear,  and  to  that 
expediency  the  interests  and  claims  of  Joab  were  sac- 
rilieed.  That  distinguished  personage  happened  to  be 
absent  from  Hebron  on  service  at  the  time,  but  he  re- 
turned just  as  Aimer  had  left  the  city.  He  speedily 
understood  what  had  passed;  and  his  dread  of  the  su- 
perior influence  which  such  a  man  as  Abner  might  es- 
tablish with  David  (see  Josephus,  Ant.  vii,  1,  5) 
quickened  his  remembrance  of  the  vengeance  which 
his  brother's  blood  required.  His  purpose  was  prompt- 
ly formed.  Unknown  to  the  king,  but  apparently  in 
his  name,  he  sent  a  message  after  Abner  to  call  him 
back  ;  and  as  he  returned,  Joab  met  him  at  the  gate, 
and,  leading  him  aside  as  it'  to  confer  peaceably  and 
privately  with  him,  suddenly  thrust  his  sword  into  his 
body.  B.C.  1046.  The  lamentations  of  David,  the 
public  mourning  which  he  ordered,  and  the  funeral 
honors  which  were  paid  to  the  remains  of  Abner  (2 
Sam.  iv,  12  i,  the  king  himself  following  the  bier  as 
chief  mourner,  exonerated  him  in  public  opinion  from 
having  been  privy  to  this  assassination  (2  Sam.  iii,  31- 
39;  comp.  1  Kings  ii,  5,  32).  As  for  Joab,  his  privi- 
lege as  a  blood-avenger  must  to  a  great  extent  have 
justified  his  treacherous  act  in  the  opinion  of  the  peo- 
ple; and  that,  together  with  his  inriuenee  with  the 
army,  screened  him  from  punishment.      See  JoAB. 

David's  short  but  emphatic  lament  over  Abner  (2 
Sam.  iii,  83,  84)  may  be  rendered,  with  strict  ad- 
herence to  the  form  of  the  original  (.see  Ewald,  Bic/i- 


ter  des  alten  Bundes,  i,  99 ;  comp.  Lowth,  Heb.  Poetry, 
xxii),  as  follows  : 

A3  a  villain  dies,  should  Abner  die? 
Thy  hands  not  bound, 
And  thy  feet  not  brought  into  fetters; 
As  one  falls  before  the  sons  of  malice,  fellest  thou ! 
As  to  the  sense  of  the  words,  J.  D.  Michaelis  (Ueber- 
setzung  des  alten  Test.)  saw  that  the  point  of  this  in- 
dignant, more  than  sorrowful,  lament,  lies  in  the  mode 
in  which  Abner  was  slain.  Joab  professed  to  kill 
him  "for  the  blood  of  Asahel,  his  brother"  (2  Sam. 
iii,  27).  But  if  a  man  claimed  his  brother's  blood  ;.t 
the  hand  of  his  murderer,  the  latter  (even  if  he  fled  to 
the  altar  for  refuge,  Exod.  xxi,  14)  would  have  been 
delivered  up  (bound,  hand  and  foot,  it  is  assumed)  to 
the  avenger  of  blood,  who  would  then  possess  a  legal 
right  to  slay  him.  Now  Joab  not  only  had  no  title  to 
claim  the  right  of  the  Gael,  as  Asahel  was  killed  under 
justifying  circumstances  (2  Sam.  ii,  19);  but,  while 
pretending  to  exercise  the  avenger's  right,  he  took  a 
lawless  and  private  mode  of  satisfaction,  and  commit- 
ted a  murder.  Hence  David  charged  him,  in  allusion 
to  this  conduct,  with  "shedding  the  blood  of  war  in 
peace"  (1  Kings  ii,  5) ;  and  hence  he  expresses  him- 
self in  this  lament,  as  if  indignant  that  the  noble  Ab- 
ner, instead  of  being  surrendered  with  the  formalities 
of  the  law  to  meet  an  authorized  penalty,  was  treach- 
erously stabbed  like  a  worthless  fellow  by  the  hands 
of  an  assassin. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Homicide. 

We  find  the  name  of  a  son  of  Abner,  Jaasiel,  sub- 
sequently appointed  phylarch,  under  Solomon,  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  21).  (On  the 
character  of  Abner,  see  Kitto's  Baihj  Bible  Jlhist.  in 
loc.  ;  Niemeyer,  Charakterist.  iv,  343  sq.  On  his 
death,  see  C.  Simeon,  II 'oris,  iii,  327  ;  H.  Lindsay,  Lec- 
tures, ii,  30  ;  R.  Harris,  Works,  p.  231.)     See  David. 

Abnet.     See  Girdle. 

Abo,  a  Lutheran  archbishopric  in  Finland  (q.  v.'). 
A  bishopric  was  established  in  Abo  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  which,  in  1817,  was  elevated  by  the  Russian 
government  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopric. 

Abodah.     See  Talmud. 

Abomination  (^1»B,  piggul' ,  filthy  stench,  Lev. 
vii,  18;  "abominable,"  Lev.  xix,  7;  Isa.  lxv,  4; 
Ezek.  iv,  14;  "PIplT,  shikkuts' ',  Deut.  xxix,  17;  1 
Kings  xi,  5,  7;  2  Kings  xxiii,  13,  24;  2  Chron.  xv, 
8  ;  Isa.  lxvi,  3  ;  Jer.  iv,  1 ;  vii,  SO  ;  xiii,  27  ;  xvi,  18  ; 
xxxii,  34;  Ezek.  v,  11;  vii,  20;  xi,  18,  21  ;  xx,  7.  8, 
30 ;  xxxvii,  23 ;  Dan.  ix,  27  ;  xi,  31 ;  xii,  11 ;  Hos. 
ix,  10;  Nah.  iii,  C;  Zech.  ix,  7;  or  V|?UJ,  she'kets, 
filth,  Lev.  vii,  21;  xi,  10,  11,  12,  13,  20,  23,  41,  42; 
Isa. lxvi,  17;  Ezek.viii,  10;  elsewhere  FOSitl,  toebah' , 
abhorrence ;  Sept.  fidiXvyfia,  and  so  N.  T.,  Matt,  xxiv, 
14;  Mark  xiii,  14;  Luke  xvi,  15;  Rev.  xvii,  4,  5; 
xxi,  27),  any  object  of  detestation  or  disgust  (Lev. 
xviii,  22  ;  Deut.  vii,  25)  ;  and  applied  to  an  impure  or 
detestable  action  (Ezek.  xxii,  11;  xxx,  26;  Mai.  ii, 
11,  etc.);  to  any  thing  causing  a  ceremonial  pollution 
(Gen.  xliii,  32 ;  xlvi,  34 ;  Deut.  xiv,  3) ;  but  more 
especially  to  idols  (Lev.  xviii,  22;  xx,  13;  Deut.  vii, 
26;  1  Kings  xi,  5,  7  ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  13);  and  also  to 
food  offered  to  idols  (Zech.  ix,  7) ;  and  to  filth  of  ev- 
ery kind  (Nah.  iii,  6).  There  are  several  tests  in 
which  the  word  occurs,  to  which,  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  interest  or  difficulty,  especial  attention  has 
been  drawn.     See  Idolatry. 

The  first  is  Gen.  xliii,  32:  "The  Egyptians  might 
not  eat'  bread  with  the  Hebrews,  for  that  is  an  abom- 
ination (na"lp)  unto  the  Egyptians."  This  is  best 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Egyptians  considered 
themselves  ceremonially  defiled  if  they  ate  with  any 
strangers.  The  primary  reason  appears  to  have  been 
that  the  cow  was  the  most  sacred  animal  among  tho 
Egyptians,  and  the  eating  of  it  was  abhorrent  to  them  ; 
whereas  it  was  both  eaten  and  sacrificed  by  the  Jews 


ABOMINATION 


25 


ABOMINATION 


and  most  other  nations,  who,  on  that  account,  were 
abominable  in  their  eyes.  It  was  for  this,  as  we  learn 
from  Herodotus  (ii,  41),  that  no  Egyptian  man  or 
woman  would  kiss  a  Greek  on  the  mouth,  or  would  use 
the  cleaver  of  a  Greek,  or  his  spit,  or  his  dish,  or 
would  taste  the  flesh  of  even  clean  beef  (that  is,  of 
oxen)  that  had  been  cut  with  a  Grecian  carving-knife. 
It  is  true  that  Wilkinson  (Anc.  Egyptians,  iii,  358) 
ascribes  this  to  the  disgust  of  the  fastidiously-clean 
Egyptians  at  the  comparatively  foul  habits  of  their 
Asiatic  and  other  neighbors  ;  but  it  seems  scarcely  fair 
to  take  the  facts  of  the  father  of  history,  and  ascribe 
them  to  any  other  than  the  very  satisfactory  reasons 
which  he  assigns  for  them.  We  collect,  then,  that  it 
was  &s  foreigners,  not  pointedly  as  Hebrews,  that  it  was 
an  abomination  for  the  Egyptians  to  eat  with  the  breth- 
ren of  Joseph.  The  Jews  themselves  subsequently 
exemplified  the  same  practice  ;  for  in  later  times  they 
held  it  unlawful  to  eat  or  drink  with  foreigners  in  their 
houses,  or  even  to  enter  their  dwellings  (John  xviii, 
28  ;  Acts  x,  28  ;  xi,  3);  for  not  only  were  the  houses 
of  Gentiles  unclean  (Mishna,  Ohaloth,  xviii,  7),  but 
they  themselves  rendered  unclean  those  in  whose 
house  they  lodged  (Maimonides,  Mishcab  a  Morheb. 
xii,  12)  which  was  carrying  the  matter  farther  than 
the  Egyptians  (see  also  Mitsvoth  Torn,  1-18).  We  do 
not  trace  these  instances,  however,  before  the  Captiv- 
ity (see  J.  D.  Winkler,  Animadvers.  I'hilol.  ii,,  175 
sq.).     See  Uncleanness. 

The  second  passage  is  Gen.  xlvi,  34.  Joseph  is  tell- 
ing his  brethren  how  to  conduct  themselves  when  in- 
troduced to  the  king  of  Egypt ;  and  he  instructs  them 
that  when  asked  concerning  their  occupation  they 
should  answer,  "  Thy  servants'  trade  hath  been  about 
cattle  from  our  youth  even  until  now,  both  ice  and  also 
ow fathers."  This  last  clause  has  emphasis,  as  show- 
ing that  they  were  hereditary  nomade  pastors ;  and 
the  reason  is  added, '"  That  ye  may  dwell  in  the  land  of 
Goshen,yw  every  shepherd  is  an  abomination  (!"D3;ifi) 
unto  the  Egyptians."  In  the  former  instance  they 
were  "an  abomination"  as  strangers,  with  whom  the 
Egyptians  could  not  eat ;  here  they  are  a  further 
abomination  as  nomade  shepherds,  whom  it  was  certain 
that  the  Egyptians,  for  that  reason,  would  locate  in 
the  border  land  of  Goshen,  and  not  in  the  heart  of  the 
countnr.  That  it  was  nomade  shepherds,  or  Bedou- 
ins, and  not  simply  shepherds,  who  were  abominable 
to  the  Egyptians,  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  the  Egyp- 
tians themselves  paid  great  attention  to  the  rearing  of 
cattle.  This  is  shown  by  their  sculptures  and  paint- 
ings, as  well  as  by  the  offer  of  this  very  king  of  Egypt 
to  make  such  of  Jacob's  sons  as  were  men  of  activity 
"  overseers  of  his  cattle"  (xlvii,  G).  For  this  aversion 
to  nomade  pastors  two  reasons  are  given  ;  and  it  is  not 
necessary  that  we  should  choose  between  them,  for 
both  of  them  were,  it  is  most  likely,  concurrently  true. 
One  is,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Lower  and  Middle 
Egypt  had  previously  been  invaded  by,  and  had  re- 
mained for  many  j-ears  subject  to,  a  tribe  of  nomade 
shepherds,  who  had  only  of  late  been  expelled,  and  a 
native  dynast}'  restored — the  grievous  oppression  of 
the  Egyptians  by  these  pastoi-al  invaders,  and  the  in- 
sult with  which  their  religion  had  been  treated.  See 
Hyksos,  The  other  reason,  not  necessarily  supersed- 
ing the  former,  but  rather  strengthening  it,  is  that  the 
Egyptians,  as  a  settled  and  civilized  people,  detested 
the  lawless  and  predator}'  habits  of  the  wandering 
shepherd  tribes,  which  then,  as  now,  bounded  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile  and  occupied  the  Arabias — a  state  of 
feeling  which  modern  travellers  describe  as  still  exist- 
ing between  the  Bedouin  and  fellahs  of  modern  Egypt, 
and  indeed  between  the  same  classes  everywhere  in 
Turkey,  Persia,  and  the  neighboring  regions  (see  Crit- 
ic* Sac.  Thes.  Nov.  i,  220).     See  Shepherd. 

The  third  marked  use  of  this  word  again  occurs  in 
Egypt.  The  king  tells  the  Israelites  to  offer  to  their 
god  the  sacrifices  which  they  desired,  without  going 


to  the  desert  for  that  purpose.  To  this  Moses  ob- 
jects that  they  should  have  to  sacrifice  to  the  Lord 
uthe  abomination  (FiaSjift)  of  the  Egyptians,"  who 
would  thereby  be  highly  exasperated  against  them 
(Exod.  viii,  2G).  A  reference  back  to  the  first  ex- 
planation shows  that  this  "abomination"  was  the 
cow,  the  only  animal  which  all  the  Egyptians  agreed 
in  holding  sacred ;  whereas,  in  the  great  sacrifice 
which  the  Hebrews  proposed  to  hold,  not  only  would 
heifers  be  offered,  but  the  people  would  feast  upon 
their  flesh  (see  J.  C.  Dietric,  Antiquiiates,  p.  136). 
See  Apis. 

A  fourth  expression  of  marked  import  is  the  abom- 
ination of  desolation  (DpiJX!  "jT!lp£J,  Dan.  xi,  31 ; 
Sept.  f3£t\vypa  rjQaviffpiivov,  or  ti'Z'CJ  V!|pd ,  Dan. 
xii,  11 ;  Sept.  to  (5Bt\vyua  r//c  kptipuictcnc,  literally, 
filthiness  of  the  desolation,  or,  rather,  desolating  Jilthi- 
ness),  which,  without  doubt,  means  the  idol  or  idola- 
trous apparatus  which  the  desolater  of  Jerusalem 
should  establish  in  the  holy  place  (see  Hitzig,  in  loc). 
This  appears  to  have  been  (in  its  first  application)  a 
prediction  of  the  pollution  of  the  temple  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  who  caused  an  idolatrous  altar  to  be  built 
on  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings,  whereon  unclean  things 
were  offered  to  Jupiter  Olympius,  to  whom  the  tem- 
ple itself  was  dedicated  (see  Hoffman,  in  loc).  Jo- 
sephirs  distinctly  refers  to  this  as  the  accomplishment 
of  Daniel's  prophecy  ;  as  does  the  author  of  the  first 
book  of  Maccabees,  in  declaring  that  "  they  set  up  the 
abomination  of  desolation  (rb  jiSiXvypa  r//£  ip7jpdj- 
o-hoc)  upon  the  altar"  (1  Mace,  i,  59;  vi,  7;  2  Mace, 
vi,  2-5  ;  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  5,  4  ;  xii,  7,  G).  The  phrase 
is  quoted  by  Jesus  in  the  same  form  (Matt,  xxiv,  15), 
and  is  applied  by  him  to  what  was  to  take  place  at  the 
advance  of  the  Romans  against  Jerusalem.  They  who 
saw  "the  abomination  of  desolation  standing  in  the 
holy  place"  were  enjoined  to  "  flee  to  the  mountains." 
This  may  with  probability  be  referred  to  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Roman  army  against  the  city  with  their 
image-crowned  standards,  to  which  idolatrous  honors 
were  paid,  and  which  the  Jews  regarded  as  idols. 
'The  unexpected  retreat  and  discomfiture  of  the  Roman 
forces  afforded  such  as  were  mindful  of  our  Saviour's 
prophecy  an  opportunity  of  obeying  the  injunction 
which  it  contained.  That  the  Jews  themselves  re- 
garded the  Roman  standards  as  abominations  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that,  in  deference  to  their  known  aversion, 
the  Roman  soldiers  quartered  in  Jerusalem  forbore  to 


Ancient  Roman  Standard?. 


ABOMINATION 


26 


ABOMINATION 


introduce  their  standards  into  the  city;  and  on  one 
occasion,  when  Pilate  gave  orders  that  they  should  be 
carried  in  by  night,  so  much  stir  was  made  in  the 
matter  by  the  principal  inhabitants  that,  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  the  governor  was  eventually  induced  to  give 
up  the  point  (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  3,  1).  Those,  how- 
ever, who  suppose  that  "the  holy  place"  of  the  text 
must  be  the  temple  itself,  may  find  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  prediction  in  the  fact  that,  when  the  city 
had  been  taken  by  the  Romans  and  the  holy  house 
destroyed,  the  soldiers  brought  their  standards  in  due 
form  to  the  temple,  set  them  up  over  the  eastern  gate, 
and  offered  sacrifice  to  them  (Joseph.  War,  vi,  6,  1) ; 
for  (as  Havercamp  notes  from  Tertullian,  Apul.  c. 
xvi,  1G2)  "almost  the  entire  religion  of  the  Roman 
camp  consisted  in  worshipping  the  ensigns,  swearing 
by  the  ensigns,  and  in  preferring  the  ensigns  before 
all  the  other  gods."  Nor  was  this  the  last  appearance 
of  "  the  abomination  of  desolation  in  the  holy  place  ;" 
for  not  onty  did  Hadrian,  with  studied  insult  to  the 
Jews,  set  up  the  figure  of  a  boar  over  the  Bethlehem 
gate  of  the  city  (MUsl  Capitolina)  which  rose  upon 
the  site  and  ruins  of  Jerusalem  (Euseb.  Chn,n.  1.  i,  p. 
45,  ed.  1G58),  but  he  erected  a  temple  to  Jupiter 
upon  the  site  of  the  Jewish  temple  (Dion  Cass,  lxix, 
■12),  and  caused  an  image  of  himself  to  be  set  up 
in  the  part  which  answered  to  the  most  holy  place 
(Nicephorus  Callist.  iii,  24).  This  was  a  consum- 
mation of  all  the  abominations  which  the  iniquities 
of  the  Jews  brought  upon  their  holy  place  (see 
Auberlen,  Dan' el  and  the  Revelation,  p.  161  sq.). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Jerusalem. 

In  Dan.  ix,  27,  the  phrase  is  somewhat  different  and 
peculiar:  dB\37a  C1^™'^  T33  bv"\,  which  (as  point- 
ed in  the  text)  must  be  rendered,  And  upon  the  wing 
of  filthinesses  that  desolates,  or  {there  shall  be)  a  desola- 
ter;  but  the  Sept.  has  t-l  to  ispov  ficeXvypa  twv 
iprjpdjo-ewv  (v.  r.  rijc  tpi]/.tw(re<x)c)  tcTai,  Vulg.  et  erit 
in  1<  mplo  abominntio  desolationis ;  a  sense  that  is  fol- 
lowed by  Christ  in  his  allusion  (Matt,  xxiv,  15),  and 
which  may  be  attained  by  a  slight  change  of  pointing 
(7*3  in  the  "absolute"),  and  so  rendering,  "And 
upon  the  wing  (of  the  sacred  edifice  there  shall  be) 
jilthinesses,  even  a  desolater."  Eosenmuller  (Scholia  in 
Vet.  Test,  in  loc.)  understands  the  "wing"  (~32)  to 
signify  the  hostile  army  or  battalion  detached  for  that 
purpose  (a  sense  corresponding  to  the  Latin  aid),  at 
the  head  of  which  the  proud  Gentile  general  should 
enter  the  city.  Stuart,  on  the  other  hand  (Commen- 
tary on  Daniel,  in  loc),  likewise  interpreting  the  whole 
passage  as  denoting  exclusively  the  pollution  of  the 
temple  caused  by  Antiochus,  translates  the  verse  in 
question  thus,  "  And  over  the  winged-fowl  of  abomi- 
nations shall  be  a  waster,"  and  applies  the  "  wing" 
(?23,  i.  q.  "fowl,"  in  our  version  "overspreading") 
to  a  "statue  of  Jupiter  Olympius  erected  in  the  temple  ; 
and  this  statue,  as  is  well  known,  usually  stood  over 
an  eagle  at  its  feet  with  wide-spread  wings."  Both 
these  interpretations,  however,  appear  too  fanciful.  It 
U  preferable  to  render  T32,  with  Gesenius  (Thesaur. 
lleb.  p.  698),  Furst  (/A//.  Handw.  s.  v.),  and  the  mar- 
ginal translation,  a  battlement,  i.  c.  of  the  temple,  like 
irrepvyiov,  in  Matt.  iv.  5;  both  words  meaning  literal- 
ly a  wing,  and  applied  in  each  case  to  a  corner  or  sum- 
mit of  the  wall  inclosing  the  temple.  Neither  can 
we  so  easily  dispose  of  our  Saviour's  reference  to  this 
prophecy,  since  he  speaks  of  it  as  about  to  be  fulfilled 
in  tli.-  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  It  appears  to  tally 
completely  with  that  event  in  all  its  particulars,  and 
to  have  had  at  most  but  a  primary  and  typical  fulfil- 
ment in  the  case  of  Antiochus  (q.  v.).  (For  the  dates 
involved  in  this  coincidence,  see  the  Meth.  Q/:ar.  Re- 
view, July,  1850,  p.  494  sq.)  See  Seventy  Weeks. 
The  distinction  attempted  by  some  (Alford  and  Ols- 
hausen,  in  loc.)  between  the  events  referred  to  in 


this  passage  and  in  Luke  xxi,  20,  is  nugatory,  for 
they  are  obviously  parallel  (see  Strong's  Harmon)/, 
§  123).  Meyer  (in  loc.)  thinks  the  pollution  desig- 
nated was  but  "the  horrible  desolation  by  the  Ro- 
mans of  the  temple  area  generally,"  but  the  terms 
are  more  explicit  than  this.  The  allusion  cannot  in 
any  case  be  to  a  profanation  of  the  sacred  precincts  by 
the  Jews  themselves,  for  the  excesses  of  the  Zealots 
(q.  v.)  during  the  final  siege  (Josephus,  War,  iv,  3,  7) 
were  never  directed  to  the  introduction  of  idolatry 
there ;  whereas  the  first  act  of  heathen  occupancy  was 
the  erection  of  the  standards  crowned  with  the  bird  of 
victory — a  circumstance  that  may  be  hinted  at  in  the 
peculiar  term  "  wing"  here  employed  (see  F.  Nolan, 
Warburton  Led.  p.  183).     See  Banner. 

A  still  more  important  difference  among  commen- 
tators, as  to  the  meaning  of  the  expression  in  question, 
has  respect  to  the  point,  whether  the  abomination, 
which  somehow  should  carry  along  with  it  the  curse 
of  desolation,  ought  to  be  understood  of  the  idolatrous 
and  corrupt  practices  which  should  inevitably  draw 
down  desolating  inflictions  of  vengeance,  or  of  the 
heathen  powers  and  weapons  of  war  that  should  be 
the  immediate  instruments  of  executing  them.  The 
following  are  the  reasons  assigned  for  understanding 
the  expression  of  the  former:  1.  By  far  the  most  com- 
mon use  of  the  term  abomination  or  abominations,  when 
referring  to  spiritual  things,  and  especial]}'  to  things 
involving  severe  judgments  and  sweeping  desolation, 
is  in  respect  to  idolatrous  and  other  foul  corruptions. 
It  was  the  pollution  of  the  first  temple,  or  the  worship 
connected  with  it  by  such  things,  which  in  a  whole 
series  of  passages  is  described  as  the  abominations 
that  provoked  God  to  lav  it  in  ruins  (2  Kings  xxi, 
2-i3;  Jer.  vii,  10-14;  Ezek.  v,  11;  vii,  8,  9,  20-23). 
And  our  Lord  very  distinctly  intimated,  by  referring 
on  another  occasion  to  some  of  these  passages,  that  as 
the  same  wickedness  substantially  was  lifting  itself  up 
anew,  the  same  retributions  of  evil  might  certainly  be 
expected  to  chastise  them  (Matt,  xxi,  13).  2.  When 
reference  is  made  to  the  prophecy  in  Daniel  it  is  coupled 
with  a  word,  "  AVhoso  readeth  let  him  understand," 
which  seems  evidently  to  point  to  a  profound  spiritual 
meaning  in  the  prophecy,  such  as  thoughtful  and  se- 
rious minds  alone  could  apprehend.  But  this  could 
only  be  the  case  if  abominations  in  the  moral  sense 
were  meant ;  for  the  defiling  and  desolating  effect  of 
heathen  armies  planting  themselves  in  the  holy  place 
was  what  a  child  might  perceive.  Such  dreadful  and 
unseemly  intruders  were  but  the  outward  signs  of  the 
real  abominations,  which  cried  for  vengeance  in  the 
ear  of  heaven.  The  compassing  of  Jerusalem  with 
armies,  therefore,  mentioned  in  Luke  xxi,  20,  ready 
to  bring  the  desolation,  is  not  to  lie  regarded  as  the 
same  with  the  abomination  of  desolation  ;  it  indicated 
a  farther  stage  of  matters.  3.  The  abominations  which 
were  the  cause  of  the  desolations  are  ever  spoken  of 
as  springing  up  from  within,  among  the  covenant  peo- 
ple themselves,  not  as  invasions  from  without.  They 
are  so  represented  in  Daniel  also  (ch.  xi,  .".0,  32;  xii, 
9,  10);  and  that  the  Jews  themselves,  the  better  sort 
of  them  at  least,  so  understood  the  matter,  is  plain 
from  1  Mace,  i,  54-57,  where,  with  reference  to  the  two 
passages  of  Daniel  just  noticed,  the  heathen-inclined 
party  in  Israel  are  represented,  in  the  time  of  Anti- 
ochus, as  the  real  persons  who  "set  up  the  abomina- 
tion of  desolation  and  built  idol  altars;"  comp.  also 
2  Mace,  iv,  15-17.  (See  Hengstenberg  on  the  <:<  nv- 
ineness  of  Daniel,  ch.  iii,  §  3;  and  Christolog//,  at  Dan. 
ix,  27,  with  the  authorities  there  referred  to.)  These 
arguments,  however,  seem  to  be  outweighed  by  the 
conclusive  historical  fact  that  the  material  ensigns  of 
paganism  were  actually  erected  both  by  the  Syrian 
and  Roman  conquerors  in  the  place  in  question,  and 
in  so  plainly  physical  a  prediction,  it  is  most  natural 
to  suppose  that  both  Daniel  and  our  Lord  intended  to 
refer  to  this  palpable  circumstance.    See  Desolation. 


ABOTH 


27 


ABRAHAM 


Aboth.     See  Mishna. 


Abrabanel,  Abrabenel,  or  Abravanal  (also 
called  Abarbanel,,  Abravenel,  Barbaxkli.a,  Ra- 
vaxella),  Isaac,  a  famous  rabbi,  born  at  Lisbon, 1437. 
He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and  distinguished 
Jewish  family,  which  claimed  to  be  able  to  trace  their 
pedigree  to  king  David.  He  was  a  favorite  of  Alphon- 
so  V  of  Portugal,  but  after  that  king's  death  he  was 
charged  with  certain  misdemeanors  and  compelled  to 
quit  Portugal.  He  took  refuge  in  Castile,  where  he 
obtained  (1484)  employment  under  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella; but,  in  1492,  with  the  rest  of  the  Jews,  he  was 
driven  out  of  the  kingdom.  He  went  at  first  (1493)  to 
Naples,  where  he  gained  the  confidence  of  king  Ferdi- 
nand I.  After  the  conquest  of  Naples  by  Charles  VIII 
of  France,  he  followed  Alphonso  II  to  Italy.  After 
the  death  of  Alphonso  he  flew  to  Corfu,  then  (1496) 
to  Monopoli,  a  town  of  Apulia,  and  ultimately  (1503) 
to  Venice,  in  which  city  he  became  very  popular  by 
terminating  a  conflict  between  the  Venetians  and  the 
Portuguese.  He  finally  died  at  Venice,  1508.  His 
body  was  brought  to  Padua,  and  there  buried  with  the 
greatest  honors  on  the  part  of  the  republic  of  Venice. 
Abrabanel  was  an  indefatigable  student  and  writer, 
and  is  placed  by  the  Jews  almost  in  the  same  rank 
with  Maimonides.  He  wrote  bitterly  against  Chris- 
tianity, but  his  commentaries  are  nevertheless  much 
esteemed,  as  he  is  very  careful  in  illustrating  the  lit- 
eral sense  of  the  text.  The  most  important  of  them 
are,  fHlPlfl  ItJ'HB,  a  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch 
(fol.  Venice,  1579,  and  later  ;  best  ed.  by  Van  Bashuy- 
sen,  fol.  Hanau,  1710);  d^aa  Bird  SO  COS,  a 
Commentary  on  the  Early  Prophets  [.Tosh. -Kings]  (fol. 
Pesaro,  1522 ;  Naples,  i543 ;  best  ed.  by  PfeiiTer  and 
Christiani,  Leipz.  1686)  ;  l*ift!|  B^ailON:  B"X"-?  B 
"i&")  a  Commentary  on  the  [properly  so  called]  Prophets 
(fol.  Pesaro,  1520  ;  best  ed.  Amst.  1641) ;  biOa'n  B,  a 
Commentary  on  Daniel  (4to,  Naples,  s.  d. ;  Ferrara, 
1651,  and  later;  best  ed.  Venice,  1652).  This  com- 
mentary contains  the  strongest  invectives  against 
Christ  and  the  Christians,  though  some  of  them  are 
omitted  in  the  second  edition  (see  De  Rossi,  Blbl.  Jud. 
Antichr.  p.  7  sq.),  and  it  therefore  called  forth  a  large 
number  of  refutations  from  Danz,  C.  l'Empereur,  Seb. 
Schnell,  Pfeiffer,  Koppen,  Brand,  H.  Gebhard,  J.  Fr. 
Weidler,  and  C.  G.  Mundinus.  Latin  translations  were 
published  of  the  Commentaries  on  Nahum  and  Habak- 
kuk  by  J.  Meyer  (in  his  Notes  to  Seder  Olurri) ;  of  the 
commentary  on  Haggai  by  Scherzer  (Trifol.  Or.  Lips. 
1663  and  1672),  and  Abicht  (Select.  Rabb.  Phil.);  of 
the  commentaries  on  Malachi  by  J.  Mej'er  (Hamburg, 
1685).  A  translation  of  the  whole  commentary  was 
made,  but  not  published,  by  a  former  Jew  at  Vienna. 
The  preface  to  this  work  by  Rabbi  Baruch  gives  an 
essay  on  the  life  and  the  writings  of  Abrabanel,  com- 
piled from  his  works.  He  also  wrote  nz.'Vw""1  S^H E3?2 
(fie raid  of  salvation),  an  explanation  of  the  principal 
Messianic  passages  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  which 
work  a  complete  system  of  the  views  of  the  Jewish 
theology  concerning  the  Messiah  is  given.  This  work, 
in  which  Abrabanel  gives  full  scope  to  his  animosity 
against  the  Christians,  was  prepared  by  him  at  Mo- 
nopoli, and  for  the  first  time  published  (in  4to)  without 
the  name  of  place  (probably  at  Salonichi)  in  1526 
(again,  Amsterdam,  1644 ;  Offenbach,  1767).  A  Latin 
translation,  under  the  title  Pneco  Snlutis,  was  pub- 
lished by  H.  May  (Francfort-on-the-Main,  1712,  4to), 
who,  in  the  room  of  a  preface,  gives  a  biography  of 
Abrabanel.  i"l3"X  w'SO  (head  of  security),  a  treatise 
on  the  articles  of  the  Jewish  faith  (first  ed.,  Constan- 
tinople, 1505,  fol.).  E*?"?  *"09?  (crown  of  old  men), 
one  of  the  first  works  of  the  author,  in  which  he  treats 
of  the  different  kinds  of  prophecy  (first  printed  at  Sa- 
bionetta,  1537, 4to).     bifida  W^S  (wnb  of  God), 


a  philosophical  treatise  on  the  creation  of  the  world, 
in  which  he  argues  against  the  assumption  of  an  eter- 
nity of  the  world  (Venice,  1592,  4to).  Several  works 
of  Abrabanel  have  not  been  printed  yet.  The  pro- 
posal of  Bashuj'sen  to  issue  a  complete  edition  of  all 
the  works  of  Abrabanel  lias  never  been  executed.  All 
his  works  were  in  Hebrew,  but  many  of  his  Disserta- 
tions have  been  translated  into  Latin  by  Buxtorf  (4tO, 
Basil,  1660)  and  others.  Although  he  spent  many 
years  at  royal  courts,  Abrabanel,  in  one  of  Lis  works, 
expressed  very  decided  republican  0]  inions.  He  left 
two  sons,  one  of  whom  distinguished  himself  as  a  phy- 
sician and  as  the  author  of  an  Italian  poem,  Dialogi 
d'Amore;  the  other  embraced  the  Christian  religion. 
The  son  of  the  latter  published  at  Venice,  in  1552,  a 
collection  of  Hebrew  letters. — Winer,  Theol.  Lit.  vol. 
i  ;  Fi'irst,  Bib.  Jud.  i,  11  sq. ;  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Judt  nthums, 
iii,  104 ;  Wolf,  Biblioth.  Hebraica,  iii,  544  ;  Mai,  Disser- 
tatio  de  origine,  vita  et  scriptis  Abrabanklis  (Altdorf. 
1708);  Hoefer,  Biographic  Generate,  i,  31;  Ersch  and 
Gruber,  Encycl.  s.  v. 

Abracadabra,  a  magical  word  of  factitious  origin, 
like  most  alliterative  incantations.  It  is  found  on  one 
of  the  amulets  under  which  the  Basilidian  heretics 
were  supposed  to  conceal  the  name  of  God.  It  was 
derived  from  the  Syrian  worship,  and  was  recommend- 
ed as  a  magical  charm  against  ague  and  fever.  It  is 
described  by  Serenus  Sammonicus  (the  elder),  who  is 
usually  classed,  apparently  without  reason,  among  the 
followers  of  Basilides  (q.  v.).  The  word  was  written 
in  a  kind  of  inverted  cone,  omitting  the  last  letter  every 
time  it  is  repeated.  The  lines  of  Serenus  (De  Medi- 
cina)  which  describe  it  are  as  follows  : 

"Mortiferum  magi*  est,  quod  Grse  :ia  licmitrittcum 
Vulgatur  verbis  hue  nostra  dicere  lingua 
Non  potuere  ulli,  nee  voluere  parentes. 
Inseribis  Charts?,  quod  dicitur  Abracadabra, 
Sirpius  et  subter  repetis,  sed  detrahe  eummnm, 
Kt  magis  atque  magis  desint  elementa  figuria 
Singula,  qua;  semper  r  pies,  et  csetera  figes, 
Donee,  in  angustum  redigatur  litera  eoiium. 
His  lino  nexis  collum  redimere  memento,"  etc. 
Thus, 

ABRACADABRA 
A    15    R    A    C    A    D    A    B    R 
A    B     R    A    C    A    D    A    B 
A    B     R    A    C    A     D     A 
A    B    R    ACAD 
A    B    R    A    C    A 
A    B    R    A    C 
A    B    R    A 
A    B    R 
A    B 
A 
Different  opinions  have  been  advanced  as  to  the 
origin  and  meaning  of  the  word.      Basnage  ascribed  it 
to  an  Egyptian,  Beausobre  a  Greek,  others  a  Hebrew 
origin,  but  Grotefend  (in  Ersch  and  Gruber,  Encycl. 
s.  v.)  tries  to  prove  that  it  is  of  Persian  (or  rather 
Pehlevi)  origin.    As  Greek  amulets  are  inscribed  with 
ABPACADABPA,   he    considers   it   certain   that   the 
word  ought  to  be  pronounced  Abrasadabra.     He  de- 
rives it  from  the  Persian  A brasax  (the  name  of  the  Su- 
preme Being)  and  the  Chaldee  word  SOSQ'n  (///'  utter- 
ance), so  that  the  meaning  of  it  is  "a  divine  oracle." 
This  explanation,  Grotefend  thinks,  throws  some  light 
on  other  magical  words  which  the  Rasilidians  used  in 
nearly  the  same  manner  as  the  Thibetans  and  Mongo- 
lians their  Hommani  Peme-ffum ;  as  the  Palendrones 
Ablanathanalba  and  Amoroma. — Lardner,  Works,  viii, 
683;  C.  F.  Ducange,  Glossarium,  s.  v.     See  Abraxas. 
A'braham  (Heb.  Abraham',  bJTnaX,  father  of 
a  multitude;    Sept.   and   N.   T.    'Afipaaft,   Josephus, 
"Afipafioe),  the  founder  of  the.  Hebrew  nation.     Dp 
to  Gen.  xvii,  4,  5  (also  in  1  Ohron.  i,  27;  Neh.  ix,  7), 
he  is  uniformly  called  ABRAM  (Heb.  Abram',  "=>?, 
father  of  elevation,  or  hgh  father;  Sept.  "  lf3pctfi)  :  but 
the  extended  form  there  given  to  it  is  significant  of 


ABRAHAM 


28 


ABRAHAM 


the  promise  of  a  numerous  posterity  which  was  at  the 
same  time  made  to  him.      See  infra. 

I.  History. — Abraham  was  a  native  of  Chahhea,  and 
descended,  through  Heber,  in  the  ninth  generation, 
from  Shem  the  son  of  Noah  (see  F.  Lee,  Disserta- 
tions, ii,  78  sq.).  His  father  was  Terah,  who  had 
two  other  sons,  Nahor  and  Haran.  Ilaran  died  pre- 
maturely "  before  his  father,"  leaving  a  son,  Lot, 
and  two  daughters,  Milcah  and  Iscah.  Lot  attach- 
ed himself  to  his  uncle  Abraham  ;  Milcah  became  the 
wife  of  her  uncle  Nahor;  and  Iscah,  who  was  also 
called  Sarai,  became  the  wife  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi, 
26-29;  comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  i,  G,  5).  See  Iscah. 
Abraham  was  born  A.M.  2009,  B.C.  21G4,  in  "  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees"  (Gen.  xi,  28).  The  concise  history  in 
Genesis  states  nothing  concerning  the  portion  of  his 
life  prior  to  the  age  of  about  70.  There  are  indeed 
traditions,  but  they  are  too  manifestly  built  tip  on  the 
foundation  of  a  few  obscure  intimations  in  Scripture  to 
be  entitled  to  any  credit  (see  Weil's  Biblical  Legends'). 
Thus  it  is  intimated  in  Josh,  xxiv,  2,  that  Terah  and 
his  family  "  served  other  gods"  beyond  the  Euphrates  ; 
and  on  this  has  been  found  the  romance  that  Terah 
was  not  only  a  worshipper,  but  a  maker  of  idols ;  that 
the  youthful  Abraham,  discovering  the  futility  of  such 
gods,  destroyed  all  those  his  father  had  made,  and  jus- 
tified the  act  in  various  conversations  and  arguments 
with  Terah,  which  we  find  repeated  at  length.  Again, 
"  Ur  of  the  Chaldees"  was  the  name  of  the  place  where 
Abraham  was  born,  and  from  which  he  went  forth  to 
go,  he  knew  not  whither,  at  the  call  of  God.  Now 
Ur  (I^X)  means  fire;  and  we  may  therefore  read  that 
he  came  forth  from  the  fire  of  the  Chaldees,  on  which 
has  been  built  the  story  that  Abraham  was,  for  his 
disbelief  in  the  established  idols,  cast  by  king  Nimrod 
into  a  burning  furnace,  from  which  he  was  by  special 
miracle  delivered.  And  to  this  the  premature  death 
of  Haran  has  suggested  the  addition  that  he,  by  way 
of  punishment  for  his  disbelief  of  the  truths  for  which 
Abraham  suffered,  was  marvellously  destroyed  by  the 
same  fire  from  which  his  brother  was  still  more  mar- 
vellously preserved.  Again,  the  fact  that  Chaldsea 
was  the  region  in  which  astronomy  wras  reputed  to 
have  been  first  cultivated,  suggested  that  Abraham 
brought  astronomy  westward,  and  that  he  even  taught 
that  science  to  the  Egyptians  (Josephus,  Ant.  i,  8). 
It  is  just  to  Josephus  to  state  that  most  of  these  stories 
are  rejected  by  him,  although  the  tone  of  some  of  his 
remarks  is  in  agreement  with  them.  Abraham  is, 
by  way  of  eminence,  named  first,  but  it  appears  that 
he  was  not  the  oldest  (nor  probably  the  youngest, 
but  rather  the  second)  of  Terah's  sons,  born  (perhaps 
by  a  second  wife)  when  his  father  was  130  years  old 
(see  N.  Alexander,  Hist.  Eccles.  i,  287  sq.).  Terah 
was  seventy  years  old  when  the  eldest  son  was  born 
(Gen.  xi,  32;  xii,  4;  xx,  12;  comp.  Hales,  ii,  107); 
and  that  eldest  son  appears  to  have  been  Haran, 
from  the  fact  that  his  brothers  married  his  daugh- 
ters, and  that  his  daughter  Sarai  was  only  ten 
years  younger  than  his  brother  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii, 
17).  Abraham  must  have  been  about  70  years  old 
when  the  family  quitted  their  native  city  of  Ur, 
and  went  and  abode  in  Charran  (for  he  was  75  years 
old  when  he  left  Ilaran,  and  his  stay  there  could  not 
well  have  been  longer  than  five  years  at  most).  The 
reason  for  this  movement  does  not  appear  in  the  Old 
Testament.  Josephus  alleges  that  Terah  could  not 
hear  to  remain  in  the  place  where  Haran  had  died 
(Ant.  i,  0,  5);  while  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith, 
in  conformity  with  the  traditions  still  current  among 
the  Jews  and  Moslems,  affirms  that  they  were  cast 
forth  because  they  would  no  longer  worship  the  gods 
of  the  land  (Judith  v,  G-8).  The  real  cause  transpires 
in  Acts  vii,  2-4:  "The  God  of  -lory  appeared  to  our 
father  Abraham  while  he  was  (at  Ur  of  the  Chaldees) 
in  Mesopotamia,  before  h<  da-ilt  in  Charran,  and  said 
unto  him,  Depart  from  thy  land,  and  from  thy  kin- 


dred, and  come  hither  to  a  land  which  /  will  shew 
thee.  Then  departing  from  the  land  of  the  Chaldees, 
he  dwelt  in  Charran."  This  first  call  is  not  recorded, 
but  onlj-  implied  in  Gen.  xii ;  and  it  is  distinguished 
by  several  pointed  circumstances  from  the  second, 
which  alone  is  there  mentioned.  Accordingly  Abra- 
ham departed,  and  his  family,  including  his  aged  fa- 
ther, removed  with  him.  They  proceeded  not  at  once 
to  the  land  of  Canaan,  which,  indeed,  had  not  been 
yet  indicated  to  Abraham  as  his  destination ;  but  they 
'  came  to  Haran,  and  tarried  at  that  convenient  station 
for  five  current  years,  until  Terah  died,  at  the  age  of 
205  years.  Being  free  from  his  filial  duties,  Abraham, 
now  75  years  of  age,  received  a  second  and  more 
pointed  call  to  pursue  his  destination  :  "  Depart  from 
thy  land  and  from  thy  kindred,  and  from  thy  father's 
house,  unto  the  land  which  I  will  shew  thee"  (Gen. 
xii,  1).  The  difference  of  the  two  calls  is  obvious;  in 
the  former  the  land  is  indefinite,  1  icing  designed  only 
for  a  temporary  residence  ;  in  the  latter  it  is  definite, 
intimating  a  permanent  abode.  A  third  condition 
was  also  annexed  to  the  latter  call,  that  he  should 
separate  from  his  father's  house,  and  leave  his  broth- 
er Nahor's  family  behind  him  in  Charran.  He,  how- 
ever, took  with  him  his  nephew  Lot,  whom,  having 
no  children  of  his  own,  he  appears  to  have  regarded 
as  his  heir,  and  then  went  forth,  "  not  knowing  whither 
he  went"  (Heb.  xi,  8),  but  trusting  implicitly  to  the 
Divine  guidance.  (See  Philo,  Opera,  i,  436;  ii,  43; 
Saurin,  Discours,  i,  1G1 ;  Dissert,  p.  92  ;  Simeon,  Worhs, 
i,  100;  Roberts,  Semens,  p.  52;  Hunter,  Sac.  Biog. 
p.  55  sq.).     See  Ur  ;  Haran. 

Abraham  probably  took  the  same  route  as  Jacob 
afterward,  along  the  valley  of  the  Jabbok,  to  the  land 
of  Canaan,  which  he  found  thinly  occupied  by  the  Ca- 
naanites,  in  a  large  number  of  small  independent  com- 
munities, who  cultivated  the  districts  around  their  sev- 
eral towns,  leaving  ample  pasture-grounds  for  wander- 
ing shepherds.  In  Mesopotamia  the  family  had  been 
pastoral,  but  dwelling  in  towns  and  houses,  and  send- 
ing out  the  flocks  and  herds  under  the  care  of  shep- 
herds. But  the  migratory  life  to  which  Abraham  had 
now  been  called  compelled  him  to  take  to  the  tent- 
dwelling  as  well  as  the  pastoral  life ;  and  the  usages 
which  his  subsequent  history  indicates  are  therefore 
found  to  present  a  condition  of  manners  and  habits 
analogous  to  that  which  still  exists  among  the  nomadc 
pastoral  or  Bedouin  tribes  of  south-western  Asia.  The 
rich  pastures  in  that  part  of  the  countiy  tempted 
Abraham  to  form  his  first  encampment  in  the  vale  of 
Moreh,  which  lies  between  the  mountains  of  Ebal  and 
Gerizim.  Here  the  strong  faith  which  had  brought 
the  childless  man  thus  far  from  his  home  was  reward- 
ed by  the  grand  promise  :  "  I  will  make  of  thee  a  great 
nation,  and  I  will  bless  thee  and  make  thy  name  great, 
and  thou  shalt  be  a  blessing  ;  and  I  will  bless  them 
that  bless  thee,  and  curse  them  that  curse  thee:  and 
in  thee  shall  all  the  families  of  the  earth  be  blessed" 
(Gen.  xii,  2,  3).  It  was  further  promised  that  to  his 
posterity  should  be  given  the  rich  heritage  of  that 
beautiful  country  into  which  he  had  come  (v.  7).  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  important  promise  consisted  of 
two  parts — the  one  temporal,  the  other  spiritual.  The 
temporal  was  the  promise  of  posterity,  that  he  should 
be  blessed  himself,  and  be  the  founder  of  a  great  na- 
tion ;  the  spiritual,  that  he  should  be  the  chosen  an- 
cestor of  the  Redeemer,  who  had  been  of  old  obscurely 
predicted  (Gen.  iii,  15),  and  thereby  become  the  means 
of  I  Jessing  all  the  families  of  the  earth.  The  implied 
condition  on  his  part  was  that  he  should  publicly  pro- 
fess the  worship  of  the  true  Cod  in  this  more  tolerant 
land;  and,  accordingly,  "  he  built  there  an  altar  unto 
the  Lord,  who  appeared  unto  him."  He  soon  after, 
perhaps  in  consequence  of  the  jealousy  of  the  Canaan- 
ites,  removed  to  the  strong  mountain-district  between 
Bethel  and  Ai,  where  he  also  built  an  altar  to  that 
"Jehovah"  whom  the  world  was  then  hastening  to 


ABRAHAM 


29 


ABRAHAM 


forget.  His  farther  removals  tended  southward,  until 
at  length  a  famine  in  Palestine  compelled  him  to  with- 
draw into  Egypt,  where  corn  abounded.  Here  his  ap- 
prehension that  the  beauty  of  his  wife  Sarai  might 
bring  him  into  danger  with  the  dusk}'  Egyptians  over- 
came his  faith  and  rectitude,  and  he  gave  out  that  she 
was  his  sister  (comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  i,  8,  1).  As  he 
had  feared,  the  beauty  of  the  fair  stranger  excited  the 
admiration  of  the  Egyptians,  and  at  length  reached 
the  ears  of  the  king,  who  forthwith  exercised  his  regal 
Tight  of  calling  her  to  his  harem,  and  to  this  Abraham, 
appearing  as  only  her  brother,  was  obliged  to  submit 
(comp.  Josephus,  liar,  v,  9,  4).  As,  however,  the 
king  had  no  intention  to  act  harshly  in  the  exercise  of 
his  privilege,  he  loaded  Abraham  with  valuable  gifts, 
suited  to  his  condition,  being  chiefly  in  slaves  and  cat- 
tle. These  presents  could  not  have  been  refused  by 
him  without  an  insult  which,  under  all  the  circum- 
stances, the  king  did  not  deserve.  A  grievous  disease 
inflicted  on  Pharaoh  and  his  household  relieved  Sarai 
from  her  danger  by  revealing  to  the  king  that  she  was 
a  married  woman  ;  on  which  he  sent  for  Abraham,  and, 
after  rebuking  him  for  his  conduct,  restored  his  wife  to 
him,  and  recommended  him  to  withdraw  from  the 
country.  The  period  of  his  stay  in  Egypt  is  not  re- 
corded, but  it  is  from  this  time  that  his  wealth  and 
power  appear  to  have  begun  (Gen.  xii,  1C).  If  the  do- 
minion of  the  Hyksos  in  Memphis  is  to  lie  referred  to 
this  epoch,  as  seems  not  improbable  [sec  Egypt],  then, 
since  they  were  akin  to  the  Hebrews,  it  is  not  impossi- 
ble that  Abram  may  have  taken  part  in  their  war  of 
conquest,  and  so  have  had  another  recommendation  to 
the  favor  of  Pharaoh.  He  accordingly  returned  to  the 
land  of  Canaan,  much  richer  than  when  he  left  it  "in 
cattle,  in  silver,  and  in  gold"  (Gen.  xiii,  2).  It  was 
probably  on  his  way  back  that  his  sojourn  in  the  ter- 
ritories of  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar,  occurred.  This 
period  was  one  of  growth  in  power  and  wealth,  as  the 
respect  of  Abimelech,  and  his  alarm  for  the  future,  so 
natural  in  the  chief  of  a  race  of  conquering  invaders, 
very  clearly  shows.  Abram*s  settlement  at  Beershe- 
ba,  on  the  borders  of  the  desert,  near  the  Amalekitc 
plunderers,  shows  both  that  he  needed  room,  and  was 
able  to  protect  himself  and  his  flocks.  It  is  true,  the 
order  of  the  narrative  seems  to  place  this  event  some 
twenty-three  years  later,  after  the  destruction  of  Sod- 
om ;  but  Sarah's  advanced  age  at  that  time  precludes 
the  possibility  of  her  seizure  by  the  Philistine  king. 
By  a  most  extraordinary  infatuation,  Abraham  allow- 
ed himself  to  stoop  to  the  same  mean  and  foolish  pre- 
varication in  denying  his  wife  which  had  just  occasion- 
ed him  so  much  trouble  in  Egypt.  The  result  was 
also  similar  [see  Abimelech],  except  that  Abraham 
answered  the  rebuke  of  the  Philistine  by  stating  the 
fears  by  which  he  had  been  actuated,  adding,  "And 
yet  indeed  she  is  my  sister ;  she  is  the  daughter  of  my 
father,  but  not  the  daughter  of  my  mother ;  and  she 
became  my  wife."  This  mends  the  matter  very  lit- 
tle, since,  in  calling  her  his  sister,  he  designed  to  be 
understood  as  saying  she  was  not  his  wife.  As  he 
elsewhere  calls  Lot  his  "  brother,"  this  statement  that 
Sarah  was  his  "  sister"  does  not  interfere  with  the 
probability  that  she  was  his  niece.  The  occurrence, 
however,  broke  up  his  encampment  there,  and  expe- 
dited the  return  of  the  entire  party  northward.  Lot 
also  had  much  increased  his  possessions  ;  and  after 
their  return  to  their  previous  station  near  Bethel, 
the  disputes  between  their  respective  shepherds  about 
water  and  pasturage  soon  taught  them  that  the}-  had 
better  separate.  The  recent  promise  of  posterity  to 
Abraham  himself,  although  his  wife  had  been  account- 
ed barren,  probably  tended  also  in  some  degree  to 
weaken  the  tie  by  which  the  uncle  and  nephew  had 
hitherto  been  united.  The  subject  was  broached  by 
Abraham,  who  generously  conceded  to  Lot  the  choice 
of  pasture-grounds.  Lot  chose  the  well-watered  plain 
in  which  Sodom  and  other  towns  were  situated,  and 


removed  thither.  See  Lot.  Thus  was  accomplished  the 
dissolution  of  a  connection  which  had  been  formed  be- 
fore the  promise  of  children  was  given,  and  the  disrup- 
tion of  which  appears  to  have  been  necessary  for  that 
complete  isolation  of  the  coming  race  which  the  Divine 
purpose  required.  Immediately  afterward  the  patri- 
arch was  cheered  and  encouraged  by  a  more  distinct 
and  formal  reiteration  of  the  promises  which  had  been 
previously  made  to  him  of  the  occupation  of  the  land 
in  which  he  lived  by  a  posterity  numerous  as  the  dust 
(see  M.  Weber,  Proles  et  salus  Abraham  promissa, 
Viteb.  1787).  Not  long  after,  he  removed  to  the  pleas- 
ant valley  of  Mamrc,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hebron 
(then  called  Arba),  situated  in  the  direct  line  of  com- 
munication with  Egypt,  and  opening  down  to  the  wil- 
derness and  pasture-land  of  Beersheba,  and  pitched  his 
tent  under  a  terebinth-tree  (Gen.  xiii).  This  very 
position,  so  different  from  the  mountain-fastness  of  Ai, 
marks  the  change  in  the  numbers  and  powers  of  his 
clan. 

It  appears  that  fourteen  years  before  this  time  the 
south  and  east  of  Palestine  had  been  invaded  by  a  king 
called  Chedorlaomer,  from  beyond  the  Euphrates,  who 
brought  several  of  the  small  disunited  states  of  those 
quarters  under  tribute  (comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  i,  10, 1). 
Among  them  were  the  live  cities  of  the  plain  of  Sod- 
om, to  which  Lot  had  withdrawn.  This  burden  was 
borne  impatiently  by  these  states,  and  they  at  length 
withheld  their  tribute.  This  brought  upon  them  a 
ravaging  visitation  from  Chedorlaomer  and  four  other 
(perhaps  tributary)  kings,  who  scoured  the  whole  coun- 
try east  of  the  Jordan,  and  ended  by  defeating  the 
kings  of  the  plain,  plundering  their  towns,  and  carry- 
ing the  people  away  as  slaves.  Lot  was  among  the 
sufferers.  When  this  came  to  the  cars  of  Abraham  he 
immediately  armed  such  of  his  slaves  as  were  lit  for 
war,  in  number  318,  and  being  joined  by  the  friendly 
Amoritish  chiefs,  Aner,  Eshcol,  and  Mamre,  pursued 
the  retiring  invaders.  They  were  overtaken  near  the 
springs  of  the  Jordan ;  and  their  camp  being  attacked 
on  opposite  sides  by  night,  they  were  thrown  into  dis- 
order, and  fled  (see  Thomson's  Land  and  Bonk,  i,  320 
sq.).  Abraham  and  his  men  pursued  them  as  far  as 
the  neighborhood  of  Damascus,  and  then  returned  with 
all  the  men  and  goods  which  had  been  taken  away 
(comp.  Buckingham,  Mesop.  i,  274).  Although  Abra- 
ham had  no  doubt  been  chiefly  induced  to  undertake 
this  exploit  by  his  regard  for  Lot,  it  involved  so  large 
a  benefit  that,  as  the  act  of  a  sojourner,  it  must  have 
tended  greatly  to  enhance  the  character  and  power 
of  the  patriarch  in  the  view  of  the  inhabitants  at 
large.  When  they  had  arrived  as  far  as  Salem  on 
their  return  (see  Thomson,  ii,  211  sq.),  the  king  of  that 
place,  Melchizedek,  who  was  one  of  the  few  native 
princes,  if  not  the  only  one,  that  retained  the  knowl- 
edge and  worship  of  "the  Most  High  God,"  whom 
Abraham  served,  came  forth  to  meet  them  with  re- 
freshments, in  acknowledgment  for  which,  and  in  rec- 
ognition of  his  character,  Abraham  presented  him  with 
a  tenth  of  the  spoils.  By  strict  right,  founded  on  the 
war  usages  which  still  subsist  in  Arabia  (Burckhardt's 
Notes,  p.  97),  the  recovered  goods  became  the  property 
of  Abraham,  and  not  of  those  to  whom  they  originally 
belonged.  This  was  acknowledged  by  the  king  of 
Sodom,  who  met  the  victors  in  the  valley  near  Salem. 
He  said,  "  Give  me  the  persons,  and  keep  the  goods  to 
thyself."  But  with  becoming  pride,  and  with  a  disin- 
terestedness which  in  that  country  would  now  be  most 
unusual  in  similar  circumstances,  he  answered,  "  I 
have  lifted  up  mine  hand  [i.  e.  I  have  sworn]  unto  Je- 
hovah, the  most  high  God,  that  I  will  not  take  from  a 
thread  even  to  a  sandal-thong,  and  that  I  will  not  take 
any  thing  that  is  thine,  lest  thou  shouldest  say,  1  have 
made  Abram  rich"  (On.  xiv).  The  history  of  his  at- 
tack on  Chedorlaomer  gives  us  a  specimen  of  the  view 
which  would  be  taken  of  him  by  the  external  world. 
By  the  way  in  which  it  speaks  of  him  as  "Abram  the 


ABRAHAM 


3d 


ABRAHAM 


Hebrew,"  it  would  seem  to  be  an  older  document,  a 
fragment  of  Canaanitish  history  preserved  and  sanc- 
tioned by  Moses.  The  invasion  was  clearly  another 
northern  immigration  or  foray,  for  the  chiefs  or  kings 
■were  of  Shinar  (Babylonia),  Ellasar  (Assyria?),  Elam 
(Persia),  etc. ;  that  it  was  not  the  first  is  evident  from 
the  vassalage  of  the  kings  of  the  cities  of  the  plain  ; 
and  it  extended  (see  Gen.  xiv,  5-7)  far  to  the  south, 
over  a  wide  tract  of  country.  The  patriarch  appears 
here  as  the  head  of  a  small  confederacy  of  chiefs,  pow- 
erful enough  to  venture  on  a  long  pursuit  to  the  head 
of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  to  attack  with  success  a 
large  force,  and  not  only  to  rescue  Lot,  but  to  roll 
back  for  a  time  the  stream  of  northern  immigration. 
His  high  position  is  seen  in  the  gratitude  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  dignity  with  which  he  refuses  the  charac- 
ter of  a  hireling.  That  it  did  not  elate  him  above 
measure  is  evident  from  his  reverence  to  Melehizedek, 
in  whom  he  recognised  one  whose  call  was  equal  and 
consecrated  rank  superior  to  his  own.    See  Melchize- 

DEK. 

Soon  after  his  return  to  Mamre  the  faith  of  Abra- 
ham was  rewarded  and  encouraged,  not  only  by  a  more 
distinct  and  detailed  repetition  of  the  promises  former- 
ly made  to  him,  but  by  the  confirmation  of  a  solemn 
covenant  contracted,  as  nearly  as  might  be,  "after 
the  manner  of  men,"  between  him  and  God.  Sec 
(  'ovicnan't.  It  was  now  that  he  first  understood  that 
his  promised  posterity  were  to  grow  up  into  a  nation 
under  foreign  bondage ;  and  that,  in  400  years  after 
(or,  strictly,  405  years,  counting  from  the  birth  of 
Isaac  to  the  exode),  they  should  come  forth  from  that 
bondage  as  a  nation,  to  take  possession  of  the  land  in 
which  he  sojourned  (Gen.  xiv).  After  ten  years'  res- 
idence in  Canaan  (B.C.  2078),  Sarai  being  then  75 
years  old,  and  having  long  been  accounted  barren, 
chose  to  put  her  own  interpretation  upon  the  promised 
blessing  of  a  progeny  to  Abraham,  and  persuaded  him 
to  take  her  woman-slave  Hagar,  an  Egyptian,  as  a 
secondary,  or  concubine-wife,  with  the  view  that  what- 
ever child  might  proceed  from  this  union  should  be  ac- 
counted her  own.  See  Hagar.  The  son  who  was 
born  to  Abraham  by  Hagar,  and  who  received  the 
name  of  Ishmael  [see  Ishmael],  was  accordingly 
brought  up  as  the  heir  of  his  father  and  of  the  prom- 
ises (Gen.  xvi).  Thirteen  years  after,  when  Abraham 
was  99  years  old,  he  was  favored  with  still  more  ex- 
plicit declarations  of  the  Divine  purposes.  He  was 
reminded  that  the  promise  to  him  was  that  he  should 
be  the  father  of  man;)  nations  ;  and  to  indicate  this  in- 
tention his  name  was  now  changed  (see  C.  Iken,  De 
mutation,"  nomvnum  Abrakami  et  fiarce,  in  his  Dissert. 
Philol.  i)  from  Abram  to  Abraham  (see  Philo,  Opp. 
i,  588;  comp.  Alian.  Var.  Il/'st.  ii,  32;  Euseb.  Prcep. 
Ev.  xi,  6;  Ewald,  Isr,  Gesch.  i,  373;  Lengerke,  Ken. 
i,  227).  See  Name.  The  Divine  Being  then  solemn- 
ly renewed  the  coven  mt  to  be  a  God  to  him  and  to  the 
race  that  should  spring  from  him  ;  and  in  token  of  that 
covenant  directed  that  he  and  his  should  receive  in 
their  flesh  the  sign  of  circumcision.  See  Circum- 
cision. Abundant  blessings  were  promised  to  Ish- 
mael ;  but  it  was  then  first  announced,  in  distinct 
terms,  that  the  heir  of  the  special  promises  was  not 
yet  born,  and  that  the  barren  Sarai,  then  90  years  old, 
should  twelve  months  thence  be  his  mother.  Then 
also  her  nune  was  changed  from  Sarai  to  Sarah  (prin- 
cess); and,  to  commemorate  the  laughter  with  which 
the  prostrate  patriarch  received  such  strange  tidings, 
it  was  directed  that  the  name  of  Isaac  (Jauqhter)  should 
be  given  to  the  future  child.  The  very  'same  day,  in 
obedience  to  the  Divine  ordinance,  Abraham  himself, 
his  son  Ishmael,  and  his  house-born  and  purchased 
slaves,  were  all  circumcised  (Gen.  xvii),  spring,  B.C. 
2004.  Three  mouths  after  this,  as  Abraham  sat  in  his 
tent  door  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  he  saw  three 
travellers  approaching,  and  hastened  to  meet  them,  and 
hospitably  pressed  upon  them  refreshment  and   rest 


(Dreist,  De  tribus  viris  Abrahamo  appear.  Eo:t.  1707). 
The}'  assented,  and  under  the  shade  of  a  terebinth, 
or  rather  an  oak  (q.  v.)  tree,  partook  of  the  abundant 
fare  which  the  patriarch  and  his  wife  provided,  while 
Abraham  himself  stood  by  in  respectful  attendance,  in 
accordance  with  Oriental  customs  (see  Shaw,  Trav.  i, 
207  ;  comp.  Iliad,  ix,  205  sq. ;  xxiv,  G21 ;  Odyss.  viii, 
59  ;  Judg.  vi,  19).  From  the  manner  in  which  one  of 
the  strangers  spoke,  Abraham  soon  gathered  that  his 
visitants  were  no  other  than  the  Lord  himself  and  two 
attendant  angels  in  human  form  (see  .1.  B.  Kiesseling, 
De  divinis  Abrahami hospitibus,  Lips.  1748).  The  prom- 
ise of  a  son  by  Sarah  was  renewed ;  and  when  Sarah 
herself,  who  overheard  this  within  the  tent,  laughed  in- 
wardly at  the  tidings,  which,  on  account  of  her  great 
age,  she  at  first  disbelieved,  she  incurred  the  striking 
rebuke,  "  Is  any  thing  too  hard  for  Jehovah?"  The 
strangers  then  addressed  themselves  to  their  journey, 
and  Abraham  walked  some  way  with  them.  The  two 
angels  went  forward  in  the  direction  of  Sodom,  while  the 
Lord  made  known  to  him  that,  for  their  enormous  iniqui- 
ties, Sodom  and  the  other  "cities  of  the  plain"  were 
about  to  be  made  signal  monuments  of  his  wrath  and  of 
his  moral  government.  Moved  by  compassion  and  by 
remembrance  of  Lot,  the  patriarch  ventured,  reverently 
but  perseveringly,  to  intercede  for  the  doomed  Sodom  ; 
and  at  length  obtained  a  promise  that,  if  but  ten  right- 
eous men  were  found  therein,  the  whole  city  should  be 
saved  for  their  sake.  Early  the  next  morning  Abra- 
ham arose  to  ascertain  the  result  of  this  concession  ; 
and  when  he  looked  toward  Sodom,  the  smoke  of  its 
destruction,  rising  "like  the  smoke  of  a  furnace,"  made 
known  to  him  its  terrible  overthrow  (Gen.  xix,.l-28). 
See  Sodom.  Tradition  still  points  out  the  supposed 
site  of  this  appearance  of  the  Lord  to  Abraham.  About 
a  mile  from  Hebron  is  a  beautiful  and  massive  oak, 
which  still  bjars  Abraham's  name  (Thomson,  Land 
and  Book,  i,  375 ;  ii,  414).  The  residence  of  the  patri- 
arch was  called  "the  oaks  (A.  V.  "  plain")  of  Mamre" 
(Gen.  xiii,  18 ;  xviii,  1) ;  but  the  exact  spot  is  doubt- 
ful, since  the  tradition  in  the  time  of  Josephus  (  War, 
iv,  9,  7)  was  attached  to  a  terebinth.  See  Mamre. 
This  latter  tree  no  longer  remains ;  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  stood  within  the  ancient  inclosure,  which 
is  still  called  "Abraham's  House."  A  fair  was  held 
beneath  it  in  the  time  of  Constantine  ;  and  it  remain- 
ed to  the  time  of  Theodosius  (Hobinson,  ii,  443;  Stan- 
ley, Palestine,  p.  142). — The  same  year  Sarah  gave 
birth  to  the  lon^-promised  son,  and,  according  to  pre- 
vious direction,  the  name  of  Isaac  was  given  to  him. 
See  Isaac.  This  greatly  altered  the  position  of 
Ishmael,  who  had  hitherto  appeared  as  the  heir  both 
of  the  temporal  and  the  spiritual  heritage  ;  whereas 
he  had  now  to  share  the  former,  and  could  not  but 
know  that  the  latter  was  limited  to  Isaac.  This  ap- 
pears to  have  created  much  ill-feeling  both  on  his  part 
and  that  of  his  mother  toward  the  child ;  which  was 
in  some  way  manifested  so  pointedly,  on  occasion  of 
the  festivities  which  attended  the  weaning,  that  the 
wrath  of  Sarah  was  awakened,  and  she  insisted  that 
both  Hagar  and  her  son  should  be  sent  away.  This 
was  a  very  hard  matter  to  a  loving  father  ;  and  Abra- 
ham was  so  much  pained  that  he  would  probably  have 
refused  compliance  with  Sarah's  wish,  had  he  not  been 
apprised  in  a  dream  that  it  was  in  accordance  with  the 
Divine  intentions  respecting  both  Ishmael  and  Isaac. 
With  his  habitual  uncompromising  obedience,  he  then 
hastened  them  away  earl}-  in  the  morning,  with  pro- 
vision for  the  journey  (Gen.  xxi,  1-21),  B.C.  2061. 
(See  Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Must,  in  loc.)     See  Hagar, 

Attain  for  a  long  period  (25  years,  Josephus,  Ant.  x, 
13,  2)  the  history  is  silent ;  but,  when  Isaac  was  near- 
ly grown  up  (B.C.  cir.  2047),  it  pleased  God  to  subject 
the  faith  of  Abraham  to  a  most  severe  trial  (see  H.  Ben- 
zenberg,  Noch  mehr  Recensionen,  Leipz.  1791,  No.  5). 
He  was  commanded  to  go  into  the  mountainous  coun- 
try of  Moriah  (probably  where  the  temple  afterward 


ABRAHAM 


31 


ABRAHAM 


stood)  [see  Moriaii],  and  there  offer  up  in  sacrifice 
the  son  of  his  affection,  and  the  heir  of  so  many  hopes 
and  promises,  which  his  death  must  nullify.  (See  Huf- 
nagel,  Christtnth.  Aufklar,  i,  vii,  592  sq. ;  J.  G.  Gre- 
neri,  Comment.  Miscel.  Syntag.  Oldenb.  1794;  Zeitschr. 
fur  Phil.  u.  hath.  Theol.  20.)  It  is  probable  that  hu- 
man sacrifices  already  existed ;  and  as,  when  they  did 
exist,  the  offering  of  an  only  or  beloved  child  was  con- 
sidered the  most  meritorious,  it  may  have  seemed  rea- 
sonable to  Abraham  that  he  should  not  withhold  from 
his  own  God  the  costly  sacrifice  which  the  heathen  of- 
fered to  their  idols  (comp.  Hygin.  Fab.  98  ;  Tzetzes  in 
Lycophr.  40,  ed.  Canter.  ;  see  Apollodor.  Bibl.  i,  9,  1 ; 
Euscb.  P?-<ep.  Ev.  i,  10,  p.  40).  The  trial  and  peculiar 
difficulty  lay  in  the  singular  position  of  Isaac,  and  in 
the  unlikelihood  that  his  loss  could  be  supplied.  But 
Abraham's  faith  shrunk  not,  assured  that  what  God  had 
promised  he  would  certainly  perforin,  and  "that  he 
was  able  to  restore  Isaac  to  him  even  from  the  dead'' 
(Heb.  xi,  17-19),  and  he  rendered  a  read}',  however 
painful,  obedience.  Assisted  by  two  of  his  servants, 
he  prepared  wood  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and  without 
delay  set  out  upon  his  melancholy  journey.  On  the 
third  day  he  descried  the  appointed  place ;  and,  inform- 
ing his  attendants  that  he  and  his  son  would  go  some 
distance  farther  to  worship  and  then  return,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  the  spot.  To  the  touching  question  of  his 
son  respecting  the  victim  to  be  offered,  the  patriarch 
replied  by  expressing  his  faith  that  God  himself  would 
provide  the  sacrifice  ;  and  probably  he  availed  himself 
of  this  opportunity  of  acquainting  him  with  the  Divine 
command.  At  least,  that  the  communication  was 
made  either  then  or  just  after,  is  unquestionable  ;  for 
no  one  can  suppose  that  a  young  man  could,  against 
his  will,  have  been  bound  with  cords  and  laid  out  as  a 
victim  on  the  wood  of  the  altar.  Isaac  would  most 
certainly  have  been  slain  by  his  father's  uplifted  hand, 
had  not  the  angel  of  Jehovah  interposed  at  the  critical 
moment  to  arrest  the  fatal  stroke.  A  ram  which  had 
become  entangled  in  a  thicket  was  seized  and  offered  ; 
and  a  name  was  given  to  the  place  {Jehocah-Jireh — 
"  the  Lord  will  provide")  allusive  to  the  believing  an- 
swer which  Abraham  had  given  to  his  son's  inquiry 
respecting  the  victim.  The  promises  before  made  to 
Abraham — of  numerous  descendants, (superior  in  power 
to  their  enemies,  and  of  the  blessings  which  his  spirit- 
ual progeny,  and  especially  the  Messiah,  were  to  ex- 
tend to  all  mankind — were  again  confirmed  in  the 
most  solemn  manner  ;  for  Jehovah  swore  by  himself 
(comp.  Heb.  vi,  13, 17),  that  such  should  be  the  rewards 
of  his  uncompromising  obedience  (see  C.  F.  Bauer,  De 
Domini  ad  Abrahamum  jwamento,  Yiteb.  1740).  The 
father  and  son  then  rejoined  their  servants,  and  return- 
ed rejoicing  to  Beersheba  (Gen.  xxi,  19). 

Sarah  died  at  the  age  of  120  years,  being  then  at  or 
near  Hebron,  B.C.  2027.  This  loss  first  taught  Abra- 
ham the  necessity  of  acquiring  possession  of  a  family 
sepulchre  in  the  land  of  his  sojourning  (see  J.  S.  Sem- 
ler,  De  patriarcharum  ut  in  Palcstina  sepelirentur  de- 
siderio,  Hal.  175G).  His  choice  fell  on  the  cave  of 
Machpelah  (q.  v.),  and,  after  a  striking  negotiation 
[see  Bargain]  with  the  owner  in  the  gate  of  He- 
bron, he  purchased  it,  and  had  it  legally  secured  to 
him,  with  the  field  in  which  it  stood  and  the  trees 
that  grew  thereon  (see  Thomson's  Land  am!  Book,  ii, 
S81  sq.).  This  was  the  only  possession  he  ever  had  in 
the  Land  of  Promise  (Gen.  xxiii).  The  next  care  of 
Abraham  was  to  provide  a  suitable  wife  for  his  son 
Isaac.  It  has  always  been  the  practice  among  pas- 
toral tribes  to  keep  up  the  family  ties  by  intermarriages 
of  blood-relations  (Burckhardt,  Notes,  p.  154);  and 
now  Abraham  had  a  further  inducement  in  the  desire 
to  maintain  the  purity  of  the  separated  race  from  for- 
eign and  idolatrous  connections.  He  therefore  sent  his 
aged  and  confidential  steward  Eliezer  (q.  v.),  under  tl  e 
bond  of  a  solemn  oath  to  discharge  his  mission  faith- 
fully, to  renew  the  intercourse  between  his  family  and 


that  of  his  brother  Nahor,  whom  he  had  left  behind 
in  Charran.  He  prospered  in  his  important  mission, 
and  in  due  time  returned,  bringing  with  him  Rebekah 
(q.  v.),  the  daughter  of  Nahor's  son  Bethuel,  who  be- 
came the  wife  of  Isaac,  and  was  installed  as  chief  lady 
of  the  camp,  in  the  separate  tent  which  Sarah  had  oc- 
cupied (Gen.  xxiv).  Some  time  after  Abraham  him- 
self took  a  wife  named  Keturah,  by  whom  he  bad  sev- 
eral children.  See  Keturah.  These,  together  with 
Ishmael,  seem  to  have  been  portioned  off  by  their  fa- 
ther in  his  lifetime,  and  sent  into  the  east  and  south- 
east, that  there  might  lie  no  danger  of  their  interfer- 
ence with  Isaac,  the  divinely  appointed  heir.  There 
was  time  for  this;  for  Abraham  lived  to  the  age  of 
175  years,  100  of  which  he  had  spent  in  the  land  of 
Canaan.  He  died  B.C.  1989,  and  was  buried  by  his 
two  eldest  sons  in  the  family  sepulchre  which  lie  had 
purchased  of  the  Hittites  (Gen.  xxv,  1-10).— Kitto,  s.  v. 
II.  Traditions  and  Literature. — The  Orientals,  as 
well  Christians  and  Mohammedans",  have  preserved 
some  knowledge  of  Abraham,  and  highly  commend 
his  character;  indeed,  a  history  of  his  life,  though  it 
would  be  highly  fanciful,  might  easily  be  compiled 
from  their  traditions.     Arabic  accounts  name  his  fa- 

\  ther  Azar  (Abulfeda,  Hist.  Anteisl.  p.  21),  with  which 
some  have  compared  the  contemporary  Adores,  king 
of  Damascus  (Justin,  xxxvi,  2;  see  Josephus,  Ant.  i, 
7,  2  ;  Bertheau,  Lsrael.  Gesch.  p.  217).     His  mother's 

|  name  is  given  as  Adna  (Herbelot,  Bib.  Orient,  s.  v. 
Abraham).  The  Persian  magi  believe  him  to  have 
been  the  same  with  their  founder,  Zerdoust,  or  Zoro- 
nster;  while  the  Zabians,  their  rivals  and  opponents, 
lay  claim  to  a  similar  honor  (Hyde,  Iv  I.  /'<  rsar.  p.  28 
sq.).  Some  have  affirmed  that  he  reigned  at  Damas- 
cus (Nicol.  Damasc.  apud  Josephus,  Ant.  i,  7,  2;  Justin, 
xxxvi),  that  he  dwelt  long  in  Kgypt  ( Artapan.et  Eupo- 
lem.  apud  Euseb.  Prospar.  ix,  17,  18),  that  lie  taught  the 
Egyptians  astronomy  and  arithmetic  (Joseph.  Ant.  i, 
8, 2),  that  he  invented  letters  and  the  Hebrew  language 
(Suidas  in  Abraham'),  or  the  characters  of  the  Syrians 
and  Chaldeans  (Isidor.  Hispal.  Ori'jg.  i,  3),  that  he  was 
the  author  of  several  works,  among  others  of  the  fa- 
mous book  entitled  Jezira,  or  the  Creation — a  work 
mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  and  greatly  valued  by  some. 
rabbins";  but  those  who  have  examined  it  without 
prejudice  speak  of  it  with  contempt.  See  Cabala. 
In  the  first  ages  of  Christian^',  the  heretics  called 
Sethians  published  "Abraham's  Revelations"  (Epi- 
phan.  Hares,  xxxix,  5).  Athanasius,  in  his  Synop- 
sis, speaks  of  the  "  Assumption  of  Abraham  ;"  and 
Origen  (in  Luc.  Homil.  35)  notices  an  apocryphal  book 
of  Abraham's,  wherein  two  angels,  one  good,  the  oth- 
er bad,  dispute  concerning  his  damnation  or  salvation. 
The  Jews  (I.'ab.  Selem,  in  Baba  Bdthra,  c.  i)  attribute 
to  him  the  Morning  Prayer,  the  89th  Psalm,  a  Treat- 
ise on  Idolatry,  and  other  works.  The  authorities  on 
all  these  points,  and  for  still  other  traditions  respect- 
ing Abraham,  may  be  found  collected  in  Fabricii  Cod. 
J'.-i  udepigr.  I '.  7'.  i,  344  sq. ;  Eisenmenger,  Entd.  J»- 
denth.  i,  490;  Otho,  Lex.  liabb.  p.  2  sq. ;  Beck,  ad 
Targ.  Chron.  ii,  2G7  ;  Stanley,  Jewish  Church,  \>.  2  sq. 
We  are  informed  (D'Herbelot,  ut  sup.)  that,  A.D. 
1119,  Abraham's  tomb  was  discovered  near  Hebron, 
in  which  Jacob,  likewise,  and  Isaac  were  interred. 
The  bodies  were  found  entire,  and  many  gold  and  sil- 
ver lamps  were  found  in  the  place.  The  Mohamme- 
dans have  BO  great  a  respect  for  his  tomb,  that  they 
make  it  their  fourth  pil  rimage  (the  three  others  Icing 

Mi a,  Medina, and  Jerusalem).     Sec  Hebron:    The 

Christians  built  a  church  over  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
where  Abraham  was  buried,  which  the  Turks  have 
changed  into  a  mosque,  and  forbidden  Christians  from 
approaching  (Quaresm.  Elmid.  ii.  772).  The  supposed 
oak  of  Mamre,  where  Abraham  received  the  three 
angels,  was  likewise  honored  by  Christians,  as  also  by 
the  Jews  am.  Pagans  (see  above),  lie  Koran  (iv, 
124)  entitles  him  "the  friend  of  God"  (see  Michaelis, 


ABRAHAM 


32 


ABRAHAM 


Orient.  Bibl.  iv,  1G7  sq. ;   Withof,  De  Abrah.  Amico 
Dei,  Duisb.  1743;  Kurtz,  Hist,  of  Old  Gov.  §  51-68). 

III.  Typical  Character. — The  life  and  character  of 
Abraham  were  in  many  respects  typical.  1.  He  and 
his  family  may  be  regarded  as  a  type  of  the  Church 
of  God  in  after  ages.  They,  indeed,  constituted  God"s 
ancient  Church.  Not  that  many  scattered  patriarch- 
al and  family  churches  did  not  remain  :  such  was 
that  of  Melchizedek  ;  but  a  visible  church  relation 
was  established  between  Abraham's  family  and  the 
Most  High,  signified  by  the  visible  and  distinguish- 
ing sacrament  of  circumcision,  and  followed  by  new 
and  enlarged  revelations  of  truth.  Two  purposes 
were  to  be  answered  by  this — the  preservation  of  the 
true  doctrine  of  salvation  in  the  world,  which  is  the 
great  and  solemn  duty  of  every  branch  of  the  Church 
of  God,  and  the  manifestation  of  that  truth  to  others. 
Both  were  done  by  Abraham.  Wherever  he  sojourn- 
ed he  built  his  altars  to  the  true  God,  and  publicly  cel- 
ebrated his  worship ;  and,  as  we  learn  from  the  Apos- 
tle Paul,  he  lived  in  tents  in  preference  to  settling  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  though  it  had  been  given  to  him 
for  a  possession,  in  order  that  he  might  thus  proclaim 
his  faith  in  the  eternal  inheritance  of  which  Canaan 
was  a  type  (Gal.  iii,  16-29).  2.  The  numerous  natural 
posterity  promised  to  Abraham  was  also  a  type  of  the 
spiritual  seed,  the  true  members  of  the  Church  of 
Christ,  springing  from  the  Messiah,  of  whom  Isaac  was 
the  symbol.  Thus  the  Apostle  Paul  expressly  distin- 
guishes between  the  fleshly  and  the  spiritual  seed  of 
Abraham  (Gal.  iv,  22-31).  3.  The  faithful  offering  up 
of  Isaac,  with  its  result,  was  probably  the  transaction  in 
which  Abraham,  more  clearly  than  in  any  other,  "saw 
the  day  of  Christ,  and  was  glad"  (John  viii,  56).  He 
received  Isaac  from  the  dead,  says  Paul,  "in  a  figure" 
(Heb.  xi,  19).  This  could  be  a  figure  of  nothing  but  the 
resurrection  of  our  Lord ;  and  if  so,  Isaac's  being  laid 
upon  the  altar  was  a  figure  of  his  sacrificial  death, 
scenically  and  most  impressively  represented  to  Abra- 
ham. 4.  The  transaction  of  the  expulsion  of  Hagar  was 
also  a  type.  It  was  an  allegory  in  action,  by  which 
the  Apostle  Paul  teaches  us  (Gal.  iv,  22-31)  to  under- 
stand that  the  son  of  the  bondwoman  represented  those 
who  are  under  the  law  ;  and  the  child  of  the  freewom- 
an  those  who  by  faith  in  Christ  are  supernaturally  be- 
gotten into  the  family  of  God.  The  casting  out  of  the 
bondwoman  and  her  son  represents  also  the  expulsion 
of  the  unbelieving  Jews  from  the  Church  of  God,  which 
was  to  be  composed  of  true  believers  of  all  nations,  all 
of  whom,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles,  were  to  become 
"  fellow  heirs." 

IV.  Covenant  Relation. — 1.  Abraham  is  to  be  re- 
garded, further,  as  standing  in  a.  federal  or  covenant 
relation,  not  only  to  his  natural  seed,  but  specially 
and  eminently  to  all  believers.  "The  Gospel,"  we 
are  told  by  Paul  (Gal.  iii,  8),  "  was  preached  to  Abra- 
ham, saying,  In  thee  shall  all  nations  be  blessed." 
"  Abraham  believed  in  God,  and  it  was  accounted  to 
him  fur  righteousness;"  in  other  words,  he  was  justi- 
fied (den.  xv,  6).  A  covenant  of  gratuitous  justifi- 
cation through  faith  was  made  with  him  and  his  be- 
lieving descendants  ;  and  the  rite  of  circumcision, 
which  was  not  confined  to  his  posterity  by  Sarah, 
but  appointed  in  every  branch  of  his  family*  was  the 
sign  or  sacrament  of  this  covenant  of  grace,  and  so 
remained  till  it  was  displaced  by  the  sacraments  ap- 
pointed by  Christ.  Wherever  that  sign  was,  it  de- 
clared the  dor! line  and  offered  the  grace  of  this  cove- 
nant—free justification  by  faith,  and  its  glorious  re- 
sults— to  all  the  tribes  that  proceeded  from  Abraham. 
This  same  grace  is  offered  to  us  by  the  Gospel,  who 
become  "Abraham's  seed,"  his  spiritual  children,  with 
whom  the  covenant  is  established  through  the  same 
faith,  and  are  thus  made  "the  heirs  with  him  of  the 
same  promise." 

2.  Abraham  is  also  exhibited  to  us  as  the  represent- 
ative of  true  believers  ;  and  in  this  especially,  that  the 


true  nature  of  faith  was  exhibited  in  him.  This  great 
principle  was  marked  in  Abraham  with  the  following 
characters  :  an  entire,  unhesitating  belief  in  the  word 
of  God;  an  unfaltering  trust  in  all  his  promises;  a 
steady  regard  to  his  almighty  power,  leading  him  to 
overlook  all  apparent  difficulties  and  impossibilities 
in  everj'  case  where  God  had  explicitly  promised  ; 
and  habitual,  cheerful,  and  entire  obedience.  The 
Apostle  has  described  faith  in  Heb.  xi,  1,  and  that 
faith  is  seen  living  and  acting  in  all  its  energy  in 
Abraham.    (Kiemeyer,  Charakt.u,  72  sq.) 

V.  The  intended  offering  up  of  Isaac  is  not  to  be 
supposed  as  viewed  by  Abraham  as  an  act  spring- 
ing out  of  the  Pagan  practice  of  human  sacrifice,  al- 
though this  may  have  somewhat  lessened  the  shock 
which  the  command  would  otherwise  have  occasion- 
ed his  natural  sympathies.  The  immolation  of  hu- 
man victims,  particularly  of  that  which  was  most 
precious,  the  favorite,  the  first-born  child,  appears  to 
have  been  a  common  usage  among  many  early  na- 
tions, more  especially  the  tribes  by  which  Abraham 
was  surrounded.  It  was  the  distinguishing  rite  among 
the  worshippers  of  Moloch  ;  at  a  later  period  of  the 
Jewish  history,  it  was  practised  by  a  king  of  Moab  ; 
and  it  was  undoubtedly  derived  by  the  Carthagini- 
ans from  their  Phoenician  ancestors  on  the  shores  of 
Syria.  Where  it  was  an  ordinary  usage,  as  in  the 
worship  of  Moloch,  it  was  in  unison  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  religion  and  of  its  deity.  It  was  the 
last  act  of  a  dark  and  sanguinary  superstition,  which 
rose  by  regular  gradation  to  this  complete  triumph 
oyer  human  nature.  The  god  who  was  propitiated 
by  these  offerings  had  been  satiated  with  moro  cheap 
and  vulgar  victims ;  he.  had  been  glutted  to  the  full 
with  human  suffering  and  with  human  blood.  In 
general,  it  was  the  final  mark  of  the  subjugation  of  the 
national  mind  to  an  inhuman  and  domineering  priest- 
hood. But  the  Mosaic  religion  held  human  sacrifices 
in  abhorrence ;  and  the  God  of  the  Abrahamitic  fam- 
ily, uniCormky  beneficent,  had  imposed  no  duties  which 
entailed  human  suffering,  had  demanded  no  offerings 
which  were  repugnant  to  the  better  feelings  of  our 
nature.  The  command  to  offer  Isaac  as  a  "  burnt- 
offering"  was,  for  these  reasons,  a  trial  the  more  se- 
vere to  Abraham's  faith.  He  must,  therefore,  have 
been  fully  assured  of  the  Divine  command,  and  he  left 
the  mystery  to  be  explained  by  God  himself.  His 
was  a  simple  act  of  unhesitating  obedience  to  the  com- 
mand of  God  ;  the  last  proof  of  perfect  reliance  on  tho 
certain  accomplishment  of  the  Divine  promises.  Isaac, 
so  miraculously  bestowed,  could  be  as  miraculously 
restored  ;  Abraham,  such  is  the  comment  of  the  Chris- 
tian Apostle,  "  believed  that  God  could  even  raise  him 
up  from  the  dead"  (Heb.  xi,  17). 

VI.  The  wide  and  deep  impression  made  by  the 
character  of  Abraham  upon  the  ancient  world  is  proved 
by  the  reverence  which  people  of  almost  all  nations 
and  countries  have  paid  to  him,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  events  of  his  life  have  been  interwoven  in 
their  mythology  and  their  religious  traditions.  Jews, 
Magians,  Sabians,  Indians,  and  Mohammedans  have 
claimed  him  as  the  great  patriarch  and  founder  of 
their  several  sects ;  and  his  history  has  been  embel- 
lished with  a  variety  of  fictions.  The  ethnological 
relations  of  the  race  of  Abraham  have  been  lately 
treated  by  Ewald  (Oeschichte  des  Votkes  Israel),  and  by 
Bertheau  (Geschiehte  der  Israeliten),  who  maintain 
that  Abraham  was  the  leader  of  tribes  who  migrated 
from  Chaldea  to  the  south-west.     See  Arabia. 

VII.  For  further  notices,  see  Staudlin,  G(  sch.  der  Sit- 
te/il.  Jem,  i,  93  sq. ;  Eichhorn,  Bibl.  d.  Bibl.  Lit.  i,  40 
sq. ;  Harenberg,  in  the  Bib/loth.  Brem.  Nov.  v,  499  sq. ; 
Stackhouse,  Hist,  of  the  Bible,  i,  123  sq.  ;  Hottinger, 
Hist.  Orient,  p.  50;  Ewald,  Jsr.  Gesch.  i,  385  sq.;  Ge- 
senius,  in  the  Hall.  Encycl.  i,  155  sq.  See  likewise 
.1  eta  Sanctorum,  Oct.  9 ;  Augusti,  De  Fatis  et  Factis 
Abrahami  (Goth.  1730);   Hebbing,  Hist,  of  Abraham 


ABRAHAM 


33 


ABRAXAS 


(Lond.  1746);  Gilbank,  Hist,  of  Abr.  (Lond.  1773); 
Hoist,  Leben  Abr.  (Cherun.  1826);  Michaelis,  in  the 
Biblioth.  Brem.  vi,  51  sq. ;  Goetze,  Be  Cultu  Abr. 
(Lips.  1702);  Sourie,  B.  Gott  Abr.  (Hannov.  1806); 
Hauck,  Be  Abr.  in  Charris  (Lips.  1776);  the  Christ. 
Month.  Spect.  v,  397  ;  Beer,  Leben  Abr.  (Leipz.  1859)  ; 
Basil,  Opera,  p.  38  ;  Ephraem  Syrus,  Opera,  ii,  312 ; 
Philo,  Opera,  ii,  1  sq. ;  Ambrose,  Opera,  i,  278  sq. ; 
Clirysostom,  Opera  {Spuria),  vi,  646 ;  Cooper,  Brief 
Expos,  p.  107;  Whately,  Prototypes,  p.  93;  Rabadan, 
Mahometism,  p.  1;  Debaeza,  Comment,  p.  3;  J.  H. 
Heidegger,  Hist.  Pat.  p.  2 ;  Abramus,  Pharus  V.  T.  p. 
168;  Dupin,  Nouv.  Bible,  p.  4;  Barrington,  Works,  iii, 
61 ;  Riccaltoun,  Works,  i,  291 ;  Robinson,  Script.  Char- 
acters, p.  1;  Rudge,  Led.  on  Gen.  i,  163;  Buddieom, 
L'fe  of  Abr.  (Lond.  1839);  Evans,  Script.  Biog.  p.  1; 
Williams,  Characters  of  0.  T.  p.  36;  A.  H.  L.,  Life  of 
Abr.  (Lond.  1861);  Adamson,  Abraham  (Lond.  1841); 
Blunt,  Hist,  of  Abr.  (Lond.  1856)  ;  Geiger,  Ueber  Abr. 
(Altd.  1830) ;  Watson,  Bid.  s.  v. 

ABRAHAM'S  BOSOM  (o  ic6\ttoc  'Afoaap).  There 
was  no  name  which  conveyed  to  the  Jews  the  same 
associations  as  that  of  Abraham.  As  undoubtedly  he 
was  in  the  highest  state  of  felicity  of  which  departed 
spirits  are  capable,  "to  be  with  Abraham"  implied  the 
enjoyment  of  the  same  felicity;  and  "to  be  in  Abra- 
ham's bosom"  meant  to  be  in  repose  and  happiness 
with  him  (comp.  Josephus,  Be,  Mace.  §  13 ;  4  Mace, 
xiii,  16).  The  latter  phrase  is  obviously  derived  from 
the  custom  of  sitting  or  reclining  at  table  whfeta  pre- 
vailed among  the  Jews  in  and  before  the  time  of 
Christ.  See  Accubatiox.  By  this  arrangement  the 
head  of  one  person  was  necessarily  brought  almost 
into  the  bosom  of  the  one  who  sat  above  him,  or  at 
the  top  of  the  triclinium,  and  the  guests  were  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  most  favored  were  placed  so  as  to 
bring  them  into  that  situation  with  respect  to  the  host 
(comp.  John  xiii,  23 ;  xxi,  20).  See  Bosom.  These 
Jewish  images  and  modes  of  thought  are  amply  il- 
lustrated by  Lightfoot,  Schottgen,  and  Wettstein,  who 
illustrate  Scripture  from  rabbinical  sources.  It  was 
quite  usual  to  describe  a  just  person  as  being  with 
Abraham,  or  lying  on  Abraham's  bosom  ;  and  as  such 
images  were  unobjectionable,  Jesus  accommodated  his 
speech  to  them,  to  render  himself  the  more  intelligible 
by  familiar  notions,  when,  in  the  beautiful  parable  of 
the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  he  describes  the  condition 
of  the  latter  after  death  under  these  conditions  (Luke 
xvi,  22,  23).— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Hades. 

Abraham,  A  Saxcta  Clara,  a  Roman  Catholic 
preacher,  highly  popular  in  Vienna,  and  remarkable 
for  his  eccentric  writings.  His  family  name  was  Ul- 
rich  Megerle,  and  ho  was  born  in  Baden,  1042.  In 
1662  he  entered  the  order  of  barefooted  Augustinians, 
and  became  distinguished,  as  a  preacher,  for  directness, 
tact,  and  pungency,  mixed  with  rudeness.  He  died 
1709.  His  sermons  and  other  writings  are  contained 
in  (unfinished)  SammtUche  Werke  nach  dem  Original- 
texte  (Lindau,  20  vols.  1835-50).  His  Grammatica 
Rel'glosa,  containing  55  sermons,  was  reprinted  in 
Latin,  1719  (Colon.  4to). 

Abraham,  Ecchelexsis.     See  Ecchelexsis. 

Abraham,  Usque,  a  Portuguese  Jew,  who  trans- 
lated the  celebrated  Spanish  Bible  of  the  Jews,  first 
printed  at  Ferrara,  in  155:!.  It  is  translated  word  for 
word  from  the  original,  which  fact,  with  the  use  of 
many  old  Spanish  words,  only  employed  in  the  syna- 
gogues, renders  it  very  obscure.  Asterisks  (mostly 
omitted  in  the  Holland  ed.  of  1630)  are  placed  against 
certain  words  to  denote  that  the  exact  meaning  of  the 
original  Hebrew  words  is  difficult  to  determine. — 
Fiirst,  Bib.  Jud.  iii,  463. 

Abrahamites  (1),  a  sect  of  heretics,  named  from 

their  founder  Abraham  (or  Ibrahim),  of  Antioch,  A.D. 

805.      They  were  charged  with  the  Paulician  errors, 

and  some  of  them  with  idolatry  and  licentiousness  ; 

C 


but  for  these  charges  we  have  only  the  word  of  their 
persecutors.  See  Pauliciaxs.  (2),  a  sect  of  Deists 
in  Bohemia,  who  existed  as  late  as  1782,  and  professed 
the  religion  of  Abraham  before  his  circumcision,  ad- 
mitting no  scriptures  but  the  decalogue  and  the  Lord's 
prayer.  They  believed  in  one  God,  but  rejected  the 
Trinity,  and  other  doctrines  of  revelation.  They  re- 
ceived the  doctrines  of  original  sin,  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  and  future  rewards  and  punishments.  '1  hey 
were  required  by  Joseph  II  to  incorporate  themselves 
with  one  of  the  religions  tolerated  in  the  empire  ;  and, 
in  case  of  non-compliance,  threatened  with  banishment. 
As  the  result  of  obstinate  refusal  to  comply  with  the 
imperial  command,  they  were  transported  to  Transyl- 
vania. Many  persons  are  still  found  in  Bohemia,  be- 
tween whom  and  the  Abrahamites  some  connection 
may  be  traced.  They  are  frequently  called  Nihilists 
and  Deists.  (See  an  anonymous  Gesch.  der  Bohmu 
schen  Beisten  (1785) ;  Gregoire,  Hist,  des  Secies  relig. 
v,  419  sq.) 

A'bram,  the  original  name  (Gen.  xvii,  5)  of  Abba-, 
ham  (q.  v.). 

Abraxas  (1)  (a/3p«£ac  or  afipaaaF),  a  mystical 
word  composed  of  the  Greek  letters  a,  /3,  n,  a,  \,  a,  r, 
which  together,  according  to  Greek  numeration,  make 
up  the  number  365.  Basilides  taught  that  there  were 
365  heavens  between  the  earth  and  the  empyrean,  and 
as  many  different  orders  of  angels  ;  and  he  applied  the 
Cabalistic  name  Abraxas  to  the  Supreme  Lord  of  all 
these  heavens  (B-enosris,  lib.  i,  cap.  xxiv,  67).  See 
Basilides.  In  his  sj'stem  there  was  an  imitation  of 
the  Pythagorean  philosophy  with  regard  to  numbers, 
as  well  as  an  adoption  of  Egyptian  hieroglvphical 
symbols.  Jerome  seems  to  intimate  that  this  was 
done  in  imitation  of  the  practice  of  thus  representing 
Mithras,  the  deity  of  the  Persians  ;  or  the  sun,  other- 
wise Apollo,  the  god  of  healing.      For  instance  : 

a         —       1  ^  az      40 

P  =     100  ,  —       10 

a  -  1  0  =9 

f        =     co  p  =100 

?  =    200  r  =     200 

Abraxas  =  365  Meithras,  or  Mithras  —  3C5 
Probably  Basilides  intended,  in  this  way,  to  express 
the  number  of  intelligences  which  compose  the  ITero- 
ma,  or  the  Deity  under  various  manifestations,  or  the 
sun,  in  which  Pythagoras  supposed  that  the  intelli- 
gence resided  which  produced  the  world. — A  few  of 
the  modes  of  deriving  this  term  are  subjoined.  Bel- 
lerman  takes  it  from  the  Coptic,  the  ancient  language 
of  Egypt;  the  syllable  sadsch  (which  the  Greeks  were 
obliged  to  convert  into  <r«£,  or  crac,  or  aaZ,,  as  the  last 
letter  of  this  word  could  only  be  expressed  by  3,  2,  or 
Z)  signifying  "word,"  and  abrak,  "blessed,  holy, 
adorable  ;"  abraxas  being,  therefore,  "  adorable  word." 
Others  make  it  to  signify  "the  new  word."  Beau- 
sobre  derives  it  from  dfipog,  which  he  renders  magnifi- 
cent; and  cither  rraio,  I  save,  or  aa,  safety.  Others 
find  it  to  signify  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  and  of  the 
divinity  of  Christ :  they  assume  that  it  is  composed  of 
the  initial  letters  of  the  following  words  :  iSt.  father ; 
"|2l,  son ;  ra"i,  spirit ;  ^HX,  one  (that  is,  one  God) ; 
Xpioroe,,  Christ;  "Av9p<»>irog,man  (that  is,  God-man); 
Suffi'/n,  Saviour.     See  ABRACADABRA. 

(2.)  Abraxas  Gems  or  Images. — A  great  number  of 
relics  (L'ems  and  plates,  or  tablets  of  metal)  have  been 
discovered,  chiefly  in  Egypt,  bearing  the  word  abraxas, 
or  an  image  supposed  to  designate  the  god  of  that 
name.  There  has  been  much  discussion  about  these 
relics,  some  regarding  them  as  all  of  Basilidian  origin; 
others  holding  them,  in  part  or  in  whole,  to  be  Egyp- 
tian. Descriptions  of  them  may  lie  found  in  Macarii 
Abraxas  seu  de  Gem.  Basil.  Bisquisitio,  edited  by 
Chifnet    (Antw.    1657,   4to) ;    Montfaucon,   Paheogr. 


ABRECH 


34 


ABSALOM 


Grcec.  lib.  ii,  cap.  viii;  Passed, />  Gemini's  Basilidianis, 
in  Gori,  Tin  saurus  Gt  m.  Astrif.  (Flor.  1750, 3  vols. -1  to); 
Bellermann,  Ueb.die  Gemmen der  A Iten mit  dem  A braxas- 
bilde  (Berlin.  1817-1819) ;  Walsh,  Ancient  Coins,  Medals, 
etc.  (Lond.  1828,  8vo);  Kopp,  Palceographia  Critica 
(Mannh.  1827,  pt.  iv).  Matter  (in  Herzog's  Eeal-En- 
cyklopiidie,  ami  in  his  IHstoire  du  Gnostieisme,  vol.  iii) 
gives  a  elassilieation  of  them  which  will  tend  greatly 
to  facilitate  their  study.  Some  of  them  contain  the 
Abraxas  image  alone,  or  with  a  shield,  spear,  or  other 
emblems  of  Gnostic  origin.  Some  have  Jewish  words 
(e.  g.  Jehovah,  Adonai.  etc.)  ;  others  combine  the  Ab- 
raxas with  Persian,  Egyptian,  or  Grecian  symbols. 
Montfaucon  has  divided  these  gems  into  seven  classes. 
1.  Those  having  the  head  of  a  cock,  the  symbol  of  the 
sun  ;  2.  Those  having  the  head  of  a  lion,  expressive 
of  the  heat  of  the  sun  :  these  have  the  inscription  Mi- 
thras ;  3.  Serapis;  4.  Sphinxes,  apes,  and  other  ani- 
mals ;  5.  Human  figures,  with  the  names  of  Iao,  Saba- 
oth,  Adonai,  etc.;  (!.  Inscriptions  without  figures;  7. 
Monstrous  forms.  He  gives  300  fac-similes  of  gems 
with  different  devices  and  inscriptions,  one  of  which  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  from  the  collection 
of  Viscount  Strangford.  It  is  of  an  oval  form,  con- 
vex on  both  sides,  and  both  the  surface  of  the  stone 
and  the  impression  of  the  sculpture  highly  polished. 


Gno?tic  Gem. 
On  one  side  is  represented  a  right,  line  crossed  by 
three  curved  ones,  a  figure  very  common  on  gnos- 
tic gems,  ami  perhaps  representing  the  golden  "can- 
dlestick." This  is  surrounded  by  the  legend  AB- 
PACAS  IAQ,  words  also  of  very  common  use,  and 
which  are  to  be  found  either  by  themselves,  or  ac- 
companied by  every  variety  of  figure.  The  word 
IAQ,  in  a  variety  of  modifications,  is  also  found  on 
most  of  the  gems  of  the  Gnostics;  and,  next  to  Ab- 
rasax,  seems  to  have  been  the  most  portentous  and 
mysterious.  It  is  generalb/  supposed  to  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  tctragrammaton,  <Tirp,  or  Jehovah,  to 
which  the  Jews  attached  so  awfid  an  importance. 
Irenams  supposes  it  lias  allusion  to  the  name  by  which 
the  Divine  character  of  Christ  was  expressed ;  as  if 
the  AQ  was  intended  to  be  the  Alpha  and  Omega  of 
the  Revelation,  and  the  characters  IAG  stood  for  Jesus 
the  "  Redeemer,  the  first  and  the  last."  See  Mosheim, 
Comm.  i,  417;  Matter,  Hist,  du  Gnostieisme,  t.  iii;  Ne- 
ander,  Gnost.  System,  1818;  Neander,  Ch.  /list,  i,  401 ; 
Lardner,  Works,  viii,  352  sq.;  Jeremie,  Ch.  Hist.  p. 
149;  Schmid,  Pent.  Dissertt.  (Helmst.  1716) ;  Jablon- 
ski,  Nov.  Mis*,!!.  Lips.  vii.  1,  63  sq.  ;  Beausobre,  Hist. 
du  Manieh.  ii,  50;  Gieseler,  in  the  Stud.  u.  Kritihen, 
1830,  p.  113  sq.  (who  shows  that  not  all  Abraxas  gems 
were  of  Gnostic  origin)  ;  King,  The  Gnostics  and  their 
Urn,,,;,,*  |  Lond.  1864),  which  contains  various  cuts  of 
gems,  but  is  otherwise  of  little  value,  bee  GNOSTI- 
CISM ;  Basilides. 

Abrech  (lie!.,  abreh',  TpSK,  Sept.  «%»>£,  Vulg. 
iji mi  j/i  cterent),  a  word  that  occurs  only  in  the  original 
of  Gen.  xli,  43,  where  it  is  used  in  proclaiming  the  au- 
thority of  Joseph.  Something  similar  happened  in 
the  cise  ofMordecai,  bul  then  several  words  were  em- 
ployed (Esth.  vi,  11).     If  the  word  be  Hebrew,  it  is  I 


I  probably  an  imperative  (not  directly,  Buxtorf,  Thes. 
Gramm.  p.  134;  nor  the  first  pers.  fut.,  as  explained 
by  A  ben-Ezra,  but  the  infin.  absolute  used  imperative- 
ly, Gesenius,  Thes.  Ileb.  p.  19)  of  tpS  in  Hiphil,  and 
would  then  mean,  as  in  our  version,  "  bow  the  knee" 
(so  the  Vulg..  Erpenius,  Luther,  Aquila,  and  the  Ven. 
Gr.  version).  We  are  indeed  assured  by  Wilkinson 
(Anc.  Egyptians,  ii,  24)  that  the  word  abrelc  is  used  to 
the  present  day  by  the  Arabs  when  requiring  a  camel 
to  kneel  and  receive  its  load.  But  Luther  (subse- 
quently) and  others  (e.  g.  Onkelos,  the  Targum,  Syr. 
and  Persic  versions)  suppose  the  word  to  be  a  com- 
pound of  TjH"X,  "  the  father  of the  state,"  and  to  be 
of  Chaldce  origin.  The  Sept.  and  Samar.  understand 
vaguely  a  herald.  It  is,  however,  probably  Egyptian, 
slightly  modified  so  as  to  suit  the  Hebrew  ;  and  most 
later  writers  are  inclined  with  De  Kossi  (Etym.  Egypt. 
p.  1)  to  repair  to  the  Coptic,  in  which  Aberek  or  Abrek 
means  "  bow  the  head" — an  interpretation  essentially 
agreeing  with  those  of  Pfeiffer  {Opp.  i,  94)  and  Ja- 
blonski  (Opzisc.  i,  4,  5,  cd.  Water).  See  Salutation. 
But  Origen  (Hexapla,  i,  49,  ed.  Montfaucon),  a  native  of 
Egypt,  and  Jerome  {Comment,  in  loc),  both  of  whom 
knew  the  Semitic  languages,  are  of  the  opinion  that 
Abrech  means  "a  native  Egyptian;"  and  when  we 
consider  how  important  it  was  that  Joseph  should  cease 
to  be  regarded  as  a  foreigner  [see  Abomination],  it 
lias  in  this  sense  a  significance,  as  a  proclamation  of 
naturalization,  which  no  other  interpretation  convej-s 
(see  Ameside,  Be  Abrech  sEgyptior.  Dresd.  1750).  Os- 
burn  thinks  the  title  still  appears  in  Joseph's  tomb  as 
Itb-n  sh,  "  royal  priest"  {Mon.  Hist,  of  Eg.  ii,  90). 

Abro'nali.     See  Ebuonaii. 

Abronas.     See  Arbonai. 

Ab'salom  (Ileb.  Abshalora  ,  DlbdnX,  fully  Abi- 
shalomf,  Oi5D*12X,  1  Kings,  xv,  2, 10,  father  of  peace, 
i.  e.  peaceful;  Sept.  'AfSiao-aKriip,  Josephus,  'AipdXw- 
poc,  Ant.  xiv,  4,  4),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  The  third  son  of  David,  and  his  only  one  (comp. 
1  Kings  i,  G)  by  Maacah,  the  daughter  of  Talmai,  king 
of  Geshur  (2  Sam.  iii,  3;  1  Chron.  iii,  2),  born  B.C. 
eir.  1050.  He  was  particularly  noted  for  his  personal 
beauty,  especially  his  profusion  of  hair,  the  incon- 
venient weight  of  which  often  (not  necessarily  "  every 
year,"  as  in  the  Auth.  Vers.)  compelled  him  to  cut  it 
off,  when  it  was  found  to  v.ci  zh  "  200  shekels  after  the 
king's  weight" — an  amount  variously  estimated  from 
112  ounces  (Geddes)  to  7|  ounces  (A.  Clarke),  and,  at 
least,  designating  an  extraordinary  quantity  (2  Sam. 
xiv,  25-26;  see  Journal  de  Trevoux,  1702,  p.  17G; 
Diedrichs,  TJeb.  d.  JIaara  Absalom's,  Gott.  1776; 
Handb.  d.A.  T.  p.  142  sq. ;  Bochart,  Opp.  ii,  384). 

David's  other  child  by  Maacah  was  a  daughter 
named  Tamar,  who  was  also  very  beautiful.  She  be- 
came the  object  of  lustful  regard  to  her  half-brother 
Amnon,  David's  eldest  son  ;  and  Mas  violated  by  him, 
in  pursuance  of  a  plot  suggested  by  the  artful  Jonadab 
(2  Sam.  xiii,  1-20),  B.C.  cir.  1033.  See  Amnon.  In 
all  cases  where  polygamy  is  allowed  we  find  that  the 
honor  of  a  sister  is  in  the  guardianship  of  her  full 
In-other,  more  even  than  in  that  of  her  father,  whose 
interest  in  her  is  considered  less  peculiar  and  intimate 
(see  Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  39).  '  We  trace  this  notion 
even  in  the  time  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxiv,  6, 13,  25  sq.). 
So  in  this  case  the  wrong  of  Tamar  was  taken  up  by 
Absalom,  who  kept  her  secluded  in  his  own  house,  and 
brooded  silently  over  the  injury  he  had  sustained.  It 
was  not  until  two  years  had  passed  that  Absalom  found 
opportunity  for  the  bloody  revenge  he  had  meditated. 
He  then  held  a  great  sheep-shearing  at  Baal-hazoi  near 
Ephraim,  to  which  he  invited  all  the  king's  sons  j  and, 
to  lull  suspicion,  he  also  solicited  the  presence  cf  his 
father.  As  he  expected,  David  declined  for  himself, 
but  allowed  Amnon  and  the  other  princes  to  attend. 
They  feasted  together;   and  when  they  were  warm 


ABSALOM 


35 


with  wine  Amnon  was  set  upon  and  slain  by  the  ser- ! 
vants  of  Absalom,  according  to  the  previous  directions  j 
of  their  master.  The  others  fled  to  Jerusalem,  filling 
the  king  with  grief  and  horror  by  the  tidings  which 
they  brought.  Absalom  hastened  to  Geshur,  and  re- 
mained there  three  years  with  his  grandfather,  king 
Talmai  (2  Sam.  xiii,  23-38).     See  Geshdr. 

Absalom,  with  all  his  faults,  was  eminently  dear  to 
his  father.  David  mourned  every  day  after  the  ban- 
ished fratricide,  whom  a  regard  for  public  opinion  and 
a  just  horror  of  his  crime  forbade  him  to  recall.  His 
secret  wishes  to  have  home  his  beloved  though  guilty 
son  were,  however,  discerned  by  Joab,  who  employed 
a  clever  woman  of  Tekoah  to  lay  a  supposed  case  be- 
fore him  for  judgment;  and  she  applied  the  antici- 
pated decision  so  adroitly  to  the  case  of  Absalom,  that 
the  king  discovered  the  object  and  detected  the  inter- 
position of  Joab.  Regarding  this  as  in  some  degree 
expressing  the  sanction  of  public  opinion,  David  glad- 
ly commissioned  Joab  to  "call  home  his  banished." 
Absalom  returned ;  but  David  controlled  his  feelings, 
and  declined  to  admit  him  to  his  presence.  After  two 
years,  however,  Absalom,  impatient  of  his  disgrace, 
found  means  to  compel  the  attention  of  Joab  to  his 
case;  and  through  him  a  complete  reconciliation  was 
thus  effected,  and  the  father  once  more  indulged  him- 
self with  the  presence  of  his  son  (2  Sam.  xiii,  39  ; 
xiv,  33),  B.C.  cir.  1027.  Scarcely  had  he  returned 
when  he  began  to  cherish  aspirations  to  the  throne, 
which  he  must  have  known  was  already  pledged  to 
another  (see  2  Sam.  vii,  12).  His  reckless  ambition 
was  probably  only  quickened  by  the  fear  lest  Bath- 
sheba's  child  should  supplant  him  in  the  succession,  to 
which  he  would  feel  himself  entitled,  as  of  royal  birth 
on  his  mother's  side  as  well  as  his  father's,  and  as  be- 
ing now  David's  eldest  surviving  son,  since  we  may 
infer  that  the  second  son,  Chileab,  was  dead,  from  no 
mention  being  made  of  him  after  2  Sam.  iii,  3.  It  is 
harder  to  account  for  his  temporary  success,  and  the 
imminent  danger  which  befell  so  powerful  a  govern- 
ment as  his  father's.  The  sin  with  Bathsheba  had 
probably  weakened  David's  moral  and  religious  hold 
upon  the  people;  and  as  he  grew  older  he  may  have 
become  less  attentive  to  individual  complaints,  and 
that  personal  administration  of  justice  which  was  one 
of  an  Eastern  king's  chief  duties.  The  populace  were 
disposed  to  regard  Absalom's  pretensions  with  favor ; 
and  by  many  arts  he  so  succeeded  in  winning  their 
affections  that  when,  four  years  (the  text  has  erro- 
neously -10  years;  comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  vii,  9,  1 ;  see 
Kennicott,  Diss.  p.  367 ;  Ewald,  Isr.  Gesch.  ii,  637) 
after  his  return  from  Geshur,  he  repaired  to  Hebron, 
and  there  proclaimed  himself  king,  the  great  body  of 
the  people  declared  for  him.  It  is  probable  that  the 
great  tribe  of  Judah  had  taken  some  offence  at  David's 
government,  perhaps  from  finding  themselves  com- 
pletely merged  in  one  united  Israel ;  and  that  they 
hoped  secretly  for  pre-eminence  under  the  less  wise 
and  liberal  rule  of  his  son.  Thus  Absalom  selects 
Hebron,  the  old  capital  of  Judah  (now  supplanted  by 
Jerusalem),  as  the  scene  of  the  outbreak  ;  Amasa,  his 
chief  captain,  and  Ahithophel  of  Giloh,  his  principal 
counsellor,  ai-e  both  of  Judah,  and,  after  the  rebellion 
was  crushed,  Ave  see  signs  of  ill-feeling  between  Judah 
and  the  other  tribes  (xix,  -11).  But  whatever  the 
causes  may  have  been,  the  revolt  was  at  first  com- 
pletely successful.  David  found  it  expedient  to  quit 
Jerusalem  and  retire  to  Mahanaim,  beyond  the  Jordan. 
"When  Absalom  heard  of  this,  he  proceeded  to  Jeru- 
salem and  took  possession  of  the  throne  without  oppo- 
sition. Among  those  who  had  joined  him  was  Ahith- 
ophel, who  had  been  David's  counsellor,  and  whose 
profound  sagacity  caused  his  counsels  to  be  regarded 
like  oracles  in  Israel.  This  defection  alarmed  David 
more  than  any  other  single  circumstance  in  the  affair, 
and  lie  persuaded  his  friend  Hushai  to  go  and  join  Ab- 
salom, in  the  hope  that  he  might  be  made  instrumen- 


ABSALOM 

tal  in  turning  the  sagacious  counsels  of  Ahithophel  to 
foolishness.  The  first  piece  of  advice  which  Ahitho- 
phel gave  Absalom  was  that  he  should  publicly  take 
possession  of  that  portion  of  his  father's  harem  which 
had  been  left  behind  in  Jerusalem;  thus  fulfilling  Na- 
than's prophecy  (2  Sam.  xiii,  11).  This  was  not  only 
a  mode  by  which  the  succession  to  the  throne  might 
be  confirmed  [see  Abisiiag  ;  comp.  Herodotus,  iii, 
68],  but  in  the  present  case,  as  suggested  by  the  wily 
counsellor,  this  villanous  measure  would  dispose  the 
people  to  throw  themselves  the  more  unreservedly 
into  his  cause,  from  the  assurance  that  no  possibility 
of  reconcilement  between  him  and  his  father  remain- 
ed. But  David  had  left  friends  who  watched  over 
his  interests.  Hushai  had  not  then  arrived.  Soon 
after  he  came,  when  a  council  of  war  was  held  to  con- 
sider the  course  of  operations  to  be  taken  against  Da- 
vid. Ahithophel  counselled  that  the  king  should  be 
pursued  that  very  night,  and  smitten  while  he  was 
"  weary  and  weak  handed,  and  before  he  had  time  to 
recover  strength."  Hushai,  however,  whose  object 
was  to  gain  time  for  David,  speciously  urged,  from 
the  known  valor  of  the  king,  the  possibility  and  disas- 
trous consequences  of  a  defeat,  and  advised  that  all 
Israel  should  be  assembled  against  him  in  such  force 
as  it  would  be  impossible  for  him  to  withstand.  Fa- 
tally for  Absalom,  the  counsel  of  Hushai  was  pre- 
ferred to  that  of  Ahithophel ;  and  time  was  thus  af- 
forded for  the  king,  by  the  help  of  his  influential  fol- 
lowers, to  collect  his  resources,  as  well  as  for  the  peo- 
ple to  reflect  upon  the  undertaking  in  which  so  many 
of  them  had  embarked.  David  soon  raised  a  large 
force,  which  he  properly  organized  and  separated  into 
three  divisions,  commanded  severally  by  Joab,  Abish- 
ai,  and  Ittai  of  Gath.  The  king  himself  intended  to 
take  the  chief  command  ;  but  the  people  refused  to 
allow  him  to  risk  his  valued  life,  and  the  command 
then  devolved  upon  Joab.  The  brttle  took  place  in 
the  borders  of  the  forest  of  Ephraini  ;  and  the  tactics 
cf  Joab,  in  drawing  the  enemy  into  the  wood,  and 
there  hemming  them  in,  so  that  they  were  destroyed 
with  ease,  eventually,  under  the  providence  of  God, 
decided  the  action  against  Absalom.  Twenty  thou- 
sand of  his  troops  were  slain,  and  the  rest  fled  io  their 
homes.  Absalom  himself  fled  on  a  swift  mule ;  but 
as  he  went,  the  boughs  of  a  terebinth  (or  oak  ;  see 
Thomson's  Land  and  Look,  i,  374  ;  ii,  234)  tree  caught 
the  long  hair  in  which  he  gloried,  and  he  was  left 
suspended  there  (comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  vii,  10,  2; 
Celsii  llierob.  i,  43).  The  charge  which  David  had 
given  to  the  troops  to  respect  the  life  of  Absalom  pre- 
vented any  one  from  slaying  him  ;  but  when  Joab 
heard  of  it,  he  hastened  to  the  spot  and  pierced  him 
through  with  three  darts.  His  bed}'  was  then  taken 
down  and  cast  into  a  pit  there  in  the  forest,  and  a 
heap  of  stones  was  raised  upon  it  as  a  sign  of  abhor- 
rence (see  Thomson,  ibid,  ii,  231).  David's  fondness 
for  Absalom  was  unextinguished  by  all  that  had  pass- 
ed; and  as  he  sat,  awaiting  tidings  of  the  battle,  at 
the  gate  of  Mahanaim,  he  was  probably  more  anx- 
ious to  learn  that  Absalom  lived  than  that  tie  battle 
was  gained  ;  and  r.o  sooner  did  he  hear  that  Absalom 
was  dead,  than  he  retired  to  the  chamber  above  the 
gate,  to  give  vent  to  his  paternal  anguish.  The 
victors,  as  they  returned,  slunk  into  the  town  like 
criminals  when  they  heard  the  bitter  wailings  of  the 
king:  "0  my  son  Absalom  !  my  son,  my  son  Absa- 
lom !  would  God  1  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my 
son,  my  son!"  The  consequences  of  this  weakness 
might  have  been  most  dangerous,  had  nit  Joab  gone 
up  to  him,  and,  after  sharply  rebuking  him  for  thus 
discouraging  those  who  had  risked  their  lives  in  his 
cause,  induced  him  to  go  down  and  cheer  the  return- 
ing warriors  by  his  presence  (2  Sam.  xv,  1 ;  xix,  *  ; 
comp.  Psa.  iii,  title),  B.C.  cir.  1023.— Kitto,  s.  v. 

Absalom  is  elsewhere  mentioned  only  in  2  Sam.  xx, 
6;  1  Kings  ii,  7,  28;  xv,  2,  10 ;   2  Chron.  xi,  20,  21 ; 


ABSALOM 


36 


ABSOLUTION" 


from  the  last  two  of  which  passages  he  appears  to 
have  left  only  a  daughter  (having  lost  three  sons,  2 
Sam.  xiv,  27 ;  comp.  xviii,  18),  who  was  the  grand- 
mother of  Abijah  (q.  v.).  See,  generally,  Niemeyer, 
Charakt.  iv,  319  sq.;  Kitto,  Dai///  Bible  Must,  in  loc. ; 
Debaeza,  Com.  Allegor.  p.  5;  Evans,  Script.  Biog.  p. 
1;  Lindsay,  Led.  ii ;  Dietric,  Antiq.  p.  353;  Laurie, 
Led.  p.  63;  Harris,  Works,  p.  209;  Spencer,  Ser- 
mons,  p.  273;  Simeon,  Works,  iii,  281,  294;  Dibdin, 
Sermons,  iii,  410 ;  Williams,  Sermons,  ii,  190.  See 
David  ;  Joab. 

Absalom's  Tomb.  A  remarkable  monument  bear- 
ing this  name  makes  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  Val- 
ley of  Jehoshaphat,  outside  Jerusalem ;  and  it  has 
been  noticed  and  described  by  almost  all  travellers. 
It  is  close  by  the  lower  bridge  over  the  Kedron,  and 
is  a  square  isolated  block  hewn  out  from  the  rocky 
ledge  so  as  to  leave  an  area  or  nich3  around  it.  The 
body  of  this  monument  is  about  24  feet  square,  and  is 
ornamented  on  each  side  with  two  columns  and  two 
half  columns  of  the  Ionic  order,  with  pilasters  at  the 
corners.  The  architrave  exhibits  triglyphs  and  Doric 
ornaments.  The  elevation  is  about  18  or  20  feet  to 
the  top  of  the  architrave,  and  thus  far  it  is  wholly  cut 
from  the  rock.  But  the  adjacent  rock  is  here  not  so 
high  as  in  the  adjoining  tomb  of  Zecharias  (so  called), 
and  therefore  the  upper  part  of  the  tomb  has  been  car- 
ried up  with  mason-work  of  large  stones.  This  con- 
sists, tirst,  of  two  square  layers,  of  which  the  upper 
one  is  smaller  than  the  lower ;  and  then  a  small  dome 
or  cupola  runs  up  into  a  low  spire,  which  appears  to 
have  spread  out  a  little  at  the  top,  like  an  opening 
flame.  This  mason-work  is  perhaps  20  feet  high,  giv- 
ing to  the  whole  an  elevation  of  about  40  feet.  There 
is  a  small  excavated  chamber  in  the  body  of  the  tomb, 
into  which  a  hole  had  been  broken  through  one  of  the 
sides  several  centuries  ago.  Its  present  Mohamme- 
dan name  is  Tantur  Faraon  (Biblioth.  Sac.  1843,  p.  34). 
The  old  travellers  who  refer  to  this  tomb,  as  well  as 
Calmet  after  them,  are  satisfied  that  they  find  the 
history  of  it  in  2  Sam.  xviii,  18,  which  states  that  Ab- 
salom, having  no  son,  built  a  monument  to  keep  his 
name  in  remembrance,  and  that  this  monument  was 
called  "Absalom's  Place"  (Di?'32X  *P,  Absalom's 
Hand,  as  in  the  margin ;  Sept.  Xtlp  A/3f(7<TcrXw/i,Vulg. 
Maims  Absalom),  that  is,  index,  memorial,  or  monu- 
ment. See  Hand.  Later  writers,  however,  dispute 
such  a  connection  between  this  history  and  any  of 
the  existing  monuments  on  this  spot.  "The  style 
of  architecture  and  embellishment,"  writes  Dr.  Rob- 
inson (Bib.  lies,  i,  519  sq."),  "  shows  that  they  are  of 
a  later  period  than  most  of  the  other  countless  sepul- 
chres round  about  the  city,  which,  with  few  excep- 


tions, are  destitute  of  architectural  ornament.  But 
the  foreign  ecclesiastics,  who  crowded  to  Jerusalem  in 
the  fourth  century,  found  these  monuments  here  ; 
and,  of  course,  it  became  an  object  to  refer  them  to 
persons  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Yet,  from  that 
day  to  this,  tradition  seems  never  to  have  become 
fully  settled  as  to  the  individuals  whose  names  they 
should  bear.  The  Itin.  Hieros.  in  A.D.  333  speaks 
of  the  two  monolithic  monuments  as  the  tombs  of 
Isaiah  and  Hezekiah.  Adamnus,  about  A.D.  G97, 
mentions  only  one  of  these,  and  calls  it  the  tomb  of 
Jehoshaphat.  .  .  .  The  historians  of  the  Crusades  ap- 
pear not  to  have  noticed  these  tombs.  The  first  men- 
tion of  a  tomb  of  Absalom  is  by  Benjamin  of  Tudela, 
who  gives  to  the  other  the  name  of  king  Uzziah ; 
and  from  that  time  to  the  present  day  the  accounts  of 
travellers  have  been  varying  and  inconsistent."  Yet 
so  eminent  an  architect  as  Prof.  Cockerell  speaks  of 
this  tomb  of  Absalom  as  a  monument  of  antiquity, 
perfectly  corresponding  with  the  ancient  notices  (Ath- 
enaeum, Jan.  28,  1843).  Notwithstanding  the  above 
objections,  therefore,  we  are  inclined  to  identify  the 
site  of  this  monument  with  that  of  Scripture.  Jose- 
phus  (Ant.  vii,  10,  3)  says  that  it  was  "a  marble  pil- 
lar in  the  king's  dale  [the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
which  led  to  "  the  king's  gardens"],  two  furlongs  dis- 
tant from  Jerusalem,"  as  if  it  were  extant  in  his  day. 
The  simple  monolith  pillar  may  naturally  have  been 
replaced  in  after  times  by  a  more  substantial  monu- 
ment. See  Pillar.  It  is  Avorthy  of  remark  that  tlio 
tradition  which  connects  it  with  Absalom  is  not  a 
monkish  one  merely ;  the  Jewish  residents  likewise, 
who  would  not  be  likely  to  borrow  from  Christiin 
legends,  have  been  in  the  habit  from  time  immemo- 
rial of  casting  a  stone  at  it  and  spitting,  as  they  p.iss 
by  it,  in  order  to  show  their  horror  at  the  rebellious 
conduct  of  this  unnatural  son.  (See  Williams,  Holy 
City,  ii,  451 ;  Olin's  Travels,  ii,  145 ;  Pococke,  East, 
ii,  34;  Richter,  Wall/,  p.  33;  Rosenmiiller's  Ansich- 
ten  von  Paliistina,  ii,  plate  14;  Wilson,  Lands  of  Bible, 
i,  488 ;  Thomson's  Land  and  Book,  ii,  482 ;  Crit.  Sac. 
Thes.  Nov.  i,  676 ;  Frith,  Palest,  -photographed,  pt.  21). 

2.  (Sept.  'Afitma\u>poc.)  The  father  of  Matathias 
(1  Mace,  xi,  70)  and  Jonathan  (1  Mace,  xiii,  11),  two 
of  the  generals  under  the  Maccabees. 

3.  (Sept.  'AiSsciraXioj.!.)  One  of  the  two  Jews  sent 
by  Judas  Maccabeus  with  a  petition  to  the  viceroy 
Lysias  (2  Mace,  xi,  17,  in  some  "Absalon"). 

Absalon,  or  Axel,  archbishop  of  Lund,  in  Swe- 
den, and  primate  of  the  kingdoms  of  Denmark,  Swe- 
den, and  Norway,  was  born  in  the  island  of  Zealand, 
in  1128.  After  finishing  his  studies  at  Paris,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  priesthood,  and  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Roeskilde  in  1158.  He  was  at  the  same 
time  made  prime-minister  and  general  of  the  armies 
of  Waldemar.  In  the  latter  capacity  he  overcame  the 
Wends,  and  established  Christianity  there.  In  1178 
he  was  made  archbishop  of  Lund,  but  still  retained  the 
see  of  Roeskilde,  and  remained  in  Zealand  until  1191. 
He  also  quelled  a  rebellion  in  the  district  of  Schoonen  ; 
and  after  Canute  VI  had  ascended  the  throne  he  help- 
ed tins  prince  in  repulsing  his  rival,  the  Duke  of  Pome- 
rania,  and  in  conquering  Mecklenbourg  and  Estonia. 
These  occupations  did  not  prevent  his  attending  dili- 
gently to  his  clerical  duties.  In  1187  he  called  a 
national  council  to  regulate  the  ceremonial  of  the 
churches.  He  was  also  a  patron  of  the  sciences  and 
of  literature.  He  died  in  the  convent  of  Soroe  in  1201. 
— Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  31 ;  Illgen,  Zeitschrft.  1832,  i. 

Absinthium.     See  Wormwood. 

Absolution,  the  act  of  loosing  or  setting  free.  In 
civil  law  it  is  a  sentence  by  which  the  party  accused 
is  declared  innocent  of  the  crime  laid  to  his  charge, 
and  is  equivalent  to  acquittal.  In  the  Roman  theol- 
ogy it  signifies  the  act  by  which  the  priest  declares  the 
sins  of  penitent  persons  to  be  remitted  to  them. 


ABSOLUTION 


3? 


ABSTEMII 


1.  In  the  first  centuries,  the  restoration  of  a  peni- 
tent to  the  bosom  of  the  Christian  Church  was  deemed 
a  matter  of  great  importance,  and  was  designed  not 
only  to  be  a  means  of  grace  to  the  individual,  but  also 
a  benefit  to  the  whole  body.  Absolution  was  at  that 
time  simply  reconciliation  with  the  Church,  and  res- 
toration to  its  communion,  without  any  reference  to  the 
remission  of  sins.  Early  writers,  such  as  Tertullian, 
Novatian,  Cyprian,  Athanasius,  Basil,  Chrysostom, 
Jerome,  and  Cyril,  lay  great  stress  on  the  fact  that  the 
forgiveness  of  sins  is  the  prerogative  of  Cod  only,  and 
can  never  belong  to  any  priest  or  bishop.  After  the 
fourth  century,  as  the  practice  of  private  penance  pre- 
vailed, the  doctrine  of  ministerial  absolution  of  sins 
began  to  gain  ground,  and  was  at  length  exalted  to 
the  rank  of  a  sacrament. 

2.  Five  kinds  of  absolution  are  mentioned  by  the 
early  writers,  a.  That  of  baptism,  b.  The  eucharist. 
c.  The  word  and  doctrine,  d.  The  imposition  of  hands, 
and  prayer,  e.  Reconciliation  to  the  Church  by  re- 
laxation of  censures.  Baptism  in  the  ancient  Church 
was  called  absolution,  because  remission  of  sins  was 
supposed  to  be  connected  with  this  ordinance.  It 
is  termed  by  Augustine  "  absolutio ,'  or,  "  sacr  amen- 
tum absohitionis  et  remission  is  peccatarum.''''  It  had 
no  relation  to  penitential  discipline,  being  never  given 
to  persons  who  had  once  received  baptism.  The  ab- 
solution of  the  eucharist  had  some  relation  to  peni- 
tential discipline,  but  did  not  solely  belong  to  it. 
It  was  given  to  all  baptized  persons  who  never  fell 
under  discipline,  as  well  as  to  those  who  fell  and 
were  restored.  In  "both  respects  it  was  called  the 
perfection  or  consummation  of  a  Christian  (to  Tt- 
X(ioj').  The  absolution  of  the  word  and  doctrine  was 
declarative.  It  was  that  power  which  the  minis- 
ters of  Christ  have,  to  make  declaration  of  the  terms 
of  reconciliation  and  salvation  to  mankind.  The  ab- 
solution of  intercession  and  prayer  was  generally  con- 
nected with  all  other  kinds  of  absolution.  Prayers 
always  attended  baptism  and  the  Eucharist,  and  also 
the  final  reception  of  penitents  into  the  Church.  The 
absolution  of  reconcilement  to  the  Church  took  place  at 
the  altar,  after  canonical  penance,  and  is  often  refer- 
red to,  in  earlier  writers,  by  the  terms,  "granting 
peace,"  "restoring  to  communion,"  "reconciling  to 
the  church,"  "loosing  bonds,"  "granting  indulgence 
and  pardon."  Some  councils  enacted  that  the  absolu- 
tion of  a  penitent  should  only  be  granted  by  the  bishop 
who  had  performed  the  act  of  excommunication,  or  by 
his  successor.  Severe  penalties  were  inflicted  on  any 
who  violated  this  regulation.  Various  ceremonies  ac- 
companied this  act.  The  time  selected  was  usually 
Passion-iceek ;  and,  from  this  circumstance,  the  restora- 
tion is  called  hebdomas  iudulgintiiv.  If  not  in  Passion- 
week,  it  took  place  at  some  time  appointed  by  the 
bishop.  The  act  was  performed  in  the  church,  when 
the  people  were  assembled  for  divine  worship,  and 
usually  immediately  before  the  administration  of  the 
Lord's  supper.  The  penitent,  kneeling  before  the  al- 
tar-table, or  the  reading-desk  (ambo),  was  absolved  by 
the  bishop,  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  and  by  prayer. 
As  the  act  was  designated  by  the  phrase  Dare  pacem, 
it  is  probable  that  a  form  was  used  which  contained  in 
it  the  expression,  "  Depart  in  peace."  The  fifty-first 
Psalm  was  usually  sung  on  the  occasion,  but  not  as  a 
necessary  part  of  the  service.  Immediately  after  the 
ceremony,  the  absolved  were  admitted  to  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  supper,  and  from  that  moment  re- 
stored to  all  church  privileges,  with  one  exception, 
that  a  minister,  under  these  circumstances,  was  reck- 
oned among  the  laity,  and  a  layman  disqualified  for 
the  clerical  office.  In  the  case  of  heretics,  chrism  was 
added  to  the  imposition  of  hands,  to  denote  their  re- 
ception of  the  Holy  Spirit  of  peace  on  their  restoration 
to  the  peace  and  unity  of  the  Church.  The  bishop 
touched  with  oil  the  forehead,  eyes,  nose,  mouth,  and 
ears  of  the  penitent,  saying,  "  This  is  the  sign  of  the 


gifts  of  the  Holj'  Ghost."  The  Roman  Church  has 
also  a  form  of  absolution  for  the  dead  (absolutio  <h  /'un<- 
torum).  It  consists  in  certain  prayers  performed  by 
the  priest,  after  the  celebration  of  the  mass  for  a  de- 
ceased person,  for  his  delivery  from  purgatory. 

3.  The  Roman  Church  practises  sacramental  absolu- 
tion. According  to  the  decision  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  (sess.  xiv,  cap.  vi,  etc.  can.  ix),  the  priest  is 
judge  as  well  as  the  minister  of  Jesus  Christ ;  so  that 
the  meaning  of  the  words,  ego  ie  absolvo  a  peccatis  tuis 
in  nomine  Patris  et  Filii  it  Spiritus  Sancti.  Amen,  is 
not  merely,  "  I  declare  to  thee  that  thy  sins  are  remit- 
ted," but,  "As  the  minister  of  Jesus  Christ,  I  remit  thy 
sins."  The  view  of  the  Greek  Church  appears  to  be 
that  "  Penitence  is  a  mystery,  or  sacrament,  in  which 
he  who  confesses  his  sins  is,  on  the  outward  declaration 
of  pardon  by  the  priest,  inwardly  loosed  from  his  sins 
by  Jesus  Christ  himself"  (Longer  Catechism  of  the  Rus- 
sian Church,  by  Blackmore).  It  is  very  plain  that  the 
New  Testament  does  not  sanction  the  power  claimed 
by  the  Roman  hierarchy,  and  that  it  is  altogether  in- 
consistent with  the  teaching  of  the  earlier  fathers  of 
the  Church.  When  Jesus  Christ  says  to  his  minis- 
ters, "  Whosesoever  sins  ye  remit,  they  are  remitted  ; 
and  whosesoever  sins  ye  retain,  the}'  are  retained," 
he  imparts  to  them  a  commission  to  declare  with  au- 
thority the  Christian  terms  of  pardon,  and  he  also 
gives  them  a  power  of  inflicting  and  remitting  ecclesi- 
astical censures;  that  is,  admitting  into  a  Christian 
congregation  or  excluding  from  it.  Absolution  in  the 
New  Testament  does  not  appear  to  mean  more  than 
this  :  and  in  early  ecclesiastical  writers  it  is  generally 
confined  to  the  remission  of  church  censures,  and  re- 
admission  into  the  congregation.  It  is  generally 
agreed  that  the  indicative  form  of  absolution — that  is, 
"  I  absolve  thee" — instead  of  the  deprecatory — that  is, 
"  Christ  absolve  thee" — was  introduced  in  the  twelfth 
or  thirteenth  century,  just  before  the  time  of  Thomas 
Aquinas,  who  was  one  of  the  first  that  wrote  in  de- 
fence of  it.  The  Greek  Church  still  retains  the  depre- 
catory form.     See  Indulgence. 

4.  "  The  Church  of  England  also  holds  the  doctrine 
of  absolution,  but  restrains  herself  to  what  she  sup- 
poses to  be  the  Scriptural  limits  within  which  the  pow- 
er is  granted,  which  are  the  pronouncing  God's  for- 
giveness of  sins  upon  the  supposition  of  the  existence 
of  that  state  of  mind  to  which  forgiveness  is  granted. 
The  remission  of  sins  is  God's  special  prerogative — 
'  Who  can  forgive  sins  but  God  only?'  (Luke  v,  21) — 
but  the  public  declaration  of  such  remission  to  the 
penitent  is,  like  all  other  ministrations  in  the  ( Ihurch, 
committed  to  men  as  God's  ministers.  The  Church 
of  England  has  three  forms  of  absolution.  In  that 
which  occurs  in  the  morning  service,  the  act  of  pardon 
is  declared  to  be  God's.  The  second  form,  in  the  com- 
munion service,  is  precatory ;  it  expresses  the  earnest 
wish  that  God  may  pardon  the  sinner.  The  third  form, 
in  the  visitation  of  the  sick,  is  apparently  more  uncon- 
ditional, but  not  really  so;  since  it  is  spoken  to  those 
who  '  truly  repent  and  believe  in  God.'  The  words 
of  absolution  which  follow  must  lie  interpreted  accord- 
ing to  the  analogy  of  the  two  other  forms,  which  refer 
the  act  of  pardon  to  God.  And  that  the  Church  does 
not  regard  the  pronouncing  of  this  absolution  as  neces- 
sary, or  as  conducive  to  the  sinner's  pardon,  is  evident 
from  the  absence  of  any  injunction  or  admonition  to 
that  effect.  It  is  noticed  in  the  rubric,  apparently,  as 
an  indulgence  to  the  sick  man  if  he  heartily  desire  it ; 
but  no  hint  is  given  that  he  ought  to  desire  it,  nor  any 
exhortation  to  seek  it."  See  Palmer  On  the  Church, 
ii,  280;  Wheatly  (in  Common  Prayer,  -U0  sq.  ;  Bing- 
ham, Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xix,  cb.  i;  Pascal,  l.iturq.  Cathol. 
p.  M;  Coleman,  Christ.  Antiq.  ch.  xxii,  §  8;  Elliott, 
Delineation  of  Romanism,  i,  o05.  Compare  Confes- 
sion; Penance. 

Abstemii,  a  name  given  to  such  persons  as  could 


ABSTINENCE 


38 


ABSTINENCE 


not  partake  of  the  cup  at  the  Eucharist  on  account  of 
their  natural  aversion  to  wine. 

Abstinence  (a<Tiria,  not  eating,  Acts  xxvii,  21), 
a  general  term,  applicable  to  any  object  from  which 
one  abstains,  while  fasting  is  a 'species  of  abstinence, 
namely,  from  food.  See  Fast.  The  general  term  is 
likewise  used  in  the  particular  sense  to  imply  a  par- 
ti il  abstinence  from  particular  food,  but  Jast  signifies 
an  abstinence  from  food  altogether.  Both  are  spoken 
of  in  the  Bible  as  a  religious  duty.  Abstinence  again 
differs  from  temperance,  which  is  a  moderate  use  of 
food  or  drink  usually  taken,  and  is  sometimes  extended 
to  other  indulgences ;  while  abstinence  (in  reference 
to  fond  !  is  a  refraining  entirety  from  the  use  of  certain 
articles  of  diet,  or  a  very  slight  partaking  of  ordinary 
meals,  in  cases  where  absolute  fasting  would  be  hazard- 
ous to  health.    See  Selk-dexial. 

1.  Jeirhli. — The  first  example  of  abstinence  which 
occurs  in  Scripture  is  that  in  which  the  use  of  blood  is 
forbidden  to  Noah  (Gen.  ix,  20).  See  Blood.  The 
next  is  that  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxii,  32  :  "  The  chil- 
dren of  Israel  eat  not  of  the  sinew  which  shrank,  which 
is  upon  the  hollow  of  the  thigh,  unto  th's  da//,  because 
he  (the  angel)  touched  the  hollow  of  Jacob's  thigh  in 
the  sinew  that  shrank."  See  Sinew.  This  practice 
of  particular  and  commemorative  abstinence  is  here 
mentioned  by  anticipation  long  after  the  date  of  the 
fact  referred  to,  as  the  phrase  "  unto  this  da}-"  inti- 
mates. No  actual  instance  of  the  practice  occurs  in 
the  Scripture  itself,  but  the  usage  has  always  been 
kept  up;  and  to  the  present  day  the  Jews  generally 
abstain  from  the  whole  hind-quarter  on  account  of 
the  trouble  and  expense  of  extracting  the  particular 
sinew  (Allen's  Modem  Judaism,  p.  421).  By  the  law 
abstinence  from  blood  was  continued,  and  the  use  of 
the  flesh  of  even  lawful  animals  was  forbidden,  if  the 
manner  of  their  death  rendered  it  impossible  that  they 
should  lie,  or  uncertain  that  they  were,  duly  exsan- 
guinated (Exod.  xxii,  31 ;  Deut.  xiv,  21).  A  broad 
rule  was  also  laid  down  by  the  law,  defining  whole 
classes  of  animals  that  might  not  be  eaten  (Lev.  xi). 
See  Animal;  Food.  Certain  parts  of  lawful  animals, 
as  being  sacred  to  the  altar,  were  also  interdicted. 
These  were  the  large  lobe  of  the  liver,  the  kidneys 
and  the  fat  upon  them,  as  well  as  the  tail  of  the  "  fat- 
tailed''  she  sp  (Lev.  iii,  9-11).  Every  thing  conse- 
crated to  idols  was  also  forbidden  (Exod.  xxxiv,  15). 
In  conformity  with  these  rules  the  Israelites  abstained 
generally  from  food  which  was  more  or  less  in  use 
among  other  people.  Instances  of  abstinence  from 
allowed  food  are  not  frequent,  except  in  commemo- 
rative or  afflictive  fasts.  The  forty  days'  abstinence 
of  Moses,  Elijah,  and  Jesus  are  peculiar  cases,  requir- 
ing to  lie  separately  considered.  See  Fasting.  The 
priests  were,  commanded  to  abstain  from  wine  previous 
to  their  actual  ministrations  (Lev.  x,  9),  and  the  same 
abstinence  was  enjoined  to  the  Xazarites  during  the 
whole  period  of  their  separation  (Num.  vi,  5).  See 
NAZARITE.  A  con-taut  abstinence  of  this  kind  was, 
at  a  later  period,  voluntarily  undertaken  by  the  Re- 
chabites  (.Jer.  xxxv,  1(1,  18).    See  Rechabite. 

Among  the  early  Christian  converts  there  were 
some  who  deemed  themselves  bound  to  adhere  to  the 
Mosaical  limitations  regarding  food,  and  they  accord- 
ingly abstained  from  flesh  sacrificed  to  idols,  as  well 
as  from  animals  which  the  law  accounted  unclean; 
while  others  contemned  this  as  a  weakness,  and  ex- 
ulted in  the  liberty  wherewith  Christ  had  made  bis 
followers  free.  This  question  was  repeatedly  refer- 
red to  the.  Apostle  Paul,  who  laid  down  some  admi- 
rable rides  on  the  subject,  the  purport  of  which  was, 
tlu't  every  one  was  at  liberty  to  act  in  this  matter  ac- 
cording to  the  dictates  of  bis  own  conscience,  but  that 
the  strong-minded  had  better  abstain  from  the  exer- 
cise of  the  freedom  they  possessed  whenever  it  might 
prove  an  occasion  of  stumbling  to  a  weak   brother 


(Rom.  xiv,  1-3;  1  Cor.  viii).     In  another  place  the 

same  apostle  reproves  certain  sectaries  who   should 

arise,  forbidding  marriage,  and  enjoining  abstinence 

from  meats  which  God  had  created  to  be  received  with 

thanksgiving  (1  Tim.  iv,  3,  4).     The  council  of  the 

apostles  at  Jerusalem  decided  that  no  other  abstinence 

regarding  food  should  be  imposed  upon  the  converts 

I  than  "from  meats  offered  to  idols,  from   blood,  and 

from  things  strangled"  (Acts  xv,  29).     Paul  says  (1 

Cor.  ix,  25)  that  wrestlers,  in  order  to  obtain  a  cor- 

I  ruptible  crown,  abstain  from  all  things,  or  from  every 

thing  which  might  weaken  them.     In  his  First  Epistle 

I  to  Timothy  (iv,  3),  he  blames  certain  heretics  who 

condemned  marriage,  and  the  use  of  meats  which  God 

hath  created.      He  requires  Christians  to  abstain  from 

|  all  appearance  of  evil  (1  Thess.  v,  22),  and,  with  much 

I  stronger  reason,  from  every  thing  really  evil,  and  con- 

I  trary  to  religion  and  piety.    See  Flesh  ;  Alisgema. 

The  Essenes,  a  sect  among  the  Jews  which  is  not 
j  mentioned  by  name  in  the  Scriptures,  led  a  more  ab- 
stinent life  than  any  recorded  in  the  sacred  books. 
Sec  Essexes.  The)-  refused  all  pleasant  food,  eating 
nothing  but  coarse  bread  and  drinking  only  water ; 
and  some  of  them  abstained  from  food  altogether  un- 
til after  the  sun  had  set  (Philo,  He  Vita  Contempla- 
tira,  p.  G92,  G9G).  That  abstinence  from  ordinary  food 
was  practised  by  the  Jews  medicinally  is  not  shown 
in  Scripture,  but  is  more  than  probable,  not  only 
as  a  dictate  of  nature,  but  as  a  common  practice  of 
their  Egyptian  neighbors,  who,  we  are  informed  1  y 
Diodorus  (i,  82),  "being  persuaded  that  the  majority 
of  diseases  proceed  from  indigestion  and  excess  of  eat- 
ing, had  frequent  recourse  to  abstinence,  emetics,  slight 
doses  of  medicine,  and  other  simple  means  of  relieving 
the  system,  which  some  persons  were  in  the  habit  of 
repeating  every  two  or  three  days.  See  Porphyry, 
Lie  Abst.  iv. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Uncleanness. 

2.  Christian. — a.  Early. — In  the  early  Church  cate- 
chumens could  be  admitted  to  baptism ;  they  were  re- 
quired, according  to  Cyril  and  Jerome,  to  observe  a 
season  of  abstinence  and  prayer  for  forty  days  ;  accord- 
ing to  others,  of  twenty  days.  Extreme  caution  and 
care  were  observed  in  the  ancient  Church  in  receiving 
candidates  into  communion,  the  particulars  of  which 
may  be  found  under  the  head  Catechumens.  Super- 
stitious abstinence  by  the  clergy  was  deemed  a  crime. 
If  they  abstained  from  flesh,  wine,  marriage,  or  any 
thing  lawful  and  innocent,  in  accordance  with  the  heret- 
ical and  false  notions  that  the  creatures  of  God  were  nut 
good,  but  polluted  and  unclean,  they  were  liable  to  be 
deposed  from  office.  Sec  Abstinents.  There  was  al- 
ways much  disputation  between  the  Church  and  several 
heretical  sects  on  the  subjects  of  meats  and  marriage. 
The  Manichees  and  Priscillianists  professed  a  higher 
degree  of  spirituality  and  refinement,  because  they  ab- 
stained from  wine  and  flesh  as  things  unlawful  and 
unclean,  and  on  this  account  censured  the  Church  as 
impure  in  allowing  men  the  moderate  and  just  use  of 
them.  The  Apostolical  Canons  enjoin,  "  That  if  any 
bishop,  presbyter,  or  deacon,  or  any  other  clerk,  ab- 
stain from  marriage,  flesh,  or  wine,  not  for  exercise, 
but  abhorrence — forgetting  that  God  made  all  things 
very  good,  and  created  man  male  and  female,  and 
speaking  evil  of  the  workmanship  of  God,  unless  ho 
correct  his  error,  he  shall  be  deposed,  and  cast  out  of 
the  church."  At  the  same  time,  strict  observance  of 
the  fasts  of  the  church  was  enjoined,  and  deposition 
was  the  penalty  in  case  of  non-compliance  with  the 
directions  of  the  canons  on  this  subject. 

Ii.  Romish. — In  the  Romish  Church  a  distinction  is 
made  between  fasting  and  abstinence,  and  different 
days  are  appointed  to  each.  On  days  of  fasting,  one 
meal  in  twenty-tour  hours  is  allowed;  but  on  days  of 
abstinence,  provided  flesh  is  not  eaten  and  the  meal 
is  moderate,  a  collation  is  allowed  in  the  evening. 
Their  days  of  abstinence  are  all  the  Sundays  in  Lent, 
St.  Mark's  day,  if  it  docs  not  fall  in  Easter-week,  the 


ABSTINENTS 


39 


ABYSSINIAN" 


three  Rogation-days,  all  Saturdays  throughout  the 
year,  with  the  Fridays  which  do  not  fall  within  the 
twelve  days  of  Christmas.  The  observance  of  St. 
Mark's  day  as  a  day  of  abstinence  is  said  to  be  in  im- 
itation of  St.  Mark's  disciples,  the  iirst  Christians  of 
Alexandria,  who  are  said  to  have  been  eminent  for 
their  prayer,  abstinence,  and  sobriety.  The  Roman 
days  of  fasting  are,  all  Lent  except  Sundays,  the  Em- 
ber-days, the  vigils  of  the  more  solemn  feasts,  and  all 
Fridays  except  such  as  fall  between  Easter  and  the 
Ascension.    Sec  Calendar. 

c.  Protestant. — The  Church  of  England,  in  the  table 
of  vigils,  mentions  fasts  and  days  of  abstinence  sep- 
arately; but  in  the  enumeration  of  particulars,  they  are 
called  indifferently  days  of  fasting  or  abstinence,  and 
the  words  seem  to  refer  to  the  same  thing.  The  Word 
of  God  never  teaches  us  that  abstinence  is  good  and 
valuable  per  se,  but  only  that  it  ministers  to  holiness  ; 
and  so  it  is  an  instrument,  not  an  end. —  Bingham, 
Oriff.  Eccles.  bk.  x,  ch.  11,  §  9.     Sec  Asceticism. 

Abstinents,  a  sect  of  heretics  that  appeared  in 
France  and  Spain  about  the  end  of  the  third  century, 
during  the  persecutions  of  Diocletian  and  Maximin. 
They  condemned  marriage  and  the  use  of  flesh  and 
wine,  which  they  said  were  made  not  by  God,  but  by 
the  devil.     See  Abstinence. 

Absus,  a  river  of  Palestine,  according  to  Vibius 
Sequester  (see  Reland,  Palccst.  p.  297),  prob.  the  "  gen- 
tle stream"  (mollis)  referred  to  by  Lucan  (v,  485),  and 
by  Caesar  (Bell.  Civ.  iii,  13),  as  having  been  crossed  by 
Pompey  near  Apollonia ;  hence,  no  doubt,  the  brook- 
let that  enters  the  Mediterranean  at  this  place. 

Abu'bus  ("AfiovjSoc,  prob.  of  Syrian  origin),  the 
father  of  rtolemy,  the  general  of  Antiochus,  who  slew 
Simon  Maccabasus  (1  Mace,  xvi,  11, 15). 

Abul-faraj  (Arul-piiaragius,  or  Abulfara- 
dasch),  Gregory  (called  also  Bar-Hebraeus,  from  his 
father  having  been  originally  a  Jew),  was  the  son  of 
Aaron,  a  physician  of  Malatia,  in  Armenia,  and  was 
born  in  122G,  and,  like  his  father,  was  a  Jacobite.  He 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Syriac  and  Arabic 
languages,  philosophy,  theology,  and  medicine  :  in  the 
latter  he  became  a  great  proficient,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  among  the  Moslems.  When  only 
twenty-one  years  of  age  he  was  made  bishop  of  Cuba 
by  the  Jacobite  patriarch  Ignatius ;  and  in  1247  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Aleppo.  About  12GG  he  was 
made  Maphrian,  or  primate  of  the  Jacobites  in  the 
East,  which  dignity  he  retained  till  his  death,  in  128G. 
His  works  are  very  numerous ;  the  best  known  is  the 
Syriac  Chronicle,  which  is  largely  cited  by  Gibbon, 
and  is,  in  fact,  a  repository  of  Eastern  history.  It 
consists  of  two  parts :  1.  The  Dynasties — a  Civil  ( !hron- 
iclc  from  Adam  to  A.D.  128G  ;  2.  An  Ecclesiastical  1 1  is- 
tory,  which  again  falls  into  two  divisions:  (1.)  A  Cat- 
alogue and  Chronicle  of  the  Patriarchs  of  Antioch, 
called  by  this  author  the  Pontiffs  of  the  West;  (2.)  A 
Catalogue  and  Chronicle  of  the  Primates,  Patriarchs, 
and  Maphrians  of  the  East.  The  Civil  Chronicle  is  pub- 
lished in  Syriac  and  Latin,  from  the  Bodleian  MS., 
under  the  title  Chronicon  Syriacum,  ed.  P.  J.  Brims  and 
G.  G.  Kirsch  (  Lips.  1788,  2  vols.  4to)  ;  an  abridgment 
of  the  whole  chronicle  made  in  Arabic  by  Abul-faraj, 
in  Arabic  and  Latin  by  Pococke,  under  the  title  His- 
tnr'ii  f'mnjx  iiilius/t  liymistinnim,  ab  Ed.  Pocockio  inter- 
prete  (Oxon.  16G3,  2  vols.  4to).  A  complete  edition 
was  proposed  in  Germany  by  Bernstein,  in  1847,  but 
nothing  beyond  the  prospectus  has  yet  appeared.  The 
"Ecclesiastical  History"  exists  in  MS.  in  the  Vatican 
and  Bodleian  (?)  libraries.  The  autobiography  of 
Abul-faraj  is  given  by  Assemanni,  Rihliothi  <■«  ttrini- 
talis,  torn.  ii.  See  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  Ann.  1284;  Chris- 
tian Remembrancer,  vol.  xxx,  p.  800. 

Abuma.     See  Rumah. 

Abuna  (our father),  the  title  given  by  the  Abys- 
sinian Christians  to  their  metropolitan.     They  receive  i 


this  prelate  from  the  Coptic  patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
At  one  time,  when  the  Abyssinians  were  greatly  op- 
pressed, they  applied  to  the  pope  for  help,  promising 
never  again  to  accept  their  metropolitan  from  the 
Coptic  patriarch  ;  but  this  forced  submission  to  Home 
did  not  last  long.     See  Abyssinian  Church. 

Abyss  (* '  Afivorjoc,).  The  Greek  word  means  lit- 
erally "  without  bottom"  but  actually  deep,  profound. 
It  is  used  in  the  Sept.  for  the  Hebrew  tehom'  (Cinpi), 
which  we  find  applied  either  to  the  ocean  (Gen.  i,  2  ; 
vii,  11)  or  to  the  under  world  (Ps.  lxxi,  21 ;  cvii,  26). 
In  the  New  Testament  it  is  used  as  a  noun  to  describe 
Hades,  or  the  place  of  the  dead  generally  (Rom.  x,  7) ; 
but  more  especially  Tartarus,  or  that  part  of  Hades  in 
which  the  souls  of  the  wicked  were  supposed  to  be 
confined  (Luke  viii,  31;  Lev.  ix,  1,  2,  11;  xx,  1,  3; 
comp.  2  Pet.  ii,  4).  In  the  Revelation  the  authorized 
version  invariably  renders  it  "bottomless  pit;"  else- 
where "deep."    See  Pit. 

Most  of  these  uses  of  the  word  are  explained  by 
reference  to  some  of  the  cosmological  notions  which 
the  Hebrews  entertained  in  common  with  other  East- 
ern nations.  It  was  believed  that  the  abyss,  or  sea  of 
fathomless  waters,  encompassed  the  whole  earth.  The 
earth  floated  on  the  abyss,  of  which  it  covered  only  a 
small  part.  .  According  to  the  same  notion,  the  earth 
was  founded  upon  the  waters,  or,  at  least,  had  its 
foundations  in  the  abyss  beneath  (Ps.  xxiv,  2  ;  exxxvi, 
G).  Under  these  waters,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
abyss,  the  wicked  were  represented  as  groaning  and 
undergoing  the  punishment  of  their  sins.  There  were 
confined  the  Rephaim — those  old  giants  who.  while 
living,  caused  surrounding  nations  to  tremble  (Prov. 
ix,  18  ;  xxix,  10).  In  those  dark  regions  the  sover- 
eigns of  Tyre,  Babylon,  and  Egypt  are  described  by 
the  prophets  as  undergoing  the  punishment  of  their 
cruelty  and  pride  (Jer.  xxvi,  14;  Ezek.  xxviii,  10, 
etc.).  This  was  "the  deep"  into  which  the  evil  spir- 
its, in  Luke  viii,  31,  besought  that  they  might  not  be 
east,  and  which  was  evidently  dreaded  by  them.  See 
Creation;  Hades.  The  notion  of  such  an  abyss 
was  by  no  means  confined  to  the  East.  It  was  equal- 
ly entertained  by  the  Celtic  Druids,  who  held  that 
Annvn  (the  deep,  the  low  part),  the  abyss  from  which 
the  earth  arose,  was  the  abode  of  the  evil  principle 
(Gwarthawn),  and  the  place  of  departed  spirits,  com- 
prehending both  the  Elysium  and  the  Tartarus  of  an- 
tiquity. With  them  also  wandering  spirits  were  call- 
el  Plant  annun,  "the  children  of  the  deep"  (Davis's 
Ciltic  Researches,  p.  175;  Myth,  and  Rites  of  the  B. 
Druids,  p.  49). — Kitto,  s.  v.      See  Deep. 

We  notice  a  few  special  applications  of  the  word 
"deep,"  or  abyss,  in  the  Scriptures  (see  Wemyss,  Symb. 
Diet.  s.  v.).  Isaiah  (xliv,  27)  refers  to  the  method 
by  which  Cyrus  took  Babylon,  viz.,  by  laying  the  bed 
of  the  Euphrates  dry,  as  mentioned  by  Xenophon  and 
others.  The  same  event  is  noticed  in  similar  terms  by 
Jeremiah  (i,  38  and  li,  3G).  A  parallel  passage  in  re- 
lation to  Egypt  occurs  in  Isaiah  (xix,  5"),  where  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  country  and  its  resources  bj'  foreign 
conquerors  seems  to  be  pointed  out.  Pom.  x,  7  :  '•  Who 
shall  descend  into  the  abyss  [Dent,  xxx,  13,  "  beyond 
the  sea"]  to  bring  up  Christ  again  from  the  dead?" 
i.  e.  faith  does  not  require,  for  our  satisfaction,  things 
impracticable,  either  to  scale  the  heavens  or  to  ex- 
plore the  profound  recesses  of  the  earth  and  sea.  The 
abyss  sometimes  signifies  metaphorically  grievous  af- 
flictions or  calamities,  in  which,  as  in  a  sea,  men  seem 
ready  to  be  overwhelmed  ( Ps.  xlii,  7;  lxxi,  20). 

Abyssinia.     See  Abyssinian  Church. 

Abyssinian  Church.  Abyssinia  is  an  extensive 
district  of  Eastern  Africa,  between  hit.  7°  30'  and 
15°  hi'  N.,  long.  35°  and  42°  E.,  with  a  population 
of  perhaps  four  millions.  Carl  1,'itter,  of  Berlin,  has 
shown  that  the  high  country  of  Habesh  consists  of 
three  terraces  or  distinct  table-lands,  rising  one  above 


ABYSSINIAN 


40 


ABYSSINIAN 


another,  and  of  which  the  several  grades  of  ascent  of- 
fer themselves  hi  succession  to  the  traveller  as  he  ad- 
vances from  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  (Erdhinde,  th. 
i,  s.  1C8).  The  first  of  these  levels  is  the  plain  of 
Baharnegash  ;  the  second  level  is  the  plain  and  king- 
dom of  Tigre,  which  formerly  contained  the  kingdom 
of  Axum ;  the  third  level  is  High  Abyssinia,  or  the 
kingdom  of  Amhara.  This  name  of  Amhara  is  now 
given  to  the  whole  kingdom,  of  which  Gondar  is  the 
capital,  and  where  the  Amharic  language  is  spoken, 
eastward  of  the  Takazze.  Amhara  Proper  is,  howev- 
er, a  mountainous  province  to  the  south-east,  in  the 
centre  of  which  was  Tegulat,  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  empire,  and  at  one  period  the  centre  of  the  civil- 
ization of  Abyssinia.  This  province  is  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  Gallas,  a  barbarous  people  who  have 
overcome  all  the  southern  parts  of  Ilabesh.  The 
present  kingdom  of  Amhara  is  the  heart  of  Abyssinia, 
and  the  abode  of  the  emperor,  or  Xegush.  It  contains 
the  upper  course  of  the  Nile,  the  valley  of  Dembea, 
and  the  lake  Tzana,  near  which  is  the  royal  city  of 
Gondar,  and  likewise  the  high  region  of  Gojam,  which 
Bruce  states  to  be  at  least  two  miles  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.     See  Ethiopia. 

I.  History. — Christianity  is  believed  to  have  been 
introduced,  about  A.D.  330,  by  Frumentius,  who  was 
ordained  bishop  of  Auxuma  (now  Axum,  or  Tigre)  by 
Athanasius.  See  Frumentius.  As  the  Alexandrian 
Church  held  the  Monophysite  doctrine,  the  Abyssinian 
converts  were  instructed  in  this  faith,  which  has  main- 
tained itself  ever  since.  From  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth 
century  little  was  known  in  Western  Europe  about 
Abyssinia  or  its  Church.  The  Portuguese  sent  out  by 
John  II  having  opened  a  passage  into  Abyssinia  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  an  emissary  (Bermudes)  was  sent  to 
extend  the  influence  and  authority  of  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff, clothed  with  the  title  of  patriarch  of  Ethiopia. 
The  Jesuits  sent  out  thirteen  of  their  number  in  1555, 
but  the  Abyssinians  stood  so  firm  to  the  faith  of  their 
ancestors  that  the  Jesuits  were  recalled  by  a  bull  from 
St.  Peter's.  Another  Jesuit  mission  was  sent  out  in 
1603,  and  led  to  twenty  years  of  intrigue,  civil  war, 
and  slaughter.  In  December,  1G24,  the  Abyssinian 
Church  formally  submitted  to  the  see  of  Rome;  but 
the  people  rebelled,  and,  after  several  years  of  struggle 
and  bloodshed,  the  emperor  abandoned  the  cause  of 
Rome,  and  the  Roman  patriarch  abandoned  Abyssinia 
in  1633.  After  this,  little  or  nothing  was  heard  from 
Abyssinia  till  17G3,  when  Bruce  visited  the  country, 
ami  brought  back  with  him  a  copy  of  the  Ethiopic 
Scriptures.  In  1809  Mr.  Salt  explored  Abyssinia  by 
order  of  the  British  government,  and  described  the  na- 
tion and  its  religion  as  in  a  ruinous  condition.  Mr. 
Salt  urged  the  British  Protestants  to  send  missionaries 
to  Abyssinia.  Portions  of  the  Bible  were  translated 
and  published  in  the  Amharic  and  Tigre  languages 
under  the  auspices  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  (Jowett,  Christ.  Researches,  vol.  i)  ;  and  in 
1826  two  missionaries  (from  the  Basle  Missionary 
Seminary),  viz.,  Dr.  Gobat,  now  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
and  Christian  Kugler,  were  sent  out  by  the  Church 
Missionary  Society.  Kugler  dying,  was  replaced  by 
Mr.  Isenberg.  lie  was  followed  by  the  Rev.  Charles 
Henry  Blumhardt  in  the  beginning  of  1837,  and  by 
the  Rev.  John  Ludwig  Krapf  at  the  close  of  that  year. 
The  Romish  Church  renewed  its  missions  in  1828,  and, 
liy  stirring  up  intrigues,  compelled  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Protestant  missionaries  in  1842.  Their  labors  had 
already  laid  the  foundation  of  a  reform  in  the  Abys- 
sinian Church.  Much  had  been  done  also  in  the  way 
of  translations  into  the  Amharic  language.  Mr.  Isen- 
berg carried  through  the  press,  after  his  return  to  Eng- 
land in  1840,  an  Amharic  spelling-book,  8vo ;  gram- 
mar, royal  8vo ;  dictionary,  4 to  ;  catechism,  8vo  ; 
Church  history,  8vo  ;  Amharic  general  history,  8vo. 
Mr.  Isenberg  had  prepared  a  vocabulary  of  the  Dan- 
kali  language,  which  was  likewise  printed.     The  mis- 


sion aimed  not  only  at  the  Christian  population  of  Shoa, 
but  the  Galla  tribes  extensively  spread  over  the  south- 
eastern parts  of  Africa.  To  the  Galla  language,  there- 
fore, hitherto  unwritten,  Mr.  Krapf's  attention  was 
much  given.  During  Mr.  Isenberg's  stay  in  London, 
the  following  Galla  works,  prepared  by  Mr.  Krapf, 
were  printed  :  Vocabulary,  l"2mo ;  Elements  of  the 
Galla  Language,  12mo ;  Matthew's  Gospel,  12mo ; 
John's  Gospel,  12mo. 

Recent  indications  give  us  better  hopes  of  Abys- 
sinia. In  1849  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  them- 
selves were  expelled.  The  young  king  of  Shoa  re- 
quested in  that  year  the  return  of  Dr.  Krapf,  now  en- 
gaged in  the  East  African  Mission.  King  Theodore, 
who  now  unites  under  his  sceptre  the  greater  part  of 
Abyssinia,  has  shown  himself  favorable  to  the  Prot- 
estant missions.  The  present  Abuna,  appointed  in 
1841,  is  a  pupil  of  the  Church  Mission  school  at  Cairo. 
At  the  request  of  both  the  king  and  the  Abuna  the 
missionaries  of  the  Society  of  Basle  have  recommenced 
their  labors  for  the  evangelization  of  the  Abyssinian 
Church.  In  1858  their  number  was  increased  to  six. 
In  1859  the  king  received  gladly  the  vernacular  Scrip- 
tures sent  by  the  London  Bible  Society,  and  began  at 
once  to  distribute  them.  In  the  same  year  Negussie, 
king  of  Tigre  and  Samen,  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome 
to  announce  to  the  pope  his  submission  to  the  Roman 
Church.  According  to  the  reports  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries,  50,000  subjects  of  the  king  have 
entered  with  him  into  communion  with  Rome.  See 
Africa. 

II.  Doctrines  and  Usages.  —  (1.)  The  Abyssinian 
creed  is,  as  has  been  said,  Monophysite,  or  Eutychian  ; 
maintaining  one  nature  only  in  the  person  of  Christ, 
namely,  the  divine,  in  which  they  considered  all  the 
properties-  of  the  humanity  to  be  absorbed,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Nestorians.  In  both  faith  and  worship 
they  resemble  the  Romish  Church  in  many  respects ; 
but  they  do  not  admit  transubstantiation.  (2.)  They 
practise  the  invocation  of  saints,  prayer  for  the  dead, 
and  the  veneration  of  relics  ;  and  while  they  reject  the 
use  of  images,  they  admit  a  profusion  of  pictures,  and 
venerate  them.  The}'  practise  circumcision,  but  ap- 
parently not  as  a  religious  rite.  They  keep  both  the 
Jewish  and  the  Christian  sabbath,  and  also  a  great 
number  of  holidays.  Their  clergy  and  churches  are 
very  numerous,  the  latter  richly  ornamented  ;  and  the 
number  of  monastic  institutions  among  them  is  said  to 
be  great.  The  monks  call  themselves  followers  of  St. 
Anthony,  but  follow  various  rules.  (3.)  The  supreme 
government  lies  with  the  patriarch,  called  Abuna  (q. 
v.),  who  resides  in  Gondar.  The  Abuna  receives  his 
investiture  from  the  Coptic  patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
who  is  the  nominal  head  of  the  Ethiopian  Church. 
(4.)  They  practise  an  annual  ablution,  which  they 
term  baptism,  and  -which  they  consider  necessary  to 
wash  away  the  defilement  of  sin.  The  priests  receive 
the  Lord's  Supper  every  day,  and  always  fasting  ;  be- 
sides priests  and  monks,  scarcely  any  but  aged  per- 
sons and  children  attend  the  communion.  They  call 
the  consecration  of  the  element  Mellawat.  At  Gon- 
dar Bishop  Gobat  found  no  person  that  believed  in 
transubstantiation.  In  Tigre  there  are  some  who  be- 
lieve in  it.  The  wine  is  mixed  with  water.  They 
consider  fasting  essential  to  religion ;  consequently 
their  fasts  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  about 
nine  months ;  but  these  are  seldom  all  observed  ex- 
cept by  a  few  monks.  The  priests  may  be  married 
men,  but  the}'  may  not  marry  after  the}'  have  received 
orders.  The  priesthood  is  very  illiterate,  and  there  is 
no  preaching  at  all.  The  Abyssinians  prostrate  them- 
selves to  the  saints,  and  especially  to  the  Virgin  ;  and, 
like  the  Copts  of  Egypt,  practice  circumcision.  When 
questioned  on  the  subject,  they  answer  that  they  con- 
sider circumcision  merely  as  a  custom,  and  that  they 
abstain  from  the  animals  forbidden  in  the  Mosaic  law, 
but  only  because  they  have  a  disgust  to  them ;  but 


ACACIA 


Dr.  Gobat  observed  that,  when  the}-  spoke  upon  these 
subjects  without  noticing  the  presence  of  a  stranger, 
they  attached  a  religious  importance  to  circumcision, 
and  that  a  priest  would  not  fail  to  impose  a  fast  or 
penance  on  a  man  who  had  eaten  of  a  wild  boar  or  a 
hare  without  the  pretext  of  illness.  In  short,  their 
religion  consists  chiefly  in  ceremonial  observances. 
Their  moral  condition  is  very  low;  facilities  of  di- 
vorce are  great,  and  chastity  is  a  rare  virtue  ;  the  same 
man  frequently  marries  several  women  in  succession, 
and  the  neglected  wives  attach  themselves  to  other 
men.  Yet  their  religion,  corrupt  as  it  is,  has  raised 
the  Abyssinian  character  to  a  height  far  beyond  that 
of  any  African  race.  Much  authentic  information  as 
to  this  interesting  Church  and  people  in  modern  times 
is  to  be  found  in  Gobat,  Three  Years'  Residence  in  Abys- 
sinia ;  Isenberg  and  Krapf,  Missionarij  Journals  in 
Abyssinia  (Lond.  1843,  8vo) ;  Marsden,  Churches  and 
Sects,  vol.  i ;  Newcomb,  Cyclopaedia  of Missions ;  Riip- 
pell,  [{risen  in  Abyssinim,  Frankf.  1840;  Veitch,  W.  D. 
Notes  from  a  Journal  of  E.  M.  Flad,  one  of  Bishop 
Gobafs  missionaries  in  Abyssinia,  with  a  sketch  of  the 
Abyssinian  Church  (London,  1859);  Schem,  Eccles. 
Year-book  for  1859,  p.  225;  American  Theol.  Review, 
Febr.  I860. 

Acacia.     See  Shittaii-tree. 

Acacians,  followers  of  Acacius,  Monophthalmus, 
bishop  of  Ciesarea.  In  the  Council  of  Seleucia,  A.U. 
359,  they  openly  professed  their  agreement  with  the 
pure  Arians,  maintaining,  in  opposition  to  the  semi- 
Arians,  that  the  Son  was  not  of  the  same  substance 
with  the  Father,  and  that  even  the  likeness  of  the  Son 
to  the  Father  was  a  likeness  of  will  only,  and  not  of 
essence.     Socrat.  Eccl.  Hist,  iii,  25.     See  Acacius. 

Acacius  (surnamed  Monophthalmus,  from  his  hav- 
ing but  one  eye),  was  the  disciple  of  Eusebius  of  Cass- 
area,  in  Palestine,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  see  of 
Ca:sarea  in  340.  He  was  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Arian 
party,  and  a  man  of  ability  and  learning,  but  unsettled 
in  his  theological  opinions.  He  was  deposed  as  an 
Arian  by  the  Synods  of  Antioch  (A.D.  341)  and  Seleu- 
cia (359).  Subsequently  he  sul ascribed  the  Nicene 
creed,  and  therefore  fell  out  with  the  Anomceans,  with 
whom  he  had  before  acted.  He  died  A.D.  363.  St. 
Jerome  (de  Scrip,  cap.  98)  says  that  he  wrote  seven- 
teen books  of  commentaries  upon  Holy  Scripture,  six 
on  various  subjects,  and  very  many  treatises,  among 
them  his  book  Adrersus  Marcellum,  a  considerable 
fragment  of  which  is  contained  in  Epiphanius,  Hos?-es. 
72.  Socrates  (lib.  ii,  cap.  iv)  says  that  he  also  wrote 
a  life  of  his  predecessor,  Eusebius. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit. 
anno.  340 ;  Lardner,  Works,  iii,  583. 

Acacius,  bishop  of  Berea,  was  born  about  the  year 
322,  in  Syria.  He  embraced  the  monastic  life  at  an 
early  age  under  the  famous  anchorite  Asterius.  About 
A.D.  378  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Berea  by  Eu- 
sebius of  Samosata ;  and  after  381  Flavian  sent  him 
to  Rome,  to  obtain  for  him  communion  with  the  West- 
ern bishops,  and  to  effect  the  extinction  of  the  schism 
in  the  Church  of  Antioch,  in  both  which  designs  lie 
succeeded.  At  the  commencement  of  the  5th  ecntury 
he  conspired  with  Theophilus  of  Alexandria  and  oth- 
ers against  Chrysostom,  and  was  present  in  the  pseu- 
do-council ad  Quercwn,  in  403,  where  Chrysostom  was 
deposed.  In  the  great  contest  between  Cyril  and 
Nestovius,  Acacius  wrote  to  Cyril,  endeavoring  to  ex- 
cuse Nestorius,  and  to  show  that  the  dispute  was  in 
reality  merely  verbal.  In  431  the  Council  of  Ephe- 
sus  assembled  for  the  decision  of  this  question.  Aca- 
cius did  not  attend,  but  gave  his  proxy  to  Paul  of 
Emesa  against  Cyril,  and  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
Oriental  bishop,  accusing  him  of  Apollinarianism.  In 
432  he  was  present  in  the  synod  of  Berea,  held  by 
John,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to  reconcile  Cyril  and 
the  Orientals.  His  death  occurred  about  43G,  so  that 
he  must  have   attained  the  age   of  114  years.     Of 


41  ACCAD 

the  numerous  letters  which  he  wrote,  three  only,  ac- 
cording to  Cave,  are  extant,  viz.,  two  Epistles  to  his 
Primate,  Alexander  of  llierapolis ;  one  to  Cyril. — 
Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  430  ;  Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccles.  iv. 

Academics,  a  name  given  to  such  philosophers 
as  adopted  the  doctrines  of  Plato.  They  were  so  call- 
ed from  the  Academia,  a  grove  near  Athens,  where 
they  studied  and  lectured.  The  Academics  are  divided 
into  those  of  the  first  academy,  who  taught  the  doc- 
trines of  Plato  in  their  original  purity  ;  those  of  the 
second,  or  middle  academy,  who  differed  materially 
from  the  first,  and  inclined  to  skepticism ;  and  those 
of  the  new  academy,  who  pursued  probability  as  the 
only  attainable  wisdom.  The  Academics  and  Epicu- 
reans (q.  v.)  were  the  prevailing  philosophical  sects 
at  the  time  of  Christ's  birth. — Tennemann,  Hist.  Phil. 
§§  127-138. 

Ac'atan  (AicaTav),  the  father  of  Johannes,  said 
to  be  one  of  those  who  returned  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity  (1  Esdr.  viii,  38)  ;  evidently  the  same  with 
Hakattan  (q.  v.)  of  the  parallel  text  (Ezra  viii,  12). 

AcathoiiCi,  not  catholic;  a  name  sometimes  used 
by  members  of  the  Papal  Church  to  distinguish  Pro- 
testants, under  the  arrogant  assumption  that  the  word 
"  Catholic"  is  to  be  appropriated  sole]}'  to  Romanists. 
See  Catholic. 

Ac'cad  (Heb.  Akkad',  12X,  forti-ess ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  Simonis  Onomast.  p.  27G,  bond,  i.  e.  of  con- 
quered nations;  Sept.  'ApxaS  [prob.  by  resolution  of 
the  Dagesh.like  p;w^1?  for  piuia^],  Vulg.  Achad), 
one  of  the  five  cities  in  "the  land  of  Shinar,"  or  Bab- 
ylonia, which  are  said  to  have  been  built  by  Nimrod, 
or,  rather,  to  have  been  "the  beginning  of  his  king- 
dom" (Gen.  x,  10).  iElian  (Be  Animal,  xvi,  42)  men- 
tions that  in  the  district  of  Sittacene  was  a  river  call- 
ed Argades  ('Apyac7]c,\  which  is  so  near  the  name  Ar- 
chad  which  the  Sept.  give  to  this  city,  that  Bochart 
was  induced  to  fix  Accad  upon  that  river  (Phaleg,  iv, 
17).  Mr.  Loftus  (Trav.  in  Chald.  and  Susiana,  p.  96) 
compares  the  name  of  a  Hamitic  tribe  emigrating  to 
the  plains  of  Mesopotamia  from  the  shores  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  which  lie  says  the  cuneiform  inscriptions 
call  A  kkadin ;  but  all  this  appears  to  Jae  little  more 
than  conjecture.  In  the  inscriptions  of  Sargon  the 
name  of  Akkad  is  applied  to  the  Armenian  mountains 
instead  of  the  vernacular  title  of  Ararat  (Rawlinson, 
in  Herodotus,  i,  247,  note).  The  name  of  the  city  is 
believed  to  have  been  discovered  in  the  inscriptions 
under  the  form  Kinzi  Akkad  (ib.  357).  It  seems  that 
several  of  the  ancient  translators  found  in  their  He- 
brew MSS.  Accar  (^2X)  instead  of  Accad  (Ephrem 
Syrus,  Pseudo- Jonathan,  Targum  Hieros.,  Jerome, 
Abulfaragi,  etc.).  Achar  was  the  ancient  name  of 
Nisi  bis  (see  Michaelis,  Spicileg.  i,  226)  ;  and  hence  the 
Targumists  give  Nisibis  or  Nisibin  ("p3n:i3)  for  Ac- 
cad, and  they  continued  to  be  identified  by  the  Jewish 
literati  in  the  times  of  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Acad). 
But  Nisibis  is  unquestionably  too  remote  northward 
to  be  associated  with  Babel,  Erech,  and  Calneh,  "jn 
the  land  of  Shinar,"  which  could  not  have  been  far 
distant  from  each  other.  On  the  supposition  that  the 
original  name  was  Akar,  Col.  Taylor  suggests  its  iden- 
tification with  the  remarkable  pile  of  ancient  buildings 
called  Akkrr-kiif,  in  Sittacene,  and  which  the  Turks 
know  as  Akker-t-Xiiiir/'nl  and  Ahher-i-Babil  (Chesney's 
Survey  of  the  Euphrates,  i,  117).  The  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud might  be  expected  to  mention  the  site,  and  it 
occurs  accordingly  under  the  name  of  Aggada.  It  oc- 
curs also  in  Maimonides  (Jud.  Chaz.  Tract.  Madee, 
fol.  25,  as  quoted  by  Hyde).  Akker-kuf  is  a  ruin, 
consisting  of  a  mass  of  sun-dried  bricks,  in  the  midst 
of  a  marsh,  situated  to  the  west  of  the  Tigris,  about 
five  miles  from  Bagdad  (Layard's  Babylon,  2d  scr.  p. 
407).  The  most  conspicuous  part  of  this  primitive 
monument  is  still  called  by  the  natives  Tel  Nimr&d, 


ACCAROX 


42 


ACCEPT 


ami  Nimrud  Ti-p'isse,  lioth  designations  signifying  the  j  ers,  whose  office  is  only  to  walk  before  the  ileacons, 
hill  of  Nimrod  (see  Ker  Porter's  Travels,  ii,  275).  It  etc. ,  with  lighted  tapers,  are  derived  from  the  practice 
consists  of  a  mound,  surmounted  by  a  mass  of  build-  j  of  the  acolyths.     The  two  offices  are  widely  different , 


ing  which  looks  like  a  tower,  or  an  irregular  pyramid, 
according  to  the  point  from  which  it  is  viewed ,  it  is 
about  400  feet  in  circumference  at  the  bottom,  and 
rises  to  the  height  of  125  feet  above  the  elevation  on 
which  it  stands  (Ainsworth's  Researches  in  Assyria,  p. 
175).  The  mound  which  seems  to  form  the  foundation 
of  the  pile  is  a  mass  of  rubbish,  accumulated  from  the 


ifferent, 
and  the  assumption  that  the  Romish  practice  is  de- 
rived from  apostolical  institution  is  absurd.— Bingham, 
Oriff.  Eccl.  bk.  iii,  ch.  iii.     See  Acolyths. 

Accent,  in  a  grammatical  sense,  is  the  tone  or 
stress  of  the  voice  upon  a  particular  syllable,  which  is 
the  means  of  distinguishing  or  separating  words  in 
rapid  enunciation,  and  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  rhythmical  or  mu- 
sical ictus  or  force  which 
regulates  poetry  or  me- 
tre, and  is,  at  the  same 
time,  independent  of  the 
jjgl  prosodiacal       quantity. 

In  English,  as  in  most 
jtg^       European      languages, 
\      there  is   no   fixed  rule 
for  the  position  of  the 
accent,  which  often  dif- 
J     fers    in    words    formed 
y*,  after  the  same  analogy. 

In  Latin,  in  the  absence 
3     of  all  positive  informa- 
S     tion  as  to  how  the  Ro- 
mans  themselves    pro- 
nounced their  language, 
^^^Ri£>   -     at  least  in  this  particu- 
lar,   an    arbitrary    rule 
has  been  invented  and 
•^'  '-.        -  ,\^± .^^i.  i*~" ,  generally  acceded  to  by 

scholars  of  all  nations, 
by  which  the  tone  is 
placed  upon  every  lung 
penult,  and  upon  the  an- 
tepenult of  words  hav- 
decay  of  the  superincumbent  structure  (Bonomi's  |  ing  a  short  or  doubtful  ("  common")  vowel  in  the  pe- 
Nineveh,  p.  41).  In  the  ruin  itself,  the  layers  of  sun-  j  nult.  Many  apply  the  same  rule  to  the  Greek  lan- 
dried  bricks  can  be  traced  very  distinctly.  They  are  \  guage;  but,  as  this  has  a  written  accent,  the  custom, 
cemented  together  by  lime  or  bitumen,  and  arc  divided  j  still  preserved  among  the  modern  Greeks,  is  gradually 
into  courses  varying  from  12  to  20  feet  in  height,  and  ,  prevailing,  of  conforming  the  spoken  to  the  written 


fM^- 


Moiinil  i if  Akker-ku 


are  separated  by  layers  of  reeds,  as  is  usual  in  the 
more  ancient  remains  of  this  primitive  region  (Buck- 
ingham, Mesopotamia,  ii,  217  sq.).  Travellers  have 
been  perplexed  to  make  out  the  use  of  this  remarkable 
monument,  and  various  strange  conjectures  have  been 
hazarded.  The  embankments  of  canals  and  reservoirs, 
and  the  remnants  of  brick -work  and  pottery  occupying 
the  place  all  around,  evince  that  the  Tel  stood  in  an 
important  city ;  and,  as  its  construction  announces  it 
to  be  a  Babylonian  relic,  the  greater  probability  is 
that  it  was  one  of  those  pyramidal  structures  erected 
upon  high  places,  which  were  consecrated  to  the  heav- 
enly bodies,  and  served  at  once  as  the  temples  and 
the  observatories  of  those  remote  times.  Such  build- 
ings were  common  to  all  Babylonian  towns;  and  those 
which  remain  appear  to  have  been  constructed  more 
or  less  on  the  model  of  that  in  the  metropolitan  city 
of  Babylon. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Babel. 

Ac'caron  (1  Mace,  x,  89).     See  Ekron. 

Accensorii.  In  the  early  Church  there  was  a 
class  of  officers  called  acolyths,  corresponding  to  the 
Unman  apparitor  or  pi  dellus,  In  dellus,  beadle.  In  their 
ordination,  the  bishop,  after  informing  them  as  to  the 
duties  of  their  office,  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  a  can- 
dlestick with  a  lighted  taper  in  it,  intimating  that  it 
was  their  duty  to  light  the  candles  of  the  church; 
hence  they  were  sometimes  called  accensorii,  taper- 
lighters.  Jerome  says  it.  was  a  custom  in  the  Oriental 
churches  to  set  up  lighted  tapers  when  the  Gospel  was 
read,  as  a  demonstration  of  joy  ;  but  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  there  was  a  peculiar  order  of  acolyths  for 
this  purpose.  The  duty  in  question  seems  to  have 
been  nothing  more  than  lighting  the  candles  at  night, 
when  the  church  was  to  meet  at  evening  prayer.  The 
Romanists  contend  that  their  cero-ferarii,  taper-bear- 


tone.  In  Hebrew  the  place  of  the  accent  is  carefully 
designated  in  the  common  or  Masoretic  text  (see  R. 
Jehuda  Ibn  Balam,  Treatise  on  the  Poetic  Accents,  in 
Hebrew,  Paris,  155G;  reprinted  with  annotations, 
Amst.  1858),  although  the  Jews  of  some  nations,  dis- 
regarding this,  pronounce  the  words  with  the  accent 
on  the  penult,  after  the  analogy  of  modern  languages, 
and  as  is  done  b}'  natives  in  speaking  Syriac  and 
Arabic  (see  J.  D.  Michaelis,  Anfaiigsgriinde  der  Heir. 
Accentuation,  Hall.  1741;  Hirts,  Einleit.  in  d.  Flebr. 
Abtkeilungskunst,  Jena,  17G2;  Spitzner,  Idea  Analytical 
V,  T.  ex  Accentibus,  Lips.  1709 ;  Stem,  Grundl,  Lehre 
d.  Ilebr.  Accentuation,  Frankf.  1840).  In  words  angli- 
cized from  the  Greek  the  Latin  rules  arc  observed  for 
the  accent;  and  in  those  introduced  from  the  Hebrew, 
as  they  have  mostly  come  to  us  through  the  Vulgate, 
the  same  principle  is  in  the  main  adhered  to.  so  far  as 
applicable,  though  with  great  irregularity  and  disa- 
greement among  orthoepists,  and  generally  to  the  ut- 
ter neglect  of  the  proper  Hebrew  tone.  In  pronounc- 
ing Scripture  and  other  foreign  names,  therefore,  care 
should  be  taken  to  conform  to  the  practice  of  the  best 
speakers  and  readers,  rather  than  to  any  affected  or 
pedantic  standard,  however  exact  in  itself  (see  Wor- 
cester's Kurj.  Dirt.  1860,  Append.). 

Accept--  Acceptable  — Accepted  (properly 
fiSH,  ratsah'.  to  take  pleasure  in;  ci\ofiat).  To  accept 
is  not  only  to  receive,  but.  to  receive  with  pleasure  and 
kindness  (Gen.  xxxii.  20).  It  stands  opposed  to  re- 
ject, which  is  a  direct  mode  of  refusal,  and  implies  a 
positive  sentiment  of  disapprobation  (Jer.  vi,  30;  vii, 
20).  To  receive,  is  an  act  of  right — we  receive  what 
is  our  own  ;  to  act  ept,  is  an  act  of  courtesy — we  accept 
what  is  offered  by  another.  Hence  an  acceptable,  time, 
or  accepted  time  (Psa.  lxix,  13:  2  Cor.  vi,  2),  signifies 


ACCEPTANCE 


4:5 


ACCHO 


a  favorable  opportunity.  "  No  prophet  is  accepted  in 
his  own  country"  (Luke  iv,  24),  that  is  to  say,  his  own 
countrymen  do  not  value  and  honor  him  as  they  ought. 
"  Neither  acceptesl  thou  the  person  of  any"  (Luke  xx, 
21).  The  word  person  hero  is  intended  to  denote  the 
outward  appearance  in  contrast  with  inward  charac- 
ter.    See  Access. 

Acceptance,  (1)  a  term  which  imports  the  ad- 
mission  of  man  into  Ihc  favor  of  God.  As  things  are 
best  understood  by  contrast  with  their  opposites,  so 
acceptance  is  to  be  understood  from  its  opposite,  re- 
jection, the  sense  of  which  will  be  found  by  reference 
to  .Tcr.  vi,  30 ;  vii,  2ft.  To  understand  aright  the 
Scriptural  idea  of  acceptance  with  God,  we  must  keep 
in  mind  the  fact  that  sin  is  highly  displeasing  to  Cod. 
and  is  attended  by  the  hiding  of  his  face  or  the  with- 
holding of  his  favor.  Sin  causes  God  to  refuse  to  hold 
friendly  intercourse  with  man;  but  the  mediation  of 
the  Son  of  God  restores  this  intercourse.  Sinners  are 
said  to  be  "  accepted  in  the  Beloved"  (  Eph.  i,  G)  ;  that 
is,  in  Christ.  Thejr  are  no  longer  held  in  a  state  of 
rejection,  but  arc  received  witli  approbation  and  kind- 
ness. It  is  to  be  noticed  that  it  is  an  idea  of  a  positive 
kind  which  the  word  acceptance  contains.  As  the  re- 
jection which  sin  occasioned  was  express,  equally  ex- 
press and  positive  is  the  acceptance  of  which  Christ  is 
the  author.  One  who  had  disgraced  himself  before 
his  sovereign  would  be  particularly  refused  any  share 
in  the  favors  of  the  court.  When  this  breach  was  re- 
paired, the  excluded  party  would  again  be  favorably 
received  (Eden).     See  Accept. 

(2.)  Acceptance  (Eph.  i,  G),  in  theology,  is  nearly 
synonymous  with  justification.  We  mistake  the  terms 
of  acceptance  with  God  icJien  ice  trust  in,  1,  the  supe- 
riority of  our  virtues  to  our  vices  (Horn,  iii,  20 ;  Jas. 
ii,  10) ;  2,  in  a  faith  in  Christ  which  does  not  produce 
good  works  (Jas  ii,  11)  ;  3,  in  the  atonement,  without 
personal  repentance  from  sin  (Luke  xiii,  5) ;  4,  in  the 
hope  of  future  repentance,  or  conversion  on  a  dying 
bed  (Prov.  i,  24-31).    See  Adoption  ;  Justification. 

Acceptants,  a  name  that  arose  in  the  second  pe- 
riod of  the  Jansenist  controversy  in  France.  The 
bull  Uniijenkus  (q.  v.)  of  Clement  XI,  1713,  was  ac- 
cepted by  some  of  the  French  clergy  unconditionally  ; 
by  others  only  on  condition  of  its  reference  to  a  gen- 
eral council.  The  former  were  called  acr< plants  or  con- 
stitutionalists ;  the  latter  appellants.     See  Jansf.nists. 

Acceptilation  (acceptilatid),  a  term  in  theology, 
used,  with  regard  to  redemption,  to  denote  the  accept- 
ance on  the  part  of  God  of  an  atonement  not  really 
equal  to  that  in  place  of  which  it  is  received,  but  equiv- 
alent, not  because  of  its  intrinsic  value,  but  because  of 
God's  determination  to  receive  it.  The  term  is  bor- 
rowed fift>m  the  commercial  law  of  the  Romans,  in 
which  it  is  defined  "an  acquittance  from  obligation, 
by  word  of  mouth,  of  a  debtor  by  a  creditor"  (Pandects 
of  Justinian),  or  '"an  imaginary  payment"  (Institutes 
of  Justinian).  In  the  theology  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
the  term  was  first  used  and  the  theory  developed  by 
Duns  Scotus  in  his  controversy  with  the  followers  of 
Thomas  Aquinas  He  defended  the  proposition  that 
'  every  created  oblation  or  offering  is  worth  what  God 
is  pleased  to  accept  it  for  and  no  more."  The  doe- 
trine  continued  to  lie  a  subject  of  dispute  between  the 
followers  of -Duns  Scotus  and  those  of  Thomas  Aquinas 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  and  still  divides  the  Ro- 
man ( 'alholie  theologians,  as  the  Popes  have  never  au- 
thoritatively settled  it  The  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic 
theologians  mostly  adopted  the  doctrine  of  a  strict  sat- 
isfaction; but  the  theory  of  a  relative  necessity  found 
eloquent  defenders  in  Hugo  Grotius  (q.  v.),  and  the 
Arminian  theologians  Episcopius  (q.  v.),  Limborch 
(q.  v.),  and  Curccllaeus  (q.  v.).  See  Shedd,  History  of 
Doctrines,  ii,  347  sq. 

Access  (Trpoaaywy);,  a.  bringing  toward)  is  the 
privilege  of  approaching  a  superior  with  freedom.     It 


is  distinguished  from  admittance  thus  :  "  We  have  ad- 
mittance where  we  enter;  we  have  access  to  him  whom 
we  address.  There  can  be  no  access  where  there  is  no 
admittance;  but  there  may  bo  admittance  without  ac- 
cess. Servants  or  officers  may  grant  us  admittance 
into  the  palaces  of  princes;  the  favorites  of  princes 
only  have  access  to  their  persons"  (Crabbe,  Engl.  Syn. 
s.  v.).     See  Acceptance. 

(1.)  Introduction,  free  admission  into  the  presence 
of  a  superior.  In  the  New  Testament  it  signifies  the 
free  intercourse  which  we  enjoy  with  Cod  in  the  exer- 
cise of  prayer,  resulting  from  our  having  entered  into 
a  state  of  friendship  with  him  (Rom.  v,  2  ;  Eph.  ii,  18  ; 
iii,  12).  It  is  more  than  simple  admittance  ;  it  is  such 
an  introduction  as  leads  to  future  and  frequent  inter- 
course. When  the  vail  of  the  temple  was  rent  at  the 
death  of  Christ,  a  new  and  living  way  of  access  to 
God  was  opened.  Under  the  law,  the  high-priest 
alone  had  access  into  the  holy  of  holies.  By  the  death 
of  Christ  the  middle  wall  of  partition  was  broken  down, 
and  Jew  and  Gentile  have  both  free  access  to  God  ; 
before  this,  the  Gentiles,  in  the  temple-worship,  had 
no  nearer  access  than  to  the  gate  of  the  court  of  Israel. 
All  the  privileges  of  Christianity  arc  equally  bestowed 
on  all  believers  of  all  nations.      Sec  PkAyer. 

(2.)  In  Roman  ecclesiastical  usage — 1,  a  collection 
of  preparatory  prayers,  used  by  the  priests  before  the 
celebration  of  the  mass  ;  2,  in  the  election  of  the  pope, 
a  transfer  of  votes  from  one  candidate  to  another  to 
secure  the  necessary  number  is  called  an  access.  If  a 
voter  wishes  to  change  his  vote  to  another  person,  he 
writes  on  his  paper  accedo  domino,  etc. 

Ac'cho  (Hcb.  Alko,  i2.V,  from  an  Arab,  root  sig- 
nifying to  be  hot  [sec  Drummond,  Origines,  v,  3],  re- 
ferring to  the  sultry  sand  in  the  neighborhood,  used 
by  the  Phoenicians  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  [Pliny, 
v,  19  ;  Strabo,  xvi,  877]  ;  Sept.  Akyw,  Josephus,  "Aki\ 
Ant.  ix,  11,  2),  a  town  and  haven  within  the  nominal 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  which,  however,  never 
acquired  possession  of  it  (Judg.  i,  31).  It  is,  perhaps, 
likewise  mentioned  in  Micah  i,  10  ("i-3,  prob.  i~2 
for  13?2l,  in  Acclio;  Sept.  iv  'Aiciip,  Vulg.  Idchrymis, 
Auth.  Vers,  "at  all;"  see  Henderson,  Comment,  in 
loc).  The  Greek  and  Roman  writers  call  it  Am;,  Ace 
(Strab.  xvi,  877;  Diod.  Sic.  xix,  93 ;  C.  Nep.  xiv,  5); 
but  it  was  eventually  better  known  &&Ptolemais  ( 1'lin. 
Hist.  Nat.  v,  l!i),  which  name  it  received  from  the  first 
Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt,  by  whom  it  was  much  im- 
proved. By  this  name  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Apocry- 
pha (1  Mace,  x,  56;  xi,  £2,  24;  xii,  45,  48;  2  Mace, 
xiii,  14),  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  xxi,  7),  ami  I  y 
Josephus  (Ant.  xiii,  12,  2  sq.).  It  was  also  called 
Colonia  Claudii  Ccesaris,  in  consequence  of  its  receiv- 
ing the  privileges,  of  a  Roman  city  from  the  emperor 
Claudius  (I'lin.  v,  17;  xxxvi,  G5).  It  continued  to  lie 
called  Ptolemais  by  the  Greeks  of  the  lower  empire, 
as  well  as  by  Latin  authors,  while  the  Orientals  ad- 
hered to  the  original  designation  (see  Mishna,  Ab<  <tnh 
Zarah,  iii,  -1  ;  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  p.  117),  which  it 
still  retains  in  the  form  Akka.  During  the  Crusades 
the  place  was  usually  known  to  Europeans  by  the 
name  of  Aeon;  afterward,  from  the  occupation  of 'lie 
Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  as  st..l<<;n  d'Acre, 
or  simply  Acre.  The  Romans  at  a  late  date  appear  to 
have  called  it  also  Ptolemaida  (J'"'  accusative  being 
transformed  into  a  nominative);  at  least  the  name  ap- 
pears in  this  form  in  the  Itin.  Antonin.  and  Hierosol. 
The  Greeks  themselves,  although  using  the  name 
Ptolemais,  were  evidently  aware  of  the  original  Hcb. 
(i.  e.  Phoenician)  name  Accho,  which  they  merely 
Grsecized  into  Ace.  Thus,  the  authors  of  the  Etymo- 
logicvm  Magnum,  say,  "  Ace,  a  city  of  Phoenicia,  which 
is  now  called  l'tob-mais.  Some  say  that  the  citadel 
of  Ptolemais  was  called  Ace  because  Hercules,  being 
bitten  by  a  serpent  and  there  cured,  named  it  so,  from 
aKuaStai  [to  heal]."     Other  ancient  authors  speak  of 


ACCHO 


44 


ACCHO 


the  place  by  the  same  name,  and  some  of  them  allude 
to  the  same,  fable  as  the  origin  of  the  name  (Keland, 
Pahest.  p.  536,  537).  These,  however,  were  evidently 
but  speculations  common  to  the  mythology  of  the 
Greeks,  who  were  fond  of  giving  Greek  terminations 
as  well  as  Greek  derivations  to  foreign  terms.  See 
Ptolemais. 

This  famous  harbor-city  is  situated  in  N.  Lit.  32° 
55',  and  E.  long.  35°  5' ',  and  occupies  the  north-west-  ' 
era  point  of  a  commodious  bay,  called  the  bay  of  Acre, 
the  opposite  or  south-western  point  of  which  is  formed 
by  the  promontory  of  Mount  Carmel.  The  city  lies 
on  the  plain  to  which  it  gives  its  name.  Inland  the 
hills,  which  from  Tyre  southward  press  close  upon  the 
sea-shore,  gradually  recede,  leaving  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  Accho  a  plain  of  remarkable  fertility 
about  six  miles  broad,  and  watered  by  the  small  river  1 
Belus  (Nahr  Naman),  which  discharges  itself  into  the  ; 
sea  close  under  the  walls  of  the  town  ;  to  the  S.E.  the 
still  receding  heights  afford  access  to  the  interior  in 
the  direction  of  Sepphoris.  Accho,  thus  favorably 
placed  in  command  of  the  approaches  from  the  north, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  has  been  justly  termed  the  "  key 
of  Palestine.-'  The  bay,  from  the  town  of  Acre  to  the  j 
promontory  of  Mount  Carmel,  is  three  leagues  wide. 
The  port,  on  account  of  its  shallowness,  can  only  be 
entered  by  vessels  of  small  burden  (Prokeseh,  p.  146)  ; 
but  there  is  excellent  anchorage  on  the  other  side  of 
the  bay,  before  Haifa,  which  is,  in  fact,  the  roadstead 
of  Acre  (Turner,  ii,  111 ;  G.  Robinson,  i,  198).  In  the 
time  of  Strabo  Accho  was  a  great  city  (xvi,  p.  877),  i 
and  it  has  continued  to  be  a  place  of  importance  down  ' 
to  the  present  time.  But  after  the  Turks  gained  pos-  ! 
session  of  it,  Acre  so  rapidly  declined,  that  the  travel-  j 
ler-i  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  concur  ■ 
in  describing  it  as  much  fallen  from  its  former  glory, 
of  which,  however,  traces  still  remained.  The  mis-  I 
sionary  Eugene  Roger  (La  Terre  Saincte,  1615,  p.  44-  j 
46)  remarks  that  the  whole  place  had  such  a  sacked 
anil  desolate  appearance  that  little  remained  worth}' 
of  note  except  the  palace  of  the  grand-master  of  the  j 
Knights  Hospitallers  and  the  church  of  St.  Andrew  ; 
all  the  rest  was  a  sad  and  deplorable  ruin,  pervaded 
by  a  pestiferous  air  which  soon  threw  strangers  into 
dangerous  maladies.  The  emir  Fakr-ed-din  had,  how- 
ever, lately  built  a  commodious  khan  for  the  use  of 
the  merchants;  for  there  was  still  considerable  traffic, 
and  vessels  were  constantly  arriving  from  France, 
Venice,  England,  and  Holland,  laden  with  oil,  cotton, 
skins,  and  other  goods.  The  emir  had  also  built  a 
strong  castle,  notwithstanding  repeated  orders  from 
the  Porte  to  desist.  Roger  also  fails  not  to  mention 
the  immense  stone  balls,  above  a  hundred-weight, 
which  were  found  in  the  ditches  and  among  the  ruins, 
and  which  were  thrown  into  the  town  from  machines 
before  the  use  of  cannon.  This  account  is  confirmed 
by  other  travellers,  who  add  little  or  nothing  to  it 
(Doubdan,  Cotovicus,  Zuallart,  Morison,  Nan,  D'Ar- 
vieux,  and  others).  Morison,  however,  dwells  more 
on  the  ancient  remains,  which  consisted  of  portions  of 
old  walls  of  extraordinary  height  and  thickness,  and 
of  fragments  of  buildings,  sacred  and  secular,  which 
still  afforded  manifest  tokens  of  the  original  magnifi- 
cence of  the  place.  He  affirms  (ii,  8)  that  the  metro- 
politan church  of  St.  Andrew  was  equal  to  the  finest 
of  those  he  had  seen  in  France  and  Italy,  and  that  the 
church  of  St.  John  was  of  the  same  perfect  beaut}',  as 
might  be  seen  by  the  pillars  and  vaulted  roof,  half  of 
which  still  remained.  An  excellent  and  satisfactory 
account  of  the  place  is  given  by  Nan  (liv.  v,  eh.  19), 
who  takes  particular  notice  of  the  old  and  strong 
vaults  on  which  the  houses  are  built.  Maundrell 
mentions  that  the  town  appears  to  have  been  encom- 
passed on  the  land  side  by  a  double  wall,  defended 
with  towers  at  small  distances ;  and  that  without  the 
walls  were  ditches,  ramparts,  and  a  kind  of  bastions 
faced   with    hewn    stone    {Journey,  p.  Ii).     Pocockc 


speaks  chiefly  of  the  ruins  (East,  ii,  17G  sq.).     After 
the  impulse  given  to  the  prosperity  of  the  place  by  the 
measures  of  sheik  Daher,  and  afterward  of  Djezzar 
Pasha,  the  descriptions  differ  (Clarke,  Trav.  ii,  379). 
It  is  mentioned  by  Buckingham  (i,  116)  that,  in  sink- 
ing the  ditch  in  front  of  the  then  (181G)  new  outer 
wall,  the  foundations  of  small  buildings  were  exposed, 
twenty  feet  below  the  present  level  of  the  soil,  which 
must  have  belonged  to  the  earliest  ages,  and  probably 
formed  part  of  the  original  Accho.     He  also  thought 
that  traces  of  Ptolemais  might  be  detected  in  the  shafts 
\  of  gray  and  red  granite   and  marble  pillars,  which 
lie  about  or  have  been  converted  into  thresholds  for 
large  doorways,  of  the   Saracenic  period ;   some  par- 
'  tial  remains  might  be  traced  in  the  inner  walls  ;  and 
he  is  disposed  to  refer  to  that  time  the  now  old  khan, 
[  which,  as  stated  above,  was  really  built  by  the  emir 
Fakr-ed-din.     All  the  Christian  ruins  mentioned  by 
the  travellers  already  quoted  had  disappeared.     In 
actual  importance,  however,  the  town  had  much  in- 
creased.    The  population  in  1819  was  computed  at 
10,000,  of  whom  3000  were  Turks,  the  rest  Christians 
of  various  denominations  (Connor,  in  Jowett,  i,  423). 
Approached  from  Tyre  the  city  presented  a  beautiful 
appearance,  from  the  trees  in  the  inside,  which  rise 
above   the  wall,  and  from  the   ground  immediately 
around  it  on  the  outside  being  planted  with  orange, 
lemon,  and  palm  trees.     Inside,  the  streets  had  the 
usual   narrowness   and   filth   of  Turkish  towns;   the 
1  houses  solidly  built  with  stone,  with  flat  roofs ;  the 
;  bazaars  mean,  but  tolerably  well  supplied  (Turner,  ii, 
113).     The   principal  objects   were  the  mosque,  the 
!  pasha's  seraglio,  the  granary,  and  the  arsenal  (Irby 
and  Mangles,  p.  195).     Of  the  mosque,  which  was 
built  by  Djezzar  Pasha,  there  is  a  description  by  Pliny 
j  Fisk  (Life,  p.  337 ;  also  G.  Robinson,  i,  200).    The  trade 
I  was  not  considerable ;   the  exports  consisted  chiefly 
of  grain  and  cotton,  the  produce  of  the  neighboring 
t  plain  ;  and  the  imports  chiefly  of  rice,  coffee,  and  sugar 
!  from  Damietfca  (Turner,  ii,  112).     As  thus  described, 
|  the  city  was  all  but  demolished  in  1832  by  the  hands 
I  of  Ibrahim  Pasha;  and  although  considerable  pains 
[  were  taken  to  restore  it,  yet,  as  lately  as  1837,  it  still 
J  exhibited  a  most  wretched  appearance,  with  ruined 
houses  and  broken  arches  in  every  direction  (Lord 
Lindsay,  Letters,  ii,  81).      It  is  only  important  at  pres- 
ent as  a  military  post,  and  all  its  municipal  regulations 
are  according  to  the  laws  of  war  (Thomson,  Land  and 
Booh,  i,  480). 

Accho  continued  to  belong  to  the  Phoenicians  (Strab. 
ii,  134;  Plin.  v,  17;  Ptol.  v,  15)  until  the}-,  in  com- 
mon with  the  Jews,  were  subjugated  by  the  Babylo- 
nians (comp.  1  Mace,  v,  15).  By  the  latter  it  was 
doubtless  maintained  as  a  military  station  against 
Egypt,  as  it  was  afterward  by  the  Persians  (Strabo, 
xvi,  p.  877).  In  the  distribution  of  Alexander's  do- 
minions Accho  fell  to  the  lot  of  Ptolemy  Soter,  who 
valued  the  acquisition,  and  gave  it  his  own  name.  In 
the  wars  that  ensued  between  Syria  and  Egypt,  it  was 
taken  by  Antiochus  the  Great  (Ptol.  v,  62),  and  at- 
tached to  his  kingdom.  "When  the  Maccabees  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Judaea,  it  became  the  base  of 
operations  against  them  (1  Mace,  v,  15,  55).  Simon 
drove  his  enemies  back  within  its  walls,  but  did  not 
take  it  (1  Mace,  v,  22).  In  the  endeavor  of  Demetrius 
Soter  and  Alexander  Balas  to  bid  highest  for  the  sup- 
port of  Jonathan,  the  latter  gave  Ptolemais  and  the 
lands  around  to  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  (x,  1,  39). 
Jonathan  was  afterward  invited  to  meet  Alexander 
and  the  king  of  Egypt  at  that  place,  and  was  treated 
with  great  distinction  by  them  (x,  56-66):  but  there 
he  at  length  (B.C.  144)  met  his  death  through  the 
treachery  of  Tryphon  (xii,  48-50).  On  the  decay  of 
the  Syrian  power  it  was  one  of  the  few  cities  of  Judaea 
which  established  its  independence.  Alexander  Jan- 
nams  took  advantage  of  the  civil  war  between  Anti- 
ochus Philometer  and  Antiochus  Cyziccnus  to  besiege 


ACCIIO 


45 


ACCIDENT 


Ptolemais,  as  the  only  maritime  city  in  those  parts, 
except  Gaza,  which  he  had  not  subdued ;  but  the.  siege 
was  raised  by  Ptolemy  Lathyrus  (then  king  of  Cy- 
prus), who  got  possession  of  the  city(Josephus,  Ant. 
xiii,  12,  2-6),  of  which  he  was  soon  deprived  by  his 
mother,  Cleopatra  (xiii,  13,  2).  She  probably  gave  it, 
along  with  her  daughter  Selene,  to  Antiochus  Grypus, 
king  of  Syria.  At  least,  after  his  death,  Selene  held 
possession  of  that  and  some  other  Phoenician  towns, 
after  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  had  acquired  the  rest 
of  the  kingdom  (xiii,  1(5,  4).  But  an  injudicious  at- 
tempt to  extend  her  dominions  drew  upon  her  the  ven- 
geance of  that  conqueror,  who,  in  B.C.  70,  reduced 
Ptolemais,  and,  while  thus  employed,  received  with 
favor  the  Jewish  embassy  which  was  sent  by  queen 
Alexandra,  with  valuable  presents,  to  seek  his  friend- 
ship (xiii,  16,  4).  A  few  years  after,  Ptolemais  was 
absorbed,  with  all  the  country,  into  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  the  rest  of  its  ancient  history  is  obscure  and 
of  little  note.  It  is  only  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment from  Paul's  having  spent  a  day  there  on  his  voy- 
age to  Cresarea  (Acts  xxi,  7).  The  importance  ac- 
quired by  the  last-named  city  through  the  mole  con- 
structed by  Herod,  and  the  safe  harbor  thus  formed, 
must  have  had  some  effect  on  the  prosperity  of  Ptole- 
mais ;  but  it  continued  a  place  of  importance,  and  was 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  the  first  ages  of  the  Christian 
Church.  The  see  was  filled  sometimes  by  orthodox 
and  sometimes  by  Arian  bishops  ;  and  it  has  the  equiv- 
ocal distinction  of  having  been  the  birthplace  of  the 
Sabellian  heresy  (Niceph.  vi,  7).  Accho  (or  vlcco  as 
the  Latins  style  it)  was  an  imperial  garrison  town 
when  the  Saracens  invaded  Syria,  and  was  one  of 
those  that  held  out  until  Caesarea  was  taken  by  Armu, 
in  A.D.  638  {Mud.  Univ.  Hist,  i,  473).—  Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  Franks  first  became  masters  of  it  in  A.D.  1110, 
when  it  was  taken  by  Baldwin,  king  of  Jerusalem. 
But  in  A.D.  1187  it  was  recovered  by  Salah-cd-din,  who 
retained  it  till  A.D.  1191,  when  it  was  retaken  by  the 
Christians  under  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion.  The  Chris- 1 
tians  kept  it  till  A.D.  1291 ;  and  it  was  the  very  last 
place  of  which  they  were  dispossessed.  It  had  been 
assigned  to  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  Jerusalem, 
who  fortified  it  strongly,  and  defended  it  valiantly,  till 
it  was  at  length  wrested  from  them  by  Khalil  ben- 
Kelaoun,  sultan  of  Egypt,  who  is  called  Melek  Seruf 
by  Christian  writers  (D'Hcrbelot,  s  v.  Acca;  Will, 
fyr.  1.  xxiii,  c.  6,  7  ;  Vitriacus,  cap.  25,  99,  100; 
Quaresmius,  torn,  ii,  p.  £97).  Under  this  dominion  it 
remained  till  A.D.  1517,  when  the  Mameluke  dynasty 
"was  overthrown  by  Selim  I,  and  all  its  territories 
passed  to  the  Turks  (Chronica  de  Syria,  lib.  v,  cap.  1 ; 
Mod.  Univ.  Hist.  b.  xv,  c.  10,  §  2).  After  this  Acre  re- 
mained in  quiet  obscurity  till  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  when  the  Arab  sheik  Daher  took  it  by  sur- 
prise. Under  him  the  place  recovered  some  of  its 
trade  and  importance.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  bar- 
barous but  able  tyrant,  Djezzar  Pasha,  who  strength- 
ened the  fortifications  and  improved  t he  town.  Under 
him  it  rose  once  more  into  fame,  through  the  gallant 
and  successful  resistance  which,  under  the  direction  of 
Sir  Sidney  Smith,  it  offered  to  the  arms  of  Bonaparte. 
After  that  the  fortifi- 
"&a-  cations  were  further 
strengthened,  till  it  be- 
came the  strongest  place 
in  all  Syria.  In  1832 
the  town  was  besieged 
for  nearly  six  months 
iv  Ibrahim  Pasha,  dur- 
ing which  35,000  shells 
were  thrown  into  it.  and 
the.  buildings  were  lit- 
erally beaten  to  pieces 
(Hogg's  Damascus,  p. 
160-166).  It  had  by  no 
means  recovered  from 


Cuius  of  Accho. 


sk& 


Map  of  Acre 


this  calamity,  when  on  the  3d  of  November  1840,  it 
was  bombarded  by  the  English  fleet  till  the  explosion 
of  the  powder-magazine  destroyed  the  garrison  and 
town  (Napier's  War  in  Syria).  The  walls  and  castles 
have  since  been  repaired  more  strongly  than  ever; 
but  the  interior  remains  in  ruins  (Thomson.  Lund  and 
Book,  i,  479). 

There  are 
several  med- 
als of  Accho, 
or  Ptolemais, 
both  Greek  and 
Latin  Most 
of  the  former 
have  also  the 
Phoenician 
name  of  the 
city,  Sr,  Ah 
(see  Gesenius, 
Mon.  Phcem.  p. 
269, 270,  pi.  35), 
and  the  head 
of  Alexander 
the  Great,  ap- 
parently       in 

consequence  of  favors  received  from  that  prince,  per- 
haps at  the  time  when  he  was  detained  in  Syria  by 
the  siege  of  Tyre.  From  others  it  appears  that  the 
city  assumed  the  privilege  of  asylum  and  of  sanctity, 
and  that  it  possessed  a  temple  of  Diana.  (For  the  an- 
cient history  of  Acre,  see  Reland,  Palatst,  p.  534-542; 
for  its  modern  history  and  appearance,  see  M'Culloch's 
Gazetteer,  s.  v.  Acre;  comp.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  195: 
Thomson,  Lund  and  Book,  i,  477  sq. ;  Arvieux,  i,  241 
sq. ;  Schulz,  Leitunr/en,  v.  .181  sq. ;  Niebuhr,  Trav.  iii, 
72;  Richter,  Wall/,  p.  67  sq. ;  Rosenmiiller,  Alterth. 
II,  ii,  60  sq. ;  Wilson,  Lands  of  Bible,  ii.  233  sq.  ;  Van 
de  Velde,  Narrative,  i,  247  sq. ;  Conybeare  and  How- 
son,  ii,  231).     See  Phcenicia. 

Accident,  a  term  of  philosophy  used  to  express 
that  which  is  merely  adventitious  to  a  substance,  and 
not  essential  to  it ;  e.  g.  roundness  is  an  accident  of 
any  body,  since  it  is  a  body  all  the  same,  whether  it  he 
round  or  square.  In  theology  this  word  is  used  in 
connection  with  the  Roman  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
tiation,  which  teaches  that  the  accidents  of  the  bread 
and  wine  in  the  holy  Eucharist  continue  to  subsist 
without  a  subject :  "  Accidentia  autem  sine  subjeeto  in 
eodem  [sacramento]  subsistunt"  (Aquinas,  Opuscula, 
p.  57),  And  the  catechism  of  the  council  of  Trent 
speaks  in  these  terms:  "Tertium  restat,  quod  in  hoc 
Sacramento  maximum  atque  mirabile  videatur,  panis 
videlicet  et  vini  species  in  hoc  Sacramento  sine  aliqua 
re  subjecta,  constare"  (Par.  ii,  No.  44).  In  defence 
of  this  doctrine,  Roman  writers  argue  thus:  If  the 
eucharistic  accidents  have  any  subject,  that  subject 
must  be  either  (1)  the  matter  of  bread,  or  (2)  the  sur- 
|  face  of  the  Lord's  body,  or  (3)  the  air  and  other  cor- 
]  puscules  contained  in  the  pores,  etc.,  of  the  matter, 
i  whatever  it  is,  which,  by  God's  appointment,  continue 
to  subsist  after  the  destruction  of  the  matter,  so  as  to 
produce  the  same  sensations.  Now  (1)  they  cannct 
have  the  matter  of  bread  for  their  subject,  because 
that  matter  no  longer  subsists,  and  is  changed  into  the 
body  of  Jesus  Christ;  (2)  they  cannot  have  the  sur- 
i  face  of  the  Lord's  body  for  their  subject,  because  it  is 
only  present  in  an  invisible  manner;  and  (3)  the  air 
cannot  be  the  subject  of  these  accidents,  1  ccause  the 
same  accidents,  numero,  cannot  pass  from  one  subject 
to  another  ;  and  because,  further,  the  air  cannot  at  the 
same  time  be  the  substance  of  its  own  proper  attributes 
and  of  those  of  bread  (Thomas  Aquinas,  par.  iii,  qu.  77, 
art.  i,  in  corp).  They  argue  further,  that  the  contrary 
doctrine,  viz.,  that  they  are  not  really  the  accidents  of 
bread  and  wine,  but  only  appear  such  to  us,  destroys 
the  nature  and  idea  of  a  sacrament  and  of  transubstan- 


ACCLAMATION 


46 


ACCOMMODATION" 


tiation.  That  a  sacrament,  by  its  very  nature,  is  es- 
sentially a  sensible  sign,  not  only  in  relation  to  our- 
selves, but  in  itself,  i.  e.,  in  the  language  of  the  schools, 
not  only  ex  parte  nostri,  but  ex  parte  sui ;  and  that,  con- 
sequently, if  all  that  there  is  real  and  physical  in  the 
eucharist  ic  accidents  consists  in  this,  that  God  causes 
them  to  produce  in  us,  after  consecration,  the  same 
sensations  ■which  the  bread  did  previously,  the  sacra- 
ment is  no  longer  a  sensible  sign,  ex  parte  sui,  in  itself, 
but  only  ex  parte  nostri ;  and,  therefore,  when  God 
ceases  to  produce  such  sensations  in  us,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  the  consecrated  host  is  locked  up  in  the 
pyx,  it  is  no  longer  a  sacrament.  They  argue  also, 
that  to  hold  that  they  are  not  pure,  or  absolute  acci- 
dents, destroys  equally  the  nature  of  transubstantia- 
tion,  because  (1)  transubstantiation  is  a  real  conver- 
sion of  the  bread  and  wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Now,  in  every  conversion  there  must  be 
something  common  to  both  substances  remaining  the 
same  after  the  change  that  it  was  before,  else  it  would 
be  simply  a  substitution  of  one  thing  for  another.  As, 
then,  in  the  holy  eucharist,  the  substances  of  bread  and 
wine  do  not  remain  after  consecration,  it  follows  that 
what  does  remain  is  the  pure  accidents.  (2)  They 
who  oppose  the  doctrine  of  absolute  accidents  teach 
that  one  body  differs  from  another  only  in  the  differ- 
ent configuration  of  its  parts  ;  and  that  wherever  there 
is  the  same  configuration  of  parts,  there  is  the  same 
body;  and  wherever  there  are  the  same  sensations 
produced,  there  is  also  the  same  arrangements  of  parts 
to  produce  them.  If  this  be  so,  since,  in  the  holy 
eucharist,  the  same  sensations  are  produced  after  the 
consecration  as  before,  there  must  be  the  same  config- 
uration of  parts  after  consecration  as  before,  or  the 
same  body;  in  other  words,  there  is  no  change,  no 
transubstantiation.  —  Landon,  Eccl.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 
See  Transubstantiation. 

Acclamation,  (1.)  in  Roman  use,  the  unanimous 
concurrence  of  all  the  votes  in  an  election  for  pope  or 
bishop,  without  previous  balloting,  is  called  acclama- 
tio  or  rjuasi-inspiratio. 

(2.)  In  the  ancient  Church,  the  name  acclamatio  was 
given  to  shouts  of  joy,  by  which  the  people  expressed 
their  approval  of  the  eloquence  or  doctrine  of  their 
preachers.  Sometimes  in  the  African  Church,  when 
the  preacher  quoted  an  apposite  text  of  Scripture  in 
illustration  or  confirmation  of  his  argument,  the  peo- 
ple would  join  him  in  repeating  the  close  of  it.  This 
was  encouraged  by  the  minister,  in  order  that  the  peo- 
ple might  gain  a  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  The  acclamations  were  general,  and  con- 
sisted not  only  of  exclamations,  but  of  clapping  the 
hands,  and  other  indications  of  assent.  It  is  said  that 
the  people  applauded  the  sermons  of  Chrysostom,  some 
by  tossing  their  garments,  others  by  moving  their 
plumes,  others  laying  their  hands  on  their  swords,  and 
others  waving  their  handkerchiefs,  and  crying  out, 
"Thou  art  worthy  of  the  priesthood!  Thou  art  the 
thirteenth  apostle  !  Christ  hath  sent  thee  to  save  our 
souls,"  etc.  While  the  ancients  did  not  refuse  these 
acclamations,  they  took  care  to  exhort  those  to  whom 
they  spoke  to  show  their  approval  of  the  sermons  they 
heard  by  the  fruits  of  godly  living.  They  proved  to 
them  that  the  best  praise  of  the  sermon  is  the  com- 
punction of  the  hearers.  Jerome  lays  it  down  as  a 
rule,  in  his  directions  to  Nepotian,  that  in  preaching 
he  should  try  to  excite  the  groans  of  the  people  rather 
than  their  applauses,  and  let  the  tears  of  the  hearer  be 
the  commendation  of  the  preacher.  Many  passages  in 
Chrysostom's  writings  show  that  he  desired  the  prac- 
tice to  be  banished  from  the  Church,  because  it  was 
abused  by  vain  and  ambitious  persons,  who  only 
preached  to  gain  the  applause  of  their  hearers,  and 
even  hired  men  to  applaud  them.  lie  says,  "Many 
appear  in  public,  and  labor  hard,  and  make  long  ser- 
mons, to  gain  the  applause  of  the  people,  in  which 
they  rejoice  as  much  as  if  they  had  gained  a  kingdom  ; 


but,  if  their  sermon  ends  in  silence,  they  are  more  tor- 
mented about  that  silence  than  about  the  pains  of  hell. 
This  is  the  ruin  of  the  Church,  that  ye  seek  to  hear 
such  sermons  as  are  apt  not  to  move  compunction,  but 
pleasure ;  hearing  them  as  you  would  hear  a  musician 
or  singer,  with  a  tinkling  sound  and  composition  of 
words."  The  practice  of  giving  expression  to  the 
feelings  in  worship  has  been  known  in  modern  times. 
There  was  a  sect  in  Flanders,  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, called  Dancers,  whose  practice  it  was  to  seize 
each  other's  hands,  and  to  continue  dancing  till  they 
fell  down  breathless.  The  Whippers  or  Flagellants, 
the  Jumpers,  the  Shakers,  have  obtained  their  respect- 
ive designations  fram  certain  customs  adopted  in  wor- 
ship.—Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  xiv,  iv,  27. 

Acco.     See  Acciio. 

Accolti,  Peter,  known  under  the  title  of  Cardinal 
of  Ancona,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1497,  and  died  at 
Florence  in  1549.  Under  Leo  X  he  occupied  the  place 
of  Apostolical  Abhreviator,  and  in  1549  he  drew  up 
against  Luther  the  famous  bull  which  condemned  41 
propositions  of  this  reformer.  While  secretary  of 
Clement  VII  he  was  appointed  cardinal  in  1527,  and 
sent  as  legate  in  1532  into  the  March  of  Ancona.  Un- 
der Paul  III  he  fell  into  disfavor,  and  was  imprisoned 
in  the  castle  of  San  Angelo.  He  obtained  his  liberty 
only  upon  paving  the  large  sum  of  59,000  dollars.  He 
obtained  several  bishoprics,  and  left  one  daughter  and 
two  sons.  He  is  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  rights 
of  the  popes  upon  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  Some  of 
his  poems  are  contained  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
Carmina  illustrium poetarum  ltahrrum  (Florence,  1562, 
8vo). — Hoefer,  Biographic  Generate,  i,  165. 

Accommodation,  a  technical  term  in  theology, 
first  innocently  used  by  certain  mystical  interpreters, 
who  maintained  that  although  the  sense  of  holy  Scrip- 
ture is  essentially  but  one,  yet  that  certain  passages 
were  made  the  vehicle  of  a  higher  and  more  distant 
import  than  the  mere  literal  expressions  exhibited 
(Walch,  Bibl.  Theol.  iv,  228).  See  Hyponoia.  From 
this,  however,  the  term  was  extended  bvT  writers  of  a 
Socinian  tendency  to  indicate  a  certain  equivocal  char- 
acter in  the  language  of  the  sacred  writers  and  speak- 
ers. (See  Whately's  Bampton Lect. ;  Conybeare,  Lett, 
on  Theol.;  Tittmann's  Meletem.  Sacra,  pref. ;  Hauft, 
Bemerk.  id),  d.  Lehrart  Jesu ;  Forster,  Crit.  Essays,  p. 
59;  Marsh,  in  Michaelis's  Introd.  i,  473  sq.  Express 
treatises  on  the  subject  have  been  written  in  Latin  by 
Pisansky  [Gedan.  1781],  Pappelbaum  [Stargard,  176.:], 
Weber  [Viteb.  1789],  Pang  [Amst.  1789].  Van  Hcmert 
[Amst.  1791,  and  Dortm.  1797],  Krug  [Viteb.  1791], 
Kirstcn  [Amstadt,  1816],  Cramer  [Havn.  1792],  Cams 
[Lips.  1793],  Detharding  [Gott.  1782]  ;  in  German,  by 
Zacharia  [Biitz.  and  Wism.  1762],  Eckermann,  in  his 
Theol.  Beitr.  ii,  3, 169  sq. ;  Hauff  [Bresl.  1791],  Senff 
[Halle,  1792],  Vogel,  in  his  Avfsaize,  ii,  1  sq. ;  Flatt, 
in  his  Verm.  Versucke,  p.  71  sq. ;  Gess  [Stuttg.  1797], 
Nachtigal.  in  Ilcnke's  Mag.  v,  109  sq. ;  Hartmann, 
in  his  BlicJce  [Dusseld.  1802],  p.  1  sq. ;  Jahn,  in  his 
Nachtrdge,  p.  15  jq. ;  Crell,  in  Zobel's  Meg.  i,  2,  p. 
199-252;  Eichhorn,  Ally.  Bibl.  ii,  947  sq. ;  comp. 
Henke's  Mag.  ii,  2,  638  sq. ;  also  the  Journ.  f.  Bred. 
xlii,  129  sq. ;  xliv,  1  sq. ;  and,  generally,  Davidson's 
Sacred  Hermeneutics,  p.  199  sq.,  334  sq.,  487  sq.)  It 
is  now  applied, 

1.  To  explain  the  application  of  certain  passages  of 
the  Old  Testament  to  events  in  the  New  to  which  they 
have  no  apparent  historical  or  typical  reference.  Cita- 
tions of  this  description  are  apparently  very  frequent 
throughout  the  whole  New  Testament,  but  especially 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

The  difficulty  of  reconciling  such  seeming  misappli- 
cations, or  deflections  from  their  original  design,  has 
been  felt  in  all  aires,  although  it  has  been  chiefly  re- 
served to  recent  times  to  give  a  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty by  the  theory  of  accommodation.     By  this  it  is 


ACCOMMODATION. 


meant  that  the  prophecy  or  citation  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  not  designed  literally  to  apply  to  the  event 
in  question,  but  that  the  New  Testament  writer  mere- 
ly adopted  it  in  order  to  produce  a  strong  impression, 
by  showing  a  remarkable  parallelism  between  two 
analogous  events  which  had  in  themselves  no  mutual 
relation.  Thus  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  in  his  Commentary 
on  Jeremiah  (xxxi,  15-17),  remarks:  "  St.  Matthew, 
who  is  ever  fond  of  accommodation,  applied  these 
words  to  the  massacre  of  the  children  of  Bethlehem  ; 
that  is,  they  were  suitable  to  that  occasion,  and  there- 
fore he  applied  them,  but  they  are  not  a  prediction  of 
that  event." 

There  is  a  catalogue  of  more  than  seventy  of  these 
accommodated  passages  adduced  by  the  Kev.  T.  H. 
Home,  in  support  of  this  theory,  in  his  Introduction 
(ii,  317,  Am.  ed.  1835),  but  it  will  suffice  for  our  pur- 
pose to  select  the  following  specimens  : 

Matt,  xiii,  35,         cited  from  Psa.  lxxviii,  2. 
"     viii,  17,  "         Isa.  liii,  4. 

"         ii,  15,  "         Hos.  xi,  1. 

"         ii,  17,  18,  "         Jer.  xxxi,  15. 

"        iii,    3,  "  Isa.  xl,  3. 

It  will  be  necessary,  for  the  complete  elucidation  of 
the  subject,  to  bear  in  mind  the  distinction  not  only 
between  accommodated  passages  and  such  as  must  be 
properly  explained  (as  those  which  arc  absolutely  ad- 
duced as  proofs),  but  also  between  such  passages  and 
those  which  are  merely  borrowed,  and  applied  by  the 
sacred  writers,  sometimes  in  a  higher  sense  than  they 
were  used  by  the  original  authors.  Passages  which 
do  not  strictly  and  literally  predict  future  events,  but 
which  can  be  applied  to  an  event  recorded  in  the  New 
Testament  by  an  accidental  parity  of  circumstances, 
can  alone  be  thus  designated.  Such  accommodated 
passages  therefore,  if  th&y  exist,  can  only  be  consider- 
ed as  descriptive,  and  not  predictive. 

The  accommodation  theory  in  exegetics  has  been 
equally  combated  by  two  classes  of  opponents.  Those 
of  the  more  ancient  school  consider  such  mode  of  ap- 
plication of  the  Old  Testament  passages  not  only  as 
totally  irreconcilable  with  the  plain  grammatical  con- 
struction and  obvious  meaning  of  the  controverted 
passages  which  are  said  to  be  so  applied,  but  as  an  un- 
justifiable artifice,  altogether  unworthy  of  a  divine 
teacher.  The  other  class  of  expositors,  who  are  to  be 
found  chiefly  among  the  most  modern  of  the  German 
Rationalists  (see  Pose's  Protestantism  in  Germany,  p. 
75),  maintain  that  the  sacred  writers,  having  been 
themselves  trained  in  this  erroneous  mode  of  teach- 
ing, had  mistakenly,  but  bona  fide,  interpreted  the 
passages  which  they  had  cited  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  a  sense  altogether  different  from  their  histor- 
ical meaning,  and  thus  applied  them  to  the  history  of 
the  Christian  dispensation.  Some  of  these  have  main- 
tained that  the  accommodation  theory  was  a  mere 
shift  resorted  to  by  commentators  who  could  not  oth- 
erwise explain  the  application  of  Old  Testament  proph- 
ecies in  the  New  consistently  with  the  inspiration  of 
the  sacred  writers.    See  Condescension. 

2.  The  word  is  also  used  to  designate  a  certain 
rationalistic  theory,  viz.,  that  Christ  fell  in  with  the 
popular  prejudices  and  errors  of  his  time;  and  so  ac- 
commodated himself  to  the  mental  condition  of  the 
Jews.  The  Gnostics  seem  to  have  first  originated  this 
theory.  They  asserted  that  Christ's  doctrine  could 
not  be  fully  known  from  Scripture  alone,  because  the 
writers  of  the  New  Test  uncut  ninth  sc<  it  h  d  to  the  stage 
of  culture  existing  at  the  .time  (tremens,  Adv.  liter. 
iii,  5).  The  theory  derives  all  its  plausibility  from 
confounding  two  things  essentially  different,  viz.,  con- 
descension to  ignorance  and  accommodation  to  error. 
The  former  was  indeed  employed  by  the  great  Teach- 
er (e.  g.  in  his  use  of  parables)  ;  the  latter  would  have 
been  utterly  unworthy  of  him.  In  this  last  sense,  the 
theory  is  one  of  the  most  pernicious  outgrowths  of  <  rer- 
man  rationalism.      See  Home,  Introd.  i,  317,  324  ;  and 


47  ACCUBATION. 

for  the  rationalistic  view,  Seiler,  Bib.  Herm.  418 ; 
Planck,  Introd.  145  ;  Neander,  Life  of  Christ,  113, 114. 

Ac'cos  (A/v/v-wr,  prob.  for  Heb.  Koz,  i.  e.  Accoz, 
Vipn ;  Vulg.  Jacob),  the  father  of  John,  and  grand- 
father of  the  Eupolemus  who  was  one  of  the  ambassa- 
dors of  Judas  Maccabams  to  Rome  (1  Mace,  viii,  17). 

Ac'coz  (AkjIioc  v.  r.  'Akkioc,  for  Heb.  Koz,  with 
the  art.  Vipfl,  hah-Kots''),  one  of  the  priests  whose  de- 
scendants returned  from  the  captivity,  having  lost 
their  pedigree  (1  Esdr.  v,  38) ;  evidently  the  same 
with  Koz  (q.  v.)  of  the  parallel  text  (Ezra  ii,  Gl). 

Accubation,  the  posture  of  reclining  (avoucupai, 
qvaic\ivu>,  "  sit  at  meat,"  "  sit  down")  on  couches  at 
table,  which  prevailed  among  the  Jews  in  and  before 
the  time  of  Christ ;  a  custom  apparently  derived  from 
Persian  luxury,  but  usual  among  the  Romans  like- 
wise. The  dinner-bed,  or  triclinium,  stood  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  dining-room  (itself  hence  called  "triclinium" 
also),  clear  of  the  walls,  and  formed  three  sides  of  a 
square  which  enclosed  the  table.  The  open  end  of 
the  square,  with  the  central  hollow,  allowed  the  serv- 
ants to  attend  and  serve  the  table.  In  all  the  exist- 
ing representations  of  the  dinner-bed  it  is  shown  to 
have  been  higher  than  the  enclosed  table.      Among 


Ancient  Roman  dinner-bed. 


the  Romans  the  usual  number  of  guests  on  each  couch 
was  three,  making  nine  for  the  three  couches — equal 
to  the  number  of  the  Muses  ;  but  sometimes  there 
were  four  to  each  couch.  The  Greeks  went  beyond 
this  number  (Cic.  In  Pis.  27)  ;  the  Jews  appear  to 
have  had  no  particular  fancy  in  the  matter,  and  wc 
know  that  at  our  Lord's  last  supper  thirteen  persons 
were  pi-esent.  As  each  guest  leaned,  during  the  great- 
er part  of  the  entertainment,  on  his  left  elbow,  so  as 
to  leave  the  right  arm  at  liberty,  and  as  two  or  more 
lay  on  the  same  couch,  the  head  of  one  man  was  near 
the  breast  of  the  man  who  lay  behind  him,  and  he 
was,  therefore,  said  "to  lie  in  the  bosom"  of  the  oth- 
er. This  phrase  was  in  use  among  the  Jews  (Luke 
xvi,  22,  23;  John  i,  18;  xiii,  23),  and  occurs  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  show  that  to  lie  next  below,  or  "in 
the  bosom"  of  the  master  of  the  feast,  was  considered 
the  most  favored  place  ;  and  is  shown  by  the  citations 
of  Kypke  and  Wetstein  (on  John  xiii,  23)  to  have  been 
usually  assigned  to  near  and  dear  connections.  So  it 
was  "the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved"  who  "reclined 
upon  his  breast"  at  the  last  supper.  See  Lord's  Sup- 
per. Lightfoot  and  others  suppose  that  as,  on  that 
occasion,  John  lay  next  below  Christ,  so  Peter,  who 
was  also  highly  favored,  lay  next  above  him.  This 
conclusion  is  founded  chiefly  on  the  fact  of  Peter  beck- 
I  oning  to  John  that  he  should  ask  Jesus  who  was  the 
traitor.  But  this  seems  rather  to  prove  the  contrary 
\  — that  Peter  was  not  near  enough  to  speak  to  Jesus 
himself.  If  lie  had  been  there,  Christ  must  have  lain 
near  his  bosom,  and  he  would  have  been  in  the  best 
position  for  whispering  to  his  master,  and  in  tie'  worst 
for  beckoning  to  John.  The  circumstance  that  Christ 
was  able  to  reach  the  sop  to  Judas  when  he  had  dip- 
ped it,  seems  to  us  rather  to  intimate  that  he  was  the 
one  who  tilled  that  place.  The  morsel  of  favor  was 
likely  to  be  given  to  one  in  a  favored  place ;  and  Ju- 
das, the  treasurer  and  almoner  of  the  whole  party 
might  be  expected  to  till  that  place.     This  also  ag 


ACCUBATION. 


4S 


ACCURSED. 


gravates  by  contrast  the  turpitude  and  treachery  of 
his  conduct.  See  Banquet.  The  frame  of  the  din- 
ner-bed was  laid  with  mattresses  variously  stuffed, 
and,  latterly,  was  furnished  with  rich  coverings  and 
hangings.  Each  person  was  usually  provided  with  a 
cushion  or  bolster  on  which  to  support  the  upper  part 
of  his  person  in  a  somewhat  raised  position,  as  the  left 
arm  alone  could  not  long  without  weariness  sustain 
the  weight.  The  lower  part  of  the  body  being  ex- 
tended diagonally  on  the  bed,  with  the  feet  outward, 
it  is  at  once  perceived  how  easy  it  was  for  "  the  wom- 
an that  was  a  sinner"  to  come  behind  between  the 
dinner-bed  and  the  wall  and  anoint  the  feet  of  Jesus 
(Matt,  xxvi,  7  ;  Mark  xiv,  3).  The  dinner-beds  were 
so  various  at  different  times,  in  different  places,  and 
under  different  circumstances,  that  no  one  description 
can  apply  to  them  all  (see  Critica  Bibliea,  ii,  481). 
Even  among  the  Romans  they  were  at  first  (after  the 
Punic  war)  of  rude  form  and  materials,  and  covered 
with  mattresses  stuffed  with  rushes  or  straw;  mat- 
tresses of  hair  and  wool  were  introduced  at  a  later  pe- 
riod. At  first  the  wooden  frames  were  small,  low, 
and  round;  and  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  Augustus 
that  square  and  ornamental  couches  came  into  fash- 
ion. In  the  time  of  Tiberius  the  most  splendid  sort 
were  veneered  with  costly  woods  or  tortoise-shell,  and 
were  covered  with  valuable  embroideries,  the  richest 
of  which  came  from  Babylon,  and  cost  large  sums 
(Soc.  Useful  Knowl.  Pompeii,  ii,  88).  The  Jews  per- 
haps had  all  these  varieties,  though  it  is  not  likely 
that  the  usage  was  ever  carried  to  such  a  pitch  of  lux- 
ury as  among  the  Romans ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  mass  of  the  people  fed  in  the  ancient  manner — 
seated  on  stools  or  on  the  ground.  It  appears  that 
couches  were  often  so  low  that  the  feet  rested  on  the 
ground ;  and  that  cushions  or  bolsters  were  in  general 
use.  It  would  also  seem,  from  the  mention  of  two 
and  of  three  couches,  that  the  arrangement  was  more 
usually  square  than  semicircular  or  round  (Lightfoot, 
I/or.  Heb.  in  John  xiii,  23).     See  Divan. 

It  is  utterly  improbable  that  the  Jews  derived  this 
custom  from  the  Romans,  as  is  constantly  alleged. 
They  certainly  knew  it  as  existing  among  the  Per- 
sians long  before  it  had  been  adopted  by  the  Romans 


Family  eating-couch.     From  Pompeii. 


themselves  (Esth.  i,  G ;  vii,  8)  ;  and  the  presumption 
is  that  they  adopted  it  while  subject  to  that  people. 
The  Greeks  also  had  the  usage  (from  the  Persians)  be- 
fore the  Romans  ;  and  with  the  Greeks  of  Syria  the 
Jews  had  very  much  intercourse.  Besides,  the  Ro- 
mans adopted  the  custom  from  the  Carthaginians 
(Val.  Max.  xii,  1,  2;  Liv.  xxviii,  28);  and  that  they 
had  it,  implies  that  it  previously  existed  in  Phoenicia, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  .Tews.  It  is  also  unlikely 
that,  in  so  short  a  time,  it  should  have  become  usual 
and  even  (as  the  Talmud  asserts,  see  Otho,  Lex.  Until). 
p.  447)  obligatory  to  cat  the  Passover  in  that  pos- 
ture of  indulgent  repose,  and  in  no  other  (Gizring, 
Accuhit.  a*!  Patch.  Vit.  1735).  The  literature  of  this 
subject  has  been  brought  together  by  Stuckius  {Antiq. 


Concivalium,  ii,  34) ;  and  the  works  on  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum  (see  Cockburn's  Pompeii  Illustrated,  ii, 
5)  supply  the  more  recent  information.  (See  Smith's 
Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Ccena,  Deipnon,  Triclin- 
ium.)— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Eating. 

Accursed  (in  general  designated  by  some  form  of 
??p,  kalal' ,  Gr.  Kcirapdopai,  to  "  curse"),  a  term  used 
in  two  senses.     See  Oath. 

(1.)  Anathema  (D"?n,  che'rem,  avdBi^a),  a  vow 
(Num.  xxi,  2),  by  which  persons  or  things  were  devo- 
ted to  Jehovah,  whose  property  they  became  irrevoca- 
bly and  never  to  be  redeemed  (sacer,  sacrum  esto  Je- 
hovse;  comp.  Cassar,  Bell.  Gall,  vi,  17;  Tacit.  Annul. 
xiii,  57;  Lev.  iii,  55;  Diod.  Sic.  xi,  3;  see  Mayer,  De 
Nomin.  Piacularibus.  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  xxiii).  Per- 
sons thus  offered  were  doomed  to  death  (Lev.  xxvii, 
29 ;  see  Judg.  xi,  31  sq. ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  44).  Cattle,  land, 
and  other  property  were  appropriated  for  the  use  of  the 
temple,  i.  e.  of  the  caste  of  the  priests  (Lev.  xxvii,  28  ; 
Num.  xviii,  14 ;  Ezek.  xxiv,  20).  Originally  such  vows 
were  spontaneous  on  the  part  of  the  Israelites  (see 
Num.  xxi,  2;  1  Sam.  xiv,  24  [in  this  latter  case,  all 
the  individual  warriors  of  an  army  were  bound  by  the 
vow  made  by  the  leader]) ;  but  occasionally  the  anath- 
ema, losing  its  votive  character,  assumed  that  of  a 
theocratic  punishment  (see  Ezra  x,  8),  in  consequence 
of  the  prescriptions  of  the  law,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
case  of  the  anathema  (capital  sentence)  pronounced 
against  an  idolatrous  Israelite  (Exod.  xxii,  20),  or 
against  a  whole  idolatrous  city  (Dent,  xiii,  10  sq.), 
which  was  ordered  to  be  destroyed  utterly  by  fire 
with  all  that  was  therein,  and  the  inhabitants  and  all 
their  cattle  to  be  put  to  the  sword  (see  Judg.  xx,  48; 
xxi,  10,  19 ;  comp.  Appian.  Pun.  133 ;  Mithrid.  45  ; 
Liv.  x,  29 ;  see  Miller,  Devotiones  veterum  in  bellis, 
Lips.  1730).  Essentially  identical  with  this  was  the 
anathema  against  the  Canaanitish  cities,  to  be  execu- 
ted by  the  Israelites  when  they  should  enter  the  land 
(Deut.  ii,  34  sq. ;  iii,  6 ;  Josh."  vi,  17  sqq. ;  x,  28,  35, 
37,  40;  xi,  11),  [in  consequence  of  a  vow  (Num.  xxi, 
2  sq.),  or  upon  the  express  command  of  Jehovah  (Deut. 
vii,  2;  xx,  16  sq.  ;  see  1  Sam.  xv,  3)],  in  order  that 
they  should  be  secured  against  all  manner  of  tempta- 
tion to  enter  into  nearer  relations  with  the  idolatrous 
natives  (Deut.  xx,  18  ;  see  Exod.  xxiii,  32  sq.).  Such 
city,  therefore,  was  burned  with  all  things  therein, 
and  the  inhabitants  and  their  cattle  were  killed,  while 
all  metals  and  metallic  utensils  were  delivered  up  to 
the  sanctuary  (Josh,  vi,  21,  24).  At  times  (when  the 
wants  of  the  army  made  it  desirable  ?)  the  cattle  was 
spared,  and,  like  other  spoils,  divided  among  the  war- 
riors (Josh,  viii,  2G  sq. ;  Dent,  ii,  34  sq.  ;  iii,  6  sq.). 
Finally,  in  some  cities  merely  the  living  things  were 
destroyed  (Josh,  x,  28,  30,  32,  37,  S9,  40),  but  the  cities 
themselves  were  spared.  Those  who  were  guilt}'  of 
any  sort  of  violation  of  the  laws  of  the  anathema  were 
put  to  death  (Josh,  vii,  11  sq. ;  see  vi,  18;  Deut.  xiii, 
17;  Caesar,  Bell.  Gall,  vi,  17).  In  the  anathema  pro- 
nounced by  a  zealous  enforcer  of  the  law  (Ezra  x,  8) 
against  the  property  of  such  Jews  as  had  married  for- 
eign wives  and  refused  to  divorce  them,  the  banish- 
ment of  such  persons  themselves  was  comprehended. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  whether  their  property 
was  destroyed  or  (as  H.  Michaelis  understood)  given  to 
the  priests  :  the  latter  case  would  be  inconsistent  with 
a  strict  interpretation  of  Deut.  xiii,  1G.  See  Anath- 
ema.— We  translate  from  Winer,  s.v.  Bann. 

(2.)  Different  from  this  is  the  Ban  of  the  later  Jews, 
mentioned  in  the  Now  Testament  as  a  sort  of  ecclesi- 
astical punishment  (for  hei-esy),  Luke  vi,  22  (dtpopi- 
Z,HV)\  John  ix,  22;  xii,  42;  xvi,  2  (aTroovvdywyuv 
yiveoSai  or  ttoihi'),  viz.,  the  exclusion  of  a  Jew  from 
the  congregation,  and  all  familiar  intercourse  with  oth- 
ers, by  a  resolution.  "Excommunicated"  (JTI^^,  me- 
nudeh')  and   "  excommunication''  C^S,  n'ddu'y)  are 


ACCURSED 


49 


ACELDAMA 


also  frequent  terms  in  the  Mishna  (Taanith,  iii,  8  ;  Moed 
Katon,  iii,  1).  Stones  were  thrown  (a  mark  of  dishon- 
or) over  the  graves  of  those  who  died  in  excommuni- 
cation (Eduyoth,  v,  G.  The  excommunicated  person 
was  not  permitted  to  enter  the  Temple  by  the  common 
door  with  others,  but  was  admitted  by  a  separate  one 
(Middoth,  ii,  2).  He  was  also  prohibited  from  shaving 
during  the  time  of  his  excommunication  {Moed.  Kat. 
iii,  1 ;  see  Selden,  Jus  Nat.  et  Gent,  iv,  8  sq.).  There 
is  mention  in  the  Gemara,  as  well  as  in  other  rabbin- 
ical writings,  of  another  sort  of  excommunication, 
C*in,  che'rem  (the  person  thus  excommunicated  was 
called  Dini'Q,  mucharam'),  more  severe  than  the  "^ID, 
niddu'y.  The  difference  between  the  two — according 
to  Maimonides — was,  [1,]  that  the  nidduy  was  valid 
only  for  the  thirty  days  following  its  date,  and  was  pro- 
nounced without  accursing ;  but  the  cherem  was  al- 
ways connected  with  a  curse  :  [2,]  that  cherem  could  be 
pronounced  only  by  several,  at  least  ten,  members  of 
the  congregation;  but  the  nidduy  even  by  a  single  Is- 
raelite (e.  g.  by  a  rabbi) :  [3,]  that  the  mucharam  was 
excluded  from  all  intercourse  with  others  ;  but  it  was 
permitted  to  converse  with  the  menudeh  at  a  distance  of 
four  cubits,  and  his  household  was  not  subjected  even  to 
this  restriction.  According  to  the  Gemara,  the  latter 
was  compelled  to  wear  a  mourning  dress,  in  order  to  be 
distinguished  outwardly  from  others.  Elias  Levita  (in 
Tisbi,  under  "'IT'S)  and  later  rabbis  speak  of  a  third 
and  still  higher  degree  of  excommunication,  NFlSrJ, 
shammata' ,  execration  (see  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col. 
24G3  sq.),  by  which  an  obdurate  sinner  was  delivered 
up  to  all  sorts  of  perdition.  It  does  not  appear,  how- 
ever, that  older  Talmudists  used  this  word  in  a  sense 
different  from  nidduy,  [the  formula  declarations  quoted 
by  Maimonides  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  however,  is 
KFiaoa  il.Tl'1,  let  him  be  in  "shammata,"]  (see  Sel- 
den, De  Synedr.  i,  7,  p.  64  sq ;  Ugolino,  in  Pfeiffer's 
Antiqu.  Ebr.  iv  ;  Thesaur.  p.  1294);  or  perhaps  it 
was  the  generic  term  for  excommunication  (see  Danz, 
in  Meuschen,  Ar.  T.  Talm.  p.  615  sq.),  and  the  hypoth- 
esis of  Elias  seems,  in  fine,  to  have  been  founded  upon 
a  whimsical  etymology  of  the  word  shammata  (q.  d. 
WQ,  there,  and  HtVm,  the  death).  But  it  may  even  be 
questioned  whether  nidduy  and  cherem  were  distin- 
guished from  each  other  in  the  age  of  Jesus,  or  in 
the  first  centuries  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  sense  asserted  by  Maimonides.  In  gen- 
eral, it  is  not  improbable  that  there  were  even 
then  degrees  of  excommunication.  The  formal  ex- 
clusion from  the  Hebrew  congregation  and  nation- 
ality is  mentioned  already  by  Ezra  x,  8  (see  above). 
In  the  passages  of  John  foregoing  a  minor  excom- 
munication is  spoken  of;  while  iii  that  of  Luke,  with- 
out doubt,  a  total  exclusion  is  understood  ;  even  if 
we  take  merely  the  ct(papi£nv  in  this  sense,  or  (with 
Liicke,  Commentar  zum  Ev.  Joh.  ii,  387)  we  suppose  that 
there  is  a  gradation  in  the  passage,  so  that  dehopiZ,.  re- 
fers to  1*1^3,  6vuc"iZ,.  Kai  ItcjidW.  to  Q'nrl.  Many  were 
of  the  opinion  that  the  highest  degree  of  excommunica- 
tion, KF)5aTa,  according  to  the  classification  of  Elias 
Levita,  is  to  be  found  in  the  formula  wapaSiSovai  r<,J 
Zarava  (1  Cor.  v,  5  ;  1  Tim.  i,  20).  But  there  is  no 
firm  historical  ground  for  such  explanation,  and  the 
above  expression  should  be  explained  rather  from  the 
usual  idiomatic  language  of  the  apostle  Paul,  accord- 
ing to  which  it  cannot  mean,  surely,  a  mere  excom- 
munication, as  has  been  satisfactorily  proved  by  Flatt 
(Vorles.  ub.  d.  Br.  an  die  Kor.  i,  102  sq.),  and  concurred 
in  by  later  commentators.  See  Devil.  Finally,  it 
is  not  les-s  improbable  that,  in  Rom.  ix,  3,  avdQtfia 
dirb  roil  Xparrov  should  refer  to  the  Jewish  excom- 
munication (as  was  asserted  of  late  by  Tholuck  and 
Ruckert;  see  Fritzsche,  in  loc.).  See  Execution. 
(For  the  Jewish  excommunication  in  general,  see  Carp- 
zov,  Appar.  p.  554  sq. ;  Witsii  Miscell.  ii,  p.  47  sq. ; 
D 


Vitringa,  De  synag.  vet.  p.  739  sqq. ;  Pfeiffer,  Antiqu. 
Ebr.  c.  22;  Bindrim,  De  gradib.  excommun'cot.  up. 
Ilebr.  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  xxvi ;  Otho,  Lexic.  Iiabb. 
p.  212  sq.  ;  Beer,  in  the  Hall.  Encyklop.  xvi,  278  sq. ; 
[the  last  vary  uncritical.])    See  Excommunication. 

Accuser  Cjfflfe,  lashan',  in  Iliph.  "accuse,"  Prov. 
xxx,  10;  and  other  terms  signifying  to  slander ;  more 
properly  denoted  by  some  form  of  the  verb  2"1"!,  rib, 
to  plead  a  cause,  also  in  defence  ;  Sept.  and  N.  T. 
dvriSiKOQ,  "adversary,"  or  Kari'iyopoc,  prosecutor}. 
(1.)  The  original  word,  which  bears  this  leading  signi- 
fication, means  one  who  has  a  cause  or  matter  of  con- 
tention ;  the  accuser,  opponent,  or  plaintiff  in  any 
suit  (Judg.  xii,  2;  Matt,  v,  25;  Luke  xii,  58).  We 
have  little  information  respecting  the  manner  in 
which  causes  were  conducted  in  the  Hebrew  courts 
of  justice,  except  from  the  rabbinical  authorities, 
who,  in  matters  of  this  description,  may  be  supposed 
well  informed  as  to  the  later  customs  of  the  nation. 
See  Trial.  Even  from  these  we  learn  little  more 
than  that  great  care  was  taken  that,  the  accused 
being  deemed  innocent  until  convicted,  he  and  the 
accuser  should  appear  under  equal  circumstances  be- 
fore the  court,  that  no  prejudicial  impression  might 
be  created  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  defendant, 
whose  interests,  we  are  told,  were  so  anxiously 
guarded,  that  any  one  was  allowed  to  speak  what- 
ever he  knew  or  had  to  say  in  his  favor,  which  priv- 
ilege was  withheld  from  the  accuser  (Lewis,  Orig- 
ines  Hebram,  i,  68).  See  Advocate.  (2.)  The  word 
is  also  applied  in  Scripture,  in  the  general  sense,  to 
any  adversary  or  enemy  (Luke  xviii,  3 ;  1  Pet.  v,  8). 
In  the  latter  passage  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  old 
Jewish  opinion  that  Satan  was  the  accuser  or  calum- 
niator of  men  before  God  (Job  i,  G  sq. ;  Rev.  xii,  10 
sq. ;  comp.  Zech.  iii,  1).  In  this  application  the  fo- 
rensic sense  was  still  retained,  Satan  being  represent- 
ed as  laying  to  man's  charge  a  breach  of  the  law,  as 
in  a  court  of  justice,  and  demanding  his  punishment. 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Satan. 

Ace.     See  Accho. 

Acel'dama  CkK*\capd,  from  the  Syro-Chaldaic 
!n"C'1  3£n,  chahal'  dema ' ,  field  of  the  blood,  as  it  is  ex- 
plained in  the  text,  dypug  a'ip.aroc,  see  Critica  Biblica, 
ii,  447),  the  field  purchased  with  the  money  for  which 
Judas  betrayed  Christ,  and  which  was  appropriated  as 
a  place  of  burial  for  strangers — that  is,  such  of  the  nu- 
merous visitors  at  Jerusalem  as  might  die  during  their 
stay,  while  attending  the  festivals  (Matt,  xxvii,  8 ; 
Acts  i,  19 ;  the  slight  discrepancy  between  these  pas- 
sages has  been  unduly  magnified  by  Alford,  Comment. 
in  loc.  post. ;  see  Olshausen,  Comment,  iii,  61,  Am.  ed.). 
It  was  previously  "a  potter's  field."  The  field  now 
shown  as  Aceldama  lies  on  the  slope  of  the  hills  be- 
yond the  valley  of  Hinnom,  south  of  Mount  Zion. 
This  is  obviously  the  spot  which  Jerome  points  out 
(Onomast.  s.  v.  Acheldamach)  as  lying  on  the  south 
(Eusebius,  on  the  north)  of  Zion,  and  which  has  sinco 
been  mentioned  (although  with  some  variation)  by  al- 
most every  one  who  has  described  Jerusalem.  San- 
dys describes  it  (Relation  of  a  Journey,  p.  187),  and 
relates  the  common  story  that  the  Empress  Helena 
caused  270  ship-loads  of  its  flesh-consuming  mould  to 
be  taken  to  Rome,  to  form  the  soil  of  the  Campo 
Santo,  to  which  the  same  virtue  is  ascribed.  Cas- 
tela  affirms  that  great  quantities  of  the  wondrous 
mould  were  removed  by  divers  Christian  princes  in 
the  time  of  the  Crusades,  and  to  this  source  assigns 
the  similar  sarcophagic  properties  claimed  not  only 
by  the  Campo  Santo  at  Rome,  but  by  the  cemetery 
of  St.  Innocents  at  Paris,  by  the  cemetery  at  Naples 
(La  Sainct  Voyage,  de  Hierusalcui,  1603,  p.  150;  also 
Roger,  p.  160),  and  by  that  of  the  Campo  Santo  at 
Pisa.  This  plot  seems  to  have  been  early  set  apart 
by  the  Latins,  as  well  as  by  the  Crusaders,  for  a  place 
of  burial  for  pilgrims  (Jac.  de  Vitriaco,  p.  64).     The 


ACEPIIALI 


50 


ACHAIA 


charnel-house  is  mentioned  by  Maundeville  (Travels,  I 
1822,  p.  175,  Bohn's  ed.)  as  belonging  to  the  Knights 
Hospitallers.  Sandys  shows  that,  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Arme- 
nians. Roger  (La  Terre  Saincte,  p.  1G1)  states  that  ! 
they  bought  it  for  the  burial  of  their  own  pilgrims, 
and  ascribes  the  erection  of  the  charnel-house  to  them. 
They  still  possessed  it  in  the  time  of  Maundrell,  or, 
rather,  rented  it,  at  a  sequin  a  day,  from  the  Turks,  j 
Corpses  were  still  deposited  there ;  and  the  traveller 
observes  that  they  were  in  various  stages  of  decay,  I 
from  which  he  conjectures  that  the  grave  did  not 
make  that  quick  dispatch  with  the  bodies  committed 
to  it  which  had  been  reported.  "The  earth,  here- 
abouts," be  observes,  "is  of  a  chalky  substance;  the  | 
plot  of  ground  was  not  above  thirty  yards  long  by 
lifteen  wide ;  and  a  moiety  of  it  was  occupied  by  the 
charnel-house,  which  was  twelve  yards  high"  (Jour- 
ney, p.  136).  Richardson  (Travels,  p.  5C7)  affirms 
that  bodies  were  thrown  in  as  late  as  1818 ;  but  Dr. 
Robinson  alleges  that  it  has  the  appearance  of  having 
been  for  a  much  longer  time  abandoned:  "The  iield 
or  plat  is  not  now  marked  by  any  boundary  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  rest  of  the  hill-side ;  and  the  former  I 
charnel-house,  now  a  ruin,  is  all  that  remains  to  point 
out  the  site.  .  .  .  An  opening  at  each  end  enabled  us 
to  look  in;  but  the  bottom  was  empty  and  dry,  ex- 
cepting a  few  bones  much  decayed"  (Biblical  Re- 
searches, i,  524;  comp.  Wilde's  Shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 184-4 ;  Barclay's  City  of  the  Great  Kin//,  p. 
207).  Its  modern  name  is  Hah  ed-damm.  It  is  sep- 
arated by  no  enclosure;  a  few  venerable  olive-trees 
(see  Salzmann's  photograph,  "  Champ  du  sang")  occu- 
py part  of  it,  and  the  rest  is  covered  by  the  "  charnel- 
house,"  a  ruined  square  edifice — half  built,  half  exca- 
vated—perhaps originally  a  church  (Pauli,  Cod.  Di- 
plom.  i,  28),  but  which  the  latest  conjectures  (Schnltz, 
Williams,  and  Barclay)  propose  to  identify  with  the 
tomb  of  Ananus  (Joseph.  War,  v,  12,  2).  It  is  said 
(Kraft,  Topogr.  p.  193)  to  contain  the  graves  of  sev- 
eral German  pilgrims ;  but  the  intimation  (Hitter, 
Erdk.  xv,  463)  that  a  pottery  still  exists  near  this 
spot  does  not  seem  to  be  borne  out  by  other  testimony. 
(See,  on  the  subject  generally,  Schlegel,  De  agro  San- 
guinis, Hamb.  1705  ;  Worgcr,  Ilakeldama,  in  Meneltici 
Tkesaur.  p.  222.)— Kitto,  s.  v.  See  Potter's  Field. 
Acepllali  (d  and  tctrpaXi)'),  literally,  those  who 
have  no  chief.  The  term  is  applied  to  various  class- 
es of  persons  (see  Biedermann,  De  Acephalis,  Freiberg, 
1751).  1.  To  those  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  who  re- 
fused to  follow  either  St.  Cyril  or  John  of  Antioch. 

2.  To  certain  heretics  in  the  fifth  century  who  denied, 
with  Eutyches,  the  distinction  of  natures  in  Jesus 
Christ,  and  rejected  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  About 
the  year  482  the  Emperor  Zeno  endeavored  to  extin- 
guish these  religious  dissensions  by  the  publication  of 
an  edict  of  union,  called  Henoticon.  The  more  mod- 
erate of  both  parties  subscribed  the  decree,  but  the  ob- 
ject was  generally  unsuccessful.  The  Monophysite 
patriarch  of  Alexandria  was  among  those  who  sign- 
ed the  decree ;  which  so  greatly  displeased  many  of 
his  party  that  they  separated  from  him,  and  were 
denominated  Accphali,  that  is,  without  a  head.  See 
Moxophysites  and  Henotkox.  These  Acephali 
were  condemned  in  the  synod  of  Constantinople,  536. 

3.  To  bishops  exempt  from  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion of  their  patriarch.     4.  To  the  Flagellants  (q.  v.). 

Acesius,  a  Novatian  bishop,  present  at  NicaBa,  in 
325,  who  agreed  with  the  decisions  of  the  council  con- 
cerning the  time  for  celebrating  Easter,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  the  consubstantiality  of  the  Son,  but  never- 
theless refused  to  communicate  with  the  other  bish- 
ops. When  the  emperor  asked  of  him  his  reason  for 
so  doing,  he  replied  (according  to  the  heresy  of  Nova- 
tian) that  he  could  not  communicate  with  those  who 
had  fallen  after  baptism.  "Then,  Acesius,"  answer- 
ed Constantino,  "set  up  a  ladder  for  yourself,  and 


mount  up  to  heaven  alone." — Soc.  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  i, 
cap.  10 ;  Soz.  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  i,  cap.  22. 

Achabara  (Axdfiapa),  a  name  designating  a  cer- 
tain rock  ('Aya/Sapiuv  ir'trpa)  mentioned  by  Josephus 
(War,  ii,  20,  6)  as  one  of  the  spots  in  Upper  Galilee 
fortified  by  him  on  the  approach  of  the  Romans  under 
Cestius  ;  probably  the  same  place  with  the  Chabare 
(Xafiapt},  prob.  by  erroneously  annexing  the  initial  a 
to  the  preceding  word,  see  Reland,  Palcest.  p.  705,  a 
suggestion  followed  by  Hudson  and  Havercamp,  who 
write  'Axafidpii),  mentioned  likewise  bj-  Josephus 
(Life,  37)  as  a  place  of  naturally  great  strength.  Re- 
land  (ib.  p.  542)  thinks  it  is  identical  with  a  place 
called  Akbara  (X""iaD3>)  by  Hottinger,  situated  be- 
tween Tiberias  and  Zephath  (Sepphoris  ?),  and  perhaps 
also  the  residence  of  the  Akbarites  (N^iSS?  "C5l) 
mentioned  in  the  Gemara  (Baba  Metsia,  lxxxiv,  2). 
But  the  place  named  by  Hottinger  would  be  in  Loner 
Galilee.  The  cliff  in  question  (associated  in  both  pas- 
sages of  Josephus  with  Jamnia,  or  Jamnith,  and  Me- 
roth)  appears  to  have  been  some  eminence  of  Middle 
Galilee ;  probably  (as  suggested  by  Schwarz,  Palest. 
p.  188)  the  Tell  Akhbarah  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p. 
281),  about  two  miles  south-east  of  Safed,  having  a  fine 
spring  (Ritter,  Erdk.  xvi,  687,  771). 

A'chad  (Heb.  Achad' ,  1HX,  the  "constr."  of 
llnS,  one,  v.  v.Achath',  HPIX,  id.),  thought  by  some  to 
be  the  name  of  a  heathen  deity  mentioned  in  the  diffi- 
cult phrase,'  Isa.  lxvi,  17,  Tj'Pl?  IHX  ^HX,  after  one 
(of  them)  in  the  midst,  Sept.  icai  iv  role  7rpoSri/poic, 
Vulg.  post  januam  intrinsecus,  Auth.  Vers,  "behind 
one  (tree)  in  the  midst."  According  to  Gesenius 
(Commentar,  in  loc.)  the  phraseology  is  susceptible  of 
three  interpretations:  («)  "One  after  another  in  the 
midst ;"  (6)  "  After  Achad  in  the  midst ;"  (c)  "After 
one  (of  their  number)  [i.  e.  a  priest  leading  the  idola- 
trous rites]  in  the  midst,"  a  rendering  which  he  pre- 
fers (comp.  Rosenmuller,  Scholia  in  loc).  In  favor 
of  the  allusion  to  a  heathen  deity  is  only  the  slender 
analogy  with  the  name  Adad,  as  a  Syrian  divinity. 
See  Hadad.  (See  Mill,  De  Idolo  1HX,  in  his  Dissert. 
Sdect.  Lugd.  Bat.  1743,  p.  137-1GG  ;  Doderlein,  Pkilol. 
Abhandl.  v.  d.  Gott  Achad,  in  his  Verm.  Abhandl.  Halle, 
1755,  pt.  iii).    See  Idolatry. 

Achai'a  (Axa'ia,  derivation  uncertain),  a  region 
of  Greece,  which  in  the  restricted  sense  occupied  the 
north-western  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus,  including 
Corinth  and  its  isthmus  (Strabo,  vii,  p.  438  sq.).  By 
the  poets  it  was  often  put  for  the  whole  of  Greece, 
whence  'AYCtioi,  A  chazans,  i.  e.  Greeks.  The  cities  of 
the  narrow  slip  of  county,  originally  called  Achaia, 
were  confederated  ?n  an  ancient  league,  which  was 
renewed  in  B.C.  280  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the 
Macedonians.  This  league  subsequently  included 
several  of  the  other  Grecian  states,  and  became  the 
most  powerful  political  bod}'  in  Gree/:e ;  and  hence  it 
was  natural  for  the  Romans  to  apply  the  name  of 
Achaia  to  the  Peloponnesus  and  the  south  of  Greece, 
when  they  took  Corinth  and  destroyed  the  league  in 
B.C.  146  "(Pausan.  vii,  16,  10).  Under  the  Romans, 
Greece  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  Macedonia  and 
Achaia,  the  former  of  which  included  Macedonia  prop- 
er, with  Illyricum,  Epirus,  and  Thessaly;  and  the  lat- 
ter, all  that  lay  southward  of  the  former  (Cellar,  i,  p. 
1170,  1022).  It  is  in  this  latter  acceptation  that  the 
name  of  Achaia  is  always  employed  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament (Acts  xviii,  12, 16  ;  xix,  21 ;  Rom.  xv,  26;  xvi, 
25  ;  1  Cor.  xvi,  15  ;  2  Cor.  i,  1 ;  ix,  2  ;  xi,  10  ;  1  Thess. 
i,  7,  8).  In  the  division  of  the  provinces  by  Augustus 
between  the  emperor  and  the  senate  in  B.C.  27,  Achaia 
was  made  a  senatorial  province  (Strabo,  xvii,  p.  840), 
and,  as  such,  was  governed  by  proconsuls  (Dion.  Cass. 
liii,  p.  704).  In  A.D.  16  Tiberius  changed  the  two 
into  one  imperial  province  under  procurators  (Tacit. 
Annal.  i,  76)  ;  but  Claudius  restored  them  to  the  senate 


ACHAICUS 


51 


ACIII01! 


and  to  the  proconsular  form  of  government  (Suet.  )  whom  Josiah  sent  to  Huldah  to  inquire  the  course  to 
Claud.  25).  Hence  the  exact  and  minute  propriety  \  be  pursued  respecting  the  newly-discovered  book  of 
with  which  Luke  expresses  himself  in  giving  the  title    the  law  (2  Kings  xxii,  12, 14),  B.C.  623.     In  the  paral 


of  proconsul  (avSvirctTog,  "deputy")  to  Gall'io  (q.  v.), 
who  was  appointed  to  the  province  (see  Smith's  Diet, 
of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.)  in  the  time  of  Claudius  (Acts  xviii, 
12).     (See  generally  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v.) 

Acha'icus  (Axa'iicoc,  an  Achaean),  a  Christian  of 
Corinth,  who,  with  Fortunatus,  was  the  bearer  of  Paul's 
first  epistle  to  the  Church  there,  to  whom  he  kindly 
commends  them  as  having  rendered  him  personal  as- 
sistance (1  Cor.  xvi,  17,  subscription ;  comp.  ver.  15, 
1G),  A.D.  54. 

A'clian  (Heb.  Akan' ,  *35,  prob.  troubler ;  Sept. 
'Av/'»'  in  Josh,  xxii,  20,  elsewhere  "A,\"o),  a  son  of 
Carmi,  called  also  Acuak  (1  Chron.  ii,  7),  in  com- 


lel  passage  (2  Chron.  xxxiv,  20)  he  is  called  Annus, 
the  son  of  Micah.  His  son  Elnathan  was  a  courtier 
of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxvi,  22  ;  xxxvi,  12). 

Achery,  John  Litre  d',  a  learned  Benedictine,  of 
the  congregation  of  Saint  Maur,  born  at  St.  Quentin, 
in  Picardy,  1609.  At  a  very  early  age  he  entered  the 
order  of  St.  Benedict,  and  devoted  himself  to  study, 
and  his  whole  after  life  was  passed  in  entire  abstrac- 
tion from  the  world.  He  died  at  the  abbej'  of  St.  Ger- 
main-des-Prcs,  in  April,  1G85.  To  the  labors  of  this 
learned  writer  we  owe  the  publication  of  many  MSS. 
which,  but  for  him,  would  probably  have  still  remain- 
ed buried  in  the  libraries.  His  principal  published 
works    arc    the    following  :    1.  S.  Barnabce    Epistola 


memoration  of  his  crime  and  awful  doom,  as  related  in  |  6We  etLat;n  IIuovn;s  Memrdinotls  Ulustratn  (  Paris 
Josh,  vii  (see  Kitto's  Daihj  Bible  Illust.  in  loc).  the 
city  of  Jericho,  before  it  was  taken,  was  put  under 
that  awful  ban,  of  which  there  are  other  instances  in 
the  early  Scripture  history,  whereby  all  the  inhabi- 
tants  (excepting   Rahab   and  her  family)   were   de 


1645)  ;  2.  Lamfranci  Cantuar.  Episcopi  Opera,  together 
with  Chronleon  Beccense;  B.  Ilclluini  et  4  priorum 
Beccensium  Abbatum ;  S.  Augustini  Anglorum  Apos- 
toli  vita;  duo  de  Eucharistia  Tractalus  Hugonis  Lrn- 
colnmsis  Epis.  et  Durandi  abbat.  Ti-oarnensis,  adver- 


voted  to  destruction  all  the  combustible  goods  to  be-  J  mg  B  arium  (Paris  1C48,  foL).  3.  Indfcuhu  As- 
consumed  by  lire,  and  all  the  metals  to  be  consecrated  ;  ce(icormi  etc_  (Pari  1G71  4to  2d  ed.) ;  4.  Acta  Sane 
to  God  (see  Deut.  vii,  16,  23-26).      fins  vow  of  de-  I  ,-    -    „   Rfinprl;rl;  ;-  .„„./„„..„  classes  distnbw 


0 

votement  was  rigidly  observed  by  all  the  troops  when 
Jericho  was  taken,  save  by  one  man,  Achan,  a  Judah- 
ite,  who  could  not  resist  the  temptation  of  secreting 
an  ingot  of  gold,  a  quantity  of  silver,  and  a  costly 
Babylonish  garment,  which  he  buried  in  his  tent, 
deeming  that  his  sin  was  hid.  The  Israelites  were 
defeated,  with  serious  loss,  in  their  lirst  attack  upon 
Ai ;  and  as  Joshua  was  well  assured  that  this  humilia- 
tion was  designed  as  the  punishment  of  a  crime  which 
had  inculpated  the  whole  people,  he  took  immediate 
measures  to  discover  the  criminal  by  means  of  the  lot 
(q.  v.).  The  conscience-stricken  offender  then  con- 
fessed his  crime  to  Joshua ;  and  his  confession  being 
verified  by  the  production  of  his  ill-gotten  treasure, 
the  people  hurried  away  not  only  Achan,  but  his  tent, 
his  goods,  his  spoil,  his  cattle,  his  children,  to  the  val- 
ley (hence  afterward  called)  of  Aehor  (q.  v.),  near 
Jericho,  where  the}'  stoned  him,  and  all  that  belonged 
to  him ;  after  which  the  whole  was  consumed  with  lire, 
and  a  cairn  of  stones  raised  over  the  ashes,  B.C.  1618. 
(See  Pyle,  Sermons,  iii,  185 ;  Saurin,  Disc.  Hist,  iii, 
78 ;  Simeon,  Works,  ii,  574 ;  Buddicom,  Christ.  Exod. 
ii,  350 ;  Origen,  Opp.  ii,  415).  The  severity  of  this 
act,  as  regards  the  family  of  Achan,  has  provoked 
some  remark  (see  A.  Clarke  and  Keil,  in  loc).  In- 
stead of  vindicating  it,  as  is  generally  done,  by  the  al- 
legation that  the  members  of  Achan's  family  were 
probably  accessories  to  his  crime  after  the  fact,  we 
prefer  the  supposition  that  they  were  included  in  the 
doom  by  one  of  those  stern,  vehement  impulses  of  semi- 
martial  vengeance  to  which  the  Jewish  (like  all  ( (rien- 
tal)  people  were  exceedingly  prone,  and  which,  though 
extreme  (comp.  Deut.  xxiv,  1G),  was  permitted  (for  the 
terms  "all  that  he  hath"  did  not  necessarily  prescribe 
it)  as  a  check  to  a  cupidity  that  tended  so  strongly 
both  to  mutiny  and  impiety. — Kitto.     See  Accursed. 


torum  ordinis  S.  Benedict i  in  sceculorum  classes  distribu- 
ta.  Although  D'Achery  made  the  necessary  collec- 
tions for  this  work,  it  was  published  with  notes  and 
observations  by  Mabillon,  after  his  death,  at  various 
periods  [see  Acta  Sanctorum]  ;  5.  Veterum  aliquot 
Scriptorum  qui  in  Gallice  Bibliothecis  delituerant,  max- 
ime  Benedictinorum,  Spicilegium.  Published  at  Paris, 
at  different  periods,  from  1655  to  1677,  by  different 
printers,  in  13  vols.  4to.  A  new  and  improved  edi- 
tion was  published  by  M.  de  la  Barre,  at  Paris,  in 
1723,  3  vols,  fol.,  with  this  title,  Spicilegium,  sive  CoU 
lectio  veterum  aliquot  Scriptorum  qui  in  Gallia;  Biblio- 
thecis delituerant,  olim  editum  opera  •  t  studio  D.  Luca; 
d' Achery,  etc.,  ed.  Baluze,  Martene,  et  de  la  Barre. 
This  collection  contains  a  vast  number  of  works  of  dif- 
ferent authors,  Acts  and  Canons  of  Councils,  Histories, 
Chronicles,  Lives  of  Saints,  Letters,  Poems,  and  Doc- 
uments, which  had  not  previously  appeared.  The  ob- 
ligations of  subsequent  scholars  have  been  so  great 
to  the  indefatigable  industry  of  d' Achery,  that  almost 
every  one  who  has  treated  of  the  antiquities  of  medie- 
val and  modern  European  history  has  been  obliged  to 
acknowledge  the  debt  due  to  him. 

Achiach'arus  (Ayi«y«(>0Ci  for  Heb.  "plrlNpflN, 
brother  of  the  following,  perh.  i.  q.  posthumous  or 
latest),  the  son  of  Anael  (or  Ananiel),  and  the  uncle 
of  Tobit  (Tob.  i,  21),  as  also  of  Nasbas  (Tob.  xi, 
18).  He  had  experienced  ingratitude  at  the  hands 
of  Aman  (Tob.  xiv,  10),  but  became  the  cup-bearer 
and  vizier  of  Sarchedon  (Tob.  i,  22),  and  befriended 
Tobit  (Tob.  ii,  10).    See  Horde,  ai. 

Achi'as  (Lat.  id.,  for  the  Or.  text  is  no  longer 
extant;  prob.  for  Ahijah),  a  person  named  as  son  of 
Phinees  (Phinehas),  and  father  of  Achitob  (AhitulO 
in  the  list  of  sacerdotal  ancestors  of  Esdras  or  Ezra  (2 
[Vulg.  4]  Esdr.  i,  2);  but,  as  the  parallel  list  (Ezra 
)  gives  no  corresponding  name,  it  is  either  an  in- 


A'char  (Heb,  Akar' ,  13-",  troubler;  Sept.  ' A\un~), 
the  son  of  Carmi,  who  was  punished  for  violating  the  '  terpolation  or,  perhaps,  a  corruption  for  the  Ahimaaz 
anathema  respecting  Jericho  (1  Chron.  ii,  7);   else-    oi  1  Chron.  vi,  8,  9. 


where  (Josh,  xxii,  20)  called  Achan  (q.  v.), 

Achashdarpenim.     See  Satrap. 

Achashteranim.     Sec  Mule. 

A'cliaz  (Matt,  i,  9),  elsewhere  Aiiaz  (q.  v.). 

Ach'bor  (Heb.  Akbor  ,  liMS,  gnawing,  i.  q. 
mouse ,-  Sept.  'Ayo/3wo,  v.  r.  in  Jer.  and  Chron.  'Ayoj- 
j3wp),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  An  Idumaean,  father  of  Baal-hanan,  one  of  the 
Edomitish  kings  (Gen.  xxxvi,  38;  1  Chron.  i,  49), 
B.C.  prob.  considerably  ante  1619. 


Achilles  Tatius.     See  Tatius. 

A'chim  ('Ayh7<,  perh.  for  "pS^,  Jachin  [a  con- 
tracted form  of  Jehoiachim],  which  the  Sept.,  in  1 
Chron.  xxiv,  17,  Grascizes  'Ayi>  [so  the  Vactican, 
but  other  texts  have  T«xa'i']),  the  son  of  Sadoc  and 
father  of  Eleazar,  among  the  paternal  ancestors  of 
Christ  (Matt,  i,  14),  B.C.  long  ante  40,  and  post  410. 

See  Genealogy  (of  Christ). 

A'chior  (A\id>p,  for  Heb.  Achior,  "fi^HX,  broth- 
er [i.  e.  full]  of  light;  comp.  Num.  xxxiv,  27,  where 


2.  The  son  of  Michaiah,  and  one  of  the  courtiers  !  the  Sept.  has  'Ax^p  for  Ahihud,  apparently  reading 


ACHISH 


52 


ACHMETHA 


*",'in^nx),  the  name  given  in  the  Apocrypha  as  that 
cf  the  sheik  of  the  Ammonites,  who  joined  Holofernes 
■with  auxiliary  troops  during  his  expedition  into  Egypt, 
and  who,  when  called  upon  to  account  for  the  opposi- 
tion made  by  the  inhabitants  of  Bethulia  to  that  gen- 
eral, did  so  in  a  speech  recounting  the  history  of  the 
country,  and  the  national  abhorrence  of  foreign  idol- 
atry (Judith  v).  According  to  the  narrative,  this  so 
incensed  the  haughty  general  and  his  associates  that 
they  demanded  the  life  of  Achior  by  exposure  to  his 
enemies,  who  thereupon  befriended  and  preserved 
him  (chap,  vi)  till  he  was  eventually  released  on  the 
death  of  Holofernes,  and  then  embraced  Judaism 
(chap.  xiv).     See  Judith. 

A'chish  (Heb.  Akish',  n^-X,  perhaps  angry; 
Sept.  'Akxiq  v.  r.  Ay^of-c),  a  name  which,  as  it  is 
found  applied  to  two  kings  of  Gath,  was  perhaps  only 
a  general  title  of  royalty,  like  "  Abimelech"  (q.  v.), 
another  Philistine  kingly  name,  with  Avhich,  indeed, 
it  is  interchanged  in  the  title  of  Psa.  xxxiv. 

1.  A  Philistine  king  of  Gath,  with  whom  David 
sought  refuge  from  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxi,  10-15).  By 
this  act  he  incurred  imminent  danger;  for  he  was  rec- 
ognised and  spoken  of  by  the  officers  of  the  court  as 
one  whose  glory  had  been  won  at  the  cost  of  the  Phi- 
listines. This  filled  David  with  such  alarm  that  he 
feigned  himself  mad  when  introduced  to  the  notice  of 
Achish,  who,  seeing  him  "scrabbling  upon  the  doors 
of  the  gate,  and  letting  his  spittle  fall  down  upon  his 
heard,"  rebuked  his  people  sharply  for  bringing  him 
to  his  presence,  asking,  "  Have  1  need  of  madmen, 
that  ye  have  brought  this  fellow  to  play  the  madman 
in  my  presence  ?  Shall  this  fellow  come  into  my 
house?"  B.C.  1061.  After  this  David  lost  no  time 
in  quitting  the  territories  of  Gath  (see  Kitto's  Daily 
Bible  Must,  in  loc).  This  prince  is  elsewhere  called 
Abimelech  (Psa.  xxxiv,  title),  possibly  a  corruption 
for  "Achish  the  king"  ("^"2  ttJ'OK).  David's  con- 
duct on  this  occasion  has  been  illustrated  by  the  sim- 
ilar proceeding  of  some  other  great  men,  who  feigned 
themselves  mad  in  difficult  circumstances — as  Ulysses 
(Cic.  Off.  iii,  2G;  Hygin.  f.  05,  Sckol.  ad  Lycophr. 
818),  the  astronomer  Meton  (.Elian,  Hist,  xiii,  12),  L. 
Junius  Brutus  (Liv.  i,  5G;  Dion.  Hal.  iv,  68),  and  the 
Arabian  king  Bacha  (Schultens,  Anth.  Yet.  Hamasa, 
p.  535).     Sse  Mad. 

The  same  Philistine  king  of  Gath  is  probably  meant 
by  Achish,  the  son  of  Maoch,  to  whom,  some  time  af- 
terward, when  the  character  and  position  of  David 
became  better  known,  and  when  he  was  at  the  head 
of  not  less  than  600  resolute  adherents,  he  again  re- 
paired with  his  troop,  and  by  whom  he  was  received 
jn  a  truly  royal  spirit,  and  treated  with  a  generous 
confidence  (1  Sam.  xxvii,  1-4),  of  which  David  took 
rather  more  advantage  than  was  creditable  to  him  by 
making  excursions  from  the  city  of  Ziklag,  which 
had  been  assigned  him,  against  the  neighboring  nom- 
ades,  under  pretence  of  carrying  on  depredations 
upon  Judah  (1  Sam.  xxvii,  5-12),  B.C.  105-1.  In  the 
final  conflict  with  Saul,  although  the  confidence  of 
Achish  remained  so  strong  in  David  that  he  proposed 
to  appoint  him  captain  of  his  body-guard,  the  courtiers 
revived  the  old  reminiscences  against  him  with  such 
force  that  the  king  was  compelled  to  give  him  leave 
of  absence — a  circumstance  that  spared  David  a  par- 
ticipation in  tin'  fatal  battle  (1  Sam.  xxviii,  1,  2: 
sxix,  2-11 ),  B.C.  1053.— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  David! 

2.  Another  king  of  Gath,  the  son  of  Maachah,  to 
whom  the  two  servants  of  Shimei  tied,  and  thereby  oc- 
casioned their  master  the  journey  which  cost  him  his 
life  (1  Kings  ii,  39,  40),  B.C.  cir."  1012. 

Ach'itob  ('AxtrwjS),  the  Graecized  form  (1  Esdr. 
viii,  2  ;  2  Esdr.  i,  1)  of  the  name  of  Aiiitub  (q.  v.). 

Achlamah.     See  Amethyst. 

Ach'metha  (Hob.  Achmetha',  xn^nx,  Ezra  vi, 


2 ;  Sept.  'AuaSd,  Vulg.  EcbatancC),  the  Ecbatana  of 
classical  writers  (to.  'Ek^utuvu,  2  Mace,  ix,  3;  Ju- 
dith xi,  1 ;  Tob.  v,  9;  Josephus,  Ant.  x,  11,  7  ;  xi,  4, 
6  ;  also,  in  Greek  authors,  'liyfidrava  and  Ay/3oroj'«), 
a  city  in  Media.  The  derivation  of  the  name  is  doubt- 
ful (see  Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p.  70) ;  but  Major  Bawlin- 
son  (Geogr.  Journal,  x,  134)  has  left  little  question  that 
the  title  was  applied  exclusively  to  cities  having  a 
fortress  for  the  protection  of  the  royal  treasures.  '1  he 
ancient  orthography  of  this  name  is  traced  by  Lassen 
(Jud.  Biblioth.  iii,  36)  in  the  Sanscrit  airadhana,  i.  e. 
'iirwooTaoia,  stable.  In  Ezra  we  learn  that,  in  the 
reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  the  Jews  petitioned  that 
search  might  be  made  in  the  king's  treasure-house  at 
Babylon  for  the  decree  which  Cyrus  had  made  in  fa- 
vor of  the  Jews  (Ezra  v,  17).  Search  was  according- 
ly made  in  the  record-office  ("house  of  the  rolls"), 
where  the  treasures  were  kept  at  Babylon  (vi,  1);  but 
it  appears  not  to  have  been  found  there,  as  it  was 
eventually  discovered  "  at  Achmetha,  in  the  palace  of 
the  province  of  the  Medes"  (vi,  2).  Josephus  (Ant. 
x,  11,  7 ;  xi,  4,  6),  while  retaining  the  proper  name 
of  Ecbatana,  yet  (like  the  Sept.,  which  adds  the  generic 
name  jroAic)  employs  the  word  ftapa;  to  express  the 
Chaldee  Xr"P2,  Birtha'  ("the  palace"),  which  is  used 
as  the  distinctive  epithet  of  the  city  (Ezra  vi,  2). 

In  Judith  i,  2-4,  there  is  a  brief  account  of  Ecbatana, 
in  which  we  are  told  that  it  was  founded  by  Arphaxad 
(Phraortes),  king  of  the  Medes,  who  made  it  his  cap- 
ital. It  was  built  of  hewn  stones,  and  surrounded  by 
a  high  and  thick  wall,  furnished  with  wide  gates  and 
strong  and  lofty  towers.  Herodotus  ascribes  its 
foundation  to  Dcjcccs,  in  obedience  to  whose  com- 
mands the  Medes  erected  "that  great  and  strong  city, 
now  known  under  the  name  of  Agbatana,  where  the 
walls  are  built  circle  within  circle,  and  are  so  construct- 
ed that  each  inner  circle  overtops  its  outer  neighbor  I  y 
the  height  of  the  battlements  alone.  This  was  effect- 
ed partly  bjr  the  nature  of  the  ground — a  conical  hill — 
and  partly  by  the  building  itself.  The  number  cf  the 
circles  was  seven,  and  within  the  innermost  Avas  the 
palace  of  the  treasury.  The  battlements  of  the  first 
circle  were  white,  of  the  second  black,  of  the  third 
scarlet,  of  the  fourth  blue,  of  the  fifth  orange;  all 
these  were  brilliantly  colored  with  different  pigments  ; 
but  the  battlements  of  the  sixth  circle  were  overlaid 
with  silver,  and  of  the  seventh  with  gold.  Such  were 
the  palace  and  the  surrounding  fortification  that  De- 
joecs  constructed  for  himself;  but  he  ordered  the  mass 
of  the  Median  nation  to  construct  their  houses  in  a 
circle  around  the  outer  wall"  (Herodot.  i,  08).  It  is 
contended  by  Rawlinson  (Geogr.  Jour,  x,  127)  that  this 
story  of  the  seven  Avails  is  a  fable  of  Sabaean  origin — the 
seven  colors  mentioned  being  precisely  those  employed 
by  the  Orientals  to  denote  the  seA'on  great  heavenly 
bodies,  or  the  se\'en  climates  in  which  they  reA'olve. 

This  Ecbatana  has  been  usually  identified  with  the 
present  Hamad  in  (see  Journal  of  Education,  ii,  305), 
which  is  still  an  important  town,  and  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  governments  into  which  the  Persian  king- 
dom is  divided.  It  is  situated  in  north  lat.  34°  53', 
east  long.  40°,  at  the  extremity  of  a  rich  and  fertile 
plain,  on  a  gradual  ascent,  at  the  base  of  the  Elwund 
mountains,  Avhose  higher  summits  are  coA-ered  with 
perpetual  snoAV.  Some  remnants  of  ruined  Avails  of 
great  thickness,  and  also  of  to  Avers  of  sun-dried  bricks, 
afford  the  only  positive  evidence  of  a  more  ancient 
city  than  the  present  on  the  same  spot.  Although 
still  declining,  it  has  a  population  of  about  25,000,  and 
contains  excellent  and  Avell-supplied  bazaars,  and  nu- 
merous khans  of  rather  a  superior  description — it  be- 
ing the  great  centre  Avhere  the  routes  of  traffic  between 
Persia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia  converge  and  meet. 
Its  oavii  manufactures  are  chiefly  in  leather.  Many 
JeAvs  reside  here,  claiming  to  be  descended  from  those 
of  the  captivity  Avho  remained  in  Media.  Benjamin 
of  Tudela  says  that  in  his  time  the  number  Avas  50,000. 


ACHMETHA  5 

Rabbi  David  dc  Beth  Hillel  (Travels,  p.  85-87,  "Madras, 
1832)  gives  them  but  200  families.  The  latest  authority 
(J.  J.  Benjamin,  Eight  Yearn  in  Asia  and  Africa,  Han- 
over, 1859,  p.  201)  reckons  them  at  500  families.  They 
are  mostly  in  good  circumstances,  having  line  houses 
and  gardens,  and  are  chiefly  traders  and  goldsmiths. 
They  speak  the  broken  Turkish  of  the  country,  and  have 
two  synagogues.  They  derive  the  name  of  the  town 
from  "Hainan"  and  "  Mede"  and  say  that  it  was  given 
to  that  foe  of  Mordecai  by  King  Ahasuerus.  In  the 
midst  of  the  city  is  a  tomb,  which  is  in  their  charge, 
and  which  is  said  to  be  that  of  Mordecai  and  Esther. 
It  is  a  plain  structure  of  brick,  consisting  of  a  small 
cylindrical  tower  and  a  dome  (the  whole  about  twenty 
feat  high),  with  small  projections  or  wings  on  three 
sides.  An  inscription  on  the  wall  in  bass-relief  de- 
scribes the  present  tomb  as  having  been  built  by  two 
devout  Jews  of  Kashan,  in  A.D.  714.  The  original 
structure  is  said  to  have  been  destroyed  when  Hama- 
dan  was  sacked  by  Timour.  As  Ecbatana  was  an- 
ciently the  summer  residence  of  the  Persian  court,  it 
is  probable  enough  that  Mordecai  and  Esther  died  and 
were  buried  there  (see  Kinneir's  Persia,  p.  126;  Mo- 
rier's  Second  Journey,  p.  264  sq. ;  Southgate's  Tour,  ii, 
102  sq. ;  Buckingham,  Assyria,  i,  284  sq. ;  M'Culloch's 
Gazetteer,  s.  v.  Hamadan). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  door  of  the  tomb  is  very  small,  and  consists  of 
a  single  stone  of  great  thickness,  turning  on  its  own 
pivot  from  one  side.  On  passing  through  the  little 
portal,  the  visitor  is  introduced  into  a  small  arched 
chamber,  in  which  are  seen  the  graves  of  several  rab- 
bis, some  of  which  may  contain  the  bodies  of  the  first 
rebuilders  of  the  tomb,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
original  one  by  Timour.  A  second  door,  of  very  con- 
fined dimensions,  is  at  the  end  of  this  vestibule,  by 
which  the  entrance  is  made  into  a  large  apartment  on 
bands  and  knees,  and  under  the  concave  stand  two 
sarcophagi,  made  of  very  dark  wood,  curiously  and 
richly  carved,  with  a  line  of  Hebrew  inscription  run- 
ning round  the  upper  ledge  of  each.  Other  inscrip- 
tions, in  the  same  language,  are  cut  on  the  walls, 
while  one  of  the  most  ancient,  engraved  on  a  white 
marble  slab,  is  let  into  the  wall  itself.  This  slab  is 
traditionally  alleged  to  have  been  preserved  from  the 
ruins  of  the  edifice  destroyed  by  Timour,  with  the  sar- 
cophagi in  the  same  consecrated  spot.  This  last  in- 
scription is  as  follows:  "Mordecai,  beloved  and  hon- 
ored by  a  king,  was  great  and  good.  His  garments 
were  as  those  of  a  sovereign.  Ahasuerus  covered  him 
with  this  rich  dress,  and  also  placed  a  golden  chain 
around  his  neck.  The  city  of  Susa  (or  Shushan)  re- 
joiced at  his  honors,  and  his  high  fortune  became  the 
glory  of  the  Jews."  The  inscription  which  encom- 
passes the  sarcophagus  of  Mordecai  is  to  the  following 
effect:  "  It  is  said  by  David,  Preserve  me,  O  God!  I 
am  now  in  thy  presence.  I  have  cried  at  the  gate  of 
heaven  that  thou  art  my  God,  and  what  goodness  I 
have  received  from  thee,  O  Lord  !  Those  whose  bod- 
ies are  now  beneath,  in  this  earth,  when  animated  by 
thy  mercy,  were  great;  and  whatever  happiness  was 
bestowed  upon  them  in  this  world  came  from  thee,  O 
God!  Their  griefs  and  sufferings  were  many  at  the 
first,  but  they  became  happy,  because  they  always 
called  upon  thy  name  in  their  miseries.  Thou  liftedst 
me  up,  and  I  became  powerful.  Thine  enemies  sought 
to  destroy  me  in  the  early  times  of  my  life;  but  the 
shadow  of  thy  hand  was  upon  me,  and  covered  me  as 
a  tent  from  their  wicked  purposes. — Mordecai."  The 
following;  is  the  inscription  carved  round  the  sarcoph- 
agus of  Esther:  "  I  praise  thee,  O  God,  that  thou  hast 
created  me.  I  know  that  my  sins  merit  punishment, 
yet  I  hope  for  mercy  at  thy  hands ;  for  whenever  I 
call  upon  thee,  thou  art  with  me;  thy  holy  presence 
secures  me  from  all  evil.  My  heart  is  at  ease,  and  my 
fear  of  thee  increases.  My  life  became,  through  thy 
goodness,  at  the  last,  full  of  peace.  <>  God!  do  not 
shut  my  soul  out  from  thy  divine  presence.     Those 


!  ACHSAIT 

whom  thou  lovest  never  feel  the  torments  of  he',!. 
Lead  me,  O  merciful  Father,  to  the  life  of  life,  that  1 
may  be  filled  with  the  heavenly  fruits  of  Paradise.— 
Esther"  (Ker  Porter's  Travels,  ii,  88  sq.).  See  Es- 
ther. 

Ecbatana,  or  Hamadan,  is  not  without  other  lo- 
cal traditions  connected  with  sacred  history.  On  the 
mountain  Orontcs,  or  Elwund,  the  bocky  of  a  son  of 
King  Solomon  is  pretended  to  be  buried,  but  what  son 
is  not  mentioned.  It  is  a  large  square  platform,  a 
little  raised,  formed  by  manual  labor  out  of  the  native 
rock,  which  is  ascended  by  a  few  rugged  steps,  and  is 
assuredly  no  covering  of  the  dead.  It  is  a  very  an- 
cient piece  of  workmanship,  but  how  it  came  to  be  con- 
nected with  a  son  of  the  Jewish  monarch  does  not  ap- 
pear. The  Jewish  natives  of  Hamadan  arc  credulous 
as  to  the  reputed  story,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it 
was  originally  a  mountain  altar  to  the  sun,  illustrating 
what  we  often  read  in  Scripture  respecting  the  idola- 
trous sacrificial  worship  in  "high  places."  The  na- 
tives believe  that  certain  ravines  of  the  mountain  pro- 
duce a  plant  which  can  transform  all  kinds  of  metal 
into  gold,  and  also  cure  every  possible  disease.  They 
admit  that  no  one  had  ever  found  it,  but  their  belief 
in  its  existence  is  nevertheless  unshaken.  They  also 
have  a  fabulous  legend  respecting  a  stone  on  the  side 
of  this  mountain,  which  reminds  the  English  reader 
of  the  celebrated  story  of  AH  Baba  and  the  Forty 
Thieves  in  the  Arabian  Nights.  This  stone  contains 
an  inscription  in  cabalistic  characters,  unintelligible 
to  every  one  who  has  hitherto  looked  on  it;  hut  it  is 
believed  that  if  any  person  could  read  the  characters 
aloud  an  effect  would  be  produced  which  will  shake 
the  mountain  to  its  centre,  it  being  the  protecting  spell 
of  an  immense  hidden  treasure ;  and  these  characters 
once  pronounced,  would  procure  instant  admittance 
from  the  genii  of  this  subterranean  cavern,  and  the 
wealth  it  contains  would  be  laid  at  the  feet  of  the  for- 
tunate invoker  of  this  golden  "  Sesame !"  See  Ecba- 
tana. 

Historj'  mentions  another  Ecbatana,  in  Palestine,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Carmel,  toward  Ptolemais,  where 
Cambyses  died  (Herodot.  iii,  G4  ;  Plin.  v,  19).  It  is 
not  mentioned  by  this  or  any  similar  name  in  the  He- 
brew writings.     (See  Poland,  Pahtst.  p.  745.) 

A'chor  (Heb.  Alcor',  "H-2,  trouble;  Sept. 'A^wp), 
the  name  of  a  valley  (p^",  Sept.  fapayS,,  KoiKac, 
"E/iiK-)  not  far  from  Jericho,  given  in  consequence  of 
the  trouble  occasioned  to  the  Israelites  by  the  sin  of 
Achan  (q.  v.),  who  was  stoned  to  death  and  buried 
there  (Josh,  vii,  24,  26).  It  was  known  by  the  same 
name  in  the  time  of  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.).  The 
prophets  more  than  once  allude  to  it  typically  in  pre- 
dicting the  glorious  changes  under  the  Messiah,  either 
on  account  of  its  proverbial  fertility  (Isa.  xlv,  10)  or 
by  way  of  contrast  with  the  unfortunate  entrance  of 
the  Israelites  near  this  pass  into  Canaan  on  their  first 
approach  (IIos.  ii,  15).  It  was  situated  on  the  bound- 
ary of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  between  the  stone  of  Ben- 
Bonan  and  Dcbir,  south  of  Gik'al  (Josh,  xv,  7),  and 
was  probably  the  same  now  called  (see  Zimmerman's 
Map)  Wady  Dabr,  running  into  the  Dead  Sea  east  of 
Ain  Jehair  (Robinson's  Researches,  ii,  254).  See 
Tribe.  Thomson  (Land  and  Book,  ii,  185)  says  vague- 
ly that  "  it  runs  up  from  Gil  gal  toward  Bethel  ;"  but 
this  is  inconsistent  with  the  above  notices  of  location 
(comp.  Keil,  Comment,  on  Josh.  p.  201).    See  Cherith. 

Ach'sa,  a  less  correct  mode  (1  Chron.  ii,  49)  of 
Anglicizing  the  name  ACHSAH  (q.  v.). 

Ach'sah  (Heb.  Aksah',  i"»D3?,  anklet;  Sept. 
A\ffo),  the  daughter  of  Caleb  (and  apparently  his 
only  daughter,  1  Chron.  ii,  49,  "Achsa"),  whose  hand 
her  father  offered  in  marriage  to  him  who  should  lead 
the  attack  on  the  city  of  Debir,  and  take  it,  B.< '.  1612. 
The  prize  was  won  by  his  nephew  Othniel ;  and  as  the 


ACHSHAPH 


54 


ACOLYTH 


bride  was  conducted  with  the  usual  ceremony  to  her 
future  home,  she  alighted  from  the  ass  which  she  rode, 
and  sued  her  father  for  an  addition  of  springs  of  water 
(as  being  peculiarly  necessary,  Stanley,  Palest,  p.  161) 
to  her  dower  in  lands,  which  were  situated  in  the 
southern  part  of  Judah  See  Guli.otii.  It  is  prob- 
able that  custom  rendered  it  unusual,  or  at  least  un- 
gracious, for  a  request  tendered  under  such  circum- 
stances by  a  daughter  to  be  refused,  and  Caleb  accord- 
ingly bestowed  upon  her  '•  the  upper  and  the  nether 
springs"  (Josh,  xv,  16-19;  Judg.  i  9-15)  —  Kitto,s.v. 

Ach'shaph  (Heb.  Akshapli ,  "d"^,  fascination ; 
Sept.  'A\affa<j>),  a  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites,  in  the 
northern  part  of  Palestine  (Josh,  xi,  1).  whose  king 
was  overthrown  by  Joshua  (Josh,  xii,  20).  It  was 
situated  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Asher, 
and  is  named  between  Beten  and  Alammelech  (Josh. 
xix,  25).  By  some  (see  Keland,  Palast,  p.  543)  it  has 
been  regarded  as  the  same  as  Achzib,  but  this  is  men- 
tioned separately  (Josh,  xix,  29).  By  others  (e.  g. 
Hammesveld,  iii.  237)  it  has  been  assumed  to  be  the 
same  as  A  echo  or  Acre,  and  Sehwarz  {Palest,  p.  101) 
thinks  it  is  the  modern  village  Kefr-Yasif,  five  miles 
north-east  of  that  town ;  but  this  region  is  too  far  west 
for  the  Biblical  notices.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Ono- 
mast.  s.  v.  'A*c<r«</>)  locate  it  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ta- 
bor, eight  miles  from  Dioeaesarea ,  but  they  have  evi- 
dently confounded  it  with  Chesulloth  (see  Keil's  Com- 
ment, on  Josh,  xi,  1).  Dr.  Robinson  is  probably  cor- 
rect in  identifying  it  with  the  ruined  village  Kesaf 
around  a  large  tree,  two  miles  north-east  of  Kubrikah, 
a  little  south  of  the  Litany,  and  nearly  midway  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  and  the  Upper  Jordan  (new 
ed.  of  Researches,  iii,  55). 

Achterieldt,  Johann  Hetxrich,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian  of  Germany,  born  1788,  at  Wesel ;  died 
at  Bonn,  1804.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1813 ;  and, 
in  1817,  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the 
seminary  of  Braunsberg,  from  which  he  was  called, 
in  1820.  to  the  chair  of  dogmatics  at  the  university  of 
Bonn.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Professor  Her- 
mes (q.v.),  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter  published 
his  famous  work  on  Systematic  Theology  (Christl.-Ka- 
tholisckc  Dogmatik,  1831).  Achterfeldt  was  regarded, 
with  his  colleague  Braun,  as  the  leader  of  the  Her- 
mesian  School  (q.  v.)  ;  and  when  the  system  of  Her- 
mes was  condemned  by  Rome,  and  he  refused  to  com- 
ply with  the  demands  of  Rome,  he  was  suspended  from 
his  chair.  He  wrote  Lehrbuch  der  Christlich-Kathnl. 
Ghmbens-  unci  Sittenlihre  (Braunsberg,  1825) ;  Kate- 
ckismus  der  Christlich-Kaiholischen  Lekre  (Braunsberg, 
1826);  and  was,  after  1832,  one  of  the  editors  of  a 
theological  and  philosophical  quarterly  {Ze.itsch.rift fur 
Philosophic  und  Kalholische  Theolcffie),  the  chief  organ 
of  the  Hermesian  School. — Pierer,  i,  88 ;  Vapereau, 
p.  14. 

Achu.     See  Flag. 

Ach'zib  (Heb.  Al~.il/.  --*  =  X,  falsehood;  Sept. 
'Ay-f.;-!.  but  in  Mic  ju'traioc  and  Vulg.  mendaciurri), 
the  name  of  two  places,  sometimes  Latinized  Aczib. 

1.  A  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah,  adjoining  the 
Highlands,  mentioned  between  Keilah  and  Maveshah 
(Josh,  xv,  14).  It  appears  to  have  proved  faithless 
to  the  national  cause  on  the  Assyrian  invasion  (Mic. 
i,  14);  hence  this  passage  contains  a  play  on  the 
name:  "the  houses  of  Achzib  (""SO  shall  be  a  lie 
(~TZX).-'  It  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Chezib  in 
Canaan  where  Shelah  was  horn  (Gen.  xxxviii.  5),  and 
perhaps  also  the  CHOZEBA  where  his  descendants 
were  finally  located  (1  Chron.  iv,  22).  In  the  time  of 
Eusebius,  OfWmast.  s.  v.  Xaofili)  it  Mas  a  deserted 
village  near  Eleutheropolis  toward  Adullam.  Prom 
the  associated  localities,  also,  it  appears  to  have  been 
situated  not  far  north-east  of  the  former. 

2.  A  maritime  city  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Asher 


(Josh,  xix,  2D),  but  from  which  the  Israelites  were 
never  able  to  expel  the  Phoenicians  (Judg.  i,  31).  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebius  (Onom.  s.  v.  'Ays<i?>)  it  was  9  (ac- 
cording to  the  Jerusalem  Itinerary  12)  Roman  >  miles 
north  of  Accho  or  Ptolemais.  In  the  Talmud  (She- 
biifh,  vi,  1 ;  Challah,  iv,  8)  it  is  called  Kezib  (2"n2), 
and  in  later  times  Ecdippa  (r«  "EKCi—Tra.  Josephus, 
War,  i,  13,  4;  Ptol.  v,  15;  Pliny,  v,  17),  from  the 
Aramaean  pronunciation  (2"H-X).  Josephus  also 
(Ant.  v,  1,  22)  gives  the  name  as  Arce  or  Actippvs 
('Aokij  ....?/  icai  'Aktittovq).  In  the  vicinity  (at  the 
mouth  of  the  Nabr  Herdawil,  comp.  Wilson,  Lands  of 
the  Bible,  ii,  233)  was  the  Casale  Huberti  of  the  Cru- 
saders (Ritter,  JErdh.  xvi,  782).  It  was  first  identi- 
fied by  Maundrell  {.Tourney,  March  21)  in  the  modern 
es-Zib  (comp.  Vit.  Salad,  p.  98),  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  about  ten  miles  north  of  Acre  (Robinson's  Re- 
searches, iii,  Append,  p.  133 ;  new  ed.  iii,  628).  It 
stands  on  an  ascent  close  by  the  sea-side,  overhanging 
the  ancient  Roman  road,  and  is  a  small  place  with  a 
few  palm-trees  rising  above  the  dwellings  (Pococke, 
East,  ii,  115 ;  Richter,  WaVf.  p.  70 ;  Irby  and  Mangles, 
p.  196;  Buckingham,  Palest,  i,  99;  Legh,  in  Mach- 
michael's  Journey,  p.  250;  De  Saulcy's  Narrative,  i, 
66;  comp.  Lightfoot,  Opp.  ii,  219  ;  Fuller,  Miscel.  p.  4. 
15;  Cellarii  Notit.  ii,  481;  Reland,  Pala-st.  p.  544; 
Gesenius,  Thcs.  Heb  p.  674).  It  has  evident  traces 
of  antiquity,  but  could  never  have  been  a  large  city 
(Thomson's  Land  and  Book,  i,  471). 

Ac'iplia  ('Am/Scv,  but  most  copies  'Ayi^r',  for  Heb. 
Chalupha  SBIpn),  the  head  of  one  of  the  families  of 
Nethinim  (iepwWXoi,  ' '  temple-servants")  that  return- 
ed from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  31);  evidently  the 
Hakupha  (q.  v.)  of  the  parallel  lists  (Ezra  ii,  51 ; 
Neb.  vii,  53). 

Ac'itho  CAjciS'wv,  v.  r.  'Akicmv,  while  other  copies 
omit  entirely ,  perh.  for  Heb.  hak-katan ',  IIDJ?!!,  the 
little;  or  [as  Fritzsche  thinks,  IJandb.  in  loc]  for  Ahi- 
tub,  which  some  copies  of  the  Gr.  with  the  Syr.  and 
Ital.  have),  the  son  of  Eliu  and  father  of  Raphaim, 
among  the  ancestors  of  Judith  (Judith  viii,  1). 

Ackermann,  Peter  Folrer,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Germany,  born  Kov.  17,  1771,  at  Vien- 
na; died  Sept.  9, 1831,  at  Klosterneuburg.  He  was 
ordinary  professor  of  Old-Testament  language,  litera- 
ture, and  theology  at  Vienna,  and  choir  master  of  the 
monastery  cr  cathedral  of  Klosterneuburg.  He  was 
the  author  of  an  Iniroductio  in  libros  sacros  V.  T.  vsibits 
academids  accommodata  (Vien.  1825),  and  an  Arc/ue- 
vlogia  lihlica  breriter  exposita  (Vienna,  1826),  both  of 
which  works  are  not  much  more  than  revised  editions 
of  Jahn  expurgated,  so  as  to  rescue  them  from  the 
Roman  Index  into  which  they  had  been  put  by  Pius 
VII.  His  commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets,  Fro* 
phetm  Minores  perpetua  annotatione  il/usiruti  (Xh'iina, 
1830),  has  some  value,  on  account  of  the  extracts  it 
gives  from  older  writers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

Accemetae  (aKoifiifral,  watchers),  an  order  of 
monks  instituted  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
by  Alexander,  a  Syrian  monk  (Burger,  De  Acometis. 
Sehneeberg,  1686).  They  Merc  divided  into  three 
classes,  who  performed  divine  service  in  rotation,  and 
so  continued,  night  and  day,  without  intermission. 
They  were  condemned  by  a  synod  held  at  Rome  in 
534  for  maintaining  that  Mary  was  not  the  mother  of 
God.— Helyot,  Ordres  Relig.  i,  4  sq. 

Acolyth  or  Acolyte  (cuc6\ov9oq, follower),  the 
name  of  an  inferior  order  of  clergy  or  servitors.  It  is 
not  known  in  the  Greek  Church,  but  appears  to  be  of 
very  ancient  establishment  in  the  Latin  Church,  .since 
mention  is  made  of  it  in  the  epistles  of  Cyprian. 
Their  office  in  the  ancient  Church  was  to  light  the 
candles  and  to  pour  the  wine  intended  to  be  conse- 
crated into  the  proper  vessels  ;  to  wait  upon  the  bish- 


ACONTIUS 


55 


ACRABBATTINE 


ops  and  their  officers,  presenting  to  them  the  sacer- 
dotal vestments;  and  to  accompany  the  bishop  every- 
where, acting  as  witnesses  of  his  conduct.  At  present 
their  duties  in  the  Papal  Church  arc  to  attend  upon 
the  deacon  and  sulWleacon  at  the  altar,  to  make  ready 
the  wine  and  water  at  mass,  to  carry  the  thurible,  and 
to  light  and  earn'  the  candles,  especially  at  the  chant- 
ing of  the  Gospel.  At  Rome  there  are  three  kinds 
of  Acolyths:  the  Acolyths  of  the  palace,- palatini,  who 
wait  on  the  pope ;  those  who  serve  the  churches,  sta- 
tionririi,  when  they  are  stationed  ;  and  regionarii,  who 
serve  with  the  deacons  in  different  quarters  of  the  city. 
The  order  of  Acolytes  is  the  fourth  of  the  ordines  mi- 
nores,  through  which  a  Romish  priest  must  pass.  For 
a  full  account  of  the  office  and  its  functions,  see  Bois- 
sonnet,  Diet,  des  Rites,  i,  87 ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk. 
iii,  ch.  iii. 

Acontius  or  Aconzio,  James,  a  native  of  Trent, 
and  the  intimate  friend  of  Francis  Betti,  a  Roman. 
They  both  quitted  Italy  on  account  of  their  religion, 
having  both  left  the  communion  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  Betti,  who  left  first,  waited  for  Acontius  at 
Basle;  this  was  in  the  year  1557.  Hence  they  went 
together  to  Zurich,  where  the}'  parted,  and  Acontius, 
after  visiting  Strasburg,  journeyed  into  England, 
where  he  was  well  received  by  queen  Elizabeth,  who 
employed  him  as  an  engineer.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Dutch  congregation  in  Austin-Friars,  but  falling 
under  the  suspicion  of  "  Anabaptistical  and  Arian  prin- 
ciples," proceedings  were  taken  against  him  before 
Grindal,  bishop  of  London,  who  sentenced  him  to  be 
refused  the  Holy  Sacrament,  and  forbade  the  Dutch 
congregations  to  receive  him.  He  died  in  15G6,  ac- 
cording to  Niceron.  He  inclined  toward  moderation 
and  principles  of  tolerance  in  matters  of  religion.  Ar- 
minius  styled  him  "divinum  prudential  ac  modera- 
tionis  lumen."  He  wrote  Dz  Method),  hoc  est,  de  recte 
invest' gandarum  tradendarumque  Scientiarum  rations 
(8vo,  Basle,  1558);  Strategemita  Salanx  (8vo,  Basle, 
15G5.  Transl.  into  French,  4to.  There  is  also  an  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  four  first  books,  London,  1648). 
— Richard  and  Giraud,  Bib.  Saer. ;  New  General  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary,  i,  3G;  Landon,  Feci.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Acosta,  Gabriel  (afterward  Uriel),  a  Portu- 
guese, of  Jewish  extraction,  born  at  Oporto,  and 
brought  up  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  About 
the  age  of  twenty-two  he  began  to  entertain  doubts 
first  as  to  the  doctrine  of  indulgences,  and,  finally,  as 
to  the  truth  of  Christianity;  and  being  unable  to  sat- 
isfy himself,  he  returned  to  the  religion  of  his  ances- 
tors, became  a  Jew,  retired  from  Portugal  to  Amster- 
dam, and  was  circumcised.  He  soon,  however,  be- 
came disgusted  with  the  Pharisaism  of  the  Jews  of 
Amsterdam,  and  advocated  a  doctrine  like  that  of  the 
ancient  Sadducees.  He  wrote  in  the  Portuguese  lan- 
guage a  treatise  entitled  "  The  Traditions  of  the  Phar- 
isees compared  with  /If  written  Law"  (Amsterd.  1624), 
which  so  exasperated  the  Jews  that  the}'  accused  him 
of  atheism  before  the  civil  tribunals.  His  book  was 
confiscated,  he  was  imprisoned  ten  days,  and  fined  300 
guilders.  He  was  also  expelled  from  the  Jewish  syn- 
agogue. After  seven  years  he  submitted  to  a  painful 
penance,  and  was  readmitted,  though  it  docs  not  ap- 
pear that  he  really  changed  his  views.  He  died,  ac- 
cording to  Fabricius,  in  1047,  whether  by  suicide  or 
not  is  uncertain.  He  left  an  autobiography  which 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Limborch,  and  was  reprinted  in 
1847  (Uriel  Acosta's  Selbs/biographie,  Lat.  u.  Deutsch, 
Leipzig).  His  life  afforded  Gutzkow  the  material  for 
a  novel,  "The  Sadducees  in  Amsterdam'"  (1834),  and 
for  a  drama,  "Uriel  A  cos/a"  (Leips.  1847). — Jellinck, 
Ueber  Acosta's  Leben  uml  Lehre  (Zerbst,  1847). 

Acosta,  Joseph,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  born  about 
1539,  appointed  provincial  of  the  Jesuits  in  Peru,  and 
died  rector  of  the  university  of  Salamanca  in  1600. 
He  wrote  The  Natural  awl  Moral  History  of  the  Indies 


(Seville,  1590,  4to);  a  treatise  De  Christo  Revelato  li- 
bri  novem  (Lugd.  1592,  8vo)  ;  De  Promulgalione  Eran- 
gelii  opud  Barbaros  (Cologne,  1596,  8vo). 

Acra  ("A/v-po),  a  Greek  word,  signifying  a  summit 
or  citad  I,  in  which  sense  its  Hebraized  form  Chakra 
(K^pn)  also  occurs  in  the  Syriac  and  Chaldaic  (Bux- 
torf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  818).  Hence  the  name  of  Acra 
was  acquired  by  the  eminence  north  of  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  on  which  a-  citadel  was  built  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  to  command  the  holy  place  (1  Mace,  iii, 
45  ;  iv,  2,  41  ;  vi,  IS,  -JO,  32  ;  ix,  52  sq. ;  x,  G ;  xi,  41 ; 
2  Mace,  iv,  12,  27,  etc.).  It  thus  became,  in  fact,  the 
Acropolis  of  Jerusalem  (see  Michaelis,  in  Mace.  p.  30 
sq. ;  Crome,  in  the  Hall.  Eneykl.  ii,  291  sq.).  Jose- 
phus  describes  this  eminence  as  semicircular  (see  Re- 
land,  Palais/,  p.  852);  and  reports  that  when  Simon 
Maccabseus  had  succeeded  in  expelling  the  Syrian 
garrison,  he  not  only  demolished  the  citadel,  but 
caused  the  hill  itself  to  be  levelled,  that  no  neighbor- 
ing site  might  thenceforth  be  higher  than  or  so  high  as 
that  on  which  the  temple  stood.  The  people  had  suf- 
fered so  much  from  the  garrison,  that  they  willingly  la- 
bored day  and  night,  for  three  years,  in  this  great  work 
[Ant.  xiii,  G,  G;  117/?-,  v,  4,  1).  At  a  later  period  the 
palace  of  Helena,  queen  of  Adiabene,  stood  on  the 
site,  which  still  retained  the  name  of  Acra,  as  did  also, 
probably,  the  council-house,  and  the  repository  of  the 
archives  [War,  vi,  G,  3;  see  also  Descript.  Urbt's  lero- 
solmyce,  per  J.  Ileydenum,  lilt,  iii,  cap.  2). — Kitto,s.v. 
A  good  deal  of  controversy  has  lately  arisen  as  to 
the  position  of  this  eminence,  Dr.  Robinson  (Bib.  Pes. 
i,  414;  new  ed.  iii,  207-211)  strongly  contending  for 
the  sloping  eminence  now  occupied  by  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  others  (especially  Williams, 
Holy  City,  ii,  25,  49)  placing  Acra  more  northwardly 
from  the  temple.  The  latter  position,  in  the  middle 
of  the  Mohammedan  quarter,  on  the  whole,  seems  best 
to  accord  with  the  present  state  of  the  surface  and  the 
ancient  notes  of  place  (see  Strong's  Harmony  and  Ex- 
pos, of /he  Gospels,  Append,  ii,  p.  4,  5) ;  especially  with 
Josephus's  statements  (  War,  v,  4,  1)  respecting;  the 
valley  of  the  Tyropceon  (q.  v.).     See  Jerusalem. 

A  place  by  the  name  of  Acra  ("Aiepa)  is  mentioned 
by  Josephus  (War,  ii,  2,  2)  as  having  been  taken  by 
Simon  Maccaba?us,  in  connection  with  Gazara,  Joppa, 
and  Jamnia;  which  some  suppose  to  mean  Ekron  (by 
a  change  of  reading),  while  others  take  the  word  in 
the  ordinary  sense  of  tower.  The  passage  is  evident- 
ly parallel  with  1  Mace,  xiv,  7,  where  Simon  is  said, 
after  having  taken  Gazara  and  Bethsura,  to  have 
cleansed  "the  tower"  (dicpa);  which,  by  a  compari- 
son with  chap,  xiii,  49,  appears  to  mean  no  other  than 
the  above  fortress  in  Jerusalem.     See  Baris. 

For  the  Acra  or  Acre  (Hebraized  -npX  l>y  Benja- 
min of  Tudela)  of  the  Crusades,  see  Accho. 

Acrabbattine  ('AicpafiaTTivn  sc,  xi''P"^  tne 
name  of  two  regions  in  Palestine. 

1.  A  district  or  toparchy  of  Judaea,  extending  be- 
tween Shechem  (Nablous)  and  Jericho  eastward,  be- 
ing about  12  miles  long  (see  Reland,  Palcest.  p.  192). 
It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  (War,  ii,  12,  4  :  20,  I; 
22,  2 ;  iii,  3,  4,  5),  and  doubtless  took  its  name  from 
a  town  called  Acrabbi,  mentioned  by  Eusebius  (Ono- 
mast.  s.  v.  'AicpafSfiiiv,  Jerome  corruptly  "Adorabi," 
see  Clerici  ed.  Amst.  1707,  p.  17,  note  5)  as  a  large 
village  9  Roman  miles  east  of  Neapolis,  on  the  road 
to  Jericho;  probably  the  same  found  by  Dr.  Robinson 
under  the  name  Ahrabeh  (Researches,  iii,  103),  and  de- 
scribed as  a  considerable  town,  finely  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  fertile  hill,  with  a  mosque  (new  ed.  of  Re- 
searches,  iii.  296,  297)  and  a  ruined  fort  (Van  de  Velde, 
Narrative,  ii,  304  -307). 

2.  Another  district  of  Judaea  toward  the  southern 
end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  occupied  by  the  Edomites  dur- 
ing the  captivity  (1  Mace,  v,  3,  Autli.  Vers.  "Ara- 
battine;"  comp.  Joseph,  Ant.  xii,  8,  1).     It  is  sup- 


ACRABBIM 


5(1 


ACTA  MARTYRUM 


posed  to  have  taken  its  name  from  the  Maaleh-ac- 
RABbim  (q.  v.)  of  Num.  xxxiv,  4;  Josh,  xv,  3,  which 
lay  in  this  vicinity. 

Acrab'bim.  See  Maaleh-acrabbim. 
Acre  is  put  by  our  translators  (Isa.  v,  10)  for 
*ip2J,  tse'med,  which  properly  means  a  yoke,  i.  e.  as 
much  land  as  a  yoke  of  oxen  can  plough  in  a  day. 
So  the  Latin  jugerum,  an  acre,  from  jugum,  a  yoke. 
See  Measure.  In  1  Sam.  xiv,  14,  the  word  "acre" 
is  supplied  in  our  translation  after  !"t3"^a,  a  furrow, 
which  is  omitted  (see  margin). 
Acre.     See  Accho. 

Acrostic  (from  aicpov,  extremity,  and  arixoc, 
verse").  The  word  commonly  signifies  the  beginning 
of  a  verse ;  but  it  is  sometimes  taken  for  the  end  or 
close  of  it.  It  ordinarily  signifies  an  ode  in  which  the 
initial  letters  of  the  verses  in  their  order  spell  a  certain 
word  or  sentence.  In  this  form  acrostics  do  not  occur 
in  the  Bible.  There  are  certain  parts  of  the  poetical 
compositions  of  the  Old  Testament,  however,  in  which 
the  successive  verses  or  lines  in  the  original  begin 
with  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet;  these  may 
be  called  alphabetical  acrostics.  For  instance,  in  Psalm 
cxix,  there  are  as  many  stanzas  or  strophes  as  there 
are  letters  in  the  alphabet,  and  each  strophe  consists 
of  eight  double  lines,  all  of  which,  in  each  case,  begin 
with  that  letter  of  the  alphabet  corresponding  to  the 
place  of  the  strophe  in  the  Psalm — that  is,  the  first 
eiy;ht  lines  begin  each  with  X,  Aleph,  the  next  eight 
with  ",  Beth,  and  so  on.  See  Abecedarian.  Other 
Psalms  have  only  one  verse  to  each  letter,  in  its  order, 
as  Psalms  xxv,  xxxiv.  In  others,  again,  as  Psalms 
cxi,  exii,  each  verse  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and 
these  hemistichs  follow  the  alphabetical  arrangement, 
like  the  whole  verses  of  the  last  mentioned  Psalms. 
The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  are  mostly  acrostic, 
some  of  the  chapters  repeating  each  letter  one  or  more 
times.  The  last  chapter  of  Proverbs  also  has  the  ini- 
tial letters  of  its  last  twenty-two  verses  in  alphabeti- 
cal order.     See  Poetry. 

The  term  acrostic  is  used  in  ecclesiastical  history  to 
describe  a  certain  mode  of  performing  the  psalmody 
of  the  ancient  Church.     A  single  person,  called  the 
precentor,  commenced  the  verse,  and  the  people  join- 
ed with  him  at  the  close.     We  find  also  the  words  hy- 
popsalma  and  diapsalma,  likewise  dicportXtvriov  and 
kQ&ftviov,  almost  synonymous  with  acrostic,  used  to 
describe  the  same  practice.    The}'  do  not  always  mean 
the  end  of  a  verse,  but  sometimes  what  was  added  at 
the  end  of  a  psalm,  or  something  repeated  in  the  mid- 
dle of  it,  e.  g.  the  phrase  "for  his  mercy  endureth  fur- 
ever"  repeated  or  chanted  by  the  congregation.     The 
Glori  i  1'a.tri  is  by  some  writers  called  the  epode  or 
aeroieleutic,  because  it  was  always  sung  at  the  end  of 
the  psalms  (Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  i,  xiv). 
Act,  Conventicle,  see  Conventicle. 
Act,  Corporation,    "    Corporation. 
Act,  Five-Mile,        "    Five-Mile. 
Act  of  Faith,        "   Auto  da  Fe. 
Act,  Test,  "    Test. 

Act,  Toleration,  "  Toleration. 
Acta  Mart^rum  (Acts  of  the  Martyrs),  the  title 
of  the  record  of  the  lives  and  actions  of  martyrs  kept 
in  the  ancient  Church  for  the  edification  of  the  faith- 
ful. Whenever  a  Christian  was  apprehended,  the  ac- 
cusation, defence,  and  verdict  were  noted  in  these  Acts. 
Some  of  the  martyrs  also  wrote  accounts  of  their  own 
sufferings,  or  this  was  done  for  them  by  a  regular  offi- 
cer of  the  Church  acting  as  notary,  who  took  down  the 
facts  in  a  prescribed  form  ;  and  these  reports  were  also 
designated  as  acta  martyrii  or  martyrwn.  Comp. 
Calendaria;  Martyrologia;  Meneion;  Mf.no- 
louhm.     The  oldest  are  those  referring  to  the  death 


of  St.  Ignatius  (q.  v.),  Bishop  of  Antioeh  (died  107), 
and  of  i'olycarp  (q.  v.)  (died  about  165),  both  of  which 
are  given  in  Dressel's  and  Hefele's  editions  of  the  Pa- 
tres  Apostolici.  The  oldest  collection  of  Acts  of  the 
Martyrs  was  compiled  by  the  Church  historian  Euse- 
bius,  in  his  two  works  d?.  Martyribus  Paliestinee  and 
Synagoge  Martyriorum.  The  latter,  a  martyrology  of 
the  Church  universal,  was  lost  as  early  as  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century ;  the  former  has  reached  us  as  an 
appendix  to  the  eighth  book  of  the  author's  Church 
history.  A  second  large  collection  of  12  volumes  was 
in  existence  at  Constantinople  in  the  ninth  century, 
and  probably  formed  the  basis  of  the  work  of  Simeon 
Metaphrastes,  de  Actis  Sanctoru?n,  in  the  tenth  century. 
In  the  Latin  Church  a  catalogue  of  martyrs,  contain- 
ing the  names  of  martyrs  from  different  countries  ar- 
ranged according  to  the  days  on  which  the}'  were  com- 
memorated in  the  mass,  as  also  the  place  and  the  day, 
but  not  the  details,  of  their  martyrdom,  was,  at  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century,  in  extensive  use.  It  was, 
though  without  good  reason,  ascribed  to  Jerome.  The 
particular  churches  used  to  add  to  this  general  cata- 
logue of  martyrs  their  local  calendars,  a  circumstance 
which  explains  the  diversity  of  the  different  copies  of 
this  work  still  extant  (ed.  by  Fr.  Mar.  Florentinius, 
Luca?,  1G68  sq. ;  d'Achery,  Spicileg.  ed.  Nov.  ii,  p.  27,  ac- 
cording to  a  manuscript  of  the  French  convent  Gellou, 
written  about  804;  J.  B.  Sallerius,  Act.  Sanctorum, 
June  torn,  vi,  according  to  copies  of  Beichenau,  St. 
Ulric's  at  Augsburg,  Corvey,  etc.).  "While  this  woik 
excludes  all  historical  accounts  of  the  lives  of  mar- 
tyrs, giving  only  their  names  and  the  place  and  day 
of  their  martyrdom,  there  are  indications  that  detailed 
historical  works  were  also  compiled  at  an  early  period. 
A  council  at  Carthage  397  permits  the  reading  of  the 
Passiones  Martyrwn  on  the  days  of  their  commemora- 
tion, besides  the  reading-lessons  from  the  Scriptures. 
Pope  Gelasius,  on  the  contrary,  excludes  this  kind  of 
literature  from  ecclesiastical  use,  on  the  ground  that 
the  names  of  the  authors  were  unknown,  and  that  in- 
fidels, heretics,  and  unlearned  persons  (id'iota)  had  in- 
serted man}'  superfluous  and  improper  things,  a  con- 
clusive proof  of  the  untrustworthy  condition  in  which 
this  literature,  even  at  that  early  time,  was  found. 
The  heads  of  the  monastic  orders  were  in  general  very 
urgent  in  recommending  to  their  monks  the  reading 
of  the  Gesta  Martyrwn,  the  history  of  their  sufferings. 
Besides  the  two  classes  of  works  just  named,  there 
was  a  third  class,  the  so-called  Yitce  Patrnm,  whose 
object  was  more  literary  than  edifying,  and  some  of 
which  belong  among  the  most  valuable  sources  of  the 
early  Church  history.  To  this  class  of  works  belong 
the  very  valuable  history  of  Severin,  by  his  disciple 
Eugippius,  the  biographies  of  Columban,  Callus,  etc. 
Collections  of  accounts  of  this  kind  are  extant  by 
Palladius  (about  420),  in  his  Ilistoria  Lausiaca  (Aav- 
aaiKov) ;  by  Heraclides,  in  his  Paradisus,  s.  de  Yitis 
Patrum;  by  Johannes  Moschus  (died  about  G20), 
the  author  of  the  lives  of  the  monks,  under  the  title 
Atifiwv,  Atipiovdpiov,  or  Ntoc,  Tlapc'icticoc.  These 
works  are  designated  in  the  Greek  Church  under  the 
name  of  TtpovriKd,  KXipaiceg,  AavnaiKu,  and  Uanpi- 
kcl.  They  were  followed  by  Simeon  Metaphrastes 
(q.  v.),  about  901,  of  whose  biographies  of  saints  wc 
have  122  left,  while  a  much  larger  number  have  been 
erroneously  ascribed  to  him.  In  the  Latin  Church 
we  have  the  14  hymns  of  Prudentius  (q.  v.),  entitled 
Peristephanon  s.  de  Coronis  et  Pasdonilus  Martyruni ; 
the  Collationrs  Patrnm,  by  Cassian  (q.  v.);  and  sever- 
al historical  works  of  Gregory  of  Tours  (q.  v.),  as  de 
Miracalis,  Yilie  Pa/rum,  de  Gloria  Marfyrum.  The 
biographical  material  contained  in  this  class  of  works 
was  gradually  worked  into  the  martyrologies.  That 
known  under  the  name  of  Beda  is  mostly  restricted  to 
statistical  statements ;  yet  a  copy  of  it  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century  received  considerable  ad- 
ditions from  Floras,  a  sub-deacon  at  Lyons.     Consid- 


ACTA  SANCTORUM 


57 


ACTS 


erable  additions  to  the  martyrologies  were  also  made 
by  Hrabanus  Maurus  (q.  v.);  Ado,  archbishop  of  Vi- 
enna, about  860 ;  Usuard,  a  monk  at  Paris  (875) ;  and 
Notker  (died  912).  This  enlargement  of  the  ancient 
martyrologies  forms  the  transition  to  the  legends  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  which  are  generally  nothing  but  ec- 
clesiastical novels,  and  have  no  claim  whatever  to 
credibility.  The  "Acts  of  the  Martyrs"  had,  more- 
over, gradually  been  enlarged  into  "Acts  of  the 
Saints,"  as  other  saints  than  martyrs  had  been  added 
to  the  catalogues  of  the  latter.  See  Acta  Sancto- 
rum. The  most  valued  collection  is  Ruinart's  Acta 
Martyrum  sincera  (Paris,  1689,  fol. ;  2d  ed.  Amst. 
1713," fol. ;  B.  Galura,  Augsb.  1802,  3  vols.  8vo).  It 
is  more  critical  than  most  Roman  biographies,  but 
nevertheless  contains  many  incredible  legends.  A 
large  collection  was  also  published  by  the  learned 
Stephen  Evodius  Assemanni,  under  the  title  Acta 
Sanctorum  Martyrum  Orientaliitm  et  Occidentalium 
(Roma;,  1718,  2  vols,  fol.).  — Herzog,  i,  100;  Wetzer 
and  Wclte,  i,  88.     See  Martyrologv. 

Acta  Sanct5rum  {Acts  of  the  Saints),  the  title 
given  to  collections  of  the  lives  of  martyrs  [see  Acta 
Martyrum]  and  of  saints  in  the  ancient  Church. 

(1.)  We  first  find  the  title  Acta  Sanctorum  in  Euse- 
bius  (fourth  century).  In  consequence  of  an  edict  of 
Diocletian,  of  the  year  303,  which  commanded  the  de- 
struction of  all  the  Christian  records,  a  great  gap  was 
created  in  the  records  of  the  Church,  which  was  after- 
ward filled  with  legends  and  traditions,  abounding  in 
errors,  omissions,  and  exaggerations.  Collections  of 
the  Acta  Sanctorum,  principally  for  edification,  were 
made  in  the  Vita?  Patrum,  probably  by  Jerome  of  Dal- 
matia ;  by  Gregory  of  Tours  in  the  sixth  century  ;  in 
the  Si/naxarium  (q.  v.)  of  the  Greek  Church,  in  the 
eighth  century,  by  John  of  Damascus  ;  by  Simeon 
Metaphrastes  in  the  tenth  century;  in  the  Golden  Le- 
gend of  Jacob  of  Viraggio  in  the  thirteenth,  which  went 
through  71  editions  from  1474  to  1500;  and  in  the 
Catalorjus  Sanctorum  of  Peter  de  Natalibus  (Vicenza, 
1493).  A  more  critical  treatment  is  found  in  the 
Sanctuarium  of  Boninus  Mombritius  (Venice,  1474,  2 
vols.)  ;  in  Lipoman,  Vita;  Sanctor.  (Rome,  1551-1560,  8 
vols.);  and  particularly  in  Ruinart,  Acta  Martyrum 
sincera  (Paris,  1689,  fob).     Compare  Martyrology. 

(2.)  The  most  celebrated  collection  of  the  Acta 
Sanctorum  is  that  commenced  by  Bollandus,  and 
still  continued  by  a  society  of  Jesuits.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  works  ever  produced,  whether 
regarded  as  to  the  labor  and  time  spent  upon  it,  or  to 
the  comparative  worthlessness  of  its  matter.  It  has 
been  two  hundred  years  in  progress,  has  reached 
the  fifty-fifth  folio  volume,  and  is  still  in  progress. 
This  stupendous  undertaking  originated  with  Ros- 
weyde,  a  Jesuit,  who  announced  his  intention  in  a 
Fasti  Sanctorum  quorum  vitm  in  Belgicis  biblioth°cis 
manuscripts  asservantur  (Antwerp,  1607)  ;  but  he  died 
in  1629,  before  any  part  was  printed.  After  his  death 
his  materials  came  into  the  hands  of  Johannes  Bollan- 
dus, who  established  .correspondence  with  all  parts  of 
Europe,  in  order  to  obtain  information  from  every 
possible  source.  In  1635  he  associated  with  himself 
Godcfridus  Henschenius;  and  these  two  published  at 
Antwerp  in  1643  the  first  two  volumes,  in  folio,  under 
the  title  of  '■'■Acta  Sanctorum  quotquot  toto  orbe,  coluntur 
vel  a  Catholicis  Scriptoribus  celeb?-antur.'"  These  vol- 
umes contain  the  lives  of  the  saints  who  are  com- 
memorated by  the  Roman  Church  in  the  month  of 
January  only.  In  1658  three  more  volumes  appeared, 
embracing  February.  After  this,  Daniel  Papebrochius 
was  associated  as  coeditor ;  but  Bollandus  himself  died, 
Sept.  12, 1665,  before  the  vol.  for  March  appeared.  As 
the  work  proceeded,  other  editors  were  appointed,  and 
generation  after  generation  sank  into  the  grave  during 
its  long  progress.  It  would  occupy  too  much  time  and 
space  to  enumerate  the  separate  labor  of  each.  The 
work  itself  was  published  in  the  following  order :  Jan- 


uary, 2  vols.  1643;  February,  3  vols.  1658  ;  March,  3 
vols.  1668;  April,  3  vols.  1675;  May  (with  a  Propy- 
laeum),  8  vols.  1685-1688;  June,  6  vols.  1695-1715; 
July,  7  vols.  1719-1731 ;  August,  6  vols.  1733-1743 ; 
September,  8  vols.  1746-1762 ;  October,  vol.  i,  1765  ; 
ii,  1768;  iii,  1770;  iv,  1780;  v,  1786;  vi,  1794:  this 
volume  ended  at  the  15th  of  October  (see  Walch,  Bibl. 
Theol.  iii,  657  sq.).  The  work  was  stopped  by  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Jesuits,  and  it  appeared  to  be  altogether 
extinguished  by  the  French  Revolution  ;  but  in  1838  it 
revived,  and  there  was  printed  at  Namur  a  prospectus, 
De  prosecutione  operis  Eollandiani  quod  Acta  Sancto- 
rum inscribitur.  In  1845  appeared  vol.  vii  of  October, 
in  two  parts— the  first  containing  the  saints  of  the  15th 
of  October;  the  second  the  saints  of  the  16th.  New 
editions  of  the  first  4  volumes  of  October  appeared  in 
1859  and  1860.  The  work  is  still  in  progress,  and  the 
Jesuits  receive  for  its  continuation  an  annual  stipend 
from  the  Belgian  government.  Some  idea  of  its  vast 
extent  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  lives 
of  more  than  2000  saints  remain,  and  that  50  mora 
vols.  fol.  may  be  expected  to  complete  the  work. 

The  editors  are  as  follow,  with  the  number  of  years 
and  volumes  on  which  they  were  engaged :  Jo.  Bol- 
landus (died  1065),  34  years,  8  vols. ;  Godefr.  Hensche- 
nius (died  16^1),  46  years,  24  vols. ;  Daniel  Papebro- 
chius (died  1714),  55  jrears,  19  vols. ;  Conrad  Jannin- 
gus  (died  1723),  44  years,  13  vols. ;  Franc.  Baertius 
(died  1719),  38  years,  10  vols.  ;  Joan.  Bapt.  Sollerius 
(died  1740),  38  years,  12  vols. ;  Joan.  Pinius  (died 
1749),  35  years,  14  vols.  ;  Gull.  Cuperus  (died  1741), 
21  years,  11  vols. ;  Petrus  Boschius  (died  1736),  15 
3'ears,  7  vols. ;  Joan.  Stiltingus  (died  1762),  25  years, 
11  vols.;  Constant.  Suyskenus  (died  1771),  26  years, 
11  vols.  ;  Joan.  Perierus  (died  1762),  15  years,  7  vols.; 
Urban.  Stickerus  (died  1753),  2  years,  1  w>l. ;  Joan. 
Limpenus  (retired  1750),  9  years,  3  vols. ;  Joan.  Vel- 
dius  (retired  1747),  5  years,  2  vols. ;  Joan.  Cleus  (re- 
tired 1760),  7  years,  3  vols. ;  Corn.  Bueus  (died  1801), 
33  years,  6  vols. ;  Jacob.  Bueus  (died  1808),  32  years, 
6  vols.  ;  Joseph  Guesquierus  (died  1802),  10  years,  4 
vols.  ;  Ignat.  Hubenus  (died  1782),  10  years,  1  vol. 
The  renewal  of  the  work  was  undertaken  in  1838  by 
Jo.  Bapt.  Boone,  Joseph.  Vandermoere,  Prosper  Cop- 
pens,  and  Joseph.  Vanhecke,  Jesuits  of  the  college  of 
St.  Michael  at  Brussels.  The  first  42  vols.,  coming 
down  to  Sept.  14,  were  reprinted  at  Venice  in  1734  sq.  ; 
but  in  inferior  style.  A  new  edition  of  the  entire 
work  has  been  commenced  by  Ceimandet,  in  1863. 
(Paris,  torn,  i,  p.  821,  embracing  the  first  eleven  days 
of  January).     See  Saints. 

Action  in  Speaking.     See  Homieetics. 

Action  Sermon,  an  old  Scottish  term  for  the  ser- 
mon immediately  before  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Actippus.     See  Achzib. 

ActS  OF  THE  APOSTLES  (IT(K<?£<C  rm>  'A 7700-7-0- 
\wv),  the  fifth  book  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the 
last  of  those  properly  historical.  It  ol  itained  this  title 
at  a  very  early  period,  though  sometimes  the  epithet 
holy  was  prefixed  to  apostles,  and  sometimes  also  it  was 
reckoned  among  the  gospels,  and  called  the  Gospel  <f 
the  Holy  Ghost,  or  the  Gospel  of  the  Resurrection.  (See, 
generally,  Dr.  Tregelles,  in  Home's  Introd.  last  ed.  iv, 
470  sq.) 

I.  Authorship.—  The  Acts  were  evidently  written  by 
the  same  author  as  the  third  Gospel  (comp.  Puke  i, 
1  -4,  with  Acts  i,  1),  and  tradition  is  firm  and  constant 
in  ascribing  them  to  Luke  (Iremcus,  Adv.  Hcer.  lib.  i, 
c.  31;  iii,  14;  Clemens  Alexandr.  Strom,  v,  p.  588; 
Tertullian,  Adv.  Marcim,  v,  2;  De  Jejun.  c.  10;  Ori- 
gin, apud  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles.  vi,  23,  etc.  Eusebius 
himself  ranks  this  book  among  the  bjloKoyovfllva, 
I!.  /•;.  iii,  25).  The  fact  that  I.uke  accompanied  Paul 
to  Rome  (xxviii),  and  was  with  him  there  (Col.  iv,  14  ; 
Phil.  24),  favors  the  supposition  that  lie  was  the  writer 
of  the  narrative  of  the  apostle's  journey  to  that  city. 


ACTS 


58 


ACTS 


See  Paul.  The  identity  of  the  writer  of  both  books 
is  strongl)-  shown  by  their  great  similarity  in  style 
and  idiom,  and  the  usage  of  particular  words  and  com- 
pound forms.  (See  Tholuck,  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1839,  iii ;  Klostermann,  Vrndicke  Lucance,  Gott.  18G6.) 
The  only  parties  in  primitive  times  by  whom  this  book 
was  rejected  were  certain  heretics,  such  as  the  Mar- 
cionites,  the  Severians,  and  the  Manich.-eans,  whose 
objections  were  entirely  of  a  dogmatical,  not  of  a 
historical  nature  (so  those  of  Baur  and  his  school). 
At  the  same  time  we  find  Chrysostom  complaining 
that  by  many  in  his  day  it  was  not  so  much  as  known 
(Horn,  i,  in  Act.  s.  init.).  Perhaps,  however,  there  is 
some  rhetorical  exaggeration  in  this  statement;  or  it 
may  be,  as  Kuinol  (Prole//,  in  Acta  App.  Comment,  iv, 
5)  suggests,  that  Chrysostom's  complaint  refers  rather 
to  a  prevalent  omission  of  the  Acts  from  the  number 
of  books  publicly  read  in  the  churches  (see  Salmerson, 
De  libri  Actorum  auctoritate,  in  his  Opera,  vol.  xii). 

II.  Source  of  Materials. — The  writer  is  for  the  first 
time  introduced  into  the  narrative  in  ch.  xvi,  11, 
where  he  speaks  of  accompanying  Paul  to  Philippi. 
He  then  disappears  from  the  narrative  until  Paul's  re- 
turn to  Philippi,  more  than  two  years  afterward,  when 
it  is  stated  that  they  left  that  place  in  company  (xx, 
6),  from  which  it  may  be  justly  inferred  that  Luke 
spent  the  interval  in  that  town.  From  this  time  to 
the  close  of  the  period  embraced  by  his  narrative  he 
appears  as  the  companion  of  the  apostle.  For  the  ma- 
terials, therefore,  of  all  he  has  recorded  from  ch.  xvi, 
11,  to  xxviii,  31,  he  may  be  regarded  as  having  drawn 
upon  his  own  recollection  or  on  that  of  the  apostle. 
To  the  latter  source  also  may  be  confidently  traced  all 
he  has  recorded  concerning  the  earlier  events  of  the 
apostle's  career ;  and  as  respects  the  circumstances  re- 
corded in  4he  first  twelve  chapters  of  the  Acts,  and 
which  relate  chiefly  to  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  and 
the  labors  of  the  apostle  Peter,  we  may  readily  sup- 
pose that  they  were  so  much  matter  of  general  noto- 
riety among  the  Christians  with  whom  Luke  associ- 
ated, that  he  needed  no  assistance  from  any  other 
merely  human  source  in  recording  them.  Some  of  the 
German  critics  (see  Zeller,  Die  Apostelgesch.  nach  ihrem 
Inhalt  u.  Ursprung  kri/isch  untersucht,  Stuttg.  1854) 
have  labored  hard  to  show  that  he  must  have  had  re- 
course to  written  documents,  in  order  to  compose  those 
parts  of  his  history  which  record  what  did  not  pass  un- 
der his  own  observation,  and  they  have  gone  the  length 
of  supposing  the  existence  of  a  work  in  the  language 
of  Palestine,  under  the  title  of  "Acts  of  Cephas"  or  his 
"  Preaching"  (XS'1?^  "^""a  or  XP.^rX),  of  which 
the  apocryphal  book  of  the  same  title  (Upa^tiQ  JlErpov 
or  Kfipvyjia  EUrpou),  mentioned  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (Strom,  vii,  p.  736)  and  Origen  (Comment,  in 
Joh.  p.  298),  was  an  interpolated  edition  (Heinrichs, 
Proleg.  in  Acta  App.  p.  21;  Kuinol,  Proleg.  p.  5).  All 
this,  however,  is  mere  ungrounded  supposition ;  and 
such  Hebrew  editions,  if  they  at  all  existed,  must 
have  been  versions  from  the  Greek  (Reland,  Pulcest.  p. 
1038).     Sec  Peter. 

III.  Design. — A  prevalent  opinion  is,  that  Luke, 
having  in  his  Gospel  given  a  history  of  the  life  of 
Christ,  intended  to  follow  that  up  by  giving  in  the 
Acts  a  narrative  of  the  establishment  and  early  prog- 
ress of  his  religion  in  the  world.  That  this,  however, 
could  not  have  been  his  design,  is  obvious  from  the  very 
partial  and  limited  view  which  his  narrative  gives  of 
tin-  state  of  things  in  the  Church  generally  during  the 
period  through  which  it  extends.  As  little  can  we  re- 
gard this  book  as  designed  to  record  the  official  history 
of  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  for  we  find  many  par- 
ticulars concerning  both  these  apostles  mentioned  in- 
cidentally elsewhere,  of  which  Luke  takes  no  notice 
(comp.  2  Cor.  xi;  Gal.  i,  17;  ii,  11  ;  1  Pet.  v,  13.  See 
also  Michaelis,  Introduction,  iii,  328;  Hanlein's  l-'.in- 
leitung,  iii,  150).      Heinrichs,  Kuinol,  and  others   arc 


of  opinion  that  no  particular  design  should  be  ascribed 
to  the  evangelist  in  composing  this  book  beyond 
that  of  furnishing  his  friend  Theophilus  with  a  pleas- 
ing and  instructive  narrative  of  such  events  as  had 
come  under  his  own  personal  notice,  either  immediate- 
ly through  the  testimony  of  his  senses  or  through  the 
medium  of  the  reports  of  others  ;  but  such  a  view  sa- 
vors too  much  of  the  lax  opinions  which  these  writers 
unhappily  entertained  regarding  the  sacred  writers  to 
be  adopted  by  those  who  regard  all  the  sacred  books 
as  designed  for  the  permanent  instruction  and  benefit 
of  the  Church  universal.  Much  more  deserving  of 
notice  is  the  opinion  of  Hanlein,  with  which  that  of 
Michaelis  substantially  accords,  that  "the  general  de- 
sign of  the  author  of  this  book  was,  by  means  of  his 
narratives,  to  set  forth  the  co-operation  of  God  in  the 
diffusion  of  Christianity,  and  along  with  that,  to  prove, 
by  remarkable  facts,  the  divinity  of  the  apostles  and 
the  perfectly  equal  right  of  the  Gentiles  with  the  Jews 
to  a  participation  in  the  blessings  of  that  religion" 
(Elnkitwig,  iii,  156.  Comp.  Michaelis,  Introduction, 
iii,  330).  Perhaps  we  should  come  still  closer  to  the 
truth  if  wc  were  to  say  that  the  design  of  Luke  in 
writing  the  Acts  was  to  supply,  by  select  and  suit- 
able instances,  an  illustration  of  the  power  and  work- 
ing of  that  religion  which  Jesus  had  died  to  establish. 
In  his  Gospel  he  had  presented  to  his  readers  an  ex- 
hibition of  Christianity  as  embodied  in  the  person, 
character,  and  works  of  its  irreat  founder;  and  having 
followed  him  in  his  narration  until  he  Avas  taken  up 
out  of  the  sight  of  his  disciples  into  heaven,  this  second 
work  was  written  to  show  how  his  religion  operated 
when  committed  to  the  hands  of  those  by  whom  it  was 
to  lie  announced  "to  all  nations,  beginning  at  Jeru- 
salem" (Luke  xxiv,  47).  Hence,  as  justly  stated  by 
Baumgarten  in  his  work  on  the  Acts,  Jesus,  as  the 
already  exalted  kins  of  Zion,  appears,  on  all  suitable 
ocasions,  as  the  ruler  and  judge  of  supreme  resort ; 
the  apostles  are  but  his  representatives  and  instru- 
ments of  working.  It  is  He  who  appoints  the  twelfth 
witness,  that  takes  the  place  of  the  fallen  apostle 
(chap,  i,  24);  He  who,  having  received  the  promise 
from  the  Father,  sends  down  the  Holy  Spirit  with 
power  (chap,  ii,  33) ;  He  who  comes  near  to  turn  the 
people  from  their  iniquities  and  add  them  to  the  mem- 
bership of  his  Church  (chap,  ii,  47 ;  iii,  26) ;  He  who 
works  miracles  from  time  to  time  by  the  hand  of  the 
apostles ;  who  sends  Peter  to  open  the  door  of  faith 
to  the  Gentiles ;  who  instructs  Philip  to  go  and  meet 
the  Ethiopian ;  who  arrests  Saul  in  his  career  of  per- 
secution, and  makes  him  a  chosen  vessel  to  the  Gen- 
tiles ;  in  short,  who  continually  appears,  presiding  over 
the  affairs  of  his  Church,  directing  his  servants  in 
their  course,  protecting  them  from  the  hands  of  their 
enemies,  and  in  the  midst  of  much  that  was  adverse, 
still  giving  effect  to  their  ministrations,  and  causing 
the  truth  of  the  gospel  to  grow  and  bear  fruit.  We 
have  therefore  in  this  book,  not  merely  a  narrative  of 
facts  which  fell  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
Church,  in  connection  more  especially  with  the  apos- 
tolic atrency  of  Peter  and  Paul,  but  we  have,  first  of 
all  and  in  all,  the  ever-present,  controlling,  administra- 
tive agency  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  himself,  shedding 
forth  the  powers  of  his  risen  life,  and  giving  shape  and 
form  to  his  spiritual  and  everlasting  kingdom. 

IV.  Time  and  place 'of  Writing. — These  are  still  more 
uncertain.  As  the  history  is  continued  up  to  the  close 
of  the  second  year  of  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome,  it 
could  not  have  been  written  before  A.D.  56;  it  was 
probably,  however,  composed  very  soon  after,  so  that 
wc  shall  not  err  far  if  we  assign  the  close  of  the  year 
58  as  the  period  of  its  completion.  Still  greater  un- 
certainty hangs  over  the  place  where  Luke  composed 
it ;  but  as  he.  accompanied  Paul  to  Rome,  perhaps  it  wras 
at  that  city  and  under  the  auspices  of  the  apostle  that 
it  was  prepared.  Had  any  considerable  alteration  in 
Paul's  circumstances  taken  place  before  the  publica- 


ACTS 


59 


ACTS 


tion,  there  can  be  no  reason  why  it  should  not  have 
been  noticed.  And  on  other  accounts  also  this  time 
was  by  far  the  most  likely  for  the  publication  of  the 
book.  The  arrival  in  Koine  was  an  important  period 
in  the  apostle's  life ;  the  quiet  which  succeeded  it 
6eemed  to  promise  no  immediate  determination  of  his 
cause.     See  Theofhilus. 

V.  Style.—  This,  like  that  of  Luke's  Gospel,  is  much  j 
purer  than  that  of  most  other  books  of  the  New  Testa-  j 
merit.  The  Hebraisms  which  occasionally  occur  are 
almost  exclusively  to  be  found  in  the  speeches  of  oth- 
ers which  he  has  reported.  These  speeches  are  in- 
deed, for  the  most  part,  to  be  regarded  rather  as  sum- 
maries than  as  full  reports  of  what  the  speaker  utter- 
ed; but  as  these  summaries  are  given  in  the  speaker's 
own  words,  the  appearance  of  Hebraisms  in  them  is  as 
easily  accounted  for  as  if  the  addresses  had  been  re- 
ported in  full.  His  mode  of  narrating  events  is  clear, 
dignified,  and  lively;  and,  as  Michaelis  observes,  he 
"  has  well  supported  the  character  of  each  person  whom 
he  has  introduced  as  delivering  a  public  harangue,  and 
has  very  faithfully  and  happily  preserved  the  manner 
of  speaking  which  was  peculiar  to  each  of  his  orators" 
(Introduction,  iii,  332).     See  Luke. 

VI.  Contents. — Commencing  with  a  reference  to  an 
account  given  in  a  former  work  of  the  sayings  and 
doings  of  Jesus  Christ  before  his  ascension,  its  author 
proceeds  to  acquaint  us  succinctly  with  the  circum- 
stances attending  that  event,  the  conduct  of  the  dis- 
ciples on  their  return  from  witnessing  it,  the  outpour- 
ing on  them  of  the  Holy  Spirit  according  to  Christ's 
promise  to  them  before  his  crucifixion,  and  the  amaz- 
ing success  which,  as  a  consequence  of  this,  attended 
the  first  announcement  by  them  of  the  doctrine  con- 
cerning Jesus  as  the  promised  Messiah  and  the  Saviour 
of  the  world.  After  following  the  fates  of  the  mother- 
church  at  Jerusalem  up  to  the  period  when  the  violent 
persecution  of  its  members  by  the  rulers  of  the  Jews 
had  broken  up  their  society  and  scattered  them,  with 
the  exception  of  the  apostles,  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  surrounding  region,  and  after  introducing  to  the 
notice  of  the  reader  the  case  of  a  remarkable  conver- 
sion of  one  of  the  most  zealous  persecutors  of  the 
Church,  who  afterward  became  one  of  its  most  devoted 
and  successful  advocates,  the  narrative  takes  a  wider 
scope  and  opens  to  our  view  the  gradual  expansion  of 
the  Church  by  the  free  admission  within  its  pale  of 
persons  directly  converted  from  heathenism,  and  who 
had  not  passed  through  the  preliminary  stage  of  Juda- 
ism. The  first  step  toward  this  more  liberal  and  cos- 
mopolitan order  of  things  having  been  effected  by 
Peter,  to  whom  the  honor  of  laying  the  foundation  of 
the  Christian  Church,  both  within  and  without  the 
confines  of  Judaism,  seems,  in  accordance  with  our 
Lord's  declaration  concerning  him  (Matt,  xvi,  18),  to 
have  been  reserved,  Paul,  the  recent  convert  and  the 
destined  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  is  brought  forward  as 
the  main  actor  on  the  scene.  On  his  course  of  mis- 
sionary activity,  his  successes  and  his  Sufferings,  the 
chief  interest  of  the  narrative  is  thenceforward  con-  j 
centrated,  until,  having  followed  him  to  Home,  whith- 
er he  had  been  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  abide  his  trial,  on 
his  own  appeal,  at  the  bar  of  the  emperor  himself,  the 
book  abruptly  closes,  leaving  us  to  gather  further  in- 
formation concerning  him  and  the  fortunes  of  the 
Church  from  other  sources. — Kitto,  s.  v.      See  Paul. 

VII.  History. — While,  as  Lardner  and  others  have 
very  satisfactorily  shown  (LarAner's  Credibility,  Works, 
i;  Biscoe,  On  the  Acts;  Paley's  flora  Paulina:  Ben- 
son's History  of  the  First  Planting  of  Christianity,  ii, 
etc.),  the  credibility  of  the  events  recorded  by  Luke  is 
Fully  authenticated  both  by  internal  and  external  evi- 
dence,  very  great  obscurity  attaches  to  the  chronology 
of  these  events  (see  Davidson's  Intrad.  to  the  N.  T.,  ii, 
112  sq. ;  Alford's  Greek  Test.,  ii,  Proleg.  p.  23  sq. ; 
Meyer,   Cnmmentar,  3d  ed.  pt.  iii,  s.  fin.). 

The  following  is  probably  the  true  order  of  events 


in  the  Acts  (sec  Meth.  Quar.  Review,  185(1,  p.  409  sq.). 
For  further  discussion,  see  Burton,  Attempt  to  ascertain 
the  Chronology  of  the  Acts  (Lond.  1830);  Anger,  Be 
temporum  in  Actis  Apostolorum  ratione  (Lips.  1834); 
Greswell,  Dissert,  ii,  1,  etc. ;  Wordsworth,  Greek  Test. 
lit.  2 ;  Wieseler,  Chron.  d.  up.  Zeit  (Gott.  1848). 


DATE.  LEADING  EVENTS.  CHAPTER. 

May,  A.D.  29.  Election  of  Matthias i,  IB -26. 

"  29.  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit..  ii.1-41. 

June,  29.  Cure  of  the  cripple,  etc iii,  iv. 

July,  29.  Judgment    of   Ananias    and 

Sapphira v. 

Sept.,         29.  Appointment  of  Deacons. .. .  vi. 

Dec,  29.  Martyrdom  of  Stephen vii. 

April,         GO.  Conversion  of  the  Eunuch.,  viii. 

May,  30.  Conversion  of  Paul ix,  1-21. 

31.  Prosperity  of  the  <  Ihurch ix,  31. 

31.  [Matthew's  Gospel  written  in 
Hebrew.] 

Summer,"   32.  Peter's  preaching  tour ix,  32— 13. 

Sept.,  32.  Conversion  of  Cornelius x,  xi,  1-1S. 

Spring,       33.  Paul's  escape  from  Damascus 

to  Jerusalem ix,  22-20. 

34.  Founding  of  the  Church  at 

Antioch xi,  19-2G. 

Spring,       44.  Martyrdom  of  James  and  im- 
prisonment of  Peter xii. 

"  44.  Paul's  eleemosynary  visit  to 

Jerusalem xi,  27-30. 

44,.45.  Paul's  first  missionary  tour  .   xiii,  xiv. 
Spring,       47.  Paul's  "second"  visit  to  Jeru- 
salem    xv,  1-35. 

47.   [Matthew's  Gospel  published 
in  Greek  ] 
47-61.  Paul's  second  missionary  tour  xv,  30-xviii,  22. 

49.  [1st  Epistle  to  the  Thessaloni- 

ans.] 

50.  [2d  Epistle  to  the  Thessaloni- 

ans.] 
51-55.  Paul's  third  missionary  tour,  xviii,  23-xxi,  17. 

51.  [Epistle  to  the  Galatians.] 
54.   [1st  Epistle  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans.] 

54.  [2d  Epistle  to  the  Corinthi- 

ans.] 

55.  [Epistle  to  the  Romans.] 
55-5S.  Paul's  first  visit  and  impris- 
onment at  To-ie xxi,18-xxviii,31. 

5G.   [Luke's  Gospel  written] 
07.  [Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.] 
57.  [Epistle  to  the  Colossians.] 
57.  [Epistle,  to  Philemon] 

57.  [Epistle  to  the  l'hilippians.] 
5S.   [Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.] 

58.  [Acts  of  the  Apostles  written.] 
62.  [Epistle  of  James.] 

[1st  Epistle  to  Timothy.] 

G3.   [Epistle  to  Titus.] 

G4.  [Second     imprisonment    of 
Paul  at  Rome.] 

64.  [2d  Epistle  to  Timothy.] 

G4.  [1st  Epistle  of  Peter.] 

C5.   [id  Epistle  of  Peter.] 

05.  [Mark's  Gospel  written.] 

Gli.  [Epistle  of  J  tide.] 

!0.  [John's  Gospel  written.] 

92.  [1st  Epistle  of  John.] 

92.   [2d  Epistle  of  John] 

92.   [3d  Epistle  of  John.] 

!  6.  [John's  Revelation  written.] 
VIII.  Commentaries. — The  following  is  a  full  list  of 
separate  exegetical  and  illustrative  works  on  the  en- 
tire Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  most  important  being  in- 
dicated by  an  asterisk  (*)  prefixed  :  Origen,  Cpera,  iv, 
457  sq. ;  "Pampilus"  (in  Hippolyti  Opera,  ii,  205  sq. ; 
and  in  the  Bib/.  Pn/r.  Call,  iv,  3  sq.)  ;  Chrysostom, 
Opera,  ix,  1  sq.  (also  in  Engl.  Homilies,  Oxf.  1*51,2  vols. 
8vo);  Cassiodorus,  Acta  Ap.  (in  Complexiones");  Eutha- 
lius,  Editio  (in  Bibl.  Patr.  Gall,  x,  199);  Arator,  Car- 
menQn  Bibl.  Max.  Patr.  x,  125);  Theophj'lact,  Opera, 
iii,  1  sq.;  GEcumenius,  Enarratio  (in  Opera,  i);  Bede, 
Works,  p.  184  sq. ;  Fathers,  in  Cramer's  Catena  i<  >xon. 
1838,  8vo)  ;  Mene,  Commeiitariits  (Vitemb.  1524,  8vo); 
Bugenhagen,  Commentarius  (Vitemb.  1521,  lfi'24,  8vo); 
Lambert,  Comm  ntarius  (Arg.  1526 ;  Francf.  1539,  4to) ; 
Card.  Cajetan,  Actus  Apostolor.  (Venice,  1530;  Par. 
1532,  fol.j  Par.  1540,  8vo);  Gagnaeus,  Scholia  (Par. 
KiGO,  8vo);  *Calvin,  Commentaria,  in  bis  Opera  (Gen. 
15G0,  fol. ;  tr.  into  Bug.,  Loud.  1585,  4to;  Edinb.  1844, 
2  vols.  Svo);  Bullinger,  Commentaria  (Tiguri,  1540, 
fob);  Jonas,  Adnotationes  (Norib.  1524;  Basil.  1525, 


ACTS 


00 


ACTS 


1567,  8vo);  Salmeron,  Opera,  p.  12  sq. ;  Brent,  Predig- 
ten  (Norimb.  1554,  fol.) ;  Camerarius,  Notationes  (Lips. 
1556,  8vo) ;  Capito,  Explicatio  (Venice,  1561,  8vo) ; 
*Gualtherus,  llomilia?  (Tiguri,  1557,  4to ;  in  Engl., 
Lond.  1572) ;  Losse,  Adnotationes,  (Francf.  1558,  2  vols. 
fol.) ;  *Sarcer,  Scholia  (Basil.  1560,  8vo) ;  Selneeker, 
Commentarius  (Jen.  1567,  1586,  8vo);  Junius,  Tr.  ex 
Arab.  (L.  B.  1578  ;  Frcft.  1618,  8vo) ;  Kaude,  Auslegung 
(Frcft.  1579,  fol.);  Aretius,  Digestio  (Lausan.  1579, 
Genev.  1583,  Bern.  1607,  fol.} ;  Grynaeus,  Commenta- 
rius (Basil.  1583,  4to) ;  Crispold,  Commentaria  (Firm. 
1590,  4to)  ;  Stapleton,  Antidota  (Antw.  1595-8,  3  vols. 
8vo);  Pelargus,  Commentationes  (Francf.  1599,  8vo)  ; 
Arcularius,  Commentarius  (Franc.  1607,  8vo ;  Giess. 
4to) ;  Lorinus,  Commentaria  (Col.  Ag.  1609,  fol.) ;  Mal- 
colm, Commentarius  (Mediol.  1615,  4to);  Sanctus,  Com- 
mentarius (Lugd.  1616;  Col.  1617,  4to) ;  *Petri,  Com- 
mentarius (Duaci,  1622,  4to) ;  Perezius,  Commentarius 
(Lugd.  1626,  4to);  A  Lapide,  Acta  Apostolor.  (Antw. 
1627,  4to);  Menoch,  Historia  (Rome,  1634,  4to) ;  De 
Dieu,  Animadrersiones  (L.  B.  1634,  4  to) ;  Lenasus,  Com- 
mentarius (Holm.  1640,  4to);  Novarinus,  Actus  Apos- 
tolor. (Lugd.  1645,  fol.);  Price,  Acta  Apostolor.  (Par. 
1647,  8vo;  Lond.  1630,  4to);  Major,  Adnofata  (Jen. 
1647,  1655,  4to  ;  1668,  8vo) ;  Amyrald,  Paraphrase  (Sal- 
mur,  1654,  8vo);  Fromond,  Actus  Ap.  (Lovan.  1654, 
4to)  ;  Calixtus,  Exjwsitio  (Brunsw.  1654, 4to)  ;  *Streso, 
Commentarius  (Amst.  1658;  Hafn.  1717,  4to);  Fau- 
eheur,  Sermons  (Genev.  1664,  4  vols.  4to);  Du  Bois, 
Lectiones,  pt.  i  (Louvain,  1666,  4to) ;  Rothmaler,  Pre- 
digten  (Rudolst.  1671-2,  3  vols.  4to) ;  Cradock,  Apost. 
History  (Lond.  1672,  fol.) ;  De  Sylveira,  Commentaria 
(Lugd.  1678,  fol.);  Lightfoot,  Commentary  (in  Works, 
viii,  1  sq. ;  also  Horce  Hebr.,  ed.  Carpzov,  Lips.  1679, 
4to)  ;  Crell,  Opera,  iii,  123  sq. ;  Wolzogen,  Opera,  vol. 
i;  Cocceius,  Opera,  vol.  iv;  Micon,  Apostolica  Acta 
(Genev.  1681,  fol.);  Cappel,  Hist.  Apostolica  (Salm. 
1683,  4to) ;  *De  Veiel,  Explicatio  (Lond.  1684,  8vo ;  in 
Eng.,  Lond.  1685) ;  Pearson,  Works,  i,  317  sq. ;  Keuchen, 
Adnotata  (Amst.  1689, 1709,  4to) ;  Valla  and  others,  in 
the  Critici  Sacri,  vol.  vii ;  *Arnold  and  De  Sacy,  Note 
(Par.,  Lugd.,  Amst.,  Antw.  1700,  8vo;  also  in  French 
often);  *Van  Leeuwen,  Paraphrasis  (Amst.  1704, 1724, 
8vo ;  also  in  Germ.,  Brem.  1708,  4to)  ;  *Limborch,  Com- 
mentarius (Roterd.  1711,  fol.)  ;  Gerhard,  Commentarius 
(Hamb.  1713,  4to);  *Herberger,  Stoppel-Postille  (Lpz. 
1715,  fol.)  ;  Anon.,  Reflexions  (Par.  1716,  12mo)  ;  Lang, 
Lsagoge  (Hal.  1718,  4to) ;  Grammlich,  Anmerkungen 
(Lpz.  1721,  4to);  Petersen,  Zusammenhang  (Fr.  ad  M. 
1722,  4to)  ;  Wolf,  Anecdota,  iii,  92  sq. ;  ix,  1  sq. ;  Pyle, 
Paraphrase  (Lond.  1725,  8vo);  Plevier,  Handelingen 
(Ultraj.  1725,  1734,  4to) ;  *Lindhammer,  Erklanmg 
(Hal.  1725. 1734,  fol.);  Loseken,  Erklanmg (Hal.  1728, 
4to);  Negelin,  Kern  d.  Apostelgesch.  (Norimb.  1731, 
4to) ;  Anon.,  Paraphrase  (Par.  1738,  12mo) ;  *Biscoe, 
Hist,  of  the  Acts,  confirmed  from  other  Sources,  Authors, 
etc.  (Lond.  1742,  2  vols.  8vo;  Oxford,  1829, 1«40, 1  vol. 
8vo) ;  Barrington,  Works,  vol.  i ;  Heylin,  The  I.  Lect. 
ii,  1  sq. ;  Ram  bach,  Betrachtungen  (F.  ad  M.  1748,  4to)  ; 
♦Benson,  Planting  of  the  Chr.  Pel.  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1756, 
li  vols,  ltd);  *Walch,  Dissertt.in  Acta  App.  (Jen.  1756, 
1761,  3  vols.  4to) ;  Am-Ende, Carmen  cumnotis  (Vitcmb. 
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8vo);  Snell,  Uebersetz.  (Frkft.  1791,  8vo) ;  Lobstein, 
Commentar,  vol.  i  (Strasb.  1792,  4to);  *Morus,  Expli- 
catio Act.  A]*p.  (ed.  Dindorf,  Lips.  1794,  2  vols.  8vo); 
Clarisse,  Gedenwaarigkeiten  (Leyd.  1797,  4to) ;  *Thiers, 
Uebers.  m.  Anmerk.  (Gera,  1800,  8vo);  Stack,  Lectures 
(London,  1805,  8vo)  ;  Venturini,  Xnsammmh.  m.  d. 
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8vo);  Brewster,  Lectures  (Lond.  1807,  2  vols.  8vo ; 
1830,  1  vol.  8vo);  *Heinrich,  Acta  Apostol.  perpetA 
Annott.  illustrata  (Gott.  1809,  2  vols.  8vo ;  also  in  the  I 


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Barnes,  Notes  (N.  Y.  1834,  12mo);  Povach,  Sermons 
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berger,  Zweck  d.  Apostelgesch.  (Berne,  1841,  Svo) ;  Jones, 
Lectures  (Lond.  1842,  2  vols.  12mo) ;  Cary,  Acts  of  Ap. 
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Dick,  Lectures  (Glasgow,  1848,  8vo) ;  Pierce,  Notes 
(N.  Y.  1848,  12mo) ;  *Bornemann,  Acta  Apostolorum 
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8vo)  ;  Beelen,  Commentarius  (Lovan.  1850,  2  vols.  4to)  ; 
*Conybeare  and  Howson,  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
(Lond.  1850r  1856 ;  N.  Y.  1855,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Cook, 
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ton, 1852,  1858,  8vo);  *Baumgarten,  Apostelgeschichte 
(Braunschw.  1852,  2  vols.  8vo ;  tr.  in  Clarke's  Library, 
Edinb.  1854,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  *Schaff,  Gesch.  d.  Ap.  Kirche 
(Lpz.  1854,  8vo  ;  in  English,  Edinb.  1854,  2  vols.  Svo)  ; 
*Zeller,  Ursprung  d.  Aposte'gesch.  (Stuttg.  1854,  8vo) ; 
*Lekebuseh,  Entstehung  d.  Apostelgesch.  (Gotha,  1854, 
8vo);  Ford,  A  cts  of  Ap.  (Lond.  1856,  8vo);  Cumming, 
Readings  (Lond.  1856,  12mo);  *Alexander,  Acts  ex- 
plained (N.  Y.  1857,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Bouchier,  Exposition 
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8vo) ;  McGarvej',  Commentary  (Cincin.  1864,  12mo) ; 
Gloag,  Commentary  (Edinb.  1810,  2  vols.  8vo).  See 
New  Testament. 

Acts,  Spurious  or  Apocryphal,  ancient  writings 
purporting  to  have  been  written  by  or  respecting  our 
Saviour,  his  disciples,  etc.  Of  these  several  are  still 
extant;  others  are  only  known  by  the  accounts  in  an- 
cient authors  (Hase,  Hist,  of  Chr.  Church,  p.  90,  102). 
See  Canon  {of  Scripture). 

ACTS  OF'CHRIST,  Spurious.  Several  sayings 
attributed  to  our  Lord,  and  alleged  to  be  handed  down 
by  tradition,  may  be  included  under  this  head,  as  they 
are  supposed  by  some  learned  men  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  histories  no  longer  in  existence  (comp. 
Luke  i,  1).     See  Apocrypha. 

(1.)  The  only  saying  of  this  kind  apparently  genuine 
is  the  beautiful  sentiment  cited  by  Paul  (Acts  xx,  35), 
"  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive,"  to  which 
the  term  apocryphal  has  been  sometimes  applied,  inas- 
much as  it  is  not  contained  in  any  of  the  Gospels  ex- 
tant (so  Gausen,  in  his  Thcopnenstia,  Engl.  tr.  1842). 
Heinsius  is  of  opinion  that  the  passage  is  taken  from 
some  lost  apocryphal  book,  such  as  that  entitled,  in 
the  Recognitions  of  Clement,  "  the  Book  of  the  Sayings 
of  Christ, "  or  the  pretended  Constitutions  of  the  Apostles. 
Others,  however,  conceive  that  the  apostle  does  not  re- 
fer to  any  one  saying  of  our  Saviour's  in  particular, 
but  that  he  deduced  Christ's  sentiments  on  this  head 
from  several  of  his  sayings  and  parables  (see  Matt. 
xix,  21 ;  xxv  ;  and  Luke  xvi,  9).  But  the  probabili- 
ty is  that  Paul  received  this  passage  by  tradition  from 
the  other  apostles. 


ACTS 


61 


ACTS 


(2.)  There  is  a  saying  ascribed  to  Christ  in  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas,  a  work  at  least  of  the  second  cen- 
tury:  ''Let  us  resist  all  iniquity,  and  hate  it;''  and 
again,  "So  they  who  would  see  me,  and  lay  hold  on 
my  kingdom,  must  receive  me  through  much  suffering 
and  tribulation;"  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  these 
passages  contain  merely  an  allusion  to  some  of  our 
Lord's  discourses. 

(3.)  Clemens  Romanus,  the  third  bishop  of  Rome 
after  St.  Peter  (or  the  writer  who  passes  under  the 
name  of  Clement),  in  his  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, ascribes  the  following  saying  to  Christ : 
"  Though  ye  should  be  united  to  me  in  my  bosom,  and 
yet  do  not  keep  my  commandments,  I  will  reject  you, 
and  say,  Depart  from  me,  I  know  not  whence  ye  are, 
ye  workers  of  iniquity."  This  passage  seems  evi- 
dently to  be  taken  from  Luke's  gospel,  xiii,  25,  26,  27. 

There  are  many  similar  passages  which  several  em- 
inent writers,  such  as  Grabe,  Mill,  and  Fabricius,  have 
considered  as  derived  from  apocryphal  gospels,  but 
which  seem,  with  greater  probability,  to  be  nothing 
more  than  loose  quotations  from  the  Scriptures,  which 
were  very  common  among  the  apostolical  Fathers. 

There  is  a  saying  of  Christ's,  cited  by  Clement  in 
the  same  epistle,  which  is  found  in  the  apocryphal 
Gospel  of  the  Egyptians :  "The  Lord,  being  asked  when 
his  kingdom  should  come,  replied,  When  two  shall  be 
one,  and  that  which  is  without  as  that  which  is  within, 
and  the  male  with  the  female  neither  male  nor  female." 
See  Gospels  (Spurious). 

We  may  here  mention  that  the  genuineness  of  the 
Second  Epistle  of  Clement  is  itself  disputed,  and  is 
rejected  by  Eusebius,  Jerome,  and  others;  at  least 
Eusebius  says  of  it,  "We  know  not  that  this  is  as 
highly  approved  of  as  the  former,  or  that  it  has  been 
in  use  with  the  ancients"  {Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  38,  Cruse's 
tr.  1842).     See  Clement. 

{4.)  Eusebius,  in  the  last  chapter  of  the  book  just 
cited,  states  that  Papias,  a  companion  of  the  apostles, 
"gives  another  history  of  a  woman  who  had  been  ac- 
cused of  many  sins  before  the  Lord,  which  is  also  con- 
tained in  the  Gospel  according  to  the  Nazarenes."  As 
this  latter  work  is  lost,  it  is  doubtful  to  what  woman 
the  history  refers.  Some  suppose  it  alludes  to  the 
history  of  the  woman  taken  in  adultery ;  others,  to  the 
woman  of  Samaria.  There  are  two  discourses  ascribed 
to  Christ  by  Papias  preserved  in  Irenaeus  (Adversus 
Hares,  v,  33),  relating  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Millen- 
nium, of  which  Papias  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
propagator.  Dr.  Grabe  has  defended  the  truth  of 
these  traditions,  but  the  discourses  themselves  are  un- 
worthy of  our  blessed  Lord. 

(5.)  There  is  a  saying  ascribed  to  Christ  by  Justin 
Martyr,  in  his  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  which  has  been 
supposed  by  Dr.  Cave  to  have  been  taken  from  the 
Gospel  of  the  Nazarenes.  Mr.  Jones  conceives  it  to 
have  been  an  allusion  to  a  passage  in  the  prophet 
Ezekiel.  The  same  father  furnishes  us  with  an  apoc- 
r3rphal  history  of  Christ's  baptism,  in  which  it  is  as- 
serted that  "a  fire  was'kindled  in  Jordan."  He  also 
acquaints  us  that  Christ  worked,  when  he  was  on 
earth,  at  the  trade  of  a  carpenter,  making  ploughs  and 
yokes  for  oxen. 

(6.)  Thera  are  some  apocryphal  sayings  of  Christ 
preserved  by  Irenams,  but  his  most  remarkable  ob- 
servation is  that  Christ  "lived  and  taught  beyond  his 
fortieth  or  even  fiftieth  year."  This  he  founds  partly 
on  absurd  inferences  drawn  from  the  character  of  his 
mission,  partly  on  John  viii,  57,  and  also  on  what  he 
alleges  to  have  been  John's  own  testimony  delivered 
to  the  presbyters  of  Asia.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
refute  this  absurd  idea,  which  is  in  contradiction  with 
all  the  statements  in  the  genuine  gospels.  There  is 
also  an  absurd  savins;  attributed  to  Christ  by  Athe- 
nagoras  (Jsgat.  pro  Christian's,  cap.  28). 

(7.)  There  are  various  sayings  ascribed  to  our  Lord 
by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  several  of  the  fathers. 


One  of  the  most  remarkable  is,  "Be  ye  skilful  money- 
changers." This  is  supposed  to  have  been  contained 
in  the  Gospel  of  the  Nazarenes.  Others  think  it  is  an 
early  interpolation  into  the  text  of  Scripture.  Origen 
and  Jerome  cite  it  as  a  saying  of  Christ's. 

(8.)  In  Origen,  Contra  Celsum,  lib.  i,  is  an  apocry- 
phal history  of  our  Saviour  and  his  parents,  in  which 
it  is  reproached  to  Christ  that  he  was  born  in  a  mean 
village,  of  a  poor  woman  who  gained  her  livelihood  by 
spinning,  and  was  turned  off  by  her  husband,  a  car- 
penter. Celsus  adds  that  Jesus  was  obliged  by  pov- 
erty to  work  as  a  servant  in  Egypt,  where  he  learned 
many  powerful  arts,  and  thought  that  on  this  account 
he  ought  to  be  esteemed  as  a  god.  There  was  a  similar 
account  contained  in  some  apocryphal  books  extant  in 
the  time  of  St.  Augustine.  It  was  probably  a  Jewish 
forgery.  Augustine,  Epiphanius,  and  others  of  the 
fathers,  equally  cite  sayings  and  acts  of  Christ,  which 
they  probably  met  with  in  the  early  apocryphal  gospels. 
(9.)  There  is  a  spurious  hymn  of  Christ's  extant, 
ascribed  to  the  Priscillianists  by  St.  Augustine.  There 
are  also  many  such  acts  and  sayings  to  be  found  in 
the  Koran  of  Mahomet,  and  others  in  the  writings  of 
the  Mohammedan  doctors  (sec  Toland's  Nazarenus'). 
(10.)  There  is  a  prayer  ascribed  to  our  Saviour  by 
!  the  same  persons,  which  is  printed  in  Latin  and  Arabic 
in  the  learned  Selden's  Commentary  on  Euty  chins' s  An- 
nals of  A lexandria,  published  at  Oxford,  in  1650,  by 
Dr.  Pococke.  It  contains  a  petition  for  pardon  of  sin, 
such  as  is  sufficient  to  stamp  it  as  a  forgery. 

(11.)  There  is  a  curious  letter  said  to  have  been 
written  to  our  Saviour  by  Agbarus  (or  Abgarus),  king 
of  Edessa,  requesting  him  to  -come  and  heal  a  disease 
under  which  he  labored.  The  letter,  together  with  the 
supposed  reply  of  Christ,  are  preserved  by  Eusebius. 
This  learned  historian  asserts  that  he  obtained  the 
documents,  together  witli  the  history,  from  the  public 
registers  of  the  city  of  Edessa,  where  they  existed  in 
his  time  in  the  Syriac  language,  from  which  he  trans- 
lated them  into  Greek.     See  Abgaius. 

These  letters  are  also  mentioned  by  Ephracm  Syrus, 
deacon  of  Edessa,  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  century. 
J  Jerome  refers  to  them  in  his  comment  on  Matt,  x,  and 
|  they  are  mentioned  by  Pope  Gclasius,  who  rejects 
them  as  spurious  and  apocryphal.  They  are,  however, 
referred  to  as  genuine  by  Evagrius  and  later  histo- 
1  rians.  Among  modern  writers  the  genuineness  of 
these  letters  has  been  maintained  by  Dr.  Parker  (in 
'  the  preface  to  his  Demonstration  of  the  Lair  of  Nature 
|  and  the  Christian  Religion,  part  ii,  §  1G,  p.  285) ;  by  Dr. 
Cave  (in  his  Historia  Lilcraria,  vol.  i,  p.  23);  and  by 
I  Grabe  (in  his  Spicilegrxm  Putrum,  particularly  p.  319). 
:  On  the  other  hand,  most  writers,  including  the  great 
majority  of  Roman  Catholic  divines,  reject  them  as 
spurious.  Mr.  Jones,  in  his  valuable  work  on  the  Ca- 
nonical Authority  of  the  New  Testament,  although  he 
does  not  venture  to  deny  that  the  Acts  were  contained 
j  in  the  public  registers  of  the  city  of  Edessa,  yet  gives 
l  it,  as  a  probable  conjecture,  in  favor  of  which  he  ad- 
'  duces  some  strong  reasons,  drawn  from  internal  evi- 
'  dence,  that  this  whole  chapter  (viz.  the  13th  of  the 

first  book)  in  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Eusebius  is 
:  itself  an  interpolation.  See  Epistles  (Spumous). 
I  (12.)  The  other  apocrypha]  history  related  by  Eva- 
1  grius,  out  of  Procopius,  states  that  Agbarus  sent  a 
limner  to  draw  the  picture  of  our  Saviour,  but  that 
not  being  able  to  do  it  by  reason  of  the  brightness  of 
j  Christ's  countenance,  our  "  Saviour  took  a  cloth,  and 
laying  it  upon  his  divine  and  life-giving  face,  lie  im- 
pressed his  likeness  on  it."  This  story  of  Christ's 
picture  is  related  by  several,  in  the  Second  Council 
of  Nice,  and  by  other  ancient  writers,  one  of  whom 
(Leo)  asserts  th.it  he  went  to  Edessa,  and  saw  "  the 
image  of  Christ,  not  made  with  hands,  worshipped  by 
the  people."  This  is  the  first  of  the  four  likenesses 
of  Christ  mentioned  by  ancient  writers.  The  second 
is  that  said  to  have  been  stamped  on  a  handkerchief 


ACTS 


G2 


ACTS 


by  Christ,  and  given  to  Veronica,  who  had  followed 
him  to  his  crucifixion.  The  third  is  the  statue  of 
Christ,  stated  by  Eusebius  to  have  been  erected  by  the 
woman  whom  he  had  cured  of  an  issue  of  blood,  and 
which  the  learned  historian  acquaints  us  he  saw  at 
Ca?sarea  Philippi  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  vii,  IS). 
Sozomen  and  Cassiodorus  assert  that  the  emperor 
Julian  took  down  this  statue  and  erected  his  own  in 
its  place.  It  is,  however,  stated  by  Asterius,  a  writer 
of  the  fourth  century,  that  it  was  taken  away  by  Max- 
imums, the  predecessor  of  Constantine.  The  fourth 
picture  is  one  which  Nicodemus  presented  to  Gamaliel, 
which  was  preserved  at  Berytus,  and  which  having 
been  crucified  and  pierced  with  a  spear  by  the  Jews, 
there  issued  out  from  the  side  blood  and  water.  This 
is  stated  in  a  spurious  treatise  concerning  the  passion 
and  image  of  Christ,  falsely  ascribed  to  Athanasius. 
Eusebius,  the  historian,  asserts  (1.  c.)  that  he  had  here 
seen  the  pictures  of  Peter,  Paul,  and  of  Christ  himself, 
in  his  time  (see  also  Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccles.  v,  21). 
That  such  relics  were  actually  exhibited  is  therefore 
indubitable,  but  their  genuineness  is  quite  another 
question.  They  were  probably  of  a  piece  with  the 
papal  miracles  and  pious  frauds  of  superstitious  times. 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  Spurious.  Of  these 
several  are  extant,  others  are  lost,  or  only  fragments 
of  them  have  come  down  to  us.  Of  the  following  we 
know  little  more  than  that  they  once  existed.  They 
are  here  arranged  chronologically: — (1.)  The  Preach- 
ing of  Peter,  referred  to  by  Origen  (in  his  Commentary 
on  St.  Joints  Gospel,  lib.  xiv),  also  referred  to  by 
Clemens  Alexandrinus.  (2.)  The  Acts  of  Peter,  sup- 
posed by  Dr.  Cave  to  be  cited  by  Serapion.  (3.)  The 
Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla,  mentioned  by  Tertullian  (Lib. 
de  Baptismo,  cap.  xvii).  This  is,  however,  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  same  which  is  found  in  a  Greek 
MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  has  been  published 
by  Dr.  Grabe  (in  his  Spicil.  Patrum  Soecul.  I.).  (4.)  The 
Doctrine  of  Peter,  cited  by  Origen  ("  Prooem."  in  Lib. 
de  Princip.").  (5.)  The  Acts  of  Paul  (id.  de  Princip.  i, 
2).  ((3.)  The  Preaching  of  Paul,  referred  to  by  St. 
Cyprian  (Tract,  de  non  iterando  Baptismo).  (7.)  The 
Preaching  of  Paul  and  Peter  at  Pome,  cited  by  Lactan- 
tius  (De  vera  Sap.  iv,  21).  (8.)  The  Acts  of  Peter, 
thrice  mentioned  by  Eusebius  (/list.  Eccles.  iii,  3)  ;  "  as 
to  that  work,  however,  which  is  ascribed  to  him,  called 
'The  Acts'  and  the  'Gospel  according  to  Peter,'  wc 
know  nothing  of  their  being  handed  down  as  Catholic 
writings,  since  neither  among  the  ancient  nor  the  ec- 
clesiastical writers  of  our  own  day  has  there  been  one 
that  has  appealed  to  testimony  taken  from  them." 
(9.)  The  Acts  of  Paul  (ib.).  (10.)  The  Revelation  of 
Peter  (ib.).  (11.)  The  Acts  of  Andrew  and  John  (ib. 
cap.  25).  "  Thus,"  he  says,  "we  have  it  in  our  power 
to  know  ....  those  books  that  arc  adduced  by  the 
heretics,  under  the  name  of  the  apostles,  such,  viz.,  as 
compose  the  gospels  of  Peter,  Thomas,  and  Matthew, 

.  .  .  and  such  as  contain  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  by 
Andrew  and  John,  and  others  of  which  no  one  of  those 
writers  in  the  ecclesiastical  succession  has  condescend- 
ed to  make  any  mention  in  his  works ;  and,  indeed,  the 
character  of  the  style  itself  is  very  different  from  that 
of  the  apostles,  and  the  sentiments  and  the  purport 
of  those  that  are  advanced  in  them  deviating  as  far 
as  possible  from  sound  orthodoxy,  evidently  proves 
they  are  the  fictions  of  heretical  men,  whence  they  are 
to  be  ranked  not  only  among  the  spurious  writings, 
but  are  to  be  rejected  as  altogether  absurd  and  im- 
pious." (12.)  The  Acts  of  Peter,  John,  and  Thomas 
(Athanasius,  Synops.  §  76).  (13.)  The  Writings  <f 
Bartholomew  the  Apostle,  mentioned  by  the  pseudo- 
Dionysius.  (14.)  The  Acts,  Preaching,  and  Revelation 
of  Piter,  cited  by  Jerome  (in  his  Catal.  Script.  Eccles.). 
(15.)  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  by  Seleucus  (id.  Epist.  ad 
Chrom.,  etc.).  (10.)  The  Acts  of  I  aid  and  Thecla  (id. 
Catalog.  Script.  Eccles.).     (17.)  The  Acts  of  the  Apos- 


'  ties,  used  by  the  Ebionites,  cited  by  Epiphanius  (Adrer. 
sus  Ilores.  §  1G).     (18.)  The  Acts  of  Leucius,  Lentias, 

'  or  Lenticius,  called  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Augustin. 
Lib.  de  Fid.  c.  38).  (19.)  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  used 
by  the  Manichees.  (20.)  The  Revelations  of  Thomas, 
Paul,  Stephen,  etc.  (Gelasius,  de  Lib.  Apoc.  ajmd  Gra- 
tian.  Distinct.  15,  c.  3). 

To  these  may  be  added  the  genuine  Acts  of  Pilate, 
appealed  to  by  Tertullian  and  Justin  Martyr,  in  their 
Apologies,  as  being  then  extant.  Tertullian  describes 
them  as  "  the  records  which  were  transmitted  from 
Jerusalem  to  Tiberius  concerning  Christ."  He  refers 
to  the  same  for  the  proof  of  our  Saviour's  miracles. 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Acts  of  Pilate. 

The  following  are  the  principal  spurious  Acts  still 
extant : — (1.)  The  A  cts  of. Paul  and  Thecla,  said  to  have 
been  written  by  a  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  and  who  (ac- 
cording to  Tertullian,  De  Bap.  cap.  xvii,  and  Jerome, 

:  De  Scrip,  cap.  vi),  when  convicted  by  John  the  Evan- 
gelist of  having  falsified  facts,  confessed  that  he  had 
done  so,  but  through  his  love  for  his  master  Paul. 

j  These  Acts  were  rejected  as  uncanonical  b}'  Pope  Ge- 
lasius. They  were  printed,  together  with  some  that 
follow,  at  London  (in  English)  in  1821,  8vo,  under  the 
title  "Apocryphal  New  Testament"   (see  Fabrieius, 

'.  Cod.  Apoc.  N.  T.  ii,  794).     (2.)   Acts  of  the   Twelve 

'  Apostles,  falsely  attributed  to  Abdias  of  Babylon.  See 
Abdias.  These  Acts  are  said  to  have  been  written  by 
him  in  Hebrew,  translated  into  Greek  by  Eutropius, 
and  into  Latin  by  Julius  Africanus,  and  were  pub- 
lished by  Lazius,  at  Basle,  in  1551  (Fabric,  ii,  388). 
It  is  a  work  full  of  the  most  extravagant  fables,  and 
bears  internal  evidence  of  having  been  written  after 

|  the  second  century.  (3.)  Acts  of  St.  Peter,  or,  as  the 
work  is  sometimes  designated,  Recognitionum  libri  10, 
attributed  falsely  to  Clemens  Romanus.  (4.)  The  Acts 
or  Voyages  (Periodi)  of  St.  John,  mentioned  by  Epi- 
phanius and  Augustine,  is  probably  that  which  we 

I  now  have  as  the  Acts  of  St.  John  among  those  attrib- 
uted to  Abdias. 

There  exist  also  the  following  (for  which  see  each 

j  name  in  its  place) : — The  Creed  of  the  Apostles ;  The 
Epistles  of  Barnabas,  Clement,  Ignatius,  and  Poly  carp  • 
The  Shepherd  of  Hernias;  The  Acts  of  Pilate  (spurious), 
or  the  Gospel  of  Nicodemus ;  The  Constitutions  of  the 
Apostles;  The  Canons  of  the  Apostles;  The  Liturgies  of 
the  Apostles;  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans;  St. 

:  Paul's  Letters  to  Seneca. 

j  Besides  these  there  are  seme  others  still  more  ob- 
scure, for  which  see  Cotelerius's  Ecclesim  Graca'  Mon- 

;  umenta  (Paris,  1G77-92) ;  Fabricius,  Codex  Apocrypha, 

j  N.  T. ;  Du  Pin,  History  of  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testa- 

;  ment  (London,  1699) ;  Grabe's  Spicilegium  Patrum  (Ox- 

|  ford,  1714);  Lardner's  Credibility,  etc.;  Jones's  New 
and  Just  Method  of  settling  the  Canonical  Authority  of 

i  the  New  Testament ;  Birch's  Auctarium  (Hafniae,  1804); 

j  Thilo's  Acta  St.  Thomce  (Lips.  1823),  and  Codex  Apoc- 
ryphus,  N.  T.  (Lips.  1832).    Tischendorf  has  published 

\  in  the  original  Greek  the  following  apocryphal  Acts 
(Acta  Apostnlorum  Apocryplm,  Lips.  1841,  8vo),  several 
of  which  had  not  before  been  edited:  "Acts  of  Peter 
and  Paul;"  "Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla;"  "Acts  of 
Barnabas,  by  Mark;"  "Acts  of  Philip"  (ed.  princeps); 
"  Acts  of  Andrew  :"  "Acts  of  Andrew  and  Matthew  ;" 
"Acts  and  Martyrdom  of  Matthew"  (ed.  princ); 
"Acts  of  Thomas;"  "  Consummation  of  Thomas"  (ed. 
pr.);  "Acts  of  Bartholomew"  (e.  p.);  "Acts  of  Thad- 
dajus"  (e.  p.);   "Acts  of  John"  (e.  p.).     See  Canon. 

Acts  of  Pilate.  The  ancient .Romans  were  scru- 
pulously careful  to  preserve  the  memory  of  all  re- 
markable events  which  h  ippened  in  the  city ;  and 
this  was  done  either  in  their  "Acts  of  the  Senate" 
(Acta  Senati'ts),  or  in  the  "  Daily  Acts  of  the  People" 
(Ac/a  Diiurna  Populi),  which  were  diligently  made 
and  kept  at  Rome  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq. 
s.  v.  Acta  Diurna).  In  like  manner  it  was  customary 
for  the  governors  of  provinces  to  send  to  the  emperor 


ACUA 


ADAIAII 


an  .account  of  remarkable  transactions  that  occurred 
in  the  places  where  they  resided,  which  were  pre- 
served as  the  Acts  of  their  respective  governments. 
Indeed,  this  would  naturally  occur  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  their  returns  of  administration  (rationes),  a 
copy  of  which  was  also  preserved  in  the  provincial 
archives  (Cicero,  ad  Fam.  iii,  17 ;  v,  '20).  In  con- 
formity with  this  usage,  Eusebius  says,  "Our  Sa- 
viour's resurrection  being  much  talked  of  throughout 
Palestine,  Pilate  informed  the  emperor  of  it,  as  like- 
wise of  his  miracles,  of  which  he  had  heard  ;  and  that, 
using  raised  up  after  he  had  been  put  to  death,  he 
was  already  believed  by  many  to  be  a  god"  (/-Jed. 
Hist-,  lib.  ii,  c.  2).  These  accounts  were  never  pub- 
lished for  general  perusal,  but  were  deposited  among 
the  archives  of  the  empire,  where  they  served  as  a 
fund  of  information  to  historians.  Hence  we  find, 
long  before  the  time  of  Eusebius,  that  the  primitive 
Christians,  in  their  disputes  with  the  Gentiles,  appeal- 
ed to  these  Acts  of  Pilate  as  to  most  undoubted  testi- 
mony. Thus,  Justin  Martyr,  in  his  first  Apology  for 
the  Christians,  which  was  presented  to  the  Emperor 
Antoninus  Pius  and  the  senate  of  Rome,  about  the 
year  140,  having  mentioned  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  some  of  its  attendant  circumstances,  adds, 
"  And  that  these  things  were  so  done,  3-011  may  know 
from  the  Acts  made  in  the  time  of  Pontius  Pilate."  Af- 
terward, in  the  same  Apology,  having  noticed  some 
of  our  Lord's  miracles,  such  as  healing  diseases  and 
raising  the  dead,  he  says,  "  And  that  these  things 
were  done  by  him  you  may  know  from  the  Acts  made 
in  the  time  of  Pontius  Pilate"  (Justin  Martyr,  Apol. 
Pr.  p.  G5,  72,  ed.  Benedict.). 

Tertullian,  in  his  Apology  for  Christianity,  about 
the  year  200,  after  speaking  of  our  Saviour's  crucifix- 
ion and  resurrection,  and  his  appearance  to  the  disci- 
ples and  ascension  into  heaven  in  the  sight  of  the 
same  disciples,  who  were  ordained  by  him  to  publish 
the  Gospel  over  the  world,  thus  proceeds:  "Of  all 
these  things  relating  to  Christ,  Pilate  himself,  in  his 
conscience  already  a  Christian,  sent  an  account  to  Ti- 
berius, then  emperor"  (Tertull.  Apolog.  c.  21).  The 
same  writer,  in  the  same  treatise,  thus  relates  the  pro- 
ceedings of  Tiberius  on  receiving  this  information : 
"  There  was  an  ancient  decree  that  no  one  should  be 
received  for  a  deity  unless  he  was  first  approved  by 
the  senate.  Tiberius,  in  whose  time  the  Christian  re- 
ligion had  its  rise,  having  received  from  Palestine  in 
Syria  an  account  of  such  things  as  manifested  the 
truth  of  his"  (Christ's)  "divinity,  proposed  to  the 
senate  that  he  should  be  enrolled  among  the  Roman 
gods,  and  gave  his  own  prerogative  vote  in  favor  of 
the  motion.  But  the  senate  rejected  it,  because  the 
emperor  himself  had  declined  the  same  honor.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  emperor  persisted  in  his  opinion,  and 
threatened  punishment  to  the  accusers  of  the  Chris- 
tians. Search  your  own  Commentaries,  or  public 
writings ;  you  will  there  find  that  Nero  was  the  first 
Who  raged  with  the  imperial  sword  against  this  sect, 
when  rising  most  at  Rome"  (Tertull.  Apolog.  c.  5). 

These  testimonies  of  Justin  and  Tertullian  are  taken 
from  public  apologies  for  the  Christian  religion,  which 
were  presented  either  to  the  emperor  and  senate  of 
Rom:-,  or  to  magistrates  of  public  authority  and  groat 
distinction  in  the  Roman  empire.     See  Pilate. 

Aou'a  (rather  Acud,  'AkovS  by  erroneous  tran- 
scription for  'Akov/3,  A  rub,  1  Esdr.  v,  31  ),  the  progen- 
itor of  one  of  the  families  of  the  temple-servants  (if- 
poSouXoL,  i.  e.  Nethinim),  said  to  have  returned  from 
the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  30)  ;  evidently  the  AlCKUB 
(q.  v.)  of  the  parallel  texts  (  Ezra  ii,  -15,  or,  rather, 
ver.  42;  comp.  Neh.  vii,  48,  where  the  name  is  not 
found). 

A'cub  (rather  Arvph,  'Ajcov<p  v.  r.  'Aico'v/i,  Acwm  ; 
both  corruptions  for  BtuqSovV),  another  head  of  the 
Nethinim  that  returned  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  31)  ; 


evidently  the  Bakbuk  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  texts 
(Ezra  ii,  51 ;  Neh.  vii,  53). 

Aczib.     See.  Acn/.ir.. 

Ad,  according  to  Arabian  traditions,  was  the  son 
of  Udh,  or  Uz  (the  grandson  of  Shem,  Gen.  x,  23), 
and  the  progenitor  of  a  powerful  tribe  called  the  Ad- 
ites,  who  settled  in  Er-liaml,  or  Sandy  Arabia  (Abulfe- 
da,  Hist.  Ai<t<islam.  p.  17,  ed.  Fleischer).  Like  the 
other  kindred  tribes  of  those  early  times,  the  Aditi  s 
soon  abandoned  the  true  worship  of  God,  and  set  up 
four  idols  whom  they  worshipped:  Sdkia,  whom  they 
imagined  to  supply  rain ;  Hafedha,  who  preserved  them 
from  all  foreign  and  external  dangers;  Razeka,  who 
provided  them  with  food;  and  Salema,  who  restored 
them  from  sickness  to  health  (Sale's  Koran,  p.  122, 
note).  It  is  said  that  God  commissioned  the  prophet 
Hud  or  Heber  to  attempt  their  reformation,  but,  re- 
maining obstinate  in  their  idolatry,  they  were  almost 
all  destroyed  by  a  suffocating  wind.  The  few  who 
escaped  retired  with  the  prophet  Hud  to  another  place. 
Before  this  severe  punishment  they  had  been  visited 
with  a  dreadful  drought  for  four  years,  which  killed 
their  cattle,  and  reduced  them  to  great  distress  (see 
D'Herbelot,  Bibl.  Or.  s.  v.  Houd).  They  are  often 
mentioned  in  the  Koran,  and  some  writers,  on  the  au- 
thority of  that  work,  affirm  that  they  were  of  gigantic 
stature.     See  Arabia. 

Adad,  the  Gra^cized  form  of  the  name  of  the  idol 
Iladad  (Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  5,  2);  also  a  less  correct 
form  of  the  name  of  King  Iladad  (1  Kings  xi,  17,  origi- 
nal).    See  Hadad. 

Ad'adall  (Heb.  Adadah,  Si1}?1??,  from  the  Syr., 
festival,  or  perhaps,  by  reduplication,  boundary  ;  Sept. 
'Adadd,  v.  r.  'ApovijX),  a  town  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Dimonah  and 
Kedesh  (Josh,  xv,  22)  ;  probably  situated  in  the  por- 
tion afterward  set  off  to  Simeon  (Josh,  xix,  1-9).  It 
is  possibly  the  village  Gadda  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  raSSa),  lying  on  the  east- 
ern border  of  Daroma,  opposite  the  Dead  Sea.  But  see 
Gadbaii.  M.  de  Saulcy  believes  that  he  passed  some 
rui'ns  by  this  name  on  his  way  from  the  southern  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea  to  Hebron  on  the  high  ground  after 
leaving  Wady  es-Zoweirah  {Narrative,  i,  3G0,  430). 

A'dah  (Heb.  Adah,  fllS,  ornament;  Sept.  'Ada), 
the  name  of  two  women. 

1.  The  first  named  of  the  two  wives  of  the  Cainite 
Lantech,  and  mother  of  Jabal  and  Jubal  (Gen.  iv,  19, 
20,  23).     B.C.  cir.  3600. 

2.  The  first  of  the  three  wives  of  Esau,  being  the 
daughter  of  Elon  the  llittite,  and  the  mother  of  Eli- 
phaz  (Gen.  xxxvi,  2,  4,  10,  12,  16).  B.C.  1964.  She 
is  elsewhere  confounded  with  Basiiematii  (Gen.  xxvi, 
34).     See  Esau. 

Adai'ah  (Heb.  Adayah,  fi",liS|i  adorned  by  Jeho- 
vah, once  in  the  prolonged  form  Adaya'hu,  WH",  2 
Chron.  xxiii,  1),  the  name  of  several  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'ASata  v.  r.  'Acai.)  The  son  of  Ethni 
and  father  of  Zerah,  of  the  Levitical  family  of  Ger- 
shom,  in  the  ancestry  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  vi,  40  I ;  ap- 
parently the  same  with  Iddo,  the  son  of  Joah  (ver.21 ). 
B.C.  cir.  1530.     See  Asaph. 

2.  (Sept.  'ASata  v.  r.  'AKata.)  A  son  of  Shimhi. 
and  chief  Benjamite  resident  at  Jerusalem  before  the 
captivity  (1  Chron.  viii,  21),  B.C.  long  post  1612. 

3.  (Sept.  'Adata,  v.  r.  'ASatJ)  The  father  ofMaasei- 
ali,  which  latter  was  a  "captain  of  hundred"  during 
the  protectorate  of  Jehoiada  (2 Chron.  xxiii,  I ).  B.C. 
ante  K77.  He  is  apparently  the  same  asJoDA  tin'  sou 
of  Joseph  and  father  of  Simeon,  among  ( Ihrist's  mater- 
nal ancestry  (  Luke  iii,  30).     See  GeNEALOGI  . 

4.  (Sept.'EoVid  v.  r.  'IeSia.)  The  father  of  Jedidah 
and  maternal  grandfather  of  King  Josiah,  a  native  of 
Boscath  (2  Kings  xxii,  1  >.      B.C.  ante  648. 

5.  (Sept.  'Adata  v.  r.  'Avni'«.)    A  son  of  Joiarib  and 


ADALBERT 


64 


ADAM 


father  of  Hazaiah,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Neh.  xi,  5). 
B.C.  considerably  ante  536. 

6.  A  priest,  son  of  Jeroham,  who  held  a  prominent 
post  in  defending  the  second  temple  while  building 
(1  Chron,  ix,  12,  Sept.  UlaCia  v.  r.  'Avaia ;  Neh.  xi, 
12,  'Acuta),  B.C.  518. 

7.  (Sept.  'Adata.)  A  "son"  of  Bani,  an  Israelite 
who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  captivity 
(Ezra  x,  29),  B.C.  459. 

8.  (Sept.  'AiViac  v-  r-  'Aeaia.)  Another  of  the 
'•  sons"  of  Bani,  who  did  likewise  (Ezra  x,  39),  B.C. 
459. 

Adalbert.     See  Adelbert. 

Adalbert,  archbishop  of  Prague,  was  born  of  a 
princely  Slavonic  family,  about  the  year  95G,  at  Prague. 
His  parents  sent  him  to  Magdeburg  to  enter  upon  his 
studies  under  the  archbishop  Adalbert,  who  gave  him 
his  own  name  at  confirmation.  Upon  his  return  into 
Bohemia,  touched  by  the  death-bed  remorse  of  Diet- 
mar,  bishop  of  Prague,  for  not  having  led  a  life  of 
greater  piety  and  activity,  he  at  once  assumed  a  peni- 
tential dress,  praying  fervently  and  giving  great  alms. 
In  983  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Prague  with  the 
unanimous  consent  of  the  people.  He  made  great  ef- 
forts to  promote  the  spiritual  welfare  of  his  flock, 
which  was  in  a  fearful  state  of  immorality:  among 
the  laity  polygamy,  and  among  the  clergy  inconti- 
nence were  general.  Had  he  been  less  impatient,  he 
might  doubtless  have  accomplished  much  more  than 
he  did.  Finding  all  his  labor  in  vain,  he  left  his  see 
in  989  by  permission  of  Pope  John  XV,  and  retired 
into  the  monastery  of  St.  Boniface,  at  Rome.  He  was, 
however,  constrained  to  return  to  his  bishopric,  which 
he  again  quitted  for  his  monastic  retreat;  and  again 
was  on  the  point  of  returning  to  it,  when,  finding  his 
people  set  against  him,  he  finally  forsook  it,  in  order 
to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Prussia,  where  he  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom, April  23,  997  (after  making  many  converts 
at  Dantzic  and  in  Pomerania),  at  the  hands  of  seven 
assassins,  whose  chief  was  an  idol-priest,  and  who 
pierced  him  with  seven  lances.  Since  that  period 
Adalbert  has  been  the  patron  saint  of  Poland  and  Bo- 
hemia. For  a  graphic  account  of  him,  see  Neander, 
Light  in  Dark  Places,  272.  The  Martyrologies  com- 
memorate him  on  the  23d  of  April. — Neander,  Ch.  Hist. 
iii,  322  ;  Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  April  23. 

Adalbert,  archbishop  of  Bremen  and  Hamburg, 
was  descended  from  a  noble  Saxon  family.  lie  served 
as  subdeacon  to  archbishop  Hermann  for  several  years, 
and  himself  received  that  office  in  1043  from  Henry 
III,  whom  in  1046  he  accompanied  to  Rome.  There 
he  barely  failed  of  election  to  the  papal  throne.  Pope 
Leo  IX,  in  whose  behalf  he  had  spoken  in  the  synod 
at  Mentz  in  1049,  made  him  in  1050  his  legate  in  the 
North.  Adalbert  intended,  with  the  support  of  the 
Emperor  Henry,  to  convert  the  archdiocese  of  Bre- 
men  into  a  northern  patriarchate,  which  was  to  be  in- 
dependent of  Rome,  and  embrace  the  sees  of  Northern 
Germanv,  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Eng- 
land. Henry  III  compelled  the  pope,  Clement  II  (one 
of  the  three  German  popes  who  were  in  succession 
elevated  to  tip.  papal  throne  by  Henry),  to  recognize 
Adalbert  as  his  p<-cr.  A  bull  is  still  extant  in  which 
the  pope  addressed  Adalbert  with  "  Vos,"  while  gen- 
craUy  the  popes  addressed  every  bishop  with  "Tu" 
(hence  the  principle,  Papa  neminem  vossitat).  But 
this  was  all  ended  by  a  bull  of  Pope  Leo  IX,  recog- 
nizing Adalbert  as  apostolic  vicar,  but  demanding 
fealty  to  the  Roman  see.  During  the  minority  of  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV  he  usurped,  together  with  arch- 
bishop Hanno  of  Cologne,  the  administration  of  the 
empire.  His  ambition  and  violence  made  him  so  ob- 
noxious to  the  German  princes  that,  in  1066,  they 
forcibly  separated  him  from  the  emperor;  but  in  1069 
he  regained  his  former  power,  and  kept  it  until  his 
death,  March  16,  1072.— Adam  Bremensis,  Gista  Hun- 


naburg.  pont'f.  ,•  Lappenberg,  Hamburgisehes  Urkun- 
denbuch ;  Stenzel,  Gesch.  Deutschlands  unter  den  friin- 
kischen  Kaiser n. 

Adaldagus,  archbishop  of  Hamburg  and  Bremen, 
lived  during  the  reigns  of  the  three  emperors  Otho 
(the  last  of  whom  died  1002),  and  enjoyed  great  influ- 
ence at  court,  where  he  held  the  office  of  chancellor. 
After  the  victory  which  Otho  I  gained  over  the  Danes, 
he  established  three  episcopal  sees  in  Jutland,  viz., 
Sleswick,  Ripen,  and  Arhusen.  He  baptized  Harold, 
king  of  Denmark,  and  sent  missionaries  among  the 
northern  nations. — Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  x,  pt.  i, 
ch.  i,  §  7. 

Adalgar,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Corby,  and  the 
companion  of  Rembertus,  or  Rheinbertus,  whom  he 
succeeded,  in  888,  in  the  archiepiscopal  chair  of  Ham- 
burg and  Bremen.  The  archbishop  of  Cologne  claim- 
ed supremacy  over  Cologne,  and  Pope  Formosus  cited 
Adalgar  to  appear  at  Rome  to  prove  his  rights  to  the 
archbishopric,  but  he  refused  both  to  attend  in  person 
and  to  send  a  deputy.  The  investigation  was  intrust- 
ed to  the  archbishop  of  Mayence,  who  decided  against 
Adalgar,  who  was  placed  among  the  lowest  bishops. 
The  archbishopric  was  restored  by  a  bull  of  Sergius 
III,  A.D.  905.  Adalgar  established  a  seminary  of 
priests  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  the  North, 
and  died  May  9,  909,  after  holding  the  see  for  nineteen 
years. 

Adalhard,  abbot  of  Corbie,  born  about  753,  died 
in  826.  He  was  a  son  of  Count  Bernard,  and  a  rela- 
tive of  Charles  Martel.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  op- 
pose the  pretensions  of  the  nobility,  and  to  preach 
openly  that  the  laws  must  be  equally  obeyedby  pa- 
tricians and  commoners.  Charlemagne  confided  to 
him  important  missions,  and  appointed  him  his  del- 
egate at  the  Council  of  Rome  in  809.  After  the  death 
of  this  emperor  he  fell  into  disfavor,  having  been  rep- 
resented by  the  nobility  to  Louis  the  Debonair  as  an 
ambitious  demagogue.  Mabillon  promised  to  publish 
the  52  sermons  of  Adalhard,  but  did  not  keep  his 
promise.  His  Statuta  Corbiensis  ecclesice  was  publish- 
ed, but  very  incorrectly,  by  d'Achery.  Many  other 
writings  of  Adalhard  are  still  scattered  and  inedited. 
Some  extracts  of  his  Libellus  de  Online  Palatii  were 
given  by  Hincmar.  See  Radbert,  Vita  8.  Adalhard* 
abbatis  Corbiensis,  1G17. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Gem-rale,  i,  218. 

Adali'a  (Heb.  Adalya',  N^x;  probably  of  Per- 
sian origin;  Sept.  BapiX  v.  r.  Bapsa,  Vulg.  Adaljd), 
the  fifth  of  the  ten  sons  of  Hainan  slain  by  the  Jews 
under  the  royal  edict  at  Shushan  (Esth.  ix,  8),  B.C. 
,473. 

Ad'am  (Heb.  A  dam',  CIS,  red  [see  Edom]  ;  hence 
iTC"1N,  the  ground,  from  the  ruddiness  of  flesh  and  of 
clayey  soil,  see  Gesenius.  Thes.  Heb.  p.  24,  25 ;  comp. 
Josephus,  Ant.  ii,  1;  Jonathan's  Targum  on  Gen.  ii, 
7  ;  Leusden,  Onomast,  s.  v.  ;  Marek,  Hist.  Paradisi,  ii, 
5),  the  name  of  a  man  and  a  place. 

1.  The  first  man,  whose  creation,  fall,  and  history 
are  detailed  by  Moses  in  Gen.  ii-v,  being  in  fact  the 
same  Hebrew  word  usually  rendered  "man"  (includ- 
ing woman  also,  Gen.  v,  1,  2),  but  often  used  distinc- 
tively with  the  article  (CiNri,  ha-Adam',  "the  man," 
Sept.  and  N.  T.  'Aiu'tp,  Josephus  "Aca/ioc,  Ant.  i,  1,  2), 
as  a  proper  name  (comp.  Tobit  viii,  0).  It  seems  at 
first  thought  somewhat  strange  that  the  head  of  the 
human  family  should  have  received  his  distinctive 
name  from  the  affinity  which  he  had,  in  the  lower  part 
of  his  nature,  to  the  dust  of  the  earth — that  he  should 
have  been  called  Adam,  as  being  taken  in  bis  bodily 
part  from  adamah,  the  ground;  the  more  especially  as 
the  name  was  not  assumed  by  man  himself,  but  im- 
posed by  God,  and  imposed  in  immediate  connection 
with  man's  destination  to  bear  the  image  of  God: 
"And  God  said,  Let  us  make  man  (Adam)  in  our 
image,  after  our  likeness,"  etc.     This  apparent  incon- 


ADAM 


65 


ADAM 


gruit}'  has  led  some,  in  particular  Eichcrs  (Die  ScTwp- 
fungs-,  Paradieses-  und  Siindfiuthsgesckichtc,  p.  163),  to 
adopt  another  etymology  of  the  term — to  make  Adam 
a  derivative  of  dainnh  (H^'l,  to  be  like,  to  resemble). 
Delitzseh,  however  (System  der  Bibl.  Psychologie,  p. 
49),  has  objected  to  this  view,  both  on  grammatical 
and  other  grounds  ;  and  though  we  do  not  see  the  force 
of  his  grammatical  objection  to  the  derivation  in  ques- 
tion, yet  we  think  he  puts  the  matter  itself  rightly, 
and  thereby  justifies  the  received  opinion.  Man's  name 
is  kindred  with  that  of  the  earth,  adamah,  not  because 
of  its  being  his  characteristic  dignity  that  God  made 
him  after  his  image,  but  because  of  this,  that  God  made 
after  his  image  one  who  had  been  taken  from  the 
earth.  The  likeness  to  God  man  had  in  common  with 
the  angels,  but  that,  as  the  possessor  of  this  likeness, 
he  should  be  Adam — this  is  what  brought  him  into 
union  with  two  worlds — the  world  of  spirit  and  the 
world  of  matter — rendered  him  the  centre  and  the 
bond  of  all  that  had  been  made,  the  fitting  topstone  of 
the  whole  work  of  creation,  and  the  motive  principle 
of  the  world's  history.  It  is  precisely  his  having  the 
image  of  God  in  an  earthen  vessel,  that,  while  made 
somewhat  lower  than  the  angels,  he  occupies  a  higher 
position  than  they  in  respect  to  the  affairs  of  this 
world  (Psa.  viii,  5 ;  Heb.  ii,  5). 

I.  History. — In  the  first  nine  chapters  of  Genesis 
there  appear  to  be  three  distinct  histories  relating 
more  or  less  to  the  life  of  Adam.  The  first  extends 
from  Gen.  i,  1  to  ii,  3,  the  second  from  ii,  4  to  iv,  26, 
the  third  from  v,  1  to  the  end  of  ix.  The  word 
(mSbin)  at  the  commencement  of  the  latter  two  nar- 
ratives, which  is  rendered  there  and  elsewhere  genera- 
tions, may  also  be  rendered  history.  The  style  of  the 
second  of  these  records  differs  very  considerably  from 
that  of  the  first.  In  the  first  the  Deity  is  designated 
by  the  word  Elohim;  in  the  second  he  is  generally 
spoken  of  as  Jehovah  Elohim.  The  object  of  the  first 
of  these  narratives  is  to  record  the  creation ;  that  of 
the  second  to  give  an  account  of  paradise,  the  original 
sin  of  man,  and  the  immediate  posterity  of  Adam  ;  the 
third  contains  mainly  the  history  of  Noah,  referring, 
it  would  seem,  to  Adam  and  his  descendants,  princi- 
pally in  relation  to  that  patriarch.  The  first  account 
of  the  creation  of  man  is  in  general  terms,  the  two 
sexes  being  spoken  of  together  (ch.  i,  27)  as  a  unit  of 
species  ;  whereas  in  the  second,  or  resumptive  account, 
the  separate  formation  of  the  man  and  the  woman  is 
detailed.  This  simple  consideration  reconciles  all  ap- 
parent discrepancy  between  the  two  narratives.— Smith, 
s.  v.     See  Genesis. 

The  representation  there  given  is  that  Adam  was 
absolutely  the  first  man,  and  was  created  by  the  di- 
rect agency  of  God;  that  this  act  of  creation,  including 
the  immediately  subsequent  creation  of  Eve,  was  the 
last  in  a  series  of  creative  acts  which  extended  through 
a  period  of  six  literal  days.  See  Creation.  This 
Scriptural  account  is,  of  course,  entirely  opposed  to 
the  atheistic  hypothesis,  which  denies  any  definite  be- 
ginning to  the  human  race,  but  conceives  the  succes- 
sive generations  of  men  to  have  run  on  in  a  kind  of 
infinite  series,  to  which  no  beginning  can  lie  assigned. 
Such  a  theory,  originally  propounded  by  heathen  phi- 
losophers, has  also  been  asserted  by  the  more  extreme 
section  of  infidel  writers  in  Christian  times.  But  the 
voice  of  tradition,  which,  in  all  the  more  ancient  na- 
tions, uniformly  points  to  a  comparatively  recent  pe- 
riod for  the  origin  of  the  human  family,  has  now  re- 
ceived conclusive  attestations  from  learned  research 
and  scientific  inquiry.  Not  only  have  the  remains  of 
human  art  and  civilization,  the  more  they  have  been 
explored,  yielded  more  convincing  evidence  of  a  pe- 
riod not  very  remote  when  the  human  family  itself 
was  in  infanc}%  but  the  languages  of  the  world  also, 
when  carefully  investigated  and  compared,  as  they 
have  of  late  been,  point  to  a  common  and  not  exceed- 


ingly remote  origin.  This  is  the  view  of  Sir  William 
Jones,  and,  later,  of  Bunsen  also.  The  same  conclu- 
sion substantially  is  reached  by  Dr.  Donaldson,  who, 
after  stating  what  has  already  been  accomplished  in 
this  department  of  learning,  expresses  his  conviction, 
on  the  ground  alone  of  the  affinities  of  language,  that 
"investigation  willfully  confirm  what  the  great  apos- 
tle proclaimed  in  the  Areopagus,  that  God  hath  made, 
of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men  for  to  dwell  on  all  the 
face  of  the  earth"  (New  Cratylus,  p.  19).  The  i  option 
is  still  further  confirmed  by  the  results  that  have  been 
gained  in  the  region  of  natural  science.  The  most 
skilful  and  accomplished  naturalists — such  as  Cuvier, 
Blumenbach,  Pritchard— have  established  beyond  any 
reasonable  doubt  the  unity  of  the  human  family  as  a 
species  (see  particularly  Pritchard's  History  of  Man); 
and  those  who  have  prosecuted  geological  researches, 
while  the)'  have  found  remains  in  the  different  strata 
of  rocks  of  numberless  species  of  inferior  animals,  can 
point  to  no  human  petrifactions — none,  at  least,  but 
what  appear  in  some  comparatively  recent  and  local 
formations — a  proof  that  man  is  of  too  late  an  origin 
for  his  remains  to  have  mingled  with  those  of  the  ex- 
tinct animal  tribes  of  preceding  ages.  Science  gen- 
erally can  tell  of  no  separate  creations  for  animals  of 
one  and  the  same  species  ;  and  while  all  "geologic  his- 
tory is  full  of  the  beginnings  and  the  ends  of  species, 
"it  exhibits  no  genealogies  of  development"  (Miller's 
Testimony  of  the  Rocks,  p.  201).  That,  when  created, 
man  must  have  been  formed  in  full  maturity,  as  Adam 
is  related  to  have  been,  was  a  necessity  arising  from 
the  very  conditions  of  existence.  It  has  been  discov- 
ered, by  searching  into  the  remains  of  preceding  ages 
and  generations  of  living  creatures,  that  there  has 
been  a  manifest  progress  in  the  succession  of  beings  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth — a  progress  in  the  direction 
of  an  increasing  resemblance  to  the  existing  forms  of 
being,  and  in  particular  to  man.  But  the  connection 
between  the  earlier  and  the  later,  the  imperfect  and 
the  perfect,  is  not  that  of  direct  lineage  or  parental 

'  descent,  as  if  it  came  in  the  way  merely  of  natural 
growth  and  development.  The  connection,  as  Agassiz 
has  said  in  his  Principles  of  Zoology,  "is  <  f  a  higher 
and  immaterial  nature ;  it  is  to  be  sought  in  the  view 
of  the  Creator  himself,  whose  aim  in  forming  the 
earth,  in  allowing  it  to  undergo  the  successive  changes 
which  geology  has  pointed  out,  and  in  creating  succcs- 

'  sively  all  the  different  types  of  animals  which  have 

'  passed  away,  was  to  introduce  man  upon  the  surface 
of  our  globe.  Man  is  the  end  toward  which  the  animal 
creation  has  tended  from  the  first  appearance  of  the  first 

\  pnlceozoic  fishes."— Ya.ixha.irn,  s.  v.     See  Geology. 

!  The  Almighty  formed  Adam  out  of  the  dust  of  the 
earth,  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath  of  life,  and 
gave  him  dominion  over  all  the  lower  creatures  (Gen. 
i,  26  ;  ii,  7),  B.C.  4172.  He  created  him  in  his  own 
image  [see  Perfection],  and,  having  pronounced  a 
blessing  upon  him,  placed  him  in  a  delightful  garden, 
that  he  might  cultivate  it  and  enjoy  its  fruits.  See 
Eden.     At  the  same  time,  however,  he  gave  him  the 

!  following  injunction:  "Of  the  tree  of  knowledge  of 
good  and  evil  thou  shalt  not  eat;  for  in  the  day  thou 
eatest  thereof  thou  shalt  surely  die."  The  first  re- 
corded exercise  of  Adam's  power  and  intelligence  was 

I  his  giving  names  to  the  beasts  of  the  field  and  fowls 
of  the  air,  which  the  Lord  brought  before  him  for  this 
purpose.  The  examination  thus  afforded  him  having 
shown  tint  it  was  not  good  for  man  to  lie  alone,  the 
Lord  caused  a  deep  sloop  to  fall  upon  Adam,  and  while 
he  remained  in  a  semi-conscious  state  took  one  of  hill 
ribs,  and  closed  up  the  flesh  ;  and  of  the  rib  thus  taken 
from  man  he  made  a  woman,  whom  he  presented  to 
him  when  he  awoke.  See  Eve.  Adam  received  her, 
saying,  "This  is  now  bone  of  my  bone,  and  flesh  of 
my  flesh  j  she  shall  be  called  woman,  because  she  was 
taken  out  of  man."     See  MARRIAGE. 

This  woman,  being  seduced  by  the  tempter,  per- 


ADAM 


ADAM 


suaded  her  husband  to  eat  of  the  forbidden  fruit  (eomp. 
Theuer,  De  Adamo  lapso,  divortiwm  c.  Eva  cogitante, 
Jen.  1759).  When  called  to  judgment  for  this  trans- 
gression before  God,  Adam  blamed  his  wife,  and  the 
woman  blamed  the  serpent-tempter.  God  punished  the 
tempter  by  degradation  and  dread  [see  Serpent]  ;  the 
woman  by  painful  travail  and  a  situation  of  submis- 
sion ;  and  the  man  by  a  life  of  labor  and  toil- — of  which 
punishment  every  day  witnesses  the  fulfilment.  See 
Fall.  As  their  natural  passions  now  became  irregu- 
lar, and  their  exposure  to  accidents  great,  God  made  a 
covering  of  skin  for  Adam  and  for  his  wife.  He  also 
expelled  them  from  his  garden  to  the  land  around  it, 
where  Adam  had  been  made,  and  where  was  to  be  their 
future  dwelling ;  placing  at  the  east  of  the  garden  a 
flame,  which  turned  every  way,  to  prevent  access  to 
the  tree  of  life  (Gen.  iii).— Calmet,  s.  v.     See  Death. 

It  is  not  known  how  long  Adam  and  his  wife  con- 
tinued in  Paradise :  some  think  many  years ;  others 
not  many  days ;  others  not  many  hours.  Shortly 
after  their  expulsion  Eve  brought  forth  Cain  (Gen.  iv, 
1,  2).  Scripture  notices  but  three  sons  of  Adam,  Cain, 
Abel,  and  Seth  (q.  v.),  but  contains  an  allusion  (Gen. 
v,  4)  to  "  sons  and  daughters  ;"  no  doubt  several.  He 
died  B.C.  3242,  aged  930  (see  Bruckner,  Ob  Adam  wirk- 
lich  iib.  900  J.  alt  geworden,  Aurich,  1799).  See  Lon- 
gevity. 

Such  is  the  simple  narrative  of  the  Bible  relative  to 
the  progenitor  of  the  human  race,  to  which  it  only  re- 
mains to  add  that  his  faith  doubtless  recognised  in  the 
promise  of  "the  woman's  seed"  that  should  "bruise 
the  serpent's  head"  the  atoning  merits  of  the  future 
Redeemer.  See  Messiah.  Whatever  difficulties  we 
may  find  in  the  Scriptural  account,  we  accept  it  as  a 
literal  statement  of  facts,  and  shall  therefore  dismiss 
the  rationalistic  theories  and  speculations  to  which  it 
has  given  rise.  The  results  are  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance to  mankind,  and  the  light  that  the  Bible  thus 
sheds  upon  the  origin  of  the  race  and  the  source  of 
human  depravity  is  of  inestimable  value  even  in 
a  historical  and  philosophical  point  of  view.  See 
Man. 

See,  generally,  Eichhorn's  Urgesch.  ed.  Gabler 
(Nurnb.  1790);  Hug,  Mos.  Gesch.  (Frankf.  und  Leipz. 
1790).  Buttman  has  collected  the  parallels  of  heathen 
mythology  in  the  Neue  Berl.  Monatsschr.  1804,  p.  261 
sq. ;  also  in  his  Mythologus,  i,  122  sq. ;  comp.  Gesenius, 
in  the  Hall.  Encylcl.  i,  358.  In  the  Hindoo  sacred  books 
the  first  human  pair  are  called  Meshii  and  Meshiam 
{Zend  Avesta,  i,  23 ;  iii,  84).  For  the  Talmudic  fables 
respecting  Adam,  see  Eisenmenger,  Enldecht.  Judenth. 
i,  84-365,  830;  ii,  417;  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  9  sq. 
Those  of  the  Koran  arc  found  in  Sura  ii,  SO  sq. ;  vii, 
11  sq. ;  see  Hottinger,  Hist.  Orient,  p.  21 ;  comp. 
D'Herbelot,  Biblioth.  Or.  s.  v.  Christian  traditions 
may  be  seen  in  Epiphan.  Har.  xlvi,  2  sq. ;  Augustine, 
Civ.  He!,  xiv,  17 ;  Cedrenus,  Hist.  p.  6,  9 ;  see  espe- 
cially Fabricii  Codex  Pseudepiffrapkus  Vet.  Test,  i,  1  sq. 
The  Vulgate,  in  Josh,  xiv,  15,  ranks  Adam  among  the 
Anakim  ;  see  Gotze,  Quanta  Aelami siatura  fuerit  (Lips. 
1722);  comp.  Edzardi,  Ad  Cod.  Avoda  Sara,  p.  530 
sq.     See  Antediluvians. 

II.  The  question  of  the  unity  of  the  human  race,  or 
the  descent  of  the  race  from  a  single  pair,  has  given 
rise  to  much  discussion  of  late,  after  it  had  been 
thought  to  be  finally  settled.  It  may  be  stated  thus  : 
"  Did  the  Almighty  Creator  produce  only  one  man  and 
one  woman,  from  whom  all  other  human  beings  have 
descended?  or  did  he  create  several  parental  pairs, 
from  whom  distinct  stocks  of  men  have  been  derived? 
The  question  is  usually  regarded  as  equivalent  to  this  : 
whether  or  not  there  is  more  than  one  species  of  men? 
But  we  cannot,  in  strict  fairness,  admit  that  the  ques- 
tions are  identical.  It  is  hypothetieally  conceivable 
that  the  adorable  God  might  give  existence  to  any 
number  of  creatures,  which  should  all  possess  the 
properties  that  characterize  identity  of  species,  even 


without  such  differences  as  constitute  varieties,  or 
with  any  degree  of  those  differences.  But  the  admis- 
sion of  the  possibility  is  not  a  concession  of  the  reality. 
So  great  is  the  evidence  in  favor  of  the  derivation  of 
the  entire  mass  of  human  beings  from  one  pair  of  an- 
cestors, that  it  has  obtained  the  suffrage  of  the  men 
most  competent  to  judge  upon  a  question  of  compara- 
tive anatomy  and  physiology. 

"  (1.)  The  animals  which  render  eminent  services 
to  man,  and  peculiarly  depend  upon  his  protection,  are 
widely  diffused — the  horse,  the  dog,  the  hog,  the  do- 
mestic fowl.  Now  of  these,  the  varieties  in  each 
species  are  numerous  and  different,  to  a  degree  so  great 
that  an  observer  ignorant  of  physiological  history 
would  scarcely  believe  them  to  be  of  the  same  species. 
But  man  is  the  most  widely  diffused  of  an}-  animal. 
In  the  progress  of  ages  and  generations,  he  has  natu- 
ralized himself  to  every  climate,  and  to  modes  of  life 
which  would  prove  fatal  to  an  individual  man  sudden- 
ly transferred  from  a  remote  point  of  the  field.  The 
alterations  produced  affect  every  part  of  the  body,  in- 
ternal and  external,  without  extinguishing  the  marks 
of  the  specific  identity. 

"  (2.)  A  further  and  striking  evidence  is,  that  when 
persons  of  different  varieties  are  conjugally  united,  the 
offspring,  especially  in  two  or  three  generations,  be- 
comes more  prolific,  and  acquires  a  higher  perfection 
in  physical  and  mental  qualities  than  was  found  in 
either  of  the  parental  races.  From  the  deepest  African 
black  to  the  finest  Caucasian  white,  the  change  runs 
through  imperceptible  gradations  ;  and,  if  a  middle 
hue  be  assumed,  suppose  some  tint  of  brown,  all  the 
varieties  of  complexion  may  be  explained  upon  the 
principle  of  divergence  influenced  by  outward  circum- 
stances. Mr.  Poinsett  saw  in  South  America  a  fine 
healthy  regiment  of  spotted  men,  quite  peculiar  enough 
to  be  held  by  Professor  Agassiz  a  separate  race.  And 
why  were  they  not?  Simply  because  they  were  a 
known  cross-breed  between  Spaniards  and  Indians. 
Changes  as  great  are  exhibited  by  the  Magyars  of 
Europe,  and  by  the  Ulster  Irish,.as  quoted  b}r  Miller. 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  was  of  opinion  that  a  climatic  change 
was  already  perceptible  in  the  negro  of  our  Southern 
states.  Professor  Cabell  {Testimony  of  Modem  Science, 
etc.)  ably  and  clearly  sustains  the  doctrine  that  propa- 
gability  is  conclusive  proof  of  sameness  of  species. 
He  denies,  on  good  authority,  that  the  mulatto  is 
feebler  or  less  prolific  than  either  unmixed  stock.  He 
furnishes  abundant  proof  of  the  barrenness  of  hybrids. 
The  fact  that  the  connection  of  different  varieties  of 
the  human  species  produces  a  prolific  progeny,  is  proof 
of  oneness  of  species  and  family.  This  argument, 
sustained  by  facts,  can  hardly  be  considered  less  than 
demonstration. 

"  (3.)  The  objection  drawn  from  the  improbability 
that  the  one  race  springing  from  a  single  locality 
would  migrate  from  a  pleasanter  to  a  worse  region  is 
very  completely  dispatched.  Ample  causes,  proofs, 
facts,  and  authorities  are  furnished  to  show  that,  were 
mankind  now  reduced  to  a  single  family:  only  time 
would  be  wanting,  even  without  civilization,  to  over- 
spread the  earth.  European  man  and  European- 
American  man,  as  all  history  agrees,  came  from  Asia. 
Whence  came  our  aboriginal  men?  As  Professor 
Cabell  shows,  they  came  by  an  antipodal  route  from 
the  same  Asia.  Pursue  the  investigation,  and  the 
clue  of  history  will  lead  our  tremulous  feet  to  about 
the  Mosaic  cradle  of  man. 

"  (4.)  Ethnology,  or  rather  Glottology,  the  gradu- 
ally perfecting  comparison  of  languages,  is  bringing 
us  to  the  same  point.  The  unscientific  attempt  to 
trace  the  striking  analogies  of  languages  to  the  mere 
similarity  of  human  organs,  and  the  still  more  unscien- 
tific attempt  of  Professor  Agassiz  to  attri Irate  them  to  a 
transcendental  mental  unity  in  races  sprung  from  dif- 
ferent original  localities,  look  like  desperation.  Mean- 
while, comparison  is  educing  wonderful  yet   rarely 


ADAM 


67 


ADAM 


demonstrative  laws,  and  laws  are  guiding  threads  con- 
verging to  unity. 

"  (5.)  Another  argument  is  derived  from  the  real 
mental  unity  of  the  universal  human  soul.  Races  dif- 
fer, indeed,  in  mental  power,  as  do  individuals,  wide- 
ly, even  in  the  same  family.  But  there  is  the  same 
programme  of  mental  philosophy  for  all.  The  same 
intellect,  affections,  instincts,  conscience,  sense  of  su- 
perior divine  power,  and  susceptibility  of  religion.  For 
the  European,  the  Esquimaux,  the  Hottentot,  there  is 
the  same  power  in  the  cross  of  Christ. 

"(6.)  Finally,  Geology,  with  her  wonderful  demon- 
stration of  the  recent  origin  of  man,  proves  the  same 
thing.  The  latest  attempts  to  adduce  specimens  of 
fossil  man  have  been  failures.  Not  far  back  of  the 
period  that  our  best  but  somewhat  hypothetical  cal- 
culations from  Mosaic  chronology  would  assign,  Geol- 
ogy fixes  the  birth  of  man. 

"  The  conclusion  may  be  fairly  drawn,  in  the  words 
of  the  able  translators  and  illustrators  of  Baron  Cuvier's 
great  work :  '  We  are  fully  warranted  in  concluding, 
both  from  the  comparison  of  man  with  inferior  ani- 
mals, so  far  as  the  inferiority  will  allow  of  such  com- 
parison, and,  beyond  that,  by  comparing  him  with  him- 
self, that  the  great  family  of  mankind  loudly  proclaim 
a  descent,  at  some  period  or  other,  from  one  common 
origin.' 

"  Thus,  by  an  investigation  totally  independent  of 
historical  authority,  we  are  brought  to  the  conclusion 
of  the  inspired  writings,  that  the  Creator  '  hath  made 
of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men,  for  to  dwell  on  all  the 
face  of  the  earth'  (Acts  xvii,  26)."  The  more  recent 
authorities  on  this  question  are :  Prichard,  Researches 
into  the  Physiological  History  of  Mankind  (Lond.  4  vols. 
8vo,  1836-44)  ;  also  Natural  History  of  Man  (London, 
3d  ed.  8vo,  1848)  ;  Bachman,  Unity  of  the  Human  Race 
(Charleston,  1850,  8vo) ;  Smyth,  Unity  of  the  Races 
(New  York,  1850)  ;  Johnes,  Philological  Proofs  of  the 
Unity  of  the  Human  Race  (London,  1846) ;  Meth.  Qu. 
Rev.  July,  1851,  p.  345;  Jan.  1859,  p.  162;  Cabell, 
Testimony  of  Modern  Science  to  the  Unity  of  Mankind 
(New  York,  1858,  12mo).  See  also  Blumenbach,  De 
gen.  hum.  Var.  Nativa  (Gott.  1776,  8vo)  ;  Quatrefages, 
in  Rev.  des  Deux  Mondes,  L861 ;  and  the  article  Man. 

III.  The  original  capacities  and  condition  of  the  first 
human  pair  have  also  formed  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion. It  will  be  found,  however,  that  the  best  con- 
clusions of  reason  on  this  point  harmonize  fully  with 
the  brief  Scriptural  account  of  the  facts  as  they  were. 

1.  It  is  evident,  upon  a  little  reflection,  and  the 
closest  investigation  confirms  the  conclusion,  that  the 
first  human  pair  must  have  been  created  in  a  state 
equivalent  to  that  which  all  subsequent  human  beings 
have  had  to  reach  by  slow  degrees,  in  growth,  experi- 
ence, observation,  imitation,  and  the  instruction  of 
others  ;  that  is,  a  state  of  prime  maturity,  and  with  an 
infusion,  so  to  speak,  of  knowledge  and  habits,  both 
physical  and  intellectual,  suitable  to  the  place  which 
man  had  to  occupy  in  the  system  of  creation,  and  ade- 
quate to  his  necessities  in  that  place.  Had  it  been 
otherwise,  the  new  beings  could  not  have  preserved 
their  animal  existence,  nor  have  held  rational  converse 
with  each  other,  ncr  have  paid  to  their  Creator  the 
homage  of  knowledge  and  hive,  adoration  and  obedi- 
ence; and  reason  clearly  tells  us  that  the  last  was  the 
noblest  end  of  existence.  The  Bible  coincides  with 
this  dictate  of  honest  reason,  expressing  these  facts  in 
simple  and  artless  language :  "  And  Jehovah  God 
formed  the  man  [Heb.  the  Adam],  dust  from  the  ground 
[ka-adamali],  and  blew  into  his  nostrils  the  breath  of 
life ;  and  the  man  became  a  living  animal"  (Gen.  ii, 
7).  Here  are  two  objects  of  attention,  the  organic 
mechanism  of  the  human  bod}-,  and  the  vitality  with 
which  it  was  endowed,  (a.)  The  mechanical  material, 
formed  (moulded,  or  arranged,  as  an  artificer  models 
clay  or  wax)  into  the  human  and  all  other  animal 
bodies,  is  called  "dust  from  the  ground."     This  ex- 


pression conveys,  in  a  general  form,  the  idea  of  earthy 
■matter,  the  constituent  substance  of  the  ground  on 
which  we  tread.  To  say  that  of  this  the  human  and 
every  other  animal  body  was  formed,  is  a  position 
which  would  be  at  once  the  most  easily  apprehensible 
to  an  uncultivated  mind,  and  which  yet  is  the  most 
exactly  true  upon  the  highest  philosophical  grounds. 
We  now  know,  from  chemical  analysis,  that  the  ani- 
mal bod}-  is  composed,  in  the  inscrutable  manner  call- 
ed organization,  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
lime,  iron,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  Now  all  these 
are  mineral  substances,  which  in  their  various  combi- 
nations form  a  very  large  part  of  the  solid  ground. 
(b.)  The  expression  which  we  have  rendered  "living 
animal"  sets  bef.ire  us  the  organic  life  of  the  animal 
frame,  that  mysterious  something  which  man  can- 
not create  nor  restore,  which  baffles  the  most  acute 
philosophers  to  search  out  its  nature,  and  which  rea- 
son combines  with  Scripture  to  refer  to  the  immediate 
agency  of  the  Almighty — "  in  him  we  live,  and  move, 
and  have  our  being." 

2.  But  the  Scripture  narrative  also  declares  that 
"  God  created  man  in  his  own  image:  in  the  image  of 
God  created  he  him ;  male  and  female  created  he 
them"  (Gen.  i,  27).  The  image  (resemblance,  such  as 
a  shadow  bears  to  the  object  which  casts  it)  of  God  is 
an  expression  which  breathes  at  once  primitive  sim- 
plicity and  the  most  recondite  wisdom ;  for  what  term 
could  the  most  cultivated  and  copious  language  bring 
forth  more  suitable  to  the  purpose  ?  It  presents  to  us 
man  as  made  in  a  resemblance  to  the  Author  of  his 
being,  a  true  resemblance,  but  faint  and  shadowy ;  an 
outline,  faithful  according  to  its  capacity,  yet  infinite- 
ly remote  from  the  reality  :  a  distant  form  of  the  in- 
telligence, wisdom,  power,  rectitude,  goodness,  and  do- 
minion, of  the  Adorable  Supreme.  As  to  the  precise 
characteristics  of  excellence  in  which  this  image  con- 
sists, theologians  have  been  much  divided.  Tertuh- 
lian  (Adv.  Marc,  ii,  5,  6)  placed  it  in  the  faculties  of 
the  soul,  especially  in  the  power  of  choice  between 
good  and  evil.  Among  the  fathers  generally,  and  the 
schoolmen  after  them,  there  were  many  different  the- 
ories, nor  are  the  later  theologians  at  all  more  unani- 
mous. Many  unnecessary  disputes  would  have  been 
avoided  by  the  recognition  of  the  simple  fact  that  the 
phrase  the  image  of  God  is  a  very  comprehensive  one, 
and  is  used  in  the  Bible  in  more  than  one  sense.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  best  writers  speak  of  the  image  of  God 
as  twofold,  Natural  and  Moral. 

(a.)  Natural. — The  notion  that  the  original  resem- 
blance of  man  to  God  must  be  placed  in  some  one 
quality  is  destitute  of  proof  either  from  Scripture  or 
reason  ;  a*nd  we  are,  in  fact,  taught  that  it  comprises 
also  what  is  so  far  from  being  essential  that  it  may  be 
both  lost  and  regained.  (1.)  When  God  is  called 
"the  Father  of  Spirits,"  a  likeness  is  suggested  be- 
tween man  and  God  in  the  spirituality  of  their  nature. 
This  is  also  implied  in  the  striking  argument  of  St. 
Paul  with  the  Athenians:  "Forasmuch,  then,  as  we 
are  the  offspring  of  God,  we  ought  not  to  think  that 
the  Godhead  is  like  unto  gold,  or  silver,  or  stone, 
graven  by  art  and  man's  device;"  plainly  referring 
to  the  idolatrous  statues  by  which  God  was  represent- 
ed among  heathens.  If  likeness  to  God  in  man  con- 
sisted in  bodily  shape,  this  would  not  have  been  an 
argument  against  human  representations  of  the  Deity  ; 
but  it  imports,  as  Howe  well  expresses  it.  that  "we 
are  to  understand  that  our  resemblance  to  him,  as  we 
arc  his  offspring,  lies  in  some  higher,  more  noble,  and 
more  excellent  thing,  of  which  there  can  be  no  figure  ; 
as  who  can  tell  how  to  give  the  figure  or  image  of  a 
thought,  or  of  the  mind  or  thinking  power?"  In 
spirituality,  and,  consequently,  immateriality,  this  im- 
age of  God  in  man,  then,  in  the  first  instance,  consists. 
(2.)  The  sentiment  expressed  in  Wisdom  ii,  23,  is  an 
evidence  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  Jews,  tin 
image   of  God  in   man  comprised   immortality   also. 


ADAM 


68 


ADAM 


"  For  Gud  created  man  to  be  immortal,  and  made  him 
to  be  an  image  of  his  own  eternity  ;"  and  though  oth- 
er creatures  were  made  capable  of  immortality,  and  at 
least  the  material  human  frame,  whatever  we  may 
think  of  the  case  of  animals,  would  have  escaped 
death  had  not  sin  entered  the  world ;  yet,  without 
admitting  the  absurdity  of  the  "natural  immortality" 
cf  the  human  soul,  that  essence  must  have  been  con- 
stituted immortal  in  a  high  and  peculiar  sense,  which 
has  ever  retained  its  prerogative  of  continued  dura- 
tion amid  the  universal  death  not  only  of  animals  but 
of  the  bodies  of  all  human  beings.  There  appears 
also  a  manifest  allusion  to  man's  immortality,  as  be- 
ing included  in  the  image  of  God,  in  the  reason  which 
is  given  in  Genesis  for  the  law  which  inflicts  death  on 
murderers:  "Whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man 
shall  his  blood  be  shed  :  for  in  the  image  of  God  made 
he  man."  The  essence  of  the  crime  of  homicide  is  not 
confined  here  to  the  putting  to  death  the  mere  animal 
part  of  man  ;  and  it  must,  therefore,  lie  in  the  pecu- 
liar value  of  life  to  an  immortal  being,  accountable  in 
another  state  for  the  actions  done  in  this,  and  whoso 
life  ought  to  be  specially  guarded  for  this  very  reason, 
that  death  introduces  him  into  changeless  and  eternal 
relations,  which  were  not  to  be  left  to  the  mercy  of 
human  passions.  (3.)  The  intellectud  faculties  of  man 
form  a  third  feature  in  his  natural  likeness  to  God. 
Some,  indeed  (e.  g.  Philo),  have  placed  the  whole  like- 
ness in  the  vovq,  or  rational  soul.  (4.)  The  will,  or 
power  of  choice  and  volition,  is  the  last  of  these  fea- 
tures. They  are  all  essential  and  ineffaceable.  Man 
could  not  be  man  without  them. 

(b.)  Moral. — (1.)  There  is  an  express  allusion  to  the 
moral  image  of  God,  in  which  man  was  at  first  cre- 
ated, in  Colossians  iii,  10:  "And  have  put  on  the 
new  man,  which  is  renewed  in  knowledge,  after  the 
image  of  Him  that  created  him ;"  and  in  Ephesians 
iv,  24:  "Put  on  the  new  man,  which  after  God  is 
created  in  righteousness  and  true  holiness."  In  these 
passages  the  apostle  represents  the  change  produced 
in  true  Christians  by  the  Gospel,  as  a  "renewal  of 
the  image  of  God  in  man ;  as  a  new  or  second  creation 
in  that  image;"  and  he  explicitly  declares,  that  that 
image  consists  in  "knowledge,"  in  "righteousness," 
and  in  "  true  holiness."  (2.)  This  also  may  be  final- 
ly argued  from  the  satisfaction  with  which  the  histo- 
rian of  the  creation  represents  the  Creator  as  viewing 
the  works  of  his  hands  as  "very  good,"  which  was 
pronounced  with  reference  to  each  of  them  individ- 
ually, as  well  as  to  the  whole:  "And  God  saw  even/ 
thing  that  he  had  made,  and  behold  it  was  very  good." 
But,  as  to  man,  this  goodness  must  necessarily  imply 
moral  as  well  as  physical  qualities.  A  rational  crea- 
ture, as  such,  is  capable  of  knowing,  loving,  serving, 
and  living  in  communion  with  the  Most  Holy  One. 
Adam,  at  first,  did  or  did  not  exert  this  capacity;  if 
he  did  nut,  he  was  not  very  good— not  good  at  all. 

3.  On  the  intellectual  and  moral  endowments  of  the 
progenitor  of  the  human  race,  extravagant  views  have 
been  taken  on  both  sides,  (a.)  In  knowledge,  some 
have  thought  him  little  inferior  to  the  angels;  others, 
as  furnished  with  but  the  simple  elements  of  science 
and  of  language.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that,  as  to 
capacity,  his  intellect  must  have  been  vigorous  be- 
yond that  of  any  of  his  fallen  descendants  ;  which  it- 
self  givea  us  very  high  views  of  the  strength  of  his 
understanding,  although  we  should  allow  him  to  have 
been  created  "  lower  than  the  angels."  As  to  his  act- 
in  i!  knowledge,  that  would  depend  upon  the  time  and 
opportunity  lie  had  for  observing  the  nature  and  laws 
of  the  objects  around  him;  and  the  degree  in  which 
he  was  favored  with  revelations  from  God  on  moral 
and  religious  subjects.  The  "knowledge"  in  which 
the  Apostle  Paul,  in  the  passage  quoted  above  from 
Colossians  iii,  10,  places  "  the  image  of  God"  after 
which  man  was  created,  dors  not  merely  imply  the 
faculty  of  understanding,  which  is  a  part  of  the  natu- 


ral image  of  God,  but  that  which  might  be  lost,  be- 
cause it  is  that  in  which  we  may  be  "renewed."  It 
is,  therefore,  to  be  understood  of  the  faculty  of  knowl- 
edge in  right  exercise ;  and  of  that  willing  reception, 
and  firm  retaining,  and  heart}-  approval  of  religious 
truth,  in  which  knowledge,  when  spoken  of  morally, 
is  always  understood  in  the  Scriptures.  We  may  not 
be  disposed  to  allow,  with  some,  that  Adam  under- 
stood the  deep  philosophy  of  nature,  and  could  com- 
prehend and  explain  the  sublime  mysteries  of  religion. 
The  circumstance  of  his  giving  names  to  the  animals 
is  certainly  no  sufficient  proof  of  his  having  attained 
to  a  philosophical  acquaintance  with  their  qualities 
and  distinguishing  habits,  although  we  should  allow 
their  names  to  be  still  retained  in  the  Hebrew,  and  to 
be  as  expressive  of  their  peculiarities  as  some  exposi- 
tors have  stated.  Sufficient  time  appears  not  to  have 
been  afforded  him  for  the  study  of  the  properties  of 
animals,  as  this  event  took  place  previous  to  the  for- 
mation of  Eve  ;  and  as  for  the  notion  of  his  acquiring 
knowledge  by  intuition,  this  is  contradicted  by  the 
revealed  fact  that  angels  themselves  acquire  their 
knowledge  by  observation  and  stud}',  though,  no 
doubt,  with  great  rapidity  and  certainty.  The  whole 
j  of  this  transaction  was  supernatural;  the  beasts  were 
"  brought"  to  Adam,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  named 
them  under  a  Divine  suggestion.  That  his  under- 
standing was,  as  to  its  capacity,  deep  and  large  be- 
yond any  of  his  posterity,  must  follow  from  the  per- 
fection in  which  he  was  created ;  and  his  acquisitions 
of  knowledge  would,  therefore,  be  rapid  and  easy.  It 
was,  however,  in  moral  and  religious  truth,  as  being 
of  the  first  concern  to  him,  that  we  are  to  suppose  the 
excellency  of  his  knowledge  to  have  consisted.  "  His 
reason  would  be  clear,  his  judgment  uncorrupted,  and 
his  conscience  upright  and  sensible."  The  best  knowl- 
edge would,  in  him,  be  placed  first,  and  that  of  every 
other  kind  be  made  subservient  to  it,  according  to 
its  relation  to  that.  The  apostle  adds  to  knowledge 
"righteousness  and  true  holiness;"  terms  which  ex- 
press, not  merely  freedom  from  sin,  but  positive  and 
■  active  virtue. 

Sober  as  these  views  of  man's  primitive  state  are, 
I  it  is  not,  perhaps,  possible  for  us  fully  to  conceive  of 
so  exalted  a  condition  as  even  this.  Below  this  stand- 
i  ard  it  could  not  fall ;  and  that  it  implied  a  glory,  and 
J  dignity,  and  moral  greatness  of  a  very  exalted  kind, 
I  is  made  sufficiently  apparent  from  the  degree  of  guilt 
j  charged  upon  Adam  when  he  fell ;  for  the  aggravating 
j  circumstances  of  his  offence  may  well  be  deduced  from 
the  tremendous  consequences  which  followed. 
I  (6.)  As  to  Adam's  moral  perfection,  it  has  sometimes 
|  been  fixed  at  an  elevation  which  renders  it  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  conceive  how  he  could  fall  into  sin 
at  all.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  deny  the  doc- 
trine of  our  hereditary  depravity,  delight  to  represent 
Adam  as  little  superior  in  moral  perfection  and  capa- 
bility to  his  descendants.  But  if  we  attend  to  the 
passages  of  Holy  Writ  above  quoted,  we  shall  be  able, 
on  this  subject,  to  ascertain,  if  not  the  exact  degree 
of  his  moral  endowments,  yet  that  there  is  a  certain 
standard  below  which  they  cannot  be  placed.  Gen- 
erally, he  was  made  in  the  image  of  God,  which,  we 
have  already  proved,  is  to  be  understood  mora!///  as 
well  as  naturally.  To  whatever  extent  it  went,  it  nec- 
essarily excluded  all  which  did  not  resemble  God ; 
it  was  a  likeness  to  God  in  "righteousness  and  true 
holiness,"  whatever  the  degree  of  each  might  be,  and 
excluded  all  admixture  of  unrighteousness  and  unho- 
liness.  Man,  therefore,  in  his  original  state,  was  sin- 
less, both  in  act  and  in  principle. 

4.  The  rabbis  and  the  Arabians  relate  many  absurd 
traditions  about  Adam's  personal  beauty,  endowments, 
etc.,  and  such  are  still  current  among  the  Eastern  na- 
tions. An  account  of  many  of  them  may  be  found  in 
Bayle  (s.  v.\ 

5.  That  Adam  was  a  type  of  Christ  is  plainly  af- 


ADAM 


ADAMI 


firmed  by  Paul,  who  calls  hiin  "the  figure  of  him 
■who  was  to  come."  Hence  our  Lord  is  sometimes  call- 
ed, not  inaptly,  the  second  Adam.  This  typical  rela- 
tion stands  sometimes  in  similitude,  sometimes  in  con- 
trast. Adam  was  formed  immediately  by  God,  as 
was  the  humanity  of  Christ.  In  eacli  the  nature  was 
spotless,  and  richly  endowed  with  knowledge  and 
true  holiness.  Both  are  seen  invested  with  dominion 
over  the  earth  and  all  its  creatures  ;  and  this  may  ex- 
plain the  eighth  Psalm,  where  David  seems  to  make 
the  sovereignty  of  the  first  man  over  the  whole  earth, 
in  its  pristine  glory,  the  prophetic  symbol  of  the  do- 
minion of  Christ  over  the  world  restored.  Bej'ond 
these  particulars  fancy  must  not  carry  us ;  and  the 
typical  contrast  must  also  be  limited  to  that  which 
is  stated  in  Scripture  or  supported  by  its  allusions. 
Adam  and  Christ  were  each  a  public  person,  a  federal 
head  to  the  whole  race  of  mankind  ;  but  the  one  was 
the  fountain  of  sin  and  death,  the  other  of  righteous- 
ness and  life.  By  Adam's  transgression  "  many  were 
made  sinners"  (Rom.  v,  1-1-19).  Through  him,  "death 
passed  upon  all  men,  because  all  have  sinned"  in  him. 
But  he  thus  prefigured  that  one  man,  by  whose  right- 
eousness the  "free  gift  comes  upon  all  men  to  justifi- 
cation of  life."  The  first  man  communicated  a  living 
soul  to  all  his  posterity ;  the  other  is  a  quickening 
Spirit,  to  restore  them  to  newness  of  life  now,  ami  t<> 
raise  them  up  at  the  last  day.  By  the  imputation  of 
the  first  Adam's  sin,  and  the  communication  of  his 
fallen,  depraved  nature,  death  reigned  over  those  who 
had  not  sinned  after  the  similitude  of  Adam's  trans- 
gression ;  and  through  the  righteousness  of  the  sec 
ond  Adam,  and  the  communication  of  a  divine  nature 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  favor  and  grace  shall  much  more 
abound  in  Christ's  true  followers  unto  eternal  life. — 
Watson,  Tkeol.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Hunter,  Sac.  Biog.  p.  8  ; 
Williams,  Characters  of  0.  T.  i ;  Kurtz,  Hist,  of  Old 
Cor.  §  21,  22.     See  Fall  and  Redemption. 

2.  (Sept. 'Ac«//,  but  most  copies  omit;  Vulg.  .1  dom.) 
A  city  at  some  distance  from  the  Jordan,  to  which 
(according  to  the  test,  C~N2,  in  Adam),  or  beyond 
which  (according  to  the  margin,  ~7^>  "from  Adam," 
as  in  our  version^,  the  overflow  of  the  waters  of  that 
stream  extended  in  its  annual  inundation,  at  the  time 
when  the  Israelites  passed  over  (Josh,  iii,  1G).  The 
name  of  the  city  (red)  may  have  been  derived  from 
the  alluvial  clay  in  the  vicinity  (comp.  1  Kings  vii, 
4G).  It  has  been  incorrectly  inferred  from  the  above 
text  that  the  city  Adam  was  located  east  of  the  river, 
whereas  it  is  expressly  stated  to  have  been  beside 
(~E"C)  Zarcthan  (q.  v.),  which  is  known  to  have  been 
on  the  west  bank,  not  far  from  Bethshean  (1  Kings 
iv,  12).  It  hence  appears  that  the  "  heap"  or  accumu- 
lation of  waters  above  the  Israelites'  crossing-place, 
caused  by  the  stoppage  of  the  stream,  reached  back  on 
the  shore  and  many  miles  up  the  river,  over  the  sec- 
ondary banks  of  the  Ghor,  on  which  Zarethan  stood, 
as  far  as  the  higher  ground  on  which  Adam  was  lo- 
cated (see  Keil,  Comment,  in  loe.)  ;  probably  the  ridge 
immediately  north  of  Bethshean,  which  closes  the 
plain  of  the  Jordan  in  this  direction. 

Adam  of  Bremen,  born  in  Upper  Saxony,  came 
to  Bremen  in  1067,  and  was  made  magister  scholarum 
in  1069 — hence  often  named  Magister.  He  died  about 
the  year  1076.  (See  Asmussen,  De  fontilus  Adami 
firemen*.  Kilion.  1834.)  He  wrote  the  Ges'a  Ilommen- 
burgensis  ecclesiee  pontificum,  which  is  our  chief  source 
of  information  for  the  Church  history  of  Northern 
Europe  from  788  to  1072,  the  period  over  which  it  ex- 
tends. The  best  edition  is  that  of  Lappenberg,  in  the 
Monumenta  Germanice  (ed.  Pertz,  torn,  vii,  p.  266  389  I : 
also  published  separately.  "  in  usum  scholarum"  (Han- 
over, 1846).  The  best  treatise  on  his  life,  his  trust- 
worthiness as  a  historian,  and  his  sources  of  informa- 
tion, is  the  introduction  of  Lappenberg  to  his  edition. 
Corrections  of  some  of  his  statements  may  be  found  in 


V.  Comm.  Sjc.  Goett.  I,  ii,  12G  sq. ;  and  in  Staphorst, 
Hist.  Eccles.  Hamburg. 

Adam,  Melchior,  born  in  Silesia,  obtained  about 
1G00  the  headship  of  a  college,  and  finally  a  professor- 
ship in  the  University  of  Heidelberg.  His  chief  works 
are  Vitce  Germanorum  Philosophorum,  Theologorum,  etc. 
(Heidelberg,  lG15-'20,  4  vols.  8vo),  and  Decades  dues 
continentes  vitas  Theologorum  erterorum  Principum 
(Franc.  1G18,  8vo),  published  together,  under  the  title 
Dign  man  laude  virorum  immortaUias  (Francf.  1653,  5 
vols.  8vo,  and  17n6.  fob) — a  great  repository,  from 
which  compilers  of  church  history  and  of  biographical 
dictionaries  have  since  drawn  their  materials.  He 
died  in  1622  at  Heidelberg. 

Adam,  Thomas,  born  at  Leeds,  1701,  was  rector 
of  Wintringham,  England,  fifty-eight  years,  and  died 
1784.  He  was  a  sensible  and  voluminous  writer:  his 
"Works"  (Lond.  1822,  3  vols.  8vo)  contain  a  Para- 
phrase on  the  Romans,  Lectures  on  the  Church  Catechism, 
and  a  number  of  Sermons.  His  Life,  with  his  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Gospels,  was  published  in  London  in  1837 
(2  vols.  8vo). 

Ad'amall  (Heb.  Adamah',  ft'2'1 X,  ground,  as  oft- 
en ;  Sept.  'Acapi  v.  r.  'ApfiaiS,  Vulg.  Edema),  a  forti- 
fied city  of  Naphtali,  'mentioned  between  Chinnereth 
and  Eamah  (Josh,  xix,  36)  ;  probably  the  same  as 
Adami  (q.  v.)  of  the  same  tribe  (ver.  33).  Schwarz, 
however  (Palest,  p.  183),  thinks  it  is  the  present  vil- 
lage Duma,  situated,  according  to  him,  5  English  miles 
W.N.W.  from  Safed ;  but  no  such  name  is  given  by 
other  travellers. 

Adamannus  or  Adamnanus,  a  Scoto-Irish 
priest  and  monk,  made  in  G79  abbot  of  Hy.  In  701  he 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Alfred,  king  of  Northumber- 
land, and  on  his  return  endeavored  in  vain  to  induce 
his  countrymen  to  observe  Easter  after  the  Roman 
fashion,  which  he  had  learned  in  England.  He  then 
passed  over  into  Ireland,  where  he  persuaded  nearly 
all  the  people  to  follow  the  Roman  custom.  From 
Ireland  he  returned  to  Hy,  and  having  again  tried, 
but  with  as  little  success,  to  bring  his  monks  round  to 
his  newly-adopted  views,  he  died  there,  aged  80,  in 
704.  He  edited  a  Life  of  St.  Columba,  in  three  books, 
which  is  given  by  Canisius,  torn,  v,  part  ii,  p.  562  (or 
in  the  new  ed.  torn,  i,  p.  680);  also  De  Locis  Terras 
Sanctce,  libri  3,  published  by  Serarius,  at  Ingolstadt, 
1619,  and  by  Mabillon,  in  his  Scec.  Bened.  iii,  part  ii, 
p.  502.  He  is  also  said  to  have  written  a  book,  De 
Pascha'e  Legitimo,  and  some  canons.  See  Sir  James 
Ware's  Irish  Writers,  lib.  i,  cap.  iii,  p.  35. — Cave,  Hist. 
Lit.  anno  679 ;  Bede,  Hist.  lib.  v,  cap.  xvi. 

Adamant,  a  term  vaguely  used  to  describe  any 
very  hard  stone,  and  employed  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  in 
Ezek.  iii,  9;  Zech.  vii,  12,  as  the  rendering  of  — ~r 
(shamir'),  elsewhere  (Jer.  xvii,  1)  rendered  diamond 
(q.  v.).     'ASdpag,  Ecclus.  xvi,  16,  in  some  copies. 

Ad'ami  (Heb.  Adami'  ,'"^,  reddish ;  Sept.'Aft/i- 
iii,  Vulg.  Adami),  a  city  near  the  border  of  Naphtali, 
mentioned  between  Zaanaim  and  Nekeb  (Josh,  xix, 
33).  The  best  interpreters  (e.  £.  Rosenmuller,  Keil, 
in  loc.)  join  this  with  the  following  name,  Nekeb 
(-prn,  i.  q.  in  the  hollar ;  so  the  Vulg.  qua  est  Nea  b, 
but  the  Sept.  distinguishes  them,r««  NdwjS),  as  if  an 
epithet  of  the  same  place  ;  although  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  (Megillah,  lxx,  1)  makes  them  distinct,  and 
calls  the  former  Damin  ( *~~~%  which  Schwarz  (Palest. 
p.  181)  supposes  identical  with  a  "  village  Dami  5  Eng- 
lish miles  west  of  the  S.W.  point  of  the  Sea  of  Tibe- 
rias," mean  in-;  the  ruined  site  Dameh  (Robinson,  Re- 
searches, iii,  237),  falling  on  the  limits  of  Naphtali. 
See  Tribe.  The  place  appears  to  be  the  same  else- 
where (Josh.  xix.  36)  called  Adamah  (q.  v.).  and  the 
enumeration  in  ver.  38  requires  the  collocation  Adami- 
nekeb  as  one  locality.     See  Nekeb. 


ADAMIC 


ADAR 


Adatnic  Constitution.     See  Covenant. 

Adamites,  1,  a  sect  of  heretics  in  Northern  Africa 
in  the  second  and  third  centuries.  They  pretended  to 
the  primitive  innocence  which  Adam  had  before  the 
fall ;  and,  in  imitation  of  his  original  condition,  they 
appeared  naked  in  their  religious  assemblies,  which 
they  called  Paradises.  The  author  of  this  abominable 
heresy  was  a  certain  Prodicus,  a  disciple  of  Carpocrates 
(August.  Be  Hares.  31).  2.  A  similar  heresy,  under 
the  same  name,  appeared  in  Bohemia  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  (See  Picard,  Ceremonies  Rellgieuses,  fig.  215.) 
Their  founder  was  a  Frenchman,  John  Picard,  after 
whom  they  were  also  called  Picardists.  From  France 
they  spread  over  a  large  portion  of  Germany,  especial- 
ly over  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  Their  chief  seat  was 
a  fort  on  an  island  of  the  river  Lusinicz,  from  whence 
they  frequently  set  out  for  plundering  and  murdering. 
Fiska  suppressed  them  in  1421.  For  a  long  time  they 
seemed  to  be  extinct,  but  in  1781,  when  Joseph  II  is- 
sued his  patent  of  toleration,  the  Adamites  came  again 
forward  and  claimed  toleration  of  their  principles  and 
meetings.  But  when  they  made  known  the  character 
of  both,  the  government  speedily  suppressed  them. 
Also  this  time  their  extinction  was  only  apparent,  and 
in  1849,  after  the  publication  of  the  edict  of  toleration, 
they  again  showed  themselves  in  public,  especially  in 
the  district  of  Chrudim,  Bohemia.  In  five  villages 
they  were  very  numerous,  and  in  one,  Stradau,  they 
even  succeeded  in  making  many  converts.  All  their 
members  belong  to  the  Czechic  (Slavonian)  national- 
ity, and  are  mostly  mechanics  or  peasants.  They  deny 
the  existence  of  a  personal  God,  but  assume  a  Supreme 
Power  (Moc)  which  has  created  the  world,  which 
henceforth  exists  through  itself.  Every  Adamite 
claims  a  spirit  who  cleanses  him  from  sins.  They  re- 
ject sacraments  and  worship,  but  expect  a  saviour 
(Marokan)  from  whose  appearance  they  hope  the  real- 
ization of  their  communistic  ideas.  Their  meetings 
and  the  public  confession  of  their  principles  have  been 
again  suppressed  by  the  government,  but  they  are 
known  still  to  exist  in  secret.  (See  Beausobre,  Sur 
/<  -■  A  d<  unites  en  Boheme,  in  L'Enfant,  Hist.  Buss,  i,  304 
sq.  ;  Pertz,  Script,  rer.  Austria!,  sect,  xiv.) — Mosheim, 
Ch.  Hist.  cent,  ii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  18;  Lardner,  Works, 
viii,  425;  Wetzer  and  Welte,  xii,  11  sq. 

Adamnanus.     See  Adamaxxus. 

Adams,  Eliphalet,  an  eminent  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  March  26,  1677, 
and  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1694.  After 
preaching  in  various  places  for  ten  years  without  set- 
tlement, he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in  New 
London,  Conn.,  February,  1709,  and  died  April,  1753. 
He  was  a  man  of  learning,  and  was  very  much  inter- 
ested in  the  Indians,  whose  language  he  had  acquired. 
He  published  a  number  of  occasional  sermons. — 
Allen,  Amer.  Biog. ;  Sprague,  Annals,  i,  234. 

Adams,  Hannah,  was  born  at  Medfield,  near  Bos- 
ton, in  1756.  She  learned  Greek  and  Latin  from  stu- 
dents who  lodged  in  her  father's  house.  In  1784  she 
published  a  View  nf  all  Religions,  which  went  through 
several  editions  in  America,  and  was  reprinted  in  Eng- 
land. In  her  fourth  edition  she  changed  the  title  to 
Dictionary  <<f  /,;  lighms.  She  also  published  a  History 
of  the  Jews  (Boston,  1812).  Her  History  of  X<  w  Eng- 
land appeared  in  1799.  She  died  at  Broolilinc,  Mass., 
Nov.  15,  1831. 

Adams,  Jasper,  D.D.,  President  of  Charleston 
College,  S.  C,  was  born  at  Medway,  Mass.,  Aug.  27, 
179:1.  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1*15,  and 
studied  theology  at  Andoyer.  In  1819  he  was  made 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Brown  University,  and 
was  ordained  a  minister  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  same  year.  In  1824  he  became  Presi- 
dent of  Charleston  College,  but  in  1826  he  removed  to 
the  charge  of  Geneva  College,  in  New  York.  In  182s 
he  returned  to  Charleston,  and  managed  the  institution 


till  1836,  when  he  left  it  in  a  highly  prosperous  state. 
After  preparing  and  publishing  a  system  of  Moral 
Philosophy  (New  York,  1838,  8vo),  he  was  for  two  years 
chaplain  at  the  West  Point  Academy,  and  tbtm  re- 
moved to  Pendleton,  S.  C,  where  he  died,  Oct.  25, 
1841.  Besides  the  "  Moral  Philosophy,"  he  published 
a  number  of  occasional  sermons  and  addresses. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  v,  641. 

Adams,  John,  was  the  only  son  of  Hon.  John 
Adams,  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1721.  He  was  pastor  at  Newport,  but  dis- 
missed, 1730.  He  died  at  Cambridge  in  1740.  He 
was  distinguished  for  his  genius  and  piety,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  master  of  nine  languages.  A  small  vol- 
ume of  his  poems  was  published  at  Boston  in  1745. — . 
Allen,  Amer.  Biog. ;  Sprague,  Annals,  i,  350. 

Adams,  Samuel,  M.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  1766,  and  practised 
medicine  till  mature  years,  holding  iniidel  opinions  in 
regard  to  Christianity.  After  his  conversion,  in  1813, 
he  entered  the  Ohio  Conference  in  1818  as  a  travelling 
minister,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  ministry  fifteen 
years.  He  died  at  Beaver,  Pa.,  March  6, 1832. — Mm* 
utes  of  Conferences,  ii,  214. 

Adams,  Thomas,  a  pious  and  learned  English  di- 
vine, rector  of  St.  Bennet's,  London,  was  sequestered; 
for  his  loyalty,  and  died  before  the  Restoration.  Hei 
was  a  great  favorite  with  Southey,  who  says  that  "  he 
had  all  the  oddity  and  felicity  of  Fuller's  manner." 
His  Works,  chiefly  sermons,  were  published  in  1630 
(fol.  Lond.).  His  Exposition  of  St.  Peter  was  reprint- 
ed in  1839  (imp.  8vo,  London). 

Adams,  "William,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Fairfax  Co.,Va.,  June  29,  1785.  Ed~ 
ucated  in  a  pious  household,  he  was  converted  at  an 
early  age,  and  commenced  preaching  in  1813,  in  Ken- 
tucky, whither  his  family  had  removed.  His  mind, 
naturally  vigorous,  was  cultivated  by  assiduous  study, 
and  he  became  one  of  the  most  acceptable  and  useful 
preachers  of  the  Kentucky  Conference,  of  which  he 
was  a  member  from  1814  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
For  many  years  he  was  secretary  of  the  Conference. 
He  died  in  1836. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  ii,  406. 

Adamson,  Patrick,  archbishop  of  St.  Andrews, 
and  one  of  the  most  learned  writers  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, was  born  at  Perth,  in  1543.  At  the  age  of  23 
he  went  abroad  as  private  tutor,  and  narrowly  escaped 
death  at  Bourges  at  the  time  of  the  massacre  of  Paris. 
He  lived  in  concealment  seven  months,  during  which 
time  he  translated  into  Latin  verse  the  Book  of  Job, 
and  wrote  the  tragedy  of  Herod,  also  in  Latin  verse. 
In  1573  he  returned  to  Scotland,  became  minister  of 
Paislej-,  and  was  soon  raised  to  the  archbishopric  of 
St.  Andrews,  the  accepting  of  which  brought  him  into 
continual  discredit  and  affliction  till  his  death,  in  great 
poverty,  in  1591.  His  Works  were  printed  at  Lon- 
don in  1619. 

A'dar,  the  name  of  a  month  and  also  of  a  place. 
See  also  Addah. 

1.  (Heb.  and  Chald.  Adar',  ITS;,  large;  Esth.  iii, 
7,  13;  viii,  12;  ix,  1,  15,  17;  xix/21;  Ezra  vi,  15; 
Sept.  'Acap.)  The  sixth  month  of  the  civil  and  the 
twelfth  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  of  the  Jews  (comp. 
1  Mace,  vii,  43);  from  the  new  moon  of  March  to 
that  of  April ;  or,  according  to  the  rabbins,  from 
the  new  moon  of  February  to  that  of  March.  Tho 
name  was  first  introduced  after  the  captivity,  being 
the  Macedonian  Dystrus  iAvrrrpoc).  (Sec  Michaelis, 
Gram.  Arab.  p.  2">;  Suppl.  p.  25;  Golius,  in  Lex.  ad 
Mfrg.  p.  17,  34;  Hyde,  Be  rel.  ret.  Pers,  p.  63.) 
The  following  are  the  chief  days  in  it  which  are  set 
apart  for  commemoration:  The  7th  is  a  fast  for  the 
death  of  Moses  (  Deut.  xxxiv,  5,  6).  There  is  somo 
difference,  however,  in  the  date  assigned  to  his  death 
by  some  ancient  authorities.  Josephus  {Ant,  iv,  8, 49) 
states  that  he  died  on  tho  first  of  this  month ;  which 


ADARCONIM 


U 


ADDO 


also  agrees  with  Midrash  Megillath  Esther,  cited  by 
Beland  (Antiq.  Hebr.  iv,  10)  ;  whereas  the  Talmudical 
tracts  Kiddushim  and  Sotah  give  the  seventh  as  the  day. 
It  is  at  least  certain  that  the  latter  was  the  day  on 
which  the  fast  was  observed.  On  the  9th  there  was 
a  fast  in  memory  of  the  contention  or  open  rupture  of 
the  celebrated  schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai,  which 
happened  but  a  few  j'ears  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
The  cause  of  the  dispute  is  obscure  (Wolf's  Biblioth. 
Hebr.  ii,  826).  The  loth  is  the  so-called  "  Fast  of 
Esther."  Iken  observes  {Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  150)  that 
this  was  not  an  actual  fast,  but  merel}'  a  commemora- 
tion of  Esther's  fast  of  three  days  (Esth.  iv,  10),  and 
a  preparation  for  the  ensuing  festival.  Nevertheless, 
as  Esther  appears,  from  the  date  of  Hainan's  edict, 
and  from  the  course  of  the  narrative,  to  have  fasted  in 
Nisan,  Buxtorf  adduces  from  the  rabbins  the  follow- 
ing account  of  the  name  of  this  fast,  and  of  the  foun- 
dation of  its  observance  in  Adar  {Synag.  Jud.  p.  554)  ; 
that  the  Jews  assembled  together  on  the  13th,  in  the 
time  of  Esther,  and  that,  after  the  example  of  Hoses, 
who  fasted  when  the  Israelites  were  about  to  engage 
in  battle  with  the  Amalekites,  they  devoted  that  day 
to  fasting  and  prayer,  in  preparation  for  the  perilous 
trial  which  awaited  them  on  the  morrow.  In  this 
sense,  this  fast  would  stand  in  the  most  direct  relation 
to  the  feast  of  Purim.  The  13th  was  also,  "  by  a  com- 
mon decree,"  appointed  as  a  festival  in  memory  of  the 
death  of  Nicanor  (2  Mace,  xv,  30).  The  14th  and  15th 
were  devoted  to  the  feast  of  Purim  (Esth.  ix,  21 ).  See 
Purim.  In  case  the  year  was  an  intercalary  one,  when 
the  month  of  Adar  occurred  twice,  this  feast  was  first 
moderately  observed  in  the  intercalary  Adar,  and  then 
celebrated  with  full  splendor  in  the  ensuing  Adar.  See 
Ve-adAb.  The  former  of  these  two  celebrations  was 
then  called  the  lesser,  and  the  latter  the  great  Purim. 
llorne  has  erroneously  stated  {Introduction,  iii,  177) 
that  these  designations  apply  to  the  two  days  of  the 
festival  in  an  ordinary  year.  For  the  Scripture  les- 
sons of  this  month,  see  Otho,  Lex.  Eabb.  p.  8. — Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Calendar  ;  Month. 

2.  (Heb.  Addar',  ^THX,  splendor,  otherwise  thresh- 
ing-floor; Sept.  'AcSapa,  apparently  mistaking  the  ap- 
pended n  local  for  a  part  of  the  word  ;  Vulg.  Addar) 
a  contracted  form  (Josh,  xv,  3)  of  the  name  elsewhere 
(Num.  xxxiv,  4)  written  Hazar-addar  (q.  v.).  See 
also  Ataroth-adar. 

Adarconim.     Sec  Daric. 

Adargazerin.     See  Treasurer. 

Ad'asa  (AcW«),  a  village  of  Judsea,  where  Ju- 
das the  Maccabee  slew  the  Assyrian  general  Nicanor 
(1  Mace,  vii,  40,  45),  and  where  he  was  himself  after- 
ward slain  by  the  generals  of  Antiochus  (Joseph us, 
War,  iii,  G).  It  was  situated,  according  to  Josephus 
{Ant.  xii,  10,  5),  30  stadia  from  Bethhoron,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Jerome  {Onomast.  s.  v.).  not  far  from  Goph- 
na,  but  was  hardly  the  Hadashah  (q.  v.)  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  37).     See  Laish. 

Adashim.     See  Lentil. 

Adauctus,  an  Italian  and  steward  of  certain  of 
the  royal  domains,  in  a  city  of  Phrygia,  the  name  of 
which  is  unknown.  He  perished  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  Diocletian,  about  303.  His  memory  is  cele- 
brated by  the  Latin  church  on  the  7th  of  February  ;  by 
the  Greeks,  October  3d. — Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist,  viii, 
11;  Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  Feb.  7. 

Ad'beel  (Heb.  AdbeeY ' ,  fcgSl'IK,  prob.  miracle  of 
God,  the  first  member  being  by  Syriasm  for  "2^N, 
finger;  or  progeny  of  God,  the  first  member  being 
Arab,  adb,  offspring ;  Sept.  Na/3et  >)\  [Josephus  'Afici- 
j;\oc,  Ant.  i,  12,  4],  Vulg.  Adbeel),  the  third  named 
of  the  twelve  sons  of  Ishmael,  and  head  of  an  un- 
known Arabian  tribe  (Gen.  xxv,  13;  1  Chron.  i,  29). 
B.C.  post  2061.     See  Arabia. 

Ad'dail  (Heb.  Addan,  "pX;   Sept.  'UCav),  an- 


other form  (Ezra  ii,  59)  of  the  name  (Neh.  vii,  61) 
Addon  (q.  v.). 

Ad'dar  (Heb.  Addar',  THX,  ample  or  splendid, 
otherwise  [from  the  Chald.  ~pX]  threshing  -floor ; 
Sept.  'Apid  v.  r.  'Acip,  Vulg.  Addar),  a  son  of  Bela 
and  grandson  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii,  3) ;  else- 
where (Gen.  xlvi,  24)  called  Ard  (q.  v.).  See  also 
Ataroth-addar  ;  Hazar-addar. 

Adder,  in  the  general  sense  of  a  venomous  ser- 
pent [see  Serpent],  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth. 
Vers,  of  the  following  Heb.  words  in  certain  passages : 
211233  {akshub' ,  perhaps  so  called  from  coiling  and 
lying  in  wait),  an  asp,  or  other  venomous  reptile,  only 
found  in  Psa.  cxl,  3;  "PS  {pe'then,  probably  from 
twisting  itself),  an  equally  indefinite  term  for  a  viper 
or  venomous  serpent,  Psa.  lviii,  4  ;  xci,  13  (elsewhere 
"asp,"  Deut.  xxxii,  33;  Job  xx,  14, 1G;  Isa.  xi,  8); 
"^"SS  {tsiphonV,  so  called  from  hissing),  a  basilisk,  or 
other  poisonous  serpent,  Prov.  xxiii,  32  (elsewhere 
"cockatrice,"  Isa.  xi,  8;  lix,  5;  Jer.  viii,  17;  like 
the  kindred  3>BS,  tse'pha,  Isa.  xiv,  29) ;  'p2'12d 
{shephiphon' ,  so  called  from  ci'eejnng),  apparently  an 
adder,  or  small  speckled  venomous  snake,  occurs  only 
in  Gen.  xlix,  17.  Few,  if  any,  of  these  terms  are  de- 
scriptive of  a  particular  species  of  serpent,  although 
special  traits  are  given  in  connection  with  some  of 
them  that  enable  us  to  make  an  approximation  toward 
their  identification  witli  those  described  by  modern 
naturalists.  See  Snake.  The  terms  adder  and  viper 
are  nearly  interchangeable  in  modern  science,  the  lat- 
ter being  strictly  the  name  of  a  genus  of  serpents  hav- 
ing the  head  covered  with  scales.  See  Viper.  The 
true  adders  are  classed  under  the  sub-genus  Berus, 
and  are  of  several  species,  properly  distinguished  by 
the  granular  scales  of  the  head,  sometimes  with  larger 
scales  intermixed,  and  having  nostrils  of  a  moderate 
size.     See  Asp. 

Ad'di  {'Acci,  probably  for  Heb.  Adi  ,  "p",  orna- 
ment, as  in  Exod.  xxxiii,  4,  etc.),  the  name  of  one  or 
two  men. 

1.  An  Israelite,  several  of  whose  descendants,  on 
returning  from  Babylon,  married  heathen  women  (1 
Esdr.  ix,  31)  ;  for  which  the  parallel  text  (Ezra  x,  30) 
has  more  correctly  Paiiath-moab  (q.  v.). 

2.  The  son  of  Cosam  and  father  of  Melchi  (i.  e. 
probably  Maaseiah,  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  8)  in  the  mater- 
nal ancestry  of  Christ  (Luke  iii,  28).      B.C.  ante  623. 

Addison,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
British  writers,  was  the  son  of  Dean  Addison,  and  was 
born  at  Milston  in  1G72.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Charter  House  and  at  the  colleges  of  Queen's  and 
Magdalen  at  Oxford.  Of  his  contributions  to  general 
literature  we  do  not  speak.  In  the  course  of  his  writ- 
ings in  the  Toiler,  Spectator,  and  Guardian,  appeared 
a  series  of  papers,  afterward  collected,  and  often  re- 
printed, under  the  title  of  "Addison's  Evidences  of  the 
Christian  L'lligiou."  In  his  latter  years  he  projected 
a  paraphrastical  version  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  of 
which  he  gave  a  beautiful  specimen  in  his  metrical 
translation  of  Psalm  xxiii:  "The  Lord  my  pasture 
shall  prepare,"  etc.  But  a  long  illness  prevented  the 
I  completion  of  this  design.  Addison  died  at  Holland 
House,  Kensington,  June  17th,  1719.  During  his  lin-  . 
gering  decay  he  sent  for  a  young  nobleman  of  very  ir- 
regular life  and  of  loose  opinions  to  attend  him  ;  and 
when  the  latter,  with  great  tenderness,  requested  to 
receive  his  last  injunctions,  Mr.  Addison  told  him,  "I 
have  sent  for  you  that  you  may  see  how  a  Christian 
can  die."  The  best  edition  of  his  Whole  Works  is  that 
of  Bishop  Hurd  (Lond.  1711,  G  vols.  8vo).  —  Jones, 
Chr.  Biog.  p.  5. 

Ad'do  ('Aiien';,  comp.  Addon),  the  "father"  of  the 
prophet  Zeehariah  (1  Esdr.  vi,  1),  called  in  the  gen- 
uine text  (Ezra  v,  1)  Iddo  (q.  v.). 


ADDON 


ADIDA 


Ad'don  (Heb.  Addon',  "pIX,  low  or  lord,  or  per- 
haps i.  q.  Iddo ;  Sept.  'Hpwv),  the  second  of  three 
persons  mentioned  in  Neh.  vii,  61,  who,  on  returning 
from  the  captivity  to  Palestine,  were  unable  to  "  show 
their  father's  house  or  their  seed,  whether  they  were 
of  Israel,"  B.C.  536.  This  probably  means  that  they 
were  unable  to  furnish  such  undeniable  legal  proof  as 
was  required  in  such  cases.  And  this  is  in  some  de- 
gree explained  by  the  subsequent  (v.  63)  mention  of 
priests  who  were  expelled  the  priesthood  because  their 
descent  was  not  found  to  be  genealogical^  registered. 
These  instances  show  the  importance  which  was  at- 
tached to  their  genealogies  by  the  Jews.  See  Gene- 
alogy. In  Ezra  ii,  59,  he  is  called  Addas,  but  in 
1  Esdr.  v,  36,  his  name  is  contained  in  Ciiara-atha- 
LAR.  According  to  others,  this  is  the  name  of  a 
place  in  the  land  of  the  captivity,  like  Tel-melah  and 
Tel-haresha  preceding;  but  the  names  Cherub  and 
Immer  immediately  adjoining  appear  to  be  those  of 
men,  and  the  Masoretic  punctuation  rather  favors  the 
distinction  of  these  three  names  as  residents  of  the  two 
places  just  named. 

Ad'dus,  a  name  twice  occurring  in  the  Apocrypha, 
but  in  both  cases  by  interpolation. 

1.  (ASdovQ,  perhaps  for  Addon.)  One  of  the  "  chil- 
dren of  Solomon's  servants,"  whose  sons  are  said  to 
have  returned  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  34) ;  but  the 
genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  51)  has  no  such  name. 

2.  {'laSdov,  as  if  for  Jaddua.)  A  priest,  after  the 
captivity,  who  is  said  to  have  married  a  daughter  of 
Berzelus,  and  hence  assumed  his  name  (1  Esdr.  v,  38)  ; 
evidently  a  corruption  for  Barzillai  (q.  v.)  of  the 
genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  61). 

Adelaide,  a  city  and  capital  of  South  Australia, 
which  had,  in  1855,  a  population  of  20,000  souls  and  15 
churches.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of 
England,  as  well  as  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  The 
former  was  established  in  1847,  and  had,  in  1859,  30 
clergymen,  among  whom  were  1  dean,  1  archdeacon, 
and  4  honorary  canons.  Adelaide  had  also  an  Episco- 
palian literary  institution,  called  St.  Peter's  Collegiate 
School.      See"  Clergy  List  for  1800  (London,  1860,  8vo)- 

Adelbert  [Aldebert  or  Adalbert],  a  priest 
and  irregular  bishop  of  the  eighth  century,  who  obtain- 
ed great  celebrity  from  his  piety  and  zeal,  and  from  his 
strifes  in  ecclesiastical  matters  with  Boniface,  the  (so- 
called)  apostle  of  Germany.  Our  knowledge  of  him 
is  derived  mostly  from  the  account  of  his  adversary, 
Boniface,  who  paints  him  in  dark  colors  ;  but  the  truth 
seems  to  be  that  he  had  much  more  of  the  spirit  of  the 
Gospel  than  was  usual  in  his  times.  He  opposed,  for 
instance,  pilgrimages  to  Rome,  and  advised  sinners  to 
"  seek  relief  from  the  omnipresent  God,  or  from  Christ 
alone."  Boniface  charged  him  with  various  supersti- 
tious practices,  and  he  was  condemned  by  the  Synod 
of  Soissons,  744. — Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  56 ;  Mosheim, 
Ch.  Hist.  cent,  viii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  2. 

Adelm  or  Adhelm.     See  Aldiielm. 

Adeodatus,  Pope,  a  Roman  by  birth,  the  son  of 
Jovinian,  succeeded  Vitalianus  in  the  papal  chair, 
April  11,  672  ;  governed  four  years,  two  months,  and 
six  days,  and  died  June  17,  676.  Nothing  remains  to 
us  of  Pope  Adeodatus  but  his  letters  (Labbe,  Concilia, 
vi,  523).     See  also  Eder. 

A'der  (Heb.  E'der,  "in?,  in  pause  A  'der,  "ITS,  a 
flock,  i.  q.  Eder;  Sept.  'QSip  v.  r.  "Ec>ep),  a  chief  Ben- 
jamite,  "  son"  of  Beriah,  resident  at  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  viii,  15),  B.C.  ante  588. 

Adessenarii,  or  Impanators,  a  sect  in  the  16th 
century,  who  believed  in  the  real  presence  of  Christ  in 
the  Eucharist,  but  not  in  the  full  Roman  dogma  on  that 
subject.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
Adesse,  "to  be  present."  They  held  the  so-called  doc- 
trine of  impanation,  scil.  "non  adesse  in  Eucharistia 
Humanum  seu  Carneum  C'hristi  Corpus  sumptum  ex 


B.  Virgine  Matre  sed  Corpus  panaceum  assumptum  a 
Verbo."     See  Impanation. 

Adiabene  ('A&a/Jjji/q,  sc.  \iopa,  probably  from 
the  river  Zab  or  Diab),  the  principal  of  the  six  prov- 
inces into  which  Assyria  was  divided.  Pliny  {Hist. 
Nat.  v,  12)  and  Ammianus  (xxiii,  6,  §  20)  comprehend 
the  whole  of  Assyria  under  this  name,  which,  however, 
properly  denoted  only  the  province  which  was  watered 
by  the  rivers  Diab  and  Adiab,  or  the  Great  and  Little 
Zab  (Dhab),  which  flow  into  the  Tigris  below  Nineveh 
(Mosul),  from  the  north-east.  The  queen  of  this  re- 
gion, Helena,  and  her  son  Izates,  who  became  converts 
to  Judaism,  are  very  often  named  by  Josephus  {Ant. 
xx,  2,  4;   War,  ii,  16,  19;  v,  4,  6,  11). 

Adiaphora  {acic'upopa),  things  indifferent.  In  eth- 
ics the  term  has  been  applied  to  actions  neither  ex- 
pressly commanded  nor  prohibited  by  the  moral  law, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  done.  The  question  wheth- 
er such  actions  are  possible,  is  affirmed  by  the  Stoics, 
and,  among  the  Scholastics,  by  Dun  Scotus,  but  denied 
by  Thomas  Aquinas.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
it  gave  rise  to  the  Adiaphoristic  Controversy  (q.  v.). 
The  Pietists  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  and  the 
philosophers  Wolf  and  Fichte  rejected  it.  Modern 
writers  on  ethics  generally  agree  with  Schleiermacher, 
who  {Phil.  Sehriften,  ii,  418)  shows  that  this  distinction 
can  and  ought  to  exist  in  state  law,  but  cannot  in  the 
court  of  conscience.  See,  generally,  Schmid,  Adia- 
phora, wissenschaftlich  und  historisch  untersucht  (Leinz. 
1809). 

Adiaphoristic  Controversies  I.  A  dispute 
which  arose  in  1548  among  the  Lutheran  reformers. 
The  Augsburg  Interim  (q.  v.)  gave  great  offence  to  the 
Lutherans,  as  well  as  to  the  pope.  Melancthon,  Cam- 
erarius,  Bugenhagen,  and  other  divines  were  summon- 
ed by  the  Elector  Maurice  of  Saxony  to  consider  how 
far  the  Interim  might  be  adopted  in  Germany.  They 
decided  that  in  "things  indifferent"  {in  rebus  adia- 
phoris)  the  emperor  might  be  obeyed ;  and  they  pre- 
pared the  "  Leipsic  Interim,"  as  a  formula  concordix 
and  rule,  especially,  for  the  churches  of  Saxony. 
While  it  professed  to  yield  no  point  of  Protestant  faith, 
it  admitted  the  use  of  some  of  the  Roman  ceremonies, 
e.  g.  confirmation,  use  of  candles,  gowns,  holidays,  etc., 
matters  which  Melancthon  considered  adiaphora.  The 
strict  Lutherans  charged  their  opponents  (and  justly) 
with  Romanizing,  not  merely  in  things  indifferent,  but 
also  in  matters  of  faith  ;  e.  g.  with  granting  that  the 
pope  is  head  of  the  Church,  even  though  not  jure  di- 
vino;  allowing  that  there  are  seven  sacraments;  ad- 
mitting the  use  of  extreme  unction,  and  of  other  cere- 
monies. The  controversy  was  continued  with  great 
bitterness  until  the  adoption  of  the  Augsburg  Formida 
Concordia',  1555  ;  but  the  topics  of  the  Interim  afforded 
matter  for  internecine  strife  among  the  Protestant 
theologians  long  after.  See,  generally,  Schmid,  Con- 
troversia  de  Adiaphoris  (Jen.  1807).— Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist.  cent,  xvi,  §  3,  pt.  ii,  ch.  i :  Planck,  Geschichte  der 
Protestant.  Theol.  i,  p.  151-248  ;  iii,  p.  801-804,  addit.  on 
second  Adiaphor.  Controversy  ;  Hase,  Ch.  Hist.  §  348, 
351.  Compare  Flaci us;  Interim;  Melancthon; 
Synergistic  Controversy. 

II.  A  second  controversy,  called  "Adiaphoristic," 
arose  among  the  Pietists  and  their  opponents.  The 
former  urged  an  abandonment  of  such  secular  amuse- 
ments as  dancing,  playing  (especially  at  cards),  joking, 
visiting  theatres,  etc.     See  Pietism. 

Ad'ida  {ASrfa,  Josephus  also  rd  'ASiSa  or  *Afi- 
StSa,  probably  of  Heb.  origin;  Vulg.  Acldus),  a  forti- 
fied town  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Mace,  xii,  38),  which 
Simon  Maccabseus  set  up  "  in  Sephela"  {h>  ry  2f  ^//An), 
a.nd  made  it  strong  with  bolts  and  bars.  Eusebius 
{Onomast.  s.  v.)  says  that  Sephela  was  the  name  given 
in  his  time  to  the  open  country  about  Eleutheropolis 
(see  Reland,  Paloest.  p.  187).  This  Adida  is  probablj' 
the  "Adida  over  against  the  plain,"  where  Simon 


ADIEL  \ 

Maccabauis  encamped  to  dispute  the  entrance  into 
Judaea  of  Tryphon,  who  had  treacherously  seized  on 
Jonathan  at  Ptolemais  (1  Mace,  xiii,  13).  Josephus 
{Ant.  xiii,  G,  4)  adds  that  this  Adida  was  upon  a  hill, 
before  which  lay  the  plains  of  Jiuhea.  It  is  scarcely 
(see  Reland,  Palaest.  p.  540)  the  same  as  Adithaim  (Josh. 
xv,  36),  but  may  be  the  ancient  Adatha  ('ASaSra  of  Eu- 
sebius,  Onomast.  s.  v.  'AoiaSaiv)  and  the  modern  Eddis 
(Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  102),  near  Gaza.  See  Adithaim. 
It  was  apparently  here  that  Aretas  defeated  Alexander 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  15,  2).  Lightfoot,  however,  con- 
trives to  multiply  the  place  mentioned  in  the  Maccabees 
and  Josephus  into  four  or  five  different  towns  (see 
Chorog.  Decad.  §  3).  Another  place  of  the  name  of  Ad- 
ida, mentioned  by  Josephus  (War,  iv,  9,  1)  as  having 
been  garrisoned  by  Vespasian,  is  thought  by  Cellarius 
(Geogr.  Ant.  p.  338)  to  have  been  near  Jericho;  but 
Reland  (Palcest.  p.  546)  argues  that  it  was  precisely  in 
the  opposite  direction  from  Jerusalem,  perhaps  iden- 
tical with  the  Hadid  (q.  v.)  of  Ezra  ii,  32 Kitto. 

A'diel  (Hcb.  Adiel' ,  hVP'lS,  ornament  of  God),  the 
name  of  three  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'Qdit)\  v.  r.  'OSi>)\.)  The  father  of  Az- 
maveth,  which  latter  was  treasurer  under  David  and 
Solomon  (1  Chron.  xxviii,~25).     B.C.  ante  1014. 

2.  (Sept.  'E&r/X  v.  r.  'ItA^X.)  One  of  the  family- 
heads  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  who  seem  to  have  dis- 
possessed the  aborigines  of  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv,  36), 
B.C.  cir.  711. 

3.  (Sept.  'Acn'jX.)  A  priest,  son  of  Jahzcrah  and  fa- 
ther of  Maasiai,  which  last  was  one  of  those  most  ac- 
tive in  reconstructing  the  Temple  after  the  captivity 
(1  Chron.  ix,  12).     B.C.  ante  536. 

A'din  (Heb.  Adin',  '"''}>,  effeminate,  as  in  Isa. 
xlvii,  8 ;  Sept.  'Aciv,  'ASSiv,  'HSlv,  'HSeiv),  the  head 
of  one  of  the  Israelitish  families,  of  which  a  large  num- 
ber (454,  according  to  Ezra  ii,  15,  but  655,  according 
to  Neh.  vii,  20— the  discrepancy  being  occasioned  by 
an  error  in  the  hundreds,  and  the  including  or  exclud- 
ing of  himself)  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubba- 
bel  (B.C.  536)  and  fifty  more  (with  Elied  the  son  of 
Jonathan)  under  Ezra  (B.C.  459,  Ezra  viii,  6).  He 
appears  to  have  been  the  same  with  one  of  those  who 
subscribed  the  religious  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
x,  16,  B.C.  cir.  410).  His  name  occurs  in  the  paral- 
lel passages  of  the  Apocrypha  (Adivov,  1  Esdr.  v,  14 ; 
'Adiv,  1  Esdr.  viii,  32). 

Ad'ina  (Heb.  Adina ',  M"1"??.,  delicate ;  Sept. 
'ASiva),  son  of  Shiza,  a  Reubenite,  captain  of  thirty 
of  his  tribesmen,  and  second  of  the  sixteen  additional 
to  the  thirtv-seven  principal  warriors  of  David  (1 
Chron.  xi,  42),  B.C.  1045. 

Ad'ino  (Heb.  Adino' ',  i^1?",  perhaps  for  ',i3'1'7S>, 
i.  q.  Adina;  Sept.  'Aciviov,  Vulg.  tenerrimus),  a  name 
that  occurs  in  the  common  version  of  2  Sam.  xxiii,  8, 
as  one  of  the  might}'  men  of  King  David.  Instead 
of  the  confused  translation,  "  The  Tachmonite  that  sat 
in  the  seat,  chief  among  the  captains  ;  the  same  [was] 
Adino  the  Eznite,  [he  lifted  up  his  spear]  against  eight 
hundred,  whom  he  slew  at  one  time,"  the  margin 
translates:  "  Joshebassebeth  the  Tachmonite,  head  of 
the  three  [captains],"  etc.,  which  makes  the  sense  no 
better,  unless  (by  placing  the  pause  after  XI!"!)  we 
transpose  the  words  "  the  same  was,"  like  the  Sept., 
which  translates,  "Jebosthe  the  son  of  Thecemani 
[v.  r.  the  Canaanite],  he  [was]  ruler  of  the  third. 
Adino  the  Asonite,  he  brandished  his  sword,"  etc. 
But  this  still  distinguishes  Jashobeam  and  Adino  as 
two  men,  whereas  the  list  seems  to  require  but  one. 
The  marginal  reading  on  this  text  conforms  it  to  that 
of  the  parallel  passage  (1  Chron.  xi,  11),  which  has, 
"Jashobeam,  a  Hachmonite,  the  chief  of  the  captains  ; 
he  lifted  up  his  spear,"  etc.  See  Jashobeam.  Ge- 
senius  renders  the  words  translated  "the  same  [was] 
Adino  the  Eznite"  by  "  the  brandishing  of  his  spear 


J  ADLAI 

[fell]."  It  is  clear  that  these  words  are  not  proper 
names,  although  their  grammatical  construction  is  not 
very  easy.  The  meaning,  according  to  the  above 
view,  omitting  the  words  supplied  in  the  common  ver- 
sion, would  be,  "Joshebassebeth  the  Tachmonite, 
chief  of  the  three,  he  brandished  it,  his  spear,  against," 
etc.  This  seems  the  best  mode  of  disposing  of  this 
difficult  passage,  which  others  resolve  by  supposing 
some  corruption  in  the  text.     See  Ezxite. 

Ad'inus  ('lactiwc),  one  of  the  Levitce  who  inter- 
preted the  law  as  read  by  Ezra  (1  Esdr.  ix,  48)  ;  evi- 
dently a  corruption  for  Jajiin  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine 
text  (Neh.  viii,  7). 

Adite.     See  Ad. 

Aditha'im  (Heb.  Aditha'yim,  D'1^'1'!",  double  prey 
or  double  ornament;  Sept.  'ASiaSaift,  but  some  copies 
omit;  Vulg.  Adithaim),  a  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah, 
mentioned  between  Sharaim  and  Gederah  (Josh,  xv, 
36).  Eusebius  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  mentions  two  places 
of  the  name  of  Adatha  ('Ac?nSrr,  Jerome,  Aditha  and 
Adia),  one  near  Gaza,  and  the  other  near  Diospolis 
(Lydda)  ;  the  former  being  commonlv  supposed  to  be 
the  same  with  Adithaim,  and  the  latter  with  Hadid; 
and  probably  corresponding  respectively  to  the  two 
places  called  Adida  (q.  v.)  by  Josephus.  Schwarz 
(Palest,  p.  102)  accordingly  thinks  that  Adithaim  is 
represented  by  the  modern  village  Eddis,  5  Eng.  miles 
east  of  Gaza  (comp.  Robinson's  Researches,  ii,  370  sq.); 
but  this  is  too  far  from  the  associated  localities  of  the 
same  group  [see  Tribe],  which  require  a  position  not  far 
from  Moneisin,  a  village  with  traces  of  antiquity,  about 
5  miles  south  of  Ekron  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  114). 

Adjuration  (the  verb  is  expressed  by  fl^N,  alah' ', 
in  Hiph.,  to  cause  to  swear,  as  rendered  in  1  Kings 
viii,  31 ;  2  Chron.  vi,  22  ;  also  S31U,  shaba' ,  in  Hiph., 
to  make  sicear,  or  charge  with  an  oath,  as  often  ren- 
dered ;  Gr.  t£op/c<'i'(t>,  to  bind  by  oath),  a  solemn  act  or 
appeal,  whereby  one  man,  usually  a  person  vested 
with  natural  or  official  authority,  imposes  upon  anoth- 
er the  obligation  of  speaking  or  acting  as  if  under  the 
solemnity  of  an  oath  (1  Sam.  xiv,  24;  Josh,  vi,  26;  1 
Kings  xxii,  16  ;  2  Chron.  xviii,  15).     See  Swear. 

(1.)  A  striking  example  of  this  occurs  in  the  N.  T., 
where  the  high-priest  calls  upon  Christ,  in  the  presence 
of  the  Sanhedrim,  to  avow  his  character  as  the  Messiah 
(Matt,  xxvi,  63 ;  Mark  v,  7  ;  see  Acts  xix,  13 ;  comp. 
1  Thess.  v,  27).  An  oath,  although  thus  imposed 
upon  one  without  his  consent,  was  not  only  solemn, 
but  binding  in  the  highest  degree ;  and  when  con- 
nected with  a  question,  an  answer  appears  to  have 
been  compulsory,  and,  if  false,  chargeable  with  per- 
jury. Thus  our  Saviour,  who  had  previously  dis- 
dained or  declined  to  reply  to  the  charges  brought 
against  him,  now  could  not  avoid  an  answer.  1  ho 
impropriety,  however,  of  thus  extorting  truth  must  be 
evident ;  and  in  the  case  of  Christ  it  was  an  outrage 
against  the  commonest  principle  of  judicial  fairness, 
by  which  a  prisoner  is  never  to  be  put  in  a  position  to 
inculpate  himself.  But  the  hierarchy,  having  failed 
to  elicit  any  reliable  evidence  that  would  condemn 
Jesus,  at  last  resorted  to  this  base  method  of  compel- 
ling him  to  declare  his  Messiahship,  -with  a  view  to 
convict  him  upon  his  own  testimony.      See  Jr.srs. 

(2.)  The  term  also  occurs  (Acts  xix,  13)  with  refer- 
ence to  the  expulsion  of  daemons.     See  Exorcist. 

(3.)  In  the  Roman  Church,  an  act  by  means  of 
which  the  name  of  God,  or  some  other  holy  thing,  is 
made  use  of,  in  order  to  induce  any  one  to  do  what  is 
required  of  him.  An  adjuration  is  said  to  be  earpresa 
when  the  majesty  of  God,  or  any  one  of  his  attributes, 
is  interposed  for  the  purpose,  as  adjurn  ti  per  l)i  urn 
vivum;  implicit,  when  not  the  majesty  of  Cod,  but  any 
one  of  his  more  marked  productions  is  made  use  of,  as 
adjuro  te  per  Erangelium  Christi.     See  Oath. 

Ad'la'i  (Heb.  Au'ay',  ^"}2,just;  Sept.  'ASat  v.  r. 


ADMAH 


74 


ADONI-BEZEK 


'AB\i  and  'ASXai,  Vulg.  AM),  the  father  of  Shaphat, 
which  latter  was  herdsman  under  Uavid  (1  Chron. 
xxvii,  29).     B.C.  ante  1014. 

Ad'mah  (Heb.  Admak',  tV2*}i<,  property  earth; 
Sept.  'ASapa,  but  'Addfia  in  Hos.),  one  of  the  five 
cities  in  the  vale  of  Siddim  (Gen.  x,  19),  which  had 
a  king  of  its  own  (Gen.  xiv,  2,  8).  It  was  destroyed 
along  with  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (Gen.  xix,  24 ;  Deut. 
xxix,  23 ;  Hos.  xi,  8).  Near  the  south-west  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  M.  De  Saulcy  passed  through  a  place  mark- 
ed with  the  effects  of  volcanic  agency,  called  et  Thce- 
mah,  where  his  guides  assured  him  were  ruins  of  a 
city  anciently  overthrown  by  the  Almighty  {Narra- 
tive,  i,  425) ;  but  its  identification  with  Admah  needs 
corroboration.  Reland  (Palccst.  p.  545)  is  inclined  to 
infer,  from  the  constant  order  of  the  names,  that  it 
was  situated  between  Gomorrah  and  Zeboim  ;  but 
even  these  sites  are  so  uncertain  that  we  can  only  con- 
jecture the  locality  of  Admah  somewhere  near  the 
middle  of  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.  See 
Sodoji. 

Ad'matha  (Heb.  Admatha',  xr^X,  prob.  from 
Persic  thma,  "the  Highest,"  and  ta-data,  "given;" 
i.  q.  Theodore;  Sept.  'ASfiaSd,  but  most  copies  omit; 
Vulg.  Admatha),  the  third  named  of  the  seven  princes 
or  courtiers  of  Xerxes  (Esth.  i,  14),  B.C.  483. 

Admedera,  a  town,  according  to  the  Peutinger 
Table,  on  the  route  from  Damascus  to  Palmyra ;  lo- 
cated by  Ritter  (Erdk.  xvii,  1457)  at  Kuteifeh,  but, 
according  to  Van  de  Velde  {Memoir,  p.  282),  to  be 
found  at  the  present  Jubb-Adin,  between  Yabrud  (Je- 
bruda)  and  Saidnaya. 

Admission,  (1)  a  term  in  use  among  English  and 
Scotch  Presbyterians,  to  denote  the  service  and  act  b}- 
which  a  minister  is  publicly  introduced  into  a  new 
charge.  (2.)  In  the  Church  of  England,  when  the 
bishop  accepts  a  candidate  presented  for  a  benefice  as 
sufficient,  he  is  said  to  admit  him.  The  canon  and 
common  law  allow  the  bishop  twenty-eight  da)-s  after 
presentment,  during  which  to  examine  him  and  in- 
quire into  his  life  and  doctrine.  A  bishop  may  refuse 
to  admit  the  candidate  presented  on  account  of  per- 
jury, schism,  heresy,  or  any  other  crime  on  account 
of  which  he  might  be  deprived.  Bastardy,  without  a 
dispensation,  is  a  just  cause  of  refusal,  but  not  so  the 
fact  of  the  person  presented  being  the  son  of  the  last 
incumbent  —  the  canon  ne  filins  succedat  patri  not 
having  been  received  in  England ;  still,  if  the  bishop 
refuse  on  this  account,  and  the  patron  thereupon  pre- 
sent another,  the  former  nominee  has  no  remed)'. 
When  the  bishop  refuses  to  admit  he  is  bound,  within 
a  reasonable  period,  to  send  notice  to  the  lay  patron 
in  person. 

Admoni.     See  Ruddy. 

Admonition,  an  act  of  discipline  much  used  in 
the  ancient  Church:  the  first  step  toward  the  recov- 
er)- or  expulsion  of  delinquents.  In  case  of  private 
offences  it  was  performed,  according  to  the  evangeli- 
cal rule,  privately ;  in  case  of  public  offence,  openly 
before  the  Church.  If  either  of  these  sufficed  for  the 
recovery  of  the  fallen  person,  all  further  proceedings 
in  a  way  of  censure  ceased ;  if  they  did  not,  recourse 
was  then  had  to  excommunication  (Tit.  iii,  10 ;  1 
Thess.  v,  14;  Eph.  iii,  4;  Matt,  iii,  18).  Bingham, 
Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xvi,  ch.  ii,  §  C.  It  is  still  exercised  in 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  {Discipline  of  M.  E. 
Church,  pt.  iii,  ch.  i,  §  5). 

Admonitionists,  a  name  given  by  the  High 
Church  party  to  Fidd,  Cartwright,  and  other  Puritans 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  sent  in  two 
"Admonitions  to  the  Parliament,"  1571,  in  which 
were  set  forth  the  abuses  of  the  hierarchy  and  the 
grievances  under  which  non-subscribing  Protestants 
labored  (Neal,  Hist,  of  Puritans,  i,  188). 

Adna  (Heb.  Adna' ',  Ml;',  pleasure ;  Sept.  'EcW, 


but  in  Neh.  Mavvc'uf),  the  name  apparently  of  two 
men. 

1.  A  chief-priest,  son  of  Harim,  and  contemporary 
with  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii,  15),  B.C.  cir.  500. 

2.  An  Israelite  of  the  sons  (i.  e.  inhabitants)  of  Pa- 
hath-moab,  who  divorced  the  Gentile  wife  married  by 
him  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  x,  30),  B.C.  459. 

Ad'nah  (Heb.  Adnah' ',  hi1??,  i.  q.  Adna),  the 
name  of  two  men. 

1.  A  chiliarch  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  who  joined 
David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii,  20,  where  the  text  has 
erroneously  HD*!?,  Adnach' ;  Sept.  'Evvc'i,  Vulg.  Ed- 
nas), B.C.  1054.' 

2.  (Sept.  litivac:,  Vulg.  Ednas.)  A  Judahite,  and 
principal  general  under  Jehoshaphat,  with  a  force  of 
300,000  (?)  men  (2  Chron.  xvii,  14),  B.C.  cir.  908. 

Ado,  St.,  archbishop  of  Vienne,  France,  born  about 
800,  made  archbishop  in  8G0,  and  noted  for  his  zeal 
in  reforming  the  morals  of  the  people  and  in  enforcing 
Church  discipline.  He  died  875.  His  memory  is 
celebrated  by  the  Roman  Church  on  Dec.  16.  His 
principal  works  are  a  Martyroloyium  (Paris,  1(348,  fol. ; 
also,  with  notes,  ed.  Georgius,  Roma?,  1745,  4to)  and  a 
Breviarium  Chronicorum  de  6  Mundi  ^Etatibus  (Basil, 
1568  ;  also  in  Bibl.  Max.  Patr.  16,  768). 

Ad'onai  (Heb.  Adonaif,  "13"tX,  prob.  my  master, 
in  the  plur.  form  for  the  sake  of  intensity ;  see  Gese- 
nius,  Thes.  Heb.  p.  329;  Sept.  Kvpiog,  Vulg.  Domi- 
nus,  Auth.  Vers.  "Lord,"  not  in  small  capitals;  but 
"  God,"  when  that  term  has  just  preceded  as  a 
translation  of  Jehovah),  a  term  employed  in  the  Heb. 
Scriptures  by  way  of  eminence  to  God,  especiaiky  (in 
the  Pentateuch  always)  where  he  is  submissively  or 
reverent!)'  addressed  in  his  character  of  sovereign  ; 
frequently  with  other  titles  added.  See  Jehovah. 
The  simple  form  "(TIN,  Adon  (either  with  or  without 
suffixes),  is  spoken  of  an  mener  or  possessor  in  gen- 
eral, e.  g.  of  property  (1  Kings  xvi,  21),  of  slaves 
(Gen.  xxiv,  14,  27  ;  xxxix,  2,  7) ;  hence,  of  kings,  as 
rulers  over  their  subjects  (Isa.  xxvi,  13),  and  of  hus- 
bands, as  lords  of  their  wives  (Gen.  xviii,  12)  ;  also  of 
God,  as  proprietor  of  the  world  (Josh,  iii,  13 ;  Exod. 
xxiii,  17  ;  Psa.  cxiv,  7).  It  is  also  used  of  a  ruler  or 
governor  (Gen.  xlv,  8);  and  hence  as  a  title  of  re- 
spect in  addressing,  e.  g.  a  father  (Gen.  xxxi,  35),  a 
brother  (Num.  xii,  11),  a  royal  consort  (1  Kings  i,  17, 
18),  and  especially  kings  or  nobles  (2  Sam.  xiv,  9;  1 
Kings  iii,  17).  The  plural  is  employed  in  a  similar 
manner.  The  distinctive  form,  Adonai,  never  has 
the  article ;  it  is  twice  applied  by  God  to  himself 
(Job  xxviii,  28,  where,  however,  many  copies  have 
"Jehovah;"  Isa.  viii,  7,  where,  however,  the  expres- 
sion may  be  only  the  prophet's);  a  circumstance  that 
may  have  arisen  from  the  superstition  of  the  Jews, 
who  always  point  the  sacred  name  Jehovah  with  its 
vowels,  and  even  substitute  it  for  that  name  in  read- 
ing, so  that  in  some  cases  it  appears  to  have  supplant- 
ed it  in  the  text  (Dan.  ix,  3,  7,  8,  9,  15,  16,  19).  It 
seems  to  have  been  written  peculiarly  COTX)  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  regular  form  ("'2LIX),  which  never- 
theless occurs  in  its  ordinary  sense,  once  with  a  plur. 
sense  (Gen.  xix,  2),  but  elsewhere  as  a  sing.  (Gen. 
xviii,  3;  xix,  8).     See  Lord. 

Adon'i-be'zek  (Heb.  Adoni'-Be'zek,  pn—nx, 
lord  of  Bezelc ;  Sept.  '  A§Mvi$iZ,iK),  a  chieftain  of  Be- 
zek  (q.  v.),  who  had  subdued  seventy  of  the  petty 
kingdoms  around  him,  and,  after  barbarously  cutting 
off  their  thumbs  and  great  toes,  had  compelled  them 
to  gather  their  food  under  his  table  (Judg.  i,  5-7). 
Elated  with  this  success,  he  ventured,  at  the  head  of 
the  confederate  Canaanites  and  Perizzites,  to  attack 
the  army  of  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Simeon,  after  the 
death  of  Joshua;  but  was  himself  defeated,  captured, 
and  served  in  the  same  manner  as  he  had  treated  his 


ADONICAM  1 

own  captives — a  fate  which  his  conscience  compelled 
him  to  acknowledge  as  a  righteous  retribution  for  his 
inhumanity.  He  died  of  these  wounds  at  Jerusalem, 
whither  he  was  taken,  B.C.  cir.  1590.  (See  Kitto's  Daily 
Bible  Illust.  in  loc. ;  and  comp.  /Elian,  Var.  Hist,  ii,  9.) 

Adoni'cam  (1  Esdr.  viii,  39).     See  Adonikam. 

Adoni'jah  (Heb.  Adoniyah' ',  fT'3"1N,  my  lord  is 
Jehovah,  otherwise  lord  [i.  e.  worshipper,  comp.  An-] 
of  Jehovah,  also  in  the  prolonged  form  Adoniya'hu, 
ilpronx,  1  Kings  i,  8,  17,  24,  25,  41-51;  ii,  13-24;  2 
Chron.  xvii,  8;  Sept.  'Adwviac,  but  in  2  Sam.  iii,  4; 
1  Chron.  iii,  2,  'Aciopia  ;  in  Neh.  x,  16,  'ASavict  v.  r. 
'Aavaa,  'Aavia),  the  name  of  three  men.      See  also 

ToB-ADONIJAH. 

1.  The  fourth  son  of  David,  and  his  second  by  Ilag- 
gith  ;  born  while  his  father  reigned  over  Judah  only 
(2  Sam.  iii,  4).  B.C.  cir.  1050.  According  to  Orient- 
al usages,  Adonijah  might  have  considered  his  claim 
superior  to  that  of  his  eldest  brother  Amnon,  who  was 
horn  while  his  father  was  in  a  private  station  ;  but  not 
to  that  of  Absalom,  who  was  not  only  his  elder  broth- 
er, and  born  while  his  father  was  a  king,  hut  was  of 
royal  descent  on  the  side  of  his  mother.  When,  how- 
ever, Amnon  and  Absalom  were  both  dead,  he  became, 
by  order  of  birth,  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne. 
But  this  order  had  been  set  aside  in  favor  of  Solomon, 
who  was  born  while  his  father  was  king  of  all  Israel. 
Unawed  by  the  example  of  Absalom  (q.  v.),  Adonijah 
took  the  same  means  of  showing  that  he  was  not  dis- 
posed to  relinquish  the  claim  of  primogeniture  which 
now  devolved  upon  him  (comp.  Joscphus,  Ant.  vii,  14, 
4).  But  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  his  wish  to 
trouble  his  father  as  Absalom  had  done  ;  for  he  waited 
till  David  appeared  at  the  point  of  death,  when  he  call- 
ed around  him  a  number  of  influential  men,  whom  he 
had  previously  gained  over,  and  caused  himself  to  be 
proclaimed  king.  In  all  likelihood,  if  Absalom  had 
waited  till  a  similar  opportunity,  Joab  and  Abiathar 
would  have  given  him  their  support;  but  his  prema- 
ture and  unnatural  attempt  to  dethrone  his  father  dis- 
gusted these  friends  of  David.  This  danger  was 
avoided  by  Adonijah  ;  but  his  plot  was,  notwithstand- 
ing, defeated  by  the  prompt  measures  taken  by  David, 
who,  at  the  instance  of  Nathan  and  Bathsheba,  direct- 
ed Solomon  to  be  at  once  proclaimed  king,  with  solemn 
coronation  by  Zadok,  and  admitted  to  the  real  exercise 
of  the  sovereign  power.  Adonijah  then  saw  that  all 
was  lost,  and  fled  to  the  altar  [see  Asylum],  which  he 
refused  to  leave  without  a  promise  of  pardon  from 
King  Solomon.  This  he  received,  but  was  warned 
that  any  further  attempt  of  the  same  kind  would  be 
fatal  to' him  (1  Kings  i,  5-53),  B.C.  cir.  1015.  Ac- 
cordingly, when,  some  time  after  the  death  of  David, 
Adonijah  covertly  endeavored  to  reproduce  li is  claim 
through  a  marriage  with  Abishag  (q.  v.),  the  virgin 
Avidow  of  his  father,  his  design  was  at  once  penetrated 
by  the  king,  by  whose  order  he  was  instantly  put  to 
death  (1  Kings  ii,  13-25),  B.C.  cir.  1012.  See  Solo- 
mon. Far  from  looking  upon  this  as  "  the  most  fla- 
grant act  of  despotism  since  Doeg  massacred  the  priests 
at  Saul's  command"  (Newman,  Hebrew  Monarchy,  ch. 
iv),  we  must  consider  that  the  clemency  of  Solomon, 
in  sparing  Adonijah  till  he  thus  again  revealed  a  trea- 
sonable purpose,  stands  in  remarkable  contrast  with 
the  almost  universal  practice  of  Eastern  sovereigns. 
Any  one  of  these,  situated  like  Solomon,  would  prob- 
ably have  secured  his  throne  by  putting  all  his  broth- 
ers to  death,  whereas  we  have  no  reason  to  think  that 
any  of  David's  sons  suffered  except  the  open  pretender 
Adonijah,  though  all  seem  to  have  opposed  Solomon's 
claims;  and  if  his  execution  lie  thought  an  act  of  se- 
verity, we  must  remember  that  we  cannot  expect  to 
find  the  principles  of  the  Gospel  acted  upon  a  thousand 
years  before  Christ  came,  and  that  it  is  hard  for  us,  in 
this  nineteenth  century,  altogether  to  realize  the  posi- 
tion of  an  Oriental  king  in  that  remote  age.     (See 


>  ADONIS 

Niemeyer,  Ghdrakterist.  iv,  349  sq. ;  Kitto,  Daily  Bible 
Illust.  in  loc.) — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  One  of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to  assist 
in  teaching  the  law  to  the  inhabitants  of  Judah  (2 
Chron.  xvii,  8),  B.C.  909. 

3.  A  chief  Israelite  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  x,  16) ; 
probably  the  same  elsewhere  (Ezra  ii,  13;  viii,  13; 
Neh.  vii,  18)  called  Adonikam  (q.  v.). 

Adoni'kam  [many  A  don' ikani]  (Heb.  Adonikam', 
Ui^-JX,  probably,  whom  the  Lord  sets  up  ;  Sept.  Aew- 
viKafx'),  one,  whose  retainers,  to  the  number  of  666,  re- 
turned (B.C.  506)  to  Jerusalem  with  Zerubbahel  (Ezra 
ii,  13),  besides  himself  (Neh.  vii,  18),  and  somewhat 
later  (B.C.  459)  his  three  immediate  descendants,  with 
60  male  followers  (Ezra  viii,  13).  In  the  Apocryphal 
text  (1  Esdr.  viii,  39)  his  name  is  once  Anglicized  A  n- 
donicam  ('ASwvuccifi,  comp.  'Aomukuv,  1  Esdr.  v,  14). 
He  appears  (from  the  identity  of  the  associated  names) 
to  have  been  the  Adonijah  who  joined  in  the  religious 
covenant  of  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x,  16),  B.C.  410. 

Adcmi'ram  (Heb.  Adoniram,  fiT'3"IX,  lord  of 
height,  i.  e.  high  lord;  Sept.  'ASojvipafi),  a  person  men- 
tioned as  receiver-general  of  the  imposts  [see  Tax]  in 
the  reigns  of  David  (1  Kings  iv,  6,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  been  the  son  of  Abda;  2  Sam.  xx,  24,  where  he 
is  called  Adoram,  by  contraction),  Solomon  (1  Kings 
iv,  14),  and  Reboboam  (1  Kings  xii,  18,  where  he  is 
called  Adoram;  2  Chron.  x,  18,  where  he  is  called 
Hadoram,  q.  v.),  for  an  extended  term  (B.C.  1014- 
973),  during  which  he  had  rendered  himself,  as  well  as 
the  tribute  itself,  so  odious  to  the  people  (comp.  1 
Kings  xii,  4),  in  sustaining  the  immense  public  works 
of  Solomon  (q.  v.),  that,  when  Rehoboam  rashly  sent 
him  to  enforce  the  collection  of  the  taxes,  the  exas- 
perated populace  rose  upon  him  and  stoned  him  to 
death,  as  a  signal  for  the  revolt  under  Jeroboam  (1 
Kings,  xii,  18). 

Adonis  ("AcWic,  pro'i.  from  a  Phoenician  form 
of  the  Heb.  *"HM,  lord),  was,  according  to  Apollodorus 
(iii,  14,  3),  the  son  of  Cinyrus  and  Medaue,  or,  accord- 
ing to  other  accounts  (Hesiod  and  Panyasis  in  Apol- 
lod.  ut  sup.  14),  of  Phoenix  and  Alphesibcea,  or  of  an 
Assyrian  king,  Theias,  by  his  own  daughter,  Smyrna, 
who  was  changed  into  a  myrrh-tree  (pfivpva)  in  en- 
deavoring to  escape  her  father's  rage  on  discovering 
the  incest.  The  beauty  of  the  youth  made  him  a  fa- 
vorite with  Venus,  with  whom  he  was  permitted  to 
spend  a  portion  of  each  year  after  his  death,  which 
occurred  from  a  wound  by  a  wild  boar  in  the  chase. 
(See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v.) 
This  event  was  celebrated  by  a  yearly  festival,  origi- 
nally by  the  Syrians,  who  called  a  river  near  which  the 
fatal  accident  occurred  (Keland,  Palasst.  p.  269)  by  his 
name  (Robinson's  Researches,  new  ed.  iii,  606),  and 
thence  by  all  the  nations  around  the  Mediterranean. 
See  Braun,  Selecta  Sacra,  p.  376  sq, ;  Fickensecher, 
Erlliir.  d.  Mythus  Adonis  (Gotha,  1800);  Groddeck, 
Ueb.  d.  Fest  des  Adonis,  in  his  Antiquar.  Vermche 
(Lemberg,  1800),  p.  83  sq. ;  Moinichen,  De  Adonidfi 
Phmnicum  (Hafn.  1702);  Maurer,  De  Adonide  ejvsque 
cultu  (Erlang.  1782). 

The  Vulg.  gives  Adonis  as  a  rendering  for  Tammuz 
or  Thammuz  (IISR  ;  Sept.  Uaftfiov'S),  a  Syrian  deity, 
for  whom  the  Hebrew  idolatresses  were  accustomed  to 
hold  an  annual  lamentation  (Ezek.  viii,  14).  This 
idol  was  doubtless  the  same  with  the  Phoenician  Adon 
or  Adonis,  and  the  feast  itself  such  as  they  celebrated. 
Silvestre  de  Sacy  thinks  that  the  name  Taramuz  was 
of  foreign  origin,  and  probably  Egyptian,  as  well  as 
the  god  by  whom  it  was  borne.  In  fact,  it  would  prob- 
ably not  be  difficult  to  identify  him  with  Osiris,  from 
whose  worship  his  differed  only  in  accessories.  The 
feast  held  in  honor  of  Tammuz  was  solstitial,  and 
commenced  with  the  new  moon  of  July,  in  the  month 
also  called  Tammuz.    It  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  one 


ADONISTS 


76 


ADOPTION 


consecrated  to  lamentation,  and  the  other  to  joy ;  in 
the  days  of  grief  they  mourned  the  disappearance  of 
the  god,  and  in  the  clays  of  gladness  celebrated  his 
discovery  and  return.  Adonis  or  Tammuz  appears 
to  have  been  a  sort  of  incarnation  of  the  sun,  regard- 
ed principally  as  in  a  state  of  passion  and  sufferance, 
in  connection  with  the  apparent  vicissitudes  in  its  ce- 
lestial position,  and  with  respect  to  the  terrestrial  met- 
amorphoses produced,  under  its  influence,  upon  vege- 
tation in  advancing  to  maturity.  (See  Lucian,  De  Dea 
Syra,  §  vii,  19  ;  Selden,  De  Diis  Syr-is,  ii,  31 ;  Creuzer, 
Symbolik,  iv,  3.)     See  Tammuz. 

Adonists,  critics  who  maintain  that  the  Hebrew 
points  ordinarily  annexed  to  the  consonants  of  the 
word  Jehovah  are  not  the  natural  points  belonging  to 
that  word,"but  to  the  words  A  donai  (q.  v.)  and  Elohim  ; 
and  that  they  are  applied  to  the  consonants  of  the  inef- 
fable name  Jehovah,  to  warn  the  readers  that,  instead 
of  the  word  Jehovah,  which  the  Jews  were  forbid  to 
pronounce,  they  are  always  to  read  A  donai.  They  are 
opposed  to  Jehovists,  who  maintain  the  opposite  view. 
See  Jehovah. 

Adon'i-ze'dek  (Heb.  Adoni'-Tse'dek,  pn^-^snx, 
lord  of  justice,  i.  e.  just  lord;  Sept.  'AcwvHjiSac  v.  r. 
'AouvifitZix,  Vulg.  Adonisedec),  the  Canaanitish  king 
of  Jerusalem  when  the  Israelites  invaded  Palestine 
(Josh,  x,  1,  3),  B.C.  1618.  After  Jericho  and  Ai  were 
taken,  and  the  Gibeonites  had  succeeded  in  forming 
a  treaty  with  the  Israelites,  Adonizedek  was  the  first 
to  rouse  himself  from  the  stupor  which  had  fallen  on 
the  Canaanites  (Josh,  i,  9-11),  and  he  induced  the  other 
Amoritish  kings  of  Hebron — Jarmuth,  Lachish,  and 
Eglon — to  join  him  in  a  confederacy  against  the  ene- 
my. They  did  not,  however,  march  directly  against 
the  invaders,  but  went  and  besieged  the  Gibeonites,  to 
punish  them  for  the  discouraging  example  which  their 
secession  from  the  common  cause  had  afforded.  Josh- 
ua no  sooner  heard  of  this  than  he  marched  all  night 
from  Gilgal  to  the  relief  of  his  allies ;  and  falling  un- 
expectedly upon  the  besiegers,  soon  put  them  to  utter 
rout.  The  pursuit  was  long,  and  was  signalized  by 
Joshua's  famous  command  to  the  sun  and  moon,  as 
well  as  by  a  tremendous  hail-storm,  which  greatly 
distressed  the  fugitive  Amorites.  See  Joshua.  The 
five  kings  took  refuge  in  a  cave,  but  were  observed, 
and  by  Joshua's  order  the  mouth  of  it  was  closed  with 
large  stones,  and  a  f^uard  set  over  it,  until  the  pursuit 
was  over.  When  the  pursuers  returned,  the  cave  was 
opened,  and  the  five  kings  brought  out.  The  Hebrew 
chiefs  then  set  their  feet  upon  the  necks  of  the  pros- 
trate monarchs — an  ancient  mark  of  triumph,  of  which 
the  monuments  of  Persia  and  Egypt  still  afford  illus- 
trations. See  Triumph.  They  were  then  slain,  and 
their  bodies  hung  on  trees  until  the  evening,  when 
(comp.  Deut.  xxi,  23)  they  were  taken  down  and  cast 
into  the  cave,  the  mouth  of  which  was  filled  up  with 
large  stones,  which  remained  long  after  (Josh,  x,  1-27). 
The  severe  treatment  of  these  kings  by  Joshua  has 
been  censured  and  defended  with  equal  disregard  of 
the  real  circumstances,  which  are,  that  the  war  was 
avowedly  one  of  extermination,  no  quarter  being  giv- 
en or  expected  on  either  side  ;  and  that  the  war-usages 
of  the  Jews  were  neither  worse  nor  better  than  those  of 
the  people  with  whom  they  fought,  who  would  most  cer- 
tainly have  treated  Joshua  and  the  other  Hebrew  chiefs 
in  the  same  manner  had  they  fallen  into  their  hands. 
(Simeon's  Works,  ii,  592.) — Kitto.     See  Canaanites. 

Adoptianists  or  Adopt! vi,  a  sect  which  orig- 
inated with  Elipandus,  archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  his  in- 
structor, Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel,  in  Spain.  They  taught 
that  Jesus  Christ,  as  to  his  human  nature,  was  not  the 
natural,  but  merely  the  adopted  Sun  of  God,  whence 
they  were  called  Adoptivi  or  Adoptiani.  This  error 
was  brought  before  the  Council  of  Narbonne  in  791; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  Felix,  who  was  present, 
was  then  condemned,  as  was  the  case  at  Ratisbon  in 


j  the  following  year,  at  Frankfort  in  794,  and  at  Urgel 
'  in  799.  The  Adoptian  doctrine  had  existed  before  in 
the  East,  but  this  development  of  it  in  Spain  seems  to 
have  been  aboriginal  there,  though  it  is  not  impossible 
that  Felix  may  have  seen  some  of  the  writings  of 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (q.  v.). 

By  the  use  of  the  term  A  doptio  this  school  wished  to 
mark  the  distinction  of  proper  and  improper  in  refer- 
S  ence  to  the  Son.  They  made  use  of  the  illustration 
'  that,  as  a  son  cannot  have  two  fathers,  but  may  have 
one  by  birth  and  the  other  by  adoption,  so  in  Christ  a 
distinction  must  be  made  between  his  proper  sonship 
'  and  his  sonship  by  adoption.  Still,  they  regarded  as 
the  important  point  the  different  relation  in  which 
Christ  is  called  the  Son  of  God  according  to  his  divine 
or  his  human  nature.  The  former  relation  marked 
something  founded  in  the  nature  of  God,  the  second 
!  something  that  was  founded  not  in  his  nature,  but  in 
a  free  act  of  the  Divine  will,  by  which  God  assumed 
human  nature  into  connection  with  himself.  Accord- 
|  ingly  Felix  distinguished  between  how  far  Christ  was 
the  Son  of  God  and  God  according  to  nature  (natura, 
genere),  and  how  far  he  was  so  by  virtue  of  grace,  by 
an  act  of  the  Divine  will  {gratia,  roluntate),  by  the 
Divine  choice  and  good  pleasure  {electione,  placito) ; 
and  the  name  Son  of  God  was  given  to  him  only  in 
consequence  of  his  connection  with  God  {nuncupative'); 
and  hence  the  expressions  for  this  distinction,  secun- 
dum naturam  and  secundum  adoptionem.  The  sect  is 
full}-  treated  by  Walch,  Historia  Adoptianorum  (Get- 
ting. 1755,  8vo).  See  also  Neander,  History  of  Dog- 
:  mas,  337,  432,  442  (transl.  by  Ryland,  Lon'd.  1858,  2 
,  vols.  12mo).  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  156,  157-;  Hase, 
[  Ch.  Hist.  §  1G9 ;  Mosh.  Ch.  Hist.  bk.  iii,  c.  viii,  pt.  ii, 
ch.  v,  §  3.     See  Elipandus  ;  Felix. 

Adoption  {inoQiaia,  Rom.  viii,  15,  23;  ix,  4; 
j  Gal.  iv,  5  ;  Eph.  i,  5),  the  placing  as  a  son  of  one  who 
!  is  not  so  by  birth  or  naturally. 

I.  Literal. — The  practice  of  adoption  had  its  origin 
in  the  natural  desire  for  male  offspring,  the  operation 
of  which  is  less  marked  in  those  countries  where  the 
equalizing  influences  of  high  civilization  lessen  the  pe- 
culiar privileges  of  the  paternal  character,  and  where 
the  security  and  the  well-observed  laws  by  which 
estates  descend  and  property  is  transmitted  withdraw 
one  of  the  principal  inducements  to  the  practice,  but 
was  peculiarl}-  prevalent  in  the  patriarchal  period. 
The  law  of  Moses,  hy  settling  the  relations  of  families 
and  the  rules  of  descent,  and  by  formally  establishing 
the  Levirate  law,  appears  to  have  put  some  check 
upon  this  custom.  The  allusions  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  mostly  to  practices  of  adoption  which  then 
existed,  but  not  confined  to  the  Romans.  In  the  East 
the  practice  has  always  been  common,  especially 
among  the  Semitic  races,  although  the  additional  and 
peculiar  stimulus  which  the  Hebrews  derived  from  the 
hope  of  giving  birth  to  the  Messiah  was  inapplicable 
to  cases  of  adoption.  But,  as  the  arrangements  of  so- 
ciety became  more  complicated,  some  restrictions  were 
imposed  upon  the  power  of  adoption,  and  certain  pub- 
lic forms  were  made  necessary  to  legalize  the  act: 
precisely  what  these  were,  in  different  ages,  among  the 
Hebrews,  we  are  mostly  left  to  gather  from  the  anal- 
ogous practices  of  other  Eastern  nations.  For  the 
practice  had  ceased  to  be  common  among  the  Jews  by 
the  time  the  sources  of  information  became  more  open  ; 
and  the  culpable  facility  of  divorce  in  later  times  ren- 
dered unnecessary  those  adoptions  which  might  have 
arisen,  and  in  earlier  times  did  arise,  from  the  sterility 
of  a  wife.  Adoption  was  confined  to  sons ;  the  case 
of  Esther  affords  the  onty  example  of  the  adoption 
of  a  female ;  for  the  Jews  certainly  were  not  behind 
any  Oriental  nation  in  the  feeling  expressed  in  the 
Chinese  proverb,  "  He  is  happiest  in  daughters  who 
has  only  sons"  {Mini,  sur  les  Chinois,  x,  149). 

1.  The  first  instances  of  adoption  which  occur  in 
Scripture  are  less  the  acts  of  men  than  of  women,  who, 


ADOPTION 


vr 


ADOPTION 


being  themselves  barren,  give  their  female  slaves  to 
their  husbands,  with  the  view  of  adopting  the  children 
they  may  bear.  Thus  Sarah  gave  her  handmaid  Ha- 
gar  to  Abraham  ;  and  the  son  who  was  born,  Ishmael, 
appears  to  have  been  considered  as  her  son  as  well  as 
Abraham's  until  Isaac  was  born.  In  like  manner  Ra- 
chel, having  no  children,  gave  her  handmaid  Bilhah  to 
her  husband,  who  had  by  her  Dan  and  Naphtali  (Gen. 
xxx,  5-9)  ;  on  which  his  other  wife,  Leah,  although  she 
had  sons  of  her  own,  yet  fearing  that  she  had  left  off 
bearing,  claimed  the  right  of  giving  her  handmaid 
Zilpah  to  Jacob,  that  she  might  thus  increase  their 
number ;  and  by  this  means  she  had  Gad  and  Asher 
(Gen.  xxx,  9-13).  In  this  way  the  child  was  the  son 
of  the  husband,  and,  the  mother  being  the  property  of 
the  wife,  the  progen}-  must  be  her  property  also  ;  and 
the  act  of  more  particular  appropriation  seems  to  have 
been  that,  at  the  time  of  birth,  the  handmaid  brought 
forth  her  child  "  upon  the  knees  of  the  adoptive  moth- 
er" (Gen.  xxx,  3).  In  this  case  the  vicarious  bearing 
of  the  handmaid  for  the  mistress  was  as  complete  as 
possible  ;  and  the  sons  were  regarded  as  fully  equal  in 
right  of  heritage  with  those  bj-  the  legitimate  wife. 
This  privilege  could  not,  however,  be  conferred  by  the 
adoption  of  the  wife,  but  by  the  natural  relation  of 
such  sons  to  the  husband.  Sarah's  case  proves  that  a 
mistress  retained  her  power,  as  such,  over  a  female 
slave  whom  she  had  thus  vicariously  employed,  and 
over  the  progeny  of  that  slave,  even  though  by  her 
own  husband  (Gen.  xxi,  10). 

Still  earlier  Abraham  appears  to  have  adopted  a 
house-born  slave,  his  faithful  and  devoted  steward 
Eliezer,  as  a  son  (Gen.  xv,  2) — a  practice  still  very 
common  in  the  East.  A  boy  is  often  purchased  young, 
adopted  by  his  master,  brought  up  in  his  faith,  and  ed- 
ucated as  his  son  ;  or  if  the  owner  has  a  daughter,  he 
adopts  him  through  a  marriage  with  that  daughter, 
and  the  family  which  springs  from  this  union  is  count- 
ed as  descended  from  him.  But  house-born  slaves 
are  usually  preferred,  as  these  have  never  had  any 
home  but  their  master's  house,  are  considered  mem- 
bers of  his  family,  and  are  generally  the  most  faithful 
of  his  adherents.  This  practice  was  very  common 
among  the  Romans,  and  is  more  than  once  referred  to 
by  Paul  (Rom.  viii,  15;  1  Cor.  ii,  12);  the  transition 
from  the  condition  of  a  slave  to  that  of  a  son,  and  the 
privilege  of  applying  the  tender  name  of  "father"  to 
the  former  "  master,"  affording  a  beautiful  illustra- 
tion of  the  change  which  takes  place  from  the  bond- 
age of  the  law  to  the  freedom  and  privileges  of  the 
Christian  state. 

As  in  most  cases  the  adopted  son  was  considered 
dead  to  the  family  from  which  he  sprung,  the  separa- 
tion of  natural  ties  and  connections  was  avoided  by 
this  preference  of  slaves,  who  were  mostly  foreigners 
or  of  foreign  descent.  For  the  same  reason  the  Chi- 
nese make  their  adoptions  from  children  in  the  hospi- 
tals who  have  been  abandoned  by  their  parents  [Mem. 
sur  les  Chinois,  vi,  325).  The  Tartars  prefer  to  .adopt 
their  near  relatives — nephews  or  cousins,  or,  failing 
them,  a  Tartar  of  their  own  banner  (ib.  iv,  13G).  In 
like  manner  Jacob  adopted  his  own  grandsons  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh  to  be  counted  as  his  sons  (Gen.  xlviii, 
6).  The  object  of  this  remarkable  adoption  was,  that, 
whereas  Joseph  himself  could  only  have  one  share  of 
his  father's  heritage  along  with  his  brothers,  the  adop- 
tion of  his  two  sons  enabled  Jacob,  through  them,  to 
bestow  two  portions  upon  his  favorite  son.  The  adop- 
tion of  Moses  by  Pharaoh's  daughter  (Exod.  ii,  1-10) 
is  an  incident  rather  than  a  practice  ;  but  it  recalls 
what  has  just  been  stated  respecting  the  adoption  of 
outcast  children  by  the  Chinese. 

A  man  who  had  only  a  daughter  often  married  her 
to  a  freed  slave,  and  the  children  were  counted  as 
those  of  the  woman's  father,  or  the  husband  himself  is 
adopted  as  a  son.  Thus  Sheshan,  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah,  gave  his  daughter  to  Jarha,  an  Egyptian  slave 


(whom,  as  the  Targum  premises,  he  no  doubt  liberated 
on  that  occasion) :  the  posterity  of  the  marriage  are 
not,  however,  reckoned  to  Jarha,  the  husband  of  the 
woman,  but  to  her  father,  Sheshan,  and  as  his  descend- 
ants they  take  their  heritage  and  station  in  Israel  (1 
Chron.  ii,  34  sq.).  So  Machir  (grandson  of  Joseph) 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Hezron,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah.  She  gave  birth  to  Segub,  who  was  the  la- 
ther of  Jair  (q.  v.).  This  Jair  possessed  twenty-three 
cities  in  the  land  of  Gilead,  which  came  to  him  in 
right  of  his  grandmother,  the  daughter  of  Machir ;  and 
he  acquired  other  towns  in  the  same  quarter,  which 
made  up  his  possessions  to  threescore  towns  or  vil- 
lages (1  Chron.  ii,  21-24  ;  Josh,  xiii,  9 ;  1  Kings  iv, 
13).  Now  this  Jair,  though  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  by 
his  grandfather,  is,  in  Num.  xxxii,  41,  counted  as  of 
Manasseh,  because  through  his  grandmother  he  inher- 
ited the  property,  and  was  the  lineal  representative  of 
Machir,  the  son  of  Manasseh.  This  case  illustrates 
the  difference  between  the  pedigree  of  Christ  as  given 
by  Matthew  and  that  in  Luke — the  former  being  the 
pedigree  through  Joseph,  his  supposed  father,  and  the 
latter  through  his  mother,  Mary.  This  opinion  [see 
Genealogy]  supposes  that  Mary  was  the  daughter 
of  Heli,  and  that  Joseph  is  called  his  son  (Luke  iii, 
23)  becaiise  he  was  adopted  by  Heli  when  he  married 
his  daughter,  who  was  an  heiress,  as  has  been  pre- 
sumed from  the  fact  of  her  going  to  Bethlehem  to  be 
registered  when  in  the  last  stage  of  pregnancy.  Her 
heirship,  however,  is  not  essential  to  this  relation,  and 
her  journey  may  rather  have  been  in  order  to  continue 
under  the  protection  of  her  husband  during  such  a  pe- 
riod of  suspicion. 

By  the  time  of  Christ  the  Jews  had,  through  various 
channels,  become  well  acquainted  with  the  more  re- 
markable customs  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  is  ap- 
parent particularly  from  the  epistles  of  Paul.  In 
John  viii,  3G,  "  If  the  son  shall  make  you  free,  ye  shall 
be  free  indeed,"  is  supposed  by  Grotius  and  other  com- 
mentators to  refer  to  a  custom  in  some  of  the  cities  of 
Greece  and  elsewhere,  called  act\<po9t<jia,  whereby 
the  son  and  heir  was  permitted  to  adopt  brothers  and 
admit  them  to  the  same  rights  which  he  himself  en- 
joyed. But  it  seems  more  likely  that  the  reference 
was  to  the  more  familiar  Roman  custom,  by  which  the 
son,  after  his  father's  death,  often  made  free  such  as 
were  born  slaves  in  his  house  (Theophil.  Antecensor, 
I nst it ut.  Imp.  Justinian,  i,  G,  5).  In  Rom.  viii,  23, 
vio9taiav  airtKpixoptvoi,  "  anxiously  waiting  for  the 
adoption,"  the  former  word  appears  to  be  used  in  a 
sense  different  from  that  which  it  bears  in  ver.  15,  and 
to  signify  the  consummation  of  the  act  there  mention- 
ed, in  which  point  of  view  it  is  conceived  to  apply  to 
the  twofold  ceremony  among  the  Romans.  The  one 
was  the  private  act  between  the  parties  ;  and  if  the 
person  to  be  adopted  was  not  already  the  slave  of  the 
adopter,  this  private  transaction  involved  the  purchase 
of  him  from  his  parents  when  practicable.  In  this? 
manner  Cains  and  Lucius  were  purchased  from  their 
father  Agrippa  before  their  adoption  by  Augustus. 
The  other  was  the  public  acknowledgment  of  that  act 
on  the  part  of  the  adopter,  when  the  adopted  person 
was  solemnly  avowed  and  declared  to  be  his  son.  The 
peculiar  force  and  propriety  of  stub  an  allusion  in  an 
epistle  to  the  Romans  must  be  very  evident.  In  Gal. 
iv,  5,  G,  there  is  a  very  clear  allusion  to  the  privilege 
(if  adopted  slaves  to  address  their  former  master  by 
the  endearing  title  of  Abba,  or  father.  Seidell  has 
shown  that  slaves  were  not  allowed  to  use  this  word  in 
addressing  the  master  of  the  family  to  which  they  lie- 
longed,  nor  the  corresponding  title  of  Mama,  mother, 
when  speaking  to  the  mistress  of  it  (De  Succ.  in  Bona 
Defunct,  secund.  Hebr.  c.  iv).— Kitto,  s.  v. 

2.  The  Roman  custom  of  adoption,  by  which  a  per- 
son, not  having  children  of  his  own,  might  adopt  as 
his  son  one  born  of  other  parents,  was  a  formal  act, 
effected  either  by  the  process  named  adror/atio,  when 


ADOPTION 


IS 


ADOPTION. 


the  person  to  be  adopted  was  independent  of  his  parent, 
or  by  adopt io,  specifically  so  called,  when  in  the  power 
of  his  parent.  The  effect  of  it  was  that  the  adopted 
child  was  entitled  to  the  name  and  sacra  pricata  of  his 
new  father,  and  ranked  as  his  heir  at  law ;  while  the 
father,  on  his  part,  was  entitled  to  the  property  of  the 
son,  and  exercised  toward  him  all  the  rights  and  priv- 
ileges of  a  father.  In  short,  the  relationship  was  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  the  same  as  existed  between 
a  natural  father  and  son.  (See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class. 
Antiq.  s.  v.  Adoption.) — Smith,  s.  v. 

3.  The  custom  of  adoption  is  still  frequent  in  the 
East.  Lady  Montague  says  (Letter  xlii),  "There  is 
one  custom  peculiar  to  their  country,  I  mean  adoption, 
very  common  among  the  Turks,  and  yet  more  among 
the  Greeks  and  Armenians.  Not  having  it  in  their 
power  to  give  their  estate  to  a  friend  or  distant  rela- 
tion, to  avoid  its  falling  into  the  grand  seignior's  treas- 
ury, when  they  are  not  likely  to  have  any  children 
of  their  own,  they  choose  some  pretty  child  of  either 
sex  among  the  meanest  people,  and  cany  the  child 
and  its  parents  before  the  cadi,  and  there  declare  they 
receive  it  for  their  heir.  The  parents  at  the  same 
time  renounce  all  future  claim  to  it ;  a  writing  is 
drawn  and  witnessed,  and  a  child  thus  adopted  cannot 
be  disinherited.  Yet  I  have  seen  some  common  beg- 
gars that  have  refused  to  part  with  their  children  in 
this  manner  to  some  of  the  richest  among  the  Greeks 
(so  powerful  is  the  instinctive  affection  that  is  natural 
to  parents)  ;  though  the  adopting  fathers  are  general- 
ly very  tender  to  those  children  of  their  souls,  as  they 
call  them.  Methinks  it  is  much  more  reasonable  to 
make  happy  and  rich  an  infant  whom  I  educate  after 
my  own  manner,  brought  up  (in  the  Turkish  phrase) 
upon  my  knees,  and  who  has  learned  to  look  upon  me 
with  a  filial  respect,  than  to  give  an  estate  to  a  crea- 
ture without  merit  or  relation  to  me." 

Among  the  Mohammed  ins  the  ceremony  of  adoption 
is  sometimes  performed  by  causing  the  adopted  to 
pass  through  the  shirt  of  the  person  who  adopts  him. 
Hence,  to  adopt  is  among  the  Turks  expressed  by  say- 
ing "to  draw  any  one  through  one's  shirt;"  and  they 
call  an  adopted  son  Alchret  Ogli,  the  son  of  another 
life,  because  he  was  not  begotten  in  this  (D'Herbelot, 
Bill.  Orient.  43).  Something  like  this  is  observable 
among  the  Hebrews :  Elijah  adopts  Elisha  by  throw- 
ing his  mantle  over  him  (1  Kings  xix,  19)  ;  and  when 
Elijah  was  carried  off  in  a  fiery  chariot,  his  mantle, 
which  he  let  fall,  was  taken  up  by  Elisha,  his  disci- 
ple, his  spiritual  son,  and  adopted  successor  in  the  of- 
fice of  prophet  (2  Kings  ii,  15).  It  should  be  remark- 
ed, also,  that  Elisha  asks  not  merely  to  be  adopted 
(for  that  he  had  been  already),  but  to  be  treated  as  the 
elder  son,  to  have  a  double  portion  (the  elder  son's  pre- 
rogative) of  the  spirit  conferred  upon  him.  See  In- 
vestiture. 

There  is  another  method  of  ratifying  the  act  of 
adoption,  however,  which  is  worthy  of  notice,  as  it 
tends  to  illustrate  some  passages  in  the  sacred  writ- 
ings. The  following  is  from  Pitts :  "  I  was  bought 
by  an  old  bachelor;  I  wanted  nothing  with  him; 
meat,  drink,  and  clothes,  and  money,  I  had  enough. 
After  I  had  lived  with  him  about  a  year,  he  made  his 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  carried  mo  with  him ;  but 
before  we  came  to  Alexandria,  he  was  taken  sick,  and 
thinking  verily  he  should  die,  having  a  woven  girdle 
about  his  middle,  under  his  sash  (which  the}'  usually 
wear),  in  which  was  much  gold,  and  also  my  letter  of 
freedom  (which  he  intended  to  give  me  when  at  Mec- 
ca), he  took  it  off,  and  bid  me  put  it  on  about  me,  and 
took  my  girdle,  and  put  it  on  himself.  My  patron 
would  speak,  on  occasion,  in  my  behalf,  saying,  My 
Sox  will  never  run  away.  He  seldom  called  me  an}' 
thing  but  son,  and  bought  a  Dutch  boy  to  do  the  work 
of  the  house,  who  attended  upon  me,  and  obeyed  my 
orders  as  much  as  his.  I  often  saw  several  bags  of  his 
money,  a  great  part  of  which  he  said  he  would  leave 


me."  This  circumstance  seems  to  illustrate  the  conduct 
of  Moses,  who  clothed  Eleazar  in  Aaron's  sacred  vest- 
ments when  that  high-priest  was  about  to  be  gathered 
to  his  fathers ;  indicating  thereby  that  Eleazar  suc- 
ceeded in  the  functions  of  the  priesthood,  and  was,  as 
it  were,  adopted  to  exercise  that  dignity.  The  Lord 
told  Shebna,  captain  of  the  temple,  that  he  would  de- 
prive him  of  his  honorable  station,  and  substitute  Eli- 
akim,  son  of  Hilkiah  (Isa.  xxii,  21):  "/  will  clothe 
him  with  thy  robe,  saith  the  Lord,  and  strengthen  him 
with  thy  girdle,  and  I  will  commit  thy  government 
into  his  hand."  And  Paul  in  several  places  says,  that 
Christians  '"'•put  on  the  Lord  Jesus;  that  they  put  on 
the  new  man,''''  to  denote  their  adoption  as  sons  of  God 
(Rom.  xiii,  14;  Gal.  iii,  27;  Ephes.  iv,  24;  Col.  hi, 
10  ;  comp.  John  i,  12 ;  1  John  iii,  2).  See  Sox.  When 
Jonathan  made  a  covenant  with  David,  he  stripped 
himself  of  his  girdle  and  his  robe  and  put  them  upon 
his  friend  (1  Sam.  xviii,  3).— Taylor's  Calmet,  s.  v. 

II.  Figurative. — Adoption  in  a  theological  sense  is 
that  act  of  God's  free  grace  hy  which,  upon  our  being 
justified  by  faith  in  Christ,  we  are  received  into  the 
family  of  God,  and  entitled  to  the  inheritance  of 
heaven. 

1.  In  the  New  Testament,  adoption  appears  not  so 
much  a  distinct  act  of  God,  as  involved  in,  and  neces- 
sarily flowing  from,  our  justification;  so  that  at  least 
the  one  always  implies  the  other.  Nor  is  there  any 
good  ground  to  suppose  that  in  the  New  Testament  the 
term  adoption  is  used  with  special  reference  to  the  civil 
practice  of  adoption  by  the  Greeks,  Romans,  or  other 
heathens,  and,  therefore,  these  formalities  are  illustra- 
tive only  so  far  as  they  confirm  the  usages  among  the 
Jews  likewise.  The  apostles,  in  using  the  term,  appear 
rather  to  have  had  before  them  the  simple  view,  that 
our  sins  had  deprived  us  of  our  sonship,  the  favor  of 
God,  and  the  right  to  the  inheritance  of  eternal  life ;  but 
that,  upon  our  return  to  God,  and  reconciliation  with 
him,  our  forfeited  privileges  were  not  only  restored, 
but  greatly  heightened  through  the  paternal  kindness 
of  God.  They  could  scarcely  be  forgetful  of  the  af- 
fecting parable  of  the  prodigal  son ;  and  it  is  under 
the  same  view  that  Paul  quotes  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, "  Wherefore  come  out  from  among  them,  and 
be  ye  separate,  saith  the  Lord,  and  touch  not  the  un- 
clean thing,  and  I  will  receive  you,  and  I  will  be  a 
Father  unto  you,  and  ye  shall  be  my  sons  and  daugh- 
ters, saith  the  Lord  Almighty"  (2  Cor.  vi,  18). 

(1.)  Adoption,  then,  is  that  act  by  which  we  who 
were  alienated,  and  enemies,  and  disinherited,  are 
made  the  sons  of  God  and  heirs  of  his  eternal  glory. 
"  If  children,  then  heirs,  heirs  of  God  and  joint  heirs 
with  Christ"  (Rom.  viii,  17);  where  it  is  to  be  remark- 
ed that  it  is  not  in  our  own  right,  nor  in  the  right  of 
any  work  done  in  us,  or  which  we  ourselves  do,  though 
it  should  be  an  evangelical  work,  that  we  become 
heirs ;  but  jointly  with  Christ,  and  in  his  right. 

(2.)  To  this  state  belong,  freedom  from  a  servile 
spirit,  for  we  are  not  servants,  but  sons ;  the  special 
love  and  care  of  God,  our  Heavenly  Father ;  a  filial 
confidence  in  him ;  free  access  to  him  at  all  times  and 
in  all  circumstances ;  a  title  to  the  heavenly  inherit- 
ance ;  and  the  spirit  of  adoption,  or  the  witness  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  our  adoption,  which  is  the  foundation 
of  all  the  comfort  we  can  derive  from  those  privileges, 
as  it  is  the  only  means  by  which  we  can  know  that 
they  are  ours. 

(3.)  The  last-mentioned  great  privilege  of  adoption 
merits  special  attention.  It  consists  in  the  inward 
witness  or  testimony  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  sonship 
of  believers,  from  which  flows  a  comfortable  persua- 
sion or  conviction  of  our  present  acceptance  with  God, 
and  the  hope  of  our  future  and  eternal  glory.  This  i3 
taught  in  several  passages  of  Scripture  : 

[1.]  Rom.  viii,  15, 16,  "For  ye  have  not  received  the 
spirit  of  bondage  again  to  fear,  but  the  spirit  of  adop- 
tion, whereby  we  cry,  Abba,  Father.     The  spirit  it- 


ADOPTION 


79 


ADORATION 


self  beareth  witness  with  our  spirit  that  we  are  the 
children  of  God."  In  this  passage  it  is  to  be  remark- 
ed, (a.)  That  the  Holy  Spirit  takes  away  "fear,"  a  ser- 
vile dread  of  God  as  offended.  (A.)  That  the  "  Spirit 
of  God"  here  mentioned  is  not  the  personified  spirit 
or  genius  of  the  Gospel,  as  some  would  have  it,  but 
"the  Spirit  itself,"  or  himself;  and  hence  he  is  call- 
ed (Gal.  iv,  G)  "the  Spirit  of  his  Son,"  which  can- 
not mean  the  genius  of  the  Gospel,  (c.)  That  he  in- 
spires a  filial  confidence  in  God,  as  our  Father,  which 
is  opposed  to  "the  fear"  produced  by  the  "spirit  of 
bondage."  ((/.)  That  he  excites  this  filial  confidence, 
and  enables  us  to  call  God  our  Father,  by  witnessing, 
bearing  testimony  with  our  spirit,  "that  we  are  the 
children  of  God." 

[2.]  Gal.  iv,  4-G,  "  But  when  the  fulness  of  the  time 
was  come,  God  sent  forth  his  Son,  made  of  a  woman, 
made  under  the  law,  to  redeem  them  that  were  under 
the  law,  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons ; 
and  because  ye  are  sons,  God  hath  sent  forth  the  spirit 
of  his  Son  into  your  hearts,  crying,  Abba,  Father." 
Here,  also,  are  to  be  noted,  (a.)  The  means  of  our  re- 
demption from  under  (the  curse  of)  the  law,  the  in- 
carnation and  sufferings  of  Christ.  (6.)  That  the 
adoption  of  sons  follows  upon  our  actual  redemption 
from  that  curse,  or,  in  other  words,  upon  our  pardon, 
(c.)  That  upon  our  being  pardoned,  the  "  Spirit  of  the 
Son"  is  "sent  forth  into  our  hearts,"  producing  the 
same  effect  as  that  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  viz.,  filial  confidence  in  God,  "  crying,  Abba, 
Father." 

[3.]  To  these  texts  are  to  be  added  all  those  pas- 
sages, so  numerous  in  the  New  Testament,  which  ex- 
press the  confidence  and  the  joy  of  Christians,  their 
friendship  with  God,  their  confident  access  to  him  as 
their  God,  their  entire  union  and  delightful  inter- 
course with  him  in  spirit.  (See  Watson,  Institutes, 
ii,  G9 ;  Dwight,  Theology,  vol.  iii.) 

2.  In  the  early  fathers,  adoption  seems  to  have 
been  regarded  as  the  effect  of  baptism.  The  Roman- 
ist theologians  generally  do  not  treat  of  adoption  as  a 
separate  theological  topic,  nor,  indeed,  does  their  sys- 
tem admit  it.  According  to  the  old  Lutheran  theol- 
ogy (Apol.  iv,  140;  Form.  Cone,  iv,  G31 ;  Gessner, 
118 ;  Hutter,  loc.  12),  adoption  takes  place  at  the 
same  time  with  regeneration  and  justification,  justi- 
fication giving  to  the  sinner  the  right  of  adoption,  and 
regeneration  putting  him  in  the  possession  and  enjoy- 
ment of  this  right.  The  certainty  of  one's  adoption, 
and  of  the  inheritance  warranted  by  it,  are  counted 
anions  the  attributes  of  the  new  birth.  Pietism  (q.  v.) 
caused  an  approximation  of  the  Lutheran  theology  to 
that  of  the  Reformed  Church,  which,  from  the  begin- 
ning, had  distinguished  more  strictly  between  regen- 
eration and  adoption.  The  expressions  of  the  Reform- 
ed theologians  differed,  however,  greatly.  Usually 
they  represented  adoption  as  the  effect  or  as  the  fruit 
of  justification.  Sometimes,  however,  as  co-ordinate, 
but  always  as  subsequent  to  regeneration.  Rational- 
ism (q.  v.)  threw  aside  the  biblical  conception  of  adop- 
tion as  well  as  that  of  regeneration.  Bretschneider 
explains  it  as  the  firm  hope  of  a  moral  man  for  ever- 
lasting bliss  after  this  life.  Schleiermacher  speaks  of 
adoption  as  a  constitutive  element  of  justification,  but 
explains  it,  on  the  whole,  as  identical  with  the  putting 
on  of  a  new  man,  and  regards  it  as  a  phase  in  the 
phenomenology  of  the  Christian  consciousness.  Lange 
(Christliche  Dogmatils,  §  97)  regards  the  new  birth  as 
the  transformation  of  the  individual  life  into  a  divine 
human  life,  and  finds  it  in  the  union  of  justification 
and  faith.  Adoption,  as  the  result  of  the  new  birth, 
appears  to  him  as  a  substantial  relation  with  God  and 
an  individualized  image  of  God  according  to  his  image 
in  Christ.  Glider,  in  Herzog's  Ileal- EneyHojvldie, 
thinks  that  the  words  of  the  Bible  conceal  treasures 
which  theological  science  has  not  yet  fully  succeeded 
in  bringing  to  light,  and  that  adoption  must  be  brought 


into  an  organic  connection  not  only  with  justifi- 
cation, but  with  the  new  birth  —  the  latter  not  to 
be  taken  merely  in  a  psychological,  but  in  a  deeper 
mvstical  sense.  See  Assurance  ;  Children  of 
God. 

Adoptivi.     See  Adoptianists. 

Ado'ra.  (1  Mace,  xiii,  20).     See  Adoraim. 

Adora'im  (Heb.  Adora'yim,  C^ilX,  two  mounds 
or  dwellings;  Sept.  'Acwpatfi  v.  r.  'Afiwpai),  a  town, 
doubtless  in  the  south-west  of  Judah,  since  it  is  enu- 
merated along  with  Hebron  and  Mareshah  as  one  of 
the  cities  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi,  9).  Un- 
der the  name  of  A  dora  it  is  apparently  mentioned  in  the 
Apocrypha  ("Acojpct,  1  Mace,  xiii,  20),  and  also  often 
by  Josephus  ("Adiopa  or  Auipa,  Ant.  viii,  10,  1  ;  xiii, 
6,  5  ;  15,  4  ;  War,  i,  2,  6  ;  8,  4),  who  usually  connects 
it  with  Maressa,  as  cities  of  the  later  Idumaea  (see 
Reland,  Palcest.  p.  547).  It  was  captured  by  Hvrca- 
nus  at  the  same  time  with  Maressa,  and  rebuilt  by 
Gabinius  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiii,  9,  1;  xiv,  5,  3).  Dr. 
Robinson  discovered  the  site  under  the  name  of  Dura, 
a  large  village  without  ruins,  five  miles  W.  by  S.  from 
Hebron,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  a  cultivated  hill,  with 
olive-groves  and  fields  of  grain  all  around  {Researches, 
iii,  2-5 ;  comp.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  113). — Kitto. 

Adc/ram  (Heb.  Adorain,  D'^'HX,  a  contracted 
form  of  Adoniram;  Sept.  'ASatvtpa.fi  v.  r.  'Aciopc'ifi), 
the  officer  in  charge  of  the  tribute  under  Solomon  and 
Rehoboam  (2  Sam.  xx,  24;  1  Kings  xii,  18);  else- 
where (1  Kings  iv,  6)  called  Adoniram  (q.  v.). 

Adoration,  an  act  of  worship  to  a  superior  being ; 
strictly  due  to  God  alone,  but  performed  to  other  ob- 
jects also,  whether  idols  or  men.  The  word  "adore" 
may  be  derived  from  (?nanum)  ad  os  (rnittere'),  or  the 
custom  of  kissing  the  hand  in  token  of  respect.  The 
Greek  term  Trpomcvrtl}'  implies  the  prostration  of  the 
body  as  a  sign  of  reverence.     See  Worship. 

1.  The  Hebrew  forms  of  adoration  or  worship  were 
various;  putting  off  the  shoes,  standing,  bowing, 
kneeling,  prostration,  and  kissing  (Exod.  iii,  5 ;  Josh. 
v,  15  ;  Psa.  ii,  12  ;  Gen.  xli,  40-43  ;  xliii,  2G-28  ;  Dan. 
ii.  4G ;  Matt,  xxvii,  9  ;  Luke  vii,  38  ;  Rev.  xix,  20). 
See  Attitudes.  In  this  last  sense  the  term  (in  its 
Latin  signification  as  above)  is  descriptive  of  an  act 
of  worship  alluded  to  in  Scripture :  "  If  I  had  be- 
held the  sun  when  it  shined,  or  the  moon,  walking  in 
brightness  ;  and  my  heart  had  been  secretly  enticed, 
or  my  mouth  had  kissed  my  hand ;  this  also  were  an 
iniquity  to  be  punished  by  the  judge"  (Job  xxxi,  26- 
28);  a  passage  which  clearly  intimates  that  kissing 
the  hand  was  considered  an  overt  act  of  worship  in 
the  East  (see  Kiesling,  in  the  Miscell.  Lips.  Nor.  ix, 
595  sq.).  See  Astrology.  So  Minutius  Felix  (De 
Sacrrfic.  cap.  2,  ad  fin.)  remarks,  that  when  Cseciliua 
observed  the  statue  of  Serapis,  "  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  superstitious  vulgar,  he  moved  his  hand 
to  his  mouth,  and  kissed  it  with  his  lips."     The  same 


Kissing  the  Hand  to  superiors.    From  the  sculptures  of  Per- 
sepolis  and  Thebes. 

act  was  used  as  a  mark  of  respect  in  the  presence, 
of  kings  and  persons  high  in  office  or  station.  Or 
rather^  perhaps,  the  hand  was  not  merely  kissed  and 
then  withdrawn  from  the  mouth,  but  held  continuous- 
ly before  or  upon  the  mouth,  to  which  allusion  is  made 
in  such  texts  as  Judg.  xviii,  10  ;  Job  xxi,  5  ;  xxix,  9  ; 


ADORATION 

xl,  4  ;  Ps.  xxxix,  9 ;  in  which  "  laying  the  hand  upon 
the  mouth"  is  used  to  describe  the-  highest  degree  of 
reverence  and  submission ;  as  such  this  posture  is  ex- 
hibited on  the  monuments  of  Persia  and  of  Egypt. 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Salutation. 

The  acts  and  postures  by  which  the  Hebrews  ex- 
pressed adoration  bear  a  great  similarity  to  those  still 
in  use  among  Oriental  nations.  To  rise  up  and  sud- 
denly prostrate  the  body  was  the  most  simple  method  ; 
but  generally  speaking,  the  prostration  was  conducted 
in  a  more  formal  manner,  the  person  falling  upon  the 
knee,  and  then  gradually  inclining  the  body  until  the 
forehead  touched  the  ground.  The  various  expres- 
sions in  Hebrew  referring  to  this  custom  appear  to 
have  their  specific  meaning:  thus  ^35  (iiaphal',  to/all 
down,  iri-rw)  describes  the  sudden  fall ;  S13  (Lara', 
to  bend,  Kc'tfiirru),  bending  the  knee ;  *Hp  (Icadad' ,  to 
stoop,  kvtttio),  the  inclination  of  the  head  and  body ; 
and,  lastty,  HJTJ  (shaehah',  to  bow,  irpoaicvvetv),  com- 
plete prostration ;  the  term  133  (sagad',  to  prostrate 
one's  self,  Isa.  xliv,  15,  17, 19 ;  xlvi,  G)  was  introduced 
at  a  late  period  as  appropriate  to  the  worship  paid  to 
idols  by  the  Babylonians  and  other  Eastern  nations 
(Dan.  iii,  5,  6).  Such  prostration  was  usual  in  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  (Gen.  xvii,  3 ;  Psa.  xcv,  6) ;  but 
it  was  by  no  means  exclusively  used  for  that  purpose  ; 
it  was  the  formal  mode  of  receiving  visitors  (Gen. 
xviii,  2),  of  doing  obeisance  to  one  of  superior  station 
(2  Sam.  xiv,  4),  and  of  showing  respect  to  equals 
(1  Kings  ii,  19).  Occasionally  it  was  repeated  three 
times  (1  Sam.  xx,  41),  and  even  seven  times  (Gen. 
xxxiii,  3).  It  was  accompanied  by  such  acts  as  a  kiss 
(Exod.  xviii,  7),  laying  hold  of  the  knees  or  feet  of  the 
person  to  whom  the  adoration  was  paid  (Matt,  xxviii, 
9),  and  kissing  the  ground  on  which  he  stood  (Psa. 
lxxii,  9;  Mie.  vii,  17).  Similar  adoration  was  paid 
to  idols  (1  Kings  xix,  18) ;  sometimes,  however,  pros- 
tration was  omitted,  and  the  act  consisted  simply  in 
kissing  the  hand  to  the  object  of  reverence  (as  above) 
in  the  manner  practised  by  the  Romans  (Plin.  xxviii, 
5;  see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Adoratio), 
or  in  kissing  the  statue  itself  (Hos.  xiii,  2).  The 
same  customs  prevailed  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
ministry,  as  appears  not  only  from  the  numerous  oc- 
casions on  which  they  were  put  in  practice  toward 
himself,  but  also  from  the  parable  of  the  unmerciful 
servant  (Matt,  xviii,  2G),  and  from  Cornelius's  rever- 
ence to  Peter  (Acts  x,  25),  in  which  case  it  was  objec- 
ted to  by  the  apostle,  as  implying  a  higher  degree  of 
superiority  than  he  was  entitled  to,  especially  from  a 
Roman,  to  whom  it  was  not  usual. — Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  The  adoration  performed  to  the  Roman  and  Gre- 
cian emperors  consisted  in  bowing  or  kneeling  at  the 
prince's  feet,  laying  hold  of  his  purple  robe,  and  then 
bringing  the  hand  to  the  lips.  Some  attribute  the 
origin  of  this  practice  to  Constantius.  Bare  kneeling 
before  the  emperor  to  deliver  a  petition  was  also  called 
adoration.  It  is  particularly  said  of  Diocletian  that 
he  had  gems  fastened  to  his  shoes,  that  divine  honors 
might  lie  more  willingly  paid  him  by  kissing  his  feet. 
And  this  mode  of  adoration  was  continued  till  the  last 
age  of  the  Greek  monarchy.  The  practice  of  adora- 
tion may  be  said  to  lie  still  subsisting  in  England  in 
the  custom  of  kissing  the  king's  or  queen's  hand. 

3.  Adoration  is  also  used  in  the  court  of  Rome  in 
the  ceremony  of  kissing  the  pope's  feet.  It  is  not 
certain  at  what  period  this  practice  was  introduced 
into  the  Church  ;  but  it  was  probably  borrowed  from 
the  Byzantine  court,  and  accompanied  the  temporal 
power.  Baronius  pretends  that  examples  of  this  hom- 
age to  the  popes  occur  so  early  as  the  year  204.  These 
prelates,  rinding  a  vehement  disposition  in  the  people 
to  fall  down  before  them  and  kiss  their  feet,  procured 
crucifixes  to  be  fastened  on  their  slippers,  by  which 
stratagem  the  adoration  intended  for  the  pope's  per- 
son is  supposed  to  be  transferred  to  Christ.     Divers  | 


SO 


ADRAMMELECH 


acts  of  this  adoration  we  find  offered  even  by  princes 
to  the  pope,  and  Gregory  XIII  claims  this  act  of  hom- 
age as  a  duty. 

Adoration  properly  is  paid  only  to  the  pope  when 
placed  on  the  altar,  in  which  posture  the  cardinals, 
conclavists,  alone  are  admitted  to  kiss  his  feet.  The 
people  are  afterward  admitted  to  do  the  like  at  St.  Pe- 
ter's church ;  the  ceremony  is  described  at  large  by 
Guicciardini. 

4.  In  the  Roman  worship  it  is  said  that  "to  adore 
the  cross,  the  saints,  relics,  and  images,  is  to  prostrate 
one's  self  before  them,  and  to  pay  them  a  lower  de- 
gree of  worship,  inferior  to  that  which  is  due  to  God 
alone."  Adoration  is  paid  to  the  Host  (q.  v.)  on  the 
theory  that  Christ  is  bodily  present  in  the  Eucharist. 
See  Images. 

In  the  Greek  communion  they  pay,  says  Dr.  King, 
a  secondary  adoration  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  the 
saints,  but  they  deny  that  they  adore  them  as  believ- 
ing them  to  b,e  gods ;  the  homage  paid  to  them  is,  as 
they  define  it,  only  a  respect  due  to  those  who  are 
cleansed  from  original  sin  and  admitted  to  minister  to 
the  Deity.     SccDulia;  Hyferdulia. 

Adorna.     See  Catharine  of  Bologna. 

Adraa.     See  Edret. 

Adram'melech  (Heb.  Adramme'lel;  T}^S311X 
prob.  for  TfelBtl  11X,  glory  of  the  Icing,  i.  e.,  of  Moloch ; 
Sept.  '  Af>papi\tx\  the  name  of  a  deity,  and  also  of  a 
man.     See  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 

1.  An  idol  worshipped  by  the  sacrifice  of  children 
in  the  fire,  in  connection  with  Anammelech,  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Sepharvaim,  who  were  transported  to  Sa- 
maria by  the  king  of  Assyria  (2  Kings  xvii,  31).  Sel- 
den  (J)e  Biis  Syris,  ii,  9)  has  confounded  the  two  idols, 
being  misled  by  a  corrupt  reading  of  the  text  (rt?X, 
god,  instead  of  "^'X,  gods  of,  as  in  the  margin).  The 
above  etymology  (making  the  name  equivalent  to  the 
splendid  ting),  first  proposed  by  Jurieu  (Hist,  des  cultes, 
iv,  G53)  favors  the  reference  of  this  divinity  to  the 
sun,  the  moon  perhaps  being  denoted  by  the  associated 
Anammelech  (as  the  female  companion  of  the  sun, 
comp.  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  i,  611),  in  general  ac- 
cordance with  the  astrological  character  of  Assyrian 
idolatry  (Gesenius,  Comment,  ub.  Jesaias,  ii,  327  sq.), 
and  seems  preferable  to  the  Persian  derivation  (i.  q. 
adar  or  azar,Jire)  proposed  by  Reland  (Z>c  vet.  ling. 
Pers.  9).  The  kind  of  sacrifice  has  led  to  the  conject- 
ure (Lette,Z)e  idolo  Adrammelech, in  the  Bibl.Bremcns. 
nov.  fasc.  i,  p.  41  sq.)  that  Saturn  is  meant ;  but  Sel- 
den  (De  Diis  Syris,  i,  G)  and  others  have  identified  him 
with  Moloch,  chiefly  on  the  ground  that  the  sacrifice 
of  children  by  fire,  and  the  general  signification  of  the 
name,  are  the  same  in  both  (see  Gregorius,  Feuergot- 
zen  d.  Samaritaner,  Lauban,  1754).  Little  credit  is 
due  to  the  rabbinical  statements  of  the  Bab.  Talmud, 
that  this  idol  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  pea- 
cock, or,  according  to  Kimchi,  that  of  a  mule  (Carpzov, 
Apparatus,  p.  51G) ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  former 
notion  may  have  arisen  from  a  confusion  with  some 
other  ancient  idol  of  the  Assyrians  of  that  form.  The 
Yezidees,  or  so-called  devil-worshippers  of  the  same 
region,  appear  to  retain  a  striking  vestige  of  such  a 
species  of  idolatry  in  their  sacred  symbol  called  Melek 
Tai/s,  or  king  peacock,  a  name  by  which  the}'  personify 
Satan,  the  chief  object  of  their  reverence  (Layard's 
Nineveh,  1st  ser.  i,  245;  2d  ser.  p.  47). 

2.  A  son  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria.  Both 
he  and  Sharezar  were  probably  the  children  of  slaves, 
and  had  therefore  no  right  to  the  throne.  Sennacherib, 
some  time  after  his  return  to  Nineveh,  from  his  disas- 
trous expedition  against  Hezekiah,  was  put  to  death 
by  them  while  worshipping  in  the  temple  of  his  god 
Nisroch ;  having  accomplished  this  crime,  they  fled  for 
safety  to  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  and  their  brother 
Elsarhaddon  succeeded  to  the  throne  (2  Kings  xix,  37  ; 
Isa.  xxxvii,  38;  comp.  2  Chron.  xxxii,  21),  B.C.  G80. 


ADRAMYTTIUM 


81 


ADRIAN 


See  Sennacherib.  Moses  Chorensis  (p.  GO)  calls  him 
Adramelus ;  so,  also,  Abydenus  (in  Euseb.  Chrvn.  Ar- 
men.  i,  53),  who  makes  him  the  son  and  murderer  of 
Ncrgal,  Sennacherib's  immediate  successor  (see  Hit- 
zig,  Begriff  d.  Kritik,  p.  194  sq.) ;  while,  according  to 
Alexander  Polyhistor  (in  Euseb.  Chrvn.  Arm.  i,  43), 
Sennacherib  was  assassinated  by  his  son  A  rdumusanus. 
Col.  Rawlinson  (Outlines  of  Assyrian  History,  also  in 
the  Land.  Athenazum,  March  IS  and  April  15,  1854) 
thinks  he  has  deciphered  the  names  of  two  Assyrian 
kings  called  Adrammelech,  one  about  300  and  the 
other  15  years  anterior  to  Sennacherib ;  but  neither  of 
them  can  be  the  one  referred  to  in  Scripture. 

Adramyt'tium  {AtipafivTTiov  or  'Adpauvrrtiov 
[also  'ArpctfivTTiov,  see  Poppo's  Tkucyd.ii,4Al  sq. ;  and 
Adramytleos,  Plin.  v,  32],  in  the  N.  T.  only  in  the  adj. 
'A^pauvrr>]voQ,  Adramyttene),  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on 
the'  coast  of  Mysia,  (vEolis,  according  to  Mela,  i,  18), 
and  at  the  head  of  an  extensive  bay  (Sinus  Adramyt- 
tenus)  facing  the  island  of  Lesbos  and  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Ida.  See  Mitylene.  Strabo  (xiii,  p.  606) 
and  Herodotus  (vii,  42)  make  it  an  Athenian  colony 
(comp.  Pausan.iv,27,5;  Xenoph.  Anab.  vii,  8,  8;  Livy, 
xxxvii,  19).  Stephanus  Byzantinus  follows  Aristotle, 
and  mentions  Adramys,  the  brother  of  Croesus,  as  its 
founder  (hence  the  name).  This  last  is  more  probably 
the  true  account,  especially  as  an  adjacent  district  bore 
the  name  of  Lydia.  According,  however,  to  Eusta- 
thius  and  other  commentators,  the  place  existed  before 
the  Trojan  war,  and  was  no  other  than  the  Pedasus  of 
Homer  (Plin.  v,  33).  Thucydides  (v,  1 ;  viii,  108)  also 
mentions  a  settlement  made  here  by  those  inhabitants 
of  Delos  who  had  been  expelled  by  the  Athenians, 
B.C.  422.  The  city  became  a  place  of  importance 
under  the  kings  of  Pergamus,  and  continued  so  in  the 
time  of  the  Roman  power,  although  it  suffered  severe- 
ly during  the  war  with  Mithridates  (Strabo,  605). 
Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  seat  of  the  Conventus 
Juridicus  for  the  province  of  Asia  (q.  v.),  i.  e.  the  court- 
town  of  the  district  (Pliny,  v,  32).  It  is  mentioned  in 
Scripture  only  (Acts  xxvii,  2)  from  the  fact  that  the 
ship  in  which  Paul  embarked  at  Ca:sarea  as  a  prisoner 
on  his  way  to  Italy,  belonged  to  Adramyttium  (irXoiov 
'Acpcif.iDTTijvuv  v.  r.  'ArpajWT)]Vov,  see  Wetstein  in 
loc).  It  was  rare  to  find  a  vessel  going  direct  from 
Palestine  to  Italy.  The  usual  course,  therefore,  was 
to  embark  in  some  ship  bound  to  one  of  the  ports  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  there  go  on  board  a  vessel  sailing  for 
Italy.  This  was  the  course  taken  by  the  centurion 
who"  had  charge  of  Paul.  Ships  of  Adramyttium  must 
have  been  frequent  on  this  coast,  for  it  was  a  place  of 
considerable  traffic.  It  lay  on  the  great  Roman  road 
between  Assos,  Troas,  and  the  Hellespont  on  one  side, 
and  Pergamus,  Ephesus,  and  Miletus  on  the  other, 
and  was  connected  by  similar  roads  with  the  interior 
of  the  country.  The" ship  of  Adramyttium  took  them 
to  Myra,  in  Lycia,  and  here  they  embarked  in  an  Alex- 
andrian vessel  bound  for  Italy  (see  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  Life  of  St.  Paul,  ii,  310).  Some  commmen- 
tators  (Hammond,  Grotius,  Witsius,  etc.)  strangely 
suppose  that  Adrametum  (see  Tzchucke,  ad  Mel.  i,  7, 
2)  in  Africa  (Plin.  v,  3;  Ptol.  iv.  3;  Appian,  Syr. 
xxxiii,  47  ;  comp.  Shaw,  Trav.  p.  96  sq.)  was  the  port 
to  which  the  ship  belonged.  Adramyttium  is  still 
called  Edramit  or  Adramiti  (Fellows,  Asia  Minor,  p. 
39 ;  comp.  Pococke,  Trav.  II,  ii,  16).      It  is  built  on  a 


hill,  contains  about  1000  houses,  and  is  still  a  place  of 
some  commerce  (Turner,  Tour,  iii,  265).  The  general 
appearance  of  the  place,  however,  is  poor,  the  houses 
being  meanly  built,  and  inhabited  principally  by  Greek 
fishermen  (Biisching,  Erdbesch.  v,  1,  91).  From  medals 
struck  in  this  town,  it  appears  that  it  celebrated  the 
worship  of  Castor  and  Pollux  (Acts  xxviii,  11),  as  also 
that  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva  (whose  effigies  appear  in 
the  preceding  cut). 

A'dria,  or  Adriatic  Sea  (Acpiac,  Acts  xxvii,  27), 
the  modern  Gulf  of  Venice  (Forbiger,  Alte  Geogr.  ii,  Id 
sq.).  It  derives  its  name  from  the  city  Adria,  in  Cis- 
alpine Gaul,  on  the  river  Po,  now  called  A  tri.  The 
name  Adriatic  is  now  confined  to  the  gulf  lying  be- 
tween Italy  on  one  side  and  the  coasts  of  Dalmatia 
and  Albania  on  the  other  .(comp.  Plin}',  iii,  10,  29). 
But  in  Paul's  time  it  extended  to  all  that  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  between  Crete  and  Sicily  (Smith's  Diet, 
of  Class.  Geogr.  s.  v.).  Thus  Ptolemy  (iii,  1G)  says 
that  Sicily  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic, 
and  that  Crete  was  bounded  by  the  Adriatic  on  the 
west ;  and  Strabo  (ii,  p.  185  ;  vii,  p.  488)  says  that  the 
Ionian  Gulf  was  a  part  of  what  was  in  his  time  called 
the  Adriatic  Sea  (comp.  Eustath.  ad  Dionys.  Perieg. 
p.  103,  168,  ed.  Bernhardy;  Josephus,  Life,  3).  This 
obviates  the  necessity  of  finding  the  island  of  Melita 
(q.  v.),  on  which  Paul  was  shipwrecked,  in  the  present 
Adriatic  gulf  (Hacketfs  Comment,  in  loc.)  See  Ship- 
wreck. On  the  modern  navigation,  see  M'Culloch's 
Gazetteer,  s.  v. 
Adrian,  Emperor.  See  Hadrian. 
Adrian,  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Neridan,  near 
Naples.  Pope  Vitalian  selected  him  to  fill  the  vacant 
see  of  Canterbury,  but  he  refused,  and  induced  the  pope 
to  select  Theodore  instead,  promising  that  he  would  ac- 
company him.  Accordingly  Theodore  was  consecrated 
in  668  ;  and  upon  their  arrival  in  England,  after  a  very 
long  journey,  Adrian  was  made  abbot  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Augustine  at  Canterbury.  By  their  united  ef- 
forts the  Church  in  England  was  brought  into  strict 
conformity  with  that  of  Rome.  He  died  January  9th, 
709.—  Bede,  Hist.  Eccl.  iv,  1 ;  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  G6. 

Adrian  I,  Pope,  elected  in  the  room  of  Stephen 
III,  Feb.  9th,  772.  He  was  a  man  of  large  mental  en- 
dowments and  great  perseverance,  and  all  his  powers 
were  studiously  devoted  to  the  enlargement  of  the  pa- 
pal power.  Charlemagne,  after  defeating  Desiderius 
and  destroying  the  power  of  the  Longobards  in  Italy 
in  774,  went  to  Rome,  where  Adrian  received  him  with 
high  honors,  acknowledging  him  king  of  Italy  and 
patrician  of  Rome.  Charlemagne,  in  turn,  confirmed 
the  grants  made  by  Pepin  to  the  Roman  See,  ami  added 
also  Ancona  and  Benevento.  In  a  letter  to  Charle- 
magne, Adrian  flatters  him  with  the  title  of  norm 
Chnstianissimus  Cmstantinus.  Charlemagne  visited 
Rome  again  in  787,  when  Adrian  christened  his  son 
Pepin.  In  the  same  year,  upon  the  invitation  of  the 
Empress  Irene  of  Constantinople,  Adrian  sent  legates 
to  the  Second  CEcumenical  .Synod  of  Nice,  by  which 
image-worship  was  sanctioned.  See  Nice.  In  794 
he  sent  legates  to  the  synod  of  Frankfort,  which  was 
presided  over  by  Charlemagne,  and  condemned  the 
Adoptianists  (q.  v.),  but  also  image-worship,  although 
Adrian,  in  a  letter  to  the  king  (Mansi,  xiii,  p.  795), 
had  declared,  "Si  quis  sunrtas  imagines  Domini  nostri 
Jesu  Christi  tt  ejus  genetrieu  atque  omnium,  sanctorum 
secundum  ,st.  Patrum  doctrinam  w  m  rari  noluerit,  an  iih- 
cma  sit."  Adrian  wrote  against  the  theological  opin- 
ions of  Felix  of  Urgel,  and  through  his  endeavors  the 
Gregorian  chant  and  rite  were  introduced,  first  at 
Metz,  and  subsequently  in  other  churches  of  the  em- 
pire. His  fame  is  tarnished  (sec  Rudolph,  De  Codice 
Canonum  quern  Adrianus  I  Caroh  Magna  dedit,  Erl. 
1777)  by  the  use  which  he  made  of  the  Pseudo-Isido. 
rian  Decretals  (q.  v.).  He  died  Dec.  26,  795,  having 
occupied  the  see  twenty-three  years.      Iu  spite  of  his 


ADRIAN 


S2 


ADRIAN 


dispute  with  Charlemagne  about  image-worship,  and 
also  of  the  fact  that  he  attempted  a  reply  to  the  "  Car- 
oline books"  (q.  v.)  in  his  Libelhts  responsorius  ad  Car- 
olum  Magnum  pro  Synodo  Nic.  II,  it  is  certain  that 
Charlemagne  was  greatly  distressed  by  his  death. 
His  Isagoge  SS.  Literarum  may  be  found  in  the  Critici 
Sacri,  vol.  viii. — Hoefer,  Biographie  Generate,  s.  v.  ; 
Herzog,  Rcal-Encyldopiidie,  v,  447. 

II,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  elected  Dec.  14th,  867, 
at  the  age  of  seventy-five,  having  twice  before  refused 
the  pontificate.  His  term  of  office  was  almost  wholly 
occupied  in  disputes  with  Lothaire,  Charles  the  Bald, 
and  the  Greek  Church.  In  the  war  of  Charles  the 
Bald  against  Louis  II,  Adrian  declared  in  favor  of  the 
latter,  and  threatened  every  one  with  the  "censure  of 
the  apostolic  vengeance"  (apostoliea?  uttumis  censurd) 
who  should  dare  to  invade  the  country  "  contrary  to 
the  divine  and  the  apostolical  will."  This  papal  inter- 
ference in  secular  affairs  was,  however,  sternly  opposed 
by  Archbishop  Hincmar  (q.  v.)  of  Rheims.  In  letters 
to  Charles  the  Bald  and  the  synod  of  Duziacum  (871), 
which  had  deposed  Bishop  Hincmar  of  Laon,  notwith- 
standing his  appeal  to  the  pope,  Adrian  put  forth  the 
claim  that  bishops  should  be  only  deposed  by  the  pope, 
not  by  particular  s3rnods.  Charles  the  Bald  remon- 
strated, however,  so  energetically  against  this  claim, 
that  Adrian  endeavored  to  gain  his  object  by  flatter- 
ies instead  of  threats.  Adrian  was  called  upon  to  act 
as  arbiter  between  the  Patriarch  Photius  of  Constan- 
tinople and  his  opponent  Ignatius.  Adrian  deposed 
Photius  in  a  synod  at  Rome,  and  he  sent  delegates  to 
the  synod  of  Constantinople  (869),  which  repeated  the 
sentence  against  Phocius.  During  the  pontificate  of 
Adrian  a  synod  was  held  at  Rome  which  prohibited 
the  marriage  of  priests.  He  died  Nov.  25,  872. — Her- 
zog, Real-Encyklopadie,  v,  448. 

III,  Pope,  a  Roman,  elected  March  1,  884,  and  oc- 
cupied the  see  only  a  year  and  four  months.  He  was 
the  first  pope  to  change  his  name,  having  been  called 
Agapetus  before  his  elevation  to  the  papal  see.  A  de- 
cree is  also  attributed  to  him  which  provides  that  the 
emperor  shall  not  meddle  in  the  election  of  a  pope. 
The  Emperor  Basilius  urged  him  to  admit  the  right 
of  Photius  to  the  see  of  Constantinople,  and  to  admit 
him  into  communion,  but  Adrian  steadiky  refused.  He 
died  July  8,  885. 

IV,  Pope,  an  Englishman  named  Nicholas  Break- 
speare,  who  raised  himself  from  actual  beggary  and 
servitude  to  the  highest  place  of  dignity  in  the  Church. 
He  was  a  servant  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Rufus,  near 
Avignon,  and  subsequently  became  its  abbot  in  1137. 
AVhen  the  monks  denounced  him  to  Pope  Eugene  III 
for  his  severit)',  the  pope,  a  disciple  of  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  made  him  a  cardinal,  and  legate  to  Norway.  He 
possessed  learning,  eloquence,  and  generosity,  but,  at 
the  same  time,  an  extreme  attachment  to  the  privileges 
of  the  papal  chair.  In  the  year  1154,  December  4, 
he  was  elected  pope,  and  received  the  felicitations  of 
Henry  II  of  England,  whose  ambassadors  were  ac- 
companied by  the  monks  of  St.  Al ban's,  whom  he 
mildly  rebuked  for  having  rejected  him  from  their  so- 
ciety in  his  youth  on  account  of  his  ignorance.  In 
the  following  year  he  placed  under  an  interdict  the 
city  of  Rome,  because  the  followers  of  Arnold  of  Bres- 
cia had  wounded  a  cardinal.  The  Romans  were  com- 
pelled to  expel  Arnold,  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  Fred- 
eric Barbarossa,  and  the  latter  was  prevailed  upon  by 
the  pope  to  deliver  Arnold  over  to  him.  Adrian  then 
met  the  emperor  at  Lutri,  and  compelled  him  to  hold 
his  stirrup.  Frederic  accompanied  the  pope  to  Rome, 
and  was  crowned  emperor  (1155).  Adrian  also  ex- 
eommuiih  .itril  King  William  of  Sicily  as  a  usurper  of 
church  property,  raised  his  subjects  against  him,  and 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  against  the  king. 
The  latter  finally  had  to  consent  to  receive  his  king- 
dom as  a  papal  lief.    A  letter  of  Adrian's  to  the  empe- 


ror and  the  German  bishops,  in  which  he  stated  that 
he  had  conferred  the  crown  upon  the  emperor,  and 
that  the  emperor  had  received  benefices  from  him,  led 
to  a  new  conflict  between  him  and  the  emperor,  in 
which  the  German  bishops  generally  sided  with  the 
emperor.  Adrian,  on  his  part,  complained  of  the  ex- 
actions of  the  imperial  commissioners  who  were  sent 
to  administer  justice  at  Rome  without  his  participa- 
tion ;  he  maintained  that  the  patrimony  of  the  Church 
should  be  exempt  from  paying  foderum,  or  feudal 
tribute  to  the  emperor;  and,  lastky,  he  claimed  the 
restitution  of  the  lands  and  revenues  of  Countess  Ma- 
tilda, of  the  duchy  of  Spoleti,  and  even  of  Corsica  and 
Sardinia.  Thus  arose  that  spirit  of  bitter  hostility 
between  the  popes  and  the  house  of  Hohenstautfen, 
which  lasted  until  the  utter  extinction  of  the  latter. 
The  pope  was  on  the  point  of  excommunicating  the 
emperor  when  he  died,  September  1, 1159,  so  poor  that 
he  commended  the  support  of  his  mother  to  the  church 
of  Canterbury.  He  transferred  the  pontifical  see  first 
to  Orvieto,  and  afterward  to  Anagni,  where  lie  resided 
until  his  death.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  penny  trib- 
ute to  the  papal  chair  in  Ireland.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  dispensations  concerning  the  accumulation 
of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  and  the  residence-duty  of 
the  beneficiate,  and  the  originator  of  papal  mandates. 
Adrian  probably  did  as  much  to  extend  the  papal 
power  as  any  other  pope  except  perhaps  Gregory  VII. 
— Herzog,  Real-Encyklopadie,  v,  449  ;  English  Cyclo- 
paedia; Raumer,  Geschichte  der  Hohenstaufen. 

V,  Pope,  Othobon,  of  Fieschi.  Was  a  native  of 
Genoa,  the  son  of  Theodore  of  Fieschi,  nephew  of  Pope 
Innocent  IV.  Having  taken  orders,  he  obtained,  by 
the  influence  of  his  family,  many  valuable  preferments, 
and  was  made  a  canon  of  Placenza,  and  archdeacon  of 
Rheims,  Parma,  and  Canterbury.  In  the  latter  capac- 
ity he  held  a  synod  in  the  church  of  St.  Paul  at  London 
in  1268,  where  the  Thirty-six  Constitutions,  known  as 
those  of  Othobon,  were  published.  On  the  12th  of 
July,  1276,  he  was  elected  pope,  but  was  carried  off  by 
a  sudden  illness  on  the  18th  of  August  in  the  fame 
year,  before  his  consecration. — Biog.  Univ.  vol.  i ;  Lan- 
don,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  i,  110. 

VI,  Pope,  born  at  Utrecht,  in  1459,  of  very  humble 
parents,  who  could  not  afford  to  educate  him.  He  was 
placed,  however,  in  one  of  the  charitable  foundations 
at  Louvain,  arid  was  soon  distinguished  for  piety  and 
diligence  in  study.  He  was  professor  of  theology,  and 
subsequently  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Louvain. 
In  1507  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  Charles  V,  who 
was  ever  after  his  friend,  and  aided  in  raising  him  to 
the  papal  chair  (Rosch,  Jets  over  Pans  Adriaan  VI 
Utrecht,  1836 ;  Hotter,  Die  deutschen  Papste).  He 
had,  in  1517,  been  created  cardinal  by  Leo  X,  and  on 
his  death  Adrian  was  elected  pope,  January  9,  1522, 
at  a  time  when  all  German}'  was  in  the  flame  of  the 
Lutheran  Reformation.  Adrian  set  himself  to  reform 
the  clergy,  and  to  put  down  the  Reformation.  In  his 
letter  to  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg,  1522,  in  which  he 
urged  that  Luther  should  be  cut  off  as  Huss  and  Je- 
rome had  been,  he  still  admitted  that  Luther's  charges 
against  the  corruptions  of  the  Church  were  just. 
"Confess,"  said  he  to  the  legate,  ''without  disguise, 
that  God  hath  permitted  this  schism  and  this  persecu- 
tion for  the  sins  of  mankind,  and  above  all  for  those 

of  the  priests  and  prelates  of  the  Church ;    for 

we  know  that  many  scandalous  things  have  been  done 
in  this  holy  see,  abuses  of  spiritual  matters,  and  ex- 
cesses in  ordinances  and  decrees  which  have  emanated 
from  it,"  etc.  He  always  refused  to  advance  his  own 
relations  to  an)'  dignity  in  the  Church.  After  filling 
the  papal  chair  during  twenty  months,  he  died,  Sep- 
tember 1-4,  1523.  He  was  greatly  hated  by  the  Ro- 
mans, whom  his  dislike  to  all  luxuries  and  vain  ex- 
penses offended.  In  December,  1515,  when  the  death 
of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  was  considered  to  be  immi- 


ADRIANISTS 


8:3 


ADULLAM 


nent,  Adrian  was  sent  by  Charles  to  Castile,  and  au- 
thorized to  take  possession  of  the  kingdom  in  the 
name  of  Charles  as  soon  as  Ferdinand  should  die. 
On  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  January  23, 1516,  Cardi- 
nal Ximenez,  who,  in  the  will  of  Ferdinand,  had  heen 
appointed  regent  of  Spain  until  the  arrival  of  Charles, 
disputed  the  claims  of  Adrian,  but  finally  compro- 
mised the  matter  by  agreeing  with  him  upon  a  joint 
administration  until  they  should  hear  from  Charles. 
Charles  decided  that  Ximenez  should  remain  regent, 
and  that  Adrian  should  be  regarded  as  his  ambassador. 
In  the  same  year  (1516)  Adrian  was  made,  through 
the  influence  of  Ximenez,  bishop  of  Tortosa,  in  Spain, 
and  grand  inquisitor  of  Aragon.  The  relations  of 
Ximenez  and  Adrian  were,  however,  not  always  friend- 
ly, Adrian  striving  to  obtain  a  greater  influence  upon 
the  administration  of  the  kingdom  than  Ximenez  per- 
mitted ;  and  when,  in  1517,  Adrian  was  made  a  car- 
dinal, Ximenez  endeavored  to  make  him  quit  Castile 
altogether.  After  the  death  of  Ximenez,  November 
8,  1517,  Adrian  was  appointed  by  Charles  regent  of 
Spain.  On  the  death  of  Pope  Leo  X,  Adrian,  through 
the  influence  of  Charles,  was  made  his  successor. 
Adrian  greatty  misunderstood  the  character  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, maintaining  that  no  one  seriously  believed 
in  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  and  that  a  removal 
of  the  corruption  in  the  Church  would  put  an  end  to 
the  reform  agitation.  He  proposed  to  Erasmus  to 
write  against  Luther.  To  please  Duke  George  of  Sax- 
ony, he  canonized  Bishop  Benno  of  Misnia.  Adrian 
was  the  author  of  Qucestiones  Quodlibttictp,  printed  at 
Louvain  (1515,  Paris,  1516  and  1531),  Epistolw,  and 
Bisputatiunes  hi  lib.  quartum  Mag'stri  Sententiarum, 
which  last  work,  when  pope,  he  caused  to  be  reprinted, 
without  making  any  alteration  in  the  opinion  he  had 
originally  expressed  on  the  papal  infallibility,  viz., 
"  The  pope  may  err  even  in  what  belongs  to  the  faith." 
A  collection  of  historical  papers  relating  to  him  may  be 
found  in  Burmann,  Hadrianus  VI  (Utrecht,  1727,  4to). 
Ranke  gives  a  very  favorable  sketch  of  him  {History 
of  the  Papacy,  i,  75  sq.). — Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xvi,  j 
§  1,  ch.  ii ;  Jovius,  Vita  Hadriani  VI,  in  his  Vita  Viror. 
Illustr.  ii,  221 ;  Danz,  Be  Hadriano  VI  (Jen.  1813). 

Adrianists,  a  name  given  to  certain  disciples  of 
Simon  Magus,  who  flourished  about  A.D.  34.  Their 
name  and  memory  have  been  preserved  by  Theodoret, 
but  he  gives  no  account  of  their  origin.  It  is  probable 
that  the}'  were  a  branch  of  the  Simonians,  and  took 
their  name  from  some  prominent  and  active  disciple. 
(See  Walch,  Hist,  der  Ke/zereien,  i,  160.) 

Adrichomius,  Christian,  a  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  Holland,  born  at  Delft  in  1533,  died  at 
Cologne  on  June  20, 1585.  His  most  celebrated  work 
is  the  Theatrum  Terra;  Sancta>,  with  geographical  maps 
(Colon.  1590),  containing  very  minute  descriptions  of 
places  mentioned  in  Scripture,  drawn  chiefly  from  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers  and  the  classics.' — Dupin,  Eccl. 
Writers,  16th  cent. 

A'driel  (Heb.  Adriel',  "b>^-\yj,JlockofGod;  Sept. 
'ASpirjX,  '£(\ou'/X),  a  son  of  Barzillai  the  Meholathite. 
Saul  gave  him  in  marriage  his  daughter  Merab,  who 
had  been  originally  promised  to  David  (1  Sam.  xviii, 
19),  B.C.  cir.  1062.  The  five  sons  sprung  from  this 
union  were  taken  to  make  up  the  number  of  Saul's  de- 
scendants, whose  lives,  on  the  principle  of  blood-re- 
venge, were  required  by  the  Gibeonites  to  avenge  the 
cruelties  which  Saul  had  exercised  toward  their  race 
(2  Sam.  xxi,  8).  See  Gibeonite.  In  this  passage  the 
name  of  Michal  occurs  as  the  mother  of  these  sons  of 
Adriel ;  but  as  it  is  known  that  Merab  was  the  wife  of 
Adriel,  and  that  Michal  never  had  any  children  (2 
Sam.  vi.  23),  there  only  remains  the  alternative  of  sup- 
posing either  that  Michal's  name  has  been  substituted 
for  Merab's  by  some  ancient  copyist,  or  that  the  word 
which    properly  means    bare   (m?1,  yaledah' ' ,  Sept. 


jV«/cf,Vulg.  genuerat)  should  be  rendered  brought  up  or 
educated,  as  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  after  the  Targum.  The 
Jewish  writers  conclude  that  Merab  died  early,  and 
that  Michal  adopted  her  sister's  children,  and  brought 
them  up  for  Adriel  (Bab.  Talm.  Sanhed.  xix,  2);  but 
the  word  illb^  will  not  bear  this  interpretation. — Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Michal. 

Adu'el  (Acovi)\,  prob.  for  Adiel,  q.  v.),  the  son  of 
Gabael,  and  father  of  Ananiel,  in  the  ancestry  of  Tobit 
(Tob.  i,  1). 

AdulTam  (Heb.  Adullam' ,  135*12,  prob.  justice  of 
the  people ;  Sept.  'OvoWap,  Odoltam  ;  and  so  in  the 
Apocrypha,  2  Mace,  xii,  38,  and  Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  10, 
1 ;  but  Adullam'e,  'AiovWaptj  in  Ant.  vi,  12,  3),  an  old 
city  (Gen.  xxxviii,  1,  12,  20)  in  the  plain  country  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  35),  and  one  of  the  royal 
cities  of  the  Canaanites  (Josh,  xii,  15).  It  was  one  of 
the  towns  which  Rehoboam  fortitied  (2  Chron.  xi.  7 : 
Micah  i,  15),  and  is  mentioned  after  the  captivity  ( Xeh. 
xi,  30 ;  2  Mace,  xii,  38).  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Ono- 
mast.  s.  v.)  state  that  it  existed  in  their  time  as  a  large 
village,  ten  miles  to  the  east  of  Eleutheropolis,  by  which 
(unless,  as  Reland  thinks,  Palast.  p.  547,  they  confound 
it  with  Eglon)  they  probably  mean  north-east  (Keil, 
Comment,  in  loc.  Josh. ;  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  87),  possi- 
bly at  el-Keishum,  near  Timnath  (comp.  Gen.  xxxviii, 
12);  or  perhaps  (see  Tobler,  Drit.  Wandertrng,  p.  150) 
at  the  present  village  Beit  Via  (Van  de  Velde,  Mt  moir, 
p.  282).  It  is  evident  that  Adullam  was  one  of  the 
cities  of  "the  valley"  or  plain  between  the  hill  coun- 
try of  Judah  and  the  sea ;  and  from  its  place  in  the 
lists  of  names  (especially  2  Chron.  xi,  8),  it  appears  to 
have  been  not  very  far  from  the  Philistine  city  of  Gath. 

This  circumstance  would  suggest  that  the  cave  of 
Adullam  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  13;  1  Chron.  xi,  15),  to 
which  David  withdrew  immediately  from  Gath  ( 1  Sain. 
xxii,  1),  was  near  the  city  of  that  nime  (see  Stanley, 
Palestine,  p.  254,  note).  But  there  is  no  passage  of 
Scripture  which  connects  the  city  and  the  cave,  and  it 
is  certainly  not  in  a  plain  that  one  would  look  for  a 
cave  capable  of  affording  a  secure  retreat  to  400  men  ; 
nor  has  any  such  cave  been  found  in  that  quarter.  It 
is  therefore  far  from  improbable  that  the  cave  of  Adul- 
lam was  in  the  mountainous  wilderness  in  the  east 
of  Judah  toward  the  Dead  Sea,  where  such  caves  oc- 
cur, and  where  the  western  names  (as  Carmel)  are 
sometimes  repeated.  Accordingly,  we  actually  find  in 
this  very  region  the  name  Dhullam,  belonging  to  a 
tribe  of  Arabs  who  encamp  here  for  pasturage,  but  prop- 
erly belong  to  a  more  western  district  around  Beer- 
sheba  (Robinson's  Researches,  ii,  473),  and  whose  pre- 
datory character  well  befits  the  ancient  notoriety  of  the 
spot  (De  Saulcy's  Narrative,  i,  434, 435).  May  not  this 
same  nomadic  habit  have  transferred  the  name  of  the 
city  to  the  cave  in  former  times  likewise  ?  This  view 
is  favored  by  the  fact  that  the  usual  haunts  of  David 
were  in  this  quarter  (1  Chron.  xi,  15) ;  whence  he 
moved  into  the  land  of  Moab,  which  was  quite  contigu- 
ous, whereas  he  must  have  crossed  the  whole  breadth 
of  the  land,  if  the  cave  of  Adullam  had  been  near  the 
city  of  that  name.  Tradition  (William  of  Tyre,  De 
Bella  Sacro,  xv,  6)  fixes  the  cave  on  the  borders  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  about  six  miles  south-east  of  Bethlehem, 
in  the  side  of  a  deep  ravine  (Wady  Khureitun)  which 
passes  below  the  Frank  mountain  on  the  south  (Robin- 
son's Researches,  ii,  176).  It  is  an  immense  natural 
cavern,  the  mouth  of  which  can  be  approached  only 
on  foot  along  the  side  of  the  cliff.  Irby  and  Mangles. 
who  visited  it  without  being  aware  that  it  was  the  re- 
puted cave  of  Adullam,  state  that  it  "runs  in  by  a 
long,  winding,  narrow  passage,  with  small  chambers 
or  cavities  on  either  side.  We  soon  came  to  a  large 
chamber  with  natural  arches  of  great  heigh*  ;  from  this 
last  there  were  numerous  passages,  leading  in  all  di- 
rections, occasionally  joined  by  others  at  right  angles, 
and  forming  a  perfect  labyrinth,  which  our  guides  as- 


ADULLAMITE 


84 


sured  us  had  never  been  perfectly  explored,  the  people 
being  afraid  of  losing  themselves.  The  passages  are 
generally  four  feet  high  by  three  feet  wide,  and  were 
all  on  a  level  with  each  other.  There  were  a  few 
petrifactions  where  we  were  ;  nevertheless  the  grotto 
was  perfectly  clean,  and  the  air  pure  and  good"  {Trav- 
els, p.  340,  341).  It  seems  probable  that  David,  as  a 
native  of  Bethlehem,  must  have  been  well  acquainted 
with  this  remarkable  spot,  and  had  probably  often 
availed  himself  of  its  shelter  when  out  with  his  fa- 
ther's flocks.  Dr.  Thomson,  who  explored  it  to  some 
extent,  thinks  that  it  corresponds  to  the  Biblical  ac- 
count of  David's  fastness  {Land  and  Book,  ii,  427). 
Others  (as  Stanley,  Palestine,  p.  254)  think  the  cave 
in  question  was  one  of  the  numerous  excavations  found 
in  the  soft  lime-stone  hills  along  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  "  plain"  of  Judah,  particularly  those  at  Deir  Dub- 
ban  (Van  de  Velde,  Narrative,  ii,  15G,  157) ;  but  these 
are  evidently  artificial,  being  apparently  enlargements 
of  naturally  small  crevices  for  the  purpose  of  maga- 
zines of  grain  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  352-354,  395, 
31)6).— Kitto,  s.  v.    See  Cave  {ofAduUain) :  Odollam. 

Adul'lamite  (Heb.  Adullami',  "."zhl",  Sept. 
'OroAAr</uY//c),  probably  an  inhabitant  of  the  city  call- 
ed Adullam  (Gen.  xxxviii,  1, 12,  20). 

Adult  baptism.     See  Baptism. 

Adultery  (some  form  of  the  verb  vjX3,  naajih' ', 
fioixiia)*  commonly  denotes  the  sexual  intercourse  of 
a  married  woman  with  any  other  man  than  her  hus- 
band, or  of  a  married  man  with  any  other  woman  than 
his  wife.     See  Marriage. 

1.  Nature  of  the  Crime. — 1.  Jewish. — Among  the 
Hebrews,  as  in  other  Oriental  nations,  adultery  was 
the  act  whereby  any  married  man  was  exposed  to  the 
risk  of  having  a  spurious  offspring  imposed  upon  him. 
An  adulterer  was,  therefore,  any  man  who  had  illicit 
intercourse  with  a  married  or  betrothed  woman ;  and 
an  adulteress  was  a  betrothed  or  married  woman  who 
had  intercourse  with  anjT  other  man  than  her  hus- 
band. An  intercourse  between  a  married  man  and  an 
unmarried  woman  was  simply  fornication  —  a  great 
sin,  but  not,  like  adultery,  involving  the  contingency 
of  polluting  a  descent,  of  turning  aside  an  inheritance, 
or  of  imposing  upon  a  man  a  charge  which  did  not  be- 
long to  him.  Adultery  was  thus  considered  a  ^rcat 
social  wrong,  against  which  society  protected  itself  by 
much  severer  penalties  than  attended  an  unchaste  act 
not  involving  the  same  contingencies. 

.  This  Oriental  limitation  of  adultery  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  existence  of  polygamy.  If  a  Jew 
associated  with  a  woman  who  was  not  his  wife,  his 
concubine,  or  his  slave,  he  was  guilty  of  unchastity, 
but  committed  no  offence  which  gave  a  wife  reason  to 
complain  that  her  legal  rights  had  been  infringed.  If, 
however,  the  woman  with  whom  he  associated  was  the 
wife  of  another,  he  was  guilty  of  adultery — not  by  in- 
fringing his  own  marriage  covenant,  but  by  causing 
a  breach  of  that  which  existed  between  this  woman 
and  her  husband  (Michaelis,  Momisches  Recht,  art.  259 ; 
Jahn's  A rchaologie,  Tb.  i,  b.  2,  §  183).    See  Polygamy. 

2.  Roman. — It  seems  that  the  Roman  law  made  the 
same  important  distinction  with  the  Hebrew  between 
the  infidelity  of  the  husband  and  of  the  wife,  by  de- 
fining adultery  to  be  the  violation  of  another  man's 
bed  (violatio  tori  al'taii);  so  that  the  infidelity  of  the 
husband  could  not  constitute  the  offence.  The  more 
ancient  laws  of  Rome,  which  were  very  severe  against 
the  offence  of  the  wife,  were  silent  as  to  that  of  the 
husband  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.).      See  Wife. 

:S.  Spiritual. — Adultery,  in  the  symbolical  language 
of  the  Old  Testament,  means  idolatry  and  apostasy 
from  the  worship  of  the  true  God  (Jer.  iii,  8,  9;  Ezeli. 
xvi,  32  ;  xxiii,  37  ;  also  Rev.  ii,  22).  Hence  an  adul- 
teress meant  an  apostate  Church  or  city,  particularly 
"the  daughter  of  Jerusalem,"  or  the  Jewish  Church 
and  people  (Isa.  i,  21 ;  Jer.  iii,  G,  8,  9;  Ezek.  xvi,  22 : 


ADULTERY 

xxiii,  7).  This  figure  resulted  from  the  primary  one, 
which  describes  the  connection  between  God  and  his 
separated  people  as  a  marriage  between  him  and  them 
(Jer.  ii,  2 ;  iii,  14 ;  xiii,  27 ;  xxxi,  32 ;  Hos.  viii,  9). 
By  an  application  of  the  same  figure,  "an  adulterous 
generation"  (Matt,  xii,  39  ;  xvi,  4  ;  Mark  viii,  38)  means 
a  faithless  and  impious  generation.    See  Fornication. 

II.  Trial  of  Adultery. — The  Mosaic  trial  of  the  sus- 
pected wife  by  the  bitter  water,  called  the  water  of 
jealousy  (Num.  v,  11-31)  —  the.  only  ordeal  in  use 
among  the  Israelites,  or  sanctioned  by  their  law — is  to 
be  regarded  as  an  attempt  to  mitigate  and  bring  un- 
der legal  control  an  old  custom  which  could  not  be  en- 
tirely abrogated.  The  forms  of  Hebrew  justice  all 
tended  to  limit  the  application  of  this  test.  (1.)  By 
prescribing  certain  facts  presumptive  of  guilt,  to  be 
established  on  oath  by  two  witnesses,  or  a  preponder- 
ating but  not  conclusive  testimony  to  the  fact  of  the 
woman's  adultery.  (2.)  Bjr  technical  rules  of  evi- 
dence which  made  proof  of  those  presumptive  facts  dif- 
ficult (see  the  Talmudical  tract  Sotah,  vi,  2-5).  (3.)  By 
exempting  certain  large  classes  of  women  (all,  indeed, 
except  a  pure  Israelitess  married  to  a  pure  Israelite, 
and  some  even  of  them)  from  the  liability.  (4.)  By 
providing  that  the  trial  could  only  be  before  the»great 
Sanhedrim  {Sotah,  i,  4).  (5.)  By  investing  it  with  a 
ceremonial  at  once  humiliating  and  intimidating,  yet 
which  still  harmonized  with  the  spirit  of  the  whole  or- 
deal as  recorded  in  Num.  v ;  but,  (6),  above  all,  by 
the  conventional  and  even  mercenary  light  in  which 
the  nuptial  contract  was  latterly  regarded.  (See  Sim- 
eon, Works,  ii,  1.) 

When  adultery  ceased  to  be  capital,  as  no  doubt  it 
did,  and  divorce  became  a  matter  of  mere  convenience, 
it  would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  this  trial  was  con- 
tinued; and  when  .adultery  became  common,  as  the 
Jews  themselves  confess,  it  would  have  been  impious 
to  expect  the  miracle  which  it  supposed.  If  ever  the 
Sanhedrim  were  driven  by  force  of  circumstances  to 
adopt  this  trial,  no  doubt  every  effort  was  used,  nay, 
was  prescribed  {Sotah,  i,  5,  6),  to  overawe  the  culprit 
and  induce  confession.  Nay,  even  if  she  submitted  to 
the  trial,  and  was  really  guilty,  some  rabbis  held  that 
the  effect  on  her  might  be  suspended  for  jears  through 
the  merit  of  some  good  deed  {Sotah,  iii,  4-6).  Be- 
sides, moreover,  the  intimidation  of  the  woman,  the 
man  was  likely  to  feel  the  public  exposure  of  his  sus- 
picions odious  and  repulsive.  Divorce  was  a  ready 
and  quiet  remedy  ;  and  the  only  question  was,  wheth- 
er the  divorce  should  carry  the  dowry  and  the  property 
which  she  had  brought,  which  was  decided  by  the 
slight  or  grave  character  of  the  suspicions  against  her 
(Sotah,  vi,  l;Gemara,  Kethuboth,  vii,  6;  Ugolino, 
Uxor  Heb.  c.  vii).  If  the  husband  were  incapable, 
through  derangement,  imprisonment,  etc.,  of  acting  on 
his  own  behalf  in  the  matter,  the  Sanhedrim  proceed- 
ed in  his  name  as  concerned  the  dowry,  but  not  as  con- 
cerned the  trial  by  the  water  of  jealousy  {Sotah,  iv,  6). 
See  Jealousy. 

This  ordeal  was  probably  of  the  kind  which  we  still 
find  in  Western  Africa,  the  trial  by  red  u-ater,  as  it  is 
called,  although  varying  among  different  nations  in 
minute  particulars,  and  a  comparison  of  the  two  may 
suggest  the  real  points  of  the  evil  which  the  law  on 
Moses  was  designed  to  rectify,  and  the  real  advantages 
which  it  was  calculated  to  secure.  This  ordeal  is  in 
some  tribes  confined  to  the  case  of  adultery,  but  in 
others  it  is  used  in  all  crimes.  In  Africa  the  drink,  in 
cases  of  proper  ordeal,  is  poisonous,  and  calculated  to 
produce  the  effects  which  the  oath  imprecates  ;  where- 
as the  "water  of  jealousy,"  however  unpleasant,  was 
prepared  in  a  prescribed  manner,  with  ingredients 
known  to  all  to  be  perfectly  innocuous.  It  could  not, 
therefore,  injure  the  innocent ;  and  its  action  upon  the 
guilty  must  have  resulted  from  the  consciousness  of 
having  committed  a  horrible  perjury,  which  crime, 
when   the  oath   was   so   solemnly  confirmed  by  the 


ADULTERY  8 

draught,  and  attended  by  such  awful  imprecations, 
was  believed  to  be  visitable  with  immediate  death  from 
heaven.  On  the  Gold  Coast  the  ordinary  oath-drink 
(not  poisonous)  is  used  as  a  confirmation  of  all  oaths, 
not  only  oaths  of  purgation,  but  of  accusation,  or  even 
of  obligation.  In  all  cases  it  is  accompanied  with  an 
imprecation  that  the  fetish  may  destroy  them  if  they 
speak  untruly,  or  do  not  perform  the  terms  of  their 
obligation ;  and  it  is  firmly  believed  that  no  one  who 
is  perjured  under  this  form  of  oatli  will  live  an  hour 
(Villault;  Bosnian).  Doubtless  the  impression  with 
respect  to  this  mere  oath-drink  is  derived  from  observa-  I 
tion  of  the  effects  attending  the  drink  used  in  the  act-  ' 
ual  ordeal ;  and  the  popular  opinion  regards  such  an  ' 
oath  as  of  so  solemn  a  nature  that  perjury  is  sure  to  i 
bring  down  immediate  punishment.  The  red  water,  as  I 
an  ordeal,  is  confined  to  crimes  of  the  worst  class.  \ 
These  are  murder,  adultery,  witchcraft.  Perhaps  this 
arises  less  from  choice  than  from  the  fact  that  such 
crimes  are  not  only  the  highest,  but  are  the  least  capa- 
ble of  that  direct  proof  for  which  the  ordeal  is  intend- 
ed as  a  substitute.  A  party  is  accused :  if  he  denies 
the  crime,  he  is  required  to  drink  the  red  water,  and, 
on  refusing,  is  deemed  guilty  of  the  offence.  The  trial 
is  so  much  dreaded  that  innocent  persons  often  confess 
themselves  guilty  in  order  to  avoid  it.  And  yet  the 
immediate  effect  is  supposed  to  result  less  from  the  wa- 
ter itself  than  from  the  terrible  oath  with  which  it  is 
drunk.  So  the  person  who  drinks  the  red  water  in- 
vokes the  fetish  to  destroy  him  if  he  is" really  guilty 
of  the  offence  with  which  he  is  charged.  The  drink 
is  made  by  an  infusion  in  water  of  pieces  of  a  certain 
tree  or  of  herbs,  and,  if  rightly  prepared,  the  only 
chance  of  escape  is  the  rejection  of  it  by  the  stomach, 
in  which  case  the  party  is  deemed  innocent,  as  he  also 
is  if,  being  retained,  it  has  no  sensible  effect,  which 
can  only  be  the  case  when  the  priests,  who  have  the 
management  of  the  matter,  are  influenced  by  private 
considerations  or  by  reference  to  the  probabilities  of 
the  case,  to  prepare  the  draught  with  a  view  to  ac- 
quittal. The  imprecations  upon  the  accused  if  he  be 
guilty  are  repeated  in  an  awful  manner  by  the  priests, 
and  the  effect  is  watched  very  keenly.  If  the  party 
seems  affected  by  the  draught,  like  one  intoxicated, 
and  begins  to  foam  at  the  mouth,  he  is  considered  un- 
doubtedly guilty,  and  is  slain  on  the  spot ;  or  else  he 
is  left  to  the  operation  of  the  poisonous  draught,  which 
causes  the  belly  to  swell  and  burst,  and  occasions 
death.  (Barhot,  p.  126;  Bosnian,  p.  118;  Artus,  in 
De  Bry,  vi,  62 ;  Villault,  p.  191 ;  Corry's  Windward 
Coast,  p.  71 ;  Church  Missionary  Paper,  No.  xvii ;  Da- 
vis's Journal,  p.  24.)     See  Poison. 

Traces  of  a  similar  ancient  custom  may  be  produced 
from  other  quarters.      Hesiod  (Theogon.  755-95)  re- 
ports that  when  a  falsehood  had  been  told  by  any  of 
the  gods,  Jupiter  was  wont  to  send  Iris  to  bring  some 
water  out  of  the  river  St}-x  in  a  golden  vessel ;  upon 
this  an  oath  was  taken,  and  if  the  god  swore  falsely, 
he  remained  for  a  whole  year  without  life  or  motion. 
There  was  an  ancient  temple  in  Sicily,  in  which  were 
two  very  deep  basins,  called  Delli,  always  full  of  hot 
and  sulphurous  water,  but  never  running  over.    Here 
the  more  solemn   oaths  were  taken  ;    and  perjuries  I 
were  immediately  punished  most  severely  (Diod.  Sic.  i 
xi,  67).     This  is  also  mentioned  by  Aristotle,  Silius 
Italicus,  Virgil,  and  Macrobius ;  and  from  the  first  it  | 
would  seem  that  the  oath  was  written  upon  a  ticket  | 
and  cast  into  the  water.     The  ticket  floated  if  the 
oath  was  true,  and  sunk  if  it  was  false.     In  the  latter 
case  the  punishment  which  followed  was  considered  j 
as  an  act  of  divine  vengeance  (q.  v.).     See  Oath. 

The  trial  for  suspected  adultery  by  the  bitter  water  I 
amounted  to  this,  that  a  woman  suspected  of  adultery 
by  her  husband  was  allowed  to  repel  the  charge  by  a  \ 
public  oath  of  purgation,  which  oath  was  designedly  i 
made  so  solemn  in  itself,  and  was  attended  by  such 
awful  circumstances,  that  it  was  in  the  highest  degree  I 


;  ADULTERY 

unlikely  that  it  would  be  dared  by  any  woman  not 
supported  bjr  the  consciousness  of  innocence.  And 
the  fact  that  no  instance  of  the  actual  application  of 
the  ordeal  occurs  in  Scripture  affords  some  counte- 
nance to  the  assertion  of  the  Jewish  writers,  that  the 
trial  was  so  much  dreaded  by  the  women  that  those 
who  were  really  guilty  generally  avoided  it  by  con- 
fession ;  and  that  thus  the  trial  itself  early  fell  into 
disuse.  And  if  this  mode  of  trial  was  only  tolerated 
by  Moses,  the  ultimate  neglect  of  it  must  have  been 
desired  and  intended  by  him.  In  later  times,  indeed, 
it  was  disputed  in  the  Jewish  schools,  whether  the 
husband  was  bound  to  prosecute  his  wife  to  this  ex- 
tremity, or  whether  it  was  not  lawful  for  him  to  con- 
nive at  and  pardon  her  act,  if  he  were  so  inclined. 
There  were  some  who  held  that  he  was  bound  by  his 
duty  to  prosecute,  while  others  maintained  that  it  was 
left  to  his  pleasure  (Sotah,  xvi,  2).  From  the  same 
source  we  learn  that  this  form  of  trial  was  finally  ab- 
rogated about  forty  years  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  (see  Wagenseil's  Sota,  containing  a  copious 
commentary,  with  full  illustrations  of  this  subject, 
from  rabbinical  sources,  Altdorf,  1674).  The  reason 
assigned  is,  that  the  men  themselves  were  at  that  time 
generally  adulterous,  and  that  God  would  not  fulfil 
the  imprecations  of  the  ordeal  oath  upon  the  wife 
while  the  husband  was  guilty  of  the  same  crime  (John 
viii,  1-8).     See  Ordeal. 

III.  Penalties  of  Adultery. — 1.  Jewish. — By  exclud- 
ing from  the  name  and  punishment  of  adultery  the 
offence  which  did  not  involve  the  enormous  wrong  of 
imposing  upon  a  man  a  supposititious  offspring,  in  a 
nation  where  the  succession  to  landed  property  went 
entirely  by  birth,  so  that  a  father  could  not  by  his 
testament  alienate  it  from  any  one  who  was  regarded 
as  his  son,  the  law  was  enabled,  with  less  severity 
than  if  the  inferior  offence  had  been  included,  to  pun- 
ish the  crime  with  death.  It  is  still  so  punished 
wherever  the  practice  of  polygamy  has  similarly  op- 
erated in  limiting  the  crime — not,  perhaps,  that  the 
law  expressly  assigns  that  punishment,  but  it  recog- 
nises the  right  of  the  injured  party  to  inflict  it,  and, 
in  fact,  leaves  it,  in  a  great  degree,  in  his  hands. 
Now  death  was  the  punishment  of  adultery  before  the 
time  of  Moses  ;  and,  if  he  had  assigned  a  less  punish- 
ment, his  law  would  have  been  inoperative,  for  pri- 
vate vengeance,  sanctioned  by  usage,  would  still  have 
inflicted  death.  But  by  adopting  it  into  the  law, 
those  restrictions  were  imposed  upon  its  operation 
which  necessarily  arise  when  the  calm  inquiry  of  pub- 
lic justice  is  substituted  for  the  impulsive  action  of 
excited  hands.  Thus  death  would  be  less  frequently 
inflicted  ;  and  that  this  effect  followed  seems  to  be  im- 
plied in  the  fact  that  the  whole  Biblical  history  offers 
no  example  of  capital  punishment  for  the  crime.  In- 
deed, Lightfoot  goes  farther,  and  remarks,  "  I  do  not 
remember  that  I  have  anywhere,  in  the  Jewish  Pan- 
dect, met  with  an  example  of  a  wife  punished  for  adul- 
tery with  death.  There  is  mention  (in  the  Talmud, 
Sanhed.  242)  of  the  daughter  of  a  certain  priest  burned 
for  committing  fornication  in  her  father's  house  ;  but 
she  was  not  married"  {//or.  llebr.  ad  Matt,  xix,  8). 
Eventually,  divorce  superseded  all  other  punishment. 
There  are,  indeed,  some  grounds  for  thinking  that  this 
had  happened  before  the  time  of  Christ,  and  we  throw 
it  out  as  a  matter  of  inquiry,  whether  the  Scribes  and 
Pharisees,  in  attempting  to  entrap  Christ  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  woman  taken  in  adultery  (see  infra),  did 
not  intend  to  put  him  between  the  alternatives  of 
either  declaring  for  the  revival  of  a  practice  which 
had  already  become  obsolete,  but  which  the  law  was 
supposed  to  command,  or  of  giving  his  sanction  to  the 
apparent  infraction  of  the  law,  which  the  substitution 
of  divorce  involved  (John  viii,  1-11).  In  Matt,  v,  32, 
Christ  seems  to  assume  that  the  practice  of  divorce 
for  adultery  already  existed.  In  later  times  it  cer- 
tainly did;  and  Jews  who  were  averse  to  part  with 


ADULTERY 


SG 


ADULTERY 


their  adulterous  wives  were  compelled  to  put  them  | 
away  (Maimon.  in  Gerushin,  c.  ii).  In  the  passage  | 
just  referred  to  our  Lord  does  not  appear  to  render 
divorce  compulsory,  even  in  case  of  adultery ;  he  only 
permits  it  in  that  case  alone,  by  forbidding  it  in  every 
other.     See  Divorce. 

In  the  law  which  assigns  the  punishment  of  death 
to  adultery  (Lev.  xx,  10),  the  mode  in  which  that 
punishment  should  be  inflicted  is  not  specified,  because 
it  was  known  from  custom.  It  was  not,  however, 
strangulation,  as  the  Talmudists  contend,  but  stoning., 
,as  we  may  learn  from  various  passages  of  Scripture 
(e.  g.  Ezek.  xvi,  38,  40  ;  John  viii,  5)  ;  and  as,  in  fact, 
Moses  himself  testifies,  if  we  compare  Exod.  xxxi, 
14  ;  xxxv,  2,  with  Num.  xv,  35,  3G.  If  the  adulteress 
was  a  slave,  the  guilty  parties  were  both  scourged 
with  a  leathern  whip,  the  number  of  blows  not  ex- 
ceeding forty.  In  this  instance  the  adulterer,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  scourging,  was  subject  to  the  further  pen- 
alty of  bringing  a  trespass  offering  (a  ram)  to  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle,  to  be  offered  in  his  behalf  by 
the  priest  (Lev.  xix,  20-22).  Those  who  wish  to  en- 
ter into  the  reasons  of  this  distinction  in  favor  of  the 
slave  may  consult  Miehaelis  {Mosaisches  Eeckt,  art. 
2G4).  We  only  observe  that  the  Moslem  law,  derived 
from  old  Arabian  usage,  only  inflicts  upon  a  slave,  for 
this  and  other  crimes,  half  the  punishment  incurred 
by  a  free  person. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Slavery. 

The  system  of  inheritances,  on  which  the  polity  of 
Moses  was  based,  was  threatened  with  confusion  by 
the  doubtful  offspring  caused  by  this  crime,  and  this 
secured  popular  sympathy  on  the  side  of  morality 
until  a  far  advanced  stage  of  corruption  was  reached. 
Yet,  from  stoning  being  made  the  penalty,  we  may 
suppose  that  the  exclusion  of  private  revenge  was  in- 
tended. It  is  probable  that,  when  that  territorial  ba- 
sis of  polity  passed  away — as  it  did  after  the  captivity 
- — and  when,  owing  to  Gentile  example,  the  marriage 
tie  became  a  looser  bond  of  union,  public  feeling  in 
regard  to  adulter}-  changed,  and  the  penalty  of  death 
was  seldom  or  never  inflicted.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
the  woman  brought  under  our  Lord's  notice  (John 
viii),  it  is  likely  that  no  one  then  thought  of  stoning 
her,  in  fact,  but  there  remained  the  written  law  ready 
for  the  purpose  of  the  caviller.  It  is  likely,  also,  that 
a  divorce  in  which  the  adulteress  lost  her  dower  [see 
Dowry],  and  rights  of  maintenance,  etc.  (Gemara, 
Ketkuboth,  cap.  vii,  6),  was  the  usual  remedy  sug- 
gested by  a  wish  to  avoid  scandal  and  the  excitement 
of  commiseration  for  crime.  The  word  jrapaday/xem- 
cai  ("make  a  public  example,"  Matt,  i,  19)  probably 
means  to  bring  the  case  before  the  local  Sanhedrim, 
which  was  the  usual  course  [see  Trial],  but  which 
Joseph  did  not  propose  to  take,  preferring  repudiation 
(Buxtorf,  Be  Spons.  ct  Divort.  iii,  1-4),  because  that 
could  be  managed  privately  (\d9pci). — Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  Reman. — As  the  Roman  civil  law  defined  adul- 
tery to  be  "the  violation  of  another  man's  bed,"  the 
husband's  incontinence  could  not  constitute  the  of- 
fence. The  punishment  was  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  husband  and  parents  of  the  adulteress,  who,  under 
the  old  law,  could  be  put  to  death.  The  most  usual 
mode  of  taking  revenge  against  the  man  offending 
was  by  mutilating,  castrating,  or  cutting  off  the  nose 
or  ears.  The  punishment  assigned  by  the  lex  Julia  de 
adfilti  ris,  instituted  by  Augustus,  was  banishment,  or 
a  heavy  tine.  It  was  decreed  by  Antoninus,  that  to 
sustain  a  charge  of  adulter}'  against  a  wife,  the  hus- 
band who  brought  it  must  be  innocent  himself.  The 
offence  was  not  capital  until  made  so  by  Constantine, 
in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  law.  Under  Macrinus, 
adulterers  were  burnt  at  the  stake.  Under  Con- 
stantius  and  Constans  they  were  burnt,  or  sewed  up 
in  sacks  and  thrown  into  the  sea.  But  the  punish- 
ment was  mitigated,  under  Leo  and  Mareian,  to  per- 
petual banishment  or  cutting  off  the  nose;  and,  under 
Justinian,  the  wife  was  only  to  be  scourged,  lose  her 


dower,  and  be  shut  up  in  a  monastery ;  or,  at  the  ex- 
piration of  two  years,  the  husband  might  take  her 
back  again ;  if  he  refused,  she  was  shaven,  and  made 
j  a  nun  for  life.  Theodosius  instituted  the  shocking 
practice  of  public  constupration,  which,  however,  ha 
soon  abolished. 

3.  Other  ancient  Nations. — The  punishment  of  cut- 
ting off  the  nose  brings  to  mind  the  passage  in  which 
the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxiii,  25)  after,  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord,  reproving  Israel  and  Judah  for  their  adul- 
teries (i.  e.  idolatries)  with  the  Assyrians  and  Chal- 
deans, threatens  the  punishment,  "  they  shall  take 

'  away  thy  nose  and  thy  ears,"  which  Jerome  states 
was  actually  the  punishment  of  adultery  in  those  na- 
I  tions.  One  or  both  of  these  mutilations,  most  gener- 
ally that  of  the  nose,  were  also  inflicted  by  other  na- 
1  tions,  as  the  Persians  and  Egyptians,  and  even  the 
I  Romans ;  but  we  suspect  that  among  the  former,  as 
i  with  the  latter,  it  was  less  a  judicial  punishment  than 
a  summary  infliction  by  the  aggrieved  party  {/En.  vi, 
49G).  It  would  also  seem  that  these  mutilations  were 
more  usually  inflicted  on  the  male  than  the  female  adul- 
terer. In  Eizypt,  however,  cutting  off  the  nose  was  the 
female  punishment,  and  the  man  was  beaten  terribly 
with  rods  (Diod.  Sic.  i,  89,  90).  The  respect  with  which 
the  conjugal  union  was  treated  in  that  country  in  the 
earliest  times  is  manifested  in  the  history  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xii,  19).     See  Harem. 

The  Greeks  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  adulterers.  In 
Crete  adulterers  were  covered  with  wool  as  an  em- 
blem of  their  effeminacy,  and  carried  in  that  dress  to 
the  magistrate's  house,  where  a  fine  was  imposed  on 
them,  and  they  were  deprived  of  all  their  privileges 
and  their  share  in  public  business.     See  Punishment. 

4.  Modern. — Among  savage  nations  at  the  present 
day  the  penalties  of  adultery  are  generally  severe. 
The  Mohammedan  code  pronounces  it  a  capital  of- 
fence. It  is  one  of  the  three  crimes  which  the  prophet 
directs  to  be  expiated  by  the  blood  of  a  Mussulman. 
In  some  parts  of  India  it  is  said  that  any  woman  may 
prostitute  herself  for  an  elephant,  and  it  is  reputed  no 
small  glory  to  have  been  rated  so  high.  Adultery  is 
stated  to  be  extremely  frequent  in  Ceylon,  although 
punishable  with  death.  Among  the  Japanese  and 
some  other  nations  it  is  punishable  only  in  the  woman. 
On  the  contrary,  in  the  Marian  Islands,  the  woman 
is  not  punishable,  but  the  man  is,  and  the  wife  and 
her  relations  waste  his  lands,  burn  him  out  of  his 
house,  etc.  Among  the  Chinese  it  is  said  that  adul- 
tery is  not  capital ;  parents  will  even  make  a  contract 
with  the  future  husbands  of  their  daughters  to  allow 
them  the  indulgence. 

In  Portugal  an  adulteress  was  condemned  to  the 
flames ;  but  the  sentence  was  seldom  executed.  By  the 
ancient  laws  of  France  this  crime  was  punishable  with 
death.  Before  the  Revolution  the  adulteress  was  usual- 
ly condemned  to  a  convent,  where  the  husband  could 
visit  her  during  two  years,  and  take  her  back  if  he 
saw  fit.  If  he  did  not  choose  to  receive  her  again  by 
the  expiration  of  this  time,  her  hair  was  shaven,  she 
took  the  habit  of  the  convent,  and  remained  there  for 
life.  Where  the  parties  were  poor  she  might  be  shut 
up  in  a  hospital  instead  of  a  convent.  The  Code  Na- 
poleon  does  not  allow  the  husband  to  proceed  against 
his  wife  in  case  he  has  been  condemned  for  the  same 
crime.  The  wife  can  bring  an  action  against  the  hus- 
band only  in  case  he  has  introduced  his  paramour 
into  the  house  where  she  resides.  An  adulteress  can 
lie  imprisoned  from  three  months  to  two  years,  but 
the  husband  may  prevent  the  execution  of  the  sen- 
tence by  taking  her  back.  Her  partner  in  guilt  is 
liable  to  the  same  punishment.  Castration  was  the 
punishment  in  Spain.  In  Poland,  previous  to  the 
establishment  of  Christianity,  the  criminal  was  car- 
ried to  the  market-place,  and  there  fastened  by  the 
testicles  with  a  nail  ;  a  razor  was  laid  within  his  reach, 
and  he  had  the  option  to  execute  justice  on  himself  or 


ADULTERY 


87 


ADUMMIM 


remain  where  he  was  and  die.  The  Saxons  consigned 
the  adulteress  to  the  flames,  and  over  her  ashes  erect- 
ed a  gibbet,  on  which  her  paramour  was  hanged. 
King  Edmund  the  Saxon  ordered  adultery  to  be  pun- 
ished in  the  same  manner  as  homicide;  and  Canute 
the  Dane  ordered  that  the  man  should  be  banished, 
and  the  woman  have  her  ears  and  nose  cut  oft'.  In 
the  time  of  Henry  I  it  was  punished  with  the  loss  of 
the  eyes  and  genitals.  Adultery  is  in  England  con- 
sidered as  a  spiritual  offence,  cognizable  by  the  spirit- 
ual courts,  where  it  is  punished  by  fine  and  penance. 
The  common  law  allows  the  party  aggrieved  only  an 
action  and  damages.  In  the  United  States  the  pun- 
ishment of  adultery  has  varied  materially  at  different 
times,  and  differs  according  to  the  statutes  of  the  sev- 
eral states.  Adultery  is,  moreover,  very  seldom  pun- 
ished criminally  in  the  United  States. 

5.  Ecclesiastical. — Constantine  qualified  adultery  as 
a  sacrilege  which  was  to  be  punished  with  death.  His 
successors  went  farther,  and  placed  it  on  a  level  with 
parricide.  But  the  definition  of  adultery  remained, 
in  general,  confined  to  the  infidelity  of  the  wife  and 
her  accomplice,  and  for  a  long  time  the  Church  did 
not  succeed  in  establishing  with  the  Romanic  nations 
the  conviction  that  the  infidelity  of  cither  party  de- 
served an  equal  punishment.  This  principle  was,  on 
the  other  hand,  carried  through  in  the  codes  of  most 
of  the  Christian  Germanic  States.  The  penalty  was  in 
all  cases  very  severe,  and,  if  there  were  aggravating 
circumstances,  death.  Later,  especially  since  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  penalty  was  reduced  in  all 
legislations  to  imprisonment.  The  canon  law  pun- 
ished both  adulterer  and  adulteress  with  excommu- 
nication, and  a  clergyman  who  was  an  accomplice 
with  imprisonment  for  lifetime.  Protestant  churches, 
which  are  not  impeded  in  the  exercise  of  their  juris- 
diction by  a  connection  with  the  state,  generally  ex- 
clude persons  guilty  of  adultery  from  church  member- 
ship ;  while  state  churches  arc  mostly  prevented,  in 
this  case  as  in  others,  from  taking  any  measures.  See 
Decalogue. 

According  to  the  canons  of  the  Roman  Church  a 
clerk  guilty  of  adultery  was  punishable  by  deposition 
and  perpetual  imprisonment  in  a  monastery.  Since 
the  Reformation  clerks  have  been  deprived  of  their 
benefices  for  the  sin  of  adulter)'.  (See  Stillingfleet, 
Eccl.  Cases,  p.  82.)     See  Celibacy. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  Oriental  Churches  the  mar- 
riage tie  is  broken  by  the  sin  of  adultery,  so  that  the 
husband  of  an  adulterous  wife  may  marry  again  during 
her  lifetime.  This  opinion  is  founded  on  Matt,  xix, 
9.  The  contrary  doctrine  is  taught  by  the  Western 
Churches  (Augustine,  lib.  ii,  de  Adult.  Conjug.  cap.  13). 
See  Tebbs,  Scripture  Doctrine  of  A  duller;/  and  Divorce 
(Lond.  1822,  8vo).     Compare  Matrimony. 

IV.  Adulteress  in  the  Gospel. — A  remarkable  exam- 
ple under  the  Jewish  law  in  cases  of  this  offence  occurs 
in  the  account  of  the  "woman  taken  in  adultery"  (yvvrj 
iv  poi\tia  Karti\i]ppiini),  ^iven  by  one  of  the  evan- 
gelists (John  vii,  53,  to  viii,  11),  from  which  some 
have  even  erroneously  inferred  that  our  Saviour  re- 
garded her  act  as  venial — a  view  that  is  ably  refuted 
by  Paley  {Moral  Philosophy,  vol.  i).  It  is  true,  great 
doubts  exist  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  entire  passage 
(see  the  dissertations  of  Dettmers,  Viniicim  aiiSivriar, 
etc.,  Frnkft.  ad  V.  1793 ;  Staudlin,  Pericopm  de  adultera 
Veritas  et  authentia  defenditur,  Gotting.  180C),  as  it  is 
omitted  in  very  many  of  the  early  MSS.  and  versions, 
and  greatly  corrupted  in  others  (see  Tischendorf,  7th 
ed.  in  loc),  and  rejected  by  numerous  critics  of  note ; 
yet,  as  it  is  retained  in  some  good  texts  and  editions, 
and  as  its  presence  cannot  be  explained  by  ascetic  or 
monkish  predilections  (since  it  is  not  only  without  a 
trace  of  the  rigor  of  these,  but  appears  so  lax  in  its 
doctrine  as  to  involve  serious  difficulty  in  its  adjust- 
ment to  the  ethics  of  all  who  could  have  been  the  au- 
thors of  the  interpolation),  it  seems  to  present  strong 


claims  to  being  true  history,  if  not  entitled  to  its  place 
in  the  evangelical  narrative  (see  Tregelles,  Account 
of  the  Text  of  the  N.  T.  p.  230-242).  See  the  argu- 
ments and  advocates  on  both  sides  in  Kuiuol,  Com- 
ment, in  loc.     See  John. 

From  this  narrative,  many  have  supposed  that  the 
woman's  accusers  were  themselves  guilty  of  the  crime 
(at  that  time  very  common,  Mark  viii,  38  ;  oomp.  Matt. 
xix,  10)  which  the)-  alleged  against  her  ;  and  as  it  was 
not  just  to  receive  the  accusations. of  those  who  are 
guilty  of  the  evil  of  which  they  accuse  others,  our 
Lord  dismissed  them  with  the  most  obvious  propriety. 
But  it  seems  enough  to  suppose  that  the  consciences 
of  those  witnesses  accused  them  of  such  crimes  as  re- 
strained their  hands  from  punishing  the  adulteress, 
who,  perhaps,  was  guilty,  in  this  instance,  of  a  less 
enormous  sin  than  they  were  conscious  of,  though  of 
another  kind.  It  may  be,  too,  that  their  malevolent 
design  to  entrap  our  Lord  was  appealed  to  by  him. 
and  was  no  slight  cause  of  their  confusion,  if  they 
wished  to  found  a  charge  which  might  affect  his  life. 
Their  intended  murder  was  worse  than  the  woman's 
adultery ;  especially  if,  as  there  is  reason  to  believe, 
the  woman  had  suffered  some  violence.     Sec  Stoning. 

Sec  Lcsle,  De  hisloria  adulters  (Fkft.  ad  V.  1GG2) ; 
Osiander,  De  historia  adulterer,  non  adulterina  (Tubing. 
1751);  Scherzcr,  De  historia  adulterce  (Lips.  1G82, 
1727)  ;  Dieck,  Geschickte  v.  der  Ehebrecherin  vom  jur. 
Standpunkte,  in  Ullmann's  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1832,  p.  791- 
822 ;  Hug,  De  conjugii  christ.  vinculo  indissolubili 
(Frib.  1816),  p.  22  sq.  ;  Schulthess,  Ueb.  d.  Perikope 
v.  d.  Ehebrecherin,  in  "Winer's  N.  Krit.  Journ.  v,  257- 
314;  Ileumann,  Interpretatio  ycO)ypa<piac.  Christi  (Got- 
ting. 1738);  Hilliger,  De  senptione  Christi  in  tt  rram 
(Viteb.  1G72).  Compare  Lampe,  Comment,  in  loc.  : 
also  Alford,  Olshausen,  Liicke,  Meyer,  and  Tholuck,  in 
loc.  For  further  illustration,  consult  Saurin,  Discours, 
x,  40;  Pitman,  Led.  p.  407  ;  Rragg,  Miracles,  ii,  227  ; 
Crit.  Sac.  Thes.  Nor.  ii,  494  ;  Dp.  Home,  Disc,  iii,  335; 
Enfield,  Sermons,  iii,  202  ;  Simeon,  Works,  xiii,  429 ; 
Spencer,  Serm.  p.  188 ;  Moysey,  Serm.  p.  249 ;  Wil- 
liams, Serm.  ii,  2GG.     Sec  Wedlock. 

Adum'mim  (Heb.  Adummim' ',  d^XHS.,  the  red 
ones;  Sept.  'ASap/iiv),  a  place  on  the  border  between 
Judah  and  Benjamin  [see  Tribe],  and  apparently  an 
ascending  road  between  Gilgal  (and  also  Jericho)  and 
Jerusalem,  "  on  the  south  side  of  the  'torrent'  "  (Josh, 
xv,  7 ;  xviii,  17),  which  is  the  position  still  occupied 
by  the  road  leading  up  from  Jericho  and  the  Jordan 
valley  to  Jerusalem  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  288),  on 
the  south  face  of  the  gorge  of  the  Wady  Kilt.  See 
Maaleh-adummoi.  Most  commentators  take  the 
name  to  mean  the  place  of  blood  (Heb.  D^),  and  follow 
Jerome,  who  finds  the  place  in  the  dangerous  or  moun- 
tainous part  of  the  road  between  Jerusalem  and  Jeri- 
cho (in  his  time  called  corruptly  Maledomim ;  in  Greek, 
"Avafia  ;  in  Latin,  Ascensus  rufforum  sive  robentiurri), 
ami  supposes  that  it  was  so  called  from  the  frequent 
effusion  of  blood  by  the  robbers,  by  whom  it  was  much 
infested.  Others  (see  Keil,  Comment,  p.  3G5)  attribute 
the  name  to  the  color  of  the  rocks ;  these,  however, 
arc  of  white  limestone.  It  is  probably  of  a  date  and 
significance  far  more  remote,  and  is  rather  derived 
from  some  tribe  of  "  red  men"  [see  Edom]  of  the 
earliest  inhabitants  of  the  country  (see  Stanley.  Palest. 
p.  41G  note),  doubtless  themselves  banditti  likewise. 
Indeed,  the  character  of  the  road  was  so  notorious, 
that  Christ  lays  the  scene  of  tho  parable  of  the  good 
Samaritan  (Luke  x)  upon  it;  and  Jerome  informs  us 
that  Adummim  or  Adommim  was  believed  to  be  tho 
place  where  the  traveller  (taken  as  a  real  person)  l<  fell 
among  thieves."  lie  adds  that  it  was  formerly  a  vil- 
lage, but  at  that  time  in  ruins,  and  that  a  fort  and 
garrison  was  maintained  here  for  tho  safeguard  of 
travellers  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Adommim,  and  in  Epist. 
Paula).     The  travellers  of  the  sixteenth  and  .-even- 


ADVENT 


88 


ADVOCATE 


teenth  centuries  noticed  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  and  sup- 
posed it  the  same  as  that  mentioned  by  Jerome  (Zual- 
lart,  iv,  30);  but  tbe  judicious  Nau  (Voyage  Nouveau 
de  la  Terre-Sainte,  p.  349)  perceived  that  this  castle 
belonged  to  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  Not  far  from 
this  spot  was  a  khan,  called  the  "  Samaritan's  khan" 
(le  Khan  du  Samaritain),  in  the  belief  that  it  was  the 
"inn"  to  which  the  Samaritan  brought  the  wounded 
traveller.  The  travellers  of  the  present  century  men- 
tion the  spot  and  neighborhood  nearly  in  the  same 
terms  as  those  of  older  date  ;  and  describe  the  ruins  as 
those  of  "  a  convent  and  a  khan"  (Hardy,  193).  The}' 
all  represent  the  road  as  still  infested  by  robbers,  from 
whom  some  of  them  (as  Sir  F.  Henniker)  have  not 
escaped  without  danger.  The  place  thus  indicated  is 
about  eight  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  four  from  Jeri- 
cho. Dr.  Robinson  probably  means  the  same  by  the 
ruined  Khan  Hudhrur  (or  another  a  little  south  of  it)  on 
the  way  between  Jerusalem  and  Jericho  (Researches, 
ii,  122)  ;  and  Schwarz  speaks  of  seeing  "  a  very  high, 
rocky  hill  composed  entirely  of  pyrites,  called  by  the 
Arabs  Tell  Adum,  six  English  miles  E.N.E.  of  Jerusa- 
lem" (Palest,  p.  95),  apparently  the  ruined  locality, 
Kidat  ed-Dem,  observed  by  Schultz  (Ritter,  Erdk.  xv, 
493)  about  half  way  on  the  descent  to  Jericho  (Van  de 
Velde,  Memoir,  p.  282,  and  Map). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Advent  (Lat.  adventus,  sc.  Redemptoris),  signifies 
the  coming  of  our  Saviour.  The  name  is  applied  to 
the  season  (four  weeks  in  the  Roman,  Lutheran,  and 
English  Churches,  six  weeks  in  the  Greek  Church) 
preceding  Christmas.  The  origin  of  this  festival  as  a 
Church  ordinance  is  not  clear.  The  first  notice  of  it 
as  such  is  found  in  the  synod  of  Lcrida  (A.D.  524), 
at  which  marriages  were  interdicted  from  the  begin- 
ning of  Advent  until  Christmas.  Cresarius  of  Aries 
(A.D.  542)  has  two  sermons  on  Advent,  fully  imply- 
ing its  ecclesiastical  celebration  at  that  time.  The 
four  Sundays  of  Advent,  as  observed  in  the  Romish 
Church  and  the  Church  of  England,  were  probably  in- 
troduced into  the  calendar  by  Gregory  the  Great.  It 
was  common  from  an  early  period  to  speak  of  the  com- 
ing of  Christ  as  fourfold:  his  "first  coming  in  the 
flesh,"  his  coming  at  the  hour  of  death  to  receive  his 
faithful  followers  (according  to  the  expressions  used 
by  St.  John),  his  coming  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem 
(Matt,  xxiv,  30),  and  at  the  day  of  judgment.  Ac- 
cording to  this  fourfold  view  of  the  Advent,  the  "gos- 
pels" were  chosen  for  the  four  Sundays,  as  was  settled 
in  the  Western  Church  by  the  Homilarium  of  Charle- 
magne. The  festival  of  Advent  is  intended  to  accord 
in  spirit  with  the  object  celebrated.  As  mankind  were 
once  called  upon  to  prepare  themselves  for  the  person- 
al coming  of  Christ,  so,  according  to  the  idea  that  the 
ecclesiastical  year  should  represent  the  life  of  the 
founder  of  the  Church,  Christians  are  exhorted  during 
this  festival  to  look  for  a  spiritual  advent  of  Christ. 
The  time  of  the  year,  when  the  shortening  days  are 
hastening  toward  the  solstice — which  almost  coincides 
with  the  festival  of  the  Nativity — is  thought  to  har- 
monize with  the  strain  of  sentiment  proper  during  Ad- 
vent. In  opposition,  possibly,  to  heathen  festivals, 
observed  by  ancient  Romans  and  Germans,  whicli  took 
place  at  the  same  season,  the  Roman  Church  ordained 
that  the  four  weeks  of  Advent  should  be  kept  as  a  time 
of  penitence,  according  to  the  words  of  Christ,  "  Re- 
pent, for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand."  During 
these  weeks,  therefore,  public  amusements,  marriage 
festivities,  and  dancing  are  prohibited,  fasts  are  ap- 
pointed, and  sombre  garments  used  in  religious  cere- 
monies. The  Protestant  Church  in  Germany  abstains 
from  public  recreations  and  celebrations  of  marriage 
during  Advent,  but  fasting  is  not  enjoined.  The 
Church  of  England  and  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
observe  Advent,  but  do  not  prescribe  fasts.  Advent 
begins  on  the  first  Sunday  after  November  2G,  i.  e.  the 
Sunday  nearest  St.  Andrew's  Day.  In  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  (following 


the  Nestorians)  made  Advent  the  beginning  of  the 
Church  year  instead  of  Easter.  (See  Bingham,  Orig. 
Eccl.  bk.  xxi,  ch.  ii,  §  4 ;  Procter,  On  Common  Prayer, 
p.  268.)     See  Christmas. 

On  the  general  subject  of  the  appropriateness  of  the 
time  of  Christ's  advent,  see  the  treatises,  in  Latin,  of 
Austrin  (Lond.  1835);  Bock  (Regiom.  1756,  1761); 
Faber  (Kil.  1770,  Jen.  1772)  ;  Hagen  (Clausth.  1741)  ; 
Quandt  (Regiom.  1724)  ;  Ravins  (Fcft.  1673)  ;  Unger 
(Neap.  1779)  ;  Walch  (Jen.  1738)  ;  Meyer  (Kil.  1G95)  ; 
Scharbau  (in  his  Obs.  Sacr.  ii,  395  sq.).  On  the  st;.te 
of  the  world  at  the  time,  Heilmann  (Bint.  1755) ;  Knapp 
(Hal.  1757).  On  the  closing  of  the  temple  of  Janus  -ut 
his  birth,  Masson  (Rotterd.  1700)  ;  and  in  German,  Ge- 
dicke  (in  bis  Verm.  Schrift,  Berl.  1801,  p.  188-200).  See 
Nativity. 

ADVENT,  SECOND.     See  Millennium. 

Adventists,  the  name  of  a  recent  sect  of  Millenr.- 
rians,  which  owes  its  origin  to  William  Miller,  from 
whom  they  are  frequently  called  Millerites.  About 
1833  Miller  began  to  teach  that  the  "Second  Advent" 
of  the  Lord  would  occur  in  1843.  He  soon  found  dis- 
ciples ;  among  whom  was  Joseph  V.  Himes,  a  member 
of  the  "Disciples  of  Christ"  (q.  v.),  who  had  a  great 
deal  of  energy  and  proselyting  spirit.  He  commenced 
a  journal  called  The  Signs  of  the  Times,  and,  later,  the 
A  dcent  Herald,  to  disseminate  the  doctrines  of  the  sect. 
Multitudes  of  people,  chief!}'  of  the  ignorant,  became 
believers ;  and,  at  the  time  appointed,  it  is  said  that 
thousands  were  out  all  night,  waiting,  in  anxiety,  for 
"  the  coming  of  the  Lord,"  according  to  the  prediction 
of  the  leaders  of  the  sect.  They  were  disappointed, 
of  course,  but  many  still  gave  credit  to  new  predic- 
tions, fixing  the  time  at  new  periods.  As  these  suc- 
cessive times  arrived,  the  predictions  still  failed,  and 
many  of  the  believers  fell  off.  There  is  still  in  exist- 
ence, however,  a  sect  bearing  the  name  Adventists, 
who  look  for  the  "coming  of  the  Lord,"  but  who  do 
not  fix  dates  as  definitely  as  Messrs.  Miller  and  Himes 
used  to  do.  A  large  camp-meeting  of  Adventists  has 
for  many  years  been  annually  held  at  Wilbraham. 

As  to  doctrine,  they  differ  from  the  Evangelical 
Churches  generally  only  in  their  peculiar  belief  in  the 
personal  coming  of  Christ,  and  his  bodily  reign  witli 
the  saints  on  the  earth.  They  have  no  regular  creed 
or  form  of  discipline.  It  is  a  common  belief  among 
the  Adventists  that  the  wicked  will  be  annihilated. 
Their  numbers  are  estimated  at  20.000.  See  Mille- 
narians. — American  Christian  Record,  p.  21. 

Adversary,  in  Heb.  properly  '^b,  satan  (i.  e. 
Satan,  as  it  signifies,  when  with  the  article),  an  oppo- 
nent, e.  g.  in  war,  a  foe  (1  Kings  v,  18  ;  xi,  14  ;  xxiii, 
25 ;  1  Sam.  xxix,  4),  in  the  forum,  a  plaintiff  (Psa. 
cix,  6;  comp.  Zech.  iii,  1,  2),  or  generally  a  resister 
(2  Sam.  xix,  23),  as  one  that  blocks  the  way  (Num. 
xxii,  23 ;  comp.  ver.  32).  In  Greek  properly  c'ivti- 
Sikoq,  one  who  speaks  against  us,  e.  g.  in  a  suit,  the 
complainant  (Matt,  v,  25  ;  Luke  xii,  50)  ;  or,  generally, 
an  enemy  (Luke  xviii,  3),  specially,  the  Devil  (1  Pet.  v, 
8).     See  Accuser. 

Advocate  (Y\apaK\r]Toc,  Paraclete),  one  who 
pleads  the  cause  of  another;  also  one  who  exhorts, 
defends,  comforts,  prays  for  another.  It  is  an  appel- 
lation given  to  the  Holy  Spirit  by  Christ  (John  xiv, 
16;  xv,  26;  xvi,  7)  [see  Comforter],  and  to  Christ 
himself  bv  an  apostle  (1  John  ii,  1 ;  see  also  Rom.  viii, 
34  ;  Heb.  vii,  25). 

In  the  forensic  sense,  advocates  or  pleaders  were  not 
known  to  the  Jews  [see  Trial]  until  they  came  un- 
der the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  and  were  obliged  to 
transact  their  law  affairs  after  the  Roman  manner. 
Being  then  little  conversant  with  the  Roman  laws 
and  with  the  forms  of  the  jurists,  it  was  necessary  for 
them,  in  pleading  a  cause  before  the  Roman  magis- 
trates, to  obtain  the  assistance  of  a  Roman  lawyer  or 
advocate  who  was  well  versed  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 


ADVOCATE 


so 


iENEAS 


languages  (Otti  Spicil.  Crim.  p.  325).  In  all  the  Ro- 
man provinces  such  men  were  found  who  devoted 
their  time  and  labor  to  the  pleading  of  causes  and  the 
transacting  of  other  legal  business  in  the  provincial 
courts  (Lamprid.  Vit.  Alex.  Sev.  c.  44).  It  also  ap- 
pears (Cic.  pro  Ccelio,  e.  30)  that  many  Roman  youths 
who  had  devoted  themselves  to  forensic  business  used 
to  repair  to  the  provinces  with  ttie  consuls  and  prae- 
tors, in  order,  by  managing  the  causes  of  the  provin- 
cials, to  fit  themselves  for  more  important  ones  at 
Rome.  Such  an  advocate  was  Tertullus,  whom  the 
Jews  employed  to  accuse  Paul  before  Felix  (Acts 
xxiv,  1) ;  for  although  'P/'/rwp,  the  term  applied  to 
him,  signifies  primarily  an  orator  or  speaker,  yet  it 
also  denotes  a  pleader  or  advocate  (Kuinol,  Comment., 
and  Bloomfield,  Recens  Synpt.  ad  Act.  xxiv,  2). — Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Accuser. 

Advocate  of  the  Church  (Advocates Ecctesice), 
the  patron  or  defender  of  the  rights  of  a  church  or 
monastery,  was  formerly  called  Patronus  or  Advocatus 
bonorum  Ecclesice.  Spelman  distinguishes  two  sorts 
of  advocates  of  churches  :  1.  The  advocatus  causarum, 
who  was  granted  by  the  prince  to  defend  the  rights 
of  the  Church  at  law.  He  appeared  in  the  secular 
courts  as  the  representative  of  the  bishop,  but  only  in 
cases  involving  the  temporalities  of"  his  church.  In 
all  personal  causes,  civil  or  criminal,  the  bishop  was 
answerable  to  the  ecclesiastical  synod  alone.  2.  The 
advocatus  soli,  or  advocate  of  the  territory,  which  office 
was  hereditary.  These  offices  were  first  intrusted  to 
canons,  but  afterward  were  held  even  by  monarchs. 
The  advocates  set  over  single  churches  administered 
justice  in  secular  affairs  in  the  name  of  the  bishops 
and  abbots,  and  had  jurisdiction  over  their  whole 
dioceses.  In  case  of  necessity  they  defended  the 
property  of  the  clergy  by  force  of  arms.  In  the  courts 
of  justice  they  pleaded  the  cause  of  the  churches  with 
which  they  were  connected.  They  superintended  the 
collection  of  the  tithes  and  other  revenues  of  the 
Church,  and  enjoyed,  on  the  part  of  the  convents,  many 
benefices  and  considerable  revenues.  After  a  time 
these  advocates  and  their  assistants  becoming  a  bur- 
den to  the  clergy  and  the  people  under  their  charge, 
who  began  to  suffer  severely  from  their  avarice,  the 
churches  began  to  get  rid  of  them.  Urban  III  labor- 
ed to  deliver  the  Church  from  these  oppressors,  but 
found,  in  1186,  the  German  prelates,  in  connection 
with  the  Emperor  Frederick  I,  opposed  to  it.  Under 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II,  however,  most  of  the  Ger- 
man churches  succeeded  in  abolishing  these  offices  by 
the  grant  of  large  sums  of  money  and  of  various  im- 
munities. Sec  Paullini,  Be  Advocatis  (Jen.  1G8C) ; 
Knorre,  Kirehen-Yogte,  in  the  Hall.  Anzeig.  1750; 
Miller,  Be  Advocatia  (Giess.  17G8) ;  Gallade,  Be  Ad- 
vocatis (Heidelb.  1768);  Wundt,  Be  Advocatia  (ib. 
1773).     See  Warden. 

Advocatus  Diaboli  (BeviVs  Advocate'),  the  per- 
son appointed  at  Rome  to  raise  doubts  against  the 
genuineness  of  the  miracles  of  a  candidate  for  canon- 
ization (q.  v.),  to  expose  any  want  of  formality  in  the 
investigation  of  the  miracles,  and  to  assail  the  general 
merits  of  the  candidate,  whose  cause  is  sustained  by 
an  Advocatus  Dei  (God's  Advocate).  It  is  said  that 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  can- 
onization of  Cardinal  Boromeo  was  almost  prevented 
by  the  accusations  of  the  devil's  advocate. 

Advowson  (from  advocd/us),  the  right  of  patron- 
age to  a  church  or  ecclesiastical  benefice.  He  who 
has  the  advowson  is  called  the  patron,  from  his  obli- 
gation to  defend  the  rights  of  the  church  from  oppres- 
sion and  violence.  Advowsons  are  either,  1.  Pre- 
sentative,  where  the  patron  presents  his  clerk  to  the 
bishop  or  other  ordinary  to  be  instituted,  and  the 
bishop  commands  the  archdeacon  to  induct  him  ;  2. 
Collative,  where  the  advowson  lies  in  the  ordinary, 
and  within  his  jurisdiction,  in  which  case  no  presenta- 
tion is  needed,  but  the  ordinary  collates  or  institutes 


the  clerk  and  sends  him  to  the  proper  officer  to  be  in- 
ducted ;  3.  Bonative,  where  the  benefice  is  exempt  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary,  and  visitable  by  the 
kin<^  only,  or  some  other  secular  patron,  who  puts  his 
clerk  into  possession  by  virtue  of  an  instrument  under 
his  hand  and  seal,  without  institution,  or  induction, 
or  examination  by  the  ordinary.  The  greater  part 
of  the  benefices  in  the  Church  of  England  are  present- 
ative.  They  are  often  put  up  for  sale,  much  to  the 
disgrace  of  the  Church  and  the  nation.  See  Eng- 
land, Chu-rch  OF. 

Adytum  (from  o&vtov,  inaccessible),  the  shrine  or 
inner  room  of  a  sacred  building ;  hence  applied  in  later 
times  to  the  penetralia  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem, 
which  were  accessible  to  the  priests  alone,  especially 
the  sanctuary,  or  "holy  place,"  and  still  more  to  the 
"  holy  of  holies,"  or  inmost  chamber.  Ecclesiastical 
writers  also  employ  it  metaphorically  to  denote  the  re- 
cesses of  the  heart  or  spiritual  nature,  and  sometimes 
to  designate  the  deeper  mysteries  of  divine  truth.  See 
Agion. 

iEdesius.     See  Ethiopian  Church. 

Aedi'as  (A'iciag,  for  Elias),  one  of  the  "  sons"  of 
Ela,  who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  (1  Esdr.  ix,  27), 
evidently  the  Eliah  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Ezra 
x,  26). 

.ZEgidius,  an  eminent  prelate,  was  born  at  Some, 
A.D.  1247,  of  the  illustrious  race  of  Colonna,  and  care- 
fully educated  under  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Bonaven- 
tura.  He  became  an  Augustinian  Eremite  monk. 
Philip  the  Bold  brought  him  to  Paris  to  be  tutor  to  his 
son.  He  afterward  taught  philosophy  and  theology 
for  many  years  in  the  university  of  Paris  with  so  great 
fame  that  he  was  styled  doctor  fundatissimus,  theologo- 
rum  princeps.  He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer,  but 
man}'  of  his  writings  remain  in  MS.  Among  those 
published  arc  :  Be  Peccato  Original^  (printed  at  Ox- 
ford, 4to,  1470) ;  Quest iones  Metaphysics  (Venice,  1501); 
Lucubrationes  de  P.  Lombardi  Sentmtiis  (Basil,  1623). 
In  1292  he  was  made  general  of  his  Augustinian  order ; 
in  1296  bishop  of  Bourges.  In  1316  he  died.— Mos- 
heim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  44. 

.ZEgypt.     See  Egypt. 

.ffilath.     See  Elatii. 

.Sllfric,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  raised  to  that 
see  in  996,  was  a  laborious  scholar,  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  for  much  of  our  present  knowledge  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  literature.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  of  the  Old  an- 1 
New  Testaments  in  Saxon;  also  a  Paschal  Homily  in 
Latin  and  Saxon ;  in  the  latter  of  which  he  declares 
himself  against  the  papal  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion.  Manj'  of  his  works  exist,  it  is  said,  in  MS.,  and 
some  few  have  been  published,  one  in  Saxon,  viz. 
Tract,  de  V.  et  N.  Testamento  ;  and  others  in  Latin,  viz. 
the  Paschal  Homily.  Also  two  letters,  one  to  Wul- 
finus,  bishop  of  Sherborne  or  Salisbury  ;  the  other  to 
Wulstanus,  archbishop  of  York,  on  the  same  subject, 
printed  at  London  in  1566,  1623,  and  1638.  There  is, 
moreover,  in  the  Coll.  of  Councils  (  Wilkins,  i,  250,  and 
Labbe,  ix,  1003),  a  letter  of  this  archbishop  to  Wul- 
finus,  containing  a  sort  of  ritual  for  priests. — Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  anno  980. — Landon,  Ercl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

^llfric,  partly  contemporary  with  the  last,  and 
with  him,  apparently,  educated  by  Ethelwold,  who  was 
at  the  time  abbot  of  Abingdon.  On  the  removal  of 
Ethelwold  to  the  sec  of  Winchester,  in  96:!,  jElfric  suc- 
ceeded him  at  Abingdon.  He  died  in  1005,  and  was 
buried  at  Abingdon.  By  many  he  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  same  with  the  last-mentioned  ,Elfrie,  and  the 
question  is  involved  in  extreme  obscurity ;  it  is  most 
probable,  however,  that  they  were  different  persons. 
The  reader  will  find  much  in  elucidation  in  Cave 
(anno  980). — Landon,  Ercl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

^31ia  Capitollna.     Sec  Jerusalem. 

iE'neas  (Alv'tac,  a  different  form  for  the  classical 


iENEAS 


90 


JERA 


*£ne'as),  a  paralytic  of  Lydda,  cured  by  Peter  (Acts 
ix,  33,  34),  A.D.  32. 

2Eneas,  Gaz.eus,  a  sophist  and  disciple  of  Hiero- 
cles,  converted  to  Christianity  about  the  year  487. 
He  testifies  that  he  heard  the  African  confessors,  whose 
tongues  Hunneric,  the  king  of  the  Vandals,  had  caused 
to  be  cut  out,  speak.  He  wrote  the  Dialogue  called 
Tkeophrastus,  de  Animarum  Immortalitate  et  Corporis 
Jiesurrectione,  which  was  printed  at  Basle,  151G ;  and 
has  since  appeared  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in  differ- 
ent editions,  with  the  version  of  Wolfius  and  the  Notes 
of  Gaspard  Barthius.  It  is  given  in  the  Bibl.  Max. 
Patr.  viii,  649  ;  also  in  Galland,  x,  627. — Cave,  Hist. 
Litt.  anno  487 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

.ffiiieas,  bishop  of  Paris  (843-877).  About  the 
year  863,  taking  part  in  the  controversy  with  Photius, 
he  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  Liber  adversus  Objections 
Grcecorum,  which  is  given  by  D'Achery,  Spied,  i,  113. 
— Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  anno  859 ;  Dupin,  Led.  Scr.yt.  c.  ix ; 
Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  567. 

.ffineas  Sylvius.     See  Pius  II. 

iE'lion  (AiVwi',  from  Chald.  I^"1?,  Enavan' , foun- 
tains; Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  1601),  the  name  of  a 
place  near  Salim,  where  John  baptized  (John  iii,  23) ; 
the  reason  given,  "  because  there  was  much  water 
(vSara  7co\\d,  many  waters')  there,"  would  suggest 
that  he  baptized  at  the  springs  from  which  the  place 
took  its  name.  Eusebius  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  places  it 
eight  Roman  miles  south  of  Scythopolis  (Bethshean), 
and  fifty-three  north-east  of  Jerusalem ;  and  it  was 
evidently  (comp.  John  iii,  26  with  i,  28)  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Jordan  (contrary  to  Kuinol  and  Lampe  in 
loc. ;  after  Zorn,  De  JEnone,  in  his  Opitsc.  ii,  71-94; 
also  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  vii),  but  not  necessarily  in 
Judaja  (as  Wieseler,  Chronol.  Synop.  p.  248).  See  the 
curious  speculations  of  Lightfoot  (Cent.  Chorog.  1,  2,  3, 
4).  Dr.  Robinson's  most  careful  search,  on  his  second 
visit  (new  ed.  of  Researches,  iii,  333),  failed  to  discover 
any  trace  of  either  name  or  remains  in  the  locality  in- 
dicated by  Eusebius ;  but  a  Salim  has  been  found  by 
him  to  the  east  of  and  close  to  Nablus,  where  there 
are  two  very  copious  springs  (ib.  ii,  279 ;  iii,  298). 
This  position  agrees  with  the  requirements  of  Gen. 
xxxiii,  18.  See  Shalem.  In  favor  of  its  distance 
from  the  Jordan  is  the  consideration  that,  if  close  by 
the  river,  the  evangelist  would  hardly  have  drawn  at- 
tention to  the  "  much  water"  there.  Dr.  Barclay  is 
disposed  to  locate  /Enon  at  Wady  Farah,  a  secluded 
valley  about  five  miles  to  the  N.E.  of  Jerusalem,  run- 
ning into  the  great  Wady  Fowar  immediately  above 
Jericho ;  but  the  only  grounds  for  this  identification 
are  the  copious  springs  and  pools  with  which  W.  Farah 
abounds,  and  also  the  presence  of  the  name  Selarn  or 
Seleim,  the  appellation  of  another  valley  close  by  (City 
of  the  Great  King,  p.  558-570).— Smith.     See  Salim. 

-ffion  (a'uov,  an  aye),  originally,  the  life  or  dura- 
tion of  any  person  or  thing.  In  the  system  of  Gnos- 
ticism we  find  the  term  used  to  signify  spiritual  beings 
wlio  emanated  from  the  Deity,  and  who  presided  over 
the  various  periods  of  the  history  of  the  world.  See 
Gnostics. 

.ZEpinus,  Johannes,  originally  named  Hoch,  was 
born  in  1499,  in  the  province  of  Brandcnburgh,  and 
studied  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  imbibed  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Reformers.  In  1529  lie  was  appointed  pas- 
tor at  Hamburg,  and  for  many  years  he  contributed  to 
further  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  by  preaching, 
writing,  and  travelling.  He  took  part  against  Me- 
lancthon  in  the  Adiaphoristic  eontrnrersy  (q.  v.),  but 
was  very  moderate  and  kind  in  his  views  and  state- 
ments. He  wrote  a  work  de  Pia-gatorio,  and  died 
1553.— Adami,  Vita  Theol. 

.ZEra,  a  series  of  years  used  for  chronological  pur- 
poses, dating  from  some  well-known  event.  See 
Epoch. 

I.  The  ancient  Jetcs  made  use  of  several  a>ras  in 


their  computations:  1.  From  Gen.  vii,  11,  and  viii, 
13,  it  appears  that  they  reckoned  from  the  lives  of  the 
patriarchs,  or  other  illustrious  persons.  2.  From  their 
departure  out  of  Egypt,  and  the  first  institution  of 
their  polity  (Exod.  xix,  1 ;  Num.  i,  1 ;  xxxiii,  38 ;  1 
Kings  vi,  1).  3.  Afterward,  from  the  building  of  the 
temple  (1  Kings  ix,  10;  2  Chron.  viii,  1),  and  from 
the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel.  4.  From 
the  commencement  of  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Ezek, 
i,  1 ;  xxxiii,  21 ;  xl,  1),  and,  perhaps,  also  from  their 
return,  and  the  dedication  of  the  second  temple.  In 
process  of  time  they  adopted,  5,  the  /Era  of  the  Seleu- 
cida;,  which,  in  the  books  of  Maccabees  is  called  the 
/Era  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Alexandrian  /Era ;  it  be- 
gan from  the  year  when  Seleucus  Nicanor  attained 
the  sovereign  power ;  that  is,  about  312  years  before 
the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ.  This  ajra  continued  in  gen- 
eral use  among  the  Orientals,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Mohammedans,  who  employed  it,  together  with 
their  own  a?ra,  from  the  flight  of  Mohammed.  The 
Jews  had  no  other  epoch  until  A.D.  1040,  when,  being 
expelled  from  Asia  by  the  caliphs,  they  began  to  date 
from  the  Creation,  though  still  without  entirely  drop- 
ping the  /Era  of  the  Seleucida:.  6.  They  were  accus- 
tomed, also,  to  reckon  their  years  from  the  years  when 
their  princes  began  to  reign.  1  hus,  in  1  Kings  xv,  1 ; 
Isa.  xxxvi,  1 ;  and  Jer.  i,  2,  3,  we  have  traces  of  their 
anciently  computing  according  to  the  years  of  their 
kings;  and,  in  later  times  (1  Mace,  xiii,  42;  xiv,  27), 
according  to  the  years  of  the  Asmonean  princes.  Of 
this  mode  of  computation  we  have  vestiges  in  Matt,  ii, 
1 ;  Luke  i,  5;  and  iii,  1.  7.  Ever  since  the  compila- 
tion of  the  Talmud,  the  Jews  have  reckoned  their 
years  from  the  creation  of  the  world,  which  they  fix 
at  B.C.  3761.  (See  Reland,  Antiq.  Hebr. ;  Schulzii 
Compend.  Arch.  Hebr.;  Jahn,  Arch.  Bibl.)  See  Chro- 
nology. 

II.  The  ancient  Heathens  used  the  following  aeras: 
1.  The  /Era  of  the  First  Olympiad  is  placed  in  the  year 
of  the  world  3228,  and  before  the  Vulgar  /Era  776.  2. 
The  taking  of  Troy  by  the  Greeks,  in  the  year  of  the 
world  2820,  and  before  Christ  1884.  3.  The  voyage 
undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  away  the  gold- 
en fleece,  in  the  year  of  the  world  2760.  4.  The 
foundation  of  Borne,  in  B.C.  753.  5.  The  /Era  of  Na- 
bonassar,  in  B.C.  747.  6.  The  /Era  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  or  his  last  victory  over  Darius,  B.C.  330.  7. 
The  Julian /Era,  from  B.C.  45.  8.  In  a  great  part  of 
India,  the  /Era  of  Sulwanah,  from  A.D.  78.  9.  In  the 
later  Roman  empire,  the  /Era  of  Diocletian,  from  A.D. 
284.  10.  Among  the  Mohammedans,  the  Hegira,  from 
A.D.  622.  11.  Among  the  modern  Persians,  the  /Era 
of  Yezdcgird,  from  A.D.  632.     See  Age. 

III.  The  Christians  for  a  leng  time  had  no  a?ra  of 
their  own,  but  followed  those  in  common  use  in  the 
several  countries.  1.  In  the  western  part  of  the  Roman 
empire  the  Consular  /Era  remained  in  use  until  the 
sixth  century  after  Christ.  Frequently,  also,  the  years 
were  counted  from  the  accession  of  an  emperor  to  the 
throne.  2.  The.iVa  Diocletiana,  beginning  with  the  ac- 
cession of  Diocletian  to  the  throne  (284),  came  into  use 
first,  and  became  very  common  in  Egypt.  The  Chris- 
tians who  used  it  gave  to  it  the  name  ^Era  Martyrvm, 
on  account  of  the  great  number  of  those  who  suffered 
martyrdom  under  the  reign  of  that  emperor.  It  is 
still  used  by  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  3.  In  the 
da}-s  of  Constantine  the  custom  arose  to  count  the 
years  according  to  Indictions.  A  cjxlc  of  indiction  is 
a  period  of  fifteen  years,  and  the  first  year  of  the  first 
cycle  is  generally  considered  to  correspond  with  the 
year  313  of  the  Christian  /Era.  This  sera  was  very 
common  in  the  Middle  Ages.  4.  The  jEra  Ilispaniea 
was  in  use  in  Spain  from  the  5th  until  the  14th  cen- 
tury, when  it  gave  way  to  the  Dionysian  /Era.  It 
begins  with  the  year  38  B.C.,  i.e.  the  year  following 
the  conquest  of  Spain  by  Augustus.  5.  The  /Era  of 
the  Seleucida',  or  Macedonian  /Era,  begins,  according 


^ERE 


91 


AFFECTION 


to  the  computation  generally  followed,  with  September 
1,  B.C.  812,  the  epoch  of  the  first  conquests  of  Seleucus 
Nicator  in  Syria.  It  is  still  used  in  the  church  year 
of  the  Syrian  Christians.  G.  The  /Era  of  Antioch, 
which  was  adopted  to  commemorate  the  victor}'  of 
Caesar  on  the  plains  of  1'harsalia,  begins  with  Sept.  1, 
B.C.  49,  according  to  the  computation  of  the  Greeks, 
but  11  months  later  according  to  that  of  the  Syrians. 
It  is  followed  by  Evagrius  in  his  Ecclesiastical  History. 
7.  The  /Era  of  the  Armenians  begins  with  the  year  A.D. 
552,  in  which  the  Armenians,  at  the  council  of  Tiben, 
separated  from  the  main  body  of  the  Eastern  Church 
by  rejecting  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  8.  The  /Era  of 
Constantinople,  or  Byzantine  /Era,  begins  with  the 
creation  of  the  world,  which  it  fixes  5508  years  before 
the  Christian  or  Vulgar  /Era.  It  is  still  in  use  among 
the  Albanians,  Servians,  and  modern  Greeks.  9. 
The  most  common  a;ra  among  Christians  is  the  Dio- 
nysian  /Era  (/Era  Dionysiana),  so  called  after  Diony- 
sius  Exiyuus  (q.  v.),  who  proposed  it  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. It  counts  the  years  from  the  birth,  or  rather  the 
conception  of  Christ,  designating  the  January  of  the 
year  in  the  December  of  which  Christ  was  born,  as 
the  January  of  the  first  year  post  Christum.  Christ, 
according  to  this  calculation,  was  born  at  the  close  of 
the  first  year  '"post  incarnationem"  (i.  e.  the  concep- 
tion). As  the  first  year  ])ost  Christum,  Dionysius  as- 
sumes the  year  75-1  from  the  foundation  of  Rome,  an 
opinion  which  has  long  ago  been  shown  to  be  incor- 
rect. See  Nativity.  The  Dionysian  /Era  was  adopt- 
ed in  Rome  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  6th  century. 
The  first  public  transaction  which  was  dated  according 
to  it  is  the  Concilium  German,  a.  742  ;  and  the  first  sov- 
ereign who  used  it  is  Charlemagne.  In  the  11th  cen- 
tury it  was  adopted  by  the  popes,  since  which  time  its 
use  in  the  Western  Church  has  been  universal. 

2Ere,  a  city  noted  in  the  Antonlne  Itinerary  on 
the  way  from  Damascus  to  Scythopolis  (Bethshean)  ; 
identified,  from  an  inscription  found  in  its  extensive 
ruins,  with  the  Sanamein  of  Abulfeda  (Tabula  Syria;, 
ed.  Koehler,  p.  97),  now  Sununein,  a  large  Moslem 
village  in  the  district  of  Jedur  ^Bitter,  Erdk.  xv,  812- 
817).     See  Asiiteroth-karnaim. 

Aerians,  a  sect  which  arose  about  the  middle  of 
the  fourth  century,  being  the  followers  of  Aiirius  (who 
must  be  distinguished  from  Arius  and  Aetius),  a  monk 
and  a  presbyter  of  Sebastia,  in  Pontus.  He  is  charged 
by  Epiphanius  with  being  an  Arian,  or  Semi-Arian, 
without  just  ground.  The  real  cause,  perhaps,  of  the 
accusation  against  him  was  his  attempt  to  reform  the 
Church,  by  maintaining  that  a  presbyter  or  elder  dif- 
fers not  in  order  and  degree  from  a  bishop ;  and  by 
rejecting  prayers  for  the  dead,  with  certain  fasts  and 
festivals  then  superstitiously  observed.  Epiphanius 
attributes  the  zeal  of  Aiirius  to  his  being  disappointed 
of  the  bishopric  of  Sebaste,  which  was  conferred  on 
his  friend  Eustathius ;  but  the  statements  of  Epipha- 
nius are  evidently  colored  by  his  personal  prejudice 
against  Aerius.  His  followers  were  driven  from  the 
churches,  and  out  of  all  the  towns  and  villages,  and 
were  obliged  to  assemble  in  the  woods,  caverns,  and 
open  defiles.  The  sect  was  still  in  existence  at  the 
time  of  Augustine.  —  Epiphanius,  Adv.  Hares,  lvi ; 
Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  342,  343;  Bingham,  b.  xv,  ch. 
3 ;  Lardner,  Works,  iv,  179 ;  Walch,  Hist.  d.  Ketzer. 
iii,  321. 

Aerius.     See  Aerians. 

^Ethiopia,  etc.     See  Ethiopia,  etc. 

Aetians,  a  branch  of  Arians,  named  from  Aetius 
of  Antioch,  one  of  the  most  zealous  defenders  of  Arian- 
ism,  who,  after  being  servant  to  a  grammarian,  of 
whom  he  learned  grammar  and  logic,  was  ordained 
deacon,  and  at  last  bishop,  by  Eudoxus,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  (about  A.D.  356).  He  wrote  about 
300  theological  treatises,  one  of  which  has  been  pre- 
served by  Epiphanius,  who  reports  that  he  held  that 


the  Son  was  of  a  nature  inferior  to  the  Father  (ktigtoc, 
kcli  i'i  oi'K  oPtwv,  and  avofiotoq  t^>  narpi  icai  irepovr 
aioc)  ;  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  but  a  creature,  made  by 
the  Father  and  the  Son  before  all  other  creatures. 
Socrates  (Ch.  Hist,  ii,  35)  says  that,  though  his  "doc- 
trines were  similar  to  those  of  the  Arians,  yet,  from 
the  abstruseness  of  his  arguments,  which  they  could 
not  comprehend,  they  pronounced  him  a  heretic."  He 
was  said  to  be  well  versed  in  the  Aristotelian  logic. 
His  doctrine  and  his  disciples  were  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Seleucia,  A.D.  359. — Sozomen,  Ch.  Hist,  iii, 
14  ;  Theodoret,  ii,  24  ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  399,  409  ; 
Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  359;  Lardner,  Works,  iii,  584; 
Walch,  Hist.  d.  Ketzereien,  ii,  GGO.  See  Anomieans. 
Aetius.     See  Aetians. 

Affection,  in  a  philosophical  sense,  refers  to  the 
manner  in  which  we  are  affected  by  any  thing  for  a  con- 
tinuance, whether  painful  or  pleasant ;  but  in  the  most 
common  sense  it  may  be  defined  to  be  a  settled  bent 
of  mind  toward  a  particular  being  or  thing.  It  holds 
a  middle  place  between  disposition  on  the  one  hand  and 
passion  on  the  other.  It  is  distinguishable  from  dis- 
position, which,  being  a  branch  of  one's  nature  original- 
ly, must  exist  before  there  can  be  any  opportunity  to 
exert  it  upon  any  particular  object ;  whereas  affection 
can  never  be  original,  because,  having  a  special  rela- 
tion to  a  particular  object,  it  cannot  exist  till  the  ob- 
ject has  once  at  least  been  presented.  It  is  also  dis- 
tinguishable from  passion,  which,  depending  on  the 
real  or  ideal  presence  of  its  object,  vanishes  with  its 
object ;  whereas  affection  is  a  lasting  connection,  and, 
like  other  connections,  subsists  even  when  we  do  not 
think  of  the  object.  See  Disposition  and  Passion. 
The  affections,  as  they  respect  religion,  may  be  de- 
fined to  be  the  "  vigorous  and  sensible  exercises  of  the 
inclination  and  will  of  the  soul  toward  religious  ob- 
jects." Whatever  extremes  Stoics  or  enthusiasts  have 
run  into,  it  is  evident  that  the  exercise  of  the  affec- 
tions is  essential  to  the  existence  of  true  religion.  It 
is  true,  indeed,  "that  all  affectionate  devotion  is  not 
wise  and  rational ;  but  it  is  no  less  true  that  all  wise 
and  rational  devotion  must  be  affectionate."  The  af- 
fections arc  the  springs  of  action :  they  belong  to  our 
nature,  so  that,  with  the  highest  perceptions  of  truth 
and  religion,  we  should  be  inactive  without  them. 
They  have  considerable  influence  on  men  in  the  com- 
mon concerns  of  life ;  how  much  more,  then,  should 
■  the}-  operate  in  those  important  objects  that  relate  to 
the  Divine  Being,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the 
happiness  or  misery  of  a  future  state !  The  religion 
of  the  most  eminent  saints  has  always  consisted  in  the 
exercise  of  holy  affections.  Jesus  Christ  himself  af- 
j  fords  us  an  example  of  the  most  lively  and  vigorous 
affections;  and  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that 
the  employment  of  heaven  consists  in  the  exercise  of 
them.  In  addition  to  all  which,  the  Scriptures  of  truth 
[  teach  us  that  religion  is  nothing  if  it  occupy  not  the 
affections  (Dent,  vi,  4,  5 ;  xxx,  G ;  Rom.  xii,  11 ;  1 
I  Cor.  xiii,  13 ;  Psa.  xxvii,  14). 

A  distinction,  however,  must  be  made  between  what 
I  may  be  merely  natural  and  what  is  truly  spiritual.  The 
affections  may  be  excited  in  a  natural  way  under  or- 
dinances 1)}'  a  natural  impression  (Ezek.  xxxiii,  32),  by 
a  natural  sympathy,  or  by  the  natural  temperament  of 
our  constitution.  It  is  no  sign  that  our  affections  are 
spiritual  because  they  are  raised  very  high,  produce 
great  effects  on  the  body,  excite  us  to  lie  very  zealous 
in  externals,  to  be  always  conversing  about  ourselves, 
etc.  These  things  are  often  found  in  those  who  are 
mere  professors  of  religion  (Matt,  vii,  21,  22). 

Now,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  our  affections 
are  excited  in  a  spiritual  manner,  we  must  inquire 
whether  that  which  moves  our  affections  be  truly 
spiritual ;  whether  our  consciences  be  alarmed,  and 
our  hearts  impressed;  whether  the  judgment  be  en- 
lightened, and  we  have  a  perception  of  the  moral  ex- 
cellency of  divine  things  ;  and,  lastly,  whether  our  af- 


AFFENDOFULO 


AFFIRMATIVE 


fections  have  a  holy  tendency,  and  produce  the  happy 
effects  of  obedience  to  God,  humility  in  ourselves,  and 
justice  to  our  fellow-creatures.  Consult  Lord  Kaimes' 
Elements  of  Criticism,  ii,  517  ;  Edwards  On  the  Affec- 
tions; Pike  andHayward's  Cases  of  Conscience ;  Watts' 
Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Passions;  M'Laurin's  Essays,  §  5 
and  6,  where  this  subject  is  ably  handled ;  Jeremy  Tay- 
lor's Works,  ii,  114, 164;  Buck. 

Affendofulo,  Caleb,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  who  flour- 
ished at  Adrianople,  Belgrade,  and  Constantinople  in 
the  present  centur}'.  The  name  Affendofulo  is  a  com- 
pound of  the  Turkish  effendi  and  the  Greek  ttovXoq 
(son).  He  wrote  a  commentary  (nil -X"2  !T"0")  on 
the  Song  of  Solomon  and  Psalm  cxi\,  with  introduc- 
tions and  epilogues  to  each  section,  having  reference 
to  the  divergence  of  the  Karaites  from  the  Rabbins 
(Vienna,  1830,  4 to),  besides  two  other  works  of  a  po- 
lemical character. — See  Fiirst,  Bibliotheca  Judaica,  i, 
20,  21. 

Affinity  (designated  in  Hebrew  by  some  form  of 
the  verb  "JHri,  chathan  ,  to  give  in  marriage)  is  relation- 
ship by  marriage,  as  distinguished  from  consanguinity, 
which  is  relationship  by  blood. 

1,  Marriages  between  .persons  thus  related,  in  va- 
rious degrees,  which  previous  usage,  in  different  con- 
ditions of  society,  had  allowed,  were  forbidden  by  tho 
law  of  Moses.  These  degrees  are  enumerated  in  Lev. 
xviii,  7  sq.  The  examples  before  the  law  are  those 
of  Cain  and  Abel,  who,  as  the  necessity  of  the  case  re- 
quired, married  their  own  sisters.  Abraham  married 
Sarah,  the  daughter  of  his  father  by  another  wife  ; 
and  Jacob  married  the  two  sisters  Leah  and  Rachel. 
In  the  first  instance,  and  even  in  the  second,  there 
was  an  obvious  consanguinity,  and  only  the  last  offer- 
ed a  previous  relationship  of  affinity  merely.  So  also, 
in  the  prohibition  of  the  law,  a  consanguinity  can  be 
traced  in  what  are  usually  set  down  as  degrees  of  affin- 
ity merely.  The  degrees  of  real  affinity  interdicted 
are,  that  a  man  shall  not  (nor  a  woman  in  the  corre- 
sponding relations)  marry,  (1),  his  father's  widow  (not 
his  own  mother)  ;  (2),  the  daughter  of  his  father's 
wife  by  another  husband  ;  (3),  the  widow  of  his  pater- 
nal uncle ;  (4),  nor  his  brother's  widow  if  he  has  left 
children  by  her  ;  but,  if  not,  he  was  bound  to  marry 
her  to  raise  up  children  to  his  deceased  brother.  See 
Levirate  Law.  The  other  restrictions  are  connect- 
ed with  the  condition  of  polygamy,  and  they  prohibit 
a  man  from  having,  (1),  a  mother  and  her  daughter  for 
wives  at  the  same  time,  (2),  or  two  sisters  for  wives  at 
the  same  time.  These  prohibitions,  although  founded 
in  Oriental  notions,  adapted  to  a  particular  condition 
of  society,  and  connected  with  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Levitical  marriage  law,  have  been  imported  wholesale 
into  our  canon  law.  The  fitness  of  this  is  doubted  by 
many ;  but  as,  apart  from  any  moral  or  sanitary  ques- 
tions, the  prohibited  marriages  are  such  as  few  would, 
in  the  present  condition  of  Occidental  society,  desire 
to  contract,  and  such  as  would  be  deemed  repugnant 
to  good  taste  and  correct  manners,  there  is  little  real 
matter  of  regret  in  this  adoption  of  the  Levitical  law. 
Indeed  the  objections  have  arisen  chiefly  from  a  mis- 
understanding of  the  last  of  the  above  prohibitions, 
which,  under  permitted  polygamy,  forbade  a  man  to 
have  two  sisters  at  once — an  injunction  which  has 
been  construed  under  the  Christian  law,  which  allows 
but  one  wife,  to  apply  equally  to  the  case  of  a  man 
marrying  the  sister  of  a  deceased  wife.  The  law  it- 
self is  rendered  in  our  version,  "Neither  shalt  thou 
take  a  wife  to  her  sister,  to  vex  her,  to  uncover  her  na-  ' 
kedness,  beside  the  other  in  her  lifetime"  (Lev.  xviii,  18).  j 
Clear  as  this  seems,  it  is  still  clearer  if,  with  Gesenius  j 
and  others,  we  take  the  word  "^U.  tsarar',  rendered  to 
vex,  to  mean  to  rival,  as  in  the  Sept.,  Arabic,  and  Vul- 
gate. The  Targum  of  Jonathan,  the  Mishna,  and  the 
cslebrated  Jewish  commentators  Jarchi  and  Ben  Ger-  ! 


I  son,  are  satisfied  that  two  sisters  at  once  are  intended  •, 
and  there  seems  an  obvious  design  to  prevent  the  oc- 
[  currence  of  such  unseemly  jealousies  and  contentions 
between  sister-wives  as  embittered  the  life  of  the  pa- 
triarch Jacob.  The  more  recondite  sense  has  been  ex- 
tracted, with  rather  ungentle  violence  to  the  principles 
of  Hebrew  construction,  by  making  "vex  her"  the  an- 
tecedent of  "in  her  lifetime,"  instead  of  "take  her 
sister  to  her,  in  her  lifetime."  Under  this  view  it  is 
explained  that  the  married  sister  should  not  be  "vex- 
ed" in  her  lifetime  by  the  prospect  that  her  sister 
might  succeed  her.  It  may  be  safely  said  that  such 
an  idea  would  never  have  occurred  in  the  East,  where 
unmarried  sisters  are  far  more  rarely  than  in  Europe 
brought  into  such  acquaintance  with  the  husband  of 
the  married  sister  as  to  give  occasion  for  such  "vexa- 
tion" or  "  rivalry"  as  this.  Yet  this  view  of  the  mat- 
ter, which  is  completely  exploded  among  sound  Bib- 
lical critics,  has  received  the  sanction  of  several  Chris- 
tian councils  (Condi.  Illiher.  can.  61;  Aurat.  can.  17; 
Auxer.  can.  30),  and  is  perhaps  not  calculated  to  do 
much  harm,  except  under  peculiar  circumstances,  and 
except  as  it  may  prove  a  snare  to  some  sincere  but 
weak  consciences.  It  may  be  remarked  that,  in  those 
codes  of  law  which  most  resemble  that  of  Moses  on  the 
general  subject,  no  prohibition  of  the  marriage  of  two 
I  sisters  in  succession  can  be  found.  (See  Westhead, 
Marriage  Code  of  Israel,  Lond.  1850 ;  Critici  Sac.  Thes. 
I  Nov.  i,  379.)— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Marriage. 

2.  The  substance  of  the  Levitical  law  is  adopted  in 
England,  and  ma}7  be  found  in  the  "table  of  degrees" 
within  which  persons  may  not  marry,  which  was  set 
forth  by  Archbishop  Parker  in  1563,  and  was  confirm- 
ed by  can.  xcix  of  the  synod  of  London,  1604.  See 
.  Incest. 

I  3.  According  to  the  Roman  canon  law,  affinity  arises 
from  marriage  or  from  an  unlawful  intercourse  be- 
tween the  one  party  and  the  blood  relations  of  the 
other  party  ;  but  in  cither  case  it  is  necessary  that  cop- 
'  ula  sit  completa  (.5.  Thomas,  4to,  dist.  41,  qu.  1,  art.  1). 
Persons  related  to  each  other  may  contract  affinity,  as 
the  husband  with  the  relations  of  his  wife,  without  the 
relations  of  the  parties  becoming  bound  together  b3r 
any  affinity ;  e.  g.  two  brothers  may  marry  two  sis- 
!  ters,  a  father  and  bis  son  ma}'  marry  a  mother  and  her 
daughter.  The  impediment  of  affinity,  arising  from 
marriage  consummated,  extends  canonicallv,  as  in 
natural  relationship,  to  the  fourth  dejrree  inclusive. 
The  impediment  of  affinity  arising  ex  coitu  illicito  only 
extends  to  the  second  degree  (Cone.  Trid.  sess.  24,  de 
reform,  cap.  4).  It  is  ruled  in  the  Latin  Church  that 
the  pope  cannot  dispense  in  the  first  degree  of  affinity 
in  the  direct  line,  but  he  can  in  the  indirect;  thus  he 
can  grant  a  dispensation  to  a  man  to  marry  his  broth- 
er's widow.     See  Consanguinity. 

Affirmative  (Gr.  ciajitjiaio^tai,  diiaxvpi&fiat, 
etc.).  Among  the  Jews  the  formula  of  assent  or  af- 
firmation was  Fl'na'l  "3,  av  HTrac,  thou  hast  said,  or 
thou  hast  rightly  said.  It  is  stated  by  Aryda  and  oth- 
ers that  this  is  the  prevailing  mode  in  which  a  person 
expresses  his  assent,  at  this  day,  in  Lebanon,  especial- 
ly when  he  does  not  wish  to  assert  any  thing  in  ex- 
press terms.  This  explains  the  answer  of  our  Saviour 
to  the  high-priest  Caiaphas  (Matt,  xxvi,  64),  when  he 
was  asked  whether  he  was  the  Christ,  the  son  of  God 
(see  also  Matt,  xxvi,  25,  and  comp.  John  xviii,  37). 
Instances  occur  in  the  Talmud  :  thus,  "A  certain  man 
was  asked,  '  Is  Rabbi  dead  ?'  He  answered,  '  Ye  have 
said:'  on  which  they  rent  their  clothes" — taking  it  for 
granted  from  this  answer  that  it  was  so  (Jerusalem 
Talmud,  Kila'im,  xxxii,  2). — All  readers  even  of  trans- 
lations are  familiar  with  a  frequent  elegancy  of  the 
Scriptures,  or  rather  of  the  Hebrew  language,  in  using 
an  affirmative  and  negative  together,  by  which  the 
sense  is  rendered  more  emphatic :  sometimes  the  neg- 
ative first,  as  Psa.  cxviii,  17,  "I  shall  not  die,  but 


AFFRE 


03 


AFRICA 


live,"  etc. ;  sometimes  the  affirmative  first,  as  Isa. 
xxxviii,  1,  "  Thou  shalt  die,  and  not  live."  In  John 
i,  20,  there  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  emphasis  pro- 
duced by  a  negative  being  placed  between  two  affirm- 
atives, "And  he  confessed,  and  denied  not,  but  con- 
fessed, I  am  not  the  Christ." — Kitto.     See  Oath. 

Affre,  Denis  Auguste,  archbishop  of  Paris,  was 
bom  at  St.  Roma  du  Tarn,  1793.  He  became  in  1811 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Nantes ;  and,  after  having 
been,  in  1816,  ordained  priest,  in  1818  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  in 
Paris  ;  in  1821,  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  of  Lueon  ; 
in  1823,  vicar-general  at  Amiens ;  in  1834,  canon  and 
honorary  vicar-general  of  Paris.  In  1839  he  was  ap- 
pointed coadjutor  of  the  bishop  of  Strasburg,  but,  be- 
fore entering  upon  his  episcopal  duties  at  Strasburg, 
he  was,  after  the  death  of  Archbishop  Quelen,  of  Paris, 
appointed  one  of  the  three  vicars  capitular  of  the  dio- 
cese, and  in  1840  appointed  by  Louis  Philippe  arch- 
bishop of  Paris.  He  had  several  conflicts  with  the 
government  of  Louis  Philippe,  especially  upon  the 
emancipation  of  the  Church  and  school  from  the  state. 
During  the  insurrection  of  1848,  he  climbed  upon  a 
barricade  in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille,  carrying  a  green 
bough  in  his  hand,  as  a  messenger  of  peace,  and  wish- 
ed to  persuade  the  insurgents  to  lay  down  their  arms. 
He  had  scarcely  uttered  a  few  words  when  the  insur- 
gents and  the  troops  commenced  firing  again,  and  he 
fell,  mortally  wounded  by  a  musket  ball,  coining  ap- 
parently from  a  window  above.  He  was  carried  by  the 
insurgents  into  the  house  of  a  priest,  and  the  next  day 
was  removed  to  his  palace,  where  he  died,  June  27, 
1848.  On  the  28th  of  June  the  National  Assembly 
passed  the  following  resolution :  "  The  National  As- 
sembly considers  it  a  duty  to  proclaim  the  sentiments 
of  religious  gratitude  and  of  profound  grief  which  all 
hearts  have  felt  at  the  saintly  and  heroical  death  of 
the  archbishop  of  Paris."  His  writings  include  Traite 
de  I'  adm  in  >'st  ratio?i  des  Paroisses  (1827)  ;  Traite  des  holes 
primaries  (1826)  ;  Traite  des  appels  comma  d'ahns;  Su 
premalie  temporelle  du  Pape  (1829,  in  the  Gallican  in 
terest)  ;  Propriete  des  Mens  ecclesiastiques ;  Essai  sur  les 
Hieroglyphes  Egyptiem  (1834,  maintaining  the  insuffi 
ciency  of  the  system  of  Champollion  to  explain  the 
hieroglyphics)  ;  Introduction  Philosophique  a  I' etude  du 
Christianisme.  See  biographies  of  Archbishop  Affre 
by  Henry  de  Rianc}r,  and  Abbe  Cruice  (subsequently 
bishop  of  Marseilles). 

Afghanistan,  a  country  of  Asia.  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  225,000  square  miles,  and  its  population  at 
about  4,000,000,  most  of  whom  are  Mohammedans,  be- 
longing partly  to  the  Soonite  and  partly  to  the  Shiite 
sect.  Hindoos,  Christians,  and  Jews  are  tolerated. 
There  are  besides  two  Indian  sects,  which  have  adhe- 
rents in  India,  the  Sufis,  who  hold  pantheistic  views, 
and  the  Mullah  Fukkis,  who  are  freethinkers.  The 
clergy  (Mullah)  are,  at  the  same  time,  also  teachers 
Schools,  in  which  reading  and  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion are  taught,  are  found  in  almost  every  village. 
The  Presbyterian  Mission  in  Northern  India  has  di- 
rected its  attention  also  to  the  neighboring  Afghans, 
and  established,  in  1856,  the  first  mission  among 
them.  Their  missionary,  the  Rev.  Isidor  Lowenthal 
(q.  v.),  took  up  his  residence  at  Peschawur,  and  en 
tered  at  once  with  ardor  upon  his  work.  Having 
acquired  the  difficult  language  of  the  Afghans,  the 
Pushtoo,  he  translated  and  published  in  it  the  New 
Testament.  The  first  native  convert  was  baptized 
by  him  in  1859. — Pierer;  Xeirs  of  the  Churches,  1859. 
See  Asia. 

Afra,  martyr  of  Augusta  Vindelicorum  (Augs 
burg"),  is  reported  to  have  been  originally  a  common 
prostitute,  but  Rettberg  (Kircheng.  Deutschlands,  i,  144) 
denies  it.  When  the  persecution  in  the  time  of  Dio- 
cletian and  Maximianus  Herculius  reached  Augsburg, 
Afra  was  seized  and  carried  before  Gaius  the  judge,  as 


a  Christian ;  when  Gaius  could  by  no  means  prevail 
upon  her  to  deny  the  faith,  he  condemned  her  to  be 
burned  alive,  which  sentence  was  speedily  executed 
(the  7th  of  August,  304)  upon  her,  continually,  during 
her  agony  in  the  flames,  glorifying  and  blessing  God. 
Her  festival  is  kept  on  the  5th  of  August. — Butler, 
Lives  of  Saints,  iii,  327. 

Africa,  one  of  the  four  principal  divisions  of  the 
globe,  and  the  third  in  magnitude.  The  origin  of  its 
name  is  uncertain.  Its  general  form  is  triangular,  the 
northern  part  being  the  base,  and  the  southern  ex- 
tremity the  vertex.  Its  length  may  be  reckoned 
about  70  degrees  of  latitude,  or  4990  miles ;  and  its 
greatest  breadth  something  more  than  4090  miles. 
Until  the  late  researches  of  Livingstone  and  Barth, 
its  interior  was  almost  unknown. 

Only  very  rough  estimates  can  be  made  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  Africa.  They  vary  from  60,000,000  to 
200,000,000  and  more.  Most  of  the  recent  discoveries 
indicate,  however,  the  existence  of  a  dense  population 
in  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  favor  the  highest  esti- 
mates of  the  aggregate  population.  The  natives  are 
partly  negroes,  comprising  the  negroes  proper,  the 
Caffres,  Betchuanas,  Foolahs,  Fellatas,  Hottentots, 
Bushmen.,  etc. ;  partly  Caucasians,  among  whom  be- 
long the  Copts,  Moors,  Barbarians,  Arabs,  Abyssinians, 
Nubians,  etc.  Malays  are  to  be  found  in  Madagas- 
car, and  numerous  Europeans  have  settled  in  the  Eu- 
ropean colonies. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  present  centuiy  a  very 
large  portion  of  Africa  was  yet  entirely  unknown  to 
the  civilized  world.  The  Arabs,  who  had  extended 
their  rule  in  Africa  in  the  7th  century,  conquered  the 
whole  of  the  northern  coast,  and  became  acquainted 
with  the  western  coast  as  far  as  the  Senegal,  and  the 
eastern  coast  nearly  as  far  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
For  a  better  knowledge  of  the  western  coast  we  are 
indebted  to  the  Portuguese,  who,  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  from  their  country,  pursued  them  to 
Africa,  and  gradually  advanced  routhward  on  the 
western  coast.  Steadily  pushing  forward,  they  cir- 
cumnavigated, in  1497,  under  Vasco  de  Gama,  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  soon  after  explored  the  south-east- 
ern shore.  The  Portuguese  were  soon  followed  by 
English  travellers  (since  1550),  who  considerably  con- 
tributed to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  entire  coast.  But 
the  interior  still  remained  an  unknown  land ;  and  even 
the  bold  travellers  who  were  sent  out  by  the  African 
Society  of  London  (established  in  1788)  could  not 
overcome  the  immense  obstacles,  and  many  of  them, 
as  Ledyard,  Lucas,  Houghton.  Mungo  Park,  Horne- 
mann,  and  Rontgen,  lo>t  their  lives. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  the  explo- 
rations into  the  interior  of  Africa  have  grown  rapidly  in 
number  and  in  importance.  The  progress  of  the  French 
rule  in  Algeria  and  in  Senegambia,  the  increased  pros- 
perity of  the  English  colonies,  the  success  of  the  numer- 
ous missionary  societies,  many  of  whose  missionaries, 
as  Livingstone,  Moffat,  Knoblecher,  Kray.f,  and  Isen- 
berg,  belong  among  the  chief  explorers  of  the  interior, 
the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  efforts 
made  by  European  governments  and  the  Geographical 
Societies  of  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  etc.,  have  given  a 
wonderful  impulse  to  the  exploration  of  the  interior. 
Important  discoveries  have  quickly  succeeded  each 
other;  and  quite  recently  (1862)  even  the  great  prob- 
lem of  many  centuries,  the  discovery  of  the  sources 
of  the  Nile,  has  been  successfully  solved  by  Captains 
Grant  and  Speke.  All  these  discoveries  and  explora- 
tions have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  prospects 
of  Christianity,  for  they  give  us  a  better  knowledge 
of  the  religious  views  of  the  natives,  of  their  habits 
and  their  languages,  and  thus  teach  the  missionaries 
and  the  missionary  societies  what  they  have  to  over- 
come. 

The  political  divisions  of  Africa  are  much  more  nu- 
merous than  those  of  any  other  of  the  grand  divisions 


AFRICA 


04 


AFRICA 


of  the  earth's  surface.  On  the  north  we  have  the  em- 
pire of  Morocco,  the  French  province  of  Algeria,  the 
pashaliks  of  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Barca,  and  the  oasis  of 
Fezzan,  dependencies  of  the  Turkish  empire ;  Egypt, 
a  vice-royalty  of  the  Turkish  empire,  though  in  a  state 
of  quasi  independency.  On  the  east,  Nubia  and  Kor- 
dofan,  dependencies  of  Egypt;  the  empire  of  Abys- 
sinia, which  has  been  recently  enlarged  by  the  subjec- 
tion of  a  number  of  savage  tribes ;  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
stretching  south-westward  for  more  than  1000  miles. 
The  names  of  the  principal  countries  are  Adel,  Ajan, 
Berbera,  Zanguebar,  and  Mozambique,  the  coast  of 
which  is  held  by  the  Portuguese.  East  of  Mozam- 
bique is  the  populous  island  of  Madagascar.  In  South 
Africa  Great  Britain  has  several  important  colonies. 
Cape  Colony  is  the  oldest  of  these,  and  occupies  the 
southern  portion  of  the  continent ;  above  it,  on  the 
south-east,  are  Caffraria,  Natal,  and  the  Zulu  country ; 
west  of  these,  and  separated  from  them  by  the  Kalamba 
Mountains,  are  the  Orange  River  and  Transvaal  re- 
publics, composed  mostly  of  Dutch  settlers  and  their 
Hottentot  or  Bechuana  dependants.  On  the  west 
coast,  north  of  the  Orange  River,  and  extending  about 
300  miles  into  the  interior,  is  the  Hottentot  country ; 
and  lying  between  this  and  the  Transvaal  republics  is 
the  land  of  the  Bechuanas.  North  of  the  Hottentot 
country  is  Lower  Guinea,  a  country  composed  of  nu- 
merous chieftaincies  and  some  Portuguese  colonies. 
Among  the  best  known  of  these  chieftaincies  are  An- 
gola, Congo,  and  Loango.  Between  this  and  the  east- 
ern coast  lies  a  vast  tract,  varying  in  width  from  ten 
to  twenty-eight  degrees  of  longitude,  and  extending 
from  nearly  ten  degrees  above  to  sixteen  degrees  be- 
low the  equator,  almost  wholly  unexplm-ed  by  Euro- 
peans. Upper  Guinea,  long  known  as  the  slave  coast, 
is  occupied  by  several  native  states,  the  largest  being 
the  kingdom  of  Dahomey.  North  of  these  is  that  re- 
gion known  formerly  as  Soudan  and  Nigritia,  com- 
posed of  numerous  and  constantly  changing  states 
(Bornou,  Timbuctoo,  etc.),  part  of  them  Mohammedan, 
and  part  pagan.  Turning  again  northward,  we  find 
the  republic  of  Liberia  and  the  British  colony  of  Sierra 
Leone,  both  settled  in  great  part  by  free  negroes. 
Lying  between  this  and  the  Great  Desert  is  the  coun- 
try of  Senegambia ;  the  larger  portion  has  already  be- 
come a  dependency  of  France.  England  has  a  settle- 
ment, Bathurst,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia.  The 
Great  Desert,  which  extends  eastward  from  this  coun- 
try to  the  confines  of  Egypt  and  Nubia,  is  inhabited 
by  tribes  of  Arab,  or  half  Arab  origin. 

1.  Biblical  Notices. — Africa  was  peopled  principally 
by  Ham,  or  his  descendants ;  hence  it  is  called  the 
"  land  of  Ham"  in  several  of  the  Psalms.  See  Ham. 
Mizraim  peopled  Egypt  (Gen.  x,  G,  13,  14),  and  the 
Pathrusim,  the  Naphtuhim,  the  Casluhim,  and  the 
Ludim,  peopled  other  parts  ;  but  the  situations  the}' 
occupied  are  not  now  known  distinctly.  It  is  thought 
that  man}'  of  the  Canaanites,  when  expelled  by  Joshua, 
retired  into  Africa;  and  the  Mohammedans  believe 
that  the  Amalekites,  who  dwelt  in  ancient  times  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Mecca,  were  forced  from  thence 
by  the  kings  descended  from  Zioram. — Pococke,  Spec. 
Hist.  Arab.     See  Canaanite. 

The  necessary  information  relative  to  those  places 
in  Africa  which  are  spoken  of  in  Scripture  will  be 
found  under  their  respective  names,  Abyssinia,  Alex- 
andria, Egypt,  Ethiopia,  Libya,  Cyrexe,  etc. 

II.  Early  Christian  Church  in  Africa.— The  conti- 
nent of  Africa,  in  the  ancient  Church,  contained:  1. 
The  Exarch'Ue  of  Africa  Proper.  This  contained,  in 
Africa  Proconsularis,  fourteen  dioceses;  in  Numidia, 
fifteen  ;  in  Mauritania,  eighteen  ;  in  Tripoli,  five.  A 
list  of  these  is  given,  from  the  Xn/itia  of  Leo,  by  Bing- 
ham (Prig.  Kecks,  bk.  ix,  ch.  vii;  see  also  ch.'ii,  §  5). 

2.  The  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria,  called  also  the 
Egyptian  Patriarchate.     It  comprehended  Libya,  Pen- 


tapolis,  Egypt,  from  Tripolis  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
Abyssinia,  and  contained  more  than  a  hundred  Epis- 
copal sees.  Thus  the  whole  of  the  north  of  Africa 
was,  in  the  early  ages,  Christian.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury the  Vandals,  who  were  Arians,  founded  an  em- 
pire there.  The  worst  enemies,  however,  of  the  Church 
in  Africa  were  the  Saracens,  or  Oriental  Arabs,  who, 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  overran  the  coun- 
try, and  almost  entirely  extinguished  the  light  of 
Christianity.  The  ancient  sees  which  still  remain 
are  filled  by  Coptic  prelates  [see  Copts],  the  chief  of 
whom  is  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  dependent 
upon  him  is  the  abuna,  or  patriarch  of  the  Abyssini- 
ans.  Of  the  ancient  sees,  although  the  names  are 
known  to  us,  the  situation  is  entirely  lost,  owing  to 
the  change  wrought  in  the  names  of  places  by  the 
Arabs.  Little,  then,  can  be  said  of  the  geography, 
and  as  little  of  the  chronology,  of  these  bishoprics ; 
for,  as  to  the  former,  all  that  we  know  is  the  provinces 
in  which  they  were  situated ;  as  to  the  latter,  we  have 
no  proofs  of  the  most  ancient  before  the  third  century, 
and  of  very  few  later  than  the  seventh. — Bingham, 
Oriff.  Eccl.  ix,  7.  See  Abyssinia  ;  Alexandria  ; 
Ethiopia  ;  Carthage. 

III.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church. — The  circumnavi- 
gation of  Africa  in  the  fifteenth  century  led  to  con- 
quests of  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  and,  in  con- 
nection with  them,  to  the  establishment  of  Roman 
Catholic  missions.  In  Western  Africa  the  population 
of  several  entire  kingdoms  [see  Angola  ;  Congo], 
and  of  a  large  number  of  islands,  became,  at  least 
nominally,  connected  with  the  Roman  Church.  In 
Eastern  Africa,  Mozambique  and  the  islands  Bourbon 
and  Mauritius  were  the  principal  missionary  fields. 
In  Northern  Africa  several  bishoprics  were  establish- 
ed in  the  Spanish  possessions.  The  establishment  of 
the  French  dominion  in  several  parts  of  Western  and 
Northern  Africa,  especially  in  Algeria,  likewise  en- 
larged greatly  the  territory  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  improved  its  prospects.  Also  in  the  Eng- 
lish possessions  a  considerable  Roman  Catholic  popu- 
lation gradually  gathered,  especially  among  the  Irish 
immigrants.  Great  efforts  were  also  made  by  the 
Roman  missionaries  to  eft'ect  a  union  of  the  Copts  and 
Abyssinians  with  their  Church,  but  without  much  per- 
manent success.  See  Copts;  Abyssinia.  Repeat- 
edly Roman  missionaries  penetrated  farther  into  the 
interior,  but  no  great  results  have  as  yet  been  obtain- 
ed. In  1859  there  was,  outside  of  the  possessions  of 
Christian  nations  and  of  Tunis,  Tripolis,  and  Egypt, 
only  one  vicariate  apostolic  for  the  Gallas. 

IV.  The  Protestant  Missions. — Protestantism  got  a 
firm  footing  in  Africa  after  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  in  the  possessions  of  the  Dutch,  English, 
and  Danes.  The  foundation  of  another  Protestant 
state  was  laid  in  1823  by  the  establishment  of  the  negro 
republic  Liberia,  whose  growth  and  prospective  influ- 
ence is  entirely  under  the  control  of  Protestant  Chris- 
tianity. See  Liberia.  Missionary  operations  among 
the  natives  were  commenced  in  South  Africa,  in  1737, 
by  the  Moravians.  Their  early  operations,  however, 
were  greatly  embarrassed  by  the  Dutch  colonial  gov- 
ernment, and,  for  fifty  years  (1744  to  1792),  entirely 
interrupted.  During  all  this  time  nothing  was  done 
for  the  conversion  of  the  pagans.  The  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  established  its  first  mission  in  1795, 
the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  in  1814.  In  1820 
a  mission  was  established  by  the  Glasgow  Missionary 
Society,  a  union  of  members  of  the  Established  Church 
of  Scotland  and  Dissenters.  In  1838  this  union  was 
dissolved,  the  members  of  the  Established  Church  re- 
taining the  old  name,  and  the  Dissenters  taking  the 
name  of  the  Glasgow  African  Missionary  Society. 
After  the  division  in  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1843, 
the  Glasgow  Missionary  Society  became  merged  in  the 
foreign  mission  scheme  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land.   The  Glasgow  African  Missionary  Society  trans- 


AFRICA 


05 


AFRICA 


.L.rstf 


OLONGITUDE  EAST        20     FROM  GREENWICH  -10 

Map  of  Modern  Africa. 


ferred  its  operations,  in  1847,  to  the  care  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church.  The  first  missionaries  of  the 
Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society  came  to  Africa 
in  1822,  and  commenced,  in  1830,  their  present  mis- 
sion among  the  Bechuanas.  The  American  Board  re- 
solved in  1834  on  a  mission  among  the  Zulus,  which 
was  commenced  in  1835.  The  Rhenish  Missionary 
Society  sent  to  Africa,  in  1829,  four  graduates  of  their 
Mission  Seminary  at  Barmen.  Most  of  the  flourish- 
ing stations  founded  by  it  are  within  the  limits  of  the 
territory  of  the  Dutch  Boers.  The  operations  of  the 
Berlin  Society  commenced  in  1833  ;  those  of  the  Nor- 
wegian Missionary  Society,  near  Port  Natal,  in  1853. 
In  West  Africa  the  first  efforts  to  introduce  the  Gos- 
pel were  singularly  disastrous.  Attempts  made  by 
the  Moravians  in  1736,  and  by  several  English  soci- 


eties since  1795,  had  soon  to  lie  relinquished  as  hope- 
less.    A  permanent  settlement  was  effected   by  the 

Church  Missionary  Society  in  1804,  which  has  I n 

very  successful,  and  is  still  extending  its  operations 
on  every  side.  A  bishop  for  Sierra  Leone  was  conse- 
crated in  1852.  The  English  Baptist  Missionary  So- 
ciety established  in  1841  a  flourishing  mission  at  the 
island  of  Fernando  Po,  hut  it  was  almost  entirely  sup- 
pressed in  1858  by  a  new  Spanish  governor.  The 
missions  of  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  of  Eng- 
land commenced  as  early  as  1796,  but  until  1811  there 
was  only  one  missionary.  They  have  since  become 
the  most  flourishing  among  all  the  Protestant  missions 
in  West  Africa.  The  missions  of  the  American  Bap- 
tist Missionary  Union,  in  Liberia  and  among  the  Bas- 
sas,  commenced  in  1821 ;   those  of  the  (American) 


AFRICA 


OG 


AFRICA 


Pres  by  terian  Board,  in  Liberia,  in  1832  ;  of  the  Amer- 
ican Board,  at  Cape  Palmas,  in  1834 ;  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  in  Liberia,  in  1833;  of  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention  of  America,  in  Liberia 
and  Yoruba,  in  1853 ;  of  the  American  Missionary 
Association  in  the  Sherbro  country,  in  1842;  of  the 
Basle  Missionary  Society,  at  the  Gold  Coast,  in  1828; 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  America,  at 
Cape  Palmas,  in  1836.  A  new  interest  in  the  mis- 
sions of  Western  Africa  was  awakened  in  England  by 
the  return  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  and  an  enlargement  of 
the  missionary  operations  resolved  upon.  In  Eastern 
Africa,  the  island  of  Madagascar  was  visited  in  1818 
by  missionaries  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  and 
a  large  number  of  the  natives  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. But  the  premature  death  of  King  Radama  in 
1828  put  a  stop  to  the  progress  of  Christianity,  and,  in 
1836,  the  mission  schools  were  closed  and  the  mission- 
aries driven  from  the  island.  The  persecution  lasted 
until  the  death  of  Radama's  widow,  Ranavalona,  and 
the  accession  to  the  throne  of  Radama  II  in  1861,  un- 
der whom  Christianity  was  again  tolerated,  and  began 
to  make  new  progress.  The  assassination  of  Radama 
in  1863  had  no  influence  on  the  legal  condition  of  the 
Christians,  who,  in  1864,  were  supposed  to  number 
about  7000.  See  Madagascar.  In  Abyssinia,  Ger- 
man missionaries  of  the  Basle  society  have  labored  in 
behalf  of  Protestantism  since  1830,  without,  however, 
achieving  any  permanent  result.  See  Abyssinia. 
Egypt  has  some  flourishing  churches,  schools,  and  be- 
nevolent institutions  for  the  Protestant  residents  of 
foreign  countries,  and  the  United  Presbyterians  of 
America  sustain  there  a  prosperous  mission.  See 
Egypt. 

V.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — The  entire  population 
of  the  Cape  Yerde,  St.  Thomas,  and  Prince's  Islands 
(Portuguese),  of  the  Spanish  Presidios  and  Guinea 
Islands,  and  of  the  French  island  of  Bourbon,  belong 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  a  majority  of  the  population  of  the  English  island 
of  Mauritius  and  of  the  European  population  in  Al- 
geria. In  Angola  and  Benguela  the  Portuguese  claim 
dominion  over  657,000,  in  Mozambique,  over  300,000 
subjects  ;  but  with  the  decline  of  the  Portuguese  pow- 
er also,  the  connection  of  the  natives  with  the  Roman 
Church  has  to  a  great  extent  ceased.  Angola  had,  in 
1857,  only  6  priests,  Mozambique  only  3.  See  also 
Egypt  and  Abyssinia.  The  Roman  Church  had,  in 
1859,  5  bishoprics  in  the  Portuguese  possessions,  2  in 
the  French,  1  in  the  English,  2  in  the  Spanish ;  and 
12  vicariates  apostolic,  viz.,  2  in  Egypt  (1  Latin  and 
1  Copt),  1  in  Tunis,  1  in  Abyssinia,  1  for  the  country 
of  the  Gallas,  2  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1  for  the 
two  Guineas,  1  for  Sierra  Leone,  1  for  Madagascar,  1 
for  Natal.     See  Algeria. 

The  African  missions  of  the  Roman  Church  are 
mostly  supported  by  the  General  Missionary  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  Faith.  There  are,  besides,  spe- 
cial missionary  societies  for  Africa  in  France  and  Aus- 
tria. The  Church  of  England  had,  in  1864,  the  follow- 
ing dioceses:  Capetown,  Grahamstown,  Sierra  Leone, 
St.  Helena,  Natal,  Zambesi,  Orange  River,  Niger,  the 
last  three  of  which  are  outside  of  the  British  domin- 
ions. These  bishoprics  constitute  the  "Ecclesiastical 
Province  of  South  Africa,"  with  the  Bishop  of  Cape- 
town as  metropolitan.  The  Wesleyan  Methodists,  in 
1864,  had  6  missionary  districts  (Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Grahamstown,  Natal,  Sierra  Leone,  Gambia,  and  the 
Gold  Coast),  75  circuits,  204  chapels,  366  other  preach- 
ing places,  95  missionaries  and  assistant  missionaries, 
17,955  members,  18,059  scholars  in  schools,  and  76,485 
attendants  on  public  worship.  The  missions  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  "Western  Africa  are 
organized  into  an  Annual  Conference,  which,  in  1864, 
had  19  travelling  preachers,  1351  members,  142  proba- 
tioners, 36  local  preachers,  98  native  members,  20 
schools,  1334  scholars,  and  19  churches. 


The  statistics  of  the  other  missionary  societies  were 
given  by  the  Journal  of  Missions,  in  1859,  as  follows : 


American. 

American  Hoard 

Presb'n  Board  (including 
Reformed  Presbyter'us) 

Episcopal  Board 

Southern  Baptists 

Amer.  Miss.  Association  . 
Total  of  American. . . 

London  Missionary  Soc. . . 
Baptist  Missionary  Soc . 

Church  of  Scotland 

Free  Church  of  Scotland. 
United  Presb.  of  Scotland 

Moravians 

Basle  Missionary  Society. 
Rhenish  Missionary  Soc. . 
French  Evangelical  Mis- 
sionary Society 

Berlin  Missionary  Society 
Norwegian  Miss.  Soc. 
North  Gorman  Miss.  Soc. . 
Total  of  European. . . 
Grand  total. . 


20S 

207 
2S6 

1,1S5 

4S 
1,934 


3,ss3 
'35- 


l,!i7G 
1TI 

1.70 


I    3  |10 
!    5  ;  39 


S,-'Si) 
10,214 


175 
1213 

r:;3 


?5C0 

"?2 


1555 
3S71 


Other  Christian  denominations  are  found  only  in 
Egypt  and  Abyssinia  (q.  v.).  Jews  are  numerous  in 
all  Northern  Africa,  especially  in  Morocco,  where,  be- 
fore the  persecution  in  1859,  they  counted  over  300,000 
souls.  Mohammedanism  prevails  in  Egypt,  Tunis, 
Tripolis,  Algeria,  Morocco,  Fez,  and  also  throughout 
Soudan.  Dieterici  estimated  this  part  of  the  popu- 
lation at  about  100  million  souls.  The  rest  are  pa- 
gans. The  following  table,  taken  from  Schem's  Ec- 
clesiastical Year-book  for  1859,  presents  the  statistics 
of  the  Roman  Catholic,  Protestant,  and  Christian  pop- 
ulation in  the  various  portions  of  Africa : 


1     Roman      1     Protes- 
|  Catholics.  |     tants. 

Christians. 

201,000 

Other  English  Possessions 

1-20,001) 
133,000 

439,000 
12,000 

noo.ooo 

igo,ooo 

27.000 
30,000 

'  '200 

10.000 

400,003 

10,000 
2,000 

?50,o6o 

534,000 
140,000 

Portuguese  Possessions 

439,000 
12,000 

Angola,  Benguela,  Mozambique 

100,00  1 
170,000 

200,000 

3,000,000 

53,000 

200 

Tunis  and  Tripolis 

10,000 

Total 

1,051,200    720,000 

See  Newcomb,  Cyclopedia  of  Missions. 

VI.  Literature. — The  religious  aspects  of  the  sub- 
ject are  treated  in  the  following  works  :  Sanchez,  Hist. 
Eccles.  Africans  (Madrid,  1784)  ;  Morcelli,  Africa 
Christiana  (Bresc.  1816,  Gott.  1820);  Munter,  Primor- 
dia  Eccles.  Africanee  (Hafn.  1829) ;  Loscher,  De  patrum 

j  Africanor.  meiitis  (Roehlitz,  1712)  ;  Kellner,  Nord-Af- 
rika's  Eelig.  in  the  Deutsche*  Magaz.  v,  256  sq. ;  Von 
Gerlach,  G'esch.  d.Ausbreit.  d.  Christenth.  in  Siid-Afrika 
(Berl.  1832).  The  most  recent  geographical  informa- 
tion is  contained  in  Livingstone's  Travels  in  S.  Africa 

\  (Lond.  1857,  N.  Y.  1858);  Zambesi  (Loud,  and  N.  Y. 
1865) ;  Barth's  Travels  in  Ar.  and  Cent.  Africa  (Lond. 
and  N.  Y.  1857-1850) ;  Krapf 's  Trar.  and  Afissions  in 
Ens/em  Africa  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1860);  Burton,  Lake 
Reports  of  Cent.  Africa  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1860);  An- 
dersson,  Lake  Ngami  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1850)  ;  Bald- 
win, South  Africa  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1863)  ;  Cumminir, 
Hunter's  Life  in  Africa  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1850)  ;  Wil- 
son, Western  Africa  (N.  Y.  1856) ;  Dti  Chaillu,  Equa- 
torial A  frica  (N.  Y.  1>-'61)  ;  Moffat,  Adventures  in  South 

|  Africa  (Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1865). 


AFRICAN  M.  E.  CHURCH 


97   AFRICAN  M.  E.  Z.  CHURCH 


African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  a 
body  of  Christians  composed  entirely  of  colored  peo- 
ple in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

I.  History. — The  early  Methodists  labored  zealous- 
ly for  the  welfare  of  the  Africans,  both  slaves  and 
free,  in  the  United  States.  Multitudes  of  them  be- 
came Methodists,  and  thousands  are  now  in  the  fel-  ' 
lowship  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (q.  v.), 
which,  at  its  General  Conference  of  1864,  organized 
two  new  conferences,  consisting  exclusively  of  col- 
ored members.  In  1810,  a  number  of  these  Metho- 
dists, believing  that  they  could  be  freer  and  more  use- 
ful in  a  separate  communion,  called  a  convention  in 
Philadelphia,  which,  in  April  of  that  year,  organized 
the  "African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church."  The 
Rev.  Richard  Allen  (q.  v.)  was  elected  first  bishop,  ! 
and  was  ordained  by  five  presbyters.  He  served  until 
his  death  in  1831.  In  1828  the  Rev.  M.  Brown  was 
also  elected  bishop.  In  183G  the  Rev.  E.  Waters  was 
ordained  bishop.  The  growth  of  the  Church  has  been 
steady,  and  man}'  of  its  preachers  have  been  men  of 
ability.  It  had,  in  1858,8  conferences:  Baltimore, 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  New  Eng- 
land, Missouri.  In  185G  the  Canada  Conference  was 
organized  as  a  separate  body.  The  civil  war  which 
broke  out  in  the  United  States  in  1861,  and  the  grad- 
ual destruction  of  slaver}',  greatly  enlarged  the  terri- 
tory of  this  Church  and  added  to  its  membership.  In 
May,  1864,  the  Quadrennial  General  Conference  of 
the  Church  was  held  at  Philadelphia,  simultaneously 
with  the  General  Conferences  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  and  of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal 
Zion  Church.  The  General  Conference  was  visited 
by  a  deputation  from  the  General  Conference  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and,  to  reciprocate  this 
act  of  fraternal  sentiment,  appointed  in  its  turn  a 
committee,  consisting  of  five  members,  to  visit  the 
latter  body.  A  committee  was  also  appointed  to  ma- 
ture, with  a  similar  committee  appointed  by  the  Afri- 
can Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church,  a  plan  of  union 
of  these  two  denominations,  to  be  laid  before  the  next 
General  Conferences  of  both. 

On  June  14,  1864,  twenty -five  delegates  of  this 
Church  met,  with  an  equal  number  of  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church,  at  Philadelphia,  to  | 
consider  the  terms  upon  which  the  two  bodies  could 
unite.  The  session  of  the  joint  convention  was  en- 
tirely harmonious.  All  the  arrangements  for  the  con- 
summation of  a  union  were  perfected,  and  all  were 
satisfied  that  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  General  Con- 
ferences of  the  two  Churches  in  1863  the  union  would 
be  effected. 

On  May  15,  1865.  Bishop  Payne  reorganized  the 
South  Carolina  Annual  Conference  of  the  A.  M.  E. 
Church.  This  Church  was  first  established  in  Charles- 
ton forty  years  ago.  Among  those  concerned  in  the 
movement  was  Morris  Brown,  the  second  bishop  of  the 
connection.  The  church  then  founded  existed  in  pros- 
perity for  six  years,  worshipping  in  a  house  erected  by 
themselves,  when  the  African  M.  E.  Church  as  a  sepa- 
rate organization  was  overthrown,  and  ever  since,  un- 
til the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion,  the  colored  people 
were  compelled  to  worship  with  the  whites,  and  were 
brought  under  the  pastoral  care  of  the  white  pastors. 
Upon  the  fall  of  Charleston,  Bishop  Payne  proceeded 
to  that  city,  and,  the  laws  of  South  Carolina  to  the 
contrary  notwithstanding,  reorganised  an  Annual  Con- 
ference. 

II.  Doctrines. — The  doctrines  are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (q.  v.). 

III.  Government.— The  bishops  preside  in  the  con- 
ferences and  station  the  ministers;  they  are  styled 
"  Right  Reverend."  The  General  Conference  is  com- 
posed of  travelling  preachers  of  two  years'  standing, 
and  of  local  preachers  delegated  by  the  Annual  Con- 
ference, in  the  ratio  of  one  to  every  five  travelling 
preachers.     Its  sessions  are  quadrennial.     The  An* 

G 


nual  Conference  consists  of  all  the  travelling  preach- 
ers in  full  connection,  and  of  all  local  preachers  who 
have  been  licensed  a  certain  period,  and  can  pass  a 
satisfactory  examination.  In  other  respects  the  gov- 
ernment resembles  that  of  the  M.  E.  Church. 

IV.  Statistics. — From  the  reports  made  at  the  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  1864  on  the  constitution  of  the 
Church,  it  appears  that  in  that  year  the  real  estate  and 
church  property  was  estimated  at  about  $2,000,000,  lo- 
cated in  the  New  England  States,  the  North-western 
States,  in  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Mississippi, 
Louisiana,  South  Carolina,  and  California.  The  mem- 
bership of  the  connection  was  about  50,000 ;  the  num- 
ber of  those  attending  the  Church,  300,000 ;  local 
preachers,  1000  ;  travelling  preachers,  500  ;  ordained 
ministers,  200 ;  and  3  bishops.  Missions  had  been  es- 
tablished in  nearly  all  of  the  states  above  named,  and 
the  number  of  missionaries  was  about  20.  The  Church 
had  about  1200  day-schools,  and  1000  teachers  of  color, 
educated  at  the  various  institutions  of  learning  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  Sunday-schools  had  been 
established  in  connection  with  nearly  all  of  the  meet- 
ing-houses. They  were  attended  by  about  200,000 
children,  and  some  200,000  volumes  of  Sunday-school 
books  were  used.  The  highest  literary  institution  of 
the  denomination  is  Wilberforce  University,  which  is 
under  the  control  of  the  General  Conference,  and  lo- 
cated three  miles  north  of  Xenia,  Green  County,  Ohio. 
It  had,  in  1864,  about  100  students.  There  are  also 
seminaries  at  Baltimore,  Columbus  (O.),  Alleghany, 
and  Pittsburg.  The  school  near  Columbus  has  a 
farm  of  172  acres.  There  are  two  religious  papers, 
the  Christian  Recorder,  a  weekly,  issued  by  the  Book 
Concern  at  Philadelphia,  and  the  Repository. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church , 
a  religious  denomination  con  posed  entirely  of  colored 
Methodists. 

I.  History.  —  This  denomination  originated  in  the 
secession,  in  1820,  of  the  Zion  congregation  of  African 
Methodists,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  from  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church.  The  congregation  assigned 
as  the  cause  of  its  separation  some  resolutions  passed 
by  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  in  1820,  concerning  Church  government. 
Zion  congregation  was  soon  joined  by  several  other 
congregations,  and  in  1821  the  first  Annual  Conference 
was  held  in  the  city  of  New  York,  which  was  attended 
by  22  ministers,  and  repoi'ted  the  number  of  members 
connected  with  the  Conference  as  being  1426.  For 
seven  more  years  successively  an  Annual  Conference 
was  convened,  each  of  which  appointed  its  president. 
At  the  Annual  Conference  of  1838,  the  Rev.  Christo- 
pher Rush  was  elected  permanent  superintendent  for 
four  years.  In  1817  the  denomination  had  2  general 
superintendents,  4  annual  conferences  ■  (  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  Baltimore),  75  travelling 
ministers,  from  150  to  200  local  preachers  and  exhort- 
ers,  5000  lay  members,  50  churches,  and  many  congre- 
gations without  churches,  in  11  states  of  the  Union, 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  Nova  Scotia.  The  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  1864,  held  at  Philadelphia,  declared 
in  favor  of  a  union  with  the  African  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  (q.  v.). 

II.  Doctrines. — The  doctrines  are  the  same  as  those  ■ 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (q.  v.). 

III.  Government, — The  highest  functionaries  of  the 
Church  are  general  superintendents,  who  are  elected 
to  their  office  every  four  years  by  the  suffrage  of  the 
members  of  the  General  Conference.  They  may  be 
re-elected  at  the  expiration  of  their  term.  The  Gen- 
eral Conference  meets  every  four  years,  and  is  com- 
posed of  all  the  travelling  ministers  of  the  connection. 
The  Annual  Conference  is  composed  of  all  the  travel- 
ling ministers  of  a  district.  See  Rev.  Christopher 
Rush's  Hut.  of  the  African  Methodist  Church  (N.  Y.). 


AFRICAN  US  I 

Africanus,  Julius  (called  by  Suidas  Sexius  Ju- 
lius), was  an  intimate  friend  of  Origen,  an  eminent 
Christian  chronographer,  and  flourished  about  the 
year  220.  Having  been  attracted  by  the  fame  of  Her- 
aclas,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  and  pupil  of  Origen, 
he  came  to  Alexandria  to  study  with  him,  but  he 
seems  to  have  lived  chiefly  at  Nicopolis  (the  ancient 
Emmaus),  in  Palestine,  and  to  have  exerted  himself 
for  its  restoration ;  for  which  purpose,  in  220,  he  made 
a  visit  to  Antoninus  Heliogabalus,  to  obtain  from  him 
permission  that  the  walls  of  the  ruined  city  should  be 
rebuilt.  According  to  one  writer  (Hebedjesu,  Cat.  lib. 
Chald.  xv,  18),  he  was  bishop  of  Nicopolis.  He  died 
about  232.  Africanus  wrote  a  chronological  work  in 
five  sections  under  the  title  of  Pentabiblos — a  sort  of 
universal  history,  composed  to  prove  the  antiquity  of 
true  religion  and  the  novelty  of  paganism.  Frag- 
ments of  this  chronology  are  extant  in  the  works  of 
Eusebius,  Syncellus,  Malala,  Theophanes,  Cedrenus, 
and  in  the  "  Chronicon  Pasehale."  The  "Pentabib- 
los" commences  with  the  creation,  B.C.  5499,  and 
closes  with  A.D.  221.  The  chronology  of  Africanus 
places  the  birth  of  Christ  three  years  before  the  com- 
mencement of  our  era.  But  under  the  reign  of  Dio- 
cletian ten  years  were  taken  from  the  number  which 
had  elapsed,  and  thus  the  computation  of  the  Church- 
es of  Alexandria  and  Antioch  were  reconciled.  Ac- 
cording to  Fabricius  {Bibl.  Gr.  ed.  nova,  viii,  9),  there 
exists  at  Paris  a  manuscript  containing  an  abstract 
of  the  "  Pentabiblos."  Scaliger  has  borrowed,  in  his 
edition  of  Eusebius,  the  chronology  of  Africanus  ex- 
tant in  "Geo.  Syncelli  Chronographia  ab  Adaino  ad 
Dioclesianum,  k  Jac.  Goar"  (Gr.  et  Lat.,  Paris,  1652, 
fol.).  Africanus  wrote  a  learned  letter  to  Origen,  in 
which  he  disputes  the  authenticity  of  the  apocryphal 
history  of  Susannah  (Basle,  Gr.  and  Lat.  1674,"  4to). 
A  great  part  of  another  letter  of  Africanus  to  Aristides, 
reconciling  the  disagreement  between  the  genealogies 
of  Christ  in  Matthew  and  Luke,  is  extant  in  Eusebius 
(bk.  vi,  ch.  xxxi). 

It  is  believed  that  Africanus  was  still  a  pagan  when 
he  wrote  his  work  entitled  Cestus  (Kiaroc,  girdle  of 
Venus),  in  which  he  treats  of  agriculture,  medicine, 
physics,  and  especially  the  military  art.  Hebedjesu, 
in  his  catalogue  of  Chaldean  works,  mentions  a  com- 
mentary on  the  N.  T.  by  Africanus,  bishop  of  Emmaus. 
Finally,  a  translation  of  the  work  of  Abdias  of  Baby- 
lon, entitled  Historia  certaminis  apost-olici,  has  been  at- 
tributed to  Africanus,  but  probaldy  erroneously. 

The  fact  of  a  man  so  learned  and  intelligent  as  the 
chronologer  Africanus  being  a  Christian,  refutes  the 
error  of  those  who  think  that  all  Christians  in  the  first 
centuries  of  our  era  were  illiterate.  The  criticisms  of 
Africanus  upon  the  apocryphal  books  seem  to  attest 
that  he  did  not  receive  the  canonical  writings  of  the 
New  Testament  without  previous  examination ;  and, 
from  his  manner  of  reconciling  the  different  genealo- 
gies of  Christ,  it  appears  certain  that  he  recognised 
the  authenticity  of  the  Gospels  in  which  they  occur. — 
Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  ann.  220;  Lardner,  Works,  ii,  457. 

Afternoon  (D^tl  rVlBS,  netotli  ha-yom',  the  day's 
declining,  Judg.  xix,  8,  as  in  the  margin).  The  He- 
brews, in  conformity  with  the  Mosaic  law,  reckoned 
the  day  from  evening  to  evening,  and  divided  it  into 
Bix  unequal  parts : 

1.  The  break  of  day. 

2.  The  morning,  or  sunrise. 

3.  The  heat  of  the  day.  It  begins  about  nine  o'clock 
(Gen.  xviii,  1 ;  1  Sam.  xi,  11). 

4.  Midday. 

5.  The  cool  of  the  day,  literally  the  wind  of  the  day, 
from  the  fact  that  in  Eastern  countries  a  wind  com- 
mences blowing  regularly  for  a  few  hours  before  sun- 
Bet,  and  continues  till  evening. 

6.  The  evening.     See  Day. 

Ag'aba  (AKKafia,  prob.  i.  q.  Agabus),  one  of  the 


1  AGAG 

temple  servants,  whose  "  sons"  returned  from  Baby- 
lon (1  Esdr.  v,  30),  evidently  the  Hagab  (q.  v.)  of  the 
genuine  text  (Ezr.  ii,  46). 

Agaba  ("Aya/3a),  a  fortress  near  Jerusalem,  which 
Galesius,  its  governor,  restored  to  Aristobulus,  the  son 
of  Alexander  Jannasus  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  24,  5). 
The  place  cannot  well  be  identified  on  account  of  the 
various  readings  (see  Hudson's  ed.  i,  602,  note),  one  of 
which  (ra/3a3«)  even  seems  to  identify  it  with  Gab- 
batha  (q.  v.).  It  was  perhaps  the  eminence  of  Gib- 
eah  (q.  v.). 

Ag'abus  ("Aya/3oc ;  either  from  the  Heb.  2511,  a 
locust  [which  even  occurs  as  a  proper  name,  Ezra  ii, 
46],  or  23?,  to  love;  Simon.  Onom.  N.  T.  15,  and  Wolf, 
Cur.  ii,  1167),  the  name  of  "a  prophet,"  supposed  to 
have  been  one  of  the  seventy  disciples  of  Christ 
(AValch,  Be  Agabo  Vate,  Jen.  1757,  and  in  his  Diss,  ad 
Act.  Ap.  ii,  131  sq.).  He,  with  others,  came  from 
Judaea  to  Antioch,  Avhile  Paul  and  Barnabas  (A.D.  43) 
were  there,  and  announced  an  approaching  famine, 
which  actually  occurred  the  following  year  (Acts  xi, 
27,  28).  Some  writers  suppose  that  the  famine  was 
general ;  but  most  modern  commentators  unite  in 
understanding  that  the  large  terms  of  the  original 
(oXi/v  ti)v  oiKovfiivrjv)  apply  not  to  the  whole  world, 
nor  even  to  the  whole  Roman  empire,  but,  as  in  Luke 
ii,  1,  to  Judaea  only.  Statements  respecting  four  fam- 
ines, which  occurred  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  (Oros. 
vii,  6;  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  ii,  8-;  Chron.  Arm.  ii,  269), 
are  produced  by  the  commentators  who  support  this 
view  (Wesseling,  Obserr.  i,  9,  p.  28) ;  and  as  all  the 
countries  put  together  would  not  make  up  a  tenth  part 
of  even  the  Roman  empire,  they  think  it  plain  that 
the  words  must  be  understood  to  apply  to  that  famine 
which,  in  the  fourth  year  of  Claudius  (Suetonius, 
Claud.  18),  overspread  Palestine  (see  Kuinol,  Comment. 
in  loc).  The  poor  Jews,  in  general,  were  then  relieved 
by  the  queen  of  Adiabene,  who  sent  to  purchase  corn 
in  Egypt  for  them  (.Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  2,  6 ;  5,  2) ; 
and  for  the  relief  of  the  Christians  in  that  country  con- 
tributions were  raised  by  the  brethren  at  Antioch,  and 
conveyed  to  Jerusalem  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts 
xi,  29,  30).  Man}'  years  after,  this  same  Agabus  met 
Paul  at  Caesarea,  and  warned  him  of  the  sufferings 
which  awaited  him  if  he  prosecuted  his  journey  to  Jeru- 
salem (Acts  xxi,  10-12),  A.D.  55.  (See  Conybeare 
and  Howson's  St.  Paul,  i,  127;  ii,  233;  Baumgarten, 
Apostelgesihichte,  i,  270  sq. ;  ii,  113.)  The  Greek 
Church  assert  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Antioch, 
and  hold  his  festival  on  the  8th  of  March  ( Eichhom, 
Bibl.  d.  bibl.  Lit.  i,  22,  23  ;  vi,  20).— Kitto,  s.  v. 

A'gag  (Heb.  Agag',  XIX,  perh.  fame,  from  an 
Arab,  root,  in  1  Sam.  always  written  53X  ;  Sept.  Ay«y, 
but  Tu>y  in  Num.),  the  name  of  two  kings  of  the  Ama- 
lekites,  and  probably  a  common  name  of  all  their 
kings  (Hengstenberg,  Pcntat.  ii,  307),  like  Pharaoh 
in  Egypt,  and  Achish  or  Abimelech  among  the  Philis- 
tines.    See  also  Agagite. 

1.  The  king  apparently  of  one  of  the  hostile  neigh- 
boring nations,  at  the  time  of  the  Exode  (B.C.  1618), 
referred  to  by  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv,  7)  in  a  manner 
implying  that  the  king  of  the  Amalekites  was,  then 
at  least,  a  greater  monarch,  and  his  people  a  greater 
people,  than  is  commonly  imagined.    See  Amalekite. 

2.  A  king  of  the  Amalekites,  who  was  spared  by 
Saul,  contraiy  to  the  solemn  vow  of  devotement  to  de- 
struction [see  Anathema]  whereby  the  nation,  as 
such,  had  of  old  precluded  itself  from  giving  any  quar- 
ter to  that  people  (Exod.  xvii,  14  ;  Num.  xiv,  45). 
Hence  when  Samuel  arrived  in  the  camp  of  Saul  he 
ordered  Agag  to  be  brought  forth.  He  came  "  pleas- 
antly," deeming  secure  the  life  which  the  king  had 
Spared.  But  the  prophet  ordered  him  to  be  cut  in 
pieces;  and  the  expression  which  he  employed — "As 
th}'  sword  hath  made  women  childless,  so  shall  thy 
mother  be  childless  among  women" — indicates  that, 


AGAGITE 


99 


AGAPE 


apart  from  the  obligations  of  the  vow,  some  such  ex- 
ample of  retributive  justice  was  intended  as  had  been 
exercised  in  the  case  of  Adonibezek;  or,  in  other 
words,  that  Agag  had  made  himself  infamous  by  the 
same  treatment  of  some  prisoners  of  distinction  (prob- 
ably Israelites)  as  he  now  received  from  Samuel  (see 
Diedrichs,  Hinrichtung  Agag's,  Gott.  1776).  The  un- 
usual mode  in  which  his  death  was  inflicted  strongly 
supports  this  conclusion  (1  Sam.  xv,  8-33).  B.C.  cir. 
1070.— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Samuel. 

Ag'agite  [others  A'gaijite~\  (Hob.  Agag'i ' ,  ^SJX, 
Sept.  Bovycaoc,  'Mcikscuiv,  Vulg.  Agagites),  the  name 
of  the  nation  to  which  Haman  (q.  v.)  belonged  (Esther 
iii,  1, 10;  viii,  3,  5;  ix,  24).  Josephus  explains  it  as 
meaning  Amalekite  {Ant.  xi,  6,  5).     See  Agag. 

Agalla  or  Agallim.     See  EglaIm. 

Agam.     See  Reed. 

Agape,  plural  Agap.e  («ya7r>;,  aydirat),  the  Greek 
term  for  love,  used  by  ecclesiastical  writers  (most  fre- 
quently in  the  plural)  to  signify  the  social  meal  of 
the  primitive  Christians,  which  generally  accompanied 
the  Eucharist.  The  New  Testament  does  not  appear 
to  give  it  the  sanction  of  a  divine  command  :  it  seems 
to  be  attributable  to  the  spirit  of  a  religion  which  is  a 
bond  of  brotherly  union  and  concord  among  its  pro- 
fessors.    See  Eucharist. 

1.  Much  learned  research  has  been  spent  in  tracing 
the  origin  of  this  custom;  but,  though  considerable 
obscurity  may  rest  on  the  details,  the  general  histor- 
ical connection  is  tolerably  obvious.  It  is  true  that 
the  tpavot  and  iratpiai,  and  other  similar  institutions 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  presented  some  points  of  resem- 
blance which  facilitated  both  the  adoption  and  the 
abuse  of  the  Agapa:  by  the  Gentile  converts  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  but  we  cannot  consider  them  as  the  direct 
models  of  the  latter.  If  we  reflect  on  the  profound 
impression  which  the  transactions  of  "the  night  on 
which  the  Lord  was  betrayed"  (1  Cor.  xi,  23)  must 
have  made  on  the  minds  of  the  apostles,  nothing  can 
be  conceived  more  natural,  or  in  closer  accordance 
with  the  genius  of  the  new  dispensation,  than  a  wisli 
to  perpetuate  the  commemoration  of  his  death  in  con- 
nection with  their  social  meal  (Neander,  Leben  Jesu, 
p.  643  ;  Planting  of  the  Christian  Church,  i,  27).  The 
primary  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  had  impressed  a 
sacredness  on  the  repast  of  which  it  formed  a  part 
(comp.  Matt,  xxvi,  2G  ;  Mark-xiv,  22,  with  Luke  xxii, 
20  ;  1  Cor.  xi,  25)  ;  and  when  to  this  consideration  we 
add  the  ardent  faith  and  love  of  the  new  converts  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  loss  of  property  with  the  disrup- 
tion of  old  connections  and  attachments  on  the  other, 
which  must  have  heightened  the  feeling  of  brother- 
hood, we  need  not  look  farther  to  account  for  the  insti- 
tution of  the  Agapte,  at  once  a  symbol  of  Christian 
love  and  a  striking  exemplification  of  its  benevolent 
energy.  However  soon  its  purity  was  soiled,  at  first 
it  was  not  undeserving  of  the  eulogy  pronounced  by 
Chrysostom  :  "A  custom  most  beautiful  and  most  ben- 
eficial ;  for  it  was  a  supporter  of  love,  a  solace  of  pov- 
erty, a  moderator  of  wealth,  and  a  discipline  of  humil- 
ity." 

Thus  the  common  meal  and  the  Eucharist  formed 
together  one  whole,  and  were  conjointly  denominated 
Lord's  Supper  (cuttvov  too  Kvpiov,  cti-vov  Kvptaieuv) 
am\  feast  of  love  (dyenrn).  They  were  also  signified 
(according  to  Mosheim,  Neander,  and  other  eminent 
critics)  by  the  phrase,  breaking  of  bread  (kK&vtiQ  ap- 
rov,  Acts  ii,  4G  ;  tXaaic  rov  apron,  Acts  ii,  42  ;  Kkaacu 
aprov,  Acts  xx,  7).  We  find  the  term  (lyi'nrat  thus 
applied  once,  at  least,  in  the  New  Testament  (.hide  12), 
"These  are  spots  in  your  feasts  of  charity"  (iv  rale 
nyrtVnic  vpiov).  The  reading  in  2  Pet.  ii,  13,  is  of 
doubtful  authority  :  "  Spots  and  blemishes,  living  lux- 
uriously in  their  Agapre"  (IvrpvQ&VTtQ  iv  rate  ayu- 
Traig  avruiv) ;  but  the  common  reading  is  iv  rale 
cnrciTaig  avrwv,   "in  their  own  deceivings."     The 


phrase  ayenrnv  7ro(f7i'was  early  employed  in  the  sense 
of  celebrating  the  Eucharist;  thus  in  the  epistle  of  Ig- 
natius to  the  church  at  Smyrna,  §  viii.  In  §  vii  <ly«- 
7rav  appears  to  refer  more  especially  to  the  Agapa;. 

By  ecclesiastical  writers  several  synonyms  are  used 
for  the  Agapa-,  such  as  avpiroma  (Balsamon,  ml  ''mi. 
xxvii,  Condi.  Laodicen.) ;  icoivai  Tpd-Kt'Cai,  ti'M\ta, 
Koivai  icTTiaanc,  kmvu  ai'pTroaia  (Chrysostom);  cuTrva 
Koivd  (CEcumenius);  (jvggit'ui  Kai  av^iTornci  (Zonaras). 

Though  the  Agapse  usually  succeeded  the  Eucharist, 
yet  they  are  not  alluded  to  in  Justin  Martyr's  descrip- 
tion of  the  latter  {Apol.  i,  §  65,  67);  while  Tertullian, 
on  the  contrary,  in  his  account  of  the  Agapa-.  makes 
no  distinct  mention  of  the  Eucharist.  "The  nature 
of  our  Cana,"  he  says,  "  may  be  gathered  from  its 
name,  which  is  the  Greek  term  for  love  (dilectio). 
However  much  it  may  cost  us,  it  is  real  gain  to  incur 
such  expense  in  the  cause  of  piety ;  for  we  aid  the 
poor  by  this  refreshment ;  we  do  not  sit  down  to  it  till 
we  have  first  tasted  of  prayer  to  God  ;  we  eat  to  satis- 
fy our  hunger ;  we  drink  no  more  than  befits  the  tem- 
perate ;  we  feast  as  those  who  recollect  that  they  are 
to  spend  the  night  in  devotion;  we  converse  as  those 
who  know  that  the  Lord  is  an  ear-witness.  After  wa- 
ter for  washing  hands,  and  lights  have  been  brought 
in,  every  one  is  required  to  sing  something  to  the 
praise  of  God,  either  from  the  Scriptures  or  from  his 
own  thoughts  ;  by  this  means,  if  any  one  has  indulged 
in  excess,  he  is  detected.  The  feast  is  closed  with 
prayer."  Contributions  or  oblations  of  provisions  and 
money  were  made  on  these  occasions,  and  the  surplus 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  presiding  elder  (h 
TTpoeo-rioe — compare  1  Tim.  v,  17,  oi  Trpotartortc  Trpea- 
jluTspoi),  by  whom  it  was  applied  to  the  relief  of  or- 
phans and  widows,  the  sick  and  destitute,  prisoners 
and  strangers  (Justin,  Apol.  i,  67). 

Allusions  to  the  Kvpiaicov  Stl-avov  are  to  lie  met  with 
in  heathen  writers.  Thus  Pliny,  in  his  celebrated 
epistle  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  after  describing  the 
meeting  of  the  Christians  for  worship,  represents  them 
as  assembling  again  at  a  later  hour,  uad  capiendum 
cibum,  2>romisctium  tamen  et  innoxium."  By  the  | ihrase 
"  cibum  promiscuum"  (Augustine  remarks)  we  are  not 
to  understand  merely  food  partaken  in  common  witli 
others,  but  common  food,  such  as  is  usually  eaten  ;  the 
term  innoxium  also  intimates  that  it  was  perfectly 
wholesome  and  lawful,  not  consisting,  for  example, 
of  human  flesh  (for,  among  other  odious  imputations, 
that  of  cannibalism  had  been  cast  upon  the  Christians, 
which,  to  prejudiced  minds,  might  derive  some  appar- 
ent support  from  a  misinterpretation  of  our  Lord's  lan- 
guage in  John  vi,  53,  "  Unless  ye  eat  the  flesh  and 
drink  the  blood  of  the  Son  of  man"),  nor  of  herbs  pre- 
pared with  incantations  and  magical  rites.  I.ucian 
also,  in  his  account  of  the  philosopher  Peregrinus, 
tells  us  that,  when  imprisoned  on  the  charge  of  being 
a  Christian,  ho  was  visited  by  his  brethren  in  the 
faith,  who  brought  with  them  Btlirva  irouciXa,  which 
is  generally  understood  to  mean  the  provisions  which 
were  reserved  for  the  absent  members  of  the  church  at 
the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  ( iesner  remarks 
on  this  expression,  uAgap<is,  ojferente  unot/uoipn  illi- 
quid, (piod  una  consumerent ;  hive  iroiKiXa,  mm  ii  h/.m." 
2.  The  mode  of  celebrating  the  feast  was  simple. 
The  bishop  or  presbyter  presided.  The  food  appears 
to  have  been  either  dressed  at  the  houses  of  the  guests, 
or  to  have  been  prepared  at  the  place  of  meeting,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  Before  eating,  the  guests 
washed  their  hands,  and  prayer  was  offered.  The 
Scriptures  were  read,  and  questions  proposed  by  tin- 
person  presiding.  Then  followed  the  recital  of  ac- 
counts respecting  the  affairs  of  other  churches,  such 
accounts  being  regularly  transmitted  from  one  church 
to  another,  so  that  a  deep  sympathy  was  produced; 
and,  in  many  cases,  assistance  was  furnished  to  church* 
es  in  trouble.  At  the  close  of  the  feast,  money  was 
collected  for  orphans  and  widows,  for  the  poor,  and  for 


AGAPE 


100 


AGAPETUS 


prisoners.  The  kiss  of  charit}'  was  given,  and  the 
ceremony  concluded  with  prayer  (Rom.  xyi,  16 ;  1  Cor. 
xvi,  20 ;  1  Thess.  v,  26 ;  1  Pet.  v,  14). 

3.  Their  Decline. — From  the  passages  in  the  Epistles 
of  Jude  and  Peter,  already  quoted,  and  more  particu- 
larly from  the  language  of  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xi,  it  appears 
that  at  a  very  early  period  the  Agapoe  were  perverted 
from  their  original  design ;  the  rich  frequently  prac- 
tised a  selfish  indulgence,  to  the  neglect  of  their  poorer 
brethren :  eicaarog  to  'iciov  Ciiirvov  TrpoXajxjidvti  (1 
Cor.  xi,  21) ;  i.  e.  the  rich  feasted  on  the  provisions 
they  brought,  without  waiting  for  the  poorer  members, 
or  granting  them  a  portion  of  their  abundance.  They 
appear  to  have  imitated  the  Grecian  mode  of  entertain- 
ment called  Suttvov  c'nro  tnrvpifioe  (see  Xenophon's 
Memorabilia,  iii,  14 ;  Neander's  Planting  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  i,  292).  On  account  of  these  and  similar 
irregularities,  and  probably  in  part  to  elude  the  notice 
of  their  persecutors,  the  Christians,  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  frequently  celebrated  the  Eu- 
charist by  itself  and  before  daybreak  (cmtelucanis  cceti- 
bus)  (Tertullian,  De  Cor.  Militis,  §  3).  From  Pliny's 
Epistle  it  also  appears  that  the  Agapa;  were  suspected 
by  the  Koman  authorities  of  belonging  to  the  class  of 
Hetaeriae  (iraipiai),  unions  or  secret  societies,  which 
were  often  employed  for  political  purposes,  and  as  such 
denounced  by  the  imperial  edicts ;  for  he  says  (refer- 
ring to  the  "  cibum  promiscnum,"  etc.)  "quod  ipsum 
facere  desiisse  jwst  (.dictum  meum,  quo  secundum  man- 
data  tua  Hetcerias  esse  vetueram"  (Plin.  Ep.  96  al.  97). 
At  a  still  later  period  the  Agapa?  were  subjected  to 
strict  regulation  by  various  councils.  Thus  by  the 
28th  canon  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea  it  was  forbidden 
to  hold  them  in  churches.  At  the  Council  of  Carthage 
(A.D.  397)  it  was  ordered  (can.  29)  that  none  should 
partake  of  the  Eucharist  unless  they  had  previously 
abstained  from  food  ;  but  it  is  added,  "  excepto  uno  die 
anniversario,  quo  etna  domini  celebratur."  This  ex- 
ception favors  tlu  supposition  that  the  Agapae  were 
originally  held  in  close  imitation  of  the  Last  Supper, 
i.  e.  before,  instead  of  after,  the  Eucharist.  The  same 
prohibition  was  repeated  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
ninth  centuries,  at  the  Council  of  Orleans  (can.  12), 
A.D.  533;  in  the  Trullanian  Council  at  Constanti- 
nople, A.D.  692 ;  and  in  the  council  held  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  A.D.  816.  Yet  these  regulations  were  not 
intended  to  set  aside  the  Agapae  altogether.  In  the 
Council  of  Gangra,  in  Paphlagonia  (about  A.D.  360),  a 
curse  was  denounced  on  whoever  despised  the  partak- 
ers of  the  Agapaj  or  refused  to  join  in  them.  When 
Christianity  was  introduced  among  the  Anglo-Saxons 
by  Austin  (A.D.  596),  Gregory  the  Great  advised  the 
celebration  of  the  Agapre,  in  booths  formed  of  the 
branches  of  trees,  at  the  consecration  of  churches. 

Few  vestiges  of  this  ancient  usage  can  now  be 
traced.  In  some  few  churches,  however,  may  still  be 
found  what  seem  to  be  remnants  of  the  old  practice ; 
thus  it  is  usual,  in  every  church  in  Rouen,  on  Easter- 
day,  after  mass,  to  distribute  to  the  faithful,  in  the 
nave  of  the  church,  an  Agape,  in  the  shape  of  a  cake 
and  a  cup  of  wine.  It  appears  that  it  used  to  be  done 
on  all  great  festivals ;  for  we  read  in  the  life  of  Ans- 
bertus,  archbishop  of  Rouen,  that  he  gave  an  Agape  to 
the  people  in  his  church  "after  communion,  on  solemn 
days,  and  himself  waited  at  table  especially  upon  the 
poor."  Dr.  King  suggests,  that  the  Benediction  of  the 
Loaves,  observed  in  the  Greek  Church,  is  a  remnant 
of  the  ancient  Agapa.  Suicer  says  that  it  is  yet  the 
custom  in  that  Church  on  Easter-day,  after  the  cele- 
bration of  the  holy  mysteries,  for  the  people  to  feast 
together  in  the  churches;  and  this  distribution  panis 
h,  nedicti  et  vini,  he  also  seems  to  consider  a  vestige  of 
the  Agapae.  But  the  primitive  love-feast,  under  a 
simpler  and  more  expressly  religious  form,  is  retained 
in  modern  times  by  the  Moravians  and  the  Methodists. 
See  Love-feast.  Similar  meetings  are  held  in  Scot- 
land by  the  followers  of  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman  (q.  v.), 


and  by  a  branch  of  them  in  Danbury,  Conn. — Suicer, 
Thes.  col.  23 ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  59,  104,  296 ;  Lard- 
ner,  Works,  vii,  280;  Coleman,  Anc.  Christianity,  ch. 
xxi,  §  13 ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  xv,  8 ;  Discipl  m  of 
the  M.  E.  Church,  pt.  ii. 

Besides  the  Eucharistic  Agapas,  three  other  kinds 
are  mentioned  by  ecclesiastical  writers:  (1.)  Agapoe 
natalities,  held  in  commemoration  of  the  martyrs  (Theo- 
doret,  Evang.  Verit.  viii,  923,  924,  ed.  Schulz) ;  (2.) 
Agapoe  connubiales,  or  marriage-feasts  (Greg.  Naz. 
Epist.  i,  14) ;  (3.)  Agapa;  funerales,  funeral-feasts 
(Greg.  Naz.  Carm.  A'.),  probably  similar  to  the  Trtpi- 
dwrvov  or  vcicpofienrvov  of  the  Greeks. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

For  further  details,  see  Resenius,  De  Agapis  Judos 
Epistolce  (Havn.  1600) ;  Oldecop,  De  Agapis  (Helmst. 
1656) ;  Cabassutius,  De  Agapis,  in  his  Notitia  eccl.  his- 
toriar.  (Lugd.  1680),  p.  31  sq.  ;  Hoornbeck,  De  Agapis 
vett.  in  his  Miscell.  Sacr.  (Ultraj.  1689),  p.  587  ;  Sehurz- 
fleisch,  De  vet.  Agaparum  ritu  (Viteb.  1690,  also  in 
Walch's  Compend.  Antiq.  Lips.  1733,  p.  566);  Same, 
De  vett.  Christ.  Agapis  (Regiom.  1701) ;  Muratori,  De 
Agapis  sublatis  (Patau.  1709);  Bohiner,  De  Christ, 
capiendis  cibum,  in  his  Dissert,  juris  eccl.  antiq.  (Lips. 
1711),  p.  223;  Hanzschel,  De  Agapis  (Lips.  1729); 
Schlegel,  De  Agapar.  estate  a]wstolica  (Lips.  1756) ; 
Schuberth,  De  Agapis  vett.  Judaor.  (Gorlic.  1761); 
Bohn,  D.  Liebesmahle  d.  ersten  Christen  (Erf.  1762) ; 
Friihaur,  De  Agapis  (Littav.  1784)  ;  Drescher,  De  vett. 
Christ.  Agapis  (Giess.1824);  Augusti,  Handb.  d. Christ- 
lichen  Archaol.  i,  pt.  1,  2;  Neander,  Church  Hist,  i, 
325;  ii,  325;  Bruns,  Canones  Apost.  et  Concil.  (Berol. 
1839) ;  Kestner,  Die  Agapen,  od.  d.  geheime  Weltbund  d. 
ersten  Christen  (Jena,  1819) ;  Molin,  De  vett.  Christiano- 
rum  Agapis  (Lips.  1730) ;  Sahmen,  id.  (Regiom.  1701) ; 
Stolberg,  id.  (Viteb.  1693,  and  in  Menthen.  Thes.  ii, 
800  sq.)  ;  Duguet,  Des  anciennes  Agapes  (Par.  1743)  ; 
Fronto,  De  (piXortjcriaiQ  veterum,  in  his  Dissert.  Eccl. 
p.  468-488  ;  Hilpert,  De  Agapis  (Helmst.  1656)  ;  Quis- 
torp,  id.  (Rosb.  1711);  Tileman,  id.  (Marb.  1693); 
Sandelli,  De  Christianor.  synaxibus  (Venet.  1770) ; 
Sonntag,  Ferice  cereales  Christianor.  (Altdorf.  1704) ; 
Bender,  De  conviviis  Hebraor.  eucharisticis  (Brem. 
1704).      See  Feast. 

Agapetae  (dyaTrrjrai,  beloved,  used  in  the  primitive 
Church  as  a  title  of  saints).  In  the  early  ages  of  the 
Church  this  title  was  given  to  virgins  who  dwelt  with 
monks  and  others  professing  celibacy,  in  a  state  of  so- 
called  spiritual  love.  This  intercourse,  however  pure 
and  holj'  it  may  have  been  at  first,  soon  occasioned 
great  scandal  in  the  Church,  and  at  length  became  the 
cause  of  such  evils  that  it  was  synodically  condemned 
(Lateran  Council,  1139).  It  seems  that  the  name 
Agapeti  (nyairj/roi)  was  given  to  men  who  passed  the 
same  kind  of  life  with  deaconesses  and  other  women. 
The  6th  Novell  (cap.  vi)  forbids  deaconesses  to  have 
with  them  such  men,  with  whom  they  dwelt  as  with 
their  brothers  or  relations.  —  Epiphanius,  Hasr.  43 ; 
Mosheim,  Comm.  ii,  138.     See  Subintroduct^e. 

For  special  treatises  on  this  class  of  persons  see 
Gilnther,  Historia  dyain^Twv  [avvu<raKTiov~\  (Regiom. 
1722)  ;  Muratori,  De  Synisactis  et  Agapetis,  in  his  A  need. 
Or.  p.  218-230  ;  an  anonymous  treatise,  De  commercio 
cum  Mulieribus  subintmdnctis  (Dresd.  1743)  ;  Quistorp, 
'Aymr>iTcti  et  "SvvEiffaicroi  (Viteb.  1708);  Larroquanus, 
De  Mulieribus  Clericorum  avvtiaaKralc  (Viteb.  1708). 

Agapetus  I,  pope,  son  of  Gordianus,  a  priest,  by 
birth  a  Roman;  succeeded  John  II  in  the  papacy, 
April  21st  (29th,  Cave),  535.  Theodatus,  the  king  of 
the  Goths  in  Italy,  alarmed  at  the  conquests  of  Belisa- 
rius,  obliged  Agapetus  to  proceed  to  Constantinople  to 
sue  for  peace  from  the  Emperor  Justinian.  This  the 
pope  was  unable  to  obtain ;  but  he  signalized  his  zeal 
for  religion  by  refusing  to  communicate  with  Anthimus 
the  Eutychian,  then  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  The 
emperor  endeavored  to  compel  Agapetus  to  receive 
him  into  communion,  but  he  resolutely  persisted  in  his 


AGAPETUS 


101 


AGE 


refusal.  Induced  by  this  bold  conduct  to  look  more 
closely  into  the  question,  Justinian  became  convinced 
of  the  error  that  had  been  committed  in  elevating  An- 
thimus  to  the  patriarchal  see,  and  by  his  order  a  coun- 
cil was  held  at  Constantinople  in  536,  in  which  Aga- 
petus  presided,  where  Anthimus  was  deposed,  and 
Mennas  elected  in  his  stead,  and  consecrated  by  the 
pope.  Agapetus  died  at  Constantinople  in  that  same 
year,  on  the  17th  day  of  April,  after  having  held  the 
see  eleven  months  and  three  weeks,  according  to  the 
most  probable  opinion.  His  body  was  carried  to  Rome, 
and  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  Vatican, 
September  20th,  on  which  day  his  festival  is  marked 
in  the  Roman  Martyrology.  Five  of  his  epistles  re- 
main, viz.,  one  to  Justinian,  two  to  Cresarius,  bishop 
of  Aries,  and  two  to  Eeparatus,  bishop  of  Carthage. 
The  epistle  to  Anthimus,  given  together  with  these  in 
the  Collections  of  Councils,  is  spurious.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Silverius. — Biog.  Univ.\o\.'\;  Baronius,  A.D. 
535,  536 ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  ann.  535. 

Agapetus  II,  pope,  A.D.  946,  was  a  Roman  by 
birth,  and  was  chosen,  like  his  predecessor,  by  the  fac- 
tion of  Alberic.  The  first  action  of  the  pope  was  to 
establish  his  political  rule  over  the  churches  of  the  em- 
pire. For  this  purpose  he  sent  Marinus,  bishop  of 
Bormazo,  in  Tuscany,  as  a  legate  to  the  Emperor  Otho 
I,  to  assemble  a  synod.  This  convention,  composed 
of  French  and  German  prelates,  was  held  at  Ingelheim, 
in  the  church  of  St.  Remi,  on  the  7th  of  June,  948,  in 
the  presence  of  Kings  Otho  and  Louis.  Marinus  pre- 
sided over  it.  Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the 
synod,  the  legate  re-established  in  his  episcopal  digni- 
ty Artaud,  the  former  bishop  of  Rheims,  who  had  been 
removed  from  his  see  by  Hugo,  count  of  Paris. 

In  order  to  break  down  the  powerful  house  of  Maro- 
zia  in  Italy,  Agapetus  favored  the  claims  of  Otho  to  the 
imperial  dignity,  and  was  about  to  summon  him  to 
Rome,  when  the  pope  himself  died,  A.D.  955.  His 
successor,  John  XII,  placed  the  crown  of  Charlemagne 
on  Otho's  head. — Baronius,  Annul.  951 ;  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist.  cent,  x,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii. 

A'gar  C'Ayap),  a  Grcecized  form  (Gal.  iv,  24,  25)  of 
the  name  Hagak  (q.  v.). 

Agard,  Horace,  an  esteemed  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  entered  the  itinerancy  in  the  Genesee  Con- 
ference in  1819.  In  1821  he  was  ordained  deacon,  and 
in  1823  elder.  In  1826  he  was  made  presiding  elder 
of  the  Susquehanna  district,  which  he  served  for  seven 
years,  and  then  was  transferred  to  Berkshire  district. 
He  filled  the  various  posts  to  which  he  was  called  with 
great  credit  and  success.  In  1838  he  was  superannu- 
ated. His  later  years  were  clouded  by  nervous  disease, 
which  abated,  so  as  to  leave  his  mind  clear  and  hap- 
py, a  few  days  before  his  death  in  1850. — Minutes  of 
Conferences,  iv,  498  ;  Peck,  Early  Methodism,  p.  457. 

Agareue  (ul6g  "Ay«p),  a  Graecized  form  (Baruch 
iii,  23)  of  the  name  Hagarene  (q.  v.). 

Agate  (1l3tt5,  shebo',  signif.  unknown  ;  Sept.  a\d- 
tt]c,  Vulg.  achates),  a  precious,  or  rather  ornamental 
stone,  which  was  one  of  those  in  the  breastplate  (see 
Braunii  Vest.  Sacerd.  Heb.  ii,  15)  of  the  high-priest 
(Exod.  xxviii,  19;  xxxix,  12).  The  word  agate,  in- 
deed, occurs  also  in  Isa.  liv,  12,  and  Ezek.  xxvii,  6,  in 
our  translation  ;  but  in  the  original  the  word  is  13*7?, 
kadkod' .  See  Ruby.  Theophrastus  describes  the  agate 
as  "an  elegant  stone,  which  took  its  name  from  the 
river  Achates  (now  the  Drillo,  in  the  Val  di  Noto),  in 
Sicily,  and  was  sold  at  a  great  price"  (58).  But  it 
must  have  been  known  long  before  in  the  East,  and, 
in  fact,  there  are  few  countries  in  which  agates  of 
some  quality  or  other  are  not  produced.  The  finest 
are  those  of  India ;  they  are  plentiful,  and  sometimes 
fine,  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany.  We  have  no  evi- 
dence that  agates  were  found  in  Palestine.  Those 
used  in  the  desert  were  doubtless  brought  from  Egypt. 
Pliny  says  that  those  found  in  the  neighborhood  of 


Thebes  were  usually  red  veined  with  white.  He  adds 
that  these,  as  well  as  most  other  agates,  were  deemed 
to  be  effectual  against  scorpions,  and  gives  some  curi- 
ous accounts  -of  the  pictorial  delineations  which  the 
variegations  of  agates  occasionally  assumed.  Agate 
is  one  of  the  numerous  modifications  of  form  under 
which  silica  presents  itself,  almost  in  a  state  of  purity, 
forming  98  per  cent,  of  the  entire  mineral.  The  sili- 
cious  particles  are  not  so  arranged  as  to  produce  the 
transparency  of  rock  crystal,  but  a  semi-pellucid,  some- 
times almost  opaque  substance,  with  a  resinous  or 
waxy  fracture,  and  the  various  shades  of  color  arise 
from  minute  quantities  of  iron.  The  same  stone  some- 
times contains  parts  of  different  degrees  of  translucen- 
cy,  and  of  various  shades  of  color;  and  the  endless 
combinations  of  these  produce  the  beautiful  and  sin- 
gular internal  forms,  from  which,  together  with  the 
high  polish  they  are  capable  of  receiving,  agates  ac- 
quire their  value  as  precious  stones.  Agates  are 
usually  found  in  detached  rounded  nodules  in  that 
variety  of  the  trap  rocks  called  amygdaloid  or  man- 
delstein,  and  occasionally  in  other  rocks.  Some  of 
the  most  marvellous  specimens  on  record  were  proba- 
bly merely  fancied,  and  possibly  some  were  the  work 
of  art,  as  it  is  known  that  agates  may  be  artificially 
stained.  From  Pliny  we  learn  that  in  his  time  agates 
were  less  valued  than  they  had  been  in  more  ancient 
times  (Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii,  10).  The  varieties  of  the 
agate  are  numerous,  and  are  now,  as  in  the  time  of 
Pliny,  arranged  according  to  the  color  of  their  ground. 
The  Scripture  text  shows  the  early  use  of  this  stone 
for  engraving ;  and  several  antique  agates,  engraved 
with  exquisite  beauty,  are  still  preserved  in  the  cab- 
inets of  the  curious.  (For  a  further  account  of  the 
modern  agate,  see  the  Penny  Cyclopadia,  b.  v.) — Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Gem. 

Agatha,  a  female  Christian  martyr,  horn  at  Paler- 
mo, in  the  third  century.  Quint:  nus,  the  pagan 
governor  of  Sicily  (A.D.  251),  captivated  with  her 
charms,  and  incensed  by  her  rejection  of  his  illicit 
overtures,  tortured  her  in  the  most  brutal  manner. 
By  his  order  she  was  first  scourged  with  rods,  then 
burnt  with  red-hot  irons  and  cruelly  torn  with  sharp 
hooks  ;  after  which  she  was  laid  upon  a  bed  of  live 
coals  mingled  with  glass.  She  died  in  prison  Febru- 
ary 5,  A.D.  251.  The  history  of  Agatha,  however, 
given  by  the  Bollandists,  is  suspected  of  corruption. 
— Tillemont,  iii,  209;  Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  Feb.  5. 

Agatho,  Pope,  surnamed  Thaumaturgus,  on  ac- 
count of  his  pretended  gift  of  working  miracles.  He 
was  a  native  of  Palermo,  in  Sicily.  On  the  27th  of 
June,  678,  he  was  elected  pope  on  the  death  of  Donus. 
He  is  remembered  mainly  for  his  efforts  against  the 
Monothelite  heresy.  Chiefly  by  his  instrumentality 
the  6th  and  last  (Ecumenical  Council  was  assembled 
in  680  at  Constantinople  against  these  opinions,  to 
which  he  sent  four  legates ;  and  at  that  council  the 
doctrine  sanctioned  by  Pope  Honorius  was  renounced 
by  Pope  Agatho — infallibility  against  infallibility. 
He  died  January  10th,  682.  His  letters  against  the 
Monothelites  are  preserved  in  the  records  of  the  6th 
council  (Hardouin,  Concilia,  torn.  iii). 

Agathopolis,  a  diocesan  town  of  Palestine  re- 
ferred to  in  the  records  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
probably  for  "  Azotopolis"  (Reland,  Palcest.  p.  550)  or 
Ashdod  (q.  v.). 

Age  (represented  by  several  Heb.  and  Gr.  words), 
sometimes  signifies  an  indefinite  period ;  at  others,  it 
is  used  for:  1.  A  generation  (q.  v.)  of  the  human  race, 
or  thirty  years ;  2.  As  the  Latin  smculum,  or  a  hund- 
red years";  3.  The  maturity  of  life  (John  ix,  21);  4. 
The  latter  end  of  life  (Job  xi,  17).      See  jEon. 

Old  Age.  The  strong  desire  of  a  protracted  life, 
and  the  marked  respect  with  which  aged  persons  were 
treated  among  the  Jews,  are  very  often  indicated  in 
the  Scriptures.      The  most  striking  instance  which 


AGEE 


102 


AGG.EUS 


Job  can  give  of  the  respect  in  which  he  was  once  held, 
is  that  even  old  men  stood  up  as  he  passed  them  in  the 
streets  (Job  xxix,  8),  the  force  of  which  is  illustrated 
by  the  injunction  in  the  law,  "  Before  the  hoary  head 
thou  shalt  stand  up,  and  shalt  reverence  the  aged" 
(Lev.  xix,  30).  Similar  injunctions  are  repeated  in 
the  Apocrypha,  so  as  to  show  the  deportment  expected 
from  young  men  toward  their  seniors  in  company. 
Thus,  in  describing  a  feast,  the  author  of  Ecclesiasticus 
(xxxii,  3,  7)  says,  "  Speak  thou  that  art  the  elder, 
for  it  becometh  thee.  Speak,  young  man,  if  there 
be  need  of  thee,  and  yet  scarcely  when  thou  art  twice 
asked."  See  Elder.  The  attainment  of  old  age  is 
constantly  promised  or  described  as  a  blessing  (Gen. 
xv,  15 ;  Job  v,  2G),  and  communities  are  represented 
as  highly  favored  in  which  old  people  abound  (Isa. 
lxv,  20 ;  Zech.  viii,  4,  9),  while  premature  death  is 
denounced  as  the  greatest  of  calamities  to  individuals, 
and  to  the  families  to  which  they  belong  (1  Sam.  ii, 
32) ;  the  aged  are  constantly  supposed  to  excel  in 
understanding  and  judgment  (Job  xii,  20;  xv,  10; 
xxxii,  9 ;  1  Kings  xii,  6,  8),  and  the  mercilessness  of 
the  Chaldeans  is  expressed  by  their  having  "  no  com- 
passion" upon  the  "  old  man,  or  him  who  stooped  for 
age"  (2  Chron.  xxxvi,  17).  See  Longevity.  The 
strong  desire  to  attain  old  age  was  necessarily  in  some 
degree  connected  with  or  resembled  the  respect  paid 
to  aged  persons ;  for  people  would  scarcely  desire  to 
be  old,  were  the  aged  neglected  or  regarded  with  mere 
sufferance.  See  Old.  Attention  to  age  was  very 
general  in  ancient  times ;  and  is  still  observed  in  all 
such  conditions  of  society  as  those  through  which  the 
Israelites  passed.  Among  the  Egyptians,  the  young 
men  rose  before  the  aged,  and  always  yielded  to  them 
the  first  place  (Herod,  ii,  80).  The  youth  of  Sparta 
did  the  same,  and  were  silent — or,  as  the  Hebrews 
would  say,  laid  their  hand  upon  their  mouth — when- 
ever their  elders  spoke.  At  Athens,  and  in  other 
Greek  states,  old  men  were  treated  with  correspond- 
ing respect.  In  China  deference  for  the  aged,  and 
the  honors  and  distinctions  awarded  to  them,  form  a 
capital  point  in  the  government  (Mem.  sur  les  Chinois, 
i,  450)  ;  and  among  the  Moslems  of  Western  Asia, 
whose  usages  offer  so  many  analogies  to  those  of  the 
Hebrews,  the   same  regard  for  seniority  is  strongly 


shown.  Among  the  Arabs,  it  is  ven-  seldom  that  a 
youth  can  be  permitted  to  eat  with  men  (Lane,  Arabi- 
an Nights,  c.  xi,  note  2G).  With  the  Turks,  age,  even 
between  brothers,  is  the  object  of  marked  deference 
(Urquhart,  Spirit  of  the  East,  ii,  471). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Canonical  Age,  i.  e.  proper  for  receiving  orders. 
In  the  Latin  Church  it  is  forbidden  to  give  the  tonsure 
to  any  one  unless  he  be  seven  years  of  age,  and  have 
been  confirmed  {Cone.  Trid.  sess.  xxiii,  cap.  4).  The 
proper  age  for  conferring  the  four  minor  orders  is  left 
to  the  discretion  of  the  bishop ;  but  it  is  forbidden  to 
promote  any  one  to  the  rank  of  subdeacon  under 
twenty-two  years  of  age,  to  that  of  deacon  under 
twenty-three,  and  to  that  of  priest  unless  in  his  twen- 
ty-fifth year  (Ibid;  cap.  12).  A  bishop  must  be  at 
least  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  or,  more  properly, 
thirty. 

In  the  Church  of  England  a  deacon  may  be  admit- 
ted to  the  priesthood  at  the  expiration  of  one  year  from 
the  time  of  receiving  deacon's  orders,  and  not  before, 
i.  e.  at  twenty-four  years  of  age  at  the  earliest ;  and  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  stat.  13  Eliz.  12  declares  all  dis- 
pensations to  the  contrary  to  be  absolutely  void  in  law. 
The  preface  to  the  ordination  service  declares  that 
every  man,  to  be  consecrated  bishop,  must  be  full 
thirty  years  of  age. 

Adult  Age,  or  that  at  which  marriage  may  be 
contracted  or  religious  vows  made.  The  canonists 
agree  that  men  may  contract  marriage  at  fourteen 
years  of  age,  and  women  at  twelve.  Until  the  con- 
tracting parties  are  each  twenty-one  years  of  age,  no 
marriage  can  be  legally  contracted  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  party  which  is 
a  minor. 

Ages  of  the  World.  The  time  preceding  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour  has  been  generally  divided  into 
six  ages  :  1.  From  the  beginning  of  the  world  to  the 
Deluge  ;  2.  From  the  Deluge  to  the  entrance  of  Abra- 
ham into  the  land  of  promise ;  3.  From  the  entrance 
of  Abraham  into  the  land  of  promise  to  the  Exodus  ; 
4.  From  the  Exodus  to  the  foundation  of  the  Temple 
by  Solomon ;  5.  From  the  foundation  of  the  Temple 
of  Solomon  to  the  Babylonian  captivity  ;  6.  From  the 
Babylonian  captivity  to  the  birth  of  our  Lord.  See 
Chronology. 


'Hebrew; 

Jewish  Account. 

Hebrew ; 

TJssher's  Account. 

Samaritan. 

Septuajrint, 
Alexandrian. 

Josephus,  as  cor- 
rected by  Hales. 

True  Reckoning:. 

A.M. 

B.C. 

v£T 

A.M. 

B.C. 

Inter- 
val. 

A.M. 

B.C. 

Inter- 
vnl. 

A.M. 

B.C. 

vri." 

A.M. 

B.C. 

Inter- 
val. 

A.M 

B.C. 

Inter- 

1650 
2018 
-'44  - 
292  s 

3358 
3700 

3700 

■J  H  )4 
174-' 

1312 
S32 
422 

1656 

302 
430 
480 
410 

4-22 

1656 

•_'iis:i 

•251 3 
2992 

:■',::'.><; 
4000 

MM  14 
234S 
1922 
1491 

1012 

588 

4 

1656 
426 
430 
4S0 
424 
5>8 

1 

1307 

2::s4 
2s  14 
32! '4 

371s 

i::i>5 

4305 

2998 
1021 
1411 

loll 
5ST 

1307 

1077 
430 
4S0 
424 
587 

22112 

3i:;:i 

38  >4 
4495 
4910 
55  >8 

5508 
3210 
•2H39 
1614 

1013 
539 

2262 
1207 

425 
001 
424 

589 

1 
2  2  02 
331  8 
5701 
4184 
4825 
5411 

5411 

3155 
2093 
104s 
1027 
5^0 

2250 
1002 

445 
021 
441 
586 

1657 

20-5 
2515 
5105 
55-5 
4167 

4172 
1510 

MIS- 

165S 
10111 

588 
0 

1050 
428 
430 
648 
422 
582 

(Jiill  of  Abraham 

Solomon's  Temple  founded.  . 
Solomon's  Temple  destroyed 
Birth  of  Christ  (exact) 

Ag'ee  (Heb.  Age,  MM;  fugitive,  Sept.  'Ayd  v.  r. 
Ao-rt),  a  Hararite,  father  of  Shammah,  which  latter 
was  one  of  David's  chief  warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  11). 
B.C.  ante  104G. 

Agellius,  or  Agelli,  Antonio,  born  at  Sorrento, 
in  Naples,  a  bishop  of  Acerno.  An  account  of  him 
will  be  found  in  the  letters  of  Peter  Morin  (Paris, 
1G75).  He  was  remarkable  for  his  extensive  knowl- 
edge of  languages.  He  died  at  Acerno  in  1G08.  His 
works  are  :  1.  A  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  and  Can- 
tieles  I  Rome,  1606,  fob);  2.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book 
of  I. a  in  ntations,  taken  from  the  Greek  writers  and  trans- 
lated (  Rome,  1589,  4to);  3.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  I  Verona,  1649,  fol.)  ;  4.  .1  Commentary  on 
Habakkuk  (Antwerp,  1097,  8vo). 

lie  was  employed  by  Gregory  XIII  upon  the  beau- 
tiful Greek  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  published  at 
Rome,  and  was  a  member  of  the  institution  of  persons 
called  Scholastic!,  who  were  charged  with  the  office  of 
superintending  the  printing  establishment  of  the  Vat- 
ican.— Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Agenda  (Lat.  things  to  be  don'?),  among  ecclesias- 


tical writers  of  the  ancient  Church,  denotes  (1,)  divine 
service  in  general ;  (2,)  the  mass  in  particular.  We 
meet  with  agenda  matutina  and  vespertina— morning 
and  evening  prayers  ;  agenda  diet — the  office  of  the  da}-, 
whether  feast  or  fast  day  ;  agenda  moriuorum — the  ser- 
vice of  the  dead.  It  is  also  applied  to  church-books, 
compiled  by  public  authority,  prescribing  the  order  to 
be  observed  by  the  ministers  and  people  in  the  cere- 
monies and  devotions  of  the  Church.  In  this  sense 
agenda  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  a  work  of  Johannes 
de  Janua,  about  1287.  The  name  was  especially  used 
to  designate  a  book  containing  the  formulas  of  prayer 
and  ceremonies  to  be  observed  by  priests  in  their  sev- 
eral ecclesiastical  functions.  It  was  generally  adopted 
in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Germany,  in  which  it  is 
still  in  use,  while  in  the  Roman  Church  it  has  been, 
since  the  lGth  century,  supplanted  by  the  term  ritual 
(q.  v.).  For  the  history  of  the  Lutheran  Agendas,  see 
Liturgy. 

Aggse'us  (Ayya7oe),  the  Graicized  form  (1  Esdr. 
vi,  1  ;  vii,  3;  2  Esdr.  i,  10)  of  the  name  of  the  proph- 
et Haggai  ^q.  v.). 


AGIER 


103 


AGONISTICI 


Agier,  Peter  John,  a  French  jurist,  was  born  at 
Paris  December  28th,  1748,  of  a  Jansenist  family. 
When  forty  years  old  he  commenced  the  study  of  He- 
brew, and  gave  translations  and  comments  on  the 
prophets  (principally  on  the  four  greater).  In  1789 
appeared  his  Vues  sur  la  reformation  des  lois  civiles, 
suivies  d'un  plan  el  d'tme  classification  de  ces  lois  (Paris, 
2  vols.  8vo),  followed  by  his  Psaumes  nouvellenunt  tra- 
duits  en  Francois  sur  VHebren,  etc.  (Paris,  1800,  3 
vols.  8vo) ;  Psalmi  ad  Jlebraicam  veritatem  translati, 
etc.  (Paris,  1818,  1  vol.  16mo);  Vues  sur  le  second 
avenement  de  Jesus-Christ  (Paris,  1818,  1  vol.  8vo) ; 
Propheties  concernant  Jesus-Christ  et  VEglise,  eparses 
dans  les  Livres  saints  (Paris,  1819,  8vo)  ;  Les  Prophetes 
nouvellement  traduits  de  l Jlebreu,  avec  des  explic.  et  des 
notes  critiques  (Paris,  1820-1822,  9  vols.  8vo) ;  Com- 
mentaire  sur  V Apocalypse  (Paris,  1823,  2  vols.  8vo). 
In  all  these  works  the  Jansenist  doctrines  are  strong- 
ly upheld.  It  is  said  of  him  that  Napoleon,  on  seeing 
him  once,  said,  "Voilh.  un  magistrat!"  He  died  at 
Paris  September  22d,  1823. — Mahul,  Annuaire  necrolo- 
gique  (Paris,  1823). 

Agion,  or  rather  Hagion  (uyiov  or  liytov  ayiwvi 
the  holy  or  the  most  holy  place).  See  Temple.  A  name 
anciently  given  to  the  inner  portion  of  the  church, 
which  was  appropriated  to  the  clergy.  See  Adytum. 
It  was  so  called  because  the  most  sacred  services, 
especially  the  consecration  of  the  Eucharist,  were  per- 
formed within  it.  This  place  had  various  names.  See 
Bema. 

Agmon.     See  Rush. 

Agnes,  saint  and  martyr.  The  acts  of  her  mar- 
tyrdom which  have  come  down  to  us  as  written  by 
Ambrose  are  spurious,  and  nothing  further  is  know n 
of  her  history  than  what  Prudentius  relates  in  the  14th 
Hymn,  Trspi  arecpdviov,  and  Ambrose  in  lib.  i,  de  Vir- 
ginibus,  which  amounts  to  this :  Agnes,  at  the  early 
age  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  having  made  profession  of 
the  Christian  faith  at  Rome,  was  put  to  the  torment  to 
induce  her  to  retract,  in  vain,  and  the  judge  ordered 
her  to  be  conveyed  to  a  house  of  ill  fame,  hoping  that 
fear  for  her  chastity  might  force  her  to  recant.  But 
God  preserved  his  servant  in  this  trial ;  for,  according 
to  the  tradition,  the  first  man  who  cast  his  eyes  upon 
her  was  struck  with  blindness,  and  fell  nearly  dead  at 
her  feet!  Nevertheless  the  saintly  story  adds  that 
she  was  immediately  delivered  over  to  the  executioner 
and  was  beheaded,  according  to  Ruinart,  in  304,  or, 
according  to  Bollandus,  in  the  preceding  century. 
Augustine,  in  his  273d  Sermon,  declares  that  he  made 
that  discourse  on  the  anniversary  of  the  passion  of  St. 
Agnes,  St.  Fructaosus,  and  St.Eulogius,  viz.,  Jan.  21st, 
on  which  day  her  festival  is  celebrated  by  the  Latin, 
Greek,  and  English  Churches.  Many  churches  con- 
tend for  the  honor  of  possessing  her  remains. — Butler, 
Lices  of  Saints,  Jan.  21. 

Agnoe'tae  (from  ayvoUo,  to  be  ignorant  of),  a  sect 
which  appeared  about  A.D.  370,  adopting  the  opinions 
of  Theophronius  of  Cappadocia.  They  questioned  the 
omniscience  of  God,  alleging  that  He  knew  things  past 
only  by  memory,  and  things  future  only  by  uncertain 
prescience.  Ecclesiastical  historians  mention  another 
sect,  which  in  the  sixth  century  followed  Themistins, 
deacon  of  Alexandria.  They  maintained  that  Christ 
was  ignorant  of  man}-  things,  and  particularly  of  the 
day  of  judgment  (see  Colbe,  Agnoetismus,  Giess.  1654). 
Eulogius,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  ascribes  this  opin- 
ion to  certain  solitaries  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusa- 
lem, who  cited,  in  vindication  of  their  opinion,  Mark 
xiii,  32  :  "  Of  that  day  and  that  hour  knoweth  no  man, 
no,  not  the  angels  which  are  in  heaven,  neither  the 
Son,  but  the  Father." — Baronius,  A.D.  535  ;  Mosheim, 
Ch.  Hist.  cent,  vi,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  9 ;  Walch,  Hist,  der 
Ketzereien,  viii,  644. 

Agnus  Dei  (Lat.  Jamb  of  God).  (I.)  A  hymn  gen- 
erally supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Ro- 


man Mass  service  by  Pope  Sergius  I  in  688.  It  is  more 
probable  that  before  his  time  it  had  been  sung  by  the 
clergy  alone,  and  he  only  required  the  laity  to  join. 
The  hymn  is  founded  on  John  i,  29,  begins  with  the 
words  Agnus  Dei,  and  is  sung  at  the  close  of  the  mass. 
For  a  full  account  of  the  hymn  and  its  varieties,  see 
Pascal,  Jiturg.  Cathol.  p.  51. 

(II.)  A  cake,  of  wax  used  in  the  Romish  Church, 
stamped  with  the  figure  of  a  lamb  supporting  the  ban- 
ner of  the  cross.  These  cakes,  being  consecrated  by 
the  pope  on  the  Tuesday  after  Easter  in  the  first  and 
seventh  years  of  his  pontificate,  are  supposed  by  Ro- 
manists to  possess  great  virtues.  They  cover  them 
with  a  piece  of  stuff  cut  in  the  form  of  a  heart,  and 
carry  them  very  devoutly  in  their  processions.  From 
selling  these  Agni  Dei  to  some,  and  presenting  them 
to  others,  the  Romish  clergy  and  religious  officers  de- 
rive considerable  pecuniary  advantage.  The  practice 
of  blessing  the  Agnus  Dei  took  its  rise  about  the  7th 
or  8th,  according  to  others,  about  the  14th  century. 
Though  the  efficacy  of  an  Agnus  Dei  has  not  been 
declared  by  Romish  Councils,  the  belief  in  its  vir- 
tues has  been  strongly  and  universally  established 
in  the  Church  of  Rome.  Pope  Urban  V  sent  to  John 
Palaiologus,  emperor  of  the  Greeks,  an  Agnus  fold- 
ed in  fine  paper,  on  which  were  written  verses  ex- 
plaining all  its  properties.  These  verses  declare  that 
the  Agnus  is  formed  of  balm  and  wax  mixed  with 
chrism,  and  that  being  consecrated  by  mystical  words, 
it  possesses  the  power  of  removing  thunder  and  dis- 
persing storms,  of  giving  to  women  with  child  an  easy 
delivery,  of  preventing  shipwreck,  taking  away  sin, 
repelling  the  devil,  increasing  riches,  and  of  securing 
against  fire.     See  Lamb. 

(III.)  It  also  signifies,  like  the  Greek  word  Poterio- 
calymma  (7ror»/pio-/c«Ai>/(ju«),  a  cloth  embroidered  with 
the  figure  of  a  lamb,  with  which,  in  the  Greek  Church, 
the  cup  at  the  Lord's  Supper  is  covered. 

See  generally  Fabricius,  Bibliogr.  Antiquar.  ed. 
Schaffhausen,  p.  522;  Pope  Sixtus  V,  Breve  de  more 
benedicendi  et  consecrandi  ceream  qua;  Agnus  Dei  vaca- 
tur, in  the  Giornale  de1  Jetterati  d' Italia,  xvii,  435 ; 
Heine,  Dissertt.  Sacrar.  (Amst.  1736),  1.  ii,  c.  12; 
Munter,  Sii.nbilder  d.  ersten  Christen,  i,  80  sq. ;  Ger- 
bert,  De  caniu  et  musica  saci-a,  i,  454  sq. 

Agobard  (Agobertus,  Agobaldus,  or  Ague- 
baudus),  archbishop  of  Lyons,  was  bom  in  779,  but 
whether  in  France  or  Spain  is  uncertain.  In  813  he 
was  appointed  coadjutor  of  Leidradus,  the  archbishop 
of  Lyons,  who  was  very  far  advanced  in  years ;  and 
in  816  the  archbishop  retired  into  the  monaster}'  of 
Soissons,  having  appointed  Agobard  his  successor  in 
the  episcopal  chair.  Agobard  was  driven  from  his  see 
by  Louis-le-Debonnaire  for  having  taken  an  active 
share  in  deposing  him  in  the  assembly  of  bishops,  held 
at  Compiegne  in  833.  "When  peace  was  restored  be- 
tween Louis  and  his  sons,  Lothaire  and  Pepin,  Ago- 
bard recovered  his  see.  He  died  at  Saintonges,  June 
5th,  840.  He  was  considered  a  man  of  much  genius, 
and  of  no  small  learning  in  theological  questions. 
He  held  liberal  views  with  regard  to  inspiration.  He 
wrote  against  the  Adoptionists,  against  Ordeal  by 
duel,  and  against  various  superstitions  of  the  time. 
(See  Hundeshagen,  De  Agobardi  vita  et  scriptis,  Giess. 
1831.)  His  works  have  been  preserved  to  us  by  a 
singular  accident.  Papyrius  Massonus,  happening  to 
enter  the  shop  of  a  bookbinder  at  Lyons,  as  the  latter 
was  on  the  point  of  tearing  up  a  MS.  which  he  held  in 
his  hands,  asked  permission  to  look  at  it  first,  which 
he  did,  and,  soon  perceiving  its  value,  he  rescued  it 
from  its  impending  destruction,  and  shortly  after  pub- 
lished it.  The  MS.  itself  is  preserved  in  the  Bibli- 
otheque  du  Roi  at  Paris.  His  works  were  edited 
Paris,  1606,  and  again  by  Baluze  (2  vols.  8vo,  Paris, 
1666),  and  by  Masson  (Paris,  1605).  They  may  also 
be  found  in  Bib.  Max.  Patr.  torn.  xiv. 

Agonistici,  a  branch  of  the  Donatists  who  spread 


AGOXIZANTS 


104 


AGONY 


themselves  through  Africa  to  preach  the  opinions  of 
Donatus,  and  committed  many  crimes  under  pretext 
of  doing  justice  at  fairs  and  such  places.  Desirous  of 
becoming  martyrs,  they  exposed  themselves  to  the 
greatest  dangers,  and  sometimes  even  killed  them- 
selves. They  were  forcibly  suppressed  under  Emperor 
Constans,  but  existed  till  the  inroad  of  the  Vandals. 
See  Donatists. 

Agonizants  (Confraternity  of  the),  a  society  of 
Roman  Catholic  penitents  at  Rome  (and  elsewhere,  as 
at  Lima  in  South  America),  whose  chief  duty  is  that  of 
prayer  for  persons  condemned  to  death  by  the  law. 
On  the  eve  of  an  execution  the}'  give  notice  of  it  to 
several  nunneries,  and  on  the  day  on  which  the  crim- 
inal is  to  suffer  they  cause  a  great  number  of  masses 
to  be  said  for  him.  Another  confraternity  under  the 
same  name  assist  at  death-beds  generally. 

Agony  (aywvia),  a  word  generally  denoting  con- 
test, and  especially  the  contests  by  wrestling,  etc.,  in 
the  public  games  ;  whence  it  is  applied  metaphorically 
to  a  severe  struggle  or  conflict  with  pain  and  suffering 
(Robinson's  Lex.  of  the  N.  T.  s.  v.).  Agony  is  the 
actual  struggle  with  present  evil,  and  is  thus  distin- 
guished from  anguish,  which  arises  from  the  reflection 
on  evil  that  is  past  (Crabb's  Eng.  Sgnonym.es,  s.  v.). 
In  the  New  Testament  the  word  is  only  used  by  Luke 
(xx,  44)  to  describe  the  fearful  struggle  which  our 
Lord  sustained  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane  (q.  v.). 
The  circumstances  of  this  mysterious  transaction  are 
recorded  in  Matt,  xxvi,  36-46;  Mark  xiv,  32-42; 
Luke  xx,  39-48 ;  Heb.  v,  7,  8.  Luke  alone  notices 
the  agony,  the  bloody  sweat,  and  the  appearance  of  an 
angel  from  heaven  strengthening  him.  Matthew  and 
Mark  alone  record  the  change  which  appeared  in  his 
countenance  and  manner,  the  complaint  which  he  ut- 
tered of  the  overpowering  sorrows  of  his  soul,  and  his 
repetition  of  the  same  prayer.  See  Bloody  Sweat. 
All  agree  that  he  prayed  for  the  removal  of  what  he 
called  "  this  cup,"  and  are  careful  to  note  that  he  quali- 
fied this  earnest  petition  by  a  preference  of  his  Father's 
will  to  his  own ;  the  question  is,  what  does  he  mean 
by  "this  cup?"  Doddridge  and  others  think  that  he 
means  the  instant  agony,  the  trouble  that  he  then  act- 
ually endured.  But  Dr.  Mayer  (of  York,  Pa.)  argues 
(in  the  Am.  Bill.  Repos.  April  1841,  p.  294-317),  from 
John  xviii,  11,  that  the  cup  respecting  which  he  prayed 
was  one  that  was  then  before  him,  which  he  had  not 
yet  taken  up  to  drink,  and  which  he  desired,  if  possi- 
ble, that  the  Father  should  remove.  It  could,  there- 
fore, be  no  other  than  the  death  which  the  Father  had 
appointed  for  him — the  death  of  the  cross — with  all  the 
attending  circumstances  which  aggravated  its  horror ; 
that  scene  of  woe  which  began  with  his  arrest  in  the 
garden,  and  was  consummated  by  his  death  on  Cal- 
vary. Jesus  had  long  been  familiar  with  this  pros- 
pect, and  had  looked  to  it  as  the  appointed  termination 
of  his  ministry  (Matt,  xvi,  21 ;  xvii,  9-12  ;  xx,  17,  19, 
28;  Mark  x,  32-34;  John  x,  18;  xii,  32,  33).  But 
when  he  looked  forward  to  this  destination,  as  the  hour 
approached,  a  chill  of  horror  sometimes  came  over  him, 
and  found  expression  in  external  signs  of  distress 
(John  xii,  27 ;  comp.  Luke  xii,  49,  50).  But  on  no 
occasion  did  he  exhibit  any  very  striking  evidence  of 
perplexity  or  anguish.  He  was  usually  calm  and  col- 
lected ;  and  if  at  any  time  he  gave  utterance  to  feel- 
ings of  distress  and  horror,  ha  still  preserved  his  self- 
possession,  and  quickly  checked  the  desire  which  na- 
ture put  forth  to  be  spared  so  dreadful  a  death.  It  is, 
therefore,  hardly  to  be  supposed  that  the  near  approach 
of  his  sufferings,  awful  as  they  were,  apart  from  every 
thing  else,  could  alone  have  wrought  so  great  a  change 
in  the  mind  of  Jesus  and  in  his  whole  demeanor,  as 
soon  as  lie  had  entered  the  garden.  It  is  manifest 
that  something  more  than  the  cross  was  now  before 
him,  and  that  lie  was  now  placed  in  a  new  and  hither- 
to untried  situation.  Dr.  Mayer  says:  "I  have  no 
hesitation  in  believing  that  he  was  here  put  upon  the 


trial  of  his  obedience.  It  was  the  purpose  of  God  tc 
subject  the  obedience  of  Jesus  to  a  severe  ordeal,  in 
order  that,  like  gold  tried  in  the  furnace,  it  might  be 
an  act  of  more  perfect  and  illustrious  virtue  ;  and  for 
this  end  he  permitted  him  to  be  assailed  by  the  fiercest 
temptation  to  disobey  his  will  and  to  refuse  the  ap- 
pointed cup.  In  pursuance  of  this  purpose,  the  mind 
of  Jesus  was  left  to  pass  under  a  dark  cloud,  his  views 
lost  their  clearness,  the  Father's  will  was  shrouded  in 
obscurity,  the  cross  appeared  in  tenfold  horror,  and 
nature  was  left  to  indulge  her  feelings,  and  to  put 
forth  her  reluctance."     See  Jesus  (Christ). 

Dr.  Mayer  admits  that  the  sacred  writers  have  not 
explained  what  that  was,  connected  in  the  mind  of 
Jesus  with  the  death  of  the  cross,  which  at  this  time 
excited  in  him  so  distressing  a  fear.  "  Pious  and  holy 
men  have  looked  calmly  upon  death  in  its  most  terrific 
forms.  But  the  pious  and  holy  man  has  not  had  a 
world's  salvation  laid  upon  him ;  he  has  not  been  re- 
quired to  be  absolutely  perfect  before  God ;  he  has 
known  that,  if  he  sinned,  there  was  an  advocate  and  a 
ransom  for  him.  But  nothing  of  this  consolation 
could  be  presented  to  the  mind  of  Jesus.  He  knew 
that  he  must  die,  as  he  had  lived,  without  sin ;  but  if 
the  extremity  of  suffering  should  so  far  prevail  as  to 
provoke  him  into  impatience  or  murmuring,  or  into  a 
desire  for  revenge,  this  would  be  sin ;  and  if  he  sin- 
ned, all  would  be  lost,  for  there  was  no  other  Saviour. 
In  such  considerations  may  probably  be  found  the  re- 
mote source  of  the  agonies  and  fears  which  deepened 
the  gloom  of  that  dreadful  night." — Kitto,  s.  v. 

This,  however,  is  not  entirety  satisfactory.  Doubt- 
less there  was  much  of  this  obscuration  of  our  Saviour's 
mind  [see  Crucifixion]  ;  but  it  would  appear  to  have 
had  reference  to  another  point,  and  one  connected  with 
his  condition  and  circumstances  at  the  time,  rather 
than  with  any  future  act  or  consequences.  The 
apostle's  inspired  remark  in  Heb.  v,  7,  has  not  been 
sufficiently  attended  to  by  interpreters,  "  Who  in  the 
days  of  his  flesh,  when  he  had  offered  up  prayers  and 
supplications  with  strong  crying  and  tears,  unto  Him 
that  was  able  to  save  him  from  death,  and  was  heard 
in  that  [i.  e.  as  to  what]  he  feared."  We  arc  here 
distinctly  informed,  respecting  this  agony  of  Christ, 
that  he  u-as  delivered  from  the  object  of  dread,  what- 
ever it  was ;  but  this  was  not  true  in  any  sense  of  his 
future  passion,  which  he  suffered,  and  could  not  con- 
sistently have  expected  to  have  avoided,  in  its  full  ex- 
tent. The  mission  of  the  angels,  also,  shows  that 
some  relief  was  administered  to  him  on  the  spot : 
"There  appeared  an  angel  unto  him  from  heaven 
strengthening  him"  (Luke  xxii,  43).  The  strength 
imparted  appears  to  have  been  physical,  thus,  as  the 
passage  in  Hebrews  intimates,  saving  him  from  the 
death  which  would  otherwise  have  instantly  super- 
vened from  the  force  of  his  emotions.  This  death 
Jesus  was  anxious  to  avoid jtist  at  that  time;  his  work 
was  not  yet  done,  and  the  "cup"  of  sacrificial  atone- 
ment would  have  been  premature.  His  heavenly  Fa- 
ther, in  answer  to  his  prayer,  removed  it  for  the  time 
from  his  lips,  by  miraculously  sustaining  his  bodily 
powers,  and  his  mind  soon  recovered  its  usual  tone 
of  equanimity.  The  emotions  themselves  under  which 
he  labored  were  evidently  the  same  as  those  that  op- 
pressed him  while  hanging  on  the  cross,  and  on  other 
occasions  in  a  less  degree,  namely,  a  peculiar  sense  of 
abandonment  by  God.  This  distress  and  perplexity 
cannot  be  attributed  to  a  mere  dread  of  death  in  how- 
ever horrid  a  form,  without  degrading  Christ's  magna- 
nimity below  heathen  fortitude,  and  contradicting  his 
usually  calm  allusions  to  that  event,  as  well  as  his 
collected  endurance  of  the  crucifixion  tortures.  Nei~ 
ther  can  they  well  be  attributed  (as  above)  to  any  un- 
certainty as  to  whether  he  had  thus  far  fulfilled  the 
will  of  God  perfectly,  and  would  be  enabled  in  any 
future  emergency  to  fulfil  it  as  perfectly,  without  a 
gratuitous  contradiction  of  all  his  former  experience 


AGORA 


105 


AGRICOLA 


and  statements,  and  assigning  him  a  degree  of  faith 
unworthy  of  his  character.  The  position  thus  assign- 
ed him  is  incompatible  with  every  thing  hitherto  in 
his  history.  Some  other  explanation  must  be  sought. 
The  state  of  mind  indicated  in  his  expiring  cry  upon 
the  cross,  "  My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  Thou  for- 
saken me?"  seems  to  betray  the  secret  ingredient  that 
gave  the  atoning  cup  its  poignant  bitterness.  This 
appears  to  have  been  the  consciousness  of  enduring 
the  frown  of  God  in  the  place  of  sinful  man  ;  without 
which  sense  of  the  divine  displeasure,  by  a  temporary 
withholding  of  his  benign  complacency,  personally  ex- 
perienced by  the  Redeemer,  although  in  others'  be- 
half, the  full  penalty  of  transgression  could  not  have 
been  paid.  See  Atonement.  Jesus  must  suffer  (in 
character)  what  the  sinner  would  have  suffered,  and 
this  with  the  concentrated  intensity  of  a  world's  in- 
finite guilt.  The  sacrifice  of  his  human  body  could 
only  have  redeemed  man's  body ;  his  soul's  beclouded 
anguish  alone  could  represent  the  sentence  passed 
upon  men's  souls.  This  view  essentially  agrees  with 
that  taken  by  Olshausen  (Comment,  in  loc). 

See  Posner,  De  sudore  Chr.  sanguineo  (Jen.  1665); 
Bethem,  id.  (ib.  1607)  ;  Clotz.  De  Moribus  animm  J.  C. 
(Hamb.  1670)  ;  Hasaeus,  De  Jesu  patiente  in  horto 
(Brem.  1703) ;  Hekel,  Iter  Christi  trans  Cedron  (Cygn. 
1676) ;  Hoffman,  Jesu  anxietas  ante  mortem,  (Lips. 
1330);  Koepken,  De,  Servatore  dolente  (Rost.  1723); 
Krackewitz,  De  Sponsoris  animi  doloribus  (Rost. 
1716) ;  Lange,  De  Christi  angoribus  (Lips.  1666) ; 
Nitzsche,  De  horto  Gethsemane  (Viteb.  1750)  ;  Voetius, 
De  agonia  Christi,  in  his  Disputt.  Theol.  ii,  161  sq.  ; 
Wolftlin,  Christus  agonizans  (Tubing.  1668) ;  Ziebich, 
In  hist.  Servatoris  dywvi&pkvov  (Viteb.  1744);  Zorn, 
Opusc.  ii,  530  sq.,  300  sq. ;  Buddensieg,  Matth.  (in 
loc.)  enarratus  et  defcnsus  (Lips.  1818);  Gurlitt,  Ex- 
plicate (in  loc.)  Matth.  (Magdeb.  1800);  Schuster,  in 
Eichhorn's  Bibl.  ix,  1012  sq. ;  Baumgarten,  De  preca- 
tione  Ch.  pro  avertendo  calice  (Hal.  1785) ;  Kraft,  De 
Ch.  calicem  deprecante  (Erlang.  1770);  Ncunhofcr,  De 
precibus  Chr.  Gethsemaniticis  (Altenb.  1760);  Qucn- 
stedt,  De  deprecatione  calicis  Christi  (Viteb.  1675,  and 
in  Ikenii  Thes.  dispp.  ii,  204  sq.) ;  Scepseophilus, 
Christus  in  Gethsemane  precans  (Essl.  1743);  Schinid, 
De  Chr.  calicem  passionis  deprecante  (Lips.  1713) ; 
Nehring,  De  precatione  Chr.  pro  avertend)  calice  (Hal. 
1735)  ;  Cyprian,  De  sudor  iis  Christi  (Helmst.  1098, 
1726,  also  in  his  Pent.  Diss,  ii) ;  Gabler,  Ueber  d. 
Engel  der  Jesum  gestdrkt  habin  soil  (in  his  Theol. 
Journ.  xii,  109  sq.)  ;  Hilscher,  De  angelo  luctante  cum 
Christo  (Lips.  1731)  ;  Huhn,  De  apparitione  angeli  Chr. 
confortantis  (Lips.  1747);  Pries,  Modus  confortationis 
angelica;  illuslratus  (Rost.  1754) ;  Rosa,  Chr.  in  horto 
Getks.  afflictissimus  (Rudolphop.  1744) ;  Carpzov,  Spi- 
cileg.  ad  verba  (in  loc.)  Luc.  (Helmst.  1784) ;  Bossuet, 
inflexions  sur  Vagonie  de  J.  C.  (in  his  QCuvres,  xiv, 
240) ;  Moore,  The  Nature  and  Causes  of  the  Agony  in 
the  Garden  (Lond.  1757)  ;  Mayer,  De  confortatione  an- 
gelica agonizantis  Jesu  (Viteb.  1674,  1735). 

Agora,  Agoraeus.     See  Market. 

Agrammatus.     See  Unlearned. 

Agrarian  Regulations.     See  Land. 

Agreda,  Maria  de,  abbess  of  the  Franciscan 
convent  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Agreda,  in 
Aragon.  She  was  born  April  2d,  1602,  of  rich  and 
pious  parents.  Her  mother,  influenced  by  some 
dream  or  supposed  vision,  conceived  it  to  lie  her  duty 
to  found  a  convent  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  ; 
and,  having  induced  her  husband  to  consent  to  it,  they 
began  to  build  the  new  monastery  on  the  site  of  their 
own  house.  Subsequently,  the  father  assumed  the 
Franciscan  habit,  as  his  two  sons  had  done  previously, 
and  Maria,  with  her  mother  and  younger  sister,  took 
the  veil  in  the  new  monastery.  She  was  elected  su- 
perior, by  dispensation,  at  twenty-five  years  of  age. 
She  believed  herself  commanded  from  heaven  to  write 


the  life  of  the  Virgin,  but  seems  to  have  resisted  the 
impression  for  ten  years,  for  it  was  not  till  1637  that 
she  commenced  it.  When  it  was  finished  she  1  mined 
it,  by  direction  of  her  temporary  confessor,  who  exer- 
cised, in  so  doing,  a  more  sound  discretion  than  her 
ordinary  confessor,  who  directed  her  to  write  it  again, 
which  she  did,  and  finished  it  in  1060.  As  soon  as  it 
appeared  it  was  justly  condemned  by  the  censors  in 
Spain,  Portugal,  Rome,  and  Germany,  and  by  the 
Faculty  of  Theology  at  Paris  (the  Sorbonne),  in  1696. 
The  title  of  the  book,  which  is  written  in  Spanish, 
and  is  filled  with  the  wildest  extravagances  and  much 
that  is  immodest,  is  "  The  Mystical  City  of  God" 
(Mistica  Ciudad  de  Dios,  Perpignan,  1690,  4  vols.  Ant- 
werp, 1692,  3  vols,  and  oft.  ;  French  translat.  by  Croi- 
zet,  Marseilles,  1696,  3  vols.).  Eusebius  Amort,  theolo- 
gian of  Cardinal  Lercari,  declares  that  the  book  was 
inserted  in  the  Index  at  Rome  in  1710,  but  that  sub- 
sequently, during  the  pontificate  of  Benedict  XIII, 
there  appeared  a  decree  permitting  it  to  be  read. 
Nevertheless,  he  asserts  that  he  saw  in  the  hands 
of  Nicolas  Ridolphus,  then  the  secretary  of  the  con- 
gregation of  the  Index,  another  and  later  decree,  an- 
nulling the  first,  and  declaring  that  it  had  been  sur- 
reptitiously obtained.  "At  first,"  says  Amort,  "I 
wondered  why  this  latter  decree  of  Benedict  XIII  had 
not  been  published  ;  but  my  surprise  ceased  when  I 
found  that  the}'  had  already  commenced  the  process 
of  the  beatification  of  the  venerable  Maria  de  Agreda !" 
See  Amort,  De  licrelationibus,  etc.,  Augsburg,  1744, 
and,  on  the  other  side,  a  long  series  of  articles  by  Don 
Gueranger,  Benedictine  of  Solesmes,  in  Unirers,  1859. 

Agricola,  Francis,  canon  and  curate  of  Rodin- 
ges,  and  afterward  of  Sittarden,  in  the  duchy  of  Ju» 
liers,  celebrated  for  his  erudition.  He  died  in  1621, 
leaving  the  following  works:  1.  Libri  quatuor  Evt.n- 
gelicarum  Demcnstrationum  (Cologne,  1578)  ;  2.  Loci 
prazcipui  S.  Scrip,  de  Sacerdotii  IiMitutione  it  Officio 
(Lugd.  1597). 

Agricola,  John  (called  Magister  Islebivs),  said  to 
be  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Antinomians  (q.  v.) ; 
born  April  20th,  1492,  at  Eisleben,  in  Upper  Saxony. 
His  real  name  was  Scknitter  or  Schneider,  which  he 
Latinized,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  time.  He 
studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  Wittenberg,  where 
he  was  distinguished  for  his  learning  and  virtue,  and 
taught  in  the  university  for  several  years.  At  Eisle- 
ben he  became  distinguished  as  a  preacher.  In  1526 
he  was  present  at  the  diet  of  Spires,  with  the  elect- 
or of  Saxony  and  the  count  of  Mansfeld ;  he  also 
subscribed  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  although  he 
subsequently  differed  from  it  in  many  things.  In 
1538  he  began  to  preach  "  against  the  Law,"  and,  for 
a  time,  Antinomianism  appeared  likely  to  spread  ;  but 
Luther  opposed  the  new  error  with  so  much  force  that 
the  sect  was  suppressed  in  its  infancy ;  and  Agricola, 
at  least  in  form,  renounced  his  heresy  (see  Nitzsche, 
De  Antinomismo  Jo.  Agricola;,  Viteb.  1804).  Having 
retired  to  Berlin,  he  became  preacher  to  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg,  in  1540.  In  1537  he  signed  the  Arti- 
cles of  Smalcald,  excepting,  however,  the  additional 
article  on  the  primacy  of  the  pope.  Together  with 
Julius  Phlugius  (Pflug),  bishop  of  Nuremberg,  and 
Michael  Helden,  titular  bishop  of  Sidon,  he  composed 
the  celebrated  Interim  of  Charles  V.  He  endeavored, 
in  vain,  to  appease  the  Adiaphoristic  controversy  (q. 
v.),  and  died  at  Berlin,  September  22d,  1566.  His 
works  are :  1.  Comment,  in  Evany.  Lucas  (Nurem.  1525 ) ; 

2.  Comment,  in  Ep.  Pauli  ad  Colons.  (Wittenb.  1527); 

3.  A  Collection  and  Explication  of  thru  hundred  Ger- 
man Proverbs  (Magdeburg,  1526.  The  be^t  edition, 
Wittenberg,  1592,  contains  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
proverbs)  ;  4.  Comment,  in  Ep.  Pauli.  ml  Titum  (Ha- 
guenan.  1530);  5.  Refutation  of  Thomas  Sfvncer's  Ex- 
plication of  Psalm  xix;  6.  Antinomia,  with  its  Refuta- 
tion by  Luther  (Wittenb.  1538);  7.  Autinomicie  Theses; 


AGRICULTURE 


106 


AGRICULTURE 


8.  Historia  Passionis  et  Mortis  Christi  (Strasb.  1543) ; 

9.  Formula  Pueriles  (Berlin,  15G1) ;  10.  Epistola  de 
Cagiiibtis  Doctrince  Eccl.  (Wittenb.  1613) ;  11.  The 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  in  German  (Cologne,  1(518). — Cor- 
des,  Joh.  Agricola's  Schr.  moglkhst  verzekhnet  (Alton. 
1817) ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xvi,  §  3,  part  ii,  ch. 
25 ;  Hook,  Ecc.  Biog.  vol.  i,  s.  v. ;  Bretschneider,  in 
the  Theol.  Stud,  ii,  741.     See  Antinomianism. 

Agriculture,  the  art  or  profession  of  cultivating 
the  soil.     See  Farm  ;  Tillage. 

I.  History. — The  antiquity  of  agriculture  is  indi- 
cated in  the  brief  history  of  Cain  and  Abel,  when  it 
tells  us  that  the  former  was  a  "tiller  of  the  ground," 
and  brought  some  of  the  fruits  of  his  labor  as  an  offer- 
ing to  God  (Gen.  iv,  2,  3),  and  that  part  of  the  ultimate 
curse  upon  him  was,  "  When  thou  tillest  the  ground, 
it  shall  not  henceforth  yield  to  thee  her  strength"  (iv, 
12).  Of  the  actual  state  of  agriculture  before  the  Del- 
uge we  know  nothing.  See  Antediluvians.  What- 
ever knowledge  was  possessed  by  the  Old  World  was 
doubtless  transmitted  to  the  New  by  Noah  and  his 
sons  ;  and  that  this  knowledge  was  considerable  is  im- 
plied in  the  fact  that  one  of  the  operations  of  Noah, 
when  he  "began  to  be  a  husbandman,"  was  to  plant 
a  vineyard,  and  to  make  wine  with  the  fruit  (Gen.  ix, 
2).  There  are  few  agricultural  notices  belonging  to 
the  patriarchal  period,  but  they  suffice  to  show  that 
the  land  of  Canaan  was  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  and 
that  the  inhabitants  possessed  what  were  at  a  later 
date  the  principal  products  of  the  soil  in  the  same 
country.  It  is  reasonable,  therefore,  to  conclude  that 
the  modes  of  operation  were  then  similar  to  those 
which  we  afterward  find  among  the  Jews  in  the  same 
country,  and  concerning  which  our  information  is  more 
exact.     See  Arabia. 

Agriculture  was  little  cared  for  by  the  patriarchs ; 
more  so,  however,  by  Isaac  and  Jacob  than  by  Abra- 
ham (Gen.  xxvi,  12  ;  xxxvii,  7),  in  whose  time  prob- 
ably, if  we  except  the  lower  Jordan  valley  (xiii,  10), 
there  was  little  regular  culture  in  Canaan.  Thus 
Gerar  and  Shechem  seem  to  have  been  cities  where 
pastoral  wealth  predominated.  The  herdmen  strove 
with  Isaac  about  his  wells ;  about  his  crop  there  was 
no  contention  (xx,  14 ;  xxxiv,  28).  In  Joshua's  time, 
as  shown  by  the  story  of  the  "  Eshcol"  (Num.  xiii, 
23-24),  Canaan  was  found  in  a  much  more  advanced 
agricultural  state  than  when  Jacob  had  left  it  (Deut. 
viii,  8),  resulting  probably  from  the  severe  experience 
of  famines,  and  the  example  of  Egypt,  to  which  its  peo- 
ple were  thus  led.  The  pastoral"  life  was  the  means 
of  keeping  the  sacred  race,  while  yet  a  family,  distinct 
from  mixture  and  locally  unattached,  especially  while 
in  Egypt.  When,  grown  into  a  nation,  they  conquer- 
ed their  future  seats,  agriculture  supplied  a  similar 
check  on  the  foreign  intercourse  and  speedy  demoral- 
ization, especially  as  regards  idolatry,  which  com- 
merce would  have  caused.  Thus  agriculture  became 
the  basis  of  the  Mosaic  commonwealth  (Michaelis, 
xxxvii-xli).  It  tended  to  check  also  the  freebooting 
and  nomad  life,  and  made  a  numerous  offspring  prof- 
itable, as  it  was  already  honorable  by  natural  senti- 
ment and  by  law.  Thus,  too,  it  indirectly  discouraged 
slavery,  or,  where  it  existed,  made  the  slave  some- 
what like  a  son,  though  it  made  the  son  also  some- 
what of  a  slave.  Taken  in  connection  with  the  in- 
alienable character  of  inheritances,  it  gave  each  man 
and  each  family  a  stake  in  the  soil,  and  nurtured  a 
hardy  patriotism.  "The  land  is  Mine"  (Lev.  xxv, 
23)  was  a  dictum  which  made  agriculture  likewise  the 
basis  of  the  theocratic  relation.  Thus  every  family 
felt  its  own  life  with  intense  keenness,  and  had  its  di- 
vine tenure  which  it  was  to  guard  from  alienation. 
The  prohibition  of  culture  in  the  sabbatical  vear  form- 
ed, under  this  aspect,  a  kind  of  rent  reserved  by  the 
Divine  Owner.  Landmarks  were  deemed  sacred  (Dent. 
xix.  14),  and  the  inalienability  of  ttie  heritage  was  in- 
sured by  its  reversion  to  the  owner  in  the  year  of  ju- 


bilee ;  so  that  only  so  man}7  years  of  occupancy  could 
be  sold  (Lev.  xxv,  8-16,  23-35).  The  prophet  Isaiah 
(v,  8)  denounces  the  contempt  of  such  restrictions  by 
wealthy  grandees  who  sought  to  "add  held  to  field," 
erasing  families  and  depopulating  districts.    See  Land. 

In  giving  to  the  Israelites  possession  of  a  country 
already  under  cultivation,  it  was  the  Divine  intention 
that  they  should  keep  up  that  cultivation,  and  become 
themselves  an  agricultural  people ;  and  in  doing  this 
thej'  doubtless  adopted  the  practices  of  agriculture 
which  they  found  already  established  in  the  country. 
This  may  have  been  the  more  necessary,  as  agriculture 
is  a  practical  art ;  and  those  of  the  Hebrews  who  were 
acquainted  with  the  practices  of  Egyptian  husbandry 
had  died  in  the  wilderness  ;  and  even  had  they  lived, 
the  processes  proper  to  a  hot  climate  and  alluvial  soil, 
watered  by  river  inundation,  like  that  of  Egypt,  al- 
though the  same  in  essential  forms,  could  not  have  been 
altogether  applicable  to  so  different  a  country  as  Pal- 
estine.    See  Egypt. 

II.  Weather,  etc. — As  the  nature  of  the  seasons  lies 
at  the  root  of  all  agricultural  operations,  it  should  be 
noticed  that  the  variations  of  sunshine  and  rain,  which 
with  us  extend  throughout  the  year,  are  in  Palestine 
confined  chiefly  to  the  latter  part  of  autumn  and  the 
winter.  During  all  the  rest  of  the  year  the  sky  is  al- 
most uninterruptedly  cloudless,  and  rain  very  rarely 
falls.  The  autumnal  rains  usually  commence  at  the 
latter  end  of  October  or  beginning  of  November,  not 
suddenly,  but  by  degrees,  which  gives  opportunity  to 
the  husbandman  to  sow  his  wheat  and  barley.  The 
rains  continue  during  November  and  December,  but 
afterward  they  occur  at  longer  intervals,  and  rain  is 
rare  after  March,  and  almost  never  occurs  as  late  as 
May.  The  cold  of  winter  is  not  severe ;  and  as  the 
ground  is  never  frozen,  the  labors  of  the  husbandman 
are  not  entirely  interrupted.  Snow  falls  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  but  never  lies  long  on  the  ground. 
In  the  plains  and  valleys  the  heat  of  summer  is  op- 
pressive, but  not  in  the  more  elevated  tracts.  In 
these  high  grounds  the  nights  are  cool,  often  with 
heavy  dew.  The  total  absence  of  rain  in  summer  soon 
destroys  the  verdure  of  the  fields,  and  gives  to  the 
general  landscape,  even  in  the  high  country,  an  aspect 
of  drought  and  barrenness.  No  green  thing  remains 
but  the  foliage  of  the  scattered  fruit-trees,  and  occasion- 
al vineyards  and  fields  of  millet.  In  autumn  the 
whole  land  becomes  dry  and  parched,  the  cisterns  are 
nearly  empty,  and  all  nature,  animate  and  inanimate, 
looks  forward  with  longing  for  the  return  of  the  rainy 
season.  In  the  hill-country  the  time  of  harvest  is 
later  than  in  the  plains  of  the  Jordan  and  of  the  sea- 
coast.  The  barley  harvest  is  about  a  fortnight  earlier 
than  that  of  wheat.  In  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  the 
wheat  harvest  is  early  in  May ;  in  the  plains  of  the 
ccast  and  of  Esdraelon,  it  is  toward  the  latter  end  of 
that  month,  and  in  the  hills  not  until  June.  The  gen- 
eral vintage  is  in  September,  but  the  first  grapes  ripen 
in  July  ;  and  from  that  time  the  towns  are  well  sup- 
plied with  this  fruit. — Robinson,  Biblical  Researches, 
ii,  96-100.     See  Palestine. 

The  Jewish  calendar  (q.  v.),  as  fixed  by  the  three 
great  festivals,  turned  on  the  seasons  of  green,  ripe, 
and  fully-gathered  produce.  Hence,  if  the  season  was 
backward,  or,  owing  to  the  imperfections  of  a  non-as- 
tronomical reckoning,  seemed  to  be  so.  a  month  was 
intercalated.  This  rude  system  was  fondly  retained 
long  after  mental  progress  and  foreign  intercourse 
placed  a  correct  calendar  within  their  power ;  so  that 
notice  of  a  Veadar,  i.  e.  second  or  intercalated  Adar, 
on  account  of  the  lambs  being  not  yet  of  a  paschal 
size,  and  the  barley  not  forward  enough  for  the  Abib 
(green  sheaf),  was  sent  to  the  Jews  of  Babylon  and 
Egypt  (Ugol.  de  Re  Rust,  v,  22)  early  in  the  season. 
See  Time.  The  year,  ordinarily  consisting  of  twelve 
months,  was  divided  into  six  agricultural  periods,  as 
follows  (Mishna,  Tosajthta  Taanith,  ch.  i) : 


Tisri,  latter  half, 


AGRICULTURE 

(1.)    SOWING   TIME. 

fbeginning  about  au- 


107 


AGRICULTURE 


au-  i 


tumnal  equinox  .  f  EarJy  raiQ  due_ 


Kisleu,  latter  half. 

Tebeth. 

Sebat,  former  half. 


(2.)    UNRII'E   TIME. 


(3.)   COLD   SEASON. 


Sebat,  latter  half . . 

Adar 

[Veadar] 

Nisan,  former  half. 


■  Latter  rain  due. 


(■4.)   HARVEST  TIME. 

(Beginning  about  ver- 

J      „„i  „,.,.;„ 

I 


nal  equinox,  Uarley 
een.    Passover. 


Nisan,  latter  half 

Ijar. 

.            ...  (Wheat  ripe. 

Sivan,  former  half ■>     cost 


Sivan,  latter  half. 

Tammuz. 

Ab,  former  half. 

Ab,  latter  half. 
Klul. 

Tisri,  former  half. 


(G.)  SULTRY  8EA30N. 


Thus  1 


Ingathering  of  fruits. 

six  months  from  mid  Tisri  to  mid  Nisan  were 


were  heated  with  such  things  as  dung  and  hay  (Ezek. 
iv,  12,  15 ;  Mai.  iv,  13) ;  and,  in  any  case  of  sacrifice 
on  an  emergency,  some,  as  we  should  think,  unusual 
source  of  supply  is  constantly  mentioned  for  the  wood 
(1  Sam.  vi,  14 ;  2  Sam.  xxiv,  22 ;  1  Kings  xix,  21 ; 
comp.  Gen.  xxii,  3,  6,  7).  All  this  indicates  a  non- 
abundance  of  timber,  and  implies  that  nearly  all  the 
arable  soil  was  under  culture,  or,  at  least,  used  for  pas- 
turage.    See  Forest. 

The  geological  characters  of  the  soil  in  Palestine 
have  never  been  satisfactorily  stated;  but  the  differ- 
ent epithets  of  description  which  travellers  employ, 
enable  us  to  know  that  it  differs  considerably,  both  in 
its  appearance  and  character,  in  different  parts  of  the 
land ;  but  wherever  soil  of  any  kind  exists,  even  to  a 
very  slight  depth,  it  is  found  to  be  highly  fertile.  As 
parts  of  Palestine  are  hilly,  and  as  hills  have  seldom 
much  depth  of  soil,  the  mode  of  cultivating  them  in 
terraces  was  anciently,  and  is  now  much  employed. 
A  series  of  low  stone  walls,  one  above  another,  across 
the  face  of  the  hill,  arrest  the  soil  brought  down  by 
the  rains,  and  afford  a  series  of  levels  for  the  opera- 
tions of  the  husbandman.  This  mode  of  cultivation  is 
usual  in  Lebanon,  and  is  not  unfrequent  in  Palestine, 
where  the  remains  of  terraces  across  the  hills,  in  vari- 


mainly  occupied  with  the  process  of  cultivation,  and  |  ous  parts  of  the  country,  attest  the  extent  to  which  it 
the  rest  with  the  gathering  of  the  fruits.  Rain  was  was  anciently  carried.  This  terrace  cultivation  has 
commonly  expected  soon  after  the  autumnal  equinox,  ,  necessarily  increased  or  declined  with  the  population, 
or  mid  Tisri;  and  if  by  the  first  of  Kisleu  none  had  If  the  people  were  so  few  that  the  valleys  afforded 
fallen,  a  fast  was  proclaimed  (Mishna,  Taanith,  ch.  i).  sufficient  food  for  them,  the  more  difficult  culture  of 
The  common  Scriptural  expressions  of  the  "  early"  I  the  hills  was  neglected  ;  but  when  the  population  was 
and  the  "  latter  rain"  (Deut.  xi,  14;  Jer.  v,  24;  Hos.  too  large  for  the  valleys  to  satisfy  with  bread,  then 
vi,  3;  Zech.  x,  1;  Jam.  v,  7)  are  scarcely  confirmed    the  hills  were  laid  under  cultivation.     See  Vineyard. 


by  modern  experience,  the  season  of  rains  being  un- 
broken (Robinson,  i,  41,  429 ;  iii,  9G),  though  perhaps 
the  fall  is  more  strongly  marked  at  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  it.  The  consternation  caused  by  the  fail- 
ure of  the  former  rain  is  depicted  in  Joel  i,  ii ;  and  this 
prophet  seems  to  promise  that  and  the  latter  rain  to- 
gether "in  the  first  month,"  i.  e.  Nisan  (ii,  23).  See 
Rain. 

Its  plenty  of  water  from  natural  sources  made  Ca- 
naan a  contrast  to  rainless  Egypt  (Deut.  viii,  7  ;  xi, 
8--12).     Nor  was  the  peculiar  Egyptian  method  of  hor- 


In  such  a  climate  as  that  of  Palestine,  water  is  the 
great  fertilizing  agent.  The  rains  of  autumn  and 
winter,  and  the  dews  of  spring,  suffice  for  the  ordinary 
objects  of  agriculture ;  but  the  ancient  inhabitants 
were  able,  in  some  parts,  to  avert  even  the  aridity 
which  the  summer  droughts  occasioned,  and  to  keep 
up  a  garden-like  verdure,  by  means  of  aqueducts  com- 
municating witli  the  brooks  and  rivers  (Ps.  i,  3;  lxv, 
10 ;  Prov.  xxi,  1 ;  Isa.  xxx,  25 ;  xxxii,  2,  20 ;  Hos. 
xii,  11).  Hence  springs,  fountains,  and  rivulets  were 
as  much  esteemed  b}'  husbandmen  as  by  shepherds 


ticulture  alluded  to  in  Deut.  xi,  10  unknown,  though  (Josh,  xv,  19  ;  Judg.  i,  15).  The  soil  was  also  clear- 
less  prevalent  in  Palestine.  That  peculiarity  seems  ed  of  stones,  and  carefully  cultivated  ;  and  its  fertility 
to  have  consisted  in  making  in  the  fields  square  shal-  was  increased  by  the  ashes  to  which  the  dry  stubble 
low  beds,  like  our  salt-pans,  surrounded  by  a  raised  and  herbage  were  occasionally  reduced  by  being  burn- 
border  of  earth  to  keep  in  the  water,  which  was  then  i  ed  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  (Prov.  xxiv,  31 ; 
turned  from  one  sqnare  to  another  by  pushing  aside  Isa.  vii,  23;  xxxii,  13).  Dung  and,  in  the  neighbor- 
the  mud,  to  open  one  and  close  the  next,  with  the  j  ho.od  of  Jerusalem,  the  blood  of  animals  were  also  used 
foot.  Robinson,  however,  describes  a  different  proc-  to  enrich  the  soil  (2  Kings  ix.  37 ;  Ps.  lxxxiii,  10 ; 
ess,  to  which  he  thinks  this  passage  refers  {Res.  i,  Isa.  xxv,  10;  Jer.  ix,  22  ;  Luke  xiv,  34,  35).  A  rabbi 
542 ;  ii,  351 ;  iii,  21),  as  still  in  use  likewise  in  Pales-  ]  limits  the  quantity  to  three  heaps  of  ten  half-cors,  or 
tine.  There  irrigation  (including  under  the  term  all  \  about  380  gallons,  to  each  seah  (q.  v.)  of  grain,  and 
appliances  for  making  the  water  available)  was  as  !  wishes  the  quantity  in  each  heap,  rather  than  their 
essential  as  drainage  in  our  region  ;  and  for  this  the  number,  to  be  increased  if  the  field  be  large  (Mishna, 
large  extent  of  rocky  surface,  easily  excavated  for  cis-  '  Shebiith,  iii,  2).  Nor  was  the  great  usefulness  of 
terns  and  ducts,  was  most  useful.  Even  the  plain  of  sheep  to  the  soil  unrecognised  (jb.  4),  though,  owing 
Jericho  is  watered  not  by  canals  from  the  Jordan,  to  the  general  distinctness  of  the  pastoral  life,  there 
since  the  river  lies  below  the  land,  but  by  rills  con-  was  less  scope  for  it.  See  Manure. 
verging  from  the  mountains.  In  these  features  of  the  That  the  soil  might  not  be  exhausted,  it  was  order- 
country  lay  its  expansive  resources  to  meet  the  wants  ed  that  every  seventh  year  should  be  a  sabbath  of  rest 
of  a  multiplying  population.  The  lightness  of  agri-  !  to  the  land :  there  was  then  to  be  no  sowing  or  reap- 
cultural  labor  in  the  plains  set  free  an  abundance  of    ing,  no  pruning  of  vines  or  olives,  no  vintage  or  guth- 


hands  for  the  task  of  terracing  and  watering,  and  the 
result  gave  the  highest  stimulus  to  industry.  See  Ir- 
rigation. 

III.  Soil,  etc. — The  Israelites  probably  found  in  Ca- 
naan a  fair  proportion  of  woodland,  which  their  neces- 
sities, owing  to  the  discouragement  of  commerce,  must 
have  led  them  to  reduce  (Josh,  xvii,  18).     But  even 


ering  of  fruits  ;  and  whatever  grew  of  itself  was  to  be 
left  to  the  poor,  the  stranger,  and  the  beasts  of  the 
field  (Lev.  xxv,  1-7 ;  Deut.  xv,  1-10).  But  such  an 
observance  required  more  faith  than  the  Israelites  were 
prepared  to  exercise.  It  was  for  a  long  time  utterly 
neglected  (Lev.  xxvi,  34,  35;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  21), 
but  after  the  captivity  it  was  more  observed.     Bv  this 


in  earl}'  times  timber  seems  to  have  been  far  less  used  remarkable  institution  the  Hebrews  were  also  trained 
for  building  material  than  among  Western  nations  ;  to  habits  of  economy  and  foresight,  and  invited  to  ex- 
the  Israelites  were  not  skilful  hewers,  and  imported  ,  ercise  a  large  degree  of  trust  in  the  bountiful  provi- 
both  the  timber  and  the  workmen  (1  Kings  v,  G,  8).  '  dence  of  their  Divine  King.  See  Sabbatical  Year. 
No  store  of  wood-fuel  seems  to  have  been  kept ;  ovens        A  change  in  the  climate  of  Palestine,  caused  by  in- 


AGRICULTURE 


108 


AGRICULTURE 


crease  of  population  and  the  clearance  of  trees,  must 
have  taken  place  before  the  period  of  the  N.  T.  A 
further  change,  caused  by  the  decrease  of  skilled  agri- 
cultural labor,  e.  g.  in  irrigation  and  terrace-making, 
has  since  ensued.  Not  only  this,  but  the  great  varie- 
ty of  elevation  and  local  character  in  so  small  a  com- 
pass of  country  necessitates  a  partial  and  guarded  ap- 
plication of  general  remarks  (Robinson,  i,  507,  553, 
551;  iii,  595;  Stanley,  Palestine,  p.  118-126).  Yet 
wherever  industry  is  secure,  the  soil  still  asserts  its 
old  fertility.  The  Hauran  (Pera?a)  is  as  fertile  as 
Damascus,  and  its  bread  enjoys  the  highest  reputation. 
The  black  and  fat,  but  light  soil  about  Gaza,  is  said  to 
hold  so  much  moisture  as  to  be  very  fertile  with  little 
rain.  Here,  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bevrut,  is  a 
vast  olive-ground,  and  the  very  sand  of  the  shore  is 
said  to  be  fertile  if  watered.     See  Water. 

IV.  Crops  and  Fields. — Under  the  term  *51,  dagan  , 
which  we  translate  "grain"  and  "corn,"  the  He- 
brews comprehended  almost  every  object  of  field  cul- 
ture. Syria,  including  Palestine,  was  regarded  by 
the  ancients  as  one  of  the  first  countries  for  corn 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xviii,  7).  Wheat  was  abundant 
and  excellent ;  and  there  is  still  one  bearded  sort,  the 
ear  of  which  is  three  times  as  heavy,  and  contains 
twice  as  many  grains  as  our  common  English  wheat 
(Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  472).  Barley  was  also  much 
cultivated,  not  only  for  bread,  but  because  it  was  the 
only  kind  of  corn  which  was  given  to  beasts  ;  for  oats 
and  rye  do  not  grow  in  warm  climates.  Hay  was  not 
in  use  ;  and  therefore  the  barley  was  mixed  with  chop- 
ped straw  to  form  the  food  of  cattle  (Gen.  xxiv,  25, 
32;  Judg.  xix,  19,  etc.).  Other  kinds  of  field  culture 
were  millet,  spelt,  various  species  of  beans  and  peas, 
pepperwort,  cummin,  cucumbers,  melons,  flax,  and 
perhaps  cotton.  Many  other  articles  might  be  men- 
tioned as  being  now  cultivated  in  Palestine  ;  but,  as 
their  names  do  not  occur  in  Scripture,  it  is  difficult 
to  know  whether  they  were  grown  there  in  ancient 
times  or  not.  The  cereal  crops  of  constant  mention 
arc  wheat  and  barley,  and  more  rarely  rye  and  mil- 
led?). Of  the  two  former,  together  with  the  vine, 
olive,  and  fig,  the  use  of  irrigation,  the  plough  and  the 
h  arrow,  mention  is  found  in  the  book  of  Job  (xxxi, 
40;  xv,  33;  xxiv,  G;  xxix,  9;  xxxix,  10).  Two 
kinds  of  cummin  (the  black  variety  called  "  fitches," 
Is.  xxviii,  27),  and  such  podded  plants  as  beans  and 
lentiles,  may  be  named  among  the  staple  produce. 
To  these,  later  writers  add  a  great  variety  of  garden 
plants,  e.  g.  kidney-beans,  peas,  lettuce,  endive,  leek, 
garlic,  onion,  melon,  cucumber,  cabbage,  etc.  (Mishna, 
Kilaim,  i,  2).  The  produce  which  formed  Jacob's 
present  was  of  such  kinds  as  would  keep,  and  had 
kept  during  the  famine  (Gen.  xliii,  11).  The  ancient 
Hebrews  had  little  notion  of  green  or  root  crops  grown 
for  fodder,  nor  was  the  long  summer  drought  suitable 
for  them.  Barley  supplied  food  both  to  man  and 
beast,  and  the  plant  called  in  Ezek.  iv,  9  ''millet," 
"jni,  dochan'  (the  holcus  dochna  of  Linn,  according  to 
Gesenius,  Jleb.  Lex.  s.  v.),  was  grazed  while  green, 
and  its  ripe  grain  made  into  bread.  In  the  later  pe- 
riod of  more  advanced  irrigation  the  'Tibpi,  tiltan ', 
"fenugreek"  (Buxtorf.  Lex.  Talm.  col.  2601),  occurs 
(Mishna,  Maaseroth,  i),  also  the  PHd,  shack'ath,  a 
clover,  apparently,  given  cut  (Mishna,  Peak,  v,  5). 
Mowing  (n,  gez,  Am.  vi,  1  ;  Ps.  lxxii,  6)  and  ha}'- 
making  were  familiar  processes,  but  the  latter  had  no 
express  word  ;  I^Sh,  chatsir',  standing  both  for  grass 
and  hay,  a  token  of  a  hot  climate,  where  the  grass 
may  become  hay  as  it  stands.  The  yield  of  the  land, 
besides  fruit  from  trees,  was  technically  distinguished 
as  ns-  HO,  tebuah' ,  produce,  including  apparently  all 
cereal  plants,  lTVl*OBp,  lcitmyoth',  pod-fruits  (nearly 
equivalent  to  the  Latin  legumen),  and  XS^a  1 3 12 IT 
zarunetf  ginna' ',  garden  seeds  (Buxtorf,  ib.  col.  693), 


while  the  simple  word  seeds  (1p3!l"'lT,  zarunin")  was 
used  also  generically  for  all  seed,  including  all  else 
which  was  liable  to  tithe,  for  which  purpose  the  dis- 
tinction seems  to  have  existed.  (See  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb. 
p.  17  sq.).     See  Botany. 

The  rotation  of  crops,  familiar  to  the  Egyptians 
(Wilkinson,  ii,  p.  4),  can  hardly  have  been  unknown 
to  the  Hebrews.  Sowing  a  field  with  divers  seeds  was 
forbidden  (Deut.  xxii,  9),  and  minute  directions  arc 
given  by  the  rabbis  for  arranging  a  seeded  surface 
with  great  variet}',  yet  avoiding  the  juxtaposition  of 
heterogenea.  Some  of  these  arrangements  are  shown 
in  the  annexed  drawings  (from  Surenhusius's  Mischna, 


Rabbinical  Forms  of  Planting. 
i,  120).  Three  furrows'  interval  was  the  prescribed 
margin  {Kilaim,  ii,  6).  The  blank  spaces  represent 
such  margins,  often  tapering  to  save  ground.  In  a 
vineyard  wide  spaces  were  often  left  between  the  vines, 
for  whose  roots  a  radius  of  four  cubits  was  allowed, 
and  the  rest  of  the  space  cropped ;  so  herb-gardens 
stood  in  the  midst  of  vineyards  (Peak,  v,  5).  Similar 
arrangements  were  observed  in  the  case  of  a  field  of 
grain  with  olives  about  and  amidst  it. 


■?"\ 


£9 


\JS 


Jewish  Corn-field,  with  Olive-trees. 

Anciently,  as  now,  in  Palestine  and  the  East  the 
arable  lands  were  uot  divided  into  fields  by  fences,  as 
in  most  countries.  The  ripening  products  therefore 
presented  an  expanse  of  culture  unbroken,  although 
perhaps  variegated,  in  a  large  view,  by  the  difference 
of  the  products  grown.  The  boundaries  of  lands  were 
therefore  marked  by  stones  as  landmarks,  which,  even 
in  patriarchal  times,  it  -was  deemed  a  heinous  wrong 
to  remove  (Job  xxiv,  2);  and  the  law  pronounced  a 
curse  upon  those  who,  without  authority,  disturbed 
them  (Deut.  xix,  14;  xxvii,  17).  The  walls  and 
hedges  which  are  occasionally  mentioned  in  Scripture 


AGRICULTURE 


109 


AGRICULTURE 


belonged  to  orchards,  gardens,  and  vinej'ards.  See 
Garden.  Fields  and  floors  were  not  commonly  en- 
closed ;  vineyards  mostly  were,  with  a  tower  and  oth- 
er buildings  (Num.  xxii,  24  ;  Psa.  lxxx,  13  ;  Isa.  v,  5 ; 
Matt,  xxi,  33;  comp.  Jud.  vi,  11).  Banks  of  mud 
from  ditches  were  also  used.     See  Wall. 

With  regard  to  occupancy,  a  tenant  might  paj-  a 
fixed  moneyed  rent  (Cant,  viii,  11) — in  which  case  he 
was  called  "cVc'i,  soke/ ,  a  mercenary,  and  was  com- 
pellable to  keep  the  ground  in  good  order — or  a  stipu- 
lated share  of  the  fruits  (2  Sam.  ix,  10;  Matt,  xxi, 
3-1),  often  a  half  or  a  third  ;  but  local  custom  was  the 
only  rule  ;  in  this  case  he  was  called  ?3|""*"2,  mekabbel' , 
lessee,  and  was  more  protected,  the  owner  sharing  the 
loss  of  a  short  or  spoiled  crop ;  so,  in  case  of  locusts, 
blight,  etc.,  the  year's  rent  was  to  be  abated;  or  he 
might  receive  such  share  as  a  salary — an  inferior  po- 
sition—  when  the  term  which  described  him  was 
iZin.  choker' ,  manager  on  shares  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm, 
col.  1955).  It  was  forbidden  to  sow  flax  during  a  short 
occupancy  (hence  leases  for  terms  of  years  would  seem 
to  have  been  common),  lest  the  soil  should  be  unduly 
exhausted  (comp.  Virgil,  Georg.  i,  77).  A  passer-by 
might  eat  an}-  quantity  of  corn  or  grapes,  but  not 
reap  or  carrv  oft*  fruit  (Deut.  xxiii,  24,  25 ;  Matt,  xii, 

1). 

The  rights  of  the  corner  (q.  v.)  to  be  left,  and  of 
gleaning  (q.  v.),  formed  the  poor  man's  claim  on  the 
soil  for  support.  For  his  benefit,  too,  a  sheaf  forgot- 
ten in  carrying  to  the  floor  was  to  be  left ;  so,  also, 
with  regard  to  the  vineyard  and  the  olive-grove  (Lev. 
xix,  9,  10;  Deut.  xxiv,  19).  Besides,  there  seems  a 
probability  that  even'  third  year  a  second  tithe,  be- 
sides the  priests',  was  paid  for  the  poor  (Deut.  xiv, 
28  ;  xxvi,  12  ;  Amos  iv,  4  ;  Tob.  i,  7  ;  Joseph.  Ant.  iv, 
8,  22).  On  this  doubtful  point  of  the  poor  man's  tithe 
(i|JS  "i'^""?,  maasar'  ant")  see  a  learned  note  by  Su- 
renhusius,  ad  Peak,  viii,  2.  See  Tithe.  These 
rights,  in  case  two  poor  men  were  partners  in  occu- 
pancy, might  be  conveyed  by  each  to  the  other  for 
half  the  field,  and  thus  retained  between  them  (Mai- 
mon.  ad  Peak,  v,  5).  Sometimes  a  charitable  owner 
declared  his  ground  common,  when  its  fruits,  as  those 
of  the  sabbatical  year,  went  to  the  poor.  For  three 
years  the  fruit  of  newly-planted  trees  was  deemed  un- 
circumcised  and  forbidden ;  in  the  fourth  it  was  holy, 
as  first-fruits ;  in  the  fifth  it  might  be  ordinarily  eat- 
en (Mishna,  Orluh,  passim).     See  Poor. 

V.  Agricultural  Operations  and  Implements. — Of  late 
years  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon  the  agricultu- 
ral operations  and  implements  of  ancient  times,  by 
the  discover}'  of  various  representations  on  the  sculp- 
tured monuments  and  painted  tombs  of  Egypt,  and 
(to  some  degree)  of  Assyria.  As  these  agree  sur- 
prisingly with  the  notices  in  the  Bible,  and,  indeed, 
differ  little  from  what  we  still  find  employed  in  Syria 
and  Egypt,  it  is  very  safe  to  receive  them  as  guides 
on  the  present  subject  (see  also  Corse's  Assyria,  p. 
560). 

1.  Ploughinghas  always  been  a  light  and  superficial 
operation  in  the  East.  At  first,  the  ground  was  open- 
ed with  pointed  sticks;  then  a  kind  of  hoe  was  em- 
ployed ;  and  this,  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  is  still 


Oriental  Hoein 


used  as  a  substitute  for  the  plough.  But  the  plough 
was  known  in  Egypt  and  Syria  before  the  Hebrews 
cultivators  (Job  i,  14).     At  first  it  was  little 


more  than  a  stout  branch  of  a  tree,  from  which  pro- 
jected another  limb,  shortened  and  pointed.  This, 
being  turned  into  the  ground,  made  the  furrow; 
while  at  the  farther  end  of  the  larger  branch  was  fast- 
ened a  transverse  yoke,  to  which  the  oxen  were  har- 
nessed. Afterward  a  handle  to  guide  the  plough  was 
added.  The  Syrian  plough  is,  and  doubtless  was, 
light  enough  for  a  man  to  carry  in  his  hand  (Russell's 
Nat.  llist.  of  Aleppo,  i,  73).     The  plough,  probably, 


Modern  Syrian  Ploughin 


was  like  the  Egyptian,  and  the  process  of  ploughing 
like  that  called  scarijicatio  by  the  Romans  ("  Syria 
tenui  sulco  arat,"  Plin.  xviii,  47),  one  yoke  of  oxen 
mostly  sufficing  to  draw  it.  Mountains  and  rough 
places  were  hoed  (Isa.  vii,  5 ;  Maimon.  ad  Mishn.  vi, 


Ancient  Egyptians  II 


and  Sowing  the  Land, 
Trees. 


2 ;  Robinson,  iii,  595,  002-3).  The  breaking  up  of  new 
land  was  performed,  as  with  the  Romans,  in  "  early 
spring"  (vere  novo).  Such  new  ground  and  fallows,  the 
use  of  which  latter  was  familiar  to  the  Jews  (Jer.  iv, 
3;  IIos.  x,  12),  were  cleared  of  stones  and  of  thorns 
(Is.  v,  2  ;  Gemara  Hierosol.  ad  loc.)  early  in  the  year, 
sowing  or  gathering  from  "among  thorns"  being  a 
proverb  for  slovenly  husbandry  (Job  v,  5 ;  Prov. 
xxiv,  30,  31 ;  Robinson,  ii,  127).  Virgin  land  was 
ploughed  a  second  time.  The  proper  words  are  firs, 
pathach! ',  to  open,  and  T"jfcj,  sadad' ,  to  level  (by  cross 
ploughing,  Varro,  De  Re  Rustica,  i,  32)  ;  both  are  dis- 
tinctively used  in  Is.  xxviii,  24.  Land  already  tilled 
was  ploughed  before  the  rains,  that  the  moisture  might 
the  better  penetrate  (Maimon.  ap.  Ugol.  De  lie  Rttst. 
v,  11).  Rain,  however,  or  irrigation  (Is.  xxxii,  20) 
prepared  the  soil  for  the  sowing,  as  may  be  inferred 
from  the  prohibition  to  irrigate  till  the  gleaning  was 
over,  lest  the  poor  should  suffer  (Peah,  v,  3);  and 
such  sowing  often  took  place  without  previous  plough- 
ing, the  seed,  as  in  the  parable  of  the  sower,  being 
scattered  broadcast,  and  ploughed  in  afterward,  the 


Ancient  Egyptian  Ploughing  alter  Suwing. 
roots  of  the  late  crop  being  so  far  decayed  as  to  serve 


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110 


AGRICULTURE 


for  manure  (Fellows,  Asia  Minor,  p.  72).  Where  the 
soil  was  heavier,  the  ploughing  was  best  done  dry 
("dum  sicca  tellure  licet,"  Virg.  Georg.  i,  214);  and 
there,  though  not  generally,  the  hoeing  (sarritio, 
1^:',  iddur',  dressing),  and  even  the  liratio,  or  ridg- 
ing, of  Roman  husbandry,  performed  with  tabulm  af- 
fixed to  the  sides  of  the  share,  might  be  useful  (see 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Aratrum).  But 
the  more  formal  routine  of  heavy  western  soils  must 
not  be  made  the  standard  of  such  a  naturally  fine 
tilth  as  that  of  Palestine  generally  (comp.  Columella, 
ii,  12).     During  the  rains,  if  not  too  heavy,  or  be- 


tween their  two  periods,  would  be  the  best  time  for 
these  operations ;  thus  70  days  before  the  passover 
was  the  time  prescribed  for  sowing  for  the  "  wave- 
sheaf,"  and,  probably,  therefore,  for  that  of  barley 
generally.  The  plough  was  drawn  by  oxen,  which 
were  sometimes  urged  by  a  scourge  (Isa.  x,  2G ;  Na- 
hum  Hi,  2),  but  oftener  by  a  long  staff,  furnished  at 
one  end  with  a  flat  piece  of  metal  for  clearing  the 
plough,  and  at  the  other  with  a  spike  for  goading  the 
oxen.  This  ox-goad  (q.  v.)  might  easily  be  used  as  a 
spear  (Judg.  iii,  31 ;  1  Sam.  xiii,  21).  Sometimes  men 
followed  the  plough  with  hoes  to  break  the  clods  (Isa. 


1  2 

Ancient  Egyptians  Ploughing  and  Hoeing. 
1.  Breaks  the  clods  of  earth  after  the  plough  has  passed:  •!.  Holds  the  plough;  3.  The  driver;  4.  A  ban-el,  probably  contain- 
ing the  seed;  5.  Talks  with  another  ploughman. 


xxviii,  24) ;  but  in  later  times  a  kind  of  harrow  was 
employed,  which  appears  to  have  been  then,  as  now, 
merely  a  thick  block  of  wood,  pressed  down  by  a 
weight,  or  by  a  man  sitting  on  it,  and  drawn  over  the 
ploughed  field.     See  Plough. 

2.  Sowing. — The  ground,  having  been  ploughed  as 
soon  as  the  autumnal  rains  had  mollified  the  soil,  was 
fit,  by  the  end  of  October,  to  receive  the  seed ;  and  the 
sowing  of  wheat  continued,  in  different  situations, 
through  November  into  December.  Barley  was  not 
generally  sown  till  January  and  February.  The  seed 
appears  to  have  been  sown  and  harrowed  at  the  same 
time,  although  sometimes  it  was  ploughed  in  by  a 
cross  furrow.     See  Sowing. 

Occasionally,  however,  the  sowing  was  by  patches 
only  in  well-manured  spots,  a  process  called  ^«3"0, 
menammer' ,  variegating  like  a  leopard,  from  its  spot- 


ted appearance,  as  represented  in  the  accompanying 
drawing  by  Surenhusius  (i,  45)  to  illustrate  the 
Mishna. 


mm 

Jewish  Field  sown  in  Clumps. 

3.  Ploughing  in  the  Seed. — The  Egyptian  paintings 
illustrate  the  Scriptures  by  showing  that  in  those  soils 
which  needed  no  previous  preparation  by  the  hoe  (for 
breaking  the  clods)  the  sower  followed  the  plough, 
holding  in  the  left  hand  a  basket  of  seed,  which  he 


Ancient  Egyptians  1' 

scattered  with  the  right  hand,  while  another  person 
fillcil  a  fresh  basket.  We  also  see  that  the  mode  of 
sowing  was  what  we  call  "broadcast,"  in  which  the 
6eed  is  thrown  loosely  over  the  field  (Matt,  xiii,  3-8). 
In  Egypt,  when  the  levels  were  low,  and  the  water 
had  continued  long  upon  the  land,  they  often  dispensed 
with  the  plough  altogether;  and  probably,  like  the 
present  inhabitants,  broke  up  the  ground  with  hoes, 
or  simply  dragged  the  moist  mud  with  bushes  after 
the  seed  bad  been  thrown  upon  the  surface.  To  this 
cultivation  without  ploughing  Moses  probably  alludes 
(Deut.  xi,  10),  when  lie  tells  the  Hebrews  that  the 
land  to  which  they  were  going  was  not  like  the  land 
of  Egypt,  where  they  "sowed  their  seed,  and  watered 
it  with  their  foot,  as  a  garden  of  herbs."  It  seems, 
however,  that  even  in  Syria,  in  sandy  soils,  the}'  sow 
without  ploughing,  and  then  plough  down  the  seed 
(Russell's  Ar.  //.  of  Aleppo,  i,  73,  etc.).  It  does  not 
appear  that  any  instrument  resembling  our  harrow 
was  known  ;  the  word  TT--  sadad' ',  rendered  to  har- 


loughing  and  Sowing. 

row,  in  Job  xxxix,  10,  means  literally  to  break  the 
clods,  and  is  so  rendered  in  Isa.  xxviii,  24;  Hos.  x, 
11;  and  for  this  purpose  the  means  used  have  been 
already  indicated.  The  passage  in  Job,  however,  is 
important,  It  shows  that  this  breaking  of  the  clods 
was  not  always  by  the  hand,  but  that  some  kind  of  in- 
strument was  drawn  by  an  animal  over  the  ploughed 
field,  most  probably  the  rough  log  which  is  still  in  use. 
See  Harrow,  The  readiest  way  of  brushing  over 
the  soil  is  by  means  of  a  bundle  composed  simply  of 
thorn  bushes.  In  highly-irrigated  spots  the  seed  was 
trampled  in  by  cattle  (Isa.  xxxii,  20)  as  in  Egypt  by 
goats  (Wilkinson,  i,  p.  39,  2d  ser.). 

I.  Harvest.— The  custom  of  watching  ripening  crops 
and  threshing-floors  against  theft  or  damage  ^Robin- 
son, i,  400 ;  ii,  18,  83,  99)  is  probably  ancient.  Thus 
Boaz  slept  on  the  floor  (Ruth  iii,  4,  7).  Barley  ripen- 
ed a  week  or  two  before  wheat;  and,  as  fine  harvest 
weather  was  certain  (Prov.  xxvi,  1;  1  Sam.  xii,  17; 
Amos  iv,  7),  the  crop  chiefly  varied  with  the  quantity 


AGRICULTURE 


111 


AGRICULTURE 


Ancient  Egyptians  Treading  in  the  Grain. 


4.  Goats  tramping  in  the  grain,  when  sown  in  the  field,  after  the  water  had  subsided:  0  is  sprinkling  the  seed  from  the 
basket  lie  holds  in  his  left  band,  the  others  are  driving  the  goats  over  the  ground.  The  hieroglyphic  wind  above,  Sk,  or 
Skai\  signifies  •'  tillage,"  and  is  followed  by  the  demonstrative  sign,  a  plough. 


of  timely  rain.  The  period  of  harvest  must  always 
have  differed  according  to  elevation,  aspect,  etc.  (Rob- 
inson, i,  430,  551).  The  proportion  of  harvest  gather- 
ed to  seed  sown  was  often  vast,  a  hundred-fold  is  men- 
tioned, but  in  such  a  way  as  to  signify  that  it  was  a 


limit  rarely  attained  (Gen.  xxvi,  12;  Matt,  xiii,  8). 
Among  the  Israelites,  as  with  all  other  people,  the  har- 
vest was  a  season  of  joy,  and  such  is  more  than  once 
alluded  to  in  Scripture  (Psa.  cxxvi,  5;  Isa.  ix,  13). 
See  Harvest. 


5.  Reaping. — In  the  most  ancient  times  the  corn 
■was  plucked  up  by  the  roots,  which  continued  to  be  the 
practice  with  particular  kinds  of  grain  after  the  sickle 
was  known.     In  Egypt,  at  this  day,  barley  and  "  door- 


13  12        11  10  as        joins. 

Ancient  Egyptian  Harvest-scene, 
t.  The  reapers;  2.  A  reaper  drinking  from  a  cup:  3,  4.  Gleaners — the  first  of  these  asks  the  reaper  to  allow  him  to  drink; 
5.  Carrying  the  ears  in  a  rope  basket — the  length  of  the  stubble  showing  the  ears  alone  are  cut  off;  S.  Winnowing;  10.  The 
tritura,  answering  to  our  threshing;  12  drinks  from  a  water-skin  suspended  in  a  tree;   14.  Scribe  who  notes  down  the  num- 
ber of  bushels  measured  from  the  heap ;  16  checks  the  account  by  noting  those  taken  away  to  the  granary. 

Palestine,  by  the  consideration  pointed  out  by  Russell 
(Ar.  //.  of  Aleppo,  i,  74),  who  states  that  "  wheat,  as 
well  as  barley  in  general,  does  not  grow  half  as  high 
as  in  Britain ;  and  is  therefore,  like  other  grain,  not 
reaped  with  the  sickle,  but  plucked  up  by  the 
roots  with  the  hand.     In  other  parts  of  the 
country,  where   the   corn  grows   ranker,  the 
sickle  is  used."     When  the  sickle  was  used, 
the  wheat  was  either  cropped  off  under  the  ear 
or  cut  close  to  the  ground.     In  the  former 
case,  the  straw  was  afterward  plucked  up  for 
use  ;    in  the  latter,  the  stubble  was  left  and 
burned  on  the  ground  for  manure.     As  the 
Egyptians  needed  not  such  manure,  and  were 
1 1  economical  of  straw,  they  generally  followed 
J  the  former  method  ;  while  the  Israelites,  whose 
j  lands   derived  benefit  from   the  burned  stub- 
ble, used  the  latter,  although  the  practice  of 
i-   cutting  off  the  ears  was  also  known  to  them 

(Job   xxiv,   24).     Cropping   the    ears    short, 
Ancient  Egyptians  gathering  the  Dcora  and  Wheat.  \  >       '  ''     &       ,.      .  .    ,     ,      ' 

1.  Plucking  up  the  plant  bv  the  roots;  2.  Striking  off  the  earth  from    fhe    Egyptians    did  not    generally   bind     hem 

the  roots;  3.  Reaping  wheat.  into   sheaves,  but   removed  them   in    baskets. 

Sometimes,  however,  the}-   bound   them   into 

ra"  are  pulled  up  by  the  roots.     The  choice  between  I  double  sheaves ;   and  such  as  they  plucked  up  were 

these  modes  of  operation  was  probably  determined,  in  |  bound  into  single  long  sheaves.     The  Israelites  ap- 


AGRICULTURE 


112 


AGRICULTURE 


12  3  4 

Ancient  Egyptians  binding  Wheat  in  Sheaves. 
1.  Reaping;  2.  Carrying  the  ears;  3.  Binding  them  in  sheaves  put  up  at  4. 


pear  generally  to  have  made  up  their  corn  into  sheaves 
(Gen.  xxxvii,  7;  Lev.  xxiii,  10-15;  Ruth  ii,  7,  15; 
Job  xxiv,  10;  Jer.  ix,  22;  Mich,  iv,  12),  which  were 
collected  into  a  heap,  or  removed  in  a  cart  (Amos  ii, 
13)  to  the  threshing-floor.  The  carts  were  probably 
similar  to  those  which  are  still  employed  for  the  same 
purpose.  See  Wagon.  The  sheaves  were  never  made 
up  into  shocks,  as  with  us,  although  the  word  occurs  in 
our  translation  of  Judg.  xv,  5 ;  Job  v,  26  ;  for  the  orig- 
inal term  signifies  neither  a  shock  composed  of  a  few 
sheaves  standing  temporarily  in  the  field,  nor  a  stack 
of  many  sheaves  in  the  home  yard,  property  thatched, 
to  stand  for  a  length  of  time ;  but  a  heap  of  sheaves  laid 
loosely  together,  in  order  to  be  trodden  out  as  quick- 
ly as  possible,  in  the  same  way  as  is  done  in  the  East 
at  the  present  day  (Brown,  Antiq.  of  the  Jews,  ii,  591). 
Such  heaps  were  sometimes  fancifully  arranged  in  the 
form  of  helmets  (PliSSlpi,  lehubaoth")  or  of  turbans 
("ID^:?,  lekumasoth')  [but  see  other  explanations 
of  these  terms  in  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  1960, 1051], 
or  of  a  cake  (XTin!?,  lecharara'),  as  in  the  following 
illustration  from  Surenhusius  (iMischna,  ut  sup.).  See 
Sheaf. 


Jewish  Grain-field,  with  the  Sheaves  in  Heaps  of  various  Kinds. 
With  regard  to  sickles,  there  appear  to  have  been 
two  kinds,  indicated  by  the  different  names  IBE^rl, 
chermesh',  and  ?373,  maggal';  and  as  the  former  occurs 
only  in  the  Pentateuch  (Deut.  xvi,  9 ;  xxiii,  20),  and 
the  latter  only  in  the  Prophets  (Jer.  ii,  16  ;  Joel  i,  17), 
it  would  seem  that  the  one  was  the  earlier  and  the 
other  the  later  instrument.  But  as  we  observe  two 
very  different  kinds  of  sickles  in  use  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, not  only  at  the  same  time,  but  in  the  same  field, 
it  may  have  been  so  with  the  Jews  also.  The  figures 
of  i  hese  Egyptian  sickles  probably  mark  the  difference 
between  them.      One  was  verv  much  like  our  common 


reaping-hook,  while  the  other  had 
more  resemblance  in  its  shape  to 
g  a  scythe,  and  some  of  the  Egyptian 
examples  appear  to  have  been 
P  toothed.  This  last  is  probably  the 
same  as  the  Hebrew  maggal,  which 
is  indeed  rendered  by  scythe  in  the 
|  margin  of  Jer.  1, 16.  See  Sickle. 
The  reapers  were  the  owners 
and  their  children,  men-servants 
£j  and  women-servants,  and  day-la- 
borers (Ruth  ii,  4,  6,  21,  23 ;  John 
iv,  36;  James  v,  4).  Refresh- 
ments were  provided  for  them, 
especially  drink,  of  which  the 
gleaners  were  allowed  to  partake  (Ruth  ii,  9).  So  in 
the  Egyptian  harvest-scenes  (as  above  depicted),  wo 
perceive  a  provision  of  water  in  skins,  hung  against 
trees  or  in  jars  upon  stands,  with  the  reapers  drink- 
ing, and  gleaners  applying  to  share  the  draught. 
Among  the  Israelites,  gleaning  was  one  of  the  stated 
provisions  for  the  poor ;  and  for  their  benefit  the  cor- 
ners of  the  field  were  left  unreaped,  and  the  reapers 
might  not  return  for  a  forgotten  sheaf.  The  gleaners, 
however,  were  to  obtain  in  the  first  place  express  per- 
mission of  the  proprietor  or  his  steward  (Lev.  xix, 
9,  10  ;  Deut.  xxiv,  19  ;  Ruth  ii,  2,  7).  See  Reaping  ; 
Gleaning. 

6.  Threshing. — Formerly  the  sheaves  were  convey- 
ed from  the  field  to  the  threshing-floor  in  carts ;  but 
now  the}'  are  borne,  generally,  on  the  backs  of  camels 
and   asses.     The   threshing-floor  is   a  level  plot  of 


Orientals  treading  out  Grain. 

ground,  of  a  circular  shape,  generally  about  fifty  feet 
in  diameter,  prepared  for  use  by  beating  down  the 
earth  till  a  hard  floor  is  formed  (Judg.  vi,  37).  Such 
floors  were  probably  permanent,  and  became  well- 
known  spots  (Gen.  1,  10,  11  ;  2  Sam.  xxiv,  16,  18). 
Sometimes  several  of  these  floors  are  contiguous  to 
each  other.  The  sheaves  are  spread  out  upon  them  ; 
and  the  grain  is  trodden  out  by  oxen,  cows,  and  young 


Ancient  Egyptian  Threshing-floor.     The  oxen  driven  round 
the  heap,  contrary  to  the  usual  custom. 

cattle,  arranged  usually  five  abreast,  and  driven  in  a 
circle,  or  rather  in  all  directions,  over  the  floor.  This 
was  the  common  mode  in  the  Bible  times  ;  and  Moses 
forbade  that  the  oxen  thus  employed  should  be  muz- 
zled to  prevent  them  from  tasting  the  corn  (Deut. 
xxv,  4  ;  Isa.  xxviii,  28).     See  Muzzle. 

Flails,  or  sticks,  were  only  used  in  threshing  small 
quantities,  or  for  the  lighter  kinds  of  grain  (Ruth  ii, 
17  ;  Isa.  xxviii,  27).  There  were,  however,  some  kinds 
of  threshing  instruments,  such  as  are  still  used  in 
Egypt  and  Palestine.  One  of  them  is  composed  of 
two  thick  planks,  fastened  together  side  by  side,  and 


AGRICULTURE 


113 


AGRIPPA 


bent  upward  in  front.  Sharp  fragments  of  stone 
are  fixed  into  holes  bored  in  the  bottom.  This  ma- 
chine is  drawn  over  the  corn  by  oxen — a  man  or  boy 
someti.nes  sitting  on  it  to  increase  the  weight.  It 
not  only  separates  the  grain,  but  cuts  the  straw  and 
makes  it  tit  for  fodder  (2  Kings  xiii,  7).  This  is,  most 
probably,  the  M1H,  eharuts' ,  or  "corn-drag,"  which 
is  mentioned  in  Scripture  (Isa.  xxviii,  27;  xli,  15; 
Amos  i,  3;  rendered  "threshing  instrument"),  and 
■would  seem  to  have  been  sometimes  furnished  with 
iron  points  instead  of  stones.  The  Bible  also  notices 
a  machine  called  a  jMo,  morag'  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  22 ;  1 
Chron.  xxi,  23 ;  Isa.  xli,  15),  which  is  unquestionably 


Egyptian  Nor 


the  same  which  bears  in  Arabic  the  name  of  noreg 
(Wilkinson,  ii,  100).  It  appears  to  have  been  similar 
to  the  Roman  tribulum  and  the  plostellum  Punicum 
(Varr.  de  R.  R.  i,  52).     This  machine  is  not  now  often 


seen  in  Palestine ;  but  is  more  used  in  some  parts  of 
Syria,  and  is  common  in  Egypt.  It  is  a  sort  of  frame 
of  wood,  in  which  are  inserted  three  wooden  rollers 
armed  with  iron  teeth,  etc.  It  bears  a  sort  of  seat  or 
chair,  in  which  the  driver  sits  to  give  the  benefit  of 
his  weight.  It  is  generally  drawn  over  the  corn  by 
two  oxen,  and  separates  the  grain,  and  breaks  up  the 
straw  even  more  effectually  than  the  drag.  In  all 
these  processes,  the  corn  is  occasionally  turned  by  a 
fork,  and,  when  sufficiently  threshed,  is  thrown  up" by 
the  same  fork  against  the  wind  to  separate  the  grain, 
which  is  then  gathered  up  and  winnowed.  Barley  was 
sometimes  soaked  and  then  parched  before  treading 
out,  which  got  rid  of  the  pel- 

licle  (  f  the  grain.     (See  fur- 

g  =.  ._  ther  the  Antiquitates  Triturcu, 

Ugolini,  xxix.)    See  Thresh- 
ing. 

7.  Winnoicing  was  general- 
ly accomplished  by  repeating 
the  process  of  tossing  up  the 
grain  against  the  wind  with  a 
fork  (Jer.  iv,  11,  12),  by  which 
the  broken  straw  and  chaff 
were  dispersed,  while  the  grain 
fell  to  the  ground.  After  this 
it  underwent  a  still  further 
purification,  by  being  tossed 
■liine.  up    with    wooden    scoops    or 

short-handed  shovels,  such  as 
we  see  in  Egyptian  paintings  (Isa.  xxx,  24).  See 
Winnowing. 

The  "  shovel"  and  "  fan"  (respectively  Ml'l,  rach'- 
ath,  and  !"HT"3,  mizreh',  Isa.  xxx,  24,  but  their  precise 


3  2  1 

Ancient  Egyptian  Tri/urct,  or  Threshing;   and  Winnowing. 
1.  Raking  up  ears  to  the  centre;  2.  The  driver;  3.  Winnowing  with  wooden  shovels.     Though  the  custom  of  treading  out 
the  grain  was  general,  the  expression  "thresh"  or  "beat,"  in  the  song  of  the  threshers,  showed  that  the  Egyptians  origi- 
nally threshed  with  the  Hail  or  stick. 


difference  is  very  doubtful)   indicate   a   conspicuous  I 
part  of  ancient  husbandly  (Psa.  xxxv,  5  ;  Job  xxi,  18  ;  ' 
Isa.  xvii,  13),  and  important,  owing  to  the  slovenly 
threshing.      Evening  was  the  favorite  time  (Ruth  iii,  j 
2),  when  there  wras  mostly  a  breeze.     The  mizreh  [ 
(scatierer,  prob.  =  irruov,  Matt. iii,  12 ;  Horn. Iliad,  xviii, 
588)  was  perhaps  a  broad  shovel  which  threw  the  grain 
up  against  the  wind  ;  while  the  rackath  (blower)  may 
have  been  a  fork  (still  used  in  Palestine  for  the  same 
purpose)  or  a  broad  basket,  in  which  it  was  tossed. 
The  heap  of  produce  customarily  rendered  in  rent  was  [ 
sometimes  so  large  as  to  cover  the  rachath  (Mishna, 
Baba  Metsiih,  ix,  2);    this   favors   the  latter  view; 
again,  the  irrvov  was  a  corn-measure  in  Cyprus  (see 
Liddell  and  Scott,  Lex.  s.  v.  tttvov).     The  last  process 
was  the  shaking  in  a  sieve,  !"I"Q3,  kebarah'  (cribrum), 
to  separate  dirt  and  refuse  (Amos  ix,  9). — Kitto,  s.  v.; 
Smith,  s.  v.     See  Fan;  Shovel;  Sieve. 

VI.  For  the  literature  of  the  subject,  see  Husband- 
by.  I 
H 


Agrip'pa  (AyniTr— ac,  a  frequent  Roman  name, 
signif.  unknown  [see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog. 
s.  v.]),  the  name  of  two  of  the  members  of  the  Hero- 
dian  family  (q.  v.). 

1.  Grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  son  of  Aris- 
tobulus  and  Berenice  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  1,  2  ;  Wars, 
i,  28,  1).  After  various  fortunes  in  Rome  and  Ju- 
daea (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  G;  Wars,  ii,  9,  5),  he  re- 
ceived from  Caligula,  soon  after  his  accession,  the 
original  territories  of  Philip  (Batanasa,  Trachonitis, 
and  Auranitis)  and  the  tetrarchy  of  Lysanias,  with 
the  title  of  king  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  G,  10;  Wars,  ii, 
9,  6 ;  Philo,  6pp.  ii,  520).  Returning  to  Palestine  in 
the  second  year  of  Caligula  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  G, 
11),  A.D.  38,  he  was  soon  afterward  invested  likewise 
with  the  tetrarchy  of  the  banished  Antipas  (Galilee 
and  Perasa),  and  finally  by  Claudius  (to  whom  he  had 
rendered  important  services  at  Rome  during  the 
changes  of  succession,  Josephus,  Ant.  xix,  4;  Wars, 
ii,  11)  also  with  Samaria  and  Judaea  (Josephus,  Ant. 


AGRIPPA 


114 


AGRIPPA 


xix,  5,  1 ;  xix,  G,  1 ;  War,  ii,  11,  5  [see  Dahl,  Ere. 
in  his  Chrestom.  T'hilon.  p.  377  sq.]  ;  conip.  Dio  Cass. 
lx,  8),  so  that  he  became  monarch  of  all  Palestine, 
and  enjoyed  great  celebrity  (Josephus,  Ant.  xix,  8,  2). 
He  sought  to  conciliate  the  Jews  (Josephus,  Ant.  xix, 
7,  3)  not  only  by  public  munificence,  but  also  by  perse- 
cuting bigotry,  as  instanced  by  his  murder  of  James 
and  imprisonment  of  Peter  (Acts  xii,  1  sq.).  His  death 
at  Caesarea  (Josephus,  War,  ii,   12,  C),  in  a  terrible 


Coin  of  Herod  Agrippa  \.— Obverse  :  Head  of  Agrippa,  with  the 
Inscription  (in  Greek),  u  King  Agrippa  the  Great,  Lover  of 
Caesar."  Reverse :  Figure  of  Fortune,  standing  with  her  At- 
tributes, with  the  Inscription  (in  Greek),  "  Caesarea  at  the 
Harbor  of  Sebastse." 

agony  caused  by  worms  (axuiXnieeg,  Acts  xii,  23 ;  not 
vermin  [see  Worm]),  is  related  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xix, 
8,  2)  in  almost  the  same  terms.  (See  Ernesti,  De  morte 
Jlerodis  Agrippce,  Lips.  1745  ;  Ranisch,  De  Lucce  et  Jo- 
seph! in  morte  Agr.  consensu,  Lips.  1745;  Guericke, 
Beitr.  z.  N.  T.  Einleit.  p.  189  sq. ;  comp.  Eusebius,  Hist. 
Eccl.  ii,  10 ;  and  see  Heinecken,  Ercurs.  in  Euseb.  iii, 
35G  sq.)— Winer,  i,  484.     See  Herod. 

2.  The  Agrippa  before  whom  Paul  was  brought 
(Acts  xxv,  13,  2G)  was  the  son  of  the  foregoing,  who 
died  when  he  was  only  seventeen  years  old  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xix,  9, 1),  and  hence  he  did  not  succeed  to  his  fa- 
ther's dominions  (Joseph.  Ant.  xix,  9,  2);  but  he  was 
allowed  by  Claudius  (A.D.  48)  to  enjoy  the  principality 
of  Chalcis,  which  his  uncle  Herod  had  held  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xx,  5,  2;  War,  ii,  12,  1),  together  with  the  su- 
perintendence of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and  the. 
privilege  of  nominating  the  high-priest  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xx,  i,  3),  and  four  years  afterward  he  was  instated 
into  the  sovereignty  of  the  former  tetrarchy  of  Philip 
and  Lysanias,  with  the  title  of  king  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xx,  7,  1 ;  War,  ii,  12,  8)— an  appellation  that  is  ap- 
plied to  him  likewise  in  the  Mishna  (Sotah,  vii,  8). 
Still  later  Nero  added  Tiberias,  Tarichaea,  Julias,  and 
fourteen  neighboring  villages  to  his  jurisdiction  (Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  xx,  8,  4).  Agrippa  contributed  much  to 
the  adornment  of  Jerusalem  and  other  cities  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xx,  8,  11 ;  9,  4)  ;  but  yet  he  was  held  in  no  spe- 
cial esteem  by  the  Jews,  on  account  of  his  arbitrary 
appointment  and  deposition  of  the  high-priests,  and 
other  mistakes  in  his  administration  (Josephus,  War, 
iii,  17,  1).  When  the  last  war  with  the  Romans  broke 
out,  he  firmly  joined  their  cause.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  nearly  seventy  years,  in  the  fifty-first  year  of  his 
reign  (Phot.  Bill.  33) — Winer,  i,  485.     See  Herod. 


Coin  of  Herod  Agrippa  II.— Obverse:  Figure  of  the  "Taber- 
imculmii,"  or  Umbrella  (an  Oriental  Representation  of  Pow- 
er), with  the  Inscription  (in  Greek),  "Of  King  Agrippa." 
AViviw:  Three  F.ars  of  Grain  bound  together  (perhaps  a 
Symbol  of  the  Jewish  Oblations),  with  the  Date  partially 
obliterated. 

3.  A  son  of  Felix  by  Drusilla,  who  perished  in  an 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  7,  2). 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius,  bom  at  Rome 
of  an  obscure  family  B.C.  63,  and  educated  in  com- 
pany with  Octavianus,  afterward  Augustus,  by  whom 
he  was  appointed  to  various  responsible  positions, 
which  he  filled  with  honor  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Ant. 
s.  v.).     At  the  close  of  B.C.  17  he  visited  Jerusalem, 


j  at  the  invitation  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  conferred 
many  privileges  upon  the  Jews  of  Palestine  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xvi,  2)  as  well  as  in  Ionia  (Ant.  xii,  3,  2,  1-4) 
and  other   provinces   (Ant.   xvi,   G,  4-7).     He  died, 

|  B.C.  12,  in  his  51st  year,  greatly  lamented  by  his  im- 
perial patron.     (Dio  Cass.  lib.  45-54 ;  Liv.  Epit.  117- 

I  137 ;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ.  lib.  5 ;  Suet.  Octav. ;  Trand- 
sen,  Hist.  Untersuchung  iib.  M.  Vip.  Agrippa,  Altona, 

j  1836.)     See  Augustus. 

Agrippa,  Fonteius,  probably  the  son  of  a  Ro- 
man of  the  same  name  (Tacitus,  Ann.  ii,  30,  86),  was 
proconsul  of  Asia  Proconsularis  in  A.D.  67,  and  was 
recalled  by  Vespasian,  who  placed  him  over  Moesia, 
A.D.  70  (Tacit.  Hist,  iii,  46).  He  was  shortly  after- 
ward killed  in  battle  with  the  Sarmatians  (Josephus, 
War,  vii,  4,  3). 

Agrippa,  Henry  Cornelius,  was  horn  at  Co- 
logne Sept.  14th,  1487.  He  first  followed  the  profes- 
sion of  arms,  and  served  in  the  armies  of  Italy  seven 
years  with  credit.  Subsequently  he  took  the  degrees 
of  doctor  in  law  and  medicine,  and  in  1509  had  tho 
chair  of  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  at  Dole,  in 
Franche-Comte.  After  passing  over  into  England  on 
some  secret  mission,  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Cologne, 
where  he  delivered  some  theological  lectures  called 
Quodlibe tales.  His  active  mind  was  early  turned  to 
the  so-called  secret  arts,  and  he  belonged  to  a  society 
for  the  promotion  of  them.  In  1509-10  he  wrote  his 
treatise  De  Occulta  Philosophia,  which  was  kept  in 
MS.  until  1531.  But  now  he  appears, to  have  return- 
ed to  his  first  profession  of  arms,  and  served  again  with 
the  Emperor  Maximilian  I,  until  he  was  called  to  the 
Council  of  Pisa,  in  1511,  by  the  cardinal  of  St.  Croix. 
In  1515  he  taught  theology  at  Turin  and  Pavia,  where 
he  explained  Mercurius  Trismegistus.  After  his  wife's 
death  in  1519  he  wandered  about  for  the  following 
twelve  years  from  place  to  place,  and  eventually,  in 
1535,  returned  to  France,  where  he  was  imprisoned  for 
having  written  against  Louisa  of  Savoy,  the  mother  of 
Francis  I.  As  soon  as  he  was  set  at  libertj'  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Grenoble,  where  he  died  in  the  same  year, 
1535.  It  has  been  said  that  he  became  a  Calvinist  or 
Lutheran,  but  without  foundation.  Many  authors  ac- 
cuse him  of  dealing  in  magic ;  and  Paul  Jovius,  Del- 
rio,  and  others  speak  harshly  of  him.  He  was  styled 
the  Trismegistus  of  his  time,  because  he  was  learned 
in  theology,  medicine,  and  law. 

Agrippa  was  a  man  of  quick  intellect  and  of  varied 
knowledge :  in  many  respects  he  was  far  in  advance 
of  his  age.  His  Occulta  Philosophia  is  a  system  of  vis- 
ionary philosophy,  in  which  magic,  the  complement  of 
philosophy,  as  he  terms  it,  and  the  key  of  all  the  se- 
crets of  nature,  is  represented  under  the  three  forms 
of  natural,  celestial,  and  religious  or  ceremonial, 
agreeably  to  the  threefold  division  of  the  corporeal, 
celestial,  and  intellectual  worlds.  He  there  enumer- 
ates, with  a  superficial  show  of  scientific  classification, 
the  hidden  powers  which  the  Creator  has  assigned  to 
the  different  objects  of  the  creation,  through  the  agency 
of  the  Spirit  of  the  World.  It  was  natural  that  Agrip- 
pa should  become  a  partisan  of  Raymond  Lull  (q.  v.), 
and  he  accordingly  wrote  a  commentary  on  his  Ars 
Magna.  Nevertheless  his  caprice  sometimes  inclined 
him  to  opinions  directly  the  reverse ;  and  in  such  a 

'  mood  he  composed  his  cynical  treatise,  as  he  terms  it, 

;  De  Incertitudine  et  Vanitate  Scientiarum,  This  work, 
which  had  great  reputation  in  its  day,  occasionally 

j  presents  us  admirable  remarks  on  the  imperfections 

1  and  defects  of  scientific  pursuits.  It  contains  also  se- 
vere rebukes  of  the  superstitions  of  Romish  worship. 

J  He  insisted  on  the  Bible  as  the  only  rule  of  faith,  and 
taught  the  necessity  of  a  moral  change  through  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Still  he  remained  a  Romanist  to  the 
end.     Agrippa  and  his  follower,  John  Weir,  were  of 

'  service  to  philosophy  by  opposing  the  belief  in  witch- 
craft. A  full  account  of  Agrippa  is  given  in  Meiners' 
Lives  of  Eminent  Mai,  vol.  i.     His  writings  are  collect- 


AGRIPPIAS 


115 


AHAB 


ed  in  Opera  H.  C.  Agrlppm  (Lugd.  1560,  2  vols.  8vo)  ; 
and  a  translation  of  the  treatise  Dc  Incertitudine,  etc., 
under  the  title  The  Vanity  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  ap- 
peared in  London  (1684,  8vo).  See  also  Morley,  Life 
of  C.  Agrlppa  (Lond.  2  vols.  1856)  ;  Tennemann,  Hist. 
Phil.  §289;  Ritter,  Geschlchte  d.  Phil.  ix. 

Agrippias.     See  Anthedon. 

Agrippinus,  a  bishop  of  Carthage  in  the  3d  cen- 
tury. He  maintained,  in  opposition  to  Bishop  Stephen 
of  Rome,  that  apostates  had  to  be  baptized  anew.  His 
adherents  were  called  Agrippinians. 

Ague,  a  disease  of  the  fever  kind,  in  which  a  cold 
shivering  fit  is  succeeded  bj-  a  hot  one ;  in  the  Heb. 
pri^i?,  laddach' ath,  a  kindling,  a  burning  or  inflam- 
matory fever  (Levit.  xxvi,  1G ;  Deut.  xxviii,  22). 
See  Disease. 

Aguirre,  Joseph  Saenz  d',  an  eminent  Spanish 
prelate,  was  born  at  Logrofio,  1630,  assumed  the  hab- 
it of  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  and  in  1668  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  at  Salamanca,  where  he  was  chosen 
professor.  He  was  afterward  inquisitor,  and  in  1686 
Innocent  XI  gave  him  the  cardinal's  hat  as  a  return 
for  the  book  which  he  had  written  against  Gallicanism 
(q.  v.).  He  was  a  man  of  acquirements,  but  strongs- 
biassed  in  favor  of  ultramontane  views.  He  died  at 
Rome  August  19th,  1699.  In  1671  he  published  three 
folios  on  philosophy,  and  in  1675  a  work  on  Aristotle's 
Morals.  His  Treatise  on  the  Virtues  and  Vices  ap- 
peared in  1677 ;  in  this  work  he  followed  the  princi- 
ples of  probability,  which  he  abandoned  in  1679.  Dur- 
ing the  following  two  years  he  put  forth  at  Salamanca 
his  Theologia  St.  Anselml,  which  he  afterward  printed 
at  Rome,  in  three  vols.  fol.  In  1683  he  published  his 
Defence  of  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter  against  the  Decla- 
ration of  the  Galilean  Clergy ;  but  another  work,  en- 
titled Be  Llbertatibus  Eccl.  Gallicana>,  is  incorrectly 
attributed  to  him,  having  been  written  by  M.  Charlas, 
a  priest  of  the  diocese  of  Pamiers,  who  composed  it  at 
Rome.  He  is,  however,  perhaps  best  known  by  his 
Collection  of  the  Councils  of  Spain  (Rome,  1693-4),  and 
in  which  he  inserted  many  original  dissertations,  some 
of  which  are  attempts  to  defend  the  false  decretals  at- 
tributed to  the  early  popes. 

A'gur  (Heb.  Agur' ' ,  "H3N,  gathered),  the  author  of 
the  sayings  contained  in  l'rov.  xxx,  which  the  in- 
scription describes  as  composed  of  the  precepts  deliv- 
ered by  "Agur,  the  son  of  Jakeh,"  to  his  friends 
"  Ithiel  and  Ucal."  Some  writers  have  regarded  the 
name  as  an  appellative,  but  differ  as  to  its  significa- 
tion (Gesenius,"  Thes.  Heb.  p.  22).  The  Vulg.  has 
"Verba  Congregantis  filii  Vomentis."  Most  of  the 
rabbins  and  fathers  think  that  Solomon  himself  is  des- 
ignated under  this  name,  which  they  render  collector, 
i.  e.  holder  of  a  congregation  (comp.  Eccles.  xii,  19) ; 
and  if  the  word  is  to  be  understood  as  an  appellative, 
it  may  be  as  well  to  look  for  its  meaning  in  the  Syriac, 
where,  according  to  Bar  Bahlul  (in  Castell.  Lex.), 
agur  means  qui  sapiential  studiis  se  appllcat,  a  sense 
that  aptly  designates  Solomon.  Most  copies  of  the 
Sept.  omit  the  chapter  ascribed  to  Agur,  as  well  as  the 
first  nine  verses  of  the  following  chapter;  but  insert 
verses  1-14  of  this  chap,  between  verses  23  and  24  of 
chap.  xxiv.  That  version  renders  the  present  verse 
thus :  Touc  St  ifiuve.  Aoyouc;,  v'n,  <5o/3//£//n,  Kai  Ct'ia- 
ptvoc  aurovg  ptravuei.  Tate  Aiy«t  ti  av>)p  role  ttkt- 
tivovoiv  Offij,  Kai  iravoi.ua.  Son,  fear  my  words, 
and  receive  them  with  penitence.  These  things  says  the 
man  to  those  that  believe  God,  and  I  cease.  Winer 
(Realwort.  s.  v.)  argues  that  by  Agur  must  be  desig- 
nated some  otherwise  unknown  Israelite,  since  he  is 
designated  as  the  son  of  Jakeh  (i"liT^~"3,  a  rarer  form 
for  "2),  and  not  Solomon,  who,  even  in  Eccles.  (i,  1), 
is  stvled  by  his  proper  patronymic,  "the  son  of  David" 
(see'Bertholdt,  Einl.  v,  2193).  See  Jakeh.  This  ar- 
gument, however,  especially  the  latter  part  of  it,  is 


not  of  much  force,  since  Solomon  is  elsewhere  desig- 
nated in  Prov.  by  a  symbolical  name,  in  connection 
with  his  parentage  (xxxi,  1).  See  Lemuel.  Prof. 
Stuart  {Comment,  in  loc.)  understands  by  Agur  the  son 
of  a  queen  of  Massa,  a  place  which  he  locates  near  the 
head  of  the  eastern  fork  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  supposes 
to  have  been  peopled  by  a  Jewish  colon y.    See  Massa. 

Agur.     See  Swallow. 

Agynians  or  Agyniani  (from  a  negative,  and 
yvvr],  a  woman),  a  sect  belonging  to  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, and  chiefly  distinguished  by  their  condemnation 
of  marriage,  and  of  the  use  of  certain  meats. 

Ah-  (Heb.  Ach-,  -nx,  or  Achi,  -ifiK,  brother  of) 
occurs  as  the  former  part  of  many  Heb.  proper  names, 
with  a  signification  of  relationship  or  property,  simi- 
lar to  that  contained  in  Ab-  (q.  v.)  or  Abi-,  father 
(Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p.  64).  e.  g.  the  names  follow- 
ing; and  likewise  applied  to  females,  e.  g.  Ahinoam, 
comp.  Abinoam;  indeed  in  some  cases  they  are  near- 
ly interchangeable,  e.  g.  Abimelech,  Ahimelech. 

A'hab  (Heb.  AchaV ',  nXHX,  father 'sbrother;  Sept. 
'Axaafi,  Josephus  "Axafioe),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  son  of  Omri,  and  the  eighth  king  of  Israel, 
who  reigned  twenty-one  }'ears  (current,  B.C.  915-895, 
the  preceding  year  apparently  as  viceroy  in  his  fa- 
ther's old  capital  Tirzah),  the  weakest  of  all  the  Israel- 
itish  monarchs,  although  not  Avithout  occasional  good 
feelings  and  dispositions  (Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illustr.  in 
loc).  Many  of  the  evils  of  his  reign  may  be  ascribed 
to  the  close  connection  which  he  formed  with  the 
Phoenicians  (Ewald,  Isr.  Gesch.  iii,  169  sq.).  There 
had  long  been  a  beneficial  commercial  intercourse  be- 
tween that  people  and  the  Jews,  and  the  relations 
arising  thence  were  very  close  in  the  times  of  David 
and  Solomon.  This  connection  appears  to  have  been 
continued  by  the  nearer  kingdom  of  Israel,  but  to 
have  been  nearly,  if  not  quite,  abandoned  by  that  of 
Judah.  The  wife  of  Ahab  was  Jezebel  (q.  v.),  the 
daughter  of  Ethbaal  or  Ithobaal,  king  of  Tyre,  who 
had  been  priest  of  Astarte,  but  had  usurped  the  throne 
of  his  brother  Phalles  (compare  Josephus,  Ant.  viii, 
13,  2,  with  Aplon.  i,  18).  She  was  a  woman  of  a  de- 
cided and  energetic  character,  and  soon  acquired  such 
influence  over  her  husband  that  he  sanctioned  the  in- 
troduction, and  eventually  established  the  worship  of 
the  Phoenician  idols,  and  especially  of  the  sun-god 
Baal.  Hitherto  the  golden  calves  in  Dan  and  Bethel 
had  been  the  only  objects  of  idolatrous  worship  in 
Israel,  and  they  were  intended  as  symbols  of  Jeho- 
vah. But  now  the  king  built  a  temple  at  Samaria, 
and  erected  an  Image  and  consecrated  a  grove  to 
Baal.  A  multitude  of  the  priests  and  prophets  of 
Baal  were  maintained.  Idolatry  became  the  predom- 
inant religion  ;  and  Jehovah,  with  the  golden  calves 
as  symbolical  representations  of  him,  were  viewed 
with  no  more  reverence  than  Baal  and  his  image. 
But  a  man  suited  to  this  emergency  was  raised  up  in 
the  person  of  Elijah,  who  boldly  opposed  the  regal 
authority,  and  succeeded  in  retaining  many  of  his 
countrymen  in  the  worship  of  the  true  God. — Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Elijah. 

The  histon-  of  King  Ahab  is  given  in  detail  in  the 
sacred  narrative,  1  Kings  xvi-xxii  (see  Obbarius, 
Gesch.  d.  Hauses  Ahab,  Nordh.  1754).  One  of  his 
chief  tastes  was  for  splendid  architecture,  which  he 
showed  by  building  an  ivory  house  and  several  cities, 
and  also  by  ordering  the  restoration  and  fortification 
of  Jericho,  which  seems  to  have  belonged  to  Israel, 
and  not  to  Judah,  as  it  is  said  to  have  been  rebuilt  in 
the  days  of  Ahab  rather  than  in  those  of  the  con- 
temporary king  of  Judah,  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kings  xvi, 
34).  But  the  place  in  which  he  chiefly  indulged  this 
passion  was  the  beautiful  city  of  Jezreel  (now  Zerln), 
in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which  he  adorned  with  a 
palace  and  park  for  his  own  residence,  though  Samaria 
remained  the  capital  of  his  kingdom.     Desiring  to  add 


AHAB 


116 


AHASUERUS 


to  his  pleasure-grounds  there  the  vineyard  of  his 
neighbor  Naboth,  he  proposed  to  buy  it  or  give  land 
in  exchange  for  it;  and  when  this  was  refused  by 
Naboth,  in  accordance  with  the  Mosaic  law,  on  the 
ground  that  the  vineyard  was  "  the  inheritance  of  his 
fathers"  (Lev.  xxv,  23),  a  false  accusation  of  blas- 
phemy was  brought  against  him,  and  not  only  was  he 
himself  stoned  to  death,  but  his  sons  also,  as  we  learn 
from  2  Kings  ix,  26.  Elijah,  already  the  great  vindi- 
cator of  religion,  now  appeared  as  the  asserter  of  mo- 
rality, and  declared  that  the  entire  extirpation  of 
Allah's  house  was  the  penalty  appointed  for  his  long 
course  of  wickedness,  now  crowned  by  this  atrocious 
crime.  The  execution,  however,  of  this  sentence  was 
delayed  in  consequence  of  Ahab's  deep  repentance. 
(See  Niemeyer,  Chardkt.  v,  101).     See  Naboth. 

We  read  of  three  campaigns  which  Ahab  undertook 
against  Benhadad  II,  king  of  Damascus,  two  defensive 
and  one  offensive.  See  Benhadad.  In  the  first, 
Benhadad  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  and  Ahab,  encour- 
aged by  the  patriotic  counsels  of  God's  prophets,  who, 
next  to  the  true  religion,  valued  most  deeply  the  in- 
dependence of  his  chosen  people,  made  a  sudden  attack 
on  him  while,  in  the  plenitude  of  arrogant  confidence, 
he  was  banqueting  in  his  tent  wfith  his  32  vassal  kings. 
The  Syrians  were  totally  routed,  and  fled  to  Damas- 
cus. Next  year  Benhadad,  believing  that  his  failure 
was  owing  to  some  peculiar  power  which  the  God  of 
Israel  exercised  over  the  hills,  invaded  Israel  by  way 
of  Aphek,  on  the  east  of  Jordan.  Yet  Ahab's  victory 
was  so  complete  that  Benhadad  himself  fell  into  his 
hands,  but  was  released  (contrary  to  the  will  of  God 
as  announced  by  a  prophet)  on  condition  of  restoring 
all  the  cities  of  Israel  which  he  held,  and  making 
"  streets"  for  Ahab  in  Damascus  ;  that  is,  admitting 
into  his  capital  permanent  Hebrew  commissioners,  in 
an  independent  position,  with  special  dwellings  for 
themselves  and  thoir  retinues,  to  watch  over  the  com- 
mercial and  political  interests  of  Ahab  and  his  sub- 
jects. This  was  apparently  in  retaliation  for  a  simi- 
lar privilege  exacted  by  Benhadad's  predecessor  from 
Omri  in  respect  to  Samaria.  After  this  great  success 
Ahab  enjoyed  peace  for  three  years,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  account  exactly  for  the  third  outbreak  of  hostilities, 
Which  in  Kings  is  briefly  attributed  to  an  attack  made 
by  Ahab  on  Ramoth  in  Gilead  on  the  east  of  Jordan, 
in  conjunction  with  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  which 
town  he  claimed  as  belonging  to  Israel.  But  if  Ra- 
moth was  one  of  the  cities  which  Benhadad  agreed  to 
restore,  why  did  Ahab  wait  for  three  years  to  enforce 
the  fulfilment  of  the  treaty  ?  From  this  difficulty  and 
the  extreme  bitterness  shown  by  Benhadad  against 
Ahab  personally  (1  Kings  xxii,  31),  it  seems  probable 
that  this  was  not  the  case  (or  at  all  events  that  the 
Syrians  did  not  so  understand  the  treaty),  but  that 
Ahab,  now  strengthened  by  Jehoshaphat,  who  must 
have  felt  keenly  the  paramount  importance  of  crip- 
pling the  power  of  Syria,  originated  the  war  by  as- 
saulting Ramoth  without  any  immediate  provocation. 
In  any  case,  God's  blessing  did  not  rest  on  the  expe- 
dition, and  Ahab  was  told  by  the  prophet  Micaiah  that 
it  would  fail,  and  that  the  prophets  who  advised  it 
were  hurrying  him  to  his  ruin.  For  giving  this  warn- 
ing .Micaiah  was  imprisoned;  but  Ahab  was  so  far 
roused  by  it  as  to  take  the  precaution  of  disguising 
himself,  so  as  not  to  offer  a  conspicuous  mark  to  the 
archers  of  Benhadad.  But  lie  was  slain  by  a  "  certain 
man  who  drew  a  bow  at  a  venture;"  and,  though 
stayed  up  in  his  chariot  for  a  time,  yet  he  died  toward 
evening,  and  liis  army  dispersed.  When  he  was 
brought  to  be  buried  in  Samaria,  the  dogs  licked  up 
his  blood  as  a  servant  was  washing  his  chariot;  a  par- 
tial fulfilment  of  Elijah's  prediction  (1  Kings  xxi,  19), 
which  was  more  literally  accomplished  in  the  case  of 
his  son  {_'  Kings  ix,  26).  Josephus,  however,  substi- 
tutes Jezreel  for  Samaria  in  the  former  passage  (Ant. 
viii,  15,  G).—  3»iith.     See  Israel,  Kingdom  of. 


2.  A  false  prophet  who  deceived  the  Israelites  at 
Babylon,  and  was  threatened  by  Jeremiah,  who  fore- 
told that  he  should  be  put  to  death  by  the  king  of 
Babylon  in  the  presence  of  those  whom  he  bed  be- 
guiled ;  and  that  in  following  times  it  should  become 
a  common  malediction  to  say,  "  The  Lord  make  thee 
like  Ahab  and  Zedekiah,  whom  the  king  of  Babylon 
roasted  in  the  fire"  (Jer.  xxix,  21,  22),  B.C.  594.  The 
rabbins,  followed  by  several  expositors,  believe  that 
this  Ahab  and  his  associate  Zedekiah  were  the  two 
elders  that  conspired  against  the  chastity  and  life  of 
Susanna,  as  related  in  the  Apocrypha ;  but  their  pun- 
ishment  appears  to  have  been  by  stoning  (Penz,  De 
gupplicw  Achabi,  etc.  Lpz.  1736).     See  Susanna. 

Ahad.     See  Achad. 

Ahalim  and  Ahaloth.     See  Aloe. 

Ahar'all  (Heb.  Achrach' ,  ITnnx,  perh.  offer  the 
brother;  Sept.  'Actpa),  the  third  son  of  Benjamin  (1 
Chron.  viii,  1),  elsewhere  called  Em  (Gen.  xlvi,  21), 
Ahiram  (Numb,  xxvi,  38),  and  Aher  (1  Chron.  vii, 
12).     See  Ahiram. 

Ahar'hel  (Heb.  Acharchel',  brnnx,  appar.  born 
behind  the  breastwork ;  Sept.  dSe\<pog  'Pjjxg/3),  a  son  of 
Harum,  whose  families  are  named  as  among  the  line- 
age of  Coz,  a  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  8). 
B.C.  post  1612.     See  Harum. 

Alias'ai  (Heb.  Achzay' ',  htFtX,  prob.  a  prolonged 
form  of  A haz  ;  Sept.  omits,  Yulg.  Ahazi),  a  grandson 
of  Immer  and  grandfather  of  Amashai  (Nch.  xi,  13). 
Gesenius  thinks  him  the  same  with  Jaiizerah  (q.  v.), 
who  is  made  the  great-grandson  of  Immer  in  1  Chron. 
ix,  12. 

Alias'bai  (Heb.  Achasbay',  ^S&flX,  prob.  bloom- 
ing; Sept.  'Ax«T/3ru  v.  r.  'A<T/3iY»/r;),  a  Maachathite, 
father  of  one  of  David's  warriors,  Eliphalet  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  34)  ;  apparently  called  Uk  (q.  v.)  in  the  parallel 
passage  (1  Chron.  xi.  35). 

Ahasue'rus(Heb.  Achashverosh' ,  O'THdnX,  prob. 
the  Hebrew  form  of  Xerxes;  Tobit  xiv,  15,  'A<T(>//poc), 
the  name,  or  rather  the  title,  of  three  or  four  Median 
and  Persian  monarchs  in  the  Bible.  See  Media  ; 
Persia.  The  true  native  orthography  of  the  name 
Xerxes,  long  a  subject  of  dispute  (Simonis  Lex.  V.  T. 
p.  580;  Jahn,  Einleit .  ins  A .  T.  p.  299;  Pott,  Etymol. 
Forsch.  i,  65  ;  Hyde,  Eel.  Vet.  Pers.  p.  43),  has  recent- 
ly been  brought  to  light  from  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions of  Persepolis  (Grotefend,  in  Heeren's  Ideen,  i,  2, 
pi.  4),  where  it  is  written  khshyarsha  (Niebuhr,  ii,  p. 
24),  or  Ksharsa  (Lassen,  Keilschr.  p.  23),  which  seems 
to  correspond  to  the  modern  Persian  shyr-shah,  lion- 
king  (Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p.  75),  corresponding  near- 
ly to  the  interpretation,  cipifioc,  given  by  Herodotus 
(vi,  98).  It  maj"-  be  of  service  here  to  prefix  a  chro- 
nological table  of  the  Medo-Persian  kings  from  C}T- 
axares  to  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  according  to  their 
ordinary  classical  names.  The  Scriptural  names  con- 
jectured to  correspond  to  them  are  added  in  italics. 
See  Cuneiform  Inscriptions;  Hieroglyphics. 

1.  Ovaxares,  king  of  Media,  son  of  Phraortes.  grand- 
son of  Deioces,  and  conqueror  of  Nineveh,  began  to 
reign  B.C.  634.      "Ahasuerus"  4. 

2.  Astyages  his  son,  last  king  of  Media,  B.C.  594. 
"Ahastterw"  1. 

3.  Cyrus,  son  of  his  daughter  Mandane  and  Cam- 
byses,  a  Persian  noble,  first  king  of  Persia,  559.  "Cy- 
rus." 

4.  Cambyses  his  son,  529.     "Ahasuerus"  2. 

5.  A  Magian  usurper,  who  personates  Smerdis,  the 
younger  son  of  Cyrus,  521.      "Artaxerxes"  1. 

6.  Darius  Hystaspis,  raised  to  the  throne  on  the 
overthrow  of  the  Magi,  521.      "Darius"  2. 

7.  Xerxes,  his  son,  485.      "Ahasuerus"  3. 

K.  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (Macrocheir),  his  son, 
465-495.     "Artaxerres"  2. 

1,  The  Jirst  Ahasucrus  (Sept.  'Acrovripoc,  Theodo- 


AHASUERUS 


117 


AIIAVA 


tion  Espfyc)  is  incidentally  mentioned  in  Dan.  ix,  1 
as  the  father  of  Darius  (q.  v.)  the  Mede.  It  is  gener- 
ally agreed  that  the  person  here  referred  to  is  the  As- 
tyages  (q.  v.)  of  profane  history.  (Jehring,  in  the 
Biblioth.  Brem.  viii,  565  sq. ;  Bertholdt,  Excurs.  zum 
Dan.  ii,  848  sq.)  According  to  others,  however  (Raw- 
linson's  Herodotus,  i,  ess.  3,  §  11),  his  father,  Cyaxares 
(q.  v.),  is  meant,  as  in  Tobit  xiv,  15. 

2.  The  second  Ahasuerus  (Sept. ' \ooovr)poiS)  occurs 
in  Ezra  iv,  G,  where  it  is  said  that  in  the  beginning  of 
his  reign  the  enemies  of  the  Jews  wrote  an  accusation 
against  them,  the  result  of  which  is  not  mentioned 
(Haverniek,  Einleit.  ii,  i,  29C).  Chronologers  have 
been  very  much  divided  in  identifying  this  prince 
with  those  mentioned  in  profane  history  (Prideaux's 
Connection;  Gray's  Key ;  Tomline's  Elements ;  Hale's 
Analysis;  Ussher's  Annals)  ;  so  much  so  that  some  au- 
thor or  another  has  sought  to  identify  him  in  turn  with 
each  personage  in  the  line  of  Persian  kings,  unless  it 
be  Cyrus  and  Smerdis.  The  form  of  the  word  favors 
Xerxes,  but  this  is  inconclusive,  as  it  is  rather  a  title 
than  a  distinctive  proper  name.  The  account  of  Jo- 
sephus  (Ant.  xii,  6)  favors  the  popular  identification 
with  Artixerxes  Longimanus,  but  his  testimony  is 
mere  opinion  in  such  a  case,  and  this  king  is  elsewhere 
mentioned  in  this  very  book  of  Scripture  (Ezra  vii,  1) 
by  his  usual  name.  The  order  of  time  in  the  sacred 
narrative  itself  requires  us  to  understand  Cambyses 
(q.  v.),  son  of  Cyrus,  who  came  to  the  throne  B.C. 
529,  and  died  after  a  reign  of  seven  years  and  five 
months.  His  character  was  proverbially  furious  and 
despotic.  Much  confusion  has  been  caused  by  mis- 
taking this  Ahasuerus  for  the  following  (Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1847,  iii,  6G0,  669,  678). 

3.  The  third  Ahasuerus  (Sept.  'ApraZlp&ic)  is  the 
Persian  king  of  the  book  of  Esther.  The  chief  facts 
recorded  of  him  there,  and  the  dates  of  their  occurrence, 
which  are  important  in  the  subsequent  inquiry,  are 
these  :  In  the  third  year  of  his  reign  he  made  a  sump- 
tuous banquet  for  all  his  nobility,  and  prolonged  the 
feast  for  180  days.  Being  on  one  occasion  merry  with 
wine,  he  ordered  his  queen,  Vashti,  to  be  brought  out, 
to  show  the  people  her  beaut.y.  On  her  refusal  thus 
to  make  herself  a  gazing-stock,  he  not  only  indignant- 
ly divorced  her,  but  published  an  edict  concerning  her 
disobedience,  in  order  to  insure  to  every  husband  in 
his  dominions  the  rule  in  his  own  house.  In  the  sev- 
enth year  of  his  reign  he  married  Esther,  a  Jewess, 
who,  however,  concealed  her  parentage.  In  the  twelfth 
year  of  his  reign  his  minister  Haman,  who  had  received 
some  slights  from  Mordecai  the  Jew,  offered  him  10,000 
talents  of  silver  for  the  privilege  of  ordering  a  massa- 
cre of  the  Jews  in  all  parts  of  the  empire  on  an  appoint- 
ed day.  The  king  refused  this  immense  sum,  but  ac- 
ceded to  his  request ;  and  couriers  were  despatched  to 
the  most  distant  provinces  to  enjoin  the  execution  of 
this  decree.  Before  it  was  accomplished,  however, 
Mordecai  and  Esther  obtained  such  an  influence  over 
him  that  he  so  far  annulled  his  recent  enactment  as  to 
despatch  other  couriers  to  empower  the  Jews  to  defend 
themselves  manfully  against  their  enemies  on  that 
day  ;  the  result  of  which  was  that  the}*  slew  800  of  his 
native  subjects  in  Shushan,  and  75,000  of  them  in  the 
provinces.     (See  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  July,  I860,  p.  385  sq.) 

The  same  diversity  among  chronologers  has  existed 
with  reference  to  the  identification  of  this  Ahasuerus 
as  with  the  preceding,  with  whom  he  has  usually  been 
confounded.  But  the  circumstances  under  which  he  is 
mentioned  do  not  well  comport  with  those  under  which 
any  other  of  the  Persian  kings  are  introduced  to  us  in 
Scripture.  Now  from  the  extent  assigned  to  the  Per- 
sian empire  (Esth.  i,  1),  "from  India  even  unto  Ethi- 
opia," it  is  proved  that  Darius  Hystaspis  is  the  earli- 
est possible  king  to  whom  this  history  can  apply,  and 
it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  consider  the  claims  of  any 
after  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  But  Ahasuerus  can- 
not be  identical  with  Darius,  whose  wives  were  the 


daughters  of  Cyrus  and  Otanes,  and  who  in  name  and 
chai-acter  equally  differs  from  that  foolish  tyrant. 
Josephus  (Ant.  xi,  6,  1)  makes  him  to  be  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  ;  but  as  his  twelfth  year  (Esth.  iii,  7) 
would  fall  in  B.C.  454,  or  144  years  after  the  deporta- 
tion by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  B.C.  598  (Jer.  Iii,  28), 
Mordecai,  who  was  among  those  captives  (Esth.  ii,  6), 
could  not  possibly  have  survived  to  this  time.  Be- 
sides, in  Ezra  vii,  1-7,  11-2G,  Artaxerxes,  in  the  sev- 
enth year  of  his  reign,  issues  a  decree  very  favorable 
to  the  Jews,  and  it  is  unlikely,  therefore,  that  in  the 
twelfth  (Esth.  iii,  7)  Haman  could  speak  to  him  of 
them  as  if  he  knew  nothing  about  them,  and  persuade 
him  to  sentence  them  to  an  indiscriminate  massacre. 
Nor  is  the  disposition  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  as 
given  by  Plutarch  and  Diodorus  (xi,  71),  at  all  like 
that  of  this  weak  Ahasuerus.  It  therefore  seems  nec- 
essary to  identify  him  with  Xerxes  (q.  v.),  whose 
regal  state  and  affairs  tally  with  all  that  is  here  said 
of  Ahasuerus  (the  names  being,  as  we  have  seen,  iden- 
tical) ;  and  this  conclusion  is  fortified  by  the  resem- 
blance of  character,  and  by  certain  chronological  in- 
dications (see  Rawlinson's  Hist.  Evidences,  p.  150  sq.). 
As  Xerxes  scourged  the  sea,  and  put  to  death  the  en- 
gineers of  his  bridge  because  their  work  was  injured 
by  a  storm,  so  Ahasuerus  repudiated  his  queen,  Vashti, 
because  she  would  not  violate  the  decorum  of  her  sex, 
and  ordered  the  massacre  of  the  whole  Jewish  people 
to  gratif}-  the  malice  of  Haman.  In  the  third  year  of 
the  reign  of  Xerxes  was  held  an  assembly  to  arrange 
the  Grecian  war  (Herod,  vii,  7sq.);  in  the  third  year 
of  Ahasuerus  was  held  a  great  feast  and  assembly  in 
Shushan  the  palace  (Esth.  i,  3).  In  the  seventh  year 
of  his  reign  Xerxes  returned  defeated  from  Greece, 
and  consoled  himself  by  the  pleasures  of  the  harem 
(Herod,  ix,  108) ;  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign 
"fair  young  virgins  were  sought"  for  Ahasuerus,  and 
he  replaced  Vashti  by  marrying  Esther.  The  tribute 
he  "laid  upon  the  land  and  upon  the  isles  of  the  sea" 
(Esth.  x,  1)  may  well  have  been  the  result  of  the. 
expenditure  and  ruin  of  the  Grecian  expedition. 
Throughout  the  book  of  Esther  in  the  Sept.  Artaxerxes 
is  written  for  Ahasuerus,  but  on  this  no  argument  of 
any  weight  can  be  founded.     See  Esther, 

Xerxes  was  the  second  son  of  Darius  Hystaspis, 
whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne  about  B.C.  486,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Artaxerxes  Longimanus 
about  B.C.  4G6  (omitting  the  seven  months'  reign  of  the 
usurper  Artabanus).  He  is  famous  in  history  from 
his  memorable  invasion  of  Greece  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  more  than  three  millions,  who  were  repulsed 
by  the  little  band  of  Spartans  at  Thermopylas,  and, 
after  burning  the  city  of  Athens,  were  broken  to 
pieces,  and  the  remnant,  with  the  king,  compelled  to 
return  with  disgrace  to  Persia  (Baumgarten,  De  fide 
Esth.  p.  141  sq.  ;  De  Wette,  Einleit.  i,  274 ;  Petavius, 
Doctrina  Temp,  xv,  27 ;  Kelle,  Vindic.  Esth.  Freib. 
1820;  Eambach,  Annotat.  ii,  1046;  Bertholdt,  Einleit. 
v,  2422 ;  Scaliger,  Emend.  Temp.  1.  vi ;  Justi,  Ntue 
Abhandl.  i,  38  sq. ;  Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  i,  75). 

4.  The  fourth  Ahasuerus  ('Awo/u-por)  is  mentioned 
(Tobit  xiv,  15),  in  connection  with  Nabuchodonosor 
(i.  e.  Nabopolassar),  as  the  destroyer  of  Nineveh 
(Herod,  i,  106) ;  a  circumstance  that  points  to  Cya- 
xares (q.  v.)  I  (Polyhistor  ap.  Syncell.  p.  210},  a  Me- 
dian king,  son  of  Phraortes,  and  father  of  Astyages 
(Ilgen,  Comment,  in  loc). 

Aha'va  (Heb.  Ahava',  N1!~!X,  prob.  water ;  Sept. 
'Aove  in  Ezra  viii,  21,  31,  but  'Evei  v.  r.  'Evi  in  verse 
15),  the  "  river"  ("iHD)  by  which  the  Jewish  exiles 
assembled  their  second  caravan  under  Ezra,  in  re- 
turning from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem  ;  or,  rather,  as 
appears  from  verse  15  ("the  river  that  runneth  to 
Ahava"),  the  name  of  some  spot  (according  to  Mi- 
chaelis,  a  city ;  comp.  De  Wette,  Einhit.  ii.  i,  289; 
but  more  probably  the  river  Euphrates  itself,  which 


AHAZ 


118 


AHAZIAH 


is  still  called  "  the  river"  by  way  of  eminence,  Gese- 
nius,  Heb.  Lex.  s.  v.),  in  the  direction  of  which  the 
stream  where  the}'  encamped  ran.  Some  have  infer- 
red from  the  mention  of  Casiphia  (q.  v.),  apparently 
in  the  same  neighborhood  (ver.  17),  that  the  place  in 
question  was  situated  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  or,  at 
least,  in  Media ;  but  this  would  be  entirely  out  of  the 
required  direction,  and  no  corresponding  name  has 
been  found  in  that  vicinity.  Others  have  sought  the 
Ahava  in  the  Lycus  or  Little  Zab,  finding  that  this 
river  was  anciently  called  Adiaba  or  Diaba  (i.  e.  of 
Adiabene,  Ammian.  Marcel,  xxiii,  6;  comp.  Mannert, 
v,  429).  But  these  names  would,  in  Hebrew,  have 
no  resemblance  to  SO  SIX ;  and  it  is  exceedingly  un- 
likely that  the  rendezvous  for  a  Palestine  caravan 
should  have  been  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Assyria, 
with  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  between  them  and  the 
plains  they  were  to  traverse  (Le  Clerc,  in  loc).  Ros- 
enmuller,  on  the  other  hand,  supposes  (Bibl.  Geogr. 
I,  ii,  93)  that  it  lay  to  the  south-west  of  Babylonia,  be- 
cause that  icas  in  the  direction  of  Palestine ;  but  cara- 
van routes  seldom  run  straight  between  two  places. 
In  this  case  a  straight  line  would  have  taken  the  car- 
avan through  the  whole  breadth  of  a  desert  seldom 
traversed  but  by  the  Arabs  ;  and  to  avoid  this  the 
usual  route  for  large  caravans  lay,  and  still  lies,  north- 
west through  Mesopotamia,  much  above  Babylonia; 
and  then,  the  Euphrates  being  crossed,  the  direction 
is  south-west  to  Palestine.  The  greater  probability, 
therefore,  is  that  the  "river"  in  question  (whether 
the  Ahava  itself  or  a  branch  running  into  it)  was  one 
of  the  streams  or  canals  of  Mesopotamia  communicat- 
ing with  the  Euphrates,  somewhere  in  the  north-west 
of  Babylonia.  The  name,  however,  may  be  the  des- 
ignation of  a  place,  and  the  latest  researches  are  in  fa- 
vor of  its  being  the  modern  Hit,  on  the  Euphrates,  due 
east  of  Damascus,  the  name  of  which  is  known  to  have 
been  in  the  post-biblical  times  lh;,  or  Jehe  de-kera 
(Talm.  SOPp?  SOfT),  "  the  spring  of  bitumen"  (Raw- 
linson's  Herodotus,  i,  :M6,  note).  But  this  is  rather 
the  Ava  (q.  v.)  or  Ivah  of  2  Kings  xvii,  24,  30.  In 
the  parallel  passage  of  the  Apocrypha  (1  Esdr.  viii, 
41,  GO)  the  name  is  given  Theras  (0£p«e).  Josephus 
(Ant.  xi,  5,  2)  merely  says  "  beyond  the  Euphrates" 
(«i'c  to  Ttipav  Toil  Eutpparou). 

A'haz  (Heb.  Avhaz',  TnN,  possessor),  the  name 
of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  XaaZ  v.  r.  'Aj£a£.)  A  great  grandson  of 
Jonathan,  son  of  King  Saul,  being  one  of  the  four  sons 
of  Micah,  and  the  father  of  Jehoiadah  or  Jarah  (1 
Chron.  viii,  35  ;  ix,  42).     B.C.  post  1037. 

2.  (Sept.  and  N.  T.'AxpZ,  Josephus  'A\d^r]Q,  Auth. 
Vers.  "  Achaz,"  Matt,  i,  9.)  The  son  and  successor  of  Jo- 
tham,  being  the  twelfth  king  of  the  separate  kingdom 
of  Judah,  who  reigned  fourteen  years,  B.C.  740-726 
(besides  two  years  as  vicero}' under  his  father).  In 
2  Kings  xvi,  2,  he  is  said  to  have  ascended  the  throne 
at  the  age  of  20  j-ears.  This  has  been  regarded  as  a 
transcriber's  error  for  25,  which  number  is  found  in 
one  Hebrew  MS.,  the  Sept.,  the  Peshito,  and  Arabic 
version  of  2  Chron.  xxviii,  1  ;  for  otherwise  his  son 
Hezekiah  was  born  when  he  was  eleven  years  old  (so 
Clinton,  Fasti  Hell,  i,  318).  But  it  more  probably  re- 
fers  to  a  -till  earlier  viceroyship  at.  the.  date  of  Ids  fa- 
ther's full  coronation  (2  Kings  xv,  32,  33),  B.C.  750. 
At  the  time  of  his  accession,  Rezin,  king  of  Damascus, 
and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  had  recently  formed  a  league 
against  Judah,  and  they  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to  Je- 
rusalem, intending  to  place  on  the  throne  Ben-Tabeal, 
who  was  not  a  prince  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah, 
but  probably  a  Syrian  noble.  Upon  this  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  full  of  zeal  for  God  and  patriotic  loyalty  to  the 
house  of  David,  hastened  to  e;ive  advice  and  encourage- 
ment to  Ahaz  (see  Richardson's  Sermons,  ii,  186),  and 
it  was  probably  owing  to  the  spirit  of  energy  and  re- 
ligious devotion  which  he  poured  into  his  counsels 


l  that  the  allies  failed  in  their  attack  on  Jerusalem. 

j  Thus  much,  together  with  anticipations  of  danger 
from  the  Assyrians,  and  a  general  picture  of  weakness 
and  unfaithfulness  both  in  the  king  and  the  people, 
we  find  in  the  famous  prophecies  of  the  7th,  8th,  and 
9th  chapters  of  Isaiah,  in  which  he  seeks  to  animate 
and  support  them  by  the  promise  of  the  Messiah. 
From  2  Kings  xvi,  and  2  Chron.  xxviii,  we  learn  that 
the  allies  took  a  vast  number  of  captives,  who,  how- 
ever, were  restored  in  virtue  of  the  remonstrances  of 
the  prophet  Oded ;  and  that  they  also  inflicted  a 
most  severe  injury  on  Judah  by  the  capture  of  Elath, 
a  flourishing  port  on  the  Red  Sea,  in  which,  after  ex- 
pelling the  Jews,  they  re-established  the  Edomites 
(according  to  the  true  reading  of  2  Kings  xvi,  6, 
EPOilX  for  QipilX),  who  attacked  and  wasted  the 
east  part  of  Judah,  while  the  Philistines  invaded  the 
west  and  south.  The  weak-minded  and  helpless  Ahaz 
sought  deliverance  from  these  numerous  troubles  by 
appealing  to  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  who 
freed  him  from  his  most  formidable  enemies  by  in- 
vading Syria,  taking  Damascus,  killing  Rezin,  and 
depriving  Israel  of  its  northern  and  Transjordanic  dis- 
tricts— an  extension  of  their  dominions  for  which  the 
AssjTians  had  been  already  preparing  (see  Kitto's 
Daily  Bible,  lllustr.  in  loc).  But  Ahaz  had  to  pur- 
chase this  help  at  a  costly  price :  he  became  tributary 
to  Tiglath-pileser,  sent  him  all  the  treasures  of  the 
Temple  and  his  own  palace,  and  even  appeared  before 
him  in  Damascus  as  a  vassal.  He  also  ventured  to 
seek  for  safety  in  heathen  ceremonies,  despite  the  ad- 
monitions of  Isaiah,  Hosea,  and  Micah  ;  making  his 

1  son  pass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch,  consulting  wizards 

I  and  necromancers  (Isa.  viii,  19),  sacrificing  to  the 
Syrian  gods,  introducing  a  foreign  (originally  Assyr- 

|  ian,  apparently,  Rawlinson,  Hist.  Evidences,  p.  117) 
altar  from  Damascus,  and  probably  the  worship  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  from  Assyria  and  Babylon,  as  he 
would  seem  to  have  set  up  the  horses  of  the  sun  men- 
tioned in  2  Kings  xxiii,  11  (comp.  Tacit.  Ann.  xii,  13)  ; 
and  "  the  altars  on  the  top  (or  roof)  of  the  upper  cham- 
ber of  Ahaz"  (2  Kings  xxiii,  12)  were  connected  with 
the  adoration  of  the  stars.  See  Astrology.  The 
worship  of  Jehovah  became  neglected,  and  the  Temple 
at  length  altogether  closed.  We  see  another  and 
blameless  result  of  this  intercourse  with  an  astronom- 
ical people  in  the  "sundial  of  Ahaz"  (Is.  xxxviii,  8). 
See  Dial.      He  died  at  the  age  of  fifty  years,  and  his 

j  body  was  refused  a  burial  in  the  roj'al  sepulchre  (2 
Kings  xvi;  2  Chron.  xxviii;  Isa.  vii).  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Hezekiah  (see  Simeon's  Works,  iv, 
177).-— Smith,  s.  v.     See  Judah,  Kingdom  of. 

Ahazi'ah  (Heb.  Achazyah' ',  rpmx,  held  by  Je- 
hovah, 2  Kings  i,  2  ;  ix,  16,  23,  27,  29';  xi,  2 ;  2  Chron. 
xx,  35;  elsewhere  in  the  prolonged  form,  Achazya'hu, 
>l!"r"ns<  •  Sept.  'Ovo^'ar,  but  v.  r.  'O^iag  in  1  Chron. 
iii,  11),  the  name  of  two  Jewish  kings. 

1.  The  son  and  successor  of  Ahab,  and  ninth  king 
of  Israel,  who  reigned  two  years  (current,  B.C.  895-4). 
Under  the  influence  of  his  mother,  Jezebel,  Ahaziah 
pursued  the  evil  courses  of  his  father.  The  most 
signal  public  event  of  his  reign  was  the  revolt  of  the 
vassal  king  of  the  Moabites,  who  took  the  opportunity 
of  the  defeat  and  death  of  Ahab  to  discontinue  the 
tribute  which  he  had  paid  to  the  Israelites,  consisting 
of  100,000  lambs  and  as  many  rams,  with  their  wool 
(comp.  Isa.  xvi,  1).  The  difficulty  of  enforcing  this 
tribute  was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  after  the  battle 
of  Ramoth  in  Gilead  [see  Ahab]  the  Syrians  had  the 
command  of  the  country  along  the  east  of  Jordan,  and 
they  cut  off  all  communication  between  the  Israelites 
and  Moabites.  Ahaziah  became  a  party  in  the  at- 
tempt of  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Judah,  to  revive  the 
maritime  traffic  bj'  the  Red  Sea,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  enterprise  was  blasted,  and  came  to  nothing 
(2  Chron.  xx,  35-37).     Soon  after,  Ahaziah,  having 


AHBAN 


119 


AHIJAH 


been  much  injured  by  a  fall  from  the  roof-gallery  of 
his  palace,  had  the  infatuation  to  send  to  consult  the 
oracle  of  Baal-zebub,  the  god  of  Ekron,  respecting  his 
recove^'.  But  the  messengers  were  met  and  sent 
back  by  Elijah,  who  announced  to  the  king  that  he 
should  rise  no  more  from  the  bed  on  which  he  lay  (1 
Kings  xxii,  51,  to  2  Kings  i,  50). — Kitto,  s.  v.  See 
Iskael,  Kingdom  of. 

2.  The  son  of  Jehoram  by  Athaliah  (daughter  of 
Ahab  and  Jezebel),  and  sixth  king  of  the  separate 
kingdom  of  Judah ;  otherwise  called  Jehoahaz  (2 
Chron.  xxi,  17;  xxv,  23),  and  Azariah  (2  Chron. 
xxii,  6).  In  2  Kings  viii,  2G,  we  read  that  he  was  22 
years  old  at  his  succession,  but  in  2  Chron.  xxii,  2, 
that  his  age  at  that  time  was  42.  The  former  number 
is  certainly  right  (comp.  ver.  1),  as  in  2  Chron.  xxi, 
5,  20,  we  see  that  his  father  Jehoram  was  40  when  he 
died,  which  would  make  him  younger  than  his  own 
son,  so  that  a  transcriber  must  have  confounded  23 
(22)  and  3.^2  (42).  (See  the  treatises  on  this  difficulty 
in  Latin  by  Lilienthal  [Regiom.  1750],  and  in  German 
by  Miihlenfeld  [Nordhaus.  1753].)  He  reigned  but 
one  year  (B.C.  884-883),  and  that  ill,  being  guided  by 
his  idolatrous  mother  (2  Kings  viii,  24-29).  He  joined 
his  uncle  Jehoram  of  Israel  in  an  expedition  against 
Hazael,  king  of  Damascene-Syria,  for  the  recovery  of 
Ramoth-Gilead,  and  afterward  paid  him  a  visit  while 
he  la}'  wounded  in  his  summer  palace  of  Jezreel.  The 
two  kings  rode  out  in  their  several  chariots  to  meet 
Jehu  (q.  v.)  ;  and  when  Jehoram  was  shot  through  the 
heart  Ahaziah  attempted  to  escape,  but  was  pursued 
as  far  as  the  pass  of  Gur,  and  being  there  mortally 
wounded,  had  only  strength  to  reach  Mcgiddo,  where  he 
died  (Granmiiller,  llarmonia  vitas  Achasiie,  Jen.  1717). 
His  bodj'  was  conveyed  by  his  servants  in  a  chariot  to 
Jerusalem  for  interment  (2  Kings  ix,  22-28).  The 
variation  in  2  Chron.  xxii,  7-9,  is  not  substantial  (see 
Poole's  Synopsis,  in  loc.).  It  appears  from  the  latter 
passage  that  Jehu  was  right  in  considering  Ahaziah 
as  included  in  his  commission  to  root  out  the  house  of 
Ahab,  his  presence  in  Jezreel  at  the  time  of  Jehu's  op- 
erations being  an  arrangement  of  Providence  for  ac- 
complishing his  doom.     See  Judah,  Kingdom  of. 

Ah'ban  (Heb.  Achban',  "|3HX,  brother  o/"the  wise, 
i.  e.  discreet,  otherwise  =  "3f"!X,  amiable;  Sept.  'Ay_«/3«P 
v.  r.  'OZ,a,  Vulg.  Ahobban),  the  first  named  of  the  two 
sons  of  Abishur  bv  Abihail,  of  the  descendants  of  Ju- 
dah (1  Chron.  ii,  29),  B.C.  long  after  1612. 

A'her  (Heb.  Acker',  ^nx,  after;  Sept.  'Aop),  a  de- 
scendant of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vii,  12),  the  same  per- 
son as  Aharaii  (1  Chron.  viii,  1),  or  Ahiram  (q.  v.). 

A'hi  (Heb.  Achi',  ^HX,  my  brother  [comp.  Am-], 
the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'A^i.)  The  first  named  of  the  four  sons 
of  Shamer.  a  chieftain  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (1  Chron. 
vii,  34),  B.C.  long  post  1612. 

2.  (Sept.  dde\<pog,  but  most  copies  omit.)  A  son 
of  Abdiel,  and  chieftain  of  the  tribe  of  Gad,  resident  in 
Bashan  (1  Chron.  v,  15),  B.C.  apparently  cir.  782. 

Ahi-.     See  Ah-. 

Ahi'ah,  another  mode  of  Anglicizing  (1  Sam.  xiv, 
3,  18 ;  1  Kings  iv,  3 ;  1  Chron.  viii,  7)  the  name  Am- 
JAH  (q.  v.). 

Ahi'am  (Heb.  Achiam',  dXiHN,  mother's  brother, 
perh.  for  Achiab' ' ,  2X"irtX,  father' s  brother ;  Sept.  'A^i- 
aji  v.  r.  'A/jvdv  and  'A\i^i),  a  son  of  Sharar  the  Harar- 
ite,  and  one  of  David's  thirty  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii, 
33;  1  Chron.  xi,  35),  B.C.  1046.     See  David. 

Ahi'an(Heb.  Achyan  ,  ^T)^, brotherly ;  Sept.'AnV 
v,  r.  'Ai'/O,  the  first  named  of  the  four  sons  of  Shemi- 
dah,  of  the  family  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii,  19),  B.C. 
post  1856. 

Ahie'zer  (Heb.  Achie'zer,  TT"",nx,  brother  of  help, 
i.  e.  helpful ;  Sept.  'Ax^s£(0,  tne  name  of  two  men. 


1.  A  son  of  Ammishaddai,  and  phylarch  or  chief  of 
the  tribe  of  Dan  at  the  time  of  the  exode  (Num.  i,  12 ; 
ii,  25;  x,  25).  He  made  an  offering  for  the  service 
of  the  tabernacle,  like  his  compeers  (Num.  vii,  66,  71), 
B.C.  1657. 

2.  The  chief  of  the  Benjamite  warriors  and  slingers 
that  repaired  to  David  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii,  3),  B.C. 
1054. 

Ahi'hud,  the  name  of  two  men,  alike  in  our  ver- 
sion, but  different  in  the  original. 

1.  (Heb.  Achichud',  irPHX,  brother  [or friend]  of 
union;  Sept.  'In^iX"^  v-  r-  '^"V'X^i tne  second  named 
of  the  two  later  sons  of  Bela  the  son  of  Benjamin  (1 
Chron.  viii,  7),  B.C.  post  1856.  See  Shaharaim. 
Perhaps  the  same  as  Abihud  (ver.  3).     See  Jacob. 

2.  (Heb.  Achihud',  IISTWS,  brother  [i.  e.  lover']  of 
renonn;  Sept.  'Ayn^p),  a  son  of  Shelomi,  and  phylarch 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher ;  one  of  those  appointed  by  Moses 
to  superintend  the  partition  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv, 
27),  B.C.  1618. 

Ahi'jah  (Heb.  A  ch>yah' ,  !"I*Hit,  brother  [i.  e.  friend] 
of  Jehovah,  also  in  the  prolonged  form  Achiya'hu, 
ilVt^-IX,  1  Kings  xiv,  4,  5,  6, 18 ;  2  Chron.  x,  5 ;  Sept. 
'A\td  or  'A\ia,  but  omits  in  1  Chron,  ii,  25,  oi  Atmrat 
dSt\<poi  ainuiv  in  1  Chron.  xxvi,  20,  'Ala  in  Neh.  x, 
26  ;  Auth.  Vers.  "Ahiah"  in  1  Sam.  xiv,  3, 18  ;  1  Kings 
iv,  3 ;  1  Chron.  viii,  7),  the  name  of  several  men. 

1.  The  second  named  of  the  three  earlier  sons  of 
Bela  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii,  7),  [see  Shaha- 
raim,] elsewhere  (ver.  4)  called  Ahoah  (q.  v.). 

2.  The  last  named  of  the  five  sons  of  Jerahmeel 
(great-grandson  of  Judah)  bv  his  first  wife  (1  Chron. 
ii,  25),  B.C.  cir.  1612. 

3.  A  son  of  Ahitub,  and  high-priest  in  the  reign  of 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv,  3,  18) ;  hence  probably  the  same  ts 
Ahimelech  (q.  v.)  the  son  of  Ahitub,  who  was  high- 
priest  at  Nob  in  the  same  reign,  and  was  slain  by  Saul 
for  assisting  David  (1  Sam.  xxii,  11).  See  High- 
triest.  In  the  former  passage  Ahijah  is  described  as 
being  the  Lord's  priest  in  Shiloh,  wearing  an  ephi  d. 
And  it  appears  that  the  ark  of  God  was  under  his  care, 
and  that  he  inquired  of  the  Lord  by  means  of  it  and 
the  ephod  (comp.  1  Chron.  xiii,  3).  There  is,  howev- 
er, some  difficulty  in  reconciling  this  statement  con- 
cerning the  ark  being  used  for  inquiring  by  Ahijah  at 
Saul's  lidding  and  the  statement  elsewhere  (1  Chron. 
xiii,  3)  that  they  inquired  not  at  the  ark  in  the  days 
of  Saul,  if  we  understand  the  latter  expression  in  the 
strictest  sense.  This  difficulty  seems  to  have  led  to 
the  reading  in  the  Vatican  copy  of  the  Sept.  at  1  Sam. 
xiv,  18,  of  "ephod"  instead  of  "ark"  (rb  lipoid  in- 
stead of  n)v  KijiujTov,  or  rather,  perhaps,  of  Ti£N  in- 
stead of  yilK,  in  the  Hebrew  codex  from  which  that 
version  was  made).  Others  avoid  the  difficulty  by  in- 
terpreting the  ark  in  this  case  to  mean  a  chest  for  car- 
rying about  the  ephod  in.  But  all  difficulty  will  dis- 
appear if  we  apply  the  expression  only  to  all  the  lat- 
ter years  of  the  reign  of  Saul,  when  we  know  that  the 
priestly  establishment  was  at  Nob,  and  not  at  Kirjath- 
jearim,  or  Baale  of  Judah,  where  the  ark  was.  The 
narrative  in  1  Sam.  xiv  is  entirely  favorable  to  the 
mention  of  the  ark ;  for  it  appears  that  Saul  was  at  the 
time  in  Gibeah  of  Benjamin,  so  near  the  place  where 
the  house  of  Abinadab  was  situated  (2  Sam.  vi,  3)  as  to 
be  almost  a  quarter  of  Kirjath-jearim,  which  lay  on  the 
very  borders  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  (see  Josh,  xviii, 
14,  28).  Whether  it  was  the  encroachments  of  the 
Philistines,  or  an  incipient  schism  between  the  tribes 
of  Benjamin  and  Judah,  or  any  other  cause,  which  led 
to  the  disuse  of  the  ark  during  the  latter  years  of  Saul's 
reign,  is  difficult  to  say.  But  probably  the  last  time 
that  Ahijah  inquired  of  the  Lord  before  the  ark  was  on 
the  occasion  related  1  Sam.  xiv,  36,  when  Saul  marred 
his  victory  over  the  Philistines  by  his  rash  oath,  which 
nearly  cost  Jonathan  his  life ;  for  we  there  read  that 


AIIIKAM 


120 


AHIMELECH 


when  Saul  proposed  a  night-pursuit  of  the  Philistines, 
the  priest,  Ahijah,  said,  "  Let  us  draw  near  hither  unto 
God,"  for  the  purpose,  namely,  of  asking  counsel  of 
God.  But  God  returned  no  answer,  in  consequence, 
as  it  seems,  of  Saul's  rash  curse.  If,  as  is  commonly 
thought,  and  as  seems  most  likely,  Ahijah  is  the  same 
person  as  Ahimelech  the  son  of  Ahitub,  this  failure  to 
obtain  an  answer  from  the  priest,  followed  as  it  was 
by  a  rising  of  the  people  to  save  Jonathan  out  of 
Saul's  hands,  may  have  led  to  an  estrangement  be- 
tween the  king  and  the  high-priest,  and  predisposed 
him  to  suspect  Ahimelech's  loyalty,  and  to  take  that 
terrible  revenge  upon  him  for  his  favor  to  David. 
Such  changes  of  name  as  Ahi-melech  and  Ahi-jah  are 
not  uncommon.  However,  it  is  not  impossible  that, 
as  Gesenius  supposes  (Thes.  Heb.  p.  Go),  Ahimelech 
may  have  been  brother  to  Ahijah,  and  that  they  of- 
ficiated simultaneously,  the  one  at  Gibcah  or  Kirjath- 
jearim,  and  the  other  at  Nob. — Smith.     See  Ark. 

4.  A  Pelonite,  one  of  David's  famous  heroes  (1 
Chron.  xi,  36);  apparently  the  same  called  Eliam 
(q.  v.)  the  son  of  Ahithophel  the  Gilonite  in  the  par- 
allel passage  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  34).     See  David. 

5.  A  Levite  appointed  over  the  sacred  treasury  of 
dedicated  things  at  the  Temple  in  the  arrangement  bv 
David  (1  Chron.  xxvi,  20),  B.C.  1014. 

6.  The  last  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Shisha,  secre- 
taries of  King  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv,  3),  B.C.  1014. 

7.  A  prophet  of  Shiloh  (1  Kings  xiv,  2),  hence 
called  the  Shilonite  (xi,  29),  in  the  days  of  Rehoboam, 
of  whom  we  have  two  remarkable  prophecies  extant : 
the  one  in  1  Kings  xi,  31-39,  addressed  to  Jeroboam, 
announcing  the  rending  of  the  ten  tribes  from  Solo- 
mon, in  punishment  of  his  idolatries,  and  the  transfer 
of  the  kingdom  to  Jeroboam,  B.C.  973.  This  prophe- 
cy, though  delivered  privately,  became  known  to  Sol- 
omon, and  excited  his  wrath  against  Jeroboam,  who 
fled  for  his  life  into  Egypt,  to  Shishak,  and  remained 
there  till  Solomon's  death.  The  other  prophecy,  in  1 
Kings  xiv,  6-16,  was  delivered  in  the  prophet's  ex- 
treme old  age  to  Jeroboam's  wife,  in  which  he  foretold 
the  death  of  Abijah  (q.  v.),  the  king's  son,  who  was 
sick,  and  to  inquire  concerning  whom  the  queen  had 
come  in  disguise,  and  then  went  on  to  denounce  the 
destruction  of  Jeroboam's  house  on  account  of  the  im- 
ages which  he  had  set  up,  and  to  foretell  the  captivity 
of  Israel  "beyond  the  river"  Euphrates,  B.C.  952. 
These  prophecies  give  us  a  high  idea  of  the  faithful- 
ness and  boldness  of  Ahijah,  and  of  the  eminent  rank 
which  he  attained  as  a  prophet.  Jeroboam's  speech 
concerning  him  (1  Kings  xiv,  2,  3)  shows  the  estima- 
tion in  which  he  held  his  truth  and  prophetic  powers. 
In  •_'  ( Ihron.  ix,  29,  reference  is  made  to  a  record  of  the 
events  of  Solomon's  reign  contained  in  the  "  prophecy 
of  Ahijah  the  Shilonite."  If  there  were  a  larger  work 
of  Ahijah's,  the  passage  in  1  Kings  xi,  is  doubtless  an 
extract  from  it.— Smith,  s.  v.     See  Jeroboam. 

8.  An  Issacharite,  father  of  Baasha,  king  of  Israel 
(1  Kind's  xv,  27,  33;  xxi,  2;  2  Kings  ix,  9),  B.C. 
ante.  950. 

9.  One  of  the  chief  Israelites  who"  subscribed  the 
sacred  covenant  drawn  up  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x,  26) 
B.C.  cir.  110. 

Ahi'kam  (Heb.  Achikam',  E^nx,  brother  of 
support,  i.  e.  Helper;  Sept.  'A\iK-a/t),  the  second  named 
of  the  four  eminent  persons  sent  by  King  Josiah  to 
inquire  of  the  prophetess  Huldah  concerning  the  prop- 
er course  to  be  pursued  in  relation  to  the  acknowl- 
edged violations  of  the  newly-discovered  book  of  the 
law  c_'  Kings  xxii,  12  M  :  '-'  Chron.  xxxiv,  20),  B.C. 
623.  He  afterward  protected  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
from  the  persecuting  fury  of  Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxvi, 
21 1,  EM  '.  oi>7  :  ami  other  members  of  his  family  were 
equally  humane  (Jer.  xxxix,  1-1).  He  was  the  son 
of  Shaphan,  the  royal  secretary,  and  father  of  Geda- 
liah,  the  viceroy  of  Judaja  after  the  capture  of  Jeru- 


salem bv  the  Babvlonians  (2  Kings  xxv,  22;  Jer.  xl, 
5-16  ;  xli,  1-18  ;  xliii,  6). 

Ahi'lud  (Heb.  Achilud' ',  "t^nx,  perh.  brother 
of  the  Lydian;  Sept.  'AxCKovi,  but  'hxikovS  in  1 
Kings  iv,  12),  the  father  of  Jehoshaphat,  chronicler 
under  David  and  Solomon  (2  Sam.  viii,  16;  xx,  24; 
1  Kings  iv,  3  ;  1  Chron.  xviii,  15),  and  also  of  Baana, 
one  of  Solomon's  purveyors  (1  Kings  iv,  12),  B.C. 
ante  1014. 

Ahim'aaz  (Heb.  Achima  ats,  "(""^riX,  brother 
of  anger,  i.  e.  irascible;  Sept.  'Ayijudac),  the  name  of 
three  men. 

1.  The  father  of  Ahinoam,  wife  of  King  Saul  (1 
Sam.  xiv,  50),  B.C.  ante  1093. 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Zadok  (1  Chron.  vi, 
8,  53)  in  the  high-priesthood  (B.C.  cir.  972-956),  in 
which  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Azariah  (1  Chron. 
vi,  9).  See  High-priest.  During  the  revolt  of  Ab- 
salom, David  having  refused  to  allow  the  ark  of  God 
to  be  taken  from  Jerusalem  when  he  fled  thence,  the 
high-priests  Zadok  and  Abiathar  necessarily  remain- 
ed in  attendance  upon  it ;  but  their  sons,  Ahimaaz 
and  Jonathan,  concealed  themselves  outside  the  city, 
to  be  in  readiness  to  bear  off  to  David  any  important 
information  respecting  the  movements  and  designs  of 
Absalom  which  they  might  receive  from  within.  See 
Absalom.  Accordingly,  Hushai  having  communi- 
cated to  the  priests  the  result  of  the  council  of  war,  in 
which  his  own  advice  was  preferred  to  that  of  Ahitho- 
phel (q.  v.),  the)-  instantly  sent  a  girl  (probably  to 
avoid  suspicion)  to  direct  Ahimaaz  and  Jonathan  to 
speed  away  with  the  intelligence.  The  transaction, 
however,  was  witnessed  and  betrayed  by  a  lad,  and 
the  messengers  were  so  hotly  pursued  that  the}-  took 
refuge  in  a  dry  well,  over  which  the  woman  of  the 
house  placed  a  covering,  and  spread  thereon  parched 
corn.  She  told  the  pursuers  that  the  messengers  had 
passed  on  in  haste ;  and  when  all  was  safe,  she  re- 
leased them,  on  which  they  made  their  way  to  David 
(2  Sam.  xv,  24-37;  xvii,  15-21).  B.C.  cir"  1023.  As 
may  be  inferred  from  his  being  chosen  for  this  serv- 
ice, Ahimaaz  was  swift  of  foot.  See  Runner.  Of 
this  we  have  a  notable  example  soon  after,  when,  on 
the  defeat  and  death  of  Absalom,  he  prevailed  on  Joab 
to  allow  him  to  carry  the  tidings  to  David.  Another 
messenger,  Cushi,  had  previously  been  despatched, 
but  Ahimaaz  outstripped  him,  and  first  came  in  with 
the  news.  He  was  known  afar  off  by  the  manner  of 
his  running,  and  the  king  said,  "He  is  a  good  man, 
and  cometh  with  good  tidings  ;"  and  this  favorable 
character  is  justified  by  the  delicacy  with  which  he 
waived  that  part  of  his  intelligence  concerning  the 
death  of  Absalom,  which  he  knew  would  greatly  dis- 
tress so  fond  a  father  as  David  (2  Sam.  xviii,  19-33). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  David. 

3.  Solomon's  purveyor  in  Naphtali,  who  married 
Basmath,  Solomon's  daughter  (1  Kings  iv,  15),  B.C. 
post  1014. 

Ahi'man  (Heb.  Achiman  ,  "jB^rlSj!,  in  pause 
"■^nN,  brother  of  a  gift,  i.  e.  liberal;  Sept.  'A\ifiav, 
but  in  1  Chron.  ix,  17,  Alfidv  v.  r.  Aifiav),  the  name 
of  two  men. 

1.  One  of  the  three  famous  giants  of  the  race  of 
Anak,  who  dwelt  at  Hebron  when  the  first  Hebrew 
spies  explored  the  land  (Num.  xiii,  22),  B.C.  1657; 
and  who  (or  their  descendants,  Keil,  Comment,  in  loc.) 
were  afterward  expelled  by  Caleb  (Josh,  xv,  14),  B.C. 
1612,  and  themselves  eventually  slain  by  the  Juda- 
ites  (Judg.  i,  10),  B.C.  cir.  1593." 

2.  One  of  the  Levitical  Temple  wardens  after  the 
exile  (1  Chron.  ix,  17),  B.C.  cir.  51.6. 

Ahim'elech  (Heb.  Achime'lek,  Tj^inx,  brother 
[i.  e.  friend^  of  the  king;  Sept.  Ayi/uAfY,  but  'Afiipi- 
\(\  in  Psa.  lii,  title  ;  Josephus  'Axifik\i\og),  tne  name 
of  two  men. 


AHIMOTH 


121 


AHITIIOPIIEL 


1.  The  twelfth  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  B.C.  cir. 
1085-1060,  son  of  Aliitub  (q.  v.),  and  father  of  Abi- 
athar  (q.  v.) ;  apparently  called  also  Ahiah  (q.  v.).  See 
High-priest.  (On  the  difficulties  involved  in  these 
names  see  Kuindl,  Comment,  ad  Marc,  ii,  20 ;  Korb, 
in  the  Krit.  Journ.  d.  Theol.  iv,  295  sq. ;  Fritzsche, 
Comment,  in  Marc.  p.  72  sq.  ;  Hitzig,  Begriff  d. 
Krit.  p.  1-16 ;  Ewald,  hr.  Gesch.  ii.  596 ;  Engstrcim, 
Be  Ahimeleche  et  Abjathare,  Lund.  1741;  Wolf,  Cur. 
i,  439  sq.)  He  was  a  descendant  of  the  line  of  Itha- 
mar  through  Eli  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  2-6;  comp.  Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  v,  11,  5;  viii,  1,  3).  When  David  fled 
from  Saul  (B.C.  1062),  he  went  to  Nob,  a  city  of  the 
priests  in  Benjamin,  where  the  tabernacle  then  was, 
and,  by  representinLC  himself  as  on  pressing  business 
from  the  king,  he  obtained  from  Ahimelech,  who  had 
no  other,  some  of  the  sacred  bread  which  had  been  re- 
moved from  the  presence-table  (see  Osiander,  Be  Ba- 
vide panes  propositions  aecipiente,  Tub.  1751).  He  was 
also  furnished  with  the  sword  which  he  had  himself 
taken  from  Goliath,  and  which  had  been  laid  up  as  a 
tropin'  in  the  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  xxi,  1-9).  These 
circumstances  were  witnessed  by  Doeg,  an  Edomite 
in  the  service  of  Saul,  and  were  so  reported  by  him  to 
the  jealous  king  as  to  appear  acts  of  connivance  at,  and 
support  to,  David's  imagined  disloyal  designs.  Saul 
immediately  sent  for  Ahimelech  and  the  other  priests 
then  at  Nob,  and  laid  this  treasonable  offence  to  their 
charge  ;  but  they  declared  their  ignorance  of  any  hos- 
tile designs  on  the  part  of  David  toward  Saul  or  his 
kingdom.  This,  however,  availed  them  not,  for  the 
king  commanded  his  guard  to  slay  them.  Their  re- 
fusal to  fall  upon  persons  invested  with  so  sacred  a 
character  might  have  brought  even  Saul  to  reason; 
but  he  repeated  the  order  to  Doeg  himself,  and  was 
too  readily  obeyed  by  that  malignant  person,  who, 
with  the  men  under  his  orders,  not  only  slew  the 
priests  then  present,  eighty-six  in  number,  but  march- 
ed to  Nob,  and  put  to  the  sword  even'  living  creature 
it  contained  (1  Sam.  xxii ;  Psa.  lii,  title).  The  only 
priest  that  escaped  was  Abiathar.  Ahimelech's  son, 
who  fled  to  David,  and  afterward  became  high-priest 
(1  Sam.  xxiii,  6 ;  xxx,  7).  See  Abiathar.  Some 
have  supposed  from  Mark  ii,  26,  that  there  was  another 
Ahimelech,  a  son  of  Abiathar,  and  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  and  that  he  officiated  as  one  of  the  two  high- 
priests  in  the  time  of  David  (2  Sam.  viii,  17  ;  1  Chron. 
xxiv,  3,  6,  31) ;  but  the  two  may  be  identified  by  read- 
ing in  these  passages,  "Abiathar  the  son  of  Ahime- 
lech," instead  of  the  reverse.  In  1  Chron.  xviii,  16, 
he  is  called  Abimelech  (q.  v.).  lie  is  probably  the 
same  as  the  Ahiah  who  officiated  for  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv, 
3, 18). — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Ahijah. 

2.  A  Hittite,  one  of  David's  followers  whom  he  in- 
vited to  accompany  him  at  night  into  the  camp  of 
Saul  in  the  wilderness  of  Ziph,  but  Abishai  alone  ap- 
pears to  have  had  sufficient  courage  for  the  enterprise 
(1  Sam.  xxvi,  6),  B.C.  1055. 

Ahi'moth  (Heb.  Achimoth',  r^'flX,  brother  of 
death,  i.  e.  perh.  destructive;  Sept.  'Ay//<w£),  a  person 
named  with  Amasai  as  sons  of  Elkanah,  a  Levite  (1 
Chron.  vi,  25).  From  ver.  35,  however,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  he  was  rather  the  grandson  of  this  Elkanah 
(through  Amasai),  and  the  father  of  the  other  Elkanah 
of  ver.  26.     He  is  there  called  Mahath  (q.  v.). 

Ahin'adab  (Heb.  Ackinadab',  m^PlX,  brother  of 
liberality,  i.  e.  liberal;  Sept.  'A\ivadali),  a  son  of  Iddo, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  officers  [see  Purveyor]  who,  in 
as  man}'  districts  into  which  the  country  was  divided, 
raised  supplies  of  provisions  in  monthly  rotation  for 
Solomon's  household  (Kitto,  Pict.  Bible,  in  loc.) ;  his 
district  was  Mahanaim,  the  southern  half  of  the  region 
beyond  the  Jordan  (1  Kings  iv,  14),  B.C.  post  1014. 

Ahin'oam  (Heb.  Achino'iim,  E?:*nx,  brother  [see 
Ab-]  of  pleasantness,  i.  e.  pleasant),  the  name  of  two 
women. 


1.  (Sept.  Ayivodju.)  The  daughter  of  Ahimaaz,  and 
wife  of  King  Saul  (1  Sam.  xiv,  50),  B.C.  cir.  1093. 

2.  (Sept.  '\\ivaaji,  but  'Axivaafi  in  1  Chron.  iii,  1, 
and  v.  r.  'Ayivoo/z  in  2  Sam.  iii,  2.)  A  Jezreelitess,  the 
first  (according  to  Josephus,  Ant.  vi,  13,  8)  wife  of 
David,  while  yet  a  private  person  (1  Sam.  xxv,  43; 
xxvii,  3),  B.C.  1060.  In  common  with  his  other  wife, 
she  was  taken  captive  by  the  Amalekites  when  they 
plundered  Ziklag,  but  was  recovered  by  David  (1  Sam. 
xxx,  5,  18),  B.C.  1054.  She  is  again  mentioned  as 
living  with  him  when  he  was  king  of  Judah  in  Hebron 
(2  Sam.  ii,  2),  B.C.  cir.  1052,  and  was  the  mother  of 
his  eldest  son  Amnon  (2  Sam.  iii,  2).     See  David. 

Ahi'6  (Heb.  Achyo',  "PHX,  brotherly;  Sept.  in  all 
cases  translates  as  an  appellative,  his  brother  or  broth- 
ers), the  name  of  two  men.  (In  1  Chron.  viii,  14  we 
should  read  "pPIX,  his  brother,  as  an  appellative  of  Sha- 
shak  following.) 

1.  The  fifth  named  of  the  sons  of  Jehiel,  or  Jeiel, 
the  Gibeonite,  by  Maachah  (1  Chron.  viii,  31 ;  ix,  37), 
B.C.  post  1612. 

2.  One  of  the  sons  of  the  Levite  Abinadab,  who 
went  before  the  new  cart  on  which  the  ark  was  placed 
when  David  first  attempted  to  remove  it  to  Jerusalem, 
for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  oxen,  while  his  brother 
Uzzah  walked  by  the  cart  (2  Sam.  vi,  3,  4 ;  1  Chron. 
xiii,  7),  B.C.  1043.     See  Uzzah. 

Ahi'ra  (Heb.  Achira',  "^HS,  brother  of  evil,  i.  e. 
unlucky ;  Sept.  'A \iok~),  a  son  of  Enan  and  phylarch  of 
Naphtali,  whose  followers  were  numbered,  and  who 
made  a  contribution  to  the  sacred  service  at  the  Ex- 
ode  (Numb,  i,  15 ;  ii,  29 ;  vii,  78,  83 ;  x,  27),  B.C.  1657. 
Ahi'ram  (Heb.  A  chiram' ' ,  CITIX,  brother  of  height, 
i.  e.  high;  Sept.  'A^ioar),  a  brother  of  Bela  and  son  of 
Benjamin,  whose  posterity  assumed  his  name  (Num. 
xxvi,  38),  B.C.  post  1856;  apparently  the  same  with 
Aharah  (1  Chron.  viii,  1),  Aheu  (1  Chron.  vii,  12), 
and  Ehi  (Gen.  xlvi,  21).     See  Jacob  ;  Hoshim. 

Ahi'ramite  (Heb.  Achirami  ,  "^"TIN  ;  Sept. 
'Axipavi),  a  designation  of  the  descendants  of  the  Ben- 
jamite  Ahiram  (Num.  xxvi,  38). 

Ahis'amach  (Heb.  A  chisa 'mak,  '^'CtfflW,  brother 
of  help,  i.  e.  aiding;  Sept.  'A\t(Tapiix),  the  father  of 
one  of  the  famous  workmen  upon  the  tabernacle,  Aho- 
liab  the  Danite  (Exod.  xxxi,  6;  xxxv,  34;  xxxviii, 
23),  B.C.  ante  1657. 

Ahish'ahar  (Heb.  Achisha'char,  1TOTS,  broth- 
er (i/"the  dawn,  i.  e.  early ;  Sept.  AyKraop),  a  warrior, 
last  named  of  the  sons  of  Bilhan,  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin (1  Chron.  vii,  10),  B.C.  ante  1658. 

Ahi'shar  (Keb.  A  chishar',  1STX,  brother  of  song, 
i.  e.  singer ;  Sept.  'Aytaop),  the  officer  who  was  "over 
|  the  household"  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv,  6),  i.  e.  stew- 
!  ard  (q.  v.)  or  governor  of  the  palace  (comp.  eh.  xvi, 
j  9 ;  Isa.  xxii,  15),  B.C.  1014 — a  post  of  great  influence 
in  Oriental  courts,  on  account  of  the  ready  access  to 
the  king  which  it  affords. 

j  Ahith'ophel  (Heb.  Achitho'phel,  bsrTHN,  broth- 
:  er  of  insipidity,  i.  e.  foolish;  Sept.  'Avjro^fX,  Josephus 
',  'A\;t7-o0{Aoc),  the  singular  name  of  a  man  renowned 
for  political  sagacity  among  the  Jews,  who  regarded 
I  his  counsels  as  oracles  (2  Sam.  xvi,  23).  He  was  of 
|  the  council  of  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  33,  34),  and  his 
son  Eliam  (q.  v.)  was  one  of  David's  body-guard  (2 
i  Sam.  xxiii,  34).  He  was  at  Giloh,  his  native  place,  at 
the  time  of  the  revolt  of  Absalom,  by  whom  he  was 
summoned  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  it  shows  the  strength 
of  Absalom's  cause  in  Israel  that  a  man  so  capable  of 
foreseeing  results,  and  estimating  the  probabilities  of 
!  success,  took  his  side  in  so  daring  an  attempt  (2  Sam. 
|  xv,  12).  He  probably  hoped  to  wield  a  greater  sway 
under  the  vain  prince  than  he  had  done  under  David, 
against  whom  it  is  also  possible  that  he  entertained  a 
I  secret  malice  on  account  of  his  granddaughter  Bath- 


AIIITUB 


122 


AHOLIBAH 


sheba  (2  Sam.  xi,  3,  comp.  with  xxiii,  34).  The  news 
of  his  defection  appears  to  have  occasioned  David  more 
alarm  than  any  other  single  incident  in  the  rebellion. 
He  earnestly  prayed  God  to  turn  the  sage  counsel  of 
Ahithophel  "  to  foolishness"  (probably  alluding  to  his 
name) ;  and  being  immediately  after  joined  by  his  old 
friend  Hushai,  he  induced  him  to  go  over  to  Absalom 
with  the  express  view  that  he  might  be  instrumental 
in  defeating  the  counsels  of  this  dangerous  person 
(xv,  31-37).  Psalm  lv  is  supposed  to  contain  (12-14) 
a  further  expression  of  David's  feelings  at  this  treach- 
ery of  one  whom  he  had  so  completely  trusted,  and 
whom  he  calls  "My  companion,  my  guide,  and  my 
familiar  friend" — a  passage  which  our  Saviour  applies 
to  his  own  case  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  that 
Ahithophel  was  in  some  sense  a  t\rpe  of  Judas  (John 
xiii,  18);  at  least  their  conduct  and  their  end  were 
similar  (see  Steuber,  Achitophel  sibi  loqueo  gulamfrac- 
tus,  Rint.  1741 ;  Lindsay,  Lect.  ii,  199  ;  Crit.  Sac.  Thes. 
Nov.  i,  G76 ;  Jones,  Works,  vii,  102).  The  detestable 
advice  which  Ahithophel  gave  Absalom  to  appropriate 
his  father's  harem  committed  him  absolutely  to  the 
cause  of  the  young  prince,  since  after  that  he  could 
hope  for  no  reconcilement  with  David  (2  Sam.  xvi,  20- 
23).  His  proposal  as  to  the  conduct  of  the  war  un- 
doubtedly indicated  the  best  course  that  could  have 
been  taken  under  the  circumstances ;  and  so  it  seem- 
ed to  the  council  until  Hushai  interposed  with  his 
plausible  advice,  the  object  of  which  was  to  gain  time 
to  enable  David  to  collect  his  resources.  See  Absa- 
lom. When  Ahithophel  saw  that  his  counsel  was  re- 
jected for  that  of  Hushai,  the  far-seeing  man  gave  up 
the  cause  of  Absalom  for  lost  (comp.  Josephus,  Ant.- 
vii,  9,  8);  and  he  forthwith  saddled  his  ass,  returned 
to  his  home  at  Giloh,  deliberately  settled  his  affairs, 
and  then  hanged  himself,  and  was  buried  in  the  sep- 
ulchre of  his  fathers  (2  Sam.  xvii),  B.C.  cir.  1023. 
(Niemeyer's  Charal:  iv,  327  sq. ;  Ewald,  Isr.  Gesch., 
ii,  G42.)— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  David. 

Ahi'tub  (Heb.  Achitub',  ^ITnX,  brother  of  good- 
ness, i.  e.  good;  Sept.  'A\ito)j3,  Josephus  'A^/Vaj/3oc), 
the  name  of  at  least  two  priests.     See  Higii-priest. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Ithamar,  who  on  the  death  of 
his  father,  Phinehas,  in  battle,  and  also  of  his  grand- 
father, Eli,  at  the  news  of  the  capture  of  the  ark,  suc- 
ceeded the  latter  in  the  high-priesthood,  B.C.  1125, 
and  was  succeeded  (B.C.  cir.  1085)  by  his  son  Ahijah 
or  Ahimelech  (1  Sam.  xiv,  3 ;  xxii,  9,  11,  12,  20). 

2.  A  descendant  of  the  line  of  Ithamar,  being  the 
son  (or  rather  descendant)  of  Amariah  (1  Chron.  vi,  7, 
8,  52),  and  not  an  incumbent  of  the  high-priesthood 
(comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  1,  3,  where  his  father's 
name  is  given  as  Arophams),  since  his  son  Zadok  (1 
Chron.  xviii,  16)  was  made  high-priest  by  Saul  after 
the  extermination  of  the  family  of  Ahimelech  (2  Sam. 
viii,  17).  B.C.  ante  1012.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this 
or  the  preceding  person  of  this  name  is  mentioned  in 
1  Chron.  ix,  11;  Neh.  xi,  11,  where  he  is  erroneously 
called  the  father  (instead  of  son  or  descendant)  of  Me- 
raiotli  (q.  v.).     See  Amariah. 

3.  A  descendant  of  the  last,  mentioned  (1  Chron. 
vi,  11,  12  ;  Ezra  vii,  2)  as  the  son  of  another  Amariah 
and  father  of  another  Zadok  among  the  Jewish  high- 
priests  ;  but  as  such  a  coincidence  of  names  is  improb- 
able, the  person  intended  may  perhaps  have  been  the 
Azariah  of  2  Chron.  xxxi,  10.     See  Genealogy. 

Ah'lab  (Heb.  Achlab',  ihnx,  fatness,  i.  e.  fertile; 
Sept.  'AxXo/3  v.  r.  Aa\(i<]>),  a  town  of  Ashcr,  appar- 
ently near  Zidon  and  Achzib,  the  native  inhabitants 
of  which  the  Israelites  were  unable  to  expel  (Judg.  i, 
31).  Its  lying  thus  within  the  unconquered  Phoeni- 
cian border  may  be  the  reason  of  its  omission  in  the 
list  of  the  Asherite  cities  (Josh,  xix,  24-31).  It  is 
supposed  (see  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  198)  that  Achlab  re- 
appears in  later  history  as  Gnsh-Chalab  (2^n  d'lJ)  or 
Giscala  (Reland,  Palcest.  p.  813,  817),  a  place  lately 


identified  by  Robinson  under  the  abbreviated  name  of 
el-Jish,  near  Safed,  in  the  hilly  country  to  the  north- 
west of  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Researches,  new  ed.  ii,  44G  ; 
iii,  73).  This  place  was  in  rabbinical  times  famous 
for  its  oil,  and  the  old  olive-trees  still  remain  in  the 
neighborhood  (Reland  and  Robinson,  ib.).  From  it 
came  the  famous  John,  son  of  Levi,  the  leader  in  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  (Joseph.  Life,  10 ;  War,  ii,  21, 1), 
and  it  had  a  legendary  celebrity  as  the  birth-place  of 
the  parents  of  no  less  a  person  than  the  Apostle  Paul 
(Jerome,  Comment,  ad  Ep.  ad  Philem.").  But  this  can- 
not be  the  Ahlab  of  Asher.     See  Gisciiala. 

Ah'lai  (Heb.  Achlay' ,  h3riX,  perh.  ornamental), 
the  name  of  a  woman  and  also  of  a  man. 

1.  (Sept.  'AaSa't  v.  r.  AaCai.)  The  daughter  and 
only  child  of  Sheshan,  a  descendant  of  Judah,  mar- 
ried to  her  father's  Egyptian  slave  Jarha  (q.  v.),  by 
whom  she  had  Attai  (1  Chron.  ii,  31,  34,  35).  B.C. 
prob.  ante  1658. 

2.  (Sept.  'OXi  v.  r.  AyaYa.)  The  father  of  Zabad, 
which  latter  was  one  of  David's  bod3r-guard  (1  Chron. 
xi,  41).     B.C.  ante  1046. 

Aho'ah  (Heb.  Acho'ach,  IjlHN,  brotherly;  Sept. 
Ayid  v.  r.  AynjA),  one  of  the  sons  of  Bela,  the  son 
of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii,  4) ;  called  also  Ahiah 
(ver.  7),  and  perhaps  Iri  (1  Chron.  vii,  7).  B.C.  post 
1856.  It  is  probably  he  whose  descendants  are  called 
Aiiohites  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  9,  28). 

Aho'hite  (Heb.  AchocW ',  "TTinN  ;  Sept.  irapa- 
StXtpog,  'AywiV/7c  [v.  r.  'AuAthq],  'Aywy/',  'Aywp  [v.  r. 
'Aywi'i'],  'Audi  [v.  r.  Xwy,  'Lvwy]),  an  epithet  ap- 
plied to  Dodo  or  Dodai,  one  of  the  captains  under  Sol- 
omon (1  Chron.  xxvii,  4),  and  his  son  Eleazar,  one 
of  David's  three  chief  warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  9;  1 
Chron.  xi,  12),  as  well  as  to  Zalmon  or  Ilai,  another 
of  his  body-guard  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  28  ;  1  Chron.  xi,  29) ; 
doubtless  from  their  descent  from  Ahoah  (1  Chron. 
viii,  4)  the  Benjamite  (comp.  1  Chron.  xi,  26). 

Aho'lah  (Heb.  Oholah' ,  f&nx,  i.  q.  ^^?'  she 
has  her  own  tent,  i.  e.  tabernacle,  for  lascivious  rites ; 
Sept.  'OoXci  v.  r.  'OXXo,  'OoXAd  ;  Vulg.  Oolla),  the 
name  of  an  imaginary  harlot,  used  by  Ezekiel  (xxiii, 
4,  5,  36,  44)  as  a  symbol  of  the  idolatry  of  the  northern 
kingdom,  the  apostate  branch  of  Judah  being  desig- 
nated, by  a  paronomasia,  Aholibah  (q.  v.).  These 
terms  indicate  respectively  that,  while  the  worship  at 
Samaria  had  been  self-invented,  and  never  sanctioned 
by  Jehovah,  that  at  Jerusalem  was  divinely  instituted 
and  approved,  so  long  as  pure,  but  now  degraded  and 
abandoned  for  foreign  alliances  (Henderson,  Comment. 
in  loc).  They  are  both  graphically  described  as  sis- 
ters who  became  lewd  women,  adulteresses,  prostitut- 
ing themselves  to  the  Egyptians  and  the  Assyrians, 
in  imitating  their  abominations  and  idolatries  ;  where- 
fore Jehovah  abandoned  them  to  those  very  people  for 
whom  they  showed  such  inordinate  and  impure  affec- 
tion. The}'  were  carried  into  captivity,  and  reduced 
to  the  severest  servitude.  But  the  crime  of  Aholibah 
was  greater  than  that  of  Aholah,  for  she  possessed 
more  distinguished  privileges,  and  refused  to  be  in- 
structed by  the  awful  example  of  her  sister's  ruin. 
The  allegory  is  an  epitome  of  the  history  of  the  Jew- 
ish Church. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Idolatry. 

Aho'liab  (Heb.  Oholiab' ,  2X^nX,  tent  of  his 
father;  Sept.  EXio/S),  the  son  of  Ahisamach,  of  the 
tribe  of  Dan,  one  of  the  two  artificers  in  the  precious 
metals  and  other  materials,  appointed  to  superintend 
the  preparation  of  such  articles  for  the  tabernacle 
(Exod.  xxxi.  6  ;  xxxv,  34 ;  xxxvi,  1,  2  ;  xxxviii,  23), 
B.C.  1657.     See  Bezaleel. 

Ahol'ibah  (Heb.  Oholibah' ,  rta^hK,  for  ^t» 
rT3,  my  tent,  is  in  her;  Sept.  'OoXijia  v.  r.  "OXtjSd; 
Vulg.  Ooliba),  a  symbolical  name  given  to  Jerusalem 
(Ezek.  xxiii,  4,  11,  22,  36,  44)  under  the  figure  of  an 
adulterous  harlot,  as  having  once  contained  the  true 


AHOLIBAMAH 


123 


AI 


worship  of  Jehovah,  hut  having  prostituted  herself  to 
foreign  idolatries  (Havernik,  Comment,  in  loc).  See 
Aholah. 

Aholiba'mah  [many  Aholib'amah~]  (Heb.  Oholi- 
bamah',  H^^bnX,  tent  of  the  height),  the  name,  ap- 
parently, of  a  woman  (Sept.  'OXtfit^ta),  and  of  a  man  or 
district  (Sept.  'E\t/3a/«i(.-)  named  after  her,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  family  and  lineage  of  Esau  (q.  v.).  She 
was  the  granddaughter  of  Zibeon  (q.  v.)  the  Hivite  (of 
the  family  of  Seir  the  Horite)  by  his  son  Anah  (q.  v.), 
and  became  one  (probably  the  second)  wife  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi,  2,  25).  B.C.  1964.  It  is  doubtless  through 
this  connection  of  Esau  with  the  original  inhabitants 
of  Mount  Seir  that  we  are  to  trace  the  subsequent  oc- 
cupation of  that  territory  by  him  and  his  descendants, 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  each  of  his  three  sons  by  this 
wife  is  himself  the  head  of  a  tribe,  while  all  the  tribes 
of  the  Edomites  sprung  from  his  other  two  wives  are 
founded  by  his  grandsons  (Gen.  xxxvi,  15-19).  In 
the  earlier  narrative  (Gen.  xxvi,  34)  Aholibamah  is 
called  Judith  (q.  v.),  daughter  of  Beeri  (q.  v.)  the 
Hittite  (q.  v.).  1  he  explanation  of  the  change  in  the 
name  of  the  woman  seems  to  be  that  her  proper  per- 
sonal name  was  Judith,  and  that  Aholibamah  was  the 
name  which  she  received  as  the  wife  of  Esau  and 
foundress  of  three  tribes  of  his  descendants ;  she  is, 
therefore,  in  the  narrative  called  by  the  first  name, 
while  in  the  genealogical  table  of  the  Edomites  she 
appears  under  the  second.  This  explanation  is  con- 
firmed by  the  recurrence  of  the  name  Aholibamah  in 
the  concluding  list  of  the  genealogical  table  (Gen. 
xxxvi,  40-43),  which,  with  Hengstenberg  (Die  Au- 
thentie  d.  Pent,  ii,  279;  Eng.  transl.  ii,  228),  Tuch 
(Comm.  vh.  d.  Gen.  p.  493),  Knobel  {Genes,  p.  258),  and 
others,  we  must  therefore  regard  as  a  list  of  names  of 
places,  and  not  of  mere  persons,  as,  indeed,  is  express- 
ly said  at  the  close  of  it :  "These  are  the  chiefs  (heads 
of  tribes)  of  Esau,  according  to  their  settlements  in 
the  land  of  their  possession."  The  district  which  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Esau's  wife,  or,  perhaps,  rather 
from  which  she  received  her  married  name,  was  no 
doubt  (as  the  name  itself  indicates)  situated  in  the 
heights  of  the  mountains  of  Edom,  probably,  there- 
fore, in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount  Hor  and  Petra, 
though  Knobel  places  it  south  of  Petra,  having  been 
misled  by  Burckhardt's  name  Hesma,  which,  however, 
according  to  Robinson  (Resea?-ches,  ii,  552),  is  "  a 
sandy  tract  with  mountains  around  it  .  .  .  but  not  it- 
self a  mountain,  as  reported  by  Burckhardt."  It 
seems  not  unlikely  that  the  three  tribes  descended 
from  Aholibamah,  or,  at  least,  two  of  them,  possessed 
this  district,  since  there  are  enumerated  only  eleven 
districts,  whereas  the  number  of  tribes  is  thirteen,  ex- 
clusive of  that  of  Korah,  whose  name  occurs  twice, 
and  which  we  may  further  conjecture  emigrated  (in  part 
at  least)  from  the  district  of  Aholibamah,  and  became 
associated  with  that  of  Eliphaz. — Smith.     See  Edom. 

Ahriman.     See  Ormuzd. 

Ahu'mai  (Heb.  Achumay',  "wWN,  brother  of  wa- 
ter, i.  e.  living  near  a  stream;  otherwise,  swarthy; 
Sept.  'A'xtpai),  the  first  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Ja- 
hatli,  a  Zorathite,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  2), 
B.C.  post  1012. 

Alru'zam  (Heb.  Achuzzam',  CJHX,  their  posses- 
sion; otherwise,  tenacious;  Sept.  '£2y«s«V  v-r-  &Xa'a)i 
the  first  named  of  the  four  sons  of  Ashur  ("  father" 
of  Tekoa)  by  one  of  his  wives,  Naarah,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  G),  B.C.  cir.  1G12. 

Ahuz'zath  (Heb.  Aehuzzath' ,  TjPlX,  possession, 
as  often  in  the  constr.  of  Wnx ;  otherwise,  tenacious 
[the  termination  "-ath"  being  frequent  in  Philistine 
nouns,  comp.  Gath,  Goliath,  etc.] ;  Sept.  'Oxo^a'3-, 
Vulg.  Ochozath),  the  "friend"  (V"^  ;  Sept.  w^tpayw- 
y6g,  bridesman ;  but  rather,  evidently,  that  unofficial 
but  important  personage  of  ancient  Oriental  courts 


called  "the  king's  friend"  or  favorite)  of  Abimelech 
(q.  v.)  II,  king  of  Gerar,  who  attended  him  on  his 
visit  to  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvi,  26),  B.C.  cir.  1985. 

A'i  (Heb.  Ay,  ""V,  ruin,  perh.  so  called  after  its 
destruction,  Gen.  xii,  8 ;  xiii,  3 ;  Josh,  vii,  2-5 ;  viii, 
1-29;  ix,  3;  x,  1,  2;  xii,  9;  Ezra  ii,  28;  Neh.  vii, 
32  ;  Jer.  xlix,  3 ;  always  with  the  art.,  *Vi~t,  except  in 
the  passage  last  cited  ;  Sept.  Tea  in  Josh.,  'Ayyai  in 
Gen.,  'Aid  in  Ezra,  'At  in  Neh.,  Tat  in  Jer. ;  Vulg. 
Hai ;  Auth.  Vers.  "  Hai"  in  Gen.:  also  in  the  pro- 
longed forms  Aya' ' ,  X'S;,  Neh.  xi,  31,  Sept.  'Aid, 
Vulg.  Hai,  Auth.  Vers.  "Aija;"  Ayath' ,  FVS,  Isa. 
x,  28,  Ayyai,  Ajath,  "  Aiath ;"  v.  r.  "P2,  text  Josh. 
viii,  16 ;  fli"1?,  Samar.  Gen.  xii,  8,  comp.  'Aivd,  Jo- 
sephus,  Ant.  v,  1,  12  ;  Jerome  Gai),  the  name  of  one 
or  two  places.     See  also  Avim. 

1.  A  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Josh,  x,  1),  the 
site  of  which  (not  necessarily  then  a  city)  is  mentioned 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham,  who  pitched  his  tent 
between  it  and  Bethel  (Gen.  xii,  8  ;  xiii,  3)  ;  but  it  is 
chiefly  noted  for  its  capture  and  destruction  by  Joshua 
(vii,  2-5;.  viii,  1-29).  See  Ambush.  At  a  later  pe- 
riod Ai  appears  to  have  been  rebuilt,  for  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Isaiah  (x,  28),  and  it  was  inhabited  by  the 
Benjamites  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii,  28  ;  Neh.  vii, 
32 ;  xi,  31).  The  site  was  known,  and  tome  scant}' 
ruins  still  existed  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
(Onomast.  s.  v.  'Ayycti),  but  Dr.  Robinson  was  unable 
to  discover  an)'  certain  traces  of  either.  He  remarks 
(Bib.  Researches,  ii,  313),  however,  that  its  situation 
with  regard  to  Bethel  may  be  well  determined  by  the 
facts  recorded  in  Scripture.  That  Ai  lay  to  the  east 
of  Bethel  is  certain  (comp.  Josh,  xii,  9  ;  "  beside  Beth- 
aven,"  Josh,  vii,  2 ;  viii,  9) ;  and  the  two  cities  were 
not  so  far  distant  from  each  other  but  that  the  men 
of  Bethel  mingled  in  the  pursuit  of  the  Israelites  when 
they  feigned  to  flee  before  the  king  of  Ai,  and  thus 
both  cities  were  left  defenceless  (Josh,  viii,  17)  ;  yet 
they  were  not  so  near  but  that  Joshua  could  place  an 
ambuscade  on  the  west  (or  south-west)  of  Ai,  without 
its  being  observed  by  the  men  of  Bethel,  while  he 
himself  remained  behind  in  a  valley  to  the  north  of 
Ai  (Josh,  viii,  4,  11-13).  A  little  to  the  south  of  a 
village  called  Deir  Diwan,  and  one  hour's  journey  from 
Bethel,  the  site  of  an  ancient  place  is  indicated  1  y 
reservoirs  hewn  in  the  rock,  excavated  tombs,  and 
foundations  of  hewn  stone.  This,  Dr.  Robinson  in- 
clines to  think,  may  mark  the  site  of  Ai,  as  it  agrees 
with  all  the  intimations  as  to  its  position.  Near  it,  on 
the  north,  is  the  deep  Wady  el-Mutyah,  and  toward 
the  south-west  other  smaller  wadj-s,  in  which  the  am- 
bushed party  of  Israelites  might  easily  have  been  con- 
cealed. According  to  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  84),  the 
ancient  name  is  still  preserved  in  some  ruins  called 
Khirbet  Medinat  Gai,  near  the  edge  of  a  valley,  two 
English  miles  south-east  of  Bethel ;  a  position  which 
he  thinks  corresponds  with  a  rabbinical  notice  of  Ai 
(Shemoth  Rabbah,  c.  32)  as  lying  three  Roman  miles 
from  Bethel  (erroneously  written  Jericho).  Thenius, 
however  (in  Kauffer's  Exeget.  Studien,  ii,  127  sq.),  lo- 
cates Ai  at  Tvrmus  Aya,  a  small  reeky  mound  east  of 
Sinjil  (Robinson's  Researches,  iii,  85),  a  position  which 
is  defended  by  Keil  (Comment,  on  Josh,  vii,  2) ;  but 
in  which  he  has  been  influenced  by  an  incorrect  loca- 
tion of  Bethel  (q.  v.).  Stanley  (Palest,  p.  200  note) 
places  it  at  the  head  of  the  1 1  'ady  llarith.  lor  Krufi't's 
identification  with  Kirbet  el-IIaiy  h,  see  Pol  inson  (new 
ed.  of  Researches,  iii,  288).  Van  de  Velde,  after  a  care- 
ful examination,  concludes  that  no  spot  answers  the. 
conditions  except  Tell  el-Hajar,  about  40'  E.  by  S.  of 
Beitin,  on  tha  southern  border  of  Wady  el-Mutyah, 
with  no  remains  but  a  broken  cistern  (Narrative,  ii, 
278-282).  This  position  essentially  corresponds  to 
that  assigned  by  Robinson. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  that  the  words  Avim  in 


AIAH 


124 


AILLY 


Josh,  xviii,  5.3,  and  Gaza  in  1  Chron.  vii,  28,  arc  cor- 
ruptions of  Ai. 

2.  A  city  of  the  Ammonites,  apparently  opposite 
Heshbon,  and  devastated  next  to  it  by  tbe  Babyloni- 
ans on  their  way  to  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xlix,  3).  Others, 
however,  regard  the  name  as  an  appellative  here. 

Ai'ah,  another  mode  (2  Sam.  iii,  7 ;  xxi,  8, 10, 11 ; 
i  Chron.  i,  40)  of  Anglicizing  the  name  Ajah  (q.  v.). 

Ai'ath,  another  form  (Isa.  x,  28)  of  the  name  of 
the  city  Ai  (q.  v.). 

Aichrnalotarch  («/YuaXwr«nY»;c)  an  imaginary 
title  (Carpzov,  Apparat.  Crit.  p.  8  sq.),  signifying  chief 
of  the  captives,  assigned  to  the  heads  of  the  Jewish 
families  during  the  captivity  (q.  v.). 

Aidan,  a  native  of  Ireland,  who  was  sent,  accord- 
ing to  Bede,  by  the  Scottish  bishop,  at  the  request  of 
Oswald,  king  of  Northumbria,  as  missionary  bishop 
to  the  Northumbrians,  about  A.D.  635.  Upon  his  ar- 
rival in  Northumbria,  he  was  appointed,  at  his  own 
request,  to  the  see  of  Lindisfam,  then  first  erected,  on 
the  island  of  that  name.  Here  he  set  up  the  rule  of 
St.  Columban,  and  persuaded  the  king  to  establish  the 
Church  in  his  kingdom.  "Often,"  says  Bede,  "  might 
be  seen  a  beautiful  sight — while  the  bishop  (who  was 
but  imperfectly  acquainted  with  the  English  tongue) 
preached,  the  king  and  his  officers,  who,  owing  to 
their  long  exile  in  Scotland,  had  acquired  the  language 
of  that  country,  interpreted  his  words  to  the  people." 
Bede  says  that  "  nothing  more  commended  his  doctrine 
to  the  attention  of  his  hearers  than  the  fact  that,  as  he 
taught,  so  he  himself  lived,  seeking  for  nothing  and 
attaching  himself  to  nothing  which  belonged  to  this 
world.  All  that  the  king  gave  him  he  quickly  dis- 
tributed to  the  poor  ;  and  never,  unless  when  com- 
pelled to  do  so,  did  he  travel  through  his  diocese  ex- 
cept on  foot."  He  died  August  31,  Col,  apparently 
broken-hearted  at  the  de..th  of  the  king,  who,  as  he 
had  predicted,  perished  by  treachery  twelve  days  be- 
fore. He  is  commemorated  in  the  Romish  martyr- 
ology  on  the  31st  of  August. — Bede,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iii, 
cap."  3,  5.  14-17;  Neander,  Ck.  Hist,  iii,  21;  Collier, 
Eccl.  Hist,  i,  203. 

Aigenler,  Adam,  a  German  Jesuit,  born  in  the 
Tyrol,  1633,  who  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  In- 
golstadt.  In  1073  he  was  sent  out  to  China  as  mis- 
sionary, and  died  on  the  voyage,  August  16,  1073. 
Among  other  writings,  he  left  Fundamenta  Vnguce 
sancia  (Dillingen,  1670,  4to). — Jocher,  Attg.  Gelehrten- 
Lexicon,  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginercde,  i,  454. 

Ai'ja,  another  form  (Neh.  xi,  31)  of  the  name  of 
the  city  Ai  (q.  v.). 

Ai'j  alon,  another  mode  (Josh,  xxi,  24 ;  Judg.  i, 
35 ;  xii,  12 ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  31 ;  1  Chron.  vi,  69 ;  viii,  13 ; 
2  Chron.  xi,  10)  of  Anglicizing  the  name  of  the  city 
Ajalon  (q.  v.). 

A'ij'eleth  Sha'har  (Heb.  Aye'leth  ha?h-Shach'ar, 
*in'i"!"J  rb^X,  hind  of  the  dawn,  in  which  signification 
the  terms  often  occur  separately  ;  Sept.  »)  ovriAn^ic 
»'/  iwSivrf,  Vulg.  susceptio  matutind)  occurs  in  the 
title  of  Psa.  xxii,  and  is  apparently  the  name  of  some 
other  poem  o?  song,  to  the  measure  of  which  this  ode 
was  to  lie  performed  or  chanted  (Aben  Ezra,  in  loc. ; 
Bochart,  l/ieroz.  i,  8*8;  Eichhorn,  Pr<rf  adJonesium, 
De  Po'esi  Asiat.  p.  xxxii;  Rosenmuller,  De  Wettc,  in 
loc.)  ;  like  the  similar  terms,  e.  g.  Al-taschith  (q.  v.), 
which  occur  in  the  inscriptions  of  other  Psalms  (lvii, 
lviii,  lix,  lxxv),  after  the  manner  of  Syriac  poets 
(Assemani,  Bibl.  Orient,  i,  80).  The  phrase,  however, 
is  not  necessarily  taken  from  the  initial  words  of  a 
song  (as  Alien  Ezra  maintains,  eomp.  Prov.  v,  19), 
much  less  an  amatory  effusion  (comp.  the  opening  of 
a  poem  of  Ibn  Doreid,  "O  gazelle!");  but  the  title 
may  be  borrowed,  according  to  Oriental  custom,  from 
some  prominent  expression  or  theme  in  it,  like  David's 


"  Song  of  the  Bow"  (2  Sam.  i ;  comp.  Gesenius,  Com- 
ment, in  Isa.  xxii,  1).  It  may  in  this  case  allude 
either  to  the  hunting  of  the  deer  by  the  early  day- 
light, as  the  most  favorable  time  for  the  chase ;  or,  as 
more  agreeable  to  the  Arabic  similes  (Schultens,  ad 
Meidan.  Prov.  p.  39),  as  well  as  rabbinical  usage  (Tal- 
mud. Hieros.  Berakoth,  ii,  30,  1.  30,  35,  ed.  Cracon.), 
it  may  refer  to  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun  under  the 
metaphor  of  a  stag's  horns  (comp.  Schultens  and  De 
Sacy,  ap.  Haririum  Cons,  xxxii).  The  interpretation 
of  Eaber  (in  Harmar's  Observ.  ii,  172)  as  signifying 
the  beginning  of  daim,  is  less  agreeable  to  the  etymol- 
ogy. Some  (as  Hare  in  the  Bibl.  Brem.  Class,  i,  pt. 
2)  understand  some  instrument  of  music ;  and  others 
(e.  g.  Kimchi  and  the  Talmudists)  the  morning  star. 
— Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p.  45.     See  Psalms. 

Ail,  Ajal,  Ajalah.     See  Deer. 

AiUy,  Pierre  r>'  (Petrus  de  Alliaco),  a  noted  car- 
dinal and  learned  theologian  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, surnamed  the  "  Hammer  of  Heretics.        He  was 
born  at  Compicgne  in  1350,  of  humble  parentage,  and 
completed  his  studies  at  the   college  of  Navarre  in 
;  Paris.    The  dispute  between  Nominalism  and  Realism 
J  had  not  yet  died  out,  and  D'Ailly  threw  himself  with 
ardor  into  philosophical  study.     He  soon  became  noted 
among  the  students  for  the   skill  and  subtlety  with 
which  he  advocated  the  nominalist  theory,  and  for  the 
i  wide  extent  of  his  general  knowledge.     At  twenty- 
five  he  lectured  in  the  university  of  Paris  on  Peter 
i  Lombard's  Sentential,  and  soon  obtained  a  brilliant  rep- 
utation.     In  1377,  while  yet  a  subdeacon,  he  was  sent 
as  delegate  to  the  Provincial  Council  of  Amboise,  a 
rare  distinction  for  one  so  young.     In  1380  he  was 
made  doctor  of  the  Sorhonne.     In  his  inaugural  ad- 
dress he  extolled  tl.e  study  of  Holy  "Writ,  and  after- 
ward held  lectures  upon  the  New  Testament  and  the 
i  nature  of  the  Church.     D'Ailly  declared  that  the  pas- 
I  sage,  "  Upon  this  rock,"  etc.,  Matt,  xvi,  18,  was  to  be 
taken  in  a  spiritual  sense,  asserting  that  the  Bible 
alone  is  the  everlasting  rock  upon  which  the  Church  is 
built,  as  Peter  and  his  successors  could  not  be  such,  on 
I  account  of  their  human  frailty.     He  also  distinguished 
i  between  the  universal  Church  of  Christ  and  the  Church 
j  of  Rome  as  a  particular  Church,  and  maintained  that 
;  the  latter  had   no  precedence   before  the   universal 
Church,  and  that  another  bishop  than  that  of  Rome 
might  be  the  head  of  the  Church.     In  1384  D'Ailly 
was  made  the  head  of  the  College  of  Navarre,  where 
i  Gerson  (q.  v.)  and  Nicholas  de  Clemange  (q.  v.)  were 
!  among  his  pupils.     When  in  the  university  of  Paris, 
he  defended  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
i  tion  against  the  Dominicans,  and  especially  against 
I  John  de  Montcon ;  and  when  the  latter  appealed  from 
an  ecclesiastical  censure  to  Pope  Clement  VII,  the 
university  sent  D'Ailly  to  the  pope  to  defend  before 
him  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  as  also 
the  opinion  that  the  right  to  decide  in  such  questions 
!  (''  circa  ea  qua  sunt  fidei  doctrinaliter  definire"}  does  not 
belong  to  the  pope  alone,  but  also  to  the  doctores  eccle- 
s/cp.     The  pope  approved  both  opinions;  and  the  uni- 
versity of  Paris  elected  D'Ailly,  in  reward  for  his  vic- 
tor}', chancellor.     Soon  afterward  he  was  made  con- 
•  fessor  and  almoner  of  Charles  VI,  archdeacon  at  Cam- 
bray,  and  treasurer  of  the  Holy  Chapel  at  Paris.      In 
1394  he  was  sent  by  Charles  VI  to  Peter  de  Luna 
(Benedict  XIII),  to  prevail  upon  this  antipope  to  re- 
sign, but  Benedict  succeeded  in  bringing  D'Ailly  over 
to   his    side,   and,  through   him,   was    recognised  by 
France  as  the  legitimate  pope.     He  appointed  D'Ailly, 
in  1398,  bishop  of  Cambray.     D'Ailly  continued  to 
take  an  active  and  prominent  part  in  the  endeavors 
made  for  a  restoration  of  the  ecclesiastical  unity.     In 
1409  he  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
and  prevailed  upon  the  council  to  depose  all  the  popes 
who  at  that  time  claimed  the  Papal  See.     Alexander 
V  was  nominated  in  their  place,  but  died  soon  after. 


AILLY 


125 


AIN 


His  successor,  John  XXIII,  made  D'Ailly  a  cardinal, 
and  papal  legate  in  Germany.  As  such,  he  took  part 
in  the  Council  of  Constance,  where  he  was  again  very 
conspicuous.  See  Constance,  Council  of.  Soon 
after  his  arrival,  and  through  his  influence,  the  Coun- 
cil adopted  a  resolution  that  the  vote  on  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  Church  should  be  taken,  not  according  to 
heads,  but  according  to  nations — a  decision  which  at 
once  fixed  the  fate  of  John  XXIII.  He  again  urged 
the  resignation  or  deposition  of  all  the  popes,  and  the 
election  by  the  Council  of  a  new  pope,  who  should 
pledge  himself  to  carry  out  the  reformatory  decrees  of 
the  Council.  He  strongly  maintained  the  superiority 
of  a  general  council  over  the  pope,  and  under  the  in- 
fluence of  his  views  Benedict  XIII  was  deposed.  He 
was  one  of  the  Committee  to  investigate  the  case  of 
John  Huss,  and  it  is  a  stain  upon  his  great  name  that 
he  voted  for  the  condemnation  of  the  reformer.  In 
the  question  whether  the  election  of  a  new  pope  was 
to  take  place  before  or  after  the  completion  of  the 
reformatory  decrees  of  the  Council,  D'Ailly  separated 
from  the  reformatory  party  (the  Germans,  Gerson, 
etc.),  carried  the  priority  of  the  papal  election,  and 
thereby  neutralized  to  a  large  extent  the  beneficial 
effects  which  otherwise  the  Council  might  have  pro- 
duced. Martin  V  appointed  him  legate  at  Avignon ; 
he  died  there  in  1425;  or,  according  to  another  ac- 
count, on  a  legative  mission  in  the  Netherlands,  1420. 
DAilly  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  dignitaries  of 
the  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  greatly  distin- 
guished both  as  a  theologian  and  orator.  He  was, 
however,  addicted  to  a  belief  in  astrology,  maintaining 
that  important  events  might  be  predicted  from  the 
conjunctions  of  the  planets.  A  very  remarkable  co- 
incidence appears  in  the  case  of  one  of  his  predictions, 
viz.,  that  in  the  year  1789,  "si  mundus  usque  ad  ilia 
tempora  duraverit,  quod  solus  Deus  novit,  multa?  tunc 
et  magna?  et  mirabiles  alterationes  mundi  et  muta- 
tiones  faturae  sunt,  et  maxime  circa  leges  et  sectas." 
This  prediction  was  written  in  1414,  in  his  Concord, 
astronomire  cum  historica  narrat'ove  (published  in  Augs- 
burg, 1490,  4to).  D'Ailly  may  be  considered  as  a 
predecessor  of  that  liberal  p..rty  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  afterward  represented  by  Bossuet  and 
Fenelon.  His  principal  writings  were  published  at 
Douay,  1634,  8vo;  but  there  is  no  full  collection  of 
his  works.  Among  them  are  :  1.  Commentarii  Breves 
in  libros  4  Sentent.  (1500,  4to) : — 2.  Quatuor  Principia 
in  4  libros  Sentent. : — 3.  Recommendatio  S.  Scriptura : 
— 4.  Principium  in  cursum  Bibliorum : — 5.  Qucestio  Ves- 
periarum,  utrum  Petri  Eccl.  lege  reguletur :— 6.  Qucestio 
resumpta,  utrum  P.  E.  Rege  gubernetur,  lege  reguletur, 
fide  confirmetur,  et  jure  dominetur :— 7 '.  Speculum  Con- 
sider at'umis  : — 8.  Compendium  Contemplationis,  in  3  trac- 
tatus: — 9.  Be  4  Gradibus  Scalce  Spiritualist — 10.  Epit- 
ome Quadruplicis  Exercitii  Spiritiialis : — 11.  De  Oratione 
Dominica  Tractatus  2. — 12.  Salulationis  Angelica;  Ex- 
poskio  devota: — 13.  Verbum  abbreviatum  super  libros 
Psalmorum: — 14.  Meditationes  2  in  Psa.  xxx  : — 15.  Med- 
itat.  in  Psa.  "Judica  me,  Deus:,, — 16.  Meditat.  in  vii 
Psa.  Penitentiales : — 17.  Meditat.  in  Cantica,  Magnificat, 
Benedictus,  et  Nunc  Dimit.  .-—18.  Expositio  in  Cantica 
Canticorum  Solomonis : — 19.  12  Honores  S.  Joseph!  Spon- 
si  Virginis.  All  the  above,  from  the  Speculum  Consid- 
erationis  to  the  last,  inclusive,  were  published  at  Douay 
in  1634  (8vo):— 20.  Tractatus  de  Anima  (Paris,  1494, 
8vo;  1505): — 21.  Sermones,  varii'  Argument! ,  20: — 22. 
Modus  seu  Eorma  eligend!  Summ.  Pontif. : — 23.  Libellus 
de  Emendatione  Eccl.,  in  the  "Fasciculus  rerum  expeten- 
darum"  (Cologne,  1535): — 24.  Be  Ecclesice  et  Cardina- 
lium  auctoritate  libellus  (in  Gerson's  works,  Paris,  1606, 
torn,  i,  p.  895). — 25.  Sacramentale  (Louvain,  1487) : — 
26.  Vita  S.  Petri  de  Morono,  afterward  Celestine  V 
(Paris,  1539). — Dupin,  Eccl.  Writers,  cent,  xv,  ch.  iv; 
Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xiv,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  38;  Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  ann.  1396 ;  Dinaud,  Notice  historique  et  lite- 
raire,  sur  P.  D'Ailly  (Cambray,  1824,  8vo) ;    Hoefer, 


Nmiv.  Biog.  Generah,  i,  125 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Dictionary, 
i,  169. 

Ailredus,  Aelredus,  an  English  historian,  born 
in  1109,  and  said  to  have  died  in  1166.  According  tu 
Cave,  he  was  an  Englishman,  educated  in  Scotland, 
having  been  educated  together  with  Henry,  son  of 
David,  king  of  Scotland.  When  he  was  of  the  proper 
age  a  bishopric  was  offered  to  him,  but  he  refused  it ; 
and,  returning  to  England,  he  took  the  monastic  vows 
among  the  Cistercians  of  Revesby  Abbe}-,  in  Lincoln- 
shire. He  became  abbot  of  this  monastery,  and  after- 
ward of  Rievaux,  and  made  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  his 
model  both  as  to  his  life  and  style  of  writing.  His 
works  include  Historia  de  Vita  et  Miraculis  S.  Ed- 
wardi  R.  et  Confess,  (among  the  "  Decern  Scriptores" 
of  England,  edited  by  Twisden,  Lond.  1652) ;  Genea- 
logia  Regum  Anglorum ;  De  Bel'o  Standard!;  Historia 
de  Sanctimoniali  de  Watthun  (all  in  Twisden);  Ser- 
mones de  Tempore  et  de  Sanctis  (in  Bibl.  Claras  Vallis) ; 
In  Isaiam  Prophetam  Sermones  31 ;  Speculum  Charita- 
tis,  libris  3  ;  Tractatus  de  puero  Jesu  duodecenni  (ed.  by 
David  Camerarius,  de  Scot,  fortitud,  Paris,  1031);  De, 
Spirituali  Amicitia,  libri  3.  The  latter  four  treatises 
were  edited  by  Gibbon,  a  Jesuit,  and  printed  at  Douay 
in  1631;'  also  in  the  Biblioth.  Cisternen.  torn,  v,  16, 
and  Bibl.  Patr.  torn,  xxiii,  1. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  sec.  xii, 
vol.  ii,  227  ;  Dupin,  Hist.  Eccl.  Writers,  cent,  xii ;  Lan- 
don, Eccl.  Dictionary,  i,  170 ;  Clarke,  Sacred  Litera- 
ture, ii,  696. 

Aimo.     See  Haymo. 

Aimon,  also  called  Aimoin,  Aymoin,  a  French 
Benedictine  of  the  convent  of  Fleuiy,  died  1008.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Abbo  of  Fleury,  at  whose  request  he 
wrote  the  work  Historia  Francorum,  which  extends 
from  253  to  654.  A  continuation  by  another  author, 
which  is  more  valuable  than  the  original,  carries  the 
narrative  to  the  year  727.  It  is  contained  in  Bouquet's 
Collection  des  historiens  de  France  (Paris,  1738,  8  vols.). 
Aimon  also  wrote  Vita  Abbonis  Floriaeencis,  and  sever- 
al works  on  St.  Bernard. — Herzog,  i,  198. 

A 'ill  (Heb.  A'yin,  }*2,  a  fountain)  signifies  liter- 
ally an  eye,  and  also,  in  the  simple  but  vivid  imagery 
of  the  East,  a  spring,  or  natural  burst  of  living  water, 
always  contradistinguished  from  the  well  or  tank  of 
artificial  formation,  and  which  latter  is  designated  by 
the  word  "Beer"  0X2)  or  "Bor"  (1X2  and  113). 
Ain  still  retains  its  ancient  and  double  meaning  in  the 
Arabic  'Ain.  Such  living  springs  abound  in  Palestine 
even  more  than  in  other  mountainous  districts,  and, 
apart  from  their  natural  value  in  a  hot  climate,  form 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  the  country. 
Prof.  Stanley-  (Palest,  p.  147,  509)  has  called  attention 
to  the  accurate  and  persistent  use  of  the  word  in  the 
original  text  of  the  Bible,  and  has  well  expressed  the 
inconvenience  arising  from  the  confusion  in  the  Auth. 
Vers,  of  words  and  things  so  radically  distinct  as  Ain 
and  Beer.  The  importance  of  distinguishing  between 
the  two  is  illustrated  by  Exod.  xv,  27,  in  which  the 
word  Ainoth  (translated  "wells")  is  used  for  the 
springs  of  fresh  water  at  Elim,  although  the  rocky  soil 
of  that  place  excludes  the  supposition  of  dug  wells. 

Ain  oftenest  occurs  in  combination  with  other  words, 
forming  the  names  of  definite  localities:  these  will  bo 
found  under  En-  (q.  v.),  as  En-gedi,  En-gannim,  etc. 
It  occurs  alone  in  two  cases.     See  Fountain. 

1.  (Sept.  at  Josh,  xxi,  16,  'Arra,  at  1  Chron.  iv,  32, 
"Hi/;  elsewhere  it  blends  as  a  prefix  with  the  follow- 
ing names,  'Ep-tflwB,  'Ep-i/uov.)  A  city  at  first  as- 
signed to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  on  its  southern  border  . 
(Josh,  xv,  32),  but  afterward  to  Simeon  (Josh,  xix,  7  ; 
1  Chron.  iv,  32).  In  all  these  passages  it  is  inentinni'd 
as  adjoining  Remmon  or  Eimmon  (q.  v.),  and  it  seems 
to  be  the  En-Rimmon  (q.  v.)  of  Neh.  xi,  29.  It  was  one 
of  the  Levitical  cities  (Josh,  xxi,  16).  Reland  (Palcrst. 
p.  554,  625)  thinks  it  the  same  with  the  Betane  (UtTta'))) 


AINSWORTH 


126 


AISLE 


of  Judith  i,  0,  and  the  Bethanht  (BnSaviv)  located  by 
Eusebius  (Onomast.  s.  v.  'Api,  i.  e.  'At v)  at  four  Koman 
miles  from  Hebron.  But  these  are  rather  the  Beth- 
anoth  (q.  v.)  of  Josh,  xv,  59.  Dr.  Robinson  conjectures 
it  may  have  been  the  same  with  the  modern  village  el- 
Ghuwein,  the  ruins  of  which  he  saw  in  a  valley  a  short 
distance  to  the  right  of  the  road  a  few  hours  south  of 
Hebron  {Researches,  ii,  625).  But  this  again  is  prob- 
ably the  Anim  (q.  v.)  of  Josh,  xv,  50.  The  margin 
of  our  Bibles  identifies  this  Ain  with  the  Ashan  of  Josh, 
xv.  42,  but  in  1  Chron.  iv,  32  both  are  mentioned.  In 
the  list  of  priests'  cities  in  1  Chron.  vi,  59,  Ashan  (q.  v.) 
appears  to  take  the  place  of  Ain. 

2.  (With  the  art.,  'C.Vtl,  Ha-A'yin.')  One  of  the 
landmarks  on  the  northern  or  eastern  boundary  of 
Palestine  as  described  by  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv,  11), 
near  the  lake  Gennesareth,  adjoining  Shephan,  and 
apparently  mentioned  to  define  the  position  of  Rib- 
lah, viz.  "on  the  east  side  of  'the  spring'"  (Sept. 
tizi  7r»;yfic).  But  the  ambiguous  phrase  '^vb  C*1~"2 
(literally,  from  the  east  as  to  the  spring),  rather  refers 
directly  to  the  boundary  as  extending  in  general 
terms  easterly  to  Ain,  in  the  direction  of  Riblah  (q. 
v.).  By  Jerome,  in  the  Vulgate,  it  is  rendered  con- 
tra fontem  Daphnin,  meaning  the  spring  which  rose  in 
the  celebrated  grove  of  Daphne  dedicated  to  Apollo 
and  Diana  at  Antioch.  Riblah  having  been  lately, 
with  much  probability,  identified  (Robinson,  Research. 
new  ed.  iii,  542-6 ;  Porter,  ii,  335)  with  a  place  of  the 
same  name  on  the  north-east  slopes  of  the  Lebanon 
range,  "the  spring"  of  the  text  is  probably  the  mod- 
ern Ain,  in  Ccele-Syria,  between  the  Orontes  and  the 
Litany  (Biblioiheca  Sacra,  1847,  p.  405,  408) ;  so  call- 
ed from  a  large  fountain  of  the  same  name  a  little  to 
the  north  of  the  village,  which  "  is  strong  enough  to 
drive  several  mills,  and  about  it  are  heavy  blocks  of 
hewn  stone  of  a  verj-  antique  appearance"  (ibid.  1848, 
p.  698).  Dr.  Robinson,  however,  thinks  it  is  rather 
an  appellative,  and  refers  to  the  fountain  of  the  Oron- 
tes still  farther  south-west  of  Riblah  (new  ed.  of  Re- 
searches, iii,  534). 

Ainsworth,  Henry,  D.  D.,  one  of  the  earliest 
leaders  of  the  Independents,  then  called  Brownists ; 
a  celebrated  nonconformist  divine  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries.  The  time  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown.  In  early  life  he  gained  great 
reputation  by  his  knowledge  of  the  learned  languages, 
and  particularly  of  Hebrew.  He  removed  about  1593 
to  Amsterdam,  and  had  a  church  there  (with  an  inter- 
val spent  in  Ireland)  until  his  death,  which  occurred 
suddenly  in  1622.  Suspicion  of  his  having  been  poi- 
soned was  raised  by  his  having  found  a  diamond,  of 
great  value,  belonging  to  a  Jew,  and  his  refusing  to 
return  it  to  him  till  he  had  confessed  with  some  of 
the  rabbins  on  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament 
relating  to  the  Messiah,  which  was  promised;  but  the 
Jew  not  having  sufficient  interest  to  obtain  one,  it  is 
thought  he  was  the  instrument  of  his  death.  Ains- 
worth was  a  man  of  profound  learning,  well  versed  in 
t he  Scriptures,  and  deeply  read  in  the  works  of  the 
rabbins.  His  much  celebrated  "  Annotations  on 
several  Books  of  the  Bible"  were  printed  at  various 
times  and  in  many  sizes.  In  those  on  the  five  Books 
of  Moses,  Psalms,  and  the  Canticles,  the  Hebrew 
words  are  compared  with  and  explained  by  the  ancient 
Greek  and  Chaldee  versions,  and  other  records  and 
monuments  of  the  Hebrew.  The  "  Annotations  <»i  the 
Pentateuch"  were  republished  in  Edinburgh  (Blackie 
and  Sen,  2  vols.  8vo)  in  1843.— Neal,  Hist,  of  the  Puri- 
tans, ii,  43  ;  Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches,  i,  22. 

Ainsworth,  Laban,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Woodstock,  Conn.,  July  19th,  1757.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1778,  and  became 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Jaffrey,  N.  H.,  Dec.  10th, 
1782.  Here  he  continued  in  the  pastoral  relation  un- 
til his  death,  March  17th,  1858.     He  was  an  evangel- 


ical preacher  of  more  than  ordinary  ability,  and  a 
man  of  great  humor  in  his  social  intercourse,  but  ear- 
nestly intent  in  his  great  calling.  He  retained  the 
respect  and  affection  of  his  people  to  the  last. — Amer. 
Cong.  Year  Book  (vol.  vi,  1859,  p.  117). 

Aionios.     See  Eternal. 

Air  (_cn)p),  the  atmosphere,  as  opposed  to  the  ether 
(aiOiip),  or  higher  and  purer  region  of  the  sky  (Acts 
xxii,  24  ;  1  Thess.  iv,  17  ;  Rev.  ii,  2 ;  xvi,  17).  The 
Heb.  term  nil,  ru'ach,  occurs  in  this  sense  but  onco 
(Job  xli,  16) ;  "  air"  is  elsewhere  the  rendering  of 
C^'.y,  shama'yim,  in  speaking  of  birds  of  the  heavens. 
The  later  Jews  (see  Eisenmenger,  Entd.  Jud.  ii,  437 
sq.),  in  common  with  the  Gentiles  (see  Eisner,  Obs. 
ii,  205;  Dougttei  Annul,  p.  127),  especially  the  Pytha- 
goreans, believed  the  air  to  be  peopled  with  spirits, 
under  the  government  of  a  chief,  who  there  held  his 
seat  of  empire  (Philo,  31,  28;  Diog.  Laert.  viii,  32; 
Plutarch,  Qua;st.  Rom.  p.  274).  These  spirits  were  sup- 
posed to  be  powerful,  but  malignant,  and  to  incite  men 
to  evil.  That  the  Jews  held  this  opinion  is  plain  from 
the  rabbinical  citations  of  Lightfoot,  Wetstein,  etc. 
Thus  in  Pirke  Aboth,  lxxxiii,  2,  they  are  described  as 
filling  the  vhole  air,  arranged  in  troops,  in  regular 
subordination  (see  Rosenroth,  Cabbala  denud.  i,  417). 
The  early  Christian  fathers  entertained  the  same  be- 
lief (Ignat.  ad  Ephes.  §  13),  which  has  indeed  come 
down  to  our  own  times.  It  is  to  this  notion  that 
Paul  is  supposed  to  allude  in  Epb.  ii,  2,  where  Satan 
is  called  "  prince  of  the  power  (i.  e.  of  those  who  ex- 
ercise the  power)  of  the  air"  (see  Stuart,  in  the  Biblioth. 
Sacra,  1843,  p.  139).  Some,  however,  explain  "  air" 
here  by  darkness,  a  sense  which  it  bears  also  in  profane 
writers.  But  the  apostle  no  doubt  speaks  according 
to  the  notions  entertained  by  most  of  those  to  whom 
he  wrote,  without  expressing  the  extent  of  his  own 
belief  (see  Bloomfield,  Rcc.  Sgn.,  and  Meyer,  Com- 
ment, inloc).  See  Power;  Principality.  The  sky 
as  the  midst  of  heaven,  or  the  middle  station  between 
heaven  and  earth,  may  symbolically  represent  the 
place  where  the  Divine  judgments  are  denounced,  as 
in  1  Chron.  xxi,  16.     See  Angel. 

The  phrase  tic  c'i'tpa  A«ahj',  to  speak  into  the  air 
(1  Cor.  xiv,  9),  is  a  proverbial  expression  to  denote 
speaking  in  vain,  like  rentis  verba  prof undere  in  Latin 
(Lucret.  iv,  929),  and  a  similar  one  in  our  own  lan- 
guage ;  and  tic  aipa  ciptn;  t)  beat  the  air  (1  Cor.  ix, 
26),  denotes  acting  in  vain,  and  is  a  proverbial  allu- 
sion to  an  abortive  stroke  into  the  air  in  pugilistic 
contests  (comp.  Virgil,  sEn.  v,  377).     See  Games. 

Ai'rus  ('Ia'ipoc,  comp.  Jairus  of  the  N.  T.),  one 
of  the  temple-servants  whose  "  sons"  are  said  to  have 
returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  31) ;  probably 
a  corruption  for  Gahar  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text 
(Ezra  ii,  47). 

Aisle  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  ala,  French 
aile,  a  wing,  and  signi- 
fies the  wings  or  side- 
passages  of  the  church. 
The  term  is  incorrectly 
applied  to  the  middle  av- 
enue of  a  church,  which 
its  derivation  shows  to 
be  wrong.  Where  there 
is  but  one  aisle  to  a  tran- 
sept, it  is  always  to  the 
east.  In  churches  on 
the  continent  of  Europe 
the  number  of  aisles  is 
frequently  two  on  either 
side  of  the  nave  and  choir, 
and  at  Cologne  there  are 
even  three.  See  Church 
Architecture. 


Aisle  in  Melrose  Abbey. 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 


•2  7 


AKIXS 


Aix-la-Chapelle  (Aquis-gramtm  or  Aqtue-gra- 
7ii,  Germ.  Aachen),  a  large  city  of  Germany,  dependent 
on  the  archbishopric  of  Cologne  in  spiritual  matters. 
As  the  favorite  abode  of  Charlemagne,  it  acquired 
great  ecclesiastical  importance  ;  and  many  councils 
were  held  there.  From  the  time  of  Otho  I  (937)  to 
Ferdinand  1,1558,  twenty- nine  German  emperors  were 
crowned  in  this  city. 

The  first  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  held 
in  780,  on  discipline  ;  in  the  council  held  in  799  Felix 
of  Urgel  renounced  Agnoetism,  which  he  previously 
upheld.  The  others  are  that  of  803,  where  the  Bene- 
dictines received  their  religious  regulations ;  of  809, 
on  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  813,  when  the 
canons  of  the  preceding  council  were  published ;  816, 
confirmatory  of  the  rules  of  Chrodegang  ;  817,  on  St. 
Benedict's  rule,  etc. ;  825,  on  the  same  subjects ;  831, 
declaring  the  innocence  of  the  Empress  Judith  ;  83G, 
on  the  restoration  of  Church  property  ;  837,  on  Epis- 
copal controversies  ;  842,  by  Kings  Louis  and  Charles, 
on  the  division  of  Lothaire's  possessions  ;  two  sessions 
in  860,  against  Queen  Thetburga ;  862,  allowing  King 
Lothaire  to  contract  a  new  marriage  ;  992,  forbidding 
marriages  during  Advent,  from  Septuagesima  to  East- 
er, etc.;  1165,  to  canonize  Charlemagne. — Smith, 
Tables  of  Church  Hist. 

A'jah  (Heb.  Ayah',  JT'X,  prop,  a  cry,  hence  a 
hawk,  as  often),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'AVf  ;  but  Aid,  Auth.  Vers.  "  Aiah8'  in 
Chron.)  The  first  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Zibeon 
the  Horite  or  rather  Hivite  (Gen.  xxxvi,  24 ;  1  Chron. 
i,  40),  B.C.  ante  1964. 

2.  (Sept.  Aid,  but  in  2  Sam.  iii,  7  v.  r.  'Iw\,  Auth. 
Vers.  "Aiah.")  The  father  of  Rizpah,  King  Saul's 
concubine  (2  Sam.  iii,  7;  xxi,  8-11),  B.C.  ante  1093. 

Aj'alon  (Heb.  Ayalon',  "|"1^X,  place  of  deer,  or  of 
oaks),  the  name  of  two  towns. 

1.  (Sept.  AiXibv,  but  'E\wj/  in  Josh,  xix,  42,  iv  (p 
at  dptcoi  in  Judg.  i,  35,  omits  in  1  Sam.  xiv,  31,  'KXwv 
v.  r.  AlXwv  in  1  Chron.  vi,  69,  Ai\d/.i  v.  r.  'AXcip  and 
'Addfi  in  1  Chron.  viii,  13,  'A'iaXtbv  v.  r.  A/Aoj/t  in  2 
Chron.  xi,  10,  'A'iXiov  in  2  Chron.  xxviii,  18 ;  Josephus 
'HXwfi,  Ant.  viii,  10,  1;  Auth.  Vers.  "Aijalon"  in  all 
the  passages  except  Josh.  x.  12 ;  xix,  41 ;  2  Chron. 
xxviii,  18.)  A  town  and  valley  in  the  tribe  of  Dan 
(Josh,  xix,  42),  which  was  given  to  the  Levites  (Josh, 
xxi,  24;  1  Chron.  vi,  69).  The  native  Amorites  for  a 
long  time  retained  possession  of  it,  although  reduced 
to  the  condition  of  tributaries  by  the  neighboring 
Ephr.iimites  (Judg.  i,  35).  Being  on  the  very  frontier 
of  the  two  kingdoms,  we  can  understand  how  Ajalon 
should  be  spoken  of  sometimes  (1  Chron.  vi,  69,  comp. 
with  66)  as  in  Ephraim,  and  sometimes  (2  Chron.  xi, 
10 ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  31)  as  in  Judah  and  Benjamin.  It 
was  not  far  from  Bethshemesh  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  18), 
and  was  one  of  the  places  which  Rehoboam  fortified  (2 
Chron.  xi,  10)  during  his  conflicts  with  the  new  king- 
dom of  Ephraim  (1  Kings  xiv,  30),  and  among  the 
Strongholds  which  the  Philistines  took  from  Ahaz  (2 
Chron.  xxviii,  18).  Saul  pursued  hither  the  routed 
Philistines  from  Miehmash  (1  Sam.  xiv.  31),  and  some 
of  its  chiefs  appear  to  have  subsequently  defeated  an 
incursion  of  the  same  enemies  from  Gath  (1  Chron. 
viii,  13).  But  the  town,  or  rather  the  valley  to  which 
the  town  gave  name,  derives  its  chief  renown  from  the 
circumstance  that  when  Joshua,  in  pursuit  of  the  five 
kings,  arrived  at  some  point  near  Upper  Beth-horon, 
looking  back  upon  Gibeon  and  down  upon  the  noble 
valley  before  him,  he  uttered  the  celebrated  command, 
"  Sun,  stand  thou  still  on  Gibeon,  and  thou  moon,  in 
the  valley  of  Ajalon"  (Josh,  x,  12).  From  the  indica- 
tions of  Jerome  (Onomast.  and  Epitaph.  Paul.),  who 
places  Ajalon  two  Roman  miles  from  Nicopolis,  on  the 
way  to  Jerusalem  (comp.  'InrXw  in  Epiphan.  Opp.  i, 
702),  joined  to  the  preservation  of  the  ancient  name, 
Dr.  Robinson  {Bibl.  Researches,  iii,  63)  appears  to  have 


identified  the  valley  and  the  site  of  the  town.  From 
a  housetop  in  Beit  Ur  (Beth-horon)  he  looked  down 
upon  a  broad  and  beautiful  valley,  which  lay  at  his 
feet,  toward  Ramleh.  This  valley  runs  out  west  by 
north  through  a  tract  of  hills,  and  then  bends  off  south- 
west through  the  great  western  plain.  It  is  called 
Merjlbn  'Omeir.  Upon  the  side  of  the  long  hill  which 
skirts  the  valley  on  the  south  a  small  village  was  per- 
ceived, called  Yah,  which  cannot  well  be  any  other 
than  the  ancient  Ajalon  ;  and  there  can  be  little  ques- 
tion that  the  broad  wady  to  the  north  of  it  is  the  val- 
ley of  the  same  name  (see  Thomson's  Land  and  Book, 
ii,  304,  546).  Keil,  however  {Comment,  in  Josh,  x,  12), 
controverts  the  above  view  (from  Lengerke,  after 
Lapide  and  Ee  Clerc,  in  loc.)  respecting  the  position 
of  Joshua  on  this  occasion,  maintaining  that  if  Joshua 
really  saw  both  the  sun  and  moon  when  he  delivered 
this  memorable  address,  it  must  have  been  in  the  early 
part  of  the  day,  and  during  the  engagement  before 
Gibeon  itself;  for  then  the  sun  might  have  been  visi- 
ble on  the  east  or  south-east  of  Gibeon,  and  the  moon 
in  the  south-west,  above  the  valley  of  Ajalon,  as  it 
would  then  be  about  to  set.  See  Jasiiek.  According 
to  Schwarz  {Palest,  p.  141),  a  person  on  the  summit 
of  Upper  Beth-horon  can  see  at  once  Gibeon  on  the 
east  and  Ajalon  on  the  west.  The  village  of  Yalo  is 
situated  on  the  northern  declivity  overlooking  the 
plain,  between  two  ravines,  the  western  one  of  which 
contains  a  fountain  that  supplies  the  village.  It  has 
an  old  appearance,  and  contains  several  caverns  in  the 
clifTs  (new  ed.  of  Robinson's  Researches,  iii,  144). 

2.  (Sept.  AlXwv,  Auth.  Vers.  "Aijalon.")  A  city  in 
the  tribe  of  Zebulon,  where  Elon  the  judge  was  buried 
j  (Judg.  xii,  12).  It  is  probably  the  modern  Jalun, 
j  about  four  hours  east  of  Akka,  and  a  short  distance 
I  south-west  of  Mejdel  Kerum  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir, 
!  p.  283) ;  for  this  place,  although  really  within  the 
bounds  of  Naphtali,  is  sufficiently  near,  perhaps,  to  the 
I  border  of  Zebulon  to  be  included  in  that  region,  ac- 
cording to  the  indefinite  mention  of  the  text. 

Aj'ephim  (Heb.  Ayephvm',  tl^SW,  weary  ones ; 
Sept.  UXi\v pivot,  Vulg.  lassus,  Auth.  Vers,  "weary") 
occurs  in  the  original,  2  Sam.  xvi,  14,  where,  although 
rendered  as  an  appellative  in  the  versions,  it  has  been 
regarded  by  many  interpreters  (e.  g.  Michaelis,  Dathe, 
Thenius,  in  loc.)  as  the  name  of  a  place  to  which  the 
fugitive  David  and  his  company  retired  from  Jerusa- 
lem on  the  approach  of  the  rebellious  Absalom,  and 
where  they  made  their  halt  for  the  night,  but  from 
which  they  were  induced  to  remove  by  the  news  sent 
them  by  Hushai.  This  view  is  favored  by  the  phrase- 
ology, X2*\  "  and  he  came,"  dtij,  "  there,"  evident- 
ly referring  to  some  locality,  which  must  be  sought 
east  of  Jerusalem,  beyond  the  Mount  of  Olives,  toward 
the  ford  of  the  Jordan  ;  perhaps  between  Bethany  and 
Khan  Hudrur,  on  the  S.W.  bank  of  Wady  Sidr. 

A'kan  (Heb.  Akan  ,  '^'J,  twisted;  Sept.  'lovKafi), 
the  last  named  of  the  three  sons  of  Ezer,  son  of  the 
Horite  Seir  of  Idumaea  (Gen.  xxxvi,  27) ;  elsewhere 
called  Jakan  (1  Chron.  i,  41).     See  Jaakan. 

Akbar.     See  Mouse. 

Akbara.     See  Achabara. 

Akiba,  a  learned  Jewish  rabbi  of  the  second  centu- 
ry. He  was  president  of  the  seminary  at  Bene  Berak 
(Josh,  xix,  45),  near  Jamnia.  As  a  teacher  he  wield- 
ed great  influence,  especially  in  developing  and  dif- 
fusing the  Talmudic  learning  and  the  Cabbala.  Among 
his  scholars  were  Rabbi  Meir,  one  of  the  originators 
of  the  Mishna,  and  Rabbi  S.  ben-Joehai,  author  of  the 
Cabbalistic  work  Zohar.  He  is  said  to  have  joined  the 
rebel  Barchochebas,  and  to  have  been  taken  and  Hay- 
ed by  the  Romans  in  his  120th  year.  See  Jost,  Ge- 
schichte  d.  Israeliten,  p.  252  ;  Fiirst,  Bib.  Jud.  i. 

Akins,  James,  one  of  the  early  Methodist  minis- 
ters, was  born  in  Ireland  1778,  removed  to  America 


AKKAB1SH 


128 


ALABARCH 


in  1792,  and  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  1801. 
He  labored  for  over  twenty  years  with  success,  chiefly 
In  Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey,  and  died 
at  Haverstraw,  Aug.  9, 1823. — Minutes  of  Conferences, 
lt24,  p.  439. 

Akkabish.     See  SriDER. 

Akko.     See  Goat. 

Ak'kub  (Heb.  Akkub' ,  Wp?,  a  contracted  form 
of  Jacob ;  Sept.  'Aicovji,  sometimes  'Ak-koiI/3  v.  r.  usu- 
ally 'Aicovft),  the  name  of  at  least  three  men. 

1.  The  head  of  one  of  the  families  of  Nethinim  that 
returned  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii,  45),  B.C.  536  or  ante. 

2.  One  of  the  Levitical  gatewardens  of  the  Temple 
on  the  return  with  many  of  his  family  from  the  cap- 
tivity (1  Chron.  ix,  17;  Ezra  ii,  42;  Neh.  vii,  45;  ix, 
19  ;  xii,  25)  ;  and  probably  one  of  those  who  expound- 
ed the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii,  7),  B.C.  53G-440. 

3.  The  fourth  named  of  the  seven  sons  of  Elioenai 
or  Esli,  a  descendant  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii,  24),  B.C. 
cir.  410.       • 

Akrab.     See  Scorpion. 

Akrab'bim  (Heb.  Akrabbim',  C2^pi',  scor- 
pions, as  in  Ezek.  ii,  G;  Sept.  'Aicpafiiv,  ' kKoafttiv), 
only  in  the  connection  Maaleh-acrabbim  (q.  v.), 
i.  e.  Scorpion-Height  (Josh,  xv,  3;  "ascent  of  Akrab- 
bim" Num.  xxxiv,  4;  "going  up  to  Akrabbim," 
Judg.  i,  36),  an  ascent,  hill,  or  chain  of  hills,  which, 
from  the  name,  would  appear  to  have  been  much  in- 
fested by  scorpions  and  serpents,  as  some  districts  in 
that  quarter  certainly  were  (Dent,  viii,  15;  comp. 
Volney,  ii,  256).  It  is  only  mentioned  in  describing 
the  frontier-line  of  the  promised  land  southward  in  the 
region  of  the  Amorites  (Num.  xxxiv,  4;  Josh,  xv,  3; 
Judg.  i,  36).  Shaw  conjectures  that  Akrabbim  may 
be  the  same  with  the  mountains  of  A kabah,  by  which 
he  understands  the  easternmost  range  of  the  "  black 
mountains"  of  Ptolemy,  extending  from  Paran  to  Ju- 
daea. This  range  has  lately  become  well  known  as 
the  mountains  of  Edom,  being  those  which  bound  the 
great  valley  of  Arabah  on  the  east  (Travels,  ii,  120). 
More  specifically,  he  seems  to  refer  Akrabbim  to  the 
southernmost  portion  of  this  range,  near  the  fortress 
of  Akabah,  and  the  extremity  of  the  eastern  gulf  of 
the  lied  Sea;  where,  as  he  observes,  "from  the  bad- 
ness of  the  roads,  and  many  rocky  passes  that  are  to 
be  surmounted,  the  Mohammedan  pilgrims  lose  a  num- 
ber of  camels,  and  are  no  less  fatigued  than  the  Israel- 
ites were  formerly  in  getting  over  them."  Burck- 
hardt  (Syria,  p.  509)  reaches  nearly  the  same  conclu- 
sion, except  that  he  rather  refers  "the  ascent  of 
Akrabbim"  to  the  acclivity  of  the  western  mountains 
from  the  plain  of  Akabah.  This  ascent  is  very  steep, 
'•  and  lias  probably  given  to  the  place  its  name  of 
Akabah,  which  means  a  cliff  or  steep  declivity."  But 
the  south-eastern  frontier  of  Judah  could  not  have 
been  laid  down  so  far  to  the  south  in  the  time  of  Moses 
and  Joshua.  The  signification  of  the  names  in  the 
two  languages  is  altogether  different.  M.  Do  Saulcy 
finds  this  "  Scorpion-steep"  in  the  Wad;/  es-Zuu-eirah, 
running  into  the  S.W.  end  of  the  Dead  Sea;  a  pre- 
cipitous, zigzag  ascent,  up  which  a  path  marked  with 
ancient  ruins  is  cut  in  the  flanks  of  the  hard  rock,  and 
which  is  peculiarly  infested  with  scorpions  (Narrative, 
i,  361,  41*.  121  I.  Schwarz,  on  the  other  hand,  locates 
it  at  the  Wady eLKurahy,  running  into  the  south-east- 
ern extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Palest,  p.  22).  Both 
these  litter  positions,  however,  seem  as  much  too  far 
north  as  the  preceding  are  too  far  south,  since  the 
place  in  question  appears  to  have  been  situated  just 
beyond  the  point  where  the  southern  boundary  of 
Palestine  turned  northward;  and  we  know  from  the 
localities  of  several  towns  in  Judah  and  Simeon  (e.  g. 
Kadesli,  Beersheba,  etc.)  that  the  territory  of  the 
promised  land  extended  as  far  southward  as  the  ridfie 
bounding  the  depressed  level  of  the   desert   et-Tih. 


The  conclusion  of  Dr.  Eobinson  is,  that  in  the  absence 
of  more  positive  evidence  the  line  of  cliffs  separating 
the  Ghor  from  the  valley  of  the  Akabah  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  Maaleh-Akrabbim  of  Scripture  (Re- 
searches, ii,  501).  This,  however,  would  be  a  descent 
and  not  an  ascent  to  those  who  were  entering  the  Holy 
Land  from  the  south.  Perhaps  the  most  feasible  sup- 
position is  that  Akrabbim  is  the  general  name  of  the 
ridge  containing  the  steep  pass  cs-Snfih,  by  which 
the  final  step  is  made  from  the  desert  to  the  level  of 
the  actual  land  of  Palestine.  As  to  the  name,  scor- 
pions abound  in  the  whole  of  this  district.  The  same 
spot  may  be  that  alluded  to  in  the  Mishna  (Maaser 
Sheni,  v.  2),  as  "Akrabah  (iTZ^V)  on  the  south." 

The  district  of  Acrabattine  mentioned  in  1  Mace,  v, 
3,  and  Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  8,  1,  as  lying  on  the  frontier 
of  Idumtea,  toward  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  may  have  derived  its  name  from  this  ridge.  But 
Dr.  Eobinson  thinks  that  the  toparchy  referred  to  took 
its  name  from  Akrabeh,  now  a  large  and  flourishing 
village  a  little  east  of  Nablous,  the  ancient  Shechem 
(Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1853,  p.  132;  and  see  the  authori- 
ties in  his  Researches,  iii,  103).  This  "Acrabattine" 
of  the  Apocrypha,  however,  was  probably  a  different 
place.     See  Acrabattine. 

Akrothinion  (AicpoGivwv,  from  the  top  of  the 
heap).  This  Greek  word  (usually  in  the  plur.  aspo- 
Sivia),  which  occurs  in  Heb.  vii,  4,  means  the  best  of 
the  (fruits  of  the  earth,  hence)  spoils  (Smith's  Diet.  <f 
Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Acrothinion).  The  Greeks,  after  a 
battle,  were  accustomed  to  collect  the  spoils  into  a 
heap,  from  which  an  offering  was  first  made  to  the 
gods ;  this  was  the  ciKpoOiviov  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  vii,  5, 
35 ;  Herodot.  viii,  121, 122 ;  Pind.  Kem.  7,  58).  In  the 
first  cited  case,  Cyrus,  after  the  taking  of  Babylon, 
calls  the  magi,  and  commands  them  to  choose  the  «/<•- 
poBhna  of  certain  portions  of  the  ground  for  sacred  pur- 
poses (see  Stephens,  Thes.  Graze,  p.  15C0).     See  Spoil. 

Akshub.     See  Adder. 

Alabama,  a  diocese  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States  coextensive  with  the  state 
of  the  same  name.  In  1859  the  diocese  counted  32 
clergymen  and  38  parishes,  and  the  following  dioce- 
san institutions:  missionary  committee,  ecclesiastical 
court,  trustees  of  the  bishops'  fund,  society  for  the 
relief  of  disabled  clergymen  and  of  the  widows  and 
orphans  of  the  clergy.  The  first  bishop  of  the  diocese 
was  Nicholas  Hamner  Cobbs  (q.  v.),  consecrated  in 
1844,  and  the  second,  Eichard  H.  Wilmer,  consecrated 
March  6,  1862.  Alabama  was  one  of  the  dioceses 
which,  in  1862,  organized  "the  General  Council  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America." 

Alabarch  (A\ajian\ijc,  a  term  compounded  ap- 
parently of  some  unknown  foreign  word,  and  dn\w,  to 
ride  :  also  fl\«/3«0Yor),  a  term  not  found  in  Scripture, 
but  which  Josephus  uses  repeatedly,  to  signify  the 
chief  of  the  Jews  in  Alexandria  (Ant.  xviii,  6,  3;  8, 
1 ;  xix,  5,  1 ;  xx,  5,  2;  7,  3).  Philo  calls  this  magis- 
trate TevapxHCi  fffnarch  (q.  v.),  and  Josephus,  in 
some  places,  ethnarch  (q.  v.),  which  terms  signify  the 
prince  or  chief  of  a  nation.  Some  believe  that  the 
term  alabarch  was  given,  in  raillery,  to  the  principal 
magistrate  or  head  of  the  Jews  at  Alexandria,  by  the 
Centiles,  who  despised  the  Jews.  See  Alexandria. 
The  Jews  who  were  scattered  abroad  after  the  cap- 
tivity, and  had  taken  up  their  residence  in  countries 
at  a  distance  from  Palestine,  had  rulers  of  their  own. 
See  Dispersion.  The  person  who  sustained  the  high- 
est office  among  those  who  dwelt  in  Egypt  was  de- 
nominated alabarch  ;  the  magistrate  at  the  head  of  the 
Syrian  Jews  was  denominated  archon  (q.  v.).  (See 
Jahn,  Bibl.  Archdol.  §  239.)  The  dignity  of  alabarch 
was  common  in  Egypt,  as  may  be  observed  in  Juvenal, 
Sat.  i,  130.  It  was  perhsps  synonymous  with  chief 
tax-gatherer  (comp.  Sturz,  Be  Dial.  Maced.  p.  65  sq.). 
Thus  Cicero  (Kp.  ad  Attic.  17)  calls  Pompey  an  ula- 


ALABASTER 


129 


ALABASTER 


barch,  from  bis  raising  taxes ;  but  others  here  read 
arabrirrh  (see  Facciolati,  Lat.  Lex.  s.  v.  Arabarehes). 
See  Jews. 

Alabaster  (AXo/Sao-rpov)  occurs  in  the  N.  T. 
only  in  the  notice  of  the  "alabaster  lax,"  or  rather 
vessel,  of  "ointment  of  spikenard,  very  precious," 
■which  a  woman  broke,  and  with  its  valuablo  con- 
tents anointed  the  head  of  Jesus  as  he  sat  at  supper, 
once  at  Bethany  and  once  in  Galilee  (Matt,  xxvi,  7; 
Mark  xiv,  3  ;  Luke  vii,  37).  At  Alabastron,  in  Egypt, 
there  was  a  manufactory  of  small  pots  and  vessels  for 
holding  perfumes  (Ptolem.  iv,  5),  which  were  made 
from  a  stone  found  in  the  neighboring  mountains 
(Irwin's  Travels,  p.  382).  The  Greeks  gave  to  these  ves- 
sels the  name  of  the  city  from  which  they  came,  calling 
them  alabastra.     This  name  was  eventually  extended 


Alabaster  Vessels.     From  the  British  Museum.    The  Inscrip- 
tion on  the  middle  Vessel  denotes  the  Quantity  it  holds. 


to  the  stone  of  which  they  were  formed ;  and  at  length 
the  term  alabastron  was  applied  without  distinction  to 
all  perfume  vessels  of  whatever  materials  they  con- 
sisted. (Herod,  iii,  20;  iElian,  Yar.  Hist,  xii,  18; 
Theocr.  xv,  114;  Lucian,  Asin.  51;  Petron.  Sat.  60; 
Pliny,  ix,  56;  comp.  Wetstein,  i,  515;  Kype,  Obs.  i, 
188.)  The  material,  although  sometimes  colored,  was 
usually  white,  which  was  the  most  esteemed  (Athen. 
xv,  686).  Theocritus  speaks  of  golden  alabastra  {Idyl. 
xv,  114);  and  perfume  vessels  of  different  kinds  of 
stone,  of  glass,  ivory,  bone,  and  shells,  have  been 
found  in  the  Egyptian  tombs  (Wilkinson,  iii,  379). 
It  does  not,  therefore,  by  any  means  follow  that  the 
alabastron  which  the  woman  used  at  Bethany  was 
really  of  alabaster,  but  a  probability  that  it  was  such 
arises  from  the  fact  that  vessels  made  of  this  stone 
were  deemed  peculiarly  suitable  for  the  most  costly  and 
powerful  perfumes  (Plin.  Hist.  Ar«/.  xiii,  2;  xxxvi, 
8,  24).  The  woman  is  said  to  have  "  broken"  the  ves- 
sel, which  is  explained  by  supposing  that  it  was  one 
of  those  shaped  somewhat  like  a  Florence  oil-flask, 
with  a  long  and  narrow  neck  ;  and  the  mouth  being 
curiously  and  firmly  sealed  up,  the  usual  and  easiest 
way  of  getting  at  the  contents  was  to  break  off  the  up- 
per part  of  the  neck.  The  alabastrum  mentioned  in 
the  Gospels  was,  according  to  Epiphanius,  a  measure 
containing  one  cotyla,  or  about  half  a  pint  (Smith's 
Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.).  The  word  itself  is,  how- 
ever, properly  the  name  of  the  substance  of  which  the 
box  was  formed,  and  hence  in  2  Kings  xxi,  13,  the 
Sept.  use  6  akajiaarpoq  for  the  Heb.  Ftl^  {tsallach'- 
ath,  a  dish,  patina,  \>']Kv3roe,,  ampulla).  Horace  {Od.  iv, 
12)  uses  onyx  in  the  same  way.  Alabaster  is  a  calca- 
reous spar,  resembling  marble,  but  softer  and  more 
easily  worked,  and  therefore  very  suitable  for  being 
wrought  into  boxes  (Pliny,  iii,  20).  The  alabastra 
were  not  usually  made  of  that  white  and  soft  gypsum 
to  which  the  name  of  alabaster  is  now  for  the  most 
part  confined.  Dr.  John  Hill,  in  his  notes  on  Theo- 
T 


Alabaster  Vase  bearing  the 
name  of  Sargon,  from  Nim- 
roud  (Layard's  Bab.  and 
Sin.  p.  167). 


phrastus,  sets  this  matter 
in  a  clear  light,  distinguish- 
ing the  alabastrites  of  natu- 
ralists as  bard,  and  he  adds  : 
"  This  stone  was  by  the 
Greeks  called  also  some- 
times onyx,  and  by  the  Lat- 
ins marmor  onychites,  from 
its  use  in  making  boxes 
to  preserve  precious  oint- 
ments, which  boxes  were 
commonly  called  '  onyxes' 
and  'alabasters.'  So  Di- 
oscorides  interprets."  It 
is  apprehended  that,  from 
certain  appearances  com- 
mon to  both,  the  same  name 
was  given  not  only  to  the 
common  alabaster,  called 
by  mineralogists  gypsum, 
and  by  chemists  sulphate  «f 
lime,  but  also  to  the  car- 
bonate of  Ume,  or  that  hard- 
er stone  from  which  the  al- 
abastra were  usually  made. 
{Penny  Cychpmlia,  s.  v.).  By  the  English  word  ala- 
baster is  likewise  to  be  understood  both  that  kind  which 
is  also  known  by  the  name  of  gypsum,  and  the  Oriental 
alabaster  which  is  so  much  valued  on  account  of  its 
translucency,  and  for  its  variety  of  colored  streakings, 
red,  yellow,  gray,  etc.,  which  it  owes  for  the  most  part 
to  the  admixture  of  oxides  of  iron.  The  latter  is  a 
fibrous  carbonate  of  lime,  of  which  there  are  many  va- 
rieties, satin  spar  being  one  of  the  most  common.  The 
former  is  a  hydrous  sulphate  of  lime,  and  forms,  when 
calcined  and  ground,  the  well-known  substance  called 
plaster  of  Paris.  Both  these  kinds  of  alabaster,  but 
especially  the  latter,  are  and  have  been  long  used  for 
various  ornamental  purposes,  such  as  the  fabrication 
of  vases,  boxes,  etc.,  etc.  The  ancients  considered 
alabaster  (carbonate  of  lime)  to  be  the  best  material  in 
which  to  preserve  their  ointments  (Pliny,  //.  N.  xiii, 
3).  Herodotus  (iii,  20)  mentions  an  alabaster  vessel 
of  ointment  which  Cambyses  sent,  among  other  things, 
as  a  present  to  the  /Ethiopians.  Hammond  (Annctat. 
ad  Matt,  xxvi,  7)  quotes  Plutarch,  Julius  Pollux,  and 
Athenauis,  to  show  that  alabaster  was  the  material  in 
which  ointments  were  wont  to  be  kept.  Pliny  (ix, 
56)  tells  us  that  the  usual  form  of  these  alabaster  ves- 
I  sels  was  long  and  slender  at  the  top,  and  round  and 
full  at  the  bottom.  He  likens  them  to  the  long  pearls, 
called  elenchi,  which  the  Roman  ladies  suspended  from 
their  fingers  or  dangled  from  their  ears.  He  com- 
pares also  the  green  pointed  cone  of  a  rose-bud  to  the 
form  of  an  alabaster  ointment-vessel  (//.  N.  xxi,  4). 
The  onyx  (Hor.  Od.  iv,  12, 17,  "Nardi  parvus  onyx"), 
which  Pliny  says  is  another  name  for  alabastrites,  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  precious  stone  of  that 
name,  which  is  a  sub-species  of  the  quartz  family  of 
minerals,  being  a  variety  of  agate.  Perhaps  the  name 
of  onyx  was  given  to  the  pink-colored  variety  of  the 
calcareous  alabaster,  in  allusion  to  its  resembling  the 
finger-nail  {onyx)  in  color,  or  else  because  the  calca- 
reous alabaster  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  agate- 
onyx  in  the  characteristic  lunar-shaped  mark  of  the 
last-named  stone,  which  mark  reminded  the  ancients 
of  the  whitish  semicircular  spot  at  the  base  of  the 
finger-nail.     See  Marble;  Vase. 

Alabaster,  William,  a  learned  but  erratic  di- 
vine, born  in  Suffolk  1567,  and  studied  both  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford.  In  1596  he  went  to  Cadiz  as 
chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Essex,  and  there  joined  the 
Church  of  Pome.  A  few  years  of  Romish  life  dis- 
gusted him,  and  in  1610  he  returned  to  the  Church  of 
England.  He  obtained  a  prebend  in  St.  Paul's,  and 
afterward  was  made  rector  of  Therfield,  where  he  died 
!  in  1640.     He  was  a  great  student  of  the  so-called  ca- 


ALAH 


130 


ALB 


balistic  \eaming.  His  works  are  (1)  Lexicon  Penta- 
glotton  (Heb.,  Chald.,  Syr.,  etc.),  Lond.  1637,  fol. ;  (2) 
Comm.  de  Bestia  Apocalyptica,  1621.  He  also  wrote  a 
tragedy,  ' '  Roxana,"  of  which  Dr.  Johnson  spoke  high- 
ly.—Wood,  Athen.  Oxon. ,  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  102. 

Alah.     See  Oak. 

Al'ameth,  a  less  correct  mode  (1  Chron.  vii,  8) 
of  Anglicizing  the  name  Alemeth  (q.  v.). 

Alam'melech  (Heb.  Allamme'lek,  T^H^X,  per- 
haps king's  oak;  Sept.  'EAjtuAfx),  a  town  on  the  border 
of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  mentioned  between  Achshaph 
and  Amad  (Josh,  xix,  26).  Schwarz  remarks  (Palest. 
p.  191)  that  the  name  may  be  indicative  of  a  location 
on  the  branch  of  the  Kishon  still  called  Nahr  eUMelek ; 
perhaps  at  the  ruins  el-IIarbaji  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir, 
p.  283). 

Al'amoth  (Heb.  A lamoth',  Tn~zbv,  virgins,  as  oft- 
en; Sept.  aXiifuuS  v.  r.  dXaipioS  and  d\i/.iw3r,  Vulg. 
arcana),  a  musical  term  used  in  1  Chron.  xv,  20,  ap- 
parently to  denote  that  the  choristers  should  sing  in 
the  female  voice,  i.  e.  our  treble,  or  soprano.  So  Lafage 
(Hist.  Gen.  da  la  Musique)  renders  it  "  chant  superieur 
ou  a  1' octave"  (comp.  Mendelssohn,  Introd.  to  Psalms). 
The  word  occurs  in  the  same  form  and  signification  in 
the  inscription  of  Psa.  xlvi  (where  the  Sept.  and  Vulg. 
translate  Kpixpta,  arcana,  i.  e.  secrets,  as  if  indicative 
of  the  contents  of  the  Psalm),  and  twice  again  in  near- 
ly the  same  form  (ME^S),  namely,  in  the  inscription 
of  Psa.  ix  (where  it  has  the  same  sense,  but  is  differ- 
ently rendered  by  our  translators  "  upon  Muth-,"  Sept. 
again  inrip  rwv  Kpv(picoi>,  Vulg.  occultis),  and  in  Psa. 
xlviii,  15  (where  the  context  requires  the  meaningyor- 
ever,  but  our  version  has  uunto  death,"  Sept.  correctlj- 
tig  rovg  aitovaq,  Vulg.  in  scecula).  See  Muth-labben. 
Forkel  (Gesch.  der  Musik,  i,  142)  understands  virgin 
measures  (Germ.  Jungfernueise),  i.  e.  in  maidenly  style, 
but  against  the  propriety  of  the  usage.     See  Psalms. 

Alan,  Cardinal.     See  Allan. 

Alan  de  l'Isle  (Alarms  de  Insulis),  so  called  be- 
cause, as  most  writers  say,  he  was  a  native  of  Ryssel, 
in  Flanders,  now  Lille  (L'Isle,  Insula)  in  France,  or 
it  was  the  name  of  his  family.  He  obtained  the  name 
of  "the  Universal  Doctor,"  being  equally  well  skilled 
in  theology,  philosophy,  and  poetry.  It  is  said  that 
a  great  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  England.  The 
opinion  that  he  was  the  same  as  Alan  of  Flanders 
(q.  v.)  is  now  generally  rejected.  He  was  born  in 
1114,  and  died  about  1200.  Having  been  appointed  to 
the  episcopal  see  of  Auxerre  or  Canterbury  (the  place 
is  as  uncertain  as  the  fact),  he  soon  resigned  his  func- 
tions in  order  to  retire  to  the  monastery  of  Citeaux, 
where  he  seems  to  have  devoted  himself  to  alchemy. 
Of  his  alchemical  labors,  we  only  know  his  aphorism 
(dicta)  on  the  philosopher's  stone.  Alan  calls  the 
amalgam  resulting  from  the  union  of  gold  or  of  silver 
with  mercury  the  "solution  of  philosophers"  (solutio 
philosophorum),  and  adds  that  great  advantages  may 
be  derived  therefrom.  His  works  are,  1.  Doctrinale  Mi- 
nns, or  the  book  of  parables  (Gons.  1491,  4to) ;  2.  Doc- 
trinale Minus  Alterum,  or  Liber  Sententiarum  et  Dicto- 
rum,  Memordbilium  (Paris,  1492,  4to) ;  3.  Elucidatio 
supra  Cant'ica  Canlicorum  (Paris,  1540)  ;  4.  Lib.  de 
Planctu  Naturae,  on  the  vices  of  the  age  and  their  rem- 
edy ;  5.  A  nt  id  audi  anus,  sive,  de  officio  viri  in  omnibus  vir- 
tutibusperfecti:  libri  ix  (Hasle,'l53G,  8vo;  Ant,  1621): 
this  work  is  also  called  the  "  Encyclopedia,"  from  its 
professing  to  contain  every  thing  divine  and  human 
which  man  ought  to  meditate  upon  and  admire;  6.  De 
arte  seu  articulis  Catholicw  fidei  (published  by  Masson, 
Paris,  1612,  8vo);  7.  Aluni  Magru 'do  Insulis  explana- 
tionum  in  prophet iam  Merlini  Ambrosii,  Britanrti,  libri 
vii  (  Francfort,  1607,  8vo)  ;  8.  Liber  pwi/itintialis,  ded- 
icated to  Henry  de  Sully,  archbishop  of  Bourges.  Sev- 
eral other  works  of  Alan  are  found  in  manuscript  in 


the  libraries  of  France  and  England.  Another  work 
of  his  on  morals  has  been  discovered  during  the  pres- 
ent century  at  Avranches  (see  Kavaisson,  Rapport  sur 
Us  Bibliotheques  de  VOuest  de  la  France,  Paris,  1841,  p. 
157).  The  work  Opus  Quadrijiartitum  def.de  Catholica 
contra  Valdenses,  Albigcnses  et  alios  hujus  temporis  he- 
reticos,  which  was  formerty  enumerated  among  his 
works,  is  probably  not  from  him,  but  from  Alan  de 
Podio  (q.  v.). — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  ann.  1151 ;  Mosheim, 
Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii. 

Alan  de  Podio,  an  ecclesiastical  writer,  who  is 
probably  the  author  of  the  work  Opus  Quadiipartitum 
dejide  Catholica.  See  Alan  de  l'Isle.  No  partic- 
ulars of  the  life  of  this  author  are  known.  His  sur- 
name points  to  Provence.  Another  work  of  his  has 
been  discovered  during  the  present  century  at  Av- 
ranches (see  Ravaisson,  Rapport  sur  les  Bibliotheques 
de  VOuest  de  la  France,  Paris,  1841,  p.  157);  and  he  is 
also  supposed  to  be  the  author  of  a  work  dedicated  to 
the  Abbot  Ermengaldus,  of  St.  Gilles,  and  designated 
in  the  manuscript  as  Oculus,  Oraculum  Scriplurce  Sa- 
cra; AHquivoca,  etc. 

Alan  of  Flanders  (Alanus  Flandriensis),  bishop 
of  Auxerre,  born  in  Flanders  at  the  beginning  of  the 
12th  century,  died  in  1182.  Some  historians,  as  Oudin 
(q.  v.),  identify  him  with  Alan  de  l'Isle  (q.  v.),  while 
others,  like  Cave  and  the  authors  of  the  Histoire  Lit- 
teraire  de  France,  regard  them  as  different  persons. 
He  became  a  monk  at  Clairvaux,  under  St.  Bernard, 
in  1128 ;  was,  about  1139,  made  the  first  abbot  of  Ri- 
voir  or  Rivour,  in  the  diocese  of  Troves,  in  Champagne, 
and,  in  1151  (or  1152),  bishop  of  Auxerre.  H.e  is  the 
author  of  a  life  of  St.  Bernard  (included  in  Opera  St. 
Bemardi,  torn,  ii,  1690,  fol.). 

Alarm  (HWltn,  teruah',  a  loud  sound  or  shout,  as 
often),  a  broken  quivering  sound  of  the  silver  trum- 
pets of  the  Hebrews,  warning  them  in  their  journey  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  x,  5,  6;  comp.  Lev.  xxiii,  24; 
xxv,  9;  xxix,  1).  When  the  people  or  the  rulers 
were  to  be  assembled  together,  the  trumpet  was  blown 
softty ;  when  the  camps  were  to  move  forward,  or  the 
people  to  march  to  war,  it  was  sounded  with  a  deeper 
note  (Jahn,  Bibl.  Archdol.  §  95,  v).  Hence  a  war- 
note  or  call  to  arms,  or  other  public  exigency  in  gen- 
eral (Jer.  iv,  19;  xlix,  2;  Zeph.  i,  16).  See  Trum- 
pet. 

Alasco,  John.     See  Lasco. 

Alb,  Alba,  a  long  white  tunic  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  worn  by  all  ecclesiastics  during  service,  and 
answering  to  the  surplice  in  the  Church  of  England, 
excepting  that  the  alb  is  narrower  in  the  sleeves, 
and  fits  the  body  more  closely,  being  often  gathered 
at  the  waist  by  a  girdle.  The  ornaments  at  the  bot- 
tom and  wrists  are  call- 
ed apparels,  and  it  is 
also  sometimes  em- 
broidered with  a  cross 
upon  the  breast.  See 
Vestment. 

It  was  an  ancient 
custom  to  clothe  the 
newly-baptized  in  al- 
bis,  in  white  garments. 
These  garments  were 
delivered  to  them, with 
a  solemn  charge  to 
keep  their  robes  of  in- 
nocence unspotted  un- 
til the  day  of  Christ. 
This  dress  was  worn 
from  Easter-eve  until 
the  Sunday  after  East- 
er,  which  was   called 

Dominica  in  albis ;  that  is,  the  Sunday  in  white,  whence 
the  namo  Whitsunday.    The  garment  was  usually  made 


The  Alii. 


ALBAN 


131 


ALBER 


of  white  linen,  but  occasionally  of  more  costly  mate- 
rials.— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  lib.  xiii,  cap.  viii,  §  2. 

Alban,  St.,  protomartyr  of  England,  is  said  to 
have  serred  seven  years  with  Diocletian,  after  which, 
returning  to  his  country,  he  took  up  his  abode  at  Veru- 
lamium,  in  Hertfordshire,  his  birth-place.  Shortly 
after  this  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  broke  out, 
which  drove  Amphibalus,  who  had  been  the  compan- 
ion of  Alban,  on  his  journey  to  Rome,  and  his  fellow- 
soldier,  to  Britain  for  safety,  where  he  at  once  betook 
himself  to  Verulamium.  When  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  commenced  in  Britain,  the  name  of  Am- 
phibalus was  brought  before  the  prefect,  Asclepiodotus, 
as  that  of  a  man  guilty  of  following  the  new  religion ; 
but,  when  he  could  not  be  found,  Alban  voluntarily 
presented  himself  to  the  judge,  and  was  put  to  the  tor- 
ment and  imprisoned.  Shortly  after,  both  he  and  his 
friend,  who  had  been  discovered,  were  condemned  to 
die  as  being  Christians :  Alban  was  put  to  death  by 
the  sword  on  a  small  hill  in  the  neighborhood,  called 
afterward  by  the  Saxons  Holmehurst,  and  where  his 
body  was  also  buried.  When  tranquillity  had  been 
restored  to  the  Church,  great  honors  were  paid  to  the 
tomb  of  Alban,  and  a  chapel  was  erected  over  it, 
■which  Bede  says  was  of  admirable  workmanship. 
About  795,  Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians,  founded  here 
a  spacious  monastery  in  honor  of  St.  Alban,  and  soon 
after  the  town  called  St.  Alban  arose  in  its  neighbor- 
hood. Pope  Adrian  IV,  who  was  born  in  this  neigh- 
borhood, directed  that  the  abbot  of  St.  Alban's  should 
hold  the  first  place  among  the  abbots  of  England.  He 
is  commemorated  by  the  Roman  Church  on  June  22d. 
— Gough's  Camden' s  Britannia,!,  336;  Tanner,  Biblioth. 
Brit.  p.  18 ;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  i,  48 ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Albanenses,  a  sect  of  the  Cathari,  which  appear- 
ed toward  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  de- 
rived its  name  from  Albania,  where  Dualism  was  quite 
prevalent ;  others  say,  from  Albano,  in  Italy.  They 
held  the  Gnostic  and  Manichtean  doctrines  of  two  prin- 
ciples, one  good  and  the  other  evil.  They  denied  the 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  rejected  the  account  of  his 
sufferings,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension.  They 
rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
affirmed  that  the  general  judgment  was  already  pass- 
ed, and  that  the  torments  of  hell  are  the  pains  which 
men  feel  in  this  life.  They  denied  man's  free  will, 
did  not  admit  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  and  held 
that  man  can  impart  the  Holy  Spirit  to  himself. — Mo- 
sheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  5 ;  Gieseler,  Ch. 
Hist.  per.  iii,  §  87.     See  Cathari. 

Albati,  a  sect  so  called  from  the  white,  garments 
they  wore.  They  entered  Italy  from  the  Alps  about 
1400,  having  as  their  guide  a  priest  clothed  in  white, 
and  a  crucifix  in  his  hand.  He  was  deemed  a  saint, 
and  his  followers  multiplied  so  fast  that  Pope  Boniface 
IX,  growing  jealous  of  the  augmenting  power  of  the 
leader,  sent  soldiers,  who  put  him  to  death  and  dis- 
persed his  followers.  (See  Siber,  De  Albatis,  Lips. 
1736.)  They  are  said  (by  their  enemies  and  perse- 
cutors, however)  to  have  been  dissolute  in  their  hab- 
its, while,  at  the  same  time,  the}'  professed  to  weep 
and  sorrow  for  the  sins  and  calamities  of  the  times. — 
Mosheim,  Church  History,  ii,  467. 

Alber,  Erasmus,  a  German  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, born  at  Sprendingen,  near  Frankfort  on  the  Main, 
and  educated  at  Wittenberg.  In  1528  he  was  called 
by  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse  as  pastor  to  Sprendin- 
gen. Subsequently,  he  was  court  preacher  to  Elector 
Joachim  II  of  Brandenburg,  by  whom  he  was  again 
dismissed  on  account  of  the  violence  of  language  with 
which  he  combated  the  taxation  of  the  clergy.  In 
1543  he  received  from  Luther  the  title  of  doctor  of  di- 
vinity. In  1545  he  was  called  by  the  count  of  Hanau- 
Lichtenberg  to  carry  through  the  reformation  in  his 
land.  From  Magdeburg,  to  which  city  he  was  subse- 
quently called  as  pastor,  he  was  expelled  on  account 


of  his  opposition  to  the  Interim.  In  1553  he  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  at  Neu-Brandenburg,  in  Meck- 
lenburg, where  he  died,  May  5,  1553.  While  court 
preacher  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  he  found  in 
a  Franciscan  convent  a  work  by  a  Franciscan  monk, 
Bartholomew  Albizzi  (q.  v.),  entitled  Liber  Cimformi- 
tatum  S.  Francisci  ad  vitam  Jesu  Christi.  This  induced 
him  to  write  his  celebrated  work,  DerBarfmserMonclw 
Eulenspiegel  und  Alcoran,  which  was  published,  with  a 
preface  from  Luther,  at  Wittenberg,  in  1542,  and  soon 
appeared  in  a  French,  Latin,  and  Dutch  translation. 
He  wrote  several  other  works  against  the  Interim, 
against  Andreas  Osiander,  against  the  followers  of 
Karlstadt,  against  Witzel,  fables  for  the  youth  in 
rhymes,  and  religious  songs,  published  by  Stromber- 
ger,  in  Geistliche  Sanger  der  christlichen  Kirche  deutscher 
Nation,  vol.  x  (Halle,  1857).  A  complete  list  of  his 
works  is  in  Strieder,  Grundlage  zu  einer  llessischen 
Gelehrten-  und  Schriftstellergesehichte  (Gott.  1781),  i,  24 
sq. — See  Herzog,  Supplem.  i,  33 ;  Biog.  Univ.  i,  394. 

Alber,  John  Nepomuk,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Ovar,  July  7, 1753,  died  about  1840. 
He  wrote  a  large  work  on  Hermaneutics,  in  16  vols. 
(Interpretatio  Sacra  Scripttine,  Pesth,  1801-'4),  which 
Home  recommends  as  an  able  refutation  of  the  opin- 
ions of  the  anti-supernaturalist  divines  of  Germany. 
He  also  wrote  Institutiones  Historic  Eccles.  (Vienna, 
1793);  Institutiones  Hermeneuticce,  1817;  and  Institu- 
tiones Linguce  Hebraicce,  1826. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate, 
ii,  539. 

Alber,  Matthew,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Ref- 
ormation in  Southern  Germany,  born  at  Reutlingen, 
1495,  studied  at  Tubingen,  and  was  ordained  priest 
about  1521.  He  received  a  call  as  preacher  to  his  na- 
tive town,  where  he  labored  so  faithfully  in  behalf  of 
the  Reformation,  that,  in  1523,  the  people  generally 
were  favorable  to  it.  In  1524,  Alber,  notwithstanding 
the  remonstrances  of  the  abbot  of  Konigsbronn,  the 
patron  of  the  churches  of  Reutlingen,  was  appointed 
by  the  city  authorities  the  first  pastor  of  the  city.  At 
the  instigation  of  the  abbot  of  Konigsbronn,  he  was 
summoned  before  the  bishop  of  Constance,  but,  owing 
to  the  urgent  solicitations  of  his  friends,  did  not  go. 
He  was  therefore  put  under  the  ban  by  the  bishop,  by 
Pope  Leo  X,  and  bj'  the  imperial  court  of  Rothweil. 
The  three  decrees  were  simultaneously  posted  on  all 
the  church  doors,  but  failed  to  produce  any  effect. 
Alber,  with  the  applause  of  the  people,  proceeded  un- 
dauntedly on  the  way  of  reformation.  He  abolished 
the  Latin  mass,  introduced  the  use  of  the  native  lan- 
guage at  divine  service,  removed  the  images  from  the 
churches,  and  got  married.  In  December,  1524,  he  was 
summoned  before  the  Imperial  Chamber  of  Esslingen, 
where  he  was  charged  with  68  heresies,  all  of  which  he 
acknowledged,  except  the  charge  that  he  had  spoken 
disrespectfully  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  court,  after 
examining  him  three  days,  dismissed  him  unpunished. 
The  Anabaptists,  who  at  this  time  endeavored  to  es- 
tablish themselves  at  Reutlingen,  were  prevailed  upon 
by  the  sermons  of  Alber  to  leave  the  city.  He  also 
succeeded  in  keeping  the  citizens  of  Reutlingen  from 
joining  in  the  peasants'  war.  Zuingle,  in  a  letter  of 
November  16,  1526,  endeavored  to  gain  Alber  over 
to  his  view  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  but  Alber,  like  his 
friend  Brentz,  remained  on  the  side  of  Luther,  with 
whom  he  became  personally  acquainted  in  Wittenberg 
in  1536.  In  1537  Alber  took  part  in  the  colloquy  of 
Urach,  when  he  zealously  combated  the  use  of  images 
in  the  churches.  In  1539  he  received  from  the  uni- 
versity of  Tubingen  the  title  of  doctor  of  divinity. 
When  the  Interim  was  forced  upon  Reutlingen,  he  left 
the.  city  on  June  25,  1548,  and  was  called  by  Duke 
Ulric  as  antistes  (first  pastor)  of  the  collegiate  church 
(Stiftskirche)  of  Stuttgart.  Duke  Christopher  ap- 
pointed him  church  counsellor,  and,  in  1563.  lie  was 
made  abbot  of  Blaubeuren.    He  died  Dec.  2, 1570.    He 


ALBERT 


132 


ALBERT 


•published  several  sermons,  a  catechism  (GrundJicher 
Bericht  des  wahren  Christenthumes),  and  a  work  on 
Providence  (Vom  rechten  Brauch  der  ewigen  Vorsehung 
Gottes).  See  Hartmann,  Matthias  Alber,  der  Reforma- 
tor  der  Reichsstadt  L'eutli/ig>  n  ^Tubingen,  1863) ;  Her- 
zog,  Real  EncyMopadie,  i,  "202. 

Albert,  bishop  of  Liege  (saint  and  martyr  of  the 
Roman  Church),  was  the  son  of  Godfrey,  duke  of  Bra- 
bant, lie  was  unanimous]}'  chosen  to  succeed  Ra- 
dulphus,  bishop  of  Liego,  who  died  on  the  5th  of  Au- 
gust, 1191.  The  Emperor  Henry  VI  opposed  this 
election  with  all  his  power,  but  Celestin  II  confirmed 
Albert  in  the  see,  and  made  him  cardinal.  Henry 
still  persisted  in  his  opposition ;  and  to  carry  it  out 
fully,  three  German  gentlemen  followed  Albert  to 
Rheims,  whither  he  had  retired,  and  in  his  own  house, 
where  they  had  been  kindly  and  generously  received, 
they  murdered  him,  piercing  him  with  thirteen  mortal 
wounds.  His  body  was  at  first  interred  at  Rheims ; 
but,  under  Louis  XIII,  it  was  translated  to  Brussels, 
where  it  is  still  preserved.  The  Roman  Mart}'rology 
commemorates  him  on  the  21st  of  November.  His 
life,  written  by  one  of  his  attendants,  is  in  the  history 
of  the  bishops  of  Liege,  by  Gilles,  monk  of  Orval. — 
Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  i,  202 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate, 
i,  597. 

Albert,  "the  Great"  (Albertcs  Magnus),  so 
called  on  account  of  his  vast  erudition,  was  born  at 
Lauingen,  Suabia.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  variously 
given,  by  some  1193,  by  others  1205.  He  studied  at 
Padua;  and  entered  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  in  1221. 
His  abilities  and  learning  were  of  the  highest  class, 
and  he  was  deemed  the  best  theologian,  philosopher, 
and  mathematician  of  the  age  ;  indeed,  his  knowledge 
of  mathematics  was  such,  that  the  people,  unable  to 
comprehend  the  intricate  mechanism  which  he  used  in 
some  of  his  works,  regarded  him  as  a  magician.  An 
automaton  which  he  made  was  so  exquisitely  con- 
trived that  it  seemed  to  be  endowed  with  powers  of 
spontaneous  motion  and  speech,  and  deceived  even  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  his  pupil,  who  broke  it  in  pieces  with 
a  stick,  thinking  it  to  be  an  emissary  of  the  evil  one. 
He  was  a  strong  Aristotelian,  and  his  authority  con- 
tributed greatly  to  uphold  the  reign  of  Aristotlein  the 
schools  at  that  period,  in  opposition  to  the  papal  bull 
against  him.  When  Jordanus,  general  of  the  Do- 
minicans, died  in  1236,  Albert  governed  the  order  for 
two  years  as  vicar-general.  Being  afterward  made 
provincial  for  Germany,  he  established  himself  at  Co- 
logne, where  he  publicly  taught  theology  to  an  infinite 
number  of  pupils  who  flocked  to  him  from  all  parts; 
and  from  this  school  proceeded  Thomas  Aquinas,  Am- 
brose of  Siena,  and  Thomas  of  Cantimpre.  In  1260  he 
was  nominated  to  the  bishopric  of  Ratisbon,  and  re- 
luctantly consented  to  accept  it ;  he  did  not,  however, 
long  retain  it,  and  in  1263  obtained  permission  to  leave 
it,  ami  retire  into  his  convent,  where  he  occupied  him- 
self entirely  in  prayer  and  study  until  his  death,  which 
happened  on  the  15th  of  November,  1280. 

Albert  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  cultivated 
men  of  his  age ;  but  yet  he  was  rather  a  learned 
man,  and  a  compiler  of  the  works  of  others,  than  an 
original  and  profound  thinker.  He  wrote  commen- 
taries on  most  of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  in  which 
he  makes  especial  use  of  the  Arabian  commentators, 
and  blends  the  notion  of  the  Neoplatonists  with  those 
of  his  author.  Logic,  metaphysics,  theology,  and 
ethics  were  rather  externally  cultivated  by  his  labors 
than  effectually  improved.  With  him  began  those 
minute  and  tedious  inquiries  and  disputes  respect- 
ing matter  and  form,  essence  and  being  (Essentia 
or  Quidditas,  and  li.ndentia,  whence  subsequently 
arose  tin-  further  distinction  of  Esse  Essmtiir  and  /■>- 
isti  nttCB ).  Of  the  universal,  lie  assumes  that  it  exists 
parti;  in  external  things  and  partly  in  the  understand- 
ing.    Rational  psychology  aud  theology  are  indebted 


to  him  for  many  excellent  hints.  The  latter  science 
he  treated  in  his  Summa  Theologies,  as  well  according 
to  the  plan  of  Lombardus  as  his  own.  In  the  former 
he  described  the  soul  as  a  totam  potestativum.  His  gen- 
eral relation  to  theology  is  thus  stated  by  Neander 
History  of  Dogmas  (ii,  552):  "Albert  defines  Chris' 
!  tianity  as  practical  science  ;  for  although  it  is  occupied 
j  with  the  investigatien  of  truth,  yet  it  refers  every 
thing  to  the  life  of  the  soul,  and  shows  how  man,  by 
the  truths  it  reveals,  must  be  formed  to  a  divine  life. 
]  It  treats  of  God  and  his  works,  not  in  reference  to  ab- 
stract truth,  but  to  God  as  the  supreme  good,  to  the 
salvation  of  men,  to  the  production  of  piety  in  the  in- 
ner and  outer  man.  He  also  distinguishes  various 
kinds  of  certainty  :  the  theoretical,  which  merely  re- 
lates to  knowledge  (informatio  mentis'),  and  the  certain- 
ty of  immediate  consciousness  (Jnformatio  conscientiai). 
The  knowledge  obtained  by  faith  is  more  certain  than 
that  derived  from  other  sources ;  but  we  must  distin- 
guish between  the  fides  in  for  mis  and  the  fides  formata ; 
the  first  is  only  a  means  to  knowledge,  but  the  second 
is  an  immediate  consciousness.  Man  is  attracted  by 
the  object  of  faith  just  as  moral  truth  leads  him  to  mo- 
rality. All  knowledge  and  truth  come  from  God,  but 
they  are  imparted  in  different  ways ;  our  reason  has 
the  capacity  to  perceive  truth,  as  the  eye  possesses 
the  faculty  of  sight.  Natural  light  is  one  thing,  and 
the  light  of  grace  is  another.  The  latter  is  a  higher 
stage,  an  assimilation  between  him  who  knows  rnd 
the  thing  known,  a  participation  of  the  divine  life." 
In  his  theology  he  labored  to  define  our  rational 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  God,  and  enlarged  upon 
i  the  metaphysical  idea  of  him  as  a  necessary  Being  (in 
|  whom  pure  Esse  and  his  determinate  or  qualified  na- 
ture [Seyn  und  Wesen~\  are  identical),  endeavoring  to 
develop  in  this  manner  his  attributes.  These  inquiries 
are  often  mixed  up  with  idle  questions  and  dialectic 
absurdities,  and  involve  abundant  inconsistencies ;  as 
for  instance,  when  he  would  account  for  the  creation 
bj'  the  doctrine  of  emanation  (eausatio  univoea),  and 
nevertheless  denies  the  emanation  of  souls,  he  in- 
sists upon  the  universal  intervention  of  the  Deity  in 
the  course  of  nature,  and  yet  asserts  the  existence  of 
natural  causes  defining  and  limiting  his  operations. 
In  treating  of  the  Trinity,  he  traced  an  analogy  be- 
tween the  divine  and  the  human  as  follows:  "There 
is  no  excellence  among  the  creatures  which  is  not  to 
be  found  in  a  much  higher  style,  and  as  an  archetype, 
in  the  Creator;  among  created  beings  it  exists  only 
in  foot-marks  and  images.  This  is  true  also  of  the 
Trinity.  No  artistic  spirit  can  accomplish  his  work 
without  first  forming  to  himself  an  outline  of  it.  In 
the  spirit,  therefore,  first  of  all,  the  idea  of  its  work  is 
conceived,  which  is,  as  it  were,  the  offspring  of  the  spir- 
it, in  even'  feature  resembling  the  spirit,  representing 
it  in  its  acting.  (Format  ex  se  rationem  operis  et  spe- 
ciem,  qure  est  sicut  proles  ipsius  intellectus,  intellectui 
agenti  similis  in  quantum  agens  est.)  Thus,  there- 
fore, the  spirit  reveals  himself  in  the  idea  of  the  spirit. 
Now,  from  the  acting  spirit  this  idea  passes  into  real- 
ity, and  for  this  purpose  the  spirit  must  find  a  medium 
in  outward  action.  This  medium  must  be  simple,  and 
of  the  same  substance  with  him  who  first  acted,  if  in- 
deed the  latter  is  so  simple  that  being,  nature,  and 
activity  are  one  in  him.  From  this  results  the  idea 
in  reference  to  God,  of  the  formative  spirit,  of  the 
planned  image,  and  of  the  spirit  by  which  the  image 
is  realized.  (Spiritus rector  formse.)  The  creation  in 
time  is  a  revelation  of  the  eternal  acting  of  Cod,  the 
eternal  generation  of  his  Son.  The  revelation  of  God 
in  time  for  the  sanctification  of  nature,  is  an  image  of 
the  eternal  procession  of  the  spirit  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  Our  love  is  only  a  reflection  of  the  di- 
vine love  ;  the  archetype  of  all  love  is  the  Holy  Spirit, 
who,  like  all  love,  proceeds  from  God.  The  one  love 
spread  abroad  through  all  holy  souls  proceeds  from 
the  Holy  Spirit.     (Una  caritas  diffusa  per  omnes  ani- 


ALBERT 


133 


ALBIGENSES 


mas  sanctas  per  spiritum  sanctum,  ad  quam  sicut  ex- 
empla  omnia  dilectio  refertur  et  comparatione  illius  et 
assimilatione  caritas  dici  meretur.)  Love  in  God  nei- 
ther diminishes  nor  increases,  but  we  diminish  or  in- 
crease it  in  ourselves  according  as  we  receive  this 
love  into  our  souls,  or  withdraw  from  it."  With 
reference  to  original  sin,  he  taught  that  mankind 
were  materially  embodied  in  Adam  :  Omne  genus  huma- 
num  secundum  corpulentam  substaniiam  in  Adamo  fuit. 
He  considered  conscience  to  be  the  highest  law  of 
reason,  and  distinguished  the  moral  disposition  (syn- 
teresis,  <rvvriipt]<ne)  from  its  habitual  exercise  (conscien- 
tid).  All  virtue  which  is  acceptable  to  God  is  infused 
bjr  him  into  the  hearts  of  men.  His  scholars  were 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  Albertists.  His  life  is 
given  at  length  in  Quetif  and  Echard,  Script.  Orel. 
Prmlicatorum,  i,  171.  His  works,  embracing  natural 
and  moral  science,  metaphysics,  and  theology,  are 
collected  and  published  under  the  title  Optra  Alberti 
Magni  qua;  haciemts  habcri  potuerunt,  ed.  Pet.  Jammy 
(21  vols.  fol.  Lyons,  1651).  Those  which  relate  to 
theology  are  the  following:  1.  Commentaries  on  dif- 
ferent Books  of  Holy  Scripture,  contained  in  the  7th, 
8th,  9th,  and  10th  vols,  of  the  above  edition  : — 2.  Ser- 
mons for  the  whole  Year  anil  Saints'  Days;  Prayers 
formed  upon  the  Gospels  of  all  the  Sundays  in  the 
Year ;  thirty-two  Sermons  on  the  Eucharist,  which  are 
usually  contained  among  the  works  of  St.Thomas ;  all 
contained  in  vols.  11  and  12 : — 3.  Commentaries  on  the 
tvorks  attributed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagile ;  also,  An 
Abridgment  of  Theology,  in  seven  books;  contained  in 
vol.  13  :- — 4.  Commentaries  on  the  Four  Books  of  the 
Master  of  the  Sentences,  in  vols.  14, 15, 16  : — 5.  A  Sum- 
mary of  Theology,  in  vols.  17  and  18 : — 6.  Summaries 
of  Creatures,  in  two  parts,  the  second  concerning  Mart, 
in  vol.  19 : — 7.  A  Discourse  in  honor  of  the  Virgin.  A 
special  edition  of  his  "Paradisus  animce  sive  libellus  de 
vbrtutibus"  with  an  appendix,  containing  De  sacro 
Christi  Corporis  and  Lunguinis  Sacramento  tractatus 
xxxii,  has  been  published  by  Bishop  Seiler  (new  edit., 
Ratisbon,  1864,  16mo).— Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  421  ; 
Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  44  ;  Hau- 
reau,  Philosophic  Scholastique,  ii,  1-104;  Tennemann, 
Hist.  Phil.  §  264 ;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  ii,  542-593 ; 
Herzog,  Real  EncyUopddie,  i,  203 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  i,  590  sq.  (where  his  services  to  physical  science  are 
fully  vindicated)  ;  Joel,  Verhiiltniss  A  Ibert  des  Grossen 
zu  Maimonides  (Breslau,  1863). 

Albert,  fifth  archbishop  of  Magdeburg  and  primate 
of  all  Germany  (1513),  and  further,  in  1514,  elected 
archbishop  of  Mentz,  both  of  which  archiepiscopal  sees, 
by  dispensation  from  Pope  Leo  X,  he  held  together — a 
thing  altogether  without  example.  Besides  this,  he 
was  appointed  administrator  of  the  bishopric  of  Hal- 
berstadt.  He  made  a  contract  with  Pope  Leo  for  the 
farming  of  indulgences,  and  made  the  notorious  Tetzel 
(q.  v.)  one  of  the  agents  for  their  sale  in  Germany. 
The  proceedings  of  Tetzel  were  vigorously  watched 
and  opposed  by  Luther,  who,  in  turn,  was  hated  by 
the  archbishop.  His  efforts  to  retard  the  Reformation 
were  rewarded  by  the  cardinal's  hat  in  1518.  He  was 
the  first  to  introduce  the  Jesuits  into  Germany.  He 
died  at  Mentz  in  1545.  His  writings  are,  1.  Statuta 
pro  Cleri  Reformations : — 2.  Decreta  adversus  Nova- 
tores  Lutherum  et  A  sseclas : — 3.  Sermons : — 4.  Oratio  de 
Bello  movemdo  contra  Turcos  (Eisleben,  1608)  : — 5.  Re- 
sponse ad  Epist.  Lvtheri: — 6.  Constitutions  and  Statutes 
Ecclesiastical,  in  German  (Leipsic,  1552). — Fabricius, 
Biblioth.  Hist,  i,  386,  407,  411. 

Alberti,  John,  a  Dutch  theologian  and  philoso- 
pher, was  born  at  Assen  in  1698,  and  died  in  1762.  He 
was  pastor  at  Harlem,  and  subsequently  professor  of 
theology  at  the  university  of  Lejden.  He  wrote  06- 
servationes  Philological  in  saci:os  Novi  Faderis  Libros 
(Leyd.1725),  in  which  he  collected  from  profane  writers 
parallel  passages  in  justification  of  the  Greek  language 


|  of  the  New  Testament ;  a  Glossarium  Gra;cum  in  sacros 
noviz  Faderis  libros  (Leyd.  1735).  He  also  published 
the  first  volume  of  the  Lexicon  of  Hesychius,  the  sec- 
ond volume  of  which  was  published  by  Ruhnhenius 
(Leyd.  1766).— Hoefer,  Biog.  Gencrale,  iii,  615. 

Alberti,  Leander,  a  Dominican  monk  and  writer, 
was  born  at  Bologna,  Dec.  11,  1479,  and  entered  the 
order  of  St.  Dominic  in  1495.  He  applied  himself 
entirely  to  study,  and  was  called  to  Rome  by  the  gen- 
eral of  his  order,  Francis  Sylvester,  of  Ferrara,  in  1525, 
to  act  as  one  of  his  assistants,  with  the  title  of  Pro- 
vincial of  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  also  inquisitor- 
general  at  Bologna,  where  he  died  in  1552.  Among 
his  writings  are  De  Viris  Must.  Ord.  Pra-dlcatorum  libri 
vi  (Bolog.  1517,  fol.)  ;  De  D.  Dominki  Obilu  tt  Sepuliura 
(Bolog.  1535)  ;  Historic  di  Bologna  (up  to  1279 ;  Bolog. 
1541-1590);  Descriz;one  di  tutta  V Italia,  etc.  (Bolog. 
1550 ;  Ven.  1551, 1581,  and  1588 ;  Latin,  Cologne,  1567). 
— Niceron,  Memoires,  xxvi,  303 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  i,  617. 

Albertini,  Johann  Baptist  vox,  a  Moravian 
bishop,  bom  in  1769  at  Neuwied,  in  German)'.  He 
was  appointed  in  1804  preacher  at  Niesky,  and  conse- 
crated bishop  in  1814.  In  1821  he  became  bishop  at 
Herrnhut,  and  died  in  1831  at  Berthelsdorf.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  especially  as  the  author  of  many 
beautiful  hymns,  some  of  which  have  been  received 
into  nearly  all  the  Protestant  hymn-books  of  Germany. 
His  theological  works  are,  Predigten  (1805, 3d  ed.  1829) ; 
Geistliche  Lieder  (1821,  3d  ed.  1835)  ;  Reden  (1832). 

Albertus  Magnus.     See  Albert. 

Albigenses,  the  name  of  one  or  more  religious 
sects  to  whom  this  title  seems  to  have  been  first  given 
in  the  twelfth  century  in  the  south  of  France,  distin- 
guished by  their  zealous  opposition  to  the  Church  of 
Rome,  as  also  by  the  peculiar  doctrines  for  which  they 
contended.  Some  writers  (e.  g.  Give)  suppose  them 
to  be  the  same  as  the  Waldenses,  as  the  two  sects  are 
generally  associated  and  condemned  together  by  the 
Romanist  writers.  But  it  is  certain  that  the  Wal- 
denses originated  at  a  later  period  and  held  a  purer 
faith,  though  it  is  not  at  all  impossible  that  in  the  ter- 
rible persecutions  to  which  the  Albigenses  were  sub- 
jected many  Waldenses  were  included.  In  the  creed 
of  the  Waldenses  "we  find  no  vestiges  of  Dualism, 
nor  any  thing  which  indicates  the  least  affinity  with 
Oriental  theories  of  emanation."  That  the  Albigenses 
were  identical  with  the  Waldenses  has  been  main- 
tained by  two  very  different  schools  of  theologians  for 
precisely  opposite  interests:  by  the  Romanists,  to 
make  the  Waldenses  responsible  for  the  errors  of  the 
Albigenses,  and  by  a  number  of  respectable  Protes- 
tant writers  (e.  g.  Allix),  to  show  that  the  Albigenses 
were  entirely  free  from  the  errors  charged  against 
them  by  their  Romish  persecutors.  "What  these 
bodies  held  in  common,  and  what  made  them  equally 
the  prey  of  the  inquisitor,  was  their  unwavering  be- 
lief in  the  corruption  of  the  mediaeval  Church,  espe- 
cially as  Kovernod  by  the  Roman  pontiffs"  (Hard wick, 
Middle  Ages,  p.  311). 

By  some  writers  their  origin  is  traced  to  the  Pauli- 
cians  (q.  v.)  or  Bogomiles  (q.  v.),  who,  having  with- 
drawn from  Bulgaria  and  Thrace,  either  to  escape  per- 
secution or,  more  probably,  from  motives  of  zeal  to 
extend  their  doctrines,  settled  in  various  parts  of 
Europe.  They  acquired  different  names  in  different 
countries  ;  as  in  Italy,  whither  they  originally  mi- 
grated, they  were  called  Paterini  and  Cathari ;  and 
in  France  Albigenses,  from  the  name  of  a  diocese 
(Albi)  in  which  they  were  dominant,  or  from  the  fact 
that  their  opinions  were  condemned  in  a  council  held 
at  Albi  in  the  year  1176.  Besides  these  names,  they 
were  called  in  different  times  and  places,  and  by  va- 
rious authors,  Bulgarians,  Publicans  (a  corruption  of 
Paulicians),  Boni  Homines,  Petro-Brussi.ins,  Ilenri- 
cians,  Abelardists,   and  Arnaldists.     In  the  twelfth 


ALBIGENSES 


134 


ALBIZZI 


eentmy  the  Cathari  were  very  numerous  in  Southern 
France.  At  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
a  crusade  was  formed  for  the  extirpation  of  heresy  in 
Southern  Europe,  and  Innocent  III  enjoined  upon  all 
princes  to  expel  them  from  their  dominions  in  1209. 
The  immediate  pretence  of  the  crusade  was  the  murder 
of  the  papal  legate  and  inquisitor,  Peter  of  Castelnau, 
who  had  been  commissioned  to  extirpate  heresy  in  the 
dominions  of  Count  Raj-mond  VI  of  Toulouse ;  but  its 
real  object  was  to  deprive  the  count  of  his  lands,  as 
he  had  become  an  object  of  hatred  from  his  toleration 
of  the  heretics.  It  was  in  vain  that  he  had  submitted 
to  the  most  humiliating  penance  and  flagellation  from 
the  hands  of  the  legate  Milo,  and  had  purchased  the 
papal  absolution  by  great  sacrifices.  The  legates,  Ar- 
nold, abbot  of  Citeaux,  and  Milo,  who  directed  the 
expedition,  took  by  storm  Beziers,  the  capital  of  Ray- 
mond's nephew,  Roger,  and  massacred  20,000 — some 
say  40,000 — of  the  inhabitants,  Catholics  as  well  as 
heretics.  "Kill  them  all,"  said  Arnold;  "God  will 
know  his  own!"  (For  a  full  and  graphic  account  of 
this  crusade,  see  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  iv,  210 
sq.)  Simon,  count  of  Montfort,  who  conducted  the 
war  under  the  legates,  proceeded  in  the  same  relent- 
less way  with  other  places  in  the  territories  of  Ray- 
mond and  his  allies.  Of  these,  Roger  of  Beziers  died 
in  prison,  and  Peter  I  of  Aragon  fell  in  battle.  The 
conquered  lands  were  given  as  a  reward  to  Simon 
of  Montfort,  who  never  came  into  quiet  possession  of 
the  gift.  At  the  siege  of  Toulouse,  1218,  he  was  kill- 
ed by  a  stone,  and  counts  Raymond  VI  and  VII  dis- 
puted the  possession  of  their  territories  with  his  son. 
But  the  papal  indulgences  drew  fresh  crusaders  from 
every  province  of  France  to  continue  the  war.  Ray- 
mond VII  continued  to  struggle  bravely  against  the 
legates  and  Louis  VIII  of  France,  to  whom  Montfort 
had  ceded  his  pretensions,  and  who  fell  in  the  war  in 
122G.  After  hundreds  of  thousands  had  perished  on 
both  sides,  a  peace  was  concluded  in  1229,  at  which 
Raymond  purchased  relief  from  the  ban  of  the  Church 
by  immense  sums  of  monej',  gave  up  Narbonne  and 
several  lordships  to  Louis  IX,  and  had  to  make  his 
son-in-law,  the  brother  of  Louis,  heir  of  his  other  pos- 
sessions. These  provinces,  hitherto  independent,  were 
thus  for  the  first  time  joined  to  the  kingdom  of  France  ; 
and  the  pope  sanctioned  the  acquisition  in  order  to 
bind  Louis  more  firmly  to  the  papal  chair,  and  induce 
him  more  readily  to  admit  the  inquisition.  The  her- 
etics were  handed  over  to  the  proselytizing  zeal  of  the 
order  of  Dominicans,  and  the  bloody  tribunals  of  the 
inquisition  ;  and  both  used  their  utmost  power  to  bring 
the  recusant  Albigenses  to  the  stake,  and  also,  by  in- 
flicting severe  punishment  on  the  penitent  converts, 
to  inspire  dread  of  incurring  the  Church's  displeasure. 
From  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  name 
of  the  Albigenses  gradualhr  disappears. 

So  far  as  the  Albigenses  were  a  branch  of  the  Ca- 
thari, they  were  Dualistic  and,  to  a  certain  extent, 
Manichsean.  For  their  doctrines  and  usages,  see  Bo- 
GOMILES;  Cathari  ;  Paulicians.  But  as  the  name 
"  Albigenses"  does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  until 
some  time  after  the  Albigensian  crusade  (Maitland, 
Facts  and  Documents,  p.  96),  it  is  likely,  as  has  been 
remarked  above,  that  many  who  held  the  simple  truths 
of  the  Gospel,  in  opposition  to  the  corruptions  of  Rome, 
were  included  in  the  title  by  the  Romish  authorities, 
from  whom  our  knowledge  of  these  sects  must  chiefly 
be  derived.  Indeed,  the  gross  charges  brought  even 
against  the  Cathari  rest  upon  the  statements  of  their 
persecutors,  and  therefore  are  to  be  taken  with  allow- 
ance. In  tin!  reaction  from  the  mistake  of  Allix  and 
others,  who  claimed  too  much  for  the  Albigenses,  there 
is  little  doubt  that  Schmidt  and  others  of  recent  times 
have  crone  too  far  in  admitting  the  trustworthiness  of 
all  the  accounts  of  Bonacorsi,  Rainerius,  and  the  other 
Romanist  sources  of  information,  both  :is  to  the  Albi- 
and  the  pure  Cathari  (Ilase,  Church  History, 


§  228).  "With  the  exception  of  the  charge  of  rejecting 
marriage,  no  allegation  is  made  against  their  morals 
by  the  better  class  of  Roman  writers.  Their  con- 
stancy in  suffering  excited  the  wonder  of  their  op- 
ponents. "  Tell  me,  holy  father,"  says  Evervinus  to 
St.  Bernard,  relating  the  martyrdom  of  three  of  these 
heretics,  "  how  is  this  ?  They  entered  to  the  stake  and 
bore  the  torment  of  the  fire,  not  only  with  patience, 
but  with  joy  and  gladness.  I  wish  your  explanation, 
how  these  members  of  the  devil  could  persist  in  their 
heresy  with  a  courage  and  constancy  scarcely  to  be 
found  in  the  most  religious  of  the  faith  of  Christ?" 
Elliott,  in  his  Horm  Apocalypticce,  vindicates  the  ortho- 
doxy of  the  Albigenses,  however,  too  absolutely.  For 
arguments  in  their  favor,  see  Allix,  History  of  the  Al- 
bigenses (Oxford,  1821,  8vo) ;  Faber,  Theology  of  the 
Vallenses  and  Albigenses  (Lond.  1838);  Baird,  History 
of  the  Albigenses,  Vaudois,  etc.  (N.  Y.  1830,  8vo).  On 
the  other  hand,  C.  Schmidt,  Histoire  et  doctrine  de  la 
Secte  des  Cathares  (Paris,  1849,  2  vols.) ;  Hahn,  Ge- 
schkhtc  der  Ketzer  im  Mittelalter,  vol.  i  (Stuttgart, 
1845) ;  Maitland,  Facts  and  Documents  illustrative  of 
the  Ancient  Albigenses  and  Waldenses  (Lond.  1832,  8vo); 
Maitland,  Dark  Ages  (Lond.  1844,  8vo).  Compare 
Fauriel,  Croisade  contre  les  Albigeois  (Paris,  1838) ;  Pe- 
tri, Hist.  Albigensium  (Trecis,  1015);  Perrin,  Hist,  des 
Albigeois  (Genev.  1678);  Benoist,  Hist,  des  Albigeois 
(Paris,  1691) ;  Sismondi,  Kreuzzitge  gegen  d.  Albigenser 
(Leipz.  1829)  ;  Maillard,  Hist.  Doct.  and  Rites  of  the  an- 
cient Albigenses  (Lond.  1812);  Barran  and  Darrogan, 
Histoire  des  Croisades  contre  les  Albigeois  (Paris,  1840)  ; 
Faber,  Inquiry  into  the  History  and  Theology  of  the  an- 
cient Vallenses  and  Albigenses  (Lond.  1838)  ;  Chambers' 
Cyclopaedia ;  Princeton  Rev.  vols,  viii,  ix  ;  North  A  mer. 
Rev.  lxx,  443 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  560  sq. ;  Mosheim, 
Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xi,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist. 
per.  iii,  §  86  ;  Lond.  Qu.  Rev.  April,  1855,  Art.  i. 

Albirms  (a  frequent  Roman  name,  signifying 
whitish ;  Graseized  'AX/3? voe),  a  procurator  of  J  udsea  in 
the  reign  of  Nero,  about  A.D.  62  and  63,  the  successor 
of  Festus  and  predecessor  of  Florus.  He  was  guilty 
of  almost  every  kind  of  crime  in  his  government,  par- 
doning the  vilest  criminals  for  money,  and  shamelessly 
plundering  the  provincials  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  8,  1; 
War,  ii,  14,  1).  He  was  perhaps  identical  with  Luc- 
cius  Albinus,  procurator  of  Mauritania  under  Nero 
and  Galba,  but  murdered  by  his  subjects  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Otho,  A.D.  69  (Tacitus,  Hist,  ii,  58,  59). 

Albizzi,  Anthony,  an  Italian  theologian,  born 
at  Florence  on  November  25, 1547,  died  at  Kempten, 
Bavaria,  on  July  17,  1626.  He  occupied  important 
posts  at  several  Italian  courts,  but  had  to  leave  his  na- 
tive country  when  he  embraced  Protestantism.  He 
lived  afterward  at  Augsburg,  Innspruck,  and  (after 
1606)  at,  Kempten.  He  published  Sermones  in  Mat- 
tha'um  (Augsburg,  1609,  8vo) ;  Principium  Christian- 
orum  Summata  (1612,  12mo) ;  De  principiis  religionis 
Christiana  (1612)  ;  Exercitationes  theologicce  (Kempten, 
1616,  4to). 

Albizzi,  Bartholomew,  of  Pisa,  a  Franciscan 
monk  and  writer,  better  known  under  his  Latin  name 
Bartholomneus  Albicius  Pisanus,  born  at  Rivano,  in 
Tuscany,  died  at  Pisa,  Dec.  10,  1401.  He  owes  his 
celebrity  to  a  blasphemous  work  (Liber  Conformitatum 
Sancii  Francisci  cum  Christo),  in  which  he  drew  a  par- 
allel between  the  events  in  the  life  of  Christ  and  the 
life  of  Francis  of  Assisi.  This  work  was  presented  to 
and  expressly  approved  by  the  General  Chapter  of  the 
Franciscan  Order  in  the  meeting  at  Assisi  in  1339. 
The  first  edition  of  the  work  appeared,  without  date,  at 
Venice  (in  folio) ;  the  second  (1480)  and  third  (1484) 
editions,  which  appeared  under  the  title  Li  Fioretti  di 
San  Francisco,  assimilati  alia  vita  ed  alia  passione  di 
Nostro  Figuare,  are  only  abridgments.  A  refutation 
of  this  work  by  P.  Vergerio  (Discorsi  supra  i  Fioretti  di 
San  Francisco)  was  put  into  the  Index,  and  the  author 


ALBRIGHTS 


135 


ALCUIN 


declared  a  heretic.  At  the  time  of  the  Reformation 
Erasmus  Alber  (q.  v.)  wrote  a  celebrated  work  against 
Albizzi.  The  refutations  of  Albizzi,  and  especially 
the  work  of  Alber,  produced  so  profound  an  impres- 
sion that  the  Franciscans  considered  it  best  to  modify 
the  work.  Hence  a  large  number  of  editions  were 
published,  which  differ  from  the  original  both  in  title 
and  in  contents,  such  as  the  Liber  Aureas  by  Bucchius 
(Bologna,  1590),  and  the  Antiquitates  Eranciscance  by 
Bosquier  (Cologne,  1623,  8vo).  These  editions  were 
again  followed  by  several  apologies,  refutations,  and 
counter-refutations.  According  to  Wadding  (A  nnales 
Minorum,  vol.  ix),  Albizzi  had,  during  60  years,  the 
reputation  of  being  an  eminent  preacher,  and  taught 
theology  at  Bologna,  Padua,  Pisa,  Siena,  and  Florence. 
His  sermons  were  published  at  Milan  in  1488.  A  work, 
De  vita  et  laudibus  B.  Maria  Virginis,  fibri  vii,  ap- 
peared at  Venice  in  1596.  Other  works  are  still  ex- 
tant in  manuscript. — Fabricius,  Bibl.  Lat.  Med.  et  In- 
fimce  cetatis,  i,  318 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  i,  640. 

Albrights,  a  body  of  German  Methodists,  so  called 
from  their  founder,  Jacob  Albright.  See  Evangel- 
ical Association. 

Alcantara,  Orders  of.  1.  The  name  of  a  mili- 
tary order  in  Spain.  The  town  of  Alcantara  having 
been  taken  from  the  Moors  in  1212  by  Alphonso  IX,  he 
intrusted  the  keeping  of  it  to  the  knights  of  Calatra- 
va,  in  the  first  instance,  and  two  years  after  to  the 
knights  of  St.  Julian,  an  order  instituted  in  1156  (ac- 
cording to  Angelo  Manrique)  by  Suarez  and  Gomez, 
two  brothers,  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Alexander  III 
in  1177,  under  the  mitigated  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  knights  of  Calatrava,  whose  other  ob- 
servances they  also,  subsequently,  followed.  Gomez 
at  first  was  only  sty\edprwr,  but  afterward  he  assumed 
the  title  of  grand  master,  and  the  order  itself  came  to  be 
styled  the  order  of  the  knights  of  Alcantara.  Upon 
the  defeat  of  the  Moors  and  the  capture  of  Granada,  the 
mastership  of  the  order,  as  well  as  that  of  Calatrava, 
was  united  to  the  crown  of  Castile  bj-  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella.  In  1540  the  knights  of  Alcantara  obtained 
permission  to  marry  ("to  avoid  offence").  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  in  1808,  deprived  the  order  of  all  its  rev- 
enues, part  of  which  was  restored  in  1814  and  the  fol- 
lowing j'ears  by  Ferdinand  VII.  In  1835  it  was  abol- 
ished as  an  ecclesiastical  order, 
but  it  still  exists  as  a  court  and 
civil  order.  Their  arms  are  a 
pear-tree  with  two  grafts.  This 
order,  in  its  best  days,  possess- 
ed 50  commanderies,  and  exer- 
cised lordship  over  53  towns  or 
villages  of  Spain  ;  it  had  the 
same  dignities,  and  nearly  the 
same  statutes,  as  the  order  of 
Calatrava.  The  dress  of  cere- 
mony consisted  of  a  large  white 
mantle  with  a  green  cross,  jteur- 
defisee,  on  the  left  side,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  knights 
of  Calatrava.  They  were  bound 
by  vow  to  maintain  the  doctrine 
of  the  immaculate  conception 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  —  Ilel- 
yot,  Diet,  des  Ordres  Religieux  ; 
Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  i,  217. 

2.  The  name  of  a  branch  of  the  Franciscan  order. 
See  Franciscans. 

Al'cimus  ("AX/a/<or,  strong,  or  perh.  only  a  Gras- 
eized  form  of  the  Heb.  Eliakim),  called,  also,  Jacimus, 
i.  e.  Joakim  {'laicH/ior,  Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  9,  7),  a  Jew- 
ish priest  (1  Mace,  vii,  14;  who,  apostatizing  to  the 
Syrians,  was  appointed  high-priest  (15. C.  162)  by  King 
Demetrius,  as  successor  of  Menelaus  (1  Mace,  vii,  5), 
by  the  influence  of  Lysias,  though  not  of  the  pontifical 
family  (Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  9,  5;  xx,  9;  1  Mace,  vii, 


Badge  of  the  Order  of 
Alcantara. 


14),  to  the  exclusion  of  Onias,  the  nephew  of  Mene- 
laus, having  already  been  nominated  by  Antiochus 
Eupator  (Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  9,  7;  comp.  Selden,  De 
success,  in  pontif.  p.  150),  and  instated  into  office  by 
force  of  arms  by  the  Syrian  general  Bacchides  (1  Mace, 
vii,  9  sq.).  According  to  a  Jewish  tradition  (Bere- 
shith  R.  65),  he  was  "sister's  son  of  Jose  ben-Joeser," 
chief  of  the  Sanhedrim,  whom  he  afterward  put  to 
death  (Raphall,  Hist,  of  Jews,  i,  245,  308).  At  first 
he  attached  many  of  the  patriots  to  his  cause  by  fair 
promises  (1  Mace,  vii,  18  sq.),  but  soon  alienated  by 
his  perfidy  not  only  these  but  his  other  friends,  so 
that  he  was  at  length  compelled  to  flee  from  the  oppo- 
sition of  Judas  Maccabajus  to  the  Syrian  king  (1  Mace. 
vii,  25 ;  2  Mace,  xiv,  3  sq.).  Nicanor,  who  was  sent 
with  a  large  army  to  assist  him,  was  routed  and  slain 
by  the  Jewish  patriots  (1  Mace,  vii,  43 ;  2  Mace,  xv, 
37),  B.C.  161.  Bacchides  immediately  advanced  a 
second  time  against  Jerusalem  with  a  larpe  army, 
routed  Judas,  who  fell  in  the  battle  (B.C.  161),  and 
reinstated  Alcimus.  After  his  restoration,  Alcimus 
seems  to  have  attempted  to  modifj'  the  ancient  wor- 
ship, and,  as  he  was  engaged  in  pulling  down  "the 
walls  of  the  inner  court  of  the  sanctuary"  (i.  e.  which 
separated  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  from  it ;  j*et  see 
Grimm,  Comment,  on  1  Mace,  ix,  54),  he  was  "plagued" 
(by  paralysis),  and  "died  at  that  time,"  B.C.  160  (Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  xii,  9,  5  ;  xii,  10  ;  1  Mace,  vii,  ix  ;  comp. 
2  Mace,  xiv,  xv ;  see  Ewald,  Gesch.  des  Volkes  Isr.  iv, 
365  sq.).— Smith,  s.  v. 

Alcuin,  Flaccus,  a  native  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
born  A.D.  735,  and  educated  under  the  care  of  Egbert 
and  Albert,  bishops  of  York,  from  whom  he  learned 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  Most  of  the  schools  of 
France  were  either  founded  or  improved  by  him.  He 
was  sent  to  Rome  about  780,  and  on  his  return  passed 
through  Parma,  where  he  met  with  Charlemagne,  who 
secured  his  services,  gave  him  several  abbeys  in 
France,  and  retained  him  as  his  tutor  and  friend  dur- 
ing the  rest  of  his  life.  The  palace  of  Charlemagne 
was  converted  into  an  academy,  in  which  the  family 
and  the  intimate  counsellors  of  Charlemagne  joined 
the  latter  in  becoming  pupils  of  Alcuin.  This  acade- 
my, in  which  all  the  members  assumed  antique  names 
(Charlemagne  called  himself  David,  Alcuin  Flaccus, 
etc.),  was  the  origin  of  the  famous  palatine  schools 
in  the  houses  of  the  princes  which  so  long  rivalled 
the  cloister  schools  in  the  houses  of  the  bishops.  In 
794  Alcuin  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Council  of 
Frankfort,  at  which  the  theological  opinions  of  the 
Adoptianists  (q.  v.)  were  condemned.  About  796 
Alcuin  retired  from  the  court  to  the  abbey  of  St.  Mar- 
tin, at  Tours,  which  he  soon  made  the  most  famous 
school  of  the  aire.  He  died  May  19,  804.  His  Life, 
by  Lorentz  (Halle,  1829),  translated  by  Mrs.  Slee,  was 
published  in  London,  1837.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  is  entitled  Alcuini  opera  post  primam  editionem 
a  D.  A.  Quercitano  curatam,  etc.,  stud.  Frobenii  Ab- 
batis  (Ratisbon,  1777,  2  vols.  fol.).  This  edition  con- 
tains 232  letters  from  Alcuin,  and  also  several  letters 
from  Charlemagne  in  reply  to  Alcuin.  They  are  a 
very  valuable  source  of  information  for  the  ecclesias- 
tical history  of  the  age,  and  extend  to  the  year  787. 
Other  letters,  not  contained  in  this  edition,  have  been 
discovered  by  Pertz.  Alcuin,  in  these  letters,  strong- 
ly declares  himself  against  all  compulsion  in  matters 
of  faith,  and  in  favor  of  religious  toleration.  The 
theological  works  of  Alcuin  comprise  Qiuvst 'iuncuf.iv  in 
Genesim  (280  questions  and  answers  on  important  pas- 
sages of  the  Genesis)  ;  Enchiridhim  seu  Expositio  pia  ct 
brevis  in  Psalmos  Pindtentiales,  a  literal  commentary 
on  the  penitential  Psalms ;  a  commentary  on  the  gos- 
pel of  John  ;  a  treatise  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  ; 
and  a  number  of  homilies  or  panegyrics  on  the  lives 
of  the  saints.  He  left,  besides  many  theological  writ- 
ings, several  elementary  works  in  the  branches  of  phi- 
losophy, rhetoric,  and  philology;   also  poems,  and  a 


ALCUIN 


136 


ALCUIN 


large  number  of  letters.  He  is  acknowledged  as  the 
most  learned  and  polished  man  of  his  time,  although 
his  writings  are  chiefly  compilations  from  older  au- 
thors. The  edition  of  Alcuin,  published  at  Paris  by 
Duchesne  in  1G17,  in  one  vol.  fol.,  is  divided  into  three 
parts.  Contents  of  Part  I  (On  Scripture)  :  1.  Tnterro- 
g  itiones  et  responsiones,  seu  liber  Qurvstionum  in  Genesim, 
containing  181  questions,  with  their  answers,  addressed 
to  Sigulphus,  his  disciple  and  companion.  The  last 
question  and  reply  are  very  much  longer  than  the 
others,  and  were  in  after  times  included  among  the 
works  of  St.  Augustine.  They  are  also  included,  with 
some  changes,  in  the  third  book  of  the  Commentary  on 
Genesis,  attributed  to  St.  Eucherius,  bishop  of  Lyons. 
2.  Dicta  super  Mud  Gencscos,  "  Faciamus  Ifominem  ad 
Imaginem.  Nostrum."  This  has  been  printed  among 
the  works  of  St.  Ambrose,  with  the  title  "  Treatise  on 
the  Excellence  of  Man's  Creation;"  and  also  among 
the  writings  of  St.  Augustine,  "  Of  the  Creation  of  the 
Man."  3.  Enchiridium  sen  Expos i tio p'a  et  brevis  in  vii 
Psalmos  Panitentiales,  in  Psalm,  crviii  et  in  Psalmos 
Graduates ;  addressed  to  Arno,  archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg; printed  at  Paris,  separately,  in  1547,  8vo,  but 
without  the  preface,  which  D'Achery  has  given  in  his 
Spieilegium  (old  ed.  ix,  111,  116).  4.  De  Psalmorum 
Usu  liber.  5.  Officio:  per  Ferias,  a  kind  of  breviary, 
in  which  he  marks  in  detail  the  Psalms  to  be  said  on 
every  day  of  the  week,  together  with  hymns,  prayers, 
confessions,  and  litanies.  6.  Epistola  de  Mo  Cantici 
Canticorum  loco,  "  Sexaginta  sunt  Regime, ' '  etc.  7.  Com- 
menturia  in  Ecclesiasten.  8.  Commmtarium  in  S.Joh. 
Evangeli inn,  libri  vii,  printed  at  Strasburg  in  15?7.  By 
the  preface  at  the  head  of  book  vi,  it  appears  that  Al- 
cuin was  at  the  time  employed,  by  order  of  Charlemagne, 
in  revising  and  correcting  the  Vulgate.  Copies  of  this 
work  in  MS.  are  extant  in  the  library  at  Vauxelles 
and  at  Rome  : — Part  II  (Doctrine,  Morals,  and  Disci- 
pline) :  1.  De  Fide  S.  Trinifafis  libri  in,  ad  Carolum  M. 
cum  Invoeatione  ad  S.  Triv.i'atem  et  Symbolo  Fide/.  2. 
De  Trinitate  ad  Fi-idegicum  Qiucstiones  28.  3.  De  Differ- 
entia cetemi  et  sempiterni,  immortalis  et  perpetui  jEvi  et 
Tempmis,  Epistolce.  4.  De  Animas  Ratione,  ad  Eulaliam 
Virginem.  5.  Contra  Felicem  Orgelitanum  Episc.  libri 
vii.  This  work  was  composed  in  A.D.  798,  and  in  the 
Biblioth.  Patrum  is  erroneously  attributed  to  Paulinus 
of  Aquilea.  6.  Epistola  ad  Elipnndum  (Bishop  of  To- 
ledo). 7.  Epistola  Elipnndi  ad  Alcuinum,  a  defence 
made  by  Elipandus.  8.  Contra  Elipandi  Epistolam, 
libri  iv;  a  reply  to  the  above,  addressed  to  Leidradus, 
archbishop  of  Lyons,  Nephridius  of  Narbonne,  Bene- 
dict, abbot  of  Anicana,  and  all  the  other  bishops,  ab- 
bots, and  faithful  of  the  province  of  the  Goths.  The 
Letter  of  Elipandus  to  Felix,  and  the  Confession  of 
Faith  made  by  the  latter  after  having  retracted,  arc 
added  at  the  end.  The  above  are  all  the  dogmatical 
works  contained  in  Part  II ;  the  others  are  works  on 
discipline.  1.  De  Divinis  Officiis  lib:  r,  sice  E.rpositio 
Romani  Ordinis.  This  work  appears  to  have  been  er- 
roneously attributed  to  Alcuin,  and  to  be  the  work  of 
a  later  band ;  indeed,  it  is  a  compilation  made  from 
authors,  many  of  whom  lived  after  his  time,  Midi  as 
Remigius,  a  monk  of  Auxerre,  and  Helpericus,  a  monk 
of  Saint-Gal,  who  lived  in  the  eleventh  century.  2. 
hi  Ratione  Septuagemmce,  Sexagesimal,  <t  (luimquagesi- 
mce  Epistola  ;  a  letter  to  Charlemagne  on  this  subject, 
and  on  the  difference  in  the  number  of  weeks  in  Lent, 
together  with  the  emperor's  reply.  3.  De  BapUsmi 
Catremoniis,  ad  Odu-ynum  Presb.  Epistola.  4.  De  iisdem 
Cerem.  alia  Epistola.  Sirmondus  attributes  this  to 
Amalarius,  archbishop  of  Treves;  and,  as  the  writer 
speaks  of  himself  as  "archbishop,"  having  "suffra- 
gans" under  him,  it  cannot  be  the  work  of  Alcuin, 
who  was  only  deacon.  It  appears  from  this  letter 
that  triple  immersion  was  in  use  at  that  period,  as  well 
as  tin-  custom  of  giving  the  holy  eucharist  and  confir- 
mation to  the  newly  baptized.  5.  De  Con/!  ssione  Pec- 
catorum,  ad  Pueros  S.  Martini  Epistola.     6.  Sacramen- 


I  torum  Liber,  containing  the  collects,  secrets,  prefaces, 
and  post-communions  for  32  different  masses.    7.  Hom- 

1  Mm  Hi.  8.  Vita  Antichristi,  ad  Carolum  M. ;  this  is 
properly  the  work  of  Adso,  abbot  of  Montier-en-Der. 
9.  De  Virtutibus  et  Vitiis,  addressed  to  Count  Wido  or 
Guido.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  of  the  moral  treatises 
of  Alcuin,  and  is  divided  into  3G  chapters.  Various 
discourses,  placed  in  the  appendix  to  the  works  of  St. 
Augustine,  are  taken  from  this  treatise,  viz.,  those 
numbered  254,  291,  297,  302,  and  304  in  the  new  edi- 
tion. 10.  De  vii  Artibus  liber  wipeifectus,  containing 
only  what  relates  to  grammar  and  rhetoric.  The 
preface  is  the  same  with  that  which  Cassiodorus  puts 
at  the  head  of  his  work  on  the  same  subject.  11. 
Grammatica.  This  was  printed  separately  at  Hanau 
in  1C05.  12.  De  Rhetorica  et  de  Virtutibus  Dialogus 
(Paris,  1599).  13.  Dialectica.  Like  the  last,  is  in  the 
form  of  a  dialogue  between  Alcuin  and  Charlemagne 
(Ingolstadt,  1G04).  14.  Disputatio  Regalis.  A  familiar 
dialogue  between  Pepin,  afterward  king  of  Italy,  and 

i  Alcuin  : — Part  1 1 1  (History,  Letters,  and  Poetry)  :  1. 
Scriptum  de  Vita  S.  Martini  Turonensis.  2.  De  Tran- 
situ S.  Martini  Sermo.     3.  Vita  S.  Vedasti  Episopi  .  1 1- 

1  rebotensis ;  written  about  796,  at  the  request  of  the  ab- 
bot Rado.  •A.Vita  Beatissimi  Richardi,  Presbyteri.  5. 
De  Vita  S.  Wilhbrordi  Tvajectensis  Epis.  libri  ii.  6. 
One  hundred  and  fifteen  letters,  exclusive  of  many 
fragments  of  letters  given  by  William  of  Malmesbury. 
7.  Pocmata  et  Versus  de  pJuribus  SS.     Many  of  these, 

I  however,  are  erroneously  attributed  to  Alcuin.  Since 
Duchesne's  edition,  the  following  have  been  printed : 
1.  Treatise  of  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit.     This 

;  work  is  divided  into  three  parts.  In  Part  I  he.  shows 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father  and  from 
the  Son  ;  in  Part  II  that  He  is  the  Spirit  of  the  Father 
and  of  the  Son ;  and  in  Part  III  that  He  is  sent  by  the 
Father  and  by  the  Son.  It  is  dedicated  to  Charle- 
magne ;  but  as  the  name  of  Alcuin  nowhere  appears 

'  in  the  book,  the  only  ground  for  believing  it  to  lie  the 

;  work  of  Alcuin  is  the  act  of  donation  by  which  Didon, 

:  bishop  of  Laon  (who  was  nearly  contemporary  with 
Alcuin),  gave  the  MS.  of  the  work  to  his  cathedral 
church,  prohibiting  its  ever  being  taken  away  from 
the  library  of  that  clmrch  under  pain  of  incurring  the 
anger  of  God  and  the  Blessed  Virgin.  This  may  prob- 
ably be  the  cause  why  the  work  w»s  so  long  con- 
cealed. 2.  Various  letters — three  of  which  are  given 
by  D'Achery,  in  his  Spieilegium.;  one  in  the  Irish  let- 
ters of  Archbishop  Usher,  published  at  Paris  in  1665; 
two  in  the  5th  volume  of  the  Acts  of  the  order  of  St. 
Benedict;  three  given  by  Baluze,  in  his  Miscellany; 
twenty-six  by  Mabillon,  in  his  Analecta,  together  with 
a  poem,  in  elegiac  verses.  Baluze  also  gives  Epistola 
ct  Prafatio  in  libros  vii,  ad  Felicem  Orgelitanum,  iv, 
413.  3.  Two  poems  published  by  Lambecius.  4.  Ho- 
milia  de,  die  natali  S.  Vedasti  (Bollandus,  February, 
p.  800).  5.  Libri  Quatuor  Carollni  >!■  Tmaginibus,  at- 
tributed by  Roger  dc  Hoveden,  in  his  Annals,  to  Al- 
cuin. 6.  Poema  Heroicum  de  Pontficibus  Anglis  et  SS. 
Eeclesiw  Eboracensis,  containing  1658  verses.  Thomas 
Gale,  dean  of  York,  caused  this  to  be  printed  from  two 

'  MSS.  Oudinus  attributes  this  poem  to  Fridegodus,  a 
Benedictine,  who  lived  about  960.     7.  Commentaries 

!  Brevis  in  Cantica  Canticorum.  Cave  and  others  regard 
this  as  the  same  originally  with  the  explication  of  the 
text,  "Sexaginta  sunt  reginse,"  etc.,  in  the  first  part 
of  Duchesne's  volume.  8.  Breviarium  filei  adversus 
A  rianos,  by  Sirmondus  (Paris,  1630)  ;  attributed  to  Al- 
cuin by  Chifilet,  on  the  authority  of  a  MS.  9.  The  cat- 
alogue of  the  library  of  Centula  mentions  a  Lcctionary, 
indicating  the  epistles  and  gospels  for  every  festival 
and  day  in  the  year,  which  was  corrected  and  put  in 
order  by  Alcuin.  This  is  given  by  Pamelius  in  his 
collection  of  liturgical  works  (Cologne,  1561, 1571,  and 
1609,  p.  1309).  10.  A  Booh  of  Homilies,  attributed  to 
Alcuin  by  the  author  of  his  life,  although  probably  ho 
only  corrected  the  Homiliary  of  Paul,  the  deacon, 


ALDEN" 


137 


ALEMBERT 


which  was  in  two  volumes,  as  well  as  that  attributed 
to  Aleuin.  If  the  latter  wrote  a  homiliary,  it  has  not 
yet  seen  the  light.  (See  Mabillon,  Analecta,  p.  18.) 
The  Book  of  Homilies  attributed  to  Aleuin,  but  really 
the  work  of  Paul,  was  printed  at  Cologne  in  1539.  11. 
Confessio  Fidei ;  published  as  the  work  of  Aleuin,  with 
other  treatises  by  Chifflet,  at  Dijon,  1050,  4to.  It  has 
been  doubted  by  some  writers  whether  Aleuin  was 
really  the  author.  Mabillon  (Analecta,  i,  178,  or  490 
in  the  folio  edition)  gives  proofs  to  show  that  he  was 
so,  one  of  which  is,  that  the  MS.  itself  from  which 
Chifflet  printed  it  assigns  it  to  him  by  name.  Besides 
all  these  works,  some  of  the  writings  of  Aleuin  have 
been  lost,  others  still  remain  in  MS.  only,  and  others 
again  have  been  erroneously  ascribed  to  him.  Some 
of  them  have  been  recently  discovered  by  Pertz. — See 
Monnier,  Aleuin  and  Charlemagne  (with  fragments  of 
an  unpublished  commentary  of  Aleuin  on  St.  Matthew, 
and  other  pieces,  published  for  the  first  time  (Paris,  2d 
ed.  1864,  32mo) ;  Biog.  Univ.  i,  466 ;  Pochard  and  Gi- 
raud,  who  cite  Ceillier,  Hist,  des  A  ut.  Sacr.  and  Eccl. 
xviii,  248 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit. 
ann.  780 ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  c.  viii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  18 ; 
Christian  Rev.  vi,  357  ;  Presb.  Rev.  Oct.  1862. 

Alden,  Noah,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  at 
Middleborough,  Mass.,  May  30, 1725.  At  19  he  mar- 
ried and  removed  to  Stafford,  Conn.,  connecting  him- 
self at  that  time  with  the  Congregational  Church.  In 
1753  he  became  a  Baptist,  and  was  ordained  in  1755 
pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Stafford.  In  1766  Mr. 
Alden  was  installed  pastor  of  the  church  in  Bellint:- 
ham,  Mass. ;  from  which  place  he  was  sent  as  a  dele- 
gate to  the  convention  which  formed  the  constitution 
of  the  state.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  conven- 
tion to  which  was  submitted  the  Constitution  of  the 
U.  S.  Mr.  Alden  remained  pastor  at  Bellingham  un- 
til his  death  in  1797. — Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  67. 

Alden,  Timothy,  was  born  at  Yarmouth,  Mass., 
Aug.  28,  1771,  and  graduated  in  1794  at  Harvard, 
where  he  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of 
Oriental  languages.  In  1799  he  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  Congregational  church  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
but  in  1805  devoted  himself  to  teaching.  He  conduct- 
ed female  schools  successively  in  Boston,  Newark, 
New  York,  and  in  1817  was  appointed  president  of 
Meadville  College,  Penn.,  which  office  he  held  till 
1831.  He  died  at  Pittsburg,  1839.  He  published 
a  number  of  occasional  sermons  and  pamphlets. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  452. 

Aldhelm  or  Adelme,  an  early  English  bishop, 
born  in  Wessex  about  656,  educated  by  Adrian  in 
Kent,  embraced  the  monastic  life,  and  founded  the 
abbey  of  Malmesbury,  of  which  he  was  the  first  abbot. 
He  became  bishop  of  Sherborne  705,  and  died  709.  He 
is  said  to  have  lived  a  very  austere  life,  "giving  him- 
self entirely  to  reading  and  prayer,  denying  himself 
in  food,  and  rarely  quitting  the  walls  of  the  monas- 
tery. If  we  maj'  believe  the  account  of  William  of 
Malmesbury,  he  was  also  in  the  habit  of  immersing 
himself  as  far  as  the  shoulders  in  a  fountain  hard  by 
the  abbey,  and  did  not  come  forth  until  he  had  com- 
pletely repeated  the  Psalter;  this  he  did  not  omit, 
summer  or  winter."  The  first  organ  used  in  England 
is  said  to  have  been  built  under  the  directions  of  Aid- 
helm.  According  to  Camden  (Britannia  in  Wilt.  p. 
116),  he  was  the  first  Englishman  who  wrote  in  Latin, 
and  taught  his  people  to  compose  Latin  verses.  His 
works  have  recently  been  collected  and  published  un- 
der the  title  Aldhelmi  opera.  qwe  extant,  omnia  e  codici- 
bus  MSS.  emendavit,  nonmdla  nunc  primum  edidit  J.  A. 
Giles,  LL.D.  (Oxon.  1844,  8 vo).— Collier,  Eccl.  Hist. 
i,  283 ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  680  ;  Landon,  Eccles.  Diet. 
i,  91. 

Aldrich,  Henry,  was  born  at  Westminster,  1647, 
and  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  cele- 
brated for  the  zeal  and  ability  which  he  displayed  as 


a  controversialist  against  the  Romish  writers  of  his 
time.  After  the  Revolution  he  was  made  dean  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford  (1089),  and  was  presented  to  the  liv- 
ing of  Wcm,  in  Shropshire.  He  was  a  great  lover  of 
church  music,  and  has  left  twenty  anthems ;  he  was 
also  the  author  of  the  well-known  glee,  "Hark,  the 
bonny  Christ  Church  Bells."  Himself  a  sound  and 
accomplished  scholar,  he  endeavored  by  every  means 
in  his  power  to  foster  the  love  of  classical  learning 
among  the  students  of  his  college,  and  presented  them 
annually  with  an  edition  of  some  Greek  classic,  which 
he  printed  for  this  special  purpose.  He  also  published 
a  system  of  logic  for  their  use,  and  at  his  death  be- 
queathed to  his  college  his  valuable  classical  library. 
Dr.  Aldrich  was  a  proficient  in  more  than  one  of  the 
arts :  three  sides  of  what  is  called  Peckwater  Quad- 
rangle, in  Christ  Church  College,  and  the  church  and 
campanile  of  All  Saints  in  High  Street,  Oxford,  were 
designed  by  him  ;  and  he  is  also  said  to  have  furnished 
the  plan,  or  at  least  to  have  had  a  share  in  the  design 
of  the  chapel  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  He  died 
Dec.  14,  1710.  Among  his  writings  are,  1.  .1  Reply 
to  two  Discourses  [by  Abr.  Woodhead]  concerning  the 
Adoration  of  our  Blessed  Saviour  in  the  Holy  Eucharist 
(1687):— 2.  A  Defence  of  the  Oxford  Reply  (1088):— 
3.  Artis  Logical  Compendium  (1691,  and  often  reprint- 
ed) ;  it  is  still  in  use  at  Oxford  as  a  manual  for  begin- 
ners.— English  Cyelopmlia,  s.  v. ;  New  Gen.  Diet,  i,  142. 

Aleander,  Jerome,  Cardinal,  born  February  13, 
1480,  at  Motta,  on  the  confines  of  Friuli  and  Istria. 
Ho  studied  at  Venice,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  Erasmus,  and  applied  himself  with  great  success 
to  the  Chaldee  and  Arabic  languages.  In  1508  Louis 
XII  called  him  to  France,  where  he  became  rector  of 
the  university  of  Paris.  In  1519  Pope  Leo  X  sent 
him  as  nuncio  into  Germany  to  oppose  Luther,  and, 
during  his  absence,  in  1520,  made  him  librarian  of  the 
Vatican.  Aleander,  who  was  papal  legate  at  the  diet 
of  Worms,  spoke  for  three  hours  against  Luther,  and 
drew  up  the  edict  which  condemned  him  (Munter, 
Beitr.  zur  Kirch.-Gesch.  p.  48).  In  1523  he  caused  the 
burning  of  two  monks  at  Brussels.  He  afterward  be- 
came archbishop  of  Brindisi  and  nuncio  in  France,  and 
was  made  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards  at  the  battle  of 
Pavia,  1525.  After  his  liberation  he  was  created  car- 
dinal of  St.  Chrysogono,  1538,  and  died  at  Rome,  Feb- 
ruary 1, 1542. — Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  i,  227. 

Alegambe,  Philip,  born  at  Brussels  in  January, 
1592,  became  a  Jesuit  at  Palermo  in  1613,  theological 
professor  at  Gratz,  1629,  and  finally  prefect  of  the 
German  Jesuits.  He  died  1651.  He  made  large  ad- 
ditions to  Ribadaneira's  Catalogns  Scriptt.  Soc.  Jesu, 
of  which  he  published  a  revised  edition  at  Antwerp, 
1643.  P.  Sotuel  (Southwell)  in  1675  published  at 
Rome  a  new  edition  of  the  book,  with  the  last  additions 
and  corrections  of  Alegambe.  He  also  wrote  Heroes 
et  Yictimm  charitatis  Soc.  Jesu  (Rome,  1G58,  4to)  and 
Mortes  Illustres  et  Gesta  eorum  de  Soc.  Jesu,  qui  in  odium 
fidei  occisi  sunt  (Rome,  1657,  fol.). — Landon,  Eccles. 
Diet,  i,  228 ;  New  General  Biog.  Diet,  i,  148. 

Al'ema  (only  in  the  dat.  plur.  iv  'AXiyuo(c),  one 
of  the  fortified  cities  in  Gilead  beyond  the  Jordan,  oc- 
cupied in  the  time  of  Judas  Maccabaeus,  to  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Jews,  by  the  Gentiles,  in  connection  with 
certain  neighboring  towns  (1  Mace,  v,  26).  Grimm 
(Handb.  zu  d.  Mace,  in  loc.)  thinks  it  is  probably  the 
Beer-elim  (q.  v.)  of  Isa.  xv,  8  (cornp.  Beer  simply 
in  Num.  xxi,  16),  an  identification  favored  by  the  as- 
sociated names  (Bozrah  and  Carnaim)  known  to  be  in 
the  same  locality. 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Rond  d',  a  French  mathe- 
matician and  philosopher  of  the  empirical  school,  was 
born  in  Paris,  Nov.  16,  1717,  and  died  in  the  same  city 
Oct.  29,  1783.  He  was  the  illegitimate  child  of  the 
Chevalier  Destouches-Canon,  and  of  the  celebrated 
Madame  de  Tencin,  sister  of  the  archbishop  of  Lyons. 


ALEMETH 


138 


ALEXANDER 


His  unnatural  parents  exposed  him,  soon  after  his 
birth,  near  the  church  of  St.  Jean  le  Rond,  and  hence 
his  Christian  name.  After  he  became  eminent,  his 
father  recognised  him  and  gave  him  a  pension.  In 
childhood  he  displayed  great  precocity  of  talent,  and 
in  1730  he  entered  the  College  Mazarin,  where  he  had 
a  Jansenist  tutor,  studied  mathematics  and  philosophy, 
and  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
After  leaving  college  he  attempted  to  study  medicine, 
and  afterward  law;  but  rinding  his  turn  for  mathe- 
matics all-powerful,  he  determined  to  live  on  his  small 
pension  of  1200  francs  a  year  and  devote  himself  to 
free  studies.  At  twenty-three  he  was  admitted  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1741  he  pub- 
lished his  "Treatise  on  Dynamics,"  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  successive  publications  in  mathematical 
science,  all  of  the  first  rank,  but  which  do  not  fall 
within  our  province  to  notice.  About  1750  he  joined 
with  Diderot  in  the  Encyclopcedk,  to  which  he  com- 
municated many  articles,  and  also  the  preliminary 
"Discourse."  In  1754  he  became  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy;  and  in  1759  he  published  his  Ele- 
ments of  Philosophy.  After  the  peace  of  1763  D'Alem- 
bert  was  invited  by  Frederick  the  Great  to  fill  the 
office  of  president  of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  and  tho 
empress  of  Russia  had  also  solicited  him  to  superin- 
tend the  education  of  her  children.  Having  refused, 
however,  both  these  appointments,  he  was,  in  1772, 
nominated  perpetual  secretary  to  the  French  Academy, 
a  position  in  which  he  wrote  seventy  eloges  of  deceased 
members.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  was  at- 
tacked with  calculus,  and  died  of  that  disease  in  his 
sixty-sixth  year.  His  miscellaneous  writings  are  col- 
lected in  CEuvrcs  litteraires,  edited  by  Bastien  (Paris, 
1805,  18  vols.  8vo ;  new  ed.  Paris,  1821,  5  vols.  8vo, 
the  best).  As  a  philosopher,  D'Alembert  was  a  disci- 
ple of  Locke,  and  carried  out  his  principles  to  their  ul- 
timate conclusion  in  scepticism  and  materialism.  He 
never  wrote  as  vulgarhy  or  violently  against  Chris- 
tianity as  Voltaire,  but  he  was  quite  as  far  gone  in 
unbelief.  As  to  the  existence  of  God,  he  thought  the 
"probabilities"  were  in  favor  of  Theism  ;  as  to  Chris- 
tianity, he  thought  the  "probabilities"  were  against 
Revelation.  — Hoefer,  PAog.  Generale,  i,  783;  Tenne- 
mann,  Manual  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  §  379. 

Ale'meth,  the  name  of  two  persons,  and  also  of  a 
place ;  of  two  forms  in  the  original. 

1.  (Heb.  Ale'meth,  TX&V,  in  pause  Ala'meth, 
nX&S,  covering,  otherwise  adolescence ;  Sept.  'E\i)tp.'t3 
v.  r/EX/^fStju,  Vulg.  Almath,  Auth.  Vers.  "Alameth.") 
The  last  named  of  the  nine  sons  of  Becher  the  son  of 
Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vii,  8),  B.C.  post  1856. 

2.  (Ileb.  same  as  preced. ;  Sept.  VaXsped  and  r«X«- 
fiad,  v.  r.  SaXaijuoS',  Vulg.  Ala?nath.)  The  first  named 
of  the  two  sons  of  Jehoadah  or  Jarah,  son  of  Ahaz,  of 
the  posterity  of  King  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii,  36  ;  ix,  42), 
B.C.  post  1037. 

3.  (Heb.  Alle'meth,  PlttkS,  but  other  copies  same  as 
the  foregoing,  with  which  the  signif.  agrees ;  Sept. 
rnX>nit3  v.  r.  r«Xtjua'3,  Vulg.  Almath.)  A  sacerdotal 
city  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vi,  60) ;  doubt- 
less the  same  elsewhere  (Josh,  xxi,  18)  called  Almon 
(q.  v.). 

Aleph.     See  Ai.niA. 

Aleppo.     See  Helbon. 

Ales,  or  Alesius,  Alexander,  a  Lutheran  di- 
vine, born  at  Edinburgh  1500,  and  educated  at  St.  An- 
drew's, where  lie  afterward  became  canon.  Employ- 
ed to  influence  Patrick  Hamilton  (q.  v.)  to  recant,  he 
was  so  impressed  by  Hamilton's  arguments,  and  by  his 
constancy  at  the  stake,  that  he  embraced  the  reformed 
doctrines  himself.  In  1532  he  went  to  Germany,  and 
visited  Luther  and  Melancthon,  with  whom  he  became 
intimate.  In  1534  he  came  to  England  on  the  invita- 
tion of  Cranmei,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  theol- 


ogy at  Cambridge.  Cranmer  employed  him  in  trans- 
lating the  English  liturgy  into  Latin.  In  1540  he  re- 
turned to  Germany,  and  was  professor  first  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder  and  afterward  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
died  1565.  In  the  Synergestic  controversy  (q.  v.)  he 
maintained  the  necessity  of  good  works.  His  principal 
works  are,  1.  De  necessitate  et  merito  bonorum  operum 
(1560) : — 2.  Commentarii  in  Evangelium  Joannis,  et  in 
utramque  Epistolam  ad  Timotheum: — 3.  Eupositio  in 
Psalmos  Davidis : — 4.  De  Justifcatione,  contra  Osian- 
drum: — 5.  DeSancta  Trinitate,  cum  confutatione  erroris 
Valentini : — 6.  Eespo7isio  ad  triginta  et  duos  art&ulos 
theologorum  Loveniensum.  Also  a  Latin  work  on  the 
right  of  the  laity  to  read  the  Scriptures  in  the  vernac- 
ular tongue,  and  a  defence  of  that  work  against  Coch- 
laeus.— Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  130  ;  Burnet,  Hist,  of  Ref- 
ormation, i,  345  ;  ii,  247  ;  Proctor  on  Common  Prayer, 
65,  66. 

Alexan'der  CA\i'£av?(iov.,  man-defnder,  a  title 
often  bestowed  by  Homer  upon  Paris,  son  of  Priam, 
and  hence  a  frequent  Grecian  name),  the  name  of  sev- 
eral men  mentioned  or  involved  in  Biblical  histor}",  or 
in  the  Apocrypha  and  Josephus. 

1.  The  third  of  the  name,  surnamed  The  Great, 
son  (by  Olympias)  and  successor  of  Philip,  king  of 
Macedon.  He  is  not  expressly  named  in  the  Bible, 
but  he  is  denoted  in  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  by  a 
leopard  with  four  wings,  signifying  his  great  strength, 
and  the  unusual  rapidity  of  his  conquests  (eh.  vii,  6); 
also  by  a  one-horned  he-goat,  running  over  the  earth 
so  swiftly  as  not  to  touch  it,  attacking  a  ram  with  two 
horns,  overthrowing  him,  and  trampling  him  under 
foot,  without  any  being  able  to  rescue  him  (viii,  4-7). 
The  he-goat  prefigured  Alexander;  the  ram  Darius 
Codomannus,  the  last  of  the  Persian  kings.  In  the 
statue  beheld  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  a  dream  (ii,  39), 
the  belly  of  brass  was  the  emblem  of  Alexander,  and 
the  legs  of  iron  designated  his  successors  (Lengerke, 
Dan.  p.  95  sq.).  He  is  often  mentioned  in  the  books 
of  the  Maccabees  (Wernsdorf,  Dejidc  libror.  Mace.  p. 
40  sq.) ;  and  his  career  is  detailed  hy  the  historians 
Arrian,  Plutarch,  and  Quintus  Curtius  (Droysen,  Gesch. 
Alex.  d.  Gr.  Berl.  1833,  Hamb.  1837). 

Alexander  was  born  at  Pella  B.C.  356  (eomp.  1  Mace, 
i,  7;  Euseb.  Chron.  Ann.  ii,  33).  At  an  early  age  he 
was  placed  under  the  care  of  Aristotle  ;  and  while  still 
a  youth  he  turned  the  fortune  of  the  day  at  Cha?ronea 
(B.C.  338).  Philip  was  killed  at  a  marriage  feast  when 
Alexander  was  about  twenty.  After  he  had  performed 
the  last  duties  to  his  father,  and  put  down  with  resolute 
energy  the  disaffection  and  hostility  by  which  his  throne 
was  menaced,  he  was  chosen  by  the  Greeks  general  of 
their  troops  against  the  Persians,  and  entered  Asia 
with  an  army  of  34,000  men,  B.C.  334.  In  one  cam- 
paign he  subdued  almost  all  Asia  Minor.  In  the  bat- 
tle of  Granicus  he  defeated  Orobates,  one  of  Darius's 
generals ;  and  Darius  himself,  whose  army  consisted 
of  400,000  foot  and  100,000  horse,  in  the  narrow  pass 
of  Issus,  which  leads  from  Syria  to  Cilicia.  Darius 
fled,  abandoning  his  camp  and  baggage,  his  children, 
wife,  and  mother,  B.C.  333.  After  he  had  subdued 
Syria,  Alexander  came  to  Tyre,  and  the  Tyrians  op- 
posing his  entrance  into  their  city,  he  besieged  it.  At 
the  same  time  he  is  said  to  have  written  to  Jaddus, 
high-priest  of  the  Jews,  that  he  expected  to  be  ac- 
knowledged by  him,  and  to  receive  those  submissions 
which  had  hitherto  been  paid  to  the  king  of  Persia. 
Jaddus  refusing  to  comply,  as  having  sworn  fidelity  to 
Darius,  Alexander  resolved  to  march  against  Jerusalem 
when  he  had  reduced  Tyre  (q.  v.).  After  a  protracted 
siege,  the  latter  city  was  taken  and  sacked,  B.C.  332. 
This  done,  Alexander  entered  Palestine  and  reduced  it. 
Egypt  next  submitted  to  him ;  and  in  B.C.  331  he  found- 
ed Alexandria  (q.  v.),  which  remains  to  the  present  day 
the  most  characteristic  monument  of  his  life  and  work. 
In  the  same  year  he  finally  defeated  Darius  at  Gau- 
gamela;  and  in  B.C.  330  his  unhappy  rival  was  niur- 


ALEXANDER 


139 


ALEXANDER 


dered  by  Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactria.  The  next  two 
years  were  occupied  by  Alexander  in  the  consolida- 
tion of  his  Persian  conquests,  and  the  reduction  of 
Bactria.  In  B.C.  327  he  crossed  the  Indus,  penetrated 
to  the  Hydaspes,  and  was  there  forced  by  the  discon- 
tent of  his  army  to  turn  westward.  He  reached  Susa, 
B.C.  325,  and  proceeded  to  Babylon,  B.C.  324,  which 
he  chose  as  the  capital  of  his  empire.  In  the  next 
year  he  died  there  (B.C.  323)  in  the  midst  of  his  gigan- 
tic plans ;  and  those  who  inherited  his  conquests  left 
his  designs  unachieved  and  unattempted  (comp.  Dan. 
vii,  6 ;  viii,  5 ,  xi,  3).  His  death  is  attributed  to  intem- 
perance ;  and  upon  his  death-bed  he  sent  for  his  court, 
and  declared  that  "  he  gave  the  empire  to  the  most  de- 
serving." Some  affirm,  however,  that  he  regulated 
the  succession  by  a  will.  The  author  of  the  first  book 
of  Maccabees  (i,  G)  says  he  divided  his  kingdom  among 
his  generals  while  he  was  living  ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
a  partition  was  eventually  made  of  his  dominions 
among  the  four  principal  officers, of  his  army.  He 
died  at  the  age  of  thirty-three,  after  reigning  twelve 
years — six  as  king  of  Macedon  and  six  as  monarch  of 
Asia.  He  was  buried  at  Alexandria.  See  Mace- 
donia. 


Coin  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  famous  tradition  of  the  visit  of  Alexander  to 
Jerusalem  during  his  Phoenician  campaign  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xi,  8,  1  sq.)  has  been  a  fruitful  source  of  contro- 
versy. The  Jews,  it  is  said,  had  provoked  his  anger 
by  refusing  to  transfer  their  allegiance  to  him  when 
summoned  to  do  so  during  the  siege  of  Tyre,  and  after 
the  reduction  of  Tyre  and  Gaza  (Josephus,  1.  c.)  he 
turned  toward  Jerusalem.  Jaddua  (Jaddus)  the  high- 
priest  (Neh.  xii,  11,  22),  who  had  been  warned  in  a 
dream  how  to  avert  the  king's  anger,  calmby  awaited 
his  approach ;  and  when  he  drew  near  went  out  to 
Sapha  ('"!S^,  he  watched),  within  sight  of  the  city  and 
temple,  clad  in  his  robes  of  hyacinth  and  gold,  and  ac- 
companied by  a  train  of  priests  and  citizens  arrayed  in 
white.  Alexander  was  so  moved  by  the  solemn  spec- 
tacle that  he  did  reverence  to  the  holy  name  inscribed 
upon  the  tiara  of  the  high-priest ;  and  when  Parmenio 
expressed  surprise,  he  replied  that  "  he  had  seen  the 
god  whom  Jaddua  represented  in  a  dream  at  Dium,  en- 
couraging him  to  cross  over  into  Asia,  and  promising 
him  success."  After  this  it  is  said  that  he  visited  Je- 
rusalem, offered  sacrifice  there,  heard  the  prophecies 
of  Daniel  which  foretold  his  victor}',  and  conferred  im- 
portant privileges  upon  the  Jews,  not  only  in  Judaaa, 
but  in  Babylonia  and  Media,  which  they  enjoyed  during 
the  supremacy  of  his  successors.  The  narrative  is  re- 
peated in  the  Talmud  (Yoma,  G9,  ap.  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb. 
b.  v.  Alexander;  the  high- priest  is  there  said  to  have 
been  Simon  the  Just),  in  later  Jewish  writers  (Vajikra 
K.  13 ;  Joseph  ben  Gorion,  ap.  Ste.  Croix,  p.  553),  and 
in  the  chronicles  of  Abulfeda  (Ste.  Croix,  p.  555).  The 
event  was  adapted  by  the  Samaritans  to  suit  their  own 
history,  with  a  corresponding  change  of  places  and 
persons,  and  various  embellishments  (Aboul'lfatah, 
quoted  by  Ste.  Croix,  p.  209-212)  ;  and  in  due  time 
Alexander  was  enrolled  anions,'  the  proselytes  of  Juda- 
ism. On  the  other  hand,  no  mention  of  the  event  oc- 
curs in  Arrian,  Plutarch,  Diodorus,  or  Curtius ;  and 
the  connection  in  which  it  is  placed  by  Josephus  is 
alike  inconsistent  with  Jewish  history  (Ewald,  Gesch. 
d.  Volkes  Isr.  iv,  124  sq.)  and  with  the*  narrative  of  Ar- 
rian (iii,  1).     See  Jaddua. 


But  admitting  the  incorrectness  of  the  details  of  the 
tradition  as  given  by  Josephus,  there  are  several  points 
which  confirm  the  truth  of  the  main  fact.  Justin  says 
that  "many  kings  of  the  East  came  to  meet  Alexan- 
der wearing  fillets"  (xi,  10) ;  and  after  the  capture  of 
Tyre  "Alexander  himself  visited  some  of  the  cities 
which  still  refused  to  submit  to  him"  (Curt,  iv,  5,  13). 
Even  at  a  later  time,  according  to  Curtius,  he  executed 
vengeance  personally  on  the  Samaritans  for  the  mur- 
der of  his  governor  Andromachus  (Curt,  iv,  8,  10). 
Besides  this,  Jewish  soldiers  were  enlisted  in  his  army 
(Hecat.  ap.  Josephus,  Apion,  i,  22) ;  and  Jews  formed 
an  important  element  in  the  population  of  the  city 
which  he  founded  shortly  after  the  supposed  visit. 
Above  all,  the  privileges  which  he  is  said  to  have  con- 
ferred upon  the  Jews,  including  the  remission  of  trib- 
ute every  sabbatical  year,  existed  in  later  times,  and 
imply  some  such  relation  between  the  Jews  and  the 
great  conqueror  as  Josephus  describes.  Internal  ev- 
idence is  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  story  even  in  its  pic- 
turesque fulness.  From  policy  or  conviction,  Alexan- 
der delighted  to  represent  himself  as  chosen  by  destiny 
for  the  great  act  which  he  achieved.  The  siege  of 
Tyre  arose  professedly  from  a  religious  motive  ;  the 
battle  of  Issus  was  preceded  by  the  visit  to  Gordium  ; 
the  invasion  of  Persia  by  the  pilgrimage  to  the  temple 
of  Ammon.  And  if  it  be  impossible  to  determine  the 
exact  circumstances  of  the  meeting  of  Alexander  and 
the  Jewish  envoys,  the  silence  of  the  classical  histo- 
rians, who  notoriously  disregarded  (e.  g.  the  Macca- 
bees) and  misrepresented  (Tac.  Hist,  v,  8)  the  fortunes 
of  the  Jews,  cannot  be  held  to  be  conclusive  against 
the  occurrence  of  an  event  which  must  have  appeared 
to  them  trivial  or  unintelligible  (Jahn,  Arcfoeol.  iii, 
300  sq. ;  Ste.  Croix,  Examen  critique,  etc.,  Paris,  1810 
[in  Eng.  Bath,  1793] ;  Thirl  wall,  Hist,  of  Greece,  ii,  193 
sq.;  and,  on  the  other  side,  Ant.  van  Dale,  Dissert, 
super  A  ristea,  Amstel.  1705,  p.  G9  sq. ;  Favini,  Be  A  lex. 
M.  ingress.  Hierosolyma,  Flor.  1781).      See  Persia. 

The  tradition,  whether  true  or  false,  presents  an 
aspect  of  Alexander's  character  which  has  been  fre- 
quently lost  sight  of  by  his  recent  biographers.  He 
was  not  simply  a  Greek,  nor  must  he  be  judged  by  a 
Greek  standard.  The  Orientalism,  which  was  a  scan- 
dal to  his  followers,  was  a  necessary  deduction  from 
his  principles,  and  not  the  result  of  caprice  or  vanity 
(comp.  Arr.  vii,  29).  He  approached  the  idea  of  a 
universal  monarchy  from  the  side  of  Greece,  but  his 
final  object  was  to  establish  something  higher  than 
the  paramount  supremacy  of  one  people.  His  purpose 
was  to  combine  and  equalize,  not  to  annihilate  ;  to 
wed  the  East  and  West  in  a  just  union — not  to  enslave 
Asia  to  Greece  (Plut.  dc  Alex.  Fort,  i,  6).  The  time, 
indeed,  was  not  yet  come  when  this  was  possible,  but 
if  he  could  not  accomplish  the  great  issue,  he  prepared 
for  its  accomplishment. 

The  first  and  most  direct  consequence  of  the  policy 
of  Alexander  was  the  weakening  of  nationalities,  the 
first  condition  necessary  for  the  dissolution  of  the  old 
religions.  The  swift  course  of  his  victories,  the  con- 
stant incorporation  of  foreign  elements  in  his  armies, 
the  fierce  wars  and  changing  fortunes  of  his  successors, 
broke  down  the  barriers  by  which  kingdom  had  been 
separated  from  kingdom,  and  opened  the  road  for 
larger  conceptions  of  life  and  faith  than  had  hitherto 
been  possible  (comp.  Polyb.  iii,  59).  The  contact  of 
the  East  and  West  brought  out  into  practical  forms 
thoughts  and  feelings  which  had  been  confined  to  the 
schools.  Paganism  was  deprived  of  life  as  soon  as  it 
was  transplanted  beyond  the  narrow  limits  in  which 
it  took  its  shape.  The  spread  of  commerce  followed 
the  progress  of  arms ;  and  the  Greek  language  and 
literature  vindicated  their  claim  to  be  considered  the 
most  perfect  expression  of  human  thought  by  becoming 
practicalhy  universal.  The  Jews  were  at  once  most 
exposed  to  the  powerful  influences  thus  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  East,  and  most  able  to  support  them. 


ALEXANDER 


140 


ALEXANDER 


In  the  arrangement  of  the  Greek  conquests  which  ! 
followed  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  B.C.  SOI,  Judaea  was  ; 
made  the  frontier  land  of  the  rival  empires  of  Syria  j 
and  Egypt,  and  though  it  was  necessarily  subjected  to 
the  constant  vicissitudes  of  war,  it  was  able  to  make  | 
advantageous  terms  with  the  state  to  which  it  owed 
allegiauce  from  the  important  advantages  which  it 
offered  for  attack  or  defence.  See  Antiochus.  In- 
ternally also  the  people  were  prepared  to  withstand 
the  effects  of  the  revolution  which  the  Greek  dominion  ! 
effected.  The  constitution  of  Ezra  had  obtained  its 
full  development.  A  powerful  hierarchy  had  succeed- 
ed in  substituting  the  idea  of  a  church  for  that  of  a 
stats,  and  the  Jew  was  now  able  to  wander  over  the 
world  and  yet  remain  faithful  to  the  God  of  his  fathers. 
See  Dispersion.  The  same  constitutional  change  j 
had  strengthened  the  intellectual  and  religious  position  I 
of  the  people.  A  rigid  "  fence"  of  ritualism  protected 
the  course  of  common  life  from  the  license  of  Greek 
manners ;  and  the  great  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God, 
which  was  now  seen  to  be  the  divine  centre  of  their 
system,  counteracted  the  attractions  of  a  philosophic 
pantheism.  See  Simon  the  Just.  Through  a  long 
course  of  discipline,  in  which  they  had  been  left  un- 
guided  by  prophetic  teaching,  the  Jews  had  realized 
the  nature  of  their  mission  to  the  world,  and  were 
waiting  for  the  means  of  fulfilling  it.  The  conquest 
of  Alexander  furnished  them  with  the  occasion  and  the 
power.  But,  at  the  same  time,  the  example  of  Greece 
fostered  personal  as  well  as  popular  independence. 
Judaism  was  speedily  divided  into  sects,  analogous  to 
the  typical  forms  of  Greek  philosophy.  But  even  the 
rude  analysis  of  the  old  faith  was  productive  of  good. 
The  freedom  of  Greece  was  no  less  instrumental  in 
forming  the  Jews  for  their  final  work  than  the  con- 
templative spirit  of  Persia,  or  the  civil  organization  of 
Rome  ;  for  if  the  career  of  Alexander  was  rapid,  its  ef- 
fects were  lasting.  The  city  which  he  chose  to  bear 
his  name  perpetuated  in  after  ages  the  office  which  he 
providentially  discharged  for  Judaism  and  mankind  ; 
and  the  historian  of  Christianity  must  confirm  the 
judgment  of  Arrian,  that  Alexander,  "  who  was  like 
no  other  man,  could  not  have  been  given  to  the  world 
without  the  special  design  of  Providence"  (Arr.  vii,  30). 
See  Alexandria.  And  Alexander  himself  appreciated 
this  design  better  even  than  his  great  teacher ;  for  it  is 
said  (Plut.  De  Alex,  i,  G)  that  when  Aristotle  urged 
him  to  treat  the  Greeks  as  freemen  and  the  Orientals 
as  slaves,  he  found  the  true  answer  to  this  counsel  in 
the  recognition  of  his  "  divine  mission  to  unite  and 
reconcile  the  world." — Smith.     See  Sects,  Jewish. 


Tetradrachm  (Attic  Talent)  of  one  of  the  Successors  of  Alex- 
ander.— Obverse;  Head  of  Alexander  the  Great  as  a  young 
Jupiter  Ammon.  fteveme:  Pallas  seated,  holding  a  Victory, 
with  Monogram  and  Letter  (I);  Inscription  (in  Greek),  "  Of 
King  Lysimachna." 

In  the  prophetic  visions  of  Daniel  the  influence  of 
Alexander  is  necessarily  combined  with  that  of  his 
successors.  They  represented  with  partial  exaggera- 
tion the  several  phases  of  his  character;  and  to  the 
Jews  nationally  the  policy  of  the  Syrian  kings  was  of 
greater  importance  than  the  original  conquest  of  Asia. 
But  some  traits  of  "  the  first  mighty  lung"  (Dan.  viii, 
21  ;  xi,  3)  are  given  with  vigorous  distinctness.  The 
emblem  by  which  he  is  typified  (~'Z'S,  a  he-gnat,  from 
IBS,  he  leaped,  Gesenius,  Then.  s.  v.)  suggests  the  no- 
tions of  strength  and  speed ;  and  the  universal  extent 


(Dan.  viii,  5,  .  .  .from,  the  west  on  the  face  of  the  whole 
earth)  and  marvellous  rapidity  of  his  conquests  (Dan. 
1.  c.  he  touched  not  the  ground)  are  brought  forward  as  the 
characteristics  of  his  power,  which  was  directed  by  the 
strongest  personal  impetuosity  (Dan.  viii,  6,  in  the  fun/ 
of  his  power).  He  ruled  with  great  dominion,  and  did 
according  to  his  will  (xi,  3)  ;  "  and  there  was  none  that 
could  deliver . . .  out  of  his  hand"  (viii,  7).  See  Goat. 
The  name  of  Alexander  is  equally  celebrated  in  the 
writings  of  the  Orientals,  as  in  those  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  ;  but  they  vary  extremely  from  the  accounts 
which  Western  historians  give  of  him  (D'Herbelot, 
Bibl.  Orient,  s.  v.  Escander;  Moses  Choren.  p.  82). 
They  call  him  Iscander  Dulkarnaim  (see  Golii,  Lex. 
Arab.  1896),  "  double-horned  Alexander,"  alluding  to 
the  two  horns  of  his  empire  (or  his  power)  in  the  East 
and  West.  For  further  details,  see  Anthon's  Class. 
Diet. ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.  See  Greece. 
2.  Surnamed  Balas  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  4,  8, 
'AXiZcivSpoc  o  BdXag  Xtyvpti'oe. ;  Strab.  xiv,  p.  751, 
rbv  BdXav  ' A\k£avc~ pov ;  Justin,  xxxv,  1,  Subornant 
pro  eo  Balam  quendam  .  .  .  et  .  .  .  nomen  ei  Alexan- 
dri  inditur ;  comp.  the  Aramaean  X3"?,  the  lord),  a  per- 
|  sonage  whose  history  is  detailed  in  the  Maccabees  and 
I  Josephus  (comp.  Justin,  xxxv  ;  Polyb.  xxxiii,  14,  16  ; 
i  Liv.Epit.l, liii;  Appian. *S'#n'acef,lxvii;  Euseb. Chron.). 
He  likewise  assumed  the  titles  "  Epiphanes"  (tTTi^ttw/r, 
illustrious),  "  Euergetes"  {tinnyeTi;c,  benefactor),  etc. 
His  extraction  is  doubtful  ;  but  he  professed  to  be  the 
|  natural  son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  in  that  ca- 
pacity, out  of  opposition  to  Demetrius  Soter,  he  was 
recognised  as  king  of  Syria  by  the  king  of  Egypt,  by 
the  Romans,  and  eventually  by  Jonathan  Maccabams 
(Strab.  xiii;  Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  2,  1),  but  he  was 
more  generally  regarded  as  an  impostor,  who  falsely 
assumed  the  connec'.ion  (App.  Syr.  67;  Justin.  1.  c. 
comp.  Polyb.  xxxiii,  16).  He  claimed  the  throne  of 
Syria  in  B.C.  152  in  opposition  to  Demetrius  Soter,  who 
had  provoked  the  hostility  of  the  neighboring  kings  and 
alienated  the  affections  of  his  subjects  (Josephus,  1.  c). 
His  pretensions  were  put  forward  by  Heraclides,  for- 
merly treasurer  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  obtained 
the  recognition  of  his  title  at  Rome  by  scandalous  in- 
trigues (Polyb.  xxxiii,  14,  16).  After  landing  at 
Ptolemais  (1  Mace,  x,  1)  Alexander  gained  the  warm 
support  of  Jonathan,  who  was  now  the  leader  of  the 
Jews  (1  Mace,  ix,  73) ;  and  though  his  first  efforts 
were  unsuccessful  (Justin,  xxxv,  1,  10),  in  B.C.  150 
he  completely  routed  the  forces  of  Demetrius,  who 
himself  fell  in  the  retreat  (1  Mace,  x,  48-50  ;  Josephus, 
Ant.  xiii,  2,  4  ;  Strab.  xvi,  p.  751).  After  this  Alex- 
ander married  Cleopatra,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemams 
VI  Philometor ;  and  in  the  arrangement  of  his  king- 
dom appointed  Jonathan  governor  (pipiaipxt]c,  1  Mace, 
x,  65)  of  a  province  (Judaea ;  comp.  1  Mace,  xi,  57). 
But  his  triumph  was  of  short  duration.  After  obtain- 
ing power,  he  gave  himself  up  to  a  life  of  indulgence 
(Liv.  Epit.  50  ;  comp.  Athen.  v,  211),  leaving  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  hands  of  ministers  whose  misrule  ren- 
dered his  reign  odious  (Diod.  Sic.  Fragments,  xxxiii). 
Accordingly,  when  Demetrius  Nicator,  the  son  of 
Demetrius  Soter,  landed  in  Syria  in  B.C.  147,  the  new 
pretender  found  powerful  support  (1  Mace,  x,  67  sq.). 
At  first  Jonathan  defeated  and  slew  Apollonius,  the 
governor  of  Ceele-Syria,  who  had  joined  the  party  of 
Demetrius,  for  which  exploit  he  received  fresh  favors 
from  Alexander  (1  Mace,  x,  69-89)  ;  but  shortly  after- 
ward (B.C.  146)  Ptolemy  entered  Syria  with  a  large 
force,  and  after  he  had  placed  garrisons  in  the  chief 
cities  on  the  coast,  which  received  him  according  to 
the  commands  of  Alexander,  suddenly  pronounced 
himself  in  favor  of  Demetrius  (1  Mace,  xi,  1-11 ;  Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  xiii,  4,  5  sq.),  alleging,  probably  with 
truth,  the  existence  of  a  conspiracy  against  his  life 
(Josephus,  1.  c. ;  comp.  Diod.ap.  Muller,  Fragm.  ii,  16). 
Alexander,  who  had  been  forced  to  leave  Antioch  (Jo- 
sephus, 1.  c),  was  in  Cilicia  when  be  heard  of  Ttole- 


ALEXANDER 


141 


ALEXANDER 


my's  defection  (1  Mace,  xi,  14).  He  hastened  to  meet 
him,  but  was  defeated  (1  Mace,  xi,  15 ;  Justin,  xxxv, 
2),  and  fled  to  Aba?,  in  Arabia  (Diod.  1.  c),  where  he 
was  murdered,  B.C.  14G  (Diod.  1.  c. ;  1  Mace,  xi,  17, 
differ  as  to  the  manner;  and  Euseb.  Chron.  Arm.  i, 
349,  represents  him  to  have  been  slain  in  the  battle). 
The  narrative  in  1  Mace,  and  Josephus  show  clearly 
the  partiality  which  the  Jews  entertained  for  Alexan- 
der "as  the  first  that  entreated  of  true  peace  with 
them"  (1  Mace,  x,  47) ;  and  the  same  feeling  was  ex- 
hibited afterward  in  the  zeal  with  which  they  support- 
ed the  claims  of  his  son  Antiochus.  Balas  left  a 
young  son,  who  was  eventually  made  king  of  Syria  by 
Tryphon,  under  the  name  of  Antiochus  Theos  (1  Mace. 
xi,  13-18;  Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  4).     See  Antiochus. 


Tetradrachm  (Ptolemaic  Talent)  of  Alexander  Balas.— Ob- 
verse: Bust  of  King.  Reverse :  Eagle  upon  Rudder,  and 
Palm-branch,  with  the  Monogram  and  Symbol  of  Tyre; 
Date  TEP  (103  JEr.  Seleurid),  etc. ;  Inscription  (in  Greek), 
u  Of  King  Alexander." 

3.  Surnamed  Zebina  (or  Zabinas,  Zaftivac,  said  to 
signify  "purchased,"  from  a  report  that  Ptolemy  had 
bought  him  as  a  slave),  the  son  of  a  merchant  named 
I'rotarchus  ;  he  was  set  up  by  Ptolemy  Physcon,  king 
of  Egypt,  as  a  pretender  to  the  crown  of  the  Greek 
kingdom  of  Syria  shortly  after  the  death  of  An- 
tiochus Sidetes  and  the  return  of  Demetrius  Nicator 
from  his  captivity  among  the  Parthians  (B.C.  128). 
Antioch,  Apamea,  and  several  other  cities,  disgusted 
with  the  tyranny  of  Demetrius,  acknowledged  the  au- 
thority of  Alexander,  who  pretended  to  have  been 
adopted  by  Sidetes  ;  but  he  nev^r  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing power  over  the  whole  of  Syria.  In  the  earlier 
part  of  the  year  125  he  defeated  Demetrius,  who  fled 
to  Tyre,  and  was  there  killed ;  but  in  the  middle  of  the 
same  year  Alexander's  patron,  the  king  of  Egypt,  set 
up  Antiochus  Gryphus,  a  son  of  Demetrius,  by  whom 
he  was  defeated  in  battle.  Alexander  fled  to  Antioch, 
where  he  attempted  to  plunder  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
in  order  to  pay  his  troops  ;  but  the  people  rose  against 
him  and  drove  him  out  of  the  city.  He  soon  fell  into 
the  hands  of  robbers,  who  delivered  him  up  to  Antio- 
chus, by  whom  he  was  put  to  death,  B.C.  122.  He 
was  weak  and  effeminate,  but  sometimes  generous. 
(Justin,  xxxix,  1,  2;  Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  9,  10;  Clin- 
ton, Fasti,  iii,  334.) 


Coin  of  Alexander  Zebina.— The  reverse  having  a  Statue  of 
Jupiter  holding  an  Image  of  Victory,  with  the  Inscription 
(in  Greek),  "■  Of  King  Alexander." 

4.  Surnamed  Jann.eus  (lavvaloc),  the  first  prince 
of  the  Maccabsean  dynasty  who  for  any  considerable 
period  enjoyed  the  title  of  king.  See"  Maccabees. 
Coins  of  his  reign  are  extant,  from  which  it  appears 
that  his  original  name  was  Jonathan,  which  he  ex- 
changed for  the  Greek  name  Alexander,  according  to 
the  Hellenizing  custom  of  the  age.  His  history  is 
detailed  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xiii,  12-16).     He  was  the 


Coin  of  Alexander  Jannams— bearing  on  the  obverse  the  in- 
scription (in  Greek),  "  Of  King  Alexander;"  on  the  reverse 
(in  Samaritan-IIeb.),  u  King  Jonathan." 

third  son  of  John  Hyrcanus,  who  left  three  sons,  or 
five,  according  to  Josephus  (  War,  i,  2,  7).  The  father 
was  particularly  fond  of  Antigonus  and  Aristobulus, 
but  could  not  endure  his  third  son,  Alexander,  because 
he  had  dreamed  that  he  would  reign  after  him,  which 
implied  the  death  of  his  two  brothers.  Antigonus  nev- 
er reigned,  and  Aristobulus  reigned  but  for  a  short 
time.  After  his  death,  Salome,  or  Alexandra,  his 
widow,  liberated  Alexander,  whom  Aristobulus  had 
confined  in  prison  since  their  father's  death,  and  made 
him  king,  B.C.  104.  Alexander  put  to  death  one  of 
his  brothers,  who  had  formed  a  design  on  his  life,  and 
heaped  favors  on  another,  called  Absalom,  who,  being 
contented  with  a  private  condition,  lived  peaceably, 
and  retired  from  public  employments.  Alexander 
was  of  a  warlike,  enterprising  disposition  ;  and  when 
he  had  regulated  his  dominions  he  marched  against 
Ptolemais,  but  was  soon  compelled  to  relinquish  the 
object  of  his  expedition  in  order  to  defend  his  own  ter- 
ritories against  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  who  had  marched 
a  powerful  army  into  Galilee.  Alexander  gave  him 
battle  near  Asophus,  not  far  from  the  Jordan  ;  but 
Ptolemy  killed  30,000,  or,  as  others  say,  50,000  of  his 
men.  After  this  victory  the  latter  met  with  no  re- 
sistance. His  mother,  Cleopatra,  however,  apprehen- 
sive for  the  safety  of  Egypt,  determined  to  stop  his 
further  progress,  and  for  this  purpose  levied  a  numer- 
ous arm}',  and  equipping  a  large  fleet,  soon  landed  in 
Phoenicia,  B.C.  102.  Ptolemais  opened  its  gates  to 
receive  her;  and  here  Alexander  Jannauis  presented 
himself  in  her  camp  with  considerable  presents,  and 
was  received  as  an  unhappy  prince,  an  enemy  of  Ptol- 
emy, who  had  no  refuge  but  the  queen's  protection, 
B.C.  101.  Cleopatra  made  an  alliance  with  him  in 
the  city  of  Scythopolis,  and  Alexander  marched  with 
his  troops  into  Ccele-Syria,  where  he  took  the  town  of 
Gadara  after  a  siege  of  ten  months,  and  after  that 
Amathus,  one  of  the  best  fortresses  in  the  country, 
where  Theodoras,  son  of  Zeno,  had  lodged  his  most 
valuable  property  as  in  absolute  security.  This  The- 
odoras, falling  suddenly  on  Alexander's  army,  killed 
10,000,  and  plundered  his  baggage.  Alexander,  how- 
ever,, was  not  deterred  by  this  disaster  from  prosecut- 
ing his  purposes :  having  recruited  his  army,  he  be- 
sieged Raphia,  Anthedon,  and  Gaza- — towns  on  the 
Mediterranean — and  took  them ;  the  latter,  after  a 
desperate  resistance,  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins, 
B.C.  96. 

After  this  Alexander  returned  to  Jerusalem,  but  the 
Jews  had  revolted ;  and  on  the  feast  of  tabernacles, 
while  he,  as  high-priest,  was  preparing  to  sacrifice,  the 
people  asseml  lad  in  the  temple  had  the  insolence  to 
throw  lemons  at  him,  taken  from  the  branches  which 
they  carried  in  their  hands.  Alexander  put  the  sedi- 
tious to  the  sword,  and  killed  about  6000.  Afterward 
he  erected  a  partition  of  wood  before  the  altar  and  the 
inner  temple  to  prevent  the  approach  of  the  people ; 
and  to  defend  himself  in  future  against  such  attempts, 
he  took  into  his  pay  guards  from  Pisidia  and  Cilicia. 
Finding  Jerusalem  likely  to  continue  the  seat  of  clam- 
or and  discontent,  Alexander  quitted  the  metropolis, 
at  the  head  of  his  arm}-,  B.C.  93  ;  and,  having  crossed 
the  Jordan,  he  made  war  upon  the  Moabites  and  Am- 
monites, and  obliged  them  to  pay  tribute;  attacked 
Amathus,  the  fortress  beyond  Jordan  before  mention- 
ed, and  razed  it ;  and  also  made  war  with  Obeda,  king 
of  the  Arabians,  whom  he  subdued.  On  his  return  to 
Jerusalem  he  found  the  Jews  more  incensed  against 


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142 


ALEXANDER 


him  than  ever,  and  a  civil  war  shortly  ensued,  in 
which  he  killed  above  50,000  persons.  All  his  en- 
deavors to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  proving  fruit- 
less, Alexander  one  day  asked  them  what  the}-  would 
have  him  do  to  acquire  their  good-will.  They  an- 
swered unanimously  "  that  he  had  nothing  to  do  but  to 
kill  himself."  After  this  they  sent  deputies  to  desire 
succors  from  Demetrius  Eucaerus  against  their  king, 
who  marched  into  Judaea  with  3000  horse  and  40,000 
infantry,  and  encamped  at  Sichem.  A  battle  ensued, 
in  which  Alexander  was  defeated  and  compelled  to  fly 
to  the  mountains  for  shelter,  B.C.  88.  This  occur- 
rence, however,  contributed  to  his  re-establishment, 
for  a  large  number  of  the  Jews,  touched  with  the  un- 
happy condition  of  their  king,  joined  him  ;  and  Deme- 
trius, retiring  into  Syria,  left  the  Jews  to  oppose  their 
king  with  their  own  forces.  Alexander,  collecting  his 
army,  marched  against  his  rebellious  subjects,  whom 
he  overcame  in  every  engagement,  and  having  shut 
up  the  fiercest  of  them  in  Bethom,  he  forced  the  town, 
made  them  prisoners,  and  carried  them  to  Jerusalem, 
where  he  ordered  eight  hundred  of  them  to  be  cruci- 
fied before  him  during  a  great  entertainment  which 
he  made  for  his  friends ;  and  before  these  unhappy 
wretches  had  expired  he  commanded  their  wives  and 
children  to  be  murdered  in  their  presence— an  unheard- 
of  and  excessive  cruelty,  which  occasioned  the  people 
of  his  own  party  to  call  him  "  Thracides,"  meaning 
"  as  cruel  as  a  Thracian,"  B.C.  86.  Some  time  after- 
ward Antiochus,  surnamed  Dionysius,  having  conquer- 
ed Damascus,  resolved  to  invade  Judaea ;  but  Alexan- 
der defeated  his  intention,  and  compelled  him  to  return 
into  Arabia,  where  he  was  killed.  Aretas,  the  suc- 
ceeding king  of  Damascus,  however,  came  into  Judaea, 
and  defeated  Alexander  in  the  plain  of  Sephala,  B.C. 
82.  A  peace  being  concluded,  Aretas  returned  to  Da- 
mascus, and  Alexander  ingratiated  himself  with  the 
Jews,  B.C.  81.  Having  given  himself  up  to  excessive 
drinking,  he  brought  on  a  violent  quartan  fever,  which 
terminated  his  life.  His  queen,  Alexandra,  observing 
him  to  be  near  his  end,  and  foreseeing  all  she  had  to 
fear  from  a  mutinous  people  not  easily  governed,  and 
her  children  not  of  age  to  conduct  her  affairs,  was 
greatly  distressed.  Alexander  told  her  that,  to  reign 
in  peace,  she  should  conceal  his  death  from  the  army 
till  Bagaba,  which  he  was  then  besieging,  was  taken  ; 
that,  when  returned  to  Jerusalem,  she  should  give  the 
Pharisees  some  share  in  the  government;  that  she 
should  send  for  the  principal  of  them,  show  them  his 
dead  body,  give  them  permission  to  treat  it  with  what 
indignities  they  pleased  in  revenge  for  the  ill-treat- 
ment they  had  received  from  him,  and  promise  that 
she  would  in  future  do  nothing  in  the  government 
without  their  advice  and  participation.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  forty-eight,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-seven 
years,  B.C.  78.  This  admission  of  the  Pharisees  into 
the  government  demands  the  especial  notice  of  the 
reader,  as  it  accounts  not  only  for  their  influence  over 
the  minds  of  the  people,  but  also  for  their  connection 
witli  the  rulers,  and  their  power  as  public  governors, 
which  appear  so  remarkably  in  the  history  of  the  Gos- 
pel.-— much  beyond  what  might  be  expected  from  a 
sect  merely  religious.  Alexander  left  two  sons,  Ilyr- 
Canus  and  Aristohulus,  who  disputed  the  kingdom  and 
high-priesthood  till  the  time  of  Herod  the  Great,  and 
whose  dissensions  caused  the  ruin  of  their  family,  and 
were  the  means  of  Herod's  elevation.  —  Calmet,  s.  v. 
See  Alexandra. 

5.  The  son  of  Aristohulus  and  Alexandra,  and 
grandson  of  Alexander  Jannseus.  He  was  to  have 
been  carried  captive  to  Home,  with  his  brother  Antig- 
onus,  when  Pompey  took  Jerusalem  from  Aristohulus 
(B.C.  C3) ;  on  the  way,  however,  he  found  means  to 
escape,  and,  returning  to  Judaea  (B.C.  57),  raised  an 
army  of  10,000  foot  and  15,000  horse,  with  which  he 
performed  many  gallant  actions,  and  seized  the  for- 
tresses of  Alexandrium  and  Machaerus.     Hyrcanus  ap- 


|  plied  for  aid  to  Gabinius,  the  general  of  the  Roman 
;  troops,  who  drove  him  from  the  mountains,  beat  him 
near  Jerusalem,  killed  3000  of  his  men,  and  made 
j  many  prisoners.  By  the  mediation  of  his  mother,  Al- 
j  exandra,  matters  were  accommodated  with  Gabinius, 
J  and  the  Romans  marched  into  Egypt,  but  were  soon 
1  compelled  to  return  by  the  violent  proceedings  of  Al- 
I  exander.  Wherever  he  met  with  Romans  he  sacri- 
ficed them  to  his  resentment,  and  a  number  were  com- 
pelled to  fortify  themselves  on  Mount  Gerizim,  where 
Gabinius  found  him  at  his  return  from  Egypt.  Being 
apprehensive  of  engaging  the  great  number  of  troops 
who  were  with  Alexander,  Gabinius  sent  Antipater 
with  offers  of  general  pardon  if  they  laid  down  their 
arms.  This  had  the  desired  success ;  many  forsook 
Alexander,  and  retired  to  their  own  houses ;  but  with 
30,000  still  remaining  he  resolved  to  give  the  Romans 
!  battle.  The  armies  met  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tabor, 
where,  after  a  very  obstinate  action,  Alexander  was 
overcome,  with  the  loss  of  10,000  men. 

Under  the  government  of  Crassus  (B.C.  53)  Alex- 
ander again  began  to  embroil  affairs  ;  but  after  the  un- 
happy expedition  against  the  Parthians  Cassius  obliged 
him,  under  conditions,  to  continue  quiet  (B.C.  52) 
while  he  marched  to  the  Euphrates  to  oppose  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Parthians.  During  the  wars  between  Cae- 
sar and  Pompey,  Alexander  and  Aristohulus,  his  fa- 
ther, espoused  Caesar's  interest,  B.C.  49.  Aristohu- 
lus was  poisoned,  and  Alexander  beheaded  at  Antioch. 
B.C.  48.     (Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  5-7  ;   War,  i,  8  and  9.) 

6.  The  son  of  Jason,  sent  to  Rome  to  renew  friend- 
ship and  alliance  between  the  Jews  and  Romans  :  he 
is  named  in  the  decree  of  the  senate  directed  to  the 
Jews  in  the  ninth  year  of  Hyrcanus's  pontificate,  B.C. 
60  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  8,  5). 

7.  The  son  of  Dositheus,  another  Jewish  ambassa- 
dor on  the  same  occasion  (Josephus,  ib.).  Perhaps 
identical  with  the  following. 

8.  The  son  of  Theodoras,  sent  to  Rome  by  Hyrca- 
nus to  renew  his  alliance  with  the  senate.  He  is 
named  in  the  decree  of  the  senate  addressed  to  the 
magistrates  of  Ephesus,  made  in  the  consulship  of 
Dolabella  (B.C.  43),  which  specified  that  the  Jews 
should  not  be  forced  into  military  service,  because  they 
could  not  bear  arms  on  the  Sabbath-day,  nor  have,  at 
all  times,  such  provisions  in  the  armies  as  were  author- 
ized by  their  law  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  10,  10  and  11). 

9.  A  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Mariamne.  The 
history  of  this  prince,  which  is  given  by  Josephus 
(Ant.  xv,  xvi;  War,  i,  22-27),  can  hardly  he  sep- 
arated from  that  of  Aristobulus,  his  brother  and  com- 
panion in  misfortune.  After  the  tragical  death  of 
their  mother,  Mariamne  (Josephus,  Ant.  xv,  7),  Herod 
sent  them  to  Rome  to  be  educated  in  a  manner  suita- 
ble to  their  rank  (ib.  10,  1).  Augustus  allowed  them 
an  apartment  in  his  palace,  intending  this  mark  of  his 
consideration  as  a  compliment  to  their  father  Herod. 
On  their  return  to  Judaea  (ib.  xvi,  1,  2)  the  people  re- 
ceived the  princes  with  great  joy ;  but  Salome,  Her- 
od's sister,  who  had  been  the  principal  cause  of  Ma- 
riamne's  death,  apprehending  that  if  ever  the  sons  of 
the  latter  possessed  authority  she  would  feel  the  effects 
of  their  resentment,  resolved  by  her  calumnies  to  alien- 
ate the  affections  of  their  father  from  them.  This  she 
managed  with  great  address,  and  for  some  time  dis- 
covered no  symptoms  of  ill-will.  Herod  married  Al- 
exander to  Glaphyra,  daughter  of  Archelaus,  king  of 
Cappadocia,  and  Aristobulus  to  Berenice,  daughter  of 
Salome.  Pheroras,  the  king's  brother,  and  Salome, 
his  sister,  conspiring  to  destroy  these  j'oung  princes, 
watched  closely  their  conduct,  and  often  induced  them 
to  speak  their  thoughts  freely  and  forcibly  concerning 
the  manner  in  which  Herod  had  put  to  death  their 
mother  Mariamne.  Whatever  they  said  was  imme- 
diately reported  to  the  king  in  the  most  odious  and  ag- 
gravated terms,  and  Herod,  having  no  distrust  of  his 
brother  and  sister,  confided  in  their  representations  as 


ALEXANDER 


143 


ALEXANDER 


to  his  sons'  intentions  of  revenging  their  mother's 
death.  To  check  in  some  degree  their  loft}'  spirits,  he 
sent  for  his  eldest  son,  Antipater,  to  court — he  having 
been  brought  up  at  a  distance  from  Jerusalem,  because 
the  quality  of  his  mother  was  much  inferior  to  that  of 
Mariamne — thinking  that,  by  thus  making  Aristobulus 
and  Alexander  sensible  that  it  was  in  his  power  to  pre- 
fer another  of  his  sons  before  them,  the}'  would  be  ren- 
dered more  circumspect  in  their  conduct.  The  con- 
trary, however,  was  the  case.  The  presence  of  An- 
tipater only  exasperated  the  two  princes,  and  he  at 
length  succeeded  in  so  entirely  alienating  his  father's 
affection  from  them,  that  Herod  carried  them  to  Rome 
to  accuse  them  before  Augustus  of  designs  against  his 
life,  B.C.  11  (ib.  10,  7).  But  the  young  princes  de- 
fended themselves  so  well,  and  affected  the  spectators 
so  deeply  with  their  tears,  that  Augustus  reconciled 
them  to  their  father,  and  sent  them  back  to  Judaea,  ap- 
parently in  perfect  union  with  Antipater,  who  express- 
ed great  satisfaction  to  see  them  restored  to  Herod's 
favor.  When  returned  to  Jerusalem  Herod  convened 
the  people  in  the  temple,  and  publicly  declared  his  in- 
tention that  his  sons  should  reign  after  him — first  An- 
tipater, then  Alexander,  and  afterward  Aristobulus. 
This  declaration  exasperated  the  two  brothers  still 
further,  and  gave  new  occasion  to  Pheroras,  Salome, 
and  Antipater  to  represent  their  disaffection  to  Herod. 
The  king  had  three  confidential  eunuchs,  whom  he  em- 
ployed even  in  affairs  of  great  importance.  These 
were  accused  of  being  corrupted  by  the  money  of  Al- 
exander, and,  being  subjected  to  the  rack,  the  extrem- 
ity of  the  torture  induced  them  to  confess  that  they 
had  often  been  solicited  by  Alexander  and  Aristobulus 
to  abandon  Herod  and  join  them  and  their  party,  who 
were  ready  for  any  undertaking  in  asserting  their  in- 
disputable right  to  the  crown.  One  of  them  added 
that  the  two  brothers  had  conspired  to  lay  snares  for 
their  father  while  hunting,  and  were  resolved,  should 
he  die,  to  go  instantly  to  Rome  and  beg  the  kingdom 
of  Augustus.  Letters  were  produced  likewise  from 
Alexander  to  Aristobulus,  wherein  he  complained  that 
Herod  had  given  fields  to  Antipater  which  produced  an 
annual  rent  of  200  talents.  This  intelligence  confirm- 
ed the  fears  of  Herod,  and  rendered  him  suspicious  of 
all  persons  about  his  court.  Alexander  was  put  under 
arrest,  and  his  principal  friends  to  the  torture.  The 
prince,  however,  was  not  dejected  at  this  storm.  He 
not  only  denied  nothing  Avhich  had  been  extorted 
from  his  friends,  but  admitted  even  more  than  they 
had  alleged  against  him,  whether  desiring  to  confound 
the  credulity  and  suspicions  of  his  father,  or  to  in- 
volve the  whole  court  in  perplexities,  from  which 
they  should  be  unable  to  extricate  themselves.  He 
conveyed  letters  to  the  king,  in  which  he  represented 
that  to  torment  so  many  persons  on  his  account  was 
useless ;  that,  in  fact,  he  had  laid  ambuscades  for 
him  ;  that  the  principal  courtiers  were  his  accomplices, 
naming,  in  particular,  Pheroras  and  his  most  intimate 
friends,  adding  that  Salome  came  secretly  to  him  by 
night,  and  that  the  whole  court  wished  for  nothing 
more  than  the  moment  when  they  might  be  delivered 
from  that  pain  in  which  they  were  continually  kept 
by  his  cruelties. 

In  the  mean  time,  Archelaus,  king  of  Cappadocia, 
and  father-in-law  of  Alexander,  informed  of  what  was 
passing  in  Judaea,  came  to  Jerusalem  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting,  if  possible,  a  reconciliation  between  Herod 
and  his  son.  Knowing  the  violence  of  Herod's  tem- 
per, he  feigned  to  pity  his  present  situation,  and  to 
condemn  the  unnatural  conduct  of  Alexander.  The 
sympathy  of  Archelaus  produced  some  relentings  in 
the  bosom  of  Herod,  and  finally  led  to  his  reconcilia- 
tion with  Alexander  and  the  detection  of  the  guilty 
pirties.  But  this  calm  did  not  long  continue.  One 
Eurycles,  a  Lacedemonian,  having  insinuated  himself 
into  Herod's  favor,  gained  also  the  confidence  of  Alex- 
ander; and  the  young  prince  opened  his  heart  freely 


concerning  the  grounds  of  his  discontent  against  his  fa- 
ther. Eurycles  repeated  all  to  the  king,  whose  sus- 
picions against  his  sons  were  revived,  and  he  at  length 
ordered  them  to  be  tortured.  Of  all  the  charges 
brought  against  the  young  princes,  nothing  could  be 
proved  except  that  they  had  formed  a  design  to  retire 
into  Cappadocia,  where  they  might  be  freed  from  their 
father's  tyranny,  and  live  in  peace.  Herod,  however, 
having  substantiated  this  fact,  took  the  rest  for  grant- 
ed, and  dispatched  two  envoys  to  Rome,  demanding 
from  Augustus  justice  against  Alexander  and  Aristo- 
bulus. Augustus  ordered  them  to  be  tried  at  Berytus, 
before  the  governors  of  Syria  and  the  tributary  sov- 
ereigns of  the  neighboring  provinces,  particularly  men- 
tioning Archelaus  as  one,  and  giving  Herod  permis- 
sion, should  they  be  found  guilty,  to  punish  them  as 
he  might  deem  proper.  Herod  convened  the  judges, 
but  basely  omitted  Archelaus,  Alexander's  father-in- 
law  ;  and  then,  leaving  his  sons  under  a  strong  guard 
at  Platane,  he  pleaded  his  own  cause  against  them  be- 
fore the  assembly,  consisting  of  150  persons.  After 
adducing  against  them  every  thing  he  had  been  able  to 
collect,  he  concluded  by  saying  that,  as  a  king,  he 
might  have  tried  and  condemned  them  by  his  own  au- 
thority, but  that  he  preferred  bringing  them  before 
such  an  assembly  to  avoid  the  imputation  of  injustice 
and  cruelty.  Saturnius,  who  had  been  formerly  con- 
sul, voted  that  they  should  be  punished,  but  not  with 
death,  and  his  three  sons  voted  with  him ;  but  they 
were  overruled  by  Volumnius,  who  gratified  the  father 
by  condemning  his  sons  to  death,  and  induced  the  rest 
of  the  judges  to  join  with  him  in  this  cruel  and  unjust 
sentence.  The  time  and  manner  of  carrying  it  into 
execution  were  left  entirely  to  Herod.  Damascenus, 
Tyro,  and  other  friends  interfered  in  order  to  save  the 
lives  of  the  unfortunate  princes,  but  in  vain.  They 
remained  some  time  in  confinement,  and,  after  the  re- 
port of  another  plot,  were  conveyed  to  Sebaste,  or  Sa- 
maria, and  there  strangled,  B.C.  5  (ib.  11, 7). — Calmet. 
The  leading  incidents  of  this  narrative,  which  is 
chiefly  interesting  as  confirmatory  of  the  barbarous 
character  attributed  to  Herod  in  the  Gospels,  are  con- 
firmed by  Strabo  (xvi,  7G5).  It  is  probably  this  event 
to  which  Macrobius  alludes  (Saturn,  ii,  4)  when  speak- 
ing of  the  jocose  remark  that  Augustus  is  said  to  have 
made  on  hearing  that  in  the  massacre  of  the  Bethle- 
hemite  children  (Matt,  ii,  16)  one  of  the  kind's  own 
sons  had  perished,  "  It  were  better  to  be  Herod's  swine 
than  his  son!"  Perhaps,  however,  the  son  referred  to 
may  be  Antipater  (q.  v.),  whom  he  also  ordered  to  ex- 
ecution just  before  his  death.     See  Herod. 

10.  A  son  of  Alexander  Herod  (above)  by  Glaphyra 
(Josephus,  War,  i,  18,  1).     See  Herod. 

11.  A  son  of  Phasaelus  (son  of  Phasaelus,  Herod's 
brother)  by  Salampsio,  Herod's  daughter  (Josephus, 
Ant,  xviii,  5,  4).     See  Herod. 

12.  A  relative  of  the  high-priest,  and  a  leading 
Jew,  present  at  the  examination  of  Peter  and  John 
before  the  Sanhedrim  for  the  cure  of  the  lame  man 
(Acts  iv,  G),  A.D.  29.  Many  (Kuinol,  in  loc.)  suppose 
he  was  the  Alexandrian  alabarch  Alexander  Lysima- 
chus  (below),  who  was  a  brother  of  the  well-known 
Philo,  and  an  old  friend  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  (Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  xviii,  8, 1 ;  xix,  5,  1),  and  whose  son,  Al- 
exander Tiberius  (below),  was  procurator  of  Judaea  and 
afterward  of  Egypt  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  11,  6;  15,  1, 
etc.). 

13.  A  man  whose  father,  Simon,  a  Cyrenian  Jew, 
was  compelled  to  bear  the  cross  of  Christ  behind  him 
from  the  gate  to  Calvary  (Mark  xv,  21).  A.D.  post 
29.  From  the  manner  in  which  he  and  his  brother 
Rufus  are  mentioned,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  they  were 
afterward  known  as  Christians. 

14.  An  alabarch  (q.  v.)  of  Alexandria,  surnamed 
Lysimaciius,  steward  of  Antonia  the  mother  of  Clau- 
dius, who  freed  him  from  the  incarceration  to  which 
he  had  been  subjected  by  the  preceding  emperor  (Jo- 


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144 


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sephus,  Ant.  xix,  5,  1).  It  -was  through  him  that 
Agrippa  received  the  loan  of  200,000  drachmae  (ib, 
xviii,  6,  3).  Some  have  thought  him  the  same  with 
No.  12,  above. 

15.  A  son  of  the  foregoing,  surnamed  Tiberius 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  5,  2).  His  uncle  was  Philo,  the 
celebrated  Jewish  author.  Alexander,  however,  did 
not  continue  in  the  faith  of  his  ancestors,  and  was  re- 
warded for  his  apostasy  by  various  public  appoint- 
ments. In  the  rei^n  of  Claudius  he  succeeded  Fadius 
as  procurator  of  Judasa,  about  A.D.  46,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  the  equestrian  order.  He  was  subsequently 
appointed  by  Nero  procurator  of  Egypt;  and  by  his 
order  50,000  Jews  were  slain  on  one  occasion  at  Alex- 
andria in  a  tumult  in  the  city.  It  was  apparently 
during  his  government  in  Egypt  that  he  accompanied 
Corbulo  in  his  expedition  into  Armenia,  A.D.  64 ;  and 
he  was,  in  this  campaign,  given  as  one  of  the  hostages 
to  secure  the  safety  of  Tiridates  when  the  latter  visit- 
ed the  Roman  camp.  Alexander  was  the  first  Roman 
governor  who  declared  in  favor  of  Vespasian  ;  and  the 
day  on  which  he  administered  the  oath  to  the  legions 
in  the  name  of  Vespasian,  the  kalends  of  July,  A.D. 
69,  is  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  that  emperor's 
reign.  Alexander  afterward  accompanied  Titus  in 
the  war  against  Judaea,  and  was  present  at  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem.  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  11,  6;  15,  1;  18; 
7,  8;  iv,  10,  6;  vi,  4,  3;  Tacitus,  Ann.  xv,  28;  Hist. 
i,  11;  ii,  74,  79;  Suetonius,  Vesp.  6.) 

16.  A  Jew  of  Ephesus,  known  only  from  the  part 
he  took  in  the  uproar  about  Diana  which  was  raised 
there  by  the  preaching  of  Paul  (Acts  xix,  33),  A.D. 
54.  As  the  inhabitants  confounded  the  Jews  and 
Jewish  Christians,  the  former,  apprehensive  lest  they 
might  be  involved  in  the  popular  commotion  as  oppo- 
nents of  the  prevalent  idolatry,  put  forward  Alexan- 
der, apparently  one  of  their  own  number,  and  perhaps 
a  practised  speaker,  to  defend  them  from  any  connec- 
tion with  the  Christians  (Conybeare  and  Howson's  St. 
Paul,  ii,  87  note) ;  but  his  interference  only  inflamed 
the  mob  the  more,  so  that  he  was  unable  in  the  tumult 
to  obtain  a  hearing  (Neander,  Planting  of  the  Church, 
i,  318,  Edinb.  ed.).  Some  suppose  that  this  person  is 
the  same  with  "Alexander  the  coppersmith"  of  2  Tim. 
iv,  14;  but  this  is  by  no  means  probable:  the  name 
of  Alexander  was  in  those  times  very  common  among 
the  Jews. 

17.  A  coppersmith  or  brazier  (mentioned  in  1  Tim. 
i,  20;  2  Tim.  iv,  14),  who,  with  Hymenaeus  and  oth- 
ers, broached  certain  heresies  touching  the  resurrec- 
tion, for  which  they  were  excommunicated  by  the 
Apostle  Paul,  A.D.  54-64.  These  persons,  and  espe- 
cially Alexander,  appear  to  have  maligned  the  faith 
they  had  forsaken  and  the  character  of  the  apostle. 
As  ever}'  Jew  learned  some  trade,  it  has  been  imagined 
that  Alexander  was  really  a  man  of  learning,  and  not 
an  artisan,  although  acquainted  with  the  brazier's 
craft.  But  we  are  not  aware  that  it  was  usual  to  des- 
ignate a  literate  person  by  the  name  of  the  trade  with 
which  he  was  acquainted,  although  this  may  possibly 
have  been  the  case  when  a  man  bore  a  name  so  com- 
mon and  so  undbtinguishing  as  that  of  Alexander. 
The  supposition  of  some  (Neander,  Planting,  i,  407 
note),  that  different  persons  are  alluded  to  in  the  two 
passages  cited,  is  not  the  more  probable  one  (Matthies, 
Pastoralbrkfe,  p.  259  sq.). 

Alexander  I,  bishop  of  Rome,  succeeded  Evaris- 
tus  in  that  see  110.  He  ruled  for  eight  years  and  five 
months,  and  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Hadrian  in  119,  though  this  is  doubted  (Euseb.  II.  E. 
iv,  I  ;  hen.  iv,  3).  Alexander  is  said  by  some  writers 
to  have  been  the  6rst  who  directed  that  water  should 
lie  mixed  with  the  wine  in  the  Eucharist,  and  also  to 
have  introduced  holy  water;  but  it  is  the  usual  cus- 
tom of  Roman  Catholic  writers  to  attribute  the  events 
of  later  periods  to  earlier  ones.  The  epistles  attrib- 
uted to  him  are  spurious. 


II,  Tope  (originally  called  Anselm  Badagus),  a  na- 
tive of  Milan.  As  priest  of  his  native  town,  he  began, 
about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century,  to  preach  against 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy.  Archbishop  Guido,  of 
Milan,  who  sympathized  with  the  married  clergy,  ob- 
tained for  him  from  the  Emperor  Henry  and  the  Pope 
Stephen  II,  the  diocese  of  Lucca,  in  order  to  remove 
him.  Anselm,  however,  in  his  new  position,  vigorous- 
\y  pursued  his  attacks  upon  the  married  clergy,  and 
became  intimate  with  the  leaders  of  the  hierarchic.  1 
party,  Hildebrand  and  Petrus  Damiani.     On  the  death 

I  of  Pope  Nicholas  II  (10G1),  Hildebrand,  who  was  al- 
ready all-powerful  at  Rome,  succeeded  in  elevating 
Anselm  to  the  papal  throne  under  the  name  of  Alexan- 
der II.  The  part)1  of  the  count  of  Tusculum,  in  union 
with  the  married  clergy,  opposed  to  him  Bishop  Ca- 
dolous  of  Parma  as  antipope  under  the  name  of  Ho- 
norius  II,  but  Alexander  was  generally  recognised  in 
Germany  by  the  Sj'nod  of  1062.  As  pope,  Alexander 
endeavored  to  enforce  all  the  exorbitant  pretensions 
of  the  papacy,  and  in  this  effort  was  supported  by  Hil- 
debrand and  Damiani,  who  acted  as  his  legates  and 

!  councillors.  He  forbade  King  Henry  II  of  Germany 
to  divorce  his  wife  Bertha,  excommunicated  the  coun- 
cillors of  the  king,  and  summoned  the  latter  to  Rome. 
He  died  before  Henry  had  resolved  to  go,  April  20, 

!  1073,  and  was  succeeded  hy  Hildebrand  under  the 
name  of  Gregory  VII.  Forty-five  of  his  epistles  are 
extant  {Concilia,  torn,  ix,  p.  1115). — Neander,  Ch.  Hist. 
iii,  395-398;  iv,  100;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  1061; 
Wetzer  and  Welte,  i,  154. 

III,  Pope  (originally  called  Rolandus  Bandinelli),  a 
i  Tuscan.    In  1159  he  was  made  pope,  but  was  driven  out 

of  Rome  by  the  antipope  Victor  III.  The  Emperor 
Frederick  Barbarossa  convoked  the  Council  of  Pavia 
'  in  1160,  in  which  Victor  was  confirmed,  and  Alexander 
j  deposed  and  excommunicated.  Alexander  and  his 
party,  in  their  turn,  excommunicated  Victor  and  his 
'  abettors.  Alexander  was  recognised  bj'  the  kings  of 
France,  England,  Spain,  Sicily,  Jerusalem,  and  Hun- 
!  gary ;  while  Victor,  who  claimed  to  have  been  elected 
;  by  the  clergy,  the  Senate,  and  the  barons  of  Rome, 
was  only  recognised  by  Germany  and  Lombardy. 
Alexander  had  to  flee  to  France,  where,  at  a  council 
held  at  Tours  (1162),  he  declared  all  the  ordinations 
made  bv  the  antipope  sacrilegious,  and  condemned  the 
Albigenses  as  heretics.  After  the  death  of  Victor, 
April  20,  1164,  Frederick  had  a  new  antipope  elected, 
who  assumed  the  name  of  Pascal  III.  In  1165  Alex- 
ander returned  to  Rome,  where  he  met  with  an  en- 
thusiastic reception.  Against  the  advancing  armies 
of  the  emperor  he  was  supported  by  the  king  of  Sicily. 
In  1166  the  Greek  emperor,  Manuel,  opened  negotia- 
tions with  Alexander  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  about 
a  union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  as  well  as 
of  the  two  empires  ;  but  the  negotiations  led  to  no  per- 
manent result.  In  1166  he  was  again  ejected  from 
!  Rome  by  the  emperor,  who  was  crowned  there  by 
i  Pascal,  while  Alexander  excommunicated  him,  and 
absolved  his  subjects  from  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
Alexander  also  allied  himself  with  the  League  of  the 
Lombardian  cities  which  rose  against  Frederick,  and 
established  a  new  federal  city,  which  they  called,  in 
honor  of  the  pope,  Alexandria.  The  antipope  Pascal 
died  Sept,  26.  1168,  but  his  partisans  elected  in  his 
place  John,  abbot  of  Sturm,  in  Hungary,  who  assumed 
the  name  of  Calixt  III.  In  1171  Alexander  was  in- 
formed of  the  murder  of  Thomas  a.  Beckct.  He  put 
all  England  under  the  ban,  and  sent  two  cardinals  to 
England  to  examine  the  whole  matter,  which  termi- 
nated in  the  absolution  of  the  king  and  the  canoniza- 
tion of  Thomas  a  Becket.  In  1177  the  emperor  got 
reconciled  with  Alexander  at  Venice.  The  emperor 
threw  himself  upon  his  knees  and  kissed  the  foot  of 
the  pope,  while  the  latter  gave  to  the  emperor  the  kiss 
of  peace,  and  pave  him  his  arm  to  conduct  him  into 
the  church.     The  antipope  Calixt  abdicated  in  1178, 


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145 


ALEXANDER 


and  was  appointed  by  Alexander  governor  of  Bene- 
vent.  The  opponents  of  Alexander  elected,  however, 
another  antipope  (Sept.  29,  1178),  who  assumed  the 
name  of  Innocent  III,  but  was  soon  after  captured  by 
order  of  Alexander,  and  imprisoned  in  a  monastery, 
where  he  died.  In  1179  Alexander  held  at  Rome  the 
third  general  council  of  Lateran  (q.  v.),  which  issued 
a  number  of  decrees  on  church  discipline  and  excom- 
municated the  Albigenses.  In  1180  Alexander  pre- 
vailed upon  the  kings  of  France  and  England  to  un- 
dertake a  new  crusade  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the 
king  of  Jerusalem  against  Saladin.  Alexander  even 
endeavored  to  convert  the  sultan  of  Iconium  by  ad- 
dressing to  him  a  kind  of  catechism  under  the  name 
of  Instructio  Fidei.  Alexander  reserved  the  canoniza- 
tion of  saints,  which  had  formerly  been  practised  also 
by  the  metropolitans,  to  the  popes,  and  introduced  the 
LitercB  Mcmitoriales.  Several  Epistles  of  Alexander 
are  found  in  the  Concilia  of  Labile,  and  his  bulls  have 
been  printed  in  the  Bullarium  of  Cherubini,  and  in  the 
Italia  Sacra  of  Ughelli.  Alexander  died  at  Rome  in 
1181. — The  best  work  on  the  history  of  Alexander 
is  by  Renter,  Geschichle  Alexander  III  und  der  Kirche 
seiner  Zeit  (3  vols.  Berl.  1845-'64).  See  also  Turner, 
Hist.  Engl.  vol.  iv;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  168. 

IV,  Pope  (originally  Reinwald,  count  of  Segni),  a 
man  of  worldly  spirit,  ascended  the  throne  in  1254,  at 
a  period  of  great  disturbance.  Alexander,  like  his 
predecessor,  endeavored  to  confiscate  the  entire  king- 
dom of  Sicily  on  the  ground  that  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II,  who  was  also  king  of  Italy,  had  died  excom- 
municated. When  Manfred,  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Frederick,  maintained  himself  against  the  papal  troops 
as  ruler  of  Sicily,  Alexander  excommunicated  him, 
proclaimed  against  him  a  crusade,  and  put  the  entire 
kingdom  under  the  ban.  At  the  same  time  he  asked 
considerable  sums  from  Henry  III,  king  of  England, 
in  order  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  crusade,  and,  as 
an  indemnification,  offered  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  to 
Edmund,  the  second  son  of  Henrj\  A  legate  gave  to 
this  young  prince  in  advance  the  investitirre.  Man- 
fred, however,  maintained  himself,  and,  aided  by  the 
Saracens,  conquered  the  pope,  and  compelled  him  to 
take  refuge  at  Viterbo,  where  he  died,  May  25,  1261, 
leaving  the  papal  authority  greatly  enfeebled.  At 
the  beginning  of  his  pontificate,  Alexander,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Louis  XI,  sent  inquisitors  to  France.  He 
was  very  partial  to  the  Dominicans,  and  condemned 
a  work  by  William  of  St.  Amour  against  the  mendi- 
cant orders  ("  On  the  Dangers  of  the  last  Times")  and 
a  work  entitled  "The  Everlasting  Gospel,"  and  as- 
cribed to  John  of  Parma,  the  general  of  the  Francis- 
cans. Like  his  predecessors,  he  endeavored  to  bring 
about  a  union  between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman 
Churches.  Several  letters  and  bulls  of  this  pope  have 
been  printed  in  Labbe's  Concilia,  Ughelli' s  Italia  Sacra, 
d' Acherv's  Spicilegium,  and  other  collections. — Hoefer, 
JBiog.  Gine.rale,  i,  878 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  188,  283, 
421. 

V,  Pope  (originally  Peter  Philargus),  a  Franciscan 
monk  from  Candia,  was  raised  to  the  papal  throne  in 
1409  by  the  Council  of  Pisa,  which  deposed  the  popes 
Gregory  XII  and  Benedict  XIII.  His  prodigality  of 
gifts  and  offices  during  his  pontificate  was  so  unbound- 
ed that  he  used  to  say,  "When  I  became  a  bishop  I 
was  rich;  when  a  cardinal,  poor;  and  when  a  pope,  a 
beggar."  He  died  1410,  it  was  supposed  from  poison 
administered  by  his  successor,  John  XXII.  He  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  age. 
He  translated  several  works  from  Greek  into  Latin, 
which,  however,  have  never  been  printed.  Mazzu- 
chelli  (in  his  work  Scrittnri  d' Italia)  gives  a  list  of  the 
writings  of  this  pope,  but  he  only  published  his  letters, 
his  bulls,  and  a  little  treatise  on  the  conception  of  the 
Virgin  Mary. — Hoefer,  Biotj.  Generate,  i,  879. 

VI,  Pope  (originally  Roderic  Lenzuoli,  but  after- 
ward Borgia,  from  his  mother's  familv),  was  born  at 

K 


Valentia,  Spain,  in  1431.  His  mother,  Jane  Borgia, 
was  the  sister  of  Pope  Calixtus  III.  Roderic  first 
studied  law,  but  entered  on  a  military  career  at  the 
age  of  18.  His  youth  was  a  very  dissolute  one ;  and 
he  early  formed  a  criminal  connection  with  a  Roman 
lady  living  in  Spain  with  her  two  daughters.  He 
soon  seduced  the  daughters  also;  and  one  of  them, 
Rosa  Vanozza,  became  his  life-long  mistress.  By  her 
he  had  five  children,  two  of  whom,  Cffisar  Borgia  and 
Lucretia,  surpassed  their  father,  if  possible,  in  abom- 
inable crimes.  In  1455,  while  Roderic  was  living  in 
adultery  in  Spain,  his  uncle  became  pope.  This  open- 
ed to  him  a  new  career  of  ambition.  He  went  to  Rome 
on  a  promise  from  the  pope  of  an  office  worth  12,000 
crowns  a  year ;  and  at  the  same  time  his  mistress  and 
her  children  went  to  Venice,  under  the  charge  of  an 
intendant,  Manuel,  who  afterward  passed  as  her  hus- 
band, to  shield  the  amours  of  Roderic.  The  pope  was 
charmed  with  the  pleasing  manners  and  apparent  piety 
of  his  nephew,  and  made  him  cardinal  and  vice-chan- 
cellor in  1456.  Roderic  affected  great  piety,  visited 
the  prisons  and  the  poor,  was  diligent  in  keeping 
church  services,  and  soon  beguiled  the  Romans  into 
confidence  in  his  purity.  During  the  pontificates  of 
Pius  II,  Paul  II,  and  Sixtus  IV,  successors  of  Calixtus, 
he  remained  quiet.  In  the  pontificate  of  Innocent 
VIII,  which  began  in  1484,  he  brought  his  mistress  to 
Rome,  and  put  her  in  a  house  near  St.  Peter's,  when 
he  passed  his  nights  with  her,  the  days  being  devoted 
ostentatiously  to  his  public  duties  and  acts  of  piety! 
In  the  mean  time  he  was  busy  buying  up  votes  for 
the  papal  chair,  and  when  Innocent  died  (1492),  he 
had  purchased  a  sufficient  number  of  cardinals  to  se- 
cure his  election.     This  statement  rests  on  the  author- 


Alexander  VI. 

ity  of  Burchard,  master  of  ceremonies  to  Alexander 
VI,  who  left  a  journal,  which  was  afterward  published 
in  1696  (Hanover,  ed.  by  Leibnitz)  in  part,  and  has 
recently  been  published  in  full  (Florence,  1854,  8vo). 
Burchard  states  the  price  paid  by  Roderic  for  the  votes 
of  the  cardinals  as  follows :  to  Cardinal  Orsino,  the 
castles  of  Monticelli  and  Sariani;  to  Ascanius  Sforza, 
the  vice-chancellorship  of  the  Church  ;  to  the  cardinal 
of  Colonna,  the  rich  al  >bey  of  St.  Benedict,  as  well  as  the 
domains  and  right  of  patronage  for  himself  and  family 
forever ;  to  the  cardinal  of  St.  Angelo,  the  bishopric  of 
Porto,  and  the  tower  which  was  a  dependency  on  it, 
with  a  cellar  full  of  wine.  The  cardinal  of  Parma  re- 
ceived the  city  of  Nepi :  Savelli  received  the  govern- 
ment of  Citta  Caetellana,  and  of  the  church  of  St.  Mary 
the  Greater  ;  a  monk  of  Venice,  who  had  obtained  the 
cardinalate,  sold  his  vote  for  five  thousand  ducats  of 
gold.  Roderic  became  pope  August  2, 1492,  and  took 
the  name  of  Alexander  VI.  His  pontificate  of  eleven 
years  was  a  stormy  one,  as  he  made  every  thing  sub- 


ALEXANDER 


146 


ALEXANDER 


ordinate  to  the  purpose  of  raising  his  bastard  children 
above  the  heads  of  the  oldest  princely  houses  of  Italy. 
Of  the  crimes  alleged  against  Alexander  and  his  chil- 
dren, Cassar  and  Lucretia,  this  is  not  the  place  to  speak 
in  detail ;  it  is  enough  to  say  that  this  pontificate  ri- 
valled the  worst  periods  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  de- 
bauchery, venality,  and  murder.  It  was  in  1492  that 
Columbus  discovered  America,  and  the  Portuguese 
were  soon  after  disputing  with  the  Spaniards  as  to  their 
claims  through  Vasco  de  Gama.  The  dispute  was  re- 
ferred to  Alexander.  He  traced  a  line  which  passed 
from  pole  to  pole  through  the  Azores,  or  Western 
Islands,  and  decreed  that  all  the  countries  which  were 
beyond  this  line,  that  is,  the  West  Indies,  or  America, 
should  belong  to  Spain ;  and  all  east  of  it,  i.  e.  the 
East  Indies  and  the  African  coast,  to  Portugal.  The 
censorship  of  books  forms  one  of  the  man}-  claims  of 
Alexander  to  the  gratitude  of  posterity,  as  he  is  said 
to  have  originated  it  in  1502.  The  monk  Savonarola 
(q.  v.)  fearlessly  exposed  the  wickedness  of  Alexander, 
who  caused  him  to  be  burnt  in  1498. 

The  wits  of  the  time  did  not  fail  of  their  dutj'  in 
pasquinades,  one  of  which  runs  thus : 

Pe  vitio  in  vitium,  de  flamma  transit  in  isnem. 

Vendit  Alexander  clave?,  altaria,  Christum  ; 

Vendere  jure  potest,  emerat  ille  prius; 
Etc. 

The  death-scene  of  this  wretch  is  stated  by  Tom- 
masi,  in  substance,  as  follows :  After  the  marriage  of 
his  daughter  Lucretia,  the  pope  requested  Cardinal 
Corneto  to  lend  him  his  palace  for  a  great  feast,  to 
which  all  the  cardinals  and  nobility  were  to  be  invited, 
and  at  which  some  of  them  were  to  be  poisoned.  By 
mistake  the  poisoned  wine  was  handed  to  the  pope  and 
his  son  Csesar.  Both  were  soon  taken  ill ;  Ca;sar  re- 
covered, but  the  pope  died  the  same  night,  August  18, 
1503. 

Of  course  there  have  not  been  wanting  apologists 
even  for  such  a  monster  as  Alexander  YI.  Among 
those  who  doubt,  or  affect  to  doubt,  the  stories  of  his 
great  crimes,  are  Voltaire,  Roscoe,  the  Biographie  Uni- 
verselle  of  Michaud,  and  Appleton's  Cyclopwdia.  But 
the  evidence  of  contemporary  writers  is  not  to  be 
shaken  by  the  kind  of  criticism  employed  by  those 
who  would  whitewash  the  Borgias.  See,  as  the  chief 
authorities,  Burchai'd,  Diarium,  mine  primum  pub.  juris 
factum  ab  A.  Gennarelli  (Florence,  1854,  8vo) ;  Tom- 
masi,  Vita  di  Ccesare  Borg'a.  The  chief  points  of  Bur- 
chard's  diary  are  given  in  Gordon,  Life  of  Alexander 
VI  and  C<rsar  Borgia  (Lond.  1729,  fol. ;  1730,  French, 
2  vols.  8vo).  See  also  Ranke,  History  of  the  Papacy, 
i,  44  sq.  ;  Masse,  Hist,  du  I'ape  Alexandre  VI  (Paris, 
1830,  8vo) ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  iii,  §  133,  and  au- 
thorities there  cited. 

VII,  Pope  (originally  Fabio  Chigi),  born  at  Sien- 
na 1599,  succeeded  to  the  papacy  in  1655.  He  sur- 
rounded himself  with  splendor,  and  while  he  indulged 
in  luxury  and  licentiousness,  he  also  spent  vast  sums 
in  improving  and  adorning  the  city  of  Rome.  He 
confirmed  the  bull  of  Innocent  X  against  the  five 
propositions  of  Jansenius  ;  and  was  the  author  of  the. 
"Formulary" — an  act  the  intention  of  which  was  to 
prove  that  these  five  propositions  were  contained  in 
the  writings  of'Jansenius.  In  consequence  of  a  diffi- 
culty with  the  government  of  France,  French  troops 
seized  the  town  and  the  district  of  Avignon,  which  at 
that  time  still  belonged  to  the  Papal  States ;  and  the 
Sorhonne  published  theses  in  order  to  prove  that  the 
popes,  so  far  from  being  infallible  in  temporal  affairs, 
were  not  even  infallible  in  spiritual  matters.  After 
having  in  vain  invoked  the  aid  of  several  Catholic 
princes,  Alexander  complied  with  all  the  demands  of 
the  French  king,  and  had  Avignon  restored  to  him. 
He  died  in  1607.  His  bulls  ;ire  found  in  Cherubim's 
Bullanum.  A  volume  of  his  verses,  Philomathi  Muses, 
JutH  niles  (so  called  because  written  when  he  was  at  the 
college  of  the  Philomathi,  at  Sienna),  was  printed  in 


lGr>G.—Biog.  Univ.  i,  526;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  Papacy,  ii, 
191 ;  Pallavicino,  Delia  Vita  di  Alessandro  VII  libri  v 
(Prato,  1840,  2  vols.);  Hoefer,  Biographie  Generale,  i, 
903. 

VIII,  Pope  (originally  Ottoboni),  born  at  Venice 
1610,  made  pope  1689,  died  1691,  having  held  the  chair 
long  enough  to  advance  hie  own  family,  and  secure 
for  himself  an  enduring  reputation  for  avarice  and  du- 
plicity. He  declared  the  decrees  of  1682  which  guar- 
aranteed  the  independence  of  the  Gallican  Church,  to 
be  null  and  void.  This  pope,  though  opposed  to  the 
Jansenists,  nevertheless  condemned  the  doctrine  of 
"  philosophical  sin,"  as  taught  by  the  Jesuit  professor, 
Bongot,  of  Dijon.  The  Vatican  Library  is  indebted 
to  him  for  the  acquisition  of  the  magnificent  collection 
of  books  and  manuscripts  of  the  Queen  Christina. — 
Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale,  i,  905 ;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  Papacy, 
ii,  279. 

Alexander,  Saint,  bishop  of  Cappadocia,  and  af- 
terward of  Jerusalem  :  first,  as  colleague  of  the  aged 
Narcissus,  and  afterward  alone.  Eusebius  (lib.  vi, 
ch.  xi)  gives  an  account  of  his  call  to  the  episcopacy 
of  Jerusalem,  and  of  his  service  there.  He  protected 
Origen,  whose  fellow-disciple  he  had  been,  and  or- 
dained him  priest.  Under  Alexander  Severus  he  was 
imprisoned  for  seven  years.  He  suffered  a  second  per- 
secution under  Decius,  and  died  in  prison  at  Cffisarea 
in  251.  He  is  the  first  bishop  who  has  been  a  coadju- 
tor. He  was  a  friend  of  literature,  and  established  a 
library  at  Jerusalem.  He  is  commemorated  by  the 
Roman  Church  on  March  18;  by  the  Greek,  on  De- 
cember 22. — Dupin,  Eccl.  Writers,  3d  cent. 

Alexander  patriarch  of  Alexandria  from  A.D. 
312  to  326 ;  he  succeeded  Achillas,  and  his  appoint- 
ment excited  the  envy  and  hatred  of  Arius,  who  had 
himself  aspired  to  the  episcopal  throne.  His  doc- 
trines were  attacked  by  Arius,  Avhom,  after  mildly  ex- 
horting to  return  to  the  truth,  he  cited  before  an  as- 
sembly of  the  clertry  at  Alexandria,  and,  on  his  re- 
fusing to  recant  his  errors,  excommunicated  him  and 
his  followers.  This  sentence  was  afterward  confirmed 
by  above  a  hundred  bishops  in  the  Council  of  Alex- 
andria, A.D.  320.  One  of  his  epistles  against  Arius 
may  be  found  in  Socrates,  Hist.  Eccl.  i,  6,  and  another 
in  Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccl.  i,  4. 

Alexander,  first  bishop  of  Constantinople  after 
its  name  was  changed  from  Byzantium.  Alexander 
resolutely  opposed  the  Arian  heresy;  and  when  Euse- 
bius of  Nicomedia  insisted  upon  Arius  being  received 
into  the  Church  of  Constantinople,  Alexander,  in  the 
deepest  affliction,  ordered  public  fasting  and  pra}rer  to 
be  made  to  God  to  avert  it ;  and  himself  passed  whole 
nights  before  the  altar,  with  his  face  upon  the  ground. 
Arius  died  on  the  day  before  that  fixed  for  his  restora- 
tion. Alexander  died  in  3-10. — Socrates,  Hist.  Eccl.  i, 
37,  38;  ii,  6;  Acta  Sanctorum. 

Alexander,  bishop  of  Hierapolis,  an  adherent  of 
Ne.storius.  At  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431),  where  he 
had  been  sent  as  a  delegate,  he  signed,  with  eight  oth- 
er bishops,  a  letter  addressed  by  Ncstorius  to  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  con- 
vocation of  another  synod,  to  which  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
dria and  the  Egyptian  bishops  should  not  be  invited. 
Pope  Sixtus  III,  to  whom  Alexander  at  a  later  date 
appealed,  refused  him  a  heai-ing,  and  at  length  the 
emperor  banished  him  to  Famothis  in  Egypt.  Twen- 
ty-three letters,  existing  in  a  Latin  translation  (Epist. 
Lupi  Ephe  dance),  arc  ascribed  to  him  as  author ;  and 
Suidas  reports  a  discourse  of  his,  Quid  novi  Christus  in 
mundum  intulerit. — Herzog,  Real- En<yl-lop,i  die,  s.  v. 

Alexander,  founder  of  the  Accemetoe  (q.  v.),  was 
born  of  an  ancient  family,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  time 
of  the  Emperor  ( 'onstantius.  He  first  filled  an  office 
at  court,  but  afterward  gave  all  that  he  had  to  the 
poor,  and  retired  into  Syria.     He  afterward  founded 


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147 


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a  monastery  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  and  intro- 
duced a  new  rule  of  chanting  the  praises  of  God  with- 
out ceasing,  day  and  night,  throughout  the  year.  To 
secure  this,  he  divided  his  monks  into  six  classes,  one 
of  which  followed  another  perpetually.  When  he  had 
thus  exercised  his  monks  for  twenty  years  in  this  first 
monaster}-  of  his  order,  he  left  them,  and  passed 
through  Palmyra,  Antioch,  and  Constantinople,  in  all 
which  places  he  suffered  for  the  faith.  At  last  he 
died,  about  440,  at  another  monastery  of  his  institu- 
tion, called  Gomon,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pontus  Eux- 
inus.  Bollandus  give  a  life  of  him,  which  purports 
to  be  written  by  one  of  his  disciples. — Baillet,  Jan.  15 ; 
Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  i,  240. 

Alexander  Alesios,  or  de  Hales  (so  called  be- 
cause he  was  born  at  Hailes,  in  Gloucestershire,  or 
was  a  monk  in  the  monaster}'  there),  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  scholastic  divines.  After  studying  in 
England  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  and  studied  theology 
and  the  canon  law,  and  gained  such  a  high  reputation 
that  he  was  styled  "the  Irrefragable,  Doctor."  He  be- 
came a  Franciscan  in  1222,  and  died  at  Paris  1245. 
His  works  are :  1.  A  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  [er- 
roneously attributed  to  Bonaventura,  and  by  others, 
with  greater  probability,  to  Hugo  de  Sancto-Caro] 
(Venice,  149G,  fol.)  : — 2.  Commentaries  on  the  Apocalypse 
(Paris,  1647,  fol.):— 3.  A  Summary  of  all  Thiology— 
Summa  Theologica  (Norimb.  1482  ;  Basle,  1502;  Venice, 
1576,  4  vols. ;  Cologne,  1622,  and  many  other  places): 
— 4.  Comment,  on  the  Four  Books  of  the  Sentences  (Lyons, 
1581) ;  there  are  doubts  whether  he  was  the  author  of 
this  last  work. 

The  Summa  was  written  at  the  command  of  Pope  In- 
nocent IV,  and  enjoined  by  his  successor,  Alexander 
IV,  to  be  used  by  all  professors  and  students  of  theol- 
ogy in  Christendom.  Alexander  gave  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  a  more  rigorously  syllogistic  form  than 
they  had  previously  had,  and  may  thus  be  considered 
as  the  author  of  the  scholastic  theology.  He  answer- 
ed the  question  whether  theology  is  a  science  in  the 
following  manner  :  he  made  a  distinction  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  idea  of  science  ;  science  relates  either  to 
the  completion  of  the  knowledge  of  truth  (in  which 
case  it  has  to  do  with  knowledge  as  such — that  is,  the- 
oretical) ;  or  the  knowledge  relates  to  religious  expe- 
rience, and  of  the  latter  kind  is  theological  knowledge. 
This  knowledge  can  only  proceed  from  the  disposition. 
Theology  demands  the  human  soul,  since  it  rouses  the 
affections,  the  tendencies  of  the  disposition,  by  the 
principles  of  goodness,  the  fear  of  God,  and  love.  The 
relation  of  knowledge  to  faith  is  therefore  the  reverse 
of  what  it  is  in  the  other  sciences,  since  theology  first 
of  all  produces  faith,  and,  after  the  soul  has  been  puri- 
fied through  faith  working  by  love,  the  result  is  the 
understanding  of  theology.  In  logical  science,  on  the 
contrary,  rational  knowledge  produces  faith.  If  the 
former  have  produced  faith,  then  the  internal  grounds 
for  such  conviction  will  appear.  Faith  is  then  the 
light  of  the  soul ;  and  the  more  any  one  is  enlighten- 
ed by  this  light,  so  much  more  will  he  apprehend* the 
reasons  by  which  his  faith  is  proved.  There  is,  in- 
deed, a  faith  which  does  not  rise  so  high  as  knowledge, 
which  satisfies  itself  witli  probabilities;  but  Christian 
faith  is  different.  It  proceeds  from  experience,  ap- 
peals to  the  revelation  of  the  highest  truths,  and  hence 
stands  above  all  knowledge  (Neander,  History  of 
Doymas,  ii,  550).  As  to  our  knowledge  of  God,  Alex- 
ander taught  that  "  the  idea  of  God  is  a  habitus  natu- 
raliter  impressus  primie  reritatis,  and  is  founded  on  the 
connection  subsisting  between  eternal  truth  and  the 
moral  nature  of  man.  But  we  must  distinguish  be- 
tween a  coguitio  in  habitu  and  in  actv.  The  habitual 
lies  at  the  basis  of  human  consciousness ;  the  actual  is 
the  developed  idea.  In  reference  to  the  former,  the 
idea  of  God  is  undeniable  ;  in  reference  to  the  second,  a 
twofold  tendency  of  the  soul  is  possible — in  proportion 
as  it  either  turns  to  the  revelation  of  the  highest  truth, 


or  allows  worldliness  and  the  lower  powers  of  the  soul 
to  govern  it.  In  the  latter  case,  the  consciousness  of 
God  may  be  wanting,  and  the  fool  will  say,  There  is 
no  God."  He  distinguishes  also  between  the  idea  of 
God  in  general  (ratio  communis)  and  the  particular  ap- 
plication of  it  {ratio  propria).      "The  former  is  true 

;  even  in  idolatry,  for  that  testifies  of  an  idea  of  God  as 
its  foundation,  though  the  application  of  it  is  errone- 
ous."    As  to  grace,  he  "defines  the  gratia  gratis  date 

|  as  the  gift  which  is  communicated  to  rational  crea- 

,  tures,  in  order  to  make  them  capable,  as  far  as  de- 
pends on  this  gift,  to  labor  for  the  eternal  salvation 
and  improvement  of  others.  It  is  the  more  remote 
preparation  for  salvation,  mere  dead  faith,  knowledge 
without  life.  Through  the  gratia  g  rat  inn  facie  ns  sal- 
vation itself  is  added."  He  "supposed  man  to  be 
created  first  in  his  puris  naiuralibus,  and  then  the 
higher  development  of  nature  follows  by  the  informa- 
tio  per  gratiam.  According  to  this  view  man  needed 
grace  from  the  beginning,  but  it  was  to  be  attained  by 
the  determination  of  his  will.  The  original  relation 
of  the  latter  to  nature  is  distinguished  from  the  pres- 
ent in  this  respect,  that  it  required  grace  only  for  its 
higher  culture,  not  for  its  transformation.  Man,  in 
relation  to  grace,  was  informis  negative,  without  the 
higher  form  of  life,  but  not  informis  privative,  as  he  was 
after  the  Fall.  Hence  gratia  is  informans,  not  refur- 
mans"  (Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  ii,  574,  587).  In 
ecclesiastical  matters  he  advocates  the  strongest  pa- 
pal doctrines,  being  especially  in  favor  of  the  prerog- 
atives of  the  papacy.     He   refuses  any  toleration  to 

i  heretics,  and  would  have  them  deprived  of  all  prop- 
erty ;  he  absolves  subjects  from  all  obligations  to  obey 
a  prince  that  is  not  obedient  to  the  Church.  The 
spiritual  power,  which  blesses  and  consecrates  kings, 
is,  by  that  very  fact,  above  all  temporal  powers,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  essential  dignity  of  its  nature.  It  has 
the  right  to  appoint  and  to  judge  th"se  powers,  while 
the  pope  has  no  judge  but  God.  In  ecclesiastical 
affairs  also  he  maintains  the  pope's  authority  to  be 
full,  absolute,  and  superior  to  all  laws  and  customs. 
The  points  on  which  Alexander  exercises  his  dialec- 
tics are  sometimes  simply  ludicrous ;  as  when  he  dis- 
cusses the  question  whether  a  mouse  that  should  nib- 
Lie  a  consecrated  wafer  would  thereby  eat  the  body 
of  Christ.  He  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  it  would. 
He  thinks  Adam  died  at  three  o'clock,  because  that 
was  the  hour  of  Christ's  death. — Neander,  Ch.  Hist. 
vol.  iv.  420  et  al. ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  vol.  iii,  324,  358 ; 
Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  ann.  1230;  Haureau,  Philosophie  Scho* 
last! que,  ch.  xv. 

Alexander  Natalis.     See  Natalis. 

Alexander  Nevski,  one  of  the  saints  of  the  Rus- 
sian calendar,  second  son  of  the  Grand-duke  Jaroslaus 
II,  was  born  in  Vladimir  A.D.  1218.  In  1238  ho  was 
made  governor  of  Novogorod,  which  he  defended 
against  the  Tartar  hordes,  who  at  that  time  grievous- 
ly oppressed  Russia.  In  1239  an  army  of  Swedes. 
Danes,  and  Teutonic  knights  appeared  before  the  city 
and  summoned  Alexander  to  submit,  who,  however, 
bravely  refused,  and  vanquished  them  in  a  bloody  bat- 
tle near  the  river  Neva,  whence  he  received  the  hon- 
orable surname  which  was  then  given  to  him.  On 
the  death  of  Yaroslav  II,  in  1247,  his  brother  Andrew 
endeavored  to  deprive  him  of  the  throne  of  Vladimir, 
and  Alexander  fled  to  the  khan  of  Sarai,  with  the  aid 
of  whom  he  ascended  the  throne  in  1252,  and  reigned 
for  12  years  with  great  wisdom.  The  rest  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  the  defence  of  his  country  against  the 
Tartars,  the  Swedes,  and  the  Livonians,  who  continued 
their  attacks.  He  died  at  Gorodetz,  near  Novogorod, 
A.D.  1263,  and  was  enrolled  by  the  gratitude  of  his 
country  among  her  saints.  Peter  the  Great  subse- 
quently built  the  celebrated  monastery  of  St.  Alexan- 
der Nevski  on  the  spot  where  Alexander's  most  re- 
nowned victory  was  gained.     He  also  instituted  un- 


ALEXANDER 


148 


ALEXANDER 


der  the  same  name  an  order  of  knighthood,  -which  still 
exists  in  unabated  lustre,  and  is  only  conferred  as  the 
reward  of  extraordinary  services. — Biog.  Univ.  i,  582  ; 
Rose,  Biog.  Diet. ;  Biog.  Generate,  i,  857. 

Alexander,  Archibald,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Pres- 
byterian clergyman,  was  born  in  Rockbridge  Co.,Va., 
April  17,  1772,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1791,  and  la- 
bored with  great  acceptance  in  his  native  state  till 
1796,  when  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  Hampden 
Sidney  College.  By  his  wisdom  and  industry  he  soon 
imparted  to  the  institution  a  more  healthful  and  vig- 
orous tone,  as  well  as  greatly  increased  the  number 
of  its  students.  In  1807  he  removed  to  Philadelphia, 
taking  charge  of  the  Pine  Street  church.  Made  D-D. 
in  1810,  Dr.  Alexander  was  chosen  in  1812  to  the  pro- 
fessorship of  Didactic  and  Polemic  Theology  at  the 
Princeton  Seminan-,  then  just  organized.  He  contin- 
ued in  this  office  till  his  death  in  1851.  As  a  preach- 
er, he  was  very  effective.  As  a  teacher,  "  Dr.  Alex- 
ander was  possessed  of  a  combination  of  qualities  ad- 
mirably fitted  to  secure  both  the  respect  and  the  affec- 
tion of  his  students,  and  the  strongest  and  most  unani- 
mous testimony  has  been  borne  by  multitudes  to  the 
beneficial  influence  of  his  instructions  and  example  in 
forming  their  religious  character,  in  cultivating  their 
intellectual  powers,  and  in  storing  their  minds  with 
useful  knowledge.  Above  eighteen  hundred  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry  had  studied  under  his  superin 
tendence,  of  whom  about  sixteen  hundred  were  alive 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  most  of  them  occupied  as  pas- 
tors in  the  two  leading  branches  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States,  but  not  a  few  also  as 
missionaries  among  the  heathen.  While  his  great 
talents  and  acquirements,  his  sound  judgment,  and 
his  profound  piety  secured  their  esteem  and  confidence, 
his  unaffected  simplicity,  his  cordial  kindliness,  and 
his  hearty  vivacity  called  forth  a  very  large  measure 
of  personal  affection.  He  filled  for  forty  years,  with 
powers  that  scarcely  exhibited  any  symptom  of  decay, 
a  situation  of  great  influence  ;  he  was  able  and  willing 
to  improve  fully  his  opportunities  of  usefulness;  and 
thus  he  became  a  great  benefactor  to  his  Church  and 
country,  by  exerting  a  most  powerful  and  wholesome 
influence  on  the  formation  of  the  character  of  a  large 
number  of  men  who  are  now  making  full  proof  of 
their  ministry,  and  are  workmen  that  need  not  to  be 
ashamed"  (Brit.  Qu.  Rev.  1851).  His  principal  works 
are:  Brief  Compendium  of  Bible  Truth  (X.  Y.  12mo)  : 
— Advice  /<>  a  young  Christian  (Phila.): — Annals  of  the 
Juris/,  Nation  (N.Y.): —Bible  Diet.  (18mo,  Phila.):— 
Christian  Experience  (Phila.  1840,  12mo): — Evidences 
of  Christianity  (12mo,  Phila.  1825;  often  reprinted): — 
Hist,  of  the  Patriarchs  (1833,  Phila.)  :— Canon  of  0.  and 
X.  T.  (Phila.  1851,  12mo)  -.—History  of  Colonization 
(8vo,  1846) :— History  of  the  Israelitish  Nation  (Phila. 

1853,  8vo).  His  "  Moral  Sc;ence"  (12mo)  was  a  post- 
humous publication.  He  left  also  many  MSS.,  which 
will,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  be  published  hereafter. — 
Sprague,  .  I  nrvals,  iii,  612 ;  Memoir,  by  Rev.  J.  W.  Alex- 
ander (X.  Y.  1854,  8vo);  Brit,  and  For.  Evang.  Revietc, 

1854,  p.  584  ;  Meth.  Quar.  Rev.  1862,  p.  250. 
Alexander,  Caleb,  a  Presbyterian  minister  of 

the  last  century,  born  at  Northfield,  Mass..  in  1755, 
and  graduated  at  Yale  in  1777.  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  177H.  He  was  instrumental  in  founding  Hamilton 
College,  a  seminary  at  Auburn,  and  other  institutions. 
Died  in  1828. — Sprague,  Annuls,  iii,  406. 

Alexander,  James  W.,  D.D.,  eldest  sun  of  Dr. 
Archibald  Alexander  (q.  v.),  was  born  March  13, 1801, 
in  Louisa  Co.,  Ya.  He  received  his  academical  train- 
ing miller  .lames  Ross  in  Philadelphia,  and  graduated 
A. IS.  at  Princeton  in  1820.  lie  was  appointed  tutor  in 
the  college  at  the  age  of  twenty,  having  in  the  mean 
time  pursued  his  theological  studies  at  the  seminary 
under  the  instruction  <if  his  father,  who  was  appointed 
in  1812  first  professor  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of 


the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Princeton.  He  was  li- 
censed to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick 
in  1821,  and  soon  after  became  pastor  of  the  same 
church  in  Charlotte  Co.,  Va.,  in  which  his  father  had 
commenced  his  ministry.  In  1828  he  accepted  a  call 
to  the  First  Presbyterian  church  in  Trenton,  N  J.  In 
1832  he  resigned  his  charge  in  Trenton,  on  account  of 
impaired  health,  and  became  editor  of  the  Presbyterian 
newspaper  in  Philadelphia.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Rhetoric  and  Belles-Lettres 
in  the  college  at  Princeton,  which  post  he  continued 
to  occupy  until,  in  1844,  he  was  called  to  the  Duane 
Street  church  in  New  York.  While  fulfilling  the  pro- 
fessorship he  preached  regularly  to  a  small  congrega- 
tion of  colored  people  at  Princeton,  without  compensa- 
tion, for  the  space  of  seven  years.  In  1843  he  was 
made  D.D.  by  Lafayette  College,  Pa.  In  1849  he  was 
appointed  by  the  General  Assembly  Professor  of  Ec- 
clesiastical History  and  Church  Government  in  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminan%  and  in  1851  he  was  called  to 
take  charge  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  church, 
New  York.  Here  his  most  important  work  in  the  Gos- 
pel ministry  was  performed.  He  gathered  around  him 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  influential  congregations 
in  the  land,  who  were  attracted,  not  by  his  popular 
talents,  but  by  his  personal  worth,  and  weight,  and 
piety,  and  by  the  fervid  simplicity  with  which  he 
preached  Christ  Jesus.  Dr.  Alexander  was  a  man  of 
eminent  and  varied  learning,  reaching  into  all  the  de- 
partments of  science  and  literature,  the  stores  of  which, 
in  many  modern  as  well  as  ancient  languages,  were  as 
familiar  to  him  and  as  much  at  his  command  as  those 
in  his  mother  tongue.  Yet  his  practical  religious  zeal 
was  so  great  that  the  greater  part  of  his  writings  con- 
sists of  books  for  children,  and  writings  to  increase 
practical  religion.  His  rare  qualities  as  a  writer  and 
a  preacher  enabled  him  to  say  every  thing  in  a  style 
of  originality  and  peculiar  grace.  He  was  equally 
distinguished  for  moral  excellence,  especially  for  child- 
like simplicity  of  character,  unaffected  humility,  and 
simple  but  ever -glowing  piety.  In  the  spring  of 
1859  his  health  began  to  fail.  With  a  view  to  its 
restoration,  he  went  to  Virginia  in  the  early  summer, 
and  appeared  to  grow  better.  About  a  week  before 
his  death  he  was  seized  with  dvsenterv,  and  died  at  the 
Red  Sweet  Springs,  Alleghany  Co.,  Ya.,  July  31, 1859. 

Dr.  Alexander's  writings  are  chiefly  practical,  but 
all  distinguished  by  breadth  of  thought  and  by  admira- 
ble excellence  of  style.  Among  them  are,  A  Gift  to 
the  Afflicted  (12mo)  : — Geography  of  the  Bible  (by  J.  W. 
and  J.  A.  Alexander,  12mo) : — Consolation,  or  Discourses 
to  the  suffering  Children  of  God  (X.  Y.  1853,  8vo):— 
American  Mechanic  (2  vols.  18mo) : — Thoughts  on  Fam- 
ily Worship  (12mo)  : — Life  ofR/v.  A.  Alexander,  D.D. 
(Svo): — Young  Communicant  (12mo)  : — The  American 
Sunday-school  and  its  A  djunc/s  (PhiL  1856).  He  wrote 
more  than  thirty  juvenile  books  for  the  American  Sun- 
day-school Union,  of  which  the  best  known  are  Infant 
Library, On'y  Son,  Scriptwe  Guide,  Frank  Harper, Carl, 
the  Young  Emigrant.  He  also  was  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  the  Princeton  Review.  Since  his  death  has  ap- 
peared his  Thoughts  on  Preaching  (X.  Y.  1861,  12mo)  :  — 
Discourses  on  Faith  (X.  Y.  1862, 12mo).— New  York  Ob- 
servi  r;  Forty  Y<  ars'  <  'orrespondfnee  of  Dr.  J.  IF. .  1  lexan- 
der  with  a  Friend  (X.  Y.  1860,  2  vols.  12mo)  ;  New  F.ng. 
lander,  Nov.  1860,  art.  v  ;  Mercersburg  Rev.  Oct.  1860. 

Alexander,  Joseph  Addison,  D.D.,  an  emi- 
nent Presbyterian* minister  and  scholar,  third  son  of 
Dr.  Archibald  Alexander  (q.  v.),  was  born  April  24, 
1809.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1826,  receiving 
the  first  honor  of  his  class.  He  was  soon  after  ap- 
pointed tutor  in  that  college,  but  declined  the  post, 
and  united  with  Professor  Robert  B.  Patton  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Edgehill  Seminary  for  boys  at 
Princeton.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  Adjunct-profes- 
sor of  Ancient  Languages  at  Princeton,  but  resigned 
in  1833  to  visit  the  German  universities.     He  spent  a 


ALEXANDRA 


149 


ALEXANDRIA 


season  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  and  returned  to  accept  the 
professorship  of  Oriental  Literature  in  the  Theological 
Seminar}'  at  Princeton,  to  which  he  had  been  appoint- 
ed during  his  absence.  In  1852  he  was  transferred  to 
the  chair  of  Ecclesiastical  History.  He  died  at  Prince- 
ton, Jan.  28,  1860. 

Dr.  Alexander  spoke  almost  all  the  modern  languages 
of  Europe,  and  as  a  scholar  in  Oriental  literature  had 
few,  if  any,  superiors.  His  critical  works  are  distin- 
guished by  keen  analysis  and  sound  discrimination. 
As  a  preacher,  he  was  distinguished  and  popular. 
Preaching  mostly  from  written  notes,  he  was  seldom 
known  to  take  his  eyes  from  the  paper,  though  he  kept 
up  the  interest  of  his  auditors  by  the  great  learning, 
the  clear  method,  and,  at  times,  the  high  flight  of  elo- 
quence he  displayed.  He  had  the  rare  capacity,  both 
mental  and  physical,  of  almost  incessant  reading  and 
intellectual  labor,  and  he  tasked  his  great  energies  to 
the  utmost.  The  result  is  before  us  in  a  life  of  seldom 
paralleled  intellectual  achievement.  He  studied  Ara- 
bic when  a  boy,  and  had  read  the  whole  Koran  in  that 
tongue  when  he  was  fourteen.  Persic,  Syriac,  He- 
brew, Coptic  were  successively  mastered.  He  did  not 
study  these  languages  for  the  sake  of  their  grammar, 
but  of  their  literature  ;  not  for  the  purpose  of  knowing, 
but  of  using  them.  He  studied,  however,  profoundly 
the  philosophy  of  their  structure  and  their  analogies  to 
each  other,  and  learned  the  Sanscrit  to  possess  the 
basis  of  comparative  philology.  Greek  and  Latin,  and 
all  the  modern  languages  of  Europe,  were  familiar  to 
him.  From  this  foundation  of  linguistic  learning  he 
proceeded  to  a  wide  and  comprehensive  system  of  his- 
torical, antiquarian,  and  philosophical  studies.  But 
all  his  other  acquisitions  were  subordinated  to  the 
study  and  elucidation  of  the  Word  of  God.  His  pro- 
fessional lectures  and  his  commentaries  were  the  fruit 
of  his  wide  researches  thus  applied  and  consecrated. 
But  his  personal  love  for  the  Scriptures  and  delight  in 
them  were  not  less  remarkable  than  his  ability  in  il- 
lustrating them.  He  had  learned  whole  books  of  them 
by  heart,  both  in  the  original  and  in  our  English  ver- 
sion. The  exegetical  works  of  Dr.  Alexander  have 
gained  him  a  great  reputation  in  Europe,  as  well  as  in 
America,  and  will  doubtless  remain  a  permanent  part 
of  Biblical  literature.  They  include  The  earlier  Proph- 
ecies of  Isaiah  (N.  Y.  1846,  8vo)  :— The.  later  Prophecies 
of  Isaiah  (N.  Y.  18-17,  8vo)  : — Isaiah  illustrated  and  ex- 
plained (an  abridgment  of  the  critical  commentary, 
N.  Y.  1851,  2  vols.  12mo) :— The  Psalms  translated  ami 
explained  (N.  Y.  1850,  3  vols.  8vo) : — Commentary  on 
the  Acts  (N.  Y.  1857,  2  vols.  12mo)  : — Comm.  on  Mark 
(1858,  12mo).  He  also  published  (from  the  Princeton 
Revieic)  Essays  on  the  primitive  Church  Offices  (N.  Y. 
1851).  Since  his  death  his  Sermons  have  been  pub- 
lished (2  vols.  8vo,  N.  Y.  1860)  ;  also  a  Commentary  on 
Matthew  (N.  Y.  1860) ;  and  Notes  on  N.  T.  Literature 
(N.  Y.  1861,  12mo). 

Alexandra  (A\t%av£na,  fern,  of  Alexander),  the 
name  of  several  women  in  Josephus. 

1.  Surnamed  (or  rather,  perhaps,  originally  named) 
Salome,  first  married  to  Aristobulus,  and  afterward 
the  wife  of  Alexander  Janna3us,  his  brother.  In  the 
account  of  the  latter  prince  we  have  noticed  the  ad- 
vice which  he  gave  upon  his  death-lied  to  Alexandra, 
with  a  view  to  conciliate  the  Pharisees  and  establish 
herself  in  the  kingdom.  Alexandra  followed  his  coun- 
sel, and  secured  the  object  of  her  wishes.  The  Phar- 
isees, won  by  the  marks  of  respect  which  she  paid  to 
them,  exerted  their  influence  over  the  people,  and  Al- 
exander Jannseus  was  buried  with  great  pomp  and 
splendor,  and  Alexandra  ruled  during  the  space  of  nine 
years.  Under  her  government  the  country  enjoyed 
external  peace,  but  was  distracted  by  internal  strife. 
The  Pharisees,  having  obtained  an  ascendency  over 
the  mind  of  the  queen,  proceeded  to  exact  from  her 
many  important  advantages  for  themselves  and  friends, 
and  then  to  obtain  the  punishment  and  persecution  of 


all  those  who  had  been  opposed  to  them  during  the 
king's  reign.  Many  of  the  Sadducees,  therefore,  were 
put  to  death  ;  and  their  vindictiveness  proceeded  to 
such  acts  of  cruelty  and  injustice  that  none  of  Alexan- 
der's friends  could  be  secure  of  their  lives.  Many 
of  the  principal  persons  who  had  served  in  the  late 
king's  armies,  with  Aristobulus  at  their  head,  entreat- 
ed permission  to  quit  their  country-,  or  to  be  placed  in 
some  of  the  distant  fortresses,  where  the}'  might  be 
sheltered  from  the  persecution  of  their  enemies.  Aft- 
er some  deliberation,  she  adopted  the  expedient  of  dis- 
tributing them  among  the  different  garrisons  of  the 
kingdom,  excepting  those,  however,  in  which  she  had 
deposited  her  most  valuable  property.  In  the  mean 
time  her  son  Aristobulus  was  devising  the  means  of 
seizing  upon  the  throne,  and  all  opportunity  at  length 
presented  itself  for  carrying  his  project  into  effect. 
The  queen  being  seized  with  a  dangerous  illness,  Aris- 
tobulus at  once  made  himself  master  of  those  fortresses 
in  which  his  friends  had  been  placed,  and,  before  the 
necessary  measures  could  be  taken  to  stay  his  prog- 
ress, he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  large  number  of 
troops.  Alexandra  left  the  crown  to  Hyrcanus,  her 
eldest  son ;  but  he,  being  opposed  by  Aristobulus,  re- 
tired to  private  life.  Alexandra  died  B.C.  69,  aged 
seventy-three  3-ears  (Josephus,  A nt.  xiii,  16, 1-5  ;  Mid- 
ler, De  Alexandra,  Altd.  1711 ;  Zeltner,  id.  ib.  eod.). 

2.  The  daughter  of  Hyrcanus,  wife  of  Alexander 
(son  of  Aristobulus  and  brother  of  Hyrcanus),  and 
mother  of  another  Aristobulus  and  of  Mariamne  (q.  v.), 
whose  death,  in  consequence  of  her  husband's  (Herod 
the  Great's)  suspicions,  she  perfidiously  connived  at ; 
but  she  was  afterward  herself  put  to  death  by  Herod's 
order  (Josephus,  Ant.  xv,  2,  5-7,  8). 

3.  A  daughter  of  Phasaelus  by  Salampsio  :  she  mar- 
ried Timius  of  Cyprus,  but  had  no  children  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xviii,  5,  4). 

Alexail'dria  (properly  A lexandri'a,  'AXet,dvcpeia, 
3  Mace,  iii,  20;  iv,  11;  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  only  in 
the  derivatives  'AXeZavSptvc,  an  Alexandrian,  Acts  vi, 
9;  xviii,  24;  and  'AXs£avfipiv6g,  Alexandrine,  Acts 
xxvii,  6  ;  xxviii,  11),  the  chief  maritime  city  and  long 
the  metropolis  of  Lower  Egypt,  so  called  from  its 
founder,  Alexander  the  Great,  was  in  many  ways  most 
importantly  connected  with  the  later  history  of  the 
Jews — as  well  from  the  relations  which  subsisted  be- 
tween them  and  the  Ptolemies,  who  reigned  in  that 
city,  as  from  the  vast  number  of  Jews  who  were  set- 
tled there,  with  whom  a  constant  intercourse  was 
maintained  by  the  Jews  of  Palestine.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Mediterranean,  twelve  miles  west  of  the  Cano- 
pic  mouth  of  the  Nile,  in  31°  13'  N.  lat.  and  25°  53' 
E.  long.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  comprehensive  pol- 
icy of  Alexander,  who  traced  himself  the  ground-plan 
of  the  city  (Plut.  Alex.  26),  perceiving  that  the  usual 
channels  of  commerce  might  be  advantageously  al- 
tered ;  and  that  a  city  occupying  this  site  could  not 
fail  to  become  the  common  emporium  for  the  traffic 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  world,  by  means  of  the 
river  Nile  and  the  two  adjacent  seas,  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  Mediterranean.  See  Alexander  the  Great. 
For  a  long  period  Alexandria  was  the  greatest  of 
known  cities,  for  Nineveh  and  "Babylon  had  fallen, 
and  Rome  had  not  yet  risen  to  pre-eminence;  and 
even  when  Rome  became  the  mistress  of  the  world, 
and  Alexandria  only  the  metropolis  of  a  province,  the 
latter  was  second  only  to  the  former  in  wealth,  extent, 
and  importance,  and  was  honored  with  the  magnificent 
titles  of  the  second  metropolis  of  the  world,  the  city 
of  cities,  the  Queen  of  the  East,  a  second  Rome  (Diod. 
Sic.  xvii;  Strab.  xvii ;  Ammian.  Marcell.  xxii;  Ile- 
gesipp.  iv,  27  ;  Josephus,  War,  iv,  11,  5).  It  is  not 
mentioned  at  all  in  the  Old  Testament  [see  No],  and 
only  incidentally  in  the  New*  (Acts  vi,  9 ;  xviii,  24 ; 
xxvii,  6). 

Alexandria  was  founded  B.C.  332,  upon  the  site  of 
the  small  village  of  Rhacotis  (Strabo,  xvii,  c.  i,  6),  and 


ALEXANDRIA 


150 


ALEXANDRIA 


opposite  to  the  little  island  of  Pharos,  which,  even  be- 
fore the  time  of  Homer,  had  given  shelter  to  the  Greek 
traders  on  the  coast.  Alexander  selected  this  spot  for 
the  Greek  colony  which  he  proposed  to  found,  from  the 
capability  of  forming  the  deep  water  between  Khacotis 
and  the  isle  of  Pharos  into  a  harbor  that  might  become 
the  port  of  all  Egypt.  He  accordingly  ordered  Di- 
nocrates,  the  architect  who  rebuilt  the  temple  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus,  to  improve  the  harbor,  and  to  lay  down 
the  plan  of  the  new  city ;  and  he  further  appointed 
Cleomenes  of  Naucratis,  in  Egypt,  to  act  as  superin- 
tendent. The  light-house  upon  the  isle  of  Pharos  was 
to  be  named  after  his  friend  Hephaestion,  and  all  con- 
tracts between  merchants  in  the  port  were  to  com- 
mence "In  the  name  of  Hephrestion."  The  great 
market  which  had  hitherto  existed  at  Canopus  was 
speedily  removed  to  the  new  city,  which  thus  at  once 
rose  to  commercial  importance.  After  the  death  of 
Alexander,  the  building  of  the  city  was  carried  on 
briskly  by  his  successor,  Ptolemy  Lagus,  or  Soter,  but 
many  of  the  public  works  were  not  completed  till  the 


reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphia.  The  city  was  built 
upon  a  strip  of  land  between  the  sea  and  the  Lake 
Mareotis,  and  its  ground  plan  resembled  the  form  of 
a  Greek  chlamys,  or  soldier's  cloak.  The  two  main 
streets,  240  feet  wide,  left  a  free  passage  for  the  north 
wind,  which  alone  conveys  coolness  in  Egypt.  They 
crossed  each  other  at  right  angles  in  the  middle  of  the 
city,  which  was  three  miles  long  and  seven  broad,  and 
the  whole  of  the  streets  were  wide  enough  for  carriages. 
The  long  narrow  island  of  Pharos  was  formed  into  a 
sort  of  breakwater  to  the  port,  by  joining  the  middle 
of  the  island  to  the  main-land  by  means  of  a  mole 
seven  stadia  in  length,  and  hence  called  the  Hepta- 
stadium.  To  let  the  water  pass,  there  were  two  breaks 
in  the  mole,  over  which  bridges  were  thrown.  The 
public  grounds  and  palaces  occupied  nearly  a  third  of 
the  whole  extent  of  the  city.  The  Royal  Docks,  the 
Exchange,  the  Posideion,  or  temple  of  Neptune,  and 
man}'  other  public  buildings,  fronted  the  harbor. 
There  also  stood  the  burial-place  for  the  Greek  kings 
of  Egypt,  called  "the  Soma,"  because  it  held  "the 


ANCIENT 

ALEXANDRIA 

Stadia. 


bodv,"  as  that  of  Alexander  was  called.  On  the  west- 
ernside  of  the  Heptastadium,  and  on  the  outside  of 
the  city  were  other  docks,  and  a  ship-canal  into  Lake 
Mareotis,  as  likewise  the  Necropolis,  or  public  burial- 
place  of  the  city.  There  were  also  a  theatre,  an  am- 
phitheatre, a  gymnasium,  with  a  large  portico,  more 
than  600  feet  long,  and  supported  by  several  rows  of 
marble  columns  ;  a  stadium,  in  which  games  were  cel- 
ebrated every  fifth  year  ;  a  hall  of  justice,  public  proves 
or  gardens,  a  hippodrome  for  chariot  races,  and,  tow- 
ering above  all,  was  the  temple  of  Serapis,  the  Sera- 
peum.  The  most  famous  of  all  the  public  buildings 
planned  by  Ptolemy  Soter  were  the  library  and  muse- 
um, or  College  of  Philosophy.  They  were  built  near 
the  royal  palace,  in  that  part  of  the  city  called  Bru- 
chion,  and  contained  a  great  hall,  used  as  a  lecture- 
room  and  common  dining-room,  and  had  a  covered 
walk  all  round  the  outside,  and  a  seat  on  which  the 
philosophers  sometimes  sat  iu  the  open  air.  Within 
the  verge  of  the  Serapeum  was  a  supplementary  li- 
brary, called  the  daughter  of  the  former.  The  profes- 
sors of  the  college  were  supported  out  of  the  public 


income.  The  light-house  at  Alexandria  Mas  not  fin- 
ished till  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  B.C. 
284- 24G.  It  was  built  by  the  architect  Sostratus.  The 
royal  burial-place  was  also  finished  in  this  reign,  and  - 
Philadelphus  removed  the  body  of  Alexander  from 
Memphis  to  this  city,  and  hither  pilgrims  came  and 
1  lowed  before  the  golden  sarcophagus  in  which  the 
hero's  body  was  placed.  Seleucus  Cybiasactes,  B.C. 
54,  is  said  to  have  stolen  the  golden  coffin  of  Alexan- 
der. The  Emperor  Claudius,  A.D.  41-55,  founded  the 
Claudian  Museum  ;  and  Antoninus,  A.D.  102-S18, 
built  the  Gates  of  the  Sun  and  of  the  Moon,  and  like- 
wise made  a  hippodrome.  At  the  great  rebellion  of 
P^gypt,  A.D.  297,  Alexandria  was  besieged  by  Diocle- 
tian, when,  in  commemoration  of  his  humanity  in  stay- 
ing the  pillage  of  the  city,  the  inhabitants  erected  an 
equestrian  statue,  now  lost,  but  which,  there  is  little 
doubt,  surmounted  the  lofty  column  known  by  the 
name  of  Pompey's  Pillar,  the  base  of  which  still  hears 
the  inscription,  "To  the  most  honored  emperor,  the 
saviour  of  Alexandria,  the  unconquerable  Diocletian." 
The  port  of  Alexandria  is  described  by  Josephus  (War, 


ALEXANDRIA 


151 


ALEXANDRIA 


iv,  10,  5),  and  his  description  is  in  perfect  conformity 
with  the  best  modern  accounts.  It  was  secure,  but 
difficult  of  access,  in  consequence  of  which  a  magnifi- 
cent pharos,  or  light-house,  accounted  one  of  the  ' '  sev- 
en" wonders  of  the  world,  was  erected  upon  an  islet 
at  the  entrance.  From  the  first  arrival  of  Ptolemy 
Soter  in  Egypt,  he  made  Alexandria  his  residence; 
and  no  sooner  had  he  some  respite  from  war  than  he 
bent  all  the  resources  of  his  mind  to  draw  to  his  king- 
dom the  whole  trade  of  the  East,  which  the  Tyrians 
had,  up  to  this  time,  carried  on  by  sea  to  Elath,  and 
from  thence,  by  the  way  of  lihinocolura,  to  Tyre.  He 
built  a  city  on  the  west  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  whence 
he  sent  out  fleets  to  all  those  countries  to  which  the 
Phoenicians  traded  from  Elath ;  but,  observing  that 
the  Red  Sea,  by  reason  of  rocks  and  shoals,  was  very 
dangerous  toward  its  northern  extremity,  he  trans- 
ferred the  trade  to  another  city,  which  ho  founded  at 
the  greatest  practicable  distance  southward.  This 
port,  which  was  almost  on  the  borders  of  Ethiopia,  he 
called,  from  his  mother,  Berenice,  but  the  harbor  be- 
ing found  inconvenient,  the  neighboring  city  of  Myos 
Hormos  was  preferred.  Thither  the  products  of  the 
East  and  South  were  conveyed  by  sea,  and  were  from 
thence  taken  on  camels  to  Coptus  on  the  Nile,  where 
they  were  again  shipped  for  Alexandria,  and  from  that 
city  were  dispersed  into  all  the  nations  of  the  West, 
in  exchange  for  merchandise  which  was  afterward 
exported  to  the  East  (Strabo,  xxii,  p.  805;  Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  vi,  23).  The  commerce  of  Alexandria,  be- 
ing so  great,  especially  in  corn — for  Egypt  was  con- 
sidered the  granary  of 
Rome — the  centurion 
might  readily  "find  a 
ship,  corn-laden,  sail- 
ing into  Italy"  (Acts 
xxvii,  6;  xxviii,  11 ; 
see  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  St.  Paul,  ii, 
308,  309).  The  beauty 
(Athen.  i,  p.  3)  of  Alex- 
andria was  proverbial. 
Every  natural  advan- 
tage contributed  to  its 
prosperity.  The  cli- 
mate and  site  were  sin- 
gularly healthful  (Strab.  p.  793).  The  harbors,  formed 
by  the  island  of  Pharos  and  the  headland  Lochias,  were 
safe  and  commodious,  alike  for  commerce  and  for  war  ; 
and  the  lake  Mareotis  was  an  inland  haven  for  the 
merchandise  of  Egypt  and  India  (Strab.  p.  798).  Un- 
der the  despotism  of  the  later  Ptolemies  the  trade  of 
Alexandria  declined,  but  its  population  (300,000  free- 
men, Diod.  xvii,  52,  which,  as  Mannert  suggests, 
should  be  doubled,  if  we  include  the  slaves ;  the  free 
population  of  Attica  was  about  130,000)  and  wealth 
(Strab.  p.  798)  were  enormous.  After  the  victory  of 
Augustus  it  suffered  for  its  attachment  to  the  cause  of 
Antony  (Strab.  p.  792) ;  but  its  importance  as  one  of 
the  chief  corn-ports  of  Rome  secured  for  it  the  general 
favor  of  the  first  emperors.  In  later  times  the  sedi- 
tious tumults  for  which  the  Alexandrians  had  always 
been  notorious  desolated  the  city  (A.D.  260,  Gibbon, 
Declinv  and  Fall,  c.  x),  and  religious  feuds  aggravated 
the  popular  distress  (Dionys.  Alex.  Ep.  iii,  xii ;  Euseb. 
//.  E.  vi,  41  sq. ;  vii,  22).  Yet  even  thus,  though 
Alexandria  suffered  greatly  from  constant  dissensions 
and  the  weakness  of  the  Byzantine  court,  the  splendor 
of  "the  great  city  of  the" West"  amazed  Amrou,  its 
Arab  conqueror  (A.D.  640,  Gibbon,  c.  Ii) ;  and  after 
centuries  of  Mohammedan  misrule  it  promises  once 
again  to  justify  the  wisdom  of  its  founder  (Strab.  xvii, 
791-9;  Frag.  ap.  Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  7,  2;  Plut.  Alex. 
26  ;  Arr.  iii,  1 ;  Josephus,  War,  iv,  5).  Bonaparte  took 
Alexandria  in  1798,  and  it  remained  in  the  possession 
of  the  French  till  they  surrendered  it  to  the  British, 
Sept.  2,  1801,  when  they  were  finally  expelled  from 


Alexandrian  ship  on  a  Coin  of 
Commodus. 


|  the  country.  Mohammed  Ali  dug  a  canal,  called  El- 
Mahmoudieh  (a  compliment  to  Mahmoud,  the  father 
of  the  present  sultan,  Abd-el-Mejid),  which  opened  a 
water  communication  with  the  Nile,  entering  that 
river  at  a  place  called  Fouah,  a  few  miles  distant  from 
the  city.  All  about  the  city,  but  particularly  to  the 
south  and  east,  are  extensive  mounds,  and  fragments 
of  ancient  luxury  and  magnificence,  granite  columns, 
marble  statues,  and  broken  pottery.  The  modern  city 
of  Alexandria  is  surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  built  by 
the  Saracens  between  A.D.  1200-1300.  Some  parts 
of  the  walls  of  the  old  city  still  exist,  and  the  ancient 
vaulted  reservoirs,  extending  under  the  whole  town, 
are  almost  entire.  The  ancient  Necropolis  is  exca- 
vated out  of  the  solid  rock.  The  site  of  that  part 
known  to  have  been  Rhacotis  is  now  covered  by  the 
sea ;  but  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  are  visible 
the  remains  of  ancient  Egyptian  statues  and  columns. 
Alexandria  became  not  only  the  seat  of  commerce, 
but  of  learning  and  the  liberal  sciences.  This  distinc- 
tion also  it  owed  to  Ptolemy  Soter,  himself  a  man  of 
education,  who  founded  an  academy,  or  society  of 
learned  men,  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of 
philosophy,  literature,  and  science.  For  their  use  he 
made  a  collection  of  choice  books,  which  by  degrees 
increased  under  his  successors  until  it  became  the 
finest  library  in  the  world,  and  numbered  700,000  vol- 
umes (Strab.  xvii,  p.  791 ;  Euseb.  Chron.).  It  sus- 
tained repeated  losses  by  fire  and  otherwise,  but  these 
losses  were  as  repeatedly  repaired ;  and  it  continued 
to  be  of  great  fame  and  use  in  those  parts,  until  it  was 
destroyed  by  a  mob  of  Christians,  A.D.  391,  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  burnt  by  the  Saracens,  A.D.  642.  See 
Alexandrian  Library.  Undoubtedly  the  Jews  at 
Alexandria  shared  in  the  benefit  of  these  institutions, 
as  the  Christians  did  afterward,  for  the  city  was  not 
only  a  seat  of  heathen,  but  of  Jewish,  and  subsequent- 
ly of  Christian  learning  (Am.  Bib.  Repos.  1834,  p.  1-21, 
190,  617).  The  Jews  never  had  a  more  profoundly 
learned  man  than  Philo,  nor  the  Christians  men  more 
erudite  than  Origen  and  Clement;  and  if  we  may 
judge  from  these  celebrated  natives  of  Alexandria, 
who  were  remarkably  intimate  with  the  heathen  phi- 
losophy and  literature,  the  learning  acquired  in  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  schools  of  that  city  must  have 
been  of  that  broad  and  comprehensive  character  which 
its  large  and  liberal  institutions  were  fitted  to  produce. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  the  celebrated  translation 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  into  Greek  [see  Septua- 
gint]  was  made,  under  every  encouragement  from 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  principally  for  the  use  of  the 
Jews  in  Alexandria,  who  knew  only  the  Greek  lan- 
guage (see  Sturz,  De  dialecto  Macedomca  et  Alexan- 
drina,  Lips.  1808) ;  but  partly,  no  doubt,  that  the  great 
library  might  possess  a  version  of  a  book  so  remarka- 
ble, and,  in  some  points,  so  closely  connected  with  the 
ancient  history  of  Egypt.  The  work  of  Josephus 
against  Apion  affords  ample  evidence  of  the  attention 
which  the  Jewish  Scriptures  excited.  According  to 
Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.  ii,  17),  Mark  first  introduced  the 
Gospel  into  Alexandria;  and,  according  to  less  au- 
thentic accounts,  he  suffered  martyrdom  here  about 
A.D.  68.  A  church  dedicated  to  this  evangelist,  be- 
longing to  the  Coptic  (Jacobite)  Christians,  still  ex- 
ists in  Alexandria  (liosenmuller,  Bib.  Geoff,  iii,  291 
sq.).  The  Jewish  and  Christian  schools  in  Alexandria 
were  long  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  latter,  besides  producing 
many  eloquent  preachers,  paid  much  attention  to  the 
multiplying  of  copies  of  the  sacred  writings.  The  fa- 
mous Alexandrian  manuscript  (q.  v.),  now  deposited  in 
the  British  Museum,  is  well  known.  For  many  years 
Christianity  continued  to  flourish  at  this  seat  of  learn- 
ing, but  at  length  it  became  the  source,  and  for  some 
time  continued  the  stronghold,  of  the  Arian  heresy. 
The  divisions,  discords,  and  animosities  which  w<  re. 
thus  introducod  rendered  the  churches  of  Alexandria 


ALEXANDRIA 


152 


ALEXANDRIA 


an  easy  prey  to  the  Arabian  impostor,  and  they  were 
swept  away  by  his  followers. 

The  population  of  Alexandria  was  mixed  from  the 
first  (comp.  Curt,  iv,  8,  5),  and  this  fact  formed  the 
groundwork  of  the  Alexandrine  character.  The  three 
regions  into  which  the  city  was  divided  (Regio  Judce- 
orum,  Brucheium,  Rhacutis)  corresponded  to  the  three 
chief  classes  of  its  inhabitants,  Jews,  Greeks,  Egyp- 
tians ;  but  in  addition  to  these  principal  races,  repre- 
sentatives of  almost  every  nation  were  found  there 
(Dion  Chrys.  Orat.  xxxii).  According  to  Josephus, 
Alexander  himself  assigned  to  the  Jews  a  place  in  his 
new  city ;  "  and  they  obtained,"  he  adds,  "equal  priv- 
ileges with  the  Macedonians"  (Ap.  ii,  4)  in  consider- 
tion  "of  their  services  against  the  Egyptians"  (War, 
ii,  18,  7).  Ptolemy  I  imitated  the  policy  of  Alexan- 
der, and,  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  he  removed 
a  considerable  number  of  its  citizens  to  Alexandria. 
Many  others  followed  of  their  own  accord  ;  and  all  re- 
ceived the  full  Macedonian  franchise  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xii,  1 ;  comp.  Ap.  i,  22),  as  men  of  known  and  tried 
fidelity  (Josephus,  Ap.  ii,  4).  Alreadj'  on  a  former 
occasion  the  Jews  had  sought  a  home  in  the  land  of 
their  bondage.  More  than  two  centuries  and  a  half 
before  the  foundation  of  Alexandria  a  large  body  of 
them  had  taken  refuge  in  Egypt  after  the  murder  of 
Gedaliah  ;  but  these,  after  a  general  apostasy,  were 
carried  captive  to  Babj'lon  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (2 
Kings  xxv,  26;  Jer.  xliv;  Josephus,  Ant.  x,  9,  7). 
The  Jews,  however  much  their  religion  was  disliked, 
were  valued  as  citizens,  and  every  encouragement 
was  held  out  by  Alexander  himself  and  by  his  suc- 
cessors in  Egypt  to  induce  them  to  settle  in  the  new 
city.  The  same  privileges  as  those  of  the  first  class 
of  inhabitants  (the  Greeks)  were  accorded  to  them,  as 
well  as  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  and  peculiar 
usages;  and  this,  with  the  protection  and  securitj- 
which  a  powerful  state  afforded  against  the  perpetual 
conflicts  and  troubles  of  Palestine,  and  with  the  in- 
clination to  traffic  which  had  been  acquired  during  the 
captivity,  gradually  drew  such  immense  numbers  of 
Jews  to  Alexandria  that  they  eventually  formed  a 
very  large  portion  of  its  vast  population,  and  at  the 
same  time  constituted  a  most  thriving  and  important 
section  of  the  Jewish  nation  (Hecatams,  in  Josephus, 
Apion,2;  War,  ii,  36;  Q.  Curtius,  iv,  8).  The  Jew- 
ish inhabitants  of  Alexandria  are  therefore  often  men- 
tioned in  the  later  history  of  the  nation,  and  their  im- 
portance as  a  section  of  that  nation  would  doubtless 
have  been  more  frequently  indicated  had  not  the  Jews 
of  Egypt  thrown  off  their  ecclesiastical  dependence 
upon  Jerusalem  and  its  temple,  and  formed  a  separate 
establishment  of  their  own  at  On  or  Heliopolis.  See 
On;  Onias. 

We  find  (Acts  ii,  10)  that,  among  those  who  came 
up  to  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  there 
were  Jews,  devout  men  from  Egypt,  and  the  parts  of 
Libya  about  Cyrene.  Of  this  city,  Apollos,  the  elo- 
quent convert,  was  a  native  (Acts  xviii,  24)  ;  and  of  the 
Jews  that  disputed  with  Stephen  and  put  him  to  death, 
many  were  Alexandrians,  who,  it  seems,  had  a  syna- 
gogue at  that  time  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi,  9).  Philo 
estimates  them  in  his  time  at  little  less  than  1,000,000 
(In  Flacc.  $  (I,  p.  !)71 ) ;  and  adds  that  two  of  the  five 
districts  df  Alexandria  were  called  "  Jewish  districts," 
and  that  many  Jews  lived  scattered  in  the  remaining 
three  (ib.  §  8,  p.  973).  Julius  Ca>sar  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xiv,  10,  1)  and  Augustus  confirmed  to  them  the  privi- 
leges which  they  had  enjoyed  before,  and  they  retain- 
ed them,  with  various  interruptions,  of  which  the  most 
important,  A.D.  39,  is  described  by  Philo  (1.  e.),  during 
the  tumults  and  persecutions  of  later  reigns  (Josephus, 
Ap.  ii,  4;  War,  xii,  3,  2).  They  wen'  represented 
(at  least  from  the  time  of  Cleopatra  to  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  .Tost,  Gesch.  >l.  .hrl,  nth.  p.  363)  by  their  own 
officer  [see  Alabarch]  (tQvapxris,  Strab.  ap.  Jose- 
phus, Ant.  xiv,  7,  2;  a\a(Sapxqs,  #.  xviii,  7,  3;  9, 


1 ;  xix,  5, 1 ;  comp.  Rup.  ad  Juv.  Sat.  i,  130  ;  yivdp\i]c, 
Philo,  In  Flacc.  §  10,  p.  975),  and  Augustus  appointed 
a  council  (ytpovaia,  i.  e.  Sanhedrim ;  Philo,  1.  c.)  "  to 
superintend  the  affairs  of  the  Jews,"  according  to  their 
own  laws.  The  establishment  of  Christianity  altered 
the  civil  position  of  the  Jews,  but  they  maintained 
their  relative  prosperity ;  and  when  Alexandria  was 
taken  by  Amrou,  40,000  tributary  Jews  were  reckoned 
among  the  marvels  of  the  city  (Gibbon,  cli).  They 
enjoyed  their  privileges  undisturbed  until  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  Philopator,  who,  being  exasperated  at  the  re- 
sistance he  had  met  with  in  attempting  to  enter  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  wreaked  his  wrath  upon  the  Jews 
of  Alexandria  on  his  return  to  Egypt.  He  reduced  to 
the  third  or  lowest  class  all  but  such  as  would  consent 
to  offer  sacrifices  to  the  gods  he  worshipped ;  but  of 
the  whole  body  only  300  were  found  willing  to  aban- 
don their  principles  in  order  to  preserve  their  civil  ad- 
vantages. The  act  of  the  general  body  in  excluding 
the  300  apostates  from  their  congregations  was  so  rep- 
resented to  the  king  as  to  move  his  anger  to  the  ut- 
most, and  he  madly  determined  to  exterminate  all  the 
Jews  in  Egypt.  Accordingly,  as  many  as  could  be 
found  were  brought  together  and  shut  up  in  the  spa- 
cious hippodrome  of  the  cit^-,  with  the  intention  of  let- 
ting loose  500  elephants  upon  them ;  but  the  animals 
refused  their  horrid  task,  and,  turning  wildly  upon  the 
spectators  and  soldiers,  destroyed  large  numbers  of 
them.  This,  even  to  the  king,  who  was  present, 
seemed  so  manifest  an  interposition  of  Providence  in 
favor  of  the  Jews,  that  he  not  only  restored  their  priv- 
ileges, but  loaded  them  with  new  favors.  This  story, 
as  it  is  omitted  by  Josephus  and  other  writers,  and 
only  found  in  the  third  book  of  Maccabees  (ii-v),  is 
considered  doubtful. 

The  dreadful  persecution  which  the  Jews  of  Alex- 
andria underwent  in  A.D.  39  shows  that,  notwithstand- 
ing their  long  establishment  there,  no  friendly  rela- 
tions had  arisen  between  them  and  the  other  inhabi- 
tants, by  whom,  in  fact,  they  were  intensely  hated. 
This  feeling  was  so  well  known  that,  at  the  date  indi- 
cated, the  Roman  governor,  Avillius  Flaccus,  who  was 
anxious  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  citizens,  was 
persuaded  that  the  surest  way  of  winning  their  affec- 
tions was  to  withdraw  his  protection  from  the  Jews, 
against  whom  the  emperor  was  alreadj'  exasperated  by 
their  refusal  to  acknowledge  his  right  to  divine  honors, 
which  he  insanely  claimed,  or  to  admit  his  images  into 
their  synagogues.  The  Alexandrians  soon  found  out 
that  they  would  not  be  called  to  account  for  any  pro- 
ceedings they  might  have  recourse  to  against  the  Jews. 
The  insult  and  bitter  mockery  with  which  they  treat- 
ed Herod  Agrippa,  when  he  came  to  Alexandria  before 
proceeding  to  take  possession  of  the  kingdom  he  had 
received  from  Caligula,  gave  the  first  intimation  of 
their  dispositions.  Finding  that  the  governor  connived 
at  their  conduct,  thej'  proceeded  to  insist  that  the  em- 
peror's images  should  be  introduced  into  the  Jewish 
synagogues ;  and  on  resistance  being  offered,  they  de- 
stroyed most  of  them,  and  polluted  the  others  by  intro- 
ducing the  imperial  images  by  force.  The  example 
thus  set  by  the  Alexandrians  was  followed  in  other 
cities  of  Egypt,  which  contained  at  this  time  about  a 
million  of  .lews  ;  and  a  vast  number  of  oratories — of 
which  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  were  called  syn- 
agogues— were  all  either  levelled  with  the  ground,  con- 
sumed by  tire,  or  profaned  by  the  emperor's  statues 
( Philo,  in  Flacc.  p.  968-1009,  ed.  1640 ;  De  Leg.  ix  ; 
Euseb.  (  hron.  27.  28).  Flaccus  soon  after  published  an 
edict  depriving  the  Jews  of  the  rights  of  citizenship, 
which  they  had  so  long  enjoyed,  and  declaring  them 
aliens.  The  Jews  then  occupied  two  out  of  the  five  quar- 
ters (which  took  their  names  from  the  first  five  letters 
of  the  alphabet)  into  which  the  city  was  divided  ;  and 
as  they  were  in  those  times  by  no  means  remarkable  for 
their  submission  to  wrong  treatment,  it  is  likely  that 
they  made  some  efforts  toward  the  maintenance  of  their 


ALEXANDRIA 


153' 


ALEXANDRIA 


rights,  which  Philo  neglects  to  record,  but  which  gave 
some  pretence  for  the  excesses  which  followed.  At  all 
events,  the  Alexandrians,  regarding  them  as  abandon- 
ed by  the  authorities  to  their  mercy,  openly  proceeded 
to  the  most  violent  extremities.  The  Jews  were 
forcibly  driven  out  of  all  the  other  parts  of  the  city,  and 
confined  to  one  quarter ;  and  the  houses  from  which 
they  had  been  driven,  as  well  as  their  shops  and  ware- 
houses, were  plundered  of  all  their  effects.  Impover- 
ished, and  pent  up  in  a  narrow  corner  of  the  city, 
where  the  greater  part  were  obliged  to  lie  in  the  open 
air,  and  where  the  supplies  of  food  were  cut  oft*,  many 
of  them  died  of  hardship  and  hunger ;  and  whoever 
was  found  beyond  the  boundary,  whether  he  had 
escaped  from  the  assigned  limits  or  had  come  in  from 
the  country,  was  seized  and  put  to  death  with  horrid 
tortures.  So  likewise,  when  a  vessel  belonging  to 
Jews  arrived  in  port,  it  was  boarded  by  the  mob,  pil- 
laged, and  then  burnt,  together  with  the  owners.  At 
length  King  Herod  Agrippa,  who  staid  long  enough 
in  Alexandria  to  see  the  beginning  of  these  atroci- 
ties, transmitted  to  the  emperor  such  a  report  of  the 
real  state  of  affairs  as  induced  him  to  send  a  centu- 
rion to  arrest  Flaccus,  and  bring  him  a  prisoner  to 
Rome.  This  put  the  rioters  in  a  false  position,  and 
brought  some  relief  to  the  Jews ;  but  the  tumult  still 
continued,  and  as  the  magistrates  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge the  citizenship  of  the  Jews,  it  was  at  length 
agreed  that  both  parties  should  send  delegates,  five  on 
each  side,  to  Rome,  and  refer  the  decision  of  the  con- 
troversy to  the  emperor.  At  the  head  of  the  Jewish 
delegation  was  the  celebrated  Philo,  to  whom  we  owe 
the  account  of  these  transactions  ;  and  at  the  head  of 
the  Alexandrians  was  the  noted  Apion.  The  latter 
chiefly  rested  their  case  upon  the  fact  that  the  Jews 
were  the  only  people  who  refused  to  consecrate  images 
to  the  emperor,  or  to  swear  by  his  name.  But  on  this 
point  the  Jewish  delegates  defended  themselves  so 
well  that  Caligula  himself  said,  "These  men  are  not 
so  wicked  as  ignorant  and  unhappy  in  not  believing 
me  to  be  a  god."  The  ultimate  result  of  this  appeal  is 
not  known,  but  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  continued  to 
be  harassed  during  the  remainder  of  Caligula's  reign  ; 
and  their  alabarch,  Alexander  Lysimachus  (brother 
of  Philo),  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he  remained 
till  he  was  discharged  by  Claudius,  upon  whose  acces- 
sion to  the  empire  the  Alexandrian  Jews  betook  them- 
selves to  arms.  This  occasioned  such  disturbances 
that  they'attracted  the  attention  of  the  emperor,  who, 
at  the  joint  entreaty  of  Herod  and  Agrippa,  issued  an 
edict  conferring  on  the  Jews  of  E<_rypt  all  their  ancient 
privileges  (Philo,  In  Flacc.  p.  1019-1043;  Josephus, 
Ant.  xviii,  10  ;  xix,  4).  The  state  of  feeling  in  Alex- 
andria which  these  facts  indicate  was  very  far  from  be- 
ing allayed  when  the  revolt  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine 
caused  even  those  of  the  nation  who  dwelt  in  foreign 
parts  to  be  regarded  as  enemies  both  by  the  populace 
and  the  government.  In  Alexandria,  on  a  public  oc- 
casion, they  were  attacked,  and  those  who  could  not 
save  themselves  by  flight  were  put  to  the  sword.  Only 
three  were  taken  alive,  and  they  were  dragged  through 
the  city  to  be  consigned  to  the  flames.  At  this  spec- 
tacle the  indignation  of  the  Jews  rose  beyond  all 
bounds.  They  first  assailed  the  Greek  citizens  with 
stones,  and  then  rushed  with  lighted  torches  to  the 
amphitheatre  to  set  it  on  fire  and  burn  all  the  people 
who  were  there  assembled.  The  Roman  prefect,  Ti- 
berius Alexander,  finding  that  milder  measures  were 
of  no  avail,  sent  against  them  a  body  of  17,000  sol- 
diers, who  slew  about  50,000  of  them,  and  plundered 
and  burned  their  dwellings  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  18,  7 ; 
comp.  Matt,  xxiv,  6). 

After  the  close  of  the  war  in  Palestine,  new  disturb- 
ances were  excited  in  Egypt  by  the  Sicarii,  many  of 
whom  had  fled  thither.  They  endeavored  to  persuade 
the  Jews  to  acknowledge  no  king  but  God,  and  to 
throw  off  the  Roman  yoke.     Such  persons  as  opposed 


their  designs,  and  tendered  wiser  counsels  to  their 
brethren,  they  secretly  assassinated,  according  to  their 
custom.  But  the  principal  Jews  in  Alexandria  hav- 
ing in  a  general  assembly  earnestly  warned  the  peo- 
ple against  these  fanatics,  who  had  been  the  authors 
of  all  the  troubles  in  Palestine,  about  GOO  of  them 
were  delivered  up  to  the  Romans.  Several  fled  into 
the  Thebaid,  but  were  apprehended  and  brought  back. 
The  most  cruel  tortures  which  could  lie  devised  had  no 
effect  in  compelling  them  to  acknowledge  the  emperor 
for  their  sovereign ;  and  even  their  children  seemed 
endowed  with  souls  fearless  of  death  and  bodies  inca- 
pable of  pain.  Vespasian,  when  informed  of  these 
transactions,  sent  orders  that  the  Jewish  temple  in 
Egypt  should  be  destroyed.  Lupus,  the  prefect,  how- 
ever, only  shut  it  up,  after  having  taken  out  the  con- 
secrated gifts ;  but  his  successor,  Paulinus,  stripped  it 
completely,  and  excluded  the  Jews  entirely  from  it. 
This  was  in  A.D.  75,  being  the  343d  year  from  its  erec- 
tion by  Onias.  The  Jews  continued  to  form  a  princi- 
pal portion  of  the  inhabitants,  and  remained  in  the  en- 
joyment of  their  civil  rights  till  A.D.  415,  when  they 
incurred  the  hatred  of  Cyril,  the  patriarch,  at  whose 
instance  they  were  expelled,  to  the  number  of  40,000, 
and  their  synagogues  destroyed.  However,  when  Am- 
rou,  in  A.D.  G40,  took  the  place  for  the  Caliph  ( (mar, 
he  wrote  to  his  master  in  these  terms  :  "  I  have  taken 
the  great  city  of  the  "West,  which  contains  4000  pal-" 
aces,  4000  baths,  400  theatres,  12,000  shops  for  the  sale 
of  vegetable  food,  and  40,000  tributary  Jews."  From 
that  time  the  prosperity  of  Alexandria  very  rapidly 
declined;  and  when,  in  9G9,  the  Fatemite  caliphs  seized 
on  Egypt  and  built  New  Cairo,  it  sunk  to  the  rank  of 
a  secondary  Egyptian  city.  The  discovery  of  the  pas- 
sage to  the  East  by  the  Cape  in  1497  almost  annihilated 
its  remaining  commercial  importance  ;  and  although 
the  commercial  and  maritime  enterprises  of  Mehemet 
Ali  have  again  raised  it  to  some  distinction,  Alexan- 
dria must  still  be  accounted  as  one  of  those  great  an- 
cient cities  whose  glory  has  departed.  "When  Benja- 
min of  Tudela  visited  the  place  (Itin.  i,  158,  ed.  Asher), 
the  number  of  Jews  was  not  more  than  3000,  and  does 
not  now  exceed  500  families  of  African  Jews,  besides 
about  150  families  of  the  Italian  community  (Benja- 
min's Eight  Years  in  Asia  and  Africa,  Hannov.  1859, 
p.  2S0).  The  entire  population,  at  present,  is  rapid- 
\y  increasing,  but  the  statistical  statements  greatly 
vary.  Pierer's  Universal  Lexicon  (Altenburg,  1857) 
gives  G0,C00;  Chambers's  Encydopadia  (Edinburgh 
and  New  York,  1860,  vol.  i),  80,000;  the  Almanac  de 
Ontha  for  18G0,  400,000.  It  is  now  called  Scanderia  or 
El-Iskenderiyeh  (Mannert,  x,  615  sq. ;  Forbiger,  Handb. 
d.  alt.  Geogr.  ii,  777;  Rtippell,  Abyssinien,  i.  82;  Nie- 
buhr,  Trav.  i,  32  sq. ;  Ukert,  Erdbesehr.  v.  AfriJca,  i, 
183  sq.  ;  Descr.  de  VEgypte,  xviii,  83  sq. ;  Olivier, 
Voyage,  iii,  1  sq. :  Schubert,  Rets,  i,  484  sq. ;  comp. 
Penny  C'/clopmlia,  s.  v. ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geogr. 
s.  v. ;  M'Culloch's  Gazetteer,  s.  v.).      See  Egypt. 

ALEXANDRIA,  CHURCH  OF.  Christianity  was 
early  introduced  into  Alexandria,  probably  by  some 
of  the  Jews  converted  by  the  preaching  of  Peter  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost;  but  its  progress  was  slow  ;  for 
it  had  to  struggle  against  all  the  varieties  of  wor- 
ship and  opinion  known  to  exist,  and  the  spirit  of  the 
Neo-Platonic  philosophy,  which,  by  forcing  every  creed 
to  bear  an  allegorical  signification,  represented  each 
as  a  variety  of  itself.  See  Alexandrian  Schools. 
In  consequence  of  the  disputations  to  which  the  at- 
tempt to  blend  the  simple  truths  of  Christianity  with 
the  abstruse  speculations  of  the  Platonic  philosophy 
gave  rise,  the  Church  of  Alexandria  was  early  divided 
into  sects  and  parties,  whose  violent  controversies  soon 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  whole  Christian  world. 
In  Alexandria  itself  the  rivalry  between  the  follow- 
ers of  Athanasius  and  Arius  led  to  deeds  of  atrocious 
violence  on  both  sides,  and  inflicted  a  schism  on  the 
Christian  community  which  lasted  for  several  centu- 


ALEXANDRIA 


154 


ALEXANDRIAN 


ries.  The  final  triumph  of  the  orthodox  party  was 
followed  by  a  manifest  decay  of  piety,  and  when  the 
Saracens  introduced  the  religion  of  Islam  by  the  sword, 
they  found  little  obstinacy  in  the  Alexandrian  Chris- 
tians, the  greatest  portion  of  whom  became  apostates. 
Since  that  time  a  Christian  Church  has  only  had  a 
nominal  existence  in  the  city,  where  the  slightest  va- 
riation in  a  single  article  of  faith  was  once  deemed  of 
sufficient  importance  to  require  the  interference  of  a 
general  council.  Ecclesiastical  historians  generally 
attribute  most  of  the  early  heresies  which  divided  the 
Christian  Churches,  not  only  of  Asia,  but  of  Europe, 
to  the  influence  of  the  Alexandrian  Platonists. 

Alexandria  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  fiercest  per- 
secutions which  wasted  the  early  Church  ;  and  among 
the  sufferers  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Severus  was 
Leonides,  father  of  the  celebrated  Origen,  and  Pota- 
miaena,  a  woman  not  less  distinguished  for  her  chastity 
than  her  beauty,  who,  with  her  mother,  Marcella,  was 
burned  to  death,  boiling  pitch  being  poured  over  their 
naked  bodies.  These  calamities  induced  Tertullian  to 
compose  his  "Apology." 

Alexandria  was  the  source,  and  for  some  time  the 
principal  stronghold,  of  Arianism,  as  Anus  was  a  pres- 
byter of  the  Church  of  this  city  about  the  year  315. 
His  doctrines  were  condemned  by  a  council  held  here 
in  the  year  320,  and  afterward  by  a  general  council 
of  three  hundred  and  eighty  fathers  held  at  Nice,  by 
order  of  Constantine,  in  325.  These  doctrines,  how- 
ever, which  suited  the  reigning  taste  for  disputative 
theology  and  the  pride  and  self-sufficiency  of  nominal 
Christians  better  than  the  unsophisticated  simplicity 
of  the  Gospel,  spread  widely  and  rapidly  notwithstand- 
ing that  Arius  was  steadfastly  opposed  by  the  cele- 
brated Athanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  the  intrepid 
champion  of  the  Catholic  faith,  who  was  raised  to  the 
archiepiscopal  throne  of  Alexandria  in  326. 

This  city  was,  in  415,  distinguished  by  a  fierce  per- 
secution of  the  Jews  by  the  Patriarch  Cyril.  They 
who  had  enjoyed  the  rights  of  citizens  and  the  freedom 
of  religious  worship  for  seven  hundred  years,  ever 
since  the  foundation  of  the  city,  incurred  the  hatred 
of  this  ecclesiastic,  who,  in  his  zeal  for  the  exter- 
mination of  heretics  of  every  kind,  pulled  down  their 
synagogues,  plundered  their  property,  and  expelled 
them,  to  the  number  of  forty  thousand,  from  the 
city. 

Alexandria,  Patriarchate  of.  I.  Alexandria 
was  the  metropolis  of  Egypt,  which  was  divided  after 
the  time  of  Marcellinus  into  nine  provinces :  1,  Egyptus 
Prima ;  2,  Augustamnica  Prima ;  3,  Augustamnica 
Secunda;  4,  Egyptus  Secunda;  5,  Arcadia;  6,  Thebais 
Inferior;  7,  Libya  Superior ;  8,  Thebais  Superior ;  and 
9,  Libya  Inferior.  Libya  was  also  called  Cyrenaica. 
The  number  of  bishops  in  these  provinces  was,  early, 
very  numerous.  At  a  synod  held  in  321,  about  100 
were  present.  At  that  time  the  bishop  of  Alexandria 
held  the  second  rank  in  the  Christian  Church,  next 
to  the  bishop  of  Rome.  Later,  the}'  had  to  yield  this 
place  to  the  bishop  of  Constantinople.  See  Patri- 
ARCH,  During  the  Arian  and  Monophysite  contro- 
versies the  patriarchate  was  sometimes  temporarily 
in  the  hands  of  these  sects;  and  the  latter  obtained 
the  permanent  possession  of  it  about  the  middle  of  the 
Till  century.  The  orthodox  Greek  (Melchite)  Church 
established  a  second  patriarchate  of  their  own;  and  a 
third,  though  only  nominal,  was  created  by  the  Roman 
( Ihurcb  ( Neale,  Hist,  of  A  lex.  Patriarchate.,  Lond.  1847). 

II.  In  modern  days  the  number  of  dioceses  within 
this  patriarchate  is  miserably  reduced.  The  Jacobites 
(<  'opts),  who  prevail  in  number,  had  in  1G80  but  eleven 
virtual  sees,  viz. :  1,  Neggadei ;  2,  Girge;  3,  Abuteg; 
4,  Siut  (to  which  Girge  and  Abuteg  are  united) ;  5, 
Monfallut;  6,  Koskam;  7,  Melave;  K,  Rehnese;  9,  At- 
fish;  10,  Tahla,  with  Aschumin  ;  11,  Fium;  12,  Bil- 
beis;  13,  Mansoura  ;  11,  Damietta,  to  which  the  last 
mentioned  two  are  united;  15,  Menuf.     See  Copts. 


The  Melchites,  or  Catholics,  had  but  four  sees  be- 
sides Alexandria :  1,  that  of  Libya,  or  ./Ethiopia ;  2, 
Memphis,  or  Old  Cairo;  3,  Pelusium,  or  Damietta; 
and,  4,  Rosetta.  These  four  sees,  Mr.  Neale  informs 
us,  have  now  virtually  ceased  to  exist  (Hist.  East.  Ch. 
ii,  474).     See  Greek  Church. 

Roth  the  patriarchs,  viz.,  the  Melchite,  or  orthodox, 
and  the  Jacobite,  reside  at  present  at  Cairo.  The  title 
of  the  Jacobite  patriarch,  as  given  by  Le  Quien,  is 
"Pater  N  .  .  .  .  ,  sanctissimus  archiepiscopus  magnae 
urbis  Alexandria?  Eabylonis  et  Nomorum,  vEgypti, 
Thebaidis,"  etc.  Wiltsch,  Geogr.  and  Stat,  of  the 
Church  (Lond.  1860). 

ALEXANDRIA,  COUNCILS  OF.  The  following 
councils  were  held  at  Alexandria:  1,  A.D.  231,  in 
which  Origen  was  deposed  from  the  priesthood  ;  2, 
A.D.  235,  against  Ammonius  ;  3,  A.D.  258,  against  No- 
vatus  ;  4,  A.D.  263,  against  Nepotianus  and  Cerinthus 
{Fabric,  ii,  292)  ;  5,  A.D.  305,  306,  or  308,  against  Me- 
letius,  bishop  of  Lycopolis,  in  Egypt ;  6,  A.D.  315, 
against  Arius,  St.  Alexander  presiding;  7,  A.D,  319 
or  320,  against  Arius  and  the  Meletians  and  Sabellians 
— Hosius  of  Cordova  was  present ;  8,  A.D.  321,  against 
Arius  ;  9,  A.D.  326,  in  which  St.  Athanasius  was  elect- 
ed patriarch  ;  10,  A.D.  340,  in  favor  of  St.  Athanasius  ; 
11,  A.D.  362,  in  which  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
the  Incarnation,  the  term  Hypostasis,  and  other  mat- 
ters, were  treated  of;  12,  A.D.  363,  in  which  St. 
Athanasius  drew  up  a  confession  of  faith,  which  was 
presented  to  the  Emperor  Jovianus ;  13,  A.D.  399,  in 
which  the  Origenists  were  condemned;  14,  A.D.  430, 
in  which  St.  Cyril  condemned  Nestorius  ;  15,  A.D.  451, 
against  the  Eutychians ;  16,  A.D.  578,  by  Damianus, 
the  Eutychian  patriarch,  against  Peter  of  Antioch  ; 
17,  A.D.  633,  under  Cyrus  the  Monothelite,  in  which 
the  Monothelite  errors  were  adroitly  defended.  For  a 
good  summary  of  the  doings  of  these  councils,  see  Lan- 
don,  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  17  sq. 

Alexan'drian  ('AXt 'iav^gt vq),  an  inhabitant  of 
Alexandria  in  Egypt,  spec,  a  Jew  living  there  (Acts 
vi,  9 ;  xviii,  24).  Alexandria  was  much  frequented 
by  Jews,  so  that  10,000  of  them  are  said  to  have  been 
numbered  among  its  inhabitants  (Philo,  In  Flacc.  p. 
971 ;  Josephus,  Ant.  xix,  5,  2).  See  Alexandria.  It 
appears  from  Acts  vi,  9,  that  the}'  were  accustomed  to 
attend  the  festivals  at  Jerusalem,  and  that  they  even 
had  a  synagogue  there  for  their  special  use  (Kuinol, 
Hackett,  in  loc).     See  Synagogue. 

ALEXANDRIAN  CHRONICLE,  the  name  given 
to  a  MS.  found  in  Sicily  by  Jerome  Surita,  and  carried 
to  Rome,  and  preserved  by  Antonio  Augustine,  auditor 
of  the  Rota.  Charles  Sigonius  and  Onuphrius  Pan- 
vinius  made  considerable  use  of  it  in  the  composition 
of  their  Consular  Fasti,  and  published  it  in  Greek  and 
Latin.  The  name  "Sicilian  Fasti'''  was  given  to  these 
annals  because  of  their  having  been  found  in  that  isl- 
and. It  is  not  so  easy  to  assign  a  reason  for  the  name 
of  "  ihs  Chronicle  of 'Alexandria"  except  that  the  name 
of  Peter  of  Alexandria  is  at  the  head  of  the  Augsburg 
MS.  found  in  the  library  of  Augsburg  by  Casaubon. 
Mattheus  Raderus,  a  Jesuit,  published  the  first  com- 
plete edition  of  this  chronicle  at  Munich,  in  1615,  in 
Greek  and  Latin.  Dufresne,  who  published  an  im- 
proved edition  (Gr.  and  Lat.  with  notes,  Paris,  1688), 
gives  it  the  name  of  the  Paschal  Chronicle,  because  it 
treats  of  the  time  of  celebrating  Easter.  Cave  and 
Usshcr  attribute,  it  to  George  Pisides,  A.D.  640  ;  Cas- 
imir  Oudin  to  George  of  Alexandria,  A.D.  620.  This 
chronicle  begins  at  the  creation,  and  is  carried  up  to 
the  tenth  year  of  the  consulate  of  the  Emperor  Ilerac- 
lius,  or  A.D.  628.  It  seems  to  have  been  written  by 
two  authors,  of  whom  one  carried  the  work  on  to  the 
year  of  Christ  354,  and  the  other  completed  it.  It  is 
compiled  without  any  great  judgment  or  research,  but 
the  writer  evidently  had  access  to  many  ancient  mon- 
uments, which  are  now  lost. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  640. 


ALEXANDRIAN 


155 


ALEXANDRIAN 


ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY.  This  remarkable  I  however,  in  several  passages  of  the  N.  T.  (Matt,  i, 
collection  of  books,  the  largest  of  the  ancient  world,  1-xxv,  G ;  John  vi,  50-viii,  52 ;  2  Cor.  iv,  13-xii,  G), 
was  founded  by  Ptolemy  Soter,  in  the  city  of  Alexan-  and  in  part  of  the  Psalms,  where  the  leaves  are  total! 
dria,  in  Egypt.     Even  in  the  time  of  its  first  man-    ~ 


ager,  Demetrius  Phalereus,  a  banished  Athenian,  the 
number  of  volumes  or  rolls  already  amounted  to 
50,000;  and  during  its  most  flourishing  period,  under 
the  direction  of  Zenodotus,  Aristarchus  of  Byzantium, 
Apollonius  Rhodius,  and  others,  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained 400,000,  or,  according  to  another  authority, 
700,000.  The  greater  part  of  this  library,  which  em- 
braced the  collected  literature  of  Rome,  Greece,  India, 
and  Egypt,  was  contained  in  the  Museum,  in  the  quar- 
ter of,  Alexandria  called  Brucheium.  During  the 
siege  of  Alexandria  by  Julius  Cassar  this  part  of  the 
library  was  destroyed  by  fire ;  but  it  was  afterward 
replaced  by  the  collection  of  Pergamos,  which  was 
presented  to  Queen  Cleopatra  by  Mark  Antony,  to  the 
great  annoyance  of  the  educated  Romans.  The  other 
part  of  the  library  was  kept  in  the  Serapeion,  the  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  Serapis,  where  it  remained  till  the  time 
of  Theodosius  the  Great.  When  the  emperor  permit- 
ted all  the  heathen  temples  in  the  Roman  empire  to 
be  destroyed,  the  magnificent  temple  of  Jupiter  Sera- 
pis  was  not  spared.  A  mob  of  fanatic  Christians,  led 
on  by  the  Archbishop  Theophilus,  stormed  and  de- 
stroyed the  temple,  together,  it  is  most  likely,  with 
the  greater  part  of  its  literary  treasures,  in  A.D.  391. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  the  destruction  of  the  library 


missing.  Letters  here  and  there  have  also  been  cut 
away  in  binding;  and  in  a  considerable  part  of  the 
N.  T.  one  of  the  upper  corners  of  the  leaves  is  gone. 
The  N.  T.  books  are  found  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  arranged  in  the  other  ancient  MSS. :  the  Catholic 
Epistles  follow  the  Acts ;  then  come  the  Pauline 
Epistles,  but  with  that  to  the  Hebrews  before  the  Pas- 
toral Epistles ;  the  Apocalypse,  so  rare  in  extant  an- 
cient codices,  stands  as  usual  at  the  close  of  the  N.  T. ; 
and  in  this  copy  it  has  been  preserved  from  the  injury 
which  has  befallen  both  ends  of  the  volume  by  reason 
of  the  Epistles  of  Clement  having  been  added.  The 
MS.,  which  is  on  thin  vellum  and  in  semi-folio  form, 
is  now  bound  in  four  volumes,  the  first  three  of  which 
contain  the  O.  T.  The  pages  are  about  thirteen  inches 
long  and  ten  broad ;  the  writing  on  each  is  divided 
into  two  columns  of  fifty  lines  each,  having  about 
twenty  letters  or  upward  in  a  line.  These  letters  are 
continuously  written  in  uncial  characters,  without  any 
space  between  the  words,  the  uncials  being  of  an  ele- 
gant yet  simple  form,  in  a  firm  and  uniform  hand, 
though  in  some  places  larger  than  in  others.  The 
punctuation  merely  consists  of  a  point  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  sentence,  usually  on  a  level  with  the  top  of 
the  preceding  letter,  but  not  always,  and  a  vacant 
space  follows  the  point  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph, 


was  begun,  and  not  at  the  taking  of  Alexandria  by  the  the  space  being  proportioned  to  the  break  in  the  sense. 
Arabians,  under  the  Caliph  Omar  in  A.D.  612.  The  Capital  letters  of  various  sizes  abound  at  the  begin- 
story,  at  least,  is  ridiculously  exaggerated  which  re-  ning  of  books  and  sections,  not  painted  as  in  later 
kites  that  the  Arabs  found  a  sufficient  number  of  books  copies,  but  written  by  the  original  scribe  in  common 
remaining  to  heat  the  baths  of  the  city  for  six  months,  j  ink.  Vermilion  is  freely  used  in  the  initial  lines  of 
The  historian  Orosius,  who  visited  the  place  after  the  j  books.  Accents  and  breathings  are  found  in  the  be- 
destruction  of  the  temple  by  the  Christians,  relates  that  j  ginning  of  Genesis  only.  At  the  end  of  each  book  are 
he  then  saw  onlv  the  empty  shelves  of  the  library  neat  and  unique  ornaments  in  the  ink  of  the  first  hand. 
(Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  c.  51).  See  Petit-Radel,  \  Contractions  occur  as  in  other  very  ancient  MSS.  It 
Recherches  sur  les  BibUoth'»ques  Anciennes  et  Modernes  I  has  the  Ammonian  divisions  of  the  Gospels,  with  ref- 
(  Paris,  1819);  and  Ritschl,  Die  Alexandriniscken  Bib-  !  erencestothe  canons  of  Eusebius ;  the  headings  of  the 
liotheken  (Berlin,  1838).     Compare  Alexandria.  j  large  sections  are  placed  at  the  top  of  the  page,  the 

ALEXANDRIAN  MANUSCRIPT  (Codex  Alex-  places  where  they  begin  being  indicated  in  the  text, 
andkTnus,  so  called  from  its  supposed  origin  at  Alex-  and  in  Luke  and  John  the  numbers  being  set  in  the 
andria),  one  of  the  three  or  four  most  famous  copies  of  i  margin  of  the  column.  The  subdivisions  of  the  Acts, 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  designated  as  A  of  the  N.  T.  I  Epistles,  and  Apocalypse,  by  Euthalius  and  others,  are 
It  contains  the  whole  Bible  in  Greek,  including  the  !  not  indicated ;  a  cross  occasionally  appears  as  a  sepa- 
Septuagint  version  of  the  O.  T.,  with  the  first  (or  j  ration  of  the  chapters  of  the  Acts— a  large  initial  de- 
genuine)  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians,  and  j  noting  a  paragraph  throughout  (Davidson,  Bib.  Cut. 
part  of  his  second  (or  apocrvphal).     It  is  defective,  |  ii,  271  sq  ). 

This  MS.  is  now 
in  the  manuscript- 
room  of  the  British 
Museum,  where  it 
was  placed  on  the 
formation  of  that  li- 
brary in  1753.  It 
previously  belonged 
to  the  king's  private 
collection,  having 
been  presented  to 
Charles  I  through 
Sir  Thomas  Roe,  En- 
glish ambassador  t<> 
Turkey,  by  Cyril  Lu- 
car,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. An  Ara- 
bic inscription,  sev- 
eral centuries  old,  at 
the  back  of  the  table 
of  contents,  on  the 
first  leaf  of  tli.'  MS., 
states  that  it  was 
written  by  the  hand 
of  Thecla  the  mar- 
tyr, and  given  to  the 
Patriarchal  Chamber 
in  the   year   of  the 


e 


MONK^ITHlsirHH    HA.6THHNAO 
»ATOCKMAl<^TA.CKeyACn  OC' 
KAIC  |<0'T0C£nANaJ..THCABYccOY' 


i* 


Ttpo c exexe e xyto  s  c  \<** "ixnw^rrrru 

'-TTO  I  (Vfl  B^B  B  ^O  <S  1M  UJ>  V  M  XCTOTrNWo 

^rioNe66ToeTnci<o7TDYC' 

nrOY  i <  Y  M  HrrriSP  8  G"TT"OB  h  c  xtXXAJ  $< 

Tt)Y^5  MAXOC'B'OVLAIOY 

Specimens  of  the  Codex  Alexandrine.  The  first  is  in  bright  red,  with  breathings  and  accents, 
and  contains  Gen.  i,  1,  '2,  Sept.  (Ei/  ttpxh  iiroinaev  6  tic  tov  bv  |  pavov  nai  tT,v  friv  h  Si  yn  fiv  «o  \ 
pcxTotr  kul  aKaTuffKetW-roo--  |  Koi  ckotoc  kvavia  tT,c  hfiviroov.).  The  second  specimen  is  in  com- 
mon ink,  and  contains  Acts  x.\,  2S  (Ilpoo>exefe  eauroia  km  Train  tw  |  irot^ius-  ev  w  vixac  to  irva 
to  |  ayiov  etiero  eiricKonovc-  |  7ro<jUu<i'e<i<  -rnv  tKK\t}ctav  |  tov  kv  t]V  7repi£7rou|<7uTO  oia  |  TOU 
aijuaTor  tov  idtov'). 


ALEXANDRIAN 


131 


ALEXANDRIAN 


Martyrs  814  (A.D.  1098).  Another,  and  apparently 
an  earlier  inscription,  in  Moorish  Arabic,  declares  that 
the  book  was  dedicated  to  the  Patriarchal  Chamber  at 
Alexandria.  But  upon  neither  of  these  notices  can 
much  reliance  be  placed.  That  the  codex  was  brought 
from  Alexandria  by  Cyril  (who  had  previously  been 
patriarch  of  that  see),  need  not,  however,  be  doubted, 
though  Wetstein,  on  the  dubious  authority  of  Matthew 
Muttis  of  Cyprus,  Cyril's  deacon,  concluded  that  it 
came  from  Mt.  Athos.  It  is  now  very  generally  as- 
signed to  the  beginning  or  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  in  part  the  general  style  of 
the  characters,  especially  the  shape  of  certain  distinc- 
tive letters  (e.  g.  a,  S,  e,  7r,  <x,  <p.  and  tu),  the  presence 
of  the  Eusebian  canons  (A.D.  2(18-340?),  and  of  the 
Epistle  of  Marcellinus  by  Athanasius  before  the  Psalms 
(303  ?-373),  which  place  a  limit  in  one  direction ;  while 
the  absence  of  the  Euthalian  divisions  of  the  Acts  and 
Epistles,  and  the  shortness  of  the  subscriptions  appear 
tolerably  decisive  against  a  later  date  than  A.D.  450. 
The  insertion  of  Clement's  Epistles  points  likewise  to 
a  period  when  the  canon  was  yet  unsettled.  These 
were  added  as  parts  of  the  specified  number  of  the 
N.  T.  books ;  while  the  apocryphal  Psalms  bearing 
the  name  of  Solomon,  which  the  MS.  appears  to  have 
once  contained,  were  separated  in  the  list,  as  some- 
thing wholly  different  in  point  of  authority.  The  lat- 
ter were  prohibited  by  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  soon 
after  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  from  being  read 
in  the  churches;  and  to  this  prohibition  the  MS.  is 
conformed,  although  it  treats  the  epistles  of  Clement 
so  differently.  Wetstein's  and  Woide's  objections  to 
this  date  (such  as  the  use  of  Bsotokoq  as  a  title  of 
the  Virgin  in  her  song  added  to  the  Psalms)  are 
anachronous.  Woide  believes  that  a  different  hand 
was  employed  upon  it  from  1  Cor.  v,  onward,  but  this 
is  not  clear.  The  original  copyist  was  not  very  care- 
ful, and  the  later  corrector  was  by  no  means  accurate. 
Yet  of  all  the  uncials,  this  holds  a  rank  as  one  of  the 
first  value.  It  contains  indeed  the  itacisms  (inter- 
change of  /  and  a,  i]  and  i,  t  and  ai)  common  to  that 
period,  and  certain  orthographical  peculiarities  (e.  g. 
XTifiif/oficu,  tXafiafiev,  etc.)  frequent  in  the  Egyptian 
MSS.  The  reference  to  St.  Thecla  as  its  writer  is 
plausibly  explained  by  Tregelles,  who  remarks  that, 
inasmuch  as  the  text  (Matt,  xxv,  6)  where  this  MS. 
now  begins  was  the  lesson  in  the  Greek  Church  for 
her  festival,  the  Egyptian  scribe  may  have  hastily  con- 
cluded that  she  wrote  it  (Scrivener,  Introd.  to  N.  T. 
p.  82). 

The  N.  T.  portion  of  this  Codex  was  published  by 
Woide,  from  facsimile  letters  cast  expressly  for  the 
purpose,  under  the  title  'Woo,  Test.  Grcec.  e  Cod.  Alex- 
andr."  (Lond.  1786,  fob);  revised  by  Cowper  (Lond. 
1860).  The  O.  T.  part  was  printed  from  the  same 
characters  by  Baber  (4  vols,  fob  Lond.  1*16-28).  On 
its  critical  value,  see  Sender,  De  estate  Cod.  Alexandr. 
(Hal.  1759);  Woide,  Notitia  Cod.  Alexandr.  curavit 
Spohn  (Lips.  1788).  Comp.  Michaelis,  Orient.  Bill. 
ix,  166  sq. ;  Cramer,  Beiir.  iii,  101-146;  Tregelles,  in 
Home's  Introd.  ed.  1846,  iv,  152  sq.,  678;  Princeton 
Rev.  Jan.  1861  ;  Am:  Theol  Rev.  July,  1861 ;  Chr.  Re- 
membrancer, Apr.  1861;  Dietelmaier,  Antiquitas  Cod. 
Alex,  vindicate  (  Hal.  1739) ;  Jorke,  De  estate  Cod.  Alex. 
(Hal.  1759);  Spohn,  Notitii  Cod.  Alex.  (Lpz.  17*9); 
Stroth,  De  Cod.  Alex.  (Hal.1771).  See  Manuscripts, 
Biblical. 

ALEXANDKIAN  SCHOOLS,  a  term  usually  ap- 
plied to  the  various  systems  of  philosophy  and  relig- 
ious belief  that  have  characterized  or  originated  among 
the  citizens  of  Alexandria  at  different  periods  in  its 
history.     See  Alexandria. 

I.  Pagan. — When  Alexander  the  Great  built  the  ! 
city  of  Alexandria,  with  a  determination  to  make  it  i 
the  seat  of  his  empire,  he  also  opened  a  new  mart  of  J 
philosophy,  which  emulated  the  fame  of  Athens  itself. 
A  general  indulgence  was  granted  to  Egyptians,  Gre- 


cians, Jews,  or  others,  to  profess  their  respective  sys- 
tems of  philosophy  without  molestation.  The  conse- 
quence was  that  Egypt  was  soon  filled  with  religious 
and  philosophical  sectaries  of  every  kind,  and  particu- 
larly that  almost  every  Grecian  sect  found  an  advo- 
cate and  professor  in  Alexandria.  The  family  of  the 
Ptolemies,  who,  after  Alexander,  obtained  the  govern- 
ment of  Egypt,  from  motives  of  policy  encouraged  this 
new  establishment.  Ptolemy  Lagus,  who  had  obtained 
the  crown  of  Egypt  by  usurpation,  was  particularly 
careful  to  secure  the  interest  of  the  Greeks  in  his 
favor,  and  with  this  view  invited  people  from  every 
part  of  Greece  to  settle  in  Egypt,  and  removed  the 
schools  of  Athens  to  Alexandria.  Under  the  patron- 
age, first  of  the  Egyptian  princes  and  afterward  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  Alexandria  long  continued  to  enjoy 
great  celebrit}-  as  the  seat  of  learning,  and  to  send 
forth  eminent  philosophers  of  every  sect  to  distant 
countries.  Philosophy  during  this  period  suffered  a 
(  rievous  corruption  from  the  attempt  which  was  made 
by  philosophers  of  different  sects  and  countries,  Gre- 
I  cian,  Egyptian,  and  Oriental,  to  frame  from  their  dif- 
ferent tenets  one  general  system  of  opinions.  The 
respect  which  had  long  been  universal]}'  paid  to  the 
schools  of  Greece,  and  the  honors  with  which  they 
were  now  adorned  by  the  Egyptian  princes,  induced 
]  other  wise  men,  and  even  the  Egyptian  priests  and 
philosophers  themselves,  to  submit  to  this  innovation. 
See  Philosophy. 

Naturalby  enough,  therefore,  the  philosophy  which 
seems  to  have  obtained  most  at  Alexandria  was  an 
eclectic  teaching,  aiming  at  bringing  together  the  best 
features  of  even*  school,  and  combining  them  into  one 
harmonious  aggregate.  Antiochus  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative of  that  movement :  the  fundamental  idea  of 
his  metaphysics  consists  in  asserting  that  the  writings 
of  Plato,  connected  with  those  of  Orpheus  and  of  Py- 
thagoras, form  a  code  of  doctrine,  a  species  of  revela- 
tion, given  by  heaven,  and  superior  to  all  the  attempts 
of  human  speculation.  The  eclecticism  taught  by 
Antiochus  was  exclusively  confined  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Greek  school.  The  celebrated  Philo  (q.  v.), 
who  flourished  from  A.D.  40  to  60,  borrowing  from 
the  works  of  Plato  a  great  number  of  ideas  and  views, 
endeavored  to  amalgamate  them  with  the  truth  con- 
tained in  the  Old  Testament,  the  traditions  of  the 
Cabala,  and  the  Essenian  philosophy.  Philo  may  be 
said  to  have  spiritual! zul  Judaism  by  the  means  of 
Platonism;  and  in  turning  the  mind  of  his  country- 
men away  from  mere  verbal  criticism,  and  from  the 
minutiae  of  legal  observances,  he  prepared  them,  to 
some  degree,  for  the  reception  of  the  Gospel.  But  the 
philosopher  whose  name  is  chiefly  connected  with  the 
history  of  Alexandria  is  Ammonius  Saccas  (q.  v.),  sur- 
named  QeoSiSanroe,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  his 
teaching,  who  was  a  mystic  thcosophist,  but  a  theoso- 
phist  who  blended  his  views  with  polytheism,  and  en- 
grafted them  there,  not  on  Christianity.  Seeing  how 
fast  the  old  convictions  were  vanishing  away  before 
ideas,  feelings,  and  hopes  of  a  totally  different  origin, 
he  endeavored  to  renovate  philosophy  by  showing  that 
on  the  most  important  points  Plato  and  Aristotle  agree. 
This  was  the  ruling  axiom  of  his  theories,  which  he 
completed  in  systematizing  the  Greek  dasmonology  by 
the  help  of  elements  derived  from  Egyptian  and  East- 
ern sources.  As  soon  as  the  Christian  religion  became 
the  creed  of  the  state,  the  pagan  school  of  Alexandria 
fell  to  the  ground.  It  had  to  maintain,  single-handed, 
a  desperate  struggle  against  the  united  forces  of  Gno6- 
tic  philosophers  and  of  the  new  religion,  which,  after 
having  originated  in  an  obscure  corner  of  the  Roman 
empire,  was  advancing  with  rapid  strides  to  the  con- 
t  quest  of  society.  The  best  accounts  of  the  literary 
history  of  Alexandria,  its  pagan  schools,  libraries, 
philosophy,  etc.,  may  be  found  in  M.  Matter's  Histoire 
t/i  VecoL  '/' M< randrie  (Paris,  2d  cd.  3  vols.  8vo)  and 
in  Simon's  Histoire  de  Vecole  a" Alexandria  (Paris,  1845, 


ALEXANDRIAN 


157 


ALEXANDRIAN 


2  vols.  8vo).  A  rapid  and  vigorous,  but  not  very 
trustworthy  sketch  is  given  in  Kingsley's  Alexandria 
and  her  Schools  (Cambridge,  1854, 12mo). 

II.  Jewish. — For  some  time  the  Jewish  Church  in 
Alexandria  was  in  close  dependence  on  that  of  Jeru- 
salem. Both  were  subject  to  the  civil  power  of  the 
first  Ptolemies,  and  both  acknowledged  the  high-priest 
as  their  religious  head.  The  persecution  of  Ptolemy 
Philopator  (B.C.  217)  occasioned  the  first  political  sep- 
aration between  the  two  bodies.  From  that  time  the 
Jews  of  Palestine  attached  themselves  to  the  fortunes 
of  Syria  [see  Antiochus  the  Great]  ;  and  the  same 
policy  which  alienated  the  Palestinian  part}'  gave 
unitv  and  decision  to  the  Jews  of  Alexandria.  The 
Septuagint  translation,  which  strengthened  the  barrier 
of  language  between  Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  the 
temple  of  Leontopolis  (B.C.  161),  which  subjected  the 
Egyptian  Jews  to  the  charge  of  schism,  widened  the 
breach  which  was  thus  opened.  But  the  division, 
though  marked,  was  not  complete.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  asra  the  Egyptian  Jews  still  paid  the 
contributions  to  the  temple-service  (Kaphall,  Hist,  of 
Jews,  ii,  72).  Jerusalem,  though  its  name  was  fash- 
ioned to  a  Greek  shape,  was  still  the  Holy  City,  the 
metropolis,  not  of  a  country  but  of  a  people  ^ItpoiroXtg, 
Pliilo,  In  Flacc.  §  7  ;  Leg.  ad  Cai.  §  3G),  and  the  Alex- 
andrians had  a  synagogue  there  (Acts  vi,  9).  The  in- 
ternal administration  of  the  Alexandrine  Church  was 
independent  of  the  Sanhedrin  at  Jerusalem ;  but  re- 
spect survived  submission. 

There  were,  however,  other  causes  which  tended  to 
produce  at  Alexandria  a  distinct  form  of  the  Jewish 
character  and  faith.  The  religion  and  philosophy  of 
that  restless  city  produced  an  effect  upon  the  people 
more  powerful  than  the  influence  of  politics  or  com- 
merce. Alexander  himself  symbolized  the  spirit  with 
which  he  wished  to  animate  his  new  capital  by  found- 
ing a  temple  of  Isis  side  by  side  with  the  temples  of 
the  Grecian  gods  (Arr.  iii,  1).  The  creeds  of  the  East 
and  West  were  to  coexist  in  friendly  union ;  and  in 
after-times  the  mixed  worship  of  Serapis  (comp.  Gib- 
bon, c.  xxviii ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Geogr.  i,  98)  was 
characteristic  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of  Egypt  (August. 
£>•  Civ.  Dei,  xviii,  5;  S.  maximus  ^Egi/ptiorum  Dew). 
This  catholicity  of  worship  was  further  combined  with 
the  spread  of  universal  learning.  The  same  monarchs 
who  favored  the  worship  of  Serapis  (Clem.  Al.  Protr. 
iv,  §  48)  founded  and  embellished  the  museum  and 
library;  and  part  of  the  library  was  deposited  in  the 
Serapeum.  The  new  faith  and  the  new  literature  led 
to  a  common  issue,  and  the  Egyptian  Jews  necessarily 
imbibed  the  spirit  which  prevailed  around  them. 

The  Jews  were,  indeed,  peculiarly  susceptible  of  the 
influences  to  which  they  were  exposed.  They  pre- 
sented from  tha  first  a  capacity  for  Eastern  or  Western 
development.  To  the  faith  and  conservatism  of  the 
Oriental  they  united  the  activity  and  energy  of  the 
Greek.  The  mere  presence  of  Hellenic  culture  could 
not  fail  to  call  into  play  their  powers  of  speculation, 
which  were  hardly  repressed  by  the  traditional  legal- 
ism of  Palestine  (comp.  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Judenth.  p.  293 
sq.l :  and  the  unchanging  element  of  divine  revelation, 
which  they  always  retained,  enabled  them  to  harmon- 
ize new  thought  with  old  belief.  But  while  the  inter- 
course of  the  Jew  and  Greek  would  have  produced  the 
same  general  consequences  in  an}'  case,  Alexandria 
was  peculiarly  adapted  to  ensure  their  full  effect.  The 
result  of  the  contact  of  Judaism  with  the  many  creeds 
wdiich  were  current  there  must  have  been  speedy  and 
powerful.  The  earliest  Greek  fragment  of  Jewish 
writing  which  has  been  preserved  (about  160  B.C.) 
[see  Aristobulus]  contains  large  Orphic  quotations, 
which  had  been  already  moulded  into  a  Jewish  form 
(comp.  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Judenth.  p.  370) ;  and  the  at- 
tempt thus  made  to  connect  the  most  ancient  Hellenic 
traditions  with  the  law  was  often  repeated  afterward. 
Nor  was  this  done  in  the  spirit  of  bold  forgery.     Or- 


pheus, Musajus,  and  the  Sibyls  appeared  to  stand  in 
some  remote  period  anterior  to  the  corruptions  of  poly- 
theism, as  the  witnesses  of  a  primeval  revelation  and 
of  the  teaching  of  nature,  and  thus  it  seemed  excusa- 
ble to  attribute  to  them  a  knowledge  of  the  Mosaic 
doctrines.  The  third  book  of  the  Sibyllines  (cir.  B.C. 
150)  is  the  most  valuable  relic  of  this  pseudo-Hellenic 
literature,  and  shows  how  far  the  conception  of  Juda- 
ism was  enlarged  to  meet  the  wider  views  of  the  re-« 
ligious  condition  of  heathendom  which  was  opened  by 
a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  Greek  thought ;  though 
the  later  Apocalypse  of  Ezra  [see  Esdras,  4]  exhibits 

:  a  marked  reaction  toward  the  extreme  exclusiveness 

:  of  former  times. 

But  the  indirect  influence  of  Greek  literature  and 

'  philosophy  produced  still  greater  effects  upon  the 
Alexandrine  Jews  than  the  open  conflict  and  combi- 
nation of  religious  dogmas.  The  literary  school  of 
Alexandria  was  essentially  critical  and  not  creative. 
For  the  first  time  men  labored  to  collect,  revise,  and 
classify  all  the  records  of  the  past.  Poets  trusted  to 
their  learning  rather  than  to  their  imagination.  Lan- 
guage became  a  study  ;  and  the  legends  of  early  my- 
thology were  transformed  into  philosophic  mysteries. 
The  Jews  took  a  vigorous  share  in  these  new  studies. 
The  caution  against  writing,  wdiich  became  a  settled 
law  in  Palestine,  found  no  favor  in  Egypt.  Numerous 
authors  adapted  the  history  of  the  Patriarchs,  of  Moses, 
and  of  the  Kings  to  classical  models  (Euseb.  Prop. 
Ev.  ix,  17-39.  Eupolemus,  Artapanus  [?],  Demetrius, 
Aristajus,  Cleodemus  or  Malchas,  "a  prophet'-).  A 
poem  which  bears  the  name  of  Phocylides  gives  in 
verse  various  precepts  of  Leviticus  (Daniel,  sec.  LXX, 
Apolog.  p.  512  sq.  Roma;,  1772);  and  several  large 
fragments  of  a  "tragedy"  in  which  Ezekiel  (cir.  B.C. 
110)  dramatized  the  Exodus  have  been  preserved  by 
Eusebius  (1.  c),  who  also  quotes  numerous  passages 
in  heroic  verse  from  the  elder  Philo  and  Theodotus. 
This  classicalism  of  style  was  a  symptom  and  a  cause 
of  classicalism  of  thought.  The  same  Aristobulus  who 
gave  currency  to  the  J  udreo-Orphic  verses  endeavored 
to  show  that  the  Pentateuch  was  the  real  source  of 
Greek  philosophy  (Euseb.  Prcep.  Ev.  xiii,  12;  Clem. 
Al.  Strom,  vi,  98). 

The  proposition  thus  enunciated  was  thoroughly  con- 
genial to  the  Alexandrine  character;  and  henceforth 
it  was  the  chief  object  of  Jewish  speculation  to  trace 
out  the  subtle  analogies  which  were  supposed  to  exist 
between  the  writings  of  Moses  and  the  teaching  of  the 
schools.  The  circumstances  under  which  the  philo- 
sophical studies  first  gained  a  footing  at  Alexandria 
favored  the  attempt.  For  some  time  the  practical 
sciences  reigned  supreme,  and  the  issue  of  these  was 
scepticism  (Matter,  Hist,  de  Vecole  d'Alex.  iii,  162  sq.). 
Then  at  length  the  clear  analysis  and  practical  moral- 
ity of  the  Peripatetics  found  ready  followers,  and,  in 
the  strength  of  the  reaction,  men  eagerly  trusted  to 
those  splendid  ventures  with  which  Plato  taught  them 
to  be  content  till  they  could  gain  a  surer  knowledge 
(Ph(vd.  p.  85).  To  the  Jew  this  surer  knowledge 
seemed  to  be  already  given,  and  the  belief  in  the  ex- 
istence of  a  spiritual  meaning  underlying  the  letter  of 
Scripture  was  the  threat  principle  on  which  all  his  in- 
vestigations rested.  The  facts  were  supposed  to  lie 
essentially  symbolic  ;  the  language  the  veil  (or  some- 
times the  mask)  which  partly  disguised  from  common 
sight  the  truths  which  it  enwrapped.  In  this  way  a 
twofold  object  was  gained.  It  became  possible  to 
withdraw  the  Supreme  Being  (to  ov,  o  u»v)  from  im- 
mediate contact  with  the  material  world,  and  to  apply 
the  narratives  of  the  Bible  to  the  phenomena  of  the 
soul.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  process  by 
which  these  results  were  embodied  ;  but,  as  in  parallel 
cases,  they  seem  to  have  been  shaped  gradually  in  the 
minds  of  the  mass,  and  not  fashioned  at  once  by  one 
great  teacher.  Even  in  the  Sept.  there  are  traces  of 
an  endeavor  to  interpret  the  anthropomorphic  imagery 


ALEXANDRIAN 


158 


ALEXANDRIAN 


of  the  Hebrew  text  [see  SeptuAgixt],  and  there  can  I  at  Alexandria,  is  extremely  doubtful.  The  testimony 
be  no  doubt  that  the  Commentaries  of  Aristobulus  of  Philip  of  Sida  is  not  very  trustworthy,  and  the  si- 
gave  some  form  and  consistency  to  the  allegoric  sys-  j  lence  of  Eusebius,  and  Athenagoras's  way  of  teaching, 
tern.  In  the  time  of  Philo  (B.C.  20-A.D.  50)  the  ,  which  is  by  no  means  Alexandrine,  speak  against  it. 
theological  and  interpretative  systems  were  evidently  About  A. I).  190  Clement  became  assistant  to  Pantre- 
fixed  even  in  many  of  their  details,  and  he  appears  in  i  nus,  and,  about  203,  head  of  the  school.  Origen  be- 
both  cases  only  to  have  collected  and  expressed  the  j  came  connected  with  the  school  as  teacher  when  only 
popular  opinions  of  his  countrymen.     See  Philo.         \  a  youth  of  18  years,  and  he  labored  then,  with  some 

In  each  of  these  great  forms  of  speculation — the  {  brief  interruptions,  until  232,  when  he  was  expelled 
theological  and  the  exegetical — Alexandrianism  has  i  from  Alexandria.  In  the  later  years  of  his  stay  at 
an  important  bearing  upon  the  apostolic  writings.  Alexandria  he  was  assisted  by  his  disciple  and  succes- 
But  the  doctrines  which  are  characteristic  of  the  Alex-  sor  Heraclas,  who  subsequently  became  bishop  of 
andrian  school  were  by  no  means  peculiar  to  it.  The  \  Alexandria.  Heraclas  was  succeeded  by  Dionysius, 
same  causes  which  led  to  the  formation  of  wider  I  also  a  disciple  of  Origen,  and  later,  likewise  a  bishop 
views  of  Judaism  in  Egypt,  acting  under  greater  re- :  of  Alexandria.  The  celebrity  of  the  Alexandrian 
straint,  produced  corresponding  results  in  Palestine.  !  school  continued  for  some  time  after  the  death  of  Dio- 
A  doctrine  of  the  Word  (Memrd),  and  a  system  of  j  nysius,  notwithstanding  the  rival  institution  which 
mystical  interpretation  grew  up  within  the  rabbinic  <  arose  at  Caesarea  Palaestina?,  and  which  was  for  some 
schools,  which  bear  a  closer  analogy  to  the  language  time  conducted  by  Origen.  It  did  not  cease  until  the 
of  the  Apostle  John  and  to  the  "allegories"  of  Paul  close  of  the  fourth  century. 
than  the  speculations  of  Philo.     See  Logos.  j      Of  the  history  of  the  school  after  the  death  of  Dio- 

The  speculative  doctrines  which  thus  worked  for  the  j  nj-sius  we  are,  however,  but  imperfectly  informed, 
general  reception  of  Christian  doctrine  were  also  em-  |  Eusebius  (//.  E.  vii,  32)  names  among  the  successors 
bodied  in  a  form  of  society  which  was  afterward  trans-  I  of  Dionysius  only  Achillas,  whose  name  is  wholly 
ferred  to  the  Christian  Church.  Numerous  bodies  of  omitted  by  Philip  of  Sida,  and  who,  at  all  events,  was 
ascetics  (Therapevtce),  especially  on  the  borders  of  I  less  prominent  than  Pierius,  who  is  mentioned  by 
Lake  Mareotis,  devoted  themselves  to  a  life  of  cease-  '  Philip  and  by  Photius  (Cod.  118).  The  names  of 
less  discipline  and  study.  See  Therapeut.e.  Un-  j  Theognostus  and  Serapion  are  given  as  principals  of 
like  the  Essenes,  who  present  the  corresponding  phase  I  the  school  only  by  Philip.  It  is  possible,  as  Philip 
in  Palestinian  life,  they  abjured  society  and  labor,  and  j  states,  that  about  the  close  of  the  third  century  the 
often  forgot,  as  it  is  said,  the  simplest  wants  of  nature  '  Alexandrian  bishop  and  martyr,  Peter  (Euseb.  //.  E. 
in  the  contemplation  of  the  hidden  wisdom  of  the  vii,  32),  gave  catechetical  instruction,  and  later,  about. 
Scriptures  (Philo,  De  Vit.  Contempt,  throughout).  The  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  an  Alexandrian 
description  which  Philo  gives  of  their  occupation  and    monk,  Macarius.     Arius,  the  originator  of  Arianism, 


character  seemed  to  Eusebius  to  present  so  clear  an 
image  of  Christian  virtues  that  he  claimed  them  as 
Christians ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  some  of 
the  forms  of  monasticism  were  shaped  upon  the  model 
of  the  Therapeutae  (Euseb.  //.  E.  ii,  16). 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  the  number 
of  Christians  at  Alexandria  must  have  been  very 
large,  and  the  great  leaders  of  Gnosticism  (q.  v.)  who 
arose  there  (Basilides,  Valentinus)  exhibit  an  exag- 


seems  to  have  likewise  been  for  some  time  principal 
of  the  school.  The  name  of  the  learned  and  pious 
Didymus  is  mentioned  as  an  Alexandrian  catechist 
not  only  by  Philip,  but  by  Sozomen  (//.  E.  iii,  15) 
and  Putin  (II.  E.  ii,  7),  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  he  presided  over  the  school  during  the  long  period 
from  340  to  395.  His  assistant  in  later  years,  and  his 
successor  as  catechist,  was  Rhodon,  the  teacher  of 
Philip  of  Sida,  and  his  withdrawal  from  Alexandria 


geration  of  the  tendency  of  the  Church.  But  the  later  !  to  Sida  about  395  led,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
forms  of  Alexandrine  speculation,  the  strange  varieties  \  Philip,  to  the  close  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  It  is 
of  Gnosticism,  the  progress  of  the  catechetical  school,  I  more  probable  that  other  causes  had  a  greater  share 
the  development  of  Neoplatonism,  the  various  phases  I  in  bringing  about  this  event.  The  controversies  con- 
of  the  Arian  controversy,  belong  to  the  history  of  the  eerning  Origen,  and  later,  concerning  Nestorianism 
Church  and  to  the  history  of  philosoplry.  To  the  last  and  Monophysitism,  in  which  the  Alexandrian  spirit 
Alexandria  fulfilled  its  mission;  and  we  still  owe  degenerated  and  became  extinct;  the  complete  vie- 
much  to  the  spirit  of  its  great  teachers,  which  in  later  tory  of  Christianity,  which  diminished  the  number  of 
ages  struggled,  not  without  success,  against  the  stern-  ;  adult  converts  and  lessened  the  need  of  catechetical 
er  systems  of  the  West. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Bible,  i,  46.  I  instruction  for  adults,  and  the  prosperous  development 
See  Kirchbaum,  D.  Jiklische.  A  lexandrinismirs  (Lpz.  J  of  Christian  science,  gradually  undermined  the  prom- 
1841)  ;  Diihne,  Geschichtliche  Darstelhuig  der  Judisch-  !  inent  position  of  the  Alexandrian  school  in  the  Church. 
Alexandrinischcn  ReVgions-rhilosojihie  (Halle,  1834);  ,  It  again  became  what  it  had  been  at  the  beginning,  a 
Gfrorer,  Philo,  und  die  Jiidisch-Alexandrinische  Theoso-  '  school  in  which  children  received  catechetical  instruc- 
phie  (Stuttgart,  1835).    To  these  may  be  added,  Ewald,    tion. 

Gesch.  des  VoUces  Israel  (Giittingen,  1852),  iv,  250  sq.,  j  In  the  best  days  of  the  school  the  number  of  stu- 
393  sq. ;  Jost,  Gesch.  des  Judenthums  (Leipzig,  1857),  :  dents  was  very  great,  but  it  seems  never  to  have  had 
i,  344  sq.,  388  sq. ;  Schaff,  Hist,  of  the  Church,  §  126.  j  buildings  or  endowments.  The  head  master  chose  his 
III.  Christian. — The  Christian  school  of  Alexandria  J  own  assistants  ;  the  teachers  were  paid  onty  by  presents 
at  first  aimed  only  at  the  instruction  of  converts  from  '■  from  the  scholars ;  and  the  students  lodged  where  they 
heathenism,  and  the  instruction  was  catechetical.  It  could.  The  manner  of  teaching  was  as  in  the  schools 
was  afterward  developed  into  a  theological  seminary.  '  of  the  ancient  philosophers,  accommodated  in  many 
Jerome  dates  its  origin  from  the  time  of  St.  Mark,  but  i  cases  to  the  needs  of  individuals,  and  frequently  it  was 
there  is  no  authority  for  his  statement.  Eusebius  j  catechetical.  Whoever  wished  it  received  instruction 
(Hist.  Eccl.  v,  10)  states  that  it  had  existed  from  "  an- :  in  philosophj'  also.  In  general  the  instruction  was 
cient  times;"  but  the  first  definite  account  dates  from  related  to  the  Christian  Gnosis,  as  milk  to  more  sub- 
stantial food.  It  did  not  depart  from  the  plainness  of 
faith;  and  the  speculative  doctrines  of  the  essence  of 
God,  the  origin  of  the  world,  the  relation  of  reason  to 
revelation,  were  excluded  (Stmm.  v,  685).  Probably 
what  is  contained  in  the  Cohortatio  of  Clement  consti- 
tuted the  contents  of  his  introductory  catechetical  lec- 
tures; and  it  was  followed  by  instructions  in  a  pious, 


about  181,  when  Pantsenus,  a  philosopher  who  had 

abandoned  first  Stoicism  and  then  Platonism,  and  had 
been  a  Christian  missionary  in  India,  commenced  lec- 
turing in  Alexandria  (Euseb.  loc.  cit.).  Whether 
Athenagoras,  a  philosopher  who  embraced  Christianity 
about  the  middle  of  the  2d  century,  and  who  is  called 
by  Philip  of  Sida  (see  Dodwell,  Dissert,  in  Ircn.  Oxon. 
1689,  p.  488,  497)  a  predecessor  of  Pantamus,  was  ever  !  moral  life,  as  we  find  them  in  the  Pcedagogus,  and  by 


ALEXANDRIAN 


159 


ALEXAS 


a  discussion  of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity. To  impart  a  more  profound  "gnostic"  in- 
sight into  Christianity,  he  reserved  for  private  con- 
versations. The  following  chronological  list  of  the 
catechists  is  given  in  Guerike,  De  Schola  Alexandrina 
(Halle,  1824-25,  2  pts.)  : 


Veahs. 

PRINCirALS. 

Assistants. 

160*-181* 

Athenngoras.t 

181*-190* 

Panta?nus. 

190*-203* 

Pantasmis. 

Clement. 

203 

Pantsenus  Clement. 

203  -20(1* 

Origen. 

206  -Jll* 

Panta>nus  Clement. 

Origen. 

211*-213* 

Clement. 

Origen. 

21 3* 

Origen. 

213*-232 

Origen. 

lleraclas. 

232 

Ileraclas. 

233  -265* 

Dionysius. 

265*-280* 

Pierius.* 

280*-282* 

Pierius.* 

Achillas.t 

2S2*-2J0* 

Theognostus.* 

Achillas,  t 

2;:o* 

Theognostus.* 

290  -295* 

Serapion.t 

295*-312 

Peter  Martyr.* 

313  -320* 

Arius.* 

320*-330* 

330*-340* 

Macarius.t 

340"-390* 

Didymus. 

3  0  -3:  5 

Didymus. 

Rhode* 

395 

Rhodo.* 

This  .-ign  (lciintfs  probability  as  regards  the  dates  and  the 
to  which  it  is  affixed.  t  The  cross  denotes  doubt. 


Schaff  gives  the  following  brief  but  clear  account 
of  the  influence  of  the  Alexandrian  school  on  theolo- 
gy :  "  From  this  school  proceeded  a  peculiar  theology, 
the  most  learned  and  genial  representatives  of  which 
were  Clement  and  Origen.  This  theology  is,  on  the 
one  hand,  a  regenerated  Christian  form  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Jewish  religious  philosophy  of  Pliilo;  on  the 
other,  a  Catholic  counterpart  and  a  positive  refutation 
of  the  heretical  Gnosis,  Avhich  reached  its  height  also 
in  Alexandria  but  half  a  centurj'  earlier.  The  Alex- 
andrian theology  aims  at  a  reconciliation  of  Christian- 
ity with  philosophy,  or,  subjectively  speaking,  of  pistis 
with  the  gnosis  ;  but  it  seeks  this  union  upon  the  basis 
of  the  Bible  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Church.  Its  cen- 
tre, therefore,  is  the  Logos,  viewed  as  the  sum  of  all 
reason  and  all  truth,  before  and  after  the  incarnation. 
Clement  came  from  the  Hellenic  philosophy  to  the 
Christian  faith  ;  Origen,  conversely,  was  led  by  faith 
to  speculation.  The  former  was  an  aphoristic  thinker, 
the  latter  a  systematic.  The  one  borrowed  ideas  from 
various  systems;  the  other  followed  more  the  track 
of  Platonism.  But  both  are  Christian  philosophers 
and  churchly  gnostics.  As  Philo,  long  before  them, 
in  the  same  city,  had  combined  Judaism  with  Grecian 
culture,  so  now  they  carried  Grecian  culture  into 
Christianity.  This,  indeed,  the  apologists  and  con- 
troversialists of  the  second  century  had  already  done 
as  far  back  as  Justin  the  '  philosopher.'  But  the  Alex- 
andrians were  more  learned  and  liberal-minded,  and 
made  much  freer  use  of  the  Greek  philosophy.  They 
saw  in  it,  not  sheer  error,  but  in  one  view  a  gift  of 
God,  and  a  theoretical  schoolmaster  for  Christ,  like  the 
law  in  the  practical  sphere.  Clement  compares  it  to 
a  wild  olive-tree,  which  can  be  ennobled  by  faith; 
Origen  (in  the  fragments  of  an  epistle  to  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus)  to  the  jewels  which  the  Israelites  took 
with  them  out  of  Egypt,  and  turned  into  ornaments 
for  their  sanctuary,  though  they  also  wrought  them 
into  the  golden  calf.  It  is  not  necessarily  an  enemy 
to  the  truth,  but  may,  and  should  be  its  handmaid, 
and  at  least  neutralize  the  attacks  against  it.  The 
elements  of  truth  in  the  heathen  philosophy  they  at- 
tributed partly  to  the  secret  operation  of  the  Logos  in 
the  world  of  reason,  partly  to  acquaintance  with  the 
Jewish  philosophy,  the  writings  of  Moses  and  the 
prophets.  So  with  the  Gnostic  heresy.  The  Alex- 
andrians did  not  successively  condemn  it,  but  recog- 
nised the  desire  for  deeper  religious  knowledge  which 
lay  at  its  root,  and  sought  to  meet  this  desire  with 
a  wholesome  supply  from  the  Bible  itself.     To  the 


yviLcric  ^/tvSutvvfioq  they  opposed  a  yvixicic  aXnGivr). 
Their  maxim  was,  in  the  words  of  Clement,  '  No  faith 
without  knowledge,  no  knowledge  without  faith ;'  or, 
'Unless  you  believe,  you  will  not  understand'  (Isa. 
vii,  9,  in  the  Sept.  iuv  pt)  Tnortvoijre,  oi<ct  p>)  avvi}Ti). 
Faith  and  knowledge  have  the  same  substance,  the 
saving  truth  of  God,  revealed  in  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  faithfully  handed  down  by  the  Church;  they  dif- 
fer only  in  form.  Knowledge  is  our  consciousness  of 
the  deeper  ground  and  consistency  of  faith.  The 
Christian  knowledge,  however,  is  also  a  gift  of  grace, 
and  has  its  condition  in  a  holy  life.  The  ideal  of  a 
Christian  gnostic  includes  the  perfect  love  as  well  as 
the  perfect  knowledge  of  God.  Clement  describes  him 
as  one  'who,  growing  gray  in  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  preserving  the  orthodoxy  of  the  apostles 
and  the  Church,  lives  strictly  according  to  the  Gospel.' 
The  Alexandrian  theology  is  intellectual,  profound, 
stirring,  and  full  of  fruitful  germs  of  thought,  but 
rather  unduly  idealistic  and  spiritualistic,  and,  ill  ex- 
egesis, loses  itself  in  arbitrary  allegorical  fancies.  In 
its  efforts  to  reconcile  revelation  and  philosophy,  it 
took  up,  like  Philo,  many  foreign  elements,  especially 
of  the  Platonic  and  Gnostic  stamp,  and  wandered  into 
views  which  a  later  and  more  orthodox,  but  more  nar- 
row-minded and  less  productive  age,  condemned  as 
heresies,  not  appreciating  the  immortal  service  of  this 
school  to  its  own  and  after  times"  (History  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  §  12G). 

A  full  account  of  the  (Christian)  Alexandrian 
school  is  given  in  the  Am.  Bib.  JRepos.  Jan.  1834,  art. 
i;  and  its  doctrines,  and  their  influence  on  Christian- 
ity, in  the  same  journal,  April,  1834,  art.  i.  See  also 
Herzog,  Real-Ena/clopadie,  i,  239  sq. ;  Michaelis,  De 
Sckol.  Alex.  etc.  (Halle,  1739);  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  i, 
527-557 ;  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  i,  62  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Comm. 
ii,  ICG;  Prat,  Ilisto're  de  I'eclectisme  Alexandrine  con- 
sidere  dans  sa  Lntte  avec  le  Christian'' sme  (Lyon,  1813, 
2  vols.  8vo);  comp.  Prof.  Jowett,  1  kilo  and  St.  rani; 
St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  etc.  (London, 
1855),  i,  363  sq.  Other  treatises,  bearing  more  or  less 
directly  upon  the  subject,  are  the  following:  Feuer- 
lein,  De  ratione  docendi  theologiam  in  schola  Alexan- 
drina (Gotting.  1756);  Hilscher,  De  Schola  Alexan- 
drina (Lips.  1776) ;  Bitter,  Gesch.  d.  christl.  I'hilos.  i, 
421  sq. ;  Hasselbach,  De  schola  qucs  Alex,  floruit  (Stet- 
tin, 1826);  Henry,  Epit.  of  Hist,  of  Phil'os.  (from  the 
French),  i,  207-220 ;  Hase,  Hist.  ofChr.  Ch.  (Am.  cd.), 
§  85  ;  Weichmann,  De  schola  Origans  sacra  (Viteb. 
1744). 

ALEXANDRIAN  VERSION,  another  name  for 
the  Septuagist  (q.  v.). 

Alexandrium  £A\t£avSpuov),  a  place  frequent- 
ly referred  to  by  Josephus  as  having  been  originally 
built  by  Alexander  (hence,  doubtless,  the  name),  ap- 
parently Janna'us  (Ant.  xiii,  16,  3),  on  a  hill  near  Co- 
res (q.  v.),  toward  Jericho  (Ant.  xiv,  3,  4);  fortified 
by  Alexander  the  son  of  Aristobulus  (Ant.  xiv,  5,  2; 
War,  i,  8,  2),  and  demolished  by  Gabinius  (Ant.  xiv, 
5,  4;  War,  i,  8,  5),  but  again  restored  by  Herod  (Ant. 
xiv,  15,4).  It  was  the  burial-place  of  the  founder's 
family,  and  here  accordingly  the  bodies  of  Herod's 
sons,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus,  were  removed  by 
night  for  interment  (Ant.  xvi,  11,  7;  War,  i,  17,  6). 
It  has  been  identified  by  Sehultz  (Hitter,  Erdh.  xv, 
452-454)  as  the  modern  village  Kefr  Istuna,  about  four 
miles  S.E.  of  Shiloh,  containing  the  ruins  of  an  an- 
cient castle  built  with  very  large  stones  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  284). 

Alexandroschene  (for  'A\e%di>$pov  OKtjvi),  Al- 
exander's t(n/),  a  place  mentioned  in  the  Jerusali  m 
Itinerary  as  12  B.  miles  from  Tyre,  and  the  same  dis- 
tance from  Ecdippa ;  evidently  the  ruin  now  called 
Tskanderuna,  at  the  southern  foot  of  Ras  el-Abiad  on 
the  Mediterranean. 

Alexas  CA\it,ac,  contracted  from  Alexander,  q. 


ALEXIANS 


160 


ALIEN" 


v.),  a  favorite  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  by  his  influence 
the  husband  of  Salome  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  1,  1; 
War,  i,  28,  6),  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  also  named 
Alexas,  and  married  to  Cypros,  a  daughter  of  Antipa- 
ter  {Ant.  xviii,  5,  4).     See  Herodian  Family. 

Alexians,  or  "Brethren  and  Sisters  of  St.  Alex- 
ius," so  called  from  their  patron  saint,  Alexius,  said  to 
have  been  a  Roman  senator  of  the  tilth  century,  who 
gave  up  the  world  for  a  life  of  poverty  and  celibacy. 
They  were  also  called  Cellites,  and  a  fuller  ac- 
count of  them  will  be  found  under  that  title. 

Alexius.     See  Alexians. 

Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  England,  was  born  in 
849,  his  parents  being  Ethehvulf,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons,  and  Asburga,  his  first  wife.  He  mounted 
the  throne  in  871,  and  during  the  thirty  years  in 
which  he  held  the  reins  of  government  he  experi- 
enced the  greatest  vicissitudes  of  fortune.  As  king, 
he  was  a  great  benefactor  of  the  Church;  he  built 
many  monasteries  and  churches,  and  founded  the 
University  of  Oxford,  which  has  been,  under  God, 
through  all  ages,  the  main  support  of  the  true  faith  in 
that  kingdom.  He  died  in  November,  A.D.  900,  be- 
ing then  fifty-one  years  old.  Besides  drawing  learn- 
ed men  to  his  court,  Alfred  himself  was  devoted  to  let- 
ters. He  translated  Boethius,  De  Consolations  (pub- 
lished by  Cordale,  London,  1829,  8vo).  Several  other 
works  are  attributed  to  Alfred;  among  them,  1.  A 
Saxon  Paraphrase  of  the  History  of  Bede,  given  in  the 
Cambridge  edition  of  Beck's  History  (1722,  fol.) : — 2. 
Various  Laws  relating  to  the  Church,  contained  in  the 
same  work  (Appendix) : — 3.  A  Saxon  Translation  of 


the  Liber  Pastoralis  of  St.  Gregory  (in  MS.  at  Cam- 
bridge) : — 1.  The  Psalter  of  David,  partly  translated 
into  Saxon  (printed  at  London,  with  the  Latin  text,  in 
1G40,  4to)  : — 5.  Anglo-Saxon  Translation  of  Orosius 
(given  at  the  end  of  Pauli's  "Life  of  Alfred,"  in  Bonn's 
Library).  He  is  also  said  to  have  translated  the  Four 
Dialogues  of  St.  Gregory,  which  are  lost. — Powell,  Life 
of  Alfred  the  Great  (Lond.  1G34,  12mo);  Cave,  Hist. 
Lit.  anno  871 ;  Weisz,  Geschichte  Alfred's  (Schaffhau- 
sen,  1852,  8vo)  ;  Pauli,  Life  of  Alfred  (Berl.  1851), 
trans,  by  Thorp  (Lond.  1853,  12mo). 

Algeria,  a  country  of  Northern  Africa,  which 
forms  now  (since  1830)  a  French  possession.  Its  area 
is  about  150,000  square  miles ;  population,  in  1858, 
3,250,000,  most  of  whom  are  Mohammedans.  The 
European  population  has  rapidly  increased  since  1830. 
In  1832  it  was  only  5919  souls;  in  185G,  155,007, 
among  whom  were  8G,9G9  French,  and  42,569  Span- 
iards. Among  the  Europeans  were,  in  1857,  about 
10,000  Protestants,  with  eleven  clergymen.  The  rest 
are  mostly  Roman  Catholics,  who  have  one  bishopric 
at  Algiers.  There  are  several  convents,  among  which 
a  large  agricultural  and  educational  institution  of  the 
Trappists  is  celebrated.  There  were,  in  1855,  178 
boys'  and  119  girls'  schools,  with  10,672  boys  and 
8986  girls.  Four  towns  had  Arabic-French  schools, 
with  400  scholars.  An  Association  of  St.  Louis  was 
formed  in  1859  for  the  civilization  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans, and  had  commenced  the  publication  of  an  Arabic 
paper,  Birgys  Barys  (the  Eagle  of  Paris'). — Schem's 
Ecclesiastical  Year-book  for  1859 ;  Behaghel,  V  Algirie 
(Par.  1865).     See  Africa. 


V- 


Al'gum,  a  transposed  form  (2  Chron.  ii,  8  ;  ix,  10, 
11)  of  the  Heb.  termALMUG  (q.  v.). 

Ali'ah,  a  less  correct  form  (1  Chron.  i,  51)  of  the 
name  Alvah  (q.  v.). 

Ali'an,  a  less  correct  form  (1  Chron.  i,  40)  of  the 
name  Alvan  (q.  v.). 

Alien  ("13,  ger,  also  133,  nelar',  or  i"03,  noh-i', 
both  meaning  stronger,  as  often  rendered  ;  aWorpioc), 
a  foreigner,  or  person  born  in  another  country,  and 
not  having  the  usual  rights  and  privileges  of  the  citi- 
zens of  the  country  in  which  he  lives.  Among  the 
Hebrews  there  were  two  classes  of  persons  denom- 
inated thus:  1.  The  proper  aliens  (D"1"!?),  those  who 
were  strangers  generally,  and  who  possessed  no  land- 
ed property, though  they  might  have  purchased  houses; 
2.  Those  less  properly  so  called  (D'OOipl,  toshabim ' , 


sojourners'),  i.  e.  strangers  dwelling  in  another  country 
without  being  naturalized  (Lev.  xxii,  10 ;  Psa.  xxxix, 
12).  Both  of  these  classes  were  to  be  treated  with 
kindness,  and  were  to  enjoy  the  same  rights  with  oth- 
er citizens  (Lev.  xix,  33,  34 ;  Deut.  x,  19 ;  xxiii,  7 ; 
xxiv,  17).  Strangers  might  be  naturalized,  or  per- 
mitted to  enter  into  the  congregation  of  the  Lord,  \>y 
submitting  to  circumcision  and  renouncing  idolatry 
(Deut.  xxiii,  1-8). 

The  Edomites  and  Egyptians  were  capable  of  be- 
coming citizens  of  Israel  after  the  third  generation. 
It  appears  also  that  other  nations  were  not  entirely 
excluded  from  being  incorporated  with  the  people  of 
Israel.  But  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  hostile  disposition  which  they  had  man- 
ifested to  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  were  abso- 
lutely excluded  from  the  right  of  citizenship  (Michaelis, 
Mos.  Recht,  §  63). 


ALISGEMA 


161 


ALLATIUS 


In  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Hebrew  state,  persons 
■who  were  natives  of  another  country,  but  who  had 
come,  either  from  choice  or  necessity,  to  take  up  their 
residence  among  the  Hebrews,  appear  to  have  been 
placed  in  favorable  circumstances.  At  a  later  period, 
viz.,  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  labor  on  the  religious  edirices  which  were 
erected  by  those  princes  (2  Chron.  ii,  1,  17,  18,  comp. 
with  1  Chron.  xxii,  2).  These,  however,  were  prob- 
ably prisoners  of  war  (Jahn,  Bill.  Archeeol.  §  181). 
See  Citizenship  ;  Gentile. 

The  term  alien  is  used  figuratively  in  Eph.  ii,  12,  to 
denote  those  persons  who  were  without  Christ,  and 
who  had  no  interest  in  the  blood  of  the  covenant.  See 
Adoption. 

Alisgema  (a\iayr][ia),  a  Hellenistic  word  (Ste- 
phens, Thes.  Gr.  s.  v.)  which  occurs  in  Acts  xv.  20, 
Auth.  Vers,  "pollution"  (comp.  ver.  29  and  1  Cor. 
viii),  with  reference  to  meat  sacrificed  to  idols,  and 
there  means  defilement,  pollution.  The  apostle  in 
these  passages  alludes  to  the  customs  of  the  Gentiles, 
among  whom,  after  a  sacrifice  had  been  concluded  and 
a  portion  of  the  victim  had  been  assigned  to  the  priests, 
it  was  usual  to  hold  a  sacrificial  feast  in  honor  of  the 
god,  on  which  occasion  they  ate  the  residue  of  the 
flesh  (comp.  Homer,  Odys.  iii,  470).  This  feast  might 
take  place  either  in  the  temple  or  in  a  private  house 
(see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Sacrificium). 
But  there  were  many  who,  from  need  or  avarice,  salt- 
ed and  laid  up  the  remnants  for  future  use  (Theoph. 
Char.  c.  x),  or  even  gave  them  to  the  butchers  to  sell 
in  the  shambles  (Schottg.  Ilor.  Heb.  ad  Act.  xv,  20; 
1  Cor.  viii).  This  flesh,  having  been  offered  to  idols, 
was  held  in  abomination  by  the  Jews ;  and  they  con- 
sidered not  only  those  who  had  been  present  at  these 
feasts,  but  also  those  who  ate  the  flesh  which  had  been 
offered  up,  when  afterward  exposed  for  sale  in  the 
shambles,  as  infected  by  the  contagion  of  idolatry 
(q.  v.).  The  council  at  Jerusalem,  therefore,  at  the 
suggestion  of  James,  directed  that  converts  should  re- 
fuse all  invitations  to  such  feasts,  and  abstain  from 
the  use  of  all  such  meat,  that  no  offence  might  be  given 
to  those  Christians  who  had  been  Jews.  See  Kuinol, 
ad  Act.  xv,  20. — Kitto,  s.  v.     Comp.  Decree. 

Alkali,  the  oxide  or  carbonate  of  one  of  the  metallic 
bases,  having  a  strong  caustic  power ;  usually  applied 
to  soda,  potash,  and  ammonia.  Of  these  substances 
the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  been  acquainted  with  two 
forms  (see  Thomson's  Land  and  Book,  ii,  302),  concern- 
ing which  we  translate  from  Winer,  ii,  9  sq. 

1.  Mineral  alkali  seems  to  have  been  designated  b}' 
the  term  ne'ther  ("IM,  "nitre,"  Prov.  xxv,  20;  Jer. 
ii,  22;  virpov,  Attic  Xirpor).  It  was  found  at  all 
times  in  large  quantities  in  two  lakes  of  the  valley  of 
the  Nile  west  of  the  river  (Strabo,  xvii,  803;  Plin. 
xxxi,  46),  and  is  still  obtained  there  from  the  water 
under  the  name  of  natrum  (Paulus,  Samml.  v,  182  sq. ; 
Forskal,  Flor..Eg.p.  45;  Andreossy,  in  the  Memoires 
sur  VEgypte,  ii,  27  sq. ;  comp.  Deseript.  de  VEgypte, 
xii,  1  sq. ;  Hasselquist,  Reisen,  p.  548).  The  Egyp- 
tians used  nitre  for  embalming  dead  bodies  (Herod,  ii, 
87)  ;  it  was  also  employed  instead  of  soap  for  washing 
(Jer.  ii,  22 ;  comp.  Jerome,  ad  Prov.  xxv,  20),  as  still 
appears  to  be  customary  in  Egypt  (Hasselquist,  ut 
sup.  •  Forskal,  Flor.  p.  46).  The  property  of  this  min- 
eral, when  dissolved  in  vinegar,  of  effervescing  and 
losing  its  cleansing  power,  is  alluded  to  in  Prov.  xxv, 
20.  (See  generally  Michaelis,  Comment,  in  Soc.  Gott. 
prmlect.  Brem.  177,  p.  134  sq.  ;  Beckmann,  Gesch.  d. 
Erfind.  v,  517  sq.)     See  Nitre. 

2.  Vegetable  alkali  is  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  term 
horitlif  (r^'a,  "  soap,"  Jer.  ii,  22 ;  Mai.  iii,  2),  and 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  likewise  nitre  (comp.  Plin. 
xxxi,  46).  It  was  obtained  by  water  (lye)  from  the 
ashes  of  the  soap-wash  (Arabic  kali),  of  which  Forskal 
(Flor.  p.  lxiv  sq.,  54  sq.,  98)  fouju'  yarious  kinds  in 

L 


Eg3*pt,  e.  g.  the  Salsola  kali,  or  the  Mesembryanthcum 
nodifiorum  of  Linnaeus  (comp.  Hasselquist,  Reistn,  p. 
225 ;  Raffenan  Delile,  Flora  JEg.  illustr.  in  the  De- 
script,  de  VEgypte,  xix,  81 ;  see  Oken,  Botan.  ii,  i, 
584  ;  ii,  856  ;  Schkuhr,  Botan.  Handb.  i,  174  sq.).  The 
saline  plants  indigenous  in  Palestine  from  which  bo- 
rith  was  obtained  were  also,  according  to  the  Talmud- 
ists  (see  Celsii  Hierobot.  i,  450)  and  Jerome  {in  loc. 
Jer.),  called  by  the  same  name,  and  are  the  same  as 
those  called  by  the  Arabs  ashnan.  Of  these  plants 
Rauwolf  {Reisen,  p.  37)  found  in  Syria  two  species ; 
one  was  a  thick  bushy  shrub,  with  numerous  slender 
branches,  surmounted  by  thick  tufts,  and  furnished 
with  narrow  pointed  leaves ;  the  other  in  stem  and 
top  resembles  "  sheep-dew,"  with  thick  ash-colored 
roots  (see  his  figures  of  each  under  Nos.  37,  £8).  The 
distinction  of  the  various  kinds  of  Oriental  saline 
plants  requires  a  new  botanical  treatment  (Kitto, 
Phys.  Geogr.  of  Holy  Land,  p.  eclxvii ;  Pliny,  xix, 
18,  mentions  anions;  the  plants  growing  in  Syria  one 
"  which  yields  a  juice  useful  for  washing  wool,"  under 
the  name  vadicida,  Gr.  arpoi&iov,  comp.  Dioscorides, 
ii,  193  ;  Beckmann,  Gesch.  d.  Erfind.  iv,  18  sq. ;  Spren- 
gel,  ad  Dioscor.  ii,  478,  regards  this  as  no  other  than 
the  Sapcnaria  ojjicinalis).  Formerly,  as  at  the  present 
day  (Rauwolf,  ut  sup. ;  Arvieux,  Reisen,  ii,  163 ;  Be- 
lon,  in  Paulus's  Samml.  iv,  151),  the  ashes  of  these 
plants  formed  an  important  article  of  commerce  in 
Oriental  markets  (thus  their  name  al-kali  is  Arabic)  ; 
end  it  is  not  onh-  employed  (in  the  form  of  lye  or  soap) 
as  a  means  of  cleansing  clothes  and  the  skin  (Jer.  ii, 
22  ;  Mai.  iii,  2 ;  Job  ix,  30),  but  also  in  the  reduction 
of  metals,  e.  g.  silver  and  lead  (Isa.  i,  25),  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass  (comp.  generally  Celsius,  i,  449 
sq. ;  Michaelis,  Commentat.  ut  sup.).     See  Soap. 

Alkoran.     See  Koran. 

Allah  (contracted  from  the  Arabic  al  ilah,  "  the 
God"),  the  usual  name  for  God  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans. It  is  commonly  used  in  connection  with  one  or 
several  of  the  99  epithets  or  attributes  of  God. 

Allah.     See  Oak. 

Allan,  William  (Cardinal),  born  in  Lancashire  in 
1532,  and  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he 
afterward  became,  in  Queen  Mary's  time,  principal 
of  St.  Mary's  Hall,  and  was  also  made  canon  of  York. 
At  Queen  Elizabeth's  accession  he  retreated  to  Lou- 
vain,  and  then  became  professor  at  Douay,  canon  of 
Cambray  and  'Rheims,  and  lastly,  in  1587,  he  was 
made  cardinal-priest  of  St.  Martin's  in  Rome,  and  in 
1588  archbishop  of  Mechlin.  He  was  very  active  in 
collecting  the  English  Romanists  abroad  into  one  body, 
and  in  establishing  a  college,  first  at  Douay  and  then 
at  Rheims.  His  zeal  against  Queen  Elizabeth  show- 
ed itself  in  two  bitter  works,  which  he  published  be- 
fore the  invasion  of  England  by  the  Spaniards,  en- 
couraging King  Philip  to  that  enterprise,  and  urging 
the  subjects  of  Queen  Elizabeth  to  consider  themselves 
absolved  from  their  allegiance,  and  to  execute  the  pa- 
pal ban  dethroning  Elizabeth  and  putting  Philip  II  in 
her  stead.  This  treason  greatly  embittered  the  Eng- 
lish people  against  Allan,  and  the  Earl  of  Arundel  was 
afterward  condemned  to  death  for  corresponding  with 
him.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1594,  and  the  Jesuits  were 
charged  with  poisoning  him.  They,  in  turn,  charged 
the  crime  against  Dr.  Lewis,  bishop  of  Cassona,  who, 
they  said,  hoped  to  succeed  Allan  as  English  cardinal. 
—Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  103;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  vii,  180. 

Allatius,  Leo  (Leo  Allacci  in  Italian),  was  born  in 
1586  of  Greek  parents  in  the  island  of  Chio,  went  to 
Rome  in  1600,  and  studied  at  the  Greek  College  in  that 
city.  When  his  course  of  studies  was  completed,  Ber- 
nard Justiniani,  bishop  of  Anglona,  selected  him  for  his 
grand-vicar.  In  1621  Pope  Gregory  XV  sent  him  into 
Germany  to  bring  to  Rome  the  Palatinate  Library  of 
Heidelberg,  and  Alexander  VII  made  him  librarian 
of  the  Vatican  in  1601,     He  died  in  January,  1669, 


ALLEGORY 


162 


ALLEMANNI 


aged  eighty-three,  having  founded  several  colleges  in 
his  native  island.  According  to  Niceron,  he  was  in- 
defatigable in  his  labors,  and  possessed  a  prodigious 
memory,  stored  with  every  kind  of  knowledge,  but  he 
wanted  judgment  and  critical  acumen.  A  list  of  his 
writings  may  be  found  in  Niceron,  Memoires,  viii,  10. 
The  most  important  of  them  are,  1.  Be  Ecclesice  Occi- 
dent, et  Orient.  Perpetud  Consensione  (Cologne,  1648, 
4to)  : — 2.  De  utriusque  Eccl.  etc.  in  dor/mate  de  Purgato- 
rio  Consensione  (Rome,  1655,  8vo) : — 3.  De  Libris  Eccl. 
Grcecorum  (Paris,  1645,  8vo) : — 4.  Be  Templis  Grceco- 
rum  recentioribus  (Cologne,  1645,  8vo)  : — 5.  Grcecia  Or- 
thodoxy Scrip/ores  (Rome,  1652,  2  vols.  4to)  : — 6.  De 
Octavo  Synodo  Pkotiana  (Francf.  1666,  4to). 

Allegory  (dWijyopia)  occurs  in  the  Bible  only  in 
the  participial  form,  dWijyopovpivog,  allegorized  (Gal. 
iv,  24),  where  the  apostle  cites  the  history  of  the  free- 
born  Isaac  and  the  slave-born  Ishmael,  and  onl}r  speaks 
of  it  as  allegorically  applied.  Allegories  themselves 
are,  however,  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Scripture. 

An  allegory  has  been  sometimes  considered  as  only 
a  lengthened  metaphor ;  at  other  times  as  a  continua- 
tion of  metaphors.  But,  according  to  its  original  and 
proper  meaning,  as  shown  by  its  derivation,  the  term 
denotes  a  representation  of  one  tiling  which  is  intended 
to  excite  the  representation  of  another  thing.  In  most 
allegories  the  immediate  representation  is  made  in  the 
form  of  a  narrative ;  and,  since  it  is  the  object  of  the 
allegory  itself  to  convey  a  moral,  not  a  historic  truth, 
the  narrative  is  commonly  fictitious.  The  immediate 
representation  is  understood  from  the  words  of  the  al- 
legory ;  the  ultimate  representation  depends  upon  the 
immediate  representation  applied  to  the  proper  end. 
The  interpretation  of  the  former  is  commonly  called 
the  grammatical  or  the  literal  interpretation,  although 
we  should  speak  more  correctly  in  calling  it  the  verbal 
interpretation,  since,  in  the  plainest  narratives,  even 
in  narratives  not  designed  for  moral  application,  the 
use  of  words  is  never  restricted  to  their  mere  literal 
senses.  ■  Every  parable  is  a  kind  of  allegory  ;  e.  g.  in 
the  parable  of  the  sower  (Luke  viii,  5-15)  we  have  a 
plain  narrative — a  statement  of  a  few  simple  and  intel- 
ligible facts,  such,  probably,  as  had  fallen  within  the 
observation  of  the  persons  to  whom  our  Saviour  ad- 
dressed himself,  followed  by  the  explanation  or  alle- 
gorical interpretation.  The  impressive  and  pathetic 
allegory  addressed  by  Nathan  to  David  affords  a  sim- 
ilar instance  of  an  allegorical  narrative  accompanied 
with  its  explanation  (2  Sam.  xii,  1-14).  Allegories 
thus  accompanied  constitute  a  kind  of  simile,  in  both 
parts  of  which  the  words  themselves  are  construed 
either  literally  or  figuratively,  according  to  the  re- 
spective use  of  them ;  and  then  we  institute  the  com- 
parison between  the  things  signified  in  the  former  part 
and  the  things  signified  in  the  latter  part.  The  most 
frequent  error  in  the  interpretation  of  allegorical  rep- 
resentations is  the  attempt  to  discover  too  minute  co- 
incidences, or  to  apply  them  in  all  their  details.  See 
Parable. 

But  allegorical  narratives  are  frequently  left  to  ex- 
plain themselves,  especially  when  the  resemblance 
between  the  immediate  and  ultimate  representation  is 
sufficiently  apparent  to  make  an  explanation  unneces- 
sary. Of  this  kind  we  cannot  have  a  more  striking 
example  than  that  beautiful  one  contained  in  the  80th 
Psalm,  "  Thou  broughtest  a  vine  out  of  Egypt,"  etc. 
The  allegorical  delineation  of  old  age  by  Solomon 
(Keel,  xii,  2-6)  is  perhaps  one  of  the  finest'of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  use  of  allegorical  interpretation  is 
not,  however,  confined  to  mere  allegory,  or  fictitious 
narratives,  but  is  extended  also  to  history,  or  real 
narratives.  And  in  this  case  the  grammatical  mean- 
ing of  a  passage  is  called  its  historical,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  its  allegorical  meaning.  There  are  two  modes 
in  which  Scripture  history  has  been  thus  allegorized. 
According  to  one,  facts  and  circumstances,  especially 
those  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament,  have  been  ap- 


plied to  other  facts  and  circumstances,  of  which  they 
have  been  described  as  representative.  According  to 
the  other,  these  facts  and  circumstances  have  been  de- 
scribed as  mere  emblems.  The  former  is  warranted  by 
the  practice  of  the  sacred  writers  themselves;  for 
when  facts  and  circumstances  are  so  applied,  they  are 
applied  as  types  of  those  things  to  which  the  applica- 
tion is  made.  But  the  latter  has  no  such  authority  in 
its  favor,  though  attempts  have  been  made  to  procure 
such  authority.  For  the  same  things  are  there  de- 
scribed, not  as  types  or  as  real  facts,  hut  as  mere  ideal 
representations,  like  the  immediate  representations  in 
allegory.  By  this  mode,  therefore,  history  is  not 
treated  as  allegory,  but  converted  into  allegory — a  mode 
of  interpretation  that  cannot  claim  the  sanction  of 
Paul  from  the  above  treatment  of  the  history  of  Isaac 
and  Ishmael. — Marsh,  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of 
the  Bible,  lect.  v.     See  Interpretation. 

Alleine,  Joseph,  an  eminently  pious  non-conform- 
ist divine,  was  born  at  Devizes  in  1623.  His  piety 
and  love  of  learning  displayed  themselves  very  early, 
and  at  sixteen  he  was  sent  to  Lincoln  College,  Oxford, 
but  in  1651  he  removed  to  Corpus  Christi  College,  a 
Wiltshire  scholarship  being  then  vacant.  In  1653  he 
was  admitted  bachelor  of  arts,  and  in  1655  he  became 
co-pastor  with  the  Rev.  George  Newton,  at  Taunton, 
where  he  labored  with  great  diligence  and  success  un- 
til 1662,  when  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  for  non-con- 
formity, and  on  the  26th  of  May,  1663,  was  committed 
to  Ilchester  jail,  where,  after  being  treated  with  great 
indignity,  together  with  seven  ministers  and  fifty 
Quakers,  he  was  indicted  at  the  assizes  for  preaching 
on  the  17th  of  May,  of  which  he  was  found  guilty,  and 
fined  one  hundred  marks.  He  declared  in  court  "  that, 
whatsoever  he  was  charged  with,  he  was  guilty  of  noth- 
ing but  doing  his  duty."  He  continued  in  prison  a 
year,  and,  after  his  release,  he  was  even  more  zealous 
in  propagating  the  Gospel,  till  his  exertions  brought  on 
illness.  In  1665  he  was  again  apprehended,  and,  with 
some  of  his  friends,  was  committed  to  prison  for  sixty 
days.  The  confinement  increased  his  disorder,  and  he 
rapidly  became  worse,  and  died  November,  1668.  His 
Alarm  to  the  Unconverted  is  one  of  the  most  useful  and 
most  widely  circulated  books  of  practical  religion  ever 
published.— Lfe  of  Alleine,  with  Letters  (N."y.  1840, 
12mo) ;  Stanford,  Life  of  Alleine  (Lond.  1864). 

Allelu'ia  (d\\i]\ovia),  a  Grrecized  form  (Rev. 
xix,  1,  3,  4,  6)  of  the  Heb.  exclamation  Hallelujah 
(q.  v). 

Allernanni,  a  confederacy  of  German  tribes, 
among  which,  probably,  the  Tencteri,  Usipeti,  Chatti, 
and  Vangiones  were  the  most  important.  The  name 
denotes  either  (according  to  Zeuss)  a  confederacy  of 
men  of  different  nations,  or  (according  to  Grimm)  the 
true  descendants  of  Manus,  real  German  men.  They 
appear  for  the  first  time  on  the  stage  of  history  under 
the  reign  of  Caracalla  (211),  who  assumed  the  title  of 
Allemanicus  because  he  pretended  to  have  conquered 
the  Allernanni  on  the  Maine.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
3d  century  they  took  possession  of  the  country  be- 
tween the  Rhine,  Maine,  and  Danube.  There  thej'  ex- 
isted under  this  distinctive  name  until  the  beginning 
of  the  10th  century,  when  Duke  Erchinger  was  exe- 
cuted, and  his  successor  Burcard  proclaimed  Duke  of 
Suabia. 

The  Roman  provinces  on  the  Rhine  and  Danube,  at 
the  time  of  their  occupation  by  the  Allernanni,  were 
partly  inhabited  by  Christians.  The  Allernanni  sup- 
pressed in  some  districts  Christianity  altogether,  while 
in  others  it  was  strong  enough  to  withstand  all  perse- 
cutions. Thus  Paganism  and  Christianity  existed 
side  by  side  until  the  battle  of  Zulpich  (496),  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  Allernanni  became  subject  to 
the  Franks,  who  now  entered  the  Christian  Church. 
The  connection  of  the  Allemannic  dukes  and  grandees 
with  the  Prankish  kings,  the  Prankish   legislation, 


ALLEN 


163 


ALLEN 


especially  the  lex  Allemannica  of  Dagobert  the  Great 
(630),  and  the  efforts  of  the  bishops  of  the  neighboring 
sees  of  Augsburg  and  Vindenissa,  greatly  promoted 
the  spreading  of  Christianity.  When  the  latter  see 
■was  transferred  to  Constance,  an  Allemannic  city,  the 
growth  of  Christianity  became  still  more  rapid.  Among 
the  missionaries  who  labored  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Allemanni,  Fridolin  (550),  Columban  and  Callus  (610), 
Trudpert  (640),  and  Pirminius  (724),  are  best  known. 
(See  these  articles.)  At  the  time  of  Boniface  (740) 
the  Christianization  of  the  country  seems  to  have  been 
completed.  See  Hefele,  E'mfuhrmig  des  Christen/hums 
im  siidwestlichen  Deutschland  (Tubing.  1837);  Stalin, 
Wurtemb.   Gesch.  i.     Compare  Germany  ;    Baden  ; 

WURTEMBERG. 

Allen,  Benjamin,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  September  29,  1789, 
was  bred  a  Presbyterian,  and  obtained  his  education 
under  many  difficulties  by  strenuous  exertion.  In 
1814  he  entered  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and 
was  licensed  as  a  lay  reader  in  Charlestown,  Va.,  where 
he  gave  special  attention  to  the  instruction  of  the  col- 
ored people.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1816  and 
priest  in  1818.  In  1815  he  published  (for  one  year)  a 
■weekly  paper  called  the  '■'Layman's  Magazine"  and  in 
1820  an  A  bridgment  of  Burnet's  History  of  the  Refor- 
mation (1  vol.),  which  had  a  very  large  sale.  In  1821 
he  was  chosen  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church,  Philadel- 
phia, as  successor  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pilmore.  Here  his 
labors  as  pastor  and  preacher  were  incessant,  and  he 
added  to  them  a  great  deal  of  literary  work.  In  1822 
he  published  Christ  and  Him  Crucified  (12mo),  and 
Living  Manners,  a  tale  (12mo)  ;  in  1823-4,  a  History  of 
the  Church  of  Christ  (2  vols.  8vo) ;  in  1825,  The  Pa- 
rents' Counsellor;  a  Narrative  of  the  Newton  Family; 
and  a  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Dr.  Pilmore.  In  1827  he  es- 
tablished a  publishing  house,  called  "  The  Prayer-book 
and  Missionary  House,"  to  cheapen  prayer-books, 
tracts,  etc.,  and  wrote  for  publication  several  small 
practical  and  biographical  works.  Under  these  accu- 
mulated labors  his  health  broke  down,  and  he  sailed 
for  Europe  in  March,  1828.  In  England  he  impru- 
dently allowed  himself  to  be  called  into  frequent  ser- 
vice at  anniversaries  and  public  meetings,  and  his 
strength  failed  entirely  by  midsummer.  He  died  on 
the  return  voyage  to  America,  Jan.  13, 1829.  Besides 
the  publications  above  named,  he  published  also  a  num- 
ber of  separate  sermons,  and  several  small  volumes  of 
poems,  written  in  early  life. — Sprague,  Annals,  v,  591. 

Allen,  Cardinal.     See  Allan. 

Allen,  David  Oliver,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister  and  missionary,  was  born  in  1800  at  Barre, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1823, 
studied  theology  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
.1824-27,  went,  with  his  wife,  as  missionary  to  India  in 
1827.  In  1844  he  took  charge  of  the  printing  estab- 
lishment in  Bombay,  employing  at  that  time  one  hun- 
dred persons.  He  published  several  tracts  in  the  Mah- 
ratta  language,  and  superintended  a  revised  and  cor- 
rected edition  of  the  whole  Scriptures  in  that  language. 
He  returned,  on  account  of  enfeebled  health,  to  Amer- 
ica in  June,  1853,  and  published  in  1856  a  ^History  of 
India,  Ancient  and  Modern."  He  was  a  member  of  the 
"  Royal  Asiatic  Society"  and  the  "  American  Oriental 
Society."     He  died  in  Lowell,  July  17,  1863. 

Allen,  Henry.     See  Allenites. 

Allen,  James,  a  Puritan  minister,  was  born  in 
England  in  1632.  He  was  a  fellow  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  but  was  ejected  for  non-conformity  in  1662, 
came  to  America,  and  was  ordained  teacher  of  the 
First  Church,  Boston,  December  9,  1668,  as  colleague 
with  Mr.  Davenport,  who  was  at  the  same  time  or- 
dained pastor.  He  served  this  church  for  forty  years 
with  dignity  and  industry,  but  without  remarkable  suc- 
cess. Several  of  his  occasional  sermons  were  printed. 
He  died  September  22, 1710.— Sprague,  Annals,  i,  163. 


Allen,  John,  one  of  the  early  ministers  of  Massa- 
chusetts, was  born  in  England  in  1596,  and  was  driven 
from  his  native  land  during  the  persecution  of  the  Pu- 
ritans. Removing  to  New  England,  he  was  settled 
pastor  of  the  church  at  Dedham,  April  24,  1639,  where 
he  continued  till  his  death,  August  26, 1671.  He  was 
a  man  of  considerable  distinction  in  his  day.  He  pul>- 
lished  a  defence  of  the  nine  positions,  in  which,  with 
Mr.  Shepard  of  Cambridge,  he  discusess  the  points  of 
Church  discipline,  and  a  defence  of  tho  synod  of  1662, 
against  Mr.  Chauncy,  under  the  title  of  Animadver- 
sions upon  the  Antisynodalia  (4to,  16ii4). — Allen,  Bio- 
graphical Diet.  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  53. 

Allen,  John,  chancellor  of  Ireland,  was  born  in 
1476,  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  took  his  bachelor's 
degree  at  Cambridge.  He  soon  obtained  several  ben- 
efices, and  was  sent  by  Archbishop  Warham  to  Rome 
on  ecclesiastical  affairs;  he  spent  nine  years  there, 
and,  on  his  return,  "Wolsey  made  him  his  chaplain. 
He  was  made  archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1528,  and  soon 
after  chancellor.  He  was  an  active  assistant  of  Car- 
dinal Wolsey  in  the  spoliation  of  the  religious  houses, 
and  was  a  learned  canonist.  Allen  was  murdered  by 
Thomas  Fitzgerald,  son  of  the  earl  of  Kildare,  July  28, 
1534,  and  his  death  was  regarded  by  the  people  as  a  di- 
vine judgment  upon  him  for  having  been  instrumental 
in  the  destruction  of  forty  monasteries.  He  wrote 
Epist.  de  Pallii  Signification,  and  other  pieces  relating 
to  ecclesiastical  subjects. — Biog.  Univ.  torn,  i,  p.  590 ; 
Rose,  Biog.  Dictionary-  Landon,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v.; 
Wood,  Atheiue  Oxonienscs. 

Allen,  John,  a  learned  layman,  was  born  at  Truro, 
in  Cornwall,  England,  in  1771,  and  conducted  for  up- 
ward of  thirty  years  a  private  school  in  London,  where 
he  died  in  1839.  He  published  a  work  on  Modem 
Judaism  (8vo,  London,  1816  and  1830).  Bickersteth 
calls  it  the  best  work  on  the  subject  in  the  English 
language.  In  1813  he  published  a  translation  of  Cal- 
i  vin's  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,  which  has  con- 
1  turned  to  be  the  standard  English  version  of  that  great 
i  work,  though  it  may  now,  perhaps  (1862),  be  super- 
I  seded  by  Beveridge's  new  translation.  Allen's  edition 
of  the  Institutes  was  reprinted  at  New  York  (1819,  4to), 
and  often  since  in  2  vols.  8vo,  in  which  form  it  is  is- 
sued by  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication,  Phila- 
delphia.— Darling,  Cyclopcedia  Bibliographica,  i,  49 ; 
Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  53. 

Allen,  John,  was  pastor  of  a  Baptist  eongrega- 
i  tion  at  Spitalfields,  1764  to  1767.      Engaging  in  busi- 
I  ness,  he  became  involved  in  difficulties,  was  tried  for 
forgery,  and  was  acquitted.     He  subsequently  went 
|  to  New  York,  and  had  some  reputation  as  a  preacher 
;  there  until  his   death.     He  published  The  Sjriritual 
Magazine,  or  the  Christian' s  Grand  Treasure,  wherein 
the  Doctrines  of  the  Bible  are  unfolded  (Lond.  1752  ;  re- 
printed, with  preface  by  Romaine,  Lond.  1810,  3  vols. 
8vo) ;  Chain  of  Truth,  a  dissertation  on  the  Harmony 
,  of  the  Gospels  (1764). — Wilson,  Dissenting  Churches, 
j  iv,  426  ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliographica,  i,  49. 
!      Allen,  Moses,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  born  in  Northampton,  Massachu- 
setts, September  14,  1748.     He  was  educated  at  Prince- 
ton, where  he  graduated  in  1772.     He  was  ordained 
at  Christ's  Church  parish,  about  twenty  miles  from 
Charleston,  S.  C,  March  26,  1775.     In  1777  he  re- 
moved to  Midway,  Georgia.     The  British  arm}'  from 
'  Florida,  under  General  Prevost,  dispersed  his  society 
I  in  1778,  and  burned  the  church,  almost  every  dwell- 
ing-house, and  the  crops  of  rice  then  in  stacks.     In 
|  December  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  British,  and 
i  treated  with  great  severity.     Seeing  no  prospect  of 
release  from  the  prison-ship  where  he  was  confined, 
,  he  determined  to  attempt  the  recover}'  of  his  liberty 
by  jumping  overboard  and  swimming  to  an  adjacent 
point;  but  he  was  drowned  in  the  attempt,  February 
i  8, 1779. — Allen,  Biog.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 


ALLEN 


164 


ALLENITES 


Allen,  Richard,  first  bishop  of  the  African  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  17G0.  After  17 
years'  service  in  the  Methodist  ministry,  to  which  he 
had  been  ordained  by  Bishop  Asbury,  he  was  elected 
bishop  of  the  newly-formed  "African  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church"  (q.  v.)  in  1816.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, March  26, 1831. — Gorrie,  Churches  and  Sects, 
p.  54. 

Allen,  Solomon,  a  useful  minister  of  the  Gos- 
pel, brother  of  Moses  Allen  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  North- 
ampton, Februarj'  23,  1751.  He,  with  four  of  his 
brothers,  entered  the  army  in  the  Revolutionary  war, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major.  At  40  he  was  convert- 
ed, and  was  made  deacon  of  the  church  at  Northamp- 
ton. Soon  after  he  felt  it  his  duty  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel, but  the  neighboring  clergy  discouraged  him,  on 
account  of  his  great  age  and  his  want  of  theological 
learning.  But  he  was  not  to  be  hindered  ;  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  and  went  for  his 
theology  to  the  works  of  Hoar  and  Baxter.  At  fifty 
years  of  age  he  entered  upon  a  career  of  voluntary  la- 
bor as  a  preacher,  which  lasted,  chiefly  in  the  new  set- 
tlements in  Western  New  York,  for  20  years.  "  He 
rejoiced  in  fatigues  and  privations  in  the  service  of  his 
beloved  Master.  Sometimes,  in  his  journeys,  he  re- 
posed himself  with  nothing  but  a  blanket  to  protect 
him  from  the  inclemencj'  of  the  weather.  But  though 
poor,  he  was  the  means  of  enriching  many  with  the 
inestimable  riches  of  religion.  Four  churches  were 
established  by  him,  and  he  numbered  about  two  hun- 
dred souls  as  by  his  preaching  reclaimed  from  perdi- 
tion. Though  poor  himself,  there  were  those  con- 
nected with  him  who  were  rich,  and  by  whose  liber- 
ality he  was  enabled  to  accomplish  his  benevolent 
purposes.  From  such  sources  he  expended  about  a 
thousand  dollars  in  books  and  clothing  for  the  people 
in  the  wilderness."  In  1820  he  returned  to  Massachu- 
setts. "  At  Pittsli  Id,  where  some  of  his  relations  lived, 
and  where  his  brother  had  been  the  minister,  Mr.  Allen 
went  through  the  streets,  and  entering  each  house, 
read  a  chapter  in  the  Bible,  exhorting  all  the  members 
of  the  family  to  serve  God,  and  praying  fervently  for 
their  salvation.  In  like  manner  he  visited  other 
towns.  He  felt  that  the  time  was  short,  and  he  was 
constrained  to  do  all  the  good  in  his  power.  With  his 
white  locks,  and  the  strong,  impressive  tones  of  his 
voice,  and  having  a  known  character  for  sanctity,  all 
were  awed  at  the  presence  of  the  man  of  God.  He 
went  about  with  the  holy  zeal  and  authority  of  an 
apostle.  In  prayer  Mr.  Allen  displayed  a  sublimity 
and  pathos  which  good  judges  have  considered  as  un- 
equaled  by  any  ministers  whom  they  have  known.  It 
was  the  energy  of  true  faith  and  strong  feeling.  In 
November  he  arrived  at  New  York,  and  there,  after  a 
few  weeks,  he  expired  in  the  arms  of  his  children,  Jan. 
28, 1821."— Allen,  Biog.  Dict'.onary,  s.  v. 

Allen,  Thomas,  a  non-conformist  minister,  was 
born  at  Norwich,  England,  1608,  and  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  afterward  minister  of  St.  Edmond's, 
in  Norwich,  but  was  silenced  by  Bishop  Wren,  about 
1636,  for  refusing  to  read  the*  Book  of  Sports.  In 
1638  be  fled  to  New  England,  and  was  installed  in 
<  Ibarlestown,  where  he  preached  the  Gospel  till  about 
1651,  when  lie  returned  to  Norwich,  and  continued 
the  exercise  of  his  ministry  till  1662,  when  he  was 
ejected  for  non-conformity.  He  died  September  21, 
1673.  He  published  a  Chain  of  Scripture  Chronology, 
from  the  Creation  till  th,  Death  of  Christ  (Lond.  1659, 
4to),  and  a  number  of  practical  writings. — Darling, 
Cyclop.  BibUographica,  i,  51  ;  Allen,  /lie;/.  Diet,  s.  v. 

Allen,  Thomas,  a  Church  of  England  divine,  was 
born  .it  t  (xford  in  1682,  and  was  educated  at  Wadham 
College.  He  became  rector  of  Kettering  in  1714,  and 
continued  to  serve  that  parish  until  his  death,  May  .il, 
1755.  lie  published  .1»  Apology  for  the  Church  of 
England  (Lond.  1725,  8vo)  ;  The  Christian  s  sure  Guide 


to  eternal  Glory,  Expositions  of  Rev.  ii,  iii  (Lond.  1733, 
8vo);  The  Practice  of  a  Holy  Life  (Lond.  1716,  8vo). 
—Darling,  Cyclop.  BibUographica,  i,  51;  Nichols,  Il- 
lustrations, iii,  789. 

Allen,  Thomas,  brother  of  Moses,  and  first  min- 
ister of  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  was  born  January  7,  1743, 
at  Northampton.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, and  passed  A.B.  in  1762.  After  studying  theol- 
ogy under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Hooker  of  Northamp- 
ton, Mr.  Allen  was  ordained  April  18, 1764.  During 
a  ministry  of  forty-six  years  he  was  unwearied  in  his 
sacred  calling.  Besides  his  stated  labors  on  the  Sab- 
bath, he  frequently  delivered  lectures,  and  in  the 
course  of  his  life  preached  six  or  seven  hundred  fu- 
neral sermons.  During  the  war  of  the  Revolution  he 
went  out  twice  as  a  volunteer  chaplain.  He  died 
February  11,  1810.— Sprague,  Annals,  i,  608;  Allen, 
Biog.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Allen,  "William  (Cardinal).     See  Allan. 

Allen,  William,  a  tradesman  of  London,  whose 
works  were  highly  esteemed  by  Bishop  Kidder  and 
others,  was  originally  an  Independent,  but  from  con- 
viction joined  the  Church  of  England  in  1658.  He 
died  in  1686,  at  an  advanced  age.  His  Works  were 
published  at  London,  folio,  in  1707,  with  a  preface  con- 
cerning the  author  and  his  writings,  by  the  bishop  of 
Chichester.  Bishop  Kidder  preached  his  funeral  ser- 
mon.—Darling,  Cyclop.  BibUographica,  i,  51. 

Allen,  "William,  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  and  a  distinguished  Christian  philanthropist, 
was  born,  in  1770,  at  Spitalfields.  He  founded,  in 
1797,  with  Mr.  Philips,  the  "Spitalfields  Soup  So- 
ciety," exerted  himself  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade,  and  of  capital  punishment  in  the  case  of  minor 
offences,  for  the  improvement  of  primary  schools  and 
prisons,  for  the  establishment  of  saving  funds  and 
other  similar  purposes.  From  1816  to  1833  he  visited 
four  times  the  principal  countries  of  Europe  in  behalf 
of  his  philanthropic  enterprises.  Many  years  before 
his  death,  Mr.  Allen  purchased  an  estate  near  Lind- 
field,  Sussex,  and  withdrew  from  business.  Here, 
while  still  zealously  engaging  in  public  schemes  of 
usefulness  and  benevolence,  he  carried  out  various 
philanthropic  plans  for  the  improvement  of  his  imme- 
diate dependents  and  poorer  neighbors.  He  erected 
commodious  cottages  on  his  property,  with  an  ample 
allotment  of  land  attached  to  each  cottage ;  and  he 
established  schools  at  Lindfield  for  boys,  girls,  and  in- 
fants, with  workshops,  out-houses,  and  play-grounds. 
About  three  acres  of  land  were  cultivated  on  the  most 
approved  system  by  the  boarders,  who  also  took  a  part 
in  household  work.  The  subjects  taught  were  land- 
surveying,  mapping,  the  elements  of  botany,  the  use 
of  the  barometer,  rain-gauge,  etc.,  and  there  was  a 
good  library  with  various  scientific  and  useful  appa- 
ratus. He  died  at  his  house  near  Lindfield,  Decem- 
ber 30, 1843.— Sherman,  Life  of  William  Allen  (1857, 
8vo)  ;  English  Cyclvpadia,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Dictionary 
<>f  A  uthors,  i,  54. 

Allenites,  the  followers  of  Henry  Allen,  born  at 
Newport,  R.  I.,  June  14, 1748,  a  man  of  natural  capacity 
but  undisciplined  mind,  who,  about  the  year  1774,  jour- 
neyed through  most  parts  of  the  province  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia, and,  by  his  popular  talents,  made  many  converts. 
He  also  published  several  treatises  and  sermons,  in 
which  he  maintains  that  the  souls  of  all  the  human  race 
are  emanations,  or  rather  parts,  of  the  one  Great  Spirit, 
but  that  originally  they  had  individually  the  powers 
of  moral  agents — that  they  were  all  present  with  our 
first  parents  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  and  were  actually 
in  the  first  transgression.  He  supposes  that  our  first 
parents  in  innocency  were  pure  spirits;  that  the  ma- 
terial world  was  not  then  made;  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  fall,  mankind  being  cut  off  from  God,  that  they 
might  not  sink  into  immediate  destruction,  the  world 
wag  produced,  and  they  were  clothed  with  hard  bod- 


ALLESTREE 


165 


ALLIANCE 


ies ;  and  that  all  the  human  race  will  in  their  turns, 
by  natural  generation,  be  invested  with  such  bodies, 
and  in  them  enjoy  a  state  of  probation.  He  main- 
tains that  the  body  of  our  Saviour  was  never  raised 
from  the  grave,  and  that  none  of  the  bodies  of  men 
ever  will  be ;  but  when  the  original  number  of  souls 
have  had  their  course  on  earth  they  will  all  receive 
their  reward  or  punishment  in  their  original  unem- 
bodied  state.  He  held  baptism,  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  ordination,  to  be  matters  of  indifference.  Allen 
died  in  1784,  after  which  his  part}'  greatly  declined. — 
Adams's  Did.  of  Religions ;  Gregoire,  Hist,  des  Sectes, 
v,  110  sq. 

Allestree,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
divine,  born  at  Uppington,  Shropshire,  1619,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  In  1(541  he  took  up  arms  for  the  king, 
and,  after  the  royal  downfall,  he  took  orders.  In  1660 
he  was  made  regius  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford  and 
canon  of  Christ  Church.  In  1665  he  was  elected  pro- 
vost at  Eton,  where  he  died  1680.  He  was  a  laborious 
scholar,  and  did  a  great  deal  for  Eton  College.  He 
published  Forty  Sermons  (Oxf.  1684,  2  vols,  fol.).— 
Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  142. 

Alley,  William,  bishop  of  Exeter,  was  born 
about  1512  at  Great  Wycomb,  Bucks;  he,was  edu- 
cated at  Eton,  from  whence,  in  1528,  he  went  to  King's 
College,  Cambridge ;  after  having  taken  his  degree 
of  A.B.  in  that  university,  he  removed  to  Oxford.  At 
this  time  the  contest  between  the  Romish  and  the  re- 
forming part}'  in  the  Church  of  England  was  carried 
on  with  much  violence  on  both  sides.  Alley  attached 
himself  zealously  to  the  reformers,  and,  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Queen  Mary,  thought  it  expedient  to  conceal 
himself,  and  earned  an  honorable  maintenance  in  the 
north  of  England  by  practising  physic  and  educating 
youth.  When  Queen  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne, 
he  returned  to  London,  and  read  the  divinity  lecture 
in  St.  Paul's.  He  is  said  to  have  discharged  this  office 
with  great  ability ;  and  he  is  also  distinguished  as  the 
translator  of  the  Pentateuch  for  Archbishop  Parker's 
Bible.  On  the  14th  of  July,  1560,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Exeter,  and  discharged  his  duties  faithfully 
until  his  death  in  1571.  He  published  an  exposition 
of  1  Peter  in  The  Poor  Man  s  Library  (Lond.  1565,  fol.). 

Alliance,  a  confederacy  formed  by  treaty  between 
two  nations  for  their  amicable  intercourse  and  mutual 
advantage.  Compacts  of  this  character  are  designated 
in  Scripture  by  various  terms,  e.  g.  league  ;  cove- 
nant ;   TREATY,  etc. 

1.  History  of  Jcicish  Treaties. — Anterior  to  the  Mo- 
saical  institutions,  such  alliances  with  foreigners  were 
not  forbidden.  Abraham  was  in  alliance  with  some 
of  the  Canaanitish  princes  (Gen.  xiv,  13) ;  he  also  en- 
tered into  a  regular  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  Philis- 
tine king  Abimelech  (ch.  xxi,  22  sq.),  which  was  re- 
newed by  their  sons  (ch.  xxvi,  26-30).  This  primitive 
treaty  is  a  model  of  its  kind ;  it  leaves  all  details  to 
the  honest  interpretation  of  the  contracting  parties. 
Abimelech  says:  "Swear  unto  me  here  by  God  that 
thou  wilt  not  deal  falsely  with  me,  nor  with  my  son, 
nor  with  my  son's  son  ;  but  according  to  the  kindness 
that  I  have  done  unto  thee  thou  shalt  do  unto  me, 
and  unto  the  land  wherein  thou  hast  sojourned."  Even 
after  the  law  it  appears  that  such  alliances  with  dis- 
tint  nations  as  could  not  be  supposed  to  have  any 
dangerous  effect  upon  the  religion  or  morals  of  the 
people  were  not  deemed  to  be  prohibited.  Thus,  in 
the  case  of  the  treaty  with  the  Gibeonites,  Joshua  and 
the  elders  are  condemned  for  it  only  on  the  ground 
that  the  Gibeonites  were  in  fact  their  near  neighbors 
(Josh,  ix,  3-27). 

On  the  first  establishment  of  the  Israelites  in  Pal- 
estine, lest  the  example  of  foreign  nations  should  draw 
them  into  the  worship  of  idols,  intercourse  and  alli- 
ance with  such  nations  were  strongly  interdicted  (Lev. 
sviii,  3,  4 ;  xx,  22,  23).     For  the  same  object  of  po- 


litical isolation  a  country  was  assigned  to  them  shut 
in  by  the  sea  on  the  west,  by  deserts  on  the  south  and 
east,  and  by  mountains  and  forests  on  the  north.  But 
with  the  extension  of  their  power  under  the  kings,  the 
Jews  were  brought  more  into  contact  with  foreigners, 
and  alliances  became  essential  to  the  security  of  their 
commerce  (q.  v.).  These  diplomatic  arrangements 
may  primarily  be  referred  to  a  partial  change  of  feel- 
ing which  originated  in  the  time  of  David,  and  which 
continued  to  operate  among  his  descendants.  During 
his  wanderings  he  was  brought  into  association  with 
several  of  the  neighboring  princes,  from  some  of  whom 
he  received  sympathy  and  support,  which,  after  he 
ascended  the  throne,  he  gratefully  remembered  (2 
Sam.  x,  2).  He  married  the  daughter  of  a  heathen 
king,  and  had  by  her  his  favorite  son  (2  Sam.  iii,  3)  ; 
the  king  of  Moab  protected  his  family  (1  Sam.  xxii, 
3,  4)  ;  the  king  of  Amnion  showed  kindness  to  him 
(2  Sam.  x,  2);  the  king  of  Gath  showered  favors 
upon  him  (1  Sam.  xxvii ;  xxviii,  1,  2) ;  the  king  of 
Hamath  sent  his  own  son  to  congratulate  him  on  his 
victories  (2  Sam.  viii,  15);  in  short,  the  rare  power 
which  David  possessed  of  attaching  to  himself  the 
good  opinion  and  favor  of  other  men,  extended  even 
to  the  neighboring  nations,  and  it  would  have  been 
difficult  for  a  person  of  his  disposition  to  repel  the  ad- 
vances of  kindness  and  consideration  which  they  made. 
Among  those  who  made  such  advances  was  Hiram, 
king  of  Tyre;  for  it  eventually  transpires  that  "Hi- 
ram was  ever  a  lover  of  David"  (1  Kings  v,  2),  and  it 
is  probable  that  other  intercourse  had  preceded  that 
relating  to  the  palace  which  Hiram's  artificers  built 
for  David  (2  Sam.  v,  11).  The  king  of  Tyre  was  not 
disposed  to  neglect  the  cultivation  of  the  friendly  in- 
tercourse with  the  Hebrew  nation  which  had  thus 
been  opened.  He  sent  an  embassy  to  condole  with 
Solomon  on  the  death  of  his  father,  and  to  congratu- 
late him  on  his  own  accession  (1  Kings  v,  1).  The 
plans  of  the  young  king  rendered  the  friendship  of 
Hiram  a  matter  of  importance,  and  accordingly  "a 
league"  was  formed  (1  Kings  v,  12)  between  them  ;  and 
that  this  league  had  a  reference  not  merely  to  the  spe- 
cial matter  then  in  view,  but  was  a  general  league  of 
amity,  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  more  than  250  years 
after  a  prophet  denounces  the  Lord's  vengeance  upon 
Tyre,  because  she  "remembered  not  the  brotherly 
covenant"  (Amos  i,  9).  Under  this  league  large  bod- 
ies of  Jews  and  Phoenicians  were  associated,  first  in 
preparing  the  materials  for  the  Temple  (1  Kings  v, 
6-18),  and  afterward  in  navigating  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  Indian  Ocean  (1  Kings  ix,  26-28).  Solomon  also 
contracted  an  alliance  with  a  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt, 
which  was  cemented  by  his  marriage  with  a  princess 
of  the  royal  family ;  by  this  he  secured  a  monopoly 
of  the  trade  in  horses  and  other  products  of  that  coun- 
try (1  Kings  x,  28,  29).  After  the  division  of  the 
kingdom  the  alliances  were  of  an  offensive  and  defen- 
sive nature ;  they  had  their  origin  partly  in  the  inter- 
nal disputes  of  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel,  and 
partly  in  the  position  which  these  countries  held  rela- 
tively to  Egypt  on  the  one  side,  and  the  great  Eastern 
monarchies  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  on  the  other. 
The  scantiness  of  the  historical  records  at  our  com- 
mand makes  it  probable  that  the  key  to  many  of  the 
events  that,  occurred  is  to  be  found  in  the  alliances 
and  counter-alliances  formed  between  these  people, 
of  which  no  mention  is  made.  Thus  the  invasion  of 
Shishak  in  Rehoboam's  reign  was  not  improbably  the 
result  of  an  alliance  made  with  Jeroboam,  who  had 
previously  found  an  asylum  in  Egypt  (1  Kings  xii,  2  ; 
xiv,  25).  Each  of  these  monarchs  sought  a  connec- 
tion with  the  neighboring  kingdom  of  Syria,  on  which 
side  Israel  was  particularly  assailable  (1  Kings  xv, 
19);  but  Asa  ultimately  succeeded  in  securing  the 
active  co-operation  of  Benhadad  airainst  Baasha  (1 
Kings  xv,  16-20).  Another  policy,  induced  probably 
by  the  encroaching  spirit  of  Syria,  led  to  the  formation 


ALLIANCE 


166 


ALLIANCE 


of  an  alliance  between  the  two  kingdoms  under  Ahab 
and  Jehoshaphat,  which  was  maintained  until  the  end 
of  Ahab's  dynasty  ;  it  occasionally  extended  to  com- 
mercial operations  (2  Chron.  xx,  36).  The  alliance 
ceased  in  Jehu's  reign  ;  war  broke  out  shortly  after 
between  Amaziah  and  Jeroboam  II ;  each  nation  look- 
ed for  foreign  aid,  and  a  coalition  was  formed  between 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah  on  the  one  side,  and 
Ahaz  and  Tiglath- Piles  sr,  king  of  Assyria,  on  the 
other  (2  Kings  xvi,  5-9).  By  this  means  an  opening 
was  afforded  to  the  advances  of  the  Assyrian  power; 
and  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  as  they  were 
successively  attacked,  sought  the  alliance  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, who  were  strongly  interested  in  maintaining  the 
independence  of  the  Jews  as  a  barrier  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  Assyrian  power.  Thus  Hoshea 
made  a  treat}-  with  So  (Sabaco,  or  Sevechus),  and  re- 
belled against  Shalmaneser  (2  Kings  xvii,  4) ;  Heze- 
kiah  adopted  the  same  policy  in  opposition  to  Sen- 
nacherib (Isa.  xxx,  2):  in  neither  case  was  the  alliance 
productive  of  much  good — the  Israelites  were  aban- 
doned by  So ;  it  appears  probable  that  his  successor 
Sethos,  who  had  offended  the  military  caste,  was  un- 
able to  render  Hezekiah  any  assistance ;  and  it  was 
only  when  the  independence  of  Egypt  itself  was  threat- 
ened that  the  Assyrians  were  defeated  by  the  joint 
forces  of  Sethos  and  Tirhakah,  and  a  temporary  relief 
afforded  thereby  to  Judah  (2  Kings  xix, 9,  36 ;  Herod, 
ii,  141j.  The  weak  condition  of  Egypt  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  26th  dynasty  left  Judah  entirely  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Assyrians,  who,  under  Esarhaddon,  sub- 
dued the  country,  and  by  a  conciliatory  policy  secured 
the  adhesion  of  Manasseh  and  his  successors  to  his 
side  against  Egypt  (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  11-13).  It  was 
apparently  as  an  ally  of  the  Assyrians  that  Josiah  re- 
sisted the  advance  of  Necho  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  20). 
His  defeat,  however,  and  the  downfall  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  again  changed  the  policy  of  the  Jews,  and 
made  them  the  subjects  of  Egypt.  Nebuchadnezzar's 
first  expedition  against  Jerusalem  was  contempora- 
neous with  and  probably  in  consequence  of  the  expe- 
dition of  Necho  against  the  Babylonians  (2  Kings 
xxiv,  1 ;  Jer.  xlvi,  2) ;  and  lastly,  Zedekiah's  rebel- 
lion was  accompanied  with  a  renewal  of  the  alliance 
with  Egypt  (Ezek.  xvii,  15).  A  temporary  relief  ap- 
peals to  have  been  afforded  by  the  advance  of  Hophrah 
(Jer.  xxxvii,  11),  but  it  was  of  no  avail  to  prevent  the 
extinction  of  Jewish  independence. 

<)u  the  restoration  of  independence,  Judas  Maeca- 
baius  sought  an  alliance  with  the  Romans,  who  were 
then  gaining  an  ascendency  in  the  East,  as  a  counter- 
poise to  the  neighboring  state  of  Syria  (1  Mace,  viii ; 
Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  10,  6)  :  this  alliance  was  renewed  by 
Jonathan  (1  Mace,  xii,  1;  Ant.  xiii,  5,  8),  and  by  Si- 
mon (1  Mace,  xv,  17  ;  Ant.  xiii,  7,  3);  on  the  last  oc- 
casion the  independence  of  the  Jews  was  recognised 
and  formally  notified  to  the  neighboring  nations,  B.C. 
110  (1  Mace,  xv,  22,  23).  Treaties  of  a  friendly  na- 
ture were  at  the  same  period  concluded  with  the  Lac- 
edemonians under  an  impression  that  they  came  of  a 
common  stock  (1  Mace,  xii,  2;  xiv,  20;  Ant.  xii,  4, 
10;  xiii,  5,  8).  The  Roman  alliance  was  again  re- 
newed by  Hyrcanus,  B.C.  128  (Ant.  xiii,  9,  2),  after 
his  defeat  by  Antiochus  Sidetes,  and  the  losses  he  had 
sustained  were  repaired.  This  alliance,  however,  ul- 
timately proved  fatal  to  the  independence  of  the  Jews  : 
the  rival  claims  of  Hyrcanus  ami  Aristobulus  having 
been  referred  to  Pompey,  B.C.  63,  lie  availed  himself 
of  the  opportunity  of  placing  the  country  under  trib- 
ute (Ant.  xiv,  4,  1).  Finally,  Herod  was  raised  to 
the  sovereignty  by  the  Roman  senate,  acting  under 
the  advice  of  M.  Antony  (Ant.  xiv,  14,  5). 

2.  Their.  Religious  and  Political  Effects. — This  inter- 
course with  the  heathen  appears  to  have  considerably 
weakened  the  sentiment  of  separation,  which,  in  the 
case  of  the  Hebrews,  it  was  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  maintain.     The  disastrous  consequences  of  even 


the  seemingly  least  objectionable  alliances  may  be 
seen  in  the  long  train  of  evils,  both  to  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  and  of  Judah,  which  ensued  from  the  marriage 
of  Ahab  with  Jezebel,  the  king  of  Tyre's  daughter. 
See  Ahab  ;  Jezebel.  These  consequences  had  teen 
manifested  even  in  the  time  of  Solomon  ;  for  he  form- 
ed matrimonial  alliances  with  most  of  the  neighboring 
kingdoms,  and  to  the  influence  of  his  idolatrous  wives 
are  ascribed  the  abominations  which  darkened  the  lat- 
ter days  of  the  wise  king  (1  Kings  xi,  1-8).  The 
prophets,  who  were  alive  to  these  consequences,  often 
raised  their  voices  against  such  dangerous  connections 
(1  Kings  xx,  38 ;  2  Chron.  xvi,  7 ;  xix,  2 ;  xxv,  7, 
etc. ;  Isa.  vii,  17) ;  but  it  was  found  a  difficult  matter 
to  induce  even  the  best  kings  to  place  such  absolute 
faith  in  Jehovah,  the  Head  of  their  state,  as  to  neglect 
altogether  those  human  resources  and  alliances  by 
which  other  nations  strengthened  themselves  against 
their  enemies.  Remarkable  instances  of  this  are  those 
of  Asa,  one  of  the  most  pious  monarchs  of  Judah  (1 
Kings  xv,  16-20),  and,  in  a  less  degree,  of  Ahaz  (2 
Kings  xvi,  5,  etc. ;  2  Chron.  xviii,  16,  etc.).  In  later 
times  the  Maccabees  appear  to  have  considered  them- 
selves unrestrained  by  any  but  the  ordinary  pruden- 
tial considerations  in  contracting  alliances ;  but  they 
confined  their  treaties  to  distant  st:.tes,  which  were  by 
no  means  likely  ever  to  exercise  th:;t  influence  upon 
the  religion  of  the  people  which  was  the  chief  object 
of  dread.  The  most  remarkable  alliances  of  this  kind 
in  the  whole  Hebrew  history  are  those  which  were 
contracted  with  the.  Romans,  who  were  then  begin- 
ning to  take  a  part  in  the  affairs  of  Western  Asia. 
Judas  claimed  their  friend!}'  intervention  in  a  nego- 
tiation then  pending  between  the  Jews  and  Antiochus 
Etipator  (2  Mace,  xi,  34  sq.)  ;  and  two  years  after  he 
sent  ambassadors  to  the  banks  cf  the  Tiber  to  propose 
a  treaty  of  alliance  end  amity.  By  the  terms  of  this 
treaty  the  Romans  ostensibly  threw  over  the  Jews  the 
broad  shield  of  their  dangerous  protection,  promising 
to  assist  them  in  their  wars,  and  forbidding  any  who 
were  at  peace  with  themselves  to  be  at  war  with  the 
Jews,  or  to  assist  directly  or  indirectly  those  who 
were  so.  The  Jews,  on  their  part,  engaged  to  assist 
the  Iiomans  to  the  utmost  of  their  power  in  any  wars 
they  might  wage  in  those  parts.  The  obligations  of 
this  treaty  might  be  enlarged  or  diminished  by  the 
mutual  consent  of  the  contracting  paitics.  This  mem- 
orable treaty,  having  been  concluded  at  Rome,  was 
graven  upon  brass  and  deposited  in  the  Capitol  (1 
Mace,  viii,  22-28;  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  10;  ether  treaties 
with  the  Romans  are  given  in  lib.  xiii). 

3.  Rites  by  which  they  were  ratified. — From  the  time 
of  the  patriarchs  a  covenant  of  alliance  was  sealed  by 
the  blood  of  some  victim.  A  heifer,  a  goat,  a  ram,  a 
turtle-dove,  and  a  young  pigeon  were  immolated  in 
confirmation  of  the  covenant  between  the  Lord  and 
Abraham  (Gen.  xv,  9).  The  animal  or  animals  sac- 
rificed were  cut  in  two  (except  birds,  ver.  10),  to  typ- 
ify the  doom  of  perjurers.  Between  the  two  parts  the 
contracting  parties  passed,  involving  imprecations  of 
a  similar  destruction  upon  him  who  should  break  the 
terms  of  the  alliance  (Gen.  xv,  10;  cf.  Liv.  i,  24); 
hence  the  expression  T'1~'2  T^3  (=  optua  Ti^iveiv, 
fcedus  Icere),  to  make  (lit.  to  cut)  a  treaty;  hence, 
also,  the  use  of  the  term  i~l2N:  (lit.  imprecation)  for  a 
covenant.  This  usage  often  recurs  in  the  prophets, 
and  there  are  allusions  to  it  in  the  New  Testament 
(Jer.  xxxiv,  18  ;  Dan.  xiii,  55  ;  Matt,  xxiv,  51 ;  Luke 
xii,  46).  The  perpetuity  of  covenants  of  alliance  thus 
contracted  is  expressed  by  calling  them  "  covenants 
of  salt"  (Num.  xviii,  19;  2  Chron.  xiii,  5),  salt  being 
the  symbol  of  incorruption,  or  fidelity,  inasmuch  as  it 
was  applied  to  the  sacrilices  (Lev.  ii,  13),  and  proba- 
bly used,  as  among  the  Arabs,  at  hospitable  entertain- 
ments. Sec  Salt.  Occasionally  a  pillar  or  a  heap 
of  stones  was  set  up  as  a  memorial  of  the  alliance 


ALLIANCE 


167 


ALLOX 


(Gen.  xxxi,  52).  Presents  were  also  sent  by  the  par- 
ty soliciting  the  alliance  (1  Kings  xv,  18 ;  Isa.  xxx, 
C ;  1  Mace,  xv,  18).  The  event  was  celebrated  by  a 
feast  (Exod.  xxiv,  11 ;  2  Sam.  iii,  12,  20). 

The  fidelity  of  the  Jews  to  their  engagements  was 
conspicuous  at  all  periods  of  their  history.  The  case 
of  the  Gibeonites  affords  an  instance  scarcely  equalled 
in  the  annals  of  any  nation.  The  Israelites  had  been 
absolutely  cheated  into  the  alliance  ;  but,  having  been 
confirmed  by  oaths,  it  was  deemed  to  be  inviolable 
(Josh,  ix,  19).  Long  afterward,  the  treaty  having 
been  violated  by  Saul,  the  whole  nation  was  punished 
for  the  crime  by  a  horrible  famine  in  the  time  of  Da- 
vid (2  Sam.  xxi,  1  sq.).  The  prophet  Ezekiel  (xvii, 
13-1(5)  pours  terrible  denunciations  upon  King  Zede- 
kiah  for  acting  contrary  to  his  sworn  covenant  with 
the  king  of  Babylon.  From  numerous  intimations  in 
Josephus,  it  appears  that  the  Jewish  character  for  the 
observance  of  treaties  was  so  generally  recognised 
after  the  captivity,  as  often  to  procure  for  them  con- 
sideration from  the  rulers  of  Western  Asia  and  of 
Egypt. — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

ALLIANCE,  EVANGELICAL.  See  Evangeli- 
cal Alliance. 

ALLIANCE,  HOLY,  a  league  entered  into  by  the 
Emperor  Alexander  of  Russia,  the  Emperor  Francis 
of  Austria,  and  Frederic  William,  king  of  Prussia, 
after  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  in  1815,  consisting  of  a 
declaration  signed  by  them  personally,  that,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ,  the  principles  of  justice,  charity,  and  peace 
should  be  the  basis  of  the  internal  administration  of 
their  empires  and  of  their  international  relations; 
and  that  the  happiness  and  religious  welfare  of  their 
subjects  should  be  the  great  objects  they  should  ever 
keep  in  view.  It  originated  with  Alexander,  who,  it 
is  said,  imagined  that  it  would  introduce  a  new  era  of 
Christian  government ;  but  whatever  may  have  been 
the  original  intention,  it  soon  became,  in  the  hands 
of  the  wily  Metternich,  an  instrument  for  the  support 
of  tyranny  and  oppression,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  Congressional  system  of  politics,  which,  while  it 
professes  to  have  for  its  object  the  support  of  legitima- 
cy, is  a  horrid  conspiracy  against  the  rights  and  priv- 
ileges of  the  people.     See  Holy  Alliance. 

Allison,  Burgess,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister  and 
successful  teacher,  was  born  at  Bordentown,  N.  J., 
Aug.  17,  1753,  and  died  at  Washington  Feb.  20,  1827. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  baptized,  and  immediate- 
ly began  to  preach.  Desirous  of  classical  and  theo- 
logical education,  he  placed  himself,  in  1774,  under  the 
instruction  of  Dr.  Samuel  Jones,  of  Lower  Dublin, 
near  Philadelphia.  In  1777  he  studied  a  short  time 
at  Ilhode  Island  College,  and  on  his  return  became 
pastor  of  the  feeble  congregation  at  Bordentown.  Re- 
ceiving but  little  compensation,  he  opened  a  classical 
boarding-school,  which  attained  great  reputation.  Mr. 
Allison  retired  from  this  post  in  179G  for  a  few  years, 
which  time  he  devoted  to  various  inventions,  and 
especially  to  the  improvement  of  the  steam-engine 
and  its  application  to  navigation.  Resuming  his  school 
in  1801,  he  afterward  reaccepted  the  pastorship,  but 
was  soon  compelled  by  ill  health  to  relinquish  his  la- 
bors. In  1816  he  was  elected  chaplain  to  the  House 
of  Representatives,  and  was  afterward  appointed  chap- 
lain at  the  Nav}'  Yard  in  Washington,  in  which  office 
he  died.  Dr.  Allison  was  offered,  at  different  times,  the 
presidency  of  three  colleges,  all  of  which  he  declined. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  mechanical  and  artistic  genius, 
and  was  for  a  long  time  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.  He  kept  up  a  large 
foreign  correspondence,  and  wrote  mucli  for  the  pe- 
riodicals of  the  day.— Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  121. 

Allison,  Francis,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  in  Donegal  County,  Ireland, 
in  1705,  educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and 


came  to  America  in  1735.  He  became  ppstor  at  New 
London,  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  in  1737,  where  he  opened 
an  academy  in  1743.  He  removed  to  Philadelphia  in 
1752,  and  took  charge  of  an  academy  there.  In  1755 
he  was  appointed  vice-provost  and  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy  in  the  newly-established  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  died  in  1779.  Dr.  Allison  was  very 
active  in  the  events  which  led  to  the  "  Groat  Schism" 
in  1744.  His  reputation  as  a  classical  scholar  was 
very  great. — Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  73. 

Allison,  Patrick,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyterian 
minister,  born  in  Lancaster  Co.,  Pa.,  in  1740,  and 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  17C0. 
He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  17G3,  and  became  pastor 
of  a  church  in  Baltimore  in  17C5,  and  continued  in  its 
service  till  within  two  years  of  his  death  in  1802.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  influence,  and  especially  distin- 
guished as  a  deliberative  speaker. — Sprague,  Annals, 
iii,  257. 

Allix,  Peter,  a  learned  French  Protestant  divine, 
born  in  1G41  at  Alencon,  educated  at  Saumur  and  at 
Sedan.  So  highly  was  he  esteemed  by  those  of  his 
own  opinions  that,  in  1670,  he  was  invited  to  Charen- 
ton  to  succeed  the  learned  Daille.  Here  he  engaged 
with  Claude  in  the  French  translation  of  the  Bible. 
The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  drove  him  into 
England,  where  he  founded  a  church,  in  which  the 
services  were  carried  on  in  French,  but  according  to 
the  English  ritual,  and  in  1G90  Burnet,  bishop  of  Salis- 
bury, gave  him  a  canonry  and  the  treasure rship  of  his 
cathedral.  He  died  in  1717.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
learning,  well  acquainted  with  Greek,  Hebrew,  Sj'riac, 
and  Chaldee,  and  a  voluminous  writer.  His  most 
valuable  productions  are,  1.  lie/legions  critiques  et  the- 
ologiques  sur  la  controverse  de,  VEglise: — 2.  Reflexions 
sur  tons  les  livres  de  V A  ncicn  et  du  Nouveau  Testament 
(Amst.  1689,  2  vols.  8vo)  :— 3.  The  Judgment  of  the  an- 
cient Jewish  Church  against  the  Unitarians  (Oxford, 
new  ed.  1821,  8vo)  : — 4.  Remarks  upon  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  Churches  of  Piedmont  (1690,  new  ed.  Ox- 
ford, 1821,  8vo).  In  this  treatise  he  seeks  to  show,  in 
opposition  to  Bossuet,  that  these  churches  were  not  in- 
fected with  Manichajism,  and  had  from  the  apostles' 
time  maintained  the  pure  faith.  5.  History  of  the  Al- 
bigenses  (new  ed.  Oxf.  1821,  8vo).  He  also  published 
a  translation  of  the  book  of  Ratramnus,  "  On  the  Body 
and  the  Blood  of  Jesus  Christ,"  with  an  essay,  in 
which  he  attempts  to  show  that  the  views  of  this  au- 
thor are  contrary  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  To  the  same  end,  Allix  published  (Lond. 
1686),  from  a  manuscript  of  the  library  of  St. Victor,  a 
work  by  the  Dominican  John  of  Paris,  entitled  De 
Modo  existendi  corporis  Chrisii  in  sacramento  altaris; 
and  a  little  book  of  Roman  Catholic  origin  (the  au- 
thorship of  which  was  attributed  to  the  Abbe  de  Lon- 
guerue),  intended  to  prove  that  transubstantiation  was 
not  a  Catholic  doctrine.  He  wrote  several  works  in 
favor  of  the  revolution  in  England  to  allay  the  scru- 
ples of  those  who  hesitated  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance. A  full  list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Haag,  La 
France  Protestante,  i,  61. — Jones,  Christian  Biog.  p.  8. 

Allocution  (Lat.  allocutio,  i.  e.  an  "address') 
is  applied,  in  the  language  of  the  Vatican,  to  denote 
specially  the  address  delivered  by  the  pope  at  the  Col- 
lege of  Cardinals  in  a  public  consistory.  The  publica- 
tion of  the  resolutions  taken  in  the  secret  consistories 
is  generallj*  accompanied  by  an  allocution,  and  fre- 
quently the  condition  of  the  Roman  Church  in  the  va- 
rious countries  furnishes  the  subject  for  it.  It  may  be 
considered  as  corresponding  in  some  measure  to  the 
official  explanations  which  constitutional  ministers 
give  when  questions  are  asked  in  Parliament,  or  to  the 
political  messages  of  the  French  emperor.  The  court 
of  Rome  makes  abundant  use  of  this  method  of  address 
when  it  desires  to  guard  a  principle  which  it  is  com- 
pelled to  give  up  in  a  particular  case,  or  to  reserve  a 


ALLOM 


168 


ALLWOERDEN 


claim  for  the  future  which  has  no  chance  of  recogni- 
tion in  the  present. — Wetzer  and  Welte,  ii,  345. 

Al'lom  ('AAAw/i  v.  r.  'ASXwv),  one  of  the  "ser- 
vants of  Solomon,"  whose  descendants  are  said  to 
have  returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  34)  ;  but 
as  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  57)  has  no  such  (nor  the 
preceding)  name,  it  is  probably  an  error  of  copyists 
or  editors  for  the  appellative  dWuiv,  "of  others'" 
(Fritzsche,  Handb.  in  loc),  unless  for  Amon. 

Al'lon  (Heb.  Allon  ,  "jikx,  oak,  as  often),  the  name 
of  a  place  and  of  a  man.  See  also  Allon-bachuth  ; 
Oak. 

1.  A  town  on  the  border  of  Naphtali,  according  to 
the  Auth. Vers.,  between  Heleph  and  Zaanannim  (Josh. 
xix,  33) ;  but  perhaps  rather  designating  only  some 
remarkable  tree  as  a  landmark  near  the  latter  place 

(nm^a  yfcxv  [v.  r.  ^feara]  r,h«tj  tfbaa  ^\ 

and  their  border  ran  from  Cheleph,  thence  from  the  oak 
that  is  by  Zaanannim ;  Vulg.  et  ceepit  terminus  de  Heleph, 
et  Eton  in  Saanim;  Sept.  icai  iytvifir)  rd  opia  uvtojv 
Mt£\t<p  Kal  MatjAw  Kai  "Sttvvavifi),  q.  d.  Allon-Za- 
anaim,  i.  e.  "the  oak  of  Zaanaim"  (since  the  enu- 
meration in  ver.  38  requires  the  union  of  these  names 
as  of  one  place),  or  "the  oak  of  the  loading  of  tents," 
as  if  deriving  its  name  from  some  nomad  tribe  fre- 
quenting the  spot  (Stanley,  Palest,  p.  340  note).  See 
Zaanaim.  Such  a  tribe  were  the  Kenites,  and  in  con- 
nection with  them  the  place  is  again  named  in  Judg.  iv, 
11,  with  the  additional  definition  of  "  by  Kedesh  (Naph- 
tali"). Here,  however,  the  Auth.  Vers,  following  the 
Vulgate,  renders  the  words  "  the  plain  of  Zaanaim." 

In  Josh,  xix,  33,  '"12N,  Allon,  is  the  reading  of  V.  d. 
Hooght,  and  of  Walton's  Po'yglott ,-  but  most  MSS. 
have  "pbx,  Elon  (Davidson's  Hebr.  Text,  p.  46).  In 
Judg.  iv,  11,  the  Targum  Jonathan  renders  "  the  plain 
of  the  swamp"  (see  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  181).  This  is 
Ewald's  explanation  also  putsch.  Jsr.  ii,  492  note).  For 
other  interpretations,  see  Furst  (Heb.  Handio.  p.  91). 
In  Gen.  xxxv,  8,  the  Sam.  Version,  according  to  its 
customary  rendering  of  Allon,  has  iirV'Oa  TTOO,  "  the 
plain  of  Bakith."     See  more  fully  under  Elon. 

2.  (Sept.  'AWuiv  v.  r.  'A\wy.)  The  son  of  Jedaiah 
and  father  of  Shiphi,  chief  Simeonites,  of  the  family 
of  those  who  expelled  the  Hamites  from  the  \alle3'  of 
Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv,  37).  B.C.  apparently  consider- 
ably ante  711. 

AlTon-bach'uth  (Heb.  Allon  - Balaith' .  '"fex 
M32,  oak  oficeeping;  Sept.  jiaXavoc,  TrivSovc),  a  spot 
near  Bethel,  so  designated  from  a  tree  under  which 
Jacob  encamped,  and  where  Rebekak's  nurse  Deborah 
was  buried  (Gen.  xxxv,  8).  See  Oak.  From  the 
comparative  rarity  of  large  trees  in  the  plains  of  Pal- 
estine, they  were  naturally  designated  as  landmarks, 
and  became  favorite  places  for  residence  and  sepulture 
(Judg.  vi.  11-19 ;  1  Sam.  xxxi,  13).  See  Allon.  The 
particular  tree  in  question  is  thought  by  some  to  have 
been  a  terebinth  (q.  v.),  but  scarcely  the  same  under 
which  Abraham  sojourned  (Gen.  xviii,  1)  [see  Mam- 
re],  but  perhaps  the  "palm-tree  of  Deborah,"  under 
which  Deborah  (q.  v.)  dwelt  (Judg.  iv,  5).  So  Ewald 
(hr.  Gesch.  i,  344  ;  iii,  29)  believes  the  "oak  of  Tabor" 
(1  Sam.  x,  3,  Auth.  Vers,  "plain  of  T.")  to  be  the  same 
as,  or  the  successor  of,  this  tree,  "Tabor"  being  possi- 
bly a  merely  dialectical  change  from  "  Deborah"  (see 
also  Stanley,  Palest,  p.  143,  220).     See  Baal-tamaij. 

Alloph^li  (d\\6<t>u\ut),  a  Greek  term  which  sig- 
nifies properly  strangers;  but  is  generally  taken  (not 
only  in  the  Sept.,  but  by  classical  writers)  to  signify  the 
Philistines  (Reland,  Palcest.  p.  41,  75,  7G).     See  Alien. 

Alloy.     Sec  Tin. 

All-saints'  Day,  a  festival  celebrated  by  the  Greek 
Church  the  week  after  Whitsuntide,  and  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  on  the  1st  of  November,  in  honor  of  all  saints 
and  martyrs.     Chrysostom  {Horn.  74  de  Jfarfyribus) 


seems  to  indicate  that  it  was  known  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, and  that  it  was  celebrated  on  Trinity  Sunday, 
called  by  the  Greeks  KvpiaKt)  twv  dyiwv  (the  Sunday 
of  the  Martyrs).  It  was  introduced  into  the  "Western 
Church  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  by 
Boniface.  The  number  of  saints  being  excessively 
multiplied,  it  was  found  too  burdensome  to  dedicate  a 
feast-day  to  each,  there  being,  indeed,  scarcely  hours 
enough  in  the  year  to  distribute  among  them  all.  It 
was  therefore  resolved  to  commemorate  on  one  day  all 
who  had  no  particular  days.  By  an  order  of  Gregory 
IV,  it  was  celebrated  on  the  1st  of  November,  834 ; 
formerly  the  1st  of  May  was  the  day  appointed.  It 
was  introduced  into  England  (where  it  is  usually  called 
All-hcdloumias)  about  870,  and  is  still  observed  in  the 
English  and  Lutheran  Churches,  as  well  as  in  the 
Church  of  Borne,  on  1st  November. — Itlig,  De  Festo 
Omnium  Sanctorum,  in  the  Miscell.  Lips,  i,  300  sq. ;  Far- 
rar,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  b. 
lxx,  ch.  vii,  §  14. 

All-souls'  Day,  a  festival  held  by  Roman  Cath- 
olics on  the  day  after  All-saints'  Da}',  for  special  pray- 
er in  behalf  of  the  souls  of  all  the  faithful  dead.  It 
was  first  introduced  in  998,  by  Odilon,  abbot  of  Clugni, 
who  enjoined  it  on  his  own  order.  It  was  soon  after 
adopted  by  neighboring  churches.  It  is  the  day  on 
which,  in  the  Romish  Church,  extraordinary  masses 
are  repeated  for  the  relief  of  souls  said  to  be  in  purga- 
tory. Formerly,  on  this  day,  persons  dressed  in  black 
perambulated  the  towns  and  cities,  each  provided  with 
a  bell  of  dismal  tone,  which  was  rung  in  public  places, 
by  way  of  exhortation  to  the  people  to  remember  the 
souls  in  purgatory  (Farrar,  Eccl.  Dictionary,  s.  v.).  In 
some  parts  of  the  west  of  England  it  is  still  "the  cus- 
tom for  the  village  children  to  go  round  to  all  their 
neighbors  souling,  as  they  call  it — collecting  small  con- 
tributions, and  singing  the  following  verses,  taken 
down  from  two  of  the  children  themselves : 

Soul !  soul !  for  a  soul-cake ; 

Pray,  good  mistress,  for  a  soul-cake, 

One  for  Peter,  two  for  Paul, 

Three  for  Them  who  made  us  all. 

Soul !  soul !  for  an  apple  or  two ; 

If  you've  got  no  apples,  pears  will  do, 

Up  with  your  kettle,  and  down  with  your  pan  ; 

Give  me  a  good  big  one,  and  I'll  be  gone. 
The  soul-cake  referred  to  in  the  verses  is  a  sort  of  bun 
which,  until  lately,  it  was  an  almost  general  custom 
for  people  to  make,  and  to  give  to  one  another  on  the 
2d  of  November." — Notes  and  Queries,  1st  ser.  vol.  iv. 
Allud,  Alius.  See  Chellus. 
Allut,  Jean,  surnamed  VEclaireur  (the  Enlight- 
I  ener),  a  pseudonym  adopted  by  a  French  fanatic,  who, 
!  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  attempted  at 
London  the  establishment  of  a  new  sect.  His  real 
name  was  FJie  Marion,  and  he  was  a  native  of  Barre, 
a  village  in  the  vicinity  of  Montpelier.  His  apostles 
or  associates  were  Nicolas  Fatio,  Jean  Dande,  and 
Charles  Portales.  His  works,  which  are  now  very 
rare,  are  as  follows :  1.  Discernement  des  tenebres  cVavec 
la  lumiere,  afin  d- exciter  les  homines  it,  chercher  la  lumiere 
(Loud.  1710,  8vo): — 2.  Eclair  de  lumiere  descendant  des 
cieux,  et  du  rel'evement  de  la  chute  de  I'homme  par  son 
peche  (without  name  of  place,  1711,  8vo)  : — 3.  Plan  de 
la  justice  de  Dieu  sur  la  terre  dans  ces  derniers  jours 
(1714,  8vo) : — 4.  Quand  vous  aurez  saccage,  vous  serez 
saccage  (1714,  8vo)  ;  the  latter  work  consists  of  letters 
signed  Allut,  Marion,  Fatio,  and  Portales :— 5.  Aver- 
tissement  Prcphetique  d'Elie  Marion  (Lond.  1707,  8vo) : 
— 6.  Cri  (Polar me,  ou  avertissement  aux  nations  qu'ils 
sortent  de  Babi/lone  (1712,  8vo). — Hoefer,  Biographie 
Generale,  ii,  169. 

Allwoerden,  Heinricii  von,  a  German  theo- 
logian, a  native  of  Stade,  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
18th  century.  He  studied  at  Helmstedt,  under  the 
celebrated  Mosheim,  and,  upon  the  advice  of  the  lat- 
ter, published  a  life  of  Servetus  under  the  following 


ALLYN 


169 


ALMODAD 


title,  Ilistoria  Michaelis  Serveti  (Helmstedt,  1728,  4to), 
with  a  portrait  of  Servetus.  An  abstract  of  this  work 
is  given  in  the.itfu  Eruditorum  (Leipsie,  1728),  and  in 
the  Biblioth'equc  raisonnee  des  ouvragea  des  savants  (i, 
328).— Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  169. 

Allyn,  John,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  born  in 
Barnstable,  Mass.,  March  21,  17G7.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  1785,  and  in  1788  became  pastor  in  Duxbury, 
Mass.,  which  position  he  retained  until  his  death,  July 
19, 1833.  In  1820  he  was  the  delegate  from  Duxbury 
in  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  Massachusetts. 
He  published  several  of  his  sermons  and  charges. — 
Sprague,  Unitarian  Pulpit,  p.  207. 

Almain,  Jacques,  a  French  theologian,  was  born 
at  Sens,  became  professor  in  the  college  at  Navarre, 
where  he  had  studied  under  John  Major,  in  1512.  He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  theologians  of  his  time,  and  a 
follower  of  Scotus  and  Occam.  In  1511  he  took  his 
doctor's  degree,  and  very  shortly  after  was  chosen  by 
the  faculty  of  theology  to  reply  to  the  work  of  Cajetan, 
on  the  superiority  of  the  pope  to  a  general  council. 
In  1515  he  died,  in  the  very  prime  of  life.  Among 
his  works  are  De  A  uctoritate  Ecclesia  sen  S.  Conciliorum 
earn  reprcesentanlium,  etc.,  contra  Th.  de  Vio  (Par.  1512, 
and  in  Gerson's  works,  Dupin's  edition)  ;  De  Potestate 
Ecclesiastica  ct  laicali  (an  exposition  of  the  decisions 
of  Occam ;  in  Gerson,  and  also  in  the  edition  of  his 
works  published  at  Paris  in  1517) ;  M<  ralia  (Paris, 
1525,  8vo). — Cave,  Hist.  Lit. ;  Landon,  Eccks.  Diet,  i, 
270  ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  179  ;  Dupin,  Ecd. 
Writers,  cent.  xvi. 

Almah.     See  Virgin. 

Almeida,  Emmanuel,  was  born  at  Viseu,  in  Port- 
ugal, in  1580.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  and  in  1G22  was  sent  by  Vitelleschi, 
the  general  of  the  order,  as  ambassador  to  Ethiopia, 
where  he  remained  ten  years,  catechizing  the  people, 
and  gaining  an  insight  into  their  manners  and  customs. 
He  died  at  Goa  in  1G46,  leaving  collections  for  a  llis- 
toire  de  la  haute  Ethiopia,  which  Balthasar  Teller  ar- 
ranged, augmented,  and  published  at  Coimbra,  in  1G60, 
in  folio.  He  also  wrote  Lettres  Historiqucs  (Pome, 
1629,  8vo),  correcting  the  false  statements  of  the  Do- 
minican Urreta  concerning  Ethiopia. — Hoefer,  Biog. 
Generate,  ii,  181. 

Almericians  or  Amauricians,  a  short-lived 
sect  of  the  thirteenth  century,  which  derived  its  name 
from  Amalric  (Almeric  or  Amauric,  of  Bena),  a  theo- 
logian whose  doctrines  (approaching  to  Pantheism) 
were  prohibited  and  condemned  at  Paris  by  a  public 
decree  in  the  year  1204.  The  followers  of  Almeric, 
after  his  death,  led  by  David  of  Dinanto  (q.  v.),  car- 
ried his  doctrines  out  to  their  full  consequences.  Re- 
specting the  Trinity,  they  held  and  taught  that  the 
power  of  the  Father  had  continued  only  during  the 
Mosaic  dispensation,  that  of  the  Son  twelve  hundred 
years  after  his  incarnation ;  and  that  in  the  thirteenth 
century  the  age  of  the  Holy  Ghost  commenced,  in 
which  all  sacraments  and  external  worship  were  to  be 
abolished,  and  the  salvation  of  Christians  was  to  be 
accomplished  entirely  by  the  internal  operation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  without  any  external  acts  of  religion. 
"Although  an  abstract  speculative  system  was  not 
calculated  in  that  age  to  spread  among  the  laity,  yet, 
through  the  element  of  mysticism,  these  doctrines 
were  diffused  quite  widely  among  the  people.  Books  ; 
unfolding  the  system  and  its  practical  aims  were  writ-  ! 
ten  in  French,  and  widely  circulated.  Pantheism, 
with  ail  its  practical  consequences,  was  more  plainly 
expressed  than  Amalric  had  probably  ever  intended 
or  expected.  The  members  of  the  sect  were  claimed 
to  be  subjects  in  which  the  incarnation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  begun.  Ca;sarius  of  Heisterbach  charges 
the  sect  with  teaching  that  God  had  spoken  in  Ovid 
as  well  as  in  Augustin;  that  the  only  heaven  and  the 
only  hell  are  in  the  present  life  ;  that  those  who  pro-  I 


fess  the  true  knowledge  no  longer  need  faith  or  hope ; 
they  have  attained  already  to  the  true  resurrection, 
the  true  Paradise,  the  real  heaven;  that  he  who  lives 
in  mortal  sin  has  hell  in  his  mouth,  but  that  it  is  much 
the  same  thing  as  having  a  rotten  tooth  in  the  mouth. 
The  sect  opposed  the  worship  of  saints  as  idolatry, 
called  the  ruling  church  Babylon,  and  the  pope  Anti- 
Christ"  (Neander,  Ch.  History,  iv,  448).  See  Hahn, 
Gesch.  derPasagur,  etc.  (Stuttgart,  1850,  Svo).  A  gold- 
smith by  the  name  of  William  of  Aria  was  the  prophet 
of  the  sect.  He  claimed  to  be  one  of  seven  personages 
in  which  the  Holy  Ghost  was  to  incarnate  himself, 
and,  besides  many  other  prophecies,  predicted  to  the 
king  of  France  that  the  French  empire  would  embrace 
the  entire  globe.  As  many  of  the  followers  of  Amalric 
concealed  their  doctrines,  commissioners  were  sent  out 
into  several  French  dioceses  to  discover  them  by  pro- 
fessing adhesion  to  the  views  of  Amalric.  In  1209 
fourteen  of  the  foremost  followers  of  Amalric  were 
summoned  before  a  Council  of  Paris,  sentenced,  and 
delivered  over  to  the  secular  arm.  They  were  kept 
imprisoned  until  the  return  of  King  Philip  Augustus, 
when,  on  Dec.  20, 1210,  ten  of  them  were  burned  and 
two  exiled.  The  council  again  condemned  the  works 
of  Amalric,  together  with  those  of  David  of  Dinanto, 
with  all  books  of  theology  written  in  the  vulgar  lan- 
guage, and  the  metaphysical  works  of  Aristotle.  The 
physical  works  of  Aristotle  were  prohibited  for  three 
years.  In  1215  the  fourth  general  council  of  the  Lat- 
crans  again  condemned  Amalric  and  his  followers.  In 
many  instances  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  doc- 
trines belong  to  Amalric  himself  and  which  to  his  fol- 
lowers. Some  of  the  latter,  it  is  certain,  had  very 
loose  notions  of  morality.  The  sect  of  the  Free  Spirit 
owes  its  origin  chiefly  to  the  impulse  given  by  Amal- 
ric.—Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  446  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist. 
cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  12;  Hahn,  in  Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1846,  p.  184;  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  ii,  127. 
See  Amalric. 

Almeyda,  Francisco  de,  a  Portuguese  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Lisbon,  July  31,  1701.  He  gained 
a  great  reputation  as  a  writer  on  ecclesiastical  law, 
and,  on  May  13, 1728,  became  a  member  of  the  Poyal 
Academy.  He  wrote  several  learned  works  on  the 
(rigin  and  ecclesiastical  law  of  the  churches  of  the 
Iberian  Peninsula,  the  most  important  of  which  is  en- 
titled Aparatopara  a  disc'plina  e  ritos  ecclesiasticos  de 
Portugal  (Lisbon,  4  vols.  1735-87,  4to).— Hoefer,  Biog. 
Generate,  ii,  193. 

A]mici,  Pietro  Camillo,  an  Italian  oratorian, 
was  born  at  Brescia,  Nov.  2, 1714,  died  Dec.  £0, 1779. 
He  wrote,  among  other  books,  Rejlexions  Critiques  on  the 
celebrated  work  of  Febronius  (q.  v.),  Dp  Statu  Ecclesue. 
Some  of  his  works  have  not  yet  been  published,  among 
them  one,  entitled  Meditations  sur  la  vie  et  sur  les  ecriis 
de  Fr.  Paoli  Surp>. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  193. 

Almighty.  See  Shaddai;  Attributes;  Om- 
nipotence. 

Almo'dad  (Heb.  Almodad' ,  nnirlpX,  signif.  un- 
known; Sept.  'EXfiwdaS,  Vulg.  Elmcdad,  Josephus 
'EXpoCaSor,  Ant.  i,  6,  4),  the  first  named  of  the  thir- 
teen "sons"  of  Joktan  (Gen.  x,  26 ;  1  Chron.  i,  20), 
doubtless  founder  of  an  Arabian  tribe.  B.C.  post 
2384.  See  Arabia.  The  ancient  interpreters  afford 
no  light  as  to  the  location  of  the  tribe,  either  simply 
retaining  the  name  (Sept.,  Vulg.,  Syr.,  Samar.),  or 
giving  fanciful  etymological  paraphrases  (Saad.,  Pseu- 
dojon.).  Syncellus  (p.  46)  understands  the  inhabi- 
tants of  India  (IvCm).  Bochart  {Phahg,  ii,  16)  sup- 
poses the  Allummotee  ('AWovpaiCJTat)  of  Ptolemy  (vi, 
7,  24)  to  be  meant;  a  people  in  the  middle  of  Arabia 
Felix,  near  the  sources  of  the  river  Lar,  which  emp- 
ties into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  early  Arabian  gene- 
alogies contain  the  name  Modad  {At-  I  eing  the  Arabic 
article)  as  that  of  at  least  two  kings  of  the  Jorbamida] 
reigning   in   Hejaz  (Caussin   de  Perceval,  Essai  sur 


ALMON 


170 


ALMONER 


I'Hist.  des  Arabes  avant  I'Islamisme,  i,  33  sq.,  168,  194 
sq.),  one  of  whom  is  said  to  have  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  Ishmael  (Pococke,  Specim.  p.  80) ;  while  anoth- 
er named  Modar  was  the  grandson  of  Adnan  (Pococke, 
p.  46;  Ibn  Coteiba,  in  Eichhorn's  Monum.  Arabum, 
p.  63).  Gesenius  (Thes.  Ileb.  p.  93)  rejects  both  these 
names,  as  less  likely  than  a  corruption  from  Morad, 
the  name  of  a  tribe  in  the  mountains  of  Arabia  Felix 
near  Zabid  (see  Abulfeda,  Hist.  Anteislamica,  p.  190, 
ed.  Fleischer),  so  called  from  their  progenitor,  a  son 
of  Kahlan,  son  of  Saba,  son  of  Jashhab,  son  of  Jaarab, 
son  of  Kachtan,  i.  e.  Joktan  (Pococke,  S])ecim.  p.  42, 
ed.  White  ;  Abulfeda,  p.  478,  ed.  De  Sacy  ;  Eichhorn, 
ut  sup.  p.  141 ;  comp.  generally  Michaelis,  Spicileg. 
ii,  153  sq.). 

Al'mon  (Heb.  Almon ',  tJl"a*>3>,  hidden;  Sept. 
'EX/xwv  v.  r.  rdfidKa),  the  last  named  of  the  four  sac- 
erdotal cities  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xxi,  18), 
called  Alemeth  (q.  v.)  in  the  parallel  passage  (1 
Chron.  vi,  60),  where  it  is  named  second  of  the  three 
there  mentioned ;  it  is  omitted  in  the  general  list  of 
the  Benjamite  cities  (Josh,  xviii,  21-28).  Jarchi  and 
Kimchi,  after  the  Targum  of  Jonathan,  confound  it  with 
the  Bahurim  (q.  v.)  of  2  Sam.  iii,  16.  Schwarz  (Pal- 
est, p.  128)  says  he  discovered  the  ruins  of  ancient 
buildings  bearing  the  name  Al-Muth,  which  he  regards 
as  Almon,  on  a  hill  one  milo  north-east  of  the  site  of 
Anathoth  ;  doubtless  the  Almit  similarly  identified  by 
Dr.  Robinson  (new  ed.  of  Researches,  iii,  287  ;  comp. 
Tobler,  Denkblcitter,  p.  631).    See  also  Almon-dibla- 

THAIM. 

Almond  0£'^?,  shalced',  wakeful,  from  its  early 
blossoming,  comp.  Plin.  xvi,  25,  42)  occurs  as  the 
name  of  a  tree  in  Eccles.  xii,  5 :  "  The  almond-tree 
(Sept.  dfivydaXov,  Vulg.  amygdalum)  shall  nourish, 
and  the  fruit  of  the  caper  (q.  v.)  droop,  because  man 
goeth  to  his  long  home."  This  evidently  refers  to  the 
profuse  flowering  and  white  appearance  of  the  almond- 
tree  when  in  full  bloom,  and  before  its  leaves  appear. 
It  is  hence  adduced  as  illustrative  of  the  hoary  hairs 
of  age  (Thomson's  Land  and  Book,  i,  496).  Gesenius, 
however,  objects  (Thes.  Heb.  p.  1473)  that  the  blos- 
soms of  the  almond  are  not  white,  but  roseate,  like 
the  peach-blow;  but  see  Knobel,  Ewald,  Hitzig,  in 
loc.  In  Jer.  i,  11,  a  "rod  of  an  almond-tree"  (Sept. 
KapvivoQ,  Vulg.  vif/ilans)  is  made  an  emblem  of  prompt 
vigilance  and  zeal,  according  to  the  inherent  force  of 
the  original  term  (Henderson,  Comment,  in  loc).  The 
produce  of  the  tree  is  also  denoted  by  the  same  term, 
evidently  some  species  of  nut,  in  Gen.  xliii,  11  (Sept. 
Kapvov,  Aquila  and  Symmachus  cifivydaXov),  where 
Jacob  desires  his  sons  to  take  into  Egypt  of  the  best 


fruits  of  the  land,  almonds,  etc.  As  the  almond-tree 
is  a  native  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  extends  from 
thence  to  Afghanistan,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
indigenous  in  Egypt,  almonds  were  very  likely  to  form 
part  of  a  present  from  Jacob,  even  to  the  great  men 
of  Egypt ;  the  more  especially  as  the  practice  of  the 
East  is  for  people  to  present  what  they  can  afford  in 
their  respective  stations.  In  Num.  xvii,  8,  the  rod 
of  Aaron  is  described  as  having  "  brought  forth  buds, 
and  bloomed  blossoms,  and  yielded  almonds"  (Sept. 
Kapva,  Vulg.  amygdalas).  In  Exod.  xxv,  33,  34; 
xxxvii,  19  (where  the  derivative  verb  TjSEJ  is  used), 
bowls  are  directed  to  be  made  like  almonds  (Sept. 
KapvivKovc.).  The  form  of  the  almond  would  lead  to 
its  selection  for  ornamental  carved  work,  independent- 
ly of  its  forming  an  esteemed  esculent,  as  well  as 
probably  yielding  a  useful  oil.     See  Nut. 

The  word  X*tb,  luz,  translated  "  hazel,"  also  occurs 
in  Gen.  xxx,  37,  as  the  name  of  some  tree,  rods  of  which 
Jacob  peeled  and  set  before  his  ewes  at  the  time  of 
their  conception  ;  and  was  probably  another  term  for 
the  almond,  of  which  the  Arabic  name  is  still  luz  (For- 
skal,  Flora  sEg.  p.  67).  Some  think  this  was  the  wild 
almond,  while  shaked  designates  the  cultivated  variety 
(Rosenmuller,  Alterth.  IV,  i,  263  sq.).     See  Hazel. 

The  almond-tree  very 
closely  resembles  the 
peach-tree  both  in  form, 
blossoms,  and  fruit;  the 
last,  however,  being  des- 
titute of  the  pulpy  flesh 
covering  the  peach-nut. 
It  is,  iu  fact,  only  an- 
other species  of  the  same 
genus  {Amygdalus  com- 
munis, Linn.).  It  is  a 
native  of  Asia  and  Af- 
rica, but  it  may  be  culti- 
vated in  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, and  the  hardier  va- 
rieties even  in  the  mid- 
dle portions  of  the  Unit- 
ed States.  The  flowers 
appear  as  early  as  Feb- 
ruary (Thomson,  Land 
and  Book,  i,  495),  or  even 
January  ( Pliny,  xvi,  42; 
comp.  Buhle,  Calend. 
Palast.  p.  5  sq.  ;  Schu- 
bert, Reis.  iii,  114),  the 
fruit  in  March  (Kitto, 
Phys.  Hist,  of  Pah  sf.). 

For  a  general  discussion  of  the  subject,  see  Celsius, 
Hierob. i,  297  sq. ;  Hayne,  Beschreib. d. in  d.Arzneikunde 
gebrauchlichen  Gewdchse,  iv,  No.  39;  Strumpf,  Hand- 
buch  der  Arzneimittellehre  (Berlin,  1848),  i,  93  sq. ; 
Martius,  Pharmakogn.  p.  254  sq. ;  Loudon,  Arboret. 
Britann.  (Lond.  1838),  ii,  637  sq. ;  Penny  Cyclopedia, 
s.  v.  Amygdalus.     See  Botany. 

Armon-diblatha'im  (Heb.  Almon' -Diblatha'- 
yim,  found  only  with  !~l-  local  and  in  pause,  "jlobs 
ita^nsa1?,  [to  the]  covering  of  the  two  fig-cakes  ;  Sept. 
TAfuhv  Af/i\a3-«i//,Vulg.  ffehnondeblathaim),the  fifty- 
first  station  of  the  Israelites  [see  Exonr,]  between  Di- 
bongad  and  the  well  (Beer)  in  the  wilderness  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  (Num.  xxxiii,  46,  47);  probably  the  same 
elsewhere  called  Beth-diblathaim  (Jer.  xlviii,  22) 
and  DiBLATH  (Ezek.  vi,  14).  See  Diblathaim.  It 
appears  to  have  lain  in  a  fertile  spot  not  far  north  of 
Dibon-gad,  perhaps  on  the  edge  of  the  eminence  over- 
looking the  Wady  Waleh.     See  Dibon-gad. 

Almoner  is  the  name  given  originally  to  that 
member  of  a  religious  order  who  had  the  distribution 
of  the  money  and  other  things  set  apart  for  alms, 
which,  by  canonical  law,  was  to  amount  to  at  least  a 
tenth  of  the  revenues  of  the  establishment.     After- 


AlmnnJ  Branch. 


ALMS 


171 


ALMS 


ward,  those  ecclesiastics  also  received  this  name  who 
were  appointed  by  princes  to  the  same  office  in  their 
households.  The  Grand  Almoner  of  France  was  one 
of  the  principal  officers  of  the  court  and  of  the  king- 
dom, usually  a  cardinal,  and,  in  right  of  his  office, 
commander  of  all  the  orders,  and  also  chief  director  of 
the  great  hospital  for  the  blind.  Queens,  princes,  and 
princesses  had  also  their  almoners,  and  bishops  were 
usually  appointed  to  this  office.  In  England  the  office 
of  hereditary  grand  almoner  is  now  a  sinecure,  his  only 
duty  being  to  distribute  the  coronation  medals  among 
the  assembled  spectators.  The  lord  high  almoner,  who 
is  usually  a  bishop,  distributes  twice  a  year  the  queen's 
bounty,  which  consists  in  giving  a  silver  penny  each 
to  as  many  poor  persons  as  the  queen  is  years  of  age. 
See  Alms. 

Alms  (tXstjfioavvT],  mercifidness,  i.  e.  an  act  of 
charity,  Matt,  vi,  1-4  ;  Luke  xi,  41 ;  xii,  23 ;  Acts  iii, 
2,  3,  10;  x,  2,  4,  31;  xxiv,  17;  "almsdeeds,"  Acts 
ix,  36),  beneficence  toward  the  poor,  from  Anglo-Sax. 
almesse,  probably,  as  well  as  Germ,  almoscn,  from  the 
corresponding  Greek  word  t\et]ftocivi>7);  Vulg.  eleemo- 
syna  (but  see  Bos  worth,  Anglo-Saxon  Diet.).  The  word 
"alms"  is  not  found  in  our  version  of  the  canonical 
books  of  the  O.T.,  but  it  occurs  repeatedly  in  the  N.  T., 
and  in  the  Apocryphal  books  of  Tobit  and  Ecclesiasti- 
cus.  The  Heb.  fip"!X,  tsedakah',  righteousness,  the  usu- 
al equivalent  for  alms  in  the  0.  T.,  is  rendered  by  the 
Sept.  in  Deut.  xxiv,  13,  and  elsewhere,  i\erj[io(Tvvt], 
while  the  best  MSS.,  with  the  Vulg.  and  Khem.  Test., 
read  in  Matt.vi,  1,  Sikcuouiivi),  righteousness.  See  Poor. 
I.  Jewish  Alms-giving. — The  regulations  of  the  Mo- 
saic law  respecting  property,  and  the  enjoining  of  a 
general  spirit  of  tender-heartedness,  sought  to  prevent 
destitution  and  its  evil  consequences.  The  law  in 
this  matter  is  found  in  Lev.  xxv,  35 :  "  And  if  thy 
brother  be  waxen  poor,  and  fallen  into  decay  with 
thee,  then  shalt  thou  relieve  him  ;"  and  it  is  liberally 
added,  "yea,  though  he  be  a  stranger  or  a  sojourner, 
that  he  maj'  live  with  thee."  The  consideration  by 
which  this  merciful  enactment  is  recommended  has  pe- 
culiar force  :  "  I  am  the  Lord  your  God,  which  brought 
you  forth  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  to  give  you  the  land 
of  Canaan,  and  to  be  your  God."  The  spirit  of  the  He- 
brew legislator  on  this  point  is  forcibly  exhibited  in 
Deut  xv,  7  sq. :  "  If  there  be  among  you  a  poor  man 
....  thou  shalt  open  thine  hand  wide  unto  him  .... 
Beware  that  thine  eye  be  not  evil  against  thy  poor 
brother,  and  thou  givest  him  naught;  and  he  cry 
unto  the  Lord  against  thee,  and  it  be  sin  unto  thee. 
Thou  shalt  surely  give  him,  and  thine  heart  shall  not 
be  grieved  when  thou  givest  unto  him :  because  that 
for  this  the  Lord  thy  God  shall  bless  thee  in  all  thy 
works."  The  great  antiquity  of  the  practice  of  benev- 
olence toward  the  poor  is  shown  in  Job  xxix,  13  sq. 
How  high  the  esteem  was  in  which  this  virtue  contin- 
ued to  be  held  in  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy 
may  be  learnt  from  Psa.  xli,  1:  "Blessed  is  he  that 
considereth  the  poor;  the  Lord  will  remember  him  in 
time  of  trouble"  (comp.  Psa.  cxii,  9 ;  Prov.  xiv,  31). 
The  progress  of  social  corruption,  however,  led  to  the 
oppression  of  the  poor,  which  the  prophets,  after  their 
manner,  faithfully  reprobated  (Isa.  lviii,  3) ;  where, 
among  other  neglected  duties,  the  Israelites  are  re- 
quired to  deal  their  bread  to  the  hungry,  and  to  bring 
the  outcast  poor  to  their  house  (comp.  Isa.  x,  2 ;  Amos 
ii,  7 ;  Jer.  v,  28 ;  Ezek.  xxii,  20).  However  favora- 
ble to  the  poor  the  Mosaic  institutions  were,  they  do 
not  appear  to  have  wholly  prevented  beggary  ;  for  the 
imprecation  found  in  Psa.  cix,  10,  "  Let  his  children 
be  vagabonds  and  beg,"  implies  the  existence  of  beg- 
gary as  a  known  social  condition  (comp.  generally 
Carpzov,  Eleemosynm  Judceor.  ex  antiquitate  Jud.  de- 
lineates, Lips.  1728).  Begging  naturally  led  to  alms- 
giving, though  the  language  of  the  Bible  does  not  pre- 
sent us  with  a  term  for  "alms"  till  the  period  of  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  during  the  calamities  attendant 


on  which  the  need  probably  introduced  the  practice 
(Gesenius,  Carm.  Samar.  p.  63).  In  Dan.  iv,  24,  we 
find  the  Chald.  word  np*I^  (tsidkah' ' ,  lit.  righteousness), 
rendered  iXirjpoavvai  in  the  Sept.,  and  the  ensuing 
member  of  the  sentence  puts  the  meaning  beyond  a 
question :  "  O  king,  break  off  thy  sins  by  righteous- 
ness, and  thine  iniquities  b}r  showing  mercy  to  the 
poor,  if  it  may  be  a  lengthening  of  thy  tranquillity." 
A  new  idea  is  here  presented,  namely,  that  of  merit 
and  purchase.  Alms-giving  had  come  to  be  regarded 
as  a  means  of  conciliating  God's  favor  and  of  warding 
off  evil.  At  a  still  later  period  this  idea  took  a  firm 
seat  in  the  national  mind,  and  almsdeeds  were  re- 
garded as  a  mark  of  distinguished  virtue  (Tobit  ii,  14  ; 
iv,  11).  That  begging  was  customary  in  the  time  of 
the  Saviour  is  clear  from  Mark  x,  46,  "  Blind  Barti- 
nifflus  sat  by  the  wayside  begging;"  and  Acts  iii,  2, 
"A  lame  man  was  laid  daily  at  the  gate  of  the  temple 
called  Beautiful  to  ask  alms"  (comp.  ver.  10).  And 
that  it  was  usual  for  the  worshippers,  as  they  entered 
the  temple,  to  give  relief,  appears  from  the  context, 
and  particularly  from  the  fine  answer  to  the  lame  man's 
entreaty  made  by  the  Apostle  Peter.  See  Beggar. 
Charity  toward  the  poor  and  indigent— that  is, 
alms-giving — was  probably  among  the  later  Jews  a 
highly-honored  act  of  piety  (see  Buxtorf,  Fhrileg. 
Heb.  p.  88  sq. ;  Otho,  Lex.  Uabb.  p.  196  sq.),  and  hence 
is  named  even  in  connection  with  prayer  and  fasting 
(Tobit,  xii,  9).  It  Avas  regarded  as  especially  agree- 
able to  God  (comp.  Acts  x,  4,  31 ;  Heb.  xiii,  16  ; 
Thilo,  Apocr.  p.  324),  as  meritorious  in  the  divine 
sight  (Prov.  x,  2 ;  xi,  4 ;  Tob.  ii,  14),  even  availing  to 
blot  out  sins  (Tob.  iv,  10;  Sir.  xxix,  10-13;  comp. 
Dan.  iv,  24),  in  short,  as  a  fulfilment  of  the  whole 
law  (Talm.  Jerus.  Peah,  i).  Children  were  early 
trained  up  to  it  (Tob.  xiv,  11),  and  among  the  enco- 
miums of  pious  persons  their  charitableness  was  al- 
most always  enumerated  (Sir.  xxxi,  11;  Acts  ix,  36; 
x,  2).  Exhortations  to  this  virtue  are  especially  fre- 
quent in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  (iii,  27  sq.  ;  xxii, 
9 ;  xxviii,  27),  and  in  the  book  of  Sirach  (iii,  23  sq.  ; 
vii,  36),  and  the  latter  gives  practical  hints  for  the 
performance  of  this  duty  (xii,  1  sq. ;  xviii,  14 ;  xx, 
13  sq.).  Accordingly,  there  were  arrangements  in  the 
synagogues  for  the  collection  of  alms  on  the  Sabbath 
(Matt,  vi,  2  ;  comp.  Yitringa,  Synag.  p.  811),  and  in 
the  temple  was  a  chamber  (D^Xdn  PS'ib)  where 
alms  not  specially  designated  for  the  poor  Jews 
(d"arj  "03  tSl^y)  were  deposited  (Mishna,  Shek. 
v,  6) ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  trumpet-shaped  vessels 
(ri-lSVJ,  to  which  some  have  erroneously  referred  the 
term  aaXiriZoj  in  Matt,  vi,  2)  served  for  the  reception 
of  those  that  individuals  contributed  for  the  support 
of  divine  worship.  See  Tejiple.  In  the  communi- 
ty, according  to  Maimonides,  eleemosynan-  contribu- 
tions were  so  arranged  that  almoners (" "N2 J,  collectors, 
fully  >"!£7"-£  "^Sli  Talm.  Jerus.  Demay,  fol.  xxiii,  2) 
sometimes  took  up  collections  of  money  in  a  box 
(tlS^p)  on  the  Sabbath,  and  sometimes  received  daily 
from  house  to  house  voluntary  offerings,  consisting  of 
victuals,  in  a  vessel  (^W^P)  carried  for  that  purpose 
(see,  [Eck  or]  Werner,  De  jisco  et  paropside  paupe- 
rum  duab.  specieb.  eleemosynar.  vet.  Ebrceor.  Jen. 
1725).  By  far  the  foremost  in  alms-giving  were  the 
Pharisees,  but  they  did  it  mostly  in  an  ostentatious 
manner.  The  charge  laid  against  them  in  Matt,  vi, 
2,  has  not  yet  been  fully  explained,  on  account  of  the 
obscurity  of  the  expression  "do  not  sound  a  trumpet 
before  thee"  (p>)  (mXTrioyc.  tpTrpoirSii'  gov),  which  can 
hardly  refer  to  the  modern  Oriental  practice  (Nie- 
buhr,  Reisen,  i,  181)  of  beggars  (as  in  some  parts  of 
Switzerland)  demanding  charity  by  making  music, 
since  in  that  case  the  "  trumpeting"  would  not  pro- 
ceed from  the  donor,  nor  would  he  be  at  all  in  fault. 
The  language  conveys  the  idea  that  the  Pharisees  as- 


ALMS 


172 


ALMS 


sembled  the  poor  in  the  synagogues  and  streets  by  the 
sound  of  a  trumpet,  which  naturally  attracted  also 
spectators  thither ;  but  this  custom  would  be  too  cer- 
emonious to  be  probable,  because  it  would  require 
these  individuals  to  have  an  attendant  with  a  trum 
pet,  as  they  could  not  well  have  blown  it  themselves 
By  the  term  "synagogues"  here  could  not  be  meant 
the  audience-room,  at  least  during  divine  service,  but 
only  the  porch  or  immediate  vicinity  of  the  edifice. 
On  the  whole,  the  expression  "  sound  a  trumpet"  may 
more  easily  be  interpreted  metaphorically  (with  the 
Church  fathers,  also  Grotius,  Fritzsche,  Tholuck,  and 
others),  q.  d.,  don't  make  a  flourish  of  music  in  front 
of  you,  i.  e.  do  not  proclaim  your  liberality  in  a  noisy 
manner.  See  generally  Aster,  Ds  Eleemosynis  Juda- 
orum  (Lips.  1728)  ;  Maimonides,  De  Jure  Pauperis,  vii, 
10;  ix,  1,  G;  Jahn,  Arch.  Bibl.  iv,  371;  Lightfoot; 
Horce  Ilebr.  on  Matt,  vi,  2,  and  Descr.  Templi,  19; 
and  comp.  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Tuba. 
See  Offerings  ;  Tithes  ;  Temple. 

II.  Apostolical. — The  general  spirit  of  Christianity, 
in  regard  to  succoring  the  needy,  is  nowhere  better 
seen  than  in  1  John  iii,  17  :  "  Whoso  hath  this  world's 
good,  and  seeth  his  brother  have  need,  and  shutteth 
up  his  bowels  from  him,  how  dwelleth  the  love  of  God 
in  him?"  With  the  faithful  and  conscientious  ob- 
servance of  the  "  royal  law"  of  love,  particular  mani- 
festations of  mercy  to  the  poor  seem  to  be  left  bv 
Christianity  to  be  determined  by  time,  place,  and  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  a  re- 
ligion, one  of  whose  principles  is  "  that,  if  any  would 
not  work,  neither  should  he  eat"  (2  Thess.  iii,  10), 
can  give  any  sanction  to  indiscriminate  alms-giving, 
or  intend  to  encourage  the  crowd  of  wandering,  idle 
beggars  with  which  some  parts  of  the  world  are  f  till 
infested.  The  emphatic  language  employed  by  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  others  (Luke  iii,  11 ;  vi,  30 ; 
xi,  41  [see  the  treatise  on  this  text  by  Somnel,  Lond. 
and  Goth.  1787];  xii,  33;  Matt,  vi,  1;  Acts  ix,  37; 
x,  2,  4)  is  designed  to  enforce  the  general  duty  of  a 
merciful  and  practical  regard  to  the  distresses  of  the 
indigent — a  duty  which  all  history  shows  men  have 
been  lamentably  prone  to  neglect ;  while  the  absence 
of  ostentation  and  even  secrecy,  which  the  Saviour 
enjoined  in  connection  with  alms-giving,  was  intend- 
ed to  correct  actual  abuses,  and  bring  the  practice  into 
harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  In  the  inim- 
itable reflections  of  Jesus  on  the  widow's  mite  (Mark 
xii,  42)  is  found  a  principle  of  great  value,  to  the  ef- 
fect that  the  magnitude  of  men's  offerings  to  God  is 
to  be  measured  by  the  disposition  of  mind  whence 
they  proceed  ;  a  principle  which  cuts  up  by  the  very 
roots  the  idea  that  merit  attaches  itself  to  alms-giving 
as  such,  and  increases  in  proportion  to  the  number 
anl  costliness  of  our  almsdeeds. 

Accordingly,  we  find  that  the  duty  of  relieving  the 
pour  was  not  neglected  by  the  early  Christians  (Luke 
xiv,  13 ;  Acts  xx,  35 ;  Gal.  ii,  10).  Every  individ- 
ual was  exhorted  to  lay  by  on  the  Sunday  in  each 
week  some  portion  of  his  profits,  to  be  applied  to 
the  wants  of  the  needy  (Acts  xi,  30  ;  Rom.  xv,  25-27  ; 
1  Cor.  xvi.  1-4).  It  was  also  considered  a  duty 
specially  incumbent  on  widows  to  devote  themselves 
to  such  ministrations  (1  Tim.  v,  10).  One  of  the 
earliest  effects  of  the  working  of  Christianity  in  the 
hearts  of  its  professors  was  the  care  which  it  led 
them  to  take  of  the  poor  and  indigent  in  the  "house- 
hold of  faith."  Neglected  and  despised  by  the  world, 
cut  off  from  its  sympathies,  and  denied  any  succor  it 
might  have  given,  the  members  of  the  early  churches 
were  careful  not  only  to  make  provision  in  each  case 
for  its  own  poor,  but  to  contribute  to  the  necessities 
of  other  though  distant  communities  (Acts  xi,  29; 
xxiv,  17 ;  2  Cor.  ix,  12).  This  commendable  prac- 
tice seems  to  have  had  its  Christian  origin  in  the  deep- 
ly interesting  fact  (which  appears  from  John  xiii,  29) 
that  the  Saviour  and  his  attendants  were  wont,  not- 


withstanding their  own  comparative  poverty,  to  con- 
tribute out  of  their  small  resources  something  for  the 
relief  of  the  need}'.  See  generally  Gude,  Eleemosy- 
nm  Eccles.  Apostolicce  ex  Antiquitate  Saci-a  (Lauban. 
1728).— Winer,  i,  46 ;  Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

III.  Ecclesiastical  Alms-giving. — In  the  early  ages 
of  Christianity  alms  were  divided  in  some  provinces 
into  four  portions ;  one  of  which  was  allotted  to  the 
bishops,  another  to  the  priests,  a  third  to  the  deacons 
and  sub-deacons,  which  made  their  whole  subsistence, 
and  a  fourth  part  was  employed  in  relieving  the  poor 
and  in  repairing  churches.  These  alms  were  given 
to  the  poor  at  their  entrance  into  the  church.  The 
reasons  assigned  for  this  practice  by  Chrysostom  in- 
dicate on  his  part  a  very  defective  view  of  Gospel 
truth.  He  says,  "  For  this  reason  our  forefathers  ap- 
pointed the  poor  to  stand  before  the  door  of  our  church- 
es, that  the  sight  of  them  might  provoke  the  most 
backward  and  inhuman  soul  to  compassion.  And  as, 
by  law  and  custom,  we  have  fountains  before  our  ora- 
tories, that  thejr  who  go  in  to  worship  God  may  first 
wash  their  hands,  and  so  lift  them  up  in  prayer,  so 
our  ancestors,  instead  of  fountains  and  cisterns,  placed 
the  poor  before  the  door  of  the  church,  that,  as  we 
wash  our  hands  in  water,  we  should  cleanse  our  souls 
by  beneficence  and  charity  first,  and  then  go  and  offer 
up  our  prayers.  For  water  is  not  more  adapted  to 
wash  away  the  spots  of  the  body  than  the  power  of 
almsdeeds  is  to  cleanse  the  soul.  As,  therefore,  ytu 
dare  not  go  in  to  pray  with  unwashen  hands,  though 
this  be  but  a  small  offence,  so  neither  should  you 
without  alms  ever  enter  the  church  for  prayer"  (Horn. 
xxv,  de  verb.  Apost.).  The  period  of  Lent  was  par- 
ticularly fruitful  in  alms.  During  the  last  week 
Chrysostom  enjoins  a  more  liberal  distribution  than 
usual  of  alms  to  the  poor,  and  the  exercise  of  all  kinds 
of  charity.  The  reason  he  assigns  is,  the  nearer  men 
approach  to  the  passion  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  by 
which  all  the  blessings  of  the  world  were  poured  forth 
on  men,  the  more  they  should  feel  themselves  obliged 
to  show  all  manner  of  acts  of  mercy  and  kindness  to- 
ward their  brethren  (Bingham,  bk.  xxi,  ch.  i,  §  25). 
At  the  time  of  marriage,  as  a  substitute  for  the  old 
Roman  practice  of  throwing  about  nuts,  the  early 
Christians  were  accustomed  to  distribute  alms  to  the 
poor  and  to  children.  The  distribution  of  alms  at 
funerals  was  associated  with  the  unscriptural  practice 
of  praying  for  the  dead.  In  one  of  Chrysostom's 
"  Homilies,"  he  says,  "  If  many  barbarous  nations 
burn  their  goods  together  with  their  dead,  how  much 
more  reasonable  is  it  for  you  to  give  your  child  his 
goods  when  he  is  dead !  Not  to  reduce  them  to 
ashes,  but  to  make  him  the  more  glorious ;  if  he  be 
a  sinner,  to  procure  him  pardon ;  if  righteous,  to  add 
to  his  reward  and  retribution."  In  several  of  the 
fathers  alms-giving  is  recommended  as  meritorious ; 
and  the  germ  of  Romish  teaching  on  the  subject  of 
salvation  by  the  merit  of  good  works  may  be  clearly 
found  in  them. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  xiii,  viii,  §  14; 
Coleman,  Anc.  Christianity,  ch.  iv,  §  3;  Honing,  Lchre 
d.  alt.  Kirche  v.  Opfer.     See  Almoner. 

The  order  in  the  Church  of  England  is,  that  alms 
should  be  collected  at  that  part  of  the  communion- 
service  which  is  called  the  offertory,  while  the  sen- 
tences are  reading  which  follow  the  place  appointed 
for  the  sermon. 

In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  alms  are  col- 
lected at  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  at 
the  love-feasts. 

On  the  Christian  duty  of  alms-giving  see  Taylor, 
Holy  Living  and  Dying,  ch.  iv,  §  8  ;  Saurin,  Sermons 
(Serm.  ix);  Barrow's  Sermon  on  Bounty  to  the  Poor 
(Works,  ii,  (59);  Wayland's  Moral  Science,  p.  376  sq. 
See  Charity,  and  Poor. 

IV.  Civil. — The  poor-laics  of  modern  times  have 
brought  up  anew  the  whole  question  of  alms-giving 
in  its  relation  to  Christian  ethics,  and  it  requires  a 


ALMUG 


173 


ALOE 


thorough  investigation. — Chalmers  on  the  Scottish  Poor- 
laws  (Ed.  Rev.  xli,  228).  See  Hospitals;  Pauper. 
Al'mug  (Heb.  only  in  the  plural  almuggim', 
d^SppX,  according  to  Bohlen,  from  the  Sanscrit  mi- 
cata,  a  similar  wood,  al-  being  the  Arab,  article,  1  Kings 
x,  11,  12 ;  Sept.  tci  £i>\a  rd  7ri\tKi]rd,  Vulg.  ligna 
thyina,  Auth.  Vers,  "almug- trees"),  or  ALGUM 
(Heb.  likewise  only  in  plur.  algummim',  Q^HIi&X,  by 
transposition  from  the  preceding,  2  Chron.  ii,  8,  Vulg. 
ligna  pinea ;  2  Chron.  ix,  10,  11,  ligna  thyina ;  Sept. 
%i)\a  rd  irtvKtva,  Auth.  Vers.  "  algum-trees"),  a  kind 
of  precious  wood  brought  along  with  gold  and  precious 
stones  from  Ophir  by  the  navy  of  Hiram  in  the  time 
of  Solomon,  and  employed  by  him  for  the  ornaments 
of  the  temple  and  palace,  as  well  as  for  making  musical 
instruments  (1  Kings  x,  11,  12),  and  previously  un- 
known to  the  Israelites  (2  Chron.  ix,  10, 11),  although 
it  is  stated  to  have  been  also  procured  from  Lebanon 
(2  Chron.  ii,  8).  The  Sept.  translators  of  Kings  un- 
derstand "heini  ivood"  to  be  meant,  but  in  Chron.  it 
is  rendered  "pine  wood"  as  by  the  Vulg.  in  one  pas- 
sage, although  elsewhere  "  thyine-wood"  (conip.  Rev. 
xviii,  12),  or  citron-wood.  See  Thyine.  Its  occur- 
rence in  2  Chron.  ii,  8  (whence  the  inference  that  it 
was  a  species  of  pine,  see  Biel,  De  lignis  ex  Libano 
petitis,  in  the  Musceum  Ilagan.  iv,  1  sq.,  or  cedar,  as 
Abulwalid,  in  loc.)  among  the  trees  procurable  from 
Lebanon  (comp.  its  omission  in  the  parallel  passage, 
1  Kings  v,  8)  is  probably  an  interpolation  (Rosenmul- 
ler,  Bib.  Bot.  p.  245),  since  it  would  not  in  that  case 
have  afterward  become  unknown  (1  Kings  x,  12). 
Dr.  Shaw  supposes  it  to  have  been  the  cypress,  be- 
cause the  wood  of  that  tree  is  still  used  in  Italy  and 
elsewhere  for  violins,  harpsichords,  and  other  string- 
ed instruments.  Hiller  (Hierophyt.  xiii,  §  7)  supposes 
a  gummy  or  resinous  wood  to  be  meant,  but  this  would 
be  unfit  for  the  uses  to  which  the  almug-tree  is  said  to 
have  been  applied.  Josephus  (Ant.  viii,  7, 1)  describes 
the  wood  as  that  of  a  kind  of  p>ine,  which  he  distin- 
guishes from  the  pine  of  his  own  days.  Many  of  the 
rabbins  (e.  g.  E.  Tanchum)  understand  pea?-ls,  for 
which  the  word  in  the  sing,  (almug,  MOSSt)  occurs  in 
the  Talmud  (Mishna,  Kelim,  xiii,  G ;  comp.  Maimon- 
ides  and  Bartinora,  in  loc.) ;  but  these  are  not  a 
wood  (B^XS),  and  are  obtained  from  the  Red  and 
Mediterranean  seas,  whence  .they  are  even  exported  to 
India  (Pliny,  xxxii,  2)  ;  so  that  we  must  probably  un- 
derstand the  Talmudists  as  only  referring  to  the  red 
or  coralline  hue  of  the  wood.  The  interpretation  of 
Kimchi  (Targum,  in  loc.  2  Chron.),  that  it  was  a  red 
dye-wood,  called  albaccum  in  Arabic,  and  commonly 
Brazil-icood  (Abulfadli  and  Edrisi,  ap.  Celsius),  has 
been  followed  by  most  moderns  since  Celsius  (Iliero- 
lot.  i,  171  sq.),  who  refer  it  to  the  sandal-wood  of  com- 
merce (in  Sanscrit,  raktd),  a  view  which  is  corrobo- 
rated b)r  the  position  of  Ophir  (q.  v.),  probably  south- 
ward and  eastward  of  the  Bed  Sea,  in  some  part  of 
India  (Pict.  Bible,  ii,  349-3GG),  whence  alone  the  as- 
sociated products,  such  as  gold,  precious  stones,  ivory, 
peacocks,  apes,  and  tin,  could  have  been  procured. 
Among  those,  however,  who  have  been  in  favor  of 
sandal-wood,  many  have  confounded  with  the  true 
and  far-famed  kind  what  is  called  "  red  sandal-wood," 
the  product  of  Pterocarpus  santalinus,  as  well  as  of 
Adenanthera  pavonina  (Beckmann,  Waarrnkunde,  II, 
i,  112  sq.  ;  Wahl,  Ostindien,  ii,  802  ;  Faber,  Archdolo- 
gie,  p.  374).  But  the  most  common  sandal-wood  is 
that  which  is  best  known  and  most  highly  esteemed 
in  India.  It  is  produced  by  the  Santalum  album,,  a 
native  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  coast  of  Mala- 
bar, v/here  large  quantities  are  cut  for  export  to  China, 
to  different  parts  of  India,  and  to  the  Persian  and 
Arabian  gulfs.  The  outer  parts  of  this  tree  are  white 
and  without  odor;  the  parts  near  the  root  are  most 
fragrant,  especially  of  such  trees  as  grow  in  hilly  sit- 
uations and  stony  ground.     The  trees  vary  in  diame- 


Branch  of  the  Srimbil-tive  (Santalum  Album). 


ter  from  9  inches  to  a  foot,  and  are  about  25  or  30  feet 
in  height,  but  the  stems  soon  begin  to  branch.  This 
wood  is  white,  fine-grained,  and  agreeably  fragrant, 
and  is  much  employed  for  making  rosaries,  fans,  ele- 
gant boxes,  and  cabinets.  The  Chinese  use  it  also  as 
incense  both  in  their  temples  and  private  houses,  and 
burn  long  slender  candles  formed  bj'  covering  the 
ends  of  sticks  with  its  sawdust  mixed  with  rice-paste. 
As  sandal-wood  has  been  famed  in  the  East  from  very 
early  times,  it  is  more  likely  than  any  other  to  have 
attracted  the  notice  of,  and  been  desired  by,  more 
northern  nations.  We  do  not,  however,  trace  it  by 
its  present  or  any  similar  name  at  a  verj'  earl)'  period 
in  the  writings  of  Greek  authors;  it  may,  however, 
have  been  confounded  with  agila-wood,  or  agallochum, 
which,  like  it,  is  a  fragrant  wood  and  used  as  incense. 
See  Aloe.  Sandal-wood  is  mentioned  in  early  San- 
scrit works,  and  also  in  thote  of  the  Arabs.  Actuarius 
is  the  earliest  Greek  author  that  expressly  notices  it, 
but  he  does  so  as  if  it  had  been  familiarly  known.  In 
the  Periplus  of  Arrian  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  ar- 
ticles of  commerce  obtainable  at  Omana,  in  Gedrosia, 
by  the  name  £v\a  aaydXtva,  which  Dr.  Vincent  re- 
marks may  easily  have  been  corrupted  from  aavddXi- 
va.  As  it  was  produced  on  the  Malabar  coast,  it 
could  readily  be  obtained  by  the  merchants  who  con- 
veyed the  cinnamon  of  Ceylon  and  other  Indian  prod- 
ucts to  the  Mediterranean  (comp.  Gesenius,  Thcs.  Heb. 
p.  93  ;  Penny  Cyclopedia,  s.  v.  Santalaceaj,  Santalum). 
See  Botany,  and  comp.  Sandal-wood, 

Al'nathan  ('AXvaSrav  v.  r.  'EXvaSav),  one  of  the 
popular  chiefs  at  the  return  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr. 
viii,  1G)  ;  evidently  the  first  Elnathan  (q.  v.)  of  the 
parallel  text  (Ezra  viii,  44). 

Aloe,  Aloes,  or  Lign-Aloe,  an  Oriental  tree, 
having  a  fragrant  wood,  but  entirely  different  from 
the  plant  from  which  the  bitter  resin  aloes  is  obtained, 
used  in  medicine.  The  Hebrew  words  ahalim'  and 
ahaloth'  (Q^HX,  PibrtN)  occur  in  Psa.  xlv,  8,  "All 
thj'  garments  smell  of  myrrh,  and  aloes  (Sept.  arrtfer//), 
and  cassia  ;"  Prov.  vii,  17,  "  I  have  perfumed  my  bed 
with  myrrh,  with  cinnamon  and  aloes"  (Sept.  omits); 
Cant,  iv,  14,  "  Spikenard  and  saffron,  calamus  and 
cinnamon,  with  all  trees  of  frankincense,  myrrh  and 
aloes  (Sept.  dXioSr),  with  all  the  chief  spices."  From 
the  articles  which  are  associated  with  them  (both 
names  indicating  the  same  thing),  it  is  evident  that  it 
was  some  odoriferous  substance  probably  well  known 
in  ancient  times.     See  Aromatics. 

This  tree  or  wood  was  called  by  the  Greeks  dyc'iX- 
\o\oi',  and  later  Zv\a\<h]  (Dioscor.  i,  21),  and  has 
been  known  to  moderns  by  the  names  of  aloe-wood, 
paradise -wood,  eagle-wood,  etc.  Modern  botanists 
distinguish  two  kinds ;  the  one  genuine  and  most 
precious,  the  other  more  common  and  inferior  (Ains- 


ALOE 


174 


ALPHA 


lie,  Materia  Indica,  i,  479  sq.).  The  former  (Cynome- 
tra  agallocha,  or  the  Aquilaria  ovata  of  Linn.)  grows 
in  Cochin-China,  Siam,  and  China,  is  never  exported, 
and  is  of  so  great  rarity  in  India  itself  as  to  be  worth 
its  weight  in  gold  (Martius,  Lekrbuch  der  Pharmakog- 
nosie,  p.  83  sq.).  Pieces  of  this  wood  that  are  resin- 
ous, of  a  dark  color,  heavy,  and  perforated  as  if  by 
worms,  are  called  calambac ;  the  tree  itself  is  called 
by  the  Chinese  suk-hiang.  It  is  represented  as  large, 
with  an  erect  trunk  and  lofty  branches.  The  other 
or  more  common  species  is  called  garo  in  the  East  In- 
dies, and  is  the  wood  of  a  tree  growing  in  the  Moluc- 
cas, the  Excacaria  agallocha  of  Linnaeus  (Oken,  Lekrb. 
d.  Naiuraesch.  II,  ii,  600  sq. ;  Lindlej',  Flora  Med.  p. 
190  sq.).  The  leaves  are  like  those  of  a  pear-tree  ; 
and  it  has  a  milky  juice,  which,  as  the  tree  grows  old, 
hardens  into  a  fragrant  resin.  The  trunk  is  knotty, 
crooked,  and  usually  hollow  (see  Gildemeister,  De  Re- 
bus Indicts,  fasc.  i,  65).  The  domestic  name  in  India 
is  aghil  (Sanscrit,  agani)  ;  whence  the  Europeans  who 
first  visited  India  gave  it  the  name  of  lignum  aquihe, 
or  eagle-wood.  From  this  the  Hebrew  name  seems 
also  to  be  derived  (Gesenius,  Thes.  Ileb.  p.  33),  whieh 
the  Vulgate,  in  Numb,  xxiv,  6,  has  translated,  "As 
tents  which  the  Lord  hath  spread ;"  instead  of  "  As 
aloe-trees  which  the  Lord  hath  planted" — in  our  ver- 
sion, "  lign-aloes."  Aloe-wood  is  said  by  Herodotus 
to  have  been  used  by  the  Egyptians  for  embalming 
dead  bodies;  and  Nicodemus  brought  it,  mingled  with 
myrrh,  to  embalm  the  body  of  our  Lord  (John  xix, 
39).  By  others,  however,  the  aloes  («Ao»;)  with  which 
Christ's  body  was  embalmed  is  thought  to  have  been 
an  extract  from  a  different  plant,  the  prickly  shrub 
known  among  us  by  that  name  (Penny  Cyclopcedia, 
s.  v.  Agave).  Some,  again,  consider  the  lign-aloe  of 
the  Old  Testament  to  be  a  different  East-Indian  tree 
from  the  above,  namely,  the  Aquilaria  agalloehum, 
but  whether  it  be  the  same  with  the  more  precious 


Branch  of  Eagle-wood. 


variety  .above  spoken  of  is  uncertain  (Celsius,  Iliero- 
bot.  i,  135).  An  inferior  kind  of  aloes  is  also  said  to 
be  obtained  from  the  Aquilaria  Mcdaccensis  (Rum- 
phius,  Jlerbar.  Amboin.  ii,  29  sq.).  The  aloes  of  the 
ancients  were  procured  from  Arabia  and  India  (Salma- 
sius,  E.rerc.  ad  Plin.  ii,  1054  sq.).  It  is  still  highly 
prized  as  an  article  of  luxury  in  the  East  (Harmar, 
Observ.  ii,  149;  Kampfer,  Amcen.  p.  904;  Burckhardt, 
Arabia,  i,  '216  :  Hartmann,  Hebr.  i,  315  sq. ;  Lamarck, 
Enc.  Meth.  i,  422-429  ;  Roxburgh,  Flora  hid.  ii,  423). 
The  plant  which  has  the  reputation  of  producing 
the  best  aloes  of  modern  shops  is  the  Aloe  Socotrina, 
a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  island  of 
Socotra,  but  now  commonly  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies.  The  resin  is  obtained  by  inspissation  from 
the  juice  of  the  leaves  (Pinny  Cyclopadia,  s.  v. 
Aloe).     See  Botany,  and  comp.  Lion-aloe. 


Alogi  or  Alogians  (d  privative,  and  Xoyoc,  de- 
nying the  Logos;  or  from  dXoyoi,  unreasonable),  a  sect 
of  heretics  in  the  second  century,  who  were  ardent  op- 
ponents of  the  Montanists.  According  to  Epiphanius 
{Hoar.  51)  they  denied  that  Jesus  Christ  was  the  Lo- 
gos, and  did  not  receive  either  the  Gospel  according 
to  John  or  the  Apocalypse,  both  of  which  they  ascribed 
to  the  Gnostic  Cerinthus.  Lardner  doubts  their  ex- 
istence. It  does  appear,  however,  that  certain  op- 
ponents of  the  Montanists  not  only  denied  the  pro- 
phetic gifts  claimed  by  these  heretics,  but  began  also 
to  reject  from  the  creed  all  those  things  out  of  which 
the  error  of  the  Montanists  had  sprung ;  hence  they 
denied  the  continuance  of  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
in  the  Church ;  and  from  thus  rejecting  the  doctrine 
of  the  Logos,  so  clearly  taught  in  the  earlier  part  of 
the  Gospel,  they  acquired  their  name.  They  are  said 
to  owe  their  origin  to  Theodotus  of  Byzantium,  a  cur- 
rier. See  Euseb.  Ch.  Hist,  v,  28;  Lardner,  Works, 
iv,  190;  viii,  627;  Heinichen,  De  Alogis,  etc.  (Lips. 
1829) ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  526,  583. 

Alombrados,  a  mystic  sect  in  Spain  since  1575, 
who  considered  neither  the  sacraments  nor  good  works 
necessary,  and  rejected  the  ministerial  office.  They 
were  exterminated  in  Spain  by  the  Inquisition  in 
1623.  One  part  of  them  emigrated  to  France,  where 
they  were  likewise  suppressed  by  royal  order  in 
1635. 

A'loth  (1  Kings  iv,  16).     See  Bealoth. 

Aloysius  of  Gonzaga,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  cal- 
endar, born  in  Castiglione,  1568,  noted  in  his  youth 
for  devotion  and  severity,  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits 
1587.  In  1591,  during  an  epidemic  at  Rome,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  labors  and  sacrifices,  and  finally 
fell  a  victim  to  the  pestilence.  He  was  canonized 
1526  by  Benedict  XIII,  and  is  commemorated  in  the 
Roman  Church  Jan.  21. — Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  Jan. 
21. 

Al'pha  or  A,  the  first  letter  in  almost  all  alpha- 
bets. In  Hebrew  it  is  called  aleph  (H),  which  signi- 
fies or,  from  the  shape  of  it  in  the  old  Phoenician  al- 
phabet, where  it  somewhat  resembles  the  head  and 
horns  of  that  animal  (Plutarch,  Qumst.  Sympos.  ix,  2; 
Gesenii  Thesaur.  Heb.  p.  1).  The  following  figures 
illustrate  the  steps  by  which  this  letter  reached  its 
form  in  various  languages.  See  Alphabet.  Its  pre- 
dominant sound  in  nearly  all  languages  is  very  simple, 
being  little  more  than  a  mere  opening  of  the.  mouth 
as  in  ah  !     In  Hebrew,  however,  it  is  treated  in  gram- 


ALPHA 


175 


ALPHABET 


i>      X       A      Jf         -V       ^        ^4 

5  4  3  2  1  2'  3' 

mar  as  a  consonant  of  the  guttural  class,  although  a 
very  soft  one,  corresponding  to  the  "smooth  breath- 
ing" in  Greek  ('),  and  cannot  therefore  be  readily  rep- 
resented in  English.  Like  all  the  other  letters  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  it  is  frequently  employed  in  the 
Psalms  and  Lamentations  to  indicate  a  division  of  the 
stanzas  in  the  manner  of  an  acrostic  (q.  v.).  A  re- 
markable instance  occurs  in  Psa.  cxix,  which  is  di- 
vided into  as  many  sections  of  several  verses  each  as 
there  are  letters  in  the  alphabet,  the  first  word  of  each 
verse  beginning  with  the  letter  appropriate  to  the 
section.  The  Hebrew  name  has  passed  over  along 
with  the  letter  itself  into  the  Greek  alpha.  Loth  the 
Hebrews  and  Greeks  employed  the  letters  of  their 
alphabets  as  numerals;  and  A,  therefore  (aleph  or 
aljiha),  denoted  one,  the  first.  Hence  our  Lord  says  of 
himself  that  he  is  (to  A)  Alpha  and  (to  £2)  Omega,  i.  e. 
the  first  and  the  last,  the  beginning  and  the  ending,  as 
he  himself  explains  it  (Rev.  i,  8,  11 ;  xxi,  6 ;  xxii,  13). 
This  expression,  which  in  the  O.  T.  had  already 
been  employed  to  express  the  eternity  of  God  (Isa. 
xliv,  6),  was  in  the  patristic  period  more  definitely 
employed  with  the  same  significance  (Tertul.  De 
monog.  c.  5 ;  Prudentius,  Cathemer.  Hymn,  ix,  11) ; 
and  its  applications  were  traced  out  with  puerile  mi- 
nuteness (see  Primasius,  in  the  Bibl.  Pair.  Max.  x, 
338),  especially  by  the  Gnostic  Marcus  (Iren.  Uteres. 
i,  14;  Tertul.  Prcescr.  c.  50).  Traces  of  this  signifi- 
cance as  a  symbol  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  (Rhaban, 
De  laud.  s.  Crucis,  i,  fig.  1 ;  Didron,  Tconogr.  Chret.  p. 
601)  have  been  found  in  the   following  interesting 


monograms,  which  occur  on  the  catacombs  of  Melos 
(Ross,  Reisen  auf  d.  Inseln  d.  dgeischen  Meeres,  iii, 
149)  and  Naples  (Aginc.  Pitt,  xi,  9),  and  in  the  ceme- 
teries of  Rome  (Mamachi  Orig.  et  antiq.  Christ,  iii, 
75),  as  well  as  on   coins  and  inscriptions  elsewhere. 


A+d  4a  J* 


Early  Christian  Symbols,  containing  the  Greek  letters  A  and 
il,  with  the  cross  or  the  sign  XP  (for  Xp«rT6s). 

They  are  sometimes  enclosed  in  a  circle.  See  Bey- 
schlag,  De  sigillo  nominis  Dei  hominis  (Viteb.  1692) ; 
Ewald,  De  a  et  10  nomine  Chr.  mystico,  in  his  Embl.  ii, 
169  sq. ;  Pfeiffer,  De  a  et  w  (Regiom.  1677) ;  Rudiger, 
De  Christo  per  primum  (niDX^a)  et  ultimum  (A/»» 
S.  S.  vocem  indicato  (Giess.  1724).     See  Omega. 

Alphabet  (from  the  first  two  Greek  letters,  alpha 
and  beta),  the  series  of  characters  employed  in  writing 
any  language.  The  origin  of  such  written  signs  is 
unknown,  having  been  ascribed  by  some  to  Adam 
and  other  antediluvians  (Bangii  Exercitationes  de  ortu 
et  progressu  literarum,  Hafnias,  1657,  p.  99  sq.),  and 
lately  to  an  astronomical  observation  of  the  relative 
position  of  the  planets  in  the  zodiac  by  Noah  at  the 
deluge  (Seyft'arth,  Unser  Alphabet  ein  Abbild  des  Thier- 
kreises,  Leipz.  1834).     See  Language. 

The  earliest  and  surest  data,  however,  on  which  any 
sound  speculation  on  this  subject  can  be  based,  are 
found  in  the  genuine  paloeographical  monuments  of 
the  Phoenicians;  in  the  manifest  derivation  of  all  oth- 
er Syro-Arabian  and  almost  all  European  characters 
from  that  type,  and  in  the  testimonj-  which  history 
bears  to  the  use  and  transmission  of  alphabetical  writ- 
ing (Carpzov,  Crit.  Sacr.  p.  227;  Kopp,  Bilder  und 
Schriften  der  Vorzeit,  Mannh.  1819 ;  and  especially 
Gesenius,  Scrijiturce  linguwque  Phanicm  monumcnta, 
Lips.  1837).     See  Writing. 


The  earlie-t  I'huTiiri.in. 


Ancient  Greek.  Ancient  Persian 


Ancient  Hebrew  Aramaean,  Later         Himyarite. 

on  Asmon.  coins.  on  Egypt,  mon.      Phoenician, 


Kufic.  Peshito.        Uigur  or 

Old  Turkish 


Historical  derivation  of  Alphabets. 


There  are  only  three  nations  which  can  compete 
for  the  honor  of  the  discover)',  or  rather  the  use  and 
transmission  of  letters— the  Babylonians,  the  Phoeni- 
cians, and  the  Egyptians.     The  chief  arguments  in 


favor  of  the  first  (Kopp,  Bilder  und  Schriften,  ii,  147; 
Hoffmann,  Gram.  Syr.  p.  61)  are  based  on  the  very 
early  civilization  of  Babylon ;  on  numerous  passages 
which  attribute  the  discovery  to  the  2dpot,  Syri,  and 


ALPHABET 


176 


ALPH^EUS 


X«\<^i7<n  (quoted  in  Hoffmann,  1.  c.) ;  and  especially 
on  the  existence  of  a  Babylonian  brick  containing  an 
inscription  in  characters  resembling  the  Phoenician. 
To  these  arguments  Gesenius  has  replied  most  at 
length  in  the  article  Paldographie,  in  Ersch  and  Gru- 
ber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopadie. 

Nearly  an  equal  number  of  ancient  authorities 
might  be  cited  as  testimonies  that  the  discovery  of 
letters  was  ascribed  to  the  Phoenicians  and  to  the 
Egyptians  (Walton's  Prolegomena,  ii,  2).  And,  in- 
deed, there  is  a  view,  suggested  by  Gesenius  {Paldo- 
graphie, 1.  c),  by  which  their  rival  claims  might,  to  a 
certain  extent,  be  reconciled — that  is,  by  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  hieroglyphical  was,  indeed,  the  earliest 
kind  of  all  writing;  but  that  the  Phoenicians,  whose 
commerce  led  them  to  Egypt,  may  have  borrowed  the 
first  germ  of  alphabetical  writing  from  the  phonetic 


hieroglyphs.  There  is  at  least  a  remarkable  coinci- 
dence between  the  Syro-Arabian  alphabet  and  the 
phonetic  hieroglyphs,  in  that  in  both  the  figure  of  a 
material  object  was  made  the  sign  of  that  sound  with 
which  the  name  of  the  object  began.  See  Alpha. 
But,  if  this  theor}'  were  true,  it  would  still  leave  the 
Phoenicians  the  possibility  of  having  actually  develop- 
ed the  first  alphabetical  writing ;  and  that,  together 
with  the  fact  that  the  earliest  monuments  of  the  Syro- 
Arabians  have  preserved  their  characters,  and  the 
unanimous  consent  with  which  ancient  writers  ascribe 
to  them  the  transmission  of  the  alphabet  to  the  Greeks 
(Herod,  v,  58 ;  Diod.  Sic.  v,  74),  may  make  the  proba- 
bilities preponderate  in  their  favor. — Kitto,  Cyclop. 
On  this  assumption,  the  following  table  exhibits  the 
probable  derivation  of  the  alphabets  of  the  three  lead- 
ing types,  the  Shemitic,  the  Indo-Germanic,  and  the 


HEHREW. 

Greek. 

English. 

No. 

Form.            j        Name. 

No. 

Form. 

Name. 

No. 

Roman. 

Italic. 

1 

X 

A'leph. 

1 

A     a 

Al'pha. 

1 

A    a 

A    a 

2 

is 

Beyth. 

2 

B     ft 

Be'ta. 

2 

B   b 

B    b 

3 

a 

Gi'mel. 

3 

r  7 

Gam'ma. 

T 

G   S 

G  g 

4 

i 

Da'leth. 

4 

A     3 

Del'ta. 

4 

D    d 

D  d 

5 

n 

He. 

5 

E      € 

Ep'silon. 

5 

E   e 

E  e 

G 

i 

Vav. 

F 

Bugam'ma. 

G 

F    f 

F  f 

T 

t 

Za'yin. 

G 

z   K 

Ze'ta. 

2G 

Z    z 

Z   z 

8 

n 

Cheyth. 

T 

H    n 

E'ta. 

S 

11  h 

II  h 

9 

a 

Teyth. 

8 

G    3-orO 

The'ta. 

(  9 

I     i 

I    i 

10 

i 

Yod. 

9 

1     ' 

Io'ta. 

J    J 
Y   y 

Y  y 

11 

3  (final  -|) 

Kaph. 

10 

K      K 

Eap'pa. 

11 

K  k 

K  k 

12 

b 

La'med. 

11 

A     \ 

Eamh'da. 

12 

L    1 

L   I 

13 

12  (final  d) 

Mem. 

12 

M    M 

Mu. 

13 

M   m 

M  in 

14 

3    (final  •)) 

Nun. 

13 

N     v 

Nil. 

14 

N   n 

N  n 

15 

D 

Sa'mek. 

18 

2    o-  (final  O 

Sig'ma. 

3 

C    c 

C   c 

16 

'J 

A'yin. 

15 

O     o 

Om'icron. 

15 

O   o 

O   o 

IT 

5  (final  t\) 

Te. 

1C 

n  7T 

Pi. 

10 

P    p 

P  p 

18 

S  (final  y) 

Tsadey' 

19 

P 

Koph. 

Tor  a 

Eoppa. 

IT 

Q    q 

Q  q 

20 

1 

Eeysh. 

IT 

P    P 

Eho. 

IS 

R    r 

R  r 

H 

b 

Sin. 
Shin. 

?l 

San. 

19 

S    s 

S   s 

22 

n 

Tav. 

19 

T      T 

Tau. 

20 

T    t 

T  t 

(Compound) 

14 

S  f 

Xi. 

(21 

U    u 

U  it 

!]    (as  "mater  lectionis") 

20 

Y    v 

U'psilon. 

J  99 

11! 

V   v 
W  w 

V   v 
W  iv 

5  (without  Dagesh) 

21 

<i>    0 

Phi. 

0  (harder  sound) 

22 

X    X 

Chi. 

24 

X   x 

X  x 

(Compound) 

23 

*  l/, 

Psi. 

i  (as  u  mater  lectionis") 

24 

n   u> 

O'mega. 

modern  European,  as  represented  by  the  three  forms 
of  character  employed  in  this  work,  namely,  the  He- 
brew, Greek,  and  English,  to  which  all  the  others 
bear  a  well-known  and  mostly  obvious  relation.  The 
sounds  attributed  to  them  respectively,  however,  were 
in  many  cases  different.  Another  and  more  funda- 
mental variation  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  the  He- 
brew all  the  letters  are  regarded  as  consonants, "the 
vowels  being  designated  by  certain  additional  marks 
called  "  points,"  of  late  invention.  See  Hebrew 
LANGUAGE.  For  a  view  of  the  printed  characters  of 
all  languages  with  their  powers,  see  Ballhorn,  Alpha- 
bete  orientalischer  und  occidentalischer  Sprachen  (Leipz. 
and  Lond.  1859).  This  (and  still  more  the  above) 
classification  must  be  understood  as  applying  only  to 
the  written  symbols,  and  not  to  the  etymological  af- 
finities of  languages,  which  depend  upon  national  deri- 
vation.    See  Ethnology. 


Alphabetical   Poems. 
Hymns. 


See    Abecedarian 


Alphce'us  ('AX^atof),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  putative  father  of  James  the  Less  (Matt,  x, 
3;  Mark  iii,  18;  Luke  vi,  15;  Acts  i,  13),  and  hus- 
band of  Mary,  the  sister-in-law  of  our  Lord's  mother 
(John  xix,  25)  [see  Mary]  ;  for  which  reason  James 
is  called  "the  Lord's  brother"  (Gal.  i,  19).  See 
James.  A.D.  ante  2G.  It  seems  that  he  was  a  (per- 
haps elder)  brother  of  Joseph,  to  whom,  on  bis  de- 
cease without  issue,  his  widow  was  married  according 
to  the  Levirate  Law  (q.  v.).  By  comparing  John  xix, 
25,  with  Luke  xxiv,  10,  and  Matt,  x,  3,  it  appears  that 
Alphtms  is  the  Greek,  and  Cleophas  or  Clopas  (q.  v.) 
the  Hebrew  or  Syriac  name  of  the  same  person,  ac- 
cording to  the  custom  of  the  provinces  or  of  the  time, 
when  men  had  often  two  names,  by  one  of  which  they 


ALPHAGE 


177 


ALTAR 


were  known  to  their  friends  and  countrymen,  and  by 
the  other  to  the  Romans  or  strangers.  More  prob- 
ably, however,  the  double  name  in  Greek  arises,  in 
this  instance,  from  a  diversity  in  pronouncing  the  H 
in  his  Aramajan  name,  "'S^Pt  (chalphay',  changing,  as 
in  the  Talmudists,  Lightfoot,  ad  Acts,  i,  13),  a  diversity 
■which  is  common  also  in  the  Septuagint  (Kuinol, 
Comment,  on  John  xix,  25).  See  Name.  Or  rather, 
perhaps,  CI* pis  was  a  Greek  name  adopted  out  of  re- 
semblance to  the  Jewish  form  of  Alpkaus  (like  ''  Paul" 
for  "Saul"),  if,  indeed,  the  former  be  not  the  original 
from  which  the  latter  was  derived  by  corruption. 

2.  The  father  of  the  evangelist  Levi  or  Matthew 
(Mark  ii,  14).     A.D.  ante  26. 

Alphage  or  Elphegus,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, distinguished  for  humility  and  piety.  Being 
infected  with  the  views  of  the  ago,  he  took  the  habit 
in  the  monastery  of  the  Benedictines,  and  afterward 
shut  himself  up  in  a  cell  at  Bath.  Here  he  remained 
until,  the  see  of  Winchester  being  vacated  by  the 
death  of  Ethelwold,  Dunstan,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, called  him  to  the  vacant  bishopric.  In  1005  he 
was  elevated  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  After  he  had 
governed  this  metropolitan  see  some  years,  the  Danes 
made  an  irruption  into  the  city,  burned  the  cathedral, 
and  having  put  to  death  upward  of  seven  thousand  of 
the  inhabitants,  seized  the  archbishop,  whom  they 
kept  in  bonds  seven  months,  and  then  murdered ;  this 
was  on  the  19th  April,  1012.  Godwin  remarks  that 
the  murderers  did  not  escape  the  penalty  of  their  sacri- 
legious act,  scarcely  one  in  the  whole  Danish  army 
having  escaped. — Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  i,  487-493. 

Alphen,  Jerome  Simon  Van,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Hanau,  May  23, 16G5;  studied  at 
Franeker  and  Leyden;  became  pastor  at  Warmond, 
and  afterward  at  Amsterdam;  and  finally,  in  1715, 
professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht,  which  office  he  filled 
until  his  death  at  Utrecht,  Nov.  7, 1742.  His  principal 
work  is  Specimina  Analytica,  in  Epist.  Fault.  (Utrecht, 
1742,  2  vols.  4to). — Drakenborch,  Oratio  Funebris  in 
Van  Alphen  (Utrecht,  1743);  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate, 
i,  210. 

Alphery,  Nicephorus  (or  Mikipiier),  a  Rus- 
sian, allied  by  birth  to  the  imperial  family.  In  con- 
sequence of  political  troubles,  he  went  to  England, 
studied  theology,  and,  in  1618,  became  curate  of  War- 
len,  Huntingdonshire.  It  is  said  that  he  was  repeat- 
edly called  from  his  retirement  to  return  to  Russia, 
even  with  offers  of  the  imperial  throne;  but  he  pre- 
ferred his  quiet  duties  in  England.  In  1G43  he  was 
deprived  of  his  living,  but  it  was  restored  to  him  after 
the  Restoration,  and  he  lived,  greatly  respected,  to  a 
great  age. — Biographia  Britannica,  s.  v. ;  Walker,  Suf- 
ferings oftJie  Clergy  in  the  Great  Rebellion,  pt.  ii. 

Alphitomancy,  a  kind  of  divination  (q.  v.)  per- 
formed with  barley,  first  among  the  pagans,  and  from 
them  introduced  among  Christians.  A  person  sus- 
pected of  crime  was  brought  before  a  priest,  who  made 
him  swallow  a  piece  of  barley-cake  ;  if  this  was  done 
without  difficulty,  he  was  declared  to  be  innocent; 
otherwise,  not. — Delrio,  Disq.  Magic,  lib.  iv,  cap.  11 ; 
Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Alphonso  de  Alcala  (in  Latin  Alphonsus 
Complutensis),  a  Spanish  rabbi,  was  a  native  of 
iWcala  de  Henares,  and  lived  toward  the  close  of  the 
15th  century.  He  embraced  Christianity,  and  was 
employed  by  Cardinal  Ximenes  in  the  revision  of  the 
celebrated  Polyglot.— Wolf,  Bibl.  Hebr.  i,  193. 

Alphonso  de  Zamora,  a  Spanish  Jew  and  dis- 
tinguished rabbi,  converted  to  the  Catholic  faith,  and 
baptized  in  1506.  Cardinal  Ximenes  employed  Iiini 
for  fifteen  years  upon  his  celebrated  Polyglot,  after 
which  he  composed  a  Dictionary  of  the  Chaldee  and 
Hebrew  words  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  other  works 
relating  to  the  text  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.     In  these 


labors  he  had  some  assistance  from  others ;  but  he 
composed  many  other  works  by  himself,  mostly  on  the 
Hebrew  tongue.  He  wrote  also,  from  Spain,  a  lettei 
to  the  Roman  Jews,  in  Hebrew  and  Latin  interlined, 
reproaching  them  for  their  obstinacy. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit 
anno  1506;  Wolf,  Bibl.  Hebr.  i,  193. 

Alphonsus  of  Liguori.     See  Liguori. 

Alsted,  Joiiannis  Heinrich,  a  German  Protestant 
divine,  born  in  1588  at  Herborn,  in  Nassau,  professor 
of  philosophy  and  theology  in  his  native  town,  and  sub- 
sequently at  Weissembourg,  in  Transylvania,  where 
he  died  in  1638.  He  represented  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Nassau  at  the  Synod  of  Dort.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  may  be  mentioned,  Tractatus  de  Milk  Annis 
(1618;  a  treatise  on  the  Millennium,  translated  and 
published  in  London  in  1643,  4to)  ;  Encyclopaedia  Bib- 
lica  (Francof.  1620,  1642),  in  which  he  attempts  to 
prove  that  the  principles  and  materials  of  all  the  arts 
and  sciences  should  be  sought  for  in  the  Scriptures. 
He  wrote  also  a  general  Encyclopedia  (Lyons,  1649, 
4  vols,  fol.),  and  other  works,  of  which  a  list  may  be 
found  in  Niceron,  Mernoires,  t.  xli. 

Altanae'us  ('AArfuwoc,  prob.  for  MaXrayatoQ, 
and  this,  by  resolution  of  the  dagesh,  for  Mar7-«va<oc), 
one  of  the  ' '  sons"  of  Asom  (or  Hashum),  who  divorced 
his  Gentile  wife  after  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  ix,  33) ; 
evidently  the  Mattexai  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text 
(Ezra  x,  33). 

Altar  (H3T53,  mizbe'ach,  from  l"OT,  to  slay  in  sac- 
rifice ;  fioupoc),  a  structure  on  which  sacrifices  of 
any  kind  are  offered.  In  ancient  times  this  was  al- 
ways done  by  slaughter  or  by  fire.  The  term  is  bor- 
rowed in  modern  times  to  signify  a  table  or  other 
erection  in  a  church  on  which  the  sacraments  are  ad- 
ministered, or  near  which  prayer  is  offered  and  other 
religious  exercises  performed  (comp.  Heb.  xiii,  10). 
They  were  originally  of  earth  (Exod.  xx,  24  ;  comp, 
Lucan.  ix,  988 ;  Horace,  Odss,  iii,  8,  4 ;  Ovid,  Metam. 
iv,  752;  Trist.  v,  5,  9;  Plinj-,  v,  4)  or  unwrought 
stone  (Exod.  xx,  25),  erected  on  such  spots  as  had 
been  early  held  sacred  (Gen.  xii,  7  sq. ;  xiii,  18 ;  xxvi, 
25;  xxxv,  1;  Exod.  xvii,  15;  xxiv,  4  sq.),  especial- 
ly hill-tops  and  eminences  (Gen.  xxii,  9;  Ezek.  xviii, 
6;  comp.  Herod,  i,  131;  Homer,  Iliad,  xxii,  171; 
Apollon.  Rhod.  524;  Livy,  xxi,  38;  Philostr.  Apol.  i, 
2),  also  house-tops  (2  Kings  xxiii,  12),  as  being  nearer 
the  sky  (Tacit.  Anal,  xiii,  57;  Philostr.  Apol.  ii,  5); 
occasionally  under  remarkable  trees  (2  Kings  xvi,  4). 
See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Ara;  Selden, 
Synedr.  iii,  260  sq. ;  Jahn,  Archiiol.  pt.  iii,  c.  2,  5; 
Bahr,  SymboHk,  i,  157,  233;  Lakemacher,  Antiq.  Grcec. 
sacr.  p.  221  sq.  The  stone  altars  erected  to  the  true 
God  (Josh,  viii,  31;  1  Kings  xviii,  31 ;  1  Sam.  vi,  14) 
were  imitated  by  the  Gentiles,  as  appears  from  Pau- 
sanias  (vi,  382),  where  he  mentions  "  an  altar  of  white 
stone,"  and  Apollonius  Rhodius,  in  speaking  of  the 
temple  of  Mars  {Argon,  ii).  Altars  were  generally 
erected  at  the  gates  of  the  city  (2  Kings  xxiii,  8).  We 
may  refer  to  this  Acts  xiv,  13,  where  the  priest  of 
Jupiter  is  said  to  have  brought  filleted  oxen  to  the  gates 
to  perform  sacrifice.  An  altar,  both  among  the  Jews 
and  the  heathen,  was  an  asylum,  a  sanctuary,  for  such 
persons  as  fled  to  it  for  refuge  (Exod.  xxi,  14  ;  1  Kings 
i,  50;  ii,  28,  etc.).  As  to  the  practice  of  the  heathen 
in  this  respect,  all  the  Greek  writers  are  more  or  less 
copious.     See  Horns. 

Heb.  xiii,  10,  "  We  have  an  altar,"  etc.,  Macknight 
explains  thus :  "  Here,  by  a  usual  metonymy,  the  al-' 
tar  is  put  for  the  sacrifice,  as  is  plain  from  the  apostle's 
adding  'of  which  they  have  no  right  to  cat.'1  This  is 
the  sacrifice  which  Christ  offered  for  the  sins  of  the 
world  ;  and  the  eating  of  it  does  not  mean  corporeal  eat- 
ing, but  the  partaking  of  the  pardon  which  Christ,  by 
that  sacrifice,  had  procured  for  sinners"  (comp.  Olshau* 
sen,  Comment,  in  loc).     See  Lord's  Supper. 

One  wooden  table  was  wont  to  be  placed  iu  the 


ALTAR 


m 


ALTAR 


midst  of  every  meeting-place  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians, upon  which  each  of  them  laid  what  he  bestowed 
for  the  use  of  the  poor,  as  we  are  informed  by  Thcod- 
oret  (v.  18;  see  Heb.  xii,  10) ;  and  because  alms  are 
noted  with  the  name  of  sacrifice,  that  table  upon  which 
they  were  laid  was  called  by  the  ancient  Christians  an 
altar.     Compare  Sacrifice. 


\w  B 


Druidical  Circle  ia  the  Isle  of  Jersey 


I.  Pagan. — There  is  a  strong  probability  that  some 
of  those  ancient  monuments  of  unhewn  stone,  usually 
called  Druidical  remains,  which  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  were  derived  from  the  altars  of  primitive 
times.  See  Stone.  These  are  various  in  their  forms, 
and  their  peculiar  uses  have  been  very  much  disputed. 
(See  Penny  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v.  Avebury,  Carnac,  Stonc- 
henge.)  Dr.  Kitto  has  elaborately  examined  the  sub- 
ject {Pict.  Hist,  of  Palest,  append,  to  bk.  iii,  ch.  iii  and 
iv),  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  cromlechs 
are  representatives  of  ancient  altars,  while  the  kist- 
vaens,  or  stones  disposed  in  a  chest-like  form,  are  anal- 
ogous to  the  arks  of  Jewish  and  Egyptian  worship 
[sec  Ark],  and  are  remnants  of  the  so-called  arkite 
traditions.  See  Flood.  Cromlechs  are  somewhat 
in  the  form  of  a  table,  one  large  stone  being  sup-     I 


level  for  the  fire  and  the  sacrifice.  Such  are  the 
cairns  of  altar-like  form,  many  of  which  still  remain  ; 
but  as  they  are  sometimes  found  in  places  where  stones 
of  large  size  might  have  been  obtained,  it  seems  that 
in  later  times  such  altars  had  a  special  appropriation  ; 
and  Toland  shows  {Hist,  of  Brit.  Druids,  p.  101)  that 
the  sacred  fires  were  burned  on  them,  and  sacrifice* 
offered  to  Bel,  Baal,  or 
the  Sun.  In  man}'  in- 
stances, as  at  Stonehen^e, 
a  circle  of  stones  is  ranged 
around  a  central  one  in  an 
amphitheatrical  manner, 
an  arrangement  which 
has  been  found  to  take 
place  likewise  even  in 
Persia, as  at  Darab  (Ousc- 
Ibv's  Travels,  ii,  124). 
Caesar  refers  to  such  con- 
secrated circles  for  na- 
tional deliberation  among 
the  Gauls  {Bell.  Gall,  vi), 
and  Homer  alludes  to 
Grecian  councils  held 
within  circles  of  stones 
(//.  xviii,  585;  comp.  Od. 
viii,  5).  The  following, 
figured  from  Ouseley 
{Travels  in  Persia,  ii,  80- 
83),  was  called  by  the  na- 
tives "  Stone  of  the  Fire 
Temple,"  and  is  surrounded  by  a  low  wall.  It  is  ten 
or  eleven  feet  high,  and  about  three  square.  Two 
sides  contain  an  inscription,  in  Pehlvi,  wichin  a  sunken 


Druidical  Cromlech. 

ported  in  a  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined  position 
upon  three  or  more,  but  usually  three  stones,  set  up- 
right. That  the}'  were  used  as  altars  is  almost  in- 
stinctively suggested  to  every  one  that  views  them;  - 
and  this  conclusion  is  strengthened  when,  as  is  often  the 
case,  we  observe  a  small  circular  hole  through  which 
probably  the  rope  was  run  by  which  the  victims,  when 
slaughtered,  were  bound  to  the  altar,  as  they  were  to 
the  angular  projections  or  "  horns"  of  the  Jewish  altar 
(Psa.  exxili,  27).  It  was 
natural  that  when  a  suf- 
ficiency of  lar^c  stones 
could  not  lie  found,  heaps 
of  smaller  ones  should  be 
employed,  and  that,  when 
practicable,  a  large  flat 
stone  would  be  placed  on 
the  top,  to  give  a  proper 


Druidical  Cairn. 


r;~ 

V^^..     ' 

-  «| 

k/^g-C^              ■_     *=, 

■  *? 

F|§|p--                    § 

lpfe3'^J 

"':V.~>, 

a&*"  ^~  ■   ■ '  -"'   s  -: '  ■   "'  §     - 

"  *  -r  ■ 

Whtrf^~'-~        ''-          ••-  >*'""' 

IwSjw^^P--- 1  '"'^V"-^-'''  '"■    I  '■"r-,!  7C~-;~  ^"""'*'-"£-l^"i 

^^g^co.;,.V-, 

circle  There  is  a  small  cavity  on  the  top,  as  if  to 
contain  fire.  The  pyramids  (q.  v.)  of  Egypt  may  like- 
wise have  been  originalh'  sites  of  worship. 

Passing  by  the  early  and  rude  forms  of  altars  still 
extant  of  the  Mexican  worship,  since  too  little  is 
known  of  the  history  and  application  of  these  to  illus- 
trate our  subject  in  any  definite  manner,  we  notice 
those  of  Egypt  as  being  first  both  in  point  of  aptness 


\VJ>  ^S 


Ancient  Kgyptian  Altar  of  bloody  Offerings. 


ALTAR 


179 


ALTAR 


and  antiquity.  The  first  of  the  accompanying  speci- 
mens is  of  a  purely  Egyptian  character,  and  is  taken 
from  the  representations  of  sacrifice  upon  the  monu- 
ments. 

Among  the  ancient 
Egyptian  pictures 
that  have  been  dis- 
covered at  Hercula- 
neum  are  two  of  a 
very  curious  descrip- 
tion, representing  sa- 
cred ceremonies  of 
the  Egyptians,  prob- 
ably in  honor  of  Isis. 
In  one  the  scene  is  in 
the  area  before  a  tem- 
ple (as  usual) ;  the 
congregation  is  nu- 
merous, the  music  va- 
Egyptian  Altar  of  Burnt-offering.     riouS)  flnd  thfl  pdests 

engaged  are  at  least  nine  persons.  The  temple  is 
raised,  and  an  ascent  of  eleven  steps  leads  up  to  it. 


In  the  entire  painting,  of  the  birds  or  ibises  one  i.< 
lying  down  at  ease,  another  is  standing  up  without 
fear  or  apprehension  ;  a  third,  perched  on  some  paling, 
is  looking  over  the  heads  of  the  people ;  and  a  fourth 
is  standing  on  the  back  of  a  Sphinx,  nearly  adjacent 
to  the  temple,  in  the  front  of  it.  It  deserves  notice 
that  this  altar  (and  the  other  also)  has  at  each  of  its 
four  corners  a  rising,  which  continues  square  to  about 
half  its  height,  but  from  thence  is  gradually  sloped  off 
to  an  edge  or  a  point.  '  These  arc  no  doubt  the  horns 
of  the  attar,  and  probably  this  is  their  true  figure 
(see  Exod.  xxvii,  2,  etc. ;  xxix,  12 ;  Ezek.  xliii,  15). 
The  priest  is  blowing  up  the  lire,  apparently  with  a 
fan,  so  as  to  avoid  the  pollution  of  the  breath.  The 
other  figure,  which  we  give  more  in  full,  shows  the 
horns  of  the  altar,  formed  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
foregoing ;  but  this  is  seen  on  its  angle,  and  its  gen- 
eral form  is  more  elevated.  It  has  no  garlands,  and 
perfumes  appear  to  be  burning  on  it.  In  Vnh  picture 
the  assembly  is  not  so  numerous  as  in  the  other ;  but 
almost  all,  to  the  number  of  ten  or  a  dozen  persons, 
are  playing  on  musical  instruments. 


Grseco-Egyptian  Alt 


The  idolaters  in  the  first  ages  of  the  wrorld,  who 
generally  worshipped  the  sun,  appear  to  have  thought 
it  improper  to  confine  the  supposed  infinity  of  this 
imaginary  deity  within  walls,  and  therefore  they  gen- 
erally made  choice  of  woods  and  mountains,  as  the 
most  convenient  places  for  their  idolatry ;  and  when, 
in  later  times,  they  had  brought  in  the  use  of  temples, 
yet  for  a  long  time  they  kept  them  open- roofed. 
With  such  a  form  of  worship  notions  of  gloomy  sub- 
limity were  associated,  and  so  prevalent  was  the  cus- 
tom, that  the  phrase  "  worshipping  on  high  places," 
is  frequently  used  to  signify  idolatry  in  the  Old  Tes- 


r 


Antique  Altars  on  High-plaops.     From  Ker  Porter'B  Travels 
in  Persia. 


tament.  The  worshipping  on  high-places  was  strict- 
ly forbidden  to  the  Jews  ;  not  merel}'  because  the  cus- 
tom had  a  tendency  to  produce  idolatry,  but  also  be- 
cause the  customary  form  of  that  idolatry  was  the 
worst,  the  most  cruel,  and  the  most  debasing.  See 
High-place.  It  was  before  these  altars,  in  groves 
and  mountains,  that  human  sacrifices  were  most  fre- 
quently offered,  that  parents  whose  natural  affections 
were  blighted  and  destroyed  by  dark  superstitions 
made  their  children  pass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch  ; 
and  it  was  in  such  places  that  licentiousness  and  de- 
pravity were  systematically  made  a  part  of  public 
worship.  See  Idolatry.  It  does  not  appear  from 
the  monuments  that  altars  on  high-places  were  com- 
mon in  Egypt,  though  there  are  some  traces  of  wor- 
ship in  groves.     See  AsHERAH. 

The  heathens  at  first  made  their  altars  only  of  turf, 
afterward  of  stone,  marble,  wood,  and  other  materials. 
They  differed  in  form  as  well  as  material,  some  being 
round,  some  square,  and  others  triangular.  All  their 
altars  turned  toward  the  east,  and  stood  lowTer  than 
the  statue  of  the  god,  and  were  adorned  with  sculp- 
tures representing  the  deity  to  whom  erected,  or  the 
appropriate  symbols.  These  altars  were  of  two  kinds, 
the  higher  and  the  lower;  the  higher  were  intended 
for  the  celestial  gods,  and  were  called  by  the  Romans 
at/aria ;  the  lower  were  for  the  terrestrial  and  infer- 
nal gods,  and  were  called  ar<v.  Those  dedicated  to 
the  heavenly  gods  were  raised  a  great  height  above 
the  ground  ;  those  of  the  terrestrial  gods  were  almost 
even  with  the  surface,  and  those  for  the  infernal  dei- 
ties were  only  holes  dug  in  the  ground,  called  scrohi- 
culi.  Most  of  the  ancient  Greek  altars  were  of  a  cu- 
bical form;  and  hence,  when  the  oracle  of  Apollo  at 
DelmM  commanded  that  a  new  altar  should  be  pre- 


ALTAR 


180 


ALTAR 


pared  exactly  double  the  size  of  that  which  already 
stood  in  the  temple,  a  problem  was  given  surpassing 
the  powers  of  science  in  those  days,  which  is  well 
known  to  mathematicians  under  the  name  of  the  dupli- 
cation of  the  cube.  The  great  temples  of  Rome  gen- 
erally contained  three  altars  ;  the  first,  in  the  sanctu- 
ary at  the  foot  of  the  statue,  for  incense  and  libations  ; 
the  second,  before  the  gate  of  the  temple,  for  the  sac- 
rifice of  victims  ;  and  the  third,  like  the  table  of  shew- 
I  read,  was  a  portable  one  for  the  offerings  and  vessels 
to  lie  upon. 


Altars  represented  on  Roman  Coins. 

The  Altar  at  Athens,  inscribed  "  to  the  unknown 
God." — Paul,  discoursing  in  that  city  on  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  was  carried  by  some  of  the  philoso- 
phers before  the  judges  of  the  Areopagus,  where  he 
uses  this  expression  (Acts  xvii,  22,  23) :  "Ye  men  of 
Athens,  I  perceive  that  in  all  things  ye  are  too  super- 
stitious" (over-fond  of  gods)  ;  "  for  as  I  passed  by,  and 
beheld  your  sacred  instruments,  I  found  an  altar  with 
this  inscription,  'To  the  unknown  god;'  him,  therefore, 
whom  ye  worship  as  lunhnown,'him  declare"  (represent, 
announce)  "  I  unto  J'ou."  The  question  is,  What  was 
this  altar  thus  consecrated  to  the  "unknown  god?" 
Jerome  says  that  it  was  inscribed  "  to  the  gods  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  Africa — to  the  unknown  and  strange 
gods  ;"  and  that  the  apostle  uses  the  singular  form  be- 
cause his  design  was  only  to  demonstrate  to  the  Athe- 
nians that  they  adored  an  unknown  god  (Comment,  ad 
Tit.  i,  12).  Some,  as  Grotius,  Vossius,  Beza,  believe 
that  Paul  speaks  of  altars  extant  in  several  places  of 
Attica,  without  any  inscription,  erected  after  a  solemn 
expiation  for  the  country,  by  the  philosopher  Epimen- 
ides  (Diog.  Laert.  Vit.  Epim.  i,  20).  Others  conceive 
that  tins  altar  was  the  one  mentioned  by  Pausanias 
(i,  1)  and  Philostratus  (Vit.  Ap.  vi,  3),  who  speak  of 
altars  at  Athens  consecrated  "to  the  unknown  gods." 
Lucian  (Philopatr.  §  9)  swears  "by  the  unknorcn  god 
at  Athens."  He  adds,  "  Being  come  to  Athens,  and 
finding  there  the  unknown  rjod,  we  worshipped  him, 
and  gave  thanks  to  him,  with  hands  lifted  up  to  heav- 
en" (but  see  Niemeyer,  Interp.  Orat.  Pauli  in  Areop. 
hub.).  Peter  Comestor  relates  that  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  observing  while  he  was  at  Alexandria  the 
eclipse  which,  contrarj'  to  nature,  happened  at  the 
death  of  our  Saviour,  from  thence  concluded  that  some 
unknown  god  suffered  ;  and  not  being  then  in  a  situa- 
tion to  learn  more  of  the  matter,  he  erected  at  his  re- 
turn to  Athens  this  altar  "  to  the  unknown  god,"  which 
gave  occasion  to  Paul's  discourse  at  the  Areopagus. 
Theophylact,  (Ecumenius,  and  others,  give  a  different 
account  of  its  origin  and  design,  but  each  of  their  opin- 
ions, as  also  those  we  have  noticed,  has  its  difficulties. 
Augustine  bad  no  doubt  that  the  Athenians,  under  the 
appellation  of  the  unknown  God,  really  worshipped  the 
true  one  (coin]).  Hales,  Analysis,  iii,  519-531).  See 
Athens.  The  most  probable  appears  to  be  the  con- 
jecture of  Eichhorn  (Allgem.  Biblioth.  iii,  414),  to 
which  Niemeyer  subscribes,  that  there  were  standing 
at  Athens  several  very  ancient  altars,  which  had  orig- 
inally no  inscription,  and  which  were  afterward  not 
destroyed,  for  fear  of  provoking  the  anger  of  the  gods 
to  whom  they  bad  been  dedicated,  although  it  was  no 
longer  known  who  these  gods  were,  lie  supposes, 
therefore,  that  the  inscription  iiyvwGTy  Qtfy,  to  an 


[some~]  unknown  God,  was  placed  upon  them ;  and  that 
one  of  these  altars  was  seen  by  the  apostle,  who,  not 
knowing  that  there  were  others,  spoke  accordingly. 
To  this  we  may  add  the  notion  of  Kuinol  (Comment. 
in  loc),  who  considers  it  proved  that  there  were  sev- 
eral altars  at  Athens  on  which  the  inscription  was 
written  in  the  plural  number,  and  believes  that  there 
was  also  one  altar  with  the  inscription  in  the  singular, 
although  the  fact  has  been  recorded  by  no  other  writer ; 
for  no  argument  can  be  drawn  from  this  silence  to  the 
discredit  of  a  writer,  like  Paul,  of  unimpeached  integ- 
rity. The  altar  in  question,  he  thinks,  had  probably 
been  dedicated  ayvworoj  9te3  on  account  of  some  re- 
markable benefit  received,  which  seemed  attributable 
to  some  God,  although  it  was  uncertain  to  whom.  See 
Unknown  God. 


Various  Forms  of  ancient  Heathen  Altars.     1,  2,  3.  Greek; 
4.  Egyptian;  5.  Babylonian;  6.  Roman;  7,  S.  Persian. 

So  much  at  least  is  certain,  both  from  Paul's  asser- 
tion and  the  testimony  of  Greek  profane  writers,  that 
altars  to  an  unknown  god  or  gods  existed  at  Athens. 
But  the  attempt  to  ascertain  definitely  whom  the 
Athenians  worshipped  under  this  appellation  must 
ever  remain  fruitless  for  want  of  sufficient  data.  The 
inscription  afforded  to  Paul  a  happy  occasion  of  pro- 
claiming the  Gospel;  and  those  who  embraced  it 
found  indeed  that  the  Being  whom  they  had  thus  "  ig- 
norantly  worshipped"  was  the  one  only  living  and 
true  God  (Lardner's  Works,  vii,  319-321).     See  Paul. 

II.  Jewish. — Cain  and  Abel  appear  to  have  wor- 
shipped at  some  primitive  form  of  altar  (Gen.  iv,  3,  4)  ; 
but  the  first  altar  we  read  of  in  the  Bible  was  that 
erected  by  Noah  on  leaving  the  ark.  According  to  a 
rabbinical  legend,  it  was  partly  formed  from  the  re- 
mains of  one  built  by  Adam  on  his  expulsion  from 
Paradise,  and  afterward  used  by  Cain  and  Abel,  on  the 
identical  spot  where  Abraham  prepared  to  offer  up 
Isaac  (Zohar,  Gen.  li,  3,  4;  Jonathan's  Targum,  uen. 
ix,  20 ;  xxii,  29).  Mention  is  made  of  altars  erected 
by  Abraham  (Gen.  xii,  7;  xiii,  4;  xxii,  9);  by  Isaac 
(xxvi,  25);  by  Jacob  (xxxiii,  20;  xxxv,  1,  3);  by 
Moses  (Exod.  xvii,  15).  After  the  giving  of  the  law, 
the  Israelites  were  commanded  to  make  an  altar  of 
earth  ;  they  were  also  permitted  to  employ  stones,  but 
no  iron  tool  was  to  be  applied  to  them.  This  has  been 
generally  understood  as  an  interdiction  of  sculpture, 
in  order  to  guard  against  a  violation  of  the  second  com- 
mandment. Altars  were  frequently  built  on  high 
jilaces  (q.  v.),  the  word  being  used  not  only  for  the 
elevated  spots,  but  for  the  sacrificial  structures  upon 
them  (Creuzer,  Symbol,  i,  159  ;  Gesenius,  Comment,  zu 
Jesa.  ii,  282).  Thus  Solomon  built  a  high-place  for 
Chemosh  (1  Kings  xi,  7),  and  Josiah  broke  down  and 
burnt  the  high-place,  and  stamped  it  small  to  powder 
(2  Kings  xxiii,  15).  Such  structures,  however,  were 
forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xii,  13;  xvi,'5), 


ALTAR 


181 


ALTAR 


except  in  particular  instances,  such  as  those  of  Gideon 
(Judg.  vi,  26)  and  David  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  18).  It  is  said 
of  Solomon  that  he  "  loved  the  Lord,  walking  in  the 
statutes  of  David,  his  father,  only  he  sacrificed  and 
burnt  incense  on  the  high-places"  (1  Kings  iii,  3). 
Altars  were  sometimes  built  on  the  roofs  of  houses  :  in 
2  Kings  xxiii,  12,  we  read  of  the  altars  that  were  on 
the  top  of  the  upper  chamber  of  Ahaz.  In  the  taber- 
nacle, and  afterward  in  the  temple,  two  altars  were 
erected,  one  for  sacrifices,  the  other  for  incense ;  the  ta- 
ble for  the  shew-bread  is  also  sometimes  called  an  altar. 

1.  The  Altar  of  Burnt-offering  (nbi"tl  ttatri)-, 
Exod.  xxx,  28,  or  brazen  altar  (rrareil  nSrttl),  Exod. 
xxxix,  39,  called  in  Mai.  i,  7,  12,  "  the  table  of  the 
Lord,"  perhaps  also  in  Ezek.  xliv,  16.  This  differed 
in  construction  at  different  times. 

(«.)  In  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxvii,  xxxviii)  this 
was  a  hollow  square,  five  cubits  in  length  and  breadth, 
and  three  cubits  in  height ;  it  was  made  of  shittim- 
wood  [see  Shittim],  and  overlaid  with  plates  of  brass. 
In  the  middle  there  was  a  ledge  or  projection  (33"0, 
karkob' ,  Kosenmiiller,  de ambulacrum),  on  which  the 
priest  stood  while  officiating ;  immediately  below  this 
a  brass  grating  was  let  down  into  the  altar  to  support 
the  fire,  with  four  rings  attached,  through  which  poles 
were  passed  when  the  altar  was  removed.  Some  crit- 
ics have  supposed  that  this  grating  was  placed  perpen- 
dicularly, and  fastened  to  the  outward  edge  of  this 
projection,  thus  making  the  lower  part  of  the  altar 
larger  than  the  upper.  Others  have  imagined  that  it 
extended  horizontally  beyond  the  projection,  in  order 
to  intercept  the  coals  or  portions  of  the  sacrifice  which 
might  accidentally  fall  off  the  altar.  To  this  effect  is  a 
statement  by  the  Targumist  Jonathan.  But  for  such  a 
purpose  (as  Biihr  remarks,  Symbol,  i,  480)  a  grating 
seems  very  unsuitable  (comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  iii,  6,  8). 
As  the  priests  were  forbidden  to  go  up  by  steps  to  the  al- 
tar (Exod.  xx,  26  ;  comp.  Gell.  x,  15  ;  Servius,  ad  jEn. 
iv,  646),  a  slope  of  earth  was  probably  made  rising  to 
a  level  with  the  projection.  According  to  the  Jewish 
tradition,  this  was  on  the  south  side,  which  is  not  im- 
probable ;  for  on  the  east  was  "  the  place  of  the  ashes" 
(Lev.  i,  16),  and  the  laver  of  brass  was  probably  near 
the  western  side,  so  that  only  the  north  and  south  sides 
were  left  (Ezek.  viii,  5).  Those  critics  who  suppose 
the  grating  to  have  been  perpendicular  or  on  the  out- 
side consider  the  injunction  in  Exod.  xx,  24,  as  ap- 
plicable to  this  altar,  and  that  the  inside  was  filled 
with  earth  ;  so  that  the  boards  of  shittim-wood  form- 
ed merely  a  case  for  the  real  altar.  So  Jarchi,  on 
Exod.  xxvii,  5.  Its  corners  were  ornamented  with 
"horns"  (Exod.  xxix,  12;  Lev.  iv,  18  sq.).  See 
Horn. 

In  Exod.  xxvii,  3,  the  following  utensils  are  men- 
tioned as  belonging  to  the  altar,  all  of  which  were  to 
be  made  of  brass.  1.  m'TO,  siroth' ',  pans  or  dishes  to 
receive  the  ashes  (q.  v.)  that  fell  through  the  grating. 
2  G"1"?!  yalm',  shovels  (Vulg.  forcipes),  for  cleaning 
the  altar.  3.  nip^T^,  mizrakoth'  (Auth.  Vers,  basins ; 
Sept.  (puikai ;  Gesenius,  patera  sacrifica),  vessels  for 
receiving  the  blood  and  sprinkling  it*on  the  altar.  4. 
FVllPTXI,  mizlagoth'  (Auth.  Vers,  "flesh-hooks;"  Sept. 
Kpiaypai ;  Vulg.  fuscimda),  large  forks  to  turn  the 
pieces  of  flesh,  or  to  take  them  off  the  fire  (see  1  Sam. 
ii,  13).  5.  rVlFirra,  machtoth'  (Auth.  Vers,  "fire- 
pans;" Sept.  to  nvfmov);  the  same  word  is  else- 
where translated  censers  (Num.  xvi,  17)  ;  but  in  Exod. 
xxv,  38,  "  snuff- dishes ;"  Sept.  viroOtpara.  (Comp. 
Lamy,  De  Tabern.  p.  439  sq. ;  Meyer,  Bibeldeut.  p.  201 
sq. ;  Van  Til,  De  Tabernac.  p.  57.) 

(b.)  The  altar  of  burnt-offerings  in  Solomon's  tem- 
ple was  of  much  larger  dimensions,  "  twenty  cubits  in 
length  and  breadth,  and  ten  in  height"  (2  Chron.  iv,  1 ; 
comp.  1  Kings  viii,  22,  64 ;  ix,  25),  and  was  made  en- 
tirety of  brass,  i.  e.  bronze  plates  covering  a  structure 


of  earth  or  stone  (Cramer,  De  Ara  exter.  p.  29  sq.). 
It  is  said  of  Asa  that  he  renewed  (^n),  that  is,  either 


Supposed  Forms  of  the  Jewish  Altar  of  Burnt-offerings.  1. 
According  to  Lamy.  2.  Kitto  (Piet  Bible).  S.  Rabbins, 
4.  Calmet.     5.  Surenhusius  (Mischna,  ii,  260). 


ALTAR 


182 


ALTAR 


repaired  (in  which  sense  the  word  is  evidently  used  in 
2  Chron.  xxiv,  4)  or  reconstructed  (Sept.  treicaiviai) 
the  altar  of  the  Lord  that  was  before  the  porch  of  the 
Lord  (2  Chron.  xv,  8).  This  altar  was  removed  by 
King  Ahaz  (2  Kings  xvi,  14);  it  was  "cleansed"  by 
Hezekiab  ;  and  in  the  latter  part  of  Manasseh's  reign 
was  rebuilt.  It  is  not  certain  whether  this  was  one 
of  the  sacred  utensils  which  the  Babylonians  broke  up 
and  removed  their  materials  (Jer.  lii,  17  sq.). 

(c.)  Of  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  in  the  second  tem- 
ple the  canonical  scriptures  give  us  no' information, 
excepting  that  it  was  erected  before  the  foundations 
of  the  temple  were  laid  (Ezra  iii,  3,  G),  on  the  same 
place  where  it  had  formerly  been  built  (Josephus,  A  tit. 
xi.  4,  1).  From  the  Apocrypha,  however,  we  ma}-  in- 
fer that  it  was  made,  not  of  brass,  but  of  unhewn 
stone  (comp.  Spencer,  Leg.  rit.  p.  418  sq. ;  Biihr,  Sym- 
bol, i,  489;  Cramer,  p.  32  sq.),  for  in  the  account  of 
the  restoration  of  the  temple  service  by  Judas  Macca- 
baeus,  it  is  said,  "They  took  whole  stones,  according 
to  the  law,  and  built  a  new  altar  according  to  the  for- 
mer" (1  Mace,  iv,  47).  When  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
pillaged  Jerusalem,  Josephus  informs  us  that  he  left 
the  temple  bare,  and  took  away  the  golden  candle- 
sticks, and  the  golden  altar  (of  incense),  and  table  (of 
skew-bread),  and  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  {Ant.  xii, 
5,4). 

(<£.)  The.  altar  of  burnt-offering  erected  by  Herod  is 
thus  described  by  Josephus  (Wars,  v,  5,  6) :  "  Before 
this  temple  stood  the  altar,  fifteen  cubits  high,  and 
equal  both  in  length  and  breadth,  each  of  Avhich  di- 
mensions was  fifty  cubits.  The  figure  it  was  built  in 
was  a  square,  and  it  had  corners  like  horns,  and  the 
passage  up  to  it  was  by  an  insensible  acclivity  from 
the  south.  It  was  formed  without  any  iron  tool,  nor 
did  any  iron  tool  so  much  as  touch  it  at  any  time." 
The  dimensions  of  this  altar  are  differentlj-  stated  in 
the  Mishna  (Middoth,  iii,  1).  It  is  there  described  as 
a  square  32  cubits  at  the  base  ;  at  the  height  of  a 
cubit  it  is  reduced  1  cubit  each  way,  making  it  30  cu- 
bits square  ;  at  5  cubits  higher  it  is  similarly  con- 
tracted, becoming  28  cubits  square,  and  at  the  base 
of  the  horns  2G  cubits  ;  and,  allowing  a  cubit  each  way 
for  the  deambulacrum,  a  sqviare  of  24  cubits  is  left  for 
the  fire  on  the  altar.  Other  Jewish  writers  place  the 
deambulacrum  2  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  altar, 
which  would  certainly  be  a  more  suitable  construc- 
tion. The  Mishna  states,  in  accordance  with  Jose- 
phus, that  the  stones  of  the  altar  were  unhewn,  agree- 
ably to  the  command  in  Exod.  xx,  25;  and  that  they 
were  ^  bitevvashed  ever}'  year  at  the  Passover  and  the 
feast  of  tabernacles.  On  the  south  side  was  an  in- 
clined plane,  32  cubits  long  and  1G  cubits  broad,  made 
likewise  of  unhewn  stones.  A  pipe  was  connected 
with  tli-  south-west  horn,  through  which  the  blood 
of  the  victims  was  discharged  by  a  subterraneous  pas- 
M-c  into  the  brook  Kedron.  Under  the  altar  was  a 
cavity  to  receive  the  drink-offerings,  which  was  cov- 
ered with  a  marble  slab,  and  cleansed  from  time  to 
time.  On  the  north  side  of  the  altar  several  iron 
rings  were  fixed  to  fasten  the  victims.  Lastly,  a  red 
line  was  drawn  round  the  middle  of  the  altar  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  blood  that  was  to  be  sprinkled 
above  and  below  it  (Belaud,  Antiq.  Sacr.  p.  97  sq. ; 
Lamy,  De  Tabemac.  table  1<;;  L'Empereur,  in  the 
Mishna,  in  loc. ;  Cramer,  I)-  Ara  exteriore  Templi  .-'<•- 
cundi,  Lugd.  Bat.  1697,  and  in  Ogolini  Tkesaur.  x; 
Dgolini  .  I  //are  erter.  in  his  Tkesaur.  x;  Otho,  Lex. 
RabL  p.  :;■-'  sq.  I. 

According  to  Lev.  vi,  G,  the  fire  on  the  altar  of 
burnt-offerings  was  not  permitted  to  go  out  (Buxtorf, 
Uistoria  ignis  sacri,  in  bis  Exercit.  p.  288  sq. ;  and 
in  Dgolini  Tkesaur.  x;  Horeb,  De  igne  Sacro,ia  Dgo- 
lini  Tkesaur.  xxxii;  Bohn,  De  igne  Gentilium  sacro 
in  Israel,  sacra  injurio,  in  (Jgolini  Tkesaur.  x;  comp. 
Deyling,  Observ.  ii,  164  sq. ;  v,  -17  sq. ;  Carpzov,  Ap- 
pur.  p.  28G;   Scliaclit,  Ammadc.  ad  I  ken.  p.  293;   Ro- 


senmiiller,  Morgenl.  ii,  15G  sq. ;  Spanheim,  De  Vesta 
et  Prytaneis  Grwc.  in  Grajvii  Thesaur.  v,  GGO  sq. ; 
Hyde,  Relig.  vet.  Pers.  viii),  as  having  originally  fall- 
en from  heaven  (Lev.  ix,  24  ;  izvp  ovpavoniTte;,  comp. 
Curt,  iii,  3;  Ammian.  Marcel,  xxiii,  6;  Pausan.  v, 
15,5;  viii,  9,  1;  Plutarch,  Numa,  ix ;  Solin.v;  Serv. 
ail  .En.  xii,  200  ;  Val.  Max.  i,  1,  7;  Zendavesta,  iii, 
237),  and,  according  to  the  rabbinical  traditions,  re- 
newed in  like  manner  on  several  occasions  (Gcmara, 
Yoma,  21;  Zebach,  61,  2;  2  Mace,  i,  19  sq. ;  comp.  Van 
Dale,  De  Idolatr.  c.  viii,  p.  149"  sq.).  See  Burnt-of- 
fering. 

2.  The  second  altar  belonging  to  the  Jewish  Cul- 
tus  was  the  Altar  of  Incense  (P.'n i;]?!!  HZT'O  and 
THt:p  1I3J3XI,  Exod.  xxx,  1 ;  Sept.  8voiaari)pwv  8v- 
pu'iparog),  called  also  the  golden  altar  prijil  n2tp, 
Exod.  xxxix,  38;  Num.  iv,  11)  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  altar  of  burnt-offering,  which  was  of  less  costly  ma- 
terials (Exod.  xxx  viii,  30).  Probably  this  is  meant  by 
the  "  altar  of  wood"  spoken  of  in  Ezek.  xii,  22,  which 
is  further  described  as  the  "table  that  is  before  the 
,  Lord,"  an  expression  precisely  suitable  to  the  altar  of 
j  incense  (see  Delitzsch,  Brief  an  die  Hebr.  p.  678). 
!  The  name  n?T"D,  "altar,"  was  not  stricth/  appropri- 
I  ate,  as  no  sacrifices  were  offered  upon  it ;  hut  once  in 
|  the  year,  on  the  great  da}-  of  atonement,  the  high- 
priest  sprinkled  upon  the  horns  of  it  the  blood  of  the 
sin-offering  (Exod.  xxx,  10).  It  was  placed  between 
the  table  of  shew-bread  and  the  golden  candlestick 
(Lev.  xvi,  18),  i.  e.  in  the  holy  place,  "before  the 
vail  that  is  by  the  ark  of  the  testitnon}'"  (Exod.  xxx, 
JC:  xl,  5).  Philo,  too,  speaks  of  it  as  "within  the 
I  first  vail,"  and  as  standing  between  the  candlestick 
and  the  table  of  shew-bread.  In  apparent  contradic- 
tion to  this,  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
!  enumerates  it  among  the  objects  which  were  within 
j  the  second  vail,  i.  e.  in  the  Holy  of  Holies.  It  is  true 
that  by  6vpiari]piov  in  this  passage  may  be  meant  "  a 
censer,"  in  accordance  with  the  usage  of  the  Sept., 
but  it  is  better  understood  of  the  altar  of  incense, 
which  by  Philo  and  other  Hellenists  is  called  Ov^tari,- 
piov.  It  is  remarkable  also  that  in  1  Kings  vi,  22, 
this  same  altar  is  said  to  belong  to  "the  oracle" 
(TC'lb  TCJN  nST^n),  or  most  holy  place.  This 
may  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  the  great  typical  and 
symbolical  importance  attached  to  this  altar,  so  that 
it  might  be  considered  to  belong  to  the  "  second  taber- 
nacle." (See  Bleek  on  Ileb.  ix,  4,  and  Delitzsch,  in 
loc.) 

J  (a.)  This  altar  in  the  tabernacle  was  made  of  shit- 
tim-wood  overlaid  with  gold  plates,  and  was  one  cubit 
|  in  length  and  breadth,  and  two  cubits  in  height.  It 
had  horns  (Lev.  iv,  7)  of  the  same  materials  ;  and  round 
the  flat  surface  (35,  gag,  "  top")  was  a  border  ("I],  zer, 
I  Auth.  Yers.  "  crown  ;"  Sept.  tjTpnrn)v  GTftydvipi)  of 
I  gold,  underneath  which  were  the  rings  to  receive  "  the 
staves  (O^S,  baddim' ' ,  2>arts ;  Sept.  acvrdXai)  made 
of  shittim-wood  overlaid  with  gold,  to  bear  it  withal" 
1  (Exod.  xxx,  1-5;  Josephus,  Ant.  iii,  6,  8). 

(6.)  The  altar  in  Solomon's  temple  was  similar,  but 
l  made  of  cedar  (1  Kings  vi,  20  ;  vii,  48  ;  1  Chron. 
xxix,  18)  overlaid  with  gold  (comp.  Isa.  vi,  0). 

(c.)  The  altar  in  the  second  temple  was  taken  away 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (1  Mace,  i,  23),  and  restored 
by  Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mace,  iv,  49).  On  the  arch 
of  Titus  there  appears  no  altar  of  incense;  it  is  not 
mentioned  in  Heb.  ix,  nor  by  Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  4,  4. 
According  to  the  Mishna  (Ckagigah,  iii,  8;  Tumid,  vi, 
2),  it  was  overlaid  with  metal.  From  the  circum- 
stance that  the  sweet  incense  was  burnt  upon  it  every 
day,  morning  and  evening  (Exod.  xxx,  7,  8),  as  well 
as  that  the  blood  of  atonement  was  sprinkled  upon  it 
(v,  10),  this  altar  had  a  special  importance  attached 
to  it.  It  is  the  only  altar  which  appears  in  the  Heav- 
enly Temple  (Isa.  vi,  G ;    Lev.  viii,  3,  4).      It  was 


ALTAll 


183 


ALTAR 


Supposed  Form  of  the  Jewish  Altar  of  Incense, 
doubtless  this  altar  at  which  Zaeharias  was  minister- 
ing when  the  angel  appeared  to  him  (Luke  i,  11). 

See  generally  Hamm,  Be  Ara  suffitus  (Herborn, 
1715);  Cremer,  Antiq.  Sacr.  i,  297  sq. ;  Schlichter,  in 
the  Symbol.  Lit.  Br  em.  ii,  401  sq. ;  Ugolini  Altare  In- 
terim, in  his  Thesaur.  xi;  Bahr,  Symbol,  i,  419  sq., 
470  sq.     See  Incexse. 

3.  Of  other  Jewish  altars,  we  read  only  of  (1.)  Al- 
tars of  brick.  There  seems  to  be  an  allusion  to  such 
in  Isa.  lxv,  3.  The  words  are,  D^r&in  ^?  EP"^!^, 
"  offering  incense 
on  the  bricks"  gen- 
erally explained  as 
referring  to  altars 
made  of  this  mate- 
rial, and  probably 
situated  in  the 
"gardens"  men- 
tioned just  before. 
Rosenmuller  sug- 
gests, however, 
that  the  allusion  is 
to  some  Babylonish 
custom  of  burning 
incense    on    bricks 

„    „       ..        .        covered  over   with 
Various  Altars.     1,  2.   1-^vptian,  from  . 

bass-reliefs  (Rossellini).  '3.  Assyrian,  maglc  formulas  or 
found  at  Khorsabad  (Layard).  4.  cuneiform  inscrip- 
Babylonian,  Biblintheque  Rationale  flons  This  is  also 
(Layard).    5.  Assyrian,  from  Khorsa-  . ,       '.  .    "c 

bad  (Layard).  tlle  A  lew  oi    ^esc- 

nius  and  Maurer. 
(2.)  The  Assyro-Damascene  altar  erected  by  Ahaz 
for  his  own  use  (2  Kings  xvi,  10-13).  See  Ahaz.  It 
probably  resembled  one  of  those  in  the  annexed  cut. — 
Winer,  i,  49, 194  sq. ;  ii,  303 ;  Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 
III.  Christian. — 1.  Significance. — The  word  altar  is 
used,  figuratively,  to  denote  the  Lord's  table,  not,  how- 
ever, in  a  sacrificial  sense.  As  there  is  but  the  one  sac- 
rificing priest,  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  the  one  propitiatory 
sacrifice,  namely,  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  so  there  is 
but  the  one  altar,  that  upon  which  he  gave  himself  a 
ransom  for  all.  The  apostles  in  no  instance  call  the 
bread  and  wine  a  sacrifice,  or  the  Lord's  table  an  al- 
t  ir,  or  the  Christian  minister  a  priest.  And  this  is 
the  more  remarkable  in  this  case  ;  for  they  do  speak 
of  priests,  and  sacrifices,  and  altars  under  the  Chris- 
tun  dispensation,  but  never  in  reference  to  the  Lord's 
Supper.  There  cannot  but  have  been  design  in  this 
omission.  In  the  earliest  age  of  Christianity  the 
table  was  not  called  altar  (Lardner,  Works,  iv,  212) 
at  a  later  period  both  altar  and  table  were  used  in 
differently,  the  former  word,  however,  not  in  a  Jew- 
ish or  pagan  sense.  When  the  ancient  apologists 
were  reproached  with  havin  ;  no  temples,  no  altars, 


was  table,  with  the  addition  of  some  epithet  imply- 
ing the  peculiar  use  of  it  in  a  Christian  church.  In 
Chrysostom  it  is  termed  the  mystical  and  tremen- 
dous table  ;  sometimes  the  spiritual,  divine,  royal, 
immortal,  heavenly  table.  Wherever  the  word  altar 
was  used,  it  was  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
Jewish  altar  on  which  bloody  sacrifices  were  laid,  and 
from  heathen  altars,  connected  with  absurd  idolatries. 
The  Church  of  England  never  uses  the  word  "  al- 
tar" for  communion-table  in  her  rubrics,  and  she 
carefully  excludes  the  notion  of  a  literal  sacrifice, 
which  altar  would  imply,  by  expressly  referring  in 
her  communion -service  to  the  sacrifice  of  Christ 
("who,  by  his  one  oblation  of  himself  once  ottered, 
made  a  full,  perfect,  and  sufficient  sacrifice  for  the 
sins  of  the  whole  world")  ;  and  by  studiously  intro- 
ducing into  the  same  service  the  word  "  sacrifice" 
in  the  several  figurative  senses  (warranted  by  Scrip- 
ture) which  it  will  bear ;  applying  the  word  to  our 
alms,  to  our  offering  of  [  raise  and  thanksgiving,  to 
the  offering  of  ourselves,  souls  and  bodies,  but  never 
applying  it  to  the  elements.  That  the  English  re- 
formers wished  to  discountenance  the  notion  of  al- 
tars, and  sacrifices  thereon,  appears  from  the  fact 
that  at- the  Reformation  altars  were  ordered  hence- 
forth to  be  called  tables,  in  consequence  of  a  sermon 
preached  by  Bishop  Hooper,  who  said,  "that  it  would 
do  well,  that  it  might  please  the  magistrate  to  turn 
'altars'  into  'tables,'  according  to  the  first  insti- 
tution of  Christ ;  to  take  away  the  false  persuasion 
of  the  people,  which  they  have  of  sacrifice  to  be  done 
upon  the  altars;  for  as  long  as  altars  remain,  both 
the  ignorant  people  and  the  ignorant  and  evil-per- 
suaded priest  will  always  dream  of  sacrifice"  {Hoop- 
er's Writings,  Parker  Society,  p.  488  ;  Burnet,  Hist,  of 
Reformation,  ii,  252,  253).  Other  Protestant  Church- 
es, in  particular  the  Lutheran,  have  retained  the  use 
of'  an  altar,  at  which  the  Liturgy  is  read,  the  Lord's 
Supper  celebrated,  and  other  ecclesiastical  actions  per- 
formed. 

2.  Material  and  Form. — In  the  time  of  Augustine 
it  appears  that  the  altars  in  the  churches  of  Africa 
were  of  wood,  and  it  is  commonly  thought  that  stone 
altars  began  to  be  used  about  the  time  of  Constantine. 
In  the  time  of  Gregory  Nyssen  altars  began  to  be 
made  generally  of  stone  ;  and  the  twenty-sixth  canon 
of  the  council  of  Epaone,  A.D.  517,  forbids  to  conse- 
crate any  but  a  stone  altar;  from  which  and  other 
evidence  (see  Martene,  lib.  i,  cap.  iii,  art.  6,  No.  5)  it 
appears  that  wooden  altars  were  in  use  in  Erance  till 
that  and  a  much  later  period.  In  England  wooden 
altars  were  originally  in  common  use  (William  of 
Malmesbury,  iii,  14,  Be  Vita  Wulstani,  Ep.  Wigorn. : 
"  Erant  tunc  temporis  altaria  lignea,  jam  inde  h  pris- 
cis  diebus  in  Anglia,  ca  ille  per  dicecesin  demolitus, 
ex  lapidibus  compaginavit  alia").  At  the  English 
Reformation  stone  altars  were  removed  and  wooden 
taldes  substituted.  The  eighty-second  canon  of  the 
synod  of  London,  1G03,  orders  that  a  convenient  and 
decent  table  shall  be  provided  for  the  celebration  of 
the  holy  communion,  covered  with  a  carpet  of  silk,  or 
other  decent  stuff,  and  with  a  fair  linen  cloth  at  the 
time  of  communion.  As  to  its  position,  the  rubric  be- 
fore the  communion-service  states  that  it  may  stand 
in  the  body  of  the  church,  or  in  the  chancel. 

Altars  in  the  Romish  Church  are  built  of  stone,  to 
represent  Christ,  the  foundation-stone  of  the  spiritual 
building,  the  Church.  Every  altar  has  three  steps 
going  up  to  it,  covered  with  a  carpet.  It  is  decked 
with  natural  and  artificial  flowers,  according  to  the 
season  of  the  year,  and  no  cost  is  spared  in  adorning  it 
with  gold,  silver,  and  jewels.  The  tabernacle  of  the 
Holy  Sacrament  is  placed  on  the  holy  altar,  on  each 
side* of  which  are  tapers  of  white  wax,  except  at  all 
offices  for  the  dead,  and  during  the  last  three  days  of 
Passion-week,  at  which  time  they  are  yellow.    A  cruci- 


no  shrines,  the}-  simply  replied,  "  Shrines  and  altars 

we  have  not."      The  more  common  word  employed  I  fix  is  placed  on  the  altar.    There  is  a  copy,  written  in  a 


ALTAR 


184 


ALTING 


legible  hand,  of  the  Te  igitur,  a  prayer  addressed  only 
to  the  first  Person  of  the  Trinity.  *  The  altar  is  fur- 
nished with  a  little  bell,  which  is  rung  thrice  when 
the  priest  kneels  down,  thrice  when  he  elevates  the 
host,  and  thrice  when  he  sets  it  down.  There  is  also 
a  portable  altar  or  consecrated  stone,  with  a  small 
cavity  in  the  middle  of  the  front  side,  in  which  are  put 
the  relics  of  saints,  and  it  is  sealed  up  by  the  bishop. 
Should  the  seal  be  broken,  the  altar  loses  its  consecra- 
tion. The  furniture  of  the  altar  consists  of  a  chalice 
and  paten  for  the  bread  and  wine,  both  of  gold  or  sil- 
ver; a  pyx  for  holding  the  wafer,  at  least  of  silver- 
gilt  ;  a  veil,  in  form  of  a  pavilion,  of  rich  white  stuff 
to  cover  the  pyx ;  a  thurible,  of  silver  or  pewter,  for 
the  incense ;  a  holy-water  pot,  of  silver,  pewter,  or 
tin ;  also  corporals,  palls,  purificatories,  etc.  About 
the  time  of  Charlemagne  it  became  common  to  have 
several  altars  in  one  church,  a  custom  which  spread, 
especially  since  the  eleventh  century.  The  side  al- 
tars were  usually  erected  on  pillars,  side  walls,  or  in 
chapels,  while  the  main  or  high  altar  stands  always  in 
the  choir. — The  Greek  churches  have  generally  only 
one  altar. 

3.  The  portable  altar  (altare  portatile,  gestatorium,  or 
itinerariuin)  was  one  that  might  be  carried  about  at 
convenience.  These  altars  Martene  refers  to  the  very 
earliest  ages  of  the  Church,  maintaining,  with  some 
reason,  that  during  times  of  persecution  portable  al- 
tars were  much  more  likely  to  be  used  than  those 
which  were  fixed  and  immovable.  The  use  of  such 
portable  altars  was  afterward  retained  in  cases  of  ne- 
cessity. The  order  of  benediction  is  given  by  Mar- 
tene, Be  Ant.  Eccl.  Rit.  (ii,  291).— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl. 
bk.  viii,  cb.  vi,  §  11-15;  Procter,  on  Common  Prayer, 
p.  29,  58  ;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  vi,  257  ;  Butler,  Lives'  of 
Saints,  iv.  418  ;  Neal,  Hist,  of  Puritans,  i,  44,  ii,  306. 

4.  The  privileged  altar  (ara  prierogativa)  was  one  to 
which  peculiar  privilege*  are  granted  ;  e.  g.  an  altar  at 
which,  by  privilege  of  the  pope,  masses  for  the  dead 
may  be  said  on  days  when  they  are  not  permitted  at 
other  altars,  and  where,  according  to  the  modern  Bo- 
man  doctrine,  the  Church  applies,  in  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  and  the  saints  to  the 
souls  in  purgatory ;  "  but  not  so  that  a  soul  is  infalli- 
bly delivered  from  purgatory  at  each  mass  that  is  said, 
as  some  may  imagine,  because  indulgences  can  only 
avail  the  dead  in  the  way  of  suffrages." — Richard  and 
Giraud. 

The  origin  of  privileged  altars  in  the  Boman  Church 
dates  as  lately  as  the  time  of  Gregory  XIII ;  i.  e.  be- 
tween 1572  and  1585,  although  some  writers  have  en- 
deavured  to  assign  them  to  an  earlier  period. — Landon. 

In  the  earliest  ages,  the  clergy  only  were  allowed 
to  approach  the  altar;  not  even  the  emperor  himself, 
at  first,  was  allowed  this  privilege,  but  afterward  the 
rule  was  relaxed  in  favor  of  the  imperial  dignity 
(Canon  09,  iu  Trullo).  The  approach  of  women  to  the 
altar  was,  if  possible,  even  more  strictly  prohibited 
than  that  of  men  (Can.  44  of  Laodicea,  can.  4  of 
Tours,  etc.).  "In  these  days,"  says  Martene,  "the 
licentiousness  of  men  lias  arrived  at  that  pitch  in  the 
churches,  that  not  only  emperors  and  princes,  but  the 
very  common  people  so  fill  the  choir  that  scarcely  is 
there  sitting  room  left  for  the  ministering  clergy. 
Kay,  more;  with  shame  be  it  spoken,  often  women  are 
found  no  lost  to  all  reverence  and  shame,  as  not  to  hes- 
itate to  sil  on  the  very  steps  of  the  altar!"— Martene, 
Be  Ant.  Eccl.  Hit.  lib.  i,  cap.  :i ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.v. 

Farther  literature  on  tin-  subject  of  altars  is  con- 
tained in  th,.  treatises  of  Batellus,  Ablutio  basilica- 
Vat.  (Rom.  170i'):  Bebel,  De  mensis  tuck.  vett.  (Ar- 
gent. 1668);  Chladenius,  De  altaragio,  (Vit.  174C); 
Clcftel,  I)  expurg.  altaris  (Viteb.  1718);  Pabricius, 
De  altaribus  <  Helm.  1698  I ;  Fries,  Altare  in  ev.  Kirchen 
(Flensb.  1776);  Gattico,  De  oratoriis  (Rom.  1741) ;  Ge- 
ret.  Ih-  vet.  eh,-,  altaribus  (Onold.  1755);  Maii,  Dins. 
(h  aria  tt  altaribus  vett.  (Giess.  1732);  Mizler,  be  avis 


et  altaribus  (Viteb.  1G9G)  ;  Molinreus,  De  altaribus  vet. 
Chr.  (Hannov.  1607)  ;  Orland,  De  expiando  altaria 
(Flor.  1709)  ;  Schmid,  De  altar,  jwrtatilibm  (Jen.  1695)  ; 
Schonland,  Nachricht  von  Altdren  (Leipz.  1716);  Sle- 
vogt,  Reclite  der  Altare  (Jena,  1726, 1732)  ;  Tarpagius, 
De  sepnlchro  altarium  (Hafn.  1702)  ;  Thiers,  A  utels  des 
eglises  (Par.  1688)  ;  Tilemann,  De  altellis  (Ulad.  1743)  ; 
Treiber,  De  situ  altarium  (Jen.  1668) ;  Voigt,  Thysia- 
steriologia  (Hamb.  1709);  Wildvogel,  De  jure  altarium 
(Jen.  1716)  ;  Hoffmann,  De  Ara  Victoria  Imperatori- 
bus  Christ,  odiosa  (Wittenb.  1760) ;  Heideloff,  D. 
Christl.  Altar  (Niirnb.  1838).     See  Temple. 

Al-tas'chith  (Heb.  al-tashchelh',  nTOFr^tf,  de- 
stroy not ;  Sept.  /.u)  dicKpStipyc.),  in  the  title  of  Psalms 
lvii,  lviii,  lxix,  lxxv,  seems  to  have  been  the  com- 
mencement or  name  of  a  kind  of  poem  or  song,  to  the 
melody  of  which  these  Psalms  were  to  be  sung  or 
chanted.  This  is  the  view  taken  by  Aben-Ezra  (Com- 
ment, on  Psa.  lvii).  Others,  however,  of  the  Jewish 
interpreters  (e.  g.  Bashi  and  Kimchi)  regard  these 
words  as  a  compendium  or  motto  to  the  contents  of 
the  Psalms  to  which  it  is  prefixed.     See  Psalms. 

Altenburg,  Duchy  of.     See  Saxe-Altenburg. 

Alter,  Franz  Carl,  a  German  Jesuit,  and  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  the  gymnasium  in  Vienna,  was  born 
at  Engelberg,  in  Silesia,  Jan.  27, 1749,  and  died  March 
29, 1804.  He  published  a  new  critical  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  (Novum  Testamentum,  2  vols.  Vienna, 
1786-87)  on  the  basis  of  the  Codex  Lambecii  I,  with 
which  he  collated  24  manuscripts,  and  the  Slavic  and 
Coptic  versions  of  some  parts  of  the  N.  T.  Bishop 
Marsh,  in  his  supplement  to  the  Introduction  of  Mi- 
chajlis,  lays  clown  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  this  edition.  He  also  wrote  an  essay  on  Georgian 
Literature  (in  German,  Vienna,  1798),  published  an 
edition  of  a  number  of  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  and 
translated  into  German  "The  Classical  Bibliography 
of  Edward  Harwood."  He  was  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  the  Memorabilien  of  Paulus  and  the  Leipzig  All- 
gemeiner  Literatur-Anzeiger,  two  Protestant  papers. — 
Hoefer,  Bivgraphie  Generale,  ii,  229  ;  Landon,  Eccl. 
Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Althamer,  Andreas,  one  of  the  German  reform- 
ers, was  born  in  1498,  at  Brenz,  in  Suabia,  and  from 
this  circumstance  he  is  sometimes  called  Andreas 
Brentius.  In  1527  and  1528  he  assisted  at  the  con- 
ferences at  Berne  on  the  mode  of  Christ's  presence  in 
the  Eucharist,  where  he  held  with  Luther  the  doctrine 
of  consubstantiation.  He  died  in  1564.  Althamer 
published,  1.  Conciliationes  locorum  scr/ptune  (1528, 
8vo)  :  —  2.  A  nnotationes  in  Jacobi  Epistolam :  —  3.  De 
Peccato  Originali:  —  4.  De  Sacramento  Altaris: — 5. 
Scholia  in  Taciti  Germania: — 6.  Sylva  bibl.  nominum 
(1530).  J.  A.  Ballenstadt  published  a  life  of  him  in 
1740  (Wolfenbiittel).— Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  151  ;  Bal- 
lenstadt, Vita  Althamer/,  1740  ;  Bayle,  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Alting,  James,  a  Dutch  theologian,  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  at  Heidelberg,  Dec.  27,1618;  made 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Groningen  1667;  died  Aug.  20, 
1679.  He  was  an  eminent  Oriental  scholar.  His  works 
are  published  under  the  title,  Opera  omnia  theologica, 
ancdytica,  exegi  t',ca,practica,  problematic!!,  et  philologica 
(Amst.  1687,  5  vols.  fol.).  The}'  include,  among  other 
writings,  1.  Historia  A  cade  mica  rum  in  Populo  llcbric- 
orum: — 2.  Dissertatio  maxime  de  Rebus  llebraiorum : — 
3.  Commentaries  on  most  of  the  Books  of  the  Bible : 
— 1.  A  Syro-Chaldaic  Grammar: — 5.  A  Treatise  on 
Hebrew  Points. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  ii,  235. 

Alting,  Joh.  Heinrich,  a  learned  reformed  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Emden,  in  Friesland,  Feb.  17,  1583. 
In  1612  he  went  over  into  England  with  the  electoral 
prince  palatine;  when  he  returned  to  Germany  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Heidelberg. 
He  was  one  of  the  deputies  to  the  synod  of  Dort. 
After  the  sacking  of  Heidelberg  by  Tilly  he  retired  to 


ALUKAII 


185 


ALYPIUS 


Emden,  and  afterward  to  Groningen,  where  he  became  I 
professor  in  1(527,  and  died  Aug.  25, 1044.  Among  his 
works  are,  Methodus  Theologue  didactical  (Amst.  1050)  : 
— Scriptorum  Theologicorum  Heidelbergensium  (3  vols. 
4to,  Amst.  1040)  : — Exegesis  logica  et  theologica  Augus- 
tana?  Confessionis  (Amst.  1047,  4to)  -.—Tkeohgia  prob- 
lematica  nova  (Amst.  1002,  4to): — Theologiu  hist  mica 
(Ibid.  1GG4) :— Tkeohgia  elenctica  nova  (Basle,  1079, 
4to). — Bayle,  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate, 
ii.  234. 

Alukah.     See  House-leech. 

A'lush  (Heb.  Alusk',  ttWbX;  perhaps  desolation, 
according  to  the  Talmud,  a  crowd  of  men ;  Sept.  Ai'- 
\ovc),  the  eleventh  place  at  which  the  Hebrews  rested 
on  their  way  to  Mount  Sinai  (Num.  xxxiii,  13).  It 
was  between  Dophkah  and  Rephidim,  and  was  proba- 
bly situated  on  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  just  south 
of  lias  Jthan.  See  Exode.  The  Jewish  chronology 
(Seder  Olam,  ch.  v,  p.  27)  makes  it  twelve  miles  from 
the  former  and  eight  from  the  latter  station.  The 
Targum  of  Jonathan  calls  it  "a  strong  fort;"  and  it 
is  alleged  (upon  an  interpretation  of  Exod.  xvi,  30) 
that  in  Alush  the  Sabbath  was  instituted,  and  the  first 
Sabbath  kept.  Eosebius  (Onomast.  s.  v.  'AWou?)  has 
only  this  notice,  "a  region  of  leaders  (?)  in  what  is 
now  Gebalene,  near  the  city  Petra." — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Alva  y  Astorga,  Peter  of,  a  Spanish  Francis- 
can, who  assumed  the  habit  of  that  order  in  Peru,  and 
flourished  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Upon  his  re- 
turn to  Spain,  he  spent  his  time  chiefly  in  traveling 
about  to  obtain  all  the  information  in  his  power  which 
might  tend  to  support  the  privileges  of  his  order.  He 
published  at  Madrid  in  1051  an  absurd  work,  similar 
in  design  to  the  notorious  Conformities  of  Albizzi  (see 
Albizzi):  it  is  entitled  Naturce  Prodighim  et  Gratia: 
Portentum,  and  contains  4000  pretended  conformities 
between  our  Lord  and  St.  Francis.  Some  years  after 
he  published  another  extraordinary  work,  "  Funiculi 
nodi  indissolubiles  de  conceptu  mentis  et  conceptu 

ventris ab  Alexandro  Magno  VII,  Pont.  Max. 

solvendi  aut  scindendi''  (Brussels,  1001,  8vo).  It  is  a 
collection  of  all  the  opinions  and  disputes  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  He 
published  on  these  and  other  matters  an  immense  mass 
of  writings,  which  amount  to  forty  folio  volumes.  He 
died  in  the  Low  Countries  in  1067. — Richard  and  Gi- 
raud,  who  cite  Antonio,  Bibl.  Script.  Hisp. ;  Landon, 
Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Al'vah  (Heb.  Ah-ah\  hli?,  perh.  evil;  Sept. 
r«A«),  the  second  named  of  the  Edomitish  chieftains 
descended  from  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi,  40 ;  1  Chron.  i,  51, 
in  which  latter  passage  the  name  is  Anglicized,  "  Ali- 
ah,"  after  the  text  !"$??,  Alyah'),  B.C.  post  1905. 

Al'van  (Heb.  Alvan  ,  "jtb?,  tall;  Sept.  FaiXafi), 
the  first  named  of  the  five  sons  of  Shobal  the  Horite, 
of  Mount  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi,  23) ;  called  less  correctly 
Alian  (Heb.  Alyan,  '^",  Sept.  TwXo/x)  in  the  par- 
allel passage  (1  Chron.V  40).     B.C.  cir.  1927. 

Alvarez  of  Cordova,  (St.),  was  born  at  Cor- 
dova ;  a  scion  of  the  ancient  house  of  the  dukes  of 
Cordova.  He  took  the  habit  of  the  Dominicans  in 
the  convent  of  St.  Paul,  at  Cordova,  in  1308.  Far 
from  being  satisfied  with  closely  adhering  to  the  rule 
of  his  order,  he  added  to  the  strictness  of  it  whatever 
was  not  actually  forbidden.  To  the  hair  shirt  he  add- 
ed commonly  a  chain  of  iron  round  his  bod}' ;  his  fasts 
were  rigorous,  his  watchings  long,  and  his  self-mortifi- 
cation continual ;  and  he  went  throughout  Spain,  and 
even  into  Italy,  proclaiming  the  Gospel  (as  he  under- 
stood it)  with  the  fervor  of  an  apostle.  He  afterward 
proceeded  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  upon  his  return  was 
selected  first  by  Catherine,  the  wife  of  King  Henry  II, 
of  Castile,  and  afterward  by  her  son  John  II,  to  be 
their  confessor.     Alvarez,  however,  pined  to  be  re- 


leased from  the  worldly  pomp  and  splendor  of  a  court, 
and  obtained  permission  to  depart,  for  the  purpose  of 
building  a  new  convent  according  to  his  own  views  and 
plan.  This  he  did  upon  a  mountain  a  short  distance 
from  Cordova,  and  gave  to  the  new  sanctuary  the 
name  of  Scala  call.  He  died  Feb.  19, 1420.  His  tomb 
became  a  great  place  of  resort  to  persons  of  all  ranks, 
even  to  ecclesiastics  and  bishops.  Benedict  XIV  au- 
thorized the  worship  of  this  saint  (!),  and  extended  the 
worship  to  the  whole  order  of  St.  Dominic.  His  fes- 
tival is  held  on  the  19th  of  February. — Touron,  Hist. 
of  Illustrious  Men  of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic ;  Lan- 
don, Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Alvarez,  Diego  (Jesuit),  born  at  Toledo,  1560; 
after  finishing  his  studies  he  went  to  Peru,  and  there 
became  provincial  of  his  order,  which  office  he  held  until 
his  death  in  1620.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  under  the  title,  Opera  recognita  et  nunc  pri- 
mum  in  Germania  cdita  (Mogunt.  1614-19,  3  vols.  fob). 

Alverson,  John  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Ontario  County,  N.  Y.,  in  1793,  and 
died  at  Perry,  N.Y.,  April  21,  1850.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  joined  the  Church,  and  at  twenty-four  was 
admitted  into  the  Genesee  Conference  as  an  itinerant 
preacher.  After  twenty  years'  service  in  circuits  and 
stations  he  was  appointed  presiding  elder  of  Genesee 
district  in  1838,  and  of  Rochester  district  in  1842. 
He  possessed  a  discriminating  mind,  a  prompt  yet 
cautious  judgment,  a  high  sense  of  honor  and  integri- 
ty, a  correct  taste,  and  a  well-furnished  understand- 
ing, by  which  he  secured  for  himself  a  high  position 
in  the  confidence  and  affection  of  his  brethren  ;  in  tes- 
timony of  which  he  was  intrusted  with  many  offices 
of  responsibility.  In  1824, 1844,  and  1848,  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the  General  Conference,  by  the  last  of 
which  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  committee 
for  the  revision  of  the  hymn-book.  He  was  a  man  of 
commanding  eloquence  and  power  in  the  pulpit.  For 
eight  years  he  was  president  of  the  board  of  trustees 
of  Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary.  —  Minutes  of  Confer- 
ences, iv,  522. 

Alypius,  St.,  of  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  was  SQme 
years  younger  than  Augustine,  to  whom  he  was  strong- 
ly attached.  From  Carthage,  whither  he  followed 
Augustine,  he  went  to  Rome  to  study  the  law,  and 
there  obtained  a  place  in  the  imperial  treasury.  This 
charge  he  gave  up  in  order  to  follow  Augustine  to 
Milan.  Both  of  them  up  to  this  time  had  been  Mani- 
chseans,  and  both  were  at  this  time  converted  to  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  baptized  in  the  church  of  St.  Am- 
brose on  Easter-eve,  A.D.  387.  Upon  their  return  to 
Africa  the}'  withdrew  into  a  solitude  near  Tagaste ; 
but  when  Augustine  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the 
church  of  Hippo,  he  drew  Alypius  from  his  solitude 
to  take  charge  of  the  monastery  which  he  had  just 
built  in  Hippo.  After  this  Alypius  visited  the  Holy 
Land,  and  upon  his  return  in  394  was  elected  bishop 
of  Tagaste.  In  403  he  was  present  at  a  council  held 
at  Carthage  in  which  the  Donatists  were  invited  to  a 
conference,  but  refused;  and  in  411  he  was  named, 
with  six  others,  to  represent  the  Catholics  in  the  cele- 
brated conference  between  the  Catholics  and  Donatists 
which  the  Emperor  Honorius  enjoined.  It  is  believed 
that  he  was  with  Augustine  at  Hippo  at  the  time  of 
his  death  in  430,  and  it  is  uncertain  how  long  he  sur- 
vived him.  The  Roman  Martyrology  commemorates 
him  on  the  15th  of  August. — S.  August.  Confess,  lib. 
vi;  Ep.  22,  etc. ;  S.  Jerome,  Ep.  81 ;  Baillet,  Aug.  15; 
Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  iii,  375. 

Alypius,  St.,  the  Stylite,  so  called  because  he  re- 
mained for  more  than  fifty  years  on  the  top  of  a  pil- 
lar, like  Simeon  and  the  other  Stylites.  He  was  born 
at  Adrianople.  At  thirty-two  years  of  age,  having 
distributed  to  the  poor  all  his  property,  he  took  up 
i  his  abode  at  the  top  of  a  pillar,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  about  010,  the  precise  date  being  un- 


AMAD 


186 


AMALEKITE 


known.     His  day  in  the  Greek  calendar  is  Nov.  26.—  '  Josephus  'Afia\rjKirr]c,  Auth.  Vers,  often  "  Amalek- 

Baillet   Nov.  2G.  ites"),  the  title  of  a  powerful  people  who  dwelt  in 

A'mad  (Heb.  Amad',  V-V,  people  of  duration;  \  Arabia  Petrrca,  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Bed 

,         ,;■  ,    '_.T:   .         -r.      .         I  Sea,  or  between  Havilah  and  Shur  (1  Sam.  xv.  7), 

Sept.  'A,M«h-  r.  A^nX.J  dig.  Amaad),  a  town  near  ;        >fa        Idam  Qf  ^  * 

the  border  of  Asher  mentioned  between  Alamme  lech  Amalekites    are   generally   sup- 

and  Misheal  as  if  in  a  southerly  or  westerly  course  ,  descendants  of  Amalek,  the 

(Josh,  xix,  20)      Schwarz  (Palest  p.  192   thinks  it  is    V  ^  > 

the  modern  village  AUMead   a  few  mdes  north  of  ,  P  £  ^        ^^ 

Acco.  meaning   apparently   the  place   called  £m  d-  Ufore  tins  Amalek  was  born,  i.  e.  in  the 

Awed,  wnh   extensive   nuns  near  the  sea-coast,  the  Uys  of  Abraham ,  wh, 


identity  of  which  with  the  ancient  Amad  is  also  sug- 


rhen  Chedorlaomer,  king  of  Elam, 


devastated  their  country  (Gen.  xiv,  7)  ;  from  which 
gested  by  Thomson  (Land  and  Loot,  i  469);  but  we  {  ^^  .^^  thaUh^  wag  gome  ^  and  more 
Should  otherwise  look  for  a  more  south-easterly  posi- 
tion, and  one  on  the  boundary, 
applies  to  the   location   proposed 

(Memoir,  p.  284)  at  Urn  el-' Amad,  on  the  shore  south  .     UJ  .g  fa  a  Batisfacto      golution  of 

of  Tyre,  which,  however,  contains  no  rums  (hobmson,  ,  ^  »  ^  ^         ^  ^.^       3ii 

ater  fl,,Mrf  A«  ...  113).     It  may  not  i improbably  be  ^  historians  represent  them  as  original! 

identified  with  S«r/«  'tW  or  Shefa  Amar  (perhaps  |       ^.^  on  tfae  sl]oreg  of  ^  pergian  ^  ^^ 
hffip  for  nSaS),  a  large  market-town  on  a  ridge  east    they  were  prcBSed  westward  by  the  growth  of  the  As- 


rri  .-.   '.         ancient  Amalek  from  whom  this  people  strung.     The 

The  same  objection  .  ...        ..    .    ., .  .        *     *        '        p  ..     ,. 

I   i  „  y         ,     y  .1    j  supposition   that   this   people    are   there  prolephcally 

•  nnthi^Wp  Bn,,th    sP°ken  of  (Hengstenberg,  Genuineness  of  the  Penta- 


of  Haifa,  with  streets  of  shops  and  a  large  deserted 
castle  (Robinson,  later  Peseairhes,  iii,  103). 

Amad  atha   CApaSaSa,   Esth.  xvi,  10,  17)   or 


syrian  empire,  and  spread  over  a  portion  of  Arabia  at 
a  period  antecedent  to  its  occupation  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Joktan.     This  account  of  their  origin  harmo- 


Amad'athus  ('A/<flc«3w,  Esth.  xii,  G),  the  form  of  !  nizes  with  Gen.  xiv,  7;  it  throws  light  on  the  traces 
the  name  Hammedatha  (q.  v.)  as  given  in  the  apoc-  |  of  a  permanent  occupation  of  central  Palestine  in  their 
ryphal  additions  to  the  book  of  Esth  (these  portions  i  passage  westward,  as  indicated  by  the  names  Amalek 
being  found  only  in  theVulg.in  most  editions,  although    and  mount  of  the  Amalekites  (Judg.  v,  14;  xii,  15); 


the  name  is  given  in  the  genitive,  'AfiacaSov,  through- 
out the  book). 

Amadeists.     See  Amedians. 

Amadeus.     See  Basle,  Council  of. 

A'mal  (Heb.  Amal' ,  ioS,  toil;  Sept.  AfidX),  the 


and  it  accounts  for  the  silence  of  Scripture  as  to  any 
relationship  between  the  Amalekites  and  either  the 
Edomites  or  the  Israelites  (Gen.  xxxvi,  16,  does  not 
refer  to  the  whole  nation). 

The  physical  character  of  the  district  which  the 
Amalekites  occupied  [see  Arabia]  necessitated  a  no- 


last  named  of  the  four  sons  of  Helem,  of  the  tribe  of  I  madic  life,  which  they  adopted  to  its  fullest  extent, 
Asher  (1  Chron.  vii,  35).     B.C.  prob.  post  1G58.  taking  their  families  with  them  even  on  their  mili- 

Amalarius,  a  priest  of  Metz  in  the  9th  century.  j  tary  expeditions  (Judg.  vi,  5).  Their  wealth  con- 
He  wrote  a  treatise,  De  Divinis  Officiis  libri  quatuor,  j  sisted  in  flocks  and  herds.  Mention  is  made  of  a 
giving  an  account  of  the  church  services,  and  a  ratio-  nameless  "town"  (1  Sam.  xv.  5),  and  Josephus  gives 
nalc  of  their  meaning.  Some  passages  in  it  favor  the  ,  an  exaggerated  account  of  the  capture  of  several  towns 
idea  that  he  was  free  from  the  superstitions  of  his  \  by  Saul  (Ant.  vi,  7,  2) ;  but  the  towns  could  have  been 
times  as  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  also  wrote  Be  or-  ,  little  more  than  stations,  or  nomadic  enclosures.  The 
dine  Antiphonarii.  Both  this  and  the  former  treatise  '  kings  or  chieftains  were  perhaps  distinguished  by  the 
are  given  in  Bibl.  Max.  Pair.  xiv.  He  wrote  many  ,  hereditary  title  Agag  (Num.  xxiv,  7 ;  1  Sam.  xv,  8). 
Letters,  to  be  found  in  D'Acherv,  Spieiler/.  iii,  330.  i  Two  important  routes  led  through  the  Amalekite  dis- 
The  sixth  letter  is  occupied  with  a  curious  discussion,  ,  trict,  viz.,  from  Palestine  to  Egypt  by  the  Isthmus  of 
arising  from  the  notion  of  our  Lord's  body  being  actu-  Suez,  and  to  Southern  Asia  and  Africa  by  the  yElanitic 
ally  present  in  the  sacrament.  Amalarius  was  con-  |  arm  of  the  Eed  Sea.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
suited  about  a  person  who  had  spit  immediately  after  the  expedition  of  the  four  kings  (Gen.  xiv)  had  for  its 
receiving  the  sacrament,  whether  he  had  thus  spit  j  object  the  opening  of  the  latter  route;  and  it  is  in 
away  some  of  our  Lord's  body  and  blood,  and  whether  connection  with  the  former  that  the  Amalekites  first 
he  could  be  saved  after  such  an  act;  he  does  not  de-  j  came  in  contact  with  the  Israelites,  whose  progress 
cide  whether  the  person  had  voided  some  particles  of  j  they  attempted  to  stop,  adopting  a  guerrilla  style  of 
<  Ihrist's  body,  but  says  that  the  health  of  the  soul  will  |  warfare  (Dent,  xxv,  18).  The  Amalekites,  suspect- 
not  be  endangered  by  this  act  which  was  done  for  the  [  ing  that  the  Israelites  were  advancing  to  take  posses- 
health  of  the  body.— Clarke,  Sac.  Lit.  ii.  471 ;  Cave,  sion  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  did  not  wait  for  their  near 
His/.  Lit.  anno  812.  ,  approach  to  that  country,  but  came  down  from  their 

A ,    ,    !.    /it  i       .       7  ;/     nVw«  „  „  ~r„      4.  settlements  on  its  southern  borders  to  attack  them  at 

Amalek  (Heb.  Amalek  ,   pWJ,  according  to  _,    ,.,.         ^,                      ,   ,  T    ,          ..,        , 

_            ,           ,                .,,,.'  T   ■  ,,         rT  Eeohidim.      Moses  commanded  Joshua  with  a  chosen 

Furst    from   the   Arabic,  dweller  in  a  valley  ■   Sept.  1)an(1  f()  ;|U;u.k  the  Amalckit^  whilc  he<  with  Aaron 

^'"If;  ^^S^^S^^IS.^?-?^"    and  Ilur,  went  up  to  the  mount  of  Horeb.     During 

the  battle  Moses  held  up  his  hands  to  heaven  ;  and  as 
long   as  they  were   maintained  in  this   attitude  the 


(the  first-born  of  Esau)  by  his  concubine  Timna  (Gen. 
xxxvi,  12;  1  Chron.  i,  36);  he   was  the  chieftain,  or 

emir  («  Duke'*),  of  an   Idum*an  tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi,  \  IsRlcliteR  preVililcfl  but  when  through  wariness  they 
1,.  however,  was  probably  not  the  same  with  |  ^  t,)e  Amal(.kitos  preVailcd.     (See  Verpoorten,  De 

beUo  hi  Amalek,  tied.  1736;  Sartorius,  De  hello  Domini 


the  Am  m.i.kitks  (q.  v.)  so  often  mentioned  in  Scrip- 


ture (Num.  xxiv,  20,  etc.).  B.C.  post  1905.  His 
nVotbcr  came  of  the  Ilorite  race,  whose  territory  the  de- 
scendants of  Esau  had  Beized;  and,  although  Amalek 
himself  is  represented  as  of  equal  rank  with  the  other 
sons  of  Eliphaz,  yet  his  posterity  appear  to  have  shared 
the  fate  >>(  the  Horite  population,  a  "remnant"  only 
being  mentioned  as  existing  in  Edom  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah,  when  they  were  dispersed  by  a  band  of  the 
tribe  of  Simeon  (1  ( Ihron.  iv.  13). 

Am'alelrito  (Heb.  Amaleki',   "■""""',   also   the 
simple    Amalek,   used  collectively;    Sept.   'AjuaX^K, 


in  Amalek,  Danz.  1736.)  Aaron  and  Hur,  seeing  this, 
held  up  his  hands  till  the  latter  were  entirely  defeated 
with  great  slaughter  (Exod.  xvii,  8-13 ;  comp.  Deut. 
xxv.  17;  1  Sam.  xv,  2).  In  union  with  the  Canaan- 
ites  they  again  attacked  the  Israelites  on  the  borders 
of  Palestine,  and  defeated  them  near  Hormah  (Num. 
xiv,  45).  Thenceforward  we  hear  of  them  only  as  a 
secondary  power,  at  one  time  in  league  with  the  Moab- 
itcs  (Judg.  iii,  13),  when  they  were  defeated  by  Ehud 
near  Jericho  ;  at  another  time  in  league  with  the  Mid- 
ianites  (Judg.  vi,  3),  when  they  penetrated  into  the 


AMALEKITE 


187 


AMAMA 


plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  were  defeated  by  Gideon. 
Saul  in  his  expedition  overran  their  whole  district  and 
inflicted  immense  loss  upon  them,  but  spared  Agag, 
their  king,  and  the  best  of  the  cattle  and  the  mova- 
bles, contrary  to  the  divine  command  (1  Sam.  xiv,  48 ; 
xv,  2  sq.).  After  this  the  Amalekites  scarcely  appear 
any  more  in  history  (1  Sam.  xxvii,  8;  2  Sam.  viii,  12). 
Their  power  was  thenceforth  broken,  and  they  degen- 
erated into  a  horde  of  banditti  ("Nia,  predatory  band). 
Such  a  "troop"  came  and  pillaged  Ziklag,  which  be- 
longed to  David  (1  Sam.  xxx) ;  but  he  returned  from 
an  expedition  which  he  had  made  in  the  company  of 
Achish  into  the  valley  of  Jezreel,  pursued  them,  over- 
took and  dispersed  them,  and  recovered  all  the  booty 
which  they  had  carried  off  from  Ziklag.  This  com- 
pleted their  political  destruction,  as  predicted  (Num. 
xxiv,  20)  ;  for  the  small  remnant  of  Amalekites  whose 
excision  by  the  Simeonites  is  spoken  of  in  1  Chron. 
iv,  43,  were  the  descendants  of  another  family.  See 
Amalek.  Yet  we  meet  again  with  the  name  of  Am- 
alek  (according  to  Josephus,  Ant.  xi,  6,  5)  in  the  his- 
tory of  Esther,  in  the  person  of  Hainan  the  Agagite, 
in  Esth.  iii,  1,  10 :  viii,  3,  5,  who  was  most  likely  an 
Amalekite  of  the  royal  house  of  Agag  (Num.  xxiv,  7; 
1  Sam.  xv,  8),  that  fled  from  the  general  carnage,  and 
escaped  to  the  court  of  Persia. 

The  Arabians  relate  of  the  Amalek  destroyed  by 
Saul  that  he  was  the  father  of  an  ancient  tribe  in 
Arabia,  which  contained  only  Arabians  called  pure, 
the  remains  of  whom  were  mingled  with  the  posterity 
of  Joktan  and  Adnan.  According  to  Josephus  (Ant. 
iii,  2,  1),  the  Amalekites  inhabited  Gobolitis  (Psa. 
lxxiii,  8)  and  Petra,  and  were  the  most  warlike  of  the 
nations  in  those  parts  (comp.  Ant.  ii,  1,  2);  and  else- 
where he  speaks  of  them  as  "reaching  from  Pelusium 
of  Egypt  to  the  Red  Sea"  (Ant.  vi,  7,  3).  We  find, 
also,  that  they  had  a  settlement  in  that  part  of  Pal- 
estine whicli  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Ephraim 
(Judg.  xii,  15;  see  also  v,  14).  According  to  Schwarz 
(Palest,  p.  219),  traces  of  this  name  are  preserved  in 
that  region  to  this  day.  The  editor  of  Calmet  sup- 
poses that  there  were  no  less  than  three  distinct 
tribes  of  Amalekites :  (1.)  Amalek  the  ancient,  re- 
ferred to  in  Gen.  xiv;  (2.)  A  tribe  in  the  region  east 
of  Egypt,  between  Egypt  and  Canaan  (Exod.  xvii, 
8;  1  Sam.  xv,  etc.);  (3.)  Amalek,  the  descendants 
of  Eliphaz.  No  such  distinction,  however,  appears 
to  be  made  in  the  biblical  narrative,  at  least  as  re- 
gards the  former  two  of  these  tribes ;  their  national 
character  is  everywhere  the  same,  and  the  different 
localities  in  which  we  find  these  Amalekites  may  be 
easily  explained  by  their  habits,  which  evidently  were 
such  as  belong  to  a  warlike  nomade  people  (lieland, 
Palwst.  p.  78  sq. ;  Mannert,  Geogr.  VI,  i,  183  sq.). 
Arabian  writers  mention  Amalika,  Amalik,  Imlik,  as 
an  aboriginal  tribe  of  their  country,  descended  from 
Ham  (Abulfeda  says  from  Shem),  and  more  ancient 
than  the  Ishmaelites  (D'Herbelot,  Bib!.  Orient,  s.  v. 
Amlac;  De  Sacy,  Excerpta  ex  Abulf.  in  Poeocke's 
Specim.  p.  513  sq. ;  Miehaelis,  Spicileg.  i,  170  sq.). 
They  also  give  the  same  name  to  the  Philistines  and 
other  C'anaanites,  and  assert  that  the  Amalekites  who 
were  conquered  by  Joshua  passed  over  to  North  Af- 
rica (Ewald,  Isr.  Gesch.  i,  300,  450).  Philo  (Vita 
Moysis,  i,  39)  calls  the  Amalekites  who  fought  with 
the  Israelites  on  leaving  Egypt  Phoenicians.  The 
same  writer  interprets  the  name  Amalek  as  meaning 
"a  people  that  licks  up  or  exhausts"  (Legis  Allegm 
iii,  66).  From  the  scriptural  notices  of  their  location 
south  of  Palestine  (Num.  xiii,  2V),  in  the  region  trav- 
ersed by  the  Israelites  (Exod.  xvii,  8  sq.),  and  their 
connection  with  the  Ammonites  (Judg.  iii,  13),  Midian- 
ites  (Judg.  vi,  3;  vii,  12),  Kenites  (1  Sam.  xv,  6),  as 
well  as  their  neighborhood  to  the  Philistines  (1  Sam. 
xxvii,  8),  Mount  Soir  (1  Chron.  v,  43),  and  the  city 
of  Shur  or  Pelusium  (1  Sam.  xv,  7),  it  is  evident  that 
their  proper  territory  was  bounded  by  Philistia,  Egypt, 


Idumrea,  and  the  desert  of  Sinai. — Van  Iperen,  Histor. 
Crit.  Edom.  et  Amalecitar.  (Leonard.  1768)  ;  Jour,  of 
Sac.  Lit.  Apr.  1852,  p.  89  sq. ;  Noldeke,  Ueber  die 
Amulekiter.  etc.  (Gotting.  1863).     See  Canaanite. 

On  the  apparent  discrepancy  between  Deut.  i,  44 
and  Num.  xiv,  45,  see  Amorite. 

Amalric  of  Bena,  or  of  Chartres  (in  Latin,  Amal- 
ricus  or  Emelricus ;  in  French,  Amaury),  a  celebrated 
theologian  and  philosopher  of  the  Middle  Ages,  born 
at  Bena,  a  village  near  Chartres,  lived  at  Paris  toward 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  and  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  He  gave  instruction  in  dialectics 
and  other  liberal  arts  comprised  in  the  Trivium  and 
Quadririum.  He  undertook  to  explain  the  metaphys- 
ical works  of  Aristotle,  which  had  just  been  translated 
into  Latin,  partly  from  some  new  copies,  partly  from 
Arabic  versions,  which  had  been  imported  from  the 
East.  In  these  works  Amalric  advances  the  opinion 
that  all  beings  proceed  from  a  first  matter,  which  in 
itself  has  neither  form  nor  figure,  but  in  which  the 
motion  is  continual  and  necessary.  The  Arabs  had 
long  before  begun  to  introduce  this  philosophy  into 
Western  Europe;  for  as  earl}'  as  the  ninth  century 
Scotus  Erigena  (q.  v.)  taught  that  the  first  matter  was 
every  thing,  and  that  it  was  God.  Although  the  te- 
merity of  this  language  was  frequently  complained  of, 
the  doctrine  of  Erigena  was  never  expressly  con- 
demned, and  Amalric  was  therefore  not  afraid  of  again 
professing  it.  He  also  maintained  the  ideality  of  God 
and  the  first  matter,  but  he  pretended  to  reconcile  this 
view  with  the  writings  of  Moses  and  the  theology  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  From  the  continual  and  neces- 
sary movement  of  the  first  matter,  he  concluded  that 
all  particular  beings  were  ultimately  to  re-enter  the 
bosom  of  the  Being  of  Beings,  which  alone  is  inde- 
structible, and  that  before  this  ultimate  consummation 
the  vicissitudes  of  nature  would  have  divided  the  his- 
tory of  the  world  and  of  religion  into  three  periods 
corresponding  to  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity.  See 
Almericians.  He  developed  his  ideas  especially  in 
a  work  entitled  ' '  Physion,  a  Treaty  of  Natural  Things  " 
This  book  was  condemned  by  the  University  of  Paris 
in  1204.  Amalric  appealed  from  this  sentence  to  the 
pope,  and  went  himself  to  Rome  ;  but  Pope  Innocent 
III  confirmed  the  sentence  in  1207.  Amalric  was 
compelled  to  retract,  which  he  did  with  great  reluc- 
tance. He  died  from  grief  in  1209.  In  1210,  when 
ten  of  his  chief  followers  were  burned,  the  body  of 
Amalric  was  also  exhumed,  and  his  bones  burned,  to- 
gether with  his  books,  inclusive  of  the  metaphysics  of 
Aristotle. — Herzog,  Real-Encyklopadie,  i,  268  ;  Hocfer, 
Biog.  Generate,  ii,  305. 

A'mam  (Heb.  Amam',  C2X,  gathering;  Sept. 
'Apap),  a  city  in  the  southern  part  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah,  mentioned  between  Hazor  and  Shema  (Josh,  xv, 
26),  being  apparently  situated  in  the  tract  afterward 
assigned  to  Simeon  (Josh,  xix,  1-9);  probably  about 
midway  on  the  southern  border  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Dead  Sea.  The  enumeration  in  Josh. 
xv.  32,  shows  that  this  name  is  to  be  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  preceding,  i.  e.  Hazor- Amain  [see  Ha- 
zor], which  probably  designates  the  same  place  as 
Keriotii-Hezrom  (q.  v.).     See  Tribe. 

Amama,  Sixtin,  a  Protestant  theologian,  and  pro 
fessor  of  Hebrew  at  Franecker,  was  born  there  Oct.  15, 
1593,  and  died  Nov.  9, 1639.  He  visited  England  in 
1613.  He  wrote  Censura  Vulgatce  Latins  Editiorm 
Pentateuchi  (1620),  and,  in  reply  to  Mersenne,  his  An- 
tibarbarus  Bibhcus  (Franc.  1628,  4to),  containing  stric- 
tures on  other  books  of  the  Vulgate,  namely,  the  His- 
torical Books,  Psalms,  Solomon's  writings,  and  (in  a 
posthumous  edition)  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.  He  pub- 
lished also  a  collation  of  the  Dutch  version  with  the 
originals  (Bybehche  Conferencie,  Amst.  1623),  and  a 
Hebrew  grammar  (Amst  1625) ;  and  edited  some 
posthumous  works  of  Drusius. 


AHAN 


188 


AMASA 


A'man  ('Auav),  the  Graecized  form  (Tobit  xiv, 
10 ;  E<th.  x,  7,  etc.)  of  the  name  Haman  (q.  v.). 

Ama'na  [many  Am' and]  (Heb.  Amanah' ,  i13  ^X, 
a  coven  mi,  as  in  Neh.  x,  1),  the  name  of  a  river  and 
of  a  hill. 

1  The  marginal  reading  (of  many  codices,  with  the 
Syriac,  the  Targum,  and  the  Complutensian  ed.  of  the 
Sept.)  in  2  Kings  v,  12,  of  the  stream  near  Damascus 
called  in  the  text  Abaxa  (q.  v.). 

2.  (Sept.  Triortc,  Vulg.  A mana.')  A  mountain  men- 
tioned iu  Cant,  iv,  8,  in  connection  with  Shenir  and 
Hermon,  as  the  resort  of  wild  beasts.  Some  have 
supposed  it  to  be  Mount  A  mantis  in  Cilicia,  to  which  the 
dominion  of  Solomon  is  alleged  to  have  extended  north- 
ward. But  the  context,  with  other  circumstances, 
leaves  little  doubt  that  this  Mount  Amana  was  rather 
the  southern  part  or  summit  of  Anti-Libanus,  and 
was  so  called  perhaps  from  containing  the  sources  of 
the  river  Amana  or  Abaxa  (q.  v.).  The  rabbins, 
indeed,  call  Mount  Lebanon  various  names  (Reland, 
Palast.  p.  320),  among  which  appears  that  of  Amanon 
Cji3»K,  Gittin,  fol.  viii,  1,  v.  r.  bWQil,  Umanus,  or  Mt. 
Hor,  according  to  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  117). 

Ama'nah,  the  correct  form  of  the  name  Abaxa 
(q.  v.),  which  has  probably  crept  in  by  an  error  of 
copyists.     See  Amana. 

Amandus,  St.,  bishop  of  Maestricht,  called  "the 
apostle  of  Belgium,"  was  born  in  589  in  Nantes,  of  a 
Roman  family,  and  at  twenty-one  entered  a  monastery 
near  Rochelle.  After  visiting  Rome,  he  was  in  626 
ordained  a  missionary  bishop  without  any  fixed  see, 
and  he  labored  first  in  Brabant  and  Flanders,  then  in 
Sclavonia  near  the  Danube.  After  this  he  passed  into 
Austrasia,  but  was  driven  away  by  Dagobert,  whom 
he  had  reproved  for  his  vices ;  afterward,  however,  the 
penitent  prince  recalled  him,  and  made  him  the  spirit- 
ual instructor  of  his  son  Sigebert.  In  the  territory  of 
Ghent,  to  which  he  went  next,  he  was  cruelly  used, 
and,  after  being  appointed  bishop  of  Maestricht  in  649, 
he  resigned  it  at  the  end  of  three  years,  in  order  that 
he  might  resume  his  former  mode  of  life.  He  was  a 
great  itinerant  preacher,  founded  many  monasteries, 
and  died  in  679,  on  the  6th  of  February. — Baillet, 
Februarv  6;  Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  i,  369;  Neander, 
Ch.  Hist,  iii,  41. 

Amaranthine  (d/.tapdprivog,  unfading),  occurs 
in  the  original  of  1  Pet.  v,  4  (Auth.  Vers.  "  that  fadeth 
not  away  ;"  comp.  dfidpavrog,  1  Pet.  i,  4,  Auth.  Vers, 
id.),  where  the  apostle  seems  to  allude  to  the  fading 
sprig,  or  crown  of  laurel  awarded  to  him  who  came  off 
victorious  in  the  Grecian  games  (q.  v.).  Hence  the 
word  Amaranth,  the  name  of  a  class  of  flowers,  so 
called  from  their  not  speedily  fading  (see  Milton,  Par. 
Lost,  iii,  in  med.).  They  have  a  rich  color,  but  dry 
flowers.  Prince's-feather  and  cock's-comb  are  exam- 
ples of  the  natural  order  of  Amaranthacea;,  all  the  vari- 
eties of  which  are  innocuous.  To  such  unwithering 
garlands  the  apostle  compares  the  Christian's  crown 
of  glory,  won  by  faith  and  self-denial  (1  Cor.  ix,  25). 
See  Crown. 

Amari'ah  (Heb.  Amaryah',  I'P'iast,  said  [i.  e. 
promised  |  by  Jehovah,  q.  d.  TheophrastuB ;  also  in  the 
paragogic  form  Amarya'hu,  W^rX,  1  Chron.  xxiv, 
23;  2  Chron.  xix,  11;  xxxi,  15),  the  name  of  several 
men. 

1.  (Sept.  Afiapiac,  'Auapia.)  A  person  mentioned 
in  1  Clin, n.  vi.  7,  52,  in  the  list  of  the  descendants  of 
Aaron  by  his  eldest  son  Eleazar,  as  the  son  of  Meraioth 
and  the  father  of  Ahitub,  which  last  was  (not  the 
grandson  and  successor  of  Eli  of  the  same  name,  but) 
the  father  of  that  Zadok  in  whose  person  Saul  restored 
the  high-priesthood  to  the  line  of  Eleazar.  The  years 
daring  which  the  younger  line  of  [thamar  enjoyed  the 
pontificate  in  the  persons  of  Eli,  Ahitub,  and  Abime- 
lech  (who  was  slain  by  King  Saul  at  Nob)  were  doubt- 


less more  than  sufficient  to  cover  the  time  of  this 
Amariab  and  his  son  Ahitub  (q.  v.),  if  they  were  con- 
temporary, and  it  has,  therefore,  been  thought  that 
the}'  never  were  high-priests  in  fact,  although  their 
names  are  given  to  carry  on  the  direct  line  of  succes- 
sion to  Zadok.  But  it  is  more  probable  that  Amariah 
was  the  last  of  the  high-priests  of  Eleazar's  line  prior 
to  its  transfer  (for  some  unknown  reason)  to  the  house 
of  Ithamar  in  the  person  of  Eli  (q.  v.),  and  that  the 
Ahitub  whose  son  Zadok  was  the  first  to  regain  the 
lost  succession  was  a  more  distant  descendant  in  pri- 
vate life,  the  intermediate  names  in  the  genealogy 
being  omitted.  See  High-priest.  B.C.  ante  1125. 
Josephus  (Ant.  viii,  1,  3)  calls  him  Arophceus  (Apo- 
(palog),  and  says  he  lived  in  private,  the  pontificate 
being  at  the  time  in  the  family  of  Ithamar. 

2.  (Sept.  'Apapia,  'Afiapiag.)  A  Levite,  second  son 
of  Hebron  and  grandson  of  Kohath  of  the  lineage  of 
Moses  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  19 ;  xxiv,  23).     B.C.  1014. 

3.  A  "  chief-priest"  active  in  the  political  reforma- 
tion instituted  by  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xix,  11) ; 
perhaps  identical  with  the  high-priest  that  appears  to 
have  intervened  between  Azariah  and  Johanan  (1 
Chron.  vi,  9).  See  High-priest.  B.C.  895.  Jose- 
phus (Ant.  ix,  1,  1)  calls  him  "Amasias  the  priest" 
(Afiaaiag  6  itptvg)  ;  and  says  that  he  (as  well  as  Zeb- 
adiah)  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  a  statement  probably 
due  to  the  inaccuracy  of  the  text  (iKaripovc.  "  both," 
being  evidently  spurious  or  corrupt,  see  Hudson,  in 
loc).  In  the  "list  of  Josephus  (Ant.  x,  8,  6)  his  name 
does  not  appear. 

4.  (Sept.  'Apapiac,  but  Yapaptia  v.  r.  'S.apapia  in 
Ezra.)  A  high-priest  at  a  somewhat  later  date,  the  son 
of  another  Azariah  (q.  v.),  and  also  father  of  a  differ- 
ent Ahitub  (1  Chron.  vi,  11 ;  Ezra  vii,  3),  or  rather, 
perhaps,  of  Urijah  (2  Kings  xvi,  10).  See  High- 
priest.  B.C.  prob.  ante  740.  Josephus  (Ant.  x,  8, 
6)  appears  to  call  him  Jotham  ('IwSafjiog),  as  also  the 
Jewish  chronicle  Seder  Olam. 

5.  (Sept.  'Afiapiag  v.  r.  Mapiag.)  One  of  the  Le- 
vites  appointed  by  Hezekiah  to  superintend  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  temple  dues  among  the  sacerdotal 
cities  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  15).     B.C.  726. 

6.  (Sept.  'Awopio-c  v.  r.  Apopeiac.  and  'Aftapiag.) 
The  son  of  Hizkiah  and  father  of  Gedaliah,  which 
last  was  grandfather  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah  (Zeph. 
i,  1).     B.C.  long  ante  640. 

7.  (Sept.  Hapapia.)  The  son  of  Shephatiah  and 
father  of  Zechariah,  which  last  was  grandfather  of 
Athaiah,  the  Judahite  descendant  of  Pharez,  resident 
at  Jerusalem  after  the  exile  (Neh.  xi,  4).  B.C.  long 
ante  536. 

8.  (Sept.  'Afiapia.)  One  of  the  priests  who  return- 
ed from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  x,  3),  B.C. 
536,  and  afterward  (in  extreme  age,  if  the  same)  seal- 
ed the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii,  2),  B.C. 
cir.  410.  He  appears  to  have  been  identical  with  the 
chief-priest  the  father  of  Jehohanan  (Neh.  xii,  13). 

9.  (Sept.  'Afiapiag  v.  r.  'Apaptia.)  One  of  the  Is- 
raelite "sons"  of  Bani,  who  divorced  the  Gentile 
wife  whom  he  had  married  after  the  return  from  Bab- 
ylon (Ezra  x,  42).     B.C.  459. 

Arnari'as  ('Afiapiag),  the  Graecized  form  (1  Esdr. 
viii,  2;  2  Esdr.  i,  2)  of  the  name  Amariah  (q.  v.). 

Ani'asa  (Heb.  Amasa',  X;r*S?,  burden),  the  name 
of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'Afitood;  but  v.  r.  'Afltaaat,  and  in  1 
Chron.  ii,  17,  even  'Afitaaafi.)  The  son  of  Abigail,  a 
sister  of  King  David,  by  Jether  or  Ithra  (q.  v.),  an 
Ishmaelite  (1  Chron.  ii,  17  ;  2  Sam.  xvii,  25 ;  1  Kings 
ii,  5,  32);  a  foreign  paternity  that  appears  to  have 
caused  his  neglect  in  comparison  with  the  more  hon- 
ored sons  of  David's  other  sister  Zeruiah  ;  until  on  the 
occurrence  of  Absalom's  rebellion,  whose  party  he 
naturally  joined,  and  of  which  he  was  made  general, 
his  good  conduct  probably  of  the  battle,  although  de- 


AMASAI 


189 


AMAZIAH 


feated,  led  David  to  offer  him  not  only  pardon,  but 
the  command  of  the  army  in  the  room  of  his  cousin 
Joab  (2  Sam.  xix,  13),  whose  overbearing  conduct 
had  become  intolerable  to  him,  and  to  whom  he  could 
not  entirely  forgive  the  death  of  Absalom  (q.  v.). 
B.C.  cir.  1023.  But  on  the  breaking  out  of  Sheba's 
insurrection,  Amasa  was  so  tardy  in  his  movements 
(probably  from  the  reluctance  of  the  troops  to  follow 
him)  that  David  despatched  Abishai  with  the  house- 
hold troops  in  pursuit  of  Sheba,  and  Joab  joined  his 
brother  as  a  volunteer.  When  they  reached  "the 
great  stone  of  Gibeon,"  the}-  were  overtaken  by  Ama- 
sa with  the  force  he  had  been  able  to  collect.  Joab 
thought  this  a  favorable  opportunity  of  getting  rid  of 
so  dangerous  a  rival,  and  immediately  executed  the 
treacherous  purpose  he  had  formed.  SeeAuNEE.  He 
saluted  Amasa,  asked  him  of  his  health,  and  took  his 
beard  in  his  right  hand  to  kiss  him,  while  with  the  un- 
heeded left  hand  he  smote  him  dead  with  his  sword. 
Joab  then  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  troops,  and 
continued  the  pursuit  of  Sheba ;  and  such  was  his  pop- 
ularity with  the  army  that  David  was  unable  to  re- 
move him  from  the  command,  or  call  him  to  account 
for  this  bloody  deed  (2  Sam.  xx,  4-12).  B.C.  cir. 
1022.  See  Joab.  Whether  Amasa  be  identical  with 
the  Amasai  who  is  mentioned  among  David's  com- 
manders (1  Chron.  xii,  18)  is  uncertain  (Bertheau, 
ErMllr.  p.  140).     See  David. 

2.  (Sept.  'Afiaffiag.)  A  son  of  Hadlai  and  chief  of 
Ephraim,  who,  writh  others,  vehemently  and  success- 
fully resisted  the  retention  as  prisoners  of  the  persons 
whom  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  had  taken  captive  in  a 
successful  campaign  against  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah  (2 
Chron.  xxviii,  12).     B.C.  cir.  738. 

Am'asai  [some  Amas'ai]  (Heb.  A  masay' ,  ''iBHSJ. 
burdensome'),  the  name  of  several  men.  See  also 
Amashai. 

1.  (Sept.  'A/iaai  and  'Ajudc  v.  r.  'A/tujoi  and  'AfiaSi.) 
A  Levite,  son  of  Elkanah,  and  father  of  Ahimoth  or 
Mahatli,  of  the  ancestry  of  Samuel  (1  Chron.  vi,  25, 
35),  B.C.  cir.  1410. 

2.  (Sept.  'Af.uifrai.')  The  principal  leader  of  a  con- 
siderable body  of  men  from  the  tribes  of  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  who  joined  David  in  "the  stronghold,"  ap- 
parently the  cave  of  Adullam  ;  his  fervent  declaration 
of  attachment  instantly  dispelled  the  apprehensions  that 
David  expressed  at  their  coming  (1  Chron.  xii,  18), 
B.C.  cir.  1061.  There  is  not  much  probability  in  the 
supposition  (Ewald,  Isr.  Gesck.  ii,  544)  that  he  was  the 
same  with  Amasa  (q.  v.),  the  nephew  of  David. 

3.  (Sept.  'AfiaacA.')  One  of  the  priests  appointed  to 
precede  the  ark  with  blowing  of  trumpets  on  its  re- 
moval from  the  house  of  Obed-edom  to  Jerusalem  (1 
Chron.  xv,  24),  B.C.  cir.  1043. 

4.  (Sept.  'A/iatri'.)  Another  Levite,  father  of  a  dif- 
ferent Mahath,  and  one  of  the  two  Kohathites  that 
were  forward  at  the  instance  of  Hezekiah  in  cleansing 
the  temple  (2  Chron.  xxix,  12),  B.C.  726. 

Am'ashai  (Heb.  Ama-shsay',  ^GttJHS,  prob.  an  in- 
correct form  of  the  name  Amasai  ;  Sept.  'Afitoai, 
'Afiaaia,  Vulg.  Amassai),  the  son  of  Azareel,  and 
chief  of  the  valiant  priests  of  his  family,  appointed  by 
Nehemiah  to  reside  at  Jerusalem  and  do  the  work  of 
the  temple  (Neh.  xi,  13),  B.C.  cir.  440. 

Amasi'ah  (Heb.  Amasyah',  ■"Pp^",  burden  of 
[i.  e.  sustained  by]  Jehovah  ;  Sept.  'A/iacWnc  v.  r.  Ma- 
cainc),  the  son  of  Zichri,  and  chieftain  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  who  volunteered  to  uphold  King  Jehoshaphat 
in  his  religious  efforts,  at  the  head  of  200,000  chosen 
troops  (2  Chron.  xvii,  16),  B.C.  cir.  910. 

Amasis,  supposed  to  be  the  Pharaoh  whose  house 
in  Tahpanhes  is  mentioned  in  Jer.  xliii,  9,  and  who 
reigned  B.C.  569-525  ;  he  was  the  successor  of  Aprics, 
or  Pharaoh  Hophra.  Amasis,  unlike  his  predecessors, 
courted  the  friendship  of  the  Greeks ;  and,  to  secure 
their  alliance,  he  married  Laodice,  the  daughter  of  I 


Battus,  th3  king  of  the  Grecian  colon}-  of  Cyrene 
(Herod,  ii,  161-182;  iii,  1-16;  Diod.  i,  68,  95).  He 
also  contributed  a  large  sum  toward  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple  of  Delphi,  and  is  said  to  have  been  visited 
by  Solon  (Herod,  i,  30  ;  Plut.  Solon,  26  ;  Plato,  Timceus, 
p.  21). — Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.     See  Egypt. 

Amath.     See  Hamath  ;  Boeceos. 

Amatha  (AfiaSd,  i.  q.  Hamath,  q.  v. ;  comp.  Jo- 
sephus,  Ant.  x,  5,  2),  a  place  named  by  Jerome  and 
Eusebius  ('EjUjua&a)  in  the  Onomasticon  (s.  v.  JEmath, 
'AiSa/.i)  as  one  of  several  places  by  that  name,  this  be- 
ing situated  near  Gadara,  and  having  warm  springs. 
It  is  apparently  the  modern  ruin  Amateh,  discovered 
by  Seetzen  (Bitter,  Erdk.  xv,  372),  on  the  Nahr 
Yarmuk,  not  far  from  Urn  Keis  (Burckhardt,  Travels, 
p.  273,  276-278).     See  also  Amathus. 

Amathe'is  (rather  Amath 'as,  'AfiaSiac,),  one  of 
the  "sons"  of  Bebai,  who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife 
after  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  ix,  29) ;  evidently  a  cor- 
ruption for  the  Athlai  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text 
(Ezra  x,  28). 

Am'athis  (1  Mace,  xii,  25).     See  Amathitis. 

Amathi'tis  ('A/ioSinc,  Eng.  Vers.  "  Amathis"), 
a  district- to  the  north  of  Palestine,  in  which  Jonathan 
Maccabaeus  met  the  forces  of  Demetrius  (1  Mace,  xii, 
25)  ;  not  around  the  city  Amathus  (q.  v.)  beyond  the 
Jordan  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  13,  3  ;  War,  i,  4,  3)  ;  but 
the  neighborhood  of  the  metropolis  Amath  or  Hamath 
(q.  v.),  on  the  Orontes  (Drusius ;  Michaelis,  in  loc. 
Mace).  So  the  Sept.  gives  'A/xaSri  for  T^H  in  Gen. 
x,  17. 

Amathus  (A/iaSoiV,  -ovvroc,  also  r«  'A/ia3«),  a 
strongly-fortified  town  beyond  the  Jordan,  which  Eu- 
sebius and  Jerome  (Onomasf.  s.  v.  iEtham)  place  twen- 
ty-one Roman  miles  south  of  Pella.  It  was  taken  by 
Alexander  Jannasus  (Josephus,  War,  i,  4,  3;  Ant.  xiii, 
13,  3),  and  its  importance  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
Gabinius  made  it  the  seat  of  one  of  the  five  jurisdic- 
tions (pvvidpui)  into  which  he  divided  the  country 
{Ant.  xiv,  5,4;  War,  i,  8,  5).  Josephus  elsewhere 
{Ant.  xvii,  10,  6)  mentions  that  a  palace  was  burnt  at 
Amatha  (q.  v.)  on  the  Jordan,  which  was  probably  the 
same  place.  It  is  mentioned  as  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
bishopric  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (Concil.  iv,  118). 
Reland  (Palcest.  p.  559  sq.)  thinks  it  is  mentioned  in 
the  Talmud  by  the  name  of  A  mat 'hit  (1IH12S),  and  that 
it  may  be  the  same  with  Ramoth-Gilead.  Burckhardt 
passed  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  city  standing  on  the  de- 
clivity of  the  mountain,  called  Amata,  near  the  Jor- 
dan, and  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  Zerka  or  jabbok; 
and  was  told  that  several  columns  remain  standing, 
and  also  some  large  buildings  (Travels,  p.  346).  This 
is  doubtless  the  site  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  284), 
although  not  quite  so  far  south  as  the  Onomasticon 
would  make  it  (Raumer,  Paliist.  p.  213). 

Amaury.     See  Amaleic. 

Amazi'ah  (Heb.  Amatsyah',  iTPSttSt,  strengthened 
by  Jehovah,  2  Kings  xii,  21 ;  xiii,  12  ;  xiv,  8  ;  xv,  1 ; 
1  Chron.  iv,  34;  vi,  45;  Amos  vii4  10,  12,  14;  else- 
where in  the  prolonged  form  Amatsya'hu,  'fPU^X; 
Sept.  'AjUflffittc,  but  Maioaiag  in  1  Chron.  vi,  45),  the 
name  of  four  men. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Hilkiah  and  father  of  Hashabi- 
ah,  of  the  ancestry  of  Ethan  the  Merarite  (1  Chron. 
vi,  45),  B.C.  considerably  ante  1014. 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Joash  (by  Jehoaddan, 
a  female  of  Jerusalem),  and  the  ninth  king  on  the  sep- 
arate throne  of  Judah;  he  was  twenty-five  years  old 
at  his  accession,  and  reigned  twenty-nine  years,  B.C. 
837-808  (2  Kings  xiv,  1,2;  2  Chron.  xxv,  1).  His 
reign  was  marked,  in  general,  by  piety  as  well  as  en- 
ergy, but  was  not  without  its  faults  (2  Kings  xiv,  3, 
4 ;  2  Chron.  xxv,  2).  He  commenced  his  sovereign- 
ty by  punishing  the  murderers  of  his  father  ;  and  it  is 


AMAZIAH 


190 


AMBASSADOR 


mentioned  that  he  respected  the  law  of  Moses  by  not 
including  the  children  in  the  doom  of  their  parents, 
which  seems  to  show  that  a  contrary  practice  had  pre- 
viously existed  (2  Kings  xiv,  5-7 ;  2  Chron.  xxv,  3-5). 
The  principal  event  of  Amaziah's  reign  was  his  attempt 
to  reimpose  upon  the  Edomites  the  yoke  of  Judah, 
which  they  had  cast  off  in  the  time  of  Jehoram  (2 
Kings  viii,  20 ;  comp.  1  Kings  xxii,  48).  The  strength 
of  Edom  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  Amaziah  consider- 
ed the  unaided  power  of  his  own  kingdom,  although 
stated  to  have  consisted  of  300,000  troops,  unequal  to 
this  undertaking,  and  therefore  hired  an  auxiliary 
force  of  100,000  men  from  the  king  of  Israel  for  100 
talents  of  silver  (2  Chron.  xxv,  5,  G).  This  is  the  first 
example  of  a  mercenary  army  that  occurs  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jews.  It  did  not,  however,  render  any 
other  service  than  that  of  giving  Amaziah  an  oppor- 
tunity of  manifesting  that  he  knew  his  true  place  in 
the  Hebrew  Constitution,  as  the  viceroy  and  vassal 
of  the  King  Jehovah.  A  prophet  commanded  him, 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  to  send  hack  the  auxiliaries, 
on  the  ground  that  the  state  of  alienation  from  God 
in  which  the  kingdom  of  Israel  lay  rendered  such  as- 
sistance not  only  useless,  but  dangerous.  The  king 
obeyed  this  seemingly  hard  command,  and  sent  the 
men  home,  although  by  doing  so  he  not  only  lost 
their  services,  but  the  100  talents,  which  had  been  al- 
ready paid,  and  incurred  the  resentment  of  the  Israel- 
ites, who  were  naturally  exasperated  at  the  indignity 
shown  to  them  (2  Chron.  xxv,  7-10, 13).  This  exas- 
peration they  indicated  by  plundering  the  towns  and 
destroying  the  people  on  their  homeward* march  (Kit- 
to's  Daily  Bible  IUustr.  in  loc.).  The  obedience  of 
Amaziah  was  rewarded  by  a  great  victor}-  over  the 
Edomites  (2  Chron.  xxv,  14-16),  ten  thousand  of 
whom  were  slain  in  battle,  and  ten  thousand  more 
savagely  destroyed  by  being  hurled  down  from  the 
high  cliffs  of  their  native  mountains  (2  Chron.  xxv, 
11,  12).  He  even  took  the  city  of  Petra  (q.  v.)  by 
assanlt,  and  changed  its  name  from  Selah  to  Joktheel 
(2  Kings  xiv,  7).  But  the  Edomites  afterward  were 
avenged;  for  among  the  goods  which  fell  to  the  con- 
queror were  some  of  their  idols,  which,  although  im- 
potent to  deliver  their  own  worshippers,  Amaziah  be- 
took himself  to  worship(\Vithof,  De  A  masia  deos  Edom. 
secum  abducente,  Ling.  1768).  This  proved  his  ruin 
(2  Chron.  xxv,  14-16).  Puffed  up  by  his  late  victo- 
ries, he  thought  also  of  reducing  the  ten  tribes  under 
his  dominion,  and  sent  a  challenge  to  the  rival  king- 
dom to  meet  him  in  a  pitched  battle.  After  a  scorn- 
ful reply,  he  was  defeated  by  King  Joash  of  Israel, 
who  carried  him  a  prisoner  to  Jerusalem,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus  (Ant.  ix,  9,  3),  opened  its  gates  to 
the  conqueror  under  a  threat  that  otherwise  he  would 
put  Amaziah  to  death — a  statement  evidently  made 
conjeeturally  to  explain  the  fact  that  the  cuy  was 
taken  apparently  without  resistance  (2  Kings  xiv,  13). 
Joash  broke  down  a  great  part  of  the  city  wall  on  the 
side  toward  the  Israelitish  frontier,  plundered  the 
city,  and  even  laid  his  hands  upon  the  sacred  things 
of  the  temple.  lie,  however,  left  Amaziah  on  the 
throne,  but  not  without  taking  hostages  for  his  good 
behavior  (2  Kings  xiv,  8-14;  2  Chron.  xxv,  17-24), 
B.C.  cir.  824.  The  disasters  which  Amaziah's  infatu- 
ation had  brought  upon  Judah  probably  occasioned  the 
conspiracy  in  whirl,  he  lost  his  life,  although  a  space 
of  fifteen  years  intervened  (2  Kings  xiv,  17).  On  re- 
ceding intelligence  of  this  conspiracy  he  hastened  to 
throw  himself  into  the  fortress  ofLachish  ;  but  he  was 
pursued  ami  slain  by  the  conspirators,  who  brought 
back  his  body  "upon  horses"  to  Jerusalem  for  inter- 
ment in  the  royal  sepulchre  (2  Kings  xiv,  19,  20;  2 
Chron.  xxv,  27,  28).  His  name,  for  some  reason,  is 
omitted  in  our  Saviour's  genealogy  ( .Matt,  i,  s  ;  comp. 
1  Chron.  iii,  12).— Kitto.     See  Judah,  Kingdom  of. 

3.   The  priest  of  the  golden   calves  at   Bethel,  who, 
in  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II.  complained  to  the  king  of 


Amos's  prophecies  of  coming  evil,  and  urged  the 
prophet  himself  to  withdraw  into  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah and  prophesy  there  ;  for  which  he  was  threatened 
with  severe  family  degradation  in  the  approaching 
captivitv  of  the  northern  kingdom  (Amos  vii,  10-17), 
B.C.  cir.  790. 

4.  The  father  of  Joshah,  which  latter  was  one  of 
the  Simeonite  chiefs  who  expelled  the  Amalekites  from 
the  vallev  of  Gedor  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (1  Chron. 
iv,  34).    "B.C.  cir.  712. 

Ambassador,  a  public  minister  sent  from  one 
sovereign  prince,  as  a  representative  of  his  person,  to 
another.  At  Athens  ambassadors  mounted  the  pulpit 
of  the  public  orators,  and  there  acquainted  the  people 
with  their  errand.  At  Rome  they  were  introduced 
to  the  senate,  and  there  delivered  their  commissions 
(Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Legatus). 

In  the  Old  Testament,  the  word  "IIS,  tsir,  one  who 
goes  on  an  errand,  is  thus  rendered  in  Josh,  ix,  4; 
Prov.  xiii,  17;  Isa.  xviii,  2;  Jer.  xlix,  14;  Obad.  1; 
and  this  translation  is  used  for  V^B,  melits',  an  inter- 
preter, in  2  Chron.  xxxii,  31 ;  also  for  "^r1"?,  malak', 
messenger,  in  2  Chron.  xxxv,  21 ;  Isa.  xxx,  4 ;  xxxiii, 
7 ;  Ezek.  xvii,  15.  Ministers  of  the  Gospel  in  the 
New  Testament  are  said  to  be  ambassadors  (7iO£<r/3'iia>), 
because  they  are  appointed  by  God  to  declare  his  will 
to  men,  and  to  promote  a  spiritual  alliance  with  Him 
(2  Cor.  v,  20 ;  Eph.  vi,  20).     See  Alliance. 

The  relations  of  the  Hebrews  with  foreign  nations 
were  too  limited  to  afford  much  occasion  for  the  ser- 
vices of  ambassadors.  Still,  the  long  course  of  their 
history  affords  some  examples  of  the  employment  of 
such  functionaries,  which  enable  us  to  discover  the 
position  which  they  were  considered  to  occupy.  Of 
ambassadors  resident  at  a  foreign  court  they  had,  of 
course,  no  notion,  all  the  embassies  of  which  we  read 
being  "extraordinary,"  or  for  special  services  and  oc- 
casions, such  as  to  congratulate  a  king  on  his  acces- 
sion or  victories,  or  to  condole  with  him  in  his  troubles 
(2  Sam.  viii,  15;  x,  2;  1  Kings  v,  1),  to  remonstrate 
in  the  case  of  wrong  (Judg.  xi,  12),  to  solicit  favors 
(Num.  xx,  14),  or  to  contract  alliances  (Josh,  ix,  3 
sq. ;  1  Mace,  viii,  17). 

The  notion  that  the  ambassador  represented  the 
person  of  the  sovereign  who  sent  him,  or  the  dignity 
of  the  state  from  which  he  came,  did  not  exist  in  an- 
cient times  in  the  same  sense  as  now.  He  was  a 
highly  distinguished  and  privileged  messenger,  and  his 
dignity  (2  Sam.  x,  1-5)  was  rather  that  of  our  heralds 
than  of  our  ambassadors.  It  may  have  been  owing, 
in  some  degree,  to  the  proximity  of  all  the  nations 
with  which  the  Israelites  had  intercourse  that  their 
ambassadors  were  intrusted  with  few-,  if  any,  discre- 
tionary powers,  and  could  not  go  beyond  the  letter  of 
their  instructions.  In  general,  their  duty  was  limited 
to  the  delivering  of  a  message  and  the  receiving  of  an 
answer  ;  and  if  this  answer  was  such  as  required  a  re- 
joinder, they  returned  for  fresh  instructions,  unless 
thej*  had  been  authorized  how  to  act  or  speak  in  case 
such  an  answer  should  be  given. 

The  largest  act  performed  by  ambassadors  appears 
to  have  been  the  treaty  of  alliance  contracted  with  the 
Gibeonitcs  (Josh,  ix),  who  were  supposed  to  have 
come  from  "a  far  country;"  and  the  treaty  which 
they  contracted  was  in  agreement  with  the  instruc- 
tions with  which  they  professed  to  be  furnished.  In 
allowing  for  the  effect  of  proximity,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  ancient  ambassadors  of  other  nations, 
even  to  countries  distant  from  their  own,  generally 
adhered  to  the  letter  of  their  instructions,  and  were 
reluctant  to  act  on  their  own  discretion.  Generals  of 
armies  must  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  ambas- 
sadors in  this  respect.  The  precept  given  in  Deut.  xx, 
10,  seems  to  imply  some  such  agency ;  rather,  how- 
ever, that  of  a  mere  nuncio,  often  bearing  a  letter  (2 
Kings  v,  5 ;  xix,  14),  than  of  a  legate  empowered  to 


AMBER 


191 


AMBROSE 


treat.  The  inviolability  of  such  an  officer's  person 
ma}-  perhaps  be  inferred  from  the  only  recorded  infrac- 
tion of  it  being  followed  with  unusual  severities  toward 
the  vanquished,  probably  designed  as  a  condign  chas- 
tisement of  that  offence  (2  Sam.  x,  2-5 ;  comp.  xii, 
26-31).  The  earliest  examples  of  ambassadors  em- 
ployed occur  in  the  cases  of  Edom,  Moab,  and  the 
Amorites  (Num.  xx,  14  ;  xxi,  21 ;  Judg.  xi,  17-19), 
afterward  in  that  of  the  fraudulent  Gibeonites  (Josh. 
ix,  4,  etc.),  and  in  the  instances  of  civil  strife  men- 
tioned in  Judg.  xi,  12,  and  xx,  12  (see  Cunanis  de  Rep. 
Hebr.  ii,  20,  with  notes  by  Nicolaus  in  Ugolini  The- 
saur.  iii,  771-774).  They  are  mentioned  more  frequent- 
ly during  and  after  the  contact  of  the  great  adjacent 
monarchies  of  Syria,  Babylon,  etc.,  with  those  of  Ju- 
dah  and  Israel,  e.  g.  in  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib. 
They  were  usually  men  of  high  rank,  as  in  that  case 
the  chief  captain,  the  chief  cup-bearer,  and  chief  of  the 
eunuchs  were  deputed,  and  were  met  by  delegates  of 
similar  dignity  from  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xviii,  17,  18 ; 
see  also  Isa.  xxx,  4).  Ambassadors  are  found  to  have 
been  employed,  not  only  on  occasions  of  hostile  chal- 
lenge or  insolent  menace  (2  Kings  xiv,  8  ;  1  Kings 
xx,  2,  C),  but  of  friendl}-  compliment,  of  request  for 
alliance  or  other  aid,  of  submissive  deprecation,  and 
of  curious  inquiry  (2  Kings  xiv,  8  ;  xvi,  7  ;  xviii,  14  ; 
2  Chron.  xxxii,  31).  The  dispatch  of  ambassadors 
■with  urgent  haste  is  introduced  as  a  token  of  national 
grandeur  in  the  obscure  prophecy  in  Isa.  xviii,  2. 
Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v.     See  Messenger. 

Amber  (Heb.^':Jn,c£a^??;ar,Ezek.i,4,27;  viii, 
2)  is  a  yellow  or  straw-colored  gummy  substance, 
originally  a  vegetable  production,  but  reckoned  to  the 
mineral  kingdom.  It  is  found  in  lumps  in  the  sea 
and  on  the  shores  of  Prussia,  Sicily,  Turkey,  etc.  Ex- 
ternally it  is  rough  ;  it  is  very  transparent,  and  on  be- 
ing rubbed  yields  a  fragrant  odor.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  to  be  medicinal,  but  is  now  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  trinkets,  ornaments,  etc.  {Penny  Cyclo- 
iia,  s.  v). 


Ambo,  a  raised  platform  or  reading-desk,  from 
which,  in  the  primitive  Church,  the  gospel  and  epistle 
were  read  to  the  people,  and  sometimes  the  sermon 
preached.  Its  position  appears  to  have  varied  at  dif- 
ferent times  ;  it  was  most  frequently  on  the  north  side 
of  the  entrance  into  the  chancel.  The  singers  also 
had  their  separate  ambo. — Bingham,  Oritj.  Eccl.  bk. 
iii,  ch.  vii. 

Baldus  and  Durandus  derive  the  name  from  the 
circumstance  of  there  being  a  double  flight  of  steps  to 
the  ambo;  others,  with  more  probability,  from  the 
Greek  civafiaivio,  to  ascend.     Treatises  on  this  subject 


Lr- 


In  the  above  passages  of  Ezekiel,  the  Hebrew  word 
is  translated  by  the  Sept.  yXacrpoi',  and  Vulgate  elec- 
trum,  which  signify  not  only  "  amber,"  but  also  a  very 
brilliant  metal,  composed  of  silver  and  gold,  much 
prized  in  antiquity  (Pliny,  xxxiii,  4,  p.  23).  Others, 
as  Bochart  (Ilieroz.  ii,  p.  877),  compare  here  the  mix- 
ture of  gold  and  brass,  aurhhalcum,  of  which  the  an- 
cients had  several  kinds ;  by  which  means  a  high  de- 
gree of  lustre  was  obtained ;  e.  g.  as  pyropum,  ccs 
Corinthiurri,  etc.  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v. 
Bronze).  Something  similar  to  this  was  probably 
also  denoted  by  the  difficult  term  xa\ico\lj3avov,  "  fine 
brass,"  in  Rev.  i,  15  (comp.  Ezra  viii,  27).  See  Brass. 
The  Hebrew  word  chashmal  probably  signifies  smooth 
(i.  e.  polished)  brass. — Calmet,  s.  v.     See  Metal. 

Ambidexter.     See  Left-handed. 

Ambivius  (a  Latin  name,  signifying  doubtful  as 
to  the  way;  Gra;cized  'AfifiiovioQ),  surnamed  Mar- 
cos, procurator  of  Juda?a,  next  after  Coponius,  and 
before  Kufus,  A.D.  9  to  12  (Josephus,.lw<.  xviii,  2,  2). 


Ambo  in  the  ( liurch  of  St.  Clement  at  Rome. 


are  by  Geret,  De  vet.  ecclesim  ambonibus  (Onold.  1757)  ; 
Weidling,  De  ambonibus  vet.  ecelesice  (Lips.  1687).  See 
Lesson  ;  Pulpit. 

Ambrose,  deacon  of  Alexandria,  flourished  chief- 
ly about  the  year  230 ;  he  was  a  man  of  wealth,  and 
by  his  wife,  Mavella,  had  many  children.  For  some 
time  he  was  entangled  in  the  errors  of  the  Valentin- 
ians  and  Marcionites,  but  Origen  brought  him  to  the 
true  faith.  With  Origen  he  became  closely  intimate, 
and  they  studied  together.  He  is  said  to  have  fur- 
nished Origen  with  seven  secretaries,  whom  he  kept 
constantly  at  work.  Ambrose  died  about  250,  after 
the  persecution  of  Maximinus,  in  which  he  confessed 
the  faith  boldly  with  Protoctetes,  a  priest  of  Gesarea 
in  Palestine.  His  letters  to  Origen,  which  St.  Jerome 
commends  highly,  are  lost.  The  Roman  Church  com- 
memorates him  as  confessor  on  March  17. — Euseb.  Ch. 
Hist,  vi,  18  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Dictionimj,  i,  302. 

Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  was  born  about  340, 
at  Treves  (Augusta  Trevirorum),  where  his  father  re- 
sided as  prefect  of  the  Prfetorium,  among  the  Gauls. 
It  is  said  that  while  he  was  yet  an  infant  a  swarm  of 
bees  settled  upon  his  mouth,  which  his  father  inter- 
preted as  a  portent  of  future  greatness.  After  his  fa- 
ther's death  his  mother  took  him  to  Rome,  where  he 
received  the  education  of  an  advocate  under  Anicius 
Probus  and  Symmachus.  For  some  time  he  pleaded 
at  the  bar,  and  his  success,  together  with  his  family 
influence,  led  to  his  appointment  (about  A.D.  370)  as 
consular  prefect  of  Liguria  and  Emilia,  a  tract  of 
Northern  Italy  which  extended,  as  near  as  can  be  as- 
certained, to  Bologna.  It  is  said  that  Anicius  Probus, 
the  prefect,  when  he  sent  him  to  his  government,  did 
so  in  these  remarkable  words,  which  may  well  be 
called  prophetic,  "Go,  then,  and  act,  not  as  a  judge, 
but  as  a  bishop."  Ambrose  made  Milan  his  residence  ; 
and  when  Auxentius  the  bishop  died,  the  people  of 
Milan  assembled  to  elect  a  successor.  This  the  cruel 
divisions  made  in  the  Church  by  the  Arian  heresy 
rendered  no  easy  matter ;  and  the  contest  was  carried 
on  between  Catholics  and  Arians  with  such  violence 
that  Ambrose  was  obliged  to  proceed  himself  to  the 
church  to  exhort  the  people  to  make  their  election 
quietly  and  in  order.  At  the  close  of  his  speech  the 
whole  assembly,  Arians  and  Catholics,  with  one  voice 
demanded  him  for  their  bishop.  Believing  himself  to 
be  unworthy  of  so  high  and  responsible  an  office,  he 
tried  all  means  in  his  power  to  evade  their  call,  but 


AMBROSE 


192 


AMBROSE 


in  vain,  and  he  was  at  last  constrained  to  yield  (A.D. 
374).  He  was  yet  only  a  catechumen ;  he  had  then 
to  be  baptized,  and  on  the  eighth  day  after  he  was 
consecrated  bishop.  He  devoted  himself  to  his  work 
with  unexampled  zeal ;  gave  all  his  property  to  the 
Church  and  poor,  and  adopted  an  ascetic  mode  of  life. 
He  opposed  the  Arians  from  the  very  beginning  of  his 
episcopacy,  and  soon  acquired  great  influence  both 
with  the  people  and  the  Emperor  Valentinian.  In 
382  he  presided  at  an  episcopal  synod  in  Aquileia 
(summoned  by  the  Emperor  Gratian),  at  which  the 
Arian  bishops  Palladius  and  Secundianus  were  de- 
posed. In  385  he  had  a  severe  conflict  with  Justina 
(mother  of  Valentinian  II),  who  demanded  the  use  of 
at  least  one  church  for  the  Arians  ;  but  the  people  sided 
with  Ambrose,  and  Justina  desisted.  In  the  year  300 
he  excommunicated  the  Emperor  Theodosius  for  the 
massacre  at  Thessalonica,  and  did  not  absolve  him  till 
after  a  penance  of  eight  months  and  a  public  humilia- 
tion. Ambrose  was  the  principal  instructor  of  Au- 
gustine in  the  Christian  faith.  He  died  at  Milan, 
April  4,  397,  and  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman 
Church  as  a  saint  Dec.  7.  His  writings  abound  in 
moral  lessons,  plentifully  interspersed  with  exhorta- 
tions to  celibacy  and  the  other  superstitions  of  the  day. 
It  is  also  recorded  that  he  performed  many  astonishing 
miracles — stories  that  throw  disgrace  on  an  elevated 
character,  which  really  needed  not  the  aid  of  impos- 
ture to  secure  respect  or  even  popularity.  He  has 
deserved  from  succeeding  generations  the  equivocal 
praise  that  he  was  the  first  effectual  assertor  of  those 
exalted  ecclesiastical  pretensions  so  essential  to  the 
existence  of  the  Romish  system,  and  so  dear  to  the 
ambitious  ministers  of  every  Church.  His  services  to 
church  music  were  very  great ;  he  was  the  father  of 
"  hymnology"  in  the  Western  Church.  The  writings 
of  the  early  fathers  concur  in  recording  the  employ 
ment  of  music  as  a  part  of  public  worship,  although 
no  regular  ritual  was  in  existence  to  determine  its 
precise  form  and  use.  This  appears  to  have  been  first 
supplied  by  Ambrosius,  who  instituted  that  method 
of  singing  known  by  the  name  of  the  "cantus  A 
brosianus,"  which  is  said  to  have  had  a  reference  to 
the  modes  of  the  ancients,  especially  to  that  of  Ptole- 
mauis.  This  is  rather  matter  of  conjecture  than  cer- 
tainty, although  the  Eastern  origin  of  Christianity  and 
the  practice  of  the  Greek  fathers  render  the  supposition 
probable.  The  effect  of  the  Ambrosian  chant  is  de- 
scribed in  glowing  terms  by  those  who  heard  it  in  the 
cathedral  of  Milan.  "The  voices,"  says  Augustine, 
"flowed  in  at  my  ears,  truth  was  distilled  into  my 
heart,  and  the  affection  of  piety  overflowed  in  sweet 
tears  of  joy.''  Whether  any  genuine  relics  of  the  mu- 
sic tli us  described  exist  at  the  present  time  is  exceed- 
ingly doubtful ;  the  style  of  singing  it  may,  however, 
have  been  preserved ;  and  this  is  still  said  to  be  ap- 
plied at  Milan  to  compositions  of  adate  comparatively 
recent  I  Biog.  Diet.  Soc.  Useful  Knowledge).  His  writ- 
ings are  mine  numerous  than  valuable.  Ten  of  the 
many  hymns  which  are  ascribed  to  him  are  generally 
admitted  to  lie  genuine,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
Ambrosian  Hymn  or  the  Tv  Deum  is  by  him.  The 
best  edition  of  his  complete  works  has  been  published 
by  the  Benedictines  under  the  title,  Opera,  ad  manu- 
tcriptos  codices  Vaticanos,  GaUicanos,  Belgicos,  etc.,  nee- 
nm  ad  editiones  veteres  emendata,  studio  monachorum 
ordmis  Benedicti  (Par.  1686-90,  2  vols,  fob;  also 
printed  without  the  Indexes,  Paris,  1836,  4  vols,  large 
8vo).  The  Appendix  contains  three  lives  of  Ambrose. 
His  writings  are  arranged  as  follows  in  the  edition  of 
1686,  •-'  vols.:  Vol.  I  contains  ffexcemeron,  lib.  3;  De 
Paradiso;  /><■  ('■'in  ,/  Abel;  he  Woe  et  Area;  De  Abra- 
ham: De  Isaac  ei  Anima;  De  /.'»//<<  Mortis;  l><  Fuga 
Scscvli :  De  Jacob  et  Vitabeata;  De  Josepho  Patriarcha 
/!,  Benedtetionibus  Patriarcharum ;  De  Elia  et  Jejimio 
j>  Vabuth  TsraeUta,  DeTobia;  De InterpeUaHone  Job 
et  David;  Apologia  Prcpheta  David;  Enarrationes  in 


Psalmos  i,  axxv-xl,  xliii,  xlv,  xlvii,  xlviii,  hi,  E.rpositio 
in  Psalmum  civiii;  Expositio  in  Lucam.  Vol.11  con- 
tains De  Officiis  Mlnistrorum ;  De  Virginibus ;  De  Vi- 
dws;  De  Virginitate;  De  Jnstitutione  Virginis ;  Exhor- 
tatio  Virginitatis  :  De  Lapsu  Virginis;  De  Mysteriis;  De 
Sacramentis ;  De  Panitentia ;  De  Fide ;  De  Spiritu  Sanc- 
to;  De Incarnationis  Dominicce  Sacramento;  Frag.  Am- 
brosianum  ex  Theodoreto  desumptum ;  Epistolce ;  De  cx- 
cessu  Fratris  siti  Satyri;  De  Obitu  Valentiniani  Conso- 
latio  ;  De  Obitu  Theodosii  Oratio ;  Hymni  aliquot  Ambro- 
siani. — Waddington,  Ch.  Hist.  ch.  iv ;  Heinze,  Beschr. 
d.  Backer  d.  Ambrosius  "cfe  offieiis"  (Weimar,  1790); 
Michelsen,  De  Ambrosio  fidei  vindice  (Hann.  1825); 
Bohringer,  Kirche  Christi,  I,  iii,  1-98. 

Ambrose  the  Camaldule,  a  French  ecclesias- 
tical writer,  was  born  at  Portico,  a  little  town  near 
Florence.  He  was  but  fourteen  years  of  age  when  he 
entered  the  order  of  Camaldules,  and  afterward  be- 
came one  of  the  first  men  of  his  age  in  theology  and 
Greek  literature;  his  master  in  the  latter  was  Em- 
manuel Chrysolares.  In  1431  he  became  general  of 
his  order,  and  afterward  was  several  times  appointed 
to  the  cardinalate ;  but,  whether  or  not  he  refused  it, 
he  never  possessed  that  dignity.  Eugenius  IV  sent 
him  to  the  Council  of  Basle,  where,  as  well  as  at  Fer- 
rara  and  Florence,  he  supported  the  pope's  interests. 
He  did  all  in  his  power  to  bring  about  the  union  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches,  and  he  drew  up  the  for- 
mula of  union  at  the  desire  of  the  council.  He  died 
October  21, 1439.  His  works  are,  1.  Ilodceporicon ;  an 
A  ccount  of  a  Journey  taken  to  visit  the  various  Monas- 
teries of  Italy,  ly  the  Pope's  command  (1G78 ;  Florence 
and  Lucca,  1681,  4to)  : — 2.  Formula  of  union  between 
the  Churches  (in  the  Coll.  of  Councils)  :— 3.  Life  of  St. 
Chrysostom,  by  Palladius ;  translated  from  the  Greek  into 
Latin  (Venice,  1533)  : — 4.  The  Four  Books  of  Manuel 
Calecas  against  the  Errors  of  the  Greeks  (Ingolstadt, 
1608)  : — 5.  Nineteen  Sermons  of  St.  Ephrem  Syrus: — 6. 
St.  Dionysius  the  A  reopngite  on  the  Celestial  Hierarchy : 
— 7.  The  Book  of  St.  Basil  on  Virginity,  and  many  other 
translations  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  which  have  been 
printed  at  different  times.  The  library  of  St.  Mark  at 
Florence  contains  also  many  MSS.  by  this  writer,  viz. : 
1.  A  Chronicle  of  Monte-Cassino : — 2.  Two  Books  of  his 
Proceedings  while  General  of  the  Camaldules: — 3.  The 
Lives  of  certain  Saints: — 4.  A  Treatise  of  the  Sacrament 
of  the  Body  of  Christ : — 5.  A  Treatise  against  the,  Greek 
Doctrine  of  the  Procession: — 0.  A  Discourse  made  at  the 
Council  of  Florence : — 7.  A  Treatise  against  those  who 
blame  the  monastic  state.  Besides  these,  Mabillon  and 
Martene  have  discovered  various  other  smaller  works 
by  this  author,  exclusive  of  twenty  books  of  his  let- 
ters given  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Veterum  Scrip 

torum,  etc Ampl.  Collectio,  of  the  latter. — Lan- 

don,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  306 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  343. 

Ambrose,  Autpert,  a  French  Benedictine  monk, 
and  abbot  of  St.  Vincent  de  Voltorne,  about  760,  in  the 
time  of  Pope  Paul,  and  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lom- 
bards, as  he  himself  tells  us.  He  died  July  19,  778. 
He  wrote  a  Commentaries  in  Apocalypsin  (Col.  1536, 
fob),  also  published  in  the  Bibl.  Patrum.  xiii,  403,  and 
some  other  works,  viz.,  Commentaries  on  the  Psalms 
and  Song  of  Solomon,  the  Combat,  betivecn  the  Virtues 
and  Vices,  which  goes  under  the  names  of  St.  Ambrose, 
and  is  inserted  in  the  works  of  Augustine;  a  Homily 
on  the  Leading  of  the  Holy  Gospel  (among  the  works  of 
St.  Ambrose),  and  another  on  the  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin  (which  is  the  eighteenth  of  Augustine  de  Sanc- 
tis), and  others.  Mabillon  gives  as  his,  the  Lives  of 
SS.  Pablo,  Tvto,  an, I  Vaso,  together  with  the  History 
of  his  Monastery.— Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  i,  631 ;  Hist.  Lit.  de 
la  France,  t.  iv ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  305. 

Ambrose,  Isaac,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  born 
in  Lancashire,  1591,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
officiated  ao  minister  in  Preston,  and  afterward  at 
Garstang  in  Lancashire,  from  which  he  was  ejected  hi 


AMBROSE 


193 


AMBUSCADE 


1662  for  non-conformity.  He  was  a  man  of  great  Wood),  Order  of,  monks  of.  The  origin  of  the  or- 
learning,  which  he  adorned  by  sincere  and  ardent  piety,  der  is  known  from  a  bull  of  Gregory  XI,  addressed  in 
He  died  in  1674.  Amid  the  labors  of  an  active  min-  i  1375  to  the  monks  of  the  church  of  St.  Ambrose  with- 
istry  he  found  time  to  prepare  several  works  of  prac-  '  out  the  walls  of  Milan ;  from  which  it  appears  that 
Ideal  religion  for  the  press.  He  was  the  author  of  these  monks  had  for  a  long  time  bee*i  subject  to  a 
The  First,  Middle,  and  Last  Things,  viz.  Regeneration,  prior,  but  had  no  fixed  rule,  in  consequence  of  which 
Sanctification,  ami  Meditations  on  Life,  Death,  and  the  pope,  at  the  prayer  of  the  archbishop,  had  ordered 
Judgment,  etc.  But  his  book  entitled  Looking  unto  them  to  follow  the  rule  of  Augustine,  permitted  them 
Jems  is  the  one  which  has  most  of  all  received,  and  :  to  assume  the  above  name,  to  recite  the  Ambrosian 
longest  retained,  the  award  of  popular  favor.  Both  office,  and  directed  that  their  prior  should  be  confirm- 
these,  with  other  writings,  may  be  found  in  his  Com-  j  ed  by  the  archbishop  of  Milan.  They  afterward  had 
plete  Works  (Dundee,  1759,  fob).  many  establishments  in  different  parts  of  Italy  ;  but 

Ambrose,  archbishop  of  Moscow,  with  his  family  '  they  were  independent  of  one  another  until  Eugenins 
name  Andrew  Sertis-Kamensky,  was  born  at  Nejine,  j  IV'  m  lini  un,ted  them  lnto  one  congregation,  and 
in  the  government  of  Tchernigoff,  in  1708.  After  |  exempted  them  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinaries, 
studying  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Alexander  Nevski,  he  making  the  convent  at  Milan  the  chief  of  the  order, 
became,  in  1735,  one  of  its  teachers.  In  1739  he  en-  ]  In  lo'<J  the3r  applied  to  St.  Charles  Borromeo  to  aid 
tered  a  monastic  order,  and,  according  to  custom,  |  them  ™  the  reformation  of  their  houses,  whose  disci- 
changed  his  Christian  name,  assuming  that  of  Am-  I  P]»»e  had  become  somewhat  relaxed.  In  1589  Sixtus 
brose.  After  being  for  some  time  prefect  of  studies  at 
the  academy  of  St.  Alexander,  he  was  transferred  as 
archimandrite  to  the  convent  of  New  Jerusalem  at 
Vosnecensk,  and,  in  1758,  was  consecrated  bishop,  first 
of  Pereiaslavl,  and  later,  of  the  diocese  of  Krusitzy, 
near  Moscow.  He  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Mos- 
cow in  1761,  and  retained  his  dignity  until  his  death. 
He  had  also  been  from  1748  a  member  of  the  Holy 
Synod.  Ambrose  displayed  great  zeal  in  the  service 
of  his   Church.     He   established   a   number  of  new 


V  united  them  to  the  congregation  of  St.  Barnabas  ; 
but  in  1650  both  were  dissolved  by  Pope  Innocent  X. 
— Helyot,  ed.  Migne,  i,  203. 

Ambuscade  and  Ambush  (Heb.  **X,  arab', 
to  lie  in  wait),  in  military  phraseology,  are  terms  used 
promiscuously,  though  it  is  understood  that  the  first 
more  properly  applies  to  the  act,  and  the  second  to  the 
locality  of  a  stratagem  which  consists  mainly  in  the 
concealment  of  an  army,  or  of  a  detachment,  where 
.-  ,  the  enemv,  if  he  ventures,  in  ignorance  of  the  meas- 
churches  and  monasteries,  and  distinguished  himself  '  ..,: .    ..        .  ,..        .-       .        ,,     ,     .  , 

.      ,.  ,  .      .,     ,  I     ,  .  _...    !?  mr  ure,  withm  the  sphere  of  its  action,  is  suddenlv  taken 

bv  his  zeal  for  the  benevolent  institutions  of  Moscow.       .    '    ..     ,        .    *  ,  ,.  , ,     ,     , '        ,  ,,      .%    .    , 

at  a  disadvantage,  and  liable  to  be  totally  defeated. 

The  principles  which  must  guide  the  contrivers  of  an 
ambuscade  have  been  nearly  the  same  in  all  ages; 
embracing  concealment  from  the  observation  of  an 
enemy  so  as  to  create  no  suspicion ;  a  position  of  ad- 
vantage in  case  of  being  attacked  by  superior  forces ; 
and  having  the  means  of  retreating,  as  well  as  of  is- 
suing forth  to  attack,  without  impediment,  when  the 
proper  moment  is  arrived.  The  example  of  Joshua 
at  the  capture  of  Ai  (Josh,  viii)  shows  the  art  to  have 
been  practised  among  the  Jews  on  the  best  possible 
principles.     The  failure  of  a  first  attempt  was  sure  to 


His  death  was  very  tragical.  In  1771  the  pestilence 
raged  in  Moscow  with  extraordinary  fury,  and  carried 
off,  it  is  reported,  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  people. 
The  people,  attributing  a  miraculous  healing  power  to 
a  sacred  image  of  the  Virgin  (called  "the  Iberian"), 
the  whole  population  of  the  city  crowded  around  the 
chapel  where  this  image  was  preserved.  Ambrose, 
who  was  sufficiently  enlightened  to  see  that  the  con- 
tagion in  this  way  would  spread  more  rapidly  than  be- 
fore, had  the  miraculous  image  removed  during  the 
night.     On  the  next  day  the  populace,  charging  at  I 

once  the  archbishop  with  the  removal,  rushed  toward    F""WF"""      ■—.»""■-_"-  "  ;'"""""""i'"  "" 
...  m,         p.  .......     . ?.  '  produce  increased  confidence  in  the  assailed,  who,  be- 

hie    hnncn  I    ho    srphliwhnli    h'lit    1'i.tircil    In    n     InnlDwrprv       f  ..... 

ing  the  armed,  but  not  disciplined  inhabitants  of  a 

strong  place,  were  likely  not  to  be  under  the  control 

of  much  caution.     Joshua,  encamping  within  sight, 
bishop   concealed    himself   in    the    sanctuarv   of  the    ,    .      ...  ,.  _  .   .  '.  ,'     v. 

*;       ,  ,         .    j.  ,i        .  .         *        ,    .  i  but  with  a  vallcv  intervening,  when  he  came  up  to 

church,  where  onlv  prie-ts  arc  a  lowed  to  enter:   but  ,  ,  ,  .7     ■  -i  ■,   .      ■>■      , 

,     V.       make  a  false  attack,  necessarily  appeared  to  disad- 
jateof  the  .,  ,    .         ,       - ,  . "        ,  ,  .       • 

vantage,  the  enemy  being  above  him,  and  Ins  retreat 

,    toward  his  own  camp  rendered  difficult  bv  its  being 
to  receive  once  more  the  eucharist ;  this  was  granted    ...       .        .  ,.       '     .,        ..         .,  . f,    .,      . ,° 

m,  ,  ,    I,      ,  ,  °  „    likewise  above  him  on  the  other  side,  and  both  sides 


outside  of  the  city.      The  populace  followed  him,  and 
broke  open  the  gates  of  the  monastery.     The  arch- 


they  found  him  out,  and  dragged  him  to  the  gat 
temple.    The  archbishop  begged  them  for  enough  time  ! 


to  him.  The  populace  remained  silent  spectators  of 
the  ceremony ;  the  archbishop  was  then  dragged  out 
of  the  church  and  strangled.  Ambrose  published  a 
large  number  of  translations  from  the  Church  fathers, 
some  sermons,  and  a  liturgy. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale, 
ii,  341. 


no  doubt  very  steep,  as  they  are  in  general  in  the  hills 
of  this  region.  His  men  therefore  fled,  as  directed, 
not  toward  the  north,  where  the  camp  was,  but  east- 
ward, toward  the  plain  and  desert;  while  in  the  hills, 
not  behind,  but  on  the  west  side,  lay  the  ambuscade, 
in  sufficient  force  alone  to  vanquish  the  enemy.  This 
body  of  Israelites  had  not  therefore  the  objectionable 
route  to  take  from  behind  the  city,  a  movement  that 
must  have  been  seen  from  the  walls,  and  would  have 
given  time  to  close  the  gates,  if  not  to  warn  the  citi- 
Ambrosiaster,  a  Pseudo-Ambrosius,  the  usual    zeng  1>ack.  bnt)  risinff  from  the  woody  hills  it  ha(1 


Ambrosian  Chant. 
Ambrosian  Hymn. 
Ambrosian  Music. 


See  Ambrose. 
See  Te  Deum. 
See  Music  (Church). 


name  of  the  unknown  author  of  the  Commentaria  in 
mii  Epistolas  B.  Pauli,  which  is  contained  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  Benedictine  edition  of  the  works  of 
Ambrose.  It  appears  from  the  book  itself  that  it  was 
compiled  while  Damasus  was  bishop  of  Rome.  Au- 
gustine quotes  a  passage  from  this  book,  but  ascribes 
it  to  St.  Hilary,  from  which  circumstance  many  have 
concluded  that  Hilary,  a  deacon  of  the  Roman  Church 
under  Damasus,  who  joined  the  schism  caused  by 
Bishop  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  was  the  author.  But 
against  this  opinion  it  may  be  adduced  that  Augustine 
would  not  have  given  to  a  follower  of  Lucifer  the  title 
Of  saint. — Herzog,  i.  277. 

Ambrosius  -  ad  -  Nemus  (Ambrose-  at- the- 

N 


the  shortest  distance  to  pass  over  to  come  down  di- 
rectly to  the  gate  ;  and,  if  an  accident  had  caused  fail- 
ure in  the  army  of  Joshua,  the  detachment  could  not 
itself  be  intercepted  before  reaching  the  camp  of  the 
main  body;  while  the  citizens  of  Ai,  pursuing  down 
hill,  had  little  chance  of  returning  up  to  the  gates  in 
time,  or  of  being  in  a  condition  to  make  an  effectual 
onset  (see  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palest,  p.  198).  In  the 
attempt  to  surprise  Shechem  (Judg.  ix,  30  sq.)  the 
operation,  so  far  as  it  was  a  military  manoeuvre,  was 
unskilfully  laid,  although  ultimately  successful  in  con- 
sequence of  the  party  spirit  within,  and  the  intelli- 
gence which  Abimeleeh  (q.  v.)  maintained  in  the  for 
tress.     Kitto,  s.  v.     See  War. 


AMEDIANS 


194 


AMERICA 


Amedians,  Amadeists,  an  order  of  minor 
friars,  instituted  about  1452;  so  called  from  their  pro- 
fessing themselves  amantes  Deum,  loving  God;  cr 
amati  Deo,  loved  by  God.  Others  derive  the  name 
from  their  founder,  Amadeus  or  Amedeus,  a  Portu- 
guese nobleman.  They  wore  a  gray  habit  and  wood- 
en shoes,  and  girt  themselves  with  a  cord.  They  had 
twenty-eight  convents  in  Italy,  besides  others  in 
Spaing  and  were  united  by  Pope  Pius  V  partly  with 
the  Cistercian  order,  and  partly  with  that  of  the  Soc- 
colanti,  or  wooden-shoe  wearers.— Helyot,  ed.  Migne, 
i,  200. 

A'men'  (Heb.  amen',  "jW,  «/">).  a  particle  of  at- 
testation adopted  into  all  the  languages  of  Christen- 
dom. 

(I.)  This  word  is  strictly  an  adjective,  signifying 
-•/>/»."  and,  metaphorically,  "faithful."  Thus,  in 
Rev.  iii,  14,  our  Lord  is  called  "the  amen,  the  faithful 
and  true  witness."  In  Isa.  lxv,  1G,  the  Heb.  has 
"the  God  of  amen,"  which  our  version  renders  "the 
God  of  truth,"  i.  e.  of  fidelity.  In  its  adverbial  sense 
amen  means  certainly,  truly,  surely.  It  is  used  in  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence  by  way  of  emphasis — rarely 
in  the  Old  Test.  (Jer.  xxviii,  G),  but  often  by  our  Sav- 
iour in  the  New,  where  it  is  commonly  translated 
'•  verUy."  In  John's  Gospel  alone  it  is  often  used  by 
him  in  this  way  double,  i.  e.  "verily,  verily."  In 
the  end  of  a  sentence  it  often  occurs  singly  or  repeat- 
ed, especially  at  the  end  of  hymns  or  prayers,  as 
"amen  and  amen"  (Psa.  xli.  14;  lxxii,  19;  lxxxix, 
53).  The  proper  signification  of  it  in  this  position 
is  to  confirm  the  words  which  have  preceded,  and 
invoke  the  fulfilment  of  them:  "so  be  it,"  fiat,  Sept. 
y'ii'oiro.  Hence  in  oaths,  after  the  priest  has  repeat- 
ed the  words  of  the  covenant  or  imprecation,  all  those 
who  pronounce  the  amen  bind  themselves  by  the 
oath  (Num.  v,  22;  Deut.  xxvii,  15,  17;  Neh.  v,  13; 
viii,  6;  1  Chron.  xvi,  36;  comp.  Psa.  cvi,  48).— Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Oath. 

(II.)  In  the  public  worship  of  the  primitive  churches 
it  was  customary  for  the  assembly  at  large  to  say 
Amen  at  the  close  of  the  prayer;  a  custom  derived 
from  apostolic  times  (1  Cor.  xiv,  16).  Several  of  the 
fathers  refer  to  it.  Jerome  says  that  in  his  time,  at 
the  conclusion  of  public  prayer,  the  united  voice  of  the 
people  sounded  like  the  fall  of  water  or  the  noise  of 
thunder.  Great  importance  was  attached  to  the  use 
of  this  word  at  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  At 
the  delivery  of  the  bread  the  bishop  or  presbyter,  ac- 
cording to  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  is  directed  to 
say,  '•  The  body  of  Christ;"  at  the  giving  of  the  cup 
the  deacon  is  instructed  to  say,  "The  blood  of  Christ, 
the  cup  of  life  ;"  the  communicant  is  directed  on  each 
occasion  to  say  "Amen."  This  answer  was  univer- 
sally given  in  the  early  Church.     See  Response. 

(III.)  It  is  used  as  an  emphatic  affirmation,  in  the 
sense  "so  be  it,"  at  the  end  of  all  the  prayers  of  the 
Church  of  England.  It  is  sometimes  said  in  token  of 
nndonbting  assent,  as  at  the  end  of  the  creed,  Amen, 
'•  So  I  believe."  The  order  of  the  Church  of  England 
directs  that  "  the  people  shall,  at  the  end  of  all  prayers, 
answer  Amen." — Bingham,  bk.  xv,  ch.  iii,  §  25. 

Special  treatises  on  the  subject  are  Kleinschmidt, 
]i,  particuh  .\m<n  (Hint.  1696);  Weber,  Be  voce  Amen 
(Fen.  1734);  Werasdorf,  De  Amen  lUurgico  (Viteb. 
1779  i ;  Brunner  De  voce  Amen  (Hclmst.  1678)  ;  Fogel- 
mark.  PotesUu  verbi  -,~X  (Upsal.  1761);  Meier,  Horce 
philol.  in  A  mm  (Viteb.  1687);  Treffcntlich,  De  "jaX 
(Lips.  1700);  Vejel,  De  vocuh  Amen  (Argent.  1681); 
Bechler,  HormphUol.  in  Amen  (Wittemb.  1687). 

Amenites,  a  subdivision  of  the  Mennonites,  so 
named  from  Jacob  Amen,  a  Mennonite  minister  of 
Amentlial,  Switzerland.  He  was  not  a  man  of  note, 
nor  was  he  considered  the  founder  of  a  sect.  The  per- 
petuation of  his  name  in  this  way  is  due  to  a  contro- 


versy in  1670  on  minor  points  of  doctrine  between 
Jacob  Amen  and  John  Heisly,  another  Mennonite, 
which  produced,  finally,  a  schism  in  the  Mennonite 
body.  By  a  corruption  of  the  name  Amende,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  sact  in  Pennsylvania,  where  they  abound, 
are  called  Amish,  Awmish,  or  Omiskers.  See  Men- 
nonites. 

America.  I.  Church  History.—  Of  the  religious 
creeds  of  the  American  aborigines  we  treat  in  the  ar- 
ticle Indians  (American).  The  introduction  of 
Christianity  coincides  with  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Europeans.  About  the  year  1000  the  Icelanders 
and  Norwegians  are  said  to  have  established  in  Green- 
land twelve  churches,  two  convents,  and  one  bishop- 
ric (of  Gandar)  on  the  eastern  shore,  and  four  churches 
on  the  western ;  and  in  1266  some  priests  are  said  to 
have  made  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  regions  which 
have  recently  become  more  known  by  Parry,  John 
and  James  Ross,  and  others.  All  traces  of  Christian- 
ity, however,  had  disappeared  when,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  North  America,  and  in  particular  Greenland, 
were  discovered  again.  The  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus  was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  the 
Roman  Church  in  South  and  Central  America,  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  on  the  southern  coast  of  North 
America.  Canada,  the  northern  lakes,  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley  were  for  a  century  under  the  sway  of 
the  French,  and  thus  likewise  under  the  influence  of 
the  Roman  Church.  But  the  temperate  zone,  the 
heart  of  the  continent,  was  reserved  for  the  Protestants 
of  England,  Germany,  Holland,  and  the  persecuted 
Huguenots.  The  Church  of  England  was  established 
in  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  and  Georgia;  in  "Maryland 
after  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Catholic  influence,  and 
in  New  York  after  its  cession  by  the  Dutch.  Its  at- 
tempts at  gaining  ground  in  other  colonies  failed  ;  and 
at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  its  growth  had  remain- 
ed far  behind  that  of  the  persecuted  and  dissenting 
bodies  of  the  Old  World,  which  soon  became  the 
strength  of  the  New.  The  Puritans  and  non-con- 
formists occupied  New  England,  the  Quakers  planted 
Pennsylvania,  the  Presbyterians  and  Methodists  be- 
came numerous  in  the  Middle  States,  and  a  number  of 
minor  denominations  found  here  religious  toleration, 
and  helped  to  foster  the  spirit  of  religious  liberty.  The 
Declaration  of  Independence,  by  which  thirteen  Brit- 
ish colonies  freed  themselves  from  the  mother  country 
in  1776,  marks  a  new  era  not  only  in  the  church  his- 
tory of  America,  but  in  the  general  history  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  union  between  church  and  state  was  dis- 
solved ;  the  state  renounced  its  claims  over  the  con- 
sciences of  men,  and  the  church  sought  its  support  no 
longer  from  the  state,  but  from  the  voluntary  contri- 
butions of  its  members.  See  United  States.  This 
principle,  which  was  originally  established  in  the 
United  States  only,  soon  began  to  exert  an  influence 
over  the  churches  of  the  whole  country,  and  even  to 
spread  across  the  Atlantic,  where  it  prepared,  slowly 
but  steadily,  an  entire  transformation  of  the  relation 
between  church  and  state.  Protestantism  has  since 
not  only  brought  the  whole  of  North  America  and  a 
part  of  the  West  Indies  under  its  influence,  but  it  is 
steadily  pressing  forward  toward  the  south,  and  nar- 
rowing the  territory  of  the  Roman  Church.  The 
states  of  Central  and  South  America  have  nominally 
remained  connected  with  the  Roman  Church,  but  re- 
ligious toleration  has  been  established  in  most  of  them, 
and  every  where  the  Roman  clergy  has  a  hard  stand 
against  an  advanced  liberal  party,  which  is  determined 
to  abolish  all  the  privileges  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
to  introduce  unlimited  religious  liberty.  For  the  de- 
tails of  American  Church  History,  see  the  articles  on 
the  various  states,  United  States,  Mexico,  etc.  A 
brief  and  comprehensive  survey  of  the  development  of 
American  ( Ihurch  History  is  given  in  Smith's  Tables 
of  Church  Bistort/. 

II.  Religious  statistics. — The  "National  Almanac" 


AMERICA 


195 


10NG/TUDE  WEST  FROM  C/tEENW/CH 

Map  of  North  America. 


for  186-1  (p.  538),  gives  the  following  table  on  the  re- 
ligious statistics  of  America: 


Population!  P-testants. 

Catholics. 

Christians. 

Kussian  America. 
British  America. . 
United  States 

54,400 

4,400,1)13 
31,429,891 

T,0(>1,000 

2,2-27,000 

21,278,743 

301,323 

85,792 

47,029 

IS,  000 

2,032,002 

500,000 

319,1100 

2,590,000 

25,00(1,0011 

50^000 

32°600 

|     55,000 

10,000 

1,760-000 

3,000,00:1 
7,661,000 

2,227,000 
21,200,(1(1(1 
289,«00 
30,000 
10,000 
2,032,000 
550,000 

10,700 

4,350,000 

'.'8,000,(1(111 

7,00 1,01  Ml 

2,227,000 

21,250,000 

289,000 

62,000 

65,00) 

2,032,000 

560,000 

Central  America  . 
South  America. . . 
French  Possess' ns 
Dutch          m 
Danish         " 

Swedish         u 
Spanish        " 
Hayti 

Free  Indians 

Total 

i0,415,153|27,737,600 

b8,75»,OuO|66,516,600 

It  appears  from  the  above  table  that  Protestant 
Christianity  prevails  in  the  United  States,  in  British 
America,  and  in  the  Dutch,  Danish,  and  Swedish  pos- 
sessions in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  In 
the  rest  of  America  the  Protestant  population  consists 
mostly  of  foreigners.  But  in  Brazil  a  large  immigra- 
tion from  Germany  and  Switzerland  has  already  estab- 
lished the  foundation  of  a  native  Church  ;  and  in  New 
Granada,  Chili,  the  Argentine  Confederation,  Uruguay, 
and  Hayti  flourishing  congregations  labor  for  the  same 
end.  The  Roman  Church  prevails  in  Mexico,  the 
West  Indies,  and  all  the  Central  and  South  American 
states,  and  is  also  numerously  represented  in  the 
United  States  and  in  the  British  possessions.  In  Rus- 
sian America  all  the  native  Russian  population  lie- 
longs  to  the  Greek  Church.     A  number  of  pagan  In- 


AMERICAN 


196 


AMERICAN 


3f    WFSr    FROM    CREENWICH    50 


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W'KSi  2''   IN^DtE  S 


^(S;atfe 


in  id  a  A 


,tf°fI° 


sb  bs.  Guayaquil        «■   \  u  o  w  %     - 
1  ^apeBlftutof  j    !r«^ 

TruxilloV?  ^ 


zonjk 


Map  of  South  America 


dians  still  live  in  nearly  all  parts  of  America.  Their  I 
number  is  estimated  at  about  1,000,000.  Jews,  Mor- 
mons, and  Spiritualists  are  found  almost  only  in  the 
United  States,  where  there  are  also  a  number  of  other 
congregations  which  expressly  place  themselves  out- 
side of  Christianity,  without  haying  established  any 
other  positive  creed  (see  Schem,  Ecclesiastical  Year- 
book for  1859,  p.  14-1G). 

American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  See 
Bible  Societies. 

American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union, 
a  religious  association  of  the  United  States,  organized 
in  the  city  of  New  York  in  May.  1849.  It  was  form- 
ed by  the  fusion  of  three  societies  which  had  existed 


for  several  years,  the  Foreign  Evangelical  Society,  the 
American  Protestant  Society,  and  the  Phi/o-Jtalian  So- 
ciety. The  Foreign  Evangelical  Society  was  organized 
in  1839  to  advance  the  work  of  evangelization  in  pa- 
pal countries  generally.  It  had  been  preceded  by  the 
French  Association,  which  was  founded  in  1834,  in 
order  to  assist  the  evangelical  efforts  made  by  the 
French  Protestants,  and,  in  1830,  changed  its  name 
into  that  of  Evangelical  Association.  The  receipts  of 
the  French  Association  and  the  Evangelical  Association 
were  $19,759,  those  of  the  Foreign  Evangelical  Society 
during  the  ten  years  of  its  existence,  $154,345.  At 
the  request  of  the  French  Assaciation,  Rev.  Dr.  Baird 
went,  in  ls:!5,  for  three  years  to  Paris,  for  the  purpose 
of  learning   what   could   be   done   by  the  American 


AMERICAN 


197 


AMETHYST 


churches  to  aid  their  Protestant  brethren  in  France, 
ami  later,  at  the  request  of  the  Foreign  Evangelical 
Society,  travelled  for  four  more  years  extensively  on 
the  Continent  in  prosecution  of  the  same  work.  In 
1849  the  society  had  missionaries  in  France,  Belgium, 
Sweden,  Canada,  Hayti,  and  South  America,  besides 
having  aided  the  work  in  Germany,  Poland,  Russia, 
and  Italy.  The  American  Protestant  Society  was 
formed  in  1843  in  consequence  of  the  large  immigra- 
tion of  Roman  Catholics  into  the  United  States.  Its 
objects  were  :  To  enlighten  Protestants  of  this  coun- 
try in  regard  to  the  errors  of  Rome,  and  to  convert 
and  save  the  members  of  the  Roman  Church  in  the 
United  States.  A  number  of  colporteurs  and  other 
missionaries  were  maintained,  laboring  mostly  among 
the  Irish  and  German  immigrants.  The  total  receipts 
from  1843  to  1849  were  $92,100.  The  Philo-ltalian 
Society,  which  later  took  the  name  of  the  Chris- 
tian Alliance,  was  also  founded  in  1843.  As  the  pro- 
ceedings of  this  society  were  not  published,  little  is 
known  of  it  farther  than  that  it  employed  an  active 
agent,  a  Protestant  Italian,  for  years  on  the  confines 
of  Italy.  The  A  merican  and  Foreign  Christian  Union, 
which  arose  in  1849  out  of  a  union  of  these  three  socie- 
ties, undertook  the  work  and  assumed  the  responsibil- 
ities of  them  all  combined.  Its  objects  are  "to  diffuse 
and  promote,  by  missions,  colportage,  the  press,  and 
other  appropriate  agencies,  the  principles  of  religious 
liberty,  and  a  pure  and  evangelical  Christianity,  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  wherever  a  corrupted  Christianity 
exists."  In  the  first  two  years  of  its  existence,  1850 
and  '51,  it  expended  nearly  $15,000  for  the  removal  to 
Illinois  of  some  500  or  GOO  Portuguese  exiles,  who  had 
been  exiled  from  Madeira  for  having  embraced  Prot- 
estantism. The  receipts  from  1849  to  1859  have 
ranged  from  $45,000  to  $*0,000,  making  a  total  of  OA-er 
6 (100, 000  in  ten  years.  In  18G3  they  were  $59,C63 ;  in 
1864,  $73,778.  It  publishes  a  monthly  magazine  of  32 
pages,  the  "  Christian  World''  (formerly  the  "A  m.  and 
For.  Chr.  Un."),  which  has  a  large  circulation.  The  so- 
ciety has  also  published  a  Sabbath-school  library,  con- 
sisting of  21  volumes,  mostly  exposing  the  doctrines 
and  usages  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  agents  of  the 
society  in  the  home  field  preach  the  Gospel  to  Roman 
Catholics,  viz.,  English,  Irish,  French,  Italian,  Span- 
ish, German,  and  Bohemian.  In  the  foreign  field,  the 
society  sustains  missionaries  itself,  or  supports  the 
Protestant  missions  of  other  societies  in  Canada, 
Hayti,  Mexico,  South  America,  Ireland,  Western  or 
Azore  Islands,  Sweden,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Pied- 
mont, France.  The  number  of  laborers  employed  in 
the  home  field  was,  in  1859,  G3 ;  the  number  of  teach- 
ers, male  and  female,  375 ;  making  a  force  of  438  per- 
sons endeavoring  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the 
papacy.  The  aggregate  number  of  children  and 
youth  which  were  reported,  up  to  May,  1859,  as  having 
been  brought  under  evangelical  influences,  was  up- 
ward of  14,250.  The  total  number  of  converts  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  amounted,  in  1859.  to  1404. 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union.  See 
Missions  (Baptist). 

American  Baptist  Publication  Society. 
See  Baptists. 

American  Bible  Society.  See  Bible  So- 
cieties. 

American  Bible  Union.  See  Bible  Socie- 
ties. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions.  See  Missions  (American 
Board). 

American  Home  Mission  Society.  See 
Missions. 

American  Missionary  Society.  Sec  Mis- 
sions (American  Missionary  Society). 

American  Reform  Tract  and  Book  Socie- 
ty.    See  Tract  Societies. 


American  Sunday-school  Union.  See  Son- 
day-school. 

American  Tract  Society.  See  Tract  So- 
cieties. 

Amerytha  (AptpvSd  according  to  some  copies, 
see  Hudson,  in  loc,  while  others  have  'ApipwSa ;  ac- 
cording to  Reland,  Palmst.  p.  5G0,  both  by  erroneous 
transcription  for  M>;pw3-,  which  most  editors  give  ;  see 
Achabara),  a  town  of  Upper  Galilee,  which  Josephus 
fortified  against  the  Romans  (Life,  37)  ;  probably  the 
same  as  Merotii  (q.  v.),  which  terminated  Upper 
Galilee  westward  (Josephus,  War,  iii,  3,  1);  and  con- 
jectured by  Reland  (Palcest.  p.  875)  to  have  been  the 
Mearah  of  the  Sidonians  (Josh,  xiii,  4). 

Ames  (or  Amesius),  William,  a  celebrated  Puri- 
tan divine,  born  in  Norfolk,  1576,  and  educated  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  undeF  Dr.  Perkins,  bj- 
whom  he  was  taught  evangelical  religion.  Appointed 
chaplain  to  the  university,  he  gave  great  offence  by  a 
sermon  in  which  he  inveighed  against  some  of  the  bad 
practices  of  the  university,  e.  g.  card-playing,  etc., 
and,  to  avoid  expulsion,  he  left  England  and  became 
English  chaplain  at  the  Hague,  and  afterward  divinity 
professor  at  Franeker  in  Friesland.  He  attended  the 
synod  of  Dort,  and  died  at  Rotterdam  in  1633.  He 
wrote  many  works,  among  them,  1.  Puritanismus  An- 
glicanus  (1623,  in  English,  1641)  : — 2.  Da  Conscientia 
(1630,  in  English,  1643)  :— 3.  A  Reply  to  Bishop  Mor- 
ton (on  Ceremonies) : — 4.  Fresh  Suit  against  human 
Ceremonies  in  God's  Worship  (1633): — 5.  Antisynodalia, 
1G29  (against  the  Remonstrants): — 6.  Medulla  Theo- 
logica  (1623  and  often  after,  both  Lat.  and  Eng.).  His 
Latin  works  are  collected  under  the  title  Opera,  quce 
Lat.  scripsit,  omnia  (Amst.  1658,  5  vols.  12mo).  Ames 
was  eminent  in  casuistry  (q.  v.),  and  was  a  strong  op- 
ponent of  Arminianism. — Neal,  Hist,  of  Puritans,  i, 
572  sq. ;  Brooks,  Lives  of  Puritans,  ii,  405;  Mosheim, 
Ch.  Hist.  c.  xvi,  sec.  iii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  371  n. 

Am'ethyst  (rrabnx,  achlamah' ;  Sept.  and  N. 
T.  apsQuarog,  Vulg.  amethystus),  a  precious  stone  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  as  the  ninth  in  the  breastplate 
of  the  high-priest  (Exod.  xxviii,  19;  xxxix,  12),  and 
the  twelfth  in  the  foundations  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
(Rev.  xxi,  20).  The  transparent  gems  to  which  this 
name  is  applied  are  of  a  color  which  seems  composed 
of  a  strong  blue  and  deep  red,  and,  according  as  either 
of  these  prevails,  exhibit  different  tinges  of  purple, 
sometimes  approaching  to  violet,  and  sometimes  de- 
clining even  to  a  rose  color.  From  these  differences 
of  color  the  ancients  distinguished  five  species  of  the 
amethyst;  modern  collections  afford  at  least  as  many 
varieties,  but  the}-  are  all  comprehended  under  two 
species — the  Oriental  amethyst  and  the  Occidental  am- 
ethyst. These  names,  however,  are  given  to  stones  of 
essentially  different  natures,  which  were,  no  doubt, 
anciently  confounded  in  the  same  manner.  The  Ori- 
ental amethyst  is  verj'  scarce,  and  of  great  hardness, 
lustre,  and  beauty.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  rare  variety  of 
the  adamantine  spar,  or  corundum.  Next  to  the  dia- 
mond, it  is  the  hardest  substance  known.  It  contains 
about  90  per  cent,  of  alumine,  a  little  iron,  and  a  little 
silica.  Of  this  species  emery,  used  in  cutting  and 
polishing  glass,  etc.,  is  a  granular  variety-.  To  this 
species  also  belongs  the  sapphire,  the  most  valuable 
of  gems  next  to  the  diamond,  and  of  which  the  Ori- 
ental amethyst  is  merely  a  violet  variety.  Like  other 
sapphires,  it  loses  its  color  in  the  fire,  and  comes  out 
with  so  much  of  the  lustre  and  color  of  the  diamond 
that  the  most  experienced  jeweller  may  lie  deceived 
by  it.  The  more  common,  or  Occidental  amethyst,  is 
a  variety  of  quartz,  or  rock  crj-stal,  and  is  found  in 
various  forms  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  as  India,  Si- 
beria, Sweden,  Germany,  Spain  ;  and  even  in  England 
very  beautiful  specimens  of  tolerable  hardness  have 
been  discovered.  This  also  loses  its  color  in  the  fire 
(Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.).    Amethysts  were  much  used 


AMHARIC  LANGUAGE 


198 


AMMAII 


by  the  ancients  for  rin^s  and  cameos ;  and  the  reason  ' 
given  by  Pliny,  because  they  were  easily  cut  (Hist. 
Nat.  xxxvii,  9),  shows  that  the  Occidental  species  is 
to  be  understood.  The  ancients  believed  that  the 
amethyst  possessed  the  power  of  dispelling  drunken- 
ness in  those  who  wore  or  touched  it  (Anthol.  Or.  iv, 
38  ;  Pliny,  xxxvii,  9  ,  Marbodius,  De  Gemmis,  c.  4)  and 
hence  its  Greek  name  ("  from  a  privative,  and  ptOino, 
to  get  drunk,"  Martini,  Excurs.  p.  158).  In  like  man- 
ner the  rabbins  derive  its  Jewish  name  (from  CsH,  to 
dream),  from  its  supposed  power  of  procuring  dreams 
to  the  wearer.  (See  Briickmann,  Abhandlung  von  den 
Edelsteinen ;  Hill's  Thenphrastus,  notes ;  Hillier,  De 
gemmis  in  pector.  pnntif. ,  Rosenmuller,  Mineralogy  of 
the  Bible;  Braun,  De  vestitu  sacerd.  ii,  1G;  Bellarmin, 
I'rim  und  Thummim,  p.  55;  Moore's  Anc.  Mineralogy, 
p.  1G8.)— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Gem. 

Amharic  Language,  a  degenerate  Shemitic  dia- 
lect, mixed  with  many  African  words,  spoken  with 
the  greatest  purity  in  Amhara,  one  of  the  principal 
divisions  of  the  Abyssinian  empire.  See  Abyssinia. 
It  is  apparently  referred  to  by  Agatharcides  (Hudson, 
Geogr.  Min.  i,  46),  about  B.C.  120,  under  the  name 
Kapapa  At  £ic,  as  the  language  of  the  Troglodytes  of 
Ethiopia.  It  began  to  prevail  in  Abyssinia  over  the 
Geez  language  about  A.D.  1300,  and  is  more  or  less 
prevalent  throughout  that  country  to  the  present  day. 
Its  literature  is  nearly  confined  to  a  few  theological 
treatises  and  translations  of  portions  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  which  have  been  printed  mostly  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  Ethiopic  char- 
acters. (See  Gesenius,  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Ency- 
clopddie,  s.  v.  Amharische  Sprache.)  The  Amharic  has 
the  same  alphabet  as  the  Ethiopic,  with  the  addition  of 
6even  characters,  which  have,  respectively,  the  sound 
nearly  of  sh,  ch  (soft),  nasal  n,  guttural  (German)  ch, 
weak  (French)  ch,  g  (soft),  and  z  (as  in  azure').  The 
vowels  and  diphthongs  are  the  same  in  number  and 
sound  as  in  Ethiopic ;  also  the  same  rules  of  pronun- 
ciation prevail  as  in  that  language.  The  formation 
of  nouns  differs  very  little  from  the  Ethiopic.  The 
indication  of  gender  is  the  same.  Declension  takes 
place  by  means  of  certain  particles ;  but  the  accusa-  \ 
five  case  exhibits  the  peculiar  Arabic  "nunnation." 
See  Arabic  Language.  The  verb  appears  in  four 
modifications,  as  active  (neuter),  a  two-form  /active, 
and  passive.  The  prate-rite,  present,  and  future  are 
clearly  distinguished  by  a  change  in  formation.  Be- 
sides the  "conjunctive"  form  of  the  present  impera- 
tive and  infinitive,  there  is  also  a  peculiar  kind  of  par-  ■ 
ticiple.  Numerals  and  pronouns  are,  as  to  their  form 
and  use,  entirely  after  the  Shemitic  analogies.  The 
same  is  almost  universally  true  of  the  particles.  In 
the  arrangement  of  words  the  nominative  follows  the 
other  cases,  and  some  of  the  conjunctions  are  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  The  best  known  specimens 
of  Amharic  literature  are  contained  in  Ehbragzer's 
( 'at:  ,/ii sis  ( 'hrist.  lingua .1  mharica  (Borne,  1787).  Lu- 1 
dolph  prepared  a  brief  Grammatica  lingua;  Amharico-. 
with  a  Lexicon  Amharico-latmum  attached  (Frcf.  1GD8, 
fol.).  The  Church  Mission  Society  (of  Great  Britain) 
has  published  a  Grammar  if  tin-  Amharic  Language, 
by  Isenberg  ( Lond.  1842,  8vo).  Further  detail's  may 
be  found  in  Jowett's  Chiistian  Researches,  p.  197-213; 
Piatt,  Ethiopic  MSS.  (Lond.  1823);  Sectzen,  Linguis- 
tischer  Nachlass  (Leipz.  181G-18),  p.  115  sq. ;  Schmid's 
Bibl.f.  KritiL  i,  307-310.     See  Ethiopic  Language. 

A'mi  (Heb.  Ami',  i»st,  prob.  a  corrupted  form  of 
the  name  Aman;  Sept.  'H/uQ,  the  chief  of  a  family 
that,  returned  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii,  57);  more  prop- 
erly called  Amon  (q.  v.)  in  the  parallel  passage  (Neh. 
vii,  59). 

Amianthus  (Aptavroe,  unstained,  i.  e.  by  sin ; 
Heb.  vii.  ;:,  "undented,"  and  so  tropically,  Jas.  i,  27; 
undecaying,   1  Pet.  i,   4;    chaste,  Heb.   xiii,  4),  the 


name  of  a  fibrous  mineral  substance  commonly  called 
asbestos.  This  extraordinary  mineral  was  well  known 
to  the  ancients.  It  occurs  in  long,  parallel,  extreme- 
ly slender  and  flexible  fibres ;  it  is  found  in  all  coun- 
tries more  or  less  abundantly,  and  exists,  forming 
veins,  in  serpentine,  mica,  slate,  and  primitive  lime- 
stone rocks ;  the  most  delicate  variety  comes  most 
plentifully  from  Savoy  and  Corsica.  Its  fibrous  tex- 
ture, and  the  little  alteration  it  undergoes  in  strong 
heats,  caused  it  to  be  used  by  the  Eastern  nations  as 
an  article  for  the  fabrication  of  cloth,  which,  when 
soiled,  was  purified  by  throwing  it  into  the  fire,  from 
whence  it  always  came  out  clear  and  perfectly  white  ; 
hence  it  obtained  the  name  of  amianthus,  or  unsoiled. 
By  the  Romans  this  cloth  was  purchased  at  an  exor- 
bitant price,  for  the  purpose  of  wrapping  up  the  bodies 
of  the  dead,  previous  to  their  being  laid  upon  the  fu- 
neral pile,  in  order  to  prevent  their  ashes  from  being 
mingled  with  those  of  the  wood. — Smith's  Diet,  of 
Class.  Ant.  and  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.  Asbestus. 

Amiatine  Manuscript  (Codex  AmiatTnus), 
the  most  valuable  of  the  Latin  uncial  MSS.  of  the 
Vulgate  translation,  of  which  it  is  designated  as  am 
(Tischendorf,  A.  T.  Gr.  7th  ed.  proleg.  p.  ccxlvii; 
Scrivener,  Introd.  to  N.  T.  Crit.  p.  264).  Its  name  is 
derived  from  the  Cistercian  Monastery  of  Monte  Ami- 
atino  in  Tuscany,  whence  it  was  brought  into  the 
Laurentian  Library  at  Florence,  where  it  still  remains. 
It  was  written  by  the  Abbot  Servandus  about  A.D. 
541,  and  contains  both  Testaments,  with  scarcely  any 
defect,  in  one  very  large  volume,  stichometrically 
written  in  a  good  bold  hand.  Bandini  first  pointed 
out  its  value,  although  it  had  been  slightly  used  for 
the  Sixtine  ed.  of  the  Vulg.  in  1587-90.  Fleck  wretch- 
edly edited  the  N.  T.  part  in  1840;  Tischendorf  col- 
lated it  in  1843,  and  Tregelles  in  1846  (Del  Furea  com. 
paring  it  for  the  differences)  ;  and  it  was  published  by 
Tischendorf  in  1850  (Testamentum  Novum,  Laline  in- 
terprets Hieronymo ;  ex  celeberrimo  cod.  Amiatino,  etc., 
Lips.  4to),  and  again  in  1854.  The  O.  T.  has  been  but 
little  examined.  The  Latin  text  of  Tregelles'  N.  T.  is 
taken  from  this  MS.  (Davidson,  Bib.  Criticism,  ii,  254 ; 
Tregelles,  in  Home's  Lntrod.  iv,  253).     See  Vulgate. 

Amice  (amictus,  amieidum  sacrum).  In  Roman 
antiquity,  this  was  an  upper  garment  worn  over  the 
tunic.  In  ecclesiastical  writers,  it  is  a  square-shaped 
linen  cloth  worn  by  the  clergy.  It  is  called  by  Isi- 
dore the  anabologium,  and,  he  says,  was  originally  a 
veil  worn  by  women  to  cover  the  shoulders.  Its  use 
was  formerly,  as  now,  different  in  different  places; 
sometimes  it  was  worn  round  the  neck,  and  sometimes 
over  the  head.  When  worn  over  the  shoulders  and 
neck,  it  was  called  the  super-humemle ,  or  simply  hu- 
memle.  It  was  originally  worn  under  the  alb,  not,  as 
now,  over  it — a  custom  which  is  still  preserved  among 
the  Maronites.  It  is  still  in  use  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  but  not  in  the  Church  of  England. 

Amin'adab  (Apivaeafi'),  a  Groecized  form  (Matt, 
i,  4)  of  the  name  of  Amminauab  (q.  v.). 

Am'inon  (2  Sam.  xiii,  20).     See  Amnon. 

Amir.     See  Bough. 

Amit' tai  (Hah.  A  mittay',  "'Fl'CX,  true;  Sept.  'Apa- 
•&/),  the  father  of  the  prophet  Jonah,  a  native  of  Gath- 
hepher  (2  Kings  xiv,  25;  Jon.  i,  1).     B.C.  ante  820. 

Am'mah  (Heb.  Ammah' ',  i"I!S&t,  a  cubit,  as  often  ; 
Sept.  'Ap/ic'i  v.  r.  'A/ifidv),  a  hill  "that  lieth  before 
Giah  by  the  way  of  the  wilderness  of  Gibeon:"  the 
sun  went  down  as  Joab  and  Abishai  reached  this  place 
in  pursuit  of  Abner  (2  Sam.  ii,  24).  The  description 
appears  to  indicate  some  eminence  immediately  east  of 
Gibeon  (q.  v.).  Josephus  (Ant.  vii,  1,  3)  renders,  "a 
place  called  Ammata"  (ro7roc  rig,  Bv  'Appdrav  KaXoii- 
<7i);  compare  the  Anita  (XFl^N)  of  Jonathan's  Tar- 
gum.    Both  Symmachus  (vd-irij)  and  Theodotion  (vcpa- 


AMMAH 


199 


AMMINADIB 


vtityog)  agree  with  the  Vulgate  in  an  allusion  to  some 
water-course  here.  It  is  possibly  to  the  "excavated 
fountain"  "under  the  high  rock,"  described  as  near 
Gibeon  (El- Jib)  by  Robinson  (Researches,  ii,  136).  See 
also  Metheg-ammah. 

Ammah.     See  Cubit. 

Ammaius.     See  Hammatii  ;  Emmaus. 

Am'mi  (Heb.  Ammi',  ^BJJ,  my  people,  Sept.  Xaug 
fiov),  a  figurative  nanie  given  by  Jehovah  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel  (Hos.  ii,  1)  to  denote  their  restoration 
from  Babylon  (Henderson,  Comment,  in  loc).  See  Lo- 
Ammi. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  a  Latin  historian, 
"the  last  subject  of  Rome  who  composed  a  profane 
history  in  the  Latin  language,"  was  a  native  of  An- 
tioch,  born  in  the  fourth  century,  and,  in  his  youth, 
served  with  distinction  in  Germany,  Gaul,  and  Persia. 
Retiring  from  a  military  life,  he  went  to  reside  at 
Rome,  where  he  wrote  a  valuable  history  of  the  Ro- 
man emperors,  from  Nerva,  A.D.  01,  where  the  An- 
nals of  Tacitus  end,  to  Valens,  A.D.  378.  It  consist- 
ed of  thirty-one  books,  of  which  the  first  thirteen  are 
lost.  He  died  A.D.  390  or  410.  The  value  of  his 
writings  for  general  history  are  full}'  acknowledged  by 
Gibbon  (ch.  xxvi),  and  they  are  important  to  Church 
history  for  their  details  as  to  Julian  and  the  state  of 
Christianity  in  his  time.  There  has  been  much  con- 
troversy as  to  the  question  whether  Ammianus  him- 
self was  a  Christian  or  not.  Chifflet  (De  Ammiani 
Marcellini  vita  et  libris  rerum,  gestarum  monoUhlion, 
Lovan.  1627)  advocated  the  opinion  that  Ammianus 
was  a  Christian  ;  while  Moller  (Dissertat.  cle  Ammiano 
Marcellino,  Altdorf.  1G85, 4to),  Ditki  (De  A mmiano  Mar- 
cell.  Comment.  Rossel,  1841),  and  Heyne  (Censura  In- 
genii  et  Historiar.  Ammian.  Mar  cell.  p.  3  sq.)  combated 
it.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  he  was  not  a 
member  of  the  Christian  Church.  His  work  contains 
many  caustic  remarks  on  the  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
When  speaking  of  the  martyrs,  of  synods  and  other 
points  of  the  Christian  system,  he  frequently  adds  re- 
marks which  clearly  point  to  a  non-Christian  author. 
It  is,  however,  on  the  other  hand,  equally  certain  that 
he  was  not  addicted  to  the  then  common  belief  of  pa- 
ganism. He  recognised  a  supreme  numen  which  curbs 
human  arrogance  and  avenges  human  crime,  and,  in 
general,  professes  views  which  we  find  in  Herodotus, 
Sophocles,  and  others  of  the  best  Greek  writers,  and 
which  approach  a  monotheistic  stand-point.  It  seems 
probable  that  he  believed  primitive,  unadulterated 
Christianity  to  have  been,  as  well  as  the  philosophy 
of  enlightened  pagans,  a  form  of  deism.  From  this 
point  of  view  Ammianus  could  consistently  speak  fa- 
vorably of  many  things  he  found  among  the  Chris- 
tians. He  censures  Constantine's  interference  in  the 
Arian  controversy,  and  calls  it  a  confusion  of  the  ab- 
solute and  plain  Christian  religion  with  obsolete  su- 
perstition (Christianam  religionem  absolutam  et  simpli- 
cem  anili  superstitione  confundens).  By  this  obsolete 
superstition,  as  the  connection  shows,  he  meant  in 
particular  the  controversy  concerning  the  Trinity  and 
Divinity  of  Christ.  He  censured  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate for  forbidding  the  Christians  to  receive  instruc- 
tion in  liberal  studies,  while  he  did  not  blame  the 
restoration  of  pagan  sacrifices.  He  was  not  opposed 
to  the  paganism  of  Julian,  but  to  the  violation  of  re- 
ligious toleration. — See  Rettberg,  in  Herzog,  Rea'-En- 
cyl-lopiidie,  i,  279  sq.  The  best  edition  of  his  history  is 
that  of  Wagner  (Leipz.  1808,  3  vols.  8vo).  An  Eng- 
lish translation  was  published  by  Philemon  Holland 
(Lond.  1609).  Bahr,  Gesch.  der  rdm.  Literatur  (Carls- 
ruhe,  1845),  ii,  194. 

Ammid'ioi  [some  editions  corruptly  Ammidior] 
Chufiiciioi  v.  r.  'Appica7oi),  one  of  the  persons  whose 
descendants  (or  rather  places  whose  inhabitants)  are 
said  to  have  returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v, 
20) ;  but  the  name  is  apparently  an  interpolation,  or 


at  least  inextricably  confused,  as  nothing  correspond- 
ing to  it  is  found  in  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii,  25 ; 
Neh.  vii,  29)  ;  this,  with  the  previous  two  names  (Pira 
and  Chadias),  being  inserted  between  Beroth  (Beeroth) 
and  Cirama  (Ramah).  Perhaps  it  is  compounded  of 
the  following  names,  Harim  and  Hadid,  which  other- 
wise are  not  given  in  the  list  of  Esdras. 

Am'miel  (Heb.  Ammiel' ,  PX",533',  people  [i.  e. 
fricnd~\  of  God:  Sept.  AptiiX),  the  name  of  four  men: 

1.  The  son  of  Gemalli,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  one  of 
the  twelve  spies  sent  by  Moses  to  explore  the  land  of 
Canaan  (Num.  xiii,  12),  B.C.  1657.  He  was,  of  course, 
among  the  ten  who  perished  by  the  plague  for  their 
unfavorable  report  (Num.  xiv,  37). 

2.  The  father  of  Machir  of  Lo-debar,  which  latter 
was  one  of  David's  friends  (2  Sam.  ix,  4,  5  ;  xvii,  27). 
B.C.  ante  1023. 

3.  The  father  of  Bathsheba,  wife  of  Uriah,  and 
afterward  of  David  (1  Chron.  iii,  5).  In  2  Sam.  xi,  3, 
he  is  called  (by  transposition)  Eliam  (q.  v.). 

4.  The  sixth  son  of  Obed-edom,  the  Levite  (1  Chron. 
xxvi,  5),  B.C.  1014. 

Ammi'hud  (Heb.  Ammihud',  ^ft^HS1,  people  of 
glory,  i.  e.  renowned;  Sept.  E/iioik'?,  but  in  1  Chron. 
'A/iiovS),  the  name  of  five  men. 

1.  The  father  of  Elishama,  which  latter  was  the 
Ephraimite  chief  in  the  time  of  the  Exode  (Num.  i, 
10 ;  ii,  18 ;  vii,  48,  53 ;  x,  22).  He  was  the  son  of 
Laadan,  and  the  fifth  or  sixth  in  descent  from  Ephraim 
(1  Chron.  vii,  26).     B.C.  ante  1658. 

2.  The  father  of  Shemuel,  which  latter  was  a  Sim- 
eonite  chief  of  the  period  of  the  Exode  (Num.  xxxiv, 
20).     B.C.  ante  1618. 

3.  The  father  of  Pedahel,  which  latter  was  the 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  at  the  same  period  (Num. 
xxxiv,  28).     B.C.  ante  1618. 

4.  The  father  of  Talmai,  the  king  of  Geshur,  to 
whom  Absalom  fled  after  his  murder  of  Amnon  (2 
Sam.  xiii,  37,  where  the  text  has  ""n  IT1 13  2,  Ammichur', 
margin  "Ammihur").     B.C.  ante  1033. 

5.  The  son  of  Omri  the  descendant  of  Pharez,  and 
the  father  of  Uthai,  which  last  was  one  of  those  who 
lived  at  Jerusalem  on  the  return  from  Babylon  (1 
Chron.  ix,  4).     B.C.  ante  536. 

Ammin'adab  (Heb.  Amminadah' ,  3'12'153?,  kin- 
dred of  the  prince,  Gesen. ;  man  of  generosity,  Fiirst, 
who  ascribes  to  E3  the  sense  "  homo"  as  its  primitive 
meaning ;  the  passages,  Psa.  ex,  3 ;  Cant,  vi,  12,  mar- 
gin, seem,  however,  rather  to  suggest  the  sense  my 
people  is  willing;  Sept.  and  New  Test.  'ApivaSdfi,  but 
in  Exod.  vi,  23,  ' AfiuvaSafi),  the  name  of  three  men. 
See  Amminadib. 

1.  The  father  of  Nahshon,  which  latter  was  phy- 
larch  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  at  the  time  of  the  Exode 
(Num.  i,  7 ;  ii,  3  ;  vii,  12,  17 ;  x,  14).  B.C.  ante  1658. 
His  father's  name  was  Ram,  and  he  was  the  fourth 
in  descent  from  Judah,  the  sixth  in  ascent  from  Da- 
vid, and  the  forty-sixth  from  Christ  (Ruth  iv,  19,  20 ; 
1  Chron.  ii,  10 ;  Matt,  i,  4 ;  Luke  iii,  33).  His  daugh- 
ter Elisheba  was  married  to  Aaron  (Exod.  vi,  23). 

2.  A  son  of  Kohath,  the  second  son  of  Levi  (1 
Chron.  vi,  22,  2,  18,  in  which  latter  two  verses  he 
seeirs  to  be  called  Izhar,  q.  v.). 

3.  A  leader  of  the  112  descendants  of  Uzziel  the 
Levite,  who  were  appointed  by  David  to  remove  the 
ark  to  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  xv,  10,  11),  B.C.  cir.  1043, 

Ammin'adib  (Sl'll-lSaS,  perhaps  another  form 
of  the  name  Amminadab  ;  Sept.  'Afiivaddfi),  a  person 
whose  chariots  are  mentioned  as  proverbial  for  their 
swiftness  (Cant,  vi,  12)  ;  from  which  he  appears  to 
have  been,  like  Jehu,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  char- 
ioteers of  his  day.  In  man}'  MSS.  the  Hebrew  term 
is  divided  into  two  words,  S^S  "^"i  ammi  nadib, 
"of  my  willing"  or  "  loyal  people,"  which  has  beer 


AMMISHADDAI 


200 


AMMONITE 


followed  in  the  Syriac,  by  the  Jews  in  their  Spanish 
version,  and  by  many  modern  translators ;  but,  taken 
in  this  way,  it  is  difficult  to  assign  any  satisfactory 
meaning  to  the  passage. — Good's  Song  of  Songs,  in  loc. 

Ammishad'dai  (Heb.  Ammishadday' ',  "Hd"'53", 
people  [i.  e.  servants]  of  the  Almighty;  Sept.  'A^uaa- 
cai),  the  father  of  Ahie'zer,  which  latter  was  the  chief 
of  the  Danites  at  the  Exode  (Num.  i,  12 ;  ii,  25). 
B.C.  ante  1658. 

Ammiz'abad  (Heb.  Ammizabad",  "Ct^S",  people 
of  the  Giver,  i.e.  servant  of  Jehovah;  Sept.  'A/npa^c'iS 
v.  r.  Za/3a$),  the  son  and  subaltern  of  Benaiah,  which 
latter  was  the  third  and  prominent  captain  of  the  host 
under  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  6),  B.C.  1014. 

Amnion  (Heb.  Amnion',  "jislS,  another  form  of 
the  name  Ben-Ammi;  Sept.  'A^pc'tv),  the  son  of  Lot 
by  his  younger  daughter  (Gen.  xix,  38),  B.C.  2063. 
See  Ben-Ammi.  It  also  stands  for  his  posterity  (comp. 
Psa.  lxxxiii,  7,  8),  usually  in  the  phrase  "-children  of 
Amman."  See  Ammonite.  The  expression  most 
commonly  employed  for  this  nation  is  (in  the  original) 
"  Bene- Amnion;"  next  in  frequency  comes  "Ammo- 
ni"  or  ll  Ammonim ;"  and  least  often  "Amnion." 
The  translators  of  the  Auth.  Vers,  have,  as  usual,  neg- 
lected these  minute  differences,  and  have  employed 
the  three  terms,  children  of  Ammon,  Ammonites,  Am- 
nion, indiscriminately.  For  No-Ammon,  see  Amos, 
and  No.  The  name  is  perpetuated  in  the  modern 
ruins  called  Amman,  which  represent  Rabbah-Am- 
MON  (q.  v.). 

Ammon,  Jupiter.     See  Amos. 

Ammon,  Christopher  Frederick,  a  German 
theologian,  born  at  Bayrcuth,  January  16,  1766.  He 
became,  in  1789,  professor  of  philosophy  in  Erlan- 
gen ;  in  1792,  professor  of  theology  at  the  same  uni- 
versity;  in  1794,  professor  of  theology  at  Gottingen. 
In  1804  he  was  called  back  to  Erlangen,  and  was  at 
the  same  time  appointed  superintendent  and  consis- 
torial  councillor  at  Ansbach.  In  1813  he  was  called 
as  chief  court-preacher  (Oberhofprediger)  and  chief- 
consistorial  councillor  to  Dresden.  In  1831  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  state  council  of  Saxony,  and  of 
the  ministry  of  worship  and  public  instruction,  and, 
subsequently,  vice-president  of  the  supreme  consistory. 
He  resigned  in  1849,  and  died  at  Dresden  on  May  21. 
1850.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  bis  work  on  the  Devel- 
opment of  Christianity  as  a  Universal  Religion  (Fort- 
hi Idling  il.  ( "hristenthvms  zur  Weltreligion,  4  vols.  Leip. 
1833-1840),  in  which  he  argues  in  favor  of  such  a  de- 
velopment of  doctrine  as  may  keep  theology  in  harmony 
with  the  progress  of  science.  Ammon  was  a  leader 
of  the  Rationalist  school.  He  was  a  man  of  extensive 
learning,  and  a  copious  author.  Among  his  writings 
are  Gesehkhte  d.  HomUetih  (Gott.  1804);  Kanzelbevedt- 
tamkeit  (1799  and  1812,  8vo) ;  Opuscula  Theoloqica  (2 
vols.  179:'.,  1803) ;  Ml,!.  Theohgice.  (2d  ed.  1801-2,  3  vols. 
8vo);  Summa  Theologies  (3d  ed.  1816);  Christologie 
(Erl.  1794,  8vo);  besides  many  minor  works.  He  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  first  pulpit  orators  of  Germany, 
and  is  the  author  of  many  volumes  of  sermons.  He 
also  edited  the  Magazin  fi'tr  christliche  Prediger  (Mag- 
azine for  Christian  preachers,  Hanover,  1816-21,  6 
vols.).  A  biographical  sketch  of  Amnion  is  given  in 
the  pamphlet  "Christoph  Friedrich  ven  Amnion  nach 
J.i  h<  a.  Ansichfen  mid  Wirken"  (  Leipsic,  1850).  See  also 
B'Miotheca  Sacra,  x,  211. — Winer,  Theol.  Literatur. 

Am'monite  (Heb.  Ammoni',  "^'iB?,  Sept.  'Afi- 
uwvirr]e,  and  'Appavirrjc,',  also  \\VS9  "23,  "children 
of  Ammon;"  Sept.  viol  'App<!>v)f  the  usual  designa- 
tion of  the  people  descended  from  Ben-Ammi,  the  son 
of  Lot  by  his  younger  daughter  (Gen.  xix,  38;  comp. 
Psa.  lxxxiii,  7,  8),  as  Moab  was  by  the  elder;  and 
dating  from  (ho  destruction  of  Sodom.  The  near  re- 
lation between  the  two  peoples  indicated  in  the  story 


of  their  origin  continued  throughout  their  existence ; 
from  their  earliest  mention  (Deut.  ii)  to  their  disap- 
pearance from  the  biblical  history  (Jud.  v,  2)  the 
brother-tribes  are  named  together  (comp.  Judg.  x,  10  ; 
2  Chron.  xx,  1 ;  Zeph.  ii,  8,  etc.).  Indeed,  so  close 
was  their  union,  and  so  near  their  identity,  that  each 
would  appear  to  be  occasionally  spoken  of  under  the 
name  of  the  other.  Thus  the  "land  of  the  children 
of  Ammon"  is  said  to  have  been  given  to  the  "chil- 
dren of  Lot,"  i.  e.  to  both  Ammon  and  Moab  (Deut. 
ii,  19).  They  are  both  said  to  have  hired  Balaam  to 
curse  Israel  (Deut.  xxiii,  4),  whereas  the  detailed  nar- 
rative of  that  event  omits  all  mention  of  Ammon 
(Num.  xxii,  xxiii).  In  the  answer  of  Jephthah  to  the 
king  of  Ammon  the  allusions  are  continually  to  Moab 
(Judg.  xi,  15,  18,  25),  while  Chemosh,  the  peculiar 
deity  of  Moab  (Num.  xxi,  29),  is  called  "thy  god" 
(ver.  24).  The  land  from  Arnon  to  Jabbok,  which  the 
king  of  Amnion  calls  "my  land"  (ver.  13),  is  else- 
where distinctly  stated  to  have  once  belonged  to  a 
"king  of  Moab"  (Num.  xxi,  26).  "  Land"  or  "  coun- 
try" is,  however,  but  rarely  ascribed  to  them,  nor  is 
there  any  reference  to  those  habits  and  circumstances 
of  civilization — the  "plentiful  fields,"  the  "hay,"  the 
"summer  fruits,"  the  "vineyards,"  the  "presses," 
and  the  "songs  of  the  grape-treaders" — which  so  con- 
stantly recur  in  the  allusions  to  Moab  (La.  xv,  xvi; 
Jer.  xlviii)  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  we  find  everywhere 
traces  of  the  fierce  habits  of  marauders  in  their  incur- 
sions, thrusting  out  the  right  eyes  of  whole  cities  (1 
Sam.  xi,  2),  ripping  up  the  women  with  child  (Amos  i, 
13),  and  displaying  a  very  high  degree  of  crafty  cru- 
elty (Jer.  xii,  6,  7;  Jud.  vii,  11,  12)  to  their  enemies, 
as  well  as  a  suspicious  discourtesy  to  their  allies, 
which  on  one  occasion  (2  Sam.  x,  1-5)  brought  all  but 
extermination  on  the  tribe  (xii,  31).  Nor  is  the  con- 
trast less  observable  between  the  one  city  of  Ammon, 
the  fortified  hold  of  Rabbah  (2  Sam.  xi,  1 ;  Ezra  xxv, 
5;  Amos  i,  13),  and  the  "streets,"  the  "house-tops," 
and  the  "high-places"  of  the  numerous  and  busy 
towns  of  the  rich  plains  of  Moab  (Jer.  xlviii ;  Isa.  xv, 
xvi).  Taking  the  above  into  account,  it  is  hard  to 
avoid  the  conclusion  that,  while  Moab  was  the  settled 
and  civilized  half  of  the  nation  of  Lot,  the  Bene-Am- 
mon  formed  its  predatory  and  Bedouin  section.  A 
remarkable  confirmation  of  this  opinion  occurs  in  the 
fact  that  the  special  deity  of  the  tribe  was  worshipped, 
not  in  a  house  or  on  a  high  place,  but  in  a  booth  or 
tent  designated  by  the  very  word  which  most  keenly 
expressed  to  the  Israelites  the  contrast  between  a  no- 
madic and  a  settled  life  (Amos  v,  26 ;  Acts  vii,  43). 
See  Succoth.  (See  Stanley,  Palest.  App.  §  89.)  On 
the  west  of  Jordan  they  never  obtained  a  footing. 
Among  the  confusions  of  the  times  of  the  judges  we 
find  them  twice  passing  over;  once  with  Moab  and 
Amalek,  seizing  Jericho,  the  "city  of  palm-trees" 
(Judg.  iii,  13),  and  a  second  time  "to  fight  against 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  and  the  hoiue  of  Ephraim  ;" 
but  they  quickly  returned  to  the  freer  pastures  of 
Gilead,  leaving  but  one  trace  of  their  presence  in  the 
name  of  Chephar  ha-Ammonai,  "the  hamlet  of  the 
Ammonites"  (Josh,  xviii,  24),  situated  in  the  portion 
of  Benjamin  somewhere  at  the  head  of  the  passes 
which  lead  up  from  the  Jordan  valley,  and  form  the 
natural  access  to  the  table-land  of  the  west  country. 

Unlike  Moab,  the  precise  position  of  the  territory 
of  the  Ammonites  is  not  ascertainable.  They  origi- 
nally occupied  a  tract  of  country  (sometimes  called 
Ammonitis,  'Afipavlnc.,  2  Maco.  iv,  26;  comp.  Joseph. 
Ant.  v,  7,  9;  xi,  2,  1)  east  of  the  Amorites,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  Moabites  by  the  river  Arnon,  and  from 
Bashan  or  Gilead  by  the  Jabbok  (Deut.  iii,  16;  Josh, 
xii,  2).  The  capital  of  this  naturally  well-fortified 
territory  (Num.  xxi,  24)  was  Rabhath-Ammon  (Deut. 
iii,  11;  Amos  i,  14;  comp.  Behind,  Palccst.  ].  103  sq. ; 
Cellarii  Notit.  ii,  671  sq.).  It  was  previously  in  the 
possession   of  a   gigantic    race    called   Zamzmnmim 


AMMONITE 


201 


AMMONIUS 


/Deut.  ii,  20),  "but  the  Lord  destroyed  them  before 
the  Ammonites,  and  they  succeeded  them  and  dwelt 
in  their  stead."  The  Israelites,  on  reaching  the  bor- 
ders of  tbe  promised  land,  found  Sihon,  king  of  Hesh- 
bon,  in  possession  by  conquest  of  the  district  adjoin- 
ing the  Dead  Sea  (Num.  xxi,  26),  but  were  command- 
ed not  to  molest  the  children  of  Ammon,  for  the  sake 
of  their  progenitor  Lot  (Deut.  ii,  19).  But,  though 
thus  preserved  from  the  annoyance  which  the  passage 
of  such  an  immense  host  through  their  country  might 
have  occasioned,  they  showed  them  no  hospitality  or 
kindness;  they  were  therefore  prohibited  from  "en- 
tering the  congregation  of  the  Lord"  (i.  e.  from  being 
admitted  into  the  civil  community  of  the  Israelites) 
"to  the  tenth  generation  forever"  (Deut.  xxiii,  3). 
This  is  evidently  intended  to  be  a  perpetual  prohibi- 
tion, and  was  so  understood  by  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xiii, 
1).  The  first  mention  of  their  active  hostility  against 
Israel  occurs  in  Judges  iii,  13:  "The  king  of  Moab 
gathered  unto  him  the  children  of  Ammon  and  Ama- 
lek,  and  went  and  smote  Israel."  Later  we  are  in- 
formed that  the  children  of  Israel  forsook  Jehovah 
and  served  the  gods  of  various  nations,  including  those 
of  the  children  of  Ammon,  and  the  anger  of  Jehovah 
was  kindled  against  them,  and  he  sold  them  into  the 
hands  of  the  Philistines  and  of  the  children  of  Am- 
mon. The  Ammonites  crossed  over  the  Jordan,  and 
fought  with  Judah,  Benjamin,  and  Ephraim.  so  that 
"Israel  was  sore  distressed."  In  answer  to  Jeph- 
thah's  messengers  (Judg.  xi,  12),  the  king  of  Ammon 
charged  the  Israelites  with  having  taken  away  that 
part  of  his  territories  which  lay  between  the  rivers 
Anion  and  Jabbok,  which,  in  Joshua  xiii,  25,  is  called 
"half  the  land  of  the  children  of  Ammon,"  but  was 
in  the  possession  of  the  Amorites  when  the  Israelites 
invaded  it ;  and  this  fact  was  urged  by  Jephthah,  in 
order  to  prove  that  the  charge  was  ill-founded.  Jeph- 
thah "smote  them  from  Aroer  to Minnith,  even  twenty 
cities,  with  a  very  great  slaughter"  (Judg.  xi,  33 ;  Jo- 
sephus,  Ant.  v,  7,  10).  The  Ammonites  were  again 
signally  defeated  by  Saul  (1  Sam.  xi,  11),  and,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  their  king,  Nahash,  was  slain  (Ant.  vi, 
5,  3).  His  successor,  who  bore  the  same  name,  was 
a  friend  of  David,  and  died  some  years  after  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne.  In  consequence  of  the  gross  in- 
sult offered  to  David's  ambassadors  by  his  son  Hanun 
(2  Sam.  x,  4:  Joseph.  Ant  vii,  C,  1),  a  war  ensued,  in 
which  the  Ammonites  were  defeated,  and  their  allies, 
the  Syrians,  were  so  daunted  "that  they  feared  to 
help  the  children  of  Ammon  any  more"  (2  Sam.  x,  19). 
In  the  following  year  David  took  their  metropolis. 
Rabbah,  and  great  abundance  of  spoil,  which  is  prob- 
ably mentioned  by  anticipation  in  2  Sam.  viii,  32 
(2  Sam.  x,  14  ;  xii,*  26-31 ;  Joseph.  Ant.  vii,  7,  8).  In 
the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  the  Ammonites  joined  with 
the  Moabites  and  other  tribes  belonging  to  Mount  Seir 
to  invade  Judah;  but.  by  the  divine  intervention, 
were  led  to  destroy  one  another.  Jehoshaphat  and 
his  people  were  three  days  in  gathering  the  spoil  (2 
Chron.  xx,  25).  The  Ammonites  "gave  gifts"  to 
Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  8),  and  paid  a  tribute  to  his 
son  Jotham  for  three  successive  years,  consisting  of 
100  talents  of  silver,  1000  measures  of  wheat,  and  as 
many  of  barley  When  the  two  and  a  half  tribes  were 
carried  away  captive,  the  Ammonites  took  possession 
of  the  towns  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Jer.  xlix, 
1).  "  Bands  of  the  children  of  Ammon"  and  of  other 
nations  came  up  with  Nebuchadnezzar  against  Jerusa- 
lem, and  joined  in  exulting  over  its  fall  (Ezrk.  xxv, 
3,  6).  Yet  they  allowed  some  of  the  fugitive  Jews 
to  take  refuge  among  them,  and  even  to  intermarry 
(Jer.  xl,  11 ;  Neh.  xiii,  13).  Among  the  wives  of 
Solomon's  harem  are  included  Ammonita  women  (1 
Kings  xi,  1),  one  of  whom,  Naamab,  was  the  mother 
of  Rehoboam  (1  Kings  xiv,  31 ;  2  Chron.  xii,  13),  and 
henceforward  traces  of  the  presence  of  Ammonite 
women  in  Judah  are  not  wanting  (2  Chron.  xxiv,  26; 


Neh.  xiii,  23 ;  Ezra  ix,  1 ;  see  Geiger,  Ursckrift,  p. 
47,  49,  299).  In  the  writings  of  the  prophets  terrible 
denunciations  are  uttered  against  the  Ammonites  on 

1  account  of  their  rancorous  hostility  to  the  people  of 
Israel,  and  the  destruction  of  their  metropolis,  Kab- 
bah, is  distinctly  foretold  (Zeph.  ii,  8 ;  Jer.  xlix,  1-6 ; 
Ezek.  xxv,  1-5,  10;  Amos  i,  13-15).  See  Rabbah. 
On  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  the  Ammon- 
ites manifested  their  ancient  hostility  by  deriding  and 
opposing  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iv,  3,  7, 
8).  Both  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  expressed  vehement 
indignation  against  those  Jews  who  had  intermarried 
with  the  heathen  (Ezra  x ;  Neh.  xiii,  25),  and  thus 
transgressed  the  divine  command  (Deut.  vii,  3).  The 
last  appearances  of  the  Ammonites  in  the  biblical  nar- 
rative are  in  the  books  of  Judith  (v,  vi,  vii)  and  of  the 
Maccabees  (1  Mace,  v,  G,  30-43),  and  it  has  been  al- 
ready remarked  that  their  chief  characteristics — close 
alliance  with  Moab,  hatred  of  Israel,  and  cunning  cru- 
elty— are  maintained  to  the  end.  Judas  Maccabaeus 
fought  many  battles  with  the  Ammonites,  and  took 
Jazer,  with  the  towns  belonging  to  it  (1  Mace,  v,  6, 
3-43).  In  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  Josephus 
(Ant.  xiii,  8,  1)  speaks  of  a  certain  Zeno  Cotylas  as 
ruler  of '  Philadelphia  (the  older  Rabbah).  Justin 
Martyr  affirms  that  in  his  time  the  Ammonites  were 
numerous  (Dial,  cum  Tryph.  §  119).  Origen  speaks 
of  their  country  under  the  general  denomination  of 
Arabia  (In  Job.  c.  i).  Josephus  says  that  the  Moab- 
ites and  Ammonites  were  inhabitants  of  Ccele-Syria 
(Ant.  i,  11,  5  ;  xi,  5,  8).     See  Ammon. 

The  tribe  was  governed  by  a  king  (Judg    xi,  12, 
etc. ;  1  Sam.  xii,  12;  2  Sam.  x,  1;  Jer.  xl,  14)  and 

I  by  "princes,"  D^lb  (2  Sam.  x,  3;  1  Chron.  xix,  3). 

1  Their  national  idol  was  Molech  or  Milcom  (see  Jouv. 

i  Sac.  Lit.  1852,  p.  365  sq.),  whose  worship  was  intro- 
duced among  the  Israelites  by  the  Ammonitish  wives 
of  Solomon  (1  Kings  xi,  5,  7) ;  and  the  high-places 
built  by  that  sovereign  for  this  "  abomination"  were 
not  destroyed  till  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii, 

i  13).  Besides  Nahash  and  Hanun,  an  Ammonitish 
king,  Baalis,  is  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  (xl,  14)  and 
Josephus  (Ant.  x,  9,  3).  The  following  Ammonite 
names  are  pi-eserved  in  the  sacred  text :  Achior  (Judith 
v,  5,  etc.),  Baalis  (Jer.  xl,  14),  Hanun  (2  Sam.  x,  1, 

|  etc.),  Molech,  Naamah  (1  Kings  xiv,  21,  etc.),  Nac- 

.  hash  (1  Sam.  xi,  1,  etc.),  Shobi  (2  Sam.  xvii,  27),  Ti- 

'  motheus  (1  Mace,  v,  6.  etc.),  Tobijah  (Neh.  ii,  10,  etc.), 
Zelek  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  37);  to  which  may  probably  be 
added  the  name  Zamzummim,  applied  by  the  Am- 
monites to  the  Rephaim  whom  they  dispossessed.— Kit- 
to,  s.  v. ;  Smith's,  v.     Canaanite. 

Am'monitess  (Heb.  Ammonith',  rV^lB?  or 
T^ITS"  ;  Sept.  'AnfjuuviTig,  in  Chron.  'Aft/iavIng  and 
'A^/ttvir/;c),  a  female  (1  Kings  xiv,  21.  31 ;  2  Chron. 
xii,  13;  xxiv,  26)  Ammonite  (q.  v.). 
Ammomtis.  See  Ammonite. 
Ammonius,  a  Christian  philosopher,  sometimes 
confounded  with  Ammonius  Saccas,  lived  at  Alexan- 
dria in  the  third  century.  He  is  the  author  of  a  "  Har- 
mony in  the  Gospel,"  a  work  which  by  several  critics 
is  attributed  to  Tatian,  and  which  is  said  to  have  in- 
duced Eusebius  to  write  his  "Canons."  There  is  a 
Latin  translation  of  this  work  by  Victor  of  Capua,  en- 
titled Ammonii,  vulgo  Tatiuni,  diatessarnn,  me  har- 
monics in  qualuor  evangelia  (Mayence,  1524,  8vo).  A 
life  of  Christ  was  extracted  from  this  work  by  Nach- 
tigal  (Latinized  Luscinius),  under  the  title  Vita  Jesu 
C/iristi,  ex  quatuor  evangelistis  ex  Ammonii  Alex,  frag- 
ments gnvcis  latine  versa,  per  0.  Luscinmm  (Erfurt, 
1544).  This  Ammonius  is  perhaps  also  the  author  of 
a  metaphrase  of  the  gospel  of  John,  which  is  gen- 
erallv  attributed  to  Nonnus,  and  which  is  found  in 
MS.  in  the  library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice.— Hoefer, 
Biogrnphie  Generate,  ii,  384. 


AMMONIUS  SACCAS 


202 


AMON 


Ammonius  Saccas,  or  Saccophorus  (so  call- 
ed because  he  was  a  porter  in  early  life),  a  philosopher 
of  Alexandria  toward  the  end  of  the  second  century. 
He  is  considered  as  the  founder  of  the  Neo-Platonic 
Philosophy.  Plotinus,  Longinus,  and  Origen,  were 
among  his  pupils.  His  object  was  to  reconcile  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  and  hence  his  school  was  called  eclectic. 
Ammonius  had  been  educated  in  Christianity  ;  and  he 
seems  never  to  have  abandoned  the  name  of  the  faith, 
while  he  was  disparaging  its  doctrines  and  its  essence. 
Porphyry  asserts  that  Ammonius  deserted  Christian- 
it}-,  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.  vi,  19)  that  he  adhered  to 
it.  To  these  two  opinions,  variously  advocated  by 
most  modern  divines,  others  have  added  a  third,  that 
Eusebius  mistook  a  Christian  writer  of  the  same  name 
for  the  heathen  philosopher ;  and  this  is  warmly  main- 
tained by  Lardner  (Works,  ii,  439;  vii.  446).  He  was 
a  man  of  great  talents  and  energy,  and  indefatigable 
in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge. — Waddington,  Ch.  Hist. 
ch.  iii;  Tennemann,  Hist  Phil.  §  203 ;  Brucker,  Hist. 
Phil,  ii,  205 ;  Mosheim,  Comm.  ii,  348,  7  ;  Simon,  Hist, 
de  Vecole  d1  Alexandrie,  i,  204  ;  Dehaut,  Essai  sur  Am- 
monius Saccas  (Bruxelles,  1836,  4to).  See  Alexan- 
drian School  ;  Eclectics  ;  New  Platonists. 

Am'non  (Heb.  Amnon  ,  "p^X  [2  Sam.  xiii,  20, 
"p^aSt,  A minon'],  faithful;  Sept.  'A/xvwv),  the  name 
of  two  men. 

1.  The  first  named  of  the  four  sons  of  Shimon  or 
Shammai,  of  the  children  of  Ezra,  the  descendant  of 
Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  20,  comp.  ver.  17),  B.C.  prob.  post 
1612. 

2.  The  eldest  son  of  David  by  Ahinoam  of  Jezreel 
(1  Chron.  iii,  1),  born  at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  iii,  2),  B.C. 
cir.  1052.  He  is  only  known  for  his  violation  of  his 
half  sister  Tamar,  B.C.  cir.  1031,  which  her  full  1  roth- 
er  Absalom  revenged  two  years  after,  by  causing  him 
to  be  assassinated  while  a  guest  at  his  table  (2  Sam. 
xiii).  See  Absalom.  The  Sept.  (in  a  clause  added 
in  2  Sam.  xiii,  21,  but  wanting  in  the  Hebrew)  assigns 
as  the  reason  for  David's  refraining  from  executing 
the  penalty  due  to  Amnon,  that  "he  loved  him  be- 
cause he  was  his  first-born" — a  fact  that  no  doubt 
formed  an  additional  incentive  to  the  ambitious  Ab- 
salom for  putting  him  out  of  the  way.     See  David. 

A'mok  (Heb.  Amok',  pi03>>  &ep;  Sept.  'Ajuoi',y, 
'Aui\),  the  father  of  Eber,  and  a  chief  among  the 
priests  that  returned  from  Babvlon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Neh.  xii,  7,  20),  B.C.  536. 

Amolo  or  Amulo,  archbishop  of  Lyons,  A.D. 
841,  was  one  of  the  opponents  of  Gotteschalcus,  but 
seems  to  have  been  of  a  different  spirit  from  some  of 
them,  Hincmar  cspeeialh\  He  wrote,  1.  An  Epistle 
to  Theobald,  about  certain  pretended  relics  of  saints 
and  the  false  miracles  which  were  promulgated  by  the 
scoundrels  who  sold  them.  Amolo  declared  it  all  im- 
posture. 2.  To  Gotteschalcus,  an  epistle  (Sismondi, 
Opera,  ii,  893)  written  with  a  great  deal  of  brotherly 
love,  and  declaring  that  "God  had  predestinated  no 
man  to  damnation."  Also  "Opuscula  duo  de  Prcedes- 
Hnatione,"  to  be  found  in  Bib.  Max.  Pair,  xiv,  329. 

Amomitm  (ufiwfiov).  This  word  is  only  found  in 
Rev.  xviii,  13  (between  "cinnamon"  and  "odors"), 
and  is  even  there  omitted  in  the  received  text.  It  de- 
noted an  odoriferous  plant  or  seed,  used  in  preparing 
precious  ointment.  It  probably  differed  from  the  mod- 
ern amomum  of  the  druggists  (Pinny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.), 
tint  the  exact  species  is  not  known.  It  was  of  various 
qualities,  growing  in  Armenia  and  Media,  and  also  in 
Pontus.  with  seeds  in  clusters  like  grapes  (Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  xii,  28  ;  Theophrastus,  Hist.  Plant,  ix,  7). 

A'mon  ( IIcli.  Amon',  7"N:,  builder  [the  deriv.  of 
Ho.  3  is  prob.  different]),  the  name  of  three  men  and 
a  deity. 

1.  (Sept.  'AfifUJV  and  'l'///;n  v.  r.  Sf/n'/o.)  The  gov- 
ernor of  the  city  of  Samaria  in  the  time  of  Ahab,  to 


whose  custody  the  prophet  Micaiah  was  delivered  (1 
Kings  xxii,  20 ;  2  Chron.  xviii,  25),  B.C.  895. 

2.  (Sept.  'A/mov  v.  r.  Afiiog.)  The  son  of  Manasseh 
(by  Meshullemeth  the  daughter  of  Haruz  of  Jotbah), 
and  fifteenth  separate  king  of  Judah,  B.C.  642-640. 
He  appears  to  have  derived  little  benefit  from  the  in- 
structive example  which  the  sin,  punishment,  and  re- 
pentance of  his  father  offered ;  for  he  restored  idolatry, 
and  again  set  up  the  images  which  Manasseh  had  cast 
down.  To  Anion's  reign  we  must  refer  the  terrible 
picture  which  the  prophet  Zephaniah  gives  of  the  moral 
and  religious  state  of  Jerusalem ;  idolatry  supported 
by  priests  and  prophets  (i,  4;  iii,  4),  the  poor  ruthless- 
ly oppressed  (iii,  3),  and  shameless  indifference  to  evil 
(iii,  11).  He  was  assassinated  in  a  court  conspiracy; 
but  the  people  put  the  regicides  to  death,  and  raised 
to  the  throne  his  son  Josiah,  then  but  eight  years  old 
(2  Kings  xxi,  18-26 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  20-25).  He  is 
mentioned  among  the  ancestors  of  Christ  ('A/tup,  Matt, 
i,  10 ;  comp.  1  Chron.  iii,  14 ;  Jer.  i,  2 ;  xxv,  3 ;  Zeph. 

|  i,  1).     See  Judah,  Kingdom  of. 

3.  (Sept.  'Appwv.)  Ammon,  an  Egyptian  and  Lib- 
yan god,  in  whom  the  classical  writers  unanimously 
recognise  their  own  Zeus  and  Jupiter  (Ajuoi'i-,  Herod, 
ii,  42 ;  "Apuwv,  Diod.  Sic.  i,  13).  The  primitive  seat 
of  his  worship  appears  to  have  been  at  Meroe,  from 
which  it  descended  to  Thebes,  and  thence,  according 
to  Herodotus  (ii,  54),  was  transmitted  to  the  oasis  of 
Siwah  and  to  Dodona ;  in  all  which  places  there  were 
celebrated  oracles  of  this  god  (Plut.  Isid.  c.  9;  Alex. 
c.  72;  Arnolius,  vi,  12;  Justin,  xi,  11;  Strabo,  i,  49 
sq. ;  xvii,  814).  His  chief  temple  and  oracle  in  Egypt, 
however,  were  at  Thebes,  a  city  peculiarly  consecrated 
to  him,  and  which  is  probably  meant  by  the  No  and 
No-Amon  of  the  prophets,  the  Diospolis  of  the  Greeks. 
He  is  generally  represented  on  Egyptian  monuments 


Image  of  Amnion.     From  the  Egyptian  Monuments. 

by  the  seated  figure  of  a  man  with  a  ram's  head,  or  by 
that  of  an  entire  ram,  and  of  a  blue  color  (Wilkinson, 
2  ser.  i,  243  sq.).  In  honor  of  him,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Thebaid  abstained  from  the  flesh  of  sheep,  but  they 
annually  sacrificed  a  ram  to  him  and  dressed  his  im- 
age in  the  hide.  A  religious  reason  for  that  ceremony 
is  assigned  by  Herodotus  (ii,  42);  but  Diodorus  (iii, 
72)  ascribes  his  wearing  horns  to  a  more  trivial  cause. 
There  appears  to  be  no  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
his  oracular  responses  were  given  ;  but  as  a  sculpture 
at  Karnak,  which  Creuzer  (Symbol,  i,  507)  has  copied 
from  the  Description  de  VEgypte,  represents  his  portable 
tabernacle  mounted  on  a  boat  and  borne  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  forty  priests,  it  may  be  conjectured,  from  the 
resemblance  between  several  features  of  that  repre- 
sentation and  the  description  of  the  oracle  of  Jupiter 
Amnion  in  Diodorus,  xvii,  50,  that  his  responses  were 
communicated  by  some  indication  during  the  solemn 
transportation  of  his  tabernacle.  (See  Smith's  Dirt. 
of  Class.  Bioff.  s.  v.  Amnion.)  That  the  name  of  this 
god  really  occurs  in  the  passage  "  Behold,  I  will  pun- 


AMORITE 


203 


AMORITE 


ish  the  multitude  (literally,  Amori)  of  No"  (Jer.  xlvi, 
25),  is  a  view  favored  by  the  context  and  all  internal 
grounds ;  but  in  the  parallel  passage,  Ezek.  xxx,  15, 
the  equivalent  hamon,  "|150i"I,  is  employed.  Comp.  also 
Ezek.  xxx,  4,  10,  for  the  use  of  the  latter  word  with 
reference  to  Egypt.  These  cases,  or  at  least  the  for- 
mer two,  seem  therefore  to  be  instances  of  paronomasia 
(comp.  Isa.  xxx,  7;  lxv,  11,  12).  It  is  also  undoubt- 
edly referred  to  in  the  name  No-Am mon  [see  No], 
given  to  Thebes  (Nahum  iii,  8,  where  the  English  text 
translates  "populous  No").  The  etymology  of  the 
name  is  obscure.  Eustathius  (ad  Dionys.  Perieg.  p. 
125,  ed.  Bernhardy)  says  that,  according  to  some,  the 
word  means  shepherd.  Jablonski  (Panth.  sEggpt.  i, 
181)  proposed  an  etymology  by  which  it  would  signify 
producing  light ;  and  Champollion  originally  regarded 
it  as  meaning  glory  (Egypte  sous  les  Pharaons,  i,  217), 
but,  in  his  latest  interpretation  (after  Manetho  in  ITut  ), 
assigned  it  the  sense  of  hidden.  The  name  accompa- 
nying the  above  figure  on  the  monuments  is  written 
Am?i,  more  fully  Amn-Re,  i.  e.  "Amon-Sun"  (Gese- 
nius,  Thcs.  Heb.  p.  115).  Macrobius  asserts  (Satumal. 
i,  21)  that  the  Libyans  adored  the  sun  under  the  form 
of  Amnion  ;  and  he  points  to  the  ram's  horns  as  evi- 
dence of  a  connection  with  the  zodiacal  sign  Aries 
(Muller,  Archaol  p.  276;  Pauly,  Real-Encgcl.  i,  407 
sq.) ;  but  this  has  been  disputed  (Jomard,  Descr.  de 
VEgypte ;  Bahr,  Symbolik  d.  Mos.  Cultus,  ii,  296,  641), 
although  it  would  seem  unsuccessfully  (Creuzer,  Sym- 
bolik, ii,  205 ;  Schmidt,  Be  Zodiaci  origine  sEg.  p.  33, 
in  his  Opusc.  quibus  res  ^Eg.  illustrantur,  Carolsr.  1765). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Egypt  ;  Hieroglyphics. 

4.  (Sept.  'H/xti/i  v.  r.  'Bfjui/i.)  The  head  or  ances- 
tor of  one  of  the  families  of  the  Ncthinin  that  returned 
from  Babylon  (Neh.  vii,  59) ;  called  Ami  in  Ezra  ii, 
57.     B.C.  ante  536. 

Am'orite  (Heb.  Emori' ,  ^bX,  Sept.  'A^oppai- 
oc),  the  designation  of  the  descendants  of  one  of  the 
sons  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x,  16,  in  like  manner,  with  the 
art.,  ihaXtt,  Sept.  6  'Afioppawc,  Auth.  Vers,  "the  Am- 
orite."  Gesenius,  however,  prefers  the  derivation  sug- 
gested by  Simonis,  from  an  obsolete  ION,  height,  q.  d. 
mountaineer;  comp.  Ewald,  Isr.  Gesch.  i,  279  sq.). 
They  were  the  most  powerful  and  distinguished  of  the 
Canaanitish  nations  (Gen.  x,  16 ;  Exod.  iii,  8 ;  xiii,  5 ; 
xxxiii,  2).  We  find  them  first  noticed  in  Gen.  xiv,  7, 
"the  Amorites  that  dwelt  in  Hazezon-tamar"  (q.  v.), 
afterward  called  Engedi,  a  city  in  the  wilderness  of 
Judasa  not  far  from  the  Dead  Sea  (Num.  xiii,  29  • 
Deut.  i,  7,  20).  In  the  promise  to  Abraham  (Gen  xv, 
21),  the  Amorites  are  specified  as  one  of  the  nations 
whose  country  would  be  given  to  his  posterity.  But 
at  that  time  three  confederates  of  the  patriarch  be- 
longed to  this  tribe— Mamre,  Aner,  and  Eshcol  (Gen. 
xiv,  13,  24).  When  the  Israelites  were  about  to  enter 
the  promised  land,  the  Amorites  occupied  a  tract  on 
both  sides  of  the  Jordan.  Josephus  calls  it  Amoritis 
(A/uuplnc,  Ant.  iv,  5,  1 ;  7,  3)  and  Amoria  ('A/Aopia 
v.  r.  'A/tonaia,  'Afiwpaia,  Ant.  v,  1,  1).  They  seem  to 
have  originally  inhabited  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
mountains  of  Judaea  (hence  called  the  mount  of  the 
Amorites,  Deut.  i,  7;  xix,  20),  but  whether  as  abo- 
rigines or  as  dispossessors  of  an  earlier  race  is  uncer- 
tain, probably  the  former.  It  appears,  therefore,  that 
from  the  barren  heights  west  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Gen. 
xiv,  7)  they  had  stretched  west  to  Hebron  (Gen.  xiv, 
13;  comp.  xiii,  18).  From  this,  their  ancient  seat, 
they  may  have  crossed  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  tempt- 
ed by  the  high  table-lands  on  the  east,  for  there  we 
next  meet  them  at  the  date  of  the  invasion  of  the  coun- 
try. Sihon,  their  then  king,  had  taken  the  rich  pas- 
ture-land south  of  the  Jabbok,  and  had  driven  the 
Moabites,  its  former  possessors,  across  the  wide  chasm 
of  the  Anion  (Num.  xxi,  26, 13),  which  thenceforward 
formed  the  boundary  between  the  two  hostile  peoples 


(Num.  xxi,  13).  That  part  of  their  territories  which 
lay  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan  was  allotted  to  the  tribes 
of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh.  This 
district  was  under  two  kings — Sihon,  king  of  Heshbon 
(frequently  called  king  of  the  Amorites),  and  Og,  king 
of  Bashan,  who  "dwelt  at  Ashtaroth  [and]  in  [at] 
Edrei"  (Deut.  i,  4,  compared  with  Josh,  xii,  4  ;  xiii,  12). 
The  Israelites  apparently  approached  from  the  south- 
east, keeping  "on  the  other  side"  (that  is,  on  the  east) 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  Anion,  which  there  bends 
southward,  so  as  to  form  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
country  of  Moab.  Their  request  to  pass  through  his 
land  to  the  fords  of  Jordan  was  refused  by  Sihon  (Num. 
xxi,  21;  Deut.  ii,  20);  he  "went  out"  against  them 
(xxi,  23;  ii,  32),  was  killed  with  his  sons  and  his  peo- 
ple (ii,  33),  and  his  land,  cattle,  and  cities,  taken  pos- 
session of  by  Israel  (xxi,  24,  25,  31 ;  ii,  34-56).  This 
rich  tract,  bounded  by  the  Jabbok  on  the  north,  the 
Arnon  on  the  south,  Jordan  on  the  west,  and  "the  wil- 
derness" on  the  east  (Judg.  xi,  21,  22) — in  the  words 
of  Josephus,  "  a  land  lying  between  three  rivers  after 
the  manner  of  an  island"  {Ant.  iv,  5,  2) — was,  perhaps, 
in  the  most  special  sense,  the  "land  of  the  Amorites" 
(Num.  xxi,  31 ;  Josh,  xii,  2,  3 ;  xiii,  9 ;  Judg.  xi,  21, 
22) ;  but  their  possessions  are  distinctly  stated  to  have 
extended  to  the  very  foot  of  Hermon  (Deut  iii,  8;  iv, 
48),  embracing  "all  Gilead  and  all  Bashan"  (iii,  10), 
with  the  Jordan  valley  on  the  east  of  the  river  (iv,  49), 
and  forming  together  the  land  of  the  "  two  kings  of 
the  Amorites,"  Sihon  and  Og  (Deut.  xxxi,  4;  Josh. 
ii,  10 ;  ix,  10 ;  xxiv,  12).  Og  also  gave  battle  to  the 
Israelites  at  Edrei,  and  was  totally  defeated.  After 
the  capture  of  Ai,  five  kings  of  the  Amorites,  whose 
dominions  lay  within  the  allotment  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  leagued  together  to  wreak  vengeance  on  the 
Gibeonites  for  having  made  a  separate  peace  with  the 
invaders.  Joshua,  on  being  apprised  of  their  design, 
marched  to  Gibeon  and  defeated  them  with  great 
slaughter  (Josh,  x,  10).  Another  confederacy  was 
shortly  after  formed  on  a  still  larger  scale ;  the  asso- 
ciated forces  are  described  as  "much  people,  even  as 
the  sand  upon  the  sea-shore  in  multitude,  with  horses 
and  chariots  very  manv"  (Josh,  xi,  4).  Josephus  says 
that  they  consisted  of  300,000  armed  foot-soldiers,  10,000 
cavalry,  and  20,000  chariots  {Ant.  v,  1,  8).  Joshua 
came  suddenly  upon  them  by  the  waters  of  Merom 
(the  lake  Semechonitis  of  Josephus,  Ant.  v,  5,  1,  and 
the  modern  Bahr  el-Huleh),  and  Israel  smote  them 
until  they  left  none  remaining  (Josh,  xi,  8).  Still, 
after  their  severe  defeats,  the  Amorites,  by  means  of 
their  war-chariots  and  cavalry,  confined  the  Danites 
to  the  hills,  and  would  not  suffer  them  to  settle  in  the 
plains  ;  they  even  succeeded  in  retaining  possession  of 
some  of  the  mountainous  parts  (Judg.  i,  34-36).  It  is 
mentioned  as  an  extraordinary  circumstance  that  in 
the  days  of  Samuel  there  was  peace  between  Israel 
and  the  Amorites  (1  Sam.  vii,  14).  In  Solomon's 
reign  a  tribute  of  bond-service  was  levied  on  the  rem- 
nant of  the  Amorites  and  other  Canaanitish  nations 
(1  Kings  ix,  21 ;  2  Chron.  viii,  8).     See  Canaan. 

A  discrepancy  has  been  supposed  to  exist  between 
Deut.  i,  44,  and  Num.  xiv,  45,  since  in  the  former  the 
Amorites  are  said  to  have  attacked  the  Israelites,  and 
in  the  latter  the  Amalekites ;  the  obvious  explanation 
is,  that  both  terms  are  used  synonymously  for  the 
"Canaanites"  named  in  the  same  connection.  Thus 
the  Gibeonites  in  Josh,  ix,  7,  are  called  Hivites,  yet  in  2 
Sam.  xxi,  2,  they  are  said  to  be  "  of  the  remnant  of  the 
yl  worses,"  probably  because  they  were  descended  from 
a  common  stock,  and  were  in  subjection  to  an  Amoritish 
prince,  as  we  do  not  read  of  any  king  of  the  Hivites. 
The  Amorites,  on  account  of  their  prominence  among 
the  Canaanitish  tribes,  sometimes  stand  (Josh,  xxiv, 
18 ;  Amos  ii,  9 ;  1  Kings  xxi,  26)  as  the  representa- 
!  tives  of  the  Canaanites  in  general  (Hamelsweld,  iii, 
56  sq. ;  Kurtz,  on  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Pales- 
:  tine,  in  the  Luther.  Zeitschr.  18-15,  iii,  48  sq. ;  Jour,  of 


AMORT 


204 


AMOS 


Sac.  Lit.  Oct.  1851,  p.  166  ;  Apr.  1852,  p.  76 ;  Jan.  1853, 
p.  306;  Rosenmiiller,  Bibl.  Geogr.  II,  i,  255;  Reland, 
Palast.  p.  138).  But  although  the  name  generally  de- 
notes the  mountain  tribes  of  the  centre  of  the  country, 
yet  this  definition  is  not  always  strictly  maintained, 
varying  probably  with  the  author  of  the  particular  part 
of  the  history,  and  the  time  at  which  it  was  written. 
Nor  ought  we  to  expect  that  the  Israelites  could  have 
possessed  very  accurate  knowledge  of  a  set  of  small 
tribes  whom  they  were  called  upon  to  exterminate — 
with  whom  they  were  forbidden  to  hold  any  inter- 
course— and,  moreover,  of  whose  general  similarity  to 
each  other  we  have  convincing  proof  in  the  confusion 
in  question.  Thus,  Hebron  is  "Amorite'  in  Gen. 
xiii,  18;  xiv,  13,  though  "Hittite"  in  xxiii,  and 
"Canaanite"  in  Judg.  i,  10.  The  "  Hivites"  of  Gen. 
xxxiv,  2,  are  "  Amorites"  in  xlviii,  22;  and  so  also  in 
Josh,  ix,  7;  xi,  19,  as  compared  with  2  Sam.  xxi,  12. 
Jerusalem  is  "Amorite"  in  Josh,  x,  5,  6,  but  in  xvii, 
63;  xviii,  28;  Judg.  i,  21 ;  xix,  11 ;  2  Sam.  v,  6,  etc., 
it  is  "Jebusite."  The  "Canaanites"  of  Num.  xiv, 
45  (comp.  Judg.  i,  17),  are  "Amorites"  in  Deut.  i,  44. 
Jarmuth,  Lachish,  and  Eglcn  were  in  the  low  country 
of  the  Shfela  (Josh.  xv.  35,  39),  but  in  Josh,  x,  5,  6, 
the)'  are  "Amorites  that  dwelt  in  the  mountains;" 
and  it  would  appear  as  if  the  "Amorites"  who  forced 
the  Danites  into  the  mountain  (Judg.  i,  34,  35)  must 
have  themselves  remained  on  the  plain.  Notwith- 
standing these  few  differences,  however,  from  a  com- 
parison of  the  passages  previously  quoted,  it  appears 
plain  that  "Amorite"  was  in  general  a  local  term 
and  not  the  name  of  a  distinct  tribe.  This  is  con- 
firmed by  the  following  facts :  1.  The  wide  area  over 
which  the  name  was  spread.  2.  The  want  of  connec- 
tion between  those  on  the  east  and  those  on  the  west 
of  Jordan — which  is  only  once  hinted  at  (Josh,  ii,  10). 
3.  The  existence  of  kings  like  Sihon  and  Og,  whose 
territories  were  separate  and  independent,  but  who 
are  j-et  called  "the  two  kings  of  the  Amorites,"  a  state 
of  things  quite  at  variance  with  the  habits  of  Semitic 
tribes.  4.  Beyond  the  three  confederates  of  Abram 
and  these  two  kings,  no  individual  Amorites  appear 
in  history  (unless  Araunah  or  Oman  the  Jebusite  be 
one)  5.  There  are  no  traces  of  any  peculiar  govern 
ment,  worship,  or  customs,  different  from  those  of  the 
other  "nations  of  Canaan."     See  Canaanite. 

All  mountaineers  are  warlike ;  and,  from  the  three 
confederate  brothers  who  at  a  moment's  notice  accom- 
panied "Abram  the  Hebrew"  in  his  pursuit  of  the 
five  kings,  down  to  those  who,  not  depressed  by  the 
slaughter  inflicted  by  Joshua  and  the  terror  of  the 
name  of  Israel,  persisted  in  driving  the  children  of 
Dan  into  the  mountain,  the  Amorites  full}'  maintain- 
ed this  character.  From  the  language  of  Amos  (ii 
9)  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  Amorites  in  general 
were  men  of  extraordinary  stature,  but  perhaps  the 
allusion  is  to  an  individual,  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  who 
is  described  by  Moses  as  being  the  last  "of  the  rem- 
nant of  the  giants."  His  bedstead  was  of  iron,  "  nine 
cubits  in  length  and  four  cubits  in  breadth"  (Deut 
iii,  21).  One  word  of  the  "Amorite"  language  ha: 
survived — the  name  Senir  (not  "  Shenir")  for  Mount 
Hermon  (Deut.  iii,  9);  but  may  not  this  be  the  Ca- 
naanitish  name  as  opposed  to  the  Phoenician  (Sirion) 
on  the  one  side  and  the  Hebrew  on  the  other  ?— Kit- 
tu,  s.  v.  ;   Smith,  s.  v.      See  HeEMON. 

Amort,  Eusebius,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian 
of  Germany,  was  born  at  the  Bibermiihlo  (beaver  mill) 
near  Toelz,  Bavaria,  Nov.  15,  1692.  He  entered  the 
order  of  the  Augustines  as  Pollingen,  when  he  subse- 
quently became  professor  of  philosophy,  theology,  and 
ecclesiastical  law.  ile  followed  Cardinal  Cervari  to 
Borne,  where  he  gained  the  favor  of  Pope  Clement  XIT. 
He  returned  to  Bavaria  in  17:;."),  and  died  Feb.  5, 1775. 
He  wrote  two  works  to  vindicate  the  authorship  of 
Thomas  a  Kempis  to  the  book  llDe  Imitaiione  Christ!'" 
(Scutum  Kempense,  Cologne,  1728,  4to;   and  Deductio 


Critica,  Augsburg,  1761,  4to).  Among  his  numerous 
other  works  are  a  manual  of  theology  in  four  volumes 
(Theologia  eclectica,  moralis  et  scholastica,  Augsb.  1751), 
ind  a  defence  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (Demon- 
stratio  critica  Religionis  Catholicce,  Augsb.  1751).  See 
Hoefer,  Biographic,  Generate,  ii,  393 ;  Wetzer  and 
Welte,  Kir chen- Lexicon,  i,  208. 

Amortization.  See  Mortmain. 
Amory,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  dissenting 
minister,  born  at  Taunton,  Jan.  28, 1701,  and  educated 
under  the  care  of  his  uncle,  Mr.  H.  Grove,  who  had  an 
academy  for  training  young  ministers  at  Taunton.  In 
1730  he  was  ordained  to  the  pastoral  office.  On  the 
death  of  Mr.  Grove,  in  1738,  Mr.  Amory  succeeded 
him  as  chief  tutor  in  the  academy  at  Taunton,  where 
he  was  greatly  esteemed,  not  only  by  his  own  congre- 
gation and  sect,  but  by  all  the  neighboring  congre- 
gations and  ministers,  as  well  of  the  Independent  and 
Baptist  denominations  as  of  the  Church  of  England. 
In  October,  1759,  he  removed  to  London,  as  afternoon 
preacher  to  the  society  in  the  Old  Jewry,  belonging 
to  Dr.  S.  Chandler.  In  London  he  was  not  popular; 
his  sermons,  though  practical  and  affecting  to  the  at- 
tentive hearer,  were  rather  too  close,  judicious,  and 
philosophical  for  the  common  run  of  congregations. 
"When  the  dissenting  ministers,  in  1772,  formed  a  de- 
sign of  endeavoring  to  procure  an  enlargement  of  the 
Toleration  Act,  Dr.  Amory  was  one  of  the  committee 
appointed  for  that  purpose.  He  died  on  the  24th  of 
June,  1774.  He  was  a  good  Biblical  critic,  and  an 
excellent  scholar.  His  principal  works  are,  Sermons 
(5  vols.  v.  y.)  ■ — A  Letter  to  a  Friend  on  the  Perplex- 
ities to  which  Christians  are  exposed: — A  lHalogue  on 
Devotion  after  the  manner  of  Xenophon  (Lond.  1746) : 
— Farms  of  Devotion  for  the  Closet.  He  also  wrote  the 
Life  and  edited  the  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Grove 
(Lond.  1740) ;  also  edited  the  Sermons  of  Grove,  and 
Grove's  System  of  Moral  Philosophy :  he  wrote  the  Life 
and  edited  the  Writings  of  Dr  George  Benson,  and  ed- 
ited the  Posthumous  Sermons  of  Dr.  Chandler. — Jones, 
Chr.  Biog. 

A'mos  (Heb.  Amos',  Bl^l?,  borne \;  Sept.  and  New 
Test.  'Apwc),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  One  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  and  a  contem- 
porary of  Isaiah  and  Hosea.  He  was  a  native  of  Te- 
koah,  about  six  miles  south  of  Bethlehem,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  shepherds,  to  which  class  he  belonged,  be- 
ing also  a  dresser  of  sycamore  trees,  and  not  trained 
in  any  of  the  prophetical  schools  (i,  1  ;  vii,  14,  15). 
Though  some  critics  have  supposed  that  he  was  a  na- 
tive of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  took  refuge  in  Te- 
koah  when  persecuted  by  Amaziah,  yet  a  comparison 
of  the  passages  Amos  i,  1 ;  vii,  14,  with  Amaziah's  lan- 
guage, vii,  12,  leads  us  to  believe  that  he  was  born 
and  brought  up  in  that  place.  The  period  during 
which  he  filled  the  prophetic  office  was  of  short  dura- 
tion, unless  we  suppose  that  he  uttered  other  predic- 
tions which  are  not  recorded.  It  is  stated  expressly 
that  he  prophesied  in  the  days  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Ju- 
dah,  and  in  the  days  of  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Joash, 
king  of  Israel,  two  years  before  the  earthquake  (Amos 
i,  1).  This  earthquake,  to  which  there  is  an  allusion 
in  Zechariah  (xiv,  5),  is  represented  b}'  Josephus  (Ant. 
ix,  10,  4)  and  some  other  Jewish  writers  as  a  mark  of 
the  divine  displeasure  against  Uzziah  (in  addition  to  his 
leprosy)  for  usurping  the  priest's  office  some  time  be- 
fore his  death.  This  agrees  with  the  sacred  narrative, 
which  informs  us  that  Jotham,  his  son,  acted  as  regent 
during  the  remainder  of  his  reign  ;  for  we  must  under- 
stand the  accession  spoken  of  in  2  Kings  xv,  33,  when 
he  was  twenty-five  years  old,  to  refer  to  this  associa- 
tion with  his  father.  See  Jotham.  As  Uzziah  and 
Jeroboam  were  contemporaries  for  about  twenty-seven 
years  (B.C.  80S-7S2),  the  latter  part  of  this  period  will 
mark  the  tl.it  >  when  Amos  prophesied.  This  agrees 
with  the  intimation  in  ch.  vii,  10,  of  the  proximity  of 


AMOS 


205 


AMOZ 


Jeroboam's  death.  Amos  speaks  of  the  conquests  of 
this  warlike  king  as  completed  (vi,  13 ;  comp.  2  Kings 
xiv,  25)  ;  on  the  other  hand  the  Assyrians,  who  toward 
the  end  of  his  reign  were  approaching  Palestine  (Hos. 
x,  G ;  xi,  5),  do  not  seem  as  yet  to  have  caused  any  alarm 
in  the  country.  Amos  predicts,  indeed,  that  Israel  and 
other  neighboring  nations  will  be  punished  by  certain 
wild  conquerors  from  the  north  (i,  5  ;  v,  27  ;  vi,  14),  but 
does  not  name  them,  as  if  they  were  still  unknown  or 
unheeded.  (See  Niemeyer,  Charakt.  d.  Bibel,  v,  302  sq.) 
Book  of  Amos. — When  Amos  received  his  commis- 
sion (B.C.  783),  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  which  had  been 
"  cut  short"  by  Hazael  (2  Kings  x,  33)  toward  the  close 
of  Jehu's  reign,  was  restored  to  its  ancient  limits  and 
splendor  by  Jeroboam  II  (2  Kings  xiv,  25).  But  the 
restoration  of  national  prosperity  was  followed  by  the 
prevalence  of  luxury,  licentiousness,  and  oppression, 
to  an  extent  that  again  provoked  the  divine  displeas- 
ure ;  and  Amos  was  called  from  the  sheepfolds  to  be 
the  harbinger  of  the  coming  judgments.  The  poor 
were  oppressed  (viii,  4),  the  ordinances  of  religion 
thought  burdensome  (viii,  5),  and  idleness,  luxury, 
and  extravagance  were  general  (iii,  15).  The  source 
of  these  evils  was  idolatry,  of  course  that  of  the  gold- 
en calves,  not  of  B.ial,  since  Jehu's  dynasty  occupied 
the  throne,  though  it  seems  probable  from  2  Kings 
xiii,  6,  which  passage  must  refer  to  Jeroboam's  reign 
[see  Benhadad  III],  that  the  rites  even  of  Astarte 
were  tolerated  in  Samaria,  though  not  encouraged. 
Calf-worship  was  specially  practised  at  Bethel,  where 
was  a  principal  temple  and  summer  palace  for  the 
king  (vii,  13;  comp.  iii,  15),  also  at  Gilgal,  Dan,  and 
Beersheba  in  Judah  (iv,  4 ;  v,  5 ;  viii,  14),  and  was 
offensively  united  with  the  true  worship  of  the  Lord 
(v,  14,  21-23;  comp.  2  Kings  xvii,  33).  Amos  went 
to  rebuke  this  at  Bethel  itself,  but  was  compelled  to 
return  to  Judah  by  the  high-priest  Amaziah,  who  pro- 
cured from  Jeroboam  an  order  for  his  expulsion  from 
the  northern  kingdom.  Not  that  his  commission  was 
limited  entirely  to  Israel.  The  thunder-storm  (as 
Biiekert  poetically  expresses  it)  rolls  over  all  the  sur- 
rounding kingdoms,  touches  Judah  in  its  progress,  and 
at  length  settles  upon  Israel.  Chapters  i ;  ii,  1-5,  form 
a  solemn  prelude  to  the  main  subject ;  nation  after  na- 
tion is  summoned  to  judgment,  in  each  instance  with 
the  striking  idiomatical  expression  (similar  to  that  in 
Prov.  xxx,  15, 18,  21),  "  For  three  transgressions — and 
for  four — I  will  not  turn  away  the  punishment  there- 
of." Israel  is  then  addressed  in  the  same  style,  and 
in  chap,  iii  (after  a  brief  rebuke  of  the  twelve  tribes 
collectively)  its  degenerate  state  is  strikingly  portray- 
ed, and  the  denunciations  of  divine  justice  are  inter- 
mingled, like  repeated  thunder-claps,  to  the  end  of 
chap.  vi.  The  seventh  and  eighth  chapters  contain 
various  symbolical  visions,  with  a  brief  historical  epi- 
sode (vii,  10-17).  In  the  ninth  chapter  the  majesty 
of  Jehovah  and  the  terrors  of  his  justice  are  set  forth 
with  a  sublimity  of  diction  which  rivals  and  partly 
copies  that  of  the  royal  Psalmist  (comp.  ver.  2,  3,  with 
Psa.  cix,  and  ver.  G  with  Psa.  civ).  Toward  the  close 
the  scene  brightens ;  and  from  the  eleventh  verse  to 
the  end  the  promises  of  the  divine  mercy  and  returning 
favor  to  the  chosen  race  are  exhibited  in  imagery  of 
great  beauty  taken  from  rural  life.  The  allusions  in 
the  writings  of  this  prophet  are  numerous  and  varied ; 
they  refer  to  natural  objects,  as  in  iii,  4,  8 ;  iv,  7,  9  ;  v, 
8;  vi,  12;  ix,  3:  to  historical  events,  i,  9,  11,  13;  ii, 
1;  iv,  11;  v,  2G :  to  agricultural  or  pastoral  employ- 
ments and  occurrences,  i,  3 ;  ii,  13 ;  iii,  5,  12 ;  iv,  2, 
9 ;  v,  19 ;  vii,  1 ;  ix,  9,  13,  15 :  and  to  national  insti- 
tutions and  customs,  ii,  8 ;  iii,  15 ;  iv,  4 ;  v,  21 ;  vi, 
4-6,  10 ;  viii,  5,  10,  14.  The  book  presupposes  a  pop- 
ular acquaintance  with  the  Pentateuch  (see  Hengsten- 
berg,  Bcitrdge  zur  Einleitung  ins  Alte  Testament,  i,  83- 
125),  and  implies  that  the  ceremonies  of  religion,  ex- 
cept where  corrupted  by  Jeroboam  I,  were  in  accord- 
ance with  the  law  of  Moses.     As  the  book  is  evidently 


not  a  series  of  detached  prophecies,  but  logically  and 
artistically  connected  in  its  several  parts,  it  was  prob- 
ably written  by  Amos  as  we  now  have  it  after  his  re- 
turn to  Tekoah  from  his  mission  to  Bethel  (see  Ewald, 
Propheten  des  Alien  Bundes,  i,  84  sq.)  (Smith,  s.  v.). 

The  canonicity  of  the  book  of  Amos  is  amply  sup- 
ported both  by  Jewish  and  Christian  authorities. 
Philo,  Josephus,  and  the  Talmud  include  it  among  tho 
minor  prophets.  It  is  also  in  the  catalogues  of  Melito, 
Jerome,  and  the  60th  canon  of  the  Council  of  Laodicea. 
Justin  Martyr,  in  his  Dialogue  with  Trypho  (§  22), 
quotes  a  considerable  part  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  chap- 
ters, which  he  introduces  by  saying,  "  Hear  how  he 
speaks  concerning  these  by  Amos,  one  of  the  twelve." 
There  are  two  quotations  from  it  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  the  first  (v,  25,  26)  by  the  proto-martyr  Ste- 
phen, Acts  vii,  42;  the  second  (ix,  11)  by  the  Apostle 
James,  Acts  xv,  16.  (See,  generally,  Knobel,  Prophet. 
ii,  147  sq. ;  Hitzig,  Kl.  Proph.  p.  29  ;  Carpzov,  Inlrod. 
iii,  314  sq. ;  Eichhorn,  Einkit.  iv,  307  sq. ;  Jahn,  II, 
ii,  401  sq. ;  Bertholdt,  iv,  1G11  sq.  ;  Davidson,  in 
Home's  Jntrod.  new  ed.  ii,  9G0  sq.). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Special  exegetical  works  on  the  book  of  Amos  are 
the  following,  of  which  the  most  important  are  desig- 
nated by  an  asterisk  [*]  prefixed:  Ephraem  Syrus, 
Explanatio  (in  Opp.  v,  255);  *Kimchi,  Commentaiius 
(in  Hebr.  ed.  Minister,  Basil,  1531,  8vo);  Luther,  En- 
arratio  (in  Opp.  iii,  513)  ;  Brent,  Commentarius  (in  Ojp. 
iv);  (Ecolampadius,  Adnotationes  (Basil.  1535,  fob); 
Quinquaboreus,  Notce  (Par.  1556,  4to) ;  Mercer,  Com- 
mentarius (Genev.  1574,  fol. ;  Giess.  1595, 4to)  ;  Daneau, 
Commentarius  (Genev.  1578,  8vo)  ;  Lively,  Adnotationes 
(Lond.  1587,  8vo  ;  also  in  the  Critici  Sacri,  iii)  ;  Schade, 
Commentarius  (Argent.  1588,  4to)  ;  Tarnovius,  Commen- 
tarius (Lips.  1622,  4to) ;  Benefield,  Sermons  (Lond. 
1629,  3  vols.  4to);  Hall,  Exposition  (Lond.  1661,  4to); 
Gerhard,  Adnotationes  (Jen.  16G3,  1676,  4to)  ;  *Van 
Toll,  Vitlegginge  (Ultraj.  1705,  4to) ;  Michaelis,  Exer- 
citatio  (Hal.  1736,  4 to) ;  Hase,  Stilus  Amosi  (Hal.  1755, 
4to) ;  *Harenberg,  Amos  expositus  (L.  B.  1763,  4to); 
Uhland,  Animadversiones  (Tub.  1779, 1780, 4to)  ;  *Dahl, 
Amos  iibers.  u.  erldut.  (Cott.  1795,  8vo);  *Horsley, 
Notes  (in  Bib.  Crit.  ii,  391);  *Justi,  Amos  fibers,  u.  er- 
ldut. (Lpz.  1799,  8vo);  Berg,  Specimen  (in  Roscnmul- 
ler's  Pepertor.  ii,  1  sq.)  ;  Swanborg,  Amos  illustr.  (Ups. 
1808  sq.  4to)  ;  *Vater,  Amos  ubers.  u.  erldut.  (Hal.  1810, 
4to ;  also  with  Latin  title,  ib.  eod.)  ;  *Rosenmuller, 
Scholia  (Lips.  1813,  8vo)  ;  Juynboll,  De  Amoso  (L.  B. 
1828,  4to)  ;  Faber,  Abweichungen  d.  Gr.  Uebers.  (in  Eich- 
horn's  Pcpertor.  vi,  288  sq.)  ;  *Baur,  Amos  erkldrt 
(Lpz.  1847,  8vo);  Kyan,  Lectures  (Lond.  1850,  12mo). 
See  Prophets  (Minor). 

2.  The  ninth  in  the  maternal  line  of  ascent  from 
Christ,  being  the  son  of  Nahum  (or  Johanan),  and  the 
father  of  Mattathiah  (Luke  iii,  25),  B.C.  cir.  400.  His 
name  perhaps  would  be  more  properly  Anglicized 
Amoz,  and  in  that  case  it  would  have  the  same  deri- 
vation as  under  that  article. 

Amour,  Saint.     See  Saint  Amour. 

A'moz(Heb.  Amots',  VION,  strong;  Sept.  Ajuwo), 
the  father  of  the  prophet  Isaiah  (2  Kings  xix,  2,  20 ; 
xx,  1 ;  2  Chr.  xxvi,  22  ;  xxxii,  20,  32 ;  Isa.  i,  1 ;  ii,  1 ; 
xiii,  1 ;  xx,  2),  B.C.  ante  756.  He  is  also  tradition- 
all}-  said  to  be  the  son  of  King  Joash,  and  brother  of 
Amaziah.  The  rabbins  assort  that  the  father  of  Isaiah 
was  also  a  prophet,  according  to  a  rule  among  them, 
that  when  the  father  of  a  prophet  is  called  in  Scripture 
by  his  name  it  is  an  indication  that  he  also  had  the 
^rift  of  prophecy  (Clem.  Alex.  Stromat.  1).  Augustine 
conjectured  {De  Civit.  Dei,  xviii,  27)  that  the  prophet 
Amos  was  the  father  of  Isaiah  ;  but  the  names  of  these 
two  persons  are  written  differently.  Besides,  the  fa- 
ther of  Isaiah,  as  well  as  Isaiah  himself,  was  of  Jeru- 
salem. Some  arc  of  opinion  that  this  Amoz  was  the 
man  of  God  who  spoke  to  King  Amaziah,  and  obliged 
him  to  send  back  the  hundred  thousand  men  of  Israel, 


AMPIIIBALUM 


206 


AMRAM 


whom  he  had  purchased  to  march  against  the  Edom- 
ites  (2  Chron.  xxv,  7,  8)  ;  but  this  opinion  is  support- 
ed by  no  proofs. 

Amphibalum  (outer  coat,  from  dp<pifidX\<i),  to 
throw  around),  the  outermost  dress  worn  by  the  priest 
in  the  service  of  the  altar ;  not  used  in  the  Church 
of  England,  but  retained  in  the  Eornan  and  Greek 
churches.  It  resembled  in  form  the  pmnula,  which 
took  the  place  of  the  Eoman  toga.  The  pamula  form- 
ed a  circle,  with  an  aperture  to  admit  the  head,  while 
it  fell  down  so  as  to  envelop  the  person  of  the  wearer. 
The  Romish  Church  has  altered  it  by  cutting  it  away 
laterally,  so  as  to  expose  the  arms,  and  leave  only  a 
Straight  piece  before  and  behind.  The  Greek  Church 
retains  it  in  its  primitive  shape.     See  Vestment. 

Amphilochius,  St.,  bishop  of  Iconium,  was  born 
in  ( 'appadocia,  and  studied  for  the  bar ;  but,  after  dis- 
charging for  some  time  the  office  of  advocate  and 
judge,  he  retired  into  a  solitude,  where  he  led  a  self- 
denying  life.  In  374  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Iconium,  the  metropolitan  see  of  Lycaonia.  He  at- 
tended the  second  oecumenical  council  in  381,  and  iu 
383  held  a  synod  at  Side  against  the  Messalians.  The 
time  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  Jerome  speaks  of 
him  as  still  living  in  392.  He  opposed  Arianism 
(Sozomen,  Hist.  Ec.  vii,  6).  Jerome  also  mentions  a 
treatise  concerning  the  Holy  Spirit,  written  by  Am- 
philochius, in  which  he  proved  the  godhead  of  the 
Hoty  Ghost.  Theodoret,  in  his  dialogues,  cites  some 
passages  of  certain  homilies  of  Amphilochius  on  the 
words  of  our  Saviour,  "  My  Father  is  greater  than  I," 
and  "  The  Son  can  do  nothing  of  Himself,"  etc.  All 
these  fragments  were  collected  and  published  by 
Combefis  (fol.  Paris,  1644).  Among  them  are:  1.  A 
Discourse  on  the  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ : — 2.  A  Discourse 
on  the  Circumcision: — 3.  Another  on  the  Meeting  with 
the  Lord: — 4.  Three  Homilies  —  on  Lazarus,  on  the 
Woman  that  was  a  Sinner,  and  on  Holy  Saturday. 
The  fourth,  given  by  Combefis,  on  Penance,  certainly 
is  not  his  ;  neither  is  the  life  of  Basil,  and  some  other 
pieces  which  that  father  has  inserted  in  his  collection 
as  the  works  of  Amphilochius.  Both  Greeks  and 
Latins  commemorate  him  as  a  saint  on  the  23d  of  No- 
vember.— Theodoret,  Ch.  Hist.  lib.  v,  cap.  16 ;  Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  anno  370 ;  Coteler.  Mon.  Eccl.  Gr.  ii. 

Amphip'olis  (' A//0t7ro\<c,  city  on  both  sides),  a  city 
of  Macedonia,  through  which  Saul  and  Silas  passed  on 
their  way  from  Philippi  to  Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii, 
1 ;  see  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Life  of  Paid,  i,  318 
sq.).  It  was  distant  33  Eoman  miles  from  Philippi 
(/tin.  Anton,  p.  320).  It  was  situated  along  the  Eg- 
natian  Way,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Strymon  (by 
which  it  was  nearly  surrounded  [hence  its  name]), 
just  below  its  egress  from  the  lake  Kerkine  (now 
Takino),  and  about  three  miles  above  its  influx  into  the 
sea  (Leake,  Northern  Greece,  iii,  181  sq. ;  Cousinery, 
I  'oyage  dans  le  Macedoine,  i,  128).  This  situation  upon 
the  banks  of  a  navigable  river,  a  short  distance  from 
the  sea,  with  the  vicinity  of  the  woods  of  Eerkine  and 
the  gold-mines  of  Mount  Pangams,  rendered  Amphip- 
olis  a  place  of  much  importance  (see  Kutzen,  De  Am- 
pkipoli,  Lips.  1836),  and  an  object  of  contest  between 
the  Thracians,  Athenians,  Lacedaemonians,  and  Mace- 
donians, to  whom  it  successivelv  belonged  (Thucyd.  i, 
100;  iv,  102  sq. ;  Herod,  vii,  117;  Diod.  Sic.  xvi,  8; 
Appian-  iv,  104  Bq.  ;  l'lin.  iv,  17;  Liv.  xlv,  29;  Cel- 
lar, N'otit.  i,  lof,:;  sq.).  It  was  a  colony  of  the  Athe- 
nians, and  was  memorable  in  the  Peloponnesian  war 
for  the  battle  fought  under  its  walls,  in  which  both 
Brasidas  and  Cleon  were  killed  (Thuc.  v,  6-11).  It 
has  long  been  in  ruins  ;  and  a  village  of  about  one 
hundred  houses,  called  Neokhorio  ("  New  Town,"  in 
Turkish  Jem-kern),  now  occupies  part  of  its  site  (Tafel. 
Thessalonica,  p.  498  sq.).  There  is  a  miserable  place 
near  it  called  Emboli  by  the  Turks,  a  corruption  of  the 
ancient  name.     It  was  called  Popolid  in  the  time  of 


the  Byzantine  empire.  (See  Anthon's  Class.  Diet. 
s.  v. ;  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class- 
Geogr.  s.  v.) 


V 


Coins  of  Amphipo 


Amphora,  a  general  term  among  the  Greeks  and 
Eomans,  as  often  in  the  Vulgate,  for  a  pitcher  (q.  v.) 
or  vessel  to  hold  wine  or  water.  Thus  the  passage  in 
Luke  xxii,  10,  is  rendered,  "There  shall  a  man  meet 
you  bearing  ajntcher  of  water" — (wpa'/uoi')  amphoram 
aqua;  portans.  At  other  times  it  is  taken  for  a  certain 
measure.  The  Eoman  amphora  contained  forty-eight 
sextaries,  equal  to  about  seven  gallons  one  pint  Eng- 
lish wine  measure  ;  and  the  Grecian  or  Attic  amphora 
contained  one  third  more.  Amphora  was  also  a  dry 
measure  used  by  the  Eomans,  and  contained 
about  three  bushels  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Class. 
Ant.  s.  v.). 

Amphora;  were  generally  tall  and  narrow, 
with  a  small  neck,  and  a  handle  on  each  side 
(whence  the  name,  from  afUpi,  on  both  sides, 
and  (pipi)j,  to  carry),  and  terminating  at  the 
bottom  in  a  point,  which  was  let  into  a  stand 
or  stuck  in  the  ground.  They  were  com- 
monly made  of  earthenware.  Homer  men- 
tions amphorae  of  gold  and  stone,  and  the 
Egyptians  had  them  of  brass ;  glass  vessels  Amphora, 
of  this  form  have  been  found  at  Pompeii. 

Am'plias  ('A/MrXi'ae),  a  Christian  at  Borne,  men- 
tioned by  Paul  as  one  whom  he  particularly  loved 
(Bom.  xvi,  8),  A.D.  55.  It  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty who  Amplias  was ;  but  the  Greeks  say  that  he 
was  ordained  bishop  of  Odypopolis,  in  Moesia,  by  the 
Apostle  Andrew,  and  was  an  apostolical  person,  at 
least  one  of  the  seventy-two  disciples,  and  a  martyr. 
His  festival,  in  the  Greek  calendar,  is  observed  Oct.  31. 

Ampulla,  (1.)  the  name,  among  Eoman  ecclesias- 
tical writers,  of  one  of  the  vessels  used  at  the  altar  to 
hold  the  wine.  (2.)  The  vessel  for  holding  the  oil  in 
chrismation,  consecration,  coronation,  etc.,  which  fre- 
quently appears  in  the  inventory  of  church  furniture, 
was  also  called  ampulla.  The  ampulla  is  used  in  the 
coronation  of  the  sovereigns  of  England. 

A'mram  (Heb.  Amrani,  ^"ZV,  kindred  of  the 
High,  i.  e.  friend  of  Jehovah}  Sept.  in  Exod.  vi,  20, 
'Afxfipa.fi  ;  in  1  Chron.  i,  41,  'E/iepwv  v.  r.  'ApaSd, 
[where  the  text  has  "p *2ft,  Chamran  ,  marg.  Hamran]  ; 
elsewhere  'Afipa.fi),  the  name  of  two  or  three  men. 

1.  The  son  of  Eohath,  the  son  of  Levi ;  he  married 
Jochebed,  "his   father's    sister,"   by   whom   he   had 


AMRAMITE 


207 


AMULET 


Aaron,  Miriam,  and  Moses  (Exod.  vi,  18 ;  Num.  iii, 
19).  He  died  in  Egypt,  aged  137  years  (Exod.  vi, 
20),  B.C.  ante  1658.  Before  the  giving  of  the  law, 
it  was  permitted  to  marry  a  father's  sister,  but  this 
was  afterward  forbidden  (Levit.  xviii,  12).  His  de- 
scendants were  sometimes  called  Amramites  (Num. 
iii,  27  ;  1  Chron.  xxvi,  23). 

2.  One  of  the  "  sons"  of  Bani,  who,  after  the  return 
from  Babylon,  separated  from  his  Gentile  wife  (Ezra 
x,  34),  B.C.  459. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Esau  (1  Chron.  i,  41).  In  Gen. 
xxxvi,  26,  he  is  called  more  correctly  Hemdan  (q.  v.). 

Am'ramite  (Heb.,  always  with  the  art.,  ha-Am- 
rami' ,  "i£Htl3>tt ;  Sept.  6  'Afipufi  tig  and  'Afipafii),  a 
title  of  the  descendants  of  the  Levite  Amraji  (Num. 
iii,  27  ;  1  Chron.  xxvi,  23). 

Am'raphel  (Heb.  AmrapheV,  ^S"n"SX,  apparently 
the  Sanscrit  amarapala,  " keeper  of  the  gods;"  Sept. 
'ApapQak,  Josephus  'A/upa0/;\oc,  Ant.  i,  9,  1),  a  king 
(perhaps  Hamite,  comp.  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  i, 
446)  of  Shinar  (i.  e.  Babylonia),  confederated  with 
Chedorlaomer  (q.  v.),  king  of  Elam,  and  two  other 
kings,  to  make  war  against  the  kings  of  Pentapolis, 
viz.,  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  and  the  three  neighboring 
cities,  which  they  plundered ;  among  the  captives 
whom  they  carried  off  was  Lot,  Abraham's  nephew ; 
but  Abraham  (q.  v.)  pursued  them,  retook  Lot,  and 
recovered  the  spoil  (Gen.  xiv,  1,  4),  B.C.  cir.  2080. 

Amsdorf,  Nicolas,  born  near  Wurtzen,  in  Mis- 
nia,  Dec.  3,  1483,  was  a  celebrated  disciple  and  warm 
supporter  of  Luther.  Educated  at  Leipsic  and  Witten- 
berg, he  became  licentiate  of  theology  in  1511,  and  ac- 
companied Luther  in  1519  to  the  Leipsic  disputation, 
and  in  1521  to  Worms.  He  was  greatly  instrumental 
in  introducing  the  Reformation  into  Magdeburg  and 
Goslar.  In  1542  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Naum- 
burg  by  Luther ;  but  his  life  in  this  office  was  embit- 
tered by  strife,  and  in  1548  he  had  to  flee  to  Jena. 
In  the  adiaphoristic  controversy  he  opposed  Melanc- 
thon  strenuously.  A  work  having  a  title  purporting 
that  good  works  are  pernicious,  and  a  hindrance  to  sal- 
vation, came  from  his  pen  (reprinted  in  Baumgarten, 
Geschichte  der  Religi<msparttien,  p.  1172-78).  He  died 
May  14,  1565.  A  biography  of  Amsdorf,  with  a  selec- 
tion from  his  works,  has  been  published  by  Pressel,  in 
the  collective  work  Ltben  mid  ausgi inihlte  Sehriften  der 
Vater  d.  luth.  Kirche,  vol.  viii  (also  published  separate- 
ly, Elberfeld,  1862,  8vo).  See  also  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist. 
iii,  147;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1863,  p.  641. 

Amulet  (Lat.  amuletum,,  from  amolior,  to  avert 
evil ;  French  amidette  ;  according  to  others,  originally 
from  the  Arabic  hamail,  a  locket  suspended  from  the 
neck).  From  the  earliest  ages  the  Orientals  have  be- 
lieved in  the  influences  of  the  stars,  in  spells,  witch- 
craft, and  the  malign  power  of  envy ;  and  to  protect 
themselves  against  the  maladies  and  other  evils  which 
such  influences  were  supposed  to  occasion,  almost  all 
the  ancient  nations  wore  amulets  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat. 
xxx,  15).  These  consisted,  and  still  consist,  chiefly 
of  tickets  inscribed  with  sacred  sentences  (Shaw,  i, 
365  ;  Lane's  Mod.  Egypt,  ii,  365),  and  of  certain  stones 
(comp.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii,  12,  34)  or  pieces  of 
metal  (Richardson,  Dissertation;  D'Arvieux,  iii,  208; 
Chardin,  i,  243  sq. ;  iii,  205  sq. ;  Niebuhr,  i,  65 ;  ii, 
162).  Not  only  were  persons  thus  protected,  but 
even  houses  were,  as  the}-  still  are,  guarded  from  sup- 
posed malign  influences  by  certain  holy  inscriptions 
upon  the  doors.  The  previous  existence  of  these  cus- 
toms is  implied  in  the  attempt  of  Moses  to  turn  them 
to  becoming  uses  by  directing  that  certain  passages 
extracted  from  the  law  should  be  employed  (Exod. 
xiii,  9,  16;  Deut.  vi,  8;  xi,  18).  The  door-schedules 
being  noticed  elsewhere  [see  Door-posts],  we  here 
limit  our  attention  to  personal  amulets.  By  this  re- 
ligious appropriation  the  then  all-pervading  tendency 
to  idolatry  was  in  this  matter  obviated,  although  in 


1,  Modern  Oriental  Amulets.     2,  3,  4,  5,  Ancient  Egyptian. 

later  times,  when  the  tendency  to  idolatry  had  passed 
away,  such  written  scrolls  degenerated  into  instru- 
ments of  superstition  (q.  v.). 

The  "ear-rings"  in  Gen.xxxv,4  (d^BM,  nezamim' ; 
tvwTia,  inaures),  were  obviously  connected  with  idol- 
atrous worship,  and  were  probably  amulets  taken 
from  the  bodies  of  the  slain  Shechemites.  They  are 
subsequently  mentioned  among  the  spoils  of  Midian 
(Judg.  viii,  24),  and  perhaps  their  objectionable  char- 
acter was  the  reason  why  Gideon  asked  for  them. 
Again,  in  Hos.  iii,  13,  "decking  herself  with  ear- 
rings" is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  signs  of  the  "days 
of  Baalim."  Hence  in  Chaldee  an  ear-ring  is  called 
X'J"Hp,  kaddisha' ,  sanctity.  But  amulets  were  more 
often  worn  round  the  neck,  like  the  golden  bulla  or 
leather  loram  of  the  Roman  boys.  Sometimes  they 
were  precious  stones,  supposed  to  be  endowed  with 
peculiar  virtues.  In  the  "Mirror  of  stones"  the 
strangest  properties  are  attributed  to  the  amethyst, 
Kinr  cetus,  Alectoria,  Ceraunium,  etc. ;  and  Pliny, 
speaking  of  succinum,  saj-s  "  It  is  useful  to  bind  upon 
children  like  an  amulet"  (xxxvii,  12,  37).  They  were 
generally  suspended  as  the  centre-piece  of  a  necklace 
(q.  v.),  and  among  the  Egyptians  often  consisted  of 
the  emblems  of  various  deities,  or  the  symbol  of 
truth  and  justice  ("  Thmei").  A  gem  of  this  kind, 
formed  of  sapphires,  was  worn  by  the  chief  judge  of 
Egypt  (Diod.  i,  48,  75),  and  a  similar  one  is  repre- 
sented as  worn  by  the  youthful  deity  Harpocrates 
(Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt,  iii,  364).  The  Arabs  hang 
round  their  children's  necks  the  figure  of  an  open 
hand,  a  custom  which,  according  to  Shaw,  arises  from 
the  unluckiness  of  the  number  5.  This  principle  is 
often  found  in  the  use  of  amulets.     See  Seraphim. 

The  D^'linb  (lechashim' ,  charms)  of  Isa.  iii,  20  (Sept. 
TTfpic'tZia,  Vu'lg.  inaures,  Auth.  Vers,  ear-rings),  it 
is  now  allowed,  denote  amulets,  although  they  served 
also  the  purpose  of  ornament.  They  were  probably 
precious  stones,  or  small  plates  of  gold  or  silver,  with 
sentences  of  the  law  or  magic  formula?  inscribed  on 
them,  and  worn  in  the  ears,  or  suspended  by  a  chain 
round  the  neck.  "  Ear-rings"  is  not  perhaps  a  bad 
translation.  It  is  certain  that  ear-rings  were  some- 
times used  in  this  way  as  instruments  of  superstition, 
and  that  at  a  very  early  period,  as  in  Gen.  xxxv,  4, 
where  Jacob  takes  away  the  ear-rings  of  his  people 
along  with  their  false  gods.  Ear-rings,  with  strange 
figures  and  characters,  are  still  used  as  charms  in  the 
1  East  (Chardin,  in  Harmer,  iii,  314).  Schroeder,  how- 
'  ever,  deduces  from  the  Arabic  that  these  amulets  were 
!  in  the  form  of  serpents,  and  similar  probably  to  those 
golden  amulets  of  the  same  form  which  the  women  of 
the  pagan  Arabs  wore  suspended  between  their  breasts, 
the  use  of  which  was  interdicted  by  Mohammed 
I  (Schroeder,  De  Vestitu  Mulierum,  cap.  xi,  p.  172,  173; 
Grotefend,  art.  Amulete,  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  En- 


AMULET 


20S 


AMULET 


nil  tfjO 


tory.  "  There  was  hardly  any  people  in  the  whole 
world,"  says  Lightfoot  (Hor.  Ilebr.  ad  Matt,  xxiv,  24), 
"that  more  used  or  were  more  fond  of  amulets, 
charms,  mutterings,  exorcisms,  and  all  kinds  of  en- 
chantments. .  .  .  The  amulets  were  either  little  roots 
hung  about  the  neck  of  sick  persons,  or,  what  was  more 
common,  bits  of  paper  (and  parchment)  with  words 
written  on  them,  whereby  it  was  supposed  that  dis- 
eases were  either  driven  away  or  cured.  They  wore 
such  amulets  all  the  week,  but  were  forbidden  to  go 
abroad  with  them  on  the  Sabbath,  unless  they  were 
'  approved  amulets ;'  that  is,  were  prescribed  by  a 
person  who  knew  that  at  least  three  persons  had  been 
cured  by  the  same  means.  In  these  amulets  myste- 
rious names  (especially  the  tetragrammaton,  or  sacred 
name,  ni!"P)  and  characters  were   occasionally  em- 

I  ployed  in  lieu  of  extracts 

!  from  the  law.     One  of  the 
most  usual  of  these  was  the 

!  cabalistic  hexagonal  figure 


known  as  '  the  shield  of  Da- 


Ancient  Egyptian  King  and  Ear-ring  Amulets. 
Cyclop. ;  Eosenmuller,  ad  Isa.  iii,  20 ;  Gesenius,  ad 
eund. ;  and  in  his  Thesaurus,  art.  Unb).  Thus  the 
basilisk  is  constantly  engraved  on  the  talismanic  sca- 
rabaji  of  Egypt,  and,  according  to  Jahn  (Bibl.  Arch. 
§  131),  the  lechashim  of  Isa.  iii,  23,  were  "  figures  of 
serpents  carried  in  the  hand"  (more  probably  worn  in 
the  ears)  "  by  Hebrew  women."  The  word  is  derived 
from  E3H3,  lachash' ,  to  kiss,  and  means  both  "  enchant- 
ments" (comp.  Isa.  iii,  3)  and  the  magical  gems  and 
formularies  used  to  avert  them  (Gesenius,  s.  v.).  It 
is  doubtful  whether  the  Sept.  intends  Trepidt£ia  as  a 
translation  of  this  word  (Schleusner's  Thesaui-us).  For 
a  like  reason  the  phallus  was  among  the  sacred  emblems 
of  the  Vestals  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Ant.  s.  v.  Fascinum). 
See  Ear-king.  That  these  lechashim  were  charms 
inscribed  on  silver  and  gold,  was  the  opinion  of  Aben- 
Ezra.  The  Arabic  has  boxes  of  amulets,  manifestly 
concluding  that  the}'  were  similar  to  those  ornamental 
little  cases  for  written  charms  which  are  still  used  by 
Arab  women.  These  are  represented  in  the  first  figure 
of  cut  1.  Amulets  of  this  kind  are  called  chegab,  and 
are  specially  adapted  to  protect  and  preserve  those 
written  charms,  on  which  the  Moslems,  as  did  the 
Jews,  chiefly  rely.  The  writing  is  covered  with  wax- 
ed cloth,  and  enclosed  in  a  case  of  thin  embossed  gold 
or  silver,  which  is  attached  to  a  silk  string  or  a  chain, 
and  generally  hang  on  the  right  side,  above  the  gir- 
dle, the  string  or  chain  being  passed  over  the  left 
shoulder.  In  the  specimen  here  figured  there  are 
three  of  these  chegabs  attached  to  one  string.  The 
square  one  in  the  middle  is  almost  an  inch  thick,  and 
contains  a  folded  paper ;  the  others  contain  scrolls. 
Amulets  of  this  shape,  or  of  a  triangular  form,  are 
worn  by  women  and  children;  and  those  of  the  lat- 
ter shape  are  often  attached  to  children's  head-dress 
(Lane's  Modern  Egyptians,  ii,  365).  Charms,  con- 
sisting of  words  written  on  folds  of  papyrus  tightly 
rolled  up  and  sewed  in  linen,  have  been  found  at 
Thebes  (Wilkinson,  1.  c),  and  our  English  translators 
possibly  intended  something  of  the  kind  when  they 
rendered  the  curious  phrase  (in  Isa.  iii)  is:n  ^na 
(houses  of  the  spirit  I  by  "  tablets."  It  was  the  danger 
of  idolatrous  practices  arising  from  a  knowledge  of 
this  custom  that  probably  induced  the  sanction  of  the 
use  of  phylacteries  (Deut.  vi,  X;  ix,  IS,  MBo'lO,  bil- 
lets, "frontlets").  The  modern  Arabs  use  scraps  of 
the  Koran  (which  they  call  "telesmes"  or  "alakakirs")  ' 
in  the  same  way.      See  PHYLACTERY. 

The  superstitions  connected  with  amulets  grew  to 
a  great  height  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  his- 


Cabaliftie  Amulet. 


!  vid'  and  '  the  seal  of  Solo- 
|  mon'"  (Bartoloc.  Bibliotheca 
!  Eabbinica,  i,  57G  ;  Lakema- 
I  cher,  Observatt.  Philol.  ii,143 
I  sq.).  The  reputation  of  the 
I  Jews  was  so  well  establish- 
j  ed  in  this  respect  that  even 
in  Arabia,  before  the  time 
of  Mohammed,  men  applied 
to  them  when  they  needed  charms  of  peculiar  vir- 
tue (Mishkat  vl-Masabih,  ii,  377).  A  very  large  class 
!  of  amulets  depended  for  their  value  on  their  be- 
:  ing  constructed  under  certain  astronomical  condi- 
\  tions.  Their  most  general  use  was  to  avert  ill-luck, 
etc.,  especially  to  nullify  the  effect  of  the  "  evil  eye" 
(6<p9a\j.ibr  fiacrKavoc),  a  belief  in  which  is  found  among 
all  nations.  Some  animal  substances  were  considered 
to  possess  such  properties,  as  we  see  from  Tobit.  Pliny 
(xxviii,  47)  mentions  a  fox's  tongue  worn  on  an  amu- 
let as  a  charm  against  blear-eves,  and  says  (xxx,  15) 
that  beetles'  horns  are  efficacious  for  the  same  pur- 
pose— perhaps  an  Egyptian  fancy.  In  the  same  way 
one  of  the  Roman  emperors  wore  a  seal-skin  as  a 
charm  against  thunder.  Among  plants,  the  white 
bryony  and  the  Hypericon,  or  Fuga  decmonum,  are 
mentioned  as  useful.  On  the  African  "  pieces  of  med- 
icine"— a  belief  in  which  constitutes  half  the  religion 
of  the  Africans  (see  Livingstone's  Travels,  p.  285  et 
passim). — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

Many  of  the  Christians  of  the  first  century  wore 
amulets  marked  with  a  fish,  as  a  symbol  of  the  Re- 
deemer. See  Ichthus.  Another  form  is  the  pentan- 
gle  (or  pentacle,  ride  Scott's  Antiquary),  which  "con- 
sists of  three  triangles  intersected,  and  made  of  five 
lines,  which  may  be  so  set  forth  with  the  bod}-  of  man 
as  to  touch  and  point  out  the  places  where  our  Saviour 
was  wounded"  (Sir  Thos.  Brown's  Vulg.  Errors,  i,  10). 
Under  this  head  fall  the  "curious  arts"  (ret  Tripitpya') 
of  the  Ephesians  (Acts  xix,  19),  and  in  later  times  the 
use  of  the  word  "Abracadabra,"  recommended  by  the 
physician  Serenus  Samonicus  as  a  cure  of  the  hemitri- 
taeus.  Among  the  Gnostics,  Abraxas  gems  (q.  v.) 
were  used  as  amulets.  At  a  later  period  they  were 
formed  of  ribbons,  with  sentences  of  Scripture  written 
on  them,  and  hung  about  the  neck.  They  were  worn 
by  man}-  of  the  ( 'hristians  in  the  earlier  ages,  but  were 
condemned  by  the  wiser  and  better  of  the  clergy  as 
disgraceful.  Cbrysostom  mentions  them  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reprehension  (In  Psal.  ix,  15;  also  Horn,  vi, 
Cunt,  ./minus).  The.  Council  of  Laodicea,  A.D.  3(14, 
condemns  those  of  the  clergy  who  pretend  to  make 
them,  declaring  that  such  phylacteries,  or  charms,  are 
bonds  and  fetters  to  the  soul,  and  ordering  those  who 
wore  them  to  be  cast  out  of  the  Church  (Can.  36).  Au- 
gustine (  Tract.  7,  in  Ison.)  expostulates  with  those 
that  wore  them  in  this  language:  "When  we  are  af- 


AMYOT 


209 


AMYRAUT 


fficted  with  pains  in  the  head,  let  us  not  run  to  en- 
chanters and  fortune-tellers,  and  remedies  of  vanity. 
I  mourn  for  you,  my  brethren ;  for  I  daily  find  these 
things  done.  And  what  shall  I  do  ?  I  cannot  yet 
persuade  Christians  to  put  their  only  trust  in  Christ. 
With  what  face  can  a  soul  go  unto  God  that  has  lost 
the  sign  of  Christ,  and  taken  upon  him  the  sign  of  the 
devil?"  The  practice  of  wearing  these periaptu  was 
most  probably  taken  from  the  custom  of  the  Jews,  who 
wore  the  tephilim,  or  phylacteries.  The  Council  of 
Trullo  ordered  the  makers  of  all  amulets  to  be  excom- 
municated, and  deemed  the  wearers  of  them  guilty  of 
heathen  superstition.  Faith  in  the  virtue  of  amulets 
was  almost  universal  in  the  ancient  world ;  it  need 
not,  therefore,  excite  our  surprise  that  some  of  the 
less-informed  should  have  adhered  to  the  heathenish 
practice  after  their  admission  into  the  Christian  Church. 
— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xvi,  ch.  v,  §  6. 

See,  generally,  Hiibner,  Amuletorum  historia  (Hal. 
1710)  ;  Schwabe,  Ueb.  e.  teutsches  A  mulct,  in  Meusel's 
Geschichtsforcher,  i,  121 ;  Schumacher,  De  amuleto  quo- 
dam  Gnostico  (Guelph.  1774);  Emele,  Ueb.  Amulete 
(Mainz,  1827)  ;  Kopp,  Paleographia  crit.  iii,  15.  See 
Talisman. 

Amyot,  Joseph,  a  Jesuit  missionary  to  China, 
was  born  at  Toulon  in  1718.  At  the  close  of  1750  he 
arrived  at  Macao  in  company  with  two  Portuguese 
Jesuits,  and  the  brethren  of  that  order  already  estab- 
lished at  Peking  presented  a  petition  to  the  reigning 
emperor,  Keen-Loong,  to  the  effect  that  the  new- 
comers were  well  acquainted  with  mathematics,  music, 
and  medicine.  A  persecution  against  the  Christians 
was  going  on,  but  the  reply  of  the  emperor  was  favor- 
able, and  he  directed  the  missionaries  to  be  conveyed 
to  Peking  at  the  public  expense.  Amyot  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  the  journey  in  a  letter  inserted 
in  the  "  Lettres  Edifiantes  ct  Curieuses,"  from  which 
these  particulars  are  taken.  On  arriving  at  the  cap- 
ital, where  an  underhand  sort  of  toleration  was  ex- 
tended to  the  missionaries,  he  applied  himself  to  the 
stud}'  of  the  Chinese,  and  afterward  to  the  Manchoo- 
Tartar  language  and  literature,  in  both  of  which  he 
made  great  proficiency.  From  that  time  he  appears 
to  have  acted  rather  as  a  missionary  of  learning  than 
of  religion.  While  his  name  scarcely  figures  at  all  in 
the  "  Lettres  Edifiantes,"  not  a  year  seems  to  have 
passed  without  his  dispatching  to  Europe  some  infor- 
mation on  the  history  and  manners  of  the  Chinese 
and  Tartars,  to  the  illustration  of  which  he  contrib- 
uted more  than  any  other  writer  of  the  18th  century. 
He  remained  at  Peking  43  years,  during  which  time 
the  order  to  which  he  belonged  was  dissolved,  and 
more  than  one  vigorous  persecution  was  directed 
against  the  Christians  in  China.  At  the  time  of  Lord 
Macartney's  embassy  in  1793,  Amyot  wrote  a  letter 
to  the  ambassador  on  his  arrival  in  Peking,  ''expres- 
sive of  the  most  fervent  wishes  for  his  success,  and 
offering  every  assistance  that  his  experience  could 
supply  ;"  but  he  was  then  so  infirm  as  not  to  lie  able 
to  wait  on  Lord  Macartney.  In  the  following  .year, 
1794,  he  died  at  Peking,  at  the  age  of  76.  Among  his 
works  are  :  1.  Abrege  histor.  des principaux  traits  de  la 
vie  de  Confucius  (Paris,  1789),  the  best  history  of  the 
Chinese  philosopher,  the  material  of  which  has  been 
carefully  selected  from  the  most  authentic  Chinese 
sources  : — 2.  Dictiormaire  Tatare-Mantcheou-Franmis, 
edit,  by  Langles  (Paris,  1789,  3  vols.): — 3.  Gram- 
maire  Tatare-Mantcheou  (in  the  3d  vol.  of  the  Mem. 
concernant  la  Chine)  —  Lettres  Edifiantes,  torn,  xxviii. 

Amyraldism.     See  Amyraut. 

Amyraut  (or  Amyralpus),  Moise,  a  French 
Protestant  theologian  of  the  seventeenth  century ; 
born  at  Bourgueil,  in  Anjou,  in  1596,  and  instructed 
in  theology  at  Saumur.  He  was  nominated  to  suc- 
ceed John  Daille,  at  Saumur,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  that  academy  with  Louis  Cappel 
and  Joshua  de  la  Place  (Placasus)  in  1633.  In  1631 
O 


he  was  sent  to  attend  the  national  synod  of  French 
Protestants  at  Charenton,  who  deputed  him  to  de- 
liver a  harangue  to  the  king,  which  is  inserted  in 
the  Mercure  Franrais  of  1631.  His  conduct  in  this 
afi'air  gained  him  the  esteem  of  Richelieu.  The  emi- 
nence of  the  three  Saumur  professors  drew  students 
from  many  parts  of  Europe ;  but  it  soon  began  to  be  re- 
ported that  their  teaching  was  subversive  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Dort  on  Predestination  and  Grace.  The 
views  of  Amyraut  on  these  topics  were  derived  from 
Cameron  (q.  v.),  and  were  first  published  in  a  tract, 
De  Predestinatione  (Trait  e  de  la  Predestination  el  de 
ses  principalis  dependences),  in  1634.  His  views  were 
called  Universalist  and  Arminian,  but  they  were 
neither.  Amj'raut  asserted  a  gratia  universalis,  in- 
deed, but  he  meant  \>y  it  simply  that  God  desires  the 
happiness  of  all  men,  provided  they  will  receive  his 
mercy  in  faith ;  that  none  can  obtain  salvation  without 
faith  in  Christ ;  that  God  refuses  to  none  the  power 
of  believing,  but  that  he  does  not  grant  to  all  his  as- 
sistance, that  they  may  improve  this  power  to  saving 
purposes ;  that  none  can  so  improve  it  without  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  God  is  not  bound  to  grant  to  any, 
and,  in  fact,  only  does  grant  to  those  who  are  elect 
according  to  his  eternal  decree.  "In  defending  his 
doctrine  of  universal  atonement,  Amyraut  appealed 
confidently  to  the  authority  of  Calvin;  indeed,  he 
wrote  a  treatise,  entitled  Echanlillon  de  la  doctrine  de 
Calvin  touchant  la  Predestination,  to  show  that  Calvin 
supported  his  views  concerning  the  extent  of  the  atone- 
ment, and  was  in  all  respects  a  very  moderate  Cal- 
vinist"  (Cunningham,  The  Reformers,  p.  395).  Uni- 
versal grace  (as  Amyraut  held  the  doctrine  of  it)  is  of 
no  actual  saving  benefit  to  any.  He  distinguished 
between  objective  and  subjective  grace.  Objective  grace 
offers  salvation  to  all  men  on  condition  of  repentance 
and  faith,  and  is  universal;  subjective  grace  operates 
morally  in  the  conversion  of  the  soul,  and  is  particular, 
i.  e.  only  given  to  the  elect.  The  aim  of  Amyraut  was 
to  reconcile  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists;  and  his 
views  were  received  widely,  as  seeming  to  soften  down 
the  rigid  Predestinarianism  of  Dort.  The  true  pecu- 
liarity of  Amyraut's  theology  is  the  combination  of  a 
real  particularism,  in  the  full  Calvinistic  sense,  with 
an  ideal  universality  of  grace,  which,  in  fact,  never 
saves  a  single  soul  (Schweizer,  in  Herzog,  Real-En- 
cyclop.  s.  v.).  Charges  were  brought  against  him  by 
Du  Moulin  and  others,  but  he  was  acquitted  of  heresy 
by  the  Synod  of  Alencon  (1637),  and  afterward  at 
Charenton  (1644).  Daille  and  Blondel  favored  the 
views  of  Amyraut.  He  died  in  1664.  Eleven  years 
after  (1675)  the  Formula  Consensus  Ihlvitica  (q.  v.) 
was  drawn  up  and  published,  chiefly  against  the  so- 
called  heresies  of  the  Saumur  professor.  Amyraldism 
was,  in  substance,  the  theory  adopted  by  Baxter  (q.  v.), 
and  has  been  sustained,  with  various  modifications,  in 
recent  times,  by  Williams  (Essay  on  Sovereignty, 
1813),  Payne  (Lectures  on  Sovereignty  and  Election, 
1838),  Wardlaw  (On  the  Atonement,  1844);  by  Fuller 
and  Hinton  among  Baptists;  by  T.  Scott  and  Milner 
in  the  Church  of  England;  by  many  Congregational- 
ists  and  New-School  Presbyterians  in  America ;  and, 
of  late,  by  many  ministers  of  the  U.  P.  Church  of  Scot- 
land. Among  his  writings  are,  1.  Paraphrases  <m  vari- 
ous books  of  the  N.  T.  and  of  the  Psalms  (12  vols.  8vo, 
1644-1662)  : — 2.  De  la  Vocation  des  Pasteurs  (Saumur, 
1619,  small  8vo) : — 3.  Monde  Chretienne  (Saumur, 
1652-1660,  6  vols.  8vo)  :— 4.  Traite  des  ReVgions  (Sau- 
mur, 1631,  8vo ;  transl.  into  English,  A  Treatise  con- 
cerning Religions,  etc.  Lond.  1660,  small  8vo) : — 5.  In 
Symbolum  Apostol.  exercitaiio  (Saumur,  1663,  small 
8vo) ;  besides  various  sermons  and  tracts  on  the  dis- 
puted question  of  predestination  and  grace.  A  list 
of  his  works  is  given  by  Haag,  La  France  Protestante, 
i,  72. —  Nichols,  Calvinism  and  Arminianism,  i,  220- 
230;  Morrison,  Lectures  on  Rom.  ix,  p.  376;  Neander, 
Hist,  of  Dogmas,  ii,  680;    Schweizer,  in  Baur  u.  Zel- 


AMZI 


210 


ANABAPTISTS 


ler's  Jahrb.  1852,  p.  41,  155;  Ebrard.  Christliche  Dog- 
matil;  §  43;  Smith's  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines, 
§  225  a  ;  Gass,  Geschichte  der  Protest.  Dogmatik,  ii,  328 
sq. ;  Cunningham,  Hist.  Theol.  ii,  324  sq. ;  Watson, 
Jnsts.  ii,  411.     See  Baxtek;  Camerox. 

Am'zi  (Heb.  Amtsi',  "^"SX,  strong),  the  name  of 
two  Levites. 

1.  (Sept.  'A/itcrat.)  A  Levite,  son  of  Bani,  and  fa- 
ther of  Hilkiah,  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1  Chron.  vi, 
46).     B.C.  long  ante  1014. 

2.  (Sept.  'A/MHH.)  A  priest,  son  of  Zeehariah,  and 
father  of  Pelaiah,  in  the  family  of  Adaiah  (Neh.  xi, 
12).     B.C.  considerably  ante  530. 

A'nab  (Heb.  Anab',  S33>,  gi-npe-tov,'n  ;  Sept.  'Avc'ifi 
v.  r.  'Av<tf3io5  and  'Aviov),  one  of  the  cities  in  the 
mountains  of  Judah,  from  which  Joshua  expelled  the 
Anakim  (Josh,  xi,  21 ;  xv,  50).  Nearly  west  of  Main 
(Maon)  Dr.  Robinson  (Researches,  ii,  195)  observed  a 
place  called  Anab,  distinguished  by  a  small  tower. 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Anob)  both  con- 
found it  with  a  Beth- Anab  (q.  v.)  lying  a  few  miles 
from  Diospolis  or  Lydda  (Reland,  Palast.  p.  500). 
Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  130)  says  it  is  the  village  Anabah, 
three  English  miles  east  of  Ramleh,  meaning  doubt- 
less the  Annabeh  marked  on  Zimmermann's  Map;  but 
this  is  not  at  all  in  the  mountains  of  Judah,  as  stated 
in  both  passages  of  Joshua. 

Anabaptists  («)'«,  again,  and  /3«7rr<'£a>,  /  bap- 
tize), a  name  given  to  those  who  reject  infant-baptism, 
because  they  rebaptize  such  as  join  their  communion; 
and  who  maintain  that  this  sacrament  is  not  valid  if 
it  be  administered  by  sprinkling  and  not  by  immersion, 
and  if  the'  persons  baptized  be  not  in  a  condition  to 
give  the  reasons  of  their  faith.  The  name  is  some- 
times given  reproachfully  to  the  modern  Baptists 
(q.  v.) ;  but,  as  they  disclaim  the  title,  it  should  not 
be  applied  to  them. 

1.  The  term  Anabaptists,  or  Rebaptizers,  is  con- 
nected with  the  controversies  of  the  third  century. 
In  Asia  Minor  and  in  Africa,  where  the  spirit  of  con- 
troversy had  raged  long  and  bitterly,  "  baptism  was 
considered  to  be  only  valid  when  administered  in  the 
orthodox  church."  In  the  Western  Church  the  great 
principle  of  baptism  rested  on  the  invocation  of  the 
name  of  Christ  or  of  the  Trinity ;  and,  therefore,  "any 
baptism  administered  in  the  name  of  Christ  or  of  the 
Trinity,  let  it  be  performed  by  whomsoever  it  might, 
was  held  valid,"  so  that  heretics  baptized  by  heretics, 
coming  over  to  the  Church,  were  received  as  baptized 
Christians.  So  high  were  the  disputes  on  this  ques- 
tion, that  two  synods  were  convened  to  investigate  it, 
one  at  Iconium,  and  the  other  at  Synnada,  in  Phrygia, 
which  confirmed  the  opinion  of  the  invalidity  of  hereti- 
cal baptism.  From  Asia  the  question  passed  to  North- 
ern Africa:  Tertullian  accorded  with  the  decision  of 
the  Asiatic  councils  in  opposition  to  the  practice  of  the 
Roman  Church.  Agrippinus  convened  a  council  at 
Carthage,  which  came  to  a  similar  decision  with  those 
of  Asia.  Thus  the  matter  rested,  till  Stephen,  bishop 
of  Rome,  prompted  by  ambition,  proceeded  to  excom- 
municate  the  bishops  of  Asia  Minor,  Cappadocia,  Gala- 
tia,  and  Cilicia,  and  applied  to  them  the  epithets  of 
Rebaptizers  and  Anabaptists,  A.D.  253. 

2.  A  fanatical  sect  of  Anabaptists  arose  in  Germany 
in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  who  brought 
the  name  into  great  disrepute.  It  originated  at  Zwick- 
au, in  Saxony,  in  the  year  1520,  and  its  leaders,  by 
their  lawless  fanaticism,  completely  separated  them- 
selves from  the  cause  of  the  reformers,  and  with  the 
subject  of  adult  baptism  connected  principles  subver- 
sive of  all  religious  and  civil  order.  The  vast  increase 
of  their  adherents  from  the  year  1524,  especially  among 
the  common  people  on  the  Rhine,  in  Westphalia,  Hol- 
stein,  Switzerland,  and  the  Netherlands,  was  soon  met 
by  severe  measures  on  the  part  of  the  magistrates. 
Imperial  and  ecclesiastical  decrees  were  issued  against 


them,  and  many  were  put  to  death,  after  being  urged 
to  recant.  But  persecution  produced  its  usual  fruits. 
Still  new  associations  were  perpetually  formed  by 
itinerant  prophets  and  teachers,  whose  doctrines  con- 
sisted of  the  following  propositions:  "Impiety  pre- 
vails everywhere.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  a 
new  family  of  holy  persons  should  be  founded,  enjoy- 
ing, without  distinction  of  sex,  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
and  skill  to  interpret  divine  revelations.  Hence  they 
need  no  learning :  for  the  internal  word  is  more  than 

I  the  outward  expression.     No  Christian  must  lie  suf- 

;  fered  to  engage  in  a  legal  process,  to  hold  a  civil  office, 
to  take  an  oath,  or  to  hold  any  private  property ;  but  all 

I  things  must  be  in  common."  With  such  sentiments, 
John  Bochhold,  or  Bockel,  a  tailor,  of  Leyden,  aged 

J  26,  and  John  Matthias,  or  Matthiesen,  a  baker,  of 

'■■  Harlem,  came,  in  1553,  to  Miinster,  in  Westphalia,  a 
city  which  had  adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Reforma- 

!  tion.     Here  they  soon  gained  over  a  portion  of  the 

j  excited  populace,  and  among  the  rest,  Rothmann,  a 
Protestant  clergyman,   and  the   councillor  Knipper- 

j  dolling.     The  magistrates  in  vain  excluded  them  from 

!  the  churches.     They  obtained  possession  of  the  coun- 

!  cil-house  by  violence.  Their  numbers  daily  increased, 
and  toward  the  end  of  the  year  they  extorted  a  treaty, 
securing  the  religious  liberty  of  both  parties.  Being 
strengthened  by  the  accession  of  the  restless  spirits  of 
the  adjacent  cities,  they  soon  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  town  by  force,  and  expelled  their  adver- 
saries. Matthiesen  came  forward  as  their  prophet, 
and  persuaded  the  people  to  devote  their  gold,  and 
silver,  and  movable  property  to  the  common  use,  and 
to  burn  all  their  books  but  the  Bible ;  but  in  a  sally 
against  the  bishop  of  Miinster,  who  had  laid  siege  to 
the  city,  he  lost  his  life.     He  was  succeeded  in  the 

'  prophetic  office  by  Bochhold  and  Knipperdolling.  The 
churches  were  destroyed,  and  twelve  judges  were  set 
over  the  tribes,  as  in  Israel;  but  even  this  form  of 
government  was  soon  abolished,  and  Bochhold,  under 
the  name  of  John  of  Leyden,  raised  himself  to  the  dig- 
nity of  king  of  New  Zion  (so  the  Anabaptists  of  Miin- 
ster styled  their  kingdom),  and  caused  himself  to  be 
formally  crowned.     From  this  period  (1534)  Minister 

;  was  a  theatre  of  all  the  excesses  of  fanaticism,  lust, 
and  cruelty.     The  introduction  of  polygamy,  and  the 

I  neglect  of  civil,  order,  concealed  from  the  infatuated 
people  the  avarice  and  madness  of  their  young  tyrant 

i  and  the  daily  increase  of  danger  from  abroad.  Boch- 
hold lived  in  princely  luxury  and  magnificence;  he 
sent  out  seditious  proclamations  against  neighboring 
rulers — against  the  Pope  and  Luther;  he  threatened 
to  destroy  with  his  mob  all  who  differed  in  opinion 
from  him  ;  made  himself  an  object  of  terror  to  his  sub- 
jects by  frequent  executions,  and  while  famine  and 
pestilence  raged  in  the  city,  persuaded  the  wretched, 
deluded  inhabitants  to  a  stubborn  resistance  of  their 
besiegers.  The  city  was  at  last  taken,  June  24,  15S5, 
by  treachery,  though  not  without  a  brave  defence,  in 
which  Rothmann  and  others  were  killed,  and  the  king- 
dom of  the  Anabaptists  destroyed  by  the  execution  of 

■  the  chief  men.  Bochhold,  and  two  of  his  most  active 
companions,  Knipperdolling  and  Krechting,  were  tor- 
tured to  death  with  red-hot  pincers,  and  then  hung  up 
in  iron  cages  on  St.  Lambert's  steeple,  at  Miinster,  as 
a  terror  to  all  rebels.  In  the  mean  time,  some  of  the 
twenty-six  apostles,  who  were  sent  out  by  Bochhold 
to  extend  the  limits  of  his  kingdom,  had  been  success- 

!  ful  in  various  places ;  and  many  independent  teachers, 
who  preached  the  same  doctrines,  continued  active  in 
the  work  of  founding  a  new  empire  of  pure  Christians, 
and  propagating  their  visions  and  revelations  in  the 
countries  above  mentioned.  It  is  true  that  they  re- 
jected the  practice  of  polygamy,  community  of  goods, 

j  and  intolerance  toward  those  of  different  opinions, 
which  had  prevailed  in  Miinster ;  but  they  enjoined 
upon  their  adherents  the  other  doctrines  of  the  early 
Anabaptists,  and  certain  heretical  opinions  in  regard 


ANACIIORETS 


211 


ANACLETUS 


to  the  humanity  of  Christ,  occasioned  by  the  contro- 
versies of  that  day  about  the  sacrament.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  Anabaptist  prophets  were  Melchior 
Hoffmann  and  David  Joris.  The  former,  a  furrier  from 
Suabia,  first  appeared  as  a  teacher  in  Kiel  in  1527; 
afterward,  in  1529,  in  Emden ;  and  finally  in  Stras- 
burg,  where,  in  1540,  he  died  in  prison.  He  formed, 
chiefly  by  his  magnificent  promises  of  a  future  eleva- 
tion of  himself  and  his  disciples,  a  peculiar  sect,  whose 
scattered  members  retained  the  name  of  Hoffmannists 
in  Germany  till  their  remains  were  lost  among  the 
Anabaptists.  They  have  never  owned  that  H.offinann 
recanted  before  his  death.  David  Joris,  or  George,  a 
glass-painter  of  Delft,  born  1501,  and  rebaptized  in 
1534,  showed  more  depth  of  mind  and  warmth  of  im- 
agination in  his  various  works.  Amid  the  confusion 
of  ideas  which  prevails  in  them,  they  dazzle  by  their 
elevation  and  fervor.  In  his  endeavors  to  unite  the 
discordant  parties  of  the  Anabaptists,  he  collected  a 
party  of  quiet  adherents  in  the  country,  who  studied 
his  works  (as  the  Gichtelians  did  those  of  Bonnie), 
especially  his  book  of  miracles,  which  appeared  at 
Deventer  in  1542,  and  revered  him  as  a  kind  of  new 
Messiah.  Unsettled  in  his  opinions,  he  travelled  a 
long  time  from  place  to  place,  till  at  last,  to  avoid  per- 
secution, in  1554,  he  became  a  citizen  of  Basil,  under 
the  name  of  John  of  Bruges.  In  1556,  after  an  honor- 
able, life,  he  died  there  among  the  Calvinists.  In  1559 
his  long-concealed  heresy  was  first  made  public.  He 
was  accused,  though  without  much  reason,  of  profligate 
doctrine  and  conduct,  and  the  Council  of  Basil  con- 
demned him,  and  ordered  his  body  to  be  burnt.  A 
friend  of  Joris  was  Nicholas,  the  founder  of  the  Fami- 
lists,  who  do  not,  however,  belong  to  the  Anabaptists. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  all  the  Anabaptists  of 
Germany  were  engaged  in  the  excesses  above  recited. 
In  fact,  between  these  excesses  and  the  doctrines  of 
the  Anabaptists,  properly  so  termed,  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  the  slightest  connection.  The  fanaticism 
of  some  of  the  early  Anabaptists  is  sufficiently  ex- 
plained b}r  the  obvious  tendency  which  exists  in  hu- 
man nature  to  rush  into  extremes.  The.  iron  hold  of 
the  papacy,  which  had  cramped  the  church  for  ages, 
being  suddenly  relaxed,  men  had  yet  to  learn  what 
were  the  true  conditions  whether  of  civil  or  religious 
liberty.  But  these  considerations  were  overlooked, 
and  the  reformed  churches,  with  one  consent,  regard- 
ed the  Anabaptists  with  horror  and  disdain.  The  cor- 
respondence of  the  Reformers  is  full  of  allusions  to  the 
subject.  They  are  seldom  spoken  of  but  with  the  se- 
verest reprobation,  and  no  distinction  is  drawn  be- 
tween the  sober  Christians  and  the  worst  fanatics  of 
the  party.  It  is  probable,  at  least,  that  their  faults 
have  been  exaggerated  even  by  the  best  writers.  A 
modern  writer  on  their  own  side  asserts  that  "  it  has 
been  proved  by  irrefragable  evidence  from  state  pa- 
pers, public  confessions  of  faith,  and  authentic  books, 
that  the  Spanheims,  Heidegger,  Hoffmann,  and  others, 
have  given  a  fabulous  account  of  the  German  Baptists, 
and  that  the  younger  Spanheim  had  taxed  them  with 
holding  thirteen  heresies,  of  which  not  a  single  socie- 
ty of  them  believed  one  word ;  yet  later  writers  quote 
these  historians  as  devoutly  as  if  all  they  affirmed 
were  allowed  to  be  true." — Robinson,  History  of  the 
Baptists;  Marsden,  Churches  and  Sects,  i,  81;  Ottii 
Annal.  Anabaptist.  (Basil.  1672)  ;  Cornelius,  Gcschichts- 
quellen  des  Bisthums  Miinster  (Miinst.  1853):  Hase, 
Dm  Reich  der  Wiedertaufer  (Leipz.  2d  edit.  1860); 
Cornelius  (Rom.  Cath.),  Geschickte  des  Miinsteriscken 
Anfrvhrs  (Leipz.  1860).  See  Baptists;  Dunkers; 
Hoffmann  ;  Mennonites. 

Anachorets  or  Anchorets  (avaxopew,  *°  sepa- 
rate, to  retire,  to  withdrmc),  monks,  so  called  from 
their  retiring  from  society,  and  living  privately  in 
cells.  AVhen  the  ascetics  withdrew  to  the  lonely  and 
remote  districts  of  the  Egyptian  desert,  they  assumed 
particular  appellations,   expressive  of  their  solitary 


I  mode  of  life  :  monks,  from  the  Greek  fiovoc,  alone,  one 
who  dwells  alone;  eremites,  corrupted  into  hermit*, 
from  ipiifioc,  a  desert;  and  anchorets,  those  who  with- 
draw from  society.  These  terms  were  afterward  em- 
ployed to  define  more  accurately  the  various  shades  of 
austerity  by  which  these  ascetics  were  distinguished. 
Thus,  monks  denoted  those  who  adopted  a  secluded 
habit  of  life,  but  were  still  disposed  occasionally  to 
hold  intercourse  with  society,  and  later,  as  canohites, 
to  dwell  in  communities;  the  hermits  were  those  who 
withdrew  to  sequestered  places,  but  who  did  not  deny 
themselves  a  fixed  place  of  shelter,  or  that  supply  of 
food  which  might  be  obtained  from  cultivating  the 
ground;  the  anchorets  were  most  excessive  in  their 
austerities,  and  chose  the  wildest  localities  as  their  re- 
treats. Many  of  the  anchorets  voluntarily  subjected 
themselves  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  without 
proper  habitation  or  clothing,  restricted  themselves  to 
coarse  and  scanty  fare,  wore  chains  and  iron  rings, 
and  even  throughout  many  years  maintained  painful 
postures,  such  as  standing  on  the  top  of  a  pillar  [see 
Stylites],  thus  displaying  an  earnestness  which 
greater  enlightenment  might  have  directed  to  the  good 
of  mankind.  Paul  (q.  v.)  the  Hermit,  and  Antony 
(q.  v.),  were  among  the  first  and  most  celebrated  an- 
chorets. The  anchorets  were  not  able  always  to  pre- 
serve their  solitude  unbroken.  The  fame  of  their  sanc- 
tity drew  many  to  visit  them  ;  their  advice  was  often 
sought ;  and  the  number  of  their  visitors  was  much  in- 
creased by  the  belief  that  maladies,  particularly  men- 
tal diseases,  were  cured  by  their  blessing.  Sometimes, 
also,  they  returned  for  a  short  time  to  the  midst  of 
their  fellow-men  to  deliver  warnings,  instructions,  or 
encouragements,  and  were  received  as  if  the}-  had  been 
inspired  prophets  or  angels  from  heaven.  The  num- 
ber of  anchorets,  however,  gradually  diminished,  and 
the  religious  life  of  convents  was  preferred  to  that  of 
the  hermitage.  The  Western  Churn,  indeed,  at  no 
time  abounded  in  anchorets  like  the  Eastern,  and  per- 
haps the  reason  may  in  part  be  found  in  the  difference 
of  climate,  which  renders  a  manner  of  life  impossible 
in  most  parts  of  Europe  that  could  be  pursued  for 
many  years  in  Egypt  or  Syria. — Helyot,  Ordres  Relig. 
t.  i.     See  Ccenobite  ;  Monachism;  Asceticism. 

Anacletus  or  Cletus,  bishop  of  Rome,  said  to 
have  been  elected  in  A.D.  83,  and  to  have  died  A.D. 
86.  The  Roman  Church  honors  him  as  a  martyr,  as 
she  does  the  other  popes  who  lived  during  this  period, 
upon  the  ground  that  those  among  them  who  were 
not  actually  put  to  death  by  the  sword  did  not  suffer 
less  for  the  faith. — Baillet,  July  13 ;  Eusebius,  lib.  iii, 
cap.  13,  15. 

Anacletus  II,  Antipope.  His  name  was  Peter  of 
Leon,  cardinal  of  Santa  Maria  beyond  the  Tiber,  and 
upon  the  death  of  Honorius  II  he  was  elected  in  op- 
position to  Innocent  II.  A  part  of  the  cardinals  at  the 
same  time  seceded  and  elected  Innocent.  Anacletus 
kept  Innocent  besieged  in  the  palace  of  the  Lateran, 
and  obtained  possession  of  the  city  of  Rome  and  the  en- 
tire papal  dominions.  He  wrote  to  all  the  princes  of 
Europe  in  order  to  be  recognised,  but  in  this  he  met  with 
no  success.  He  was  condemned  by  the  Councils  of 
Rheims  and  Pisa,  rejected  by  the  larger  portion  of  the 
clergy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  world,  not  recognised  by 
any  sovereign  except  Roger  of  Sicily,  to  whom  he  had 
given  his  sister  in  marriage,  and  the  duke  of  Aqui- 
tania  ;  but  in  Rome  he  maintained  himself,  notwith- 
standing the  arms  of  the  Emperor  Lothaire,  who  pro- 
tected Innocent.  This  schism  lasted  eight  years,  un- 
til the  death  of  Anacletus  in  1138.  Voltaire  calls  him, 
ironically,  the  Jewish  pope,  because  he  descended  from 
a  Jewish  family  which  had  grown  rich  at  the  expense 
of  the  church.  Anacletus  was  a  disciple  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia  (q.  v.),  and  found  implacable  enemies  in  St. 
Bernard  and  Arnoul,  archdeacon  of  Seez. — Hoefer, 
Biog.  Ginirale,  ii,  408  ;  Riddle,  Hist,  of  Papacy,  ii,  169. 


AlVAEL 


212 


ANAKIM 


An'ael  ('AiW/X,  prob.  contracted  for  Anaiiief),  the 
"brother  of  Tobit,  and  father  of  Achiacharus  (Tob.  i,  21). 

AnagllOStes  (avayv(i)aTi]c),  reader,  the  name  of 
a  class  of  officers  in  the  early  church.  In  the  Greek 
Church  they  held  the  first  rank  in  the  lower  order  of 
Officers  ;  in  the  Roman  Church  they  were  next  to  the 
Bab-deacons.  The)'  have  sometimes  been  regarded  as 
an  order  instituted  by  the  apostles,  and  by  them  de- 
rived from  the  Jewish  synagogue.  Compare  Luke  iv, 
16 ;  Acts  xiii,  15,  27 ;  2  Cor.  iii.  There  were  among 
the  Jews  persons  who  performed  the  same  office  as 
readers  among  the  Christians.  There  is  not,  how- 
ever, any  proof  of  the  early  appointment  of  a  special 
minister  in  the  capacity  of  reader:  the  office  was  prob- 
ably instituted  in  the  third  century.  Tertnllian  distin- 
guishes the  lector  from  the  episcopus,  presbyter,  and  dia- 
conus;  and  the  church  observed  a  fixed  rule  respecting 
the  office  and  duty  of  these  respective  ministers.  Both 
in  the  synagogue  and  in  the  early  Christian  Church, 
any  person  who  was  able  to  discharge  the  duty  was 
allowed  to  hold  the  office  of  reader,  without  reference 
to  age.  Boys  of  twelve,  ten,  and  eight  years  of  age, 
were  frequently  employed  in  this  manner.  The  office 
was  a  favorite  one  with  youths  in  the  higher  classes 
of  society.  Julian,  afterward  the  apostate,  in  his 
younger  years  was  reader  in  a  church  in  Nicomedia. 
— Bingham,  On'//.  Eccles.  bk.  iii,  ch.  v. 

Anagogical  (avayw,  to  lead  or  bring  up),  in  the 
older  writers  on  interpretation,  is  one  of  the  four  senses 
of  Scripture,  viz.  the  literal,  allegorical,  anagogical, 
and  tropical.  The  anagogical  sense  is  when  the  sa- 
cred text  is  explained  with  regard  to  eternal  life ;  for 
example,  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath,  in  the  anagogical 
sense,  signifies  the  repose  of  everlasting  happiness. 

A'nah  (Hcb.  Anah',  i"l3S,  speech  or  affliction; 
Sept.  'Avc'i),  the  name  of  one  or  two  Horites. 

1.  The  fourth  mentioned  of  the  sons  of  Seir,  and 
head  of  an  Idumaean  tribe  preceding  the  arrival  of 
Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi,  20,  29;  1  Chron.  i,  38),  B.C.  much 
ante  1964.  It  seems  most  natural  to  suppose  him  to 
he  also  the  one  referred  to  in  Gen.  xxxvi,  25,  as  other- 
wise his  children  are  not  at  all  enumerated,  as  are 
those  of  all  his  brothers  (Hengstenberg,  Genuineness 
of  the  Pentateuch,  ii,  229),  although  from  ver.  2  some 
have  inferred  that  another  person  of  the  same  name  is 
there  meant.     See  also  Dishon;  Aholibamah. 

2.  The  second  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Zibeon  the 
Hivite,  and  father  of  Esau's  wife  Aholibamah  (Gen. 
xxxvi,  18,  2-1).  B.C.  ante  1964.  While  feeding  asses 
in  the  desert  he  discovered  "warm  springs"  (aqua: 
calidae),  as  the  original,  t^H?,  yemim' ',  is  rendered  by 
Jerome,  who  states  that  the  word  had  still  this  signi- 
fication in  the  runic  language.  Gesenius  and  most 
modern  critics  think  this  interpretation  correct,  sup- 
ported as  it  is  by  the  fact  that  warm  springs  are  still 
found  in  the  region  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  Syriac 
lias  simply  "  waters,"  which  Dr.  Lee  seems  to  prefer. 
Most  of  the  Greek  translators  retain  the  original  as  a 
proper  name,  'Ia/ui'/t,  probably  not  venturing  to  trans- 
late. The  Samaritan  text,  followed  by  the  Targums, 
has  "  Emiiiis,"  giants.  Our  version  of ''mules''  is  now 
generally  abandoned,  but  is  supported  by  the  Arabic 
and  Ycneto-Greck  versions.— Kitto.      See  Mule. 

In  verse  2,  14,  of  the  above  chap.  Anah  is  called  the 
daughtt  r  of  Zibeon,  evidently  by  an  error  of  transcrip- 
tion, as  the  Samaritan  and  Sept.  have  son;  or  (with 
"Winer,  Hengstenberg,  Tuch,  Knobel,  and  many  oth- 
ers) we  may  here  understand  it  to  mean  granddaugh- 
ter, still  referring  to  Aholibamah  (Turner's  Compan. 
to  Gen.  p.  331).  See  Zibeon.  He  had  but  one  son, 
Dishon  (ver.  25;  1  Chnm.  i,  in,  41).  who  appears  to 
be  named  because  of  his  affinity  with  Esau  (q.  v.) 
through  bis  sister's  marriage.  We  may  further  con- 
clude, with  Hengstenberg  {Pent,  ii,  280;  Engl,  transl. 
ii,  229),  that  the  Anah  mentioned  among  the  sons  of 


Seir  in  v.  20  in  connection  with  Zibeon  is  the  same 
person  as  is  here  referred  to,  and  is  therefore  the 
grandson  of  Seir.  The  intention  of  the  genealogy 
plainly  is  not  so  much  to  give  the  lineal  descent  of 
the  Seirites  as  to  enumerate  those  descendants  who, 
being  heads  of  tribes,  came  into  connection  with  the 
Edomites.  It  would  thus  appear  that  Anah,  from 
whom  Esau's  wife  sprang,  was  the  head  of  a  tribe  in- 
dependent of  his  father,  and  ranking  on  an  equality 
with  that  tribe.  Several  difficulties  occur  in  regard 
to  the  race  and  name  of  Anah.  By  his  descent  from 
Seir  he  is  a  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi,  20),  while  in  v.  2  he  is 
called  a  Hivite,  and  again  in  the  narrative  (Gen.  xxvi, 
24)  he  is  called  Beeri  the  Hittite.  Hengstenberg's 
explanation  of  the  first  of  these  difficulties,  by  sup- 
posing that  one  of  the  descendants  of  Seir  received  the 
specific  epithet  Hori  (i.  e.  Troglodyte,  or  dweller  in  a 
cave)  as  a  definite  proper  name  (Pent,  ii,  228),  is  hard- 
ly adequate,  for  others  of  the  same  family  are  similar- 
ly named;  it  is  more  probable  that  the  word  Hivite 
O^Hil)  is  a  mistake  of  transcribers  for  Horite  fj^Hft), 
or  rather  that  all  the  branches  of  the  Hivites  were,  in 
course  of  time,  more  particularly  called  Horites,  from 
their  style  of  habitation  in  the  caves  of  Mt.  Seir.  See 
Horite.  As  the  name  Beeri  signifies  fontanus,  i.  e. 
"man  of  the  fountain"  ("iX3),  this  has  been  thought 
to  be  his  designation  with  reference  to  the  above 
noticed  "warm  springs"  of  Callirrhoe  discovered  by 
him  ;  whereas  in  the  genealogy  proper  he  is  fitly  called 
by  his  original  name  Anah. — Smith.     See  Beeri. 

Anaha'rath  (Heb.  Anacliaruth',  ' — in:x,  pass, 
Fiirst ;  Sept.  'AvaxepeS-,  Vulg.  Anaharatlt),  a  town  on 
or  within  the  border  of  Issachar,  mentioned  between 
Shihon  and  Rabhith  (Josh,  xix,  19).  Its  site  was  ap- 
parently unknown  in  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
(Onomast.  s.  v.  'AvtpS,  Anerith).  It  was,  perhaps,  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  tribe,  possibly  at  Meskarah, 
where  there  are  ruins  (Van  de  Velde,  Map). 

Anai'all  (Heb.  Anayah' ',  IT1^?.,  answered  by  Je- 
hovah ;  Sept.  'Avaviag,  'Avaia),  one  of  those  who  stood 
on  the  right  hand  of  Ezra  while  he  read  the  law  to  the 
people  (Neh.  viii,  4),  and  probably  the  same  with  one 
of  the  chief  Israelites  who  joined  in  the  sacred  cove- 
nant (Neh.  x,  22).     B.C.  cir.  410. 

A'liak  (Heb.  Anal/,  piS  [in  Josh.  xxi.  11,  Ann//, 
pT3"],  long-necked,  i.  e.  a  giant ;  Sept.  'Evaic),  the  son 
of  Arba,  who  founded  Kirjath-Arba  (afterward  He- 
bron), the  progenitor  of  a  race  of  giants  called  Anakim 
(Josh,  xv,  13).     B.C.  ante  1658. 

Anakah.     See  Ferret. 

Art'akim  (Heb.  Analim',  O^pSS,  Deut.  ii,  10, 11, 
21;  Josh,  xi,  21,  22;  xiv,  12,  15;  also  called  sons  of 
Anal;  p3S  1351,  Num.  xiii,  33;  piSri  132,  Josh,  xv, 
14;  children  of  Anah,  p3STl  iYV3"i,  Num.  xiii,  22; 
Josh,  xv,  14;  sons  of  the  Analim,  t^pSS  132,  Deut. 
ix,  2;  Sept.  'Evaai/j.  i'ioi  "Evan,  yiviai  'Evdic,  ytvta 
'EvaK,  yiycivrtg;  Vulg.  Enacim,  filii  Enalim,  filii 
Enac,  stirps  Enac;  Auth.  Vers.  "Anakims,"  "sons 
of  Anak,"  "children  of  Anak,"  "sons  of  the  Anak- 
ims"), a  nomadic  tribe  of  giants  (Num.  xiii,  34  ;  Deut. 
ix,  2)  [see  Nephilim]  descended  from  a  certain  Arba 
(Josh,  xiv,  15;  xv,  13;  xxi,  11),  and  bearing  the 
name  of  their  immediate  progenitor,  Anak  (Josh,  xi, 
21),  dwelling  in  the  southern  part  of  Palestine,  partic- 
ularly in  the  vicinity  of  Hebron  (q.  v.),  which  was 
called  Kirjath-Arba  (city  of  Arba)  from  their  ancestor 
(Gen.  xxiii,  2;  Josh,  xv,  13).  These  designations 
serve  to  show  that  we  must  regard  Anak  as  the  name 
of  the  race  as  well  as  that  of  an  individual,  and  this 
is  continued  by  what  is  said  of  Arba,  their  progenitor, 
that  he  "  was  a  great  man  among  the  Anakim"  (Josh, 
xiv,  15).  '1  he  Anakim  appear  (see  Bochart,  Cha- 
nuan,  i,  1)  to  have  been  a  tribe  of  Cushite  wanderers 


ANALOGY 


213 


ANAM 


from  Babel,  and  of  the  same  race  as  the  Philistines,  | 
the  Phoenicians,  the  Philistim,  and  the  Egyptian  shep-  j 
herd-kings  (see  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  inly,  1852,  p.  303  sq. ;  ! 
Jan.  1853,  p.  293  sq.)-  The  supposition  of  Michaelis 
(Syntag.  Comment,  i,  196;  also  Lowth,  p.  133)  that  j 
they  were  a  fragment  of  the  aboriginal  Troglodytes  ' 
is  opposed  to  Josh,  xi,  21  (see  Faber,  Arckoeol.  p.  44 
sq.).  They  consisted  of  three  tribes,  descended  from 
and  named  after  the  three  sons  of  Anak — Ahiman,  | 
Sesai,  and  Talmai  (Josh,  xv,  14).  When  the  Israel-  j 
ites  invaded  Canaan,  the  Anakim  were  in  possession 
of  Hebron,  Debir,  Anab,  and  other  towns  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  south  (Josh,  xi,  21).  Their  formidable  stat- 
ure and  warlike  appearance  struck  the  Israelites  with 
terror  in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  xiii,  28,  33;  Deut. 
ix,  2) ;  but  they  were  nevertheless  dispossessed  by 
Joshua,  and  utterly  driven  from  the  land,  except  a 
small  remnant  that  found  refuge  in  the  Philistine 
cities,  Gaza,  Gath,  and  Ashdod  (Josh,  xi,  22).  Their 
chief  city,  Hebron,  became  the  possession  of  Caleb, 
who  is  said  to  have  driven  out  from  it  the  three  sons 
of  Anak  mentioned  above — that  is,  the  three  families 
or  tribes  of  the  Anakim  (Josh,  xv,  14 ;  Judg.  i,  20). 
The  Philistine  giants  [see  Goliath]  that  David  on 
several  occasions  encountered  (2  Sam.  xxi,  15-22) 
seem  to  have  sprung  from  the  remnant  of  this  stock. 
Josephus  says  {Ant.  v,  2,  3)  that  their  bones  were  still 
shown  at  Hebron,  and  Benjamin  of  Tudela  tells  a  story 
respecting  similar  relics  at  Damascus  (Itin.  p.  56). 
See  Giant.  According  to  Arabic  tradition,  Ov,  king 
of  Bashan,  was  of  this  race,  and  the  same  dubious  au- 
thority states  that  the  prophet  Shoaib  or  Jethro  was 
sent  by  the  Lord  to  instruct  the  Anakim,  having  been 
born  among  them  (D'Herbelot,  Bibliotheque  Orientate, 
p.  105).  They  are  thought  to  be  depicted  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments.     See  Talmai. 

Analogy  (avaXoyla),  proportion.  I.  As  applied 
to  the  works  of  God  generally,  it  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  since  He  is  the  chief  of  intelligent  agents,  a 
part  of  any  system  of  which  He  is  the  author  must, 
in  respect  of  its  leading  principles,  be  similar  to  the 
whole  of  that  system ;  and,  farther,  that  the  work  of 
an  intelligent  and  moral  being  must  bear  in  all  its 
lineaments  the  traces  of  the  character  of  its  author. 
In  accordance  with  these  principles  of  analogy,  it  is 
maintained  that  the  revelation  of  God  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures  is  in  all  respects  agreeable  to  what  we  know 
of  God,  from  the  works  of  nature  and  the  order  of  the 
world,  and  that  such  agreement  amounts  to  a  strong 
evidence  that  the  book  professing  to  contain  this  rev- 
elation of  God's  mind  and  purposes  is  really  and  truly 
indited  by  Him.  The  best  exposition  of  this  argu- 
ment is  to  be  found  in  Bishop  Butler's  immortal  Anal- 
°fJ'J  of  Religion  to  the  Constitution  and  Course,  of  Nature 
(best  ed.  by  Crooks,  N.  Y.  12mo).     See  Butler. 

2.  The  analogy  of  faith  is  the  correspondence  of 
the  several  parts  of  divine  revelation  in  one  consistent 
■whole.  Its  use  is  pointed  out  by  the  apostle  in  his  di- 
rection (Rom.  xii,  6)  that  "prophecy" — that  is,  preach- 
ing— be  according  to  "the  proportion  of  faith."  His 
rule,  of  course,  extends  to  all  interpretation  and  ex- 
position of  Scripture.  The  parts  of  Scripture  must  be 
explained  according  to  the  tenor  of  the  whole;  and, 
in  order  to  his  doing  this,  the  reader  must  understand 
the  design  of  the  whole.  If  he  do  not,  he  will  be  con- 
tinually liable  to  fall  into  error.  Prejudices  and  lean- 
ings of  our  own  will  dispose  us  to  interpret  particular 
parts  of  the  word  of  God  according  to  the  analogy  of 
our  own  system,  rather  than  according  to  the  total 
sense  of  the  divine  word.  Almost  every  sect  and 
school  of  divinity  has  fallen  into  this  error.  A  pre- 
requisite for  following  the  analogy  of  faith  is  the  sim- 
ple love  of  truth  for  its  own  sake.  This,  more  than 
any  thing  else,  will  protect  the  mind  of  a  student,  of 
Scripture  from  destroying  the  proportions  of  sacred 
truth.  The  course  necessary  to  avoid  these  errors  is 
well  stated  by  Dr.  Campbell,  as  follows  :  "In  vain  do 


we  search  the  Scriptures  for  their  testimony  concern- 
ing Christ,  if,  independently  of  these  Scriptures,  we 
have  received  a  testimony  from  another  quarter,  and 
are  determined  to  admit  nothing  as  the  testimony  of 
Scripture  which  will  not  perfectly  quadrate  with  that 
formerly  received.  This  was  the  very  source  of  the 
blindness  of  the  Jews  in  our  Saviour's  time.  They 
searched  the  Scriptures  as  much  as  we  do;  but,  in  the 
disposition  they  were  in,  they  would  never  have  dis- 
covered what  that  sacred  volume  testifies  of  Christ. 
Why  ?  Because  their  great  rule  of  interpretation  was 
the  analogy  of  the  faith ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  system 
of  the  Pharisrean  scribe,  the  doctrine  then  in  vogue, 
and  in  the  profound  veneration  of  which  they  had 
been  educated.  This  is  that  veil  by  which  the  under- 
standings of  that  people  were  darkened,  even  in  read- 
ing the  law,  and  of  which  the  apostle  observed  that 
it  remained  unremoved  in  his  day,  and  of  which  we 
ourselves  have  occasion  to  observe  that  it  remains  un- 
removed in  ours.  Is  it  not  precisely  in  the  same  way 
that  the  phrase  is  used  by  every  sect  of  Christians  for 
the  particular  S}-stem  or  digest  of  tenets  for  which  they 
themselves  have  the  greatest  reverence?  The  Latin 
Church,  and  even  the  Greek,  are  explicit  in  their  dec- 
larations' on  this  article.  With  each,  the  analogy  of  the 
faith  is  their  own  system  alone.  That  different  par- 
ties of  Protestants,  though  more  reserved  in  their  man- 
ner of  speaking,  aim  at  the  same  thing,  is  undeniable  ; 
the  same,  I  mean,  considered  relatively  to  the  speak- 
ers ;  for,  absolutely  considered,  every  party  means  a 
different  thing."  But  Chalmers  remarks  on  this,  "I 
think  Dr.  Campbell  sets  too  little  value  on  the  analogy 
of  faith  as  a  principle  of  interpretation.  He  seems 
never  to  speak  of  a  system  of  divinity  without  the  lurk- 
ing imagination  that  there  must  be  human  invention 
in  it,  whereas  such  a  system  may  be  as  well  grounded 
as  Scripture  criticism"  (Chalmers,  Institutes  of  Theolo- 
gy, i,  370 ;  and  see  further  at  that  place). 

There  has  just  appeared  (1864)  a  work  entitled 
Analogy  considered  as  a  Guide  to  Truth,  and  applied  as 
an  Aid  to  Faith,  by  J.  Buchanan,  D.D.,  professor  of 
theology,  New  College,  Edinburgh.  The  following 
notice  of  it  is  from  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  January,  1865 : 
"Archbishop  King,  and  after  him  Dr.  Copleston  and 
Archbishop  Whately,  define  analogy  as '  a  resemblance 
of  relations  or  ratios,'  so  that  there  may  be  an  analogy 
between  things  that  have  no  direct  resemblance  at  all. 
Between  the  seed  and  the  plant,  the  egg  and  the  bird, 
there  is  a  resemblance  of  '  relations,'  although  no  ex- 
ternal likeness.  'A  sweet  taste  gratifies  the  palate,' 
says  Dr.  Whately,  '  so  does  a  sweet  sound  gratify  the 
ear,  and  hence  the  same  word  "  sweet"  is  applied  to 
both,  though  no  flavor  can  resemble  a  sound  in  itself.' 
This  limitation  Dr.  Buchanan  thinks  is  too  narrow. 
While  it  is  true  to  a  certain  extent,  it  omits  the  use 
which  we  make  of  analogy  in  connection  with  concrete 
objects  and  substantive  realities.  It  is  liable  also,  he 
thinks,  to  the  objection  that  is  founded  on  a  compara- 
tive!}' small  part  of  human  knowledge,  viz.  the  sciences 
of  number  and  quantity.  Without  attempting  a  log- 
ical definition,  the  author  of  this  volume  seems  to  ap- 
ply the  term  to  all  cases  where  a  resemblance  exists." 
— Campbell,  Prelim.  Dissert,  iv,  §  13;  Home.  Infrod. 
ii,  342 ;  Knapp,  Theol.  Introd.  §  5  ;  Ana;us,  Bible  Hand- 
book, §  304-307 ;  Home,  Introd.  ii,  243.     See  Faith. 

Anara  or  Annam,  an  empire  of  Farther  India. 
The  statements  of  its  extent  and  population  greatly 
differ.  The  latter  amounts,  according  to  the  report 
of  the  missionaries,  to  more  than  twenty  millions, 
while  many  geographers  give  to  all  Farther  India  not 
more  than  fifteen  millions.  It  is  divided  into  four 
different  realms:  Tonkin,  Cochin  China,  Cambodia, 
and  Laos.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  profess  Buddhism, 
although  also  the  Kami  religion,  which  before  the 
spreading  of  Buddhism  prevailed  in  all  Farther  India, 
still  has  adherents.  Anam  is  one  of  the  principal  mis- 
sionary fields  of  the  Roman  Church.     The  first  mis- 


ANAMIM 


214 


ATAXIAS 


sions  were  established  by  Spanish  Dominicans,  who 
came  from  the  Philippine  Islands,  more  than  200  years 
ago,  ami  they  have  survived  to  the  present  day,  in 
spite  of  frequent  and  cruel  persecutions.  Especially 
since  1820  the  persecution  has  raged  with  great  in- 
tensity, and  thousands  of  Christians  have  been  either 
put  to  death  or  forced  into  apostasy.  In  1858  France 
and  Spain  sent  a  joint  expedition  against  Cochin  Chi- 
na, which,  in  September  of  that  year,  conquered  the 
fort  and  the  bay  of  Turon.  The  war  continued  until 
1862,  when  the  power  of  the  emperor  of  Anam  Avas  so 
completely  broken  that  he  made  overtures  for  the  ces- 
sation (jf  hostilities.  On  June  5,  1862,  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed,  by  which  the  provinces  of  Saigon, 
Bienhoa,  and  Mytho  were  ceded  to  France;  three 
ports  of  Tonkin  were  opened  to  commerce ;  the  other 
provinces  of  Lower  Cochin  China  not  ceded  to  France 
were  to  reserve  only  such  number  of  troops  as  the 
French  government  should  permit ;  Christianity  was 
to  be  tolerated,  and  the  Christians  protected  in  their 
lives  and  property  throughout  the  empire.  In  1863 
the  French  concluded  a  special  treaty  with  the  king 
of  Cambodia,  by  which  this  whole  kingdom  was  placed 
under  the  protectorate  of  France,  and  liberal  stipula- 
tions were  made  in  favor  of  Roman  Catholic  mission- 
aries. The  Roman  Church  had,  in  1859,  eight  vica- 
riates apostolic,  viz. :  1.  Eastern  Tonkin ;  2.  Middle 
Tonkin:  3.  Western  Tonkin;  4.  South  Tonkin;  5. 
North  Cochin  China;  6.  Eastern  Cochin  China;  7. 
Western  Cochin  China;  8.  Cambodia.  The  first  two 
are  under  the  administration  of  Spanish  Dominicans, 
the  others  under  that  of  French  Lazarists.  The  num- 
ber of  native  converts  was  estimated  in  1854  at  about 
500,000  or  600,000,  but  has  since  considerably  decreased, 
in  consequence  of  the  persecution.  The  number  of  the 
native  priests  amounted  to  about  300,  and  there  were 
also  numerous  congregations  of  native  nuns.  In  1859 
the  letters  of  several  missionaries  represented  the 
churches  of  Tonkin  and  Cochin  China  as  being  almost 
a  complete  wreck. — Wetzer  and  Welte,  s.  vv.  Tunkin 
ami  Aden  (in  vol.  xii);  Schem,  Ecclesiastical  Year- 
booh  for  1859,  p.  18,  33;  Annual  American  Encyclop, 
1862,  p.  224  ;  1863,  p.  148.     See  India. 

Aii'aimm  (Heb.  Anamim',  t"1"^:",  signif.  un- 
known ;  Sept.  'EvffttTtdfi  v.  r.  AiVf^mti'/i,  in  Chron. 
'Ava/xieift,  Vulg.  Anamim),  the  name  of  some  Egyp- 
tian tribe,  descended  from  Mizraim  (Gen.  x,  13;  1 
Chron.  i,  11).  Some  compare  the  city  Anem  (q.  v.) 
in  Palestine  (Josh,  xv,  34)  as  having  possibly  been 
settled  by  an  Egyptian  colony.  Others  (as  Bochart, 
Phali  //,  i  v,  30),  on  very  precarious  etymological  grounds 
(Aral),  anam,  a  shepherd;  transposed,  aman),  refer 
the  name  to  the  nomadic  custodians  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Amman  (hut  see  Michaelis  Suppl.  1932  sq.). 
Still  others  (as  Calmet)  regard  the  Anamim   as  the 

1  manians  or  Garamantes  in  the  oasis  Phazania  on 
the  river  Cinyphus  (q.  d.  tn,?3".  *&)  in  north-western 
Africa  (Strabo,  xvii,  835;  Ptol.  iv,  6;  Plin.  v,  4; 
Mel.  i,  8),  but  with  little  probability  (see  Schulthess, 
Parad.  p.  154).  Gesenius  (Tkes.  Heb.  p.  1052)  calls 
especial  attention  to  a  geographical  name,  Benemis, 
found  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  (Champollion, 
Cram.  i.  150)  as  perhaps  meaning  these  people  (/>'  be- 
ing the  article);  or  else  he  thinks  they  may  be  the 
Blemyes,  a  people  of  Upper  Egypt  (Champollion, 
VEgypte  sous  les  Pharaons,  i,  2561.     Among  the  old 

>  i  io  is,  Saadias  interprets  Alirmidrim-s,  the  Chaldee 
paraphrasts  (comp.  Heck,  (ul  Targ.  Chron.  i,  9  sq.) 
inhabitant*  o/MareotU  C^a'Pla  or  ^X'JN— 3).  (See 
generally  Michaelis,  Spicileg.  i.  260  sq. :  Xutcr, Comm. 

i,  131.)— Winer,  s.  v. 

Anam'melech  (Heb.  Anamme'lek,  TyZ'Z".".  Sept. 
Ai7///.':<V\.  Vulg.  Anamelech)  is  mentioned,  together 
with  Adrammelech,  as  a  rod  whom  the  people  of  Seph- 
arvaitn,  who  colonized  Samaria,  worshipped   by  the 


sacrifice  of  children  by  fire  (2  Kings  xvii,  31).  No 
satisfactory  etymology  of  the  name  has  been  discov- 
ered. The  latter  part  of  the  word  is  the  Heb.  for  king, 
but  as  the  former  part  is  not  found  in  that  language 
(unless  it  be  for  the  Arabic  sanam,  a  statue,  Gesenius, 
Tkes.  Heb.  p.  1052),  the  whole  is  probably  foreign. 
Poland  (De  vet.  ling.  Persanim,  §  9)  renders  it  Tang  of 
grief  (from  the  Persic);  but  Hyde  (Iltl.  vet.  Persar.  p. 
131)  understands  it  as  referring  (from  JO"  i.  q.  *iy, 
sheep)  to  the  Arabian  constellation  Cepheus,  contain- 
ing the  shepherd  and  the  sheep.  Benfey  (Monatsnamcn 
einiger  alter  Vdlker,  p.  188)  proposes  the  name  of  the 
Persian  goddess  Ananit  or  that  of  the  Ized  Aniran,  as 
containing  the  first  part  of  the  title  Anammelech.  So 
Rawlinson  (Herodotus,  i,  498),  who  understands  the 
female  power  of  the  sun  to  be  meant,  derives  it  from 
the  name  of  the  Assyrian  goddess  A  nunit.  Other  con- 
jectures are  still  more  fanciful.  The  same  obscuri- 
ty prevails  as  to  the  form  under  which  the  god  was 
worshipped.  The  Babylonian  Talmud  states  that  his 
image  had  the  figure  of  a  horse ;  but  Kimchi  says  that 
of  a  pheasant  or  quail  (Carpzov's  Apparatus,  p.  516). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Adrammelech. 

A'nan  (Heb.  Anan,  *5?,  cloud;  Sept.  'Evav  v.  r. 
'Hvafi),  one  of  the  chief  Israelites  that  sealed  the  sa- 
cred covenant  on  the  return  from  Babvlon  (Neh.  x, 

I  26),  B.C.  cir.  410. 

In  the  apocryphal  list  of  the  "temple-servants," 
whose  descendants  returned  from  the  captivity,  the 

j  same  name  QAvclv)  occurs  (1  Esdr.  v,  30)  in  place  of 

j  the  Hanan  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  46). 
Anauelus  ('AvavqAof,  i.  q.  llananeel),  a  descend- 

J  ant  of  one  of  the  sacerdotal  families  still  resident  in 
Babylonia,  appointed  by  Herod  high-priest  (B.C.  37)  on 

[  his  own  elevation  to  royalty  (Josephus,  Ant.  xv,  3, 1), 
but  removed  to  make  room  for  the  youth  Aristobulus 
(ib.  2,  7),  upon  whose  murder  he  was  replaced  (Jb.  3, 
3),  B.C.  cir.  34. 

Ana'ni  (Heb.  Anani',  h23",  protected,  or  perh.  a 
shortened  form  of  the  name  Ananiah;  Sept.  'Avavi 
v.   r.  "Avar),  the  last  named  of  the  seven  sons  of 

'  Elioenai,  a  descendant  of  the  royal  line  of  David  after 
the  captivity  (1  Chron.  iii,  24),  B.C.  cir.  401. 

Anani'ah  (Heb.  Ananyah' ',  it"2",  protected  by 
Jehovah),  the  name  of  a  man  and  of  a  place.  See  also 
Ananias. 

!  1.  (Sept.  'Avavia.)  The  father  of  Maaseiah  and 
grandfather  of  Azariah,  which  lasr/repaircd  part  of  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  after  the  exile  (Neh.  iii,  23).  B.C. 
considerably  ante  446. 

2.  (Sept.  'Avia.)  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
mentioned  between  Nob  and  Hazor  as  inhabited  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xi,  32).  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  133) 
regards  it  as  the  modern  Beit  Hanina,  three  miles 
north  of  Jerusalem ;  a  small  village,  tolerably  well 
built  of  stone,  on  a  rocky  ridge,  with  many  olive-trees 
(Robinson,  Res.  iii,  68 ;  comp.  Tobler,  Topog.  von  Jena, 
ii,  414). 

Anani'as  (Avaviac,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
Ananiah,  q.  v.),  the  name  of  several  men,  principally 
in  the  Apocrypha  and  Josephus.  See  also  Hananiah, 
etc. 

1.  ('Aitic  v.  r.  'Avviag.)  One  of  the  persons  (or 
place-)  whose  "sons,"  to  the  number  of  101,  are  said 
to  have  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity 
(1  Esdr.  v.  16);  but  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  15,  16) 
has  no  such  name. 

2.  One  of  the  priests,  "sons"  of  Emmer  (i.  e.  Im- 
mer),  who  renounced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  return 
from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  ix,  21);  evidently  the  IIanani 
(q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  x,  20). 

3.  An  Israelite  of  the  "sons"  of  Bebai,  who  did  the 
same  (1  Esdr.  ix,  29)  ;  evidently  the  II  ananiah  (q.  v.) 
of  the  true  text  (Ezra  x,  28). 

4.  One  of  the  priests  who  stood  at  the  right  hand 


ANANIAS 


215 


ANANIAS 


of  Ezra  while  reading  the  law  (1  Esdr.  ix,  43) ;  the 
Anaiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Neh.  viii,  4). 

5.  One  of  the  Levites  who  aided  Ezra  in  expound- 
ing the  law  (1  Esdr.  ix,  48) ;  the  Hanan  (q.  v.)  of  the 
true  text  (Neh.  viii,  7). 

6.  A  person  called  "Ananias  the  Great,"  the  son 
of  "  that  great  Samaias,"  the  brother  of  Jonathas,  and 
father  of  Azarias,  of  the  family  of  Tobit ;  who  the 
angel  that  addressed  Tobit  assumed  to  be  (Tob.  v, 
12,  13).  The  names  are  apparently  allegorical  (see 
Fritzsche,  Han  lb.  in  loc). 

7.  The  son  of  Gideon  and  father  of  Elcia,  in  the  an- 
cestry of  Judith  (Judith  viii,  1). 

8.*The  Greek  form  (Song  of  Three  Children,  ver.  66) 
of  the  original  name,  Hananiah  (q.  v.),  of  Shadrach, 
(Dan.  i,  7).     See  also  in  1  Mace,  ii,  59. 

9.  One  of  the  Jewish  ambassadors  in  Samaria,  to 
whom  the  decree  of  Darius  in  favor  of  the  Jews  was 
addressed  (Josephus,  Ant.  xi,  4,  9). 

10.  A  son  of  Onias  (who  built  the  Jewish  temple 
at  Heliopolis),  high  in  favor  with  the  Egyptian  queen 
Cleopatra  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  10,  4),  who  made  a 
league  with  Alexander  Jannneus  at  his  instance  as 
general  of  her  army  in  Palestine  (lb.  13,  2). 

11.  A  Christian  belonging  to  the  infant  church  at 
Jerusalem,  who,  conspiring  with  his  wife  Sapphira  to 
deceive  and  defraud  the  brethren,  was  overtaken  by 
sudden  death,  and  immediately  buried  (Acts  v,  1  sq.), 
A.D.  29. 

The  Christian  community  at  Jerusalem  appear  to 
have  entered  into  a  solemn  agreement  that  each  and 
all  should  devote  their  property  to  the  great  work 
of  furthering  the  Gospel  and  giving  succor  to  the 
needy.  Accordingly  they  proceeded  to  sell  their  pos- 
sessions, and  brought  the  proceeds  into  the  common 
stock  of  the  church.  Thus  Barnabas  (Acts  iv,  36,  37) 
"having  land,  sold  it,  and  brought  the  money,  and 
laid  it  at  the  apostles'  feet."  The  apostles,  then,  had 
the  general  disposal,  if  they  had  not  also  the  imme- 
diate distribution,  of  the  common  funds.  The  contribu- 
tions, therefore,  were  designed  for  the  sacred  purposes 
of  religion. — As  all  the  members  of  the  Jerusalem 
Church  had  thus  agreed  to  hold  their  property  in  com- 
mon for  the  furtherance  of  the  holy  work  in  which  they 
were  engaged,  if  any  one  of  them  withheld  a  part,  and 
offered  the  remainder  as  the  whole,  he  committed  two 
offences — he  defrauded  the  church,  and  was  guilt}-  of 
falsehood ;  and  as  his  act  related,  not  to  secular,  but  to 
religious  affairs,  and  had  an  injurious  bearing,  both  as 
an  example  and  as  a  positive  transgression  against  the 
Gospel  while  it  was  yet  struggling  into  existence,  An- 
anias lied,  not  unto  man,  but  unto  God,  and  was  guilty 
of  a  sin  of  the  deepest  dye.  Had  Ananias  chosen  to 
keep  his  property  for  his  own  worldly  purposes,  he 
was  at  liberty,  as  Peter  intimates,  so  to  do ;  but  he 
had,  in  fact,  alienated  it  to  pious  purposes,  and  it  was 
therefore  no  longer  his  own.  Yet  he  wished  to  deal 
with  it  in  part  as  if  it  were  so,  showing,  at  the  same 
time,  that  he  was  conscious  of  his  misdeed,  by  present- 
ing the  residue  to  the  common  treasurj-  as  if  it  had 
been  his  entire  propertj\  He  wished  to  satisfy  his 
selfish  cravings,  and  at  the  same  time  to  enjoy  the 
reputation  of  being  purely  disinterested,  like  the  rest 
of  the  church. 

That  the  death  of  these  evil-doers  was  miraculous 
seems  to  be  implied  in  the  record  of  the  transaction, 
and  has  been  the  general  opinion  of  the  church.  That 
this  incident  was  no  mere  physical  consequence  of  Pe- 
ter's severity  of  tone,  as  some  of  the  German  writers 
have  maintained  (Amnion,  KrU.  Journ.  d.  theol.  L't. 
i,  249),  distinctly  appears  by  the  direct  sentence  of  a 
similar  death  pronounced  by  the  same  apostle  upon 
his  wife  Sapphira  a  few  hours  after.  See  Sapphira. 
It  is,  of  course,  possible  that  Ananias's  death  may  have 
been  an  act  of  divine  justice  unlooked  for  by  the  apos- 
tle, as  there  is  no  mention  of  such  an  intended  result 
in  his  speech ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  wife,  such  an  idoa 


is  out  of  the  question.  Niemeyer  (CJiaracteristik  der 
Bibel,  i,  574)  has  well  stated  the  case  as  regards  the 
blame  which  some  have  endeavored  to  cast  on  Peter  in 
this  matter  (Wolfenb.  Fragm.  p.  256)  when  he  says 
that  not  man,  but  God,  is  thus  animadverted  on  :  the 
apostle  is  but  the  organ  and  announcer  of  the  divine 
justice,  which  was  pleased  by  this  act  of  deserved  se- 
verity to  protect  the  morality  of  the  infant  church, 
and  strengthen  its  power  for  good. 

The  early  Christian  writers  were  divided  as  to  the 
condition  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  in  the  other  world. 
Origen,  in  his  treatise  on  Matthew,  maintains  that, 
being  purified  by  the  punishment  they  underwent, 
they  were  saved  by  their  faith  in  Jesus.  Others, 
among  whom  are  Augustine  and  Basil,  argue  that  the 
severity  of  their  punishment  on  earth  showed  how 
great  their  criminality  had  been,  and  left  no  hope  for 
them  hereafter. — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

See,  generally,  Blbl.-hermen.  Unters.  p.  375  sq. ; 
Hohmann,  in  Augusti's  Theol.  BUM.  ii,  129  sq. ;  Nean- 
der,  Planting,  i,  31  sq. ;  Vita  Ep:phan.  in  his  Op.  ii,  351 ; 
Wetstein,  ii,  483;  comp.  Schmidt's  Allgem.  Bibliotk. 
d.  theol.  Lit.  i,  212  sq. ;  also  Medley,  Sermons,  p.  363 ; 
Bulkley,  Disc,  iv,  277;  Mede,  Works,  i,  150;  Simeon, 
Works,  xiv,  310;  Durand,  Sermons,  p.  223.  Special 
treatises  are  those  of  Walch,  De  Sepultura  Anan.  et 
Sapphir.  (Jen.  1755)  ;  Mcerheim,  Ananice  et  Sapph.  sa- 
crili glum  (Wittenb.  1791)  ;  Ernesti,  Hist.  Ananice  (Lips. 
1679-1680) ;  Franck,  De  crimine  Ananice  et  Sapph.  (Ar- 
gent. 1751). 

12.  A  Christian  of  Damascus  (Acts  ix,  10;  xxii, 
12),  held  in  high  repute,  to  whom  the  Lord  appeared 

:  in  a  vision,  and  bade  him  proceed  to  "  the  street  which 
j  is  called  Straight,  and  inquire  in  the  house  of  Judas 
for  one  called  Saul  of  Tarsus ;  for,  behold,  he  praycth." 
|  Ananias  had  difficulty  in  giving  credence  to  the  mes- 
sage, remembering  how  much  evil  Paul  had  done  to 
the  saints  at  Jerusalem,  and  knowing  that  he  had  come 
to  Damascus  with  authority  to  la)'  waste  the  Church 
of  Christ  there.     Receiving,  however,  an  assurance 
I  that  the  persecutor  had  been  converted,  and  called  to 
the  work  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles,  An- 
anias went  to  Paul,  and,  putting  his  hands  on  him, 
bade  him  receive  his  sight,  when  immediately  there 
fell  from  his  e3'es  as  it  had  been  scales;  and,  recover- 
ing the  sight  which  he  had  lost  when  the  Lord  appear- 
ed to  him  on  his  way  to  Damascus,  Paul,  the  new  con- 
I  vert,  arose,  and  was   baptized,  and  preached  Jesus 
j  Christ  (see  Walch,  Dissert,  in  A  ct.  Apost.  ii,  78  sq.), 
I  A.D.  30. 

Tradition  (Menolog.  Grcecor.  i,  79  sq.)  represents  An- 
|  anias  as  the  first  that  published  the  Gospel  in  Damas- 
'  cus,  over  which  placebo  was  subsequently  made  bish- 
op; but  having  roused,  by  his  zeal,  the  hatred  of  the 
Jews,  he  was  seized  by  them,  scourged,  and  finally 
stoned  to  death  in  his  own  church. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

13.  A  son  of  Nebedanis  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  5,  2), 

'  was  made  high-priest  in  the  time  of  the  procurator  Ti- 
berius Alexander,  about  A.D.  48,  by  Herod,  king  of 
Chalcis,  who  for  this  purpose  removed  Joseph,  son  of 
Camydus,  from  the  high-priesthood  (Josephus,  Ant. 

|  xx,  1,  3).  He  held  the  office  also  under  the  procu- 
rator Cumanus,  who  succeeded  Tiberius  Alexander, 
A.D.  52.  Being  implicated  in  the  quarrels  of  the  Jews 
and  Samaritans,  Ananias  was,  at  the  instance  of  the 
latter  (who,  lieiug  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  Cu- 
manus, appealed  to  Ummidius  Quadratus,  president  of 
Syria),  sent  in  bonds  to  Borne,  together  with  Ids  asso- 
ciate Jonathan  and  a  certain  Ananus  (Josephus,  War, 
ii,  12,  6),  to  answer  for  his  conduct  before  Claudius 
CsBsar  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  6,  2).  The  emperor  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  accused  part}'.  Ananias  appears 
to  have  returned  with  credit,  and  to  have  remained  in 
his  priesthood  until  Agrippa  gave  his  office  to  Ismael, 
the  son  of  Phabi  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  8,  8),  who  suc- 
ceeded (Wieseler,  Chronol.  Synopsis,  p.  187  sq.)  a  short 
time  before  the  departure  of  the  procurator  Felix  (Jo- 


ANANIEL 


216 


ANASTASIUS 


sephus,  Ant.  xx,  8,  5),  and  occupied  the  station  also 
under  his  successor  Festus  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx.  6,  3). 
Ananias,  after  retiring  from  his  high-priesthood,  "  in- 
creased in  glory  every  day"  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  9,  2), 
and  obtained  favor  with  the  citizens,  and  with  Albi- 
nus,  the  Roman  procurator,  by  a  lavish  use  of  the 
great  wealth  he  had  hoarded.  His  prosperity  met 
with  a  dark  and  painful  termination.  The  assassins 
(sicarii)  who  played  so  fearful  a  part  in  the  Jewish 
war,  set  fire  to  his  house  in  the  commencement  of  it, 
and  compelled  him  to  seek  refuge  by  concealment; 
but,  being  discovered  in  an  aqueduct,  he  was  captured 
and  slain,  together  with  his  brother  Hezekiah  (Jose- 
phus, War,  ii,  17,  9),  A.D.  67.— Kitto,  s.  v. 

It  was  this  Ananias  before  whom  Paul  was  brought, 
in  the  proeuratorship  of  Felix  (Acts  xxiii),  A.D.  55. 
The  noble  declaration  of  the  apostle,  "I  have  lived  in 
all  good  conscience  before  God  until  this  day,"  so  dis- 
pleased him  that  he  commanded  the  attendant  to 
smite  him  on  the  face.  Indignant  at  so  unprovoked 
an  insult,  the  apostle  replied,  "  God  shall  smite  thee, 
thou  whited  wall" — a  threat  which  the  previous  de- 
tails serve  to  prove  wants  not  evidence  of  having  taken 
effect.  Paul,  however,  immediately  restrained  his  an- 
ger, and  allowed  that  he  owed  respect  to  the  office 
which  Ananias  bore.  After  this  hearing  Paul  was 
sent  to  Csesarea,  whither  Ananias  repaired  in  order  to 
lay  a  formal  charge  against  him  before  Felix,  who 
postponed  the  matter,  detaining  the  apostle  mean- 
while, and  placing  him  under  the  supervision  of  a  Ro- 
man centurion  (Acts  xxiv).  Paul's  statement,  "I 
wist  not  (ovk  i,cin'),  brethren,  that  he  was  the  high- 
priest"  (Acts  xxiii,  5),  has  occasioned  considerable 
difficulty  (see  Cramer,  Be  Paulo  in  Synedrio  verba  fa- 
ciente,  Jen.  1735 ;  Brunsmann,  A  n  Paulus  vere  ignorant 
Ananiam  esse  summum  sacerdotem,  in  his  Hendecad. 
Diss.  Hafn.  1691,  p.  44  sq.),  since  he  could  scarcely 
have  been  ignorant  of  so  public  a  fact,  and  one  indi- 
cated by  the  very  circumstances  of  the  occasion;  but 
it  seems  simply  to  signify  that  the  apostle  had  at  the 
moment  overlooked  the  official  honor  due  to  his  parti- 
san judge  (see  Kuinol,  Comment,  in  loc).     See  Paul. 

14.  An  eminent  priest,  son  of  Masambalus,  slain  by 
Simon  during  the  final  siege  of  Jerusalem  (Josephus, 
War,  v,  13,  1). 

Anan'iel  QAvaviri\  i.  q.  Hananeel,  q.  v.),  the  son 
of  Aduel,  father  of  Tobiel,  and  grandfather  of  Tobit 
(Tob.  i,  1). 

Ananus  {"Ai'avoc,  prob.  a  Greek  form  of  JTanan, 
q.  v.),  the  name  of  several  men  in  Josephus. 

1.  The  senior  of  that  name,  whose  five  sons  all  en- 
joyed the  office  of  high-priest  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  9, 
1),  an  office  that  he  himself  filled  with  the  greatest 
fidelity  {War,  iv,  3,  7).  He  is  probably  the  same  as 
Ananus,  the  son  of  Seth,  who  was  appointed  high- 
priest  by  Cyrenius  {Ant.  xxiii,  2, 1),  and  removed  by 
Valerius  Gratus  {ib.  2).  He  is  apparently  the  Annas 
(q.  v.)  mentioned  in  the  Gospels. 

2.  Son  of  the  preceding,  high-priest  three  months, 
A.D.  02,  by  appointment  of  Agrippa  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xx,  9,  1).  He  was  a  man  extremely  bold  and  enter- 
prising, of  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees  ;  who,  thinking  it 
a  favorable  opportunity,  after  the  death  of  Festus, 
governor  of  Judaea,  and  before  the  arrival  of  Albums, 
his  successor,  assembled  the  Sanhedrim,  and  therein 
procured  the  condemnation  of  James,  the  brother  (or 
relative)  of  Christ,  who  is  often  called  the  bishop  of 
Jerusalem,  and  of  some  others,  whom  they  stigmatized 
as  guilty  of  impiety,  and  delivered  to  be  stoned.  This 
was  extremely  displeasing  to  all  considerate  men  in 
Jerusalem,  and  they  sent  privately  to  King  Agrippa, 
who  had  just  arrived  in  Judiva,  entreating  that  he 
would  prevent  Ananus  from  taking  such  pro.  eedings 
in  future.  He  was,  in  consequence,  deprived  of  his 
office.  lie  was  exceedingly  active  in  inflaming  the 
Zealots  (Josephus,  Life,  88;  War,  iv,  3,  9-14),  and, 


in  consequence,  was  put  to  death  at  Jerusalem  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Jewish  wars,  A.D.  67  {ib.  iv,  5,  2). 

3.  Son  of  Bamadus,  the  most  barbarous  of  all  the 
guards  of  Simon  the  tyrant  during  the  final  siege  of 
Jerusalem  (Josephus,  War,  v,  13,  1).  He  was  from 
Emmaus,  and  deserted  to  the  Romans  before  the  cap- 
ture of  the  city  {ib.  vi,  4,  2). 

4.  A  governor  (of  the  Temple),  sent  by  Quadratus 
as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  along  with  the  high-priest 
Ananias  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  6,  2);  called  in  the  par- 
allel passage  {War,  ii,  12,  6)  the  son  of  this  Ananias. 
He  was  perhaps  the  same  elsewhere  {War,  ii,  19,  5) 
called  the  son  of  Jonathan  (comp.  I  Far,  ii,  12,  5). 

Anaphali.     See  Heron. 

Anaphora  {c'a>a<popa,  raising  up),  in  the  Greek 
Church  Liturgy,  is  that  part  of  the  service  which  in- 
cludes the  consecration  of  the  elements.  The  book 
containing  the  service  is  also  called  A  naphora.  The 
term  answers  to  the  canon  missce  of  the  Roman  Liturgy. 
— Palmer,  Orig.  Liturg.  i,  20. 

Anastasia,  a  martyr  of  the  fourth  century,  of 
Roman  descent,  instructed  in  the  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity by  Chrysogonus.  Her  father,  being  a  pagan, 
gave  her  in  marriage  to  a  man  of  his  own  faith  named 
Publius,  who  informed  against  her  as  a  Christian. 
By  command  of  Florus,  governor  of  Illyricum,  she 
was  put  to  the  torture;  but,  her  faith  remaining  un- 
shaken, he  ordered  her  to  be  burnt,  which  sentence 
was  executed  December  25,  A.D.  304,  about  one  month 
after  the  martyrdom  of  Chrysogonus,  her  instructor. 
The  Greeks  commemorate  her  as  a  saint  on  Dec.  22: 
the  Latins,  Dec.  25. — Baillet,  under  Dec.  25, 

Anastasis.     See  Resurrection. 

Anastasius  I,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded 
Siricus  about  the  year  398.  He  was  a  contemporary 
of  St.  Jerome,  who  speaks  highly  of  his  probity  and 
apostolic  zeal.  He  condemned  the  doctrine  of  Origen, 
and  excommunicated  Rufinus,  who,  in  a  controversy 
with  Jerome,  had  been  the  advocate  of  Origen.  Ana- 
stasius is  said  to  have  acknowledged  that  he  did  not 
understand  the  controversy.  Rufinus  wrote  an  apolo- 
gy, which  is  found  in  Constant's  collection  of  the 
"  Epistles  of  the  Popes."  Anastasius  died  in  402,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Innocent  I. — Riddle,  Hist,  of  Papacy, 
i,  150  ;  Baillet,  under  April  27. 

II,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  Gelasius  I  in 
496.  He  endeavored  to  put  an  end  to  the  schism  then 
existing  between  the  see  of  Constantinople  and  that 
of  Rome  about  the  question  of  precedence.  Two  let- 
ters written  by  him  on  the  occasion  to  the  Emperor 
Anastasius  are  still  extant.  He  also  wrote  a  con- 
gratulatory letter  to  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  on  his 
conversion  to  Christianity.  He  endeavored  to  revoke 
the  condemnation  of  Acacius  (q.  v.),  and  thus  brought 
upon  himself  the  hatred  of  the  Roman  clergy  (Baro- 
nius,  sub  anno  497).  He  died  A.D.  498.— Riddle, 
Hist,  of  Papacy,  i,  192;  Baronius,  Anna!.  A.D.  496. 

III,  Pope,  likewise  a  Roman,  succeeded  Sergius 
III  in  914,  and  died  the  following  year. 

IV,  Cardinal  Conrad,  bishop  of  Sabina,  was  elected 
pope  in  1153,  after  the  death  of  Eugenius  III.  Rome 
was  then  in  a  very  disturbed  state,  owing  to  the 
movements  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  and  his  followers. 
Anastasius  died  in  1154,  and  was  succeeded  by  Adrian 
IV.     He  wrote  a  work  on  the  Trinity. 

Anastasius,  Anti-pope,  elected  about  855  in  oppo- 
sition to  Benedict  III.  Emperor  Louis,  at  the  request 
of  the  people  and  clergy  of  Rome,  induced  him  to  resign. 

Anastasius,  St.,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  was  raised 
to  that  throne  in  561.  The  Emperor  Justinian,  who 
favored  the  errors  of  the  Aphthartodocetm  (who  held 
that  our  Lord  before  his  resurrection  was,  as  to  his 
flesh,  incorruptible  and  incapable  of  suffering),  did  all 
in  his  power  to  induce  Anastasius  to  support  them 
also,  but  he  persisted  in  opposing  them.     Justin  II 


ANASTASIUS 


217 


ANATHEMA 


banished  him  from  Antioch,  which  he  did  not  revisit 
until  593,  after  twenty-three  years  of  exile.  He  died 
in  598  or  599,  amid  the  heaviest  afflictions.  Gregory 
the  Great  wrote  often  to  him  to  console  him,  and  to 
congratulate  him  on  his  return.  In  the  second  coun- 
cil of  Nicsea,  a  letter  of  Anastasius  was  read,  in  which 
he  drew  the  distinction  between  the  worship  due  to 
God,  and  that  which  we  render  to  men  and  angels, 
viz.,  that  we  serve  God  alone.  His  remains  may  be 
found  in  Bib.  Max.  Patr.  torn,  ix,  and  in  Combefis, 
Nov.  Auct.  torn.  i.  He  is  often  confounded  with  Ana- 
stasius Sinaila  (q.  v.). — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  336. 

Anastasius,  St.,  surnamed  Astiuc,  the  apostle 
of  Hungary,  born  in  954,  died  Sept.  10, 1044.  He  en- 
tered the  Benedictine  order  at  Rouen,  France.  Sub- 
sequently he  went  to  Bohemia  with  Adalbert,  bishop 
of  Prague,  by  whom  he  was  made  abbot  of  Brau- 
nau.  When  Adalbert  had  to  flee  from  Bohemia,  Astric 
left  with  him.  He  found  an  asylum  at  the  court  of 
Duke  Stephen  of  Hungary,  who,  in  the  year  1000,  put 
him  at  the  head  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St.  Mar- 
tin. Stephen  having  divided  his  duchy  into  ten  bish- 
oprics, that  of  Colocza  was  accorded  to  Astric,  who 
henceforth  assumed  the  name  Anastasius.  The  duke 
then  sent  him  to  Rome  to  obtain  from  the  pope,  Syl- 
vester II,  the  sanction  of  the  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion of  Hungary,  and  for  him  (Stephen)  the  title  of 
king.  Anastasius  was  successful  in  this  mission ;  he 
brought  back  for  Stephen,  with  the  royal  crown  and 
the  double  cross,  the  right  to  regulate  the  affairs  of 
the  Hungarian  Church.  Being  proclaimed  king  by 
the  nation,  Stephen  was  consecrated  and  crowned  bv 
Anastasius.  The  latter  was,  during  three  years,  pro- 
visional metropolitan  of  Hungary,  the  archbishop  of 
Strigonia  being,  by  a  temporary  loss  of  sight,  prevent- 
ed from  discharging  the  duties  of  his  office.  While 
provisional  metropolitan,  Anastasius  was  present  at 
the  assembly  of  P>ankfort,  and  blessed  the  marriage 
of  the  king  with  Gisella,  sister  of  the  Emperor  Hen- 
ry.  When  the  archbishop  of  Strigonia  recovered  his 
sight,  Anastasius  retired  into  his  diocese,  when  he  de- 
voted himself  until  his  death  to  the  propagation  of  the 
Christian  faith. — Oesterreichisches  biographisches  Lexi- 
con (Vienna,  1851)  ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  480. 

Anastasius  Sinaita,  a  monk  of  Mt.  Sinai,  born, 
it  is  supposed,  about  GOO,  though  the  date  is  undecided. 
He  is  said  to  have  travelled  much  in  Egypt  and  Syria, 
defending  the  faitli  against  the  Acephalists,  Severians, 
and  Theodosians.  In  his  "Odegos,"  or  "Guide  to 
the  Right  Path,"  he  speaks  of  John  who  was  the  The- 
odosian  patriarch  of  Alexandria  from  G77  to  686;  he 
was  consequently  alive  about  that  period,  but  when 
he  died  is  not  known.  He  is  honored  as  a  saint  in  the 
Greek  Church.  His  principal  work,  the  Odegos  just 
mentioned,  has  been  attributed  by  some  writers  to  the 
patriarch  Anastasius,  who  died  in  598;  but  the  fact 
just  mentioned,  viz.,  that  John  of  Alexandria,  who 
was  patriarch  from  677  to  686,  is  spoken  of  in  it,  will 
prove  the  impossibility  of  this.  This  work  was  pub- 
lished by  Gretser,  at  Ingolstadt,  in  1606.  Some  of 
the  MSS.  do  not,  however,  contain  the  Exposition  of 
the  Faith,  which  is  contained  in  Gretser's  edition  at 
the  beginning,  and  differ  in  many  other  particulars. 
The  complete  works  of  Anastasius  Sinaita  have  been 
published  bv  Migne,  in  Patrologia  Grceci,  torn,  lxxxix 
(Paris,  I860). 

Anastasius,  a  Persian  martyr  who  was  baptized 
at  Jerusalem.  After  his  baptism  he  retired  into  the 
'  monaster}'  of  Anastasius,  and  thence  imbibing  the 
superstitious  desire  of  martyrdom,  he  journeyed  to 
Caesarea.  When  there,  he  was  brought  before  the 
governor  Barzabanes,  who  endeavored,  first  by  bribes, 
and  afterward  by  tortures,  to  induce  him  to  forsake 
the  faith ;  failing  in  his  attempts,  he  sent  him  into 
Persia,  where  he  was  first  strangled,  and  then  behead- 
ed by  order  of  Chosroes,  January  22,  628,  the  day  on 


which  he  is  commemorated  as  a  saint  both  in  the  East 
and  West. — Baillet,  Vies  des  Saints,  Jan.  22 ;  Landon, 
Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Anastasius  (Bibliothecnrius),  librarian  of  the  Vat- 
ican, and  abbot  of  St.  Maria  Trans-Tiberim  at  Rome, 
a  celebrated  and  learned  writer  of  the  ninth  century. 
The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown.  He 
was  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the  learned  men  of  his 
age,  especially  with  Photius  and  Hincmar.  He  was 
present  in  869  at  the  eighth  council  of  Constantinople, 
where  Photius  was  condemned.  He  translated  the 
Acts  of  the  Council  from  Greek  into  Latin.  He  wrote 
a  Historia  Ecclesiaslica  (Paris,  ed.  by  Fabrotti,  1649, 
fol.) ;  but  the  most  important  of  his  writings  is  a  His- 
tory of  the  Popes,  under  the  title  De  Vitis  Romanorum 
pontificum,  a  Petro  Apostolo  ad  Nicolaum  T,  adjeetis  vitis 
Hadiiani  II  et  Stephani  IV  (Roma?,  1718-1735,  4  vols, 
fol.,  and  several  other  editions). — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  aim. 
870 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  479. 

A'liath  (Heb.  Anath',   P5S,  an  ansiver,  i.  e.  to 
prayer;  Sept.  'Ava3f),the  father  of  Shamgar,  one  of  the 
judges  of  Israel  (Judg.  iii,  31 ;  v,  0).     B.C.  ante  1429. 
Anath'ema  (avdOijia),  literally  any  thing  laid  tip 
or  suspended  (from  avariQrifii,  to  lay  up),  and  hence 
any  thing  laid  up  in  a  temple  set  apart  as  sacred  (2 
Mace,  ix,  16).     In  this  general  sense  the  form  em- 
ployed is  avaQrjua,  a  word  of  not  unfrequent  occur- 
rence in  Greek  classic  authors,  and  found  once  in  the 
N.  T.,  Luke  xxi,  5.     The  form  dvdOipa,  as  well  as 
its  meaning,  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Hellenistic 
dialect  (Valckenaer,  Schol.  i,  593).     The  distinction 
has  probably  arisen  from  the  special  use  made  of  the 
word  by  the  Greek  Jews.     In  the  Sept.  avdOsfia  is 
the   ordinary  rendering  of  the  Hebrew  word   Cltt, 
eke' rem  (although  in  some  instances  it  varies  between 
the  two  forms,  as  in  Lev.  xxvii,  28,  29),  and  in  order 
to  ascertain  its  meaning  it  will  be  necessary  to  inquire 
into  the  signification  of  this  word.     The  Alexandrine 
writers  preferred  the  short  penultimate  in  this  and 
other   kindred  words  (e.  g.  iiriQifia,  ovv9i/ja);    but 
occasionally  both  forms  occur  in  the  MSS.,  as  in  Judg. 
xvi,  19;  2  Mace,  xiii,  15;  Luke  xxi,  5:   no  distinc- 
tion  therefore    existed   originally    in    the   meanings 
of  the  words,  as  had  been  supposed  by  many  early 
writers.     The  Hebrew  Q*?n,  cherem,  is  derived  from 
a  verb  signifying  primarily  to  shut  up,  and  hence  to 
(1)  consecrate  or  devote,  and  (2)  exterminate.     Any  ob- 
ject so  devoted  to  the  Lord  was  irredeemable :  if  an 
inanimate  object,  it  was  to  be  given  to  the  priests 
(Num.  xviii,  14)  ;  if  a  living  creature,  or  even  a  man, 
J  it  was  to  be  slain  (Lev.  xxvii,  28,  29) ;  hence  the  idea 
j  of  extermination  as  connected  with  d<  voting.     Gener- 
i  ally  speaking,  a  vow  of  this  description  was  taken  only 
with  respect  to  the  idolatrous  nations  who  were  mark- 
i  ed  out  for  destruction  by  the  special  decree  of  Jehovah, 
j  as  in  Num.  xxi,  2;  Josh,  vi,  17;  but  occasionally  the 
vow  was  made  indefinitely,  and  involved  the  death  of 
j  the  innocent,  as  is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  Jephthah's 
daughter  (Judg.  xi,  31),  according  to  many,  and  cer- 
I  tainly  in  that  of  Jonathan  (1  Sam.  xiv,  24),  who  was 
I  only  saved  by  the  interposition  of  the  people.     The 
breach  of  such  a  vow  on  the  part  of  any  one  direct- 
I  ly  or  indirectly  participating  in  it  was  punished  with 
!  death  (Josh,  vii,  25).     In  addition  to  these  cases  of 
;  spontaneous  devotion  on  the  part  of  individuals,  the 
verb  C^n,  ckaram',  is  frequently  applied  to  the  ex- 
termination of  idolatrous  nations:  in  such  cases  the 
idea  of  a  vow  appears  to  be  dropped,  and  the  word 
assumes  a  purely  secondary  sense  (Sept.  i£,o\oQp£vw)  ; 
or,  if  the  original  meaning  is  still  to  lie  retained,  it 
may  be  in  the  sense  of  Jehovah  (Isa.  xxxiv,  2)  shut- 
thig  up.  i.  e.  placing  under  a  ban,  and  so  necessitating 
the  destruction  of  them,  in  order  to  prevent  all  contact. 
The  extermination  being  the  result  of  a  positive  com- 
mand (Exod.  xxii,  20),  the  idea  of  a  vow  is  excluded, 


ANATHEMA 


21S 


ANATHEMA 


although  doubtless  the  instances  already  referred  to 
(Num.  xxi,  2  ;  Josh,  vi,  17)  show  how  a  vow  was  oc- 
casionally superadded  to  the  command.  It  may  be 
further  noticed  that  the  degree  to  which  the  work  of 
destruction  was  carried  out  varied.  Thus  it  applied 
to  the  destruction  of  (1)  men  alone  (Deut.  xx,  13); 
(2)  men,  women,  and  children  (Deut,  ii,  34)  ;  (3)  vir- 
gins excepted  (Num.  xxxi,  17;  Judg.  xxi,  11);  (4) 
all  living  creatures  (Deut.  xx,  1G;  1  Sam.  xv,  3)  ;  the 
spoil  in  the  former  cases  were  reserved  for  the  use  of 
the  arm)r  (Deut.  ii,  35  ;  xx,  14  ;  Josh,  xxii,  8),  instead 
of  being  given  over  to  the  priesthood,  as  was  the  case 
in  the  recorded  vow  of  Joshua  (Josh,  vi,  19).  See 
Vow. 

I.  We  thus  find  that  the  ckerem  was  a  person  or  thing 
consecrated  or  devoted  irrevocably  to  God,  and  that 
it  differed  from  any  thing  merely  vowed  or  sanctified 
to  the  Lord  in  this  respect,  that  the  latter  could  be  re- 
deemed (Lev.  xxviii,  1-27),  while  the  former  was  irre- 
claimable (Lev.  xxvii,  21,  28)  ;  hence,  in  reference  to 
living  creatures,  the  devoted  thing,  whether  man  or 
beast,  must  be  put  to  death  (Lev.  xxvii,  29).  The 
prominent  idea,  therefore,  which  the  word  conveyed 
was  that  of  a  person  or  thing  devoted  to  destruction,  or 
accursed.  Thus  the  cities  of  the  Canaanites  were 
anathematized  (Num.  xxi,  2,  3),  and,  after  their  com- 
plete destruction,  the  name  of  the  place  was  called 
Hormah  (!T2"iri;  Sept.  avaBtfia).  Thus,  again,  the 
city  of  Jericho  was  made  an  anathema  to  the  Lord 
(Josh,  vi,  17)  ;  that  is,  every  living  thing  in  it  (except 
Rahab  and  her  family)  was  devoted  to  death;  that 
■which  could  be  destroyed  by  fire  was  burnt,  and  all 
that  could  not  be  thus  consumed  (as  gold  and  silver) 
■was  forever  alienated  from  man  and  devoted  to  the 
use  of  the  sanctuary  (Josh,  vi,  24).  The  prominence 
thus  given  to  the  idea  of  a  thing  accursed  led  naturall)' 
to  the  use  of  the  word  in  cases  where  there  was  no 
reference  whatever  to  consecration  to  the  sei'vice  of 
God,  as  in  Deut.  vii,  26,  where  an  idol  is  called  E"?H, 
or  dvddefia,  and  the  Israelites  are  warned  against 
idolatry  lest  they  should  be  anathema  like  it.  In 
these  instances  the  term  denotes  the  object  of  the 
curse,  but  it  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  the  curse 
itself  (e.  g.  Deut.  xx,  17,  Sept. ;  comp.  Acts  xxiii, 
14),  and  it  is  in  this  latter  sense  that  the  English  word 
is  generally  employed. 

In  this  sense,  also,  the  Jews  of  later  times  use  the 
Hebrew  term,  though  with  a  somewhat  different 
meaning  as  to  the  curse  intended.  The  Cin,  cherem, 
of  the  rabbins  signifies  excommunication  or  exclusion 
from  the  Jewish  Church.  The  more  recent  rabbinical 
writers  reckon  three  kinds  or  degrees  of  excommuni- 
cation, all  of  which  are  occasionally  designated  by  this 
generic  term  (Elias  Levita,  in  Sej>her  Tisbi).  (1.) 
The  first  of  these,  "^3,  niduui,  separation,  is  merely 
a  temporary  separation  or  suspension  from  ecclesiasti- 
cal privileges,  involving,  however,  various  civil  in- 
conveniences, particularly  seclusion  from  society  to 
the  distance  of  four  cubits.  The  person  thus  excom- 
municated was  not  debarred  entering  the  temple,  but 
instead  of  going  in  on  the  right  hand,  as  was  custom- 
ary, he  was  obliged  to  enter  on  the  left,  the  usual 
Way  of  departure  :  if  he  died  while  in  this  condition 
there  was  no  mourning  for  him,  but  a  stone  was 
thrown  on  his  coffin  to  indicate  that  he  was  separated 
from  the  people  and  bad  deserved  stoning.  Buxtorf 
(Lex.  Taltn.  col.  L304)  enumerates  twenty-four  causes 
of  this  kind  of  excommunication:  it  lasted  thirty 
days,  and  was  pronounced  without  a  curse.  If  the 
individual  did  not  repent  at  the  expiration  of  the 
term  (which,  however,  according  to  Buxtorf,  was 
extended  in  such  cases  to  sixty  or  ninety  days),  the 
second  kind  of  excommunication  was  resorted  to. 
(2.)  This  was  called  simply  and  more  properly  C*J"I, 
cherem,  curse.     It  could  onty  be  pronounced  by  an 


assembly  of  at  least  ten  persons,  and  was  always  ac- 
companied with  curses.  The  formula  employed  is 
given  at  length  by  Buxtorf  (Lex.  col.  828).  A  per- 
son thus  excommunicated  was  cut  off  from  all  religious 
and  social  privileges :  it  was  unlawful  either  to  eat  or 
drink  with  him  (comp.  1  Cor.  v,  11).  The  curse  could 
be  dissolved,  however,  by  three  common  persons,  or 
by  one  person  of  dignity.  (3.)  If  the  excommuni- 
cated person  still  continued  impenitent,  a  yet  more 
severe  sentence  was,  according  to  the  rabbins,  pro- 
nounced against  him,  which  was  termed  JtPfi'J,  sham- 
mata',  imprecation  (Elias  Levita,  in  Tisbi).  It  is  de- 
scribed as  a  complete  excision  from  the  Church  and 
the  giving  up  of  the  individual  to  the  judgment  of 
God  and  to  final  perdition.  There  is,  however,  reason 
to  believe  that  these  three  grades  are  of  recent  origin. 
The  Talmudists  frequently  use  the  term  by  which  the 
first  and  last  are  designated  interchangeably,  and 
some  rabbinical  writers  (whom  Lightfoot  has  followed 
in  his  Ilorce  Ilebr.  et  Talm.  ad  1  Cor.  v,  5)  consider 
the  last  to  be  a  lower  grade  than  the  second  ;  yet  it  is 
probable  that  the  classilication  rests  on  the  fact  that 
the  sentence  was  more  or  less  severe  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  ;  and  though  we  cannot  ex- 
pect to  find  the  three  grades  distinctly  marked  in  the 
writings  in  the  N.  T.,  we  may  not  improbably  consider 
the  phrase  "  put  out  of  the  synagogue,"  d-oavvdya- 
yov  Troitiv,  John  xvi,  2  (comp.  ix,  22  ;  xii,  42),  as  re- 
ferring to  a  lighter  censure  than  is  intended  by  one 
or  more  of  the  three  terms  used  in  Luke  vi,  22,  where 
perhaps  different  grades  are  intimated.  The  phrase 
"deliver  over  to  Satan"  (1  Cor.  v,  5 ;  1  Tim.  i,  20) 
has  been  by  many  commentators  understood  to  refer 
to  the  most  severe  kind  of  excommunication.  Even 
admitting  the  allusion,  however,  there  is  a  very  im- 
portant difference  between  the  Jewish  censure  and  the 
formula  employed  by  the  apostle.  In  the  Jewish 
sense  it  would  signify  the  delivering  over  of  the  trans- 
gressor to  final  perdition,  while  the  apostle  expressly 
limits  his  sentence  to  the  "destruction  of  the  flesh" 
(i.  e.  the  depraved  nature),  and  resorts  to  it  in  order 
"that  the  spirit  may  be  saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lord 
Jesus."     See  Accursed. 

II.  But,  whatever  diversity  of  opinion  there  may  be 
as  to  the  degrees  of  excommunication,  it  is  on  all 
hands  admitted  that  the  term  i2*?H,  with  which  we 
are  more  particularly  concerned  as  the  equivalent  of 
the  Greek  dvdOt/ia,  properly  denotes,  in  its  rabbinical 
use,  an  excommunication  accompanied  with  the  most 
severe  curses  and  denunciations  of  evil.  We  are 
therefore  prepared  to  find  that  the  anathema  of  the  N. 
T.  always  implies  execration  ;  but  it  yet  remains  to 
be  ascertained  whether  it  is  ever  used  to  designate  a 
judicial  act  of  excommunication.  That  there  is  fre- 
quently no  such  reference  is  very  clear :  in  some  in- 
stances the  individual  denounces  the  anathema  on 
himself,  unless  certain  conditions  are  fulfilled.  The 
noun  and  its  corresponding  verb  are  thus  used  in  Acts 
xxiii,  12,  14,  21,  and  the  verb  occurs  with  a  similar 
meaning  in  Matt,  xxvi,  74;  Mark  xiv,  71.  The  phrase 
"  to  call  Jesus  anathema"  (1  Cor.  xii,  3)  refers  not  to 
a  judicial  sentence  pronounced  by  the  Jewish  authori- 
ties, but  to  the  act  of  any  private  individual  who  exe- 
crated him  and  pronounced  him  accursed.  That  this 
was  a  common  practice  among  the  Jews  appears  from 
the  rabbinical  writings.  The  term,  as  it  is  used  in 
reference  to  any  who  should  preach  another  gospel, 
"  Let  him  be  anathema"  (Gal.  i,  8,  9),  has  the  same 
meaning  as  let  him  be  accounted  execrable  and  ac- 
cursed. In  none  of  these  instances  do  we  find  any 
reason  to  think  that  the  word  was  employed  to  desig- 
nate specifically  and  technicalby  excommunication 
either  from  the  Jewish  or  the  Christian  Church. 
There  remain  only  two  passages  in  which  the  word 
occurs  in  the  N.  T.,  both  presenting  considerable  diffi- 
culty to  the  translator. 


ANATHEMA 


21! 


ANATHOTH 


(a.)  With  regard  to  the  first  of  these  (Rom.  ix,  3), 
Grotius  and  others  understand  the  phrase  "accursed 
from  Christ,"  dvdQifia  uvea  c'nrb  too  Xpiorov,  to  sig- 
nify excommunication  from  the  Christian  Church, 
•while  most  of  the  fathers,  together  with  Tholuck, 
Riickert,  and  a  great  number  of  modern  interpreters, 
explain  the  term  as  referring  to  the  Jewish  practice 
of  excommunication.  On  the  other  hand,  Deyling, 
Olshausen,  De  Wette,  and  many  more,  adopt  the  more 
general  meaning  of  accursed.  The  great  difficulty  is 
to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  evil  which  Paul  expresses 
his  willingness  to  undergo ;  Chrysostom,  Calvin,  and 
many  others  understand  it  to  include  final  separation, 
not,  indeed,  from  the  love,  but  from  the  presence  of 
Christ ;  others  limit  it  to  a  violent  death  ;  and  others, 
again,  explain  it  as  meaning  the  same  kind  of  curse  as 
that  under  which  they  might  be  delivered  by  repent- 
ance and  the  reception  of  the  Gospel  (Deylingii  Ob- 
servatt.  Sacrce,  pt.  ii,  p.  495  and  sq.).  It  would  oc- 
cupy too  much  space  to  refer  to  other  interpretations 
of  the  passage,  or  to  pursue  the  investigation  of  it 
further.  There  seems,  however,  little  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  a  judicial  act  of  the  Christian  Church  is  in- 
tended, and  we  may  remark  that  much  of  the  difficulty 
which  commentators  have  felt  seems  to  have  arisen 
from  their  not  keeping  in  mind  that  the  apostle  does 
not  speak  of  his  wish  as  a  possible  thing,  and  their 
consequently  pursuing  to  all  its  results  what  should 
be  regarded  simply  as  an  expression  of  the  most  in- 
tense desire  (rjb\6firiv=ri{)'x6firiv  dv,  I  could  wish,  i.  e. 
were  such  a  thing  proper  or  available,  see  Winer, 
Idioms,  p.  222).  Some  have  even  thought  (taking  the 
verb  as  a  historical  Imperfect)  that  the  apostle  was 
simply  referring  to  his  former  detestation  of  Christ, 
when  yet  unconverted  (see  Bloomrleld,  Iieccnsio  Sy- 
nopt.  in  loc),  and  Tregelles  proposes  (Account  of  Gr. 
Text  ofN.  T.  p.  219)  to  remove  the  difficulty  alto- 
gether in  this  way,  by  enclosing  the  clause  in  ques- 
tion in  a  parenthesis.  See  AVoltii  Curce,  in  loc. ;  Poli 
Synopsis,  in  loc. ;  Trautermann,  lllustratio  (Jen.  1758)  ; 
Me/h.  Quart.  Rev.  1863,  p.  420  sq.     Comp.  Ban. 

(b.)  The  phrase  Anathema  Maras-atha,  uvdQtpa 
p.apdv  dBd  (1  Cor.  xvi,  22),  has  been  considered  by 
many  to  be  equivalent  to  the  KPlHUJ,  shammata,  of  the 
rabbins,  the  third  and  most  severe  form  of  excom- 
munication. This  opinion  is  derived  from  the  sup- 
posed etymological  identity  of  the  Syriac  phrase  itself, 
maran-atha  (q.  v.),  NinX  "pO,  "the  Lord  cometh," 
with  the  Hebrew  word  which  is  considered  by  these 
commentators  to  be  derived  from  firx  C"c3,  sheni  atha, 
"the  Name  (i.  e.  Jehovah)  cometh."  This  explana- 
tion, however,  can  rank  no  higher  than  a  plausible 
conjecture,  since  it  is  supported  by  no  historical  evi- 
dence. The  Hebrew  term  is  never  found  thus  divided, 
nor  is  it  ever  thus  explained  by  Jewish  writers,  who, 
on  the  contrary,  give  etymologies  different  from  this 
(Buxtorf,  Lex.  col.  24C6).  It  is,  moreover,  very  un- 
certain whether  this  third  kind  of  excommunication 
was  in  use  in  the  time  of  Paul ;  and  the  phrase  which 
he  employs  is  not  found  in  any  rabbinical  writer 
(Lightfoot,  Ilorm  Hebr.  et  Talm.  on  1  Cor.  xvi,  22). 
The  literal  meaning  of  the  words  is  clear,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  understand  why  the  Syriac  phrase  is  here  em- 
ployed, or  what  is  its  meaning  in  connection  with 
anathema.  Lightfoot  supposes  that  the  apostle  uses 
it  to  signify  that  he  pronounced  this  anathema  against 
the  Jews.  However  this  may  be,  the  supposition  that 
the  anathema,  whatever  be  its  precise  object,  is  in- 
tended to  designate  excommunication  from  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  as  Grotius  and  Augusti  understand  it, 
appears  to  rest  on  very  slight  grounds :  it  seems  pref- 
erable to  regard  it,  with  Lightfoot,  Olshausen,  and 
most  other  commentators,  as  simply  an  expression  of 
detestation.  Though,  however,  we  find  little  or  no 
evidence  of  the  use  of  the  word  anathema  in  the  N. 
T.  as  the  technical  term  for  excommunication,  it  is 


certain  that  it  obtained  this  meaning  in  the  early  ages 
of  the  Church;  for  it  is  thus  employed  in  the  apostolic 
canons,  in  the  canons  of  various  councils,  by  Chrysos- 
tom, Theodoret,  and  other  Greek  fathers  (Suiceri  The- 
saurus Eccl.  s.  vv.  dvdQtfia  and  aQopiopoe.). — Kitto, 
s.  v.     See  Excommunication. 

III.  Anathema,  in  ecclesiastical  usage,  is  the  cut- 
ting off  any  person  from  the  communion  or  privileges 
of  a  society.  The  anathema  differed  from  simple  ex- 
communication in  being  attended  with  curses  and 
execrations.  It  signifies  not  only  to  cut  oft" the  living 
from  the  Church,  but  the  dead  from  salvation.  It 
was  practised  in  the  early  Church  against  notorious 
offenders.  The  form  has  been  preserved  :  the  follow- 
ing was  pronounced  by  Synesius  against  one  Androni- 
cus :  "Let  no  Church  of  God  be  open  to  Andronicus 
and  his  accomplices,  but  let  every  sacred  temple  and 
church  be  shut  against  them.  I  admonish  both  pri- 
vate men  and  magistrates  to  receive  them  neither 
under  their  roof  nor  to  their  table ;  and  priests,  more 
especially,  that  they  neither  converse  with  them  liv- 
ing nor  attend  their  funerals  when  dead."  When 
any  one  was  thus  anathematized,  notice  was  given  to 
the  neighboring  churches,  and  occasionally  to  the 
churches'  over  the  world,  that  all  might  confirm  and 
ratify  this  act  of  discipline  by  refusing  to  admit  such 
a  one  into  their  communion.  The  form  of  denounc- 
ing anathemas  against  heresies  and  heretics  is  very 
ancient.  But  as  zeal  about  opinions  increased,  and 
Christians  began  to  set  a  higher  value  on  trifles  than 
on  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law,  it  became  a  com- 
mon practice  to  add  anathemas  to  every  point  in 
which  men  differed  from  each  other.  At  the  Council 
of  Trent  a  whole  body  of  divinity  was  put  into  canons, 
and  an  anathema  affixed  to  each.  How  fearful  an  in. 
strument  of  power  the  anathema  was  in  the  hands  of 
popes  in  the  Middle  Ages  is  attested  by  history. 
Popes  still  continue  to  hurl  anathemas  against  here- 
tics, which  are  little  retrard^d. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles. 
bk.  xvi,  ch.  ii,  §  16.     See  Interdict. 

Treatises  on  this  subject  are  the  following:  Diirr, 
De  anathemate  (Alta.  1662)  ;  Baldwin,  De  anathema- 
tismis  (Viteb.  1620);  Bose,  in  Winckler's  Tempe  sacr. 
p.  231  sq. ;  Fecht,  De  precibus  contra  alios  (Rost. 
1708) ;  Pipping,  De  imprecntionibus  (Lips.  1721) ;  Pi- 
sanski,  Vindicias  Psulmorum  oh  execrationes  (Regiom. 
1779) ;  Poncarius,  Da  imprecationibus  in  impios,  in  the 
Bibl.  Lubec.  p.  565  sq.     See  Imprecation. 

An'athoth  (Heb.  Anathoth' ',  MMS,  answers,  i.  e. 
to  prayers  ;  Sept.  'AvaSnoS:),  the  name  of  one  city  and 
of  two  men. 

1.  One  of  the  towns  belonging  to  the  priests  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  as  such  a  city  of  refuge 
(Josh,  xxi,  18).  It  is  omitted  from  the  list  in  Josh, 
xviii,  but  included  "suburbs"  (1  Chron.  vi,  60  [45]). 
Hither,  to  his  "fields,"  Abiathar  was  banished  by  Sol- 
omon after  the  failure  of  his  attempt  to  put  Adonijah 
on  the  throne  (1  Kings  ii,  26).  This  was  the  native 
place  of  Abiezer,  one  of  David's  30  captains  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  27;  1  Chron.  xi,  28;  xxvii,  12),  and  of  Jehu, 
another  of  the  mighty  men  (1  Chron.  xii,  3).  The 
"men"  (D"*b3N,  not  D"03,  as  in  most  of  the  other 
cases;  compare,  however,  Netophah,  Michmash,  etc.) 
of  Anathoth  returned  from  the  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii,  23  ;  Neb.  vii,  27  ;  1  Esdr.  v,  18).  It  is 
chiefly  memorable,  however,  as  the  birthplace  and  usual 
residence  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer.  i,  1 ;  xi,  21- 
23;  xxix,  27;  xxxii,  7-9),  whose- name  it  seems  to 
have  borne  in  the  time  of  Jerome,  "  Anathoth  of  Jer- 
emiah" (Onomast.  s.  v.).  The  same  writer  (Comment, 
in  Jer.  i,  1)  places  Anathoth  three  Roman  miles  north 
of  Jerusalem,  which  correspond  with  the  twenty  stadia 
assigned  by  Josephus  (Ant.  x,  7,  3).  In  the  Talmud 
(Yoma,  10)it  is  called  Anath  (T1V).  (For  other  no- 
tices, see  Reland's  Palcest.  p.  561  sq.)  Anathoth  lay 
on  or  near  the  great  road  from  the  north  to  Jerusalem 


ANATOLIUS 


220 


ANCILLON 


(Isa.  x,  30).  The  traditional  site  at  Kuriet  el-Enab 
does  not  fulfil  these  conditions,  being  10  miles  distant 
from  the  city,  and  nearer  west  than  north.  Dr.  Rob- 
inson {Researches,  ii,  109)  appears  to  have  discovered 
this  place  in  the  present  village  of  Anata,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  an  hour  and  a  quarter  from  Jerusalem  (To- 
bler,  Topogr.  v.  Jerus.  ii,  394).  It  is  seated  on  a  broad 
ridge  of  hills,  and  commands  an  extensive  view  of  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  mountainous  tract  of  Benjamin, 
including  also  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  Dead  Sea  (see  Hackett's  Illustr.  of 
Script,  p.  191).  It  seems  to  have  been  once  a  walled 
town  and  a  place  of  strength.  Portions  of  the  wall 
still  remain,  built  of  large  hewn  stones,  and  apparent- 
ly ancient,  as  are  also  the  foundations  of  some  of  the 
houses.  It  is  now  a  small  and  very  poor  village  ;  yet 
the  cultivation  of  the  priests  survives  in  tilled  fields 
of  grain,  with  figs  and  olives.  From  the  vicinity  a 
favorite  kind  of  building-stone  is  carried  to  Jerusalem. 
Troops  of  donkeys  are  employed  in  this  service,  a 
hewn  stone  being  slung  on  each  side  ;  the  larger  stones 
are  transported  on  camels  (Raumer's  Paliistina,  p.  169 ; 
Thomson's  Land  a?id  Book,  ii,  548). 

Its  inhabitants  were  sometimes  called  Anathoth- 
ites  (Annethothi' ',  ^f\riS3>,  "  Anethothite,"  2  Sam. 
xxiii,  27 ;  or  Anthothi' ',  "Vr?",  "  Antothite,"  1  Chron. 
xi,  28.;  "  Anetothite,  xxvii,  12).     See  Axtothite. 

2.  The  eighth  named  of  the  nine  sons  of  Becher, 
the  son  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  vii,  8).  B.C.  post 
185G. 

3.  One  of  the  chief  Israelites  that  sealed  the  cov- 
enant on  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  x,  19),  B.C. 
cir.  410. 

Anatolius,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  in  Syria,  was  born 
at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  about  230.  He  excelled,  ac- 
coi-ding  to  Jerome,  in  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy, 
physics,  logic,  and  rhetoric.  About  204  he  travelled  into 
Syria  and  Palestine;  and  while  at  Cffisarea,  Theocte- 
nus,  liishop  of  that  see,  made  him  his  coadjutor,  mean- 
ing that  he  should  have  succeeded  him  ;  but  as  he  pass- 
ed through  Laodicea,  on  his  way  to  the  council  of  An- 
tioch  in  269,  he  was  retained  to  be  bishop  of  that  see. 
lie  signalized  his  episcopate  by  his  constant  endeavors 
to  destroy  heresy  and  idolatry,  and  to  cause  virtue  to 
flourish.  He  seems  to  have  lived  until  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  and  to  have  died  in  peace.  The  Roman 
Martyrology  marks  his  festival  on  the  3d  of  Jul}'.  He 
left  a  Treatise  on  Arithmetic,  in  ten  books,  and  one 
on  Easter,  Canon  Paschalis,  a  fragment  of  which  is 
given  by  Eusebius.  A  Latin  translation  of  the  entire 
Canon  Paschalis,  published  by  ^Egidius  Bucher  (Am- 
sterd.  1034;  reprinted  in  Gallandii  Bibl.  Patr.  t.  iii), 
has  been  shown  by  Ideler  (Handbuch  der  Chronologie, 
ii,  266  sq.)  to  be  spurious. — Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  vii, 
32. 

Anchieta,  Jose  de,  a  Jesuit,  born  in  1533  at 
Teneriffe,  was  from  1554  to  1558  missionary  in  Brazil, 
where  lie  distinguished  himself  more  than  any  other 
mem  her  of  his  order.  He  is  often  called  the  Apostle 
of  Brazil.  lie  had  an  extraordinary  influence  over 
the  Indians,  who,  under  his  guidance,  aided  in  estab- 
lishing the  city  of  Rio,  and  in  expelling  the  French 
from  the  country.  He  is  the  author  of  a  grammar  of 
the  Brazilian  Indians,  which  is  still  regarded  as  a 
classic  work  on  that  subject  (see  Ausland,  1835,  p.  650 
sq.).  Although  a  large  number  of  miracles  were  re- 
ported df  him,  he  has  nut  yet  been  canonized.  He 
died  in  1597.  A  Latin  biography  of  him  was  pub- 
lished by  Beretarius  in  Cologne,  1617. 

Anchor  (aytcvpa),  the  instrument  fastened  in  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  to  hold  a  vessel  firm  during  a  storm 
(Acts  xxvii,  29,  30,  40);  from  which  passage  it  ap- 
pears that  the  vessels  of  Roman  commerce  had  several 
anchors,  and  that  they  were  attached  to  the  stern  as 
well  as  prow  of  the  boat  (see  Convbeare  and  Ilowson, 
St.  Paul,  ii,  335).     The  anchors  used  by  the  Romans 


were  for  the  most  part 
made  of  iron,  and  their 
form  resembled  that  of 
the  modern  anchor.  The 
anchor  as  here  represent- 
ed, and  as  commonly 
used,  was  called  bidens, 
because  it  had  two  teeth 
or  flukes.  Sometimes  it 
had  one  only.  The  fol- 
lowing expressions  were 
used  for  the  three  princi- 
pal processes  in  managing  the  anchor:  Ancoram  sol- 
vere, dyKvpav  x«X«»/,  "to  loose  the  anchor;"  Anco- 
ram  jacere,  ficiWtiv,  piirrtn>,  "to  cast  anchor;"  An- 
coram tollere,  a'ipfiv,  (h'aiptlaBai,  (waoTraaOai,  "  to 
weigh  anchor."  The  anchor  usually  lay  on  the  deck, 
and  was  attached  to  a  cable  (funis),  which  passed 
through  a  hole  in  the  prow,  termed  oculus.     In  the 


Ancient  Anchor. 


Ancient  Galley,  with  the  Cable  to  which  the  Anchor  is  attach- 
ed passing  through  the  Prow. 

heroic  times  of  Greece  we  find  large  stones,  called 
ivvai  (sleepers),  used  instead  of  anchors  (Horn.  Iliad, 
i,  436).     See  Ship. 

In  Heb.  vi,  19,  the  word  anchor  is  used  metaphori- 
cally for  a  spiritual  support  in  times  of  trial  or  doubt ; 
a  figure  common  to  modern  languages.     See  Hope. 

Anchorets.     See  Anachorets. 

Ancient  of  Days  (Chald.  "paii  p^PiS,  Sept. 
ira\aihc.  r/fiip&v,  Vulg.  antiquus  dieruni),  an  expression 
applied  to  Jehovah  thrice  in  a  vision  of  Daniel  (eh. 
vii,  9,  13,  22),  apparently  much  in  the  same  sense  as 
Eternal.  See  Jehovah.  The  expression,  viewed  by 
itself,  is  somewhat  peculiar ;  but  it  is  doubtless  em- 
ployed by  way  of  contrast  to  the  successive  monarchies 
which  appeared  one  after  another  rising  before  the  ej'e 
of  the  prophet.  These  all  proved  to  be  ephemeral  ex- 
istences, partaking  of  the  corruption  and  evanescence 
of  earth;  and  so,  when  the  supreme  Lord  and  Gov- 
ernor of  all  appeared  to  pronounce  their  doom,  and  set 
up  his  own  everlasting  kingdom,  He  is  not  unnaturally 
symbolized  as  the  Ancient  of  Days — one  who  was  not 
like  those  new  formations,  the  offspring  of  a  particular 
time,  but  who  had  all  time,  in  a  manner,  in  his  pos- 
session— one  whose  days  were  past  reckoning.  See 
Daniel  (Book  of). 

Ancillon,  David,  was  born  March  17,  1617,  at 
Metz,  where  his  father  was  an  eminent  lawyer.  After 
studying  at  the  Jesuits'  College  in  Metz,  he  went  to 
Geneva  in  1633,  to  complete  his  studies  in  philosophy 
and  theology,  and  in  1611  was  licensed  to  preach  by 
the  Protestant  Synod  of  Charenton,  and  appointed 
minister  of  Meaux,  where  he  remained  till  1653,  when 
he  returned  to  Metz  ;  and  here  he  continued  to  officiate 
with  great  reputation  till  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  in  1685,  when  he  retired  to  Frankfort,  and 
afterward  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  received  with  great 
favor  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He  died  Sept. 
3,  1692.  Among  his  writings  are,  Traiti  de  Tradition 
(Sedan,  1657,  4to) ;  Vie  de  Fare!,  (Amst.  1691,  12mo), 
etc.     Perhaps,  however,  the  most  favorable  impression 


ANCILLON 


221 


ANDREA 


of  his  varied  learning  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  work 
entitled  "Melanges  Critiques  ele  Littirature,  recueilli  eles 
Conversations  de  feu  M.  Aneillon."  published  at  Basle 
in  1698  h\  his  son  Charles,  who  was  a  man  of  literary 
distinction  (see  Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  i,  80; 
Bayle,  Diet.  s.  v.). 

Ancillon,  Jean  Pierre  Frederic,  a  descend- 
ant of  David  Ancillon,  was  born  at  Berlin  on  the 
30th  of  April,  176G.  He  studied  theology,  and  on  his 
return  from  the  university  he  was  appointed  teacher 
at  the  military  academy  of  Berlin,  and  preacher  at  the 
French  church  of  the  same  town.  He  began  his  lit- 
erary career  by  a  work  entitled  "Melanges  ele  Littera- 
ture et  de  Philosopkie  (Berlin,  1801,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  and  a 
few  years  after  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  of  Berlin,  and  was,  at  the  same  time, 
appointed  its  historiographer.  His  preaching  at  Ber- 
lin attracted  the  attention  of  the  king,  and  he  was 
drawn  into  political  life.  In  1806  he  was  appointed 
instructor  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia,  and  was  fur- 
ther distinguished  by  the  title  of  Councillor  of  State. 
In  1825  he  was  made  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  in 
which  office  he  died,  April  10,  1837. — Biog.  Diet.  Soc. 
Useful  Knowledge ;  Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  i,  90. 

Ancyra,  a  eitj'  in  Galatia  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of 
Class.  Geog.  s.  v.),  where  three  councils  were  held :  I. 
In  314,  attended  by  twelve  or  eighteen  bishops ;  the 
subject  of  apostates  was  discussed,  and  twenty-five 
canons  framed.  II.  Semi-Arian,  in  358,  on  the  sec- 
ond formula  of  Sirmium  (q.  v.).  III.  In  375,  when 
Hypsius,  bishop  of  Parnassus,  was  deposed. — Smith, 
Tables  of  Church  Hist. 

Anderson,  Christopher  an  English  Baptist 
minister,  born  at  Edinburgh,  and  educated  at  the  Bap- 
tist College,  Bristol,  under  Dr.  Ryland.  In  1806  he 
commenced  his  labors  as  a  city  missionary  in  Edin- 
burgh at  his  own  expense;  and  in  ten  years  a  church 
was  established,  of  which  he  remained  pastor  until  his 
death.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  founders  of  the 
Edinburgh  Bible  Society  (1800)  and  of  the  Gaelic 
School  Society  (1811).  He  died  Feb.  21,  1852.  Be- 
sides fugitive  essays  on  missions,  etc.  he  wrote  "  The 
Design  of  the  Domestic  Constitution ''  (Loud.  8vo) : — 
Historical  Sketches  of  the  Ancient.  Irish  (Edinb.  1828, 
12mo)-— Annals  of  the  English  Bible  (Lond.  1845,  2 
vols.  8vo). — Jamieson,  Relig.  Biog.  p.  16 

Anderson,  John,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  born  in  Guilford,  N.C.,  April  10,  1767. 
Licensed  to  preach  in  1791,  he  itinerated  in  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  and  Ohio  until  1801.  when  he  became  pas- 
tor at  Upper  Buffalo,  Washington  Co..  Pa.,  where  he 
remained  till  1833.  He  was  made  D.D.  by  Washing- 
ton College,  1821.  He  died  Jan.  5, 1835.  Many  min- 
isters of  eminence  studied  in  Dr.  Anderson's  house. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  588. 

Anderson  (or  Andreae),  Lars  (or  Laurent), 
chancellor  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  born  in  Sweden  in  1-180. 
He  was  at  first  a  priest  at  Strengnes,  and  became  sub- 
sequently archdeacon  at  Upsal.  On  his  return  from 
a  journey  to  Rome  he  passed  through  Wittenberg,  and 
became  convinced  of  the  truth  of  Luther's  doctrines. 
Arriving  in  Sweden,  he  was  made  chancellor  by  Gus- 
tavus Vasa,  who  readily  seconded  all  his  efforts  for 
promoting  the  Reformation  in  Sweden.  At  the  re- 
quest of  the  king,  Anderson,  together  with  Olaus  Petri, 
translated  the  Bible  into  Swedish.  The  Reformation 
was  established  by  the  Diet  of  Westeras  in  1527.  An- 
derson was  high  in  office  and  favor  until  1540,  when 
he  was  charged  with  having  failed  to  disclose  a  con- 
spiracy against  the  king  of  which  he  had  knowledge, 
and  he  was  sentenced  to  death.  He  was,  however,  let 
off  for  a  sum  of  money,  and  retired  to  Strengnes,  where 
he  died  in  1552. — Hoefer,  B'ug.  Generate,  ii,  520. 

Anderson,  Peyton,  a  Methodist  preacher  of 
Virginia,  born  1795,  entered  the  Virginia  Conference 


at  nineteen,  and  preached  in  the  principal  cities  and 
stations  until  his  death  in  1823,  aged  twenty-eight. 
Mr.  Anderson  was  a  teacher  previous  to  his  ministry, 
and,  being  well-educated,  modest,  faithful,  and  cir- 
cumspect, and  greatly  devoted  to  his  calling,  his  prom- 
ise of  future  usefulness  to  the  church  was  rapidly  ma- 
turing, when  he  died. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  1824. 

Andrada,  Antonio  i>',  a  Portuguese  Jesuit  and 
missionary,  born  at  Villa  de  Oleiros  about  1580.  died 
August  20,  1633.  He  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits  at 
Coimbra  in  1596,  and  was.  in  1601,  sent  as  missionary 
to  India.  Having  been  appointed  superior  of  the  mis- 
sions of  Mongolia,  he  learned  that  in  Thibet  certain 
vestiges  of  Christianity,  or  some  form  of  religious  wor- 
ship similar  to  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
was  to  be  found.  He  accordingly  concluded  to  visit 
that,  until  then,  almost  entirely  unknown  country. 
He  successfully  accomplished  the  hazardous  jour- 
nej',  and  reached  Caparanga,  a  city  which  was  the 
residence  of  the  military  chief  of  Thibet.  It  is  said 
that  he  was  well  received  by  the  grandees  and  the 
court,  and  that  he  was  allowed  to  preach  and  to  erect 
a  temple  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  He  returned  to  Mon- 
golia in  order  to  associate  with  himself  other  mission- 
aries. With  these  he  went  a  second  time  to  Thibet, 
where  he  again  met  with  a  favorable  reception.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  elected  provincial  of  the  residence 
of  Goa,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Andrada 
published  an  account  of  his  first  journey  to  Thibet  un- 
der the  title  Novo  Descobrimento  do  Grao  Ca.tayo,  ou 
dos  lieynos  ele.  Thibet  (Lisb.  1626,  4to) — {New  Discovery 
of  the  Great  Cathay,  or  the  Kingdoms  of  Thibet").  This 
work  was  translated  into  man}'  other  languages — into 
French  in  1629. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  546. 

Andrade,  Diogo  Payva  d',  a  Portuguese  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Coimbra  in  1528,  and  became 
grand  treasurer  of  King  John.  He  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  Council  of  Trent,  concerning  which  he  wrote 
Qucesiionuni  Orthodoxarum  libri  x,  against  Chemnitz 
Examen  Cone.  Triel.  (Venice,  1 564,  4to) ;  also  Defensio 
Fielei  Trident,  lib.  vi  (Lisb.  1578,  4to)  :  De  Conciliorum 
Auctoritate;  and  several  volumes  of  sermons.  He 
died  in  1575.— Alegambe,  Bibl.  Script.  Soc.  Jesu; 
Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  Generate,  i,  533. 

Andrade,  or  Thomas  de  Jesus,  brother  of  the  last, 
and  monk  of  the  Augustine  monastery  at  Coimbra. 
He  laid  the  foundation  in  1578  of  the  Disealceats.  He 
followed  King  Don  Sebastian  into  Africa,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Alcacer,  August  4, 1578, 
and  thrown  by  the  infidels  into  a  dungeon,  where  no 
other  light  penetrated  but  that  which  came  to  him 
through  the  cracks  in  the  door.  Here  he  wrote,  in 
Portuguese,  The  Labors  of  Jesus,  which  obtained  great 
celebrity,  and  has  been  translated  into  Spanish,  Ital- 
ian, and  French.  He  died  April  17. 1582,  in  the  place 
of  his  confinement,  where,  in  spite  of  the  ransom  sent 
\>y  his  sister,  the  Countess  of  Linhares,  he  preferred 
to  remain,  that  he  might  comfort,  during  the  remain- 
der of  his  days,  the  Christian  captives  imprisoned  with 
him.  Father  Alexis  de  Meneses  has  written  his  Life, 
which  is  appended  to  "  The  Labors  of  Jesus,"  printed 
in  1631. — Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  i,  350. 

Andrea,  Jakob,  a  celebrated  Lutheran  theologian, 
born  at  Waiblingen,  in  Wiirtemberg,  March  25,  1528. 
In  1543  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  the  University 
of  Tubingen,  and  in  1553  that  of  doctor  in  theology. 
In  1546  he  became  deacon  in  Stuttgart;  and  when  the 
Spanish  troops  took  the  town,  he  alone,  of  all  the 
Protestant  pastors,  remained.  In  1555  and  1556  he 
labored  successfully  in  planting  the  Reformation  in 
Oettingen  and  Baden.  In  1557  he  attended  the  diets 
of  Frankfort  and  Ratisbon,  and  was  one  of  the  secre- 
taries at  the  Conference  of  Worms.  In  1557  he  pub- 
lished his  work  De  Coma  Domini,  and  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing he  published  a  reply  to  the  work  of  Staphylus 
(who  had  gone  over  to  the  Roman  Church)  against 


ANDREAE 


222 


ANDREW 


Luther,  in  which  that  writer  had  made  a  collection  of 
the  various  opinions  of  all  the  different  Protestant 
sects,  and  attributed  them  to  Luther  as  the  origin  of 
all.  In  1562  he  was  made  professor  of  theology  and 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Tubingen.  He  went, 
in  1563,  to  Strasburg,  where  Zanchius  had  been  pro- 
pounding the  doctrine  that  the  elect  cannot  fall  from 
grace,  sin  as  they  will,  and  persuaded  Zanchius  to  sign 
a  confession  of  faith  which  he  drew  up.  See  Zan- 
chius. During  the  next  eight  years  be  travelled 
largely  in  Germany  and  Bohemia,  consolidating  the 
Reformation.  In  1571  he  combated  the  notion  of 
Flaccius  Illyricus  that  sin  is  a  substance.  But  the  most 
important  labor  of  his  life  was  his  share  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  Formula  Concordia,  composed  by  a  meet- 
ing of  divines  at  Torgau,  157G,  and  revised  in  April, 
1577.  at  the  monastery  of  Berg,  by  Andrea,  Chemnitz, 
and  Selnekker.  This  Liber  Bergensis  was  accepted  by 
Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony,  who  caused  his  clergy  to 
sign  it,  and  invited  those  of  other  German  states  to 
sign  also.  Many  refused.  The  book,  previously  re- 
vised by  Musculus,  Cornerus,  and  Chytraeus,  with  a 
preface  by  Andrea,  was  printed  in  1579.  (See  Francke, 
Libri  Symbolici,  part  iii,  Prolegom. ;  and  see  Formu- 
la Concordle.)  It  is  thoroughly  polemical,  on  the 
Lutheran  side,  against  the  Calvinistic  view  of  the  sac- 
raments. An  account  of  the  controversies  caused  by 
the  Formula  is  given  by  Mosheim  (Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xvi, 
sec.  iii,  pt.  ii.  ch.  i).  Andrea  labored  earnestly  to  gain 
general  assent  to  the  Formula  ;  for  five  years  he  trav- 
elled widely,  conferring  with  princes,  magistrates,  and 
pastors.  In  1583  and  1584  he  labored  at  a  voluminous 
work  on  the  ubiquity  of  Christ.  In  158(3  he  disputed 
with  Beza  at  the  colloquy  of  Montbelliard,  and  died 
at  Tubingen  Jan.  7.  1590.  He  wrote  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  different  works,  chiefly  polemical 
—Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xvi,  pt.  ii,  ch.  i,  §  38-40; 
Niedner's  Zeitsclirift,  1853,  Heft  iii ;  Herzog,  Real- 
Encyklopadie,  s.  v. 

Andreae,  Abraham,  Lutheran  archbishop  of  Up- 
sala,  a  nati%-e  of  Angermannland,  died  in  1G07.  "While 
rector  of  the  university  of  Stockholm  he  offended  King 
John,  the  son  of  Gustavus  Wasa,  who  washed  to  re- 
establish the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Sweden.  In 
order  to  escape  imprisonment  he  fled  to  Germany, 
where  he  spent  thirteen  years,  during  which  time  he 
published  most  of  his  works.  In  1593,  after  the  death 
of  John,  and  during  the  absence  of  Sigismund,  his  suc- 
cessor, who  was  at  the  same  time  king  of  Poland,  the 
Swedish  clergy  met  at  Upsal,  resolved  to  maintain  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  and  unanimously  elected  An- 
dreae archbishop.  King  John  Sigismund,  on  his  ar- 
rival at  Stockholm,  had  to  confirm  the  election,  and 
he  was  crowned  by  Andreae.  Duke  Charles,  the 
prince  regent  of  Sweden,  charged  him  with  reorgan- 
izing the  church  affairs ;  but  on  the  tour  which  he  un- 
dertook to  this  end  he  raised  the  indignation  of  the 
people  by  his  rigor,  and  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
regent.  Being  moreover  accused  of  a  secret  under- 
standing with  Sigismund,  he  was  deprived  of  his  office 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of  Gripsholm,  where  he 
died.  Andreae  wi-ote  a  work  against  the  Adiaphorists 
{Forum  A diapkororum,  Wittenberg,  1587,  8vo),  with 
several  other  works.  He  also  translated  a  commen- 
tary on  Daniel  by  Draconitis,  and  published  several 
works  of  his  father-in-law,  Laurentius  Petri  de  Nerike. 
— Hoefer,  Biog.  Can  rale,  ii,  574. 

Andreas  Cbetensis  {Andrew  of  Crete),  so  called 
because  he  was  archbishop  of  that  island.  Born  at 
Damascus  about  035,  he  embraced  the  monastic  state 
at  Jerusalem,  for  which  reason  he  is  sometimes  styled 
Ilierosolymitamis.  lie  was  a  vehement  antagonist  of 
the  Monothelites,  was  ordained  deacon  at  Constanti- 
nople, and  shortly  alter  was  mad"  archbishop  of  Crete, 
which  church  lie  governed  for  many  years,  and  died 
at  Mitylene  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  century.     Be- 


sides his  sermons,  homilies,  and  orations,  he  wrote 
many  hymns,  some  of  which  are  still  sung  in  the 
Greek  churches.  The  Greek  Church  commemorates 
him  as  a  saint  on  July  4.  His  remains  are  gathered 
under  the  title  Opera  Gr.  et  Lat.  cum  notis  Combejis, 
fol.  (Paris,  1G44). — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  635 ;  Land'on, 
Eccles.  Diet,  i,  352. 

Andreas,  archbishop  of  Grain  in  Austria,  one  of 
the  forerunners  of  Luther,  lived  in  the  second  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  Having  been  sent  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  III  to  Rome,  he  was  scandalized  at 
the  manners  of  the  Roman  court.  Andreas  urged  the 
necessity  of  a  reform  of  the  church  upon  the  cardinals 
and  the  pope,  who  at  first  praised  his  zeal,  but  when 
Andreas  became  more  urgent  had  him  put  in  prison  in 
1482.  Having  been  liberated  through  the  interven- 
tion of  Emperor  Frederick  III,  he  went  to  Basle,  and 
attempted  to  convoke  another  general  council.  Pub- 
lic opinion  and  the  universities  showed  to  him  a  great 
deal  of  sympathy,  but  the  pope  excommunicated  him 
and  all  who  would  give  him  an  asylum.  When  the 
city  of  Basle  refused  to  expel  Andreas,  the  papal  leg- 
ate put  it  under  the  interdict,  to  which,  however,  no 
one  paid  any  attention  except  the  Carmelite  monks, 
who  on  that  account  were  refused  any  alms  b}'  the  cit- 
izens, and  nearly  starved  to  death.  After  a  long  ne- 
gotiation between  the  pope  and  the  emperor,  Andreas 
was  summoned  to  retract,  and  when  he  refused  he  was 
put  in  prison,  where,  after  a  few  months,  he  was  found 
hung,  in  1484 — on  the  same  day,  it  is  said,  when  Lu- 
ther was  born.  His  body  was  put  in  a  barrel,  and, 
through  the  executioner,  thrown  into  the  _  Rhine. — 
Hoefer,  Biog.  Gin:  rule. 

Andreas,  or  Andrea .  Johann  Valentin,  grand- 
son of  James,  was  born  at  Herrenberg,  Aug.  17,  1586. 
After  completing  his  academic  course  at  Tubingen,  he 
travelled  for  some  j'ears  as  tutor.  In  1614  he  became 
deacon  at  Vaihingen,  where  he  labored  zealously  six 
years  as  preacher  and  writer,  directing  his  efforts 
mainly  against  formalism  and  mysticism.  Himself 
a  practical  Christian,  he  mourned  over  the  frivolous 
learning  and  pedantry  of  the  time,  and  directed  his 
life  and  labors  against  it.  But  instead  of  attacking 
them  in  the  usual  way,  he  adopted  wit  and  satire  as 
his  weapons.  He  wrote  Menippus,  sive  Satyrieorum 
dialogorum  centuria  against  unpractical  orthodoxy,  and 
Alethea  E.< id  against  cabalistic  theosophy.  His  Fama 
Fratemitatis  Rosee  Crucis  (1614),  and  Con/issio  frater- 
niiatis  R.  C.  (1615),  were  an  ironical  attack  on  the  se- 
cret societies  of  his  times.  Those  who  did  not  under- 
stand the  mystification  ascribed  to  him  the  foundation 
of  the  Rosicrucians  (q.  v.).  He  wrote  again,  and  book 
after  book,  to  show  that  his  first  work  was  fictitious, 
and  designed  to  teach  a  useful  lesson;  but  nobody 
would  believe  him  at  first.  But  finally  he  was  under- 
stood, and  "  no  satire  was  probably  ever  attended  with 
more  beneficial  results."  His  real  object  was  to  over- 
throw the  idols  of  the  time  in  literature  and  religion, 
and  to  bring  the  minds  of  men  back  to  Christ ;  and  no 
writer  of  his  time  did  more  to  accomplish  this  end. 
He  removed  to  Calv  in  1620,  where,  after  the  battle 
of  Nbrdlingen,  1631,  he  lost  his  library  and  other  prop- 
erty. He  died  at  Adelsberg,  June  27,  1654.  For  a 
further  account  of  him,  sec  Ilossbach,  Andrea  und  sein 
Zeitidter  (Berlin,  1819);  Hurst,  History  of  Rationalism, 
chap,  i;  Rheinwald,  Andrea?  Vita  ab  ipso  conscripta 
(Berl.  1819)  ;  Hase,  Church  History,  §  380. 

An'drew  ('Avc*peac,  manly),  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles.  His  name  is  of  Greek  origin  (A  then,  xv, 
675 ;  vii,  312),  but  was  in  use  among  the  later  Jews 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  2,  2;  see  Dio  Cass,  lxviii,  32; 
comp.  Diod.  Sic.  Exverpta  Vat.  p.  14,  ed.  Lips.),  as 
appears  from  a  passage  quoted  from  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  by  Lightfoot  (Harmony,  Luke  v,  10).  He 
was  a  native  of  the  city  of  Bethsaida  in  Galilee  (John 
i,  44),  and  brother  of  Simon  Peter  (Matt,  iv,  18 ;  x, 


ANDREW 


223 


ANDREWS 


2 ;  John  i,  41).  He  was  at  first  a  disciple  of  John  the  I 
Baptist  (John  i,  39),  and  was  led  to  receive  Jesus  as 
the  Messiah  in  consequence  of  John's  expressly  point- 
ing him  out  as  "the  Lamb  of  God"  (John  i,  30),  A.D. 
26.  His  first  care,  after  he  had  satisfied  himself  as  to 
the  validity  of  the  claims  of  Jesus,  was  to  bring  to 
him  his  brother  Simon.  Neither  of  them,  however, 
became  at  that  time  stated  attendants  on  our  Lord ; 
for  we  find  that  they  were  still  pursuing  their  occupa- 
tion as  fishermen  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  when  Jesus, 
after  John's  imprisonment,  called  them  to  follow  him 
(Matt,  iv,  18  sq. ;  Mark  i,  16, 17).  A.D.  27.  See  Peter. 
In  two  of  the  lists  of  the  apostles  (Matt,  x,  2  ;  Luke  vi, 
13)  he  is  named  in  the  first  pair  with  Peter,  but  in 
Mark  iii,  18,  in  connection  with  Philip,  and  in  Acts  i, 
13,  with  James.  In  accompanying  Jesus  he  appears 
as  one  of  the  confidential  disciples  (Mark  xiii,  3;  John 
vi,  8 ;  xii,  22),  but  he  is  by  no  means  to  be  confound- 
ed (as  by  Lutzelberger,  Kirchl.  Tradit.  fiber  Joh.  p. 
199  sq.)\vith  the  beloved  disciple  of  the  fourth  Gospel 
(see  Liicke,  Comm.  ub.  Joh.  i,  653  sq. ;  Maier,  Comm. 
zu  Joh.  i,  43  sq.).  Very  little  is  related  of  Andrew 
by  any  of  the  evangelists :  the  principal  incidents  in 
which  his  name  occurs  during  the  life  of  Christ  are 
the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  (John  vi,  9),  his  in- 
troducing to  our  Lord  certain  Greeks  who  desired  to 
see  him  (John  xii,  22),  and  his  asking,  along  with 
his  brother  Simon  and  the  two  sons  of  Zebedee,  for  a 
further  explanation  of  what  our  Lord  had  said  in  ref- 
erence to  the  destruction  of  the  temple  (Mark  xiii,  3). 
Of  his  subsequent  history  and  labors  we  have  no  au- 
thentic record.  Tradition  assigns  Scythia  (Eusebius, 
iii,  1,  71),  Greece  (Theodoret,  i,  1425  ;  Jerome,  Ep.  148 
ad  Mara.),  and,  at  a  later  date,  Asia  Minor,  Thrace 
(Hippolytus,  ii,  30),  and  elsewhere  (Niceph.  ii,  39), 
as  the  scenes  of  his  ministry.  It  is  supposed  that  he 
founded  a  church  in  Constantinople,  and  ordained 
Stachys  (q.  v.),  named  by  Paul  (Rom.  xvi,  9),  as  its 
first  bishop.  At  length,  the  tradition  states,  he  came 
to  Patraj,  a  city  of  Achaia,  where  YEgeas,  the  procon- 
sul, enraged  at  his  persisting  to  preach,  commanded 
him  to  join  in  sacrifices  to  the  heathen  gods  ;  and  upon 
the  apostle's  refusal,  he  ordered  him  to  be  severely 
scourged  and  then  crucified.  To  make  his  death  the 
more  lingering,  he  was  fastened  to  the  cross,  not  with 
nails,  but  with  cords.  Having  hung  two  days,  prais- 
ing God,  and  exhorting  the  spectators  to  the  faith,  he 
is  said  to  have  expired  on  the  30th  of  November,  but 
in  what  year  is  uncertain.  The  cross  is  stated  to  have 
been  of  the  form  called  Crux  decussata  (  X  ),  and  com- 
monly known  as  "  St.  Andrew's  cross;"  but  this  is 
doubted  by  some  (see  Lepsius,  De  cruee,  i,  7  ;  Sagittar. 
De  cruciatib.  martyr,  viii,  12).  His  relics,  it  is  said, 
were  afterward  removed  from  Patrrc  to  Constantinople. 
(Comp.  generally  Fabric.  Cod.  Apocr>/ph.  i,  45G  sq. ; 
Salut.  Lux  Evimrj.  p.  98  sq. ;  Menolog.  Grcecor.  i,  221  sq. ; 
Perionii  Pit.  Apostol.  p.  82  sq. ;  Andr.  de  Sassy,  An- 
dreasf rater  Petri,  Par.  1646.)     See  Apostle. 

An  apocryphal  book,  bearing  the  title  of  "The  Acts 
of  Andrew,"  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  (iii,  25),  Epi- 
phanius  (Her.  xlvi,  1 ;  lxiii,  1),  and  others.  It  seems 
never  to  have  been  received  except  by  some  heretical 
sects,  as  the  Encratites,  Origenians,  etc.  (Fabric.  Cod. 
Apocryph.  ii,  747 ;  Kleuker,  Ueb.  die  Apocr.  d.  N.  T. 
p.  331  sq.).  This  book,  as  well  as  a  "  Gospel  of  St. 
Andrew,"  was  declared  apocrypha]  by  the  decree  of 
Pope  Gelasius  (Jones,  On  the  Canon,  i,  179  sq.).  Tisch- 
endorf  has  published  the  Greek  text  of  a  work  bear- 
ing the  title  "Acts  of  Andrew, "and  also  of  one  entitled 
"Acts  of  Andrew  and  Matthew"  (Acta  Apostolorum 
Apocrypha,  Lpz.  1841).  See  Hamniersehmid,  Andreas 
descriptus  (Prag.  1699) ;  Hanke,  De  Andrea  apostolo 
(Lips.  1698);  Lemmius,  Memoria  Andrew  apostoli 
(Viteb.  1705) ;  Wbog,  Presbyterorum  et  diaconorum 
Achaue  de  martyrio  S.  Andrea  epistola  (Lips.  1749). 
See  Acts,  spurious;  Gospels,  spurious. 

Andrew,  bishop  of  Cresarea,  in  Cappadocia,  lived 


at  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  (according  to  others, 
toward  the  close  of  the  ninth).  See  Auetas.  He 
wrote  in  the  Greek  language  a  commentary  on  the 
Apocalypse,  which  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Pelta- 
nus,  and  published  under  the  title,  Andrea',  CcesarecB 
Cappndoci<c  Episc.ipi,  Commentarii  in  Johannis  Apostoli 
Apocalypsim  (Ingolstadt,  1584,  4to).  The  original  was 
published,  with  notes,  at  Heidelberg,  in  1596  (fol.),  and 
again,  together  with  the  works  of  Aretas  and  others, 
in  1862,  at  Paris  (8.  P.  AT.  Andrea;  Cwsarea;  etc.  Opera, 
8vo).  They  also  attribute  to  him  a  Therapeutic/ /  Spiri- 
tualis,  which  is  to  be  found  in  manuscript  at  the  library 
of  Vienna.  The  work  on  the  Apocalypse,  which  gives 
the  views  of  Gregory,  Cyril,  Papias,  lrenaeus,  Metho- 
dius, and  Hippolytus,  is  of  some  importance  for  estab- 
lishing the  canonicity  of  the  Apocalypse. — Hoefer, 
Bioff.  Gen.  ii,  549;  Rettig,  Ueber  Andreas  und  Aretas, 
in  Stud.  u.  Krit.  (1838,  p.  748) ;  Lardner,  Works,  v,77-79. 

Andrew  of  Crete.     See  Andreas  Cretensis. 

Andrew,  archbishop  of  Crain.     See  Andreas. 

Andrewes,  Lancelot,  bishop  of  Winchester, 
was  born  in  London  1555,  educated  at  Merchant- 
Tailors'  School,  whence  he  was  removed  to  Pembroke 
Hall,  Cambridge.  As  divinity  lecturer  of  Pembroke 
Hall,  he  delivered,  in  1585,  his  well-known  lectures  on 
the  Ten  Commandments,  which  were  first  published  in 
1642,  and  a  new  and  complete  edition  in  1G50.  He 
afterward  had  the  living  of  Alton,  in  Hampshire; 
then  that  of  St.  Giles'-without,  Cripplegate,  in  Lon- 
don, and  was  made  canon  residentiary  of  St.  Paul's, 
prebendary  of  Southwell,  and  master  of  Pembroke 
Hall.  By  King  James  I  he  was  created,  in  1G05,  bish- 
op of  Chichester ;  then,  in  1609,  bishop  of  Ely ;  and 
lastly,  in  1618,  was  translated  to  Winchester,  which 
he  held  to  the  day  of  his  death  in  1626.  His  piety, 
learning,  and  acuteness  are  well  known ;  and  so  char- 
itable was  he,  that  in  the  last  six  y^ars  of  his  life  he 
is  said  to  have  given,  in  private  charity  alone,  £1300, 
a  very  large  sum  in  those  days.  He  translated  the 
authorized  version  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  from  Joshua  to  Chronicles.  Casaubon, 
Cluverius,  Grotius,  Vossius,  and  other  eminent  schol- 
ars of  the  time,  have  all  highly  eulogized  the  exten- 
sive erudition  of  Bishop  Andrewes,  which  was  wont, 
it  appears,  to  overflow  in  his  conversation,  as  well  as 
in  his  writings.  He  was  also  celebrated  for  his  talent 
at  repartee.  He  united  to  the  purest  conscientious- 
ness a  considerable  degree  of  courtly  address,  of  which 
the  following  anecdote  has  been  preserved  as  a  curious 
instance.  Neale,  bishop  of  Durham,  and  he,  being 
!  one  day  at  dinner  in  the  palace,  James  surprised  them 
by  suddenly  putting  this  question,  "My  lords,  cannot 
I  take  my  subjects'  money  when  I  require  it,  without 
all  the  formality  of  a  grant  by  Parliament  ?"  Bishop 
Neale  immediately  replied,  "God  forbid,  sire,  but  you 
should.  You  are  the  breath  of  our  nostrils."  "Well," 
said  James,  turning  to  the  bishop  of  Winchester, 
"what  do  you  say?"  "Sire,  I  am  not  qualified  to 
I  give  an  opinion  in  Parliamentary  affairs,"  was  the 
evasive  reply.  "Come,  now,  Andrewes,  no  escape, 
your  opinion  immediately,"  demanded  the  king. 
"Then,  sire,"  answered  he,  "I  think  it  perfectly  law- 
ful to  take  my  brother  Neale's,  for  he  has  offered  it." 

Bishop  Andrewes  was  indisputably  the  most  learned 
of  his  English  contemporaries,  excepting  Usher,  in  the 
Fathers,  ecclesiastical  antiquities,  and  canon  law.  He 
was  the  head  of  that  school  which  began  to  rise  in 
England  in  the  16th  century,  which  appealed  to  an- 
tiquity and  history  in  defence  of  the  faith  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  its  conflicts  with  Rome.  To 
express  his  theological  tenets  briefly,  he  was  of  the 
i  school  which  is  generally  called  the  school  of  Laud, 
holding  the  doctrines  of  apostolic  succession,  that  "  the 
true  and  real  body  of  Christ  is  in  the  Eucharist."  He 
I  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  Puritans,  who  in  turn 
i  charged  him  with  popery  and  superstition  because  of 


ANDREWS 


224 


ANDRONICUS 


the  ornaments  of  his  chapel,  and  the  ceremonies  there. 
He  was  a  man  of  the  most  fervent  devotion.  Five 
hours  every  day  did  he  dedicate  almost  entirely  to  de- 
votional exercises.  Prayer  might  be  said  to  be  the 
very  element  he  breathed.  During  the  illness  that 
laid  him  on  a  bed  of  languishing  and  death,  his  voice 
was  almost  constantly  heard  pouring  forth  ejaculatory 
prayers;  and  when,  through  failure  of  strength,  he 
could  no  longer  articulate,  his  uplifted  hands  and 
eyes  indicated  the  channel  in  which  his  unexpressed 
thoughts  continued  to  flow.  He  died  September  25, 
1626,  at  the  age  of  seventy-one.  His  chief  work  is 
his  Sermons,  ninety-six  in  all,  the  best  edition  of 
which  is  that  published  in  the  Anglo-Catholic  Library 
(Oxford,  5  vols.  8vo,  1841-43).  He  also  wrote  Tortur'a 
Torti  (Load.  1609),  being  an  answer  to  Bellarmine  on 
King  James's  Book  concerning  the  Oath  of  Allegiance 
(Oxford,  1851,  8vo)  ;  Preces  Privates  (1648  ;  and  lately 
in  English  by  the  Rev.  P.  Hall,  1839) ;  The  Pattern 
o/Catechistical  Doctrine.  (Lond.  1650,  fol. ;  Oxf.  1846, 
8vo)  ;  Posthumous  and  Orphan  Lectures,  delivered  at  St. 
Paul's  and  St.Giles'  (Lond.  1657,  fol.);  Opuscida  quce- 
dam  pnsthuma  (Lond.  1629,  4to ;  reprinted  in  Anglo- 
Catholic  Library,  Oxford,  1851,  8vo).  The  Rev.  C. 
Danbery  published  Seventeen  Sermons  of  Andrewes, 
"modernized  for  general  readers"  (Lond.  1821,  8vo). 
See  Isaacson,  Life  of  Bishop  Andrewes;  Cassan,  Lives 
of  the  Bishops  of  Winchester  (London,  1827) ;  Fuller, 
Church  History  of  Britain,;  British  Critic,  xxxi,  169; 
Darling,  Cyclopcedia  Bibliographica,  i,  78;  Allibone, 
Did.  of  Authors,  i,  61. 

Andrews,  Elisha,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Sept.  29,  1768.  He  was  con- 
verted at  an  early  age,  and  soon  resolved  to  become  a 
Baptist  minister.  His  opportunities  of  education  were 
limited,  but  he  made  the  most  of  them,  and  was  occu- 
pied as  a  teacher  and  survej'or,  with  occasional  at- 
tempts at  preaching,  until  he  was  ordained  as  pastor 
in  Fairfax,  Vt.,  in  1793.  He  labored  successively  in 
Hopkinton,  N.  H. ;  Nottingham  West  (now  Hudson), 
in  the  same  state ;  Templeton,  Mass.,  in  which  region 
he  is  still  remembered  as  the  "  apostle  of  the  Baptists  ;" 
Hinsdale,  N.  H. ;  the  region  west  of  Lake  Champlain  ; 
Princeton ;  Leominster  ;  South  Gardiner  and  Royal- 
ston.  Amid  all  his  labors,  his  desire  for  study  was 
irrepressible,  and  he  mastered  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
German.  In  January,  1833,  he  had  an  attack  of  pa- 
ralysis, and  a  second  in  1834,  which  disabled  him  al- 
most wholly.  He  died  Feb.  3,  1840.  Mr.  Andrews 
published  several  essays,  tracts,  and  sermons;  also 
The  Moral  Tendencies  of  Universalism  (18mo)  ;  Review 
of  Winchester  on  universal  Restoration  ,•  I  indication  of 
the  Baptists  (12mo). — Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  268. 

Andrews,  Jedediah,  the  first  Presbyterian  min- 
ister in  Pennsylvania,  was  born  at  Hingham,  Mass., 
in  1674,  graduated  at  Harvard  1695,  and  settled  in 
1698  at  Philadelphia,  where  he  Avas  ordained  in  1701. 
In  the  division  of  the  church  in  1744,  Mr.  Andrews  re- 
tnained  with  the  Old  Side.  Toward  the  close  of  his 
life  lie  was  suspended  for  immorality,  but  afterward 
restored.      He  died  in  1747. — Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  10. 

Andrews,  Lorin,  LL.D.,  president  of  Kenyon 
College,  Ohio,  was  born  in  Ashland  Co.,  Ohio,  April 
1,  1819.  He  was  educated  at  Kenyon  College.  On 
leaving  college,  lie  became  a  teacher,  and  was  engaged 
in  various  educational  positions  of  importance  until 
1854,  when  he  was  elected  president  of  Kenyon  Col- 
lege. The  college  was  then  at  its  lowest  ebb.  There 
were  scarcely  thirty  students,  and  but  a  remnant  of  a 
faculty.  Yet  in  six  years  of  his  administration  the 
number  of  students  grew  to  250,  the  faculty  was  en- 
larged, and  new  buildings  added.  When  the  war  of 
the  Rebellion  broke  out  in  1861,  "  President  Andrews 
felt  it  to  lie  Ins  duty  to  come  forward  with  all  his  en- 
ergies and  influence  in  support  of  the  government. 
He  raised  a  company  at  Knox  County,  of  winch  he 


was  made  captain  ;  and  afterward  was  elected  colonel 
of  the  4th  Ohio  Regiment.  His  first  post  was  at  Camp 
Dennison,  from  whence  he  was  ordered  with  his  regi- 
ment to  Virginia.  After  fatiguing  service  on  the 
field,  he  was  stationed  at  Oakland,  where  he  remained 
on  duty  until  the  end  of  August.  But  the  great  ex- 
posure to  which  he  was  subjected,  wore  so  much  on 
his  health  that  he  was  prostrated  with  camp  fever. 
He  was  ordered  at  once  to  proceed  home,  and  arrived 
there  only  to  be  placed  on  the  bed  from  which  he  never 
rose.  He  died  at  Gambier,  September  18,  1861.  A 
large  part  of  his  activity  had  been  devoted  to  the  com- 
mon school  system  of  Ohio  ;  and  its  present  excellence 
is  largely  due  to  his  labors.  Eminent  as  a  teacher, 
orator,  and  college  officer,  he  crowned  the  glory  of  an 
I  active  and  faithful  life  by  a  patriotic  and  glorious  death 
J  for  his  country." — Episcopal  Recorder,  Nov.  28,  1861. 

Andrew's,  St.,  See  and  University  of,  county 
of  Fife,  Scotland.     The  legendary  story  is  that  "  Reg- 
ulus,  a  Greek  monk  of  Patrse,  in  Achaia,  warned  by 
a  vision,  carried  with  him  in  a  ship  the  relics  of  St. 
I  Andrew.     After  long  storms  the  ship  was  wrecked 
near  the  place  where  the  city  of  St.  Andrew's  now 
stands;  Regulus  and  his  company  escaped,  and  brought 
the  relics  safe  to  shore.     This  was  in  the  time  of  Her- 
:  gustus,  king  of  the  Picts  (about  the  year  370),  who 
|  erected  a  church  there,  afterward  called  the  church  of 
I  St.  Regulus,  or  St.  Rule's  church,  the  ruins  of  which 
still  remain.      Kenneth,  3d  king  of  the  Scots  (f  994), 
transferred  the  see  of  Abernethy  to  this  city,  and  or- 
j  dered  it  to  be  called  the  church  of  St.  Andrew,  and  the 
bishop  thereof  was  styded  Maximus  Scotorum  Episco- 
pus."     The  present  incumbent  of  "  St.  Andrew's,  Dun- 
keld,  and  Dumblane,"  is  Charles  "Wordsworth,  D.D., 
consecrated  in  1852.     The  University,  the  oldest  in 
Scotland,  was  founded  bj'  Bishop  Wardlaw  in  1 110.     It 
i  consists  of  the  United  College  of  St.  Salvador,  founded 
by  Bishop  Kennedy  in  1450,  and  St.  Leonard,  founded 
in  1512 ;  and  St.  Mary's  College,  founded  by  Beaton 
'  in  1537.     The  education  in  the  latter  is  exclusively 
theological.     The  number  of  chairs  in  the   colleges 
which  constitute  the  university  is  14,  and  the  attend- 
ance of  late  years  has  been  rather  less  than  200.    Here, 
|  in  the  centre  of  the  papal  jurisdiction  in  Scotland,  the 
Reformation   first   made   its   appearance ;    Scotland's 
proto-martyr,  Patrick  Hamilton,  suffered  here  in  1527, 
and  George  Wishart  in  1546,  and  here  John  Knox  first 
opened  his  lips  as  a  preacher  of  the  Reformed  faith. — 
Chambers,  Encyclopaedia;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  358. 

Andronicians,  followers  of  a  certain  Andronicus, 
who  taught  the  errors  of  Severus.  They  believed  the 
upper  part  of  the  woman  to  be  the  creation  of  God, 
and  the  lower  part  the  work  of  the  devil. — Epiph. 
Llaires.  xlv ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Androni'cus  ('AvSpovucoc,  man-conquering),  the 
name  (frequent  among  the  Greeks)  of  several  men  in 
Scripture  history. 
j  1.  An  officer  left  as  viceroy  ((•(offvu/itj-oc,  -  Mace, 
iv,  31)  in  Antioch  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes  during  his 
absence  (B.C.  171).  Menelaus  availed  himself  of  the 
I  opportunity  to  secure  his  good  offices  by  offering  him 
j  some  golden  vessels  which  he  had  taken  from  the 
I  temple.  When  Onias  III  (q.  v.)  was  certainly  as- 
'  sured  that  the  sacrilege  had  been  committed,  he  sharp- 
ly reproved  Menelaus  for  the  crime,  having  previously 
taken  refuge  in  the  sanctuary  of  Apollo  and  Artemis 
at  Daphne.  At  the  instigation  of  Menelaus,  Androni- 
|  cus  induced  Onias  t.o  leave  the  sanctuary,  and  imme- 
diately put  him  to  death  in  prison  (irapeic\Eioiv,  2 
Mace,  iv,  34?).  This  murder  excited  general  indig- 
nation ;  and  on  the  return  of  Antiochus,  Andronicus 
was  publicly  degraded  and  executed  (2  Mace,  iv,  30- 
I  38),  B.C.  169.  Josephus  places  the  death  of  Onias 
I  before  the  high-priesthood  of  Jason  {Ant.  xii,  5, 1),  and 
omits  all  mention  of  Andronicus;  but  there  is  not  suf- 
.  lieient  reason  to  doubt  the  truthfulness  of  the  narra- 


ANDRONICUS 


225  ANGEL 


tive  in  2  Mace,  as  "YVernsdorf  has  done  (De  fide  libr. 
Mace.  p.  90  sq.)-— Smith,  s.  v. 

2 .  Another  officer  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  who  was 
left  by  him  on  Gerizim  (2  Mace,  v,  23),  probably  in 
occupa£ion  of  the  temple  there.  As  the  name  was 
common,  it  seems  unreasonable  to  identify  this  gen- 
eral with  the  former  one,  and  so  to  introduce  a  contra- 
diction into  the  history  (Ewald,  Gesch.  d.  Volkes  Isr. 
iv,  335  n. ;  comp.  Grimm,  2  Mace,  iv,  38).  He  was 
possibly  the  same  with  the  Andronicus,  son  of  Messa- 
lamus,  mentioned  by  Josephus  {Ant.  xiii,  3,  4)  as  hav- 
ing convinced  Ptolemy  (Philometor)  of  the  orthodox}' 
of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  in  opposition  to  that  of 
the  Samaritans. 

3.  A  Jewish  Christian,  the  kinsman  and  fellow- 
prisoner  of  Paul,  who  speaks  of  him  as  having  been 
converted  to  Christianity  before  himself,  and  as  now 
enjoying  the  high  regards  of  the  apostles  for  his  use- 
fulness (Rom.  xvi,  7),  A.D.  55.  According  to  Hip- 
polytus,  he  became  bishop  of  Pannonia  ;  according  to 
Dorotheus,  of  Spain.  See  the  treatises  of  Bose,  De 
Andronico  et  Junto  (Lips.  1742);  Orlog,  De  Romavis 
quibus  Paulus  epistolam  misit  (Hafn.  1722). 

Andronicus.     See  Andronicians. 

Andrus,  Luman,  a  pious  and  devoted  Methodist 
preacher,  born  in  Litchlield,  Ct.,  1778,  and  entered 
the  ministry  in  1810,  laboring  effectively  in  Connecti- 
cut and  New  York  until  superannuated  in  1834.  He 
died  in  1852. 

Anecdota  (dviKCora,  not  given  out),  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  unpublished  works  of  ancient  writers. 
Thus  Muratori  entitles  the  works  of  the  Greek  fa- 
thers which  he  gathered  from  various  libraries,  and 
published  for  the  first  time,  Anecdota  Grceca.  Mar- 
tene  stj'les  his  work  of  a  similar  nature  Thesaurus 
Anecdotorum  Novus. 

A'nem  (Ileb.  Anem  ,  C3!?,  two  fountains;  Sept. 
'kvcifi  v.  r.  Aivdv),  a  Levitical  city  with  "suburbs," 
in  the  tribe  of  Issachar,  assigned  to  the  Gershonites, 
and  mentioned  in  connection  with  Kamoth  (1  Chron. 
vi,  73).  It  is  called  En-Gannim  (q.  v.)  in  Josh,  xix, 
21 ;  xxi,  29. 

A'ner  (Heb.  Aner',  155,  perhaps  a  boy),  the  name 
of  a  man  and  of  a  place. 

1.  (Sept.  Avvdv.)  A  Canaanitish  chief  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hebron,  who,  with  two  others,  Eshcol 
and  Mamre,  joined  his  forces  with  those  of  Abraham 
in  pursuit  of  Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies,  who  had  pil- 
laged Sodom  and  carried  Lot  away  captive  (Gen.  xiv, 
13,  24),  B.C.  cir.  2080.  These  chiefs  did  not,  how- 
ever, imitate  the  disinterested  conduct  of  the  patriarch, 
but  retained  their  portion  of  the  spoil.  See  Abra- 
ham. 

2.  (Sept.  'Evi)p  v.  r.  'Avdp.)  A  cit}'  of  Manasseh, 
given  to  the  Levites  of  Kohath's  family  (1  Chron.  vi, 
7i  I).  Gesenius  supposes  this  to  be  the  same  with  the 
Iaanach  (q.  v.)  of  Judg.  i,  27,  or  Tanach  (Josh. 
xxi,  25). 

An'ethothite,  An'etothite,  less  correct  forms 
of  Anglicizing  the  word  Anathotiiite.  See  Ana- 
thoth.  The  variations  in  the  orthography  of  the 
name,  both  in  Hebrew  and  the  A.  V.,  should  lie  noticed. 
1.  The  city :  In  1  Kings  ii,  26,  and  Jer.  xxxii,  9,  it  is 
nnr,  and  similarly  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,  27,  with  the  arti- 
cle ;  Anathoth.  2.  The  citizens  :  Anethothite,  2  Sam. 
xxiii,  27;  Anetothite,  1  Chron.  xxvii,  12;  Antothite, 
1  Chron.  xi,  28  ;  xii,  3.  "  Jeremiah  of  Anathoth," 
Jer.  xxix,  27,  should  be  "Jeremiah  the  Anathotiiite." 

Anethum.     See  Anise. 

Angareuo  (ayyaptva),  to  impress;  Vulg.  angario; 
Matt,  v,  41 ;  Mark  xv,  21),  translated  "compel"  (q.  v.) 
in  the  Auth.  Vers.,  is  a  word  of  Persian,  or  rather 
of  Tatar  origin,  signifying  to  compel  to  serve  as  an 
ciyyapoq  or  mounted  courier  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  viii, 
6,  17  and  18 ;  Athen.  iii,  94,  122 ;  iEsch.  Again.  282; 
P 


Pers.  217 ;  Plut.  De  Alex.  p.  32C).  The  word  ankarie 
or  angharie,  in  Tatar,  means  compulsory  work  with- 
out pay.  Herodotus  (viii,  98)  describes  the  system 
of  the  dyyaptia.  He  says  that  the  Persians,  in  order 
to  make  all  haste  in  carrying  messages,  have  relays  of 
men  and  horses  stationed  at  intervals,  who  hand  the 
dispatch  from  one  to  another  without  interruption 
either  from  weather  or  darkness,  in  the  same  way  as 
the  Greeks  in  their  \apnraCi)<popia.  This  horse-post 
the  Persians  called  ayyapi)iov.  In  order  to  effect  the 
object,  license  was  given  to  the  couriers  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  press  into  the  service  men,  horses,  and 
even  vessels  (comp.  Esth.  viii,  14).  Hence  the  word 
came  to  signify  "  press,"  and  dyyaptia  is  explained  by 
Suidas  {Lex.  s.  v.)  as  signifying  to  extort  public  serv- 
ice. Persian  supremacy  introduced  the  practice  and 
the  name  into  Palestine ;  and  Lightfoot  (On  Matt,  v, 
41)  says  the  Talmudists  used  to  call  any  oppressive 
service  K^MX  (see  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  131). 
Among  the  proposals  made  by  Demetrius  Soter  to 
Jonathan  the  high-priest,  one  was  that  the  beasts  of 
the  Jews  should  not  be  taken  (dyyaptvtaSai)  for  the 
public  use  (Josephus,,  Ant.  xiii,  2,  3).  The  system 
was  also  adopted  by  the  Piomans,  and  thus  the  word 
"angario"  came  into  use  in  later  Latin.  Pliny  (Ep. 
x,  14,  121,  122)  alludes  to  the  practice  of  thus  expe- 
diting public  dispatches.  Chardin  (Travels,  p.  257) 
and  other  travellers  (e.  g.  Col.  Cambell,  Trav.  pt.  ii, 
p.  92  sq.)  make  mention  of  it.  The  dyyapoi  were  also 
called  civTavSca  (Stephens,  Thesaur.  Gr.  p.  ccclxxix). 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  imposition  of  our  Sav- 
iour's cross  upon  Simon  the  Cyrenian  (Matt,  xxvii,  32). 
See  Kuindl,  Comment,  on  Matt,  v,  41,  and  the  litera- 
ture there  referred  to ;  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  iv,  285. 

Angel  (dyytXoc,  used  in  the  Sept.  and  New  Test, 
for  the  Hebrew  ™><b^,  nialak'),  a  word  signifying  both 
in  Hebrew  and  Greek  a  messenger  (q.  v.),  and  therefore 
used  to  denote  whatever  God  employs  to  execute  his 
purposes,  or  to  manifest  his  presence  or  his  power ;  hence 
often  with  the  addition  of  FliiT*  Jehovah,  or  E^fl'SK, 
Elohim.  In  later  books  the  word  0"1'd"Tp,  kedoshim  , 
holy  ones,  oi  iiyioi,  is  used  as  an  equivalent  term.  In 
some  passages  it  occurs  in  the  sense  of  an  ordinary 
messenger  (Job  i,  14 ;  1  Sam,  xi,  3 ;  Luke  vii,  4  ;  ix, 
52) ;  in  others  it  is  applied  to  prophets  (Isa.  xliii,  19; 
Hag.  i,  13;  Mai.  iii);  to  priests  (Eccl.  v,  5;  Mai.  ii, 
7) ;.  to  ministers  of  the  New  Testament  (Rev.  i,  20). 
It  is  also  applied  to  impersonal  agents ;  as  to  the  pil- 
lar of  cloud  (Exod.  xiv,  19)  ;  to  the  pestilence  (2  Sam. 
xxivy  16,  17  ;  2  Kings  xix,  30);  to  the  winds  ("who 
maketh  the  winds  his  angels,"  Psa.  civ,  4) :  so  like- 
wise plagues  generally  are  called  "  evil  angels"  (Psa. 
lxxviii,  49),  and  Paul  calls  his  thorn  in  the  flesh  an 
"  angel  of  Satan"  (2  Cor.  xii,  7). 

But  this  name  is  more  eminently  and  distinctly  ap- 
plied to  certain  spiritual  beings  or  heavenly  intelli- 
gences, employed  by  God  as  the  ministers  of  his  will, 
and  usually  distinguished  as  angels  of  God  or  angels  of 
Jehovah.  In  this  case  the  name  has  respect  to  their 
official  capacity  as  "  messengers,"  and  not  to  their  na- 
ture or  condition.  The  term  "spirit,"  on  the  other 
hand  (in  Greek  ni'tvpa,  in  Hebrew  till),  has  reference 
to  the  nature  of  angels,  and  characterizes  them  as  in- 
corporeal and  invisible  essences.  When,  therefore, 
the  ancient  Jews  called  angels  spirits,  they  did  not 
mean  to  deny  that  they  were  endued  with  bodies. 
When  they  affirmed  that  angels  were  incorporeal, 
they  used  the  term  in  the  sense  in  which  it  was  un- 
derstood by  the  ancients ;  that  is,  free  from  the  im- 
purities of  gross  matter.  This  distinction  between  "a 
natural  body"  and  "a  spiritual  body"  is  indicated 
by  Paul  (1  Cor.  xv,  44) ;  and  we  may,  with  sufficient 
safety,  assume  that  angels  are  spiritual  bodies,  rather 
than  pure  spirits  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the 
word.     (See  Ode,  De  A  ngelis,  Tr.  ad  Rh.  1739.) 


ANGEL 


226 


ANGEL 


It  is  disputed  whether  the  term  Elohim  (q.  v.)  is 
ever  applied  to  angels  ;  but  in  Psa.  viii,  5,  and  xcvii, 
7,  the  word  is  rendered  by  angels  in  the  Sept.  and  oth- 
er ancient  versions  ;  and  both  these  texts  are  so  cited 
in  Heb.  i,  6 ;  ii,  7,  that  they  are  called  Sons  of  God. 
But  there  are  many  passages  in  which  the  expression, 
the  "angel  of  God,"  "the  angel  of  Jehovah,"  is  cer- 
tainly used  for  a  manifestation  of  God  himself.  This 
is  especially  the  case  in  the  earlier  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  may  be  seen  at  once  by  a  comparison 
of  Gen.  xxii,  11  with  12,  and  of  Exod.  iii,  2  with  6 
and  14,  where  He  who  is  called  the  "  angel  of  God"  in 
one  verse?  is  called  "God,"  and  even  "Jehovah,"  in 
those  that  follow,  and  accepts  the  worship  due  to 
God  alone  (contrast  Eev.  xix,  10;  xxi,  9).  See  also 
Gen.  xvi,  7,  13;  xxi,  11,  13;  xlviii,  15,  16;  Num. 
xxii,  22,  32,  35 ;  and  comp.  Isa.  lxiii,  9  with  Exod. 
xxxiii,  14,  etc.,  etc.  The  same  expression,  it  seems, 
is  used  by  Paul  in  speaking  to  heathens  (see  Acts 
xxvii,  23 ;  comp.  with  xxiii,  11).  More  remarkably, 
the  word  "  Elohim"  is  applied  in  Psa.  lxxxii,  6,  to 
those  who  judge  in  God's  name. 

It  is  to  be  observed  also  that,  side  hy  side  with  these 
expressions,  we  read  of  God's  being  manifested  in  the 
form  of  man;  e.  g.  to  Abraham  at  Mamre  (Gen.  xviii,  2, 
22  ;  comp.  xix,  1) ;  to  Jacob  at  Penuel  (Gen.  xxxii,  24, 
30) ;  to  Joshua  at  Gilgal  (Josh,  v,  13,  15),  etc.  It  is 
hardly  to  be  doubted  that  both  sets  of  passages  refer  to 
the  same  kind  of  manifestation  of  the  Divine  Presence. 
This  being  the  case,  since  we  know  that  "no  man 
hath  seen  God"  (the  Father)  "at  any  time,"  and  that 
"  the  only-begotten  Son,  which  is  in  the  bosom  of  the 
Father,  he  hath  revealed  him"  (John  i,  18),  the  inev- 
itable inference  is  that  by  the  "Angel  of  the  Lord"  in 
such  passages  is  meant  He  who  is  from  the  beginning, 
the  "  Word,"  i.  e.  the  Manifester  or  Revealer  of  God. 
These  appearances  are  evidently  "  foreshadowings  of 
the  incarnation"  (q.  v.).  By  these  God  the  Son  man- 
ifested himself  from  time  to  time  in  that  human  na- 
ture which  he  united  to  the  Godhead  forever  in  the 
virgin's  womb.     See  Jehovah. 

This  conclusion  is  corroborated  by  the  fact  that  the 
phrases  used  as  equivalent  to  the  word  "  angels"  in 
Scripture,  viz.,  the  "  sons  of  God,"  or  even  in  poetry, 
the  "  gods"  (Elohim),  the  "  holy  ones,"  etc.,  are  names 
which,  in  their  full  and  proper  sense,  are  applicable 
only  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  As  He  is  "the  Son  of 
God,"  so  also  is  He  the  "  angel"  or  "messenger"  of 
the  Lord.  Accordingly,  it  is  to  his  incarnation  that  all 
angelic  ministration  is  distinctly  referred,  as  to  a  cen- 
tral truth,  by  which  alone  its  nature  and  meaning 
can  be  understood  (comp.  John  i,  51,  with  Gen.  xxviii, 
11-17,  especially  ver.  13).  (See  an  anon,  work,  Angels, 
Cherubim,  and  Gods,  Lond.  1861.)     See  Logos. 

I.  Their  Existence  and  Orders. — In  the  Scriptures 
we  have  frequent  notices  of  spiritual  intelligences  ex- 
isting in  another  state  of  being,  and  constituting  a  ce- 
lestial family  or  hierarchy,  over  which  Jehovah  pre- 
sides. The  Bible  does  not,  however,  treat  of  this  mat- 
ter professedly  and  as  a  doctrine  of  religion,  but  mere- 
ly adverts  to  it  incidentally  as  a  fact,  without  furnish- 
ing any  details  to  gratify  curiosity.  The  practice  of 
the  Jews  of  referring  to  the  agency  of  angels  every 
manifestation  of  the  greatness  and  power  of  God  has 
led  some  to  contend  that  angels  have  no  real  existence, 
but  are  mere  personifications  of  unknown  powers  of 
nature;  and  we  are  reminded  that,  in  like  manner, 
among  the  Gentiles,  whatever  was  wonderful,  or 
strange,  or  unaccountable,  was  referred  by  them  to 
the  agency  of  some  one  of  their  gods.  It  may  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  passages  in  which  angels  are  described 
as  speaking  and  delivering  messages  might  be  inter- 
preted of  forcible  or  apparently  supernatural  sugges- 
tions to  the  mind,  but  they  are  sometimes  represented  as 
performing  acts  which  are  wholly  inconsistent  with  this 
notion  ((Jen.  xvi,  7, 12;  Judg.  xiii,  1  21  ;  Matt,  xxviii 
2-4) ;  and  other  passages  (e.  g.  Matt,  xxii,  30 ;  Heb.  i,  4 


sq.)  would  be  without  force  or  meaning  if  angels  had 
no  real  existence.     (See  Winer's  Zeitschr.  1827,  ii.) 

That  these  superior  beings  are  very  numerous  is  ev- 
ident from  the  following  expressions :  Dan.  vii,  10, 
"thousands  of  thousands,"  and  "ten  thousand  times 
ten  thousand  ;"  Matt,  xxvi,  53,  "  more  than  twelve  le- 
gions of  angels;"  Luke  ii,  13,  "  multitude  of  the  heav- 
enly host ;"  Heb.  xii,  22,  23,  "  myriads  of  angels."  It 
is  probable,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  that  among 
so  great  a  multitude  there  may  be  different  grades  and 
classes,  and  even  natures  —  ascending  from  man  to- 
ward God,  and  forming  a  chain  of  being  to  fill  up  the 
vast  space  between  the  Creator  and  man,  the  lowest 
of  his  intellectual  creatures.  Accordingly,  the  Scrip- 
ture describes  angels  as  existing  in  a  society  composed 
of  members  of  unequal  dignify,  power,  and  excellence, 
and  as  having  chiefs  and  rulers.  It  is  admitted  that 
this  idea  is  not  clearly  expressed  in  the  books  composed 
before  the  Babylonish  captivity  ;  but  it  is  developed  in 
the  books  written  during  the  exile  and  afterward,  es- 
pecially in  the  writings  of  Daniel  and  Zechariah.  In 
Zech.  i,  11,  an  angel  of  the  highest  order,  one  uho 
stands  before  God,  appears  in  contrast  with  angels  of 
an  inferior  class,  whom  he  employs  as  his  messengers 
and  agents  (comp.  iii,  7).  In  Dan.  x,  13,  the  appella- 
tion "one  of  the  chief  princes"  ("iwN'n  lb),  and  in 
xii,  1,  "the  great  prince"  (b"H".!l  "ItSS^),  are  given  to 
Michael.  The  Grecian  Jews  rendered  this  appellation 
by  the  term  apxayyeXoe;,  archangel  (q.  v.),  which  oc- 
curs in  the  New  Test.  (Jude  9  ;  1  Thess.  iv,  16).  The 
names  of  several  of  them  even  are  given.  See  Ga- 
briel, Michael,  etc.  The  opinion,  therefore,  that 
there  were  various  orders  of  angels  was  not  peculiar  to 
the  Jews,  but  was  held  by  Christians  in  the  time  of 
the  apostles,  and  is  mentioned  by  the  apostles  them- 
selves. The  distinct  divisions  of  the  angels,  according 
to  their  rank  in  the  heavenly  hierarchy,  however,  which 
we  find  in  the  writings  of  the  later  Jews,  were  almost 
or  wholly  unknown  in  the  apostolical  period.  The  ap- 
pellations dpxai,  t^ovaiai,  cvvdfitic,  Opovot,  Kvpiorn- 
t(q,  are,  indeed,  applied  in  Eph.  i,  21 ;  Col.  i,  16,  and 
elsewhere,  to  the  angels ;  not,  however,  to  them  ex- 
clusively, or  with  the  intention  of  denoting  their  par- 
ticular classes ;  but  to  them  in  common  with  all  beings 
possessed  of  might  and  power,  visible  as  well  as  invis- 
ible, on  earth  as  well  as  in  heaven.  (See  Henke's 
Magaz.  1795,  iii;  1796,  vi.)     See  Principality. 

II.  Their  Nature. — They  are  termed  "  spirits"  (as 
in  Heb.  i,  14),  although  this  word  is  applied  more  com- 
monly not  so  much  to  themselves  as  to  their  power 
dwelling  in  man  (1  Sam.  xviii,  10;  Matt,  viii,  16,  etc. 
etc.).  The  word  is  the  same  as  that  used  of  the  soul 
of  man  when  separate  from  the  body  (Matt,  xiv,  26 ; 
Luke  xxiv,  37,  39 ;  1  Pet.  iii,  19) ;  but,  since  it  prop- 
erly expresses  only  that  supersensuous  and  rational 
element  of  man's  nature,  which  is  in  him  the  image 
of  God  (see  John  iv,  24),  and  by  which  he  has  com- 
munion with  God  (Eom.  viii,  16)  ;  and  since,  alsc,  we 
are  told  that  there  is  a  "spiritual  body"  as  well  as  a 
"natural  (^vxikov)  body"  (1  Cor.  xv,  44),  it  does  net 
assert  that  the  angelic  nature  is  incorporeal.  The  con- 
trary seems  expressfy  implied  by  the  words  in  which 
our  Lord  declares  that,  after  the  Resurrection,  men 
shall  be  "  like  the  angels"  (Jadyytkoi)  (Luke  xx,  36) ; 
because  (as  is  elsewhere  said,  Phil,  iii,  21)  their  bodies, 
as  well  as  their  spirits,  shall  have  been  made  entirely 
like  His.  It  may  also  be  noticed  that  the  glorious 
appearance  ascribed  to.  the  angels  in  Scripture  (as  in 
Dan.  x.  6)  is  the  same  as  that  which  shone  out  in  our 
Lord's  Transfiguration,  and  in  which  John  saw  Him 
clothed  in  heaven  (Rev.  i,  14-16);  and  moreover, 
that  whenever  angels  have  been  made  manifest  to 
man,  it  has  always  been  in  human  form  (as  in  Gen. 
xviii,  xix;  Luke  xxiv,  4 ;  Acts  i,  10,  etc.  etc.).  The 
very  fact  that  the  titles  "sons  of  God"  (Job  i,  6; 
xxxviii,  7;  Dan.  iii,  25,  comp.  with  28),  and  "gods" 


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227 


ANGEL 


(Psa.  viii,  5  ;  xcvii,  7),  applied  to  them,  are  also  given 
to  men  (see  Luke  iii,  38 ;  Psa.  lxxxii,  G,  and  comp. 
our  Lord's  application  of  this  last  passage  in  John  x, 
34—37),  points  in  the  same  way  to  a  difference  only  of 
degree  and  an  identity  of  kind  between  the  human 
and  the  angelic  nature.  The  angels  are  therefore  re- 
vealed to  us  as  beings,  such  as  man  might  lie  and  will 
be  when  the  power  of  sin  and  death  is  removed,  par- 
taking in  their  measure  of  the  attributes  of  God, 
Truth,  Purity,  and  Love,  because  always  beholding 
His  face  (Matt,  xviii,  10),  and  therefore  being  "made 
like  Him"  (1  John  iii,  2).  This,  of  course,  implies 
finiteness,  and  therefore  (in  the  strict  sense)  "imper- 
fection" of  nature,  and  constant  progress,  both  moral 
and  intellectual,  through  all  eternity.  Such  imper- 
fection, contrasted  with  the  infinity  of  God,  is  express- 
lv  ascribed  to  them  in  Job  iv,  18 ;  Matt,  xxiv,  36  ;  1 
Pet.  i,  12;  and  it  is  this  which  emphatically  points 
them  out  to  us  as  creatures,  fellow-servants  of  man, 
and  therefore  incapable  of  usurping  the  place  of 
gods.  This  finiteness  of  nature  implies  capacity  of 
temptation  (see  Butler's  Anal.  pt.  i,  c.  5),  and  accord- 
ingly we  hear  of  "fallen  angels."  Of  the  nature  of 
their  temptation  and  the  circumstances  of  their  fall 
we  know  absolutely  nothing.  All  that  is  certain  is, 
that  they  "  left  their  first  estate"  (ti)i>  tavrwv  cipxuv), 
and  that  they  are  now  "angels  of  the  devil"  (Matt. 
xxv,  41 ;  Rev.  xii,  7,  9),  partaking  therefore  of  the 
falsehood,  uncleanness,  and  hatred,  which  are  his  pe- 
culiar characteristics  (John  viii,  44).  All  that  can  be 
conjectured  must  be  based  on  the  analogy  of  man's 
own  temptation  and  fall.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
title  especially  assigned  to  the  angels  of  God,  that  of 
the  "  holy  ones"  (see  Dan.  iv,  13,  23 ;  viii,  13 ;  Matt. 
xxv.  31),  is  precisely  the  one  which  is  given  to  those 
men  who  are  renewed  in  Christ's  image,  but  which  be- 
longs to  them  in  actuality  and  in  perfection  only  here- 
after. (Comp.  Heb.  ii,  10;  v,  9  ;  xii,  23.)  Its  use 
evidently  implies  that  the  angelic  probation  is  over, 
and  their  crown  of  glory  won. 

In  the  Scriptures  angels  appear  with  bodies,  and  in 
the  human  form  ;  and  no  intimation  is  anywhere  given 
that  these  bodies  are  not  real,  or  that  they  are  only 
assumed  for  the  time  and  then  laid  aside.  It  was 
manifest,  indeed,  to  the  ancients  that  the  matter  of 
these  bodies  was  not  like  that  of  their  own,  inasmuch 
as  angels  could  make  themselves  visible  and  vanish 
again  from  their  sight.  But  this  experience  would 
suggest  no  doubt  of  the  reality  of  their  bodies;  it 
would  only  intimate  that  they  were  not  composed  of 
gross  matter.  After  his  resurrection,  Jesus  often  ap- 
peared to  his  disciples,  and  vanished  again  before 
them;  yet  they  never  doubted  that  they  saw  the  same 
body  which  had  been  crucified,  although  they  must 
have  perceived  that  it  had  undergone  an  important 
change.  The  fact  that  angels  always  appeared  in  the 
human  form  does  not,  indeed,  prove  that  they  really 
have  this  form,  but  that  the  ancient  Jews  believed 
so.  That  which  is  not  pure  spirit  must  have  some 
form  or  other ;  and  angels  may  have  the  human  form, 
but  other  forms  are  possible.     See  Cherub. 

The  question  as  to  the  food  of  angels  has  been  very 
much  discussed.  If  they  do  eat,  we  can  know  noth- 
ing of  their  actual  food ;  for  the  manna  is  manifestly 
called  "  angels'  food"  (Psa.  lxxviii,  25 ;  Wisd.  xvi, 
20)  merely  by  way  of  expressing  its  excellence.  The 
only  real  question,  therefore,  is  whether  they  feed  at 
all  or  not.  We  sometimes  find  angels,  in  their  terrene 
manifestations,  eating  and  drinking  (Gen.  xviii,  8  ; 
xix,  3) ;  but  in  Judg.  xiii,  15,  16,  the  angel  who  ap- 
peared to  Manoah  declined,  in  a  very  pointed  manner, 
to  accept  his  hospitality.  The  manner  in  which  the 
Jews  obviated  the  apparent  discrepancy,  and  the  sense 
in  which  they  understood  such  passages,  appear  from 
the  apocrj-phal  book  of  Tobit  (xii,  19),  where  the 
angel  is  made  to  sajr,  "  It  seems  to  you,  indeed,  as 
though  I  did  eat  and  drink  with  you ;  but  I  use  in- 


visible food  which  no  man  can  see."  This  intimates 
that  they  were  supposed  to  simulate  when  they  ap- 
peared to  partake  of  man's  food,  but  that  yet  they 
had  food  of  their  own,  proper  to  their  natures.  Mil- 
ton, who  was  deeply  read  in  .the  "  angelic"  literature, 
derides  these  questions  (Par.  Lost,  v,  433—439).  But 
if  angels  do  not  need  food  ;  if  their  spiritual  bodies  arc 
inherently  incapable  of  waste  or  death,  it  seems  not 
likely  that  they  gratuitously  perform  an  act  design- 
ed, in  all  its  known  relations,  to  promote  growth,  to 
repair  waste,  and  to  sustain  existence. 

The  passage  already  referred  to  in  Matt,  xxii,  30, 
teaches  by  implication  that  there  is  no  distinction  of 
sex  among  the  angels.  The  Scripture  never  makes 
mention  of  female  angels.  The  Gentiles  had  their 
male  and  female  divinities,  who  were  the  parents  of 
other  gods,  and  Gesenius  {Thes.  Heb.  s.  v.  "2,  12)  in- 
sists that  the  "sons  of  God"  spoken  of  in  Gen.  vi,  2, 
as  the  progenitors  of  the  giants,  were  angels.  But  in 
the  Scriptures  the  angels  are  all  males ;  and  they  ap- 
pear to  be  so  represented,  not  to  mark  any  distinction 
of  sex,  but  because  the  masculine  is  the  more  honor- 
able gender.  Angels  are  never  described  with  marks 
of  age,  but  sometimes  with  those  of  youth  (Mark  xvi, 
5).  The  constant  absence  of  the  features  of  age  indi- 
cates the  continual  vigor  and  freshness  of  immortali- 
ty. The  angels  never  die  (Luke  xx,  36).  But  no 
being  besides  God  himself  has  essential  immortality 
(1  Tim.  vi,  16) ;  every  other  being,  therefore,  is  mor- 
tal in  itself,  and  can  be  immortal  only  by  the  will  of 
God.  Angels,  consequently,  are  not  eternal,  but  had 
a  beginning.  As  Moses  gives  no  account  of  the  cre- 
ation of  angels  in  his  description  of  the  origin  of  the 
world,  although  the  circumstance  would  have  been  too 
important  for  omission  had  it  then  taken  place,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  they  were  called  into  being  before, 
probably  very  long  before  the  acts  of  creation  which 
it  was  the  object  of  Moses  to  relate.  See  Sons  of  Gon. 

That  they  are  of  superhuman  intelligence  is  implied 
in  Mark  xiii,  32  :  "  But  of  that  day  and  hour  knoweth 
no  man,  not  even  the  angels  in  heaven."  That  their 
power  is  great  may  be  gathered  from  such  expressions 
as  "mighty  angels"  (2  Thess.  i,  7);  "angels,  power- 
ful in  strength"  (Psa.  ciii,  20);  "  angels  who  are  great- 
er [than  man]  in  power  and  might."  The  moral  per- 
fection of  angels  is  shown  by  such  phrases  as  "hoby 
angels"  (Luke  ix,  26) ;  "the  elect  angels"  (2  Tim.  v, 
21).  Their  felicity  is  beyond  question  in  itself,  but 
is  evinced  by  the  passage  (Luke  xx,  36)  in  which  the 
blessed  in  the  future  world  are  said  to  be  iadyyeXot, 
kcu  viol  too  Otov,  "like  unto  the  angels,  and  sons  of 
God."     (See  Timpson,  Angels  of  God,  Lond.  1837.) 

III.  Their  Functions.— Of  their  office  in  heaven  we 
have,  of  course,  only  vague  prophetic  glimpses  (as  in 
1  Kings  xxii,  19;  Isa.  vi,  1-3;  Dan.  vii,  9,  10;  Rev. 
vi,  11,  etc.),  which  show  us  nothing  but  a  never-ceas- 
ing adoration,  proceeding  from  the  vision  of  God. 
Their  office  toward  man  is  far  more  fully  described  to 
us.     (See  Whately,  Angels,  Lond.  1851,  Phil.  1856.) 

1.  They  are  represented  as  being,  in  the  widest 
sense,  agents  of  God's  providence,  natural  and  super- 
natural, to  the  body  and  to  the  soul.  Thus  the  opera- 
tions of  nature  are  spoken  of,  as  under  angelic  guid- 
ance fulfilling  the  will  of  God.  Not  only  is  this  the 
case  in  poetical  passages,  such  as  Psa.  civ,  4  (com- 
mented upon  in  Heb.  i,  7),  where  the  powers  of  air 
and  fire  are  referred  to  them,  but  in  the  simplest  prose 
history,  as  where  the  pestilences  which  slew  the  first- 
born (Exod.  xii,  23  ;  Heb.  xi,  28),  the  disobedient  peo- 
ple in  the  wilderness  (1  Cor.  x,  10),  the  IsraeHtes  in 
the  days  of  David  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  16 ;  1  Chron.  xxi, 
16),  and  the  army  of  Sennacherib  (2  Kings  xix,  35), 
as  also  the  plague  which  cut  oft'  Herod  (Acts  xii,  23), 
are  plainly  spoken  of  as  the  work  of  the  "Angel  of 
the  Lord."  Nor  can  the  mysterious  declarations  of 
the  Apocalypse,  by  far  the  most  numerous  of  all,  be 
resolved  by  honest  interpretation  into  mere  poetical 


ANGEL 


228 


ANGEL 


imagery.  (See  especially  Rev.  viii  and  ix.)  It  is 
evident  that  angelic  agency,  like  that  of  man,  does 
not  exclude  the  action  of  secondary,  or  (what  are  call- 
ed) ''natural"  causes,  or  interfere  with  the  directness 
and  universality  of  the  providence  of  God.  The  per- 
sonifications of  poetry  and  legends  of  mythology  are 
obscure  witnesses  of  its  truth,  which,  however,  can 
rest  only  on  the  revelations  of  Scripture  itself. 

2.  More  particularly,  however,  angels  are  spoken 
of  as  ministers  of  what  is  commonly  called  the  "su- 
pernatural," or,  perhaps,  more  correctly,  the  "spirit- 
ual" providence  of  God  ;  as  agents  in  the  great  scheme 
of  the  spiritual  redemption  and  sanctification  of  man, 
of  which  the  Bible  is  the  record.  The  representations 
of  them  are  different  in  different  books  of  Scripture, 
in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New ;  but  the  rea- 
sons of  the  differences  are  to  be  found  in  the  differ- 
ences of  scope  attributable  to  the  books  themselves. 
As  different  parts  of  God's  providence  are  brought  out, 
so  also  arise  different  views  of  His  angelic  ministers. 

(1.)  In  the  Book  of  Job,  which  deals  with  "Natural 
Religion,"  they  are  spoken  of  but  vaguely,  as  sur- 
rounding God's  throne  above,  and  rejoicing  in  the  com- 
pletion of  His  creative  work  (Job  i,  6  ;  ii,  1 ;  xxxviii, 
7).  No  direct  and  visible  appearance  to  man  is  even 
hinted  at.     (See  Rawson,  Holy  Angels,  N.  Y.  1858.) 

(2.)  In  the  Book  of  Genesis  there  is  no  notice  of 
angelic  appearances  till  after  the  call  of  Abraham. 
Then,  as  the  book  is  the  history  of  the  chosen  family, 
so  the  angels  mingle  with  and  watch  over  its  family 
life,  entertained  by  Abraham  and  by  Lot  (Gen.  xviii, 
xix),  guiding  Abraham's  servant  to  Padan-Aram 
(xxiv,  7,  40),  seen  by  the  fugitive  Jacob  at  Bethel 
(xxviii,  12),  and  welcoming  his  return  at  Mahanaim 
( xxxii,  1).  Their  ministry  hallows  domestic  life,  in 
its  trials  and  its  blessings  alike,  and  is  closer,  more 
familiar,  and  less  awful  than  in  after  times.  (Con- 
trast Gen.  xviii  with  Judg.  vi,  21,  22 ;  xiii,  16,  22.) 

(3.)  In  the  subsequent  history,  that  of  a  chosen 
nation,  the  angels  are  represented  more  as  ministers 
of  wrath  and  mercy,  messengers  of  a  King,  than  as 
common  children  of  the  One  Father.  It  is,  moreover, 
to  be  observed  that  the  records  of  their  appearance 
belong  especially  to  two  periods,  that  of  the  judges 
and  that  of  the  captivity,  which  wrere  transition  pe- 
riods in  Israelitish  history,  the  former  destitute  of  di- 
rect revelation  or  prophetic  guidance,  the  latter  one 
pf  special  trial  and  unusual  contact  with  heathenism. 
During  the  lives  of  Moses  and  Joshua  there  is  no  record 
of  the  appearance  of  created  angels,  and  only  obscure 
references  to  angels  at  all.  In  the  Book  of  Judges 
angels  appear  to  rebuke  idolatry  (ii,  1-4), to  call  Gideon 
(vi,  11,  etc.),  and  consecrate  Samson  (xiii,  3,  etc.)  to 
the  work  of  deliverance. 

(4.)  The  prophetic  office  begins  with  Samuel,  and 
immediately  angelic  guidance  is  withheld,  except 
when  needed  by  the  prophets  themselves  (1  Kings 
xix,  5;  2  Kings  vi,  17).  During  the  prophetic  and 
kingly  period  angels  are  spoken  of  onlj'  (as  noticed 
above)  as  ministers  of  God  in  the  operations  of  nature. 
But  in  the  captivity,  when  the  Jews  were  in  the  pres- 
ence of  foreign  nations,  each  claiming  its  tutelary  dei- 
ty, then  to  the  prophets  Daniel  and  Zechariah  angels 
are  revealed  in  a  fresh  light,  as  watching,  not  only 
over  Jerusalem,  but  also  over  heathen  kingdoms,  un- 
der the  providence,  and  to  work  out  the  designs,  of 
the  Lord.  (See  Zech.  passim,  and  Dan.  iv,  13,  23;  x, 
10,  13,  20,  21,  etc.)  In  the  whole  period  they,  as  truly 
as  the  prophets  and  kings,  are  God's  ministers,  watch- 
ing over  the  national  life  of  the  subjects  of  the  Great 
King.     (See  Ileigel,  Di  angeh foederis,  Jen.  1660.) 

(5.)  The  Incarnation  marks  a  new  epoch  of  angelic 
ministration.  "  The  Angel  of  Jehovah,"  the  Lord  of 
all  created  angels,  having  now  descended  from  heaven 
to  earth,  it  was  natural  that  His  servants  should  con- 
tinue to  do  Him  service  here.  Whether  to  predict 
and  glorify  Ilis  birth  itself  (Matt,  i,  20;  Luke  i,  ii), 


to  minister  to  Him  after  His  temptation  and  agony 
(Matt,  iv,  11 ;  Luke  xxii,  43),  or  to  declare  His  res- 
urrection and  triumphant  ascension  (Matt,  xxviii,  2 ; 
John  xx,  12;  Acts  i,  10,  11),  they  seem  now  to  be  in- 
deed "  ascending  and  descending  on  the  Son  of  Man," 
almost  as  though  transferring  to  earth  the  ministra- 
tions of  heaven.  It  is  clearly  seen  that  whatever 
was  done  by  them  for  men  in  earlier  days  was  but 
typical  of  and  flowing  from  their  service  to  Him. 
(See  Psa.  xci,  11 ;  comp.  Matt,  iv,  6.) 

(6.)  The  New  Testament  is  the  history  of  the  Chur-ch 
of  Christ,  every  member  of  which  is  united  to  Him. 
Accordingly,  the  angels  are  revealed  now  as  "minis- 
tering spirits"  to  each  individual  member  of  Christ  for 
his  spiritual  guidance  and  aid  (Heb.  i,  14).  The  rec- 
ords of  their  visible  appearance  are  but  unfrequent 
(Acts  v,  19  ;  viii,  2G  ;  x,  3  ;  xii,  7  ;  xxvii,  23)  ;  yet 
their  presence  and  their  aid  are  referred  to  familiarly, 
almost  as  things  of  course,  ever  after  the  Incarnation. 
They  are  spoken  of  as  watching  over  Christ's  little 
ones  (Matt,  xviii,  10),  as  rejoicing  over  a  penitent  sin- 
ner (Luke  xv,  10),  as  present  in  the  worship  of  Chris- 
tians (1  Cor.  xi,  10),  and  (perhaps)  bringing  their 
prayers  before  God  (Rev.  viii,  3,  4),  and  as  bearing 
the  souls  of  the  redeemed  into  paradise  (Luke  xvi,  22). 
In  one  word,  they  are  Christ's  ministers  of  grace  now, 
as  they  shall  be  of  judgment  hereafter  (Matt,  xiii,  39, 
41,  49;  xvi.  27;  xxiv,  31,  etc.).  By  what  method 
they  act  we  cannot  know  of  ourselves,  nor  are  we  told, 
j  perhaps  lest  we  should  worship  them  instead  of  Him, 
whose  servants  they  are  (see  Col.  ii,  18 ;  Rev.  xxii, 
9) ;  but,  of  course,  their  agency,  like  that  of  human 
ministers,  depends  for  its  efficacy  on  the  aid  of  the 
Holy  Spirit. 

The  ministry  of  angels,  therefore,  a  doctrine  implied 
in  their  very  name,  is  evident,  from  certain  actions 
which  are  ascribed  wholly  to  them  (Matt,  xiii,  41,  49  ; 
xxiv,  31 ;  Luke  xvi,  22),  and  from  the  scriptural  nar- 
ratives of  other  events,  in  the  accomplishment  of 
which  they  acted  a  visible  part  (Luke  i,  11,  26;  ii,  9 
sq. ;  Acts  v,  19,  20  ;  x,  3, 19  ;  xii,  7 ;  xxvii,  23),  prin- 
cipally in  the  guidance  of  the  destinies  of  man.  In 
those  cases  also  in  which  the  agency  is  concealed  from 
our  view  we  may  admit  the  probability  of  its  exist- 
ence, because  we  are  told  that  God  sends  them  forth 
"to  minister  to  those  who  shall  be  heirs  of  salvation" 
(Heb.  i,  14  ;  also  Psa.  xxxiv,  8,  91 ;  Matt,  xviii,  10). 
But  the  angels,  when  employed  for  our  welfare,  do 
not  act  independently,  but  as  the  instruments  of  God, 
and  by  His  command  (Psa.  ciii,  20;  civ,  4;  Heb.  i, 
13,  14)  :  not  unto  them,  therefore,  are  our  contidenee 
and  adoration  due,  but  only  to  him  (Rev.  xix,  10; 
xxii,  9)  whom  the  angels  themselves  reverently  wor- 
ship. (See  Mostyn,  Ministry  of  Angels,  Lond.  1841.) 
3.  Guardian  Angels. — It  was  a  favorite  opinion  of 
the  Christian  fathers  that  every  individual  is  under 
the  care  of  a  particular  angel,  who  is  assigned  to  him 
as  a  guardian.  See  Guardian  Angel.  They  spoke 
also  of  two  angels,  the  one  good,  the  other  evil,  whom 
they  conceived  to  be  attendant  on  each  individual : 
the  good  angel  prompting  to  all  good,  and  averting 
ill,  and  the  evil  angel  prompting  to  all  ill,  and  avert- 
ing good  (Hermas,  ii,  6).  See  Abaddon.  The  Jews 
(excepting  the  Sadducees)  entertained  this  belief,  as 
do  the  Moslems.  The  heathen  held  it  in  a  modified 
form — the  Greeks  having  their  tutelary  danwn  (q.  v.), 
and  the  Romans  their  genius.  There  is,  however,  noth- 
ing to  support  this  notion  in  the  Bible.  The  ]  assages 
( I'sa.  xxxiv,  7;  Matt,  xviii,  Id)  usually  referred  to 
in  support  of  it  have  assuredly  no  such  meaning. 
The  former,  divested  of  its  poetical  shape,  simply  de- 
notes that  God  employs  the  ministry  of  angels  to  de- 
liver his  people  from  affliction  and  danger;  and  the 
celebrated  passage  in  Matthew  cannot  well  mean  any 
thing  more  than  that  the  infant  children  of  believers, 
or,  if  preferable,  the  least  among  the  disciples  of 
Christ,  whom  the  ministers  of  the  Church  might  be 


ANGELA 


ANGELUS 


disposed  to  neglect  from  their  apparent  insignificance, 
are  in  such  estimation  elsewhere  that  the  angels  do 
not  think  it  below  their  dignity  to  minister  to  them. 
— Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v.     See  Satan. 

IV.  Literature. —  For  the  Jewish  speculations  on 
Angelology,  see  Eisenmenger,  Entdecktes  Judenthum, 
ii,  370  sq. ;  the  Christian  views  on  the  subject  may  be 
found  in  Starr  and  Flatt's Lehrbuch  der  Chr. Dogma/ik, 
§  xlviii;  Scriptural  views  respecting  them  arc  given 
in  the  A  merican  Biblical  Repository,  xii,  356-368 ;  in 
the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  i,  766  sq. ;  ii,  108  sq. ;  on  the 
ministry  of  angels,  see  Journal  Sac.  Lit.  January, 
1852,  p.  283  sq. ;  on  their  existence  and  character, 
ib.  October,  1853,  p.  122  sq.  Special  treatises  are  the 
following,  among  others :  Loers,  Be  angelorum  cor- 
porib.  et  natura  (Tuisc.  1719,  F.  a.  Rh.  1731) ;  Goede, 
Demonstrationes  de  existentia  corporum  angelicor.  (Hal. 
1744) ;  Hoffmann,  Num  angeli  boni  corpora  hominum 
interdum  obsideant  (Viteb.  1760);  Sehulthess,  Engel- 
welt,  Engslgesetz  u.  Engeldienst  (Ziir.  1833);  Cotta, 
Doctrines  de  Angelis  historii  (Tub.  1705);  Damitz,  De 
lapsu  angelorum  (Viteb.  1693)  ;  Wernsdorf,  De  com- 
mercio  angelor.  c.  filiabus  hominum  (Viteb.  1742) ; 
Schmid,  Enarralio  de  lapsu  dasmonum  (Viteb.  1775); 
Maior,  I>e  natura  et  cultu  angelor.  (Jen.  1653) ;  Mer- 
heim,  Hist,  angelor.  spec.  (Viteb.  1792) ;  Seiler,  Erron&e 
doctrine  de  angelis  (Erlang.  1797)  ;  Driessen,  Angelor. 
corpa  (Gron.  ,1740) ;  Beyer,  De  Angelis  (Hal.  1698); 
Carhov's  ed.  of  Abarbanel,  De  creatione  angelorum  (in 
Lat.  Lpz.  1740);  Mather,  Angiography  (Bost.  1096); 
Ambrose,  Ministration  of  and  Communion  with  Angels 
(in  Works,  p.  873);  Cam  field,  Discourse  of  Angels 
(Lond.  1678);  Lawrence,  Communion  and  Warre  with 
Angels  (s.  1.  1646);  Gasman,  Angehgraphia  (Frcft. 
1 597) ;  Herrenschmidt,  Theatrum  angelorum  (Jen.  1629) ; 
Clotz,  Angehgraphia  (Rost.  1636);  Dorsche,  Singula- 
rium  angelicorum  septenarius  (Argent.  1045)  ;  Muskus, 
Angelogia  apostolica  (Jen.  1G64)  ;  Schmid,  Senarius  an- 
gelicas (Helmst.  1695);  Meier,  De  archangelis  (Hamb. 
1695);  Oporin,  Lehre  von  den  Engeln  (ib.  1735);  Stro- 
dimann,  Cute  Engel  (Guelph.  1744)  ;  Renter,  Reich  des 
Tenfels  (Lemg.  1715)  ;  Nieolai,  De grarlbus  nequitice  dia- 
bolicee  (Magd.  1750)  ;  Herrera,  De  angelis  (Salam.  1595) ; 
Grasse,  Biblioth.  magica  (Lpz.  1843).     See  Spirit. 

On  the  worship  of  angels,  as  practised  in  the  Roman 
Church,  treatises  exist  in  Latin  by  the  following  au- 
thors:  ^Epinus  (Rost.  1757);  Beciimann  (Jen.  1001); 
Clotz  (Rost.  1636);  Osiander  (Tubing.  1670);  Pfef- 
finger  (Argent.  1708,  Helmst.  1731);  Reusch  (Helmst. 
1739);  Schultze  (Lips.  1703);  Quistorp  (Gryph.  1770); 
Thomasius,  in  his  Dissert,  p.  89-103;  Wildvogel  (Jen. 
1692) ;  Willisch  (Lips.  1723).     See  Invocation. 

Angela,  Merici,  better  known  as  Angela  of  Bres- 
cia, founder  of  the  order  of  the  Ursulines,  was  born  in 
1511,  at  Dezenzano.  She  entered  a  Franciscan  con- 
vent, and  made  a  journey  to  the  Holy  Land.  On  her 
return,  in  1537,  she  assembled  at  Brescia  a  company 
of  women,  to  whom  she  gave  the  name  of  St.  Ursula, 
whom  she  made  the  patron  of  the  order.  During  her 
lifetime  they  lived  each  in  the  house  of  her  parents ; 
but  after  her  death,  which  happened  Mar.  21, 1540,  the 
Ursulines  began  to  live  together.  Paul  III  approved 
the  institution  in  1544.  So  rapid  was  the  growth  of 
the  order,  that  within  a  cent.urj'  there  were  350  con- 
vents in  France  alone. — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  318; 
Helyot,  Orel.  Monastiques,  iv,  150.     See  Ursulines. 

Angeli.     See  Angelis. 

Angelical  Hymn,  the  hymn  or  doxology  (q.  v.) 
Gloria  in  Excehis,  beginning  with  "  Glory  be  to  God  on 
high,"  etc.  It  is  so  called  from  the  former  part  of  it 
having  been  sung  by  the  angels  to  announce  the  birth 
of  the  Redeemer.  The  Greek  original,  as  restored  by 
Bunsen  from  the  Cod.  Alex.,  is  given  in  his  Analecta 
Antenicevna,  iii,  87;  also  in  Procter,  On  Common  Pray- 
er, p.  354.— See  Palmer,  Orig.  Liturg.  iv,  §  23;  Bing- 
ham, Orig.  Eccks.  bk.  lxiv,  eh.  ii,  §  2.     See  Gloria. 


Angelici,  a  heretical  sect  of  the  3d  century,  sup- 
posed to  have  gained  the  appellation  in  consequence 
of  their  worship  of  angels.  The  practice  was  imitated 
in  the  time  of  Chrysostom,  and  called  forth  his  ani- 
madversions in  his  Homilies  on  the  Colossians;  and 
the  Council  of  Laodicea  enacted  a  severe  canon  accom- 
panied with  the  denunciation  of  anathema  to  restrain 
it.  That  council  says,  "Christians  ought  not  to  for- 
sake the  Church  of  God,  and  go  aside,  and  hold  con- 
venticles to  invocate  or  call  upon  the  names  of  angels  ; 
which  things  are  forbidden.  If  any  one,  therefore, 
be  found  to  exercise  himself  in  this  private  idolatry,  let 
him  be  accursed,  because  he  hath  forsaken  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  gone  over  to  idol- 
atry."— Epiphanius,  liar.  60 ;  Lardner,  Works,  ii,  602. 

Angelic  Order,  Nuns  of.     See  Guastalines. 

Angelique.     See  Arnaulp. 

Angelis  (or  Angeli  Degli),  Girolamo,  a  Jesuit 
born  at  Castro  Giovanni,  in  Sicily,  in  1567,  died  Dec.  4, 
1623.  He  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  15*5,  and 
prepared  himself  for  the  Eastern  missions.  He  embark- 
ed in  1596,  and,  after  a  long  navigation,  was  cast  upon 
the  coast  of  Brazil,  where  he  was  seized  by  pirates  and 
brought  to  England.  Having  from  thence  returned 
to  Portugal,  he  was,  in  1002,  sent  to  Japan,  in  which 
country  he  labored  as  a  missionary  until  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  in  1614.  "With  the  permission  of  his 
superiors,  Angelis  put  on  a  Japanese  dress,  and  re- 
mained on  the  island  of  Niphon  for  nine  moi-e  years. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  European  who  visited 
the  neighboring  islands.  In  Jeddo  he  is  said  to  have 
converted  ten  thousand  natives  to  Christianity.  Ulti- 
mately he  was  arrested,  imprisoned,  and  burned  alive, 
with  ninety  of  his  converts,  after  a  stay  in  Japan  of 
twenty-two  years.  A  work  on  Jeddo  (Relazione  del 
regno  di  YtZ'i),  which  was  published  at  Rome  in  1625, 
is  attributed  to  him. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale,  ii,  646. 

Angelites,  a  sect  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Anastasius,  about  the  year  494,  so  called  from  An- 
gelium,  a  place  in  the  city  of  Alexandria,  where  they 
held  their  first  meetings.  They  held  that  the  persons 
of  the  Trinity  are  not  the  same ;  that  neither  of  them 
exists  of  himself,  and  of  his  own  nature;  but  that 
there  is  a  common  God  or  Deity  existing  in  them  all, 
and  that  each  is  God  by  a  participation  of  this  Deity. 
— Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Sabellians. 

Angelo,  Rocca,  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  ed- 
ucated at  Rome,  Venice,  Perugia,  and  Padua.  Pope 
Sixtus  V  employed  him  to  superintend  the  printing 
of  the  Bible,  Councils,  and  Fathers ;  and  to  his  care 
the  Augustines  of  Rome  owe  "  the  Bibliotheea  Angel- 
ica," the  "  Librarj'  of  the  Vatican,"  that  "  of  Theology 
and  Holy  Scripture,"  etc.  He  died  at  Rome,  April  7, 
1620.— Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Angelus,  a  prayer  to  the  Virgin,  commonly  said 
in  the  Roman  Church  three  times  a  day,  viz.,  in  the 
morning,  at  noon,  and  in  the  evening,  when  the  bell 
is  sounded  thrice,  three  strokes  each  time.  Pope  John 
XXII  instituted  this  office  in  1316,  and  several  popes 
have  granted  indulgences  to  those  who  say  the  An- 
gelus on  their  knees. — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  370. 

Angelus,  Christopher,  a  Greek  scholar,  bom  in 
the  Peloponnesus  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, died  Feb.  1, 1638.  Being  compelled  by  the  Turks 
to  leave  his  country,  he  fled  to  England,  where  he  was 
enabled  by  the  support  of  the  bishop  of  Norwich  ami 
of  several  members  of  the  clergy  to  study  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Cambridge  and  Oxford.  He  was  subse- 
quently appointed  teacher  of  Greek  in  Baliol  College, 
Oxford,  which  position  he  retained  until  his  death. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  flight  from  Greece  (Ox- 
I  ford.  1619,  in  Greek  and  in  English);  a  work  on  the 
1  Greek  religion  (Enchiridion  de  Institutes  Grcecis,  Cam- 
|  bridge,  1619,  in  Greek  and  Latin) ;  Encomium,  on  the 
I  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  (Cambridge,  1619) ;  De  Apos 


ANGER 


230 


ANGLING 


ttma  Eccleske  et  de  Homme  2>eccat!,  scilicet  Antlchristo 
(London,  1624,  4to).— Wood,  Atken.  Oxon.  vol.  i ;  Gen- 
tian m's  Mag.  lxiv,  785 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  G51. 

Anger  (usually  TX,  aph,  dp-/))'),  the  emotion  of  in- 
stant displeasure,  which  arises  from  the  feeling  of  in- 
jury done,  or  the  discovery  of  injury  intended,  or,  in 
many  cases,  from  the  discovery  of  the  omission  of 
good  offices  to  which  we  supposed  ourselves  entitled ; 
or,  it  is  simply  the  emotion  of  displeasure  itself,  inde- 
pendent of  its  cause  or  its  consequences.  "  Like  most 
other  emotions,  it  is  accompanied  by  effects  on  the 
body,  and  in  this  case  they  are  of  a  very  marked  kind. 
The  arterial  blood-vessels  are  highly  excited;  the 
pulse,  during  the  paroxysm,  is  strong  and  hard,  the 
face  becomes  red  and  swollen,  the  brow  wrinkled,  the 
eyes  protrude,  the  whole  body  is  put  into  commotion. 
The  secretion  of  bile  is  excessive,  and  it  seems  to  as- 
sume a  morbid  consistency.  In  cases  of  violent  pas- 
sion, and  especially  in  nervous  persons,  this  excite- 
ment of  the  organs  soon  passes  to  the  other  extreme 
of  depression ;  generally,  this  does  not  take  place  till 
the  anger  has  subsided,  when  there  follows  a  period 
of  general  relaxation.  The  original  tendency  to  anger 
differs  much  in  individuals  according  to  temperament ; 
but  frequent  giving  way  to  it  begets  a  habit,  and  in- 
creases the  natural  tendency.  From  the  nature  of 
anger,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  it  must  be — often  at  least 
— prejudicial  to  health.  It  frequently  gives  rise  to 
bile-fever,  inflammation  of  the  liver,  heart,  or  brain, 
or  even  to  mania.  These  effects  follow  immediately 
a  lit  of  the  passion  ;  other  evil  effects  come  on,  after  a 
time,  as  the  consequence  of  repeated  paroxysms,  such 
as  paralysis,  jaundice,  consumption,  and  nervous  fe- 
ver. The  milk  of  a  mother  or  nurse  in  a  fit  of  passion 
will  cause  convulsions  in  the  child  that  sucks ;  it  has 
been  known  even  to  occasion  instant  death,  like  a 
strong  poison.  The  controlling  of  anger  is  a  part  of 
moral  discipline.  In  a  rudimentary  state  of  society, 
its  active  exercise  would  seem  to  be  a  necessity ;  by 
imposing  some  restraint  on  the  selfish  aggressions  of 
one  individual  upon  another,  it  renders  the  beginnings 
of  social  co-operation  and  intercourse  possible.  This 
is  its  use,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  its  final  cause. 
But  the  more  social  intercourse  comes  to  be  regulated 
by  customs  and  laws,  the  less  need  is  there  for  the 
vindictive  expression  of  anger.  It  seems  an  error, 
however,  to  suppose  that  the  emotion  ever  will  be — 
or  that  it  ought  to  be — extirpated.  Laws  themselves 
lose  their  efficacy  when  they  have  not  this  feeling  for 
a  background ;  and  it  remains  as  a  last  resource  for 
man,  when  society — as  it  does  every  now  and  then — 
resolves  itself  into  its  elements.  Even  in  the  most 
artificial  and  refined  states  of  society,  those  minor  mo- 
ralities on  which  half  the  happiness  of  social  inter- 
course depends,  are  imposed  upon  the  selfish,  in  great 
measure,  by  that  latent  fund  of  anger  which  every 
man  is  known  to  carry  about  with  him." — Chambers, 
Encyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Anger  is  not  evil  per  se.  The  mind  is  formed  to  be 
angn-  as  well  as  to  love.  Both  are  original  suscepti- 
bilities of  our  nature.  If  anger  were  in  itself  sinful, 
how  could  God  himself  be  angry?  How  could  He, 
who  was  separate  from  sin  and  sinners,  have  looked 
round  upon  men  with  anger?  An  essentially  immoral 
character  cannot  attach  to  it  if  it  be  the  mere  emotion 
of  displeasure  on  the  infliction  of  any  evil  upon  us. 
Anger  may  lie  sinful,  when  it  arises  too  Boon,  without 
reflection,  when  the  injury  which  awakens  it  is  only 
apparent,  and  was  designed  to  do  good.  The  disposi- 
tion which  becomes  speedily  angry  we  call  passionate. 
When  it  is  disproportionate  to  the  offence;  when  it  is 
transferred  from  the  guilt}'  to  the  innocent;  when  it 
is  too  long  protracted,  it  then  becomes  revengeful 
(Eph.  iv,  1T,;  Matt,  v,  22;  Col.  iii,  8).  When  anger, 
hatred,  wrath,  are  ascribed  to  God,  they  denote  his 
holy  and  just  displeasure  with  sin  and  sinners.     In 


him  they  are  principles  arising  out  of  his  holy  and  just. 
nature,  and  are,  therefore,  steady  and  uniform,  and 
more  terrible  than  if  mere  emotions  or  passions.  See 
Pale}',  Mar,  Phil.  ch.  vii,  vol.  i;  Seeker,  S.rmons, 
serm.  xxviii ;  Fawcett,  Essay  on  Anger ;  Seed,  I'osth. 
Serm.  11 ;  Buck,  Diet.  s.  v. 

Angers  (Axdegavense),  a  town  in  France,  where 
the  following  councils  were  held:  453,  for  celibacy; 
1055,  against  Berengar,  archdeacon  of  Angers,  for 
heresy ;  1062,  on  the  same  subject ;  1270,  where  four 
canons  were  made  for  the  regulation  of  the  clergy; 
1306,  on  discipline ;  1448,  for  reforms. — Smith,  Tables 
of  Church  Hist. ;  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils. 

Angilbert,  St.,  a  noble  Frank,  first  councillor  of 
the  Italian  King  Pepin  and  of  Charlemagne.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  married  to  Bertha,  the  daughter  of 
Charlemagne,  but  to  have  retired  in  790,  with  the  con- 
sent of  his  wife,  to  the  convent  of  Centule  (now  St. 
Riquier).  In  794  he  became  abbot  of  this  convent, 
and  died  Feb.  18,  814.  He  is  the  author  of  a  history 
of  the  abbey  of  Centule  and  of  several  poetical  works, 
and  was  surnamed  the  Homer  of  his  times.  See  Acta 
Sanctorum,  Feb.  18;  Ccillier,  Auteurs sacres,  vol.  xviii. 

Angilram,  bishop  of  Metz  from  768  to  791,  also 
abbot  of  the  monaster}-  Senones,  and  arch-chaplain  of 
Charlemagne.  After  789  he  bore  the  title  archbishop 
as  a  personal  distinction.  His  name  is  celebrated  in 
the  history  of  the  Canon  Law  by  a  collection  of  laws 
respecting  legal  proceedings  against  bishops,  called 
Capitula  Angilrami.  According  to  some  Codd.  they 
were  presented  by  Angilram  to  Pope  Adrian,  but,  ac- 
cording to  others,  presented  by  Adrian  to  Angilram. 
They  are  generally  regarded  as  spurious  (see  Rett- 
berg,  Kirchengeseliichte  Deutschlands,  i,  501 ;  and  Her- 
zog,  s.  v.  Angilram"),  and  as  extracts  from  the  Pseu- 
do-Decretals ;  but  their  authenticity  has  been  defended 
by  Wasserschleben,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  derfalschen 
Decretalen. — Hase,  Church  History,  p.  185.  See  De- 
cretals. 

Anglican  Church,  another  name  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  England.  The  phrase  "Anglican 
Churches"  is  coming  into  general  use  as  the  collective 
title  of  the  Established  Church  of  England  and  Ire- 
land, the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church,  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  and  the  mis- 
sionary churches  established  by  any  of  these  three 
bodies.  The  Churchman's  Calendar  for  1865  gives  the 
following  synoptical  view  of  the  Anglican  Churches: 
1.  England,  2  archbishops,  26  bishops;  2.  Ireland,  2 
archbishops,  10  bishops;  3.  Scotland,  8  bishops;  4. 
Mediterranean,  1  bishop;  5.  United  States,  38  bishops; 
6.  British  America,  9  bishops ;  7.  West  Indies,  6  bish- 
ops ;  8.  Asia,  8  bishops ;  9.  Africa,  8  bishops ;  10. 
Oceanica,  14  bishops.     Sec  England,  Church  of. 

Angling,  the  art  of  taking  fish  with  a  hook  and 
line.  The  word  i"T2n,  chaklcah' ',  which  the  Auth. 
Vers,  renders  "angle"  in  Isa.  xix,  8;  Hab.  i,  15,  is 
the  same  that  is  rendered  "hook"  in  Job  xli,  1,  12. 
The  Scriptures  contain  several  allusions  to  this  mode 
of  taking  fish.  The  first  of  these  occurs  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Job:  "Canst  thou  draw  out  leviathan 
witli  an  hook  ;  or  his  tongue  [palate,  which  is  usually 
pierced  by  the  hook]  with  a  cord  [line],  which  thou 
lettest  down  ?  Canst  thou  put  a  hook  into  his  nose, 
or  bore  his  jaw  through  with  a  thorn  ?"  (Job  xli,  1, 
2).  This  last  phrase  obviously  refers  to  the  thorns 
which  were  sometimes  used  as  hooks,  and  which  are 
long  after  mentioned  as  the  thorns  off  siting  (Amos  iv, 
2),  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  "fish-hooks."  -Of  the  various 
passages  relating  to  this  subject,  the  most  remarkable 
is  that  which  records,  as  an  important  part  of  the 
"burden  of  Egypt,"  that  "the  fishers  also  shall 
mourn ;  and  all  they  that  cast  angle  [the  hook]  into 
the  brooks  shall  lament,  and  they  that  spread  nets 
upon  the  waters  shall  languish"  (Isa.  xix,  8).     In  this 


ANGLO-CATHOLIC  CHURCH      231       ANGLO-SAXON  VERSIONS 


poetical  description  of  a  part  of  the  calamities  which 
were  to  befall  Egypt,  we  are  furnished  with  an  ac- 
count of  the  various  modes  of  fishing  practised  in  that 
country,  which  is  in  exact  conformity  with  the  scenes 
depicted  in  the  old  tombs  of  Egypt.  See  Fish. 
Angling  appears  to  have  been  regarded  chiefly  as  an 
amusement,  in  which  the  Egyptians  of  all  ranks  found 
much  enjoyment.  The  Egyptian  hooks  were  of  bronze, 
as  appears*  from  the  specimens  that  have  been  found. 
Insects,  natural  or  artificial,  were  not  used  in  angling, 
ground  bait  being  exclusively  employed ;  and  the  float 


of  the  Vulgate  into  the  vernacular  tongue  of  our  an- 
cestors, began  to  be  made  by  the  monks.  Some  of 
these  are  still  extant.  The  oldest  is  the  celebrated 
Durham  Bool;  preserved  among  the  Cotton  MSS.  in 
the  British  Museum.  The  Latin  text  of  this  MS.  was 
written  by  Eadfrith,  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Holy 
Isle,  some  time  before  the  year  <J88  ;  it  received  many 
decorations  from  the  combined  skill  of  Bishop  Ethil- 
wold  and  Billfrith  the  anchorite,  and  it  was  finally 
glossed  over  into  English  {of  gloesade  on  Englisc)  by 
Aldred,  who  describes  himself  as  "  Presbyter  indignus 
et  miserrimus,"  and  ascribes  his  success  ta  "Codes 
fultume  &  Sci  Cuthberhtes."  The  work  existed  first 
in  four  separate  volumes,  but  these  were  at  an  early 
period  collected  into  one.  The  date  of  Aldred's  gloss 
is  supposed  to  be  before  A.D.  900.  The  next  of  these 
versions  is  the  Rushworth  Gloss  of  the  Gospels,  pre- 
served in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford ;  it  closely 
resembles  the  Durham  book  in  form,  arrangement,  and 
style  of  execution,  and  is  regarded  as  of  almost  equal 
antiquity  with  it.  Its  authors  were  Farmen  and  Owen, 
priests  at  Harewood,  and  the  Latin  text  was  written  by 
one  Macregol.  Another  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of 
the  gospels  is  extant,  the  author  of  which  is  unknown  ; 
it  is  believed  to  have  been  executed  near  the  time  of 
the  Norman  conquest,  and  bears  traces  of  having  been 
made  from  one  of  the  ante-hieronymian  Latin  ver- 
sions. A  translation  of  the  Heptateuch,  or  first  seven 
books  of  the  Bible,  was  made  by  iElfric,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  who  died  in  100G ;  and  there  is  in  the 
Cottonian  Collection  a  MS.  of  a  translation  of  the  Book 
of  Job,  also  ascribed  to  him.  Of  the  same  date  is  a 
gloss  on  the  Proverbs  by  an  unknown  author,  also 
among  the  Cotton  MSS.  Of  the  Psalter  an  interline- 
ary  translation  was  made  at  a  very  early  period  (about 
706)  by  Adhelm,  bishop  of  Sherborn,  but  of  this  no 


does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  ("Wilkinson's 

A iir.  Egyptians,  iii,  54).     The  fish  caught  in  the  lake 

of  Tiberias  were,  some  time  since,  taken  exclusively 

with  the  rod  and  line,  in  the  absence  of  boats  upon 

that  water;  and  probably 

this  is  the  case  still.     An  *y       y  o/H  ey         v» 

instance  of  this  occurs  in  -**  .. 

this  manner  to   procure  W     Of*   ^MUl  *f  \$fy*cef  7    <«  f^U"^ 

a  miraculous  supply  of 
money  to  pay  the  temple 
tax  (Matt,  xvii,  27).— Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Hook. 

Anglo  -  Catholic 
Church,  a  title  recently 
adopted  by  the  Puseyite 
or  Romanizing  portion  of 
the  Church  of  England. 
See  Pusevites. 

Anglo-Saxon 
Church.  See  England, 
Church  of. 

Anglo-Saxon  Ver- 
sions of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  No  trans- 
lation of  the  entire  Bible 
was  made  into  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons; although  the  sub- 
stance of  the  Bible  his- 
tory was  fragmentarily 
thrown  into  verse  by  the 
bards,  especially  Caed- 
mon  (Metrical  Paraphrase 
of  Parts  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures in  Anglo-Saxon,  with 
an  English  translation, 
notes,  etc.  hy  Benjamin 
Thorpe,  Lond"  1832,  8vo). 
See  Authorized  Ver- 
sion. At  an  early  pe- 
riod, however,  glosses,  or 
interlineary  translations 


#  v-vn  yz-a-dfy, 


Siuepniucipio  sme 

poo  ofcoroeos  uwum 

Secern  paote  e&secmjA. 
OHUScfeiuquoeocJGU 

o 


%°lL        f^  dc      ftayw** 


Tib*  t)ttl  SlCpWTTK 

mesoioLueLfT, 
exxrnosceae  utrtxp  occc 

Specimen  of  the  Durham  Bible.    (The  initials  of  the  chapters  are  splendidly  illuminated.) 


ANGLUS 


232 


AN  IMA  MUNDI 


MS.  remains.  It  is  reported  that  King  Alfred  was 
also  engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death  on  a  translation 
of  the  Psalms  (William  of  Malmesbury,  De  Gest.  Reg. 
Angl.  p.  44,  E.  T.  p.  121,  ed.  Bohn),  and  other  parts  of 
the  Bible  are  said  also  to  have  been  translated  by  him. 
There  are  other  versions  of  the  Psalms  in  Anglo-Saxon 
extant  fh  MS.  An  edition  of  the  Four  Gospels  was 
printed  at  London  in  1571,  in  4to,  with  an  English 
translation  ;  it  was  edited  by  Archbishop  Parker,  with 
a  preface  by  John  Fox,  the  martyrologist.  This  edi- 
tion was  reprinted  by  Dr.  Marshall,  with  improvements 
from  the  collation  of  several  MSS.  by  Fr.  Junius,  Jr. 
(Dort,  1665,  4to  ;  reissued  with  a  new  title-page,  Amst. 
1684).  The  best  edition  of  the  Gospels  is  that  of 
Thorpe  (London,  1842,  12mo).  ^Elfric's  Heptateuch 
and  Job  were  published  by  Thwaites  (Oxford,  1699, 
8vo).  Two  editions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Psalter  have 
been  issued:  the  former  bv  Spelman  (London,  1(540, 
4to) ;  the  latter  by  Thorpe  (Oxford,  1835,  4to).  Mill 
made  use  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  versions  for  critical  pur- 
poses in  his  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  Critics 
are  divided  as  to  their  value  in  this  respect.  Tischen- 
dorf  has,  however,  made  use  of  them  in  his  edition  (see 
his  Prolegomena,  p.  255,  ed.  1859).  —  Kitto,  s.  v.  See 
Versions  (of  the  Bible). 

Anglus,  Thomas,  a  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of 
the  17th  century,  was  born  in  England.  He  was  for 
some  time  principal  of  the  English  College  at  Lisbon, 
and  assistant  principal  of  the  English  College  at  Uouai. 
He  lived  for  a  lont;  time  at  Rome  and  Paris,  defended 
the  peripatetic  philosophy  against  Descartes,  tried  to 
develop  the  theological  doctrines  of  freedom  and  grace 
from  Aristotelian  principles,  and  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  the  Molinists  (q.  v.)  and  the  Jansen- 
ists.  He  wrote  a  number  of  mystical  books,  most  of 
which  have  been  put  into  the  Index.  His  principal 
works  are  :  Be  mundo  (Paris,  1642) ;  Institutiones  peri- 
patetics (Lyons,  1646) ;  Institutiones  tlieologicee  (1652). 
He  assumed  sometimes  the  names  Candidus,  Albius, 
Bianchi,  and  Richworth,  but  his  true  name  seems  to 
have  been  White. — Biog.  Britannica,  s.  v. ;  Bayle. 

Angola,  a  country  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa. 
It  was  discovered  in  1486  by  the  Portuguese,  who  soon 
after  began  to  form  settlements  on  the  river  Congo 
and  at  various  points  south  of  that  river.  The}'  still 
have  a  number  of  forts  and  commercial  establishments 
at  different  places,  in  some  instances  extending  many 
hundreds  of  miles  into  the  interior,  where  the  Portu- 
guese colonists  and  natives  meet  for  the  purpose  of 
trading.  The  Portuguese  claim  dominion  over  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  360,000  souls.  Toward  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century  the  diocese  of  Angola  was  establish- 
ed, and  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants  nominally 
received  into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  but  with 
the  decline  of  the  Portuguese,  also  the  hold  which  the 
church  had  of  the  native  population  became  weaker. 
A  large  portion  of  them,  however,  are  desirous  to  be 
regarded  as  members  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
although  in  1857  there  were  only  six  priests  for  all 
Angola.  The  Roman  Catholic  population  may  be  es- 
timated at  about  100,000  souls. — Schem,  Ecclesiastical 
Y,  vr-book  for  1859,  p.  21.     See  Africa. 

Anhalt,  the  name  of  a  German  duchy.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  there  were  three 
duchies  of  Anhalt,  denominated  Anhalt-Dessau,  An- 
balt-Bernburg,  and  Anhalt-Koethen.  The  line  of  the 
reigning  family  in  Anhalt-Koethen  became  extinct  in 
1847,  and  that  of  Anhalt-Bernburg  in  1863,  and  thus 
the  whole  of  Anhalt  was  united  under  one  prince. 
The  area  of  Anhalt  is  1017  square  miles.  The  popu- 
lation amounted,  in  186-1,  to  193,046,  of  whom  about 
2000  are  Roman  Catholics  and  an  equal  number  Jews; 
the  remainder  belong  to  the  Protestant  State  Church, 
which  has  superintendents  at  Dessau  and  Bernburg, 
and  about  150  ministers.  Anhalt  was  one  of  the 
first  German   states  which  joined  the  Reformation, 


and  several  dukes  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
defence  of  German  Protestantism.  Until  1590  Lu- 
theranism  prevailed  in  the  whole  country,  but  in 
that  year  the  controversies  arising  from  the  Formula 
of  Concord  (q.  v.)  induced  the  princes,  with  a  large 
number  of  the  clergy,  to  go  over  to  the  Reformed 
Church.  How  large  a  proportion  of  the  people  fol- 
lowed this  example  has  not  yet  been  established.  The 
"Union"  (between  the  Lutherans  and  Reformed)  was 
introduced  into  Bernburg  in  1820,  into  Dessau  and 
Koethen  in  1827.  Since  1855  the  governments  of  the 
duchies  issued  several  decrees,  which  again  bind  the 
clergymen  more  strictly  to  the  symbolical  books  of 
the  two  denominations.     See  Germany. 

A'niam  (Heb.  Aniam  ,  DS^SS,  sighing  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  Sept.  'Avu'i/i  v.  r.  'Aviav),  the  last  named  of  the 
four  sons  of  Shemidah,  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1 
Chron.  vii,  19).     B.C.  post  1856. 

Anianus,  a  native  of  Campania  and  ardent  ad- 
herent of  Pelagius,  whose  cause  he  defended  at  the 
council  of  Diospolis  in  415.  He  wrote  a  work,  Contra 
Epistolam  Meronymi  ad  Ctes'phontem,  which  is  lost, 
and  translated  the  homilies  of  Chrysostom  on  the  Gos- 
pel of  Matthew.  According  to  the  testimony  of  Rich- 
ard Simon,  Huet,  and  Casaubon,  he  was  one  of  the 
ablest  translators  of  the  ancient  church.  His  trans- 
lation of  Chrysostom  is  reprinted  in  the  Benedictine 
edition. — Dupin,  Eccl.  Writers,  vol.  iii. 

Anicetus,  a  bishop  of  Rome,  followed  Pius  I 
about  157,  and  is  called  a  martyr  in  the  Roman  and 
other  martyrologies,  although  it  is  not  certain  wheth- 
er he  shed  his  blood  for  the  faith.  He  received,  about 
160,  a  visit  from  Potycarp,  and  tolerated  the  custom 
of  the  Asiatics  in  celebrating  Easter  on  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  first  moon  after  the  vernal  equinox  with 
the  Jews.  He  had  to  combat  the  heretics  Valentine 
and  Marcion,  and  died  168.  He  is  commemorated  as 
a  saint  by  the  Roman  Church  on  April  17. — Butler, 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  April  17. 

A'nim  (Heb.  Anim ',  COS1,  fountains;  conrp. 
JEnon ;  Sept.  'Aiifi  v.  r.  Aiffc't/j),  a  city  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Eshte- 
moah  and  Goshen  (Josh,  xv,  50),  in  the  district  south- 
west of  Hebron  (Keil,  Comment,  in  loc).  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  appear  to  call  it  Ancea  CAvau'i),  and  state 
that  it  was  wholly  inhabited  by  Jews,  lying  9  Roman 
miles  south  of  Hebron,  near  another  village  (with 
which  the  name  likewise  closely  agrees)  called  Ansem 
('AiW//<),  wholly  inhabited  by  Christians  (Onomast. 
s.  v.  Aiiajj,  Anab).  Schwarz  (Pedest.  p.  105)  saj-s  it 
is  the  modern  village  Ben-Enim,  2  English  miles 
E.N.E.  of  Hebron,  meaning  probably  Beit-Anim;  but 
this  is  in  a  different  direction,  and  is  probably  the 
ancient  Bethanoth  (q.  v.).  Van  de  Velde  {[Memoir, 
p.  285),  although  apparently  wrong  in  thinking  it 
may  be  the  Levitical  Ain  (Josh,  xxi,  16),  is  probably 
correct  in  agreeing  with  the  identification  by  Wilson 
{Lands  of  Bible,  i,  354;  ii,  636)  with  the  village  Ghu- 
wein,  one  hour  south  of  Semoa,  en  the  road  from  He- 
bron to  Moladah  ;  but  unnecessarily  supposes  the  Ain 
mentioned  along  with  Rimmon  (q.  v.)  in  the  "south" 
(Josh,  xv,  32),  and  apportioned  to  Simeon  (Josh,  xix, 
7),  to  have  been  a  different  one,  as  he  is  thus  obliged 
to  do.     See  Ain. 

Aiiimn  Mundi,  "the  soul  of  the  world,"  accord- 
ing to  some  philosophical  systems,  a  soul-substance 
penetrating  the  entire  world  in  a  similar  way  as  the 
human  soul  penetrates  the  body.  Whether  the  Py- 
thagoreans assumed  a  particular  anima  mundi  is  not 
certain  ;  but  Plato  regards  the  existence  of  the  cosmos 
as  essentially  mediated  through  the  anima  mundi.  To 
him  it  is  a  product  of  the  architect  of  the  world,  of  the 
highest  reason,  as  a  connecting  link  between  pure 
reason  and  the  sensuous,  which  gives  measure  and 


ANIMAL 


233 


ANIMAL 


order  to  the  latter.  Aristotle  did  not  assume  a  par- 
ticular anima  mundi.  With  the  Stoics,  the  conception 
of  it  coincides  with  that  of  a  primitive  divine  power 
producing  even-  thing  from  itself.  With  Plotin  and 
the  Neo-Platonists  the  anima  mundi  is  not  an  imme- 
diate product  of  the  highest  primitive  unit,  hut  ema- 
nates from  it  through  the  yovg  (reason).  Plotin  some- 
times distinguished  between  a  higher  anima  mundi, 
which  is  a  being  absolutely  non-sensuous  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  corporeal  world,  and  a  lower  anima 
mundi,  which  is  connected  with  the  bodies  of  the  uni- 
verse in  a  similar  manner  as  the  individual  soul  is 
connected  with  its  body.  The  origin  of  this  philo- 
sophical opinion  must  be  sought  in  the  desire  to  find 
between  the  primitive  cause  of  all  things  and  the  phe- 
nomenal world  connecting  links  which  are  to  make 
the  origin  of  the  latter  from  the  former  more  easily 
comprehensible.  Christianity,  which  derives  the  ori- 
gin of  the  world  from  an  immediate  creative  act  of 
God,  rejects  altogether  the  notion  of  a  particular  anima 
?nundi.—Fierer,  xix,  89.     See  Pantheism. 

Animal  (designated  by  various  Heb.  terms,  ren- 
dered "creature,"  "living  thing,"  "cattle,"  etc.),  an 
organized  living  body,  endowed  with  sensation.  See 
Beast.  The  Hebrews  distinguished  animals  into 
pure  and  impure,  clean  and  unclean ;  or  those  which 
might  be  eaten  and  offered,  and  those  whose  use  was 
prohibited.  The  sacrifices  which  they  offered  were : 
(<y.)  of  the  beeve  kind,  a  cow,  bull,  or  calf.  The  ox 
could  not  be  offered,  because  it  was  mutilated.  Where 
it  is  said  in  our  version  oxen  were  sacrificed,  we  are 
to  understand  bulls  (Exod.  xx,  24).  (6.)  Of  the  goat 
kind,  a  he-goat,  a  she-goat,  or  kid  (Levit.  xxii,  21). 
(p.)  Of  the  sheep  kind,  a  ewe,  ram,  or  lamb.  When 
it  is  said  sheep  are  offered,  rams  are  chiefly  meant, 
especially  in  burnt-offerings  and  sacrifices  for  sins. 
See  Sacrifice.  Besides  these  three  sorts  of  animals 
used  in  sacrifices,  many  others  might  be  eaten,  wild 
or  tame.  All  that  have  not  cloven  hoofs,  and  do  not 
chew  the  cud,  were  esteemed  impure,  and  could  neither 
be  offered  nor  eaten.  See  Clean.  Commentators 
on  the  Scriptures  are  much  divided  with  relation  to 
the  legal  purity  or  impurity  of  animals.  It  would 
appear  that  this  distinction  obtained  before  the  Flood, 
since  God  commanded  Noah  (Gen.  vii,  2)  to  carry 
seven  couples  of  clean  animals  into  the  ark  and  two  of 
unclean.  See  Food.  The  following  is  a  complete 
list  of  all  the  Biblical  animals,  both  clean  and  unclean 
(many  of  them  named  in  Deut.  xiv;  Lev.  xi),  ex- 
clusive of  birds,  fishes,  insects,  and  reptiles  (all 
which  see  in  their  order),  arranged  under  their  true 
English  names  (with  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  term  in 
italics),  so  far  as  these  have  been  discovered.  (See 
Kinniburgh,  Scriptural  Animals,  Edinb.  1852  ;  Anony- 
mous, Scriptural  Quadnqieds,  Lond.  1858).  Compare 
Zoology. 


Clean  Qr.MiKUPF.D8. 

(Diahav. 
Antelope  ]  %?h 

(  Tsebiydh  (female), 
Deer,  Aycrf. 

Gazelle  j  //"/^roe-buck). 
(Salr,       ) 
I  Tragos,    }  (buck). 
Tsaphir,) 
GoaU  Eriphos. 
I  Ez  (female). 

Gedi(Wh. 
I  Yaal  (wild). 

{Shor  (bull). 
Elcph. 
Lous. 
Dakar  (beeve). 
Par  (bullock). 
Egel  (calf). 
Rehn  (wild). 
(Ayit. 
Sheep  {  Probafon. 
(  Seh  (flock). 


Unclean  Quadrupeds. 
Ape,  Koph. 

SChamor. 
Onn*. 
Athon  (female). 

Badger  (?),  Tachash. 

Rear  <  Do,K 
Bear  (  Arktos. 

!Gamal. 
Camelos. 
Bikrah  (female). 
Kirkarah  (dromedary). 
Coney  (?),  Shaphan. 
n„„  ( Kelcb. 
D°S  }  Kuon. 
Fox,  A  lopex. 
Have,  Arnebeth. 
Hippopotamus,  Behemoth. 
Sus. 
Hippos. 
Parash  (steed). 
Rekesh  (courser). 
Hyena,  Tsabud. 


Clean  Quadrupeds. 
Dikkt  r  (ram) 
Kebes  (young  ram). 
,  Rachel  (ewe). 

{Taleh  (lambkin). 


( '.•unci 


lb  nvc 


Unclean  Quadrupeds. 
(  Shudl. 
Jackal  \  Iy. 
{Tan. 

**«*  [£& 
Art 

Leon. 

Lchi. 
Lion<  Lalah. 
I  Shaphal. 
|  Kephir  (whelp). 
\  Gvr  (cub). 
Mouse,  Akbar. 
Mole,  Parah. 
M, .    (  Pcred. 
Mule  { Aehashteran. 
Rat,  Chapharperah. 

C  Cliazir. 
Swine  ]  //h.s. 

{Choiros. 
Unknown,  Tsiij. 
Weasel,  Choled. 

Wolf  [Lukos. 

Worship  of  Animals. — The  reasons  of  the  choice 
of  animals  consecrated  to  receive  worship  among  the 
Egyptians,  the  great  practisers  of  this  superstition, 
are  now  involved  in  much  obscurity ;  some  are  proba- 
bly connected  with  the  beasts  themselves,  some  with 
astronomical  allegories,  and  some,  perhaps,  with  now 
lost  historical  facts.  (For  a  list  of  the  sacred  animals 
of  different  parts  of  Egypt,  see  Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egyp- 


tians, abridgm.  i,  245  sq.)  See  Idolatry.  The  ox, 
the  sheep,  and  the  ichneumon  were  held  in  almost 
general  veneration ;  the  cat  and  the  asp  had  their  dis- 
tinguishing homage ;  and  the  Egyptian  custom  of  se- 
lecting some  in  preference  to  others,  as  the  objects  of 
veneration  by  different  cities,  extended  to  other  coun- 
tries, and  was  adopted  by  the  Lemnians  and  Thessali- 


ANIMALES 


234 


ANISE 


ans<  The  bloody  wars  occasioned  by  the  variety  of 
homage  paid  to  animals,  such  as  that  caused  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Cynopolis  eating  the  oxyrinchus,  and 
the  ( txyrinchians  the  dog,  prove  how  fiercely  the  su- 
perstition was  cherished.  Herodotus  says  that  the 
hippopotamus  was  sacred  only  in  the  Papremitic  Nome, 
and  he  adds  the  eel  and  water-snake  to  the  list  of  hal- 
lowed fishes,  and  the  fox-goose  to  that  of  hallowed 
birds.  Sacred  serpents  were  kept  at  Thebes,  and  in 
the  mysteries  and  many  other  pagan  rites  they  were 
pre-eminently  conspicuous.  "The  cats,"  Herodotus 
observes,  "  when  dead,  are  carried  to  sacred  buildings, 
and,  after  being  embalmed,  are  buried  in  the  city  Bu- 
hastis.  Dogs  and  ichneumons  are  buried  wherever 
they  happen  to  die.  The  shrew-mouse  and  the  hawk 
are  removed  to  Butos;  the  ibis  to  Hermonopolis ; 
bears  and  wolves  are  buried  in  whatever  place  they 
die,  but  not,  like  the  dogs,  in  consecrated  chests"  (He- 
rod, ii,  65-67).  The  solar  deities  of  the  Egyptians  are 
usually  represented  with  the  head  of  a  hawk.  In  the 
procession  at  Dendera,  several  of  these  hawk-headed 
divinities  appear  with  an  ornament  upon  the  head, 
composed  of  the  circle,  and  a  serpent  with  an  inflated 
neck,  or,  as  it  is  usually  termed,  a  basilisk.  The  wor- 
ship of  the  serpent  appears  to  have  been  at  an  early 
period  almost  universal,  which  may  be  accounted  for 
by  considering  that  reptile  as  the  earliest  type  of  the 
solar  influence,  which  in  later  times  gave  place  to  oth- 
er emblems,  possibly  on  account  of  the  venomous  prop- 
erties of  the  creature,  which  rendered  it  an  unsuitable 
representation  of  that  from  which  it  was  supposed  all 
good  proceeded.  See  Worship.  Lands  were  set 
apart  for  the  support  of  the  sacred  animals;  men  and 
women  were  employed  in  feeding  and  maintaining 
them.  If  a  person  killed  any  of  these  creatures  design- 
edly, he  was  punished  with  death ;  if  involuntarily,  his 
punishment,  in  some  cases,  was  referred  to  the  priest ; 
but  if  the  animal  killed  were  either  a  cat,  a  hawk,  or 
an  ibis,  and  that  whether  by  design  or  not,  the  culprit 
was  to  die,  without  mercy,  and  the  enraged  multitude 
seldom  waited  even  for  the  formalities  of  a  trial.  A 
Roman,  in  the  time  of  one  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  killed 
a  cat  accidentally,  was  torn  in  pieces  by  the  populace 
on  the  spot,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  king's  guard 
to  save  him.  When  any  of  these  animals  died,  great 
lamentation  was  made,  and  vast  sums  expended  on 
their  funeral.  We  are  told  that  in  the  beginning  of 
the  reigrj  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  the  bull  Apis  dying, 
his  keeper  expended  more  than  fifty  talents  of  silver, 
or  £13,000,  on  his  interment  (see  Wilkinson's  Anc.  Eg. 
i,  226  sq.).  The  Israelites  often  debased  themselves  by 
an  imitation  of  this  da-monolatry,  for  which  they  were 
severely  punished  by  God,  because  it  was  one  grand  de- 
sign of'the  Mosaic  law  to  keep  their  theology  free  from 
these  gross  appendages.  See  Apis;  Cat;  Croco- 
dile; Ibis;  Ichneumon;  Serpent;  Satyr,  etc. 

Animales  (animals),  an  opprobrious  epithet  be- 
stowed by  the  Origenites  on  persons  who  differed  from 
them  in  opinion  as  to  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
The  doctrine  of  the  Origenites  was  that  men  would 
have  spiritual  bodies  in  the  next  world;  and  they 
•ridiculed  others  who  maintained  that  the  same  body, 
altered  in  quality  hut  not  in  substance,  would  be  raised. 
They  gave  them  the  opprobrious  names  of  simplkes 
and  philosarccp,  idiots  and  lovers  of  the  flesh ;  carnei, 
animates,  jumenta,  carnal,  sensual,  animals;  lutti, 
earthy;  pUosiotte,  from  pihs,  hair,  because  it  was  as- 
Berted  thai  the  body  would  rise  perfect  in  all  its  parts, 
— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  i,  ch.  iii ;  Farrar,  s.v. 

Anise  (awj&ov,  anethum)  occurs  in  Matt,  xxiii,  23, 
""Woe  unto  you— for  ye  pay  tithe  of  mint  and  anise 
and  cummin."  By  the  (ireok  and  Roman  writers  it 
was  employed  to  designate  a  plant  used  both  medici- 
nally ••nid  us  an  article  of  diet  (Pliny,  xix,  01 ;  xx,  74 
Apicius,  vi,  5,  9).  The  Arabian  translators  of  the 
Greek  medical  authors  give  as  its  synonyme  shabit, 


the  name  applied  in  Eastern  countries  to  an  umbellifer- 
ous plant  with  flattened  fruit  commonly  called  "  seed," 
which  is  surrounded  with  a  dilated  margin.  In  Eu- 
rope the  word  has  always  been  used  to  denote  a  simi- 
lar plant,  which  is  familiarly  known  by  the  name  of 
dill.  Hence  there  is  no  doubt  that,  in  the  above  pas- 
sage, instead  of  "anise,"  avr\Qov  should  have  been 
translated  "  dill ;"  and  it  is  said  to  be  rendered  by  a 
synonymous  word  in  every  version  except  our  own. 

The  common  dill,  or  Anefkum  graveolens,  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  growing  wild  among  the  corn  in  Spain  and 


Anethum  Graveolens. 

Portugal ;  and  on  the  coast  of  Italy,  in  Egypt,  and 
about  Astrachan.  It  resembles  fennel,  but  is  smaller, 
has  more  glaucous  leaves,  and  a  less  pleasant  smell : 
the  fruit  or  seeds,  which  are  finely  divided  by  capillary 
segments,  are  elliptical,  broader,  flatter,  and  surround- 
ed with  a  membraneous  disk.  They  have  a  warm 
and  aromatic  taste,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  pale 
yellow  volatile  oil,  which  itself  has  a  hot  taste  and  a 
peculiar  penetrating  odor._  The  error  in  translation 
pointed  out  above  is  not  of  very  great  consequence,  as 
both  the  anise  and  the  dill  are  umbelliferous  plants, 
which  are  found  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  seeds  of  both  are  employed  as  condiments  and 
carminatives,  and  have  been  so  from  very  early  times  ; 
but  the  anethum  is  more  especially  a  genus  of  Eastern 
cultivation,  since  either  the  dill  or  another  species  is 
reared  in  all  the  countries  from  Syria  to  India,  and 
known  by  the  name  shabit;  while  the  anise,  though 


Pimpinclla  Anisvm. 


ANKLET 


235 


ANNAS 


known,  appears  to  be  so  only  by  its  Greek  name  civi-  ' 
oov.  In  the  Talmudical  tract  Masseroth  (of  Tithes), 
iv,  5,  we  read,  "  The  seed,  the  leaves,  and  the  stem  of 
dill  (""0123,  shatath")  are,  according  to  Rabbi  Eliezer, 
subject  to  tithe"  (comp.  Gemara,  Aboda  Sara,  i,  2), 
which  indicates  that  the  herb  was  eaten,  as  is  indeed 
the  case  with  the  Eastern  species  in  the  present  day ; 
and,  therefore,  to  those  acquainted  with  the  cultivated 
plants  of  Eastern  countries,  the  dill  will  appear  more 
appropriate  than  anise  in  the  above  passage  (see  Celsii 
Htrrobot.  i,  494  sq.).      See  Dill. 

The  proper  anise  (Gr.  di'iaoi')  is  the  Pimpinella  ani- 
sum  of  Linnaeus,  an  Eastern  annual  umbelliferous 
plant,  the  seeds  of  which  are  principally  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  cordials  or  liqueurs,  and  as  a  reme- 
dy against  flatulence.  Indeed  all  these  kinds  of  plants, 
like  the  common  fennel,  possess  a  wanning  medicinal 
property.     See  Aromatics. 

There  is  another  plant  very  dissimilar  in  external 
character  to  the  two  named  above,  the  leaves  and  cap-  j 
sules  of  which  are  powerfully  carminative.  This  is  the 
"star  anise,"  or  aniseed-tree  (f/licium  anisatuni),  which 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Magnoliacea>.  In  China 
this  is  frequently  used  for  seasoning  dishes,  etc. ;  but 
the  species  of  this  genus  are  not  natives  of  the  Bible 
lands,  and  must  not  be  confused  with  the  umbellifer- 
ous plants  noticed  in  this  article.     See  Botany. 

Anklet.  This  word  does  not  occur  in  Scripture, 
but  the  ornament  which  it  denotes  is  clearly  indicated 
by  "the  tinkling  (or jingling)  ornaments  (OZ",  e'kes) 
about  the  feet"  mentioned  in  the  curious  description 
of  female  attire  which  we  find  in  Isa.  iii.  See  Attire. 
Even  in  the  absence  of  special  notice,  we  might  very 
safely  conclude  that  an  ornament  to  which  the  Orien- 
tal women  have  always  been  so  partial  (Thomson's  j 
Land  and  Book,  i,  182)  was  not  unknown  to  the  Jew-  I 
ish  ladies.  The  Egyptian  monuments  represent  them 
as  worn  by  men  likewise  (Wilkinson,  iii,  375).  The  j 
figures  below  represent  different  styles  of  anklets,  as 
found  on  the  Egyptian  monuments,  and  in  use  at  pres- 


Oriental  Anklets.     1,  2,  5,  C,  7,  Ancient ;  o,  4,  S,  Modern. 


ent  (particularly  by  females)  among  the  Egyptians, 
Persians,  Arabs,  and  Hindoos.  Anklets  of  solid  gold 
or  silver  are  worn  by  some  ladies,  but  are  more  un- 
common than  they  formerly  were.  They  are,  of 
course,  very  heavy,  and  knocking  together  as  the 
wearer  walks,  make  a  ringing  noise ;  hence  it  is  said 
in  a  song,  "The  ringing  of  thy  anklets  has  deprived 
me  of  reason"  (Lane's  Mod.  Egyptian?,  ii,  410).  This 
practice,  nevertheless,  is  forbidden  in  the  Koran  (xxiv, 
31).  This  prohibition,  however,  perhaps  rather  refers 
(see  Chardin,  i,  133,  148,  104)  to  the  small  bells  used 
by  females,  especially  dancing  girls,  around  the  ankles 
(Lane,  ib.  ii,  368).  To  increase  this  pleasant  sound, 
pebbles  were  sometimes  enclosed  in  them  (Calmet, 
s.  v.  Periscelides,  Bells).  Tertullian  discountenances 
them  (De  eult.femin.  ii,  13).  They  were  sometimes  of 
great  value,  but  the  poorer  village  children  wear  them 
of  iron.  For  their  use  among  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
see  Wilkinson,  iii,  374,  and  among  the  ancient  Greeks 


and  Romans,  Smith's  Did.  of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Peri- 
scelis.  They  do  not,  Ave  believe,  occur  in  the  Nineveh 
sculptures.  Livingstone  writes  of  the  favorite  wife 
of  an  African  chief,  "She  wore  a  profusion  of  iron 
rings  on  her  ankles,  to  which  were  attached  little 
pieces  of  sheet  iron  to  enable  her  to  make  a  tinkling 
as  she  walked  in  her  mincing  African  style"  (p.  273). 
On  the  weight  and  inconvenience  of  the  copper  rings 
worn  by  the  chiefs  themselves,  and  the  odd  walk  it 
causes  them  to  adopt,  see  id.  p.  276.  See  Bracelet. 
An'na  ("Avi/a,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name  Han- 
nah [q.  v.] ;  it  also  occurs  in  the  cognate  Punic  as  that 
of  the  sister  of  Dido,  Virgil,  jEn.  iv,  9),  the  name  of 
two  women. 

1.  The  wife  of  Tobit,  whose  history  is  contained  in 
the  apocryphal  book  that  bears  his  name  (Tob.  i,  9  sq.). 

2.  An  aged  widow,  daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the 
tribe  of  Asher.  She  had  married  earhT,  but  after  seven 
years  her  husband  died,  and  during  her  long  widow- 
hood she  daih'  attended  the  morning  and  evening  ser- 
vices of  the  temple.  Anna  was  eighty-four  years  old 
when  the  infant  Jesus  was  brought  to  the  temple  by 
his  mother,  and,  entering  as  Simeon  pronounced  his 
thanksgiving,  she  also  broke  forth  in  praise  to  God  for 
the  fulfilment  of  his  ancient  promises  (Luke  ii,  36, 
37),  B.C.  6.  See  Maver,  De  Anna  prophetissa  vidua 
(Gryph.  1706). 

Anna,  St.,  the  name,  according  to  tradition,  of  the 
mother  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  wife  of  Joachim.  The 
names  of  Anna  and  Joachim  are  not  found  in  Holy 
Scripture,  but  are  gathered  from  the  fathers.  Ac- 
cording to  a  legend,  her  body  was  brought,  in  710, 
from  Jerusalem  to  Constantinople,  and  from  that  time 
many  churches  of  Europe  pretended  to  possess  some 
relic  of  it.  Her  festival  is  kept  in  the  Greek  Church 
July  25th,  in  the  Roman,  July  2Gth.— Butler,  Lives  of 
Saints,  iii,  212;  comp.  Binerus,  De  Joachimo,  Anna  et 
Josepho  (Antw.  1638);  Goetze,  Da  cultu  Annas  (Lips. 
1702);  Willisch,  Ehemal.  St.  Annenbriiderschaft  (An- 
nab.  1723)  ;  Franz,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  des  Marien- 
und  Annen-Cultus  (Halberst.  1854);  and  see  the  Le- 
genda  matronm  Anna  (Lips.  1502). 

An'naas  (2rn'««c),  a  man  whose  posterity  (or  a 
place  whose  residents)  returned  from  the  captivity 
(1  Esdr.  v,  23^1;  evidently  the  Senaah  (q.  v.)  of  the 
genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  35). 

Amiales  Ecclesiastici.     See  Baroxius. 

Annam.     See  Anam. 

An'nas  C'Avvaq,  probably  a  contracted  form  of 
the  name  Ananiahm  its  Greek  form,* Avavoe),  a  high- 
priest  of  the  Jews  mentioned  in  Luke  (iii,  2)  as  being 
high-priest  along  with  Caiaphas  his  son-in-law.  Our 
Lord's  first  hearing  (John  xviii,  13)  was  before  Annas, 
who  then  sent  him  bound  to  Caiaphas.  In  Acts  iv, 
6,  he  is  plainly  called  the  high-priest,  and  Caiaphas 
merely  named  with  others  of  his  family.  He  is  called 
by  Josephus  Ananus  (q.  v.)  the  son  of  Seth  ;  and  was 
first  appointed  to  that  office  in  his  37th  year  by  Quiri- 
nus,  proconsul  of  Syria,  about  A.D.  7  (Ant.  xviii,  2, 
1),  but  was  afterward  deprived  of  it  by  Valerius  Gratus, 
procurator  of  Judaea  (A.D.  14),  who  gave  the  office 
first  to  Ismael  the  son  of  Phabasus,  and  a  short  time 
after  to  Elenzar  the  son  of  Annas  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xviii,  2,  1  and  2).  He  held  the  office  one  year,  and 
was  then  succeeded  by  Simon  the  son  of  Camitlius, 
who,  after  another  year,  was  followed  by  Joseph,  also 
called  Caiaphas,  the  son-in-lawr  of  Annas,  A.D.  ante 
27,  who  continued  in  office  until  A.D.  37.  In  the 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  above  cited,  therefore, 
it  is  apparent  that  Caiaphas  was  the  only  actual  and 
proper  high-priest;  but  Annas,  being  his  father-in- 
law,  and  having  been  formerly  himself  high-priest, 
and  being  also  perhaps  his  substitute  (saga  it),  bad 
great  influence  and  authority,  and  could  with  great 
propriety  be  still  termed  high-priest  along  with  Caia- 


ANNAS 


236 


AN  NIHIL  ATIONISTS 


phas.  (See  Anger,  De  temp.  p.  185:  Lightfoot,  IJor.  ! 
Heb.  p.  744  sq. ;  Rus,  Harmon.  Evany,  i,  313  sq. ;  I  IT, 
ii,  962  sq. ;  Vitringa,  Observ.  Sacr.  vi,  529  sq. ;  Ca- 
saubon,  Exerc.  antibar.  p.  21 G  sq. ;  Wieseler,  Chronol. 
Synops.  p.  186  sq. ;  Selden,  De  Synedrm,  ii,  655;  Sau- 
bert,  De  Sacerdotio  Ebra-or.  i,  5;  Kuinol,  Comment. 
on  Luke  iii,  2.)     See  High-priest.     He  died  at  an 


say  the  last,  is  a  state  of  violence  ;  all  things  are  con- 
tinually endeavoring  to  return  to  their  primitive  noth- 
ing ;  no  power  is  required  to  effect  it ;  it  would  be  ac- 
complished of  itself;  nay  more,  an  infinite  power  is 
required  to  prevent  it.  As  to  human  beings,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Greek  philosophers  opposed  the  doctrine  ; 
the  Brahmins  held  that  at  stated  intervals  all  created 


advanced  age,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  first  son  in    things  are  annihilated;  the  Siamese  hold  annihilation 
the  sacerdotal  dignity  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  9,  1).  to  be  the  greatest  reward  of  virtue  (Buck,  Theol.Dic- 

An'nas  QAvav  v.  r.  "Avvae)  likewise  occurs  in  the    tlonary,  s.  v.).     The  theory  of  the  annihilation  of  the 


Apocrypha  (Vulg.  Nuas)  as  one  of  the  Israelites  who 
had  married  Gentile  wives  after  the  captivity  (1  Esdr. 
ix,  32) ;  evidently  a  corruption  for  the  Hakim  (q.  v.) 
of  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  x,  31). 

Annates,  or  First-fruits,  in  the  ecclesiastical 
law,  means  the  value  of  every  spiritual  living  for  a 
whole  year  (hence  the  name,  from  the  Latin  word 

annus  a  year),  which  the  pope,  claiming  the  disposi-  ^'^""tf  £  in  Justin  (D!alog,  cum  Tryph 
tion  of  every  spiritual  benefice  within  Christendom, 
reserved  out  of  every  living.  This  impost  was  at 
first  only  levied  from  persons  appointed  to  bishoprics ; 
but  it  was  afterward  extended  to  the  inferior  clergy. 
The  value  of  these  annates  was  calculated  according 
to  a  rate  made  under  the  direction  of  Pope  Innocent 
IV  (A.D.  1253),  but  which  was  afterward  increased  by 
Pope  Nicholas  III  (A.D.  1292).  This  papal  exaction 
was  abolished  in  England  by  the  act  25  Henry  VIII,  j 

c.  20,  and  by  an  act  passed  in  the  following  year  of    ^  ££ZT£  England  bv  a  few  writers  of  in 
the  same  reign,  26  Henry  \  III,  c.  3),  the  right  toan-    nQ^  ag  Samuel  Bourne  (sermons),  J.  N.  Scott,  and 


eked  has  been  set  on  foot  at  different  periods,  and  has 
recently  been  revived.     See  Annihilationists. 

Annihilation! sts,  a  name  given  to  the  holders 
of  the  theory  that  the,  wicked  will  not  be  kept  in  eter- 
nal misery,  but  will  suffer  a  total  extinction  of  being. 
See  Annihilation. 

1.  There  are  only  a  few  traces  of  this  doctrine  in 
earlv  church  histor}'.     Some  are  disposed  to  find  the 

5), 
where  it  is  said  that  the  souls  of  the  wicked  should  be 
punished  as  long  as  tar  civ  uvtuq  Kai  tivai  Kai  Ko\a- 
ZfaSai  6  Qtog  0i\u  (as  long  as  God  wishes  them  to 
exist  and  to  be  punished).  Similar  expressions  are 
used  by  Irenseus  (ii,  34 :  Quoadusque  ea  Deus  et  esse  et 
persecerare  voluerit),  and  Clem.  Horn,  iii,  3.  In  clearer 
terms  the  doctrine  was  propounded  by  Arnobius  (q.  v.) 
at  the  beginning  of  the  1th  century.     See  Hell. 

2.  The  theorv  of  annihilation  was  maintained  in  the 


nates,  or  first-fruits,  was  annexed  to  the  crown.  ..«  otherg  Thcv  took  th(J  name  of  Destnicti(mists,  ns 
various  statutes  subsequently  passed  on  this  subject  sumin  the  point  in  dispute,  viz.,  that  the  word  dc 
have  all  been  consolidated  by  an  act  (the  1  \  ict.  c.  20)    stmction  in  Scripture  means  annihilation.     Their  prop 

er   designation    is    "  Annihilationist 


regulating  the  collection  of  the  money  so  levied 
Gieseler,   Ch.  Hist,   iii,    54-63.     See   First-fruits; 
Queen  Anne's  Bounty. 

Annesley,  Samuel,  D.D.,  maternal  grandfather 
of  John  Wesley,  was  one  of  the  leading  non-conform- 
ist divines  of  his  day,  and  a  man  of  good  family,  being 
a  nephew  of  the  earl  of  Anglesea.  He  was  born  near 
Warwick  in  1G20,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  where, 
like  his  grandson,  he  Avas  noted  for  his  piety  and  dili- 
gence. He  served  the  national  church  as  chaplain 
at  sea,  and  as  parish  priest  at  Cliff,  in  Kent,  at  St 


prop- 
Among  the 
more  eminent  supporters  of  this  doctrine  was  Taylor 
of  Norwich  (q.  v.) ;  and  Macknight  is  also  claimed  as 
among  its  advocates.  Jonathan  Edwards,  in  his  an- 
swer to  Dr.  Chauncey,  on  the  salvation  of  all  men, 
says  that  this  scheme  was  provisionally  retained  by 
Dr.  Chauncey,  i.  e.  in  case  the  scheme  of  universal 
salvation  should  fail  him  ;  and  Edwards,  in  his  exam- 
ination of  that  work,  appropriates  a  chapter  to  the  con- 
sideration of  it.  Among  other  reasonings  against  it 
are  the  following:  "1.  The  different  degrees  of  pun- 


John  the  Apostle's  and  at  St.  Giles's,  two  of  the  jghment  which  the  wicked  will  suffer  according  to  their 
largest  congregations  in  London.  He  refused  to  "  con-  J  workSj  proves  that  it  does  not  consist  in  annihilation, 
form"  to  the  "Act  of  Uniformity,"  and  endured  a  ]  yr^ich  admits  of  no  degrees.  2.  If  it  be  said  that  the 
series  of  severe  persecutions,  which  were  attended  by  j  pUni§hment  of  the  wicked,  though  it  will  end  in  anni- 
many  of  those  "remarkable  interpositions"  that  dis-  hilation,  yet  shall  be  preceded  by  torment,  and  that 
tinguish  the  later  history  of  the  family.  One  of  his  tnjs  WQ]  De  0f  different  degrees,  according  to  the  de- 
persecutors  fell  dead  while  preparing  a  warrant  for  ^rees  0f  sjnj  it  maT  be  replied,  this  is  making  it  to  be 
bis  apprehension.     He  became  a  leader  of  the  Puri-  j  compounded  partly  of  torment  and  partly  of  annihi- 


tans  during  the  troubles  of  the  times,  preaching 
most  daily,  providing  pastors  for  destitute  congrega- 
tions, and  relief  for  his  ejected  and  impoverished 
brethren.  After  a  ministry  of  more  than  half  a  cen- 
tury, and  of  sore  trials,  under  which  he  never  once  fal- 
tered, he  died  in  1696,  exclaiming,  "  I  shall  be  satisfied 
with  thy  likeness;  satisfied,  satisfied."  De  Foe,  who 
sat  under  his  preaching,  has  drawn  his  character  as 
perfect,  in  an  elegy.  The  non-conformists  considered 
him  a  second  St.  Paul.  Richard  Baxter  pronounced 
him  totally  devoted  to  God  (Clarke,  Wesley  Family, 
p.  298).  He  was  endeared  to  all  who  knew  him  inti- 
mately; and  his  noble  relative,  the  countess  of  An- 


lation.  The  latter  also  appears  to  be  but  a  small  part 
of  future  punishment,  for  that  alone  will  be  inflicted 
on  the  least  sinner,  and  on  account  of  the  least  sin ; 
and  that  all  punishment  which  will  be  inflicted  on  any 
person  above  that  which  is  due  to  the  least  sin  is  to 
consist  in  torment.  Nay,  if  we  can  form  any  idea  in 
the  present  state  of  what  would  be  dreadful  or  desira- 
ble in  another,  instead  of  its  being  any  punishment  to 
lie  annihilated  after  a  long  series  of  torment,  it  must 
be  a  deliverance,  to  which  the  sinner  would  look  for- 
ward with  anxious  desire.  And  is  it  credible  that 
this  was  the  termination  of  torment  that  our  Lord  held 
up  to  his  disciples  as  an  object  of  dread  ?      Can  this  be 


glesea,  desired,  on  her  death-bed,  to  be  buried  in  his  ;  tne  destruction  of  body  and  soul  in  hell?     Is  it  cred 


grave.  He  had  a  manly  countenance  and  dignified 
person  ;  a  rich  estate,  which  he  devoted  to  charity ; 
robust  health,  which  was  capable  of  any  fatigue.  Cal- 
amy  (Non-conformist's  Memorial,  vol.  i)  calls  him  an 
Israelite  indeed. — Stevens,  Hist,  of  Methodism,  i,  35; 
Crowther,  Portraiture  <;/'  M<  thodism,  p.  3. 

Annihilation,  the  act  of  reducing  any  thing  to 
nothing.  Whether  matter  can  be  utterly  destroyed  or 
not,  is  a  question  that  has  been  much  agitated  in  the 
schools.  According  to  some,  nothing  is  so  difficult; 
according  to  others,  nothing  is  so  easy.     Existence, 


that  everlasting  destruction  from  the  presence  of 
the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of  his  power,  should  con- 
stitute only  a  part,  and  a  small  part,  of  future  punish- 
ment ;  and  such  too  as,  after  a  series  of  torment,  must, 
next  to  being  made  happy,  be  the  most  acceptable 
thing  that  could  befall  them  ?  Can  this  be  the  object 
threatened  by  such  language,  as  recompensing  tribu- 
lation, and  taking  vengeance  in  flaming  fire  ?  (2  Thess. 
1).  Is  it  possible  that  God  should  threaten  them  with 
putting  an  end  to  their  miseries?  Moreover,  this  de- 
struction is  not  described  as  the  conclusion  of  a  sue- 


ANNIHILATIONISTS 


237 


ANNIVERSARY 


cession  of  torments,  but  as  taking  place  immediately  I  spectable  advocates  of  the  doctrine,  and  a  very  mod- 
after  the  last  judgment.  When  Christ  shall  come  to  erate  one,  is  Dr.  McCulloh,  of  Baltimore,  in  his  Aria- 
be  glorified  in  his  saints  then  shall  the  wicked  be  de-  lytical  Investigations  concerning  the  Scriptures  (Balti- 
Stroyed.  3.  Everlasting  destruction  from  the  presence  more,  1852,  2  vols.  8vo).  He  maintains  that  after  the 
of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of  his  power,  cannot  final  decisions  of  the  judgment,  the  wicked  will  be  ut- 
mean  annihilation,  for  that  would  be  no  exertion  of  terly  destroyed  by  a  dreadful  visitation  of  Almighty 
divine  power,  but  merely  the  suspension  of  it ;  for  let  wrath.  The  ablest  work  produced  on  the  side  of  de- 
the  upholding  power  of  God  be  withheld  for  one  mo-  structionism  is  Hudson,  Debt  and  Grace,  as  related  to 
ment,  and  the  whole  creation  would  sink  into  nothing.  '  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  State  (Boston,  1857,  12mo). 
4.  The  punishment  of  wicked  men  will  be  the  same  as  This  work  "denies  that  the  natural  immortality  of  the 
that  of  wicked  angels  (Matt,  xxv,  41) :  Depart,  ye  \  soul  is  ever  expressed  or  even  implied  in  the  Bible, 
cursed,  into  everlasting  fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  \  On  the  contrary,  life  and  immortality  are  brought  in 
his  angels;  But  the  punishment  of  wicked  angels  j  fulness  by  the  Redeemer  to  the  redeemed  alone  ;  while 
consists  not  in  annihilation,  but  torment.  Such  is  all  others  are  not  only  naturally  mortal,  soul  and  body, 
their  present  punishment  in  a  degree,  and  such,  in  a  j  at  death,  but,  after  that  mortal  suspension  of  positive 
greater  degree,  will  be  their  punishment  hereafter.  J  existence,  are  raised  at  the  final  resurrection  and  cast 
They  are  '  cast  down  to  hell ;'  they  '  believe,  and  trem-  |  into  the  lake  of  fire  as  the  second  death.  It  denies 
ble ;'  they  are  reserved  in  chains  under  darkness  to  that  endless  conscious  suffering  is  ever  affirmed  to  be 
the  judgment  of  the  great  day;  they  cried,  saying,  the  nature  of  future  penalty  ;  but  affirms  that  the  pen- 
'  What  have  we  to  do  with  thee  ?  Art  thou  come  to  I  alty  consists  in  privation,  and  in  its  perpetuity  consists 
torment  us  before  our  time?'  Could  the  devils  but  I  the  eternity  of  future  punishment.  The  class  of  Scrip- 
persuade  themselves  they  should  be  annihilated,  they  ture  terms  by  which  eternal  misery  is  usually  under- 
would  believe,  and  be  at  ease  rather  than  tremble.  5.  stood  to  be  designated,  such  as  condemnation,  damna- 
The  Scriptures  explain  their  own  meaning  in  the  use  J  tion,  perdition,  destruction,  the  writer  understands  to 
of  such  terms  as  death,  destruction,  etc.  The  second  express  the  painful  and  penal  consignment  of  the  en- 
death  is  expressly  said  to  consist  in  being  cast  into  j  tire  nature  to  the  disorganization  and  complete  non- 
the  lake  of  fire  and  brimstone,  and  as  having  a  part    existence  from  which  it  sprung"  (Meth.  Quar.  Rev. 


in  that  lake  (Rev.  xx,  14 ;  xxi,  8),  which  does  not 
describe  annihilation,  nor  can  it  be  made  to  consist 
with  it.  The  phrase  cut  him  asunder  (Matt,  xxiv, 
51)  is  as  strong  as  those  of  death  or  destruction ;  j'et 
that  is  made  to  consist  of  having  their  portion  with 
hypocrites,  where  shall  be  weeping  and  gnashing  of 
teeth.  G.  The  happiness  of  the  righteous  does  not 
consist  in  eternal  being,  but  eternal  well-being;  and 
as  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  stands  everywhere 
opposed  to  it,  it  must  consist,  not  in  the  loss  of  being, 
but  of  well-being,  and  in   suffering  the  contrary." 


Jan.  1858,  p.  149).  An  exhaustive  reply  to  Mr.  Hud- 
son, and  a  thorough  examination  of  the  whole  contro- 
versy, is  given  by  Landis  in  his  treatise  On  the  Immor- 
tality of  the  Soul  and  the  final  Condition  of  the  Wicked 
(N.  Y.  1859,  12mo).  The  subject  is  also  ably  treated 
by  Mattison  in  his  work,  The  Immortality  of  the  Soul 
(Philad.  1864).  See  also  Alvah  Hovey,  State  of  Im- 
penitent De.id  (1859)  ;  J.  R.  Thompson,  Law  and  Pen- 
alty; Meth.  Quar.  Rev.  1852,  p.  240 ;  1858,  p.  149 ;  1861, 
p.  31 ;  1864,  p.  689  ;  Presb.  Quar.  Rev.  April,  1860 ;  Am. 
Theol.  Rev.  April,  1861 ;  Bibliotheca  Surra,  April,  1858, 


Bishop  Law  (f  1789)  maintained  that  spiritual  death  ;  p.  395  sq.,  and  April,  1863,  art.  v;  Buck,  Theol.  Diet.; 
is  an  entire  destruction — an  annihilation  of  the  soul,  \  Smith's  Hagenbach,  i,  226;  ii,  451.  Compare  Immor- 
with  the  resolution  of  the  body  into  its  original  dust    tality. 

(Theory  of  Religion,  7th  ed.  p.  339-351).  The  name  of  j  Annius,  or  John  Nanni,  born  July  7,  at  Viterbo, 
Archbishop  Whately  is  probably  to  be  enrolled  among  j  in  1432.  Having  entered  the  order  of  Dominicans,  he 
the  modern  supporters  of  annihilationism  in  England,  became  a  proficient  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Oriental 
In  his  work  on  the  future  state  (.4  View  of  the  Scripture  i  languages,  and  in  theology.  He  published  two  works, 
Revi  lotions  concerning  a  Future  State,  Philad.  1855)  he  [  entitled,  1.  Tractalus  de  Imperio  Turcarum;  and  2. 
argues  the  opinion  fully.  He  says,  that  in  the  passages  De  Futuris  Christianorum  triumph',  etc.  (Genoa,  1480, 
in  which  the  words  "  death,"  "  destruction,"  "  eternal  |  4to),  in  which  he  endeavors  to  show  that  Mahomet  was 
death,"  are  spoken  of,  these  words  may  be  taken  as  |  the  Antichrist  of  the  Apocalypse.  But  the  work  by 
signifying  literal  death,  real  destruction,  an  utter  end  ;  which  he  is  chiefly  known  is  his  seventeen  books  of 
of  things.  The  "unquenchable  fire"  may  mean  that  Antiquities  (Rome,  1498,  fob),  in  which  he  pretended 
fire  which  utterly  consumes  what  it  is  burning  upon.  \  to  give  the  works  of  Berosus,  Marsylus  of  Lesbos,  Ca- 
The  "  worm  that"dieth  not"  may  be  that  which  entire- 1  ton,  Sempronius,  Archilochus,  Xenophon,  Metasthenes 
ly  devours  what  it  feeds  upon.  "  Everlasting  perdi-  or  Megasthenes,  Manetho,  and  others.  These  writings 
tion"  may  mean  that  perishing  from  which  the  soul  were  the  cause  of  a  dispute  among  the  learned  at  the 
cannotbe  saved,  but  it  will  be  final  annihilating.  The  time,  some,  as  Pineda,  Louis  Viveza,  the  Spaniard, 
passage  "  The  last  enemy  that  shall  be  destroyed  is  ',  Vossius,  Melchior  Canus,  and  others,  maintained  the 
death,"  affords,  according  to  Whately,  some  ground  for  utter  falsity  of  all  these  pieces,  and  declared  Annius  to 
thinking  that  there  may  be  a  "final  extinction  of  evil  I  be  a  sheer  impostor;  while  others,  who  had  among 
and  suffering  by  the  total  destruction  of  such  as  are  in-  |  them  such  men  as  Nauderius,  Leander  Albert,  Sixtus 
capable  of  good  and  happiness.  If  eternal  death  means  of  Siena,  Alph.  Maldonatus,  etc.,  declared  themselves 
final  death— death  without  any  revival— we  can  un-  in  his  favor.  Annius  was  master  of  the  palace  for  Al- 
derstand  what  is  meant  by  death  being  destroyed,  viz.,  exander  VI,  and  was,  it  is  supposed,  poisoned  by  Ca> 
that  none  henceforth  are  to  be  subjected  to  it"  (p.  184).  sar  Borgia,  whom  he  had  offended.  He  died  Nov.  13, 
And  Whately  concludes  this  scriptural  argument  by  I  1502.  —  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  729;  Landon,  Feci. 
this  sentence  :  "  On  the  whole,  therefore,  I  think  we    Diet.  s.  v. 

are  not  warranted  in  concluding,  as  some  have  done  \  Anniversary,  in  the  Greek  and  Romish  Church- 
so  positively  concerning  the  question,  as  to  make  it  j  es,  a  name  given  to  the  day  on  which  a  martyr  or  saint 
a  point  of  Christian  faith  to  interpret  figuratively  the  is  commemorated.  Also,  those  days  on  which  special 
'death  and  destruction'  spoken  of  in  the  Scriptures  as  !  prayer  is  made,  year  by  year,  for  the  souls  of  deceased 


the  doom  of  the  condemned,  and  to  insist  on  the  belief 
that  they  are  to  be  left  alive  forevermore." 

3.  The  revival  of  annihilationism  in  this  country 
seems  to  have  begun  with  the  publication  of  Six  Ser- 
mons on  the  Question  "Are  the  wicked  immortal?"  by 
George  Storrs,  answered  by  Prof.  Post,  in  the  New 
Englander,  Feb.  and  May,  1856.     One  of  the  most  re- 


persons,  and  masses  said  and  alms  distributed,  are  in 
the  Romish  Church  called  anniversaries.  The  anni- 
versary office  {officium  anniversariwn)  is  a  double  of- 
fice, said  only  on  the  first  anniversary  day  after  the 
death.  On  all  succeeding  anniversary  days,  the  sim- 
ple office  is  said,  as  in  the  daily  office  for  the  dead. — 
Landon,  Feci.  Diet.  s.  v. 


ANNO 


23  S 


ANNUNCIATION 


Anno  or  Hanno  (St.),  archbishop  of  Colore  in 
the  11th  century.  Belonging  to  the  Suabian  family 
of  Sonneberg,  he  was  at  first  devoted  to  a  military 
life ;  but,  after  a  short  career  of  arms,  he  entered  the 
church.  The  emperor  Henry  III,  the  Bhick,  appoint- 
ed him  to  the  see  of  Cologne  upon  the  death  of  arch- 
bishop Hermann  in  1055.  He  applied  himself  with 
diligence  to  his  duties,  both  temporal  and  spiritual. 
He  reformed  many  of  the  monasteries  of  his  diocese, 
and  built  five  or  six  others,  among  the  latter  the  ab- 
bey of  Siegberg.  After  the  death  of  Henry  III  the 
empress  made  him  regent.  His  zeal  for  the  church 
outran  his  discretion,  especially  in  the  excessive  en- 
ergy with  which  he  seconded  the  measures  of  Gregory 
VI I  (q.  v.).  The  emperor  Henry  IV,  though  his  pu- 
pil, was  so  dissatisfied  with  his  conduct  that  he  drove 
him  from  his  see.  He  died  December  4th,  1075,  on 
which  day  he  is  commemorated. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bio- 
graphk  Ginhxde,  ii,  730 ;  Baillet,  Vies  des  Saints,  De- 
cember -1. 

Annual  Conference,  the  name  of  the  territorial 
synods  or  councils  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
which  are  held  every  year,  as  distinguished  from  the 
general  synod  (General  Conference)  held  quadrennial- 
\y.  The  Annual  Conference  is  composed  of  all  the 
ministers  in  full  connection  within  certain  territorial 
limits.  Preachers  "on  trial"  are  required  to  attend 
the  sessions,  but  are  not  allowed  to  vote.  The  times 
of  holding  the  Annual  Conferences  are  fixed  by  the 
bishops,  the  place  by  the  Conference  itself.  The  pre- 
siding officer  is  the  bishop ;  but,  in  case  of  his  absence, 
some  "member  of  the  Conference  appointed  by  the 
bishop  shall  preside ;  but  if  no  appointment  be  made, 
the  Conference  elects  a  president  by  ballot  among  the 
elders,  without  debate."  The  duties  of  the  Annual 
Conference,  and  the  limits  of  its  authority,  are  pre- 
scribed by  the  Discipline.  A  record  of  its  proceed- 
ings is  sent  to  each  General  Conference  for  revision, 
if  necessary.  The  territorial  boundaries  of  the  An- 
nual Conferences  are  fixed  by  the  General  Confer- 
ence. There  are  now  (1866)  sixty  annual  conferences 
(including  mission  conferences)  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  in  America,  Europe,  Africa,  India,  and 
China. — Discipline  of  the  Methodist  Episcojxd  Church, 
pt.  ii,  ch.  i ;  pt.  vi,  ch.  iv ;  Baker,  On  the  Discipline ; 
Minutes  of  the  Annual  Conferences  (New  York,  1866, 
8vo).  See  Conferences;  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church. 

Annulus,  a  ring.  The  clergy  do  not  appear  to 
have  worn  any  badge  of  office  until  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ;  but  subsequently  various  insignia  or  emblems 
of  office  were  appropriated.  The  ring  is  now  given 
to  Romish  bishops  on  their  investiture,  as  emblemati- 
cal of  the  bishop's  espousals  to  the  Church,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  ancient  ceremony  of  presenting  a  ring  in 
marriage.  It  was  called  "  the  ring  of  his  espousals," 
annulus  sponsalitius,  or  annulus  pronubus ;  but  some- 
times, also,  annulus  palatii.  The  pope  wears  a  ring 
with  the  device  of  Peter  fishing;  and  papal  briefs, 
stamped  with  this  seal,  are  said  to  be  given  sub  an- 
nul) pucatorio.  The  Usher-ring  has  been  used  for  this 
purpose  since  the  13th  century. 

Annunciad  or  Annunciada,  Order  of,  a  mili- 
tary order,  founded  by 
Amedeus,  count  of  Sa- 
voy, in  1350  or  1360, 
called  at  first  the  order 
of  the  hnots  if  lure,  lie 
cause  of  a  hair  bracelet 
formed  in  love-knots, 
given  to  the  count  by  a 
lady.  Amedeus  VIII, 
duke  of  Savoy  (created 
Pope  Felix  III  at  the 
council  of  Basle),  in  1494, 
changed  the  name  of  the 


■  l.nw-kii'it"  Slar. 


Badge  of  the  Order  of  the  Annunciada. 


order  to  that  of  the  Annunciad.  The  figure  of  the 
Virgin  was  appended  to  the  collar,  in  which  the  love- 
knots  were  changed  into  a  pattern  in  twisted  cord,  and 
which  bore  the  initials  F.  E.  R.  T.,  supposed  to  mean 
Fortitudo  ejus  Rhodum  tenuit,  in  reference  to  the  val- 
iant defence  of  Rhodes  by  Amedeus  the  Great  in  1310. 
The  cloak  of  the  knights  was  first  red,  afterward  blue, 
and  now  of  the  color  of  amaranth,  lined  with  cloth  of 
silver.  It  still  exists  in  Sardinia  as  an  order  of  merit. 
— Helyot,  Ordres  Religieux,  i,  224 ;  Burke,  Orders  of 
Knighthood,  p.  350. 

Annunciade,  the  name  of  two  orders  of  nuns. 

1.  That  founded  at  Bourges  in  1500,  by  Jeanne, 
queen  of  France,  after  her  divorce  from  Louis  XII. 
These  nuns  also  call  themselves  the  nuns  of  the  ten 
virtues,  viz.,  the  virtues  exhibited,  as  they  say,  in  the 
mysteries  which  the  Roman  Church  commemorates  in 
the  ten  festivals  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Their  rule  is 
formed  upon  the  idea  of  an  initiation  of  these  virtues. 
They  wear  a  gray  habit,  a  red  scapulary,  a  cross  of 
gold  or  silver,  suspended  from  the  neck,  and  a  ring  of 
one  of  those  metals  on  the  finger.  At  the  Revolu- 
tion they  had  45  nunneries  in  France  and  Holland,  all 
of  which  were  suppressed. — Helyot,  Ordres  Relig.  i, 
227. 

2.  Another  order  of  nuns,  otherwise  called  Celes- 
tines  (Ccelestes  or  Cceleslince),  from  the  girdle  and 
mantle  of  sky-blue  which  thejr  wear  over  their  white 
habit.  A  Genoese  widow,  named  Maria  Victoria  For- 
nari,  instituted  this  order  in  1602  or  1604.  The  consti- 
tution of  the  order,  approved  by  Clement  VII,  enjoins 
poverty  and  separation  from  the  world.  They  are  al- 
lowed to  speak  to  persons  out  of  their  house  only  six 
times  a  year,  and  then  only  to  their  nearest  relatives. 
In  1860  they  had  three  nunneries  in  Italy,  six  in  Bel- 
gium, and  five  in  France.  In  Rome  they  arc  called 
Turchine  (i.  e.  the  "violet-blue"  ones). — Helyot,  Ordres 
Religieux,  i,  236  ;  P.  Carl  vom  heil.  Aloys,  /Statislisches 
Jahrbuch  der  Kirche  (Regensbg.  1860). 

Annunciation,  Feast  of  the  (from  the  Lat. 
annunciatio,  announcement),  a  festival  observed  in  hon- 
or of  the  tidings  which  the  angel  Gabriel  brought  to 
the  Virgin  Mary  of  the  incarnation  of  our  Saviour. 
It  is  called  by  various  names  in  church  history,  e.  g. 
'Huipa  atnrarrpov,  "the  day  of  salutation  ;"  Xaanff- 
fioc,  in  reference  to  the  epithet  Ke\aptriopfi'ii,  employ- 
ed by  the  angel  (Luke  i,  28)  ;  also  EvayycXiapoc.,  with 
reference  to  the  subject  of  the  announcement.  Some 
doubt  exists  as  to  the  date  of  its  establishment.  Au- 
gust! is  of  opinion  that  the  festival  was  celebrated  at 
the  time  of  the  council  of  Laodicea,  cir.  364.  In  the 
homily  ascribed  to  Athanasius  it  is  called  one  of  our 
Lord's  festivals.  After  the  fifth  century,  in  conse- 
quence of  what  passed  during  the  Nestorian  contro- 
versies, this  festival  was  referred  to  Man*,  and  its  ob- 
servance fixed  for  the  25th  of  March,  on  which  day  it 
is  now  celebrated  by  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  English 
Churches.  It  seems  to  have  been  generally  observed 
in  the  sixth  century,  but  the  first  formal  mention  that 
we  meet  with  of  its  being  commemorated  among  the 
festivals  of  the  Church  is  in  the  decrees  of  the  council 
of  Trullo,  convened  at  the  close  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury.     Chrysostom,  and  Bernard  after  him,  call  it 


ANNUUS 


239 


ANOINT 


"the  root  of  all  festivals." — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk. 
xx,  ch.  viii,  §  4. 

The  following  writers  treat  on  this  subject :  Kci- 
cher,  Be  salutatione  angelica  (Jen.  17G0-1) ;  Myslenta, 
Be  angelica  annunciatione  (Regiom.  1623);  Rancke, 
Be  locutione  angelorum  (Lips.  1678) ;  Sonntag,  Be 
charetismo  (Altdorf.  1709);  Zeibich,  Be  verbis  Gabrieli 
ad  Mariam  (Viteb.  1754).     See  Mary. 

Annu'us  (*Avvovog,  Vulg.  Amin),  given  (1  Esdr. 
viii,  48)  as  the  name  of  one  of  the  Levites  sent  to  ac- 
company the  captives  returning  from  Babylon;  but 
it  is  evidently  an  error  of  the  translator  for  iPlfcjfi, 
veitto',  "  and  with  him,"  of  the  original  text  (Ezra 
viii,  19). 

Anoint  (usually  1112333,  mashach' ,  xpiio).  The 
practice  of  anointing  with  perfumed  oils  or  ointments 
appears  to  have  been  very  common  among  the  He- 
brews, as  it  was  among  the  ancient  Egyptians.  See 
Unguent.  The  practice,  as  to  its  essential  meaning, 
still  remains  in  the  East;  but  perfumed  waters  are 
now  far  more  commonly  employed  than  oils  or  oint- 
ments (q.  v.).  See  Perfume.  It  is  from  this  source 
that  the  usage  has  extended  to  other  regions.  Among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  oil  was  emploj-ed  as  a  lubri- 
cator for  suppling  the  bodies  of  the  athletes  in  the 
games  (q.  v.),  and  also  after  the  bath  (q.  v.). 

I.  In  the  Scriptures  several  kinds  of  anointing  are 
distinguishable  (Scacchi,  Myrotkeca,  iii,  Rom.  1637). 

1.  Consecration  and  Inauguration.  —  The  act  of 
anointing  appears  to  have  been  viewed  as  emblemati- 
cal of  a  particular  sanctification,  of  a  designation  to 
the  service  of  God,  or  to  a  holy  and  sacred  use. 
Hence  the  anointing  of  the  high-priests  (Exod.  xxix, 
29 ;  Lev.  iv,  3),  and  even  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
tabernacle  (Exod.  xxx,  26,  etc.);  and  hence  also, 
probably,  the  anointing  of  the  king,  who,  as  "the 
Lord's  anointed,"  and,  under  the  Hebrew  constitution, 
the  viceroy  of  Jehovah,  was  undoubtedly  invested 
with  a  sacred  character.  This  was  the  case  also 
among  the  Egyptians,  among  whom  the  king  was,  ex 
officio,  the  high-priest,  and  as  such,  doubtless,  rather 
than  in  his  secular  capacity,  was  solemnlj'  anointed  at 
his  inauguration.     See  Unctions  (of  Christ). 

As  the  custom  of  inaugural  anointing  first  occurs 
among  the  Israelites  immediately  after  they  left 
Egypt,  and  no  example  of  the  same  kind  is  met  with 
previously,  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  the  practice  and 
the  notions  connected  with  it  were  acquired  in  that 
country.  With  the  Egyptians,  as  with  the  Jews, 
the  investiture  to  any  sacred  office,  as  that  of  king  or 
priest,  was  confirmed  by  this  external  sign ;  and  as 
the  Jewish  lawgiver  mentions  the  ceremony  of  pour- 
ing oil  upon  the  head  of  the  high-priest  after  he  had 
put  on  his  entire  dress,  with  the  mitre  and  crown,  the 
Egyptians  represent  the  anointing  of  their  priests  and 
kings  after  they  were  attired  in  their  full  robes,  with 


Ancient  Egyptians  (as  Representatives  of  Iloru*)  anointing  a 
King. 


the  cap  and  crown  upon  their  heads.  Some  of  the 
sculptures  introduce  a  priest  pouring  oil  over  the  mon- 
arch (Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egyptians,  iv,  280).  It  is 
from  this  that  the  high-priest,  as  well  as  the  king,  is 
called  "  the  anointed"  (Lev.  iv,  3 ;  v,  16;  vi,  15;  Psa. 
cxxxiii,  2).  In  fact,  anointing  being  the  principal 
ceremony  of  regal  inauguration  among  the  Jews,  as 
crowning  is  with  us,  "  anointed,"  as  applied  to  a  king, 
has  much  the  same  signification  as  "  crowned."  It 
does  not,  however,  appear  that  this  anointing  was  re- 
peated at  every  succession,  the  anointing  of  the  found- 
er of  the  dynasty  being  considered  efficient  for  its  pur- 
pose as  long  as  the  regular  line  of  descent  was  undis- 
turbed (Jahn,  Bill.  Archilol.  §  223);  hence  we  find  no 
instance  of  unction  as  a  sign  of  investiture  in  the  roy- 
al authority,  except  in  the  case  of  Saul,  the  first  king 
of  the  Jews,  and  of  David,  the  first  of  his  line;  and, 
subsequently,  in  those  of  Solomon,  Joash,  and  Jehu, 
who  ascended  the  throne  under  circumstances  in  which 
there  was  danger  that  their  right  might  be  forcibly 
disputed  (1  Sam.  xix,  24;  2  Sam.  ii,  4;  v,  1-3;  1 
Chron.  xi,  1,  2;  2  Kings  xi,  12-20;  2  Chron.  xxiii, 
1-21).  Those  who  were  inducted  into  the  royal  office 
in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  appear  to  have  been  inaugu- 
rated with  some  peculiar  ceremonies  (2  Kings  ix,  13). 
But  it  is  not  clear  that  they  were  anointed  at  all ;  and 
the  omission  (if  real)  is  ascribed  by  the  Jewish  writers 
to  the  want  of  the  holy  anointing  oil  which  could  alone 
be  used  on  such  occasions,  and  which  was  in  the  keep- 
ing of  the  priests  of  the  temple  In  Jerusalem.  The 
private  anointing  which  was  performed  by  the  proph- 
ets (2  Kings  ix,  3;  comp.  1  Sam.  x,  1)  was  not  un- 
derstood to  convey  any  abstract  right  to  the  crown, 
but  was  merely  a  symbolical  intimation  that  the  per. 
son  thus  anointed  should  eventually  ascend  the  throne. 
The  following  species  of  official  anointing  appear  to 
have  prevailed  among  the  Jews :  (a.)  Prujihets  were 
occasionally  anointed  to  their  office  (1  Kings  xix,  10), 
and  are  called  messiahs,  or  anointed  (1  Chron.  xvi, 
22 ;  Psa.  cv,  15).  (b.)  Priests,  at  the  first  institution 
of  the  Levitical  priesthood,  were  all  anointed  to  their 
offices,  the  sons  of  Aaron  as  well  as  Aaron  himself 
(Exod.  xl,  15;  Num.  iii,  3);  but  afterward  anointing 
seems  not  to  have  been  repeated  at  the  consecration 
of  ordinary  priests,  but  to  have  been  especially  re- 
served for  the  high-priest  (Exod.  xxix,  29  ;  Lev.  xvi, 
32) ;  so  that  "  the  priest  that  is  anointed"  Cj<12H 
rP'd53il,  Lev.  iv,  3)  is  generally  thought  to  mean  the 
high-priest  (Sept.  ti  ap\nptvq  6  Kixpiaf'tvoc. ;  comp. 
verses  5,  16,  and  c.  vi.  22  [15]).  (c.)  Kings.  The 
Jews  were  familiar  with  the  idea  of  making  a  king  by 
anointing  before  the  establishment  of  their  own  mon- 
archy (Judg.  ix,  8,  15).  Anointing  was  the  divinely- 
appointed  ceremony  in  the  inauguration  of  their  own 
kings  (1  Sam.  ix,  16;  x,l;  1  Kings  i,  34, 39);  indeed,  so 
pre-eminently  did  it  belong  to  the  kingly  office,  that 
"the  Lord's  anointed"  was  a  common  designation  of  the 
theocratic  king  (1  Sam.  xii,  3, 5  ;  2  Sam.  i,  14, 16).  The 
rite  was  sometimes  performed  more  than  once.  David 
was  thrice  anointed  to  be  king:  first,  privately  by  Sam- 
uel, before  the  death  of  Saul,  by  way  of  conferring  on 
him  a  right  to  the  throne  (1  Sam.  xvi,  1,  13);  again 
over  Judah  at  Hebron  (2  Sam.  ii,  4),  and  finally  over 
the  whole  nation  (2  Sam.  v,  3).  After  the  separation 
into  two  kingdoms,  the  kings  both  of  Judah  and  of 
Israel  seem  still  to  have  been  anointed  (2  Kings  ix,  3 ; 
xi,  12).  So  late  as  the  time  of  the  captivity  the  king 
is  called  "the  anointed  of  the  Lord"  (Psa.  lxxxix,  38, 
51 ;  Lam.  iv,  20).  Besides  Jewish  kings,  we  read  that 
Hazael  was  to  be  anointed  king  over  Syria  (1  Kings 
xix,  15).  Cyrus  also  is  called  the  Lord's  anointed, 
as  having  been  raised  by  God  to  the  throne  for  the 
special  purpose  of  delivering  the  Jews  out  of  captivity 
(Isa.  xlv,  1).  (rf.)  Inanimate  objects  also  were  anoint- 
ed with  oil  in  token  of  their  being  set  apart  for  re- 
ligious  service.      Thus  Jacob   anointed   a   pillar  at 


ANOINT 


240 


ANOINT 


Bethel  (Gen.  xxxi,  13) ;  and,  at  the  introduction  of 
the  Mosaic  economy,  the  tabernacle  and  all  its  furni- 
ture were  consecrated  by  anointing  (Exod.  xxx,  26- 
28).  The  expression  "ano:nt  the  shield"  (Isa.  xxi, 
5;  Sept.  tTOifiaaitTt  Qvptouc.;  Vulg.  arripite  clypeum) 
refers  to  the  custom  of  rubbing  oil  into  the  hide  which, 
stretched  upon  a  frame,  formed  the  shield,  in  order  to 
make  it  supple  and  lit  for  use.  (See  the  treatises  in 
Latin,  on  the  priestly  anointing,  by  Clasing  [Lemgon. 
1717  ]  ;  Sehwarz  [Viteb.  1755]  ;  Ziegra  [Viteb.  1682]; 
Zoega  [Lips.  1680]  ;  on  the  royal  anointing,  by  Wey- 
mar  [Jen.  1629]  ;  and  among  other  nations,  by  Eschen- 
bach  [Jen.  1687]  ;  Speckner  [Viteb.  1716]). 

2.  As  an  Act  of  Hospitality. — The  anointing  of  our 
Saviour's  feet  by  "the  woman  who  was  a  sinner" 
(Luke  vii,  38)  led  to  the  remark  that  the  host  himself 
had  neglected  to  anoint  his  head  (ver.  46)  ;  whence 
Ave  learn  that  this  was  a  mark  of  attention  which  those 
who  gave  entertainments  paid  to  their  guests.  As 
this  is  the  only  direct  mention  of  the  custom,  the  Jews 
are  supposed  by  some  to  have  borrowed  it  from  the 
Romans  at  a  late  period,  and  Wetstein  and  others 
have  brought  a  large  quantity  of  Latin  erudition  to 
bear  on  the  subject.  (See  the  treatises,  on  this  in- 
stance, in  Latin,  by  Baier  [Altdorf.  1722] ;  Goetze 
[Lips.  1687 ;  and  in  Menethii  Thesaur.  ii,  200-204]  ; 
Jaeschke  [Lips.  1700]  ;  Krackewitz  [Rost.  1703]  ; 
Polchow  [Jen.  1755]  ;  Ries  [Marb.  1727]  ;  Sonnucl 
[Lond.  1775,  1794]  ;  Trautermann  [Jen.  1749].)  But 
the  careful  reader  of  the  O.  T.  knows  that  the  custom 
was  an  old  one,  to  which  there  are  various  indirect  al- 
lusions. See  Hospitality.  The  circumstances  con- 
nected with  feasts  and  entertainments  are,  indeed,  rare- 
ly intimated  ;  nor  would  the  present  direct  reference  to 
this  custom  have  transpired  but  for  the  remarks  which 
the  act  of  the  woman  in  anointing  the  feet  of  Jesus  call- 
ed forth.  (See  Waldo,  De  unctionibus  Vett.  Ebrceorum 
convivialibus,  Jen.  1751.)  Such  passages,  however,  as 
Psa.  xxiii,  5  ;  Prov.  xxi,  7  ;  xxvii,  9  ;  Wisd.  ii,  7  ;  as 
well  as  others  in  which  the  enjoyments  of  oil  and  wine 
are  coupled  together,  may  be  regarded  as  containing 
a  similar  allusion.  It  is,  therefore,  safer  to  refer  the 
origin  of  this  custom  among  the  Hebrews  to  their 
nearer  and  more  ancient  neighbors,  the  Egyptians, 
than  to  the  Romans  or  the  Greeks,  who  themselves 
had  probably  derived  it  from  the  same  people.  Among 
the  Egyptians  the  antiquity  of  the  custom  is  evinced 
by  their  monuments,  which  offer  in  this  respect  anal- 
ogies more  exact  than  classical  antiquity  or  modern 
usage  can  produce.  With  them  "the  custom  of  anoint- 
ing was  not  confined  to  the  appointment  of  kings  and 
priests  to  the  sacred  offices  they  held.  It  was  the  or- 
dinary token  of  welcome  to  guests  in  every  party  at 
the  house  of  a  friend ;  and  in  Egypt,  no  less  than  in 
Judaea,  the  metaphorical  expression  '  anointed  with 
the  oil  of  gladness'  was  fully  understood,  and  applied 
to  the  ordinary  occurrences  of  life.  It  was  customary 
for  a  servant  to  attend  every  guest  as  he  seated  hirn- 


Aucient  Egyptian  Servant  purfuinii 


|  self,  and  to  anoint  his  head"  (Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egyp- 
tians, iv,  279  ;  ii,  213).  See  Spikenard.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  the  Egyptians,  as  well  as  the 
Greeks  and  Jews,  anointed  themselves  at  home,  be- 
fore going  abroad,  although  they  expected  the  observ- 
ance of  this  etiquette  on  the  part  of  their  entertainer. 
That  the  Jews  thus  anointed  themselves,  not  only 
when  paying  a  visit,  but  on  ordinary  occasions,  is 
shown  by  many  passages,  especially  those  which  de- 
scribe the  omission  of  it  as  a  sign  of  mourning  (Deut. 
xxviii,  40 ;  Ruth  iii,  3 ;  2  Sam.  xiv,  2 ;  Dan.  x,  3 ; 
Amos  vi,  G ;  Mic.  vi,  15 ;  Esth.  ii,  12 ;  Psa.  civ,  15 ; 
Isa.  lxi,  3;  Eccles.  ix,  8;  Cant,  i,  3;  iv,  10;  also  Ju- 

j  dith  x,  3 ;  Sus.  17 ;  Ecclus.  xxxix,  26 ;  Wisd.  ii,  7). 

j  One  of  these  passages  (Psa.  civ,  15,  "oil  that  maketh 
the  face  to  shine")  shows  very  clearly  that  not  only 
the  hair  but  the  skin  was  anointed.  In  our  northern 
climates  this  custom  may  not  strike  us  as  a  pleasant 
one ;  but  as  the  peculiar  usages  of  most  nations  are 
found,  on  strict  examination,  to  be  in  accordance  with 
the  peculiarities  of  their  climate  and  condition,  we 
maj'  be  assured  that  this  Oriental  predilection  for  ex- 
ternal unction  must  have  arisen  from  a  belief  that 
it  contributed  materially  to  health  and  cleanliness. 
Niebuhr  states  that  "  in  Yemen  the  anointing  of  the 
body  is  believed  to  strengthen  and  protect  it  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  by  which  the  inhabitants  of  this  prov- 
ince, as  they  wear  but  little  clothing,  are  very  liable 
to  suffer.  Oil,  by  closing  up  the  pores  of  the  skin,  is 
supposed  to  prevent  that  too  copious  transpiration 
which  enfeebles  the  frame ;  perhaps,  too,  these  Ara- 
bians think  a  glistening  skin  a  beauty.  When  the  in- 
tense heat  comes  on  they  always  anoint  their  bodies 
with  oil."     See  Oil. 

3.  Anointing  the  Sick. — The  Orientals  are  indeed 
strongly  persuaded  of  the  sanative  properties  of  oil ; 
and  it  was  under  this  impression  that  the  Jews  anoint- 
ed the  sick,  and  applied  oil  to  wounds  (Psa.  cix,  18; 
Isa.  i,  6;  Luke  x,  34;  Rev.  iii,  18).  Anointing  was 
used  in  sundry  disorders,  as  well  as  to  promote  the 
general  health  of  the  body.  It  was  hence,  as  a  sal- 
utary and  approved  medicament,  that  the   seventy 

J  disciples  were  directed  to  "anoint  the  sick"  (Mark 
;  vi,  13) ;  and  hence  also  the  sick  man  is  directed  by 
I  the  apostle  (James  v,  14)  to  send  for  the  elders  of 
the  Church,  who  were  "to  pray  for  him,  anointing 
him  with  oil  in  the  name  of  the  Lord."  The  Tal- 
.  mudical  citations  of  Lightfoot  on  Matt,  vi,  16,  show 
j  that  the  later  Jews  connected  charms  and  supersti- 
l  tious  mutterings  with  such  anointings,  and  he  is  there- 
I  fore  probably  right  in  understanding  this  text  to 
mean,  "It  is  customary  for  the  unbelieving  Jews  to 
i  use  anointing  of  the  sick,  joined  with  a  magical  and 
enchanting  muttering  ;  but  how  infinitely  better  is  it 
to  join  the  pious  prayers  of  the  elders  of  the  Church  to 
the  anointing  of  the  sick."  Niebuhr  assures  us  that 
at  Sana  (and  doubtless  in  other  parts  of  Arabia)  the 
Jews,  as  well  as  many  of  the  Moslems,  have  their 
bodies  anointed  whenever  they  feel  themselves  indis- 
posed. Analogous  to  this  is  the  anointing  with  oil 
practised  by  the  twelve  (Mark  ix,.  13),  and  our  Lord's 
anointing  the  eyes  of  a  blind  man  with  clay  made 
from  saliva,  in  restoring  him  miraculously  to  sight 
(JLir'cXP'Gi)  John  ix,  6,  11).     See  Medicine. 

4.  Anointing  the  Dead. — The  practice  of  anointing 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  is  intimated  in  Mark  xiv,  8, 
and  Luke  xxiii,  56.  This  ceremony  was  performed 
after  the  body  was  washed,  and  was  designed  to  check 
the  progress  of  corruption.  Although,  from  the  mode 
of  application,  it  is  called  anointing,  the  substance 
employed  appears  to  have  been  a  solution  of  odor- 
iferous drugs.  This  (together  with  the  laying  of  the 
bodj'  in  spices)  was  the  only  kind  of  embalmment  in 
use  among  the  Jews.     See  Burial  ;  Embalming. 

5.  Spiritual. — (1.)  In  the  O.  T.  a  Deliverer  is  prom- 
ised under  the  title  of  Messiah,  or  Anointed  (Psa.  ii, 
2  ;  Dan.  ix,  25,  26)  ;  and  the  nature  of  his  anointing 


ANOINT 


241 


ANOINT 


is  described  to  be  spiritual,  with  the  Holy  Ghost  (Isa.  I 
lxi,  1 ;  see  Luke  iv,  18).     As  anointing  with  oil  beto- 
kened prosperity,  and  produced  a  cheerful  aspect  (Psa. 
civ,  15),  so  this  spiritual  unction  is  figuratively  de-  : 
scribed  as  anointing  "with  the  oil  of  gladness"  (Psa.  j 
xlv,  7  ;  Heb.  i,  9).     In  the  N.  T.  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is 
shown  to  be  the  Messiah  or  Christ,  or  Anointed  of  the 
0.  T.  (John  i,  41 ;  Acts  ix,  22 ;  xvii,  2,  3 ;  xviii,  5,  28) ; 
and  the  historical  fact  of  his  being  anointed  with  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  recorded  and  asserted  (John  i,  32,  33;  j 
Acts  iv,  27  j  x,  38).     (2.)  Spiritual  anointing  with  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  conferred  also  upon  Christians  by  God 
(2  Cor.  i,  21),  and  they  are  described  as  having  an  unc- 
tion (xpiffj.ia)  from  the  Holy  One,  by  which  they  know 
all  things  (1  John  ii,  20,  27).     To  anoint  the  eyes  with 
eye-salve  is  used  figuratively,  to  denote  the  process  of 
obtaining  spiritual  perception  (Rev.  iii,  18). 

6.  Religious  Significance  of  the  Act. — It  is  somewhat 
remarkable  that  the  first  Biblical  instance  of  anoint-  I 
ing — that  of  Jacob's  unction  of  his  pillow  at  Bethel  ; 
(Gen.  xxviii,  18) — has  reference  to  an  inanimate  ob- 
ject ;  yet  the  sacred  import  of  the  ceremony  is  obvi- 
ous, and  must  have  been  derived  from  primeval  cus- 
tom. At  a  later  date,  the  formal  agreement  noticed 
by  Sir  G.  Wilkinson,  between  the  use  of  oil  among  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Israelites  in  consecrating  to  an  of- 
fice, may  undoubtedly  be  regarded  as  evidence  that 
the  Mosaic  prescription  was  framed  with  some  regard 


Ancient  Egyptian  King  anointing  the  Statue  of  the  God  Kham. 

to  the  observances  in  Egypt ;  for  by  the  time  the  for- 
mer was  instituted,  the  Israelitish  people  had  been 
long  habituated  to  the  customs  of  Egypt;  and  it  was 
the  part  of  wisdom,  when  setting  up  a  better  polity,  to 
take  advantage  of  what  existed  there,  so  far  as  it  could 
be  safely  employed.  The  king  so  anointed  was  sol- 
emnly recognised  as  the  guest  and  protege  of  the  lord 
of  the  temple ;  the  statue  was  set  apart  for,  and  so  far 
identified  with  the  god  it  represented,  and  both  were 
stamped  as  fit  for  their  respective  destinations.  But 
in  the  true  religion  something  more  and  higher  was 
involved  in  the  act  of  consecration.  The  article  or 
subject  was  brought  into  contact  with  the  holiness  of 
Jehovah,  and  was  made  a  vessel  and  instrument  of  the 
Spirit  of  God.  Hence,  anointing  with  oil  in  the  times 
of  the  old  covenant  was  always  a  symbol  of  the  gift 
and  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit — in  the  case  of  inanimate 
objects  imparting  to  them  a  ceremonial  sacredness,  so 
as  to  fit  them  for  holy  ministrations ;  and  in  the  case 
of  persons,  not  only  designating  them  to  a  sacred  of- 
fice, but  sealing  to  them  the  spiritual  qualifications 
needed  for  its  efficient  discharge. — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith, 
s.  v. ;  Fairbairn,  s.  v.     See  Consecration. 

II.  Modern. — 1.  In  the  Romish  Church  the  custom 
of  anointing  priests  is  still  continued.  The  ordaining 
bishop  anoints  with  the  holy  oil  called  chrism  (q.  v.) 
the  palm  of  both  hands,  the  thumb,  and  the  forefinger 
of  the  person  to  be  ordained ;  and  thus,  according  to 

Q 


the  expression  in  the  ritual  of  ordination,  the  hands 
receive  power  to  bless,  to  consecrate,  and  to  make  holy. 
If  a  clergyman  is  excommunicated  these  spots  are  rub- 
bed off.  This  custom,  like  many  others,  is  a  perver- 
sion of  the  sacred  ceremony  by  which  the  Jewish 
priests  and  kings  were  inducted  into  office. 

2.  The  history  of  extreme  unction  (q.  v.)  in  its  pres- 
ent form  can  be  traced  back  no  further  than  the  twelfth 
century.  When  the  ceremony  of  anointing  is  men- 
tioned at  an  earlier  period,  the  reference  is  to  the  offi- 
ces of  baptism  and  confirmation.  There  is  no  mention 
of  extreme  unction  in  Justin  Martyr,  Irenaeus,  Tertul- 
lian,  or  Cyprian,  or  in  any  of  the  writers  of  the  first 
three  centuries.  In  the  fourth  century  Epiphanius 
makes  no  mention  of  it.  It  is  not  found  in  the  "  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions,"  a  work  in  which  all  church 
forms  are  minutely  described,  nor  in  the  biographies 
of  the  first  six  centuries.  After  the  twelfth  century 
it  was  universally  adopted  in  the  Western  Church. 

3.  The  only  occasion  on  which  anointing  is  used  in 
the  Church  of  England  is  at  the  coronation  of  the 
sovereigns,  when  the  archbishop  solemnly  anoints  the 
king  or  queen,  after  the  ancient  practice  of  the  He- 
brews. 

ANOINTING  OIL.  The  "oil  of  holy  ointment" 
prescribed  by  divine  authority  (Exod.  xxx,  23-25)  for 
the  consecration  of  the  Jewish  priests  and  kings  was 
compounded  of  the  following  ingredients : 

Hebrew  weight.  English  weight. 


Pure  myrrh 500    shekels=18  11  13  13  2-3 

Sweet  cinnamon 250        "      =9    5  10  18  1-24 

Sweet  calamus 250        "       =9     5  16  IS  1-24 

Cassia 500        "      =18  1113  13  2-3 

Olive  oil,  1  hin=5  quarts  . . .  £5U      "      =13    4    0    0 

1851*  shekels=70    3    0  15J- 
The  shekel  is  here  estimated  at  9  dwts.  and  2  4-7  grains  {Troy). 

Under  the  law  persons  and  things  set  apart  for  sa- 
cred purposes  were  anointed  with  this  "  holy  oint- 
ment" (Exod.  xxix,  7),  which  appears  to  have  been 
a  typical  representation  of  the  communication  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  the  Church  of  Christ  (Acts  i,  5 ;  x,  38). 
Hence  the  Holy  Spirit  is  called  an  unction  (q.  v.), 
whereby  believers  were  divinely  inspired  and  guided 
into  all"  truth  (2  Cor.  i,  21;  1  John  ii,  20,  27).  The 
profane  or  common  use  of  the  holy  ointment  was  ex- 
pressly forbidden,  on  pain  of  being  excommunicated 
(Exod.  xxx,  33;  Ezek.  xxiii,  31).  It  was  command- 
ed to  be  kept  by  the  Hebrews  throughout  their  gener- 
ations ;  it  was  therefore  laid  up  in  the  most  holy  place. 
Prideaux  observes  that  it  was  one  of  those  things 
which  was  wanting  in  the  second  temple.  There  is 
an  allusion  to  the  ingredients  of  this  sacred  perfume 
in  Eccles.  xxiv,  15.  The  use  of  aromatics  in  the  East 
may  be  dated  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  "  Oint- 
ment and  perfume,"  says  Solomon,  "rejoice  the  heart" 
(Prov.  xxvii,  9).  They  are  still  introduced,  not  only 
upon  everj'  religious  and  festive  occasion,  but  as  one 
essential  expression  of  private  hospitality  and  friend- 
ship.    See  Ointment. 

THE  ANOINTED.  The  prophets,  priests,  and  kings 
were  anointed  at  their  inauguration ;  but  no  man  was 
ever  dignified  by  being  anointed  to  hold  the  three  of- 
fices in  himself,  so  no  person  ever  had  the  title  of  the 
Messiah,  the  Christ,  the  Anointed  One,  but  Jesus  the 
Saviour.  He  alone  is  king  of  kings  and  lord  of  lords : 
the  king  who  governs  the  universe,  and  rules  in  the 
hearts  of  his  followers ;  the  prophet,  to  instruct  men 
in  the  way  wherein  they  should  go ;  and  the  great 
high-priest,  to  make  atonement  and  intercession  for 
the  whole  world.  Of  him,  Melchizedck,  Abraham, 
Aaron,  David,  and  others  were  illustrious  types ;  but 
none  of  these  had  the  title  of  "  The  Anointed  of  God." 
This  does,  and  ever  will,  belong  exclusively  to  Jesus 
the  Christ,  who  was  consecrated  in  our  nature  by  the 
anointing  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Psa.  ii,  2 ;  Isa.  lxi,  1 ; 
Dan.ix,24;  Matt,  iii,  16, 17;  Luke  iv,  18-21 ;  Acts  iv, 
27 ;  x,  38).     See  Messiah. 


ANOMOEAXS 


242 


ANSELM 


Anomoeans  (c'wofioioc,  dissimilar),  the  name  by 
which  the  stricter  Arians,  who  denied  the  like?iess  of 
the  Word  to  the  Father,  were  distinguished  from  the 
Semi-Arians,  who  merety  denied  his  consiibstantiality. 
— Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  198.     See  Arians. 

A'nos  ("Avwc),  one  of  the  "  sons"  of  Maani  (Bani), 
who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  (1  Esdr.  ix,  34)  ;  appar- 
ently the  Vaniah  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text  (Ezra,  x,  36). 

Ansarians  or  Assassins,  inhabitants  of  a  dis- 
trict in  Syria  (called  also  Ensariaxs).  Their  religion 
is  a  compound  of  paganism  and  Mohammedanism, which 
they  are  said  to  have  been  taught  by  an  old  man  who 
in  891  inhabited  the  village  of  Nasar,  near  Koufa,  and 
passed  for  a  saint  and  a  prophet.  Some  of  them  wor- 
ship the  sun,  others  the  dog  and  other  material  objects. 
A  special  work  on  them  has  been  published  by  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Lycle  (see  a  valuable  summary  of  this  work  in 
the  AT.  Amer.  Review,  Oct.  18G2).  According  to  Lyde, 
' '  they  number  about  200,000,  for  the  most  part  rude  and 
vicious.  They  are  divided  into  Shemseeh  (men  of  the 
sun,  Northerners)  and  Kumrecl  (men  of  the  moon, 
Southerners) ;  the  former  may  be  descendants  of  the 
Canaanites ;  the  latter,  foreigners,  brought  their  pres- 
ent religion  into  the  land.  The  name  Ansaireeh  is 
probably  derived  from  the  founder  of  the  sect,  Nusari, 
dating  from  the  ninth  century.  Their  sacred  name  is 
Khaseebeeh,  from  the  apostle  of  the  sect.  In  many 
points  they  have  affinities  with  the  Assassins.  They 
believe  in  the  divine  unity — in  three  personalities,  the 
second  and  third  being  created.  The  first  person,  the  su- 
preme deity,  is  Manna,  or  Meaning ;  the  second,  Ism,  or 
Name;  the  third,  Bab,  or  Dove.  Of  the  supreme  deity 
there  have  been  seven  manifestations  ;  the  last  is  Ali, 
Mohammed,  and  Salman  il  Farisee.  Ali  is  the  high- 
est manifestation  of  God,  alone  to  be  adored.  There 
is  also  a  system  of  hierarchies,  bewildering  in  num- 
bers :  14,000  Near  Ones,  15,000  Cherubim,  16,000  Spir- 
ituals, 17,000  Saints,  18,000  Hermits,  19,000  Listeners, 
20,000  Followers— in  all,  119,000— besides  prophets, 
apostles,  and  heroes.  The  doctrine  of  metempsycho- 
sis is  strictly  held,  and  minutely  delineated.  Thev 
receive  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  the  Koran, 
with  many  apocryphal  work?."  An  account  of  them 
is  given  in  Chesney's  Expedition  to  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris.  See  also  Walpole's  Travels  in  the  East,  and 
Blachcood's  Magazine,  lxx,  719.     See  Assassins. 

Anschar,  Ansgar,  or  Anschairius,  St.,  the  first 
archbishop  of  Hamburg,  bishop  of  Bremen,  and  so-call- 
ed apostle  of  Sweden  and  Denmark.  The  most  prob- 
able opinion  is  that  he  was  born  in  Picardy  about  801. 
In  821  he  went  from  the  abbey  of  Corbie,  in  Picar- 
dy, to  that  in  Saxony.  Having  from  his  youth  been 
desirous  to  labor  in  a  missionary  field,  he  was  sent 
in  826  to  Denmark,  and  thence  to  Sweden,  where  he 
preached  the  Gospel  with  wonderful  success.  After 
this  he  was  made  bishop  of  Hamburg,  which  see  he 
governed  until  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Nor- 
mans in  845 ;  four  years  after  this,  Louis,  king  of  Ger- 
many, made  him  bishop  of  Bremen,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  3,  865,  regretting  that  he  was  not  called  to  seal 
his  profession  by  martyrdom.  He  wrote  a  life  of  St. 
Willehad  (in  Pertz,  Monumenta  German,  ii,  683  sq.). 
For  a  glowing  account  of  him,  sec  Neander,  Light  in 
Dark  Places,  p.  264  sq. ;  comp.  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iii, 
27:.',  28  i ;  Gieseler,  Cfi.  Hist,  ii,  29.  See  also  Brit,  and 
For.  Eomig,  Heal  Rem  w,  July,  1865.  The  first  biogra- 
phy of  Anschar  was  written  by  his  successor,  Rimbert 
(published  by  Dahlmann,  in"  Pertz,  Monnm.  Germ.;\ 
translated  into  German  by  Misegais,  Bremen,  1826).  ] 
See  also  Kruso,  St.  Anschar  (Altona,  1823);  Krum- 
macher,  St.  Ansgar  (Brera.  1828);  Reuterdahl,  An.-ga- 
rius  (Berl.  1837);  Klippel,  Letensbeschreibung  des  Ere- 
bischofs  Ansgar  (Brem.  1845)  ;  Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  i.  523;  | 
Bohringc-r,  Kircheng.  in  j:i<>gr.  ii,  170. 

Ansegis.  1.  A  Benedictine  monk,  born  of  noble 
parents  at  Lyons,  was,  together  with  Eginhard,  super-  i 


intendent  of  the  royal  edifices  ;  became  in  817  abbot 
at  Luxen,  and  in  827  at  Fontanelles.  Charlemagne 
and  Louis  the  Pious  employed  him  for  important  em- 
bassies. He  died  in  833.  "  He  is  the  author  of  that 
important  collection  of  imperial  laws  known  as  Libri 
III  Capitidarium,  containing  a  number  of  decrees  is- 
sued by  Charlemagne  and  Louis  the  Pious.  The  Ger- 
man kings  had  to  take  an  oath  upon  this  book  as  con- 
taining the  laws  of  the  empire.  The  best  edition  of 
it  is  contained  in  Pertz,  Monumenta  Germanhe  legum, 
vol.  i. — Acta  Sanctorum,  saec.  iv,  1 ;  D'Achery,  fpici- 
leg.  t.  iii. 

2.  Abbot  of  St.  Michael's  (probably  at  Beauvais) ; 
was  sent  in  870  by  Charles  the  Bald  as  ambassador  to 
Rome ;  appointed  in  871  archbishop  of  Sens,  and  used 
as  a  tool  by  the  pope  against  the  clergy.  John  VIII 
appointed  him  in  876  primate  of  the  French  Church 
and  vicar-general  of  the  apostolic  see,  but  a  synod  of 
Pontion  protested  against  this,  and  recognised  him 
only  as  metropolite.  He  died  in  883,  and  his  successors 
had  to  abandon  the  distinction,  which  the  pope  had 
intended  to  connect  forever  with  the  see. — Gfrorer, 
Kirehengeschichte,  vol.  ii ;  Gallia  Christiana. 

Anselrn  of  Canterbury  (commonly  called  St. 
Anselm)  was  born  at  Aosta,  a  town  of  the  Alps,  in 
Savoy,  A.D.  1033.  He  was  treated  harshly  by  his  fa- 
ther, and  travelled  early  into  France,  and  afterward 
into  Normandy,  where  he  took  the  monastic  habit  in 
1060,  at  Bee,  where  Lanfranc,  afterward  aixhbishop 
of  Canterbur}*,  was  prior.  Three  years  after,  when 
Lanfranc  was  promoted  to  the  abbacy  of  Caen,  Anselm 
succeeded  him  as  prior  of  Bee,  and  became  abbot  in 
1078.  Anselm  came  to  England  while  prior  of  Bee, 
and  afterward  in  1092  by  the  invitation  of  Hugh  Lu- 
pus, earl  of  Chester,  who  requested  his  aid  in  sickness. 
Soon  after  his  arrival  William  Rufus  also  required  An- 
selm's  assistance,  and  finally  nominated  him  (though 
with  great  difficulty  of  acceptance  on  Anselm's  part) 
to  the  see  of  Canterbuiy,  which  had  lain  vacant  from 
Lanfranc's  death  in  1089.  Anselm  was  consecrated 
j  with  great  solemnity  December  4,  1093.  In  the  fol- 
;  lowing  j'ear  a  stinted  offer,  as  the  king  thought  it,  of 
£500  from  the  archbishop,  in  aid  of  the  war  which 
William  was  carrying  on  against  his  brother  Rob- 
ert, was  the  first  cause  of  the  royal  displeasure  to- 
ward Anselm,  followed  by  further  discontent  when  An- 
j  selm  desired  leave  to  go  to  Rome  to  receive  the  pall 
;  from  Pope  Urban  II,  whom  the  king  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge as  pope.  Anselm  proposed  a  visit  to  Rome 
j  to  consult  the  pope,  but  was  refused  permission.  He 
j  went  a  second  time  to  court  to  ask  for  leave,  and  was 
again  refused,  but  gave  his  blessing  to  the  king,  and 
embarked  at  Dover.  The  king  seized  upon  the  arch- 
bishopric, and  made  every  act  of  Anselm's  administra- 
tion void.  The  archbishop  got  safe  to  Rome,  and  was 
honorably  received  by  the  pope.  He  lived  quietly,  at 
Rome  and  other  places,  and  finished  his  treatise  Cur 
Deus  Homo  at  a  monastery  in  Champagne.  He  assist- 
ed the  pope  at  the  synod  or  council  of  Bari,  where  he 
prevented  Urban  from  excommunicating  the  king  of 
England  for  his  various  and  frequent  outrages  upon 
religion.  The  king,  however,  finally  bribed  the  court 
of  Rome  to  desert  Anselm,  who  retired  to  Lyons,  where 
(with  the  interval  of  an  attendance  at  a  council  at 
Rome  in  1099)  he  continued  to  reside  till  he  heard  of 
William  Rufus's  death,  with  that  of  Pope  Urban  short- 
ly after.  Henry  I,  immediately  upon  his  accession, 
invited  Anselm  to  return.  The  archbishop  was  re- 
ceived in  England  with  extraordinary  respect  both  by 
the  king  and  people,  but  refusing  to  be  reinvested  by 
the  king,  and  to  do  the  same  homage  with  his  prede- 
cessors, he  again  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  the 
court.  In  1103,  at  the  request  of  the  king  and  barons, 
Anselm  went  to  Rome  to  arrange  an  accommodation; 
|  the  kins  at  the  same  time,  in  distrust,  dispatching  an 
a'j-ent  of  his  own,  who  arrived  before  the  archbishop. 
The  pope  still  continued  inexorable,  but  wrote  to  the 


AXSELM 


243 


AXSELM 


king,  promising  compliance  in  other  matters  if  the 
king  would  but  waive  the  matter  of  investiture.  An- 
selm  in  chagrin  again  took  up  his  residence  at  Lyons, 
while  a  fresh  embassy  to  Rome  from  the  king  was  still 
more  unsuccessful  than  the  former.  Anselm  now  re- 
moved to  the  court  of  Adela  of  Blois,  the  king's  sister, 
who,  during  a  visit  which  Henry  I  made  to  Norman- 
dy, contrived  an  interview  between  him  and  Anselm 
July  22,  1105,  when  the  king  restored  to  him  the  rev- 
enues of  the  archbishopric,  but  refused  to  allow  him  to 
return  to  England  unless  he  would  comply  with  the 
investiture.  Anselm  remained  in  France,  retiring  to 
the  abbey  of  Bee.  At  length  the  pope,  adopting  a 
middle  course,  refused  to  give  up  the  investitures,  but 
was  willing  so  far  to  dispense  as  to  give  leave  to  bish- 
ops and  abbots  to  do  homage  to  the  king  for  their  tem- 
poralities. This  was  in  1106.  The  king  now  invited 
Anselm  to  England ;  but  the  messenger  finding  him 
sick,  the  king  himself  went  over  into  Normandy,  and 
made  him  a  visit  at  Bee,  where  all  their  differences 
were  adjusted.  Anselm,  being  recovered,  embarked 
for  England,  and,  landing  at  Dover,  was  received  with 
extraordinary  marks  of  welcome.  From  this  time  lit- 
tle that  is  remarkable  occurred  in  his  life,  except  a 
dispute  with  Thomas,  elected  archbishop  of  York  in 
1108,  who,  wishing  to  disengage  himself  from  depend- 
ency upon  the  see  of  Canterbury,  refused  to  make  the 
customary  profession  of  canonical  obedience.  Before 
the  termination  of  this  dispute  Anselm  died  at  Canter- 
bury, April  21, 1109,  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his 
age  (Penny  C'jch  predict,  s.  v.). 

The  intellect  of  Anselm  was  of  the  highest  order ; 
Neander  calls  him  the  Augustine  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. His  speculations  impressed  their  character  not 
only  upon  the  theology  and  philosophy  of  his  own  age, 
but  also  upon  all  subsequent  ages  to  the  present  time. 
He  is  generally  named  as  the  "father  of  scholasticism." 
Though  his  faith  was  always  sincere  and  undoubting, 
his  profoundly  inquisitive  intellect  made  it  necessary 
for  him  to  philosophize  upon  the  grounds  of  that  faith. 
Opposing  himself  to  Roscelin,  his  philosophy  was  a 
thorough-going  Realism;  and  in  applying  his  philoso- 
phy to  theology,  he  sought  to  demonstrate  the  being 
and  attributes  of  God  In'  the  ontolorjical  method,  of 
which,  in  fact,  he  was  substantial!}'  the  inventor  (Pros- 
loghim,  de  Dei  existentia  ;  Monologium,  de  Divinitatis 
essentia).  Remusat  (Vie  (V Anselm,  p.  473)  ascribes 
a  Pantheistic  tendency  to  Anselm's  uncompromising 
Realism.  Does  not  the  following  passage  in  the 
Proslogium  appear  to  involve  the  Pantheistic  theory  ? 
Speaking  of  the  divine  nature,  "  It  is,"  he  saj's,  "the 
essence  of  the  being,  the  principle  of  the  existence  of 
all  things.  .  .  .  Without  parts,  without  differences, 
without  accidents,  without  changes,  it  might  be  said, 
in  a  certain  sense,  to  alone  exist,  for  in  respect  to  it  the 
other  things  which  appear  to  be  have  no  existence. 
The  unchangeable  Spirit  is  all  that  is,  and  it  is  this 
without  limit,  simpliciter,  inter  minahiliter.  It  is  the 
perfect  and  absolute  existence.  The  rest  is  come  from 
nonentity,  and  thither  returns,  if  not  supported  by 
God :  it  does  not  exist  by  itself.  In  this  sense  the 
Creator  alone  exists;  the  things  created  do  not"  (p. 
473,  474).  It  is  plain  that  these  dependent  and  mere- 
ly relative  existences  must  be  conceived  as  an  emana- 
tion from  the  supreme  and  substantial  essence — must, 
like  the  qualities  of  bodies,  be  in  fact  identical  with  the 
supposed  substrata.  In  bis  treatises  on  free-will  and 
predestination  he  followed  the  Augustinian  doctrine, 
and  sought  acutely,  but  vainly,  to  reconcile  it  with  hu- 
man freedom.  He  was  the  first  also  to  treat  the  doc- 
trine of  redemption  [see  Satisfaction]  in  a  scientific 
way.  and  to  seek  a  rational  demonstration  of  it  (in  his 
treatise,  Cur  Dens  Homo).  He  propounds  the  question, 
Why  is  it  necessary  that  God  should  have  humbled 
himself  so  far  as  to  become  man  and  suffer  death  ? 
His  process  of  reasoning,  in  reply  to  this  question,  is 
as  follows.    Man  has  by  sin  deprived  God  of  the  glory 


which  properly  belongs  to  him,  and  must  therefore 
give  satisfaction  for  it,  i.  e.  he  must  restore  to  God  the 
glory  which  is  his  ;  for  the  divine  justice  would  not  al- 
low of  forgiveness  out  of  pure  compassion,  apart  from 
such  reparation.  This  reparation  must  be  commen- 
surate with  the  enormity  of  the  sin ;  yet  it  is  not  in 
the  power  of  man  to  give  such,  because,  apart  from 
this,  he  is  God's  debtor.  Such  a  satisfaction  cannot 
be  given  unless  some  one  is  aide  to  offer  to  God  some- 
thing of  his  own  of  more  value  than  all  which  is  not 
God,  for  the  whole  world  should  not  have  tempted 
man  to  sin  (Matt,  xvi,  26,  "  For  what  is  a  man  profited, 
if  he  shall  cjuin  the  whole  world,  and  lose  his  own  soul  ?)'' 
Since,  however,  he  has  sinned,  he  must  offer  to  God 
more  than  the  whole  world,  i.  e.  more  than  all  outside 
of  God.  Consequently  none  can  have  this  to  give  but 
God  himself.  But  since  it  is  man  who  owes  it,  it 
must  also  be  given  by  a  God-man,  i.  e.  by  a  person 
possessing  the  two  natures,  divine  and  human.  This 
could  be  no  other  than  the  second  person  of  the  Trini- 
ty, the  Son  ;  for  otherwise  there  would  be  two  Sons  in 
the  Trinitj' ;  and,  had  the  Father  become  man,  two 
grandsons  (namely,  the  Father,  grandson  of  himself  by 
human  descent,  and  the  Son,  grandson  of  the  Virgin, 
as  son  of  the  Virgin's  son).  It  was  fitting  that  the 
man  with  whom  God  united  himself  should  be  born  of 
a  woman  without  the  co-operation  of  man,  and  even 
from  a  virgin  ;  for  as  sin  and  the  ground  of  condemna- 
tion were  brought  about  by  that  sex,  it  is  just  that  the 
remedy  should  also  have  come  from  it  alone.  Thus 
Christ  was  then  born  without  original  sin;  he  could 
sin  if  he  willed  it,  but  he  could  not  will  it ;  consequent- 
ly he  died  without  owing  death  and  of  his  own  free 
will.  His  death,  therefore,  outweighed  the  number 
and  magnitude  of  all  sins.  He  gave  unto  God,  for  the 
sins  of  mankind,  his  own  life  unsullied  by  any  sin  of 
his  own,  thus  giving  what  he  did  not  owe,  when  con- 
sidered as  both  God  and  man.  But  in  consequence  of 
his  offering  voluntarily  so  great  a  sacrifice,  and  inas- 
much as  to  him  no  equivalent  for  it  could  be  given,  it 
was  necessary,  in  order  that  the  sacrifice  should  not 
be  vain,  that  others  at  least  should  be  benefited  there- 
by in  some  way,  namely,  humanity  in  the  forgiveness 
of  sin.  Anselm  affirms  the  doctrine  of  a  satisfactio 
vicaria  activa  (an  active  vicarious  satisfaction),  but 
not  of  a  satis/ actio  passim  (passive  satisfaction) ;  for 
he  nowhere  says  that  Christ  endured  the  actual  pun- 
ishment of  men's  sins  (Neander,  Dogmengeschichte,  ii, 
516).  Dr.  Shedd  (Hist,  of  Doctrines,  ii.  282)  questions 
this  statement  of  Neander's,  but  on  what  appear  to 
be  insufficient  grounds. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  Anselm's  doctrine  of 
satisfaction  are  found  in  the  writings  of  many  fathers 
before  Anselm,  e.  g.  Athanasius,  Gregorius  of  Nazian- 
zen,  Chrysostom,  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria ;  but  An- 
selm is  the  first  who  collected  and  arranged  them  into 
a  systematic  whole.  Dr.  Shedd  has  treated  the  rela- 
tion of  Anselm  to  theology  (  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  bks. 
iv  and  v)  more  skillfully  than  any  other  modern 
writer  in  short  compass.  In  concluding  his  analysis 
of  the  Cur  Deus  Homo,  he  remarks  that  it  "  exhibits  a 
depth,  breadth,  and  vigor  of  thinking  not  surpassed  by 
any  production  of  the  same  extent  in  theological  liter- 
ature. Such  a  view  of  the  atonement  as  is  here  ex- 
hibited is  thoroughly'  Biblical,  and  thoroughly  Prot- 
estant. There  may  be  incidental  views  and  positions 
in  this  tract  with  which  the  modern  theologian  would 
not  wholly  agree ;  but  certainly,  so  far  as  the  general 
theory  of  vicarious  satisfaction  is  concerned,  this  little 
treatise  contains  the  substance  of  the  reformed  doc- 
trine; while,  at  the  same  time,  it  enunciates  those 
philosophical  principles  which  must  enter  into  the 
scientific  construction  of  this  cardinal  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity. On  both  the  theoretic  and  the  practical  side, 
it  is  one  of  the  Christian  classics"  (vol.  ii,  p.  283). 
As  to  the  claim  of  absolute  originality  for  Anselm's 
system,  "it  may  be  admitted  that  Anselm  first  used 


ANSELM 


244 


ANSWER 


the  term  satisfaction  to  express  the  method  in  which  a  his  family  (Badagio),  was  horn  at  Milan,  1036.  He 
solutio  could  be  effected  of  a  debitum  which  had  been  succeeded,  in  1061,  his  uncle,  Pope  Alexander  II,  as 
incurred  by  sin;  but  the  same  fundamental  idea  is  :  bishop  of  Lucca,  which  see  he  resigned  in  order  to  be- 
found  in  the  sacrificial  theory,  to  which  so  frequent  ■  come  a  monk  at  Clugny.  He  returned  to  his  see  at 
reference  is  made  by  many  earlier  writers.  Sacrifices  ;  the  express  order  of  Pope  Gregory  VI,  who  employed 
were  appointed  in  the  mosaic  economy  by  which  vio-  {  him  for  important  embassies,  and  made  him  a  cardinal. 


lated  laws  might  be  appeased,  and  the  offerer  preservi 
his  forfeited  life  by  something  other  than  obedience. 
8  disfaction  expresses  a  wider  group  of  considerations, 
of  which  sacrifice  is  a  particular  illustration.  We 
may  grant  to  Anselm  the  dignity  of  having  set  forth, 


He  tried  to  prevail  on  the  canons  of  his  cathedral 
church  to  submit  to  the  common  life,  but  met  with  so 
decided  a  resistance  that  he  had  to  leave  again  his  see. 
Leo  IX  sent  him  as  his  legate  to  Lombardy,  where  he 
died  at  Mantua,  March  18, 1086.     He  wrote  an  apolo- 


more  forcible  light  than  earlier  writers,  the  nature  gy  of  Gregory  VII,  a  refutation  of  the  claims  of  the 
and  responsibilities  of  sin,  and  the  need  of  reconeilia-  ,  anti-pope  Guibert,  and  a  treatise  against  the  right  of 
tion  with  God.  We  may  allow  that  his  sense  of  the  ,  the  secular  princes  to  dispose  of  the  property  of  the 
justice  of  God  appears  to  have  been  more  profound  j  church.  The  two  former  may  be  found  in  Canisius, 
and  comprehensive  than  those  of  earlier  fathers;  and  Antiques  Lectiones,  and  in  the  Blbl.  Patrum.  The  life 
the  basis  was  doubtless  laid  for  the  quantitative  and  \  of  Anselm  was  written  by  the  Jesuit  Rota  (Notiz  di 


mercantile  aspects  of  the  subject  which  characterized 
the  speculations  of  later  divines"  (Brit.  Quarterly, 
April,  1865,  p.  355).  As  to  Anselm's  deficiencies,  Dr. 
Thomson  (Bishop  of  Gloucester)  remarks  that  "the 


San  Anselnio,  Verona,  1773,  8vo). — Landon,  s.  v. 

Anselm,  son  of  the  Margrave  Otto  the  Rich,  of 
Ascania,  became  bishop  of  Havelberg  in  1126,  and  arch- 
bishop of  Ravenna  in  1154 ;  was  Apocrisiarius  of  Em- 


passages  of  Scripture  that  speak  of  the  wrath  of  God  i  peror  Lothaire  II,  and  was  sent  as  an  ambassador  to 
against  man  are  not  explicable  by  Anselm's  system,  the  emperor  of  Constantinople  for  the  purpose  of  ef- 
The  explanation  of  the  Baptist,  that  Jesus  is  the  Lamb  i  fecting  a  union  between  the  Roman  and  Greek  Church- 
of  God,  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world;  the  |  es.  He  died  in  1158.  He  wrote  Three  Books  of  Dia- 
propheey  of  His  sufferings  by  Isaiah  (ch.  liii) ;  the  |  hgues  with  Nicetas,  archbishop  of  Nicomedia,  about 
words  of  Peter,  that  He  "  his  own  self  bare  our  sins  \  tlie  points  in  dispute  between  the  Greek  and  Roman 
in  his  own  body  on  the  tree;"  and  passages  of  like  ;  Churches,  given  by  D'Achery  in  the  Spieilegium,  i, 
import  in  St.  Paul's  writings,  can  only  find  place  with  1G1  (new  ed.).  —  Dupin,  Hist.  Eccl.  Writers,  ii,  365; 
Anselm  by  a  very  forced  interpretation.  His  scheme  |  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  1149 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 
i~  mainly  this,  that  the  merit  of  the  perfect  obedience  |  Anselm,  dean  of  the  cathedral  church  of  Laon, 
of  Jesus  was  so  great  as  to  deserve  a  great  reward,  flourished  at  the  end  of  the  11th  century.  He  died 
and  that,  in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  the  Lord,  this  re-  |  jujv  15  1117-     ue  illustrated  the  entire  Old  and  New 


ward 


riven  in  the  form  of  the  salvation  of  His 


Testaments  with  an  Interlineary  Glossary,  compiled 


brethren.     But  Christ  does  not  appear  in  this  system  ;  from  the  fathcrs,  which  has  been  several  times  printed, 


groaning  and  suffering  under  the  curse  of  the  world 
as  He  does  in  Holy  Scripture.  Until  the  time  of  An- 
selm the  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  had,  within  cer- 
tain limits,  fluctuated  with  the  change  of  teachers; 
the  doctrine  itself  was  one  and  the  same,  but  this  or 
that  aspect  of  it  had  been  made  prominent.  Anselm 
aimed  at  fixing  in  one  system  the  scattered  truths ; 
and  the  result  has  been  that  he,  like  his  predecessors, 
made  some  parts  of  the  truth  conspicuous  to  the  preju- 
dice of  the  rest"  (Aids  to  Faith,  Essay  viii). 

Anselm  is  commemorated  as  a  saint  in  the  Church 
of  Rome  on  the  21st  of  April.  His  life,  by  Eadmer, 
his  friend  and  companion,  is  given  in  the  edition  of 
his  works  named  below.    The  best  edition  of  his  works 


with  the  additions  of  Lyra  and  others,  especially  at  Ant- 
werp, in  1634;  also,  the  Commentary  on  St.  Matthew, 
and  Explanations  of  various  Passages  in  the  Gospels, 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  Apocalypse,  etc.,  which  are  printed 
under  the  name  of  Anselm  of  Canterbury,  are  attrib- 
uted by  many  writers  to  this  author.  But  Dupin  as- 
serts that  they  are  from  the  pen  of  Herveus,  a  monk 
of  Bourg,  near  Dol. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  1103 ;  Du- 
pin, Hist.  Eccl.  Writers,  ii,  364;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Ansgar.     See  Anschar. 

Answer  (usually  \TllV,  anah',  airoKplvopai)  has 
other  significations  in  Scripture  besides  the  common 
one  in  the  sense  of  reply.     1.  Moses  having  composed 


is  that  entitled  Opera  omnia  necnon  Eadmeri  monachi  '  a  thanksgiving  after  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  Miri- 
Cantuariensis  Historia  (V'enet.  1744,  2  vols.  fol.).  A  (  am,  it  is  said,  "answered;"  meaning  that  Moses  with 
.selection  of  the  most  important  theological  and  philo-  the  men  on  one  side,  and  Miriam  with  the  women  on 
sophical  works  of  Anselm  has  been  published  by  C.  the  other  side,  sung  the  same  song,  as  it  were,  in  two 
Haas  (8.  Anselmi  opuscida pkilosophico-theoloyica  selecta,  choruses  or  divisions,  of  which  one  " answered"  the 
vol.  i,  containing  the  Monologium  and  Prosloffium,  Tu-  other  (Exod.  xv,  21).  So  also  1  Sam.  xxix,  5,  where 
bingen,  1862).  Special  editions  of  the  book  Cur  Deus  they  sung  in  distinct  choruses ;  comp.  Num.  xxi,  17. 
Homo  were  published  at  Berlin,  1857,  and  at  London,  2.  This  word  is  likewise  taken  for  to  accuse,  or  to  de- 
1863.  Anselm  has  been  much  studied  of  late  years:  a  fend  judicially  (Gen.  xxx,  33;  Deut.  xxxi,  21;  Hos. 
beautiful  monograph  by  C.  Remusat  (Saint  Ansel  me  de j  v,  5).  3.  To  "answer"  is  likewise  taken  in  a  bad 
Canterbury,  8vo,  Paris,  1852)  ;  a  study  by  Bohringerl  sense,  as  when  it  is  said  that  a  son  answers  his  father 
(  Die  Kirch0.  Chrisli  und  ihre  Zevgen,  ii,  224);  and  a  co-  insolently,  or  a  servant  his  master  (John  xviii,  22; 
pious  treatise  by  Hasse  (1.  Das  Leben  Anselm's ;  2.  Die]  Rom.  ix,  20;  2  Cor.  i,9).  4.  To  uanswer''  is  also  used 
Lehn  A  nselm's,  2  vols.  Leipzig,1843-1852  ;  an  abridged  i  in  Scripture  for  the  commencement  of  a  discourse,  when 
translation  by  Turner,  Loud.  1860,  12mo)  give  ample  !  no  reply  to  any  question  or  objection  is  intended. 
facilities  for  the  study  of  his  history  and  writings.  This  mode  of  speaking  is  often  used  by  the  Evangel 
Translations  of  the  Prosloffium  and  of  the  Cur  Deus 
Homo  arc  given  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vols,  viii,  xi, 
and  xii.      !Scc  also  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist,  ill,  175;    Dog- 


mengeschichte,  p.  510;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  237,  and 
Hist,  of  Dogmas,  ii,  516,  et  al ;  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of 
Doctrines  (Smith's  ed.),  §  180;  Bushnell,  Vicarious 
Sacrifice  (N.  Y.  1866);  Meth.  Quar.  Review.  Oct.  1853, 


ists:  "And  Jesus  answered  &nd  said."  It  is  a  Hebrew 
idiom  (Job  iii,  2 ;  Cant,  ii,  10 ;  Zech.  iii,  4 ;  iv,  11,  12 ; 
Matt,  xi,  25;  xii,  38;  xvii,  4;  Mark  ix,  5;  Luke  vii, 
40).     Soe  Affirmative. 

Answer  of  a  good  conscience  (avvaSriffEiae  aya- 
JHjC  iirepdtrnua),  a  phrase  occurring  1  Pet.  iii,  21,  very 
variously  interpreted,  but  apparently  signifying  sim- 


art.  vi ;  Haureau,  Philos.  Scholast.  i,  ch.  viii;  Mohler,  ply  the  ability  to  address  God  in  prayer  (as  if  a  re- 
.  1  //  ji  Im's  Leb<  n  u.  Schriften  (Tub.  Quartalschrift,  1827,  sponse  to  His  searching  of  the  heart)  with  a  conscience 
1828);  Franck,  Anselm  von  Canterbury  (Tubing.  1842,  free  from  a  sense  of  guilt,  or  the  seeking  after  Him 
8vo) ;  Shedd,  Hist.  ofDoctrim  s,  1.  c.  See  Atonement,  with  a  pure  conscience  (see  Alford,  in  loc).  See  Con- 
Anselm,  St.,  called  Baduarius  after  the  name  of  i  science. 


ANT 


245 


ANT 


Ant  (n?^?,  nemahk',  either  from  an  Arab,  root, 
signifying  creeping,  or  rather  from  ?E3,  to  cut  off  [cir- 
cumcise], from  its  destructive  habits,  or,  still  better, 
from  its  insect  form  ;  Sept.  nup/iitf,  Vulg.  formica)  oc- 
curs Prow  vi,  6  ;  xxx,  25.  In  both  passages  its  prov- 
ident habits  are  referred  to,  especially  its  providing  its 
food  in  the  summer.  This  has  generally  been  sup- 
posed  to  imply  that  these  insects  hoard  up  grains  of 
corn,  chiefly  wheat,  for  their  supply  during  winter, 
having  first  bitten  out  the  germ  to  prevent  it  from  j 
growing  in  their  nests.  Boehart  has  collected  an  im- 
mense array  of  the  most  eminent  authors  and  natural- 
ists of  antiquity  (Jewish,  Greek,  Roman,  and  Arabian), 
who  all  gravely  propound  this  assertion  (Hieroz.  iii, 
478  sq. ;  comp.  Aristot.  Anim.  ix,  26 ;  Pliny,  Hist,  Nut. 
xi,  36  ;  Horace,  Sat.  i,  1,  38).  But  it  is  now  ascertained 
beyond  a  doubt  that  no  European  ants,  hitherto  prop-  ' 
erly  examined,  feed  on  corn  or  any  other  kind  of  grain. 
(See  Kirby  and  Spence's  Entomology,  p.  313,  7th  ed.  ! 
London,  1856,  where  the  question  is  fully  discussed.) 
Bonnet  found  that,  however  long  they  had  been  kept 
without  food,  they  would  not  touch  corn.  Nor  do 
they  attack  the  roots  or  stems  of  corn,  nor  any  other 
vegetable  matter.  Nor  has  any  species  of  ant  been 
yet  found  with  food  of  any  kind  laid  up  in  its  nest. 
The  truth  is,  that  ants  are  chiefly  carnivorous,  preying 
indiscriminately  on  all  the  soft  parts  of  other  insects, 
and  especially  the  viscera ;  also  upon  worms,  whether 
dead  or  alive,  and  small  birds  or  animals.  If  unable 
to  drag  their  booty  to  the  nest,  they  make  an  abun- 
dant meal  upon  it,  and,  like  the  bee,  disgorge  it,  upon 
their  return  home,  for  the  use  of  their  companions ; 
and  they  appear  able  to  retain  at  pleasure  the  nutri- 
tious juices  unchanged  for  a  considerable  time.  Ants 
are  also  extremely  fond  of  saccharine  matter,  which 
thej'  obtain  from  the  exudation  of  trees,  or  from  ripe 
fruits,  etc. ;  but  their  favorite  food  is  the  saccharine 
exudation  from  the  body  of  the  aphides,  or  plant-lice. 
Every  one  must  have  observed  these  insects  on  the 
rose-tree,  etc.  Each  different  species  of  vegetable 
has  its  peculiar  species  of  aphis  (Reaumur,  vi,  566). 
The  aphides  insert  their  tube  or  sucker  between  the 
fibres  of  vegetables,  where  they  find  a  most  substan- 
tial nutriment.  This  nutriment  they  retain  a  consid- 
erable time,  if  no  ant  approaches  them.  The  ant  has 
the  talent  of  procuring  it  from  the  aphides  at  pleasure. 
It  approaches  the  aphis,  strikes  it  gently  and  repeat- 
edly with  its  antenna;,  when  it  instantly  discharges 
the  juice  by  two  tubes  easily  discerned  to  be  st  aiding 
out  from  its  body.  These  creatures  are  the  milch  kine 
of  the  ants.  By  a  remarkable  coincidence,  which 
M.  Huber  justly  considers  too  much  to  be  ascribed  to 
chance,  the  aphides  and  the  ants  become  torpid  at  the 
same  degree  of  cold  (27  deg.  Fahr.),  and  revive  to- 
gether at  the  same  degree  of  warmth  (Huber,  Natural 
History  of  Ants,  p.  210,  etc.). 

In  the  Introduction  to  Entomology,  by  Kirby  and 
Spence,  some  diffidence  is  expressed  (ii,  46)  respecting 
the  inference  that  no  exotic  ants  have  magazines  of 
provisions,  till  their  habits  shall  have  been  "more  ac- 
curately explored."  Still,  are  we  not  in  possession  of 
sufficient  data  to  form  a  strong  presumption  in  regard 
to  the  ants  of  Palestine,  to  which  Solomon  of  course 
alludes  in  his  writings  ?  The  ants  of  the  Holy  Laud 
certainly  have  to  encounter  a  degree  of  cold  quite  as 
severe  as  ever  occurs  in  England  (Kitto,  Physical  Hist, 
of  Palestine,  p.  210,  216).  Is  it  not  highly  probable 
that  the  ants  at  such  times  become  torpid,  and  need  no 
magazine  of  provisions?  And  since  we  learn  from 
the  same  authority  (p.  31)  that  there  are  intervals, 
even  in  the  depth  of  winter,  when  the  sun  shines,  and 
there  is  no  wind,  when  it  is  perfectly  warm,  sometimes 
almost  hot,  in  the  open  air,  may  not  the  ants  of  Pales- 
tine and  their  food  revive  together  at  such  times,  as  is 
the  case  in  other  countries,  where  ants  may  often  be 
seen  pursuing  their  avocations  over  the  snow  ?     With 


regard  to  Solomon's  words  respecting  the  ant,  Kirby 
and  Spence  are  of  opinion  ' '  that,  if  they  are  properly 
considered,  it  will  be  found  that  the  interpretation 
which  seems  to  favor  the  ancient  error  respecting  ants 
has  been  fathered  upon  them  rather  than  fairly  de- 
duced from  them.  He  does  not  affirm  that  the  ant, 
which  he  proposes  to  the  sluggard  as  an  example,  laid 
up  in  her  magazines  stores  of  grain  against  winter,  but 
that,  with  considerable  prudence  and  foresight,  she 
makes  use  of  proper  seasons  to  collect  a  supply  of  pro- 
visions sufficient  for  her  purposes.  There  is  not  a 
word  in  them  implying  that  she  stores  up  grain  or 
other  provisions.  She  prepares  her  bread  and  gathers 
her  food  (namely,  such  food  as  is  suited  to  her)  in  sum- 
mer and  harvest  (that  is,  when  it  is  most  plentiful), 
and  thus  shows  her  wisdom  and  prudence  by  using  the 
advantages  offered  to  her." 

It  is  true  that  Col.  Sykes  speaks  (Transactions  of 
Entomol.  Soc.  ii,  103)  of  a  species 
of  Indian  ant  which  he  calls  Atta 
providens,  so  called  from  the  fact  ve* 
of  his  having  found  a  large  store 
of  grass-seeds  in  its  nest ;  but  the  ' 
amount  of  that  gentleman's  obser- 
vations merely  go  to  show  that 
!  this  ant  carries  seeds  underground, 
and  brings  them  again  to  the  sur- 
face after  they  have  got  wet  dur- 
ing the  monsoons,  apparently  to 
dry.      "There  is  not,"  writes  Mr.  F.  Smith  (Catalogue 
\  of  the  Formicidw  in  the  British  Museum,  1858,  p.  180), 
I  "any  evidence  of  the  seeds  having  been  stored  for 
I  food  ;"  he  observes  that  the  processionary  ant  of  Bra- 
zil ((Ecodoma  cephalotes)  carries  immense  quantities  of 
portions  of  leaves  into  its  underground  nests,  and  that 
it  was  supposed  that  these  leaves  were  for  food;  but 
that  Mr.  Bates  satisfied  himself  that  the  leaves  were 
for  the  purpose  of  lining  the  channels  of  the  nest,  and 
not  for  food.     There  is  no  evidence  that  any  portion 
;  of  plants  ever  forms  an  article  of  their  diet.     The 
fact  is,  that  ants  seem  to  delight  in  running  away 
!  with  almost  any  thing  they  find — small  portions  of 
!  sticks,  leaves,  little  stones — as  any  one  can  testify  who 
j  has  cared  to  watch  the  habits  of  this  insect.    This  will 
explain  the  erroneous  opinion  which  the  ancients  held 
with  respect  to  that  part  of  the  economy  of  the  ant 
j  now  under  consideration ;  nor  is  it,  perhaps,  necessary 
j  to  conclude  that  the  error  originated  in  observers  mis- 
I  taking  the  cocoons  for  grains  of  corn,  to  which  they 
■  bear  much  resemblance.     It  is  scarcely  credible  that 
|  Aristotle,  Virgil,  Horace,  etc.,  who  all  speak  of  this 
insect  storing  up  grains  of  corn,  should  have  been  so 
far  misled,  or  have  been  such  bad  observers,  as  to 
have  taken  the  cocoons  for  grains.     Ants  do  carry  off 
'  grains  of  corn,  just  as  they  cam'  off  other  things,  not, 
however,  as  was  stated,  for  food,  but  for  their  nests. 
!  "They  are  great  robbers,"  says  Dr.  Thomson  (The 
Land  and  the  Book,  p.  337),  "and  plunder  by  night  as 
|  well  as  by  day  ;  and  the  farmer  must  keep  a  sharp  eye 
to  his  floor,  or  they  will  abstract  a  large  quantity  of 
'  grain  in  a  single  night."     See  Cistern. 

It  is  right  to  state  that  a  well-known  entomologist, 
!  the  Rev.  F.  W.  Hope,  in  a  paper  "  On  some  Doubts  re- 
specting the  (Economy  of  Ants"  (Trans.  Entom.  Soc. 
j  ii,  211),  is  of  opinion  that  Col.  Sykes's  observations 
do  tend  to  show  that  there  are  species  of  exotic  ants 
which  store  up  food  for  winter  consumption ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  Mr.  Bates's  investigations 
'  are  subsequent  to  the  publication  of  that  paper.  (See 
Encycl.  Brit.  8th  ed.  s.v.) 

The  particular  species  of  ant  referred  to  by  Solo- 
mon has  not  been  identified ;  and,  in  fact,  ants  have 
only  latterly  become  the  subjects  of  accurate  observa- 
tion. The  investigations  of  Latreille  (Histoire  Na- 
turelle  des  Fourmis,  Par.  1802),  Gould,  Geer,  Huber, 
and  Kirby  and  Spence,  have  dissipated  many  errone- 
ous notions  respecting  them,  and  revealed  much  in- 


ANT 


246 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


teresting  information  concerning  their  domestic  poli- 
ty, language,  migrations,  affections,  passions,  virtues, 
wars,  diversions,  etc.  (see  Penny  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v.). 
The  following  facts  are  selected  as  relevant  to  scrip- 
tural illustration.  Ants  dwell  together  in  societies  ; 
and  although  they  have  "  no  guide,  overseer,  or 
ruler,"  yet  they  have  all  one  soul,  and  are  animated 
bv  one  object — their  own  welfare,  and  the  welfare  of 
each  other.  Each  individual  strenuously  pursues  his 
own  peculiar  duties,  and  regards  (except  in  the  case 
of  females),  and  is  regarded  by,  every  other  member 
of  the  republic  with  equal  respect  and  affection.  They 
devote  the  utmost  attention  to  thsir  young.  The  egg 
is  cleaned  and  licked,  and  gradually  expands  under 
this  treatment  till  the  worm  is  hatched,  which  is  then 
tended  and  fed  with  the  most  affectionate  care.  They 
continue  their  assiduity  to  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis, 
which  is  the  third  transformation.  They  heap  up  the 
pupae,  which  greatly  resemble  so  many  grains  of  wheat, 
or  rather  rice,  by  hundreds  in  their  spacious  lodges, 
watch  them  in  an  attitude  of  defence,  carry  them  out 
to  enjoy  the  radiance  of  the  sun,  and  remove  them  to 
different  situations  in  the  nest,  according  to  the  re- 
quired degree  of  temperature  ;  open  the  pupa,  and,  at 
the  precise  moment  of  the  transformation,  disinthrall 
the  new-born  insect  of  its  habiliments. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

To  some  readers  it  may  seem  strange  that  ants 
should  be  considered  four- winged  insects,  whereas 
they  may  have  never  seen  a  winged  individual  among 
the  thousands  of  ants  they  may  have  looked  upon. 
The  fact  is,  this  tribe  presents  the  curious  anomaly 
(paralleled  also  in  the  Termites,  or  white  ants,  of  an- 
other order)  of  three  forms  of  individuals — we  might 
almost  saj-,  three  sexes.  The  males  and  females  are 
furnished  with  four  win^s  on  their  leaving  the  chrys- 
alis state,  but  soon  drop  them  spontaneously.     These 


Brown  Ant  (.Formica  Erunnea). 

1,  Worker  or  neuter;  2,  its  natural  size;  3,  Cocoon  ;  4,  Male  ;   6,  Female  ; 

5, 7,  Natural  sizes  of  4  and  6. 

are  comparatively  few  in  number ;  but  there  is  an- 
other race,  which  are  the  workers,  and  which  consti- 
tute the  main  body  of  the  teeming  population,  which 
never  have  any  wings  at  all.  These  are  sexless,  but 
are  considered  as  imperfectly  developed  females. 

The  Arabians  held  the  wisdom  of  the  ant  in  such 
estimation,  that  they  used  to  place  one  of  these  insects 
in  the  hands  of  a  newly-born  infant,  repeating  these 
words:  'May  the  boy  "turn  out  clever  and  skilful." 
Hence,  in  Arabic,  with  the  noun  nemlek,  "an  ant,"  is 
connected  the  adjective  nemV,  "quick."  "clever" 
(Bochart,  Hieroz.  Ill,  -191).  The  Talmudists,  too,  at- 
tributed great  wisdom  to  this  insect.  It  was,  say 
they,  from  beholding  the  wonderful  ways  of  the  ant 
that  the  following  expression  originated:  "Thy  jus- 
tice, 0  God,  reaches  to  the  heavens"  (Chulin,  63). 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  adduce  the  parallel 
economy  of  a  tribe  of  insects,  which,  though  they  be- 
long to  another  zoological  order,  so  greatly  resemble 
ants  in  their  most  remarkable  peculiarities  as  to  be 
popularly  associated  with  them.  "We  refer  to  the  white 
ants  (Termites),  so  abundant  in  all  tropical  countries. 
These,  too,  form  populous  societies,  living  in  common- 
wealth, in  elaborate  structures,  which  are  constructed 


by  the  united  labors  of  the  whole.  "We  have  not  any 
detailed  accounts  of  the  Oriental  species ;  but  in  the 
minute  and  careful  description,  by  Snieathman,  of  the 
African  kinds,  he  speaks  of  their  magazines  of  stored 


A 


.'■••'X 


Hills  of  Termites,  or  White  Ants  of  Africa. 

food.  These  are  "  chambers  of  clay,  always  well  filled 
with  provisions,  which,  to  the  naked  eye,  seem  to  con- 
sist of  the  raspings  of  wood,  and  plants  which  the  ter- 
mites destroy,  but  are  found  b}-  the  microscope  to  be 
principally  the  gums  and  inspissated  juices  of  plants. 
These  are  thrown  together  in  little  masses,  some  of 
which  are  finer  than  others,  and  resemble  the  sugar 
about  preserved  fruits ;  others  are  like  tears  of  gum, 
one  quite  transparent,  another  like  amber,  a  third 
brown,  and  a  fourth  quite  opaque,  as  Ave  see  often  in 
parcels  of  ordinary  gums." — Fairbairn,  s.  v. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  word  chanamaV 
(b~3n),  translated  "frost"  in  our  version  of  Psa. 
lxxviii,  47,  is  thought  by  many  to  refer  to  some  spe- 
cies of  ant  or  kindred  insect  destructive  of  trees. 

Antaradus  (Arranacoc,  Ptol.  v,  15,  §  16;  Hiero- 
cles,  p.  716),  a  city  of  Phoenicia,  situated  on  the  main- 
land opposite  the  island  of  Aradus  (whence  its  name), 
which  latter  is  alone  referred  to  in  Scripture  (Gen.  x, 
18  ;  1  Chron.  i,  16).  See  Arvad.  According  to  the 
A  ntonine  Itinerary  and  the  Peutinger  Tables,  it  was  24 
Roman  miles  from  Balanea  and  50  from  Tripolis  (Re- 
land,  Palcest.  p.  216,  318).  It  was  rebuilt,  A.D.  346, 
by  the  Emperor  Constantius,  who  named  it  Cunsfantia 
after  himself  (Cedren.  Hist.  p.  246),  but  it  appears 
under  its  old  name  likewise  in  the  subsequent  Church 
councils.  During  the  Crusades  it  was  a  populous  and 
well  fortified  town  (William  of  Tyre,  vii,  15),  and  was 
known  as  Tortosa  (Tasso,  Genual,  lib.  i,  6 ;  Wilken, 
Kreuzz.  i,  253;  ii,  200;  vii,  340,  713).  It  is  now  a 
mean  village  of  241  taxable  Moslems  and  44  Greeks 
(  Bibliotk.  Sacra,  1848,  p.  247).  The  walls,  of  heavy 
bevelled  stones,  are  still  remaining  (Mignot,  Mem,  sitr 
les  Phen.  in  the  A  cad.  des  Belles  Lettres,  xxxiv,  239; 
Edrisi,  p.  129, 130,  ed.  Jaubert). 

Antediluvians,  people  who  lived  before  the  Del- 
uge (q.  v.),  which  occurred  A.M.  1657.  See  Age.  All 
our  authentic  information  respecting  this  long  and  in- 
teresting period  is  contained  in  forty-nine  verses  of 
Genesis  (iv,  16-vi,  8),  more  than  half  of  which  are  oc- 
cupied with  a  list  of  names  and  ages,  invaluable  for 
chronology,  but  conveying  no  particulars  regarding 
the  primeval  state  of  man.  The  information  thus  af- 
forded, although  so  limited  in  extent,  is,  however,  em- 
inently suggestive  (see  Clarkson,  Antediluvian  Re- 
searches, Lond.  1836;  Boucher  d.  Perthes,  Li Homme 
Antidiluvien,  Par.  1860;  Stein,  De  moribus  ante  dilu- 
vium, Wittenb.  1783;  Purton,  World  before  the  flood, 
Lond.  1844  ;  Redslob,  De  Antediluvianis,  Hamb.  1*47  ; 
Willesch,  Dephi/osophia  antedilurianorum,  Leipz.  1717  ; 
Jour,  Sac.  Lit.  July,  1862,  p.  376  sq.).  Some  addi- 
tional information,  though  less  direct,  may  be  safely 
deduced  from  the  history  of  Noah  and  the  first  men 
after  the  Delude;  for  it  is  very  evident  that  society 
did  not  begin  afresh  after  that  event,  but  that,  through 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


247 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


Noah  and  his  sons,  the  new  families  of  men  were  in  a 
condition  to  inherit,  and  did  inherit,  such  sciences  and 
arts  as  existed  before  the  Flood.  This  enables  us  to 
understand  how  settled  and  civilized  communities 
were  established,  and  large  and  magnificent  works  un- 
dertaken within  a  few  centuries  after  the  Deluge. 

The  scriptural  notices  show  [see  Adam]  that  the  fa- 
ther of  men  was  something  more  than  "  the  noble  sav- 
age," or  rather  the  grown-up  infant,  which  some  have 
represented  him.  He  was  an  instructed  man  ;  and  the 
immediate  descendants'  of  a  man  so  instructed  could 
not  be  an  ignorant  or  uncultivated  people.  It  is  not 
necessary,  indeed,  to  suppose  that  they  possessed  at 
first  more  cultivation  than  they  required ;  and  for  a 
good  while  they  did  not  stand  in  need  of  that  which 
results  from  or  is  connected  with  the  settlement  of 
men  in  organized  communities.  They  probably  had 
this  before  the  Deluge,  and  at  first  were  possessed  of 
whatever  knowledge  or  civilization  their  agricultural 
and  pastoral  pursuits  required.  Such  were  their  pur- 
suits from  the  first ;  for  it  is  remarkable  that  of  the 
strictly  savage  or  hunting  condition  of  life  there  is  not 
the  slightest  trace  before  the  Deluge.  After  that 
event,  Nimrod,  although  a  hunter  (Gen.  x,  9),  was 
not  a  savage,  and  did  not  belong  to  hunting  tribes  of 
men.  In  fact,  barbarism  is  not  discoverable  before 
the  confusion  of  tongues,  and  was,  in  all  likelihood,  a 
degeneracy  from  a  state  of  cultivation,  eventually  pro- 
duced in  particular  communities  by  that  great  social 
convulsion.  At  least,  that  a  degree  of  cultivation 
was  the  primitive  condition  of  man,  from  which  sav- 
age life  in  particular  quarters  was  a  degeneracy,  and 
that  he  has  not,  as  too  generall}*  has  been  supposed, 
worked  himself  up  from  an  original  savage  state  to 
his  present  position,  has  been  powerfully  argued  by  Dr. 
Philip  Lindsley  (Am.  Bib.  liepos.  iv,  277-298;  vi,  1- 
27),  and  is  strongly  corroborated  by  the  conclusions 
of  modern  ethnographical  research ;  from  which  we 
learn  that,  while  it  is  easy  for  men  to  degenerate  into 
savages,  no  example  has  been  found  of  savages  rising 
into  civilization  but  by  an  impulse  from  without  ad- 
ministered by  a  more  civilized  people  ;  and  that,  even 
with  such  impulse,  the  vis  inertice  of  established  habits 
is  with  difficulty  overcome.  The  aboriginal  traditions 
of  all  civilized  nations  describe  them  as  receiving  their 
civilization  from  without — generally  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  foreign  colonists  :  and  history  affords 
no  example  of  a  case  parallel  to  that  which  must  have 
occurred  if  the  primitive  races  of  men,  being  original- 
ly savage,  had  civilized  themselves. 

All  that  was  peculiar  in  the  circumstances  of  the 
antediluvian  period  was  eminently  favorable  to  civ- 
ilization. The  longevity  of  the  earlier  seventeen  or 
twenty  centuries  of  human  existence  is  a  theme  con- 
taining many  problems.  It  may  be  here  referred  to 
for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  advantages  which 
must  necessarily  have  therefrom  accrued  to  the  me- 
chanical arts.  In  pottery,  mining,  metallurgy,  cloth- 
making,  the  applications  of  heat  and  mixtures,  etc., 
it  is  universally  known  that  there  is  a  tact  of  manipu- 
lation which  no  instruction  can  teach,  which  the  pos- 
sessor cannot  even  describe,  yet  which  renders  him 
powerful  and  unfailing,  within  his  narrow  range,  to  a 
degree  almost  incredible;  and  when  he  has  reached 
his  limit  of  life  he  is  confident  that,  had  he  another 
sixty  or  seventy  years  to  draw  upon,  he  could  carry 
his  art  to  a  perfection  hitherto  unknown.  Something 
like  this  must  have  been  acquired  by  the  antedilu- 
vians ;  and  the  paucity  of  objects  within  their  grasp 
would  increase  the  precision  and  success  within  the 
range.     See  Longevity. 

By  reason  of  their  length  of  life  the  antediluvians 
had  also  more  encouragement  in  protracted  undertak- 
ings, and  stronger  inducements  to  the  erection  of  su- 
perior, more  costly,  more  durable,  and  more  capacious 
edifices  and  monuments,  public  and  private,  than  exist 
at  present.      They  might  reasonably  calculate  on  reap- 


ing the  benefit  of  their  labor  and  expenditure.  The 
earth  itself  was  probably  more  equally  fertile,  and  its 
climate  more  uniformly  healthful  and  more  auspicious 
to  longevity,  and  consequently  to  every  kind  of  men- 
tal and  corporeal  exertion  and  enterprise,  than  has 
been  the  case  since  the  great  convulsion  which  took 
place  at  the  Deluge. 

But  probably  the  greatest  advantage  enjoyed  by  the 
antediluvians,  and  which  must  have  been  in  the  high- 
est degree  favorable  to  their  advancement  in  the  arts 
of  life,  was  the  uniformity  of  language.  Nothing 
could  have  tended  more  powerful!}'  to  maintain,  equal- 
ize, and  promote  whatever  advantages  were  enjoyed, 
and  to  prevent  any  portion  of  the  human  race  from 
degenerating  into  savage  life.  See  Confusion  of 
Tongues. 

The  opinion  that  the  old  world  was  acquainted  with 
astronomy  (q.  v.)  is  chiefly  founded  on  the  ages  of  Seth 
and  his  descendants  being  particularly  set  down  (Gen. 
v,  G  sq),  and  the  precise  year,  month,  and  day  being 
stated  in  which  Noah  and  his  family,  etc.,  entered  the 
ark,  and  made  their  egress  from  it  (Gen.  vii,  11;  viii, 
13).  The  distinctions  of  day  and  night,  and  the  lunar 
month,  were  of  course  observed;  and  the  thirteenth 
rotation  of  the  moon,  compared  with  the  sun's  return 
to  his  primary  position  in  the  heavens,  and  the  effects 
produced  on  the  earth  by  his  return,  would  point  out 
the  year.  See  Month.  The  variation  between  the 
rotations  of  the  moon  and  sun  easily  became  discover- 
able from  the  difference  which  in  a  very  few  years 
would  be  exhibited  in. the  seasons;  and  hence  it  may 
be  supposed  that,  although  the  calculations  of  time 
might  be  by  lunar  months  or  revolutions,  yet  the  re- 
turn of  vegetation  would  dictate  the  solar  year.  See 
Year.  The  longevity  of  the  antediluvian  patriarchs, 
and  the  simplicity  of  their  employments,  favor  this 
conjecture,  which  receives  additional  strength  from  the 
fact  that  the  Hebrew  for  year,  itilfcj,  implies  an  itera- 
tion, a  return  to  the  same  point,  a  repetition  (Gesenius, 
Thes.  Heb.  p.  1448) ;  and  it  is  also  remarkable  that  the 
Indians,  Chinese,  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
and  other  nations,  all  deduce  their  origin  from  person- 
ages said  to  be  versed  in  astronomy.  See  Time. — The 
knowledge  of  zoology  (q.  v.)  which  Adam  possessed  was 
doubtless  imparted  to  his  children ;  and  we  find  that 
Noah  was  so  minutely  informed  on  the  subject  as  to 
distinguish  between  clean  and  unclean  beasts,  and  that 
his  instructions  extended  to  birds  of  every  kind  (Gen. 
vii,  2^1). — A  knowledge  of  some  essential  principles  in 
botany  (q.  v.)  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Adam  knew  how 
to  distinguish  "  seed-bearing  herb"  and  "  tree  in  which 
is  a  seed-bearing  fruit,"  with  "every  green  herb"  (Gen. 
i,  29,  30).  The  trees  of  life  and  of  knowledge  are  the 
only  ones  mentioned  before  the  Fall;  but  in  the  history 
of  Noah  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  the  wood  of  which  the 
ark  was  made  (Gen.  vi,  14 ;  viii,  11 ;  ix,  20)  are  spo- 
ken of  in  such  a  manner  as  clearly  to  intimate  a 
knowledge  of  their  qualities. — With  mineralogy  (q.  v.) 
the  antediluvians  were  at  least  so  far  acquainted  as  to 
distinguish  metals  ;  and  in  the  description  of  the  gar- 
den of  Eden  gold  and  precious  stones  are  noticed  (Gen. 
ii,  12). 

That  the  antediluvians  were  acquainted  with  music 
(q.  v.)  is  certain ;  for  it  is  expressly  said  that  Jubal 
(while  Adam  was  still  alive)  became  "the  father  of 
those  who  handle  the  TiS3,  kinnor,  and  the  331",  ugab" 
(Gen.  iv,  21).  The  former  [see  Harp]  -was  evidently 
a  stringed  instrument  resembling  a  lyre ;  and  the  lat- 
ter [see  Lyre]  was  without  doubt  the  Pandaean  pipe, 
composed  of  reeds  of  different  lengths  joined  together. 
This  clearly  intimates  considerable  progress  in  the  sci- 
ence ;  for  it  is  not  probable  that  the  art  of  playing  on 
wind  and  on  stringed  instruments  was  discovered  at 
the  same  time.  We  may  rather  suppose  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  harmony,  having  been  discovered  in  the  one, 
were  by  analogy  transferred  to  the  other;  and  that 


ANTEDILUVIANS 


248 


ANTELOPE 


Jubal,  by  repeated  efforts,  became  the  first  performer 
on  the  harp  and  the  pipe.     See  Art. 

Our  materials  are  too  scanty  to  allow  us  to  affirm 
that  the  antediluvians  possessed  the  means  of  commu- 
nicating their  ideas  by  writing  (q.  v.)  or  by  hiero- 
glyphics, although  tradition,  and  a  hint  or  two  in  the 
Scriptures,  might  support  the  assertion.  With  re- 
spect to  poetry  (q.  v.),  the  story  of  Lamech  and  his 
wives  (Gen.  iv,  19-24)  is  evidently  in  verse,  and  is 
most  probably  the  oldest  specimen  of  Hebrew  poetry 
extant ;  but  whether  it  was  written  before  or  after 
the  Flood  is  uncertain,  although  the  probability  is  that 
it  is  one  of  those  previously-existing  documents  which 
Moses  transcribed  into  his  writing. 

With  regard  to  architecture  (q.  v.),  it  is  a  singular 
and  important  fact  that  Cain,  when  he  was  driven 
from  his  first  abode,  built  a  city  in  the  land  to  which 
he  went,  and  called  it  Enoch,  after  his  son.  This 
shows  that  the  descendants  of  Adam  lived  in  houses 
and  towns  from  the  first,  and  consequently  affords 
another  confirmation  of  the  argument  for  the  original 
cultivation  of  the  human  family.  What  this  "  city" 
was  is  not  mentioned,  except  in  the  term  itself;  and 
as  that  term  is  in  the  early  Scriptures  applied  to  al- 
most every  collection  of  human  habitations,  we  need 
not  attach  any  very  exalted  ideas  to  it  in  this  in- 
stance. But  if  we  take  into  view  the  requisites  nec- 
essary to  enable  Noah  to  erect  so  stupendous  a  fabric 
as  the  ark  (q.  v.)  must  have  been,  it  will  not  be  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  that  the  art  of  building  had  reached 
considerable  advancement  before  the  Deluge ;  nor  can 
one  reflect  on  the  building  of  Babel  without  a  convic- 
tion that  it  must  have  been  through  the  great  patri- 
archs who  lived  in  the  old  world  that  so  much  knowl- 
edge was  obtained  as  to  lead  to  the  attempt  of  erect- 
ing a  fabric  whose  summit  was  intended  to  reach  the 
clouds.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  builders  would,  by 
their  own  intuitive  genius,  be  equal  to  a  task  which 
they  certainly  were  not  inspired  by  Heaven  to  exe- 
cute. 

The  metallurgy  (q.  v.)  of  the  antediluvians  appears 
to  have  originated  with  the  line  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv,  22), 
being  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection,  so  far  as 
forging  and  tempering  are  concerned,  by  Tubal-Cain 
(q.  v.). — Respecting  agriculture  (q.  v.),  which  was  ev- 
idently the  first  employment  of  Adam  (Gen.  ii,  15; 
iii,  17,  18),  and,  afterward,  at  first  of  Cain  (Gen.  iv, 
2),  we  shall  only  add  a  reference  to  the  case  of  Noah, 
who,  immediately  after  the  Flood,  became  a  husband- 
man, and  planted  a  vineyard.  He  also  knew  the 
method  of  fermenting  the  juice  of  the  grape  ;  for  it  is 
said  he  drank  of  the  wine,  which  produced  inebriation 
(Gen.  ix,  20,  21).  This  knowledge  he  doubtless  ob- 
tained from  his  progenitors  anterior  to  the  destruction 
of  the  old  world. 

Pasturage  (q.  v.)  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with 
husbandry.  Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep,  while  his 
brother  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground  (Gen.  iv,  2) ;  but 
there  is  no  necessity  for  supposing  that  Cain's  hus- 
bandry excluded  the  care  of  cattle.  The  class  of  tent- 
dwelling  pastors — that  is,  of  those  who  live  in  tents 
that  t!i<y  may  move  with  their  flocks  and  herds  from 
one  pasture-ground  to  another — did  not  originate  till 
comparatively  late  after  the  Fall ;  for  Jabal,  the  sev 
cnth  from  Adam  in  the  line  of  Cain,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  "father"  or  founder  of  that  mode  of  life 
(Gen.  iv,  20).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  manufac- 
ture of  cloth  is  involved  in  the  mention  of  tents,  see- 
ing that  excellent  tent-coverings  are  even  at  this  day 
made  of  skins  ;  and  we  know  that  skins  were  the  first 
articles  of  clothing  used  by  fallen  man  (Gen.  iii,  21). 
The  same  doubt  applies  to  the  garment  with  which 
the  sons  of  Noah  covered  their  inebriated  father  (Gen. 
ix,  23).  But,  upon  the  whole,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that,  in  the  course  of  so  long  a  period,  the  art 
of  manufacturing  cloths  of  hair  and  wool,  if  not  of 
linen  or  cotton,  had  been  acquired.     See  Weaving. 


It  is  impossible  to  speak  with  any  decision  respect- 
ing the  form  or  forms  of  government  which  prevailed 
before  the  Deluge.  The  slight  intimations  to  be  found 
on  the  subject  seem  to  favor  the  notion  that  the  par- 
ticular governments  were  patriarchal,  subject  to  a 
general  theocratical  control,  God  himself  manifestly 
interfering  to  uphold  the  good  and  check  the  wicked. 
The  right  of  property  was  recognised,  for  Abel  and 
Jabal  possessed  flocks,  and  Cain  built  a  city.  As  or- 
dinances of  religion,  sacrifices  certainly  existed  (Gen. 
iv,  4),  and  some  think  that  the  Sabbath  was  observed ; 
while  some  interpret  the  words,  "  Then  men  began  to 
call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord"  (Gen.  iv,  26),  to  sig- 
nify that  public  worship  then  began  to  be  practised. 
From  Noah's  familiarity  with  the  distinction  of  clean 
and  unclean  beasts  (Gen.  vii,  2),  it  would  seem  that 
the  Levitical  rules  on  this  subject  were  by  no  means 
new  when  laid  down  in  the  code  of  Moses.  See  Wor- 
ship. 

Marriage  (q.  v.),  and  all  the  relations  springing 
from  it,  existed  from  the  beginning  (Gen.  ii,  23-25) ; 
and,  although  polygamy  was  known  among  the  ante- 
diluvians (Gen.  iv,  19),  it  was  most  probably  unlaw- 
ful ;  for  it  must  have  been  obvious  that,  if  more  than 
one  wife  had  been  necessary  for  a  man,  the  Lord 
would  not  have  confined  the  first  man  to  one  woman. 
The  marriage  of  the  sons  of  Seth  with  the  daughters 
of  Cain  appears  to  have  been  prohibited,  since  the 
consequence  of  it  was  that  universal  depravity  in  the 
family  of  Seth  so  forcibty  expressed  in  this  short  pas- 
sage, "All  flesh  had  corrupted  its  way  upon  the 
earth"  (Gen.  vii,  11).  This  sin,  described  Orientally 
as  an  intermarriage  of  "  the  sons  of  God"  with  "the 
daughters  of  men"  (Gen.  vi,  2),  appears  to  have  been 
in  its  results  one  of  the  grand  causes  of  the  Deluge  ; 
for  if  the  family  of  Seth  had  remained  pure  and  obe- 
dient to  God,  he  would  doubtless  have  spared  the 
world  for  their  sake,  as  he  wonld  have  spared  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah  had  ten  righteous  men  been  found 
there,  and  as  he  would  have  spared  his  own  people, 
the  Jews,  had  they  not  corrupted  themselves  by  in- 
termarriages with  the  heathen.  Even  the  longevity 
of  the  antediluvians  may  have  contributed  to  this  ru- 
inous result.  Vastly  more  time  was  upon  their  hands 
than  was  needful  for  clearing  woodlands,  draining 
swamps,  and  other  laborious  and  tedious  processes,  in 
addition  to  their  ordinary  agriculture  and  care  of  cat- 
tle ;  so  that  the  temptations  to  idleness  were  likely  to 
be  verj'  strong;  and  the  next  step  would  be  to  licen- 
tious habits  and  selfish  violence.  The  ample  leisure 
possessed  b}'  the  children  of  Adam  might  have  been 
employed  for  many  excellent  purposes  of  social  life 
and  religious  obedience,  and  undoubtedly  it  was  so 
employed  by  many  ;  but  to  the  larger  part  it  became 
a  snare  and  the  occasion  of  temptations,  so  that  "the 
wickedness  of  man  became  great,  the  earth  was  cor- 
rupt before  God,  and  was  filled  with  violence"  (Crit. 
Bill,  iv,  14-20 ;  see  also  Ant.  U.  Ilist.  i,  142-201). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Deluge. 

Antelope,  a  term  apparently  corrupted  from  the 
epithet  "  antkolops"  (Gr.  ch'Sog,  ornament,  and  <Li//,  the 
eye),  applied  by  the  ancients  to  the  gazelle  from  the 
proverbial  beauty  of  its  eyes.  It  is  now  the  name 
(antiloptu)  of  a  division  of  the  hollow-horned  rumi- 
nants (genus  Clavicoma),  distinguished  by  certain  pe- 
culiarities of  the  horn,  the  maxillary  glands,  and  their 
slight  figure  (Drande's  Diet.  s.  v.).  Although  the 
word  does  not  occur  in  our  version  of  the  Scriptures, 
yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  Hebrew  text 
several  ruminants  to  which  it  is  applicable  are  indi- 
cated under  different  denominations.  In  scientific 
nomenclature,  the  term  antelope,  at  first  applied  to  a 
single  species,  has  gradually  become  generic,  and  is 
now  the  designation  of  a  tribe,  or  even  of  a  family  of 
genera,  containing  a  great  many  species.  According 
to  present  usage,  it  embraces  some  species  that  are  of 
considerable  size,  so  as  to  be  invariably  regarded  by 


ANTELOPE 


249 


ANTELOPE 


the  natives  as  having  some  affinity  to  cattle,  and 
others  delicate  and  rather  small,  that  may  be  com- 
pared with  young  deer,  to  which,  in  truth,  they  bear 
a  general  resemblance.  See  Deer.  The  antelopes, 
considered  as  a  family,  may  be  distinguished  from  all 
others  by  their  uniting  the  light  and  graceful  forms 
of  deer  with  the  permanent  horns  of  goats,  excepting 
that  in  general  their  horns  are  round,  annulated,  and 
marked  with  stria?,  slender,  and  variously  inflected, 
according  to  the  subdivision  or  group  to  which  they  be- 
long. They  have  usually  large,  soft,  and  beautiful 
eyes,  tear-pits  beneath  them,  and  round  tails.  They 
are  often  provided  with  tufts  of  hair,  or  brushes,  to 
protect  the  fore-knees  from  injury;  the}'  have  inguinal 
pores;  and  are  distinguished  by  very  great  powers 
of  speed.  Among  the  first  of  the  subordinate  groups 
is  the  subgenus  oryx,  consisting  of  five  or  six  species, 
of  which  we  have  to  notice  at  least  three.  The  oryges 
are  all  about  the  size  of  the  stag  of  Europe,  or  larger, 
with  long,  annulated,  slender  horns,  rising  in  contin- 
uation of  the  plane  of  the  forehead,  slightly  divergent, 
regularly  but  not  greatly  curved,  entirely  straight  or 
lyrated,  and  from  three  feet  to  three  feet  eight  inches 
in  length.  The  head  is  rather  clumsy,  and  more  or 
less  pied  with  black  and  white;  the  neck  ewed,  or 
arched,  like  that  of  the  camel ;  the  carcass  bulky,  com- 
pared with  the  legs,  which  are  slender,  firm,  and  ca- 
pable of  sustaining  great  action  ;  the  tail  extends  only 
to  the  heel,  or  hough ;  the  hair  on  the  shoulders  and 
neck  is  invariably  directed  forward,  thus,  no  doubt, 
keeping  the  animal  cool  in  flight  (see  Penny  Cyclopce- 
dia,s.v.;  Kenglm,Antilope Nordost-Africa's, Jen.1864) 
1.  The  yachmur'  (llOFt^,  Deut.  xiv,  5 ;  1  Kings 
iv,  23)  is  not,  as  in  our  Auth.  Vers,  "the  fallow-deer" 
(Sept.  Sopicae.,  Vulg.  caprea),  but  the  oryx  leucoryx  of 
the  moderns,  the  true  oryx  of  the  ancients,  and  of 
Niebuhr,  who  quotes  R.  Jona,  and  points  out  the  Chal- 
daicjachmura,  and  describes  it  as  a  great  goat.  The 
Eastern  Arabs  still  use  the  name  jazmur.     The  leu- 


Oryx  Leucoryx,  or  White  Antelope. 
coryx,  as  the  name  implies,  is  white,  having  a  black 
mark  down  the  nose,  black  cheeks  and  jowl,  the  legs, 
from  the  elbow  and  heel  to  the  pastern  joints,  black, 
and  the  lower  half  of  the  thighs  usually,  and  often  the 
lower  flank,  bright  rufous.  The  species  now  resides 
in  pairs,  in  small  families,  and  not  unfrequently  singly, 
on  the  mountain  ranges  along  the  sandy  districts  in 
the  desert  of  Eastern  Arabia,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lower  Euphrates;  and  may  extend  as  far  eastward 
as  the  west  bank  of  the  Indus,  feeding  on  shrubby 
acacias,  such  as  tortilis  and  Ehrenbergi.  It  was,  no 
doubt,  formerly,  if  not  at  present,  found  in  Arabia 
Petra:a,  and  in  the  eastern  territories  of  the  people 
of  Israel ;  and  from  the  circumstance  of  the  generic 
name  of  wild  cow  or  bull  being  common  to  this,  as  to 
other  allied  species,  it  was  equally  caught  with  nets 


and  with  the  noose,  and  styled  1XH  (tao,  to,  theo).  To 
this  species  may  be  referred  more  particularly  some 
of  the  notions  respecting  unicorns,  since,  the  forehead 
being  narrow,  and  the  horns  long  and  slender,  if  one 
be  broken  off  near  the  root,  the  remaining  one  stands 
so  nearly  on  the  medial  line,  that,  taken  in  connection 
with  its  white-colored  hair,  to  uncritical  inspection,  a 
single-horned  animal  might  appear  to  be  really  pres- 
ent. By  nature  vicious  and  menacing,  from  what 
may  be  observed  in  the  Egyptian  paintings  of  the  in- 
dustry which  imposture  exercised,  we  may  conclude 
that  human  art,  even  in  earl}*  ages,  may  have  con- 
tributed to  make  artificial  unicorns ;  and  most  proba- 
bly those  seen  by  some  of  the  earlier  European  trav- 
ellers were  of  this  kind.     See  Fallow  Deer. 

2.  The  ted'  (ixn,  Deut.  xiv,  5,  "wild  ox;"  Sept. 
opvZ,  Vulg.  oryx)  or  to'  (xifi,  Isa.  li,  20,  "  wild  bull  ;" 
Sept.  gevtXIov,  Vulg.  oryx;  the  oryx  tao,  or  Nubian 
oryx,  of  Ham.  Smith)  is  either  a  species  or  distinct  vari- 
ety of  leucoryx.  The  male,  being  nearly  four  feet  high 
at  the  shoulder,  is  taller  than  that  of  the  leucoryx ; 
the  horns  are  longer,  the  body  comparatively  lighter, 
and  every  limb  indicative  of  vigor  and  elasticity ;  on 
the  forehead  there  is  a  white  spot,  distinctly  marked 
by  the  particular  direction  of  the  hair  turning  down- 
ward before  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye  to  near  the 


Oryx  Tao,  or  Nubian  Antelope. 

mouth,  leaving  the  nose  rufous,  and  forming  a  kind 
of  letter  A.  Under  the  eye,  toward  the  cheek,  there 
is  a  darkish  spot,  not  very  distinct ;  the  limbs,  belly, 
and  tail  are  white;  the  body  mixed  white  and  red, 
most  reddish  about  the  neck  and  lower  hams.  It  is 
possible  that  the  name  tao  or  teo  is  connected  with  the 
white  spot  on  the  chaffron.  This  species  resides  chief- 
ly in  the  desert  west  of  the  Nile,  but  is  most  likely 
not  unknown  in  Arabia;  certain  it  is  that  both  are 
figured  on  Egyptian  monuments  (the  Antllope  defassa 
of  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Eg.  iii,  18,  cut  327),  the  leucoryx 
being  distinguished  by  horns  less  curved,  and  by  some 
indications  of  black  on  the  face.     See  Wild  Ox. 

3.  The  oryx  addax  may  have  been  known  to  the 
Hebrews  by  the  name  of  "jl'lZJ"1"}  (dishon  ,  Deut.  xiv, 
5,  "pygarg;"  Sept.  -wvyanyoQ,  Vulg.  pygargus).  It 
is  three  feet  seven  inches  at  the  shoulder,  has  the 
same  structure  as  the  others,  but  is  somewhat  higher 
at  the  croup  ;  it  has  a  coarse  beard  under  the  gullet, 
a  black  scalp  and  forehead,  divided  from  the  eyes  and 
nose  by  a  white  bar  on  each  side,  passing  along  the 
brows  and  down  the  face  to  the  cheek,  and  connected 
with  one  another  between  the  eyes.  The  general 
color  of  the  fur  is  white,  with  the  head,  neck,  and 
shoulders  more  or  less  liver-color  gray ;  but  what  dis- 
tinguishes it  most  from  the  others  are  the  horns,  which 


ANTELUCANI 


250 


ANTHONY 


Oryx  Addax,  or  I'ygurg  Antelope. 


in  structure  and  length  assimilate  with  those  of  the 
other  species,  but  in  shape  assume  the  spiral  flexures 
of  the  Indian  antelope.  The  animal  is  figured  on 
Egyptian  monuments,  and  may  be  the  pygarg  or  dishon, 
uniting  the  characters  of  a  white  rump  with  strepsice- 
rotine  horns,  and  even  those  which  Dr.  Shaw  ascribes 
to  his  "  lidmee." — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Pygarg. 

A  subgenus  of  the  antelope  family  is  the  gazella,  of 
which  one  or  more  species  appear  to  be  designated  in 
Scripture  by  the  terms  ^SX,  tseb'i  ,  Sopicac,.  See  Ga- 
zelle; Zoology. 

Antelucani  (sc.  ccetus),  i.  e.  before  Aaylight. 
In  times  of  persecution  the  Christians,  being  unable 
to  meet  for  divine  worship  in  the  open  day,  held  their 
assemblies  in  the  night.  The  like  assemblies  were 
afterward  continued  from  feelings  of  piety  and  devo- 
tion, and  called  antelucan  or  night  assemblies.  This 
custom  is  noticed  in  Pliny's  Letter  to  Trajan  (lib.  x, 
ep.  97). — Bingham,  Orig.  Keel.  bk.  xiii,  ch.  x,  §  11. 

Anterus,  St.,  bishop  of  Rome,  a  Greek  by  birth, 
succeeded  St.  Pontianus,  and  was,  according  to  Euse- 
bius,  the  eighteenth,  according  to  others  the  nine- 
teenth, bishop  of  Rome.  According  to  the  same  his- 
torian, he  was  elected  in  238,  and  died  one  month 
later.  But,  according  to  Baronius,  who  is  followed  In- 
most of  the  modern  historians,  his  election  falls  into 
the  year  235.  Anterus  ordered  the  acts  of  the  mar- 
tyrs to  be  collected,  which  is  said  to  have  occasioned 
the  persecution  in  which  he  suffered  martyrdom  him- 
self (see  Baronius,  ad  ami.  137,  and  the  notes  of  Pagi 
and  Mansi). 

Anthedon  ('Am&jjowv,  apparently  a  Greek  name, 
signifying  floirery),  a  city  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  20 
stadia  from  Gaza  (Sozomen,  Hist.  Erel.  v,  9),  to  the 
south-west  (comp.  Ptolemy,  in  Reland,  Palcvst.  p.  460). 
It  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Alexander  Jannajus 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  13,  3;  comp.  15,  4),  but  restored 
by  Gabinius  (ib.  xiv,  5,  3),  and  added  by  Augustus  to 
the  dominions  of  Herod  the  Great  (ib.  xv,  7,  3),  who 
changed  its  name  to  Agrippias  ('Ayp«rjriac,  ib.  xiii, 
13,  3).  In  the  Chronicon  Pasehdk  it  appears  as  Cari- 
anthedon,  i.  e.  Keriath  ("city")  of  Anthedon  (Reland, 
Pakest.  p.  5G7).  In  the  time  of  Julian  it  was  much 
addicted  to  Gentile  superstition  (Sozomen,  ut  sup.), 
particularly  the  worship  of  Astarte  (Venus),  as  appears 
from  a  coin  of  Antoninus  and  Caracalla  (Vaillant, 
Numitm.  Colon.  ]i.  115),  its  bishops  are  named  in 
several  of  the  early  councils  (Reland,  ib.  p.  568).  The 
notices  correspond  very  well  to  the  position  assigned 
by  Van  de  Velde  (Map)  at  Tell  Ajjvr,  a  small  village 
on  the  shore  near  Gaza  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  351). 

Anthem  (from  avri,  in  return,  and  v/ivog,  a  song), 
a  psalm  or  hymn,  sung  in  parts  alternately,  and  cor- 
responding to  the  antiphonal  singing  of  the  primitive 
Church.  It  was  introduced  by  Ignatius  among  the 
Eastern  Churches  and  by  Ambrose  in  the  "West.     In 


modern  times  the  word  is  used  in  a  more  confined 
sense,  being  applied  to  certain  passages,  usually  taken 
out  of  the  Scriptures,  and  adapted  to  a  particular  so- 
lemnity. Anthems  were  first  introduced  in  the  re- 
formed service  of  the  English  Church,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Anthimus  (Martyr),  bishop  of  Nicomedia,  in  Bi- 
thynia ;  beheaded  in  303  by  order  of  Diocletian,  who  at 
the  same  time  put  to  death,  in  various  ways,  many  oth- 
ers of  the  faithful.  The  Latins  commemorate  them 
April  27th. — Eusebius,  Hist.  lib.  viii,  cap.  4  and  6. 

Anthimus,  bishop  of  Trebizond,  and,  in  535,  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  was  deposed  by  Emperor 
Justinian  as  a  Monophysite,  and  his  works  burned. 

Anthologion  ('Av9o\6yiov),\u  Latin,  Florilegium, 
a  term  used  figuratively,  like  the  classical  word  An- 
thology (ch&oXoyia,  floral  discourse),  literally  "a  gar- 
land of  flowers,"  hence  a  collection  of  short  sentences 
from  celebrated  authors.  It  is  the  technical  name  of 
one  of  the  Church  books  in  use  among  the  Greeks. 
It  contains  principally  the  offices  which  are  sung  on 
the  festivals  of  our  Lord,  the  Virgin,  and  the  chief 
saints;  then  those  called  " communia,"  appointed  for 
the  festivals  of  the  prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  pon- 
tiffs, etc. — Suicer,  Thesaurus,  p.  345. 

Anthony,  St.,  the  patriarch  of  Coenobites,  and 
virtual  founder  of  monasticism,  was  born  A.D.  251, 
at  Coma,  in  Egypt.  His  parents  left  him  large  pos- 
sessions, but  the  words  of  our  Lord  to  the  rich  young 
ruler  so  impressed  his  mind  that  he  sold  his  posses- 
sions, gave  the  money  to  the  poor,  and  retired  into 
the  desert,  where  he  led  an  ascetic  life.  For  more 
than  twenty  years,  tried  with  various  temptations,  he 
dwelt  apart,  first  in  a  cave,  and  then  in  a  ruined  house, 
having  no  communication  with  mankind  but  by  a  mes- 
senger, who  brought  him  the  necessaries  of  life.  The 
fame  of  his  sanctity  attracted  crowds  of  disciples,  and 
he  left  his  solitude  to  gather  them  into  a  fraternity. 
At  the  time  of  his  death  they  numbered  15,000.  He 
was  visited  by  heathen  philosophers,  and  Constantine 
the  Great  wrote  to  him,  entreating  his  prayers.  "  Only 
in  exceptional  cases  did  Anthony  leave  his  solitude, 
and  then  he  made  a  powerful  impression  on  both 
Christians  and  heathens  with  his  hairy  dress  and  his 
emaciated,  ghost-like  form.  In  the  year  311,  during 
the  persecution  under  Maximinus,  he  appeared  in 
Alexandria,  in  the  hope  of  himself  gaining  the  mar- 
tyr's crown.  He  visited  the  confessors  in  the  mines 
and  prisons,  encouraged  them  before  the  tribunal,  ac- 
companied them  to  the  scaffold ;  but  no  one  ventured 
to  lay  hands  on  the  saint  of  the  wilderness.  In  the 
year  351,  when  a  hundred  years  old,  he  showed  him- 
self for  the  second  and  last  time  in  the  metropolis  of 
Egypt  to  bear  witness  for  the  orthodox  faith  of  his 
friend  Athanasius  against  Arianism,  and  in  a  few  days 
converted  more  heathen  and  heretics  than  had  other- 
wise been  gained  in  a  whole  year.  He  declared  the 
Arian  denial  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  worse  than  the 
venom  of  the  serpent,  and  no  better  than  heathenism, 
which  worshipped  the  creature  instead  of  the  Creator. 
He  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  heretics,  and 
warned  his  disciples  against  intercourse  with  them. 
Athanasius  attended  him  to  the  gate  of  the  city,  where 
he  cast  out  an  evil  spirit  from  a  girl.  An  invitation 
to  stay  longer  in  Alexandria  he  declined,  saying,  '  As 
a  fish  out  of  water,  so  a  monk  out  of  his  solitude  dies.' 
Imitating  his  example,  the  monks  afterward  forsook 
the  wilderness  in  swarms  whenever  orthodoxy  was  in 
danger,  and  went  in  long  processions,  with  wax  tapers 
and  responsive  singing,  through  the  streets,  or  ap- 
peared at  the  councils  to  contend  for  the  orthodox  faith 
with  all  the  energy  of  fanaticism,  often  even  with  phys- 
ical force"  (Hook).  In  his  last  hours  he  retired  to  a 
mountain  with  two  of  his  disciples,  whom  he  desired 
to  bury  him  like  the  patriarchs,  and  keep  secret  the 
place  of  his  burial,  thus  rebuking  the  superstitious 


ANTHONY 


251 


ANTHONY 


passion  for  relics.  His  words  are  thus  reported  by 
Athanasius:  "Do  not  let  them  carry  my  body  into 
Egypt,  lest  they  store  it  in  their  houses.  One  of  my 
reasons  for  coming  to  this  mountain  was  to  hinder 
this.  You  know  I  have  ever  reproved  those  who  have 
done  this,  and  charged  them  to  cease  from  the  custom. 
Bmy,  then,  my  body  in  the  earth,  in  obedience  to  my 
word,  so  that  no  one  may  know  the  place,  except  your- 
selves. In  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  it  will  be  re- 
stored to  me  incorruptible  by  the  Saviour.  Distribute 
my  garments  as  follows :  let  Athanasius,  the  bishop, 
have  the  one  sheepskin  and  the  garment  I  sleep  on, 
which  he  gave  me  new,  and  which  has  grown  old  with 
me.  Let  Serapion,  the  bishop,  have  the  other  sheep- 
skin. As  to  the  hair  shirt,  keep  it  for  yourselves. 
And  now,  my  children,  farewell ;  Anthony  is  going, 
and  is  no  longer  with  you."  He  died  in  356,  being 
one  hundred  and  five  years  old,  and  unburdened  by 
old  age.  His  whole  conduct  indicates  the  predomi- 
nance of  a  glowing  and  yet  gloomy  fancy,  which  is 
the  proper  condition  of  religious  ascetism.  Like  many 
of  the  mystics,  he  affected  to  despise  human  science ; 
one  of  his  reported  sayings  is,  "He  who  has  a  sound 
mind  has  no  need  of  learning."  At  the  same  time, 
Athanasius  states  that  he  was  a  diligent  student  of  the 
Scriptures.  ' '  The  whole  Nicene  age  venerated  in  An- 
thony a  model  saint.  This  fact  brings  out  most  char- 
acteristically the  vast  difference  between  the  ancient 
and  the  modern,  the  old  Catholic  and  the  evangelical 
Protestant  conception  of  the  nature  of  Christian  re- 
ligion. The  specifically  Christian  element  in  the  life 
of  Anthony,  especially  as  measured  by  the  Pauline 
standard,  is  very  small.  Nevertheless,  we  can  but  ad- 
mire the  miserable  magnificence,  the  simple,  rude 
grandeur  of  this  hermit  sanctity,  even  in  its  aberra- 
tion. Anthony  concealed  under  his  sheepskin  a  child- 
like humility,  an  amiable  simplicity,  a  rare  energy  of 
will,  and  a  glowing  love  to  God,  which  maintained  it- 
self for  almost  ninety  years  in  the  absence  of  all  the 
comforts  and  pleasures  of  natural  life,  and  triumphed 
over  all  the  temptations  of  the  flesh.  By  piety  alone, 
without  the  help  of  education  or  learning,  he  became 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  influential  men  in  the 
history  of  the  ancient  church.  Even  heathen  contem- 
poraries could  not  withhold  from  him  their  reverence, 
and  the  celebrated  philosopher  Synesius,  afterward  a 
bishop,  before  his  conversion  reckoned  Anthony  among 
those  rare  men  in  whom  flashes  of  thought  take  the 
place  of  reasonings,  and  natural  power  of  mind  makes 
schooling  needless"  (Hook).  Although  the  father  of 
monachism,  St.  Anthony  is  not  the  author  of  any  mo- 
nastic "rules;"  those  which  the  monks  of  the  Eastern 
schismatic  sects  attribute  to  him  are  the  production  of 
St.  Basil.  Accounts  of  his  life  and  miracles  are  given 
in  the  Acta  Sanctorum  of  the  Bollandists,  under  the  date 
of  the  17th  of  January,  on  which  day  his  festival  is 
kept.  Many  marvelous  stories  are  told  of  him.  The 
principal  source  of  information  concerning  him  is  his 
life  by  Athanasius  (Opera,  vol.  i,  ed.  Benedict),  which 
is  supposed,  however,  to  be  much  interpolated.  On 
this  biography  Isaac  Taylor  remarks,  "  It  may  be  read 
with  edification,  taken  for  just  so  much  as  it  is  worth  ; 
but  as  an  exemplar  of  the  Christian  character  one 
may  find  as  good,  nay,  some  much  better,  among  the 
monkish  records  of  the  worst  times  of  Romanism.  In 
all  these  fifty-four  pages,  scarcely  so  much  as  one  sen- 
tence meets  the  eye  of  a  kind  to  recall  any  notions  or 
sentiments  which  are  distinctively  Christian.  There 
is  indeed  an  unimpeachable  orthodoxy  and  a  thorough- 
going submissiveness  in  regard  to  church  authority ; 
and  there  is  a  plenty  of  Christianized  sooffeeism,  and 
there  is  more  than  enough  of  daemonology,  and  quite 
enough  of  miracle,  but  barely  a  word  concerning  the 
propitiatory  work  of  Christ;  barely  a  word  indicating 
any  personal  feeling  of  the  ascetic's  own  need  of  that 
propitiation  as  the  ground  of  his  hope.  Not  a  word 
of  justification  by  faith ;  not  a  word  of  the  gracious 


influence  of  the  Spirit  in  renewing  and  cleansing  the 
heart ;  not  a  word  responding  to  any  of  those  signal 
passages  of  Scripture  which  make  the  gospel  *  glad 
tidings'  to  guilty  man.  Drop  a  very  few  phrases  bor- 
rowed from  the  Scriptures,  and  substitute  a  few  drawn 
from  the  Koran,  and  then  this  memoir  of  St.  Anthony, 
by  Athanasius,  might  serve,  as  to  its  temper,  spirit, 
and  substance,  nearly  as  well  for  a  Mohammedan  der- 
vish as  for  a  Christian  saint"  (Taylor,  Ancient  Chris- 
tianity, i,  278).  His  seven  epistles  to  the  different 
monasteries  in  Egypt,  translated  out  of  the  Egyptian 
tongue  into  Greek,  are  given  with  the  commentaries 
of  Dionysius  the  Carthusian  upon  Dionysius  the  Areop- 
agite,  printed  at  Cologne,  1536,  and  in  the  Bill.  Pa- 
trum,  iv,  85. — Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vol.  i,  468  sq. ;  Giese- 
ler,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  172,  270 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  228  sq. ; 
Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  i,  165;  Newman,  Church  of  the 
Fathers  (Lond.  1842)  ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  i,*229 ; 
Schaff,  in  Meth.  Qua?:  Rev.  1864,  p.  29  sq. 

St.  Anthony's  Fire.— Butler,  in  his  Lives  of  the 
Saints,  gives  the  following  account  of  the  origin  of  this 
name:  "In  1089  a  pestilential  erysipelatous  distem- 
per, called  the  sacred  fire,  swept  off  great  numbers  in 
most  provinces  of  France  ;  public  prayers  and  proces- 
sions were  ordered  against  this  scourge.  At  length 
it  pleased  God  to  grant  many  miraculous  cures  of  this 
dreadful  distemper  to  those  who  implored  his  mercy 
through  the  intercession  of  St.  Anthony,  especially 
before  his  relics ;  the  church  [of  La  Mothe  St.  Di- 
dier,  near  Vienne,  in  Dauphine]  in  which  they  were 
deposited  was  resorted  to  by  great  numbers  of  pil- 
grims, and  his  patronage  was  implored  over  the  whole 
kingdom  against  this  disease."  The  "order  of  Can- 
ons Regular  of  St.  Anthony,"  a  religious  fraternity 
founded  about  1090  for  the  relief  of  persons  afflicted 
with  the  fire  of  St.  Anthony,  survived  in  France  till 
1790.     See  Anthony,  St.,  order  of. 

Anthony,  St.,  of  Padua,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1195, 
was  at  first  an  Augustinian  monk;  joined  in  1220  the 
Franciscans,  went  in  1221  as  missionary  to  Africa, 
lived  for  some  time  as  hermit  in  Sicily,  labored  with 
great  effect  as  preacher  of  repentance  throughout  It- 
aly, and  was  the  leader  of  the  rigorous  party  in  the 
Franciscan  order  against  the  mitigations  introduced 
by  the  general  Elias.  See  Franciscans.  Tradition 
ascribes  to  him  the  most  astounding  miracles,  e.  g. 
that  the  fishes  came  to  listen  to  his  open-air  sermons, 
etc.  He  died  at  Padua  in  1231,  and  was  canonized  in 
1232.  He  is  commemorated  on  June  13.  He  is  pa- 
tron saint  of  Padua,  and  also  venerated  with  great  dis- 
tinction in  Portugal.  His  works  (sermons,  a  mystical 
explanation  of  the  Scriptures,  etc.)  are  of  no  great  im- 
portance. They  have  been  published,  together  with 
those  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  by  De  la  Have,  Ant- 
werp, 1623.  See  Wadding,  Annales  minor. ;  Tritheim 
and  Bellarmin,  De  Script,  eccles. ;  Dirks,  L'fe  of  St.  An- 
thony of  Padua  (transl.  from  the  French,  N.  Y.  1866). 

Anthony  de  Dominis.     See  Dominis. 

Anthony  de  Rosellis,  of  Arezzo,  about  the  year 
1450  was  made  secretary  of  the  Emperor  Frederick 
III.  He  died  at  Padua  in  1467,  leaving  a  work  enti- 
tled Monorchia,  in  five  parts,  on  the  powers  of  the  em- 
peror and  the  pope,  in  which  he  endeavors  to  show 
that  the  pope  has  not  authority  in  temporal  matters, 
and  that  in  spiritual  affairs  he  is  subject  to  the  Church. 
This  remarkable  work  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1483, 
1587,  and  is  to  be  found  in  Goldastus,  Monarch,  i,  252- 
556.  It  is,  of  course,  placed  upon  the  Index  Expurga- 
torius. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  1450 ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Anthony  of  Nebrija,  or,  with  a  Latin  name, 
A  ntonius  Nebrissensis,  a  Spanish  theologian  and  histori- 
an, born  in  1444,  and  died  in  1532.  He  was  appointed 
by  Cardinal  Ximenes  professor  at  the  university  Al- 
cala  de  Henares,  and  colaborer  at  the  Complutensian 
Bible  Polyglot.  He  was  a\so  biographer  of  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic.     He  wrote,  besides  a  number  of  works 


ANTHONY  2 

on  classical  antiquity,  a  Dictionarium  quadruplex  (Al- 
cala,  1532,  fol.) ;  Quinquagena  locorum  8.  Scriptural  non 
vulgari/er  enarratorum  (Paris,  1520;  Basle,  1543),  a 
remarkable  book,  in  an  exegetical  point  of  view,  be- 
cause it  takes  the  original  text  for  its  basis. — Prescott, 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  i,  456. 

Anthony,  St.,  Okdeks  of.  1.  The  monastic  or- 
ders of  the  Eastern  (Greek,  Armenian,  Jacobite,  Cop- 
tic, Abyssinian)  churches  call  themselves  either  after 
St.  Anthony  or  St.  Basil.  Neither  Anthony  himself 
nor  his  disciples  had  founded  a  religious  order,  but 
when  the  rule  of  Basil  began  to  spread  in  the  Eastern 
churches,  and  most  of  the  monks  called  themselves 
after  him,  some,  out  of  veneration  for  Anthony,  pre- 
ferred to  assume  his  name.  Among  the  Eastern 
churches  united  with  Rome,  the  Chaldeans,  Maron- 
ites,  and  United  Armenians  have  orders  of  Antonian 
monks.  The  Chaldeans  have  only  one  convent,  Man 
Hormes,  near  Mosul,  called  after  St.  Hormisdas.  The 
Maronite  Antonians  are  subdivided  into  three  classes  : 
the  Aleppines,  who  have  their  monasteries  in  the  cit- 
ies, and  the  Baladites  and  Libanensians, whose  monas- 
teries are  on  the  Lebanon.  Together,  they  have  about 
60  monasteries,  with  1500  monks.  The  Armenian  An- 
tonians are  divided  into  two  classes — an  older  branch 
on  the  Lebanon,  and  a  younger  one  established  by 
Mekhitar.  See  Mekhitar.  The  Antonians  of  the 
Eastern  churches  together  number  about  3000. — Hcl- 
yot,  Ord.  Reliqieux,  ii,  504 ;  P.  Karl  vom  heil.  AI03-S, 
Jahrbuch,  1862,  p.  70. 

2.  A  military  order,  founded  by  Albert  of  Bavaria, 
count  of  Hainault,  Holland,  and  Zealand,  in  1382, 
when  he  was  about  to  make  war  on  the  Turks,  and 
styled  '"The  Order  of  the  Knights  of  St.  Anthony." 
They  wear  a  collar  of  gold,  fashioned  like  the  girdle 
of  a  hermit,  to  which  is  appended  a  bell  and  crutch, 
such  as  are  represented  in  pictures  of  St.  Anthony. — 
Helvot,  Ordres  Relic/,  ii,  5<:6;  Landon,  s.  v. 

3.  A  congregation  of  Eegular  Canons,  founded  in 
1095  at  Vienna  (see  Reimbold,  De  Antonianis,  Lips. 
1737).  The  so-called  "  relics  of  St.  Anthony"  were 
brought  from  the  East  in  1070  by  Josselin  of  Touraine, 
who  founded  for  their  reception  the  "  Church  of  St. 
Anthony,"  in  La  Mothe  St.  Didier,  of  which  town  he 
was  lord.  The  disease  vulgarly  called  "  St.  Anthony's 
lire''  was  then  very  prevalent;  and  it  is  reported  that 
wonderful  cures  were  wrought  at  the  shrine  of  St. 
Anthony.  Two  gentlemen,  named  Gaston,  wTho  de- 
voted all  their  property  to  the  work,  assisted  by  seven 
others,  built,  for  their  accommodation,  a  hospital  in  the 
town.  One  account  says  that  Gaston's  son  had  been 
cured,  and  that  this  charity  was  the  fulfilment  of  a 
vow.  It  is  to  these  hospitallers  that  the  order  of  St. 
Anthony  owes  its  origin.  The  order  soon  took  root 
in  most  of  the  kingdoms  of  Europe,  and  even  in  Asia 
and  Africa.  Gaston  was  made  grand-master  of  the 
order,  and  all  the  other  establishments  recognised  that 
at  La-Mothe,  or,  as  it  came  now  to  be  called,  St.  An- 
toine,  as  their  chief.  Eventually,  all  these  houses  be- 
came so  many  commanderies,  which  were  divided  into 
(1.)  General,  i.  e.  dependent  immediately  on  that  in 
the  city  of  St.  Antoine;  and  (2.)  Subaltern,  i.  e.  de- 
pendent  on  one  or  other  of  the  general  commanderies. 
The  hospitallers  were  bound  to  a  uniform  and  common 
mode  of  life,  and  bore  a  figure  resembling  the  Greek 
Tau  on  their  dress.  In  12!)7,  Aimon  de  Montagni, 
the  seventeenth  master,  perceiving  that  the  malady 
which  had  been  the  origin  of  the  order  was  fast  disap- 
pearing, and  fearing  lest,  with  the  cessation  of  the  dis- 
ease, the  order  itself  should  cease,  demanded  of  Pope 
Boniface  VIII  a  new  form  of  constitution.  This  the 
pope  granted,  and  the  new  hospitallers  of  St.  Anthony 
became  regular  canons,  following  the  rule  of  St.  Au- 
gustine ;  and  the  hospital  founded  by  Gaston,  and  the 
church  built  by  Josselin,  being  united  to  the  prior}' 
of  Benedictines,  which  previously  existed  there,  and 
which  was  ceded  to  the  new  order,  together  formed 


12  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  abbey-in-ehief  of  the  order  of  St.  Anthony,  which 
in  after  ages  received  vast  possessions  and  privileges. 
After  many  disorders,  the  fraternity  fell  into  decay  in 
the  18th  century,  and  was  united  in  1775  to  the  order 
of  Malta,  which  it  enriched  by  the  addition  of  42 
houses.  The  Antonians  soon  repented  of  having  en- 
tered this  union,  and  reclaimed  against  it  in  1780,  but 
in  vain.  A  single  commandery,  Hoechst,  in  Germa- 
ny, existed  until  1803,  when  the  order  became  entirely 
extinct. — Helyot,  Ordres  Religieux,  i,  264 ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Anthropolatrae  («i'S-pw7ro\«rptti,  mwn-worship- 
pers),  a  name  by  which  the  Apollinarians  stigmatized 
the  orthodox,  because  they  maintained  that  Christ  was 
a  perfect  man,  and  had  a  reasonable  soul  and  body. 
Apollinarius  denied  this,  maintaining  that  the  divine 
nature  in  Christ  supplied  the  place  of  a  rational  soul, 
constituting,  in  fact,  his  mind. — Bingham,  Or'.g.  Ec- 
cles.  bk.  i,  ch.  ii,  §  16 ;  Farrar,  s.  v. 

Anthropology  (avSpionoXoyia,  a  discourse  on 
man)  is  that  part  of  scientific  theology  which  treats  of 
man,  his  nature,  relations,  etc.,  as  distinguished  from 
theology  proper  (the  doctrine  of  God)  and  Christology 
(the  doctrine  of  Christ).  Theological  anthropology 
distinguishes  itself  from  physiological  anthropology  by 
viewing  man  not  as  a  natural  being,  but  in  his  rela- 
tion to  God.  It  may  be  divided  into  two  chief  parts : 
the  doctrine  of  the  original  condition  of  man  before 
the  fall,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  fall  and  of  sin  wh'ch 
through  the  fall  came  into  the  human  race,  propagated 
itself,  and  took  effect  in  every  individual. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  a  scientific  anthropology 
is  not  possible  in  theology  without  physiological  an- 
thropology, that  is,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  nat- 
ural organism  of  man.  But  physiological  anthropol- 
ogy is  only  the  basis  of  the  theological,  and  the  com- 
pletest  knowledge  of'man  in  an  anatomical,  physio- 
logical, and  even  psychological  point  of  view  is  un- 
able to  disclose  the  religious  nature  of  man.  All  that 
we  may  learn  of  the  latter  in  a  psychological  way  is  a 
view  of  man  in  his  individualism,  as  a  sample  of  the 
race ;  but  only  the  history  of  mankind  in  connection 
with  the  revelations  of  God  can  open  to  us  a  full  look 
upon  his  religious  nature.  It  is  therefore  safe  to  as- 
sert that,  as  theology  must  be  anthropological,  thus 
anthropology  must  tie  theological ;  and  Harless  (pref- 
ace to  his  manual  of  Ethical  Theohgy)  is  right  in  rec- 
ommending to  theologians  not  to  neglect  the  physio- 
logical researches  on  the  nature  of  man.  The  question 
of  body  and  soul  (or,  according  to  the  Trichotomists, 
body,  soul,  and  spirit),  as  well  as  the  question  on  the 
origin  of  the  soul  (pre-existence,  traducianism,  and 
creatianism),  belong  to  theological  anthropology  only 
in  so  far  as  the)-  may  contribute  to  an  understanding 
of  man's  religious  nature.  History  knows  as  little  of 
the  original  condition  of  man  (state  of  innocence)  as 
natural  history  knows  of  paradise.  The  true  proce- 
dure of  the  dogmatic  theologian  will  be  to  comprehend 
in  his  own  mind  the  few  but  grand  hints  of  the  Scrip- 
tures on  the  subject  (image  of  God),  and  then  by 
exegetical,  historical,  and  philosophical  means,  so  to 
elaborate  them  as  to  show,  behind  the  figurative  ex- 
pressions, the  higher  idea  of  humanity ;  for  upon  the 
correct  comprehension  of  this  idea  depends  the  correct 
conception  of  sin,  whether  it  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  mere 
negation,  a  natural  deficiency,  or  both  as  a  privation 
and  deprivation,  or  depravation  of  human  nature. 

In  Genesis  we  find  the  biblical  narrative  of  the 
origin  of  sin,  and  this  narrative  is  reproduced  daily 
in  the  experience  of  mankind.  Even  when  the  full 
Augustinian  idea  of  original  sin  may  not  be  adhered 
to,  the  consciousness  of  an  aggregate  guilt  of  the  race, 
in  which  the  individual  man  has  his  part,  is  the  true 
deeply  religious  view,  confirmed  both  by  Scripture  and 
experience.  Psychological  observations,  and  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures,  complete  and  illustrate  each  other 
nowhere  so  fully  as  in  the  doctrine  of  sin.     Paul,  Au- 


ANTHROPOMORPHISM 


253 


ANTIBAPTISTS 


gustine,  and  Luther  spoke  from  their  personal  expe- 
rience as  well  as  from  the  depths  of  human  nature. 
The  abstract  intellect  may  always  lean  toward  Pela- 
gianism,  but  religious  experience  attests  that  the  in- 
tellect alone  cannot  comprehend  the  depth  of  sin  (Hun- 
deshagen,  Weg  zu  Christo,  i,  136  sq.).  —  Hagenbach, 
Encyklopddie,'7th  ed.,  p.  308  sq.     See  Theology. 

Anthropomorphism  (from  dvQpwirog,  a  man, 
and  pocxpii,  a  form),  1.  a  term  used  to  signify  the  "rep- 
resentation of  divinity  under  a  human  form  ;"  and  the 
nations  or  sects  who  have  followed  this  practice  have 
been  sometimes  called  Anthropomorphites  (q.  v.).  The 
Egyptians  represented  deities  under  human  forms,  as 
well  as  those  of  animals,  and  sometimes  under  a  com- 
bination of  the  two.  The  ancient  Persians,  as  Herodo- 
tus tells  us  (i,  131),  adored  the  Supreme  Being  under  no 
visible  form  of  their  own  creation,  but  they  worshipped 
on  the  tops  of  mountains,  and  sacrificed  to  the  sun  and 
moon,  to  earth,  fire,  water,  and  the  winds.  The  He- 
brews were  forbidden  (Exod.  xx,  4,  5)  to  make  any 
image  or  the  representation  of  any  animated  being 
whatever.  The  Greeks  were  essentially  anthropomor- 
phists,  and  could  never  separate  the  idea  of  superior 
powers  from  the  representation  of  them  under  a  hu- 
man form  ;  hence,  in  their  mythology  and  in  their  arts, 
each  deity  had  his  distinguishing  attributes  and  a  char- 
acteristic human  shape.  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mo- 
hammedans revere  God  as  a  spirit,  and  therefore  re- 
ject all  representations  of  Deity  in  human  form. 

2.  The  term  is  also  used  to  denote  that  figure  of 
speech  by  which  the  sacred  writers  attribute  to  God 
parts,  actions,  and  affections  which  properly  belong  to 
man ;  as  when  they  speak  of  the  eyes  of  God,  his  hand, 
etc.  Anthropomorphism  (avSrp(Dw6pop(poc;)  differs  from 
anthropopathy  (dv9pu)TroTra9t'ic)  in  this :  the  first  is 
the  attributing  to  God  any  thing  whatever  which,  strict- 
ly speaking,  is  applicable  to  man  only ;  the  second  is 
the  act  of  attributing  to  God  passions  which  belong  to 
man's  nature.  Instances  of  both  are  found  in  the 
Scriptures,  by  which  the}'  adapt  themselves  to  human 
modes  of  speaking,  and  to  the  limited  capacities  of 
men  (see  Kliigling,  Ueb.  d.  .  I  nfhropomorph'smvs  d.  Bi- 
bel,  Danz.  180G  ;  Gelpe,  Apologie  d.  unthropomorph.  u. 
anthropopath.  Darstellung  Gottes,  Leips.  1842).  These 
anthropopathies  we  must,  however,  interpret  in  a  man- 
ner suitable  to  the  majesty  of  the  Divine  nature. 
Thus,  when  the  members  of  a  human  body  are  as- 
cribed to  God,  we  must  understand  by  them  those 
perfections  of  which  such  members  are  in  us  the  in- 
struments. The  eye,  for  instance,  represents  God's 
knowledge  and  watchful  care;  the  arm  his  power  and 
strength ;  his  ear  the  regard  he  pays  to  prayer  and 
to  the  cry  of  oppression  and  misery,  etc.  Farther, 
when  human  affections  are  attributed  to  God,  we  must 
so  interpret  them  as  to  imply  no  imperfection,  such 
as  perturbed  feeling,  in  him.  When  God  is  said  to  re- 
pent, the  antecedent,  by  a  frequent  figure  of  speech,  is 
put  for  the  consequent ;  and  in  this  case  we  are  to  un- 
derstand an  altered  mode  of  proceeding  on  the  part 
of  God,  which  in  man  is  the  effect  of  repenting. 

Anthropomorphitic  phrases,  generally  considered, 
are  such  as  ascribe  to  the  Deity  mixed  perfections  and 
human  imperfections.  These  phrases  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  according  to  which  we  ascribe  to 
God:  1.  Human  actions  (dv9pioTroiroir)aic) ;  2.  Hu- 
man affections,  passions,  and  sufferings  (anthropopa- 
thy); 3.  Human  form,  human  organs,  linman  members 
(anthropomorphism).  A  rational  being,  who  receives 
impressions  through  the  senses,  can  form  conceptions 
of  the  Deity  only  by  a  consideration  of  his  own  pow- 
ers and  properties  (Journal  Sac.  Lit.  1848,  p.  9  sq.). 
Anthropomorphitic  modes  of  thought  are  therefore  un- 
avoidable in  the  religion  of  mankind ;  and  although 
they  can  furnish  no  other  than  corporeal  or  sensible 
representations  of  the  Deity,  they  are  nevertheless 
true  and  just  when  we  guard  against  transferring  to 
God  qualities  pertaining  to  the  human  senses.     It  is, 


for  instance,  a  proper  expression  to  assert  that  God 
knows  all  things ;  it  is  improper,  that  is,  tropical  or 
anthropomorphitic,  to  say  that  he  sees  all  things.  An- 
thropomorphism is  thus  a  species  of  accommodation  (q. 
v.),  inasmuch  as  by  these  representations  the  Deity, 
as  it  were,  lowers  himself  to  the  comprehension  of 
men.  We  can  only  think  of  God  as  the  archetype 
of  our  own  spirit,  and  the  idea  of  God  can  no  longer 
be  retained  if  we  lose  sight  of  this  analogy.  Anthro- 
pomorphism must  be  supplanted  by  Christianity  ;  an- 
thropopathism  is  not  supplanted,  but  spiritualized  and 
refined.  Only  what  is  false  must  be  rejected— that 
crudeness  which  transfers  to  God  human  passions 
(jrddif)  and  defects,  for  want  of  recollecting  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  Supreme  Being,  as  well  as  his  relationship 
to  man.  Christianity  must  teach  us  to  distinguish 
what  is  owing  to  the  corrupting  influence  of  sin  from 
what  constitutes  the  true  analogy  between  God  and 
man.  In  heathenism  a  false  anthropopathism  pre- 
vailed, since  polytheism  presented  in  its  gods  the 
apotheosis  of  human  qualities,  not  only  of  virtues,  but 
of  vices,  and  withal  a  deification  of  the  power  mani- 
fested in  Nature.  Among  the  common,  carnally-mind- 
ed Jews  there  was  a  corresponding  crudeness  in  their 
views  of  the  Divine  attributes ;  for  omnipotence  was 
represented  as  unlimited  caprice,  and  punitive  justice 
as  perfectly  analogous  to  human  wrath.  McCosh  re- 
marks that  "of  all  systems,  Pantheism  is  the  most 
apt,  in  our  times,  to  land  in  Anthropomorphism.  For, 
if  God  and  his  works  be  one,  then  we  shall  be  led  to 
look  on  humanity  as  the  highest  manifestation  of  the 
divinity,  and  the  natural  devoutness  of  the  heart  will 
find  vent  in  hero-worship,  or  the  foolish  raving  about 
great  men,  which  has  been  so  common  among  the  em- 
inent literary  men  of  the  age  now  passing  away,  the 
issue  of  the  Pantheism  which  rose  like  a  vapor  in  Ger- 
man}', and  came  over  like  a  fog  into  Britain  and  Amer- 
ica" (Intuitions  of  the  Mind,  pt.  iii,  §  5).  See  Seiler, 
Bibl.  Hermeneutik,  p.  56 ;  Penny  Cyclopedia,  s.  v. ; 
Home,  Introduction,  i,  362;  Xeander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas, 
i,  102  sq. ;  Tappe,  De  Anthropopatica  (Dorp.  1815). 

Anthropomorphites  [  see  Anthropomor- 
phism], a  sect  of  ancient  heretics,  who  were  so  de- 
nominated because  they  understood  every  thing 
spoken  in  Scripture  in  a  literal  sense,  and  particular- 
ly that  passage  of  Genesis  in  which  it  is  said  "God 
made  man  after  his  own  image."  Hence  they  main- 
tained that  God  had  a  human  shape  (see  Fremling, 
De  Anthropomorphitis,  Lund.  1787).  They  were  also 
called  Audiani,  from  Audius,  a  Syrian  who  origi- 
nated their  sect.  The  orthodox  bishops  prevailed  on 
the  emperor  to  banish  Audius  to  Syria,  where  he  la- 
bored for  the  propagation  of  Christianity  among  the 
Goths,  built  convents,  and  instituted  several  bishops, 
and  died  about  372.  In  consequence  of  repeated  per- 
secutions, the  sect  ceased  to  exist  toward  the  close  of 
the  5th  century.  Origen  wrote  against  certain  monks 
in  Egypt  who  were  Anthropomorphites;  but  whether 
they  inherited  their  views  from  Audius,  or  professed 
them  independently  of  him,  is  still  doubtful.  An- 
thropomorphites appeared  again  in  the  10th  century, 
and  in  the  17th  under  Paul  Felgenhauer  (q.  v.).  "  An- 
thropomorphism has  been  recently  revived  by  the 
Mormons.  In  Elder  Moffat's  Latter-Day  Saint/  Cate- 
chism, God  is  described  as  an  intelligent  material  per- 
sonage, possessing  body,  parts,  and  passions,  and  un- 
able to  'occupy  two  distinct  places  at  once'"  (Wil- 
liams, Note  to  Browne  on  39  Articles,  p.  19). — Neander, 
Ch.  Hist,  ii,  690.  705-6  ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Anthropopathy.     See  Anthropomorphism. 

Antibaptists  (from  avri,  against,  and  /SairTiZ^, 
to  baptize),  those  who  opjwse  baptism.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion there  are  two  sorts :  (1.)  Those  who  oppose  it  al- 
together, as  the  Friends,  usually  called  Quakers,  who 
have  from  the  beginning  rejected  it  as  an  ordinance, 
declaring  it  to  be  superseded  by  the  baptism  of  the 


ANTICHRIST 


254 


ANTICHRIST 


Spirit,  under  whose  peculiar  administration  Chris- 
tians live,  and  whose  influences  can  be  and  are  re- 
ceived (as  they  maintain)  without  any  sacramental 
medium  for  their  conveyance.  But  though  these  are 
Antibaptists  essentially,  they  are  not  so  technically. 
(2.)  The  class  of  persons  to  whom  that  name  properly 
belongs  are  those  who  deny  the  necessity  of  baptism  to 
any  except  new  converts.  "  Baptism,"  they  tell  us, 
"is  a  proselyting  ordinance,  to  be  applied  only  to 
those  who  come  over  to  Christianity  from  other  re- 
ligions, and  not  to  their  descendants,  whether  infant 
or  adult."  This  they  infer  from  the  words  of  the 
commission,  and  from  the  practice  of  the  apostles  and 
first  Christians.  It  has  been  stated  that  there  are  in 
Ireland  several  growing  societies  of  Antibaptists. 
See  Baptism. 

Autiburghers,  a  branch  of  seceders  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  who  differ  from  the  Established 
Church  chiefly  in  matters  of  church  government; 
and  from  the  Burghers  (q.  v.),  with  whom  they 
were  originally  united  (in  the  Erskine  secession),  re- 
specting the  lawfulness  of  taking  the  Burgess  oath, 
which  ran  thus  :  ''  I  profess  and  allow  with  my  heart 
the  true  religion  presently  professed  within  this 
realm  and  authorized  by  the  laws  thereof;  I  shall 
abide  thereat  and  defend  the  same  to  my  life's  end ; 
renouncing  the  Roman  religion  called  Papistry." 
The  seceders  could  not  agree  in  their  interpretation 
of  this  oath,  some  of  them  construing  it  into  a  virtual 
approval  of  the  National  Church,  others  maintaining 
that  it  was  merely  a  declaration  of  Protestantism  and 
a  security  against  Popery.  The  contest  was  soon  em- 
bittered by  personal  asperities,  and  in  1747  a  schism 
took  place.  Those  who  rejected  the  oath  were  called 
the  General  Associate  Synod,  or  Antiburghers,  the 
others  were  known  as  the  Associate  Synod,  or  Burgh- 
ers. The  former  party  were,  in  matters  of  church 
government,  rigid  adherents  of  the  old  Presbyterian 
system.  (Marsden,  Churches  and  Sects,  i,  293;  Eadie, 
U.  P.  Church,  in  the  Encyc.  Metrop.")  See  Erskine  ; 
Seceders  ;  Scotland,  Church  of. 

Antichrist  (wrixptrrroc,  against  Christ ;  others, 
instead  of  Christ  [see  below]),  a  term  which  has  re- 
ceived a  great  variety  of  interpretations.  Although 
the  wTord  Antichrist  is  used  only  by  the  Apostle  John 
(Epist.  i  and  ii),  yet  it  has  been  generally  applied  also 
(1)  to  the  "  Little  Horn"  of  the  "  King  of  Fierce  Coun- 
tenance" (Dan.  vii  and  viii);  (2)  to  the  "false  Christ" 
predicted  by  our  Saviour  (Matt,  xxiv)  ;  (3)  to  the 
"  Man  of  Sin"  of  St.  Paul  (2  Thess.) ;  and  (4)  to  the 
"Beasts"  of  the  Apocalypse  (Kev.  xiii,  xvii). 

I.  Meaning  of  the  word. — Some  maintain  (e.g.  Gres- 
well)  that  Antichrist  can  mean  only  "false  Christ," 
taking  avri  in  the  sense  of  "instead."  But  this  is 
undue  refinement:  Avri  bears  the  sense  of  "against" 
as  well  as  "instead  of,"  both  in  classical  and  N.  T. 
usaL'e.  So  avTiKriiaiaSrai  means  to  gain  instead  of, 
while  ('ti>Ti\t-ytiv  means  to  speak  against.  The  word 
doubtless  includes  both  meanings — "pseudo-Christ" 
as  well  as  "opposed  to  Christ,"  much  as  "anti-pope" 
implies  both  rivalry  and  antagonism.  According  to 
Bishop  Ilurd,  it  signifies  "a  person  of  power  actu- 
ated with  a  spirit  opposite  to  that  of  Christ."  For,  to 
adopt  the  illustration  of  the  same  writer,  "as  the 
word  Christ  is  frequently  used  in  the  apostolic  writ- 
ings for  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  in  which  sense  we  are 
to  understand  to  'put  on  Christ,'  to  'grow  in  Christ,' 
or  to  'learn  Christ,'  so  Ant'uhrist,  in  the  abstract, 
may  be  taken  for  a  doctrine  subversive  of  the  Chris- 
tian;  and  when  applied  to  a  particular  man,  or  body 
of  men,  it  denotes  one  who  sets  himself  against  the 
spirit  of  that  doctrine."  It  seems,  however,  that  the 
Scriptures  employ  the  term  both  with  a  general  and 
limited  signification.  In  the  general  sense,  with  which 
Bishop  Hind's  idea  mainly  agrees,  every  person  who 
is  hostile  to  the  authority  of  Christ,  as  Lord  or  head 


of  the  Church,  and  to  the  spirit  of  his  religion,  is  call- 
ed Antichrist;  as  when  the  Apostle  John,  referring  to 
certain  false  teachers  who  corrupted  the  truth  from 
its  simplicity,  says,  "  Even  now  are  there  many  Anti- 
christs" (1  John  ii,  18  ;  iv,  3),  many  who  corrupt  the 
doctrine  and  blaspheme  the  name  of  Christ,  i.  e.  Jew- 
ish sectaries  (Liicke,  Comment,  in  loc). 

II.  Types  and  Predictions  of  Antichrist  in  0.  T. — 
1.  Balaam.  As  Moses  was  the  type  of  Christ,  so  Ba- 
laam, the  opponent  of  Moses,  is  to  be  taken  as  an 
0.  T.  type  of  Antichrist  (Num.  xxxi,  1G ;  comp.  Jude 
9-11 ;  2  Pet.  ii,  14-16 ;  Rev.  ii,  14).     See  Balaam. 

2.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  "King  of  Fierce  Coun- 
tenance^ (Dan.  viii,  23-2o) :  "  And  in  the  latter  time 
of  their  kingdom,  when  the  transgressors  are  come  to 
the  full,  a  king  of  fierce  countenance,  and  understand- 
ing dark  sentences,  shall  stand  up.  And  his  power 
shall  be  mighty,  but  not  by  his  own  power;  and  he 
shall  destroy  wonderfully,  and  shall  prosper,  and  prac- 
tise, and  shall  destroy  the  mighty  and  the  holy  people. 
And  through  his  policy  also  he  shall  cause  craft  to 
prosper  in  his  hand ;  and  he  shall  magnify  himself  in 
his  heart,  and  by  peace  shall  destroy  many  :  he  shall 
also  stand  up  against  the  Prince  of  princes ;  but  he 
shall  be  broken  without  hand."  (Comp.  also  ch.  xi, 
xii.)  Most  interpreters  concur  in  applying  this  pas- 
sage to  Antiochus  Epiphanes  as  a  type  of  Antichrist. 
Antiochus  is  here  set  forth  (ch.  viii)  as  a  theocratic 
anti-Messiah,  opposed  to  the  true  Messiah,  who,  it  will 
be  remembered,  is  generally  described  in  0.  T.  as  a 
king.  Jerome  (quoted  in  Smith,  Dictionary,  s.  v.) 
argues  as  follows:  "All  that  follows  (from  ch.  xi, 
21)  to  the  end  of  the  book  applies  personally  to  An- 
tiochus Epiphanes,  brother  of  Seleucus,  and  son  of  An- 
tiochus the  Great ;  for,  after  Seleucus,  he  reigned 
eleven  years  in  Syria,  and  possessed  Judrea ;  and  in 
his  reign  there  occurred  the  persecution  about  the 
Law  of  God,  and  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees.  But 
our  people  consider  all  these  things  to  be  spoken  of 
Antichrist,  who  is  to  come  in  the  last  time.  ...  It  is 
the  custom  of  Holy  Scripture  to  anticipate  in  types 
the  reality  of  things  to  come.  For  in  the  same  way 
our  Lord  and  Saviour  is  spoken  of  in  the  72d  Psalm, 
which  is  entitled  a  Psalm  of  Solomon,  and  yet  all  that 
is  there  said  cannot  be  applied  to  Solomon.  But  in 
part,  and  as  in  a  shadow  and  image  of  the  truth,  these 
things  are  foretold  of  Solomon,  to  be  more  perfectly 
fulfilled  in  our  Lord  and  Saviour.  As,  then,  in  Solo- 
mon and  other  saints  the  Saviour  has  types  of  His 
coming,  so  Antichrist  is  rightly  believed  to  have  for 
his  type  that  wicked  king  Antiochus,  who  persecuted 
the  saints  and  defiled  the  Temple"  (Hieron.  Op.  iii, 
1127,  Par.  1704).     See  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

3.  The  Little  Horn  (Dan.  vii).  Here  the  four  beasts 
indicate  four  kings ;  their  kingdoms  are  supposed  to 
be  the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Syrian  (some 
say  Roman)  empires.  The  last  empire  breaks  up 
into  ten,  after  which  the  king  rises  up  and  masters 
three  (ver.  24)  of  them.  It  is  declared  (ver.  25)  that 
"he  shall  speak  great  words  against  the  Most  High, 
and  shall  wear  out  the  saints  of  the  Most  High,  and 
think  to  change  times  and  laws ;  and  they  shall  be 
given  into  his  hand  until  a  time  and  times  and  the  di- 
viding of  time" — indicating  a  person,  as  well  as  a 
power  or  polity.  It  is  likely  that  this  prediction  re- 
fers also  to  Antiochus  as  the  type  of  Antichrist,  at 
least  primarily.     See  Horn,  Little. 

III.  Passages  in  A'.  T. — 1.  In  Matt,  xxiv,  Christ 
himself  foretells  the  appearance  of  false  Messiahs ; 
thus,  ver.  5  :  "For  many  shall  come  in  my  name,  say- 
ing I  am  Christ,  and  shall  deceive  many;"  also  ver. 
23,  24:  "Then  if  any  man  shall  say  unto  j-ou,  Lo, 
hero  is  Christ  or  there,  believe  it  not;  for  there 
shall  arise  false  Christs,  and  false  prophets,  and  shall 
show  great  signs  and  wonders  ;  insomuch  that,  if  it 
were  possible,  they  shall  deceive  the  very  elect." 
(Comp.  Mark  xiii,  21,  22.)     In  these  passages  anti- 


ANTICHRIST 


255 


ANTICHRIST 


Christian  teachers  and  their  works  are  predicted. 
Christ  teaches  "that  (1)  in  the  latter  days  of  Jerusa- 
lem there  should  be  sore  distress,  and  that  in  the 
midst  of  it  there  should  arise  impostors  who  would 
claim  to  be  the  promised  Messiah,  and  would  lead 
away  many  of  their  countrymen  after  them  ;  and  that 
(2)  in  the  last  days  of  the  world  there  should  be  a 
great  tribulation  and  persecution  of  the  saints,  and 
that  there  should  arise  at  the  same  time  false  Christs 
and  false  prophets,  with  an  unparalleled  power  of  lead- 
ing astray.  In  tj'pe,  therefore,  our  Lord  predicted  the 
rise  of  the  several  impostors  who  excited  the  fanati- 
cism of  the  Jews  before  their  fall.  In  antitype  He 
predicted  the  future  rise  of  impostors  in  the  last  days, 
who  should  beguile  all  but  the  elect  into  the  belief  of 
their  being  God's  prophets,  or  even  his  Christs.  Our 
Lord  is  not  speaking  of  any  one  individual  (or  polity), 
but  rather  of  those  forerunners  of  the  Antichrist  who 
are  his  servants  and  actuated  by  his  spirit.  They  are 
rpivSoxpiaroi  (false  Christs),  and  can  deceive  almost 
the  elect,  but  they  are  not  specifically  o  civtixpittoq 
(the  Antichrist);  they  are  %piv?<yirpo<p)JTai  (false  proph- 
ets), and  can  show  great  signs  and  wonders,  but  they 
are  not  6  \psudonpo(piiT?ig  (the  false  prophet)  (Rev. 
xvi,  14)"  (Smith,  s.  v.). 

2.  St.  Paul's  Man  of  Sin.  Paul  specifically  per- 
sonifies Antichrist,  2  Thess.  ii,  3,  4 :  "  Let  no  man  de- 
ceive you  by  any  means ;  for  that  day  shall  ?iot  come, 
except  there  come  a  falling  away  first,  and  that  man 
of  sin  be  revealed,  the  son  of  perdition  ;  who  opposeth 
and  exaltcth  himself  above  all  that  is  called  God,  or 
that  is  worshipped ;  so  that  he,  as  God,  sitteth  in  the 
temple  of  God,  showing  himself  that  he  is  God ;"  also 
ver.  8-10 :  "And  then  shall  that  Wicked  be  revealed, 
whom  the  Lord  shall  consume  with  the  spirit  of  his 
mouth,  and  shall  destroy  with  the  brightness  of  his 
coming:  even  him,  whose  coming  is  after  the  working 
of  Satan,  with  all  power,  and  signs,  and  lying  won- 
ders, and  with  all  deceivableness  of  unrighteousness 
in  them  that  perish."  Here  he  "who  opposeth  him- 
self" (6  dvTiKiifiivoc,  the  Adversary,  ver.  4)  is  plain- 
ly Antichrist.  Paul  tells  the  Thessalonians  that  the 
spirit  of  Antichrist,  or  Antichristianism,  called  by  him 
"the  mystery  of  iniquity,"  was  already  working; 
but  Antichrist  himself  he  characterizes  as  "the  Man 
of  Sin,"  "the  Son  of  Perdition,"  "the  Adversary  to 
all  that  is  called  God,"  "the  one  who  lifts  himself 
above  all  objects  of  worship;"  and  assures  them  that 
he  should  not  be  revealed  in  person  until  some  present 
obstacle  to  his  appearance  should  have  been  taken 
away,  and  until  the  predicted  UTzoesTama  should  have 
occurred  (Smith,  s.  v.).  Comp.  1  Tim.  iv,  1-3 ;  2  Tim. 
iii,  1-5.     See  Man  of  Sin. 

3.  The  Antichrist  of  John.  The  Apostle  John  also 
personifies  Antichrist,  alluding,  as  St.  Paul  does,  to 
previous  oral  teaching  on  the  subject,  and  applying  it 
to  a  class  of  opponents  of  Christ;  ch.  ii,  18:  "Little 
children,  it  is  the  last  time :  and  as  ye  have  heard  that 
Antichrist  shall  come,  even  now  are  there  many  An- 
tichrists ;  whereby  we  know  that  it  is  the  last  time ;" 
and  to  a  spirit  of  opposition;  ch.  iv,  3:  "And  every 
spirit  that  confesseth  not  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in 
the  flesh,  is  not  of  God.  And  this  is  that  spirit  of  An- 
tichrist, whereof  ye  have  heard  that  it  should  come ; 
and  even  now  already  is  it  in  the  world."  The  Apos- 
tle here  teaches  "that  the  spirit  of  the  Antichrist 
could  exist  even  then,  though  the  coming  of  the  An- 
tichrist himself  was  future,  and  that  all  who  denied 
the  Messiahship  and  Sonship  of  Jesus  were  Anti- 
christs, as  being  types  of  the  final  Antichrist  who  was 
to  come.  The  teaching  of  John's  Epistles,  therefore, 
amounts  to  this,  that  in  type,  Cerinthus,  Basilides,  Si- 
mon Magus^  and  those  Gnostics  who  denied  Christ's 
Sonship,  and  all  subsequent  heretics  who  should  deny 
it,  were  Antichrists,  as  being  wanting  in  that  divine 
principle  of  love  which  with  him  is  the  essence  of 
Christianity ;  and  he  points  on  to  the  final  appearance 


of  the  Antichrist  that  was  "  to  come"  in  the  last  times, 
according  as  they  had  been  orally  taught,  who  would 
be  the  antitype  of  these  his  forerunners  and  servants." 
Comp.  also  1  John  iv,  1-3 ;  2  John  v,  7.  "  From  John 
and  Paul  together  we  learn  (1)  that  the  Antichrist 
should  come  ;  (2)  that  he  should  not  come  until  a  cer- 
tain obstacle  to  his  coming  was  removed ;  (3)  nor  till 
the  time  of,  or  rather  till  after  the  time  of  the  anoara- 
aia ;  (4)  that  his  characteristics  would  be  (o)  open  op. 
position  to  God  and  religion ;  (b)  a  claim  to  the  in, 
communicable  attributes  of  God;  (c)  iniquity,  sin,  and 
lawlessness;  (d)  a  power  of  working  lying  miracles; 
(e)  marvellous  capacity  of  beguiling  souls ;  (5)  that 
he  would  be  actuated  by  Satan ;  (6)  that  his  spirit  was 
already  at  work  manifesting  itself  partially,  incom- 
pletely, and  typically,  in  the  teachers  of  infidelity  and 
immorality  already  abounding  in  the  church"  (Smith, 
s.  v.). 

The  Obstacle,  (to  Kartxov).  —  Before  leaving  the 
apostolical  passages  on  Antichrist,  it  is  expedient  to 
inquire  into  the  meaning  of  the  "obstacle"  alluded 
to  in  the  last  paragraph:  that  which  uwithholdeth'" 
(to  Kartxov,  2  Thess.  ii,  6) ;  described  also  in  ver.  7 
as  a  person:  "he  who  now  lettetW  (6  KaHxiav).  The 
early  Christian  writers  generally  consider  "the  ob- 
stacle" to  be  the  Roman  empire;  so  "Tertullian  (De 
liesvr.  Cam.  c.  24,  and  Apol.  c.  32) ;  St.  Chrysostom 
and  Theophylact  on  2  Thess.  ii ;  Hippolytus  (be  Anti- 
chrisio,  c.  49) ;  St.  Jerome  on  Dan.  vii ;  St.  Augustine 
(De  Civ.  Dei,  xx,  19)  ;  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (Catech. 
xv,  6 ;  see  Dr.  H.  More's  Works,  Ik.  ii,  ch.  xix,  p. 
G90;  Mede,  bk.  iii,  ch.  xiii,  p.  656;  Alford,  GJc.  Test. 
iii,  57;  Wordsworth,  On  the  Apocalypse,  p.  520).  Theo- 
doret  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  hold  it  to  be  the  de- 
termination of  God.  Theodoret's  view  is  embraced 
by  Pelt;  the  Patristic  interpretation  is  accepted  by 
Wordsworth.  Ellicott  and  Alford  so  far  modify  the 
Patristic  interpretation  as  to  explain  the  obstacle  to 
be  the  restraining  power  of  human  law  (to  kaTtxov~) 
wielded  by  the  empire  of  Rome  (<i  (oarsvwi')  when 
Tertullian  wrote,  but  now  by  the  several  governments 
of  the  civilized  world.  The  explanation  of  Theodoret 
is  untenable  on  account  of  Paul's  further  words,  'un- 
til he  be  taken  out  of  the  way,'  which  are  applied  by 
him  to  the  obstacle.  The  modification  of  Ellicott  and 
Alford  is  necessary  if  Ave  suppose  the  cnrooTaoia  to  bo 
an  infidel  apostasy  still  future  ;  for  the  Reman  empire 
is  gone,  and  this  apostasy  is  not  come,  nor  is  the  Wick- 
ed One  revealed.  There  is  much  to  be  said  for  the 
Patristic  interpretation  in  its  plainest  acceptation. 
How  should  the  idea  of  the  Roman  empire  being  the 
obstacle  to  the  revelation  of  Antichrist  have  origi- 
nated? There  was  nothing  to  lead  the  early  Chris- 
tian writers  to  such  a  belief.  They  regarded  the  Ro- 
man empire  as  idolatrous  and  abominable,  and  would 
have  been  more  disposed  to  consider  it  as  the  precur- 
sor than  as  the  obstacle  to  the  Wicked  One.  What- 
ever the  obstacle  was,  Paul  says  that  he  told  the  Thes- 
salonians what  it  was.  Those  to  whom  he  had  preached 
knew,  and  every  time  that  his  Epistle  was  publicly 
read  (1  Thess.  v,  27),  questions  would  have  been  asked 
by  those  who  did  not  know,  and  thus  the  recollection 
must  have  been  kept  up.  It  is  very  difficult  to  see 
whence  the  tradition  could  have  arisen,  except  from 
Paul's  own  teaching.  It  may  be  asked,  Why  then 
did  he  not  express  it  in  writing  as  well  as  by  word  of 
mouth  ?  St.  Jerome's  answer  is  sufficient :  '  If  he 
had  openly  and  unreservedly  said,  "Antichrist  will 
not  come  unless  the  Roman  empire  be  first  destroyed," 
the  infant  church  would  have  been  exposed  in  conse- 
quence to  persecution'  (ad  Air/as.  Qu.  xi,  vol.  iv,  p. 
209,  Par.  170G).  Remigius  gives  the  same  reason : 
'  He  spoke  obscurely  for  fear  a  Roman  should  perhaps 
read  the  Epistle,  and  raise  a  persecution  against  him 
and  the  other  Christians,  for  they  held  that  they  were 
to  rule  for  ever  in  the  world'  (Bib.  Pair.  Max.  viii, 
1018 ;  see  Wordsworth,  On  the  Apocalypse,  p.  343).     It 


ANTICHRIST 


256 


ANTICHRIST 


■would  appear,  then,  that  the  obstacle  was  probably  the 
Roman  empire,  and  on  its  being  taken  out  of  the  way 
there  did  occur  the  '  falling  away.'  Zion  the  beloved 
city  became  Sodom  the  bloody  city — still  Zion  though 
Sodom,  still  Sodom  though  Zion.  According  to  the 
view  given  above,  this  would  be  the  description  of  the 
church  in  her  present  estate,  and  this  will  continue  to 
be  our  estate,  until  the  time,  times,  and  half  time,  dur- 
ing -which  the  evil  element  is  allowed  to  remain  within 
her,  shall  have  come  to  their  end"  (Smith,  s.  v.). 

4.  Passages  in  the  Apocalypse. — (1)  The  Beast  from 
ike  Sea.  The  Apocalypse  symbolizes  the  final  opposi- 
tion to  Christianity  as  a  beast  out  of  the  pit  (xi,  7) : 
"And  when  they  shall  have  finished  their  testimony, 
the  beast  that  ascendeth  out  of  the  bottomless  pit 
shall  make  war  against  them,  and  shall  overcome 
them,  and  kill  them  ;"  out  of  the  sea  (xiii):  "And  I 
stood  upon  the  sand  of  the  sea,  and  saw  a  beast  rise 
up  out  of  the  sea,  having  seven  heads  and  ten  horns, 
and  upon  his  horns  ten  crowns,  and  upon  his  heads  the 
name  of  blasphemy.  And  the  beast  which  I  saw  was 
like  unto  a  leopard,  and  his  feet  were  as  the  feet  of  a 
bear,  and  his  mouth  as  the  mouth  of  a  lion ;  and  the 
dragon  gave  him  his  power,  and  his  seat,  and  great 
authority"  (comp.  the  whole  chapter,  and  chap,  xvii, 
1-18).  The  "beast"  is  here  similar  to  the  Little  Horn 
of  Daniel.  "  The  Beast  whose  power  is  absorbed  into 
the  Little  Horn  has  ten  horns  (Dan.  vii,  7),  and  rises 
from  the  sea  (Dan.  vii,  3)  :  the  Apocalyptic  Beast  has 
ten  horns  (Rev.  xiii,  1),  and  rises  from  the  sea  (ibid.). 
The  Little  Horn  has  a  mouth  speaking  great  things 
(Dan.  vii,  8,  11,  20):  the  Apocalyptic  Beast  has  a 
mouth  speaking  great  things  (Rev.  xiii,  5).  The  Lit- 
tle Horn  makes  war  with  the  saints,  and  prevails  (Dan. 
vii,  21) :  the  Apocalyptic  Beast  makes  war  with  the 
saints,  and  overcomes  them  (Rev.  xiii,  7).  The  Little 
Horn  speaks  great  words  against  the  Most  High  (Dan. 
vii,  25) :  the  Apocalyptic  Beast  opens  his  mouth  in 
blasphemy  against  God  (Rev.  xiii,  6).  The  Little 
Horn  wears  out  the  saints  of  the  Most  High  (Dan.  vii, 
25) :  the  woman  who  rides  on,  i.  e.  directs,  the  Apoc- 
akyptic  Beast,  is  drunken  with  the  blood  of  saints  (Rev. 
xvii,  6).  The  persecution  of  the  Little  Horn  is  to  last 
a  time,  and  times  and  a  dividing  of  times,  i.  e.  three 
and  a  half  times  (Dan.  vii,  25)  :  power  is  given  to  the 
Apocalyptic  Beast  for  forty-two  months,  i.  e.  three  and 
a  half  times  (Rev.  xiii.  5)"  (Smith,  s.  v.).  These  and 
other  parallelisms  show  that  as  the  Little  Horn  was 
typical  of  an  individual  that  should  stand  to  the  church 
as  the  leading  type  of  Antichrist,  so  John's  Apocalyp- 
tic Beast  was  symbolical  of  a  later  individual,  who 
should  embody  the  elements  of  a  similar  Antichristian 
power  with  respect  to  the  Christians. 

(2)  The  Second  Beast  and  the  False  Prophet  (Rev. 
xiii,  11-18;  xix,  11-21).  In  these  passages  we  find 
described  a  second  beast,  coming  up  out  of  the  earth, 
who  is  accompanied  by  (or  identical  with)  "the  False 
Prophet."  The  following  views  are  from  Smith,  s.  v. : 
"His  characteristics  are  [1]  'doing  great  wonders,  so 
that  he  maketh  fire  to  come  down  from  heaven  on  the 
earth  in  the  sight  of  men'  (Rev.  xiii,  13).  This  power 
of  miracle-working,  we  should  note,  is  not  attributed 
by  John  to  the  First  Beast;  but  it  is  one  of  the  chief 
signs  of  Paul's  Adversary,  'whose  coming  is  with  all 
power,  and  signs,  and  lying  wonders'  (2  Thess.  ii,  9). 
1 2]  'II  e  deceiveth  them  that  dwell  on  the  earth  by  the 
means  of  those  miracles  which  lie  had  power  to  do  in 
the  sight  of  the  Beast'  (Rev.  xiii,  14).  '  He  wrought 
miracles  with  which  be  deceived  them  that  received 
the  mark  of  the  Beast  and  worshipped  the  image  of 
tin'  Beast'  (Rev.  xix,  20).  In  like  manner,  no  special 
power  of  beguiling  is  attributed  to  the  First  Beast; 
but  the  Adversary  is  possessed  of  'all  deceivableness 
of  unrighteousness  in  them  that  perish  because  they 
received  not  the  love  of  the  truth  that  they  might  be 
saved'  (2  Thess.  ii,  10).  [3]  He  has  horns  like  a  lamb, 
i.  e.  he  bears  an  outward  resemblance  to  the  Messiah 


(Rev.  xiii,  11) ;  and  the  Adversary  sits  in  the  temple 
of  God  showing  himself  that  he  is  God  (2  Thess.  ii,  4). 
[4]  His  title  is  The  False  Prophet,  o  yevco-n-potyiiriig 
(Rev.  xvi,  13 ;  xix,  20) ;  and  our  Lord,  whom  Anti- 
christ counterfeits,  is  emphatically  the  Prophet,  o 
Upo(pr]Ti]c.  (The  ^evdonpocpiirai  of  Matt,  xxiv,  24, 
are  the  forerunners  of  6  ^rivSoirpo(pi]Tr)c,  as  John  the 
Baptist  of  the  True  Prophet.)  It  would  seem  that  the 
Antichrist  appears  most  distinctly  in  the  Book  of  the 
Revelation  by  this  Second  Beast  or  the  False  Prophet, 
especially  in  the  more  general  or  representative  char- 
acter. He  is  not,  however,  necessarily  a  person,  but 
rather  the  symbol  of  some  power  that  should  arise,  who 
will  all}'  itself  with  a  corrupt  religion  (for  the  two 
Apocalyptic  beasts  are  designated  as  distinct),  repre- 
sent itself  as  her  minister  and  vindicator  (Rev.  xiii, 
12),  compel  men  by  violence  to  pay  reverence  to  her 
(xiii,  14),  breathe  a  new  life  into  her  decaying  frame 
by  his  use  of  the  secular  arm  in  her  behalf  (xiii,  15), 
forbidding  civil  rights  to  those  who  renounce  her  au- 
thority and  reject  her  symbols  (xiii,  17),  and  putting 
them  to  death  by  the  sword  (xiii,  15)."  See  Beast. 
IV.  Interpretations. — Who  or  what  is  Antichrist? 
The  answers  to  this  question  are  legion.  The  EdinA 
burgh  Encyclopaedia  (s.  v.)  enumerates  fourteen  differ- 
ent theories,  and  the  list  might  be  greatly  enlarged. 
We  give  (1)  a  brief  summary  of  the  Scripture  testi- 
mony ;  (2)  the  views  of  the  early  Christians  ;  (3)  the 
views  held  in  the  Middle  Ages  ;  (4)  from  the  Reforma- 
tion to  the  present  time.  In  this  sketch,  we  make  use, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  of  the  article  in  Smith's  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible,  to  which  references  have  already 
been  made. 

1.  Scripture  Teaching. — The  sum  of  Scripture  teach- 
ing with  regard  to  the  Antichrist,  then,  appears  to  be 
as  follows  :  Already,  in  the  times  of  the  apostles,  there 
was  the  mystery  of  iniquity,  the  spirit  of  Antichrist, 
at  work.  It  embodied  itself  in  various  shapes — in  the 
Gnostic  heretics  of  John's  days  ;  in  the  Jewish  impos- 
tors who  preceded  the  fall  of  Jerusalem ;  in  all  here- 
siarchs  and  unbelievers,  especially  those  whose  here- 
sies had  a  tendency  to  deny  the  incarnation  of  Christ ; 
and  in  the  great  persecutors  who  from  time  to  time 
afflicted  the  church.  But  this  Antichristian  spirit  was 
originally,  and  is  now  again  diffused ;  it  has  only  at 
times  concentrated  itself  in  certain  personal  or  distinct 
forms  of  persecution,  which  may  thus  be  historically 
enumerated:  1.  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  Hellenizing  policy  of  the  Grajco-Sj'rian 
monarchy,  and  denoted  by  the  Little  Horn  and  fierce 
king  of  Daniel.  2.  The  apostate  Jewish  faith,  espe- 
cially in  its  representatives  who  opposed  Christianity 
in  its  early  progress,  and  at  length  caused  the  down- 
fall of  the  Jewish  nation,  as  represented  by  the  allu- 
sions in  our  Saviour's  last  discourse  and  in  John's 
epistles.  3.  The  Roman  civil  power  (the  first  beast 
of  Revelation)  abetting  the  pagan  mythology  (the 
second  beast,  or  false  prophet)  in  its  violent  attempts 
to  crush  Christianity,  at  first  insidious,  but  finally 
open,  as  culminating  in  Nero  and  Domitian.  It  is 
this  phase  which  seems  incipiently  alluded  to  by  Paul. 
All  these  have  again  their  refullilment  (so  to  speak) 
in  the  great  apostasy  of  the  papal  system.  (Compare  es- 
pecially the  characteristics  of  the  Second  Beaut,  above.) 
There  is  also  dimly  foreshadowed  some  future  contest, 
which  shall  arouse  the  same  essential  elements  of  hos- 
tility to  divine  truth.     See  Babylon;  Gog. 

2.  Early  Christian  Vines.  —  The  early  Christians 
looked  for  Antichrist  in  a  person,  not  in  a  polity  or  sys- 
tem. "That  he  would  be  a  man  armed  with  Satanic 
powers  is  the  opinion  of  Justin  Martyr,  A.D.  103 
{Died.  371,  20,  21,  Thirlbii,  1722);  of  Irenaeus,  A.D. 
140  {Op.  v,  25,  437,  Grabii,  1702);  of  Tertullian,  A.D. 
150  (Be  Pes.  Cam.  c.  24 ;  Apol.  c.  32) ;  of  Origen,  A.D. 
184  (Op.  i,  667,  Delaine,  1733) ;  of  his  contemporary, 
Hippolvtus  (Br  Antichristo,  57.  Fabricii,  Hamburgi, 
1716) ;  'of  Cyprian,  A.D.  250  (Ep.  58 ;  Op.  120,  Oxon. 


ANTICHRIST 


25> 


1682)  ;  of  Victorinus,  A.D.  270  (MM.  Pair.  Magna,  iii, 
136,  Col.  Agrip.  1618);  of  Lactantius,  A.D.  300  (Div. 
Inst,  vii,  17)  ;  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  315  (Catech. 
xv,  4)  ;  of  Jerome,  A.D.  330  (Op.  iv,  pars  i,  209,  Pari- 
siis,  1G93);  of  Chrysostom,  A.D.  347  (Comm.  in  11 
Thess.) ;  of  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  A.D.  350  (Comm.  in 
Matt.);  of  Augustine,  A.D.  354  (De  Civil.  Dei,  xx,  19) ; 
of  Ambrose,  A.  D.  380  (Comm.  in  Luc).  The  authors 
of  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  A.D.  150,  and  of  the  Apostol- 
ical Constitutions,  Celsus  (see  Orig.  c.  Cels.  lib.  vi), 
Ephraem  Syrus,  A.D.  370,  Theodoret,  A.D.  430,  and  a 
few  other  writers,  seem  to  have  regarded  the  Antichrist 
as  the  devil  himself,  rather  than  as  his  minister  or  an 
emanation  from  him.  But  they  may,  perhaps,  have 
meant  no  more  than  to  express  the  identity  of  his 
character  and  his  power  with  that  of  Satan.  Each  of 
the  writers  to  whom  we  have  referred  gives  his  own 
judgment  with  respect  to  some  particulars  which  may 
lie  expected  in  the  Antichrist,  while  they  all  agree  in 
representing  him  as  a  person  about  to  come  shortly  be- 
fore the  glorious  and  final  appearance  of  Christ,  and 
to  be  destroyed  by  His  presence.  Justin  Martyr 
speaks  of  him  as  the  man  of  the  apostasy,  and  dwells 
chiefly  on  the  persecutions  which  he  would  cause. 
Irenanis  describes  him  as  summing  up  the  apostasy  in 
himself;  as  having  his  seat  at  Jerusalem ;  as  identi- 
cal with  the  Apocalyptic  Beast  (c.  28);  as  foreshad- 
owed by  the  unjust  judge;  as  being  the  man  who 
'should  come  in  his  own  name,'  and  as  belonging  to 
the  tribe  of  Dan  (c.  30).  Tertullian  identifies  him 
with  the  Beast,  and  supposes  him  to  be  about  to  arise 
on  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  (De  Ees.  Cam.  e.  25). 
Origen  describes  him  in  Eastern  phrase  as  the  child 
of  the  devil  and  the  counterpart  of  Christ.  Hippoly- 
tus  understands  the  Koman  Empire  to  be  represented 
by  the  Apocalyptic  Beast,  and  the  Antichrist  by  the 
False  Prophet,  who  would  restore  the  wounded  Beast 
by  his  craft  and  by  the  wisdom  of  his  laws.  Cyprian 
sees  him  typified  in  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (Exhort,  ad 
Mart.  c.  11).  Victorinus,  with  several  others,  misun- 
standing  Paul's  expression  that  the  mystery  of  iniqui- 
ty was  in  his  day  working,  supposes  that  the  Anti- 
christ will  be  a  revivified  hero;  Lactantius,  that  lie 
will  be  a  king  of  Syria,  born  of  an  evil  spirit ;  Cyril, 
that  he  will  be  a  magician,  who  by  his  arts  will  get 
the  mastery  of  the  Boman  Empire.  Jerome  describes 
him  as  the  son  of  the  devil,  sitting  in  the  Church  as 
though  he  were  the  Son  of  God ;  Chrysostom  as  avr'i- 
Qibc,  tiq,  sitting  in  the  Temple  of  God,  that  is,  in  all 
the  churches,  not  merely  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  ; 
Augustine  as  the  adversary  holding  power  for  three 
and  a  half  years — the  Beast,  perhaps,  representing  Sa- 
tan's empire.  The  primitive  belief  may  be  summed 
up  in  the  words  of  Jerome  (Comm.  on  Daniel'):  'Let 
us  say  that  which  all  ecclesiastical  writers  have  hand- 
ed down,  viz.,  that  at  the  end  of  the  world,  when  the 
Boman  Empire  is  to  be  destroyed,  there  will  be  ten 
kings,  who  will  divide  the  Boman  world  among  them  ; 
and  there  will  arise  an  eleventh  little  king,  who  will 
subdue  three  of  the  ten  kings,  that  is,  the  king  of 
Egypt,  of  Africa,  and  of  Ethiopia,  as  we  shall  here- 
after show  ;  and  on  these  having  been  slain,  the  seven 
other  kings  will  also  submit.  "And  behold,"  he  says, 
"in  the  ram  were  the  eyes  of  a  man" — this  is  that 
we  may  not  suppose  him  to  be  a  devil  or  a  da?mon,  as 
some  have  thought,  but  a  man  in  whom  Satan  will 
dwell  utterly  and  bodily — "and  a  month  speaking 
great  things;"  for  he  is  "the  man  of  sin,  the  son  of 
perdition,  who  sitteth  in  the  temple  of  God,  making 
himself  as  God"  '  (Op.  iv,  511,  Col.  Agrip.  1616).  In 
his  Comment,  on  Dan.  xi,  and  in  his  reply  to  Algasia's 
eleventh  question,  he  works  out  the  same  view  in 
greater  detail,  the  same  line  of  interpretation  contin- 
ued. Andreas  of  Cassarea,  A.D.  550,  explains  him  to 
he  a  king  actuated  by  Satan,  who  will  reunite  the  old 
Boman  Empire  and  reign  at  Jerusalem  (//;,  Apoc.  c. 
xiii);  Aretas,  A.D.  650,  as  a  king  of  the  Romans,  who 
E 


ANTICHRIST 

will  reign  over  the   Saracens  in  Bagdad  (In  Apoc. 
c.  xiii)."     (Smith,  s.  v.) 

3.  Middle- Age  Views. — In  the  Middle  Age  it  was  the 
prevailing  opinion  that  Antichrist  would  either  be 
brought  forth  by  a  virgin,  or  be  the  offspring  of  a 
bishop  and  a  nun.  About  the  year  950,  Adso,  a  monk 
in  a  monastery  of  Western  Franconia,  wrote  a  treatise 
on  Antichrist,  in  which  he  assigned  a  later  time  to  his 
coming,  and  also  to  the  end  of  the  world  (see  Schrcickh, 
Kirchengesch.  xxi,  p.  243).  He  did  not  distinctly  state 
whom  he  meant  to  be  understood  by  Antichrist  (Ha- 
genbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  §  203).  "A  Frank  king," 
he  says,  "will  reunite  the  Boman  Empire,  and  abdi- 
cate on  Mount  Olivet,  and,  on  the  dissolution  of  his 
kingdom,  the  Antichrist  will  be  revealed."  The  same 
writer  supposes  that  he  will  be  born  in  Babylon,  that 
he  will  be  educated  at  Bethsaida  and  Chorazin,  and 
that  he  will  proclaim  himself  the  Son  of  God  at  Jeru- 
salem (Tract,  in  Antichr.  apud  August.  Opera,  ix,  454, 
Paris,  1637).  In  the  singular  predictions  of  Ililde- 
garde  (f  1197),  Antichrist  is  foretold  as  the  spirit  of 
doubt.  She  states  that  the  exact  season  of  Antichrist 
is  not  revealed,  but  describes  his  manifestation  as  an 
impious  imitation  or  "parody  of  the  incarnation  of 
the  Divine  Word"  (Christian  Remembrancer,  xliv,  50). 
See  Hildegarde.  But  "the  received  opinion  of  the 
twelfth  century  is  brought  before  us  in  a  striking  man- 
ner in  the  interview  between  Richard  I  and  the  abbot 
Joachim  of  Flcris  (f  1202)  at  Messina,  as  the  king  was 
on  his  way  to  the  Holy  Land.  '  I  thought,'  said  the 
king,  '  that  Antichrist  would  be  born  in  Antioch  or  in 
Babylon,  and  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  would  reign  in  the 
temple  of  the  Lord  in  Jerusalem,  and  would  walk  in  that 
land  in  which  Christ  walked,  and  would  reign  in  it 
for  three  years  and  a  half,  and  would  dispute  against 
Elijah  and  Enoch,  and  would  kill  them,  and  would  af- 
terward die;  and  that  after  his  death  God  would  give 
sixty  days  of  repentance,  in  which  those  might  repent 
which  should  have  erred  from  the  way  of  truth,  and 
have  been  seduced  by  the  preaching  of  Antichrist  and 
his  false  prophets.'  This  seems  to  have  been  the  view 
defended  by  the  archbishops  of  Rouen  and  Auxtrre, 
and  by  the  bishop  of  Bayonne,  who  were  present  at 
the  interview,  but  it  was  not  Joachim's  opinion.  He 
maintained  the  seven  heads  of  the  Beast  to  be  Herod, 
Nero,  Constantius,  Mohammed,  Melsemut,  who  were 
past;  Saladin,  who  was  then  living;  and  Antichrist, 
who  was  shortly  to  come,  being  already  born  in  the 
city  of  Rcme,  and  about  to  be  elevated  to  the  apostolic 
see  (Roger  de  Hoveden,  in  Richard  I,  anno  1190).  In 
his  own  work  on  the  Apocalypse,  Joachim  speaks  of 
the  second  Apocalyptic  Beast  as  being  governed  by 
'some  great  prelate  who  will  be  like  Simon  Magus, 
and,  as  it  were,  universal  pontiff  throughout  the  world, 
and  be  that  very  Antichrist  of  whom  St.  Paul  speaks.' 
These  are  very  noticeable  words.  Gregory  I  had  long 
since  (A.D.  590)  declared  that  any  man  who  held  even 
the  shadow  of  the  power  which  the  popes  of  Rome 
soon  after  his  time  arrogated  to  themselves  would  be 
the  precursor  of  Antichrist.  Arnulphus,  bishop  of 
Orleans  (or  perhaps  Gcrbert),  in  an  invective  against 
John  XV  at  the  Council  of  Rheims,  A.D.  991,  had  de- 
clared, that  if  the  Roman  pontiff  was  destitute  of  char- 
ity and  puffed  up  with  knowledge,  he  was  Antichrist; 
if  destitute  both  of  charity  and  of  knowledge,  that  he 
was  a  lifeless  stone  (Mansi,  ix,  132,  Ven.  1774) ;  but 
Joachim  is  the  first  to  suggest,  not  that  such  and  such 
a  pontiff  was  Antichrist,  but  that  the  Antichrist  would 
be  a  Universalis  Pontifex,  and  that  he  would  occupy 
the  apostolic  see.  Still,  however,  we  have  no  hint  of 
an  order  of  men  being  the  Antichrist;  it  is  a  living 
individual  man  that  Joachim  contemplates."  Amal- 
rich  of  Bona  (f  12th  century)  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  to  teach  explicitly  that  the  pope  (i.  e.  the  papal 
system)  is  Antichrist:  Quia  Papa  esset  Antichristus 
et  Roma  Babylon  et  ipse  sedet  in  monte  Oliveti,  i.  e. 
in  pinguedine  potestatis   (according  to  Crcsarius  of 


ANTICHRIST 


258 


ANTICHRIST 


Heisterbach ;  comp.  Engelhardt,  Kirchenkistorische  Ab- 
h  mdlungen,  p.  250,  quoted  by  Hagenbach).  The  Ger- 
man emperors,  in  their  contests  with  the  popes,  often 
applied  the  title  Antichrist  to  the  latter ;  we  find  in- 
stances of  this  as  early  as  the  times  of  the  Hohenstau- 
fen.  Emperor  Louis,  surnamed  the  Bavarian,  also  call- 
ed Pope  John  XXII  the  mystical  Antichrist  (Schrockh, 
xxxi,  p.  108).  John  Aventinus,  in  his  Annalium  Boi- 
orum,  libri  viii,  p.  651,  Lips.  1710),  himself  the  Romish 
writer,  speaks  of  it  as  a  received  opinion  of  the  Middle 
Age  that  the  reign  of  Antichrist  was  that  of  Hilde- 
brand  (f  1085),  and  cites  Eberhard,  archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg (12th  century),  as  asserting  that  Hildebrand  had, 
"in  the  name  of  religion,  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
kingdom  of  Antichrist  170  years  before  his  time." 
He  can  even  name  the  ten  horns.  They  are  the 
"Turks,  Greeks,  Egyptians,  Africans,  Spaniards,  Eng- 
lish, French,  Germans,  Sicilians,  and  Italians,  who 
now  occupy  the  provinces  of  Rome ;  and  a  little  horn 
has  grown  up  with  eyes  and  mouth,  speaking  great 
things,  which  is  reducing  three  of  these  kingdoms — 
i.  e.  Sicily,  Italy,  and  Germany — to  subserviency ;  is 
persecuting  the  people  of  Christ  and  the  saints  of  God 
with  intolerable  opposition  ;  is  confounding  things  hu- 
man and  divine,  and  attempting  things  unutterable, 
execrable"  (Smith,  s.  v.).  Pope  Innocent  III  (A.D. 
1213)  designated  Mohammed  as  Antichrist;  and  as 
the  number  of  the  beast,  666,  was  held  to  indicate  the 
period  of  his  dominion,  it  was  supposed  that  the  Mo- 
hammedan power  was  soon  to  fall. 

The  Waldenses  have  a  treatise  (given  in  Leger, 
Hist,  chs  Eglises  Vaudoises)  concerning  Antichrist  of 
the  12th  century  (Gieseler,  Maitland,  and  others,  dis- 
pute the  date,  but  the  best  authorities  now  agree  to 
it).  It  treats  of  Antichrist  as  the  whole  anti-Chris- 
tian principle  concealing  itself  under  the  guise  of 
Christianity,  and  calls  it  a  "  system  of  falsehood  adorn- 
ing itself  with  a  show  of  beauty  and  piety,  yet  (as  by 
the  names  and  offices  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  sacra- 
ments, and  various  other  things  may  appear)  very  un- 
suitable to  the  Church  of  Christ.  The  system  of  ini- 
quity thus  completed,  with  its  ministers,  great  and 
small,  supported  by  those  who  are  induced  to  follow 
it  with  an  evil  heart,  and  blindfold — this  is  the  congre- 
gation which,  taken  together,  comprises  what  is  called 
Antichrist  or  Babylon,  the  fourth  beast,  the  whore, 
the  man  of  sin,  the  son  of  perdition."  It  originated, 
indeed,  "in  the  times  of  the  apostles,  but,  by  gaining 
power  and  worldly  influence,  it  had  reached  its  climax 
in  the  corruption  of  the  Papal  Church. 

"Christ  never  had  an  enemy  like  this;  so  able  to 
pervert  the  way  of  truth  into  falsehood,  insomuch  that 
the  true  church,  with  her  children,  is  trodden  under 
foot.  The  worship  that  belongs  alone  to  God  he  trans- 
fers to  Antichrist  himself— to  the  creature,  male  and 
female,  deceased — to  images,  carcasses,  and  relics. 
The  sacrament  of  the  Eucharist  is  converted  into  an 
object  of  adoration,  and  the  worshipping  of  God  alone 
is  prohibited.  lie  robs  the  Saviour  of  his  merits,  and 
the  sufficiency  of  his  grace  in  justification,  regenera- 
tion, remission  of  sins,  sanctification,  establishment  in 
the  faith,  and  spiritual  nourishment;  ascribing  all 
these  things  to  his  own  authority,  to  a  form  of  words, 
to  his  own  works,  to  the  intercession  of  saints,  and  to 
the  lire  of  purgatory.  He  seduces  fhe  people  from 
Christ,  drawing  off  their  minds  from  seeking  those 
blessings  in  him,  by  a  lively  faith  in  God,  in  Jesus 
Christ,  and  in  the  I  Icily  Spirit,  and  teaching  his  fol- 
lowers to  expect  them  by  the  will,  and  pleasure,  and 
works  of  Antichrist. 

"He  teaches  to  baptize  children  into  the  faith,  and 
attributes  to  this  the  work  of  regeneration;  thus  con- 
founding the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  regeneration 
with  the  external  rite  of  baptism,  and  (in  this  founda- 
tion bestows  orders,  and,  indeed,  grounds  all  his  Chris- 
tianity. He  places  all  religion  and  holiness  in  going 
to  mass,  and  has  mingled  together  all  descriptions  of 


ceremonies,  Jewish,  heathen,  and  Christian — and  by 
means  thereof,  the  people  are  deprived  of  spiritual 
food,  seduced  from  the  true  religion  and  the  com- 
mandments of  God,  and  established  in  vain  and  pre- 
sumptuous hopes.  All  his  works  are  done  to  be  seen 
of  men,  that  he  may  glut  himself  with  insatiable  av- 
arice, and  hence  every  thing  is  set  to  sale.  He  allows 
of  open  sins  without  ecclesiastical  censure,  and  even 
the  impenitent  are  not  excommunicated"  (Neander, 
Church  History,  iv,  605  sq.). 

The  Hussites  followed  the  Waldenses  in  this  theory 
of  Antichrist,  applying  it  to  the  papal  system.  So 
did  Wicklift'e  and  his  followers :  Wickliffe,  Trialogus 
(cited  by  Schrockh,  xxxiv,  509);  Janow,  Liber  de  An- 
tichristo  (Hist,  at  Monum.  J.  Huss,  vol.  i).  Lord  Cob- 
ham  (Sir  John  Oldcastle),  executed  as  a  Wickliffite, 
1417,  dechu-ed  to  King  Henry  V  that,  "as  sure  as 
God's  word  is  true,  the  pope  is  the  great  Antichrist 
foretold  in  Holy  Writ"  (Neio  Gen.  Diet.  s.  v.  Oldcastle). 

4.  From  the  Reformation  downward. — One  of  the 
oldest  German  works  in  print,  the  first  mentioned  by 
Panzer  in  the  Annalen  der  alteren  deutschen  Literatur, 
is  Das  Bitch  vom  Entkrist  (The  Book  of  Antichrist),  or, 
also,  "  Bilchlin  von  des  Endte  Christs  Leben  und  Regie- 
rung  (lurch  verhengniss  Gottes,  vie  er  die  Welt  tilth  ver- 
keren  mit  seiner  falschen  Lere  und  Rat  des  Teufls,"  etc. 
— "  Little  Book  concerning  Antichrist's  Life  and  Rule 
through  God's  Providence,  how  he  doth  pervert  the 
World  with  his  false  Doctrine  and  Counsel  of  the  Dev- 
il," etc.  (reprinted  at  Erfurdt,  1516).  As  early  as  1520 
Luther  began  to  doubt  whether  the  pope  were  not  Anti- 
christ. In  a  letter  to  Spalatin,  Feb.  23, 1520,  he  says, 
"  Ego  sic  angor  ut  prope  non  dubitem  papam-  esse  pro? 
prie  Antichristum."  In  the  same  year,  when  he  heard 
of  Eck's  success  in  obtaining  the  bull  against  him  from 
the  pope,  Luther  exclaimed,  "At  length  the  mystery 
of  Antichrist  must  be  unveiled"  (Ranke,  Hist,  of  Ref- 
ormation, bk.  ii,  eh.  iii).  In  the  Reformation  era  the 
opinion  that  the  papal  system  is  Antichrist  was  gen- 
erally adopted  ;  and  it  is  the  prevalent  opinion  among 
Protestants  to  this  day,  although,  as  will  appear  be- 
low, some  writers  make  Rome  only  one  form  of  Anti- 
christ. The  various  classes  of  opinion,  and  the  writers 
who  maintain  them,  are  given  by  Smith,  s.  v.,  as  fol- 
lows:  Bullinger  (1504),  Chytrseus  (1571),  Aretins 
(1573),  Foxe  (1586),  Napier  (1593),  Mede  (1632),  Ju- 
rieu  (1685),  Bp.  Newton  (1750),  Cunninghaine  (1813s), 
Faber  (1814),  Woodhouse  (1828),  Habershon  (1843), 
identify  the  False  Prophet,  or  Second  Apocalyptic 
Beast,  with  Antichrist  and  with  the  papacy ;  Marlorat 
(1574),  King  James  I  (1603),  Daubuz  (1720),  Galloway 
(1802),  the  First  Apocalyptic  Beast ;  Brightman  (1600), 
Pareus  (1615),  Vitringa  (1705),  Gill  (1776),  Bachmair 
(1778),  Fraser  (1795),  Croly  (1828),  Fysh  (1837),  El- 
liott (1844),  both  the  Beasts.  That  the  pope  and  his 
system  are  Antichrist  was  taught  by  Luther,  Calvin, 
Zwingli,  Melancthon,  Bucer,  Beza,  Calixtus,  Bengel, 
Michaelis,  and  by  almost  all  Protestant  writers  on  the 
Continent.  Nor  was  there  any  hesitation  on  the  part 
of  English  theologians  to  seize  the  same  weapon  of 
offence.  Bishop  Bale  (1491),  like  Luther,  Bucer,  and 
Melancthon,  pronounces  the  pope  in  Europe  and  Mo- 
hammed in  Africa  to  be  Antichrist.  The  pope  is  An- 
tichrist, say  Cranmer  (Works,  ii,  46,  Camb.  1844), 
Latimer  (Works,  i,  149,  Camb.  1814),  Ridley  (Works, 
p.  53.  Camb.  1841),  Hooper  (Works,  ii,  44,  Camb. 
1852),  Hutchinson  (Works,  p.  301,  Camb.,  1842),  Tyn- 
dale  (Works,  i,  147,  Camb.  1818),  Sandvs  (Works,  p. 
11,  Camb.  1841),  Philpot  (Works,  p.  152,  Camb.  1842), 
Jewell  (Works,  i,  109,  Camb.  1845),  Rogers  (Works, 
p.  182,  Camb.  1851),  Fulke  (Works,  ii,  269,  Camb.  1848), 
Bradford  ( Works,  p.  435,  Camb.  1848).  Nor  is  the 
opinion  confined  to  these  16th  century  divines,  who 
may  be  supposed  to  have  been  specially  incensed 
against  popery.  King  James  held  it  (Apol.  pro  Juram. 
Fidel.  Lond.  1609)  as  strongly  as  Queen  Elizabeth  (see 
Jewell,  Letter  to  Bulling.  May  22, 1559,  Zurich  Letters, 


ANTICHRIST 


259 


ANTICHRIST 


First  Scries,  p.  33,  Camb.  1842) ;  and  the  theologians 
of  the  17th  century  did  not  repudiate  it,  though  they 
less  and  less  dwelt  upon  it  as  their  struggle  came  to 
he  with  Puritanism  in  place  of  popery.  Bishop  An- 
drewes  maintains  it  as  a  probable  conclusion  from  the 
Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  (Resp.  ad  Bellarm.  p.  304, 
Oxon.  1851);  but  he  carefully  explains  that  King 
James,  whom  he  was  defending,  had  expressed  his  pri- 
vate opinion,  not  the  belief  of  the  church,  on  the  sub- 
ject (ibid.  p.  23).  Bramhall  introduces  limitations  and 
distinctions  (  Works,  iii,  520,  Oxf.  1845) ;  significantly 
suggests  that  there  are  marks  of  Antichrist  which  ap- 
ply to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland 
as  much  as  to  the  pope  or  to  the  Turk  (ibid,  iii,  287), 
and  declines  to  make  the  Church  of  England  respon- 
sible for  what  individual  preachers  or  writers  had  said 
on  the  subject  in  moments  of  exasperation  (ib.  ii,  582). 
From  this  time  onward,  in  the  Church  of  England,  the 
less  evangelical  divines  are  inclined  to  abandon  the 
theory  of  the  Reformers,  while,  of  course,  the  Roman- 
izers  oppose  it.  Yet  it  appears,  from  the  list  above, 
that  some  of  the  best  interpreters  in  that  church,  as 
well  as  in  other  branches  of  Protestantism,  maintain 
the  old  interpretation  of  the  prophecies  of  Daniel, 
Paul,  and  John. 

Some  writers  have  gone  back  to  the  old  idea  of  an 
individual  Antichrist  yet  to  come,  e.  g.  "Lacunza  or 
Benezra  (1810),  Burgh,  Samuel  Maitland,  Newman 
(Tracts  for  the  Times,  No.  83),  Charles  Maitland  (Pro- 
phetic Interpretation).  Others  prefer  looking  upon 
him  as  long  past,  and  fix  upon  one  or  another  perse- 
cutor or  heresiarch  as  the  man  in  whom  the  predic- 
tions as  to  Antichrist  found  their  fulfilment.  There 
seems  to  be  no  trace  of  this  idea  for  more  than  1G00 
years  in  the  church.  But  it  has  been  taken  up  by 
two  opposite  classes  of  expounders — by  Romanists  who 
were  anxious  to  avert  the  application  of  the  Apoca- 
lyptic prophecies  from  the  papacy,  and  by  others,  who 
were  disposed,  not  indeed  to  deny  the  prophetic  import 
of  the  Apocalypse,  but  to  confine  the  seer's  ken  within 
the  closest  and  narrowest  limits  that  were  possible. 
Alcasar,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  taking  a  hint  from  Victori- 
nus,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  (A.D.  1604)  to  have 
suggested  that  the  Apocalyptic  prophecies  did  not  ex- 
tend further  than  to  the  overthrow  of  paganism  by 
Constantine.  This  view,  with  variations  by  Grotius, 
is  taken  up  and  expounded  by  Bossuet,  Calmet,  De 
Saey,  Eichhorn,  Hug,  Herder,  EwaW,  Moses  Stuart, 
Davidson.  The  general  view  of  the  school  is  that  the 
Apocalypse  describes  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over 
Judaism  in  the  first,  and  over  heathenism  in  the  third 
century.  .  Mariana  sees  Antichrist  in  Nero;  Bossuet 
in  Diocletian  and  in  Julian ;  Grotius  in  Caligula ;  Wet- 
stein  in  Titus;  Hammond  in  Simon  Magus  (Works, 
iii,  620,  Lond.  1631) ;  Whitby  in  the  Jews  (Comm.  ii, 
431,  Lond.  1760);  Le  Clerc  in  Simon,  son  of  Giora,  a 
leader  of  the  rebel  Jews  ;  Schottiien  in  the  Pharisees  ; 
Nossett  and  Krause  in  the  Jewish  zealots  ;  Harduin  in 
the  High-priest  Ananias;  F.  D.Maurice  in  Vitellius 
(On  the  Apocalypse,  Camb.  I860)."     (Smith,  s.  v.) 

5.  The  same  spirit  that  refuses  to  regard  Satan  as 
an  individual,  naturally  looks  upon  the  Antichrist  as 
an  evil  principle  not  embodied  either  in  a  person  or  in 
a  polity.  Thus  Koppe,  Storr,  Nitzsch,  Pelt.  (See  Al- 
ford,  Gh.  Test,  iii,  69.)  Some  of  the  Romish  theologi- 
ans find  Antichrist  in  rationalism  and  radicalism,  oth- 
ers in  Protestantism  as  a  whole.  Some  Protestants 
fix  it  in  Romanism  as  a  whole,  others  in  Jesuitism  ; 
others,  again,  in  the  latest  forms  of  infidelity,  while 
some  of  the  ultra  Lutherans  find  it  in  modern  radical- 
ism, political  and  religious.  Any  view  of  this  kind, 
when  carried  so  far  as  to  exclude  all  personal  identifi- 
cation, is  certainly  too  vague  to  be  satisfactory.  But, 
at  the  same  time,  the  just  conclusion  seems  to  be  that 
Antichrist  is  not  to  be  confined  to  an}'  single  person 
or  power,  but  is  essentially  a  great  principle  or  system 
of  falsehood,  having  various  manifestations,  forms  of 


working,  and  degrees,  as  especially  exemplified  in  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes,  Jewish  bigotry,  and  pagan  intoler- 
ance ;  while  it  is  undeniable  that  later  Romanism  ex- 
hibits some  of  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of 
Antichrist  in  a  manner  so  striking  and  peculiar  as  to 
assure  us  that  the  sj'stem  is  not  only  one  among  the 
many  species  of  Antichrist,  but  that  it  stands  in  the 
fore-front,  and  is  pointed  at  by  the  finger  of  prophecy 
as  no  other  form  of  Antichrist  is  (Eden,  s.  v.). 

V.  Time  of  Antichrist. — A  vast  deal  of  labor  has 
been  spent  upon  computations  based  upon  the  "time, 
times,  and  dividing  of  time"  in  Daniel  (vii,  25),  and 
upon  the  "  number  of  the  Beast"  (666)  given  in  Rev. 
xiii,  18.  We  can  only  refer  to  the  commentators  and 
writers  on  prophecy  for  these,  as  it  would  take  too 
much  space  to  enumerate  them.  As  to  Daniel's  "time, 
times,  and  dividing  of  time,"  it  is  commonly  interpret- 
ed to  mean  1260  years.  "  The  papal  power  was  com- 
pletely established  in  the  year  755,  when  it  obtained 
the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  Some,  however,  date  the 
rise  of  Antichrist  in  the  year  of  Christ  606,  and  Mede 
places  it  in  450.  If  the  rise  of  Antichrist  be  not  reck- 
oned till  he  was  possessed  of  secular  authority,  his  fall 
will  happen  when  this  power  shall  be  taken  away.  If 
his  rise  began,  according  to  Mede,  in  456,  he  must 
have  fallen  in  1716;  if  in  606,  it  must  be  in  1866;  if 
in  755,  in  2015.  If,  however,  we  use  prophetical  years, 
consisting  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  days,  and  date 
the  rise  of  Antichrist  in  the  year  755,  his  fall  will  hap- 
pen in  the  year  of  Christ  2000"  (Watson,  s.  v.).  As  to 
the  "number  of  the  beast,"  the  interpretation  sug- 
gested by  Irenauis  is  one  of  the  most  plausible.  The 
number  is  "the  number  of  a  man"  (Rev.  xiii,  18); 
and  Irenaeus  names  Aartivoc  as  fulfilling. the  condi- 
tions (see  Alford,  Comm.,  who  considers  this  the  near- 
est approach  to  a  complete  solution).  But  human  in- 
genuity has  found  the  conditions  fulfilled  also  in  the 
name  of  Mohammed,  Luther,  Napoleon,  and  many  oth- 
ers. After  all  the  learning  and  labor  spent  upon  the 
question,  we  must  confess  that  it  is  yet  left  unsolved. 

YI.  Jeuifh  and  Mohammedan  Traditions  of  Anti- 
christ.— Of  these  we  take  the  following  account  from 
Smith,  s.  v.:  1.  "The  name  given  by  the  Jews  to 
Antichrist  is  (^b^'IN)  Armillus.  There  are  sev- 
eral rabbinical  books  in  which  a  circumstantial  ac- 
count is  given  of  him,  such  as  the  '  Book  of  Zerubba- 
bel,'  and  others  printed  at  Constantinople.  Buxtorf 
gives  an  abridgment  of  their  contents  in  his  Lexicon, 
under  the  head  'Armillus,'  and  in  the  fiftieth  chapter 
of  his  Synagoga  Judaica  (p.  717).  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  Isa.  xi,  4,  where  the  Targum  gives  'By 
the  word  of  his  mouth  the  wicked  Armillus  shall  die,' 
for  '  with  the  breath  of  his  lips  shall  he  slay  the  wick- 
ed.' There  will,  say  the  Jews,  be  twelve  signs  of  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah  :  (1.)  The  appearance  of  three 
apostate  kings  who  have  fallen  away  from  the  faith, 
but  in  the  sight  of  men  appear  to  be  worshippers  of 
the  true  God.  (2.)  A  terrible  heat  of  the  sun.  (3.)  A 
dew  of  blood  (Joel  ii,  i"0).  (4.)  A  healing  dew  for  the 
pious.  (5.)  A  darkness  will  be  cast  upon  the  sun  (Joel 
ii,  31)  for  thirty  days  (Isa.  xxiv,  22).  (6.)  God  will 
give  universal  power  to  the  Romans  for  nine  months, 
during  which  time  the  Roman  chieftain  will  afflict  the 
Israelites ;  at  the  end  of  the  nine  months  God  will 
raise  up  the  Messiah  Ben-Joseph — that  is,  the  Messiah 
of  the  tribe  of  Joseph,  named  Nehemiah — who  will  de- 
feat the  Roman  chieftain,  and  slay  him.  (7.)  Then 
there  will  arise  Armillus,  whom  the  Gentiles  or  Chris- 
tians call  Antichrist.  He  will  be  born  of  a  marble 
statue  in  one  of  the  churches  in  Rome.  He  will  go  to 
the  Romans  and  will  profess  himself  to  be  their  Messiah 
and  their  God.  At  once  the  Romans  will  believe  in 
him  and  accept  him  for  their  king.  Having  made 
the  whole  world  subject  to  him,  he  will  say  to  the  Idu- 
ma?ans  (i.e.  Christians),  'Bring  me  the  law  which  I 
have  given  you.'  They  will  bring  it  with  their  book 
of  prayers;  and  he  will  accept  it  as  his  own,  and  will 


ANTICHRIST 


260 


ANTICHRIST 


exhort  them  to  persevere  in  their  belief  of  him.  Then 
he  will  send  to  Nehemiah,  and  command  the  Jewish 
Law  to  be  brought  him,  and  proof  to  be  given  from  it 
that  he  is  God.  Nehemiah  will  go  before  him,  guard- 
ed by  30,000  warriors  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  and 
will  read,  '  I  am  the  Lord  thy  God:  thou  shalt  have 
none  other  gods  but  me.'  Armillus  will  say  that  there 
are  no  such  words  in  the  Law,  and  will  command  the 
Jews  to  confess  him  to  be  God  as  the  other  nations  had 
confessed  him.  But  Nehemiah  will  give  orders  to  his 
followers  to  seize  and  bind  him.  Then  Armillus,  in 
rage  and  fury,  will  gather  all  his  people  in  a  deep  val- 
ley to  fight  with  Israel,  and  in  that  battle  the  Messiah 
Ben-Joseph  will  fall,  and  the  angels  will  bear  away 
his  body  and  carry  him  to  the  resting-place  of  the  Pa- 
triarchs. Then  the  Jews  will  be  cast  out  by  all  na- 
tions, and  suffer  afflictions  such  as  have  not  been  from 
the  beginning  of  the  world,  and  the  residue  of  them 
will  fly  into  the  desert,  and  will  remain  there  forty  and 
five  days,  during  which  time  all  the  Israelites  who  are 
not  worthy  to  see  the  redemption  shall  die.  (8.)  Then 
the  great  angel  Michael  will  rise  and  blow  three  mighty 
blasts  of  a  trumpet.  At  the  first  blast  there  shall  ap- 
pear the  true  Messiah  Ben-David  and  the  prophet  Eli- 
jah, and  they  will  manifest  themselves  to  the  Jews  in 
the  desert,  and  all  the  Jews  throughout  the  world  shall 
hear  the  sound  of  the  trump,  and  those  that  have  been 
carried  captive  into  Assj'ria  shall  be  gathered  together ; 
and  with  great  gladness  they  shall  come  to  Jerusalem. 
Then  Armillus  will  raise  a  great  army  of  Christians, 
and  lead  them  to  Jerusalem  to  conquer  the  new  king. 
But  God  shall  say  to  Messiah,  '  Sit  thou  on  my  right 
hand,'  and  to  the  Israelites,  '  Stand  still  and  see  what 
God  will  work  for  you  to-day.'  Then  God  will  pour 
down  sulphur  and  fire  from  heaven  (Ezek.  xxxviii, 
2'-'),  and  the  impious  Armillus  shall  die,  and  the  im- 
pious Idumseans  (i.e.  Christians),  who  have  destroyed 
the  house  of  our  God  and  have  led  us  away  into  captiv- 
ity, shall  perish  in  misery,  and  the  Jews  shall  avenge 
themselves  upon  them,  as  it  is  written  :  '  The  house 
of  Jacob  shall  be  a  fire,  and  the  house  of  Joseph  a 
flame,  and  the  house  of  Esau  (i.  e.  the  Christians)  for 
stubble,  and  they  shall  kindle  in  them  and  devour 
them  :  there  shall  not  be  any  remaining  of  the  house 
of  Esau,  for  the  Lord  hath  spoken  it'  (Obad.  18).  (9.) 
On  the  second  blast  of  the  trumpet  the  tombs  shall  be 
opened,  and  Messiah  Ben-David  shall  raise  Messiah 
Ben-Joseph  from  the  dead.  (10.)  The  ten  tribes  shall 
be  led  to  Paradise,  and  shall  celebrate  the  wedding- 
feast  of  the  Messiah.  And  the  Messiah  shall  choose 
a  bride  among  the  fairest  of  the  daughters  of  Israel, 
and  children  and  children's  children  shall  be  born  to 
him,  and  then  he  shall  die  like  other  men,  and  his  sons 
shall  reign  over  Israel  after  him,  as  it  is  written  :  'He 
shall  prolong  his  days'  (Isa.  liii,  10),  which  Rambam 
explains  to  mean, '  He  shall  live  long,  but  he  too  shall 
die  in  great  glory,  and  his  son  shall  reign  in  his  stead, 
and  his  sons'  sons  in  succession'  (Buxtorrii  Synagoga 
Judaica,  p.  717,  Basil,  1661). 

2.  Mussulmans,  as  well  as  Jews  and  Christians,  ex- 
\<  set  an  Antichrist.  They  call  him  Al  Dajjal,  from  a 
name  which  signifies  an  impostor,  or  a  liar;  and  they 
hold  that  their  prophet  Mohammed  taught  one  of  his 
disciples,  whose  name  was  Tamini  Al-Dari,  every  thing 
relating  to  Antichrist.  On  his  authority,  they  tell  us 
that  Antichrist  must  come  at  the  end  of  the  world; 
that  he  will  make  his  entry  into  Jerusalem,  like  Jesus 
Christ,  riding  on  an  ass;  but  thai  Christ,  who  is  not 
dead,  will  conic  at  his  second  advent  to  encounter  him  ;, 
and  that,  after  having  conquered  him,  he  will  then 
•  ]]•■  indeed.  That  the  beast  described  by  John  in  the 
Revelation  will  appear  with  Antichrist,  and  make  war 
against  the  saints;  that  Imam  Mahadi,  who  remains 
concealed  among  the  Mussulmans,  will  then  show  him- 
self, join  Jesus  Christ,  and  with  him  engage  Dajjal; 
after  which  they  will  unite  the  Christians  ami  the 
Mussulmans,  and  of  the  two  religions  will  make  but 


one  (D'Herbelot,  Bill.  Orient,  s.  v.  Daggial,  etc.). — 
Calmet. 

"These  Mohammedan  traditions  are  an  adapta- 
tion of  Christian  prophecy  and  Jewish  legend,  with- 
out any  originality  or  any  beauty  of  their  own.  They 
too  have  their  signs  which  are  to  precede  the  final 
consummation.  The}'  are  divided  into  the  greater  and 
lesser  signs.  Of  the  greater  signs  the  first  is  the  rising 
of  the  sun  from  the  west  (comp.  Matt,  xxiv,  29).  The 
next  is  the  appearance  of  a  beast  from  the  earth,  sixty 
cubits  high,  bearing  the  staff  of  Moses  and  the  seal  of 
Solomon,  with  which  he  will  inscribe  the  word  '  Be- 
liever' on  the  face  of  the  faithful,  and  '  Unbeliever' 
on  all  who  have  not  accepted  Islamism  (comp.  Rev. 
xiii).  The  third  sign  is  the  capture  of  Constantino- 
ple; while  the  spoil  of  which  is  being  divided,  news 
will  come  of  the  appearance  of  Antichrist,  and  every 
man  will  return  to  his  own  home.  Antichrist  will  be 
blind  of  one  eye  and  deaf  of  one  ear,  and  will  have 
the  name  of  Unbeliever  written  on  his  forehead  (Rev. 
xiii).  It  is  he  that  the  Jews  call  Messiah  Ben-David, 
and  say  that  he  will  come  in  the  last  times  and  reign 
over  sea  and  land,  and  restore  to  them  the  kingdom. 
He  will  continue  forty  days,  one  of  these  days  being 
equal  to  a  year,  another  to  a  month,  another  to  a 
week,  the  rest  being  days  of  ordinary  length.  He 
will  devastate  all  other  places,  but  will  not  be  allowed 
to  enter  Mecca  and  Medina,  which  will  be  guarded  by 
angels.  Lastly,  he  will  be  killed  bj'  Jesus  at  the  gate 
of  Lud.  For  when  news  is  received  of  the  appearance 
of  Antichrist,  Jesus  will  come  down  to  earth,  alight- 
ing on  the  white  tower  at  the  east  of  Damascus,  and 
will  slay  him  ;  Jesus  will  then  embrace  the  Moham- 
medan  religion,  marry  a  wife,  and  leave  children  after 
him,  having  reigned  in  perfect  peace  and  security, 
after  the  death  of  Antichrist,  for  forty  years.     (See 

',  Pococke,  Porta  Mosis,  p.  258,  Oxon.  1655 ;  and  Sale, 
Koran,  Preliminary  Biscourse.y,     (Smith,  s.  v.) 

VII.  Literature. — Besides  the  writers  mentioned  in 
the  course  of  this  article,  consult  the  commentators 
on  Daniel,  and  on  the  Thessalonians  and  Apocalypse. 
Compare  the  references  under  Revelation.     Special 

i  dissertations  on  the  text  in  2  Thess.  ii,  3-13,  by  Koppe 
(Gotting.  177G);  Beyer  (Lips.  1824);  Schott  (Jen. 
1832).  For  a  copious  list  of  works  during  the  contro- 
versj'  on  this  subject  between  the  Reformers  and  the 
Roman  Catholics,  see  Walch,  BiUiothvca  Theologica,  ii, 
217  sq.  There  are  works  more  or  less  copious  on  the 
general  subject,  among  others,  by  Raban  Maurus,  Be 
ortu,  vita  et  moribus  Antichrist! ''(1505,  4to)  ;   Dananis, 

|  Be  Antichristo  (Genev.  1577, 175G,  8vo.  transl.  A  Trea- 
tise touching  Antichrist,  fol.,  Lond.  1589);  Abbott,  Be- 
fence  of  the  Reformed  Catholicke  (Lond.  1007);  Mal- 
venda,  De  Antichristo,  fol.  (Rom.  1604,  Val.  1621); 
Downame,CoMcerm'n^7  Antichrist  (Lond.1603) ;  Lessius, 
De  Antichristo  (Antw.  1611);  Grotius,  In  locis  X  T. 
de  Antichristo  (Amst.  1640)  ;  Ness,  Person  and  Period 
of  A  ntichrist  (Lond.  1679) ;  Nisbet,  Mysterious  Language 
of  Paid,  etc.  (Canterb.  1808;  which  makes  the  "man 
of  sin"  refer  not  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  but  to  the 
times  in  which  Paul  wrote);  Maitland,  The  Prophecies 
concerning  Antichrist  (Lond.  1830);  M'Kenzie,  Anti- 
christ and  the  Church  of  Rome  identified  (Edinburgh, 
1835);  Cameron,  The  A ntickrist  (Lond.  1844) ;  Bonar, 
Development  of  Antichrist  (Lond.  1853);  Harrison,  Pro- 

\  phetic  Outlines  (London,  1849);  Knight,  Lectures  on 
the  Prophecies  <->>nv<  rning  Antichrist  (London,  1855). 
Compare  also   Warburtonian  Lecture  (1848);  Bellar- 

|  mine,  Be  Antichristo,  quod  nihil  commune  habeat  cum 
Romano  pontifice;  Opp.  i,  709;  Mede,  Works,  ii;  Ham- 
mond, Works,  iv,  733;  Cocceius,  De  Antichristo ;  Opp. 
ix;  More,  Theol.  Works,  p.  385;  Barlow,  Remains,  p. 
190,  224;  Calmet,  Dissert! .  viii,  351;  Turretin,  Opp. 
iv ;  Priestly,  Evidences,  ii ;  "Williams,  Characters  of 
(>.  T.  p.  349;  Cassells,  Christ  and  Antichrist  (Phila. 
Presb.  Board,  12mo);  Keith,  History  and  Besting  of 
the  World  and  the  Church  (Lond.  1861,  8vo).      See  also 


ANTICHRISTIANISM 


261 


ANTILEGOMENA 


Eden,  Theol.  Dirt. ;  Watson,  Then!.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Todd, 
Discourses  on  Antichrist  (Dull.  1840,  8vo)  ;  Benson,  On 
the  Man  of  Sin;  Newton,  On  the  Prophecies.     See  An- 

TICHRISTIANISM. 

Antichristianism,  a  term  that  conveniently  des- 
ignates, in  a  collective  manner,  the  various  forms  of 
hostility  which  Christianity  has  met  with  at  differ- 
ent times.  It  is  equivalent  to  "  the  spirit  of  Anti- 
christ" (to  tov  ' AvTixpiaroii)  in  the  apostolic  age  (1 
John  iv,  3).  See  Antichrist.  Indeed  it  exhibit- 
ed itself  against  the  true  religion  in  the  persecutions 
which  the  Jews  underwent  from  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(q.  v.),  and  may  be  traced  in  the  history  of  the  proto- 
saint  Abel  (q.  v.).  It  was  this  that  Enoch  (q.  v.)  and 
Noah  denounced  in  their  preaching  (Jude  14;  2  Pet. 
ii,  5-7)  ;  that  "vexed  the  righteous  soul"  of  Lot;  and 
that,  in  fine,  has  broken  forth  in  all  ages  as  the  expres- 
sion of  the  world's  malignity  against  the  good  (comp. 
John  xv,  18-21 ;  2  Tim.  iii,  12).  Since  the  days  of 
persecution  it  has  been  confined  chiefly  to  intellectual 
modes  of  opposition,  and  has  received  the  names  of  In- 
fidelity, Deism,  Rationalism,  etc.  See  Apologetics. 
The  Scriptures,  however,  appear  to  point  to  a  time 
when  the  Antichristian  elements  shall  again  array 
themselves  in  forms  of  palpable  violence.  See  Gog. 
For  "the  carnal  mind"  (to  fporijiui  rrje  aapKoc,  na- 
tive will)  is  no  less  than  ever  opposed  (i'x^na)  to  the 
divine  economy  and  purposes  (Rom.  viii,  7).  It  is  the 
same  "  mystery  of  iniquity"  alreadj'  foreseen  by  Paul 
as  then  "working"  to  successive  developments  (2 
Thess.  ii,  7) ;  "  that  cwopia  in  the  hearts  and  lives, 
in  the  speeches  and  writings  of  men,  which  only  awaits 
the  removal  of  the  hindering  power  to  issue  in  that 
concentrated  manifestation  of  b  avofxoe.,  which  shall 
usher  in  the  times  of  the  end"  (Alford,  Gr.  Test.  prol. 
to  vol.  iii,  p.  68).  A  stream  of  Antichristian  senti- 
ment and  conduct  pervades  the  whole  history  of  the 
world.  The  power  of  evil  which  we  sec  at  work  calls 
forth  Antichristian  formations,  now  in  one  shape,  now 
in  another ;  and  so,  according  to  the  prophets,  it  will 
be  until  the  final  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ 
(Olshauscn,  Commentary,  v,  321  sq.,  Am.  ed.).  See 
Mystery  of  Iniquity  ;  Infidelity. 

Antidicomarianites  or  Antimarians,  a  sect 
of  Christian  disciples  who  appeared  in  Arabia  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  taught  that  Man-  had 
children  by  Joseph  after  the  Lord's  birth.  They  were 
not  heretics,  but  doubtless  honest  opponents  of  the 
growing  Mariolafcry  of  the  time. — Gieseler,  Ch.  Jhst. 
div.  i,  §  97  ;  AValch,  Hist,  der  Ketzereien,  iii,  578  ;  Epi- 
phanius,  Hares.  78,  §  19. 

Antidoron  (dvriSiopov,  a  gift  in  return  or  ex- 
change), the  title  given  to  the  bread  which,  in  the 
Greek  Church,  is  distributed  to  the  people  after  the 
mass.  It  receives  its  name  from  its  being  received 
instea:d  of  the  iiytov  StUpov,  or  holy  communion,  by 
those  who  were  not  prepared  to  receive  the  latter, 
though  also  by  those  who  were.  It  was  also  called 
eulogia,  or  the  "  blessed"  bread,  and  was  sometimes 
sent  by  the  bishop  of  one  church  to  him  of  another  in 
token  of  intercommunion. — Goar,  Hit.  Grcec.  p.  154. 

Antigonus  (ArTiyovoc,  a  frequent  Greek  name, 
Signifying  apparently  against  his  parent),  the  name  of 
two  members  of  the  Asmoniean  family. 

1.  A  son  of  John  Hyrcanus,  and  grandson  of  Simon 
Maecabaeus.  His  brother,  Aristobulus,  made  him  his 
associate  in  the  kingdom,  but  was  at  length  prevailed 
upon  by  their  common  enemies  to  put  him  to  death, 
B.C.  105  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  18  and  19). 

2.  A  son  of  Aristobulus  (brother  to  Hyrcanus  and 
Alexandra),  sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  with  his  fa- 
ther and  brother,  by  Pompey,  who  had  taken  Jerusa- 
lem. After  remaining  in  Italy  for  some  time,  he  re- 
turned to  Judaea,  and,  after  a  variety  of  fortunes,  was 
established  king  and  high-priest,  Herod  being  com- 
pelled to  fly  to  Rome,  B.C.  40-     Having  obtained  as- 


sistance from  Antony  and  Ciesar,  Herod  returned,  and, 
after  a  firm  and  protracted  resistance  on  the  part  of 
Antigonus,  retook  Jerusalem  and  repossessed  himself 
of  the  throne.  Antigonus  surrendered  to  Sosius,  the 
Roman  general,  but  he  was  carried  to  Antioch,  and,  at 
the  solicitation  of  Herod,  was  there  ignominiously  put 
to  death  by  Antony,  B.C.  37.  He  was  the  last  of  the 
Maccabajan  princes  that  sat  on  the  throne  of  Judaea 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  13-16;  Wars,  i,  18,  3;  Dio  Cass. 
xlix,  22 ;  respecting  the  date,  see  Wernsdorf,  D<  ji  It 
Mace.  p.  24  ;   Ideler,  Chronol.  i,  399).— Calmet,  s.  v. 

Antigua,  a  British  West  India  island,  of  the  Lee- 
ward group,  which  in  1848  had  a  population  of  36,190 
souls.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, whose  diocese  comprises,  beyond  Antigua,  the 
British  islands  of  St.  Christopher's  (population  in  1848 
23,127),  Nevis  (population  in  1851  10,200),  Barbuda 
(population  1600),  Montserrat  (population  in  1850  7800), 
Dominica  (population  in  1842  18,291),  Tortola  (popu- 
lation in  1844  6689),  Anguilla  (population  in  1844 
2934),  and  the  Danish  islands  St.  Croix  (population  in 
1850  23,720)  and  St.  Thomas  (population  13,666).  The 
diocese  had,  in  1859,  twenty-seven  clergymen  in  the 
British  islands  (including  two  archdeacons)  and  three 
in  the  Danish  islands.  See  Clergy  List  for  1860  (Lond. 
1860,  8vo).     See  America. 

Antileb'anon.     See  Antilibanus. 

Antilegomena  (dvTiXeyopiva,  contradicted  or 
disputed),  an  epithet  applied  by  the  early  Christian 
writers  to  denote  those  books  of  the  New  Testament 
which,  although  known  to  all  the  ecclesiastical  writ- 
ers, and  sometimes  publicly  read  in  the  churches, 
were  not  for  a  considerable  time  admitted  to  be  gen- 
uine, or  received  into  the  canon  of  Scripture.  These 
books  are  so  denominated  in  contradistinction  to  the 
homologoumena  (upoXoyooptva'),  or  universally  ac- 
knowledged writings.  The  following  is  a  catalogue 
j  of  the  Antilegomena :  The  Second  Epistle  of  Peter ;  the. 
!  Epistle  of  James;  the.  Epistle  of  Jude;  the  Second  and 
j  Third  Epistles  of  John ;  the  Apocalypse,  or  Revelation 
j  of  John;  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

The  earliest  notice  which  we  have  of  this  distinc- 
j  tion  is  that  contained  in  the  Ecclesiasticcd  History  of 
Eusebius,  who  flourished  A.D.  270-340.  He  seems  to 
have  formed  a  triple,  or,  as  it  appears  to  some,  a  quad- 
ruple division  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
terming  them — 1,  the  homologoumena  (received) ;  2, 
the  antilegomena  (controverted) ;  3,  the  nothi  (spuri- 
ous) ;  and  4,  those  which  he  calls  the  utterly  spurious, 
as  being  not  only  spurious  in  the  same  sense  as  the 
former,  but  also  absurd  or  impious.  Among  the  spuria 
ous  he  reckons  the  Acts  of  Paul,  the  Shejyhei-d  of  Her- 
nias, the  Revelation  of  Peter,  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas, 
and  the  Instructions  of  the  Apostles.  He  speaks  doubt- 
fully as  to  the  class  to  which  the  Apocalypse  belongs, 
for  he  himself  includes  it  among  the  spurious :  he  then 
observes  that  some  reject  it,  while  others  reckon  it 
among  the  acknowledged  writings  (homologoumena'). 
Among  the  spurious  writings  he  also  enumerates  the 
Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews.  He  adds,  at  the 
same  time,  that  all  these  may  be  classed  among  the 
antilegomena.  His  account  is  consequentlj'  confused, 
not  to  say  contradictory.  Among  the  utterly  spurious 
he  reckons  such  books  as  the  heretics  brought  forward 
under  pretence  of  their  being  genuine  productions  of 
the  apostles,  such  as  the  so-called  Gospels  of  Peter, 
Thomas,  and  Matthias,  and  the  Acts  of  Andrew,  John, 
and  the  other  apostles.  These  he  distinguishes  from 
the  antilegomena,  as  being  works  which  not  one  of  the 
ancient  ecclesiastical  writers  thought  worthy  of  being 
cited.  Their  style  he  considers  so  remote  from  that 
of  the  apostles,  and  their  contents  so  much  at  variance 
with  the  genuine  doctrines  of  Scripture,  as  to  show 
them  to  have  been  the  inventions  of  heretics,  and  not 
worthy  of  a  place  even  among  the  spurious  writings, 
These  latter  he  has  consequently  been  supposed  to  have 


ANTILEGOMENA 


262 


ANTILEGOMENA 


considered  as  the  compositions  of  orthodox  men,  writ- 
ten with  good  intentions,  but  calculated  by  their  titles 
to  mislead  the  ignorant,  who  might  be  disposed  to  ac- 
count them  as  apostolical  productions,  to  which  honor 
they  had  not  even  a  dubious  claim.  (See  Eusebius, 
Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  5,  25.)  The  same  historian  has  also 
preserved  the  testimony  of  Origen,  who,  in  his  Com- 
mentary on  John  (cited  by  Eusebius),  observes  :  "  Pe- 
ter, upon  whom  the  Church  of  Christ  is  built,  against 
which  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail,  has  left  one 
epistle  undisputed  ;  it  majr  be,  also,  a  second,  but  of 
this  there  is  some  doubt.  What  shall  we  say  of  him 
who  reclined  on  the  breast  of  Jesus,  John,  who  has  left 
one  Gospel,  in  which  he  confesses  that  he  could  write 
so  many  that  the  whole  world  could  not  contain  them  ? 
He  also  wrote  the  Apocalypse,  being  commanded  to 
conceal,  and  not  to  write,  the  voices  of  the  seven 
thunders.  He  has  also  left  us  an  epistle  consisting 
of  very  few  lines  (gtixoi) ;  it  may  be  also  a  second 
and  third  are  from  him,  but  all  do  not  concur  in  their 
genuineness;  both  together  do  not  contain  a  hundred 
stichi"  (for  the  signification  of  this  word,  see  Chris- 
tian Remembrancer,  iii,  4G5  sq.).  And  again,  in  his 
Homilies,  "  The  epistle  with  the  title  '  To  the  Hebrews'' 
has  not  that  peculiar  style  which  belongs  to  an  apostle 
who  confesses  that  he  is  but  rude  in  speech,  that  is,  in 
Lis  phraseology.  But  that  this  epistle  is  more  pure 
Greek  in  the  composition  of  its  phrases,  every  one  will 
confess  who  is  able  to  discern  the  difference  of  style. 
Again,  it  will  be  obvious  that  the  ideas  of  the  apostle 
are  admirable,  and  not  inferior  to  any  of  the  books  ac- 
knowledged to  be  apostolic.  Every  one  will  confess 
the  truth  of  this  who  attentively  reads  the  apostle's 

writings I  would  say,  that  the  thoughts  are  the 

apostle's,  but  that  the  diction  and  phraseology  belong 
to  some  one  who  has  recorded  what  the  apostle  has 
said,  and  as  one  who  has  noted  down  at  his  leisure 
what  his  master  dictated.  If,  then,  any  Church  con- 
siders this  epistle  as  coming  from  Paul,  let  him  be 
commended  for  this,  for  neither  did  these  eminent  men 
deliver  it  for  this  without  cause :  but  who  it  was  that 
really  wrote  the  epistle  God  only  knows.  The  ac- 
count, however,  that  has  been  current  before  our  time 
is,  according  to  some,  that  Clement,  who  was  bishop 
of  Rome,  wrote  the  epistle  ;  according  to  others,  that 
it  was  written  by  Luke,  who  wrote  the  Gospel  and  the 
Acts"  (Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles.  vi,  25). 

Upon  other  occasions  Origen  expresses  his  doubts 
in  regard  to  the  antilegomena,  as,  where,  in  his  com- 
mentary on  John's  Gospel,  he  speaks  of  the  reputed 
(^ipofiivn)  Epistle  of  James,  and  in  his  commentary 
on  Matthew,  where  he  uses  the  phrase,  "  If  we  ac- 
knowledge the  Epistle  of  Jude ;"  and  of  the  Second 
and  Third  Epistles  of  John  he  observes,  that  '"all 
do  not  acknowledge  them  as  genuine ;"  by  which  epi- 
thet, we  presume,  he  means  written  by  the  person  to 
whom  they  are  ascribed.  It  is  remarkable  that  Eu- 
sebius (ii,  23;  iii,  25)  classes  the  Epistle  of  James,  the 
Acts  of  Paul,  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  and  the  Epistle 
of  Barnabas,  at  one  time  with  the  spurious,  and  at  an- 
other witli  the  antilegomena.  By  the  word  spurious, 
in  this  instance  at  least,  he  can  mean  no  more  than 
that  the  genuineness  of  such  books  was  disputed  ;  as, 
for  instance,  the  (ii>s/,<  I  of  ike  Hebrews,  which  was  re- 
ceived by  the  Ebionites  as  a  genuine  production  of  the 
Evangelist  .Matthew.  This  is  the  work  of  which  Je- 
rome made  a  transcript,  as  he  himself  informs  us,  from 
the  copy  preserved  by  the  zeal  of  Paniphilns  in  the 
( Isesarean  Library.  He  also  informs  us  that  he  trans- 
lated it  into  Greek,  and  that  it  was  considered  by 
most  persons  as  the  original  Gospel  of  Matthew 
(Dialog,  contra  Pelag.  iii.  2.  and  Comment,  in  Matt. 
xii ).  Whether  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  was  ever  in- 
cluded among  the  antilegomena  seems  doubtful.  Eu- 
sebius informs  us  that  "  it  was  disputed,  and  conse- 
quently not  placed  among  the  homologoumena.  By 
others,  however,  it  is  judged  most  necessary,  espe- 


cially to  those  who  need  an  elementary  introduction  ; 
hence  we  know  that  it  has  been  already  in  public  use 
in  our  churches,  and  I  have  also  understood,  by  tra- 
dition, that  some  of  the  most  ancient  writers  have 
made  use  of  it"  (iii,  3).  Origen  speaks  of  The  Shep- 
herd as  "  commonly  used  by  the  Church,  but  not  re- 
ceived as  divine  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  all." 
He  therefore  cites  it,  not  as  authority,  but  simply  by 
way  of  illustration  (lib.  x,  in  Epist.  ad  Roman.).  Eu- 
sebius further  informs  us  that  in  his  own  time  there 
were  some  in  the  Church  of  Rome  who  did  not  regard 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  as  the  production  of  the 
Apostle  Paul  (vi,  25 ;  iii,  3).  Indeed,  it  was  through 
the  influence  of  Jerome  that  the  Church  of  Rome,  at 
a  much  later  period,  was  with  much  difficulty  brought 
to  acknowledge  it  as  canonical.  "The  most  ancient 
Latin  or  Western  Church  did  not  rank  it  among  the 
canonical  writings,  though  the  epistle  was  well  known 
to  them,  for  Clement  of  Rome  has  quoted  from  it 
manj-  passages.  It  is  true  that  some  Latin  writers 
in  the  fourth  century  received  it,  among  whom  was 
Jerome  himself;  yet  even  in  the  time  of  Jerome  the 
Latin  Church  had  not  placed  it  among  the  canonical 
writings"  (Marsh's  Michaelis,  iv,  2GC).  "The  re- 
puted Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,"  says  Jerome,  "  is  sup- 
posed not  to  be  Paul's  on  account  of  the  difference  of 
style,  but  it  is  believed  to  have  been  written  by  Bar- 
nabas, according  to  Tertullian,  or  by  Luke  the  Evan- 
gelist; according  to  others,  bj'  Clement,  afterward 
bishop  of  the  Roman  Church,  who  is  said  to  have  re- 
duced to  order  and  embellished  Paul's  sentiments  in 
his  own  language  ;  or  at  least  that  Paul,  in  writing  to 
the  Hebrews,  had  purposely  omitted  all  mention  of 
!  his  name,  in  consequeuce  of  the  odium  attached  to  it, 
'  and  wrote  to  them  eloquently  in  Hebrew,  as  a  Hebrew 
of  the  Hebrews,  arid  that  what  he  thus  eloquently 
wrote  in  Hebrew  was  still  more  eloquently  written  in 
j  Greek,  and  that  this  was  the  cause  of  the  difference 
I  in  style"  (Ex  Catalog.).  And  again,  in  his  epistle  to 
Dardanus,  "  I  must  acquaint  our  people  that  the 
epistle  which  is  inscribed  '  To  the  Hebrews'  is  ac- 
knowledged as  the  Apostle  Paul's,  not  only  by  the 
Churches  of  the  East,  but  by  all  the  Greek  ecclesiastical 
writers,  although  most  [of  the  Latins  ?]  conceive  it  to 
be  either  written  by  Barnabas  or  Clement,  and  that  it 
matters  nothing  by  whom  it  was  written,  as  it  proceeds 
from  a  churchman  (ecclesiastici  viri),  and  is  celebrated 
by  being  daily  read  in  the  churches.  But  if  the  custom 
of  the  Latins  does  not  receive  it  among  canonical  Scrip- 
tures, nor  the  Greek  Churches  the  Apocalypse  of  St. 
John,  /,  notwithstanding,  receive  them  both,  not  fol- 
lowing the  custom  of  the  present  age,  but  the  author- 
ity of  ancient  writers  ;  not  referring  to  them  as  they 
are  in  the  habit  of  doing  with  respect  to  apocryphal 
writings,  and  citations  from  classical  and  profane  au- 
thors, but  as  canonical  ::nd  ecclesiastical."  "  Peter 
also,"  says  Jerome,  "wrote  two  epistles  called  Cath- 
olic ;  the  second  of  which  is  denied  by  most  on  ac- 
count of  the  difference  of  style  (Ex  Catalog.).  Jude 
is  rejected  by  most  in  consequence  of  the  citation 
from  the  apocryphal  book  of  Enoch.  Notwithstand- 
ing, it  has  authoritjr  by  use  and  antiquity,  and  is  ac- 
counted among  the  Holy  Scriptures"  (Ibid.)  ;  and  in 
his  Letter  to  Paulinvs :  "  Paul  wrote  to  seven  churches, 
but  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  by  most  excluded 
from  the  number  ;"  and  in  his  commentary  on  Isaiah, 
he  observes  that  "the  Latin  usage  does  not  receive 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  among  the  canonical 
books."  Contemporary  with  Jerome  was  his  antag- 
onist Ruffinus,  who  reckons  fourteen  epistles  of  Paul, 
two  of  Peter,  one  of  James,  three  of  John,  and  the 
Apocalypse. 

It  seems  doubtful  whether,  antecedent  to  the  times 
of  Jerome  and  Ruffinus,  any  councils,  even  of  single 
churches,  had  settled  upon  the  canon  of  Scripture,  and 
decided  the.  question  respecting  the  antilegomena,  for 
the  removal  of  doubts  among  their  respective  commu- 


ANTILEGOMENA 


263 


ANTILEGOMENA 


nities ;  for  it  seems  evident  that  the  general  or  oecu- 
menical council  of  Nice,  which  met  in  the  year  3:25, 
formed  no  catalogue.  The  first  catalogue,  indeed, 
which  has  come  down  to  us  is  that  of  an  anonymous 
writer  of  the  third  century.  He  reckons  thirteen 
epistles  of  Paul,  accounts  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
the  work  of  an  Alexandrian  Marcionite,  mentions  the 
Epistle  of  Jude,  two  of  John,  and  the  revelations  of 
John  and  Peter,  saying,  with  respect  to  them,  that 
"some  among  us  are  opposed  to  their  being  read  in 
the  church"  (see  Hug's  Introduction,  §  xiv).  But 
soon  after  the  council  of  Nice  public  opinion  turned 
gradually  in  favor  of  the  antilegomena,  or  controvert- 
ed books  ;  for  we  then  find  them  for  the  first  time 
cited  without  any  marks  of  doubt  as  to  their  canonici- 
ty.  Thus,  in  the  year  348,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  enu- 
merates fourteen  epistles  of  Paul  and  seven  Catholic 
epistles.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  who,  according  to 
Cave  (Ilistoria  Literaria),  was  bom  about  the  time  of 
the  Nicene  Council,  and  died  in  389,  enumerates  all 
the  books  now  received  except  the  Apocalypse.  Epi- 
phanius,  who  was  chosen  bishop  of  Constantia  in  A.D. 
307  or  3G8,  and  composed  his  catalogue  of  ecclesias- 
tical writers  in  392,  cites,  in  his  Panarium,  the  differ- 
ent books  of  the  New  Testament  in  a  manner  which 
shows  that  he  received  all  that  are  in  the  present  can- 
on. Of  the  Apocalypse  he  says  that  it  was  "  general- 
ly or  by  most  received;"  and,  speaking  of  the  Alo- 
gians,  who  rejected  all  John's  writings,  he  observes, 
"  If  they  had  rejected  the  Apocalypse  only,  it  might 
have  been  supposed  that  they  had  acted  from  a  nice 
critical  judgment,  as  being  circumspect  in  regard  to  an 
apocryphal  or  mysterious  book  ;  but  to  reject  all  John's 
writings  was  a  sign  of  an  anti-Christian  spirit."  Am- 
philochius  also,  bishop  of  Iconium,  in  Lycaonia,  who 
was  contemporary  with  Epiphanius,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  died  soon  after  the  year  394,  after  citing  the 
fourteen  epistles  of  Paul,  in  his  Iambics,  adds,  "But 
some  say  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  spurious,  not 
speaking  correctly,  for  it  is  a  genuine  gift.  Then  the 
Catholic  epistles,  of  which  some  receive  seven,  others 
only  three,  one  of  James,  one  of  Peter,  one  of  John ; 
while  others  receive  three  of  John,  two  of  Peter,  and 
Jude's.  The  Revelation  of  John  is  approved  by  some, 
while  many  say  it  is  spurious."  The  eighty-fifth  of 
the  Apostolical  Canons,  a  work  falsely  ascribed  to 
Clement  of  Rome,  but  written  at  latest  in  the  fourth 
century,  enumerates  fourteen  epistles  of  Paul,  one.  of 
Peter,  three  of  John,  one  of  James,  one  of  Jude,  two  of 
Clement,  and  the  (so-called)  Apostolical  Constitutions, 
among  the  canonical  books  of  Scripture.  This  latter 
book,  adds  the  pseudo-Clement,  it  is  not  fit  to  publish 
before  all,  "because  of  the  mysteries  contained  in  it." 
The  first  council  that  is  supposed  to  have  given  a  list 
of  the  canonical  books  is  the  much  agitated  council  of 
Laodicea,  supposed  to  have  been  held  about  the  year 
360  or  364  by  thirty  or  forty  bishops  of  Lydia  and  the 
neighboring  parts ;  but  the  fifty-ninth  article,  which 
gives  a  catalogue  of  the  canonical  books,  is  not  gener- 
ally held  to  be  genuine.  Its  genuineness,  indeed,  has 
been  questioned  by  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant historians.  In  his  Introduction  to  the  Old 
Testament  Jahn  refers  to  this  canon  as  the  work  of 
"  an  anonymous  framer."  Among  the  canonical  books 
included  in  the  pretended  fifty-ninth  canon  of  this 
council  are  the  seven  Catholic  epistles,  viz.,  one  of 
James,  two  of  Peter,  three  of  John,  one  of  Jude  ;  four- 
teen of  Paul,  in  the  following  order,  viz.,  Romans,  1 
and  2  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philippians, 
Colossians,  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  Hebrews,  1  and  2 
Timothy,  Titus,  and  Philemon.  The  Apocalypse  ia 
not  named.  Jerome  and  Augustine,  whose  opinions 
had  great  influence  in  settling  the  canon  of  Scripture, 
essentially  agreed  in  regard  to  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament.  St.  Augustine  was  present  in  the  year 
393  at  the  council  of  Hippo,  which  drew  up  a  catalogue 
of  all  the  books  of  Scripture,  agreeing  in  all  points,  so 


far  as  the  New  Testament  was  concerned,  with  the 
canon  universally  received,  with  the  exception,  per- 
haps, of  the  Hebrews,  for  the  ancient  doubt  still  ap- 
pears through  the  wording  of  the  acts  of  this  council. 
They  commence  with  enumerating  only  thirteen  epis- 
tles of  Paul,  and  then  add  "  one,  by  the  same  author, 
to  the  Hebrews."  They  then  mention  two  of  Peter, 
three  of  John,  one  of  James,  and  the  Apocalypse,  with 
a  proviso  that  the  churches  beyond  the  sea  be  consult- 
ed with  respect  to  this  canon.  And  to  the  same  effect 
the  council  of  Carthage,  held  in  the  year  397,  having 
adopted  the  same  catalogue,  the  bishops  assembled  in 
council  add,  "  But  let  this  be  known  to  our  brother 
and  fellow-priest  (consacerdoti)  Boniface  [bishop  of 
Rome],  or  to  the  other  bishops  of  those  parts,  that  we 
have  received  those  [books]  from  the  fathers  to  be 
read  in  the  church."  The  same  catalogue  is  repeated 
in  the  epistle  of  Innocent  I,  bishop  of  Rome,  to  St. 
Exupere,  bishop  of  Toulouse,  in  the  year  404,  which, 
by  those  who  acknowledge  its  genuineness,  is  looked 
upon  as  a  confirmation  of  the  decrees  of  Hippo  and 
Carthage.  It  was  still  more  formally  confirmed  in 
the  Roman  synod  presided  over  by  Pope  Gelasius  in 
494,  "if,  indeed,"  to  use  the  words  of  the  learned  Ro- 
man Catholic  Jahn,  "the  acts  of  this  synod  are  genuine" 
(see  his  Introduction).  But,  however  this  may  be,  the 
controversy  had  now  nearly  subsided,  and  the  antile- 
gomena w^ere  henceforward  put  on  a  par  with  the  ac- 
knowledged books,  and  took  their  place  beside  them  in 
all  copies  of  the  Scriptures.  Indeed,  subsequently  to 
the  eras  of  the  councils  of  Hippo  and  Carthage,  we 
hear  but  a  solitary  voice  raised  here  and  there  against 
the  genuineness  of  the  antilegomena.  Theodore,  bish- 
op of  Mopsuestia,  for  instance,  the  celebrated  Syrian 
commentator  and  preacher,  who  died  about  A.D.  428, 
is  accused  by  Leo  of  Byzantium  of  having  "  abrogated 
and  antiquated  the  Epistle  of  James,  and  afterward 
other  Catholic  epistles"  (see  Canisii  Thesaurus,  i,  577). 
And  Cosmas  Indicoplcustes,  so  called  from  the  voyage 
which  he  made  to  India  about  the  year  535  to  547,  in 
his  Christian  Topography,  has  the  following  observa- 
tions in  reference  to  the  authority  of  these  books:  "  I 
fori  >ear  to  allege  arguments  from  the  Catholic  epistles, 
because  from  ancient  times  the  Church  has  looked 

upon  them  as  of  doubtful  authority Euse- 

bius  Pamphilus,  in  his  Ecclesiastical  History,  says 
that  at  Ephesus  there  are  two  monuments,  one  of  John 
the  Evangelist,  and  another  of  John,  an  elder,  who 
wrote  two  of  the  Catholic  epistles,  the  second  and 
third  inscribed  after  this  manner,  '  The  elder  to  the 
elect  lady,'  and  '  The  elder  to  the  beloved  Gaius,'  and 
both  he  and  Irenoeus  say  that  but  two  are  written  by 
the  apostles,  the  first  of  Peter,  and  the  first  of  John. 

Among  the  Syrians  are  found  only  the  three 

before  mentioned,  viz.,  the  Epistle  of  James,  the  Epis- 
tle of  Peter,  and  the  Epistle  of  John  ;  they  have  not 
the  rest.  It  does  not  become  a  perfect  Christian  to 
confirm  any  thing  by  doubtful  books,  when  the  books 
in  the  Testament  acknowledged  by  all  (homologoumena) 
have  sufficiently  declared  all  things  to  be  known  about 
the  heavens,  and  the:  earth,  and  the  elements,  and  all 
Christian  doctrine." 

The  most  ancient  Greek  manuscripts  which  have 
come  down  to  our  times  contain  the  Antilegomena. 
From  this  circumstance  it  is  extremely  probable  that 
the  copies  from  which  they  were  transcribed  were 
written  after  the  controversies  respecting  their  canon- 
icity  had  subsided.  The  Alexandrian  manuscript  in 
the  British  Museum  (now  generally  admitted  to  have 
been  written  in  the  fourth  or  early  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury) contains  all  the  books  now  commonly  received, 
together  with  some  others,  with  a  table  of  contents, 
in  which  they  are  cited  in  the  following  order  :  "  Sev- 
en Catholic  "epistles,  fourteen  of  Paul,  the  Revelation 
of  John,  the  First  Epistle  of  Clement,  the  Second  Epis- 
tle of  Clement,  and  the  Psalms  of  Solomon  (which  lat- 
ter have,  however,  been  lost  from  the  MS.)."     (It  ia 


ANTILIBANUS 


264 


ANTINOMIANS 


observable  that  Eusebius  classes  the  First  Epistle  of 
Clement  among  the  Homologoumena,  or  universally- 
received  books;  but  by  this  he  probably  meant  no 
more  than  that  it  was  acknowledged  by  all  to  be  the 
genuine  work  of  Clement.)  The  order  of  all  the  epis- 
tles is  the  same  as  in  our  modern  Bibles,  except  that  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  placed  after  the  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Thessalonians.  In  the  Vatican  manuscript  13, 
which,  in  respect  of  antiquity,  disputes  the  precedence 
with  the  Alexandrian,  the  Apocalypse  is  wanting,  but 
it  contains  the  remaining  antilegomena.  (The  omis- 
sion of  this  last  book  ma}'  be  owing  simply  to  the  loss 
of  the  last  part  of  the  codex,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  concluding  chapters  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  whole 
of  1  and  2  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Philemon  are  likewise 
missing.)  The  Syrian  canon  of  the  New  Testament  did 
not  include  all  the  antilegomena.  All  the  manuscripts 
of  the  Syrian  version  (the  Peshito,  a  work  of  the  second 
century)  which  have  come  down  to  us  omit  the  Second 
Epistle  of  Peter,  the  Second  and  Third  of  John,  that 
of  Jade,  and  the  Apocalypse.  Nor  are  these  books 
received  to  this  day  either  bj-  the  Jacobite  or  Nesto- 
rian  Christians.  These  are  all  wanting  in  the  Vati- 
can and  Medicean  copies,  written  in  the  years  548  and 
586,  and  in  the  beautiful  manuscript  of  the  Peshito, 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  the  writing  of 
which  was  concluded  at  the  monastery  of  Bethkoki, 
A.D.  768,  on  197  leaves  of  vellum,  in  the  Estrangelo 
character. 

In  the  inquiring  age  immediately  preceding  the 
Reformation  the  controversy  respecting  the  antilego- 
mena was  revived,  especially  by  Erasmus  and  Cardi- 
nal Cajetan ;  by  the  latter,  however,  upon  principles 
so  questionable  as  to  expose  him  to  the  charge  of  as- 
sailing the  authority  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
with  the  same  weapons  which  the  Emperor  Julian  had 
employed  to  impugn  the  authority  of  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel. .  The  doubts  thus  raised  were  in  a  great  measure 
silenced  by  the  decree  of  the  council  of  Trent,  al- 
though there  have  not  been  wanting  learned  Roman 
Catholic  divines  since  this  period  who  have  ventured 
to  question  at  least  the  Pauline  authorship  of  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews.  It  is  well  known  that  Luther, 
influenced  in  this  instance  not  so  much  by  historieo- 
critical  as  by  dogmatical  views,  called  the  Epistle  of 
James  "  an  epistle  of  straw"  (epistola  straminea).  He 
also  wished  the  antilegomena  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  books  in  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  In 
consequence  of  this,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the 
Epistles  of  James  and  Jude,  and  the  Apocalypse  have 
no  numbers  attached  to  them  in  the  German  copies  of 
the  Bible  up  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century ; 
and  it  is  observed  by  Tholuck  {Commentary  on  He- 
brews, in  Biblical  Cabinet')  that  "  the  same  plan  should 
have  been  adopted  with  respect  to  second  Peter  and 
second  and  third  John,  but  it  did  not  seem  proper  to 
detach  them  from  the  Homologonmena  which  belonged 
to  them.  Thus  he  wished  at  the  same  time  to  point 
out  what  were  the  "right  noble  chief  books  of  Scrip- 
ture." We  are  informed  by  Father  Paul  Sarpi  {Hist, 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  bk.  ii,  ch.  xliii,  t.  i,  p.  235; 
and  ch.  xlvii,  p.  240)  that  one  of  the  charges  collected 
from  the  writings  of  Luther  in  this  council  was  "that 
no  books  should  be  admitted  into  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  which  were  not  in  the  canon  of  the  Jews, 
and  that  from  the  New  should  be  excluded  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews,  the  Epistle  of  James,  the  Second 
Epistle  of  Peter,  the  Second  and  Third  of  John,  and 
the  Apocalypse."  Tholuck  states  that  the  "  Evan- 
gelical Churches,  both  Lutheran  and  Reformed,  adopt- 
ed the  same  canon  with  respect  to  the  New  Testament 
as  that  of  the  council  of  Trent"  {Comment,  on  Jleb. 
vol.  i,  Introd.,  ch.  i,  §  3,  note  b).  Some,  or  all,  of 
the  antilegomena  have  been  again  impugned  in  recent 
times,  especially  in  Germany.  See  each  in  its  place. 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     Compare  Can-on  (of  Scripture). 

Antilib'anus   (AvTtXiijavor,  opposite   Libanus, 


Judith  i,  7),  the  eastern  of  the  two  great  parallel 
ridges  of  mountains  that  enclose  the  valley  of  Cade- 
Syria  proper  (Strabo,  xvi,  754  ;  Ptol.  v,  15,  §8;  Pliny, 
v,  20).  It  is  now  called  Jebel  esh-Shurki.  The  He- 
brew name  of  Lebanon  (Sept.  Aijiavog,  Vulg.  Libanus), 
which  signitics  "whitish,"  from  the  gray  color  of  the 
limestone,  comprehends  the  two  ranges  of  Libanus 
and  Antilibanus,  as  they  are  distinguished  in  classical 
usage.  The  general  direction  of  the  Antilebanon 
range  is  from  north-east  to  south-west.  Nearly  oppo- 
site Damascus  it  bifurcates  into  diverging  ridges  ;  the 
easternmost  of  these,  the  Hekmon  of  the  O.  T.  {Jebel 
esh-Sheilh),  continues  its  south-west  course,  and  at- 
tains, in  its  greatest  elevation,  a  point  about  10,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  other  ridge  takes  a  more  westerlj' 
course,  is  long  and  low,  and  at  length  unites  with  the 
other  bluffs  and  spurs  of  Libanus.  The  former  of  these 
branches  was  called  by  the  Sidonians  Siric.n,  and  by 
the  Amorites  Shenir  (Deut.  iii,  9),  both  names  signi- 
fying "a  coat  of  mail"  (Roscnmuller,  Alterth.  ii,  235). 
In  Deuteronomy  (iv,  9)  it  is  called  Mount  Sion,  "an 
elevation."  In  the  later  books  (Cant,  iv,  8  ;  1  Chron. 
v,  23)  Shenir  is  distinguished  from  Hermon  properly 
so  called ;  and  in  its  Arabic  form,  Sunir,  this  was  ap- 
plied, in  the  Middle  Ages,  to  Antilibanus,  north  of 
Hermon  (Abulfeda,  Tab.  Syr.  p.  1G4).  The  geologi- 
cal formations  seem  to  belong  to  the  Upper  Jura  classi- 
fication of  rocks,  oolite  and  Jura  dolomite  prevailing. 
The  poplar  is  characteristic  of  its  vegetation.  The 
outlying  promontories,  in  common  with  those  of  Lib- 
anus, supplied  the  Phoenicians  with  abundance  of  tim- 
ber for  ship-building. — Grote,  Hist.  <Tf  Greece,  iii,  358; 
Ritter,  Erdkunde,  XV,  ii,  156  sq.,  495  ;  Raumer,  Paldst. 
p.  29-35;  Burckhardt,  Syria;  Robinson,  Researches, 
iii,  344,  345.     See  Lebanon. 

Antimensium  (from  avri,  instead  of,  and  mensa, 
a  table),  a  consecrated  table-cloth,  occasionally  used 
in  the  Greek  Church  in  places  where  there  was  no 
altar.  It  answers  to  the  Latin  altare  portabile,  or  port- 
able altar.  The  origin  of  this  cloth  is  said  to  be  the 
following:  When  the  bishop  consecrated  a  church,  a 
cloth,  which  had  been  spread  on  the  ground  and  over 
the  communion-table,  was  torn  in  pieces  and  distrib- 
uted among  the  priests,  who  carried  away  each  a  frag- 
ment to  serve  to  cover  the  tables  in  their  churches 
and  chapels ;  not  that  it  was  necessary  such  cloths 
should  be  laid  on  all  tables,  but  only  on  those  which 
either  were  not  consecrated  or  whose  consecration 
was  doubtful. 

Anti-mission  Baptists.     See  Baptists. 

Antinomians  (from  avri,  against,  and  vdpoc,  the 
law),  those  who  reject  the  moral  law  as  not  binding 
upon  Christians.  Some  go  farther  than  this,  and  say 
that  good  works  hinder  salvation,  and  that  a  child  of 
God  cannot  sin  ;  that  the  moral  law  is  altogether  ab- 
rogated as  a  rule  of  life ;  that  no  Christian  believeth 
or  worketh  any  good,  but  that  Christ  only  believeth 
and  worketh,  etc.  AVesley  defines  Antinomianism  as 
"the  doctrine  which  makes  void  the  law  through 
faith."  Its  root  lies  in  a  false  view  of  the  atonement ; 
its  view  of  the  imputation  of  Christ's  righteousness 
implies  that  he  performs  for  men  the  obedience  which 
they  ought  to  perform,  and  therefore  that  God,  in  jus- 
tice, can  demand  nothing  further  from  man.  As  con- 
sequences of  this  doctrine,  Antinomianism  affirms  that 
Christ  abolished  the  moral  law;  that  Christians  are 
therefore  not  obliged  to  observe  it ;  that  a  believer  is 
not  obliged  to  use  the  ordinances,  and  is  freed  from 
"the  bondage  of  good  works;"  and  that  preachers 
ought  not  to  exhort  men  unto  good  works:  not  unbe- 
lievers, because  it  is  hurtful;  not  believers,  because  it 
is  needless  (Wesley,  ll'irfs,  v,  196). 

1.  Antinomianism,  i.  e.  faith  without  works,  is  one 
of  the  forms  of  error  against  which  the  Epistle  of 
James  is  directed,  showing  that  even  in  the  apostolic 
age  it  had  made  its  appearance.     So  the  tract  of 


ANTINOMIAXS 


265 


ANTINOMIANS 


Augustine  (contra  adversarium  legis  et  prophetarum) 
indicates  the  existence  of  such  opinions  in  the  fourth 
century. 

2.  But  the  full  development  of  Antinomianism  is 
due  to  John  Agricola  (f  1566),  one  of  the  early  coad- 
jutors of  Luther.  See  Agricola.  Some  of  the  ex- 
pressions of  Luther  and  Melancthon,  as  to  justifica- 
tion and  the  law,  in  the  ardor  of  their  controversy 
with  Koine,  were  hasty  and  extravagant :  e.  g.  Lu- 
ther declared  that  "in  the  new  covenant  there  is  no 
longer  a  constraining  and  forcing  law  ;  and  that  those 
who  must  be  scared  and  driven  by  laws  are  unworthy 
the  name  of  Christians"  (Luther,  Werke,  Walch's  ed. 
xviii,  1855).  So,  in  his  writings  against  the  Zwickau 
enthusiasts,  he  was  hast}'  enough  to  say, ' '  These  teach- 
ers of  sin  annoy  us  with  Moses  ;  we  do  not  wish  to  see 
or  hear  Moses ;  for  Moses  was  given  to  the  Jews,  not 
to  us  Gentiles  and  Christians;  wo  have  our  Gospel 
and  New  Testament ;  they  wish  to  make  Jews  of  us 
through  Moses  ;  but  they  shall  not"  (  Werke,  xx,  203). 
Melancthon  (Loci  Communes,  1st  ed.  hy  Augusti,  p. 
127)  declares  that  "it  must  be  admitted  that  the  Dec- 
alogue is  abrogated."  But  these  unguarded  expres- 
sions did  not  set  forth  the  real  views  of  Luther  and 
Melancthon.  So,  in  the  "Instructions  to  the  Pastors 
of  the  Saxon  Electorate"  (1527),  it  was  enjoined  that 
"  all  pastors  must  teach  and  enforce  diligentty  the 
ten  commandments,  and  not  only  the  commandments 
themselves,  but  also  the  penalties  which  God  has  af- 
fixed to  the  violation  of  them."  Agricola  saw  in 
these  instructions  what  he  thought  was  a  backsliding 
from  the  true  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  only, 
and  charged  Luther  and  Melancthon  bitterly  with  de- 
reliction in  faith  and  doctrine.  He  affirmed  that  the 
Decalogue  is  not  binding  on  Christians,  and  that  true 
repentance  comes,  not  from  preaching  the  law,  but  by 
faith.  Luther  confuted  Agricola,  who  professed  to  re- 
tract at  Torgau  (1527)  ;  but  Melancthon  remarked 
that  "  Agricola  was  not  convinced,  but  overborne" 
(Corpus  Reformatorum,  i,  914).  Accordingly,  in  1537, 
when  Agricola  was  established  at  Wittenberg,  he 
wrote  a  number  of  propositions,  published  anony- 
mously, under  the  title  Positiones  inter  fratres  spar- 
see,  on  the  nature  of  repentance  and  its  relations  to 
faith,  in  which  his  heresy  was  taught  again,  even  in 
language  so  extreme  as  the  following:  "Art  thou 
steeped  in  sin — an  adulterer  or  a  thief?  If  thou  be- 
lievest,  thou  art  in  salvation.  All  who  follow  Moses 
must  go  to  the  Devil;  to  the  gallows  with  Moses." 
After  a  while  Agricola  confessed  the  authorship  of 
these  theses  ;  and  Luther  replied  in  a  series  of  dispu- 
tations (Werke,  Walch,  xx,  2034;  ed.  Altenb.  vii,  310 
sq.),  in  which  he  refuted  the  doctrines  of  Agricola, 
but  dealt  gently  with  him  personally.  Finding  mild- 
ness of  no  avail,  Luther  attacked  Agricola  violently 
in  1539  and  1540,  classing  him  with  the  Anabaptist  fa- 
natics, and  calling  him  very  hard  names.  About  this 
time  Agricola  had  a  call  to  Berlin,  retracted  again, 
and  was  reconciled  to  Luther  (Dec.  9,  154d).  He  con- 
tinued, however,  to  be  violently  attacked  by  Flacius. 
After  the  death  of  Agricola,  Antinomian  opinions  were 
in  particular  advocated  in  Germany  by  Amsdorf  (q.v.), 
who  maintained  that  good  works  are  an  obstacle  to 
salvation,  and  by  Otto  of  Nordhausen,  who  repeated 
the  opinions  of  Agricola.  In  the  Formula  Concoreliie 
(pt.  ii,  cap.  v,  §  11)  we  find  the  following  condemna- 
tion of  these  heresies  :  "  Et  juste  damnantur  Antinomi 
udversarii  legis,  qui  prcedicationem  legis  ex  ecclesiei  er- 
plodmt  et  affirmant,  noil  ex  lege,  seel  ex  solo  Ecangelio 
p  ccat  i  arejuenda  et  contritionem  doeeneleim  esse." 

■'!.  Similar  sentiments  were  maintained  in  England 
during  the  protectorate  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  especially 
by  his  chaplain  Saltmarsh,  and  some  of  the  so-called 
"sectaries,"  who  expressly  maintained  that,  as  the 
^lcct  cannot  fall  from  grace  nor  forfeit  the  divine  fa- 
vor, the  wicked  actions  they  commit  are  not  really 
sinful   nor  to  be  considered  as  instances  of  their  vio- 


lation of  the  divine  law  ;  and  that,  consequently,  they 
have  no  occasion  either  to  confess  their  sins  or  to  break 
them  off  by  repentance. 

4.  Antinomianism  arose  also,  in  the  17th  century, 
from  ultra-Calvinism,  especially  as  taught  by  Dr. 
Crisp  (j  1642).  It  is  true  he  acknowledges  that,  "  In 
respect  of  the  rules  of  righteousness,  or  the  matter  of 
obedience,  we  arc  under  the  law  still,  or  else,"  as  ho 
adds,  "we  are  lawless,  to  live  every  man  as  seems 
good  in  his  own  eyes,  which  no  true  Christian  dares 
so  much  as  think  of."  The  following  sentiments, 
however,  among  others,  are  taught  in  his  sermons : 
"The  law  is  cruel  and  tyrannical,  requiring  what  is 
naturally  impossible."  "The  sins  of  the  elect  were 
so  imputed  to  Christ,  as  that,  though  he  did  not  com- 
mit them,  yet  they  became  actually  his  transgressions, 
and  ceased  to  be  theirs."  "  The  feelings  of  conscience, 
which  tell  them  that  sin  is  theirs,  arise  from  a  want 
of  knowing  the  truth."  "  It  is  but  the  voice  of  a  ly- 
ing spirit  in  the  hearts  of  believers  that  saith  they 
have  yet  sin  wasting  their  consciences,  and  lying  as  a 
burden  too  heavy  for  them  to  bear."  "  Christ's  right- 
eousness is  so  imputed  to  the  elect,  that  they,  ceasing 
|  to  be  sinners,  are  as  righteous  as  he  was,  and  all  that 
he  was."  "An  elect  person  is  not  in  a  condemned 
state  while  an  unbeliever;  and  should  he  happen  to 
die  before  God  calls  him  to  believe,  he  would  not  be 
lost."  "  Repentance  and  confession  of  sin  are  not 
necessary  to  forgiveness.  A  believer  may  certainly 
conclude  before  confession,  yea,  as  soon  as  he  hath 
committed  sin,  the  interest  he  hath  in  Christ,  and  the 
love  of  Christ  embracing  him"  (Crisp,  Works,  ii,  261- 
272  ;  Orme,  Life  of  Baxter,  ii,  232). 

This  form  of  High  Calvinism,  or  Antinomianism, 
absolutely  "  withers  and  destroys  the  consciousness  of 
human  responsibility.  It  confounds  moral  with  nat- 
ural impotency,  forgetting  that  the  former  is  a  crime, 
the  latter  only  a  misfortune ;  and  thus  treats  the  man 
dead  in  trespasses  and  sins  as  if  he  were  already  in 
his  grave.  It  prophesies  smooth  things  to  the  sinner 
going  on  in  his  transgressions,  and  soothes  to  slumber 
and  the  repose  of  death  the  souls  of  such  as  are  at  ease 
in  Zion.  It  assumes  that,  because  men  can  neither 
believe,  repent,  nor  pray  acceptably,  unless  aided  by 
the  grace  of  God,  it  is  useless  to  call  upon  them  to  do 
so.  It  maintains  that  the  Gospel  is  only  intended  for 
elect  sinners,  and  therefore  it  ought  to  be  preached  to 
none  but  such.  In  defiance,  therefore,  of  the  com- 
mand of  God,  it  refuses  to  preach  the  glad  tidings  of 
mercy  to  every  sinner.  In  opposition  to  Scripture, 
and  to  every  rational  consideration,  it  contends  that  it 
is  not  man's  duty  to  believe  the  truth  of  God — justify- 
ing the  obvious  inference  that  it  is  not  a  sin  to  reject 
it.  In  short,  its  whole  tendenc}'  is  to  produce  an  im- 
pression on  the  sinner's  mind  that,  if  he  is  not  saved, 
it  is  not  his  fault,  but  God's  ;  that,  if  he  is  condemned, 
it  is  more  for  the  glory  of  the  Divine  Sovereignty  than 
as  the  punishment  of  his  guilt.  So  far  from  regard- 
ing the  moral  cure  of  human  nature  as  the  great  ob- 
ject and  design  of  the  Gospel,  Antinomianism  does 
not  take  it  in  at  all,  but  as  it  exists  in  Christ,  and  be- 
comes ours  by  a  figure  of  speech.  It  regards  the  grace 
and  the  pardon  as  every  thing,  the  spiritual  design  or 
effect  as  nothing.  Hence  its  opposition  to  progres- 
sive, and  its  zeal  for  impute  1  sanctification :  the  for- 
mer is  intelligible  and  tangible,  but  the  latter  a  mere 
figment  of  the  imagination.  Hence  its  delight  in  ex- 
patiating on  the  eternity  of  the  Divine  decrees",  which 
it  does  not  understand,  but  which  serve  to  amuse  and 
to  deceive,  and  its  dislike  to  all  the  sober  realities  of 
God's  present  dealings  and  commands.  It  exults  in 
the  contemplation  of  a  Christ  who  is  a  kind  of  concre- 
tion of  all  the  moral  attributes  of  his  people ;  to  the 
overlooking  of  that  Christ  who  is  the  Head  of  all  that 
in  heaven  and  on  earth  ltear  his  likeness,  and  while 
unconscious  of  possessing  it.  It  boasts  in  the  doctrine 
of  the  perseverance  of  the  saints,  while  it  believes  in 


ANTINOMIANS 


266 


ANTIOCH 


no  saint  but  one,  that  is  Jesus,  and  neglects  to  perse- 
vere" (Orme's  Life  of  Baxter,  ii,  243). 

The  chief  English  writers  of  the  17th  century  who 
have  been  charged  as  favoring  Antinomianism,  be- 
sides Crisp,  are  Kichardson,  Saltmarsh,  Hussey,  Ea- 
ton, Town,  etc.  These  were  answered  by  Gataker, 
Witsins,  Bull,  Ridgely,  and  especially  by  Baxter  and 
"Williams.  For  Baxter's  relation  to  the  controversy, 
see  Orme,  Life  of  Baxter,  vol.  ii,  chap,  ix,  where  it 
is  stated  that  "Baxter  saw  only  the  commencement 
of  the  controversy,  which  agitated  the  Dissenters  for 
more  than  seven  years  after  he  had  gone  to  his  rest 
(f  1691).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  friend  Dr.  Wil- 
liams (f  1716),  who,  after  incredible  exertion  and  no 
small  suffering,  finally  cleared  the  ground  of  the  An- 
tinomians." 

In  the  eighteenth  century  Antinomianism  again 
showed  itself,  both  in  the  Church  of  England  and  among 
the  Dissenters,  as  an  offshoot  of  what  was  called  High 
Calvinism.  Its  most  powerful  opponents  were  John 
Fletcher,  in  his  Checks  to  Antinomianism  {Works,  N.  Y. 
ed.  4  vols.  8vo)  and  John  Wesley,  Works  (N.  Y.  ed.  7 
vols.  8vo).  The  error  of  Antinomianism  lies  chiefly 
in  the  sharp  contrast  which  it  draws  between  the  law 
and  the  Gospel.  Wesley  saw  this,  and  dwells,  in  many 
parts  of  his  writings,  on  the  relation  and  connection  ] 
of  law  and  Gospel.  We  give  an  instance :  "  There  is 
no  contrariety  at  all  between  the  law  and  the  Gospel. 
Indeed,  neither  of  them  supersedes  the  other,  but  they 
agree  perfectly  well  together.  Yea,  the  very  same 
words,  considered  in  different  respects,  are  parts  both 
of  the  law  and  of  the  Gospel.  If  they  are  considered 
as  commandments,  they  are  parts  of  the  law;  if  as 
promises,  of  the  Gospel.  Thus,  '  Thou  shalt  love  the 
Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,'  when  considered  as 
a  commandment,  is  a  branch  of  the  law ;  when  re- 
garded as  a  promise,  is  an  essential  part  of  the  Gos- 
pel— the  Gospel  being  no  other  than  the  commands  of 
the  law  proposed  by  way  of  promise.  There  is,  there- 
fore, the  closest  connection  that  can  be  conceived  be- 
tween the  law  and  the  Gospel.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
law  continually  makes  way  for,  and  points  us  to  the 
Gospel;  on  the  other,  the  Gospel  continually  leads  us 
to  a  more  exact  fulfilling  of  the  law.  The  law,  for  in- 
stance, requires  us  to  love  God,  to  love  our  neighbor, 
to  be  meek,  humble,  or  holy.  We  feel  that  we  are  not 
sufficient  for  these  things ;  yea,  that  '  with  man  this 
is  impossible.'  But  we  see  a  promise  of  God  to  give 
us  that  love.  We  lay  hold  of  this  Gospel,  of  these  glad 
tidings  ;  it  is  done  unto  us  according  to  our  faith  ;  and 
'  the  righteousness  of  the  law  is  fulfilled  in  us'  through 
faith  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus.  The  moral  law,  con- 
tained in  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  enforced  by  the 
prophets,  Christ  did  not  take  away.  It  was  not  the 
design  of  his  coming  to  revoke  any  part  of  this.  This 
is  a  law  which  never  can  be  broken,  which  'stands 
fast  as  the  faithful  witness  in  heaven.'  The  moral 
stands  on  an  entirely  different  foundation  from  the 
ceremonial  or  ritual  law,  which  was  only  designed  for 
a  temporary  restraint  upon  a  disobedient  and  stiff- 
necked  people  ;  whereas  this  was  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world,  being  written,  not  in  tables  of  stone, 
but  OB  the  hearts  of  all  men"  (Sermons,  i,  17,  and 
223).  The  heresy  showed  itself  at  a  later  period,  es- 
pecially through  the  influence  of  Dr.  Robert  Hawk- 
er (q.  v.),  vicar  of  Charles  the  Martyr,  Plymouth, 
who  was  a  very  popular  preacher,  and  "poisoned  the 
surrounding  region"  with  Antinoniian  tendencies. 
Against  him,  Joseph  ( !ottle  wrote  Strictures  on  the  Plym* 
outh  Antinomians,  and  Burt,  Observations  en  Hawker's 
System  of  Theology.  See  Robert.  Hall,  Works  (N.  Y. 
ii,  458);  Bennett,  History  of  the  Dissenters,  p.  344.  A 
full  account  of  the  Antinomians  of  the  Crispian  type, 
and  of  the  controversy  about  it,  is  given  in  Nelson, 
Lift  of  Bishop  Bull  (vol.  vii  of  Bull's  Works,  ed.  of 
1827).  <>n  the  English  Antinomianism,  sec  further, 
Gataker,  God's  Eye  on  Israel  (Lond.  1645,  4to);  Antidote 


against  Error  (London,  1670,  4to)  ;  Williams  (Daniel), 
Works,  vol.  iii  (1738-50);  Witsius,  Animadversitnti 
Irenicce  (Miscell.  ed.  1736,  ii,  591  sq.) ;  Wesley,  Works, 
i,  225 ;  v,  196  ;  vi,  68  et  al. ;  Neal,  History  of  the  Pu- 
ritans, iv ;  Fletcher,  Works  (4  vols.  N.  Y.) ;  Andrew 
Fuller,  Gospel  worthy  of  all  Acceptation;  Antinomian- 
ism contrasted  with  Scripture  (Works,  edition  of  1853); 
Watson,  Thiol.  Institutes,  ii,  140.  On  Agricola  and  the 
German  Antinomianism,  consult  Nitzsch,  De  Aniino- 
mismo  Agricola  (Wurtemb.  1804);  Elwert,  De  Antino- 
mia  Agricolas  (Tur.  1836)  ;  Nitzsch,  in  Studien  u.  Krit. 
1846,  pt.  i  and  ii ;  also  Schulze,  Hist.  Antinomorum  str- 
culo  Lutheri  (Vitemb.  1708) ;  Wewetzer,  De  Antinomis- 
mo  Agricolee  (Strals.  1829) ;  Murdoch's  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist.  c.  xvi,  pt.  ii,  ch.  i,  §  25 ;  Herzog,  Eeal-Encyklopd. 
die,  i,  375,  sq.     See  Antonians. 

An'tioch  ('Ai>noYfi«,  from  Antiochus),  the  name 
of  two  places  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 

1.  Antioch  in  Syria. — A  city  on  the  banks  of  the 
Orontes,  300  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  about  30 
from  the  Mediterranean.  This  metropolis  was  situ- 
ated where  the  chain  of  Lebanon,  running  northward, 
and  the  chain  of  Taurus,  running  eastward,  are  brought 
to  an  abrupt  meeting.  Here  the  Orontes  breaks 
through  the  mountains  ;  and  Antioch  was  placed  at  a 
bend  of  the  river,  partly  on  an  island,  partly  on  the 
level  which  forms  the  left  bank,  and  partly  on  the 
steep  and  craggy  ascent  of  Mount  Silpius,  which  rose 
abruptly  on  the  south.  It  was  in  the  province  of  Se- 
leucis,  called  Tetrapolis,  from  containing  the  four  cities 
Antioch,  Selcucia,  Apamea,  and  Laodicea;  of  which 
the  first  was  named  after  Antiochus,  the  father  of  the 
founder  ;  the  second  after  himself ;  the  third  after  his 
wife  Apama ;  and  the  fourth  in  honor  of  his  mother. 
The  same  appellation  (Tetrapolis,  Terpa7roXic)  was 
given  also  to  Antioch,  because  it  consisted  of  four 
townships  or  quarters,  each  surrounded  by  a  separate 
wall,  and  all  four  by  a  common  wall.  The  first  was 
built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  who  peopled  it  with  inhab- 
itants from  Antigonia  ;  the  second  by  the  settlers  be- 
longing to  the  first  quarter;  the  third  by  Seleucus 
Callinicus;  and  the  fourth  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(Strabo,  xvi,  2;  iii,  354).  'It  was  the  metropolis  of 
Syria  (Tac.  Hist,  ii,  79),  the  residence  of  the  Syrian 
kings,  the  Seleucidse  (1  Mace,  iii,  37 ;  vii,  2),  and  aft- 
erward became  the  capital  of  the  Roman  provinces  in 
Asia.  It  ranked  third,  after  Rome  and  Alexandria, 
among  the  cities  of  the  empire  Josephus,  War,  iii, 
2,  4),  and  was  little  inferior  in  size  and  splendor  to 
the  latter  or  to  Seleucia  (Strabo,  xvi,  2 ;  iii,  355,  ed. 
Tauch.).  Its  suburb  Daphne  was  celebrated  for  its 
grove  and  fountains  (Strabo,  xvi,  2;  iii,  356,  ed. 
Tauch.),  its  asylum  (2  Mace,  iv,  33),  and  temple 
dedicated  to  Apollo  and  Diana.  The  temple  and  the 
village  were  deeply  bosomed  in  a  thick  grove  of  lau- 
rels and  cypresses  which  reached  as  far  as  a  circum- 
ference of  ten  miles,  and  formed  in  the  most  sultry 
summers  a  cool  and  impenetrable  shade.  A  thousand 
streams  of  the  purest  water,  issuing  from  every  hill, 
preserved  the  verdure  of  the  earth  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  (Gibbon,  ch.  xxiii).  Hence  Antioch 
was  called  Epidap/ines  (Avnovaa  V  *""*  Aaiprg,  Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  xvii,  2, 1 ;  Epidaphnes  cognominata,  I'lin. 
Hist.  Nat.  v,  18).  It  was  very  populous;  within  150 
years  after  its  erection  the  Jews  slew  100,000  persons 
in  it  in  one  day  (1  Mace,  xi,  47).  In  the  time  of 
Chrysostom  the  population  was  computed  at  200,000, 
of  whom  one  half,  or  even  a  greater  proportion,  were 
professors  of  Christianity  (Chrysos.  Adv.  Jud.  i,  588; 
Horn,  in  Ignat.  ii,  597;  "in  Matt.  Horn.  85,  vii,  810). 
Chrysostom  also  states  that  the  Church  at  Antioch 
maintained  3000  poor,  besides  occasionally  relieving 
many  more  (In  Matt.  Hon.  vii,  658).  Cicero  speaks 
of  the  city  as  distinguished  by  men  of  learning  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  arts  (  Pro  Arc/iia,  3).  A  multi- 
tude of  Jews  resided  in  it.  Seleucus  Nicator  granted 
them  the  rights  of  citizenship,  and  placed  them  on  a 


ANTIOCH 


267 


ANTIOCH 


^4 


■JHflBP&* 


the  Diocletian  perse- 
cution, A.D.  312  (Ne- 
ander,  Allgemeine  Ge- 
schichte,  i,  3,  p.  1237  ; 
Gieseler,  Lehrbuch,  i, 
272;  Lardner,  Credi- 
bility,  pt.  ii,  ch.55,  58). 
Libaniua  (born  A.D. 
314),  the  rhetorician, 
the  friend  and  pane- 
gyrist of  the  Emperor 
Julian,  was  a  native 
of  Antioch  (Lardner, 
Testimonies  of  Ancient 
Heathens,  ch.  49 ;  Gib- 
bon, Decline  and  Fall, 
etc.  ch.  24).  It  had 
likewise  the  less  equiv- 
ocal honor  of  being  the 
birthplace  of  his  il- 
lustrious pupil,  John 
Chrysostom,  born  A. 
D.  347,  died  A.D.  407 
perfect  equality  with  the  other  inhabitants  (Josephus,  |  (Lardner,  Credibility,  pt.  ii,  ch.  118  ;  Neander,  Allge- 


Plan  of  ancient  Antioch  in  Syria 


Ant.  xii,  3,  1).  These  privileges  were  continued  to 
them  by  Vespasian  and  Titus — an  instance  (Josephus 
remarks)  of  the  equity  and  generosity- of  the  Romans, 
who,  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  Alexandrians 
and  Antiocheans,  protected  the  Jews,  notwithstanding 
the  provocations  they  had  received  from  them  in  their 
wars  (Apion,  ii,  4).  They  were  also  allowed  to  have 
an  archon  or  ethnarch  of  their  own  (Josephus,  War, 
vii,  3,  3).  Antioch  is  called  libera  bj'  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat. 
v,  18),  having  obtained  from  Pompey  the  privilege  of 
being  governed  by  its  own  laws  (see  Smith,  Diet,  of 
Class.  Geogr.  s.  v.). 

The  Christian  faith  was  introduced  at  an  early  pe- 
riod into  Antioch,  and  with  great  success  (Acts  xi,  19, 
21,  24).  The  name  uCkristi.ans'',  was  here  first  applied 
to  its  professors  (Acts  xi,  26).  No  city,  after  Jerusa- 
lem, is  so  intimatety  connected  with  the  history  of 
the  apostolic  Church.  One  of  the  seven  deacons  or 
almoners  appointed  at  Jerusalem  was  Nicolas,  a  pros- 
elyte of  Antioch  (Acts  vi,  5).  The  Christians  who 
were  dispersed  from  Jerusalem  at  the  death  of  Ste- 
phen preached  the  Gospel  at  Antioch  (xi,  19).  It 
was  from  Jerusalem  that  Agabus  and  the  other  proph- 
ets who  foretold  the  famine  came  to  Antioch  (xi,  27, 
28);  and  Barnabas  and  Saul  were  consequently  sent 
on  a  mission  of  charity  from  the  latter  city  to  the  for- 
mer (xi,  30;  xii,  25).  It  was  from  Jerusalem,  again, 
that  the  Judaizers  came  who  disturbed  the  Church  at 
Antioch  (xv,  1) ;  and  it  was  at  Antioch  that  Paul  re- 
buked Peter  for  conduct  into  which  he  had  been  be- 
trayed through  the  influence  of  emissaries  from  Je- 
rusalem (Gal.  ii,  11,  12).  Antioch  soon  became  a  cen- 
tral point  for  the  diffusion  of  Christianity  among  the 
Gentiles,  and  maintained  for  several  centuries  a  high 
rank  in  the  Christian  world  (see  Semler,  Initia  societa- 
tis  I  'Arist.  Antiochice,  Hal.  1767).  A  controversy  which 
arose  between  certain  Jewish  believers  from  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  Gentile  converts  at  Antioch  respecting 
the  permanent  obligation  of  the  rite  of  circumcision 
was  the  occasion  of  the  first  apostolic  council  or  con- 
vention (Acts  xv).  Antioch  was  the  scene  of  the 
early  labors  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  and  the  place  whence 
he  set  forth  on  his  first  missionary  labors  (Acts  xi,  26  ; 
xiii,  2).  Ignatius  was  the  second  bishop  or  overseer 
of  the  Church,  for  about  forty  years,  till  his  martyr- 
dom in  A.D.  107.  In  the  third  and  following  centu- 
ries a  number  of  councils  were  held  at  Antioch  [see 
Antioch,  Councils  of],  and  in  the  course  of  the 
fourth  century  a  new  theological  school  was  formed 
there,  which  thence  derived  the  name  School  of  An- 
tioch. See  Antioch,  School  of.  Two  of  its  most 
distinguished  teachers  were  the  presbyters  Dorotheus 
and  Lucian,  the  latter  of  whom  suffered  martyrdom  in 


meine  Geschichte,  ii,  3,  p.  1440-1456;  Hug,  Aniiockia, 
Berl.  1863).  On  the  further  history  of  the  Church  of 
Antioch,  see  Antioch,  Patriarchate  of. 

Antioch  was  founded,  B.C.  300,  by  Seleucus  Nica- 
tor,  with  circumstances  of  considerable  displaj',  which 
were  afterward  embellished  by  fable.  The  situation 
was  well  chosen,  both  for  military  and  commercial 
purposes.  Antioch  grew  under  the  successive  Seleu- 
cid  kings  till  it  became  a  city  of  great  extent  and  of 
remarkable  beauty.  Some  of  the  most  magnificent 
buildings  were  on  the  island.  One  feature,  which 
seems  to  have  been  characteristic  of  the  great  Syrian 
cities — a  vast  street  with  colonnades,  intersecting  the 
whole  from  end  to  end — was  added  by  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes.  Some  lively  notices  of  the  Antioch  of  this  pe- 
riod, and  of  its  relation  to  Jewish  history,  are  supplied 
by  the  books  of  Maccabees  (see  especially  1  Mace,  iii, 
37 ;  xi,  13  ;  2  Mace,  iv,  7-9 ;  v,  21 ;  xi,  36).  The 
earlj-  emperors  raised  there  some  large  and  important 
structures,  such  as  aqueducts,  amphitheatres,  and 
baths.  Herod  the  Great  contributed  a  road  and  a  col- 
onnade (Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  5,  3;  War,  i,  21,  11). 
In  A.D.  260  Sapor,  the  Persian  king,  surprised  and 
pillaged  it,  and  multitudes  of  the  inhabitants  were 
slain  or  sold  as  slaves.  It  has  been  frequently  brought 
to  the  verge  of  utter  ruin  by  earthquakes  (A.D.  340, 
394,  396,  458,  526,  528) ;  by  that  of  A.D.  526  no  less 
than  250,000  persons  were  destroyed,  the  population 
being  swelled  by  an  influx  of  strangers  to  the  festival 
of  the  Ascension.  The  Emperor  Justinian  gave  forty- 
five  centenaries  of  gold  ($900,000)  to  restore  the  city. 
Scarcely  had  it  resumed  its  ancient  splendor  (A.D. 
540)  when  it  was  again  taken  and  delivered  to  the 
flames  by  Chosroes.  In  A.D.  658  it  was  captured  by 
the  Saracens.  Its  "  safety  was  ransomed  with  300,000 
pieces  of  gold,  but  the  throne  of  the  successors  of  Al- 
exander, the  seat  of  the  Roman  government  in  the 
East,  which  had  been  decorated  hj  Cresar  with  the  ti- 
tles of  free,  and  holy,  and  inviolate,  was  degraded  un- 
der the  yoke  of  the  caliphs  to  the  secondary  rank  of  a 
provincial  town"  (Gibbon,  li).  In  A.D.  975  it  was 
retaken  by  Nicephoras  Phocas.  In  A.D.  1080  the  son 
of  the  governor  Philaretus  betrayed  it  into  the  hands 
of  Soliman.  Seventeen  years  after  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy entered  it  at  the  head  of  300,000  crusaders ; 
but,  as  the  citadel  still  held  out,  the  victors  were  in 
their  turn  besieged  by  a  fresh  host  under  Kerboga  and 
twenty-eight  emirs,  which  at  last  gave  way  to  their 
desperate  valor  (Gibbon,  lviii).  In  A.D.  1268  Anti- 
och was  occupied  and  ruined  by  Boadocbar  or  Bibars, 
sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria ;  this  first  seat  of  the  Chris- 
tian name  being  depopulated  by  the  slaughter  of  17,<miii 
persons,  and  the  captivity  of  1*00,000.    About  the  mid- 


ANTIOCH 


20S 


ANTIOCH 


die  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  three  patriarchs  of  Al- 
exandria, Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  convoked  a  synod, 
and  renounced  all  connection  with  the  Latin  Church 
(see  Cellar.  Notlt.  ii,  417  sq.  ;  Richter,  Wallfahrt,  p. 
281 ;  Mannert,  VI,  i,  467  sq.). 


Coins  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  with  Heads  of  R 


Knnic;' 


Antioch  at  present  belongs  to  the  pashalic  of  Ha- 
leb  (Aleppo),  and  bears  the  name  of  Antahia  (Pococko, 
ii,  277  sq. ;  Niebuhr,  iii,  15  sq.).  The  inhabitants  are 
said  to  have  amounted  to  twenty  thousand  before  the 
earthquake  of  1822,  which  destroyed  four  or  five  thou- 
sand. On  the  south-west  side  of  the  town  is  a  precip- 
itous mountain  ridge,  on  which  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  old  Roman  wall  of  Antioch  is  still  standing, 
from  30  to  50  feet  high  and  15  feet  in  thickness.  At 
short  intervals  400  high  square  towers  are  built  up  in 
it,  containing  a  staircase  and  two  or  three  chambers, 
probably  for  the  use  of  the  soldiers  on  duty.  At  the 
east  end  of  the  western  hill  are  the  remains  of  a  for- 
tress, with  its  turrets,  vaults,  and  cisterns.  Toward 
the  mountain  south-south-west  of  the  city  some  frag- 
ments of  the  aqueducts  remain.  After  heavy  rains 
antique  marble  pavements  are  visible  in  many  parts 
of  the  town  ;  and  gems,  carnelians,  and  rings  are  fre- 
quently found.  The  present  town  stands  on  scarcely 
one  third  of  the  area  enclosed  by  the  ancient  wall,  of 
which  the  line  ma}'  bo  easily  traced;  the  entrance  to 
the  town  from  Aleppo  is  by  one  of  the  old  gates,  called 
Bab  Bablous,  or  Paul's  sate,  not  far  from  which  the 
members  of  the  Greek  Church  assemble  for  their  de- 
votions in  a  cavern  dedicated  to  St.  John  (Madox's 
Excursions,  ii,  74;  Buckingham,  ii,  475;  Monro's  Sum- 
mer Ramble,  ii,  140-143;  Conybeare  and  Howson's 
Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  i,  121-120).     The  great 


(iato  <>f  St.  I'aul,  Aiitiiicli. 


authority  for  all  that  is  known  of  ancient  Antioch  is 
Midler's  Antiquitates  Antwchence  (Gott.  1839).  Mod- 
ern A  ntakia  is  a  shrunken  and  miserable  place.  Some 
of  the  walls,  shattered  by  earthquakes,  are  described 
in  Chesney's  account  of  the  Euphrates  Expedition  (i, 
310  sq. ;  comp.  the  history,  ib.  ii,  423  sq.),  where  also 
is  given  a  view  of  the  gateway  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  St.  Paul. — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

ANTIOCH,  COUNCILS  OF.  Among  the  more 
important  of  the  councils  held  at  Antioch  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

In  252,  by  the  patriarch  Fabius,  or  Fabianus,  or 
his  successor,  Demetrius,  concerning  the  Novatian 
heresy  (Labbe,  i,  719).  In  264,  against  Paul  of  Sa- 
mosata  {ibid.  p.  843).  In  269,  when  Paul  was  deposed 
and  anathematized  (ibid.  p.  893).  In  330,  against  the 
patriarch  Eustathius,  who  was  falsely  accused  of  Sa- 
bellianism  and  adultery,  and  deposed.  In  341  (Cone, 
in  Encceniis),  on  occasion  of  the  dedication  of  the  great 
church  of  Antioch ;  ninety-seven  bishops  were  pres- 
ent, of  whom  forty  at  least  were  Arians.  This  synod 
was  probably  orthodox  in  its  commencement,  but  de- 
generated into  a  pseudo-synod,  in  which,  after  the  de- 
parture of  the  orthodox  majority,  the  remaining  Arians 
condemned  Athanasius;  and,  in  all  probability,  the 
"Three  Chapters"  [see  Chapters]  were  then  com- 
posed. In  344,  by  the  Arian  bishops,  in  which  the 
ftaKpoarixoc,  or  long  confession  of  faith,  was  drawn 
up.  In  354,  by  thirty  Arian  bishops,  who  again  con- 
demned Athanasius,  because  he  had  returned  to  his 
see  without  being  first  synodically  declared  innocent 
(Soz.  lib.  iv,  cap.  8).  In  358,  at  which  Homousianism 
and  Homoiousianism  were  both  condemned/  In  3G3, 
in  which  Acacius  of  C'ssarea  and  other  Arians  admit- 
ted the  Nicene  faith  (ibid,  ii,  825).  In  367,  in  which 
the  word  "  consubstantial"  was  rejected  (ibid).  In 
380,  in  which  Meletius,  at  the  head  of  one  hundred 
and  forty-five  bishops,  confirmed  the  faith  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Rome  in  378  (Vales,  ad  Theod.  lib.  v,  cap.  3). 
In  433,  in  which  John  of  Antioch  and  Cyril  were  rec- 
onciled (Labbe,  iii,  1265).  In  435,  in  which  the  mem- 
ory of  Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia  was  defended  and 
Proclus's  work  on  him  approved.  In  440,  against 
Theodorus  of  Mopsuestia.  In  451,  on  the  conversion 
of  the  Eutychians  (Labbe,  iv).  In  560,  in  defence  of 
the  council  of  Chalcedon.  In  781,  for  the  worship  of 
images,  under  Theodorus.  In  1806  the  bishops  of  the 
united  Greek  Church  held,  under  the  presidency  of 
the  papal  patriarch,  a  synod,  known  under  the  name 
synod  of  Antioch,  in  the  convent  of  Carrapha,  in  the 
diocese  of  Beyrut,  and  endorsed  the  Gallican  and 
anti-papal  resolutions  of  the  synod  of  Pistoja  (q.  v.). 
Nevertheless  their  proceedings  received  the  approba- 
tion of  the  papal  delegate,  and  were  published,  with  his 
approbation,  in  1810,  in  the  Arabic  language.  But  in 
1834  Pope  Gregorj'  XVI  ordered  the  Melchite  patri- 
arch to  furnish  an  Italian  translation  of  the  proceed- 
ings, and  then  condemned  them  by  a  brief  of  Sept.  16, 
1835. — Landon,  Manual  of  Councils;  Smith,  Tables  of 
Church  Hist. 

ANTIOCH,  PATRIARCHATE  OF.  Tradition 
reports  that  St.  Peter  was  the  first  bishop  of  Antioch, 
but  there  is  no  historical  proof  of  it.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  Church  of  Antioch  stood  prominent 
in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  and  its  see  was  held 
by  Ignatius  and  other  eminent  men.  Its  bishops 
ranked  in  the  early  Church  only  after  those  of  Rome 
and  Alexandria.  When  the  bishop  of  Constantinople 
received  his  rank  next  to  that  of  Rome,  Antioch  oc- 
cupied the  fourth  rank  among  the  episcopal  sees.  In 
the  fifth  century  the  bishop  of  Antioch  received,  to- 
gether with  the  bishops  of  the  other  prominent  sees, 
the  title  patriarch  (q.  v.).  In  the  fourth  century  this 
powerful  Church  included  not  less  than  a  hundred 
thousand  persons,  three  thousand  of  whom  were  sup- 
ported out  of  the  public  donations.  It  is  painful  to 
trace  the  progress  of  declension  in  such  a  church  as 


ANTIOCH 


209 


ANTIOCH 


this.  But  the  period  now  referred  to,  namely,  the 
age  of  Chr}'sostom,  toward  the  close  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, may  be  considered  as  the  brightest  of  its  history 
subsequent  to  the  apostolic  age,  and  that  from  which 
the  Church  at  Antioch  may  date  its  fall.  It  contin- 
ued, indeed,  outwardly  prosperous ;  but  superstition, 
secular  ambition,  the  pride  of  life  ;  pomp  and  formal- 
ity in  the  service  of  God  in  place  of  humility  and  sin- 
cere devotion ;  the  growth  of  faction  and  the  decay 
of  charity,  showed  that  real  religion  was  fast  disap- 
pearing, and  that  the  foundations  were  laid  of  that 
great  apostasy  which,  in  two  centuries  from  this  time, 
overspread  the  whole  Christian  world,  led  to  the  en- 
tire extinction  of  the  Church  in  the  East,  and  still 
holds  dominion  over  the  fairest  portions  of  the  West. 
For  many  years,  up  to  the  accession  of  Theodosius,  the 
Arians  filled  the  see ;  and  after  the  council  of  Chalce- 
don  Peter  Fullo  and  others  who  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge that  synod  occupied  the  patriarchal  throne ; 
but  of  them  all  the  worst  was  Severus,  the  abettor 
of  the  Monophysite  heresy  (A.D.  512-518).  His  fol- 
lowers were  so  many  and  powerful,  that  they  were 
able  to  appoint  a  successor  of  the  same  opinions  ;  and 
from  that  time  to  the  present  there  has  been  a  Mono- 
physitic  or  Jacobite  patriarch  of  Antioch,  who,  however, 
iixed  his  see,  not  at  Antioch  itself,  like  all  the  former, 
but  at  Tacrita,  in  Mesopotamia,  and  at  the  present 
daj-  in  Diarbekir.  The  rest  of  the  patriarchate  of 
Antioch,  after  the  separation  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches,  constituted  a  part  of  the  Greek 
Church.  In  it  there  is  still  a  patriarch  of  Antioch, 
yet  with  only  a  small  district,  and  subordinate  to  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople.  For  those  Greeks  and 
Jacobites  who  were  prevailed  upon  to  enter  into  a 
union  with  the  Roman  Church,  two  patriarchs,  bear- 
ing the  title  patriarch  of  Antioch,  are  appointed,  one 
for  the  united  Greeks,  and  one  for  the  united  Syrians. 
The  provinces  of  the  ancient  patriarchate  were  as 
follows : 

1.  Syria  Prima.  7.  Syria  Secunda. 

2.  Phoenicia  Prima.  8.  The  Enphratean  province. 

3.  Phoenicia  Secunda.  9.  Province  of  Osrhoene. 

4.  Arabia'.  10.  Mesopotamia. 

5.  Cilicia  Prima.  11.  Isauria. 
C.  Cilicia  Secunda. 

The  province  of  Theodorias,  composed  of  a  few  cities 
in  the  two  Syrias,  was  afterward  formed  by  the  Em- 
peror Justinian.  It  is  a  question  whether  the  region 
of  Persia,  which  in  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great 
was  filled  with  Christians,  was  included  in  the  patri- 
archate of  Antioch.  Peter,  patriarch  of  Antioch  in 
the  eleventh  century,  William  of  Tyre,  and  the  Arabic 
canons,  assert  that  such  was  the  case.  The  Chris- 
tians now  in  Persia  are  Nestorians,  and  disclaim  any 
subjection  to  the  see  of  Antioch.  It  was  the  ancient 
custom  of  tliis  patriarchate  for  the  patriarch  to  conse- 
crate the  metropolitans  of  his  diocese,  who  in  their 
turn  consecrated  and  overlooked  the  bishops  of  their 
respective  provinces ;  in  which  it  differed  from  the 
Church  of  Alexandria,  where  each  individual  diocese 
depended  immediately  upon  the  patriarch,  who  ap- 
pointed every  bishop.  The  patriarch  of  the  Sj'fian 
Jacobites  styles  himself  "  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  the 
city  of  God,  and  of  the  whole  East." — Lardner,  Works, 
iv,  558  sq. ;  Historic/,  Patriarrharum  A  ntioch.  in  Le 
Quicn,  Oriens  Christian,  torn,  ii ;  Boschii  Tract,  hist. 
chronol.  de  Patriarchis  Antioch.  (Tenet.  1748).  See 
Jacobites  and  Greek  Church. 

ANTIOCH,  SCHOOL  OF,  a  theological  seminary 
which  arose  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  but 
which  had  been  prepared  for  a  century  before  by  the 
learned  presbyters  of  the  Church  of  Antioch.  It  dis- 
tinguished itself  by  diffusing  a  taste  for  scriptural 
knowledge,  and  aimed  at  a  middle  course  in  Biblical 
Hernieneutics,  between  a  rigorously  literal  and  an  al- 
legorical method  of  interpretation  (see  Munter,  Ueb.  d. 
Antiochien.  Schulen,  in  Staudlin,  Arch'.v.  i,  1,  1).  Sev- 
eral other  seminaries  sprung  up  from  it  in  the  Syrian 


Church.  As  distinguished  from  the  school  of  Alexan- 
dria, its  tendency  was  logical  rather  than  intuitional  or 
mystical.  The  term  school  of  Antioch  is  used  also  to 
denote  the  theological  tendencies  of  the  Syrian  Church 
clergy.  Nestorianism  arose  out  of  the  bosom  of  this 
school.  Gieseler  gives  the  following  names  as  belong- 
ing to  it:  Julius  Africanus  of  Nicopolis  (A.D.  232); 
Dorotheus  (A.D.  290);  Lucian  (A.D.  311).— Neander, 
Ch.  Hist,  ii,  150,  352,  etc. ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  i, 
div.  iii,  §  03 ;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  i,  265 ;  ii, 
328. 

2.  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  being  a  border  city,  was 
considered  at  different  times  as  belonging  to  different 
provinces  (see  Cellar.  Notit.  ii,  187  sq.).  Ptolemy 
(v,  5)  places  it  in  Pamphylia,  and  Strabo  (xii,  577)  in 
Phrygia  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v.).  It 
was  founded  by  Scleucus  Nicator,  and  its  first  inhab- 
itants were  from  Magnesia  on  the  Majander.  After 
the  defeat  of  Antiochus  (III)  the  Great  by  the  Ro- 
mans, it  came  into  the  possession  of  Eumenes.  king 
of  Pergamos,  and  was  afterward  transferred  to  Amyn- 
tas.  On  his  death  the  Romans  made  it  the  seat  of  a 
proconsular  government,  and  invested  it  with  the 
privileges  of  a  Colonia  Juris  Italici,  which  included  a 
freedom  from  taxes  and  a  municipal  constitution  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  Italian  towns  (Ulpianus,  lib.  50). 
Antioch  was  noted  in 
earl}-  times  for  the  wor- 
ship of  Men  Arcams, 
or  Lunus.  Numerous 
slaves  and  extensive  es- 
tates were  annexed  to 
the  service  of  the  tem- 
ple; but  it  was  abol- 
ished after  the  death 
of  Amyntas  (Strabo, 
xii,  8  ;  iii,  72).  When 
Paul  and  Barnabas  vis- 
ited this  citj'  (Acts  xiii, 
14),  they  found  a  Jew- 
ish s}rnagogue  and  a 
considerable  number  of  proselytes,  and  met  with  great 
success  among  the  Gentiles  (ver.  48) ;  but,  through  the 
violent  opposition  of  the  Jews,  were  obliged  to  leave 
the  place,  which  they  did  in  strict  accordance  with 
their  Lord's  injunction  (ver.  51,  compared  with  Matt. 
x,  14 ;  Luke  ix,  5).  On  Paul's  return  from  Lystra,  he 
revisited  Antioch  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  the 
minds  of  the  disciples  (Acts  xiv,  21).  He  probably  vis- 
ited Antioch  again  at  the  beginning  of  his  second  jour- 
ney, when  Silas  was  his  associate,  and  Timothy,  who 
was  a  native  of  this  neighborhood,  had  just  been  add- 
ed to  the  party  (2  Tim.  iii,  11).     See  Paul. 

Till  within  a  very  recent  period  Antioch  was  sup- 
posed to  have  been  situated  where  the  town  of  Ak- 
Sheker  now  stands  (Olivier,  vi,  390)  ;  but  the  research- 
es of  the  Rev.  F.  Arundell,  British  chaplain  at  Smyr- 
na in  1833  {Discoveries,  i,  281),  confirmed  by  the  still 
later  investigations  of  Mr.  Hamilton,  secretary  of  the 
Geographical  Society  {Researches,  i,  472),  have  de- 
termined its  site  to  be  adjoining  the  town  of  Yalo- 
batch:  and  consequently  that  Ak-Sheker  is  the  an- 
cient Philonielion  described  by  Strabo  (xii,  8  ;  iii, 
72,  ed.  Tauch.):  "In  Phrygia  Paroreia  is  a  moun- 
tainous ridge  stretching  from  cast  to  west ;  and  under 
this  on  either  side  lies  a  great  plain,  and  cities  near  it ; 
to  the  north  Philonielion,  and  on  the  other  side  An- 
tioch, called  Antioch  near  Pisidia ;  the  one  is  situated 
altogether  on  the  plain  ;  the  other  on  an  eminence, 
and  has  a  colony  of  Romans."  According  to  Pliny, 
Antioch  was  also  called  Csesarea  (v,  24).  Mr.  Arun- 
dell observed  the  remains  of  several  temples  and 
churches,  besides  a  theatre  and  a  magnificent  aque- 
duct ;  of  the  latter  twenty-one  arches  still  remained  in 
a  perfect  state.  Mr.  Hamilton  copied  several  inscrip- 
tions, all,  with  one  exception,  in  Latin.  Of  one  the 
only  words   not  entirely  effaced  were   "  Antiocheae 


Coin  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia. 


ANTIOCHIA 


Coin  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  with  the  Head  of  Gordian. 

Caesari."  (See  Arundell's  Discoveries  in  Asia  Minor, 
Lond.  1834,  i,  268-312 ;  Hamilton's  Researches  in  Asia 
Minor,  Lond.  1842,  i,  472-474  ;  ii,  413-439  ;  Laborde's 
Asia  Minor;  Calmet,  Plates,  vii;  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  ii,"  170.)— Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Pisidia. 

Antiochi'a,  a  more  exact  method  of  Anglicizing 
(1  Mace,  iv,  35;  vi,  G3;  2  Mace,  iv,  33;  v,  21)  the 
name  Antioch  [»»  Syria"]  (q.  v.). 

Antio'chian  (^Avtio\i vc),  an  inhabitant  (2  Mace. 
iv,  9-19)  of  the  city  Antioch  [in  Syria]  (q.  v.). 

Anti'ochis  CAvrio\is,  fem-  of  Antiochus),  the 
concubine  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  gave  her  the 
cities  of  Tarsus  and  Mallo,  that  she  might  receive  their 
revenues  for  her  own  benefit,  like  the  modern  "pin- 
money"  (comp.  Cicero,  Ad  Verrem,  5).  This  was  re- 
garded by  the  inhabitants  as  an  insupportable  mark 
of  contempt,  and  they  took  up  arms  against  the  king, 
who  was  obliged  to  march  in  person  to  reduce  them 
(2  Mace,  iv,  30).     B.C.  168. 

Anti'ochus  {'Avrioxog,  opponent),  the  name  espe- 
cially of  several  of  the  Syrian  kings,  whose  history, 
so  far  as  relates  to  Jewish  affairs,  is  contained  particu- 
larly in  the  Books  of  the  Maccabees,  and  is  predicted 
with  remarkable  minuteness  in  the  11th  chapter  of 
Daniel.  The  name  was  first  borne  bjr  one  of  the  gen- 
erals of  Philip,  whose  son  Seleucus',  by  the  help  of  the 
first  Ptolemy,  established  himself  (B.C.  312)  as  ruler 
of  Babylon.  The  year  312  is,  in  consequence,  the 
era  from  which,  under  that  monarchy,  time  was  com- 
puted, as,  for  instance,  in  the  Books  of  Maccabees. 
For  eleven  years  more  the  contest  in  Asia  continued, 
while  Antigonus  (the  "one-eyed")  was  grasping  at 
universal  supremacy.  At  length,  in  301,  he  was  de- 
feated and  slain  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Ipsus,  in 
Phrygia.  Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  had  meanwhile  be- 
come master  of  Southern  Syria,  and  Seleucus  was  too 
much  indebted  to  him  to  be  disposed  to  eject  him  by 
force  from  this  possession.  In  fact,  the  first  three 
Ptolemies  (B.C.  323-222)  looked  on  their  extra-Egyp- 
tian possessions  as  their  sole  guarantee  for  the  safety 
of  Egypt  itself  against  their  formidable  neighbor,  and 
succeeded  in  keeping  the  mastery,  not  only  of  Pales- 
tine and  Coele-Syria,  and  of  many  towns  on  that  coast, 
but  of  Gyrene  and  other  parts  of  Libya,  of  Cyprus,  and 
other  islands,  with  numerous  maritime  posts  all  round 
Asia  Minor.  A  permanent  fleet  was  probably  kept 
up  at  Samos  (Polyb.  v,  35,  11),  so  that  their  arms 
reached  to  the  Hellespont  (v,  34,  7) ;  and  for  some 
time  they  ruled  over  Thrace  (xviii,  34,  5).  Thus 
Syria  was  divided  between  two  great  powers,  the 
northern  half  falling  to  Seleucus  and  his  successors, 
the  southern  to  the  Ptolemies;  and  this  explains  the 
titles  "king  of  the  north"  and  "king  of  the  south," 
in  the  lltli  chapter  of  Daniel.  The  line  dividing 
them  was  drawn  somewhat  to  the  north  of  Damascus, 
the  capital  of  Coele-Syria. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  most  compact  and  unbroken  account  of  the 
kings  of  this,  the  Seleueid  or  Syrian,  dynasty  is  to  be 
found  in  Appian's  book  \l><-  Rebus  Syriacis"),  at  the 
end.  A  sufficiently  detailed  statement  of  the  reign 
of  each  may  be  found  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Bioij. 


270  ANTIOCHUS 

s.  v.     On  the  dates,  see  Clinton's  Fasti  Hellenici,  vol. 
iii,  Appendix,  ch.  iii.     The  reigns  are  as  follows : 

1.  Seleucus  I,  Nicator,  B.C.  312-280. 

2.  Antiochus  I,  Soter,  his  son,  280-261. 
;:.  Antiochus  II,  Theos,  his  son,  201-240. 

4.  Seleucus  II,  Callinicus,  his  son,  240-220. 

5.  (Alexander,  or)  Seleucus  III,   Ceraunus,  his  son,  226-223. 
0.  Antiochus  III,  the  Great,  his  brother,  223-187. 

7.  Seleucus  IV,  Philopator,  his  son,  187-176. 

8.  Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes,  his  brother,  170-104. 

9.  Antiochus  V,  Eupator,  his  son  (a  minor),  104-102. 

10.  Demetrius  I,  Soter,  son  of  Seleucus  Philopatar,  102-150. 

11.  Alexander  Balas,  a  nmrper,  who  pretended  to  bo  son  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  was  acknowledged  by  the  Ro- 
mans, 152-140. 

12.  Antiochus  VI,  Dionysus  (a  minor),  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  murdered  by  the  usurper  Trypho,  who  contested 
the  kingdom  till  137. 

13.  Demetrius  II,  Nicator,  son  of  Demetrius  Soter,  reigned  140- 
141,  when  he  was  captured  bv  the  Parthians. 

14.  Antiochus  VII,  Sidctes,  his  brother,  141-128. 

15.  Demetrius  II,  Nicator,  a  second  time,  after  his  release  from 
Parthia,  128-125. 

10.  Seleucus  V,  his  son,  assassinated  immediately  by  his  moth- 
er, 125. 

17.  Antiochus  YHI,  Grypus,  his  brother,  shared  his  kingdom 
with  the  following,  125-90. 

IS.  Antiochus  IX,  Cyzicenus,  his  half-brother,  111-f  5. 

19.  Seleucus  VI,  Epiphanes,  eldest  son  of  Antiochus  Grypus, 
kills  Antiochus  Cyzicenus,  90-!5. 

20.  Antiochus  X,  Eusebes,  son  of  Antiochus  Cyzicenus,  asserts 
his  claims  to  bis  father's  .-hare  of  the  dominions,  kills 
Seleucus  Epiphanes,  and  prevails  over  the  successors  of 
the  latter,  but  gives  way  to  Tigranes,  95-83. 

21.  Philip,  second  son  of  Antiochus  ( irypus,  succeeds  to  the  claims 
of  his  brother  Seleucus  against  Antiochus  Eusebes,  until 
the  accession  of  Tigranes,  cir.  94-83. 

22.  Antiochus  XI,  Epiphanes  II,  his  brother,  associated  with 
him  in  the  contest  in  which  he  lost  his  life,  cir.  94. 

23.  Demetrius  III,  Euca>rus,  his  brother,  likewise  associated 
with  Philip  till  their-  rupture,  when  he  was  taken  prison- 
er by  the  Parthians,  94-SS. 

24.  Antiochus  XII,  Dionysius  II,  his  brother,  whose  cause  he 
took  up  against  1  hilip,  till  slain  by  the  Arabians,  cir. 
88-86. 

25.  Tigranes,  king  of  A  menia,  invited  to  the  throne  by  the 
Syrians  over  all  the  rival  claimants,  and  held  it  till  his 
overthrow  by  the  Eoman  general  Eucullus,  83-09. 

26.  Antiochus  XIII,  Asiaticus,  son  of  Antiochus  Eusebes,  allow- 
ed by  Lucullus  to  hold  the  throne  of  the  Seleucida?  till 
its  entire  abolition  by  Pompey,  09-05. 

The  following  (Nos.  3,  6,  8,  9,  12,  14,  17,  18,  20,  22, 
24,  of  the  above)  are  the  only  ones  of  the  name  of 
Antiochus  that  are  important  in  sacred  literature.  (See 
Erohlieh,  Annates  Syria; ;  Vaillant,  Sekucidar.  Imp.) 

1.  Antiochus  (II)  Theos  (Gtug, god, so  surnamed 
"in  the  first  instance  by  the  Milesians,  because  he 
overthrew  their  tyrant  Timarchus,"  Appian,  Syr.  C5), 
the  son  r.nd  successor  of  Antiochus  (I)  Soter  as  king 
of  Syria,  B.C.  261.  He  carried  on  for  several  years 
the  war  inherited  from  his  father  with  the  Egyptian 
king,  Ptolemy  (II)  Philadelphus,  who  subdued  most 
of  the  districts  of  Asia  Minor,  but  at  length  (B.C.  250), 
in  order  to  secure  peace,  he  married  Ptolemy's  daugh- 
ter (Berenice)  in  place  of  his  wife  Laodice,  and  ap- 
pointed the  succession  in  the  line  of  his  issue  by  her 
(Polyb.  ap.  Athen.  ii,  45)  ;  yet,  on  the  death  of  Ptolemy 
two  years  afterward,  Antiochus  recalled  his  former 
wife  Laodice,  and  Berenice  and  her  son  were  soon  af- 
ter put  to  death  at  Daphne.  Antiochus  himself  died, 
B.C.  246,  in  the  40th  year  of  his  age  (Porphyry,  in 
Euseb.  Chron.  Ann.  i,  345),'  of  poison  administered  by 
his  wife,  who  could  not  forget  her  former  divorce 
(Justin,  xxvii,  1 ;  Appian,  Syr.  65 ;  Val.  Max.  ix,  14, 1). 


Coin  of  Antiochus  Theos,  with  the  Figure  of  Hercules. 

The  above  alliance  of  Antiochus  with  Ptolemy,  by 
the  marriage  of  Berenice  to  the  former,  is  prophetical- 


ANTIOCIIUS 


271 


ANTIOCIIUS 


ly  referred  to  in  Dan.  xi,  G,  as  "  the  joining  of  them- 
selves together"  by  "the  king  of  the  south  and  the 
king  of  the  north,"  through  '"the  king's  daughter;" 
and  its  failure  is  there  distinctly  characterized,  through 
the  triumph  of  Laodice  over  "him  that  strengthened 
her,"  i.  e.  her  husband  Antiochus  (see  Jerome,  Com- 
ment, in  loc).  After  the  death  of  Antiochus,  Ptolemy 
Evergetes,  the  brother  of  Berenice  ("out  of  a  branch 
of  her  root"),  who  succeeded  his  father  Ptol.  Phila- 
delphia, exacted  vengeance  for  his  sister's  death  by 
an  invasion  of  Syria,  in  which  Laodice  was  killed,  her 
son  Seleucus  Callinicus  driven  for  a  time  from  the 
throne,  and  the  whole  country  plundered  (Dan.  xi, 
7-9;  hence  his  surname  "  the  benefactor''}.  The  hos- 
tilities thus  renewed  continued  for  many  years ;  and 
on  the  death  of  Seleucus,  B.C.  226,  after  his  "return 
into  his  own  land"  (Dan.  xi,  9),  his  sons  Alexander 
(Seleucus)  Ceraunos  and  Antiochus  "assembled  a 
great  multitude  of  forces"  against  Ptol.  Philopator, 
the  son  of  Evergetes,  and  "  one  of  them"  (Antiochus) 
threatened  to  overthrow  the  power  of  Egypt  (Dan. 
xi,  10).— Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  Antiochus  (III)  the  Great.  Seleucid  king  of 
Syria,  son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  brother  and  succes- 
sor of  Seleucus  (II)  Ceraunus,  B.C.  223  (Polyb.  iv, 
40  ;  comp.  Euseb.  Chron.  A  rm.  i,  347  ;  ii,  235  ;  see 
Giischen,  in  the  Theol.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1831,  iv,  713). 
In  a  war  with  the  weak  king  of  Egypt,  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator, in  order  to  regain  Coele-Syria  and  Phoenicia,  he 
twice  (comp.  Polyb.  v,  49)  penetrated  as  far  as  Dura 
(two  miles  north  of  Cassarea),  but  on  the  second  occa- 
sion he  concluded  a  four-months'  truce  with  his  adver- 
sary, and  led  his  army  back  to  the  Orontes  (Polyb.  v, 
GO ;  Justin,  xxx,  1,  2  ;  Athen.  xiii.  577 ;  comp.  Dan. 
si,  10).  On  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  again,  he 
drove  the  Egyptian  land-force  as  far  as  Zidon,  deso- 
lated Gilead  and  Samaria,  and  took  up  his  winter- 
quarters  at  Ptolemais  (Polyb.  v,  63-71).  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  following  year  (B.C.  217).  however,  he 
was  defeated  by  the  Egyptians  (Polyb.  v,  79,  80.  82- 
86 ;  Strabo,  xvi,  759 ;  comp.  Dan.  xi,  11)  at  Raphia 
(near  Gaza),  with  an  immense  loss,  and  compelled  to 
retreat  to  Antioch,  leaving  Ccele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Palestine  to  the  Egyptians.     Thirteen  [14}  years  af- 


pedition  against  Asia  Minor,  in  which  he  subdued  the 
greater  part  of  it,  and  even  crossed  the  Hellespont 
into  Europe.  By  this  means  he  became  (B.C.  192) 
involved  in  a  war  With  the  Romans  (Liv.  xxxv,  13 ; 
Justin,  xxxi,  1),  in  which,  after  many  reverses,  he 
was  finally  compelled,  by  an  unfortunate  battle  at 
Magnesia,  in  Lycia  (B.C.  190),  to  conclude  a  disgrace- 
furtreaty,  B.C.  189  (Appian,  Syr.  33-39;  Polyb.  xxi, 
14  ;  Liv.  xxxvii,  40,  43,  45,  55  ;  Justin,  xxi,  8  ;  comp. 
Dan.  xi,  18  ;  1  Mace,  viii,  6  sq.).  See  Eumenes.  He 
lost  his  life  soon  afterward  (B.C.  187,  in  the  36th 
year  of  his  reign,  according  to  Euseb.  Chron.  ii,  35, 
235,  hut  after  34  full  years,  according  to  Porphyr. 
Excerpt,  i,  347)  in  a  popular  insurrection  excited  by 
his  attempt  to  plunder  the  temple  at  Elymais,  in  order 
to  obtain  means  for  paying  the  tribute  imposed  upon 
him  by  the  Romans  (Strabo,  xvi,  744  ;  Justin,  xxxii, 
2;  Diod.  Sic.  Exc.  ii,  573;  Porphyr.  in  Euseb.  Chron. 
Arm.  i,  348 ;  comp.  Dan.  xi,  19).  Daring  the  war  of 
Antiochus  with  Egypt,  the  Jews  and  inhabitants  of 
Coole-Syria  suffered  severely,  and  the  suspense  in 
which  they  were  for  a  long  time  kept  as  to  their  ulti- 
mate civil  relations  operated  injuriously  for  their  in- 
terests (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  3,  3);  but,  as  the  Jews  quick- 
ly adopted'  the  Syrian  party  after  the  battle  at  Paneas, 
he  granted  them  not  only  full  liberty  and  important 
concessions  for  their  worship  and  religious  institutions 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  3,  3,  4),  but  he  also  planted  Jew- 
ish colonies  in  Lydia  and  Phrygia,  in  order  to  secure 
the  doubtful  fidelity  of  his  subjects  there.  Two  sons 
of  Antiochus  occupied  the  throne  after  him,  Seleucus 
Philopator,  his  immediate  successor,  and  Antiochus 
IV,  who  gained  the  kingdom  upon  the  assassination 
of  his  brother.  (See,  generally,  Fluthe,  Gesch.  Mace- 
don,  ii,  226  sq.) — Winer,  s.  v. 

3.  Antiochus  (IV)  Epiphanes  CE?rt(pav>)e,  illus- 
trious; comp.  Michaelis  on  1  Mace,  i,  10,  and  Eckhel, 
Boctr.  num.  I,  iii,  223;  nicknamed  l-'.pimanes.  'V.-t/.ia- 
r//r,  madman,  Athen.  x,  438  sq. ;  on  coins  Theos,  Oeoc., 
god,  see  Frohlieh,  Annul,  tab.  6,  7),  a  Seleucid  king 
of  Syria,  second  son  of  Antiochus  the  Great  (Appian, 
Syr.  45;  1  Mace,  i,  11),  ascended  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  brother,  Seleucus  Philopator  (on  his  enu- 
meration, the  11th  of  the  Seleucid*,  Dan.  vii,  8,  24; 
see  Lengerke,  Daniel,  p.  318  sq.),  B.C.  175  (see  Werns- 
dorf,  De  fide  libr.  Mace.  p.  28  sq.),  and  attained  an 
evil  notoriety  for  his  tyrannical  treatment  of  the  Jews 
(comp.  Dan.  vii,  8  sq.),  who  have  described  him  (in 
the  second  Book  of  the  Maccabees)  as  barbarous  in  the 
extreme  (see  Eichhorn,  Apokr.  p.  265).     He  had  been 


Tetradrachm  (Attic  Talent)  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  the  reverse 
bearing  a  figure  of  Apollo,  with  the  inscription  (in  Greek)  "  Of 
King  Antiochus." 

terward,  Antiochus  (in  connection  with  Philip  III  of 
Macedon,  Liv.  xxxi,  34)  opened  another  campaign 
against  Egypt,  then  ruled  over  by  a  child,  Ptolemy 
(V)  Epiphanes.  He  had  already  conquered  the  three 
above-named  countries,  when  a  war  between  him  and 
Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  diverted  him  to  Asia  Minor, 
and  in  his  absence  Ptolemy,  aided  by  Scopas,  obtain- 
ed possession  of  Jerusalem  :  but,  as  soon  as  he  had  se- 
cured peace  there,  he  returned  through  Cade-Syria, 
defeated  the  Egyptian  army  at  Paneas,  and  obtained 
the  mastery  of  all  Palestine,  B.C.  198  (Polyb.  xv,  20; 
Appian,  Syr.  1 ;  Liv.  xxx,  19  ;  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  3,  3; 
comp.  Dan.  xi,  13-16).  Ptolemy  now  formed  an  alli- 
ance with  Antiochus,  and  married  his  daughter  Cleo- 
patra (Polyb.  xxviii,  17,  11),  who  received  as  a  dowry 
(comp.  Dan.  xi,  13-16)  Ccele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Palestine  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  4,  1).  Antiochus  under- 
took in  the  following  vear  a  naval  as  well  as  land  ex- 


us  Epiphanes,  with  the  Figure  of  Jupiter. 


given  as  a  hostage  to  the  Romans  (B.C.  188)  after  his 
father's  defeat  at  Magnesia.  In  B.C.  175  he  was  re- 
leased by  the  intervention  of  his  brother  Seleucus,  who 
substituted  his  own  son  Demetrius  in  his  place.  An- 
tiochus was  at  Athens  when  Seleucus  was  assassinated 
by  Ileliodorus.  He  took  advantage  of  his  position, 
and,  by  the  assistance  of  Eumenes  and  Attains,  easily 
expelled  Ileliodorus,  who  had  usurped  the  crown,  and 
himself  "obtained  the  kingdom  by  flatteries"  (Dan. 
xi,  21;  comp.  Liv.  xii,  20),  to  the  exclusion  of  his 
nephew  Demetrius  (Dan.  vii,  8).  The  accession  of 
Antiochus  was  immediately  followed  by  desperate  ef- 
forts of  the  Hellenizing  party  at  Jerusalem  to  assert 
their  supremacy.  Jason  (Jesus;  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  5. 
1 ;   see  Jason)",  the  brother  of  Onias  III,  the  high- 


ANTIOCHUS 


272 


ANTIOCHUS 


priest,  persuaded  the  king  to  transfer  the  high-priest- 
hood to  him,  and  at  the  same  time  bought  permission 
(2  Mace,  iv,  9)  to  carry  out  his  design  of  habituating 
the  Jews  to  Greek  customs  (2  Mace,  iv,  7,  20).  Three 
years  afterward,  Menelaus,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
[see  Simon],  who  was  commissioned  by  Jason  to  car- 
ry to  Antiochus  the  price  of  his  office,  supplanted  Ja- 
son by  offering  the  king  a  larger  bribe,  and  was  him- 
self appointed  high-priest,  while  Jason  was  obliged  to 
take  refuge  among  the  Ammonites  (2  Mace,  iv,  23-2G). 
From  these  circumstances,  and  from  the  marked  honor 
with  which  Antiochus  was  received  at  Jerusalem  very 
early  in  his  reign  (B.C.  cir.  173;  2  Mace,  iv,  22),  it 
appears  that  he  found  no  difficulty  in  regaining  the 
border  provinces  which  had  been  j^iven  as  the  dower 
of  his  sister  Cleopatra  to  Ptol.  Epiphanes.  He  under- 
took four  campaigns  against  Egypt,  in  order  to  pos- 
sess himself  of  Ceele-Syria  and  Phoenicia,  which  he 
had  claimed  since  Cleopatra's  death  (see  the  Anti- 
ochus preceding)  ;  the  first  B.C.  171,  the  second  B.C. 
170  (2  Mace,  v,  1 ;  1  Mace,  i,  17  sq.),  the  third  B.C. 
169,  the  fourth  B.C.  168.  On  his  return  from  the  sec- 
ond of  these  campaigns,  in  the  prosecution  of  which  he 
had  overrun  the  greater  part  of  Egypt,  and  taken  pris- 
oner the  Egyptian  king,  Ptolemy  Philometor  (comp. 
Dan.  xi,  26),  he  indulged  in  the  harshest  manner  of 
proceedings  in  Jerusalem,  on  occasion  of  the  above 
shameful  quarrel  among  the  priests  [see  Menelaus], 
which  had  been  carried  on  by  open  force  of  arms 
(comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  5, 1),  and  vented  his  rage  es- 
peciallj-  on  the  temple,  which  he  plundered  and  dese- 
crated with  great  bloodshed  (1  Mace,  i,  20-42  ;  2  Mace, 
v,  1-23).  Being  checked  by  the  Romans  in  his  fourth 
campaign  against  Egypt,  and  compelled  in  a  very 
peremptory  manner  to  retire  (Liv.  xlv,  12  ;  Polyb. 
xxix,  11;  Appian,  Syr.  GG ;  Diod.  Sic.  Exc.  Vatic. 
xxxi,  2;  comp.  Dan.  xi,  29  sq.),  ha  detached  (B.C. 
167)  a  body  of  troops  to  Jerusalem,  who  took  the  city 
by  assault,  slaughtered  a  large  part  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  gave  up  the  city  to  a  general  sack  (1  Mace,  i,  30 
sq. ;  2  Mace,  v,  24  sq.  ;  comp.  Dan.  xi,  31  sq.).  The 
Jewish  worship  in  the  Temple  was  utterly  broken  up 
and  abolished  (1  Mace,  i,  43  sq.).  At  this  time  he 
availed  himself  of  the  assistance  of  the  ancestral  ene- 
mies of  the  Jews  (1  Mace,  iv,  61 ;  v,  3  sq. ;  Dan.  xi, 
41).  The  decrees  then  followed  which  have  rendered 
his  name  infamous.  The  Greek  religion  was  forcibly 
imposed  upon  the  Jews,  and  there  was  set  up,  for  the 
purpose  of  desecrating  (Diod.  Sic.  Eclog.  xxxiv,  1) 
and  defiling  the  Temple,  on  the  15th  oif  Kisleu,  the 
'•  abomination  of  desolation"  [q.  v.]  (Dan.  xi,  31;  xii, 
11 ;  1  Maec.  i,  57),  i.  e.  probably  a  little  idolatrous 
shrine  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  5,  4)  on  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offerings;  the  first  victim  was  sacrificed  to  Jupiter 
Olympius,  on  the  25th  of  the  same  month.  Many 
timidly  submitted  to  the  royal  mandate  (1  Mace,  i, 
43),  being  already  inclined  to  Gentilism  (1  Mace,  i, 
12),  and  sacrificed  to  the  pagan  gods  (1  Mace,  i,  45); 
but  a  band  of  bold  patriots  united  (comp.  Dan.  xi,  34) 
under  the  Asmonaean  Mattathias  (q.  v.),  and,  after 
liis  death,  which  occurred  shortly  afterward,  under 
his  heroic  son,  Judas  MaccabsBUS  (q.  v.),  and,  after 
acting  fur  a  Ions  time  on  the  defensive,  at  length  took 
the  open  field  il  Mace,  iv),  and  gained  their  freedom 
(comp.  Han.  i\,  25  sip).  Meanwhile  Antiochus  turn- 
ed his  anus  to  the  East,  toward  Parthia  (Tae.  Eist.  v, 
8)  ami  Armenia  (Appian,  Syr.  45;  Diod.  ap.  Miiller, 
Fragm.  ii.  10;  comp.  Dan.  xi,40).  Hearing  not  long 
afterward  of  the  riches  of  a  temple  of  Nan«a("the 
desire  of  women,"  Dan.  \i,  37)  in  Klymais  (1  Mace, 
vi,  1  sq.  ;  see  Wernsdorf,  Dejide  Maccab.  p.  58  sq.), 
bung  with  the  gifts  of  Alexander,  lie  resolved  to  plun- 
der it.  The  attempt  was  defeated  ;  and,  though  he 
did  not  fall  like  his  father  in  the  art  of  sacrilege,  the 
event  hastened  his  death.  He  retired  to  Babylon, 
and  thence  to  Tabse  in  Persia  (not  in  the  vicinity  of 
Ecbatana,  as  in  2  Mace,  ix,  3,  the  traditionary  burial* 


'  place  of  this  king,  see  Wernsdorf,  ut  sup.  p.  104  sq.}, 
where  he  died  in  the  year  B.C.  164  (see  Hofmann, 
Weissag.  i,  310),  in  the  twelfth  year  of  his  reign  (Ap- 
pian, Syr.  66;  Polyb.  xxi,  11;  see  Wernsdorf,  p.  26 
sq.,  61  sq. ;  comp.  Dan.  xi,  8 ;  viii,  25),  the  victim  of 
superstition,  terror,  and  remorse  (Polyb.  xxxi,  2 ;  Jo- 

|  sephus,  Ant.  xii,  8,  1  sq.),  having  first  heard  of  the 
successes  of  the  Maccabees  in  restoring  the  temple- 
worship  at  Jerusalem   (1  Mace,    vi,   1-16;    comp.  2 

j  Mace,  i,  7-17  ?).  "  He  came  to  his  end,  and  there  was 
none  to  help  him"  (Dan.  xi,  45).  Comp.  Liv.  xii, 
24-25;  xlii,  6;  xliv,  19;  xlv,  11-13;  Josephus,  Ant. 
xii,  5,  8.  See  Jacob  ben-Naphtali,  bO'PB&i*  Vb^ 
(Mantua,  1557).     Compare  Maccabee. 

The  prominence  given  to  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  accords  with  its  rep- 
resentative character  (Dan.  vii,  8,  25 ;  viii,  11  sq.). 
The  conquest  of  Alexander  had  introduced  the  forces 
of  Greek  thought  and  life  into  the  Jewish  nation, 
which  was  already  prepared  for  their  operation.  See 
Alexander  the  Great.  For  more  than  a  century 
and  a  half  these  forces  had  acted  powerfully  both  upon 
the  faith  and  upon  the  habits  of  the  people ;  and  the 

;  time  was  come  when  an  outward  struggle  alone  could 
decide  whether  Judaism  was  to  be  merged  into  a  ra- 
tionalized paganism,  or  to  rise  not  only  victorious  from 
the  conflict,  but  more  vigorous  and  more  pure.  There 
were  many  symptoms  which  betokened  the  approach- 
ing struggle.  The  position  which  Juda?a  occupied  on 
the  borders  of  the  conflicting  empires  of  Syria  and 
Eg}'pt,  exposed  equally  to  the  open  miseries  of  war 
and  the  treacherous  favors  of  rival  sovereigns,  ren- 
dered its  national  condition  precarious  from  the  first, 
though  these  very  circumstances  were  favorable  to  the 

i  growth  of  freedom.     The  terrible  crimes  by  which  the 

I  wars  of  "the  North  and  South"  were  stained,  must 

j  have  alienated  the  mind  of  every  faithful  Jew  from  his 
Grecian  lords,  even  if  persecution  had  not  been  super- 
added from  Egypt  first  and  then  from  Syria.  Polit- 
ically nothing  was  left  for  the  people  in  the  reign  of 

!  Antiochus  but  independence  or  the  abandonment  of 
every  prophetic  hope.  Nor  was  their  social  position 
less  perilous.     The  influence  of  Greek  literature,  of 

I  foreign  travel,  of  extended  commerce,  had  made  itself 
felt  in  daily  life.  At  Jerusalem  the  mass  of  the  in- 
habitants seem  to  have  desired  to  imitate  the  exercises 
of  the  Greeks,  and  a  Jewish  embassy  attended  the 
games  of  Hercules  at  Tyre  (2  Mace,  iv,  9-20).  Even 
their  religious  feelings  were  yielding ;  and  before  the 
rising  of  the  Maccabees  no  opposition  was  offered  to 
the  execution  of  the  king's  decrees.  Upon  the  first 
attempt  of  Jason  the  "  priests  had  no  courage  to  serve 
at  the  altar"  (2  Mace,  iv,  14  ;  comp.  1  Mace,  i,  43) ; 
and  this  not  so  much  from  wilful  apostasy  as  from  a 
disregard  to  the  vital  principles  involved  in  the  con- 
flict. Thus  it  was  necessary  that  the  final  issues  of  a 
false  Hellenism  should  be  openly  seen  that  it  might  be 
discarded  forever  by  those  who  cherished  the  ancient 
faith  of  Israel.  The  conduct  of  Antiochus  was  in  ev- 
ery way  suited  to  accomplish  this  end;  and  yet  it 
seems  to  have  been  the  result  of  passionate  impulse 
rather  than  of  any  deep-laid  scheme  to  extirpate  a 


Tetradrachm  (Attic  Talent)  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  Reverse 

lienrinjr  a  ritrnre  of  Jupiter,  seated  and  holding  nn  Image  of 
Victory,  with  the  Inscription  (in  Greek),  "  Of  King  Antiochus, 
Thi. os,  Kpiphuncs,  Niciphoro.-." 


ANTIOCHUS 


273 


ANTIOCHUS 


strange  creed.  At  first  he  imitated  the  liberal  policy 
of  his  predecessors,  and  the  occasion  for  his  attacks 
was  furnished  by  the  Jews  themselves.  Even  the 
motives  by  which  ha  was  finally  actuated  were  per- 
sonal, or,  at  most,  only  political.  Able,  energetic  (Po- 
lvk  xxvii,  17),  and  liberal  to  profusion,  Antiochus 
was  reckless  and  unscrupulous  in  the  execution  of  his 
plans.  He  had  learned  at  Kome  to  court  power  and  to 
dread  it.  He  gained  an  empire,  and  he  remembered 
that  he  had  been  a  hostage.  Regardless  himself  of 
the  gods  of  his  fathers  (Dan.  xi,  37),  he  was  incapable 
of  appreciating  the  power  of  religion  in  others ;  and, 
like  Nero  in  later  times,  he  became  a  type  of  the  en- 
emy of  God,  not  as  the  Roman  emperor,  by  the  per- 
petration of  unnatural  crimes,  but  In-  the  disregard  of 
every  higher  feeling.  "He  magnified  himself  above 
all."  The  real  deity  whom  he  recognised  was  the  Ro- 
man war-god,  and  fortresses  were  his  most  sacred 
temples  (Dan.  xi,  38  sq. ;  Ewald,  Gesch.  des  Volkes 
Isr.  iv,  340).  Confronted  with  such  a  persecutor,  the 
Jew  realized  the  spiritual  power  of  his  faith.  The 
evils  of  heathendom  were  seen  concentrated  in  a  per- 
sonal shape.  The  outward  forms  of  worship  became 
invested  with  something  of  a  sacramental  dignity. 
Common  life  was  purified  and  ennobled  by  heroic  de- 
votion. An  independent  n  ition  asserted  the  integrity 
of  its  hopes  in  the  face  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Rome. 
Antiochus  himself  left  behind  him  among  the  Jews 
the  memory  of  a  detestable  tyrant  (!"IT23,  contemptible, 
Dan.  xi,  21 ;  pi'^a  w^rtprwXoc,  1  Mace,  i,  10),  although 
Diodorus  Siculus  (Eclog.  34)  gives  him  the  character 
of  a  magnanimous  prince  QiaatXtvc  [ityaXoipi'xoQ  Kcii 
to  fftog  ypepoc).  It  cannot,  indeed,  be  denied  that 
the  portraitures  of  the  Jewish  writers  are  likely  to 
have  been  exaggerated,  but  they  could  not  well  have 
fabricated  the  facts  in  the  case,  while  the  nature  of  the 
reaction  (in  the  times  of  the  Maccabees)  shows  an  in- 
tolerable civil  pressure  preceding ;  accordingly  Antio- 
chus is  depicted  even  in  Diodorus  (ii,  582  sq.)  and 
other  historians  as  a  violently  eccentric  (almost  atro- 
cious) monarch,  wliose  character  is  composed  of  con- 
tradictor}' elements  (comp.  Athen.  x,  433).  His  at- 
tempt to  extirpate  the  Jewish  religion  could  certainly 
hardly  have  arisen  from  despotic  bigotry,  but  he  prob- 
ably sought  by  this  means  to  render  the  Jews  some- 
what more  tractable,  and  to  conform  them  to  other  na- 
tions— a  purpose  to  which  the  predilection  for  foreign 
customs,  already  predominant  among  the  prominent 
Jews  (1  Mace,  i,  12  ;  2  Mace,  iv,  10  sq.),  doubtless  con- 
tributed. The  Jews,  no  doubt,  by  reason  of  their  po- 
sition between  Syria  and  Egypt,  were  subject  to  many 
hardships  unintentional  on  the  part  of  Antiochus,  and 
his  generals  may  often  have  increased  the  severity  of 
the  measures  enjoined  upon  them  by  him,  on  account 
of  the  usual  rigid  policy  of  his  government  toward  for- 
eigners ;  yet  in  the  whole  conduct  of  Antiochus  to- 
ward the  Jews  an  utter  contempt  for  the  people  them- 
selves, as  well  as  a  relentless  hastiness  of  disposition, 
is  quite  evident. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Horn  (Little). 

4.  Antiochus  (V)  Eup.vtor  (Einrarwp,  having  a 
noble  father)  succeeded,  in  B.C.  104,  while  yet  a  child 
(of  nine  years,  Appian,  Syr.  00;  or  twelve  years,  ac- 
cording to  Porphyr.  in  Euseb.  Chron.  Arm.  i,  348),  his 
father  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  under  the  guardianship 
of  Lysias  (Appian,  Syr.  40;  1  Mace,  iii,  32  sq.),  al- 
though Antiochus  Epiph.  on  his  deathbed  had  desig- 
nated Philip  as  regent  and  guardian  (1  Mace,  vi,  14  sq., 
55  ;  2  Mace,  ix,  29).  Soon  after  his  accession  (B.C. 
101)  he  set  out  with  a  large  army  for  Judaja  (1  Mace, 
vi,  20),  where  Lysias  already  was,  but  hard  pressed  by 
the  Jews  (1  Mace,  iii,  30  sq. ;  vi,  21  sq.).  Respecting 
the  route  that  he  took  and  the  issue  of  the  engagement 
which  he  fought  with  Judas  Maccabams,  the  accounts 
do  not  agree  (1  Mace,  vi,  and  2  Mace,  xiii ;  comp. 
AVernsdorf,  De  fide  Maccab.  p.  117  ;  Eichhorn,  Apokr. 
p.  2G5  sq.)  ;  that  victory,  however,  was  not  on  the  side 
of  Judas,  as  one  of  these  states  (2  Mace,  xiii,  29,  30), 


Coin  of  Antiochus  Eupator,  with  the  Figure  of  Apollo, 


appears  evident  from  all  the  circumstances.  The 
statement  (1  Mace,  vi,  47)  that  the  Jews  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat  on  account  of  the  superiority  of  their 
enemies,  is  very  probable,  and  corroborated  by  Jo- 
sephus  (  War,  i,  1,  5;  comp.  Ant.  xii,  9,  5).  Antio- 
chus repulsed  Judas  at  Bethzacharia,  and  took  Beth- 
sura  (Bethzur)  after  a  vigorous  resistance  (1  Mace,  vi, 
31-50).  But  when  the  Jewish  force  in  the  temple  was 
on  the  point  of  yielding,  Lysias  persuaded  the  king  to 
conclude  a  hasty  peace  that  he  might  advance  to  meet 
Philip,  who  had  returned  from  Persia  and  made  him- 
self master  of  Antioch  (1  Mace,  vi,  51  sq. ;  Joseph. 
Ant.  xii,  9,  5  sq.).  Philip  was  speedify  overpowered 
(Joseph.  1,  c.)  ;  but  in  the  next  year  (B.C.  102)  Anti- 
ochus and  Lysias  fell  into  the  hands  of  Demetrius 
Soter,  the  son  of  Seleucus  Philopator,  who  now  appear- 
ed in  Syria  and  laid  claim  to  the  throne.  Antiochus 
was  immediately  put  to  death  by  him  (together  with 
Lysias)  in  revenge  for  the  wrongs  which  he  had  him- 
self suffered  from  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (1  Mace,  vii, 
1  sq.  ;  2  Mace,  xiv,  1  sq. ;  Appian,  Syr.  46 ;  Justin, 
xxxiv,  3),  after  a  reign  (according  to  Eusebius)  of  two 
(full)  years  (Polyb.  xxxi,  19;  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  10, 1). 
"5.  Antiochus  (VI),  surnamed  Epiphanes  Diony- 
sus ('E7T(9!>«j'>/c  Awvvaoc,  illustrious  Bacchus,  on  coins, 
see  Eckhel,  I,  iii,  231  sq. ;  but  Tiieos,  Qtoc,  god,  by 
Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  7,  1),  son  of  Alexander  (Balas) 
king  of  Syria  ('AXtZcivc'poc  'AXi^avepov  rov  vut'ov, 
App.  Syr.  68).  After  his  father's  death  (B.C.  140)  he 
remained  in  Arabia ;  but,  though  still  a  child  (iratSiov, 
App.  1.  c. ;  Traicapiov  vitonpov,  1  Mace,  xi,  54),  he  was 
soon  afterward  brought  forward  by  Diodotus  or  Trypho 
(Strabo,  xvi,  752),  who  had  been  one  of  his  father's 
chief  ministers  at  Antioch,  as  a  claimant  of  the  throne 
against  Demetrius  Nicator,  and  (through  his  generals) 
quickly  obtained  the  succession  by  force  of  arms  (1 
Mace,  xi,  39,  54),  B.C.  145-144  (comp.  Eckhel,  Doctr. 
Num.  I,  iii,  231 ;  Justin,  xxxvi,  1 ;  Appian,  Syr.  08). 
Jonathan  Maccabasus,  who  joined  his  cause,  was  laden 
with  rich  presents  and  instated  in  the  high-priesthood, 
and  his  brother  Simon  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  royal  troops  in  Palestine  (1  Mace,  xi,  57  sq.). 
Jonathan  now  reduced  the  whole  land  to  subjection 
from  Damascus  to  Antioch  (1  Mace,  xi,  02),  defeated 
the  troops  of  Demetrius  (1  Mace,  xi,  03  sq.),  and  even 
successfully  repelled  a  fresh  incursion  of  Demetrius 
into  Palestine  (1  Mace,  xii,  24  sq.) ;  but  hardly  was 
Antiochus  established  on  the  throne  when  Trypho  be- 
gan to  put  into  execution  his  long-cherished  plan  of 
seizing  the  royal  power  for  himself  (1  Mace,  xii,  39). 


Tetradrachm  (Attic  Talent)  nf  Antiochus  Dionysus  the  Reverse 
bearing  the  Figure  of  the  Dioscuri  on  horseback,  with  the  le- 
gends (in  Ureek),  "Of  King  Antiochus  Epiphanes  Dionysus" 
and  "Trvpho,"  and  the  date  OHP  (1<»9  Mr.  Seleucid.). 


ANTIOCIIUS 


274 


AXTIOCHUS 


In  order  to  this,  Trypho  first  of  all  advised  the  young 
prince  to  get  the  powerful  Jonathan  out  of  the  way, 
and  having  succeeded  by  stratagem  in  confining  lain 
in  prison,  he  soon  after  (B.C.  143)  put  him  to  death 
(1  Mace,  xii,  40  sq.).  He  then  returned  to  Syria, 
caused  Antiochus  to  be  murdered,  and  seized  upon  the 
crown  (1  Mace,  xiii,  31  sq. ;  Joseph.  Ant.  xiii,  5,  G; 
App.  Syr.  G8  ;  Livy,  Epit.  55  [where  the  decern  annos 
admodum  habeas  is  incorrect] ;  Diod.  ap.  Miiller, 
Fragm.  ii,  19 ;  Just,  xxxvi,  1). — Smith,  s.  v. 

6.  Antiochus  (VII)  Sidetes  (2i^;)r;;c,  from  Sida 
in  Pamphylia,  where  be  was  born,  Euseb.  Chron.  Arm. 
i,  349,  and  not  from  his  great  love  of  hunting,  Plutarch, 
Apojtitk.  p.  34,  ed.  Lips.,  comp.  T'X),  called  also  Eu- 
sebes  (Ei)<7£/3i'/c,  pious,  Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  8,  2);  on 
coins  Evergetes  (EvepyirrjQ,  benefactor,  see  Eckhel, 
Doctr.  Num.  iii,  235),  second  son  of  Demetrius  I.  Af- 
ter his  brother  Demetrius  (II)  Nicator  had  been  taken 
prisoner  (B.C.  cir.  141)  by  Mithridates  I  (Arsaces  VI, 
1  Mace,  xiv,  1),  king  of  Parthia,  he  married  Deme- 
trius's  sister  (wife)  Cleopatra,  B.C.  140  (Justin,  xxxvi, 
1),  recovered  the  dominion  of  Syria  (B.C.  137,  comp. 
Niebuhr,  Kl.  Schr.  i,  251)  from  the  atrocious  Trypho 
(Strabo,  xiv,  668),  and  ruled  over  it  for  nine  years 
(1  Mace,  xv,  1  sq.).  At  first  he  made  a  very  advan- 
tageous treaty  with  Simon,  who  was  now  "  high-priest 
and  prince  of  the  Jews,"  but  when  he  grew  independ- 
ent of  his  help,  he  withdrew  the  concessions  which  he 
had  made,  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  for- 
tresses which  the  Jews  held,  or  an  equivalent  in  money 
(1  Mace,  xv,  26  sq. ;  Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  7,  3).  As 
Simon  was  unwilling  to  yield  to  his  demands,  he  sent 
a  force  under  Cendebrcus  against  him,  who  occupied  a 
fortified  position  at  Cedron  (?  1  Mace,  xv,  41),  near 
Azotus,  and  harassed  the  surrounding  country.  Af- 
ter the  defeat  of  Cendebauis  by  the  sons  of  Simon  and 
the  destruction  of  his  works  (1  Mace,  xvi,  1-10),  An- 
tiochus, who  had  returned  from  the  pursuit  of  Trypho, 
undertook  an  expedition  against  Judaea  in  person.  In 
the  fourth  year  of  his  reium  he  besieged  Jerusalem,  and 
came  near  taking  it  by  storm,  but  at  length,  probably 
through  fear  of  the  Romans,  made  peace  on  tolerable 
terms  with  John  Hyrcanus  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  8,  3, 
4  ;  comp.  Euseb.  Chron.  Arm.  i,  349).  Antiochus  next 
turned  his  arms  against  the  Parthians,  and  Hyrcanus 
accompanied  him  in  the  campaign ;  but,  after  some 
successes,  he  was  entirely  defeated  by  Phraortes  II 
(Arsaces  VII),  and  fell  in  the  battle  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xiii,  8,  4;  Justin,  xxxviii,  10;  Diod.  Sic.  Exc.  Vat. 
p.  117  sq.),  B.C.  cir.  127-12G  (App.  Syr.  G8 ;  comp. 
Niebuhr,  A7.  Schrift.  i,  251  sq.  ;  Clinton,  F.  II.  ii,  332 
sq.).  According  to  Athenasus  (v,  210 ;  x,  439 ;  xii, 
540),  this  king,  like  most  of  his  predecessors,  was  in- 
ordinately given  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table  (comp. 
Justin,  xxxviii,  10). — Smith.     See  Cleopatra  3. 


Coin  of  Antiochus  SUletes,  with  the  Figure  of  Minerva. 

7.  Antiochus  (VIII)  Grtpus  (TpvrroQ,  from  his 
aquiline  nose),  and  <>n  coins  E/n'jdiaurs,  was  the  second 
son  of  Demetrius  Nicator  and  Cleopatra.  After  the 
murder  of  his  brother  Seleucus  by  his  mother,  she 
placed  him  on  the  throne,  as  being  likely  to  submit 
to  her  dictation,  B.C.  125  ;  but  with  the  assistance  of 
Ptolemy  I'hyscon,  his  father-in-law,  he  not  only  suc- 
ceeded in  ejecting  the  usurper  Alexander  Zebina  from 
Syria  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  9,  "),  but  eventually  com- 


pelled his  mother  to  drink  the  poison  that  in  her  jeal- 
ousy she  prepared  for  him,  B.C.  120.  Eight  years 
afterward  a  quarrel  arose  between  him  and  his  half- 
brother  Antiochus  Cyzicenus  about  the  succession 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  10,  1),  causing  a  protracted  civil 
war  that  resulted  in  the  partition  of  the  kingdom  of 
Syria  between  them  and  their  descendants  till  the 
Koman  conquest.  He  was  assassinated,  B.C.  9G,  in 
Heracleon,  after  a  reign  of  29  years  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xiii,  13,  4),  leaving  four  sons.  (See  Justin,  xxxix, 
1-3;  Livy,  Epit.  GO;  Appian,£yr.p.G9;  Athen.xii,540.) 
Most  of  his  coins  have  his  mother's  bust  together  with 
his  own  (Eckhel,  Doctr.  Num.  iii,  238).  He  appears 
to  be  the  Antiochus  Philometor  (<&i\opi)Tu>p,  lover  of 
his  mother')  referred  to  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xiii,  12,  2). 


Coin  of  Antiochua  Grypus. 
8.  Antiochus  (IX)  Cyzicenus  (Kv^ac7]v6c,  from 
Cyzicus,  where  he  was  brought  up),  and  on  coins 
(Eckhel,  iii,  241)  Philopator  (<I>iXo7r«rwp,  lover  of  his 
father),  acquired  possession  of  Ccele-Syria  and  Phoe- 
nicia (B.C.  111-96)  from  his  half-brother  Antiochus 
Grypus  (q.  v.),  on  Avhose  death  he  attempted  to  seize 
the  whole  of  Syria,  but  was  resisted  by  Seleucus,  eld- 
est son  of  the  latter,  by  whom  he  was  killed  in  battle, 
B.C.  95  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  13,  4).  He  made  an  un- 
successful campaign  at  Samaria,  as  related  by  Jo- 
sephus (ib.  10,  2;  War,  i,  2,  7),  under  the  follow- 
ing circumstances  :  John  Hyrcanus,  prince  and  high- 
priest  of  the  Jews,  having  besieged  the  city,  the  Sa- 
maritans invited  Antiochus  to  their  assistance.  He 
advanced  speedily  to  help  them,  but  was  overcome  by 
Antigonus  and  Aristobulus,  sons  of  Hyrcanus,  who 
commanded  the  siege,  and  who  pursued  him  to  Scy- 
thopolis ;  after  which  they  resumed  the  siege  of  Sa- 


Coin  of  Antiochus  Cyzicenus. 
maria,  and  blocked  up  the  city  so  closely  that  the  in- 
habitants again  solicited  Antiochus.  Having  received 
6000  men  from  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  son  of  Cleopatra, 
queen  of  Egypt,  he  wasted  the  lands  belonging  to  the 
Jews,  designing  thereby  to  oblige  Hyrcanus  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Samaria,  but  his  troops  were  at  last  dis- 
persed, and  Samaria  was  taken  by  storm,  and  razed 
by  Hyrcanus. 

9.  Antiochus  (X)  Eusebes  (Evaiftijc,  pious),  and 
on  coins  Philopator,  the  son  of  the  preceding,  whom 


Coin  of  Antiochus  Eusebes. 


ANTIOCHUS 


275 


ANTIPAS 


he  succeeded,  B.C.  95,  and  defeated  Seleucus  of  the 
rival  portion  of  Syria,  as  well  as  the  two  brothers  of 
the  latter;  but  the  Syrians,  worn  out  with  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  civil  broil,  at  length  offered  the  crown 
of  all  Syria  to  Tigranes,  before  whose  full  accession 
Antiochus  perished  in  battle  with  the  Parthians  (Jo- 
sephus,  Ant.  xiii,  13,  4). 

10.  Antiochus  (XI),  who  also  assumed  the  title 
of  Epiphanes  (II),  was  one  of  the  above-named  sons  of 
Antiochus  Grypus  and  brothers  of  Seleucus,  who  con- 
tended with  Antiochus  Cj'zicenus ;  he  was  defeated 
and  lost  his  life,  B.C.  cir.  94  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  13, 
4),  leaving  the  contest  to  his  surviving  brother  Philip, 
assisted  by  another  brother,  Demetrius,  till  the  dispute 
was  finally  terminated  by  Tigranes  (q.  v.)  assuming 
supreme  power  of  all  Syria,  thus  putting  an  end  to 
the  Seleucid  dynasty. 


Coin  of  Antiochus  F.piphane-  the  Second. 

11.  Antiochus  (XII),  the  youngest  son  of  Antio- 
chus Grypus,  surnamed  likewise  Dionysus  (II),  and 
on  coins  (Eckhel,  iii,  24G)  Philopator  Callinicus 
(KaWlvucoe,  finely  victorious),  assumed  the  title  of  king 
after  his  brother  Demetrius  (see  above)  had  been  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Parthians.  He  fell  in  battle  against 
Aretas,  king  of  the  Arabians,  after  a  brief  exercise  of 
power  at  Damascus,  in  opposition  to  his  surviving 
brother  Philip,  B.C.  cir.  90  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  15, 1). 


Coin  of  Antiochus  Callinicus 


Antiochus  was  likewise  the  title  of  several  kings 
of  the  petty  province  of  Commagene,  between  the  Eu- 
phrates and  Mount  Taurus,  having  the  city  of  Samo- 
sata  for  its  capital,  and  originally  forming  part  of  the. 
Seleucid  kingdom  of  Syria,  from  which  it  appears  to 
have  been  independent  during  the  contests  between  the 
later  kings  of  that  dynasty — a  circumstance  that  prob- 
ably explains  the  recurrence  of  the  name  Antiochus  in 
this  fresh  dynasty.  The  only  one  of  these  mentioned 
even  by  Josephus  is  the  fourth  of  the  name,  sur- 
named Epiphanes,  apparently  a  son  of  Antiochus  II  of 
the  same  line.  He  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Calig- 
ula, who  gave  him  his  paternal  kingdom,  A.D.  38,  but 
afterward  withheld  it,  so  that  he  did  not  succeed  to  it 
till  the  accession  of  Claudius,  A.D.  41.  Nero  added 
part  of  Armenia  to  his  dominions  in  A.D.  61.  He 
was  one  of  the  richest  of  the  kings  tributary  to  the 
Romans  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Bioy.  s.  v.).     His 


Coin  of  Antiochus  TV,  of  Commagene,  with  the  Inscription  (in 
Greek),  "Great  King  Antiochus;"  the  Reverse  bearing  the 
Figure  of  a  Scorpion,  with  the  legend  (in  Greek),  "Of  (the) 
Commagenians." 


son,  also  called  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  was  betrothed. 
A.D.  43,  to  Drusilla,  the  daughter  of  Agrippa  (Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  xix,  9, 1).  He  assisted  Titus  in  the  final 
siege  of  Jerusalem  (Josephus,  War,  v,  11,  3;  Tacitus, 
Hist,  v,  1).  But  in  A.D.  72  lie  was  accused  by  Psetus, 
governor  of  Syria,  of  conspiring  with  the  Parthians 
against  the  Komans,  and,  being  deposed  from  his 
kingdom,  retired  first  to  Laceda^mon  and  then  to  Rome, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  great  re- 
spect (Josephus,  War,  vii,  7). 

Antiochus,  bishop  of  Ptolemais  in  Palestine,  a 
Syrian  by  birth.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury he  went  to  Constantinople,  where  his  eloquent 
preaching  gained  him  the  reputation  of  another  Chrys- 
ostom.  He  died  not  later  than  408.  Besides  many 
sermons,  he  left  a  large  work  "against  Avarice,'' 
which  is  lost.— Theodoret,  Dial,  ii ;  Phot.  Cod.  288 ; 
Act.  Concil.  Ephes.  iii,  118;  Labbe,  Catal.  Codd,  Vin- 
dobon.  pt.  i,  p.  116,  No.  58. 

Antiochus,  monk  of  St.  Saba,  near  Jerusalem,  at 
the  time  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Persians 
(A.D.  614),  and  author  of  an  "Epitome  of  Christian 
Eaith"  (YlaveiKTtjc  rjjc  'Ayiag  rpadiijg),  first  publish- 
ed in  Latin  by  Tilman  (Paris,  1543,  8vo) ;  reprinted  in 
the  Bibliotheca  Patntm  (Paris,  1579;  Colon.  1618; 
Lugd.  1677) ;  in  the  original  Greek,  first  by  Ducanis, 
in  the  Auctarii  Bill.  I'utr.  (Par.  1624),  reprinted  in 
Morell's  Bibl.  Patr.  (Par.  1644),  and  a  considerable 
fragment  in  Eabricius's  Bibl.  Grccc.  x,  501. 

Antipaedobaptists  (from  avri,  against,  Tca'ic, 
child,  and  jiaTrrtZoJ,  to  baptize),  persons  who  object  to 
the  baptism  of  infants,  on  the  assumption  that  Christ's 
commission  to  baptize  appears  to  them  to  restrict  this 
ordinance  to  such  only  as  are  taught,  or  made  disci- 
ples ;  and  that  consequently  infants,  who  cannot  be 
thus  taught,  ought  to  be  excluded.  The  Baptists, 
Campbellites,  and  Mennonites  are  Antipaedobaptists. 
See  those  titles. 

An'tipas  Ckvr'nrac,  for  'Avr'nrarpoQ,  Antipater; 
comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  1,  3),  ihe  name  of  three  men. 

1.  A  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Malthace,  a  Sa- 
maritan (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  1,  3;  War,  i,  28,  4).  He 
inherited  of  his  father's  dominions  only  Galilee  and 
Perasa  (B.C.  5),  as  tetrarch  (q.  v.),  with  a  yearly  in- 
come of  200  talents  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  8,  1 ;  11,  4); 
Jesus  was  thus  within  his  territorial  jurisdiction  (Luke 
xxiii,  7).  He  first  married  the  daughter  of  the  Ara- 
bian king  Aretas,  but  afterward  became  enamored 
with  Herodias,  his  half-brother  Philip's  wife,  and  con- 
tracted a  clandestine  marriage  with  her,  on  which  ac- 
count the  Arabian  princess  indignantly  returned  to 
her  father  (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  5.  1).  Herodias  in- 
veigled her  new  husband  into  the  execution  of  John 
the  Baptist  (Matt,  xiv,  4).  His  former  father-in-law, 
Aretas,  not  long  afterward  (according  to  Josephus 
about  one  year  before  the  death  of  Tiberius,  i.  e.  A.D. 
36)  declared  war  against  him,  on  pretence  of  a  dispute 
about  boundaries,  but  probably  in  reality  to  avenge 
the  insult  to  his  daughter,  and  entirely  routed  his 
army  (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  5, 1),  but  was  obliged  to  de- 
sist from  farther  steps  by  the  intervention  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Antipas  visited  Rome  on  the  accession  of  Ca- 
ligula, although  fond  of  ease,  at  the  instance  of  his 
vain  and  ambitious  wife,  in  order  to  secure  the  same 
royal  title  (which  is  derisively  ascribed  to  him  in 
Mark  vi,  14)  that  his  nephew  Herod  Agrippa  had  just 
acquired  (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  7,  1)  ;  but  upon  the  ac- 
cusation of  the  latter  he  was  dethroned  by  the  empe- 
ror (A.D.  39;  see  Ideler,  Chronol.  ii,  309  sq. ;  comp. 
Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  6,  11;  7,  2),  and,  together  with 
Herodias,  who  would  not  desert  him  in  his  misfor- 
tune, banished  to  Lyons  in  Gaul  (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii, 
2),  not  to  Vienna  (Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles.  i,  11),  but  died 
in  Spain  (Joseph.  War,  ii,  9,  6),  whither  he  eventu- 
allj-  removed.  (See  Koch,  De  anno  natal i  J.  < '.  per  n  >i- 
mum  etfata  Antipce  demonstrate,  Helmst.  1721 ;  comp. 


ANTIPATER 


ANTIPATRIS 


Coin  of  Herod  Antipas,  with  the  Title  "  Tetrarch ;"  the  Reverse 
bearing  the  Name  of  "  Tiberias,"  one  of  the  Cities  improved 
by  him. 

Zorn,  Biblioth.  Antiq.  i,  1021.)  Although  Josephus 
relates  no  great  series  of  infamous  acts  on  the  part  of 
Antipas,  it  is  yet  very  evident  that  he  was  a  frivolous 
prince  (comp.  Mark  viii,  15 ;  Luke  xiii,  32),  abandon- 
ed to  the  pleasures  of  life  (comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  xviii, 
4,  5),  destitute  of  firmness  of  character  (comp.  Luke 
xxiii,  11),  aware  of  his  faults  (Luke  ix,  7  sq.),  yet  not 
disinclined  to  arbitrary  acts  (Luke  xiii,  38),  whom  Luke 
(iii,  19)  charges  with  many  crimes  {irovnpa),  as  like- 
wise Jewish  tradition  paints  in  the  most  disadvanta- 
geous light  (Noble,  Hist.  Idum.  p.  '251  sq.). — Winer,  i, 
484.     See  Herod. 

2.  A  person  "  of  royal  lineage"  in  Jerusalem,  and 
city  treasurer,  the  first  man  seized  by  the  assassins 
during  the  last  war  with  the  Romans,  and  soon  after 
butchered  in  prison  (Josephus,  War,  iv,  3,  4  and  5). 

3.  A  "faithful  martyr,"  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii,  13. 
A.D.  ante  100.  He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  our 
Saviour's  first  disciples,  and  a  bishop  of  Pergamus, 
and  to  have  been  put  to  death  in  a  tumult  there  by  the 
priests  of  iEsculapius,  who  had  a  celebrated  temple  in 
that  city  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  iv,  5).  Tradition  re- 
lates that  he  was  burned  in  a  brazen  bull  under  Domi- 
tian  {Acta  Sanctt  rum,  ii,  3,  4).  His  day  in  the  Greek 
calendar  is  April  11  {Menol.  Gr.  iii,  51). 

Antip'ater  (Avrhrarpoe,  instead  of  his  father), 
the  name  of  several  men  in  the  Apocrypha  and  Jose- 
phus. 

1.  The  son  of  Jason,  and  one  of  the  two  ambassa- 
dors sent  by  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  to 
renew  the  league  with  the  Romans  and  Lacedaemoni- 
ans (1  Mace,  xii,  16  ;  xiv,  22). 

2.  The  father  of  Herod  the  Great  (q.  v.)  was,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus  {Ant.  xiv,  1,  3  ;  for  other  accounts 
of  his  parentage,  see  Nicolas  of  Damascus,  ap.  Joseph. 
in  loc. ;  Africanus,  ap.  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  i,  6,  7  ; 
Photius,  B'xbl.  76  and  238),  the  son  of  a  noble  Idumse- 
an,  to  whom  the  government  of  that  district  had  been 
given  by  Alexander  Jannaeus  (q.  v.)  and  his  queen 
Alexandra,  and  at  their  court  the  young  Antipater  was 
brought  up.  In  B.C.  65  he  persuaded  Hyrcanus  to 
take  refuge  from  his  brother  Aristobulus  II  with  Are- 
tes, king  of  Arabia  Petraja,  by  whom,  accordingly,  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  was  made'  to  replace  Hyrcanus 
on  the  throne  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  2  ;  War,  i,  6,  2).  In 
B.C.  61  Antipater  again  supported  the  cause  of  Hyr- 
canus before  Pompey  in  (.'ale-Syria  {Ant.  xiv,  3,  2). 
In  the  ensuing  year  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Pompey 
and  Aristobulus  deposed ;  and  henceforth  we  find 
Antipater  both  zealously  adhering  to  Hyrcanus  and 
laboring  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  Romans.  His 
services  to  the  latter,  especially  against  Alexander,  the 
son  of  Aristobulus,  and  in  Egypt  against  Archelaus 
(B.C.  57  and  56),  were  favorably  regarded  by  Scaurus 
and  Gabinius,  the  lieutenants  of  Pompey;  his  active 
zeal  against  Mithridates  of  Pergamus  in  the  Alexan- 
drian war  (B.C.  48)  was  rewarded  by  Julius  Caesar 
with  the  gift  of  Unman  citizenship;  and,  on  Caesar's 
coming  into  Syria  (B.C.  47),  Hyrcanus  was  confirmed 
by  him  i:i  the  high-priesthood  through  Antipater's  in- 
fluence, notv  ithstanding  the  complaints  of  Antigonns, 
BOD  Of  Aristobulus,  while  Antipater  himself  was  ap- 
pointed proenrator  of  Judaea  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  5,  1 
and  2  •  6,  2  I  and  8  ;  War,  i,  8,  1  and  7  ;  9,  3-5).  Af- 
ter i  '.'•  arhad  left  Syria  to  go  against  Pharnaces,  Anti- 
pater set  about  arranging  the  country  under  the  exist- 
ing government,  and  appointed  his  sons  Phaeaelus  and 


Herod  governors  respectively  of  Jerusalem  and  Gali- 
lee (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  9,  1  and  2  ;  War,  i,  10,  4).  In 
B.C.  46  he  dissuaded  Herod  from  attacking  Hyrcanus, 
and  in  B.C.  43  (after  Caesar's  death)  he  regulated  the 
tax  imposed  by  Cassius  upon  Judasa  for  the  support 
of  the  Roman  troops  {Ant.  xiv,  9,  5 ;  11,  2 ;  War,  i, 
10,  9  ;  11,  2).  During  the  last-mentioned  year  he  was 
carried  off  by  poison  which  Malichus,  whose  life  he  had 
twice  saved,  bribed  the  cup-bearer  of  Hyrcanus  to  ad- 
minister to  him  {Ant.  xiv,  11,  2-4;   War,  i,  11,  2-4). 

3.  The  eldest  son  of  Herod  the  Great  (q.  v.)  by  his 
first  wife,  Doris  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  12,  1).  Jose- 
phus describes  him  as  a  monster  of  crafty  wickedness 
{icaiciac.  fivdTt)oiov,  War,  i,  24,  1).  Herod,  having 
divorced  Doris  and  married  Mariamne,  B.C.  38,  ban- 
ished Antipater  from  court  {War,  i,  22,  1),  but  re- 
called him  afterward,  in  the  hope  of  checking  the  sup- 
posed resentment  of  Alexander  and  Aristobulus  for 
their  mother  Mariamne' s  death.  Antipater  now  in- 
trigued to  bring  these  his  half-brothers  under  the  sus- 
picion of  their  father,  and  with  such  success  that 
Herod  altered  his  intentions  in  their  behalf,  recalled 
Doris  to  court,  and  sent  Antipater  to  Rome,  recom- 
mended to  Augustus  {Ant.  xvi,  3 ;  War,  i,  23,  2). 
He  still  continued  his  machinations  against  his  broth- 
ers, in  concert  with  Salome  and  Pheroras,  and  aided 
by  a  certain  Spartan  Eurycles  (comp.  Plut.  Ant.  p. 
9476),  till  he  succeeded  in  accomplishing  their  death, 
B.C.  6  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  4,  11;  War,  i,  23-27). 
See  Alexander.  Having  thus  removed  his  rivals, 
and  been  declared  successor  to  the  throne,  he  entered 
into  a  plot  with  his  uncle  Pheroras  against  the  life  of 
his  father;  but  this  being  discovered  during  his  ab- 
sence to  Rome,  whither  he  had  gone  to  carry  out  a 
part  of  the  scheme,  he  was  remanded  to  Judaea  by  his 
father,  and  then  tried  before  Varus,  the  Roman  gov- 
ernor of  Syria.  The  sentence  against  him  being  con- 
firmed by  Augustus,  although  with  a  recommendation 
of  mere}-,  he  was  executed  in  prison  by  the  order  of 
his  father,  now  himself  in  his  last  illness  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xvii,  1-7 ;  War,  i,  28-33 ;  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl. 
i,  8,  12). 

4.  The  oldest  of  the  three  sons  of  Phasaelus  by 
Salampsio,  the  daughter  of  Herod  the  Great  (Jose- 
phus, Ant.  xviii,  5,  4).     See  Herod. 

5.  The  son  of  Salome,  Herod's  sister;  he  married 
his  cousin  Cypros,  by  whom  he  had  a  daughter  Cy- 
pres (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  5,  4).  He  was  an  able  orator, 
and  in  an  extended  speech  opposed  the  confirmation 
of  Archelaus  (q.  v.)  in  his  royal  legacy  before  the 
Emperor  Augustus  {Ant.  xvii,  9,  5).     See  Herod. 

6.  A  Samaritan,  steward  of  Antipater  the  son  of 
Herod  the  Great,  who  tortured  him  in  order  to  pro- 
cure evidence  against  his  master  (Josephus,  War,  i, 
30,  5).     See  No.  3. 

Antip'atris  {'Avriirarpis,  from  Antipater;  in  the 
Talmud  DlBS'iaSX,  see  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  p.  109 
sq.),  a  city  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  in  honor  of  his 
father  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  5,  2;  War,  i,  21,  9),  on 
the  site  of  a  former  place  called  Capharsaba  (XajSap- 
%a(3a  <>r  Kcityapvafia,  Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  15,  1;  xvi, 
5,  2).  The  spot  (according  to  Ptolemy,  lat.  32°, 
long.  66°  20')  was  Avell  watered  and  fertile  ;  a  stream 
Sowed  round  the  city,  and  in  its  neighborhood  were 
groves  of  large  trees  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  5,  2;  War, 
i,  21,  9).  Caphar-saba  was  120  stadia  from  Joppa; 
and  between  the  two  places  Alexander  Balas  drew  a 
trench,  with  a  wall  and  wooden  towers,  as  a  defence 
against  the  approach  of  Antiochus  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xiii,  15, 1;  War,  i,  4,  7).  Antipatris  also  lay  between 
Caesarea  and  Lydda  (Itin.  Hieros.  p.  600).  It  was 
not  exactly  on  the  sea  (Schleusner,  Lex.  s.  v.),  but 
full  two  miles  inland  (Josephus,  War,  iv,  8,  1)  on 
the  road  leading  to  Galilee  (Mishna,  Gattin,  vii,  7; 
comp.  Eeland,  Palcest.  p.  409,  117,  111).  These  cir- 
cumstances indicate  that  Antipatris  was  in  the  midst 


ANTIPHILUS 


277 


ANTIPOPE 


of  a  plain,  and  not  at  Arsiif  where  the  Crusaders  sup- 
posed they  had  found  it  (Will.  Tyr.  ix,  19 ;  xiv,  16  ; 
Vitracus,  c.  23  ;  Brocard,  c.  10  ;  comp.  Reland,  Palcest. 
p.  569,  570).  On  the  road  from  Ramlah  to  Nazareth, 
north  of  Ras  el-Ain,  Prokesch  (Reise  ins  Heilige  Land, 
Wicn,  1831)  came  to  a  place  called  Kaffir  Saba;  and 
the  position  which  Berghaus  assigns  to  this  town  in 
his  map  is  almost  in  exact  agreement  with  the  posi- 
tion assigned  to  Antipatris  in  the  Itin.  Ilieros.  Per- 
ceiving this,  Kaumer  (Paldstina,  p.  144,  462)  happily 
conjectured  that  this  Kefr  Saba  was  no  other  than 
the  reproduced  name  of  Caphar-saba,  which,  as  in 
many  other  instances,  has  again  supplanted  the  for- 
eign, arbitrary,  and  later  name  of  Antipatris  (comp. 
the  Hall.  Lit.-Zdt.  1845,  No.  230).  This  conjecture 
has  been  confirmed  by  Dr.  Robinson,  who  gives  Kefr 
Saba  as  the  name  of  the  village  in  question  {Researches, 
iii,  46-48  ;  see  also  later  ed.  of  Researches,  iii,  138,  139  ; 
and  Biblioth.  Sac.  1853,  p.  528  sq.).  Paul  was  brought 
from  Jerusalem  to  Antipatris  by  night,  on  his  route 
to  Csesarea  (Acts  xxiii,  31 ;  comp.  Thomson's  Land 
and  Book,  i,  258).  Dr.  Robinson  was  of  opinion,  when 
he  published  his  first  edition,  that  the  road  which  the 
soldiers  took  on  this  occasion  led  from  Jerusalem  to 
Cresarea  by  the  pass  of  Beth-Horon,  and  by  Lydda  or 
Diospolis.  This  is  the  route  which  was  followed  by 
Cestius  Gallus,  as  mentioned  by  Josephus  {War,  ii, 
19,  1),  and  it  appears  to  be  identical  with  that  given 
in  the  Jerusalem  Itinerary,  according  to  which  Antip- 
atris is  42  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and  26  from  Caesarea. 
Even  on  this  supposition  it  wrould  have  been  quite 
possible  for  troops  leaving  Jerusalem  on  the  evening 
of  one  day  to  reach  Ccesarea  on  the  next,  and  to  start 
thence,  after  a  rest,  to  return  to  (it  is  not  said  that 
they  arrived  at)  their  quarters  at  Jerusalem  before 
nightfall.  But  the  difficulty  is  entirely  removed  by 
Dr.  Smith's  discovery  of  a  much  shorter  road,  leading 
by  Gophna  direct  to  Antipatris.  On  this  route  he 
met  the  Roman  pavement  again  and  again,  and  indeed 
says  "  he  does  not  remember  observing  anywhere  be- 
fore so  extensive  remains  of  a  Roman  road"  {Biblioth. 
Sac.  1843,  p.  478-498).  Van  de  Yelde,  however  {Me- 
moir, p.  285  sq.),  contends  that  the  position  of  Mejdel 
Yaba  corresponds  better  to  that  of  Antipatris.  In 
the  time  of  Jerome  (Epitaph.  Paula1,  108)  it  was  a  half- 
ruined  town.  Antipatris,  during  the  Roman  era,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  military 
importance  (Josephus,  War,  iv,  8,  1).  Vespasian, 
while  engaged  in  prosecuting  the  Jewish  war,  halted 
at  Antipatris  two  days  before  he  resumed  his  career 
of  desolation  by  burning,  destroying,  and  laying  waste 
the  cities  and  villages  in  his  way  (see  Conybeare 
and  Howson,  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  ii,  269). 
This  city  is  supposed  (by  Calmet,  s.  v.)  to  have  been 
the  same  with  Capharsaloma  (or  Capharsaroma,  per- 
haps also  Caparsemelia ;  see  Reland,  Palcest.  p.  690, 
691),  where  a  battle  was  fought  in  the  reign  of  Deme- 
trius between  Nicanor,  a  man  who  was  an  implacable 
enemy  of  the  Jews,  and  Judas  Maecabauis,  when  five 
thousand  of  Nicanor's  army  were  slain,  and  the  rest 
saved  themselves  by  flight  (1  Mace,  vii,  26-32). 

Antiphilus  (Av-('<£iXoe,  instead  of  a  friend'),  a 
friend  of  Antipater,  charged  by  the  part}-  of  Pheroras 
with  bringing  from  Egypt  a  poisonous  draught  for 
Herod  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  4,  2;  War,  i,  30,  5);  a 
suspicion  confirmed  by  a  letter  intercepted  between 
Antiphilus  and  Antipater  {Ant.  xvii,  5,  7).     See  An- 

TIPATEK. 

Antiphon  (from  cirri,  in  turn,  and  epiovr),  a  sound), 
the  singing  or  chanting  of  one  portion  of  a  choir  in  re- 
ply to  another  when  the  psalms  are  sung  or  chanted. 
In  the  "  responsorium"  the  verse  is  spoken  only  by 
one  person  on  either  side,  or  by  one  person  on  one  side, 
though  Ii}'  many  on  the  other  ;  whereas,  in  antiphony, 
the  verses  are  sung  by  the  two  parts  of  the  choir  al- 
ternately.    Antiphonal  singing  is  supposed  to  have 


been  brought  into  use  in  the  Western  Church  by  Am- 
brose, who,  about  the  year  374,  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced it  into  the  Church  of  Milan,  in  imitation  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  where  it  appears  to  have  been  of  great- 
er antiquity,  though  as  to  the  time  of  its  institution  au- 
thors are  not  agreed.  The  chanting  of  the  psalms  in 
this  antiphonal  manner  was  practiced  by  the  Hebrews ; 
and  some  of  these  were  actually  composed  in  alternate 
verses,  with  a  view  to  their  being  used  in  a  responsive 
manner.  In  the  English  Church,  where  there  is  no 
choir,  the  reading  of  the  Psalter  is  divided  between 
the  minister  and  the  people  ;  and  in  the  cathedral  ser- 
vice the  psalms  are  chanted  throughout,  two  full 
choirs  being  provided,  stationed  one  on  each  side  of 
the  church.  One  of  these,  having  chanted  one  of  the 
verses,  remains  silent  while  the  opposite  choir  replies 
in  the  verse  succeeding  ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  psalm 
the  Gloria  Patri  is  sung  by  the  united  choirs,  accom- 
panied by  the  organ. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  xiv, 
ch.  i,  §  11 ;  Farrar,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Anthem. 

Antiphonarium  or  Antiphonary,  a  Roman 
service-book  containing  all  the  anthems,  responsaries, 
collects,  and  whatever  else  was  said  or  sung  in  the 
choir,  except  the  lessons.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
responsorium,  from  the  responses  contained  in  it.  The 
author  of  the  Roman  antiphonary  was  Gregory  the 
Great.  We  read  of  nocturnal  and  diurnal  antiphona- 
ries,  for  the  use  of  daily  and  nightly  offices ;  of  sum- 
mer and  winter  antiphonaries  ;  also  antiphonaries  for 
country  churches.  These  and  many  other  popish 
books  were  forbidden  to  be  used  by  the  3  and  4  Ed- 
ward VI. — Farrar,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Antiphon. 

Antipope  (from  cirri,  against,  i.  e.  a  rival  pope), 
a  pontiff  elected  by  the  will  of  a  sovereign,  or  the  in- 
trigues of  a  faction,  in  opposition  to  one  canonical!}- 
chosen.  The  emperors  of  Germany  were  the  first  to 
set  up  popes  of  their  own  nomination  against  those 
whom  the  Romans  had  elected  without  consulting 
them.  Otho  the  Great  displaced  successively  two 
bishops  of  Rome;  and  when  Sylvester  III  had  expelled 
from  the  capital  of  Christendom  Benedict  IX,  whose 
profligacy  had  compromised  in  the  eyes  of  all  men  the 
honor  of  the  sovereign  pontificate,  Conrad  II,  king  of 
Germany,  brought  back  this  worthless  pastor,  who 
hastened  to  sell  his  dignity  to  Gregory  VI.  As  Bene- 
dict, however,  soon  repented  of  this  transaction,  there 
were  now  three  popes  at  a  time,  and  their  number 
was  increased  to  four  by  the  election  of  Clement  II 
in  1046.  Shortly  after,  Alexander  II  found  a  rival 
in  Honorius  II ;  and  in  1080  the  same  unseemly 
spectacle  was  witnessed,  when  Henry  IV,  emperor 
of  Germany,  elevated  to  the  papal  chair  Guibert  of 
Ravenna,  under  the  title  of  Clement  III,  in  opposi- 
tion to  his  implacable  adversary,  Gregory  VII.  But 
after  the  death  of  Gregory  Clement  was  himself  op- 
posed successively  by  Victor  III  and  Urban  II,  and  at 
last  died  at  a  distance  from  Rome,  having  just  beheld 
the  exaltation  of  Pascal  II  as  the  successor  of  Urban. 
During  the  twelfth  century  several  antipopes  flour- 
ished, such  as  Gregory  VIII  and  Honorius  III.  On 
the  death  of  the  latter,  France  began  to  intermeddle 
in  these  disgraceful  strifes,  and  upheld  the  cause  of 
Innocent  II  against  Anaclet;  while  the  kings  of  Sici- 
ly, on  the  other  hand,  frequently  set  up  a  pontiff  of 
their  own  against  the  choice  of  the  emperors.  The 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  swarm  with  anti- 
popes  ;  but  what  specially  deserves  notice  is  "the 
great  schism  of  the  West,"  produced  by  these  shame- 
less rivalries  in  1378 — a  schism  which  divided  the 
Church  for  fifty  years.  It  broke  out  after  the  death 
of  Gregory  XI,  at  the  election  of  Urban  VI,  whom 
the  voice  of  the  Roman  people,  demanding  an  Italian 
pope,  and  not  one  who  should  fix  his  pontificate,  like 
several  of  his  predecessors,  at  a  distance  from  Rome, 
had  elevated  to  the  papal  throne.  The  French  car. 
dinals  objected,  withdrew  to  Provence,  and  elected  a 


ANTIQUITIES 


278 


ANTIQUITIES 


new  pope,  under  the  name  of  Clement  VII,  who  was 
recognised  by  France,  Spain,  Savoy,  and  Scotland; 
while  Italy,  Germany,  England,  and  the  whole  north 
of  Europe,  supported  Urban  VI.  These  two  popes  ex- 
communicated each  other ;  nor  did  they  even  fear  to 
compromise  their  sacred  character  by  the  most  cruel 
outrages  and  the  most  odious  insults.  The  schism 
continued  after  their  death,  when  three  popes  made 
their  appearance  "  in  the  field, "  all  of  whom  were  de- 
posed by  the  Council  of  Constance  in  1415,  and  Cardi- 
nal Colonna  elected  in  their  room,  under  the  title  of 
Martin  V.  The  last  antipope  was  Clement  VIII. 
"With  him  the  schism  ceased ;  but  the  evil  was  done, 
and  nothing  could  remedy  it.  The  dogma  of  papal 
infallibility  had  received  a  mortal  wound  "in  the 
house  of  its  friends,"  and  the  scepticism  induced  on 
this  point  rapidly  extended  to  others. — Chambers,  En- 
cyclopmdia,  s.  v.     See  Pope  ;  Papacy. 

Antiquities,  Sacred,  a  term  that  may  be  con- 
sidered as  embracing  whatever  relates  to  the  religious, 
political,  social,  domestic,  and  individual  life,  not  only 
of  the  Hebrew  race,  but  also  of  those  kingdoms,  tribes, 
and  persons  that  were  connected  with,  or  more  or  less 
influenced  by  the  chosen  people  (with  the  exception 
of  history  and  biography)  in  the  several  stages  of  its 
development  prior  to  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Romans,  and  to  the  usages  of  the  Christian  Church 
during  the  earlier  ages. 

I.  Biblical.  —  The  Scriptures  themselves  are  the 
great  source  whence  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew  and 
Christian  antiquities  may  be  drawn ;  and  whoever 
wishes  to  have  an  accurate  and  thorough  acquaint- 
ance with  the  subject  must,  with  this  express  pur- 
pose in  view,  make  the  holy  record  the  object  of  a 
careful,  sustained,  and  systematic  study.  Much  of 
the  Old  Testament  is,  in  the  best  sense  of  the  term, 
picture  writing ;  and  the  history  of  the  Saviour  car- 
ries us  into  the  very  bosom  of  domestic  life.  The 
knowledge  which  is  acquired  from  these  sources  is  pe- 
culiarly valuable,  from  the  stamp  of  truth  which  every 
part  of  it  bears.  Few,  however,  have  the  disposition, 
the  leisure,  or  the  ability  for  the  requisite  study;  and 
therefore  the  aid  of  the  scholar  and  divine  is  desirable, 
if  not  indispensable.  But  besides  what  may  be  learn- 
ed from  the  Scriptures  themselves,  much  remains  to 
be  known  which  they  do  not  and  cannot  teach;  for, 
like  all  other  books  relating  to  ages  long  by-gone,  they 
contain  allusions,  phraseology,  modes  of  thought  and 
speech,  which  can  be  understood  either  not  at  all,  or 
but  imperfectly,  without  light  derived  from  extrane- 
ous sources  ;  and  that  the  rather  because  the  Hebrews 
were  not  a  literary  people,  and  the  aim  of  the  sacred 
penmen  was  far  higher  than  to  achieve  intellectual 
reputation.  The  heathen  writers  afford  very  scanty 
materials  for  illustrating  biblical  antiquities,  so  igno- 
rant or  prejudiced  were  the)'  on  topics  of  that  kind. 
Indirect  information  and  undesigned  testimonies  ma}' 
be  here  and  there  extracted  from  their  writings,  but 
in  general  they  communicate  no  useful  information 
except  on  geographical  and  kindred  subjects.  The 
least  barren  of  them  is  the  earliest  prose  writer  ex-  j 
tant,  Herodotus,  who,  in  his  second  book  and  part  of  | 
the  third,  furnishes  snatches  of  information  which 
may  be  of  service,  especially  in  conjunction  with  the 
light  which  recent  discoveries  in  Egyptian  antiquities  '' 
have  so  happily  thrown  on  the  biblical  records  (The  < 
Effypt  of  Herodotus,  by  John  Kenrick,  M.A.  1841 ;  j 
Manners  and  Customs  of  ike  Ancient  Egyptians,  by  Sir 
J.  G.  Wilkinson,  1837, 1841). 

The  study  of  biblical  antiquities,  viewed  as  an  aid! 
in  the  interpretation  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, began  probably  on  the  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonish exile,  when  a  lengthened  past  already  stretch- 
ed out  to  the  Israelitish  nation  as  they  looked  back 
toward  their  origin  ■  and.  from  the  new  circumstances 
in  which  they  were  placed,  and  the  new  modes  of 
thought  and  actiun  to  which  they  had  become  habitu- 


ated, they  must  have  found  many  things  in  their  sa- 
cred books  which  were  as  difficult  to  be  understood  as 
they  were  interesting  to  their  feelings.  The  ideas, 
views,  and  observations  which  thence  resulted  were 
held,  taught,  transmitted,  and  from  age  to  age  aug- 
mented by  Jewish  doctors,  whose  professed  duty  was 
the  expounding  of  the  law  of  the  fathers  ;  and  after 
having  passed  through  many  generations  by  oral  com- 
munication, were  at  length,  in  the  second  and  some 
subsequent  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  committed 
to  writing.  See  Talmud.  This  source  of  informa- 
tion, as  being  traditionary  in  its  origin,  and  disfigured 
by  ignorance,  prejudice,  and  superstition,  must,  to  be 
of  any  service,  be  used  with  the  greatest  care  and  dis- 
crimination. It  seems,  however,  to  have  fallen  into 
somewhat  undue  depreciation,  but  has  been  success- 
fully employed  by  recent  writers  in  delineating  a  pic- 
ture of  the  age  in  which  our  Lord  appeared  (Das  Jahr- 
hundert  des  Heils,  by  Gfrorer,  Stuttgart,  1838).  In 
the  first  century  Josephus  wrote  two  works  of  une- 
qual merit,  on  The  Jewish  War  and  The  A  ntiquities  of 
the  Jews,  which,  notwithstanding  some  credulit)-  and 
bad  faith  on  the  part  of  the  author,  aiford  valuable  in- 
formation, particularly  in  relation  to  the  manners, 
customs,  and  opinions  of  his  own  times.  Had  anoth- 
er work  of  which  the  writer  speaks  (preface  to  the  An- 
tiquities) come  down  to  these  days,  which  appears  to 
have  been  a  sort  of  philosophical  treatise  on  the  Mo- 
saic laws  and  institutions,  giving  probably,  after  the 
manner  of  Michaelis  in  his  Mosaisches  Recht,  the  ra- 
tionale of  the  several  observances  enjoined,  some  con- 
siderable light  might  have  been  thrown  on  the  an- 
tiquities of  the  nation,  though  the  known  propensity 
of  Josephus  to  the  allegorical  method  of  interpreta- 
tion diminishes  the  regret  experienced  at  its  loss. 
The  works  of  Philo,  the  celebrated  Alexandrian  teach- 
er, which  were  also  produced  in  the  first  century,  have 
their  value  too  much  abated  by  his  love  of  the  same 
allegorical  method  ;  which  he  was  led  to  pursue  main- 
ly by  his  desire  to  bring  the  mind  of  the  Hebrew  na- 
tion into  harmony  with  Oriental,  and  especially  Gre- 
cian systems  of  philosophy,  of  which  Philo  was  a  dili- 
gent student  and  a  great  admirer.  Little  advantage 
is  to  be  gained  by  the  stud)'  of  writers  among  the 
modern  Jews ;  for,  till  a  very  recent  period,  no  sound 
intellectual  activitj'  was  found  among  this  singular 
and  most  interesting  race.  Inspired,  however,  by  the 
spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Mendelssohn  opened 
to  his  fellow-believers  a  new  era,  and  introduced  a 
manner  of  thinking  and  writing  which  prepared  the 
way  for  many  valuable  Jewish  productions,  and  gave 
an  impulse  to  the  mind  of  "the  nation,"  the  best 
outward  results  of  which  are  only  beginning  to  be 
seen. 

The  study  of  classical  antiquity,  which  commenced 
at  the  revival  of  letters,  was  not  without  an  influence 
on  biblical  archreology  ;  but  this  branch  of  knowledge 
is  chiefly  indebted  for  its  most  valuable  results  to  the 
systematic  stud)-  of  the  Bible,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  long-neglected  Hebrew  language,  which  the  in- 
terests of  the  Reformation  both  needed  and  called 
forth.  It  was  not.  however,  till  within  the  last  cen- 
tury that  the  intelligent  spirit  which  had  been  applied 
to  the  examination  of  classical  antiquit}*  in  Germany 
so  directed  the  attention  of  Oriental  scholars  to  the 
true  way  of  prosecuting  and  developing  a  knowledge 
of  Hebrew  and  Christian  antiquities  as  to  bring  forth 
treatises  on  the  subject  which  can  be  regarded  as  sat- 
isfactory in  the  present  advanced  state  of  general 
scholarship.  In  no  one  thing  has  the  mental  activity 
of  recent  times  contributed  more  to  the  science  of  bib- 
lical antiquities  than  by  leading  well-informed  trav- 
ellers to  penetrate  into  eastern  countries,  especially 
Syria,  since,  by  communicating  to  the  world  the  fruits 
of  their  enterprise,' they  have  been  enabled  to  present 
to  no  small  extent  a  picture  of  what  these  lands  and 
their  inhabitants  must  have  been  of  old,  permanence 


ANTIQUITIES 


279 


ANTI-SABBATARIAN  S 


being  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Oriental 
mind.  From  Shaw  (Travels  in  Barbary  and  the  Le- 
vant) and  Harmer  (Observations  on  various  Passages  of 
Scripture)  down  to  the  valuable  work  by  Prof.  Robin- 
son (Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  1841,  1856),  a  nu- 
merous series  of  publications  have  been  put  forth, 
which  have  contributed  to  throw  very  great  light  on 
Jewish  and  Christian  antiquity. 

The  earliest  treatise  in  the  English  language  ex- 
pressly on  the  subject  of  Jewish  antiquities  was  writ- 
ten by  Th.  Godwyn,  B.D.  (Moses  and  Aaron,  Civil  and 
Ecclesiastical  Rites  used  by  the  Ancient  Hebrews  ob- 
served, etc.  4to,  1614).  This  work  passed  through 
many  editions  in  England ;  was  translated  into  Latin 
by  J.  II.  Reiz  (1679) ;  furnished  with  a  preface  and 
two  dissertations  by  Witsius  (1690);  was  illustrated, 
amended,  and  enlarged  by  Hottinger  (1710) ;  and 
further  annotated  on  by  Carpzovius  (1748).  In  1724 
-5,  Thomas  Lewis  gave  to  the  public  his  Origines  He- 
brmce,  or  Antiquities  of  the  Hebrew  Republic,  4  vols.  8vo, 
which  is  a  very  elaborate  and  carefully  compiled  treat- 
ise, composed  of  materials  drawn  from  the  best  author- 
ities, both  Jewish  and  Christian.  A  work  of  much 
value,  as  affording  fuller  views  on  some  topics,  and 
written  in  an  easy  style,  is  a  posthumous  publication 
by  Dr.  Jennings,  entitled  Jewish  Antiquities,  or  a 
Course  of  Lectures  on  the  three  Fi?-st  Books  of  Godwyn' $ 
Moses  and  Aaron,  London,  1766  ;  edited,  with  a  preface 
of  some  value,  by  Philip  Furneaux.  Fleury's  work 
(Dr.  Adam  Clarke's  edition)  on  The  Manners  of  the 
Ancient  Israelites,  containing  an  Account  of  the  peculiar 
Customs,  Laws,  Policy,  and  Religion  of  the  Israelites, 
offers  a  pleasing  and  useful  introduction  to  the  study 
of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures.  A  valuable  and  (for 
ordinary  purposes)  complete  treatise  may  be  found  by 
the  English  student  in  Biblical  Antiquities,  by  John 
Jahn,  D.D.,  translated  by  T.  C.  Upham  (Andover, 
1827,  etc. ;  N.  Y.  1858).  Those  who  wish  to  enter  more 
fully  into  the  subject  may  consult  the  original,  of 
which  the  foregoing  is  an  abridgment  (Biblische  Ar- 
chdologie). A  carefully  compiled  and  well -written 
work  may  be  found  in  The  Antiquities  of  the  Jews  from 
authentic  Sources,  and  their  Customs  illustrated  by  Mod- 
ern Travels,  by  W.  Brown,  D.D.  (2  vols.  8vo,  Lond. 
1820).  Much  important  matter  is  presented  in  Aca- 
demical Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Scriptures  and  Antiqui- 
ties, by  J.  G.  Palfrey,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (2  vols.  8vo,  Boston, 
1840).  German  scholars  have  produced  numerous 
works  on  the  subject,  of  which  we  may  mention  as 
worthy  of  special  attention,  G.  L.  Bauer's  Kurzgefasstcs 
Lehrbuch  der  Hebr.  Alterthi'imer  des  A.  u.  N.  T.  (second 
edition,  by  E.  F.  K.  Rosenmiiller,  Leipsic,  1835) ;  J. 
Mt.  A.  Scholz's  Handbuch  der  Bibl.  Archdologie  (Bonn 
u.  Wien,  1834)  ;  De  Wette  (Lehrbuch  der  Ilebr.-Judisch. 
Archdologie,  Leips.  1830),  translated  by  Rev.  Theodore 
Parker,  Bost.  Heloris  Pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  may 
serve  as  a  connecting  link  between  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian antiquities,  being  almost  equally  useful  for  both, 
as  it  presents*  a  picture  of  Judaism  in  the  century 
which  preceded  the  advent  of  our  Saviour.  The  Eng- 
lish translation  (by  the  Rev.  John  Kenrick,  M.  A.)  from 
the  German  original  is  accompanied  by  valuable  notes 
and  a  preface,  in  which  may  be  found  a  brief  outline 
of  the  sources  of  biblical  archaeology.  The  work  is 
conceived  and  executed  in  the  form  of  a  story  or  novel, 
and  possesses  no  ordinary  interest,  independently  of 
its  high  theological  value,  as  affording  a  living  picture 
of  the  customs,  opinions,  and  laws  of  the  Jewish  people. 
In  French  there  is  a  somewhat  similar  work  by  M.  de 
Montbron,  under  the  unsuitable  title  of  Essais  sur  la 
Litterature  des  Hebreu.r  (4  tomes,  12mo,  Paris,  1819), 
in  which  a  number  of  short  tales  illustrative  of  ancient 
Hebrew  usages  and  opinions  are  prefaced  by  a  large 
and  elaborate  Introduction,  and  followed  by  a  great 
number  of  learned  and  curious  notes. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities. — Among  the  fathers  of 
the  Christian  Church,  Jerome,  who  was  long  resident 


in  Palestine,  has  left  in  various  works  very  important 
information  respecting  the  geography,  natural  his- 
tory, and  customs  of  the  country.  Most  of  the  fa- 
thers, indeed,  furnish,  directly  or  indirectly,  valuable 
notices  respecting  Christian  antiquity,  and  in  a  body 
constitute  the  source  whence  for  the  most  part  writ- 
ers and  scholars  of  later  ages  have  drawn  their  ma- 
terials. The  reader  may  with  advantage  consult 
Some  Account  of  the  Writings  and  Opinions  of  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  by  John,  bishop  of  Lincoln  (1835)  ;  also, 
Some  A  ccount  of  the  Writings  and  Opinions  of  Justin 
Martyr,  by  the  same  (Cambridge,  1829).  A  useful 
compendium,  as  giving  specimens  of  the  writings,  and 
therein  views  of  the  opinions,  manners,  rites,  and  ob- 
servances of  the  early  Christian  Church,  may  be  found 
in  Bibliotheque  Choisie  des  Peres  de  I'Eglise  Grecque  ct 
Latine,  by  M.  N.  S.  Guillon  (Paris,  1828). 

For  a  long  period  after  the  revival  of  learning  the 
subject  of  Christian  antiquities  received  no  specilic  at- 
tention, but  was  treated  more  or  less  summarily  in 
general  histories  of  the  Church  of  Christ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  great  Protestant  work,  Ecclesiast.  His- 
toria  per  aliquot  viros  in  urbe  Magdeburg  (1559-74); 
and  on  the  part  of  the  Catholics,  by  Baronius,  Annates 
Ecclesiast.  a  Christo  nato  ad  annum  1198  (Rom.  1558). 
If  any  exception  is  to  be  made  to  this  general  state- 
ment, it  is  on  behalf  of  Roman  Catholic  writers,  whose 
works,  however,  are  too  inaccurate  and  prejudiced  to 
be  of  any  great  value  in  these  times.  The  first  gen- 
eral treatise  on  Christian  antiquity  proceeded  from  the 
pen  of  an  English  divine,  Jos.  Bingham,  Origines  Ec- 
clesiastical, or  ike  A  ntiquities  of  the  Christian  Church 
(London,  1708-22.  10  vols.  8vo);  which  was  translated 
I  into  Latin  by  Grischow  (1738),  and  into  German  (1778). 
The  work  corresponds  in  no  slight  degree  to  the  learn- 
ing, care,  and  time  bestowed  upon  it;  but,  besides 
being  somewhat  in  the  rear  of  the  learning  of  the  day, 
it  has  its  value  diminished  by  the  High-Church  no- 
:  tions  of  the  writer,  as  well  as  by  the  strength  of  his 
|  prejudices  against  the  Roman  Catholics.  A  useful 
compendium,  written  in  a  liberal  spirit,  and  compiled 
chiefly  from  German  sources,  has  lately  been  publish- 
ed in  English  (A  Manual  of  Christian  Antiquities, 
by  Rev.  J.  E.  Riddle,  M.A.  London,  1839),  in  which 
(Preface,  §  2,  and  Appendix  H)  may  be  found  a  con- 
cise but  detailed  account  of  the  literature  of  Christian 
antiquities.  A  more  complete  catalogue  of  works,  em- 
bracing each  particular  branch,  is  given  in  Winer's 
Handbuih  der  Theologischen  Literatur.  Among  the 
best  Continental  treatises  on  the  general  subject  of 
Christian  antiquities  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Au- 
gusti,  Handbuch  d.  Christl.  Archdol.  (Leipzig,  1836-7, 
3  vols.  8vo);  Bohmer,  Die  christl.-hirchl.  Alterihums- 
Wissenschaft  (Brcsl.  1836,  8vo)  ;  Siegel,  Handbuch  der 
christl.  -Hi  chl.  AlUrthumer  (Leipzig,  1836-7,  3  vols. 
8vo). — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Archaeology. 

III.  Other  treatises  on  Biblical  archaeology  in  gen- 
eral:  Muller  (Giess.  1830);  Ugolini  (Venet.  1744-69)  ; 
Bellermann  (Frf.  1787  and  1812);  Ackermann  (Wien, 
1826);  Schmidt  (Neust.  1834).  On  Hebrew  antiqui- 
ties: Iken  (Brem.  1732,  etc.);  Wanner  (Gott.  1743); 
Warnekros  (Weim.  1782,  etc.);  Faber  (Halle,  1773); 
Babor  (Weim.  1794,  Lpz.  1805);  Pareau  (Ultraj. 
1823);  Wait  (Cambr.  1825);  Hiillmann  (Lpz.  1834); 
Kalthoff  (Munst.  1840).  On  Christian  antiquities : 
Fabricius  (I lamb.  1760);  Palseotinus  (Ven.  1766); 
Blackmore  (Lond.  1760)  ;  Baumgarten  (Hal.  1768)  ; 
Simonis  (Hal.  1769);  Chrysander  (Lpz.  1775);  Sel- 
vaggi  (Neap.  1772);  Pellica  (Neap.  1777-81);  Haag 
(Tub.  1785)  ;  Volborth  (Gott.  1789)  ;  Binterim  (Mainz, 
1825-32);  Rheinwald  (Berl.  1830);  Locherer  (Frkf. 
1832) ;  Milnter  (Kopenh.  1828) ;  Borsius  (Lugd.  B. 
1 1825).  For  the  sources  of  biblical  antiquities,  see 
j  Archaeology,  where  also  will  be  given  a  more  de- 
|  tailed  view  of  the  Christian  department  of  the  subject. 

Anti-Sabbatarians,  those  who  reject  the  Sab- 
bath, both  Jewish  and  Christian.     See  Sabbath, 


ANTITACT^E 


280 


ANTITRINITARI  AN  S 


Antitactae  (q.  d.  c'tVTiraiCTai,  from  avriTCKKno,  to 
resist),  the  Antinomian  branch  of  the  Gnostics.  Gnos- 
ticism regarded  matter  as  absolutely  evil,  and  the  body 
as  the  seat  and  source  of  evil.  Gnostic  morality, 
therefore,  consisted  in  the  mortification  of  the  body. 
One  class  of  Gnostic  sects  tried  to  attain  this  end  by 
means  of  rigorous  asceticism  [see  Encratitks],  the 
other  by  wilfully  abusing  it  for  debauchery.  The  lat- 
ter class  bore  the  collective  name  Antitaetas,  as  they 
considered  the  law  as  not  obligatory  for  them,  and  in- 
tended to  show  their  contempt  of  the  law,  and  of  the 
Demiurgos,  the  author  of  matter,  and,  consequently, 
of  evil,  by  purposely  transgressing  the  commandments 
of  the  law.  To  this  class  belong  the  Carpocratians, 
Basilidians,  and  others.  Whether  any  particular  sect 
ever  bore  the  name  Antitactae  is  still  controverted. — 
Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  451.     See  Gnosticism. 

Antitrinitarians,  a  general  name  either  applied 
to  all  who  oppose  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (q.  v.), 
or,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  to  the  opponents  of  the 
Trinity  in  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Church  and  to  those  of  the  16th  century. 

I.  The  Antitrinitarians  of  the  ancient  church,  before 
the  Council  of  Nice,  were  generally  called  Monarchi- 
ans  (q.  v.).  They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes : 
the  rationalistic  or  dynamic,  who  denied  the  divinity 
of  Christ,  regarding  him  merely  as  a  man  filled  with 
divine  power,  and  the  Patripassians  (q.  v.),  who  iden- 
tified the  Son  with  the  Father,  or  admitted  at  most 
only  a  modal  Trinity.  The  first  class  had  its  repre- 
sentatives even  in  the  Apostolical  Church,  for  Cerin- 
thus  (q.  v.)  taught  that  the  origin  of  Jesus  was  merely 
human  ;  and  the  Ebionites,  though  differing  on  some 
doctrinal  points,  agreed  in  denying  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  one  class  regarding  him  as  the  son  of  Mary 
and  Joseph,  while  the  others,  although  looking  upon 
him  as  born  of  the  Virgin  through  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  acknowledging  him  to  be  a  superhuman  being, 
yet  denied  his  divinity.  The  Magi  (about  170)  reject- 
ed the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  and  the  Gospel  of  John. 
Theodotus  the  Elder,  or  the  Tanner,  was  excommuni- 
cated about  200  by  Bishop  Victor,  of  Rome,  for  teach- 
ing that  Christ  was  begotten  in  a  miraculous  way,  but 
otherwise  a  man,  without  any  superiority  to  others 
except  that  of  righteousness.  From  the  sect  founded 
by  him  proceeded  Theodotus  the  Younger,  or  the 
Money-broker,  who  advocated,  but  at  the  same  time 
modified  the  views  of  the  elder  Theodotus.  He  main- 
tained that  the  "Logos"  dwelt  in  Melchizedek  to  a 
higher  degree  than  in  Christ,  and  thus  became  the 
founder  of  the  Melchizedecians.  Of  greater  influence 
than  the  heretics  thus  far  named  was  Artemon  (q.  v.), 
who  was  also  excluded  from  the  Church  of  Rome  for 
maintaining  that  the  established  doctrine  of  the  church 
had  always  been  that  Christ  was  only  a  man,  until 
Bishop  Zephyrinus,  of  Rome,  had  introduced  the  newer 
doctrine  of  his  divinity.  Artemon  also  admitted  the 
superhuman  origin  of  Christ,  but  denied  that  he  was 
superior  to  the  prophets  except  by  virtue.  The  most 
important  of  the  representatives  of  this  class  of  early 
Antitrinitarians  is  Paul  of  Samosata,  bishop  of  Anti- 
och,  who  was  deposed  for  heresy  in  269.  He  main- 
tained that  Christ,  as  a  man,  was  begotten  by  the  Holy 
Ghost;  that  the  "Logos"  which  then  began  personal- 
ly to  exist  dwelt  in  Christ  as  a  divine  power,  by  the 
use  of  which  he  rose  above  all  other  men,  and  became 
participant  of  divinity,  which,  therefore,  was  for  him 
a  moral,  not  a  natural  dignity. 

The  first  representatives  of  the  second  class  of  the 
early  Antitrinitarians  was  Praxeas  (q.  v.),  a  confessor 
in  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  a  prominent  op- 
ponent of  the  Montanists.  He  taught  that  the  Father 
himself  descended  into  the  Virgin,  that  he  was  horn 
from  her,  and  suffered,  and  that  he  (the  Father)  him- 
self was  ( 'hrist ;  that  only  in  so  far  as  he  assumed  flesh 
in  Jesus  he  was  called  Sou  ;  that  he  was  not,  personally 
or  otherwise,  different  from  the  Son,  "  but  made  hini- 


self  the  Son"  (ipse  se  sibi  filium  fecit),  and  that  he  suf- 
fered in  the  Son  (pate?-  compassus  estjiiio).  His  adhe- 
rents, therefore,  were  called  "  Fati-ipassians."  Noetus 
(q.  v.)  of  Smyrna,  and  probably  a  presbyter  of  Ephe- 
sus,  was  excluded  about  230  from  his  church  as  a  Pa- 
tripassian.  He  denied  this  charge,  and  we  are  not  fully 
informed  about  the  peculiar  kind  of  Monarchianism  to 
which  he  was  attached.  Callistus,  bishop  of  Rome,  is 
also  said  to  have  belonged  to  this  class.  Beryllus 
of  Bostra  (q.  v.)  denied  that  Christ  had  any  personal 
existence  before  his  incarnation,  or  that  there  was  in 
Christ  a  divine  nature  distinct  from  that  of  his  Father, 
but  he  conceded  that  the  Godhead  of  the  Father  dwelt 
in  the  person  of  Jesus.  Under  the  instruction  of  Ori- 
gen,  he  repudiated  his  views  at.thc  Synod  of  Bostra  in 
244.  The  views  of  Beryllus  were  further  developed  by 
Sabellius  (q.  v.),  a  presbyter  of  Ptolemais  (250-260). 
According  to  him,  God  is  an  absolute,  undivided  unity 
(/xovag),  and  the  "  Logos"  is  the  self-revelation  of  God 
in  the  world.  The  Father  reveals  himself  as  God 
when  he  gives  the  law,  as  Son  when  he  becomes  man 
in  Christ,  and  as  Holy  Spirit  when  he  inspires  the 
hearts  of  the  believers. 

II.  The  Middle  Ages. — There  arc  few  traces  of  Anti- 
trinitarian  doctrines  in  the  church  history  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  Amalric  of  Bena,  and  his  disciple,  David 
of  Dinanto,  regarded  the  names  of  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost  as  expressions  for  three  different  ages  of 
the  world.  The  Paulicians,  the  Catharists,  and  soma 
other  sects,  revived,  with  other  Gnostic  and  Manichse- 
an  heresies,  also  those  concerning  the  Trinity. 

III.  The  Time  of  the  Reformation. — The  rationalistic 
element,  concealed  and  suppressed  by  the  Church  of 
Rome,  came  to  the  surface  naturally  at  the  period  of 
the  Reformation.  The  Anabaptist  attack  on  practical 
points  coincided  in  time,  and  partly  in  the  men  them- 
selves, with  the  theoretical  attack  on  the  orthodox 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  To  the  first  Antitrinitarians 
of  this  period  belongs  Johannes  Denk  (died  1528),  who 
regarded  the  "Logos"  as  the  totality  of  all  human 
souls,  which  received  its  highest  development  in  Je- 
sus. He  denied  consistently  the  pre-existence  of  the 
Logos,  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  the  Trinity.  Hetzer, 
who  was  executed  at  Basel  in  1529,  seems  to  have  been 
a  disciple  of  Denk.  Campanus,  who  died  in  prison 
at  Cleves,  was  more  attached  to  Arian  views.  He  re- 
garded the  relation  of  the  Father  to  the  "  Logos"  as  a 
kind  of  marital  relation,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  as  an 
impersonal  emanation  from  both.  The  views  of  Da- 
vid Georsjs  or  Joris,  of  Delft,  in  Holland,  were  inter- 
mediate between  Sabellianism  and  the  Pantheism  of 
Amalric  of  Bena.  He  regarded  God  as  an  undivided 
unity  and  as  impersonal,  but  as  having  become  man 
in  three  persons,  Moses,  Elias,  Christ  or  Moses,  Christ, 
David  (himself),  corresponding  to  three  ages  of  the 
world.  Servetus,  who  was  burned  in  1529,  sought  to 
unite  Sabellianism  with  the  teachings  of  Paul  of  Sa- 
mosata. God,  as  undivided  unity,  is  the  Father ;  as 
descending  upon  the  man  Jesus,  he  is*  the  "Logos;" 
Jesus,  pervaded  by  the  "  Logos,"  is  the  Son  ;  God,  as 
the  power  which  penetrates  all  creatures,  and  espe- 
cially the  human  soul,  is  called  the  Holy  Ghost.  Later 
he  modified  his  views,  and  represented  God  as  the  es- 
sence of  all  things ;  the  Logos  as  the  self-revelation 
of  God,  and  including  within  himself  the  ideas  of  all 
other  things;  and  the  Holy  Ghost  as  the  self-commu- 
nication of  God  to  the  creatures,  and  as  identical  with 
the  world-soul.  All  the  Antitrinitarians  of  this  period 
thus  far  mentioned  were  more  or  less  addicted  to  a 
pantheistic  mysticism,  and  in  their  views  concerning 
the  Trinity  agreed  more  with  Sabellius  than  with 
Arius.  One  of  the  first  prominent  representatives  of  a 
rationalistic  Antitrinitarianism  was  Gribaldo,  a  learned 
Italian  jurist,  who  maintained  that  the  Son  was  an- 
other God  of  the  same  nature,  but  derived  from  the 
Father.  This  doctrine  of  three  gods  of  unequal  rank 
was  completod  by  Gentilis,  a  Calabriaa.     The  adhe- 


ANTITYPE 


281 


ANTONIANS 


rents  of  Antitrinitarian  views  in  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Poland  were  expelled  in  15G5,  and  have  since  been 
known  as  Unitarians  (q.  v.).  They  honored  Jesus 
simply  as  a  man,  but  one  who  was  richly  endowed  by 
God,  "and  exalted  for  dominion  over  the  whole  world. 
Most  of  them  paid  adoration  to  him.  The  Unitarians 
were  organized  as  a  community,  and  received  a  com- 
plete system  of  doctrine  from  Faustus  Socinus  (q.  v.), 
who  carried  out  the  views  first  set  forth  by  his  uncle, 
La?lius  Socinus,  an  Italian  nobleman.  The  principal 
article  of  his  system  was  an  attempt  at  an  accommoda- 
tion between  different  parties  by  the  doctrine  that,  al- 
though Jesus  was  born  a  mere  man,  he  was  neverthe- 
less without  any  earthly  father,  and  was  wonderfully 
endowed  by  God ;  was  taken  up  into  heaven,  and  the 
reward  of  his  life  was  deified,  that  he  might  be  a  me- 
diator to  bring  man,  alienated  from  God  by  sin,  to  the 
knowledge  and  grace  of  God,  and  that  he  might  reign 
as  the  king  of  his  people  in  all  periods  of  time.  The 
Freethinkers,  Deists,  and  Rationalists  were,  of  course, 
all  Antitrinitarians.  In  Germany,  Seebach  and  Dip- 
pel  were  prominent  by  their  opposition  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  ;  in  England,  Winston,  Clarke,  Lindsey, 
and  Priestly.  Owing  especially  to  this  influence,  Uni- 
tarian congregations  were  organized  in  England  at  the 
close  of  the  18th  century.  In  the  United  States  the 
spreading  of  Rationalism,  especially  among  the  Con- 
gregationalists,  led,  in  1815,  to  a  formal  separation,  and 
the  organization  of  a  Unitarian  denomination.  With 
them  another  religious  denomination,  who  simply  call 
themselves  Christians,  as  well  as  the  Universalists, 
and  a  seceding  portion  of  the  Society  of  Friends  (the 
"  Hicksites"),  agree  in  the  distinctive  article  of  their 
faith.  Swedenborg  substituted  for  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  a  threefold  revelation  of  the  one  God,  who  was 
obliged  to  become  man  that  he  might  give  a  human 
character  to  the  doctrines  of  faith,  and  drive  back  the 
powers  of  hell.  Several  denominations,  as  the  Disci- 
ples, Mennonites,  Quakers,  and  others,  without  reject- 
ing the  divinity  of  Christ,  or  explaining  his  relation  to 
the  Father,  are  opposed  to  the  expression  Trinity,  as 
not  being  used  by  the  Bible. 

In  Germnii}r,  Sabellianism  has  found  man}'  admirers 
in  the  school  of  speculative  theology.  Schleiermacher, 
in  particular,  was  of  opinion  that  Sabellianism  both 
avoided  the  difficulties  of  the  church  doctrine,  which 
he  regarded  as  insoluble,  and  yet  satisfied  the  nat- 
ural desire  of  the  Christian  to  attribute  to  Christ  the 
highest  predicate  without  endangering  Monotheism 
(Christliche  Ghmbemlthre,  2d  ed.  ii,  532).  Many  new 
attempts  were  made  to  advocate  a  Trinitarian  idea 
of  God  in  a  sense  entirely  different  from  that  of  the 
church  doctrine.  We  refer  to  them  more  fully  in  the 
article  Trinity.  See  Lange,  Gesck'chte  der  Unitarier 
vor  der  nic.  Synode  (Leips.  1831,  8vo) ;  Bock,  Historia 
Antitrinitariorum  (Kcenigsberg,  1774-84,  2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Trechsel,  Die  Protestant.  Antitrin.  vor  F.  Socin (Heidelb. 
1839, 1844,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines, 
i,  131 ;  ii,  210,  328, 478 ;  Wallace,  Antitrin.  Biog.  (Lond. 
1850,  3  vols.  8vo)  ;  Shedd,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  i,  254  sq. ; 
Schaff,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  287  sq.     See  Christology. 

Antitype,  that  which  answers  to  a  type  or  figure. 
The  corresponding  Greek  word,  (ivt'itv-koc,  occurs 
twice  in  the  New  Testament  (Heb.  ix,  24 ;  1  Peter  iii, 
21),  where  it  is  rendered  "figure"  (q.  v.).  A  type, 
in  its  primary  and  literal  meaning,  simply  denotes  a 
rough  draught,  or  less  accurate  model,  from  which  a 
more  perfect  image  is  made ;  but  in  the  sacred  and 
theological  sense  of  the  term,  a  type  may  be  defined  to 
be  a  symbol  of  something  future  and  distant,  or  an  ex- 
ample prepared  and  evidently  designed  by  God  to  pre- 
figure that  future  thing.  What  is  thus  prefigured  is 
called  the  antitype.     See  Type. 

Antoine,  Nicole,  an  apostate  from  Christianity 
to  Judaism,  was  born  at  St.  Brieu  in  1600,  and  joined 
early  the  Reformed  Church.    A  few  years  later  he  ap- 


plied for  admission  among  the  Jews,  but  in  vain.  Hav- 
ing returned  to  Geneva,  he  became  a  teacher,  and  af- 
terward Reformed  pastor,  at  Divonne,  where  he  preach- 
ed only  on  texts  from  the  Old  Testament,  rarely  men- 
tioning the  name  of  Jesus,  and  professing  strange  opin- 
ions about  him.  He  fell  for  some  time  into  insanity, 
and,  having  recovered,  acknowledged  again  his  faith 
in  Judaism.  He  was  accused  at  Geneva  of  blasphe- 
my, and  burned  in  1G32. — Pierer,  Univ. -Lex! Icon,  s.  v. 

Alltonia  (a  frequent  Roman  name,  fern,  of  Anto- 
nius),  the  name  of  two  females  mentioned  by  Josephus. 

1.  The  mother  of  Germanicus  and  Claudius  (after- 
ward emperor) ;  she  loaned  Herod  Agrippa  money  to 
retrieve  his  credit  with  Tiberius  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii, 
G,  4).  She  was  a  woman  of  eminent  virtue  (ib.  6). 
She  was  born  about  B.C.  S6,  and  lived  to  see  the  ac- 
cession of  her  grandson  Caligula  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of 
Class.  A  nt.  s.  v.). 


(Join  with  the  Bust  of  Antonia. 


2.  A  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  by  Petina 
(Josephus,  War,  ii,  12,  7).  Nero  had  her  put  to  death 
on  a  charge  of  treason,  after  her  refusal  to  marry  him 
(Suet.  Claud.  27  ;  Ner.  35 ;  Tacit.  Ann.  xii,  2 ;  xiii,  23 ; 
xv,  53 ;  Dio  Cass,  ix,  5). 

Antonia  CAvrutvia,  from  Antony),  a  fortress  in 
Jerusalem,  on  the  north  side  of  the  area  of  the  Tem- 
ple, often  mentioned  by  Josephus  in  his  account  of  the 
later  wars  of  the  Jews.  It  was  originally  built  by  the 
Maccabees,  under  the  name  of  Boris,  and  was  after- 
ward rebuilt  with  great  strength  and  splendor  by  the 
first  Herod  (Josephus,  A  nt.  xv,  11).  In  a  more  par- 
ticular description  Josephus  states  (War,  v,  5,  8)  that 
the  fortress  stood  upon  a  rock  or  hill  fifty  cubits  high, 
at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  temple  area,  above 
which  its  wall  rose  to  the  height  of  forty  cubits.  With- 
in it  had  the  extent  and  appearance  of  a  palace,  be- 
ing divided  into  apartments  of  every  kind,  with  gal- 
leries and  baths,  and  broad  halls  or  barracks  for  sol- 
diers ;  so  that,  as  having  every  thing  necessary  with- 
in itself,  it  seemed  a  city,  while  in  magnificence  it  re- 
sembled a  palace.  At  each  of  the  four  corners  was  a 
tower.  Three  of  these  were  fifty  cubits  high  ;  but  the 
fourth,  at  the  south-east  corner,  was  seventy  cubits 
high,  and  overlooked  the  whole  temple,  with  its  courts. 
The  fortress  communicated  with  the  northern  and  west- 
ern porticoes  of  the  temple  area,  and  had  flights  of 
stairs  descending  into  both,  by  which  the  garrison 
could  at  any  time  enter  the  courts  of  the  Temple  and 
prevent  tumults.  On  the  north  it  was  separated  from 
the  hill  Bezetha  by  a  deep  trench,  lest  it  should  be  ap- 
proachable from  that  quarter,  and  the  depth  of  the 
trench  added  much  to  the  apparent  elevation  of  the 
towers  (JPar,v,  4,  2). 

This  fortress  is  called  //  7rnpf/</5oX/;  in  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  xxi,  34,  37),  and  is  the  "castle"  into 
which  Paul  was  carried  from  the  Temple  by  the  sol- 
diers, from  the  stairs  of  which  he  addressed  the  people 
collected  in  the  adjacent  court  (Acts  xxi,  31-40).  Dr. 
Robinson  (Researches,  i,  422)  conceives  that  the  deep 
and  otherwise  inexplicable  excavation  called  "the  pool 
of  Bethesda"  was  part  of  the  trench  below  the  north 
wall  of  this  fortress;  in  which  case,  as  he  remarks,  its 
extent  must  have  been  much  more  considerable  than 
has  usually  been  supposed. — Kitto.     See  Jerusalem. 

Antonians,  1.  A  sect  of  Antinomians  in  Switzer- 
land, followers  of  Anton  Unternahrer,  born  a  Roman 
Catholic  at  Entlehueh,  1761,  whose  mind  seems  to  have 
been  unsettled.  In  17119  he  began  to  hold  meetings, 
and  soon  after  announced  himself  as  the  Son  of  Man. 


ANTONIEWICZ 


2S2 


ANTONINUS 


This  he  tried  to  demonstrate  in  the  most  singular  man- 
ner from  a  number  of  scriptural  passages,  from  his 
name,  and  from  circumstances  of  his  body  and  life. 
On  Good  Friday,  1802,  he  appeared,  with  a  number  of 
adherents,  before  the  minster  of  Berne,  proclaiming 
an  impending  crisis.  He  also  summoned  the  govern- 
ment of  the  canton  to  appear  before  him.  This  led  to 
bis  arrest  and  to  an  investigation,  in  consequence  of 
•which  he  was  sentenced  to  two  years  imprisonment. 
As  soon  as  dismissed  from  the  prison,  he  again  held 
assemblies  in  the  neighborhood  of  Thun,  was  again  ar- 
rested, and  sentenced  (April  4.  1805)  to  life-long  ban- 
ishment from  the  canton.  He  then  went  to  Sehlilpf- 
heim  in  the  canton  of  Lucerne,  where  he  was  visited 
by  many  of  his  adherents.  The  government  was  first 
inclined  to  treat  him  as  a  monomaniac,  but  subse- 
quently arrested  him,  and  kept  him  in  prison  until  his 
death  in  1824.  UnternShrer  published  fifteen  small 
volumes,  several  of  which  were  printed  secretly.  All 
are  written  in  the  tone  and  language  of  the  Bible.  He 
combined  the  passages  of  the  Bible  without  any  regard 
to  sense  and  connection,  and  justified  this  arbitrariness 
by  saying  that  the  Scriptures  were  only  "  fragments," 
and  that  he,  as  the  Man  of  God,  had  the  mission  to  put 
these  fragments  together  in  the  proper  way.  Of  God 
he  speaks  as  a  personal  being,  having  all  the  attributes 
given  to  him  in  the  Scriptures.  Still,  his  conception 
is  unconsciously  pantheistic,  inasmuch  as  he  regards 
him  merely  as  a  natural  being,  without  the  idea  of 
concrete  holiness.  He  also  accepted  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity,  but  thought  himself  to  be  the  God  who 
became  man  the  second  time.  Every  thing  created 
by  God,  inclusive  of  man,  with  all  his  natural  instincts, 
was  regarded  by  him  as  good ;  the  making  of  any  dis- 
tinction, as  between  good  and  evil,  he  declared  to  be 
the  work  of  the  devil.  According  to  him,  the  man 
who  recognises  all  such  distinctions  as  opposed  to  the 
will  of  God,  is  redeemed.  The  redemption  of  mankind 
was  begun  by  Christ,  and  completed  by  himself  ^Un- 
terniihrer).  All  institutions  of  church  and  state,  mar- 
riage, property,  religious  service,  sacraments,  he  de- 
nounced and  cursed  as  distinctions  taught  by  the  devil. 
The  only  religious  service  he  taught  consisted  in  the 
cultivation  of  love — in  particular,  sexual  love,  without 
any  restraint  or  distinction  whatever.  He  found  ad- 
herents in  several  places,  and  many  continued  to  be- 
lieve in  him  even  after  his  death,  expecting  that  his 
spirit  would  appear  again  in  another  form.  In  Am- 
soldingen,  his  former  place  of  residence,  the  sect  was 
suppressed  in  1805.  In  Wohlen,  near  Berne,  and  sev- 
eral adjoining  communities,  a  certain  Bendicht  Scliori 
became  the  centre  of  the  sect.  They  were  summoned 
before  the  courts  in  1830,  but  dismissed  with  a  moder- 
ate fine,  and  still  exist.  Another  branch  of  the  sect 
existed  in  the  community  of  Gsteig,  near  Interlachen, 
under  the  leadership  of  Christ.  Michel.  The  courts 
several  times  proceeded  against  this  branch  (1821, 
18S0,  and  1840),  and  in  1841  Michel  and  others  were 
sentenced  to  live  years'  imprisonment.  Traces  and 
branches  of  this  sect,  it  is  said,  may  also  still  be  found 
in  the  cantons  of  Lucerne,  Aargau,  and  Zurich.  (See 
Zyrb,  ( 'l/r.  Michel  und  -vine  Anhiinger,  in  Trechsel's 
Beitrogt  inr  Geschickte  </.  Schweiz.  refr.  Kirche). — 
Herzog,  i,  U0. 

2.  The  name  of  several  orders.  See  Anthony, 
orders  OF. 

Antoniewicz,  Charles  Bolaz,  a  Polish  poet 
and  pulpit  orator,  born  at  l.emberg,  Nov.  6,  1807,  died 
atObra,  Nov.  14,  1852.  He  early  distinguished  him- 
self as  a   1 t,  and   look  an  active  part  in  the  Polish 

revolution  of  1830.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  he  en- 
tered, in  1839,  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  at  once  ob- 
tained the  reputation  of  being  the  most  distinguished 
among  the  living  Polish  pulpit  orators.  His  country- 
men compared  him  with  Lacordaire  (q.  v.)  and  Ven- 
tura (i|.  v.  ).  lie  had,  in  particular,  r;reat  success  as 
an  apostle   of  temperance.     Antoniewicz  contributed 


many  poetical  and  theological  articles  to  Polish  jour- 
nals, and  also  published  a  number  of  books,  as  Sonetles 
(1828),  Bielang  (1829),  Reminiscences  ofPolsh  Convents, 
etc.  A  biographical  sketch  of  Antoniewicz,  in  Polish 
("Reminiscences  of  the  Life  and  the  Writings  of  Anto- 
niev;icz"),  was  published  by  the  priest  Ignaz  Polkowski 
(Warsaw,  1861). —  Unsere  Zeit,  viii,  717  sq. 

Antoninus,  Titus  Aurelius  Fulvius  Bojonius 
Pius,  a  Roman  emperor,  born  Sept.  19,  A.D.  86,  at  a 
villa  near  Lanuvium  (now  Civita-Lavinia),  and  died 
at  Lorium  (now  Castel  di-Guido),  March  7,  161.  He 
was  first  one  of  the  four  administrators  of  Italy,  after- 
ward proconsul  of  Asia.  Adrian  having  adopted  him, 
he  became  his  successor  as  Roman  emperor,  and  gov- 
ernor from  138  to  161.  He  showed  himself  in  every 
respect  one  of  the  greatest  and  noblest  emperors  pa- 
gan Rome  ever  had.  He  was  just,  mild,  liberal,  a 
supporter  of  science  and  art,  and  averse  to  carrying  on 
war.  Under  Adrian  he  saved  the  lives  of  many  sen- 
ators whose  execution  had  been  ordered,  and  he  pre- 
vailed on  Adrian  himself  to  desist  from  committing 
suicide.  The  Roman  empire  greatly  prospered  under 
his  administration,  and  neighboring  nations  frequent- 
ly chose  him  as  an  umpire  of  their  feuds.  From  him 
are  the  celebrated  sayings :  "  I  prefer  saving  one  cit- 
izen to  slaying  a  thousand  enemies,"  and  "A  prince 
must  have  no  property  of  his  own,  but  devote  every 
thing  to  the  common  weal."  He  protected  the  Chris- 
tians when  the  pagans  ascribed  several  public  calami- 
tics,  as  the  inundation  of  the  Tiber,  the  earthquake  in 
Greece,  conflagrations,  etc.,  to  the  wrath  of  the  gods, 
in  consequence  of  the  Christians  being  tolerated.  An- 
toninus forbade  all  towns  in  Greece,  and  especially 
Larissa,  Thessalonica,  and  Athens,  to  persecute  the 
Christians.  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.  iv,  13)  gives  a  re- 
script of  this  emperor  to  the  assembly  of  deputies  of 
Asia  Minor,  ordering  even  the  punishment  of  such  as 
would  accuse  Christians;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
this  decree  is  genuine. — Capitolinus,  Vita  Antonini; 
Wenck,  Divus  Phis,  sive  ad  leges  imp.  Tit.  JEl.  Anton. 
Pii,  Commentarii  (Lips.  1804-1805);  Gautier  de  Sibert, 
Vie  cTAntonin;  Eichstiidt,  Exercitaiiones  Antoniniance 
(Jen.  1821  sq.);  Hofner,  De  celicto  Ant.  pro  Chris. 
(Argent.  1781);  Hegelmaier,  In  edictiim  Ant.  (Tub. 
1776);  Wolle,  De  ctioicai^ovia.  Antonini  (Lips.  1730); 
I  Keuchen,  Anton.  P.  (Amst.  1667);  Meermann,  id. 
(Haag,  1807);  Beykert,  De  edicto  Ant.  P.  (Argent. 
1  1781);  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Antoninus,  Marcus  Annius  Verus  Aurelius. 
See  Aurelius. 

Antoninus,  archbishop  of  Florence  :  bis  real  name 
was  Antonius,  but  he  was  called  by  the  diminutive 
Antoninus  on  account  of  his  small  stature.  Born  at 
Florence  in  1389,  he  entered  at  sixteen  years  of  age 
the  order  of  St.  Dominic,  and  soon  acquired  such  a  rep- 
utation that,  even  when  yet  quite  young,  he  was  in- 
trusted with  the  government  of  various  houses  of  his 
Order,  at  Cortona,  Rome,  Naples,  Florence,  etc.,  and 
contributed  greatly  to  its  reformation.  In  1439  he 
took  part  in  the  Council  of  Florence.  In  1446,  Pope 
Eugenius  IV  appointed  him  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Florence.  He  died  in  1459,  and  Pius  II  granted  a 
plenary  indulgence  of  seven  years  to  all  persons  who 
kissed  his  body  before  it  was  placed  in  the  tomb !  He 
was  canonized  in  1523.  His  works  are:  1.  Summa 
Historiafis,  sew,  Ckronicon  Tripartitum ;  from  the  crea- 
tion to  the  year  1459  (Venice,  1481,  Basle,  1491,  5  vols, 
fob,  and  elsewhere): — 2.  Summa  Theologies  moralis,par- 
tibus  1  distincta  (Venice,  1477,  4  vols. ;  a  new  edition, 
with  very  copious  notes  by  Father  Mamachi,  Venice, 
1751,  4  vols.  4to): — 3.  Summa  Confessionalis  (Argent. 
1492,  Venice,  1572)  : — 4.  Annotation,  s  de  Donatione  Con- 
stantini  J/.: — 5.  Trialogns  de  Disrijndis  Eiumaunticis; 
with  his  Life : — 6.  De  Virtutibus  liter.  His  life  is  given 
by  Echard,  De  Script.  Ord.  Preedicat.  i,  818,  and  in  the 
Acta  Sanctorum,  vol.  i.  —  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  1444- 


ANTONINUS 


283 


ANTONIUS 


Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog. 
Generate,  ii,  859. 

Antoninus,  a  martyr,  who  is  said  to  have  suffered 
either  in  the  fourth  or  ia  the  seventh  century.  He 
has  been  commemorated  at  Pamiers,  France,  since  the 
eighth  century,  on  the  2d  of  September. — Landon,  Ec- 
cks.  Dictionary,  i,  431. 

Antoninus,  a  priest  and  martyr  of  Palestine,  who 
is  said  to  have  been  present  at  C;«sarea  with  Zebinus 
and  Germanus,  and,  together  with  them,  reproached 
the  governor  Firmilianus  for  sacrificing  to  idols,  for 
which  they  were  put  to  death.  This  happened  under 
Galerius  Maximianus.  They  are  commemorated  as 
saints  in  the  Roman  Church  on  the  13th  of  Novem- 
ber.— Ruinart,  p.  327;  Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  i, 
432. 

Antoninus  Honoratus,  bishop  of  Constantina 
or  of  Cirta,  in  Africa.  He  is  chiefly  known  by  a  let- 
ter of  his  (A.D.  437)  to  a  Spanish  bishop  named  Arca- 
dius,  and  three  others,  banished  by  Genseric,  king  of 
the  Vandals,  because  they  would  not  embrace  Arian- 
ism.  He  exhorts  them  to  suffer  patiently  for  the  sake 
of  Jesus  Christ.  The  letter  is  short,  but  written  in 
vigorous  and  even  elevated  language.  It  is  given  in 
Baronius,  .1  nnales,  A.D.  437,  and  in  the  Bibl.  Patrum, 
viii,  665.— Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  i,  338 ;  Dupin,  flist.  Eccl. 
Writers,  i,  447  ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate.,  ii,  859. 

Antonio,  Augustine,  of  Saragossa,  in  Aragon, 
son  of  the  vice-chancellor  of  that  kingdom  ;  studied  at 
Salamanca,  whence  he  passed  into  Italy,  and  made 
himself  master  of  law,  ecclesiastical  history,  languages, 
etc.  At  twenty-five  years  of  age  he  published  Emen- 
ditiones  et  Opiniones  Juris  CivUis.  Paul  III  made  him 
auditor  of  the  Rota;  and  Julius,  his  successor,  sent 
him  as  legate  into  England  when  Philip  of  Spain  went 
there  to  marry  Queen  Mar}*.  He  was  made  succes- 
sively bishop  of  Alifa  in  1556,  and  Lerida  in  1561,  and 
lastly,  in  1576,  archbishop  of  Tarragona,  which  digni- 
ty he  held  till  his  death  in  1586.  Baluze  has  given  a 
list  of  his  works  at  the  end  of  his  Treatise  on  the  Cor- 
rection of  Gratian,  which  is  the  most  considerable  of 
his  writings. — Dupin,  Hist,  of  Eccl.  Writers,  iii,  743; 
Landon,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Antonio,  Juan,  a  Franciscan  of  Salamanca,  ex- 
definitor  and  ex-guardian  of  the  Franciscan  Discal- 
ceats  of  St.  Paul,  also  censor  of  the  supreme  tribunal 
of  the  Inquisition,  and  general  historian  of  the  entire 
order  of  Franciscans.  He  wrote  Bibliotheca  Minorum 
Discalceatorum  (Salaman.  1723,  4to)  :  —  Chronicas  dz 
Franciscanos  delta  Procincia  de  S.  Paulo  en  Castilla 
(torn,  i,  Salaman.  1727 ;  torn,  ii,  Madrid,  1729,  fol.)  :— 
Bibliotheca  Universa  Franciscana  (3  torn.  Mad.  1732). 
— Richard  and  Giraud,  Biblioth.  S.icree,  cited  by  Lan- 
don, s.  v. 

Antonio  of  Cordova,  an  Observantine  monk  of 
the  order  of  St.  Francis,  who  was  looked  upon  in  his 
time  as  an  oracle  in  theology.  He  refused  the  bish- 
opric of  Placenza,  which  was  offered  to  him,  and  died 
at  Guadalaxara,  in  New  Castile,  in  1578,  aged  ninety- 
three.  Among  his  works  are  De  Potestate  Papce  (Ven- 
ice, 1579,  fol.)  ;  Coram,  in  Reyul.  S.  Erancisci  (Paris, 
1621,  8vo);  Qucestiones  4  d<>  Detractione,  etc.  (Alcala, 
1553)  ;  Qucestionarium  Theologicum  lib.  v  (Venice,  1604, 
fol.);  Commentaria  in  4  libros  Magistri  Sent.;  De  In- 
du'gentiis  (Alcala,  1554)  ;  De  C'onceptione  B.  Virginis. — 
Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Antonio  of  Santa  Maria,  a  Franciscan  monk 
and  missionary,  born  at  Placentia,  Spain,  about  1610. 
He  went  as  missionary  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
where  he  taught  theology  in  the  monastery  of  the  Dis- 
calceats.  In  1633  he  went  to  China,  and  was  made 
superior  of  the  missionaries  of  his  order  in  that  coun- 
try. For  thirty-seven  years  he  labored  with  great 
zeal,  suffering  chains  and  imprisonment.  He  preach- 
ed first  in  the  province  of  Fokien,  then  at  Nankin,  and 
lastly  in  Xantung,  where  he  founded  a  church.     He 


died  in  1670.  Among  the  works  which  he  has  left 
may  be  mentioned  Relatio  Sinensium  Sectarum ;  Da 
Controversia  Primogenitonun  Defunctorum ;  Confucii 
Cultus;  An  Apology  for  Christianity,  in  Chinese ;  A  work 
in.  Spanish  on  the.  Chinese  rites  (translated  into  French 
by  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  and  printed  at  Par- 
is, 1701);  A  Catechism,  in  Chinese  (Canton,  1660)  ;  An 
Apology  for  the  Dominican  and  Franciscan  Missionaries 
in  China ;  History  of  the  Venerable  Brother  Gabriel,  of 
Madelaina,  and  the  Seven  Discalceat  Franciscans,  mar- 
tyred in  Japan ;  De  modo  Evan  gelt  sandi  regnum  Dei  in 
Sinico  imperio  ;  Tractatus  de  Sinarum  Conversione  ;  Re- 
lationes  5  de  Conversatione,  Progressibus,  ac  Fructibus 
Mksionariorum  discalceatorum  in  Sinensium  imperio ; 
and  many  other  works,  chiefly  relating  to  the  Chinese 
missions. — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Antonio  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  a  Portuguese 
monk,  of  the  order  of  Barefooted  Carmelites,  and  a 
famous  theologian  and  preacher,  who  died  bi:»hop  of 
Angola,  in  Upper  Ethiopia,  in  1667.  He  left  many 
treatises,  printed  at  Lyons,  in  five  vols.  fol. — Richard 
and  Giraud,  Biblioth.  Sacree,  cited  by  Landon,  s.  v. 

Antonius  (a  frequent  Roman  name),  the  name  of 
several  men  in  Josephus.     See  also  Antony. 

1.  Lucius,  third  son  of  Marcus  Antonius  Creticus, 
and  younger  brother  of  Marc  Antony,  became  tribune 
in  B.C.  44,  and  consul  in  B.C.  41.  Upon  the  death  of 
Julius  Cajsar,  he  actively  supported  his  brother's  cause 
as  triumvir  (Dion  Cass,  xlviii,  5)  ;  but  in  the  issue  he 
was  besieged  in  Perusia,  and  forced  to  surrender,  B.C. 
40.  He  was  shortly  afterward  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  Iberia,  after  which  we  hear  no  more  of  him 
(Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.  Antonius,  14).  Cice- 
ro describes  him  as  infamous  (Phil,  iii,  12;  v,  7,  11; 
xii,  8,  etc.),  but  with  exaggeration  (Drumann,  Gesch. 
Roms,  p.  527).  His  decree  as  "Roman  vice-quaastor 
and  vice-praetor"  to  the  Sardians  in  favor  of  the  Jews 
is  recited  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xiv,  10,  17). 


Coin  with  the  heads  of  Lucius  and  Marc  Antony. 

2.  Marcus  (surnamed  Primus),  a  native  of  Tolosa, 
in  Gaul,  received  in  his  boyhood  the  epithet  of  BeJco, 
i.  e.  in  Gallic  a  cock's  beak  (Suetonius,  Vitell.  18  ;  Mar- 
tial, ix,  10).  He  afterward  went  to  Rome,  and  rose  to 
the  dignity  of  senator ;  but,  having  been  degraded  for 
forgery,  he  was  banished  (Tacit.  Ann.  xiv,  40).  After 
the  death  of  Nero  (A.D  68),  he  was  restored  to  his  for- 
mer rank  by  Galba,  and  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  seventh  legion  in  Pannonia.  AVhen  the  for- 
tunes of  Vitellius  began  to  fail  (A.D.  68),  Antonius 
was  one  of  the  first  generals  of  Europe  to  declare  in 
favor  of  Vespasian,  to  whom  he  subsequently  rendered 
the  most  important  military  services  (Smith's  Did. 
of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.  Primus).  His  dispossession  of  the 
forces  of  Vitellius  from  Rome  is  related  by  Josephus 
(War,  iv,  11,  2  and  3).  His  haughty  behavior  in  con- 
sequence, however,  appears  thenceforth  to  have  left 
him  in  comparative  obscurity  (Tacit.  Hist,  ii,  86 ;  Dio 
Cass,  lxv,  9-18). 

3.  A  captain  of  the  Roman  garrison  at  Ascalon,  at- 
tacked by  the  Jews  in  the  beginning  of  the  final  strug- 
gle (Joseph.  War,  iii,  2,  1).  It  is  uncertain  whether 
he  was  the  same  with  the  centurion  who  lost  his  life 
during  the  siege  of  Jotapata  by  the  treachery  of  one 
of  the  Jews  who  had  fled  into  the  neighboring  caves 
(ib.  iii,  7,  35). 

Antonius,  St.     See  Anthony. 
Antonius  De  Dominis.     See  Dominis. 
Antonius  De  Rosellis.     See  Anthony. 
Antonius  of  Padua.     See  Anthony. 


ANTONIUS 


284 


ANUBIS 


Antonius,  Orders  of.  See  Anthony,  St.,  Or- 
ders of. 

Antonius,  a  martyr  of  the  14th  century,  who,  with 
his  brother,  abandoned  Paganism  for  Christianity  in 
Lithuania.  The  grand-duke  Olgar  made  vain  efforts 
to  induce  the  brothers  to  abjure  Christianity,  and  final- 
ly ordered  them  to  be  tortured  and  hung.  They  are 
celebrated  as  martyrs  in  the  Roman  Church  April 
14. — Acta  Sanctorum,  April  14;  Hocfer,  Big.  Gene- 
rale,  ii,  823. 

Antonius  Margarita.     See  Margarita. 

Antonius  Melissa,  a  Greek  monk  toward  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century  (?).  He  made  a  collection 
(something  after  the  manner  of  Stobaeus)  of  passages 
from  the  classics  and  from  the  church  fathers,  ranging 
the  materials  under  seventy-six  titles.  It  was  first 
printed  by  Gesner  (Zurich,  154G,  fid.),  and  is  given 
also  at  the  end  of  Stobaeus  (Francf.  1581),  and  also  in 
the  Bibliotheca  Patrum,  t.  v. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ge- 
nerate, i,  823. 

Antonius  Nebrissensis.  See  Anthony  of 
Lebrija. 

Antonius  or  Anton,  Paul,  a  German  theologi- 
an, born  at  Hirschfeldt  in  1GG1.  He  became  professor 
at  Halle,  and  was  for  many  years  the  friend  and  co- 
laborer  of  Francke  (q.  v.)  in  the  revival  of  religion 
known  as  Pietism.  He  died  at  Halle  in  1730.  Among 
his  writings  are  Be  sicris  processiimibus  genti'iam  (Leip- 
zig, 1684,  4to)  : — Concil'd  Tridentini  doctrina  pi/Mica, 
(Halle,  1697,  8vo,  and  often) : — Elementa  Homiletica 
(Halle,  1700,  8vo):—  other  writings  of  his  are  named 
in  Walch,  Bibliotheca,  ii. — Hoefer,  Noui:  Biog.  Gene- 
rate, ii,  834. 

Antony,  Marc  (properly  Marcus  Antonius), 
the  triumvir,  son  of  M.  Antonius  Creticus  and  Julia, 
the  sister  of  Julius  Cresar,  was  born  apparently  B.C. 
83,  for  he  was  chosen  consul  as  early  as  B.C.  64.  His 
father  dying  while  he  was  yet  young,  and  his  mother 
marrying  again,  he  was  left  in  his  youth  to  all  sorts 
of  dissipation,  and  early  became  distinguished  for 
profligacy,  which  continually  afterward  involved  him 


of  Antony,  struck  at  Antioch. 


in  want  and  danger.  To  escape  from  his  creditors, 
he  served  in  the  army  in  Syria  under  Gabinius,  where 
he  acquired  a  reputation  for  intrepidity  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xiv,  5,  3;  War,  i,  8,  5).  He  took  part  in  the 
campaigns  against  Aristobulus  in  Palestine  (B.C.  57, 
56 ),  and  also  in  the  restoration  of  Ptolemy  Auletes  to 
Egypt  (in  B.C.  55).  In  the  following  year  he  fol- 
lowed J.  Caesar  into  Gaul,  through  whose  influence 
he  was  elected  quaestor  in  B.C.  52,  and  whose  legate 
he  became  during  the  contest  with  the  party  of  Pom- 
pey  (B.C.  49-47).  On  the  murder  of  Ctesar,  Antony 
was  left  in  supreme  power,  but  a  rival  soon  appeared 
in  the  young  Octavianus,  with  whom,  after  a  defeat 
in  battle,  he  at  length  formed  the  first  triumvirate,  in 
connection  with  Lepidus,  the  chief  in  command  of  the 
consular  troops,  B.C.  43,  the  death  of  Cicero  being 
one  of  the  terms  of  the  compact.  Antony  now  vigor- 
ously prosecuted  the  war  against  the  opponents  of  the 
late  dictator  Caesar,  and  defeated  Brutus  and  Cassius 
in  a  pitched  battle  at  1'harsalia,  B.C.  42.  Then,  after 
an  interval  spent  in  Koine,  he  passed  over  to  Asia,  in 
order  to  procure  funds  for  paying  his  troops,  and  in 
Egypt  he  became  enamored  of  the  famous  Cleopatra 
(q.  v.),  and,  neglecting  his  affairs  in  dalliance  with 
her,  at  last  became  involved  in  inextricable  reverses, 
which  terminated  in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Actium. 


B.C.  31,  by  which  Octavianus  became  master  of 
Egypt.  Antony  fled  to  Alexandria,  and  when  Oc- 
tavianus appeared  before  the  place,  he  committed 
suicide,  B.C.  30  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.). 
Several  of  the  events  in  the  later  part  of  his  career 
are  referred  to  by  Josephus  {Ant.  xiv,  13,  1 ;  War,  i, 
16,  4),  who  speaks  in  detail  of  his  connection  with 
Herod  (Ant.  xiv,  13-xv,  4),  and  recites  his  decrees  to 
various  countries  in  favor  of  the  Jews  (Ant.  xiv,  10, 
9  and  10).  See  Herod  the  Great.  Plutarch  wrote 
a  Life  of  Antony.  See  Liddell's  Hist,  of  Rome,  p.  674- 
729. 


Coin  of  Antony,  with  Symbols  of  the  worship  of  Bacchus  and 
Venus. 

Antothi'jah  (Heb.  Anthothiyah' ',  T^TTti'Z  v.  r. 
n*rnD",  answers  from  Jehovah;  Sept.  'AvaSwSia 
v.  r.  'AvaSioS),  a  descendant  of  Shashak,  a  chief  Ben- 
jaminite  of  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii,  24).  B.C.  appar- 
ently ante  536. 

An'tothite,  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  in 
two  passages  (1  Chron.  xi,  28  ;  xiii,  3)  of  the  name 
more  property,  or  at  least  more  analogically,  Angli- 
cized Anathothite,  i.  e.  an  inhabitant  of  Anathoth 
(q.  v.).  It  is  observable  that  while  the  city  is  inva- 
riably written  Anathoth'  (SliMS,  Josh,  xxi,  18;  1 
Chron.  vi,  60  [45]  ;  vii,  8 ;  Ezra  ii,  23 ;  Neh.  vii,  27 ; 
x,  19  [20]  ;  xi,  32  ;  Isa.  x,  30  ;  Jer.  i,  1 ;  xi,  21,  23 ; 
xxii,  8  ;  with  the  art.,  nirOl'il,  as  a  var.  read,  in  Jer. 
xxii,  7;  "defectively,"  tiriSSj?  in  1  Kings  ii,  26,  as  a 
var.  read,  in  Jer.  xxii,  9 ;  Sept.  'A  wr3-w3  [v.  r.  Na^wS 
in  1  Chron.  vii,  8];  Vulg.  Anathoth,  but  Anathot  in 
Neh.  vii,  27),  the  derivative  is  written  very  various- 
ly as  follows:  2  Sam.  xxiii,  27,  Heb.  Annethothi', 
^T\ryj,  Sept.  'AvioS'iTriQ,  Vulg.  de  Anathoth,  Auth. 
Vers.  "  Anethothite  ;"  1  Chron.  xi,  28,  Anthothi' ', 
TiiriV/AvaSwSi^tiatJiotites,  "Antothite;"  1  Chron. 
xii,  3,  Anthothi',  ^rrDi",  'Ava&wSi,  Anatoth'tes,  "An- 
tothite;" 1  Chron.  xxvii,  12,  An: 'hothi' ',  Vfi'MS  [v.  r. 
AntothV,  IMFI??],  i'i  'AvaSrwB,  Anathothites,  "  Ane- 
tothite;"  Jer.  xxix,  27,  Annethothi' ',  ipriS",  t'£  'Ava- 
BwB,  Anathothites,  "of  Anathoth." 

A'nub  (Heb.  Anub',  tVliS,  bound  together ;  Sept. 
'Ewiu/3  v.  r.  'Evw/3),  the  first  named  of  the  two  or 
three  sons  of  Coz  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv, 
8).     B.C.  post  1618. 

Anubis  ("Avoufiig,  derivation  unknown),  the 
name  of  an  Egyptian  deity,  who  had  a 
temple  in  Home,  where  Mundus,  Im- 
personating the  god,  through  the  con- 
trivance of  a  freed-woman  and  the  col- 
lusion of  the  priests,  secured  the  grati- 
fication of  his  passion  for  Paulina,  a 
chaste  matron  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  3, 
3).  His  worship  in  Egypt  is  referred  to 
By  Herodotus  (ii,  66),  and  was  widely 
disseminated  during  the  Roman  Em- 
pire (Appian,  Bell.  Civ.  iv,  47 ;  Apul. 
Met.  xi,  262 ;  Lamprid.  Commod.  9  ; 
Spartian,  Pescenn.  Nig.  6  ;  Anion.  Ca- 
rac.  9).  He  appears  to  have  been 
adored  under  the  figure  of  a  dog-head- 
ed man,  a  myth  of  which  the  ancients 
give  various  interpretations  (see  Smith's  Image  of  Anu- 
Dict.  of  Class.   Antiq.  s.  v.).     In  the  bis- 


ANUS 


285 


APATHY 


temples  of  Egypt  he  is  represented  as  the  guard  of 
other  gods,  particularly  the  attendant  of  Osiris  and 
Isis,  occupying,  in  accordance  with  the  form  under 
which  he  is  symbolized,  the  space  in  front  of  the  tem- 
ple (Strabo,  xvii,  p.  805 ;  Stat.  Sylv.  iii,  2,  12).  For 
his  rites,  see  Jablonsky,  Panth.  sEg.  v,  1,  §  12  etc. ; 
Champollion  (Le  Jeune),  Pantheon  Egypt.  (Par.  1823)  ; 
Pritchard,  Egyptian  Mythology.      See  Nibhaz. 

A'nus  CAvviovS  v.  r.  'Avvovc),  one  of  the  Levites 
who  expounded  the  law  read  by  Ezra  (1  Esdr.  ix,  48) ; 
evidently  the  Bani  of  the  genuine  text  (Neh.  viii,  7). 
Anvil  (E??!  Pa'- 
am,  so  called  from  be- 
ing beaten,  Isa.  xli,  7  ; 
elsewhere  a  "step," 
"corner,"  "time," 
etc. ;  dic/uov,  Ecclus. 
xxxviii,  28),  the  uten- 
sil employed  apparent- 
ly among  the  Hebrews, 
as  with  other  na- 
tions, by  blacksmiths 
for  hammering  upon. 
See  Metal;  Smith; 
Iron. 

Apa'rae  (Aira/.tr], 
appar.  from  ct—apdw, 
to  cut  off),  the  name 


Vulcan  forging  a  Thunder- bolt,  given  in  the  Apocry- 
From  an  antique  Roman  Gem.  ua  , -^  Esdr.  iv  29) 
and  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xi,  0,  5)  as  that  of  a  con- 
cubine of  Darius  (Hystaspis),  of  whom  he  was  very 
fond,  being  the  daughter  of  one  of  his  nobles  (Babsa- 
ses  [?  Eab-saris]  Themasius,  or  "the  admirable  Bar- 
tacus").  Apama  was  the  name  of  the  wives  of  sev- 
eral of  the  Seleucid  kings  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class. 
Biog.  s.  v.),  but  none  of  this  name  are  assigned  in  his- 
tory to  Darius. 

Apamea  ( ''Att apsia,  so  called  from  Apame,  q.  v.), 
the  name  of  several  cities  of  antiquity  (see  Smith's 
Diet,  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v.),  none  of  which  are  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  though  two  of  them  are  of  inter- 
est in  sacred  literature. 

1.  Apamea  of  Syria,  a  large  city  in  the  valley 
of  the  Orontes,  and  capital  of  the  province  of  Apa- 
mene  (Steph.  Byz.  s.  v. ;  Ptol.  v,  15,  §  19 ;  Festus 
Avienus,  v,  1083;  Anton.  Itin.).  It  was  fortified  and 
enlarged  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  who  named  it  after  his 
wife  Apama  (not  his  mother,  see  Strabo,  xvi,  p.  752), 
although  it  also  bore  the  Greek  name  Pella.  The 
fortress  was  placed  on  a  hill,  the  windings  of  the 
Orontes  giving  it  a  peninsular  form ;  hence  its  other 
name,  the  Chersonese  (Xepponiaoc).  Seleucus  had  a 
large  commissariat  there  for  his  cavalry,  and  the  pre- 
tender Trypho  made  it  the  basis  of  his  operations. 
Josephus  relates  (Ant.  xiv,  3,  2)  that  Pompey,  in 
marching  south  from  his  winter  quarters,  probably  at 
or  near  Antioch,  razed  Apamea.  In  the  revolt  of  Syr- 
ia under  Bassus  it  held  out  for  three  years,  until  the 
arrival  of  Cassius,  B.C.  4G  (Dio  Cass",  xlvii,  2(5-28 ; 
Joseph.  War,  i,  10,  10).  During  the  Crusades  it 
was  a  flourishing  and  important  place  under  the  Ara- 
bic name  of  Famieh,  and  was  occupied  by  Tancred 
(Wilken,  Gesch.  d.  Krevzz.  ii,  474 ;  Abulfeda^  Tab.  Syr. 
p.  114,  157).  Niebuhr  heard  that  the  site  was  now 
called  Kula/  ed-Mudik  (I'eise,  iii,  97),  and  Burckhardt 
found  a  castle  of  this  name  not  far  from  the  lake  El- 
Takah,  which  he  fixes  as  the  location  of  Apamea 
(Trar.  p.  138).  The  enormous  and  highly  ornament- 
al ruins  still  standing  are  probably  remains  of  the 
temples  of  which  Sozomen  speaks  (vii,  15)  ;  besides 
the  castle  on  the  hill,  a  part  of  the  town  is  found  in 
the  plain.  The  adjacent  lake  is  full  of  the  celebrated 
black  fish. 

2.  Apamea  Cip.otus(//Ki/3(->7oc),  a  town  of  Phryg- 
fii,  built  near  Cela3iia3  by  Antiochus  Soter,  and  named 


after  his  mother  Apama.  Strabo  says  it  lay  at  the 
head  of  the  Marsyas,  which  ran  through  the  town  to 
join  the  Majander  (Groskurd,  Strabo,  ii,  531),  form- 
ing the  Catarrhactes  described  by  Herodotus  (vii,  26). 
The  site  has  been  fixed  at  the  modern  Denair  (Arun- 
dell,  Discoveries,  i,  201),  corresponding  to  the  ancient 
descriptions  (Hamilton,  Researches,  ii,  499),  which  have 
been  collected  by  Leake  (Asia  Minor,  p.  156  sq.). 
Notwithstanding  its  frequent  earthquakes,  Apamea 
continued  to  flourish  during  the  Roman  Empire,  and 
its  bishops  are  recorded  in  the  early  Christian  coun- 
cils, the  Gospel  having  probably  been  introduced  there 
by  Paul  during  his  visits  through  Phrygia  (q.  v.). 

The  epithet  Cibotus  has  been  conjectured  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  fact  that  the  city  was  the  empo- 
rium of  the  region  (see  Pliny,  v,  29),  for  KtfiuiToc 
signifies  a  chest  or  coffer;  but,  according  to  others,  it 
is  connected  with  the  position  of  Noah's  ark  after  the 
Flood,  a  hypothesis  which,  however  untenable  on  gen- 
eral grounds,  is  supported  by  some  singular  coinci- 
dences. The  Sibylline  verses  place  the  mountains  of 
Ararat,  where  the  ark  rested,  on  the  confines  of  Phryg- 
ia, at  the  sources  of  the  Marsyas.  On  a  medal  struck 
in  honor  of  Hadrian  is  the  figure  of  a  man,  represent- 
ing the  river  Marsyas,  with  this  inscription,  AnA- 
MEQN  KIB12TOS  MAP22IA— a  medal  of  the  Apa- 
means — the  ark  and  the  river  Marsyas.  That  this  was 
one  of  the  commemorative  notices  of  the  ark  and  of 
the  Deluge  there  is  little  doubt ;  but  only  in  the  sense 
that  traditionary  memorials  of  the  ark  were  here  very 
ancient.  There  are  several  other  medals  of  Apamea 
extant,  on  which  are  represented  an  ark,  with  a  man 
in  it  receiving  the  dove,  which  is  flying  to  him  ;  and 
part  of  their  inscription  is  the  word  noe  ;  but  either 
this  should  be  read  neo,  an  abridgment  of  "Neoko- 
ron,"  or  it  is  the  end  of  a  word,  AnAM  EQN,  or  (some 
of)  the  medals  are  spurious,  which  has  been  suspect- 


Medal  of  Apamea  Cibotus. 

ed.  Still,  as  they  are  from  different  dies,  yet  all  re- 
ferring to  Apamea,  it  seems  that  their  authors  had  a 
knowledge  of  the  tradition  of  commemoration  respect- 
ing the  ark  preserved  in  this  city.  See  Ark.  Many 
more  such  commemorations  of  an  event  so  greatly 
affecting  mankind  were  no  doubt  maintained  for 
man}'  ages,  though  we  are  now  under  great  difficulties 
in  tracing  them.  In  fact,  many  cities  boasted  of  these 
memorials,  and  referred  to  them  as  proofs  of  their  an- 
tiquity.    See  Ararat. 

Apathy  (c'nrdSua,  want  of  feeling)  or  affeciuum 
vacuitas,  a  term  formerly  used  to  denote  the  entire  ex- 
tinction of  the  vicious  passions,  so  that  not  the  small- 
est movement  of  them  is  felt.  It  implies  the  utter 
rooting  out  of  concupiscence,  and  the  annihilation  of 
all  sin  within.  This  was  a  favorite  doctrine  with  the 
Stoics  ;  and  some  of  the  fathers,  as  St.  Clement  of  Al- 
exandria, St.  Macarius,  and  others,  have  used  expres- 
sions which,  at  first  sight,  seem  to  imply  that  fluy  had 
themselves  attained  to  this  state ;  but,  in  fact,  they 
mean  only  that  a  perfect  Christian  keeps  all  his  pas- 
sions and  desires  in  perfect  subjection,  so  that  the}' 
have  not  in  any  degree  the  mastery  over  him.     The 


APE 


286 


APELLES 


doctrine  of  apathy,  in  its  strictest  sense,  is  at  variance 
with  Holy  Scripture  and  experience.  The  term  apa- 
thy is  also  used  in  a  limited  sense,  to  signify  a  con- 
tempt for  worldly  things.— Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Ape  C;"ip,  kopK),  an  animal  of  the  monkey  tribe 
mentioned  in  1  Kings  x,  22,  and  in  the  parallel  pas- 
sage in  2  Chron.  ix,  21,  among  the  merchandise 
brought  by  the  Meets  of  Solomon  and  Hiram  once  in 
every  three  years.  The  Sept.  renders  the  word  by 
7rii)i]Kor,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  Latin  simia.  The 
Greeks  have  the  word  Ktjfioe,,  or  kijitoc,  for  a  long- 
tailed  species  of  monkey  (Aristot.  Hist.  Anim.  ii,  8,  9), 
and  Pliny  (viii,  19,  28)  uses  cephus.  Both  Greeks 
and  Hebrews  received  the  word,  with  the  animal, 
from  India,  for  the  ape,  both  in  Sansc.  and  Malabar, 
is  called  kapi—svift,  active.  Hence  also  the  Ger- 
man aff'e,  the  Anglo-Saxon  apa,  and  the  English  ape. 
The  name,  under  these  modifications,  designates  the 
Simiadse,  including,  no  doubt,  species  of  Cercopithecus, 
Macacus,  and  Cynocephalus,  or  Guenons,  apes  and 
baboons ;  that  is,  all  the  animals  of  the  quadrumanous 
order  known  to  the  Hebrews,  Arabs,  Egyptians,  and 
the  classical  writers.  Accordingly,  we  find  Pliny  and 
Solinus  speaking  of  Ethiopian  Cephi  exhibited  at 
Rome ;  and  in  the  upper  part  of  the  celebrated  Prse- 
nestine  mosaic  representing  the  inundation  of  the  Nile 
(see  Shaw's  Travels,  p.  42:5,  2d  ed.  4to)  figures  of  Simia- 
das  occur  in  the  region  which  indicates  Nubia ;  among 
others,  one  in  a  tree,  with  the  name  KHinEN  beside 


KHinEH 


Monkey.     From  the  Pramestine  Mosaic. 

it,  which  may  be  taken  for  a  Cercopithecus  of  the 
Guenon  group.  But  in  the  triumphal  procession  of 
Thothmcs  III  at  Thebes  nations  from  the  interior  of 
Africa,  probably  from  Nubia,  bear  curiosities  and  trib- 
utes, among  which  the  camelopardalis  or  giraffe  and 
six  quadrumana  may  be   observed.     The  Cephs  of 


Baboons.     From  I  he  I'.iryptian  Monuments. 

Ethiopia  are  described  and  figured  in  Ludolfi  Historic 
JEthiopica,  i,  10,  §  52  64.  They  are  represented  as 
tailless  animals,  climbing  rocks,  eating  worms  and 
ants,  and  protecting  themselves  from  the  attack  of 
lions  by  casting  sand  into  their  eyes.  Apes  also  occur 
in  the  lately  discovered  Assyrian  sculptures,  both  in 
bass-reliefs  on  slabs  (Layard.  Ninevth,  i,  118),  and  of 
various  species  on  an  obelisk  at  Nimroud  (ib.  ii,  330). 
The  Koph  of  Scripture,  named  only  twice  (1  Kings  x, 
22;  2  Chron.  ix,  21),  is  in  both  cases  associated  with 
D^sin,  toldyim,  rendered  "peacocks."  The  fleet  of 
Solomon  is  said  to  have  brought  these  two  kinds  of  ani- 


mals from  Ophir.  Now  nei- 
ther peacocks  nor  pheasants 
are  indigenous  in  Africa ; 
thejr  belong  to  India  and  the 
mountains  of  high  Asia,  and 
therefore  the  version  "pea- 
cocks," if  correct,  would  de- 
cide, without  doubt,  not  only 
that  koph  denotes  none  of  the 
Simiadie  above  noticed,  but 
also  that  the  fleet  of  Tarshish 
visited  India  or  the  Austral- 
asian islands.  For  these  rea- 
sons we  conclude  that  the 
Hebrew  koph,  and  names  of 
same  root,  were,  by  the  na- 
tions in  question,  used  ge- 
nerically  in  some  instances 
and  specifically  in  others, 
though  the  species  were  not 
thereby  defined,  nor  on  that  Monkeys  as  Tribute.  From 
account  identical.  For  the  the  Assyrian  Monuments. 
natural   history   of  the  ape 

family,  see  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.  For  some  at- 
tempts to  identify  the  various  kinds  of  quadrumana 
which  were  known  to  the  ancients,  see  Lichtenstein's 
Commentath philologica  cle  Simiarum  quotquot  veteribus 
innotuerunt  Jbrmis  (Hamb.  1791),  and  Tyson's  Homo 
sylvestiis,  or  the  Anatomy  of  a  Pigmie  (Lond.  1G99),  to 
which  he  has  added  a  philosophical  essay  concerning 
the  Cynocephali,  the.  Satyrs,  and  Sphinges  of  the  an- 
cients. Aristotle  (De  Anim.  Hist,  ii,  5,  ed.  Schneider) 
appears  to  divide  the  quadrumana  order  of  mammalia 
into  three  tribes,  v  hich  he  characterizes  by  the  names 
tt'iQi)koi,  K'i)f3ot,  and  KvvoK(fa\ot.  The  ancients  were 
acquainted  with  several  kinds  of  tailed  and  tailless 
apes  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  viii,  80;  xi,  100;  ^Elian,  A.nirn. 
xvii,  25),  and  obtained  them  from  Ethiopia  (Plin.  ut 
sup.)  and  India  (Ctes.  in  Phot.  Cod.  lxxii,  p.  66 ;  Ar- 
rian,  Ind.  15;  /Elian,  Anim.  xvii,  25,  39;  Philostr. 
ApoU.  iii,  4),  but  in  Mauritania  they  were  domesti- 
cated (Strabo,  xvii,  827),  as  now  in  Arabia  Felix  ^Nie- 
buhr,  Bed.  p.  167). 

Some  species  of  baboon  may  be  denoted  by  the  term 
Q^I'rN  shedim',  or  daemons  ("devils")  in  Deut.  xxxii, 
17  ;  Psa.  cvi,  37  ;  and  perhaps  by  the  CH"1"'^,  sc:irim' ', 
or  hairy  ones  (goats,  "satyrs")  of  the  desert  (Isa.  xiii, 
21;  xxxiv,  14),  since  these  animals  (see  Rich's  Bab- 
ylon, p.  30)  are  still  found  in  the  ruins  of  the  Meso- 
potamian  plains,  under  the  name  i-'eir  Assad  (see  gen- 
erally Bochart,  Hieroz.  ii,  £98  sq.).  It  is  some  con- 
firmation of  this  last  interpretation  that  the  Egyptians 
are  said  to  have  worshipped  apes,  and  they  are  still 
adored  in  many  places  in  India.     See  Satyr. 

Apel,  John,  a  German  theologian  of  the  ICth  cen- 
tury, was  born  at  Nuremberg  in  1486.  After  having 
studied  theology  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg,  he 
became  canon  at  Wurzburg,  where  he  married  a  nun, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  was  expelled.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  zealous  adherents  of  Luther,  and  ea- 
gerly labored  for  the  spreading  of  the  Reformation. 
He  died  in  1540  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  had  been, 
during  the  last  years  of  his  life,  jurist  of  the  republic 
and  councillor  of  the  elector  of  Brandenburg.  He 
wrote,  among  other  works,  Def<nsio  pro  suo  covjvgio 
nun  prcefat,  Lutheri  (Wittenb.  1523,  4to) ;  Brachylogus 
juris  riri/is,  sire  corpus  leffum:  a  work  long  ascribed 
to  the  Emperor  Justinian. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Gbiirale,  ii, 
875. 

Apelleans,  followers  of  Apeeles,  q.  v. 

Apel'les  ( '  A TTfXX »)(.',  from  the  Lat.  appello,  to  call), 
a  Christian  at  Pome,  whom  Paul  salutes  in  his  epistle 
to  the  church  there  (Rom.  xvi,  10),  and  calls  "ap- 
proved in  Christ,"  i.  e.  an  approved  Christian,  A.D. 
55.  Origen  doubts  whether  he  ma}'  not  have  been 
the  same  person  with  A  polios ;  but  this  is  far  from 


APELLES 


287 


APHEK 


likely.  See  Apollos.  According  to  the  old  Church 
traditions,  Apelles  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples, 
and  bishop  either  of  Smyrna  or  Heraclcia  (Epiph. 
Cont.  Hceres.  p.  20  ;  Fabricii  Lux  Evangelii,  p.  115, 116, 
etc.).  The  Greeks  observe  his  festival  on  Oct.  31. 
The  name  itself  is  notable  from  Horace's  "  Credat  Ju- 
dxus  Apella,  non  ego"  {Sat.  i,  5),  by  which  he  less 
probably  means  a  superstitious  Jew  in  general,  as 
many  think,  than  a  particular  Jew  of  that  name  well 
known  at  Rome. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Apelles,  surnamed,  from  his  length  of  life,  Senex, 
a  heretic,  and  disciple  of  Marcion,  who,  having  been 
falsely  charged  with  the  seduction  of  a  young  girl  of 
Alexandria  named  Philumene,  set  up  a  school  of  his 
own,  and  became  a  critic  of  his  former  master.  He 
taught  that  the  Lord,  when  descending  from  heaven, 
formed  to  himself  a  body  of  particles  of  air,  which  he 
allowed  to  resolve  itself  into  air  again  as  he  ascended. 
He  taught  that  there  was  one  God,  the  Creator  of  all 
things,  who,  when  he  had  created  the  bad  angels,  in- 
trusted to  one  of  them  the  formation  of  the  world. 
He  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh,  and  repudiated 
the  law  and  the  prophets. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  188 ; 
Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  v,  13 ;  Mosheim,  Comm.  i,  487, 
488;  Lardner,  Works,  viii,  530  sq. ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Aphaca  (ra  "A<j>aKa,  according  to  the  ancients, 
from  the  Heb.  pEN,  aphak' ,  to  embrace,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  loves  of  Venus  and  Adonis,  Etymol.  Mag. 
s.  v. ;  see  Movers,  Phon.  i,  102),  a  town  of  Ccele-Syria, 
midway  between  Heliopolis  and  Byblus  (Zosim.  Hist. 
i,  58),  a  position,  as  Reland  thinks  (Palest,  p.  315), 
not  inconsistent  with  the  other  notices  of  the  place  as 
being  situated  on  Lebanon.  It  was  notorious  for  its 
temple  of  Venus,  where  all  the  abominations  of  an 
impure  idolatry  were  practised  to  such  a  degree  that 
Constantine  destroyed  it  (Euseb.  Vit.  Const,  iii,  55 ; 
Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccl.  i,  5).  Near  it  was  a  lake  cele- 
brated for  certain  marvellous  properties  (Seneca, 
Quest.  Nat.  iii,  25).  It  has  been  regarded  as  identi- 
cal with  the  Apheic  (q.  v.)  of  Josh,  xix,  30,  and  the 
Aphik  of  Judg.  i,  31.  Seetzen  first  observed  the  prob- 
able coincidence  of  Aphaca  with  the  present  Afka,  a 
village  of  the  region  indicated,  and  containing  ruins 
(Reisen,  i,  245\  which  have  since  been  described  by 
Thomson  (in  the  Bibliotheea  Sacra,  1838,  p.  5).  The 
lake  has  been  identified  with  that  now  called  Lhnun, 
three  hours  distant  (Burckhardt,  Travels,  p.  25),  but 
Robinson  thinks  it  is  rather  the  neighboring  spring 
(new  ed.  of  Researches,  iii,  007). 

Aphaer'enia  CA(paipif.ia  in  the  Apocrypha)  or 
Apherima  ('Afeptipa  in  Josephusl,  one  of  the  three 
"  governments"  (I'o/ioi'o)  added  to  Judaea  from  Sama- 
ria (and  Galilee,  1  Mace,  x,  30)  by  Demetrius  Soter, 
and  confirmed  by  Nicanor  (1  Mace,  xi,  34  ;  comp.  Jo- 
seph. Ant.  xiii,  4,  0;  and  see  Reland,  Palest,  p.  178). 
It  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Ephkaim  of  the  New 
Test.  (John  xi,  54)  and  the  Ophraii  (q.  v.)  of  the  Old. 

Aphar 'sacliites  (Chald.  Apharsekaye' ,  X"<  =  &n  E  N ; 
Sept. ' \(par>Ta\cuoi,  Ezra  v,  G ;  vi,  0)  or  Aphar'sath- 
chites  (Chald.  Apharsathknye ',  X'crO-EN;  Sept. 
'A(pap(7a9a\a~ioi,  Ezra  iv,  9),  the  name  of  the  nation 
(or  one  of  the  nations)  to  which  belonged  one  portion 
of  the  colonists  whom  the  Assyrian  king  planted  in 
Samaria,  in  place  of  the  expatriated  northern  tribes, 
and  who  violently  opposed  the  Jews  in  rebuilding 
Jerusalem.  Schulthess  (Parad.  p.  3G2)  identifies  the 
"  Apharsachites"  with  the  Persian,  or  rather  Median 
Parataceni  of  Greek  geography  (Strabo  xi,  522;  xv. 
732 ;  Herod,  i,  101 ;  Plin.  xvi,  29),  the  A  being  pros- 
thetic (as  in  Strabo,  xv,  7G4,  Mardi  and  Amardi  are 
interchanged).  They,  together  with  the  Aphar  sites 
(q.  v.),  for  whose  name  this  would  seem  only  another 
form,  appear  to  have  been  some  foreign  tribe  of  East- 
ern Asia,  conquered  by  the  Assyrians,  and  removed 
(according  to  well-known  usage,  see  2  Kings  xviii,  32 


sq.)  to  another  region  for  security  and  political  exten- 
sion. Ewald  (Isr.  Gesch.  iii,  375),  following  Gesenius, 
regards  the  name  as  only  another  for  the  Persians 
themselves,  adopted  out  of  hostility  to  the  Jews  (ib.  p. 
120),  and  in  a  three-fold  form  to  enhance  their  own 
importance. 

Aphar'sites  (Chald.  Apharsaye' ',  i05'*EX  ;  Sept. 
'AQapoaloi),  the  name  of  a  tribe  removed  along  with 
the  Apharsachites  (q.  v.)  to  Samaria  by  the  king  of 
Assyria,  and  forming  one  of  the  opponents  of  the  Jews 
after  the  captivity  (Ezra  iv,  9).  Hiller  (Onumast.)  re- 
gards them  as  the  Parrhasii,  a  tribe  of  Eastern  Media, 
and  Gesenius  (Thes.  Heb.  p.  143)  thinks  they  are  the 
Persians,  to  whose  name  theirs  certainly  bears  a  much 
greater  affinity,  especially  in  the  prolonged  form  of 
the  latter  found  in  Dan.  vi,  29  (Chald.  Pavsaya' , 
NnD"i5).  The  presence  of  the  proper  name  of  the 
Persians  in  Ezra  i,  1 ;  iv,  3,  must  throw  some  doubt 
upon  Gesenius'  conjecture  ;  but  it  is  ver}-  possible  that 
the  local  name  of  the  tribe  may  have  undergone  altera- 
tion, while  the  official  and  general  name  was  correctly 
given. 

A'phek  (Heb.  ApheV,  p£N>,  prob.  strength;  with 
rt  directive,  Josh,  xiii,  4 ;  1  Kings  xx,  2G  ;  1  Sam. 
xxix,  1 ;  hence  not  to  be  confounded  with  Apiiekah), 
the  name  of  at  least  three  cities  (Schwarz,  Palest. 
p.  90). 

1.  (Sept.  'A<paicd  and  'A(pi]Ku.)  A  city  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher  (Josh,  xix,  30),  apparently  near  Phoenicia 
(Josh,  xiii,  4),  doubtless  the  same  with  Aphik  (q.  v.), 
which  the  Israelites  were  unable  to  capture  from  the 
Canaanites  (Judg.  i,  31).  This  has  been  thought  (see 
J.  D.  Michaelis,  Supplem.  p.  114;  Rosenmuller,  Al- 
therth.  II,  ii,  90  ;  Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  i,  140  ;  Raumer, 
Paliist.  p.  120,  and  others)  to  be  the  same  place  with 
the  Aphaca  ("A^aKa)  which  Eusebius  (Constant,  iii, 
55)  and  Sozomen  (Hist,  ii,  5)  place  in  Lebanon,  on  the 
river  Adonis  (Zozim.  i,  58),  where  there  was  a  famous 
temple  of  Venus  (Theophanes,  Chron.  p.  18).  A  vil- 
lage called  Afka  is  still  found  in  Lebanon,  situated  at 
the  bottom  of  a  valley,  and  probably  marks  the  site  of 
this  latter  place  (Burckhardt,  p.  25 ;  Richter,  p.  107). 
It  is  situated  in  the  south-east  bank  of  the  great  basin 
of  Akurah,  where  are  the  sources  of  the  Nahr  Ibrahim, 
the  Adonis  of  the  ancients,  and  in  an  amphitheatre  of 
verdant  beauty.  Here  a  fine  fountain  bursts  forth  in 
cascades  from  a  cavern  ;  and  directly  in  front  of  these 
are  the  shapeless  ruins  of  a  large  temple — that  of  the 
Venus  of  Aphaca,  still  containing  massive  columns 
of  syenite  granite  (Bibliotheea  Sacra,  1853,  p.  150). 
(For  the  history  and  description  of  this  place,  sec 
Kobinson's  Bibl.  Pes.  new  ed.  iii,  G04  sq.)  But  Re- 
land (Palest,  p.  572)  correctly  observes  that  this  place 
is  situated  too  far  north  to  have  been  included  within 
the  bounds  of  the  twelve  tribes  (sec  Keil,  Comment,  on 
Josh,  xix,  30).  It  is  possible,  nevertheless,  that  the 
Aphek  of  Josh,  xiii,  4,  is  identical  with  this  Apheca  in 
Lebanon  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  G3,  90),  and  this  may, 
perhaps,  be  the  Canaanitish  royal  city  mentioned  in 
Josh,  xii,  18;  but  even  this  is  doubtful,  and  it  cannot 
have  been  the  city  in  the  tribe  of  Asher  near  Rehob 
(Josh,  xix,  30;  Judg.  i,  31).  From  this  last  circum- 
stance Schwarz  thinks  (Palest,  p.  194)  that  the  Aphck 
in  question  may  be  the  En-Fit  (which  he  says  is  also 
called  En-Fik)  three  miles  south-west  of  Banias  (sec 
Zimmermanh's  Map);  but  this  is  beyond  the  bounds 
of  Asher,  and  the  Rehob  of  that  tribe  is  probably  dif- 
ferent from  the  Syrian  city  of  the  same  name.  See 
Rehob.  Kiepert  (in  his  last  Wandkarte  vim  Palas- 
tina,  1857)  gives  this  Aphek  a  conjectural  location 
south-east  of  Accho,  apparently  at  Tell  Kison  (Robin- 
son's Researches,  new  ed.  iii,  103).      See  Aphaca. 

2.  (Sept.  'ArpiK.)  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar, 
not  far  from  Jczreel,  where  the  Philistines  twice  en- 
camped before  battles  with  the  Israelites  (1  Sam.  iv, 


APHEKAH 


288 


APIS 


1 ;  xxix,  1 ;  comp.  xxviii,  4).  Either  this  or  the  pre- 
ceding, but  most  probably  this,  was  the  Aphek  (Sept. 
'Abated)  mentioned  in  Josh,  xii,  18,  as  a  royal  city  of 
the  Canaanites.  Eeland  (Palast.  p.  572)  and  others 
(e.  g.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  13G)  assume  that  the  Aphek 
of  1  Sam.  iv,  1,  must  have  been  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
because  presumed  to  be  near  Mizpeh  (comp.  1  Sam. 
vii,  12) ;  but  this  is  unnecessary.  See  Aphekah. 
Josephus  calls  it  Apheca  ('AtyiKd,  Ant.  v,  11,  1;  viii, 
14,  4).  Eusebius  (Onomast.  "A<ptp)  places  it  in  the 
vicinity  of  Endor.  Schwarz  {Palest,  p.  168),  con- 
founding this  Aphek  with  that  of  1  Kings  xx,  26, 
seeks  it  in  the  village  of  Fuknah,  two  miles  east  of 
En-Gannim ;  but  this  is  beyond  the  territory  of  Issa- 
char.  Kiepert  (Wandkarte  von  Paliist.  1856)  locates 
it  between  the  river  Kishon  and  Shunem,  apparently 
at  El-Afukh,  where  the  Crusaders  placed  it  (Van  de 
Yelde,  Memoir,  p.  286),  or,  rather,  at  the  neighboring 
El-Fuleh,  a  ruined  village  (Robinson's  Researches,  iii, 
163,  176,  181). 

3.  (Sept.  'Atieica.)  A  town  near  which  Benhadad 
was  defeated  by  the  Israelites  (1  Kings  xx,  26),  evi- 
dently on  the  militar}'  road  between  Damascus  and 
Palestine.  It  was  walled  (1  Kings  xx,  30),  and  was 
apparently  a  common  spot  for  engagements  with  Syr- 
ia (2  Kings  xiii,  17).  The  use  of  the  word  "llOSail 
(Auth.  Vers,  "the  plain")  in  1  Kings  xx,  25,  fixes 
the  situation  of  Aphek  to  have  been  in  the  level 
down-country  east  of  the  Jordan  [see  Mishor],  and 
it  seems  to  correspond  to  the  Apheca  of  Eusebius  {On- 
omast. 'A0£Ka),  a  large  castle  situated  near  Hippo, 
east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Josephus  also  {Ant.  viii, 
14,  4)  calls  it  Apheca  (Afticd),  and  it  appears  to  have 
been  in  the  tower  of  this  place  (nvpyoe,  'AtytKov)  that 
some  of  the  insurgent  Galiheans  threw  themselves 
during  the  war  with  Cestius  Gallus  (Joseph.  War,  ii, 
19,  1).  The  same  place  is  probabl}'  mentioned  by 
Burckhardt,  Seetzen,  and  others,  under  the  name  of 
Fik  or  AJik  (see  Gesen.  in  Burckhardt,  Tieise,  i,  539). 
It  is  a  village  on  the  top  of  a  mountain,  containing 
about  two  hundred  families,  who  dwell  in  huts  built 
out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city,  which  appears  to 
have  been  peculiarly  situated  so  as  to  cause  the  ruin 
of  the  Syrian  army  by  an  earthquake  (Thomson's 
Land  and  Book,  ii,  52,  53). 

Aphe'kah  (Ileb.  Ap>hekah',  i"!£EX,  fern,  of 
Aphek;  Sept.  'Abated  v.  r.  <£>aKovK~),  a  city  in  the 
mountain  tract  of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Beth- 
tappuah  and  Humtah  (Josh,  xv,  53).  Raumer  (Pa- 
last,  p.  170)  and  others  confound  this  with  the  Aphek 
of  Josh,  xii,  18;  but  the  Heb.  accentuation  of  the 
names  is  different.  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  106)  finds  it 
in  the  village  Abik,  4  miles  east  of  Jannuth  ;  but  this 
position  is  entirely  out  of  region  of  the  associated 
names,  which  require  a  locality  near  Hebron,  perhaps 
between  that  place  and  Tappuah  ( Keil,  Comment,  in 
loc),  possibly  at  the  ruined  site  Slbta  (Van  de  Velde, 
Map  i. 

Apher'ema,  Apherima.     See  Apii.erema. 

Apher'ra  ('A^tppa),  one  of  "the  servants  of  Sol- 
omon" whose  sons  are  said  to  have  returned  from 
Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  34);  but  the  genuine  text  (Ezra 
ii,  51)  has  no  such  name. 

Aphi'ah  (Heb.  Aphi'ach,  ffSX,  blown  upon; 
Sept.  '\oi\  v.  r.  \-,\),  the  father  of  Bechorath,  a 
Benjamite,  ancestor  of  King  Saul  (1  Sam.  ix,  1). 
B.C.  considerably  ante  1093. 

A'phik  (Heb.  Aphik',  pEX,  strong;  Sept. 
'A0£Kd),  one  of  the  cities  from  which  the  Asherites 
were  unable  to  expel  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  i,  31); 
doubtless  the  same  as  the  Aphek  (q.  v.)  of  Josh, 
xiii,  4  ;    xix.  30. 

Aph'rah  (Heb.  Aphrah',  ir^SS),  another  form 
of  the  name  Ophrah  (Mic.  i,  10).  See  Beth-le- 
Aphrah. 


Aph'ses,  or,  rather,  PIZ'ZEZ  (Heb.  Pitstsets' ', 
j'SQ,  dispersion,  with  the  art.,  VXEri,  hap-Pitsets ; 
Sept.  'A<ptooi)  v.  r.  'Atyivi)  ;  Vulg.  Aphses),  the  head 
of  the  eighteenth  sacerdotal  family  of  the  twenty-four 
into  which  the  priests  were  divided  by  David  for  the 
service  of  the  Temple  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  15).    B.C.  1014. 

Aphthartodoceta3  (from  ufQaproq,  incorrupti- 
ble, and  CoKtw,  to  think'),  a  sect  of  Monophysites,  who 
affirmed  that  the  body  of  our  Lord  was  rendered  in- 
corruptible in  consequence  of  the  divine  nature  being 
united  with  it.  These  were  again  divided  into  par- 
ties, who  debated  whether  the  body  of  Christ  was 
created  or  not.  Others  of  them  asserted  that  our 
Lord's  body  was  indeed  corruptible,  but  that  the  di- 
vine nature  prevented  its  actual  corruption.  The 
heresy  spread  widely  in  the  Cth  century,  and,  in  563, 
Emperor  Justinian  issued  a  decree,  which,  by  favor- 
ing this  doctrine,  sought  to  reconcile  the  Monophysites 
with  the  orthodox  Church. — Hase,  Ch.  Hist.  §  115; 
Farrar,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Monophysites. 

Apion('A7n'wi',/enre),  a  Greek  grammarian,  against 
whose  attacks  upon  Jewish  history  Josephus  wrote  the 
treatise  Contra  Apionem.  Some  writers  call  him  a  son 
of  Pleistonices,  while  others  more  correctly  state  that 
this  was  only  his  surname,  and  that  he  Avas  the  son 
of  Poseidonius  (Gell.  vi,  8 ;  Seneca,  Epist.  88  ;  Euseb. 
Prap.  Evanr/.  x,  10).  He  was  a  native  of  Oasis,  but 
used  to  say  that  he  was  born  at  Alexandria,  where  he 
studied  under  Apollonius  and  Didymus  (Suidas,  s.  v. ; 
Josephus,  Apion,  ii,  3,  etc.).  He  afterward  settled  at 
Rome,  where  he  taught  rhetoric  during  the  reigns  of 
Tiberius  and  Claudius.  In  the  reign  of  Caligula  he 
travelled  in  Greece.  About  A.D.  38,  the  inhabitants 
of  Alexandria  having  sent  complaints  to  the  emperor 
against  the  Jews  residing  there,  Apion  headed  the 
embassy  that  made  the  prosecution,  the  defence  by 
the  Jews  being  made  by  Philo.  According  to  his 
enemy  Josephus  (Ap.  ii,  13),  he  died  of  the  effects  of 
his  dissolute  mode  of  life.  He  appears  to  have  en- 
joyed an  extraordinary  reputation  for  his  extensive 
knowledge  and  versatility  as  an  orator,  but  the  an- 
cients are  unanimous  in  censuring  his  ostentatious 
vanity  (Gell.  v,  14 ;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  pra-f.  and  xxx, 
G ;  Josephus,  Ap.  ii,  12).  Besides  the  treatise  named 
above,  of  which  we  only  know  what  Josephus  relates, 
he  wrote  commentaries  upon  Homer,  a  history  of 
Egypt,  a  eulogy  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  several 
historical  sketches,  of  all  of  which  there  remain  only 
the  fragmental  stories  about  Androclus  and  the  lion, 
and  about  the  dolphin  near  Dicffiarchia,  preserved  by 
Gellius. — Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Apis  ('Attic),  the  sacred  bull  of  Memphis,  worship- 
ped by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  who  regarded  it  as  a 
symbol  of  Osiris,  the  god  of  the  Nile,  the  husband  of 
Isis,  and  the  great  divinity  of  Egypt  (Pomp.  Mela, 
i,  9;  /Elian,  Hist.  An.  xi,  10;  Lucian,  De  Sacrif.  15). 


nui  the  Egyptian  ilmunients. 


APOCALYPSE 


289 


APOCRYPHA 


A  sacred  court  or  yard  was  set  apart  for  the  residence 
of  Apis  in  the  temple  of  Ptah  at  Memphis,  where  a 
numerous  retinue  of  priests  waited  upon  him,  and  sac- 
rifices of  red  oxen  were  offered  to  him.  His  move- 
ments, choice  of  places,  and  changes  of  appetite,  were 
religiously  regarded  as  oracles.  It  was  an  understood 
law  that  Apis  must  not  live  longer  than  twenty-five 
years.  When  he  attained  this  age  he  was  secretly 
put  to  death,  and  buried  by  the  priests  in  a  sacred 
well,  the  popular  belief  being  that  he  cast  himself  into 
the  water  If,  however,  he  died  a  natural  death,  his 
body  was  embalmed,  and  then  solemnly  interred  in  the 
temple  of  Serapis  at  Memphis.  The  burial-place  of 
the  Apis  bulls  has  lately  been  discovered  near  Mem- 
phis (Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptians,  abridgm.  i,  292). 
As  soon  as  a  suitable  animal  was  found  for  a  new 
Apis,  having  the  required  marks — black  color  with  a 
white  square  on  the  brow,  the  figure  of  an  eagle  on 
the  back,  and  a  knot  in  the  shape  of  a  cantharus  under 
the  tongue. — he  was  led  in  triumphal  procession  to 
Nilopolis  at  the  time  of  the  new  moon,  where  he  re- 
mained forty  days,  waited  upon  by  nude  women,  and 
was  afterward  conveyed  in  a  splendid  vessel  to  Mem- 
phis. His  Theophany,  or  da)r  of  discovery,  and  his 
birth-day  were  celebrated  as  high  festivals  of  seven 
days'  duration  during  the  rise  of  the  Nile  (Herod,  iii, 
28).  The  worship  of  the  golden  calf  by  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  wilderness,  and  also  the  employment  of 
golden  calves  as  symbols  of  the  Deity  by  Jeroboam, 
have  been  very  generally  referred  to  the  Egyptian 
worship  of  Apis. — Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Mythol.  s.  v. 
See  Calf  (goldex). 


Mummied  Dull.    From  Abbott's  Cullectiun  of  Egyptian  Antiq- 
uities. 

Apoc'alypse,  the  Greek  name  of  the  Book  of 
Revelation  (q.  v.). 

Apocalypse,  Knights  of  the,  an  association 
founded  in  1092  at  Rome  by  Agostino  Gobrino,  for  the 
purpose  of  defending  the  Catholic  Church  against  the 
pope,  whom  it  considered  to  be  the  Antichrist.  The 
members  always  went  out  armed,  and  their  chief  was 
called  Monarch  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity.  The  In- 
quisition suppressed  the  association  in  1697. 

Apocaritaa  (q.  d.  'Awoicpi-ai,  from  c'nroicpivu),  to 
separate),  a  sect,  in  the  third  century,  who  asserted 
that  the  human  soul  is  part  of  God,  a  portion  of  His 
substance  joined  to  man.  They  are  ranked  among  the 
Manichseans  (q.  v.). 

Apocatastasis,  a  term  used  in  Acts  iii,  21,  in 
the  combination  apocatastasis  panton  (anoKaTCtaTaaie, 
irdvTinv),  i.  e.  the  restoration  of  all  things.  Origen, 
and,  after  him,  many  theologians  and  sects  of  ancient 
and  modern  times,  put  upon  this  passage  the  construc- 
tion that  at  one  time,  evil  itself,  sin,  condemnation, 
and  Satan,  would  be  reconciled  through  Christ  with 
God.     See  Restitution  ;  Ukstorationists. 

ApocrisiariusCAiroicpifftafHoc;  Lat.  Responsalis), 
literally  a  respondent,  the  title  of  a  legate  to  negotiate 
concerning  matters  ecclesiastical.  Justinian  (Novell. 
6")  calls  the  A poerisiarii  those  "who  administer  the 
affairs  of  the  churches."  At  first  they  were  bishops, 
T 


but  afterward  priests  or  deacons  were  substituted,  and 
the  term  seems  to  have  been  applied  to  any  one  acting 
as  locum-tenens  for  a  bishop  (or  even  monastery)  in 
ecclesiastical  matters ;  but  the  name  was  principally 
applied  to  the  pope's  nuncio  at  Constantinople,  who 
resided  there  to  receive  the  pope's  instructions  and  to 
report  the  answers  of  the  emperor.  This  custom  end- 
ed with  the  Iconoclast  divisions.  After  Charlemagne 
had  been  crowned  emperor,  the  popes  conferred  the 
name  and  the  office  of  upocrisiarins  upon  the  imperial 
arch-chaplain.  Later  the  name  apocrisiarius  became 
a  mere  title,  which  the  arch-chaplains  of  the  palace 
bore,  without  being  any  longer  representatives  of  the 
pope. — Suicer,  Thes.  p.  45G;  Collier,  Hist.  Diet.  vol. 
iii,  Suppl ;  Landon,  Keel.  Diet,  i,  446. 

Apoc'rypha  (awcKpyfa,  sc.  /3i/3\ia,  hidden,  mys- 
terious), a  term  in  theology,  applied  in  various  senses 
to  denote  certain  books  claiming  a  sacred  character. 
The  word  occurs  in  the  N.  T.  in  its  ordinary  sense 
(Mark  iv,  22).  It  is  first  found,  as  denoting  a  certain 
class  of  books,  in  Clemens  Alexandrinus  (Stromata, 
13,  c.  4,  Ik  tivoq  aTTOKpicjitov). 

I.  Definition  and  Application  of  the  Term. — The 
primary  meaning  of  c,~iKpv<j>oc,  "hidden,  secret"  (in 
which  sense  it  is  used  in  Hellenistic  as  well  as  classical 
Greek,  see  Ecclus.  xxiii,  19;  Luke  viii,  17;  Col.  ii, 
IS),  seems,  toward  the  close  of  the  2d  century,  to  have 
been  associated  with  the  signification  "spurious,"  and 
ultimate!}-  to  have  settled  down  into  the  latter.  Ter- 
tullian  (de  Anim.  c.  2)  and  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Strom,  i,  19,  G9 ;  iii,  4,  29)  apply  it  to  the  forged  or 
spurious  books  which  the  heretics  of  their  time  circu- 
lated as  authoritative.  The  first  passage  referred  to 
from  the  Stromata,  however,  may  be  taken  as  an  in- 
stance of  the  transition  stage  of  the  words.  The  fol- 
lowers of  Prodicus,  a  Gnostic  teacher,  are  said  there  to 
boast  that  they  have  /3/j8Xoi/£  airoKpvfovQ  cf  Zoroas- 
ter. In  Athanasius  (Ep.  Eest.  ii,  S8  ;  Synopsis  Sac. 
Scrip,  ii,  154,  ed.  Colon.  1G8G),  Augustine  (Eaust.  xi, 
2  ;  Civ.  Dei,  xv,  23),  Jerome  (Ep.  ad  Lat  can,  and  Prol. 
Gal.)  the  word  is  used  uniformly  with  the  bad  mean- 
ing which  had  become  attached  to  it.  The  writers  of 
that  period,  however,  do  not  seem  to  have  seen  clearly 
how  the  word  had  acquired  this  secondary  sense ;  and 
hence  we  find  conjectural  explanations  of  its  etymolo- 
gy. The  remark  of  Athanasius  (Synops.  S.  Scr.  1.  c.) 
that  such  books  are  ciTroKpvfijg  paWov  r\  dvayrwaiwe 
ii£ia  is  probably  meant  rather  as  a  play  upon  the  word 
than  as  giving  its  derivation.  Later  conjectures  are 
(1),  that  given  by  the  translators  of  the  English  Bible 
(ed.  15E9,  Pref.  to  Apocr.),  "  because  they  were  wont 
to  be  read  not  openly  and  in  common,  but  as  it  were 
in  secret  and  apart ;"  (2),  one,  resting  on  a  misappre- 
hension of  the  meaning  of  a  passage  in  Epiphanes  (de 
3Iens.  ac  rond.  c.  4)  that  the  bocks  in  question  were 
so  called  because,  net  being  in  the  Jewish  canon,  they 
were  excluded  d-i)  -I'll:  upvirTiic.  from  the  ark  in  which 
the  true  Scriptures  were  preserved  ;  (3),  that  the  word 
cnr6icpv(pa  answers  to  the  Heb.  fi^PJS,  libri  absconditi, 
by  which  the  later  Jews  designated  those  books  which, 
as  of  doubtful  authority  or  not  tending  to  edification, 
were  not  read  publicly  in  the  synagogues ;  (4),  that  it 
originates  in  the  Kpvirra  or  secret  books  of  the  Greek 
mysteries.  Of  these  it  may  be  enough  to  say,  that  (1) 
is,  as  regards  some  of  the  books  now  bearing  the  name 
at  variance  with  fact ;  that  (2),  as  has  been  said,  rests 
on  a  mistake;  that  (3)  wants  the  support  of  direct 
evidence  of  the  use  of  cnroKpvfpa  as  the  translation  for 
the  Hebrew  word;  and  that  (4),  though  it  approxi- 
mates to  what  is  probably  the  true  history  of  the 
word,  is  so  far  only  a  conjecture. — Smith,  s.  v. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  Church  this  term 
was  frequently  used  to  denote  books  of  an  uncertain 
or  anonymous  author,  or  of  one  who  had  written  under 
an  assumed  name.  Its  application,  however,  in  this 
sense  is  far  from  being  distinct,  as,  strictly  speaking,  it 


APOCRYPHA 


290 


APOCRYPHA 


would  include  canonical  books  whose  authors  were  un-  J  Christian  Church  for  edification,  although  not  consid- 
known  or  uncertain,  or  even  pseudepigrapkal.  Origen,  ered  of  authority  in  controversies  of  faith.  These 
on  Matt,  xxii,  had  applied  the  term  apocryphal  in  a  sim- j  were  also  termed  ecclesiastical  books,  and  have  been 
ilar  way:  "This  passage  is  to  be  found  in  no  canonical  denominated,  for  distinction's  sake,  the  deutero-canon- 
book"  (j-egulari,  for  we  have  Origen's  work  only  in  the  ical  books,  inasmuch  as  they  were  not  in/the  original 
Latin  translation  by  Rufinus),  "  but  in  the  apocryphal  j  or  Hebrew  canon.  In  this  sense  they  are  called  by 
book  of  Elias"  (secretis  Ella).  And,  "This  is  plain,  ,  some  the  Antilegomena  of  the  Old  Testament.  "The 
that  many  examples  have  been  adduced  by  the  apostles  \  uncanonical  books,"  says  Athanasius,  or  the  author 


and  evangelists,  and  inserted  in  the  New  Testament, 
which  we  do  not  read  in  the  canonical  Scriptures 
which  we  possess,  but  which  are  found  in  the  Apocry- 
pha" (Origen,  Pra>f.  in  Cantic).  So  also  Jerome,  re- 
ferring to  the  words  (Eph.  v,  14)  "Awake,  thou  that 
sleepest,  and  arise  from  the  dead,"  observes  that  "the 


of  the  Synopsis,  "are  divided  into  antilegomena  ana 
apocrypha.'1'' — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Antilegomena. 

Eventually,  in  the  history  of  the  early  Church,  the 
great  number  of  pseudonymous  productions  palmed 
off  upon  the  unwary  as  at  once  sacred  and  secret,  un- 
der the  great  names  in  Jewish  or  Christian  history, 


e  cited  this  from  hidden  (reconditis)  prophets,    brought  this   entire    class   of  works   into   disrepute. 


and  such  as  seem  to  be  apocryphal,  as  he  has  done  in 
several  other  instances."  Epiphanius  thought  that 
this  term  was  applied  to  such  books  as  were  not  placed 
in  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  but  put  away  in  some 
other  place  (see  Suicer's  Thesaurus  for  the  true  reading 
of  the  passage  in  this  father).  Under  the  term  apocry- 
phal have  been  included  books  of  a  religious  character, 
which  were  in  circulation  among  private  Christians, 


Those  whose  faith  rested  on  the  teaching  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  and  who  looked  to  the  O.  T.  Scriptures 
either  in  the  Hebrew  or  the  Sept.  collection,  were  not 
slow  to  perceive  that  these  productions  were  destitute 
of  all  authority.  They  applied  in  scorn  what  had  been 
used  as  a  title  of  honor.  The  secret  books  (libri  se- 
cretiores,  Orig.  Comm.  in  Matt.eA.  Lomm.  iv,  237)  were 
rejected  as  spurious.     The  word  apocryphal  was  soon 


but  were  not  allowed  to  be  read  in  the  public  assem-  j  degraded  to  the  position  from  which  it  has 
blies ;  such  as  3  and  4  Esdras.  and  3  and  4  Maccabees. 
(See  Stare,  Be  apocryphor.  appellation?,  Greifsw.  17C6.) 
In  regard  to  the  New  Testament,  the  term  has  been 
usually  applied  to  books  invented  by  heretics  to  favor 
their  views,  or  by  Catholics  under  fictitious  signa- 
tures. Of  this  description  were  man)'  spurious  or 
apocryphal  gospels  (see  below).  It  is  probably  in 
reference  to  such  that  Basil,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and 
Jerome  gave  cautions  against  the  reading  of  apocry- 
phal  books ;  although  it  is  possible,  from  the  context, 
that  the  last  named  father  alludes  to  the  books  which 
were  also  called  ecclesiastical,  and  afterward  deutero- 
canonical.  The  following  passage  from  his  epistle  to 
Losta,  on  the  education  of  her  daughter,  will  serve  to 


never  since 
risen.  So  far  as  books  like  the  Testament  of  the 
Twelve  Patriarchs  and  the  Assumption  of  Moses  were 
concerned,  the  task  of  discrimination  was  compara- 
tively easy,  but  it  became  more  difficult  when  the 
question  affected  the  books  which  were  found  in  the 
Sept.  translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  recognised 
by  the  Hellenistic  Jews ;  but  were  not  in  the  Hebrew 
text  or  in  the  canon  acknowledged  by  the  Jews  of 
Palestine.  The  history  of  this  difficulty,  and  of  the 
manner  in  which  it  affected  the  reception  of  particular 
1  looks,  belong  rather  to  the  subject  of  Canon  than  to 
that  of  the  present  article,  but  the  following  facts  may 
be  stated  as  bearing  on  the  application  of  the  word: 
(1.)  The  teachers  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 


illustrate  this  part  of  our  subject:  "All  ajjocryphal\  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  Septuagint,  or  v( 


books  should  be  avoided ;  but  if  she  ever  wishes  to  read 
them,  not  to  establish  the  truth  of  doctrines,  but  with  a 
reverential  feeling  for  the  truths  they  signify,  she  should 
be  told  that  they  are  not  the  works  of  the  authors  by 
whose  names  the}-  are  distinguished,  that  the)'  contain 
much  that  is  fault)',  and  that  it  is  a  task  requiring 
great  prudence  to  find  gold  in  the  midst  of  clay."  And 
to  the  same  effect  Philastrius  :  "Among  whom  are  the 
Manichees,  Gnostics  [etc.],  who,  having  some  apoc- 
ryphal books  under  the  apostles'  names  (i.  e.  some 
separate  Acts),  are  accustomed  to  despise  the  canon- 
ical Scriptures ;  but  these  secret  Scriptures — that  is, 
hal — though  they  ought  to  be  read  by  the  per- 


resting  on  the  same  basis,  were  naturally  led  to  quote 
freely  and  reverently  from  all  the  books  which  were 
incorporated  into  it.  In  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Ori- 
gen, Athanasius,  we  find  citations  from  the  books  of  the 
present  Apocrypha,  as  "Scripture,"  "divine  Scrip- 
ture," "prophecy."  They  are  very  far  from  apply- 
ing the  term  cnruKpvtyoc,  to  these  writings.  If  they 
are  conscious  of  the  difference  between  them  and  the 
other  books  of  the  O.  T.,  it  is  only  so  far  as  to  lead 
them  (comp.  Athan.  Synops.  S.  Scr.  1.  c.)  to  place  the 
former  in  the  list  of  ov  KavoviZuftipa,  dvTikeyofuva, 
1  looks  which  were  of  more  use  for  the  ethical  instruc- 
.-  I  tion  of  catechumens  than  for  the  edification  of  mature 
feet  for  their  morals,  ought  not  to  be  read  by  all,  as  Christians.  Augustine,  in  like  manner,  applies  the 
ignorant  heretics  have  added  and  taken  away  what  word  "Apocrypha"  only  to  the  spurious  books  with 
they  wished."  He  then  proceeds  to  say  that  the  i  false  titles  which  were  in  circulation  among  heretics, 
books  to  which  he  refers  are  the  Acts  of  Andrevf,  admitting  the  others,  though  with  some  qualifications, 
written  by  "the  disciples  who  were  his  followers,"  j  under  the  title  of  canonical  (de  doctr.  Chr.  ii,  8).  (2.) 
etc.  Wherever,  on  the  other  hand,  any  teacher  came  into 

In  the  Bibliotheque  Sacree,  by  the  Dominicans  j  contact  with  the  feelings  that  prevailed  among  the 
Richard  and  Giraud  (Paris,  1822),  the  term  is  defined  j  Christians  of  Palestine,  there  the  influence  of  the  rig- 
to  signify  (1,)  anonymous  or  pseudepigraphal  books;  orous  limitation  of  the  old  Hebrew  canon  is  at  once 
(2,)  those  which  are  not  publicly  read,  although  they  j  conspicuous.  This  is  seen  in  its  bearing  on  the  his- 
may  be  read  with  edification  in  private;  (3,)  those  I  tory  of  the  canon  in  the  list  given  by  Melito,  bishop 
which  do  not  pass  fur  authentic  and  of  divine  author-  I  of  Sardis  (Euseb.  77.  E.  iv,  2C),  and  obtained  by  him 
ity,  although  they  pass  for  being  composed  by  a  sacred    from  Palestine.     Of  its  effects  on  the  application  of 


author  or  an  apostle,  as  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas;  and 
(4,)  dangerous  books  composed  by  ancient  heretics  to 
favor  their  opinions.  They  also  apply  the  name  "to 
books  which,  after  having  been  contested,  are  put  into 
the  canon  by  consent  of  the  churches,  as  Tobit,  etc." 
John  applies  it,  in  its  most  strict  sense,  and  that  which 
it  lias  borne  since  the  fourth  century,  to  books  which, 
from  their  inscription,  or  the  author's  name,  or  the 


the  word,  the  writings  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  and  Je- 
rome give  abundant  instances.  The  former  (Cafech. 
iv,  33)  gives  the  canonical  list  of  the  22  books  of  the 
O.  T.  Scriptures,  and  rejects  the  introduction  of  all 
"apocryphal"  writings.  The  latter  in  his  Epistle  to 
Lata  warns  the  Christian  mother  in  educating  her 
daughter  against  "  omnia  apocrypha."  The  Prologus 
Galeatus  shows  that  he  did  not  shrink  from  including 


subject,  might  easily  lie  taken  for  inspired  hooks,  but  under  that  title  the  books  which  formed  part  of  the 
are  not  so  in  reality.  It  has  also  been  applied  by  Je-  \  Septuagint,  and  were  held  in  honor  in  the  Alexandrian 
rome  to  certain  hooks  not  found  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  j  and  Latin  Churches.  In  dealing  with  the  several 
but  yet  publicly  read  from  time  immemorial  in  the  !  books  he  discusses  each  on  its  own  merits,  admiring 


APOCRYPHA 


291 


APOCRYPHA 


some,  speaking  unhesitatingly  of  the  "dreams,"  "fa- 
bles" of  others.  (3.)  The  teaching  of  Jerome  influ- 
enced, though  not  decidedly,  the  language  of  the 
Western  Church.  The  old  spurious  heretical  writ- 
ings, the  "Apocrypha"  of  Tertullian  and  Clement, 
fell  more  and  more  into  the  background,  and  were 
almost  utterly  forgotten.  The  doubtful  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  used  publicly  in  the  service  of 
the  Church,  quoted  frequently  with  reverence  as  Scrip- 
ture, sometimes,  however,  with  doubts  or  limitations  as 
to  the  authority  of  individual  books  according  to  the 
knowledge  or  critical  discernment  of  this  or  that  writer 
(comp.  Bp.  Cosins's  Scholastic  History  of  the  Canmi). 
During  this  period  the  term  by  which  they  were  com- 
monly described  was  not  apocryphal  but  "ecclesiasti- 
cal." So  they  had  been  described  by  Rufinus  {Ex- 
pos, in  Symb.  Apost.  p.  26),  who  practically  recognised 
the  distinction  drawn  by  Jerome,  though  he  would 
not  apply  the  more  opprobrious  epithet  to  books  which 
were  held  in  honor.  (4.)  It  was  reserved  for  the  age 
of  the  Reformation  to  stamp  the  word  Apocrypha  with 
its  present  signification.  The  two  views  which  had 
hitherto  existed  together,  side  by  side,  concerning 
which  the  Church  had  pronounced  no  authoritative 
decision,  stood  out  in  sharper  contrast.  The  Council 
of  Trent  closed  the  question  which  had  been  left  open, 
and  deprived  its  theologians  of  the  liberty  they  had 
hitherto  enjoyed,  by  extending  the  Canon  of  Scripture 
so  as  to  include  all  the  hitherto  doubtful  or  deutero- 
canonical  books,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  hooks 
of  Esdras  and  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  the  evidence 
against  which  seemed  too  strong  to  be  resisted  (Sess. 
IV de  Can.  Script.).  In  accordance  with  this  decree, 
the  editions  of  the  Vulgate  published  by  authority  con- 
tained the  books  which  the  Council  had  pronounced 
canonical,  as  standing  on  the  same  footing  as  those 
which  had  never  been  questioned,  while  the  three 
which  had  been  rejected  were  printed  commonly  in 
smaller  type  and  stood  after  the  New  Testament. 
The  Reformers  of  Germany  and  England,  on  the  other 
hand,  influenced  in  part  by  the  revival  of  the  study 
of  Hebrew  and  the  consequent  recognition  of  the  au- 
thority of  the  Hebrew  Canon,  and  subsequently  by 
the  reaction  against  this  stretch  of  authority,  main- 
tained the  opinion  of  Jerome  and  pushed  it  to  its  le- 
gitimate results.  The  principle  which  had  been  as- 
serted by  Carlstadt  dogmatically  in  his  "  de  Canonicis 
Scripturis  libellus"  (1520)  was  acted  on  by  Luther. 
He  spoke  of  individual  books  among  those  in  ques- 
tion with  a  freedom  as  great  as  that  of  Jerome,  judg- 
ing each  on  its  own  merits,  praising  Tobit  as  a  "pleas- 
ant comedy."  and  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh  as  a  "  good 
model  for  penitents,"  and  rejecting  the  two  books  of 
Esdras  as  containing  worthless  fables.  The  example 
of  collecting  the  doubtful  books  into  a  separate  group 
had  been  set  in  the  Strasburg  edition  of  the  Scptua- 
gint,  1526.  In  Luther's  complete  edition  of  the  Ger- 
man Bible,  accordingly  (1534),  the  books  (Judith,  Wis- 
dom, Tobias,  Sirach,  1  and  2  Maccabees,  Additions  to 
Esther  and  Daniel,  and  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh)  were 
grouped  together  under  the  general  title  of  "Apocry- 
pha, i.  e.  Books  which  are  not  of  like  worth  with  Holy 
Scripture,  yet  are  good  and  useful  to  be  read."  In 
the  history  of  the  English  Church,  Wiclift"  showed 
himself  in  this  as  in  other  points  the  forerunner  of  the 
Reformation,  and  applied  the  term  Apocrypha  to  all 
but  the  "twenty-Jive"  Canonical  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  judgment  of  Jerome  was  formally 
asserted  in  the  sixth  Article.  The  disputed  books 
were  collected  and  described  in  the  same  way  in  the 
printed  English  Bible  of  1539  (Cranmer's),  and  since 
then  there  has  been  no  fluctuation  as  to  the  applica- 
tion of  the  word  (Smith).  See  Deutero-canonicat,. 
II.  Biblical  Apocrypha. — The  collection  of  books  to 
which  this  term  is  popularly  applied  includes  the  fol- 
lowing. The  order  given  is  that  in  which  they  stand 
in  the  English  version. 


I.  1  Esdras. 

II.  '2  Esdras. 
HI.  Tobit. 

IV.  Judith. 

V.  The  rest  of  the  chapters  of  the  Book  of  Esther,  which  aro 
found  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  in  the  Ohaldee. 

VI.  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon. 

VII.  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus. 

VIII.  Baruch. 

IX.  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Children. 

X.  The  History  of  Susanna. 

XI.  The  History  of  the  Destruction  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon. 

XII.  The  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  Kiug  of  Judah. 

XIII.  1  Maccabees. 

XIV.  2  Maccabees. 

The  separate  books  of  this  collection  are  treated  of  in 
distinct  articles.  Their  relation  to  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  discussed  under  Canon.  We 
propose  here  to  consider  only  the  history  and  charac- 
ter of  the  collection  as  a  whole  in  its  relation  to  Jew- 
ish literature. 

Whatever  questions  may  be  at  issue  as  to  the  au- 
thority of  these  books,  they  have  in  any  case  an  inter- 
est, of  which  no  controversy  can  deprive  them,  as  con- 
nected with  the  literature,  and  therefore  with  the  his- 
tory, of  the  Jews.  They  represent  the  period  of  transi- 
tion and  decay  which  followed  on  the  return  from 
Babylon,  when  the  prophets,  who  were  then  the  teach- 
ers of  the  people,  had  passed  away,  and  the  age  of 
scribes  succeeded.  Uncertain  as  may  be  the  dates  of 
individual  books,  few,  if  any.  can  be  thrown  farther 
back  than  the  beginning  of  the  third  centurj'  B.C. 
The  latest,  the  2d  Book  of  Esdras,  is  probably  not  later 
than  30  B.C.,  2  Esdr.  vii,  28  being  a  subsequent  in- 
terpolation. The  alterations  of  the  Jewish  character, 
the  different  phases  which  Judaism  presented  in  Pal- 
estine and  Alexandria,  the  good  and  the  evil  which 
were  called  forth  by  contact  with  idolatry  in  Egypt, 
and  by  the  struggle  against  it  in  Syria,  all  these  pre- 
sent themselves  to  the  reader  of  the  Apocrypha  with 
greater  or  less  distinctness.  In  the  midst  of  the  di- 
versities which  we  might  naturally  expect  to  find  in 
books  written  by  different  authors,  in  different  coun- 
tries, and  at  considerable  intervals  of  time,  it  is  possi- 
ble to  discern  some  characteristics  which  belong  to  the 
entire  collection.     (We  quote  from  Smith,  s.  v.) 

1.  The  absence  of  the  prophetic  element.  From 
first  to  last  the  books  bear  testimony  to  the  assertion 
of  Josephus  (Ap.  i,  8),  that  the  cucpifSijg  cmcoy/j  of 
prophets  had  been  broken  after  the  close  of  the  O.  T. 
canon.  No  one  speaks  because  the  word  of  the  Lord 
had  come  to  him.  Sometimes  there  is  a  direct  confes- 
sion that  the  gift  of  prophecy  had  departed  (1  Mace. 
ix,  27),  or  the  utterance  of  a  hope  that  it  might  one 
day  return  (ibid,  iv,  46  ;  xiv,  41).  Sometimes  a  teach- 
er asserts  in  words  the  perpetuity  of  the  gift  (Wisd. 
vii,  27),  and  shows  in  the  act  of  asserting  it  how  dif- 
ferent the  illumination  which  he  had  received  was 
from  that  bestowed  on  the  prophets  of  the  canonical 
books.  When  a  writer  simulates  the  prophetic  char- 
acter, he  repeats  with  slight  modifications  the  lan- 
guage of  the  older  prophets,  as  in  Baruch,  or  makes  a 
mere  prediction  the  text  of  a  dissertation,  as  in  the 
Epistle  of  Jeremy,  or  plays  arbitrarily  with  combina- 
tions of  dreams  and  symbols,  as  in  2  Esdras.  Strange 
and  perplexing  as  the  last-named  book  is,  whatever 
there  is  in  it  of  genuine  feeling  indicates  a  mind  not  at 
ease  with  itself,  distracted  with  its  own  sufferings  and 
with  the  problems  of  the  universe,  and  it  is  according- 
ly very  f.ir  removed  from  the  utterance  of  a  man  who 
speaks  as  a  messenger  from  God. 

2.  Connected  with  this  is  the  almost  total  disappear- 
ance of  the  power  which  had  shown  itself  in  the  poet- 
ry of  the  Old  Testament.  The  Song  of  the  Three 
Children  lays  claim  to  the  character  of  a  psalm,  and 
is  probably  a  translation  from  some  liturgical  hymn  ; 
but,  with  this  exception,  the  form  of  poetry  is  alto- 
gether absent.  So  far  as  the  writers  have  come  un- 
der the  influence  of  Greek  cultivation,  they  catch  the 
taste  for  rhetorical  ornament  which  characterized  the 


APOCRYPHA 


292 


APOCRYPHA 


literature  of  Alexandria.  Fictitious  speeches  become 
almost  indispensable  additions  to  the  narrative  of  a 
historian,  and  the  story  of  a  martyr  is  not  complete 
unless  (as  in  the  later  Acta  Martyrum  of  Christian 
traditions)  the  sufferer  declaims  in  set  terms  against 
the  persecutors  (Song  of  the  Three  Child.,  3-22 ;  2 
Mace,  vi,  vii). 

3.  The  appearance,  as  part  of  the  current  literature 
of  the  time,  of  works  of  fiction,  resting  or  purporting 
to  rest  on  a  historical  foundation.  It  is  possible  that 
this  development  of  the  national  genius  may  have 
been,  in  part,  the  result  of  the  Captivity.  The  Jew- 
ish exiles  brought  with  them  the  reputation  of  excel- 
ling in  minstrelsy,  and  were  called  on  to  sing  the 
"  songs  of  Zion"  (Psa.  exxxvii).  The  trial  of  skill 
between  the  three  young  men  in  1  Esdr.  iii,  iv,  im- 
plies a  traditional  belief  that  those  who  were  promoted 
to  places  of  honor  under  the  Persian  kings  were  con- 
spicuous for  gifts  of  a  somewhat  similar  character. 
The  transition  from  this  to  the  practice  of  story-telling 
was,  with  the  Jews,  as  afterward  with  the  Arabs,  easy 
and  natural  enough.  The  period  of  the  Captivity, 
with  its  strange  adventures,  and  the  remoteness  of 
the  scenes  connected  with  it,  offered  a  wide  and  at- 
tractive field  to  the  imagination  of  such  narrators. 
Sometimes,  as  in  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  the  motive  of 
such  stories  would  be  the  love  of  the  marvellous  min- 
gling itself  with  the  feeling  of  scorn  with  which  the 
Jew  looked  on  the  idolater.  In  other  cases,  as  in  To- 
bit  and  Susanna,  the  story  would  gain  popularity  from 
its  ethical  tendencies.  The  singular  variations  in  the 
text  of  the  former  book  indicate  at  once  the  extent  of 
its  circ  dation  and  the  liberties  taken  by  successive 
editors.  In  the  narrative  of  Judith,  again,  there  is 
probably  something  more  than  the  interest  attaching 
to  the  history  of  the  past.  There  is  indeed  too  little 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  narrative  for  us  to  look  on 
it  as  history  at  all,  and  it  takes  its  place  in  the  region 
of  historical  romance,  written  with  a  political  motive 
Under  the  guise  of  the  old  Assyrian  enemies  of  Israel 
the  writer  is  covertly  attacking  the  Syrian  invaders, 
against  whom  his  countrymen  were  contending,  stir- 
ring them  up,  by  a  story  of  imagined  or  traditional 
heroism,  to  follow  the  example  of  Judith,  as  she  had 
followed  that  of  Jael  (Ewald,  Gesch.  Israels,  iv,  541). 
The  development  of  this  form  of  literature  is,  of  course, 
compatible  with  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  but  it  is 
true  of  it  at  all  times,  and  was  especially  true  of  the 
literature  of  the  ancient  world,  that  it  belongs  rather 
to  its  later  and  feebler  period.  It  is  a  special  sign  of 
decay  in  honesty  and  discernment  when  such  writings 
are  passed  off  and  accepted  as  belonging  to  actual  his- 
tory. 

4.  The  free  exercise  of  the  imagination  within  the 
domain  of  history  led  to  the  growth  of  a  purely  le- 
gendary literature.  The  full  development  of  this  was 
indeed  reserved  for  a  yet  later  period.  The  books  of 
tin-  Apocrypha  occupy  a  middle  place  between  those 
of  tin-  Old  Testament  in  their  simplicity  and  truthful- 
ness ami  the  wild  extravagances  of  the  Talmud.  As 
it  is,  however,  we  find  in  them  the  germs  of  some  of 
the  fabulous  traditions  which  were  influencing  the 
minds  of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  ministry, 
and  have  since  in  some  instances  incorporated  them- 
selves more  or  less  with  the  popular  belief  of  Christen- 
dom, So  in  2  Mace,  i,  ii,  we  meet  with  the  state- 
ments that  at  the  time  of  the  captivity  the  priests  had 
concealed  the  sacred  tire,  and  that  it  was  miraculously  ! 
renewed  —  that  Jeremiah  had  gone,  accompanied  by 
the  tabernacle  and  the  ark,  "to  the  mountain  where 
Moses  climbed  up  to  see  the  heritage  of  God,"  and  j 
had  there  concealed  them  in  a  cave  together  with  the 
altar  of  incense.  The  apparition  of  the  prophet  at  the 
close  of  the  same  book  (xv,  15),  as  giving  to  Judas  j 
Maccabseus  the  sword  with  which,  as  a  "gift  from! 
God,"  he  was  to  "  wound  the  adversaries,"  shows  how 
prominent  a  place  was  occupied  by  Jeremiah  in  the 


traditions  and  hopes  of  the  people,  and  prepares  us  to 
understand  the  rumors  which  followed  on  our  Lord's 
teaching  and  working  that  "  Jeremias  or  one  of  the 
prophets"  had  appeared  again  (Matt,  xvi,  14).  So 
again  in  2  Esdr.  xiii,  40-47,  we  find  the  legend  of  the 
entire  disappearance  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  which,  in  spite 
of  direct  and  indirect  testimony  on  the  other  side,  has 
given  occasion  even  in  our  own  time  to  so  many  wild 
conjectures.  In  chap,  xiv  of  the  same  book  we  rec- 
ognise (as  has  been  pointed  out  already)  the  tendency 
to  set  a  higher  value  on  books  of  an  esoteric  knowl- 
edge than  on  those  in  the  Hebrew  canon ;  but  it  de- 
serves notice  that  this  is  also  another  form  of  the  tra- 
dition that  Ezra  dictated  from  a  supernaturally-in- 
spired  memory  the  sacred  books  which,  according  to 
that  tradition,  had  been  lost,  and  that  both  fables  are 
exaggerations  of  the  part  actually  taken  by  him  and 
by  "  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue"  in  the  work  of 
collecting  and  arranging  them.  So  also  the  rhetorical 
narrative  of  the  Exodus  in  Wisd.  xvi-xix  indicates 
the  existence  of  a  traditional,  half-legendary  history 
side  by  side  with  the  canonical.  It  would  seem,  in- 
deed, as  if  the  life  of  Moses  had  appeared  with  many 
different  embellishments.  The  form  in  which  that 
life  appears  in  Josephus,  the  facts  mentioned  in  St. 
Stephen's  speech  and  not  found  in  the  Pentateuch, 
the  allusions  to  Jannes  and  Jambres  (2  Tim.  iii,  8),  to 
the  disputes  between  Michael  and  the  devil  (Jude  9), 
to  the  "  rock  that  followed"  the  Israelites  (1  Cor.  x, 
4),  all  bear  testimony  to  the  wide-spread  popularity 
of  this  semi-apocryphal  history.  See  Enoch  (Book 
of). 

5.  As  the  most  marked  characteristic  of  the  collec- 
tion as  a  whole  and  of  the  period  to  which  it  belongs, 
there  is  the  tendency  to  pass  off  supposititious  books 
under  the  cover  of  illustrious  names.  The  books  of 
Esdras,  the  additions  to  Daniel,  the  letters  of  Baruch 
and  Jeremiah,  and  the.  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  are  ob- 
viously of  this  character.  It.  is  difficult,  perhaps,  for 
us  to  measure  in  each  instance  the  degree  in  which  the 
writers  of  such  books  were  guilty  of  actual  frauds. 
In  a  book  like  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  for  example, 
the  form  may  have  been  adopted  as  a  means  of  gain- 
ing attention  by  which  no  one  was  likely  to  be  de- 
ceived, and,  as  such,  it  does  not  go  beyond  the  limits 
of  legitimate  personation.  The  fiction  in  this  case 
need  not  diminish  our  admiration  and  reverence  for 
the  book  any  more  than  it  would  destroy  the  authori- 
ty of  Ecclesiastes  were  wc  to  come  to  the  conclusion, 
from  internal  or  other  evidence,  that  it  belonged  to  a 
later  age  than  that  of  Solomon.  The  habit,  however, 
of  writing  books  under  fictitious  names  is,  as  the  later 
Jewish  history  shows,  a  very  dangerous  one.  The 
practice  becomes  almost  a  trade.  Each  such  work 
creates  a  new  demand,  to  be  met  in  its  turn  by  a  fresh 
supply,  and  thus  the  prevalence  of  an  apocryphal  lit- 
erature becomes  a  sure  sign  of  want  of  truthfulness  on 
one  side,  and  want  of  discernment  on  the  other. 

6.  The  absence  of  honesty,  and  of  the  power  to  dis- 
tinguish truth  from  falsehood,  shows  itself  in  a  yet 
more  serious  form  in  the  insertion  of  formal  documents 
purporting  to  be  authentic,  but  in  reality  failing  alto- 
gether to  establish  an}-  claim  to  that  title.  This  is 
obviously  the  case  with  the  decree  of  Artaxerxes  in 
Esth.  xvi.  The  letters  with  which  2  Mace,  opens 
from  the  Jews  at  Jerusalein  betray  their  true  charac- 
ter by  their  historical  inaccuracy.  AVe  can  hardly  ac- 
cept as  genuine  the  letter  in  which  the  king  of  the 
Lacedemonians  (1  Mace,  xii,  20,  21)  writes  to  Onias 
that  "the  Laceda>monians  and  Jews  are  brethren,  and 
that  the}'  are  of  the  stock  of  Abraham."  The  letters 
in  2  Mace,  ix  and  xi,  on  the  other  hand,  might  be  au- 
thentic so  far  as  their  contents  go,  but  the  reckless- 
ness with  which  such  documents  are  inserted  as  em- 
bellishments and  make -weights  throws  doubt  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree  on  all  of  them. 

7.  The  loss  of  the  simplicity  and  accuracy  which 


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293 


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characterize  the  history  of  the.  Old  Testament  is  shown 
also  in  the  errors  and  anachronisms  in  which  these 
hooks  abound.  Thus,  to  take  a  few  of  the  most  strik- 
ing instances,  Hainan  is  made  a  Macedonian,  and  the 
purpose  of  his  plot  is  to  transfer  the  kingdom  from  the 
Persians  to  the  Macedonians  (Esth.  xvi,  10);  two  con- 
tradictory statements  are  given  in  the  same  book  of 
the  death  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (2  Mace,  i,  15-17 ; 
ix,  5-29) ;  Nabuchodonosor  is  made  to  dwell  at  Nineve 
as  the  king  of  the  Assyrians  (Judith  i,  1). 

8.  In  their  relation  to  the  religious  and  ethical  de- 
velopment of  Judaism  during  the  period  which  these 
books  embrace,  we  find  (1.)  the  influences  of  the 
struggle  against  idolatry  under  Antiochus,  as  shown 
partly  in  the  revival  of  the  old  heroic  spirit,  and  in 
the  record  of  the  deeds  which  it  called  forth,  as  in 
Maccabees,  partly  again  in  the  tendency  of  a  narra- 
tive like  Judith,  and  the  protests  against  idol-worship 
in  Baruch  and  Wisdom.  (2.)  The  growing  hostility 
of  the  Jews  toward  the  Samaritans  is  shown  by  the 
confession  of  the  Son  of  Sirach  (Ecclus.  1,  25,  26). 
(3.)  The  teaching  of  Tobit  illustrates  the  prominence 
then  and  afterward  assigned  to  alms-giving  among  the 
duties  of  a  holy  life  (Tob.  iv,  7-11 ;  xii,  9).  The  clas- 
sification of  the  three  elements  of  such  a  life,  prayer, 
fasting,  alms,  in  xii,  8,  illustrates  the  traditional  eth- 
ical teaching  of  the  Scribes,  which  was  at  once  recog- 
nised and  purified  from  the  errors  that  had  been  con- 
nected with  it  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt,  vi, 
1-18).  (4.)  The  same  book  indicates  also  the  growing 
belief  in  the  individual  guardianship  of  angels  and  the 
germs  of  a  grotesque  damionology.  resting  in  part  on 
the  more  mysterious  phenomena  of  man's  spiritual  na- 
ture, like  the  cases  of  dremoniac  possession  in  the  Gos- 
pels, but  associating  itself  only  too  easily  with  all  the 
frauds  and  superstitions  of  vagabond  exorcists.  (5.) 
The  great  Alexandrian  book  of  the  collection,  the 
Wisdom  of  Solomon,  breathes,  as  we  might  expect,  a 
strain  of  higher  mood  ;  and  though  there  is  absolutely 
no  ground  for  the  patristic  tradition  that  it  was  writ- 
ten bjr  Philo,  the  conjecture  that  it  might  have  been 
was  not  without  a  plausibility  which  might  well  com- 
mend itself  to  men  like  Basil  and  Jerome.  The  per- 
sonification of  Wisdom  as  "the  unspotted  mirror  of 
the  power  of  God  and  the  image  of  his  goodness"  (vii, 
26),  as  the  universal  teacher  of  all  "holy  souls"  in  "all 
ages"  (vii,  27),  as  guiding  and  ruling  God's  people,  ap- 
proaches the  teaching  of  Philo,  and  foreshadows  that  of 
the  Apostle.  John  as  to  the  manifestation  of  the  unseen 
God  through  the  medium  of  the  Logos  and  the  office 
of  that  divine  Word  as  the  light  that  lighteth  every 
man.  In  relation  again  to  the  symbolic  character  of 
the  Temple  as  "  a  resemblance  of  the  holy  tabernacle" 
which  God  "has  prepared  from  the  be^innin^"  (ix, 
&),  the  language  of  this  book  connects  itself  at  once 
with  that  of  Philo  and  with  the  teaching  of  the  au- 
thor of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  But  that  which 
is  the  great  characteristic  of  the  book,  as  of  the  school 
from  which  it  emanated,  is  the  writer's  apprehen- 
sion of  God's  kingdom  and  the  blessings  connect- 
ed with  it  as  eternal,  and  so  as  independent  of  men's 
conceptions  of  time.  Thus  chapters  i,  ii,  contain  the 
strong  protest  of  a  righteous  man  against  the  mate- 
rialism which  then,  in  the  form  of  a  sensual  selfish- 
ness, as  afterward  in  the  developed  system  cf  the 
Saddueees,  was  corrupting  the  old  faith  of  Israel. 
Against  this  he  asserts  that  the  "souls  of  the  right- 
eous are  in  the  hands  of  God"  (iii,  1) ;  that  the  bless- 
ings which  the  popular  belief  connected  with  length 
cf  days  were  not  to  be  measured  by  the  duration  of 
years,  seeing  that  "  wisdom  is  the  gray  hair  unto 
men,  and  an  unspotted  life  is  old  age."  (6.)  In  re- 
gard to  another  truth  also  this  book  was  in  advance 
of  the  popular  belief  of  the  Jews  of  Palestine.  In  the 
midst  of  its  strong  protests  against  idolatry,  there  is 
the  fullest  recognition  of  God's  universal  love  (xi, 
23-26),  of  the  truth  that  His  power  is  but  the  instru- 


ment of  His  righteousness  (xii,  16),  of  the  difference 
between  those  who  are  the  "  less  to  be  blamed"  as 
"  seeking  God  and  desirous  to  find  Him"  (xiii,  6),  and 
the  victims  of  a  darker  and  more  debasing  idolatry. 
Here  also  the  unknown  writer  of  the  Wisdom  of  Sol- 
omon seems  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  higher  and 
wider  teaching  of  the  New  Testament.     See  Logos. 

III.  Spurious  and  Pseudepigraphal  Books,  as  distinct 
from  Antilegomena  or  Ecclesiastical.  —  Among  this 
class  are  doubtless  to  be  considered  the  3d  and  4th 
books  of  Esdras ;  and  it  is  no  doubt  in  reference  to 
these  that,  in  his  letter  to  Viyilantius,  Athanasius 
speaks  of  a  work  of  Esdras  which  he  says  that  he  had 
never  even  read.  Of  the  same  character  are  also  the 
book  of  Enoch,  the  Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patri- 
archs, the  Assumption  of  Moses,  etc. ;  which,  as  well 
as  3  and  4  Esdras,  being  by  many  considered  as  the 
fictions  of  Christians  of  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  they  ought  to  be  classed  in  the 
Apocrypha  of  thcOld  orof  theNewTestament.  Origen, 
however,  believed  the  New  Testament  to  have  contain- 
ed citations  from  books  of  this  kind  written  before  the 
times  of  the  apostles,  as  is  evident  from  his  reference  to 
such  in  his  preface  to  the  Canticles.  Then,  in  his  Letter 
to  Apianus,  he  observes  that  there  were  many  things 
kept  from  the  knowledge  of  the  public,  but  which 
were  preserved  in  the  hidden  or  apocryphal  books,  to 
which  he  refers  the  passage  (Heb.  xi,  37),  "  They  were 
sawn  asunder."  Origen  probabl}-  alludes  here  to  that 
description  of  books  which  the  Jews  called  ginuzim, 
CT^il,  a  word  of  the  same  signification  with  apocry- 
pha, and  applied  to  books  laid  aside,  or  not  permitted 
to  be  publicly  read  or  considered,  even  when  divinely 
inspired,  not  fit  for  indiscriminate  circulation  :  among 
the  latter  were  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  and  our  last  eight  chapters  of  the  prophet 
Ezekiel.  The  books  which  we  have  here  enumerated, 
such  as  the  book  of  Enoch,  etc.,  which  were  all  known 
to  the  ancient  fathers,  have  descended  to  our  times ; 
and,  although  incontestably  spurious,  are  of  consider- 
able value  from  their  antiquity,  as  throwing  light  upon 
the  religious  and  theological  opinions  of  the  first  cen- 
turies. The  most  curious  are  the  3d  and  4th  books  of 
Esdras,  and  the  book  of  Enoch,  which  has  been  but 
recently  discovered,  and  has  acquired  peculiar  interest 
from  its  containing  the  passage  cited  by  the  apostle 
Jude.  See  Enoch.  Nor  are  the  apocryphal  books 
of  the  New  Testament  destitute  of  interest.  Although 
the  spurious  Acts  extant  have  no  longer  any  defend- 
ers of  their  genuineness,  they  are  not  without  their 
value  to  the  Biblical  student,  and  have  been  applied 
with  success  to  illustrate  the  stj-le  and  language  of 
the  genuine  books,  to  which  they  bear  a  close  analogy. 
The  American  translator  of  Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical 
History  terms  them  "  harmless  and  ingenious  fictions, 
intended  either  to  gratify  the  fancy  or  to  silence  the 
enemies  of  Christianity." 

Some  of  the  apocryphal  books  have  not  been  with- 
out their  defenders  in  modern  times.  The  Ajwstolical 
Canons  and  Constitutions,  and  the  various  Liturgies  as- 
cribed to  St.  Peter,  St.  Mark,  etc.,  and  published  by 
Fabricius  in  his  Codex  Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti, 
were  considered  by  the  learned  and  eccentric  William 
Winston,  and  the  no  less  learned  Grabe,  to  be  of  equal 
authority  with  any  of  the  confessedly  genuine  apos- 
tolic compositions  (see  Whiston's  Primitive  Christian- 
ity and  Grabe's  Sjncilegium).  They  are,  however,  re- 
garded by  most  as  originally  not  of  an  earlier  date 
than  the  second  century,  and  as  containing  interpola- 
tions which  betray  the  fourth  or  fifth  ;  they  can,  there- 
fore, only  be  considered  as  evidence  of  the  practice  of 
the  Church  at  the  period  when  they  were  written. 
They  have  generally  been  appealed  to  by  the  learned 
as  having  preserved  the  traditions  of  the  age  imme- 
diately succeeding  the  apostolic ;  and,  from  the  re- 
markable coincidence  which  is  observable  in  the  most 
essential  parts  of  the  so-called  Apostolic  Liturgies,  it 


APOCRYPHA 


294 


APOCRYPHA 


is  by  no  means  improbable  that,  notwithstanding  their 
interpolations,  they  contain  the  leading  portions  of  the 
most  ancient  Christian  forms  of  worship.  Most  of  the 
apocryphal  Gospels  and  Acts  noticed  by  the  fathers, 
and  condemned  in  the  catalogue  of  Gelasius,  which  are 
generally  thought  to  have  been  the  fictions  of  heretics 
in  the  second  century,  have  long  since  fallen  into  ob- 
livion. Of  those  which  remain,  although  some  have 
been  considered  by  learned  men  as  genuine  works  of 
the  apostolic  age,  yet  the  greater  part  are  universally 
rejected  as  spurious,  and  as  written  in  the  second  and 
third  centuries.  A  few  are,  with  great  appearance  of 
probability,  assigned  to  Leucius  Clarinus,  supposed  to 
be  the  same  with  Leontius  and  Seleucus,  who  was  no- 
torious for  similar  forgeries  at  the  end  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. The  authorship  of  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  (q.  v.) 
is  still  a  matter  of  dispute  ;  and  there  appears  but  too 
much  reason  to  believe  that  there  existed  grounds  for 
the  charge  made  by  Celsus  against  the  early  Chris- 
tians, that  they  had  interpolated  or  forged  the  ancient 
Sibylline  Oracles.  In  the  letter  of  Pope  Innocent  I 
to  St.  Exupere,  bishop  of  Toulouse,  written  about  the 
year  405,  after  giving  a  catalogue  of  the  books  form- 
ing the  canon  of  Scripture  (which  includes  five  books 
of  Solomon,  Tobit,  and  two  books  of  Maccabees),  he 
observes:  "But  the  others,  which  are  written  under 
the  name  of  Matthias,  or  of  James  the  Less,  or  those 
which  were  written  by  one  Leucius  under  the  name 
of  Peter  and  John,  or  those  under  the  name  of  Andrew 
by  Xenocheris  and  Leonidas  the  philosopher,  or  under 
the  name  of  Thomas  ;  or  if  there  be  any  others,  you 
must  know  that  they  are  not  only  to  be  rejected,  but 
condemned."  These  sentiments  were  afterward  con- 
firmed by  the  Roman  Council  of  seventy  bishops,  held 
under  Pope  Gelasius  in  494,  in  the  acts  of  which  there 
•  is  a  long  list  of  apocryphal  Gospels  and  Acts,  the 
greater  part  of  which  are  supposed  to  have  perished. 
The  acts  of  this  council,  however,  are  not  generally 
considered  to  be  g3nuine.  But,  whatever  authority 
is  to  be  ascribed  to  these  documents,  it  cannot  be  de- 
nied that  the  early  Church  evinced  a  high  degree  of 
discrimination  in  the  difficult  task  of  distinguishing 
the  genuine  from  the  spurious  books,  as  has  been  well 
observed  by  Jones  (New  and  Full  Method,  i,  15)  and 
Baxter  (Saint's  Best,  p.  2). — Kitto.     See  Canon. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  genuine  writings  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Test.,  but  now  lost,  or  generally 
thought  so  to  be  : 

The  "  Prophecy  of  Enoch"  (Jude  14).     But  see  Enoch. 

The  "Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord"  (Num.  xxi,  14). 

The  "Book  of  the  Just"   (Josh,  x,  13;  2  Sam.  i,  IS).     See 

Jasheb. 
The  '-Book  of  the  Order  of  the  Kingdom,"  or  of  the  Royal 

Administration,  written  by  Samuel  (1  Sam.  x,  25).     See 

Kin*;. 
The  "Books  of  Nathan  and  Gad"  concerning  King  David 

(1  Chron.  xxix,  '29). 
The  "  Books  of  Nathan,  AlIIJAH,  and  Iddo"  concerning  King 

Solomon  (2  Chron.  ix,  29). 
■•Soi.omiin's  l'arabli's,  Songs,  and  Treatises  on  Natural  His- 

tory"  il   Kings  iv,  32  sq ).     But  see  Proverbs;  Canti- 

ills;    I.CCI.ESIASTF8. 

The  "  Rook  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  (1  Kings  xi,  41). 

The  "  I'.. ".I;  of  Sebaiah"  concerning  King  Rehoboam  (2  Chron. 

xii,  15). 
Tlic  "  Book  of  Jeiiu"  concerning  Jehosh.-iphat  (2  Chron.  XX, 34). 
The  "Book  of  Isaiah"  concerning  King  Uzziah  (2  Chron. 

xxvi,  22).     But  sec  Ismail 
The  "  Words  of  the  Seers"  to  King  Manasseh  (2  Chron.  xxvi, 

■  ■> 
The  "Book  of  Lamentations"  over  King  Josiah  (2  Chron, 

xxxv,  2.V.     Bui  see  Lamentations. 
The"  Vol f  Jeremiah"  burned  by  Jehudi  (ler.  xxxvi,  2, 

0,  23).     But  Bee  Jeremiah. 
The  "Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  Judah"   (1   Kings  xiv,  29; 

xv,  T).    But  see  Chronicles. 
The   "Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  Israel"  (1  Kings  xiv,  29). 

Bui  ee  <  Ihronioles. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  pseudepigraphal  books  re- 
lating; to  the  Old  Test.,  Still  extant  (exclusive  of  those 
contained  in  the  definitively  so  called  "Apocrypha"), 
with  the  language  in  which  ancient  copies  have  been 
discovered.     See  each  title,  or  professed  author  here 


cited,  under  its  proper  bead  in  the  body  of  this  Cyclo- 
paedia. 

The  "History  of  Antiociius"  Epiphanes  (Heb.).  This  ap- 
pears to  be  a  garbled  Hebraic  version  of  the  accounts  of 
that  tyrant  in  the  books  of  the  Maccabees  (see  Fabrieius, 
Codex  Pseudepigr.  V.  T.  i,  1105  sq.,  where  a  Latin  trans- 
lation is  given  of  it). 

The  "History  of  Asenath,"  Joseph's  Wife  (Lat.  Given  by 
Fabrieius,  ib.  i,  p.  774  sq.). 

The  "Epistle  of  Baruch"  (Lat.     In  Fabrieius,  ib.  ii,  147  si].). 

The  "  Book  of  Elias"  the  Prophet  (see  ib.  i,  1070). 

The  "Book  of  Enoch"  (Ethiopic). 

The  "Third  [Engl.  First]  Book  of  Esdras"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 

The  "  Fourth  [.sVcojw]  Book  of  Esdras"  (Lat.,  Arab.,  and 
Eth.). 

The  "Ascension  of  IsaiahV  (Ethiopic). 

The  "  Book  of  Jashkr"  (Heb.). 

The  "  Book  of  Jeziraii"  or  Creation  (Heb.). 

The  "Third  Book  of  Maccabees"  (Gr.). 

The  "Fourth  Book  of  Maccabees"  (Gr.). 

The  "Fifth  Book  of  Maccabees"  (Ar.  and  Syr.) 

The  "Assumption  of  Moses"  (see  Fabrieius,  i,  S25). 

The  "Preaching  of  Noah"  to  the  Antediluvians,  according  to 
the  Sibylline  Oracles  (Fabrieius,  i,  230). 

The  "Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs"  (Gr.  Given  by 
Fabrieius,  with  a  Latin  translation,  Codex  Pscudejii^r. 
V.  T.  i,  519  sq.). 

The  "Psalter  of  Solomon"  (Gr.  Given  in  like  manner,  ib. 
i,  917  sq.). 

The  "  Book  of  Zoiiar"  or  Light  (Heb.). 

The  following  is  a  list  of  all  the  apocryphal  pieces 
relating  to  the  New  Test.,  not  now  extant,  mentioned 
by  writers  in  the  first  four  centuries  after  Christ,  with 
the  several  writings  in  which  they  are  (last)  cited  or 
noticed.     See  each  name  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

(1.)  The  "Acts  of  Andrew"  (Euseb.  Hist  Eecl.  iii,  25;  Phi- 

lastr.  Heeres.  S7;  Epiphan.  Hones,  xlvii,  1;  lxi,  1 ;  lxiii, 

2;  Gelasius,  in  Decret.  ap.  Concil.  Sanct.  iv,  1200).     But 

see  Andrew. 
(2.)  "Books"  under  the  name  of  Andrew  (Augustine,  enntr. 

Adversar.  Ley.  el  Prophet,  i,  20;  Innocent  I,  E2>ist.  3,  ad 

Fxuper.  Tholos.  Episc  7). 
(3.)  The  "Gospel  of  Andrew"  (Gelaa.  in  Decret.). 
A  "  Gospel"  under  the  name  of  Ai-elles  (Jerome,  Praef.  in 

Comment,  in  Matt.). 
The  "  Gospel  according  to  the  Twelve  Apostles"  (Origen, 

Homl.  in  Luc.  i,  1;  Ambrose,  Comment,  in  Luc.  i,  1; 

Jerome,  Prarf.  in  Comment,  in  Ma't.). 
The  "Gospel  of  Barnabas"  (Gelas.  in  Decret.). 
(1.)  The  "Gospel  of  Bartholomew"  (Jerome,  Catal.  Script. 

Eccles.  in  Pantsen. ;  Prarf.  in  Comment,  in  Matt. ;  Gelas. 

in  Decret.). 
(2.)  The  "Writings  of  Bartholomew  the  Apostle"  (Dionys. 

the  Arep-pagite,  l!e  Then!.  Mi/st.  i,  1). 
The  "Gospel  of  Basiltdes"  (Origen,  in  Luc.  i,  1 ;  Ambrose, 

in  Luc.  i,  1;  Jerome,  Prref.  in  Comm.  in  Matt.). 
(1.)  The  "Gospel  of  Cerintiius"  (Epiphan.  Heeres.  Ii,  7). 
(2.)  The  "Revelation  of  Cerintiius"  (Coins,  Presb.  Rom.,  lib. 

Disput.  np.  Euseb.  His*.  Ere.!,  iv,  28). 
(1.)  Some  ■'  Books"  under  the  name  of  Christ  (Augustine,  De 

Cmisens.  Erang.  i.  S) 
(2.)  An  "Epistle  of  Christ"  produced  by  the  Manichseans 

(Augustine,  contr.  Faust,  xxviii,  4). 
(3.)  An  "Epistle  of  Christ  to  Peter  and  Paul"  (Augustine, 

de  Consent.  Erana.  i,  9,  10). 
(4.)  A  "Hymn  of  Christ's"  taught  to  his  disciples  (Episcop. 

ad  Caret  Episc.). 
(1.)  The  "Acts  of  the  Apostles"  made  use  of  by  the  Ebion- 

ites  (Epiphan.  Hcerex.  xxx,  16). 
(2.)  The  "Gospel  of  the  Ebio.nites"  (ib.  13\ 
The   "Gospel   according  to   the  Egyptians"   (Clem.    Alex. 

Strom,  iii,  452, 405 ;  Origen,  in  Luc.  ii ;  Jerome,  Pisef.  ia 

Cmim.  in  Matt. ;  Epiphan.  Heeres.  lxii,  2). 
The  "Gospel  of  the  Encratites"  (Epiphan.  Heeres.  xlvi,  1). 
The  "Gospel  of  Evr."  (ib.  xxvi,  2). 

The  "Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews"  (Heges'p.  lib.  Com- 
ment, ap.  Euseb.  Hist.  Keel,  iv,  22;  Clem.  Alex.  Strom. 

ii,  p.  3S0  :  Origen,  Tract  S  in  Matt,  xix,  19  ;  and  in  Joan. 

p.  68 :  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  iii.  25,  27,  39  :  Jerome,  often). 
The  "Book  of  the  Helkasaites"  (Euseb.  His'.  Eccl.  vi,  3S). 
The  false  "  Gospels  of  Hesyohics"  (Jerome,  Pra?f.  in  Evang. 

ad  Dam  as.  ;  Gelasius.  in  Decret.). 
(1.)  The  "Book  of  Jamfs"  (Origen,  Comm.  in  Matt,  xiii,  55, 

50 1. 
(2.)  "Books"  forged  nnd  published  under  the  name  of  James 

(Epiphan.  Heeres.  xxx,  23;  Innocent  I,  Epist.  3  ad  Ex- 

nper.  Tholos    Episr.  71. 
(1.)  The  "Acts  of  John"  (Euseb.  Hist.  Feci,  iii,  T5;  Atbanas. 

in  Siniops.  76 ;   Philastr.   Heeres.  S7  ;  Epiphan.  Ha>res. 

xlvii,  1  ;  Augustine,  contr.  Adoera.  Leg.  i,  20). 
(2.)  "Books"   under   the   name  of  John    (Epiphan.   Ila-res. 

xxxviii,  1 ;  Innocent  I,  I.  e.). 
A  "Gospel"  under  the  name  of  Jtdas  Iscariot  (Iren.  adv. 

Heeres.  i,  25). 
A  "Gospel"    under  the   name   of  Jude   (Epiphan.  Heeres, 

xxxviii,  1). 


APOCRYPHA 


295 


APOCRYPHA 


The  "Acta  of  the  Apostles"  by  Leucius  (Augustine,  de  Fide 

contr.  Manicli.  38). 
(1.)  The  "Acta  of  the  Apostles"  by  Lentitius  (Augustine,  dc 

Act.  cum.  Fcelie.  Munich,  ii,  0). 
(■2.)  The  L- Books  of  Lentitius"  (Gelas.  in  Decret). 
The  "Acts"  under  the  Apostles'  mime,  by  Leonitus  (Augus- 
tine, de  Fide  contr.  Munich.  5). 
The  "Acts  of  the  Apostles"  by  Leuthon  (Jerome,  E2'ist.  ad 

Chromat.  et  Heliodor.). 
The  false  "  Gospels"  published  by  Lucianus  (Jerome,  Prsef.  in 

Evang.  et  Daman.). 
The  "Acts  of  the  Apostles"  used  by  the  Manicileans  (Au- 
gustine, contr.  Adiviant.  Munich.  IT). 
"Books"  under  the  name  of  Matthew   (Epiphan.  Hceres. 

xxx,  23). 
(1.)  A  "Book"  under  the  name  of  Matthias  (Innocent  I,  ut 

xup.). 
(2.)  The  "  Gospel  of  Matthias"  Origen,  Comm.  in  Luc.  i,  1 ; 

Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  iii,  '-'5;  Ambrose,  in  Luc.  i,  1;  Jerome, 

Pi»f.  in  Comm.  in  Matt.). 
(3.)  The  "Traditions  of  Matthias"  (Clem.  AI  x.  Strom,  ii, 

p.  3S  ;  iii,  430 ;  vii,  74S). 
The  "  Gospel  of  Merinthus"  (Epiphan.  Hceres.  Ii,  7). 
The  "Gospel   according   to   the   Na/.arenes."     (See  above, 

"Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews.") 
(I.)  The  "Acts  of  Paul"  (Origen,  de  Princip.  i,  2;  in  Joan. 

ii,  p.  298;  Euseb.  Hist.  Feci,  iii,  3  and  25;   Philastr. 

Hceres.  ST. 
(2.)  A  "  Book"  under  the  name  of  Paul  (Cyprian,  EpisL  2"). 
(3.)  The  "Preaching  of  Paul  and  Peter"  (Lactantius,  De 

Ver.  Sap.  iv,  21 ;  Script,  anonym,  ad  calcem  Opp.  Cypf. ; 

and  [according  to  some]  Clem.  Alex.  Strom,  vi,  030). 
(4.)  The  "Revelation  of  Paul"  (Epiphan.  Uteres,  xxxviii,  2; 

Augustine,  Tract  98  in  Juan.  s.  f. ;  Gelas.  in  Decret.). 
The  "Gospel  of  Perfection"  (Epiphan.  IJceres.  xxvi,  2). 
(1.)  The  "  Acts  of  Peter"  iKiiseb.  Hist.  Fed.  iii,  3;  Athanas. 

in  Synops.  S.  S.  70;  Philastr.  Uteres.  87;  Jerome,  Capit. 

Script.  Eccl.  in  Petr. ;  Epiphan.  Hceres.  xxx,  15). 
(2.)  "Books"  under  the  name  of  Petek  (Innocent  I,  Ep>ist.  3 

ad  F.rup.  Tholos  Epise.  1). 
(3  )  The  "Doctrine  of  Peter"  (Origen,  Procem.  in  lib.  de  Prin- 
cip.). 
(4.)  The  "Gospel  of  Petri:"  (Serapion,  De  Evang.  Petri,  ap. 

Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  vi,  10;  Tertull.  adr.  Marc,  iv,  5;  Ori- 
gen, Comm.  in  Matt,  xiii,  55,  50;  vol.  i,  p.  223;  Euseb. 

Ilis\  Eccl.  iii,  3  and  25;  Jerome,  Catal.  Script.  Eccl.  in 

Petr.). 
(5.)  The  "Judgment  of  Peter"   (Puifin.  Expos,  in  Symbol. 

A  post.  30;  Jerome,  Catal .  Script.  Fccles.  in  Petr.). 
(0.)  The  "  Preaching  of  Peter"  (Herael.  ap.  Origen,  lib.  14  in 

Joan.:  Clem.  Alex.  Strom,  i,  357;  ii,  300;  vi,  CC5,  030, 

07S ;  Theoflot.  Byzant.  in  Excerpt,  p.  800,  ad  ealc.  Opp. 

Clem.  Alex.  :  Lactant.  De  Ver.  Sup.  iv.  21 ;  Euseb.  His'. 

Fed.  iii,  3;  Jerome,  Cutal.  Script.  Eccles.  in  Petr.). 
(7.)  The  "Revelation  of  Peter"  (Clem.  Alex.  lib.  Hypntopos. 

ap.  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  vi,  14;   Theodot.  Bvz.  va  Excerpt. 

p.  S0G,  807,  ad  calc.  Opp.  Clem.  Alex. ;  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl. 

iii,  3  and  25;  Jerome,  Cutal.  Script.  Feci,  in  Petr.). 
(1.)  The  "Acts  of  Philip"  (Gelas.  in  Decret.). 
(2  )  The  "Gospel  of  Philip"  (Epiphan.  Hceres.  xxvi,  1"). 
The  "  Gospel  of  Scytihanus"  (Cyrill.  Cutech.  vi,  22 ;  Epiphan. 

Hceres.  lxvi,  2). 
The  "Acts  of  the  .Apostles"  by  Seleucus  (Jerome,  Epist.  ad 

Chromat.  et  Heliodnr.). 
The  "Revelation  of  Stephen"  (Gelas.  in  Decret.). 
The  "Gospel  of  TiiadD/EUS"  Ob.). 
The  Catholic  "Epistle  of  Tiiemison"  the  Montanist  (Apollon. 

lib.  contr.  C  itaphyq.  ap.  Euseb.  Hist.  Feci,  v,  IS). 
(1.)  The  "  Acts  of  Thomas"  (Epiphan.  Hceres.  xlvii,l;  lxi,l; 

Athanas.  in  Synops.  S.  S.  70 ;  Gelas.  in  Decret.). 
(2.)  "  Books"  under  the  name  of  Thomas  (Innocent  I,  ut  sup.). 
(3  )  The  "Revelation  of  Thomas"  (Gelas.  in  Decret.). 
The  "Gospel  of  Titian"  (Euseb.  His'.  Keel,  iv,  29). 
The  "Gospel  of  Truth"  made  use  of  by  the  Valentinians 

(Iren.  adv.  Hceres.  iii,  11). 
The  "Gospel  of  Valentines"  (Tertull.  de  Prcvseript.  adv. 

Hceres.  49). 

The  following  list  comprises  those  pseudepigraphal 
■works  relating  to  the  New  Test,  which  still  exist,  with 
the  language  in  which  ancient  copies  have  been  pre- 
served. See  each  title  and  professed  author  in  its 
place. 
A  "History  of  the  Contest  between  the  Apostles"  by  Aispias 

d.at.). 
The  "  Letter  of  Augaeus  to-Christ,"  and  the  "  Reply  of  Christ 

to  Abgarus"  (Gr.). 
The  "General  Epistle  of  Barnabas"  (Gr). 
The  "First  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians"  (Gr.). 
The  "Second  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians"  (Gr.). 
The  "  Descent  of  Christ  into  Hell"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 
The  "Apostolical  Constitutions"  (Gr.,  Eth.,  and  Copt). 
The  "  First  Book  of  Hermas,"  called  bis  Visions  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 
The  "  Second  Book  of  Heumas,"  called  his  Commands  (Gr. 

and  Lat.). 
The  "Third  Book  of  Hermas,"  called  his  Similitudes   (Gr. 

and  Lat.). 
The  "Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Ephcsians"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 


The  "Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Magnesians"  (Gr.  and  Lat.) 
The  "Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Philadclphiaus"  (Gr.  and 

Lat,). 
The  "  Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  Polycarp"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 
The  "  Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Romans"  (Gr.  and  Ijit.). 
The  "Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Smyrnajans"  (Gr.  and  Lat,). 
The  "  Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Trail  ians"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 
The  "Gospel  of  the  Infancy"  of  the  Saviour  (Arab,  and  Lat.). 
The  "Protevangelium  of  James"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 
The  (mutilated  and  altered)  "Gospel  of  St,  John"  (Gr.). 
The  (apocryphal)  "Book  of  the  Apostle  John"  (Lat,). 
The  "  Narrative  of  Joseph  of  Arimathsea"  (Gr.). 
The  "Sacred  Memorial  Book  of  Joseph,"  a  Christian.     (The 

Greek  text,  entitled  'IwrriiTrnov  P.i/3Kiov  'Yiropvnwcov,  is 

given  in  full  by  Fabricins,  Cod.  Psntdepigr.  V.  T.  ii,  ad 

fin.,  with  a  Latin  translation). 
The  "  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Laodiceans"  (Gr.). 
The  (fragmentary)  "Gospel  of  Marcion"  (Gr.). 
J  The  "Gospel  of  [Rseudo-]  .Matthias"  (Lat.). 
The  "Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  St,  Mary"  (Lat.). 
The  "Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary,  and  of  the  Infancy  of 

the  Saviour"  (Lat,). 
The  "Gospel  of  Nicodemus"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 
The  "  Epistles  of  the  Corinthians  to  Paul,  and  of  Paul  to  the 

Corinthians"  (Armen  ). 
The  "Acts  of  Pilate"  (Gr.  and  Lat ). 
The  "  Apprehension  of  Pilate"  ((Jr.). 
The  "  Loath  of  Pilate"  (Gr.  and  Lat  ). 
The  "  First  Epistle  of  Pilate"  (Gr.  and  Lat  ). 
The  "Second  Epistle  of  Pilate"  (Gr.  and  Lat.). 
The  "  Epistle  of  Polycarp  to  the  Philippians"  (Gr.). 
The  "Vindication  of  the  Saviour"  (Lat,). 
The  "  Epistles  of  Paul  to  Seneca,"  and  "  of  Seneca  to  Paul" 

(Gr.). 
The  "Sibylline  Oracles"  (Gr.). 
The  "Acts  of  Paul  and  Tiiecla"  (Gr). 
The  "Gospel  of  Thomas"  the  Israelite  (Gr.  and  Lat.j. 

IV.  Literature. — The  best  accounts  of  these  and 
other  apocryphal  documents  will  be  found  in  Fabricii 
Codex  Pseudipigraphus  Y.  T.  (Hamb.  and  Lpz.  1713  and 
1741),  and  Codex  Apocryphus  N.  T.  (Hamb.  1713-1722)  ; 
Auctarium  Cadicis  Apocryphi  N.  T.  Fabriciani,  edidit 
And.  Birch  (Copenh.  1804) ;  A  new  and  full  Method  of 
settling  the  Canon  of  the  N.  T.,  by  the  Rev.  Jeremiah 
Jones  (Oxf.  1720— last  edition,  Oxf.  1827);  Du  Pin, 
Prolegomena  (Amst.  1701);  and  Canon  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  (London,  17(  <n ;  Volkmar,  Eimle.it.  in 
die  Apocryphen  (vol.  i,  Tub.  18G0-G3)  ;  and  especially 
Ccdcx  Apocryphus  N.  T.  etc.,  edit,  with  notes,  prole- 
gomena and  translation,  hy  T.  C.  Thilo  (torn,  i,  Lips. 
1832,  8vo ;  the  remaining  two  volumes  have  not  been 
published) — containing :  (1.)  The  histoiy  of  Joseph 
the  Carpenter,  Arab,  and  Lat. ;  (2.)  The  Gospel  of 
the  Infancy  ;  (3.)  The  Protevangelion  of  James,  and 
the  Gospel  of  Thomas  the  Israelite,  Greek  and  Latin; 
(4.)  The  Gospel  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary  and  the 
History  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary  and  the  Saviour, 
Latin  ;  (5.)  The  Gospel  of  Marcion,  collected  by  Dr. 
Hahn  from  ancient  Greek  MSS. ;  (6.)  The  Gospel  of 
Nicodemus,  Gr.  and  Lat.;  (7.)  Apprehension  and 
Death  of  Pilate,  Gr. ;  (8.)  The  mutilated  and  altered 
Gospel  of  St.  John,  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the 

j  Templars  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  in  Paris,  with  Gries- 
bach's  text;  (9.)  An  apocryphal  book  of  the  Apostle 

I  John,  Lat.  Consult  the  following  by  Dr.  Teschendorf : 
(1.)  De  Evangeliorum  Apocryphorum  origine  et  usu 
(Hague,  1851)  ;  (2.)  A  eta  Apocrypha  ex  ant.  codd.  (Lips. 
1852);  (3.)  Evungelia  Apocrypha  adhib.  codd.  Grcec.  et 
Latinis  (Lips.  1853)  ;  (4.)  Apocalypses  Apocrypha  (Lips. 
1866).  Dr.  Laurence,  of  Oxford,  has  published  the 
following  apocryphal  works :  (1.)  The  Book  of  Enoch 
(1838);  (2.)  Ascensio  Isaice  Vatis  (1810) ;  (3.)  Primi  Es- 

|  rce  Lihri  (1820).     Comp.  Lardner,  Works,  x,  31.     See 

!  Acts,  Gospels,  Epistles,  Revelations  (spufious). 
The  best  commentary  on  the  apocryphal  books  of 

|  the  O.  T.  (i.  e.  those  contained  in  the  Sept.  and  Vulg. 

I  but  not  in  the  Heb.)  is  the  Extgetisehes  Handbuch  zu 
den  Apohryphm  des  A.  T.  by  Fritzsche  and  Grimm 

,  (Leipz.  1856  sq.);  a  convenient  one  for  English  read- 

;  ers  is  Rich.  Arnald's  Crit.  Comment,  on  the  Apocrypha 
(Lond.  1744,  and  often  since).  Annotations  on  each 
book  are  also  contained  in  Calmet's  Commentary,  and 
the  Critiei  Sacri,  vol.  iii;  see  likewise  Parei  Opera,  i; 
De  Sacy's  Sainte  Bible •  Cappel,  Commentarii,  p.  560, 
Others  are  by  Van  Hamelsveld  (Amst.  1797) ;  Heze, 


APOLLIN  ARIANS 


296 


APOLLINARIS 


(Lemgo,  1800)  ;  Wilson  (Edinb.  1801) ;  Gaab  (Tub. 
1818-19);  Plessner  (Berlin,  1834);  Gutmann  (Alton. 
1841);  Bosberg  (Stutt.  1840).  Different  editions  :  Fa- 
bricius  (Frkft.  and  Lpz.  1691) ;  Leusden  (Frcft.  ad  M. 
1G94);  Keineccius  (Lips.  1732,  1757)  ;  Bendsten  (Gott. 
1790)  ;  Augusti  (Lips.  1804)  ;  Apel  (Lips.  1836).  All 
the  ancient  versions  of  the  texts  extant  may  be  found 
in  the  4th  vol.  of  Walton's  Polyglot*.  Davidson  has 
given  a  brief  but  critical  Introduction  to  each  book  in 
Home's  Introd.  new  ed.  vol.  ii.  Of  a  more  miscella- 
neous character :  Suicer,  Thesaur.  Eccl.  p.  438 ;  Giese- 
ler,  Was  heisst  Apolcrypkisch  ?  in  the  Theol.  Stud,  ii,  141 ; 
Das  Kriterium  e.  apokr.  Bucks,  in  Augusti's  Theol.  Bl. 
i,  540;  Raynolds,  Censura  apocryph irum  V.  el  N.  T. 
(Oppenh.  1611);  Hencke,  Prodromos  ad  apocr.  V.  T. 
(Hal.  1711);  Benzel,  De  apocr.  N.  T.  in  his  Syntag. 
i,  316  sq. ;  Eichhorn,  Einltit.  in  d.  Apokr.  des  A.  T. 
(Lpz.  1795);  Frisch,  D.  Apokr.  d.  A.  T.  u.  d.  Schr.  d. 
N.  T.,  in  Eichhom's  Bibl.  iv,  653;  Bendsten,  Exerc.  in 
V.  T.  Apocr.  (Gott.  1789) ;  Bretsehneider,  D.  Apokr.  d. 
A.  T.  (Lpz.  1805) ;  Cramer,  Moral  d.  Ap.  d.A.T.  (Lpz. 
1815);  Jenichen,  De  librorum  X.  T.  it  V.  T.  apocr. 
Ulustratione  (V7iteb.  1786) ;  Kuinol,  Obs.  ad  N.  T.  ex 
apocr.  V.  T.  (Lips.  179-i);  Beckhaus,  D.  Apokr.  d.  A. 
T.  (Dortm.  1808)  ;  Friinkel,  Apocrypha  a  Grcec.  in  Heb. 
conversa  (Lips.  1830)  ;  Appendices  ad  apocr.  N.  T.,  in 
J.  Holler's  Theol.  Bibl.  ix,  1  sq. ;  Brockmann,  De  apocr. 
nomine  (Grvph.  1766);  Augusti,  D.  Apokr.  d.  A.  T. 
(Bresl.  1816);  Moulnie,  Les  litres  apoci-yphes  de  V An- 
cient Test.  (Genf.  1828);  Bergguist,  Messia  in  apocr. 
V.  T.  (Lond.  1826)  ;  Ebrard,  Zeugnisse  gegen  d.  Apokry- 
phen  (Basle,  1851);  Kierl,  D.  Ajwkryphen  des  A.  T. 
(Lpz.  1852)  ;  Kluge,  id.  (Frcft.  ad  M.  1852)  ;  Stier's  Es- 
says in  the  Evang.  Kirchenz.  1828, 1853, 1855  ;  Nitzsch, 
in  the  Zeitschr.f.  christl.  Wissensch.  1850  ;  Bleek,  Sttl- 
lung  d.  Ap.  d.A.T.  (in  the  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1853,  p.  267 
sq.).  See  each  of  the  apocryphal  books  under  its  name. 
The  following  works  are  on  the  apocryphal  addi- 
tions to  the  New  Test. :  Schmid,  Corpus  apocr.  extra 
£iM/(Hadam.l804);  Beausobre,  De  N.  T.  apocryphis 
(Berol.  1734)  ;  Kleuker,  D.  Apokr.  d.  N.  T.  (Hamb. 
1798) ;  Lorsbach,  D.  heiUgen  Bilcher  d.  Johannisjiinger 
(Marb.  1807) ;  Bartholma,  Uebers.  d.  Apokr.  d.  N.  T. 
(Dinkelsbuhl,  1832);  Beausobre,  in  Cramer's  Beitr.  i, 
251-314;  Reuss,  Di  Ar.  T.  apocr.  (Argent.  1829); 
Suckow's  ed.  of  the  Protevmgelium  Jacobi  (Vratisl. 
1841);  Ellicott,  Cambridge  Essays  for  1856;  Toland, 
Collection  of  Pieces,  i,  350.  Many  of  these  spurious 
works  are  translated  in  Hone's  Apocryphal  N.  T. 
(Lond.  1820 ;  N.  Y.  1849,  8vo),  and  Abp.  Wake's  Apost. 
Fathers  (Lond.  1830;  Hartf.  1834,  8vo). 

Apollinarians,  followers  of  Apollinaris,  or  Apol- 
linarius  (q.  v.). 

Apollinaris  or  Apollinarius,  Claudius,  bish- 
op of  Hieropolis  in  Phrygia,  in  the  second  century, 
an  apologist  (q.  v.)  of  Christianity,  and  an  opponent 
of  Montanism  (q.  v.  .  He  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  classic  literature  of  the  Greeks,  and  a  prolific 
writer;  but  his  works,  which  are  mentioned  by  Euse- 
bius  and  I'hotius,  are  lost;  o,..y  two  fragments  of  his 
work  on  the  Passover  are  extant. — Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles. 
iv,27;  Fabricius,  Biblioth.  Grwca.  vii,  160 ;  Tillemont, 
Me  in  i  tires,  t.  i,  pt.  ii. 

Apollinaris  or  Apollinarius,  bishop  of  Laodi- 
cea,  the  son  <>f  Apollinaris  the  elder,  who  taught  first 
at  Berytus,  in  Phoenicia,  and  afterward  at  Laodicea, 
where  he  became  a  presbyter  and  married.  Both  fa- 
ttier and  son  were  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  Epipha- 
nius  and  Libanius,  lh<>  Sophists.  The  bishop  of  La- 
odicea, Theodotus,  having  warned  them  to  renounce 
this  friendship,  they  were  excommunicated,  but  after- 
ward, upon  expressing  penitence,  they  were  restored. 
Julian  the  Apostate  forbade  the  Christians  to  read  the 
works  of  any  heathen  author,  upon  which  the  two 
Apollinarii  (father  and  son)  composed  many  works  in 
imitation  of  the  style  of  Homer  and  other  ancient 


Greek  works.  Among  others,  they  turned  the  books 
of  Moses  into  heroic  verse  ;  indeed,  Sozomen  (Hist.  Ec- 
cles. v,  18)  says,  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  as  far 
as  the  account  of  Saul ;  they  also  composed  dramatic 
pieces  on  scriptural  subjects,  after  the  style  of  Menan- 
der  (Socrat.  Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  16).  The  younger  Apol- 
linaris is  mentioned  (in  Athanas.  Ep.  ad  Antiochenos, 
torn,  i ;  Opp.  ed.  Montfaucon,  ii,  776)  as  orthodox  bish- 
op of  Laodicea  A. D.  362,  while  Pelagius  was  bishop  of 
the  Arians  in  that  city.  He  was  esteemed  by  Athana- 
sius,  Basil,  and  other  great  men  of  that  age,  who  con- 
tinued to  speak  respectfully  of  his  merits  even  after  he 
was  suspected  of  heresj'.  Apollinaris  distinguished 
himself  especially  by  polemical  and  exeg  tical  writ- 
ings ;  for  instance,  by  his  work  on  Truth,  against  the 
Emperor  Julian.  He  also  wrote  thirty  books  against 
Porphyry,  against  the  Manichaeans,  Arians,  Marcellus, 
and  others.  Jerome  himself,  during  his  residence  at 
Antioch,  A.D.  373  and  374,  enjoyed  the  instructions 
of  Apollinaris,  then  bishop  of  Laodicea.  The  interpre- 
tations of  Apollinaris,  quoted  in  the  commentaries  of 
Jerome,  were  peculiarly  valuable  in  those  days  on  ac- 
count of  his  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  tongue.  Basil 
mentions  a  work  of  Apollinaris  on  the  Holy  Ghost. 
In  the  year  1552  was  published  at  Paris  a  Metaphrasis 
Psalmorum  of  Apollinaris,  and  re-edited  by  Sylburg  at 
Heidelberg  in  1596;  this,  and  a  tragedy  on  "Christ 
suffering,"  in  the  works  of  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  were 
ascribed  to  Apollinaris ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  what 
share  in  these  works  belongs  to  the  father,  and  what 
to  the  son. 

Late  in  life,  Apollinaris,  who  had  strenuously  de- 
fended the  Athanasian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  his 
youth,  himself  incurred  the  reproach  of  heresy  be- 
cause he  taught  that  the  divine  Logos  occupied  in  the 
person  of  Christ  the  place  of  the  human  rational  soul. 
"  The  greatest  difficulty  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinit}' 
appeared  to  him  to  consist  in  the  union  of  the  divine 
person  of  the  Logos  with  a  perfect  human  person. 
Two  perfect  wholes  could  not  be  united  in  one  whole 
(Gregory,  Antirrh.  cap.  xxxix,  p.  323:  ei  &v9p<i)iruiT£- 
Xti(>j(Tvi'i](p0i]  Stog  reXtiog  ciio  av  ijaaii).  Setting  out 
from  Anthropology,  he  asserted  that  the  essence  of 
the  rational  soul  consists  in  its  self-determination.  If 
this  characteristic  were  retained  in  connection  with 
the  divine  nature,  there  could  be  no  true  personal 
union,  but  only  such  a  divine  influence  on  Jesus  as 
might  be  experienced  by  any  other  man.  On  the 
'  other  hand,  if  the  soul  forfeited  this  characteristic,  it 
would  renounce  its  essential  peculiarity  (Ibid.  p.  245: 
<>i9opd  roil  airtt,ovaiov  £ioov  to  /<>}  tlvai  avTtZovmov  ' 
oli  (pBtiptrcu  Si  ?'/  fvaig  vtto  roii  Trou]aavTog  aiiri]v). 
On  the  first  point  he  objected  to  the  school  of  Origen, 
that  it  admitted  no  true  union  of  the  divine  and  the 
human,  but  made  instead  two  Sons  of  God,  the  Logos 
and  the  man  Jesus  (L.  c.  xlii :  ilg  fiiv  <t>i>ati  vlog  Siov, 
tig  di  St roY).  Hence  he  thought  the  rational  human 
soul  must  be  excluded  from  the  God-man,  and,  in  this, 
the  old  undefined  doctrine  was  on  his  side.  For  the 
human  soul  he  substituted  the  Logos  himself  as  the 
vovg  Btlog.  He  developed  this  doctrine  with  origi- 
nality and  acuteness.  The  scheme  of  human  nature 
which  he  made  use  of  was  the  common  trichotomical 
one,  of  the  lpv^i}  Xoynci)  (voepa),  dXoyoc,  and  the  awpa. 
That  an  animal  principle  of  life,  a  \pvx>)  dXoyog,  must 
be  admitted  to  exist  in  human  nature,  he  thought 
might  be  proved  from  Paul's  Epistles,  in  the  passages 
where  he  speaks  of  the  flesh  lusting  against  the  Spirit; 
for  the  body  in  itself  has  no  power  of  lusting,  but  on'.y 
the  soul  that  is  connected  with  it.  It  is  not  self-de- 
termining, but  must  be  determined  by  the  ipi>X>)  Xoyi- 
ki'i,  which  with  it  ought  to  govern  the  body.  But  this 
result  is  frustrated  by  sin,  and,  conquered  by  it,  the 
reason  succumbs  to  the  power  of  the  irrational  desires. 
In  order  to  free  man  from  sin,  the  unchangeable  Di- 
vine Spirit  must  be  united  witli  a  human  nature,  con- 
trol the  anima,  and  present  a  holy  human  life  (contra 


APOLLINARIS 


297 


APOLLO 


Apollinarist.  t.  i,  cap.  xiii,  p.  73G).  Thus  we  have  in 
Christ,  as  man,  the  three  component  parts,  and  can 
call  him  the  avOpioTrog  irrovpdi'tog,  only  with  this  dif- 
ference, the  Divine  occupies  the  place  of  the  human 
voug"  (Neander,  Hist,  of  Docti-incs,  i,  320).  Athana- 
sius wrote  against  Apollinarism,  though  not  against 
Apollinaris  personally  (Epist.ad  Epict.;  contra  Apol- 
Unaristas);  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  wrote  against  him 
also  (Ep.  I,  ii,  ad  Cledonium;  ad  Xectarhnn);  and  Greg- 
ory of  Nyssa  his  'AvrtppnTiKuc  (in  Galland.  Bill.  Pair. 
vi,  517).  His  heresy  became  generally  known  A.D. 
371.  The  accusations  of  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  The- 
odoret  against  the  character  of  Apollinaris  are  not 
plausible.  "Of  the  writings  in  which  he  explained 
his  views,  only  fragments  are  extant  in  the  works  of 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Theodoret,  and  Leontius  Byzanti- 
nus  (who  lived  about  the  year  590)  ;  they  were  the  fol- 
lowing: irtpi  aaoKiueuuQ  Xoyictov  (cnroSei^ig  TTtpi  rijg 
Stlag  tvcrapiaiiOEWg) — rb  Kara  Ki<pdXaiov  (iifiXiov — 
irtpi  civaaTaatwc — irtpl  Trlvrtojg  Xoyidiov — and  some 
letters  (in  Gallanclii  Bibl.  PP.  xii,  70G  sq. ;  Angelo 
Mai  Class,  auct.  ix,  495  sq.).  Apollinaris  objected  to 
the  union  of  the  Logos  with  a  rational  soul ;  that  the 
human  being  thus  united  to  the  Logos  must  either 
preserve  his  own  free  will,  in  which  case  there  would 
be  no  true  union  of  the  Divine  and  the  human,  or  that 
the  human  soul  had  lost  its  proper  liberty  by  becom- 
ing united  to  the  Logos,  either  of  which  would  lie  ab- 
surd. '  He  chiefly  opposed  the  rp£7rr(h',  or  the  liberty 
of  choice  in  christology'  (Dorner,  Person  of  Christ,  per. 
i,  ep.  iii,  ch.  iii).  In  his  opinion,  Christ  is  not  only 
(I)'3rp(j7roc  i'vStog,  but  the  incarnate  God.  According 
to  the  threefold  division  of  man,  Apollinaris  was  will- 
ing to  ascribe  a  soul  to  the  Redeemer  in  so  far  as  he 
thought  it  to  be  a  mean  between  body  and  spirit.  But 
that  which  itself  determines  the  soul  (-6  airoKivnrov), 
and  constitutes  the  higher  dignity  of  man,  the  foi'g 
(the  ipvX't  Xoyuct])  of  Christ,  could  not  be  of  human 
origin,  but  must  be  purely  divine  ;  for  his  incarnation 
did  not  consist  in  the  Logos  becoming  vovg,  but  in  be- 
coming aapE.  But  the  Divine  reason  supplying  the 
place  of  the  human,  there  exists  a  specific  difference 
between  Christ  and  other  beings.  In  their  case,  ev- 
ery tiling  had  to  undergo  a  process  of  gradual  devel- 
opment, which  cannot  be  brought  about  without  either 
conflicts  or  sin  (ottov  yap  rtXttog  ai>$tpt»Troc,  iKii  Kai 
dpapria,  apud.  Athan.  i,  2,  p.  923 ;  compare  c.  xxi,  p. 
9)!9  :  apapria  ivvTr'xrraTOc).  But  this  could  not  take 
place  in  the  case  of  Christ:  ovStpia  adenine:  iv  Xpia- 
Tifi "  ouk  dpa  vovg  turiv  ai'Srp(i)Tni'og  (comp.  Grego- 
ry of  Nyssa,  Antirrhct.  adv.  Apollin.  iv,  c.  221).  At  the 
same  time,  Apollinaris  supposed  the  body  and  soul  of 
Christ  to  be  so  completely  filled  with  the  higher  and 
divine  principle  of  spiritual  life,  that  he  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  use  expressions  such  as  'God  died,  God  is 
born,'  etc.  He  even  maintained  that,  on  account  of 
this  intimate  union,  Divine  homage  is  also  due  to  the 
human  nature  of  Christ  (1.  c.  p.  241,  264).  His  oppo- 
nents, therefore,  charged  him  with  Patripassianism. 
But  we  do  not  think  that  Apollinaris  ever  asserted, 
as  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  would  have  us  believe,  that 
Christ  must  have  possessed  an  irrational,  animal  soul, 
e.  g.  that  of  a  horse  or  an  ox,  because  he  had  not  a  ra- 
tional human  soul:  Gregory  himself  seems  to  have 
drawn  such  inferences  from  the  premises  of  Apollina- 
ris. On  the  other  hand,  he  accused  his  opponents  in 
a  similar  manner  of  believing  in  two  Christs,  two  Sons 
of  God,  etc.  (comp.  Dorner,  1.  c,  and  his  Notts  G3,  64; 
Ullmann,  Gregory  ofNaz.  p.  401  sq. ;  Baur,  Chr.  Lehre 
v.  d.  Dreidnigkeit,  i,  585  sq.).  Athanasius  maintained, 
in  opposition  to  Apollinaris  (contra  Apollinurist.  libri  ii, 
but  without  mentioning  him  by  name  :  the  book  was 
written  after  the  death  of  Apollinaris),  that  it  behooved 
Christ  to  be  our  example  in  every  respect,  and  that 
his  nature,  therefore,  must  resemble  ours.  Sinfulness, 
which  is  empirically  connected  with  the  development 
of  man,  is  not  a  necessary  attribute  of  human  nature, 


as  the  Manichaean  notions  would  lead  us  to  suppose. 
Man,  on  the  contrary,  was  originally  free  from  shi; 
and  Christ  appeared  on  that  very  account,  viz.,  in  or- 
der to  show  that  God  is  not  the  author  of  sin,  and  to 
prove  that  it  is  possible  to  live  a  sinless  life  (the  con- 
troversy thus  touched  upon  questions  of  an  anthropo- 
logical nature).  Athanasius  distinctly  separated  the 
Divine  from  the  human  (comp.  especially  lib.  ii),  but 
he  did  not  admit  that  he  taught  the  existence  of  two 
Christs.  Comp.  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  433;  Miilder, 
Athan  ;s'us,  ii,  262  sq.,  compares  the  doctrine  of  Apol- 
linaris with  that  of  Luther.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus 
(Ep.  ad  Cledon.  et  orat.  51)  equally  asserted  the  neces- 
sity of  a  true  and  perfect  human  nature.  It  was  not 
only  necessary,  as  the  medium  by  which  God  mani- 
fested himself,  but  Jesus  could  redeem  and  sanctify 
man  only  by  assuming  his  whole  nature,  consisting 
of  bod}'  and  soul.  (Similar  views  had  been  formerly 
held  by  Irenaeus,  and  were  afterward  more  fully  de- 
veloped by  Anselm.)  Gregory  thus  strongly  main- 
tained the  doctrine  of  the  two  natures  of  the  Saviour. 
We  must  distinguish  in  Christ  «X\o  Kai  «XXo,but  not 
aXAoc  Kai  dXXoc.  Compare  the  Epist.  ad  Nectar,  sive 
orat.  46,  with  his  10  anathemas  against  Apollinaris, 
and  Ullmann,  p.  396-413.  The  work  of  Gregory  6f 
Nyssa,  entitled  Aoyoc;  dvTtppijriKbc  irpbc  rd  'AttoXXi- 
vapiov  (which  was  probably  composed  between  the 
years  374  and  380),  may  be  found  in  Zaccagni,  Collect, 
monum.  vett.,  and  Gallandi,  Bibl.  Pair,  vi,  517;  comp. 
Gieseler,  Ch.  History,  i,  §  83,  note  30.  He  opposed  the 
followers  of  Apollinaris  (Svvovmaorai,  Atpoiptrai~)  in 
his  Ep.  hair.  77.  On  the  question  whether  Apollina- 
ris or  his  disciples  ever  adopted  the  Docetic  errors  re- 
specting the  body  of  Christ,  see  Mohler,  1.  c.  p.  264 
sq."  (Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doct.  §  99).  Apollinarism 
was  first  condemned  at  the  synod  held  at  Rome  A.D. 
375,  in  which  the  Roman  bishop  Damasus  presided; 
all  mention  of  the  name  of  Apollinaris  was  carefully 
avoided  on  this  occasion.  Nevertheless,  this  condem- 
nation induced  Apollinaris  to  form  a  separate  congre- 
gation, over  which  he  ordained  the  presbyter  Yitalis 
as  bishop.  Hence  the  Apollinarists  are  also  called 
Vitalians.  The}-  are  also  called  Dimoerites,  because 
they  were  accused  of  dividing  the  nature  of  Christ 
into  two  parts.  Before  the  death  of  Apollinaris,  which 
happened  between  A.D.  382  and  392,  the  Apollinarists 
formed  in  Syria  and  the  adjacent  countries  several 
separate  congregations,  having  their  own  bishops.  Af- 
ter his  death  the  Apollinarists  were  divided  into  two 
parties,  one  of  which,  under  Polemo,  or  Polemius,  and 
Timotheus,  pretended  that  the  divinity  and  the  body 
of  Christ  were  transformed  into  one  substance,  and, 
consequently,  that  the  flesh  was  to  be  worshipped  as 
well  as  the  Logos;  these  were  called  Polemians  and 
Synousiasts,  and  also  'sarcolatrae  (aapKo\arpai,  flesh- 
worshippers)  ;  in  retaliation,  they  called  the  orthodox 
anthropolatrai,  or  men-worshippers.  The  other  party, 
which  adhered  to  the  original  doctrine  of  Apollinaris, 
were  called  Valentinians.  By  imperial  command,  the 
public  worship  of  the  Apollinarists  was  impeded  A.D. 
388  and  397,  and  A.D.  428  in  all  towns  entirely  pro- 
hibited. The  sects  of  the  Apollinarists  assimilated,  in 
the  fifth  century,  partly  to  the  orthodox,  and  partly  to 
the  Monophysites.  See  Monophysites.  For  a  full 
view  of  Apollinarism  in  its  origin  and  history,  see 
Wernsdorf,  Diss,  de  Apollinare  (Vitemb.  1694  and  1719) ; 
Dorner,  Lehre  v.  d.  Person  Christi,  i,  926-1070  (Eng. 
transl.,  Div.  i,  vol.  ii,  p.  352  sq.)  ;  Herzog,  i,  419.  See 
also  Penny  Cyclopaidia,  s.  v. ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  428; 
Lardner,  Works,  iv,  257-274  ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  362  ; 
Shedd,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  i,  344  ;  Pearson,  On  the  Creed. 

Apollinarists.     See  Apollinarians. 

Apollo  (' AttoXXcov,  the  destroyer,  so  called  because 
his  shafts,  the  rays  of  Phrrbns  or  the  sun.  inflict  dis- 
ease or  "the  sun-stroke"  in  Oriental  climates),  one  of 
the  great  divinities  of  the  Greeks,  according  to  Homer 


APOLLODOTTS 


298 


APOLLONIUS 


(JUad,  i,  21,  316)  the  son  of  Jupiter  (Zeus)  and  Leto 
(Latona),  and  the  brother  of  Artemis  or  Diana  (Hesiod, 
Theogn.  918).  He  was  fabled  to  be  the  god  who  pun- 
ishes the  wicked  and  insolent,  who  affords  help  and 
wards  off  evil,  particularly  from  cattle,  who  presided 
over  the  foundation  of  cities,  and  especially  as  the  god 
of  music  and  prophecy  (Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Mythol. 
s.  v.)-  See  Oracle.  In  this  last  office  he  is  indirect- 
ly alluded  to  in  the  account  of  the  demoniac  damsel 
cured  by  Paul  (Acts  xvi,  16).  See  Pythoness.  Jo- 
sephus mentions  an  audience  of  Archelaus  held  by  Ti- 
berius in  a  splendid  temple  of  Apollo  built  by  him  in 
Rome  (Aid.  xvii,  11, 1);  and  he  also  speaks  of  a  tem- 
ple of  his  at  Gaza,  into  which  the  nobles  of  the  city 
took  refuse  from  the  massacre  by  Alexander  Jannoeus 
(Ant.  xiii,  13,  3). 

Apollodotus  ('AttoWoCotoq,  Apollo-given),  a 
general  of  the  inhabitants  of  Gaza,  who  made  an  ef- 
fectual sally  against  the  Jews  besieging  the  city  under 
Alexander  Jannauis,  but  was  at  length  slain  through 
the  treachery  of  his  brother  Lysimachus  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xiii,  13,  3). 

Apollo'nia  ('A7ro\\«j)'(tt,  from  Apollo),  a  city  of 
Macedonia,  in  the  province  of  Mygdonia  (Plin.  iv,  17), 
situated  between  Amphipolis  and  Thessalonica,  thirty 
Roman  miles  from  the  former,  and  thirty-six  from  the 
latter  (It bier.  Anton,  p.  320,  330;  It'm.  Ilieros.  p.  605; 
Tab.  renting.).  It  was  south  of  the  lake  Bolbe  and 
north  of  the  Chaleidian  mountains  (A  then,  viii,  334). 
According  to  Stephen  of  Byzantium,  it  was  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Corinthians  and  Corcyrians.  The 
Apostle  Paul  passed  through  Amphipolis  and  Apollo- 
nia  on  his  way  to  Thessalonica  (Acts  xvii,  1 ;  see 
Conybeare  and  Howson's  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
i,  320,  321).  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  a  noted 
Apollonia  in  Illyria  (see  Kype,  Obs.  Sacr.  ii,  81  sq.). 
The  city  here  spoken  of  was  situated  on  the  "Egna- 
tian  Way"  in  the  interior  of  the  district  of  Chalcidice 
(Scylax,  p.  27;  Xon.  Hist.  Gr.  v,  2).  The  ruins  are 
called  Pollina  (Cramer's  Anc.  Gr.  i,  264). 

Apollonia  (AiroWtoviu,  a  frequent  Greek  name 
of  cities,  probably  given  in  this  case  b}r  one  of  the 
Seleucidae),  a  town  of  Palestine,  between  Cresarea 
and  Joppa  (Stephen  of  Byz. ;  Ptol.  v,  16;  Pliny,  v, 
14 ;  Pint.  Tab.),  one  of  those  on  the  sea-shore  taken 
by  the  .Tews  under  Alexander  Jannseus  (Joseph.  Ant. 
xiii,  15,  4),  and  afterward  repaired  by  Gabinius  (Jo- 
seph. War,  \,  8,  4).  It  is  now  Arsuf  a  deserted  vil- 
lage at  the  mouth  of  the  Nahr  Arsuf  (Irby  and  Man- 
gles, Trav.  p.  189 ;  Robinson,  Research,  iii,  46 ;  Ches- 
ney.  Expedition,  i,  490),  a  place  famous  under  the 
Crusaders  (Wilken,  Kreuzz.  ii,  17,  39,  102;  iv,  416; 
vii,  325,  400,  425),  by  whom  it  was  confounded  with 
Antipatris  (Bitter,  Erdk.  xvi,  590). 

Apollonia,  a  martyr  of  Alexandria,  suffered  with 
Metra,  Quinta,  and  Serapion,  in  the  year  249,  when 
she  was  seized,  and  some  one  by  a  violent  blow  on 
the  face  knocked  out  many  of  her  teeth ;  whence,  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  she  was  held  to  be  the  patroness 
against  the  toothache.  Soon  she  was  brought  before 
the  burning  pile,  and,  on  being  asked  to  recant,  re- 
flected a  moment,  and  then  leaped  into  the  fire.  She 
is  commemorated  in  the  Roman  Church  on  Feb.  9.— 
Eusebius,  Ch.  Hist,  vi,  41 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  450. 

Apollo'nins  ('AjroXXwviof,  from  Apollo),  the 
name  of  several  men  in  the  history  of  the  Maccabees 
and  Josephus. 

1.  The  son  of  a  certain  Thrasa?us,  and  vicerov  of 
the  Syrian  kin-  Seleucus  (IV)  Philopator  (B.C.  187) 
over  southern  Syria  and  Phoenicia  (2  Maec.  iii,  5,  7). 
At  the  suggestion  of  Simon,  the  temple  governor,  lie 
instigated  the  king  to  plunder  the  Temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem, and  generally  took  the  severest  measures  against 
the  Jews  (2  Mace  iv,  1).  The  writer  of  the  Decla- 
mation on  the  Maccabees,  printed  among  the  works 


of  Josephus  (De  Mace.  4)  relates  of  Apollonius  the 
circumstances  which  are  commonly  referred  to  his 
emissary  Heliodorus  (2  Mace,  iii,  7  sq.). 

2.  A  son  of  Menestheus,  and  ambassador  of  King 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  the  Egyptian  king  Ptolemy 
Philometor,  B.C.  173  (2  Mace,  iv,  21).  Perhaps  he 
was  the  same  as  the  "chief  commissioner  of  tribute" 
(dpxojv  QopoXoyiac)  for  Judcea,  who,  at  the  command 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  on  his  return  from  Egypt 
(B.C.  168),  committed  such  bloodshed  in  Jerusalem 
(2  Mace,  v,  24 ;  comp.  1  Mace,  i,  29  sq.) ;  next  was 
governor  in  Samaria  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  7,  1,  which 
Michaelis,  on  1  Mace,  iii,  10,  regards  as  a  misinter- 
pretation), and  finally  lost  his  life  in  an  encounter 
with  Judas  Maccabrcus,  B.C.  166  (1  Mace,  iii,  10  sq.). 
An  ambassador  of  the  same  name  was  at  the  head  of 
the  embassy  which  Antiochus  sent  to  Rome  (Liv. 
xiii,  6). 

3.  A  son  of  one  Apollonius  Gennajus,  and  a  Syrian 
governor  under  Antiochus  (V)  Eupator  (2  Mace,  xii, 
2).  B.C.  163.  If,  however,  we  understand  the  sur- 
name as  an  ironical  epithet  (ytvi'aloc,  noble),  this 
Apollonius  (but  whether  the  father  or  the  son  would 
still  be  doubtful)  may  be  identical  with  No  2. 

4.  Surnamed  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xiii,  4,  3)  Daiis 
(A«oc,  from  a  people  called  Dahas  or  Dai  in  Sogdi- 
ana),  a  Syrian  viceroy  in  Coele-Syria,  who,  taking 
sides  with  the  usurper  Demetrius  (B.C.  147),  attacked 
Jonathan,  the  ally  of  Alexander  (Balas),  but  was  ut- 
terly defeated  by  him  (1  Mace,  x,  69  sq.).  Accord- 
ing to  the  Greek  text  in  1  Mace,  xvi,  69,  he  was  orig- 
inally governor  of  Coele-Syria  under  Alexander,  from 
whom  he  revolted  to  the  party  of  Demetrius.  Jose- 
phus only  speaks  of  him  as  an  officer  of  Alexander, 
without  alluding  to  his  connection  with  Demetrius 
(comp.  Wernsdorf,  De  fide  Maccab.  p.  135).  There 
may  have  been  an  early  error  crept  into  the  text  of 
1  Mace,  or  the  expression  in  the  Heb.  original  may 
have  been  ambiguous  (see  Grimm,  Handb.  in  loc). 
If  this  Apollonius  be  the  same  mentioned  by  Polybius 
(xxxi,  21,  §  2),  as  foster-brother  and  confidant  of  De- 
metrius I,  his  interest  in  the  affairs  of  Demetrius 
would  scarcely  admit  a  doubt. — "Winer,  s.  v. 

5.  The  son  of  one  Alexander,  and  one  of  the  em- 
bassadors sent  by  the  Jews  to  procure  an  alliance  with 
the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Hyrcanus  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xiii,  9,  2). 

Apollonius,  a  Roman  senator,  against  whom  one 
of  his  slaves,  called  Severus,  preferred  an  accusation 
of  holding  the  Christian  faith,  in  the  time  of  Corn- 
modus,  about  the  year  183  or  186.  "When  cited  be- 
fore the  senate  to  defend  himself,  he  delivered  an  ad- 
mirable discourse  on  the  faith,  and  was  condemned  to 
be  beheaded.  He  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman 
Church  on  the  18th  of  April.  His  acts  are  in  Ruinart, 
p.  83,  84.— Eusebius,  Ch.  Hist,  v,  21 ;  Landon,  Eccl. 
Diet,  i,  452. 

Apollonius  of  Tyana,  an  impostor  and  processed 
magician,  born  three  or  four  years  before  the  vulgar 
era,  at  Tyana,  a  town  in  Cappadocia.  His  life  by  Phi- 
lostratus  ('ATroWioviov  tuv  Tvavtwe,  ftioQ,  best  ed.  by 
Olearius,  Lips.  1709,  fol.)  abounds  with  fabulous  sto- 
ries, apparently  in  imitation  of  the  account  of  Christ's 
life  in  the  Gospels.  [Dupin  wrote  "The  History  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyana  convicted  of  falsehood  and  im- 
posture" (Paris,  1705\  The  life  by  Philostratus  was 
translated  into  English  by  Charles  Blount,  who  added 
some  impious  notes  (16*0).  A  French  translation  has 
recently  been  published  by  A.  Chassang  (Apollonius 
de  Tyana,  so  vie,  ses  voyages,  ses  prodiges,  par  Philo- 
strate,  Paris,  1864).]  It  is  from  this  source  that  our 
chief  knowledge  of  Apollonius  is  derived.  The  follow- 
ing sketch  is  taken  from  Farrar  (Critical.  Hist,  of  Free 
Thought,  lecture  ii) :  Apollonius  was  a  Pythagorean 
philosopher,  born  in  Cappadocia  about  four  years  lie- 
fore  the  Christian  era.     After  being  early  educated 


APOLLONIUS 


299 


APOLLOS 


In  the  circle  of  philosophy,  and  in  the  practice  of  the 
ascetic  discipline  of  his  predecessor  Pythagoras,  he 
imitated  that  philosopher  in  spending  the  next  portion 
of  his  life  in  travel.  Attracted  by  his  mysticism  to 
the  farthest  East  as  the  source  of  knowledge,  he  set 
out  for  Persia  and  India,  and  in  Nineveh,  on  his  route, 
met  Damis,  the  future  chronicler  of  his  actions.  Re-  j 
turning  from  the  East  instructed  in  Brahminic  lore, 
he  travelled  over  the  Roman  world.  The  remainder 
of  his  days  was  spent  in  Asia  Minor.  Statues  and 
temples  were  erected  to  his  honor.  He  obtained  vast 
influence,  and  died  with  the  reputation  of  sanctity  late 
in  the  century.  Such  is  the  outline  of  his  life,  if  we 
omit  the  numerous  legends  and  prodigies  which  attach 
themselves  to  his  name.  He  was  partly  a  philoso- 
pher, partly  a  magician — half  mystic,  half  impostor. 
At  the  distance  of  a  century  and  a  quarter  from  his 
death,  in  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  wife  of  that  emperor,  Julia  Domna  (AID. 
210),  the  second  of  the  three  Philostrati  dressed  up 
Damis's  narrative  of  his  life  in  the  work  named  above, 
and  paved  the  way  for  the  general  reception  of  the 
story  among  the  cultivated  classes  of  Rome  and  Greece. 
It  has  been  thought  that  Phiiostratus  had  a  polemical 
aim  against  the  Christian  faith,  as  the  memoir  of  Apol- 
lonius  is  in  so  many  points  a  parody  on  the  life  of 
Christ.  The  annunciation  of  his  birth  to  his  mother, 
the  chorus  of  swans  which  sang  for  joy  on  occasion 
of  it,  the  casting  out  devils,  the  raising  the  dead,  the 
healing  the  sick,  the  sudden  disappearance  and  reap- 
pearance of  Apollonius,  the  sacred  voice  which  called 
him  at  his  death,  and  his  claim  to  be  a  teacher  with 
authority  to  reform  the  world,  form  some  of  the 
points  of  similarity.  If  such  was  the  intention  of 
Phiiostratus,  he  was  really  a  controversialist  under 
the  form  of  a  writer  of  romance,  employed  by  those 
who  at  that  time  were  laboring  to  introduce  an  eclecti- 
cism largely  borrowed  from  the  East  into  the  region 
both  of  philosophy  and  religion.  "Without  settling  this 
question,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  next  century  the  he  .then  writers  adopted 
this  line  of  argument,  and  sought  to  exhibit  a  rival 
ideal.  One  instance  is  the  life  of  Pythagoras  by  Iam- 
blichus ;  another,  the  attack  on  Christianity  by  Hiero- 
cles  (Kuyoi  (t>i\a\>i0tic.  7rpoe  tovq  Xpiartavovg),  in  part 
of  which  he  used  Philostratus's  untrustworthy  memoir 
for  the  purpose  of  instituting  a  comparison  between 
Apollonius  and  Christ.  The  sceptic  who  referred  re- 
ligious phenomena  to  fanaticism  would  hence  avail 
himself  of  the  comparison  as  a  satisfactory  account  of 
the  origin  of  Christianity ;  while  others  would  adopt 
the  same  view  as  Hierocles,  and  deprive  the  Christian 
miracles  of  the  force  of  evidence — a  line  of  argument 
which  was  reproduced  by  the  English  Deist  Blount 
(see  above).  The  work  of  Hierocles  is  lost,  but  an 
outline  of  its  argument,  with  extracts,  remains  in  a 
reply  which  Eusebius  wrote  to  a  portion  of  it  (cont. 
Hieroclem,  ed.  Olearius,  Lips.  1709).  Eusebius  states 
(bk.  i)  that  he  refutes  only  that  portion  of  the  work 
which  related  to  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  referring  to  Or- 
igen's  answer  to  Celsus  for  a  reply  to  the  remainder 
of  it,  and  discusses  only  the  parallel  of  Apollonius  and 
Jesus  Christ.  In  bk.  i  he  gives  an  outline  of  the  ar- 
gument of  his  opponent  with  quotations,  and  states 
his  own  opinion  about  Apollonius,  throwing  discredit 
on  the  veracity  of  the  sources  of  the  memoirs,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  criticise  the  prodigies  attributed  to  him,  argu- 
ing that  the  statements  are  incredible,  or  borrowed,  or 
materially  contradictory.  Discussing  each  book  in 
succession,  he  replies  in  bk.  i  to  the  statements  respect- 
ing the  early  part  of  Apollonius's  life  ;  in  bk.  ii,  to  that 
which  concerned  the  journey  into  India;  in  bk.  iii,  to 
that  which  related  to  his  intercourse  with  the  Brah- 
mins ;  in  bk.  iv,  to  his  journey  in  Greece  ;  in  bk.  v,  to 
his  introduction  to  Vespasian  in  Egypt ;  in  bks.  vi  and 
vii,  to  his  miracles  ;  and  in  bk.  viii  to  his  pretence  to 
foreknowledge.      He  adds  remarks  on  his  death,  and 


on  the  necessity  of  faith,  and  repeats  his  opinion  re- 
specting the  character  of  Apollonius.  Lardner  and 
Ritter  think  that  Phiiostratus  did  not  write  with  a  po- 
lemical reference  to  Christianity.  Dean  Trench  has 
made  a  few  remarks  in  reference  to  this  question  (Notes 
to  Miracles,  p.  62).  Baur  maintains  that  Apollonius, 
as  represented  in  the  work  of  Phiiostratus,  is  meant 
to  be  the  pagan  counterpart  of  Christ.  Baur  finds  in 
this  parallel  an  opposition  to  Christianity  which  sought 
to  claim  for  paganism  what  was  offered  by  Christian- 
ity. Dr.  Rieckher,  on  the  other  hand  (in  Stvdien  der 
Wilrtemb.  Geistlichheit,  1847),  tries  to  prove  that  the 
picture  drawn  by  Phiiostratus  is  not  a  guileless  in- 
vention of  a  pagan  personality  to  match  the  historical 
character  of  the  founders  of  Christianity,  but  that  it 
was  the  product  of  a  well-meditated  plan,  concocted  by 
a  circle  of  educated  men,  whom  the  Empress  Julia 
Domna  had  assembled  around  herself,  and  that  it  was 
intended  not  for  the  usual  class  of  readers  of  a  sophist, 
but  for  the  mass  of  the  people. 

A  good  biography  of  Apollonius,  with  a  pretty  full 
literature  of  the  subject,  by  J.  H.  Newman,  is  given 
at  the  end  of  Hind's  History  of  the  Early  Church,  in 
the  Encyclop.  Metrop.  (and  separately,  London,  1850, 
12mo).  See  also  Mosheim,  De  e.ristimatione  Apol'oidi 
Tyan.;  Schroder,  De  A  poll.  Tyan.  (Wittenb.  1723); 
Zimmermann,  De  miraculis  Apall.  Tynn.  (Edinb.  1755); 
Herzog,  Philos.  pract.  Apoll.  Tyan.  (Lipz.  1719) ;  Baur, 
Apollonlusund  Christus  (Tub.  1832);  Mosheim,  Church 
Hist,  i,  81;  Neander,  Church  Hist,  i,  26,  30;  Lardner, 
Works,  vii,  486  sq.  ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Biog.  s.  v.  (by 
Jowett) ;  Ritter,  Gesch.  der  J'hi/oscphie,  t.  iv ;  A.  Re ville, 
Le  Christ  Pa'ien  et  la  Cour  des  Severes  (Revue  des  deux 
Mondes,  Oct.  1, 1865) ;  Bayle,  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Herzog,  Iteal- 
Encyklopadie,  i,  424 ;  Journal  of  Sacred  Literature,  Oct. 
1862,  ii. ;  Lond.  Quar.  Rev.  Jan.  1867. 

Apolloph'anes  ('A7ro\Ao0«w/c,  Apollo -appear- 
ing), a  Syrian  slain  by  Judas  Maccabeus  in  a  pit  near 
the  stronghold  Gazara  (2  Mace,  x,  37). 

Apol'los  QXttoWmq,  comp.  Sozom.  Hist.  Ecc.  ir, 
29,  either  for  Apollonius,  as  in  Codex  D,  or  Apollodo- 
rus,  see  Heumann  on  Acts  xviii,  24),  a  Jew  of  Alex- 
andria, described  as  a  learned,  or,  as  some  (see  Bleek, 
Br.  a.  d.  Heb.  i,  424)  understand  it,  an  eloquent  man 
(avi)p  Xt'rytoc),  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures  and  the 
Jewish  religion  (Acts  xviii,  24).  About  A.D.  49  he 
came  to  Ephesus,  where,  in  the  synagogues,  "  he  spake 
boldly  the  things  of  the  Lord,  knowing  onlj'  the  bap- 
tism of  John"  (ver.  25)  ;  by  which  we  are  probably  to 
understand  that  he  knew  and  taught  the  doctrine  of 
a  Messiah,  whose  coming  John  had  announced,  but 
knew  not  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ.  His  fervor,  how- 
ever, attracted  the  notice  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  whom 
Paul  had  left  at  Ephesus;  and  they  instructed  him 
in  this  higher  doctrine,  which  he  thenceforth  taught 
openly,  with  great  zeal  and  power  (ver.  26).  Having 
heard  from  his  new  friends,  who  were  much  attached 
to  Paul,  of  that  apostle's  proceedings  in  Achain,  and 
especially  at  Corinth,  he  resolved  to  go  thither,  and 
was  encouraged  in  this  design  by  the  brethren  at  Eph- 
esus, who  furnished  him  with  letters  of  introduction 
(Acts  xviii,  27 ;  xix,  1).  On  his  arrival  there  he  was 
very  useful  in  watering  the  seed  which  Paul  had  sown, 
and  was  instrumental  in  gaining  many  new  converts 
from  Judaism  (1  Cor.  ii.  9).  (See  Sommcl,  Dt  Apol- 
lone,  London,  1797;  Miiller,  De  eloquentia  Apolloms, 
Schleusing.  1717.)  There  was  perhaps  no  apostle  or 
apostolical  man  who  so  much  resembled  Paul  in  at- 
tainments and  character  as  Apollos.  His  immediate 
disciples  became  so  much  attached  to  him  as  well-nigh 
to  have  produced  a  schism  in  the  church,  some  saying 
"I  am  of  Paul;"  others,  "I  am  of  Apollos;"  others, 
"I  am  of  Cephas"  (1  Cor.  iii,  4-7,  22).  There  must 
indeed  have  been  some  difference  in  their  mode  of 
teaching  to  occasion  this ;  and  from  the  First  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  it  would  appear  that  Apollos  was 


APOLLYON 


300 


APOLOGETICS 


not  prepared  to  go  so  far  as  Paul  in  abandoning  the 
figments  of  Judaism,  and  insisted  less  on  the  (to  the 
Jews)  obnoxious  position  that  the  Gospel  was  open  to 
the  Gentiles.  (See  Diihne,  Die  Christusjmrtei  in  Ko- 
rinth,  Hal.  1841,  p.  32;  Goldhorn,  in  Ugen's  Zeitschr. 
1840,  ii,  152  sq. ;  Neander,  Planting  and  Training,  i, 
268-271,  302;  Pfizer,  De  Apollone  doctore,  Altdorf, 
1718;  Hopf,  De  A  pollone  pseudo-doctor e,  Hag.  1782; 
lleymann,  in  the  Sticks,  exeg.  Stud,  ii,  213.)  There 
was  nothing,  however,  to  prevent  these  two  eminent 
men  from  being  perfectly  united  in  the  bonds  of  Chris- 
tian affection  and  brotherhood.  When  Apollos  heard 
that  Paul  was  again  at  Ephesus,  he  went  thither  to 
see  him ;  and  as  he  was  there  when  the  First  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians  was  written  (A.D.  52),  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  apostle  received  from  him  his 
information  concerning  the  divisions  in  that  church, 
which  he  so  forcibly  reproves  (see  Conybeare  and 
Howson,  St.  Paul,  ii,  13  sq.).  It  strongly  illustrates 
the  character  of  Apollos  and  Paul,  that  the  former, 
doubtless  in  disgust  at  those  divisions  with  which  his 
name  had  been  associated,  declined  to  return  to  Cor- 
inth, while  the  latter,  with  generous  confidence,  urged 
him  to  do  so  (1  Cor.  xvi,  12).  Paul  again  mentions 
Apollos  kindly  in  Tit.  iii,  13,  and  recommends  him  and 
Zenas  the  lawyer  to  the  attention  of  Titus,  knowing 
that  they  designed  to  visit  Crete,  where  Titus  then 
was.  Jerome  is  of  opinion  (Comment,  in  loc.)  that  he 
remained  at  Crete  until  he  heard  that  the  divisions  at 
Corinth  had  been  healed  by  means  of  Paul's  letter, 
and  that  he  then  returned  to  that  city,  of  which  he  af- 
terward became  bishop.  This  has  an  air  of  probabili- 
ty ;  and  the  authority  on  which  it  rests  is  better  than 
any  we  have  for  the  different  statements  which  make 
him  bishop  of  Duras,  of  Colophon,  of  Iconium  (in 
Phrygia),  or  of  Csesarea  (Meno/og.  Grcec.  ii,  17).  He 
has  been  thought  by  many  to  have  been  the  author  of 
the  Effistle  to  the  Hebrews  (Alford,  Comment,  iv,  Pro- 
leg,  p.  58  sq.). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Apol'lyon  ('AttoWviov'),  the  Greek  equivalent 
(Rev.  ix,  11)  of  the  Ileb.  title  Abaddon  (q.  v.). 

Apologetics,  a  branch  of  theology  which  has  for 
its  object  the  science  of  defending  Christianity  agains t 
the  assaults  of  its  enemies.  A  system  of  Christian  doc- 
trines (dogmatics),  as  such,  presupposes  the  truth  of 
Christianity  ;  the  proof  of  the  truth  of  this  presupposi- 
tion is  not  a  part  of  the  system,  and  a  separate  science 
is  needed  to  establish  this  proof.  Apologetics,  as  a 
science,  is  not  identical  with  apology  (q.  v.),  which  is 
an  actual  defence  of  Christianity ;  but  it  seeks  and 
teaches  the  right  method  of  apology  ;  nevertheless,  the 
term  is  often  used  in  practice  to  denote  the  apology 
itself,  as  well  as  the  method.  The  name  was  first  used 
in  German  theology  (probably  by  Planck).  The  scope 
of  apologetics  in  German  theology  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  the  evidences  (q.  v.)  of  Christianity  in  Eng- 
lish theology,  with  this  difference,  that  the  definition 
of  apologetics  lays  a  greater  stress  on  its  position  as 
a  separate  branch  of  scientific  theology. 

I.  Relation  to  Theology. — The  true  place  of  apolo- 
getics in  the  circle  of  theological  sciences  is  not  yet 
definitively  settled.  Schleiermacher  makes  it  a  branch 
of  philosophical  theology  (Theol.  Stud.  §  32-42).  Tho- 
luck,  also,  holds  that  apologetics  should  be  incorpo- 
rated with  systematic  theology  (Vermischte  Schriften, 
i,  376).  There  is  some  reason  for  the  view  of  other 
writers,  who  place  it  under  the  head  of  biblical  criti- 
cism, as  apologetics  must  show  the  genuineness  and 
credibility  of  the  Scriptures  ;  but  yet  this  is  only  part 
of  its  function.  Pelt  gives  it  the  leading  place  in 
systematic  theology,  as  the  science  of  first  principles 
(EncyMopddie,  §  62,  where  also  a  valuable  history  of 
apologetics  may  be  found).  Kienlen  puts  it  under  the 
head  of  practical  theology  (Encyklop.  der  Theolog.  Wis- 
senschtften.  §  84).  Hagenbach  contends  that  the  study 
of  apologetics  cannot  lie  pursued  before  the  student  has 


acquired  the  elements  of  exegetical  and  historical  the- 
ology. He  therefore  places  it  in  the  third  branch  of 
theological  science,  viz.,  systematic  theology  (Ency- 
klapiidie,  §  81).  "Apologetics  is  treated  by  Prof.  Dor- 
ner  as  an  integral  part  of  the  system  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, as  the  first  part  of  dogmatic  theology.  Its 
ground  lies  in  the  claim  of  Christianity  to  be  eternal 
truth — lies  in  Christianity  itself.  It  is  the  justifica- 
tion of  Christianity  in  its  claim  to  be  the  final,  abso- 
lute religion.  It  is  the  justification  of  Christianity  to 
thought ;  it  shows,  or  tries  to  show,  that  there  cannot 
be  conceived  a  more  perfect  religion.  Christian  doc- 
trines, it  attempts  to  prove,  are  to  be  received  not 
merely  as  given,  but  as  truth.  The  energy  and  con- 
vincing power  of  truth  is  an  axiom  of  apologetics.  It 
seeks  to  reconcile  the  Logos  of  the  first  creation  with 
the  historical  work  of  the  Logos  in  his  absolute  Reve- 
lation. Apologetics  thus  conceived  differs  from  Chris- 
tian apologies.  It  started,  indeed,  with  repelling  at- 
tacks. But  these  attacks  were  merely  the  historical 
occasion  of  its  existence.  It  exhibits  the  Christian 
religion  as  self-grounded — self-dependent.  It  has  an 
offensive  as  well  as  defensive  work.  It  seeks  to  show 
the  inner  lack  of  truth  in  all  thinking  which  is  not 
Christian.  It  differs  also  from  a  mere  philosophy  of 
religion,  inasmuch  as  it  draws  from  historical  monu- 
ments" (Am.  Presb.  Rev.  Oct.  18C2,  p.  680).  Sack, 
whose  Apologeiik  (1819)  was  one  of  the  first  to  distin- 
guish between  apologetics  and  apology,  considers  the 
science  properly  to  be  an  apologetical  handling  of 
systematic  theolog}'.  "Dogmatics,"  he  says,  "is 
Christian  doctrine  set  forth  for  Christian  thinkers, 
who  look  at  it  as  friends  ;  Apologetics  (or  more  prop- 
erly Apology)  is  Christian  doctrine  set  forth  for  non- 
Christian  thinkers,  who  look  at  it  as  enemies."  The 
English  Avriters,  who  have  not  generally  been  careful 
of  scientific  form,  but  look  more  directly  to  practical 
ends,  have  generally  made  apologetics  a  separate 
branch  of  study,  under  the  name  of  Evidences  of 
Christianity.  Thus,  Watson  (Institutes')  divides  the 
whole  circle  of  theological  sciences  into— 1.  The  Ev- 
idences ;  2.  The  Doctrines ;  3.  The  Morals ;  4.  The 
Institutions  of  Christianity;  and  thus  makes  apolo- 
getics the  portal  to  the  whole  temple.  So  also  does 
Hill,  Lectures  on  Divinity  (N.  Y.  1847,  8vo). 

II.  Method  of  Apologetics. — There  are  two  principal 
methods,  the  historical  and  the  philosophical.  The 
first  method  seeks  to  vindicate  Christianity  on  the 
grounds  («)  of  criticism,  by  showing  the  genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  its  sacred  books ;  (b)  of  history,  by 
showing  that  the  great  facts  of  Christianity  are  part 
of  human  history  ;  and  (c),  having  established  these 
points,  by  arguing  the  credibility  of  the  sacred  looks 
and  (d)  their  divine  authority,  and  hence  (e)  the  bind- 
ing power  on  the  human  intellect  of  their  statements 
of  fact  and  doctrine.  Most  English  writers  en  evi- 
dence follow  the  historical  method,  and  divide  their 
material  into  (1)  external  evidence  (miracles  and 
prophecy);  (2)  internal  evidence  (philosophical).  A 
line  of  evidence  called  presumptive  is  formed  in  this 
way:  admitting  the  existence  and  attributes  of  God, 
it  is  unlikely  that  He  would  leave  His  creatures  in  ig- 
norance and  wretchedness  ;  and  it  is  likely,  also,  that, 
if  He  should  communicate  with  them,  His  revelation 
would  present  analogies  to  His  works  in  nature.  This 
is  the  line  of  Butler's  Analogy,  of  Ellis,  and  of  Wat- 
son, in  the  first  part  of  his  Evidences.  A  convenient 
and  scientific  method  is  proposed  by  Warren  (SysU- 
matische  Theologie,  Einleitung,  §  S),  viz.,  that  the  task 
of  the  science  is  to  show  (1)  that  Christianity  is  a 
fact  of  history ;  (2)  that  Christianity  is  a  divine  rev- 
elation ;  (3)  that  Christianity  is  the  power  of  God 
unto  salvation.  "  Instead  of  attempting  to  deduce 
the  truth  of  every  part  of  Christianity  from  the  exter- 
nal evidences  alone,  we  have  at  last  learned  to  begin 
with  Christianity  as  an  undeniable  complex  of  phe- 
nomena, needing  for  its  explanation  nothing  less  than 


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301 


APOLOGY 


the  divine  agencies  it  claims.  Thus  we  reason  from 
the  character  of  Christ,  from  the  superhuman  excel- 
lence of  Christian  doctrine,  from  the  supernatural  ef- 
fects of  this  religion  in  the  individual  and  in  the  world ; 
giving  the  external  evidences  their  due  subordinate 
position  as  mere  proofs  that  what  are  claimed  to  be 
and  to  have  been  phenomena  of  Christianity  are  le- 
gitimately claimed  to  be  such.  Discriminating  re- 
marks on  the  two  methods,  and  the  advantages  of  the 
new  one,  may  be  found  in  Dr.  Bushnell's  Nature  and 
the  Supernatural,  p.  33-35;  also  Meth.  Quar.  Rev.  July 
1862,  p.  373-376.  The  true  name  for  our  new  treatises 
on  'The  Evidences'  is  Philosophy  of  Christianity" 
(Warren,  in  Meth.  Quar.  Rev.  Oct.  1863,  p.  589).  The 
German  writers  have  followed  generally  the  philo- 
sophical method,  and  of  late  years  the  English  have 
also  entered  more  into  this  field.  But  there  are  An- 
glo-Saxon apologists  who  do  not  commence  with  the 
historical  evidences,  and  German  ones  who  do  not  lay 
the  whole  stress  upon  the  internal  evidences.  Indeed, 
the  latest  writers  in  both  languages  seem  to  have  mu- 
tually exchanged  the  traditional  methods  of  their  fa- 
thers. Auberlen's  Gottliche  Offenbarung  (1864)  would 
have  delighted  the  heart  of  even  so  thoroughly  Eng- 
lish an  apologist  as  Paley  [see  Apology].  On  the 
other  hand,  Coleridge,  who  disparaged  the  compara- 
tive value  of  the  evidence  from  miracles  and  prophe- 
cy, dictated  to  a  friend  a  scheme  of  evidences  of  which 
the  outline  is  as  follows:  I.  Miracles,  as  precluding 
the  contrary  evidence  of  no  miracles;  II.  the  Mate- 
rial of  Christianity,  its  existence  and  history  ;  III.  the 
Doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  the  correspondence  of 
human  nature  with  those  doctrines ;  illustrated,  first, 
historically,  with  reference  to  the  progress  of  the  race; 
second,  individually,  with  reference  to  the  wants  of 
each  human  soul,  and  the  capacity  of  the  Christian 
doctrines  to  satisfy  those  wants  (Coleridge,  Works, 
N.  Y.  ed.  v,  555).  A  complete  scientific  method  must 
unite  the  two  methods  (the  historical  and  the  philo- 
sophical), in  order  to  show  that  Christianity  is  not  only 
a  religion  (among  others),  but  also  the  religion  of  hu- 
manitv.  (See  Coleridge,  Biographia  Literaria,  8vo  ed. 
p.  348  ;  and  Aids  to  Reflection,  p.  207  sq. ;  Turretini, 
Opera,  i,  225  sq. ;  Chalmers,  Lectures  on  Paly,  Works, 
vol.  ix ;  North  Brit.  Rev,  Aug.  1851,  art.  ii.)  The  Eng- 
lish writers,  doubtless,  formerly  laid  too  little  stress 
upon  the  internal  and  spiritual  evidence  of  Christianity 
(see  Wesley,  Works,  v,  758,  for  a  passage  of  remarkable 
sagacity  on  this  point) ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Germans  have  undervalued  the  external  evidence,  and 
thus  opened  the  way  for  rationalism  and  infidelity. 
Farrar  states  the  historical  uses  of  the  two  methods  as 
follows:  "In  all  ages  the  purpose  of  evidences  has 
been  conviction  ;  to  offer  the  means  of  proof  either  by 
philosophy  or  by  fact.  In  arguing  with  the  heathen 
in  the  first  age,  the  former  plan  was  adopted — the 
school  of  Alexandria  trying  to  lead  men  to  Christian- 
ity as  the  highest  philosophy ;  in  the  Middle  Ages  the 
same  method  was  adopted  under  the  garb  of  philoso- 
phy, but  with  the  alteration  that  the  philosophy  was 
one  of  form,  not  matter.  In  the  later  Middle  Ages 
the  appeal  was  to  the  Church  :  in  the  early  contests 
with  the  Deists,  to  the  authority  of  reason,  and  to  the 
Bible  reached  by  means  of  this  process ;  in  the  later, 
to  the  Bible  reached  through  history  and  fact :  in  op- 
posing the  French  infidelity  the  appeal  was  chiefly  to 
authority  ;  in  the  early  German  the  appeal  was  the 
same  as  in  England ;  in  the  later  German  it  has  been 
a  return  in  spirit  to  that  of  the  early  fathers,  or  of  the 
English  apologists  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  based 
on  a  deeper  philosophy;  an  appeal  to  feeling  or  in- 
tuition, and  not  to  reflective  reason  ;  and  through  these 
ultimately  to  the  Bible"  (Free  Thought,  p.  473).  Cole- 
ridge remarks  as  follows  upon  the  state  of  the  Evi- 
dences for  Christianity  in  the  present  age:  "The  re- 
sult of  my  own  meditations  is,  that  the  evidence  of  the 
Gospel,  taken  as  a  total,  is  as  great  for  the  Christians 


of  the  nineteenth  century  as  for  those  of  the  apostolic 
age.  I  should  not  be  startled  if  I  were  told  it  was 
greater.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  this  equally  holds 
good  of  each  component  part.  An  evidence  of  the 
most  cogent  clearness,  unknown  to  the  primitive 
Christians,  may  compensate  for  the  evanescence  of 
some  evidence  which  they  enjoyed.  Evidences  com- 
paratively dim  have  waxed  into  noonday  splendor; 
and  the  comparative  wane  of  others,  once  effulgent,  is 
more  than  indemnified  by  the  synopsis  tov  ttclvtoc, 
which  we  enjoy,  and  by  the  standing  miracle  of  a 
Christendom  commensurate  and  almost  synonymous 
with  the  civilized  world.  I  make  this  remark  for  the 
purpose  of  warning  the  divinity  student  against  the 
disposition  to  overstrain  particular  proofs,  or  rest  the 
credibility  of  the  Gospel  too  exclusively  on  some  one 
favorite  point"  (Works,  N.  Y.  ed.  v,  428).  Fisher,  in 
his  Supernatural  Orig'n  of  Christianity  (N.  Y.  1866), 
has  some  excellent  remarks  on  the  method  of  Apolo- 
getics (Essays  I  and  XI).  See  Bishop  Butler's  ad- 
mirable discussion  of  the  "particular"  evidence  for 
Christianity  in  his  Analogy  of  Religion,  pt.  ii,  ch.  vii; 
and  compare  New  York  Review,  ii,  141  sq. ;  Mansell, 
in  Aids  to  Faith  (Lond.  1861,  8vo),  Essay  I ;  Fitzger- 
ald, On  the  Study  of  the  Evidences  (Aids  to  Faith,  Essay 
II) ;  Princeton  Review,  xviii,  359 ;  and  the  whole  sub- 
ject further  treated,  with  special  reference  to  English 
methods,  in  this  Cyclopaedia  under  Evidences. 

III.  Of  books  properly  to  be  called  Apologetics,  as 
defined  above,  there  are  none  in  English,  though  Far- 
rar, Critical  History  of  Free  Thought  (1863),  covers  the 
ground  generally.  Many  manuals  of  apologetics  have 
been  issued  in  Germany,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  important:  Stein,  Die  A  pologetik  des  Christen- 
thums,  als  Wissenschaft  dargestellt  (Leipsic,  1824,  8vo)  ; 
Sack,  Christliche  Apologetik  (Hamburg,  1829,  8vo); 
Steudel,  Grtmdz&ge  einer  Apologetik  fur das  Chnstenthum 
(Tubingen,  1830,  8vo);  Drey  (Rom.  Cath.),  Apologetik 
als  wissenschaftliche  Nachweisung  des  Christenthums  in 
seiner  Erschei'nung  (Mainz,  3  vols.  1838-47,  8vo).  On 
the  relation  of  apologetics  to  other  branches  of  the- 
ology, see  Lechler,  Ueber  den  Bcgriff  der  Apologetik 
(Studien  und  Kritiken,  1839,  part  iii) ;  Kienlen,  Die 
Stellung  der  Apologetik  (Studien  und  Kritiken,  1846). 
On  the  history  of  apologetics,  and  on  the  nature  of 
the  Christian  evidences,  see  Tzschirner,  Geschichte  del 
Apologetik  (Leipsic,  1805) ;  Farrar  (as  cited  above) ; 
Hagenbach,  Encyklopddied.  theol.  Wissmschaften,  §  81 ; 
Heubner,  art.  Apologetik,  in  Ersch  undGruber's  Ency- 
klop.;  Herzog,  Real-Encykhpadie,  i,  430;  Lechler,  Ge- 
schichte d.  Deismus  (1841,  8vo) ;  Pelt,  Theol.  Encyklo- 
pddie;  McCosh,  The  Supernatural  in  relation  to  the 
Natural,  ch.  iii  (Cambridge,  1862,  12mo)  ;  Hampden, 
Introduction  to  the  Philosophical  Evidences  of  Christian- 
ity;  Conybeare,  Lectures  on  Theology,  ch.  i;  Hill's  Di- 
vinity, ch*  i ;  Steele,  Philosophy  ,fth>-  Evidences  (Edinb. 
1834,  8vo);  Shedd,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  bk.  ii;  Van  Sen- 
den,  Geschichte  der  Apologetik  (transl.  from  the  Dutch, 
Stuttgart,  2  vols.  1846,  8vo) ;  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doc- 
trines, §§  28,  29, 117,  157,  238  ;  Beck.  Dogmengeschichte, 
§  32  sq. ;  Barnes,  Readjustment  of  Christianity  (Presb. 
Quar.  Rev.  July,  1862).  See  also  Apology  ;  Deism  ; 
Evidences;  Rationalism. 

Apologists.     See  Apology. 

Apology  (a-oXoyia,  a  defence),  a  discourse,  or  ar- 
gument, in  defence  n/some  person  or  doctrine  that  has 
been  attacked  or  misrepresented,  The  use  of  this 
term,  as  applied  to  religious  truth,  is  to  be  carefully 
distinguished  from  its  application  in  ordinary  conver- 
sation, in  which  it  generally  means  an  excuse  made  for 
some  person  or  thing  which  deserves  censure.  Hence, 
those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  derivation  of  the 
word  have  ignorantly  argued  that  the  existence  of 
apologies  for  Christianity  implies  the  weakness  of  the 
claims  of  Christianity  itself.  In  the  early  church,  the 
defences  of  Christianity  presented  to  heathen  emperors 
by  the  Christian  writers  were  called  Apologies,  and 


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302 


APOLOGY 


the  writers  themselves  are  styled  Apologists.  The 
same  name  was  afterward  given  to  defences  of  Chris- 
tianity against  pagan  writers  and  other  opponents,  and 
the  science  of  defending  Christianity  is  called  Apolo- 
getics (q.  v.).  In  this  article  we  propose  to  give  a 
brief  history  of  the  apologies  or  defences  of  Christian- 
ity from  the  beginning  until  the  present  time.  Chris- 
tianity has  had  to  contend  against  four  classes  of  op- 
ponents— Jews,  Pagans,  Mohammedans,  and  Ration- 
alists. These  four  heads  would  form  a  convenient 
division  of  the  history,  if  treated  according  to  the 
parties  opposing  Christianity ;  but  it  will  be  more 
convenient  here  to  follow  the  chronological  order,  ma- 
king three  periods — the  Early  Age,  the  Middle  Age, 
the  Modern  Age. 

I.  The  Early  Age  (down  to  the  sixth  century). — The 
Jews,  from  their  affinity  to  the  new  religion,  seem  to 
have  opposed  it  most  bitterly  in  the  beginning.  The 
grounds  of  their  unbelief  are  stated  in  the  N.  T.  itself, 
and  are  the  same  now,  in  substance,  as  then.  The 
apostles  argue  apologetically  with  the  Jews  when  they 
undertake  to  show  by  the  prophecies  and  types  of  the 
O.  T.  that  Jesus  was  Messiah.  Later  writers  in  this  age 
are,  Justin  Martyr  (dialogue  with  Trypho,  the  Jew) 
and  Origen  (against  Celsus,  who  personates  a  Jew- 
ish opponent).  The  Judaizing  teachers  in  the  church 
had  also  to  be  met  and  answered.  See  Ebionites. 
Rationalism  also  soon  appeared  in  the  spiritualistic 
theories  of  the  Gnostics.  See  Gnosticism.  The  pa- 
gan attacks,  though  often  borrowing  Jewish  objections, 
were  founded  on  the  pagan  view  of  God  and  the  world, 
both  as  religion  and  philosophy.  They  anticipate 
many  of  the  modern  forms  of  infidelity.  "Substan- 
tially the  same  objections  are  urged  by  the  sceptical 
mind  from  age  to  age,  and  substantially  the  same  re- 
plies are  made.  Infidelity  is  the  same  over  and  over 
again — reappearing  in  new  forms,  it  is  true,  so  that 
it  seems  to  the  time  and  the  church  like  a  new  thing 
under  the  sun,  yet  ever  remaining  identical  with  it- 
self, it  makes  very  much  the  same  statements,  and 
elicits  very  much  the  same  replies"  (Shedd,  History 
of  Doctrines,  i,  104).  When  Christianity  first  ap- 
peared, it  was  thoroughly  antagonistic  to  the  pagan 
public  opinion  of  the  times.  The  first  formal  attack 
in  the  shape  of  books  appeared  in  the  second  century, 
beginning  with  Celsus  (q.  v.),  who  attacked  the  whole 
idea  of  the  supernatural,  whether  in  Judaism  or  in 
Christianity.  Lucian  of  Samosata  (f  about  200)  at- 
tacked Christianity  with  the  shafts  of  wit  and  ridi- 
cule. He  was  followed  by  the  Neo-platonists  (q.  v.), 
Porphyry  (q.  v.),  and  Hierocles  (q.  v.).  The  lead- 
ing arguments  against  Christianity  in  the  first  three 
centuries,  witli  the  replies  to  them  by  the  Christian 
apologists,  are  thus  summed  up  by  Dr.  Schaff:  "1. 
Against  Christ  :  his  illegitimate  birth  ;  his  associ- 
ation with  poor,  unlettered  fishermen,  and  rude  pub- 
licans ;  his  form  of  a  servant,  and  his  ignominious 
death.  But  the  opposition  to  him  gradually  ceased ; 
while  Celsus  called  him  a  downright  impostor,  the 
Syncretists  and  Neo-platonists  were  disposed  to  regard 
him  as  at  least  a  distinguished  sage.  2.  Against 
Christianity  :  its  novelty ;  its  barbarian  origin  ;  its 
want  of  a  national  basis ;  the  alleged  absurdity  of  some 
of  its  facts  and  doctrines,  particularly  of  regeneration 
and  the  resurrection  ;  contradictions  between  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  among  the  Gospels,  and  between 
Paul  and  Peter;  the  demand  for  a  blind,  irrational 
faith.  3.  Against  the  Christians:  atheism,  or  hatred 
of  the  gods;  th<>  worship  of  a  crucified  malefactor; 
poverty,  and  want  of  culture  and  standing;  desire  of 
innovation;  division  and  sectarianism  ;  want  of  patri- 
otism ;  gloomy  seriousness ;  superstition  and  fanati- 
cism ;  and  sometimes  even  unnatural  crimes,  like  those 
related  in  the  pagan  mythology  of  (Edipus  and  his 
mother  Jocaste  (concubitus  GEdipodet),  and  of  Thyestes 
and  Atreus  (fpidce  Thyesteee).  Perhaps  some  Gnostic 
sects  ran  into  scandalous  excesses ;  but  as  against  the 


Christians  in  general,  this  last  charge  was  so  clearly 
unfounded  that  it  is  not  noticed  even  by  Celsus  and 
Lucian.  The  senseless  accusation  that  they  worship- 
ped an  ass's  head  may  have  arisen,  as  Tertullian  al- 
ready intimates,  from  a  story  of  Tacitus  respecting 
some  Jews  who  were  once  directed  by  a  wild  ass  to 
fresh  water,  and  thus  relieved  from  the  torture  of 
thirst ;  and  it  is  worth  mentioning  only  to  show  how  pas- 
sionate and  blind  was  the  opposition  with  which  Chris- 
tianity in  this  period  of  persecution  had  to  contend. 
"  The  apologetic  literature  began  to  appear  under  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  and  continued  to  grow  until  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century.  Most  of  the  church  teachers 
took  part  in  this  labor  of  their  day.  The  first  apolo- 
gies, by  Quadratus,  Aristides,  and  Aristo,  addressed 
to  the  Emperor  Hadrian  (about  A.D.  130),  and  the  sim- 
ilar works  of  Melito  of  Sardis,  Claudius  Apollinaris 
of  Hierapolis,  and  Miltiades,  who  lived  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  are  either  entirely  lost,  or  preserved  only 
in  fragments.  But  the  valuable  apologetical  works 
of  the  Greek  philosopher  and  martyr,  Justin  (166), 
we  possess.  After  him  come,  in  the  Greek  Church, 
Tatian,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  and  Her- 
mias,  in  the  last  half  of  the  second  century,  and  Ori- 
gen, the  ablest  of  all,  in  the  first  half  of  the  third. 
The  most  important  Latin  apologists  are  Tertullian 
(about  220),  Minucius  Felix  (between  220  and  230 ;  ac- 
cording to  some,  between  161  and  180),  and  the  elder  Ar- 
nobius  (q.  v.)  (about  300),  all  of  North  Africa.  Here  at 
once  appears  a  characteristic  difference  between  the 
Greek  and  the  Latin  minds.  The  Greek  apologies  are 
more  learned  and  philosophical ;  the  Latin  more  practi- 
cal and  juridical  in  their  matter  and  style.  The  former 
labor  to  prove  the  truth  of  Christianity,  and  its  adapt- 
edness  to  the  intellectual  wants  of  man ;  the  latter 
plead  for  its  legal  right  to  exist,  and  exhibit  mainly 
its  moral  excellency  and  salutary  effect  upon  society. 
The  Latin  also  are,  in  general,  more  rigidly  opposed 
to  heathenism,  while  the  Greek  recognise  in  the  Gre- 
cian philosophy  a  certain  affinity  to  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. The  apologies  are  addressed  in  some  cases  to 
the  emperors  (Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  Marcus  Au- 
relius) and  the  provincial  governors,  in  others  to  the 
intelligent  public.  Their  first  object  was  to  soften  the 
temper  of  the  authorities  and  people  toward  Chris- 
tianity and  its  professors  by  refuting  the  false  charges 
against  them.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  they  ever 
reached  the  hands  of  the  emperors  ;  at  all  events  the 
persecution  continued.  Conversion  commonly  pro- 
ceeds from  the  heart  and  will,  and  not  from  the  under- 
standing and  from  knowledge.  No  doubt,  however, 
these  writings  contributed  to  dissipate  prejudice  among 
honest  and  susceptible  heathens,  and  to  induce  more 
favorable  views  of  the  new  religion.  Yet  the  chief 
service  of  this  literature  was  to  strengthen  believers 
and  advance  theological  knowledge.  It  brought  the 
church  to  a  deeper  and  clearer  sense  of  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  prepared  her 
thenceforth  to  vindicate  it  before  the  tribunal  of  reason 
and  philosophy,  The  apologists  did  not  confine  them- 
selves to  the  defensive,  but  carried  the  war  aggres- 
sively into  the  territory  of  Judaism  and  heathen- 
ism" (Method  st  Quarterly  Review,  Oct.  1868,  art.  viii). 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  (f  220)  is  also  classed  among 
the  apologists  (Stromata;  Cohortntio).  He  admits  the 
value  of  heathen  philosophy  as  a  preparation  for  Chris- 
tianity, and  asserts  that  Christianity  fully  satisfies  the 
legitimate  demands  of  the  human  intellect.  Here 
belong  also,  in  part,  at  least,  Eusebius  (f  370)  of  Ca?- 
sarea's  irpoTrapaaxtvii  and  ct—6Sti^ig  tv«yyt\iKr),  Ath- 
anasius's  Aoyoc  Kara  'EXXtjj/wv  and  jrepi  rijg  amv- 
£()(U7r//cr{iuc  row  \6yov  ;  and  Cyril  (f  444)  of  Alex- 
andria's ten  books  against  Julian,  in  which  he  gives, 
as  a  reason  for  the  late  appearance  of  Christianity, 
that  the  progress  of  revelation  had  to  be  parallel  with 
the  cultivation  of  mankind.  Augustine's  (f  430)  De 
civitate  Dei  is  a  great  attempt  to  consider  Christian- 


APOLOGY 


303 


APOLOGY 


Ity  as  realizing  the  idea  of  ■?■  divine  plan  and  order  for  I 
the  world,  as  containing  the  immanent  idea  of  the 
world  and  its  history  (Smith's  Hagenhach,  §  117). 
Augustine  showed  the  relations  of  reason  and  faith, 
philosophy  and  religion,  with  a  skill  that  has  never 
been  surpassed  (Shedd,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  i,  1G2  sq.). 
The  Commonitorium  of  Vincentius  Lirinensis  (f  450) 
is  also,  in  part,  apologetic.  On  this  period,  besides 
the  works  already  cited,  see  Reeves,  The  Apologies 
of  Justin.  Tertullian,  Minucius  Felix,  and  Vincentius, 
with  Preliminary  Discourses  (London,  1709,  2  vols. 
Svo)  ;  Semisch,  Life  of  Justin  Martyr,  transl.  by  Ry- 
land  (Edinb.  1843, 18mo)  ;  Woodham,  Tertulliani  Liber 
Apologeticus,  with  Essay  on  the  early  Apologists  (Camb. 
1843,  8vo);  Freppel,  Les  Apo'ogistes  Chretiens  du  line 
Siecle  (Paris,  18GI,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Houtteville,  La  Re- 
I'ginn  prouvee  par  des  Faits  (Paris,  1722)  ;  one  part  of 
which,  translated,  is,  A  Critical  and  Historical  Discourse 
on  the  Method  of  the  Authors  for  awl  against  Christian- 
ity (Lond.  1739,  8vo)  ;  Bolton,  The  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Writings  of  the  Apologists  down  to  Augus- 
tine (New  York,  1854,  Svo)  ;  Kaye,  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory illustrated  from  Tertullian  (Camb.  3d  edit.  1845, 
Svo)  ;  Kaye,  Justin  Martyr  (Lond.  1836,  8vo)  ;  Kaye, 
Clement  of  A  lexandria  (1835,  Svo) ;  Lardner,  Works 
(vol.  ii);  Farrar,  Grit.  Hist,  of  Free  Thought  (note  49)  ; 
Prcssense,  Histoire  des  Trois  Premiers  Si'ecles  de  V Eglise 
(vols,  i  and  ii);  Otto,  Corpus  Apolog'fanim  christiano- 
rum  smculi  secundi,  vol.  i-viii,  containing  the  works  of 
Justin,  Tatian,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus  (Jena,  1847- 
'61);  and  other  works  named  under  Apologetics. 

II.  The  Middle  Age  (seventh  century  to  the  Refor- 
mation).— In  this  period  we  find  little  to  note  for  the 
first  four  centuries.  In  the  Dark  Ages,  the  public 
mind  and  thought  were  nominally  Christian,  or,  at 
least,  were  not  sufficiently  educated  to  admit  of  doubts 
that  might  create  a  demand  for  apoloj;etic;il  works. 
The  external  conflict  now  was  only  with  Judaism  and 
Mohammedanism.  Against  the  Jews,  Agobard  (f  840) 
wrote  his  treatise  De  Insolentia  Juekeorum ;  at  a  later 
period  Gislebert,  or  Gilbert,  of  Westminster  (f  1117), 
wrote  Disp.  Judei  cum  Christiano  de  fide  Christiana, 
in  Anselmi  Opera;  Abelard  (f  1142),  Dialogus  inter 
Philos.  Jndieum  et  Christ ianum  (Rheinwald,  Anecdota, 
Berlin,  1835,  t.  i).  Against  the  Mohammedans,  Eu- 
thymius  Zigabenus  (t  1118).  Panoplia  (in  Sylburgii 
Saracenicis,  Heidelli.  1595);  Richardi  Covfitatio  (1210, 
edited  by  Bibliander) ;  Raimund  Martini  (f  1286), 
Pugio  Fidei;  Peter  of  Clugny,  Ade.  Nefand.  Sectam 
Sarazenorum  (Martene,  Monumenta,  ix).  See  Ilagen- 
bach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  §  144  ;  Farrar,  Critical  History 
of  Free  Thought,  p.  387  sq.  In  the  ninth  century,  Sco- 
tus  Eri^cna  (f  875)  treated  of  the  relations  of  revela- 
tion and  philosophy  in  his  De  Divisume  Xaturas  (ed.  by 
Gale,  1681,  Oxford,  and  again  in  1838,  Munster) ;  but 
the  seeds  of  Pantheism  lay  in  his  teaching.  The  strife 
between  Nominalism  and  Realism  in  the  11th  century 
led  to  a  more  thorough  discussion  of  fundamental  prin- 
ciples as  to  the  relations  between  faith  and  reason, 
and  between  God  and  nature;  and  the  orthodox  theo- 
logians, especially  Anselm  of  Canterbury  (f  1109),  as- 
serted as  a  fundamental  axiom  the  precept  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, non  epurro  inteiligere,  ut  credam,  sed  credo,  ut 
intelligam.  Aquinas's  De  veritate  fidei  contra  Gentiles 
was  directed  against  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans. 
Abelard,  having  given  to  reason  a  greater  share  in  his 
arguments,  and  gone  so  far  as  to  point  out  the  contra- 
dictions contained  in  the  fathers,  was  persecuted  by 
the  church,  although  he  did  not,  in  principle,  differ 
from  the  scholastics.  As  to  the  grounds  of  Christian- 
ity, he  distinguished  between  credere,  inteiligere,  and 
cognoscere  ;  "through  doubt  we  come  to  inquiry,  by 
inquiry  to  truth ;"  in  this  anticipating  Descartes.  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaux  held  that  Abelard's  rationalism  was 
in  contradiction  not  only  with  faith,  but  also  with  rea- 
son. The  newly- learned  system  of  Aristotle  began, 
in  the  Middle  Age,  to  be  applied  to  the  sciences,  and 


among  them  to  theology.  Alexander  de  Hales  (f  1245) 
was  the  first  to  give  regular  theological  prolegome- 
na, in  which  he  considered  the  question  whether  the- 
ology can  properly  be  called  a  science,  and  how  it 
is  contained  in  the  Bible ;  he  ascribed  to  it  experi- 
mental, not  speculative  certainty.  The  same  line 
was  followed  by  Albertus  Magnus,  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, and  Duns  Scotus.  The  latter  recognises  eh:ht 
grounds  of  certainty  :  pronunciatio  prophetica,  scrip- 
turarum  Concordia,  auctoritas  scribentium,  diligentia  reci- 
pientium,  rationabilitas  contentorum,  irrationabilitas  sin- 
gulorum  errorum,  ecclesice  stabilitas,  and  miraculorum 
claritas.  Among  the.  later  scholastics  we  find  Durand 
de  St.  Pourcain  (f  1336) ;  Gerson,  who  wrote  against 
the  Hussites  his  ProposiHones  de  sensu  literati  S.  Scr. 
et  de  causis  errantium ;  Raymond  de  Sabunde  (f  1434), 
who,  in  his  Liber  creaturarum  sen  theolcgia  naturalis, 
and  Viola  animal  (often  reprinted,  as,  for  instance,  at 
Lyons,  1648,  Svo),  asserted  that  the  love  of  God  is 
the  highest  knowledge.  The  controversy  with  the 
Moslems  produced  in  the  14th  century  John  Cantacu- 
zenus  (f  1375),  Orationes  et  assertiones  pro  fide  Christi- 
ana contra  Saracenos  et  Alcoranum  (ed.  Rob.  Gualter, 
Basil,  1543,  fol.).  In  the  Western  Church  more  im- 
portant works  appeared,  such  as  Nicholas  de  Cusa's 
Cribratio  Alcorani,  in  which  he  sought  to  prove  the 
divinity  of  Christ  by  the  Koran  itself,  and  Zelus  Christi 
contra  Judceos,  Saraeenos,  et  Infideles,  written  about 
1450  by  the  Spaniard  Petrus  de  Cavalleria.  About 
the  same  time  appeared  a  system  of  Christian  philos- 
ophy due  to  the  thought  of  the  Middle  Age,  and  which 
we  find  already  foreshadowed  in  Anselm  and  Hugo  de 
St.  Victor.  Its  principal  object  was  to  establish  the 
relation  and  differences  between  faith  and  reason,  as 
well  as  to  reconcile  them.  In  the  first  rank  of  these, 
so  to  say,  philosophical  apologies,  we  find  the  De  Chris- 
tiana religione  et  fidei  pietate  (Paris,  1641)  of  Marsilius 
Ficinus  (f  1499),  in  which  the  same  views  originally 
advanced  by  Thomas  Aquinas  in  De  veritate  Catholicce 
fidei  contra  Gentiles  are  easily  recognised.  To  the 
same  class  belong  the  Triumjhus  cruets  seu  de  veritate 
religionis  Christiana;  of  Savonarola  (f  1498),  and  the 
Solatium  itineris  inei  of  the  same  author.  A  sentence 
we  find  in  his  works  may  be  considered  as  the  distin- 
guishing principle  of  that  whole  school  of  philosoph- 
ical apologists:  gratia prwsupponit  naturam  (Pelt,  The- 
ologische  Eneyklopddie,  §  65). 

III.  From  the  Reformation  to  the  Present  Time. — 
The  era  of  modern  speculation  followed  the  discovery 
of  printing,  the  revival  of  letters,  and  the  Reforma- 
tion. Europe  was  filled  with  a  spirit  of  restless  inqui- 
ry. The  Romish  corruptions  of  Christianity  led  many 
to  doubt  Christianity  itself.  Leo  X,  himself  a  sceptic, 
fortified  the  pride  of  letters  and  of  freethinkinir.  Cul- 
tivated men  seemed  likely,  on  the  one  hand,  to  go 
back  to  classical  paganism,  or,  on  the  other,  to  fall 
into  philosophical  pantheism.  In  the  early  times  of 
the  Reformation  the  difficulties  in  the  church  itself  en- 
grossed the  attention  of  the  Christian  writers.  But 
soon  after  apologetics  received  a  new  impulse  from  the 
spirit  of  free  inquiry  which  became  so  general.  The 
fundamental  questions  of  Christianity  were  again  ex- 
amined. This  is  the  time  when  appeared  the  clear 
and  comprehensive  De  veritate  Religionis  Christiana 
(1543)  of  the  Spaniard  Ludovicus  Vives  (f  1540). 
Among  the  Protestants,  the  evidence  derived  from  the 
Testimonium  Sp.  Sancti  internum  led  to  a  new  class  of 
arguments,  which  we  find  in  Philippe  de  Mornay  du 
Plessis's  Traite  de  la  verite  de  la  Religion  ChrMienme 
(1567, 1651 ;  and  a  Latin  trans,  by  Breithaupt,  Jena, 
1698,  4to),  and  Hugo  Grotius's  De  veritate  Religionis 
Christianm  (1627,  etc.  ;  last  edit.  Amsterdam,  1831). 
Among  Roman  Catholic  apologists  wc  notice  Mclchior 
Canus  (f  1560),  whose  Loci  Tkeologici  is  more  a  work 
on  theological  logic  th*an  dogmatics ;  it  enumerates 
the  different  grounds  of  evidence  recognised  by  his 
church.     The  differences  between  the  Lutheran  and 


APOLOGY 


304 


APOLOGY 


Reformed  Churches  led  also  to  apologetic  as  well  as 
controversial  works.  Among  these,  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  important  is  the  AidoKeipig  tie  fundamentals 
dissensu  Doctrine?  Lutherans  et  Caloinianee  (Viteb.  162G, 
etc. ;  best  edit.  1663).  In  the  Romish  Church  the  dif- 
ferences between  the  Jansenists  and  the  Molinists, 
and  afterward  the  Jesuits,  led  Blaise  Pascal  to  -write 
his  Penset  s,  which,  although  unfinished,  is  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  complete  apologetic  works  of  any  time. 

In  the  17th  century  arose  the  so-called  deism  of 
England,  under  the  leadership  of  Herbert  of  Cher- 
bury  (f  1618)  and  Hobbes  (j  1619),  contemporaneous- 
ly with  Descartes  on  the  Continent.  Spinoza  follow- 
ed with  his  destructive  criticism  and  with  his  panthe- 
istic philosophy.  These  were  followed  by  crowds  of 
less  important  deists,  freethinkers,  etc.  The  grounds, 
both  of  attack  and  defence,  were  now  very  different 
from  those  of  the  early  ages.  Then  the  advocates  of 
Christianity  had  to  defend  it  against  pagan  attacks, 
and,  in  turn,  to  show  the  absurdity  and  wickedness 
of  poh-theism  ;  now,  on  the  other  hand,  the  deistic 
unbelievers  not  only  professed  to  believe  in  one  God, 
but  also  sought  to  show  that  no  special  revelation  is 
necessary  to  man,  but  that  he  can  learn  both  God  and 
duty  from  the  light  of  nature.  The  English  deism 
passed  over  into  France  and  Germany,  and,  coming  in 
aid  of  the  movement  in  philosophy  and  criticism  led 
by  Descartes  and  Spinoza,  gave  origin  there  to  the 
movement  which  finally  culminated  in  the  so-called 
Rationalism,  Naturalism,  and  Positivism  (see  these 
three  heads ;  see  also  Deism).  We  shall  briefly  sketch 
the  history  of  apologies  in  this  period,  first,  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe,  leaving  the  English  and  American 
apologists  to  the  close  of  this  article. 

1.  German. — In  Germany  the  Wolfian  philosophy 
prepared  the  way  for  the  English  deism,  which  soon 
took  root.  The  first  open  infidelity  of  the  period  we 
find  in  such  writers  as  J.  C.  Dippcl  (f  1734),  author  of 
Democritus  Christianus,  and  J.  C.  Edelmann  ( j  1767), 
who  rejected  all  revealed  religion  to  attach  himself  ex- 
clusively to  conscience.  Between  these  two  extremes 
appeared  Leibnitz,  whose  attempt  at  a  reconciliation 
between  philosophy  and  Christianity,  by  making  rea- 
son the  judge  between  them,  had  prepared  the  way 
for  the  Wolfian  school.  Among  the  German  apolo- 
gists of  that  period  we  find  Lilienthal  (Die  gute  Sache 
d.  gbttl.  Offenbarung,  1772-'82),  Koppen  (Die  Bibel  ah 
ein  Werk  d.  gottl.  Weisheit,  1787,  1837),  A.  F.  W.  Sack 
(  1'.  rtfa  idifftt  r  Glauhe  d.  Christen,  1773,  2  vols.),  Nosselt 
(  Vertheidigung  d.  ckristl.  Religion,  4th  edit.  1774),  Je- 
rusalem, of  Wolfenbi'ittel  (Betracht.  it.  d.  Wahrheiien 
d.  chr.  Relig.  1776),  G.  Less  (d.  Religion,  etc.,  2d  ed. 
1786,  2  vols.),  and  J.  G.  Tollner  (f  1774).  But  the 
most  important  of  all  the  German  apologists  of  that 
time  was  Friederich  Kleukcr,  who  defended  Christian- 
ity as  the  scheme  of  man's  salvation,  while  the  con- 
temporary theologians  chiefly  defended  the  doctrines 
and  morals  of  the  Gospel.  His  principal  works  are, 
Wdhrhdi  it.  gottl.  Ursprung  d.  Christenthums  (Riga, 
1787-94) ;  Untt  rsuch.  d.  Griindef  d.  jEchtheit  it.  Glaub- 
wurd.  d.  8chrifil.  Urkunden  d.  Christenthums  (Hamb. 
K'.'7  1800),  'and  Yersuch  v.  d.  Sohn  <;,<1tes  miter  d. 
Menschen  (2d  ed.  17'.»5).  In  the  German  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  we  find  the  Wolfian  P.  Stattler  (1771), 
P.  Opfermann  (1779).  Beda  Mayr  (1781),  and  S.  von 
Storchenau,  author  of  the  Philosopkie  tier  Religion 
(1772  89).  The  German  theologians,  however,  allow- 
ed themselves  to  be  led  into  a  sort  of  Biblical  deism, 
which  was  op]  osed  by  Storr.  and  especially  by  J.  C. 
Lavater  (  +  180]  I,  who  considered  faith  as  the  result 
of  the  inward  feeling  of  the  power  of  the  Gospel,  not 
to  be  attained  by  learned  demonstrations.  The  fur- 
ther development  of  theology  in  Germany  led  to  the 
strife  between  Rationalism  and  Supranaturalism,  and 
thus  apologetics  were  merged  into  polemics,  in  which 
the  fundamental  questions  of  the  Christian  faith  were 
freely  discussed.     This  is  the  time  of  Reinhard's  Ge- 


stdndnisse,  and  Rohr's  anonymous  Briefe  ii.  d.  Ration- 
alismus  (Aix  la  Chapelle,  1813,  1818);  on  the  other 
side  we  find  Steudel's  IJaltbarkeit  d.  Glaulens  (Stuttg. 
1814),  Zollich's  Briefe  ii.  d.  Supranaturalismus  (1821), 
Sartorius's  Religion  ansserhalb  d.  Grenzen  d.  Vernvnft 
(Marb.  1822),  and  similar  works  by  Tittmann  (1816). 
The  attempts  at  conciliation  of  Kiihler,  of  Konigsberg 
(1818),  Klein  (1819),  Schott  (1826),  etc.,  proved  un- 
availing. The  number  of  works  published  on  both 
sides  increased  daily.  Most  of  them  are,  however,  for- 
gotten now,  and  the  only  ones  which  have  retained 
any  importance  are  C.  L.  Nitzsch's  De  Rtvelatkne  re- 
ligionis  externa  eademque  jntblica  (1808),  and  De  dis- 
crimine  revel,  lmperatoiiaz  el  Didacticce.  (1830),  in  which 
he  separates  religion  and  revelation,  and  attempts  to 
give  a  complete  theory  of  the  latter,  blending,  to  use 
C.  J.  Nitzsch's  expression,  "  formal  supranaturalism 
with  material  rationalism."  In  the  school  of  Tubin- 
gen a  new  apologetic  method,  which  we  may  call  sci- 
entific, arose  under  the  influence  of  Storr  and  of  his 
followers.  Its  great  defect,  perhaps,  is  that  it  makes 
a  science  of  faitb.  Among  the  principal  works  in 
that  line  we  find  Peter  Erasmus  Muller's  Kiistelig 
Apo'ogetik  (Kopenh.  1810),  G.  S.  Francke's  Entwnrf 
einer  Apo'og.  der  christlich.  Religion  (Altona,  1817). 
Next  to  these  must  be  placed  the  articles  of  Heubner, 
of  Wittenberg,  in  Ersch  und  Gruber's  Allg.  Encyhlo- 
padie  (iv,  451-461),  K.  W.  Stein's  Apologetik  d.  Chris- 
tenthums  ah  Wissenschnft  dargestellt  (Ppz.  1824);  and, 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  apologetic  works 
of  Stephen  Wiest,  of  Ingolstadt,  Patricius  Zimmer, 
F.  Brenner's  Fundamcntirung  d.  katholischen  specula- 
liven  Theolcgie  (Regens.  1837),  and,  more  recently,  the 
works  of  Klee  (q.  v.).  Conceived  in  a  different  spirit, 
but  fully  as  ingenious  and  methodical,  are  K.  F.  Bres- 
cius's,  of  Berlin,  Apologien  (1804),  G.  J.  Planck's  Ueber 
d.  Behandlung,  etc.,d.  historischen  Beweisesf.  d.  Gottlich- 
keit  d.  Christenthums  (Gott.  1821),  and  especially  K. 
H.  Stirm's  Apohgie  d.  Christenthums  (1836).  In  most 
of  the  writers  named,  dogmatic  teaching  is  combined 
with  apologetical.  This  is  still  more  true  of  the  apol- 
ogetical  works  of  Sehleiermacher  and  his  school  (see 
Schleiermacher,  Darstellung  d.  Theol.  Stud.  §  40-44), 
and  of  the  works  of  Staudenmaier  and  Sebastian  von 
Drey,  Apologetik  als  icissensclwftl.  Xachceimng  d.  Gbtt- 
lichkeit  d.  Christenthums,  etc.  *(3  vols.,  Mainz,  1838- 
'47).  Other  German  theologians  considered  apologet- 
ics as  a  scientific  exposition  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  Christianity.  Among  them  we  find  Steu- 
del,  in  his  Grundzvge  einer  Apologetik  (Tubing.  1830) ; 
Heinrich  Schmid,  of  Heidelberg,  in  the  Oppositionsschr. 
f.  Theol.  u.  Philos.  ii,  2  (Jena,  1829,  p.  55  sq.);  Tho- 
luck,  Palmer,  etc.  Most  of  the  introductory  works  to 
the  studjr  of  dogmatics  may  be  considered  as  apolo- 
getic. Such  are  Daub's  Vorlesungen  it.  d.  Prolegom- 
ena, z.  Dogmatik  (1829),  Baumgarten-Crusius's  ii.  Re- 
Vgion,  Offenbarung  u.  Christenihum  (1820),  F.  Fischer, 
of  Basle's,  Religion,  Offenbarung,  etc.  (Tubing.  1828), 
Twesten,  Tor/,  it.  d.  Dogm.  (182(1, 18S8),  Staudenmaier's 
Kittholicismus  u.  d.  Neuschellingsche  Schule  (Freiburg, 
Z  itsch.f.  Theol.  1842,  v).  Klee  also  commences  his 
Kaiholische  Dogmatik  with  a  Generaldogmatik,  which  is 
a  regular  demonstrate  Christiana.  Strauss  himself 
prefaces  his  Dogmatik  by  the  "formate  Grm\dbegriffe 
d.  ckristl.  Gla/ubenslehre." 

The  life  of  Jesus  by  Dr.  F.  Strauss  (1885),  who  de- 
clared the  Biblical  account  of  the  life  of  Jesus  a  myth, 
and,  in  his  "Christian  Doctrine  in  its  Historic  Devel- 
opment," attacked  even  the  belief  in  the  personality  of 
God  and  the  immortality  of  the  human  soul,  called  forth 
a  large  number  of  apologetic  works,  which,  more  than 
had  been  done  before,  urged  the  absolute  purity  and 
sinlessness  of  the  character  of  Jesus,  and  the  fact  that 
his  personality  is  unique  and  without  parallel  in  his- 
tory, as  the  strongest  argument  to  be  used  by  the 
Christian  apologist.  The  celebrated  work  of  Ullmann 
(Sundlositjkeit  Jesu,  Hamburg,  183S)  t<  ok  this  ground, 


APOLOGY 


305 


APOLOGY 


and  stands  at  the  head  of  a  large  class  of  apologetic 
literature.  In  1863  Kenan's  Vie  de  Jesus  appeared  in 
France,  followed,  in  Germany,  by  a  new  work  from 
Strauss  on  the  same  subject,  by  Sehenkel's  Charac- 
terbild  Jem,  and  by  Sehleiermachcr's  posthumous 
"Leben  Jem"  (Berlin,  1864).  A  vast  apologetic  liter- 
ature on  this  subject  sprang  up  in  France,  Germany, 
and  England,  for  the  literature  of  which,  see  Jesus. 
L.  Feucrbach,  in  his  work  on  the  "  Essence  of  Chris- 
tianity" (Wesen  des  Christenthums,  1841),  went  even 
beyond  Strauss,  to  the  extreme  limit  of  nihilism.  He 
rejected  religion  itself  as  a  dream  and  an  illusion,  from 
which,  when  man  awakes,  he  finds  only  himself.  He 
became  the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  materialism, 
which  showed  an  extraordinary  literary  productivity, 
and  gained  considerable  influence.  See  Material- 
ism. Among  the  most  important  apologies  of  Chris- 
tianity against  this  school  belong  the  Letters  on  Ma- 
terialism from  Fabri  (Briefe  fiber  den  Materlalismus), 
and  the  works  of  Bohner.  An  "Apology  of  Christi- 
anity from  the  stand-point  of  national  psychology" 
was  written  by  R.  T.  Grau  (Semiten  und  Indogerma- 
ni?i  In  Hirer  Befiihigung  zur  Religion  und  Wissenschnft. 
Eine  Apologia  des  Christcnthums  vom  Standpunkie  der 
Vblkerpsychologie  (Stuttgart,  18G4,  8vo)  for  the  pur- 
pose of  refuting  the  objections  made  by  Kenan,  Strauss, 
and  others,  to  the  universal  character  of  the  Christian 
religion  on  account  of  its  Semitic  origin.  As  Strauss, 
Kenan,  Feuerbach,  and  many  other  modern  opponents 
denied  the  possibility  of  miracles,  and  made  this  their 
chief  argument  against  the  truth  of  supranatural  Chris- 
tianity, a  considerable  number  of  works  was  called 
forth  in  defence  of  miracles,  all  of  which  are  intended 
to  be  more  or  less  apologies  of  Christianity.  See  the 
most  important  works  of  this  class  under  Miracles. 

One  of  the  ablest  German  apologetic  works  of  mod- 
ern times  is  Auberlen's  Gottllche  Offenburung  (Basil. 
vol.  i,  1861;  vol.  ii,  1864),  which,  unfortunately,  was 
left  incomplete  by  the  death  of  the  author  in  1864. 
See  Auberlen.  Among  the  recent  works  which  are 
more  popular  than  scientific,  none  has  produced  a  more 
profound  sensation  tban  Guizot's  Meditations  sur  V Es- 
sence d>,  la  Religion  Chretienne  (Paris,  1864;  translated 
into  English,  German,  and  most  of  the  European  lan- 
guages). Guizot  undertakes  an  apology  of  those  fun- 
damental doctrines  of  Christianity  which  are  common 
to  both  evangelical  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics, 
and  he  treats,  in  succession,  of  creation,  revelation, 
inspiration,  the  essence  of  God,  the  person  and  the 
work  of  Christ,  and  he  particularly  dwells  on  the  be- 
lief in  inspiration.  Luthardt's  Apologetlsche  Vortrilge 
(Lips.  1864)  are  ten  lectures,  held  at  Leipsic,  to  show 
the  fundamental  difference  between  the  two  views  of 
the  world  (Weltanschauung')  which  now  dispute  with 
each  other  the  control  of  modern  society,  and  the  abil- 
ity of  Christianity  alone  to  furnish  a  satisfactory  so- 
lution of  the  problem  of  human  life  with  all  its  mys- 
teries. Similar  is  a  posthumous  work  by  Thorn 
Wizenmann  (died  1787,  q.  v.).  Zur  Philosophic  vnd 
Geschichte  dr  Offenbarung  (Basil.  1864).  The  author 
was  a  contemporary  of  Kant,  Jacoby,  Hermann,  II  a- 
mann,  and  Lavater,  by  all  of  whom  he  was  highly  es- 
teemed. Auberlen,  who  published  the  above  edition, 
called  attention  to  his  importance  as  an  apologist  in 
the  Jahrbucher  fur  deutsche  Theolhgie  for  1864.  Other 
apologetic  works  recently  published  in  Germany  are 
Gess  and  Kiggenbach's  Apologetische  fieitnige  (Basil. 
1863);  a  collection  often  lectures  by  Auberlen,  (less, 
Preiswerk,  Riggenbach,  Stahelin,  Stockmcyer,  under 
the  title  Zur  I  \  rantwortung  dt  s  christlichen  Glaubens  (Ba- 
sil. 1861,  8vo);  Vosen  (Rom.  Cath.),  Das  Christenthum 
und  die  Einspruche  seiner  (,'ei/ni  r  (Freiburg.  1864,  8vo)  ; 
Hettinger  (Rom.  Cathol.),  Apologie  des  Christenthums 
(vol.  i,  Freiburg,  1863,  8vo) ;  Hillen  (Rom.  Cathol.), 
Apologie  des  Christenthum.-:  (Warendorf,  1863)  ;  Zezsch- 
witz,  Zur  Apologie  des  Christenthums  nach  Geschichte 
und  Lehre  (Leips.  1866,  8vo).  A  new  monthly,  entitled 
U 


Beweis  des  Glaubens,  devoted  entirely  to  apologetics, 
was  commenced  in  I860  at  Giitersloh.  It  has  the  ser- 
vices of  Andrew,  Zockler,  and  Grau,  the  two  latter  of 
whom  are  authors  of  apologetical  works  mentioned 
above. 

2.  French. — At  the  head  of  modern  French  apolo- 
gists, of  course,  stands  Pascal  (q.  v.);  Huet's  Demon,, 
stra'.io  Evaiigelica  ("2d  ed.  1680)  followed;  also  Houtte- 
ville,  mentioned  above  (172i').  Among  the  Roman 
Catholics,  Fcnclon,  Letlres  sur  la  Religion  (1718);  Le 
Vassor  (1718)  ;  Lamy(1715);  D'Aguesseau  (f  1751) ; 
among  Protestants,  Abbadie  (q.  v.  f  1727);  Jacquelot 
(f  1708) ;  in  answer  to  the  French  encyclopaedists 
especially,  Abbe  Guene,  the  author  of  Molse  venge 
(1769)  ;  Bergier,  in  bis  Traite  hlstorique  et  Doffma- 
tlque  de  la  vraie  Religion  (Paris,  2d  ed.  1780, 12  vols. ; 
Bamberg,  1813,  12  vols.).  F.  A.  Chateaubriand  also 
sought  to  prove  the  heavenly  origin  of  Christianity 
in  his  Genie  du  Christianisme  (Paris,  1802;  often  re- 
printed and  translated),  and  in  his  Les  Martyrs.  The 
deficiencies  of  French  apologetics  are  sharply  noted 
by  Chassay,  Introduction  aux  Demonstrations  Evan- 
geliques  (Migne,  Paris,  1858,  8vo).  The  Romanist 
reactionary  school,  headed  by  de  Maistre  (1753-1821), 
mingles  apologetics  with  defence  of  Romanism,  and 
of  the  absolute  authority  of  the  church  (see  Morell, 
History  of  Modern  Philosophy,  chap,  vi,  §  2).  A 
school  of  ultra  Rationalists  has  lately  sprung  up  in 
France,  of  which  Colani  and  Reville  are  types.  Sec 
Rationalism.  The  Evangelical  school,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  produced  able  advocates  of  Christianity  in 
Yinet  (q.  v.)  ;  Pressense  (see  the  Revue  Chretienne, 
passim),  and  Astie,  Les  Deux  Theologies  (Geneva,  1863). 
Among  modern  French  apologists  we  notice  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  R.  de  la  Mennais  (f  1854)  and  Frays- 
sinous  (f  1841).  They,  however,  like  de  Maistre,  so 
identify  Christianity  with  Roman  Catholicism  tln.t 
their  works  are  available  only  for  those  of  their  own 
church.  In  the  Reformed  Church,  E.  Diodati,  of  Ge- 
neva, addresses  his  Essai  sur  le  Christianisme  especially 
to  the  will.  For  the  numerous  writers  in  answer  to 
Renan,  see  the  bibliography  under  Jesus. 

The  Abbe  Migne  has  published  a  vast  collection  of 
the  Christian  apologists  in  18  vols.,  with  an  introduc- 
tory volume,  and  a  concluding  volume  on  the  present 
state  of  apologetic  science  and  of  scepticism,  making 
20  vols,  in  all.  We  deem  it  worth  while  to  give  the 
whole  title  of  this  great  work,  which  is  a  repository  of 
apologies:  Demonstrations  Evangeliques  de  Ter- 
tullien,  Origene,  Eusebe,  S.Augustin,  Montaigne,  Ba- 
con, Grotius,  Descartes,  Richelieu,  Arnauld,  de  Choi- 
seul  du  Plessis-Praslin,  Pascal,  Pelisson,  Nicole,  Boyle, 
Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  Locke,  Lami,  Burnet,  Male- 
branche,  Lesley,  Leibnitz,  la  Bruycre,  Fcnclon,  Huet, 
Clarke,  Duguet,  Stanhope,  Bayle,  Leclerc,  du  Pin, 
Jacquelot,  Tillotson,  de  Haller,  Sherlock,  le  Moine, 
Pope,  Leland,  Racine,  Massillon,  Ditton,  Derham, 
d'A^uesseau,  de  Polignac,  Saurin,  Burlier.  Warburton, 
Tournemine,  Bentley,  Littleton,  Seed,  Fabricius,  Ad- 
dison, de  Bernis,  Jean-Jacques  Rousseau,  Para  du 
Phanjas,  Stanislas  I,  Turgot,  Startler,  West,  Beauzee, 
Bergier,  Gerdil,  Thomas,  Bonnet,  de  Crillon,  Euler, 
Delamarre,  Caraccioli,  Jennings,  Duhamel,  S.  Liguori, 
Butler,  Bullet,  Vauvenargues,  Gucnard,  Blair,  de  Pom- 
pignan,  de  Luc,  Porteus,  Gerard,  Diessbach,  Jacques, 
Lamourctte,  Laharpe,  le  Coz,  Duvoisin,  de  la  Luzerne, 
Schmitt,  Povnter,  Moore,  Silvio  Pellico,  Lingard,  Bru- 
nati,  Manzoni,  Paley,  Perrone,  Lanibruschini,  Dor- 
ians, Catnpien,  i'r.  Perennes,  Wiseman,  Bucklar.d, 
Marcel  de  Scrres,  Keith,  Chalmers,  Dupin  aine,  Gre- 
goire  XVI,  Cattet,  Jlilner,  Sabatier,  Bolgeni,  Morris, 
Chassay,  Lombroso  et  Consoni ;  contenant  les  apolo- 
gies de  117  auteurs,  rcpandus  dans  180  vol.  ;  traduites 
pour  la  plupart  des  diverses  Ungues  dans  lasquelles 
avaient  etc  ocrircs  ;  reproduces  Int^trralement,  non 
par  extraits.  Ouvrage  dgalement  neeessaire  a  ceux 
qui  ne  croient  pas,  a  ceux  qui  doutcnt  ct  a  ceux  qui 


APOLOGY 


306 


APOLOGY 


croient ;  avec  Introduction  aux  Demonstrations  evan- 
geHques,  et  Conclusion  du  meme  ouvrage  (20  vols.  imp. 
8vo,  Paris).  It  is  proper  to  say  that  the  word  inte- 
gralement  in  this  title  is  not  correct,  as  passages  in 
the  Protestant  writers  which  impugn  Romanism  are 
often  omitted. 

:"..  English  mid  American. — The  English  Deists  of  the 
17th  century,  Herbert,  Hobbes,  and  Blount,  were  an- 
swered by  numerous  writers ;  the  literature  is  given 
in  Leland,  Deistical  Writers  (1754,  8vo),  and  in  Lech- 
ler,  Geschichie  des  englischen  Deismns.  See  Deism. 
Richard  Baxter  was  probably  the  earliest  original 
writer  on  Evidences  in  the  English  language.  His 
first  publication  on  the  subject  was  The  Unreasonable- 
ness of  Infidelity  (1655,  8vo ;  Works,  vol.  xx) ;  followed 
by  The  Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1667,  4to ; 
Works,  xx  and  xxi);  More  Reasons  (1667,  in  answer  to 
Herbert;  Works,  xxi).  In  these  books  Baxter  shows 
his  usual  acuteness,  and  anticipates  many  of  the  argu- 
ments of  later  writers.  Farrar  (Critical  Hist,  of  Free 
Thought),  strangely  enough,  omits  Baxter  from  his  list 
of  writers  given  in  note  49,  from  which  the  following 
statement  is  chiefly  taken.  I.ocke  (f  1704)  wrote  The 
Reasonableness  of  Christianity  (Works,  vol.  i)  ;  Water- 
land,  Reply  to  Tindal;  Boyle  (1626-1601)  not  only 
wrote  himself  on  the  evidences,  but  founded  the  Boyle 
Lectures  [see  Boyle],  a  series  which  was  mainly  com- 
posed of  works  written  by  men  of  real  ability,  and 
contains  several  treatises  of  value.  Among  the  series 
may  be  named  those  of  Bentley  (1692) ;  Kidder  (1694)  ; 
Bishop  Williams  {1695) ;  Gastrell  (1697);  Dean  Stan- 
hope (1701);  Dr.  Clarke  (1704-'o)  ;  Derham  (1711); 
Ibbot  (171?-) ;  Gurdon  (1721)  ;  Berriman  (17S0) ;  Wor- 
thington  (1766);  Owen  (1769).  Other  series  of  lec- 
tures in  defence  of  Christianity  followed,  bcth  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  Continent,  viz.,  the  Mover  Lecture 
(1719);  the  Ley  den  (1753);  the  Warburton  (1772);  the 
Basle  (1775) ;  the  Bampton  (1780) ;  the  Hague  (1785) ; 
the  Haarlem  (1786) ;  the  Hulsean  (1820) ;  the  Congre- 
gational (1833).  See  each  of  these  heads.  The  Lowell 
Lecture  (Boston)  has  similar  objects.  Among  separate 
treatises  of  this  period,  Leslie  (f  1722),  Short  Method 
with  the  Deists;  Jenkins,  Reasonableness  of  Christian- 
ity (1721) ;  Foster,  Usefulness  and  Truth  of  Christian- 
ity, against  Tindal;  Sherlock,  Trial  of  the  Witnesses, 
against  Woolston  ;  Lyttelton,  on  St.  Raid's  Conversion ; 
Conybe are,  Defence  of  Revelation  (1732);  Warburton, 
Divine  Legation  of  Moses;  Addison,  Evidences  (1730); 
Skelton,  Deism  Revealed  (Works,  vol.  iv),  may  he 
mentioned.  The  great  work  of  Bishop  Butler,  The 
Analogy  of  Religion,  etc.,  was  the  recapitulation  and 
condensation  of  all  the  arguments  that  hail  been  pre- 
viously used,  but  possessed  the  largeness  of  treatment 
and  originality  of  combination  of  a  mind  which  had 
not  so  much  borrowed  the  thoughts  of  others  as  been 
educated  by  them.  Balguy's  Discourses  (3d  ed.,  1790, 
2  vols.),  and  his  Tracts,  Moral  and  Theological  (1734, 
8vo),  are  very  valuable.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
century,  the  historical  rather  than  the  moral  evi- 
dences were  developed.  First,  the  religion  of  nature 
was  proved  :  at  this  point  the  Deist  halted,  the  Chris- 
tian advanced  further.  The  chasm  between  it  and 
revealed  religion  was  bridged  at  first  by  probabili- 
ty ;  next  by  Butler's  argument  from  analogy,  put 
as  a  dilemma  to  silence  those  who  objected  to  reve- 
lation, but  capable  of  being  used  as  a  direct  argu- 
ment to  lead  the  mind  to  revelation;  thirdly,  by  the 
historic  method,  which  asserted  that  miracles  attest- 
ed a  revelation,  even  without  other  evidence.  The 
argument  in  all  cases,  however,  whether  philosoph- 
ical or  historical,  was  an  appeal  to  reason — either  ev- 
idence of  probability  or  of  fact — and  was  in  no  case 
an  appeal  to  the  authority  of  the  church.  According- 
ly, the  probability  of  revelation  having  been  shown, 
and  the  attacks  on  its  moral  character  parried,  the 
question  became,  in  a  great  degree,  historical,  and  re- 
solved itself  into  an  examination  either  of  the  external 


evidence  arising  from  early  testimonies,  which  could 
be  gathered  to  corroborate  the  facts  and  to  vindicate 
the  honesty  of  the  writers,  or  of  the  internal  critical 
evidence  of  undesigned  coincidences  in  their  writings. 
The  first  of  these  occupied  the  attention  of  Lardner 
(1684-1768).  His  Credibility  was  published  1727-57 ; 
the  Collection  of  Ancient  Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimo- 
nies, 1764-'7.  The  second  and  third  branches  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  Paley,  the  one  in  the  Evidences, 
the  other  in  the  Harce  Pauliiue.  Paley's  argument  has 
been  extended  to  the  Gospels  and  other  parts  e  f  Scrip- 
ture by  Blunt,  Undesigned  Coincidences,  etc.  (3d  edit. 
1850 ;  compare  also  his  Essay  on  Paley,  reprinted  from 
the  Quarterly  Rev.  Oct.  1828).  Before  the  clrse  of  the 
century  the  real  danger  from  Deism  had  passed,  and 
the  natural  demand  for  evidences  had  theiefcre,  in  a 
areat  degree,  ceased.  Consequently,  the  works  which 
appeared  were  generally  a  recapitulation  or  summary 
of  the  whole  arguments,  often  neat  and  judicious  (as 
is  seen  at  a  later  time  in  Van  Mildcrt,  Boyle  Lectures, 
vol.  ii,  1605;  and  in  Chalmers,  Works,  vol.  i-iv),  or  in 
developments  of  particular  subjects,  as  in  Watson's 
Apology,  in  replj'  to  Gibbon  and  Paine,  or  in  Graves 
on  the  Pentateuch  (1807). 

It  is  only  in  recent  years  that  a  species  of  eclecti- 
cism, rather  than  positive  unbelief,  has  arisen  in  Eng- 
land, which  is  not  the  legitimate  successor  of  the  old 
deism,  but  of  the  speculative  thought  of  the  Continent; 
and  only  within  recent  years  that  writers  on  evidences 
have  directed  their  attention  to  it.  In  the  Bampton 
Lectures  (q.  v.),  which,  as  one  of  the  classes  (  f  annu- 
ally recurring  volumes  of  evidences,  is  suppesed  to 
keep  pace  with  contemporary  forms  of  doubt,-  and  may 
therefore  be  taken  as  one  means  of  measuring  dates 
in  the  corresponding  history  of  unbelief,  it  is  r.ot  until 
about  1852  that  the  writers  showed  an  acquaintance 
with  these  forms  of  doubt.  The  first  course  which 
touched  upon  them  was  that  of  Mr.  Riddle  (1'52),  on 
the  Natural  History  of  In  fidelity ;  and  the  first  c  spe- 
cialty directed  to  them  was  that  of  Dr.  Thomson,  Cn 
the  Atoning  Work  of  Christ  (1853,  8vo);  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  Mansel,  On  the  Limits  of  Religious  Thought 
(1858),  and  by  Rawlinson,  Hist.  Evidences  of  the  Truth 
of  the  Scripture  Records  stateel  anew  (1859).  It  is  im- 
possible to  cite  all  the  1  ooks  of  Evidences,  popular  and 
scientific,  published  in  England  and  America.  But 
among  the  most  important,  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, are  Erskine  On  Internal  Evidence  (1821);  Bu- 
chanan, Modem  Atheism  (Boston,  1859,  12mo)  ;  Shep- 
pard,  Divine  Origin  of  Christianity  (Lond.  1829) ;  Young, 
The  Christ  of  History  (N.  Y.  1856)  ;  Rogers,  Reason  and 
Faith;  Eclipse  of  Faith ;  G'reyson  Letters;  Defnce  of 
Eclipse  of  Faith;  Taylor,  Restorat'on  of  Belief  (Camb. 
1855);  Aids  to  Faith  (in  reply  to  Essays  and  Reviews, 
London,  1861,  8vo) ;  Replies  to  Essays  and  Reviews  (N. 
Y.  1862,  8vo) ;  Wharton,  Theism  and  the  Mod.  Scept. 
Theories  (Philad.  1859, 12mo)  ;  Dove,  Logic  of  the  Chris- 
tian Faith  (Ed'nib.  1&5G)  ;  Morgan,  Christianity  and  Mod- 
em Infidelity (Lond.  1854, 12mo);  Pearson,  On  Infidelity 
(Prize  Essay,  Relig.  Tract  Soc.) ;  Wardlaw,  On  Mira- 
cles (N.  Y.  1853,  12mo);  Wilson,  Evidences  (I'oston, 
1833,  2  vols.  12mo) ;  Dewar,  Evidences  of  Revelation 
(Lond.  1854, 12m o)  ;  Shuttleworth,  Consistency  ofRtv- 
elation  with  itself  and  with  Reason  (N.  Y.  1832,  18mo) ; 
Reinhard,  Plan  of  the  Fovmlir  of  Christianity  (transl., 
Bost.  1831);  Led.  on  Evidences  at  the  Univ.  of  Virginia 
(N.  Y.8vo,  1852);  Alexander,  Evidences  (Presb.  Board, 
12mo)  ;  Hopkins,  T.eC.  before  the  Lowell  Inst  it.  (Boston, 
1846,  8vo,  an  admirable  book);  Alexander,  Christ  and 
Christianity  (X.  Y.  1854, 12mo)  ;  Peabody,  Christianity 
the  ReUg.  of  Nature  (Lowell  Lect.,  Boston,  1863,  8vo); 
Faber,  'Difficulties  of  Infidelity  (X.  Y.  8vo)  ;  Schaff,  The 
Persmef  Christ  the  Miracle  of History (N.Y '.  1865, 12mo); 
Sumner,  Evidences  (1824, 8vo) ;  Norton,  Genuineness  of 
the  Gospels  (Boston,  1855,  8vo);  Garbett,  The  Divine 
Plan  of  Rt  relation  (Boyle  Lecture,  Lond.  1864,  8vo). 

Of  writings  against  the  Jews  sinco  the  Reformation. 


APOSTASY 


30: 


APOSTASY 


we  note,  Hoornbeck,  Pro  convincend.  Judo-is  (1055,  4to); 
Limborch,  Arnica  Collatio  cum  erudto  Judceo  (  1687, 
4to) ;  Leslie,  Short  Method  with  the  Jews;  Kidder,  Dem- 
onstrations of  the  Messiah  (1726,  fol.) ;  McCaul,  The 
Old  Paths  (1837);  ibid.,  Warburton  Lectures  (1846). 
Against  tha  Mohammedans,  besides  Grotius,  Be  Veri- 
tate,  see  Prideaux,  Nature  of  Imposture  in  the  Life  of 
Muh  immed  (8vo) ;  Lee,  Tracts  on  Christianity  and  Mo- 
hammedanism, by  Martyn  (1824,  8  vo)  ;  White,  Hamp- 
ton Led.  (1784,  8vo) ;  Muir,  Life  of  Mohammed  (1858). 
For  the  literature  of  the  Strauss  and  Kenan  controver- 
sy, see  Jesus.  For  the  Colenso  controversy  in  Eng- 
land, and  that  caused  by  the  "Essays  and  Reviews," 
see  Rationalism  (English).  See  also  Apologetics; 
Atheism;  Evidences;  Deism;  Infidelity;  Pan- 
theism.— Christ.  Remembrancer,  xl,  327,  and  xli,  149; 
London  Quar.  Rev.  (Oct.  1854);  American  Theol.  Rev. 
(1861,  p.  438) ;  North  British  Rev.  xv,  331 ;  Hagenbach 
(Smith),  History  of  Doctrines,  §  28,  116, 157,  238,  294, 
276 ;  Shedd,  History  of  Doctrines,  bk.  ii ;  Pelt,  Theolog. 
Encyklopvdie,  p.  378  sq. ;  Fabricius,  Syllabus  Scriptt. 
qui  pro  veritate  Relig.  Christ,  scripserunt  (1725,  4to) ; 
Ritter,  Geschichle  d.  christl.  Philosophic,  vol.  ii;  Tho- 
luck,  Vermischte  Schriften,  i,  143-376;  Bickersteth, 
Christ i in  Stude?it,  p.  469  sq.  (where  a  pretty  full  list  of 
books  is  given)  ;  Walch,  Bibliotheca  Theologica,  ch.  v 
(a  copious  list  up  to  time  of  publication,  1757)  ;  Kah- 
nis,  History  of  German  Protestantism  (transl.,  Edinb. 
1856);  Bartholmess,  Scepdcisme  Theolg'que  (1852); 
Morell,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  ch.  v  ;  Hurst,  Hist,  of  Ra- 
tionalism (N.  Y.  1865,  8voj  ;  Fisher,  The  Supernat.  Ori- 
gin of  Christianity  (N.  Y.  1865,  8vo) ;  Meth.  Quar.  Rev. 
(April,  1853,  p.  70,  312 ;  July,  1862,  p.  357,  446)  ;  Bibli- 
otheca Sacra  (July,  1865,  p.  394)  ;  Gass,  Protest.  Dog- 
matik,  vol.  iii ;  Warren,  Sy.if,  mutkche  Theologie,  Ein- 
leitung,  p.  17-22  ;  Hagenbach,  Encyklopddie  und  Me- 
thodologie,  §  81 ;  Nast,  Introduc.  to  Coram,  on  N.  T.  ch. 
iv;  Walker,  Philosophy  of  the  Plan  of  Salvation  (N.  Y. 
often  reprinted)  ;  Bushnell,  Nature  and  the  Supernat- 
ural. A  complete  history  of  apologetica]  and  polem- 
ical theology  is  preparing  by  Werner  (Rom.  Catholic  ; 
vols,  i-iv,  Schaffhausen,  1861-1866). 

Apostasy  (airoaraaia,  revolt),  a  forsaking  or  re- 
nouncing religion,  either  by  an  open  declaration  in 
words,  or  a  virtual  declaration  by  actions.  The  Greek 
term  is  employed  by  Paul  to  designate  the  "falling 
away"  (//  cnrooTarriu),  which  in  his  time  was  held  in 
check  by  some  obstacle  (ro  KaTt%ov,  o  Karsx<»v),  2 
Thess.  ii,  3.  It  means  one  of  two  things  :  (1)  Political 
defection  (Gen.  xiv,  4,  Sept. ;  2  Chron.  xiii,  6,  Sept. ; 
Acts  v,  37) ;  (2)  Religious  defection  (Acts  xxi,  21 ;  1 
Tim.  iv,  1;  Heb.  iii,  12).  The  first  is  the  common 
classical  use  of  the  word.  The  second  is  more  usual 
in  the  N.  T. ;  so  St.  Ambrose  understands  it  (Comm. 
in  Luc.  xx,  2')).  This  airooTaoia  (apostasy)  implies 
cnroffTarai  (apostates).  An  organized  religious  body 
being  supposed,  some  of  whose  members  should  fail 
away  from  the  true  faith,  the  persons  so  falling  away 
would  lie  d—oorarai,  though  still  formally  unsevered 
from  the  religious  body;  and  the  body  itself,  while, 
in  respect  to  its  faithful  members,  it  would  retain  its 
character  and  name,  might  yet,  in  respect  to  its  other 
members,  be  designated  an  a7rorrra<Tia.  It  is  such  a  cor- 
rupted religious  body  as  this  that  Paul  seems  to  mean. 
He  elsewhere  describes  this  religious  defection  by  some 
of  its  peculiar  characteristics.  These  are  seducing 
spirits,  doctrines  of  daemons,  hypocritical  lying,  a  sear- 
ed conscience,  a  forbidding  of  marriage  and  of  meats, 
a  form  of  godliness  without  the  power  thereof  (1  Tim. 
iv,  1;  2  Tim.  iii,  5).  The  antitype  may  be  found  in 
the  corrupted  Church  of  Christ  in  so  far  as  it  was  cor- 
rupted. The  same  body,  in  so  far  as  it  maintained  the 
faith  and  love,  was  the  bride  and  the  spouse,  and  in 
so  far  as  it  "fell  away"  from  God,  was  the  ('nrotTra- 
cia,  just  as  Jerusalem  of  old  was  at  once  Sion  the  be- 
loved city,  and  Sodom  the  bloody  city — the.  Church 
of  God  and  the  Synagogue  of  Satan.     It  is  of  the  na- 


ture of  a  religious  defection  to  grow  up  by  degrees. 
We  should  not,  therefore,  be  able  to  lay  the  finger  on 
any  special  moment  at  which  it  commenced.  St.  Cy- 
ril of  Jerusalem  considered  that  it  was  already  exist- 
ing in  his  time.  "  Now,"  he  says,  "is  the  airoaraoia, 
for  men  have  fallen  awaj'  (uTriarijaai'')  from  the  right 
faith.  This,  then,  is  the  awoaraaia,  and  we  must  be- 
gin to  look  out  for  the  enemy ;  already  he  has  begun 
to  send  his  forerunners,  that  the  prey  may  be  ready 
for  him  at  his  coming"  (Catech.  xv,  9).  See  Man  of 
Sin.  The  primitive  Christian  Church  distinguished 
several  kinds  of  apostasy ;  the  first,  of  those  who  went 
entirely  from  Christianity  to  Judaism  ;  the  second,  of 
those  who  complied  so  far  with  the  Jews  as  to  com- 
municate with  them  in  many  of  their  unlawful  prac- 
tices, without  making  a  formal  profession  of  their  re- 
ligion ;  thirdly,  of  those  who  mingled  Judaism  and 
Christianity  together;  and,  fourthly,  of  those  who  vol- 
untarily relapsed  into  paganism.  See  Libellatici  ; 
Sacrificati  ;  Traditobes  (Farrar,  s.  v.). 

At  an  early  period  it  was  held  that  the  church  was 
bound,  by  the  passages  of  Scripture  in  which  the  sin 
of  apostasy  is  referred  to,  either  entirely  to  refuse  ab- 
solution to  those  excommunicated  for  it,  or  at  least  to 
defer  it  until  the  hour  of  death.  Later,  however,  this 
rigor  against  apostates  was  modified,  and  they  were  re- 
stored to  the  church  on  condition  of  certain  prescribed 
penances.  Subsequently  ecclesiastical  usage  distin- 
guished between  apostas;a  perjidia-,  inobediintiir,  and  ir- 
regularitatis.  The  two  latter  were  reduced  in  the  Ro- 
man Church  to  two  species  of  defection,  so  that  apos- 
tasia  inobedientiat  was  made  identical  with  apostasy  from 
monastic  vows  (apostasii  a  monachatu),  and  apostasia 
irregidaritat is  with  apostasy  from  the  priesthood  (apos- 
tasia a  clericatu).  Both  apostasy  from  monastic  vows 
(when  a  monk  left  his  monastery  without  permission 
of  his  superior)  and  apostasy  from  the  priesthood  (when 
a  priest  returned  to  the  world)  were  punished  by  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  with  the  anathema,  and  later  ec- 
clesiastical legislation  threatened  them  with  the  loss 
of  the  privileges  of  the  order  and  the  clerical  rank  in 
addition  to  excommunication,  infamy,  and  irregularity. 
It  required  the  bishop  to  imprison  such  transgressors  ; 
but  apostates  from  vows  he  was  required  to  deliver  over 
to  their  superiors,  that  they  might  be  punished  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  and  customs  of  their  orders.  The  state 
governments  lent  the  secular  arm  to  execute  these  laws. 
With  regard  to  apostasy  from  the  faith,  an  ordinance 
of  Boniface  III  determined  that  apostates  to  Judaism 
should  be  dealt  with  as  heretics,  and  this  ordinance 
afterward  regulated  the  treatment  not  only  of  such, 
but  of  all  apostates.  Toward  apostates  to  Islamism, 
or  so  called  renegades,  the  church  exercises  this  dis- 
cipline to  the  present  day.  Toward  the  apostates  to 
modern  atheism  the  same  discipline  could  not  be  ex- 
ercised, because  generally  they  do  not  expressly  re- 
nounce church  fellowship.  The  Roman  empire,  as 
early  as  under  the  first  Christian  emperors,  regarded 
apostasy  as  a  civil  crime,  and  punished  it  with  confis- 
cation, inability  to  give  testimony  or  to  bequeath,  with 
infamy,  etc.  The  German  empire  adopted  the  pro- 
visions of  the  ecclesiastical  legislation,  and  treated 
apostasy  as  heresy.  The  German  criminal  practice 
knew,  therefore,  nothing  of  a  particular  penalty  for 
this  crime  ;  and  after  the  criminal  code  of  Charles  V 
abolished  the  penalty  of  heresy,  the  punishment  of 
apostasy  generally  ceased  in  the  German  criminal  law. 
In  Protestant  Church  disciplines  no  mention  is  made 
of  apostasy  from  the  Christian  religion  to  Judaism  or 
Islamism,  because  this  kind  of  apostasy  was  little  to 
be  expected  in  the  provinces  for  which  they  were  de- 
signed. The  national  churches  pursued,  however,  de- 
fection from  their  communion  through  the  customary 
stages  of  church  discipline  to  excommunication.  See 
Apostate. 

We,  in  these  latter  times,  may  apostatize,  though 
under  different  circumstances  from  those  above  de- 


APOSTATE 


308 


APOSTLE 


scribed.  The  term  "apostasy'"  is  perverted  when  it 
is  applied  to  a  withdrawal  from  any  system  of  mere 
polity  ;  it  is  legitimately  used  only  in  connection  with 
a  departure  from  the  written  truth  of  God  in  some 
form,  public  or  personal. — Bingham,  Orig.Ecdes.  bk. 
xvi,  ch.  vi,  s.  v.     See  Backsliding. 

Apostate  {airoararnq,  a  rebel,  renegade),  a  term 
used,  in  its  strict  sense,  bj'  ecclesiastical  writers,  to 
designate  one  who  has,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  left 
the  true  faith  to  embrace  a  false  belief,  or  who  has 
forsaken  any  holy  profession  to  which  he  was  bound 
by  solemn  vows.  The  term  apostate  is,  in  Church 
history,  applied  by  way  of  emphasis  to  the  Emperor 
Julian,  who,  though  he  had  been  nominally  Christian 
when  he  came  to  the  throne,  renounced  the  Christian 
religion,  and  used  every  means  in  his  power  to  re- 
establish paganism  in  the  empire.     See  Heretic. 

Apostle  (rt7roffroXoc,  from  airoaTtWw,  to  send 
fortii).  In  Attic  Greek  the  term  is  used  to  denote  a 
fleet  or  naval  armament.  It  occurs  only  once  in  the 
Sept.  (1  Kings  xiv,  G),  and  there,  as  uniformly  in  the 
New  Testament,  it  signifies  a  person  sent  by  another,  a 
messenger.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Jews  were 
accustomed  to  term  the  collector  of  the  half  shekel 
which  every  Israelite  paid  annually  to  the  Temple. an 
apostle ;  and  we  have  better  authority  for  asserting 
that  the}'  used  the  word  to  denote  one  who  carried 
about  encyclical  letters  from  their  rulers.  CEcumenius 
states  that  it  is  even  yet  a  custom  among  the  Jews  to 
call  those  who  earn'  about  circular  letters  from  their 
rulers  by  the  name  of  apostles.  To  this  use  of  the 
term  Paul  has  been  supposed  to  refer  (Gal.  i,  1)  when 
he  asserts  that  he  was  "an  apostle,  not  of  men,  nei- 
ther by  men" — an  apostle  not  like  those  known  among 
the  Jews  by  that  name,  who  derived  their  authority 
and  received  their  mission  from  the  chief  priests  or 
principal  men  of  their  nation.  The  import  of  the 
word  is  strongly  brought  out  in  John  xiii,  16,  where 
it  occurs  along  with  its  correlate,  "  The  servant  is  not 
greater  than  his  Lord,  neither  h'  who  is  sent  {ciKuaro- 
Xog)  greater  than  he  who  sent  him." 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Suicer  (Thesawrus,  art.  'Attcoto- 
Xoc)  that  the  appellation  "apostle"  is  in  the  N.  T. 
employed  as  a  general  name  for  Christian  ministers  as 
"  sent  by  God,"  in  a  qualified  use  of  that  phrase,  to 
preach  the  word.  The  word  is  indeed  used  in  this 
loose  sense  by  the  fathers.  Thus  we  find  Archippus, 
Philemon,  Apphia,  the  seventy  discip!es  (Luke  x,  1- 
17),  termed  apostles ;  and  even  Mary  Magdalene  is 
said  ytviadai  role;  c'nroaToXotg  et—oaroXoc,  to  become 
an  apostle  to  the  apostles.  No  evidence,  however, 
can  be  brought  forward  of  the  term  being  thus  used  in 
the  N.  T.  Andronicus  and  Junia  (Rom.  xvi,  7)  are 
indeed  said  to  be  tiriffjjjuot  iv  ro7e  «7rooTo\oit',  "of 
note  among  the  apostles;"  but  these  words  by  no 
means  imply  that  they  were  apostles,  but  only  that 
they  were  well  known  and  esteemed  by  the  apostles. 
The  avvepyot,  the  fellow-workers  of  the  apostles,  are 
by  Chrvsostom  denominated  avvuir ottoXoi.  The  ar- 
gument founded  on  1  Cor.  iv,  9,  compared  with  ver.  6, 
to  prove  that  Apollos  is  termed  an  apostle,  cannot 
bear  examination.  The  only  instance  in  which  it 
seems  probable  that  the  word,  as  expressive  of  an  of- 
fice in  the  Christian  Church,  is  applied  to  an  individ- 
ual whose  call  to  that  olfice  is  not  made  the  subject 
of  special  narration,  is  to  be  found  in  Acts  xiv,  4,  14, 
where  Barnabas,  as  well  as  Paul,  is  termed  an  apos- 
tle. At  the  same  time,  it  is  by  no  means  absolutely 
certain  that  the  term  apostles,  or  messengers,  does  not 
in  this  place  refer  rather  to  the  mission  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas  by  the  prophets  and  teachers  at  Antioch, 
under  the  impulse  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts  xiii,  1-4), 
than  to  that  direct  call  to  the  Christian  apostleship 
Which  we  know  Paul  received,  and  which  if  Barna- 
bas had  received,  we  can  scarcely  persuade  ourselves 
that  no  trace  of  so  important  an  event  should  have 
been  found  in  the  sacred  history  but  a  passing  hint, 


which  admits,  to  say  the  least,  of  being  plausibly  ac- 
counted for  in  another  way.  We  know  that,  on  the 
occasion  referred  to,  "the  prophets  and  teachers, 
when  they  had  fasted  and  prayed,  and  laid  their  hands 
on  Barnabas  and  Saul,  sent  them  away"  (cnriXvaav) ; 
so  that,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  will  immediately  find 
the  words  occurring,  they  were  «7rooTo\oi — prophets 
and  teachers  (Vollhagen,  he  Apost.  Ebr.  Greifsw.  1704). 

In  2  Cor.  viii,  23,  we  meet  with  the  phrase  (!tt6<jto- 
Xoi  iiocAjjffiwi',  rendered  in  our  version  "the  messengers 
of  the  churches."  Who  these  were,  and  why  they  re- 
ceived this  name,  is  obvious  from  the  context.  The 
churches  of  Macedonia  had  made  a  contribution  for 
the  relief  of  the  saints  of  Judrea,  and  had  not  merely 
requested  the  apostle  "to  receive  the  gift,  and  take 
on  him  the  fellowship  of  ministering  to  the  saints," 
but  at  his  suggestion  had  appointed  some  individuals 
to  accompany  him  to  Jerusalem  with  their  alms. 
These  "  apostles  or  messengers  of  the  churches"  were 
those  "  who  were  chosen  of  the  churches  to  travel 
with  the  apostle  with  this  grace  [gift],  which  was  ad- 
ministered by  him,"  to  the  glory  of  their  common 
Lord  (2  Cor.  viii,  1-4,  19).  With  much  the  same 
meaning  and  reference  Epaphroditus  (Phil,  ii,  25)  is 
termed  c'l-uaroXoc — a  messenger  of  the  Philippian 
Church — having  been  employed  by  them  to  carry  pe- 
cuniary assistance  to  the  apostle  (Phil,  iv,  14-18). 

The  word  "  apostle"  occurs  once  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Heb.  iii,  1)  as  a  descriptive  designation  of  Jesus 
Christ :  "  The  apostle  of  our  profession,"  i.  e.  the  apos- 
tle whom  we  profess  or  acknowledge.  The  Jews  were 
in  the  habit  of  applying  the  term  rp?d,  from  FlPEJ, 
to  send,  to  the  person  who  presided  over  the  synagogue, 
and  directed  all  its  officers  and  affairs.  The  Church 
is  represented  as  "the  house  or  family  of  God,"  over 
which  he  had  placed,  during  the  Jewish  economy,  Mo- 
ses as  the  superintendent — over  which  he  has  placed, 
under  the  Christian  economy,  Christ  Jesus.  The  im- 
port of  the  term  apostle  is  divinely  commissioned  su- 
perintendent;  and  cf  the  whole  phrase,  u  the  apostle 
of  our  profession,"  the  divinely  commissioned  superin- 
tendent whom  we  Christians  acknowledge,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  divinely  appointed  superintendent 
Moses,  whom  the  Jews  acknowledged. 

1.  The  term  apostle,  however,  is  generally  em- 
ployed in  the  New  Testament  as  the  descriptive  ap- 
pellation of  a  comparatively  small  class  of  men,  to 
whom  Jesus  Christ  intrusted  the  organization  of  his 
Church  and  the  dissemination  of  his  religion  among 
mankind.  At  an  early  period  of  his  ministry  "  he  or- 
dained twelve"  of  his  disciples  "that  they  should  be 
with  him."  Their  names  were  :  1.  Simon  Peter  (Ce- 
phas, Bar-jona);  2.  Andrew;  3.  John;  4.  Philip;  5. 
James  the  Elder ;  G.  Nathanael  (Bartholomew)  ;  7. 
Thomas  (Didymus)  ;  8.  Matthew  (Levi);  9.  Simon 
Zelotes ;  10.  jude  (Lebbams,  Judas,  Thaddaeus)  ;  11. 
James  the  Less  ;  12.  Judas  Iscariot.  (For  their  names 
according  to  Mohammedan  traditions,  see  Thilo, .  [poor'. 
i,  152.)  "  These  he  named  apostles."  Some  time 
afterward  "  he  gave  to  them  power  against  unclean 
spirits  to  cast  them  out,  and  to  heal  all  manner  of 
disease;"  "and  he  sent,  them  to  preach  the  kingdom 
of  (I. m1"  (Mark  iii,  11:  Matt,  x,  1-5;  Mark  vi,  7; 
Luke  vi,  13;  ix,  1).  To  them  he  gave  "the  keys  of 
the  kingdom  of  God,"  and  constituted  them  princes 
over  the  spiritual  Israel,  that  "  people,  whom  God  was 
to  take  from  among  the  Gentiles,  for  his  name"  (Matt. 
xvi,  19;  xviii,  18;  xix,  28;  Luke  xxii,  30).  Previ- 
ously to  his  death  he  promised  to  them  the  Hoky 
Spirit,  to  fit  them  to  be  the  founders  and  governors 
of  the  Christian  Church  (John  xiv,  1(1,  17,  20  ;  xv,  26, 
27;  xvi,  7-15).  After  his  resurrection  he  solemnly 
confirmed  their  call,  saying,  "As  the  Father  hath 
sent  me.  so  send  I  you ;"  and  gave  them  a  commission 
to  "preach  the  gospel  to  every  creature"  (John  xx, 
21-23:  Matt,  xviii,  18-20).  After  his  ascension  he, 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  communicated  to  them  those 


APOSTLE 


309 


APOSTLE 


supernatural  gifts  which  were  necessary  to  the  per- 
formance of  the  high  functions  he  had  commissioned 
them  to  exercise ;  and  in  the  exercise  of  these  gifts 
they,  in  the  Gospel  history  and  in  their  epistles,  with 
the  Apocah'pse,  gave  a  complete  view  of  the  will  of 
their  Master  in  reference  to  that  new  order  of  things 
of  which  he  was  the  author.  They  "had  the  mind 
of  Christ."  They  spoke  "the  wisdom  of  God  in  a 
mystery."  That  mystery  "  God  revealed  to  them  by 
his  Spirit,"  and  the}'  spoke  it,  "not  in  worils  which 
man's  wisdom  teacheth,  but  which  the  Holy  Ghost 
teacheth."  They  were  "  ambassadors  for  Christ,"  ;  nd 
besought  men,  "  in  Christ's  stead,  to  be  reconciled  to 
God."  They  authoritatively  taught  the  doctrine  and 
the  law  of  their  Lord ;  they  organized  churches,  and 
required  them  to  "keep  the  traditions,"  i.  e.  the  doc- 
trines and  ordinances  delivered  to  them"  (Acts  ii;  1 
Cor.  ii,  16;  ii,  7,  10,  13;  2  Cor.  v,  20;  1  Cor.  xi,  2). 
Of  the  twelve  originally  ordained  to  the  apostleship, 
one,  Judas  Iscariot,  "fell  from  it  by  transgression," 
and  Matthias,  "  who  had  companied"  with  the  oth- 
er apostles  "  all  the  time  that  the  Lord  Jesus  went 
out  and  in  among  them,"  was  by  lot  substituted  in  his 
place  (Acts  i,  17-26).  Saul  of  Tarsus,  afterward 
termed  Paul,  was  also  miraculously  added  to  the  num- 
ber of  these  permanent  rulers  of  the  Christian  society 
(Acts  ix;  xx,  4;  xxvi,  15-18;  1  Tim.  i,  12;  ii,  7  ; 
2  Tim.  i,  11).     See  Disciples  {Twelve). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

2.  The  number  twelve  was  probably  fixed  upon  after 
the  analogy  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  the  Israelites 
(Matt,  xix,'  28;  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  p.  323;  comp. 
Tertull.  c.  Marcion.  iv,  415),  and  was  so  exact,  that 
the  apostles  are  often  termed  simply  "the  Twelve" 
(Matt,  xxvi,  14,  47  ;  John  vi,  G7  ;  xx,  24  ;  1  Cor.  xv, 
5).  Their  general  commission  was  to  preach  the  gos- 
pel. (See  generally  Cave,  Hist,  of  the  Apostles,  Lond. 
1677 ;  Spanheim,  Be  apostolatu,  in  his  Dissert,  hist. 
quatemio,  Lugd.  B.  1679 ;  Budda;  Eceles.  apost.  Jen. 
1729;  Burmann,  Exercit.  acad.  ii,  104  sq.  ;  Hess, 
O'esch.  u.  Schrift.  d.  Apostel,  Tur.  1821 ;  Planck,  Geseh. 
des  Ckristentk.  Gott.  1818;  Wilhelm,  Christi  Apostel, 
Heidelb.  1825  ;  Capelli  Histor.  apost.  illustr.  Genev. 
1634,  Salmur.  1683,  Frckf.  1691 ;  Von  Einem,  Ilistoria 
Chr.  et  Apostol.  Goett.  1758 ;  Rullmann,  De  apostolis, 
Rint.  1789;  Stanley,  Sermons  on  the  Apostolic  Age, 
Oxf.  1847,  1852;  Kenan,  Les  Apotres,  Paris,  1866.) 
They  were  uneducated  persons  (F.  Lami,  De  erudi- 
tione  apostnlorujn ,  Flor.  1738)  taken  from  common 
life,  mostly  Galileans  (Matt,  xi,  25),  and  many  of 
them  had  been  disciples  of  John  the  Baptist  (John  i, 
35  sq.).  Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  relatives 
of  Jesus  himself.  See  Brother.  Our  Lord  chose 
them  early  in  his  public  career,  though  some  of  them 
had  certainly  partly  attached  themselves  to  him  before ; 
but  after  their  call  as  apostles  they  appear  to  have  been 
continuously  with  him  or  in  his  service.  The)'  seem 
to  have  been  all  on  an  equality,  both  during  and  after 
the  ministry  of  Christ  on  earth  ;  and  the  prelatical 
supremacy  of  Peter,  founded  by  the  Romish  Church 
upon  Matt,  xvi,  18,  is  nowhere  alluded  to  in  the  apos- 
tolical period.  We  rind  one  indeed,  Peter,  from  fervor 
of  personal  character,  usually  prominent  among  them, 
and  distinguished  by  having  the  first  place  assigned 
him  in  founding  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  churches  [see 
Peter]  ;  but  we  never  find  the  slightest  trace  in 
Scripture  of  any  superiority  or  primacy  being  in  con- 
sequence accorded  to  him.  We  also  find  that  he  and 
two  others,  James  and  John,  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  are 
admitted  to  the  inner  privacy  of  our  Lord's  acts  and 
sufferings  on  several  occasions  (Mark  v,  37 ;  Matt, 
xvii,  1  sq.  ;  xxvi,  37);  but  this  is  no  proof  of  superi-, 
ority  in  rank  or  office.  Early  in  our  Lord's  ministry, 
he  sent  them  out  two  and  two  to  preach  repentance, 
and  perform  miracles  in  his  name  (Matt,  x  ;  Luke  ix). 
This  their  mission  was  of  the  nature  of  a  solemn  call 
to  the  children  of  Israel,  to  whom  it  was  confined 
(Matt,  x,  5,  6).     There  is,  however,  in  his  charge  to 


the  apostles  on  this  occasion  not  a  word  of  their  pro- 
claiming his  own  mission  as  the  Messiah  of  the  Jew- 
ish people;  their  preaching  was  at  this  time  strictly 
of  a  preparatory  kind,  resembling  that  of  John  the 
Baptist,  the  Lord's  forerunner. 

Jesus  early  informed  the  apostles  respecting  the 
solemn  nature,  the  hardships,  and  even  positive  dan- 
ger of  their  vocation  (Matt,  x,  17),  but  he  never  im- 
parted to  them  an j'  esoteric  instruction,  nor  even  in- 
itiated them  into  any  special  mysteries,  since  the 
whole  tendency  of  his  teaching  was  practical ;  but 
they  constantly  accompanied  him  in  his  tours  of 
preaching  and  to  the  festivals  (being  unhindered  by 
their  domestic  relations,  comp.  Matt,  viii,  14 ;  1  Cor. 
ix,  5;  see  Euseb.  Hist.  Eceles.  iii,  £0;  Schmid,  De 
apostolis  uxoratis,  Helmst.  1704,  Yiteb.  1734  ;  comp. 
Deyling,  Observ.  iii,  469  sq. ;  Pfaff,  De  circumduction*. 
soror.  mulierum  apostolica,  Tubing.  1751 ;  Schulthess, 
Neuest.  theol.  Nachricht.  1828,  i,  130  sq.),  beheld  his 
wonderful  acts,  listened  to  his  discourses  addressed  to 
the  multitude  (Matt,  v,  1  sq. ;  xxiii,  1  sq. ;  Luke  iv, 
13  sq.),  or  his  discussions  with  learned  Jews  (Matt. 
xix,  13  sq. ;  Luke  x,  25  sq.) ;  occasionally  (especially 
the  favorite  Peter,  John,  and  James  the  elder)  fol- 
lowed him  in  private  (Matt,  xvii,  1  sq.),  and  conversed 
freely  with  him,  eliciting  information  (Matt,  xv,  15 
sq. ;  xviii,  1  sq. ;  Luke  viii,  9  sq. ;  xii,  41  ;  xvii,  5 ; 
John  ix,  2  sq.)  on  religious  subjects,  sometimes  with 
respect  to  the  sayings  of  Jesus,  sometimes  in  general 
(Matt,  xiii,  10  sq.),  and  were  even  on  one  occasion 
themselves  incited  to  make  attempts  at  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  Gospel  (Matt,  vi,  7  sq. ;  Luke  ix,  6  sq.), 
and  with  this  view  performed  cures  (Mark  vi,  13; 
Luke  ix,  G),  although  in  this  last  they  were  not  al- 
ways successful  (Matt,  xvii,  16).  They  had,  indeed, 
already  acknowledged  him  (Matt,  xvi,  1C>;  Luke  ix, 
20)  as  the  Messiah  (6  XpiVToe  tov  B£of»),  endowed  with 
miraculous  powers  (Luke  ix,  54),  yet  they  were  slow 
in  apprehending  the  spiritual  doctrii.e  and  aim  of  their 
Master,  being  impeded  by  their  weak  perception  and 
their  national  prepossessions  (Matt,  xv,  16;  xvi,  22; 
xvii,  20  sq. ;  Luke  ix,  54  ;  John  xvi,  12),  insomuch 
that  they  had  to  ask  him  concerning  the  obvious  im- 
port of  the  plainest  parables  (Luke  xii,  41  sq.),  and, 
indeed,  they  themselves  at  times  confessed  their  want 
of  faith  (Luke  xvii,  5) ;  nor  even  at  the  departure  of 
Jesus  from  the  earth,  when  for  two  or  three  years 
they  had  been  his  constant  and  intimate  companions 
(Matt,  xvi,  21),  were  they  at  all  mature  (Luke  xxiv, 
21 ;  comp.  John  xvi,  12)  in  the  knowledge  appropriate 
to  their  mission  (see  Vollborth,  De  discip.  Christi  per 
fjradus  ad  dignitatem  et  potent.  Apostolor.  erect  is,  Gott. 
1790  ;  Bagge,  De  sapientia  Christi  in  electione,  institu- 
tione  et  missione  Apostolor.  Jen.  1754;  Ziez,  Quomodo 
notio  de  Messia  in  animis  Apost.  sensim  sensimque  clari~ 
orem  acceperit  lucem,  Lubec.  1793;  Liebe,  in  Augusti, 
N.  theol.  Blatt.  II,  i,  42  sq. ;  Ernesti,  De  prceclara 
Chr.  in  Apost.  instituendis  sapientia,  Gott.  1834 ;  Ne- 
ander,  Leb.  Jes.  p.  229  sq. ;  comp.  also  Mafan,  De  via 
qua  Apost.  Jesu  doctrinam  divin.  melius  perspexerint, 
Gott.  1809).  Even  the  inauguration  with  which  they 
were  privileged  at  the  last  supper  with  Jesus  under 
so  solemn  circumstances  (Matt,  xxvi,  26  sq. ;  Mark 
xiv,  22  sq. ;  Luke  xxii,  17  sq.)  neither  served  to 
awaken  their  enthusiasm,  nor  indeed  to  preserve  them 
from  outright  faithlessness  at  the  death  of  their  Mas- 
ter (Matt,  xvi,  14  sq. ;  Luke  xxiv,  13  sq.,  36  sq. ;  John 
xx,  9,  25  sq.).  One  who  was  but  a  distant  follower 
of  Jesus  and  a  number  of  females  charged  themselves 
with  the  interment  of  his  body,  and  it  was  only  his 
incontestable  resurrection  that  gathered  together  again 
his  scattered  disciples.  Yet  the  most  of  them  return- 
ed even  after  this  to  their  previous  occupation  (John 
xxi,  3  sq.),  as  if  in  abandonment  of  him,  and  it  re- 
quired a  fresh  command  of  the  Master  (Matt,  xxviii, 
28  sq.)  to  direct  them  to  their  mission,  and  colle<  t 
them  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  i,  4).     Here  they  awaited  in 


APOSTLE 


310 


APOSTLE 


a  pious  association  the  advent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (John 
xx,  22),  which  Jesus  had  promised  them  (Acts  i,  8) 
as  the  Paraclete  (John  xiv,  26 ;  xvi,  13) ;  and  soon 
after  the  ascension  of  their  teacher,  on  the  Pentecost 
established  at  the  founding  of  the  old  dispensation, 
they  felt  themselves  surprised  by  an  extraordinary 
phenomenon  (see  Schulthess,  De  Charismat.ib.  Spir. 
Sancti,  Leipz.  1818;  Schulz,  Geistesgaben  der  ersten 
Christen,  Bresl.  183(J ;  Neander,  Planting,  i,  11  sq.), 
resulting  in  an  internal  influx  of  the  power  of  that 
Spirit  (Acts  ii) ;  and  thereupon  they  immediately  be- 
gan, as  soon  as  the  vacancy  occasioned  by  the  defec- 
tion of  Judas  Iscariot  had  been  filled  by  the  election 
of  Matthias  (Acts  i,  15  sq.),  to  publish,  as  witnesses 
of  the  life  and  resurrection  of  their  Lord,  the  Gospel 
in  the  Holy  City  with  ardor  and  success  (Acts  ii,  41). 
Their  course  was  henceforth  decided,  and  over  much 
that  had  hitherto  been  dark  to  them  now  beamed  a 
clear  light  (John  ii,  22  ;  xii,  16 ;  see  Henke,  in  Pott's 
Sylloge,  i,  19  sq.). — "Winer,  s.  v. 

S.  Under  the  eyes  of  the  apostles,  and  not  without 
personal  sacrifice  on  their  part,  the  original  Christian 
membership  at  Jerusalem  erected  themselves  into  a 
community  within  the  pale  of  Judaism,  although  irre- 
spective of  its  sacred  rites,  with  which,  however,  they 
maintained  a  connection  (Acts  iii-vii),  and  the  apos- 
tolical activity  soon  disseminated  the  divine  word 
among  the  Samaritans  likewise  (Acts  viii,  5  sq.,  15), 
where  already  Jesus  had  gained  some  followers  (John 
iv).  In  the  mother  Church  at  Jerusalem  their  supe- 
rior dignity  and  power  were  universally  acknowl- 
edged by  the  rulers  and  the  people  (Acts  v,  12  sq.). 
Even  the  persecution  which  arose  about  Stephen,  and 
put  the  first  check  on  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  in  Ju- 
daea, does  not  seem  to  have  brought  peril  to  the  apos- 
tles (Acts  viii,  1).  Here  ends,  properly  speaking  (or 
rather,  perhaps,  with  the  general  visitation  hinted  at 
in  Acts  ix,  32),  the  first  period  of  the  apostles'  agen- 
cy, during  which  its  centre  is  Jerusalem,  and  the 
prominent  figure  is  that  of  Peter.  Agreeably  to  the 
promise  of  our  Lord  to  him  (Matt,  xvi,  18),  which  we 
conceive  it  impossible  to  understand  otherwise  than  in 
a  personal  sense,  he  among  the  twelve  foundations 
(Rev.  xxi,  14)  was  the  stone  on  whom  the  Church 
was  first  built ;  and  it  was  his  privilege  first  to  open 
the  doors  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  Jews  (Acts  ii, 
11,  42)  and  to  Gentiles  (Acts  x,  11).  The  next  deci- 
sive step  was  taken  by  Peter,  who,  not  without  mis- 
givings and  even  disapproval  on  the  part  of  the  prim- 
itive body  of  Christians,  had  published  the  Gospel  on 
the  sea-coast  (Acts  x,  xi) ;  and  this  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  second  community  in  the  Syrian  me- 
tropolis Antioch  (Acts  xi,  21),  which  kept  up  a  friend- 
ly connection  with  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xi, 
22  sq.),  and  constitutes  the  centre  of  this  second  pe- 
riod of  the  apostolical  history. 

But  all  that  had  hitherto  taken  place  was  destined 
to  be  cast  into  the  shade  by  the  powerful  influence  of 
one  individual,  a  Pharisee,  who  received  the  apostolate 
in  a  most  remarkable  manner,  namely,  Paul.  Treat- 
ed at  first  with  suspicion,  he  soon  acquired  influence 
and  consideration  in  the  circle  of  the  apostles  by  his 
enthusiasm  (Acts  xiii),  but,  betaking  himself  to  Anti- 
och, he  carried  forth  thence  in  every  direction  the 
Gospel  into  distant  heathen  lands,  calling  out  and 
employing  active  associates,  and  resigning  to  others 
(  Peter;  comp.  Gal.  ii,  7)  the  conversion  of  the  Jews. 
His  labors  form  the  third  apostolical  period.  From 
this  time  Paul  is  the  central  character  of  the  apostol- 
ical historj  :  even  Peter  gradually  disappears,  and  it 
18  only  after  Paul  had  retired  from  Asia  Minor  that 
John  appears  there,  but  even  then  laboring  in  a  quiet 
manner.  Thus  a  man  who  had  probably  not  person- 
ally known  <  Ihrist,  who,  at  least,  was  not  (originally) 
designated  and  consecrated  by  him  to  the  apostleship, 
yel  accomplished  more  for  Christianity  than  all  the 
directly-appointed  apostles,  not  only  in  extent,  meas- 


uring his  activity  by  the  geographical  region  trav- 
ersed, but  also  in  intensity,  since  he  especially  grasp- 
ed the  comprehensive  scope  of  the  Christian  remedial 
system,  and  sought  to  harmonize  the  heavenly  doc- 
trine with  sound  learning.  It  is  not  a  little  remark- 
able that  a  Pharisee  should  thus  most  successfully 
comprehend  the  world-wide  spirit  of  Christianity. 

4.  Authentic  historj-  records  nothing  concerning 
the  apostles  beyond  what  Luke  has  afforded  respecting 
Peter,  John  (Acts  viii,  14),  and  the  two  James's  (Acts 
xii,  2,  17 ;  xv,  13 ;  xxi,  18).  Traditions,  derived  in 
part  from  early  times  (Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  iii,  1),  have 
come  down  to  us  concerning  nearly  all  of  them  (see 
the  Acta  Apostolorum  Apocrypha,  which  have  been 
usually  ascribed  to  one  Abdias,  in  Fabricii  Cod.  Apoc- 
ryph.  i,  402  sq. ;  and  Cave's  Antiquitates  Apostol.  ut 
sup. ;  also  Perionii  Vita;  Apostolorum,  Par.  1551,  Frcf. 
1774;  comp.  Ludewig,  Die  Apost.  Jes.  Quedlinb. 
1841 ;  Heringa,  De  vitis  apostolorum,  Tielffi,  1844), 
but  they  must  be  cautiously  resorted  to,  as  they  some- 
times conflict  with  one  another,  and  their  gradual 
growth  can  often  be  traced.  All  that  can  be  gather- 
ed with  certainty  respecting  the  subsequent  historj' 
of  the  apostles  is  that  James  (q.  v.),  after  the  mar- 
tyrdom  of  James  the  greater  (Acts  xii,  2),  usuallj-  re- 
mained at  Jerusalem  as  the  acknowledged  head  of  the 
fraternity  (comp.  Acts  xii,  17)  and  president  of  the 
college  of  the  apostles  (Acts  xv,  13  ;  xxi,  18  ;  Gal.  ii, 
9)  ;  while  Peter  travelled  mostly  as  missionary  among 
the  Jews  ("apostle  of  the  Circumcision,"  Gal.  ii,  8), 
and  John  (all  three  arc  named  "pillars"  of  the  Chris- 
tian community,  Gal.  ii,  9)  eventually  strove  at  Eph- 
csus  to  extend  the  kindly  practical  character  of  Chris- 
tianity, which  had  been  endangered  by  Gnostical  ten- 
dencies, and  to  win  disciples  in  this  temper.  From 
this  period  it  certainly  becomes  impossible  to  determ- 
ine the  sphere  of  these  or  the  other  apostles'  activity ; 
but  it  must  ever  remain  remarkable  that  precisely 
touching  the  evangelical  mission  of  the  immediate 
apostles  no  more  information  is  extant,  and  that  the 
memory  of  the  services  of  most  of  them  survived  the 
very  first  century  onlj-  in  extremely  unreliable  sto- 
ries. We  might  be  even  tempted  to  consider  the 
choice  of  Jesus  as  in  a  great  measure  a  failure,  espe- 
cially since  a  Judas  was  among  the  select ;  but  we 
must  not  forget,  in  the  first  place,  that  it  was  of  great 
importance  for  Jesus  to  form  as  early  as  possible  a 
narrow  circle  of  disciples,  i.  e.  at  a  time  when  there 
was  small  opportunity  for  selection  (Matt,  ix,  37  sq.)  ; 
in  the  second  place,  that,  in  making  the  choice,  he 
could  only  have  regard  to  moral  and  intellectual  con- 
stitution, in  which  respect  the  apostles  chosen  proba- 
bly compared  favorably  with  his  other  followers  ;  and 
finally  that,  even  if  (as  some  infer  from  John  ii,  25) 
the  ultimate  results  had  been  clearly  foreseen  bj'  him, 
they  did  not  (especially  after  the  new  turn  given 
to  the  Christian  enterprise  by  Paul)  strictly  depend 
upon  this  act  of  his,  since,  in  fact,  the  successful  issue 
of  the  scheme  justified  his  sagacity  as  to  the  instru- 
mentalities by  which  it  was  on  the  whole  carried  for- 
ward. Some  writers  (Neander,  Leb.  Jes.  p.  223  sq.) 
have  made  out  quite  an  argument  for  the  selection  of 
the  apostles  from  their  various  idiosyncracies  and 
marked  traits  of  character  (Gregorii  Diss,  de  temper- 
amentis  scriptorum  N.  T.  Lips.  1710 ;  comp.  Hase, 
Leb.  Jes.  p.  112  sq.),  and  Jesus  himself  clearly  never 
intended  that  they  should  all  have  an  equal  career  or 
mission  ;  the  founding  of  the  Church  in  Palestine  and 
its  vicinity  was  their  first  and  chief  work,  and  their 
services  in  other  countries,  however  important  in 
themselves,  were  of  secondary  interest  to  this.  See 
generally,  respecting  single  apostles  and  their  activi- 
ty (especiallv  in  the  N.  T.),  Neander's  Planting  and 
Training  "{'the  Prim.  Ch.  (Hamb.  3d  ed.  1841,  Edinb. 
1843)  ;  D.  F.  P.acon,  Lives  of  the  Apost.  (N.  Y.  1846). 

5.  The  characteristic  features  of  this  highest  office 
in  the  Christian  Church  have  been  very  accurately 


APOSTLE 


311 


APOSTLE 


delineated  by  M'Lean,  in  his  Apostolic  Commission. 
"  It  was  essential  to  their  office — (1.)  That  they  should 
have  seen  the  Lord,  and  been  eye  and  ear  witnesses  of 
what  they  testified  to  the  world  (John  xv,  27).  This 
is  laid  down  as  an  essential  requisite  in  the  choice  of 
one  to  succeed  Judas  (Acts  i,  21,  22),  that  he  should 
have  been  personally  acquainted  with  the  whole  min- 
isterial course  of  our  Lord,  from  the  baptism  of  John 
till  the  day  when  He  was  taken  up  into  heaven.  He 
himself  describes  them  as  '  those  that  had  continued 
with  Him  in  his  temptations'  (Luke  xxii,  28).  By 
this  close  personal  intercourse  with  Him,  they  were 
peculiarly  fitted  to  give  testimony  to  the  facts  of  re- 
demption ;  and  we  gather,  from  his  own  words  in  John 
xiv,  28 ;  xv,  26,  27  ;  xvi,  13,  that  an  especial  bestowal 
of  the  Spirit's  influence  was  granted  them,  by  which 
their  memories  were  quickened,  and  their  power  of  re- 
producing that  which  they  had  heard  from  him  in- 
creased above  the  ordinary  measure  of  man.  Paul  is 
no  exception  here  ;  for,  speaking  of  those  who  saw 
Christ  after  his  resurrection,  he  adds,  '  and  last  of  all 
he  was  seen  of  me'  (1  Cor.  xv,  8).  And  this  he  else- 
where mentions  as  one  of  his  apostolic  qualifications  : 
'Am  I  not  an  apostle?  have  I  not  seen  the  Lord?' 
(1  Cor.  ix,  1).  So  that  his  '  seeing  that  Just  One  and 
hearing  the  word  of  his  mouth'  was  necessary  to  his 
being  'a  witness  of  what  he  thus  saw  and  heard' 
(Acts  xxii,  14,  15).  (2.)  They  must  have  been  im- 
mediately called  and  chosen  to  that  office  by  Christ 
himself.  This  was  the  case  with  every  one  of  them 
(Luke  vi,  13 ;  Gal.  i,  1),  Matthias  not  excepted ;  for, 
as  he  had  been  a  chosen  disciple  of  Christ  before,  so 
the  Lord,  by  determining  the  lot,  declared  his  choice, 
and  immediately  called  him  to  the  office  of  an  apostle 
(Acts  i,  24-26).  (3.)  Infallible  inspiration  was  also 
essentially  necessary  to  that  office  (John  xvi,  13;  1 
Cor.  ii,  10  ;  Gal.  i,  11,  12).  They  had  not  only  to  ex- 
plain the  true  sense  and  spirit  of  the  Old  Testament 
(Luke  xxiv,  27  ;  Acts  xxvi,  22,  23 ;  xxviii,  23),  which 
were  hid  from  the  Jewish  doctors,  but  also  to  give 
forth  the  New  Testament  revelation  to  the  world, 
which  was  to  be  the  unalterable  standard  of  faith  and 
practice  in  all  succeeding  generations  (1  Pet.  i,  25;  1 
John  iv,  C).  It  was  therefore  absolutely  necessary 
that  the}'  should  be  secured  against  all  error  and  mis- 
take by  unerring  inspiration.  Accordingly,  Christ  be- 
stowed on  them  the  Spirit  to  'teach  them  all  things,' 
to  '  bring  all  things  to  their  remembrance  whatsoever 
he  had  said  to  them'  (John  xiv,  26),  to  '  guide  them 
into  all  truth,'  and  to  '  show  them  things  to  come' 
(John  xvi,  13).  Their  word,  therefore,  must  be  re- 
ceived, '  not  as  the  word  of  men,  but,  as  it  is  in  truth, 
the  word  of  God'  (1  Thess.  ii,  13),  and  as  that  where- 
by we  are  to  distinguish  'the  spirit  of  truth  from  the 
spirit  of  error"  (1  John  iv,  6b  (4.)  Another  qualifica- 
tion was  the  power  of  working  miracles  (Mark  xvi, 
20 ;  Acts  ii,  43),  such  as  speaking  with  divers  tongues, 
curing  the  lame,  etc.  (1  Cor.  xii,  8-11).  These  were 
the  credentials  of  their  divine  mission.  '  Truly,' 
sa3S  Paul,  'the  signs  of  an  apostle  were  wrought 
among  you  in  all  patience,  in  signs,  and  wonders,  and 
mighty  deeds'  (2  Cor.  xii,  12).  Miracles  were  neces- 
sary to  confirm  their  doctrine  at  its  first  publication, 
and  to  gain  credit  to  it  in  the  world  as  a  revelation 
from  God,  and  by  these  'God  bare  them  witness' 
(II  eb.  ii,  4).  (5.)  To  these  characteristics  may  be 
added  the  universality  of  their  mission.  Their  charge 
was  not  confined  to  any  particular  visible  church, 
like  that  of  ordinary  pastors,  but,  being  the  oracles  of 
God  to  men,  they  had  '  the  care  of  all  the  churches' 
(2  Cor.  xi,  28).  They  had  power  to  settle  their  faith 
and  order  as  a  model  to  future  ages,  to  determine  all 
controversies  (Acts  xvi,  4),  and  to  exercise  the  rod  of 
discipline  upon  all  offenders,  whether  pastors  or  flock 
(1  Cor.  v,  3-6;  2  Cor.  x,  8;  xiii,  10)." 

6.  It  must  be  obvious,  from  this  scriptural  account 
of  the  apostolical  office,  that  the  apostles  had,  in  the 


strict  sense  of  the  term,  no  successors.  Their  qualifi- 
cations were  supernatural,  and  their  work,  once  per- 
formed, remains  in  the  infallible  record  of  the  New 
Testament,  for  the  advantage  of  the  Church  and  the 
world  in  all  future  ages.  They  are  the  only  authori- 
tative teachers  of  Christian  doctrine  and  law.  All  of- 
ficial men  in  Christian  churches  can  legitimately  claim 
no  higher  place  than  expounders  of  the  doctrines  and 
administrators  of  the  laws  found  in  their  writings. 
Few  things  have  been  more  injurious  to  the  cause  of 
Christianity  than  the  assumption  on  the  part  of  ordi- 
nary office-bearers  in  the  Church  of  the  peculiar  pre- 
rogatives of  "the  holy  apostles  of  our  Lord  Jesus." 
Much  that  is  said  of  the  latter  is  not  at  all  applicable 
to  the  former;  and  much  that  admits  of  being  applied 
can  be  so,  in  truth,  only  in  a  very  secondary  ami  ex- 
tenuated sense.     See  Succession. 

The  apostolical  office  seems  to  have  been  pre-emi- 
nently that  of  founding  the  churches,  and  upholding 
them  by  supernatural  power  specially  bestowed  for 
that  purpose.  It  ceased,  as  a  matter  of  course,  with 
its  first  holders ;  all  continuation  of  it,  from  the  very 
conditions  of  its  existence  (comp.  1  Cor.  ix,  1),  being 
impossible.  The  'nrioKoiroi\  or  "bishop"  of  the  an- 
cient churches  coexisted  with,  and  did  not  in  any 
sense  succeed,  the  apostles ;  and  when  it  is  claimed 
for  bishops  or  any  church  officers  that  they  are  theii 
successors,  it  can  be  understood  only  chronologically, 
and  not  officially.     See  Succession. 

7.  In  the  early  ecclesiastical  writers  we  find  the 
term  6  cnroaroXoc,  "the  apostle,"  used  as  the  desig- 
nation of  a  portion  of  the  canonical  books,  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  Pauline  Epistles.  "  The  Psalter"  and 
"the  Apostle"  are  often  mentioned  together.  It  is 
also  not  uncommon  with  these  writers  to  call  Paul 
"  The  Apostle,"  by  waj'  of  eminence. 

The  several  apostles  are  usually  represented  in 
mediaeval  pictures  with  special  badges  or  attributes: 
St.  Peter,  with  the  keys  ;  St.  Paul,  with  a  sword  ;  St. 
Andrew,  with  a  cross ;  St.  James  the  Less,  with  a 
fuller's  pole  ;  St.  John,  with  a  cup  and  a  winged  ser- 
pent flying  out  of  it ;  St.  Bartholomew,  with  a  knife ; 
St.  Philip,  with  a  long  staff,  whose  upper  end  is  form- 
ed into  a  cross  ;  St.  Thomas,  with  a  lance  ;  St.  Mat- 
thew, with  a  hatchet ;  St.  Matthias,  with  a  battle-axe  ; 
St.  James  the  Greater,  with  a  pilgrim's  staff  and  a 
gourd-bottle;  St.  Simon,  with  a  saw;  and  St.  Jucle, 
with  a  club.      (See  Lardner,  Works,  v,  255-vi,  361.) 

For  the  history  of  the  individual  apostles,  see  each 
name  (Mant,  Bioy.  of  the  Apostles,  Lond.  1840). 

8.-  Further  works  on  the  history  of  the  apostles,  be- 
sides the  patristic  ones  by  Dorotheus  of  Tyre  (tr.  in 
Hanmer's  Eiisebius,  Lond.  1663),  Jerome  (in  append, 
of  his  Opera,  ii,  945),  Hippolytus  (of  doubtful  genuine- 
ness, given  with  others  in  Fabricii  Cod.  Apocr.  N.  T. 
ii,  388,  744,  757 ;  iii,  599),  Nicetas  (Lat.  in  Bill.  Max. 
Pair,  xxvii,  384;  Gr.  and  Lat.  by  Combefis,  Auct. 
Noviss.  p.  327),  and  others  (see  J.  A.  Fabricius,  Bibli- 
otheca  Eccles.  append.),  are  the  following:  G.  Fabri- 
cius, Hist.  J.  C.  itemque  apostol.  etc.  (Lips.  1566,  1581, 
8vo) ;  Cave,  Lives  of  lh°.  Apistles  (Lond.  1677,  1678, 
1684,  1686,  fob,  and  often  since;  new  ed.  by  Cary, 
Oxf.  1840,  8vo;  a  standard  work  on  the  subject,  above 
referred  to)  ;  Hoffmann,  Geschichtskalender  d.  Apostel 
(Prem.  1699,  8vo) ;  Grunenberg,  De  Apostolis  (Rost. 
1704,  1705)  ;  Reading,  Hist,  of  our  Lord,  with  Lives  of 
th"  Apostles  (Lond.  171(5,  8vo) ;  Anonymous,  Hist,  of 
th<  Apostles  in  Scripture  (Lond.  1725,  8vo) ;  Sandin, 
Hist.  Apostolica  (Petav.  1731,  8vo  ;  an  attempt  to  for- 
tify the  Acts  by  external  accounts) ;  G.  Erasmus, 
I'rreyrivitiiwes  apostolor.  (Regiom.  1702);  Tillemont, 
L'Histoire  Ecclesiastique,  i  and  ii ;  Fleetwood,  Life  of 
Christ,  s.  f. ;  Lardner,  Works,  vi ;  Jacobi,  Gcsch.  d. 
Apostet  (Gotha,  1818,  8vo) ;  Rosenmiiller,  Die  Apostel, 
nach  ihrem  Leben  u.  Wirken  (Lpz.  1821,  8vo) ;  Wilhelmi, 
Christi  Apostel  n.  erste  Bekenner  (Heidelb.  1825,  8vo) ; 
Kitto.  Daily  Bible  Illustrations,  eve.  ser.  iv ;    Green- 


APOSTLES'  CREED 


312 


APOSTOLIC  AGE 


wood,  Lives  of  the  Apostles  (3d  ed.  Bost.  184G,  12mo)  ; 
also  the  works  enumerated  under  Acts  (of  the  Apos- 
tles). Of  a  more  special  character  are  the  following 
among  others  :  Kibov,  De  apostolatuJudaico,  spec.  Paidi 
(Gott.  1745)  ;  Heineccius,  De  habitu  et  insignib.  aposto- 
lor.  sacerdotalibus  (Lips.  1702) ;  Pfliicke,  De  apostolor. 
et  prophetar.  in  N.  T.  eminentia  et  discrimine  (Lips. 
1785) ;  Rhodomann,  De  sapientia  Chr.  in  electione  apos- 
tolor. (Jen.  1752) ;  C.  W.  F.  Walch,  De  illuminatione 
apostolor.  successiva  (Gott.  1758) ;  Michaelis,  De  apti- 
tud'tne  et  sinceritate  apostolor.  (Hal.  1760) ;  Jesse,  Learn- 
ing and  Inspiration  of  the  Apostles  (Lond.  1798)  ;  Gold- 
horn,  De  institutione  apostolor.  prcecepta  rede  agendi  a 
Jesu  scepenumero  repetenda  (Lips.  1817);  Tittmann,  De 
discrimine  disciplines  Christi  et  apostolorum  (Lips.  1805)  ; 
Hergang,  De  apostolor.  sensu  psychologico  (Budissie, 
1841);  Milman,  Character  and  Conduct  of  the  Apostles 
(Bampton  Lect.  Oxf.  1827)  ;  Whately,  Lect.  on  the 
character  of  the  Apostles  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1853)  ;  Messner, 
Lehre  der  Apostel  (Lpz.  1856).  Monographs  on  various 
points  relating  to  the  apostolata  have  also  been  writ- 
ten in  Latin  by  Moebius  (Lips.  1660),  Dannhauer  (Ar- 
gent. 1664),  Kahler  (Mint.  1700),  Cyprian  (Lips.  1717), 
Fischer  (ib.  1720),  Fromm  (Ged.  1720),  Neubauer 
(Hal.  1729),  Beck  (Viteb.  1735),  Roser  (Argent.  1743), 
Michaelis  (Hal.  1749),  Kocher  (Jen.  1751),  Stosch 
(Guelf.  1751),  Rathlef  (Harmon.  1752),  C.  W.  F.  Walch 
(Jen.  1754),  J.  E.  J.  Walch  (ib.  1753, 1755),  J.  G.  Walch 
(ib.  1774),  Pries  (Rost.  1757),  Schulze  (Frcft.  1758), 
Taddel  (Rost,  1760),  Stemler  (Lips.  1707),  Crusius  (ib. 
1769),  Widmann  (Jen.  1775),  Wilcke  (ib.  1676),  Wich- 
mann  (ib.  1779),  Schlegel  (Lips.  1782),  Rau  (Erlang. 
1788),  Miller  (Gott.  1789),  Pisanski  (Regiom.  1790), 
Heumann  (Dissert,  i,  120-155),  Glide  (Xov.  misc.  Lips. 
iii,  563  sq.),  Christiansen  (Traj.  1803),  Bohme  (Hal. 
1826),  etc. ;  in  German  by  Gabler  (Theol.  Journ.  xiii, 
94  sq.).  Grulich  (Ann.  d.  Theol.),  Ruhmer  (in  Schu- 
deroff's  Jahrb.  Ill,  iii,  2i7  2<(3),Vogel  (Avfsdtze,  ii,  4), 
and  many  others,  especially  in  contributions  to  theo- 
logical journals.  See  Apostolic  Age. 
Apostles'  Creed.     See  Creed. 

Apostolic,  Apostolical,  belonging  or  relating 
to  the  apostles,  or  traceable  to  the  apostles.  Thus  we 
say,  the  apostolical  age,  apostolical  character,  apostol- 
ical doctrine,  constitutions,  traditions,  etc.  The  title, 
as  one  of  honor,  and  likely  also  to  imply  authority, 
has  been  falsely  assumed  in  various  ways.  Thus  the 
pretended  succession  of  bishops  in  the  prelatical  church- 
es has  been  called  Apostolical  Succession.  See  Suc- 
cession. The  Roman  Church  calls  itself  the  Apos- 
tolical Church  (q.  v.),  and  the  see  of  Rome  the  Apos- 
tolic See  (srdi's  ojiiisti)Iic(i).  The  pope  calls  himself  the 
Apostolical  Bishop.  At  an  early  period  of  the  church 
every  bishop's  see  was  called  by  courtesy  an  apostolic 
Bee,  and  the  term  implied,  therefore,  no  pre-eminence. 
The  first  time  the  term  apostolical  is  attributed  to 
bishops  is  in  a  letter  of  Clovis  to  the  council  of  Or- 
leans, held  in  511,  though  that  king  does  not  in  it 
expressly  denominate  them  apostolical,  but  apostolicd 
sede  dignissimi,  highly  worthy  of  the  apostolical  see. 
In  581  Guntram  calls  the  bishops  assembled  at  the 
council  of  Macon  apostolical  pontiffs.  In  progress  of 
time,  the  bishop  of  Rome  increasing  in  power  above 
the  rost,  and  the  three  patriarchates  of  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  ami  Jerusalem  having  fallen  into  the  hands 

of  the  Sar; n<,  the  title  apostolical  was  restrained  to 

the  pope  and  his  church  alone.  At  length,  some  of 
the  popes,  and  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  not  content  to 
hold  the  title  by  this  tenure,  began  to  insist  that  it  be- 
longed to  them  by  another  and  peculiar  right  as  the 
successors  of  St.  Peter.  In  1049  the  council  of 
Rheims  declared  that  the  pope  was  the  sole  apostolic- 
al primate  of  the  universal  church.  Hence  a  great 
number  of  apostolicals :  apostolical  see,  apostolical 
nuncio,  apostolical  notary,  apostolical  chamber,  apos- 
tolical   brief,    apostolical  vicar,   apostolical  blessing, 


I  etc.,  in  all  of  which  phrases  the  name  apostolical  is 
identical  with  papal. — See  Elliott,  Delineation  of  Ro- 
manism, bk.  iii,  ch.  v  ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  ii,  ch. 
j  ii  and  xvii ;  Hook,  Ch.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Apostolic  Age,  that  period  of  church  history 
i  which  extends  from  the  day  of  Pentecost  to  the  death 
of  the  last  surviving  apostle  (John). 

With  the  rise  of  Rationalism  in  Germany  the  au- 
thenticity of  several  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  consequently  the  history  of  the  apostolical  age, 
became  a  matter  of  doubt,  and  the  subject  of  critical 
investigation.  The  first  who  undertook  to  reconstruct 
the  history  of  the  apostolical  age  was  Semler,  who,  in 
a  number  of  treatises,  insisted  on  a  distinction  being 
made  between  that  which  is  of  permanent  value  in 
the  primitive  history  of  Christianity  and  that  which  is 
temporary  and  transitory,  and  pointed  to  the  great 
I  influence  which  the  opposition  between  Jewish  Chris- 
tianity and  the  Pauline  school  had  upon  the  for- 
[  mation  of  the  church.  Under  the  treatment  of  Sem- 
|  ler  the  early  Christian  Church  was  eviscerated  of  all 
|  life,  and  nothing  left  but  a  dry  abstraction.  The 
j  same  may  be  said  of  the  works  of  Professor  Planck,  of 
!  Gottingen  (especially  his  Geschichte  der  christlichen 
Gesellschaftsverfassung),  though  they  are  in  some  re- 
spects valuable.  From  the  degradation  of  the  apos- 
tolic age  by  these  and  many  other  writers  of  similar 
views,  it  was  rescued  by  the  theologians  of  the  new 
evangelical  school,  especially  Neander  (Geschichte  der 
Pflanzung  tmd  Leitung  der  christlichen  Kirche  durch  die 
Apostel,  Hamburg,  1832,  4th  edition,  which  reviews  all 
the  works  that  had  been  published  since  the  appear- 
ance of  the  first  edition),  who  shows  throughout  as  deep 
piety  as  critical  acumen.  In  the  mean  time,  however, 
an  entirely  new  view  of  the  apostolic  age  was  devel- 
j  oped  by  Professor  F.  C.  Baur  and  his  disciples,  the  so- 
called  Tubingen  School  (q.  v.),  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant manifesto  of  which  was  the  Life  of  Jesus  by 
Strauss,  while  the  entire  theory  was  most  completely 
I  exhibited  in  Baur's  Paulus  (ler  Apostel  Jesu  Christi 
(1845,  Svo),  and  in  Schwegler,  Nachnpostolisches  Zeital- 
|  ter  (Tubingen,  1846,  2  vols.).  This  school  rejected 
'  the  authenticity  of  most  of  the  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
;  tament,  and  regarded  them  only  as  sources  of  infor- 
mation for  the  "Post-apostolic  Age."  The  essential 
points  of  this  new  theory  are :  (1)  that,  in  the  minds 
J  of  Christ  and  the  first  apostles,  the  new  religion  was 
j  only  a  development  or  perfection  of  Judaism,  and  the 
same  with  what  was  later  called  Ebionism ;  (2),  that 
j  Paul,  in  opposition  to  the  other  apostles,  founded  Gen- 
tile Christianity,  quite  a  distinct  system ;  (3),  that 
Ebionism  and  Paulinism  were  reconciled  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury by  a  number  of  men  of  both  parties  who  then 
wrote  Luke's  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  several  of  the 
apostolical  epistles;  and  on  the  basis  of  this  reconcili- 
ation the  Christian  Church  was  built.  (For  an  ac- 
count of  it,  see  Schaff,  Apostolic  AgQ.,  §  36;  London 
Eclectic  Review,  June,  1853.)  Sec  Tubingen  School. 
The  subject  called  forth  a  very  animated  discussion 
and  a  numerous  literature,  and  the  theologians  of  Tu- 
bingen gradually  became  more  moderate  in  their  de- 
structive criticism.  The  work  of  Ritschl  on  the  Or- 
igin of  the  Old  Catholic  Church  (Entstehung  der  alt 
hatholischen  Kirche,  Bonn,  1850)  deserves  especial  credit 
j  in  this  respect.  Among  the  works  on  the  orthodox 
;  side  which  were  called  forth  by  this  discussion  were 
1  those  of  Baumgarten  (Die  Apostel  geschichte,  Brunswick, 
j  1852,  2  vols.),  Trautman  (Die  apostolische  Kirche,  1848), 
j  and  G.  V.  Lechler,  D  is  apost  lische  und  nachapostolische 
i  Zeitalter  (Stuttgardt,  1857,  2d  ed.). 
!  As  the  critics  of  the  Tubingen  school  greatly  dif- 
fered in  their  views  respecting  the  authenticity  of  the 
\  several  books  of  the  New  Testament,  the  question 
arose  what  parts  of  the  history  of  the  apostolic  age 
can  be  established  with  certainty  by  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament  considered  separately  ?  The  Tubin- 
gen school  did  not  reject  the  authenticity  of  the  Epis- 


APOSTOLIC  AGE 


313 


APOSTOLIC  AGE 


ties  to  the  Romans,  Corinthians,  and  Galatians.  Its 
opponents  therefore  showed  that  we  find  in  these  epis- 
tles the  basis  (1)  of  the  historical  appearance  and  the 
divine-human  nature  of  Christ,  which  is  more  full}'  de- 
veloped in  the  Gospels ;  (2)  of  a  congregation  which  the 
Lord  himself  collected  from  Judaism,  and  the  guidance 
of  which  was  afterward  transferred  to  the  apostles, 
who  were  fitted  out  for  their  office  through  the  Holy 
Spirit  and  the  appearances  of  the  risen  Lord ;  (3)  of 
the  additional  vocation  of  Paul  to  the  apostolic  office, 
and,  more  specially,  to  the  office  of  apostle  of  the  Gen- 
tiles ;  (4)  of  the  equal  rights  of  the  Gentiles  in  the 
Christian  Church.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  were  re- 
garded by  the  Tubingen  school  as  an  untrustworthy 
novel,  invented  for  the  purpose  of  reconciling  the 
schools  of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  irreconcilable  in  many 
of  its  statements  with  the  epistles  of  Paul.  Those  who 
combated  this  view  showed  that  the  essential  points 
of  the  book  are  in  the  best  harmony  with  the  epistles. 
An  important  work  proving  the  authenticity  of  the 
Acts  is  Wieseler's  Chronologie  des  apostolischen  Zeital- 
tera  (Goettingen,  1848).  The  Johannean  (and,  in  gen- 
eral, apostolic)  origin  of  the  Revelation  was  even  de- 
nied by  men  like  Liicke  and  Neander,  on  the  ground 
that  the  Revelation  and  the  fourth  Gospel  could  not 
have  proceeded  from  the  same  author.  Professor  Baur 
and  the  Tubingen  school  rejected,  on  the  same  ground, 
the  authenticity  of  the  fourth  Gospel,  while  they  de- 
fended the  Johannean  origin  of  the  Revelation.  The 
Book  of  Revelation  agrees  with  John's  Gospel  in  rec- 
ognising the  higher,  divine  nature  of  Christ. 

The  first  three  Gospels  shed  but  little  light  on  the 
different  tendencies  of  the  apostolical  age,  though  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  the  first  is  of  a  decidedly  Jew- 
ish-Christian character,  while  the  third  clearly  shows 
the  Paulinism  of  its  author.  The  other  books  of  the 
New  Testament  are  partly  looked  upon  as  leaning  on 
the  Pauline  tendency  (the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews), 
partly  on  the  Jewish  Christians  (Epistle  of  James), 
and  partly  on  both  (Epistles  of  Peter  and  Judas). 
From  them,  as  well  as  from  the  earliest  apostolical  fa- 
thers (Barnabas,  Clement  of  Rome,  etc.),  additional 
details  on  the  difference  of  views  in  the  apostolic  age 
were  derived. 

The  apostolic  age  begins  with  the  time  when  the 
apostles  themselves  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
building  of  the  Christian  church  ;  that  is,  in  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  Pentecost.  It  coincides, 
therefore,  with  the  beginning  of  the  Acts.  It  closes 
with  the  cessation  of  the  authority  and  the  immediate 
influence  of  the  apostles.  For  the  churches  in  differ- 
ent countries,  the  apostolic  age  therefore  lasts  as  long 
as  their  immediate  guidance  through  one  of  the  apos- 
tles was  possible. 

The  name  of  apostles  is  given,  1,  to  the  original 
twelve,  to  whom,  after  the  fall  of  Judas,  another  was 
added,  to  keep  up  the  correspondence  with  the  number 
of  the  tribes  of  Israel ;  2,  to  Paul,  and  some  of  his 
companions.  All  these  had  a  divine  authorization  to 
found  congregations  and  to  establish  doctrine  and  in- 
stitutions. They  possessed  this  authority  because 
they  were  sent  by  the  Lord  himself,  not  because  they 
were  exclusively  filled  \iy  the  Lord  with  the  Spirit, 
which,  on  the  contrary,  was  to  remain  with  the  church 
forever. 

Gentile  and  Jewish  Christianity  must  be  regarded 
as  two  forms  of  one  spirit,  which  are  in  inner  harmony 
with  each  other,  and  supply  each  other,  and  together 
represent  a  unity  which  was  consummated  in  the 
minds  of  at  least  the  chief  apostles.  The  union  was 
fully  cemented  at  the  apostolical  council  at  Jerusalem, 
at  which  the  apostles  for  the  Jewish  Christians  and 
those  for  the  Gentiles  mutually  recognised  each  other. 
The  accounts  of  this  council  do  not  conflict,  but  supply 
each  other. 

The  question  has  been  frequently  discussed  to  what 
extent  the  arrangements  made  by  the  apostles  can  be 


ascribed  to  the  Saviour  himself.  With  regard  to  this 
point,  it  is  safe  to  ascribe  to  him  the  principle,  but  not 
the  details  of  execution.  The  Spirit  whom  the  Sav- 
iour left  with  his  disciples  organized  the  church  in  the 
name  and  the  power  of  Jesus.  The  primitive  church 
offices  and  the  development  of  the  churcli  constitution 
are  pre-eminently  a  product  of  the  apostolic  age.  This 
subject  is  ably  treated  by  Ritschl  in  his  work  on  the 
Origin  of  the  Old  Catholic  Church  (Entstehmg  der  alt 
hatholischen  Kirche"),  with  particular  reference  to  the 
works  of  Rothe  (.Anfange  der  christlichen  Kirch),  Bai.r 
(Ueberden  Ursprung  des  Episc.opats),  Bun-en  {Ignatius 
von  Antiochien),  and  Schwegler  (Nacliaposiolisches  Zeit- 
alter). 

The  form  of  worship  was  undoubtedly  very  plain, 
leaving  much  to  the  free  choice  of  individual  persons 
and  churches ;  yet  its  principal  features,  with  regard 
to  the  celebration  of  the  Sabbath,  the  church  festivals, 
and  the  sacraments,  were  fixed,  and  the  entire  life  of 
the  Christian  was  surrounded  with  pious  customs,  part- 
ly of  new  origin  and  partly  derived  from  Judaism. 

In  the  doctrine  of  the  apostolic  age  we  alreadj-  find 
several  tendencies,  which,  however,  do  not  appear  as 
so  many  different  systems,  but  as  different  evolutions 
of  one  system.  Modern  criticism  distinguishes  three 
phases  of  doctrine  in  this  period,  viz.,  the  Jewish 
Christian,  springing  directly  from  the  teaching  of 
Christ  and  from  the  circleof  hisdisciples;  secondly,  the 
Pauline,  as  given  in  his  own  Epistles,  and,  in  a  de- 
veloped form,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews ;  and 
thirdly,  that  of  the  Johannean  Gospel  and  Epistles. 
This  subject  is  thoroughly  discussed  by  Matthsei  (fie- 
Ugionsglaube  der  Apostel  Jesu),  Usteri  (Paulinischer 
Tjehrbegriff),  Hilgenfeld  (Jvhunneischer  Lihrbegiijf), 
and  others. 

The  chief  opposing  systems,  in  conflict  with  which 
the  apostolic  age  developed  both  its  doctrine  and  its 
life,  were  Ebionitism  and  Gnosticism,  the  one  teaching 
a  Pharisaic  confidence  in  man's  own  works,  and  the 
other  a  spiritualistic  contempt  of  all  works. 

The  apostolical  age  is  commonl}'  divided  into  three 
periods,  one  extending  from  the  outpouring  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  until  the  beginning  of  the  public  appear- 
ance of  Paul  (about  the  year  A.D.  41),  the  second  un- 
til the  death  of  Paul  (about  67),  and  the  third,  the  Jo- 
hannean age  (until  the  end  of  the  first  century).  It 
must,  however,  be  understood  that  a  tendency  begun 
in  a  former  period  continued  and  was  further  devel- 
oped in  the  subsequent  one  (Herzog,  Ileal- Ene Mop. 
i,  444). 

This  very  important  period  has  received  special  at- 
tention in  the  more  recent  church  history.  The  best 
books  are  :  Neander,  Planting  and  Training  of  the 
Christian  Church  by  the  Apostles  (trans,  by  Ryland, 
Lond.  1851,  2  vols.  12mo)  ;  Schaff,  History  of  the  Ajws- 
tolic  Church  (New  York,  1853,  8vo) ;  Stanley,  Sermons 
on  the  Apostolic  Age  (Oxford,  1847,  8vo) ;  Davidson, 
The  Ecclesiastical  PoVty  of  the  New  Testament  unfolded 
(2d  edit.  Lond.  1854);  Stoughton,  Ages  of  Christendom 
(Lond.  1857);  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Lift  and  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paid  (2  vols.  2d  edit.  Lond.  1858) ;  Baum- 
garten,  Acts  of  the  Ajwstles  (trans! .  by  Meyer,  Edinb. 
1854,  3  vols.  8vo)  ;  Ilagenbaeh,  Die  Kirche  der  dreierst. 
Jidirhunderte  (Leipz.  1853,  8vo);  Killen,  Th,  Ancient 
Church  (New  York,  1859,  8vo) ;  Thiersch,  Die  Kirche 
des  apostolischen  Zeitalters  (Frankfurt,  1852,  8vo;  an 
English  translation  by  Th.  Carlyle,  Lond.  1852,  8vo); 
Lange,  Das  Apostolische  Zeitalter  (Braunschweig,  1854, 
2  vols.) ;  Lechler,  Das  Apostolische  und  nachapostolische 
Zeitalter  (Stuttgardt,  2d  edit,  1857,  8vo) ;  Dollinger 
(Rom.  Cath.),  Chri.stenthum  und  Kirche  in  der  Zeit  der 
Grundlegung  (Ratisbon,  1860).  See  Acts  (of  the 
Apostles)  ;  Apostolical  Church.  On  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Apostolical  Church,  treatises  [besides  the 
accounts  contained  in  systematic  ecclesiastical  histo- 
ries] have  been  written  by  Boehrner  (in  his  Dissertt. 
Hal.  1729),  Buddams  (Jen.  1722),  Greiling  (Halberst. 


APOSTOLICAL  BRETHREN       314         APOSTOLICAL  COUNCIL 


1813),  Knapp  (Hal.  1762),  Lucke  (Gott.  1813),  Papst 
(Erlang.  1786)  ;  on  the  life  and  morals  of  the  early 
Christians,  by  Borsing  (L.  13.  1825),  Diirr  (Gottin. 
1781),  Frorefsen  (Argent.  1741),  Fronto  (in  his  Bis- 
tertt.  Hamb.  1720),  Papst  (Erlang.  1790),  Seelen  (in 
his  MisceU.  p.  155  sq.),  Stickel  (Neap.  1826),  Zorn 
(Kil.  1711);  on  the  early  church  officers,  by  Bres- 
tovin  |  Lips.  1741),  Danov  (Jen.  1774),  Forbiger  (Lips. 
1776),  Gabler  (Jen.  1805),  Lechla  (Lips.  1759),  Loehn 
(in  his  Bib/.  S/ud.),  Middelboe  (Hafn.  1779),  Mosheim 
(Helmst.  1732),  Persigk  (Lips.  1738),  Stoer  (Norimb. 
1749),  Thomasius  (Alt.  1712),  J.  G.  Walch  (Jen. 
1752),  Wegner  (Regiom.  1698) ;  on  the  concord  of  the 
primitive  Christians,  by  Carstens  (in  his  Bib.  Lab.), 
Koeppe  (Hal.  182s),  Lorenz  (Argent.  1751),  Mosheim 
(in  his  Bissertt.),  Schreiber  (Regiom.  1710) ;  on  their 
dissensions,  by  Goldhorn  (in  Ilgen's  Zeitschr.  1840), 
Gruner  (Cob.  1749),  Ittig  (Lips.  1690,  1703),  Kniewel 
(Gld.  1842),  Rheinwald  (Bon.  1834),  Schenkel  (Basil. 
1838) ;  on  their  doctrinal  and  literary  views,  by 
Harenberg  (Brunser.  1746),  Lobstein  (Giess.  1775) ; 
on  their  connection  with  Judaism,  by  C.  A.  Crusius 
(Lips.  1770),  Van  Heyst  (L.  B.  1828),  Kraft  (Erl.  1772), 
J.  C.  Schmid  (Erl.  1782);  on  their  Scriptures,  by  Ess 
(Leipz.  1816),  Hamerich  (Hafn.  1702),  Mosheim 
(Helmst.  1725),  Surer  (Salzb.  1784),  C.  W.  F.  Walch 
(Lpz.  1779),  Woken  (Lpz.  1732) ;  on  their  charity,  by 
Gude  (Zittan.  1727),  Kotz  (Regensb.  1839) ;  on  their 
persecutions,  by  M.  Crusius  (Hamb.  1721),  Kortholt 
(Rost.  1689),  Lazari  (Rom.  1749),  Schmidt  (Frcft. 
1797) ;  on  their  meetings,  bj-  Hansen  (Hafn.  1794), 
Leuthier  (Neap.  1746);  on  their  civil  relations,  b}' 
Gothofredus  (in  Zornii  Bib  I.  Ant.),  Holste  (Helmst. 
1676);  on  ancient  representations  concerning  them, 
by  Buchner  (Viteb.  1687),  Francke  (Viteb.  1791),  Hall- 
bauer  (Jen.  1738),  Kartholt  (Kil.  1674),  Seidenstiicker 
(Helmst.  1790)  ;  on  their  hymns,  by  J.  G.  Walch  (Jen. 
1737)  ;  on  the  apostles'  administration,  bv  Hartmann 
(Berol.  1699),  Semler  (Hal.  1767),  Zola  (Ticin.  1780), 
Weller  (Zwick.  1758).  Organization  and  Government 
of  the  Apostolical  Church  (Presbyterian  Board,  Phil.); 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  viii,  378.  See  Church,  Constitu- 
tion OF. 

Apostolical  Brethren.     See  Apostolici. 

Apostolical  Canons.     See  Canon. 

Apostolical  Catholic  Church.  See  Catho- 
lic Apostolic  Church. 

Apostolical  Church,  properly,  a  church  framed 
upon  the  principles  of  the  apostles.  Of  these  princi- 
ples the  essential  one  is  the  doctrine  taught  by  the 
apostles;  and  the  principle  next  in  importance  the  or- 
der established  by  them,  so  far  as  it  can  be  gathered  from 
their  writings.  "  The  apostolicity  of  the  church  is  an 
attribute  which  belongs  to  it  as  a  Christian  society  ;  for 
no  community  can  establish  its  claim  to  the  title  of 
church  unless  there  be  a  substantial  agreement  be- 
tween its  doctrines  and  institutions  and  those  of  the  in- 
spired men  whom  Christ,  commissioned  to  establish  his 
church  upon  earth"  (Litton,  On  the  Church,  bk.  iii,  ch.  i). 
As  to  the  necessary  elements  of  this  agreement  with  the 
apostles,  the  Christian  churches  differ  with  each  other. 

In  the  primitive  Church,  the  term  apostolical  was 
naturally  and  properly  used  to  designate  those  particu- 
lar churches  which  bad  been  founded  by  the  personal 
ministry  of  any  one  of  the  apostles,  viz",  the  churches 
of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  Rome.  Not 
unnaturally,  too,  it  was  supposed  that  these  churches 
had  superior  culture  and  Christian  knowledge,  and  it 
therefore  became  customary  fur  churches  in  their  neigh- 
borhood to  refer  disputed  questions  of  discipline;  etc.,  to 
them  for  advice.  From  these  simple  beginnings  p;rew 
up  claims  to  authority,  for  which  the  apostles  them- 
selves had  laid  no  foundation,  either  in  their  writings 
or  in  their  personal  administration  (.Mosheim,  Commen- 
tarks,  §  21). 

The  Church  of  Rome  claims  to  be  exclusively  the 
apostolical  church.     The  Church  of  England  and  the  | 


Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States 
claim  to  be  apostolical  churches,  but  not  exclusively 
such,  as  they  admit  the  "apostolicity"  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches,  while  the)'  deny  the  title  to  all 
non-prelatieal  churches.  The  ground  of  this  arrogant 
assumption  is  the  ecclesiastical  theory  known  as  the 
Apostolical  Succession  (q.  v.).  See  Dens,  Th'ologia, 
t.  ii,  §  78  ;  Palmer,  On  the  Church,  pt.  i,  ch.  viii ;  and, 
for  the  refutation,  Elliott,  Delineation  of  Romanism,  bk. 
iii,  ch.  ii,  §  8 ;  Litton,  On  the  Church,  pt.  iii.  See  Apos- 
tolic ;  Apostolic  Age;  (Church)  Apostolic; 
Archeology.  On  the  constitution  of  the  primitive 
Church,  see  Church,  Constitution  of. 
Apostolical  Church  Directory  (al  FiaTayai 

al  Cut  K\))pei>rog  Kal  KavovtQ  kKK\i]GiaoTiKo\  Twvayiuiv 
'  AttogtoXidv),  a  work  which  originated  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  3d  century,  and  is  extant  in  several  Ethi- 
opic  and  Arabic  manuscripts,  and  in  one  Greek.  Al- 
though it  agrees  in  many  points  with  the  seventh  and 
eighth  books  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  as  well 
as  with  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  it  is  yet  independent 
of  both.  It  seems  to  have  originated  in  a  work  con- 
nected with  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  and  which,  at  the 
same  time,  was  probably  made  use  of  by  the  author 
of  the  seventh  book  of  the  Constitutions.  The  Church 
Directory  is  divided  into  35  articles,  and  contains  pre- 
scriptions of  John,  and  ecclesiastical  rescripts  of  the 
other  apostles  on  bishops,  elders,  readers,  deacons,  and 
widows,  the  duties  of  laymen,  and  on  the  question 
whether  women  are  to  take  part  in  conducting  relig- 
ious services.  It  concludes  with  an  exhortation  of 
Peter  to  observe  these  prescriptions.  Bickell  (Ge- 
schichte  des  Kirchenrechts,  Giessen,  1843,  p.  87"sq.)  has 
been  the  first  to  call  again  attention  to  this  collection, 
which  had  almost  wholly  fallen  into  oblivion.  He  has 
also  given  (p.  107-132),  from  a  Vienna  manuscript,  the 
Greek  text  with  German  translation,  and  added  the 
various  readings  of  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Ethi- 
opic  text  (from  Hiob  Ludolf's  Commentarius  in  histo- 
rittm  ^lithiopicam,,  p.  314  sq.),  the  only  one  which  had 
heretofore  been  printed.  There  are  important,  al- 
though not  decisive,  reasons  for  the  assumption  that 
the  "  Atdayoi  of  the  Apostles,"  mentioned  by  Euse- 
bius  (Hist.  Eccl.  1.  iii.  ch.  xxv),  are  identical  with  the 
Apostolical  Church  Directory  (Bickell,  p.  Q8). — Her- 
zog,  Eeal-EncyMopdd'e,  i,  452. 

Apostolical  Clerks,  the  name  of  two  monastic 
orders,  most  commonly  called  Jesuates  and  Theatines. 
See  these  articles. 

Apostolical  Congregation.  See  Congrega- 
tion. 

Apostolical  Constitutions.  See  Constitu- 
tions. 

Apostolical  Council  is  a  title  properly  applied 
to  the  first  convention  or  synod  of  the  Christian  Church 
authorities,  an  account  of  which  is  given  in  Acts  xv, 
A.D.  47.  The  conversion  of  Cornelius  having  thrown 
open  the  church  to  Gentiles,  many  uncircumcised  per- 
sons were  soon  gathered  into  the  communion  formed 
at  Antioch  under  the  labors  of  Paul  and  Barnabas ; 
but,  on  the  visit  of  certain  Jewish  Christians  from  Je- 
rusalem, a  dispute  arose  as  to  the  admission  of  such 
Gentiles  as  had  not  even  been  proselytes  to  Judaism, 
but  were  brought  in  directly  from  paganism.  To  set- 
tle this  question,  the  brotherhood  at  Antioch  deputed 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  with  several  others,  to  lay  the 
matter  before  a  general  meeting  of  the  apostles  and 
elders  at  the  mother  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  obtain 
their  formal  ami  final  decision  on  a  point  of  so  vital 
importance  to  the  progress  of  the  Gospel  in  all  heathen 
lands.  On  their  arrival  and  presentation  of  the  sub- 
ject, a  similar  opposition  (and  of  a  warm  character,  as 
we  find  from  the  notices  in  Gal.  ii)  was  made  by 
Christians  formerly  of  the  Pharisaic  party  at  the  me- 
tropolis;  so  that  it  was  only  when,  after  considerable 
dispute,  Peter  had  rehearsed  his  experience  with  ref- 
erence to  Cornelius,  and  the  signal  results  of  the  la- 


APOSTOLICAL  DECREE 


315 


APOSTOLICAL  FATHERS 


bors  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  among  the  Gentiles  had 
been  recounted,  that  James,  as  president  of  the  coun- 
cil, pronounced  in  favor  of  releasing  those  received 
into  the  church  from  Gentilism  without  requiring  cir- 
cumcision or  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial 
law.  This  conclusion  was  generally  assented  to,  and 
promulgated  in  a  regular  ecclesiastical  form,  which 
was  sent  as  an  encyclical  letter  by  Paul  and  Barnabas 
back  to  Antioch,  to  be  thence  circulated  in  all  the 
churches  in  pagan  countries.  For  an  elucidation  of 
the  heathen  practices  forbidden  in  the  same  document, 
see  Decree.  For  a  discussion  of  the  chronological 
difficulties  connected  with  the  subject,  see  Pail. — 
Neander,  Planting  and  Training,  i,  133  sq.;  Conybeare 
and  Howson,  St.  Paul,  i,  212  sq. ;  Kitto,  Daily  Bible 
Illust.  viii,  283  sq.     See  Council. 

Apostolical  Decree.     See  Decree. 

Apostolical  Fathers,  a  name  used  to  designate 
those  Christian  writers  (of  whom  an}'  remains  are  now 
extant)  who  were  contemporaiy  with  any  of  the  apos- 
tles; that  is  to  say,  who  lived  and  wrote  before  A.D. 
120.  Historically,  these  Avriters  form  a  link  of  con- 
nection between  the  apostles  and  the  Apologists  (q.  v.) 
of  the  second  century.  There  are  five  names  usually 
given  as  those  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers,  i.  e.  there 
are  five  men  who  lived  during  the  age  of  the  apostles, 
and  who  did  converse,  or  might  have  conversed  with 
them,  to  whom  writings  still  extant  have  been  as- 
cribed, viz.  Barnabas,  Clement  of  Borne,  Ignatius, 
Polycarp,  Hennas.  The  following  works  are  general- 
ly counted  to  these  writers:  1.  The  epistle  of  Barna- 
bas [see  Barnabas]  ;  2.  Two  epistles  of  Clement, 
bishop  of  Borne,  to  the  Corinthians  [see  Clement  of 
Borne]  ;  3.  Several  epistles  of  Ignatius,  hishop  of  An- 
tioch [see  Ignatius];  4.  An  epistle  of  Polycarp,  bish- 
op of  Smyrna,  to  the  Philippians  [see  Polycarp]  ;  5. 
The  epistle  (of  an  unknown  author)  to  Diognetus  [see 
Diognetus]  ;  6.  The  book  entitled  Pastor  Hennas  [see 
Heemas].  Certain  fragments  of  Papias  are  also  com- 
monly included  among  the  Apostolical  Fathers. 

Of  the  writings  attributed  to  these  fathers,  some 
at  least  are  of  doubtful  genuineness  (on  this  point, 
see  the  individual  titles  referred  to). 

There  can  be  no  question  of  the  value  of  these  writ- 
ings to  church  history,  and  even  to  our  knowledge  of 
Scripture,  not  so  much  for  the  facts  they  contain,  for 
these  are  of  slight  importance,  or  for  their  critical  or 
doctrinal  contents,  but  on  account  of  the  illustrations 
they  afford  of  the  practical  religious  life  of  the  period, 
and  also  on  account  of  the  quotations  they  contain 
from  the  N.  T.  Scriptures.  "It  has  often  been  re- 
marked that  there  is  no  period  of  the  Christian  church 
in  regard  to  which  we  have  so  little  information  as  that 
of  above  thirty  years,  reaching  from  the  death  of  Peter 
and  Paul  to  that  of  John.  There  is  no  good  reason  to 
believe  that  any  of  the  writings  of  the  apostolical  fa- 
thers now  extant  were  published  during  that  interval. 
Those  of  them  that  are  genuine  do  not  convey  to  us 
much  information  concerning  the  condition  of  the 
church,  and  add  but  little  to  our  knowledge  upon  any 
subject :  and  what  ma}'  be  gleaned  from  later  writers 
concerning  this  period  is  very  defective,  and  not  much 
to  be  depended  upon.  It  is  enough  that  God  has  given 
us  in  His  Word  ever}'  thing  necessary  to  the  forma- 
tion of  our  opinions  and  the  regulation  of  our  conduct ; 
and  we  cannot  doubt  that  He  has  in  mercy  and  wis- 
dom withheld  from  us  what  there  is  too  much  reason 
to  think  would  have  been  greatly  abused.  As  mat- 
ters stand,  we  have  these  two  important  points  estab- 
lished:  first,  that  we  have  no  certain  information — 
nothing  on  which,  as  a  mere  question  of  evidence,  we 
can  place  any  firm  reliance — as  to  what  the  inspired 
apostles  taught  and  ordained  but  what  is  contained  in 
or  deduced  from  the  canonical  Scriptures;  and,  sec- 
ondly, that  there  are  no  men,  except  the  authors  of 
the  books  of  Scripture,  to  whom  there  is  any  thing 
like  a  plausible  pretence  for  calling  upon  us  to  look 


j  up  to  as  guides  or  oracles"  (Cunningham,  Historical 
Theology,  vol.  i,  ch.  iv). 

j       It  is  obvious  that  the  writings  of  men  so  near  to  the 

j  time  of  the  writers  of  the  N.  T.  must  be  of  great  im- 
portance for  the  criticism  of  the  N.  T.,  and  for  the  set- 

\  tlement  of  the  canon.     Lardner,  after  giving  lists  of 

i  the  citations  and  allusions  to  be  found  in  the  Apostol- 
ical Fathers  severally,  sums  up  as  follows  :  "  In  these 
writings  there  is  all  the  notice  taken  of  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament  that  could  be  expected.  Barna- 
bas, though  so  early  a  writer,  appears  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  Clem- 
ent, writing  in  the  name  of  the  Church  of  Rome  to  the 
Church  of  Corinth  on  occasion  of  some  discussion 
there,  desires  them  to  '  take  into  their  hands  the  epis- 
tle of  the  blessed  apostle  Paul,'  written  to  them,  and 
refers  them  particularly  to  a  part  of  that  epistle  in 
which  he  admonished  them  against  strife  and  conten- 

j  tion.  He  has  likewise,  in  his  epistle,  divers  clear  and 
undeniable  allusions  to  St.  Paul's  epistle  written  to 
the  church  over  which  he  presided,  and  in  whose  name 

;  he  wrote,  not  to  mention  at  present  other  things.     5. 

t  Quotations  there  could  not  lie,  as  we  have  often  ob- 
served, in  the  book  of  Hernias ;  but  allusions  there  are 
to  the  bocks  of  the  New  Testament  such  as  were  suit- 

I  able  to  his  design.  G.  Ignatius,  writing  to  the  Church 
of  Ephesus,  takes  notice  of  the  epistle  of  Paul  written 
to  them,  in  which  he  '  makes  mention  of  them  in  Christ 
Jesus.'  7.  Lastly,  Polycarp,  writing  to  the  Philippi- 
ans, refers  them  to  the  epistle  of  the  '  blessed  and  re- 
nowned Paul,'  written  to  them,  if  not  also,  as  I  im- 
agine, to  the  epistles  sent  to  the  Thessalonians,  Chris- 
tians of  the  same  province,  not  to  mention  now  his 

t  express  quotations  of  other  books  of  the  New  Testa- 

j  ment,  or  his  numerous  and  manifest  allusions  to  them. 
8.  From  these  particulars  here  mentioned,  it  is  appar- 
ent that  they  have  not  omitted  to  take  notice  of  an\ 

j  book  of  the  New  Testament  which,  as  far  as  we  are 

;  able  to  judge,  their  design  led  them  to  mention.  Their 
silence,  therefore,  about  a^iy  other  books  can  be  no 
prejudice  to  their  genuineness,  if  we  shall  hereafter 
meet  with  credible  testimonies  to  them.  And  we  may 
have  good  reason  to  believe  that  these  apostolical  fa- 

i  thers  were  seme  of  those  persons  from  whom  succeed- 
ing writers  received  that  full  and  satisfactory  evidence 
which  they  appear  to  have  had  concerning  the  several 
books  of  the  New  Testament''   (Lardner,  Works,  ii, 

;  113  sq.). 

The  importance  of  the  subject  justifies  the  insertion 

:  here  of  the  following  elaborate  examination  of  all  the 

!  citations  from  the  N.  T.  made  by  the  apostolic  fathers, 
prepared  for  this  work  by  the  Bev.  Wolcott  Calkins,  of 
Philadelphia.  The  second  epistle  of  Clement  and  the 
larger  recension  of  Ignatius,  being  regarded  as  spuri- 
ous, are  not  cited.  The  text  used  is  Hefele's.  The 
abridgments  used  are  Clem.,  for  First  Epistle  of  Clem- 
ent to  the  Corinthians;  Bar.,  Cath.  Epistle  of  Barna- 

'.  has;  Ign.  Eph.,  for  Epistle  of  Ignatius  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  ;  Ign.  Magn.,  Ignatius  to  the  Magnesians ;  Ign. 

'  Tral.,  Ignatius  to  the  Trallians ;  Ign.  Pom.,  Ignatius 
to  the  Romans;  Ign.  Phil.,  Ignatius  to  the  Philadel- 
phians ;  Ign.  Smyrn.,  Ignatius  to  the  Smyrnseans ;  Ign. 
Pol.,  Ignatius  to  Polycarp;  Pol.,  for  Epistle  of  Poly- 
carp to  the  Philippians  ;  Iter.  Vis.,  the  Visions  of  Her- 
nias ;  Her.  Man.,  the  Commands  of  Hennas ;  Her. 
Sim.,  the  Similitudes  of  Hernias. 

I.  These  fathers  bear  direct  testimony  to  time  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistles. — (1.)  Clem.  47:  "Take  in  your  hands 
the  epistle  of  Saint  Paul  the  apostle.  What  did  he 
write  to  you  when  the  Gospel  first  began  to  be  preach- 
ed? (ii>  apyy  rot>  Ei/ayyekiov.  Comp.  Hefele's  Latin 
version).  Truly  be  was  moved  of  the  Spirit  to  write 
you  concerning  himself  and  Cephas  and  Apollos,  be- 
cause even  then  you  had  begun  to  form  factions.  But 
this  faction  did  not  lead  you  into  the  worst  sins,  be- 
cause you  yielded  to  apostles  so  illustrious,  and  to  a 
man  approved  by  them."     Here  the  reference  to  1 


APOSTOLICAL  FATHERS 


-Til 


APOSTOLICAL  FATHERS 


Cor.  i,  12,  is  unmistakable.  Paul's  inspiration  is  also 
claimed. — (2.)  Ign.  Eph.11:  "Ye  are  partakers  of  the 
sacred  mysteries  with  Paul,  ....  who  also,  throughout 
his  whole  epistle  (tv  Traay  iTriaroXy,  not  'every  ep.' 
Credner,  Einleit.  i,  395,  has  no  ground  to  claim  that 
this  passage  has  been  interpolated  from  the  larger 
[spurious]  recension),  makes  mention  of  you  in  Christ 
Jesus."  Here  the  reference  to  Eph.  i,  9 ;  iii,  3,  is  very 
striking. — (3.)  Pol.  3:  "Neither  I,  nor  any  other  like 
m;,  can  attain  unto  the  wisdom  of  the  sainted  and  il- 
lustrious Paul,  who,  when  he  was  with  you  in  the  pres- 
ence of  men  then  living,  taught  most  fully  and  forci- 
bly the  word  of  truth ;  and,  when  absent  from  you, 
wrote  a  letter  (tmaroXAe,  plur.  for  sing. ;  compare  De 
Wette,  EM.  i.  d.  X.  T.  p.  7,  3d  ed.  §  150),  by  which 
you  may  be  built  up  in  the  faith,  if  you  study  it  atten- 
tively." Compare  Phil,  i,  27. — Pol.  11 :  "  But  I  have 
neither  perceived  nor  heard  any  thing  of  the  kind 
among  you,  with  whom  St.  Paul  labored,  who  are 
[praised]  in  the  beginning  of  his  epistle."  (Hefele 
endorses  the  conjecture  that  "lauduti"  has  been  lost 
from  the  text,  with  the  loss  of  the  Greek  in  ch.  x,  xi, 
and  xii.)     Comp.  Phil,  i,  5. 

II.  A  few  passages  of  the  X.  T.  are  distinctly  quoted, 
either  as  the  language  of  the  Lord,  the  apostles,  or  of 
"Scripture." — Bar.  4:  "Let  us  beware,  therefore,  lest 
we  be  found,  as  it  is  written,  Many  are  called,  few  are 
chosen"  (Matt,  xx,  16  ;  xxii,  14.  The  signs  of  quota- 
tion in  this  and  the  next  instance,  scriptum  est,  inquit, 
are  constantly  employed  by  Barnabas  in  citing  from 
O.  T.). — Bar.  7 :  "So  they,  inquit,  who  desire  to  see 
me  and  be  received  into  my  kingdom,  must  reach  me 
through  afflictions  and  sufferings"  (Matt,  xvi,  24. 
Compare  Hefele,  Sendschreiben  des  Ap.  Barn.  p.  G6+). 
— Clem.  34  :  "  For,  he  says,  eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear 
heard,  nor  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man,  what 
things  he  hath  prepared  for  them  that  wait  for  him"  (1 
Cor.  ii,  9,  almost  exactly  ;  while  both  Paul  and  Clem- 
ent differ  in  synonymes,  arrangement,  and  everj-  thing 
but  sentiment,  from  the  Sept.  of  Isa.  lxiv,  3,  4,  whence 
Paul  quotes). — Clem.  4G  :  "Remember  the  words  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  ;  for  he  said,  Woe  to  that  man  ;  it  had  been 
good  for  that  man  if  he  had  not  been  born  (Matt,  xxvi, 
24) ;  rather  than  offend  one  of  my  elect  (Matt,  xviii, 
6),  it  were  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  were  hanged 
about  him,  and  that  he  were  drowned  in  the  sea,  than 
that  he  should  offend  one  of  these  little  ones"  (Mark 
ix,  42 ;  Luke  xvii,  2).  Similar  examples  of  citing  from 
various  gospels  under  the  general  designation  of  \6yoi 
tou  Kvplov  may  be  found  in  Clem.  Alex.  Str.m.  iii,  18 ; 
also  frequently  in  Irenreus  and  Justin  Martyr. — Pol. 
2:  "Mindful  of  what  our  Lord  said  when  he  taught, 
'Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged  (Matt,  vii,  1,  lit.)  ; 
forgive,  and  ye  shall  be  forgiven  (Luke  vi,  37) ;  be 
merciful,  that  ye  may  obtain  mere}-  (Luke  vi,  3G) ;  in 
what  measure  ye  mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to  you 
again  (Matt,  vii,  2) ;  and  blessed  are  the  poor,  and 
those  who  suffer  persecution,  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom 
of  God'"  (Matt,  v,  3;  Luke  vi,  20).  —  Pol.  7:  "The 
Lord  said,  'The  spirit  truly  is  ready,  but  the  flesh  is 
weak'"  (Mark  xiv,  38,  lit.).  —  Pol.  xi:  "Do  we  not 
know  that  the  saints  shall  judge  the  world,  as  St.  Paul 
teaches?"  (J  Cor.  \i,  2,  apparently  literal,  but  the 
Greek  is  lost.  Credner's  ground  for  suspecting  the 
last  clause  is  singular  enough— because  Polycarp  never 
gives  the  name  of  an  author  cited!  Einl.  i.  d.  X.  T. 
p.  445). — Pol.  12:  "As  is  said  in  these  Scriptures, 
Be  ye  angry,  and  sin  not  (Psa.  iv,  5,  quoted  by  Paul 
without  acknowledgment)  ;  and,  let  not  the  sun  go 
down  upon  your  wrath"  (Eph.  iv,  26;  O.  and  N.  T. 
blended  as  "  scriptures").  These  are  believed  to  be 
the  only  examples  of  explicit  citations  with  marks  of 
quotation,  except  such  as  may  have  been  taken  from 
the  Sept.  or  the  N.  T.  Alleged  misquotations  will  lie 
discussed  in  the  sequel. 

III.  Many  passages  are  died  with  substantial  accura- 
cy, but  without  indications  of  quotation. — Bar.  19:  "Give 


to  every  one  that  asketh  thee"  (Luke  vi,  30,  lit.,  if, 
with  MSS.  B  K  L,  131-57,  £k  be  omitted,  and  Tip  with 
B  ;  Matt,  v,  42,  nearly). — Ign.  Rom.  3 :  "  For  the  things 
which  are  seen  are  temporal,  but  the  things  which  are 
not  seen  are  eternal"  (2  Cor.  iv,  18,  lit.  But  the  pas- 
sage is  doubtful;  not  found  in  anc.  Lat.  vers.,  Syrian 
fragm.,  nor  Syrus). — Clem.  2 :  "  Read}'  for  every  good 
work"  (Titus  iii,  1,  tig  for  7rpdg). — Clem.  36  :  "  Who 
being  the  brightness  of  his  majesty  (/jfyaXwowf/c  for 
£o£r/g),  is  so  much  better  than  the  angels,  as  he  has 
obtained  a  more  excellent  name"  (Heb.  i,  3,  4). — Ign. 
Rom.  6  :  "  For  what  is  a  man  profited  if  he  shall  gain 
the  whole  world  and  lose  his  own  soul?"  (Matt,  xvi, 
26,  slight  change  in  arrangement).  —  Pol.  1:  "In 
whom,  not  having  seen,  ye  believe  ;  and  believing,  ye 
rejoice  with  joy  unspeakable"  (1  Pet.  i,  8,  with  slight 
omission). — Pol.  2 :  "  Believing  on  him  that  raised 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  from  the  dead,  and  gave  him 
glory"  (1  Pet.  i,  21,  slight  change  in  arrangement). — 
Her.  Sim.  8:  "They  denied  the  name  by  which  they 
were  called"  (Jas.  ii,  7,  far  more  exact  than  appears 
in  Eng.  versions  ;  quod  super  eos  erat  invocatum  =  -o 
iinK\i)0ev  t<p  vpag  [av-ovc~]  ). — Her.  Man.  12, 5 :  "If  ye 
resist  him,  he  will  flee  from  you  with  confusion"  (Jas. 
iv,  7). — Pol.  5 :  "  Lust  Avarreth  against  the  spirit  (1 
Pet.  ii,  11) ;  and  neither  fornicators,  nor  effeminate, 
nor  abusers  of  themselves  with  mankind,  shall  inherit 
the  kingdom  of  God"  (1  Cor.  vi,  9,  10:  the  passage  is 
remarkable,  because,  while  many  words  in  Paul  are 
omitted,  ^taXaicoi  and  upatvoKolTai,  which  had  ac- 
quired a  scandalously  technical  signification,  are  re- 
tained. Comp.  the  long  list  of  sins  in  Clem.  35  and 
Rom.  i,  29-32.  The  resemblance  is  remarkable). — 
Pol.  4  :  "  The  love  of  money  is  a  beginning  of  all  evil. 
Knowing,  therefore,  that  we  brought  nothing  into  this 
world,  but  neither  c  in  we  carry  any  thing  out,  let 
us,"  etc.  (1  Tim.  vi,  7,  the  order  of  clauses  transposed. 
Compare  Pol.  8 ;  1  Pet.  ii,  22,  24).— Pol.  2  :  "  Not  ren- 
dering evil  for  evil,  nor  railing  for  railing"  (1  Pet.  iii, 
9,  lit.).  —  Pol.  7:  "For  whoever  confesseth  not  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh  is  Antichrist"  (1 
John  iv,  3).  The  following  list  embraces  accurate 
quotations  and  very  striking  resemblances. 


(Acts  x,  42. 
7  =  -,  2  Tim.  iv,  1. 
\  1  Pet.  iv,  5. 


Clem.    2  = 

=  Tit.  iii,  1. 

» 

21  = 

=  Heb.iv,12. 

» 

35  = 

=  Rom.  i,  29. 

u 

4S  = 

=  1  Cor.  x,  24. 

Ign 

Eph. 

14  =  Matt,  xii,  33. 

Magn 

.  10  =  1  Cor.  v,  7. 

" 

Rom. 

5  =  1  Cor.  iv,  4. 

« 

Smyi 

.    1  =  Matt,  iii,  l-r>. 

6  =  Matt,  xix,  12. 
(Acts  ii,  24. 

Pol 

1=  - 

'  Eph.  ii,  S,  9. 
1 1  Pet.  i,  S. 

(Matt,  x,  26. 
(2  Cor.  iv,  24. 
Her.  Man.    3 
"       "       4,    1 

"        "     12,    5 

12: 


jl  Pet.  i,  13. 
(1  Pet.  iii,  9. 
i  Gal.  iv,  26. 
-  1  Thess.  v,  17. 
( 1  Tim.  vi,  7, 10. 
rl  Cor.  viii,  9, 10. 
)  Gal.  vi,  7. 
\  Eph.  v,  25. 
( 1  Pet.  ii,  11. 
\  Horn,  xiv,  10, 12. 
12  Cor.  viii,  21. 
( 1  Pet.  iv,  7. 
'(1  Johniv,  3. 
1  Pet.  ii,  22,  24. 

1  Pet.  ii,  12, 17. 

2  Thess.  iii,  15. 
Gal.  i,  7. 


Eph.  iv,  30. 
(Luke  xvi,  18. 
'(Mutt,  v,  32. 
Jas.  iv,  7. 
li    Sim.     9,12=     John  xiv,  6. 
IV.  Many  extended  passages  in  the  Ap.  Fathers  are 
close  imitations  of  similar  passages  in  X.  T. — Clem.  9 
12 :  The  examples  of  the  ancient  worthies  is  adduced 
on  the  model  of  Heb.  xi.    The  list  not  only  corresponds 
— Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham,  Lot,  Rahab — but  many  ex- 
pressions  agree.     And  the   magnificent  close  of  the 
chapter  in  Hebrews  is  reproduced  with  little  change 
in  Clem.  45.     He  then  begins  ch.  46,  like  Heb.  xii, 
with  a  reference  to  these  examples  for  our  encourage- 
ment.    Heb.  xii,  1,  is,  however,  reproduced  still  more 
accurately  in  ch.  19. — Clem.  36  is  a  close  imitation  of 
the  beginning  of  Heb.  i.— Her,  Sim.  ix,  21:  A  para- 
phrase of  the  parable  of  the  sower,  Matt.  xiii.  5  23. 
(Comp.  Ilerm.  Vis.  iii,  G.    Also,  Sim.  ix,  20,  and  Matt. 
xiii,  7  ;  xix,  23,     Also,  Vis.  iv,  3,  and  1  Pet.  i,  6,  7.)— 
Pol.  5 :  The  advice  to  deacons  is  a  remarkable  imita- 


APOSTOLICAL  FATHERS 


317 


APOSTOLICAL  FATHERS 


tion  of  Paul's  charge  to  Timothy  (ch.  Hi.).— Clem.  49  : 
The  praise  of  charity,  closely  imitating  1  Cor.  xiii ; 
following  also  Col.  i'ii,  14;  l'Pet.  iv,  8;  Jas.  y,  20; 
Gal.  i,  4 ;  John  iii,  16 ;  1  John  iv,  9, 10.  There  is  not 
a  thought  in  the  whole  chapter  which  is  not  to  be  found 
in  N.  T. 

V.  Besides  the  above,  there  are  many  exjiressions  ap- 
parently taken  from  the  N.  T. ;  also  allusions  and  ref- 
erences too  inexact  to  be  called  quotations,  which  sin- 
gly might  appear  insignificant,  but  occurring  on  eveiy 
page  are  weigthy  arguments.  Westcott  {Canon  N.  T. 
p.  30,  40,  47)  gives  many  examples  of  coincidence  in 
language  of  the  PP.  App.  with  the  N.  T. 

(1)  Peculiar  to  Clement  and  St.  Peter :  dya9oiroiia, 
cth\(puTi]c,  Troipviov.  (2)  Peculiar  to  Clement,  St. 
Peter,  and  St.  Paul :  ayatii)  nvi'itcijaic,  dyioa/.i6g,  ti- 
XiKpivrjQ,  EV(Tij3eia,  linrpoactKTog,  Tairuvotypoainn], 
inraKoi),  i'Trotyipciv,  <j>iXavt\ia,  <pi\o£ti>ia,  (piXo^ivoc;. 
(3)  Peculiar  to  Clement  and  St.  Paul :  d/xiTa/.it\>iTor, 
tyicpaTtviaOai,  Xtirovpyoc,  XeiTOvpyia.  XtiTovpytlv, 
fiaKapiap-OQ,  oiK-ip/.ioi,  TroXtnia,  iroKiTtviiv  (Polyc), 
df/ii'of,  <Tf//i'<)7?jc,  xpriGTtvofiai.  (4)  Peculiar  to  Ig- 
natius and  St.  Paul,  very  numerous,  e.  g. :  cicvKipoe., 
uvmpvxtiv,  IvSaitTfioQ,  tpvmovv,  etc.  (5)  Peculiar  to 
Ignatius  and  St.  John  :  dyi'nri],  ayci—dv,  and  6  ovpa- 
voq  instead  of  oi  ovpavoi  (St.  Paul  and  Clement). 
(G)  Peculiar  to  Polycarp  and  St.  Paul :  c'nroTvXavav,  cip- 
pafSiov,  dtyiXdpyvpoc;,  to  tca\6v,  ptratoXoyia,  -irpovtli'. 

Of  the  allusions  and  references  no  enumerations 
need  be  given,  as  they  will  be  found  indicated  in  the 
foot-notes  of  every  page  of  Hefele's  edition,  and 
massed  together  in  his  index. 

VI.  In  a  few  instances  these  fathers  appear  to  mal-e 
misquotations ;  i.  e.  they  cite  as  "words  of  the  Lord," 
or  of  "  Scripture,''  what  is  nowhere  to  be  found  in  the 
N.  T. — So  Bar.  4 :  "  The  Son  of  God  says  let  us  resist 
all  iniquity,  and  hold  it  in  hatred."  This  is  not  to  be 
found  in  the  N.  T.,  nor,  as  far  as  is  known,  in  any  apoc- 
ryphal gospel.  It  must  have  been  taken  from  some 
tradition,  or  the  mere  sentiment  may  have  been  cited 
from  Jas.  iv,  7,  or  2  Tim.  ii,  Id — utoti'itid  «tto  aSuciag; 
and  Psa.  cxix,  103 — dSuciav  i^imjaa. — Bar.  G:  "Be- 
hold, saith  the  Lord,  I  will  make  the  last  things  like  the 
first."  This  may  be  a  loose  quotation  of  Matt,  xx,  1G. 
Comp.  Ezek.  xxxvi,  11. — Clem.  23:  "Far  from  us  be 
this  scripture  which  saith,  "Wretched  are  they  who  are 
double  minded  and  doubtful ;  saying,  we  have  heard 
these  tilings  even  from  the  time  of  our  fathers,  and,  be- 
hold, we  have  grown  old,  and  none  of  these  things  have 
happened  to  us."  This  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  taken 
from  some  apocryphal  source  (Coteler,  who,  however, 
fails  to  indicate  the  precise  source).  Others  regard  it  as 
a  careless  citation  of  Jas.  i,  8,  and  2  Pet.  iii,  4.  Both 
explanations  are  unsatisfactory.  It  may  be  a  mere 
blunder  of  Clement. — Ign.  Smyr.  3:  "And  when  he 
came  to  those  who  were  with  Peter,  he  said  unto  them, 
Take,  handle  me,  and  see  that  I  am  not  a  disembodied 
spirit."  Probably  this  passage  would  never  have  been 
suspected  as  it  has  been  but  for  the  remark  of  Euse- 
bius  (Hist.  Ec.  cxvi,  2G)  that  he  did  not  know  whence 
Ignat.  cited,  and  the  conjecture  of  Jerome  (Be  Vir. 
III.  Ign.  n.  10)  that  it  was  from  the  Gospel  of  the  Naz- 
arenes.  Pearson  suspects  an  oral  tradition.  (Comp. 
Crcdner,  Beilrage,  i,  407.)  But  the  imitation  of  Luke, 
xxiv,  39,  is  quite  as  close  as  many  unchallenged  ([no- 
tations. But  the  most  remarkable  fact  about  these 
false  citations  is  yet  to  be  mentioned :  the}-  are  not 
confined  to  the  N.  T.  Thus,  Bar.  9:  "The  Scrip- 
tures relate  that  Abraham  circumscribed  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  men  of  his  own  household."  A  loose 
combination  of  Gen.  xvii,  26,  27,  and  xiv,  14. — Clem. 
8 :  Many  sentences  not  to  be  found  are  inserted  in 
quotations  from  the  O.  T. — Clem.  46  :  "  For  it  is  writ- 
ten, join  yourselves  with  the  saints,  because  all  who 
adhere  to  them  will  be  sanctified.''  (Unscriptural,  per- 
haps ;  certainly  not  in  Scripture.)  And  again  in  an- 
other place,  "With  an  innocent  man  thou  shalt  be  in- 1 


nocent,  with  the  elect  thou  shalt  be  elect,  and  with  the 
froward  thou  shalt  be  froward"  (Psa.  xviii,  26;  very 
loosely). — Bar.  7:  Ceremonies  are  quoted  from  "the 
prophet"  which  are  only  to  be  found  in  tradition. 
(Comp.  Justin.  Dial.  c.  Tryph.  n.  40 ;  Tertul.  adv.  Jitd. 
c.  xiv ;  adv.  Mare,  iii,  7.)  Our  conclusions  from 
these  facts  are:  1st.  It  is  wholly  incredible  that  these 
citations  have  been  made  from  any  apocryphal  books 
of  the  N.  T.  now  in  existence.  Very  few  of  them  have 
been  traced  with  any  plausibility  to  such  sources,  and 
these  have  quite  as  much  resemblance  to  the  genu- 
ine as  to  the  apocryphal  books.  2d.  And  yet  there 
is  no  sufficient  evidence  that  these  fathers  copied  from 
the  MSS.  of  the  N.  T.  The  citations  absolutely  literal 
are  very  few  and  brief,  and  of  the  nature  of  proverbs 
or  maxims,  which  could  not  be  readily  forgotten  or 
varied.  (E.  g.,  1  Cor.  ii,  9  ;  Q.  Clem.  34*:  Matt,  vii,  1 ; 
Qu.  Tol.  2:  Mark  xiv,  38;  Qu.  Pol.  7:  1  Pet.  iii,  9; 
Qu.  Pol.  2.)  Citations  are  expressly  made  only  from 
Matt.,  Luke,  1  Cor.,  and  Eph. ;  and  only  sixt}'  out  of 
fome  one  hundred  apparent  references  are  close  imita- 
tions. Sd.  But  the  O.  T.  is  quoted  quite  as  carelessly, 
in  many  instances,  as  the  New.  Very  few  books  of 
the  O.  T.  are  expressly  named.  The  few  literal  quo- 
tations from  the  O.  T.  are  also  of  the  nature  of  prov- 
erbs. (E.  g.,  Prov.  v,  5  ;  Qu.  Clem.  30  :  Prov.  x,  12  ; 
Qu.  Clem.  49.)  More  false  citations  from  the  O.  T. 
are  made  than  from  the  New ;  and  all  these  were,  of 
course,  mere  blunders,  while  there  must  have  been 
"words  of  the  Lord"  well  known  in  these  times  not 
recorded  in  the  Gospels,  as  we  learn  from  John  xxi, 
25.  St.  Paul  himself  quotes  from  these  in  one  instance 
(Acts  xx,  35).  In  fact,  the  citations  of  the  fathers 
from  the  O.  T.  are  not  more  inexact  than  those  of  the 
N.  T.  writers.  Our  Lord  himself  often  varies,  both  in 
synonyms,  arrangement,  and  construction,  from  the 
Sept.,  giving  only  the  sentiment.  4th.  In  a  few  in- 
stances the  O.  T.  is  unquestionably  quoted  through 
the  medium  of  the  New.  Passages  wholly  differing 
both  from  the  Hcb.  and  the  Sept.  are  reproduced  with 
surj  rising  accuracy.  Important  additions  to  texts  are 
made  from  the  N.  T.,  and  the  whole  designated  as 
"Scripture."  This  argument  is  unanswerable.  Such 
citations  must  have  been  made  from  the  N.  T.  5th. 
Therefore  the  conjecture  that  the  books  of  the  N.  T. 
were  not  known  to  these  fathers,  and  perhaps  not  in 
existence  in  their  time,  cannot  be  entertained  by  any 
candid  mind.  With  the  possible  exception  of  2  Pet., 
Jude,  and  2  and  3  John,  to  which  few,  if  any  allusions 
are  made,  and  no  certain  references,  all  the  1  ooks  of 
the  present  canon  are  quoted  or  referred  to  repeatedly, 
and  often  very  accurately.  The  direct  testimony  to 
the  epistles  of  Paul  are  all  the  more  valuable  because 
they  are  given  incidentally,  and  for  a  wholly  different 
purpose.  A  few  years  later,  about  A.D.  1 50,  when  the 
authority  of  the  apostolic  writings  began  to  be  called 
in  question,  a  list  of  them,  nearly  complete,  is  given 
in  the  Muratorian  Fragment.  They  could  not  have 
been  challenged  nor  rivalled  by  apocryphas  in  the  age 
of  the  apostolic  fathers.  These  writers  must  have  pos- 
sessed the  books  of  our  present  canon,  or  nearly  all  of 
them  ;  but  they  seldom,  if  ever,  turned  to  them  at  the 
moment  of  writing.  They  could  cite  from  the  N.  T., 
as  they  unquestionablj'  did  from  the  Old,  with  suffi- 
cient accuracy  for  their  purpose,  merely  from  recol- 
lection. The  unrolling  of  immense  parchments,  even 
if  they  carried  them,  was  a  useless  trouble  in  hurried 
writing,  amid  the  pressure  of  missionary  journeys.  If 
Strauss  had  made  a  candid  examination  of  these  facts, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  he  would  have  found  it  to  his 
purpose  to  make  the  following  admission  :  "It  would 
undoubtedly  be  an  argument  of  decisive  weight  in  fa- 
vor of  the  credibility  of  the.  biblical  history  could  it 
be  shown  that  it  was  written  by  eye-witnesses,  or  even 
by  persons  nearly  contemporaneous  with  the  events 
narrated."     (Leben  Jesn,  i,  ij  13. ) 

The  Christian  Ilemanbrancer  (xliv,  407)  undertakes 


APOSTOLICAL  KING 


811 


to  show  that  many  of  the  citations  in  the  ap.  fathers, 
apparently  from  Scripture,  are  from  the  oldest  Litur- 
gies. On  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  apostolical  fathers 
in  the  history  of  Christian  doctrine,  see  Dorner,  D  >c- 
trine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  period  i,  ch.  i;  on  their 
value  for  the  history  of  the  church,  sec  Schaff,  History 
of  the  Christian  Church,  §  117;  Presscns6,  Hist.  d.  trois 
Prem.  Siecles,  vol.  i ;  Mosheim,  Commentaries,  i,  200 
sq. ;  Elliott,  Delineation  of  Romanism,  bk.  i,  ch.  iii ; 
Hase,  Church  History,  7th  ed.  §  39.  See  also  Hagen- 
bach,  History  of  Doctrines,  §  20 ;  Reuss,  Histoire  du 
Canon,  ch.  ii  ;  Conybeare,  Hampton  Lecture,  1839  ;  Hil- 
genfeld,  Die  app.  VV.,  Untersuchungen,  etc.  (Halle, 
1853);  Clarke,  Succession  of  Sacred  Literature,  vol.  i; 
Lechler,  Apostol.  und  nachapostol.  Zdtalter,  Stuttgardt, 
1857;  Bunsen,  ChristianUy  and  Mankind,  vols,  v  and 
vi ;  Freppel,  Les Peres  A  post-cliques  (Paris,  1859)  ;  Don- 
aldson. Crit.  Hist,  of  Christ.  Life  and  Doctiine  from  the 
Death  of  the  Apostles  to  the  Xicene  Council  (vol.  i.  I,ond. 
1865);  Illgen,  Zeits.ftr  die  hist.  Theol.  (18GG,  Heft,  i); 
and  the  prolegomena  to  the  editions  named  below.  The 
best  editions  are :  1.  By  Cotelerius,  SS.  Patrum,  qui  tem- 
poralis apostolicis  floruerunt,  Opera  (Paris,  1G72,  2  vols. 
fol.  ;  a  new  edition  by  Clericus,  Amsterdam,  1721,  2 
vols.  fol.).  Cotelerius  added  to  his  edition  the  Pseudo- 
Clementines  and  the  Yindicice  Jonatiana  by  Pearson. 
2.  By  the  Oratorian  Gallandius,  in  his  Bibliotheca  Vete- 
rum  Patrum ;  3.  By  Russell  (Lond.  1746).  4.  By  Jacob- 
son  (2  vols.  Oxf.  1838,  2d  ed.  1840,  8vo).  This  edition 
does  not  contain  the  epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  epistle 
to  Diognetus,  and  the  Pastor  Hernias.  5.  Reithmayr 
(R.  C.)  Patrum  Apostol.  Epistolce  (Monach.  1814,  8vo). 
6.  ilefele  (R.  C),  Patrum  Apostol.  Opera  (Tubing.  1839, 
4th  ed.  1855,  8vo).  7.  Dressel,  Patrum  Apostol.  Opera 
(Leipz.  1863,  2d  ed.  8vo)  ;  it  includes  the  Greek  Pastor 
Hernias,  and  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  from  Tischen- 
dorf  's  Sinaitic  Codex.  There  is  also  an  English  version 
of  the  Ap.  Fathers  (not  according  to  the  latest  texts)  by 
Wake  (latest  ed.  Oxf.  1841, 12mo).     See  Fathers. 

Apostolical  King  or  Apostolical  Majesty, 
a  title  of  the  kings  of  Hungary  conferred  by  Pope  Syl- 
vester II  in  1000  upon  Duke  Stephen  I  on  account  of 
his  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  Christian  faith.  It 
was  renewed  in  1756  by  Clement  XIII  for  Maria  The- 
resa and  her  successors  on  the  throne  of  Austria ;  abol- 
ished in  1848,  but  reassumed  (in  the  form  of  "  Apos- 
tolical Majesty")  in  1852. 

Apostolical  Men,  a  name  often  given  to  the  as- 
sistants and  disciples  of  the  apostles.  Those  among 
them  who  left  writings  received  the  name  Apostolical 
Fathers  (q.  v.). 

Apostolical  Succession.     See  Successiox. 

Apostolici,  or  Apostolic  Brothers,  (1.)  a  sect 
of  heretics  mentioned  by  St.  Augustine  (l)e  Hceres. 
xl),  who  says  that  they  arrogated  to  themselves  the 
title  of  apostolici,  because  they  refused  to  admit  to  their 
communion  all  persons  using  marriage,  or  having 
property  of  their  own;  not  that  they  were  heretical, 
he  says,  for  abstaining  from  these  things,  but  because 
they  held  that  those  persons  had  no  hope  of  salvation 
who  did  not  do  so.  They  were  similar  to  the  En- 
cratites,  and  were  also  called  ApotcicHt  e.  (2.)  A  sect 
with  this  name  arose  in  the  twelfth  century,  who  con- 
demned marriage  and  infant  baptism,  also  purgatory, 
prayer  for  the  dead,  the  invocation  of  saints,  the  pow- 
er of  the  pope,  etc.  Many  of  them  were  put  to  death 
at  Cologne  (Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v, 
§  15).  (3.)  Another  apostolic  brotherhood  was  found- 
ed by  Gerhard  Segarelli,  of  Parma,  about  A.I).  1260. 
This  brotherhood  Pope  Nicolas  IV  endeavored  to  sup- 
press by  various  decrees  of  1286  and  1290.  No  here- 
sy of  doctrine  was  proved  against  the  founder;  and 
his  only  profession  was  a  desire  to  restore  apostolic 
simplicity  in  religion.  He  was  imprisoned  and  ban- 
ished, but  nevertheless  his  adherents  spread  through 
Italy,  Germany,  France,  and  Spain.     They  went  about 


APOSTOLIUS 

accompanied  by  women  singing,  and  preaching  es- 
pecially against  the  corruptions  of  the  clergy.  In 
1294  two  brothers  and  two  sisters  were  burnt  alive 
at  Parma.  Segarelli  abjured  his  heresy,  but  was  burnt 
in  1300  for  having  relapsed.  From  this  time  Dolci- 
no  of  Milan  became  the  head  of  this  party,  who  pre- 
dicted the  sudden  downfall  of  the  Romish  Church. 
Dolcino,  in  1304,  fortified,  with  1400  followers,  a  moun- 
tain in  the  diocese  of  Novara,  and  plundered,  for  his 
support,  the  adjacent  country.  In  1306  he  fortified 
the  mountain  Zebello,  in  the  diocese  of  Yercelli,  and 
fought  against  the  troops  of  the  bishop  until  he  was 
compelled  by  famine  to  surrender  in  1307.  Dolcino 
and  his  companion,  Margaretha  of  Trent,  were  burnt, 
with  many  of  their  followers.  See  Dulcixists.  These 
Apostolici  rejected  the  authority  of  the  pope,  oaths, 
capital  punishments,  etc.  Some  Apostolic  Brothers 
are  mentioned,  A.D.  1311,  near  Spolcto,  and  A.I  >.  1320, 
in  the  south  of  France.  The  Synod  of  Lavaur,  1368, 
mentions  them  for  the  last  time.  The  sect  continued 
in  Germany  down  to  the  time  of  Boniface  IX.  Mo- 
sheim published  an  account  of  them  in  three  books 
(Helmstadt,  1746,  4to).— Murd.  Mosheim,  Church  Hist. 
cent,  xiii,  ch.  v;  Landon.  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  455;  Hase,  Ch. 
Hist.  §  294. 

Apostolidis,  Michael,  a  theologian  and  prelate 
of  the  Greek  church,  born  toward  the  close  of  the  loth 
century  on  the  island  of  Crete,  died  at  Athens  on  Aug. 
2,  1862.  He  studied  theology,  philosophy,  and  lan- 
guages at  the  German  Universities,  and  became  soon 
after  professor  at  a  Greek  school  at  Trieste.  When 
Prince  Otho  of  Bavaria  was  designated  as  king  of 
Greece,  Apostolidis  was  called  to  Munich  to  -instruct 
him  in  Greek.  Having  arrived  with  King  Otho  in 
Greece,  he  became  lecturer  on  church  history  and  eth- 
ics at  an  ecclesiastical  school  at  Athens,  and,  in  1837, 
professor  of  theology  at  the  University  of  Athens. 
When  the  independence  of  the  Church  of  Greece  had 
been  declared,  Apostolidis  was  sent  to  Petersburg  to 
establish  a  closer  connection  between  the  Church  of 
Russia  and  that  of  Greece.  On  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed archbishop  of  Patras.  Subsequently  he  be- 
came archbishop  of  Athens  and  president  of  the  Syn- 
od, which  position  he  retained  until  his  death.  Apos- 
tolidis wrote,  besides  several  contributions  to  the  Greek 
periodical  Aoyioc  'Epfirjg,  of  Vienna,  a  manual  of  Chris- 
tian ethics,  entitled  Tijc,  Kara  Xpiuroi'  i)St>ciic.  irpay- 
uartia  (Athens,  1847),  first  in  the  ancient  Greek,  but 
subsequently  also  in  modern  Greek. —  Unsere  Zeit,  vii, 
398,  399. 

Apostolicity,  a  so-called  "note  of  the  church." 
See  Apostolical  Church  ;  Church. 

Apostolini,  or  Apostles,  an  order  of  monks,  who 
most  probably  took  their  origin  in  the  15th  century  at 
Genoa,  where  the  convent  of  St.  Roche  belonged  to 
them.  It  seems  that  there  were  many  hermits  who 
congregated  at  Genoa  about  that  time,  who,  on  ac- 
count of  the  apostolical  life  which  they  professed  to 
lead,  and  their  having  assumed  St.  Barnabas,  the  apos- 
tle, as  their  patron,  took  the  designation  of  Apostolini, 
or  "  Fathers  of  St.  Barnabas."  At  first  the  members 
of  the  order  were  laymen,  and  bound  by  no  vow;  but 
Pope  Alexander  VI  obliged  them  to  the  vow,  and  to 
live  under  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  in  1496.  Their 
dress  consisted  of  a  gown  and  scapulary,  over  which 
they  wore  a  cloak  of  gray  cloth,  with  a  little  hood. 
They  afterward  united  with  the  monks  of  St.  Ambrose 
ail  Xi  inns,  then  dissolved  the  connection,  then  were 
reunited  by  Sixtus  V,  and  finally  both  were  sup- 
pressed by  Innocent  X  in  1650. — Helyot,  Ord.  Monast. 
t.  iv ;  Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  i,  455. 

Apostolius,  Michael,  a  learned  Greek  of  the 
15th  century.  He  delivered  the  funeral  oration  over 
the  body  of  the  Emperor  Constantine  Pahrologus,  who 
was  killed  in  the  storming  of  the  city  of  Constantino- 
ple by  the  Turks.     When  the  city  was  taken  by  the 


APOSTOOL 


319 


APPAREL 


Turks  in  1-153  he  escaped  to  Italy,  where,  to  please 
Cardinal  Bessarion,  he  wrote  against  Theodore  of 
Gaza.  But  his  abuse  of  Aristotle  displeased  the  car- 
dinal, and  Apostolius  retired  into  Crete,  where  he 
gained  a  hard  livelihood  by  copying  MSS.  and  teach- 
ing children.  He  died  about  1480  at  Venice,  leaving 
many  manuscripts,  which  are  still  extant  in  European 
collections. — Fabricius,  Bibl'tothca  (iraci,  t.  xi ;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  1)14. 

/  Apostool,  Samuel,  a  Mennonite,  was  born  in 
1G38,  and  was  minister  of  a  church  of  the  Waterland- 
ers  (a  branch  of  the  Dutch  Baptists)  at  Amsterdam. 
In  1662  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to 
Galenus  Hans,  who  taught  that  Christianity  is  not  so 
much  a  body  of  opinions  as  a  practical  life.  Apostool, 
on  the  contrary,  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  doctrine, 
and  also  of  the  especial  views  of  the  Mennonites.  Ga- 
lenus was  charged  with  Socinianism  and  acquitted, 
and  Apostool  and  his  friends  had  to  form  a  separate 
church.  His  followers  were  called  Apostoolians.  He 
lived  up  to  nearly  the  end  of  the  century.  —  Schyn, 
Hist.  Merman,  p.  327 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Geiurale,  ii,  914 ; 
Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xvii,  ch.  v,  §  7.     See  Ga- 

LENITES  ;    MeNNONITES. 

Apotactici  or  Apotactltae  (from  c'nrorarmonai, 
to  renounce),  an  ancient  sect,  who,  affecting  to  follow 
the  evangelical  counsels  of  poverty  and  the  example 
of  the  primitive  Christians,  renounced  all  their  pos- 
sessions. The}r  seem  to  have  been  the  same  as  the 
Apostolici  or  the  Tatianites.  During  the  persecution 
of  Diocletian  they  had  many  martyrs ;  and  subse- 
quently adopted  the  errors  of  the  Encratites,  who 
deemed  marriage  and  unchastity  to  be  the  same  thing. 
The  sixth  law  in  the  Theodosian  Code  joins  the  Apo- 
tactitae  with  the  Eunomians  and  Arians. — Mosheim, 
Comm.  i,  482 ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xxii,  ch.  i,  §  G. 

Apothecary  (njDI,  roke'iicli,  seasoning,  i.  c.  with 
aromatics  ;  Sept.  pvpexpoc,  Exod.  xxx,  25 ;  xxxvii, 
29;  Eccl.  x,  1),  correctly  rendered  in  the  margin 
"perfumer;"  so  also  in  Eccles.  xxxviii,  8;  xlix,  1: 
the  word  means  also  any  thing  spiced  (1  Chron.  ix,  30) ; 
hence,  ointment,  confection  (Exod.  xxx,  35).  The 
hol}r  oils  and  ointments  were  probably  prepared  by 
one  of  the  priests  who  had  properly  qualified  himself 
in  Egypt,  where  unguents  were  in  great  use.  See 
Anointing.  Roberts  (Oriental  Illustrations,  p.  80) 
states  that  in  Hindoo  temples  there  is  a  man  call- 
ed Thile-Kdran,  whose  chief  business  it  is  to  distil 
sweet  waters  from  flowers,  and  to  extract  oils  from 
wood,  flowers,  and  other  substances.  From  our  ver- 
sion having  rendered  the  word  "  apothecary,"  it  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  business  of  a  perfumer  was 
not  distinguished  from  that  of  an  apothecary  in  the 
time  of  the  translators.  Thus  Shakspeare,  a  contem- 
porary writer,  says, 

"An  ounce  of  civet,  pood  apothecary, 
To  sweeten  mine  imagination." 
Indeed  perfumery  is  almost  inseparable  from  a  drug- 
gist's  stock   in   trade.     Sacred  oil  appears  to  have 


been  as  copiously  used  by  the  heathen  nations  as  it 
was  in  the  Jewish  tabernacle  and  temple,  and  during 
the  patriarchal  economy  ;  the  Sanscrit  writers  prove 
its  retention  in  the  present  religious  services  of  India, 
and  that  it  was  adopted  in  the  more  ancient  we  have 
the  authority  of  Strabo  (lib.  xv),  where  he  refers  to  a 
ceremony  which  calls  to  mind  the  words  of  the  psal- 
mist, that  it  ran  down  upon  Aaron's  beard,  that  went 
down  to  the  skirts  of  his  garments  (Psa.  exxxiii,  2). 
Sir  William  Ouseley,  also  (Trav.in  Persia,!, 3'Jl),  men- 
tions the  statue  of  a  man  at  Shapur,  which,  according 
to  the  Nozhat  al-Colub,  princes  went  on  pilgrimages  to 
visit  and  anoint  with  oil.     See  Perfume. 

Ap'pa'im  (Ileb.  Appa'yim,  E?ES,  the  nostrils; 
Sept.  'AcpQaip  v.  r.  'AirQaiv),  the  second  named  of  the 
two  sons  of  Nadab,  and  the  father  of  Ishi,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  30,  31).     B.C.  ante  1658. 

Apparel  (usually  designated  in  Ileb.  by  132,  be'- 
ged,  "dress,"  or  some  form  of  C5! "2?,  lebush',  "cloth- 
ing," taSiie,  i^taTi(Tfi6c,  etc.),  Oriental,  especially 
Hebrew.  Sec  Garment;  Clothing;  Raiment,  etc. 
This  was  usually,  as  the  eastern  climate  necessitated, 
wide  and  flowing  (comp. 
Olear,  Reisen.  p.  307),  but 
concerning  its  precise  cut 
we  find  nothing  indicated 
in  the  O.  T.  books,  except 
with  regard  to  that  of  the 
priesthood.  See  Priest. 
But  as  customs  change  bi  t 
little  among  Orientals,  we 
may  probably  get  a  pretty 
exact  idea  of  the  ancient 
Hebrew  fashion  from  a 
comparison  with  modern 
Eastern,  especially  Arabic 
costume  (see  especially  Ar- 
vicux,  Trav.  iii,  241  sq. ; 
Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  02  sq.). 
See  Dress.  The  delinea- 
tions of  dress  upon  the 
Oriental  monuments  (such 
as  the  ruins  of  Babylon, 
Persepolis,  Nineveh,  and, 
to  some  extent,  Egypt)  are 
useful  for  this  purpose,  es- 
pecially for  the  later  period  (namely,  during  the  exile, 
when  the  Jews  wore  Chaldean  garments,  Dan,  ii,  21). 
For  the  earlier  period  see  the  Gemara  (Shabbath.  xvi, 
4).  Male  and  female  apparel  then,  as  now,  did  not 
essentially  differ;   but  a  lady  was  easily  recognised 


Modern  Oriental  Apothecary  Sh<:>p. 


Inhabitants  of  Nablotis  (Shechem). 


APPAREL 


320 


APPAREL 


for  the  most  part  by  single  pieces  of  female  attire,  and 
especially  by  ornaments,  and  moreover  the  costliness 
of  material  in  the  head-dresses  made  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  sexes  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
law  (Deut.  xxii,  5)  forbidding  men  to  wear  women's 
garments  and  the  reverse.  (See,  however,  Josephus, 
War,  iv,  9,  10.  The  reason  usually  assigned  for 
this  statute  is  the  prevention  of  confusion,  and  espe- 
cially licentiousness,  sec  Mitt,  Dissert,  p.  203  sq. ;  Mi- 
chaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  iv,  349  sq.  Others,  as  Le  Clerc 
after  Maimonides,  regard  the  prohibition  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  certain  forms  of  idolatry  which  required 
men  to  sacrifice  in  female  apparel,  and  the  reverse, 
ace  Macrob.  Saturn,  ii,  8,  p.  22,  ed.  Bip. ;  Philochori 
Fragm.  ed.  Siebelis,  p.  10  sq. ;  comp.  Jul.  Finnic. 
Be  errore  pro/an.  rel.  c.  4 ;  also  Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii, 
34  sq.  ;  and  generally  Pezold,  De  promiscua  vestium 
utriusque  se.rus  usurpdtione,  Lips.  1702,  and  in  Ugolini 
Thesaur.  xxix.  This  interpretation  is  sustained  by 
a  statement  of  Maimonides,  More  Kevochim,  iii,  27 ; 
comp.  Movers,  Phonic,  i,  445  sq.  Many  Jews,  how- 
ever, understand  the  textual  expression  "OS""1?;;),  lit- 
erally "  utensils  of  a  man,"  to  signify  male  weapons, 
so  Onkelos  in  loc. ;  a  view  which  is  adopted  by  Jo- 
sephus, Ant.  iv,  8,  43.)  The  subject  of  female  ap- 
parel has  been  especially  treated  by  Schroder  (Z)e 
vestiiu  mulier.  Ileb.  Lugd.  B.  1745)  and  Hartmann 
(Hebriierin  am  Putztische,  Amst.  1849).  The  manu- 
facture of  garments  was  in  all  ages  the  business  of  the 
women,  especially  the  females  of  the  family,  and  even 
distinguished  ladies  did  not  excuse  themselves  from  the 
employment  (1  Sam.  ii,  19;  Prov.  xxxi,  22  sq.).  Sec 
Wife.  The  only  legal  enactment  on  the  subject  was 
that  wool  and  linen  should  not  be  used  in  the  same 
article  of  apparel  (Lev.  xix,  19;  Deut.  xxii,  11),  a 
prescription  probably  not  designed  (as  thought  by 
Josephus,  Ant.  iv,  8,  11)  to  forbid  the  priests  any  in- 
termixture of  materials,  but  to  be  explained  after  the 
analog)'  of  the  foregoing  prohibition  of  heterogeneous- 
ness  (see  Michaelis,  Mos.  R.  iv,  319  sq.).  See  Diverse. 
The  articles  of  clothing  common  to  men  and  women, 
then,  were:  (1.)  The  under  garment,  "2713,  letho'- 
neth,  x'rwi',  or  tunic  [see  Coat],  which  was  held  to- 
gether b)r  the  girdle  (q.  v.),  and  besides  which  a  linen 


.Mountain 


Levantine  Costumes 


shirt,  'p'lb,  sadin',  is  sometimes  mentioned  (Isa.  iii, 
23;  Judg.  xiv,  12;  Prov.  xxxi,  24).  In  common 
language  of  the  ancients,  a  person  who  had  only  this 
under  garment  on  was  called  "naked"  (1  Sam.  xix, 
24 ;  Job  xxiv,  10 ;  Isa.  xx,  2 ;  comp.  Virg.  Geo.  i, 
229),  a  term  that  is  sometimes  applied  also  to  one 
poorly  clad  (Job  xxii,  G;  Isa.  lviii,  7  ;  2  Sam.  vi,  20; 
see  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  p.  1071).  Those  in  high  sta- 
tion or  travellers  (comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  xxii,  5,  7)  some- 
times wore  two  under  garments,  like  a  double  shirt, 
the  outer  (which  was  always  longer  than  the  inner) 
one  being  then  called 
P^SlC,  me'il' ,  arobe  or 
"upper  garment"  (1 
Sam.  xv,  27  ;  xviii, 
4;  xxiv,  5;  Job.  i, 
20).  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  likewise,  as 
perhaps  also  the  Per- 
sians, were  acquaint- 
ed with  this  habit 
(comp.  Herod,  i,  195; 
Ovid,  Fasti,  ii,  319; 
Salmas.  ad  Teriidl. 
pall.  p.  71);  but  the 
custom  appears  to 
have  been  always  re- 
garded by  the  Jews 
as  luxurious  (Matt. 
x,  10;  Luke  iii,  11; 
ix,  3;  comp.  Light- 
foot,  p.  330  ;  and 
Groebel,  in  the  Miscell.  Lips,  xii,  137  sq.).  A  Chaldee 
costume  was  the  "J"1 3 3,  pattish' ,  or  mantle  (Dan.  ii,  3, 
21),  probably  a  flowing  under-dress  (see  Gesenius, 
Thesaur.  p.  1101).  (2.)  An  over  garment  [see  Robe], 
which  was  thrown  around  the  person,  called  itSQttJ, 
simlah' ',  and  i"D73iU, sawZaA',  or  mantle,  also  153,  be'ged, 
a  piece  of  cloth  ng  generally,  ipAnov,  especially  with 
females  the  PnZ'J-Q,  mitpach'ath,  or  cloak,  palla,  oth- 
erwise rtE-""2,  maataphah' ',  or  mantilla  (Ruth  iii,  15  ; 
Isa.  iii,  22);  also  !"T"N,  adde'reth,  or  wide  mantle, 
pallium  (Josh,  vii,  21 ;  1  Kings  xix,  13  ;  2  Kings  ii, 
13),  the  last  designating  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  very  loose  and 
flowing  robe,  sometimes  (Gen. 
xxv,  26 ;  Zech.  xiii,  4)  lined 
with  fur,  such  as  the  Orientals 
(Turks)  even  wear  in  summer 
(see  Thevenot,  Voyages,  i,  234  ; 
Russel,  Aleppo,  i,  127  ;  Harmer, 
Observ.  iii,  4  sq.).  Poor  people 
and  travellers  also  used  the  out- 
er garment  as  night  clothes. 
See  Couch.  Both  sexes  made, 
out  of  the  superabundant  folds 
in  front,  a  pocket  or  lap,  p^H, 
cheyh,  or  "bosom,"  sinus  (Ruth 
iii,  15;  Psa.  lxxix,  12;  Prov. 
xvii,  23 ;  2  Kings  iv,  39 ;  Hag. 
ii,  12;  Luke  vi,  38  ;  comp.  Liv. 
xxi,  18;  Horace,  Serm.  ii,  3, 
171  sq. ;  Senec.  Ep.  19 ;  Joseph. 
War,  v,  7,  4;  vi,  3,  3;  see 
Wetstein,  i,  09G;  Kype,  Observ. 
i.  238),  into  which  the  hand  was 
thrust  by  the  indolent  (Psa. 
lxxiv,  11).  Variegated  (on  the 
)ia\(iK('i  or  tine  purple  and  lyssus 

garments  of  Matt.  xi.  8,  see  Biel,  in  the  Symbol.  Duisb. 
i,  79  sq.)  and  embroidered  raiments  were  reserved  for 
occasions  of  ceremony  (Josh,  vii,  21 ;  Judg.  v,  30 ;  2 
Sam.  i,  24;  xiii,  18;  Prov.  xxxi,  22;  Esth.  viii,  15; 
Ezek.  xvi,  10 ;  see  Harmer,  iii,  182  sq. ;  Eosemnuller, 


of  Lebanon. 


APPAREL 


321 


APPARITOR 


Morgenl.  iii,140),  although  even  children  (Gen.  xxxvii, 
3  ;  comp.  Rauwolf,  lieisen,  p.  89)  were  habited  in  them 
(for  so  the  Q^SS  T.HS,  ketho'neth  passim',  Gen. 
xxxvii,  23,  32;  2  Sam.  xiii,  18,  19,  is  probably  to  be 
understood,  with  the  Sept.,  Onkelos,  Saadias,  and  oth- 
ers, rather  than  a  dress  with  a  train  or  reaching  to  the 
ankles,  as  Josephus  explains,  Ant.  vii,  8,  1;  but  see 
Gesenius,,  Thes.  Ileb.p.  1117;  on  the  VfPPQ,  pethigil' , 
or  broidered  festive  garment  of  Isa.  iii,  24,  see  Gesenius, 
This,  p.  1137),  and  were  sometimes  part  of  the  prey 
taken  from  enemies  (Zeph.  i,  8).  Sec  Merchant; 
Weaving.  White  (byssus  and  linen),  however  [see 
Priest],  wras  naturally  in  most  esteem  for  garments 
(comp.  Eccl.  ix,  8 ;  3  Esdras  i,  2 ;  vii,  9 ;  2  Mace,  xi, 
8 ;  Luke  xxiii,  11 ;  Josephus,  War,  ii,  1,  1 ;  Doug- 
tan  Analect.  ii,  57  ;  Schmid,  De  usu  vestium  albar.  in 
Ugolini  Thcsaur.  xxix).  See  Linen  ;  Fuller.  Gen- 
erals especially  wore  red  (scarlet)  robes  (Judg.  viii, 
26  ;  Nah.  ii,  4  ;  Isa.  lxiii,  1 ;  see  below).  Luxurious 
apparel  was  no  doubt  increasing  in  fashion  under  the 
later  kings  (Jer.  iv,  30  ;  Ezek.  xvi,  10  sq.  ;  Zeph.  i,  8  ; 
Lam.  iv,  5),  and  prevailed  among  the  Jews  down  to  the 
apostles'  times  (1  Tim.  ii,  9  ;  1  Pet.  iii,  3 ;  see  Dougtasi 
Analect.  ii,  23  sq.).  A  form  of  delicate  raiment  in  use 
by  pious  (sanctimonious)  persons  is  mentioned  (Luke 
xx,  46  ;  comp.  Matt,  xxiii,  5).  See  Seam.  On  rend- 
ing the  garments,  see  Grief  ;  on  spreading  them  along 
the  way,  see  Courtesy.  Shaking  the  garments  in  the 
presence  of  any  one  (Acts  xviii,  G)  was  a  symbolical 
declaration  that  the  party  would  have  nothing  more 
to  do  with  him  (see  Heumann,  Parerga,  p.  213  sq.). 
('•.)  Priests  alone  wore  drawers  [see  Breeches],  but 
they  are  now  in  almost  universal  use  in  the  East  by 
men  and  women  (Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  G2,  65;  Reisen, 
i,  158  ;  so  also  among  the  ancient  Medes  and  Persians 
long  trowsers  were  worn,  Herod,  v,  49 ;  Xen.  Cyrop. 
viii,  3,  13 ;  Strabo,  ii,  52 ;  and  so  many  understand 
the  "pPSl^b,  sarbalii/,  "coats,"  of  Dan.  iii,  21,  27,  see 
Lengerke  in  loc,  while  others  understand  mantles,  as 
being  altogether  more  agreeable  to  Babylonian  usage, 
see  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  p.  969  sq.).  (4.)  Both  sexes 
covered  the  head  with  a  turban.  See  Head-dress. 
Women  likewise  wore  net-caps  (reticulated  hoods), 
frontlets  (forehead  bands),  and  probably  veils.  Sec 
Caul  ;  Bonnet  ;  Frontlet  ;  Veil.  (5.)  On  the  cov- 
ering of  the  feet,  see  Sandal  ;  Shoe.  Gloves  (Fl^pp 
or  w]3)  were  not  unknown,  yet  the}'  appear  not  to 
have  been  used  as  a  part  of  the  attire,  but  1  y  work- 
men as  a  protection  of  the  hands  from  injury  and  soil- 
ing (comp.  Mishna,  Chelim,  xvi,  6  ;  xxiv,  15  ;  xxvi, 
3 ;  see  an  essay  on  the  gloves  of  the  Hebrews,  in  Wie- 
ner's Zeitschr.f.  Kunst  u.  Literat.  1827,  No.  71  sq. ;  a 
man's  glove,  pP"1^  nartek',  is  mentioned  in  the  Tar- 
gum  on  Ruth  iv,  7). 

The  Orientals  are  still  very  fond  of  changes  (q.  v.) 
of  raiment,  especially  of  robes  of  state  on  holidays  or 
festive  occasions  (Niebuhr,  Reisen,  i,  182  ;  Burckhardt, 
Arabf  p.  272;  Harmer,  ii,  112;  iii,  447),  hence  rich 
Hebrews  had  their  change-suits  of  apparel  (nispbri, 
chnliphoth' ,  like  the  Greek  ilpaTa  t£?//<oi/3rt,  Odyss. 
viii,  249  ;  Y/rwrtc  tTnipoifioi,  xiv,  514),  and  to  a  supe- 
rior residence  there  always  appertained  a  goodly  ward- 
robe (nnttb"0,  meltachah' ,  clothes-press,  2  Kings  x,  22; 
see  Prov.  xxxi,  21;  Job  xxvii,  16;  Luke  xv,  22; 
comp.  Boehart,  Hieroz.  iii,  517;  Rosenmiiller,  Morgenl. 
iii,  349  ;  Jacob,  ad  Lucian  Toxar.  p.  150).  Especially 
did  kings  and  nobles  possess  a  stock  of  state  and  cere- 
monial dresses  (tTi^bn^,  machlatsoth' ,  costly  or  festive 
garments,  for  special  occasions,  Isa.  iii,  22 ;  Zech.  iii, 
4)  for  presents  (Gen.  xlv,  22  ;  Esth.  iv,  4  ;  vi,  8,  11 ; 
1  Sam.  xviii,  4 ;  2  Kings  v,  5  ;  x,  22  ;  comp.  also  Judg. 
xiv,  12,  19;  see  Tavernier,  i,  207,  272;  Harmer,  ii, 
112  ;  iii,  447  ;  among  the  Persians  head-dresses  appear 
to  have  been  likewise  royal  presents,  Esth.  vi,  8 ; 
X 


comp.  Heeren,  Tdeen,  I,  i,  216);  hence  among  the 
court  officers  is  mentioned  a  custodian  of  the  ward- 
robe (D",152!l  "HOUJ,  simmer'  hab-begadim' ,  keeper  of 
the  clothes,  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  22).  See  Gift.  Persons 
changed  their  clothes  for  religious  reasons,  when  they 
had  become  ceremonially  unclean  (Lev.  vii,  11  ;  xxvii, 
11,  25  ;  xv,  13,  etc.  ;  comp.  Gen.  xxxv,  2).  Those  in 
eminent  stations  and  females  anointed  and  perfumed 
their  garments  (Psa.  xlv,  9;  Cant,  iv,  1Y).  See  Un- 
guent. Mourning  apparel  (D^jSiO,  sakkim' ,  -weeds, 
i.  e.  sackcloth)  were  of  coarse  stuff  (as  still  in  the 
East),  narrow  and  without  sleeves.  See  Mourning  ; 
Sackcloth.  Prophets  and  ascetics  also  used  this  kind 
of  habiliments  (Isa.  xx,  2  ;  Zach.  xiii,  4  ;  Matt,  iii,  4  ; 
see  Gesenius,  Comment,  iib.  Jesa.  i,  644).  Court  of- 
ficers (1  Kings  x,  5;  Isa.  xxii,  21)  wore  a  distinctive 
dress.  See  King  ;  Priest.  (Comp.  generally  J.  H. 
Soprani,  Be  re  vestiana  llebr.  in  his  Comment,  de  Ba- 
vidj,  Lugd.  1643).     See  Attire. 

The  malignant  leprosy  (r^X^  M^S,  tsaraath' 
mime'reih,  fretting  scab),  which  attacked  not  only 
clothing,  but  also  skins  and  leather,  consisted  of  green 
and  reddish  spots;  but  its  true  character  has  not  yet 
been  explained.  It  was  probably  some  form  of  mould 
engendered  by  dampness  or  confinement.  Michaelis 
{Mos.  R.  iv,  265  sq.)  supposed  it  to  be  the  so-called 
wool-rot  (i.  e.  wool  from  diseased  sheep ;  see  Heben- 
streit,  Curm  sanitatis  ap.  ret.  erempla,  Lips.  1783,  p. 
24)  ;  others  explain  it  of  small  insects,  not  cognizable 
by  the  eye,  that  appear  green  or  red,  and  corrode  the 
wool  (Jahn,  I,  ii,  163).  That  also  linen  stuff  (ver.  48, 
d^PllIJS)  might  be  similarly  affected,  is  improbable 
(comp.  Michaelis,  in  Bertholdt's  Journ.  iv,  365  sq.) ; 
and  to  understand  cotton  material  to  be  meant  is  very 
arbitrary.  Sec  Linen.  This  subject  can  only  be 
cleared  up  by  closer  investigation  in  the  East  itself. 

Among  Greek  and  Roman  articles  of  apparel  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible  arc  the  x^apvc,  or  cloak;  a  wide 
overcoat  or  mantle,  which  hunters  (Lucian,  Dial.  deor. 
xi,  3),  soldiers,  especially  horsemen  (Bockh,  Staats- 
haush.  i,  115),  and  their  officers  wore  (2  Mace,  xii,  35); 
the  <pai\6vijc  or  QaivoXrjc,  panida  (Talm.  N^PS), 
travelling  or  rain-cloak  (2  Tim.  iv,  13),  which  was 
worn  by  the  Romans  over  the  tunica  (Suet.  Ner.  48), 
and  was  furnished  with  a  hood  for  the  protection  of 
the  head  (Cic.  Mil.  20 ;  Juven.  v,  78  ;  Senec.  Ep.  87, 
p.  329,  ed.  Bip. ;  Horace,  Ep.  i,  11,  18 ;  comp.  Wet- 
stein,  ii,  SG6 ;  Stoseh,  De  pallio  Pauli,  Lugd.  1709), 
according  to  others  a  portmanteau  or  book-satchel 
j  (see  the  commentators  in  loc.) ;  and  the  military 
!  x^apvg  KOKKivij  (chlamys  purpurea,  Donat.),  or  purple 
i  robe  (Matt,  xxvii,  28),  a  woollen  scarlet  mantle,  bor- 
j  dered  with  purple,  which  Roman  generals  and  officers 
(Liv.  i,  26 ;  Tac.  xii,  56 ;  Hirt.  Bell.  Afr.  51)  wore  (Lat. 
I  paludamentum)  at  first  (Eutrop.  ix,  26).— Winer,  i,  661. 
!  APPAREL  of  Ministers.  See  Clergy,  Dress  of. 
!  Apparition  (iirupavtia,  2  Mace,  v,  4;  IvdaXfia, 
j  Wisd.  xvii,  3;  (pdvran^ia,  Wisd.  xvii,  15  [14]),  the 
;  sudden  appearance  of  a  "  ghost"  or  the  spirit  of  a  de- 
parted person  (comp.  Luke  xxiv,  37),  or  some  other 
preternatural  object.  See  Spectre.  The  belief  in 
such  occurrences  has  always  been  prevalent  in  the 
East ;  and  among  the  modern  Mohammedans  the  ex- 
istence and  manifestation  of  efreets  is  held  an  un- 
doubted reality  (Lane's  Mod.  Eg.  i,  344).  See  Su- 
perstition. Such  a  belief,  however,  has  no  sanction 
in  the  canonical  Scriptures  beyond  the  doubtful  case 
of  Saul  (1  Sam.  xxviii,  14).  See  AVitchcraft. 
The  visits  of  Christ  to  his  disciples  after  his  resurrec- 
tion come  under  altogether  a  different  category.  See 
Appearance. 

Apparitor,  an  officer  who  summons  others  to  ap- 
pear. Among  the  Romans  this  was  a  general  term  to 
comprehend  all  attendants  of  judges  and  magistrates 
appointed  to  receive  and  issue  their  orders  (Smith's 


APPEAL 


322 


APPEAL 


Did.  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.).  Similar  is  the  duty  of 
an  ecclesiastical  apparitor,  who  serves  the  process  of 
a  spiritual  court :  summons  the  clergy  to  attend  visit- 
ations, calls  over  their  names  on  such  occasions,  and 
assists  the  bishop  or  archdeacon  in  the  business  be- 
longing to  their  respective  courts.  The}'  seem  to 
have  originated  in  England  from  the  synod  of  Lon- 
don, 1237.  By  can.  8  of  the  Council  of  London,  1342, 
under  Archbishop  Stratford,  it  was  ordered  that  each 
bishop  should  have  only  one  riding  apparitor,  and 
each  archdeacon  one  foot  apparitor  only. 

Appeal  (appellatio,  in  Greek  imKaXiopai,  Acts 
xxv,  11,  12,  21,  25),  the  act  by  which  a  party  who 
thinks  that  he  has  cause  to  complain  of  the  judgment 
passed  by  an  inferior  judge  demands  that  his  case 
may  be  re-examined  by  a  superior  court.  The  right 
of  appeal  to  superior  tribunals  has  generally  been  con- 
sidered an  essential  concomitant  of  inferior  judicato- 
ries.     (We  quote  from  Kitto,  s.  v.) 

I.  Jeu-Uh.—ln  the  patriarchal  times,  as  among  the 
Bedouins,  the  patriarch  or  head  of  the  tribe — that  is 
to  say,  the  sheik — administered  justice ;  and  as  there 
was  no  superior  power,  there  could  be  no  appeal  from 
his  decisions.  The  only  case  of  procedure  against  a 
criminal  which  occurs  during  the  patriarchal  period  is 
that  in  which  Judah  commanded  the  supposed  adul- 
terous Taniar  to  be  brought  forth  and  burnt  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  24).  But  here  the  woman  was  his  daughter- 
in-law,  and  the  power  which  Judah  exercised  was  that 
which  a  man  possessed  over  the  females  of  his  own 
immediate  family.  If  the  case  had  been  between 
man  and  man,  Judah  could  have  given  no  decision, 
and  the  matter  would,  without  doubt,  have  been  re- 
ferred to  Jacob: 

In  the  desert  Moses  at  first  judged  all  causes  him- 
self; and  when,  finding  his  time  and  strength  unequal 
to  this  duty,  he,  at  the  suggestion  of  Jethro,  establish- 
ed a  series  of  judicatories  in  a  numerically  ascending 
scale  (Exod.  xviii,  13-26),  he  arranged  that  cases  of 
difficulty  should  be  referred  from  the  inferior  to  the 
superior  tribunals,  and  in  the  last  instance  to  himself. 
Although  not  distinctly  stated,  it  appears  from  various 
circumstances  that  the  clients  had  a  right  of  appeal, 
similar  to  that  which  the  courts  had  of  reference. 
When  the  prospective  distribution  into  towns  of  the 
population,  which  had  hitherto  remained  in  one  com- 
pact bod}-,  made  other  arrangements  necessary,  it  was 
directed  that  there  should  be  a  similar  reference  of 
difficult  cases  to  the  metropolitan  court  or  chief  magis- 
trate ("  the  judge  that  shall  be  in  those  days")  for  the 
time  being  (Deut.  xvi,  18;  xvii,  8-12).  Some,  in- 
deed, infer  from  Josephus  (Ant.  iv,  8,  14,  uvuTrtfnv'i- 
-(o(Tcn>,  sc.  oi  diicaarcti)  that  this  was  not  a  proper 
court  of  appeal,  the  local  judges  and  not  the  litigants 
being,  according  to  the  above  language, the  appellants; 
but  these  words,  taken  in  connection  with  a  former 
passage  in  the  same  chapter  (si'  tiq  .  .  .  rivu  alriav 
Trpoi/jt'poi),  may  be  regarded  simply  in  the  light  of  a 
general  direction.  According  to  the  above  regulation, 
the  appeal  lay  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  to  the  judge 
(1  Jud^.  iv,  5),  and  under  the  monarch}'  to  the  king, 
who  appears  to  have  deputed  certain  persons  to  inquire 
into  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  record  his  decision 
thereon  (2  Sam.  xv,  3).  Jehoshaphat  delegated  his 
judicial  authority  to  a  court  permanently  established 
for  the  purpose  (2  ( Ihron,  six,  8).  These  courts  were 
re-established  by  Ezra  (Ezr.  vii,  25).  That  there  was 
a  concurrent  right  of  appeal  appears  from  the  use  Ab- 
salom made  of  the  delay  of  justice,  which  arose  from 
the  great  number  of  cases  that  came  before  the  king 
his  father  (2  Sam.  xv,  2-4).  These  were  doubtless 
appeal  cases,  according  to  the  above  direction;  and 
M.  Salvador  (Institutions  de  Moise,  ii,  53)  is  scarcely 
warranted  in  deducing  from  this  instance  that  the  cli 
ents  had  the  power  of  bringing  their  cases  directly  to 
the  supreme  tribunal. 

Of  the  later  practice,  before  and  after  the  time  of 


Christ,  we  have  some  clearer  knowledge  from  Jose- 
phus and  the  Talmudists.  After  the  institution  of  the 
Sanhedrim  the  final  appeal  lay  to  them,  and  the  va- 
rious stages  through  which  a  case  might  pass  are  thus 
described  by  the  Talmudists— from  the  local  consistory 
before  which  the  cause  was  first  tried  to  the  consistory 
that  sat  in  the  neighboring  town  ;  thence  to  the  courts 
at  Jerusalem,  commencing  in  the  court  of  the  23  that 
sat  in  the  gate  of  Shushan,  proceeding  to  the  court 
that  sat  in  the  gate  of  Nicanor,  and  concluding  with 
the  great  council  of  the  Sanhedrim  that  sat  in  the 
room  Gazith  (Carpzov,  Appar.  p.  571).  The  Jews 
themselves  trace  the  origin  of  these  later  usages  up  to 
the  time  of  Moses  :  they  were,  at  all  events,  based  on 
early  principles,  and  therefore  reflect  back  some  light 
upon  the  intimations  respecting  the  right  of  appeal 
which  we  find  in  the  sacred  books  (Mishna,  De  Synedr. 
x  ;  Talm.  Ilieros.  xviii ;  Tahn.  Bab.  iii,  x  ;  Maimon. 
Be  Synedr.  x  ;  Sclden,  Be  Synedr.  iii,  10 ;  Lewis,  Ori- 
gines  Ilebnecc,  i,  6 ;  Pastoret,  Legislation  des  Hebreux, 
x).     Sec  Trial.    . 

II.  Roman.— The  most  remarkable  case  of  appeal 
in  the  New  Testament  is  that  of  the  Apostle  Paul  from 
the  tribunal  of  the  Roman  procurator  Festus  to  that 
of  the  emperor,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  sent 
as  a  prisoner  to  Rome  (Acts  xxv,  10,  11).  Such  an 
appeal  having  been  once  lodged,  the  governor  had 
nothing  more  to  do  with  the  case :  he  could  not  even 
dismiss  it,  although  he  might  be  satisfied  that  the 
matter  was  frivolous,  and  not  worth  forwarding  to 
Rome.  Accordingly,  when  Paul  was  again  heard  by 
Festus  and  King  Agrippa  (merely  to  obtain  materials 
for  a  report  to  the  emperor),  it  was  admitted  that  the 
apostle  might  have  been  liberated  if  he  had  not  appeal- 
ed to  Caesar  (Acts  xxyi,  32).  Paul  might  therefore 
seem  to  have  taken  a  false  step  in  the  matter,  did  we 
not  consider  the  important  consequences  which  result- 
ed from  his  visit  to  Rome  (see  Conybeare  and  Howson, 
ii,  162).  But,  as  no  decision  had  been  given,  there 
could  be  no  appeal,  properly  speaking,  in  his  case  :  the 
language  used  (Acts  xxv,  9)  implies  the  right  on  the 
part  of  the  accused  of  electing  either  to  be  tried  by  the 
provincial  magistrate  or  by  the  emperor.  Since  the 
procedure  in  the  Jewish  courts  at  that  period  was  of  a 
mixed  and  undefined  character,  the  Roman  and  the 
Jewish  authorities  coexisting  and  carrying  on  the 
course  of  justice  between  them,  Paul  availed  himself 
of  his  undoubted  privilege  to  be  tried  by  the  pure  Ro- 
man law.  It  may  easily  be  seen  that  a  right  of  ap- 
peal which,  like  this,  involved  a  long  and  expensive 
journey,  was  by  no  means  frequently  resorted  to.  In 
lodging  his  appeal  Paul  exercised  one  of  the  high 
privileges  of  Roman  citizenship  which  belonged  to 
him  by  birth  (Acts  xxii,  28).     See  Citizenship. 

The  right  of  appeal  connected  with  that  privilege 
originated  in  the  Valerian,  Porcian,  and  Sempronian 
laws,  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  if  any  magistrate 
should  order  flagellation  or  death  to  be  inflicted  upon 
a  Roman  citizen,  the  accused  person  might  appeal  to 
the.  judgment  of  the  people,  and  that  meanwhile  he 
should  suffer  nothing  at  the  hands  of  the  magistrate 
until  the  people  had  judged  his  cause.  But  what  was 
originally  the  prerogative  of  the  people  had  in  Paul's 
time  become  that  of  the  emperor,  and  appeal  therefore 
was  made  to  him  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq. 
s.  v.  Apellatio,  Roman).  Hence  Pliny  (Ep.  x,  !I7) 
mentions  that  he  had  sent  to  Rome  some  Christians,  , 
who  were  Roman  citizens,  and  had  appealed  unto  C»« 
sar.  This  privilege  could  not  be  disallowed  by  any 
magistrate  to  any  person  whom  the  law  entitled  to  it. 
Indeed  very  heavy  penalties  were  attached  to  any  re- 
fusal to  grant  it,  or  to  furnish  the  party  with  facilities 
for  going  to  Rome.  See,  generally,  Krebs,  Be  provo- 
catione  Pauli  ad  Cwsarem  (Lips.  1783) ;  Santoroccii 
Diss,  de  Paidiad  Ccesarem  appellatione  (Marburg,  1721). 

III.  Ecclesiastical.' — In  the  early  Church  all  eccle- 
siastical matters  were  originally  determined  by  the 


APPEARANCE 


.323 


APPEARANCE 


bishop  with  his  court,  from  whose  decision  an  appeal 
lay  to  the  provincial  synod  (see  council  of  Africa, 
418).  The  case  of  Apiarius,  priest  of  Sicca,  in  Mau- 
ritania, is  supposed  to  have  been  about  the  first  in- 
stance of  an  appeal  to  Koine,  on  which  occasion  the 
African  Church  resolutely  resisted  this  papal  encroach- 
ment on  her  independence.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it 
often  occurred  that  those  whose  doctrines  had  been 
censured  by  the  pope  appealed  from  his  decision  to  an 
oecumenical  council.  Such,  e.  g.,  was  the  case  with 
Wycliffe.  Pius  II  forbade  such  appeals,  under  the 
penalty  of  excommunication,  in  1459  ;  but  a  numerous 
school  of  Roman  Catholic  theologians  and  canonists, 
who  maintain  the  superiority  of  an  oecumenical  coun- 
cil over  the  pope,  have  never  ceased  to  advocate  them. 
In  England  there  were  no  appeals  to  Rome  before  the 
time  of  King  Stephen,  when  the  practice  was  for  the  first 
time  introduced  by  Henry  de  Blois,  bishop  of  Winches- 
ter and  papal  legate  (see  Johnson,  Eccl.  Canons,  subann. 
1143).  But  by  art.  8  of  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon 
it  was  declared  that,  "  If  appeals  arise,  they  ought  to 
proceed  from  the  archdeacon  to  the  bishop,  from  the 
bishop  to  the  archbishop,  and,  lastly,  to  the  king  (if  the 
archbishop  fail  in  doing  justice),  so  that  the  controver- 
sy be  ended  in  the  archbishop's  court  by  a  precept 
from  the  king,  and  so  that  it  go  no  further  without  the 
king's  consent."  These  appeals  were  from  time  to 
time  further  prohibited,  but  they  continued  to  be  prac- 
ticed until  the  time  of  the  final  rupture  with  Rome  in 
the  reign  of  Henrv  VIII,  when  they  were  entirely 
abolished  (24  Hen."  VIII,  cap.  12,  and  28  Hen.  VIII, 
cap.  19).  The  Council  of  Antioch,  A.D.  341,  can.  12, 
and  that  of  Chalcedon,  declare  that  no  royal  or  impe- 
rial decree  can  have  any  force  in  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters against  the  canons.  Such  indeed  has  ever  been 
the  discipline  of  the  whole  Church. 

During  the  appeal  the  sentence  of  the  inferior  court 
is  suspended  ;  and  it  is  usual  for  the  superior  court,  at 
the  instance  of  the  appellant,  to  grant  an  inhibition  to 
stay  the  execution  of  the  sentence  of  the  inferior  court 
until  the  appeal  shall  be  determined  (Bingham,  Orig. 
Eccl.  bk.  ii,  ch.  xvi,  §  1(3). 

In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  the  right  of  ap- 
peal from  lower  to  higher  courts,  both  for  ministers 
and  laymen,  is  carefully  guarded  by  a  constitutional 
provision  {Discipline,  pt.  i.  §  4). 

In  Presbyterian  churches  there  are  formal  modes  of 
appeal  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  court,  or  from  a  ses- 
sion to  a  presbytery,  from  it  to  a  synod,  and  from  the 
synod  to  the  general  assembly. 

Appearance  (tfavt],  Mark  xvi,  9;  eipavepwSr), 
Mark  xvi,  12, 14  ;  toffy,  Luke  xxiv,  34  :  1  Cor.  xv,  5  ; 
t<pai'enwuei'  iavrov,  John  xxi,  1 ;  irapkarrioiv  kavrov), 
a  term  usually  applied  to  the  interviews  afforded  by 
Christ  to  his  disciples  after  his  resurrection  (q.  v.). 


The  circumstances  of  these  instances  indicate  that  his 
bod}',  although  not  yet  glorified,  had  already  under- 
gone such  a  change  as  to  give  it  extraordinay  powers 
of  locomotion,  even  through  closed  doors,  and  of  bo- 
coming  visible  or  invisible  at  pleasure,  while  it  yet  re- 
tained the  palpable  characteristics  of  matter,  and  was 
even  capable  of  taking  food  in  the  ordinary  way  ;  traits 
that  ally  it  strongly  to  the  "spiritual  body"  of  the 
angels  (q.  v.).  Monographs  on  these  occurrences  and 
their  peculiarities  have  been  written  by  Fecht  (Post. 
1699),  Langsdorff  (Viteb.  1710),  Alberti  (Lips.  1693), 
Arnoldt  (Region).  1741-1743),  Becker  (Rost.  1773), 
Buddeus  (Jen.  1711),  Buttstedt  (Cold.  1751),  Carpov 
(Jen.  1755,  1765),  Chladenius  (Erlang.  1750,  1753\ 
Eichler  (Lips.  1737),  Feuerlin  (Gott.  1750),  Gerikc 
(Helmst.  1745),  Giirtler  (Franeq.  1712),  Horn  (Lubec. 
1706),  Koppen  (Gryph.  1701),  Krehl  (Lips.  1845),  May- 
er (Grvph.  1702),*Munck  (Lond.  1774),  Pries  (Rost. 
1780),  Quandt  (Regiom.  1715),  Zeibich  (Ger.  1785). 
See  Jesus. 

Appearance  to  Mary  Magdalen.  There  is  a 
difficulty  connected  with  the  first  of  these  appearances. 
The  gospel  narratives  (Matt,  xxviii,  1-15 ;  Mark  xvi, 
2  11;  Luke  xxiv,  1-12;  John  xx,  1-18),  when  care- 
fully adjusted  in  their  several  incidents  to  each  other, 
distinctly  indicate  that  Mary  the  Magdalene  was  not 
among  the  Galilasan  women  at  the  time  they  were 
favored  with  the  first  sight  of  their  risen  Master,  she 
having  just  then  left  them  to  call  Peter  and  John ; 
and  that  Christ  afterward  revealed  himself  to  her  sep- 
arately. Mark,  however,  uses  one  expression  that 
seems  directly  to  contradict  this  arrangement :  "  Jesus 
.  .  .  .  appeared  first  (:row7-0)')  to  Mary  Magdalene" 
(xvi,  9).  Several  methods  of  reconciling  this  discord- 
ance have  been  devised,  but  they  are  all  untenable, 
and  the  best  of  them  (that  of  Dr.  Robinson  [after 
Hengstenberg],  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Feb.  1845,  p. 
178)  is  not  at  all  satisfactory  (see  Davidson,  Jntrod.  to 
the  N.  T.,  i,  169),  which  consists  in  considering  the 
"first"  as  put  by  Mark  relatively  (q.  d.  report  pav},  to 
denote  the  first  of  the  three  appearances  related  by 
him  simply,  the  "after  that"  of  verse  12  introducing 
a  second  appearance,  and  the  "afterward"  of  verse  14 
serving  to  mark  the  last  of  Mark's  series.  Any  read- 
er, taking  the  words  in  their  natural  construction, 
would  certainly  understand  Mark  as  meaning  to  say 
absolutely  that  Christ's  first  public  appearance  wras 
made  to  Man',  and  two  of  his  subsequent  ones  to  other 
persons.  Moreover,  the  question  still  remains,  why 
does  Mark  single  out  this  appearance  to  Mary,  rather 
than  the  previous  one  to  several  women  ?  A  closer  in- 
spection of  the  facta  will  assist  to  clear  up  the  difficul- 
ty. Independently  of  this  "first"  of  Mark,  the  inci- 
dents may  naturally  be  arranged  as  in  the  following 
scheme  (see  Strong's  Harm,  of  the  Gospels,  §  138-141). 


A.M. 

Occurrences. 

Malt,  xxviii 

Mark  xvi. 

Luke  xxiv. 

John  xx. 

h.  m. 

4  00 
4  15 
4  30 
4  35 
4  45 
4  45 
4  50 
4  50 
4  55 

4  57 

5  00 
5  05 
5  05 
5  05 
5  07 
5  10 
5  30 

2-4 

1 

'5-7 

"  8 

p,Vo 

11-15 

0 
2,3 

4 
5-7 

' '  8 

"*9 

10,11 

"  1 

3-S 

9 
12 

12 
*  12 
9-11 

'  11 

"l 

2 

":V 

4,'f)' 
6-9 
10 

11 

12,13 

14-17 

Mary  the  Magdalene  rpaches  Peter  and  John's  house 

The  other  women  report  their  interview  with  Christ  to  the  other  apostles 

She  reports  to  the  disciples 

By  this  it  is  seen  that  Christ's  appearance  to  the  '  coed  fifteen  minutes,  as  any  one  may  see  by  making 
other  women  could  not  well  have  preceded  that  to  <  the  corresponding  changes  in  the  above  table.  Mark, 
Mary  by  more  than  twenty  minutes;  and  if  the  time  in  speaking  in  this  general  way  of  Christ's  visits, 
for  the  other  women's  return  be  so  lengthened  as  to  |  would  not  be  likely  to  distinguish  between  two  ap- 
make  the  appearance  to  Mary  precede  that  to  them,  j  pearances  so  nearly  coincident;  the  very  parties  wiio 
the  interval  in  this  direction  cannot  be  made,  to  ex- 1  witnessed  them,  or  heard  them  reported,  would  not 


APPELLANT 


324 


APPLE 


themselves  have  noticed  so  slight  a  priority  with- 
out instituting  some  such  calculation  as  the  above, 
which  they  were  in  no  condition  of  mind  at  the  time 
to  make,  lior  likely  to  concern  themselves  about  after- 
ward. In  the  verse  under  consideration,  therefore, 
Mark  designs  to  refer  to  both  these  appearances  as  one, 
and  he  mentions  Mary's  name  particularly  because  of 
her  prominence  in  the  whole  matter,  just  as  he  places 
her  first  in  the  list  in  verse  1  (comp.  Matt,  xxyii,  56, 
61 :  xxviii,  1 ;  and  see  on  John  xx,  17).  This  identi- 
fication is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  none  of  the  evan- 
gelists mention  both  of  these  appearances,  Matthew 
and  Luke  narrating  the  events  just  as  if  Mary  had 
been  with  the  other  women  at  the  time  of  their  meet- 
ing with  Christ,  while  Mark  and  John  speak  of  the 
appearance  to  her  only;  yet  they  all  obviously  em- 
brace in  their  accounts  the  twofold  appearance.  Luke 
also  explicitly  includes  Mary  among  the  women  who 
brought  the  tidings  to  the  apostles  (verse  10),  evident- 
ly not  distinguishing  her  subsequent  report  from  that 
of  the  others  with  whom  she  at  first  went  out.  This 
idea  is,  in  fact,  the  key  to  the  whole  plan  of  the  gospel 
accounts  of  this  matter,  the  design  of  the  writers  be- 
ing, not  to  furnish  each  a  complete  narrative  of  all 
the  incidents  in  their  exact  order,  but  to  show  that 
these  Galilaean  women  were,  as  a  company,  the  first 
witnesses  of  Christ's  resurrection. 

According  to  the  astronomical  formula,  the  duration 
of  distinct  twilight  at  that  time  of  the  year  in  the  lati- 
tude of  Jerusalem  (supposing  there  were  no  unusual 
refracting  influences  in  the  atmosphere)  is  1  hour  40 
minutes,  which  would  make  extreme  daybreak  occur 
about  four  o'clock,  as  it  was  near  the  time  of  the  ver- 
nal equinox.  The  light  of  the  full  moon  would  enable 
the  women  to  see  their  way  even  before  dawn.  Mark 
says  ''early"  (7rpwi.  xvi,  9),  and  in  the  visit  of  the 
women  he  says  "very  early"  (Xiav  itouji,  xvi,  2);  but 
the  descent  of  the  angel  must  have  occurred  first,  be- 
cause the  women  f  und  the  stone  rolled  away  on  their 
arrival.  The  guard  had  probably  just  before  been  re- 
lieved (i.  e.  at  the  " daicn-watch"  which  began  at  this 
time  of  the  year  about  three  o'clock  A.M.,  and  cor- 
responds in  its  Greek  title  to  the  term  here  used  by 
Mark),  so  that  they  had  time  to  recover  from  their 
fright  sufficiently  to  report  their  disaster  without  be- 
ing  surprised  in  their  plight  by  the  arrival  of  a  relay. 
See  Guard.  The  distance  the  women  had  to  go  was 
not  great.     See  Mary  Magdalene. 

Appellant  (1.),  a  legal  term,  denoting  one  who 
requests  the  removal  of  a  cause  from  an  inferior  to  a 
superior  court,  when  he  thinks  himself  aggrieved  by 
the  sentence  of  the  inferior  judge.     See  Appeal. 

(2.)  The  word  appellant  is  particularly  applied  to 
those  among  the  French  clergy  who  appealed  from 
the  bull  Unigenitus,  issued  by  Pope  Clement  in  1713, 
either  to  the  pope  "better  informed,"  or  to  a  general 
council.  The  whole  body  of  the  French  clergy  and 
the  several  monasteries  were  divided  into  Appellants 
and  Non- Appellants ;  a  signal  instance  of  the  unity  of 
the  Romish  Church!     See  Unigenitus;  Bull. 

Apphia  (pron.  Affia,  'Air</>ia,  prob.  for  'Att-Ici. 
the  Greek  form  of  the  Lat.  name  Appia),  the  name  of 
a  female  affectionately  saluted  by  Paul  (A.D.  57)  as  a 
Christian  at  Colossse  i  Philemon  2);  supposed  byChry- 
KDStom  and  Tbeodoret  t<>  have  been  the  wife  of  Phile- 
mon, witli  whom,  according  to  tradition,  she  suffered 
martyrdom.     See  Philemon. 

Apphus  (pron.  Affus,  'Airfyovc,  [and  so  Josephus, 
Ant.  xii.  '',.1  |  v.  r.  Sa00oCc  or  EairQovc),  the  surname 
O  Mare.  ii.  5)  of  Jonathan  Maccabseus  (see  Ewald, 
Gesch.  Tsr.  Ill,  ii,  353),  apparently  (Frankel,  Vorstud. 
BUT  /.AY,  p.  Of.;  from  the  Syro-Chald.  'i'-Etl,  chappus', 
crafty  (Grimm,  Tlandb.  in  loc). 

Ap'pii-fo'rum  (Amriou  ipopov,  for  the  Lat.  Ap- 
pii  Forum,  "market-place  of  Appius"),  a  market-town 


(with  a  so-called  mansio)  in  Italy,  43  Roman  miles 
from  Rome  (Jtiner.  Anton,  p.  107,  ed.  Wessel ;  Ttin. 
Hieros.  p.  Oil),  on  the  great  road  (via  Appia)  from 
Rome  to  Brundusium,  constructed  by  Appius  LLudius 
(Suet.  Tib.  2),  and  leading  from  Rome  (by  the  Porta 
Capena)  through  the  Pontine  marshes  (Hor.  Sat.  i,  5, 

(3;  Cic.  Att.  ii.  10;  Plin.  iii.9;  xiv.  B).  The  remains 
of  an  ancient  town,  supposed  to  be  Appii-Forum,  are 
still  preserved  at  a  place  called  Casarillo  di  Santa  Ma- 
ria, on  the  border  of  the  Pontine  marshes  (comp. 
Strabo,  v,  233),  and  the  43d  milestone  is  still  extant 

i  (Chaupy,  Maison  d1  Horace,  iii,  387-452;  Pratilli,  Via 

'  Appia,  p.  99,  100).  Its  vicinity  to  the  marshes  ac- 
counts for  the  badness  of  the  water,  as  mentioned  by 
Horace  (Sat.  i,  5,  7),  who  describes  it  as  full  of  taverns 
and  boatmen.  This  arose  from  the  circumstance  that 
it  was  at  the  northern  end  of  a  canal  which  ran  par- 
allel with  the  road  through  a  considerable  part  of  the 
Pontine  marshes.  When  Paul  was  taken  to  Italy, 
some  of  the  Christians  of  Rome,  being  apprised  of  his 
approach,  journeyod  to  meet  him  as  far  as  "Appii- 
Forum  and  the  Three  Taverns"  (Acts  xxviii,  15).   The 

i  "Three  Taverns"  were  eight  or  ten  miles  nearer  to 
Rome  than  Appii-Forum  (Antonin.  Itin.).  The  prob- 
ability is  that  some  of  the  Christians  remained  at  the 
"Three  Taverns,"  where  it  was  known  the  advancing 

j  part}'  would  rest,  while  some  others  went  on  as  far  as 
Appii-Forum  to  meet  Paul  on  the  road  (Conybcare 
and  Howson,  ii,  359).  The  journey  was  undoubtedly 
along  the  Appian  Way,  remains  of  which  are  still  ex- 
tant.     The  "Three  Taverns"  (q.  v.)  was  certainly  a 

j  place  for  rest  and  refreshment  (Cic.  Attic,  ii.  11, 13>, 

[  perhaps  on  account  of  the  bad  water  at  Appii-Forum. 

i  It  must  be  understood  that  Tres  Tabernae  was,  in  fact, 

1  the  name  of  a  town  (comp.  Tkeol.  Annal.  1818,  p.  88G 
sq.);  for  in  the  time  of  Constantine,  Felix,  bishop  of 
Tres  Taberna;,  was  one  of  the  nineteen  bishops  wdio 
were  appointed  to  decide  the  controversy  between  Do- 
natus  and  Crecilianus  (Optat.  de  Schism.  Donat.  i,  2G). 

I  As  to  the  taberna?  themselves,  from  which  the  place 
took  its  name,  it  is  probable  that  they  were  shrps 
("  tabernae  deversoria,"  Plaut.  Trucul.  iii,  2,  29)  for  the 
sale  of  all  kinds  of  refreshments,  rather  than  inns  or 
places  of  entertainment  for  travellers.  See  generally 
Schwarz,  Deforo  Appii  et  trib.  tabernis  (Altdorf,  1746). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Paul. 

Apple  is  the  translation  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the 
Heb.  TOSH  (tappu'ach,  so  called  from  its  fragrance), 
1  which  is  mentioned  chiefly  in  the  Canticles,  ii,  3,  "  as 
I  the  apple-tree  among  the  trees  of  the  wood;"  ver.  5, 
"Comfort  me  with  apples,  for  I  am  sick  of  love  ;"  ver. 
!  8,  "The  smell  of  thy  nose  like  apples;"  so  in  viii,  5. 
1  Again,  in  Prov.  xxv,  11,  "  A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like 
I  apples  of  gold  in  baskets  of  silver."  In  Joel  i,  12,  it 
is  enumerated  with  the  vine,  the  fig-tree,  the  palm, 
and  pomegranate,  as  among  the  most  valuable  trees 
of  Palestine.  Tappuah  ( q.  v.)  also  occurs  as  the  name 
of  two  places  (Josh,  xii,  13  ;  xv,  34  ;  xvi,  8),  probably 
I  from  the  abundance  of  the  fruit  in  the  vicinity. 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  say  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty what  is  the  specific  tree  denoted  by  the  Hebrew 
word  tappuach.  The  Sept.  and  Vulg.  afford  no  clew, 
as  the  terms  uijXov,  malum,  have  a  wide  signification, 
being  used  by  the  Creeks  and  b'omans  to  represent  al- 
most any  kind  of  tree-fruit;  at  any  rate,  the  use  of 
the  word  is  certainly  generic.  Many  interpreters 
(after  Celsus,  Hierobot.  i,  255)  have  supposed  the  citron 
(citrus  medico),  some  the  ordinary  orange-tree  ( <  Jredner, 
.foe/,  p.  136),  to  be  meant,  as  each  of  these  were  cele- 
brated favorites  among  the  ancients,  and  have  many 
qualities  agreeing  with  the  Scriptural  notices.  The 
citron  was  the  "  Median  apple"  of  the  ancients,  the 
citromela  of  the  Romans  (Theophr.  Hist.  4),  and  was 
cultivated  even  in  Europe  (Bauhin,  Pinax ».  That  it 
was  well  known  to  the  Hebrews  appears  from  the  fact 
mentioned  by  Josephus,  that  at  the  Festival  of  Taher- 


APPLE 


325 


APPLE 


nacles  Alexander  Jannteus  was  pelted  with  citrons, 
which  the  Jews  had  in  their  hands ;  for,  as  he  says, 
"  the  law  required  that  at  that  feast  every  one  should 
have  branches  of  the  palm-tree  and  citron-tree"  (Ant. 
xiii,  13,  5).  It  is  still  found  in  Palestine  (Kitto,  Phys. 
Hist.  p.  ccxiii).  As,  however,  the  Sept.  and  Vulg. 
both  seem  to  understand  the  apple  (jui/Xoi',  malum), 
and  the  Arabs  still  call  this  fruit  by  the  same  name 
(teffachi),  which,  according  to  the  Talmud  (Mishna, 
Kel.  i,  4;  Maaser.  i,  4)  and  Josephus  (Ant.  xvii,  7), 
was  anciently  cultivated  in  Palestine,  as  it  still  is  to 
some  extent  (Robinson,  i,  355 ;  ii,  356,  71G ;  iii,  295), 
and  was  celebrated  in  antiquity  for  its  agreeable  smell 
(Ovid,  Met.  viii,  075),  it  seems  more  likely  to  be  the 
tree  designated  rather  than  the  citron,  which  is  a 
small,  comparatively  rare  tree,  with  a  hard,  inedible 
fruit  (Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  ii,  328,  329).  See 
Citron. 

On  the  other  hand,  Celsius  (Hierob.  i,  255)  asserts 
that  the  quince-tree  (Pyrus  cydonia)  was  very  often 
called  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers  mains,  as  be- 
ing, from  the  esteem  in  which  it  was  held  ("  primaria 
malorum  species"),  ike  malus,  or  /iijXoi'  sar  it,o\i)v. 
Some,  therefore  (Rosenmuller,  Alterth.  IV,  i,  308  ;  Ray, 
Hist,  of  Plants,  II,  iii,  1453),  have  endeavored  to  show 
that  the  tappuach  denotes  the  quince  ;  and  certainly 
this  opinion  has  some  plausible  arguments  in  its  fa- 
vor. The  fragrance  of  the  quince  was  held  in  high 
esteem  by  the  ancients ;  and  the  fruit  "  was  placed 
on  the  heads  of  those  images  in  the  sleeping  apart- 
ments which  were  reckoned  among  the  household 
gods"  (Rosenmuller,  Botany  of  Bible,  in  the  Bib.  Cab. 
p.  314;  Voss,  On  ( 'irgil,  Eclog.  ii,  51).  The  Arabians 
make  especial  allusion  to  the  restorative  properties 
of  this  fruit;  and  Celsius  (p.  261)  quotes  Abu'l  Fadli 
in  illustration  of  Cant,  ii,  5.  "Its  scent,"  says  the 
Arabic  author,  "cheers  my  soul,  renews  my  strength, 
and  restores  my  breath."  Phylarchus  (Histor.  lib. 
vi),  Rabbi  Salomon  (in  Cant.  ii.  3),  Pliny  (//.  X.  xv, 
11),  who  uses  the  words  odorisp?yiPstaii/i.-<simi,hr;\r  sim- 
ilar testimony  to  the  delicious  fragrance  of  the  quince. 
It  is  well  known  that  among  the  ancients  the  quince 
was  sacred  to  the  goddess  of  love,  whence  statues  of 
Venus  sometimes  represent  her  with  the  fruit  of  this 
tree  in  her  hand,  the  quince  being  the  ill-fated  "apple 
of  discord"  which  Paris  appropriately  enough  present- 
ed to  that  deity.  Hence  the  act  expressed  by  the 
term  fjiiXo/SoXhv  (Schol.  ad  Aristoph.  Nub.  p.  180; 
Theocr.  /(/.  iii,  10,  v.  88,  etc. ;  Virg.  Eel.  iii.  64)  was  a 
token  of  love.  For  numerous  testimonies,  see  Celsius, 
Jlierob.  i,  265.     See  Botany. 

Although  it  is  so  usual  to  speak  of  the  forbidden 
fruit  of  paradise  as  an  "apple,"  we  need  hardly  say 
that  there  is  nothing  in  Scripture  to  indicate  what 
kind  of  tree  was  "  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good 
and  evil."  Rut  in  the  fabled  "apples  of  discord,"  and 
in  the  golden  apple  which  Paris  gave  to  the  goddess 
of  love,  thereby  kindling  the  Trojan  war,  it  is  possible 
that  the  primeval  tradition  reappears  of 

"The  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe." 
See  Tree. 

The  Heb.  for  the  "apple"  of  the  eye  is  "V^X  (ishon  , 
mannihin,  pupil,  Ueut.  xxxii,  10  ;  Prov.  vii,  2),  other- 
wise i"D2  Qtabah',  hole,  gate,  Zech.  ii,  12),  or  T2  (bath, 
daughter,  i.  e.  by  an  idiomatic  use,  the  pupil,  Psa.  xvii, 
8).  The  same  figure  occurs  in  the  Apocrypha  ((copq, 
Ecclus.  xvii,  22  [17]).  It  is  curious  to  observe  how 
common  the  image  ("pupil  of  the  eye")  is  in  the  lan- 
guages of  different  nations.  Gesenius  (Thes.  p.  86) 
quotes  from  the  Arabic,  the  Syriac,  the  Ethiopic,  the 
Coptic,  the  Persian,  in  all  of  which  tongues  an  expres- 
sion similar  to  the  English  "  pupil  of  the  eye"  is  found. 
See  Eye. 

APPLES  OF  SODOM  is  a  phrase  associated  with 


the  Dead  Sea,  as  the  name  of  a  species  of  fruit  extreme- 
ly beautiful  to  the  eye,  but  bitter  to  the  taste  and  full 
of  dust.  Tacitus  (Hist,  v,  7)  alludes  to  this  singular 
fact,  but  in  language  so  brief  and  ambiguous  that  no 
light  can  be  derived  from  his  description  :  "  Black  and 
empty,  they  vanish  as  it  were  in  ashes."  Josephus 
also,  speaking  of  the  conflagration  of  the  plain,  and 
the  yet  remaining  tokens  of  the  divine  fire,  remarks, 
"There  are  still  to  be  seen  ashes  reproduced  in  the 
fruits,  which  indeed  resemble  edible  fruits  in  color,  but 
on  being  plucked  with  the  hands  are  dissolved  into 
smoke  and  ashes"  (War,  iv,  8, 4).  The  supposed  fruit 
has  furnished  many  moralists  with  allusions ;  and  also 
Milton,  in  whose  infernal  regions 

"  A  grove  sprung  up— laden  with  fair  fruit— 

greedily  they  plucked 

The  fruitage,  fair  to  sight,  like  that  which  grew 
Near  that  bituminous  lake  where  Sodom  rlamed. 
This  more  delusive,  not  the  touch,  but  taste 
Deceived.     They,  fondly  thinking  to  allay 
Their  appetite  with  gust,  instead  of  fruit 
Chewed  bitter  ashes,  which  the  offended  taste 
With  spattering  noise  rejected." 

Some  travellers,  unable  to  discover  this  singular  pro- 
duction, have  considered  it  merely  as  a  figure  of  speech, 
depicting  the  deceitful  nature  of  all  vicious  enjoy- 
ments ;  but  Kitto  (Phys.  Hist,  of  Palest,  p.  cexe  sq.) 
adduces  the  definite  testimony  of  many  modern  trav- 
ellers to  show  that  these  allusions  are  based  upon 
truth,  especially  the  statements  of  Seetzen  (in  Zach's 
Monatl.  Con-esp.  xviii,  442)  and  Burckhardt  (Syria,  p. 
392),  whose  accounts  of  the  fruit  of  the  Oshtir  (prob. 
Asclepias  giganted)  remarkably  coincide  with  the  an- 
cient  descriptions.      This    plant  is  figured   and   de- 


Apple  Of  Sodom  (.I.s"7i7//((X  (i-V;  ttntr,,). 


scribed  by  Prosper  Alpinus  under  the  name  Beid  el- 
Ossar  (Hist.  Nat.  JEgypte,  Lugd.  Bat.  1735,  pt.  i,  43). 
See  also  Irby  and  Mangles  (Travels,  ch.  viii).  Has- 
selquist,  however,  finds  the  "apples  of  Sodom"  in  the 
Solanum  Sodomeum,  which  he  identifies  witli  the  Sola- 
num  melongena,  or  mad-apple,  growing  in  great  abund- 
ance in  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  (fitise,  p.  151).  But 
Dr.  Robinson  thinks  the  other  the  most  probable  plant. 
His  description  of  it  is  as  follows :  "We  saw  here  [on 
the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea]  several  trees  of  the  kind, 
the  trunks  of  which  were  0  or  8  inches  in  diameter,  and 
the  whole  height  from  10  to  15  feet.  It  has  a  grayish, 
cork-like  bark,  with  long  oval  leaves,  and  in  its  gen- 
eral appearance  and  character  it  might  be  taken  for 
a  gigantic  perennial  species  of  the  milk-wced  or  silk- 


APPLETOX 


326 


APSE 


weed  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  American 
states.  Its  leaves  and  flowers  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  latter  plant,  and  when  broken  off  it  in 
like  manner  discharges  copiously  a  milky  fluid.  The 
fruit  greatly  resembles  externally  a  large  smooth  ap- 
ple or  orange,  hanging  in  clusters  of  three  or  four  to- 
gether, and  when  ripe  is  of  a  yellow  color.  It  was 
now  fair  and  delicious  to  the  eye,  and  soft  to  the 
touch  ;  but  on  being  pressed  or  struck  it  explodes 
with  a  puff,  like  a  bladder  or  puff-ball,  leaving  in  the 
hand  only  the  shreds  of  the  thin  rind  and  a  few  fibres. 
It  is,  indeed,  filled  chiefly  with  air  like  a  bladder, 
which  gives  it  the  round  form ;  while  in  the  centre  a 
small  slender  pod  runs  through  it  from  the  stem,  and 
is  connected  by  thin  filaments  with  the  rind.  The 
pod  contains  a  small  quantity  of  lino  silk  with  seeds, 
precisely  like  the  pod  of  the  silk-weed,  though  very 
much  smaller,  being  indeed  scarcely  the  tenth  part  as 
large.  The  Arabs  collect  the  silk  and  twist  it  into 
matches  for  their  guns,  preferring  it  to  the  common 
match,  because  it  requires  no  sulphur  to  render  it 
combustible.  In  the  accounts  of  Tacitus  and  Jose- 
phus,  after  a  due  allowance  for  the  marvellous  in  all 
popular  reports,  I  find  nothing  which  does  not  apply 
almost  literally  to  the  fruit  of  the  Osher,  as  we  saw  it. 
It  must  be  plucked  and  handled  with  great  care  in 
order  to  preserve  it  from  bursting.  "We  attempted  to 
cany  some  of  the  boughs  and  fruit  with  us  to  Jerusa- 
lem, but  without  success.  Hasselquist's  apples  of 
Sodom  (the  fruit  of  the  Solarium  melongciui)  are  much 
smaller  than  those  of  the  Osher,  and  when  ripe  are  full 
of  small  black  grains.  There  is  here,  however,  no- 
thing like  explosion,  nothing  like  'smoke  and  ashes,' 
except  occasionally,  as  the  same  naturalist  remarks, 
'  when  the  fruit  is  punctured  by  an  insect  (Tenthredo), 
which  converts  the  whole  of  the  inside  into  dust,  leav- 
ing nothing  but  the  rind  entire,  without  any  loss  of 
color.'  We  saw  the  Solanum  and  the  Osher  growing 
side  by  side  ;  the  former  presenting  nothing  remark- 
able in  its  appearance,  and  being  found  in  other  parts 
of  the  country,  while  the  latter  immediately  arrested 
our  attention  by  its  singular  accordance  with  the  an- 
cient story,  and  is,  moreover,  peculiar  in  Palestine  to 
the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea"  {Bib.  Researches,  ii,  236 
sq. ;   conip.  Wilson,  Bible  Lands,  i,  8  sq.).    See  Sodom. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  Bible  speaks  only 
of  the  ''vine  of  Sodom,"  and  that  metaphorically 
(Deut.  xxxii,  32),  as  a  synonym  of  a  poisonous  berry. 
See  Hemlock. 

Appleton,  Jesse,  D.D.,  president  of  Bowdoin 
College,  was  born  at  New  Ipswich,  New  Hampshire, 
Nov.  17,  1772,  and  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege in  1792.  Having  spent  two  years  in  teaching  at 
Dover  and  Amherst,  he  studied  theology  under  Dr. 
Lathrop,  of  West  Springfield,  and  in  February,  1797, 
was  ordained  pastor  at  Hampton,  New  Hampshire. 
His  religious  sentiments  at  this  period  were  Arminian. 
By  his  faithful,  affectionate  services  he  was  very  much 
endeared  to  his  people.  At  his  suggestion  the  Pis- 
■  :  iqua  Evangelical  Magazine  was  published,  to  which 
l:  contributed  valuable  essays,  with  the  signature  of 
Leighton.  In  1807  he  was  chosen  president  of  Bow- 
doin  College,  in  which  office  he  served  faithfully  until 
bis  death,  Nov.  12,  1819.  In  health  he  was  sometimes 
anxious,  i„  a  high  degree,  in  regard  to  the  college; 
but  in  his  sickness  he  said,  in  cheerful  confidence, 
■•  God  has  taken  care  of  the  college,  and  God  will  take 
can  <;/'//."  Among  his  last  expressions  were  heard  the 
words,  "Glory  to  God  in  the  highest!  the  whole  earth 
Bhall  be  tilled  with  his  glory."  In  1*20  a  volume  of  his 
addn  ---  was  published,  with  a  sketch  of  his  character, 
by  Rev.  I>r.  Hicholfl,  of  Portland.  In  1*22  his  lectures 
and  occasional  sermons  were  published,  with  a  memoir, 
by  Rev,  B.  Tappan.  These  and  other  writings  are 
collected  in  "The  Works  of  Jesse  Appleton,  D.D.,"  with 
memoir  (Andover,  1836,  2  vols.  8vo).— Bibl.  Reposi- 
tory, Jan.  1830,  p.  19  ;  Sprague,  Annals,  ii.  382. 


Appleton,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Con= 
gregational  minister,  was  born  at  Ipswich,  Mass.,  Dec. 
9,  1693,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1712,  ordained  at 
Cambridge  in  1717,  in  which  year  he  was  also  elected 
a  fellow  of  Harvard,  which  54  years  afterward  confer- 
red upon  him  the  second  degree  it  had  ever  granted 
of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  Increase  Mather,  80  years  be- 
fore, being  the  first  admitted  to  that  honor.  He  took 
a  colleague  in  1783,  and  died  in  1784.  He  published  a 
number  of  occasional  sermons. — Sprague,  Annuls,  i, 
301. 

Approbation  of  books,  the  act  by  which  books 
were  recommended  or  declared  harmless  by  persons 
authorized  to  judge  of  them.  The  Council  of  Trent 
(sess.  4)  forbids,  on  penalty  of  excommunication,  the 
publication  of  books  without  the  approbation  of  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  In  England  the  right  of  appro- 
bation formerly  belonged  to  those  who  were  appointed 
to  grant  licenses  and  imprimaturs.  By  an  act  of 
Charles  II,  long  since  expired,  books  were  subjected 
to  a  licenser  in  England,  and  the  practice  itself  ceased 
with  the  introduction  of  the  principles  of  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1688.     See  Index. 

Appropriation,  in  the  canon  law,  is  the  setting 
apart  of  an  ecclesiastical  benefice  to  the  peculiar  and 
permanent  use  of  some  religious  body.  Appropria- 
tions sprung  originally  from  the  monastic  orders,  who 
purchased  all  the  advowsons  within  their  reach,  and 
then  appropriated  the  larger  proportion  of  the  pro- 
ceeds of  such  benefices  to  the  use  of  their  own  cor- 
porations, which  they  contended  were  not  only  insti- 
tutions for  pious  purposes,  but  religious  bodies  ;  leav- 
ing the  small  remainder  for  the  support  of  the  incum- 
bent. The  appropriations  now  annexed  to  bishoprics, 
prebends,  etc.,  in  England,  had  all  of  them  the  above 
origin,  if  traced  to  their  source ;  and  at  one  period 
similar  appropriations  were  made  to  religious  houses, 
nunneries,  and  certain  military  orders,  which  were  re- 
garded as  spiritual  corporations. — Blackstone,  vol.  i. 

Apries.     See  Hophka. 

Apron  stands  in  one  passage  of  the  Auth.  Vers, 
for  the  Heb.  mi  3  P.  (chagorah' ' ,  a  girdle,  as  usually), 
the  fig-leaf  bands  which  our  first  parents  made  to  hide 
their  shame  (Gen.  iii,  7) ;  also  for  the  Greek  ffifiuciv- 
Sriov  (Acts  xix,  12),  a  term  borrowed  from  the  Lat. 
semicinctium,  i.  e.  half-girdle  or  belt  covering  half  the 
person,  an  article  of  apparel  worn  by  artisans  and 
servants.     See  Attire  ;  Napkin. 

Apse  or  Apsis  (aipig,  Lat.  absis,  prob.  for  ilipic, 
a  juncture  or  vaulted  arch),  is  a  term  used  by  ecclesi- 
astical writers  to  designate  (1.)  that  part  of  the  in- 
terior of  ancient  churches  where  the  bishop  and  cleivy 
had  their  seats.  The  form  of  the  apsis  was  hemi- 
spherical, and  it  consisted  of  two  parts  :  one,  the  choir 
or  presbytery;  the  other,  the  sanctuary.  The  choir 
always  terminated  toward  the  cast  in  a  semicircle, 
round  which  were  the  seats  of  the  clergy,  having  in 
the  middle  the  throne  of  the  bishop  or  superior,  which 
was  raised  above  the  others.     The  term  came  into 


Church  with  Apse  at  Dalmery. 


APTHORP 


327 


AQUILA 


use  in  the  8th  century  to  denote  the  deepest  recess 
behind  the  altar  in  the  Eastern  Churches.  ('2.)  It 
was  also  commonly  used  for  the  bishop's  throne,  call- 
ed apsis  gradata,  being  raised  by  means  of  steps.  (3.) 
The  word  at  other  times  denotes  the  case  in  which 
the  relics  of  saints  were  kept,  which  was  round  or 
arched  at  the  top,  and  commonly  placed  on  the  altar : 
it  was  usually  of  wood,  sometimes  also  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver, and  occasionally  beautifully  sculptured.  (4.)  In 
later  church  architecture,  it  is  used  to  denote  any 
semicircular  or  polygonal  termination  of  the  choir,  or 
other  portion  of  a  church. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk. 
viii,  ch.  iii;  Lenoir,  Architect.  Monast.  (Paris,  1852). 

Aptliorp,  East,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England,  was  born  at  Boston  in  1733,  died  in  Eng- 
land in  1816.  Having  been  educated  at  Cambridge, 
he  was  settled  as  missionary  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  in 
17G1.  Four  years  after  he  returned  to  England,  and 
was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of  Croydon,  afterward 
receiving  high  dignities  in  the  Church,  and  even  an 
offer  of  the  bishopric  of  Kildare.  About  1793  he  re- 
tired to  Cambridge,  where  he  spent  the  remaining 
years  of  his  life.  Dr.  Apthorp  published  a  Letter  on 
the  Prevalence  of  Christianity  before  its  civil  Establish- 
ment, with  Observations  on  a  late  History  of  the  Decline 
of  the  Roman  Empire  (Lond.  1778) ;  Discourses  on 
Prophecy  (2  vols.  1786);  and  several  other  writings, 
chiefly  sermons,  which  show  him  to  have  been  a  man 
of  vigorous  intellect  and  sound  scholarship. — Sprague, 
Annals,  v,  174  ;   Gentleman's  Magazine,  1816. 

Aquarii,  a  sect  of  the  third  century,  so  called 
because  they  refused  to  offer  any  thing  but  water 
at  the  Eucharist,  and  pretended  to  consecrate  with 
water  only.  Also  in  Africa  the  name  was  given  to 
some  who,  during  times  of  persecution,  forbore  to 
use  wine  at  the  Eucharist  in  the  morning,  lest  the 
smell  should  discover  them.  Epiphanius  calls  them 
Encratites,  and  Theodoret  (De  fab.  hver.  i,  20)  Tatian- 
ites.  —  Epiphanius,  Jlcereses,  xlvi ;  Bingham,  Orig. 
Eccl.  bk.  xv,  ch.  ii,  §  7. 

Aquaviva,  Claudio,  the  fourth  general  of  the 
Jesuits,  was  born  Sept.  14,  1543,  joined  the  Jesuits  in 
1568,  and  was  elected,  in  1581,  their  general.  The 
order  considerably  gained,  under  his  administration,  in 
influence  and  extension.  He  wrote  Epistoliv  A' 1 7,  and 
Industrial  ad  curandos  animal  morbos  (Ven.  1606).  He 
also  ordered  and  superintended  the  compilation  of  the 
"  ratio  studiorum,,  and  the  "  directorium  exercitorum 
St.  Ignatii,"  which  have  ever  since  been  regarded  as 
standard  works  of  the  order.     See  Jesuits. 

Aq'uila  ('.W'Xnc,  for  Lat.  aquila,  an  eagle,  see 
Simon.  Onomasf.  0.  T.  p.  588  sq.),  a  Jew  with  whom 
Paul  met  on  his  first  visit  to  Corinth  ;  a  native,  of 
Pontus,  and  by  occupation  a  tent-maker  (Acts  xviii). 
Wolf,  Cura>,  on  Acts  xviii,  2,  shows  the  name  not  to 
have  any  Hebrew  origin,  and  to  have  been  adopted  as  a 
Latin  name,  like  Paulus  by  Saul.  He  is  there  described 
as  a  Pontian  by  birth  (llovTucbe  toi  yivii),  from  the 
connection  of  which  description  with  the  fact  that  we 
find  more  than  one  Pontius  Aquila  in  the  Pontian  gens 
at  Rome  in  the  days  of  the  Republic  (see  Cic.  ad  Earn. 
x,  33;  Suet.  Cces.  78),  it  has  been  imagined  that  he 
may  have  been  a  freedman  of  a  Pontius  Aquila,  and 
that  his  being  a  Pontian  by  birth  may  have  been 
merely  an  inference  from  his  name.  But  besides 
that  this  is  a  point  on  which  Luke  could  hardly  be  ig- 
norant, Aquila,  the  translator  of  the  0.  T.  into  Greek, 
■was  also  a  native  of  Pontus.  At  the  time  when  Paul 
found  Aquila  at  Corinth,  he  had  fled,  with  his  wife 
Priscilla,  from  Rome,  in  consequence  of  an  order  of 
Claudius  commanding  all  Jews  to  leave  Rome  (Suet. 
Claud.  25 — "Juda3os  impulsore  Chresto  assidue  tu- 
multuantes  Roma  expulit :"  see  Claudius).  He  be- 
came acquainted  with  Paul,  and  the}-  abode  together, 
and  wrought  at  their  common  trade  of  making  the 
Cilician  tent  or  hair-cloth.     See  Paul.     This  decree 


was  made,  not  by  the  senate,  but  the  emperor  (A.D. 
50  or  51),  and  lasted  only  during  his  life,  if  even  so 
long.  Com  p.  Neander,  Planting  and  Training,  i,  231 ; 
Lardner,  Testimonies  of  Heathen  Authors,  ch.  viii. 
Whether  Aquila  and  Priscilla  were  at  that  time  con- 
verts to  the  Christian  faitli  cannot  be  positively  de- 
termined ;  Luke's  expression,  "  came  unto  them" 
(7rpo<riJA0EV  avrolc),  Acts  xviii,  2,  rather  implies  that 
Paul  sought  their  society  on  grounds  of  friendship 
than  for  the  purpose  of  persuading  them  to  embrace 
Christianity.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  suppose  tint 
they  were  already  Christians,  Paul's  "joining  himself 

|  to  them"  is  highly  probable  ;  while,  if  they  were  still 
adherents  to  Judaism,  they  would  have  been  less  dis- 
posed than  even  unconverted  Gentiles  to  form  an  in- 

I  timacy  with  the  apostle.  But  if  Aquila  had  been  con- 
verted before  his  first  meeting  with  Paul,  the  word 
^aOtjTi'ig,  "disciple,"  would  hardly  have  been  omitted. 
At  all  events,  they  had  embraced  Christianity  before 
Paul  left  Corinth  ;  for  on  his  departure  from  Corinth, 
a  year  and  six  months  after,  Priscilla  and  Aquila  ac- 
companied him  to  Ephesus  on  his  way  to  Syria.  There 
they  remained ;  and  when  Apollos  came  to  Ephesus, 
who  "knew  only  the  baptism  of  John,"  they  "in- 
structed him  in  the  way  of  God  more  perfectly"  (Acts 
xviii,  25,  26).  From  that  time  they  appear  to  have 
been  zealous  promoters  of  the  Christian  cause  in  that 
city  (1  Cor.  xvi,  19).  Paul  styles  them  his  "helpers 
in  Christ  Jesus,"  and  intimates  that  they  had  exposed 
themselves  to  imminent  danger  on  his  account  ("who 
have  for  my  life  laid  down  their  own  necks,"  Rom. 
xvi,  3,  4),  though  of  the  time  and  place  of  this  trans- 
action we  have  no  information.      At  the  time  of  writ- 

j  ing  1  Cor.,  Aquila  and  his  wife  were  still  in  Ephesus 
(1  Cor.  xvi,  19)  ;  but  in  Rom.  xvi,  3  sq.,  we  find  them 
again  at  Rome,  and  their  house  a  place  of  assembly 
for  the  Christians.  Some  years  after  they  appear  to 
have  returned  to  Ephesus,  for  Paul  sends  salutations 
to  them  during  his  second  imprisonment  at  Rome  (2 
Tim.  iv,  19),  as  being  with  Timothy.  Their  occupa- 
tion as  tent-makers  probably  rendered  it  necessary  for 
them  to  keep  a  number  of  workmen  constantly  resi- 
dent in  their  family,  and  to  these  (to  such  of  them,  it 

|  least,  as  had  embraced  the  Christian  faith)  may  refer 
the  remarkable  expression,  "  the  (hurch  that  is  in  their 
house,"  Tt)v  icar  oIkov  avruiv  iKK\i]aiav  (see  Biscoe, 
quoted  in  Lardner's  Credibility,  ii,  11).      Origen's  ex- 

|  planation  of  these  words  is  very  similar  {In  Ep.  ad 

\Rom.  Comment,  x;  Opera,  vii,  431,  Berol.  1837). 
Neander  suggests  that,  as  Aquila  would  require  ex- 

I  tensive  premises  for  his  manufactory,  he  perhaps  set 

,  apart  one  room  for  the  use  of  a  section  of  the  Church 
in  whatever  place  he  fixed  his  residence,  and  that,  as 
his  superior  Christian  knowledge  and  piety  qualified 

,  him  for  the  <  ffice  of  a  "  teacher"  (ucaaKaXor'),  he  gave 

'  religious  instruction  to  this  small  assembly.  The 
salutations  to  individuals  which  follow  the  expression 
in  Rom.  xvi,  5,  show  that  they  were  not  referred  to  in 

!  it,  and  are  quite  inconsistent  with  the  supposition  that 
the  whole  Church  met  in  Aquila's  house.  Nor  is  it 
probable  that  the  collective  body  of  Christians  in 
Rome  or  elsewhere  would  alter  their  place  of  meeting 
on  Aquila's  return  (see  Neander,  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Pel. 
u.  Kirche,  I,  ii,  402,  503  ;  comp.  Justini  Martyris 
Opera,  Append,  ii,  p.  586,  Par.  1742).  Tradition  re- 
ports that  he  and  his  wife  were  beheaded.  '1  he  Greek 
Church  call  Aquila  bishop  and  apostle,  and  honor  him 
on  July  12  (Menalog.  Grcec.  ii,  185).  The  festival  of 
Aquila  and  Priscilla  is  placed  in  the  Roman  Calendar, 
where  he  is  denoted  bishop  of  Heraclea,  on  July  8 
{Martyrol.  Roman.).     See  Priscilla. 

Aquila,  author  of  a  Greek  version  of  the  O.  T., 
was  originally  a  heathen,  born  at  Sinope,  a  city  of 
Pontus.  Having  seen  the  professors  of  the  Christian 
religion  work  many  miracles,  he  became  a  convert  to 
it,  probably  on  the  same  ground  with  Simon  Magus. 
Refusing  to  quit  the  practice  of  magic  and  judicial  as- 


AQUILA 


321 


trologv,  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  Christians, 
on  which  he  went  over  to  the  Jewish  religion,  became 
a  proselyte,  and  was  circumcised.  Being  admitted 
into  the"  school  of  Rabbi  Akiba,  he  made  such  great 
proficiency  in  Jewish  learning  that  he  was  deemed  well 
qualified  to  make  a  new  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  into  Greek,  to  take  the  place  of  the  Sc-p- 
tuagint.  This  version  he  made  so  strictly  literal  that 
Jerome  said  it  was  a  good  dictionary  to  give  the  genu- 
ine meaning  of  the  Hebrew  words.  He  finished  and 
published  his  work  in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Adrian,  A.D.  128.  He  afterward  revised  and  pub- 
lished another  edition  of  it.  It  appears  from  Iremeus, 
iii,  24,  that  the  Ebionites  used  the  translation  of  Aqui- 
la  in  order  to  support  their  Judaizing  tenets.  The 
remains  of  this  translation  have  been  edited  by  Mont- 
faucon  and  others  in  the  "Hexapla"  of  Origen. — 
Clarke,  Succession  of  Sac.  Lit.  i,  44;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit. 
ann.  128 ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Biog.  s.  v.     See  Versions. 

Aquila,  CAsrAR,  one  of  the  Reformers,  was  born 
at  Augsburg,  Aug.  17, 1488.  After  the  ordinary  clas- 
sical training  of  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  city,  he 
spent  his  early  manhood  in  travel  and  study,  chiefly  in 
Italy  and  Switzerland.  After  a  brief  stay  as  pastor  in 
Berne,  and  in  1514  in  Leipzic,  in  1515  he  became  chap- 
lain to  Franz  von  Sickingen.  In  151G  he  became  pas- 
tor at  Jenga,  near  Augsburg,  and  soon  after  married, 
and  openly  professed  Lutheran  ism.  Arrested  by  or- 
der of  the  bishop  of  Augsburg  (Stadion),  he  was  con- 
demned to  death,  but  during  his  imprisonment  (at  Dil- 
lingen,  1519-20)  the  queen  of  Hungary  interceded  for 
him,  and  he  was  released,  but  banished.  He  went  at 
once  to  Wittenberg,  and  became  A.M.  of  the  Univer 
sity  in  1521.  For  two  years  he  was  tutor  to  Sickin 
gen's  children.  In  1524  he  became  tutor  in  Hebrew 
ployed  bv  Luther  to  aid  in 


\\;IS    rill 


at  Wittenberg,  and 
the  translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1527  he  became  pas 
tor  at  Saalfeldt.  In  1547  he  wrote  violently  against 
the  Interim  (q.  v.),  and  a  price  was  set  upon  his  head 
by  Charles  V.  He  died  Nov.  12, 1560.  His  life  was 
written  by  Avenarius,  Lebensbeschreibung  A  ouilen  (Mein- 
ingen,  1710,  8vo)  ;  Schlege,  Leben  Aquilce  (Leipz.  1737, 
4to);  and  by  Gensler,  Vita  Aquilce  (Jena,  1816),  who 
enumerates  twenty  writings  of  his. — Herzog,  Real-En- 
cyl-loptidie,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generate,  i,  942. 

Aquileia,  a  town  in  Italy  15  miles  northeast  of 
Venice,  formerly  so  important  in  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters as  to  be  called  a  second  Borne.  (I.)  The  bishops 
of  Aquileia  assumed  the  patriarchal  dignity  from  the 
5th  century,  and  the  title  was  granted  by  Pope  II  o- 
norius  I  simply  to  save  the  appearance  of  supremacy. 
Serenas,  patriarch  of  Aquileia  in  the  time  of  Tope 
Gregory  II,  renounced  the  schism;  upon  which  that 
pope,  while  he  refused  to  give  him  the  title  of  patri- 
arch, permitted  him  (A.D.  729)  to  act  as  metropolitan 
over  the  empire  of  the  Lombards ;  but  the  patriarchs 
of  Aquileia  continued  to  hold  that  title,  which  was  soon 
recognised  by  the  court  of  Rome.  The  patriarchs  of 
Aquileia  had  metropolitan  authority  over  the  states 
of  Venice,  [stria, and  the  neighboring  provinces;  and 
their  diocese  was  of  large  extent,  including  besides  a 
great  part  of  Friuli,  Carniola,  Goritz,  and  part  of  Ca- 
rinthia  and  Styria.  As  a  great  part  of  the  diocese 
was  in  the  states  of  Austria,  the  queen  of  Hungary 
claimed  the  right  of  nominating  alternately  with  Ven- 
ice; and  such  disputes  arose  from  the  circumstance 
that  in  1751  tin-  patriarchate  was  suppressed,  and  the 
two  archbishoprics  of  Ddine  and  Goritz  erected  in  its 
stead.  The  church,  which  was  the  cathedral,  is  ded- 
icated in  the  name  ofthe  Assumption.    Sec  De  Rubeis, 

Moiiiimi  iitn   irclrsiir  Aqni/iji  nsis  (1740,  folA 

(II.)  Several  COUNCILS  or  synods  were  held  at  Aqui- 
leia: in  381,  against  Palladius  and  Secundianus,  the 
Arian  bishops  |  Labbe,  ii,  978)  ;  in  656,  against  the  5th 
(Ecumenical  council ;  in  698,  on  the  "  Three  I  lhapter" 
question  (q.  v.) ;  at  the  same  time  the  schism  from 


AQUINAS 

Rome  was  ended  (Labbe,  vi);  in  791,  by  Paulinus  the 
metropolitan,  fourteen  canons  were  published  ;  in  1184, 
against  incendiaries  and  sacrilegious  persons  (Labbe, 
x)  ;  in  1409,  by  the  antipope  Gregory  XII,  who  hero 
excommunicated  his  rivals  Benedict  and  Alexander  V 
(Labbe,  ii,  2012). — Landon,  Manual  of  Councils;  Smith, 
Tables  of  Church  Hist. 

Aquinas,  St.  Thomas,  called  the  Angelical  Doc- 
tor, the  most  conspicuous  of  the  theological  philoso- 
phers of  the  Middle  Age,  was  born  at  Aquino,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1224  or  1226,  of  a  noble  family. 
(In  Roman  Catholic  writers,  and  generally  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  his  name  appears  as  St.  Thomas ; 
but  as  the  name  Aquinas  is  more  commonly  used  by 
English  writers,  we  place  this  article  under  that  title.) 
His  parents  sent  him,  when  only  five  years  old,  to  be 
educated  in  the  monaster}'  of  Monte  Cassino.  In 
1241  he  took  the  habit  of  the  Dominicans  in  the  mon- 
astery of  the  order  at  Naples  without  the  knowledge 
of  his  parents.  "His  mother,  distressed  by  this  act, 
set  out  in  search  of  him,  seized  him  on  the  road,  and 
had  him  closely  confined  in  the  castle  of  Rocca-sicca. 
Here  he  entirely  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  neither  tears,  nor  entreaties,  nor  threats 
could  persuade  him  to  renounce  the  step  he  had  taken. 
In  this  state  of  confinement  he  was  kept  for  two  years, 
when  he  escaped  through  a  window  and  fled  to  Naples, 
and  thence  to  Rome.  In  1244  he  went  to  Cologne, 
and  placed  himself  under  Albert  the  Great,  whom  he 
followed  to  Paris,  and  finished  his  studies  under  him. 
In  1248  he  taught  philosophy,  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  the  Master  of  the  Sentences  at  Cologne ;  in  1252 
he  taught  at  Paris,  and  in  1255  was  made  Doctor  of 
Theology  in  that  university,  on  the  same  da}'  with 
Bonaventura."  He  subsequently  taught  in  most  of 
the  Italian  universities,  and  at  last  took  up  his  abode 
at  Naples,  where  he  received  a  pension  from  King 
Charles,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  teach- 
ing; entirely  indifferent  about  worldly  cares  and  hon- 
ors, he  declined  many  ecclesiastical  dignities,  and, 
among  others,  the  archbishopric  of  Naples,  which  was 
offered  to  him  by  Clement  IV.  "As  rector  of  the  uni- 
versity, during  a  very  active  life,  and  often  travelling, 
he  wrote  in  twenty  years  the  greater  part  of  his  works, 
which  treat  of  a  vast  variety  of  subjects.  It  is  said 
of  him  that  he  could  dictate  compositions  on  different 
subjects  at  the  same  time.  It  characterizes  his  theo- 
logical speculations  that  he  read  daily  some  edifying 
books,  for,  as  he  expressed  it,  we  should  take  care  that 
nothing  one-sided  arise  in  our  speculations.  He  used 
to  begin  his  lectures  and  writings  with  prayer ;  and 
when  in  any  inquiry  he  could  find  no  solution,  he 
would  fall  on  his  knees  and  pray  for  illumination. 
While  the  originality  and  deep  philosophy  of  his  lec- 
tures brought  a  great  multifcde  of  hearers  to  him  at 
Paris  and  Naples,  his  sermons  were  so  simple  that  the 
most  uneducated  could  understand  them.     King  Louis 

IX  of  France  used  to  ask  his  advice  in  affairs  of  state. 
On  one  occasion  he  invited  him  against  his  will  to 
dinner,  when  he  was  occupied  with  a  very  difficult  in- 
quiry. During  the  meal  he  became  quite  abstracted, 
and  all  at  once  cried  out,  'Now  at  last  I  have  found 
it!'  His  prior  reminded  him  that  he  Avas  seated  at 
the  king's  table;  but  the  king  immediately  allowed 
a  secretary  to  come  and  write  down  his  thoughts. 
Aquinas  was  distinguished  among  the  schoolmen  for 
clearness  of  development,  and  the  harmony  between 
his  thoughts  and  their  expression"  (Neandcr,  Hist,  of 
Dogmas,  ii,  543).     "In  the  year  1274  Pope  Gregory 

X  called  him  to  attend  the  Council  of  Lyons,  in  order 
that  he  might  read  to  the  assembly  the  book  which  he 
had  composed,  at  the  command  of  Pope  Urban,  against 
the  claims  ofthe  Greek  Church  ;  but  ho  was  taken  ill 
and  died  on  the  way,  near  Terracino,  March  7,  1274. 
lie  was  canonized  in  1323  by  John  XXII,  and  the 
rank  of  fifth  Doctor  of  the  Church  was  assigned 
to  him.     His  writings  at  once  assumed,  and  have  con- 


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329 


AQUINAS 


tinued  to  maintain,  an  immense  authority ;  the  popes 
have  repeatedly  declared  his  works  to  he  perfect,  with- 
out any  error  (Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  475). 

Of  his  theological  writings,  the  most  famous  is  his 
" Summa  Theologi^''  (best  ed.  Antwerp,  1G75,  3  vols. 
4to),  which  is  still  a  favorite  authority  in  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  Summa  Theologke  is  one  of  the  grandest 
attempts  at  a  complete  science  of  theology  ever  planned 
by  a  human  intellect ;  and,  as  such,  it  deserves  here  a 
brief  analysis,  which  we  give  from  Hardwick  (Ch.  Hist, 
of  the  Middle  Age,  1853,  8vo).  The  Summa  is  divided 
into  three  great  parts :  (1)  the  Natural,  (2)  the  Moral, 
(3)  the  Sacramental.  In  the  first  of  these  the  writer 
ascertains  the  nature  and  the  limits  of  theology,  which 
he  esteems  a  proper  science,  based  upon  a  supernatu- 
ral revelation,  the  contents  of  which,  though  far  tran- 
scending all  the  powers  of  human  thought,  are,  when 
communicated,  subjects  for  devout  inquiry,  and  ad- 
mit of  argumentative  defence.  Accordingly,  the  writ- 
er next  discusses  the  existence  and  the  attributes  of 
God,  endeavoring  to  elucidate  the  nature  of  his  will, 
his  providence,  the  ground  of  his  predestination,  and 
the  constitution  of  the  blessed  Trinity  in  unity — a 
doctrine  which,  although  he  deems  it  incapable  of  it, 
prion  demonstration,  finds  an  echo  and  a  counterpart 
in  man.  Descending  from  the  cause  to  the  effects, 
he  analyzes  the  constituent  parts  of  the  creation,  an- 
gels, the  material  world,  and  men,  enlarging  more  es- 
pecially upon  the  functions  of  the  human  soul,  its  close 
relation  to  the  body,  and  the  state  of  both  before  the 
fall.  The  second  part  is  subdivided  into  the  Prima 
Secunda}  and  the  Secunda  Secund;?.  The  former  car- 
ries on  the  general  subject,  viewing  men  no  longer 
from  the  heavenly,  but  the  earthly  side,  as  moral  and 
responsible  agents  gifted  with  a  vast  complexity  of 
passions,  sentiments,  and  faculties.  The  way  in  which 
these  powers  would  naturally  operate,  if  acting  by 
themselves,  is  first  considered,  and  the  author  then 
proceeds  to  show  how  they  are  modified  by  supernat- 
ural agencies  or  coexistent  gifts  of  grace.  This  leads 
him  to  compare  the  state  or  position  of  mankind  in 
reference  to  the  systems  (or  economies)  in  grace  and 
nature,  and,  as  the  immediate  consequence,  to  treat 
of  our  original  righteousness,  free-will,  original  sin, 
justification,  and  the  original  rules  of  life.  In  the 
Secunda  Secunda?,  the  several  virtues  are  discussed 
in  turn,  as  they  exist  under  the  operation  of  divine 
grace,  or  that  of  nature  only.  They  are  seven  in 
number.  Three  of  them  are  "theological,"  or  super- 
naturally  infused  and  nourished — viz.,  faith,  hope, 
and  love — while  the  remainder  are  the  four  cardinal 
virtues  of  justice,  prudence,  fortitude,  and  temperance, 
and  are  "ethical,"  or  purely  human.  The  discussion 
of  these  virtues  forms  an  admirable  work  on  Christian 
morals.  The  third  part  of  the  Summa  is  devoted  to 
an  exposition  of  the  mysteries  of  the  Incarnation,  and 
the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments — a  class  of  topics  which, 
according  to  the  principles  of  all  the  mediaeval  writ- 
ers, are  essentially  akin.  Aquinas  traces  ever}'  su- 
pernatural influence  to  the  Person  of  the  Word  made 
flesh,  who,  by  the  union  of  our  nature  with  the  God- 
head, has  become  the  Reconstructor  of  humanity  and 
the  Dispenser  of  new  life.  This  life,  together  with 
the  aliment  by  which  it  is  sustained,  descends  to  man 
through  certain  outward  media,  or  the  sacramental 
ordinances  of  the  church  ;  their  number  being  seven, 
viz.,  Baptism,  Confirmation,  the  Eucharist,  Penitence, 
Orders,  Matrimony,  and  Extreme  Unction.  In  the 
last  division  of  the  work,  which  develops  "the  com- 
plex philosophy  of  expiation,  under  the  representations 
of  it  contained  in  the  doctrines  and  ritual  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,"  and  in  which  the  Aristotelian  philosophy 
is  made  to  justify  all  the  traditional  teachings  of  that 
church,  we  find  the  grounds  of  the  mighty  influence 
of  Aquinas  in  determining  the  scientific  form  of  cer- 
tain doctrines  which  afterward  threatened  to  obtain  I 
ascendency  in   all  the  Western   churches.  | 


But  with  all  the  learning,  the  piety,  and  the  dialectic 
skill  of  Aquinas,  he  did  not  avoid  the  puerilities  of  the 
so-called  scholastic  spirit."  Some  of  the  questions  treat- 
ed in  the  Summa  are  trifling,  others  scandalous ;  e.  g. 
Quare  Christus  non  assumpsit  famineum  sexum,  and  oth- 
ers even  worse. 

The  following  summary  of  the  doctrines  of  Aquinas 
is  chiefly  condensed  from  Neander,  History  of  Dogmas, 
vol.  ii.  (1)  As  to  the  necessity  of  revelation,  Aquinas 
inferred  it  from  the  super-terrestrial  destiny  of  man, 
which  goes  beyond  the  limits  of  human  reason.  He 
denied  any  contradiction  between  philosophical  and 
theological  truth  ;  the  truths  of  natural  reason  cannot 
be  at  variance  with  those  given  bj'  revelation,  since 
God  is  also  the  author  of  reason.  What  opposes  rea- 
son cannot  proceed  from  God.  If  we  admit  such  a 
contradiction,  it  would  follow  that  something  false 
might  be  the  object  of  faith,  which  would  be  an  ab- 
surdity. In  his  inquiries  respecting  the  relation  of 
faith  to  knowledge,  he  says :  A  faith  of  authority 
resting  on  human  opinion  is  the  weakest  of  all  things  ; 
but  it  is  otherwise  with  divine  revelation.  Yet  the- 
ology makes  use  of  human  reason,  not,  indeed,  to  prove 
the  truths  of  revelation,  but  to  deduce  other  truths 
from  it'.  As  other  sciences  obtain  their  principles  from 
other  sources,  and  then  draw  inferences  from  them,  so 
theology  proceeds  from  those  which  are  made  known 
by  a  higher  light.  But  since  grace  does  not  nullify 
nature,  but  perfects  it,  and  as  the  natural  inclinations 
of  the  will  serve  the  divine  principle  of  the  Christian 
life,  so  also  will  reason  serve  the  truths  of  faith.  (2) 
As  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  he  asserts  that  it  is,  in  a 
certain  confused  manner,  implanted  in  all  men  (sttb 
quadam  confusione  est  nobis  natural  iter  insertuni).  Since 
man  is  so  created  that  he  finds  in  God  his  highest  good, 
so,  in  striving  after  happiness,  striving  after  God  is  at 
the  foundation  ;  but  all  men  do  not  attain  to  this  con- 
sciousness. The  fool  can  say  in  his  heart  that  there 
is  no  God.  (3)  In  anthropology,  Aquinas  held  that 
man  was  created  with  pure  natural  powers,  which, 
from  their  very  destin}',  turned  toward  God,  and  thus 
man  acquired  the  grace  of  justitia  originalis.  This  is 
the  Romish  doctrine  of  superadded  grace,  as  necessary 
to  the  original  perfection  of  human  nature.  As  to 
original  sin,  he  combated  the  view  of  the  Traducians, 
according  to  which  sin  was  transferred  by  propagation, 
for  this  would  not  explain  the  participation  in  guilt. 
Mankind  must  be  regarded  as  an  ethical  person,  and 
so  far  Adam's  sin  was  the  sin  of  all  men.  In  original 
sin  Aquinas  recognized  two  elements,  one  privative, 
the  other  positive.  The  first  was  the  loss  of  the  har- 
mony of  original  righteousness  ;  the  second  consisted 
in  an  inordinnta  dispositio,  a  discordance  which  took 
place  between  reason  and  sensuousness,  and  in  a  lan- 
guor naturce.  He  maintained,  in  opposition  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  that  the  Virgin 
Mary  was  not  without  original  sin,  inasmuch  as  she, 
as  well  as  other  mortals,  needed  redemption  and  salva- 
tion through  Christ  (Summa,  p.  Ill,  q.  27,  art.  1).  (4) 
As  to  redemption,  he  could  see  proof  of  its  relative, 
but  not  of  its  absolute  necessity.  Since  redemption 
proceeded  from  the  free  will  of  God.  it  suffices  to  prove 
that  this  method  was  not  impossible,  and  that  it  was 
suitable.  Supposing  that  man  had  been  redeemed  by 
an  angel,  his  perfect  restoration  could  not  have  been 
effected,  for  man  would  have  remained  dependent  on  a 
creature.  The  visible  appearance  of  God  was  neces- 
sary, in  order  that  man  might  be  led  from  the  visible 
to  the  knowledge  and  love  of  the  invisible.  Setting 
out  from  the  contemplation  of  the  divine  Omnipotence, 
other  possible  modes  of  redemption  might  lie  imag- 
ined, but  this  method  must  have  ever  been  the  most 
suitable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  regard  be  had  to 
man's  stand-point,  no  other  method  was  possible  than 
that  which  was  chosen  by  God,  since  man  by  himself 
alono  could  render  no  satisfaction.  If  the  relations  to 
God  and  man  are  combined,  it  must  be  allowed  that 


AQUINAS 


330 


AQUINAS 


another  method  of  redemption  was  possible,  but  none 
BO  suitable  as  this.  The  union  of  God  with  man  must 
give  man  the  strongest  assurance  of  attaining  the 
highest  happiness,  which  consists  in  immediate  union 
with  God.  But,  since  redemption  has  been  effected, 
men  have  acquired  a  new  consciousness  of  the  dignity 
of  their  nature.  In  these  ends  Aquinas  found  the  im- 
portance of  the  work  of  redemption.  As  he  here  joins 
his  own  ideas  with  those  of  Anselm,  he  agrees  also 
with  him  in  the  opinion  that  the  satisfaction  rendered 
by  Christ  furnished  what  was  requisite  from  its  in- 
trinsic worth.  Like  Anselm,  he  proceeds  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  for  an  injury  something  must  be  given  which 
the  injured  party  would  value  as  high  as,  or  higher 
than  what  had  been  lost  by  the  injury.  Christ's  sat- 
isfaction is  not  only  sufficiins,  but  super  abundans. 
Aquinas  was  perhaps  the  first  to  raise  the  question 
"afterward  so  earnestly  discussed  in  the  Calvinistic 
and  Arminian  controversies  of  the  17th  century — the 
question,  namely,  whether  Christ  did  not  earn  for  the 
believer  a  title  to  eternal  life,  as  of  freedom  from  con- 
demnation to  eternal  death.  Aquinas  answers  this 
question  in  the  affirmative,  and  makes  the  technical 
distinction  between  the  satin/action  which  Christ  made 
by  his  sufferings  to  justice,  and  the  merit  of  his  obe- 
dience to  the  law,  by  virtue  of  which  the  redeemed  are 
entitled  to  the  rewards  of  eternity.  In  other  words, 
we  find  in  the  theory  of  Aquinas  an  anticipation  of 
the  later  distinction  between  the  'active'  and  'passive' 
righteousness  of  Christ"  (Shedd,  History  of  Doctrines, 
ii,  310).  If  we  find  elsewhere  the  various  instrumen- 
talities of  grace  scattered,  such  as  the  offices  of  Law- 
giver, Priest,  and  King,  all  these  are  united  in  Christ, 
the  fountain  of  all  grace.  He  is  the  Mediator  between 
God  and  men,  as  far  as  he  communicates  what  is  di- 
vine to  them,  intercedes  for  them,  and  makes  satisfac- 
tion for  their  sins.  Christ  is  the  mystical  head  of  the 
members  which  belong  to  him,  inasmuch  as  what  he 
has  done  is  for  their  benefit  (iinio  mystied).  (5)  As  to 
justification,  the  Schoolmen,  after  Augustin,  conceived 
of  it  not  as  objective,  but  a  subjective  sanctification,  of 
which  faith  is  the  instrument,  and  which  is  realized  in 
love.  Aquinas  thought  the  infusio  gratia?  just ijicant is 
(infusion  of  justifying  grace)  necessary  for  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins  on  the  part  of  God,  and  allowed  successive 
steps  in  justification  :  first  of  all  the  communication 
of  grace — then  the  tendency  of  the  free  will  to  God — 
then  that  by  which  it  departs  from  sin,  and  upon  this 
the  forgiveness  of  sins.  He  thus  confounds,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  justification  with  sanctification,  as  all  the 
later  Romanists  do.  In  the  act  of  faith  is  contained 
the  admission  that  man  is  made  righteous  by  the  re- 
demption of  Christ.  As  to  the  relation  of  faith  to  justi- 
fication, he  admitted  it,  but  vitiated  it  by  adopting  the- 
scholastic  distinction  between  condiynum  and  congruum, 
or  merit  from  desert  and  merit  from  fitness.  This 
distinction  is  thus  defined  by  Aquinas,  with  his  usual 
acutenesa  and  clearness  :  "  A  meritorious  work  of  man 
may  be  considered  in  two  aspects;  first,  as  proceeding 
from  the  free  will  of  man,  and,  secondly,  as  proceeding 
from  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  If  it  be  considered 
from  the  first  point  of  view,  there  can  be  in  it  no  merit 
of  condignity  or  absolute  desert,  because  of  the  inequal- 
ity between  man  and  God,  whereby  it  is  impossible  for 
the  creature  to  bring  the  Creator  under  absolute  obli- 
gation. But  if  ii  be  considered  from  the  second  point 
of  view  as  proceeding  from  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  work  of  man  may  have  the  merit  of  con- 
gruity  or  fitness,  because  it  is  fitting  that  God  should 

reward  his  own  grace  as  a  thing  excellent  in  itself" 
(Shedd,  History  of  Doctrines,  ii,  330).  (0)  As  to  the 
sacramenK  lie  taught  that  they  are  the  necessary 
media  of  the  application  of  Christ's  merits  to  men. 
lb-  endeavors  to  prove  the  necessity  of  the  seven  sac- 
raments on  the  principle  that  the  whole  life  should  he 
consecrated  to  Gcd's  grace;  its  gradual  development 
from  birth  to  death  was  surrounded  by  the  sacraments. 


(i)  The  birth  of  the  spiritual  life  takes  place  in  bap- 
tism ;  (ii)  the  growth  to  maturity  is  through  confirm- 
ation ;  (iii)  the  nourishment  of  the  spiritual  life  is 
through  the  Lord's  Supper.  If  man  were  bodily  and 
spiritually  sound  throughout,  he  needs  nothing  more  ; 
but  for  the  healing  of  his  sickly  state  he  requires  (iv) 
penance  ;  (v)  the  promotion  of  his  recovery  by  certain 
means  is  signified  by  extreme  unction.  (7)  As  to  the 
future  state  of  man,  he  goes  into  details  on  the  resur- 
rection bod}'.  According  to  quest.  81  (Summa,  pt.  iii), 
those  who  are  raised  from  the  dead  will  be  in  the  (etas 
juvenilis,  qua)  inter  decrementum  et  incrcmentum  in- 
stituitnr.  The  difference  of  sexes  will  continue  to  ex- 
ist, but  without  sensual  appetites.  All  the  organs  of 
sense  will  still  be  active,  with  the  exception  of  the 
sense  of  taste.  It  is  however  possible  that  even  the 
latter  may  be  rendered  more  perfect,  and  fitted  for  ad- 
equate functions  and  enjoyments.  Hair  and  nails  are 
one  of  the  ornaments  of  man,  and  are  therefore  quite 
as  necessary  as  blood  and  other  fluids.  The  resurrec- 
tion bodies  will  be  exceeding!}'  fine,  and  be  delivered 
from  the  heavy  weight  which  is  now  so  burdensome  to 
them  ;  nevertheless  they  will  be  tangible,  as  the  body 
of  Christ  could  be  touched  after  his  resurrection.  But 
this  is  true  only  in  reference  to  the  bodies  of  the 
blessed.  The  bodies  of  the  damned  are  ugly  and  de- 
formed ;  they  are  incorruptible,  but  capable  of  suffer- 
ing, which  is  not  the  case  with  the  bodies  of  the  saints" 
(Hagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines,  §  204). 

The  scholastic  philosophy  reached  its  culmination  in 
Aquinas.  He  rendered  real  service  to  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy  by  the  pains  he  took  to  effect  a  translation 
of  the  works  in  which  it  was  contained,  and  by  his 
commentaries  on  them.  He  was  a  Realist,  inasmuch 
as  he  maintained  that  the  ideas  of  things  after  the  pat- 
tern of  which  the  world  was  made  pre-existed  eternal- 
ly in  the  Divine  mind  (although  not  independent  of 
God),  and  regarded  them  as  the  proper  objects  of 
knowledge,  and  as  the  forms  which  determine  the  na- 
ture and  properties  of  all  things.  This  system  he  en- 
deavored to  place  on  a  firmer  basis  by  extending  the 
theory  of  thought  propounded  by  Aristotle,  to  which 
he  superadded  some  ideas  of  the  system  of  Plato  and 
of  the  Alexandrians.  With  this  is  connected  his  ex- 
planation of  the  conceptions  of  matter  and  form,  as 
elements  of  compound  substances,  as  also  his  explana- 
tion of  the  principle  of  individuation.  The  rational 
soul,  the  nature  of  which  be  discusses  after  Aristotle's 
system,  is  the  substantial  form  of  man,  immaterial 
and  indestructible.  The  aim  of  Aquinas,  as  a  Chris- 
tian philosopher,  was  to  prove  the  reasonableness  of 
Christianity,  which  he  attempted  to  accomplish  by 
showing,  1st,  that  it  contains  a  portion  of  truth ;  2d, 
that  it  falls  under  the  cognizance  of  reason  ;  and,  3d, 
that  it  contains  nothing  contradictory  to  reason.  In 
connection  with  the  latter  argument  he  starts  from  the 
assumption  that  the  truths  of  reason  are  essentially 
one  with  Divine  truth,  because  rr ason  is  derived  from 
God.  Philosophy  consists,  according  to  him,  in  sci- 
ence searching  for  truth  with  the  instrument  of  human 
reason  ;  but  he  maintains  that  it  was  necessary  for 
the  salvation  of  man  that  Divine  revelation  should 
disclose  to  him  certain  things  transcending  the  grasp 
of  human  reason.  He  regarded  theology,  therefore, 
as  the  offspring  of  the  union  of  philosophy  and  relig- 
ion (Tennemann,  Hist,  of  Philosophy). 

The  Dominican  monks,  especially,  naturally  proud 
of  their  greatest  doctor,  have  always  maintained  '1  hom- 
ism,  as  the  doctrines  of  Aquinas  have  been  named. 
The  Franciscans,  on  the  other  hand,  have  always  op- 
posed Thomism;  on,:  of  their  greatest  doctors,  Bona- 
ventura  (q.  v.,  doctor  seraphicus,  f  l"-74),  opposed  Aqui- 
nas on  mystical  grounds,  and  Duns  Scotus  (q.  v., 
doctor  subtilis,  f  1308)  on  dialectical  grounds:  they 
were  enrolled  in  solid  body  against  it.  The  Thomists 
were  Aristotelians,  generally  Realists  ;  followed  Au- 
gustine as  to  sin,  grace,  etc. ;  opposed  the  immaculate 


AQUINO 


331 


ARAB 


conception,  and  held  that  the  sacraments  convey 
grace  physically.  The  Scotists  were  Nominalists, 
were  opposed  to  Augustine's  doctrines  of  grace  and 
predestination,  maintained  the  immaculate  conception, 
and  held  that  the  sacraments  produce  grace  as  moral 
causes,  not  as  physical.  The  Roman  see  naturally  in- 
clined t>  favor  the  doctrines  of  the  Scotists,  but  the 
pres!ig>  of  Aquinas  was  so  great  that  the  Thomists,  to 
a  great  extent,  ruled  the  theology  of  the  church  up  to 
the  tinu  of  the  controversy  between  the  Molinists  (q. 
v.)  and  the  Jansenists,  when  the  views  of  the  Scotists 
substantially  prevailed. 

The  collected  writings  of  St.  Thomas  fill  twenty- 
three  folio  volumes.  The  following  is  the  list  of  them, 
as  given  by  Cave  :  1.  Exp-isitio  in  Ar/stofelis  libros,  etc. 
(Venice,  1496)  :— '2.  Comment,  in  4  lib.  Sent.  P.  Lombardi 
(Basle,  1492;  and  often): — 3.  Qnrestioms  disputtit  r,  111, 
de  Potentiu  Dei;  1G,  Di  Malo,  etc. ;  29,  De  Veritate: 
— 4.  Qucesliones  Quodlibeticce  12  (Cologne,  1471,  1491, 
etc.)  : — 5.  Summa  Catholicm fi I ii  contr.i  Gentiles  (Rome, 
1476;  Venice,  1480,  fob,  with  notes  by  Fran,  de  Syl- 
vestris;  Lyons,  1566,  fob,  with  coram,  by  Franciscus 
Ferrariensis,  Paris,  1642,  2  vols,  fob)  :— 6.  Expositio  in 
lib.  B.  Dlonysii  de  divinis  Nominibus: — 7.  Summa  Theo- 
logies (Cologne,  1604  ;  Douai,  1614  ;  Antwerp,  1624 ; 
Paris,  1633 ;  Bologna,  with  comm.  of  Cajetan,  1514  ; 
with  that  of  Caponus,  Cajetan,  and  Javellus,  Venice, 
1596,  5  vols,  fob):— S.  Expjsitio  in  Lib.  B.  Jobi:—0. 
Erposit'o  in  blmam  Psalmorum  Davidis  (Lyons,  1520, 
8vo) : — 10.  Expositio  in  Canticum  Can'icorum  (1545, 
8vo  ;  Paris,  1634, 4to) : — 11.  Erpositio  in  Esainm  Proph. : 
— 12.  Expositio  in  Jeremiam  Proph.  (Lyons,  1531,  8vo)  : 
— 13.  Erpositio  in  Threnos  Jeremice  (attributed  by  some 
to  Thomas,  an  Englishman).  The  last  three  publish- 
ed together  in  fob  at  Venice  in  1527  : — 14.  Expositio  in 
Eoang.  S.  Johannis : — 15.  Catena  Aurea  in  4  Evang. 
(Lyons,  1530,  8vo;  Antwerp,  1578): — 16.  Expositio  in 
Pau'i  Epistolas  (Basle,  1475;  with  comm.  of  Cajetan, 
Bologna,  1481,  fob)  :— 17.  Ssrmones  (Rome,  1571,  8vo)  : 
— 18.  Opuscula  73.  Of  these,  many  are  doubtful.  All 
the  above  were  collected  and  published  at  Rome,  1568 
and  1570,  in  17  vols; ;  Venice,  1587  and  1594;  Douai, 
160?;  Antwerp,  1612;  Paris,  1634,  1655,  1660,  in  23 
vols.  In  some  of  the  latjr  of  these  editions  another 
vol.  was  added,  containing,  19.  Comment,  in  Genesim : 
— 20.  Comment,  in  Lib.  Maccab. : — 21.  Comment,  in 
omnes  Episto'as  Canonicas: — 22.  Comment,  in  Apocalyp- 
sen: — 23.  C>:nm-n>.  in  D  inielem  Proph. : — 24.  Comment. 
in  Bxthii  libros  de  Cmsolathne  Philosophic  The  chief 
part  of  the  six  works  last  mentioned  are,  according  to 
Cave,  to  be  attributed  to  Thomas  Anglus  (Cave,  Hist. 
Lit.  ii,  308,  cited  by  Landon,  ii,  477).  The  best  edition 
of  the  works  of  Aquinas  is  the  edi'io  Veneti  altera,  con- 
taining his  life  by  Echard,  and  commentaries  by  Ru- 
beis  (28  vols.  4to,  Venet.  1775).  Of  his  most  important 
work,  the  S'im'nc  Th",ologh>,  many  editions  have  been 
printed.  His  Catena  Aurea,  translated  into  English, 
was  published  at  Oxford,  1845  (7  parts  8vo).  ""  The 
best  recent  books  on  Aquinas  are  Werner,  Th  mas  von 
Aquino  (Ratisbon,  1858-6  I,  3  vols.)  ;  Kling,  Dsscrip'io 
Summce  T.  Aqvinaiis  (Bonn,  1846);  Rietter,  Mural  d. 
hsiligen  Thoma  s  (.Munich,  1858,  2  vols.) ;  Goudin,  Philos. 
juxta  Thorn  e  dogmata  (Par.  1861);  Jourdain,  LaPhilos. 
de  St.  Thorn  is  d'Aquiri  (Par.  1858,  2  vols.)  ;  Hampden, 
Life  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (Lond.  1848).  See  also  Ilau- 
reau,  Ph'l is.  Scolast.  vol.  ii,  cap.  xx  ;  Xeander,C/?.  Hist. 
iv,  421 ;  Mozley,  On  Predestiwi/i  m,  p.  260  sq.  ;  Tenne- 
mann,  M.mualHist.  Phi'.  §  266  ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno 
1255  ;  Xemder,  Hist,  of  D  >gmas,  ii,  542  et  al. ;  Hagen- 
bach,  Hist,  of  Doctr. ;  Shedd,  Hist.  qfDoctr. ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encykl.  xvi,  60  ;  Dupin,  Eccl.  Writers,  cent.  xiii. 

Aquino,  Philip  of,  a  learned  rabbin,  whose  real 
name  was  Mardochai.  He  was  born  at  Carpentras ; 
but,  on  liis  expressing  a  desire  to  embrace  Christianity, 
he  found  it  necessary  to  leave  France,  and  went  to 
Naples,  and  was  baptized  at  Aquino,  whence  his  name. 
He  died  at  Paris  in  1650,  where  he  had  been  made  roy- 


1  al  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  College  de  France.  He 
assisted  Le  Jay  in  his  Polyglot,  and  published  Dictio- 
narium  Heb.  Chald.  Talm.  Rabbinicum  (Paris,  1629,  fol.) ; 
liodic<s  Linguae  Sanctce  (Paris,  1620,  16mo);  Rabbinical 
Co  mm.  (.n    the   Pentateuch   and  Psalms  (Latin;  Paris, 

I  1620,  4 to)  ;  with  other  works  of  less  importance,  and 

:  several  still  in  MS.,  among  them  a  version  of  the  N.  T. 
in  Hebrew,  with  notes.  His  son  Louis  translated  into 
Latin  the  Comm.  of  Levi  Ben  Gerson  on  Job  and  Esther 

,  (Par.  1622, 4to).— Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  'J4G. 

'  ^  Ar  (Heb.  id.  "IS  i.  q.  lis,  a  city;  Sept.'Ap  [v.  r. 
"Hp  in  Num.  xxi,  15],  Deut.  ii,  29;  fully  Ar-Moab, 
Num.  xxi,  28  ;  Isa.  xv,  1 ;  also  city  of  Moab,  Num. 
xxii,  36 ;  prob.  also  for  JMoabitis  or  the  whole  coun- 
try, Deut.  ii,  9,  18),  the  capital  city  of  the  Moabitcs 
(Num.  xxi,  28 ;  Deut.  ii,  9, 18,  29),  near  (south  of)  the 
river  Anion  (Deut.  ii,  18,  24 ;  Num.  xxi,  13-15).  It 
appears  to  have  been  burnt  by  King  Sihon  (Num.  xxi, 
28),  and  Isaiah,  in  describing  the  future  calamities  of 
the  Moabites,  says,  "  In  the  night  Ar  of  Moab  is  laid 
waste  and  brought  to  silence"  (Isa.  xv,  1).  In  bis 
comment  on  this  passage,  Jerome  states  that  in  his 
youth  there  was  a  great  earthquake,  by  which  Ar  was 
destroyed  in  the  night-time.  This  he  evidenth'  re- 
gards as  a  fulfilment  of  the  prediction,  which,  how- 
ever, had  probably  some  less  remote  reference.  Lat- 
terly the  name  of  the  city  was  Graecized  Areopolis 
('Apeu-oXig,  q.  d.  "city  of  Mars").  It  was  an  epis- 
copal city  of  the  Third  Palestine  (Reland,  Palcest.  p. 
577  sq.).  According  to  Theodoret  (Comment,  in  Isa. 
xv,  xxix),  it  was  sometimes  called  Ariel.  This  city 
was  also  called  Uahbah  or  Rabbath,  and,  to  distinguish 
it  from  Rabbath  of  Amnion,  Rabba/h-Moob.  Ptolemy 
calls  it  Rabmathon;  Steph.  Byzantinus,  Rabathmoma; 
and  Abulfeda  (Tab.  Syr.  p.  90),  Rabbath,  and  also 
Mob.  Hengstenberg  (Bileam,  p.  236)  thinks  it  is  the 
modern  Mehalet  el-IIaj,  near  the  Arnon  (Burckhardt, 
iii,  636) ;  but  it  is  usually  identified  with  the  site  that 
still  bears  the  name  of  Rabba,  visited  and  described 
by  Seetzen,  Burckhardt,  Legh,  Macmichael,  and  Irby 
and  Mangles.  It  is  about  17  miles  east  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  10  miles  south  cf  the  Arnon  (Mojeb),  and  about 
the  same  distance  north  of  Kerak  (Robinson,  Re- 
searches, ii,  569).  The  ruins  of  Rabbah  are  situated 
on  a  low  hill,  which  commands  the  whole  plain.  They 
present  nothing  of  interest  except  two  old  Roman 
temples  and  some  tanks.  Irbj'  and  Mangles  (Letters, 
p.  457)  remark,  with  surprise,  that  the  whole  circuit 
of  the  town  does  not  seem  to  have  exceeded  a  mile. 
Burckhardt  says,  "half  an  hour  in  circuit,"  and  that 
no  trace  of  walls  could  be  found ;  but  it  is  obvious 
from  the  descriptions  that  the  city  whose  ruins  they 
saw  was  a  comparatively  modern  town,  less  important 
and  extensive  than  the  ancient  metropolis  of  Moab 
(Syria,  p.  374,  377).— Kitto,  s.  v.      See  Moab. 

A'ra  (Heb.  Ara ',  !>OX,  perhaps  lion;  Sept.  'Apa), 
the  last  named  of  the  three  sons  of  Jether  of  the  tribe 
of  Asher  (1  Chron.  viii,  38)  ;  apparently  the  same  with 
the  Ulla  whose  three  sons  are  named  in  the  ensuing 
verse.     B.C.  ante  1017. 

A'rab  (Heb.  Arab',  a^N,  ambush;  Sept.  'Epj/3 
v.  r.  Alpep),  a  city  in  the  mountains  of  Judah,  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Golon  and  Dumah  (Josh. 
xv,  52),  whence  probablv  the  Gentile  Arbite  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  35).  According  to  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Ereb) 
it  lay  south  of  Daroma,  and  was  then  called  En  mitty- 
thi  i  Euseb.  'Epspiv&a).  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  105)  says 
it  is  the  village  al-Arab,  situated  on  a  mountain  four 
English  miles  south-east  of  Hebron  ;  but  other  author- 
ities make  no  mention  of  such  a  place,  and  the  asso- 
ciated names  require  a  locality  rather  to  the  west  of 
Hebron  (Keil,  Comment,  on  Josh,  in  loc),  possibly  the 
ruined  site  el-IIadb  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  south-west  of 
Dura  (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  5).     See  Judah 

Arab.     See  Raven. 


ARABA 


332 


ARABAH 


Araba  (Apavd,  prob.  for  Ar abaft),  a  city  mention- 
ed by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  as  ly- 
ing near  DiocEesarea  (now  Sefurieh),  apparently  the 
same  mentioned  by  Josephus  (Life,  51,  where  the  text 
now  has  Vdjiapa  instead  of  "Apafia,  by  a  conjecture 
of  Reland,  Pattest,  p.  1021 ;  see  Robinson,  new  ed.  of 
Researches,  iii,  83)  as  lying  20  stadia  from  Sogane  ; 
now  the  village  Arrabeh,  about  four  hours  north  of 
Nazareth  (Schultz,  in  Ritter,  Erdk.  xvi,  7G8),  contain- 
ing Jewish  graves,  with  other  remains  of  antiquity 
(Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  287). 

Ar'abah  (Heb.  Arabah',  Sli*!?,  desert;  Sept. 
tptuoc;,  also  afiaToc,  airttpog,  and  y/J  ci^wva,  but  in 
Josh,  xviii,  18,  Bat^dpa/Sa;  Auth.  Vers,  elsewhere 
"plain"),  the  name  of  a  region  or  tract  and  of  a  town. 

1.  This  word,  with  the  article  (!l2"i"rt,  (he  Arabah), 
is  applied  directly  (Deut.  i,  1 ;  ii,  8  ;  iii,  17 ;  iv,  49 ; 
Josh,  iii,  lb*;  xii,  1,  3;  2  Kings  xiv,  25;  Am.  vi,  14) 
as  the  proper  name  of  the  great  valley  in  its  whole 
extent  lying  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  gulf  of 
Akabah.  Indeed  it  may  be  said  to  reach,  with  a  par- 
tial interruption,  or  rather  contraction,  from  Banias,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon,  to  the  Red  Sea.  It  thus 
includes  toward  the  north  the  lake  of  Tiberias;  and 
the  Arboth  (plains)  of  Jericho  and  Moab  form  parts  of 
it.  The  surface  of  the  Arabah  proper  is  said  to  be  al- 
most uninterruptedly  a  frightful  desert.  The  north- 
ern continuation  is  watered  by  the  Jordan,  which, 
during  its  course,  expands  into  the  lakes  el-Huleh  and 
Tiberias,  and  is  at  length  lost  in  the  bitter  waters  of 
the  Dead  Sea ;  this  latter  occupying  the  middle  point 
of  the  great  valley  nearly  equidistant  from  its  two  ex- 
tremities. The  Scriptures  distinctly  connect  the  Ara- 
bah with  the  Red  Sea  and  Elath ;  the  Dead  Sea  itself 
is  called  the  sea  of  the  Arabah.  In  the  Auth.  Vers, 
it  is  rendered  "  plain."  The  Greek  name  of  this  tract 
was  AvXiiiv,  Aulon,  described  by  Eusebius  (Onomast. 
s.  v.)  as  extending  from  Lebanon  to  the  desert  of 
Par  an.  Abulfeda  speaks  of  it  under  the  name  el- 
Ohm;  and  says  correctly  that  it  stretches  between  the 
lake  of  Tiberias  and  Ailah  or  Akabah  (Tab.  Syr.  p. 
8,  9).  At  the  present  day  the  name  el-Ghor  is  ap- 
plied to  the  northern  part,  "from  the  lake  of  Tiberias  to 
an  offset  or  line  of  cliffs  just  south  of  the  Dead  Sea ; 
while  the  southern  part,  quite  to  the  Red  Sea,  is  call- 
ed Wady  el- Arabah,  the  ancient  Heine  w  name.  The 
extension  of  this  valley  to  the  Dead  Sea  appears  to  have 
been  unknown  to  ancient  geographers,  and  in  modern 
times  was  first  discovered  by  Rurckhardt  (Travels  in 
.Syria,  p.  441 ;  Robinson's  Palest,  ii,  594-600).  The 
importance  of  this  great  medial  valley  to  the  topog- 
raphy and  natural  features  of  Palestine  (q.  v.),  as 
well  as  in  the  history  of  the  Exode  (q.  v.),  requires  a 
full  discussion  of  its  peculiar  designation  and  charac- 
teristics.    Sec  Topographical  Terms. 

1.  Name. — 1.  If  the  derivation  of  Gesenius  (Thes. 
p.  1066)  is  to  be  accepted,  the  fundamental  meaning  of 
tin-  term  is  "arid"  or  "waste,"  and  thence  "sterile," 
and  in  accordance  with  this  idea  it  is  employed  in  va- 
rion  •  poetical  parts  of  Scripture  to  designate  generally 
a  barren,  uninhabitable  district,  "a  desolation,  a  dry 
land,  and  a  desert,  a  land  wherein  no  man  dwelleth, 
neither  doth  any  son  of  man  pass  thereby"  (Jer.  Ii, 
!::;  Bee  a  Btriking  remark  iii  Martineau,  p.*  395;  and, 
anion,'  other  passages,  Job  xxiv,  5;  xxxix,  6-  Isa. 
xxxiii,  9;    xxxv,  1  I.      See  DESERT. 

2.  Rut  within  this  general  signification  it  is  plain, 
from  even  a  casual  examination  of  the  topographical 

records  in  the  earlier  1 ks  of  the  Bible,  that  the  word 

lias  also  a  more  special  and  local  force.  In  these 
cases  it  is  found  with  the  definite  article  (na^yi"!,  ha- 
Arahah),  "the  Arabah."  ami  is  also  so  mentioned  as 
clearly  to  refer  to  some  spot  or  district  familiar  to  the 
then  inhabitants  of  Palestine.  This  district,  although 
nowhere  expressly  so  defined  in  the  Bible,  and  al- 
though the  peculiar  force  of  the  word  "Arabah"  ap- 


pears to  have  been  disregarded  by  even  the  earliest 
commentators  and  interpreters  of  the  Sacred  Books, 
has  within  our  own  times  been  identified  with  the 
deep-sunken  valley  or  trench  which  forms  the  most 
striking  among  the  many  striking  natural  features  of 
Palestine,  and  which  extends  with  great  uniformity 
of  formation  from  the  slopes  of  Hermon  to  the  Elani- 
tic  Gulf  of  the  Red  Sea;  the  most  remarkable  depres- 
sion known  to  exist  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  (Hum- 
boldt, Cosmos,  i,  150,  ed.  Bohn ;  also  p.  30l).  Through 
the  northern  portion  of  this  extraordinary  fissure  the 
Jordan  rushes  through  the  lakes  of  Huleh  and  Gen- 
nesareth  down  its  tortuous  course  to  the  deep  chasm 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  This  portion,  about  150  miles  in 
length,  is  known  among  the  Arabs  by  the  name  of  el- 
Ghor  (the  depression),  an  appellation  which  it  has 
borne  certainty  since  the  days  of  Abulfeda.  The 
southern  boundary  of  the  Ghor  has  been  fixed  by  Rob- 
inson to  be  the  wall  of  cliffs  which  crosses  the  valley 
about  10  miles  south  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Down  to  the 
foot  of  these  cliffs  the  Ghor  extends  ;  from  their  sum- 
mits, southward  to  the  gulf  of  Akabah,  the  valley 
changes  its  name,  or,  it  would  be  more  accurate  to 
say,  retains  its  old  name  of  Wady  el- Arabah. 

Looking  to  the  indications  of  the  Sacred  Text,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  times  of  the  conquest  and 
the  monarchy  the  name  "Arabah"  was  applied  to  the 
valley  in  the  entire  length  of  both  its  southern  and 
northern  portions.  Thus  in  Deut.  i,  1,  probably,  and 
in  Deut.  ii,  8,  certainly  (Auth.  Vers,  "plain"  in  both 
cases),  the  allusion  is  to  the  southern  portion,  while 
the  other  passages  in  which  the  name  occurs  point 
with  certainty — now  that  the  identification  has  "been 
suggested — to  the  northern  portion.  In  Deut.  iii,  17  ; 
iv,  49 ;  Josh,  iii,  10 ;  xi,  2 ;  xii,  3 ;  and  2  Kings  xiv, 
25,  both  the  Dead  So:1,  and  the  sea  of  Cinneroth  (Gen- 
nesareth)  are  named  in  close  connection  with  the  Ara- 
bah. The  allusions  in  Deut.  xi,  30 ;  Josh,  viii,  14 ; 
xii,  1 ;  xviii,  18 ;  2  Sam.  ii,  29 ;  iv,  7 ;  2  Kings  xxv, 
4;  Jer.  xxxix,  4;  Iii,  7,  become  at  once  intelligible 
when  the  meaning  of  the  Arabah  is  known,  however 
puzzling  they  may  have  been  to  former  commenta- 
tors. In  Josh,  xi,  16,  and  xii,  8,  the  Arabah  takes 
its  place  with  "the  mountain,"  "the  lowland"  plains 
of  Philistia  and  Esdraelon,  "the  south"  and  "the 
valle}'"  of  Ccele-Syria,  as  one  of  the  great  natural  di- 
visions of  the  conquered  country.     See  Plain. 

3.  But  farther,  the  word  is  found  in  the  plural  and 
without  the  article  (n2*l",  Arboth),  always  in  con- 
nection with  either  Jericho  or  Moab,  and  therefore 
doubtless  denoting  the  portion  of  the  Arabah  near 
Jericho ;  in  the  former  case  on  the  west,  and  in  the 
latter  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan ;  the  Arboth- 
Moab  being  always  distinguished  from  the  Sedeh-Moab 
—  the  bare  and  burnt-up  soil  of  the  sunken  valley 
from  the  cultivated  pasture  or  corn-fields  of  the  downs 
on  the  upper  level — with  all  the  precision  which 
would  naturally  follow  from  the  essential  difference 
of  the  two  spots.  (See  Num.  xxii,  1;  xxvi,  3,  63; 
xxxi,  12;  xxxiii,  48-50;  xxxv,  1  ;  xxxvi,  13;  Deut. 
xxxiv,  1,  8;  Josh,  iv,  13;  v,  10;  xiii,  32 ;  2  Sam. 
xv,  28  ;  xvii,  16  ;  2  Kings  xxv,  5  ;  Jer.  xxxix,  5  ; 
Iii,  8.)     See  Jericho. 

4.  The  word  Arabah  does  not  appear  in  the  Rible 
until  the  book  of  Numbers.  In  the  allusions  to  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  in  Gen.  xiii,  10,  etc.,  the  curious 
term  Cicctir  is  employed.  This  word  and  the  other 
words  used  in  reference  to  the  Jordan  valley,  as  well 
as  the  peculiarities  and  topograph}'  of  that  region  — 
in  fact,  of  the  whole  of  the  Ghor — will  be  more  appro- 
priately considered  under  the  word  Jordan.  At 
present  our  attention  may  be  confined  to  the  southern 
division,  to  that  portion  of  this  singular  valley  which 
lias  from  the  most  remote  date  borne,  as  it  still  con- 
tinues to  bear,  the  name  of  "Arabah."  See  CHAM- 
PAIGN.    For  a  ma]i  of  the  region,  see  Exode. 

II.  Description. — The  direction  of  the  Ghor  is  nearly 


ARABAH 


333 


ARABAH 


due  north  and  south.  The  Arabah,  however,  slightly 
changes  its  direction  to  about  N.N.E.  and  S.S.W. 
(Robinson,  i,  240).  But  it  preserves  the  straightness 
of  its  course,  and  the  general  character  of  the  region 
is  not  dissimilar  to  that  of  the  Ghor  (Irby,  p.  134) 
except  that  the  soil  is  more  sandy,  and  that,  from 
the  absence  of  the  central  river  and  the  absolutely 
desert  character  of  the  highland  on  its  western  side 
(owing  to  which  the  wadys  bring  down  no  fertilizing 
streams  in  summer,  and  nothing  but  raging  torrents 
in  winter),  there  are  very  few  of  those  lines  and  "cir- 
cles'' of  verdure  which  form  so  great  a  relief  to  the 
torrid  climate  of  the  Ghor.  The  whole  length  of  the 
Arabah  proper,  from  the  cliffs  south  of  the  Dead  Sea 
to  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Akabah,  appears  to  be  rath- 
er more  than  100  miles  (Kiepert's  Map).  In  breadth 
it  varies.  North  of  Petra — that  is,  about  GO  miles 
from  the  gulf  of  Akabah — it  is  at  its  widest,  being  per- 
haps from  10  to  12  miles  across  ;  but  it  contracts  grad- 
ually to  the  south  till  at  the  gulf  the  opening  to  the 
sea  is  but  4,  or,  according  to  some  travellers,  2  miles 
wide  (Robinson,  i,  240 ;  Martineau,  p.  392). 

The  mountains  which  form  the  walls  of  this  vast 
valley  or  trench  are  the  legitimate  successors  of  those 
which  shut  in  the  Ghor,  only  in  every  way  grander 
and  more  desert-like.  On  the  west  are  the  long  hor- 
izontal lines  of  the  limestone  ranges  of  the  Tih,  "  al- 
ways faithful  to  their  tabular  outline  and  blanched 
desolation"  (Stanley,  p.  7 ;  and  see  Laborde,  p.  262), 
mounting  up  from  the  valley  by  huge  steps  with  level 
barren  tracts  on  the  top  of  each  (Robinson,  ii,  508), 
and  crowned  by  the  vast  plateau  of  the  "Wilderness 
of  the  Wanderings."  This  western  wall  ranges  in 
height  from  1500  to  1800  feet  above  the  floor  of  the 
Arabah  (Robinson,  i,  240),  and  through  it  break  in  the 
wadys  and  passes  from  the  desert  above — unimpor- 
tant toward  the  south,  but  farther  north  larger  and  of  a 
more  permanent  character.  The  chief  of  these  wadys 
is  the  W.  el-Jerafeh,  which  emerges  about  sixt_y  miles 
from  Akabah,  and  leads  its  waters,  when  any  are 
flowing,  into  the  W.  el-Jeib  (Robinson,  ii,  500,  508), 
and  through  it  to  the  marshy  ground  under  the  cliffs 
south  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Two  principal  passes  occur 
in  this  range.  First,  the  very  steep  and  difficult 
ascent  close  to  the  Akabah,  by  which  the  road  of  the 
Mecca  pilgrims  between  the  Akabah  and  Suez  mounts 
from  the  valley  to  the  level  of  the  plateau  of  the  Tih. 
It  bears  apparently  no  other  name  than  en-Nukb, 
"  the  Pass"  (Robinson,  i,  257).  The  second — es-Sufah 
— has  a  more  direct  connection  with  the  Bible  history, 
being  probably  that  at  which  the  Israelites  were  re- 
pulsed by  the  Canaanites  (Deut.  i,  44  ;  Num.  xiv,  43- 
45).  It  is  on  the  road  from  Petra  to  Hebron,  above 
Ain  cl-Weibeh,  and  is  not,  like  the  former,  from  the 
Arabah  to  the  plateau,  but  from  the  plateau  itself  to  a 
higher  level  1000  feet  above  it.  See  the  descriptions 
of  Robinson  (ii,  587),  Lindsay  (ii,  40),  Stanley  (p.  113). 
The  eastern  wall  is  formed  by  the  granite  and  basaltic 
(Schubert,  in  Ritter,  Erdk.  xiv,  1013)  mountains  of 
Edom,  which  are  in  every  respect  a  contrast  to  the 
range  opposite  to  them.  At  the  base  are  low  hills 
of  limestone  and  argillaceous  rock  like  promontories 
jutting  into  the  sea,  in  some  places  thickly  strewed 
with  blocks  of  porphyry ;  then  the  lofty  masses  of 
dark  porphyry  constituting  the  body  of  the  mountain  ; 
above  these  sandstone  broken  into  irregular  ridges  and 
grotescme  groups  or  cliff's,  and  farther  back  and  high- 
er than  all  long  elevated  ridges  of  limestone  without 
precipices  (Robinson,  ii,  505,  551;  Laborde,  p.  209, 
210,  262;  Lindsay,  ii,  13),  rising  to  a  height  of  2000 
to  2300  feet,  and  in  Mount  Hor  reaching  an  elevation 
of  not  less  than  5000  feet  (R\tter,Erd/c.  xiv,  1139, 1140). 
Unlike  the  sterile  and  desolate  ranges  of  the  Til), 
these  mountains  are  covered  with  vegetation,  in  many 
parts  extensively  cultivated  and  yielding  good  crops  ; 
abounding  in  "the  fatness  of  the  earth"  and  the  "  plen- 
ty of  corn  and  wine"  which  were  promised  to  the  fore- 


father of  the  Edomites  as  a  compensation  for  the  loss  of 
his  birthright  (Robinson,  ii,  552;  Laborde,  p.  203,  263). 
In  these  mountains  there  is  a  plateau  of  great  eleva- 
tion, from  which  again  rise  the  mountains — or  rather 
the  clowns  (Stanley,  p.  87) — of  es-Sherah.  Though  this 
district  is  now  deserted,  yet  the  ruins  of  towns  and 
villages  with  which  it  abounds  show  that  at  one  time  it 
must  have  been  densely  inhabited  (Burckhardt,  p.  435, 
436).  The  numerous  wadys  which  at  once  drain  and 
give  access  to  the  interior  of  these  mountains  are  in 
strong  contrast  with  those  on  the  west,  partaking  of 
the  fertile  character  of  the  mountains  from  which  they 
descend.  In  almost  all  cases  they  contain  streams 
which,  although  in  the  heat  of  summer  small,  and  los- 
ing themselves  in  their  own  beds  or  in  the  sand  of  the 
Arabah  "  in  a  few  paces"  after  they  forsake  the  shad- 
ow of  their  native  ravines  (Laborde,  p.  141),  are  yet 
sufficient  to  keep  alive  a  certain  amount  of  vegetation, 
rushes,  tamarisks,  palms,  and  even  oleanders,  lilies, 
and  anemones,  while  they  form  the  resort  of  the  nu- 
merous tribes  of  the  children  of  Esau,  who  still  "dwell 
(Stanley,  p.  87  ;  Laborde,  p.  141 ;  Martineau,  p.  396)  in 
Mount  Seir,  which  is  Edom"  (Gen.  xxxvi,  8).  The 
most  important  of  these  wadys  are  the  W.  Ithm  and 
the  W.  Abu  Kusheibeh.  The  former  enters  the  moun- 
tains close  above  Akabah,  and  leads  by  the  back  of 
the  range  to  Petra,  and  thence  by  Shobek  and  Tu- 
fileh  to  the  country  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Traces  of 
a  Roman  road  exist  along  this  route  (Laborde,  p.  203 ; 
Robinson,  ii,  161)  ;  by  it  Laborde  returned  from  Petra, 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  route  by 
which  the  Israelites  took  their  leave  of  the  Arabah 
when  they  went  to  "compass  the  land  of  Edom" 
(Num.  xxi,  4).  The  second,  the  W.  Abu  Kusheibeh, 
is  the  most  direct  access  from  the  Arabah  to  Petra, 
and  is  that  up  which  Laborde  and  Stanley  appear  to 
have  gone  to  the  city.  Besides  these  are  Wady  Tu- 
bal, in  which  the  traveller  from  the  south  gains  his 
first  glimpse  of  the  red  srndstone  of  Edom,  and  AY. 
Ghurundel,  not  to  be  confounded  with  those  of  the 
same  name  north  of  Petra  and  west  of  Sinai. 

To  Dr.  Robinson  is  due  the  credit  of  having  first 
ascertained  the  spot  which  forms  at  once  the  southern 
limit  of  the  Ghor  and  the  northern  limit  of  the  Ara- 
bah. This  boundary  is  the  line  of  chalk  cliff's  which 
sweep  across  the  vallej-  at  about  six  miles  below  the 
south-west  corner  of  the  Dead  Sea.  They  are  from  50 
to  150  feet  in  height ;  the  Ghor  ends  with  the  marshy 
ground  at  their  feet,  and  level  with  their  tops  the  Ara- 
bah begins  (Robinson,  ii,  494,  498,  501).  Thus  the 
cliff's  act  as  a  retaining  wall  or  buttress  supporting  the 
higher  level  of  the  Arabah,  and  the  whole  forms  what 
in  geological  language  might  be  called  a  "  fault"  in 
the  floor  of  the  great  valley.  Through  this  wall 
breaks  in  the  embouchure  of  the  great  main  drain  of 
the  Arabah — the  Wady  el-Jeib — in  itself  a  very  large 
and  deep  water-course,  which  collects  and  transmits  to 
their  outlet  at  this  point  the  torrents  which  the  nu- 
merous wadys  from  both  sides  of  the  Arabah  pour 
along  it  in  the  winter  season  (Robinson,  ii,  497,  500, 
507).  The  farthest  point  south  to  which  this  drainage 
is  known  to  reach  is  the  southern  Wady  Ghurundel 
(Robinson,  ii,  508),  which  debouches  from  the  eastern 
mountains  about  40  miles  from  Akabah  and  60  from 
the  cliff's  just  spoken  of.  The  Wady  el-Jeib  also  forms 
the  most  direct  road  for  penetrating  into  the  valley 
from  the  north.  On  its  west  bank,  and  crossed  by  the 
road  from  Wady  Musa  (Petra)  to  Hebron,  are  the 
springs  of  Ain  el-Weibeh,  maintained  by  Robinson  to 
be  Kadesh  (lies.  ii.  582  ;  but  see  Stanley,  p.  94).  Of 
the  substructure  of  the  floor  of  the  Arabah  very  little 
is  known.  In  his  progress  southward  along  the  Wady 
el-Jeib,  which  is,  during  part  of  its  course,  over  100 
feet  in  depth,  Dr.  Robinson  (ii,  498)  notes  that  the 
sides  are  "of  chalky  earth  or  marl,"  but  beyond  this 
there  is  no  information.  The  surface  is  drearj-  and 
desolate  in  the  extreme.     According  to  Dr.  Robinscn 


ARABATTENE 


334 


ARABIA 


(ii,  502),  "  A  lone  shrub  of  the  ghudah  is  almost  the 
only  trace  of  vegetation."  This  was  at  the  ascent  from 
the  Wady  el-Jeib  to  the  floor  of  the  great  valley  itself. 
Farther  south,  near  Ain  el- Weibeh,  it  is  a  rolling  grav- 
elly desert,  with  round  naked  hills  of  considerable  ele- 
vation (ii,580).  At  Wady  Ghurundel  it  is  "an  expanse 
of  shifting  sands,  broken  by  innumerable  undulations 
and  low  hills"  (Burckhardt,  p.  442),  and  "  counterseeted 
by  a  hundred  water-courses"  (Stanley,  p.  87).  The 
southern  portion  has  a  considerable  general  slope  from 
east  to  west  quite  apart  from  the  undulations  of  the 
surface  (Stanley,  p.  85),  a  slope  which  extends  as  far 
north  as  Petra  (Hitter,  xiv,  1097).  Nor  is  the  heat  less 
terrible  than  the  desolation,  and  travellers,  almost 
without  exception,  bear  testimony  to  the  difficulties 
of  journeying  in  a  region  where  the  sirocco  appears  to 
Mow  almost  without  intermission  (Ritter,  xiv,  101G ; 
Burckh.  p.  444;  Martineau,  p.  394  ;  Robinson,  ii,  505). 
However,  in  spite  of  this  heat  and  desolation,  there  is  a 
certain  amount  of  vegetation,  even  in  the  open  Ara- 
bah,  in  the  dryest  parts  of  the  year.  Schubert  in 
March  found  the  Artu  (Calligonum  com.),  the  Anthia 
variegata,  and  the  Coloquinta  (Ritter,  xiv,  1014),  also 
tamarisk-bushes  (tarfa)  lying  thick  in  a  torrent  bed  (p. 
1016);  and  on  Stanley's  road  "  the  shrubs  at  times  had 
almost  the  appearance  of  a  jungle,"  though  it  is  true 
that  they  were  so  thin  as  to  disappear  when  the 
"  waste  of  sand"  was  overlooked  from  an  elevation 
(p.  85 ;  and  see  Robinson,  i,  240,  258).     See  Arabia. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  after  the  discover}'  by 
Burekhardt  in  1812  of  the  prolongation  of  the  Jordan 
valley  in  the  Arabah,  it  should  have  been  assumed 
that  this  had  in  former  times  formed  the  outlet  for  the 
Jordan  to  the  Red  Sea.  Lately,  however,  the  levels 
of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea  have  been  taken,  im- 
perfectly, but  still  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  disprove 
the  possibility  of  such  a  theory  ;  and  in  addition  there 
is  the  universal  testimony  of  the  Arabs  that  at  least 
half  of  the  district  drains  northward  to  the  Dead  Sea 
— a  testimony  fulh'  confirmed  by  all  the  recorded  ob- 
servations of  the  conformation  of  the  ground.  A  se- 
ries of  accurate  levels  from  the  Akabah  to  the  Dead 
Sea,  up  the  Arabah,  are  necessary  before  the  question 
can  be  set  at  rest,  but  in  the  mean  time  the  following 
may  be  taken  as  an  approximation  to  the  real  state  of 
the  case.     (See  the  profiles  on  Petermann's  Map.) 

(1.)  The  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  and  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean are  very  nearly  at  one  leveL     See  Dead  Sea. 

(2.)  The  depression  of  the  surface  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  is  G52  feet,  and  of  the  Dead  Sea  1316  feet,  be- 
low the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  therefore  of 
the  Red  Sea.  Therefore  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  can 
never  in  historical  times  have  flowed  into  the  gulf  of 
Akabah,  even  if  the  formation  of  the  ground  between 
the  Dead  Sea  and  the  gulf  would  admit  of  it.     But, 

(3.)  All  testimony  goes  to  show  that  the  drainage 
of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Arabah  is  toward  the 
Dead  Sea,  and  therefore  that  the  land  rises  southward 
from  the  1  ttter.  Also  that  the  south  portion  drains  to 
the  gulf,  and  therefore  that  the  land  rises  northward 
from  the  gulf  to  some  point  between  it  and  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  water-shed  is  said  by  the  Arabs  to  be  a  long 
ridge  of  hills  running  across  the  vallev  at  two  and  a  half 
days,  or  say  forty  miles,  from  Akabah  (Stanley,  p.  85), 
and  it  is  probable  that  this  is  not  far  wrong.  By  M.  de 
Bertou  it  is  fixed  as  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  Wady 
Talh,  apparently  flic  sum-  spot. — Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  A  city  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii,  18),  elsewhere 
(Josh,  xv,  CI ;  xviii,  22)  called  more  fully  Betii-Ara- 
haii  (q.  v.). 

Arabatti'nS  (1  Mace,  v,  3).     See  Acrabattixe. 

Ara'bia  (Ileb.  Arab',  -■?"..  2  Chron.  ix,  14;  Isa. 
xxi,  13  ;  Jer.  xxv.  •_'  I  ;  Kzek.'xxvii,  21  ;  'Apa/3i'o,  Gal. 
i,  17;  iv,  23;  also  2  K-dr.  xv.  29;  1  Mace,  xi,  16;  2 
Mace,  xii,  11),  the  name  of  an  extensive  region  occu- 
pying the  south-westem  extremity  of  Asia,  having  on 


the  west  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  and  the  Red  Sea  (called 
from  it  the  Arabian  Guff),  which  separate  it  from 
Africa;  on  the  south  the  Indian  Ocean;  and  on  the 
east  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Euphrates.  The  boun- 
dary to  the  north  has  never  been  well  denned,  for  in 
that  direction  it  spreads  out  into  interminable  deserts, 
which  meet  those  of  Palestine  and  Syria  on  the  west, 
!  and  those  of  Irdk-Arabi  (i.  c.  Babylonia)  and  Meso- 
potamia on  the  east;  and  hence  some  geographers  in- 
clude that  entire  wilderness  in  Arabia.  The  form  of 
the  peninsula  is  that  of  a  trapezoid,  whose  superficial 
area  is  estimated  at  four  times  the  extent  of  France. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  countries  of  the  south  where  the 
descendants  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  have  neither 
been  extirpated  nor  expelled  by  northern  invaders. 
They  have  not  only  retained  possession  of  their  an- 
cestral homes,  but  have  sent  forth  colonies  to  all  the 
adjacent  regions,  and  even  to  more  distant  lands,  both 
in  Africa  and  Asia  (Ritter,  Erdkunde,  ii,  172). 

With  the  history  of  no  country  save  that  of  Pales- 
tine are  there  connected  so  many  hallowed  and  im- 
pressive associations  as  with  that  of  Arabia.  Hero 
lived  and  suffered  the  holy  patriarch  Job  ;  here  Moses, 
"  when  a  stranger  and  a  shepherd,"  saw  the  burning, 
unconsuming  bush;  here  Elijah  found  shelter  from 
the  rage  of  persecution  ;  here  was  the  scene  of  all  the 
marvellous  displays  of  Divine  power  and  mercy  that 
followed  the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  the  Egyptian 
yoke,  and  accompanied  their  journeyings  to  the  prom- 
ised land  ;  and  here  Jehovah  manifested  himself  in 
visible  glory  to  his  people.  From  the  influence  of 
these  associations,  combined  with  its  proximity  to 
Palestine,  and  the  close  affinity  in  blood,  manners, 
and  customs  between  the  northern  portion  of  its  in- 
habitants and  the  Jews,  Arabia  is  a  region  of  peculiar 
interest  to  the  student  of  the  Bible ;  and  it  is  chiefly 
in  its  relation  to  subjects  of  Bible  study  that  we  are 
now  to  consider  it.     See  Asia. 

I.  Names. — 1.  In  early  times  the  Hebrews  included 
a  part  of  what  we  call  Arabia  among  the  countries 
they  vaguely  designated  as  DTJT1,  Ke'dem,  "  the  East," 
the  inhabitants  being  numbered  among  the  Beney'- 
Ke'dem,  "  Sons  of  the  East,"  i.  e.  Orientals.  But  there 
is  no  evidence  to  show  (as  is  asserted  by  Rosenmiil- 
ler  and  some  other  Bible  geographers)  that  these 
phrases  are  ever  applied  to  the  whole  of  the  country 
known  to  us  as  Arabia.  They  appear  to  have  been 
commonly  used  in  speaking  of  those  parts  which  lay 
due  east  of  Palestine,  or  on  the  north-east  and  south- 
east ;  though  occasionally  they  do  seem  to  point  to 
tracts  which  lay  indeed  to  the  south  and  south-west 
of  that  country,  but  to  the  east  and  south-east  of 
Egypt.  Accordingly  we  find  that  whenever  the  ex- 
pression kedem  has  obviously  a  reference  to  Arabia, 
it  invariably  points  to  its  northern  division  only.  Thus 
in  Gen.  xxv.  6,  Abraham  is  said  to  have  sent  away 
the  sons  of  Hagar  and  Keturah  to  the  E'rets-Ke'dem 
— Kedmah,  i.e.  the  "East  country,  eastward;"  and 
none  of  them,  so  far  as  we  know,  were  located  in  pen- 
insular Arabia ;  for  the  story  which  represents  Ish- 
mael  as  settling  at  Mecca  is  an  unsupported  native 
tradition.  The  patriarch  Job  is  described  (Job  i,  3) 
as  "the  greatest  of  all  the  men  of  the  east,"  and 
though  opinions  differ  as  to  the  precise  locality  of  the 
land  of  Uz,  all  are  agreed  that  it  was  in  some  part  of 
Arabia,  but  certainly  not  in  Arabia  Felix.  In  the 
Book  of  Judges  (vi,  3;  vii,  12;  viii,  10)  among  the 
allies,  of  the  Midianites  and  Amalekites  (tribes  of  the 
north)  are  mentioned  the  "  Bene-Kedem"  which  Jo- 
sephus  translates  by  "Apa/3ac,  the  Arabs.  In  Isa.  xi, 
14,  the  parallelism  requires  that  by  "  sons  of  the  east" 
we  understand  the  nomades  of  Desert  Arabia,  as  cor- 
responding to  the  Philistines  "on  the  west ;"  and  with 
these  are  conjoined  the  Edomites,  Moabites,  and  Am- 
monites, who  were  all  northern  Arabians.  The  com- 
mand was  triven  (Jer.  xlix,  28)  to  the  Babylonians 
"  to  smite  the  Bene-Kedem,"  who   are  there  classed 


ARABIA 


335 


ARABIA 


with  the  Kedarenes,  descendants  of  Ishmael  (eomp. 
1  Kings  iv,  30).  In  more  modern  times  a  name  of 
similar  import  was  applied  to  the  Arabs  generally; 
they  were  called  Saracens  (Sharakiyun,  i.  e.  Orient- 
als), from  the  word  shaj'k,  "the  east,"  whence  also  is 
derived  the  term  sirocco,  the  east  wind.  The  name 
of  Saracens  came  into  use  in  the  West  in  a  vague  and 
undefined  sense  after  the  Roman  conquest  of  Pales- 
tine, but  does  not  seem  to  have  been  adopted  as  a 
general  designation  till  about  the  eighth  century.  It 
is  to  be  remarked  here  that  though  in  Scripture  Kedem 
most  commonly  denotes  Northern  Arabia,  it  is  also 
used  of  countries  farther  east,  e.  g.  of  the  native  coun- 
try of  Abraham  (Isa.  xli,  2 ;  comp.  Gen.  xxix,  1),  of 
Balaam  (Num.  xxiii,  7),  and  even  of  Cyrus  (Isa.  xlvi, 
11);  and,  therefore,  though  the  Magi  who  came  to 
Jerusalem  (Matt,  ii,  1)  were  c'nro  avarokwv,  "  from  the 
cast,"  it  docs  not  thence  follow  that  they  were  natives 
of  Arabia.     See  Bexe-Kedem. 

2.  We  find  the  name  S*I3>,  Arab',  first  beginning 
to  occur  about  the  time  of  Solomon.  It  designated  a 
portion  of  the  country,  an  inhabitant  being  called 
Arahi,  an  Arabian  (Isa.  xiii,  20),  or,  in  later  Hebrew, 
i3"i",  Arbi'  (Neh.  ii,  19),  the  plural  of  which  was  Ar- 
bim'~(2  Chron.  xxi,  1G),  d^l?,  or  Arbiim'  (fciSOS"??, 
Arabians)  (2  Chron.  xvii,  11).  In  some  places  these 
names  seem  to  be  given  to  the  nomadic  tribes  gener- 
ally (Isa.  xiii,  20 ;  Jer.  iii,  2)  and  their  country  (Isa. 
xxi,  13).  The  kings  of  Arabia  from  whom  Solomon 
(2  Chron.  ix,  14)  and  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xvii,  11) 
received  gifts  were  probably  Bedouin  chiefs;  though 
in  the  place  parallel  to  the  former  text  (1  Kings  x, 
15),  instead  of  Arab  we  find  3"1^  or  3"12,  E'reb,  ren- 
dered invJer.  xxv,  20,  24,  "mingled  people,"  but 
which  Gesenius,  following  the  Chaldee,  understands 
to  mean  "  foreign  allies."  It  is  to  be  remarked,  how- 
ever, that  in  all  the  passages  where  the  word  Arab 
occurs  it  designates  only  a  small  portion  of  the  terri- 
tory known  to  us  as  Arabia.  Thus,  in  the  account 
given  by  Ezekiel  (xxvii,  21)  of  the  Arabian  tribes 
that  traded  with  Tyre,  mention  is  specially  made  of 
Arab  (comp.  Jer.  xxv,  24).  In  2  Chron.  xxi,  16; 
xxii,  1 ;  xxvi,  7 ;  Neh.  iv,  7,  we  find  the  Arabians 
classed  with  the  Philistines,  the  Ethiopians  (i.  e.  the 
Asiatic  Cushites,  of  whom  they  are  said  to  have  been 
neighbors),  the  Mehunim,  the  Ammonites,  and  Ash- 
dodites.  At  what  period  this  name  Arab  was  extend- 
ed to  the  whole  region  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain. 
From  it  the  Greeks  formed  the  word  'Apafiia,  which 
occurs  twice  in  the  New  Testament ;  in  Gal.  i,  17,  in 
reference  probably  to  the  tract  adjacent  to  Damascene 
Syria,  and  in  Gal.  iv,  25,  in  reference  to  the  peninsula 
of  Mount  Sinai.  Among  the  strangers  assembled  at 
Jerusalem  at  the  Pentecost  there  were  "Apa/Stc,  Arabs 
(Acts  ii,  11),  the  singular  being  "Apaip. 

3.  The  modern  name,  Jezirat  el-Arab,  i.  e.  "the 
peninsula  of  the  Arabs,"  applies  to  the  southern  part 
of  the  region  only.  Another  native  appellation  is 
Belad  el-Arab,  i.  e.  "  the  land  of  the  Arabs ;"  the  Per- 
sians and  Turks  call  it  Arabistdn.  Mr.  Lane  informs 
us  that  in  Egypt  the  term  Arab  is  now  generally  lim- 
ited to  the  Bedouins,  or  people  of  the  desert ;  but  for- 
merly it  was  used  to  designate  the  towns-people  and 
villagers  of  Arabian  origin,  while  those  of  the  desert 
were  called  A  arab ;  the  former  now  call  themselves 
Oullul  el- Arab,  or  sons  of  the  Arabs. 

II.  Geography. — 1.  The  early  Greek  geographers, 
such  as  Eratosthenes  and  Strabo,  mention  only  two 
divisions  of  this  vast  region,  Happy  and  Desert  Arabia. 
But  after  the  city  of  Petra,  in  Idumsea,  had  become 
celebrated  as  the  metropolis  of  a  commercial  people, 
the  Nabatha?ans,  it  gave  name  to  a  third  division,  viz. 
Arabia  Petroea  (improperly  translated  Stony  Arabia); 
and  this  threefold  division,  which  first  occurs  in  the 
geographer  Ptolemy,  who  flourished  in  the  second 
century,  has  obtained  throughout  Europe  ever  since. 


It  is  unknown,  however,  to  native  or  other  Eastern 
geographers,  who  reckon  Arabia  Deserta  as  chiefly  be- 
longing to  Syria  and  to  Irak-Arabi,  or  Babylonia,  while 
the}-  include  a  great  part  of  what  we  call  Arabia  Pe- 
trrea  in  Egypt. 

a.  Arabia  Felix  (in  Gr.  'Apajiia  »)  Evdaifiwv,  the 
Arabia  Eudtemon  of  Pliny),  i.  e.  Happy  Arabia.  The 
name  has  commonly  been  supposed  to  owe  its  origin 
to  the  variety  and  richness  of  the  natural  productions 
of  this  portion  of  the  country,  compared  with  thos-e 
of  the  other  two  divisions.  Some,  however,  regard 
the  epithet  "  happy"  as  a  translation  of  its  Arabic 
name  Yemen,  which,  though  primarily  denoting  the 
land  of  the  right  hand,  or  south,  also  bears  the  second- 
ary sense  of  "  happy,  prosperous."  This  part  of 
Arabia  lies  between  the  Ped  Sea  on  the  west  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  cast,  the  boundary  to  the  north  be- 
ing an  imaginary  line  drawn  between  their  respective 
northern  extremities,  Akabah  and  Basra  or  Bussora. 
It  thus  embraces  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the 
country  known  to  us  as  Arabia,  which,  however,  is 
verj'  much  a  terra  incognita ;  for  the  accessible  dis- 
tricts have  been  but  imperfectly  explored,  and  but 
little  of  the  interior  has  been  as  yet  visited  by  any 
European  traveller. 

b.  Arabia  Deserta,  called  by  the  Greeks  Swjvtrtc 
'Apaftia,  or  y  "Ep/uoc.  'Apajiia,  and  by  the  Arabs  El- 
Badieh,  i.  c.  the  Desert.  This  takes  in  that  portion 
of  the  country  which  lies  north  of  Arabia  Felix,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  north-east  by  the  Euphrates,  on  the 
north-west  by  Syria,  and  on  the  west  by  Palestine  and 
Arabia  Petraea.  The  Arabs  divide  this  "great  wil- 
derness" into  three  parts,  so  called  from  their  prox- 
imity to  the  respective  countries,  viz.  Badieh  esh-Shem 
(Syria),  Badieh  el-Jesh'rah  (the  peninsula,  i.  e.  Ara- 
bia), and  Badieh  el -Irak  (Babylonia).  From  this 
word  Badieh  comes  the  name  of  the  nomadic  tribes  by 
whom  it  is  traversed,  viz.  Eedawees  (better  known  to 
us  by  the  French  corruption  of  Bedouins),  who  are  not, 
however,  confined  to  this  portion  of  Arabia,  but  range 
throughout  the  entire  region.  So  far  as  it  has  yet  been 
explored,  Desert  Arabia  appears  to  be  one  continuous, 
elevated,  interminable  steppe,  occasionally  intersected 
by  ranges  of  hills.  Sand  and  salt  are  the  chief  elements 
of  the  soil,  which  in  many  places  is  entirely  bare,  but 
elsewhere  yields  stinted  and  thorny  shrubs  or  thinly- 
scattered  saline  plants.  That  part  of  the  wilderness 
called  El-Hammad  lies  on  the  Syrian  frontier,  ex- 
tending from  the  Hauran  to  the  Euphrates,  and  is  one 
immense  dead  and  drearj'  level,  very  scantily  supplied 
with  water,  except  near  the  banks  of  the  river,  where 
the  fields  are  irrigated  by  wheels  and  other  artificial 
contrivances.  The  sky  in  these  deserts  is  generally 
cloudless,  but  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun  is  moder- 
ated by  cooling  winds,  which,  however,  raise  fearful 
tempests  of  sand  and  dust.  Here,  too,  as  in  other  re- 
gions of  the  East,  occasionally  prevails  the  burning, 
suffocating  south-east  wind,  called  by  the  Arabs  El- 
Harur  (the  Hot),  but  more  commonly  Samum,  and 
by  the  Turks  Samyeli  (both  words  meaning  "the 
Poisonous"),  the  effects  of  which,  however,  have  by 
some  travellers  been  greatly  exaggerated.  This  is 
probably  "the  east  wind"  and  the  "wind  from  the 
desert"  spoken  of  in  Scripture.  Another  phenomenon, 
which  is  not  peculiar,  indeed,  to  Desert  Arabia,  but  is 
seen  there  in  greatest  frequency  and  perfection,  is 
what  the  French  call  the  mirage,  the  delusive  appear- 
ance of  an  expanse  of  water,  created  by  the  tremulous, 
undulatory  movement  of  the  vapors  raised  by  the  ex- 
cessive heat  of  a  meridian  sun.  It  is  called  in  Arabic 
sei-ab,  and  is  no  doubt  the  Hebrew  sharab  of  Isa.  xxxv, 
7,  which  our  translators  have  rendered  "  the  parched 
ground."     See  Mirage. 

I  c.  Arabia  Petr.ea  (Gr.  Uirpaia)  appears  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  its  chief  town  Petra  (i.  e.  a 
rock),  in  Heb.  Sela ;  although  (as  is  remarked  by 
Burckhardt)  the  epithet  is  also  appropriate  on  account 


ARABIA 


336 


ARABIA 


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Map  of  Modem  Arabia. 


of  the  rocky  mountains  and  stony  plains  whicb  enm- 
poBe  its  surface,  h  embraces  all  the  north-western 
portion  of  the  country;  being  bounded  on  the  east  by 
Desert  and  Happy  Arabia,  <>n  the  north  by  Palestine 
and  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  west  by  Egypt,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Red  Sea.  This  division  of  Arabia 
has  been  of  late  years  visited  by  a  great  many  travel- 
lers from  Europe,  and  is  consequently  much  better 
known  than  the  other  portions  of  the  country.  Con- 
fining ourselves  at  present  to  a  general  outline,  we  re- 
fer for  details  to  the  articles  Sinai,  Edom,  Moab,  etc. 
Beginning  at  the  northern  frontier,  there  meets  the 
elevated  plain  of  Belka,  to  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
the  district  of  Kerak  ( Kir),  the  ancient  territory  of  the 


Moabites,  their  kinsmen  of  Ammon  having  settled  to 
the  north  of  this,  in  Arabia  Deserta.  The  north  bor- 
der of  Moab  was  the  brook  Anion,  now  the  Wady-el- 
Mojeb  ;  to  the  south  of  Moab,  separated  from  it  by  the 
Wady-el-Ashy,  lay  Mount  Seir,  the  dominion  of  the 
Edomites,  ot'ldumaa,  reaching  as  far  as  to  Elath  on 
the  Red  Sea.  The  great  valley  which  runs  from  the 
Dead  Sea  to  that  point  consists,  first,  of  El-Ghor, 
which  is  comparatively  low,  but  gradually  rises  by  J 
succession  of  limestone  cliffs  into  the  more  elevated 
plain  of  ELArabah  above  mentioned.  "We  were 
now,"  says  Dr.  l.'obinson  (Biblical  Researches,  ii,  502), 
"upon  the  plain,  or  rather  the  rolling  desert,  of  the 
Avab<ih;  the  surface  was  in  general  loose  gravel  and 


ARABIA 


337 


ARABIA 


stones,  everywhere  furrowed  and  torn  with  the  beds 
of  torrents.  A  more  frightful  desert  it  had  hardly 
been  our  lot  to  behold.  The  mountains  beyond  pre- 
sented a  most  uninviting  and  hideous  aspect ;  preci- 
pices and  naked  conical  peaks  of  chalky  and  gravelly 
formation  rising  one  above  another  without  a  sign  of 
life  or  vegetation."  This  mountainous  region  is  divided 
into  two  districts  :  that  to  the  north  is  called  Jebdl 
(i.  e.  mountains,  the  Gebal  of  Psa.  lxxxiii,  7) ;  that 
to  the  south  Esh-Sherah,  which  has  erroneously  been 
supposed  to  be  allied  to  the  Hebrew  "Seir;"  whereas 
the  latter  (written  with  a  ")  means  "hairy,"  the  for- 
mer denotes  "a  tract  or  region."  To  the  district  of 
Esh-Sherah  belongs  Mount  Hor,  the  burial-place  of 
Aaron,  towering  above  the  Wady  Mousa  (valley  of 
Moses),  where  are  the  celebrated  ruins  of  Petra  (the 
ancient  capital  of  the  Nabathaio-Idumajans),  brought 
to  light  by  Seetzen  and  Burckhardt,  and  now  familiar 
to  English  readers  by  the  illustrations  of  Irby  and 
Mangles,  Laborde,  etc.  As  for  the  mountainous  tract 
immediately  west  of  the  Arabah,  Dr.  Robinson  de- 
scribes it  as  a  desert  limestone  region,  full  of  precipi- 
tous ridges,  through  which  no  travelled  road  has  ever 
passed.  See  Aeabaii.  To  the  west  of  Idumaja  ex- 
tends the  "great  and  terrible  wilderness"  of  Et-Tih, 
i.  e.  "the  Wandering,"  so  called  from  being  the  scene 
of  the  wanderings  of  the  children  of  Israel.  It  con- 
sists of  vast  interminable  plains,  a  hard  gravelly  soil, 
and  irregular  ridges  of  limestone  hills.  The  researches 
of  Robinson  and  Smith  furnish  new  and  important  in- 
formation respecting  the  geography  of  this  part  of 
Arabia  and  the  adjacent  peninsula  of  Sinai.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  middle  of  this  desert  is  occupied  by 
a  long  central  basin,  extending  from  Jebel-et-Tih 
(i.  e.  the  mountain  of  the  wandering,  a  chain  pretty 
far  south)  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  This 
basin  descends  toward  the  north  with  a  rapid  slope, 
and  is  drained  through  all  its  length  by  Wady-el- 
Arish,  which  enters  the  sea  near  the  place  of  the  same 
name  on  the  borders  of  Egypt. "  The  soil  of  the  Sina- 
itic  peninsula  is  in  general  very  unproductive,  yield- 
ing only  palm-trees,  acacias,  tamarisks  (from  which 
exudes  the  gum  called  manna),  coloquintida,  and 
dwarfish,  thorn}-  shrubs.  Among  the  animals  may 
be  mentioned  the  mountain-goat  (the  beden  of  the 
Arabs),  gazelles,  leopards,  a  kind  of  marmot  called 
waber,  the  sheeb,  supposed  by  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  to 
be  a  species  of  wild  wolf-dog,  etc. :  of  birds  there  are 
eagles,  partridges,  pigeons,  the  katta,  a  species  of 
quail,  etc.  There  are  serpents,  as  in  ancient  times 
(Num.  xxi,  4,  C),  and  travellers  speak  of  a  large  lizard 
called  dhob,  common  in  the  desert,  but  of  unusually  fre- 
quent occurrence  here.  The  peninsula  is  inhabited 
b}-  Bedouin  Arabs,  and  its  entire  population  was  esti- 
mated by  Burckhardt  at  not  more  than  4000  souls. 
Though  this  part  of  Arabia  must  ever  be  memorable 
as  the  scene  of  the  journeying  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt  to  the  Promised  Land,  3ret  very  few  of  the 
spots  mentioned  in  Scripture  have  been  identified  ;  nor 
after  the  lapse  of  so  many  centuries  ought  that  to  be 
occasion  of  surprise. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Exode. 

2.  Modern  geographers  find  it  more  convenient  to 
divide  the  country,  agreeably  to  the  natural  features 
and  the  native  nomenclature,  into  A  rabia  Proper,  or 
Jezirat  el-Arab,  containing  the  whole  peninsula  as 
far  as  the  limits  of  the  northern  deserts;  Northern 
Arabia,  or  El-Badieh,  bounded  by  the  peninsula,  the 
Euphrates,  Syria,  and  the  desert  of  Petra,  constituting 
properly  Arabia  Deserta,  or  the  great  desert  of  Ara- 
bia; and  Western  Arabia,  the  desert  of  Petra  and  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai,  or  the  country  that  has  been  called 
Arabia  Petrsea,  bounded  by  Egypt,  Palestine,  North- 
ern Arabia,  and  the  Red  Sea.  (For  further  geographi- 
cal details,  see  the  Penny  Cyclopmd.  s.  v. ;  M'Culloch's 
Gaz.  s.  v. ;  on  Aden,  see  AVilson,  Bible  Lands,  i,  9  sq.). 

(1.)  Arabia  Proper,  or  the  Arabian  peninsula,  con- 
sists of  high  table-land,  declinmg  toward  the  north  ; 
Y 


its  most  elevated  portions  being  the  chain  of  moun- 
tains running  nearly  parallel  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  the 
territory  east  of  the  southern  part  of  this  chain.  The 
high  land  is  encircled  from  Akabah  to  the  head  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  by  a  belt  of  low  littoral  country ;  on 
the  west  and  south-west  the  mountains  fall  abruptly 
to  this  low  region ;  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  penin- 
sula the  fall  is  generally  gradual.  So  far  as  the  in- 
terior has  been  explored,  it  consists  of  mountainous 
and  desert  tracts,  relieved  by  large  districts  under 
cultivation,  well  peopled,  watered  by  wells  and  streams, 
and  enjoying  periodical  rains.  The  water-shed,  as  the 
conformation  of  the  country  indicates,  stretches  from 
the  high  land  of  the  Yemen  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
From  this  descend  the  torrents  that  irrigate  the  west- 
ern provinces,  while  several  considerable  streams — 
there  are  no  navigable  rivers — reach  the  sea  in  the 
opposite  direction  :  two  of  these  traverse  Oman  ;  and 
another,  the  principal  river  of  the  peninsula,  enters 
the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  coast  of  El-Bahrein,  and  is 
known  to  traverse  the  inland  province  called  Yema- 
meh.  The  geological  formation  is  in  part  volcanic ; 
and  the  mountains  are  basalt,  schist,  granite,  as  well 
as  limestone,  etc. ;  the  volcanic  action  being  especial- 
ly observable  about  El-Medinah  on  the  north-west, 
and  in  the  districts  bordering  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
most  fertile  tracts  are  those  on  the  south-west  and 
south.  The  modern  Yemen  is  especially  productive, 
and  at  the  same  time,  from  its  mountainous  character, 
picturesque.  The  settled  regions  of  the  interior  also 
appear  to  be  more  fertile  than  is  generally  believed  to 
be  the  case  ;  and  the  deserts  afford  pasturage  after  the 
rains.  The  principal  products  of  the  soil  are  date- 
palms,  tamarind-trees,  vines,  fig-trees,  tamarisks,  aca- 
cias, the  banana,  etc.,  and  a  great  variety  of  thorny 
shrubs,  which,  with  others,  afford  pasture  fcr  the 
camels ;  the  chief  kinds  of  pulse  and  cereals  (except 
oats),  coffee,  spices,  drugs,  gums  and  resins,  cotton 
and  sugar.  Among  the  metallic  and  mineral  prod- 
ucts are  lead,  iron,  silver  (in  small  quantities),  sul- 
phur, the  emerald,  onyx,  etc.  The  products  mention- 
ed in  the  Bible  as  coming  from  Arabia  will  be  found 
described  under  their  respective  heads.  They  seem 
to  refer,  in  many  instances,  to  merchandise  of  Ethio- 
pia and  India,  carried  to  Palestine  by  Arab  and  other 
traders.  Gold,  however,  was  perhaps  found  in  small 
quantities  in  the  beds  of  torrents  (comp.  Diod.  Sic. 
ii,  93 ;  iii,  45,  47) ;  and  the  spices,  incense,  and  pre- 
cious stones  brought  from  Arabia  (1  Kings  x,  2,  10, 
15  ;  2  Chron.  ix,  1,  9, 14  ;  Isa.  lx,  6  ;  Jer.  vi,  20 ;  Ezek. 
xxvii,  22)  probably  were  the  products  of  the  southern 
provinces,  still  celebrated  for  spices,  frankincense,  am- 
bergris, etc.,  as  well  as  for  the  onyx  and  other  pre- 
cious stones.  Among  the  more  remarkable  of  the 
wild  animals  of  Arabia,  besides  the  usual  domestic 
kinds,  and.  of  course,  the  camel  and  the  horse,  for 
both  of  which  it  is  famous,  are  the  wild  ass,  the  musk- 
deer,  wild  goat,  wild  sheep,  several  varieties  of  the 
antelope,  the  hare,  monkeys  (in  the  south,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  Yemen)  ;  the  bear,  leopard,  wolf,  jackal, 
hyena,  fox ;  the  eagle,  vulture,  several  kinds  of 
hawk,  the  pheasant,  red-legged  partridge  (in  the  penin- 
sula of  Sinai),  sand-grouse  (throughout  the  country), 
the  ostrich  (abundantly  in  central  Arabia,  where  it  is 
hunted  by  Arab  tribes)  ;  the  tortoise,  serpents,  lo- 
custs, etc.  Lions  were  formerly  numerous,  as  the 
names  of  places  testify.  The  sperm-whale  is  found 
off  the  coasts  bordering  the  Indian  Ocean.  Greek  and 
Roman  writers  (Herod.,  Agatharch.  ap.  Midler,  Strab., 
Diod.  Sic,  Q.  Curt.,  Dion.  Perierj.,  Heliod.  ^Ethiop., 
and  Plin.)  mention  most  of  the  Biblical  and  modern 
products,  and  the  animals  above  enumerated,  with 
some  others  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geoff,  s.  v.). 

Arabia  Proper  may  be  subdivided  into  five  principal 
provinces :  the  Yemen  ;  the  districts  of  Hadramaut, 
Mahreh,  and  Oman,  on  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  en- 
trance of  the  Persian  Gulf;   El-Bahrein,  toward  the 


ARABIA  3 

head  of  the  gulf  just  named;  the  great  central  coun- 
try of  Nejd  and  Yemameh  ;  and  the  Hejaz  and  Teha- 
meh  on  the  Bed  Sea.  The  Arabs  also  have  five  di- 
visions, according  to  the  opinion  most  worthy  of  cred- 
it {Mardsid,  ed.  Juynboll,  s.  v.  Hejaz  ;  comp.  Strabo): 
Tehameh,  the  Hejaz,  Nejd,  El-Arud  (the  provinces  ly- 
ing toward  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  including 
Yemameh),  and  the  Yemen  (including  Oman  and  the 
intervening  tracts).  They  have,  however,  never  agreed 
either  as  to  the  limits  or  the  number  of  the  divisions. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  state  in  some  detail  the  posi- 
tions of  these  provinces,  in  order  to  the  right  under- 
standing of  the  identifications  of  Biblical  with  Arab 
names  of  places  and  tribes. 

[1.]  The  Yemen  embraced  originally  the  most  fer- 
tile districts  of  Arabia,  and  the  frankincense  and  spice 
country.  Its  name,  signifying  "  the  right  hand"  (and 
therefore  "  south,"  comp.  Matt,  xii,  42),  is  supposed 
to  have  given  rise  to  the  appellation  evSaifiwv  (Felix), 
which  the  Greeks  applied  to  a  much  more  extensive 
region.  At  present  it  is  bounded  by  the  Hejaz  on  the 
north  and  Hadramaut  on  the  east,  with  the  sea-board 
of  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean ;  but  formerly, 
as  Fresnel  remarks  (comp.  Sale,  Prelim.  Disc.'),  it  ap- 
pears to  have  extended  at  least  so  as  to  include  Hadra- 
maut and  Mahreh  (Yakut's  Mushtarak,  ed.  Wfisten- 
feld,  and  Mardsid,  passim).  In  this  wider  accepta- 
tion it  embraced  the  region  of  the  first  settlements  of 
the  Joktanites.  Its  modern  limits  include,  on  the 
north,  the  district  of  Khaulan  (not,  as  Niebuhr  sup- 
poses, two  distinct  districts),  named  after  Khaulan 
(Kdmoos)  the  Joktanite  {Mardsid,  s.  v.,  and  Caussin 
de  Perceval,  Essui  sur  VHist.  des  Arabes  avant  VIs- 
lamisme,  i,  113);  and  that  of  Ncjran,  with  the  city  of 
that  name  founded  by  Nejran  the  Joktanite  (Caussin, 
i,  GO,  and  113  sq.),  which  is,  according  to  the  soundest 
opinion,  the  Negra  of  yElius  Gallus  (Strab.  xvi,  782 ; 
see  Jomard,  Etudes  geogr.  et  hist,  sur  I' Arable,  append- 
ed to  Mengm,Hist.  de  VEgypte,  etc.,  iii,  385-38G). 

[2.]  Hadramaut,  on  the  coast  east  of  the  Yemen,  is 
a  cultivated  tract  contiguous  to  the  sandy  deserts  call- 
ed El-Ahkaf,  which  are  said  to  be  the  original  seats  of 
the  tribe  of  Ad.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  frankin- 
cense, which  it  still  exports  (El-Idrisi,  ed.  Jaubert, 
i,  54),  and  formerly  it  carried  on  a  considerable  trade, 
its  principal  port  being  Zafari,  between  Mirbat  and 
Ras  Sajir,  which  is  now  composed  of  a  series  of  vil- 
lages (Fresnel,  4e  Lettre,  Journ.  Asiat.  iiie  serie,  v, 
521).  To  the  east  of  Hadramaut  are  the  districts  of 
Shihr,  which  exported  ambergris  {Mardsid,  s.  v.),  and 
Mahreh  (so  called  after  a  tribe  of  Kudaah  [Id.  s.  v.], 
and  therefore  Joktanite),  extending  from  Seihut  to 
Karwan  (Fresnel,  4C  Lettre,  p.  510).  Oman  forms  the 
easternmost  corner  of  the  south  coast,  lying  at  the  er- 
trance  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  presents  the  same  nat- 
ural characteristics  as  the  preceding  districts,  being 
partly  desert  with  large  fertile  tracts.  It  also  con- 
tains some  considerable  lead-mines. 

[3.]  The  highest  province  on  the  Persian  Gulf  is 
El-Bahrein,  between  Oman  and  the  head  of  the  gulf, 
of  which  the  chief  town  is  Hejer — according  to  some, 
the  name  of  the  province  also  (Ramoos;  Mardsid,  s.  v.). 
It  contains  the  towns  (and  districts)  of  Katif  and  El- 
Ahsa  (El-Idrisi,  i,  .",71  ;  Mardsid,  s.  v.;  Mushtarak, 
s.  v.  El-Ahsa),  the  latter  not  being  a  province,  as  has 
been  erroneously  supposed.  The  inhabitants  of  El- 
Bahrein  dwelling  on  the  coast  are  principally  fisher- 
men and  pearl-divers.  The  district  of  El-Ahsa  abounds 
in  wells,  and  possesses  excellent  pastures,  which  are 
frequented  by  tribes  of  other  parts. 

[I.]  The  great  central  province,  of  Nejd,  and  that 
of  Yemameh,  which  bounds  it  on  the  south,  are  little 
known  from  the  accounts  of  travellers.  Nejd  signi- 
fies "  high  land,"  and  hence  its  limits  are  very  doubt- 
fully laid  down  by  the  Arabs  themselves.  It  consists 
of  cultivated  table-land,  with  numerous  wells,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  pastures ;    but  it  is  intersected  by 


8  ARABIA 

extensive  deserts.  Yemameh  appears  to  be  generally 
very  similar  to  Nejd.  On  the  south  lies  the  great 
desert  called  Er-Ruba  el-Khali,  uninhabitable  in  the 
summer,  but  yielding  pasturage  in  the  winter  after 
the  rains.  The  camels  of  the  tribes  inhabiting  Nejd 
are  highly  esteemed  in  Arabia,  and  the  breed  of  horses 
is  the  most  famous  in  the  world.  In  this  province 
are  said  to  be  remains  of  very  ancient  structures,  sim- 
ilar to  those  east  of  the  Jordan. 

[5.]  The  Hejaz  and  Tehameh  (or  El-Ghor,  the  "  low 
land")  are  bounded  by  Nejd,  the  Yemen,  the  Red 
Sea,  and  the  desert  of  Petra,  the  northern  limit  of 
the  Hejaz  being  Eileh  (El-Makrizi's  Khitat,  s.  v.  Ei- 
leh).  The  Hejaz  is  the  holy  land  of  Arabia,  its  chief 
cities  being  Mekkeh  and  El-Medinah ;  and  it  was 
also  the  first  seat  of  the  Ishmaelites  in  the  peninsula. 
The  northern  portion  is  in  general  sterile  and  rocky ; 
toward  the  south  it  gradually  merges  into  the  Yemen, 
or  the  district  called  El-Asir,  which  is  but  little  no- 
ticed by  either  eastern  or  western  geographers  (see 
Jomard,  245  sq.).  The  province  of  Tehameh  extends 
between  the  mountain  chain  of  the  Hejaz  and  the 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea ;  and  is  sometimes  divided  into 
Tehameh  of  the  Hejaz  and  Tehameh  of  the  Yemen.  It 
is  a  parched,  sandy  tract,  with  little  rain,  and  fewer 
pasturages  and  cultivated  portions  than  the  mountain- 
ous country. 

(2.)  Northern  Arabia,  or  the  Arabian  Desert,  is  di- 
vided by  the  Arabs  (who  do  not  consider  it  as  strictly 
belonging  to  their  country)  into  Badiet  esh-Shem, 
"the  Desert  of  Syria,"  Badiet  el-Jezireh,  "the  Des- 
ert of  Mesopotamia"  (not  " of  Arabia,"  as  some 

suppose),  and  Badiet  el-Irak,  "  the  Desert  of  El- 
Irak."  It  is,  so  far  as  it  is  known  to  us,  a  high,  un- 
dulating, parched  plain,  of  which  the  Euphrates  forms 
the  natural  boundary  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the 
frontier  of  Syria,  whence  it  is  bounded  by  the  latter 
country  and  the  desert  of  Petra  on  the  north-west  and 
west,  the  peninsula  of  Arabia  forming  its  southern 
limit.  It  has  few  oases,  the  water  of  the  wells  is  gen- 
erally either  brackish  or  unpotable,  and  it  is  visited 
by  the  sand-wind  called  Samoom,  of  which,  however, 
the  terrors  have  been  much  exaggerated.  The  Arabs 
find  pasture  for  their  flocks  and  herds  after  the  rains, 
and  in  the  more  depressed  plains  ;  and  the  desert  gen- 
erally produces  prickly  shrubs,  etc.,  on  which  the 
camels  feed.  The  inhabitants  Avere  known  to  the  an- 
cients as  (jKrji'lrai,  "dwellers  in  tents,"  or  perhaps  so 
called  from  their  town  ai  2/c?;v«j  (Strab.  xvi,  747, 
767;  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  24;  Amm.  Marc,  xxiii,  6;  comp. 
Isa.  xiii,  20;  Jer.  xlix,  31;  Ezek.  xxxviii,  11)  ;  and 
they  extended  from  Babylonia  on  the  east  (comp. 
Num.  xxiii,  7  ;  2  Chron.  xxi,  16;  Isa.  ii,  6  ;  xiii,  20) 
to  the  borders  of  Egypt  on  the  west  (Strab.  xvi,  748  ; 
Plin.  v,  12;  Amm.  Marc,  xiv,  4;  xxii,  15).  These 
tribes,  principally  descended  from  Ishmael  and  from 
Keturah,  have  always  led  a  wandering  and  pastoral 
life.  Their  predatory  habits  are  several  times  men- 
tioned in  the  O.  T.  (2  Chron.  xxi,  16,  17 ;  xxvi,  7  ; 
Job  i,  15;  Jer.  iii,  2).  They  also  conducted  a  consid- 
erable trade  of  merchandise  of  Arabia  and  India  from 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf  (Ezek.  xxvii,  20-24), 
whence  a  chain  of  oases  still  forms  caravan-stations 
(Burckhardt,  Arabia,  Appendix  vi) ;  and  they  like- 
wise traded  from  the  western  portions  of  the  peninsu- 
la. The  latter  traffic  appears  to  be  frequently  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Ishmaelites,  Keturahites, 
and  other  Arabian  peoples  (Gen.  xxxvii,  25,  28;  1 
Kings  x,  15,  25;  2  Chron.  ix,  14,  24;  Isa.  lx,6;  Jer. 
vi,  20),  and  probably  consisted  of  the  products  of 
Southern  Arabia  and  of  the  opposite  shores  of  Ethio- 
pia ;  it  seems,  however,  to  have  been  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  the  inhabitants  of  Idumssa ;  but  it  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  between  the  references  to  the  latter 
people  and  to  the  tribes  of  Northern  Arabia  in  the 
passages  relating  to  this  traffic.  That  certain  of 
these  tribes  brought  tribute  to  Jehoshaphat  appears 


ARABIA 


339 


ARABIA 


from  2  Chron.  xvii,  11 ;  and  elsewhere  there  are  indi- 
cations of  such  tribute  (comp.  the  passages  referred  to 
above). 

(3.)  Western  Arabia  includes  the  peninsula  of  Sinai 
(q.  v.)  and  the  desert  of  Petra,  corresponding  gener- 
ally with  the  limits  of  Arabia  Petrsea.  The  latter 
name  is  probably  derived  from  that  of  its  chief  city  ; 
not  from  its  stony  character.  It  was  in  the  earliest 
times  inhabited  by  a  people  whose  genealogy  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the  Horites,  or  Horim  (Gen. 
xiv,  6  ;  xxxvi,  20,  21 ;  Deut.  ii,  12,  22 ;  xxxvi,  20-22). 
See  Horite.  Its  later  inhabitants  were  in  part  the 
same  as  those  of  the  preceding  division  of  Arabia,  as 
indeed  the  boundary  of  the  two  countries  is  arbitrary 
and  unsettled  ;  but  it  was  mostly  peopled  by  descend- 
ants of  Esau,  and  was  generally  known  as  the  land  of 
Edom,  or  Idumaja  (q.  v.),  as  well  as  by  its  older  ap- 
pellation, the  desert  of  Seir,  or  Mount  Seir  (q.  v.). 
The  common  origin  of  the  Idumseans  from  Esau  and 
Ishmael  is  found  in  the  marriage  of  the  former  with 
a  daughter  of  the  latter  (Gen.  xxviii,  9 ;  xxxvi,  3). 
The  Nabathceans  succeeded  to  the  Idumajans,  and 
Idumaea  is  mentioned  only  as  a  geographical  designa- 
tion after  the  time  of  Josephus.  The  Nabathoeans 
have  always  been  identified  with  Nebaioth,  son  of 
Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv,  13 ;  Isa.  lx,  7),  until  Quatremere 
(Memoire  sur  les  Nabatheens)  advanced  the  theory  that 
they  were  of  another  race,  and  a  people  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. See  Nebaioth.  Petra  was  in  the  great  route 
of  the  western  caravan-traffic  of  Arabia,  and  of  the 
merchandise  brought  up  the  Elanitic  Gulf. — Smith, 
s.  v.     See  Elath  ;  Eziongeber  :  Petka,  etc. 

III.  Inhabitants. — 1.  Scriptural  A  ccnunt. — There  is 
a  prevalent  notion  that  the  Arabs,  both  of  the  south 
and  north,  are  descended  from  Ishmael ;  and  the  pas- 
sage in  Gen.  xvi,  12,  "  he  (Ishmael)  shall  dwell  in  the 
presence  of  all  his  brethren,"  is  often  cited  as  if  it  were 
a  prediction  of  that  national  independence  which,  upon 
the  whole,  the  Arabs  have  maintained  more  than  any 
other  people.  But  this  supposition  (in  so  far  as  the 
true  meaning  of  the  text  quoted  is  concerned)  is 
founded  on  a  misconception  of  the  original  Hebrew, 
which  runs  literally,  "  he  shall  dwell  before  the/aces 
of  all  his  brethren,"  i.  e.  (according  to  the  idiom  above 
explained,  in  which  "  before  the  face"  denotes  the 
east),  the  habitation  of  his  posterit}'  shall  be  "to  the 
east"  of  the  settlements  of  Abraham's  other  descend- 
ants. This  seems  also  to  be  the  import  of  Gen.  xxv, 
18,  where,  in  reference  to  Ishmael,  it  is  said  in  our 
version,  "  he  died  in  the  presence  of  all  his  brethren  ;" 
but  the  true  sense  is,  "the  lot  of  his  inheritance  fell 
to  him  before,  the  faces  (i.  e.  to  the  east)  of  all  his 
brethren."  These  prophecies  found  their  accomplish- 
ment in  the  fact  of  the  sons  of  Ishmael  being  located, 
generally  speaking,  to  the  east  of  the  other  descend- 
ants of  Abraham,  whether  by  Sarah  or  by  Keturah. 
But  the  idea  of  the  southern  Arabs  being  of  the  pos- 
terity of  Ishmael  is  entirely  without  foundation,  and 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the  tradition  invented  by 
Arab  vanity  that  they,  as  well  as  the  Jews,  are  of  the 
seed  of  Abraham — a  vanity  which,  besides  disfiguring 
and  falsifying  the  whole  history  of  the  patriarch  and  his 
son  Ishmael,  has  transferred  the  scene  of  it  from  Pal- 
estine to  Mecca.  If  we  go  to  the  most  authentic  source 
of  ancient  ethnography,  the  book  of  Genesis,  we  there 
find  that  the  vast  tracts  of  country  known  to  us  under 
the  name  of  Arabia  gradually  became  peopled  by  a 
variety  of  tribes  of  different  lineage,  though  it  is  now 
impossible  to  determine  the  precise  limits  within  which 
they  fixed  their  permanent  or  nomadic  abode.  See 
Ethnology. 

a.  Hamites,  i.  e.  the  posteritj'  of  Cush,  Ham's  eld- 
est son,  whose  descendants  appear  to  have  settled  in 
the  south  of  Arabia,  and  to  have  sent  colonies  across 
the  Red  Sea  to  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa ;  and  hence 
Cush  became  a  general  name  for  "the  south,"  and 
specially  for  Arabian  and  African  Ethiopia.    The  sons 


of  Cush  (Gen.  x,  7)  were  Seba,  Havilah,  Sabtah, 
Kaamah  or  Ragma  (his  sons  Sheba  and  Dedan),  and 
Sabtecah.    See  Cush. 

6.  Shemites,  including  the  following : 

(a)  Joktanites,  i.  e.  the  descendants  of  Joktan  (called 
by  the  Arabs  Kahtan),  the  second  son  of  Eber,  Shem's 
great-grandson  (Gen.  x,  25,  2G).  According  to  Arab 
tradition,  Kahtan  (whom  they  also  regard  as  a  son 
of  Eber),  after  the  confusion  of  tongues  and  dispersion 
at  Babel,  settled  in  Yemen,  where  he  reigned  as  king. 
Ptolemy  speaks  of  an  Arab  tribe  called  Katanites,  who 
may  have  derived  their  name  from  him  ;  and  the  rich- 
est Bedouins  of  the  southern  plains  are  the  Kahtan 
tribe  on  the  frontiers  of  Yemen.  Joktan  had  thirteen 
sons,  some  of  whose  names  may  be  obscurely  traced 
in  the  designations  of  certain  districts  in  Arabia  Felix. 
Their  names  were  Almodad,  Sheleph,  Hazarmaveth 
(preserved  in  the  name  of  the  province  of  Hadramaut, 
the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  letters  being  the  same),  Je- 
rah,  Hadoram,  Uzal  (believed  by  the  Arabs  to  have 
been  the  founder  of  Sanaa  in  Yemen),  Diklah,  Obal, 
Abimael,  Sheba  (father  of  the  Sabaaans,  whose  chief 
town  was  Mariaba  or  Mareb;  their  queen,  Balkis,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  queen  who  visited  Solomon),  Ophii 
(who  gave  name  to  the  district  that  became  so  famous 
for  its  gold),  Havilah,  and  Jobab. 

(b)  Abrahamites,  divided  into: 

[1.]  Hagarenes  or  Hagarites,  so  called  from  Hagar 
the  mother,  otherwise  termed  Ishmaelites  from  her 
son  ;  and  yet  in  course  of  time  these  names  appear  to 
have  been  applied  to  different  tribes,  for  in  Psalm 
Ixxxiii,  6,  the  Hagarenes  are  expressly  distinguished 
from  the  Ishmaelites  (comp.  1  Chron.  v,  10,  19,  22, 
and  the  apocryphal  book  of  Baruch  i,  35  ;  iii,  23).  The 
twelve  sons  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv,  13-15),  who  gave 
names  to  separate  tribes,  were  Nebaioth  (the  Naba- 
tbasans  in  Arabia  Petra?a),  Kedar  (the  Kedarenes, 
sometimes  also  used  as  a  designation  of  the  Bedouins 
generally,  and  hence  the  Jewish  rabuins  call  the  Ara- 
bic language  "the  Kedarene,,s) ,  Adbeel,  Mibsam,  Mish= 
ma,  Dumah,  Massa,  Hadad  or  Hadar,  Tenia,  Jetur, 
Naphish  (the  Iturreans  and  Naphishasans  near  the 
tribe  of  Gad  ;  1  Chron.  v,  19,  20),  and  Kedemah.  They 
appear  to  have  been  for  the  most  part  located  near 
Palestine  on  the  east  and  south-east. 

[2.]  Keturahites,  i.  e.  the  descendants  of  Abraham 
and  his  concubine  Keturah,  by  whom  he  had  six  sons 
(Gen.  xxv,  2) :  Zimram,  Jokshan  (who,  like  Raamah, 
son  of  Cush,  was  also  the  father  of  two  sons,  Sheba  and 
Dedan),  Medan,  Midian,  Ishbak,  and  Shuah.  Among 
these  the  posterity  of  Midian  became  the  best  known. 
Their  principal  seat  appears  to  have  been  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Moabites,  but  a  branch  of  them  must 
have  settled  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  for  Jethro,  the 
father-in-law  of  Moses,  was  a  priest  of  Midian  (Exod. 
iii.  1;  xviii,  5;  Num.  x,  29).  To  the  posterity  of 
Shuah  belonged  Bildad,  one  of  the  friends  of  Job. 

[3.]  Edomite.s,  i.  e.  the  descendants  of  Esau,  who  pos- 
sessed Mount  Seir  and  the  adjacent  region,  called  from 
them  Idumaja.  They  and  the  Nabathreans  formed  in 
later  times  a  flourishing  commercial  state,  the  capital 
of  which  was  the  remarkable  city  called  Petra. 

(c)  Kahorites,  the  descendants  of  Nahor,  Abraham's 
brother,  who  seem  to  have  peopled  the  land  of  Uz, 
the  country  of  Job,  and  of  Buz,  the  country  of  his 
friend  Pllihu  the  Buzite,  these  being  the  names  of 
Nahor's  sons  (Gen.  xxii,  21). 

(d )  Lotites,  viz.  : 

[1.]  Moabites,  who  occupied  the  northern  portion 
of  Arabia  Petraja,  as  above  described,  and  their  kins- 
men, the 

[2.]  Ammonites,  who  lived  north  of  them,  in  Arabia 
Deserta. 

c.  Besides  these  the  Bible  mentions  various  other 
tribes  who  resided  within  the  bounds  of  Arabia,  but 
whose  descent  is  unknown,  e.  g.  the  Amalekites,  the 
Kcnites,  the  Horites,  the  inhabitants  of  Maon,  Ilazor, 


ARABIA 


340 


ARABIA 


Vedan,  and  Javan-Meuzzal  (Ezek.  xxvii,  19),  where 
the  English  version  has,  "  Dan  also  and  Javan  going 
to  and  fro." 

In  process  of  time  some  of  these  tribes  were  per- 
haps wholly  extirpated  (as  seems  to  have  been  the 
case  with  the  Amalekites),  but  the  rest  were  more  or 
less  mingled  together  by  intermarriages,  by  military 
conquests,  political  revolutions,  and  other  causes  of 
which  history  has  preserved  no  record;  and,  thus 
amalgamated,  the}-  became  known  to  the  rest  of  the 
world  as  the  "Arabs,"  a  people  whose  physical  and 
mental  characteristics  are  very  strongly  and  distinct- 
ly marked.  In  both  respects  they  rank  very  high 
among  the  nations ;  so  much  so  that  some  have  re- 
garded them  as  furnishing  the  prototype  —  the  primi- 
tive model  form — the  standard  figure  of  the  human 
species.  This  was  the  opinion  of  the  famous  Baron 
de  Larrey,  surgeon-general  of  Napoleon's  army  in 
Egypt,  who,  in  speaking  of  the  Arabs  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Bed  Sea,  says  (in  a  Memoir  for  the  Use  of  the 
Scientific  Commission  to  Algiers,  Paris,  1838),  "They 
have  a  physiognomy  and  character  which  are  quite 
peculiar,  and  which  distinguish  them  generally  from 
all  those  which  appear  in  other  regions  of  the  globe." 
In  his  dissections  he  found  "their  physical  structure 
in  all  respects  more  perfect  than  that  of  Europeans  ; 
their  organs  of  sense  exquisitely  acute  ;  their  size 
above  the  average  of  men  in  general ;  their  figure  ro- 
bust and  elegant  (the  color  brown) ;  their  intelligence 
proportionate  to  that  physical  perfection,  and,  with- 
out doubt,  superior,  other  things  being  equal,  to  that 
of  other  nations." — Kitto,  s.  v. 

2.  Native  History.  —  The  Arabs,  like  every  other 
ancient  nation  of  any  celebrity,  have  traditions  rep- 
resenting their  country  as  originally  inhabited  by 
races  which  became  extinct  at  a  very  remote  period. 
These  were  the  tribes  of  Ad,  Thamud,  Umeiyim,  Abil, 
Tasm,  Jedis,  Emlik  (Amalek),  Jurhum  (the  first  of 
this  name),  and  Webari:  some  omit  the  fourth  and 
the  last  two,  but  add  Jasim.  The  majority  of  their 
historians  derive  these  tribes  from  Shem  ;  but  some 
from  Ham,  though  not  through  Cush.  Their  earliest 
traditions  that  have  any  obvious  relation  to  the  Bible 
refer  the  origin  of  the  existing  nation  in  the  first  in- 
stance to  Kahtan,  whom  they  and  most  European 
scholars  identity  with  Joktan;  and  secondly  to  Ish- 
mael,  whom  the}'  assert  to  have  married  a  descendant 
of  Kahtan,  though  they  only  carry  up  their  genealo- 
gies to  Adnan  (said  to  be  of  the  21st  generation  before 
Mohammed).  They  are  silent  respecting  Cushite  set- 
tlements in  Arabia;  but  modern  research,  we  think, 
proves  that  Cushites  were  among  its  early  inhabitants. 
Although  Cush  in  the  Bible  usually  corresponds  to 
Ethiopia,  certain  passages  seem  to  indicate  Cushite 
peoples  in  Arabia;  and  the  series  of  the  sons  of  Cush 
should,  according  to  recent  discoveries,  be  sought  for 
in  order  along  the  southern  coast,  exclusive  of  Seba 
(Meroe),  occupying  one  extreme  of  their  settlements, 
and  Nimrod  the  other.  The  great  ruins  of  Mareb  or 
Seba,  and  of  other  places  in  the  Yemen  and  Hadra- 
maut,  arc  not  those  of  a  Semitic  people;  and  farther 
to  the  e.st,  the  existing  language  of  Mahreh,  the  rem- 
nant of  that  of  the  inscriptions  found  on  the  ancient 
remain.-  just  mentioned,  is  in  bo  great  a  degree  appa- 
rently African  as  to  be  called  by  Bome  scholars  Cush- 
ite; while  the  settlements  of  k'aainah  and  those  of  his 
sons  Sheba  and  Dedan,  are  probably  to  lie  looked  for 
toward  the  bead  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  bordered  on  the 
north  by  the  descendants  of  Keturah,  bearing  the 
same  names  as  the  two  latter.  In  Babylonia  also  in- 
dependent proofs  of  this  immigration  of  Cushites  from 
Ethiopia  have,  it  is  thought,  lieen  lately  obtained. 
The  ancient  cities  and  buildings  of  Southern  Arabia, 
in  their  architecture,  the  inscriptions  they  contain, 
and  the  native  traditions  respecting  them,  are  of  the 
utmost  value  in  aiding  a  student  of  this  portion  of 
primeval  history.     Indeed  they  arc  the  only  impor- 


tant archaic  monuments  of  the  country ;  and  they  il- 
lustrate both  its  earliest  people  and  its  greatest  king- 
doms. Mareb,  or  Seba  (the  Mariaba  of  the  Greek  ge- 
ographers), is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  sites 
(see  Michaelis's  Questions,  No.  94,  etc.,  in  Niebuhr's 
Arabia).  It  was  founded,  according  to  the  general 
agreement  of  tradition,  by  Abd-esh-Shems  Seba, 
grandson  of  Yaarub  the  Kahtanite  (Mushtarak,  in 
loc. ;  Abulfeda,  Hist,  anteisl.  ed.  Fleischer,  p.  114); 
and  the  Dike  of  El-Arim,  which  was  situate  near  the 
city,  and  the  rupture  of  which  (A.D.  150-170,  accord- 
ing to  De  Sacy  ;  120,  according  to  Caussin  de  Perce- 
val) formed  an  era  in  Arabian  history,  is  generally 
ascribed  to  Lukman  the  Greater,  the  Adite,  who 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  second  Ad  (Ibn-eMYar- 
dee,  MS. ;  Hamza  Ispahanensis,  ap.  Schultens,  p.  24, 
25;  El-Mesudi,  cited  by  De  Sacy,  Mem.  de  VAcad. 
xlviii,  484  sq. ;  and  Ibn  Khaldun  in  Caussin's  Essai, 
i,  10).  Adites  (in  conjunction  with  Cushites)  were 
probably  the  founders  of  this  and  similar  structures, 
and  were  succeeded  by  a  predominantly  Joktanite 
people,  the  Biblical  Sheba,  whose  name  is  preserved 
in  the  Arabian  Seba,  and  in  the  Sabcei  of  the  Greeks. 
It  has  been  argued  (Caussin,  Essai,  i,  42  sq. ;  Penan, 
Lanr/ues  Scmitiques,  i,  SO0)  that  the  Adites  were  the 
Cushite  Seba;  but  this  hypothesis,  which  involves 
the  question  of  the  settlements  of  the  eldest  son  of 
Cush,  and  that  of  the  descent  of  the  Adites,  rests  sole- 
ly on  the  existence  of  Cushite  settlements  in  Southern 
Arabia,  and  of  the  name  of  Seba  in  the  Yemen  (by 
these  writers  inferentially  identified  with  X^O;  by 
the  Arabs,  unanimously,  with  Seba  the  Kahtanite,  or 
Xld ;  the  Hebrew  shin  being,  in  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  instances,  sin  in  Arabic) ;  and  it  necessi- 
tates the  existence  of  the  two  Biblical  kingdoms  of 
Seba  and  Sheba  in  a  circumscribed  province  of  South- 
ern Arabia,  a  result  which  we  think  is  irreconcilable 
with  a  careful  comparison  of  the  passages  in  the  Bible 
bearing  on  this  subject.  See  Cush  ;  Seba  ;  Sheba. 
Neither  is  there  evidence  to  indicate  the  identity  of 
Ad  and  the  other  extinct  tribes  with  any  Semitic  or 
Hamitic  people :  they  must,  in  the  present  state  of 
knowledge,  be  classed  with  the  Eephaim  and  other 
peoples  whose  genealogies  are  not  known  to  us.  See 
Adites.  The  only  one  that  can  possibly  be  identi- 
fied with  a  scriptural  name  is  Amalek,  whose  sup- 
posed descent  from  the  grandson  of  Esau  seems  in- 
consistent with  Gen.  xiv,  7,  and  Num.  xxiv,  20.  See 
Amalek. 

The  several  nations  that  have  inhabited  the  coun- 
try are  divided  by  the  Arabs  into  extinct  and  exist- 
ing tribes,  and  these  are  again  distinguished  as,  1.  El- 
Arab  el-Aribeh  ("Arab  Of  the  Arabs;"  comp.  Paul's 
phrase,  "  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,"  Phil,  iii,  5),  the 
pure  or  genuine  Arabs  ;  2.  El-Arab  el-Mutaarribeh  ; 
and,  3.  El-Arab  el-Mustaaribeh,  the  insititious  or 
naturalized  Arabs.  Of  many  conflicting  opinions  re- 
specting these  races,  two  only  are  worthy  of  note. 
According  to  the  first  of  these,  El-Arab  el-Aribeh  de- 
notes the  extinct  tribes, with  whom  some  conjoin  Kah- 
tan ;  while  the  other  two,  as  synonymous  appellations, 
belong  to  the  descendants  of  Ishmael.  According  to 
the  second,  El-Arab  el-Aribeh  denotes  the  extinct 
tribes  ;  El-Arab  el-Mutaarribeh  the  unmixed  descend- 
ants of  Kahtan  ;  and  El-Arab  el-Mustaaribeh  the  de- 
Bcendants  of  Ishmael  by  the  daughter  of  Mudad  the 
Joktanite.  That  the  descendants  of  Joktan  occupied 
the  principal  portions  of  the  south  and  south-west  of 
the  peninsula,  with  colonies  in  the  interior,  is  attested 
by  the  Arabs,  and  fully  confirmed  by  historical  and 
philological  researches.  It  is  also  asserted  that  they 
have  been  gradually  absorbed  into  the  Ishmaelite  im- 
migrants, though  not  without  leaving  strong  traces  of 
their  former  existence.  Fresnel,  however  (le  Lettre, 
p.  24),  Bays  that  they  were  quite  distinct,  at  least  in 
Mohammed's  time,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Ish- 


ARABIA 


341 


ARABIA 


maelite  element  has  been  exaggerated  by  Mohamme- 
dan influence. 

Respecting  the  Joktanite  settlers  we  have  some 
certain  evidence.  In  Genesis  (x,  30)  it  is  said,  "  and 
their  dwelling  was  from  Mesha,  as  thou  goest  unto 
Sephar,  a  mount  of  the  east  [Kedem]."  The  position 
of  Mesha  is  very  uncertain;  it  is  most  reasonably 
supposed,  to  be  the  western  limit  of  the  first  settlers 
[see  Mesha]  :  Sephar  is  undoubtedly  Dhafari,  or  Za- 
fari, of  the  Arabs  (probably  pronounced  in  ancient 
times  without  the  final  vowel,  as  it  is  at  the  present 
day),  a  name  not  uncommon  in  the  peninsula,  but  es- 
pecially that  of  two  celebrated  towns — one  being  the 
seaport  on  the  south  coast  near  Mirbat,  the  other,  now 
in  ruins,  near  Sana,  and  said  to  be  the  ancient  resi- 
dence of  the  Himyarite  kings  (Musktardk,  s.  v. ;  Ma- 
rdsid,  ib. ;  El-Idrisi,  i,  148).  Fresnel  (4e  Lettre,  p. 
51G  sq.)  prefers  the  seaport,  as  the  Himyarite  capital, 
and  is  followed  by  Jomard  (Etudes,  p.  #67).  He  in- 
forms us  that  the  inhabitants  call  this  town  "Isfor." 
Considering  the  position  of  the  Joktanite  races,  this  is 
probably  Sephar;  it  is  situated  near  a  thuriferous 
mountain  (Mardsid,  s.  v.),  and  exports  the  best  frank- 
incense (Niebuhr,  p.  148)  ;  Zafari  in  the  Yemen,  how- 
ever, is  also  among  mountains.  See  Sephar.  In 
the  district  indicated  above  are  distinct  and  undoubt- 
ed traces  of  the  names  of  the  sons  of  Joktau  mention- 
ed in  Genesis,  such  as  Hadramaut  for  Hazarmaveth, 
Azal  for  Uzal,  Seba  for  Sheba,  etc.  Their  remains 
are  found  in  the  existing  inhabitants  of  (at  least)  its 
eastern  portion,  and  their  records  in  the  numerous 
Himyarite  ruins  and  inscriptions. 

The  principal  Joktanite  kingdom,  and  the  chief 
state  of  ancient  Arabia,  was  that  of  the  Yemen,  found- 
ed (according  to  the  Arabs)  by  Yaarub,  the  son  (or 
descendant)  of  Kahtan  (Joktan).  Its  most  ancient 
capital  was  probably  Sana,  formerly  called  Azal,  after 
Azal,  son  of  Joktan  (Yakut,  ut  sup.').  See  Uzal.  The 
other  capitals  were  Mareb,  or  Seba,  and  Zafari.  This 
was  the  Biblical  kingdom  of  Sheba.  Its  rulers,  and 
most  of  its  people,  were  descendants  of  Seba  (  =  Sheba), 
whence  the  classical  Sabcei  (Diod.  Sic.  iii,  38,  46). 
Among  its  rulers  was  probably  the  queen  of  Sheba 
who  came  to  hear  the  wisdom  of  Solomon  (2  Kings  x, 
2).  The  Arabs  call  her  Balkis,  a  queen  of  the  later 
Himyarites;  and  their  traditions  respecting  her  arc 
otherwise  not  worthy  of  credit.  See  Sheba.  The 
dominant  family  was  apparently  that  of  Ilimyer,  son 
(or  descendant)  of  Seba.  A  member  of  this  family 
founded  the  more  modern  kingdom  of  the  Himyarites. 
The  testimony  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  classical  writers, 
as  well  as  native  tradition,  seems  to  prove  that  the 
latter  appellation  superseded  the  former  only  shortly 
before  the  Christian  era;  i.  e.  after  the  foundation  of 
the  later  kingdom.  "Himyarite,"  however,  is  now 
very  vaguely  used.  Himyer,  it  may  be  observed,  is 
perhaps  "  red,"  and  several  places  in  Arabia  whose 
soil  is  reddish  derive  their  names  from  Aafar,  "red- 
dish." This  may  identify  Himyer  (the  red  man?) 
with  Ophir,  respecting  whose  settlements,  and  the  po- 
sition of  the  country  called  Ophir,  the  opinion  of  the 
learned  is  widely  divided.  See  Ophir.  The  similar- 
ity of  signification  with  (poiviK  and  tpuOpoc  lends 
weight  to  the  tradition  that  the  Phoenicians  came  from 
the  Erythrrean  Sea  (Herod,  vii,  80).  The  maritime  na- 
tions of  the  Mediterranean  who  had  an  affinity  with  the 
Egyptians — such  as  the  Philistines,  and  probably  the 
primitive  Cretans  and  Carians — appear  to  have  been 
an  offshoot  of  an  early  immigration  from  Southern 
Arabia  which  moved  northward,  partly  through  Egypt. 
See  Caphtor.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  Shepherd  in- 
vaders of  Egypt  are  said  to  have  been  Phoenicians ; 
but  Manefho,  who  seems  to  have  held  this  opinion, 
also  tells  us  that  some  said  they  were  Arabs  (Manetho, 
ap.  Cory,  Anr.  Frogmen's,  2d  ed.  p.  171),  and  the  hiero- 
glyphic name  has  been  supposed  to  correspond  to  the 
common  appellation  of  the  Arabs,  Shasu,  the  "  cam- 


I  el-riding  Shasu"  (Select  Papyri,  pi.  liii),  an  identifi- 
I  cation  entirely  in  accordance  with  the  Egyptian  his- 
torian's account  of  their  invasion  and  polity.  In  the 
opposite  direction,  an  early  Arab  domination  of  Chal- 
:  daea  is  mentioned  by  Berosus  (Con-,  p.  60),  as  pre- 
ceding the  Assyrian  dynasty.  All  these  indications, 
slight  as  they  are,  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  at- 
tempting a  reconstruction  of  the  history  of  Southern 
'  Arabia.  The  early  kings  of  the  Yemen  were  at  con- 
tinual feud  with  the  descendants  of  Kahlan  (brother 
of  Himyer)  until  the  fifteenth  in  descent  (according 
to  the  majority  of  native  historians)  from  Himyer 
united  the  kingdom.  This  king  was  the  first  Tubbaa, 
a  title  also  distinctive  of  his  successors,  whose  dynas- 
!  ty  represents  the  proper  kingdom  of  Himyer,  whence 
I  the  Homeritm  (Ptol.  vi,  7  ;  Plin.  vi,  28).  Their  rule 
1  probably  extended  over  the  modern  Yemen,  Hadra- 
;  maut,  and  Mahreh.  The  fifth  Tubbaa,  Dhu-1-Adhar, 
or  Zu-1-Azar,  is  supposed  (Caussin,  i,  73)  to  be  th? 
I  Ilasarus  of  iElius  Gallus  (B.C.  24).  The  kingdom 
of  Himyer  lasted  until  A.D.  525,  when  it  fell  before 
i  an  Abyssinian  invasion.  Already,  about  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century,  the  kings  of  Axum  appear  to 
,  have  become  masters  of  part  of  the  Yemen  (Caussin, 
;  Essai,  i,  114 ;  Zeitschr.  d.  Deutsch  Morgenland.  GeselU 
!  schaft,  vii,  17  sq.  ;  xi,  338  sq.),  adding  to  their  titles 
j  the  names  of  places  in  Arabia  belonging  to  Himyer. 
I  After  four  reigns  they  were  succeeded  by  Himyarite 
•  princes,  vassals  of  Persia,  the  last  of  whom  submitted 
to  Mohammed.  Kings  of  Hadramaut  (the  people  of 
I  this  district  are  the  classical  Chatramotitre ,  Plin.  vi, 
I  28 ;  comp.  Adramitce)  are  also  enumerated  by  the 
I  Arabs  (Ibn-Khaldim,  ap.  Caussin,  i,  135  sq.),  and 
t  distinguished  from  the'  descendants  of  Yaarub,  an  in- 
dication, as  is  remarked  by  Caussin  (1.  c),  of  their 
!  separate  descent  from  Hazarmaveth  (q.  v.).  The 
Greek  geographers  mention  a  fourth  people  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Sabaei,  Homeritse,  and  Cliatramotita? — 
the  Mimm  (Strab.  xvi,  768 ;  Ptol.  v,  7,  §  23 ;  Plin.  vi, 
32;  Diod.  Sic.  iii,  42),  who  have  not  been  identified 
with  any  Biblical  or  modern  name.  Some  place  them 
as  high  as  Mekkeh,  and  derive  their  name  from  Mina 
(the  sacred  valley  north-east  of  that  city),  or  from  the 
goddess  Minah,  worshipped  in  the  district  between 
Mekkeh  and  El-Medinah.  Fresnel,  however,  places 
them  in  the  Wady  Doan  in  Hadramaut,  arguing  that 
the  Yemen  anciently  included  this  tract,  that  the  Mi- 
nrci  were  probably  the  same  as  the  Rhabanitse  or  Rha- 
manitse  (Ptol.  vi,  7,  §  24 ;  Strab.  xvi,  782),  and  that 
"Pafiavir&v  was  a  copyist's  error  for  'lefiavirwv. 

The  other  chief  Joktanite  kingdom  was  that  of  the 
Hejaz,  founded  by  Jurhum,  the  brother  of  Yaarub, 
who  left  the  Yemen  and  settled  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Mekkeh.  The  Arab  lists  of  its  kings  are  inextri- 
cably confused ;  but  the  name  of  their  leader  and  that 
of  two  of  his  successors  was  Mudad  (or  El-Mudad), 
:  who  probably  represents  Almodad  (q.  v.).  Ishmael, 
'  according  to  the  Arabs,  married  a  daughter  of  the  first 
I  Mudad,  whence  sprang  Adnan  the  ancestor  of  Mo- 
hammed. This  kingdom,  situate  in  a  less  fertile  dis- 
\  trict  than  the  Yemen,  and  engaged  in  conflict  with 
aboriginal  tribes,  never  attained  the  importance  of 
that  of  the  south.  It  merged,  by  intermarriage  and 
■  conquest,  into  the  tribes  of  Ishmael.  (Kutb-ed-Din, 
!  ed.  Wustenfeld,  p.  35  and  39  sq.  ;  comp.  authorities 
!  quoted  by  Caussin.)  Fresnel  cites  an  Arab  author 
who  identifies  Jurhum  with  Hadoram  (q.  v.). 

Although  these  were  the  principal  Joktanite  king- 
doms, others  were  founded  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
peninsula.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  were  that 
of  El-Hireh  in  El-Irak,  and  that  of  Ghassan  on  the 
confines  of  Syria  ;  both  originated  by  emigrants  after 
the  Flood  of  El-Arim.  El-Hireh  soon  became  Ish- 
maelitic  :  Ghassan  long  maintained  its  original  stock. 
Among  its  rulers  were  many  named  El-Harith.  Re- 
specting the  presumed  identity  of  some  of  these  with 
kings  called  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  Aretas,  and 


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342 


ARABIA 


with  the  Aretas  mentioned  by  Paul  (2  Cor.  xi,  32), 
see  Aretas. 

The  Ishmaelites  appear  to  have  entered  the  penin- 
sula from  the  north-west.  That  they  have  spread 
over  the  whole  of  it  (with  the  exception  of  one  or  two 
districts  on  the  south  coast  which  are  said  to  be  still 
inhabited  by  unmixed  Joktanite  peoples),  and  that  the 
modem  nation  is  predominantly  Ishmaelite,  is  assert- 
ed by  the  Arabs.  They  do  not,  however,  carry  up 
their  genealogies  higher  than  Adnan  (as  we  have  al- 
ready said),  and  they  have  lost  the  names  of  most  of 
Ishmael's  immediate  and  near  descendants.  Such  as 
have  been  identified  with  existing  names  will  be 
found  under  the  several  articles  bearing  their  names. 
See  also  Hagarene.  They  extended  northward 
from  the  Ilejaz  into  the  Arabian  desert,  where  they 
mixed  with  Keturahites  and  other  Abrahamic  peo- 
ples ;  and  westward  to  Idumsea,  where  they  mixed 
with  Edomites,  etc.  The  tribes  sprung  from  Ishmael 
have  always  been  governed  by  petty  chiefs  or  heads 
(f  families  (sheiks  and  emirs)  ;  they  have  general- 
ly followed  a  patriarchal  life,  and  have  not  originated 
kingdoms,  though  they  have  in  some  instances  suc- 
ceeded to  those  of  Joktanites,  the  principal  one  of  these 
being  that  of  El-Hireh.  With  reference  to  the  Ish- 
maelites generally,  we  may  observe,  in  continuation 
of  a  former  remark,  that  although  their  first  settle- 
ments in  the  Hejaz,  and  their  spreading  over  a  great 
part  of  the  northern  portions  of  the  peninsula,  are  suf- 
ficiently proved,  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  wide  exten- 
sion given  to  them  by  Arab  tradition.  Mohammed 
derived  from  the  Jews  whatever  tradition  he  pleased, 
and  silenced  any  contrary,  by  the  Koran  or  his  own 
dicta.  This  religious  element,  which  does  not  direct- 
ly affect  the  tribes  of  Joktan  (whose  settlements  are 
otherwise  unquestionably  identified),  has  a  great  in- 
fluence over  those  of  Ishmael.  They,  therefore,  can- 
not be  certainly  proved  to  have  spread  over  the  penin- 
sula, notwithstanding  the  almost  universal  adoption 
of  their  language  (which  is  generally  acknowledged 
to  have  been  the  Arabic  commonly  so  called),  and  the 
concurrent  testimony  of  the  Arabs ;  but  from  these 
and  other  considerations  it  becomes  at  the  same  time 
highly  probable  that  they  now  form  the  predominant 
element  of  the  Arab  nation. 

Of  the  descendants  of  Kcturah  the  Arabs  say  little. 
They  appear  to  have  settled  chiefly  north  of  the  penin- 
sula in  Desert  Arabia,  from  Palestine  to  the  Persian 
Gulf:  anil  the  passages  in  the  Bible  in  which  mention 
is  made  of  Dedan  (except  those  relating  to  the  Cush- 
ite  Dedan,  Gen.  x,  7)  refer  apparently  to  the  tribe 
sprung  from  this  race  (Isa.  xxi,  13;  Jer.  xxv,  23; 
Ezek.  xxvii,  20),  perhaps  with  an  admixture  of  the 
Cushite  Dedan,  who  seems  to  have  passed  up  the  west- 
ern shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Some  traces  of  Ke- 
turahites, indeed,  are  asserted  to  exist  in  the  south  of 
the  peninsula,  where  a  kin^  of  Himyer  is  said  to  have 
been  a  Midianite  (El-Mesudi,  ap.  Schultens,  p.  158- 
9  ) ;  and  where  one  dialect  is  said  to  be  of  Midian,  and 
another  of  Jokshan  son  of  Keturah  (Moajani) ;  but 
these  traditions  must  be  ascribed  to  the  rabbinical  in- 
fluence in  Arab  history.  Native  writers  are  almost 
wholly  silent  on  this  subject;  and  the  dialects  men- 
tioned above  are  not,  so  far  as  they  arc  known  to  us, 
of  the  tribes  of  Keturah.     See  Keturah.  etc. 

In  Northern  and  Western  Arabia  are  other  peoples 
which,  from  their  geographical  position  and  mode  of 
life,  are  sometimes  classed  with  the  Arabs.  Of  these 
are  AMALEK,  the  descendants  of  ESAU,  etc. 

Arabia,  in  ancient  times,  generally  preserved  its 
independence,  unaffected  by  those  great  events  which 
changed  the  destiny  of  the  surrounding  nations;  and 
in  the  si  xth  century  of  our  era,  the  decline  of  the  Ro- 
man empire  and  the  corruptions  and  distractions  of 
the  Eastern  Church  favored  the  impulse  given  by  a 
wild  and  warlike  fanaticism.  Mohammed  arose,  and 
succeeded  in  gathering  around  his  standard  the  no- 


madic tribes  of  Central  Arabia  ;  and  in  less  than  fifty 
years  that  standard  waved  triumphant  from  the  straits 
of  Gibraltar  to  the  hitherto  unconquered  regions  be- 
yond the  Oxus.  The  caliphs  transferred  the  se;.t  of 
government  successively  to  Damascus,  Kufa,  and  Bag- 
dad ;  but  amid  the  distractions  of  their  foreign  wars, 
the  chiefs  of  the  interior  of  Arabia  gradually  shook 
off  their  feeble  allegiance,  and  resumed  their  ancient 
habits  of  independence,  which,  notwithstanding  the 
revolutions  that  have  since  occurred,  they  for  the  most 
part  retain  (Crichton,  Hist,  of  Arabia,  Lond.  1852). 

3.  Religion. — The  most  ancient  idolatry  of  the  Arabs 
we  must  conclude  to  have  been  fetichism,  of  which 
there  are  striking  proofs  in  the  sacred  trees  and  stones 
of  historical  times,  and  in  the  worship  of  the  heaven- 
ly bodies,  or  Sabseism.  "With  the  latter  were  perhaps 
connected  the  temples  (or  palace-temples)  of  which 
there  are  either  remains  or  traditions  in  the  Himyar- 
ite  kingdom  ;  such  as  Beit  Ghumdan  in  Sana,  and 
those  of  Beidan,  Beinuneh,  Buein,  Einein,  and  Biam. 
To  the  worship  of  the  heavenly  bodies  we  find  allu- 
sions in  Job  (xxxi,  2G-28),  and  to  the  belief  in  the 
influence  of  the  stars  to  give  rain  (xxxviii,  31),  where 
the  Pleiades  give  rain,  and  Orion  withholds  it ;  and 
again  in  Judges  (v,  20, 21),  where  the  stars  fight  against 
the  host  of  Sisera.  The  names  of  the  objects  of  the 
earlier  fetichism,  the  stone-worship,  tree-worship,  etc., 
of  various  tribes,  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  One, 
that  of  Manah,  the  goddess  worshipped  between  Mek 
keh  and  El-Medinah  has  been  compared  with  Meni 
(Isa.  lxv,  11),  which  is  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "  num- 
ber." See  Meni.  Magianism,  an  importation  from 
Chaldsea  and  Persia,  must  be  reckoned  among  the  re- 
ligions of  the  pagan  Arabs ;  but  it  never  had  very  nu- 
merous followers.  Christianity  was  introduced  into 
Southern  Arabia  toward  the  close  of  the  2d  century, 
and  about  a  century  later  it  had  made  great  progress 
(Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  vi,  19,  33,  37).  It  flourished  chief- 
ly in  the  Yemen,  where  many  churches  were  built 
(see  Philostorg.  Hist.  Eccles.  iii ;  Sozomen,  vi ;  Evagr. 
vi).  It  also  rapidly  advanced  in  other  portions  of 
Arabia,  through  the  kingdom  of  Hireh  and  the  con- 
tiguous countries,  Ghassan,  and  other  parts.  The 
persecutions  of  the  Christians,  and  more  particularly 
of  those  of  Nejran  by  the  Tubbaa  Zu-n-Nuwas, 
brought  about  the  fall  of  the  Himyarite  dynasty  by 
the  invasion  of  the  Christian  ruler  of  Abyssinia.  See 
Arabia,  Church  of.  Judaism  was  propagated  in 
Arabia,  principally  by  Karaites,  at  the  captivity,  but 
it  was  introduced  before  that  time :  it  became  very 
prevalent  in  the  Yemen,  and  in  the  Hejaz,  especially 
at  Kheibar  and  El-Medinah,  where  there  are  said  to 
be  still  tribes  of  Jewish  extraction.  In  the  period 
immediately  preceding  the  birth  of  Mohammed  an- 
other class  had  sprung  up,  who,  disbelieving  the  idola- 
try of  the  greater  number  of  their  countrymen,  and 
not  yet  believers  in  Judaism,  or  in  the  corrupt  Chris- 
tianity with  which  alone  they  were  acquainted,  look- 
ed to  a  revival  of  what  they  called  the  "religion  of 
Abraham"  (see  Sprenger's  Life  of  Mohammed,  i,  Cal- 
cutta, 1850).  The  promulgation  of  the  Mohammedan 
imposture  overthrew  paganism,  but  crushed  while  it 
assumed  to  lead  the  movement  which  had  been  one  of 
the  cause  of  its  success,  and  almost  wholly  superseded 
the  religions  of  the  Bible  in  Arabia  (see  Krehl,jBe%.  d. 
voridamischen  Araben,  Lpz.  18G3).     See  Mohammed. 

4.  Language— Arabic,  the  language  of  Arabia,  is 
the  most  developed  and  the  richest  of  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages, and  the  only  one  of  which  we  have  an  exten- 
sive literature  ;  it  is,  therefore,  of  great  importance  to 
the  study  of  Hebrew.  Of  its  early  phases  we  know 
nothing ;  while  we  have  archaic  monuments  of  tho 
Himyaritic  (the  ancient  language  of  Southern  Arabia), 
though  we  cannot  fix  their  precise  ages.  Of  the  ex- 
istence of  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  (or  Aramaic)  in  the 
time  of  Jacob  there  is  evidence  in  Gen.  (xxxi,  47) ; 
and  probably  Jacob  and  Luban  understood  each  other, 


ARABIA 


343 


ARABIA 


the  one  speaking  Hebrew  and  the  other  Chaldee.  It 
seems  also  (Judg.  vii,  9-15)  that  Gideon,  or  Phurah, 
or  both,  understood  the  conversation  of  the  "  Midian- 
ites,  and  the  Amalekites,  and  all  the  children  of  the 
East."  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  down  to  the 
13th  century  B.C.  the  Semitic  languages  differed  much 
less  than  in  after  timeo.  But  it  appears  from  2  Kings 
xviii,  26,  that  in  the  8th  century  B.C.  only  the  edu- 
cated classes  among  the  Jews  understood  Aramaic. 
With  these  evidences  before  us,  and  making  a  due 
distinction  between  the  archaic  and  the  known  phases 
of  the  Aramaic  and  the  Arabic,  we  think  that  the 
Himyaritic  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  sister  of  the  Hebrew, 
and  the  Arabic  (commonly  so  called)  as  a  sister  of  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Aramaic,  or,  in  its  classical phasis,  as 
a  descendant  of  a  sister  of  these  two,  but  that  the 
Himyaritic  is  mixed  with  an  African  language,  and 
that  the  other  dialects  of  Arabia  are  in  like  manner, 
though  in  a  much  less  degree,  mixed  with  an  African 
language.  The  inferred  differences  between  the  older 
and  later  phases  of  the  Aramaic,  and  the  presumed 
difference  between  those  of  the  Arabic,  are  amply  con- 
firmed by  comparative  philology.  The  division  of  the 
Ishmaelite  language  into  many  dialects  is  to  be  attrib- 
uted chiefly  to  the  separation  of  tribes  by  uninhabita- 
ble tracts  of  desert,  and  the  subsequent  amalgamation 
of  those  dialects  to  the  pilgrimage  and  the  annual 
meetings  of  Okaz,  a  fair  in  which  literary  contests 
took  place,  and  where  it  was  of  the  first  importance 
that  the  contending  poets  should  deliver  themselves 
in  a  language  perfectly  intelligible  to  the  mass  of  the 
people  congregated,  in  order  that  it  might  be  critically 
judged  by  them  ;  for  many  of  the  meanest  of  the 
Arabs,  utterly  ignorant  of  reading  and  writing,  were 
of  the  highest  of  the  authorities  consulted  by  the  lex- 
icologists when  the  corruption  of  the  language  had 
commenced,  i.  e.  when  the  Arabs,  as  Mohammedans, 
had  begun  to  spread  among  foreigners.  See  Akabic 
Language. 

Bespecting  the  Himyaritic  until  lately  little  was 
known ;  but  monuments  bearing  inscriptions  in  this 
language  have  been  discovered  in  the  southern  jarts 
of  the  peninsula,  principally  in  Hadramaut  and  the 
Yemen,  and  some  of  the  inscriptions  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Fresnel,  Arnaud,  Wellsted,  and  Cruttenden  ; 
while  Fresnel  has  found  a  dialect  still  spoken  in  the 
district  of  Mahreh,  and  westward  as  far  as  Kishim, 
that  of  the  neighborhood  of  Zafari  and  Mirbat  being 
the  purest,  and  called  "  Ekhili ;"  and  this  is  supposed 
with  reason  to  be  the  modern  phasis  of  the  old  Him- 
yaritic (4e  Lettrc).  Fresnel's  alphabet  has  been  ac- 
cepted by  the  learned.  The  dates  found  in  the  in- 
scriptions range  from  30  (on  the  dike  of  Mareb)  to 
G04  at  Hisn  Ghorab,  but  what  era  these  represent  is 
uncertain.  Ewald  (Ueber  die  Himi/arische  Spracha  in 
Holer's  Zeitschrifl,  i,  295  sq.)  thinks  that  they  arc 
years  of  the  Rupture  of  the  Dike,  while  acknowledg- 
ing their  apparent  high  antiquity ;  but  the  difficulty 
of  supposing  such  inscriptions  on  a  ruined  dike,  and 
the  fact  that  some  of  them  would  thus  be  brought 
later  than  the  time  of  Mohammed,  make  it  probal 
that  they  belong  rather  to  an  earlier  era,  perhaps  that 
of  the  Himyaritc  empire,  though  what  point  marks  its 
commencement  is  not  determined.  The  Himyaritic  in 
its  earliest  phasis  probably  represents  the  first  Semitic 
language  spoken  in  Arabia. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Him- 

YARITE  ;    SHEMITIC  LANGUAGES. 

5.  The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Arabs  are  of 
great  value  in  illustrating  the  Bible  ;  but  supposed 
parallels  between  the  patriarchal  life  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  the  state  of  the  modern  Arabs  must  not  be 
hastily  drawn.  It  should  be  remembered  that  this 
people  are  in  a  degraded  condition  ;  that  they  have 
been  influenced  by  Jewish  contact,  especially  1))'  the 
adoption  through  Mohammed  of  parts  of  the  ceremonial 
law  and  of  rabbinical  observances  ;  and  that  they  are 
not  of  the  race  of  Israel.     The  inhabitants  of  Arabia 


have,  from  remote  antiquity,  been  divided  into  two 
great  classes,  viz.  the  townsmen  (including  villagers), 
and  the  men  of  the  desert,  such  being,  as  we  remark- 
ed, the  meaning  of  the  word  "  Bedaicees"  or  Bedouins, 
the  designation  given  to  the  "  dwellers  in  the  wilder- 
ness." From  the  nature  of  their  country,  the  latter 
are  necessitated  to  lead  the  life  of  nomades,  or  wander- 
ing shepherds ;  and  since  the  days  of  the  patriarchs 
(who  were  themselves  of  that  occupation)  the  exten- 
sive steppes,  which  form  so  large  a  portion  of  Arabia. 
have  been  traversed  by  a  pastoral  but  warlike  people, 
who,  in  their  mode  of  life,  their  food,  their  dress,  their 
dwellings,  their  manners,  customs,  and  government, 
have  always  continued,  and  still  continue,  almost  un- 
alterably the  same.  They  consist  of  a  great  many 
separate  tribes,  who  are  collected  into  different  en- 
campments dispersed  through  the  territory  which  they 
claim  as  their  own ;  and  they  move  from  one  spot  to 
another  (commonly  in  the  neighborhood  of  pools  or 
wells)  as  soon  as  the  stinted  pasture  is  exhausted  by 
their  cattle.  It  is  only  here  and  there  that  the  ground 
is  susceptible  of  cultivation,  and  the  tillage  of  it  is 
commonly  left  to  peasants,  who  are  often  the  vassals 
of  the  Bedouins,  and  whom  (as  well  as  all  "  towns- 
men") they  regard  with  contempt  as  an  inferior  race. 
Having  constantly  to  shift  their  residence,  they  live 
in  movable  tents  (comp.  Isa.  xiii,  20 ;  Jer.  xlix,  29), 
from  which  circumstance  they  received  from  the 
Greeks  the  name  of  'S.K^virai,  i.  e.  dwellers  in  tents 
(Strabo,  xvi,  747 ;  Diod.  Sic.  p.  254 ;  Ammian.'  Mar- 
cell,  xxiii,  6).  The  tents  are  of  an  oblong  figure,  not 
more  than  six  or  eight  feet  high,  twenty  to  thirty  long, 
and  ten  broad ;  they  are  made  of  goat's  or  camel's 
hair,  and  are  of  a  brown  or  black  color  (such  were  the 
tents  of  Kedar,  Cant,  i,  5),  differing  in  this  respect 
from  those  of  the  Turcomans,  which  are  white.  Each 
tent  is  divided  by  a  curtain  or  carpet  into  two  apart- 
ments, one  of  which  is  appropriated  to  the  women, 
who  are  not,  however,  subject  to  so  much  restraint 
and  seclusion  as  among  other  Mohammedans.  The 
tents  are  arranged  in  an  irregular  circle,  the  space 
within  serving  as  a  fold  to  the  cattle  at  night.  The 
heads  of  tribes  are  called  sheiks,  a  word  of  various 
import,  but  used  in  this  case  as  a  title  of  honor ;  the 
government  is  hereditary  in  the  family  of  each  sheik, 
but  elective  as  to  the  particular  individual  appointed. 
Their  allegiance,  however,  consists  more  in  following 
his  example  as  a  leader  than  in  obeying  h'.s  com- 
mands ;  and,  if  dissatisfied  with  his  government,  they 
will  depose  or  abandon  him.  As  the  independent 
lords  of  their  own  deserts,  the  Bedouins  have  from 
time  immemorial  demanded  tribute  or  presents  from 
all  travellers  or  caravans  (Isa.  xxi,  13)  passing 
through  their  country ;  the  transition  from  which  to 
robber}'  is  so  natural  that  they  attach  to  the  latter  no 
disgrace,  plundering  without  mercy  all  who  are  un- 
able to  resist  them,  or  who  have  not  secured  the  pro- 
tection of  their  tribe.  Their  watching  for  travellers 
"in  the  ways,"  i.  e.  the  frequented  routes  through  the 
desert,  is  alluded  to  Jer.  iii,  2 ;  Ezra  viii,  31 ;  and 
the  fleetness  of  their  horses  in  carrying  them  into  the 
"  depths  of  the  wilderness,"  beyond  the  reach  of  their 
pursuers,  seems  what  is  referred  to  in  Isa.  lxiii,  13, 
14.  Their  warlike  incursions  into  more  settled  dis- 
tricts are  often  noticed  (e.  g.  Job  i,  15;  2  Chron.  xxi, 
16 ;  xxvi,  7).  The  acuteness  of  their  bodily  senses  is 
very  remarkable,  and  is  exemplified  in  their  astonish- 
ing sagacity  in  tracing  and  distinguishing  the  foot- 
steps of  men  and  cattle,  a  faculty  which  is  known  by 
the  name  of  athr.  The  law  of  thar,  or  blood-revenge 
(q.  v.),  sows  the  seeds  of  perpetual  feuds;  and  what 
was  predicted  (Gen.  xvi,  12)  of  the  posterity  of  Ish- 
mael,  the  "  wild-ass  man"  (a  term  most  graphically 
descriptive  of  a  Bedouin),  holds  true  of  the  whole 
people.  Yet  the  very  dread  of  the  consequences  of 
shedding  blood  prevents  their  frequent  conflicts  from 
being  very  sanguinary ;  they  show  bravery  in  repel- 


ARABIA 


344 


ARABIA 


ling  a  public  enemy,  but  when  they  fight  for  plunder 
they  behave  like  cowards.  Their  bodily  frame  is 
spare,  but  athletic  and  active,  inured  to  fatigue  and 
capable  of  undergoing  great  privations ;  their  minds 
are  acute  and  inquisitive  ;  and,  though  their  manners 
are  somewhat  grave  and  formal,  they  are  of  a  livelj- 
and  social  disposition.  Of  their  moral  virtues  it  is 
necessary  to  speak  with  caution.  They  were  long 
held  up  as  models  of  good  faith,  incorruptible  integri- 
ty, and  the  most  generous  hospitality  to  strangers; 
but  many  recent  travellers  deny  them  the  possession 
of  these  qualities ;  and  it  is  certain  tffat  whatever 
they  may  have  been  once,  the  Bedouins,  like  all  the 
unsophisticated  "children  of  nature,"  have  been  much 
corrupted  by  the  influx  of  foreigners,  and  the  national 
character  is  in  every  point  of  view  lowest  where  they 
are  most  exposed  to  the  continual  passage  of  strangers. 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Ishmaelite. 

The  Bedouins  acknowledge  that  their  ancient  ex- 
cellence has  greatly  declined  since  the  time  of  Mo- 
hammed, and  there  cannot  lie  a  doubt  that  this  decline 
had  commenced  much  earlier.  Though  each  tribe 
boasts  of  its  unadulterated  blood  and  pure  language, 
their  learned  men  candidly  admit  the  depreciation  of 
national  character.  Scriptural  customs  still  found 
among  them  must  therefore  be  generally  regarded 
rather  as  indications  of  former  practices  than  as  being 
identical  with  them.  Furthermore,  the  Bible  always 
draws  a  strong  contrast  between  the  character  of  the 
Israelites  and  that  of  the  descendants  of  Ishmael, 
whom  the  Bedouins  mostly  represent.  Yet  they  are, 
by  comparison  with  other  nations,  an  essentially  un- 
changeable people,  retaining  a  primitive,  pastoral  life, 
and  many  customs  strikingly  illustrating  the  Bible. 
They  are  not  so  much  affected  by  their  religion  as 
might  be  supposed:  many  tribes  disregard  religious 
observances,  and  even  retain  some  pagan  rites.  The 
Wahhabis,  or  modern  Arab  reformers,  found  great 
difficulty  in  suppressing,  by  persuasion,  and  even  by 
force  of  arms,  such  rites ;  and  where  they  succeeded, 
the  suppression  was,  in  most  cases,  only  temporary. 
Incest,  sacrifices  to  sacred  objects,  etc.,  were  among 
these  relics  of  paganism  (see  Burckhardt's  Notes  on 
the  Bedouins  and  Wahabys).  The  less  changed  a  tribe, 
however,  the  more  difficult}'  is  there  in  obtaining  in- 
formation respecting  it :  such  a  one  is  very  jealous  of 
intercourse  with  strangers  even  of  its  own  nation.  In 
Southern  Arabia,  for  instance,  is  a  tribe  which  will 
not  allow  a  guest  to  stay  within  its  encampments  be- 
yond the  three  days  demanded  by  the  laws  of  hospi- 
tality. This  exclusion  undoubtedly  tends  to  preserve 
the  language  from  corruption,  and  the  people  from  for- 
eign influence;  but  it  probably  does  not  improve  the 
national  character. 

To  the  settled  Arabs  these  remarks  apply  with  the 
difference  that  the  primitive  mode  of  life  is  in  a  great 
degree  lost,  and  the  Jewish  practices  are  much  more 
observable  ;  while  intermixture  with  foreigners,  es- 
peclally  with  Abyssinian  and  negro  concubines  in  the 
Yemen  and  the  Hejaz,  has  tended  to  destroy  their  puri- 
ty of  blood.  A  Bedouin  will  scarcely  marry  out  of 
his  tribe,  and  is  not  addicted' to  concubinage;  he  con- 
siders himself,  and  is,  quite  distinct  from  a  townsman, 
i,i  habits,  in  in  »lc  of  thought,  and  in  national  feeling. 
Again,  a  distinction  should  lie  made  between  the  peo- 
ple of  Northern  and  those  of  Southern  Arabia  ;  the 
former  being  chiefly  of  Ishmaelite,  the  latter  of  Jok- 
tanite  descent,  and  in  other  respects  than  settlement 
and  intermarriage  with  foreigners  farther  removed 
from  the  patriarchal  character. 

Regarded  in  the  light  we  have  indicated,  Arab  man- 
ners and  customs,  whether  those  of  the  Bedonins  or 
of  the  townspeople,  afford  valuable  help  to  the  student 
of  the  Bible,  and  testimony  to  the  truth  and  vigor  of 
the  scriptural  narrative.  No  one  can  mix  with  this 
people  without  being  constantly  and  forcibly  remind- 
ed either  of  the  early  patriarchs  or  of  the  settled  Israel- 


ites. We  may  instance  their  pastoral  life,  their  hos- 
pitality— that  most  remarkable  of  desert  virtues  [see 
Hospitality] — their  universal  respect  for  age  (comp. 
Lev.  xix,  32),  their  familiar  deference  (comp.  2  Kin^s 
v,  13),  their  superstitious  regard  for  the  beard.  On 
the  signet-ring,  which  is  worn  on  the  little  finger  of 
the  right  hand,  is  usually  inscribed  a  sentence  expres- 
sive of  submission  to  God,  or  of  his  perfection,  etc., 
explaining  Exod.  xxxix,  30,  "the  engraving  of  a  sig- 
net, Holiness  to  the  Lord,"  and  the  saying  of  our  Lord 
(John  iii,  33),  "  He  .  .  .  hath  set  to  his  seal  that  God 
is  true."  As  a  mark  of  trust  this  ring  is  given  to  an- 
other person  (as  in  Gen.  xli,  42).  The  inkhorn  worn 
in  the  girdle  is  also  very  ancient  (Ezek.  ix,  2,  3,  11), 
as  well  as  the  veil.  (For  these,  and  many  other  illus- 
trations, see  Lane's  Modern  Egyptians,  Index.)  A 
man  has  a  right  to  claim  his  cousin  in  marriage,  and 
he  relinquishes  this  right  by  taking  off  his  shoe,  as 
the  kinsman  of  Ruth  did  to  Boaz  (Ruth  iv,  7,  8;  see 
Burckhardt's  Notes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Wahabys,  i, 
113). — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Jon. 

6.  The  commerce  of  Arabia  especially  connected  with 
the  Bible  has  been  referred  to  in  the  sections  on  West- 
ern and  "Northern  Arabia,  and  incidentally  in  men- 
tioning the  products  of  the  peninsula.  Direct  men- 
tion of  the  commerce  of  the  south  does  not  appear  to  be 
made  in  the  Bible,  but  it  seems  to  have  passed  to  Pal- 
estine principally  through  the  northern  tribes.  So 
early  as  the  days  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxvii,  28)  we  read 
of  a  mixed  caravan  of  Arab  merchants  (Ishmaelitea 
and  Midianites)  who  were  engaged  in  the  conveyance 
of  various  foreign  articles  to  Egypt,  and  made  no_  scru- 
ple to  add  Joseph,  "  a  slave,"  to  their  other  purchases. 
The  Arabs  were  doubtless  the  first  navigators  of  their 
own  seas,  and  the  great  carriers  of  the  produce  of  In- 
dia, Abyssinia,  and  other  remote  countries,  to  Western 
Asia  and  Egypt.  Various  Indian  productions  thus  ob- 
tained were  common  among  the  Hebrews  at  an  early 
period  of  their  history  (Exod.  xxx,  23,  25).  The  traf- 
fic of  the  Red  Sea  was  to  Solomon  a  source  of  great 
profit ;  and  the  extensive  commerce  of  Sabwa  (Sheba, 
now  Yemen)  is  mentioned  by  profane  writers  as  well 
as  alluded  to  in  Scripture  (1  Kings  x,  10-15).  In  the 
description  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii, 
19-24)  various  Arab  tribes  are  introduced  (comp.  Isa. 
Ix,  6;  Jer.  vi,  20;  2  Chron.  ix,  14).  The  Nabathaeo- 
Iduma?ans  became  a  great  trading  people,  their  capi- 
tal being  Petua  (q.  v.).  The  Joktanite  people  of  South- 
ern Arabia  have  always  been,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Ishmaelite  tribes,  addicted  to  a  seafaring  life. 
The  latter  were  caravan-merchants ;  the  former  the 
chief  traders  of  the  Red  Sea,  carrying  their  commerce 
to  the  shores  of  India,  as  well  as  to  the  nearer  coasts 
of  Africa.  Their  own  writers  describe  these  voyages ; 
since  the  Christian  era  especially,  as  we  might  expect 
from  the  modern  character  of  their  literature.  (See 
the  curious  Accounts  of  India  and  China  by  two  Mo- 
hammedan Travellers  of  the  ninth  Cent.,  trans,  by  Re- 
naudot,  and  amply  illustrated  in  Mr.  Lane's  notes  to 
his  translation  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Niyhts.)  The 
classical  writers  also  make  frequent  mention  of  the 
commerce  of  Southern  Arabia  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of 
Class.  Geoff.).  It  was  evidently  carried  on  with  Pales- 
tine by  the  two  preat  caravan  routes  from  the  head  of 
the  Red  Sea  and  from  that  of  the  Persian  Gulf;  the 
former  especially  taking  with  it  African  produce,  the 
latter  Indian.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  wander- 
ing propensities  of  the  Arabs,  of  whatever  descent,  do 
not  date  from  the  promulgation  of  Islamism.  All  tes- 
timony goes  to  show  that  from  the  earliest  ages  the 
peoples  of  Arabia  formed  colonies  in  distant  lands,  and 
have  not  been  actuated  solely  either  by  the  desire  of 
conquest  or  by  religious  impulse  in  their  foreign  ex- 
peditions, but  rather  by  restlessness  and  commercial 
activity.  The  transit-trade  from  India  continued  to 
enrich  Arabia  until  the  discovery  of  the  passage  to  In. 
dia  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  but  the  invention  tf 


ARABIA 


345 


ARABIAN 


steam  navigation  has  now  restored  the  ancient  route 
for  travellers  by  the  Red  Sea.     See  Commerce. 

IV.  Literature. — The  principal  European  authori- 
ties for  the  history  of  Arabia  are,  Schultens'  Hist.  Imp. 
Vetus.  Joctanidarum  (Hard.  Gel.  1786),  containing  ex- 
tracts from  various  Arab  authors  ;  and  his  Monumenta 
Vetustiora  Arabim  (Lug.  Bat.  1740)  ;  Eichhorn's  Mon- 
umenta Antiquiss.  Hist.  Arabum,  chiefly  extracted  from 
Ibn-Kuteibeh,  with  his  notes  (Tioth.  1775) ;  Fresnel, 
Lett  res  surVHist.  des  Arabes  avant  VIslamisme,  pub- 
lished in  the  Journal  A  siatique,  1838-53;  Quatremere, 
Memoire  sur  les  Nabatheens ;  Caussin,  Essai  sur  VHist. 
lies  Arabes  avant  VIslamisme  (Paris,  1847-8);  for  the 
geography,  Niebuhr's  Description  de  V Arabia  (Amst. 
1774)  ;  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Arabia  (Lond.  1839)  ; 
Wellsted,  Narrative  of  a  Journey  to  the  ruin's  of  Nakeb- 
al-Hajar,  in  Journ.  of  R.  G.  S.  vii,  20 ;  his  copy  of 
inscription,  in  Journ.  of  Asiat.  Soe.  of  Bengal,  iii, 
1834;  and  his  Journal  (Lond.  1838);  Cruttenden,  Nar- 
rative of  a  Journey  from  Molha  to  San' a;  Jomard, 
Etudes  geogr.  et  hist,  appended  to  Mengin,  Hist,  de 
VEgypte,  vol.  iii  (Paris,  1839);  and  for  Arabia  Petrasa 
and  Sinai,  Robinson's  Biblical  Researches ;  Stanley's 
Sinai  and  Palestine  ;  Tuch's  Essay  on  the  Sinaitic  In- 
scriptions in  the  Journal  of  the.  German  Oriental  Soc. 
xiv,  129  sq.  Compare  Chesney's  Expedition  to  the  Eu- 
phrates (Lond.  1850),  and  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  pt.  xiv; 
also  Palgrave,  Journey  through  Central  and  Eastern 
Arabia  (Lond.  1865,  2  vols.  8vo).  For  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  Arabs,  see  Burckhardt's  Notes  on 
the  Bedouins  and  Wahabys  (8vo,  1831)  ;  Lane's  Notes  on 
the  Thousand  and  One  Nights  (ed.  1838)  ;  and  his  Modern 
Egyptians  (ed.  1861).  See  also  Weil,  Gesch.  far  Khali- 
fen  (3  vols.  8vo,  Mannh.  1846-61)  ;  Forster,  Historical 
Geog.  of  Arabia  (2  vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1844). 

The  most  important  native  works  are,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, still  untranslated,  and  but  few  of  them  are 
edited.  Abulfeda's  Hist.  Anteislamica  has  been  ed- 
ited and  translated  1)}'  Fleischer  (Lips.  1831)  ;  and  El- 
Idrisi's  Geography  translated  by  Jaubert,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Recueil  de  Voyages  et  de  Memoires,  by  the 
Geogr.  Soc.  of  Paris  (1836)  ;  of  those  which  have  been, 
or  are  in  the  course  of  being  edited,  are  Yakut's 
Homonymous  Geographical  Dictionary,  entitled  El- 
Mushtarah  Wad'an,  ica-l-Muftarak  SaWan  (ed.  Wiis- 
tenfeld,  Got.  1845)  ;  the  Marasid  el-Ittilda,  probably 
an  abridgment  by  an  unknown  hand  of  his  larger 
geogr.  diet,  called  the  Moajam  (ed.  Juynboll,  Lug. 
Bat.  1852-4);  the  Histories  of  Mekkeh,  ed."  Wiistenfeld, 
and  now  published  by  the  German  Oriental  Socie- 
ty; and  Ibn-Khaldun's  Prolegomena,  ed.  Quatremere, 
i  (Paris,  1858).  Of  those  in  MS.,  besides  the  in- 
dispensable works  of  the  Arab  lexicographers,  we 
would  especially  mention  Ibn-Khaldun's  History  of 
the  Arabs;  the  Kharidet  el-Ajaib  of  Ibn-El-Wardi ; 
the  Mir-dt  ez-Zemdn  of  Ibn-El-J6zi ;  the  Murooj  edh- 
Dhahab  of  El-Mesudi;  Yakut's  Moajam  el-Buldan ;\ 
the  Kitdb-el-Aghdni  of  El-Isfahani ;  and  the  'Ikd  of 
El-Kurtubi.  For  a  copious  view  of  Arabic  and  kin- 
dred literature, see  Zenker's  Bibliotheca  Orientalis (Lpz. 
1840  sq.).     Compare  Arabia. 

ARABIA,  CHURCH  OF.  The  Apostle  Paul,  on 
his  conversion,  retired  into  Arabia  for  some  two  years 
(Gal.  i,  27),  but  whether  this  time  was  spent  in  preach- 
ing or  in  private  exercises  is  doubtful ;  nor  is  there  any 
authentic  record  of  the  fruits  of  his  labors  if  expend- 
ed there.  Several  other  apostles,  as  Peter,  Thomas, 
Bartholomew,  Judas  Thaddseus,  are  mentioned  by  tra-  i 
dition  as  having  preached  there  (see  Wiltsch,  i,  21 
sq.).  It  is  certain  that  Arabia  received  Christianity 
early.  According  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.  vi,  19), 
an  Arab  ruler  sent  to  Demetrius,  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century,  asking  for  Origen 
as  a  teacher.  Between  247  and  250  a  synod  was  held, 
under  the  presidency  of  Origen,  for  the  condemnation 
of  a  certain  heresy.  Arabia  was  originally  a  province 
of  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch,  having  Bostra  for  its  I 


metropolitan  see ;  but  it  was  separated  from  the  Ori- 
ental diocese  and  added  to  that  of  Jerusalem,  accord- 
ing to  William  of  Tyre  (Be  Bello  Sacro,  xiv,  14),  in 
the  5th  Oecumenical  Council.  Metropolitans  of  Bos- 
tra, and  bishops  of  Philadelphia  and  Esbus  are  still 
mentioned  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century. 
The  conversion  of  a  Himyarite  king  occurred  in  the 
fourth  century,  and  that  of  two  kings  of  Hira  in  the 
sixth  centurj'.  Among  the  Saracens  and  Bedouins 
numerous  conversions  took  place  in  the  fifth  century. 
Several  important  bodies,  as  the  Bahrites,  Taunchites, 
Taglebites,  and  others  were  entirely  Christian,  and 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes  reported  in  the  sixth  century 
that  he.  found  everywhere  in  Arabia  Christian  churches. 
Both  Nestorianism  and  Monophysitism  found  numer- 
ous adherents  in  Arabia ;  the  former  principally  in  the 
north  and  north-west,  the  latter  in  the  south.  The 
Jacobites  of  Arabia  have  been  under  the  rule  of  the 
Maphrians  since  the  time  of  the  Maphrian  Marutas, 
i.  e.  since  about  629,  and  contained  two  bishoprics, 
viz. :  one  of  Arabia,  so  called,  of  which  the  see  was  at 
Akula;  the  other  of  the  Taalabensian  Scenite  Arabi- 
ans, of  which  the  see  was  at  Hirta  Naamanis.  But 
Christianity  in  Arabia  was  nearly,  if  not  quite,  de- 
stroyed by  Mohammedanism ;  nor  has  it  risen  since  in 
that  country  to  any  extent.  The  only  place  where  it 
has  gained  a  firm  footing  is  Aden,  which,  in  1839,  was 
ceded  to  the  English.  Here  both  a  Protestant  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  congregation  has  been  collected  ;  the 
membership  of  the  latter  is  given  by  the  missionaries 
as  about  1000  (Schem,  Eccles.  Year-book  for  1859,  p. 
18,  19).  In  fact,  Christianity  in  Arabia  had  become 
very  early  corrupted  by  an  admixture  of  Sabsean  idola- 
try and  Persian  dualism,  so  that  Origen,  in  the  middle 
of  the  3d  century,  declared  Arabia  to  be  a  "country 
most  fruitful  in  heresy."  The  tribes  which  professed 
Christianity  when  Mohammed  first  began  to  promul- 
gate Islamism  appear  to  have  paid  as  much  attention 
to  rabbinical  legends  and  monkish  fables  as  to  the 
Scriptures.  It  is  indeed  pretty  certain  that  the  Koran 
contains  a  tolerably  fair  representation  of  the  religious 
belief  of  the  Arabian  Christians  in  Mohammed's  age, 
1  and  from  this  it  appears  that  the  idle  stories  in  the 
!  apocryphal  gospels  were  received  with  as  much  rev- 
j  erence  as  the  books  of  the  evangelists ;  it  is  even 
doubtful  whether  they  possessed  any  translation  of  the 
J  canonical  books  of  the  Bible,  and  this  may  serve  to 
explain  the  facility  with  which  they  received  the  creed 
of  Mohammed. — Wiltsch,  Handbook  of  the,  Geogr.  and 
Statistics  of  the  Church,  transl.  hv  Leitscli  (Lond.  1859, 
vol.  i,  8vo).     See  Mohammed. 

ARABIA,  COUNCIL  OF  [Concilium  Arabicum], 
was  held  in  247(?)  against  the  Elkesaites  (q.  v.),  who 
held  that  the  soul,  dying  with  the  body,  was  to  be 
raised  with  it  at  the  resurrection.  Origen  was  invited 
to  this  council,  and  boldly  combated  the  Psyehopanni- 
chites  (Hypnopsychites),  Eus.  vi,  c.  37;  torn,  i,  cone, 
p.  650. — Smith,  Tables  of  Church  Hist. ;  Landon,  Man- 
ual of  Councils. 

Ara'bian  (Heb.  Arabi',  I2fl3>,  Isa.  xiii,  20;  Jer. 
iii,  2;  or  ArW,  "<2yj,  2  Chron.'xvii,  11;  xxi,  16; 
xxii,  1;  xxvi,  7;  Neh.  ii,  19;  iv,  7  [1];  vi,  1;  Gr. 
"Apajj,  1  Mace,  v,  39 ;  xi,  17,  39 ;  xii,  31 ;  2  Mace,  v, 
8;  xii,  10),  the  national  designation  of  an  inhabitant 
of  that  general  district  denominated  Arabia,  i.  e.  the 
nomadic  tribes  inhabiting  the  country  to  the  east  and 
south  of  Palestine,  who  in  the  early  times  of  Hebrew 
history  wore  known  as  Ishmaelites  and  descendants 
of  Keturah.  Their  roving  pastoral  life  in  the  desert 
is  alluded  to  in  Is.  xiii,  20  ;  Jcr.  iii,  2  ;  2  Mace,  xii,  11 ; 
their  country  is  associated  with  the  country  of  the 
Dedauim,  the  travelling  merchants  (Is.  xxi,  13),  with 
Dedan,  Tema,  and  Buz  (Jer.  xxv.  24),  and  with  De- 
dan  and  Kedar  (Ez.  xxvii,  21),  all  of  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  occupied  the  northern  part  of  the  penin- 
sula later  known  as  Arabia.  During  the  prosperous 
reign  of  Jchoshaphat,  the  Arabians,   in    conjunction 


ARABIANS 


346 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE 


■with  the  Philistines,  were  tributary  to  Judah  (2  Chr. 
xvii,  11),  but  in  the  reign  of  his  successor  they  revolt- 
ed, ravaged  the  country,  plundered  the  royal  palace, 
slew  all  the  king's  sons  with  the  exception  of  the 
youngest,  and  carried  off  the  royal  harem  (2  Chr.  xxi, 
16;  xxii,  1).  The  Arabians  of  Gur-baal  were  again 
subdued  by  Uzziah  (2  Chr.  xxvi,  7).  During  the 
Captivity  they  appear  to  have  spread  over  the  country 
of  Palestine,  for  on  the  return  from  Babylon  they  were 
among  the  foremost  in  hindering  Nehemiah  in  his 
work  of  restoration,  and  plotted  with  the  Ammonites 
and  others  for  that  end  (Neh.  iv,  7).  Geshem,  or 
Gashmu,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition,  was  of 
this  race  (Neh.  ii,  19 :  vii,  1).  In  later  times  the 
Arabians  served  under  Timotheus  in  his  straggle  with 
Judas  Maccabseus,  hut  were  defeated  (1  Mace,  v,  39 ;  2 
Marc,  xii,  10).  The  Zabadseans,  an  Arab  tribe,  were 
routed  by  Jonathan,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Ju- 
das (1  Mace,  xii,  31).  The  chieftain  or  king  of  the 
Arabians  bore  the  name  of  Aretas  as  far  hack  as  the 
time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  Jason  the  high- 
priest  (2  Mace,  v,  8 ;  comp.  2  Cor.  xi,  32).  Zabdiel, 
the  assassin  of  Alexander  Balas  (1  Mace.  xi,17),  and 
Simalcue,  who  brought  up  Antiochus,  the  young  son 
of  Alexander  (1  Mace,  xi,  39),  afterward  Antiochus 
VI,  were  both  Arabians.  In  the  time  of  the  N.  T.  the 
term  appears  to  have  been  used  in  the  same  manner 
(Acts  ii,  11). — Smith,  Append,  s.  v.     See  Arabia. 


Bedouin  Arabs. 
1,  2,  Of  the  Jordan  ;  3,  Of  the  Hauran ;  4,  5,  Of  the  Desert— Arabia  Tetrfea, 

Arabians  or  Arabici,  a  sect  of  heretics  who 
sprung  up  in  the  third  century  in  Arabia  during  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Severus.  They  held  that  the 
soul  of  man  dies  with  the  body,  and  "will  be  resusci- 
tated with  it  in  the  day  of  resurrection.  Origen  con- 
futed this  opinion  in  a  council  held  in  the  year  217, 
called  "the  council  of  Arabia."— Euseb.  Hist.Eccl.vi 
:;7  ;  Mosheim,  Comm.  ii,  242. 

Arabic  Language,  the  most  perfectly  formed, 
most  copious  in  vocabulary,  most  extensively  spoken, 
and  most  perfectly  preserved  of  all  the  Shemitic  fam- 
ily of  languages.  It  therefore  presents  peculiar  points 
<>f  interest  to  Biblical  scholars.     See  Shemitic  Lan- 

i.i    IGl  3. 

I.  Distribution  n,„l  Diakets.— Originating  in  Arabia, 
the  Arabic  language  spread  itself,  by  th,-  conquests  of 

the  Arabs  [sec  Mohammed],  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
centuries,  so  extensively  as  to  become  not  only  prev- 
alent in  the  countries  adjoining  Arabia,  but  even  the 
religious  anil  learned  language  of  Irak,  Cyprus,  Pales- 
tine, Egypt,  and  Northern  Africa,  where, by  the  influ- 


ence of  Islamism  and  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
Koran,  it  has  finally  supplanted  the  original  languages 
of  those  countries,  and  become  the  mother  tongue  of 
the  inhabitants.  It  has  even  penetrated  to  the  inte- 
rior of  Africa,  as  well  as  insinuated  itself,  in  part  at 
least,  throughout  Turkey  and  Central  Asia.  In  Mal- 
ta, Spain,  and  Sicily,  dialects  of  it  were  for  a  time 
spoken,  and  have  not  yet  become  entirely  extinct. 
Through  the  intercourse  of  Europeans  during  the  Cru- 
sades, and  especially  during  the  temporary  residence 
of  the  Saracens  in  Spain,  man}'  Arabic  words  have 
crept  into  Occidental  languages,  not  excepting  the 
English ;  while  the  scientific  researches  of  the  medi- 
aeval Arabs  caused  many  technical  terms  to  be  intro- 
duced into  general  literature.  The  ciphers  in  use 
among  all  Christian  nations  are  but  modified  forms  of 
those  used  in  Arabic  notation. 

Long  before  the  Mohammedan  sera,  two  dialects 
were  prevalent  in  Arabia:  1,  the  Flimyaritic,  which 
was  spoken  in  Yemen,  or  Arabia  Felix,  and  had  its 
closest  affinities  partly  with  the  Hebrew  or  Aramsean 
languages  (q.  v.),  and  partly  with  the  Amharic  (q.  v.); 
2,  the  Koreishitic,  or  pure  Arabic,  as  found  in  the  Ko- 
ran, and  through  its  influence  preserved  from  all  vul- 
garism and  provincialisms,  as  the  language  of  state 
and  literature;  in  other  words,  the  spoken  differed 
somewhat  from  the  written  language.  The  Arabic 
had  attained  its  flourishing  period  after  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Koran.  With  the 
restoration  of  Arabic  literature 
under  the  Abbasid  caliphs,  sci- 
entific prose  took  the  place  of 
the  earlier  poetry,  and  the  lan- 
guage was  philologically  illus- 
trated and  protected  from  ob- 
livion ;  but  at  the  same  time  it 
gradually  became  deteriorated 
in  respect  to  flexibility  and  va- 
riety, and  circumlocutions  were 
employed  instead  of  idiomatic 
formations.  Since  the  four- 
teenth or  fifteenth  century  the 
Arabic  language  has  undergone 
no  change.  There  still  prevail, 
however,  certain  dialects  with 
considerable  variations  ;  e.  g. 
the  Moorish,  or  that  of  Morocco 
(see  Bombay,  Grammat.  lingua 
Jlfauro-A  rabicce,  Vienna,  1800), 
the  altogether  peculiar  Maltese 
(Gesenius,  Versuch  ijber  d.  mal- 
thch.  Sprach.  Lpz.  1810),  the 
Melindan,  Mapulian,  and  oth- 
ers. In  Aleppo,  Arabic  is 
spoken  in  the  softest  and  purest 
form. 
II.  Elements  and  Structure.— The  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet arc  twenty-eight,  and,  as  in  Hebrew,  they  are 
all  consonants,  and  read  from  right  to  left.  They 
differ,  however,  entirely  in  form  from  the  Heb.,  more 
closely  resembling  the  Syriac,  and  their  order  is  al- 
most wholly  different  from  either  of  those  languages. 
The  form,  too,  of  most  of  them  undergoes  a  considera- 
ble change  when  connected  with  a  preceding  or  fol- 
lowing letter,  or  when  final.  Several  of  them  differ 
from  each  other  only  by  the  addition  of  a  diacritical 
point  (as  b  from  "d).  Their  peculiar  power  is  such 
that  many  of  them  can  hardly  be  accurately  repre- 
sented either  by  the  Heb.  or  by  English  characters; 
the  sound  of  some  of  them,  indeed,  is  described  as  al- 
together foreign  to  European  tongues.  The  letters 
are  also  often  compounded  in  writing  into  ligatures. 
The  "weak  letters"  (corresponding  to  X,  1,  and  *)  are 
also  used  to  prolong  a  vowel  sound,  or  (as  in  Syriac) 
to  form  a  diphthong.  The  vowel  points  are  far  more 
simple  than  in  Heb.,  but  this  is  fully  made  up,  in  point 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE 


347 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE 


NAME. 

SIMPLE 
FORM. 

CONNECTED   WITH  THE 

LETTER 

POWER 
IN  ENGLISH. 

HF.BHEW 
REPRESENTATIVE. 

Preceding. 

Following. 

With  Both. 

'Alif 

t 

L 

> 

X 

Ba 

o 

V* 

J 

A 

b 

a 

CTa 

Id) 

c^. 

3 

A 

t 

n 

( Tha 

CJ 

6. 

j' 

A 

th 

n 

Jim 
CHha      | 
( Kha 
(Dal 

c 

c 

4> 

e 
e 
e 

j 

hh 
kh 
d 

n 
n 
1 

(Dhal 

0 

(X 

dh 

i 

; 

7  y 

r 

-i 

JLVUI 

Zay 

; 

>  r 

z 

T 

(Sin 

LT 

u** 

AW 

^ 

q 

TD 

( Shin 

LT 

u^ 

JW 

AM 

sh 

ti 

( Ssad 

LT° 

U^ 

.O 

/a 

ss 

2 

(  Ddad 

U* 

L>d 

.O 

*a 

dd 

2 

j  Tta 

h 

Ja 

h 

k 

tt 

•J 

( Ttha 

h 

Ji 

lb 

k 

tth 

•J 

TAin 

e 

£ 

£. 

A 

c 

2 

1  Gcain 
Fa 

£■ 

i 

A 
A 

g 
f 

9 
IS 

Qaf 

O 

(j- 

9 

A 

q 

P 

Kaf 

J 

JL 

r  ^ 

£i=. 

k 

D 

Lam 

J 

J^ 

j 

JL 

l 

b 

Mim 

r 

r 

XI 

A 

m 

tt 

Nun 

u 

j* 

j 

a 

n 

5 

Ha 

8 

& 

S5 

4 

li 

n 

Waw 
Ya 

^5 

w 

y 

J 

A 

ARABIC  LANGUAGE 


348 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE 


LIGATURES. 
Si  =  b-hh  ;  ^  -  thh  ;  3t  =  j-hh  ;  g!  =  s-hh ; 
^>  -  dd-hh  ;  si  =  y-hh  ;  %  =  ft-' ;  ^  or  *$  =  V  ; 
J  =  l-,j ;  j?  =  h-m  ;■  jJL  =  Uh-j  r;  £  =  f-y ; 
g  =  hh-j-j;  s£  -  V;  s?  =  /-»*  -L  =  y,« 
^>J  =  l-m-M ;  etc. 

ARITHMETICAL  FIGURES. 


♦        1 
0      9 


d      r*      l" 
5       4       3 


TOWELS. 


Fat-hhah      -j=-      a,  as  in  fat,  fate,  woman. 

Kasrah         — —      i,  as  in  pin,  machine,  bird. 

Dammah      -2—     it,  as  in  full,  rule,  awful. 

OTHER  ORTHOGRAPHICAL  SIGNS. 


Jazmah —  =  silent  Sheva  of  the 

Heb. 

Tashdid -^--  =  Dayesh  forte,  of  the 

Heb. 

Hamzah ~^-  or    c      Shows  a  vocal  'Alif. 

Waslah -=5-  Shows  a  silent  'Alif 

and  also  =  Hebrew 
Mahheph. 
Shows  a  long  'Alif  syl- 
lable. 
1  The  vowels  respective- 
\  ly,  with  a  final  n  or 
I      nasal  sound  added. 


Jladdah    .  .  . 

Tan  win, 
or 

"  Nunnation."       [ 


of  difficulty  to  the  learner,  by  the  peculiar  marks  or 
signs  frequently  employed  in  connection  with  certain 
letters,  or  in  certain  positions,  to  indicate  an  implied, 
developed,  prolonged,  or  connected  sound.  In  ordi- 
nary writing  (and  printing)  this  whole  system  of  vo- 
calization is  omitted.  Several  of  the  letters  (called 
"solar")  are  doubled  in  pronouncing  when  initial  after 
the  article,  the  final  letter  of  which  is  then  silent  (like 
the  dayesh  forte  of  the  Heb.  after  H).  A  similar  sys- 
tem of  prefixes  and  suffixes  (for  prepositions,  pronouns, 
particles,  etc.)  exists  to  that  in  Hob.,  but  with  some- 
what more  variety  in. application.  Vav  "  conversive," 
however,  disappears  in  the  Arabic,  as  in  the  Chaldee. 
Numbers  are  expressed  by  peculiar  characters  for  the 
digits,  or  the  ordinary  letters,  as  in  Gr.  and  Heb.,  may 
be  used  with  a  numerical  value.  The  accent  is  never 
written,  but  stands,  in  dissyllables,  upon  the  penult,  in 
polysyllables  upon  the  antepenult,  unless  the  penult 
lias  a  long  vowel,  which  then  takes  the  tone.  An  ex- 
tended system  of  prosody  and  versification  belongs  to 
the  language,  and  forms  a  marked  contrast  with  the 
simple  poetry  of  the  Hebrew. 

The  Arabic  is  rich  in  grammatical  forms.  In 
nouns,  as  well  as  pronouns  and  verbs,  the  dual  is  cus- 
tomary; and  for  the  plural  t ho  noun  has  a  larpe  store 
of  collective  forms.  The  singular  has  three  (so-called) 
cases,  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  pointing,  and  cor- 
responding to  the  nominative,  genitive,  and  dative 
(besides  forms  for  the  accusative,  and  the  intcrjective 
mark  of  the  vocative),  together  with  the  "nunna- 
tion ;"  the  dual  and  plural  only  two  (the  nominative 
and  objective).  To  t lie  verbs  (which,  as  in  Heb.,  af- 
ford triliteral  roots  of  all  the  words)  belong  thirteen 
forms  or  conjugations,  somewhat  answering  to  those 


of  the  Heb. ;  which  either  have  a  factive,  reciprocal, 
passive,  and  desiderative  force,  or  else  modify  the 
ground-meaning  of  the  root.  Each  of  these,  except 
the  ninth  and  eleventh,  has  a  passive  as  well  as  an  ac- 
tive voice.  The  tenses,  properly  so  called,  are  the 
same  in  number,  use,  and  method  of  formation,  as  in 
Heb.  Other  relations  of  time  are  expressed  by  em- 
ploying the  substantive  verb  as  an  auxiliary.  A  near- 
ly like  series  of  weak  or  defective  verbs  is  found  as  in 
the  Heb.  Apocopated,  paragogic,  and  intensified  forms 
of  the  tenses  exist,  almost  having  the  force  of  moods. 
Verbal  nouns  are  used  as  infinitives,  and  verbal  adjec- 
tives as  participles ;  or  these  forms  may  be  regarded 
as  the  regular  infinitives  and  participles  of  the  several 
conjugations  and  voices.  There  are  various  inflections 
to  express  gender,  place,  instrumentality,  authorship, 
diminutiveness,  etc.  The  comparative  and  superlative 
have  appropriate  forms. 

The  formation  of  sentences  is  simple,  but  syntactic- 
al. A  terse  vigor  is  characteristic  of  the  language ; 
yet  the  style  of  Arabic  writers  is  various :  in  some, 
for  example  the  more  ancient,  extremely  natural  and 
plain ;  in  those  of  later  date,  more  artificial  and  or- 
nate. The  language  of  the  common  people  (vulgar 
Arabic)  differs  from  the  written  in  the  omission  of  the 
final  vowels  of  words,  in  certain  ungrammatical  flex- 
ions and  constructions,  and  in  the  use  of  some  conven- 
tional terms.  (On  the  pronunciation  of  the  Palestin- 
ian Arabs,  see  Dr.  E.  Smith's  appendix  to  the  first  ed. 
of  Robinson's  Bib.  Researches,  vol.  iii.) 

III.  Relations  to  Hebrew. — "  The  close  affinity,  and 
consequently  the  incalculable  philological  use  of  the  Ar- 
abic with  regard  to  the  Hebrew  language  and  its  other 
sisters,  ma}'  be  considered  partly  as  a  question  of  the- 
ory, and  partly  as  one  of  fact.  1.  The  following  are 
the  theoretical  grounds :  First,  the  Arabs  of  Yemen  are 
derived  from  Kahtan,  the  Joktan  of  Gen.  x,  25,  whom 
the  Arabs  make  the  son  of  Eber  (Pococke's  Specimen 
Hist.  Arab.  p.  £9  sq.).  These  form  the  pure  Arabs. 
Then  Ishmael  intermarried  with  a  descendant  of  the 
line  of  Kahtan,  and  became  the  progenitor  of  the  tribes 
of  Hejsiz.  These  are  the  insititiovs  Arabs.  These  two 
roots  of  the  nation  correspond  with  the  two  great  dia- 
lects into  which  the  language  was  once  divided  :  that 
of  Yemen,  under  the  name  of  the  Himyaritic,  of  which 
all  that  has  come  down  to  us  (except  what  may  have 
been  preserved  in  the  Ethiopic)  is  a  few  inscriptions; 
and  that  of  Hejaz,  under  that  of  the  dialect  of  Mu- 
dhar,  or,  descending  a  few  generations  in  the  same  line, 
of  Khoreish — the  dialect  of  the  Koran  and  of  all  their 
literature.  Next,  Abraham  sent  away  his  sons  by 
Keturah,  and  they  also  became  the  founders  of  Arabic 
tribes.  Also,  the  circumstance  of  Esau's  settling  in 
Mount  Seir,  where  the  Idumaeans  descended  from  his 
loins,  may  be  considered  as  a  still  later  medium  by 
which  the  idioms  of  Palestine  and  Arabia  preserved 
their  harmony.  See  Arabia.  Secondly,  Olaus  Cel- 
sius (in  his  Hist.  Liny,  et  Ervd'tt.  Arab.)  cites  the  fact 
of  the  sons  of  Jacob  conversing  with  the  Ishmaelite 
caravan  (Gen.  xxxvii,  28),  and  that  of  Moses  with  his 
father-in-law  the  Midianite  (Exod.  iv,  18).  To  these, 
however,  Scheiling  (in  his  Abhandl.  v.  d.  Gebrauch.  dfr 
Arab.  Sprache,  p.  1-1)  objects  that  they  are  not  conclu- 
sive, as  the  Ishmaelites,  being  merchants,  might  have 
acquired  the  idiom  of  the  nations  they  traded  with, 
and  as  Moses  might  owe  an  acquaintance  with  Arabic 
to  his  residence  in  Egypt.  Nevertheless,  one  of  Cel- 
sius's inferences  derives  considerable  probability  from 
the  only  instance  of  mutual  intelligibility  which  Mi- 
chaelis  has  adduced  {Hi urthe'duvy  der  Mittel  die  ausye- 
gtortene  Hebr.  Sprache  zu  versteken,  p.  150),  namely, 
that  Gideon  and  his  servant,  went  down  by  night  to 
the  camp  of  "Midian,  Amalefc,  and  all  the  Bene  Ke- 
dem,"  to  overhear  their  conversation  with  each  other, 
and  understood  what  they  heard  (Judg.  viii,  9-14). 
Lastly.  Schultens  (('Initio  de  Rey.  Sabceor.  in  his  Opp. 
Minora)  labors  to  show  that  the  visit  of  the  queen  of 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE     349     ARABIC  LANGUAGE 

Sheba  to  Solomon  is  a  strong  proof  of  the  degree  of  \  form  so  broad  a  basis  of  community  and  harmony  be- 
proximity  in  which  the  two  dialects  then  stood  to  tween  the  two  dialects  as  could  hardly  be  anticipated, 
each  other.  These  late  traces  of  resemblance,  more-  i  when  we  consider  the  many  centuries  which  separate 
over,  are  rendered  more  striking  by  the  notice  of  the  the  earliest  written  extant  documents  of  each.  The 
early 'diversity  between  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  (Gen.  diversities  between  them,  which  consist  almost  en- 
xxxi,  47).  The  instance  of  the  Ethiopian  chamber-  |  tirely  of  fuller  developments  on  the  side  of  the  Ara- 
lain  in  Acts  viii,  28,  may  not  be  considered  an  evi-  '  bic,  may  be  summed  up  under  the  following  heads : 
dence,  if  Heinrichs,  in  his  note  ad  loc.  in  Nov.  Test.  A  much  more  extensive  system  of  conjugations  in  the 
edit.  Kopp,  is  right  in  asserting  that  lie  was  reading  j  verb,  the  dual  in  both  tenses,  and  four  forms  of  the 
the'  Septu'agint  version,  and  that  Philip  the  deacon  :  future  (three  of  which,  however,  exist  potentially  in 
a  Hellenist.     Thus  springing  from  the  same  root   the  ordinary  future,  the  jussive,  and  the  'cohortative 


was 


the  Hebrew,  and  possessing  such  traces  of  affinity  j  of  the  Hebrew  ;  see  Ewald's  Hebr.  Gram.  §  290,  293) ; 
to  so  late  a  period  as  the  time'of  Solomon,  this  dialect  j  the  full  series  of  infinitives  ;  the  use  of  auxiliary  verbs; 
was  farther  enabled,  by  several  circumstances  in  the  j  in  the  noun,  the  formations  of  the  plural  called  broken 
social  state  of  the  nation,  to  retain  its  native  resem-  j  or  internal  plurals,  and  the  flexion  by  means  of  ter- 
blance  of  tvpe  until  the  date  of  the  earliest  extant '  minations  analogous  to  three  of  our  cases ;  and  a  per- 
written  documents.  These  circumstances  were  the  fectly  defined  system  of  metre.  The  most  important 
almost  insular  position  of  the  country,  which  prevent-   of  these  differences  consists  in  that  final  vowel  after 


ed  conquest  or  commerce  from  debasing  the  language 
of  its  inhabitants ;  the  fact  that  so  large  a  portion  of 
the  nation  adhered  to  a  mode  of  life  in  which  ev 


the  last  radical,  by  which  some  of  the  forms  of  the 

future  and  the  several  cases  in  the  noun  are  indicated, 

Inch  has  been  too  hastily  ascribed  to  an  attempt  of 


impression  was,  as  it  were,  stereotyped,  and  knew  no  the  grammarians  to  introduce  Greek  inflexions  into 
variation  for  ages  (a  cause  to  which  we  may  also  in  !  Arabic  (Hassc,  Magazinfur  Biblisch-Orientalisehe  Lit- 
part  ascribe  the  comparatively  unimportant  changes  teratur,  i,  230  ;  Gesenius,  Geschich.  d.  Hebr.  Spr.  p.  95). 
which  the  language  has  undergone  during  the  1400  The  Arabic  alphabet  also  presents  some  remarkable 
years  in  which  we  can  follow  its  history);  and  the  !  differences.  As  a  representation  of  sounds,  it  contains 
great  and  just  pride  which  they  felt  in  the  purity  of  ;  all  the  Hebrew  letters  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
their  language,  which,  according  to  Burckhardt,  is  ,  greater  extent  of  the  nation  as  a  source  of  dialectual 
still  a  characteristic  of  the  Bedouins  (Notes  on  the  Bed-  ,  varieties  of  pronunciation,  and  also  in  consequence  of 
ouins,  p.  211).  These  causes  preserved  the  language  ,  the  more  developed  and  refined  state  of  the  language, 
from  foreign  influences  at  a  time  when,  as  the  Koran  !  the  value  of  some  of  them  is  not  exactly  the  same,  and 
and  a  national  literature  had  not  yet  given  it  its  full  \  the  characters  tlTat  correspond  to  9  »  2  1  Pi  PI  are  used 
stature,  such  influences  would  have  been  most  able  to  I  in  a  double  capacity,  and  represent  both  halves  of 
destroy  its  integrity.      During  this  interval,  neverthe-    those  sounds  which  exist  unseparated  in  the  Hebrew, 


less,  the  language  received  a  peculiarly  ample  devel- 
opment in  a  certain  direction.  The  limited  incidents 
of  a  desert  life  still  allowed  valor,  love,  generosity, 
and  satire  to  occupy  the  keen  sensibilities  of  the  chiv- 
alrous Bedouin.  These  feelings  found  their  vent  in 
ready  verse  and  eloquent  prose  ;  and  thus,  when  Islam 
first  called  the  Arabs  into  the  more  varied  activity  and 
more  perilous  collision  with  foreign  nations,  which  re- 
sulted from  the  union  of  their  tribes  under  a  common 
interest  to  hold  the  same  faith  and  to  propagate  it  by  the 
sword,  the  language  had  already  received  all  the  devel- 
opment which  it  could  derive  from  the  pre-eminently 
creative  and  refining  impulses  of  poetry  and  eloquence. 
2.  "But  great  as  may  be  the  amount  of  resemblance 
between  Arabic  and  Hebrew  which  a  due  estimate  of 
all  the  theoretical  grounds  for  the  affinity  and  for  the 
diversity  between  them  would  entitle  us  to  assume, 
it  is  certain  that  a  comparison  of  the  actual  state  of 
both  in  their  purest  form  evinces  a  degree  of  proxim- 


The  present  order  of  the  letters  also  is  different,  al- 
though there  are  evidences  in  their  numerical  value 
when  so  used,  and  in  the  memorial  words  (given  in 
Ewald's  Grammatical  Cmtica  Ling.  Arab.  §  67),  that  the 
arrangement  was  once  the  same  in  both.  In  a  paloe- 
ographical  point  of  view,  the  characters  have  under- 
gone many  changes.  The  earliest  form  was  that  in 
the  Himyarite  alphabet.  The  first  specimens  of  this 
character  (which  Arabic  writers  call  al-Mnmad,  i.  e. 
stilted,  columnar)  were  given  by  Seetzen  in  the  Fund. 
gruben  des  Orients.  Since  then  Professor  Rodiger  has 
produced  others,  and  illustrated  them  in  a  valuable 
paper  in  the  Zeitschrift fur  die  Kvm.de  des  Morgenlandes, 
i,  332.  The  letters  of  this  alphabet  have  a  striking 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  Ethiopic,  which  were  de- 
rived from  them.  In  Northern  Arabia,  on  the  other 
hand,  and  not  very  long  before  the  time  of  Moham- 
med, the  Syrian  character  called  Estrangelo  became 
the  model  on  which  the  Arabic  alphabet  called  the 


ity  which  exceeds  expectation.  Not  only  may  two  j  Kvfic  was  formed.  This  heavy,  angular  Kufie  char 
thirds  of  the  Hebrew  roots  (to  take  the  assertion  of  acter  was  the  one  in  which  the  early  copies  of  the  Ko- 
Aurivillius,  in  his  Dissertations,  p.  11,  ed.  Michaelis)  ran  were  written;  and  it  is  also  found  in  the  ancient 
be  found  in  Arabic  under  the  corresponding  letters,  j  Mohammedan  coinage  as  late  as  the  seventh  century 
and  either  in  the  same  or  a  very  kindred  sense;  but,  of  the  Hegira.  From  this,  at  length,  was  derived  the 
if  we  allow  for  the  changes  of  the  weak  and  cognate  '.  light,  neat  character  called  Nishi,  the  one  in  which 
letters,  we  shall  be  able  to  discover  a  still  greater  pro-  the  Arabs  continue  to  write  at  the  present  day,  and 
portion.  To  this  great  fundamental  agreement  in  the  !  which  is  represented  in  our  printed  books.  The  intro- 
vocabulary  (the  wonder  of  which  is  somewhat  dimin-  j  duction  of  this  character  is  ascribed  to  Urn  Mukla,  who 
ished  by  a* right  estimate  of  the  immense  disproportion  died  in  the  year  327  of  the  Hegira.  See  Alphabet. 
between  the  two  languages  as  to  the  number  of  roots)  Lastly,  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  all  the  letters  of  the 
are  to  be  added  those  resemblances  which  relate  to  l  Arabic  alphabet  are  only  consonants;  that,  in  an  nn- 
the  mode  of  inflexion  and  construction.  Thus,  in  the  j  pointed  text,  the  long  vowels  are  denoted  by  the  use 
verb,  its  two  wide  tenses,  the  mode  by  which  the  per-  of  Alif,  Waw,  and  Ya,  as  matres  lectionis;  and  that  the 
sons  are  denoted  at  the  end  in  the  past,  and  at  the  be-  short  vowels  are  not  denoted  at  all,  but  are  left,  to  be 
ginning  (with  the  accessory  distinctions  at  the  end)  in  '  supplied  according  to  the  sense  in  which  the  reader 
the  future  tense,  its  capability  of  expressing  the  gen- j  takes  the  words;  whereas,  in  a  pointed  text,  three 
der  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  and  the  system  on  points  only  suffice  to  represent  the  whole  vocalization, 
which  the  conjugations  are  formed;  and  in  the  noun,  the  equivalents  to  which,  according  to  the  way  in 
the  correspondence  in  formations,  in  the  use  of  the  j  which  they  are.  usually  expressed,  are  a,  i,  u,  pro- 
two  genders,  and  in  all  the  essential  characteristics    nounced  as  in  Italian. 

of  construction ;  the  possession  of  the  definite  article;  |  "The  many  uses  of  the  Arabic  language  in  Bib- 
the  independent  and  affixed  pronouns  ;  and  the  same  lical  philology  (exclusive  of  the  advantages  it  affords 
system  of  separable  and  attached  particles— all  these  |  for  comparing  the  Arabic  versions)  may  hi  part  be 


ARABIC  LANGUAGE 


350 


ARABIC  VERSIONS 


gathered  from  the  degree  of  its  affinity  to  the  Hebrew  ; 
and,  indeed,  chief]}'  to  the  Hebrew  before  the  exile, 
after  which  period  the  Aramaic  is  the  most  fruitful 
means  of  illustration  (Malm,  Durstellvng  der  Leaico- 
graphie,  p.  S91).  But  there  are  some  peculiarities  in 
the  relative  position  of  the  two  dialects  which  con- 
siderably enhance  the  value  of  the  aid  to  be  derived 
from  the  Arabic.  The  Hebrew  language  of  the  Old 
Testament  has  preserved  to  us  but  a  small  fragment 
of  literature.  In  the  limited  number  of  its  roots 
(some  of  which  even  do  not  occur  in  the  primary 
sense),  in  the  rarity  of  some  formations,  and  in  the  an- 
tique rudimentary  mode  in  which  some  of  its  construc- 
tions are  denoted,  are  contained  those  difficulties 
which  cannot  receive  any  other  illustration  than  that 
which  the  sister  dialects,  and  most  especially  the  Ara- 
bic, afford.  For  this  purpose,  the  resemblances  be- 
tween them  are  as  useful  as  the  diversities.  The  for- 
mer enable  us  to  feel  certain  on  points  which  were  li- 
able to  doubt;  they  confirm  and  establish  an  intelli- 
gent conviction  that  the  larger  portion  of  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  meaning  of  words,  and  of  the  force  of  con- 
structions in  Hebrew,  is  on  a  sure  foundation,  because 
we  recognise  the  same  in  a  kindred  form,  and  in  a  lit- 
erature so  voluminous  as  to  afford  us  frequent  oppor- 
tunities of  testing  our  notions  by  every  variety  of  ex- 
perience. The  diversities,  on  the  other  hand  (accord- 
ing to  a  mode  of  observation  very  frequent  in  com- 
parative anatomy),  show  us  what  exists  potentially  in 
the  rudimentary  state  by  enabling  us  to  see  how  a 
language  of  the  same  genius  has,  in  the  farther  prog- 
ress of  its  development,  felt  the  necessity  of  denoting 
externally  those  relations  of  formation  and  construc- 
tion which  were  only  dimly  perceived  in  its  antique 
and  uncultivated  form.  Thus,  to  adduce  a  single  il- 
lustration from  the  Arabic  cases  in  the  noun  :  The  pre- 
cise relation  of  the  words  mouth  and  life,  in  the  com- 
mon Hebrew  phrases,  "I  call  my  mouth,"  and  "he 
smote  him  his  life"  (Ewald's  Hebr.  Gram.  §  482),  is 
easily  intelligible  to  one  whom  Arabic  has  familiarized 
with  the  perpetual  use  of  the  so-called  accusative  to 
denote  the  accessor}'  descriptions  of  state.  Another 
important  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of 
Arabic  is  the  opportunity  of  seeing  the  grammar  of  a 
Syro-Arabian  language  explained  by  native  scholars. 
Hebrew  grammar  has  suffered  much  injury  from  the 
mistaken  notions  of  men  who,  understanding  the  sense 
of  the  written  documents  by  the  aid  of  the  versions, 
have  been  exempted  from  obtaining  any  independent 
and  inward  feeling  of  the  genius  of  the  language,  and 
have  therefore  not  hesitated  to  accommodate  it  to  the 
grammar  of  our  Indo-Germanic  idioms.  In  Arabic, 
however,  we  have  a  language,  every  branch  of  the 
philosophical  study  of  which  has  been  successfully 
cultivated  by  the  Arabs  themselves.  Their  own  lexi- 
cographers, grammarians,  and  scholiasts  (to  whom 
the  Jews  also  are  indebted  for  teaching  them  the 
grammatical  treatment  of  Hebrew)  have  placed  the 
language  before  us  with  such  elaborate  explanation 
of  its  entire  character,  that  Arabic  is  not  only  by  far 
the  best  understood  of  the  Syro-Arabian  dialects,  but 
may  even  challenge  comparison,  as  to  the  possession 
of  these  advantages,  with  the  Greek  itself"  (Kitto). 

IV.  Literature. — The  native  works  in  Arabic  are 
.  exceedingly  numerous  and  varied,  embracing  philolo- 
gy, philosophy,  natural  science,  poetiy,  history,  etc. 
Many  are  still  unpublished.  A  compendious  view  of 
the  literary  productions  of  Arabic  authors  ma}'  be 
found  in  Pierer's  Universal  Lexikon  (Altenb.  1857  sq.), 
s.  v.  "  Arabische  Literatur;"  also  in  Appleton's  New 
American  Encyclopaedia,  s.  v.  "Arabic  Language  and 
Literature."  Oomp.alsoan  articleon  the  "Arab.  Lang, 
and  Lit."  by  Prof.  Packard,  in  the  Am.  Bib.  Repos.  Oct. 
1836,  p.  429-448.  Zenker's  Bibliotheca  Orientatis  ( Lpz. 
1846-62,  2  vols.  8vo)  gives  a  full  list  of  Arabic  books 
hitherto  issued. 

European  works  expressly  on  the  history  and  usage 


of  the  Arabic  language  are  by  the  following  authors: 
Pococke  (Oxf.  1661),  Celsius  (in  Barkey's  Bibl.  Brem. 
iv,  1,  2,  3),  Hyde  (in  his  Syntug.  Diss,  ii,  450),  Schul- 
tens  (in  his  Orig.  Jleb.  Lugd.  B.  1761,  p.  615),  De 
Jenisch  (Vien.  1780),  Eichhorn  (introd.  to  Richardson's 
Abh.  iib.  morgenland.  Vulktn,  Lpz.  177'J),  Hottinger  (in 
his  Anakcta  hist,  theol.  Tigur.  1652),  Schelling  (Stuttg. 
1771),  Schnurrer  (in  Eichhorn's  Biblioth.  iii,  951  sq.), 
Tingstad  (Upsal.  1794),  Humbert  (Geneve,  1824).  Ar- 
j  abic  grammars  are  by  the  following :  Erpenius  (Leyd. 
1613,  and  often  since,  abridged,  etc.,  by  Schultens, 
j  Michaelis,  and  others),  Lakemacher  (Helmst.  1718), 
'  Hirt  (Jen.  1770),  Yriemoet  (Franeq.  1783),  Hezel  (Jen. 
1 1776,  etc.),  id.  (Lpz.  1784),  Wahl  (Halle,  1789),  Paulus 
(Jen.  1790),  Hasse  (Jen.  1793),  Tyschen  (Rost.  1792), 
Jahn  (Wien.  1796),  Sylvestre'de  Sacy  (Par.  1810  and 
since),  Von  Lumsden  (Calc.  1813),  Roorda  (2d  ed. 
Leyd.  1858-9,  8vo),  Yon  Oberleitner  (Vien.  1822), 
Iiosenmuller  (Lips.  1818),  Tychsen  (Gott.  1823),  Ewald 
(Lips.  1831,  etc.),  Vullers  (Bonne,  1832),  Petermann 
(Berol.  1840),  Caspari  (Leipz.  1848,  1859,  an  excellent 
manual),  Glaire  (Paris,  1861),  Beaumont  (Lond.  1861), 
Winckler  (Lpz.  1862),  Forbes  (Lond.  1863),  Gtischel 
(Vien.  1864),  Wright  (Grammar  of  the  Arabian  Lan- 
guage, from  Caspari,  with  additions,  2  vols.  8vo,  Lond. 
!  1859-62,  the  best  for  English  readers);  on  the  new  or 
!  vulgar  Arabic,  by  Herberi  (Par.  1803),  Caussin  de  Per- 
j  ceval  (2d  ed.  Paris,  1833),  Savary  (Paris,  1813),  Bella- 
mare  (1850),  Florian-Pharaon  and  E.  L.  Bertherand 
i  (Par.  1859),  Wahrmund  (Lpz.  1860  sq.).  Native  lex- 
icons are  those  of  the  historian  Fakr  ed-Daulah  (947- 
993) ;  Elias  bar-Sina  el-Jaubari  (d.  post  1200),  El-Si- 
hah,  in  Turkish,  by  Van  Kuli  (Const.  1728),  and  Per- 
sic (Calc.  1812);  Firuzabadi's  Kamiis  (Scutari,  1815 
sq.)  :  by  Europeans,  those  of  Giggejus  (Mediol.  1632), 
Golius  (Lugd.  Bat.  :653),  Mesquien  Mcninski  (Vien. 
1780-1801),  Schied  (Lugd.  B.  1769,  etc.),  Willmet  (Kot- 
erd.  1784),  Freytag  (Hal.  1830-1836,  abridged,  ib.  1838), 
Kazimiroti  (1848),  Catafago  (Arabic  and  English  Diet. 
Lond.  1858,  8vo,  a  convenient  manual),  Lane  (Arabic 
Lexicon,  Lond.  1863,  sq.  4to,  the  best  in  English);  for 
the  vulgar  Arabic,  the  lexicons  of  Canes  (1781),  De 
Perceval  (Paris,  1828,  2  vols.),  De  la  Grange  (Paris, 
1828),  De  Passo  (Alg.  1846).  Chrestcmathies  are  by 
Jahn  (1802),  De  Sacy  (Par.  1806,  1826,  3  vols.),  Kose- 
garten  (Lpz.  1824,  1828),  Rosenmuller  (Lpz.  1814), 
Von  Humbert  (Par.  1834),  Freytag  (Bonn,  1834),  Ar- 
nold (Lond.  1856,  the  most  convenient  for  English) ; 
but  Tauchnitz's  splendid  ed.  of  the  Koran  (Lips.  1841, 
2d  ster.  ed.,  small  4to)  furnishes  a  sufficient  reading- 
book  :  for  the  modern  dialect  is  the  work  of  Bres nier 
(Alg.  1845).  Beginners  in  English  may  make  use  of 
Arabic  Beading-Lessons  by  Davis  and  Davidson  (pub- 
lished by  Bagster,  Lond.  12mo). 

Arabic  Versions.  The  following  is  a  conspectus 
of  those  hitherto  published  (also  the  treatise,  De  rer- 
sionibas  Arabicis,  in  Walton's  Poli/glott,  i,  93  sq. ;  Po- 
cocke, Var.  Led.  Arab.  V.  T.,  ib.  vi):  BiUia  Arabica 
V.  d  K  T.,  in  Walton's  roh/ghtt  ,•  Bib.  Ar.,  ed.  Risius 
(3  vols,  fol.,  Rom.  1671,  said  by  Michaelis  to  be  alter- 
ed from  the  Latin);  Arabic  Bible,  ed.  Carl  vie  (New- 
castle, 1811  and  1816,  4to);  Bible  (Lond.  1831,  8vo) ; 
Bible,  a  new  version  for  the  "Society  for  promoting 
Chr.  Knowledge"  (Lond.  1857  sq.,  8vo)  ;  Bible,  a  new 
version  for  the  "Am.  Bible  Soc,"  ed.  Dr.  Vandyke 
(now  [1865]  stereotyping  at  N.  Y.  in  various  forms); 
V.  T.  Arab.  interpr.*Tuki  (unfinished,  Rom.  1752  sq.); 
Pentateuch  by  Saadias  Gaon  (in  Walton's  Polyglot?) ; 
N.  T.  Arabice,  ed.  Erpenius  (Leyd.  1616,  4to;  altered 
to  suit  the  Greek,  Lond.  1727,  4to) ;  New  Test,  by  Sa- 
bat  (Calcutta,  1816,  8vo;  London,  1825,  8vo;  revised, 
Calcutta,  1826,  8vo;  Lond.  1850,  8vo;  in  Syriac  char- 
acters, Paris,  1822,  8vo);  Quatuor  Evangelia,  ed.  Ray- 
mund  (Rom.  1590,  fol.). 

Early  I  '<  rsions.  —  Inasmuch  as  Christianity  never 
attained  any  extensive  or  permanent  influence  among 
the  Arabs  as  a  nation,  no  entire  nor  publicly  sane- 


ARABIC  VERSIONS 


351 


ARABIC  VERSIONS 


tioned  Arabic  version  of  the  Bible  has  been  discovered. 
But,  as  political  events  at  length  made  the  Arabic  lan- 
guage the  common  vehicle  of  instruction  in  the  East, 
and  that  to  Jews,  Samaritans,  and  Christians,  inde- 
pendent versions  of  single  books  were  often  under- 
taken, according  to  the  zeal  of  private  persons,  or  the 
interests  of  small  communities.  The  following  is  a 
classified  list  of  only  the  most  important  among  them. 
(See  the  Einleitungen  of  Eichhorn,  Bertholdt,  and  De 
AVette.) 

I.  Arabic  versions  formed  immediately  on  the  orig- 
inal texts. 

a.  Rabbi  Saadyah  Haggaon  (usually  called  Saa- 
dias),  a  native  of  Fayum,  and  rector  of  the  academy 
at  Sora,  who  died  A.D.  942,  is  the  author  of  a  version 
of  some  portions  of  the  Old  Testament.  Erpenius  and 
Pococke,  indeed,  affirm  that  he  translated  the  whole 
(Walton's  Prolegomena,  ed.  Wrangham,  ii,  546) ;  but 
subsequent  inquirers  have  not  hitherto  been  able,  with 
any  certainty,  to  assign  to  him  more  than  a  version 
of  the  Pentateuch,  of  Isaiah,  of  Job,  and  of  a  portion 
of  Hosea. 

(1)  That  of  the  Pentateuch  first  appeared,  in  Hebrew 
characters,  in  the  folio  Tetraglot  Pentateuch  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  the  year  1546.  The  exact  title  of  this 
exceedingly  rare  book  is  not  given  by  Wolf,  by  Masch, 
nor  by  De  Rossi  (it  is  said  to  be  found  in  Adler's 
Biblisch-kritische  Reise,  p.  221)  ;  but,  according  to  the 
title  of  it  which  Tychsen  cites  from  Rabbi  Shabtai  (in 
Eichhorn's  Repertorium,  x,  90),  Saadj-ah's  name  is  ex- 
pressly mentioned  there  as  the  author  of  that  Arabic 
version.  Nearly  a  century  later  an  Arabic  version 
of  the  Pentateuch  was  printed  in  the  Polyglot  of 
Paris,  from  a  MS.  belonging  to  F.  Savary  de  Breves ; 
and  the  text  thus  obtained  was  then  reprinted  in  the 
London  Polyglot,  with  a  collection  of  the  various 
readings  of  the  Constantinopolitan  text,  and  of  another 
MS.  in  the  appendix.  For  it  was  admitted  that  Saad- 
yah was  the  author  of  the  Constantinopolitan  version  ; 
and  the  identity  of  that  text  with  that  of  the  Paris 
Polyglot  was  maintained  by  Pococke  (who  neverthe- 
less acknowledged  frequent  interpolations  in  the  lat- 
ter), and  had  been  confirmed  even  by  the  collation 
which  Ilottinger  had  instituted  to  establish  their  di- 
versity. The  identity  of  all  these  texts  was  thus  con 
sidered  a  settled  point,  and  long  remained  so,  until 
Michaelis  published  (in  his  Orient.  Bibl.  ix,  155  sq.)  a 
copy  of  a  Latin  note  which  Jos.  Ascari  had  prefixed  to 
the  very  MS.  of  De  Breves,  from  which  the  Paris 
Polyglot  had  derived  its  Arabic  version.  That  note 
ascribed  the  version  to  "  Saidus  Fajumensis,  Monachus 
Coptites;"  and  thus  Saadyah's  claim  to  be  considered 
the  author  of  the  version  in  the  Polyglots  was  again 
liable  to  question.  At  length,  however,  Schnurrer 
(in  his  Dissertut.  de  Pentat.  Arab.  Pohjgl.  in  his  Dissert. 
Philologico-criticai)  printed  the  Arabic  preface  of  that 
MS.,  proved  that  there  was  no  foundation  for  the 
"Monachus  Coptites,"  and  endeavored  to  show  that 
Sa'id  was  the  Arabic  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  Saad- 
yah, and  to  re-establish  the  ancient  opinion  of  the 
identity  of  the  two  texts.  The  results  which  he  ob- 
tained appear  (with  the  exception  of  a  feeble  attempt 
of  Tychsen  to  ascribe  the  version  to  Abu  Said  in  the 
Repertorium)  to  have  convinced  most  modern  critics ; 
and,  indeed,  they  have  received  much  confirmation  by 
the  appearance  of  the  version  of  Isaiah.  This  version 
of  the  Pentateuch,  which  is  an  honorable  monument 
of  the  rabbinical  Biblical  philology  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, possesses,  in  the  independence  of  its  tone  and  in 
some  peculiarities  of  interpretation,  the  marks  of  hav- 
ing been  formed  on  the  original  text.  It  leans,  of 
course,  to  Jewish  exegetical  authorities  generally,  but 
often  follows  the  Sept.,  and  as  often  appears  to  ex- 
press views  peculiar  to  its  author.  Carpzov  has  given 
numerous  examples  of  its  mode  of  interpretation  in 
his  Crit.  Sacr.  p.  646  sq.  It  is  also  marked  by  a  cer- 
tain loose  and  paraphrastic  style  of  rendering,  which 


makes  it  more  useful  in  an  exegetical  than  in  a  crit- 
ical point  of  view.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  deter- 
mine how  much  of  this  diffuseness  is  due  to  Saadyah 
himself.  For,  not  only  is  the  printed  text  of  his  ver- 
sion more  fault)'  in  this  respect  than  a  Florentine  MS., 
some  of  the  readings  of  which  Adler  has  given  in 
Eichhorn's  Einleit.  ins  A.  T.  ii,  245,  but  it  has  suffered 
a  systematic  interpolation.  A  comparison  of  the  Con- 
stantinopolitan text  with  that  of  the  Polyglots  shows 
that  where  the  former  retains  those  terms  of  the  He- 
brew in  which  action  or  passion  is  ascribed  to  God — 
the  so-called  dvOpioTTOTrciOeiai —  the  latter  has  the 
"Angel  of  God,"  or  some  other  mode  of  evading  di- 
rect expressions.  These  interpolations  are  ascribed 
by  Eichhorn  to  a  Samaritan  source ;  for  Morinus  and 
Hottinger  assert  that  the  custom  of  omitting  or  evading 
the  anthropomorphisms  of  the  Hebrew  text  is  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  Samaritan  versions.  (2)  A  version  of 
Isaiah,  which  in  the  original  MS.  is  ascribed  to  Saad- 
yah, with  several  extrinsic  evidences  of  truth,  and 
without  the  opposition  of  a  single  critic,  appeared  un- 
der the  title,  R.  Saadice  Ph'jumensis  Versio  Jesaice 
Arabica  e  MS.  Bodley.  edidit  at  que  Glossar.  instrurit, 
H.  E.  G.  Paulus  (fasc.  ii,  Jena,  1791,  8vo).  The  text 
was  copied  from  a  MS.  written  in  Hebrew  characters, 
and  the  difficulty  of  always  discovering  the  equivalent 
Arabic  letters  into  which  it  was  to  be  transposed  has 
been  one  source  of  the  inaccuracies  observable  in  the 
work.  Gesenius  (in  his  Jesaias,  i,  88  sq.)  has  given 
a  summary  view  of  the  characteristics  of  this  version, 
and  has  shown  the  great  general  agreement  between 
them  and  those  of  the  version  of  the  Pentateuch  in  a 
manner  altogetherconfirmatory  of  thebelief  in  the  iden- 
tity of  the  authors  of  both.  (3)  Saadyah's  version  of 
Job  exists  in  MS.  at  Oxford,  where  Gesenius  took  a 
copy  of  it  (Jesaias,  p.  x).  (4)  That  of  Hosea  is  only 
known  from  the  citation  of  ch.  vi,  9,  by  Kimchi  (Po- 
cocke's  Theolog.  Works,  ii,  280). 

b.  The  version  of  Joshua  which  is  printed  in  the 
Paris  and  London  Polyglots,  the  author  and  date  of 
which  are  unknown. 

c.  The  version  of  the  whole  passage  from  1  Kings 
xii  to  2  Kings  xii,  10,  inclusive,  which  is  also  found 
in  the  same  Polyglots.  Professor  Rodiger  has  col- 
lected the  critical  evidences  which  prove  that  this 
whole  interval  is  translated  from  the  Hebrew  ;  and 
ascribes  the  version  to  an  unknown  Damascene  Jew 
of  the  eleventh  century.  Likewise,  the  passage  in 
Nehemiah,  from  i  to  ix,  27,  inclusive,  as  it  exists  in 
both  Polyglots,  which  he  asserts  to  be  the  translation 
of  a  Jew  (resembling  that  of  Joshua  in  style),  but 
with  subsequent,  interpolations  by  a  Syrian  Christian. 
(See  his  work  De  Origine  Arabicm  Libror.  V.  T.  His- 
toric. Interpretations,  Halle,  1829,  4to.) 

d.  The  very  close  and  almost  slavish  version  of  the 
Pentateuch,  by  some  Mauritanian  Jew  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  which  Erpenius  published  at  Leyden 
in  1622 — the  so-called  A  rabs  Erpenii. 

e.  The  Samaritan  Arabic  version  of  Abu  Sa'id. 
According  to  the  author's  preface  affixed  to  the  Paris 
MS.  of  this  version  (No.  4),  the  original  of  which  is 
given  in  Eichhorn's  Bibl.  Biblioth.  iii,  6,  Abu  Sa'id 
was  induced  to  undertake  it,  parti}-  by  seeing  the  cor- 
rupt state  to  which  ignorant  copyists  had  reduced  the 
version  then  used  by  the  Samaritans,  and  partly  by 
discovering  that  the  version  which  the}-  used,  under 
the  belief  that  it  was  that  of  Abu'l  Hasan  of  Tyre, 
was  in  reality  none  other  than  that  of  Saadyah  Hag- 
gaon. His  national  prejudice  being  thus  excited 
against  an  accursed  Jew,  and  the  "manifest  impiety" 
of  some  of  his  interpretations,  he  applied  himself  to 
this  translation,  and  accompanied  it  with  notes,  in  or- 
der to  justify  his  renderings,  to  explain  difficulties, 
and  to  dispute  with  the  Jews.  His  version  is  charac- 
terized by  extreme  fidelity  to  the  Samaritan  text  (i.  c. 
in  other  words,  to  the  Hebrew  text  with  the  differ- 
ences which  distinguish  the  Samaritan  recension  of  it), 


ARABIC  VERSIONS 


352 


ARAH 


retaining  even  the  order  of  the  words,  and  often  sac- 
rificing  the  proprieties  of  the  Arabic  idiom  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  very  terms  of  the  original.  It  is  cer- 
tainly not  formed  on  the  Samaritan  version,  although 
it  sometimes  agrees  with  it ;  and  it  has  such  a  resem- 
blance to  the  version  of  Saadyah  as  implies  familiarity 
■with  it,  or  a  designed  use  of  its  assistance ;  and  it  ex- 
ceeds both  these  in  the  constant  avoidance  of  all  an- 
thropomorphic expressions.  Its  date  is  unknown,  but 
it  must  have  been  executed  between  the  tenth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  because  it  was  necessarily  pos- 
terior to  Saadyah's  version,  and  because  the  Barberini 
copy  of  it  was  written  A.D.  1227.  It  is  to  be  regret- 
ted that  this  version,  although  it  would  be  chiefly 
available  in  determining  the  readings  of  the  Samari- 
tan Pentateuch,  is  still  unpublished.  It  exists  in 
MS.  at  Oxford  (one  of  the  copies  there  being  the  one 
cited  by  Castell  in  the  Appendix  to  the  London  Poly- 
glot), at  Paris,  Leyden,  and  at  Rome,  in  the  cele- 
brated Barberini  Triglot  (the  best  description  of 
which  is  in  De  Rossi"s  Specimen  Var.  Led.  ct  Chald. 
Estheris  Additamenta,  Tubingen,  1783).  Portions 
only  have  been  printed :  the  earliest  by  Hottinger,  in 
his  Promtuarium,  p.  98 ;  and  the  longest  two  by  De 
Sacy,  with  an  interesting  dissertation,  in  Eichhorn's 
Bib!.  Biblioth.  x,  and  by  Van  Vloten,  in  his  Specim. 
Philol  *g.  continens  descrip.  cod.  MS.  Biblioth.  Lugd.- 
Bat.  Partemque  Vers.  Sam.  Arab.Pentat.  (Leidse,  1S03). 

f.  A  version  of  the  Gospels,  which  was  first  print- 
ed at  Rome  in  1590,  then  in  the  Arabic  New  Testa- 
ment of  Erpenius  in  1G16,  and  afterward  in  the  Paris 
Polyglot  (the  text  of  which  last  is  the  one  copied  in 
that  of  London).  The  first  two  of  these  editions  are 
derived  from  MSS.,  and  the  variations  which  distin- 
guish the  text  of  Paris  from  that  of  Rome  are  also  sup- 
posed to  have  been  obtained  from  a  MS.  The  agree- 
ment and  the  diversity  of  all  these  texts  are  equally 
remarkable.  The  agreement  is  so  great  as  to  prove 
that  they  all  represent  only  one  and  the  same  version, 
and  thai  one  based  immediately  on  the  Greek.  The 
diversities  (exclusive  of  errors  of  copyists)  consist  in 
the  irregular  changes  which  have  been  made  in  every 
one  of  these  MSS.,  separately,  to  adapt  it  indiscrimi- 
nately to  the  Peshito  or  Coptic  versions.  This  sur- 
prising amalgamation  is  thus  accounted  for  hy  Hug  : 
When  the  prevalence  of  the  Arabic  language  had  ren- 
dered the  Syriac  and  Coptic  obsolete,  the  Syrians  and 
Copts  were  obliged  to  use  an  Arabic  version.  They 
therefore  took  some  translation  in  that  language,  but 
first  adapted  it  to  the  Peshito  and  Memphitic  versions 
respectively.  As  the  Peshito  and  Coptic  versions 
still  continued  to  be  read  first  in  their  churches,  and 
the  Arabic  translation  immediately  afterward,  as  a 
kind  of  Targum,  it  became  usual  to  write  their  nation- 
al versions  and  this  amended  Arabic  version  in  paral- 
lel columns.  This  mere  juxtaposition  led  to  a  further 
adulteration  in  each  case.  Afterward,  two  of  these 
MSS.,  which  had  thus  suffered  different  adaptations, 
were  brought  together  by  some  means,  and  mutually 
corrupted  each  other— by  which  a  third  text,  the  hy- 
brid one  of  our  Arabic  version,  was  produced.  The 
age  of  the  original  Arabic  text  is  uncertain  ;  but  the 
circumstance  of  its  adoption  by  the  Syrians  and  Copts 
places  it  near  the  seventh  century  (Bertholdt's  Einleit. 
i.  692  sq.). 

g.  The  version  of  the  Acts,  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul, 
of  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  of  the  Apocalypse,  which 
is  found  in  both  the  Polyglots.  The  author  is  un- 
known, but  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Cyrene,  and  the  date  to  be  the  eighth  or  ninth  century 
(Bertholdt,  ibid.). 

II.  Arabic  versions  founded  on  the  Sept. 

a.  The  Polyglot  version  of  the  Prophets,  which  is 
expressly  said  in  the  inscription  in  the  Paris  MS.  to 
have  been  made  from  the  Greek  by  an  Alexandrian 
priest.  Its  date  is  probably  later  than  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. 


b.  That  of  the  Psalms  (according  to  the  Sj-rian  re- 
cension) which  is  printed  in  Justiniani's  Psalt.  Octa- 
plum.  (Genoa,  1516"),  and  in  Liber.  Psalmor.  a  Gabr. 
Sionita  et  Vict.  Scialac.  (Rome,  1G14). 

c.  That  version  of  the  Psalms  which  is  in  use  by 
the  Malkites,  or  Orthodox  Oriental  Christians,  made 
by  'Abdallah  ben  al-Fadhl,  before  the  twelfth  century. 
It  has  been  printed  at  Aleppo  in  1706,  in  London  in 
1725,  and  elsewhere. 

d.  The  version  of  the  Psalms  (according  to  the 
Egyptian  recension)  found  in  both  the  Polyglots. 

III.  Arabic  versions  formed  on  the  Peshito. 

a.  The  Polyglot  version  of  Job,  of  Chronicles,  and 
(according  to  ROdiger,  who  ascribes  them  to  Christian 
translators  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries) 
that  of  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  1  Kings  i  to  xi,  and  2 
Kings  xii,  17,  to  xxv. 

b.  The  version  of  the  Psalms  printed  at  Kashaya, 
near  Mount  Lebanon,  in  1610. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

For  further  information  and  criticism  respecting  the 
character  and  value  of  these  and  other  Arabic  ver- 
sions, see  Rosenmuller's  Handb.  f.  a.  Liter atur.  iii,  38 
sq.,  132  sq. ;  Dr.  Davidson,  in  the  new  ed.  of  Home's 
Introd.  ii,  68  sq. ;  Davidson's  Treatise  on  Biblical 
Criticism  (Lond.  1843),  i,  255-260;  ii,  222-229.  See 
Versions  ;  Criticism. 

Arabici.     See  Arabians. 

Arabim.     See  Willow. 

A'rad  (Hcb.  Arad',  1*13,  perh.  flight),  the  name 
of  a  city  and  of  a  man. 

1.  (Sept.  'Apc'iv,  but  in  Josh.  "Acep.)  An  ancient 
city  (so  called  perhaps  from  wild  asses  in  the  vicinity, 
comp.  Tl*1?,  onager)  on  the  southernmost  borders  of 
Palestine,  whose  inhabitants  drove  back  the  Israelites 
as  they  attempted  to  penetrate  from  Kadesh  into  Ca- 
naan (Num.  xxi,  1 ;  xxxiii,  40,  where  the  Auth.  Vers, 
has  "King  Arad,"  instead  of  "King  of  Arad"),  but 
were  eventually  subdued  by  Joshua,  along  with  the 
other  southern  Canaanites  (Josh,  xii,  14 ;  also  Judg. 
i,  16).  It  lay  within  the  original  limits  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (Josh,  xii,  14)  north  (north-west)  of  the 
desert  of  Judah  (Judg.  i,  16).  Eusebius  (Apapa)  and 
Jerome  place  Arad  twenty  Roman  miles  from  Hebron, 
and  four  from  Malatha,  in  the  neighborhood  cf  the 
desert  of  Kadesh  (see  Reland,  Palasst.  p.  481,  501,  573). 
This  accords  well  with  the  situation  of  a  hill  called 
Tell  Arad,  which  Dr.  Robinson  observed  on  the  road 
from  Petra  to  Hebron.  He  describes  it  as  "  a  barren- 
looking  eminence  rising  above  the  country  around." 
He  did  not  examine  the  spot,  but  the  Arabs  said  there 
were  no  ruins  upon  or  near  it,  but  only  a  cavern  (Re- 
searches, ii,  472,  622).  The  same  identification  is 
proposed  bjr  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  86).  See  HoRMAH. 
According  to  Van  de  Velde  (Narrat.  ii,  83-85)  there 
arc  fragments  of  pottery  on  the  top  of  the  Tell,  and  a 
ruined  reservoir  on  its  south  side.  It  was  an  episco- 
pal city  in  Jerome's  time  (Ritter,  Erdk.  xiv,  121). 

2.  (Sept.  'AputS  v.  r.  'Qpjj5.)  One  of  the  "sons"  of 
Beriah  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii,  15), 
B.C.  apparently  536. 

Arad.     See  Wild  Ass. 

Ar'adus  ("Apacoc),  a  city  included  in  the  list  of 
places  to  which  the  decree  of  Lucius  the  consul,  pro- 
tecting the  Jews  under  Simon  the  high-priest,  was 
addressed  1 1  Mace,  xv,  23).  It  is  no  doubt  the  Arvad 
(q.  v.)  of  Scripture  (Gen.  x,  17). 

A 'rah  (Ileb.  Arach' ,  rPX,  prob.  for  H'lN,  way- 
faring'), the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'OotxO  The  first  named  of  the  three  sons 
of  Ulla  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii,  39).  B.C. 
apparently  1017. 

2.  (Sep"t.  'Apt c,  'Hp«.)  An  Israelite  whose  posterity 
(variously  stated  as  775  and  652  in  number)  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii,  5;  Neh.  vii, 
10).     B.C.  ante  536.     He  is  probably  the  same  with 


ARAM 


353 


ARAM 


the  Arah  (Sept.  'Ho«e)  whose  son  Shechaniah  was  fa- 
ther-in-law of  Tobiah  (Neh.  vi,  18). 

A'ram  (Heb.  Aram',  b'lK,  prob.  from  D'l,  high, 
q.  d.  highlands  ;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  'Apd/i :  see  Gesenius, 
Thes.  Heb.  p.  151 ;  Forbiger,  Alte  Geogr.  ii,  041,  Aura.), 
the  name  of  a  nation  or  country,  with  that  of  its 
founder  and  two  or  three  other  men.  See  also  Beth- 
Aram.     Comp.  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 

1.  Aram^a  (Sept.  and  later  versions  Syria)  was 
the  name  given  by  the  Hebrews  to  the  tract  of  coun- 
try lying  between  Phoenicia  on  the  west,  Palestine  on 
the  south,  Arabia  Deserta  and  the  Kiver  Tigris  on  the 
east,  and  the  mountain  range  of  Taurus  on  the  north. 
Many  parts  of  this  extensive  territory  have  a  much 
lower  level  than  Palestine ;  but  it  might  receive  the 
designation  of  "  highlands,"  because  it  does  rise  to  a 
greater  elevation  than  that  country  at  most  points  of 
immediate  contact,  and  especiall)-  on  the  side  of  Leb- 
anon. Aram,  or  Aramsea,  seems  to  have  corresponded 
generally  to  the  Syria  (q.  v.)  and  Mesopotamia  (q.  v.) 
of  the  Greeks  anil  Romans.  We  hnd  the  following 
divisions  expressly  noticed  in  Scripture.  SeeCANAAN. 

1.  Aram'-Damme'sek,  pb53^  W? X,  the  "  Syria 
of  Damascus"  conquered  by  David,  2  Sam.  viii,  5,  6, 
where  it  denotes  only  the  territory  around  Damascus  ; 
but  elsewhere  "  Aram,"  in  connection  with  its  capital 
"  Damascus,"  appears  to  be  used  in  a  wider  sense  for 
Syria  Proper  (Isa.  vii,  1,  8  ;  xvii,  3 ;  Amos  i,  5).  At 
a  later  period  Damascus  gave  name  to  a  district,  the 
Syria  Damascena  of  Pliny  (v,  13).  To  this  part  of 
Aram  the  "land  of  Hadrach"  seems  to  have  belonged 
(Zech.  ix,  1).     See  Damascus. 

2.  Aram'-Maakah',  hSSB  tnx  (l  Chron.  xix, 
6),  or  simply  Maakah  (2  Sam.  x,  G,  8),  which,  if 
formed  from  ?IS73, to  "press  together,"  would  describe 
a  country  enclosed  and  hemmed  in  by  mountains,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  next  division,  Aram-beth- 
Rehob,  i.  e.  Syria  the  wide  or  broad,  fT^a  being  used 
in  Syria  for  a  "  district  of  country."  Aram-Maachah 
was  not  far  from  the  northern  border  of  the  Israelites 
on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  (comp.  Deut.  iii,  14,  with 
Josh,  xiii,  11, 13).  In  2  Sam.  x,  G,  the  text  has  "  King 
Maachah,"  but  it  is  to  be  corrected  from  the  parallel 
passage  in  1  Chron.  xix,  7,  "  king  of  Maachah."  See 
Maachah. 

3.  Aram'-beyth-Reciiob',  S"in"l  n^a  C1X,  the 
meaning  of  which  may  be  that  given  above,  but  the 
precise  locality  cannot  with  certainty  be  determined 
(2  Sam.  x,  G).  Some  connect  it  with  the  Beth-rehob 
of  Judg.  xviii,  28,  which  Rosenmuller  identities  with 
the  Rehob  of  Num.  xiii,  21,  situated  "  as  men  come 
to  Hamath,"  and  supposes  the  district  to  be  that  now 
known  as  the  Ardh  el-IIhule  at  the  foot  of  Anti-Liba- 
nus,  near  the  sources  of  the  Jordan.  A  place  called 
Rehob  is  also  mentioned  in  Judg.  i,  31 ;  Josh,  xix,  28, 
30;  xxi,  31;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  it  be  the  same. 
Michaelis  thinks  of  the  Rechoboth-han-Nahar  (lit. 
streets,  i.  e.  the  village  or  town  on  the  River  Euphrates) 
of  Gen.  xxxvi,  37;  but  still  more  improbable  is  the 
idea  of  Bellermann  and  Jahn  that  Aram-beth-Rehob 
was  beyond  the  Tigris  in  Assyria.     See  Rehob. 

4.  Aram'-Tsobah',  i"D"iX  fi^K,  or,  in  the  Syriac 
form,  X3i^,  Tsoba  (2  Sam.  x,  G).  Jewish  tradition 
has  placed  Zobah  at  Aleppo  (see  the  Itinerary  of  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela),  whereas  Syrian  tradition  identifies 
it  with  Nisibis,  a  city  in  the  north-east  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. Though  the  latter  opinion  long  obtained  cur- 
rency under  the  authority  of  Michaelis  (in  his  Dissert, 
cle  Syria  Sobwa,  to  be  found  in  the  Comment.  Soe.  Gut- 
ting. 1769),  yet  the  former  seems  a  much  nearer  ap- 
proximation to  the  truth.  We  may  gather  from 
2  Sam.  viii,  3;  x,  1G,  that  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Aram-Zobah  was  the  Euphrates,  but  Nisibis  was  far 
beyond  that  river;  besides  that  in  the  title  of  the  six- 

Z 


tieth  Psalm  (supposing  it  genuine)  Aram-Zobah  is 
clearly  distinguished  from  Aram-Naharaim,  or  Meso- 
potamia. It  is  true,  indeed,  that  in  2  Sam.  x,  16,  it 
is  said  that  Hadarezer,  king  of  Zobah,  brought  against 
David  "Aramites  from  be^yond  the  river,"  but  these 
were  auxiliaries,  and  not  his  own  subjects.  The  peo- 
ple of  Zobah  are  uniformly  spoken  of  as  near  neigh- 
bors of  the  Israelites,  the  Damascenes,  and  other  Syr- 
ians ;  and  in  one  place  (2  Chron.  viii,  3)  Hamath  is 
called  Hamath-Zobah,  as  pertaining  to  that  district. 
We  therefore  conclude  that  Aram-Zobah  extended 
from  the  Euphrates  westward,  perhaps  as  far  north 
as  to  Aleppo.  It  was  long  the  most  powerful  of  the 
petty  kingdoms  of  Aranuca,  its  princes  commonly  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Hadadezer  or  Hadarezer.    See  Zobah. 

5.  Aram'-Nahara'yim,  D^rtJ  E^X,  i.  e.  Aram 
of  the  Two  Rivers,  called  in  Syriac  "Beth-Nahrin,"i.  e. 
"  the  land  of  the  rivers,"  following  the  analogy  by 
which  the  Greeks  formed  the  name  MtaoTrorafjiia, 
"the  country  between  the  rivers."  For  that  Meso- 
potamia is  here  designated  is  admitted  universally. 
The  rivers  which  enclose  Mesopotamia  are  the  Eu- 
phrates on  the  west  and  the  Tigris  on  the  east ;  but 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Aram-Naharaim  of  Scrip- 
ture embraces  the  whole  of  that  tract  or  only  the 
northern  portion  of  it  (Gen.  xxiv,  10  ;  Deut.  xxiii,  4  ; 
Judg.  iii,  8;  1  Chron.  xix,  G;  Psa.  Ix,  title).  Apart 
of  this  region  of  Aram  is  also  called  Paddari -Aram' ', 
□  IX  "j'lQ,  the  plain  of  Aram  (Gen.  xxv,  20;  xxviii, 
2,  6,  7  ;  xxxi,  18  ;  xxxiii,  18),  and  once  simply  Paddan 
(Gen.  xlviii,  7),  also  Sedeh' -Aram  ,  Q^X  "T?E?i  the 
field  of  Aram  (Hos.  xii,  13),  whence  the  "  Campi 
Mesopotamia;"  of  Quintus  Curtius  (iii,  2,  3;  iii,  8,  1 ; 
iv,  9,  6).  See  Padan  ;  Sadeh.  But  that  the  whole 
of  Aram-Naharaim  did  not  belong  to  the  flat  country 
of  Mesopotamia  appears  from  the  circumstance  that 
Balaam,  who  (Deut.  xxiii,  4)  is  called  a  native  of 
Aram-Naharaim,  saj-s  (Num.  xxiii,  7)  that  he  was 
brought  "from  Aram,  out  of  the  mountains  of  the 
east."  The  Septuagint,  in  some  of  these  places,  has 
MtTOTrora/d'rt  SiyxW,  and  in  others  Hvpta  norauwr, 
which  the  Latins  rendered  by  Syria  Interamna.  See 
Mesopotamia. 

6.  But  though  the  districts  now  enumerated  be  the 
only  ones  expressly  named  in  the  Bible  as  belonging 
to  Aram,  there  is  no  doubt  that  many  more  territories 
were  included  in  that  extensive  region,  e.  g.  Geshur, 
Hul,  Arpad,  Riblah,  Hamath,  Helbon,  Betheden,  Ber- 
othai,  Tadmor,  Hauran,  Abilene,  etc.,  though  some  of 
them  may  have  formed  part  of  the  divisions  already 
specified.     See  Ish-tob. 

A  native  of  Aram  was  called  ^E^X,  Arammi' ' ,  an 
Aramrean,  used  of  a  Syrian  (2  Kings  v,  20),  and  of  a 
Mesopotamian  (Gen.  xxv,  20).  The  feminine  was 
iT^H^X,  Arammi 'yah' ',  an  Aramitess  (1  Chron.  vii,  14), 
and  the  plural  CPHnx,  Arammim'  (2  Kings  viii.  29), 
once  (2  Chron.  xxii,  5)  in  a  shortened  form  CX?, 
Rammim '.  See  Aram.ean  Language.  Traces  of 
the  name  of  the  Aramaeans  are  to  be  found  in  the 
"Apifioi  and  'Apa^icuoi  of  the  Greeks  (Strabo,  xiii,  4, 
6;  xvi,  4,  27;  comp.  Homer's  Iliad,  ii,  783;  Hesiod, 
Theoqn.  304).  See  Assyria.  The  religion  of  the 
Syrians  was  a  worship  of  the  powers  of  nature  (Judg. 
x,  G ;  2  Chron.  xxviii,  23  ;  see  Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  55 
sq.).  They  were  so  noted  for  idolatry,  that  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  later  Jews  X71T  SIX  was  used  as  synony- 
mous with  heathenism  (see  the  Misehna  of  Surenhusius, 
ii,  401 ;  Onkelos  on  Levit.  xxv,  47).  Castell,  in  bis 
/..  xic.  HeptagloU.  col.  229,  says  the  same  form  of  speech 
prevails  in  Syriac  and  Ethiopic.  The  Hebrew  letters 
-I,  resh,  and  -j,  dolt  th,  are  so  alike,  that  they  were  often 
mistaken  by  transcribers  ;  and  hence,  in  the  Old  Test- 
ament, C^iX,  Aram,  is  sometimes  found  instead  of 
D1X,  Edom,  and  vice  versa.     Thus  in  2  Kings  xvi,  G, 


ARAMAEAN  LANGUAGE 


354 


ARAMAEAN  LANGUAGE 


according  to  the  text,  the  Aramaeans  are  spoken  of  as 
possessing  Elath  on  the  Red  Sea ;  but  the  Masoretic 
marginal  reading  has  "the  Edomites,"  which  is  also 
found  in  many  manuscripts,  in  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate,  and  it  is  obviously  the  correct  reading  (Ge- 
senius,  Thes.  ffeb.  s.  vv.). 

It  appears  from  the  ethnographic  table  in  the  tenth 
chapter  of  Genesis  ( ver.  22,  23)  that  Aram  was  a  son 
of  Shem,  and  that  his  own  sons  were  Uz,  Hul,  Gether, 
and  Mash.  If  these  gave  names  to  districts,  Uz  was 
in  the  north  of  Arabia  Deserta,  unless  its  name  was 
derived  rather  from  Huz,  son  of  Nahor,  Abraham's 
brother  (Gen.  xxii,  21).  Hul  was  probably  Ccele- 
Syria  ;  Mash,  the  Mons  Masius  north  of  Nisibis  in 
Mesopotamia;  Gether  is  unknown.  Another  Aram 
is  mentioned  (Gen.  xxii,  21)  as  the  grandson  of  Nahor 
and  son  of  Kemuel,  but  he  is  not  to  be  thought  of  here. 
The  descent  of  the  Aramxans  from  a  son  of  Shem  is  con- 
firmed by  their  language,  which  was  one  of  the  branches 
of  the  Semitic  family,  and  nearly  allied  to  the  Hebrew. 
Many  writers,  who  have  copied  without  acknowledg- 
ment the  words  of  Calmet,  maintain  that  the  Ara- 
maeans came  from  Kir,  appealing  to  Amos  ix,  7  ;  but 
while  that  passage  is  not  free  from  obscurity,  it  seems 
evidently  to  point,  not  to  the  aboriginal  abode  of  the 
people,  but  to  the  country  whence  God  would  recover 
them  when  banished.  The  prophet  had  said  (Amos 
i.  5)  that  the  people  of  Aram  should  go  into  captivity 
to  Kir  (probably  the  country  on  the  River  Kur  or 
Cyrus),  a  prediction  of  which  we  read  the  accomplish- 
ment in  2  Kings  xvi,  9 ;  and  the  allusion  here  is  to 
their  subsequent  restoration.  Hartmann  thinks  Ar- 
menia obtained  its  name  from  Aram.  (See  generally 
Michaelis,  Spicileg.  ii,  121  sq. ;  Wahl,  Alt.  v.  X.  Asien, 
i.  299  sq. ;  Gatterer,  Handb.  i,  248;  Rosenmiiller, 
Altherth.  I,  i,  232  sq. ;  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  x,  16;  Len- 
gerke,  Kaiaan,  i,  218  sq.). — Kitto.     See  Syria. 

2.  The  first  named  son  of  Kemuel  and  grandson  of 
Nahor  (Gen.  xxii,  21),  B.C.  cir.  2000.  He  is  incor- 
rectly thought  by  many  to  have  given  name  to  Syria, 
hence  the  Sept.  translates  Stmoi.  By  some  he  is  re- 
garded as  same  with  Ram  of  Job  xxxii,  2. 

3.  The  last  named  of  the  four  sons  of  Simmer  or 
Shomer  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii,  34),  B.C. 
cir.  1618. 

4.  The  Greek  form  among  the  ancestors  of  Christ 
(Matt,  i,  3,  4 ;  Luke  iii,  33)  of  the  Heb.  Ram  (q.  v.), 
the  son  of  Hezron  and  father  of  Amminadab  (1  Chron. 
ii,  9,  10). 

Aramaean  Language  (Ileb.  Aramith',  In>1"2^X) 
2  Kin^s  xviii,  26;  Ezra  iv,  7;  Isa.  xxxvi,  11;  Dan. 
ii,  4;  Sept.  Supiori,  Vulg.  Syriace)  is  the  northern  and 
least  developed  branch  of  the  Syro-Arabian  family  of 
tongues,  being  a  general  term  for  the  whole,  of  which 
the  Chaldce  and  Syriac  dialects  form  the  parts,  these 
list  differing  very  slightly,  except  in  the  forms  of  the 
in  which  they  are  now  written  (see  the 
Introd.  to  Winer's  Chaldee  Gramm.  r.  ed.  tr.  by  Prof. 
Hackett,  X.  Y.  1851).  See  Chaldee  Language. 
>  probably  on  the  banks  of  the  Cyrus,  ac- 

cording t     the  best  interpretation  of  Amos  ix,  7;  but 
Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and  Syria  form  what  may 
ii     home  and  proper  domain.     Political 
events,  b  iwever,  subsequently  caused  it  to  supplant 
i  Palestine,  and  then  it  becamethe  prevailing 

form  of  S] Ii  from  the  Tigris  to  the  shore  oftheMed- 

Iterram  n,  and,  in  a  transverse  direction,  from  Armenia 
down  to  the  confines  of  Arabia.  After  obtaining  such 
a  wide  dominion,  it  was  forced,  from  the  ninth  century 
onward,  I  •  give  way  before  the  encroaching  ascend- 
ency of  Lrabic;  and  it  now  only  survives  as  a  living 
tongue  ai 14  the  Syrian  Christians  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Mosul.  According  to  historical  records  which 
trace  the  migrations  of  the  Syro-Arabians  from  the 
east  to  the  south-west,  and  also  according  to  the  com- 
paratively ruder  form  of  the  Aramaic  language  itself, 


we  might  suppose  that  it  represents,  even  in  the  state 
in  which  we  have  it,  some  image  of  that  aboriginal 
type  which  the  Hebrews  and  Arabians,  under  more 
favorable  social  and  climatical  influences,  subsequent- 
ly developed  into  fulness  of  sound  and  structure.  But 
it  is  difficult  for  us  now  to  discern  the  particular  ves- 
tiges of  this  archaic  form ;  for,  not  only  did  the  Ara- 
maic not  work  out  its  own  development  of  the  original 
elements  common  to  the  wdiole  Syro-Arabian  sister- 
hood of  languages,  but  it  was  pre-eminently  exposed, 
both  by  neighborhood  and  by  conquest,  to  harsh  col- 
lision with  languages  of  an  utterly  different  family. 
Moreover,  it  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  great  Syro- 
Arabian  branches  which  has  no  fruits  of  a  purely 
national  literature  to  boast  of.  We  possess  no  monu- 
ment whatever  of  its  own  genius ;  not  any  work  which 
may  be  considered  the  product  of  the  political  and  re- 
ligious culture  of  the  nation,  and  characteristic  of  it 
— as  is  so  emphatically  the  case  both  with  the  He- 
brews and  the  Arabs.  The  first  time  wc  see  the  lan- 
guage it  is  used  \>y  Jews  as  the  vehicle  of  Jewish 
thought;  and  although,  when  we  next  meet  it,  it  is 
employed  by  native  authors,  j'et  the}-  write  under  the 
literary  impulses  of  Christianity,  and  under  the  Greek 
influence  on  thought  and  language  which  necessarily 
accompanied  that  religion.  These  two  modifications, 
which  constitute  and  define  the  so-called  Chaldee  and 
Syriac  dialects,  are  the  only  forms  in  which  the  nor- 
mal and  standard  Aramaic  has  been  preserved  to  us. 
It  is  evident,  from  these  circumstances,  that  up  to  a 
certain  period  the  Aramaic  language  has  no  other 
history  than  that  of  its  relations  to  Hebrew.  Tho 
earliest  notice  we  have  of  its  separate  existence  is  in 
Gen.  xxxi,  47,  where  Laban,  in  giving  his  own  name 
to  the  memorial  heap,  employs  words  which  are  gen- 
uine Aramaic  both  in  form  and  use.  The  next  in- 
stance is  in  2  Kings  xviii,  26,  where  it  appears  that 
the  educated  Jews  understood  Aramaic,  but  that  the 
common  people  did  not.  A  striking  illustration  of  its 
prevalence  is  found  in  the  circumstance  that  it  is  em- 
ployed as  the  language  of  official  communication  in 
the  edict  addressed  by  the  Persian  court  to  its  subjects 
in  Palestine  (Ezra  iv,  17).  The  later  relations  of 
Aramaic  to  Hebrew  consist  entirely  of  gradual  en- 
croachments on  the  part  of  the  former.  The  Hebrew 
language  was  indeed  always  exposed,  particularly  in 
the  north  of  Palestine,  to  Aramaic  influences  ;  whence 

]  the  Aramaisms  of  the  book  of  Judges  and  of  some 

J  others  are  derived.  It  also  had  always  a  closer  con- 
junction,  both   by  origin   and    by  intercourse,   with 

1  Aramaic  than  with  Arabic.  But  in  liter  times  great 
political  events  secured  to  Aramaic  the  complete  as- 
cendency; for,  on  the  one  hand,  after  the  deportation 
of  the  ten  tribes,  the  repeopling  their  country  with 

i  colonists  chiefly  of  Syrian  origin  generated  a  mixed 
Aramaic  and  Hebrew  dialect  (the  Samaritan)  in  cen- 
tral Palestine ;  and  on  the  other  the  exile  of  the  re- 
maining two  tribes  exposed  them  to  a  considerable, 
although  generally  overrated,  Aramaic  influence  in 
Babylon,  and  their  restoration,  by  placing  them  in 
contact  with  the  Samaritans,  tended  still  further  to 
dispossess  them  of  their  vernacular  Hebrew.  The 
subsequent  dominion  of  the  Seleucida\  under  which 
the  Jews  formed  a  portion  of  a  Syrian  kingdom,  ap- 
pears to  have  completed  the  series  of  events  by  which 
the  Aramaic  supplanted  the  IIebrewr  language  entirely. 
The  chief  characteristics  in  form  and  flexion  which 
distinguish  the  Aramaic  from  the  Hebrew  language 
are  the  following :  As  to  the  consonants,  the  great  di- 
versity between  the  forms  of  the  same  root  as  it  exists 
in  both  languages  arises  principally  from  the  Aramaic 
having  a  tendency  to  avoid  the  sibilants.  Thus,  where 
T,  BJ,  anil  U  are  found  in  Hebrew,  Aramaic  often  uses 
1,  n,  and  a  ;  and  even  S  for  '2.     Letters  of  the  same 

J  organ  are  also  frequently  interchanged,  and  generally 
so  that  the  Aramaic,  consistently  with  its  character- 


ARAMAEAN  LANGUAGE 


355 


AIIAaLEAN  LANGUAGE 


istic  roughness,  prefers  the  harder  sounds.  The  num- 
ber of  vowel-sounds  generally  is  much  smaller ;  the 
verb  is  reduced  to  a  monosyllable,  as  are  also  the  seg- 
olatc  forms  of  nouns.  This  deprives  the  language  of 
some  distinct  forms  which  are  marked  in  Hebrew,  but 
the  number  and  variety  of  nominal  formations  is  also 
in  other  respects  much  more  limited.  The  verb  pos- 
sesses no  vestige  of  the  conjugation  Niphal,  but  forms 
all  its  passives  bjr  the  prefix  PX.  The  third  person 
plural  of  the  perfect  has  two  forms  to  mark  the  differ- 
ence of  gender.  The  use  of  Vav  as  "  conversive"  is 
unknown.  There  is  an  imperative  mood  in  all  the 
passives.  All  the  active  conjugations  (like  Kal  in 
Heb.)  possess  two  participles,  one  of  which  has  a 
passive  signification.  The  participle  is  used  with  the 
personal  pronoun  to  form  a  kind  of  present  tense.  The 
classes  of  verbs  fib  and  &<?,  and  other  weak  forms,  are 
almost  indistinguishable.  In  the  noun,  again,  a  word 
is  rendered  definite  by  appending  X—  to  the  end  (the  so- 
called  emphatic  state")  ;  but  thereby  the  distinction 
between  simple  feminine  and  definite  masculine  is 
lost  in  the  singular.  The  plural  masculine  ends  in 
"|T.  The  relation  of  genitive  is  most  frequently  ex- 
pressed by  the  prefix  "I,  and  that  of  the  object  by  the 
preposition  t>. 

The  Aramaean  introduced  and  spoken  in  Palestine 
has  also  been,  and  is  still,  often  called  the  Syro-Chal- 
daic,  because  it  was  probably  in  some  degree  a  mix- 
ture of  both  the  eastern  and  western  dialects  ;  or  per- 
haps the  distinction  between  the  two  had  not  yet  arisen 
in  the  age  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles.  So  long  as 
the  Jewish  nation  maintained  its  political  indepen- 
dence in  Palestine,  Hebrew  continued  to  be  the  com- 
mon language  of  the  country,  and,  so  far  as  we  can 
judge  from  the  remains  of  it  which  are  still  extant, 
although  not  entirely  pure,  it  was  yet  free  from  any 
important  changes  in  those  elements  and  forms  bj- 
which  it  was  distinguished  from  other  languages.  But 
at  the  period  when  the  Assyrian  and  Chaldsean  rulers 
of  Babylon  subdued  Palestine,  every  thing  assumed 
another  shape.  The  Jews  of  Palestine  lost  with  their 
political  independence  the  independence  of  their  lan- 
guage also,  which  the3'  had  till  then  asserted.  The 
Babylonish  Aramaean  dialect  supplanted  the  Hebrew, 
and  became  by  degrees  the  prevailing  language  of  the 
people,  until  this  in  its  turn  was  in  some  measure, 
though  not  entirely,  supplanted  by  the  Greek.  See 
Hellenist.  Josephus  (De  Mace.  16)  and  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  xxvi,  14)  call  it  the  Hebrew  (>)  'Efipa'ii; 
SiaXtKrog).  Old  as  this  appellation  is,  however,  it  has 
one  important  defect,  namely,  that  it  is  too  indefinite, 
and  may  mislead  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the 
subject  to  confound  the  ancient  Hebrew  and  the  Ara- 
maean, which  took  the  place  of  the  Hebrew  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  and  was  the  current  language 
of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  as 
is  evinced  by  the  occurrence  of  proper  names  of  places 
(e.  g.  Bethesda,  Aceldama)  and  persons  (e.  g.  Boa- 
nerges, Bar-jona),  and  even  common  terms  (e.  g.  Tali- 
tha  cumi,  Ephphatha,  Sabachthani)  in  this  mixed  dia- 
lect. (See  generally  the  copious  treatise  of  Pfankuche 
on  the  history  and  elements  of  the  Aramaean  language, 
translated,  with  introductory  remarks  by  the  editor, 
in  the  Am.  Bib.  Rejws.  April,  1831,  p.  317-3G3;  comp. 
Nagel,  De  lingua  Aramaa,  Altdorf,  1739;  Etheridge, 
Aramcean  Dialects,  Lond.  1843). 

The   following   are   philological  treatises   on    both 

branches  of  the  Aramaean  language :    Grammars 

Sennert,  Harm,  lingg.  Orient.  (Viteb.  1553,  4to) ;  Amira, 
Gramm.  Syriaca  give  Chaldaica  (Rom.  159G);  Buxtorf, 
Gramm.  Chald.  Syr.  (8vo,  Basil.  1015. 1050)  ;  De  Dieu, 
Gramm.  Una.  Orient.  (4 to,  Lugd.  B.  1628;  Francof. 
1683);  Alting,  Institut.  Child,  et  Syr.  (Frkf.  1676, 
1701)  ;  Erpenius,  Gramm.  Chald.  et  Syr.  (Amst.  1628)  ; 
Hottinger,  Gramm.  Chald.  Syr.  et  Rabb.  (Turic.  1652); 


Gramm.  Heb.  Chald.  Syr.  et  Arab.  (Heidelb.  1658, 
4to)  ;  Walton,  Tntrod.  ad  Lingg ^  Orient.  (Lond.  1655)  ; 
Schaaf,  Opus  Aramamm  (Lugd.  Bat.  1686,  8vo)  ;  Opitz, 
Syriasmus  Hebraismo  et  Chaldaismo  harmonicus  (Lips. 
1678) ;  Fessler,  Instil,  lingg.  Orient.  (2  vols.  8vo,  Vra- 
tisl.  1787,  1789);  Hasse,  llandb.  d.  Aram.  (Jen.  1791, 
8vo);  Jahn,  Aramaische  Sprachlehre  (Wien,  1793;  tr. 
by  Oberleitner,  Elementa  Aramaica,  ib.  1820,  8vo) ; 
Vater,  llandb.  d.  Hebr.  Syr.  Chald.  u.  Arab.  Gramm. 
(8vo,  Lpz.  1802,  1817) ;  Fiirst,  Lehrgebdude  d.  arama- 
ischen Idiome  (Lpz.  1835) ;  Bliicher,  Grammatica  Ara- 
maica (Vien.  1838).  The  only  complete  Lexicons  are 
Castell's  Lex.  Heptaglottum  (2  vols.  fol.  Lond.  1669), 
and  Buxtorf's  Lex.  Chald. -Ta'nuidicum  (fol.  Basil. 
1639)  ;  also  Schonhak,  Aramaisch-Rabbinischis  Worter- 
buch  (Warsaw,  1859  sq.,  4to) ;  Rabinei,  Rabbinisch- 
Aramaisches  Worterb.  (new  ed.  Lemb.  1857  sq.,  8vo)  : 
of  these,  the  first  alone  covers  both  the  Chald.  and 
Syr.,  and  includes  likewise  the  sister  languages.  See 
Shemitic  Languages. 

The  following  may  be  specified  as  the  different  Ar- 
amaean dialects  in  detail : 

1.  The  Eastern  Aramaic  or  Chaldee. — This  is 
not  to  be  confounded  with  '-the  language  of  the  Chal- 
dees"  (Dan.  i,  4),  which  was  probably  a  Medo-Pcrsic 
dialect ;  but  is  what  is  denominated  Aramaic  (FHEHSt) 
in  Dan.  ii,  4.  This  was  properly  the  language  of 
Babylonia,  and  was  acquired  by  the  Jews  during  the 
exile,  and  carried  back  with  them  on  their  return  to 
their  own  land.     See  Chald.ean. 

The  existence  of  this  language,  as  distinct  from  the 
Western  Aramaic  or  Syriac,  has  been  denied  by  many 
scholars  of  eminence  (Michaelis,  Abhandl.  von  der  Syr. 
Spr.  §  2;  Jahn,  Aramaische  Sprachlehre,  §  1;  Hup- 
feld,  Tkeol.  Stud,  vnd  Krit.  1830,  p.  290  sq. ;  De  Wette, 
Einl.  §  32;  Fiirst,  Lehrgeb.  der  Aram.  Idiome,  p.  5), 
who  think  that  in  what  is  called  the  Chaldee  we  hava 
only  the  Syriac  with  an  infusion  of  Hebraisms.  The 
answer  to  this,  however,  is  that  some  of  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  Chaldee  are  such  as  are  not  Hebraistic,  so 
that  it  cannot  have  derived  them  from  this  source. 
Thus  the  preformative  in  the  future  of  the  third  per- 
son masc.  sing,  and  of  the  third  pers.  masc.  and  fern, 
plur.  in  Chaldee  is  "\  while  in  Syriac  it  is  2 ;  and  in 
Heb.  the  last  is  Fi  ;  the  pron.  this  in  Chaldee  is  Ty]  and 
■•n,  while  the  Syr.  has  UOP  and  the  Heb.  H 7 ;  the 
Chaldee  has  the  status  emphatievs  plur.  in  x*— ,  while 
the  Syr.  has  a  simple  X— ;  and  to  these  may  be  added 
the  use  of  peculiar  words,  such  as  Xpbp^  "Wr)  (Dan. 
v.  7,  16),  WQ33  (Ezra  iv,  8;  v,  9,  11;  vi,  13),  MM 
(Ezra  iv,  1(£  11,  etc.),  P3nb  (Dan.  v,  2,  23) ;  the  use 
of  1  for  ?  in  such  words  as  ItX,  etc.  There  are  other 
differences  between  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac,  such  as 
the  absence  from  the  former  of  otiant  consonants  and 
diphthongs,  the  use  of  dagesh-forte  in  the  former  and 
not  in  the  latter,  the  formation  of  the  infin.  without 
the  prefixing  of  "2  except  in  Peal ;  but  as  these  are 
common  to  the  Chaldee  with  the  Hebrew,  they  cannot 
be  used  as  proofs  that  the  Chaldee  was  a  dialect  inde- 
pendent of  the  Hebrew,  and  not  the  Syriac  modified 
by  the  Hebrew;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  dif- 
ference of  pronunciation  between  the  Syriac  and  Chal- 
dee, such  as  the  prevalence  of  an  a  sound  in  the  latter 
where  the  former  lias  the  o  sound,  etc.  It  may  be 
added,  however,  to  the  evidence  above  adduced,  as  a 
general  remark,  that  when  we  consider  the  wide  range 
of  the  Aramaic  language  from  east  to  west,  it  is  in  the 
highest  degree  probable  that  the  dialect  of  the  people 
using  it  at  the  one  extremity  should  differ  considera- 
bly from  that  of  those  using  it  at  the  other.  It  may 
be  further  added  that  not  only  are  the  alphabetical 
characters  of  the  Chaldee  different  from  those  of  the 
Syriac,  but  there  is  a  much  greater  prevalence  of  the 
scriptio  plena  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.     As, 


ahaMjEan  language 


35( 


however,  the  Chaldee  has  come  down  to  us  only 
through  the  medium  of  Jewish  channels,  it  is  not 
probable  that  we  have  it  in  the  pure  form  in  which  it 
was  spoken  by  the  Shemitic  Babylonians.  The  rule 
of  the  Persians,  and  subsequently  of  the  Greeks  in 
Babylonia,  could  not  fail  also  to  infuse  into  the  lan- 
guage a  foreign  clement  borrowed  from  both  these 
sources.  (See  Aurivillius,  Dissertt.  ad  Sac.  Litems  et 
Philol.  Orient,  pertinentes,  p.  107  sq. ;  Hoffmann,  Gram- 
.,  Proleg.,  p.  11;  Dietrich,  De  Serm.  Chald. 
proprietate,  Lips.  1839;  Hiivernick,  General  Introduc- 
tion, p.  91  sq. ;  Bleek,  Einl.  in  das  A.  T.,  p.  53  ;  Winer, 
Ckaldaische  Grammatik,  p.  5.) 

The  Chaldee,  as  we  have  it  preserved  in  the  Bible 
(Ezra  iv,  8,  18  ;  vii,  12-20  ;  Dan.  ii,  4-vii,  28  ;  Jer.  x, 
11)  and  in  the  Targums,  has  been,  as  respects  linguist- 
ic character,  divided  into  three  grades :  1.  As  it  ap- 
pears in  the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  where  it  possesses 
most  of  a  peculiar  and  independent  character ;  2.  As 
it  appears  in  the  biblical  sections,  where  it  is  less  free 
from  Hebraisms ;  and,  3.  As  it  appears  in  the  other 
Targums,  in  which,  with  the  exception  to  some  extent 
of  that  of  Jonathan  ben-Uzziel  on  the  Prophets,  the 
language  is  greatly  corrupted  by  foreign  infusions 
(Winer,  De  Onheloso  ejusque  Paraphr.  Child.,  Lips. 
1819;  Luzzato,  De  Onkelosi  Chald.  Pent.  versione,Yien. 
1830 ;  Hirt,  De  Chaldaismo  Biblico,  Jen.  1751).  See 
Targum. 

The  language  which  is  denominated  in  the  N.  T. 
//.  6r<  w,  and  of  which  a  few  specimens  are  there  given, 
seems,  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  scanty  mate- 
rials preserved,  to  have  been  substantially  the  same 
as  the  Chaldee  of  the  Targums  (Pfannkuche,  On  the 
Language  of  Palestine  in  the  Age  of  Christ  and  his  Apos- 
tles, translated  in  the  Bib.  Repository,  Apr.  1831,  and 
reprinted  in  the  Bib.  Cabinet,  vol.  ii).  In  this  lan- 
guage some  of  the  apocryphal  books  were  written 
(Jerome,  Prmf.  in  Tob't  Judith,  1  Mace.'),  the  work 
of  Josephus  on  the  Jewish  war  (Z>e  Bella  Jud.,  prref. 
§  1),  and,  as  some  suppose,  the  original  Gospel  by' 
Matthew.  It  is  designated  by  Jerome  the  Syro-Chal- 
daic  (contr.  Pelag.  iii,  1),  and  by  this  name  it  is  now 
commonly  known.  The  Talmudists  intend  this  when 
they  speak  of  the  Syriac  or  Aramaic  (Lightfoot,  /lor. 
Heb.  on  Matt,  v,  18).     See  Hebrew  Language. 

The  Chaldee  is  written  in  the  square  character  in 
which  the  Hebrew  now  appears.  This  seems  to  have 
been  the  proper  Chaldee  character,  and  to  have  super- 
seded the  old  Hebrew  or  Samaritan  character  after  the 
exile.  The  Palmyrean  and  the  Egypto-Aramaic  let- 
ters [see  Alphabet]  much  more  closely  resemble  the 
square  character  than  the  ancient  Hebrew  of  the  coins 
(Kopp,  BUder  und  Schriften,  ii,  164  sq.).  See  Chal- 
dee Language. 

2.  The  Western  Aramaic  or  Syriac— Of  this 
in  its  ancient  form  no  specimens  remain.  As  it  is 
known  to  us,  it  is  the  dialect  of  a  Christianized  peo- 
ple, and  its  oldest  document  is  the  translation  of  the 
N.  T.,  which  was  probably  made  in  the  second  cen- 
tury.    Sec  Syriac  Versions. 

As  compared  with  the  Arabic,  and  even  with  the 
Hebrew,  the  Syriac  is  a  poor  language;  it  is  also 
harsher  and  Hatter  than  the  Hebrew.  As  it  is  now 
extant,  it  abounds  in  foreien  adulterations,  having  re- 
ceived words  successively  from  the  Persian,  the  Greek, 
the  Latin,  the  Arabic,  and  even,  in  its  more  recent 
state,  from  the  Crusader?. 

The  Syriac  of  the  early  times  is  said  to  have  had 
dialects.  This  is  confirmed  by  what  has  come  down 
to  us.  The  Syriac  of  the  sacred  books  differs  from 
that  preserved  in  the  Palmyrene  inscriptions,  so  far 
as  those  can  be  said  to  convey  to  US  any  information 
on  this  point,  and  the  later  Syriac  of  the  Maronites 
and  of  the  Neatorians  differs  considerably  from  that 
of  an  older  date.  "What  Adler  has  called  the  Hiero- 
Bolymitan  dialect  is  a  rude  and  harsh  dialect,  full  of 
foreign  words,  and  more  akin  to  the  Chaldee  than  to 


ARAMAEAN  LANGUAGE 

the  Syriac.  The  Syriac  is  written  in  two  different 
characters,  the  Estrangelo  and  the  Peshito.  Of  these 
the  Estrangelo  is  the  more  ancient ;  indeed,  it  is  more 
ancient  apparently  than  the  characters  of  the  Palmy- 
rene and  the  Egypto-Aramaic  inscriptions.  Asseman- 
ni  derives  the  word  from  the  Greek  orfwyyvXoc,  round 
(Bibl.  Orient,  iii,  pt.  ii,  p.  378)  ;  but  this  does  not  cor- 
respond with  the  character  itself,  which  is  angular 
rather  than  round.  The  most  probable  derivation  is 
from  the  Arabic  esti,  writing,  and  anjil,  gospel.  The 
Peshito  is  that  commonly  in  use,  and  is  simply  the 
Estrangelo  reduced  to  a  more  readable  form.  See 
Syriac  Language. 

3.  The  Samaritan. — This  is  a  mixture  of  Aramaic 
and  Hebrew.  It  is  marked  by  frequent  permutations 
of  the  gutturals.  The  character  used  is  the  most  an- 
cient of  the  Shemitic  characters,  which  the  Samaritans 
retained  when  the  Hebrews  adopted  the  square  char- 
acter. Few  remains  of  this  dialect  are  extant.  Be- 
sides the  translation  of  the  Pentateuch  [see  Samari- 
tan Versions],  only  some  liturgical  hymns  used  Ly 
Castell,  and  cited  by  him  as  Liturgia  Damaseenorum, 
and  the  poems  collected  and  edited  by  Gesenius  (Cnr- 
mina  Samaritana)  in  the  first  fasciculus  of  his  Anecdo- 
ta  Orientalia,  remain.  (Morinus,  Opuscula  Ilebrceo- 
Samaritana,  1C57;  Cellarius,  Horm  Samaritance,  Jena?, 
1703*;  Uhlemann,  Institutt.  Ling.  Samaritance,  Lips. 
1837.)     See  Samaritan  Language. 

4.  The  Sabian  or  Nazorean. — This  is  the  lan- 
guage of  a  sect  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  and  Ti- 
gris who  took  to  themselves  (at  least  in  part)  the  name 
of  Mendeites  (Gnostics)  or  Nazoreans,  but  were-ealled 
Sabians  by  the  Arabians.  Some  of  their  religious 
writings  are.  extant  in  the  libraries  at  Paris  and  Ox- 
ford. Their  great  book  (X^n  &VT3&),  the  Liber  A  da- 
mi,  has  been  edited  with  a  Latin  translation  by  Mat- 
thias Norberg,  Prof,  at  Lund,  who  died  in  1826,  under 
the  title  Codex  Nasarwvs,  Liber  Adami  Appettatus  (3 
parts  4to,  Lund,  1815-16)  ;  this  was  followed  by  a  Lex- 
icon (1810)  and  an  Onomasticon  (1817)  on  the  book  by 
the  same.  The  language  is  a  jargon  between  Syriac 
and  Chaldee;  it  uses  great  freedom  with  the  guttu- 
rals, and  indulges  in  frequent  commutations  of  other 
letters;  and  in  general  is  harsh  and  irregular,  with 
many  grammatical  improprieties,  and  a  large  infusion 
of  Persic  words.  The  MSS.  are  written  in  a  peculiar 
character;  the  letters  are  formed  like  those  of  the 
Nestorian  Syriac,  and  the  vowels  are  inserted  as  let- 
ters in  the  text. 

5.  The  Palmyrene. — On  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Palmyra  or  Tadmor  have  been  found  many  in- 
scriptions, of  which  a  great  part  are  bilingual,  Greek, 
and  Aramaic.  A  collection  of  these  was  made  by 
Pohert  Wood,  and  published  by  him  in  a  work  enti- 
tled The  Ruins  of  Palmyra  (bond.  1753);  they  were 
soon  afterward  made  the  object  of  learned  examina- 
tion by  Barthelemy  at  Paris  and  Swinton  at  Oxford, 
especially  the  latter  (Explication  ofth  Inscriptions  in 
the  Palmyrene  Language,  in  the  48th  vol.  of  the  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,  p.  090-750).  These  inscriptions 
are  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  centuries;  they  arc 
of  little  intrinsic  importance.  The  language  closely 
resembles  the  Syriac,  and  is  written  in  a  character 
akin  to  the  square  character,  but  a  little  inclining  to  a 
cursive  mode  of  writing. 

6.  The  Egypto-Aramaic. — This  is  found  on  some 
ancient  Egyptian  monuments,  proceeding  probably* 
from  .lews  who  had  come  from  Palestine  to  Babylonia. 
Among  these  is  the  famous  Carpentras  inscription,  so 
called  from  its  present  location  in  the  south  of  France  : 
this,  Gesenius  thinks,  is  the  production  of  a  Syrian 
from  the  Seleucidinian  empire  residing  in  Egypt;  but 
this  is  less  probable  than  that  it  is  the  production  of  a 
Jew  inclining  to  the  Egyptian  worship.  Some  MSS. 
on  papyrus  also  belong  to  this  head  (see  Gesenius, 
Monumenta  Phan.  i,  £20-245).     The  language  is  Ara- 


ARAMAIC  VERSIONS 


357 


ARARAT 


maic,  chiefly  resembling  the  Chaldee,  but  with  a  He- 
brew infusion Kitto,  s.  v. 

Aramaic  Versions.  See  Syriac  Versions; 
Targum. 

A'ramitess  (Heb.  Arammiyah' ',  ilJEHSt,  Sept.  ?/ 
2up«,  1  Chron.  vii,  14),  a  female  Syrian,  as  the  word 
is  elsewhere  rendered.     See  Aram. 

A'ram-nahara'im  (Heb.  Aram'  Nahara'yim, 
t"1"!!"^  -^X,  Sept.  M£<ro7rora/u'a  Supiar,  Psa.  lx, 
title),  the  region  between  the  rivers  Euphrates  and 
Tigris,  i.  e.  Mesopotamia,  as  it  is  elsewhere  rendered. 
See  Aram. 

Aram-Zobah.     See  Aram. 

A'ran  (Heb.  Aran',  "pX,  wild  goat ;  Sept.  Apciv, 
v.  r.  'Appdv),  the  second  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Di- 
shan,  and  grandson  of  Seir  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi, 
28  ;  1  Chron.  i,  42).     B.C.  cir.  1963. 

Ar'arat  (Heb.  Ararat',  BTIX,  accord,  to  Bohlen 
and  Benfey  from  Sanscrit  aryavarta,  "sacred  land;" 
Sept.  'Aoaour;  v.  r.  in  2  Kings  xix,  37,  'ApapdS;  in 
Isa.  xxxvii,  38,  'Apptvia  ;  v.  r.  in  Jer.  li,  27,  'ApapiS, 
'ApaaeSr,  etc.),  occurs  nowhere  in  Scripture  as  the 
name  of  a  mountain,  but  only  as  the  name  of  a  coun- 
try, upon  the  "mountains"  of  which  the  ark  rested 
during  the  subsidence  of  the  flood  (Gen.  viii,  4).  In 
2  Kings  xix,  37;  Isa.  xxxvii,  38  (in  both  which  it  is 
rendered  "Armenia"),  it  is  spoken  of  as  the  country 
■whither  the  sons  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  fled, 
after  they  had  murdered  their  father.  The  apocryphal 
book  of  Tobit  (i,  21)  says  it  was  eig  ra  opi]  'ApapdQ, 
"to  the  mountains  of  Ararath."  This  points  to  a  ter- 
ritory which  did  not  form  part  of  the  immediate  do- 
minion of  Assyria,  and  yet  might  not  be  far  off  from 
it.  The  description  is  quite  applicable  to  Armenia, 
and  the  tradition  of  that  country  bears  that  Sennach- 
erib's sons  wrere  kindly  received  by  King  Paroyr,  who 
allotted  them  portions  of  land  bordering  on  Assyria, 
and  that  in  course  of  time  their  posterity  also  estab- 
lished an  independent  kingdom,  called  Vaspurakan 
(Advall's  Transl.  of  Chamich's  Hist,  of  Armenia,  i,  33, 
34).  The  only  other  Scripture  text  where  the  word 
occurs  (Jer.  li,  27)  mentions  Ararat,  along  with  Minni 
and  Ashkenaz,  as  kingdoms  summoned  to  arm  them- 
selves against  Babylon.  In  the  parallel  place  in  Isa. 
xiii,  2-4,  the  invaders  of  Babylonia  are  described  as 
"issuing  from  the  mountains;"  and  if  by  Mimni  we 
understand  the  Minyas  in  Armenia,  mentioned  by 
Nicholas  of  Damascus  (Josephus,  Ant.  i,  3,  6),  and  by 
Ashkenaz  some  country  on  the  Euxine  Sea,  which  may 
have  had  its  original  name,  Axenos,  from  Ashkenaz,  a 


son  of  Gomer,  the  progenitor  of  the  Cimmerians  (Gen. 
x,  2,  3),  then  we  arrive  at  the  same  conclusion,  viz. 
that  Ararat  was  a  mountainous  region  north  of  As, 
syria,  and  in  all  probability  in  Armenia.  In  Ezek. 
xxxviii,  G,  we  find  Togarmah,  another  part  of  Arme- 
nia, connected  with  Gomer,  and  in  Ezek.  xxvii.  14, 
with  Meshech  and  Tubal,  all  tribes  of  the  north. 
With  this  agree  the  traditions  of  the  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian churches  (Josephus,  Ant.  i,  3,  5;  Euseb.  J'mp. 
Evang.  ix,  12,  19;  Jerome  on  Isa.  1.  c),  and  likewise 
the  accounts  of  the  native  Armenian  writers,  who  in- 
form us  that  Ararad  was  the  name  of  one  of  the  an- 
cient provinces  of  their  country,  supposed  to  corre- 
spond to  the  modern  pachalics  of  Kars  and  Bayazid, 
and  part  of  Kurdistan.  According  to  the  tradition 
preserved  in  Moses  of  Chorene  (in  his  Histor.  A  num. 
p.  361,  ed.  Winston,  Lond.  173G),  the  name  of  Ararat 
was  derived  from  Aral,  the  eighth  of  the  native  princes, 
who  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Babylonians  about 
B.C.  1750  ;  in  memory  of  which  the  whole  province 
was  called  A  ray-iarat,  i.  e.  the  ruin  of  Arai.  (See  Mi- 
chaelis,  Suppl.  i,  130  sq. ;  Tuch,  Gen.  p.  170  sq.)  Eev. 
E.  Smith,  who  made  an  exploring  tour  in  Persia  and 
Armenia  in  1830  and  1831,  remarks  in  the  Biblical 
Repository,  1832,  p.  202,  "The  name  of  Ararat  occurs 
but  twice  in  the  Old  Testament  (Gen.  viii,  1,  and  Jer. 
li,  27),  and  both  times  as  the  name  of  a  country, 
which  in  the  last  passage  is  said  to  have  a  king.  It  is 
well  known  that  this  was  the  name  of  one  of  the  fif- 
teen provinces  of  Armenia.  It  was  situated  nearly  in 
the  centre  of  the  kingdom  ;  was  very  extensive, 
reaching  from  a  point  above  seven  or  eight  miles  east 
of  the  modern  Erzroom,  to  within  thirty  or  forty  miles 
of  Nakhchewan ;  yielded  to  none  in  fertility,  being 
watered  from  one  extremity  to  the  other  by  the  Ar- 
axes,  which  divided  it  into  two  nearly  equal  parts; 
and  contained  some  eight  or  ten  cities,  which  were 
successively  the  residences  of  the  kings,  princes,  or 
governors  of  Armenia  from  the  commencement  of  its 
political  existence,  about  2000  years  B.C.  according  to 
Armenian  tradition,  until  the  extinction  of  the  Pagra- 
tian  dynasty,  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  centu- 
ry ;  with  the  exception  of  about  230  years  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Arsacian  dynasty,  when  Nisibis  and 
Oria  were  the  capitals.  It  is  therefore  not  unnatural 
that  this  name  should  be  substituted  for  that  of  the 
whole  kingdom,  and  thus  become  known  to  foreign 
nations,  and  that  the  king  of  Armenia  should  be  call- 
ed the  king  of  Ararat."  See  Cuneiform  Inscrip- 
tions. 

But  though  it  may  be  concluded  with  tolerable  cer- 
tainty that  the  land  which  has  thus  become  intimately 
connected  with  the  name  Ararat  is  to  be  identified  with 


Mount  Ararat,  from  the  Plain  of  Eriv; 


ARARAT 


358 


ARARAT 


a  portion  of  Armenia,  we  possess  no  historical  data  for 
fixing  on  any  one  mountain  in  that  country  as  the 
resting-place  of  the  ark.  It  probably  grounded  on 
some  of  the  lower  peaks  of  the  chain  of  mountains  en- 
circling that  region.  This  supposition  best  accords 
with  the  nature  of  the  circumstances,  and  does  not 
conflict  with  the  language  of  the  text  when  properly 
weighed.  See  Deluge.  If  our  supposition  be  cor- 
rect, then,  for  any  thing  that  appears  to  the  contrary, 
the  ark  did  not  touch  the  earth  until  the  waters  were 
abated  to  a  level  with  the  lower  valleys  or  plains,  and, 
consequently,  the  inmates  were  not  left  upon  a  dreary 
elevation  of  16,000  or  17,000  feet,  never  till  of  late 
deemed  accessible  to  human  footsteps,  and  their  safe 
descent  from  which,  along  with  all  the  "living  crea- 
tures" committed  to  their  care,  would  have  been  a 
greater  miracle  than  their  deliverance  from  the  flood. 
By  this  explanation  also  we  obviate  the  geological  ob- 
jection against  the  mountain,  now  called  Ararat,  hav- 
ing been  submerged,  which  would  imply  a  universal 
deluge,  whereas  by  the  "  mountains  of  Ararat"  may 
be  understood  some  lower  chain  in  Armenia,  whose 
height  would  not  be  incompatible  with  the  notion  of  a 
partial  flood.  Finally,  we  on  this  hypothesis  solve 
the  question  :  If  the  descendants  of  Noah  settled  near 
the  resting-place  of  the  ark  in  Armenia,  how  could 
they  be  said  to  approach  the  plain  of  Shinar  (Gen.  xi, 
2),  or  Babylonia,  from  th-i  East?  For,  as  we  read  the 
narrative,  the  precise  resting-place  of  the  ark  is  no- 
where mentioned ;  and  though  for  a  time  stationary 
"over"  the  mountains  of  Ararat,  it  may,  before  the 
tin  il  subsidence  of  the  waters,  have  been  carried  con- 
siderably to  the  east  of  them.  (See  Raumer,  in  the 
Hertka,  1829,  xiii,  333  sq. ;  comp.  Hoff,  Gesch.  d.  Er- 
doberjllche,  Gotha,  1834,  iii,  369.)     See  Ark. 

The  ancients,  however,  attached  a  peculiar  sacred- 
ness  to  the  tops  of  high  mountains,  and  hence  the  be- 
lief was  early  propagated  that  the  ark  must  have 
rested  on  some  such  lofty  eminence.  The  earliest 
tradition  fixed  on  one  of  the  chain  of  mountains  which 
separate  Armenia  on  the  south  from  Mesopotamia,  and 
which,  as  they  also  enclose  Kurdistan,  the  land  of  the 
Kurds,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Kardu  or  Carduchian 
range,  corrupted  into  Gordiaean  and  Cordyajan.  This 
opinion  prevailed  among  the  Chaldajans,  if  we  may 
rely  on  the  testimony  of  Berosus  as  quoted  by  Jose- 
phus  (Ant.  i,  3,  6) :  "  It  is  said  there  is  still  some  part 
of  this  ship  in  Armenia,  at  the  mountain  of  the  Cor- 
dyaaans  [  Kopouaiwu^ Koords^\,  and  that  people  carry 
off  pieces  of  the  bitumen,  which  the)-  use  as  amulets." 
(See  Orelli,  Suppl.  not.  ad  Nicol.  JJamasc.  p.  58  ;  Rit- 
tir.  Erdk.  x,  359  sq.)  The  same  is  reported  by  Aby- 
denus  (in  Euseb.  Prap.  Evang.  ix,  4),  who  says  they 
employed  the  wood  of  the  vessel  against  diseases. 
Hence  we  are  prepared  to  find  the  tradition  adopted 
by  the  Chaldee  paraphrasts,  as  well  as  by  the  Syriac 
translators  and  commentators,  and  all  the  Syrian 
churches.  In  the  three  texts  where  "  Ararat"  occurs, 
the  Targum  of  Onkelos  has  Wig,  Kardu;  and.  ac- 
cording to  P.uxtorf,  the  term  "  Kardyan"  was  in  Chal- 
d  16  synonymous  with  "  Armenian."  At  Gen.  viii,  4, 
the  Arabic  of  Erpenius  has  Jebel  eUKarud  (the  Moun- 
tain of  the  Kurds),  which  is  likewise  found  in  the 
"JBook  of  Adam"  of  the  Zabaeans.  For  other  proofs 
that  this  was  the  prevalent  opinion  among  the  East- 
ern Churches,  the  reader  may  consult  Eutvchius  (An- 
nals) and  Epiphanius  (Hares.  18).  It  was  no  doubt 
from  this  source  that  it  was  borrowed  by  Mohammed, 
who  in  his  Koran  (xi,  46)  says  "The  ark  rested  on 
the  mountain  Al-.ludi."  That  name  was  probably  a 
corruption  of  Giordi,  i.  e.  Gordiamn  (the  designation 
given  to  the  entire  range),  but  afterward  applied  to 
the  special  locality  where  the  ark  was  supposed  to 
have  rested.  This  is  on  a  mountain  a  little  to  the 
can  of  Jezirah  Ibn  <  >mar  (the  ancient  Bezabde)  on  the 
Tigris.  At  the  foot  of  the  mountain  there  was  a  vil- 
lage called  Karya  Thaminin,  i.  e.  the  Village  of  the 


Eighty — that  being  the  number  (and  not  eight)  saved 
from  the  flood  according  to  the  Mohammedan  belief 
(Abulfeda,  Anteislam.  p.  17).  The  historian  Elmacin 
mentions  that  the  Emperor  Heraclius  went  up,  and 
visited  this  as  "  the  place  of  the  ark."  Here,  or  in 
the  neighborhood,  was  once  a  famous  Nestorian  mon- 
astery— "the  Monastery  of  the  Ark,"  destroyed  by 
lightning  in  A.D.  776  (see  Asseman,  Bibl.  Or.  ii,  113). 
The  credulous  Jew,  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  says  that  a 
mosque  was  built  at  Mount  Judi,  "of  the  remains  of 
the  ark,"  by  the  Caliph  Omar.  Kinneir,  in  describing 
his  journey  from  Jezirah  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Ti- 
gris to  Nahr  Van,  says  (Trav.  p.  453),  "  We  had  a  chain 
of  mountains  running  parallel  with  the  road  on  the 
left  hand.  This  range  is  called  the  Juda  Dag  (i.  c. 
mountain)  by  the  Turks,  and  one  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Nahr  Van  assured  me  that  he  had  frequently  seen 
the  remains  of  Noah's  ark  on  a  lofty  peak  behind 
that  village."  (Comp.  Rich's  Kurdistan,  ii,  124.)  A 
French  savant,  Eugene  Bore,  who  visited  those  parts, 
sa)-s  the  Mohammedan  dervishes  still  maintain  here  a 
perpetual!}-  burning  lamp  in  an  oratory  (Revue  Fran- 
raise,  vol.  xii ;  or  the  Semeur  of  October  2,  1839). 
The  selection  of  this  range  w^as  natural  to  an  inhab- 
itant of  tHe  Mesopotamian  plain  ;  for  it  presents  an 
apparently  insurmountable  barrier  on  that  side,  hem- 
ming in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  with  abrupt  declivi- 
ties so  closely  that  only  during  the  summer  months  is 
any  passage  afforded  between  the  mountain  and  river 
(Ainsworth's  Travels  in  track  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  p. 
154).  Josephus  also  quotes  Nicolaus  Damascenus  to 
the  effect  that  a  mountain  named  Baris,  beyond  Min- 
yas,  was  the  spot.  This  has  been  identified  with  Yaraz, 
a  mountain  mentioned  by  St.  Martin  (Man.  sur  V Ar- 
menia, i,  265)  as  rising  to  the  north  of  Lake  Van  ;  but 
the  only  important  mountain  in  the  position  indicated 
is  described  by  recent  travellers  under  the  name  Seiban 
Tagh;  and  we  are  therefore  inclined  to  accept  the 
emendation  of  Schroeder,  who  proposes  to  read  Mc'tatg, 
the  indigenous  name  of  Mount  Ararat,  for  Bdpic. 
After  the  disappearance  of  the  Nestorian  monastery, 
the  tradition  which  fixed  the  site  of  the  ark  on  Mount 
Judi  appears  to  have  declined  in  credit,  or  been  chief- 
ly confined  to  Mohammedans,  and  gave  place  (at  least 
among  the  Christians  of  the  West)  to  that  which  now 
obtains,  and  according  to  which  the  ark  rested  on  a 
great  mountain  in  the  north  of  Armenia — to  which  (so 
strongly  did  the  idea  take  hold  of  the  popular  belief) 
was,  in  course  of  time,  given  the  very  name  of  Ararat, 
as  if  no  doubt  could  lie  entertained  that  it  was  the 
Ararat  of  Scripture.  We  have  seen,  however,  that  in 
the  Bible  Ararat  is  nowhere  the  name,  of  a  mountain, 
and  by  the  native  Armenians  the  mountain  in  ques- 
tion was  never  so  designated ;  it  is  by  them  called 
Mdcis,  and  by  the  Turks  Aghur-dagh,  i.  e.  "The 
Heavy  or  Great  Mountain"  (see  Kampfer,  Aman.  ii, 
428  sq.).  The  Vulgate  and  Jerome,  indeed,  render 
Ararat  by  "Armenia,"  but  they  do  not  particularize 
any  one  mountain.  Still  there  is  no  doubt  of  the 
antiquity  of  the  tradition  of  this  being  (as  it  is  some- 
times termed)  the  "  Mother  of  the  World."  The  Per- 
sians call  it  Kuh-i-Nuch,  "  Noah's  Mountain."  The 
Armenian  et3'mology  of  the  name  of  the  city  of 
Nakhchevan  (which  lies  east  of  it)  is  said  to  be  "first 
place  of  descent  or  lodging,"  being  regarded  as  the 
place  where  Noah  resided  after  descending  from  the 
mount.  It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  (Ant.  i,  3,  5) 
under  a  Greek  name  of  similar  import,  viz.  'Airo/San?- 
piov  ("landing-place"),  and  by  Ptolemy  (v,  13,  §  12) 
as  Naxuana  ("XaZoudva,  see  Chesney,  Exped.  to  the 
Euphrat.  i,  145). 

1.  The  mountain  thus  known  to  Europeans  as  Ara- 
rat consists  of  two  immense  conical  elevations  (one 
peak  considerably  lower  than  the  other),  towering  in 
massive  and  majestic  grandeur  from  the  valley  of  the 
Aras,  the  ancient  Araxes.  Smith  and  Dwight  give 
its  position  north  57°  west  of  Nakhchevan,  and  south 


ARARAT 


359 


ARARAT 


25°  -west  of  Erivan  (Researches  in  Armenia,  p.  2G7) ; 
and  remark,  in  describing  it  before  the  recent  earth- 
quake, that  in  no  part  of  the  world  had  they  seen  any 
mountain  whose  imposing  appearance  could  plead  half 
so  powerfully  as  this  a  claim  to  the  honor  of  having 
once  been  the  stepping-stone  between  the  old  world 
and  the  new.  '•  It  appeared,"  says  Ker  Porter,  "as 
if  the  hugest  mountains  of  the  world  had  been  piled 
upon  each  other  to  form  this  one  sublime  immensity 
of  earth,  and  rocks,  and  snow.  The  icy  peaks  of  its 
double  heads  rose  majestically  into  the  clear  and 
cloudless  heavens;  the  sun  blazed  bright  upon  them, 
and  the  reflection  sent  forth  a  dazzling  radiance  equal 
to  other  suns.  My  eye,  not  able  to  rest  for  any  length 
of  time  upon  the  blinding  glory  of  its  summits,  wan- 
dered down  the  apparently  interminable  sides,  till  I 
could  no  longer  trace  their  vast  lines  in  the  mists  of 
the  horizon ;  when  an  irrepressible  impulse  immedi- 
ately carrying  my  eye  upward  again  refixed  my  gaze 
upon  the  awful  glare  of  Ararat"  (Trav.  i,  182  sq.  ;  ii, 
G3G  sq.).  To  the  same  effect  Morier  writes  :  "Noth- 
ing can  be  more  beautiful  than  its  shape,  more  awful 
than  its  height.  All  the  surrounding  mountains  sink 
into  insignilicance  when  compared  to  it.  It  is  perfect 
in  all  its  parts;  no  hard  rugged  feature,  no  unnatural 
prominences;  every  thing  is  in  harmony,  and  all  com- 
bines to  render  it  one  of  the  sublimest  objects  in  na- 
ture" (Journey,  c.  xvi;  Second  Journey,  p.  312).  Sev- 
eral attempts  had  been  made  to  reach  the  top  of  Ara- 
rat, but  few  persons  had  got  beyond  the  limit  of  per- 
petual snow.  The  French  traveller  Tournefort,  in  the 
year  1700,  long  persevered  in  the  face  of  many  diffi- 
culties, but  was  foiled  in  the  end.  About  a  century 
later  the  Pacha  of  Bayazid  undertook  the  ascent  with 
no  better  success.  The  honor  was  reserved  to  a  Ger- 
man, Dr.  Parrot,  in  the  employment  of  Russia,  who 
(in  his  Reise  zum  Ararat,  Berl.  1834  ;  translated  by  W. 
T.  Cooley,  Lond.  and  N.  Y.)  gives  the  following  par- 
ticulars :  "  The  summit  of  the  Great  Ararat  is  in  39° 
42'  north  lat.,  and  61°  55'  east  long,  from  Ferro.  Its 
perpendicular  height  is  1G,254  Paris  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  13,350  above  the  plain  of  the 
Araxes.  The  Little  Ararat  is  12,284  Paris  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  9561  above  the  plain  of  the  Araxes." 
After  he  and  his  party  had  failed  in  two  attempts  to 
ascend,  the  third  was  successful,  and  on  the  27th  of 
September  (0.  S.),  1829,  they  stood  on  the  summit  of 
Mount  Ararat.  It  was  a  slightly  convex,  almost  cir- 
cular platform,  about  200  Paris  feet  in  diameter,  com- 
posed of  eternal  ice,  unbroken  by  a  rock  or  stone ;  on 
account  of  the  great  distances,  nothing  could  be  seen 
distinctly.  The  observations  effected  by  Parrot  have 
been  fully  confirmed  by  another  Russian  traveller,  H. 
Abich,  who,  with  six  companions,  reached  the  top  of 
the  Great  Ararat  without  difficulty,  July  29, 1845.  He 
reports  that,  from  the  valley  between  the  two  peaks, 
nearly  8000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  ascent 
can  with  facility  be  accomplished.  It  would  appear 
even  that  the  ascent  is  easier  than  that  of  Mont  Blanc ; 
and  the  best  period  for  the  enterprise  is  the  end  of 
July  or  beginning  of  August,  when  there  is  annually 
a  period  of  atmospheric  quiet,  and  a  clear  unclouded 
sky.  Another  Russian,  M.  Antonomoff,  has  also  as- 
cended to  the  top;  and  an  Englishman,  named  Sey- 
mour, accompanied  by  a  guide  to  tourists  named  Or- 
vione,  and  escorted  by  four  Cossacks  and  three  Arme- 
nians, claims  likewise  to  have  ascended  the  mountain, 
and  to  have  reached  the  level  summit  of  the  highest 
peak  on  the  17th  September,  184G.  (See  extract  from 
a  letter  in  the  Caucase,  a  St.  Petersburg  Journal,  Ath- 
enwum,  No.  1035,  p.  914.)  That  the  mountain  is  of 
volcanic  origin  is  evidenced  by  the  immense  masses 
of  lava,  cinders,  and  porphyry  with  which  the  middle 
region  is  covered ;  a  deep  cleft  on  its  northern  side 
has  been  regarded  as  the  site  of  its  crater,  and  this 
cleft  has  been  the  scene  of  a  terrible  catastrophe. 
An  earthquake,  which  in  a  few  moments  changed  the 


entire  aspect  of  the  country,  commenced  on  July  2, 
1840,  and  continued,  at  intervals,  until  the  1st  of  Sep- 
tember. Traces  of  fissures  and  land-slips  have  been 
left  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which  the  eye  of  the 
scientific  observer  will  recognise  after  many  ages. 
Clouds  of  reddish  smoke  and  a  strong  smell  of  sul- 
phur, which  pervaded  the  neighborhood  after  the 
earthquake,  seem  to  indicate  that  the  volcanic  powers 
of  the  mountain  are  not  altogether  dormant.  The  de- 
struction of  houses  and  other  property  in  a  wide  tract 
of  country  around  was  very  great;  fortunately,  the 
earthquake  having  happened  during  the  day,  the  loss 
of  lives  did  not  exceed  fifty.  The  scene  of  greatest 
devastation  was  in  the  narrow  valley  of  Akorhi,  where 
the  masses  of  rock,  ice,  and  snow,  detached  from  the 
summit  of  Ararat  and  its  lateral  points,  were  thrown 
at  one  single  bound  from  a  height  of  G000  feet  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vallej-,  where  they  lay  scattered  over 
an  extent  of  several  miles.  (See  Major  Voskoboini- 
kof 's  Report,  in  the  A  thenmim  for  1841,  p.  157.)  Par- 
rot describes  the  secondary  summit  about  400  j-ards 
distant  from  the  highest  point,  and  on  the  gentle  de- 
pression which  connects  the  two  eminences  he  sur- 
mises that  the  ark  rested  (Journey  to  Ararat,  p.  179). 
The  region  immediately  below  the  limits  of  perpetual 
snow  is  barren,  and  unvisited  by  beast  or  bird.  Wag- 
ner (Reise.  p.  185)  describes  the  silence  and  solitude 
that  reign  there  as  quite  overpowering.  A  rejuri,  the 
only  village  known  to  have  been  built  on  its  slopes, 
was  the  spot  where,  according  to  tradition,  Noah 
planted  his  vineyard.  Lower  down,  in  the  plain  of 
Araxes,  is  Nakhchevan,  where  the  patriarch  is  reputed 
to  have  been  buried  (see  Am.  Bib.  Repos.  April,  1836, 
p.  390-416).— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Noah. 

2.  Returning  to  the  broader  signification  we  have 
assigned  to  the  term  "the  mountains  of  Ararat,"  as 
co-extensive  with  the  Armenian  plateau  from  the  base 
of  Ararat  in  the  north  to  the  range  of  Kurdistan  in 
the  south,  we  notice  the  following  characteristics  of 
that  region  as  illustrating  the  Bible  narrative:  (1.) 
Its  elevation.  It  rises  as  a  rocky  island  out  of  a  sea 
of  plain  to  a  height  of  from  6000  to  7000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  presenting  a  surface  of  extensive 
plains,  whence,  as  from  a  fresh  base,  spring  important 
and  lofty  mountain-ranges,  having  a  generally  paral- 
lel direction  from  east  to  west,  and  connected  with 
each  other  by  transverse  ridges  of  moderate  height. 
(2.)  Its  geographical  position.  The  Armenian  plateau 
stands  equidistant  from  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian 
seas  on  the  north,  and  between  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  south.  "With  the  first  it  is 
connected  by  the  Acampsis,  with  the  second  by  the 
Araxes,  with  the  third  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
the  latter  of  which  also  serves  as  an  outlet  toward  the 
countries  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  These  seas 
were  the  high  roads  of  primitive  colonization,  and  the 
plains  watered  by  these  livers  were  the  seats  of  the 
most  powerful  nations  of  antiquity,  the  Assyrians,  the 
Babylonians,  the  Medes,  and  the  Colchians.  Viewed 
with  reference  to  the  dispersion  of  the  nations,  Ar- 
menia is  the  true  centre  (cp^aXuc)  of  the  world;  and 
it  is  a  significant  fact  that  at  the  present  day  Ararat 
is  the  great  boundary-stone  between  the  empires  of 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  Persia.  (3.)  Its  physical  forma- 
tion. The  Armenian  plateau  is  the  result  of  volcanic 
agencies:  the  plains  as  well  as  the  mountains  supply 
evidence  of  this.  Armenia,  however,  differs  material- 
ly from  other  regions  of  similar  geological  formation, 
as,  for  instance,  the  neighboring  range  of  Caucasus, 
inasmuch  as  it  does  not  rise  to  a  sharp,  well-defined 
central  crest,  but  expands  into  plains  or  steppes,  sepa- 
rated by  a  graduated  series  of  subordinate  ranges. 
Wagner  (Reise,  p.  263)  attributes  this  peculiarity  to 
the  longer  period  during  which  the  volcanic  powers 
were  at  work,  and  the  room  afforded  for  the  expansion 
of  the  molten  masses  into  the  surrounding  districts. 
The  result  of  this  expansion  is  that  Armenia  is  far 


ARARATH 


360 


ARBELA 


more  accessible,  both  from  -without  and  within  its  own 
limits,  than  other  districts  of  similar  elevation :  the 
passes,  though  high,  are  comparatively  easy,  and  there 
is  no  district  which  is  shut  out  from  communication 
with  its  neighbors.  The  fall  of  the  ground  in  the 
centre  of  the  plateau  is  not  decided  in  any  direction,  as 
is  demonstrated  by  the  early  courses  of  the  rivers — 
the  Araxes,  which  flows  into  the  Caspian,  rising  west- 
ward of  either  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  and  taking  at 
first  a  northerly  direction — the  Euphrates,  which  flows 
to  the  south,  rising  northward  of  the  Araxes,  and  tak- 
ing a  westerly  direction.  (4.)  The  climate  is  severe. 
Winter  lasts  from  October  to  May,  and  is  succeeded 
by  a  brief  spring  and  a  summer  of  intense  heat.  The 
contrast  between  the  plateau  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries is  striking :  in  April,  when  the  Mesopotamian 
plains  are  scorched  with  heat,  and  on  the  Euxine 
shore  the  azalea  and  rhododendron  are  in  bloom,  the 
Armenian  plains  are  still  covered  with  snow ;  and  in 
the  early  part  of  September  it  freezes  keenly  at  night. 
(5.)  The  vegetation  is  more  varied  and  productive  than 
the  climate  would  lead  us  to  expect.  Trees  are  not 
found  on  the  plateau  itself,  but  grass  grows  luxuriant- 
ly, and  furnishes  abundant  pasture  during  the  sum- 
mer months  to  the  flocks  of  the  nomad  Kurds.  Wheat 
and  barley  ripen  at  far  higher  altitudes  than  on  the 
Alps  and  the  Pyrenees :  the  volcanic  nature  of  the  soil, 
the  abundance  of  water,  and  the  extreme  heat  of  the 
short  summer  bring  the  harvest  to  maturity  with  won- 
derful speed.  At  Erzrum,  more  than  G000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  crops  appear  above  ground  in 
the  middle  of  Juno,  and  are  ready  for  the  sickle  before 
the  end  of  August  (Wagner,  p.  255).  The  vine  ripens 
at  about  5000  feet,  while  in  Europe  its  limit,  even 
south  of  the  Alps,  is  about  2G50  feet.  See  Arme- 
nia. 

The  general  result  of  these  observations  as  bearing 
upon  the  Biblical  narrative  would  be  to  show  that, 
while  the  elevation  of  the  Armenian  plateau  consti- 
tuted it  the  natural  resting-place  of  the  ark  after  the 
Deluge,  its  geographical  position  and  its  physical 
character  secured  an  impartial  distribution  of  the  fam- 
ilies of  mankind  to  the  various  quarters  of  the  world. 
The  climate  furnished  a  powerful  inducement  to  seek 
the  more  tempting  regions  on  all  sides  of  it.  At  the 
same  time,  the  character  of  the  vegetation  was  remark- 
ably adapted  to  the  nomad  state  in  which  we  may 
conceive  the  early  generations  of  Noah's  descendants 
to  have  lived. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Ethnology. 

Ar'arath  (ApapciS  v.  r.  'Apapar),  another  form 
(Tobit  i,  21)  of  the  name  Ararat  (q.  v.). 

Aratus  ("Aparoc),  the  author  of  two  astronomical 
poems  in  Greek,  about  B.C.  270,  fragments  and  Latin 
translations  of  which  are  alone  extant  (Fabric.  Bill. 
(,'rmc.  iv,  87;  Schaubach,  Gesch.  d.ffriech.  Astronomic, 
p.  215;  Delambre,  Hist,  de  I'Astron.  Ancienne).  (For 
an  account  of  his  works  and  their  editions,  see  Smith's 
Diet,  of  <  'fuss.  Bioff.  s.  v. )  From  the  opening  of  one 
of  these  poems,  entitled  Pkeenomena  (<i>cui'6i.uva),  the 
Apostle  Paul  is  thought  to  have  made  the  quotation 
indicated  in  his  speech  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  28), 
"As  certain  also  of  your  own  poets  have  said,  'For 
we  are  also  his  offspring  ;'  "  since  the  words  precisely 
agree  (Tor  yap  Kai  yevog  lopkv).  Others,  however 
(see  Kuindl,  Comment,  in  loc),  adduce  similar  senti- 
ments from  Cleanthes  Qk  aov  yap  yivoq  ia/iev,  Hymn. 
in  Jov<  m.  :< |  and  Pindar  («,  :-u7>v  ykvoc,  M  in.  6).  A 
few  brief  and  casual  quotations  of  this  kind  have  been 
made  the  foundation  of  the  hasty  conclusion  that  Paul 
was  well  read  in  . 'lassie  poetry;  but.  this,  from  his  Jew- 
ish education,  is  extremely  improbable.  See  Paul. 
In  this,  the  most  direct  instance,  lie  appears  rather  to 
refer  to  the  general  sentiment  of  the  Creek  mytholo- 
gy, of  which  tin-  passages  adduced  (alluded  to  in  a  ^en- 
oral  way  by  Paul,  as  if  taken  second-hand  and  by 
recollection    merely)    are    the    frequent    expression 


(note  the  plur.  "poets").    See  Schmid,  De  Arato  (Jen. 
1G91). 

Arau'nah  (Heb.  Aravnah',  ilSI^H,  2  Sam.  xxiv, 
16-24  [ver.  1G  flS'lfX,  ver.  18  rrrnN],  perhaps  anoth- 
er form  of  Oman ;  Sept.  'Opvd)  or  Or'nan  (Heb.  Or- 
nau ',  "3"1X,  nimble;  1  Chron.  xxi ;  2  Chron.  iii,  1; 
Sept.  'Opvd),  a  man  of  the  Jebusite  nation,  which  pos- 
sessed Jerusalem  before  it  was  taken  by  the  Israel- 
ites. The  angel  of  pestilence,  sent  to  punish  King 
David  for  his  presumptuous  vanity  in  taking  a  cen- 
sus of  the  people,  was  stayed  in  the  work  of  death 
near  a  plot  of  ground  belonging  to  this  person,  used 
as  a  threshing-floor,  and  situated  on  Mount  Moriah ; 
and  when  he  understood  it  was  required  for  the  site 
of  the  Temple,  he  liberally  offered  the  ground  to  Da- 
vid as  a  free  gift ;  but  the  king  insisted  on  paying 
the  full  value  for  it  (50  shekels  of  silver  according  to 
2  Sam.  xxiv,  18,  but  GOO  shekels  of  gold  according  to 
1  Chron.  xxi,  18).  B.C.  cir.  1017.  See  David.  Jo- 
sephus,  who  calls  him  Oronna  QOpovva,  Ant.  vii,  13, 
4),  adds  that  he  was  a  wealth}'  man  among  the  Jebu- 
sites,  whom  David  spared  in  the  capture  of  the  city  on 
account  of  his  good-will  toward  the  Hebrews  {Ant.  vii, 
3,  3).     Sec  Moriah. 

Ar'ba  (Heb.  Arba ',  V^#,  four,  but  see  Simonis 
Onom.  V.  T.  p.  312  sq. ;  Sept.  'Ap/3oic  v.  r.  Apyo/3),  a 
giant,  father  of  Anak  (q.  v.),  from  whom  Hebron 
(q.  v.)  derived  its  early  name  of  Kirjath-Arba,  i.  e. 
city  of  Arba  (Josh.  xiv.  15;  xv.  13;  xxi,  11).  B.C. 
ante  1G18.     See  Giant. 

Ar'bathite  (Heb.  Arbathi' ',  ^yj,  Sept.  'Apa- 
/3w3i'r?/c,  but  in  Chron.  2ap«/3f3-.2r«  v.  r.  TapafiaiSri), 
an  epithet  of  Abiel,  one  of  David's  warriors  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  31 ;  1  Chron.  xi,  32),  probably  as  being  an  in- 
habitant of  Araraii  (Josh,  xv,  Gl ;  xxiii,  22). 

Arfoat'tis  (only  in  the  dat.  plur.  'Apiic'irroie,  with 
many  var.  readings,  see  Grimm,  Handb.  in  loc),  a  city 
or  region  named  in  connection  with  Galilee  as  being 
despoiled  by  Simon  Maccabams  (1  Mac.  v,  23).  Ewald 
(Isr.  Gesch.  iv,  359  note)  thinks  (from  the  Syriac  read- 
ing Ard  Dot)  that  the  district  now  called  Ard  el-Bat  l- 
bah,  north  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  is  intended,  and  oth- 
ers have  conjectured  the  Arabah,  Arabia,  etc.;  but 
the  most  probable  supposition  is  that  of  Reland  (Palwst. 
p.  192),  that  the  name  is  a  corruption  (comp.  2  Mace, 
v,  3)  of  that  of  the  toparchy  called  by  Josephus  (IFar, 
iii,  3,  4  and  5)  Acrabattine  (q.  v.). 

Arbeh.     See  Locust. 

Ar'bel.     See  Beth-arbel. 

Arbe'la  (-<i  Ap/3//\a),  mentioned  in  1  Mace,  ix, 
2,  as  defining  the  situation  of  Masaloth,  a  place  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  Bacchides  and  Alcimus  at  the 
opening  of  the  campaign  in  which  Judas  Maccabseus 
was  killed.  According  to  Josephus  {Ant.  xii,  11,  1) 
this  was  at  Arbela  of  Galilee  (tv  Ap/3//Aoir),  a  place 
which  he  elsewhere  states  to  be  near  Sepphoris,  on  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth,  and  remarkable  for  certain  im- 
pregnable caves,  the  resort  of  robbers  and  insurgents, 
and  the  scene  of  more  than  one  desperate  encounter 
(comp.  Ant.  xiv,  15,4  and  5;  War,  i,  16,  2  and  3;  ii, 
20,  6;  Lfe,  37).  These  topographical  requirements 
are  fully  met  by  the  existing  Irbid,  a  site  with  a  few 
ruins,  west  of  Mejdel,  on  the  south-east  side  of  the 
Wady  Ilamani,  in  a  small  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  bill 
of  Kurun  Hattin.  The  caverns  are  in  the  opposite 
face  of  the  ravine,  and  bear  the  name  of  Kulat  Ibn 
Maan  (Robinson,  ii,  398;  Burckh.  331;  Irby,  91). 
As  to  the  change  in  the  name,  the  Arbela  of  Alexan- 
der the  Groat  is  called  Irbll  by  the  Arabic  historians 
(Robinson,  ii,  399').  Moreover,  the  present  Irbid  is 
undoubtedly  mentioned  in  the  Talmud  as  Arbel  (see 
Schwarz,  Palest.  189  ;  Belaud.  Palast.  358  ;  Robinson, 
iii,  343  note).  There  seems,  therefore,  no  reason  to 
doubt  the  soundness  of  this  identification  (first  sug- 


ARBELA 


361 


ARCADE 


gested  in  the  Munch.  Gel.  Anzeige,  Nov.  183G).     The  of  Bourbon,  abbess  of  Fontevrault— Maihfi rme,  Ih's- 

army  of  Baccbides  was  on  its  road  from  Antioch  to  sertationes  in  Epistolam  contra  Eobertum  da  Arlrisello 

the  land  of  Judaea  (y/)v  'lovSa),  which  the}'  were  ap-  !  (Saumur,  1G82)  ;    Hoefer,  Neuv.  Bit  graphic    Gintrale, 

proaching  '!  by  the  way  that  leadeth  to  Galgala"  (Gil-  iii,  23. 

gal),  that  is,  by  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  in  the  direct  Arbuthnot,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  divine,  was 

line  to  which  Irbid  lies.     Ewald,  however  (Gtsch.  Isr.  born  m  1533.     He  was  educated  in  the  University  of 

iv,  370  note),  insists,  in  opposition  to  Josephus,  that  St.  Andrew's,  and  then  went  to  France  and  prosecuted 

the  engagements  of  this  campaign  were  confined  to  his  studies  under  Cujacius.     Being  declared  licentiate 

Judaea  proper,  a  theory  which  drives  him  to  consider  of  laws,  he  came  home  in  15C6  to  follow  that  profes- 

"  Galgala"  as  the  Jiljilia  north  of  Gophna.     See  Gil-  sion  ;  but  he  soon  left  the  bar  for  the  pulpit.     In  15G8 

GAL.     But  he  admits  that  no  trace  of  an  Arbela  in  he  was  made  principal  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 


that  direction  has  yet  come  to  light.     Arbela  is  prob- 
ably the  Beth-arbel  (q.  v.)  of  Hos.  x,  14.— Smith. 
Arbela   ('Ap/3?/Xfi),   another   city   mentioned   by 


He  took  an  active  part  in  the  various  controversies  of 
the  time,  and  was  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
"  Book  of  Discipline."     In  1583  he  received  a  presen- 


Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  as  situated  be-  \  tation  to  one  of  the  churches  of  St.  Andrew's,  but  was 
yond  Jordan,  near  Pella  ;  doubtless  the  present  Irbid,  j  prohibited  by  a  royal  warrant,  or  "horning,"  from  ac- 
a  large  village  with  extensive  ruins  near  Wady  She-  i  cepting  it.  The  cause  of  the  royal  indignation  against 
laleh,  visited  by  several  travellers  (Rittcr,  Erdlc.  xv,  I  him  is  not  exactly  known ;  but  while  the  controver- 
1054  sq.).  '  Fy  as  to  his  appointment  was  pending  he  died,  Octo- 

Ar'bi'te  (Heb.  Arbi'.  ^21X,  Sept.  AP/60,  ™  epi-  j  ^r  17,  1583.     He  left  behind  him  the  character  of  a 
thet  of  Paarai  or  Naarai,  one  "of  David's  warriors  (2  I  moderate  and  bonest  mal1'  a  man  of  lcarmn^  and  a 


Sam.  xxiii,  35  ;  comp.  1  Chron.  xi,  37),  probably  as  be- 
ing a  native  of  the  town  Arab  (Josh,  xv,  52).  In  the 
list  of  Chronicles  it  is  given  as  Ben-Ezbai,  by  a  change 
in  letters  not  unfrequently  occurring.  See  Ezbai. 
(See  Kennicott,  Dissert,  on  2  Sam.  xxiii,  p.  210.) 
Aibo'nai  (Gr.  Abronas,  'A ft 010 vac.  v.  r.  'Afiawrai, 


poet.— McCrie's  Life  of  Melville,  i,  114;  Bug.  Britan- 
nica. 

Arcade.  In  church  architecture,  a  series  of  arch- 
es supported  by  pillars  or  shafts,  whether  belonging  to 
the  construction  or  used  in  relieving  large  surfaces  of 
masonry  ;  the  present  observations  will  be  confined  to 


•i          11  the  latter  that  is,  to  ornamental  arcades.     These  were 

see  I ntzsche,  I  ommmt.  in  loc),  a  stream,  as  it  would  .       la'raiuli'Y°l, ""  ,      ^T                .,           ,                    , 

„                       ,      .                   ,           •  j      1 1  introduced  earlv  in  the  Norman  style,  and  were  used 

seem,   111   Mesopotamia,    having   several   considerable  ",,■>         ,         xl_        ,    /  .  '                    c 

cities  on  its  banks  which  were  destroyed  bv  Holofernes  j  ver7  ha^.  to  lts  cl^e'  ******  base  storf.  of  ex: 

(Judith  ii,  24).     Some  regard  it  as  being  the  same  with  terior  and  interior  alike,  and  the  upper  portions  of 

the  Habor  (q.  v.)  or  Chaboras  of  Scripture  (2  Kings  ^'^  and  hl«h  walls,  being  often  quite  covered  with 

x£    .   f.   .           ...          .  .      '       .    \          .  tlmm       '  Iipt  TA-pve  cit  k  r  ii    smmle  or  ot  liiterseetmir 


xvii,  1G).  But  it  is  probably  a  false  rendering  of  a 
bungling  translator  for  the  original  Heb.  liHSil  "C1'2, 
beyond  the  river,  i.  e.  Euphrates  (see  Movers,  in  the 
Banner  Ztitschr.  xiii,  38). 

Arbrissel  or  Arbrisselles,  Robert  D',  the 
founder  of  the  order  of  Fontevrault,  was  born  in  1047 
at  Arbrissel  or  Arbreses,  a  village  in  the  diocese  of 
Eennes,  and  died  Feb.  25, 1117.  In  1085  he  was  ap- 
pointed vicar-general  of  the  bishop  of  Eennes,  in  which 
diocese  he  labored  successfully  for  the  restoration  of 
church  discipline.  In  1089  he  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Angers ;  but  after  two  years  he  retired  to 
the  forest  of  Craon,  on  the  frontier  of  Anjou  and  Bre- 
tagne.  There  soon  a  number  of  hermits  gathered 
around  him,  and  Robert  founded  the  first  establish- 
ment of  the  order  of  Fontevrault,  the  celebrated  abbey 
De  Rota.  Robert  himself  was  appointed  its  first  pri- 
or at  the  Council  of  Tours  in  1096,  where  he  preached 
the  same  year.  The  number  of  the  followers  of  Rob- 
ert rapidly  increased,  and  he  established  several  mon- 
asteries ;  the  most  important  was  the  celebrated  ab- 
bey of  Fontevrault,  near  Poitiers,  after  which  the  en- 
tire order  was  named.  The  abbey  consisted  of  two 
different  monasteries,  one  for  men  and  one  for  wom- 
en, which  together  counted  soon  more  than  2000  in- 
mates. According  to  the  letters  of  Marbod,  bishop  of 
Eennes  (cited  by  P.  de  la  Mainferme,  Clipeus,  t.  i,  p. 
69),  and  Geoffrey,  abbot  of  Vendome  (L'r cttei I  des  Let- 
ires  de  I' Abbe  Geoffroy,  publiees  par  /<■  J'.  Sirmond  in 
1610),  Robert,  to  crucify  his  flesh,  had  recourse  to  the 
most  immoral  kind  of  mortification  ;  he  used,  for  in- 
stance, to  sleep  in  the  cells  of  the  nuns.  These  facts, 
denied  or  excused  by  some,  and  affirmed  or  censured 
by  others,  were  the  subject  of  the  most  lively  contro 


them.      They  were  either  of  simple  or  of  intersecting 
arches  ;  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the  latter  are  the 


Arch  from  Canterbury. 


most  elaborate  in  work,  and  the  most  ornamental ;  they 
are  accordingly  reserved  in  general  for  the  richer  por- 
tions of  the  fabric.  There  is,  moreover,  another,  and 
perhaps  more  effective  way  of  complicating  the  arcade, 
by  placing  an  arcade  within  and  behind  another,  so 
that  the  wall  is  doubly  recessed,  and  the  play  of  light 
and  shadow  greatly  increased.  The  decorations  of 
the  transitional,  until  very  late  in  the  style,  are  so 
nearly  those  of  the  Norman,  that  we  need  not  partic- 
ularize the  semi-Norman  arcade.  In  the  next  style 
the  simple  arcade  is,  of  course,  most  frequent.  This, 
like  the  Norman,  often  covers  very  large  surfaces, 
versy  among  the  Roman  Catholic  theologians  of  France  \  Foil  arches  are  often  introduced  at  this  period,  and 
in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  A  monk  of  Fonte-  greatly  vary  the  effect.  The  reduplication  of  arcades 
vrault,  P.  de  la  Mainferme,  wrote  a  lar^e  work,  en-  j  is  now  managed  differently  from  the  former  style, 
titled  Clipeus  nascentis  ordinis  FoiitiLrahbvzis,  in  de-  Two  arcades,  perfect,  in  all  their  parts,  are  set  the  one 
fence  of  the  founder  of  the  order.  Robert,  in  1104,  j  behind  the  other,  but  the  shaft  of  the  outer  is  opposite 
was  present  at  the  Councils  of  Beaugency  and  Paris,  I  to  the  arsh  of  the  inner  series,  the  outer  series  is  also 
at  the  latter  of  which  he  prevailed  upon  Bertrade  to  j  more  lofty  in  its  proportions,  and  the  two  are  often  of 
separate  from  King  Philip.  He  died  in  the  monaste-  I  differently  constructed  arches,  as  at  Lincoln,  where 
ry  of  Orsan.  His  remains  were,  in  1G33,  placed  in  a  |  the  outer  series  is  of  trefoil,  the  inner  of  simple  arches, 
magnificent  marble  tomb,  made  by  order  of  Louise  I  or  vice  versa,  the  two  always  being  different.     The  of- 


ARC.E  CUSTODES 


362 


ARCAXI  DISCIPLINA 


feet  of  this  is  extremely  beautiful.  But  the  most  ex- 
quisite arches  are  those  of  the  Geometrical  period, 
where  each  arch  is  often  surmounted  by  a  crocketed 
pediment,  and  the  higher  efforts  of  sculpture  arc  tasked 
for  their  enrichment,  as  in  the  glorious  chapter-houses 
of  Salisbury,  Southwell,  and  York :  these  are,  how- 
ever, usually  confined  to  the  interior.  In  the  Deco- 
rated period  partially,  and  in  the  Perpendicular  entire- 
ly, the  arcade  gave  place  to  panelling,  greatly  to  the 
loss  of  effect,  for  no  delicacy  or  intricacy  of  pattern 
can  compensate  for  the  bright  light  and  deep  shadows 
of  the  Xorman  and  early  English  arcades  (Hook, 
Church  Dictionary,  s.  v.). 

Arcee  Custodes,  beepers  of  the  chest,  a  name  oc- 
casionally given  in  the  early  church  to  the  archdea- 
cons (q.  v.).  The  bishop  was  not  required  to  care 
personally  for  the  widows,  orphans,  and  strangers,  but 
to  commit  them  to  his  archdeacon,  who  had  the  keys 
of  the  church's  treasures,  and  the  care  of  dispensing 
the  oblations  of  the  people.  The  ordinary  deacons 
were  the  actual  dispensers  of  the  money  ;  but  from  the 
archdeacon,  who  was  the  chief  manager,  they  received 
their  instructions  and  orders.— Bingham,  Ori.g.  Eccks. 
bk.  ii,  ch.  xxi,  §  o ;  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Arcani  Disciplina  (discipline  of  the  mysteries,  or 
system  of  secret  instruction"),  a  term  first  introduced  by 
Meier  in  his  Be  Pecondita  ret.  Eccles.  Theologia  (1677), 
to  denote  the  practice  of  the  early  church  of  concealing 
from  unbelievers,  and  even  from  catechumens,  certain 
parts  of  divine  worship,  especially  of  the  sacraments. 
The  subject  is  curious  in  itself,  and  receives  additional 
importance  from  the  use  made  of  it  by  the  Romanists 
(see  below).  The  disciplina  arcani  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  system  of  reserve,  or  concealment  in 
theology  (scientia  arcani,  jiv(TT)]oiouo(J>ia),  which  sprang 
up  in  Egypt  in  the  second  century,  viz.  the  system 
adopted  by  certain  teachers  of  not  communicating  cer- 
tain parts  of  Christian  knowledge  (yvwaic)  to  Chris- 
ti .in  people  generally,  but  only  secretly  to  such  as 
they  deemed  capable  and  worthy.  Clement  of  Alex* 
andria  is  the  first  to  mention  this  system,  and  he  pre- 
tends that  it  was  instituted  by  Christ  himself  (Stromal'. 
lib.  i,  e.  1 ;  see  Mosheim,  Historical  Commentaries,  cent, 
ii,  §  34).  But  the  arcani  disciplina.  proper  referred  to 
worship  rather  than  to  doctrine.  It  is  fully  treated 
by  Bingham,  from  whom  the  following  statement,  is 
condensed. 

1.  Tertullian  (f  220)  is  the  first  writer  who  men- 
tions the  practice  of  this  mystery,  and  blames  the  her- 
etics for  not  observing  it  (be  Prescript,  adv.  Hier.  cap. 
41).  From  him,  and  from  later  writers,  it  appears 
that  the  secret  system  at  first  covered  only  Baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  (i.  e.  the  forms  and  ritual  of  the 
sacraments,  not  the  doctrine  concerning  them).  At  a 
later  period,  confirmation,  ordination,  and  unction 
were  also  made  matters  of  concealment ;  and  parts  of 
the  prayers  of  the  church  were  enjoyed  only  by  the 
"faithful,"  while  unbelievers  and  catechumensVere 
excluded  from  them.  The  system  seems  to  have 
reached  its  height  during  the  fourth  century.  At  that 
time  catechumens  were  taught  the  Ten  Command- 
ments,  a  creed,  or  summary  confession  of  faith,  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  with  suitable  expositions;  but, 
prior  to  baptism,  the  nature  of  the  sacraments  was 
carefully  concealed.  Even  the  time  and  place  were 
not  On  any  ace, not.  to  be  divulged.  To  relate  the 
manner  in  which  the  sacrament  was  administered,  to 
mention  the  words  used  in  the  administration,  to  de- 
scribe the  simple  elements  in  which  it  consisted,  were 
(hemes  on  which  the  initiated  were  as  strictly  forbid- 
den to  touch  as  if  they  had  been  laid  under  aii  oath  of 
secrecy.  Even  the  ministers,  when  they  were  led  in 
their  public  discourses  to  speak  of  the  sacraments  or 
the  higher  doctrines  of  faith,  contented  themselves  with 
remote  allusions",  and  dismissed  the  sulijeet  by  Saying 
"\aaaiv  o\  fitfiVTjfiivoi,  T/u  initiaU «/  hnow  what  is  meant. 


So  also  of  confirmation.  Basil  (De  Spiritu  Sancto, 
c.  27)  says  that  the  "  holy  oil  used  in  this  ceremony 
is  not  to  be  looked  upon  by  the  uninitiated."  As  to 
the  public  prayers  of  the  church,  all  those  which  had 
reference  to  the  communion  service  were  confined  to 
the  f deles.  The  highest  class  of  penitents,  called  con- 
sistentes,  or  co-standers,  were  allowed  to  be  present  at 
the  communion  prayers,  and  see  the  oblation  offered 
and  received  by  the  faithful,  though  they  might  not 
partake  with  them.  But  catechumens  of  all  ranks 
were  wholly  excluded  from  all  this.  They  were  al- 
ways dismissed  before  these  prayers  began,  and  the 
doors  of  the  church  were  locked  and  guarded  by  prop- 
er officers,  to  the  intent  that  no  uninitiated  person 
should  indiscreetly  rush  in  upon  them.  We  shut  the 
doors,  says  Chrysostom  (Horn,  xxiii,  in  Matt?),  when 
we  celebrate  the  holy  mysteries,  and  drive  away  all 
uninitiated  persons.  This  was  one  of  the  secrets  of 
the  church,  as  we  heard  St.  Austin  before  (in  Psalm. 
ciii)  speak  of  it ;  one  of  the  things  which  a  catechu- 
men might  not  look  upon,  according  to  St.  Basil  (De 
Spirit.  Sanct.  c.  27).  Therefore  the  author  of  the  Apos- 
tolical Constitution  (lib.  ii,  c.  57  ;  viii,  c.  11)  mi.kcs  it 
a  part  of  the  deacon's  office  not  only  to  command 
their  absence,  but  also  to  keep  the  doors,  that  none 
might,  come  in  during  the  time  of  the  oblation.  Epi- 
phanius  (Hceres.  42,  n.  3)  and  St.  Jerome  (Comm.  in 
Galat.  c.  vi)  bring  it  as  a  charge  against  the  Mareion- 
ites  that  they  despised  this  discipline,  and  admitted 
catechumens  indiscriminately  with  the  faithful  to  all 
their  mysteries.  And  Palladius  (Vita  Chrysost.  c.  9) 
forms  a  like  charge  against  the  enemies  of  Chrysos- 
tom, that  in  the  tumult  they  raised  against  him,  they 
gave  occasion  to  the  uninitiated  to  break  into  the 
church,  and  see  those  things  which  it  was  not  lawful 
for  them  to  set  their  eyes  upon.  Nay,  so  strict  was 
the  church  then  in  the  observation  of  this  discipline, 
that  Athanasius  convicted  the  Meletians  of  false  wit- 
ness against  him  when  thej'  pretended  to  prove  by  the 
testimony  of  some  catechumens  that  Macarius,  one  of 
his  presbyters,  had  overturned  the  communion  table  in 
the  time  of  the  oblation ;  he  argued  that  this  could  not 
be  so,  because  (Athanasius,  Apol.  2),  if  the  catechu- 
mens were  present,  there  could  then  be  no  oblation. — 
(Bingham,  Or  iff.  Eccles.  bk.  x,  ch.  v.) 

2.  The  disciplina  arcani  gradually  fell  into  disuse; 
no  precise  date  of  its  end  can  be  given.  Rothe  (Her- 
zog,  Real-Encnldopiidie,  i,  471)  remarks  that  so  long, 
on  the  one  hand,  as  the  church  stood  in  the  midst  of  a 
heathen  world,  and  as  long,  on  the  other  hand,  as, 
within  the  church,  delay  of  baptism  (the  procrasi  natio 
baptismi)  to  an  advanced  age,  or  even  to  the  dying 
hour,  was  practised,  the  arcani  disciplina  might  have 
been  a  useful  sj'stem  ;  but  just  in  proportion  as  infant 
baptism  became  more  general,  and  the  pagan  world  was 
christianized,  the  secret  discipline  lost  its  significance; 
for,  in  consequence  of  these  changes,  the  class  of  per- 
sons for  whom  it  had  been  instituted  no  longer  exist- 
ed. In  a  general  way,  we  may  name  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century  as  the  period  when  it  passed  away. 
The  Western  Church  gradually  stripped  its  liturgy  of 
all  secret  usages  ;  and  Bona  (Per.  Lituryicar.  1. 1,16,  6) 
asserts  that  about  700  the  catechu menal  system  was 
entirely  gone.  The  Eastern  Church,  however,  holds 
on  to  her  antiquated  formulas,  by  which  the  catechu- 
mens are  dismissed  from  divine  worship,  notwithstand- 
ing that  church  has  no  catechumens,  and  practises 
infant  communion. 

3.  The  original  grounds  for  the  adoption  of  the  ar- 
cani  disciplina  cannot  lie  known  ;  but  conjectures,  and 
even  plausible  sources,  are  not  wanting.  The  reasons 
for  it  were,  according  to  Bingham,  first,  that  the  plain- 
ness and  simplicity  of  the  Christian  rites  might  not  be 
contemned  by  the  catechumens,  or  give  scandal  or  of- 
fence to  them,  before  they  were  thoroughly  instructed 
aliout  the  nature  of  the  mysteries;  secondly,  to  con- 
ciliate a  reverence  in  the  minds  of  men  for  the  mj'ste- 


ARC  AN  I  DISCIPLINA 


363 


ARCH 


ries  so  concealed;  and,  thirdly,  to  make  the  catechu- 
mens more  desirous  to  know  them,  or  to  excite  their 
curiosity.  Augustine  says,  "Though  the  sacraments 
are  not  disclosed  to  the  catechumens,  it  is  not  because 
they  cannot  bear  them,  but  that  they  may  so  much 
the  more  ardently  desire  them,  by  how  much  they  are 
more  honorably  hidden  from  them"  {Horn,  in  Joh.  90). 
Kothe  goes  into  an  elaborate  inquiry  on  the  subject  in 
the  article  above  cited  (and  also  in  his  treatise  De  Dis- 
cipline A  rcani  Origine  (Heidel.  1841 ,  4  to),  of  which  the 
following  is  the  substance.  Casaubon  {De  reb.  sacris 
Em  re.  xvi,  Genev.  1G54,  4to)  traces  the  origin  of  it  to 
a  desire,  on  the  part  of  Christians,  to  have  mysteries 
of  their  own,  and  so  not  to  be  outdone  by  heathenism, 
which  set  great  store  by  them.  Kothe  disputes  this, 
on  the  ground  of  the  bitter  opposition  of  the  Anti-Ni- 
cene  Christians  to  all  heathen  ideas  and  usages.  But 
he  forgets  that  mysteries  are  congenial  to  human  na- 
ture in  all  ages;  a  spirit  akin  to  that  which  preserves 
Free-masonry  could  very  well  have  existed  in  the  early 
church.  With  less  probability,  certain  writers,  e.  g. 
Frommann  {De  Disciplina  Arcani,  Jena,  1833),  find  the 
origin  of  the  secret  system  in  Judaism,  which  did  not 
admit  proselytes  at  once  to  all  sacred  services.  Had 
this  been  so,  we  should  find  traces  of  it  in  the  N.  T. 
and  in  the  apostolic  age;  but  the  whole  S3'stem  is 
quite  foreign  to  apostolic  usage,  which  practised  the 
utmost  openness.  Moreover,  during  that  early  period 
of  Christianity  when  the  church  borrowed  from  Ju- 
daism, the  disciplina  arcani  did  not  yet  exist ;  and 
besides,  the  Jewish  custom  appears  to  be  of  so  late  an 
origin  that  it  may  itself  be  an  imitation  of  a  Chris- 
tian institution.  August!  (Hcndb.  d.  christl.  Archcc- 
olcgie,  i,  93  sq. ;  Denkici'tri'igbitm,  iv,  897)  thinks  that 
the  early  Christians  adopted  the  secret  discipline  be- 
cause their  public  worship  was  forbidden  by  law,  and 
that  this  compulsory  secrecy  grew  into  a  usage.  But 
if  this  were  true,  all  parts  of  worship  would  have 
shared  in  the  secrecy,  whereas  only  certain  portions 
were  made  mysteries  of.  Credner  (Jen.  Lilerar.  Zei- 
tung,  1846,  Nos.  164  and  165)  traces  the  origin  of  the 
secret  discipline  back  to  the  apostolic  age,  and  finds 
the  ground  of  it  in  the  natural  unwillingness  of  Jew- 
ish Christians  to  admit  heathen  converts  at  once  to 
baptism.  He  finds  confirmation  of  his  theory  in  the 
fact  that  Clement  of  Alexandria  {Quis  Dives,  c.  42), 
Irenseus  {adv.  fleer,  iv,  23,  24),  and  Tertullian  {De  Bap- 
tismo,  c.  18)  trace  the  origin  of  the  catechumenate  back 
to  the  apostles.  But  even  this  would  not  prove  his 
point ;  there  might  be,  and  for  some  time  were,  cate- 
chumens, without  a  disciplina  arcani;  and,  moreover, 
there  is  ample  proof  of  openness  in  ritual  usages  up  to 
the  second  century.  But  yet  the  true  origin  of  the 
secret  discipline  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  cate- 
chumenate (see  Bothe,  1.  c).  The  catechumens  were 
probationers  in  the  church,  not  full  members;  and 
this  novitiate  was  designed,  first,  to  keep  unworthy 
persons  out  of  the  church,  and,  secondly,  to  train  new- 
converts  in  Christian  doctrine  and  morals.  At  this 
day  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  such  a  cate- 
chumenate {Discipline,  ch.  ii,  §  1),  but  without  any  se- 
cret discipline.  But  in  the  early  church,  during  the 
persecutions,  it  Avas  dangerous  at  once  to  admit  pro- 
fessed converts,  who  might  be  spies,  into  the  assem- 
blies of  the  faithful.  They  were  accordingly  taught 
apart.  But  the  tendency  of  this  state  of  things  would 
naturally  be  to  make  two  kinds  of  Christianity,  tire 
esoteric,  or  that  of  the  baptized  believers  (jideles),  and 
the  exoteric,  or  that  of  the  unbaptized  catechumens. 
The  former  shared  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  not  the 
latter.  Here  is  a  plain  starting-point  for  making  mys- 
teries of  the  two  sacraments  in  liturgical  practice  as 
well  as  in  theory.  What  was  at  first  accidental  final- 
ly grew  into  a  rule. 

4.  The  Bomanists,  as  remarked  above,  have  at- 
tempted to  press  the  disciplina  arcani  into  their  ser- 
vice to  account  for  the  silence  of  the  early  church 


•writers  as  to  penance,  image-worship,  and  other  of 
their  corruptions.  The  Jesuit  Schelstrate  first  at- 
tempted this  in  his  Antiquitas  illustrata  (Ant.  1G78), 
but  was  fully  refuted  by  Tenzel  in  Exercitationes  Se- 
lectee (Francof.  1G92,  4to).  Other  Roman  Catholic 
works  on  the  subject  are,  Schollner,  De  Disciplina  A  r- 
cani  (Venet.  1756);  Lienhardt,  De.  Antiq.  Liturg.  <t  de 
Disciplina  Arcani  (Argentor.  1829).  When  pressed 
hard  by  Protestants  with  the  argument  that  no  traces 
of  the  corruptions  named  above,  or  of  the  invocation 
of  saints,  the  seven  sacraments,  or  transubstantion,  are 
to  be  found  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church,  they  ad- 
mit the  fact  of  this  silence,  but  account  for  it  on  the 
ground  that  these  doctrines  and  usages  formed  part  of 
the  disc'qilina  arcani.  Bingham  shrewdly  remarks 
that  this  "is  an  artifice  that  would  justify  as  many 
errors  and  vanities  as  any  church  could  be  guilty  of; 
it  is  but  working  a  little  with  this  admirable  instru- 
ment and  tool,  called  disciplina  arcani,  and  then  all 
the  seeming  contradictions  between  the  ancient  doc- 
trines and  practices  of  the  church  universal  and  the 
novel  corruptions  of  the  modern  Church  of  Rome  will 
presently  vanish  and  disappear;  so  that  we  need  not 
wonder  win-  men,  whose  interest  it  serves  so  much, 
should  magnify  this  as  a  noble  invention"  (bk.  x,  ch. 
v,  §  1).  The  account  given  above  of  the  nature  of 
the  arcani  disciplina  suffices  of  itself  to  refute  the 
Romish  pretence.  The  very  mysteries  themselves 
(baptism  and  the  Eucharist),  which  formed  the  objects 
of  the  secret  discipline,  so  far  from  being  avoided  by 
the  early  Christian  writers,  are  topics  of  constant  re- 
mark and  discussion  from  the  apostles'  time  down- 
ward. The  bare  fact,  for  instance,  that  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Eucharist  was  concealed  from  the  cate- 
chumens, gives  no  more  ground  to  suppose  that  tran- 
sit! istantiation  was  taught  in  the  bread  and  wine,  than 
the  f„ct  that  baptism  was  concealed  from  them  gives 
ground  to  suppose  that  the  same  doctrine  was  taught 
in  the  water  of  baptism.  See  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccls. 
bk.  x,  ch.  v,  and  the  other  writers  above  cited.  See 
also  Xcander,  Church  Histt  ry,  i,  308  ;  Coleman,  A ncient 
Christianity,  ch.  xiv,  §  2 ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyUopddie, 
i,  467  sq.     See  Mystery. 

Arce.     See  Arkite  ;  Petra. 

Arch  (only  in  the  plur.  D^b^X,  eylammim', 
masc,  and  tYlED^K,  eylammotli ',  fern.),  an  architectu- 
ral term  occurring  only  in  Ezek.  xl,  16,  22,  26,  29, 
and  difficult  of  definition,  but  prob.  allied  with  b^X, 
a'yil,  a  ram,  hence  a  column  or  pilaster  (1  Kings  vi, 
31 ;  Ezek.  xli,  3,  etc.).  Most  interpreters  understand 
the  term  (sing.  Eb^X,  eylam")  to  be  the  same  as  E'^X, 
ularn  ,  a  vestibule  or  porch,  following  the  Sept.,  Vulg., 
and  Targums  (Ai'Xw/i,  vestilulum,  X^p^lN) ;  but  it  is 
manifestly  distinguished  from  this  (Ezek.  xl,  7,  8,  9, 
39,  40),  since  the  latter  contained  windows  (ver.  16, 
29),  whereas  this  was  carried  round  the  building,  even 
in  front  of  the  ascent  to  the  gate  (ver.  22,  26),  and  is 
usually  associated  with  pillars.  Of  the  other  ancient 
interpreters  Symmachus  and  the  Syr.  translate  some- 
times surrounding  columns,  sometimes  threshold.  The 
word  appears  cither  to  denote  a  portico  with  a  colon- 
nade, or  (according  to  Rabbi  Menahen)  is  about  equiv- 
alent to  i^N,  from  which  it  is  derived,  i.  e.  some  or- 
nament, perhaps  the  rohite  or  moulding  at  the  top  of 
a  column  (comp.  Bottcher,  Prvbcn  alltest.  SchriflerM. 
p.  319).— Gesenius,  Thes.  lleb.  p.  47. 

Arches  with  vaulted  chambers  and  domed  temples 
figure  so  conspicuously  in  modern  Oriental  architec- 
ture, that,  if  the  arch  did  not  exist  among  the  ancient 
Jews,  their  towns  and  houses  could  not  possibly  have 
offered  even  a  faint  resemblance  to  those  which  now 
exist;  and  this  being  the  case,  a  great  part  of  the 
analogical  illustrations  of  Scripture  which  modern 
travellers  and  Biblical  illustrators  have  obtained  from 
this  source  must  needs  fall  to  the  ground.     Nothing 


ARCH 


364 


ARCH 


against  its  existence  is  to  be  inferred  from  the  fact 
that  no  word  properly  signifying  an  arch  can  be  found 
in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  (see  above).  The  archi- 
tectural notices  in  the  Bible  are  necessarily  few  and 
general ;  and  we  have  at  this  day  histories  and  other 
books,  larger  than  the  sacred  volume,  in  which  no 
such  word  as  "  arch"  occurs.  There  is  certainly  no 
absolute  proof  that  the  Israelites  employed  arches  in 
their  buildings;  but  if  it  can  be  shown  that  arches 
existed  in  neighboring  countries  at  a  very  early  peri- 
od, we  may  safely  infer  that  so  useful  an  invention 
could  not  have  been  unknown  in  Palestine. 


able  of  these  is  one  whose  crude  brick  roof  and  niche, 
bearing  the  name  of  the  same  Pharaoh,  prove  the  ex- 
istence of  the  arch  at  the  remote  period  of  B.C.  1540 
(Wilkinson,  Topography  of  Thebes,  p.  81).  Another 
tomb  of  similar  construction  bears  the  ovals  of  Thoth- 
mes  III,  who  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  reigned 
about  the  time  of  the  Exode  {Anc.  Egyptians,  iii,  319). 
At  Thebes  there  is  also  a  brick  arch  bearing  the  name 
of  this  king  (Hoskins,  Travels  in  Ethiopia*).  To  the 
same  period  and  dynasty  (the  18th)  belong  the  vault- 
ed chambers  and  arched  door-ways  (fig.  4,  above) 
which  yet  remain  in  the  crude  brick  pyramids  at 
Thebes  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egyptians,  iii,  317).  In  an- 
cient Egyptian  houses  it  appears  that  the  roofs  were 
often  vaulted,  and  built,  like  the  rest  of  the  house, 
of  crude  brick ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
some  of  the  chambers  in  the  pavilion  of  Rameses  III 
(about  B.C.  1245),  at  Medinet  Habu,  were  arched  with 
stone,  since  the  devices  in  the  upper  part  of  the  walls 
show  that  the  fallen  roofs  had  this  form  (iig.  3).  The 
most  ancient  actually  existing  arches  of  stone  occur 
at  Memphis,  near  the  modern  village  of  Sakkara. 
Here  there  is  a  tomb  with  two  large  vaulted  chambers, 
whose  roofs  display  in  every  part  the  name  and  sculp- 
tures of  Psammeticus  II  (about  B.C.  COO).  The  cham- 
bers are  cut  in  the  limestone  rock,  and  this  being  of  a 
friable  nature,  the  roof  is  secured  by  being,  as  it  were, 
lined  with  an   arch,  like  our  modern  tunnels.     To 


Ancient  Kgyptian  arched  Door-ways. 

Until  within  a  few  years  it  was  common  to  ascribe 
a  comparatively  late  origin  to  the  arch  ;  but  circum- 
stances have  come  to  light  one  after  another,  tending 
to  throw  the  date  more  and  more  backward,  until  at 
length  it  seems  to  be  admitted  that  in  Egypt  the  arch 
already  existed  in  the  time  of  Joseph.  The  observa- 
tions of  Rosellini  and  of  Wilkinson  (who  carries  back 
the  evidence  from  analogy  and  probability  to  about 
B.C.  2020,  Anc.  Egyptians,  ii,  116;  iii,  31(3)  led  them 
irresistibly  to  this  conclusion,  which  has  also  been  re- 
cently adopted  by  Cockerell  (Lect.  iii,  in  Athenceum 
for  Jan.  28,  1843)  and  other  architects.  Wilkinson 
suggests  the  probability  that  the  arch  owed  its  inven- 
tion to  the  small  quantity  of  wood  in  Egypt,  and  the 
consequent  expense  of  roofing  with  timber.  The  evi- 
dence that  arches  were  known  in  the  time  of  the  first 
Osirtesen  is  derived  from  the  drawings  at  Beni-Has- 
san  (Wilkinson,  ii,  117).  In  the  secluded  valley  of 
Deir  el-Medineh,  at  Thebes,  are  several  tombs  of  the 
early  date  of  Amenoph  I.     Among  the  most  remark- 


Flourin:,' 


arched  Room  at  Thebes. 


Stone  Arch  at  Sakkara. 

about  the  same  period — that  of  the  last  dynasty  before 
the  Persian  invasion  —  belong  the  remarkable  door- 
ways of  the  enclosures  surrounding  the  tombs  in  the 
Assasif,  which  are  composed  of  two  or  more  concentric 
semicircles  (rig.  2)  of  brick  (Wilkinson,  A  nc.  Egyptians, 
iii,  319).  Although  the  oldest  stone  arch  whose  age  has 
been  positively  ascertained  does  not  date  earlier  than 
the  time  of  Psammeticus,  we  cannot  suppose  that  the 
use  of  stone  was  not  adopted  by  the  Egyptians  for 
that  style  of  building  previous  to  his  reign,  even  if  the 
arches  in  the  pyramids  in  Ethiopia  should  prove  not 
to  be  anterior  to  the  same  era.  Nor  does  the  ab- 
sence of  the  arch  in  temples  and  other  large  buildings 
excite  our  surprise,  when  we  consider  the  style  of 
Egyptian  monuments;  and  no  one  who  understands 
the  character  of  their  architecture  could  wish  for  its 
introduction.  In  some  of  the  small  temples  of  the 
Oasis  the  Romans  attempted  this  innovation,  but  the 
appearance  of  the  chambers  so  constructed  fails  to 
please;    and  the  whimsical  caprice  of  Osirei  (about 


ARCH 


365 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


Ancient  concave  Hoof. 


B.C.  1385)  also  introduced  an  imitation  of  the  arch  in 
a  temple  at  Abydus.  In  this  building  the  roof  is 
formed  of  single  blocks  of  : 
stone,  reaching  from  one  arch- 
itrave to  the  other,  which,  in- 
stead of  being  placed  in  the  j 
usual  manner,  stand  upon  their  j 
S  edges,  in  order  to  allow  room  j 
~  for  hollowing  out  an  arch  in 
their  thickness  ;  but  it  has  the  j 
effect  of  inconsistency,  without  the  plea  of  advantage 
or  utility.  Another  imitation  of  the  arch  occurs  in 
a  building  at  Thebes,  constructed  in  the  style  of  a 
tomb.  The  chambers  lie  under  a  friable  rock,  and  arc 
cased  with  masonry,  to  prevent  the  fall  of  its  crum- 
bling stone ;  but,  instead  of  being  roofed  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  arch,  they  are  covered  with  a  number  of 
large  blocks,  placed  horizontally,  one  projecting  be- 
yond that  immediately  below  it,  till  the  uppermost 
two  meet  in  the  centre,  the  interior  angles  being  af- 
terward rounded  off  to  form  the  appearance  of  a  vault 
(fig.  1,  above).  The  date  of  this  building  is  about 
B.C.  1500,  and  consequently  many  years  after  the 
Egyptians  had  been  acquainted  with  the  art  of  vault- 
ing (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egyptians,  ii,  321).  Thus,  as 
the  temple  architecture  of  the  Egyptians  did  not  ad- 
mit of  arches,  and  as  the  temples  arc  almost  the  only 
luildings  that  remain,  it  is  not  strange  that  arches 
have  not  oftener  been  found.  The  evidence  offered 
by  the  paintings,  the  tombs,  and  the  pyramids  is  con- 
clusive for  the  existence  and  antiquity  of  arches  and 
vaults  of  brick  and  stone  ;  and  if  any  remains  of 
houses  and  palaces  had  now  existed,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  the  arch  would  have  been  of  frequent  oc- 
currence. We  observe  that  Wilkinson,  in  portraying 
an  Egyptian  mansion  {Anc.  Egyptians,  ii,  131),  makes 
the  grand  entrance  an  archway.  After  this  it  seems 
unreasonable  to  doubt  that  the  arch  was  known  to 
the  Hebrews  also,  and  was  employed  in  their  buildings. 
Palestine  was  indeed  better  wooded  than  Egypt ;  but 
still  that  there  was  a  deficiency  of  wood  suitable  for 
building  and  for  roofs  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  large 
importations  of  timber  from  the  forests  of  Lebanon 
were  necessary  (2  Sam.  vii,  2,  7;  1  Kings  v,  G;  IChron. 
xxii,  4;  2  Chron.  ii,  3  ;  Ezra  iii,  7  ;  Cant,  i,  17),  and 
that  this  imported  timber,  although  of  no  very  high 
quality,  was  held  in  great  estimation. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Mr.  Layard  found  evident  traces  of  the  arch  among 
the  Assyrian  ruins.  He  first  discovered  a  small  vault- 
ed chamber,  the  roof  of  which  was  constructed  of 


baked  bricks  placed  sideways,  one  against  another,  in 
the  usual  manner  of  an  arch  {Nineveh,  i,  38).  He  af- 
terward came  upon  several  vaulted  drains  beneath  the 
palace  of  Nimroud,  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and  final- 
ly a  perfect  brick  arch ;  showing  the  knowledge  of 
this  architectural  element  among  the  Assyrians  at  a 
very  early  date  (Babylon  and  Nineveh,  2d  ser.  p.  1G3, 
164).     See  Architecture. 

That  the  Greeks  likewise  understood  the  principle 
of  the  construction  of  the  arch  in  very  ancient  times  is 
evident  from  monuments  as  early  as  the  Trojan  war 
(Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Arcus),  a  cut  of  ono 
of  which  is  subjoined. 


Antique  Arch  in  the  Wall  of  Tiryns. 

Triumphal  arches  were  frequently  erected  by  the 
Roman  emperors  to  commemorate  signal  conquests, 
and  several  such  are  yet  standing.  The  most  note- 
worthy of  these  is  that  of  Titus,  on  the  interior  of 
which  are  delineated  the  spoils  of  the  Jewish  temple. 


Arched  Drain 


Arch  of  Titus  at  Home,  restored. 


Archaeology  (apxaidkoyfa,  the  knowledge  of  an- 
tiquity, antiquarian  lore).  This  word  is  used  by  dif- 
ferent writers  in  three  senses  :  1st,  as  including  all  the 
elements  of  public  and  private  life  of  ancient  peoples, 
together  with  their  language,  history,  and  the  geogra- 
phy of  their  lands ;  2d,  as  embracing  only  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  material,  and  especially  monumental 
remains  of  ancient  civilizations  (in  this  sense,  see  An- 
tiquities); or,  3d,  as  synonymous  with  the  history 
of  the  formative  arts  of  the  ancients  (in  this  sense, 
see  art.  Christian). 

Wo  use  the  word  in  the  first  or  more  general  sense, 
omitting  history  and   geography,  however,  from  the 


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366 


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definition.  Sacred  Archaeology  naturally  divides  itself 
into  (1st)  Jewish  and  (2d)  Christian. 

I.  Jewish. — This  has  been  defined  as  the  science 
that  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  physical  nature 
and  social  condition  of  those  countries  where  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  originated  and  to  which  they  relate 
(Gesenius,  in  the  If  all.  Encyclop.  x,  74;  comp.  De 
Wette,  Archaol.  §  1).  Some  (as  Jahn)  regard  it  as 
including  history  and  geography,  but  it  is  usually 
considered  as  embracing  only  such  subjects  as  are  in- 
volved in  the  science,  art,  and  customs  (political,  so- 
cial, and  religious)  of  the  nations  of  the  Bible,  espe- 
cially the  Jews  (Hagcnbach,  Encyhl.  §  45 ;  Schleier- 
macher,  Darstell.  d.  theol.  Studien,  §  140).  For  the 
general  history  and  the  best  treatises  on  the  whole 
subject,  see  Antiquities  ;  it  is  the  object  of  the  pres- 
ent article  to  indicate  more  in  detail  the  principal 
original  materials  and  sources  of  Biblical  archaeology 
(comp.  Rosenmuller,  Al/erthumsk.  I,  i,  6-130 ;  Duncker, 
Gesch.  des  Allerthums,  Berl.  1852,  4  vols.). 

1.  Sources  of 'arch  eological  Knowledge. — a.  Remains 
of  ancient  Hebrew  Art.  These  are  unfortunately 
few,  and  but  imperfectly  understood,  and  are  confined 
almost  entirely  to  Palestine.  Many  of  the  reputed 
monuments  of  Old  Testament  times  owe  their  authori- 
ty to  mediaeval  (Mohammedan  or  Christian)  tradition. 
A  most  important  monument  illustrating  the  Jewish 
service  is  the  triumphal  arch  (q.  v.)  of  Titus  at  Rome, 
containing  in  relief  a  delineation  of  the  spoils  of  the 
Temple  at  Jerusalem  (see  Reland,  De  spol.  templi  Ilie- 
ros.  Traj.  a.  Rh.  1716,  2d  cd.  by  Schulze,  1775).  Besides 
these,  the  only  genuine  monuments  in  artistic  relics 
are  the  Jewish  "  Samaritan"  coins  (q.  v.),  especially 
those  of  the  Maccabees  (see  Bayer,  De  minimis  Ilebr.- 
Samar.  Valenc.  1784).  The  monumental  remains  of 
neighboring  countries  are  also  useful  in  the  stud}-  of 
Jewish  archaeology,  especially  the  sculptures  of  Egypt 
(see  Description  de  VEgypte,  Par.  1808  ;  Rosellini,  Mon- 
umenti  dell'  Egitto,  Padua,  1K34;  Wilkinson,  Anc,  Egyp- 
tians, Lond.  1847,  N.  Y.  1*54 ;  comp.  Lane's  Mod.  Egyp- 
tians, Lond.  1842),  the  Phoenician  inscriptions  and  coins 
(see  Levy,  Phdnikische,  Studien,  Brcslau,  1856-62;  Ge- 
senius, PhtBtt.  monumenta,  Lips.  1837  ;  also  the  numis- 
matic works  of  Vaillant,  Par.  1682;  and  Frohlich,  Yin- 
dob.  1744),  the  ruins  and  sculptures  of  Persepolis  (see 
the  Travels  of  Ker  Porter,  Chardin,  and  Ouscly)  and 
Pctra  (see  the  Travels  of  Laborde  and  Olin),  and  the 
monuments  of  Nineveh  and  B  ibylon  recently  discover- 
ed by  Botta  and  Layard.  b.  Written  Memorials. — 
The  Bible  itself  stands  first  in  value  as  the  chief  source 
of  Jewish  archaeology.  Next  are  the  works  of  Josephus 
and  Philo,  which  are  of  great  service  ;  then  follow  the 
Talmuds  (q.  v.),  and  the  Rabbins  (q.  v.),  whose  state- 
ments must  be  used  carefully  (see  Meuschen's  N.  T. 
ex  Tallinn!,  illustr.  1736;  Lightfoot,  flor.  Hebr.  Cantab. 
1658;  Schcettgen,  //or.  Hebr.  1733-1742  ;  Wetstein, 
Annot.  in  X.  T.  Amst.  1751).  To  these  may  be  added 
notices  respecting  Egypt,  Persia,  Judaea,  etc.,  found 
occasionally  in  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  especially 
Herodotus  (see  Hupfeld,  Exercit.  Herod,  i,  ii) ;  next, 
Xenophon,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo,  Pliny,  Plutarch, 
Tacitus,  Justinian,  give  illustrations  of  the  customs 
of  the  times,  particularly  useful  for  the  elucidation  of 
the  N.  I'.,  although  they  are  very  much  given  to  mis- 
representation ofthe  Jews.  c.  Oriental  Treatises, 
such  as  geographies  and  works  on  natural  history, 
like  those  ofEdrisi,  Ibn  Hautal,  Abulfeda,  Abdollatif, 
Avicenna;  to  which  may  be  added  the  slight  illustra- 
tion to  be  derived  from  Eastern  sacred  books,  such  as 
the  Koran,  Zendavesta,  Hamasa,  and  likewise  the  old 
historical  and  poetical  productions  ofthe  East.  d. 
Travels  in  Oriental  countries,  particularly  Egypt, 
Arabia,  and  Palestine,  with  itineraries,  maps,  and  ob- 
servations, from  the  7th  century,  through  the  Middle 
Ages,  down  to  modern  times,  constituting  an  immense 
fund  of  information,  anil  affording  reports  not  only 
on  the  geography,  but  also  the   natural  history,  and 


particularly  the  customs  and  social  condition  of  the 
lands  of  the  Bible,  which  have  been  proverbial  for 
their  uniformity.  See  a  list  of  these  at  the  end  of 
the  art.  Palestine.  The  archaeological  knowledge 
acquired  by  the  Crusades  may  be  found  in  the  work 
of  Bongarsius,  entitled  Gesta  Dei  per  Francos  (Hanov. 
1611)  ;  many  of  the  earl)'  travels  are  collected  in  the 
Bewahrten  Reisbuch  d.  he'd.  Landes  (1609),  the  most  val- 
uable of  which  were  published  with  notes  by  Paulus 
(Jena,  1792).  For  a  fuller  view  of  the  literature  of 
the  subject,  see  Mensel's  Bibl.  Hist,  i,  2,  p.  70  ;  Winer's 
Handb.  d.  theol.  Lit.  i,  151,  3d  ed. ;  and  Ritter's  Erd- 
kunde,  XY,  i. 

2.  Departments  of  Biblical  Archeology  (see  gener- 
ally the  extensive  Bibl.  Archaol.  of  Jahn,  Wien,  1790- 
1805). — a.  The  Geography  of  Bible  lands,  including 
not  only  Palestine  and  its  immediate  neighborhood, 
but  also  Egypt,  the  high  interior  of  Asia,  Mesopota- 
mia, Asia  Minor,  and  to  some  extent  Greece  and  Ita- 
ly, with  an  elucidation  of  the  ethnographical  table  in 
Gen.  x  (see  Gesenius,  in  the  Hall.  Encyklop.  x,  84 
sq.).  The  most  comprehensive  work  on  this  subject 
is  that  of  Bochart,  entitled  Phaleg  (Cadom.  1646, 
Frankf.  1674),  with  the  supplement  of  Michaelis,  en- 
titled Spicilegium  (Gott.  1780);  to  which  may  be  add- 
ed as  an  accompaniment  Knobel's  Volkertafel  (Giess. 
1850).  On  Palestine  and  vicinity  alone  may  be  named, 
as  well-nigh  exhaustive  of  the  ancient  materials,  Re- 
land's  Palmstina  (Utrecht,  1614,  etc.) ;  the  most  con- 
venient manual  is  Raumer's  Paldstina  (3d  ed.  Lpz. 
1850 ;  and  the  most  complete  and  exact  modern  book 
of  travels  is  Robinson's  Researches  (2d  ed.  N.  Y..1856). 
General  works  on  the  subject  are  especially  Hames- 
veld's  Bibl.  Geographic  (2d  ed.  Hamb.  1793-1796),  Rit- 
'.  ter's  Erdkund"  (Berl.  1817  sq.),  and  Robinson's  Physical 
Geography  ofthe  Holy  Land.  The  best  maps  are  these 
of  Berghaus  (1835);  Zimmermann  (Berlin,  1850); 
Kiepert  (Berlin,  1857);  and  Van  de  Yelde  (Gotha, 
1859).  b.  On  the  Natural  History  of  the  Bible 
there  are  principally  Scheuchzer's  Physica  Sacra 
(Augsb.  1731) ;  Oedmann's  Vermischte  Samml.  (Rost. 
1786)  ;  Th.  M.  Harris,  Natural  Hist,  ofthe  Bible  (Lond. 
1824) ;  J.  B.  Friedreich,  Zur  Bibel  (Nurnberg,  1848)  ; 
while  on  Biblical  zoology  and  botany  separately  the 
only  complete  treatises  are  still  respectively  Bochart's 
Ilierozoicon  (Lond.  1663),  and  Celsius's  Hierobotanicum 
(Upsala,  1745).  On  the  Domestic  Habits  of  the 
Hebrews  ma}'  be  named  Selden,  Uxor  Ebr.  (Lond. 
1640);  Michaelis,  Ehegesetze  Mosis  (Gotting.  1786); 
Benary,  De  Hebr.  cirratu  (Berl.  1835) ;  Schroder,  De 
restitu  mulier.  Hebr.  (Leyd.  1745)  ;  Hartmann,  He- 
briierin  am  Put.ztische  (Amst.  1809).  d.  On  Biblical 
Agriculture,  Paulsen,  Ackerhau  d.  Morgenliinder 
(Helmst.  1748) ;  and  the  two  prize  essays  by  Buhle 
and  Walch,  Calendariiim  Palicst.  (Gott.  1785).  e.  The 
Social  Relations  of  the  Hebrews  are  treated  in 
works  on  their  political  and  judicial  institutions,  espe- 
cially Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  (Frkft.  1775-1780)  ;  Hull, 
maim,  Staatsccrfissung  d.  Isr.  (Lpz.  1834)  ;  Selden, 
De  jure  naturali  (Lond.  1640);  Saalschiitz,  Das  Mos. 
Recht  (Berlin,  1840-48,  2  vols.).  /.  On  Jewish  and 
the  connected  Weights  and  Measures  may  be  es- 
pecially  consulted  Boekh,  Metroloq.  Untersuch.  (Berl. 
1838)  ;"  Bertheau,  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  (Gott.  1842).  g.  The 
Hebrew  Arts  have  been  specially  treated,  as  to  Poet- 
ry, by  Lowth,  De  sacra  poesi  Hebr.  (ed.  Michaelis, 
1768,  and  Rosenmuller,  1815);  Herder,  Geist.  d.  heb. 
Poesie  (1782);  E.  Meier,  Form  d.  hebr.  Poes-ie  (Tub. 
1853),  and  Gesch.  d.  poet.  Nat. -Liter aiur  der  Hebrceer 
(Leipz.  1856);  Saalschiitz,  Form  u.  Geist  der  hebr. 
Poesie  (Koenigsberg,  1856);  as  to  Music,  by  Saal- 
schiitz, Gesch.  d.  Musih  lei  d.  Hebr.  (Berl.  1829); 
Schneider,  Darstell.  d.  hebr.  Musik  (Bonn);  Weiss- 
man,  Geschichte  der  Musik  (Munich,  1862;  still  going 
on);  as  to  Architecture,  by  Hist,  D.  Tempel  Salomons 
(Berl.  1S09).  h.  The  Religious  Usages  of  the  He- 
brews, including  the  moral  condition  of  surrounding 


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nations,  have  been  specially  treated  by  Spencer,  De 
legibus  Hebr.  ritualibus  (Camb.  1685);  Reland,  Antiq. 
sacrce  vet.  Hebr.  (Utrecht,  1708,  etc.) ;  Vitringa,  Da 
Synagog.  vet.  (Frankf.  1696)  ;  and,  as  exhibiting  more 
modern  views,  Bahr,  Symboiik  a.  Mas.  Cultus  (Hei- 
delb.  1837).  The  foregoing  are  but  a  few  leading 
works ;  for  others,  see  each  subject  in  its  alphabetical 
place. — Ilerzog,  Real-Encykl.  s.  v. 

II.  Christian  Archceology  is  that  branch  of  theolog- 
ical science  the  object  of  which  is  to  represent  the  ex- 
ternal  phenomena  of  the  ancient  Church,  i.  e.  its  insti- 
tutions, usages,  ceremonies,  etc.  Theologians  are  not 
yet  agreed  how  far  the  period  of  the  ancient  Church 
ought  to  be  extended,  and  what  matter,  consequently, 
Christian  archaeology  ought  to  comprise.  The  pre- 
vailing opinion  at  present  is  that  it  ought  mainly  to 
extend  over  the  first  six  centuries,  and  ought  not  to 
include  the  constitution  of  the  Church.  It  is  also 
generally  agreed  that,  in  representing  the  external 
forms  of  the  ancient  Church,  the  subsequent  develop- 
ments of  these  forms  up  to  the  present  times  ought  to 
be  constantly  kept  in  view  and  referred  to. 

1.  Sources  of Christian  archaeological  Knowledge:  (a) 
Remains. — The  first  class  of  sources  consists  of  ancient 
remains,  such  as  monuments,  works  of  art  [see  Art, 
Christian],  inscriptions  (q.  v.),  and  designs  on  tombs, 
arches,  buildings,  and  other  monuments  ;  medals  and 
coins  (q.  v.) ;  catacombs  (q.  v.)  and  other  places  of 
burial  (q.  v.).  (b)  Written  Memorials.— The  New 
Testament,  of  course,  gives  the  beginnings  of  the  most 
important  Christian  usages,  such  as  Baptism,  the  Lord's 
Supper,  Ordination,  Prayer,  etc.  Next  in  importance 
come  the  writings  of  the  apostolical  fathers  (q.  v.),  and 
of  contemporaneous  pagan  writers,  e.  g.  Pliny,  Taci- 
tus, Celsus,  Julian,  etc.  After  these  come  the  fathers 
(q.  v.)  generally,  and  at  a  later  period,  liturgies,  de- 
crees of  councils,  etc. 

2.  Christian  archaeology,  as  a  science,  cannot  be 
said  to  have  fairly  arisen  before  the  18th  century. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  struggles  of  the  Reformation,  both 
parties  appealed  to  primitive  usage,  and  this  appeal 
made  the  study  of  antiquities  a  necessity.  The  church 
historians,  therefore  (the  Magdeburg  centuriators, 
1559-1574,  13  vols,  fol.,  on  the  Protestant  side,  and 
Baronius  [f  1607],  in  his  Annates  Ecclesiastici,  on  the 
Roman  Catholic  side),  treated  of  the  polity,  worship, 
usages,  etc.,  of  the  ancient  church.  As  early  as  1645 
Casalius  wrote  his  Christianorum  Ritus  Veieres  (Ro- 
man Catholic),  who  was  followed  by  Cardinal  Bona 
(f  1694),  Claude  Fleury  (1682),  and  by  Edm.  Martene, 
whose  work  De  antiquis  ecclesice  ritibus  (Antw.  1736- 
38,  4  vols,  fol.)  belongs  among  the  best  of  the  ancient 
works.  But  the  science,  in  its  modern  form,  may  be 
said  to  have  originated  with  Bingham's  massive  work, 
the  Origines  Ecclesiastic";  which  first  appeared  in  10 
vols.  8vo,  1710-1722.  It  is  divided  into  twenty-three 
books,  of  which  the  titles  are,  I.  Names  and  Orders 
of  Men  in  the.  Early  Church  ;  II.  Superior  Orders  of 
Clergy;  III.  Inferior  Orders  of  Clergy;  IV.  Elec- 
tions and  Ordinations  of  Clergy ;  Y.  Privileges,  Im- 
munities, and  Revenues  of  Clergy;  VI.  Rules  of  Life 
for  Clergy;  VII.  Ascetics;  VIII.  Church  Edifices, 
etc. ;  IX.  Geographical  Divisions  of  the  Ancient 
Church;  X.  Catechumens  and  Creeds ;  XI.  Rites  of 
Baptism;  XII.  Confirmation  and  other  Ceremonies 
following  Baptism;  XIII.  Divine  Worship;  XIV. 
Catechumen  Service;  XV.  Communion  Service:  XVI. 
Unity  and  Discipline  of  the  Ancient  Church;  XVII. 
Discipline  of  the  Clergy  ;  XVIII.  Penitents  and  Pen- 
ance; XIX.  Absolution;  XX.  Festivals;  XXI.  Fasts; 
XXII.  Marriage  Rites;  XXIII.  Funeral  Rites.  This 
vast  work,  the  product  of  twenty  years  of  industry,  is 
full  of  erudition,  especially  patristical,  and  the  mate- 
rial is  set  forth  generally  with  simplicity  and  discre- 
tion. It  is  a  store-house  from  which  all  subsequent 
writers  have  drawn  copiously.  But  it.  lacks  scientific 
method,  and  has  the  disadvantage  of  a  High-Church 


stand-point.  It  is  a  great  arsenal  for  the  upholders 
of  prelacy  ;  the  true  organization  of  the  original  church 
is  not  to  he  gathered  from  it.  But,  with  all  its  faults, 
it  is  still  indispensable  to  the  student  of  archaeology. 
It  was  translated  into  Latin,  and  the  originals  of  the 
quotations  added,  by  Grischovius  (liaise,  1724-29,  10 
vols.  fol. ;  and  again  in  1751).  The  best  English  edi- 
tion now  extant  is  that  of  Pitman,  which  contains 
Bingham's  other  writings  as  well  as  the  Origines (Lond. 
1840,  9  vols.  8vo).  A  cheap  and  good  edition  of  the 
Origines  for  students  is  that  of  Bohn  (London,  1852,  2 
vols.  imp.  8vo). 

3.  At  the  request  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV,  the  Do- 
minican Mamachi  composed  his  work  Originum  et  An- 
tiquitatum  Christianarum  libri  xx  (Rom.  1749-1755). 
But  of  the  twenty  books  into  which  the  matter  was 
to  be  divided  only  four  appeared  in  five  volumes. 
Shorter  works  were  published  by  Selvaggio,  Antiqui- 
tatum  Christianarum  institutions  (Naples,  1772-1774,  6 
vols.),  and  by  the  German  Jesuit  Mannhardt,  Liber 
Singidaris  de  ardiquit.  Christianorum  (Augsb.  1768). 
Better  than  any  preceding  work  by  Roman  Catholic 
authors  was  that  of  Pellicia,  De  Christiana'  ecclesice  pri- 
mes medial  et  novissimce  a  talis  politia  (Naples,  1777- 
1779,  3  vols.  4to;  last  edition  by  Ritter  and  Eraun, 
Cologne,  1829-1838,  3  vols.).  On  the  basis  of  this 
work  Dr.  Binterim  compiled  his  Denku-urdigkeiten  der 
christkatholischen  Kirche  aus  den  ersten,  mittleren  und 
Ltzhn  Zeiten  (Mentz,  1821-1841,  7  vols.). 

4.  Of  recent  works  on  Christian  archaeology,  the 
most  extensive  is  Augusti's  Denhcwrdigheilen  avs  d<r 
christlichtn  Archaeologie  (Leipz.  1816-31,  12  vols.). 
This  work  adds  immensely  to  the  stock  of  materials, 
but  is  very  prolix,  and  also  deficient  in  arrangement. 
These  faults  are  mended  somewhat  by  the  author  in 
his  compendium,  entitled  Handbuch  der  christl.  Archa- 
ologie  (Leipz.  1836,  3  vols.  8vo).  A  scientific  and  con- 
densed treatise  is  Rheinwald's  kirchliche  Archaologie 
(Berlin,  1830,  8vo),  the  best  hand-book  on  the  subject 
extant.  Bohmer's  christl.  k'rehi.  Alterthumsivissen- 
seh'ift  (Breslau,  1836-39,  2  vols.  8vo)  is  equally  sci- 
entific, and  more  copious.  Guericke's  Lehrluch  der 
christl.  Archaologie  (Leipz.  1847,  8vo;  2d  ed.  1859)  is  a 
useful  manual.  Other  German  manuals  are  by  Loch- 
crer  (Rom.  Cath.),  Lehrbuch  d.  christl. -kirch.  Archao'. 
(Frankf.  1822);  Sieged,  Handbuch  der  christl.  Alterthu- 
mer  (in  alphabetical  order,  Leipz.  1835-38,  4  vols.). 
In  English  we  have  Henry's  Compendium  of  Christian 
Antiquities  (Philadel.  1837,  8vo),  which  is  chiefly  ex- 
tracted from  Bingham;  Riddle's  Manual  of  Christian 
Antiquities  (2d  edit.  London,  1843,  8vo),  in  which  large 
use  is  made  of  Augusti.  But  the  best  modern  manual 
in  English  is  Coleman's  Ancient  Christianity  Exempli- 
fied (Philad.  1853,  8vo),  in  which  the  material  is  care- 
fully wrought  over  in  a  truly  Protestant  spirit.  See 
Hagenbach,  Theolog.  Ena/klopadie,  §  77 ;  Coleman, 
Christian  Antiquities  (Introduction)  ;  Herzog,  Real-En- 
cyHopadie,  i,  481;  Riddle,  Manual  of  Antiquities  (Ap- 
pendix H).  For  works  treating  more  particularly  of 
liturgies,  see  Liturgy. 

Archangel  (apxayyt\oc,,  chief  angel,  1  Thess.  iv, 
16 ;  Jude  9).  Those  angels  are  so  styled  who  occupy 
the  highest  rank  in  the  celestial  order  or  hierarchy, 
which  consists,  according  to  the  apostles,  of  "thrones, 
dominions,  principalities,  and  powers"  (Ephes.  i,  21  ; 
Col.  i,  16;  1  Peter  iii,  22).  Of  these  there  are  said  to 
be  seven,  who  stand  immediately  before  the  throne  of 
God  (Luke  i,  19;  Rev.  viii,  2),  who  have  authority 
over  other  angels,  and  are  the  patrons  of  particular 
nations  (Rev.  xii,  7;  Dan.  x,  13).  In  Matt,  xxvi,  53; 
2  Thess.  i,  7,  hosts  of  r.ngels  are  spoken  of  in  the  same 
manner  as  human  armies.  These  the  Almighty  is 
said  to  employ  in  executing  his  commands,  or  in  dis- 
playing his  dignity  and  majesty,  in  the  manner  of  hu- 
man princes.  These  armies  of  angels  are  also  repre- 
sented as  divided  into  orders  and  classes,  having  each 
its  leader,  and  all  these  are  subject  to  one  chief,  or 


ARCHBISHOP 


368 


ARCHBISHOP 


archangel.  Tlie  names  of  two  only  are  found  in  the  ' 
Scripture — Michael,  the  patron  of  the  .Jewish  nation 
(Dan.  x,  13,  21;  xii,  1 ;  Jude  9  ;  Rev.  xii,  7)  ;  and  Ga- 
briel (Dan.  viii,  16;  Lx,  -'1  ;  Luke  i,  19,  26).  The 
apocryphal  book  of  Tobit  (iii,  17  ;  v,  4)  mentions  one, 
Raphael;  and  2  Esdras  (iv,  84)  another,  Uriel;  while 
the  book  of  Enoch  names  the  whole  seven  (xx,  1-7). 
See  Angel. 

The  fathers  are  not  agreed  on  the  number  and  order 
of  the  celestial  hierarchy.  Dionysius  the  Areopagite 
admits  but  three  hierarchies,  and  three  orders  of  an- 
gels in  each  hierarchy.  In  the  first  are  Seraphim, 
Cherubim,  and  thrones  ;  in  the  second,  dominions, 
mights,  and  powers ;  in  the  third,  principalities,  arch- 
angels, and  angels.  These  titles  of  ranks  are  proba- 
bly allusions  to  the  customary  order  of  the  courts  of 
the  Assyrian,  Chalda?an,  and  Persian  kings ;  hence 
Michael  the  archangel  tells  Daniel  that  he  is  one  of 
the  chief  princes  in  the  court  of  the  Almighty.  Ex- 
traordinary powers  and  functions  were  conferred  on 
angels  by  the  .different  Gnostic  sects.  The}-  all  held 
that  angels  were  the  fabricators  or  architects  of  the 
universe,  and  Cerinthus  affirmed  they  were  superior 
to  Christ  himself.  These  opinions  were  early  enter- 
tained, and  the  Apostle  Paul  thought  it  necessary  to 
warn  the  Colossians  against  such  errors.  "Let  no  man 
beguile  you  of  your  reward  in  a  voluntary  humility 
and  worshipping  of  angels,  intruding  into  those  things 
which  he  hath  not  seen,  vainly  puffed  up  by  his  fleshlj" 
mind"  (Col.  ii,  18).  They  also  affirmed,  according  to 
Theodoret,  that  the  law  was  given  bjr  angels,  and  that 
no  one  had  access  to  God  except  through  them.  Hence 
we  find  on  the  Gnostic  gems  the  names  of  numbers  of 
their  angels  ;  on  one  are  those  of  Michael,  Gabriel, 
Uriel,  Raphael,  Ananael,  Prosorael,  and  Chabsael. 
But  the  chief  and  most  highly  venerated  was  Michael, 
insomuch  that  oratories  were  erected  in  Asia  Minor, 
where  divine  honors  were  paid  to  him.     See  Michael. 

Archbishop  (npxi£7r((7KC7ro&))  cluef  of  tDe  clergy 
of  a  whole  province. 

I.  Epiphanius  (IJcer.  68)  speaks  of  Alexander  of 
Alexandria,  who  lived  about  320,  as  archbishop  of 
that  see,  and  this  is  the  first  mention  of  that  title  on 
record ;  nor  is  at  all  clear  whether  Epiphanius  in  that 
passage  is  not  rather  speaking  after  the  custom  of  his 
own  time,  than  intending  to  assert  that  Alexander 
bore  the  title  of  archbishop ;  for  the  titles  of  pope  and 
bishop  are  given  to  this  Alexander  in  a  letter  of  Arius 
addressed  to  him.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Alexandria  was 
the  first  see  which  assumed  the  title,  which,  however, 
was  at  first  thought  to  savor  too  much  of  pride ;  for 
in  the  twenty-sixth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Carthage, 
A.D.  397,  at  which  Augustine  was  present,  it  was  or- 
dered to  be  laid  aside,  and  the  ancient  style  of  "  bishop 
of  the  first  see"  used  instead.  -This  impression  ap- 
pears not  to  have  worn  out  until  the  Council  of 
Ephesus,  where  the  title  of  archbishop  was  attributed 
to  the  bishops  of  the  first  three  sees  of  the  world,  viz. 
Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch,  as  well  as  to  John 
of  Antioch,  and  Memuon  of  Ephesus.  In  process  of 
time,  when  the  bishops  of  the  great  sees  assumed  the 
higher  title  of  patriarch,  that  of  archbishop  became 
gradually  to  be  applied  to  those  metropolitans  who  had 
other  metropolitans  under  them,  i.  e.  to  those  whom 
the  I  rreeks  called  exarchs,  and  the  Latins,  in  the  mid- 
dle and  subsequent  ages,  primates.  The  archbishop 
differed  from  the  metropolitan  in  the  Eastern  Church 
in  that  the  former  had  only  seme  privileges  of  honor 
and  respect  above  the  other  bishops,  whereas  the  me- 
tropolitans had  juri.«Iir/ii»i  over  the  bishops  of  their 
provinces  I  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  a.  v.). 

II.  In  the  Roman  Church  archbishops  have  a  two- 
fold character  and  authority:  (1)  Episcopal  charge  of 
their  own  dioceses;  (2)  Superintendence,  to  a  certain 
extent,  of  all  the  bishops  (not  exempt)  in  their  prov- 
ince. Their  jurisdiction  includes  (a)  the  power  to  call 
synods  {Cone.  Tricknt.  sess.  xxiv,  c.  2):  (It)  the  right 


of  visitation,  on  call  of  a  provincial  synod  (Cone.  Trid. 
sess.  xxiv,  c.  3).  They  rank  in  the  hierarchy  next 
to  cardinals  and  patriarchs.  They  must  receive  the 
pallium  (q.  v.)  from  the  pope  before  exercising  their 
functions.  A  full  account  may  be  found  in  Thomas- 
sin,  vet.  ac.  nov.  Eccl.  disciplina,  etc.,  pt.  i,  lib.  i,  caps. 
68,  69. 

The  number  of  archbishops  in  authority  was,  in  1805, 
as  follows :  In  Europe  (Roman  Catholic),  112 :  viz. 
Italy,  47;  Austria,  16;  France,  17;  Spain,  9  ;  Turkey, 
4;  Ireland,  4;  Portugal,  2;  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Russia 
(counting  in  Polocz,  which  exists  only  by  name), 
Greece  (inclusive  of  the  Ionian  Islands),  2  each  ;  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  England,  Baden,  Poland,  Malta,  1 
each.  In  Asia,  12:  viz.  Turkey,  10 ;  Spanish  posses- 
sions, 1;  Portuguese  possessions,  1.  In  Africa,  1:  viz. 
Alger.  In  America,  22  :  viz.  United  States,  7  ;  Brit- 
ish possessions,  3;  Mexico,  Spanish  possessions,  Cen- 
tral America,  United  States  of  Colombia,  Venezuela, 
Ecuador,  Brazil,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Chili,  Dominican  Re- 
public, and  Hayti,  each  1.  In  Australia,  1.  Fourteen 
(in  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Austria)  belong  to  the  United 
Greek,  Armenian,  Syrian,  Maronite,  Chaldean  (q.  v.) 
rites.  There  are  also  some  archbishops  "in  partibus 
infidelium,"  who  are,  of  course,  not  included  in  the 
above  list.  Also  the  patriarchs  (q.  v.),  though  they 
exercise  archiepiscopal  rights,  have  been  excluded  from 
this  list.  The  Jansenists  (q.  v.)  in  Holland  have  still 
one  archbishop  at  Utrecht.  We  give  a  list  of  arch- 
bishoprics in  our  articles  on  the  various  countries. 

In  the  United  States  there  were,  in  18C5,  seven  prov- 
inces of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  viz.  Baltimore, 
Abp.  Spaulding;  New  Orleans,  Abp.  Odin  (died  1860)  ; 
New  York,  Abp.  McCloskey;  Cincinnati,  Abp.  Purcell ; 
St.  Louis,  Abp.  Ken  rick;  Oregon,  Abp.  Blanchet;  San 
Francisco,  Abp.  Ah  many.  In  the  year  1828  Pope 
Leo  XII  appointed,  after  much  delay,  an  archbishop 
in  Colombia,  whom  Bolivar  had  proposed. 

III.  In  all  the  Eastern  Churches  the  difference  be- 
tween archbishops  and  bishops  is  less  marked  than  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Greek  Church  of 
Turkey  has  four  patriarchs,  independent  archbishops 
of  Cyprus,  Mount  Sinai,  and  Montenegro,  and  sev- 
eral archbishops  or  metropolitans  in  the  patriarchate 
of  Constantinople.  In  Russia,  in  1865,  25  prelates  had 
the  title  archbishop;  in  Greece,  12;  in  Austria,  2. 
With  regard  to  the  other  Eastern  Churches,  compare 
the  articles  Armenians,  Nestorians,  Jacobites,  Copts, 
A byssinian  Church. 

IV.  In  Protestant  countries,  archbishops  are  found 
in  Finland  (Russia),  1 ;  Sweden,  1 ;  England,  2 ;  and 
Ireland,  2.  Bede  assigns  the  first  establishment  of 
archbishoprics  in  England  to  the  time  of  Lucius,  said 
to  be  the  first  Christian  king  of  England,  who,  after 
the  conversion  of  his  subjects,  erected  three  archbish- 
oprics, viz.  London,  York,  and  Llandaff  (Caerleon). 
The  dignity  of  archbishop  continued  in  the  see  of  Lon- 
don one  hundred  and  eighty  years,  and  was  then,  in 
the  time  of  the  Saxons,  transferred  to  Canterbury. 
Augustin,  the  monk  who  was  sent  by  Pope  Gregory 
to  convert  the  English  nation,  in  the  reign  of  Ethel- 
bert,  king  of  Kent,  was  the  first  bishop  of  Canterbury  ; 
but  Theodore,  the  sixth  in  succession  after  him.  was 
the  first  archbishop  of  that  see.  The  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  had  anciently  the  primacy,  not  only  over 
England,  but  Ireland  also,  and  all  the  bishops  of  the 
latter  were  consecrated  by  him.  He  was  styled  by 
Pope  Urban  II  AUerius  OrbisPapa;  he  had  a  perpet- 
ual legatine  power  annexed  to  his  archbishopric:  he 
had  some  marks  of  royalty,  such  as  the  power  of  coin- 
ing money,  etc  Since  the  Reformation  he  is  styled 
Primate  and  Metropolitan  of  all  England.  Archbishop 
Cranmer  was  the  first  who  bore  this  title.  As  to  pre- 
cedency, there  have  been  many  contests  about  it,  as 
also  about  the  oath  of  canonical  obedience  between 
the  two  archiepiscopal  sees.      Some  antiquarians  will 

|  have  it  that  the  archbishop  of  York  was  originally 


ARCHBISHOP 


3G9 


ARCHDEACON 


primate  of  the  British  Church  ;  for  London  never  was 
a  Roman  colony,  or  the  seat  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
as  York  was,  where  both  Severus  anil  Constantius 
Chlorus  lived  and  died,  and  where  Constantino  the 
Great  was  born  ;  and  from  hence  they  infer  that  where 
the  emperors  resided  was  the  most  likely  place  to  have 
pre-eminence  above  the  rest.  However  it  be,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I,  William  Corbel,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, obtained  from  the  pope  the  character  of  leg- 
ate, by  which  he  secured  to  himself  a  superiority  over 
the  see  of  York,  which  he  visited  jure  legation-is.  But 
after  his  death  the  contest  still  continued ;  for  we  find 
that  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II,  a  synod  being  called  at 
Westminster  by  the  pope's  legate,  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  coming  first,  seated  himself  at  the  right 
hand  of  the  legate ;  but  York,  coming  afterward,  re- 
fused to  take  the  seat  on  the  left  hand,  and  demanded 
Canterbury's  place,  which  the  latter  refusing,  York  sat 
down  in  his  lap.  This  occasioned  the  synod  to  break 
up  in  disorder,  and  both  parties  appealing  to  the  pope, 
the  contest  was  decided  in  favor  of  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury, which  enjoys  the  precedency  to  this  day.  The 
privileges  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  are,  among 
others,  to  crown  the  kings  of  England ;  to  have  prel- 
ates for  his  officers— as  the  bishop  of  London  his  pro- 
vincial dean ;  the  bishop  of  Winchester  his  chancel- 
lor ;  the  bishop  of  Lincoln  his  vice-chancellor ;  the 
bishop  of  Salisbury  his  precentor ;  the  bishop  of  Wor- 
cester his  chaplain;  and  the  bishop  of  Rochester  his 
crosier-bearer,  which  last  office,  since  the  times  of 
popery,  has  ceased.  He  is  also  the  first  peer  of  Eng- 
land next  to  the  royal  family.  The  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  has  the  supreme  government  of  ecclesias- 
tical matters  next  under  the  king.  Upon  the  death  of 
any  suffragan  bishop,  the  custody  of  his  see  devolves 
upon  the  archbishop.  He  has  the  power  of  censuring 
any  bishop  in  his  province;  he  has  an  ancient  right 
to  preside  in  all  provincial  councils  of  his  suffragans, 
which  formerly  were  held  once  a  year,  but  have  been 
discontinued  a  long  time ;  so  that  his  power  of  exam- 
ining tilings  throughout  his  province  is  devolved  to 
the  courts,  of  which  he  holds  several — as  the  Court  of 
Arches,  Prerogative  Court,  Court  of  Peculiars,  etc., 
and  he  has  the  probate  of  wills.  As  to  the  archbishop 
of  York,  he  is  now  styled  Primate  and  Metropo  'item  of 
England,  and  takes  place  of  all  peers  except  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  and  the  lord  chancellor.  The 
province  of  the  archbishop  of  York  consists  of  the  six 
northern  counties,  with  Cheshire  and  Nottingham- 
shire. The  rest  of  England  and  Wales  form  the  prov- 
ince of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  dioceses 
of  the  two  archbishops — that  is  to  say,  the  districts  in 
which  they  exercise  ordinary  episcopal  functions — 
were  remodelled  by  6  and  7  William  IV,  c.  77.  The 
diocese  of  Canterbury  comprises  Kent,  except  the  city 
and  deanery  of  Rochester,  and  some  parishes  trans- 
ferred by  this  act;  a  number  of  parishes  in  Sussex 
called  "peculiars;"  with  small  districts  in  other  dio- 
ceses, particularly  London.  The  diocese  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  York  embraces  the  county  of  York,  except 
that  portion  of  it  now  included  in  the  dioceses  of  Ripon 
and  Manchester,  the  whole  county  of  Nottingham,  and 
some  other  detached  districts.  Scotland,  while  epis- 
copacy prevailed  in  that  eountrj',  had  two  archbishops 
— of  St.  Andrew's  and  Glasgow — the  former  of  whom 
was  Primate  of  all  Scotland.  Wales  likewise  ancient- 
ly boasted  of  an  archbishop,  whose  see  (as  has  been 
observed)  was  established  at  Caerleon,  and  was  after- 
ward translated  to  St.  David's.  But  the  plague  rag- 
ing very  much  in  that  country,  the  archiepiscopal  see 
was  again  removed  to  Doll,  in  Bretatcne,  where  this 
dignity  ended ;  notwithstanding  which,  in  after  ages, 
the  Britons,  or  Welsh,  commenced  an  action  on  that 
account  against  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  but 
were  cast.  In  Ireland  there  are  two  Protestant  and 
four  Roman  Catholic  archbishops.  Of  the  former, 
the  archbishop  of  Armagh  is  Primate  of  all  Ireland, 
Aa 


'  the  archbishop  of  Dublin  being  Primate  of  Ireland. 
:  They  sit  alternately  in  the  House  of  Lords  ;  the  three 
bishops  who,  along  with  them,  represent  the  Church 
of  Ireland,  bcim;  also  chosen  by  rotation  from  the 
'  whole  bod)'.  Previous  to  the  creation  of  an  archbish- 
!  opric  in  Ireland,  the  authority  of  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  extended  to  that  island.  The  amount  of 
control  which  belongs  to  an  archbishop  over  the  bish- 
ops of  his  province  is  not  very  accurately  defined ;  but 
if  any  bishop  introduces  irregularities  into  his  diocese, 
or  is  guilty  of  immorality,  the  archbishop  may  call  him 
to  account,  and  even  deprive  him.  In  1822,  the  arch- 
bishop of  Armagh,  who  is  primate  of  all  Ireland,  de- 
posed the  bishop  of  Clogher  on  the  latter  ground.  To 
I  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  belongs  the  honor  of 
j  placing  the  crown  on  the  sovereign's  head  at  his  coro- 
nation ;  and  the  archbishop  of  York  claims  the  like 
privilege  in  the  case  of  the  queen-consort,  whose  per- 
petual chaplain  he  is. 

j  The  Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland  has  at  present  no 
I  archbishop,  but  the  presiding  bishop  has  the  title  of 
i  primus,  or  metropolitan.  In  the  English  colonies,  the 
I  bishops  of  Calcutta,  Sydney,  New  Zealand,  Montreal, 
j  Capetown,  each  of  whom  presides  over  an  ecclesiastical 
province  (a  number  of  dioceses),  have  the  title  Metro- 
I  poi-itan.  See  Metropolitan. 
|  The  election  of  an  archbishop  does  not  differ  from 
■  that  of  a  bishop  [see  Bishop]  ;  but  when  he  is  invest- 
ed, with  his  office  he  is  said  to  be  "enthroned,"  where- 
as a  bishop  is  "consecrated."  He  also  writes  himself 
|  "by  divine  providence,"  a  bishop  being  "by  divine 
permission  ;"  and  has  the  title  of  "Grace"  and  "  Most 
Reverend  Father  in  God,"  while  a  bishop  is  styled 
"Lord"  and  "  Right  Reverend  Father  in  God."  The 
archbishop  is  entitled  to  present  to  all  ecclesiastical 
;  livings  in  the  disposal  of  diocesan  bishops  if  not  filled 
up  within  six  months ;  and  every  bishop,  whether  cre- 
ated or  translated,  is  bound  to  make,  a  legal  convey- 
ance to  the  archbishop  of  the  next  avoidance  of  one 
such  dignity  or  benefice  belonging  to  his  see  as  the 
archbishop  shall  choose.  This  is  called  the  arehbish- 
,  op's  option.  See  Bishop;  Episcopacy.  See  Bing- 
I  ham,  Oriff.  Eccles.  bk.  ii,  ch.  17 ;  Coleman,  Ancient 
!  Christianity,  ch.viii,  §  4. 

V.  In  the  Protestant  churches  of  Germany  the  title 
archbishop  is  not  customary,  yet  it  was  conferred,  on 
April  19, 1829,  by  order  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  on  the 
superintendent  general  of  the  province  of  Prussia,  Bo- 
rowski,  with  the  declaration,  "Why  should  not  the 
highest  dignitaries  of  our  evangelical  church  have  the 
same  claim  to  this  dignity  as  the  clergymen  of  several 
other  evangelical  countries,  in  which  it  has  been  pre- 
|  served  without  interruption?"  See  Nicolovius,  Die 
bischofl.  Wurde  in  Preussens  evangel.  Kirche  (Koenigs- 
berg,*1834). 

On  the  Roman  Catholic  archbishops,  see  Helfert, 
Von  den  Rechten  vnd  Pflichten  der  Bishofe  (Prague, 
1832);  and  M\st.  Dogmat.  histor.  Abhandlung  uber  die 
j  rechtliehe  Stelliing  der  Erzbischife  (Freiburg,  1847).  A 
list  of  all  archbishoprics,  with  their  suffragans,  through- 
!  out  the  world,  will  be  given  in  an  Appendix. — Hook, 
I  Church  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Chambers's  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. 
!  Archdall,  Mervyn,  a  learned  clergyman  and  an- 
|  tiquary  of  the  Protestant  Church  of  Ireland,  was  born 
1  at  Dublin  in  1723,  filled  several  ecclesiastical  posts, 
and  finally  became  rector  of  Slane,  in  the  county  of 
Meath.  He  died  in  1791.  After  forty  years  of  in- 
j  tense  application  to  the  monastic  records  of  Ireland, 
j  he  published,  in  1786,  Monasticon  Hibemicum  :  a  His- 
tory of  the  Abbeys.  Priories,  an  I  Religions  liaises  of  Ire- 
land— Gentleman's  Magazine,  xi,  780 ;  Allibone,  Dic- 
tionary of  Authors,  i,  67. 

Archdeacon  (chief  of  the  deacons),  an  ecclesias- 
tical officer  whose  duty  originally  consisted  chiefly  iu 
superintending  the  temporal  affairs  of  the  church. 
I      1.  The  office  was  one  of  great  honor  in  the  early 


ARCHDEACON 


370 


ARCHELAUS 


church ;  but  how  it  grew  into  such  importance  is  mat- 
ter of  dispute.  ' '  The  antiquity  of  this  office  is  held  to 
be  so  high  by  many  Roman  Catholic  writers  that  they 
derive  its  origin  from  the  appointment  of  the  seven 
deacons,  and  suppose  that  St.  Stephen  was  the  first 
archdeacon  ;  but  there  is  no  authority  to  warrant  this 
conclusion.  Mention  is  also  made  of  Laurentius,  arch- 
deacon of  Rome,  who  suffered  A.D.  2G0 ;  but,  although 
he  was  called  archdeacon  (according  to  Prudentius), 
he  -was  no  more  than  the  principal  man  of  the  seven 
deacons  who  stood  at  the  altar.  '  Hie  primus  e  sep- 
tem  viris  qui  stant  ad  aram  proximi'  (Prudent.  Hymn, 
de  St.  Steph.).  Jerome  says  '  that  the  archdeacon  was 
chosen  out  of  the  deacons,  and  was  the  principal  deacon 
in  every  church,  just  as  the  archpresbyter  was  the 
principal  presbyter.'  But  even  in  Jerome's  time  the 
office  of  archdeacon  had  certainly  grown  to  great  im- 
portance" (Hook,  s.  v.).  It  was  usual  for  one  of  the 
deacons  to  stand  by  the  bishop  at  the  altar,  while  the 
other  deacons  discharged  their  duty  in  the  assembly. 
This  deacon  was  called  primus,  primicerius  dlaconum,  the 
first  or  chief  deacon  ;  and  he  was  usually  the  bishop's 
man  of  business.  Jerome  speaks  of  the  archdeacon  as 
necessary  to  ecclesiastical  order  in  his  epistle  ad  Rus- 
ticum;  and  Optatus,  bishop  of  Milevi,  says  that  it  was 
the  rebuke  of  the  archdeacon  Cecilianns  to  Lucilla 
which  caused  eventually  the  Donatist  schism.  It  is 
probable  that,  at  first,  the  deacon  senior  both  in  years 
and  office  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  archdeacon ; 
but  as  the  office  increased  in  importance,  it  became 
necessary  to  elect  the  most  able  and  proper  person  to 
discharge  the  duties.  Athanasius  was  made  archdea- 
con while  he  was  }ret  a  young  man.  This  mode  of 
election  to  office  did  not,  however,  prevail  universally; 
for  in  some  places  the  choice  rested  solely  with  the 
bishop;  and  when  the  relation  of  bishop  and  archdea- 
con became  very  intimate,  and  the  latter  was  of  special 
importance  to  his  superior  in  the  discharge  of  his  epis- 
copal functions,  it  was  natural  that  the  bishop  should 
have  considerable  influence  in  his  appointment.  The 
powers  of  the  archdeacons  were  extensive  and  influen- 
tial. They  had  charge  of  the  instruction  and  educa- 
tion of  the  younger  clerks,  were  overseers  over  the 
deacons,  superintended  the  support  of  the  poor,  and 
assisted  the  bishops  in  matters  of  administration  and 
jurisdiction.  Without  bis  certificate  no  one  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  orders,  and  frequently  he  represented 
the  bishop  at  synods.  Still  greater  became  his  pow- 
ers in  the  sixth  century,  when  he  even  received  pu- 
nitive power  over  the  priests,  and  a  rank  above  all 
the  priests,  even  the  archpriest.  This  is  clearly  stated 
by  Isidor  of  Sevilla,  who,  in  his  Epistola  ad  Evagrium, 
plainly  says :  The  archpriest  must  know  that  he  is 
subordinate  to  the  archdeacon,  and  must  obey  his  or- 
ders, as  well  as  those  of  his  bishop  (archipresbyter  vero 
se  esse  sub  archidiacono,  ejus  prceseptis  sicut  episcopi  sui 
8i  iat  obedere).  Until  the  eighth  century  every  diocese 
had  only  one  archdeacon,  but  in  774,  Bishop  Heddo,  of 
Strasburg,  divided  his  diocese  into  seven  archdiacon- 
ates  (arcliiiliiiciiiifi/ns  rut-alls'),  and  most  of  the  other 
bishops  imitated  this  institution,  with  the  exception 
of  1 1  ah  .  vi  here  the  smallness  of  the  diocese  seemed  to 
make  a  division  of  the  dioceses  superfluous.  The 
"rural  archdeacons,"  to  whom  the  deans  (archlpres- 
byteri  rurales)  were  subordinate,  were  mostly  priests, 
while  the  archdeacon  of  the  cathedral  church  (arehi- 
diaconus  magrms)  was  usually  only  a  deacon.  In  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  the  powers  of  the 
archdeacons  reached  their  climax.  They  received  a 
jurisdiction  of  their  own  (jurisdictio  propria),  suspend- 
ed and  excommunicated  priests,  held  synods,  and  in 
many  ways  tried  to  enlarge  their  rights  at  the  expense 
of  the  bishops.  As  the  position  bad  now  become  a 
very  lucrative  one,  many  members  of  noble,  prince- 
ly, and  even  royal  families  intruded  themselves  into 
it,  even  without  having  received  the  ordination  of 
deacons.     In  many  instances  their  powers  even  be- 


came dangerous  to  the  bishops,  and  thus  a  reaction 
was  called  forth.  Many  of  the  synods  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  as  those  of  Tours 
(1239),  Liege  (1287),  Mentz  (1310),  took  from  them 
some  of  their  powers,  reserving  them  to  the  bishop 
and  his  vicar-general.  This  limitation  of  their  pow- 
ers was  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  Many 
of  the  archidiaconates  had  already  disappeared  before 
the  latter  synod,  and  in  many  others  this  was  the  case 
in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  At 
some  cathedral  churches  the  office  of  archdeacon  still 
exists,  but  the  former  rights  are  no  longer  connected 
with  it. 

In  the  Greek  Church  the  office  of  rural  archdeacon 
never  existed ;  the  office  of  cathedral  archdeacon  was 
early  displaced  by  the  chartophylax,  and  even  the 
title  of  archdeacon  early  disappeared.  In  Constanti- 
nople the  title  was  retained,  but  the  archdeacon  was 
an  officer  of  the  court,  not  of  the  cathedral  church. 

In  some  of  the  Protestant  state  churches  of  Germa- 
ny the  title  archdeacon  has  been  retained  for  the  head 
ministers  of  ecclesiastical  districts. 

See  Thomassin,  Vet.  et  Nov.  Eccles.  Disciplina,  i,  1. 
2,  c.  17 ;  Herzog,  ReaUEncyMopiidie,  s.  v. ;  Eadie,  Ec- 
clesiastical Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.     See  Deacon. 

2.  In  the  Church  of  England  there  are  71  archdea- 
conries— several  in  each  diocese.  The  archdeacon  is 
a  clergyman  of  the  cathedral,  and  as  the  income  of 
the  office  is  limited,  he  generally  holds  a  benefice  be- 
sides. He  is  appointed  by  the  bishop,  and  is  himself 
a  sort  of  vice-bishop.  He  has  the  right  of  visitation 
every  two  years  in  three,  to  inquire  into  the  repara- 
tions and  movables  belonging  to  churches  ;  to  reform 
abuses ;  to  suspend  ;  excommunicate  ;  in  some  places 
to  prove  wills  ;  and  to  induct  all  clerks  into  benefices 
within  bis  jurisdictions.  He  has  power  to  keep  a  court, 
which  is  called  the  Court  of  the  Archdeacon,  or  his 
commissary,  and  this  he  ma}-  bold  in  any  place  with- 
in his  archdeaconry.  In  this  court  the  church-war- 
den's business  is  general!}'  decided.  The  revenue  of 
the  archdeacon  arises  chiefly  from  pensions  paid  by 
the  incumbents.  These  pensions  originally  bore  no 
contemptible  ratio  to  the  whole  value  of  the  benefice, 
and  formed  a  sufficient  income  for  an  active  and  use- 
ful officer  of  the  church  ;  but  now,  by  the  great  change 
which  has  taken  place  in  the  value  of  money,  the  pay- 
ments are  little  more  than  nominal,  and  the  whole  in- 
come of  the  archdeacons  is  very  inconsiderable.  The 
office,  therefore,  is  generall}'  held  by  persons  who 
have  also  benefices  or  other  preferment  in  the  church. 
See  Cripps,  Law  Relating  to  the  Church  and  Clergy 
(Edinb.  1859).— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  ii,  ch.  xxi ; 
Marsden,  Churches  and  Sects,  i,  330. 

Archelais  (Apx&aic),  a  city  built  by  Archelaus, 
after  whom  it  was  named  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  13,  1). 
It  was  situated  in  the  plain  of  the  Jordan,  near  Jeri- 
cho and  Phasaelis  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  2,  2).  In  the 
Peutinger  Table  (p.  434)  it  is  placed  twelve  miles  from 
Jericho  toward  Scythopolis.  Ptolemy  reckons  it 
among  the  cities  of  Judsea  (see  Reland,  Palast.  p.  462; 
comp.  p.  57G),  and  Pliny  (xiii,  4)  speaks  of  it  as  a  val- 
ley near  Phasaelis  and  Livias.  Antiochus  is  named 
in  the  Latin  version  of  acts  of  the  council  of  Chalce- 
don  as  bishop  of  Archelais  in  Palestine  {Acta  concilior. 
general,  iv,  80);  but  the  Greek  copies  read  Arce 
("Aiik-i/),  which  likewise  occurs  in  other  notices  (ib.  iv, 
327),  as  also  the  name  Alcenon  ('AKidjvwv,  ib.  iv,  400). 
Van  de  Velde  {Memoir,  p.  287)  coincides  in  Schulze's 
identification  of  the  site  with  the  ruins  el-Basaliyeh, 
at  the  south  base  of  a  hill  in  the  lower  section  of 
Wady  Fariali. 

Archela'us  (Ap^fXaoc,  ruler  of  the  people,  Tal- 
mud O^S-p-iX),  son  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Malthace, 
a  Samaritan  woman  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  i,  3 ;  War, 
i,  28,  4),  and  brought  up,  with  his  brother  Antipas,  at 
Borne  (Joseph.  War,  i,  31,  1).     He  inherited  of  his 


ARCHELAUS 


371 


ARCHER 


father's  dominions  (B.C.  4)  Idumasa,  Judasa,  and  Sa- 
maria, with  the  important  cities  Caesarea,  Sebaste,  Jop- 
pa,  and  Jerusalem,  and  a  yearly  income  of  GOO  talents, 


Great  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  10,  G,  7),  whose  son  Alex- 
ander married  his  daughter  Glaphyra  (ib.  8,  6),  and 
his  intervention  was  of  service  in  reconciling  Herod 
with  his  sons  and  brother  (ib.  4,  G  ;  War,  i,  25).  See 
Alexander. 


Supposed  Coin  of  Archelaus.  Obverse :  Bunch  of  Grapes,  with 
tlie  name  (in  Greek),  u  Of  Herod."  Reverse:  Helmet,  with 
the  (Greek)  title  (borne  by  this  prince  only),  "Ethnarch." 

as  ethnarch  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  11,  4;  called  king,  fta- 
ciXtvc,  in  Matt,  ii,  22,  in  the  sense  of  "prince,"  "re- 
gent;" comp.the  commentators  in  loc).  His  reign  had 
commenced  inauspiciously;  for,  afterthe  death  of  Her- 
od, and  before  Archelaus  could  go  to  Rome  to  obtain 
the  confirmation  of  his  father's  will,  the  Jews  having 
become  very  tumultuous  at  the  Temple  in  consequence 
of  his  refusing  some  demands,  Archelaus  ordered  his 
soldiers  to  attack  them,  on  which  occasion  upward  of 
three  thousand  were  slain  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  9,  3; 
War,  ii,  1,  3).  On  Archelaus  going  to  Rome  to  so- 
licit the  royal  dignity  (agreeably  to  the  practice  of  the 
tributary  kings  of  that  age,  who  received  their  crowns 
from  the  Roman  emperor),  the  Jews  sent  an  embassy, 
consisting  of  fifty  of  their  principal  men,  with  a  peti- 
tion to  Augustus  that  they  might  be  permitted  to  live 
according  to  their  own  laws,  under  a  Roman  governor, 
and  also  complaining  of  his  cruelty  (Josephus,  War, 
ii,  2-7).  To  this  circumstance  our  Lord  perhaps  al- 
ludes in  the  parable  related  by  Luke  (six,  12-27)  :  "A 
certain  nobleman  (cvyevfc,  a  man  of  birth  or  rank,  the 
son  of  Herod)  went  into  a  far  country  (Italy'),  to  re- 
ceive for  himself  a  kingdom  (Judcea),  and  to  return. 
But  his  citizens  (the  Jews)  hated  him,  and  sent  a  mes- 
sage (or  embassy)  after  him  (to  Augustus  Ccesar),  say- 
ing, '  We  will  not  have  this  man  to  reign  over  us.'  " 
The  Jews,  however,  failed  in  this  remonstrance  (Jose- 
phus, Ant.  xvii,  11,  4).  Archelaus  returned  to  Judaea, 
and  under  pretence  that  he  had  countenanced  the 
seditious  against  him,  he  deprived  Joazar  of  the  high- 
priesthood,  and  gave  that  dignity  to  his  brother  Elea- 
zar.  He  governed  Judaea  with  so  much  violence  that, 
in  the  tenth  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  13,  2 ;  comp.  Life,  1) 
or  ninth  (Joseph.  War,  ii,  7,  3)  year  of  his  reign  (ac- 
cording to  Dio  Cass,  lx,  27,  under  the  consulate  of  M. 
yEm.  Lepidus  and  L.  Aruntius,  corresponding  to  A.D. 
6),  on  account  of  his  tyranny,  especially  toward  the 
Samaritans,  he  was  dethroned,  deprived  of  his  prop- 
erty, and  banished  to  Vienna  in  Gaul  (Joseph.  Ant. 
xvii,  13,  2),  where  he  died  (the  year  is  unknown ;  Je- 
rome, Onomast.  s.  v.  Bethlehem,  asserts  that  his  grave 
was  shown  in  this  latter  place,  in  which  case  he  must 
have  returned  to  Palestine  as  a  private  person).  The 
parents  of  our  Lord  turned  aside  from  fear  of  him  on 
their  way  back  from  Egypt,  and  went  to  Nazareth  in 
Galilee,  in  the  domain  of  his  gentler  brother  Antipas 
(Matt,  ii,  22).  He  seems  to  have  been  guilt}-  of  great 
inhumanity  and  oppression.  This  cruelty  was  exer- 
cised not  only  toward  Jews,  but  toward  Samaritans 
also  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  7,  3).  He  had  illegally  mar- 
ried Glapnyra,  the  wife  of  his  brother  Alexander, 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  latter,  who  left  several  chil- 
dren by  her  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  13,  1). — Noldii  Hist. 
Hum.  p.  219  sq. ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. 
See  Herod. 

Archelaus  is  also  the  name  of  several  other  per- 
sons mentioned  1))'  Josephus. 

1.  The  last  of  the  kings  of  Cappadocia  by  that 
name,  who  received  the  throne  (B.C.  34)  from  Marc 
Antony,  and  was  afterward  held  in  great  esteem  by 
Augustus  and  the  succeeding  emperors,  but  at  length 
fell  under  the  displeasure  of  Tiberius,  and  died  at 
Rome,  A.D.  17.  (See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Ding. 
s.  v.)     He  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Herod  the 


Coin  of  Archelaus  of  Cappadocia;  the  He  verse  hearing  a  club 
and  the  inscription  (in  Greek),  "Of  King  Archelaus,  Philo- 
patris,  the  Founder"  (i.  e.  of  Eleusa). 

2.  Julius  Archelaus  Epiphanes,  son  of  Antiochus 
and  grandson  of  Chelcias ;  he  espoused  Mariamne, 
the  young  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I,  while  yet  a 
girl  of  ten  years  ;  but  before  she  became  marriageable 
she  was  shamefully  deflowered  by  the  soldiery  (Jose- 
phus, Ant.  xix,  9,  1). 

3.  Son  of  Magadotus,  and  one  of  the  deserters  to 
the  Romans  during  the  final  siege  of  Jerusalem  (Jo- 
sephus, War,  vi,  4,  2). 

Archelaus,  bishop  of  Carrha  in  Mesopotamia, 
A.D.  278,  held  a  public  dispute  with  a  heretic,  Manes, 
an  account  of  which  he  published  in  Syriac,  soon 
translated  into  Greek  and  Latin  (Socrates,  Hist.  Eccl. 
i,  22 ;  Jerome,  De  Vir.  Illustr.  72).  The  Lat.  version 
has  been  printed  by  Zaccagnius  (Collect.  Mom.  Vet, 
Rome,  1698)  and  Fabricius  (in  his  ed.  of  Hippolytus). 

Archelaus,  a  bishop  of  Cajsarea  in  Cappadocia, 
who  wrote  a  work  against  the  heresy  of  the  Messa- 
lians  (A.D.  440),  which  is  referred  to  by  Photius 
(Cod.  52).— Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  s.  an. 

Archer  ("-"p,  kashshath' ,  a  bowman,  Gen.  xxi, 
20;  C "15Sn-'b^ 2,  baal-chitstsim',  arro -r-man,  Gen.  xlix, 
23  ;  fvSjSS  T3"X,  tnosh'  bakke' sheth,  bowman,  1  Sam. 
xxxi,  3 ;  niUjBSl  i"H"i*2,  moreh'  bakke'sheth,  shooter 
with  the  bow,  1  Chron.  x, 3 ;  t"llTJ|3  Tft'X,  dorek'  he' 'sheth, 
one  bending  the  bote,  Jer.  Ii,  3;  comp.  Isa.  xxi,  17; 
xxiii,  3;  but  simply  fMt5j3,  ke' sheth,  a  bow,  in  Isa. 
xxii,  3 ;  comp.  Psa.  lxxviii,  57  ;  while  in  Job  xvi, 
13,  the  word  is  2^,  rab,  great,  prob.  a  host).     From 


the  frequent  appearance  of  combatants  armed  with 
bows  and  arrows  on  the  Egyptian  monument-  i  -  e 
Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egypt,  i,  337,  354,  405)  and  Baby- 
lonish sculptures  (see  Layard's  Nineveh,  ii,  261),  we 
may  conclude  that  this  art  is  of  very  high  antiquity 
(see  Jahn's  Archdol.  §  278).      In  Gen.  xxi,  20,  Ish- 


ARCHES 


372 


ARCHITECTURE 


Ancient  Assyrian  Archi-r 


mael  is  spoken  of  as  an 
archer,  and  again  in  Gen. 
xxvii.  3,  but  with  reference 
to  hunting  rather  than  to 
Avar;  and  this  appears  to 
have  been  long  the  case 
■with  the  Israelites,  though 
the  neighboring  nations 
employed  it  for  military 
purposes.  See  Armor. 
Saul,  we  read  (1  Sam. 
xxxi,  3),  was  wounded' by 
the  Philistine  archers,  and 
it  has  been  conjectured  that 
it  was  the  unskillfulness 
of  the  Israelites  with  this 
weapon  which  led  David, 
while  lamenting  the  death 
of  the  king  and  his  sons,  to 
give  directions  for  "  teach- 
in?  the  children  of  Judah 


the  use  of  the  bow"  (2  Sam.  i,  18).  See  Bow.  If 
such  were  the  case,  his  efforts  were  successful,  for, 
after  this  period,  from  its  frequent  mention  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  archery  would  appear  to  have  been 
considered  as  of  great  importance,  so  much  so  that 
'•  breaking  the  bow"  is  a  phrase  often  employed  by 
the  sacred  writers  for  taking  away  one's  power  (Hos. 
i,  5  ;  Jer.  xlix,  35),  while  "  strengthening  the  bow" 
was  a  symbol  of  the  increase  of  influence  (Gen.  xlix, 
24).  The  Persians  were  famous  among  the  ancients 
for  their  archers  (Isa.  xiii,  18 ;  Jer.  xlix,  35 ;  1,  1-42). 
See  Bowman. 

Arches,  Court  of.  This  court,  which  subsisted 
in  England  before  the  time  of  Henry  II,  is  a  court  of 
appeal,  belonging  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury ; 
the  judge  is  called  the  dean  of  arches,  because  he  an- 
ciently held  his  court  in  the  church  of  St.  Mary-le- 
bow  (Sancta  Maria  de  Arcubus).  The  spiritual  courts 
are  now  held  at  Doctors'  Commons. 

Ar'chevite  (Chald.  only  in  the  plur.  emphatic, 
Arlceoay  '.  x"~~X ;  Sept.  'Apxi'aioi),  one  of  the  na- 
tions transplanted  by  the  Assyrians  in  place  of  the 
captive  Samaritans,  and  who  joined  afterward  in  op- 
posing the  returned  Jews  (Ezra  iv,  9),  probably  in- 
habitants of  the  city  Erech  (q.  v.),  mentioned  (Gen. 
x,  10)  as  an  early  settlement  of  Nimrod. 

Ar'chi  (Heb.  Arki',  "O^X;  Sept.  combines  with 
the  following  word.  ' \n\ia7ainoa  ;  Vulg.  Archi  Ata- 
ri,th  ;  but  the  Ileb.  has  no  connective  between  the 
words,  where  the  Auth.  Vers,  has  prop,  supplied  the 
best  relation  ',to"),  a  city  or  place  on  the  boundary 
of  Benjamin  and  Ephraim,  between  Bethel  and  Ata- 
rotb  (Josh,  xvi,  2);  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  re- 
gion of  Beni-Zeid  (Keil,  Comment,  in  loc),  which, 
however,  is  too  far  north  [see  Ataroth],  and  rather 
to  be  sought  in  the  valley  west  of  Bethel,  perhaps  at 
the  ruined  site  called  Kefr  Miisr.  See  Tribe.  It 
appears  to  designate  (collectively  used)  a  clan  inhab- 
iting a  district  called  Erech  (different,  of  course,  from 
that  in  Babylonia,  Gen.  x,  lit),  elsewhere  named  only 
as  the  residence  of  Hushai  the  Archite  (Heb.  Arki\ 
""X.  Sept.  '  \n\!  v.  r.  'Aoo-y),  one  of  those  who  ad- 
hered to  I 'avid  during  Absalom's  rebellion  (2  Sam. 
xv,  :iL'  ;    ■:  \  i,  ID).      See  AhCHITE. 

Archicapellarms,  i.  e.  Archchaplain,  was  the 
title  of  the  highest  dignitary  in  the  old  Prankish  em- 
pire. His  duty  was  to  make  a  report  to  the  king  on 
all  ecclesiastical  matters  which  were  brought  before 
thegovi  rnment.  Generally  an  archbishop  was  charged 
with  this  oilier,  and  gradually  it  became  connected 
with  c  t  in  arcbiepiflcopal  sees.  The  office  became 
extinct  after  a  few  centuries,  and  for  the  discharge  of 
its  duties  decmosynarii  or  aumoniers  were  instituted  in 
the  thirteenth  century. 


Archiereus  (apx<-iptv<J),  a  name  denoting  "high- 
priest,"  and  used  in  the  Greek  Church  for  the  higher 
clergy  above  the  rank  of  presbyter,  like  the  Latin 
term  Prelate. 

Archimandrite  (apxwv  rife  fidvcpac),  the  name 
given  in  the  Greek  Church  to  the  head  of  a  monastery, 
and  is  equivalent  to  "abbot."  It  has  also  been  ap- 
plied to  all  ecclesiastical  superiors,  and  even  in  the 
Latin  Church  there  have  been  examples  of  archbish- 
ops being  styled  archimandrites. 

Archip'pus  ('ApYt7T7roc,  "  master  of  the  horse'"), 
a  Christian  minister,  whom  the  Apostle  Paul  calls  his 
"fellow-soldier"  (Philem.  2),  and  whom  he  exhorts 
to  renewed  activity  (Col.  iv,  17),  A.D.  57.  As  the 
former  epistle,  which  concerns  a  private  matter,  is  ad- 
dressed to  him  jointly  with  Philemon  and  Apphia, 
and  as  "  the  Church  in  their  house"  is  also  addressed, 
it  seems  necessary  to  infer  that  he  was  a  member  of 
Philemon's  family.  From  the  latter  reference  (so  Je- 
rome, Theodoret,  and  CEcumenius)  it  would  seem  that 
Archippus  had  exercised  the  office  of  evangelist  some- 
times at  Ephcsus,  sometimes  elsewhere  (at  Laodicea, 
according  to  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  vii,  46),  and 
that  he  finally  resided  at  Colossa?,  and  there  discharged 
the  office  of  presiding  presbyter  or  bishop  when  Paul 
wrote  to  the  Colossian  Church  (see  Dietelmaier,  De 
Archippo,  Altdorf.  1751).  The  exhortation  given  to 
him  in  this  epistle  has,  without  sufficient  grounds, 
been  construed  into  a  rebuke  for  past  negligence. 
Tradition  states  that  he  had  been  one  of  Jesus's  70 
disciples,  and  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  at  Chona?, 
near  Loadicea  (Menalog.  Grcec.  i,  20o). 

Archisynagcgus  {('ipxaywdyaoyoc,  "ruler  of  the 
synagogue,"  called  also  apx^v  ri)Q  avvayiayiJQ  [Luke 
viii,  41],  and  simply  ap\ujv  [Matt,  ix,  18]  ;  Heb. 
raaSIl  ttJKI,  chief  or  ruler  of  the  synagogue).  In 
large  synagogues  there  appears  to  have  been  a  col- 
lege or  council  of  elders  (C*jpt  =  TvptafSiiTtpoi,  Luke 
vii,  3)  to  whom  the  care  of  the  synagogue  and  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  congregation  were  committed,  and  to  all 
of  whom  this  title  was  applied  (Mark  v,  22  ;  Acts  xiii, 
15;  xviii,  8,  compared  with  ver.  17).  Their  duties 
were  to  preside  in  the  public  services,  to  direct  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  addresses  to  the  con- 
gregation (Vitringa,  De  Synagoga  Yetcre,  lib.  iii,  pt. 
i,  c.  7 ;  comp.  Acts  xiii,  15),  to  superintend  the  dis- 
tribution of  alms  (Vitr.  c.  Vii),  and  to  punish  trans- 
gressors either  by  scourging  (Vitr.  c.  11 ;  comp.  Matt, 
x,  17;  xxiii,  34  ;  Acts  xxii,  10)  or  by  excommunica- 
tion (Vitr.  c.  D).  In  a  more  restricted  sense  the  title 
is  sometimes  applied  to  the  president  of  this  council, 
whose  office,  according  to  Grotius  (Annotationes  in 
Matt,  ix,  18  ;  Luc.  xiii,  14)  and  many  other  writers, 
was  different  from  and  superior  to  that  of  the  elders 
in  general.  Vitringa  (p.  586),  on  the  other  hand, 
maintains  that  there  was  no  such  distinction  of  office, 
and  that  the  title  thus  applied  merely  designates  the 
presiding  elder,  who  acted  on  behalf  of  and  in  the 
name  of  the  whole. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Synagogue. 

Ar'chite  (Hob.,  with  the  art.,  ha-ArH' ,  ^r^Nri, 
as  if  from  a  place  named  Erech,  T("?N ;  Sept.  6  'Afa\i, 
Vulg.  Arachites),  the  usual  designation  of  David's 
friend  Hushai  (2  Sam.  xv,  32;  xvii,  5,  14 ;  1  Chron. 
xxvii,  33).  The  word  also  appears  (somewhat  dis- 
guised, it  is  true,  in  the  Auth.  Vers.)  in  Josh,  xvi,  2, 
where  "the  borders  of  Archi"  (i.  e.  "the  Archite) 
are  named  as  on  the  boundary  of  the  "  children  of  Jo- 
seph," somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethel.  No 
town  of  the  name  of  Erech  appears  in  Palestine:  it  is 
possible  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Gerizi,  the  Zemar- 
ites,  and  the  Jebusites,  we  have  here  the  last  faint 
trace  of  one  of  the  original  tribes  of  the  country. 
See  Archi. 

Architecture  (Eat.  archifectura,  from  Gr.  aoxi- 
-iKTwv,  a  master  builder),  though  usually  ranked  as  a 


ARCHITECTURE 


373 


ARCHITECTURE 


fine  art,  is  not  purely  such  in  the  sense  that  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  music,  and  poetry  are,  but  must  1  it- 
ranked  rather  as  an  applied  art.  Buildings  erected 
for  dwelling,  manufacture,  merchandise,  public  busi- 
ness, education,  worship,  burial,  or  defense,  serve, 
first  and  primarily,  their  practical  purposes.  In  so  far 
as  reference  is  had  to  the  mathematical  and  physical 
principles  of  construction,  the  choice  of  material,  and 
the  perfect  adaptation  of  the  building  to  its  uses,  the 
edifice  is  a  scientific  achievement,  and  from  this  stand- 
point architecture  is  a  science.  In  so  far  as  the  laws 
of  taste  and  the  power  of  the  imagination  are  applied 
to  the  grouping  of  the  masses,  and  the  invention  and 
distribution  of  the  ornamentation,  the  edifice  is  a  work 
of  art,  and,  from  this  aesthetic  stand-point,  architecture 
is  a  fine  art.  Embodying  thus  the  material  and  spir- 
itual wants  of  an  age  or  people  with  its  knowledge  of 
the  resources  of  nature  and  the  power  of  its  imagina- 
tion, the  history  of  architecture  is  a  most  important  el- 
ement in  the  history  of  civilization.  The  genius  of  a 
great  architect,  though  largely  controlled  by  the  object 
of  the  building,  the  materials  at  his  command,  and  other 
considerations  of  site,  country,  and  climate,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  prevailing  styles  and  tastes,  will  always 
be  stamped  upon  his  works,  and  give  them  a  marked 
individuality.  Though  no  monuments  remain  of  their 
earliest  history,  architecture  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  existed  as  a  fine  art  before  the  other  formative 
arts  of  painting  and  sculpture. 

I.  Ancient  Architecture. — This  period  extends  from 
the  earliest  times  to  about  the  time  of  Constantine  the 
Great,  when  Christianity  took  the  place  of  Paganism 
as  the  controlling  spirit  in  architecture. 

1.  Egyptian.  —  The  earliest  authenticated  monu- 
ments of  architecture  are  to  be  found  in  Egypt,  where 
were  developed  indeed  the  germs  of  all  the  arts.  Of 
the  other  styles  we  can  trace  the  rise,  culmination, 
and  decadence.  Of  the  rise  of  Egyptian  art  we  know 
nothing,  but  we  are  placed  suddenly  face  to  face  with 
the  Pyramids  of  Gizeh,  the  Sphinx,  and  other  works, 
all  executed  in  true  taste,  and  with  so  great  a  degree 
of  scientific  knowledge  as  to  indicate  a  long  period  of 
anterior  development.  This  first  period  (in  the  fourth 
dynasty)  excelled  all  later  periods  in  some  elements 
of  design,  though  the  second  (in  the  twelfth  dynasty) 
gave  the  column  and  other  elements,  all  of  which 
were  moulded  together,  and  brought  to  the  highest 
execution  and  finish  in  the  third  period  (in  the  eight- 
eenth dynasty).  Egyptian  architecture,  in  many 
points,  such  as  the  majestic  disposition  of  the  masses, 
the  sublime  massiveness  and  durability  of  its  walls, 
the  long  vistas  through  successive  courts  and  lines  of 
columns  and  sphinxes,  the  predominance  of  the  inte- 
rior over  exterior  ornament,  the  universal  use  of  color, 
the  subordination  of  sculpture  and  painting  to  archi- 
tectonic effects,  the  symbolism  of  its  ornaments  and 
the  monumental  character  of  its  edifices,  was  the  most 
perfect  the  world  has  yet  seen.  (See  Wilkinson,  Ar- 
chitecture of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  Lond.  1856.)  The 
Egyptian  public  edifices  consisted  of  temples,  palaces, 
tombs,  and  aqueducts.  The  earliest  Temples  and  Tombs 
were  doubtless  of  wood,  or  were  excavated  from  the 
solid  rock.  These  two  styles  of  building  gave  a  typi- 
cal character  to  the  later  temples,  built  mostly  above 
ground  and  of  cut  stone.  The  temple  was  usually 
built  upon  a  high,  often  a  raised  foundation,  above  the 
flow  of  the  high  waters  of  the  Nile.  The  entrance- 
way  was  paved  with  broad  stones,  and  often  led  from 
the  tomb  of  a  deceased  king.  This  entrance  opened 
on  the  side  facing  the  Nile  to  an  enclosure  surrounded 
by  a  massive  wall  of  cut  stone,  diminishing  as  it  rose, 
and  covered  like  all  the  Egyptian  walls,  as  those  of 
temples  and  tombs,  with  a  broad,  simple,  spreading 
cornice.  This  unbroken  massive  wall  was  covered 
as  were  the  walls  of  the  temple  within,  with  symbolic 
paintings  of  the  Egyptian  religion,  hieroglyphic  rec- 
ords of  history,  or  figures  of  deities  and  kings.     With 


in  the  enclosure  was  the  temple,  surrounded  by  rows 
of  trees,  and  often  with  an  artificial  basin  of  water  at 
one  side.  From  the  single  opening  of  the  entrance 
in  the  wall  the  way  led  between  two  rows  of  colossal 
sphinxes  or  rams  to  the  majestic  facade  of  the  temple. 
Before  the  door  rose  two  lofty  obelisks  or  sat  two  co- 
lossal figures,  and  banners  iloated  from  high  poles  at 
their  side.  The  walls  within  and  without,  and  the 
columns,  even  when  made  of  costly  and  polished  stones, 
were  covered  with  religious  paintings  or  hieroglyph- 
ics. The  door  opened  to  a  court  within,  surrounded 
by  a  covered  passage-way  (sometimes  a  second  similar 
court  followed);  into  these  were  admitted  the  awe- 
struck multitude.  Into  the  series  of  chambers  ex- 
tending back  of  the  courts,  covered  by  stone  roofing 
and  lighted  by  small  openings  from  above,  were  ad- 
mitted only  priests  or  sacred  persons.  In  the  last 
chamber  was  the  "sanctum  sanctorum,"  containing 
the  image  of  the  deity.  The  columns  of  the  Egyptian 
architecture  are  of  three  typical  kinds,  emblematic  of 
the  papyrus,  the  lotus,  and  the  palm — the  fluting,  when 
used,  originating  in  the  columns  of  the  under-ground 
temples.  The  temples  varied  in  size,  and  the  general 
disposition  of  the  courts  and  chambers,  often  having 
the  rear  half  cut  out  of  the  living  rock.    See  Temple. 

The  Pyramids,  or  tombs  of  the  kings,  faced  the  four 
cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  They  were  first  built 
small,  and  then  enlarged  by  successive  coverings,  as 
the  length  and  prosperity  of  the  reigns  of  the  mon- 
archs  permitted.  They  were  built  in  terraces,  and 
then  were  filled  out  and  faced  with  stone,  commencing 
from  the  upper  terrace  and  going. downward.  The 
interiors  of  the  Pyramids  and  of  the  successive  layers 
were  often  filled  with  brick  or  loose  stone,  but  the  fa- 
cing was  of  hard,  dressed,  often  of  polished  stone.  Ex- 
amination has  shown  that  the  interior  pyramid  was 
often  made  with  much  more  care  than  the  subsequent 
facings.  There  was  only  one  small  chamber  (with  a 
narrow  passage  leading  to  it),  and  containing  a  sealed 
massive  stone  sarcophagus,  holding  the  embalmed  body 
of  the  monarch.  Of  large  and  small  pyramids  there 
are  found  in  Lower  Egypt,  where  they  mostly  occur, 
sixty-seven,  counting  the  finished  and  unfinished,  and 
those  in  the  different  degrees  of  preservation.  They 
reach  from  Cairo  to  Fayoum,  along  the  left  shore  of 
the  Nile,  a  distance  of  about  live  miles.  They  are 
arranged  in  five  principal  groups,  the  chief  one  being 
that  of  Gizeh,  situated  near  ancient  Memphis,  the  seat 
of  the  earliest  Egyptian  monarchy.  The  largest  of 
them,  that  of  Cheops,  is  now  450  ft.  high,  and  TIG  ft. 
square  at  the  base.  All  the  great  pyramids  were  built 
between  the  second  and  fifth  dynasties.  The  later 
pyramids  were  built  mostly  of  brick,  and  were  much 
smaller,  as  were  also  those  of  Upper  Egypt  [see  Ethi- 
opia], near  Meroe,  being  built  about  700  B.C.  The 
private  tombs  were  mostly  cut  in  the  living  rock,  and 
were  often  decorated  with  great  taste  and  labor.  See 
Pyramid. 

The  villas  of  the  Egyptians  were  of  great  extent, 
and  contained  spacious  gardens  watered  by  canals 
communicating  with  the  Nile.  The  house  itself  was 
sometimes  ornamented  with  propylsea  and  obelisks, 
like,  the  temples;  it  is  even  possible  that  part  of  the 
building  may  have  been  consecrated  to  religious  pur- 
poses, as  the  chapels  of  other  countries,  since  we  find 
(in  ancient  paintings  of  them)  a  priest  engaged  in 
presenting  offerings  at  the  door  of  the  inner  cham- 
bers ;  and,  indeed,  were  it  not  for  the  presence  of 
the  women,  the  form  of  the  garden,  and  the  style  of 
the  porch,  we  should  feel  disposed  to  consider  it  a 
temple  rather  than  a  place  of  abode.  The  entrance.; 
of  large  villas  were  generally  through  folding  gates, 
standing  between  lofty  towers,  as  at  the  courts  of 
temples,  with  a  small  door  at  each  side ;  and  others 
had  merely  folding  gates,  with  the  jambs  su-mount- 
ed  by  a  cornice.  One  general  wall  of  circuit  extend- 
ed round  the  premises,  but  the  courts  of  the  house, 


ARCHITECTURE 


374 


ARCHITECTURE 


Exterior  View  of  an  ancient  Egyptian  Villa,  restored. 


the  garden,  the  offices,  and  all  the  other  parts  of  the 
villa  had  each  their  separate  enclosure.  The  walls 
were  usually  built  of  crude  brick,  and  when  in  damp 
places,  or  within  reach  of  the  inundation,  the  low- 
er part  was  strengthened  by  a  basement  of  stone. 
They  were  sometimes  ornamented  with  panels  and 
grooved  lines,  generally  stuccoed,  and  the  summit  was 
crowned  either  with  Egyptian  battlements,  the  usual 
cornice,  a  row  of  spikes  in  imitation  of  spear-heads,  or 
with  some  fancy  ornament.  The  plans  of  the  villas 
varied  according  to  circumstances,  but  their  general 
arrangement  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  paintings. 
They  were  surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  which  was  the  main  or  front  entrance,  with  one 
central  and  two  side  gates,  leading  to  an  open  walk 
shaded  by  rows  of  trees.  Here  were  spacious  tanks 
of  water,  facing  the  doors  of  the  right  and  left  wings 
of  the  house,  between  which  an  avenue  led  from  the 
main  entrance  to  what  may  be  called  the  centre  of  the 
mansion.  After  passing  the  outer  door  of  the  right 
wing,  you  entered  an  open  court,  with  trees,  extend- 
ing quite  round  a  nucleus  of  inner  apartments,  and 
having  a  back  entrance  communicating  with  the  gar- 
den. On  the  right  and  left  of  this  court  were  six  or 
more  store-rooms,  a  small  receiving  or  waiting  room 
at  two  of  the  comers,  and  at  the  other  end  the  stair- 
cases which  led  to  the  upper  story.  Both  of  the  inner 
facades  were  furnished  with  a  corridor,  supported  on 
columns,  with  similar  towers  and  gateways.  The  in- 
terior of  this  wing  consisted  of  twelve  rooms,  two  out- 
er and  one  centre  court,  communicating  by  folding 
gates  ;  and  on  either  side  of  this  last  was  the  main  en- 
trance to  the  rooms  on  the  ground  floor,  and  to  the 
staircases  leading  to  the  upper  story.  At  the  back 
were  three  long  rooms,  and  a  gateway  opening  on  the 
garden,  which,  besides  flowers,  contained  a  variety  of 
tree  a  summer-house,  and  a  large  tank  of  water.  The 
arrangement  of  the  left  wing  was  different.  The  front 
gate  led  to  an  open  court,  extending  the  whole  breadth 
of  the  facade  of  the  building,  and  backed  by  the  wall 
of  the  inner  part.  Central  and  lateral  doors  thence 
communicated  with  another  court,  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  a  set  of  rooms,  and  behind  it  was  a  corridor, 
upon  which  several  other  chambers  opened.  This 
wing  had  no  back  entrance,  and,  standing  isolated,  the 
outer  court  extended  entirely  round  it;  and  a  succes- 
sion 1.1'  doorways  communicated  from  the  court  with 
different  sections  of  the  centre  of  the  house,  where  the 
rooms,  disposed,  like  those  already  described,  around 

passages  and  corridors,  served  partly  as  sitting  apart- 
ments and  partly  as  store-rooms.  (See  Wilkinson's 
Aur.  Eg.  abridgm.  i,  24  sq.)     Sec  Building. 

2.  The  remains  of  Persian  and  Assyrian  palaces  are 
important,  as  suggesting  what  may  have  been  the  pre- 
dominant features  of  the  palaces  of  David,  and  espe- 
cially Solomon,  although  this  style  was  doubtless  some- 
what modified  by  the  Syrian  method  of  architecture, 
which  was  probably  more  lofty,  with  several  stories, 


quadrangular,  and  with  flat  roofs.  In  Mr.  Fergusson's 
work  (The  Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  Restored, 
Lond.  1851)  may  be  found  the  latest  and  most  ingen- 
ious theory  on  this  subject,  with  plans  and  elevations 
giving  a  tangible  form  to  his  conclusions.  The  scar- 
city of  wood  in  the  East  must  have  had  great  effect  in 
architectural  style  ;  but  stone  being  abundant  in  Pal- 
estine, there  was  no  occasion  for  the  immense  piles 
and  thick  walls  of  sunburnt  brick  which  formed  so 
distinguishing  a  feature  in  Assyrian  structures.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Fergusson,  the  ground  story  alone  was 
faced  with  stone,  the  upper  story  being  formed  upon  a 
system  of  beams  supported  by  pillars,  and  enclosed  by 
a  high  mud  wall  (see  the  Jour,  of  Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1852, 
p.  422-433).  On  the  numerous  points  of  resemblance 
between  the  Assyrian  and  Jewish  palaces,  see  Lay- 
ard's  Nineveh,  2d  ser.  p.  C41  sq.     See  Assyria. 

3.  The  specimens  of  the  Indian  stjdes  are  of  doubt- 
ful date,  yet  the  most  remarkable  were  probably  erect 
ed  about  one  thousand  years  B.C.  They  are  exclu- 
sively Brahminical  and  Buddhist  temples  and  pagodas. 
Some  of  the  Brahminical  temples  are  excavations  in 
the  rocks,  but  not  closed  like  the  Egyptians,  and  have 
columns  cut  out  of  the  rock  without  rules  or  uniformi- 
ty (e.  g.  the  temple  of  Ellora  and  Elephanta)  ;  others 
are  provided  with  cells,  with  cupolas  or  pyramidal 
ceilings,  and  supported  by  figures  of  animals  (Kailassa 
of  Ellora).  The  Buddhist  temples  are  also  under- 
ground, but  closed,  and  in  the  shape  of  a  long  parallel- 
ogram ;  they  have  a  double  row  of  pillars,  a  vault  re- 
sembling the  interior  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  and  end  in 
a  semicircular  recess  containing  the  divinity  in  the 
form  of  a  soap-bubble  (Pagoss),  as  in  the  temple  of 
Wiswakanna  at  Ellora.  The  pagodas  are  built  above- 
ground,  generally  pyramidal,  and  terminated  by  a  cu- 
pola (e.  g.  Madura,  Brambana  of  Java).  The  Indian 
architecture  approaches  closely  to  the  Persian  and  the 
Assyrian,  as  exemplified  in  Persepolis,  Nineveh,  and 
Babylon ;  and  also,  at  a  later  time,  to  the  Chinese, 
which  adopted  the  pagoda  style  in  their  turrets,  but 
replaced  the  cupola  by  a  projecting  angular  roof  or- 
namented with  bells  (e.  g.  the  porcelain  tower  at  Nan- 
kin"). But  it  is  with  the  Egyptian  style  that  the  Is- 
raelite is  connected,  as  exemplified  in  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple (see  article).  (See  Sleeman's  Rambles  in  India 
Pond.  1811.) 

Entirely  independent  of  foreign  sources,  yet  resem- 
bling the  Indo-Chinese  styles  in  its  forms,  is  the  Mex- 
ican style,  especially  in  ils  temples  (Theoealles),  whose 
form  is  pyramidal,  and  of  which  remarkable  remains 
are  yet  to  be  found  in  Testchuakan,  Papantla,  Eholu- 
la,  etc. 

4.  Grecian  and  Roman.—  Greek  architecture  lacks 
the  size,  the  majestic  grandeur,  the  long  vistas,  and 
the  symbolism  of  the  Egyptian,  but  excels  it  in  free- 
dom of  treatment,  and  in  perfection  of  proportion  and 
execution  of  detail.  It  received  nearly  all  its  ele- 
ments from  Egypt  and  Assyria,  but  moulded  them 


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375 


ARCHITECTURE 


into  an  original  and  native  style,  and  influenced  pow- 
erfully the  architecture  of  the  Roman  and  all  subse- 
quent styles.  It  is  marked  unequally  by  two  great 
periods,  the  heroic  and  the  historic.  The  heroic  period 
extends  from  the  first  immigration  of  the  Greek  branch 
of  the  Greco-Italic  division  of  the  Indo-Germanic  fam- 
ily into  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  to  about  the  fall  of 
Troy  (1100  B.C.).  The  works  of  this  period  were 
mostly  fortifications  or  palaces.  The  walls  were  built 
at  first  of  massive,  irregular,  untrimmed  stones  (as  at 
Tiryns,  Fig.  1),  or  of  irregular  but  trimmed  stones  (as 
at  Argos,  Fig.  2),  and  later  of  stones  laid  in  broken 


Early  Grecian  Walla.     1.  At  Tiryns.     2.  Citadel  of  Argos. 


ranges,  as  in  the  treasure-house  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae. 
The  stones  were  laid  (as  was  the  case  till  the  latest 
period  of  Grecian  architecture)  without  mortar,  and 
these  massive  walls  are  often  termed  Cyclopean.  In 
the  historic  period  appeared  at  first  two  distinct  styles 
among  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Greek  people,  the 
Doric  and  the  Ionic.  The  Doric  elements  were  most- 
ly derived  from  Egypt,  and  the  Ionic  from  Assyria. 

The  Doric  order  is  the  most  ancient,  and  is  marked 
by  the  characteristics  of  the  people  from  whom  it  de- 
rives its  name.  It  is  simple,  massive,  and  majestic. 
The  column  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  a  base, 
by  the  thickness  and  rapid  diminution  of  the  shaft, 


and  b}'  the  simplicity  and  massiveness  of  the  capital. 
In  the  entablature,  the  architrave  is  in  one  surface 
and  quite  plain.  The  frieze  is  ornamented  by  tri- 
glyphs,  so  called  from  the  three  flat  bands  into  which 
they  are  divided  lrv  the  intervening  channels  ;  while 
the  metopes,  or  the  vacant  spaces  between  the  tri- 
glyphs,  are  also  adorned  with  sculptures  in  high  re- 
lief. The  cornice  projects  far,  and  on  its  under  side 
arc  cut  several  sets  of  drops,  called  mutules.  Its  prin- 
cipal specimens  are  the  temples  at  Corinth  (Greece), 
Girgenti  (in  Sicily),  Paestum  (in  Italy),  at  .Kgina 
(Greece),  and  the  Theseum,  Parthenon,  and  Propylffl- 
um  (at  Athens). 

The  Ionic  order  is  distinguished  by  simple  grace- 
fulness, and  by  a  far  richer  style  of  ornament  than  the 


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376 


ARCHITECTURE 


Doric.  The  shaft  of  the  column  is  much  more  slender, 
and  rests  upon  a  base,  while  the  capital  is  adorned  by 
spiral  volutes.  The  architrave  is  in  three  faces,  each 
slightly  projecting  beyond  the  lower ;  there  is  a  small 
cornice  between  the  architrave  and  the  frieze,  and  all 
three  members  of  the  entablature  are  more  or  less  or- 
namented with  mouldings.  The  Ionic  order  was  used 
mostly  in  temples  and  theatres.  Its  finest  example  is 
the  Erechtheum  in  the  Acropolis. 

The  Corinthian  order  is  only  a  later  form  of  the 
Ionic,  and  belongs  to  a  period  subsequent  to  that  of 
the  pure  Grecian  style.  It  is  especially  characterized 
by  its  beautiful  capital,  which  is  said  to  have  been  sug- 
gested to  the  mind  of  the  celebrated  sculptor  Callima- 
chus  by  the  sight  of  a  basket,  covered  by  a  tile,  and 
overgrown  by  the  leaves  of  an  acanthus,  on  which  it 
had  accidentally  been  placed.  The  earliest  known 
example  of  its  use  throughout  a  building  is  in  the 
monument  of  Lysicrates,  commonly  called  the  Lantern 
of  Demosthenes,  which  was  built  in  B.C.  335. 

In  Italy  we  find  at  first  the  Etruscan  or  Tuscan 
style  partaking  of  the  Greek  style  of  the  Heroic  period, 
but  inclining  afterward  to  the  Doric.  The  temples 
were  built  on  a  quadrangle,  the  columns  Doric,  but 
weak,  smooth,  with  a  plinth  below  the  basis,  and  stand- 
ing  wide  apart.  The  framework  was  mostly  of  wood. 
The  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  at  Rome  was  built 
in  that  style,  of  which  no  specimens  now  remain,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  tombs,  such  as  the  Cucumella 
of  Volsci,  the  so-called  tomb  of  the  Horatii  near  Rome, 
that  of  Porsenna  near  Chiusi,  etc.  Roman  architec- 
ture brought  forth  temples  and  palaces  worthy  of  a 
nation  which  claimed  the  dominion  of  the  world ; 
among  them  the  most  celebrated  were  the  Forum, 
Basilica,  Curias,  etc. ;  and  the  triumphal  arches  (e.  g. 
of  Titus,  Septimius  Severus,  Constantine,  at  Rome ; 
Augustus,  at  Rimini;  Trajan,  at  Ancona  and  Bene- 
vento,  etc.),  together  with  amphitheatres,  circuses,  and 
baths.  These  monuments  were  mostly  in  the  Co- 
rinthian style,  but  on  a  gigantic  scale.  Their  chief 
characteristic,  however,  was  the  union  of  the  horizon- 


'aliife. 


tal,  or  Greek  style  of  building,  with  the  Etruscan 
arch,  the  result  of  which  was  cylindrical  vaults,  cupo- 
las, and  semi-cupolas,  This  style  was  introduced  by 
tl>>'  Romans  in  all  their  European  and  Asiatic  posses- 
sions ;  but  in  the  3d  century  it  fell  into  a,  state  of  tawdry 


splendor  (as  in  the  temples  of  Palmyra  and  Baalltek), 
losing  its  characteristic  features,  as  well  as  its  original 
beauty  and  elegance.     See  Baalbek  ;  Tadmor. 

5.  Jewish.  —  (1.)  Sources  of  Imitation.  —  "It  was 
once  common  to  claim  for  the  Hebrews  the  invention 
of  scientific  architecture,  and  to  allege  that  classical 
antiquity  was  indebted  to  the  Temple  of  Solomon  for 
the  principles  and  many  of  the  details  of  the  art.  It 
may  here  suffice  to  remark  that  temples  previously 
existed  in  Egypt,  Babylon,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia,  from 
which  the-  classical  ancients  were  far  more  likely  to 
borrow  the  ideas  which  they  embodied  in  new  and 
beautiful  combinations  of  their  own.  There  has  never, 
in  fact,  been  any  people  for  whom  a  peculiar  style  of 
architecture  could  with  less  probability  be  claimed  than 
for  the  Israelites.  On  leaving  Egypt,  they  could  only 
be  acquainted  with  Egyptian  art.  On  entering  Ca- 
naan, the)'  necessarily  occupied  the  buildings  of  which 
they  had  dispossessed  the  previous  inhabitants ;  and 
the  succeeding  generations  would  naturally  erect  such 
buildings  as  the  country  previously  contained.  The 
architecture  of  Palestine,  and,  as  such,  eventually  that 
of  the  Jews,  had  doubtless  its  own  characteristics,  by 
which  it  was  suited  to  the  climate  and  condition  of 
the  country,  and  in  the  course  of  time  many  improve- 
ments would  no  doubt  arise  from  the  causes  which 
usually  operate  in  producing  change  in  any  practical 
art.  From  the  want  of  historical  data  and  from  the 
total  absence  of  architectural  remains,  the  degree  in 
which  these  causes  operated  in  imparting  a  peculiar 
character  to  the  Jewish  architecture  cannot  now  be 
determined,  for  the  oldest  ruins  in  the  country  do  not 
ascend  beyond  the  period  of  the  Roman  domination. 
It  does,  however,  seem  probable  that  among  the  He- 
brews architecture  was  always  kept  within  the  limits 
of  a  mechanical  craft,  and  never  rose  to  the  rank  of  a 
fine  art.  Their  usual  dwelling-houses  differed  little 
from  those  of  other  Eastern  nations,  and  we  nowhere 
find  any  thing  indicative  of  exterior  embellishment. 
See  House.  Splendid  edifices,  such  as  the  palace  of 
David  and  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  were  completed 
by  the  assistance  of  Phoeni- 
cian artists  (2  Sam.  v,  11;  1 
Kings  v,  6, 18;  1  Chron.  xiv, 
1).  See  Palace.  After  the 
Babylonish  exile  the  assist- 
ance of  such  foreigners  was 
likewise  resorted  to  for  the 
restoration  of  the  Temple 
(Ezra  iii,  7).  See  Temple. 
From  the  time  of  the  Ma'c- 
cabsean  dynasty  the  Greek 
taste  began  to  gain  ground, 
especially  under  the  Herodi- 
an  princes  (who  seem  to  have 
been  possessed  with  a  sort 
of  mania  for  building),  and 
was  shown  in  the  Structure 
and  embellishment  of  many 
towns, baths,  colonnades,  the- 
atres, and  castles  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xv,  8,  1;  xv,  19,4;  xv, 
10,  3 1  War,  i,  4,  1).  The 
Phoenician  style,  which  seems 
to  have  had  some  affinity 
with  the  Egyptian,  was  not, 
however,  superseded  by  the 
Grecian  ;  and  even  as  late  as 
the  Mishna  {Balm  Bathra,  iii, 
G),  we  read  of  Tyrian  win- 
dows, porches,  etc.  ( Kitto). 
See  Hirt's  Gesch.  der  Bnu- 
hmst  h.  der  A/ten,  i,  113, 120;  Schnaase,  Gesch.  b.  bild. 
Kiinste,  i,  241  sq. ;  Ewald,  Jsr.  Gesch.  Ill,  i,  27;  Per- 
gusson,  Illustrated  Handbook  of  Architecture  (London, 
1856);  Michaelis,  DeJudmis  architectures parum periti* 
(Gutt.  1771).     See  Akcu. 


ARCHITECTURE 


377 


ARCHITECTURE 


(2.)  History  of  Biblical  Architecture. — The  hook  of 
Genesis  (iv,  17,  20,  22)  appears  to  divide  mankind  into 
great  characteristic  sections,  viz.,  the  "dwellers  in 
tents"  and  the  "dwellers  in  cities,"  when  it  tells  us 
that  Cain  was  the  founder  of  a  city  ;  and  that  among 
his  descendants,  one,  Jabal,  was  "the  father  of  them 
that  dwell  in  tents,"  while  Tubal-cain  was  "the  in- 
structor of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  It  is 
probable  that  the  workers  in  metal  were  for  the  most 
part  dwellers  in  towns ;  and  thus  the  arts  of  architec- 
ture and  metallurgy  became  from  the  earliest  times 
leading  characteristics  of  the  civilized  as  distinguished 
from  the  nomadic  tendencies  of  the  human  race.  To 
the  race  of  Shem  is  attributed  (Gen.  x,  11, 12,  22 ;  xi, 
2-9)  the  foundation  of  cities  in  the  plain  of  Shinar, 
Babylon,  Nineveh,  and  elsewhere  ;  of  one  of  which, 
Resen,  the  epithet  "great"  sufficiently  marks  its  im- 
portance in  the  time  of  the  writer,  a  period  at  least  as 
earhy  as  the  17th  century,  B.C.,  if  not  very  much  earli- 
er (Rawlinson,  Outline  of  Ass.  Hist.  p.  10;  Layard,  Nin- 
eveh,  ii,  221,  235,  238).  From  the  same  book  we  learn 
the  account  of  the  earliest  recorded  building,  and  of 
the  materials  employed  in  its  construction  (Gen.  xi,  3, 
9)  ;  and  though  a  doubt  rests  on  the  precise  site  of  the 
tower  of  Belus,  so  long  identified  with  the  Birs  Nim- 
roud  (Benjamin  of  Tudela,  p.  100,  Bohn;  Newton,  On 
Prop//,  x,  155,  156  ;  Vaux,  Xin.  and  Pcrsep.  p.  173, 
ITS  :  Keith,  On  Proph.  p.  289),  yet  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  and  the  bricks  found  there  in  such  abundance, 
though  bearing  mostly  the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
agree  perfectly  with  the  supposition  of  a  city  previous- 
ly existing  on  the  same  or  a  closclv  neighboring  site 
(Layard,  ii,  249,  278,  and  Mb.  and  Bab.  p.  531 ;  Plin. 
vii,  56 :  Ezra  iv,  1).  In  the  book  of  Esther  (i,  2)  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  palace  at  Susa,  for  three  months  in 
the  spring  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Persia  (Esth. 
iii,  13 ;  Xen.  Cyrop.  viii,  6,  §  22) ;  and,  in  the  books  of 
Tobit  and  Judith,  of  Ecbatana,  to  which  they  retired 
for  two  months  during  the  heat  of  summer  (Tob.  iii,  7  ; 
xiv,  14 ;  Jud.  i,  12 ;  Herod,  i,  98).  A  branch  of  the 
same  Syro-Arabian  race  as  the  Assyrians,  but  the  chil- 
dren of  Ham,  was  the  nation,  or  at  least  the  dominant 
caste,  of  the  Egyptians,  the  style  of  whose  architecture 
agrees  so  remarkably  with  the  Assyrian  (Layard,  ii, 
206  sq.).  It  is  in  connection  witli  Eirypt  that  the  Is- 
raelites appear  first  as  builders  of  cities,  compelled,  in 
common  with  other  Egyptian  captives,  to  labor  at  the 
buildings  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  Pithom  and 
Eaamses  are  said  to  have  been  built  by  them  (Exod.  i, 
11 ;  Wilkinson,  ii,  195).  The  Israelites  were  by  occu- 
pation shepherds,  and  by  habit  dwellers  in  tents  (Gen. 
xlvii,  3).  The  "house"  built  by  Jacob  at  Succoth  is 
probably  no  exception  to  this  statement  (Gen.  xxxiii, 
17).  They  had  therefore  originally,  speaking  proper- 
ly, no  architecture.  Even  Hebron,  a  city  of  higher 
antiquity  than  the  Egyptian  Zoan  (Tanis),  was  called 
originally  from  its  founder,  perhaps  a  Canaanite  of  the 
race  of  Anak,  Kirjath-Arba,  the  house  of  Arba  (Num. 
xiii,  22;  Josh,  xiv,  15).  From  the  time  of  the  occu- 
pation of  Canaan  they  became  dwellers  in  towns  and 
in  houses  of  stone,  for  which  the  native  limestone  of 
Palestine  supplied  a  ready  material  (Lev.  xiv,  34,  45; 
1  Kings  vii,  10;  Stanley,  Palest,  p.  116  sq.) ;  but  the 
towns  which  they  occupied  were  not  all,  nor,  indeed, 
in  most  cases,  built  from  the  first  by  themselves  (Deut. 
vi,  10  ;  Num.  xiii,  19). 

The  peaceful  reign  and  vast  wealth  of  Solomon  gaA'e 
great  impulse  to  architecture;  for  besides  the  Temple 
and  his  other  great  works  at  and  near  Jerusalem,  he 
built  fortresses  and  cities  in  various  places,  among 
which  the  names  and  sites  of  Baalath  and  Tadmor  are 
usually  thought  to  be  represented  by  the  more  modern 
superstructures  of  Baalbec  and  Palmyra  (1  Kings  ix, 
15,  24).  Among  the  succeeding  kings  of  Israel  and  of 
Judah  more  than  one  is  recorded  as  a  builder:  Asa  (1 
Kings  xv,  23),  Baasha  (xvi,  17),  Omri  (xvi,  24),  Ahab 
(xvi,  34 ;  xxii,  39) ;  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xx,  20 ;   2 


Chron.  xxxii,  27,  30),  Jehoash,  and  Josiah  (2  Kings 
xii,  11,  12;  xxii,  6);  and,  lastly,  Jehoiakim,  whose 
winter  palace  is  mentioned  (Jer.  xxii,  14;  xxxvi,  22; 
see  also  Amos  iii,  15).  On  the  return  from  captivity, 
the  chief  care  of  the  rulers  was  to  rebuild  the  Temple 
and  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  in  a  substantial  manner, 
with  stone,  and  with  timber  from  Lebanon  (Ezra  iii, 
8;  v,  8;  Neh.  ii,  8;  iii,  1,  32).  During  the  govern- 
ment of  Simon  Maccabseus,  the  fortress  called  Baris, 
and  afterward  Antonia,  was  erected  for  the  defence  of 
the  Temple  and  the  city.  But  the  reigns  of  Herod 
and  of  his  sons  and  successors  were  especially  remark- 
able for  the  great  architectural  works  in  which  they 
delighted.  Not  only  was  the  Temple  restored  to  a 
large  portion,  if  not  to  the  full  degree,  of  its  former 
magnificence,  but  the  fortifications  and  other  public 
buildings  of  Jerusalem  were  enlarged  and  embellished 
to  an  extent  previously  unknown  (Luke  xxi,  5 ;  Benj. 
of  Tudela,  p.  83,  Bohn).  See  Jerusalem.  Besides 
these  great  works,  the  town  of  Caesarea  was  built  on 
the  site  of  an  insignificant  building  called  Strato's 
Tower;  Samaria  was  enlarged,  and  received  the  name 
of  Sebaste;   the  town  of  Agrippium  was  built;  and 

'  Herod  carried  his  love  for  architecture  so  far  as  to 
adorn  with  buildings  cities  even  not  within  his  own  do- 

|  minions,  Berytus,  Damascus,  Tripolis,  and  many  other 
places  (Josephus,  War,  i,  21,  1,  11).     His  son,  Philip 

I  the  tetrarch,  enlarged  the  old  Greek  colony  of  Paneas, 

|  giving  it  the  name  of  Cseearea  in  honor  of  Tiberias  ; 
while  his  brother  Antipas  founded  the  city  of  Tiberius, 
and  adorned  the  towns  of  Sepphoris  and  Betharamph- 
ta,  giving  to  the  latter  the  name  Livias,  in  honor  of 
the  mother  of  Tiberius  (Reland,  p.  497).  Of  the  orig- 
inal splendor  of  these  great  works  no  doubt  can  be 
entertained  ;  hut  of  their  style  and  appearance  we  can 
only  conjecture,  though  with  nearlj'-  absolute  certain- 
ty, that  they  were  formed  on  Greek  and  Eoman  mod- 
els. Of  the  style  of  the  earlier  buildings  of  Palestine 
■we  can  only  form  an  idea  from  the  analogy  of  the 
Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Persian  monuments  now  ex- 
isting, and  from  the  modes  of  building  still  adopted  in 
Eastern  countries.  The  connection  of  Solomon  with 
Egypt  and  with  Tyre,  and  the  influence  of  the  captiv- 
ity, maj'  have  in  some  measure  successively  affected 
the  style  both  of  the  two  temples  and  of  the  palatial 
edifices  of  Solomon.  The  enormous  stones  employed 
in  the  Assyrian,  Persepolitan,  and  Egyptian  buildings 
find  a  parallel  in  the  substructions  of  Baalbek,  more 
ancient  than  the  superstructure  (Layard,  ii,  317,  £18), 
and  in  the  stones  of  so  vast  a  size  which  still  remain 
at  Jerusalem,  relics  of  the  building  either  of  Soli  mon 
or  of  Herod  (Williams,  pt.  ii,  1).  But,  as  it  has  been 
observed  again  and  again,  scarcely  any  connected 
monuments  are  known  to  survive  in  Palestine  by 
which  we  can  form  an  accurate  idea  of  its  buildings, 
beautiful  and  renowned  as  they  wire  throughout  the 
East  (Plin.  v,  14;  Stanley,  p.  183),  and  even  of  those 
which  do  remain  no  trustworthy  examination  has  yet 
been  made.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  reser- 
voirs known  under  the  names  of  the  Pools  of  Solomon 
and  Hezekiah  contain  some  portions,  at  least,  of  the 
original  fabrics  (Stanley,  p.  103,  165). — Smith,  s.  v. 

The  domestic  architecture  of  the  Jews,  so  far  as  it 
can  lie  understood,  is  treated  under  House.  Tools 
and  instruments  of  building  are  mentioned  by  the  sa- 
cred writers:  the  plumb-line,  Amos  vii,  7;  the  meas- 
uring-reed, Ezck.  xl,  3;  the  saw,  1  Kings  vii,  9.  (See 
De  Vogue,  Varchitectun  duns  la  yyrii ,  Par.  1865.) 

II.  Mediaval  Architecture. — 1.  With  the  victory  of 
Christianity  over  Paganism,  as  the  religion  of  state, 
commences  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  architecture. 
Still  the  Greek,  or,  rather,  Eoman  art  exercised  a  pow- 
erful influence,  especially  in  the  details  of  the  new 
style.  When  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the 
state,  the  ancient  basilicas  (q.  v.),  or  halls  of  justice, 
were  turned  into  churches.  The  lower  floor  was  used 
by  the  men,  and  the  galleries  devoted  to  the  women. 


ARCHITECTURE 


378 


ARCHITECTURE 


Section  of  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  erected  in  the  Time  of  Constantino, 


In  later  edifices  the  galleries  were  dispensed  with. 
The  church  then  consisted  of  ;i  single  oblong  hall,  with 
one,  three,  or  five  aisles,  a  round  apsis  at  the  rear 
end,  an  altar,  etc.  The  basilican  style  prevailed 
throughout  the  entire  Christian  Church  throughout 
the  fourth  century.  It  prevailed  much  later  in  Syria 
and  Southern  France,  and  remained  in  Central  Italy 
till  the  Renaissance  period. 

2.  The  Byzantine  was  the  earliest  branching  off  from 
the  basilican  style.  It  had  its  rise  in  Constantinople, 
and  was  the  fruitful  parent  of  nearly  all  the  later 
styles  of  Christian  and  Mohammedan  architecture. 
Its  finest  example  was  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  re- 
built by  Justinian  (A.D.  538),  which  has  the  most 
perfect  interior  of  any  church  ever  built.  See  St.  So- 
phia. The  other  best  examples  of  this  style  are  the 
Church  of  St.Vitale,  in  Ravenna,  and  of  St.  Mark's, 
in  Venice.  The  style  prevailed  in  Asia  when  it  gave 
birth  to  the  Saracenic  and  the  Armenian  (and  hence 
to  the  Russian),  and  in  Western  and  North-western 
Italy,  as  well  as  in  parts  of  France  and  Spain.  '•Its 
chief  characteristics  are  a  central  flat  dome,  illumina- 
ted by  a  row  of  small  windows  at  its  base  ;  semicircu- 
lar "apsides"  at  the  ends  of  the  cross,  covered  with 
half  domes  ;  a  profuse  use  of  the  round  arch  in  colon- 
nades and  galleries  within  and  without,  of  such  varied 
sizes  as  to  give  great  apparent  size  to  the  edifice  ;  slen- 
der windows;  a  rather  low  entrance;  the  walls,  and 
even  pillars,  covered  with  mosaic  paintings,  ornament- 
al and  scenic,  thus  giving  the  interior  the  greatest 
possible  brilliancy  and  dignity;  and  capitals  orna- 
mented by  a  most  remarkably  rich  interweaving  of 
conventional  elements  borrowed  from  the  antique  or 
from  life,  and  interspersed  with  animals  fantastically 
disposed. 

:s.  The  different  elements  of  the  basilican  and  By- 
zantine  stj  les  were  united  first  in  Lombardy,  then  on 
the  Rhine,  and  produced  the  Romanesque,  or  round-  \ 
arch  Gothic,  which,  rising  from  the  7th  to  the  lOtli 
centuries,  and  extending  to  the  L2th,  spread  over  most 

of  Europe.     Ai g  the  finest  examples  of  this  style 

arc  the  Cathedrals  of  Pisa,  Vercelli,  Parma,  Modena, 
ami  Lucca  (in  ftaly),  of  Worms,  Bonn,  Mayence, 
Speyer,  and  the  churches  of  St.  Gereon  and  Sti.  Apos- 
toli  in  Cologne  (on  the  Rhine),  To  this  style  belong 
the  peculiar  churches  and  round  towers  of  North  Ire- 
land, Scotland,  Scandinavia,  and  the  low  round  tower 


of  Newport,  R.  I.  In  the  round-arch  style  the  aisles 
were  covered  with  long  arches  instead  of  open  wooden 
roofs.  Bell-towers — round  (as  in  Italy,  the  north  of 
Europe,  and  elsewhere),  or  square,  or  octagonal,  built 
separate  from  the  church  edifice  (as  in  Italy)  or  joined 
to  the  edifice  (as  north  of  the  Alps) — were  added. 
The  pillars  broke  from  the  antique  rules  of  proportion, 
and  were  moulded  into  clustered  columns.  Small 
arched  galleries  ran  around  parts  or  the  whole  of  the 
church,  within  and  without.  The  exterior  especially 
was  covered  with  numerous  well-disposed  arches,  pi- 
lasters, and  other  ornaments  ;  richly-decorated  door- 
ways and  windows  drew  the  eye  to  the  central  part 
of  the  facade,  and  the  whole  external  had  a  dignity 
not  to  be  found  in  any  other  style  of  church  architec- 
ture. The  style  prevailed  throughout  all  Europe  (ex- 
cepting part  of  Italy)  till  the  gradual  introduction  of 
the  pointed  arch  gave  rise  to  what  is  usually  called 
the  Gothic  style. 

4.  Meanwhile  the  Saracenic  style  —  another  out- 
growth of  the  Byzantine — had  spread,  with  its  numer- 
ous modifications,  over  all  Mohammedan  countries. 
It  was  modified  largely  by  the  Sassanian  style  (an 
outgrowth  of  the  late  Roman,  as  developed  by  the  fire- 
worshippers  of  Persia)  in  the  East,  by  the  Spanish  Ro- 
manesque  in  Spain  and  Morocco,  and  by  the  basilican 
style  in  Sicily.  It  arose  in  the  seventh  century,  and 
spread  with  truly  tropical  luxuriance  and  quickness 
of  growth  from  Persia  to  the  Atlantic.  Deprived  by 
the  Mohammedan  faith  of  the  use  of  painting  or  sculp- 
ture, it  developed  an  architectonic  ornamentation  un- 
surpassed in  the  history  of  architecture  by  its  richness 
and  purely  conventional  character.  Poetry  took  the 
place  of  the  formative  arts  of  sculpture  and  painting 
in  the  inscriptions  from  the  Koran  that  were  interwo- 
ven with  the  luxuriant  ornament  of  the  walls  and 
columns.  The  Byzantine  dome  remained  the  princi- 
pal feature  of  the  roof,  but  this  was  hung  with  myriads 
of  little  semi-domes,  producing  a  most  fairy-like  effect. 
Under  the  rich  fancy  of  the  Orient,  color  was  used  as 
freely  as  in  the  Egyptian  style.  The  minaret  was 
added,  and  gave  a  marvellous  grace  and  lightness  by 
its  slender  form.  The  pointed  arch  (adopted  perhaps 
first  from  the  court  of  a  Christian  monastery  in  Sicily 
erected  in  the  sixth  century)  was  soon  adopted,  and 
spread  into  the  horse-shoo  arch,  finally  developing  it- 
self into  the   complicated  interwoven  arches  of  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


379 


ARCHITECTURE 


Moorish  style.  The  style  arose  in  the  seventh  centu- 
ry, and  extended  to  the  fifteenth,  its  culminating  pe- 
riod being  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  centuries. 
The  Turkish  style  is  more  Byzantine  than  Saracenic. 


Entrance  to  the  Court  of  the  Lions  in  the  Alhainbra,. 


more  slender,  filled  with  elaborate  open-work  orna- 
ments, and  made,  like  a  flower  on  its  stalk,  the  richest 
part  of  the  edifice.  Sculpture  was  used  profusely  v.  ith- 
in  and  without,  and  the  windows  were  filled  with  paint- 
ings, in  colored  trlass,  from  Biblical  scenes,  making  thus 
(as  in  the  Egyptian  arch)  the  other  arts  subordinate 
to  the  architecture;  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  mere 
architectonic  adjuncts.  The  principal  characteristics 
of  this  style  are  as  follows :  The  ground-plan  is  an  ob- 
long rectangle,  and  for  churches,  the  cross ;  the  crypt 
disappears  ;  the  choir  becomes  smaller  in  proportion  to 
the  building,  and  ends  in  a  polygon ;  the  walls  of  the 
nave  are  higher,  so  that  the  arches  spring  immediate- 
ly from  the  pillars ;  the  walls  themselves  are  divided 
by  arches,  and  the  windows  enlarged;  the  arches  are 
all  pointed,  and  connected  by  chamfers  and  astragals, 
as  well  as  also  the  pillars.  Outside  are  buttresses  and 
piers  to  strengthen  the  building,  connected  with  small 
turrets  and  ornamented  foliage  tracery ;  the  cornices 
are  deeply  excavated  and  much  inclined  (to  facilitate 
the  running  off  of  water)  ;  the  greatest  number  of  or- 
naments are  displayed  on  the  facade,  which  is  adorned 
with  one  or  two  towers,  built  on  a  square  basis,  but 
transformed  afterward  into  an  octagon,  rising  with  a 
series  of  pillars,  turrets,  and  high  windows,  and  end- 
ing in  an  open-work  octagonal  pyramid ;  the  entrance 
of  the  churches  consists  of  either  one  or  three  richly 
decorated  portals;  the  ornaments  consist  principally 
of  straight  lines  and  segments  of  circles  meeting  in 
Among  its  most  important  monuments  are  the  mosques  '  acute  angles,  and  of  tracery  representing  natural  ob- 
and  tombs  of  the  sultans  at  Cairo,  and  Bejapoor  and  i  jects,  such  as  vine  or  oak  leaves,  etc.  The  principal 
Delhi  (India),  the  palaces  and  mosques  of  the  Alham-  j  specimens  of  German  Gothic  style  are  to  lie  found  in 
'bra  and  of  the  Cuba  (Palermo),  and  the  Castle  of  Al-  |  the  cathedrals  of  Cologne,  Freiburg,  Eegensburg,  Vi- 
cazar  at  Segovia  (Spain).  In  the  twelfth  century,  I  enna,  Strasburg,  etc.  The  French  Gothic  presents 
Central  and  Western  Europe  came  into  much  more  |  some  peculiarities ;  thus,  the  foundation  is  generally 
intimate  contact  than  former- 
ly with  the  Orient,  especially 
through  the  Crusades,  and  the 
pointed  arch  and  the  spirit  of 
ornamentation  of  the  Saracenic 
art.  were  borrowed,  and  added 
largety  to  the  development  of 
the  Gothic  from  the  Roman- 
esque style. 

5.  The  Gothic.  —  The  round- 
arch  or  Romanesque  style  has 
given  the  Christian  temple  its 
almost  complete  plan,  as  far  as 
concerns  the  disposition  of  the 
aisles,  altar,  choir,  etc.  The 
pointed  arch  began  first  in 
France  and  Normandy  to  sup- 
plant the  round  arch.  The  prog- 
ress of  this  new  feature  was  then 
gradual  and  fluctuating  for  over 
a  century.  The  two  arches  are 
found  used  almost  promiscuous- 
ly till  1280,  when  the  pointe 
arch,  and  all  the  constructive 
changes  it  induced,  were  used, 
purely  and  solely,  for  a  centu- 
ry. This  is  hence  called  the 
golden  period  of  the  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture. The  use  of  this  arch 
required,  for  harmony,  a  corre- 
sponding additional  upward  ten- 
dency in  all  the  parts  of  the 
structure.  To  this  was  added 
a  richness  of  conventionalized, 
foliated  ornamentation,  not  sur- 
passing, perhaps,  that  of  the 
windows  and  doorways  of  some 
works  of  the  round-arch  style, 
but  far  more  generally  diffused 
and  more  harmoniously  incorpo- 
rated with  the  feeling  of  the  en- 
tire edifice.    The  spire  was  made 


Apse  of  the  Apostles'  Church  at  Cologne, 


ARCHITECTURE 


380 


ARCHITRICLINUS 


fan-shaped,  the  choir  being  encircled  bya  row  of  chap- 
els; its  principal  ornament  consists  in  the  three  large 
portals  in  front ;  columns  replace  the  pillars ;  the 
circles  and  arches  are  not  connected  by  chamfers  or 
astragals;  the  arches  and  buttresses  are  plain;  the 
towers  mostly  square,  and  without  the  pyramidal 
apex;  the  perpendicular  ascending  tendency  is  bal- 
anced by  a  horizontal  gallery  in  the  facade.  Its  best 
specimens  are  Notre-Dame  of  Paris,  and  the  cathe- 
drals of  Rouen,  Dijon,  Chartres,  Rheims,  Amiens,  St. 
Ouen  near  Rouen,  etc.     The  Spanish  Gothic  inclines 


rv)  closed  the  second  great  division  or  history,  and 
was  followed  by  the  modern  in  the  19th  century. 

III.  The  Modern. — The  chief  characteristic  differ- 
ence between  the  modern,  and  the  ancient,  and  me- 
diaeval architecture,  is  that  it  is  marked  by  no  style 
such  as  is  followed  by  all  builders  of  the  period  in  all 
lands  where  a  certain  civilization  prevails.  The  in- 
consistencies and  absurdities  of  the  Rococo  style  of 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century  were  felt  under  the 
purer  taste  awakened  by  the  study  of  the  history  of 
ancient  and  mediaeval  art  that  has  prevailed  during 
to  the  horizontal,  looks  heavy,  and  the  inside  is  gen-  •  the  last  fifty  years.  Attempts  are  making  to  revive 
erally  overloaded  with  ornaments,  as,  for  instance,  j  the  spirit  of  the  pure  ages — of  the  Gothic  (mostly  in 
the  cathedrals  of  Toledo,  Barcelona,  Xeres,  etc.  The  England),  of  the  Renaissance  (mostly  in  France),  and 
convent  of  Batalha  is  a  line  specimen  of  the  Portu-  of  the  Ancient  Classical  (mostly  in  Germany).  A  few 
guese  Gothic,  which  is  of  purer  style  than  the  Span-  j  architects  and  critics  feel  the  necessity  of  having  a 
ish.  The  Gothic  of  Holland  and  Belgium  partakes  of  ntw  style  of  architecture,  adapted  to  the  wants  of  mod- 
the  French  and  the  German ;  the  former  preponder-  ern  society,  and  to  the  use  of  the  new  materials  (es- 
ates  in  the  inside,  and  the  latter  in  the  outside,  where  '  pecially  iron  and  glass)  that  science  has  brought  with- 
we  tind  large  pointed  windows,  no  rosettes,  smaller    in  the  reach  of  the  builder. 


portals,  and  high  towers,  as  in  the  cathedrals  of  Am- 
sterdam, Brussels,  Utrecht,  the  Oude  Kerk  of  Am- 
sterdam, St.  Laurentius  of  Rotterdam,  etc.  The  Eng- 
lish Gothic  has  many  peculiarities.  The  richest  spec- 
imens belong  to  the  so-called  Tudor  style  ;  for  in- 
stance, the  Chapel  of  Henry  VII.  The  Italian  Goth- 
ic is  distinguished  from  the  same  style  as  found  in 
more  northern  countries  by  inclining  more  to  the  an- 
tique, and  presenting  the  perpendicular  features  only 
in  false  facades,  while  in  the  actual  buildings  the  hor- 
izontal predominates  ;   it  also  preserves  the  walls  in 


In  America  the  early  church  edifices  had  usually 
no  architectural  merits  or  pretensions.  This  arose 
from  the  poverty  of  the  people,  the  lack  of  artistic  ed- 
ucation in  the  builders  and,  of  a  cultivated  taste  in 
the  community,  or  from  an  honest  desire  to  shun  any 
thing  that  might  savor  of  pompous  display  in  the  house 
of  God.  "Within  the  last  twenty  years  a  different  spir- 
it has  animated  all  denominations  of  Christians,  and 
a  most  healthy  feeling  prevails,  manifesting  itself  iu 
honest  attempts  to  make  the  house  cf  God  a  building 
worthy  of  its  high  and  holy  uses.     The  most  impor- 


their  original  massiveness,  instead  of  dividing  them    tant  requisite  for  this  is  the  development  of  a  body  of 


by  means  of  pillars  and  windows;  the  foundations  are 
broad,  the  choir  ends  in  a  quadrangle ;  they  are  sur- 
mounted by  a  cupola,  but  have  no  towers,  as  the  cathe- 
drals of  Florence,  Sienna,  Orvieto,  Assisi,  St.  Antonio  of 
Padua,  St.  Petronia  of  Bologna,  St.  Maria  Novello  of 
Florence,  etc.,  etc.  In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  the 
spirit  of  the  style  had  died  out,  though  it  still  gave  a 
tending  to  the  character  of  the  edifices  erected  in  Ger- 
many and  elsewhere,  even  as  late  as  the  18th  century. 
6.  The  Renaissance. — In  Italy  the  Gothic  style  had 
never  taken  such  deep  root  as  in  the  other  countries 
of  Europe.  The  revival  of  classical  studies,  and  the 
tendency  of  the  age  to  exalt  ancient  philosophy  over 
Christianity,  led  to  an  extensive  study  of  the  antique. 
This  spirit,  carried  into  architecture,  produced  the 
Renaissance  style,  which  is  marked  by  an  adaptation 
of  classical  (especially  of  Roman)  architectural  princi- 


Christian  architects  from  the  church  itself.  These, 
permeated  with  the  true  Christian  feeling,  knowing 
the  wants  of  the  church,  and  cultivated  in  all  the  re- 
quired departments  of  science  and  art,  will  be  able  to 
give  an  architecture  suited  to  the  wants  of  the  present 
age.  To  accomplish  this  is  needed  the  establishment 
of  academies  or  departments  of  architecture  in  our  uni- 
versities and  chairs  of  the  fine  arts  in  the  colleges  and 
theological  seminaries. 

For  the  histoiy  of  architecture,  see  Sehnaase's  Ge- 
schichte  der  Kunst  (Dusseldorf,  1843-66,  8  vols.)  ;  Kug- 
ler,  Gesehichte  der  BavHamst  (Stuttgardt,  1859,  3  vols.) ; 
Lubke,  Gesehichte  der  Baukunst  (Stuttgardt,  1865); 
Gailhaband,  Denkmdler  der  Bauhmsi  alter  Zeiten  (Ham- 
burg, 1849,  4  vols.);  Fergusson,  Handbook  of  Archi- 
tecture (Lond.  1855,  2  vols.),  and  Modern  Styles  (Lend. 
1862,  1  vol.);  Voillet  le  Due,  Eistoire  d' Architecture 


pies  and  details  to  the  Christian  temple.  The  round  j  (Paris,  4  vols).  On  the  history  of  church  architecture 
arch  was  again  resorted  to.  A  massive  dome  was  (from  the  ceclesiolorjical  stand-point),  see  Christian  Iie- 
built  over  the  centre  of  the  cross.  The  columns  re-  I  membrancer,  July,  1849,  p.  1*4.  There  are  also  papers 
sumed  the  classical  proportions,  or  were  made  into  on  church  architecture  in  the  Quarterly  Review,  vi,  62; 
massive  pilasters.  In  the  17th  century,  and  more  es-  lxxv,  179;  Church  Review,  iii,  372;  Monthly  Christian 
pecially  in  the  18th,  architecture  seemed  to  have  bro-  !  Spectator,  Nov.  1852,  p.  654.  Valuable  practical  hints 
ken  away  from  all  laws  of  proportion  and  harmony,  '  may  be  found  in  Trhnen,  Chapel  Architecture  (London, 
and  to  have  lost  its  predominance  in  church  edifices.  I  1849,  8vo) ;  and  in  Jobson,  Chapel  and  School  Architec- 
The  churches  seemed  more  galleries  of  painting  or  tare  (Lond.  1850,  8vo).  See  also  Rickman,  Attempt  to 
sculpture  than  architectural  structures.  The  oma-  distiiii/ii/sh  the  Styles  if  Architecture  in  England  (Lond. 
ment  became  first,  massive,  then  overpowering,  and  8vo);  Sh&Tj&, SevenPeriodsof English  Architect. (Lond. 
was  broken  from  its  structural  lines.  It  finally  be- ',  8vo) ;  Brit.  Quart.  Rev.  Aug.  1849,  art.  ii;  Mercersburg 
came  trivial  and  inexpressive.  Expensive  stones  and  i  Rev.  1851,  p.  358;  Bunsen,  Basiliken  lies  ckristl.  Rom's 
large  gilded  surfaces  were  more  prized  than  aesthetic  (Munch.  1842) ;  Lenoir,  Architect.  Monatt.  (Far.  1*5"-'); 
propriety  or  architectural  effect.  And,  finally,  the  j  Brown,  Sacred  Architect.  (Lond.  1845);  Dollman,  A n- 
extravagant,  insincere,  almost  infidel  life  of  the  17th  \  dent  Architecture  (Lond.  1858) ;  Hubsch,  Altchristlicha 
and  18th  centuries  manifested  themselves  in  the  Baroco  Kirchen  (Karlsr.  1860).  See  Church  Edifices. 
(or  Jesuitical)  style  of  Italy,  or  the  Rococo  (or  French)  j  Architricllrms  (' ApxirpiicKivog,  master  of  the  tri- 
Btyle  of  France  and  German}'.  clinium  or  dinner-bed  [see  Accubation]),  rendered  in 

Tims  the  greatest  genuine  architectural  life  of  me-  John  ii,  8,  9,  "governor  of  the  feast"  (q.  v.),  equivalent 
diaeval  times  manifested  itself  in  the  threat  epochs  of  to  the  Roman Magister  Convivu.  The  Greeks  also  de- 
the  Basilican  (4th  to  6th  centuries),  Byzantine  (7th  to  noted  the  same  social  office  by  the  title  of  Symposiarch 
14th  centuries),  Saracenic  (7th  to  1  1th  centuries),  Ro-  (avuiroaiapxoc.').  He  was  not  the  giver  of  the  feast, 
manesque  (9th  to  12th  centuries),  Gothic  (12th  to  15th  |  but  one  of  the  guests  specially  chosen  to  direct  the 
centuries),  and  Renaissance  (14th  to  17th  centuries"),  entertainment,  and  promote  harmony  and  good fellow- 
Perhaps  its  highest  culmination  was  in  the  Middle  ship  among  the  company.  (See  Potter's  Gr.  Ant.  ii, 
Gothic  (1300).  After  the  16th  century  all  true  arehi-  386.)  In  the  apocryphal  Ecclcsiasticus  (xxxv,  1,  2) 
tccture  died  out,  and  the  Rococo  period  (18th  centu-  |  the  duties  of  this  officer  among  the  Jews  are  indicated. 


ARCHON 


381 


ARCTURUS 


He  is  there,  however,  called  riyovfttvoQ :  "If  thou  be  ' 
made  the  master  [of  a  feast],  lift  not  thyself  up,  but  be 
among  them  as  one  of  the  rest;  take  diligent  care  for 
them,  and  so  sit  down ;  and  when  thou  hast  done  all 
thy  office,  take  thy  place,  that  thou  mayest  be  merry  | 
with  them,  and  receive  a  crown  for  thy  well  ordering 
of  the  feast."  (See  Walch,  Be,  ArchitricUnio,Jen.  1753; 
Brendel,  De  loco  Joh.  Eisenb.  1785.)     See  Banquet. 

Archon  (apxwv,  a  ruler),  the  title  properly  of  the 
chief  magistrates  or  rather  executive  officers  of  the 
Athenians  during  their  democracy  (see  Smith's  Diet. 
of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.),  and  applied  to  various  function- 
aries, (1.)  specially  to  the  recognised  head  of  the  Syr- 
ian Jews  during  the  Roman  empire  [see  Aeabarch], 
and  (2.)  technically  a  title  in  the  Greek  Church  of 
several  officers,  e.  g.  the  church-keeper,  keeper  of  the 
book  of  Gospels,  etc. 

A  rchontici,  a  sect  of  the  second  century  who  re- 
jected baptism,  and  held  that  the  world  was  not  cre- 
ated by  the  Almighty  God,  but  by  certain  powers, 
seven  or  eight  in  number,  whom  they  called  Archontes 
(dpxovng,  rulers),  to  the  chief  of  whom  they  gave  the 
name  of  Sabaoth,  the  god  of  the  Jews  and  the  giver  of 
the  law,  whom  they  blasphemousfy  distinguished  from 
the  true  God.  Now,  as  they  pretended  that  baptism 
was  administered  in  the  name  of  Sabaoth,  and  not  in 
that  of  the  supreme  God,  they  rejected  it,  and  the  holy 
Eucharist.  They  held  that  woman  was  a  creation  of 
the  devil.  They  were  a  branch  of  the  Valentiniahs. 
— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  xi,  ch.  x,  cap.  2 ;  Tille- 
mont,  ii,  295 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  493. 

Archpresbyter  or  Archpriest,  the  head  of  the 
priests,  as  the  archdeacon  was  originally  head  of  the 
deacons.  Anciently,  the  minister  next  in  order  to  the 
bishop.  Generally  the  senior  priest  of  the  diocese  bore 
this  title,  but  Thomassin  shows  that  the  bishops  fre- 
quently chose  the  ablest  and  not  the  senior  priest  as 
archpresbyter.  This  was  more  frequently  the  case  in 
the  Greek  than  in  the  Latin  Church,  and  some  popes 
were  altogether  opposed  to  appointing  any  but  the 
senior  priest.  The  archpresbyter  acted  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  bishop  at  public  worship,  while  the 
archdeacon  represented  him  in  the  government  of  the 
diocese.  At  first  there  was  only  one  archpresbyter  in 
a  diocese  ;  but  since  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  we  find, 
besides  one  in  the  diocesan  town,  several  in  the  coun- 
try. In  the  time  of  the  Carolingians,  every  diocese 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  archpresbyteral  dis- 
tricts, called  archpresbyterates,  deaneries,  Christi- 
anities (Christinnitates),  rural  chapters.  The  powers 
of  the  archpresbyter  were :  He  had,  in  the  name  of 
his  bishop,  to  superintend  the  clergymen  of  his  dis- 
trict, to  execute  the  episcopal  and  synodal  decrees,  to 
present  the  candidates  for  the  priesthood  from  his  dis- 
trict to  the  bishop,  and  to  settle  difficulties  between 
the  clergy.  On  the  first  day  of  every  month  he  held 
conferences  with  the  clergy.  He  also  reported  to  the 
archdeacon,  and  through  him  to  the  bishop,  the  graver 
offences  of  the  laymen.  The  archpriest's  church  was 
the  only  one  in  the  district  in  which  baptism  was  dis- 
pensed {eevh  sin,  baptismedis).  The  whole  of  the  dis- 
tricts was  sometimes  called  plebs,  and  the  archpresby- 
ter Plebanus,  a  title  which  in  several  countries  is  still 
in  use.  There  are  still  archpriests  in  the  Greek 
Church,  vested  with  most  of  the  privileges  of  chorejyis- 
copi,  or  rural  bishops.  The  name  is  also  still  in  use  in 
some  dioceses  of  the  Roman  Church,  corresponding  to 
the  more  common  dean  (q.  v.). — Bingham.  Orig.  Ec- 
cles. bk.  ii,  cap.  19;  Coleman,  Christian  Antiquities,  p. 
161 ;  Thomassin,  De  nova  et  veteri  ecclesim  disciplina, 
pt.  ii,  1.  ii,  c.  3;  Neller,  De  Archipresbyteris  (Trevir. 
1771).     See  Presbyter  ;  Priest. 

Arcimboldi,  Johannes  Angeltts,  born  at  Milan 
toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  sent  by  Leo 
X  as  papal  nuncio  to  Scandinavia  in  order  to  sell  pa- 
pal indulgences.     The  permission  to  do  so  he  bought 


at  a  high  price  of  King  Christian  II  of  Denmark.  In 
the  controversies  springing  up  between  the  Danes  and 
the  Swedes,  he  was  first  bribed  by  the  Danes  and  later 
by  the  Swedes.  On  his  return  to  Italy,  Leo  X  ordered 
a  suit  to  be  instituted  against  him,  but  in  1525  he  was 
made  bishop  of  Novara,  and  in  1550  archbishop  of  Mi- 
lan.    He  died  in  1555. 

Arctn'rus  (the  Latin  form  of  the  Gr.  apKrovpoc, 
bear-keeper,  designating  among  the  ancients  the  bright- 
est star  in  the  constellation  Bootes,  Cic.  Aral.  99  ;  also 
the  whole  constellation  Bootes,  Hes.  Op.  564,  608  : 
Virg.  Georg.  i,  204 ;  and  hence  the  time  of  its  rising 
in  September,  Soph.  CEd.  Tyr.  1137;  Thuc.  ii,  78; 
Virg.  Georg.  i,  68),  put  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  for  the 
Heb.  "£'J  (Ash,  for  d;'«,  neiish',  Arabic  the  same,  Job 
ix,  9,  "  [God],  which  maketh  Arcturus,  Orion,  and 
Pleiades,  and  the  chambers  of  the  south,"  Sept.  flAf- 
tdg,  Vulg.  Arcturus),  or  d^?  (A'yish,  a  fuller  form 
of  the  same,  prob.  signifying  supporter,  barrow,  Job 
xxxviii,  32,  "  canst  thou  guide  Arcturus  with  his 
sons,"  Sept.  '"Emrepog,  Vulg.  vespe?-),  is  thought  by 
most  recent  interpreters  to  denote  the  constellation  of 
the  Great  Bear,  Ursa  Major,  but  on  grounds  not  alto- 
gether satisfactory  nor  with  unanimity  (see  Hyde,  ad 
Ulugh-Beii,  Tab.  Stell.  p.  22,  23 ;  Michaelis,  Suppl.  p. 
1907  \  Schultens  on  Job,  p.  239).  The  older  interpret- 
ers understand:  (1.)  the  Great  Bear,  or  the  seven 
stars  of  the  Wain  (Sepfentriones),  so  Saadias  and  Aben 
Ezra;  (2.)  the  Pleiades,  so  the  Sept.  (in  one  passage 
only,  and  there  perhaps  the  terms  have  become  trans- 
posed, as  "Eo-TTtpog  and  'ApKrovpog  both  occur  in  the 
same  verse)  and  the  Targum  (NP-Vf  in  the  other  pas- 
sage, according  to  the  Venice  and  Lond.  editions, 
meaning,  however,  hen,  according  to  Bochart);  (3.) 
the  evening  star,  Hesperus,  Venus,  so  the  Sept.  (in  the 
latter  passage,  and  perhaps  also  in  the  first)  ami 
Vulg.;  (4.)  the  tail  of  Aries  (fiba  ^21)  or  the  head 
of  Taurus  (H.byj~l  'CH~t),  so  the  Talmudists  (Bera- 
choth,  p.  586),  apparently  referring  to  the  bright  star  in 
the  eye  of  Taurus  (Aldebaraii),  near  the  tail  of  Aries; 
(5.)  Arcturus,  so  the  Vulg.  (in  chap,  ix,  and  perhaps 
the  Sept.);  (6.)  the  rendering  Iyutha  of  the  Syriac  (in 
both  passages,  as  likewise  in  Job  xv,  27,  for  PGS,  and 
Amos  v,  8,  for  b^OS ;  comp.  Ephraemi  Opera,  ii,  449 
a),  as  this  word  is  itself  of  doubtful  origin  and  signifi- 
cation, if  really  genuine  (see  Anecdot.  Orient,  ii,  :!7  : 
Lach,  in  Eichhom's  Bibl.  vii,  341),  but  appears  from 
the  lexicographers  to  bear  the  general  import  of  she- 
goat,  referring  to  a  star  in  the  constellation  Auriga. 
Laying  aside  those  of  these  interpretations  that  are 
evidently  mere  conjecture  (such  as  Arcturus,  Venus), 
and  others  that  are  here  out  of  the  question  (such  as 
the  Pleiades,  which  in  Heb.  arc  called  iTC"<3),  there 
remain  but  two  interpretations  :  First,  that  which 
identifies  the  Heb.  Ash  with  the  Great  Bear,  or  Ursa 
Major,  the  Wain.  The  superior  probability  of  this  is 
sustained  by  the  following  considerations  :  (1.)  This 
is  so  conspicuous  a  constellation,  and  so  famous  in  all 
ancient  as  well  as  modern  astronomy,  that  the  total 
silence  in  these  astrological  enumerations,  otherwise, 
respecting  it  is  unaccountable,  especially  as  inferior 
constellations  are  not  omitted;  (2.)  The  mention  of 
the  attendant  stars  ("sons,"  b^jlSl)  in  the  second 
passage  of  Job  agrees  with  the  ascription  among  the 
Arabs  of  daughters  to  X>  esh,  the  corresponding  Arabic 
constellation  (Niebuhr,  Beschreib.  v.  Arabien,  p.  114), 
these  being  the  three  stars  in  the  tail  of  the  Bear. 
The  other  interpretation,  namely,  the  goat,  can  only 
lie  sustained  by  a  forced  etymology  from  "t",  a  goat, 
and  a  lesser  constellation  is  then  referred  to,  namely, 
Auriga ;  and  the  reference  to  the  attendant  stars,  to 
those  in  the  right  hand  of  this  figure,  is  not  only  un- 
natural, but  at  variance  with  its  late  origin.     Schul- 


ARCUDIUS 


382 


AREOPAGUS 


tens  {Comment,  in  loc.)  derives  the  Heb.  -word  from 
an  Aral iic  term  signifying  the  night-watcher,  because 
Ursa  Major  never  sets ;  while  Kimchi  refers  it  to  the 
Heb.  i"',  in  the  sense  of  a  collection  of  stars;  and 
Lnd.  de  Dieu  compares  the  Ethiopic  name  of  the  con- 
stellation Pisces;  but  the  etymology  first  proposed 
above  is  preferable  (see  Bochart,  Ukroz.  ii,  G80;  Al- 
ferg.  p.  8,  03 ;  Ideler,  Unters.  ub.  d.  Stern-Namem,  p.  3, 
19  ;  comp.  Abulfeda,  p.  375  ;  Eutych.  p.  277  ;  Schul- 
tens,  Imp.  Joctan,  p.  10,  32). — Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p. 
895.     See  Astronomy  ;  Constellation. 

Arcudius,  Peter,  a  native  of  Corfu.  The  Popes 
Gregory  XIV  and  Clement  VIII  tried,  but  unsuccess- 
fully, to  bring  about,  through  him,  a  union  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  Russia  with  that  of  Rome.  He  died 
in  Rome  in  1635.  He  wrote  Concord,  eccles.  Orient,  et 
Occident,  in  sepiem  sacramentis,  etc.  (Paris,  1619,  fob). 
— Niceron,  Memoires,  xi,  5G ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Gen.  iii,  74. 

Ard  (Heb.  id.  *njt,  prob.  for  Tntf,  i.  q.  Tl^  de- 
scent; Sept.  'Apc'td  v.  r.  'ASap),  a  grandson  of  Benjamin 
through  Bela  (Num.  xxvi,  40).  B.C.  1856.  In  Gen. 
xlvi,  21,  he  appears  as  a  son  of  Benjamin,  where,  how- 
ever, the  Sept.  makes  him  a  great-grandson  through 
Gera  as  a  son  of  Bela.  In  1  Chron.  viii,  3,  he  is 
called  Addar.  His  descendants  were  called  Ardites, 
Heb.  Ard*'.  "H">X,  Sept.  'Apadi  (Num.  xxvi,  40).  See 
Benjamin.  He  is  possibly  the  same  with  Ezbox  (1 
Chron.  vii,  7). 

Ar'dath  (Lat.  Ardath,  the  Gr.  text  being  no  longer 
extant),  the  name  of  a  "field"  mentioned  only  in  the 
Apocrypha  (2  [Vulg.  4]  Esdr.  ix,  26)  as  the  scene  of 
the  vision  of  the  bereaved  woman ;  no  doubt  a  fanci- 
ful appellation. 

Ard'ite  (Num.  xxvi,  40).     See  Ard. 

Ar'don  (Heb.  Ardon',  "I'^IX,  descend  mt,  others 
fugitive ;  Sept.  'Apdiav  v.  r.  'Opva),  the  last-named  of 
the  three  sons  of  Caleb  by  his  first  wife  Azubah  (1 
Chron.  ii,  18).     B.C.  ante  1658. 

Are'li  (Heb.  AreW,  "^fiOK,  heroic,  fr.  Ariel;  Sept. 
'Anti]\iic,  'Aon'/X),  the  last-named  of  the  seven  sons 
of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi,  16).  B.C.  1873.  His  descendants 
were  called  Arelites  (Heb.  id.,  Sept.  'ApigXi,  Num. 
xxvi,  17). 

Are'lite  (Num.  xxvi,  17).     See  Arei.i. 

Areop'agite  ('AptoTrayi-qc),  a  member  (Acts 
xvii,  34)  of  the  court  of  AREOPAGUS  (q.  v.).  This,  as 
constituted  by  Solon,  consisted  of  the  nine  archons 
(chief  magistrates)  for  the  year,  and  the  ex-archons. 
The  latter  became  members 
for  life ;  but  before  their  ad- 
mission, they  were  submit- 
ted, at  the  close  of  their  an- 
nual magistracy,  to  a  rigid 
scrutiny  into  their  conduct  in 
office  and  their  private  mor- 
als. Proof  of  criminal  or  un- 
becoming conduct  was  suffi- 
cient also  afterward  to  expel 
them.  Various  accounts  are 
given  of  the  number  to  which 
the  Areopagites  were  limited. 
If  there  was  any  fixed  num- 
ber, admission  to  the  council 
could  not  have  been  a  neces- 
sary consequence  of  honora- 
ble discharge  from  the  ar- 
chonship.  But  it  is  more 
probable  that  the  accounts 
which  limit  the  number  are 
applicable  only  to  the  earlier 
period  of  its  existence  (see 
the  anonymous  argument  to 
Demosthenes'  Oration  against 


Androtion).     Lysias  express!}'  states  that  the  acting 
archons  had  a  seat  in  it  (Areop.  p.  110,  §  16-20). 

Areop'agus,  the  Latin  form  of  the  Greek  words 
(o  "Apaoc  irdyoc),  signifying,  in  reference  to  place, 
Mars'  Hill,  but,  in  reference  to  persons,  the  council 
which  was  held  on  the  hill.  The  council  was  also 
termed  //  iv  'Apiioj  iray<o  (3ov\i)  (or  i)  j3oi<\t)  y  iv 
'Aptiip  Trayifi),  the  Council  on  Mars'  Hill;  sometimes  i) 
dvto  liovXi),  the  Upper  Council,  from  the  elevated  po- 
sition where  it  was  held,  and  sometimes  simply,  but 
emphatically,  i)  fiovXt),  the  Council;  but  it  retained 
till  a  late  period  the  original  designation  of  Mars' 
Hill,  being  called  by  the  Latins  Scopulus  Jfartis,  Curia 
Mortis  (Juvenal,  Sat.  ix,  101),  and  still  more  literal- 
ly, Areum  Judicium  (Tacit.  Annal.  ii,  55).  The  place 
I  was  a  rocky  height  in  Athens,  opposite  the  western 
I  end  of  the  Acropolis,  from  which  it  is  separated  only 
by  an  elevated  valley.  It  rises  gradually  from  the 
northern  end,  and  terminates  abruptly  on  the  south, 
over  against  the  Acropolis,  at  which  point  it  is  about 
fifty  or  sixty  feet  above  the  valley  already  mentioned. 
Of  the  site  of  the  Areopagus  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
both  from  the  description  of  Pausanias,  and  from  the 
narrative  of  Herodotus,  who  relates  that  it  was  a 
height  over  against  the  Acropolis,  from  which  the 
Persians  assailed  the  latter  rock  (Paus.  i,  28,  §  5 ; 
Herod,  viii,  52).  According  to  tradition,  it  was  called 
the  hill  of  Mars  (Ares)  because  this  god  was  brought 
to  trial  here  before  the  assembled  gods  by  Neptune 
(Poseidon)  on  account  of  his  murdering  Halirrho- 
thius,  the  son  of  the  latter.  The  meetings  Avere  held 
on  the  south-eastern  summit  of  the  rock.  There  are 
still  sixteen  stone  steps  cut  in  the  rock,  leading  up  to 
the  hill  from  the  valley  of  the  Agora  below ;  and  im- 
mediately above  the  steps  is  a  bench  of  stones  exca- 
vated in  the  rock,  forming  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle, 
and  facing  the  south.  Here  the  Areopagites  sat  as 
judges  in  the  open  air  (i>7rcu6pioi  IRueaZovTO,  Pollux, 
viii,  118).  On  the  eastern  and  western  side  is  a  raised 
block.  These  blocks  are  probably  the  two  rude  stones 
which  Pausanias  saw  there,  and  w-hich  are  described 
by  Euripides  as  assigned,  the  one  to  the  accuser,  the 
other  to  the  criminal,  in  the  causes  which  were  tried 
in  the  court  (Iph.  T.  961). — Smith.  See  Areopagite. 
The  Areopagus  possesses  peculiar  interest  to  the 
Christian  as  the  spot  from  which  Paul  delivered  his 
memorable  address  to  the  men  of  Athens  (Acts  xvii, 
22-31).  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  commentators 
that  he  was  brought  before  the  Council  of  Areopa- 
gus, but  there  is  no  trace  in  the  narrative  of  any  ju- 
dicial proceedings.  Paul  "  disputed  daily"  in  the 
"market"  or  Agora  (xvii,  17),  which  was    situated 


.-'"5 


ATHENS  \       -" 


Trispyrgi  Seal!  ofJ!:le^ 


AREOPAGUS 


383 


AREOPAGUS 


south  of  the  Areopagus,  in  the  valley  tying  between 
this  hill  and  those  of  the  Acropolis,  the  Pnyx,  and  the 
Museum.  Attracting  more  and  more  attention,  "  cer- 
tain philosophers  of  the  Epicureans  and  Stoics"  brought 
him  up  from  the  valley,  probably  by  the  stone  steps 
already  mentioned,  to  the  Areopagus  aliove,  that  they 
might  listen  to  him  more  conveniently.  Here  the 
philosophers  probably  took  their  seats  on  the  stone 
benches  usually  occupied  by  the  members  of  the 
council,  while  the  multitude  stood  upon  the  steps 
and  in  the  valley  below.  The  dignilied  bearing  of 
the  apostle  is  worthy  of  high  admiration,  the  more 
so  from  the  associations  of  the  spot  (see  Conybeare 
and  Howson,  L'fe  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  i,  346-379). 
Nor  does  his  eloquent  discourse  appear  to  have"  been 
without  good  effect;  for,  though  some  mocked,  and 
some  procrastinated,  yet  others  believed,  among  whom 
was  a  member  of  the  council,  "  Dionysius,  the  Areop- 
agite,"  who  has  been  represented  as  the  first  bishop 
of  Athens,  and  is  said  to  have  written  books  on  the 
"  Celestial  Hierarchy  ;"  but  their  authenticity  is  ques- 
tioned. The  history  in  the  Acts  (xvii,  22)  states  that 
the  speaker  "stood  in  the  midst  of  Mars'  Hill"  (see 
Robinson's  Researches,  i,  10-12).  Having  come  up 
from  the  level  parts  of  the  city,  where  the  markets 
(there  were  two,  the  old  and  the  new)  were,  he  would 
probably  stand  with  his  face  toward  the  north,  and 
would  then  have  immediately  behind  him  the  long 
walls  which  ran  down  to  the  sea,  affording  protection 
against  a  foreign  enemy.  Near  the  sea,  on  one  side, 
was  the  harbor  of  Pirants,  on  the  other  that  designa- 
ted Phalerum,  with  their  crowded  arsenals,  their  busy 
workmen,  and  their  gallant  ships.  Not  far  off  in  the 
ocean  lay  the  island  of  Salamis,  ennobled  forever  in 
history  as  the  spot  near  which  Athenian  valor  chas- 
tised Asiatic  pride,  and  achieved  the  liberty  of  Greece. 
The  apostle  had  only  to  turn  toward  his  right  hand  to 
catch  a  view  of  a  small  but  celebrated  hill  rising  with- 
in the  city  near  that  on  which  he  stood,  called  the 
Pnyx,  where,  standing  on  a  block  of  bare  stone,  De- 
mosthenes and  other  distinguished  orators  had  ad- 
dressed the  assembled  people  of  Athens,  swaying  that 
arrogant  and  fickle  democracy,  and  thereby  making 


Map  (if  the  ancient  Vicinity  of  the  Areopagus. 


A,  The  Acropolis;  I!,  Areopagus  ;  ('.  Museum;  D,  Hndrianopolis  ;  E 
Temple  of  Jupiter  Olvnipius;  F,  Theatre  of  Bacchus;  G,  Odeum  or 
Re(nlln;  H,  Pnyx  ;  I,' Temple  of  Theseus  ;  J,  Gymnasium  of  Ptolemy. 
K,  Stoa  of  Hadrian  ;  L,  Gate  of  New  Acorn  ;  M,  Tower  of  Andronicus 
N,  Arch  of  Hadrian;  O,  Street  of  Tripods;  P,  Monument  of  Philopap 
pus;  Q,  Temple  of  Fortune  ;  II,  P.-Minthciiaie  stadium  ;  S,  Tomb  of  Her- 
odes;  T,  Gate  of  Dioehares;  V.  Gate  of  Achamie;  V,  Dipvlum ;  W, 
Gate  called  Hippades;  X,  Lycahettus  ;  Y,  Piraic  Gate:  Z,  Prytaneum  j 
a,  Tombs,  b,  To  the  Academia;  c,  Cerainieus  Exterior;  </,  Mount  An. 
chesmus;  e,  Ancient  Walls;/,  Modern  Walls:  g.  Road  to  Marathon; 
h,  Road  to  the  Mesoffn-a  ;  i.  Gate;  k,  Bridge;  /,  Garden?  ,  m,  Itonian 
Gate  ;  n,  River  llissns;  o,  Callirrhoe  ;  p,  Scale  of  half  an  English  mile. 

Philip  of  Macedon  tremble,  or  working  good  or  ill  for 
the  entire  civilized  world.  Immediately  before  him 
lay  the  crowded  city,  studded  in  every  part  with  me- 
morials sacred  to  religion  or  patriotism,  and  exhibiting 
the  highest  achievements  of  art.  On  his  left,  some- 
what beyond  the  walls,  was  beheld  the  Academy,  with 
its  groves  of  plane  and  olive  trees,  its  retired  walks 
and  cooling  fountains,  its  altar  to  the  Muses,  its  statues 
of  the  Graces,  its  Temple  of  Minerva,  and  its  altars  to 
Prometheus,  to  Love,  and  to  Hercules,  near  which 
Plato  had  his  country-seat,  and  in  the  midst  of  which 
he  had  taught,  as  well  as  his  followers  after  him.  But 
the  most  impressive  spectacle  lay  on  his  right  hand ; 
for  there,  on  the  small  and  precipitous  hill  named  the 
Acropolis  were  clustered  together  monuments  of  the 
highest  art,  and  memorials  of  the  national  religion,  such 
as  no  other  equal  spot  of  ground  has  ever  borne.  The 
apostle's  eyes,  in  turning  to  the  right,  would  fall  on 
the  north-west  side  of  the  eminence,  which  was  here 
(and  all  round)  covered  and  protected  by  a  wall,  part3 


The  Acropolis  of  Athens  restore;!,  as  seen  from  the  Areopagus 


AREOPAGUS 


384 


AREOPAGUS 


of  which  were  so  ancient  as  to  be  of  Cyclopean  origin. 
The  western  side,  which  alone  gave  access  to  what 
from  its  original  destination  may  be  termed  the  fort, 
was,  during  the  administration  of  Pericles,  adorned 
with  a  splendid  flight  of  steps,  and  the  beautiful  Pro- 
pylsea,  with  its  live  entrances  and  two  flanking  tem- 
ples, constructed  by  Mnesicles  of  Pentelican  marble, 
at  a  cost  of  2012  talents.  In  the  times  of  the  Roman 
emperors  there  stood  before  the  Propylrea  equestrian 
statues  of  Augustus  and  Agrippa.  On  the  southern 
wing  of  the  Propylaja  was  a  temple  of  Wingless  Vic- 
tory ;  ( in  the  northern,  a  Pinacotheca,  or  picture  gallery. 
On  the  highest  part  of  the  platform  of  the  Acropolis, 
not  more  than  300  feet  from  the  entrance-buildings 
just  described,  stood  (and  yet  stands,  though  shatter- 
ed and  mutilated)  the  Parthenon,  justly  celebrated 
throughout  the  world,  erected  of  white  Pentelican 
marble,  under  the  direction  of  Callicrates,  Ictinus, 
and  Carpion,  and  adorned  with  the  finest  sculptures 
from  the  hand  of  Phidias.  Northward  from  the  Par- 
thenon was  the  Erechtheum,  a  compound  building, 
which  contained  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  the 
proper  Erechtheum  (called  also  the  Cecropium),  and 
the  Pandroseum.  This  sanctuary  contained  the  holy 
olive-tree  sacred  to  Minerva,  the  holy  salt-spring,  the 
ancient  wooden  image  of  Pallas,  etc.,  and  was  the 
scene  of  the  oldest  and  most  venerated  ceremonies  and 
recollections  of  the  Athenians.  Between  the  Pro- 
pylaea  and  the  Erechtheum  was  placed  the  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  Pallas  Promachos,  the  work  of  Phid- 
ias, which  towered  so  high  above  the  other  buildings 
that  the  plume  of  her  helmet  and  the  point  of  her 
spear  were  visible  on  the  sea  between  Sunium  and 
Athens.  Moreover  the  Acropolis  was  occupied  by  so 
great  a  crowd  of  statues  and  monuments,  that  the  ac- 
count, as  found  in  Pausanias,  excites  the  reader's  won- 
der, and  makes  it  difficult  for  him  to  understand  how 
so  much  could  have  been  crowded  into  a  space  which 
extended  from  the  south-east  corner  to  the  south-west 
only  1150  feet,  while  its  greatest  breadth  did  not  ex- 
ceed 500  feet.  On  the  hill  itself  where  Paul  had  his 
station,  was,  at  the  eastern  end,  the  temple  of  the 
Furies,  and  other  national  and  commemorative  edi- 
fices. The  court-house  of  the  council,  which  was  also 
here,  was,  according  to  the  simplicity  of  ancient  cus- 
toms, built  of  clay.  There  was  an  altar  consecrated 
by  Orestes  to  Athene  Areia.  In  the  same  place  were 
seen  two  silver  stones,  on  one  of  which  stood  the  ac- 
cuser, on  the  other  the  accused.  Near  them  stood  two 
altars  erected  by  Epimenides,  one  to  Insult  ("Y/3p£wc, 
Cic.  Contumelice),  the  other  to  Shamelessness  ('Avai- 
SiictQ,  Cic.  Tmpudentice).     See  Atiikxs. 

The  court  of  Areopagus  was  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  honored,  not  only  in  Athens,  but  in  the  whole 
of  Greece,  and  indeed  in  the  ancient  world.  Through 
a  long  succession  of  centuries  it  preserved  its  existence 
amid  changes  corresponding  with  those  which  the 
state  underwent,  till  at  least  the  age  of  the  Ctesars 
(Tacitus,  Ann.  ii,  55).  The  ancients  are  full  of  eulo- 
gies on  its  value,  equity,  and  beneficial  influence;  in 
consequence  of  which  qualities  it  was  held  in  so  much 
respect  that  even  foreign  states  sought  its  verdict  in 
difficult  cases.  Hut  after  Greece  had  submitted  to  the 
yoke  of  Rome,  it  retained  probably  little  of  its  ancient 
character  beyond  a  certain  dignity,  which  was  itself 
cold  and  barren;  and  however  successful  it  may  in 
earlier  times  have  been  in  conciliating  for  its  determi- 
nations the  approval  of  public  opinion,  the  historian 
Tacitus  tut  supra)  mentions  ;i   case   in  which  it  was 

charged  with  an  erroj us,  if  not  a  corrupt,  decision. 

The  origin  of  the  court  ascends  back  into  the  darkest 
mythical  period.  From  the  brst.  its  constitution  was 
essentially  aristocratic  ;  a  character  which  to  some  ex- 
tent it  retained  even  after  the  democratic  reforms 
which  Solon  introduced  into  the  Athenian  Constitu- 
tion. By  bis  appointment  the  nine  archons  became 
for  the  remainder  of  their  lives  Areopagites,  provided 


they  had  well  discharged  the  duties  of  their  archon- 
ship,  were  blameless  in  their  personal  conduct,  and 
had  undergone  a  satisfactory  examination.  Its  pow- 
er and  jurisdiction  were  still  farther  abridged  by  Per- 
icles through  his  instrument  Ephialtes.  Following 
the  political  tendencies  of  the  state,  the  Areopagus  be- 
came in  process  of  time  less  and  less  aristocratical. 
and  parted  piecemeal  with  most  of  its  important  func- 
tions. First  its  political  power  was  taken  away,  then 
its  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  murder,  and  even  its  moral 
influence  gradually  departed.  During  the  sway  of 
the  Thirty  Tyrants  its  power,  or  rather  its  political 
existence,  Avas  destroyed.  On  their  overthrow  it  re- 
covered some  consideration,  and  the  oversight  of  the 
execution  of  the  laws  was  restored  to  it  by  an  express 
decree.  Isocrates  endeavored  by  his  'ApioTraytriKoQ 
Xoyog  to  revive  its  ancient  influence.  The  precise 
time  when  it  ceased  to  exist  cannot  be  determined ; 
but  evidence  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  in  later  pe- 
riods its  members  ceased  to  be  uniformly  character- 
ized by  blameless  morals. 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  a  correct  summary  of  its  sev- 
eral functions,  as  the  classic  writers  are  not  agreed  in 
their  statements,  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  va- 
ried, as  has  been  seen,  with  timer,  and  circumstances. 
They  have,  however,  been  divided  into  six  general 
classes  (Real-Eneyelopadie  von  Pauly,  s.  v.). 

(1.)  Its  judicial  function  embraced  trials  for  murder 
and  manslaughter  (jpbi'ov  ?Ikcii,  ra  (poviKo'),  and  was 
the  oldest  and  most  peculiar  sphere  of  its  activity. 
The  indictment  was  brought  by  the  second  or  king- 
archon  (apxw  ftctaiXevc),  whose  duties  Avere  for  the 
most  part  of  a  religious  nature.  Then  followed  the 
oath  of  both  parties,  accompanied  by  solemn  appeals 
to  the  gods.  After  this  the  accuser  and  the  accused 
had  the  option  of  making  a  speech  (the  notion  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  Areopagus  beins  carried  on  in  the 
darkness  of  the  night  rests  on  no  sufficient  foundation), 
which,  however,  they  were  obliged  to  keep  free  from 
all  extraneous  matter  (t£w  tov  TTpayparot;),  as  well  as 
from  mere  rhetorical  ornaments.  After  the  First  speech, 
the  accused  was  permitted  to  go  into  voluntary  ban- 
ishment if  he  had  no  reason  to  expect  a  favorable  is- 
sue. Theft,  poisoning,  wounding,  incendiarism,  and 
treason  belonged  also  to  this  department  of  jurisdic- 
tion in  the  court  of  the  Areopagus. 

(2.)  Its  political  function  consisted  in  the  constant 
watch  which  it  kept  over  the  legal  condition  of  the 
state,  acting  as  overseer  and  guardian  of  the  laws 
(lirinKo-KOf-  kui  <pv\aZ  tu>v  vofMov). 

(3.)  Its  police  function  also  made  it  a  protector  and 
upholder  of  the  institutions  and  laws.  In  this  charac- 
ter the  Areopagus  had  jurisdiction  over  novelties  in 
religion,  in  worship,  in  customs,  in  every  thing  that 
departed  from  the  traditionary  and  established  usages 
and  modes  of  thought  (irarpioic  vo/ufiow)  which  a  re- 
gard to  their  ancestors  endeared  to  the  nation.  This 
was  an  ancient  and  well-supported  sphere  of  activity. 
The  members  of  the  court  had  a  right  to  take  oversight 
of  festive  meetings  in  private  houses.  In  ancient 
times  they  fixed  the  number  of  the  guests,  and  deter- 
mined the  style  of  the  entertainment.  If  a  person 
had  no  obvious  means  of  subsisting,  or  was  known  to 
live  in  idleness,  he  Mas  liable  to  an  action  before  the 
Areopagus  ;  if  condemned  three  times,  he  w  as  punish- 
ed with  driut'a,  the  loss  of  his  civil  rights.  In  later 
times  the  court  possessed  the  right  of  giving  permis- 
sion to  teachers  (philosophers  and  rhetoricians)  to  es- 
tablish themselves  and  pursue  their  profession  in  the 
city. 

(4.)  Its  strictly  religious  jurisdiction  extended  itself 
over  the  public  creed,  worship,  and  sacrifices,  embra- 
cing generally  every  thing  which  could  come  under  the 
denomination  of  ra  itpa — sacred  things.  It  was  its 
special  duty  to  see  that  the  religion  of  the  state  was 
kept  pure  from  all  foreign  elements.  The  accusation 
of  impiety  (ypapr)  aaefittde) — the  vagueness  of  which 


AREOPOLIS 


385 


ARETAS 


admitted  almost  any  charge  connected  with  religious 
innovations — belonged  in  a  special  manner  to  this  tri- 
bunal, though  the  charge  was  in  some  cases  heard  be- 
fore the  court  of  the  Heliastaj.  The  freethinking  poet 
Euripides  stood  in  fear  of,  and  was  restrained  by,  the 
Areopagus  (Euseb.  Prep.  Evang.  vi,  14 ;  Bayle,  s.  v. 
Eurip.~).  Its  proceeding  in  such  cases  was  sometimes 
rather  of  an  admonitory  than  punitive  character. 

(5.)  Not  less  influential  was  its  moral  and  educa- 
tional power.  Isocrates  speaks  of  the  care  which  it 
took  of  good  manners  and  good  order  (t)]q  tvKoaplae, 
evraZiao).  Quintilian  relates  that  the  Areopagus 
condemned  a  boy  for  plucking  out  the  eyes  of  a  quail 
■ — a  sentence  which  has  been  both  misunderstood  and 
misrepresented  {Penny  Cyclop,  s.  v.),  but  which  its 
original  narrator  approved,  assigning  no  insufficient 
reason,  namely,  that  the  act  was  the  sign  of  a  cruel 
disposition,  likely  in  advanced  life  to  lead  to  baneful 
actions  (Quint,  v,  9).  The  court  exercised  a  salutary 
influence  in  general  over  the  Athenian  youth,  their 
educators  and  their  education. 

(G.)  Its  financial  position  is  not  well  understood; 
most  probably  it  varied  more  than  any  other  part  of 
its  administration  with  the  changes  which  the  consti- 
tution of  the  city  underwent.  It  may  suffice  to  men- 
tion, on  the  authority  of  Plutarch  (Themis,  c,  10),  that 
in  the  Persian  war  the  Areopagus  had  the  merit  of 
completing  the  number  of  men  required  for  the  fleet 
by  paying  eight  drachma;  to  each. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

In  the  following  works  corroboration  of  the  facts 
stated  in  this  article,  and  further  details,  with  discus- 
sions on  doubtful  points,  may  be  found  :  Sigonius,  Be 
Rep.  Ath.  iii,  2,  p.  1568;  De  Canaye,  Pecherches  sur 
VAreopage,  p.  273-316;  Mem.  de  PA  cad.  des  Inscr.  x; 
Schwab,  Num  quod  Areop.  inplebiscita  aut  confirmanda 
aut  rejicienda  jus  exercuerit  legitimum  (Stutt.  1818)  ; 
the  treatises,  De  Areopago,  of  Hauer  (Ilafn.  1708), 
Meursius  (Lugd.  B.  1624,  and  in  Gronov.  Thes.  v,  207), 
Schedius  (Viteb.  1677,  and  in  Iken.  Thes.  ii,  674  sq.), 
and  Bockh  (Barl.  1826);  Forbiser,  Handb.  d.  alt. 
Geogr.  iii ;  Meier,  Von  der  Blutgeriehtsbarkeit  des  A  reo- 
pag.;  Matthia,  De  Jud.  Ath.  in  Misc.  Philol. ;  Krebs, 
De  Ephetis ;  Potter,  Gr.  Antiq.  bk.  i,  ch.  xix ;  Smith's 
Diet,  of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Areiopagus ;  Grote's  Hist,  of 
Greece  (Am.  ed.),  iii,  73,  79, 122  ;  iv,  141 ;  v.,  352-366. 
See  Mars'  Hill. 

Areopolis.     See  Ar  ;  Aroer. 

A'res  ('Apfc),  one  of  those  whose  "  sons"  (to  the 
number  of  656)  are  said  (1  Esdr.  v,  10)  to  have  returned 
from  Babylon ;  evidently  the  Arah  (q.  v.)  of  the 
genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii,  5  ;  Neh.  vii,  10). 

Ar'etas  ('Aperac;  Arab,  charresh,  Pococke,  Spec. 
Hist.  Arab.  p.  58,  or,  in  another  form,  chaurish  = 
D"|Hn,  graver,  Pococke,  i,  70,  76,  77,  89),  the  common 
name  of  several  Arabian  kings  (see  Diod.  Sic.  xiv,  70; 
comp.  Wesseling ;  Michaelis,  in  Pctt's  Syllog.  iii,  62 
sq.). 

1.  The  first  of  whom  we  have  any  notice  was  a 
contemporary  of  the.  Jewish  high-priest  Jason  and  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  about  B.C.  170  (2  Maec.  v,  8): 
"  In  the  end,  therefore,  he  (Jason)  had  an  unhappy  re- 
turn, being  accused  before  Aretas,  the  king  of  the  Ara- 
bians." 

2.  Josephus  (Ant.  xiii,  13,  3)  mentions  an  Aretas, 
king  of  the  Arabians  (surnamed  Obedas,  'Gfiic'ac.,  Ant. 
xiii,  13,  5),  contemporary  with  Alexander  Jannams 
(died  B.C.  79)  and  his  sons.  After  defeating  Antio- 
chus Dionysus,  he  reigned  over  Coele-Syria,  "  being 
called  to  the  government  by  those  that  held  Damas- 
cus (icXiiOeic.  elg  rijv  apxfjv  i'ltb  rw  rt)i'  Aapamcbv 
iX<>vrwv)  by  reason  of  the  hatred  they  bore  to  Ptole- 
my Mennams"  (Ant.  xiii,  15,  2).  He  took  part  with 
Hyrcanus,  who  had  taken  refuge  with  him  (War,  i, 
6,  2),  in  his  contest  (Ant.  xiv,  1,  4)  for  the  sovereign- 
ty with  his  brother  Aristobulus  (q.  v.),  and  laid  siege 
to  Jerusalem  (B.C.  65),  but,  on  the  approach  of  the  Eo- 

Bn 


man  general  Scaurus,  he  retreated  to  Philadelphia 
(War,  i,  6,  3).  Hyrcanus  and  Aretas  were  pursued 
and  defeated  by  Aristobulus  at  a  place  called  Papyron, 
and  lost  above  6000  men  (Ant.  xiv,  2,  3).  After  Pom- 
pey  had  reduced  Syria  to  a  Roman  province,  Aretas 
submitted  to  him  again,  B.C.  64  (see  Dion  Cass. 
xxxvii,  15 ;  Appian,  Mithr.  166  ;  Plut.  Pomp.  39,  41). 
Three  or  four  years  after,  Scaurus,  to  whom  Pompey 
had  committed  the  government  of  Ccele-Syria,  invaded 
Petraja,  but,  finding  it  difficult  to  obtain  provisions  for 
his  army,  he  consented  to  withdraw  on  the  offer  of  300 
talents  from  Aretas  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  5,  1;  War, 
i,  8,  1).  This  expedition  is  commemorated  on  a  coin. 
See  Scaurus.  The  successors  of  Scaurus  in  Syria 
also  prosecuted  the  war  with  the  Arabs  (Appian,  Syr. 
50) — Kitto,  s.  v. 


Probable  Coin  of  Aretas  II,  with  the  (Greek)  Inscription,  "Of 
King  Aretas  Philellenos"  [Lover  of  the  Greeks] — an  epithet 
perhaps,  assumed  by  him  on  acquiring  his  dominion. 

3.  Aretas,  whose  name  was  originally  ./Eneas  (Ai- 
vilac),  succeeded  Obodas  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvi.  9,  4). 
He  was  the  father-in-law  of  Herod  Antipas.  The  lat- 
ter made  proposals  of  marriage  to  the  wife  of  his  half- 
brother  Herod-Philip,  Herodias,  the  daughter  of  Aris- 
tobulus, their  brother,  and  the  sister  of  Agrippa  the 
Great.  (On  the  apparent  discrepancy  between  the 
Evangelists  and  Josephus,  in  reference  to  the  name  of 
the  husband  of  Herodias,  see  Lardner's  Credibility, 
etc.,  ii,  5  ;  Works,  1835,  i,  408-416.)  In  consequence 
of  this  the  daughter  of  Aretas  returned  to  her  father, 
and  a  war  (which  had  been  fomented  by  previous  dis- 
putes about  the  limits  of  their  respective  countries, 
see  Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  10,  9)  ensued  between  Aretas 
and  Herod.  The  army  of  the  latter  was  totally  de- 
stroyed ;  and  on  his  sending  an  account  of  his  disaster 
to  Rome  the  emperor  immediately  ordered  Vitellius  to 
bring  Aretas  prisoner  alive,  or,  if  dead,  to  send  his 
head  (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  5,  1).  But  while  Yitellius 
was  on  his  march  to  Petra,  news  arrived  of  the  death 
of  Tiberius  (A.D.  37),  upon  which,  after  administer- 
ing the  oath  of  allegiance  to  his  troops,  he  dismissed 
them  to  winter-quarters  and  returned  to  Rome  (Jo- 
seph. Ant.  xviii,  5,  3).  The  Aretas  into  whose  do- 
minions /Elius  Gellius  came  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
(Strabo,  xvi,  781)  is  probably  the  same.     There  is 


Supposed  Coin  of  Aretas  III,  with  a  similar  Legend  to  the 
foregoing. 

another  coin  extant  inscribed  ^iKiWrjvoc,  i.  e.  lover 
of  the  Greeks  (Eckhel,  Doctr.  Num.  iii,  330),  that  may 
have  belonged  to  this  Aretas. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  man}'  that  it  was  at  the 
above  juncture  that  Aretas  took  possession  of  Damas- 
cus, and  placed  a  governor  in  it  (i9i>ap\t]ij)  with  a 
garrison,  as  stated  by  the  Apostle  Paul :  "  In  Damas- 
cus the  governor  under  Aretas,  the  king,  kept  the 
city  of  the  Damascenes  with  a  garrison,  desirous  to 
apprehend  me;  and  through  a  window  in  a  basket 
was  I  let  down  by  the  wall,  and  escaped  his  hands" 
(2  Cor.  xi,  32,  compared  with  Acts  ix,  24).  In  that 
case  we  are  furnished  with  a  chronological  mark  in 


ARETAS 


386 


ARGENTEITS  CODEX 


the  apostle's  history.  From  Gal.  i,  18,  it  appears 
that  Paul  went  up  to  Jerusalem  from  Damascus  three 
years  after  bis  conversion.  See  Paul.  The  Empe- 
ror Tiberius  died  March  16,  A.D.  37 ;  and,  as  the  af- 
fairs of  Arabia  were  settled  in  the  second  year  of  Ca- 
ligula, Damascus  was  then  most  probably  reoccupied 
by  the  Romans.  The  city  under  Augustus  and  Tibe- 
rius was  attached  to  the  province  of  Syria ;  and  we 
have  Damascene  coins  of  both  these  emperors,  and 
again  of  Nero  and  his  successors.  But  we  have  none 
of  Caligula  and  Claudius,  and  the  following  circum- 
stances make  it  probable  that  the  rulership  of  Damas- 
cus was  changed  after  the  death  of  Tiberius.  By  this 
occurrence  at  Rome  a  complete  reversal  took  place  in 
the  situation  of  Antipas  and  his  enemy.  The  former 
was  ere  long  (A.D.  39)  banished  to  Lyons,  and  his 
kingdom  given  to  Agrippa,  his  foe  (Ant.  xviii,  7), 
who  had  been  living  in  habits  of  intimacy  with  the 
new  emperor  (Ant.  xviii,  6,  5).  It  would  be  natural 
that  Aretas,  who  had  been  grossly  injured  by  Antipas, 
should,  by  this  change  of  affairs,  be  received  into  fa- 
vor ;  and  the  more  so  as  Vitellius  had  an  old  grudge 
against  Antipas  (Ant.  xviii,  4,  5).  Now  in  the  year 
38  Caligula  made  several  changes  in  the  East,  granting 
Ituraaa  to  Soaemus,  Lesser  Armenia  and  parts  of  Ara- 
bia to  Cotys,  the  territory  of  Cotys  to  Rhasmetalces, 
and  giving  to  Polemon,  son  of  Polemon,  his  father's  gov- 
ernment. These  facts,  coupled  with  that  of  no  Dam- 
ascene coins  of  Caligula  or  Claudius  existing,  make 
it  probable  that  about  this  time  Damascus,  which  be- 
longed to  the  predecessor  of  Aretas  (Ant.  xiii,  5,  2), 
was  granted  to  him  by  Caligula.  The  other  hypoth- 
eses, that  the  ethnarch  was  onty  visiting  the  city  (as 
if  he  could  then  have  guarded  the  walls  to  prevent  es- 
cape), that  Aretas  had  seized  Damascus  on  Vitellius 
giving  up  the  expedition  against  him  (as  if  a  Roman 
governor  of  a  province  would  allow  one  of  its  chief 
cities  to  be  taken  from  him  merely  because  he  was  in 
uncertainty'  about  the  pulley  of  a  new  emperor),  are 
very  improbable  (Wieseler,  Chron.  cles  apostoliscken 
Zeitalters,  p.  174).  If,  then,  Paul's  flight  took  place 
in  A.D.  39,  his  conversion  must  have  occurred  in 
A.D.  36  (Neander's  History  of  the  Planting  of  the 
Christian  Church,  i,  107;  Lardner's  Credibility,  etc., 
Supplement,  ch.  xi ;  Works,  v,  497,  ed.  1835 ;  Schmidt 
in  Keil's  Analekt,  iii,  135  sq.  ;  Bertholdt,  Einl.  v,  2702 
sq.).  But  it  is  still  more  likely  that  the  possession 
of  Damascus  by  Aretas  to  which  Paul  alludes  occur- 
red earlier,  on  the  affront  of  his  daughter  by  the  es- 
pousal of  Herodias  (Luke  iii,  19,  20;  Mark  vi,  16; 
Matt,  xiv,  3),  which  stands  in  connection  with  the 
death  of  John  the  Baptist  (q.  v.) ;  and  in  that  case  it 
affords  neither  date  nor  difficulty  in  the  apostle's  his- 
tory (see  Browne's  Ordo  Sceclorum,  p.  113  n. ;  Cony- 
beare  and  Ilowson,  i,  82 ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog. 
s.  v.). — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Chronology. 

4.  One  or  more  other  kings  of  Arabia  by  the  same 
name  are  mentioned  in  history  (Strabo,  xvi,  781 ;  Dio 
Cass,  xxxvii,  15;  comp.  Assemann,  Bill.  Or.  i,  367; 
ii,  331 ;  III,  i,  139),  and  a  coin  of  one  of  them  is  ex- 
tant (Minuet,  Disc,  des  medailles  antiques,  p.  284,  285; 
comp.  Conybeare  and  Howson,  St.  Paul,  i.  107) ;  but 
it  is  not  clear  that  the  Aretas  whom  Josephus  names 
as  having  a  contest  with  Syllaeus  (Ant.  xvii,  3,  2; 
War,  i,  29,  3)  was  different 'from  the  preceding,  and 
the  succeeding  kings  of  that  name  are  unimportant  in 
any  Scriptural  relation  (see  Anger,  De  tempor.  ratione, 
p.  173;   llcyne,  De  Areta  Arubum  rege,  Viteb.  1775; 


Third  Coin  of  Areta-'  ill,  I  IT,  or  Inter,  perhaps  earlier),  with 
the  same  Inscription. 


Hcinold,  De  ethnarcha  Judaorum  Paulo  obsidiante,  Jen. 
1757). 

Aretas,  or  Arethas,  a  bishop  of  Caesarea,  in 
Cappadocia,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second 
half  of  the  sixth  century.  He  wrote  a  Commentary  on 
the  Revelation  (SuXAoy?)  t&iyijcUuv'),  giving  a  collec- 
tion of  the  opinions  of  different  authors.  See  Andkew 
(Bisho])  of  Ccesared). 

Aretius,  Benedict,  a  celebrated  theologian  and 
botanist ;  professor  of  logic  at  Marburg,  1548 ;  ap- 
pointed professor  of  languages  at  Berne,  in  Switzer- 
land, 1563,  and  professor  of  theology  the  same  year ; 
in  which  office  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1754, 
leaving  many  works,  among  them — 1.  Examtn  Theo- 
loyicum,  or  Loci  Communes  (Geneva,  1759  and  1617),  a 
voluminous  work,  much  sought  after  at  the  time : — 2. 
Commentarii  Breves  in  Pentaleuehum  (Berne,  1602): — 
3.  Lectiones  vii  de  Ceena  Domini  (Geneva,  1589): — 4. 
Also  Commentaries  on  the  Four  Gospels,  on  the  Acts, 
on  all  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  on  the  Apocalypse.  In 
1580  appeared  a  Commentary  on  the  whole  New  Tes- 
tament, in  11  vols.  8vo. — Adam,  Vita  Thcol.  Germ.; 
Landon,  Ecd.  Diet,  i,  512. 

Are'us,  a  king  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  whose  let- 
ter to  the  high-priest  Onias  is  given  in  1  Mace,  xii,  20 
sq.  He  is  so  called  in  the  A.  V.  in  ver.  20  and  in  the 
margin  of  ver.  7 ;  but  Oniares  in  ver.  19,  and  so  in  the 
Greek  text  'Oriapijg  (v.  r.  'OviapiQ,  'Ore iapt]c)  in  ver. 
20,  and  Darius  (Aapt Tor)  in  ver.  7  :  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  however,  that  these  are  corruptions  of  'Aptvg. 
In  Josephus  (Ant.  xii,  4,  10)  the  name  is  written 
(Aptloc)  as  in  the  Vulgate  Arms.  There  were  two 
Spartan  kings  of  the  name  of  Areus,  of  whom  the  first 
reigned  B.C.  309-265,  and  the  second,  the  grandson 
of  the  former,  died  when  a  child  of  eight  years  old  in 
B.C.  257.  There  were  three  high-priests  of  the  name 
of  Onias,  of  whom  the  first  held  the  office  B.C.  323- 
800.  This  is  the  one  who  must  have  written  the  let- 
ter to  Areus  I,  probably  in  some  interval  between  309 
and  300  (Grimm,  zu  Mace.  p.  185).  See  Onias.  This 
Areus  was  foremost  in  the  league  of  the  Greek  states 
against  Anti.aonus  Gonatus  (B.C.  280),  and  when  Pyr- 
rhus  attacked  Sparta  (B.C.  272)  he  repelled  him  by  an 
alliance  with  the  Arrives.  He  fell  in  battle  against 
the  Macedonians  at  Corinth  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Class. 
Biog.  s.  v.). — Smith,  s.  v. 

Argentetis,  Codex  (silver  manuscript},  a  MS. 
of  part  of  the  N.  T  ,  so  called  from  the  silver  letters  in 
which  it  is  written.  This  codex  is  preserved  in  the 
University  of  Upsal,  and  is  a  copy  from  the  Gothic 
version  of  Ulphilas,  which  was  made  in  the  fourth 
century.  It  is  of  a  quarto  size,  is  written  on  vellum, 
the  leaves  of  which  are  stained  with  a  violet  color ; 
and  on  this  ground  the  letters,  which  are  all  uncial,  or 
capitals,  are  painted  in  silver,  except  the  initial  let- 
ters, which  are  in  gold,  of  course  now  much  faded.  It 
contains  fragments  of  the  four  gospels  (in  the  Latin 
order,  Matth.,  John,  Luke,  Mark)  on  188  (out  of  about 
320)  leaves,  so  regularly  written  that  some  have  imag- 
ined they  were  impressed  with  a  stamp.  This  51 S. 
was  first  discovered  by  Ant.  Morillon  in  1597,  in  the 
library  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Werdcn,  in  "West- 
phalia, but  by  some  means  it  was  deposited  in  Prague, 
and  was  taken  to  Stockholm  by  the  Swedes  on  the 
capture  of  the  former  place  in  1648.  Queen  Christina 
appears  to  have  given  it  to  her  librarian  Vossius  prior 
to  1655,  and  while  in  his  hands  a  transcript  of  it  was 
made  by  one  Derrer.  Through  the  agency  of  Puffen- 
dorf,  it  was  purchased  by  Count  de  la  Gardie  for  the 
Swedish  library,  where  it  still  remains.  Vossius  had 
previously  placed  the  MS.  in  his  uncle  Junius's  hands 
for  publication ;  and  in  1665  the  text  of  the  Gothic 
gospels,  so  far  as  contained  in  this  codex,  was  edited 
at  Dort  under  his  care,  accompanied  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  version,  edited  by  Thos.  Marshall.  This  edi- 
tion was  in  Gothic  characters  cut  for  the  purpose,  and 


ARGENTINE  CONFEDERATION    387 


ARGOB 


for  it  Junius  employed  the  transcript  made  by  Derrer. 
— Tregelles,  in  Home's  Introd.  iv,  301.  See  Gothic 
Versions. 

Argentine  Confederation,  a  confederation  of 
states  in  South  America,  consisting  in  18(15,  when 
Buenos  Ayres,  which  had  seceded  in  1854,  had  been 
reunited  with  it,  of  14  provinces,  with  a  population  of 
about  1,171,800.  It  constituted  itself  an  independent 
state  in  1810.  The  population,  partly  Europeans,  part- 
ly Africans,  partly  Indians,  partly  of  mixed  descent, 
belong  mostly  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  country  district  (Pamperos)  surpass 
in  rudeness  all  other  tribes  of  South  America,  and 
show  very  little  interest  in  religion.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  has  five  bishoprics,  Buenos  Ayres, 
Cordova,  Salta,  Sarana,  and  Cuyo,  all  of  which  are 
suffragans  of  the  archbishop  of  Charcas,  in  Bolivia. 
In  1825  religious  toleration  was  granted  to  all  denom- 
inations, and  in  1834  mixed  marriages  were  allowed, 
provided  that  the  parents  agreed  to  bring  up  all  the 
children  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  tithes 
were  placed  under  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment, which  uses  one  part  of  them  for  school  and  other 
objects  of  common  interest.  The  convents  were  sup- 
pressed, except  one  convent  of  Franciscans  and  two 
convents  of  nuns,  and  their  property  confiscated. 
Later,  the  Dominicans  were  again  allowed  to  settle, 
and  the  Franciscans  to  receive  new  members  from 
Spain.  The  Jesuits  established  themselves  at  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1841.  In  1858  there  were  disturbances  at 
Buenos  Ayres  in  consequence  of  the  bishop  prohibit- 
ing ecclesiastical  rites  at  the  burial  of  free-masons. 
Protestant  missionaries  came  to  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation from  the  United  States  in  1835,  and  many 
copies  of  the  Scriptures  were  disseminated.  A  treaty 
with  the  United  States  in  1852  guaranteed  freedom  of 
Protestant  worship  and  burial.  The  Methodist  mis- 
sion in  Buenos  Ayres,  commenced  in  1830,  is  in  a 
flourishing  condition.  The  church  and  congregation 
support  the  pastor  and  pay  the  current  expenses  of  the 
church  and  parsonage.  According  to  the  report  of 
the  Rev.  William  Goodfellow,  superintendent  of  the 
Methodist  missions  in  South  America,  there  were,  in 
1864,  appointments  at  Tatay,  Lobos,  Guardia  del  Mon- 
te, Canuelas,  and  Tuyu,  all  in  the  province  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  At  Azul,  in  the  same  province,  about  seventy 
leagues  from  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  where  there  is 
a  fine  region,  rapidly  filling  up  with  good  Protestant 
settlers,  a  separate  charge  has  been  arranged,  holding 
a  quarterly  conference.  In  the  province  of  Santa  Fe, 
Rosario,  the  second  city  of  the  confederation,  with  an 
aggregate  population  of  12,000  or  more,  has  a  rapidly 
increasing  Protestant  population,  and  already  possesses 
a  Protestant  cemetery,  which  was  consecrated  in  18G4. 
At  Esperanza,  also  in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe,  there 
were  at  that  date  about  600  Protestants,  who  were  so 
located  as  to  constitute  an  important  point  in  reference 
to  further  extensions.  San  Carlos,  in  the  same  prov- 
ince, had  a  Protestant  population  of  300  Germans  and 
French,  whose  number  bade  fair  to  increase  rapidly  by 
immigration.  Another  settlement  of  European  Prot- 
estants was  at  San  Jose,  near  Parana,  in  the  province 
of  Entre  Rios.  It  was  expected  that  the  bulk  of 
these  Protestant  colonists  would  unite  with  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church.  In  1864  the  church  counted 
88  members  and  35  probationers,  and  a  flourishing 
Sunday-school,  with  155  scholars  and  20  officers.  See 
Wiggers,  Kirchliche  Statistic ;  46/7t  Annual  Report  of 
the  Miss.  Soc.  of  the  M.  E.  Chunk  (N.  Y.  18G5).  See 
America. 

Argentre,  Charles  du  Plessis  r>',  bishop  of 
Tulle,  was  born  in  the  Castle  du  Plessis,  near  Vitre, 
May  10,  1673,  and  died  Oct.  27, 1740.  In  1699  he  was 
appointed  by  Louis  XIV  to  the  abbey  of  St.  Cr.iix  de 
Guingamp,  and  in  1700  he  became  a  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  1705  he  attended  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  clergy  of  France  as  a  deputy  of  the  second  or- 


der from  the  province  of  Tours.  In  1707  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop  of  Treguier  vicar  general ;  in 
1709,  almoner  of  the  king ;  and  in  1723,  bishop  of 
Tulle.  In  1723  he  also  attended  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  clergy  of  France  as  a  deputy  of  the  first  or- 
I  der  from  the  province  of  Bourges.  He  wrote  numer- 
ous theological  and  philosophical  works,  among  which 
are  V Analyse  de  Foi  (against  Jurieu,  Lyons,  1698, 
2  vols.  12mo)  •  Lexicon  Philosophictim  (Hague,  1706, 
4to). — Hoefer,  Biographie  Generate,  iii,  130. 

Ar'gob  (Heb.  Argob',  nia"iX,  for  Sin,  with  X 
prosthetic,  stone-heap),  the  name  of  a  place  and  also 
of  a  man. 

1.  (Sept.  Apyw/3,  but  in  Kinp:s  'Epyo/3).  A  district 
in  Bashan  beyond  the  lake  Gennesareth,  containing 
60  cities  (Havoth-Jair),  originally  ruled  over  by  Og 
(Deut.  iv,  4,  13),  and  eventually  formed  into  a  pur- 
veyorship  by  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv,  13).  The  name 
may  probably  be  traced  in  the  Ragab  (2S"i)  of  the 
Mishna  {Menachoth,  viii,  3),  the  Rigobah  (ilSWU"1") 
of  the  Samaritan  version  (see  Winer's  Diss,  de  vers. 
Samar.  indole,  p.  55),  the  Ragaba  (Payafiu)  of  Jose- 
phus  {Ant.  xiii,  15,  5),  and  the  Arg'i  or  Ergaba  {'Eo- 
yaftci)  placed  by  Jerome  and  Eusebius  {Onomast.  s.  v. 
Argob)  15  Roman  miles  west  of  Gerasa  (see  Reland, 
Pahest.  p.  959).  Josephus  elsewhere  {Ant.  viii,  2,  3) 
seems  to  locate  it  in  Trachonitis  (q.  v.),  i.  e.  Gaulon- 
itis,  where  Burckhardt  is  disposed  to  find  it  in  El- 
Husn,  a  remarkable  ruined  site  {Syria,  p.  279),  but 
Mr.  Banks  {Quar.  Rev.  xxvi,  389)  has  assigned  this  to 
Gamala  (comp.  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1852,  p.  364).  Dr. 
Robinson  identifies  it  with  the  modern  village  with 
ruins  called  Rajib,  a  few  miles  north-east  of  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Jabbok  with  the  Jordan  {Researches,  iii, 
Append,  p.  166);  and  Dr.  Thomson  very  properly  re- 
marks that  it  probably  denotes  rather  the  whole  adja- 
cent region,  for  the  hill  on  which  l'\.\  Keis  (somewhat 
to  the  north)  stands  is  called  Arkiib  by  the  Bedouins 
{Land  and  Booh,  ii,  54). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

From  this  special  or  original  locality,  however,  the 
term  Argob  seems  to  have  been  extended  in  its  appli- 
cation to  designate  a  large  tract  to  the  north-east ;  for 
we  find  it  identified  (as  by  Josephus  above)  with  Tra- 
chonitis (i.  e.  the  rough  country)  in  the  Targums 
(Onkelos  and  Jonathan  Wnla,  Jerusalem  WlSHX). 
Later  we  trace  it  in  the  Arabic  version  of  Saadiah  as 
Mujeb  (with  the  same  meaning);  and  it  is  now  appar- 
ently identified  with  the  Lr-jah,  a  very  remarkable  dis- 
trict south  of  Damascus,  and  east  of  the  Sea  of  Gali- 
lee, which  has  been  visited  and  described  by  Burck- 
hardt (p.  111-119),  Seetzen,  and  Porter  (specially  ii, 
240-245).  This  extraordinary  region — about  22  miles 
from  north  to  south,  by  14  from  west  to  east,  and  of  a 
regular,  almost  oval  shape — has  been  described  as  an 
ocean  of  basaltic  rocks  and  boulders,  tossed  about  in 
the  wildest  confusion,  and  intermingled  with  fissures 
and  crevices  in  ever}'  direction.  "  It  is,"  says  Mr. 
Porter,  "wholly  composed  of  black  basalt,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  issued  from  innumerable  pores  in  the 
earth  in  a  liquid  state,  and  to  have  flowed  out  on  ev- 
ery side.  Before  cooling,  its  surface  was  violently  agi- 
tated, and  it  was  afterward  shattered  and  rent  by  in- 
ternal convulsions.  The  cup-like  cavities  from  which 
the  liquid  mass  was  extruded  are  still  seen,  and  like- 
wise the  wavy  surface  a  thick  liquid  assumes  which 
cools  while  flowing.  The  rock  is  filled  with  little  pits 
and  air-bubbles;  it  is  as  hard  as  flint,  and  emits  a 
sharp  metallic  sound  when  struck"  (p.  241).  "  Strange 
as  it  may  seem,  this  ungainly  and  forbidding  region 
is  thickly  studded  with  deserted  cities  and  villages,  in 
all  of  which  the  dwellings  are  solidly  built,  and  of  re- 
mote antiquity"  (p.  238).  The  number  of  these  towns 
visited  by  one  traveller  lately  returned  is  50,  and  there 
were  many  others  to  which  he  did  not  go.  A  Roman 
road  runs  through  the  district  from  south  to  north, 


ARGYLE 


388 


ARIANISM 


probably  between  Bosra  and  Damascus.  On  the  edge 
of  the  Lejah  are  situated,  among  others,  the  towns 
known  in  Biblical  history  as  Kenath  and  Edrei.  In 
the  a  I 'since  of  more  conclusive  evidence  on  the  point, 
a  strong  presumption  in  favor  of  the  identification  of 
the  Lejah  with  Argob  arises  from  the  peculiar  Hebrew 
word  constantly  attached  to  Argob,  and  in  this  defi- 
nite sense  apparently  to  Argob  only.  This  word  is 
bzn  (Che'bel),  literally  "a  rope"  {n\oiviaiia,Tiipifii- 
rpov, funiculus),  and  it  designates  with  striking  accu- 
raej'  the  remarkably  denned  boundary-line  of  the  dis- 
trict of  the  Lejah,  which  is  spoken  of  repeatedly  by  its 
latest  explorer  as  " a  rocky  shore ;"  "sweeping  round 
in  a  circle  clearly  defined  as  a  rocky  shore-line  ;"  "re- 
sembling a  Cyclopean  wall  in  ruins"  (Porter,  ii,  19, 
219,  239,  etc.).  The  extraordinary  features  of  this  re- 
gion are  rendered  still  more  remarkable  by  the  con- 
trast which  it  presents  with  the  surrounding  plain  of 
the  Hauran,  a  high  plateau  of  waving  downs  of  the 
richest  agricultural  soil  stretching  from  the  Sea  of  Gal- 
ilee to  the  Lejah,  and  beyond  that  to  the  desert,  almost 
literally  "  without  a  stone  ;"  and  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at — if  the  identification  proposed  above  be  cor- 
rect— that  this  contrast  should  have  struck  the  Israel- 
ites, and  that  their  language,  so  scrupulous  of  minute 
topographical  distinctions,  should  have  perpetuated  in 
the  words  Mishor  and  Chebel  (which  see  severally)  at 
once  the  level  downs  of  Bashan  (q.  v.),  the  stony  lab- 
yrinth which  so  suddenly  intrudes  itself  on  the  soil 
(Argob),  and  the  definite  fence  or  boundary  which  in- 
closes it. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Hauran. 

2.  (Sept.  'Aoyo/3.)  A  subaltern  or  ally  of  Pekahiah 
(B.C.  757),  as  appears  from  2  Kings  xv,  25,  where  we 
read  that  Pekah  conspired  against  Pekahiah,  king  of 
Israel,  "  and  smote  him  in  Samaria,  in  the  palace  of 
the  king's  house,  with  Argob  and  Arieh."  In  giving 
this  version,  some  think  our  translators  have  mistaken 
the  sense  of  the  original,  which  they  therefore  render 
"smote  him  in  the  harem  of  the  palace  of  the  king  of 
Argob  and  Arieh,"  as  if  these  were  the  names  of  two 
cities  in  Samaria.  Others,  however,  maintain,  with 
good  reason,  that  the  particle  TX  is  properly  trans- 
lated with,  i.  e.  these  two  officers  were  assassinated  at 
the  same  time ;  so  the  Sept.  (fUTa).  It  will  hardly 
bear  the  other  construction  :  the  word  strictly  denotes 
near  (Vvlg.juxta),  but  that  would  yield  no  tolerable 
sense  to  the  whole  passage  (see  Kiel,  Comment,  inloc). 
According  to  some,  Argob  was  an  accomplice  of  Pekah 
in  the  murder  of  Pekahiah.  But  Sebastian  Schmid 
explained  that  both  Argob  and  Arieh  were  two  princes 
of  Pekahiah  whose  influence  Pekah  feared,  and  whom 
he  therefore  slew  with  the  king.  Rashi  understands 
by  Argob  the  royal  palace,  near  which  was  the  castle 
in  which  the  murder  took  place.  In  like  manner, 
Arieh,  named  in  the  same  connection  ("the  lion,"  so 
called  probably  from  his  daring  as  a  warrior),  was  ei- 
ther one  of  the  accomplices  of  Pekali  in  his  conspira- 
cy against  Pekahiah,  or,  as  Schmid  understands,  one 
of  the  princes  of  Pekahiah,  who  was  put  to  death  with 
him.  Kaslii  explains  the  latter  name  literally  of  a 
golden  lion  which  stood  in  the  castle.     See  Pekah. 

Argyle  {Ergadid),  an  episcopal  see  in  Scotland; 
the  diocese  contains  the  counties  or  districts  of  Argyle, 
Lorn,  Kintire,  and  Lochaber,  with  some  of  the  West- 
ern Isles,  as  Lismore,  where  the  sec  is.  The  present 
title  of  the  sec  is  "Argyle  and  the  Western  Isles," 
and  the  incumbent  in  1865  was  Alexander  Ewing, 
D.D.,  consecrated  in  1847. 

Ari.     See  Lion. 

Arialdus,  deacon  and  martyr  of  the  church  of  Mi- 
lan in  the  llth  century.  The  Roman  Church  in  the 
north  of  Italy  was  then  very  corrupt;  a  wide-spread 
licentiousness,  originating  from  the  unnatural  institu- 
tion of  priestly  celibacy,  prevailed.  Great  numbers 
of  the   clergy   kept   concubines  openly.     Some  ear- 


nest men,  shocked  by  this  flagrant  evil,  vainly  im. 
agined  the  strict  enforcement  of  celibacy  the  only  ef- 
fectual cure.  Chief  among  these  reformers  stood  Ari- 
aldus, whose  life  was  one  continued  scene  of  violent 
controversy.  Although  successively  sanctioned  by 
Popes  Stephen  X,  Nicholas  II,  and  Alexander  II,  he 
found  little  sympathy  among  his  brethren,  and  used 
to  complain  that  he  could  only  get  laymen  to  assist 
him  in  his  agitation.  Having  at  length  succeeded 
in  obtaining  a  papal  bull  of  excommunication  against 
the  archbishop  of  Milan,  a  fierce  tumult  ensued  in  the 
cit)-,  whose  inhabitants  declared  against  Arialdus  and 
his  coadjutors.  Arialdus  now  fled  to  the  country  ;  but 
his  hiding-place  being  betrayed,  he  was  conveyed  cap- 
tive to  a  desert  isle  in  Lake  Maggiore,  where  he  was 
murdered  by  the  emissaries  of  the  archbishop,  and  his 
remains  thrown  into  the  lake,  June  28,  10C6.  He  was 
afterward  canonized  by  Pope  Alexander  II. — Acta 
Sanctorum,  June  28  ;  Chambers,  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. 

Arianism,  a  heresy  with  regard  to  the  person  of 
Christ  which  spread  widely  in  the  church  from  the 
fourth  to  the  seventh  centuries.  It  took  its  name  from 
Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  said  to  have  been  a 
Libyan,  and  a  man  of  subtle,  but  not  profound  mind. 
The  most  probable  account  is  that  he  Mas  educated  in 
the  school  of  Lucian  the  martyr  at  Antioch  ;  and  the 
doctrinal  position  of  Lucian  (scientifically  nearer  to  the 
subsequent  doctrine  of  Arius  than  of  Athanasius)  helps 
to  explain  not  only  how  Arius's  view  arose,  but  also  how 
it  happened  to  be  so  widely  received  (comp.  Dorner, 
Person  of  Christ,  div.  i,  vol.  ii,  p.  490;  Socrates,  Hist. 
Eccl.  ii,  10  ;  Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccl.  iii,  5).  He  is  said  to 
have  favored  Meletius  (q.  v.),  who  was  deposed  A.U. 
30G;  but  it  appears  that  Peter,  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
the  great  enemy  of  Meletius,  ordained  Arius  deacon 
(Sozom.  Hist.  Eccl.  i,  15)  about  A.D.  311,  but  soon,  on 
account  of  his  turbulentdisposition,  ejected  him.  When 
Peter  was  dead,  Arius  feigned  penitence  ;  and  being 
pardoned  by  Achillas,  who  succeeded  Peter,  he  was  by 
him  raised  to  the  priesthood,  and  intrusted  with  the 
church  of  Baucalis,  in  Alexandria  (Epiphan.  Hares. 
08,  4).  It  is  said  that  on  the  death  of  Achillas,  A.D. 
313,  Arius  was  greatly  mortified  because  Alexander 
Avas  preferred  before  him,  and  made  bishop,  and  that 
he  consequently  sought  every  occasion  of  exciting  tu- 
mults against  Alexander;  but  this  storj'  rests  simply 
on  a  remark  of  Theodoret  {Hist.  Eccles.  i,  2)  that  Arius 
was  envious  of  Alexander. 

I.  Ancient  Ar-ianism. — 1.  First  Period:  to  the  Council 
of  AVec.— The  eloquence  of  Arius  gained  him  popu- 
larity ;  and  he  soon  began  to  teach  a  doctrine  con- 
cerning the  person  of  Christ  inconsistent  with  His  di- 
vinity. When  Alexander  had  one  day  been  address- 
ing his  clergy,  and  insisting  that  the  Son  is  co-eternal, 
co-essential,  and  co-equal  with  the  Father  (oytion/ioj/ 
rov  narpop,  Kat  rt)v  airn)v  ovoiav  i\m',  Theod.  i,  11), 
Arius  opposed  him,  accused  him  of  Sabellianism,  and 
asserted  that  there  was  a  time  when  the  Son  was  not 
(Jiv  ore  ovk  <;)'  o  rnir),  since  the  Father  who  begot 
must  be  before  the  Son  who  was  begotten,  and  the  lat- 
ter, therefore,  could  not  be  eternal  (Socrat.  Hist.  Eccl. 
i,  5).  Such  is  the  account,  by  the  early  writers,  of  the 
origin  of  the  controversy.  But  if  it  had  not  begun  in 
this  way,  it  must  soon  have  began  in  some  other.  The 
points  in  question  had  not  arrived  at  scientific  pre- 
cision in  the  mind  of  the  church  ;  and  it  was  only  dur- 
ing the  Arian  controversy,  and  by  means  of  the  ear- 
nest struggles  invoked  by  it,  carried  on  through  mam' 
years,  causing  the  convocation  of  many  synods,  and 
employing  some  of  the  most  acute  and  profound  intel- 
lects the  church  has  ever  seen,  that  a  definite  and  per- 
manent form  of  truth  was  arrived  at  (Dorner,  Person 
of  Christ,  div.  i,  vol.  ii,  p.  227).  See  Athanasius.  At 
length,  Alexander  called  a  council  of  his  clergy,  which 
was  attended  by  nearly  one  hundred  Egyptian  and 
Libyan  bishops,  by  whom  Arius  was  deposed  and  ex- 
communicated (Sozom.  Hist.  Eccl.  i,  15).     This  deci- 


ARIANISM 


3S9 


ARIANISM 


sion  was  conveyed  to  all  the  foreign  bishops  by  cir- 1  sebius  of  Nicomedia*,  and  other  favorers  of  Arius,  by 
culars  sent  by  Alexander  himself  (A.D.  321).  Arius  which  an  epistle  was  written  to  "all  bishops,"  ex- 
retired  to  Palestine,  where  by  his  eloquence  and  tal-  I  horting  them  to  hold  fellowship  with  Arius  (Sozomen, 
ents  he  soon  gained  a  number  of  converts.  Eusebius,  j  i,  15).  Another  council  was  now  held  at  Alexandria 
bishop  of  Nicomedia,  who  had  also  studied  under  Lu-    (323  ?),  from  which  Alexander  sent  forth  an  encyclical 


cian,  and  doubtless  held  his  opinions,  naturally  in- 
clined to  favor  Arius,  who  addressed  to  Eusebius  a 
letter,  still  extant  (Epiphanius,  Hares.  GO.  G,  and  in 
Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccl.  i,  5),  from  which  we  derive  our 
knowledge  of  the  first  stage  of  Arian  opinion.  It  runs 
thus :  "We  cannot  assent  to  these  expressions, '  always 
Father,  always  Son;'  'at  the  same  time  Father  and 
Son  ;'  that '  the  Son  always  co-exists  with  the  Father  ;' 
that  '  the  Father  has  no  pre-existence  before  the  Son, 
no,  not  so  much  as  in  thought  or  a  moment.'  But  this 
we  think  and  teach,  that  the  Son  is  not  unbegotten, 
nor  a  part  of  the  unbegotten  by  any  means.  Nor  is 
he  made  out  of  any  pre-existent  thing ;  but,  by  the  will 
and  pleasure  of  the  Father,  he  existed  before  time  and 
ages,  the  only  begotten  God,  unchangeable  ;  and  that 
before  He  was  begotten,  or  made,  or  designed,  or  found- 
ed, he  was  not.  But  we  are  persecuted  because  we  say 
that  the  Son  has  a  beginning,  and  that  God  has  no 
beginning.  For  this  we  are  persecuted ;  and  because 
we  say  the  Son  is  out  of  nothing.  'Which  we  there- 
fore say,  because  he  is  not  a  part  of  God,  or  made 
out  of  any  pre-existent  thing"  {cicdaKopiev,  on  b  u'lbc, 
ouk  Iotiv  aykvvr]TOQ,  obct  fifpog  dytvvijTov  kcit  oho'tva 

TpUTTOV,   OllU    t£  VTTOKH/XIVOV  TIVOQ  '     ttXX'   DTI  ^E\t)fia- 

ti  icai  fiov\>j  vitinri]  irpb  \pbvwv  tcai  irpb  aiwviov 
Tr\t)ptiQ  dtoc,,  povoyeia)g,  dvaXXoifarog,  icai  irpiv  yev- 
v)]9ij,  i'/Toi  KTicQy,  i)  bpioOij,  »;  Srept\iw9>j,  ovk  yv  • 
ayivvijTog  yap  ovk  ijv  *  diUKojisBa  on  tnrapitv,  ap\i)v 
t\n  b  vibg,  b  ci  Sebe.  avapxbc,  tan  ....  Kai  on  tiira- 
ptv,  on  t%  oiiic  ovrwv  iar'tv '  ovrto  St  inraptv  k'iQoti 
ol>?t  pkpoQ  Stov  ovSe  t£  irKOKiipivov  rivoe).  Voigt 
(in  his  Lehre  des  Athanasius  von  Alexandrien)  gives  this 
letter,  with  critical  emendations,  which  elucidate  the 
development  of  the  opinions  of  Arius  (see  transl.  from 
Voigt,  by  Dr.  Schaefter,  in  B'Miotheca  Sacra,  xxi,  1- 
38).  The  second  direct  source  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
opinions  of  Arius  is  a  letter  addressed  by  him  to  Alex- 
ander (preserved  in  Epiphanius  Uteres.  69,  7,  and  in 
Athanasius,  De  Synod.  1G),  in  which  he  states  his  po- 
sitions plausibly  and  cautiously,  and  claims  that  they 
are  the  traditional  opinions  of  the  church.  "We  be- 
lieve that  there  are  three  Persons,  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost.  God,  the  cause  of  all  things,  is 
alone  without  beginning.  The  Son,  begotten  of  the 
Father  before  time,  made  before  the  ages  were  founded, 
was  not  before  he  was  begotten.  Nor  is  he  eternal,  or 
co-eternal,  or  begotten  at  the  same  time  with  the  Fa- 
ther." In  these  two  letters  Arius  teaches  that  the 
Father  alone  is  God,  and  that  the  Son  is  his  creature. 
He  still  regards  the  Son,  however,  "as  occupying  a 
unique  position  among  creatures;  as  unalterable  and 
unchangeable;  and  as  bearing  a  distinctive  and  pe- 
culiar likeness  to  the  Father"  (Dorner,  1.  c.  p.  236). 
He  terms  the  Son  "a  perfect  creature  of  God,  but  not 
as  one  of  the  creatures ;  an  offspring,  but  not  as  one 
of  those  who  are  generated"  (Ep.  ad  Alex.~).  Alexan- 
der now  wrote  a  letter  to  Alexander  of  Constantinople 
(Theod.  i,  4),  in  which  he  charges  Arius  with  teach- 
ing not  only  that  the  Son  is  less  than  the  Father,  but 
also  that  he  is  "liable  to  change,"  notwithstanding 
that  Arius,  in  the  epistles  cited  above,  speaks  of  the 
l  Son  as  "  unalterable  and  unchangeable"  (ftvaXXoiWoc, 
UTptTTTOc).  But  Arius  abandoned  these  terms,  and  set 
forth  the  changeableness  of  the  Son  without  reserva- 
tion in  his  Thalia  (Qakeia),  the  latest  of  his  writings 
known  to  us  (written  during  his  stay  at  Nicomedia). 
It  is  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  and  obviously 
addressed  to  the  popular  ear.  What  we  have  extant 
of  it  is  preserved  in  Athanasius  {cont.  Arianos,  i,  5-9 ; 
De  Synod.  15 ;  see  citations  from  all  the  remains  of 
Arius  in  Gieseler,  Ch.  History,  i,  §  79). 

A  council  was  called  in  Bithynia  (A.D,  323)  by  Eu- 


letter  against  Arius,  and  also  sharply  censured  Eusebi- 
us of  Nicomedia,  and  other  Eastern  bishops,  as  support- 
ers of  grave  heresy  (preserved  in  Socrates,  Hist.  Eccl. 
i,  6).  We  now  hear,  for  the  first  time,  the  name  of  Eu- 
sebius of  Caesarea  in  connection  with  the  controversy. 
He  did  not  accept  the  Arian  formula  (jjv  iron  ore  oinc 
yv) ;  but,  as  he  had  been  educated  in  Origen's  denial  of 
the  eternal  Sonship  of  Christ,  he  was  just  in  the  position 
to  suggest  a  compromise  between  the  opposing  parties. 
He  wrote  letters  in  this  spirit  (excusing  Arius)  to 
Alexander;  but  the  question  at  issue  was  a  funda- 
mental one,  ready  for  its  final  decision,  and  the  day  of 
compromise  was  past  and  gone  (Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccl. 
i,  15  ;  Epiphanius,  Hares.  69,  4 ;  see  Eusebius  of  Gjet- 
sarea).  The  controversy  had  now  spread  like  a 
flame  throughout  the  Eastern  empire,  and  at  last  Con- 
stantine  found  it  absolutely  necessary  to  bring  it  to  a 
point.  At  first  he  sought  to  reconcile  Alexander  and 
Arius  by  a  letter  in  which  he  urged  them  to  drop  dis- 
cussion on  unessential  points,  and  to  agree  together 
for  the  harmony  of  the  church.  This  letter  was  con- 
veyed by  his  court  bishop,  Hosius ;  but  he  met  with 
no  success,  and  an  uproar  arose  in  Alexandria,  in 
which  the  effigy  of  the  emperor  himself  was  insulted. 
As  all  the  provincial  synods  had  only  helped  to  fan 
the  flame  of  strife,  Constantine  determined  to  call  a 
general  council  of  bishops,  and  accordingly  the  first 
(ecumenical  council  was  held  at  Nice,  A.D.  325,  con- 
sisting of  318  bishops,  most  of  whom  were  from  the 
East.     (See  Nice,  Council  of.) 

The  gist  of  the  question  to  be  settled  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  lay  in  the  summary  argument  of  Arius : 
"The  Father  is  a  Father;  the  Son  is  a  Son;  there- 
fore the  Father  must  have  existed  before  the  Son ; 
therefore  once  the  Son  was  not;  therefore  he  was 
made,  like  all  creatures,  of  a  substance  that  had  not 
previously  existed."  This  was  the  substance  of  the 
doctrine  of  Arius.  His  intellect,  logical,  but  not  pro- 
found or  intuitive,  could  not  embrace  the  lofty  doc- 
trine of  an  eternal,  unbeginning  generation  of  the  Son. 
In  a  truly  rationalistic  way,  he  thought  that  he  could 
argue  from  the  nature  of  human  generation  to  divine  ; 
not  seeing  that  his  argument,  while  insisting  on  the 
truth  of  the  Sonship  of  Christ,  ended  by  alienating 
Him  wholly  from  the  essence  of  the  Father.  "The 
Arian  Christ  was  confessedly  lacking  in  a  divine  na- 
ture, in  every  sense  of  the  term.  Though  the  Son  of 
God  was  united  with  human  nature  in  the  birth  of 
Jesus,  yet  that  Son  of  God  has  a  Kriapa.  He  indeed 
existed  long  before  that  birth,  but  not  from  eternity. 
The  only  element,  consequently,  in  the  Arian  con- 
struction of  Christ's  person  that  was  preserved  intact 
and  pure  was  the  humanity"  (Shedd,  History  of  Doc- 
trines, i,  393).  Of  the  debates  upon  these  great  ques- 
tions in  the  Council  of  Nice  no  full  account  is  extant. 
Athanasius,  who  was  then  a  deacon  under  Alexander, 
bore  a  prominent  part  in  the  council,  and  contributed 
largely  to  its  decisions,  in  defence  of  which  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  chiefly  occupied.  See  Atha- 
nasius. For  an  account  of  the  proceedings,  as  far  as 
known,  see  Kaye,  Council  of  Nicwa  (Lond.  1853). 
Eusebius  of  Cassarea  was  also  a  chief  actor  in  the 
council,  and  sought,  in  harmony  with  his  character 
and  habits,  to  act  as  mediator.  He  proposed,  finally, 
a  creed  which  he  declared  he  had  "received  from  the 
bishops  who  had  preceded  him  and  from  the  Scriptures" 
(Socrates,  Eccl.  Hist,  i,  8),  which  received  the  imme- 
diate approbation  of  Constantine.  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, contain  the  word  bpoovaaoc,  which  was  insisted 
upon  by  the  orthodox.  (It  is  given  in  parallel  col- 
umns with  the  Nicene  Creed  in  Christian  lu-mem- 
brancer,  January,  1854,  p.  133.)    The  Creed,  as  finally 


ARIANISM 


300 


ARIANISM 


adopted,  condemned  the  heresy  of  Arias,  and  fixed  the 
doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ  as  it  has  been  held  in 
the  church  to  this  day,  declaring  the  Son  to  be  "be- 
gotten of  the  Father  before  all  worlds,  God  of  God, 
Light  of  Light,  very  God  of  very  God,  begotten,  not 
made,  of  one  substance  with  the  Father,  by  whom  all 
things  were  made"  (see  Socrates,  Eccl.  Hist,  i,  8  ;  and 
article  Creed,  Nicene).  According  to  Sozomen  (i, 
20),  all  the  bishops  but  fifteen,  according  to  Socrates 
(i,  8),  all  but  five,  signed  the  Creed.  These  five  were 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  Theognis  of  Nice,  Maris  of 
Chalcedon,  Thomas  of  Marmarica,  and  Secundus  of 
Ptolemais;  and  of  these  only  the  two  last  held  out 
against  the  threat  of  banishment  made  by  the  emperor. 
Arius  was  excommunicated  and  banished,  and  his 
books  ordered  by  the  emperor  to  be  burnt. 

2.  From  the  Council  of  Nice  to  the  Council  of  Milan. 
— Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia  and  Theognis  of  Nice,  being  found  to 
continue  their  countenance  of  the  Arian  cause  by  re- 
fusing to  carry  out  its  anathemas,  were  deposed,  were 
both  subjected  to  the  same  penalty  of  exile  by  the  em- 
peror, and  had  successors  appointed  to  their  sees.  By 
imposing  upon  the  credulity  of  Constantino,  they  were 
in  three  years  restored,  and  gained  considerable  in- 
fluence at  court  (Sozom.  ii,  16,  27).  The  indulgent 
emperor,  on  the  statement  being  made  to  him  (by  a 
presbyter  of  the  household  of  his  sister  Constantia, 
who  herself  favored  Arianism,  and  on  her  death-bed 
recommended  this  presbyter  to  Constantine)  that  Ari- 
us had  been  misrepresented,  and  differed  in  nothing 
that  was  important  from  the  Nicene  fathers,  had  him 
recalled  from  banishment,  and  required  him  to  present 
in  writing  a  confession  of  his  faith  (Socrates,  Hist.  Ec- 
cles.  i,  25).  He  did  this  in  such  terms  as,  though  they 
admitted  a  latent  reservation,  yet  appeared  entirely 
orthodox,  and  therefore  not  only  satisfied  the  emperor, 
but  offended  some  of  his  own  friends,  who  from  that 
time  separated  from  him  (see  the  Creed  in  Socrates,  i, 
26).  Athanasius,  now  bishop  of  Alexandria,  was  not 
so  easily  imposed  upon,  but  was  resolute  in  refusing 
Arius  admission  to  the  communion,  since  the  Nicene 
Council  had  openly  condemned  him,  until  a  similar 
synod  should  receive  his  submission  and  restore  him. 
The  Synod  of  Tyre,  convened  A.D.  335  by  the  em- 
peror, tried  Athanasius  on  trumped-up  charges  of  im- 
morality, and  he  was  banished.  The  emperor  then 
sent  for  Arius  to  Constantinople,  and,  after  receiving 
his  signature  to  the  Nicene  Creed,  insisted  on  his  be- 
ing received  to  communion  by  Alexander,  the  bishop 
of  that  city.  On  the  day  before  this  reception  was  to 
have  taken  place  Arius  died  suddenly  (A.D.  336)  (Soc- 
rates, i,  26-38). 

Constantine  died  A.D.  337,  and  the  empire  fell  to 
his  three  sons,  Constantine  II  in  Gaul;  Constantius  in 
the  East ;  Constans  in  Italy  and  Gaul.  The  latter 
was  a  friend  and  protector  of  Athanasius.  The  relig- 
ious question  was  now  greatly  mixed  up  with  politics. 
On  the  death  of  the  younger  Constantine,  the  emperor 
of  the  East,  Constantius  (340),  took  the  Arians  formal- 
ly under  his  protection  (Sozom.  iii,  18).  Eusebius  ob- 
tained great  influence  with  Constantius,  and  became 
bishop  of  Constantinople  A.D.  339,  and  secured  per- 
mission for  the  Arians  to  celebrate  public  worship  at 
Alexandria  and  other  places  of  the  Eastern  empire. 
Nevertheless,  a  council  was  held  at  Antioch,  A.D. 
341,  in  which  the  Eastern  bishops  declared  that  they 
could  not  be  followers  of  Arius,  because  "how  coidd 
we,  being  bishops,  be  followers  of  a  presbyter?"  In 
this  synod  four  creeds  were  approved,  in  which  an 
endeavor  was  made  to  steer  a  middle  course  between 
the  Nicaean  Eomoousm  and  the  definitions  of  Arius, 
which  two  points  were  considered  to  be  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  divergence  from  the  standard  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal orthodoxy  in  the  Fast.  These  four  Antiochene 
creeds  are  extant  in  Athanasius,  //,  Synodis,  §  22-25 
(sec  Gieseler,  Ch.  History,  i,  §  80).     As  this  middle 


course  originated  with  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  its  ad- 
herents were  called  Fusebians.  The  Council  of  Anti- 
och deposed  Athanasius,  who  went  to  Rome,  and  was 
fully  recognized  as  orthodox  by  the  Synod  of  Fome, 
A.D.  342.  Another  Arian  council  met  at  Antioch, 
A.D.  345,  and  drew  up  what  was  called  the  long  Creed 
{j.iaKp6arL\0Q,  to  be  found  in  Socrates,  Hist.  Eccl.  ii, 
18),  leaving  out  the  homoousion,  which  the}'  sent  to  the 
council  of  Western  bishops  summoned  by  Constans  at 
Milan  (A.D.  346).  The  Milan  council  not  only  rejected 
this  creed,  but  required  the  deputies  who  brought  it  to 
sign  a  condemnation  of  Arianism.  Of  course  they  left 
the  council  in  wrath.  The  emperors  Constantius  and 
Constans  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  combatants  for 
Oriental  and  Occidental  orthodoxy  by  calling  a  general 
council  of  both  East  and  West  at  Sardica,  in  Illyricum, 
A.D.  347  (according  to  Mansi  A.D.  344,  putting  back 
also  the  preceding  dates)  ;  but  the  Eusebians  refused 
to  remain  in  the  council  unless  Athanasius  and  other 
heterodox  bishops  were  excluded.  Failing  in  this, 
the}'  retired  to  the  neighboring  city  of  Philippopolis, 
leaving  their  opponents  alone  at  Sardica.  Eusebian- 
ism  was,  under  Constantius,  as  victorious  in  the  East 
as  the  Nicene  Creed  was,  under  Constans,  in  the  West. 
The  Eusebians  procured  the  deposition  of  Marcellus, 
bishop  of  Ancyra,  on  a  charge  of  Sabellianism.  After 
the  death  of  Constans,  A.D.  350,  and  the  victory  ove» 
Matrnentius,  A.D.  353,  Constantius  endeavored  to  es- 
tablish Arianism  by  force  in  the  West.  In  the  synods 
of  Aries,  A.D.  354,  and  of  Milan,  A.D.  355,  he  com- 
pelled the  assembled  bishops  to  sign  the  condemnation 
of  Athanasius,  though  most  of  them  were,  it  is  thought, 
orthodox.  Hosius  of  Cordova  and  Liberius  of  Rome, 
refusing  to  sign,  were  deprived  of  their  sees.  Atha- 
nasius was  expelled  from  Alexandria  (A.D.  356),  and 
George  of  Cappadocia  put  in  his  place,  not  without 
force  of  arms.  Constantius  persecuted  the  orthodox 
relentlessly,  and  it  seemed  for  a  time  as  if  their  cause 
were  irretrievably  ruined.  Even  Hosius  (now  a  cen- 
tury old)  and  Liberius  were  brought  to  sign  a  con- 
fession which  excluded  the  homoousion. 

3.  Divisions  among  the  Arians:  History  to  the  Council 
of  Constantinople. — A  new  era  now  began  with  this  ap- 
parent triumph  of  Arianism.  Heretofore  the  various 
classes  of  opponents  of  the  orthodox  doctrine  had  been 
kept  together  by  the  common  bond  of  opposition. 
Now  that  the  state  and  church  were  both  in  their 
power,  their  differences  of  doctrine  soon  became  ap- 
parent. The  reins  of  government  were  really  in  the 
hands  of  the  Eusebians  (q.  v.),  whose  opinions  were  a 
compromise  between  strict  Arianism  and  orthodoxy. 
The  strict  Arians  were  probably  in  a  minority  during 
the  whole  period  of  the  strife.  Their  leaders  at  this 
period  were  Aetius  of  Antioch,  Eunomius  of  Cappado- 
cia,* and  Acacius  of  Cajsarea ;  and  from  them  the  parties 
were  called  Aetians,  Eunomians,  Acacians.  They  were 
also  called  avopoun  (Anomoeans),  because  they  denied 
the  sameness  of  the  essence  of  the  Son  with  the  Fa- 
ther ;  and  also  Heterousians,  as  they  held  the  Son  to  be 
tnnoovaioc  (of  different  essence),  inasmuch  as  the  un- 
begotten,  according  to  their  materialistic  way  of  judg- 
ing, could  not  be  similar  in  essence  to  the  begotten. 
Actins  and  Eunomius  sought,  at  the  first  Council  of 
Sirmium  (A.D.  351),  to  put  an  end  to  all  communion 
between  Arians  and  orthodox;  but  they  were  vigor- 
ously met  by  the  Semi-Arians,  led  by  "Basilius,  bish- 
op of  Ancyra,  and  Georgius,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  who 
held  fast  by  the  position  of  the  Eusebians,  viz.  that 
the  Son  is  of  similar  essence  with  the  Father  (i^toiov- 
(tioc),  and  were  hence  called  Homoiousiaus  and  Snni- 
Arians.  Constantius  was  attached  to  the  Semi-Arians, 
but  a  powerful  part}'  about  his  court  exerted  them- 
selves with  no  less  cunning  than  perseverance  in  favor 
of  the  Anomoeans.  And  because  they  could  not  pub- 
licly vindicate  their  formula,  they  persuaded  the  em- 
peror that,  in  order  to  restore  peace,  the  formulas  of 
the  two  other  parties  also  must  be  prohibited,  which 


ARIANISM 


391 


ARIANISM 


measure  they  brought  about  at  the  second  synod 
of  Sirmium  (A.D.  357.  The  formula  is  given  in 
Waleh,  Bibl.  iSymb.  p.  133).  On  the  other  hand,  Ba- 
sil, bishop  of  Aneyra,  called  together  a  synod  at  An- 
cyra  (35*),  which  established  the  Semi-Arian  creed, 
and  rejected  the  Arian  (see  the  decrees  in  Epiphan. 
Hcer.  73 ;  the  confession  of  faith  adopted  by  the  syn- 
od, in  Athanas.  de  Syn.  §  41).  Constantius  allowed 
himself  to  be  easily  convinced  that  the  Sirmium  for- 
mula favored  the  Anomceans,  and  the  confession  of 
faith  adopted  at  the  second  was  now  rejected  at  a 
third  synod  of  Sirmium  (358),  and  the  anathemas 
of  the  Synod  of  Aneyra  were  confirmed.  The  Ano- 
moeans, for  the  purpose  of  uniting  in  appearance 
with  the  Semi-Arians,  and  yet  establishing  their  own 
doctrine,  now  adopted  the  formula  tov  v'ibv  ufioiov 
rqi  -trarpi  Kara  Trdvra  wc.  at  liyica  ypa<pai  Xsyovai  re 
kal  diSdffKovai  (the  Son  is  similar  to  the  Father  in 
all  respects,  as  the  Scriptures  say  and  teach),  and 
succeeded  in  convincing  the  emperor  that  all  parties 
might  be  easily  united  in  it.  For  this  all  bishops  were 
now  prepared,  and  then  the  "Westerns  were  summoned 
to  a  council  at  Ariminum,  the  Easterns  to  another  at 
Seleucia,  simultaneously  (359).  After  many  efforts, 
the  emperor  at  last  succeeded  in  getting  most  of  the 
bishops  to  adopt  that  formula.  But,  along  with  this 
external  union,  not  only  did  the  internal  doctrinal 
schism  continue,  but  there  were  besides  differences 
among  such  as  had  been  like-minded,  whether  they 
had  gone  in  with  that  union  or  not.  Thus  Constan- 
tius, at  his  death,  left  all  in  the  greatest  confusion 
(A.D.  360).  The  new  emperor,  Julian  (361-303),  was, 
as  a  Pagan,  of  course  equally  indifferent  to  all  Chris- 
tian dogmas,  and  restored  all  the  banished  bishops  to 
their  sees.  Jovian  also  (f  364),  and  his  successors  in 
the  West,  Valentinian  (f  375),  then  Gratian  and  Val- 
entinian  II,  maintained  general  toleration.  On  the 
contrary,  Valens,  emperor  of  the  East  (364-378),  was 
a  zealous  Arian,  and  persecuted  both  orthodox  and 
Semi-Arians. 

"Various  causes  had  contributed,  since  the  death  of 
Constantius,  to  increase  in  the  East  the  number  of  ad- 
herents to  the  Nicene  Creed.  The  majority  of  the 
Orientals,  who  held  fast  by  the  emanation  of  the  Son 
from  the  Father,  were  naturally  averse  to  strict  Arian- 
ism  ;  while  the  Nicene  decrees  were  naturally  allied 
to  their  ideas,  as  being  fuller  developments  of  them. 
Moreover,  the  orthodox  were  united  and  steadfast; 
the  Arians  were  divided  and  wavering.  Finally,  the 
influence  of  Monachism,  which  had  now  arisen  in 
Egypt)  an(i  was  rapidly  becoming  general  and  influ- 
ential, was  bound  up  with  the  fortunes  of  Athanasius  ; 
and  in  all  countries  where  it  was  diffused,  was  busy  in 
favor  of  the  Nicene  Creed.  One  of  the  first  of  the  im- 
portant converts  was  Meletins,  formerly  an  Acacian 
Arian,  who  declared  himself  in  favor  of  the  Nicene 
Creed  immediately  after  he  had  been  nominated  bish- 
op of  Antioch,  A.D.  361.  But  the  old  Nicene  commu- 
nity, which  had  still  existed  in  Antioch  from  the  time 
of  Eustathius,  and  was  now  headed  by  a  prest>3'ter, 
Paulinus,  refused  to  acknowledge  Meletius  as  bishop 
on  the  charge  that  he  was  not  entirely  orthodox  (Soc- 
rates, Hist.  Eccl.  ii,  44).  The  Council  of  Alexandria, 
assembled  by  Athanasius  (362),  sought,  indeed,  not 
only  to  smooth  the  way  generally  for  the  Arians  to 
join  their  party  by  mild  measures,  but  endeavored  par- 
ticularly to  settle  this  Antiochian  dispute;  but  Luci- 
fer, bishop  of  Calaris,  gave  firm  footing  to  the  Meletian 
schism  about  the  same  time  by  consecrating,  as  bishop, 
Paulinus  the  Eustathian.  The  Westerns  and  Egyp- 
tians acknowledged  Paulinus,  the  Oriental  Nicenes, 
Meletius,  as  the  orthodox  bishop  of  Antioch.  If  the  em- 
peror Valens  (364-378)  had  now  favored  the  Semi-Ari- 
ans instead  of  the  Arians,  he  might,  perhaps,  have  con- 
siderably checked  the  further  spread  of  the  Nicene 
party ;  but,  since  he  wished  to  make  Arianism  alone  pre- 
dominant by  horribly  persecuting  all  who  thought  dif- 


ferently, he  drove  by  this  means  the  Semi-Arians,  who 
did  not  sink  under  the  persecution,  to  unrte  still  more 
closely  with  the  Nicenes.  Thus  a  great  part  of  the 
Semi-Arians  (or,  as  they  were  now  also  called,  Mace- 
donians, from  Macedonius,  bishop  of  Constantinople, 
who  had  been  deposed  in  360,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Arians)  declared  themselves,  at  several  councils  of  Asia 
Minor,  in  favor  of  the  Nicene  confession,  and  sent  an 
embassy  to  Rome  to  announce  their  assent  to  it  (366). 
The  Arians,  supported  by  the  emperor  Valens,  en- 
deavored to  counteract  this  new  turn  of  affairs ;  yet 
the  Macedonians  were  always  passing  over  more  and 
more  to  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  for  this  the  three  great 
teachers  of  the  Church,  Basil  the  Great,  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus,  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  began  now  to 
work.  These  new  Oriental  Nicenians  did  not  believe 
their  faith  changed  by  their  assent  to  the  Nicene  for- 
mula, but  thought  they  had  merely  assumed  a  more 
definite  expression  for  it  in  the  rightly -understood 
ofioovaioc.  Since  they  supposed  that  they  had  un- 
changeably remained  steadfast  to  their  faith,  they  also 
continued  to  consider  their  Eusebian  and  Semi-Arian 
fathers  as  orthodox,  although  condemned  by  the  old 
Nicenes.  Thus  the  canons  of  the  Oriental  councils 
held  during  the  schism  constantly  remained  in  force, 
particularly  those  of  the  Council  of  Antioch,  A.D.  341, 
and  of  Laodicea  (perhaps  A.D.  363),  which  canons  af- 
terward passed  over  from  the  Eastern  to  the  Western 
Church.  During  this  time  new  schisms  arose  from 
new  disputes  on  other  points  of  doctrine.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  controversies  respect- 
ing the  Logos,  had  for  a  long  time  remained  untouched. 
But  when,  in  the  East,  not  only  the  Semi-Arians,  but 
also  many  of  the  new  Nicenians,  could  not  get  rid  of 
the  Arian  idea  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  a  creature  and 
servant  of  God,  the  other  Nicenes  took  great  offence 
at  this,  and  opposed  these  errorists  as  Trvtvj.utTopaxovQ 
(afterward  Macedonians).  Finally  Apollinarism  arose 
(see  Apollinaris). 

"Thus  Theodosius,  who,  as  a  Spaniard,  was  a  zeal- 
ous adherent  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  found  at  his  accession 
to  the  throne  of  the  West  (379)  universal  toleration  ; 
in  the  East,  Arianism  prevalent,  the  Homoousians 
persecuted,  and,  besides  them,  the  parties  of  the  Photin- 
ians,  Macedonians,  and  Apollinarists,  with  innumera- 
ble other  sects,  existing.  After  conquering  the  Goths, 
he  determined  to  put  an  end  to  these  prolonged  and 
destructive  strifes.  Accordingly,  he  summoned  a 
general  council  at  Constantinople  (381),  by  which  the 
schism  among  the  Nicenes  was  peaceably  removed, 
and  the  Nicene  Creed  enlarged,  with  additions  direct- 
ed against  heretics  who  had  risen  up  since  its  origin 
(see  Creed,  Nicene).  Valentinian  II  allowed  the 
Arians  in  the  West  to  enjoy  freedom  of  religion  some 
years  longer;  but  the  case  was  quite  altered  by  Theo- 
dosius, and  a  universal  suppression  of  the  sect  ensued. 
The  last  traces  of  its  existence  in  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire appear  under  the  Emperor  Anastasius  at  Con- 
stantinople, 491-518"  (Gieseler,  Church  History,  §  81). 

4.  Closing  Period  of  Ancient  A  rianism. — In  the  West, 
Arianism  maintained  itself  for  a  long  time  among  the 
German  tribes,  which  had  received  Christianity  in  the 
Arian  form  under  the  emperor  Valens.  Arianism 
was  carried  by  the  Ostrogoths  into  Italy,  by  the  Visi- 
goths into  Spain,  and  by  the  Vandals  into  Africa. 
The  Ostrogoths,  though  strong  Arians,  did  not  perse- 
cute the  orthodox.  Arianism  remained  among  them 
till  the  destruction  of  the  Ostrogoth  kingdom  by  Jus- 
tinian (A.D.  553).  More  intolerant  against  the  Cath- 
olics were  the  Visigoths;  but  Arianism  gradually  lost 
hold  upon  them,  and  finally,  under  the  guidance  of 
their  king,  Reccaredus,  they  adopted  the  Nicene  Creed, 
and  were  received  into  the  Catholic  Church  by  the 
Council  of  Toledo  (A.D.  589).  The  Arian  Vandals,  af- 
ter conquering  Africa  in  429,  under  the  leadership  of 
Genseric,  instituted  a  furious  persecution  against  the 
Catholics,  which  did  not  cease  until  the  destruction  of 


ARIANISM 


392 


ART  AN  ISM 


the  Vandal  empire  through  Belisarius  in  534.  The 
Suevi  of  Spain  became  Arians  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century,  probably  in  consequence  of  their  con- 
nection with  the  Visigoths ;  they  went  over  to  the 
Catholic  Church  in  558,  under  Theodemir.  The  Bur- 
gundians,  who  came  to  Gaul  as  pagans  in  417,  appear 
as  Arians  in  440.  The  progress  of  the  Catholic  Church 
among  this  tribe  is  especially  due  to  Aristus  of  Vien- 
na, who  gained  oyer  the  son  of  king  Gundobad,  Sigis- 
mund,  who,  after  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  517, 
secured  to  the  Catholic  Church  the  ascendency.  No- 
where did  the  Arian  doctrine  maintain  itself  so  long 
as  among  the  Lombards.  They  invaded  Italy  (A.D. 
568),  and  founded  a  new  kingdom  at  Pavia,  and  their 
king,  Antharis,  embraced  Arian  Christianity  in  587 ; 
but  when  his  successor  Agilulph  married  Theudelin- 
da,  the  Catholic  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Bavaria,  the 
orthodox  faith  soon  found  adherents  among  them, 
and  the  son  of  Theudelinda,  Adclward,  gave  all  the 
churches  to  the  Catholics.  But  this  called  forth  a  re- 
action. An  Arian  ascended  the  throne,  who,  howev- 
er, was  unable  to  suppress  Catholicism  ;  and  we  now 
find  in  every  important  city  in  Lombardy  both  a  Cath- 
olic and  an  Arian  bishop.  Under  Luitprand,  who  died 
in  744,  the  Catholic  Church  was  entirely  predominant. 
But,  although  Arianism  was  externally  suppressed,  its 
long  prevalence  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Northern  Italy 
left  behind  it  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical supremacy  of  Borne,  and  made  these  countries  a 
fertile  soil  for  the  spreading  of  dissenting  doctrines. 
See  Revillont,  de  I'Arianisme  des  Ptvjyks  Germaniques 
(Paris,  1850,  8vo). 

II.  Modern  Arianism. — After  the  Reformation, 
the  Antitrinitarians,  who  soon  appeared,  were  chiefly 
Socinians.  In  Italy  they  especially  developed  them- 
selves, and  Alciati  (1555)  commenced  his  heretical 
course  with  teaching  that  Christ  was  divine,  but  infe- 
rior to  the  Father.  Kis  views  were  adopted  by  Job. 
Val.  Gentilis  (q.  v.),  an  acute  Calabrian,  who  was  be- 
headed at  Berne  (1566),  after  goin<_r  far  beyond  Arian- 
ism in  heresy.  The  earlier  English  writers  on  the 
Church  history  of  the  period  tell  of  Arians  put  to  death 
in  England  for  heresy  under  Elizabeth.  Plowright 
(t  1579),  Lewis  (f  1583),  Cole  and  Ket  (f  1588),  are 
named  by  Fuller,  who,  as  well  as  Burnet,  speak  of 
Arian  sentiments  as  held  and  propagated  by  various 
individuals  in  England  after  the  Reformation.  There 
is  so  much  vagueness  and  inaccuracy  in  the  way  in 
which  they  speak  about  them  that  little  dependence 
can  be  placed  on  most  of  the  allegations.  Arian  views 
were  probably  held  by  individuals  from  time  to  time ; 
but  no  important  manifestation  took"  place  till  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century,  when  Arianism  made  its 
appearance  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  also  among 
Dissenters.  Thomas  Emlyn  (q.  v.),  an  English  Pres- 
byterian (but  pastor  in  Dublin),  was  deposed  for  Ari- 
anism by  the  Presbytery  of  Dublin  in  1698  (see  Eeid, 
Hist.  ofPresbyt.  Ch.  in  Ireland,  iii,  14),  and  afterward 
wrote  largely  on  the  controversy  (Emlyn,  Works,  uitk 
Life,  Lond.  1746,  3  vols.  8vo).  In  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land Arian  views  were  set  forth  by  Whisfon,  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Cambridge,  in  his  Primitive  Chris- 
tianity /,'.  vived  (Lond.  1711,  4  vols.  8vo),  the  last  volume 
of  which  contains  an  account  of  what  he  considered  the 
primitive  faith  in  the  person  of  Christ,  and  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  and  the  first  volume  a  historical  account 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  University  and  Convocation 
against  him.  His  sentiments  were  declared  heretical, 
and  he  was  ejected  from  his  chair  at  Cambridge,  lie 
still,  however,  went  on  to  write,  and  produced  a  fifth 
volume  of  his  Primitivi  Christianity  Revived,  in  1712 ; 
his  Council  of  Nice  Vindicated  from  the  Athanasian 
Beresy,  in  1713;  bis  Letter  to  ///<  Earl  of  Nottingham, 
on  the  Eternity  of  the  Son  of  God  and  the  Holy 
Ghost,  1719;  to  which  Lord  Nottingham  replied  in 
1720.  Whiston  went  on  to  the  end  of  his  life  occa- 
sionally publishing  on  the  subject.     Seo  Whiston. 


A  far  more  learned  and  logical  champion  of  error  ap- 
peared in  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  who  published  in  1712 
Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  in  which  he  endeav- 
ors to  show,  in  a  commentary  on  forty  texts  of  Scrip- 
ture, the  subordination  of  the  Son  to  the  Father. 
"  Reason  had  so  strongly  the  ascendant  in  Clarke's 
composition  that  every  thing  must  be  subjected  to  its 
rule  and  measure  ;  that  only  must  stand,  in  matters 
of  religious  belief,  which  reason  could  distinctly  grasp 
and  make  good  by  a  formal  demonstration.  His  book 
on  The  Trinity  is  pervaded  by  this  spirit,  and  is  very 
artfully  planned.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts ;  in 
the  first  of  which  are  set  forth  all  the  passages  in  the 
New  Testament  bearing  on  the  Father,  then  on  the 
Son,  and,  lastly,  on  the  Spirit;  certain  of  the  passages, 
and  particularly  those  relating  to  the  Son,  being  ac- 
companied with  brief  comments,  partly  furnished  by 
the  author,  and  partly  taken  from  the  fathers  and 
from  later  theologians.  In  the  second  part,  the  im- 
port of  all  these  passages  so  explained  is  presented  in 
a  series  of  propositions' concerning  Father,  Son,  and 
Spirit  respective]}-,  each  proposition  accompanied  with 
quotations  from  the  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England, 
to  show  the  conformity  of  the  propositions  with  the 
devotional  utterances  of  the  church"  (Fairbairn,  Ap- 
pendix to  Dorner,  Person  of  Christ,  v,  373).  Clarke 
was  replied  to  by  Dr.  Knight  in  The  Scripture  Doc- 
trine  of  the  Trinity  Vindicated  against  Dr.  Clarke  (ed. 
by  Nelson,  London,  1713  and  1715,  8vo);  by  Bishop 
Gastrell,  in  Some  Considerations  of  Dr.  Clarke's  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  (republished  in  Randolph's  Enchiridion 
Theolofficum,  vol.  iii);  and  by  various  others.  Clarke 
wrote  voluminously  in  reply  to  these  and  other  attacks 
(Clarke,  Collected  Works,  London,  1738,  4  vols.  fol.). 
His  works  were  translated  into  German  by  Semler, 
and  found  favor  there,  at  a  period  in  which  the  ten- 
dency of  the  age  was  toward  "  the  creaturely  aspect 
of  Christ."  See  Clarke.  But  his  superior  in  learn- 
ing and  controversy  appeared  in  Waterland,  who  pub- 
lished, at  different  times.  A  Vindication  of  Christ's 
Divinity; — A  Further  Vindication  : — A  Defence  of  the 
Divinity  of  Christ,  in  eight  sermons  : — The  Case  of  Ari- 
an Subscription  Considered: — A  Critical  History  of  the 
Athanasian  Creed,  and  the  Importance  of  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  asserted;  making  six  vols.  8vo,  besides 
smaller  pieces.  Waterland  brought  to  his  task  a  log- 
j  ical  intellect,  cool,  wary,  and  disciplined,  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  fathers,  and  a  profound  though  un- 
impassioned  love  of  truth.  He  demonstrated  the  in- 
accuracy, to  say  the  least,  of  Clarke's  patristic  learn- 
ing, and  proved  that  the  very  fathers  whom  Clarke 
had  cited  maintained  the  strictly  divine,  uncreated, 
eternal  being  of  the  Son,  while,  at  the  same  time,  he 
pointed  out  their  defective  apprehension  of  the  eter- 
nal filiation.  See  Waterland.  On  the  other  side, 
and  in  answer  to  Waterland,  Whitby  wrote  Disqiti- 
sitiones  Modestre,  and  Reply  to  Dr.  Waterland's  Objec- 
tions against  them,  in  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix, 
1720-21.  An  anonymous  country  clergyman  (after- 
ward known  to  be  Sir.  Jackson)  produced  .1  Reply 
to  Dr.  Waterland's  Defence  of  his  Queries,  1722,  en- 
tering very  largely  into  the  controversy.  It  was  this 
book  which  gave  rise  to  Dr.  Waterland's  Second  Vin- 
dication (1723),  above  mentioned.  Dr.  Sj'kes  wrote 
several  pamphlets  on  the  subject  {Letter  to  tin  Pari 
of  Nottingham  (1721);  Answer  to  Remarks  <n  Dr. 
Clarke  (1730);  Defence  of  the  Answer  (1730).  In  this 
controversy,  Clarke,  and  those  who  sided  with  him 
generally,  refused  to  be  called  Arians,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  affirmed  the  subordination  of  Christ, 
and  denied  that  he  was  consubstantial  with  the  Father. 
Dr.  Waterland  exposed  the  sophistry  of  this  position 
sharply:  "They  deny  the  necessary  existence  of  God 
the  Son.  Run  them  down  to  but  the  next  immediate 
consequence,  precarious  existence,  and  they  are  amazed 
and  confounded.  Push  them  a  little  further,  as  mak- 
ing a  creature  of  God  the  Son,  and  they  fall  to  bless- 


ARIANISM 


393 


ARIAS 


ing  themselves  upon  it ;  they  make  the.  Son  of  God  j 
a  creature  !  not  they;  God  forbid."  The  Arian  con- 
troversy commenced  about  the  same  time  among  the 
Dissenters,  and  raged  as  fiercely  and  more  destruc- 
tivelv  anions  them  than  in  the  Church  of  England. 
It  began  in  the  west  of  England  with  James  Pierce, 
who,  and  his  colleague  Joseph  Hallct,  were  learned 
Presbyterian  ministers  in  Exeter.  The  flame  spread 
to  London,  and  occasioned  the  celebrated  Salter's  Hall 
controversy,  and  led  to  the  most  dismal  effects  on  the 
Presbyterian  body.  The  books  and  pamphlets  writ- 
ten on  the  subject  are  very  numerous.  The  princi- 
pal on  the  Arian  side  are  the  following:  The  Case 
of  the  ejected  Ministers  of  Exon ;  Defence  of  ditto ; 
The  Western  Inquisition,  by  Pierce;  The  Case  of  Mar- 
tin Tombkins,  1719.  On  the  other  side,  Dr.  Calamy 
published  nineteen  sermons  concerning  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  1722,  in  which  the  controversy  is  dis- 
cussed with  considerable  ability  and  learning ;  and 
there  appeared  also  The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  stated 
and  defended  by  some  Londm  Ministers,  viz.  Long,  Rob- 
inson, Smith,  and  Reynolds.  The  controversy  was 
revived  again  in  the  Church  of  England  by  Dr.  Clay- 
ton, bishop  of  Clogher,  and  for  a  while  carried  on  with 
considerable  warmth.  He  published  in  1751  An  Essay 
on  Spirit,  in  which  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  con- 
sidered, etc.  This  pamphlet  was  not  in  reality  the 
bishop's,  but  the  production  of  a  young  clergyman, 
whose  cause  and  sentiments,  however,  he  identified 
himself  with.  See  Clayton.  The  most  learned  of 
all  English  Arians  was  Lardner  (q.  v.).  On  the  or- 
thodox side  were  William  Jones,  in  his  Full  Answer 
to  the  Essay  on  Spirit,  and  afterward  in  his  Catholic  Die- 
trine  of  the  Trinity  (Jones,  Works,  1801,  vol.  i),  and  Dr. 
Randolph,  in  his  Vindication  of  the  Doctrine  oftheTrin- 
ity  (1753,  8vo).  At  the  present  day  Arianism  has  al- 
most become  extinct  in  England,  having  merged  into 
one  or  other  of  the  various  grades  of  Socinianism,  and 
is  only  to  be  found,  in  any  thing  like  a  systematic 
form,  among  the  Presbyterians  in  the  north  of  Ireland, 
especially  those  of  the  Synod  of  Munster  (see  Hender- 
son's Buck,  Theol.  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Bogue  and  Ben- 
nett, History  of  Dissenters,  ii,  1G8  sq. ;  Reid,  Hist,  of 
Presbyter.  Ch.  in  Ireland,  iii,  14,  489).  Both  in  England 
and  America  there  are  doubtless  many  Arians  among 
those  who  are  called  Socinians  and  Unitarians.  See  ar- 
ticles on  these  titles,  and  also  Athanasius  ;  Trinity. 
The  sources  of  information  on  the  early  history  of 
Arianism  are  the  church  histories  of  Sozomen,  Socra- 
tes, and  Theodoret,  and  also  of  Philostorgius  the  Ari- 
an, with  the  writings  of  Epiphanius  and  Athanasius. 
See  also  Maimbourg,  Histoire  de,  V Arianisme  (Amsterd. 
1682,  3  vols.);  the  same,  History  of  Arianism,  transl. 
by  Webster  (Lond.  1728,  2  vols.  4 to)  ;  Stark,  Versuch 
einer  Geschichte  d.  Arian'smus  (Berl.  1785,  2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Tillemont,  Memoires,  t.  vi ;  also,  translated,  Tillemont, 
His'ory  of  the  Aria/is  and  the  Council  of  Nice  (London, 
1721,  2  vols.  8vo);  Whitaker,  Origin  of  Arianism  dis- 
closed (Lond.  1791,  8vo);  Mohler,  Athanasius  und seine 
Zeit  (1827)  ;  Newman,  The  Arians  of  the  Fourth  Centu- 
ry (Lond.  1833,  8vo)  ;  Kaye,  Account  of  the  Council  of 
Nicxa  (Lond.  1853,  8vo);  Hassenkamp,  Hist.  Artance 
Controversies  (Marburg,  1815);  Baur,  Geschichte  der 
Dreieinigkeit  (1841-3,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  Meier,  Lehre  v.  <l. 
Dreieinigkeit  (1844,  3  vols.  8vo)  ;  Dorner,  Lehre  v.  d. 
Person  Christi,  bd.  i,  abt.  2,  3;  Engl,  translation,  div. 
i,  vol.  ii ;  Neander,  Church  History,  ii,  365-425 ;  Mos- 
heim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  iv,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  9  sq. ;  Walch, 
Hist.  d.  Ketzereien,  thl.  ii;  Hase,  Ch.  Hist.  §  102-106; 
Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  i,  262  sq. ;  Hagenbach,  Hist. 
of  Doctrines,  §§*89-92,  §  262;  SheAd,Hist.  of  Doctrines, 
vol.  i,  bk.  iii;  Herzog,  ReaUEncyUopadie,  i,  490;  Wat- 
son, Theol.  Institutes,  pt.  ii,  ch.  xvi ;  Bright,  Ch.  His- 
tory from  Milan  to  Chalcedon  (Lond.  1860,  8vo)  ;  Chris- 
tian Examiner  (Unitarian),  xii,  298;  Cunningham, 
Historical  Theology,  ch.  ix ;  A.  de  Broglie,  VEglise  et 
V Empire  Romain  au  lVme  Steele  (6  vols.  Paris,  1866; 


vols,  i  and  ii  contain  the  reign  of  Constantine  ;  vols,  iii 
and  iv  the  reigns  of  Constans  and  Julian;  vols,  v  and 
vi  the  reigns  of  Valentinian  and  Theodosius).  On 
modern  Arianism,  see,  besides  the  writers  named  in 
the  course  of  this  article,  Van  Mildert,  Life  of  Water- 
land  (in  Waterland's  Works,  vol.  i) ;  Nelson,  Life  of 
Bishop  Bull;  Lindsay,  Historical  View  of  Unitarianism 
(Socinian,  Lond.  1783,  8vo) ;  Fairbairn,  Appendix  to 
Dorner's  Person  of  Christ,  vol.  v. 

Ariara'thes  ('Apiapd$jjg,  apparently  compounded 
of  the  Persian  prefix  Ari-,  the  essential  element  of  the 
old  national  name'Apiot  or'Apuot,  Herod,  iii,  93;  vii, 
762;  signifying  "honorable;"  see  Dr.  Rosen,  in  the 
Quar.  Jour,  of  Educa.  ix,  336 ;  and  the  Zend  raiu, 
"master,"  Bopp,  Vergleichende  Grammatik,  p.  196; 
Pott,  Etymologische  Forschungen,  p.  xxxvi),  a  common 
name  of  the  kings  of  Cappadoeia  (see  Smith's  Did.  of 
Class.  Bioff.  s.  v.),  one  of  whom  is  named  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha (1  Mace,  xv,  22),  as  ruling  that  country  during 
the  time  of  the  Jewish  governor  Simon,  about  B.C. 
139.  See  Attalus.  The  king  there  designated  is 
doubtless  Ariarathes  V,  surnamed  Philopator  (<I>(Xo7rd- 


Loin  (probably)  of  Ariarathes  V. 

two,  lover  of  his  father),  who  reigned  B.C.  163-130, 
called  Mithridatcs  before  his  accession  (Diod.  xxxi,  or 
vol.  x,  p.  25,  ed.  Bip.),  who  was  supported  by  Attalus 
II  in  his  contest  with  the  pretendent  to  the  throne, 
Holofernes  or  Orophernes  (Polyb.  iii,  5;  xxxii,  20; 
Appian,  Syr.  47  ;  Justin,  xxxv,  1),  but  was  hard  press- 
ed by  the  Syrian  King  Demetrius.  Having  been  re- 
instated on  his  throne  by  the  Romans,  among  whom 
he  had  been  brought  up  (Liv.  xlii,  19),  he  sent  his  son 
Demetrius,  in  connection  with  Attalus  of  Pergamos,  to 
assist  Ptolemy  Philometor  against  the  usurper  Alex- 
ander Balas,  B.C.  152  (Justin,  xxxv,  1).  See  Alex- 
ander. After  a  reign  of  thirty-three  years  he  fell  in 
battle,  B.C.  130,  while  aiding  the  Romans  against  Aris- 
tonicus,  prince  of  Pergamos,  who  had  inherited  the 
throne  of  his  father  Attalus  III  (Justin,  xxxvi,  4; 
xxxvii,  1 ;  Liv.  Epit.  59).  Letters  were  addressed  to 
him  from  Rome  in  favor  of  the  Jews  (1  Mace,  xv,  22), 
who  in  after  times  seem  to  have  been  numerous  in  his 
kingdom  (Acts  ii,  9 ;  comp.  1  Pet.  i,  1). 

Arias  Montanus  (Benedict),  a  Spanish  priest 
and  Orientalist,  born  in  Estremadura  (in  a  mountain- 
ous district,  whence  the  name  Montanus)  in  1527,  of 
noble  but  poor  parents.  He  distinguished  himself 
early  by  his  acquaintance  with  the  Oriental  languages, 
and  was  ordained  priest  in  the  order  of  St.  James,  of 
which  he  had  become  a  clerk.  The  bishop  of  Segovia 
took  him  with  him  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  after  which 
Arias  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Our  Lady  "  de  los 
Angelos,"  in  the  mountains  of  Andalusia,  whence, 
however,  he  was  recalled  by  King  Philip  II,  to  labor 
at  the  new  Polyglot  Bible,  which  he  was  causing  to 
be  made  after  that  of  Alcala,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
celebrated  printer  Plantin.  This  Bible  was  printed 
at  Antwerp,  in  1571,  under  the  title  Biblia  Sacra,  He- 
braice,  Chaldaice,  Greece,  et  Latine,  Philippi  II,  Regis 
Catholici  Dictate  et  Studio  ad  Sacrosanctm  Ecclesia 
JJsum  Chph.  Plantinvs  excudebat  (8  vols.  fob).  The 
"  Polyglot"  in  every  respect  justified  the  high  ex- 
pectation which  had  been  formed  of  it ;  but  in  a  voy- 
age from  the  Netherlands  to  Spain  nearly  all  the 
copies  were  lost.  The  king  remunerated  Arias's  la- 
bors by  giving  him  a  yearly  pension  of  2000  ducats, 
besides  other  honorary  rewards  and  lucrative  offices. 
Arias  was  an  upright,  sincerely  orthodox  Romanist, 
but  he  was  a  declared  enemy  of  the  Jesuits,  and  that 


ARIATH 


394 


ARIMATELEA 


ambitious  order  omitted  no  opportunity  to  take  revenge 
on  so  dangerous  a  foe — the  more  powerful  because  his 
orthodoxy  had  never  been  questioned,  and  was  sup- 
ported by  uncommon  erudition.  He  was  accused  of 
Judaism  because  he  had  inserted  in  the  Polyglot  cer- 
tain Chaldee  paraphrases,  which  tended  to  confirm  the 
Jews  in  their  errors.  He  made  many  voyages  to  Rome 
to  justify  himself,  and  in  1580  was  honorably  dismiss- 
ed, and  died  at  Seville  in  1598,  prior  of  the  convent 
of  St.  Jago.  Arias's  numerous  and  extensive  literary 
works  chiefly  belong  to  theological,  but  partly  also  to 
classical  literature,  but  his  Polyglot  certainly  holds 
the  principal  place;  it  is  generally  called  the  "Ant- 
werp Polyglot,"  or,  from  the  patronage  bestowed  on 
it  by  Philip  II,  "  Biblia  Regia,"  and  sometimes  also, 
after  the  printer,  "  Biblia  Plantiniana." 

Ariath,  a  city  mentioned  in  the  Notitia  Ecclesiastica, 
and  thought  by  Porter  (Damascus,  ii,  1SG)  to  be  the 
present  large  city  Art/,  near]}-  three  hours  north  of 
Busrah,  at  the  west  base  of  the  Hauran  mountains 
(Van  de  Yelde,  Memoir,  p.  288). 

Arid'ai  (Heb.  Aridity',  h5"1'?'Si  0I"  Persian  origin, 
perhaps  meaning  strong ;  Sept.  'Apaaioc),  the  ninth 
of  the  ten  sons  of  Hainan,  slain  by  the  Jews  of  Baby- 
lonia (Esth.  ix,  9).     B.C.  cir.  473. 

Arid'atha  (Heb.  Aridatha ',  Xn'l'niSt,  same  ety- 
mol.  as  Aridai ;  Sept.  Zap/Sav/i  v.  r.  SapfiaKa),  the 
sixth  of  the  ten  sons  of  Human,  slain  by  the  Jews  in 
Babylonia  (Esth.  ix,  8).     B.C.  cir.  473." 

Ari'eh.  (Heb.  Aryeh',  only  with  the  art.,  rP'nXSl, 
the  lion ;  Sept.  'Apia),  the  name  apparently  of  one  of 
the  body-guard  slain  with  King  Pekahiah  at  Samaria 
(2  Kings  xv,  25).     B.C.  757.     See  Argob. 

A'riel  (Heb.  Ariel',  iap'lN,  Sept.  'Apn)\),  a  word 
meaning  "Hon  of  God,"  and  correctly  enough  render- 
ed by  "lion-like"  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,  20;  1  Chron.  xi, 
22.  It  was  applied  as  an  epithet  of  distinction  to  bold 
and  warlike  persons,  as  among  the  Arabians,  who  sur- 
named  Ali  "The  Lion  of  God"  (Abulf.  Ann.  i,  96; 
Bochart,  Hieroz.  i,  71G).  Others,  as  Thenius,  "Winer, 
Fiirst,  look  upon  it  in  these  passages  as  a  proper 
name,  and  translate  "two  [sons]  of  Ariel,"  supplying 
the  word  "^S,  which  might  easily  have  fallen  out.  See 
Areli. 

.  1.  One  of  the  chief  men  sent  for  by  Ezra  to  procure 
Levites  for  the  services  of  the  sanctuary  (Ezra  viii, 
1G).     B.C.  459. 

2.  The  same  word  is  used  as  a  local  proper  name  in 
Isa.  x.xix,  1,  2,  7,  applied  to  Jerusalem,  "  as  victorious 
under  God,"  says  Dr.  Lee;  and  in  Ezek.  xliii,  15,  16, 
to  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings.  See  Harel.  In  this 
latter  passage  Gesenius  (Thes.  Heb.  p.  147)  and  oth- 
ers, unsatisfied  with  the  Hebrew,  resort  to  the  Arabic, 
and  find  the  first  part  of  the  name  in  Ari,  fire-hearth 
(cognate  with  Heb.  "'X,  light,  i.  e.  fire),  which,  with 
the  Heb.  El,  God,  supplies  what  they  consider  a  more 
satisfactory  signification  (but  see  llavernick,  Comment. 
in  loc).  It  is  thus  applied,  in  the  first  place,  to  the 
altar,  and  then  to  Jerusalem  as  containing  the  altar. 
Henderson  gives  the  word  this  etymology  also  in  the 
passage  in  Isa.  (see  Comment,  in  loc). 

A'rim.     Sec  Kirjath-arim. 

Arimathee'a  ('  IpifiaSaia,  from  the  Heb.  Rama- 
thaim,  with  the  art,  prefixed),  the  birth-place  of  the 
wealthy  Joseph,  in  whose  sepulchre  our  Lord  was  laid 
(Matt,  xxvii,  67;  John  xix,  38).  Luke  (xxiii,  51) 
calls  it  "  a  city  of  the  Jews ;"  which  may  be  explain- 
ed by  1  Mace,  xi,  34,  where  King  Demetrius  thus 
writes:  "  We  have  ratified  unto  them  (the  Jews)  the 
borders  of  Judaea,  with  the  three  governments  of 
Apherema,  Lydda,  and  Ramathem  ('Pa/iSi/*),  that  are 
added  unto  Judffla  from  the  country  of  Samaria." 
Ensebius  (Onomatt.  b.  v.)  and  Jerome  (Epit.  Paula;) 
regard  the  Ariinatha-a  of  Joseph  as  the  same  place  as  I 


the  Ramathaim  of  Samuel,  and  place  it  near  Lydda 
or  Diospolis  (see  Reland,  Palaist.  p.  579  sq.),  Samuel's 
birth-place,  the  RAMAH  of  1  Sam.  i,  1,  19,  which  is 
named  in  the  Septuagint  A  rmathaim  ('ApfiaOai/.i),  and 
by  Josephus  Armatka  (Ap/taOd,  Ant.  v,  10,  2).  Hence 
Arimathaia  has  by  most  been  identified  with  the  ex- 
isting Ramleh,  because  of  the  similarity  of  the  name 
to  that  of  Ramah  (of  which  Ramathaim  is  the  dual), 
and  because  it  is  near  Lydda  or  Diospolis.  Dr.  Robin- 
son (Researches,  iii,  40,  44  ;  new  ed.  iii,  141),  however, 
disputes  this  conclusion  on  the  following  grounds : 
(1.)  That  Abulfeda  alleges  Ramleh  to  have  been  built 
after  the  time  of  Mohammed,  or  about  A.D.  716,  by 
Suleiman  Abd- al- Malik ;  (2.)  that  "Ramah"  and 
"  Ramleh"  have  not  the  same  signification  ;  (3.)  that 
Ramleh  is  in  a  plain,  while  Ramah  implies  a  town  on 
a  hill  (El,  high).  To  these  objections  it  may  be  an- 
swered, (1.)  That  Abulfeda's  statement  may  mean  no 
more  than  that  Suleiman  rebuilt  the  town,  which  had 
previously  been  in  ruins,  just  as  Rehoboam  and  oth- 
ers are  said  to  have  "  built"  many  towns  that  had  ex- 
isted long  before  their  time  ;  for  the  Moslems"  seldom 
built  towns  except  on  old  sites  or  out  of  old  materials ; 
so  that  there  is  not  a  town  in  all  Palestine  that  is  with 
certainty  known  to  have  been  founded  by  them.  (2.) 
In  such  cases  they  retain  the  old  names,  or  others  re- 
sembling them  in  sound,  if  not  in  signification,  which 
may  account  for  the  difference  between  "Ramah" 
and  "  Ramleh."  (3.)  Neither  can  we  assume  that  the 
place  called  Ramah  could  not  be  in  a  plain,  unless  we 
are  ready  to  prove  that  Hebrew  names  were  always 
significant  and  appropriate.  This  they  probably  were 
not.  They  were  so  in  early  times,  but  not  eventual- 
ly, when  towns  were  numerous,  and  took  their  names 
arbitrarily  from  one  another  without  regard  to  local 
circumstances.  Farther,  if  Arimathsea,  by  being  iden- 
tified with  Ramah,  was  necessarily  in  the  mountains, 
it  could  not  have  been  "  near  Lydda,"  from  which  the 
hills  are  seven  miles  distant  (see  Thomson,  Land  and 
Book,  ii,  300 ;  comp.  "Wilson,  Lands  of  Bible,  ii,  263). 
See  Ramatiiaim-zophim. 

Ramleh  is  in  north  lat.  31°  59',  and  east  long.  35° 
28',  8  miles  south-east  from  Joppa,  and  24  miles  north- 
west by  west  from  Jerusalem.  It  lies  in  the  fine  un- 
dulating plain  of  Sharon,  upon  the  eastern  side  of  a 
broad,  low  swell  rising  from  a  fertile  though  sand}' 
plain.  Like  Gaza  and  Jaffa,  this  town  is  surrounded 
by  olive-groves  and  gardens  of  vegetables  and  deli- 
cious fruits.  Occasional  palm-trees  are  also  seen,  as 
well  as  the  kharob  and  the  sycamore.  The  streets  are 
few  ;  the  houses  are  of  stone,  and  many  of  them  large 
and  well  built.  There  are  five  mosques,  two  or  more 
of  which  are  said  to  have  once  been  Christian  church- 
es ;  and  there  is  here  one  of  the  largest  Latin  convents 
in  Palestine.  The  place  is  supposed  to  contain  about 
3000  inhabitants,  of  whom  two  thirds  are  Moslems, 
and  the  rest  Christians,  chiefly  of  the  Greek  Church, 
with  a  few  Armenians.  The  inhabitants  carry  on 
some  trade  in  cotton  and  soap.  The  great  caravan- 
road  between  Egypt  and  Damascus,  Smyrna,  and 
Constantinople,  passes  through  Ramleh,  as  well  as  the 
most  frequented  road  for  European  pilgrims  and  trav- 
ellers between  Joppa  and  Jerusalem  (Robinson,  iii, 
27  ;  Raumer,  p.  215).  The  tower  is  the  most  conspic- 
uous object  in  or  about  the  city.  It  stands  a  little  to 
the  west  of  the  town,  on  the  highest  part  of  the  swell 
of  land,  and  is  in  the  midst  of  a  large  quadrangular 
enclosure,  which  has  much  the  appearance  of  having 
once  been  a  splendid  khan.  The  tower  is  wholly  iso- 
lated, whatever  may  have  been  its  original  destina- 
tion. The  town  is  first  mentioned  under  its  present 
name  by  the  monk  Bernard,  about  A.D.  870.  About 
A.D.  115(1  the  Arabian  geographer  Edrisi  (ed.  Jaubert, 
p.  339)  mentions  Ramleh  and  Jerusalem  as  the  two 
principal  cities  of  Palestine.  The  first  Crusaders,  on 
their  approach,  found  Ramleh  deserted  by  its  inhab- 
itants ;  and  with  it  and  Lydda  they  endowed  the  first 


ARINDELA 


395 


ARISTOBULUS 


Latin  bishopric  in  Palestine,  which  took  its  denomi- 
nation from  the  latter  city.  From  the  situation  of 
Kamleh  between  that  city  and  the  coast,  it  was  a  post 
of  much  importance  to  the  Crusaders,  and  they  held 
possession  of  it  generally  while  Jerusalem  was  in  their 
hands,  and  long  afterward.  In  A.D.  12G6  it  was  final- 
ly taken  from  the  Christians  by  the  Sultan  Bibars. 
Subsequently  it  is  often  mentioned  in  the  accounts  of 
travellers  and  pilgrims,  most  of  whom  rested  there  on 
their  way  to  Jerusalem.  It  seems  to  have  declined 
very  fast  from  the  time  that  it  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Crusaders.  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (jtin.  p. 
79,  ed.  Asher),  who  was  there  in  A.D.  1173,  speaks  of 
it  as  having  been  formerly  a  considerable  city.  Belon 
(Observat.  p.  311),  in  1547,  mentions  it  as  almost  de- 
serted, scarcely  twelve  houses  being  inhabited,  and 
the  fields  mostly  unfilled.  This  desertion  must  have 
occurred  after  1487  ;  for  Le  Grant  Voyage  de  Hierusa- 
lem,  fol.  xiv,  speaks  of  it  as  a  peopled  town  (though 
partly  ruined),  and  of  the  "  seigneur  de  Rama"  as  an 
important  personage.  By  1674  it  had  somewhat  re- 
vived, but  it  was  still  rather  a  large  un walled  village 
than  a  city,  without  any  good  houses,  the  governor 
himself  being  miserably  lodged  (Nau,  Voyage  Nou- 
reau,  i,  G).  A  century  later  it  remained  much  in  the 
same  state,  the  governor  being  still  ill  lodged,  and 
the  population  scarceh-  exceeding  200  families  (Vol- 
ney,  ii,  220).  Its  recent  state  must,  therefore,  indicate 
a  degree  of  comparative  prosperity,  the  growth  of  the 
present  century  (see  Robinson's  Researches,  iii,  33 
sq.). — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Ramah. 

Arindela  (ru  'Apivfa\\a),  an  episcopal  city  of  the 
Third  Palestine  of  considerable  importance,  noticed  in 
the  early  ecclesiastical  lists  (Reland,  Pattest,  p.  533, 
581);  identified  by  Dr.  Robinson  {Researches,  ii,  406) 
with  the  site  Ghurundel,  near  the  south-east  corner  of 
the  Dead  Sea,"consisting  of  considerable  ruins  on  the 
slop.:-  of  a  hill,  near  a  spring. 

A'rioch  (Heb.  Aryoh' ' ,  7ph"iX,  from  the  Sanscrit 
Arjalca,  venerable,  or  perhaps  from  the  Heb.  ^X,  a 
lion;  Sept.  'Apitl>x  [v-  r-  i"  Dun.  'Apiiox>lc,  in  Tob. 
Ei'ptojy],  Josephus  Api'oiivoc,  Ant.  i,  0,  1 ;  'Apioxoe,, 
Ant.  x,  10,  2),  the  name  of  two  men  and  one  place. 

1.  A  king  of  Ellasar,  confederate  with  Chedorlao- 
mer  against  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (Gen.  xiv,  1,  9), 
B.C.  cir.  2080  (Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1862).     See  Lot. 

2.  The  captain  of  the  royal  guard  at  the  court  of 
Babylon,  into  whose  charge  Daniel  and  his  fellow 
youths  were  committed  (Dan.  ii,  14).     B.C.  604. 

3.  A  "plain"  of  the  Elymaians  (?  Persians),  men- 
tioned in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith  (i,  6)  as  fur- 
nishing aid  to  Arphaxad  in  his  contest  with  Nebuchad- 
nezzar; supposed  by  Grotius  to  mean  the  Oracana 
('Ort«Koi'tt)  of  Ptolemy  (vi,  2,  11),  but  more  probably 
borrowed  from  the  first  of  the  above  names  (see 
Fritzschc,  Handb.  in  loc). 

Aris'ai  (Heb.  Arisay' ,  "^IX,  from  Sanscrit  Ar- 
jasay,  arrow  of  Aria;  Sept.'Pov0rri>oc  v.v.'Vov^cnoc), 
the  eighth  of  the  ten  sons  of  Hainan  slain  by  the  Jews 
Of  Babylonia  (Esth.  ix,  9).     B.C.  cir.  473. 

Aristar'chus  (Apiarapxoc,  best  ruler,  a  frequent 
Greek  name),  a  faithful  adherent  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in 
his  labors.  A.D.  51-57.  He  was  a  native  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  and  became  the  companion  of  Paul  in  his  third 
missionary  tour,  accompanjing  him  to  Ephesus,  where 
he  was  seized  and  nearly  killed  in  the  tumult  raised 
by  the  silversmiths  (Acts  xix,  29).  He  left  that  city 
with  the  apostle,  and  accompanied  him  in  his  subse- 
quent journeys  (Acts  xx.  4),  even  when  taken  as  a 
prisoner  to  Rome  (Acts  xxvii,  2);  indeed,  Aristarchus 
was  himself  sent  thither  as  a  prisoner,  or  became  such 
while  there  (Philem.  24),  for  Paul  calls  him  his  "fel- 
low-prisoner" (Col.  iv,  10).  The  traditions  of  the 
Greek  Church  represent  Aristarchus  as  bishop  of 
Apamea  in  Phrygia,  and  allege  that  he  continued  to 
accompany  Paul  after  their  liberation,  and  was  at 


length  beheaded  along  with  him  at  Rome  in  the  tkne 
of  Nero.  The  Roman  martyrologies  make  him  bishop 
of  Thessalonica. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Aristeas  (Apio-tac)  or  Aristaeus  ('ApioTcuoc), 
a  Cyprian  by. nation,  was  a  high  officer  at  the  court 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  was  distinguished  for 
his  military  talents.  Ptolemy,  being  anxious  to  add 
to  his  newly-founded  library  at  Alexandria  (B.C.  273) 
a  copy  of  the  Jewish  law,  sent  Aristeas  and  Andreas, 
the  commander  of  his  body-guard,  to  Jerusalem.  They 
carried  presents  to  the  Temple,  and  obtained  from  the 
high-priest,  Eleazar,  a  genuine  copy  'of  the  Pentateuch, 
and  a  body  of  seventy  elders,  six  from  each  tribe,  who 
could  translate  it  into  Greek.  On  their  arrival,  they 
are  said  to  have  completed  the  Alexandrian  version 
of  the  Old  Testament,  usually  termed  the  "  Septua- 
gint"  from  the  number  of  translators.  The  story 
about  the  translation  rests  chiefly  on  the  reputed  letter 
of  Aristeas  himself,  but  it  is  told,  with  a  few  differences, 
by  Aristobulus,  the  Jewish  philosopher  (Euseb.  Prop. 
Ev.  xiii,  12),  by  Philo  Judreus  (Vit.  Mas.  2),  and  Jo- 
sephus (Ant.  xii,  2)  ;  also  by  Justin  Martyr  (Cohort,  ad 
Grcec.  p.  13 ;  Apol.  p.  72 ;  Dial,  cum  Tryph.  p.  297), 
Irenaeus  (Adv.  Haer.  iii,  25),  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
(Strom,  i,  250),  Tertullian  (Apolog.  18),  Euseb.  (Preep. 
Ev.  viii,  1),  Athanasius  (Synop.  S.  Scrip,  ii,  156),  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem  (Catech.  p.  36,  37),  Epiphanius  (De  Mens, 
et  Pond.  3),  Jerome  (Prcef.  in  Pentateuch;  Qucest.  in 
Gen.  Procem.'),  Augustine  (De  civ.  Dei,  xviii,  42,  43), 
Chrysostom  (Adv.  Jud.  i,  443),  Hilary  of  Poictiers  (In 
Psalm.  2),  and  Theodoret  (Prcef.  in  Psalm.).  The  let- 
ter was  printed,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  by  Schard  (Basil. 
1561,  8vo)  ;  reprinted  at  Oxford  (1692,  8vo) ;  best  ed. 
in  Gallandii  Biblioth  Patr.  ii,  771  (Fabricii  Bill.  Gruc. 
iii,  669;  in  Engl,  by  Lewis  (Lond.  1715,  12mo).  See 
Fiirst,  Bib.  Jud.  i,  51  sq.     Comp.  Septuagixt. 

Aristides,  an  Athenian  philosopher,  who  became 
a  Christian,  without,  however,  forsaking  his  original 
profession.  He  presented  to  the  Emperor  Adrian,  at 
the  same  time  witli  Quadr^tus,  an  Apology  for  the 
Christian  Faith,  which  existed  in  the  time  of  Eusebius 
and  Jerome,  and  even  as  late  as  that  of  Usuardus,  and 
Addo  of  Vienne,  if  the  account  given  of  the  passion  of 
St.  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  majr  be  relied  on.  Aris- 
tides flourished  about  A.D.  123.  Jerome  says  that  his 
Apolog}'  was  filled  with  passages  from  the  writings  of 
the  philosophers,  and  that  Justin  afterward  made  much 
use  of  it.  He  is  commemorated  August  31st. — Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  anno  123 ;  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iv,  cap.  iii ; 
Lardner,  Works,  ii,  308  ;  Fabricius,  Bib.  Grcec.  vi,  39. 

Aristobu'lus  (Apicrro/^otAoe,  best  counsellor,  a 
frequent  Grecian  name),  the  name  of  several  men  in 
sacred  history. 

1.  A  Jewish  priest  (2  Mace,  i,  10),  who  resided  in 
Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  (VI)  Philometor  (eomp. 
Grimm,  2  Mace,  i,  9).  In  a  letter  of  Judas  Macca- 
boeus  he  is  addressed  (B.C.  165)  as  the  representative 
of  the  Egyptian  Jews  ('ApujToiSovXqj  .  .  .  Kai  rote  tv 
Aly.  'lovo.  2  Mace.  1.  c),  and  is  further  styled  "  the 
teacher"  (ci?daKa\og,  i.  e.  counsellor?)  of  the  king. 
Josephus  makes  no  mention  of  him  ;  and  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  letter  itself  is  doubtful  (De  Wette,  Einh  it. 
i,413);  yet  there  may  have  lived  at  this  time  an  emi- 
nent Jew  of  this  name  at  the  Egyptian  court.  Some 
have  thought  him  identical  with  the  peripatetic  phi- 
losopher of  the  name  (Clem.  Alex.  Str.  v,  98  ;  Euseb. 
Prap.  Ev.  viii,  9),  who  dedicated  to  Ptol.  lhilomctor 
his  allegorical  exposition  of  the  Pentateuch  (UifiXovc, 
ibrpjTtKac.  too  Movviwc  vopov,  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl. 
vii,  32).  Considerable  fragments  of  this  work  have 
been  preserved  by  Clement  and  Eusebius  (Euseb. 
Prap.  Evang.  vii,  13,  14;  viii  (8),  9,  10;  xiii,  12;  in 
which  the  Clementine  fragments  recur)  ;  but  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  quotations  has  been  vigorously  con- 
tested. It  was  denied  by  E.  Simon  and  especially 
by  Hody  (De  bill.  text.  on'g.  p.  50  sq.  Oxon.  1705), 
who  was  answered  by  Valckcnaer  (Diatribe  de  Aristo~ 


ARISTOBULUS 


396 


ARISTOBULUS 


lulo  Judceo,  Lugd.  Bat.  180G)  ;  and  Valckenaer's  ar- 
guments are  now  generally  considered  conclusive 
(Gfrorer,  Philo,  ii,  71  sq. ;  Diihne,  Jud.  Alex.  Relig.- 
Philos.  ii,  73  sq. ;  Ewald,  Gesch.  des  Volkes  Jsr.  iv,  294 
n.)  The  object  of  Aristobulus  was  to  prove  that  the 
peripatetic  doctrines  were  based  (i}pTij<r9ai)  on  the 
Law  and  the  Prophets  ;  and  his  work  has  an  addition- 
al interest  as  showing  that  the  Jewish  doctrines  were 
first  brought  into  contact  with  the  Aristotelian  and 
not  with  the  Platonic  philosophy  (com  p.  Matter,  Hist, 
de  I'ecole  d'Alex.  iii,  153  sq.).  The  fragments  which 
remain  are  discussed  at  length  in  the  works  quoted 
above,  which  contain  also  a  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  chronological  difficulties  of  the  different  ac- 
counts of  Aristobulus.  (See  Eichhorn,  Biblioth.  d. 
MM.  Lit.  v,  253  sq.)— Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  The  eldest  son  of  John  Hyrcanus,  prince  of  Ju- 
daea. In  B.C.  110,  he,  together  with  his  brother  An- 
tigonus,  successfully  prosecuted  for  his  father  the 
siege  of  Samaria,  which  was  destroyed  the  following 
year  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  10,  2  and  3 ;  War,  i,  2,  7). 
Hyrcanus  dying  in  B.C.  107,  Aristobulus  took  the 
title  of  king,  this  being  the  first  instance  of  the  as- 
sumption of  that  name  since  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(but  see  Strabo,  xvi,  762),  and  secured  his  power  by 
the  imprisonment  of  all  his  brothers  except  his  favor- 
ite one  Antigonus,  and  by  the  murder  of  his  mother, 
to  whom  Hyrcanus  had  left  the  government  by  will. 
The  life  of  Antigonus  was  soon  sacrificed  to  his  broth- 
er's suspicions  through  the  intrigues  of  the  queen  and 
her  party,  and  the  remorse  felt  by  Aristobulus  for  his 
execution  increased  the  illness  under  which  he  was 
at  the  time  suffering,  and  thus  hastened  his  own  death, 
B.C.  106.  During  his  rei'411  the  Ituraeans  were  sub- 
dued and  compelled  to  adopt  the  Jewish  law.  He 
also  received  the  name  of  <\>i\i\\i]v  from  the  favor 
which  he  showed  the  Greeks  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiii,  1; 
War,  i,  3). — Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. 

3.  The  younger  son  of  Alexander  Jannaeus  by 
Alexandra  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  16,  1 ;  War,  i,  5,  1). 
During  the  nine  years  of  his  mother's  reign  he  set 
himself  against  the  party  of  the  Pharisees,  whose  in- 
fluence she  had  sought ;  and  after  her  death,  B.C.  70, 
he  made  war  against  his  eldest  brother  Hyrcanus,  and 
obtained  from  him  the  resignation  of  the  crown  and 
the  high-priesthood,  chiefly  through  the  aid  of  his  fa- 
ther's friends  whom  Alexandra  had  placed  in  the  sev- 
eral fortresses  of  the  country  to  save  them  from  the 
vengeance  of  the  Pharisees  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiii,  16; 
xiv,  1,  2;  War,  i,  5;  6,  1).  In  B.C.  65  Judsea  was 
invaded  by  Aretas,  king  of  Arabia  Petraea,  with  whom, 
at  the  instigation  of  Antipaterthe  Iduuu-ean,  Hyrcanus 
had  taken  refuge.  By  him  Aristobulus  was  defeated 
in  a  battle  and  besieged  in  Jerusalem ;  but  Aretas  was 
obliged  to  raise  the  siege  by  Scaurus  and  Gabinius, 
Pompey's  lieutenants,  whose  intervention  Aristobulus 
had  purchased  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  2;  3,  2;  War,  i,  6, 
2  and  3).  In  B.C.  63  he  pleaded  his  cause  before 
Pompey  at  Damascus,  but  finding  him  disposed  to 
favor  Hyrcanus,  he  returned  to  Judaea  and  prepared 
for  war.  On  Pompey's  approach,  Aristobulus,  who 
had  Bed  to  the  fortress  of  Alexandrium,  was  persuaded 
to  obey  his  summons  and  appear  before  him;  and, 
being  compelled  to  sign  an  order  for  the  surrender  of 
the  garrison,  he  withdrew  in  impotent  discontent  to 
Jerusalem.  Pompey  still  advanced,  and  Aristobulus 
again  met  him  and  made  submission;  but,  his  friends 
in  the  city  rcfus-iug  to  perform  the  terms,  Pompev  be- 
sieged and  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried  away  Aristo- 
bulus and  his  children  as  prisoners  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv, 
3,  4 ;  War,  i,  6,  7  ;  Plut.  Pomp.  39,  45 ;  Strabo,  xvi' 
762 ;  Dion  Cass,  xxxvii,  15, 16).  Appian  (Bell.  Mith. 
1117)  erroneously  represents  him  as  having  been  put 
to  death  immediately  after  Pompey's  triumph.  In 
B.C.  57  he  escaped  from  confinement  at  Rome  with 
his  son  Antigonus,  and,  returning  to  Judaaa,  was  join- 
ed by  large  numbers  of  his  countrymen,  and  renewed 


the  war;  but  he  was  besieged  and  taken  at  Machairus. 
the  fortifications  of  which  he  was  attempting  to  re- 
store, and  was  sent  back  to  Rome  by  Gabinius  (Jo- 
seph. Ant.  xiv,  6, 1 ;  War,  i,  8,  6 ;  Plut.  Ant.  3 ;  Dion 
Cass,  xxxix,  56).  In  B.C.  49  he  was  again  released 
by  Julius  Cffisar,  who  sent  him  into  Judasa  to  forward 
his  interests  there,  but  he  was  poisoned  on  the  way 
by  some  of  Pompey's  party  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  7,  4 ; 
War,  i,  9,  1 ;  Dion  Cass,  xli,  18).—  lb. 

4.  The  grandson  of  No.  3,  and  the  son  of  Alexan- 
der, and  brother  of  Herod's  wife  Mariamne.  His 
mother  Alexandra,  indignant  at  Herod's  having  be- 
stowed the  high-priesthood  on  the  obscure  Ananelus, 
endeavored  to  obtain  that  office  for  her  son  from  An- 
tony through  the  influence  of  Cleopatra.  Herod, 
fearing  the  consequences  of  this  application,  and  urged 
by  Mariamne's  entreaties,  deposed  Ananelus,  and  made 
Aristobulus  high-priest,  the  latter  being  only  17  years 
old  at  the  time.  The  king,  however,  still  suspecting 
Alexandra,  and  keeping  a  strict  and  annoj'ing  watch 
upon  her  movements,  she  renewed  her  complaints  and 
designs  against  him  with  Cleopatra,  and  at  length 
made  an  attempt  to  escape  into  Egypt  with  her  son. 
Herod  discovered  this,  and  affected  to  pardon  it;  but 
soon  after  he  caused  Aristobulus  to  be  treacherously 
drowned  at  Jericho,  B.C.  35  (Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  2,  3; 
liar,  i,  22,  2).—  lb. 

5.  One  of  the  sons  of  Herod  the  Great  by  Mariamne, 
and  sent  with  his  brother  Alexander  to  Rome,  where 
they  were  educated  in  the  house  of  Pollio  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xv,  10,  1).  On  their  return  to  Judaaa,  the  sus- 
picions of  Herod  were  excited  against  them  by  their 
brother  Antipatcr  (q.  v.),  aided  by  Pheroras  and  their 
aunt  Salome,  though  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  the 
latter,  was  married  to  Aristobulus ;  the  young  men 
themselves  supplying  their  enemies  with  a  handle 
against  them  by  the  indiscreet  expression  of  their 
indignation  at  their  mother's  death.  In  B.C.  11  they 
were  accused  by  Herod  at  Aquilea  before  Augustus, 
through  whose  mediation,  however,  he  was  reconciled 
to  them.  Three  years  after  Aristobulus  was  again 
involved  with  his  brother  in  a  charge  of  plotting 
against  their  father,  but  a  second  reconciliation  was 
effected  by  Archelaus,  king  of  Cappadocia,  the  father- 
in-law  of  Alexander.  A  third  accusation,  through  the 
arts  of  Euryales,  a  Lacedaemonian  adventurer,  proved 
fatal.  By  permission  of  Augustus,  the  two  young  men 
were  arraigned  by  Herod  before  a  council  convened 
at  Berjtus  (at  which  they  were  not  even  allowed  to 
be  present  to  defend  themselves),  and,  being  condemn- 
ed, were  soon  after  strangled  at  Sebaste,  B.C.  6  (Jo- 
seph. Ant.  xvi,  1-4 ;  8  ;  10 ;  11 ;  War,  i,  23-27  ;  comp. 
Strabo,  xvi,  765).— lb.     See  Alexandkk. 

6.  Surnamed  "  the  younger"  (o  iniortpoc,  Josephus, 
Ant.  xxi,  2),  was  the  son  of  the  preceding  Aristobulus 
and  Berenice,  and  the  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great. 
Himself  and  his  two  brothers  (Agrippa  I  and  Herod, 
the  future  king  of  Chalcis)  were  educated  at  Rome, 
together  with  Claudius,  who  was  afterward  emperor, 
and  who  appears  to  have  regarded  Aristobulus  with 
great  favor  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  5,  4  ;  6, 1 ;  xx,  1,  2). 
He  lived  at  enmity  with  his  brother  Agrippa,  and  drove 
him  from  the  protection  of  Flaccus,  proconsul  of  Syria, 
on  the  charge  of  having  been  bribed  by  the  Damas- 
cenes to  support  their  cause  with  the  proconsul  against 
the  Sidonians  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  6,  3).  When 
Caligula  sent  Petronius  to  Jerusalem  to  set  up  the 
statues  in  the  Temple,  Aristobulus  joined  in  the  re- 
monstrance against  the  procedure  (Josephus,  Ant. 
xviii,  8;  War,  ii,  10;  Tacit.  Hist,  v,  9).  He  died  as 
he  had  lived,  in  a  private  station  (Josephus,  War,  ii, 
11,  6),  having,  as  appears  from  the  letter  of  Claudius 
to  the  Jews  in  Josephus  (Ant.  xx,  1,  2),  survived  his 
brother  Agrippa,  who  died  in  A.D.  44.  He  was  mar- 
ried to  Jotapa,  a  princess  of  Emessa,  by  whom  lie  left 
a  daughter  of  the  same  name  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  5, 
4;   War,  ii,  11,  6).— lb. 


ARISTOTLE 


397 


ARISTOTLE 


7.  Son  of  Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  grandson  of  the 
Aristobulus  who  was  strangled  at  Sebaste,  and  great- 
grandson  of  Herod  the  Great.  In  A.D.  55  Nero  made 
him  king  of  Armenia  Minor,  in  order  to  secure  that 
province  from  the  Parthians  ;  and  in  A.D.  61,  the 
emperor  added  to  his  dominions  some  portion  of  the 
Greater  Armenia,  which  had  been  given  to  Tigranes 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  8,  4 ;  Tacit.  Ann.  xiii,  7  ;  xiv,  2G). 
Aristobulus  appears  (from  Josephus,  War,  vii,  7,  11) 
to  have  also  obtained  from  the  Romans  his  father's 
kingdom  of  Chalcis,  which  had  been  taken  from  his 
cousin,  Agrippa  II,  in  A.D.  52;  and  he  is  mentioned 
as  joining  Casennius  Psetus,  proconsul  of  Syria,  in  the 
■war  against  Antiochus,  king  of  Commagene,  in  the 
fourth  year  of  Vespasian,  or  A.D.  73  (Joseph,  ib.).  He 
was  married  to  Salome,  daughter  of  the  infamous  He- 
rodias,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons,  Herod,  Agrippa, 
and  Aristobulus ;  of  these,  nothing  further  is  recorded 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  5,  4). — lb. 

8.  A  person,  perhaps  a  Roman,  named  by  Paul  in 
Rom.  xvi,  10,  where  he  sends  salutations  to  his  house- 
hold. A.D.  55.  He  is  not  himself  saluted ;  hence  he 
may  not  have  been  a  believer,  or  he  may  have  been 
absent  or  dead.  Tradition  represents  him  as  brother 
of  Barnabas,  and  one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  and  al- 
leges that  he  was  ordained  a  bishop  by  Barnabas,  or 
by  Paul,  whom  he  followed  in  his  travels,  and  that  he 
was  eventual^  sent  into  Britain,  where  he  labored 
with  much  success,  and  where  he  at  length  died  (Men- 
olotj.  Gra>c.  iii,  17  sq.). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

Aristotle  (ApifT-ortXjjc\  one  of  the  greatest  phi- 
losophers of  ancient  times,  whose  philosophical  system 
has  exercised  for  a  long  time  a  controlling  influence 
on  the  development  of  Christian  philosophy  and  on 
Christian  literature  in  general.  Aristotle  was  born 
in  B.C.  384,  at  Stagira,  in  Macedonia,  whence  he  re- 
ceived his  surname,  The  Stagirite.  He  was  first  in- 
structed by  his  father,  Nicomachos,  the  private  phy- 
sician of  King  Augustus  III  of  Macedonia;  afterward 
by  Proxenos  in  Atameus.  At  the  age  of  17  years  he 
went  to  Athens,  where  he  enjoyed  for  20  years  the 
instruction  of,  and  intercourse  with,  Plato.  In  B.C. 
S43  he  was  appointed  by  Philip  of  Macedonia  teacher 
of  his  son  Alexander.  About  335  he  returned  to  Ath- 
ens, where  he  established  a  new  school  of  philosophy 
in  the  "  Lyceum"  (AvKtiov,  so  called  from  an  epithet 
of  Apollo),  a  gymnasium  near  the  city.  There  he  in- 
structed in  the  mornings  a  select  circle  of  disciples 
(Acroatce,  Esoterics),  while  in  the  afternoons  he  gave 
popular  lectures  to  all  kinds  of  readers  (E.roierics). 
After  having  taught  for  13  years  he  was  accused  of 
impiety,  and  compelled  to  leave  Athens.  He  went 
to  Chalcis,  and  died  soon  after  (B.C.  322).  At  Stagira 
an  annual  festival,  called  the  "  Aristotelea,"  was  cele- 
brated in  his  honor.  According  to  a  Jewish  legend, 
he  is  said  to  have  turned  Jew  in  consequence  of  a  con- 
versation held  with  a  Jew  at  Athens.  He  is  said  to 
have  composed  about  800  works,  lists  of  which  are 
given  by  Diogenes  Laertius  and  others.  Many  of  his 
works  are  lost;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  several  that 
bear  his  name  are  undoubtedly  spurious.  The  oldest 
complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  by  Aid 
Manutius  (Venice,  1495-98,  5  vols,  fob);  the  latest 
and  best  by  Imman.  Bekker  (Berlin,  1831  sq.  4  vols.). 
—Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. 

The  influence  of  the  philosophic  system  of  Aristotle 
on  the  intellectual  development  of  the  human  race  has 
been  more  extensive  and  more  lasting  than  that  of 
any  other  philosopher  except  Plato.  This  supremacy 
is  to  be  ascribed  (1)  to  his  method,  which  not  only  re 
stricted  the  range  of  human  observation  and  thought, 
but  also  fixed  the  laws  of  their  operation,  so  far  as  the 
field  of  the  outer,  world  is  concerned,  (in  principles 
fundamental  to  the  human  mind;  (2)  t<>  his  logic 
which  grew  out  of  his  method  and  also  complemented 
it;  (3)  to  the  practical  character  of  his  intellect,  and 
the  practical  tendency  of  his  speculations,  even  the 


most  subtle ;  and  (4)  to  the  comparative  clearness  and 
simplicity  of  his  system,  which  arises  partly  from  the 
really  luminous  clearness  of  his  own  intellect,  and 
partly  from  the  fact  that  the  most  profound  problems  of 
philosophy  do  not  come  within  the  range  of  his  method 
when  confined  to  its  legitimate  application.  His  meth- 
od is  the  so-called  empirical  one,  viz.,  to  begin  with  the 
observation  of  phenomena,  and  to  reason  upon  them. 
"  '  Art  commences  when,  from  a  great  number  of  expe- 
riences, one  general  conception  is  formed,  which  will 
embrace  all  similar  cases  ;  experience  is  the  knowledge 
of  individual  things  ;  art  is  that  of  universals'  (Meta- 
pkys.  i,  1).  What  Aristotle  here  calls  '  art'  is  plain- 
ly what  we  now  call  '  induction ;'  and  had  he  ad- 
hered throughout  to  the  method  here  indicated,  he 
would  have  been,  in  reality,  what  Bacon  is  called,  the 
father  of  the  inductive  philosophy.  The  distinction 
between  Aristotle  and  Plato  is,  that  while  both  held 
that  science  could  only  be  formed  from  universals,  ra 
KcidoKov,  Aristotle  contended  that  such  universals  had 
purely  a  subjective  existence,  i.  e.  that  they  were 
nothing  more  than  the  inductions  derived  from  par- 
ticular facts.  He  therefore  made  experience  the  ba- 
sis of  all  science,  and  reason  the  architect.  Plato 
made  reason  the  basis.  The  tendency  of  the  one  was 
to  direct  man  to  the  observation  and  interrogation  of 
nature,  that  of  the  other  was  to  direct  man  to  the  con- 
templation of  ideas"  (Lewes,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  ii, 
114).  In  passing  from  Plato  to  Aristotle,  the  thoughtful 
student  observes  that  he  comes  into  a  different  if  not 
a  lower  atmosphere.  The  end  of  all  Plato's  teaching 
is  to  show,  in  opposition  to  the  Sophists,  that  the  mind 
of  man  is  not  its  own  standard  ;  the  tendency  of  Aris- 
totle's teaching  is  to  show  that  it  is.  It  has  been  the 
fashion,  since  Hegel's  exposition  of  Aristotle,  to  deny 
that  his  doctrine  is  substantially  realism,  in  the  em- 
pirical sense,  as  opposed  to  Plato's  idealism.  To  illus- 
trate :  Both  Plato  and  Aristotle  could  say  that  "dia- 
lectics is  that  science  which  discovers  the  difference 
between  the  false  and  the  true.  But  the  false  in  Plato 
is  the  semblance  which  any  object  presents  to  the  sen- 
sualized mind  ;  the  true  the  very  substance  and  mean- 
ing of  that  object.  The  false  in  Aristotle  is  a  wrong 
affirmation  concerning  any  matter  whereof  the  mind 
takes  cognizance  ;  the  true  a  right  affirmation  con- 
cerning the  same  matter.  Hence  the  dialectic  of  the 
one  treats  of  the  way  whereby  we  obtain  to  a  clear 
and  vital  perception  of  things ;  the  dialectic  of  the 
other  treats  of  the  way  in  which  we  discourse  of 
things.  Words  to  the  one  are  the  means  whereby  we 
descend  to  an  apprehension  of  realities  of  which  there 
are  no  sensible  exponents.  Words  to  the  other  are 
the  formulas  wherein  we  set  forth  our  notions  and 
judgments.  The  one  desires  to  ascertain  of  what  hid- 
den meaning  the  word  is  an  index ;  the  other  desires 
to  prevent  the  word  from  transgressing  certain  bound- 
aries which  he  has  fixed  for  it.  Hence  it  happened 
"that  the  sense  and  leading  maxim  of  Plato's  philoso- 
phy became  not  only  more  distasteful,  but  positively 
more  unintelligible  to  his  wisest  disciple  than  to  many 
who  had  not  studied  in  the  Academy,  or  who  had  set 
themselves  in  direct  opposition  to  it.  When  Aristotle 
had  matured  his  system  of  dialectics,  there  was  some- 
thing in  it  so  perfect  and  satisfactory  that  he  could  not 
even  dream  of  any  thing  lying  outside  of  its  circle, 
and  incapable  of  being  brought  under  its  rules.  He 
felt  that  he  had  discovered  all  the  forms  under  which 
it  is  possible  to  set  down  any  proposition  in  words ; 
and  what  there  could  be  besides  this,  what  opening 
there  could  be  for  another  region  entirely  out  of  the 
government  of  these  forms,  he  had  no  conception.  At 
any  rate,  if  there  were  such  a  one,  it  must  be  a  vague, 
uninhabited  world.  To  suppose  it  peopled  with  other, 
and  those  more  real  and  di-tinct  forms,  was  the  ex- 
travagance of  philosophical  delirium.  Accordingly, 
when  he  speaks  of  the  doctrine  of  substantial  ideas — 
of  ideas,  that  is  to  say,  which  are  the  grounds  of  all 


ARISTOTLE 


393 


ARISTOTLE 


our  forms  of  thought,  and  consequently  cannot  be  sub- 
ject to  them,  be  is  reduced  to  the  strange,  and,  for  so 
consummate  a  logician,  most  disagreeable  necessity 
of  begging  the  whole  question  ;  of  arguing  that,  since 
these  ideas  ought  to  he  included  under  some  of  the  as- 
certained conditions  of  logic,  and  by  the  hypothesis  are 
not  included  under  any,  they  must  be  fictitious"  (Mau- 
rice, Moral  and  Metaph.  Philosophy,  ch.  vi,  div.  iii,  §  2). 

In  order  to  classify  facts,  and  to  arrive  at  the  uni- 
versal from  the  particular,  we  must  reason ;  and  the 
theory  of  reasoning  is  logic,  which,  according  to  Aris- 
totle, is  the  organon  or  instrument  of  all  science,  quoad 
formam.  In  this  field  the  pre-eminence  of  Aristotle 
is  indisputable ;  he  may,  indeed,  be  said  to  have  in- 
vented logic  as  the  formal  part  of  reasoning,  and  it 
remains  to  this  day  substantially  what  he  made  it. 
Grote  observes  that  "what  was  begun  by  Socrates, 
and  improved  by  Plato,  was  embodied  as  a  part  of  a 
comprehensive  system  of  formal  logic  by  the  genius 
of  Aristotle ;  a  system  wdiich  was  not  only  of  extraor- 
dinary value  in  reference  to  the  processes  and  contro- 
versies of  its  time,  but  which  also,  having  become  in- 
sensibly worked  into  the  minds  of  instructed  men,  has 
contributed  much  to  form  what  is  correct  in  the  hab- 
its of  modern  thinking.  Though  it  has  now  been  en- 
larged and  recast  by  some  modern  authors  (especially 
ly  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  in  his  admirable  System  of 
Logic)  into  a  structure  commensurate  with  the  vast 
increase  of  knowledge  and  extension  of  positive  meth- 
od belonging  to  the  present  day,  we  must  recollect 
that  the  distance,  between  the  best  modern  logic  and 
that  of  Aristotle  is  hardly  so  great  as  that  between 
Aristotle  and  those  who  preceded  him  by  a  century — 
Empedocles,  Anaxagoras,  and  the  Pythagoreans ;  and 
that  the  movement  in  advance  of  these  latter  com- 
mences with  Socrates"  {History  of  Greece,  pt.  ii,  ch. 
lxviii). 

In  Psychology  Aristotle  anticipated  a  great  deal 
of  what  is  called  "mental  philosophy"  at  present. 
The  soul,  he  says,  is  an  entitj7 ;  not  the  product  of 
matter  or  of  organization,  but  distinct  from  the  body, 
though  not  separable  from  it  as  to  its  form  (De  Anima, 
ii,  1).  In  this  principle  he  agrees  with  Plato,  and  it 
saves  his  doctrine  from  becoming  wholly  materialistic, 
a  tendency  natural  to  the  empirical  method.  "The 
faculties  (SvvafiUQ)  of  the  soul  are  production  and  nu- 
trition (De  Anim.  ii,  2,  4;  De  Gencr.  Anitn.  ii,  8), 
sensation  (Ibid,  ii,  5,  G,  12 ;  iii,  12),  thought  (to  dia- 
vo7]tik6i'),  and  will  or  impulse.  His  remarks  are  par- 
ticularly interesting  on  the  manifestations  of  the  cog- 
nitive powers  (DeAnim.  ii,  6;  iii,  12  sq.  ;  De  Sensu  et 
Sensibili),  i.  e.  on  the  senses  ;  on  common  sense  (icoivi) 
a'iaOrjffuS) ;  the  first  attempt  toward  a  clearer  indica- 
tion of  consciousness  (Ibid,  iii,  1  sq.),  on  imagination, 
reminiscence,  and  memory  (Ibid,  iii,  3,  et  De  Memo- 
rial. The  act  of  intuition  and  perception  is  a  recep- 
tion of  the  forms  of  objects ;  and  thought  is  a  recep- 
tion of  the  forms  presupposed  by  feeling  and  imagina- 
tion (Ibid,  iii,  4).  Hence  a  passive  (ttoOijtikuc,  intel- 
lectus  patiens)  and  an  active,  understanding  (ttoitjtikoc 
vovg,  intellectus  agens).  The  first  implies  receptivity 
for  those  forms,  therefore  it  has  the  closest  relation 
with  the  faculty  of  feeling,  and  hence  with  the  body; 
to  the  latter,  which  elaborates  those  forms  into  judg- 
ing (virdkafifidvuv)  and  inferring  (\oyi'^«T0ai),  and 
which  moreover  itself  thinks,  appertains  indestructi- 
bility (immortality  without  consciousness  or  memory) 
(De  Anim.  ii,  1-G;  iii,  2  sq.  5).  Thought  itself  is*  a 
power  separate  from  the  body,  coming  from  without 
into  man  (De  Gencr.  Anim.  ii,  3),  similar  to  the  ele- 
ment of  the  stars  (Cie.  Acad.  Quajst.  i,  7).  Further, 
the  understanding  is  theoretical  or  practical ;  it  is  the 
latter,  inasmuch  as  it  proposes  ends  and  aims.  The 
will  (ufJt'Ctc)  is  an  impulse  directed  toward  matters  of 
practice— that  is  to  say,  toward  t:ood  ;  which  is  real  or 
apparent,  according  as  it  procures  a  durable  or  a  tran- 
sient enjoyment  (fie  A  n.  iii,  9-11 ;  Eth.  iii,  vi) :  opt$ic  is  I 


subdivided  into  povXiimg  and  iiriBvfiia — thcuill,  prop- 
erly so  called,  and  desire.  Pleasure  is  the  result  of 
the  perfect  exertion  of  a  power — an  exertion  by  which 
the  power  again  is  perfected.  The  noblest  pleasures 
spring  from  reason  (Ethic,  x,  4,  5,  8)." — Tennemann, 
§145. 

From  Psychology  we  proceed  to  Metaphysics,  or 
"  the  first  philosophy,"  as  Aristotle  called  it,  i.  e.  the 
attempt  to  solve  the  problem  of  being.  Had  Aristotle 
adhered  strictly  to  his  own  empirical  method,  he  would 
have  confined  himself  to  the  relative,  and  not  sought 
the  absolute  at  all.  His  prima  philosophia  deals  with 
the  unchangeable,  while  physical  science  deals  with 
change  or  movement.  "  Matter,"  he  said,  "  exists  in 
a  threefold  form.  It  is,  I.  Substance,  perceptible  by 
the  senses,  which  is  finite  and  perishable.  This  sub- 
stance is  either  the  abstract  substance,  or  the  substance 
connected  with  form  (t'idoc).  II.  The  higher  sub- 
stance, which,  though  perceived  by  the  senses,  is  im- 
perishable, such  as  are  the  heavenly  bodies.  Here 
the  active  principle  (tvipyeta)  steps  in,  which,  in  so 
far  as  it  contains  that  which  is  to  be  produced,  is  un- 
derstanding (vovcf).  That  which  it  contains  is  the 
purpose  (to  ov  evtica),  which  purpose  is  realized  in  the 
act.  Here  we  have  the  two  extremes  of  potentiality 
and  agency,  matter  and  thought.  The  often-men- 
tioned entelechic  is  the  relation  between  these  two 
extremes.  It  is  the  point  of  transition  between  diva- 
pig  and  ivtpyua,  and  is  accordingly  the  cause  of  mo- 
tion, or  efficient  cause,  and  represents  the  soul.  III. 
The  third  form  of  substance  is  that  in  which  the  three 
forms  of  power,  efficient  cause  and  effect,  are  united — 
the  absolute  substance,  eternal  unmoved,  God  him- 
self" (Lewes,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  ii,  126).  As  to  the 
relative  place  of  the  idea  of  God  in  the  systems  of 
Plato  and  of  Aristotle,  Maurice  well  remarks  that  "it 
cannot  be  denied  that  the  recognition  of  an  absolute 
being,  of  an  absolute  good,  was  that  which  gave  life 
to  the  whole  doctrine  of  Plato,  and  without  which  it 
is  unmeaning ;  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  merely  the 
crowning  result,  or,  at  least,  the  necessary  postulate 
of  Aristotle*s  philosophy.  In  strict  consistency  with 
this  difference,  it  was  a. being  to  satisfy  the  wants 
of  man  which  Plato  sighed  for ;  it  was  a  first  cause 
of  things  to  which  Aristotle  did  homage.  The  first 
would  part  with  no  indication  or  symbol  of  the  truth 
that  God  has  held  intercourse  with  men,  has  made 
himself  known  to  them  ;  the  second  was  content  with 
seeking  in  nature  and  logic  for  demonstrations  of  his 
attributes  and  his  unity.  When  we  use  personal  lan- 
guage to  describe  the  God  of  whom  Plato  speaks,  we 
feel  that  we  are  using  that  which  suits  best  with  his 
feelings  and  his  principles  even  when,  through  rever- 
ence or  ignorance,  he  forbears  to  use  it  himself.  When 
we  use  personal  language  to  describe  the  deity  of 
Aristotle,  we  feel  that  it  is  improper  and  unsuitable, 
even  if,  through  deference  to  ordinary  notions,  or  the 
difficulty  of  inventing  any  other,  he  resorts  to  it  him- 
self" (Maurice,  Moral  and  Metaph.  Philosophy,  ch.  vi, 
div.  iii,  §  5). 

Practical  philosophy,  according  to  Aristotle,  includes 
ethics,  the  laws  of  the  individual  moral  life  ;  ceconom- 
ics,  those  of  the  family  ;  and  politics,  those  of  man  in 
the  state.  His  "inquiry  starts  from  the  conception 
of  a  sovereign  good  and  final  end.  The  final  end  (rs- 
Xor)  is  happiness  (evScu/iovia,  iinrpaZia),  which  is  the 
result  of  the  energies  of  the  soul  (Iv  fiiy  Ti\tii[j)  in  a 
perfect  life  (Eth.  Nic.  i,  1-7  ;  x,  5,  6);  to  it  appertains 
true  dignity,  as  being  the  highest  thing.  This  perfect 
exercise  of  reason  is  virtue,  and  virtue  is  the  perfec- 
tion of  speculative  and  practical  reason ;  hence  the 
subdivision  of  intellectual  virtue  (oiavorjriK))  aptTif) 
and  moral  (>)6ik)),  Eth.  Nic.  i,  13;  ii,  1).  The  first  be- 
longs, in  its  entire  plenitude,  to  God  alone,  and  confers 
the  highest  felicity,  or  absolute  beatitude  ;  the  second, 
which  he  also  styles  the  human,  is  the  constant  per- 
fecting of  the  reasonable  will  (f  £<c,  habitus),  the  effect 


ARISTOTLE 


399 


ARITHMETIC 


of  a  deliberate  resolve,  and  consequently  of  liberty 
(yrpoaiperiierj),  of  which  Aristotle  was  the  first  to  dis- 
play its  psychological  character,  and  of  which  the  sub- 
jective form  consists  in  always  taking  the  mean  be- 
tween two  extremes  (7-0  psoov,  fitaortjc').  Aristotle 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  analyze  Trpoaipi- 
<tic,  or  deliberate  free  choice  (Etk.  Nic.  ii,  G).  Ethical 
virtue  presents  itself  under  six  principal  characters, 
having  reference  to  the  different  objects  of  desire  and 
avoidance  (the  cardinal  virtues),  namely,  courage  (dv- 
Spia),  temperance  (<rai0po(7tw;),  generosity  (tXtvOe- 
piorqe),  delicacy  (jityaXoirptTrtia),  magnanimity  and 
a  proper  love  of  glory  (Etk.  Nic.  v,  i,  6  sq.),  (jxtya- 
\o^«x*a)i  gentleness  and  moderation.  To  these  are 
added  the  accessory  virtues,  such  as  politeness  of  man- 
ners (eliTpcnrtXia),  amiability,  the  faculty  of  loving 
and  being  beloved  (tpiXia),  and,  lastly,  justice  (Siicaio- 
ovvrj),  which  comprises  and  completes  all  the  others, 
and  on  that  account  is  called  perfect  virtue  (TeXeia). 
Under  the  head  of  justice  Aristotle  comprehends  right 
also.  Justice  he  regards  as  the  special  virtue  (applied 
to  the  notion  of  equality,  to  'iuov)  of  giving  en  ry  man 
his  due;  and  its  operation  may  be  explained  by  apply- 
ing to  it  the  arithmetical  and  geometrical  proportions 
conformably  to  the  two  species,  the  distributive  and 
corrective,  into  which  he  subdivided  the  virtue.  To 
these  must  be  added  equity,  which  has  for  its  end  the 
rectification  of  the  defects  of  law.  Under  the  head  of 
right  (Sikcuov)  he  distinguishes  that  appertaining  to 
a  family  (piicovofiiKov)  from  that  of  a  city  (ttoXituoov), 
dividing  the  latter  into  the  natural  Qpvoucov)  and  the 
positive  (yofUKOv).  A  perfect  unity  of  plan  prevails 
throughout  his  ethics,  his  politics,  and  his  ceconomics. 
Both  the  latter  have  for  their  end  to  show  how  the  ob- 
ject of  man's  existence  defined  in  the  ethics,  viz.  vir- 
tue combined  with  happiness,  may  be  attained  in  the 
civil  and  domestic  relations  through  a  good  constitu- 
tion of  the  state  and  household.  The  state  (iroXic)  is 
a  complete  association  of  a  certain  number  of  smaller 
societies  sufficient  to  satisfy  in  common  all  the  wants 
of  life  (Pol.  i,  2).  Mental  power  alone  should  prepon- 
derate. The  science  of  politics  is  the  investigation  of 
means  tending  to  the  final  end  proposed  by  the  state. 
Its  principle  is  expedienc3r,  and  its  perfection  the  suit- 
ableness of  means  to  the  end.  By  this  principle  Aris- 
totle would  prove  the  lawfulness  of  slavery.  (W.  T. 
Krug,  Be  Aristotele  Servitutis  Defensore  (Lips.  1813, 
4to);  C.  G.  Gottling,  Commentatio  d>.  Notione  Servitu- 
tis  apud  Aristotelem  (Jen.  1821,  4to)  ;  Wallon,  Hist,  de 
VEsclavage  dans  Antiquite  (Paris,  1847,  3  vols.  8vo) ; 
Tennemann,  Manual  Hist.  Phil.  §  147, 148.)  Professor 
Shedd  (History  of  Doctrines,  bk.  i,  ch.  i)  adopts,  per- 
haps too  closely,  Eitter's  reconciliation  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle,  going  so  far  as  to  say  that  "Platonism  and 
Aristotelianism  differ  only  in  form,  not  in  substance." 
While  we  cannot  agree  to  this  broad  statement,  there 
is  yet,  as  to  the  points  named,  reason  for  what  he  says, 
viz.  that,  in  reference  to  the  principal  questions  of  phi- 
losophy, "  both  are  found  upon  the  same  side  of  the 
line  that  divides  all  philosophies  into  the  material, 
the  spiritual,  the  pantheistic,  and  the  theistic.  There 
is  a  substantial  agreement  between  Plato  and  his  pupil 
Aristotle  respecting  the  rationality  and  immortality 
of  the  mind  as  mind  in  distinction  from  matter,  re- 
specting the  nature  and  origin  of  ideas,  respecting  the 
relative  position  and  importance  of  the  senses,  and  of 
knowledge  by  the  senses.  But  these  are  subjects 
whicli  immediately  reveal  the  general  spirit  of  a  phil- 
osophic system.  Let  any  one  read  the  ethical  trea- 
tises of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  he  will  see  that  both 
held  the  same  general  idea  of  the  Deity  as  a  moral 
governor,  of  moral  law,  and  of  the  immutable  reality 
of  right  and  wrong."  But  the  fundamental  difference 
of  the  two  systems  still  remains,  viz.  that  Plato  re- 
gards the  "ideas"  or  eternal  archetypes  of  things  as 
forming  the  true  substance  of  the  latter,  and  as  having 
their  existence  in  themselves,  independent  of  the  ma- 


terial things,  their  soulless  shadows ;  while  Aristotle 
was  of  opinion  that  the  individual  thing  contained  the 
true  substance,  which  forms  whatever  is  permanent  in 
the  flux  of  outward  appearances. 

For  a  long  time  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  re- 
mained in  Greece  a  rival  of  the  Platonic,  but  at  last 
the  latter  gained  the  ascendency.  In  Pome  Aristotle 
found  but  few  adherents.  The  fathers  of  the  ancient 
Church  were,  on  the  whole,  not  favorable  to  Aristote- 
lianism, but  it  was  cultivated  with  great  zeal  by  sever- 
al sects,  especially  those  which  were  inclined  toward  a 
kind  of  rationalism.  (Comp.  Lecky,  History  of  Ration- 
alism, i,  417.)  Thus  the  Artemonites  were  reproached 
with  occupying  themselves  more  with  the  study  of 
Aristotle  than  with  that  of  the  Scriptures.  The  Ano- 
mceans  of  the  school  of  Eunomius  were  called  by  the 
fathers  "young  Aristotelians"  (see,  on  the  opinions 
of  the  Greek  fathers  respecting  this  point,  Launoy, 
De  varia  Aristotelis  in  Acad.  Par.fortuna,  in  his  Opera 
omnia,  iv,  175  sq.  Col.  1732;  Kuhn,  Katholische  Dog- 
matic, i,  2,  369).  Nevertheless,  the  influence  of  Aristo- 
tle commenced  to  spread  in  Christian  philosophy  dur- 
ing the  4th  and  5th  centuries,  especially  in  the  West. 
Previously  the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy,  which  tried 
to  reconcile  Aristotle  with  Plato,  had  given  a  new  im- 
pulse to  the  study  of  Aristotle,  and  called  forth  a  num- 
ber of  commentaries,  of  which  that  of  Porphyry  is  the 
most  celebrated.  Among  the  Christian  Aristotelians 
of  those  times  was  Nemesius,  bishop  of  Emesa,  A.D. 
400,  whose  work  on  "  the  Nature  of  the  Soul"  is  based 
on  the  Aristotelian  anthropology,  and  remained  long 
in  use  and  influence  in  Christian  philosophy.  JEneus 
of  Gaza,  toward  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  and 
Zacharius  Scholasticus  (first  half  of  6th  century),  op- 
posed Aristotle,  especially  with  regard  to  the  world, 
and  approached  nearer  the  doctrine  of  Plato.  Of 
greater  significance  was  Johannes  Philoponus,  who 
called  himself  "  Grammaticus,"  and  is  supposed  by 
modern  writers  to  have  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
6th  century.  He  combated  the  Platonic  philosophy, 
and  followed  Aristotle  so  closely  as  even  to  deviate 
from  the  commonly  received  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
Thus,  applying  the  Aristotelian  doctrine  that  individ- 
ual things  are  substances,  he  changed  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  into  a  kind  of  Tritlieism.  John  Damasce- 
nus,  the  chief  theologian  of  the  Greek  Church,  knew 
and  used  the  dialectics  of  Aristotle,  but  made  no  at- 
tempt to  thoroughly  blend  it  with  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity.  A  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Aristo- 
telian philosophy  within  the  Christian  Church  begins 
after  the  Christianization  of  the  Germanic  tribes,  for 
the  treatment  of  which  see  Scholasticism. 

A  very  full  account  of  Aristotle's  writings  and  of 
his  system  (from  the  Hegelian  point  of  view),  by  Prof. 
Stahr,  is  given  in  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Roman  Biog. 
etc.,  vol.  i.  For  an  excellent  sketch  of  the  Lift  of 
Aristotle,  by  Prof.  Park,  see  Bibliothcca  Sacra,  vol.  i. 
The  literature  of  the  subject  is  copiously  given  in 
Stahr's  article  above  referred  to.  See  also  Maurice, 
Moral  and  Metapli.  Philosophy,  ch.  vi,  div.  iii ;  Hau- 
reau,  Philosophic  Scliolastiqtie,  vol.  i;  Gioberti,  Tntrod. 
a  l' etude  de  la  Pkilnso/Jtie,  i,  08  ;  Litter,  History  ofPhi- 
losophy,  vol.  iii;  North  British  Rev.  Nov.  1858;  Am. 
Bib.  Repos.  July,  1842;  Meth.  Quart.  Rev.  July,  1853, 
342  sq. ;  Biese,  Plains.  d.Arisfofe  (Berlin,  1835,  2  vols. 
8vo)  ;  St.  Ililaire,  Logique  d'Aristote  (Par.  1838,  2  vols. 
8vo);  Ravaisson,  La  Mitaphjshpie  d'Aristote  (Paris, 
1840,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Vacherot,  Theorie  des  prem.principes 
scion  Aristote  (Par.  1836,  8vo) ;  Simon,  du  Dieu  d'Aris- 
tote  (Par.  1840,  8vo). ;  Wetzor  u.  Welte,  Kircken-Lexi- 
J;on,  i,  412.  For  references  as  to  the  influence  of  Aris- 
totle on  Christian  theology,  see  Scholasticism. 

Arithmetic,  or  the  science  of  numbers,  was  un- 
questionably practised  as  an  art  in  the  dawn  of  civil- 
ization ;  since  to  put  things  or  their  symbols  together 
(addition),  and  to  take  one  thing  from  another  (sub- 
traction), must  have  been  coeval  with  the  earliest  ef- 


ARIUS 


400 


ARK 


forts  of  the  human  mind  ;  and  what  are  termed  multi- 
plication and  division  are  only  abbreviated  forms  of  ad- 
dition and  subtraction.  The  origin,  however,  of  the 
earliest  and  most  necessar)-  of  the  arts  and  sciences  is 
lost  in  the  shades  of  antiquity,  since  it  arose  long  be- 
fore the  period  when  men  began  to  take  special  notice 
and  make  some  kind  of  record  of  their  discoveries  and 
pursuits.  In  the  absence  of  positive  information,  we 
seem  authorized  in  referring  the  lirst  knowledge  of 
arithmetic  to  the  East  (see  Edinburgh  Review,  xviii, 
185).  From  India,  Chaldaja,  Phoenicia,  and  Egypt  the 
science  passed  to  the  Greeks,  who  extended  its  laws, 
improved  its  processes,  and  widened  its  sphere.  To 
what  extent  the  Orientals  carried  their  acquaintance 
with  arithmetic  cannot  be  determined.  The  greatest 
discovery  in  this  department  of  the  mathematics, 
namely,  the  establishment  of  our  system  of  ciphers,  or 
of  figures  considered  as  distinct  from  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  belongs  undoubtedly,  not  to  Arabia,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  but  to  the  remote  East,  probably 
India.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  name  of  the  dis- 
coverer is  unknown,  for  the  invention  must  be  reckon- 
ed among  the  greatest  of  human  achievements.  Our 
numerals  were  made  known  to  these  AVestern  parts  by 
the  Arabians,  who,  though  they  were  nothing  more 
than  the  mediums  of  transmission,  have  enjoyed  the 
honor  of  giving  them  their  name.  These  numerals 
were  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  who  made  use  of  the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  for  arithmetical  purposes  (see  En- 
cyclopedia Metropolitana,  s.  v.).  The  Hebrews  were 
not  a  scientific,  but  a  religious  and  practical  nation. 
What  they  borrowed  from  others  of  the  arts  of  life 
they  used  without  surrounding  it  with  theory,  or  ex- 
panding and  framing  it  into  a  system.  So  with  arith- 
metic, designated  by  them  by  some  form  of  the  verb 
il3"0,  manati ,  signifying  to  determine,  limit,  and  thence 
to  number.  Of  their  knowledge  of  this  science  little  is 
known  more  than  may  be  fairly  inferred  from  the  pur- 
suits and  trades  which  they  carried  on,  for  the  suc- 
cessful prosecution  of  which  some  skill  at  least  in  its 
simpler  processes  must  have  been  absolutely  necessary; 
and  the  large  amounts  which  appear  here  and  there  in 
the  sacred  books  serve  to  show  that  their  acquaintance 
with  the  art  of  reckoning  was  considerable.  See 
Number.  Even  in  fractions  they  were  not  inexperi- 
enced (Gesenius,  Lehrgeb.  p.  704).  For  figures,  the 
Jews,  after  the  Babylonish  exile,  made  use  of  the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet,  as  appears  from  the  inscriptions 
on  the  so-called  Samaritan  coins  (Eckhel,  Doctr.  Num. 
i,  iii,  468)  ;  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  ancient  He- 
brews did  the  same,  as  well  as  the  Greeks,  who  bor- 
rowed their  alphabet  from  the  Phoenicians,  neighbors 
of  the  Israelites,  and  employed  it  instead  of  numerals 
(Schmidt,  Biblischer  Mathematicus,  Tub.  1735,  1749). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Abbreviation. 

Arius.born  toward  the  close  of  the  third  century,  in 
Libya,  according  to  others,  in  Alexandria.  He  wrote 
a  theological  work,  Timlin,  extracts  from  which  are 
given  in  the  writings  of  Athanasius.  He  died  in  336. 
For  his  doctrines  and  their  history,  see  Arianism. 

Ark  is  used  in  the  Bible  to  designate  three  vessels 
of  special  importance. 

1.  Noah's  Ark  (fiat),  tebah';  Sept.  «/3wr<5c,  a 
rh  st :  Josephus  \dpvaZ,  a  coffer;  Vulg.  area,  Gen.  vi, 
11),  different  from  the  term  "pIX,  arm',  applied  to  the 
"  ark''  of  the  covenant,  and  other  receptacles  which  we 
know  to  have  been  chests  or  coffers,  but  the  same  that 
is  applied  to  the  "  ark"  in  which  Moses  was  hid  (Exod. 
ii,  3),  the  only  other  part  of  Scripture  in  which  it  oc- 
curs. In  the  latter  passage  the  Septuagint  renders  it 
Otjli],  a  ship;  but  the  truth  seems  to  be  that  aron  de- 
notes any  kind  <>t'  chest  or  coffer,  while  the  exclusive 
application  of  tebah  to  the  vessels  of  Noah  and  of  Mo- 
ses would  suggest  the  probability  that  it  was  restricted 
to  such  chests  or  arks  as  were  intended  to  float  upon 


the  water,  of  whatever  description.  The  identity  of 
the  name  with  that  of  the  wicker  basket  in  which  Mo- 
ses was  exposed  on  the  Nile  has  led  some  to  suppose 
that  the  ark  of  Noah  was  also  of  wicker-work,  cr  rather 
was  wattled  and  smeared  over  with  bitumen  (Auth. 
Vers,  "pitch,"  Gen.  vi,  14).  This  is  not  impossible, 
seeing  that  vessels  of  considerable  burden  are  thus  con- 
structed at  the  present  day  ;  but  there  is  no  sufficient 
authority  for  carrying  the  analogy  to  this  extent. 

The  boat-like  form  of  the  ark,  which  repeated  pic- 
torial representations  have  rendered  familiar,  is  fitted 
for  progression  and  for  cutting  the  waves ;  whereas 
the  ark  of  Noah  was  really  destined  to  float  idly  upon  ■ 
the  waters,  without  any  other  motion  than  that  which 
it  received  from  them.  If  we  examine  the  passage  in 
Gen.  vi,  14-16,  we  can  only  draw  from  it  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  ark  was  not  a  boat  or  ship ;  but,  as  Dr. 
Robinson  (in  Calmet's  Diet.  s.  v.)  describes  it,  "a 
building  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  300  cubits 
long,  50  cubits  broad,  and  30  cubits  high.  The  length 
of  the  cubit,  in  the  great  variety  of  measures  that  bore 
this  name,  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  and  useless  to 
conjecture.  So  far  as  the  name  affords  any  evidence, 
it  also  goes  to  show  that  the  ark  of  Noah  was  not  a 
regularly-built  vessel,  but  merely  intended  to  float  at 
large  upon  the  waters.  We  may,  therefore,  probably 
with  justice,  regard  it  as  a  large  oblong,  floating  house, 
with  a  roof  either  flat  or  only  slightly  inclined.  It 
was  constructed  with  three  stories,  and  had  a  door  in 
the  side.  There  is  no  mention  of  windows  in  the  side, 
but  above,  i.  e.  probably  in  the  flat  roof,  where  Noah 
was  commanded  to  make  them  of  a  cubit  in  size  (Gen. 
vi,  16).  That  this  is  the  meaning  of  the  passage  seems 
apparent  from  Gen.  viii,  13,  where  Noah  removes  the 
covering  of  the  ark  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the 
ground  was  dry — a  Tabor  unnecessary,  surely,  had 
there  been  windows  in  the  sides  of  the  ark." 

The  purpose  of  this  ark  was  to  preserve  certain  per- 
sons and  animals  from  the  deluge  with  which  God  in- 
tended to  overwhelm  the  land,  in  punishment  for 
man's  iniquities.  The  persons  were  eight — Noah  and 
his  wife,  with  his  three  sons  and  their  wives  (Gen.  vii, 
7  ;  2  Pet.  ii,  5).  The  animals  were,  one  pair  of  every 
"  unclean"  animal,  and  seven  pairs  of  all  that  were 
"  clean."  P/y  "clean"  we  understand  fit,  and  by  "  un- 
clean" unfit,  for  food  or  sacrifice.  Of  birds  there  were 
seven  pairs  (Gen.  vii,  2,  3).  Those  who  have  written 
professedly  and  largely  on  the  subject  have  been  at 
great  pains  to  provide  for  all  the  existing  species  of 
animals  in  the  ark  of  Noah,  showing  how  they  might 
be  distributed,  fed,  and  otherwise  provided  for.  But 
they  are  very  far  from  having  cleared  the  matter  of 
all  its  difficulties,  which  are  much  greater  than  they, 
in  their  general  ignorance  of  natural  history,  were 
aware  of.  These  difficulties,  however,  chiefly  arise 
from  the  assumption  that  the  species  of  all  the  earth 
were  collected  in  the  ark.  The  number  of  such  spe- 
cies has  been  vastly  underrated  by  these  writers,  partly 
from  ignorance,  and  partly  from  the  desire  to  limit  the 
number  for  which  they  imagined  they  were  required  to 
provide.  They  have  usually  satisfied  themselves  with 
a  provision  for  three  or  four  hundred  species  at  most. 
"  But  of  the  existing  mammalia  considerably  more 
than  one  thousand  species  are  known  ;  of  birds,  fully 
five  thousand  ;  of  reptiles,  very  few  kinds  of  which 
can  live  in  water,  two  thousand ;  and  the  researches 
of  travellers  and  naturalists  are  making  frequent  and 
most  interesting  additions  to  the  number  of  these  and 
all  other  classes.  Of  insects  (using  the  word  in  the 
popular  sense)  the  number  of  species  is  immense;  to 
say  one  hundred  thousand  would  be  moderate :  each 
has  its  appropriate  habitation  and  food,  and  these  are 
necessary  to  its  life  ;  and  the  larger  number  could  not 
live,  in  water.  Also  the  innumerable  millions  upon 
millions  of  animalcules  must  be  provided  for,  for  they 
have  all  their  appropriate  and  diversified  places  and 
circumstances  of  existence"  (Dr.  J.  Pye  Smith,  On 


ARK 


401 


ARK 


the  Relation  between  the  Hob/  Scriptures  and  some  Parts 
of  Geological  Science,  p.  135).  Nor  do  these  numbers 
form  the  only  difficulty ;  for,  as  the  same  writer  ob- 
serves :  "All  land  animals  have  their  geographical 
regions,  to  which  their  constitutional  natures  are  con- 
genial, and  many  could  not  live  in  any  other  situation. 
We  cannot  represent  to  ourselves  the  idea  of  their  be- 
ing brought  into  one  small  spot,  from  the  polar  re- 
gions, the  torrid  zone,  and  all  the  other  climates  of 
Asia,  Africa,  Europe,  America,  Australia,  and  the  thou- 
sands of  islands,  their  preservation  and  provision,  and 
the  final  disposal  of  them,  without  bringing  up  the 
idea  of  miracles  more  stupendous  than  an}'  which  are 
recorded  in  Scripture."  These  are  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties which  arise  on  the  supposition  that  all  the  spe- 
cies of  animals  existing  in  the  world  were  assembled 
together  and  contained  in  the  ark.  And  if  the  object, 
as  usually  assumed,  was  to  preserve  the  species  of 
creatures  which  the  Deluge  would  otherwise  have  de- 
stroyed, the  provision  for  beasts  and  birds  only  must 
have  been  altogether  inadequate.  What,  then,  would 
have  become  of  the  countless  reptiles,  insects,  and  an- 
imalcules to  which  we  have  already  referred  ?  and  it 
is  not  clear  that  some  provision  must  not  also  have 
been  necessaiy  for  fishes  and  shell-animals,  many  of 
which  cannot  live  in  fresh  water,  while  others  cannot 
live  in  salt.  The  difficulty  of  assembling  in  one  spot, 
and  of  providing  for  in  the  ark,  the  various  mammalia 
and  birds  alone,  even  without  including  the  otherwise 
essential  provision  for  reptiles,  insects,  and  fishes,  is 
quite  sufficient  to  suggest  some  error  in  the  current  be- 
lief. We  are  to  consider  the  different  kinds  of  accom- 
modation and  food  which  would  be  required  for  ani- 
mals of  such  different  habits  and  climates,  and  the 
necessary  provision  for  cleansing  the  stables  or  dens. 
And  if  so  much  ingenuity  has  been  required  in  devis- 
ing arrangements  for  the  comparatively  small  number 
of  species  which  the  writers  on  the  ark  have  been  will- 
ing to  admit  into  it,  what  provision  can  be  made  for 
the  immensely  larger  number  which,  under  the  sup- 
posed conditions,  would  really  have  required  its  shel- 
ter ?  There  seems  to  be  no  way  of  meeting  these  dif- 
ficulties but  by  adopting  the  suggestion  of  Bishop  Stil- 
lingfleet,  approved  by  Matthew  Poole,  Dr.  J.  Pye 
Smith,  Le  Clerc,  Eosenmuller,  and  others,  namely, 
that,  as  the  object  of  the  Deluge  was  to  sweep  man 
from  the  earth,  it  did  not  extend  beyond  that  region 
of  the  earth  which  man  then  inhabited,  and  that  only 
the  animals  of  that  region  were  preserved  in  the  ark. 
See  Deluge.  Bishop  Stillingfleet,  who  wrote  in  plain 
soberness  lung  before  geology  was  known  as  a  science, 
and  when,  therefore,  those  discoveries  were  altogether 
unthought  of,  by  which,  in  our  day,  such  warm  con- 
troversies have  been  excited,  expresses  his  belief  that 
the  Flood  was  universal  as  to  mankind,  and  that  all 
men,  except  those  preserved  in  the  ark,  were  destroy- 
ed ;  but  he  sees  no  evidence  from  Scripture  that  the 
whole  earth  was  then  inhabited  ;  he  does  not  think 
that  it  can  ever  be  proved  to  have  been  so  ;  and  he 
asks  what  reason  there  can  be  to  extend  the  Flood  be- 
yond the  occasion  of  it.  He  grants  that,  as  far  as  the 
Flood  extended,  all  the  animals  were  destroyed ;  "  but," 
he  adds,  "  I  see  no  reason  to  extend  the  destruction 
of  these  beyond  the  compass  of  the  earth  which  men 
then  inhabited  ;  the  punishment  of  the  beasts  was  oc- 
casioned by,  and  could  not  but  lie  concomitant  with, 
the  destruction  of  mankind.  But  (the  occasion  of  the 
Deluge  being  the  sin  of  man,  who  was  punished  in 
the  beasts  that  were  destroyed  for  his  sake,  as  well  as 
in  himself)  where  the  occasion  was  not,  as  where  there 
were  animals  and  no  men,  there  seems  no  necessity 
for  extending  the  Flood  thither"  (Orir/ines  Sacrw,  bk. 
iii,  ch.  iv).  The  bishop  farther  argues  that  the  rea- 
son for  preserving  living  creatures  in  the  ark  was 
that  there  might  be  a  stock  of  the  tame  and  domesti- 
cated animals  that  should  be  immediately  "service- 
able for  man  after  the  Flood ;  which  was  certainly  the 
Cc 


main  thing  looked  at  in  the  preservation  of  them  in 
the  ark,  that  men  might  have  all  of  them  ready  for  use 
after  the  Flood;  which  could  not  have  been  had  not 
the  several  kinds  been  preserved  in  the  ark,  although 
we  suppose  them  not  destroyed  in  all  parts  of  the 
world." 

As  Noah  was  the  progenitor  of  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  and  as  the  ark  was  the  second  cradle  of  the  hu- 
man race,  we  might  expect  to  find  in  all  nations  tra- 
ditions and  reports  more  or  less  distinct  respecting 
him,  the  ark  in  which  he  was  saved,  and  the  Deluge 
in  general.  Accordingly,  no  nation  is  known  in  which 
such  traditions  have  not  been  found.  They  have 
been  very  industriously  brought  together  by  Banier, 
Bryant,  Faber,  and  other  mythologists.  See  Ara- 
rat; Noah.  And  as  it  appears  that  an  ark— that 
is,  a  boat  or  chest — was  carried  about  with  great  cer- 
emony in  most  of  the  ancient  mysteries,  and  occupied 
an  eminent  station  in  the  holy  places,  it  has  with 
much  reason  been  concluded  that  this  was  originally 
intended  to  represent  the  ark  of  Noah,  which  eventu- 
ally came  to  be  regarded  with  superstitious  reverence. 
On  this  point  the  historical  and  mythological  testimo- 
nies are  very  clear  and  conclusive.  The  tradition  of 
a  deluge',  by  which  the  race  of  man  was  swept  from 
the  face  of  the  earth,  has  been  traced  among  the  Chal- 
daeans,  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Assyrians,  Persians, 
Greeks,  Romans,  Goths,  Druids,  Chinese,  Hindoos, 
Burmese,  Mexicans,  Peruvians,  Brazilians,  Nicara- 
guans,  the  inhabitants  of  Western  Caledonia,  and  the 
islanders  of  the  Pacific  ;  and  among  most  of  them  also 
the  belief  has  prevailed  that  certain  individuals  were 
preserved  in  an  ark,  ship,  boat,  or  raft,  to  replenish 
the  desolated  earth  with  inhabitants.  Nor  are  these 
traditions  uncorroborated  by  coins  and  monuments  of 
stone.  Of  the  latter  there  are  the  sculptures  of  Egypt 
and  of  India ;  and  it  is  fancied  that  those  of  the  mon- 
uments called  Druidical  which  bear  the  name  of  kist- 
vaens,  and  in  which  the  stones  arc  disposed  in  the 


Druidical  Altar?. 

form  of  a  chest  or  house,  were  intended  as  memorials 
of  the  ark.  The  curious  subject  of  Arkite  worship  is 
especially  illustrated  by  the  two  famous  medals  of 
Apamea.  There  were  six  cities  of  this  name,  of  which 
the  most  celebrated  was  that  of  Syria ;  next  to  it  in 
importance  was  the  one  in  Phr}'gia,  called  also  Ki/ioj- 
-6c,  Kibotos,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  means  an  ark 
or  hollow  vessel.  The  medals  in  question  belong, 
the  one  to  the  elder  Philip,  and  the  other  to  Pertinax. 
In  the  former  it  is  extremely  interesting  to  observe 
that  on  the  front  of  the  ark  is  the  name  of  Noah, 
NQE,  in  Greek  characters.  In  both  we  perceive  the 
ark  floating  on  the  water,  containing  the  patriarch  and 
his  wife,  the  dove  on  wing,  the  olive-branch,  and  the 
raven  perched  on  the  ark.  These  medals  also  repre- 
sent Noah  and  his  wife  on  terra,  firm  a,  in  the  attitude 
of  rendering  thanks  for  their  safety.  The  genuine- 
ness of  these  medals  has  been  established  beyond  all 
question  by  the  researches  of  Bryant  and  the  critical 
inspection  of  Abbe  Barthelemy.  There  is  another 
medal,  struck  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  which 
bears  the  inscription  AHAMEUN  KIBQTOS  MAP2- 
2IA,  "the  ark  and  the  Marsj-as  of  the  Apameans." 
See  ArAMEA.  The  coincidences  which  these  medals 
offer  are  at  least  exceedingly  curious;  and  they  are 
scarcely  less  illustrative  of  the  prevailing  belief  to 
which  we  are  referring,  if,  as  some  suppose,  the  figures 
represented  are  those  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  (Meis- 
ner,  De  area  Xoachi,  Witt.  1622) — Kitto.  See  Flood. 


ARK 


402 


ARK 


Coins  of  Apamea  Ciloiv.%  with  supposed  Representations  of 
the  Ark. 

2.  The  Ark  of  Bulrushes  (SlSSl,  tebah' ;  Sept. 
S'i'/3(f).  In  Exod.  ii,  3,  we  read  that  Moses  was  ex- 
posed among  the  flags  of  the  Nile  in  an  ark  (or  boat 
of  bulrushes)  daubed  with  slime  and  with  pitch.  The 
bulrushes  of  which  the  ark  was  made  were  the  papy- 
rus reed  (Cyperus  papyrus),  which  grows  in  Egypt  in 
marshy  places.  It  was  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes, 
even  for  food.  Pliny  says,  from  the  plant  itself  they 
veuve  boats,  and  other  ancient  writers  inform  us  that 
the  Nile  wherries  were  made  of  papyrus.  Boats  made 
of  this  material  were  noted  for  their  swiftness,  and 
are  alluded  to  in  Isa.  xviii,  2.     See  Reed. 

3.  The  Sacred  Ark  of  the  Jews  (l'"l1N  or  pX 
aron;  Sept.  and  New  Test.  k-(/3w-oc),  different  from 
the  term  applied  to  the  ark  of  Noah.      It  is  the  com- 
mon name  for  a  chest  or  coffer,  whether  applied  to  the 
ark  in  the  tabernacle,  to  a  coffin,  to  a  mummy-chest 
(Gen.  1,  20),  or  to  a  chest  for  money  (2  Kings  xii,  9, 
10).     Our  word  ark  has  the  same  meaning;  being  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  area,  a  chest.     The  sacred  chest 
is  distinguished  from  others  as  the  "ark  of  God"  (1 
Sam.  iii,  3),  "  ark  of  the  covenant"  (Josh,  iii,  G;  Heb. 
ix,  4),  and  "  ark  of  the  law"  (Exod.  xxv,  22).     This 
ark  was  a  kind  of  box,  of  an  oblong  shape,  made  of 
shittim  (acacia)  wood,  a  cubit  and  a  half  broad  and 
high,  two  culiits  long,  and  covered  on  all  sides  with 
the  purest  gold.    It  was  ornamented  on  its  upper  sur- 
face with  a  border  or  rim  of  gold  ;  and  on  each  of  the 
two  sides,  at  equal  distances  from  the  top,  were  two 
gold  rings,  in  which  were  placed  (to  remain  there  per- 
petually) the  gold-covered  poles  by  which  the  ark  was 
carried,  and  which  continued  with  it  after  it  was  de- 
posited  in  the  tabernacle.     The  Levites  of  the  house 
of  Kohath,  to  whose  office  this  especially  appertained, 
bore  il  in  its  progress.      Probably,  however,  when  re- 
moved from  within  the  vail  in  the  most  holy  place, 
which  was  its  proper  position,  or  when  taken  out  * 
thence,  priests  were  its  bearers  (Num.  vii,  9  ;  x,  21  ; 
iv,  5,  19,  20;   1  Kings  viii,  3,  6).     The  ends  of  the 
St  iv.  is  were  visible  without  the  vail  in  the  holy  place 
of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  the  staves  being  drawn  to 
the  ends,  apparently,  but  not  out  of  the  rings.     The 
ark,  when  transported,  was  enveloped  in  the  "  vail" 
of  the  dismantled  tabernacle,  in  the  curtain  of  badgers' 
skins,  and  in  a  blue  cloth  over  all.  and  was  therefore 
not  seen.    The  lid  or  cover  of  the  ark  was  of  the  same 


length  and  breadth  as  the  ark  itself,  and  made  of  the 
purest  gold.  Over  it,  at  the  two  extremities,  were  two 
cherubim,  with  their  faces  turned  toward  each  other, 
and  inclined  a  little  toward  the  lid  (otherwise  called 
the  mercy-seaC).  See  Cherub.  Their  wings,  which 
were  spread  out  over  the  top  of  the  ark,  formed  the 
throne  of  God,  the  King  of  Israel,  while  the  ark  itself 
was  his  footstool  (Exod.  xxv,  10-22  ;  xxxvii,  1-9). 
(Comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  iii,  G,  5;  Philo,  Opera,  ii,  150; 
Koran,  ii,  249,  ed.  Marrac. ;  for  heathen  parallels,  see 
Apulej.  Asm.  xi,  262,  Bip. ;  Pausan.  vii,  19,  3;  Ovid, 
Ars  Am.  ii,  609  sq. ;  Catull.  lxiv,  260  sq.  See  gen- 
erally Behind,  Antiq.  Sacr.  i,  5,  19  sq.,  43  sq. ;  Carp- 
zov,  Appar.  p.  260  sq. ;  Schaacht,  Animadvers.  p.  334 
sq. ;  Buxtorf,  Hist,  areas  fad.  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  viii ; 
Hoffmann,  in  the  Hall.  Encycl.  xiv,  27  sq. ;  Otho,  Lex. 
Rabb.  p.  GO  sq. ;  Rau,  Nubes  super  area  fad.  Herbon. 
1757,  Utrecht,  1760 ;  Thalemann,  Nubes  super  area  fad. 
Lips.  1752,  Vindic.  1771;  Lamy,  Be  tabernac.  fad.  p. 
412  sq. ;  Van  Til,  He  tabernac.  Mas.  p.  117  sq.) 

This  ark  was  the  most  sacred  object  among  the  Is- 
raelites ;  it  was  deposited  in  the  innermost  and  holiest 
part  of  the  tabernacle,  called  "the  holy  of  holies" 
(and  afterward  in  the  corresponding  apartment  of  the 
Temple),  where  it  stood  so  that  one  end  of  each  of  the 
poles  by  which  it  was  carried  (which  were  drawn  out 
so  far  as  to  allow  the  ark  to  be  placed  against  the  back 
wall)  touched  the  vail  which  separated  the  two  apart- 
ments of  the  tabernacle  (1  Kings  viii,  8).  It  was  also 
probably  a  reliquary  for  the  pot  of  manna  and  the  rod 
of  Aaron.  We  read  in  1  Kings  viii,  9,  that  "there 
was  nothing  in  the  ark  save  the  two  tables  of  stone 
which  Moses  put  there  at  Horeb."  Yet  Paul,  or  the 
author  of  Heb.  ix,  4,  asserts  that,  besides  the  two  ta- 
bles of  stone,  the  "pot  of  manna"  and  "Aaron's  rod 
that  budded"  were  inside  the  ark,  which  were  direct- 
ed to  be  "  laid  up"  and  "  kept  before  the  testimony,'" 
i.  e.  before  the  tables  of  the  law  (Exod.  xl,  20)  ;  and 
probabl}-,  since  there  is  no  mention  of  any  other  re- 
ceptacle for  them,  and  some  would  have  been  neces- 
sary, the  statement  of  1  Kings  viii,  9,  implies  that  by 
Solomon's  time  these  relics  had  disappeared.  The 
expression  ",TnX  ^£33,  Dent,  xxxi,  26,  obscurely  ren- 
dered "in  the  side  of  the  ark"  (Auth.  Vers.),  merely 
means  "beside"  it. 

During  the  marches  of  the  Israelites  it  was  covered 
with  a  purple  pall,  and  borne  bj'  the  priests,  with 
great  reverence  and  care,  in  advance  of  the  host  (Num. 
iv,  5,  6 ;  x,  33).  It  was  before  the  ark,  thus  in  ad- 
vance, that  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  separated  ;  and 
it  remained  in  the  bed  of  the  river,  with  the  attendant 


ARK 


408 


ARK 


priests,  until  the  whole  host  had  passed  over ;  and  no 
sooner  was  it  also  brought  up  than  the  waters  resumed 
their  course  (Josh,  iii ;  iv,  7, 10, 11, 17,  18).  We  may 
notice  a  fiction  of  the  Rabbis  that  there  were  two  arks, 
one  which  remained  in  the  shrine,  and  another  which 
preceded  the  camp  on  its  march,  and  that  this  latter  j 
contained  the  broken  tables  of  the  law,  as  the  former 
the  whole  ones.  The  ark  was  similarly  conspicuous 
in  the  grand  procession  round  Jericho  (Josh,  vi,  4,  G, 
8,  11,  12).  It  is  not  wonderful,  therefore,  that  the 
neighboring  nations,  who  had  no  notion  of  spiritual 
worship,  looked  upon  it  as  the  God  of  the  Israelites 
(1  Sam.  iv,  6,  7),  a  delusion  which  may  have  been 
strengthened  by  the  figures  of  the  cherubim  on  it. 
After  the  conquest,  the  ark  generally  (see  Judg.  xx,  27) 
remained  in  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  until,  in  the  time 
of  Eli,  it  was  carried  along  with  the  army  in  the  war  [ 
against  the  Philistines,  under  the  superstitious  notion  I 
that  it  would  secure  the  victory  to  the  Hebrews. 
They  were,  nevertheless,  not  only  beaten,  but  the  ark 
itself  was  taken  by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  iv,  3-11), 
whose  triumph  was,  however,  very  short  lived,  as  thej- 
were  so  oppressed  by  the  hand  of  God  that,  after  seven 
months,  they  were  glad  to  send  it  back  again  (1  Sam. 
v,  7).  After  that  it  remained  apart  from  the  taber- 
nacle, at  Kirjath-jearim  (vii,  1,  2),  where  it  continued 
until  the  time  of  David,  who  purposed  to  remove  it  to 
Jerusalem  ;  but  the  old  prescribed  mode  of  removing 
it  from  place  to  place  was  so  much  neglected  as  to 
cause  the  death  of  Uzzah,  in  consequence  of  which  it 
was  left  in  the  house  of  Obededom  (2  Sam.  vi,  1-11)  ; 
hut  after  three  months  David  took  courage,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  effecting  its  safe  removal,  in  grand  proces- 
sion, to  Mount  Zion  (ver.  12-19).  When  the  Temple 
of  Solomon  was  completed,  the  ark  was  deposited  in 
the  sanctuary  (1  Kings  viii,  G-9).  Several  of  the 
Psalms  contain  allusions  to  these  events  (e.  g.  xxiv, 
xlvii,  exxxii),  and  Psa.  cv  appears  to  have  been  com- 
posed on  the  occasion  of  the  first  of  them.  See 
Psalms.  The  passage  in  2  Chron.  xxxv,  3,  in  which 
Josiah  directs  the  Levites  to  restore  the  ark  to  the 
holy  place,  is  understood  by  some  to  imply  that  it  had 
either  been  removed  by  Anion,  who  put  an  idol  in  its 
place,  which  is  assumed  to  have  been  the  "trespass" 
of  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  gurlty  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii,  23),  or  that  the  priests  themselves  had  with- 
drawn it  during  idolatrous  times,  and  preserved  it  in 
some  secret  place,  or  had  removed  it  from  one  place 
to  another.  But  it  seems  more  likely  that  it  had  been 
taken  from  the  hoi}-  of  holies  during  the  purification 
and  repairs  of  the  Temple  by  this  same  Josiah,  and 
that  he,  in  this  passage,  merely  directs  it  to  be  again 
set  in  its  place.  Or  it  may  have  been  removed  by 
Manasseh,  to  make  room  for  the  "  carved  image"  that 
he  placed  "in  the  house  of  God"  (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  7). 
What  became  of  the  ark  when  the  Temple  was  plun- 
dered and  destroyed  by  the  Babylonians  is  not  known, 
and  all  conjecture  is  useless.  It  was  probably  taken 
away  or  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (2  Esdr.  x, 
22).  The  Jews  believe  that  it  was  concealed  from  the 
spoilers,  and  account  it  among  the  hidden  things  which 
the  Messiah  is  to  reveal  (see  Ambros.  Off.  iii,  17,  18 ; 
Joseph.  Gorionid.  i,  21 ;  Wernsdorf,  Be  Ji.de  Maccab. 
p.  183  sq. ;  Mishna,  Shekal.  vi,  1).  It  is  certain,  how- 
ever, from  the  consent  of  all  the  Jewish  writers,  that 
the  old  ark  was  not  contained  in  the  second  temple, 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  any  new  one  was  made. 
Indeed,  the  absence  of  the  ark  is  one  of  the  important 
particulars  in  which  this  temple  was  held  to  be  inferior 
.to  that  of  Solomon.  The  most  holy  place  is  therefore 
generally  considered  to  have  been  empty  in  the  second 
temple  (as  Josephus  states,  liar,  v,  14)  ;  or  at  most 
(as  the  rabbins  allege,  Mishna,  Yoma,  v,  2)  to  have 
contained  only  a  stone  to  mark  the  place  which  the 
ark  should  have  occupied  (comp.  Tacit,  Hist,  v,  9). 
The  silence  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  the  Maccabees,  and 
Josephus,  who  repeatedly  mention  all  the  other  sacred 


utensils,  but  never  name  the  ark,  seems  conclusive  on 
the  subject.  But,  notwithstanding  this  weight  of*  testi- 
mony, there  are  writers,  such  as  Prideaux  (Connection, 
i,  207),  who  contend  that  the  Jews  could  not  properly 
carry  on  their  worship  without  an  ark,  and  that  if  the 
original  ark  was  not  recovered  after  the  Captivity,  a 
new  one  must  have  been  made  (Calmet's  Dissertation 
surVArehe  d1  Alliance;  Hase,  De  lapide  cui  area  impo- 
sitafuit,  Erb.  and  Lpz.  n.  d.  4to).     See  Temple. 

Concerning  the  design  and  form  of  the  ark,  it  ap- 
pears that  clear  and  unexpected  light  has  been  thrown 
by  the  discoveries  which  have 
of  late  years  been  made  in 
Egypt,  and  which  have  unfold- 
ed to  us  the  rites  and  myste- 
ries of  the  old  Egyptians.  (See 
Descr.  de  VEgypte,  Att.  i,  pi. 
11,  fig.  4  ;  pi.  12,  fig.  3  ;  iii,  pi. 
32,  34,  3G ;  comp.  Rosenmul- 
ler,  Morgenl.  ii,  9G  sq. ;  Heeren, 
Ideen,  II,  ii,  831 ;  Spencer,  Leg. 
ril.  iii,  5,  p.  1084  sq.  ;  Bahr, 
Symbol,  i,  381,  402  sq.)  "One 
of  the  most  important  cere-  _ 
monies  was  the  '  procession  of    u  Vy 

shrines,'  which  is  mentioned  Egyptian  Ark.  From  the 
in  the  Rosetta  stone,  and  fre-  Monuments, 

quently  occurs  on  the  walls  of  the  temples.  The 
shrines  were  of  two  kinds  :  the  one  a  sort  of  canopy ; 
the  other  an  ark  or  sacred  boat,  which  may  be  termed 
the  great  shrine.  This  was  carried  with  grand  pomp 
by  the  priests,  a  certain  number  being  selected  for 
that  duty,  who  supported  it  on  their  shoulders  by 
means  of  long  staves,  passing  through  metal  rings  at 
the  side  of  the  sledge  on  which  it  stood,  and  brought 
it  into  the  temple,  where  it  was  deposited  upon  a  stand 
or  table,  in  order  that  the  prescribed  ceremonies  might 
be  discharged  before  it.  The  stand  was  also  carried 
in  procession  b}-  another  set  of  priests,  following  the 
shrine,  by  means  of  similar  staves  ;  a  method  usually 
adopted  for  carrying  large  statues  and  sacred  em- 
blems, too  heavy  or  too  important  to  be  borne  by  one 
person.  The  same  is  stated  to  have  been  the  custom 
of  the  Jews  in  some  of  their  religious  processions 
(comp.  1  Chron.  xv,  2,  15;  2  Sam.  xv,  24;  and  Josh, 
iii,  12),  as  in  carrying  the  ark  to  its  place,  into  the 
oracle  of  the  house,  to  the  most  holy  place,  when  the 
Temple  was  built  by  Solomon  (1  Kings  viii,  G)."  .  .  .  . 
"  Some  of  the  arks  or  boats  contained  the  emblems  of 
Life  and  Stability,  which,  when  the  veil  was  drawn 
aside,  were  partially  seen  ;  and  others  presented  the 
beetle  to  the  sun,  overshadowed  by  the  wings  of  two 
figures  of  the  goddess  Thenei,  or  Truth,  which  call  to 
mind  the  cherubim  of  the  Jews"  (Wilkinson's  Anc. 
Egyptians,  v,  271,  275).  The  ritual  of  the  Etruscans, 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  other  ancient  nations,  included 
the  use  of  what  Clemens  Alexandrinus  calls  Kiarai 
/.wffTticai  {Protrrpt.  p.  12).  The  same  Clemens  (Strom. 
v,  578)  also  contains  an  allusion  of  a  proverbial  char- 
acter to  the  ark  and  its  rites,  which  seems  to  show- 
that  they  were  popularly  known,  where  he  says  that 
"only  the  master  (ciedaKaXoc)  may  uncover  the  ark" 
(/c(/3wro£-).     In  Latin,  also,  the  word  arcanum,  con- 


Ark  borne  in  Procession  by  Egyptian  Priests.     From  the 
Monuments. 


ARK 


404 


ARKITE 


necteil  with  area,  and  arceo,  is  the  recognised  term  for 
a  sacred  mystery.  (Illustrations  of  the  same  subject 
occur  also  in  Pint.  De  Is.  et  Osi.  c.  39 ;  Euseb.  Prcep. 
Evan;/,  ii,  3.) 

These  resemblances  and  differences  appear  to  us  to 
cast  a  strong  light,  not  only  on  the  form,  but  on  the 
purpose  of  the  Jewish  ark.  The  discoveries  of  this 
sort  which  have  lately  been  made  in  Egypt  have  add- 
ed an  overwhelming  weight  of  proof  to  the  evidence 
which  previously  existed,  that  the  "tabernacle  made 
with  hands,"  with  its  utensils  and  ministers,  bore  a 
designed  external  resemblance  to  the  Egyptian  models, 
but  purged  of  the  details  and  peculiarities  which  were 
the  most  open  to  abuse  and  misconstruction.  That 
the  Israelites,  during  the  latter  part  of  their  sojourn  in 
Egypt,  followed  the  rites  and  religion  of  the  country, 
and  were  (at  least  many  of  them)  gross  idolaters,  is 
distinctly  affirmed  in  Scripture  (Josh,  xxiv,  14 ;  Ezek. 
xxiii,  3,  8,  19),  and  is  shown  by  their  ready  lapse 
into  the  worship  of  the  "golden  calf,"  and  by  the 
striking  fact  that  they  actually  carried  about  with 
them  one  of  these  Egyptian  shrines  or  tabernacles  in 
the  wilderness  (Amos  v,  2G).  From  their  conduct,  and 
the  whole  tone  of  their  sentiments  and  character,  it 
appears  that  this  stiff-necked  and  rebellious  people 
were  incapable  (as  a  nation)  of  adhering  to  that  simple 
form  of  worship  and  service  which  is  most  pleasing  to 
God.  (See  an  article  on  this  subject  in  the  Am.  Bib. 
Repos.  Oct.  1843,  p.  290-312.)— Kitto,  s.  v. 


mmmmm 


Ancient  Egyptian  Shrine. 

The  purpose  or  object  of  the  ark  was  to  contain  in- 
violate the  Divine  autograph  of  the  two  tables,  that 
"covenant"  from  which  it  derived  its  title,  the  idea 
of  which  was  inseparable  from  it,  and  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  depositum  of  the  Jewish  dispensation. 
The  perpetual  .safe  custody  of  the  material  tables  no 
doubt  suggested  the  moral  observance  of  the  precepts 
inscribed.  The  words  ofthe  Audi.  Vers,  in  1  Chr.  xiii, 
3,  seem  to  imply  a  use  ofthe  ark  for  the  purpose  of 
an  oracle;  but  this  is  probably  erroneous,  and  "we 
Bought  it  not"  the  meaning;  so  the  Sept.  renders  it 
(see  Gesenius,  Lex.&.  v.  -:~~>.     Occupying  the inost 

holy  spot  ofthe  whole  saint  nary,  it  tended  to  exclude 
any  idol  from  the  centre  Of  worship.  And  Jeremiah 
(iii,   16)  look,  forward  to  the  time  when  even  the  ark 

should  be  "no  more  remembered"  as  the  climax  of 
spiritualized  religion  apparently  in  Messianic  times. 
It  was  also  the  support  ofthe  mercy-seat,  materially 


symbolizing,  perhaps,  the  "covenant"  as  that  on  which 
"mercj-"  rested.  It  also  furnished  a  legitimate  vent 
to  that  longing  after  a  material  object  for  reverential 
feeling  which  is  common  to  all  religions.  It  was, 
however,  never  seen,  save  by  the  high-priest,  and  re- 
sembled in  this  respect  the  Deity  whom  it  symbolized, 
whose  face  none  might  look  upon  and  live.  That 
this  reverential  feeling  may  have  been  impaired  dur- 
ing its  absence  among  the  Philistines  seems  probable 
from  the  case  of  Uzzah. — Smith.     See  Mercy-seat. 

Ar'kite  (Heb.  Arid',  "1p'n?  ;  Sept.  and  Joseph. 
ApovKaioQ,  like  the  Samar.  Aruki',  "^"i"),  a  desig- 
nation ofthe  inhabitants  of  Aria  (Plin.  v,  16;  "Apica, 
Ptol.  v,  15),  who  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  x,  17 ;  1 
Chron.  i,  15,  as  descended  from  the  Phoenician  or  Si- 
donian  branch  of  the  great  family  of  Canaan.  This, 
in  fact,  as  well  as  the  other  small  northern  states  of 
Phoenicia,  was  a  colony  from  the  great  parent  state 
of  Sidon.  Arka,  or  Arce  ("Ante?/),  their  chief  town, 
lay  between  Tripolis  and  Antaradus,  at  the  western 
base  of  Lebanon  (Joseph.  Ant.  i,  6,  2  ;  Jerome,  Qwest, 
in  Gen.  x,  15).  Josephus  {Ant.  viii,  2,  3)  makes  Baa- 
nah,  who  in  1  Kings  iv,  16,  is  said  to  have  been  su- 
perintendent of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  governor  of  Arka 
('Apic/j)  by  the  sea ;  and  if,  as  commonly  supposed,  the 
capital  of  the  Arkites  is  intended,  their  small  state 
must,  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  have  been  under  the 
Hebrew  yoke.  In  the  time  of  Alexander  a  splendid 
temple  was  erected  here  in  honor  of  Astarte,  the  Venus 
of  the  Phoenicians  (Macrob.  Sat.  i,  21).  Subsequent- 
ly Arka  shared  the  lot  of  the  other  small  Phoenician 
states  in  that  quarter;  but  in  later  times  it  formed 
part  of  Herod  Agrippa's  kingdom.  Titus  passed 
through  it  on  his  return  from  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem (ApKctia,  Joseph.  War,  vii,  5,  1).  In  the  Mid- 
rash  (Midr.  Iiabb.  37)  it  is  called  "Arlam  of  Leba- 
non" Cji33^-I  Dp"C)-  The  name  and  site  seem  never 
to  have  been  unknown  (Mannert,  p.  391),  although  for 
a  time  it  bore  the  name  of  Ccesarea  Libani  (Aufel.  Vict. 
De  Cces.  xxiv,  1),  from  having  been  the  birthplace  of 
Alexander  Severus  (Lamprid.  Alex.  Sev.).  Coins  are 
extant  of  it  (Eckhel,  Doctr.  Num.  iii,  360),  but  not  of 
its  Phoenician  period  (Gesenius,  Mvnam.  Phanic.  ii, 
285  sq.).  It  was  eventually  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
bishopric  (Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christ,  ii,  815,  823).  It 
is  repeatedly  noticed  by  the  Arabian  writers  (Mi- 
chaelis,  Spicil.  ii,  23  ;  also  Orient.  Bibl.  vi,  99  sq. ; 
Schultens,  Vita  Saladini ;  Edrisi,  p.  13;  Eosenmuller, 
Barhebr.  Chron.  p.  282).  It  is  mentioned  in  all  the 
itineraries  of  this  region,  and  is  conspicuous  in  early 
ecclesiastical  records.  It  also  figures  largely  in  the 
exploits  ofthe  Crusaders,  by  whom  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  in  1099,  but  at  last  taken  in  1109  by 
Bertrand  (see  Eobinson's  Researches,  new  ed.  iii,  578 
sq.).  In  1202  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake. It  lay  32  Roman  miles  from  Antaradus,  18 
miles  from  Tripoli,  and,  according  to  Abulfeda,  a  par- 
asang  from  the  sea  (Tab.  Syrid,  p.  11).  In  a  position 
corresponding  to  these  intimations,  Shaw  (Obsi  rvat. 
p.  270)  noticed  the  site  and  ruins.  Burckhardt  (Syria, 
p.  162),  in  travelling  from  the  north-east  of  Lebanon 
to  Tripoli,  at  the  distance  of  about  four  miles  south  of 
the  Nahr-el-kebir  (Eleutherus),  came  to  a  hill  called 
Te\-Arka,  which,  from  its  regularly  flattened  conical 
form  and  smooth  sides,  appeared  to  be  artificial.  He 
was  told  that  on  its  top  were  some  ruins  of  habitations 
and  walls.  Upon  an  elevation  on  its  east  and  south 
sides,  which  commands  a  beautiful  view  over  the 
plain,  the  sea,  and  the  Anzeiry  mountains,  are  large 
and  extensive  heaps  of  rubbish,  traces  of  ancient 
dwellings,  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  remains  of  walls,  and 
fragments  of  granite  columns.  These  are  no  doubt 
the  remains  of  Arka;  and  the  hill  was  probably  the 
acropolis  or  citadel,  or  the  site  of  a  temple  (Hames- 
veld,  iii,  39  sq.).  The  present  village  has  21  Greek 
and  7  Moslem  families — a  wretched  hamlet  amid  the 


ARLES 


405 


ARMENIA 


columns  of  this  once  splendid  city  (Bibliotheca  Sacra, 
1848,  p.  16). 

Arlss  (Arelate),  an  ancient  archiepiscopal  see  in 
Lower  Provence,  on  the  left  of  the  Rhone,  seven 
leagues  from  its  mouth,  about  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
six  leagues  from  Paris.  It  is  said  to  derive  its  name 
from  Ara  elata,  a  high  altar  raised  here  in  pagan 
times.  A  number  of  councils  and  synods  were  held 
at  Aries,  of  which  the  following  are  the  chief:  (1.)  In 
314,  a  general  synod  for  the  West,  at  which  Constan- 
tine  and  GOO  or  G33  bishops  were  present ;  22  canons 
were  framed  on  the  Donatists,  etc. ;  (2.)  in  428  or  429, 
at  which  Germanus  and  Lupus  were  deputed  to  En- 
gland ;  (3.)  in  455,  under  Ravennius,  to  settle  the  dis- 
pute between  Faustus,  abbot  of  Lerins,  and  the  bishop 
of  Frejus ;  (4.)  in  475,  against  Lucidus,  accused  of 
Predestinationism ;  (5.)  in  524,  under  Csesarius,  four 
canons  on  ordination  were  published ;  (6.)  in  1234, 
under  John  Baussan,  twenty-four  canons  were  pub- 
lished against  heretics,  chief!)*  against  the  Waldenses  ; 
(7.)  in  1275,  by  Bsrtrand  de  S.  Martin,  twenty-two 
canons  were  published,  and  the  clergy  fordidden  mak- 
ing wills. — Landon,  Manual  of  Councils;  Smith,  Ta- 
bles of  Church  Hist. 

Arm  (usually  Silt,  zero' a,  /?p«x<un<)  is  frequently 
used  in  Scripture  in  a  metaphorical  sense  to  denote 
power.  Hence,  to  "  break  the  arm"  is  to  diminish  or 
to  destroy  the  power  (Psa.  x,  15 ;  Ezek.  xxx,  21 ;  Jer. 
xlviii,  25).  It  is  also  employed  to  denote  the  infinite 
power  of  God  (Psa.  lxxxix,  13 ;  xlviii,  2  •  Isa.  liii,  1 ; 
John  xii,  38).  In  a  few  places  the  metaphor  is,  with 
great  force,  extended  to  the  action  of  the  arm,  as,  "  I 
will  redeem  you  with  a  stretched-out  arm"  (Exod.  vi, 
5),  that  is,  with  a  power  fully  exerted.  The  figure  is 
here  taken  from  the  attitude  of  ancient  warriors  baring 
and  outstretching  the  arm  for  fight.  Thus,  in  Isa.  lii, 
10,  "Jehovah  hath  made  bare  his  holy  arm  in  the 
sight  of  all  the  nations."  Lowth  has  shown,  from  the 
Sept.  and  other  versions,  that  in  Isa.  ix,  20,  "  they 
shall  eat  every  one  the  flesh  of  his  own  arm"  should 
be  "  the  flesh  of  his  neighbor,"  similar  to  Jer.  xix,  9, 
meaning  that  they  should  harass  and  destroy  one  an- 
other.    (See  Wemyss's  Clavis  Symbolica,  p.  23,  24.) 

Armaged'don  (Ap/.iayeccwi',  Rev.  xvi,  1G),  prop- 
erly "  the  mountain  of  Megiddo"  (Heb.  l'*JW  *"),  a 
city  on  the  west  of  the  river  Jordan,  rebuilt  by  Solo- 
mon (1  Kings  ix,  15).  See  Megiddo.  In  the  mys- 
tical language  of  prophecy,  the  word  mountain  repre- 
sents the  Church,  and  the  events  which  took  place  at 
Megiddo  are  supposed  to  have  had  a  typical  reference 
to  the  sorrows  and  triumphs  of  the  people  of  God  un- 
der the  Gospel.  "  In  that  day,"  says  Zechariah  (xii, 
11),  "  shall  there  be  a  great  mourning  in  Jerusalem, 
as  the  mourning  of  Hadadrimmon  in  the  valley  of 
Megiddon  ;"  referring  to  the  death  of  Josiah  (q.  v.). 
"  He  gathered  them  together  into  a  place  called  in  the 
Hebrew  tongue  Armageddon,"  is  the  language  of  the 
Apocalypse ;  and  the  word  has  been  translated  by 
some  as  "the  mountain  of  destruction,"  by  others  as 
"the  mountain  of  the  gospel" — a  passage* that  prob- 
ably has  reference  to  the  symbolical  use  of  the  name 
in  Zechariah.  Into  a  valley  ominous  of  slaughter  the 
unclean  spirits  (representing  the  heathen  influence 
of  the  Roman  empire),  under  the  special  guidance  of 
Providence  (xvii,  17),  conduct  the  assembled  forces  of 
the  beast  and  his  allies ;  and  there  in  due  time  they 
come  to  an  overthrow  through  an  almighty  conqueror 
(Stuart,  Comment,  in  loc.).  The  passage  is  best  il- 
lustrated by  comparing  a  similar  one  in  the  book  of 
Joel  (iii,  2,  12),  where  the  scene  of  the  divine  judg- 
ments is  spoken  of  in  the  prophetic  imagery  as  the 
"  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,"  the  fact  underlying  the 
image  being  Jehoshaphat's  great  victory  (2  Chron.  xx, 
26 ;  see  Zech.  xiv,  2,  4).  So  here  the  scene  of  the 
struggle  of  good  and  evil  is  suggested  by  that  battle- 
field, the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  which  was  famous  for 


two  great  victories — of  Barak  over  the  Canaanites 
(Judg.  iv,  v),  and  Gideon  over  the  Midianites  (Judg. 
vii) ;  and  for  two  great  disasters,  the  death  of  Saul  in 
the  invasion  of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxxi,  8),  and 
the  death  of  Josiah  in  the  invasion  of  the  Egvptians 
(2  Kings  xxiii,  29,  30 ;  2  Chron.  xxxv,  22).  With 
the  first  and  fourth  of  these  events,  Megiddo  (Maytcdut 
in  the  Sept.  and  Josephus)  is  especially  connected. 
Hence  'Ap-payt8wv,  "  the  hill  of  Megiddo."  (See 
Btihr's  Excursus  on  Herod,  ii,  159.)  As  regards  the 
Apocalypse,  it  is  remarked  by  Stanley  {Sinai  and  Pal- 
estine, p.  330)  that  this  imagery  would  be  peculiarly* 
natural  to  a  Galihean,  to  whom  the  scene  of  these 
battles  was  familiar.     See  Esdraelon. 

Armagh,  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric  in  Ireland. 
This  church  was  founded  by  St.  Patrick  in  444  or  445. 
The  chapter  is  composed  of  live  dignitaries,  four  preb- 
endaries, eight  vicars  choral,  and  an  organist.  The 
present  cathedral  is  built  of  red  sandstone,  and  is  cru- 
ciform— 184  by  119  feet.  It  has  recently  been  repair- 
ed and  beautified,  chiefly  at  the  cost  (£10,000)  of  the 
present  lord  primate.  A  new  Gothic  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  occupies  the  principal  height  to  the  north, 
and  the  primatial  palace  that  to  the  south  of  the  ca- 
thedral. There  is  a  fever  hospital  for  forty  patients, 
maintained  by  the  present  primate,  and  a  lunatic 
asylum  for  four  counties.  The  archbishop  is  Primate 
and  Metropolitan  of  all  Ireland,  and  has  an  income  of 
£12,087  a  year.  The  present  incumbent  is  Lord  J.  G. 
Beresford,  translated  from  Dublin  in  1822. 

Arme'nia  (Ap/ievta),  a  country  of  Western  Asia, 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  original  language  of  Scripture 
under  that  name  (on  the  Harmonah  of  Amos  iv,  3,  see 
Rosenmiiller,  in  loc),  though  it  occurs  in  the  English 
version  (2  Kings  xix,  37),  where  our  translators  have 
very  unnecessarily  substituted  it  for  Ararat  (comp. 
marginal  reading) ;  but  is  supposed  to  be  alluded  to 
in  the  three  following  Hebrew  designations,  which 
seem  to  refer  either  to  the  country  as  a  whole,  or  to 
particular  districts.     See  Asia. 

1.  Ararat,  lillX,  the  land  upon  (or  over)  the 
mountains  of  which  the  ark  rested  at  the  Deluge  (Gen. 
viii,  4  ;  comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  i,  3,  5)  ;  whither  the  sons 
of  Sennacherib  fled  after  murdering  their  father  (2 
Kings  xix,  37;  Isa.  xxxvii,  38);  and  one  of  the 
"  kingdoms"  summoned,  along  with  Minni  and  Ash- 
kenaz,  to  arm  against  Babylon  (Jer.  Ii,  27).  That 
there  was  a  province  of  Ararad  in  ancient  Armenia 
we  have  the  testimony  of  the  native  historian,  Moses 
of  Chorene  (Hist.  Armen.  ed.  Whiston,  Lond.  1736,  p. 
3G1).  It  lay  in  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  was  di- 
vided into  twenty  circles,  and,  being  the  principal 
province,  was  commonly  the  residence  of  the  kings 
or  governors.     See  article  Ararat. 

2.  Minni,  "'SB,  is  mentioned  in  Jer.  Ii,  27,  along 
with  Ararat  and  Ashkenaz,  as  a  kingdom  called  to 
arm  itself  against  Babylon.  The  name  is  by  some 
taken  for  a  contraction  of  "  Armenia,"  and  the  Chald. 
in  the  text  in  Jeremiah  has  Hurmini (ilHja'lli"!).  There 
appears  a  trace  of  the  name  Minni  in  a  passage  quoted 
by  Josephus  (Ant.  i,  3,  G)  from  Nicolas  of  Damascus, 
where  it  is  said  that  "there  is  a  great  mountain  in 
Armenia,  beyond  the  Mini/as  (Mtvvdg),  called  Baris, 
upon  which  it  is  reported  that  man)'  who  fled  at  the 
time  of  the  Delude  were  saved  ;  and  that  one  who  was 
carried  in  an  ark  came  on  shore  upon  the  top  of  it ;  and 
that  the  remains  of  the  timber  were  a  great  while  pre- 
served. This  might  be  the  man  about  whom  Moses, 
the  legislator  of  the  Jews,  wrote."  Saint-Martin 
(Memoires  sur  VArmenie,  i,  249),  has  the  not  ver)r 
probable  conjecture  that  the  word  "  Minni"  ma}'  refer 
to  the  Manavazians,  a  distinguished  Armenian  tribe, 
descended  from  Manavaz,  a  son  of  Haik,  the  capital 
of  whose  country  was  Manavazagerd,  now  Melazgerd. 
It  contains  the  root  of  the  name  Armenia  according  to 


ARMENIA 


406 


ARMENIA 


the  generally  received  derivation,  Har-Minni,  "the 
mountains  of  Minni."  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the 
spot  where  Xenophon  ascertains  that  the  name  of  the 
country  through  which  he  was  passing  was  Armenia, 
coincides  with  the  position  here  assigned  to  Minni 
(Xen.  An.  iv,  5  ;  Ainsworth,  Track  of  10,000,  p.  177). 
In  Psa.  xlv,  8,  where  it  is  said,  "out  of  the  ivory  pal- 
aces whereby  they  made  thee  glad,"  the  Hebrew  word 
rendered  "whereby"  is  minni  C1?*?),  and  hence  some 
(e.  g.  Rosenmuller,  in  loc.)  take  it  for  the  proper  name, 
ami  would  translate  "  palaces  of  Armenia,"  but  the  in- 
terpretation is  forced  and  incongruous  (Gesenius,  Thes. 
Ileb.  p.  799).     See  Minni. 

3.  Togarmah,  H^'Un,  in  some  MSS.  Torgamah, 
and  found  with  great  variety  of  orthography  in  the 
Sept.  and  Josephus.  In  the  ethnographic  table  in  the 
tenth  chapter  of  Genesis  (ver.  3 ;  comp.  1  Chron.  i,  G) 
Togarmah  is  introduced  as  the  youngest  son  of  Gomer  ' 
(son  of  Japhet),  who  is  supposed  to  have  given  name 
to  the  Cimmerians  on  the  north  coast  of  the  Euxinc  j 
Sea,  his  other  sons  being  Ashkenaz  and  Riphath,  both 
progenitors  of  northern  tribes,  among  whom  also  it  is 
natural  to  seek  for  the  posterity  of  Togarmah.  The 
prophet  Ezekiel  (xxxviii,  6)  also  classes  along  with 
Gomer  "the  house  of  Togarmah  and  the  sides  of  the 
north"  (in  the  Eng.  Vers,  "of  the  north  quarters"), 
where,  as  also  at  Ezek.  xxvii,  14,  it  is  placed  beside 
Meshech  and  Tubal,  probably  the  tribes  of  the  Moschi 
and  Tibareni  in  the  Caucasus.  Now,  though  Josephus 
and  Jerome  find  Togarmah  in  Phrvina,  Bochart  in 


Cappadocia,  the  Chaldee  and  the  Jewish  rabbins  in 
Germany,  etc.,  yet  a  comparison  of  the  above  pas- 
sages leads  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  rather  to  bo 
sought  for  in  Armenia,  and  this  is  the  opinion  of  Eu- 
sebius,  Theodoret,  and  others  of  the  fathers.  It  is 
strikingly  confirmed  by  the  traditions  of  that  and  the 
neighboring  countries.  According  to  Moses  of  Cho- 
rene  (Hist.  Arm.  ed.  Whiston,  i,  8,  p.  24),  and  also 
King  Wachtang's  History  of  Georgia  (in  Klaproth's 
Travels  in  the  Caucasus,  ii,  04),  the  Armenians,  Geor- 
gians, Lesghians,  Mingrelians,  and  Caucasians  are  all 
descended  from  one  common  progenitor,  called  Thar- 
gamos,  a  son  of  Awanan,  son  of  Japhet,  son  of  Noah 
(comp.  Eusebius,  Chron.  ii,  12).  After  the  dispersion 
at  Babel  he  settled  near  Ararat,  but  his  posterity 
spread  abroad  between  the  Caspian  and  Euxine  seas. 
A  similar  account  is  found  in  a  Georgian  chronicle, 
quoted  by  another  German  traveller,  Guldenstedt, 
which  states  that  Targamos  was  the  father  of  eight 
sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  Aos,  the  ancestor  of  the 
Armenians.  They  still  call  themselves  "the  house 
of  Thorgom,"  the  very  phrase  used  by  Ezekiel,  the 
corresponding  Syriac  word  for  "house"  denoting 
"  land  or  district"  (see  Wahl,  Gesch.  der  Morgenl.  Spr. 
u.  Lit.  p.  72).  From  the  house  or  province  of  Togar- 
mah the  market  of  Tyre  was  supplied  with  horses  and 
mules  (Ezek.  xxvii,  14) ;  and  Armenia,  we  know,  was 
famed  of  old  for  its  breed  of  horses.  The  Satrap 
of  Armenia  sent  yearly  to  the  Persian  court  20,000 
foals  for  the  feast  of  Mithras  (Strabo,  xi,  13,  9;  Xen. 
oph.^lmft&as.iv,  5, 24;  Herod,  vii,  40).    See  Togarmah. 


J-urrtoioerr-i v, 


y 

M.  \r 
'a,  „/,  : 
Daril 


>? 


Map  uf  micieut  Armenia,  with  the  adjoining  Regions. 


ARMENIA 


407 


ARMENIA 


The  'Apptvia  of  the  Greeks  (sometimes  aspirated, 
'Apptvia,  comp.  Xen.  Anab.  iv,  6,  34)  is  the  Arminiya 
or  Jrminiya  of  the  Arabs,  the  Ermenistan  of  the  Per- 
sians. Moses  of  Chorene  (Hist.  Arm.  p.  35)  derives 
the  name  from  Aram  (q.  v.),  a  son  of  Shem,  who  also 
gave  name  to  Aramaja  or  Syria;  Hartmann  (Aufklar. 
i,  34)  draws  it  from  Armenagh,  the  second  of  the  na- 
tive princes ;  but  the  most  probable  etymology  is  that 
of  Bochart  (Phaleg,  i,  3),  viz.,  that  it  was  originally 
"li"2"""ri,  Har-Minni  or  Mount  Minni,  i.  e.  the  High- 
land of  Minyas,  or,  according  to  Wahl  (Asien,  i,  807), 
the  Heavenly  Mountain  (i.  e.  Ararat),  for  mino  in 
Zend,  and  myno,  myny,  in  Parsee,  signify  "  heaven, 
heavenly."  In  the  country  itself  the  name  Armenia 
is  unknown  ;  the  people  are  called  Haik  (Rosenmiil- 
ler,  Alterth.  I,  i,  2G7  sq.),  and  the  country  Hayotz-zor, 
the  Valley  of  the  Haiks— from  Haik,  the  "fifth  de- 
scendant of  Noah  by  Japhet,  in  the  traditionary  gene- 
alogy of  the  country  (comp.  Ritter's  Erdkunde,  ii,  714). 

The  boundaries  of  Armenia  (lat.  37—12°)  may  be 
described  (Strabo,  xi,  526)  generally  as  the  southern 
range  of  the  Caucasus  on  the  north,  and  the  Moschian 
branch  of  the  Taurus  on  the  south ;  but  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  especially  to  the  east  and  west,  the  limits 
have  been  very  fluctuating  (Kennell,  Geogr.  Herod,  i, 
369).  It  forms  an  elevated  table-land,  whence  the 
rivers  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Araxes,  and  Acampsis  pour 
down  their  waters  in  different  directions,  the  first  two 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  last  two  respectively  to  the 
Caspian  and  Euxine  seas.  It  may  be  termed  the 
nucleus  of  the  mountain  system  of  Western  Asia  :  from 
the  centre  of  the  plateau  rise  two  lofty  chains  of 
mountains,  which  run  from  east  to  west,  converging 
toward  the  Caspian  Sea,  but  parallel  to  each  other  to- 
ward the  west,  the  most  northerly  named  by  ancient 
geographers  the  Abus  Mountains,  and  culminating  in 
Mount  Ararat ;  the  other  named  the  Niphates  Moun- 
tains. Westward  these  ranges  may  be  traced  in  Anti- 
Taurus  and  Taurus,  while  in  the  opposite  direction  they 
are  continued  in  the  Caspius  Mountains.  These  ranges 
(with  the  exception  of  the  gigantic  Ararat)  are  of  mod- 
erate height,  the  plateau  gradually  sinking  toward  the 
plains  of  Iran  on  the  east,  and  those  of  Asia  Minor  on 
the  west.  The  climate  is  generally  cold  (Xen.  Anab. 
iv,  4,  8),  but  salubrious,  the  degree  of  severitj"-  vary- 
ing with  the  altitude  of  different  localities,  the  valleys 
being  sufficiently  warm  to  ripen  the  grape.  The 
country  abounds  in  romantic  forest  and  mountain 
scenery,  and  rich  pasture-land,  especialfy  in  the  dis- 
tricts which  border  upon  Persia  (Herod,  i,  194 ;  vii, 
40;  Xen.  Anab.  iv,  5,  24;  Strabo,  x,  528,  558,  587; 
Ezek.  xxvii,  14 ;  Chardin,  Voyages,  ii,  158 ;  Tourne- 
fort,  Reisen,  iii,  179  sq.).  The  latter  supported  vast 
numbers  of  mules  and  horses,  on  which  the  wealth  of 
the  country  chiefly  depended ;  and  hence  Strabo  (xi, 
529)  tells  us  that  the  horses  were  held  in  as  high  esti- 
mation as  the  celebrated  Nisaean  breed.  The  inhab- 
itants were  keen  traders  in  ancient  as  in  modern  times. 
Ancient  writers  notice,  also,  the  wealth  of  Armenia  in 
metals  and  precious  stones  (Herod,  i,  194 ;  Pliny, 
xxxvii,  23).  The  great  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
both  take  their  rise  in  this  region,  as  also  the  Araxes, 
and  the  Kur  or  Cyrus.  Armenia  is  commonly  divided 
into  Greater  and  Lesser  (Lucan.  ii,  038),  the  line  of 
separation  being  the  Euphrates  (comp.  Ptolem.  v,  7 
and  13)  ;  but  the  former  constitutes  by  far  the  larger 
portion  (Strabo,  xi,  532),  and,  indeed,  the  other  is 
often  regarded  as  pertaining  rather  to  Asia  Minor. 
(See,  generally,  Strabo,  xi,  526  sq. ;  Pliny,  vi,  9 ; 
Mannert,  V,  ii,  181  sq. ;  Ritter,  Erdkunde,  x,  285  sq.) 
There  was  anciently  a  kingdom  of  Armenia,  with  its 
metropolis  Artaxata  :  it  was  sometimes  an  independ- 
ent state,  but  most  commonly  tributary  to  some  more 
powerful  neighbor.  Indeed,  at  no  period  was  the 
whole  of  this  region  ever  comprised  under  one  govern- 
ment, but  Assyria,  Media,  Syria,  and  Cappadocia 
shared  the  dominion  or  allegiance  of  some  portion  of 


it,  just  as  it  is  now  divided  among  the  Persians,  Rus- 
sians, Turks,  and  Kurds  ;  for  there  is  no  doubt  that 
that  part  of  Kurdistan  which  includes  the  elevated 
basins  of  the  lakes  of  Van  and  Oormiah  anciently  be- 
longed to  Armenia.  The  unfortunate  German  travel- 
ler Schulz  (who  was  murdered  by  a  Kurdish  chief) 
discovered  in  1827,  near  the  former  lake,  the  ruins  of 
a  very  ancient  town,  which  he  supposed  to  be  that 
which  is  called  by  Armenian  historians  Shamiramaheri 
(i.  e.  the  town  of  Semiramis),  because  believed  to  have 
been  built  by  the  famous  Assyrian  queen.  The  ruins 
are  covered  with  inscriptions  in  the  arrow-headed 
character ;  in  one  of  them  Saint-Martin  thought  he 
deciphered  the  words  Khshearsha,  son  of  Dareioush 
(Xerxes,  son  of  Darius).  In  later  times  Armenia  was 
the  border-country  where  the  Romans  and  Parthians 
fruitlessly  strove  for  the  mastery ;  and  since  then  it 
has  been  the  frequent  battle-field  of  the  neighboring 
states.  During  the  recent  wars  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  large  bodies  of  native  Armenians  have  emi- 
grated into  the  Russian  dominions,  so  that  their  num- 
ber in  what  is  termed  Turkish  Armenia  is  now  con- 
siderably reduced.  By  the  treaty  of  Turkomanshi 
(21st  Feb.  1828),  Persia  ceded  to  Russia  the  Khanats 
of  Erivan  and  Nakhchevan.  The  boundary-line  (drawn 
from  the  Turkish  dominions)  passes  over  the  Little 
Ararat ;  the  line  of  separation  between  Persian  and 
Turkish  Armenia  also  begins  at  Ararat ;  so  that  this 
famous  mountain  is  now  the  central  boundary-stone 
of  these  three  empires.  (See,  generally,  Smith's  Diet. 
of  Class.  Geogr.  s.  v.;  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.;  M'Cul- 
loch's  Geogr.  Diet.  s.  v.) — Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  slight  acquaintance  which  the  Hebrew  writers 
had  of  this  country  was  probably  derived  from  the 
Phoenicians.  There  are  signs  of  their  knowledge  hav- 
ing been  progressive.  Isaiah,  in  his  prophecies  re- 
garding Babylon,  speaks  of  the  hosts  as  coming  from 
the  "  mountains"  (xiii,  4),  while  Jeremiah,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  same  subject,  uses  the  specific  names 
Ararat  and  Minni  (li.  27).  Ezekiel.  who  was  appar- 
ently better  acquainted  with  the  country,  uses  a  name 
which  was  familiar  to  its  own  inhabitants,  Togarmah. 
Whether  the  use  of  the  term  Ararat  in  Isa.  xxxvii, 
38,  belongs  to  the  period  in  which  the  prophet  himself 
lived,  is  a  question  which  cannot  be  here  discussed. 
In  the  prophetical  passages  to  which  we  have  referred, 
it  will  be  noticed  that  Armenia  is  spoken  of  rather  in 
reference  to  its  geographical  position  as  one  of  the  ex- 
treme northern  nations  with  which  the  Jews  were  ac- 
quainted than  for  any  more  definite  purpose. — Smith. 

Christianity  was  first  established  in  Armenia  in  the 
fourth  century ;  the  Armenian  Church  (q.  v.)  has  a 
close  affinity  to  the  Greek  Church  in  its  forms  and 
polity ;  it  is  described  by  the  American  missionaries 
who  are  settled  in  the  country  as  in  a  state  of  great 
corruption  and  debasement.  The  total  number  of  the 
Armenian  nation  throughout  the  world  is  supposed 
not  to  exceed  2,000,000.  Their  favorite  pursuit  is 
commerce,  and  their  merchants  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  East. — Kitto. 

A  list  of  early  works  on  Armenia  may  be  found  in 
Walch,  Bibl.  Theol.  iii,  353  sq.  For  a  further  account 
of  the  History  of  Armenia  (New  Englander,  Oct. 
1863),  see  Moses  Chorensis,  Historia  Armen.  lib.  iii 
(Armen.  edid.  Lat.  vert,  notisque  illustr.  W.  et  G. 
Whistonii,  Lond.  1736);  Chamich,  History  of  Armenia 
(translated  from  the  Armenian  original  by  M.  J.  Ar- 
dall,  Calcutta,  1827);  History  ofVartan,  translated  by 
Neumann  ;  see  also  Langlois,  Kumismatique  de  /.'Ann- 
nie  (Par.  1858) ;  Andrisdogues  de  Lasdivera,  Histoire 
d'Armenie  (Par.  1*04).  On  its  Topography,  see 
St.-Martin,  Memoire  sur  V Armenia;  Colonel  Chesney, 
Euphrates  Expedition,  i;  Kinneir,  Memoirs  of  the  Per- 
sian Empire,  also  Travels  in  Armenia;  Moriev,  Travels 
in  Persia,  i;  Ker  Porter,  Travels;  Smith  and  Dwigbt's 
Researches  in  Armenia  (Bost.  1833) ;  Southgate,  Tour 
through  Armenia  (N.  Y.  1840);   Curzon,  Residence  at 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


40S 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


Era  roum  (Lond.  1854) ;  and  vols,  iii,  vi,  x  of  the  Jour.  I 
of  the  hand.  Geoff.  Soc.  containing  the  explorations  of 
Monteith,  Ainsworth,  and  others.  On  the  Religion 
of  the  nation,  sec  Giov.  dc  Serpos,  Compendia  storial 
'one  Arm  na  (Ven.  1786)  ;  Kurze  histor.  Dar- 
steUvtng  d.  geg  mo.  Zustandes  d.armen.  FbZAes  (Petersb.  j 
and  Berl.  1831).      See  EDEN. 

Armenian  Chui  ch.  The  designation  of  a  branch 
of  Christians,  which,  although  originating  in  Armenia, 
is  now  disseminated  over  all  the  adjacent  portions  of 
tin-  East. 

I.  History. — Armenia,  it  is  said,  first  received  Chris-  ! 
tianity  from  Bartholomew  and  Thaddseus,  the  latter  i 
not  the  apostle,  but  one  of  the  seventy,  who  instruct- 
ed Abgarus  of  Edessa  (q.  v.)  in  the  faith,  although  the 
Armenians  themselves  maintain  that  he  teas  the  apos- 
tle. The  light  was  very  speedily  quenched,  and  was 
not  rekindled  until  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury.  About  that  time  Gregory  (q.  v.)  Illuminator 
(or  Lusarovich,  in  their  tongue)  preached  the  Gospel  : 
throughout  Armenia,  and  soon  converted  the  king,  j 
Tyridates.  Gregory  was  consecrated  first  bishop  of 
the  Armenians  by  Leontius  of  Csesarea,  whence  the 
Armenian  Church  became  thenceforward  dependent  on 
the  see  of  Csesarea,  and  for  a  long  period  the  success-  j 
ors  of  Gregory  were  consecrated  bjr  that  primate.  It 
was  to  this  subjection  to  the  see  of  Caesarea  that  the  | 
primates  of  Armenia  owed  the  title  of  Catholicos  (or 
proctor-general),  which  was  assigned  them  as  vicars 
of  the  primate  of  Csesarea  in  that  country.  In  the 
fourth  century  the}-  received  many  literary  institu- 
tions through  the  Catholicos  Sahag  (after  406),  and  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  through  Mesrob  (q.  v.).  The 
Armenian  Church  preserved  the  faith  until  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  younger;  and  in  437  a 
synod  was  held  at  Ispahan,  composed  of  many  Arme- 
nian bishops,  who  addressed  a  synodieal  letter  to  Pro- 
clus,  of  Constantinople,  condemning  the  impieties  of 
Xestorius  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  In  the  follow- 
ing century  the  Church  of  Armenia,  from  an  excess 
of  hatred  toward  Nestorianism,  embraced  the  Eutyeh- 
ian  (q.  v.)  heresy,  and  condemned  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon.  The  name  commonly  given  to  the  Church 
was  Gregorian  Church  (after  Gregory  Illuminator),  i 
When,  in  the  fifth  century,  several  kings  of  Persia  i 
made  an  attempt  to  force  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster 
upon  the  Armenians,  many  emigrated  to  various  coun-  j 
tries  of  Asia  and  Europe.  About  554  a  synod  of  Ar- 
menian  bishops  was  convened  at  the  city  of  Thevin, 
or  Tiben,  by  the  patriarch  Isierses  II,  at  the  command 
of  the  King  of  Persia,  who  desired  to  separate  the  Ar- 
menians from  the  Greeks.  In  this  synod  they  re- ! 
nounced  the  communion  of  the  orthodox  churches, 
anathematized  that  of  Jerusalem,  allowed  only  one 
nature  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  added  to  the  Tersanctus  ( 
the  words  Qui  crucifixvs  es.  See  Monophysites. 
An  attempt  to  abolish  the  schism  was  made  by  a 
synod  at  Garin  in  629,  which  adopted  the  resolutions 
of  Chalcedon;  but  soon  the  connection  between  the 
Armenian  and  the  Greek  Church  was  again  dissolved. 
The  metropolis  of  the  Armenian  Church  was  called 
Vaffarsciahat  in  their  tongue,  but  was  known  to  the 
Latin-  as  Artaxala,  the  capital  of  the  country.  In 
this  city  was  built,  A.D.  G50,  the  monastery  of  Esch- 
v  Etchmiaz),  which  contains  the  sepulchre 
Of  St.  Gregory,  and  is  now  the  see  of  the  patriarch, 
or  catholicos,  as  he  is  called,  of  Armenia  Major.  Va- 
garociabat  no  longer  exists;  but  the  monastery  of 
Eschmiazin  is  the  scat  of  the  catholicos,  and  contain- 
ed three  churches  built  in  a  triangle.  At  first  the 
catholicos  of  Eschmiazin  was  the  sole  patriarch  of 
Armenia  ;  but  befort  the  year  1341  there  were  three, 
vi/.  a  second  at  Achtamar,  and  a  third  at  Sis.  R> 
caut,  who  wrote  an  account  of  "  the  Greek  and  Arme- 
nian  Churches"  (I I.  1679,  8vo),  mentions,  besides 

these  Hire-,  a  fourth  one  at  <  .in-hahar.      All  four  had 
under  them  87  archbishops  and  1U0  bishops.     By  the 


treaty  of  Unkiar  Skelessi  (1828)  a  large  portion  of 
Upper  Armenia  was  ceded  to  the  Czar,  and  thus  also 
the  head  of  the  Church,  the  catholicos  of  Eschmiazin, 
became  a  subject  of  Russia.  The  attempts  of  the 
Russian  government  to  induce  the  Armenians  to  en- 
ter into  a  union  with  the  Russian  Church  have  failed. 
In  Turkey  the  Armenians  shared  in  general  the  fata 
of  the  other  Christian  denominations.  See  Turkey. 
In  ls48  they  elected  a  council  of  12  lay  primates,  who 
rule  the  Church  in  all  its  temporal  affairs.  The  pa- 
triarch has  only  the  right  of  presidency. 

At  an  early  period  efforts  were  made  to  establish  a 
closer  connection  of  the  Armenians  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  consequence  of  the  Crusades, 
several  kings,  in  the  twelfth  and  following  centuries, 
interested  themselves  in  behalf  of  a  corporate  union  of 
the  churches  with  Rome,  and  the  synods  of  Kromglai 
(1179),  Sis  (1307),  and  Atan  (1316)  declared  themselves 
in  the  same  way.  At  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439), 
the  Armenian  deputies,  together  with  the  Greeks,  ac- 
cepted the  union,  but  neither  people  ratified  it.  Some 
churches, however,  remained,  ever  since  the  fourteenth 
century,  when  Pope  John  XXIII  sent  a  Roman  arch- 
bishop to  Armenia,  in  connection  with  Rome,  and 
formed  the  "Armenian  Catholic,  or  United  Armenian 
Church,"  which  in  doctrinal  points  conforms  with 
Rome,  but  in  all  other  respects  agrees  with  the  Gre- 
gorian Armenian  Church.  Through  the  influence  of 
Mechitar  (q.  v.)  and  the  Mechitarists,  this  branch 
obtained  a  literary  superiority  over  the  main  (non- 
united)  body,  which,  especially  in  modern  times,  has 
worked  not  a  little  in  favor  of  Rome.  Of  late,  not 
only  a  number  of  Armenian  villages  have  accepted 
the  union,  but  in  Turkey,  among  some  of  the  leading 
men  of  the  national  (Gregorian)  Armenian  Church, 
a  disposition  has  been  created  to  try  anew  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  corporate  union.  See  United  Arme- 
nian Church. 

The  efforts  made  by  the  High-Church  Episcopalians 
for  establishing  a  closer  intercommunion  between  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  Eastern  churches  was  favor- 
ably received  by  many  Armenians  of  Turkey.  A  pam- 
phlet was  published  in  1860,  in  Constantinople,  with  the 
imprimatur  of  the  Armenian  patriarch,  to  show  how 
nearly  the  Armenian  Church  is  like  that  of  England. 
The  pamphlet,  to  this  end,  quotes  from  the  prayer-book 
the  whole  of  the  twenty-fifth  Article  of  Religion,  but 
so  shapes  the  translation  as  to  make  it  appear  that  the 
Church  of  England,  as  well  as  the  Armenian,  believe  in 
seven  sacraments,  though  five  of  them,  the  pamphlet 
says,  are  received  only,  as  they  are  by  the  Armenian 
Church,  as  secondary  sacraments.  Several  Armenian 
theologians  are  quoted  in  support  of  this  theory.  In  the 
same  year  (1860),  Rev.  G.  Williams,  of  Cambridge  (Eng- 
land ).  had  an  interview  with  the  Armenian  archbishop 
of  Tiflis,  in  Georgia,  relative  to  the  scheme  of  a  union 
between  the  English  and  Armenian  churches.  Mr. 
Williams  was  the  bearer  of  letters  from  the  bishops  of 
Oxford  and  Lincoln,  who,  it  appears,  assumed  to  speak 
in  the  name  of  the  Church  of  England  to  the  "cathol- 
icos, patriarch,  bishops,  etc.,  of  the  orthodox  Eastern 
Church."  He  was  to  see  '"the  holy  catholicos,"  the 
head  of  the  entire  Armenian  Church,  at  Eschmiazin  ; 
but,  being  somewhat  unwell,  and  his  time  of  absence 
having  almost  expired,  he  abandoned  his  journey  to 
Eschmiazin,  and  spent  ten  days  in  Tiflis  to  confer 
with  the  archbishop  of  that  city.  He  expressed,  in 
the  name  of  the  Church  of  England,  his  acknowledgment 
of  the  Armenian  Church  as  a  true,  orthodox,  and  ap- 
ostolic church,  and  kissed  "the  sacred  hand  of  his 
holiness."  The  archbishop,  in  return,  granted  to  him 
his  episcopal  blessing,  and  expressed  a  thousand  good 
wishes  for  himself  and  his  people.  To  the  proposition 
of  Mr.  Williams  to  send  a  few  young  Armenians  to 
Cambridge  for  an  education,  no  definite  answer  was 
given. 

The  Armenian  Church  has  produced  a  numerous 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


409 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


theological  literature,  the  chief  works  of  which  have 
been  published  at  Venice  by  the  Mechitarists,  and  at 
Constantinople.  The  translation  of  the  Bible  byMes- 
rob  is  still  regarded  as  a  model  of  classic  language. 
The  most  celebrated  Armenian  writers  were  Gregory 
Illuminator  and  David  the  philosopher.  A  martvro- 
logium  was  compiled  in  the  ninth  century  by  Kakik 
and  Gregory,  an  enlarged  edition  of  which  (Haisma- 
vark,  Constantinople,  1847)  is  still  read  in  the  Armeni- 
an churches.  See  Neumann,  Versuch  einer  Geschichte  tier 
ArmeniscJien  Litteratur  (Leipz.  18SC).  See  Mekhitab. 
II.  Doctrines,  Usages,  and  Polity. — The  Armenians 
are  said  to  be  Monophysites,  but  modern  "  missiona- 
ries are  generally  disposed  to  regard  them  as  differing 
more  in  terminology  than  in  idea  from  the  orthodox 
faith  on  that  point.  They  agree  with  the  Greeks  and 
other  Oriental  churches  in  rejecting  the  '  iilio-que' 
from  the  Nieene  Creed,  and  maintaining  the  procession  ! 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  the  Father  only.  With  some  j 
difference  in  forms  and  modes  of  worship,  the  religious 
opinions  of  the  Armenians  are  mostly  like  those  of  the 
Greeks.  The  sign  of  the  cross  is  used  on  all  occa-  j 
sions;  but  made  by  the  Greeks  with  three  fingers,  by  j 
the  Armenians  with  two,  by  the  Jacobites  with  one — 
the  Greek  usage  pointing  to  the  Trinity,  the  Armenian 
to  the  two  natures  made  one  in  the  person  of  Christ,  I 
and  the  Jacobite  to  the  Divine  unity.  They  profess 
to  hold  to  the  seven  sacraments  of  the  Latin  Church ; 
but,  in  fact,  extreme  unction  exists  among  them  only 
in  name,  the  prayers  so  designated  being  intermingled 
with  those  of  confirmation,  which  latter  rite  is  per- 
formed with  the  'holy  chrism'  by  the  priest  at  the 
time  of  baptism.  Infants  are  baptized,  as  commonly 
in  the  Greek  and  other  Oriental  churches,  by  a  partial 
immersion  in  the  font  and  three  times  pouring  water 
on  the  head.  Converted  Jews,  etc.,  though  adults, 
are  baptized  in  the  same  manner.  They  readily  ad- 
mit to  their  communion  Romanists  and  Protestants 
baptized  by  sprinkling,  differing  in  this  from  the 
Greeks,  who  receive  none,  however  previously  bap- 
tized, without  rebaptizing  them.  They  believe  firm- 
ly in  the  'real  presence'  in  the  Eucharist,  and  adore 
the  host  in  the  mass.  The  people  partake,  however, 
in  both  kinds,  the  wafer  or  broken  bread  (unleavened) 
being  dipped  in  undiluted  wine  (the  Greeks  use  leav- 
ened bread  and  wine  mixed  with  water),  and  laid 
carefully  on  the  tongue.  It  must  be  received  fasting. 
They  reject  the  Latin  purgatory,  but,  believing  that 
the  souls  of  the  departed  may  be  benefited  by  the  aid 
of  the  church  (which,  of  course,  must  be  paid  for), 
the}'  pray  for  the  dead.  Saint-worship  is  carried  to 
an  extraordinary  length,  the  addresses  to  saints  being 
often  grossly  idolatrous,  and  the  mediation  of  Christ 
lost  sight  of  in  the  liturgical  services  of  the  church, 
as  it  is  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  cross,  and 
pictures  of  the  saints,  are  also  objects  of  worship,  as 
possessing  inherent  efficacy.  The  Supreme  Being  is 
likewise  represented  under  the  form  of  an  aged,  ven- 
erable man,  with  whom,  and  the  Son,  under  the  form 
of  a  young  man,  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  symbolized  as  a 
dove,  the  Virgin  Mary  is  associated  in  the  same  pic- 
ture. The  perpetual  virginity  of  the  latter  is  held  as 
a  point  of  pre-eminent  importance.  Confession  to  the 
priesthood,  in  order  to  absolution,  is  deemed  essential 
to  salvation.  Penances  are  imposed;  but  absolution 
is  without  money,  and  indulgences  are  never  given. 
Baptism  confers  regeneration  and  cleansing  from  sin, 
original  and  actual ;  spiritual  life  is  maintained  by 
penances  and  sacraments ;  and  the  priest  holds  in  his 
hand  the  passport  to  heaven.  The  merit  of  good 
works  is  acknowledged,  particularly  of  asceticism. 
Monachism,  celibacy,  fasting,  etc.,  arc  viewed  as  in 
other  Eastern  churches,  but  fasts  are  more  lengthened 
and  severe  :  the  number  of  fast-days,  when  no  animal 
food  of  any  kind  can  be  eaten,  is  165  in  the  year.  On 
the  fourteen  great  feast-days  the  observance  of  the  day 
is  more  strict  than  that  of  the  Sabbath,  which  last  is 


as  in  Roman  Catholic  countries.  Minor  feasts  are 
even  more  numerous  than  the  days  in  the  year.  The 
Church  services  are  performed  in  the  ancient  tongue, 
not  now  understood  by  the  common  people,  and  in  a 
manner  altogether  perfunctory  and  painful  to  an  en- 
lightened mind. 

"  There  are  nine  different  grades  of  clergy,  each  re- 
ceiving a  distinct  ordination  by  the  laying  on  of  hands. 
Four  of  these  are  below  the  order  of  deacon,  and  are 
called  porters,  readers,  exorcists,  and  candle-lighters. 
After  these  come  the  sub-deacons,  the  deacons,  the 
priests,  then  the  bishops,  and,  last  of  all,  the  catholi- 
cos.  The  catholicos  is  ordained  by  a  council  of  bish- 
ops. He  is  the  spiritual  head  of  the  church,  who 
alone  ordains  bishops,  and  can  furnish  the  meiron,  or 
sacred  oil  used  by  bishops  in  ordaining  the  inferior 
clergy,  and  in  the  various  ceremonies  of  the  church. 
The  priests  are  obliged  to  be  married  men,  and  can 
never  rise  higher  than  the  priesthood,  except  in  case 
of  the  death  of  a  wife,  when,  not  being  allowed  to 
marry  a  second  time,  they  may  enter  among  the  Var- 
|  tabids — an  order  of  celibate  priests,  who  are  attached 
|  to  the  churches  as  preachers  (the  married  priests  do 
■  not  usually  preach),  cr  live  together  in  monasteries, 
and  from  among  whom  the  bishops,  etc.,  on  whom  the 
;  law  of  celibacy  is  imposed,  are  taken"  (Newcomb,  Cy- 
clopad'a  of  Missions). — Bekcnnin.  tl.  Christ!.  Glaubens  d. 
armen.  Kirch.  (Petersb.  1799);  Armenionorum  Confcs- 
sio  (Witeb.  1570) ;  Liturgia  Armena  (cura  G.  Andichi- 
an  (Ven.  1826);  Tavf. -Ritual  d.  arm.  K.  in  Russ.  (Pe- 
tersb. 1799). 

There    are   among    the    Gregorian   (Non- united) 
I  Armenians  a  great  number  of  monks.     They  follow 
either  the  rule  of  St.  Anthony  or  that  of  St.  Basil. 
The  monks  of  St.  Anthony  live  in  solitude  and  in  the 
|  desert,  and  surpass  in  austerity  almost  all  the  orders 
.  of  the  Roman  Church.     There  are  sometimes  as  many 
I  as  a  hundred  monks  in  one  monastery.     The  order 
j  of  St.  Basil  (introduced  into  the  Armenian  Church  in 
1173)  is  less  strict ;  their  convents  are  in  the  towns, 
and  from  them  the  bishops  and  vartabeds  are  taken. 
Their  principal  convent,  called  "Three  Churches,"  is 
at  Eschmiazin.     Most  of  their  convents  are  poor,  but 
i  they  have  three  verjr  rich  ones  in  Jerusalem.     The 
',  United  Armenians  have  the  following  orders:  (1.)  A 
congregation  of  monks  of  St.  Anthony,  still  existing, 
'  under  a  general  abbot,  who  resides  on  Mount  Leba- 
non, while  a  procurator  general  represents  the  order 
at  Rome.    (2.)  A  congregation  of  Basilians,  also  called 
|  Bartholomites,  founded  in  1307  at  Genoa  by  a  fugitive 
monk,  Peter  Martin.     They  obtained  many  convents 
',  in  Italy,  assumed  in  1356  the  rule  of  Augustine  and 
',  the  garb  of  the  Dominican  lay  brothers,  and  were  sup- 
I  pressed  in  1650.     (3.)  In  1330  a  number  of  Armenian 
:  monks  and  priests  were  induced  by  some  Dominican 
'  friars  to  join  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  formed  a  mo- 
,  nastic  congregation,  called  the  United  Brethren  of  St. 
j  Gregory  Illuminator.     They  likewise  adopted  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine,  and  the  constitutions  and  habit  of  the 
Dominicans.      In  1S56  they  fused  entirely  with  the 
Dominican  order,  and  were  formed  into  the  province 
of  Nakhchevan.     (4.)  The  most  celebrated  of  the  Ar- 
menian monks  are  the  Mechitarists  (q.  v.). 

III.  Present  Condition  and  Statistics. — The  estimates 
of  the  present  number  of  Armenians  greatly  vary. 
In  Turkey  they  are  believed  to  amount  to  about 
2,000,000  souls."  Russia  had,  in  1851,  372,535  Grego- 
rian (Non-united)  and  22,253  Catholic  (United)  Ar- 
menians. Persia  has,  according  to  the  "Missionary 
Herald"  of  1859,  about  30,000;  according  to  Uhicini 
(Letters  on  Turkey),  600,000  Armenians.  Ubicini  gives 
40,000  for  India,  and  60,000  for  Western  Europe ;  but 
other  statements  give  lower  figures.  The  Armenians 
of  Western  Europe  are  mostly  United  ;  of  those  in 
India,  Persia,  and  Turkey,  only  a  minority  (in  Asiatic 
Turkey  75,000  in  1844,  which  number  has  since  in- 
creased).    The  number  of  Armenians  in  Turkey  who 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


410 


ARMENIAN  CHURCH 


had  declared  themselves  Protestants  amounted  in  1858 
to  nearly  G000.  The  catholicos  of  Eschmiazin  (now 
in  Russia)  is  still  regarded  as  the  chief  bishop  of  the 
church.  He  is  appointed  by  the  Czar,  and  has  under 
him  a  synod,  an  imperial  procurator,  and  67  bishop- 
rics. Also  the  bishops  of  Constantinople  and  Jerusa- 
lem assume  the  title  Patriarch,  though  they  are  said 
not  to  be  strictly  such,  but  rather  superior  bishops, 
possessing  certain  privileges  conferred  by  the  patri- 
arch. The  United  Armenians  have  in  European  Tor- 
key  1  archbishop  at  Constantinople;  in  Asiatic  Tur- 
key,  1  patriarch  in  Cilicia,  1  archbishop  at  Seleucia, 
and  9  bishops  ;  in  Persia,  1  bishop  at  Ispahan  ;  in  Aus- 
tria, 1  archbishop  at  Lemberg,  besides  whom  also  the 
Mechitarist  abbots  of  Venice  and  Vienna  are  archbish- 
ops in  prirtibus. 

IV.  Armenian  Protestant  Missions. — The  history  of 
Protestantism  among  the  Armenians  forms  one  of  the 
most  interesting  chapters  in  the  history  of  modern 
Protestant  missions.  As  a  forerunner  in  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  Armenian  Church  Ave  may  regard  a  priest 
by  the  name  of  Debajy  Oghlu,  about  17C0.  He  lived 
in  Constantinople,  and  wrote  a  book  in  which  he 
praised  Luther,  and  castigated  both  clergy  and  people 
with  an  unsparing  hand.  His  book,  though  never 
published,  circulated  from  hand  to  hand,  and  was  later 
used  by  the  Protestant  missionaries  with  some  effect. 
The  efforts  of  the  Protestant  Church  in  behalf  of  the 
Armenian  Church  began  with  the  circulation  of  the 
Bible.  In  1813  the  British  Bible  Society  began  the 
publication  of  the  Armenian  Bible  (the  translation 
made  by  Mesrob  in  the  fifth  century),  and  in  1815  an 
edition  of  5000  copies  was  issued  at  Calcutta.  The 
same  society  published  in  1823  at  Constantinople  an 
edition  of  5000  copies  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of 
3000  copies  of  the  four  Gospels  alone.  Simultaneous- 
ly with  the  British  society,  the  Russian  Bible  Soci- 
ety undertook  the  publication  of  the  Armenian  Bible, 
and  issued  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1817,  an  edition  of 
2000  copies,  and  soon  after  an  edition  of  the  ancient 
Armenian  New  Testament.  A  great  enthusiasm  man- 
ifested itself  in  Russia  for  this  work,  the  Emperor  Al- 
exander, the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  Greek 
and  the  Armenian  churches,  and  nearly  all  the  Rus- 
sian nobility  being  among  its  patrons.  The  Armenian 
Bibles  and  New  Testaments  thus  printed  were  widely 
circulated  through  various  agencies.  But  it  was  soon 
discovered  that  the  mass  of  the  people  did  not  under- 
stand the  old  Armenian  language,  and  that  one  por- 
tion (perhaps  one  third,  chiefly  in  the  more  southern 
portions  of  Asia  Minor)  had  even  lost  the  use  of  the 
modern  Armenian,  speaking  only  Turkish.  This  led 
to  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  modern  Armenian 
and  into  Armeno-Turkish  (Turkish  written  with  Ar- 
menian characters).  The  former  translation  was  is- 
sued by  the  Russian  society  in  1822,  the  latter  by  the 
British  society  in  1823.  These  translations,  however, 
called  forth  the  opposition  of  the  Armenian  patriarch 
of  Constantinople  and  the  Armenian  clergy  in  gen- 
eral. 

A  Protestant  mission  was  established  among  the 
Armenians  by  the  American  Board  in  1830,  after  the 
way  had  been  previously  prepared  by  the  conversion 
of  three  Armenian  priests  (two  of  whom  were  bishops) 
by  tlf  American  missionaries  of  Syria,  and  by  the  fa- 
mous school  of  Pestitimalyan,  a  man  conversant  not 
only  wiili  Armenian,  but  also  with  Western  literature 
and  theology.  The  tirst  missionaries  were  E.  Smith 
and  II.  <i.  (>.  Dwight,  who  were  joined  in  the  follow- 
in-  years  l,y  \V.  Goodell,  J.  B.  Adger,  I!.  Schneider, 


<'.  Hamlin,  and  others.      'II 


ie  missionaries  soon  organ- 


ized several  schools  at  Constantinople,  IVra,  Brousa. 
Eass-Keuy,  Bebek,  and  through  them  worked  success- 
fully for  spreading  evangelical  views  iii  the  Armenian 
Church.  In  1834  the  mis-i.ni  press  was  transferred 
from  Malta  to  Smyrna,  and  there  soon  began  a  most 
successful  operation,  printing,  up  to  the  1st  of  Januarv, 


1838,  two  and  a  half  million  pages  in  the  Armenian 
languages.  In  the  following  }'ears  Mr.  Goodell  com- 
pleted the  translation  of  the  whole  Old  Testament  into 
the  Armeno-Turkish  language,  and  W.  Adger  issued 
an  improved  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into 
modern  Armenian.  The  missionaries  early  found 
devoted  co-laborers  among  the  Armenians  ;  among 
whom  Sahakyan,  who  was  converted  when  a  student, 
in  1833,  and  a  pious  priest,  Der  Kevork,  were  promi- 
nent. Though  not  interrupted,  they  encountered  a 
strong  opposition,  which  was  generally  headed  by  the 
patriarchs  and  the  chief  Armenian  bankers  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  sometimes  manifested  itself  as  open 
and  cruel  persecution.  That  was  especially  the  case 
when,  in  1844,  Matteos,  formerly  bishop  of  Brousa,  was 
made  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  For  two  years  he 
used  all  means  within  his  reach  against  the  favorers 
of  the  Protestant  missions,  and  it  required  the  inter- 
ference of  the  Christian  ambassadors  to  obtain  an  or- 
der from  the  sultan,  which  put  an  end  to  further  per- 
secutions (March,  184G).  Up  to  that  time  the  con- 
verts had  not  formally  separated  from  the  church; 
but  when  they  were  now  formally  excommunicated 
by  the  patriarch  Matteos,  and  thus  also  cut  off  from 
the  civil  rights  of  the  Armenian  community  [see  Tur- 
key], they  organized  independent  evangelical  Arme- 
nian churches.  The  first  churches  thus  organized  were 
those  of  Constantinople,  Nicomedia,  Adabazan,  and 
Trebizond.  Their  number  has  since  steadily  increased. 
In  1850  the  Protestants  were  placed  on  an  equality 
with  the  other  Christian  denominations,  and,  in  1853, 
even  on  an  equality  with  the  Mussulmans  before  the 
law.  The  report  made  by  the  American  Board  on 
the  Armenian  missions  in  1859  shows  them  to  be  in  a 
verjr  prosperous  condition.  They  are  now  divided 
into  two  separate  missions,  the  Northern  Armenian 
and  the  Southern  Armenian.  The  Northern  Arme- 
nian contained,  in  1858, 13  stations,  occupied  by  mis- 
sionaries ;  31  out-stations,  occupied  by  native  teachers 
or  helpers  ;  33  missionaries,  of  whom  one  is  a  physi- 
cian;  1  mission  treasurer;  34  female  assistant  mis- 
sionaries ;  4  native  pastors ;  21  native  preachers ;  48 
other  native  helpers  (not  including  38  teachers).  The 
number  of  churches  was  28,  with  G02  members ;  the 
number  of  free-schools  44,  with  928  pupils.  There 
were  also  three  male  high-schools  (Bebek,  Erzrum, 
and  Tocat),  with  52  pupils,  and  one  female  boarding- 
school  at  Hass-Keuy,  with  22  pupils.  Nearly  nine- 
teen millions  of  pages  were  issued  during  the  year 
1858.  The  Southern  Armenian  Mission  presented  the 
following  statistics :  5  stations ;  14  out-stations ;  9 
missionaries  —  one  a  physician  ;  9  female  assistant 
missionaries ;  1  native  pastor  ;  2  other  ordained  native 
preachers  ;  1  licentiate ;  37  other  helpers ;  churches, 
10;  communicants,  489  ;  average  congregations  on  the 
Sabbath,  1851 ;  theological  students  (at  Aintab,  Ma- 
rash,  and  Antioch),  2G ;  common  schools,  18,  with  746 
scholars.  In  1859  the  Turkish  government  appointed 
an  Armenian  Protestant  censer,  in  order  to  relieve 
the  Protestants  from  the  annoyances  which  they  had 
suffered  from  the  (Gregorian)  Armenian  censor.  The 
civil  community  of  the  Protestant  Armenians  is  at 
present  (1S60)  greatly  suffering  from  pecuniar}'  em- 
barrassment, as  the  Protestants,  on  account  of  their 
poverty,  find  it  difficult  to  pay  the  tax  levied  on  them 
for  supporting  their  civil  organization.  Until  1859 
the  American  missionaries  had  mostly  confined  them- 
selves to  the  Armenians  of  Turkej',  but  in  that  year 
one  of  the  missionaries  visited  several  Armenian  vil- 
lages of  Persia  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  Prot- 
estant mission. 

V.  Literature. — For  the  Armenian  Church,  see  Ne- 
ander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  113,  553;  Ricaut,  Greek  and  Arme- 
nian Churches  (London,  1G79)  ;  St.-Martin,  Mum  ins 
historiques  et  geoffraphiquea  sur  VArmenie  (Paris,  1819, 
vol.  ii);  Histoire,  Dogmes,  Tradition?,  etc.,  de  VEglise 
A  rmemenne  (Paris,  1855,  8vo) ;  Ubicini,  Letters  on  Tur- 


ARMENIAN  LANGUAGE 


411 


ARMENIAN  VERSION 


key,  translated  by  Lady  Easthope  (Lond.  185G)  ;  Nealc, 
History  of  the  Eastern  Church,  vol.  i  (Lond.  1850,  2  vols. 
8vo);  and  especially  the  History  of  Armenia  by  the 
Mechitarist  Tehamtchenanz  (3  vols.  4to,  Venice,  1784- 
1786).  On  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  see  F. 
Bodenstcdt,  Ueber  die  Einfuhrung  des  Christenthums  in 
Armenien  (Berlin,  1850).  On  the  statistics,  Marsden, 
Churches  and  Heels,  vol.  i ;  Newcomb,  Cyclopozdia  of 
Missions;  Smith  and  Dwight,  Missionary  Researches 
in  Armenia;  Coleman,  Ancient  Christianity,  ch.  xxvii; 
Christian  Remembrancer,  xxiii,  349 ;  Church  of  England 
Quarterly,  July,  1854  ;  Dwight,  Christianity  Revived  in 
the  East;  Reports  ofA.B.  C.  F.  M. ;  Schem,  Am.  Ec- 
clesiasi.  Year-Book  for  1859,  p.  18,  33.     See  Asia. 

Armenian  Language.  The  ancient  Armenian 
or  Haikan  language  (now  dead),  notwithstanding  the 
great  antiquity  of  the  nation  to  which  it  belongs,  pos- 
sesses no  literary  documents  prior  to  the  fifth  century 
of  the  Christian  sera.  The  translation  of  the  Bible, 
begun  by  Mesrob  (q.  v.)  in  the  year  410,  is  the  earliest 
monument  of  the  language  that  has  come  down  to  us. 
The  dialect  in  which  this  version  is  written,  and  in 
which  it  is  still  publicly  read  in  their  churches,  is  called 
the  old  Armenian.  The  dialect  now  in  use — the  mod- 
ern Armenian — in  which  they  preach  and  carry  on  the 
intercourse  of  daily  life,  not  onty  departs  from  the  elder 
form  b}'  dialectual  changes  in  the  native  elements  of 
the  language  itself,  but  also  by  the  great  intermixture 
of  Persian  and  Turkish  words  which  has  resulted  from 
the  conquest  and  subjection  of  the  country.  It  is, 
perhaps,  this  diversity  of  the  ancient  and  modern 
idioms  which  has  given  rise  to  the  many  conflicting 
opinions  that  exist  as  to  the  relation  in  which  the  Ar- 
menian stands  to  other  languages.  Thus  Cirbied  and 
Vater  both  assert  that  it  is  an  original  language  ;  that 
is,  one  so  distinct  from  all  others  in  its  fundamental 
character  as  not  to  be  classed  with  any  of  the  great 
families  of  languages.  Eichhorn,  on  the  other  hand 
(Sprachcnkunde,  p.  349),  affirms  that  the  learned  idiom 
of  the  Armenian  undoubtedly  belongs  to  the  Medo- 
Persian  family;  whereas  Pott  {Untersuchungen,  p.  32) 
says  that,  notwithstanding  its  many  points  of  rela- 
tion to  that  family,  it  cannot  strictly  be  considered 
to  belong  to  it ;  and  Gatterer  actually  classed  it  as  a 
living  sister  of  the  Basque,  Finnish,  and  Welsh  lan- 


As  to  form,  it  is  said  to  be  rough  and  full  of  conso- 
nants; to  possess  ten  cases  in  the  noun  —  a  number 
which  is  only  exceeded  by  the  Finnish ;  to  have  no 
dual ;  to  have  no  mode  of  denoting  gender  in  the  noun 
by  change  of  form,  but  to  be  obliged  to  append  the 
words  man  and  woman  as  the  marks  of  sex — thus,  to 
say  prophet-woman  for  prop)hetess  (nevertheless,  modern 
writers  use  the  syllable  ouhi  to  distinguish  the  femi- 
nine ;  Wahl,  Geschichte  d.  Morgenl.  Sprachen,  p.  100)  ; 
to  bear  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  Greek  in  the  use 
of  the  participle,  and  in  the  whole  syntactical  struc- 
ture ;  and  to  have  adopted  the  Arabian  system  of 
metre.—  Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  history  of  its  alphabetical  character  is  briefly 
this :  until  the  third  century  of  our  a>ra,  the  Armeni- 
ans used  either  the  Persian  or  Greek  alphabet  (the 
letter  in  Syrian  characters,  mentioned  by  Diodor.  xix, 
23,  is  not  considered  an  evidence  that  they  wrote  Ar- 
menian in  Syrian  characters,  as  that  letter  was  prob- 
ably Persian).  In  the  fifth  century,  however,  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  created  the  necessity  for  char- 
acters which  would  more  adequately  represent  the  pe- 
culiar sounds  of  the  language.  Aecordingty,  after  a 
fruitless  attempt  of  a  certain  Daniel,  and  after  several 
efforts  on  his  own  part,  Mesrob  saw  a  hand  in  a  dream 
write  the  very  characters  which  now  constitute  the 
Armenian  alphabet.  The  38  letters  thus  obtained  are 
chiefly  founded  on  the  Greek,  but  have  partly  made 
out  their  number  by  deriving  some  forms  from  the 
Zend  alphabet.  The  order  of  writing  is  from  left  to 
right.     Mesrob  employed  these  letters  in  his  transla- 


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tion  of  the  Bible,  and  thus  insured  their  universal  and 
permanent  adoption  by  the  nation  (Gesenius,  article 
Palcvographie,  in  Ersch  und  Gruber).  See  Tromler, 
Bibliothecm  Armenian  spec.  (Plan.  1758) ;  Schroder, 
Thesaurus  ling.  A  rmen.  antiqucv  et  novte  (Amsterd.  1711) ; 
Cirbied,  Gram.  Armenienne  (Par.  1822);  Petermann, 
Grammatica  A  rmen.  (Berol.  1 N37)  ;  also,  Breris  Ungues 
Armenicai grammatica,  literatura,  chrestomathia,  c.  glos- 
sario  (ib.  1841);  Calfa,  Dictimnaire  Armenienne  (Par. 
1861).     See  Shemitic  Languages. 

Armenian  Version.  This  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  undertaken  in  the  year  410  by  Mesrob, 
with  the  aid  of  his  pupils  Joannes  Eccelensis  and  Jo- 
sephus  Palnensie.  It  appears  that  the  Patriarch  Isaac 
first  attempted,  in  consequence  of  the  Persians  having 
destroyed  all  the  copies  of  the  Greek  version,  to  make 


ARMENIAN  VERSION 


412 


ARMINIANISM 


a  translation  from  the  Peshito ;  that  Mesrob  became 
his  coadjutor  in  this  work;  and  that  they  actually 
completed  their  translation  from  the  Syriac.  But 
when  the  above-named  pupils,  who  had  been  sent  to 
the  ecclesiastical  council  at  Ephesus,  returned,  they 
brought  with  them  an  accurate  copy  of  the  Greek 
Bible.  Upon  this,  Mesrob  laid  aside  his  translation 
from  the  Peshito,  and  prepared  to  commence  anew 
from  a  more  authentic  text.  Imperfect  knowledge 
of  the  Greek  language,  however,  induced  him  to  send 
his  pupils  to  Alexandria,  to  acquire  accurate  Greek 
scholarship;  and,  on  their  return,  the  translation  was 
accomplished.  Moses  of  Chorene,  the  historian  of 
Armenia,  who  was  also  employed,  as  a  disciple  of 
Mesrob,  on  this  version,  fixes  its  completion  in  the 
year  410  ;  but  he  is  contradicted  by  the  date  of  the 
Council  of  Ephesus,  which  necessarily  makes  it  subse- 
quent to  the  year  431. 

In  the  Old  Testament  this  version  adheres  exceed- 
ingly closely  to  the  Septuagint  (but  in  the  book  of 
Daniel  has  followed  the  version  of  Theodotion).  Its 
most  striking  characteristic  is,  that  it  does  not  follow 
any  known  recension  of  the  Sept.  Although  it  more 
often  agrees  with  the  Alexandrine  text,  in  readings 
which  are  peculiar  to  the  latter,  than  it  does  with  the 
Aldine  or  Complutensian  text,  yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  also  has  followed  readings  which  are  only  found  in 
the  last  two.  Bertholdt  accounts  for  this  mixed  text 
by  assuming  that  the  copy  of  the  Greek  Bible  sent 
from  Ephesus  contained  the  Lucian  recension,  and 
that  the  pupils  brought  back  copies  according  to  the 
Hesychian  recension  from  Alexandria,  and  that  the 
translators  made  the  latter  their  standard,  but  correct- 
ed their  version  b}r  aid  of  the  former  (Einleit.  ii,  560). 
The  version  of  the  New  Testament  is  equally  close  to 
the  Greek  original,  and  also  represents  a  text  made 
up  of  Alexandrine  and  Occidental  readings. — Kitto. 

This  version  was  afterward  revised  and  adapted  to 
the  Peshito  in  the  sixth  century,  on  the  occasion  of 
an  ecclesiastical  union  between  the  Syrians  and  Ar- 
menians. Again,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  an  Ar- 
menian king,  Hethom  or  Haitho,  who  was  so  zealous 
a  Catholic  that  he  turned  Franciscan  monk,  adapted 
the  Armenian  version  to  the  Vulgate,  by  way  of 
smoothing  the  wray  for  a  union  of  the  Roman  and  Ar- 
menian churches.  Lastly,  the  Bishop  Uscan,  who 
printed  the  first  edition  of  this  version  at  Amsterdam, 
in  the  year  1666,  is  also  accused  of  having  interpolated 
the  text  as  it  came  down  to  his  time  by  adding  all 
that  he  found  the  Vulgate  contained  more  than  the 
Armenian  version.  The  existence  of  the  verse  1  John 
v,  7,  in  this  version,  is  ascribed  to  this  supplementary 
labor  of  Uscan.  It  is  clear,  from  what  has  been  said, 
that  the  critical  uses  of  this  version  are  limited  to  de- 
termining the  readings  of  the  Sept.  and  of  the  Greek 
text  of  the  New  Testament  which  it  represents,  and 
that  it  has  Buffered  many  alterations,  which  diminish 
its  usefulness  in  that  respect.  See  generallv  Walch, 
Bill.  Theol.  xv,  50,  247 ;  Rosenmiiller,  Handb.  d.  Lit- 
eratur,  iii,  78-84, 153  sq.  The  following  are  the  forms 
of  this  version  hitherto  published:  1.  Biblia,  jussu 
Jacobi  protopatriarchaa  (Amst.  1666,  Ito) ;  Biblia,  jussu 
patriarchs  Nahabiei  (Constpl.  1705,  4to) ;  Biblia, 
jnssu  Umihai  patriarchs  (Ven.  17:53,  fob);  Biblia 
(ed.  Dr.  Zohrab,  Ven.  1805,  4  vols.  8vo  and  1  vol. 
•Itoi:  ;■/.  (Petropol.  1817,  Ito;  also  Serampore,  1817, 
4to);  Bible,  i„  mod.  Armen.  (Smyrna,  1853,  -ito). 
2.  Vov.  Test.  (ed.  [Jscan,  Amst.  1668,*8vo);  id.  (Amst. 
1698,  l2nio;  Ven.  1720  and  1789,  8vo;  Lond.  1818); 
Voe  /'■  it.,  in  ancand  mod.  Armen.  (ed.  Dr.  Zohrab, 
Par.  1825,  8vo).  Special  parts  and  treatises  are: 
O&adku  Armenus,  cur.  A.  Acoluthio  (Lips.  1680); 
Quatuor  prima  cap.  Evang.  Malthzi  (ed.  ('.  A.  Bode, 
Jlal.  1756)  ;  Bredenkamp,  Genau, ,-,  \;  rfriehuug  <l.  av- 
ium. r<l,<r.«tziiii!i  </.-.<  \.  t.,  in  Michaelis's  N.  Orient. 
Bibl.  vii,  139  sq. ;  Schroder,  in  his  Tins.  ling.  Armen. 
See  Versions. 


Arm-hole  (~P  V^SX,  atstsW  gad,  joint  of  the 
hand;  Sept.  ayiewv  ^fipoc).  "Woe  to  the  women 
that  sew  pillows  to  all  arm-holes"  (Ezek.  xiii,  18), 
i.  e.  elboivs,  although  the  term  has  also  been  taken  for 
the  wrist,  or  for  the  knuckles  of  the  hand.  The  true 
meaning  is  somewhat  doubtful,  for  it  evidently  refers 
to  some  custom  with  which  we  are  unacquainted. 
The  women  spoken  of  are  no  doubt  the  priestesses  of 
Ashtaroth,  and  the  object  of  the  prophet  is  to  denounce 
the  arts  they  employed  to  allure  God's  chosen  people 
to  a  participation  in  their  idolatrous  worship.  Orien- 
tals, when  they  wish  to  be  at  their  ease,  recline  on  or 
against  various  kinds  of  rich  pillows  or  cushions. 
The  adulteress  in  the  Proverbs  (vii,  1G)  alludes  to  the 
costliness  and  richness  of  those  that  belonged  to  her 
divan  or  "bed"  among  the  circumstances  by  whicli 
she  sought  to  seduce  "the  young  man  void  of  under- 
standing;"  it  is  therefore  not  unreasonable  to  suppose 
that  something  of  the  same  kind  may  be  here  intend- 
ed. See  Pillow'.  The  term  also  occurs  in  Jeremiah 
xxxviii,  12,  in  describing  the  release  of  the  prophet 
from  the  dungeon  of  Malchiah. 

Armies.     See  Army. 

Arminianism,  properly,  the  system  of  doctrine 
taught  by  James  Arminius,  especially  with  regard  to 
the  Augustinian  theory  of  unconditional  predestina- 
tion, as  revived  and  extended  by  Calvin  and  others 
in  the  Reformation.  It  is  designated  by  Guthrie  as 
that  "gigantic  recoil  from  Calvinism,  than  which  no 
reaction  in  nature  could  have  been  more  certainly 
predicted.  Of  all  the  actors  in  that  movement — so 
fertile  of  mighty  actors — no  one  played  a  more  con- 
spicuous, important,  and  trj'ing  part  than  Arminius. 
To  high  talent  and  cultivation,  and  to  consummate 
ability  as  a  disputant,  Arminius  added  the  ornament 
of  spotless  Christian  consistency  (his  enemies  being 
judges),  and  of  a  singularly  noble,  manly,  and  be- 
nevolent nature.  This,  with  his  conspicuous  posi- 
tion, made  his  personal  influence  to  be  very  potent 
and  extensive.  And  yet  few  names  have  ever  been 
overshadowed  by  a  deeper  and  denser  gloom  of  preju- 
dice than  his;  to  utter  which,  as  Wesley  remarked, 
was  much  the  same,  in  some  ears,  as  to  raise  the  cry 
of  mad  d  cj.  This  is  attributable  partly  to  the  latitu- 
dinarianism  of  some  of  his  followers,  who,  revolting 
at  the  dominant  faith,  and  maddened  by  oppression, 
resiled  to  the  opposite  extreme ;  and  partly  to  the  ac- 
cidental circumstance  that  his  milder  scheme  found 
general  favor  in  the  Church  of  England  at  a  time  when 
she  stood  in  hostile  relations  to  the  English  Puritans 
and  the  Scottish  Presbyterians.  But  these  were  results 
with  whicli  neither  the  man  Arminius  nor  the  Armin- 
ian  principle  of  conditionalism  had  any  thing  whatever 
to  do.  To  trace  them  to  him  were  not  more  just  than 
to  trace  German  Neology  to  Luther  and  Melancthon, 
and  Socinianism  to  Calvin."  (Preface  to  Brande's 
Lift  °.f  A  rmmius.") 

I.  Life  of  Arminius  and  the  Controversy  in  his  tine. 
—The  following  sketch,  so  far  as  the  facts  of  the  life 
of  Arminius  is  concerned,  is  modified  from  the  Bio- 
graphical  Dictionary  of  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge. 

James  Arminius  (Lat.  Jacobus  Arminius;  Dutch, 
Jacob  Hermanson  or  Van  Herman)  was  born  in  the 
year  1560  at  Oudewater,  a  small  town  of  Holland. 
As  Oudewater  means  in  Dutch  "Old  Water,"  Veteres 
Aquae,  Arminius  is  sometimes  surnamed  in  his  works 
Veteraquinas.  He  lost  his  father,  a  cutler,  in  his  in- 
fancy ;  but  he  found  a  protector  in  Theodorus  ^Emil- 
ius,  who  had  once  been  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
vEmilius  took  Arminius  with  him  to  Utrecht,  and  sent 
him  to  the  school  of  that  place.  In  his  15th  year 
Arminius  lost  his  patron  by  death,  but  another  pro- 
tector, Rudolph  Snellius,  took  him  under  his  care, 
and  removed  him  to  Marburg  (1575).  Arminius  had 
scarcely  arrived  at  Marburg  when  he  heard  that  his 


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413 


ARMINIANISM 


town  had  been  sacked  by  the  Spaniards.  Hur- 
rying back  to  Oudewater,  he  found  that  his  mother 
and  his  other  relatives  had  been  killed.  He  returned 
to  Marburg  on  foot.  He  went  thence  to  Rotterdam, 
and  was  received  into  the  house  of  Peter  Bcrtius,  pas- 
tor of  the  Reformed  Church.  In  the  same  year  (1575) 
he  was  sent,  with  Peter  Bertius  the  younger,  to  the 
University  of  Leyden,  which  had  just  been  founded. 
After  he  had  studied  at  Leyden  for  six  years ,"  the  di- 
rectors of  the  body  of  merchants"  of  Amsterdam  un- 
dertook to  bear  the  expenses  of  his  education  for  the 
ministry,  Arminius  agreeing  that  after  he  had  been 
ordained  he  would  not  serve  in  the  church  of  any  oth- 
er city  without  the  permission  of  the  burgomasters  of 
Amsterdam.  In  1582  he  was  sent  to  Geneva,  which 
was  then  the  great  school  of  theology  for  all  the  Re- 
formed churches,  and  where  the  doctrines  of  Calvin 
were  taught  in  their  most  rigorous  shape  by  Theodore 
Beza.  At  Geneva  Arminius  formed  a  close  friendship 
which  united  him  through  life  with  Uyttenbogaert 
of  Utrecht.  During  his  residence  at  Geneva  he  gave 
great  offence  to  some  of  the  Aristotelian  teachers  of 
the  Geneva  school  by  advocating  in  public  and  lec- 
turing in  private  to  his  friends  on  the  logic  of  Ramus 
as  opposed  to  that  of  Aristotle.  See  Ramus.  This 
course  created  so  much  commotion  that  he  left  Gene- 
va and  went  to  Basle,  where  the  faculty  of  divinity 
offered  to  confer  upon  him  the  degree  of  doctor  gratis; 
but  he  declined  it,  considering  himself  too  young,  and 
in  1583  returned  to  Geneva,  where  he  continued  his 
theological  studies  for  three  years  more.  In  15.s6  the, 
fame  of  Zabarella,  professor  of  philosophy  at  Padua, 
induced  him  to  take  a  journey  into  Italy.  From  Pad- 
ua he  proceeded  to  Rome.  After  this  journey  Armin- 
ius came  back  to  Geneva,  and  soon  received  an  or- 
der from  the  burgomasters  of  Amsterdam  to  return  to 
that  town.  He  had  taken  this  journey  without  their 
knowledge,  and  rumors  had  spread  abroad  that  he  had 
kissed  the  pope's  slipper,  held  intercourse  with  the 
Jesuits,  and  especially  with  Cardinal  Bellarminc  — 
that,  in  short,  he  had  become  a  Roman  Catholic.  The 
testimony  of  a  friend  who  had  travelled  with  him 
cleared  him  from  these  charges.  Arminius  used  af- 
terward to  say  that  he  derived  no  little  benefit  from 
this  journey,  as  c '  he  saw  at  Rome  a  mystery  of  ini- 
quity much  more  foul  than  he  had  ever  imagined." 
He  wras  ordained  at  Amsterdam  on  the  11th  of  Au- 
gust, 1588,  and  he  soon  became  distinguished  as  a 
preacher.  The  mild  opinions  of  Melancthon  on  pre- 
destination had  spread  into  Holland  even  before  those 
of  Calvin.  In  1589  Theodore  Koornhert,  of  Amster- 
dam, published  several  works,  in  which  he  attacked 
the  doctrine  of  predestination,  which  was  taught  by 
Beza  and  the  Genevan  school.  To  obviate  Koornhert's 
objections,  some  ministers  of  Delft  proposed  a  change 
in  Beza's  doctrine.  They  agreed  with  Beza  that  di- 
vine predestination  was  the  antecedent,  uncondition- 
al, and  immutable  decree  of  God  concerning  the  sal- 
vation or  damnation  of  each  individual ;  but  whereas 
Beza  represented  that  man,  not  considered  as  fallen, 
or  even  as  created,  was  the  object  of  this  uncondition- 
al decree,  the  ministers  of  Delft  made  this  peremptory 
decree  subordinate  to  the  creation  and  fall  of  man  ; 
that  is  to  say,  they  adopted  guMa.psririani.im  in  place 
of  the  supralapsarianism  of  Calvin  and  Beza.  They 
thought  this  hypothesis  would  do  away  with  Koorn- 
hert's objection  that  the  doctrine  of  absolute  decrees 
represented  God  as  the  author  of  sin — as  such  decrees 
made  sin  necessary  and  inevitable  no  less  than  dam- 
nation. Their  view  was  published  under  the  title  Re- 
sponsio  ad  argumenta  qvrrdmn  Ilczir  et  Ca/rini,  ex  trac- 
tate de  Pradestinationc,  in  Cap.  IX  ad  liamanns.  The 
book  was  sent  to  Lydius,  professor  at  Franeker,  who 
requested  Arminius  to  answer  it.  He  consented  ;  but 
in  studying  the  subject  he  began  to  doubt  which  of  the 
two  views  to  adopt,  and  at  length  became  inclined  to 
embrace  the  doctrine  which  he  had  undertaken  to  re- 


fute. Meanwhile,  on  the  lGth  of  September,  1590,  he 
married  Elizabeth  Reael,  daughter  of  Laurent  Reael, 
a  judge  and  senator  of  Amsterdam.  In  the  course 
of  his  sermons  at  Amsterdam,  Arminius  commenced 
an  exposition  of  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  in 
which  some  of  the  new  views  which  he  had  adopted 
found  expression.  In  1593  he  published  Lectures  in 
Bom.  IX,  in  which  he  questions  the  view  of  that  chap- 
ter given  bj'  Calvin  and  Beza.  Disputes  arose,  but 
the  consistory  of  Amsterdam  gave  an  audience  to  the 
contending  parties,  and  ordered  them  to  cease  all  con- 
troversy until  a  general  synod  could  be  summoned  to 
determine  the  subject  of  the  dispute.  In  1G02  a  pesti- 
lence raged  at  Amsterdam,  during  which  Arminius 
showed  the  greatest  courage  and  kindness  in  visiting 
the  sick.  The  disease  carried  off  two  of  the  profess- 
ors of  the  University  of  Leyden,  Lucas  Trelcatins,  the 
elder,  and  Francis  Junius,  professor  of  divinity.  The 
curators  of  the  university  turned  their  eyes  upon  Ar- 
minius as  a  fit  successor  to  Junius ;  but  it  was  only 
after  repeated  applications  on  the  part  of  the  universi- 
ty that  the  authorities  of  Amsterdam  consented  to  give 
him  permission  to  leave  on  the  15th  of  April,  1603. 
As  he  had  been  charged  with  holding  Pelagian  views, 
before  he  was  finally  appointed  he  held  a  conference 
with  Francis  Gomar,  who  was  also  professor  of  divin- 
ity at  Leyden,  and  who  became  afterward  his  capital 
enemy,  at  the  Hague,  the  Gth  of  May,  1603,  and  the 
result  was  that  Gomar  declared  the  charge  that  he  was 
a  Pelagian  to  be  groundless.  At  the  same  time,  not 
only  the  curators  of  the  university,  but  Gomar  him- 
self, were  thoroughly  aware  that  on  the  subject  of  pre- 
destination Arminius  differed  from  the  Genevan  school. 
He  underwent  another  examination,  a  private  one, 
conducted  by  Gomar,  for  the  degree  of  D.D.,  which  he 
received  11th  July,  1603.  Arminius  was  the  first  on 
whom  the  University  of  Leyden  conferred  the  degree 
of  Doctor.  Gne  of  the  first  observations  of  Arminius, 
after  entering  on  the  duties  of  his  chair,  was  that  the 
students  were  much  more  given  to  scholastic  subtleties 
and  disputations  than  to  the  thorough  study  of  Scrip- 
ture. He  determined  to  cure  this  evil.  "  With  this 
view  he  reckoned  nothing  more  important  than  to  fore- 
close, as  far  as  he  could,  -crabbed  questions  and  the 
cumbrous  mass  of  scholastic  assertions,  and  to  incul- 
cate on  his  disciples  that  divine  wisdom  which  was 
drawn  from  the  superlatively  pure  fountains  of  the  Sa- 
cred Word,  and  was  provided  for  the  express  purpose 
of  guiding  us  to  a  life  of  virtue  and  happiness.  From 
his  first  introduction  into  the  academy  it  was  his  en- 
deavor to  aim  at  this  mark,  and  give  a  corresponding 
direction  to  his  studies  both  public  and  private.  But 
truly  this  laudable  attempt  was  in  no  small  degree 
thwarted,  partly  by  the  jealousy  which  some  had  con- 
ceived against  him,  and  partly  also  by  a  certain  in- 
veterate prejudice  as  to  his  heterodoxy,  with  which 
many  ministers  of  religion  had  long  been  imbued,  and 
under  the  impulse  of  which  they  stirred  up  his  col- 
leagues against  him.  The  first  germs,  indeed,  of  this 
budding  jealousy  betrayed  themselves  in  the  following 
year  (1604)  ;  for  when  Arminius,  who  had  undertaken 
the  task  of  interpreting  the  Old  Testament  in  particu- 
lar, proceeded  also  now  and  then  to  give  a  public  expo- 
sition of  certain  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  Gomar 
took  this  amiss,  and  began  to  allege  that  the  right  of  ex- 
pounding the  New  Testament  belonged  solely  to  him, 
as  Primarius  Professor  of  Sacred  Theology,  for  this 
title  had  been  conceded  to  him  by  the  Senatus  Aca- 
demicus  a  short  time  prior  to  the  arrival  of  Arminius. 
Nay,  more ;  happening  to  meet  Arminius,  he  felt  un- 
able to  contain  himself,  and,  in  a  burst  of  passion, 
broke  out  in  these  words  :  '  You  have  invaded  my  pro- 
fessorship.' Arminius  replied  that  he  did  not  mean 
to  detract  any  thing  whatever  from  the  primacy  of  his 
colleague,  and  from  the  academic  titles  and  privileges 
conferred  upon  him  ;  and  that  he  had  not  done  him 
the  slightest  injury,  having  obtained  license  from  the 


ARMINIANISM 


414 


ARMINIANISM 


honorable  curators  to  select  themes  of  prelection  at 
any  time,  not  only  from  the  Old  Testament,  but  also 
from  the  New,  provided  he  did  not  encroach  on  the 
particular  subject  in  which  Gomar  might  be  engaged" 
(Brandt,  Life  o/Arminiua,  ch.vii). 

On  the  7th  of  February,  1004,  Arminius  propounded 
certain  theses  on  predestination,  of  which  the  sum  was 
this:  "Divine  predestination  is  the  decree  of  God  in 
Christ  by  which  he  has  decreed  with  himself  from 
eternity  to  justify,  adopt,  and  gift  with  eternal  life,  to 
the  praise  of  his  glorious  grace,  the  faithful  whom  he 
has  decreed  to  gift  with  faith.  On  the  other  hand, 
reprobation  is  the  decree  of  the  anger  or  severe  will 
of  God,  by  which  he  has  determined  from  eternity,  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  his  anger  and  power,  to  con- 
demn to  eternal  death,  as  placed  out  of  union  with 
Christ,  the  unbelieving  who,  by  their  own  fault  and 
the  just  judgment  of  God,  arc  not  to  believe."  On 
the  last  day  of  October  Gomar  openly  attacked  these 
positions,  and  from  this  day  may  be  dated  the  tumults 
which  ensued.  In  1G05  Arminius  was  created  rector 
magnificus  of  the  University,  which  office  he  quitted 
February  8th,  160G.  Meanwhile  the  disputes  contin- 
ued. Festus  Hommius,  a  minister  of  Leyden,  Johan- 
nes Kuchlinus,  rector  of  the  Theological  Faculty,  and 
uncle  of  Arminius,  were  among  his  warmest  adversa- 
ries. Deputies  from  the  churches  of  all  the  provinces 
of  Holland,  and  deputies  from  the  Synod  of  Leyden, 
required  from  him  a  conference  on  the  subject  of  his 
opinions.  Preachers  attacked  him  from  the  pulpit  as 
a  Pelagian,  and  worse  than  a  Pelagian.  A  national 
synod  was  demanded  to  settle  the  disputes.  On  22d 
May,  1G07,  an  assembly  was  held  at  the  Hague,  at 
which  Arminius  was  present,  to  settle  the  manner  in 
which  the  synod  was  to  be  held.  In  1G08  Arminius 
and  Uyttenbogaert  applied  to  the  States  of  Holland 
to  convoke  a  synod,  that  these  grave  controversies 
might  be  settled.  In  the  same  year  Arminius  and 
Gomar  held  a  conference  before  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  Hague,  which  declared  in  its  report  that  these 
two  professors  differed  on  points  of  little  importance, 
and  unessential  to  religion.  Arminius  gave  in  an  ac- 
count of  his  opinions  to  the  States  at  the  Hague  on 
the  30th  of  October,  1608.  (See  the  Declaratio,  in  his 
works.)  Before  the  proposed  synod  could  be  held  Ar- 
minius died.  The  disease  which  carried  him  oil'  at 
last  had  long  lain  latent.  It  broke  out  on  the  7th  of 
February,  1609,  but  he  recovered  so  far  as  to  resume 
the  usual  duties  of  his  professorship,  though  still  weak. 
At  last  he  sunk  under  his  disorder,  and  expired  10th 
October,  1600.  His  death  was  most  painful ;  and  to 
bodily  pain  was  added  mental  anguish  at  the  misrep- 
resentations of  his  religions  opinions  and  of  his  person- 
al character  made  by  his  embittered  foes.  The  cura- 
tors of  the  University  of  Leyden  allowed  his  wife  and 
children  a  pension. 

Arminius  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  a 
learned  age.  His  natural  faculties  were  singularly 
acute;  his  mind  was  at  once  inquisitive  and  profound; 
and  his  industry  in  study  equalled  his  capacity.  As 
a  preacher  he  was  exceedingly  popular;  in  sweetness 
of  voice,  ardor  of  manner,  and  finish  of  style,  he  was 
distinguished  above  all  his  contemporaries.  His  per- 
sonal manners  were  of  the  most  attractive  kind;  he 
grappled  liis  friends  by  books  of  steel.  The  funeral 
oration  delivered  by  Bertius  ends  with  the  phrase, 
"fuisse  in  Batavia  virum  qnem  qui  norant  non  potue- 
runt  satis  existimare;  qui  non  sestimarunt,  non  satis 
COgnoverunt."  His  writings,  though  inferior  in  point 
of  Latinity  to  those  of  Calvin  and  Grotius,  bear  ample 
testimony  i"  ah  learning,  and  to  his  skill  in  logic. 
He  was  so  thoroughly  versed  in  the  ancient  fathers, 
and  sip  much  of  an  adept  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
Scriptures,  that  his  opinions  carried  alone;  with  them 
a  weight  among  the  learned  wldeh  his  antagonists 
could  not  well  resist.  Xeander  calls  him  the  "model 
of  a  conscientious  and  zealously  investigating  theolo- 


gian" (Hist,  of  Dor/mas,  ii,  276).  His  opponents  ac- 
cused him  of  Pelagianism  and  Arianism,  but  no  theo- 
logian of  any  pretence  to  learning  will  at  present  sus- 
tain these  accusations.  The  same  temper  of  mind 
which  led  him  to  renounce  the  peculiarities  of  Calvin- 
ism induced  him  also  to  adopt  more  enlarged  and  lib- 
eral views  of  church  communion  than  those  which  had 
prevailed  before  his  time.  While  he  maintained  that 
the  mercy  of  God  is  not  confined  to  a  chosen  few,  he 
conceived  it  to  be  quite  inconsistent  with  the  genius 
of  Christianity  that  men  of  that  religion  should  keep 
at  a  distance  from  each  other,  and  constitute  separate 
churches,  merely  because  they  differed  in  their  opin- 
ions as  to  some  of  its  doctrinal  articles.  He  thought 
that  Christians  of  all  denominations  should  form  one 
great  community,  united  and  upheld  bjr  the  bonds  of 
charity  and  brotherly  love ;  with  the  exception,  how- 
ever, of  Koman  Catholics,  who,  on  account  of  their 
idolatrous  worship  and  persecuting  spirit,  must  be  un- 
lit members  of  such  a  society.  His  great  disciple,  the 
republican  Barneveldt,  was  perhaps  the  first  European 
statesman  that  made  religious  toleration  one  of  his 
maxims.  In  fact,  the  Arminians  of  Holland  were  the 
real  fathers  of  religious  toleration  ;  they  were  the  first 
society  of  Protestants  who,  when  in  possession  of  pow- 
er, granted  the  same  liberty  of  conscience  to  others 
which  they  claimed  for  themselves. 

Before  setting  forth  the  theological  views  of  Armin- 
ius, a  brief  historical  review  of  the  church  doctrine  as 
to  predestination  may  not  be  out  of  place.  Before  the 
time  of  Augustine  (fourth  century),  the  unanimous  doc- 
trine of  the  church  fathers,  so  far  as  scientifically  de- 
veloped at  all,  was,  that  the  Divine  decrees,  as  to  the 
fate  of  individual  men,  were  conditioned  upon  their 
faith  and  obedience,  as  foreseen  in  the  Divine  mind. 
Augustine,  in  his  controversy  with  Pelagius,  with  a 
view  to  enhance  the  gloiy  of  grace,  was  the  first  to 
teach,  unequivocall}7,  that  the  salvation  of  the  elect 
depends  upon  the  bare  will  of  God,  and  that  his  decree 
to  save  those  whom  he  chooses  to  save  is  uncondi- 
tioned. Augustine  did  not  teach  the  doctrine  of  un- 
conditional reprobation;  that  doctrine  was  first  for- 
mally taught  by  Gottschalk  (q.  v.)  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. His  views  wrere  condemned  at  Mentz,  A.D.  848. 
In  the  Reformation  period,  Luther  and  Melancthon 
first  inclined  to  Augustine's  theory,  but,  finding  that  it 
involved  the  reception  of  Gottschalk*s  as  well,  they 
went  back  to  the  primitive  doctrine  of  conditional  elec- 
tion. Luther,  indeed,  never  formally  retracted  some 
of  his  characteristically  strong  expressions  made  at 
carl}-  periods  in  his  history ;  but  there  are  indications 
enough  that  his  views  coincided  with  those  of  Melanc- 
thon, who  took  out  of  the  later  editions  of  his  Lcci 
Communes  all  expressions  favoring  unconditional  pre- 
destination. The  Lutheran  Church  to  this  day  fol- 
lows Melancthon.  Calvin,  however,  adopted  uncon- 
ditional election  and  reprobation  in  the  strongest  form, 
and  built  his  whole  theological  system  upon  it.  His 
genius  impressed  the  age  wonderfully,  and  the  Re- 
formed churches  generally  adopted  his  doctrines. 
The  churches  of  the  Netherlands  were  founded  partly 
by  Lutherans  and  partly  by  Calvinists.  and  so  both 
sets  of  opinions  had  currency  there.  But  the  Belgic 
Confession  (q.  v.),  which  was  Calvinistic,  was  invested 
with  a  quasi  national  authority  from  the  year  1570. 
The  larger  part  of  the  clergy  of  the  Netherlands  were 
undoubtedly  Calvinists  at  the  time  of  the  appearance 
of  Arminius,  though  freedom  of  thought  on  the  con- 
troverted points  had  not  been  suppressed  before  his 
time.  His  rejection  of  the  doctrine  was  the  result  of 
long,  calm,  and  patient  study  of  the  Scriptures.  His 
task  was  to  restore  the  primitive,  and  scriptural  view  of 
the  relations  between  God  and  man  in  the  work  of  sal- 
vation, and  of  the  sole  responsibility  of  man  for  his  own 
damnation  ;  and  nobly  did  he  perform  it.  "  The  great 
error  which  lie  had  to  combat  consisted  in  making  the 
Divine  efficiency  with  relation  to  one  temporal  phe- 


ARMINIANISM 


415 


ARMINIANISM 


nomenon,  viz.,  the  readjustment  of  the  disturbed  rela- 
tion of  God  and  the  sinner  an  exception — making  the 
relation  of  the  Divine  efficiency  to  that  phenomenon  es- 
sentially unlike  its  relation  to  any  other  temporal  phe- 
nomenon in  the  universe.  The  church  had  held  that 
every  exercise  of  the  Divine  efficiency,  in  relation  to 
temporal  phenomena,  was  subjectively  conditioned  by 
Divine  wisdom,  omniscience,  and  goodness ;  Calvin- 
ism, on  the  other  hand,  maintained  that  litis  particular 
exercise  of  Divine  efficiency  was  absolutely  uncondi- 
tioned, and  was  grounded  solely  upon  the  arbitrary 
good  pleasure  of  God.  The  refutation  of  this  error, 
and  the  re-establishment  of  the  opposite  view,  was  the 
mission  of  Arminius."  (Warren,  in  Jleth.  Quarterly 
Revieie,  July,  1857,  350.) 

The  views  of  Arminius  on  the  points  of  predestina- 
tion and  grace  are  presented  in  the  following  articles, 
drawn  up  almost  entirely  in  words  which  may  be  found 
in  his  writings :  (1.)  God,  hy  an  eternal  and  immuta- 
ble decree,  ordained  in  Jesus  Christ,  his  Son,  before  the 
foundation  of  the  world,  to  save  in  Christ,  because  of 
Christ,  and  through  Christ,  from  out  of  the  human 
race,  which  is  fallen  and  subject  to  sin,  those  who  by 
the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit  believe  in  the  same  his 
Son,  and  who,  by  the  same  grace,  persevere  unto  the 
end  in  that  faith  and  the  obedience  of  faith ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  to  leave  in  sin  and  subject  to  wrath  those 
who  are  not  converted  and  are  unbelieving,  and  to  con- 
demn them  as  aliens  from  Christ,  according  to  the 
Gospel,  John  iii,  36.  (2.)  To  which  end  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Saviour  of  the  world,  died  for  all  and  each  one,  so 
that  he  has  gained  for  all,  through  the  death  of  Christ, 
reconciliation  and  remission  of  sins  ;  on  this  condition, 
however,  that  no  one  in  reality  enjoys  that  remission 
of  sins  except  the  faithful  man,  and  this,  too,  accord- 
ing to  the  Gospel,  John  iii,  16,  and  1  John  ii,  2.  (3.) 
But  man  has  not  from  himself,  or  by  the  power  of  his 
free  will,  saving  faith,  inasmuch  as  in  the  state  of  de- 
fection and  sin  he  cannot  think  or  do  of  himself  any 
thing  good,  which  is,  indeed,  really  good,  such  as  sav- 
ing faith  is ;  but  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  be  born 
again  and  renewed  by  God  in  Christ  through  his  Holy 
Spirit,  in  his  mind,  affections,  or  will,  and  all  Ids  fac- 
ulties, so  that  he  may  be  able  to  understand,  think, 
wish,  and  perform  something  good,  according  to  that 
saying  of  Christ  in  John  xv,  5.  (4.)  It  is  this  grace 
of  God  which  begins,  promotes,  and  perfects  every 
thing  good,  and  this  to  such  a  degree  that  even  the 
regenerate  man  without  this  preceding  or  adventitious 
grace,  exciting,  consequent,  and  co-operating,  can 
neither  think,  wish,  or  do  any  thing  good,  nor  even 
resist  any  evil  temptation :  so  that  all  the  good  works 
which  we  can  think  of  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  grace 
of  God  in  Christ.  But  as  to  the  manner  of  the  opera- 
tion of  that  grace,  it  is  not  irresistible,  for  it  is  said  of 
many  that  they  resisted  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  Acts  vii, 
51,  and  many  other  places.  (5.)  Those  who  are  graft- 
ed into  Christ  by  a  true  faith,  and  therefore  partake 
of  his  vivifying  Spirit,  have  abundance  of  means  by 
which  they  may  fight  against  Satan,  sin,  the  world, 
and  their  own  flesh,  and  obtain  the  victory,  always, 
however,  by  the  aid  of  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit; 
Jesus  Christ  assists  them  by  his  Spirit  in  all  tempta- 
tions, and  stretches  out  his  hand ;  and  provided  thejr 
are  ready  for  the  contest,  and  seek  his  aid,  and  are  not 
wanting  to  their  duty,  he  strengthens  them  to  such  a 
degree  that  they  cannot  be.  seduced  or  snatched  from 
the  hands  of  Christ  by  any  fraud  of  Satan  or  violence, 
according  to  that  saying,  John  x,  28,  "  No  one  shall 
pluck  them  out  of  my  hand."  But  whether  these  very 
persons  cannot,  by  their  own  negligence,  desert  the 
commencement  of  their  being  in  Christ,  and  embrace 
again  the  present  world,  fall  back  from  the  holy  doc- 
trine once  committed  to  them,  make  shipwreck  of 
their  conscience,  and  fall  from  grace :  this  must  be 
more  fully  examined  and  weighed  by  the  Holy  Scrip- 
ture before  men  can  teach  it  with  full  tranquillity  of 


mind  and  confidence.  This  last  proposition  was  mod- 
ified by  the  followers  of  Arminius  so  as  to  assert  the 
'  possibility  of  falling  from  grace.  In  his  scheme  of 
theology  Arminius  "accepted  the  church's  developed 
ideas  respecting  God  and  respecting  man,  and  then 
expounded  with  keen  dialectical  rigor  the  only  doc- 
trine which  could  harmonize  the  two.  His  mission 
was  to  point  out  how  God  could  be  what  the  church 
taught  that  he  was,  and  man  what  the  church  de- 
clared him  to  lie,  at  one  and  the  same  time.  The 
readjustment  of  the  disturbed  and  abnormal  relations 
of  man  to  God,  by  justification,  is  the  central  thought 
of  Protestant  theology  ;  the  announcement  and  expo- 
sition of  their  relations  in  that  readjustment  was  the 
work  of  Arminius.  Magnify  either  of  the  related 
terms  to  the  final  suppression  of  the  other,  and  error 
is  the  result.  Magnify  the  Divine  agency  to  the  com- 
I  plete  suppression  of  the  human  in  that  readjustment, 
and  fatalism  is  inevitable.  Magnify  the  human  to 
the  complete  suppression  of  the  Divine,  and  extreme 
Pelagianism  is  the  result.  To  Arminius  is  the  church 
indebted  for  her  first  vivid  apprehension  and  scientific 
statement  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  relation  of 
I  man  to  God." 

I      The  services  of  Arminius  to  theology  are  summed 
!  up  as    follows  by  Watson  {Miscellaneous  Works,  vii, 
'■  476)  :  "  They  preserved  many  of  the  Lutheran  church- 
|  es  from  the  tide  of  supralapsarianism,  and  its  constant 
concomitant,  Antinomianism.     They  moderated  even 
Calvinism  in  many  places,  and  gave  better  counte- 
nance and  courage  to  the  sublapsarian  scheme  ;  which, 
though  logically,  perhaps,  not  much  to  be  preferred  to 
that  of  Calvin,  is  at  least  not  so  revolting,  and  does 
not  impose  the  same  necessity  upon  men  of  cultivating 
that  hardihood  which  glories  in  extremes  and  laughs 
at  moderation.     They  gave  rise,  incidentally,  to  a  still 
milder  modification  of  the   doctrine  of  the  decrees, 
!  known  in  England  by  the  name  of  Baxterianism,  in 
!  which  homage  is,  at  least  in  words,  paid  to  the  justice, 
i  truth,  and  benevolence  of  God.     They  have  also  left 
t  on   record,  in   the   beautiful,  learned,  eloquent,  and, 
|  above  all  these,  the  scriptural  system  of  theology  fur- 
nished by  the  writings  of  Arminius,  how  truly  man 
|  may  be  proved  totally  and  hereditarily  corrupt,  with- 
1  out  converting  him  into  a  machine  or  a  devil;  how 
I  fully  secured,  in  the  scheme  of  the  redemption  of  man 
|  by  Jesus  Christ,  is  the  divine  glory,  without  making 
j  the  Almighty  partial,  wilful,  and  unjust ;  how  much 
the  Spirit's  operation  in  man  is  enhanced  and  glorified 
!  by  the  doctrine  of  the  freedom  of  the  human  will,  in 
connection  with  that  of  its  assistance  by  Divine  grace  ; 
|  with  how  much  lustre  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
j  faith  in  Christ  shines,  when  offered  to  the  assisted 
choice  of  all  mankind,  instead  of  being  confined  to  the 
forced  acceptance  of  a  few ;  how  the  doctrine  of  elec- 
tion, when  it  is  made  conditional  on  faith  foreseen, 
harmonizes  with  the  wisdom,  holiness,  and  goodness 
[  of  God,  among  a  race  of  beings  to  all  of  whom  faith 
was  made  possible ;  and  how  reprobation  harmonizes 
with  justice,  when  it  has  a  reason,  not  in  arbitrary  will, 
the  sovereignty  of  a  pasha,  but  in  the  principles  of  a 
righteous  government." 

The  earliest  authority  for  the  life  of  Arminius  is  Pe- 
j  trus  Bertius,  De  Vita  et  Obitu  J.  Arminii  Oralio.     The 
I  fullest  account  is  given  by  Caspar  Brandt,  Jlistoria 
|  Vita  J.  Arminii  (Amst.  1724,  8vo),  a  posthumous  work, 
edited  by  Gerhard  Brandt,  son  of  Caspar.     It  was  re- 
published, with    a    preface    and   notes,  by  Mosheim 
(Brunswick,  1725,  8vo)  ;  and  a  translation,  by  Guthrie 
(Lond.  1854,  ISmo).    See  also  Bangs,  Life  of  Arminius 
j  (N.  Y.  1843).     The  chief  sources  of  information  as  to 
the  early  period  of  the  controversy  between  the  Ar- 
minians    and   Calvinists    are    as    follows  :    Arminian 
writers,  Uyttenbogaert,  Kerckelijcke  Historie  .  .  .  roor- 
namentlijck  in  deze  geunieerde  prorincien  (Rotterdam, 
1647,  fo'l.)  ;  Gerhard  Brandt,  Historic  der  Reformatie, 
etc.,  which  is  the  most  copious  account  extant  (Anist. 


ARMINIANISM 


416 


ARMINIANISM 


1663,  8vo;  1671,  Ito;  transl.  into  English  by  Cham- 
ber! lyne,  Lond.  1720.  4  vols,  fol.)  ;  Limborch,  Historia 
Vii  •  S  .  /  'scopii  (Amst.  1701,  8vo),  and  Relatio  His- 
torica  de  Origin*  el  Pn  gressu  Controversiarum  in  Fcede- 
rato  i:<  Igio  d<  Prcedestinatione,  etc.,  which  last  work  is 
Bubjoined  to  the  later  editions  of  his  Theologia  Christi- 
ana (transl.  Methodist  Quarterly,  July,  18-14,  p.  425). 
For  other  writers,  see  Cattenburgh,  Bibliotheca  Scrip- 
tor.  Hi  month; i nt.  (Amst.  1728,  4to)  ;  and  citations  un- 
der art.  Remonstrants.  On  the  Calvinistic  side  the 
chief  works  are,  Jac.  Triglandius,  Den  recht-ghematich- 
dtit  Christen  (Amst.  Kilo,  4to) ;  Kerckelijcke  geschie- 
denessen  van  de  vereen.  Nederlanden  (Lugd.  Bat.  1650, 
fol.,  written  to  oppose  Uyttenbogaert's  histor}-) ;  Ja- 
cobus Leydekker,  Eere  run  de  Nationale  St/node  van 
Dordregt  (Amst.  1705-1707,  4 to) ;  Acta  Synmli  Xatio- 
nalis,  etc.  (Dort,  1620,  4to).  See  Dort.  The  writers 
on  the  Synod  of  Dort  are  enumerated  by  Fabricius, 
Biblioth  ca  Grceca,  lib.  vi,  c.  4,  vol.  xi,  p.  723.  Mos- 
hcim  {Keel.  Hist.)  had  well  studied  the  whole  contro- 
versy, and  his  account  is  impartial.  Prof.  Stuart,  of 
Andover,  published  a  favorable  and  able  treatise  on 
"The  Creed  of  Arminius,  with  a  brief  Sketch  of  his 
Life  and  Times,"  in  the  Biblical  Depository  (Andover, 
1831,  vol.  i).  See  also  Lit.  and  Theol.  Review,  vi,  337. 
But  the  views  of  Arminius  are  nowhere  better  set 
forth,  in  small  compass,  than  by  the  Rev.  W.  F.  War- 
ren (Meth.  Quae.  Hi  r.  July,  1857),  and  by  Dr.  Whedon 
(Ui'i'iith,  ca  Sacra,  April,  1864).  ■ — Arminii  Opera  Theo- 
logica(hugi.  Bat.  1G29,  4  to) ;  Works  of  James  Arminius, 
translated  by  Nicholls  and  Bagnall  (best  ed.  3  vols. 
8vo,  N.  Y.  1843). 

II.  From  the  death  of  Arminius  to  the  present  time. — 
1.  The  dispute  ran  high  after  the  death  of  Arminius, 
and  with  increased  bitterness.  The  clergy  and  laity 
of  Holland  were  arrayed  into  two  hostile  armies  — 
Gomarists  and  Arminians;  the  former  being  the  most 
numerous,  but  the  latter  including  the  leading  schol- 
ars and  statesmen.  In  1610  the  Arminians  presented 
a  petition  to  the  States  of  Holland  and  "West  Fries- 
land,  which  was  called  a  "Remonstrance"  (Remo7i- 
stran/ia,  I'JhI'us  supplex  adhibitus  Holland  ire  et  West 
Frisire  ordinibus).  They  were  named  Remonstrants 
(q.  v.)  in  eousequence ;  and,  as  the  Calvinists  pre- 
sented a  "Counter-Remonstrance,"  they  were  called 
Contra- Remonstrants.  The  "Remonstrance"  sets 
forth  the  Arminian  theory  over  against  the  Calvinistic 
in  live  articles,  substantially  as  given  above,  but  in 
briefer  form.  Attempts  were  made  by  the  authorities 
to  reconcile  the  two  contending  parties  by  a  confer- 
ence between  them  at  the  Hague  in  1611,  a  discussion 
at  Uelft  in  1613,  and  also  by  an  edict  in  1614,  enjoining 
peace.  At  last  the  States-General  issued  an  order  for 
the  assembling  of  a  national  synod.  It  met  at  Dort,  in 
Holland,  and  opened  on  November  13th,  1618,  and  its 
sittings  continued  through  that  and  the  following  year. 
This  famous  synod  condemned  entirely  the  "five  ar- 
ticles" in  which  the  Arminians  expressed  their  opin- 
ions. Sec  Dort.  These  articles  bad  been  drawn  up 
in  1610,  presented  in  the  conference  at  the  Hague  in 
1611,  and  finally  laid  before  the  Synod  of  Dort.  To 
fix  the  sense  of  the  passages  in  the  Scriptures  which 
related  to  the  dispute,  a  new  Dutch  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible,  from  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek, 
was  undertaken  at  the  command  of  the  synod.  This 
new  version  was  published  in  1637.  The  Arminians, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, made  another  version  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Greek,  which  was  published  at  Amsterdam 
in  1680.  The  Arminians  were  subjected  to  severe 
penalties.  Their  great  leader,  Barneveldt,  died  on  the 
scaffold  on  a  political  pretence.  They  were  all  de- 
prived of  their  sacred  and  civil  officer,  and  their  min- 
isters were  forbidden  to  preach.  For  an  account  of 
these  persecutions,  see  ('alder,  life  of  Episcojnus,  xv. 
Many  retired  to  Antwerp  and  France;  a  considerable 
body  emigrated  to  Holstein,  upon  the  invitation  of 


Friederich,  duke  of  Holstein,  and  built  the  town  of 
Frederickstadt  in  the  duchy  of  Schleswig.  After  the 
death  of  Maurice  in  1625,  the  Arminians  were  allowed 
to  return,  and  a  decree  of  1630  authorized  them  to  build 
churches  and  schools.  The  exiles  from  France  and 
the  Spanish  Netherlands  came  back  and  established 
congregations  in  various  places,  particularly  at  Rot- 
terdam and  Amsterdam.  At  Amsterdam  they  founded 
a  school,  in  which  Simon  Episcopius  was  the  first  pro- 
fessor of  theology.  See  Episcopius  ;  and  for  a  fuller 
account  of  the  fortunes  of  the  Remonstrant  party,  see 
Remonstrants. 

2.  In*1621,  Episcopius,  at  the  request  of  the  leading 
Remonstrants,  drew  up  a  formula  of  faith  under  the. 
title  Confessio  seu  declaratio  sententue  pastorum  qui  in 
Feed.  Belg.  Remonstrantes  vocantur  (Episc.  Opp.  ii,  69), 
in  25  chapters,  which  was  widely  circulated.  A  cen- 
sura  of  this  confession  was  published  by  Polyander  and 
four  other  Leyden  professors,  to  which  Episcopius  re- 
plied in  his  Apologia  pro  Confessione,  16.30.  The  "Con- 
fessio" disappointed  the  Gomarists,  for  it  was  perfect- 
by  sound  on  the  Trinity,  thus  refuting  the  charge  of 
Socinianism  brought  against  the  Arminians.  It  was 
received  with  great  favor  by  the  Lutherans.  A  num- 
ber of  eminent  names  adorn  the  literary  history  of  Ar- 
minianism  in  Holland  and  France;  among  them  the 
most  prominent,  besides  Episcopius,  are  Curcellsaus, 
Vossius,  Grotius,  Casaubon,  Limborch,  Le  Clerc,  and 
Wetstein  (all  to  be  found  under  the  proper  heads  in 
this  Cyclopaedia).  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  the 
hands  of  some  of  these  eminent  men  Arminianism  was 
corrupted  by  semi-rationalism. 

3.  The  effect  of  the  controversy  appeared  in  France 
in  the  modified  Calvinism  of  Amyraldus  (q.  v.).  Nor 
was  the  dispute  confined  to  the  reformed  churches. 
During  the  whole  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Church 
of  Rome  was  agitated  with  the  controversy  upon 
grace  and  free-will.  The  Benedictines  and  Domini- 
cans had  already  broken  the  ground;  but  the  battle 
raged  in  its  greatest  fury  between  the  Jesuits  and  the 
Jansenists,  the  latter  being  ably  represented  by  the 
religious  of  the  monastery  of  Port  Royal,  near  Paris. 
Here  again  it  happened,  as  in  Holland,  that  the  con- 
troversy extended  itself  from  religion  to  politics.  The 
Jansenists  of  France  became  the  reformers  of  the  age, 
the  men  of  free  thought  and  bold  discussion,  while  the 
Jesuit  party  were  the  advocates  of  the  court  and  the 
old  abuses,  both  in  church  and  state.  At  the  same 
time,  it  is  a  curious  fact  that  in  Holland  the  Armin- 
ians were  the  friends  of  liberty  and  free  discussion, 
in  France  the  Calvinists;  the  two  parties  had  changed 
places.  The  Jesuits,  who  were  Arminians,  were  now 
the  persecutors,  and  the  Jansenists,  or  Calvinists,  the 
patient  and  afflicted  sufferers.     See  Jansenists. 

4.  In  Germany,  the  Lutherans,  of  course,  sympa- 
thized fully  in  the  Arminian  movement..  In  the  Re- 
formed Church  the  decisions  of  Dort  were  admitted  as 
authoritative  for  a  time;  but  "this  outward  show  of 
victory  was  really  a  defeat;  for  the  true  elements  of 
Arminianism  were  not  killed  at  Dort,  but  grew  up,  si- 
lently but  surely,  within  the  bosom  of  the  orthodox 
Reformed  Church.  ...  In  the  period  of  Wolfianism 
the  Reformed  dogmatics  were  finally  purged  from  the 
doctrine  of  absolute  predestination"  (Ebrard,  Christ- 
liche  Dogmatik,  i,  §  3s).  It  is  a  shrewd  remark  of 
Nicholls,  that  had  there  been  a  great  religious  body, 
apart  from  Calvin's  followers,  with  which  all  Protest- 
ants who  did  not  adopt  Luther's  doctrine  of  the  sacra- 
ments might  have  united  themselves,  the  doctrines  of 
Calvin  would  not  have  been  so  widely  diffused  on  the 
Continent  between  1540  and  1600  (Calvinism  and  Ar- 
minianism, I.  iv). 

5.  In  England  the  so-called  Arminian  doctrines 
were  held,  in  substance,  long  before  the  time  of  Ar- 
minius. The  Articles  of  Religion  arc  regarded  by 
some  writers  as  Calvinistic,  by  others  as  Arminian. 
The  truth  seems  to  be  that  they  were  meant  to  be  am- 


ARMINIANISM 


417 


ARMINIANISM 


biguous,  or,  to  use  a  kinder  word,  comprehensive,  so 
as  to  leave  liberty  of  opinion  in  the  church  on  a  ques- 
tion so  obscure  and  difficult.  On  this  point,  see,  on 
the  Arminian  side,  Burnet,  Exposition  of  Thirty-nine 
Articles;  Laurence,  Bampton  Lecture,  1801;  Fletcher, 
Work*)  ii,  21G,  218;  Browne,  On  Thirty-nine  Articles 
(Lond.  1864,  4th  ed.) :  and  on  the  Calvinistic  side, 
Cunningham,  Reformers  and  Theology  of  the  Reforma- 
tion (Edinburgh,  1862,  Essay  iv  ;  also  in  Brit,  and  For. 
Evany.  Rev.  No.  35,  and  reprinted  in  Amer.  Thcol.  Rer. 
Oct.  1861,  art.  v).  It  is  certain  that  Cranmer  had  a 
hand  in  drawing  up  the  Necessary  Erudition  of  a  Chris- 
tian Man  (1543),  just  before  the  compilation  of  the.  Ar- 
ticles, and  that  book  (the  Erudition)  is  by  no  means  Cal- 
vinistic. Latimer,  Hooper,  Bilson,  Andrews,  Overal, 
and  Hooker  "might  with  propriety  have  been  called 
Arminians,  had  Arminianism,  as  a  system  of  doctrine, 
prevailed  when  they  wrote"  (Nicholls,  Calvinism  and 
A  rminianism,  I,  xevi).  Baro  (q.  v.),  professor  of  divin- 
ity at  Cambridge,  taught  Arminianism,  and  his  case 
gave  rise  to  the  Lambeth  Articles  (q.  v.).  But  Armin- 
ianism unfortunately  became  a  political  question.  Two 
Arminian  bishops,  Laud  and  Juxon,  became  members 
of  his  majesty's  privy  council  at  the  precise  juncture 
when  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  and  the  prerogative  of 
the  crown  were  brought  into  direct  competition.  John 
Playfere,  Margaret  professor  at  Cambridge  (f  1608), 
published  a  strong  defence  of  the  Arminian  doctrine, 
under  the  title  of  An  Appeal  to  the  Gospel  for  the  true 
Doctrine  of  Predestination  (republished  in  Cambridge 
Tracts,  1717).  Dr.  Samuel  Hoard,  rector  of  Moreton 
(f  1657),  originally  a  Calvinist,  became  a  strong  Ar- 
minian, and  published  God's  Love  to  Mankind  manifest- 
ed, by  disproving  his  absolute  Decree  for  their  Damnation 
(Lond.  1633,  4to),  which  called  forth  answers  by  Dave- 
nant,  Twisse,  and  Amyraut.  In  the  civil  war  the 
Arminians  gradually  ranged  themselves  with  King 
Charles,  the  Calvinists  with  Parliament.  But  John 
Goodwin  (q.  v.),  who  was  ejected  in  1645,  was  one  of 
the  ablest  defenders  of  Arminianism  in  his  time.  See 
Jackson,  Life  of  Goodwin  (1822,  8vo).  When  the  war 
was  over  the  Church  of  England  was  destroyed,  and 
Arminianism  seemed  to  have  perished  with  it.  The 
restoration  of  Charles  II  took  place  (1660) ;  Armin- 
ianism returned  with  prelacy,  and  held  for  more  than 
half  a  century  almost  undisputed  sway  in  the  Church 
of  England.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  as 
the  Arminianism  of  Laud  differed  from  that  of  the 
Dutch  leader  in  many  points,  so  did  that  of  the  divines 
of  Charles  II  and  their  successors  in  many  more.  Laud 
combined  it  with  views  of  sacramental  efficacy  which 
Arminius  would  have  denounced  as  superstitious;  the 
later  school  of  divines,  though  far  from  Socinianism, 
threw  the  doctrines  of  grace  into  the  shade,  and  dwelt 
more  on  the  example  of  Christ  than  his  atonement. 
Among  the  eminent  Episcopal  Arminian  divines  of 
England  are  Cudworth,  Pierce,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Til- 
lotson,  Chillingworth,  Stillingfleet,  AVomack,  Burnet, 
Pearson,  Sanderson,  Heylyn,  Whitby,  Patrick,  Tom- 
line,  Coplestone,  Whatelv,  etc.  Arminianism  at  last, 
in  the  Church  of  England,  became  a  negative  term, 
implying  a  negation  of  Calvinism  rather  than  an}*  ex- 
act system  of  theology  whatever.  Much  that  passed 
for  Arminianism  was,  in  fact,  Pelagianism.  In  the 
Church  of  England,  most  of  those  theologians  who 
have  deviated  from  the  golden  mean  maintained  by 
Arminianism  (between  Calvinism  on  the  one  hand  and 
Pelagianism  on  the  other)  have  fallen  into  error  as  to 
the  Trinity,  while  those  who  have  adhered  to  the  evan- 
gelical doctrine  of  Arminius  have  retained  all  the  veri- 
ties of  the  orthodox  faith.  The  pure  doctrine  of  Ar- 
minianism arose  again  in  England  in  the  great  Wcsley- 
an  Reformation  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Its  ablest 
expositions  may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  John  Wes- 
ley, John  Fletcher,  and  Richard  Watson,  whose  Theo- 
logical Institutes  (best  edit.  N.  Y.  1850,  2  vols.  8vo)  is 
the  most  complete  Arminian  body  of  divinity  extant 
Dd 


I  in  English.  Its  system  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  or- 
thodox Protestant  churches  in  general,  except  so  far 
as  the  question  of  predestination  and  the  points  con- 
nected with  it  are  concerned.  "As  some  heterodox 
\  writers  have  called  themselves  Arminians,  and  as  the 
true  theory  of  Arminianism  has  been  often  grossly 
maligned,  it  may  be  proper  here  to  allude  to  certain 
points  with  regard  to  which  it  has  been  especially  mis- 
represented. If  a  man  hold  that  good  works  are  nec- 
essary to  justification ;  if  he  maintain  that  faith  in- 
cludes good  works  in  its  own  nature;  if  he  reject  the 
doctrines  of  original  sin  ;  if  he  deny  that  divine  grace 
is  requisite  for  the  whole  work  of  sanctification  ;  if  he 
speak  of  human  virtue  as  meritorious  in  the  sight  of 
|  God,  it  is  very  generally  charged  by  Calvinists  that 
:  he  is  an  Arminian.  But  the  truth  is,  that  a  man  of 
[  such  sentiments  is  properly  a  disciple  of  the  Pelagian 
and  Socinian  schools.  To  such  sentiments  pure  Ar- 
minianism is  as  diametrically  opposite  as  Calvinism 
itself.  The  genuine.  Arminians  assert  the  corruption 
of  human  nature  in  its  full  extent.  They  dechu-e  that 
|  we  are  justified  by  faith  only.  They  assert  that  our 
justification  originates  solely  in  the  grace  of  God. 
They  teach  that  the  procuring  and  meritorious  cause 
of  our  justification  is  the  righteousness  of  Christ. 
Propter  quum,  says  Arminius,  Deus  credentibus  pecca- 
:  turn  condoned,  eosque,  pro  juslis  riputat  non  aliter  atque 
;  si  legem  perfcte  implevissent .  [For  the  sake  of  which 
God  pardons  believers,  and  accounts  them  as  righteous 
precisely  as  if  they  had  perfectly  obeyed  the  law.] 
!  They  admit  in  this  way  that  justification  implies  not 
i  merely  forgiveness  of  sin,  but  acceptance  to  everlast- 
i  ing  happiness.  Junctam  habet  adoptionem  injilios,  et 
collationem  juris  in  hereditalem  vital  eternal.  [It  has 
;  connected  with  it  adoption  to  sonship,  and  the  grant 
i  of  a  right  to  the  inheritance  of  eternal  life.]  The}' 
[  teach,  in  fine,  that  the  work  of  sanctification,  from  its 
j  very  commencement  to  its  perfection  in  glory,  is  car- 
i  ried  on  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  is 
!  the  gift  of  God  by  Jesus  Christ"  (Edinh.  Encyclopcedia, 

;  s.  v.). 

"  The  whole  sum  and  substance  of  religious  doctrine 
and  theory  is  embraced  in  these  three  terms :  God's 
nature,  man's  nature,  and  the  relation  subsisting  be- 
tween the  two.  Theology  is  nothing  more  than  the 
|  systematic  definition,  adjustment,  and  exposition  of 
j  these  three  terms.  Christian  theology,  or  genuine 
orthodox}',  is  simply  a  system  of  theological  views 
upon  these  three  points,  which  is  self-coherent,  and 
harmonious  with  the  teachings  of  Scripture.  For  the 
I  development  of  such  a  system,  exhibiting  the  precise 
,  truth  relative  to  these  cardinal  points,  without  redun- 
I  dancy  or  defect,  it  is  necessary  that  each  of  these  three 
i  points  be  made  a  special  object  of  scrutiny  and  discus- 
sion. An  error  in  respect  to  either  will  not  only  de- 
stroy at  once  the  system's  self-coherence,  but  infalli- 
bly conduct  to  the  gravest  heresies.  For  example,  an 
i  error  respecting  the  first  (Theology)  may  give  us  Pan- 
theism ;  an  error  on  the  second  point  (Anthropology) 
may  lead  to  Atheism  :  while  an  erroneous  theory  re- 
specting the  third  gives  us  the  two  extremes  of  an 
iron  fate  or  a  groundless  chance.  True  orthodoxy 
states  and  maintains  a  consistent  doctrine  respecting 
each,  authenticated  by  the  assertions  of  God's  revela- 
tions. Casting  now  a  philosophic  eye  upon  the  doc- 
trine of  the  church  as  developed  in  history,  we  cannot 
fail  to  be  struck  by  the  remarkable  fact  that  the  three 
great  controversies  which  trisect  the  historic  develop- 
ments of  Christian  doctrine  as  a  scientific  system  have 
followed  without  deviation  the  natural  order  of  these 
three  terms.  That  development  has  hinged  success- 
ively upon  each  in  order.  Athanasius,  Augustine, 
and  Arminius  represent  in  themselves  the  whole 
sweep  of  the  dogmatic  unfoldment  of  Christianity; 
these  factors  being  given,  we  can  construct  the  whole 
history  of  Christian  doctrine.  The  first  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  that  speculative  movement  which  devel- 


ARMINIANISM 


418 


ARMLET 


oped  into  scientific  form  and  defensible  shape  the  ec- ' 
clesiastical  doctrine  respecting  God's  nature  ;  the  sec- 
ond, of  the  subsequent  movement  by  which  the  true  ; 
doctrine  of  man's  being  was  evolved  ;  the  third,  of  the 
still  later  and  scarcely  yet  completed  one  by  -which 
the  relations  of  the  two  are  instigated  and  defined. 

"The  ancient  church  believed  vaguely  in  the  true 
divinity  of  Christ  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  but  Atha- 
nasius  was  raised  up  to  explain  with  clearness,  to 
maintain,  and  to  bring  forth  into  suitable  prominence  J 
the  great  doctrine  of  a  substantial  tri-unity  of  the  Di- 
vine essence,  under  all  temporal  manifestations  of  sep-  ' 
arate  hypostases,  on  which  suppositions  only  the  an- 
cient beliefs  of  the  church  and  the  unqualified  declara- 
tions of  Scripture  could  be  true.  His  mission  was  the 
enunciation,  exposition,  and  defence  of  a  great  truth 
respecting  the  Divine  nature,  and  round  that  truth 
was  grouped  all  the  Christian  thinking  of  that  age. 
There  was  no  great  doctrinal  system  of  the  time,  heret-  ; 
ieal  or  not,  which  was  not  logically  related  to  this  cen- 
tre thought  of  the  church.  It  implied  in  itself  all  an- 
terior and  all  subsequent  speculations  upon  the  Divine 
nature,  Origenistic,  Arian,  Sabellian,  Monophysitic, 
Nestorian,  or  orthodox. 

"Augustine  was  commissioned  for  another  work. 
The  church,  in  the  centuries  antecedent  to  his  appear- 
ance, had  vaguely  believed  in  the  depravity  and  help- 
lessness of  human  nature  ;  but  Augustine  was  raised 
up  to  explain  with  clearness,  and  to  maintain,  and  to 
bring  forth  in  suitable  prominence,  the  great  doctrine 
of  the  native  corruption  and  moral  ruin  of  man  ;  his 
utter  hopelessness  apart  from  the  remedial  agencies 
of  Divine  grace,  on  which  supposition  only  the  ancient 
beliefs  of  the  church  and  the  unqualified  declarations 
of  Scripture  could  lie  true.  His  mission  was  the 
enunciation,  exposition,  and  defense  of  a  great  truth 
respecting  human  nature,  and  round  that  truth  was 
grouped  all  Christian  thinking  of  that  age.  It  is  this 
which  gives  that  age  its  character.  The  whole  scho- 
lastic theology  is  but  the  radicated  and  ramified  out- 
growth of  that  vital  germ  of  truth.  To  him  is  the 
church  indebted  for  her  first  vivid  apprehension  and 
scientific  statement  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  man. 
Augustine  is  the  historical  representative  of  that  or- 
ganic evolution.  The  third  of  these  divinely  appoint- 
ed representative  men  laid  hold  of  both  these  truths, 
which  for  sixteen  centuries  had  been  developing;  ac- 
cepted the  church's  developed  ideas  respecting  God 
and  respecting  man,  and  then  expounded  with  keen 
dialectical  rigor  the  only  doctrine  which  could  har- 
monize the  two.  His  mission  was  to  point  out  how 
God  could  be  what  the  church  taught  that  he  was, 
and  man  what  the  church  declared  him  to  be,  at  one 
and  the  same  time.  The  readjustment  of  the  disturbed 
and  abnormal  relations  of  man  to  God  by  justification 
is  the  central  thought  of  Protestant  theology ;  the  an- 
nouncement and  exposition  of  their  relations  in  that 
readjustment  was  the  work  of  Arminius.  And  not  un- 
til Ariniiiius  is  placed  iii  this  relation  to  the  doctrinal 
development  of  Christianity  in  the  church  is  there  at- 
tained a  true  perception  of  the  grand  and  growing 
rhythm  of  its  history."  The  Prodcstinarians  (as  re- 
marked above)  erred  by  maintaining  that  the  particu- 
lar exercise  of  Divine  efficiency,  by  which  the  abnor- 
mal relation  of  God  to  a  sinner  is  readjusted,  was  un- 
conditioned by  anything  whatsoever,  and  was  ground- 
ed solely  apon  the  arbitrary  good  pleasure  of  the  Al- 
mighty .  Maintaining  this  unconditioned  elective  vo- 
lition, they  naturally  demanded  an  "effectual  call- 
ing," "  irresistible  grace,"  and  ••  persevering  success," 
for  all  these  were  accessary  concomitants.  The  refu- 
tation ol  this  error,  and  the  establishment  of  the  oppo- 
site view,  was  the  mission  of  Ann'mitis.  His  labors 
gave  scientific  form  to  the  ecclesiastical  opinion  upon 
the  third  great  point,  and  complete. 1  the  cycle  of 
Christian  theology.  As  in  the  development  of  apos- 
tolic doctrine,  the  Pauline  and  Petrine  elements  were 


unified  in  John,  so,  in  its  uninspired  development, 
after  Athanasius  had  set  forth  his  truth,  and  Augus- 
tine his,  Arminius  steps  forth  the  later  apostle  of  dog- 
matic completion  (Dr.  Warren,  in  Methodist  Quarterly 
Revieic,  1857,  p.  346  sq.). 

The  Arminian  doctrine  on  predestination  is  now 
very  widely  diffused  in  the  Protestant  world.  It  is, 
in  the  main,  coincident  with  that  of  the  Lutherans  in 
Germany ;  is  held  by  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  church- 
es throughout  the  world  ;  by  a  large  part  of  the  Church 
of  England,  and  by  many  of  the  clergy  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States.  It  is  sub- 
stantially the  doctrine  (on  the  question  of  predestina- 
tion) of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches ;  and  it  is  also 
held  by  several  of  the  minor  sects.  For  the  sources  of 
information,  see  the  writers  above  referred  to,  and  also 
Episeopius,  Tnstkut.  Thiol.  (1G50)  ;  Limborch,  Theologia 
Christiana  (1G86)  ;  •  Calder,  Life  of  Episeopius  (N.  Y. 
12mo);  Wesley,  Works  (N.  Y*.  7  vols.  8vo);  Watson, 
Theol.  Institut.  (2  vols.  8vo)  ;  ~Skho\\s, Calrinism  andAr- 
minianism  compared  (Lond.  1824,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Fletch- 
er, Complete  Works  (N.Y.  1850,  4  vols.  8vo);  Neander, 
Hist,  if  Christ.  Dogmas,  ii,  678  sq. ;  Art.  Arminius,  by 
W.  F.  Warren,  Meth.  Q.  Rev.  July,  1857  ;  Schweitzer, 
Die  Protest.  C<  ntral 'dor/men,  ii,  31  sq. ;  Gass,  Geschichie  d. 
Prot.  Dogmatik,  i,  379  sq. ;  Ebrard,  Christ! it  he  Dogma- 
tik, §  24-43  (transl.  in  Mercersburg  Revieic,  ix  and  x)  ; 
Francke,  Hist.  Dcgm.  Armin.  (Kiel,  1814,  8vo) ;  Cun- 
ningham, Historical  Theology,  ch.  xxv  (Calvinistic ; 
Edinb.  1864,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Schneckenburger,  Verg. 
DarstiUung  d.  hither,  und  reform.  Lehrbegrijfs  (Stuttg. 
1855, 8vo) ;  Schenkel,  Wesen  des  Protestant 'i sinus  (Schaff- 
hansen,  2d  ed.  1862,'  8vo) ;  Whedon,  Freedom  of  the 
Will  (K.Y.  1864, 12mo);  Warren,  Systematische  Thecl- 
ogie,  Einleitung  (Bremen,  1865,  8vo);  Shedd,  History 
of  Doctrines,  bk.  iv,  ch.  viii ;  Ik.  v,  ch.  vi ;  Smith's 
llagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines,  §  225,  235;  Gieseler, 
Ch.  History,  iv,  §  43  (N.  Y.  ed.).  A  list  of  the  earlier 
Arminian  writings  is  given  in  Van  Cattenburgh,  Bib- 
Loth.  Script.  Remonstr.  (Amstel.  1728,  8vo).  See  Cal- 
vinism ;  Baxter  ;  Dokt  ;  Methodism  ;  Grace  ; 
Predestination. 

Arminius.  See  Arminianism. 
Armlet  (represented  by  STlSXSt,  etsadah',  Num. 
xxxi,  50;  2  Sam.  i,  10;  Sept.  kXiSoiv;  Aquila  fipa- 
XidXiov;  Vulg.  periscelis  armilla ;  properly  a  fetter, 
from  1"^,  to  step;  comp.  Isa.  iii,  20,  and  Anklet), 
an  ornament  universal  in  the  East,  especially  among 
women  ;  worn  by  princes  as  one  of  the  insignia  of  roy- 
alty, and  1  y  distinguished  persons  in  general.  The 
word  is  not  used  in  the  A.  V.,  as  even  in  2  Sam.  i,  10, 
they  render  the  Heb.  term  "by  the  bracelet  on  his 
arm."  Sometimes  only  one  was  worn,  on  the  right 
arm  (Ecclus.  xxi,  21).  From  Cant,  viii,  6,  it  appears 
that  the  signet  sometimes  consisted  of  a  jewel  on  the 


Ancient  Assyrian  Armlets. 
The.  one  exhibited  on  a  larce  scale  is  from  the  Ninevite  sculp- 
ture- in  tln>  British  Museum;  the  others  are  from  delinea- 
tions of  the  .Monuments  by  Botta. 


ARMLET 


419 


ARMOR 


armlet.  These  ornaments  are  frequent  on  the  sculp- 
tures of  Persepolis  and  Nineveh,  and  were  set  in  rich 
and  fantastic  shapes  resembling  the  heads  of  animals 
(Layard,  Nineveh,  ii,  250).  The  kings  of  Persia  wore 
them,  and  Astyages  presented  a  pair,  among  other 
ornaments,  to  Cyrus  (Xen.  Cyr.  i,  3).  The  ^Ethiopians, 
to  whom  some  were  sent  by  Cambyses,  scornfully  char- 
acterized them  as  weak  fetters  (Herod,  ii,  23).  Nor 
were  they  confined  to  the  kings,  since  Herodotus  (viii, 
113)  calls  the  Persians  generally  "wearers  of  brace- 
lets" (ipt\io<p6pot).  In  the  Egyptian  monuments 
kings  are  often  represented  with  armlets  and  brace- 
lets (Wilkinson's  Ant:  Egypt,  iii,  375,  and  Plates  1,  2, 


Ancient  Egyptian  Armlets. 
The  large  circlet  is  of  gold,  now  in  the  Leyden  Museum;  the 
rest,  here  shown  on  a  smaller  scale,  are  from  the  Monuments. 

14).  They  were  even  used  by  the  old  British  chiefs 
(Turner,  Angl.  Sax.  i,  383).  The  story  of  Tarpeia 
shows  that  the}'  were  common  among  the  ancient  Sa- 
bines,  but  the  Romans  considered  the  use  of  them 
effeminate,  although  they  were  Sometimes  given  as 
military  rewards  (Liv.  x,  44).  Finally,  they  are  still 
worn  among  the  most  splendid  regalia  of  modern 
Oriental  sovereigns,  and  it  is  even  said  that  those  of 
the  King  of  Persia  are  worth  a  million  sterling  (Kitto, 
Pict.  Hist,  of  Pal.  i,  499).  They  form  the  chief  wealth 
of  modern  Hindu  ladies,  and  are  rarely  taken  off. 
They  are  made  of  every  sort  of  material,  from  the  finest 


Modern  Oriental  Armlets. 
The  first  column  is  of  Persian  specimens,  the  second  of  Indian. 

gold,  jewels,  ivory,  coral,  and  pearl,  down  to  the  com- 
mon glass  rings  and  varnished  earthenware  bangles  of 
the  women  of  the  Deccan.  Now,  as  in  ancient  times, 
they  are  sometimes  plain,  sometimes  enchased;  some- 
times with  the  ends  not  joined,  and  sometimes  a  com- 
plete circle.  The  arms  are  sometimes  quite  covered 
with  them,  and  if  the  wearer  be  poor,  it  matters  not 
how  mean  they  are,  provided  only  that  the}'  glitter. 
It  is  thought  essential  to  beauty  that  they  should  fit 
close,  and  hence  Harmer  calls  them  "rather  manacles 
than  bracelets,"  and  Buchanan  says  that  "the  poor 
girls  rarely  get  them  on  without  drawing  blood,  and 


rubbing  part  of  the  skin  from  the  hand ;  and  as  they 
wear  great  numbers,  which  often  break,  they  suffer 
much  from  their  love  of  admiration."  Their  enormous 
weight  may  be  conjectured  from  Gen.  xxiv,  24. — 
Smith,  s.  v.     See  Bracelet. 

Armon.     See  Chestnut. 

Armo'ni  (Heb.  Armoni',  "OB'nK,  prob.  inhabit- 
ant of  a  fortress,  q.  d.  Palatums;  Sept.  'Ap/.twvi,'Ep- 
fiwvot),  the  first  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Saul  and 
Rizpah,  who  was  given  up  by  David  to  be  hanged 
with  his  brethren  by  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  xxi,  8, 
9).     B.C.  cir.  1019. 

Armor  (represented  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  by  several 
Heb.  words,  Gr.  07rAa),  properly  distinguished  from 
Arsis  as  being  military  equipment  for  the  protection 
of  the  person,  while  the  latter  denotes  implements  of 
aggressive  warfare ;  but  in  the  English  Bible  the  for- 
mer term  alone  is  employed  in  both  senses.  In  the 
records  of  a  people  like  the  children  of  Israel,  so  large 
a  part  of  whose  history  was  passed  in  warfare,  we  nat- 
urally look  for  much  information,  direct  or  indirect,  on 
the  arms  and  modes  of  fighting  of  the  nation  itself  and 
of  those  with  whom  it  came  into  contact.  Unfortu- 
nately, however,  the  notices  that  we  find  in  the  Bible 
on  these  points  are  extremely  few  and  meagre,  while 
even  those  few,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  which  re*t: 
on  the  true  meaning  and  force  of  the  terms,  do  not  con- 
vey to  us  nearly  all  the  information  which  they  might. 
This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  because  the  notices  of 
the  history,  scanty  as  they  are,  are  literally  every  thing 
we  have  to  depend  on,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not  yet 
supplemented  and  illustrated  either  by  remains  of  the 
arms  themselves,  or  by  those  commentaries  which  the 
sculptures,  vases,  bronzes,  mosaics,  and  paintings  of 
other  nations  furnish  to  the  notices  of  manners  and  cus- 
toms contained  in  their  literature.  (See,  general!}', 
Jahn's  Archceology,  §  266-285.)  In  order  to  give  a 
clear  view  of  this  subject,  we  shall  endeavor  to  show, 
succinctly  and  from  the  best  authorities  now  available, 
what  were  the  martial  instruments  borne  upon  the  per- 
son, whether  for  attack  or  resistance,  by  the  ancient 
Asiatics,  leaving  for  other  proper  heads  an  explanation 
of  the  composition  and  tactical  condition  of  their  armies, 
their  systems  of  fortification,  their  method  of  conduct- 
ing sieges  and  battles,  and  their  usages  of  war  as  re- 
gards spoil,  captives,  etc  — Smith,  s.  v. ;  Kitto,  s.  v. 
See  Battle;  Fortification;  Siege;  War;  Army; 
Fight  ;  Fortress,  etc. 

I.  Offensive  Weapons.  — 1.  The  instruments  at 
first  employed  in  the  chase  or  to  repel  wild  beasts,  but 
converted  by  the  wicked  to  the  destruction  of  their  fel- 
low-men, or  used  by  the  peaceable  to  oppose  aggression, 
were  naturally  the  most  simple.  Among  these  were 
the  club  and  the  throwing-bat.  The  first  consisted 
originally  of  a  heavy  piece  of  wood,  variously  shaped, 
made  to  strike  with,  and,  according  to  its  form,  de- 
nominated a  mace,  a  bar,  a  hammer,  or  a  maul.  This 
weapon  was  in  use  among  the  Hebrews,  for  in  the  time 
of  the  kings  wood  had  already  been  superseded  by  met- 
al;  and  the  PT"i3  "5rS  8he'bet  barzel',  "rod  of  iron"1 
(Psa.  ii,  9),  is  supposed  to  mean  a  mace,  or  gavclock, 
or  crowbar.  It  is  an  instrument  of  great  power  when 
used  by  a  strong  arm  ;  as  when,  in  modern  menageries, 
a  man  with  one  in  his  hand  compels  a  tiger's  ferocity 
to  submit  to  his  will.  (See  Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians, i,  327,  fig.  3,  4;  and  mace,  fig.  1,  2.  The  throw- 
stick,  or  lissan,  occurs  p.  329.)  See  Rod  ;  Sceptre. 
The  other  was  also  known  if,  as  is  probable,  "|*"£". 
mephits'  (Prov.  xxv,  18),  be  a  "maul,"  a  martel,  or  a 
war-hammer.  It  is  likely  metal  was  only  in  general 
use  at  a  later  period,  and  that  a  heavy  crooked  billet 
continued  long  to  serve  both  as  a  missile  and  a  sword. 
The  throwstick,  made  of  thorn-wood,  is  the  same  instru- 
ment which  we  see  figured  on  Egyptian  and  Assyrian 
monuments.     By  the  native  Arabs  it  is  still  called  lis- 


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ARMOR 


Primitive  Striking  Weapons  of  Oriental  Nations. 
1;  2,  3,  Clubs;   4,  5,  Crooked  Billets,  or  Throwing-bats ;   6, 
Mare;   7,  Battle-axe;   8,  llsird-wooil  Sword;  0,  Sharks-teeth 
Sword;   10,  Flint  Sword;  11,  Sawfish  Sword ;  12,  13,  Egyp- 
tian Battle-axe. 

san,  and  was  anciently  known  among  us  by  the  name 
of  crooked  billet.  The  Australians  are  exceedingly 
skillful  in  the  use  of  this  implement,  called  by  them 
the  bommerano.  These  instruments,  supplied  with  a 
sharp  edge,  would  naturally  constitute  a  battle-axe  and 
a  kind  of  sword;  and  such  in  the  rudest  ages  we  find 
them,  made  with  flints  set  into  a  groove,  or  with 
sharks'  teeth  firmly  secured  to  the  staff  with  twisted 
Binews.  On  the  earliest  monuments  of  Egypt,  for 
these  ruder  instruments  is  already  seen  substituted  a 
j  i  ice  of  metal,  with  a  steel  or  bronze  blade  fastened  into 
a  globe,  thus  forming  a  falchion-axe ;  and  also  a  lunate- 
blade,  riveted  in  three  places  to  the  handle,  forming  a 
tiii"  battle-axe  (Wilkinson,  i,  325,  32G) ;  and  there 
were,  besides,  true  bills  or  axes,  in  form  like  our  own. 
See  Maul;  Axe. 


2.  Next  came  the  dirk  or  poniard,  which,  in  the  He- 
brew word  3"in,  chereb'  (usually  translated  "sword"), 
may  possibly  retain  some  allusion  to  the  original  in- 
strument made  of  the  antelope's  horn,  merely  sharpen- 
ed, which  is  still  used  in  every  part  of  the  East  where 
the  material  can  be  procured.  From  existing  figures, 
the  dirk  appears  to  have  been  early  made  of  metal  in 
Egypt,  and  worn  stuck  in  a  girdle  (Wilkinson,  i,  319) ; 
but,  from  several  texts  (1  Sam.  xvii,  39 ;  2  Sam.  xx, 
8 ;  1  Kings  xx,  11),  it  is  evident  that  the  real  sword 
was  slung  in  a  belt,  and  that  "girding"  and  "loosing 
the  sword"  were  synonymous  terms  for  commencing 
and  ending  a  war.  The  blades  were,  it  seems,  always 
short  (one  is  mentioned  of  a  cubit's  length)  ;  and  the 
dirk-sword,  at  least,  was  always  double-edged.  The 
sheath  was  ornamented  and  polished.  In  Egypt  there 
were  larger  and  heavier  swords,  more  nearly  like  mod- 
ern tulwars,  and  of  the  form  of  an  English  round-point- 
ed table-knife.  But,  while  metal  was  scarce,  there 
were  also  swords  which  might  be  called  quarter-pikes, 
being  composed  of  a  very  short  wooden  handle,  sur- 
mounted by  a  spear-head.  Hence  the  Latin  telum  and 
ferrum  continued  in  later  ages  to  be  used  for  rjladius. 
In  Nubia  swords  of  heavy  wood  are  still  in  use.  See 
Sword;  Knife. 


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Oriental  Catting  or  Piercing  Weapons. 
1,  2,  Swords;  3,  4,  Tu'.war  Swords;  5,  Qnarter-pike;  C, 
Dagger. 


Oriental  Projectile  Weapons. 
1,  2,  Spear-heads;  3,  4,  Darts;  5,  Oryx-horn  Spear-head. 

3.  The  "spear,"  n*3~i,  ro'mach,  was  another  offen- 
sive weapon  common  to  all  the  nations  of  antiquity, 
and  varied  much  in  size,  weight,  and  length.  Prob- 
ably the  shepherd  Hebrews,  like  nations  similarly  situ- 
ated in  northern  Africa,  anciently  made  use  of  the 
horn  of  an  oryx,  or  a  leucoryx,  above  three  feet  long, 
straightened  in  water,  and  sheathed  upon  a  thornwood 
staff.  "When  sharpened,  this  instrument  would  pene- 
trate the  hide  of  a  bull,  and,  according  to  Strabo,  even 
of  an  elephant :  it  was  light,  very  difficult  to  break, 
resisted  the  blow  of  a  battle-axe,  and  the  animals 
which  furnished  ft  were  abundant  in  Arabia  and  in  the 
desert  east  of  Palestine.  At  a  later  period  the  head 
was  of  brass,  and  afterward  of  iron.  Very  ponderous 
weapons  of  this  kind  were  often  used  in  Egypt  by  the 
heavy  infantry;  and,  from  various  circumstances,  it 
may  be  inferred  that  among  the  Hebrews  and  their  im- 
mediate neighbors,  commanders  in  particular  were  dis- 
tinguished by  heavy  spears.  Among  these  were  gen- 
erally ranked  the  most  valiant  in  fight  and  the  largest 
in  stature;  such  as  Goliath,  "whose  spear  was  like  a 
weaver's  beam"  (1  Sam.  xvii,  7),  and  whose  spear's 
head  weighed  six  hundred  shekels  of  iron,  which  by 
some  is  asserted  to  be  equal  to  twenty-five  pounds' 
weight.  The  spear  had  a  point  of  metal  at  the  butt- 
end  to  fix  it  in  the  ground,  perhaps  with  the  same 
massy  globe  above  it  which  is  still  in  use,  intended  to 
counterbalance  the  point.  It  was  with  this  ferrel  that 
Aimer  slew  Asahel  (2  Sam.  ii,  22,  23).  The  form  oi 
thi>  head  and  length  of  the  shaft  differed  at  different 
times  both  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  were  influenced 
by  the  fashions  set  by  various  conquering  nations. 
See  Spear. 

The  javelin,  named  FPSH,  chanith'  (usually  render- 


ARMOR 


421 


ARMOR 


f^TiSSK 

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in 

Ancient  Assyrian 


ed  "spear"),  and  "jiT1?,  hldon  (variously  rendered 
"spear,"  "shield,"  etc.),  maj>-  have  had  distinct  forms : 
from  the  context,  where  the  former  first  occurs,  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  species  of  dart  carried  by  light 
troops  (1  Sam.  xiii,  22;  Psa.  iv);  while  the  latter, 
which  was  heavier,  was  most  likely  a  kind  of  pilum. 
In  most  nations  of  antiquity,  the  infantry,  not  bearing 
a  spear,  carried  two  darts,  those  lightly  armed  using 
both  for  long  casts,  and  the  heavy-armed  only  one  for 
that  purpose ;  the  second,  more  ponderous  than  the 
other,  being  reserved  for  throwing  when  close  to  the 
enemy,  or  for  handling  in  the  manner  of  a  spear.  This 
explanation  may  throw  light  on  the  fact  of  the  chanith 
being  named  in  connection  with  the  ftSS,  tsimiah',  or 
larger  buckler  (1  Chron.  xii,  34),  and  may  reconcile 
what  is  said  of  the  chidon  (Job  xxxix,  23  ;  xli,  29,  and 
Josh,  viii,  10).  While  on  the  subject  of  the  javelin,  it 
may  be  remarked  that,  by  the  act  of  casting  one  at 
David  (1  Sam.  xix,  9, 10),  Saul  virtually  absolved  him 
from  his  allegiance ;  for  by  the  customs  of  ancient  Asia, 
preserved  in  the  usages  of  the  Teutonic  and  other  na- 
tions, the  Saehsen  recht,  the  custom  of  the  East  Franks, 
etc.,  to  throw  a  dart  at  a  freedman,  who  escaped  from 
it  by  flight,  was  the  demonstrative  token  of  manumis- 
sion given  by  his  lord  or  master ;  he  was  thereby  sent 
out  of  hand,  manumissus,  well  expressed  in  the  old 
English  phrase  "scot-free."  But  for  this  act  of  Saul, 
David  might  have  been  viewed  as  a  rebel.  See  Dart  ; 
Javelin:  Lance. 


ed  with  horn,  or  of  horn  entirely,  and  even  of  ivory  •, 
some  being  shaped  like  the  common  English  bow,  and 
others,  particularly  those  used  by  riding  nations,  like 
the  buffalo  horn.  There  were  various  modes  of  bend- 
ing this  instrument,  by  pressure  of  the  knee,  or  by  the 
fco1,  treading  the  bow,  or  by  setting  one  end  against 
the  foot,  drawing  the  middle  with  the  hand  of  the  same 
tide  toward  the  hip,  and  pushing  the  upper  point  for- 
ward with  the  same  hand,  till  the  thumb  passed  the 


H 


<y«I^ 


Oriental  Implements  of  Archery.     1,  2,  3,  4,  Bows;  5,  Quiver; 
6,  Bow-case;  7,  S,  Arrows. 

4.  But  the  chief  offensive  weapon  in  Egypt,  and, 
from  the  nature  of  the  country,  it  may  be  inferred,  in 
Palestine  also,  was  the  war-bow,  niyj?,  he'sheth 
("bow"),  the  arrow  being  denominated  j-'Pl,  chets. 
From  the  simple  implements  used  by  the  first  hunters, 
consisting  merely  of  an  elastic  reed,  a  branch  of  a  tree, 
or  rib  of  palm,  the  bow  became  in  the  course  of  time 
verv  strong  and  tall,  was  made  of  brass,  of  wood  back- 


loop  of  the  string  beyond  the  nock.  The  horned  bows 
of  the  cavalry,  shaped  like  those  of  the  Chinese,  occur 
on  monuments  of  antiquity.  They  cannot  be  bent 
from  their  form  of  a  Roman  C  to  that  of  what  is  termed 
a  Cupid's  bow  ^/ — v — ^-^  but  by  placing  one  end  under 
the  thigh ;  and  as  they  are  short,  this  operation  is  per- 
formed by  Tatar  riders  while  in  the  saddle.  This 
was  the  Parthian  bow,  as  is  proved  by  several  Persian 
bass-reliefs,  and  may.  have  been  in  use  in  the  time  of 
the  Elamites,  who  were  a  mounted  people.  These 
bows  were  carried  in  cases  to  protect  the  string,  which 
was  composed  of  deer  sinews,  from  injury,  and  were 
slung  on  the  right  hip  of  the  rider,  except  when  on  the 
point  of  engaging.  Then  the  string  was  often  cast 
over  the  head,  and  the  bow  hung  upon  the  breast,  with 
the  two  nocks  above  each  shoulder,  like  a  pair  of  horns. 
See  Bow ;  Archer. 

The  arrows  were  likewise  enclosed  in  a  case  or 
"quiver,"  "OFl,  teW ',  hung  sometimes  on  the  shoulder, 
at  other  times  on  the  left  side ;  and  six  or  eight 
flight-arrows  were  commonly  stuck  in 
the  edge  of  the  cap,  ready  to  be  pulled 
out  and  put  to  the  string.    The  infantry 
always  carried  the  arrows  in  a  quiver 
on  the  right  shoulder,  and  the  bow  was 
kept  unbent  until  the   mo- 
ment of  action.    On  a  march 


Ancient  Assyrian  Bow,  Arrow,  and  Quivers. 


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ARMOR 


it  was  carried  on  the  shield  arm,  where  there  was  fre-  j 
queiitly  also  a  horn  bracer  secured  below  the  elbow  to 
receive  the  shock  from  the  string  when  an  arrow  was 
discharged.  The  flight  or  long-range  arrows  were  com- 
monly of  reed,  not  always  feathered,  and  mostly  tipped 
with  flint  points;  but  the  shot  or  aimed  arrows,  used  [ 
for  nearer  purposes,  were  of  wood  tipped  with  metal, 
about  thirty  inches  long,  and  winged  with  three  lines 
of  feathers,  like  those  in  modern  use :  they  varied  in 
length  at  different  periods,  and  according  to  the  sub- 
stance of  the  bows.  See  Arrow;  Quiver;  Shoot. 
5.  The  last  missile  instrument  to  be  mentioned  is 
the  "sling,"  rbp,  ke'la  (Job  xli,  28),  an  improvement 
upon  the  simple  act  of  throwing  stones.  It  was  the 
favorite  weapon  of  the  Benjamites,  a  small  tribe,  not 
making  a  great  mass  in  an  order  of  battle,  but  well  com- 
posed for  light  troops.  They  could  also  boast  of  using 
the  sling  equally  well  with  the  left  hand  as  with  the 


ways  reckoned  upon  advancing  in  battle  and  recover- 
ing it  without  trouble  when  thrown  ;  whereas,  if  it  had 
been  hooked  or  hamate,  they  could  not  have  wrenched 
it  out  of  hostile  shields  or  breast-plates  without  trouble 
and  delay.     See  Weapon. 

II.  Defensive  Arms.  —  1.  The  most  ancient  pro- 
tective piece  of  armor  was  the  Shield,  buckler,  roundel, 
or  target,  composed  of  a  great  variety  of  materials, 
very  different  in  form  and  size,  and  therefore  in  all 


Egyptian  Slingers  and  Sling.     From  the  Monuments. 


right.  The  sling  was  made  of  jplaited  thongs,  some- 
what broad  in  the  middle,  to  lodge  the  stone  or  leaden 
missile,  and  was  twirled  two  or  three  times  round  be- 
fore the  stone  was  allowed  to  take  flight.  Stones  could 
not  be  cast  above  400  feet,  but  leaden  bullets  could  be 
thrown  as  far  as  600  feet.  The  force  as  well  as  pre- 
cision of  aim  which  might  be  attained  in  the  use  of  this 
instrument  was  remarkably  shown  in  the  case  of  David; 
and  several  nations  cf  antiquity  boasted  of  great  skill 
in  the  practice  of  the  sling.     See  Sling. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Bowmen  and  Slingers. 
All  these  hand-weapons  were  in  use  at  different  pe- 
riods, not  only  among  the  Hebrews  and  Egyptians,  but 
likewise  in  Assyria,  Persia,  Greeco,  and  Macedonia; 
in  which  last  country  the  sarissa  carried  by  the  heavy 
infantry  of  the  phalanx  differed  from  the  others  onl'v 
Id  the  great  length  of  the  shaft.  The  Roman  pilum 
ind  <>f  dart,  distinguished  from  those  of  other 
nations  chiefly  by  its  weight,  and  the  great  proportion- 
al length  of  the  metal  or  iron  part,  which  constituted 
one  half  of  the  whole,  or  from  two  and  a  half  to  three 
feet.  Much  of  this  length  was  hollow,  and  received 
nearly  twenty  Inches  of  the  shaft  within  it;  the  point 
was  never  hooked  like  that  of  common  darts,  because, 
the  weapon  being  nearly  indestructible,  the  soldiers  al- 


Oriental  protective  Armor. 

1,  The  Great  Shield;  2,  Common  Egyptian  Shield;  3,  Target; 

4,  5,  Ancient  Shields  of  unknown  Tribes ;  6,  Roundel. 

rations  bearing  a  variety  of  names.  The  Hebrews 
used  the  word  Itj^,  tsinnah'  (rendered  "shield,"  "tar- 
get," or  "buckler"),  for  a  great  shisld — defence,  pro- 
tection (Gen.  xv,  1;  Psa.  xlvii,  9;  Prov.  xxx,  5)  — 
which  is  commonly  found  in  connection  with  spear, 
and  was  the  shelter  of  heavily-armed  infantry ;  'jSB 
magtn  (rendered  "shield"  or  "buckler"),  a  buckler 
or  smaller  shield,  which,  from  a  similar  juxtaposition 
with  sword,  bow  and  arrows,  appears  to  have  been  the 
defence  of  the  other  armed  infantry  and  of  chiefs ;  and 
fHHQ,  socherah'  (only  once,  Psa.  xci,  4,  "buckler"), 
parma,  a  roundel,  which  may  have  been  appropriated 
to  archers  and  slingers ;  and  there  was  the  B?tij,  she'- 
let  ("shield"),  synonymous  with  the  magen, 
only  different  in  ornament.  In  the  more 
advanced  eras  of  civilization  shields  were 
made  of  light  wood  not  liable  to  split,  cover- 
ed with  bull-hide  of  two  or  more  thicknesses, 
and  bordered  with  metal ;  the  lighter  kinds 
were  made  of  wicker-work  or  osier,  similarly, 
but  less  solidly  covered;  or  of  double  ox- 
hide cut  into  a  round  form.  There  were  oth- 
ers of  a  single  hide,  extremely  thick  from 
having  been  boiled ;  their  surface  present- 
ed an  appearance  of  many  folds,  like  round 
waves  up  and  down,  which  might  yield,  but 
could  rarely  be  penetrated. 

We  may  infer  that  at  first  the  Hebrews 
borrowed  the  forms  in  use  in  Egypt,  and  that 
their  common  shields  were  a  kind  of  parallel- 
ogram, broadest  and  arched  at  the  top,  and  cut  square 
beneath,  bordered  with  metal,  the  surface  being  covered 
with  raw  hide  with  the  hair  on.  The  lighter  shields 
may  have  been  soaked  in  oil  and  dried  in  the  shade  to 
make  them  hard;  no  doubt  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros, 
and  elephant  skin  shields  were  brought  from  Ethiopia 
and  purchased  in  the  Phoenician  markets;  but  small 
round  hand-bucklers  of  whale-skin,  still  used  by  Arabian 
swordsmen,  came  from  the  Erythraean  Sea.  During 
the  Assyrian  and  Persian  supremacy  the  Hebrews  may 
have  used  the  square,  oblong,  and  round  shields  of  these 
nations,  and  may  have  subsequently  copied  those  of 
Greece  and  Pome.  The  princes  of  Israel  had  shields 
of  precious  metals  ;  all  were  managed  by  a  wooden  or 


ARMOR 


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leathern  handle,  and  often  slung  by  a  thong  over  the 
neck.  "With  the  larger  kinds  a  testudo  could  be  form- 
ed by  pressing  the  ranks  close  together ;  and,  while  the 
outside  men  kept  their  shields  before  and  on  the  flanks, 
those  within  raised  theirs  above  the  head,  and  thus 
produced  a  kind  of  surface,  sometimes  as  close  and  fit- 
ted together  as  a  pantile  roof,  and  capable  of  resisting 
the  pressure  even  of  a  body  of  men  marching  upon  it. 
The  tsinnuh  was  most  likely  what  in  the  feudal  ages 
would  have  been  called  a  pavise,  for  such  occurs  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments.  This  weapon  was  about 
five  feet  high,  with  a  pointed  arch  above  and  square 
below,  resembling  the  feudal  knight's  shield,  only  that 
the  point  was  reversed.  This  kind  of  large-sized  shield, 
however,  was  best  fitted  for  men  without  any  other  ar- 
mor, when  combating  in  open  countries,  or  carrying  on 
sieges  ;  for  it  may  be  remarked  in  general  that  the  mil- 
itary buckler  of  antiquity  was  large  in  proportion  as 
other  defensive  armor  was  wanting.  Shields  were 
hung  upon  the  battlements  of  walls,  and,  as  still  oc- 
curs, chief!}'-  above  gates  of  cities  by  the  watch  and 
ward.  In  time  of  peace  they  were  covered  to  preserve 
them  from  the  sun,  and  in  war  uncovered;  this  sign 
was  poetically  used  to  denote  coming  hostilities,  as  in 
Isa.  xxii,  6,  etc.  In  Europe,  where  the  Crusaders 
could  imitate  the  Saracens,  but  not  introduce  their 
climate,  shields  were  carved  in  stone  upon  towers  and 
gates,  as  at  York,  etc.  The  Eastern  origin  of  this 
practice  seems  to  lie  attested  by  the  word  Zinne,  which, 
in  German,  still  denotes  a  battlement,  something  point- 
ed, a  summit,  and  conveys  the  idea  of  a  pavise  with 
the  point  uppermost,  a  shape  such  as  Arabian  battle- 
ments often  assume.     See  Shield;  Buckler. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Shields. 

2.  The  Helmet  was  next  in  consideration,  and  in  the 
earliest  ages  was  made  of  osier  or  rushes,  in  the  form 
of  a  bee-hive  or  of  a  skull-cap.  The  skins  of  the  heads 
of  animals  —  of  lions,  bears,  wild  boars,  bulls,  and 
horses — were  likewise  adopted,  and  were  adorned  with 
rows  of  teeth,  manes,  and  bristles.  Wood,  linen  cloth 
in  many  folds,  and  a  kind  of  felt,  were  also  in  earl)' 
use,  and  helmets  of  these  materials  may  be  observed 
worn  by  the  nations  of  Asia  at  war  with  the  conquer- 
or kings  of  Egypt,  even  before  the  departure  of  Israel. 
At  that  time  also  these  kings  had  helmets  of  metal,  of 
rounded  or  pointed  forms,  adorned  with  a  figure  of  the 
serpent  Kneph ;  and  an  allied  nation,  perhaps  the  Ca- 


rian,  reported  to  have  first  worn  a  military  crest,  bears 
on  the  skull-cap  of  their  brazen  helmets  a  pair  of  horns 
with  a  globe  in  the  middle — the  solar  arkite  symbol. 
The  nations  of  farther  Asia,  however,  used  the  woolen 
or  braided  caps  still  retained,  and  now  called  kaouk 
and  fez,  around  which  the  turban  is  usually  wound. 
These  were  almost  invariably  supplied  with  long  lap- 
pets to  cover  the  ears  and  the  back  of  the  head,  and 
princes  usually  wore  a  radiated  crown  on  the  summit. 
This  was  the  form  of  the  Syrian,  and  probably  of  the 


Oriental  Armor  for  the  Head. 
1,  Of  Rushes;   2,  Egyptian;    3,  4,  Western  Asia;   5,  Carian? 
0,  T,  Egyptian;   S.Assyrian;  9,  Greek;   10,  Ionian;  11,  Par- 
thian ;  12,  13,  Other  Asiatic  Tribes. 

Assyrian  helmets,  excepting  that  the  last  mentioned 
were  of  brass,  though  the)'  still  retained  the  low  cylin- 
drical shape.  The  "313,  ko'ba  ("helmet"),  some 
helmet  of  this  kind,  was  worn  by  the  trained  infantry, 
who  were  spearmen  among  the  Hebrews ;  but  archers 
and  slingers  had  round  skull-caps  of  skins,  felts,  or 
quilted  stuffs,  such  as  are  still  in  use  among  the  Arabs. 
The  form  of  Greek  and  Roman  helmets,  both  of  leath- 
er and  of  brass,  is  well  known  ;  they  were  most  likely 
adopted  also  by  the  Hebrews  and  Egyptians  during 
their  subjection  to  those  nations,  but  require  no  farther 
notice  here.     See  Helmet. 


Ancient  Armor  and  Standards, 
ments.     1,  '2,  Cs 


im  the  Egyptian  Monu-  > 
,  -4,  Egypt. 


3.  Body  Armor. — The  most  ancient  Persian  idols 
are  clad  in  shagged  skins,  such  as  the  ^Egis  of  Jupiter 
and  Minerva  may  have  been,  the  type  being  taken 
from  a  Cyrenaean  or  African  legend,  and  the  pretended 
red  goat-skin  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  that  of  a 
species  of  gnu  (Catohhpas  Gorgon,  Ham.  Smith),  an 
animal  fabled  to  have  killed  men  by  its  sight,  and 
therefore  answering  to  the  condition  both  of  a  kind  of 
goat  and  of  producing  death  by  the  Fight  alone.  In 
Egypt  cuirasses  were  manufactured  of  leather,  of  brass, 
and  of  a  succession  of  iron  hoops,  chiefly  covering  the 
abdomen  and  the  shoulders ;  but  a  more  ancient  na- 
tional form  was  a  kind  of  thorax,  tippet,  T^*"--  shir- 
yon'  ("  coat  of  mail,"  "  habergeon"),  or  }^'~,  shiryan 


ARMOR 


424 


ARMOR 


("harness,"  " breastplata"),  or  square,  with  an  open- 
ing in  it  for  the  head,  the  four  points  covering  the 
breast,  back,  and  both  upper  arms.  This  kind  in  par- 
ticular was  affected  by  the  royal  band  of  relatives  who 
surrounded  the  Pharaoh,  were  his  subordinate  com- 
manders, messengers,  and  body-guards,  bearing  his 
standards,  ensign-fans,  and  sun-screens,  his  portable 
throne,  his  bow  and  arrows.  Beneath  this  square  was 
another  piece,  protecting  the  trunk  of  the  body,  and 
both  were  in  general  covered  with  red-colored  cloth  or 
start'.  ( >n  the  oldest  fictile  vases  a  shoulder-piece  like- 
wise occurs,  worn  by  Greek  and  Etruscan  warriors.     It 


Ancient  Coats  of  Mail.— 1.  Egyptian  tcgulateJ.     2.  Sleeve  of 
ring-mail,  Ionian. 

covers  the  upper  edge  of  the  body  armor,  is  perforated 
in  the  middle  to  allow  the  head  to  pass,  but  hangs 
equal  on  the  breast  and  back,  square  on  the  shoulders, 
and  is  evidently  of  leather.  (See  the  figure  of  Mene- 
laua  discovering  Helen  in  the  sack  of  Troy,  Millin, 
Man.  inedits.)  This  piece  of  armor  occurs  also  on  the 
shoulders  of  Varangi  (northmen,  who  were  the  body- 
guards of  the  Greek  emperors)  ;  but  they  are  studded 
with  roundels  or  bosses,  as  they  appear  figured  in  mo- 
saic or  fresco  on  the  walls  of  the  cathedral  of  Ravenna, 
dating  from  the  time  of  Justinian.  The  late  Roman 
legionaries,  as  published  by  Du  Choul,  again  wear  the 
tippet  armor,  like  that  of  the  Egyptians,  and  one  or 
other  of  the  above  forms  may  be  found  on  figures  of 
Danes  in  illuminated  manuscripts  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. By  their  use  of  metal  for  defensive  armor  the 
Carians  appear  to  have  created  astonishment  among 
the  Egyptians,  and  therefore  may  be  presumed  to  have 
been  the  first  nation  so  protected  in  western  Asia; 
ii  vcrtli  (less,  in  the  tombs  of  the  kings  near  Thebes,  a 
t^gulated  hauberk  is  represented,  composed  of  small 
three-colored  pieces  of  metal— one  golden,  the  other 
reddish  and  green.  It  is  this  suit  which  Denon  repre- 
sents as  composed  of  rings  set  on  edge  ;  but  they  are  all 
parallelograms,  with  the  lower  edge  forming  the  seg- 
ment of  a  circle,  and  each  piece,  beside  the  fastening, 
has  a  button  and  a  vertical  slit  above  it,  giving  flexi- 
bility by  means  of  the  button  of  each  square  working 
in  the  ap  srture  of  the  piece  beneath  it.  This  kind  of 
armor  may  be  meant  by  the  word  X^Jin,  tachra' 
("habergeon,"  only  Exod.  xxviii.  82  :  xxxix,  23),  the 
closest  interpretation  of  which  appears  to  be  decussatio, 
tegukctio,  a  tiling.  The  expression  in  2  Chron.  xviii. 
33,  may  \«<  that  A.hab  was  struck  in  one  of  the  grooves 
or  slits  iii  the  squares  of  8Uch  a  s/tir//nit,  or  betwe  'ii  two 

of  them  wher,.  they  do  aot  overlap;  or  perhaps,  with 
more  probability,  between  the  metal  hoops  of  t lie  trunk 
of  the  thiryon  before  mentioned,  where  the  thorax 
overlap,  the  abdomen.  The  tern  b^Bgtop,  Jfeo«jfea*- 
sim'  (elsewhere  "scales"),  in  the  case  of  Goliath's  ar- 
mor, denotes  the  squamous  kind,  most  likely  that  in 
which  the  pieces  uere  sewed  upon  a  cloth,  and  not 
hinged  to  each  other,  us  iu  the  tachra.     It  was  the 


Ancient  Parthian  lloiveman. 


defensive  armor  of  Northern  and  Eastern  nations,  tho 
Persian  Cataphracti,  Parthians,  and  Sarmatians.  But 
of  true  annular  or  ringed  mail,  Denon's  figure  being 
incorrect,  we  doubt  if  there  is  any  positive  evidence, 
excepting  where  rings  were  sewn  separateby  upon 
cloth,  anterior  to  the  sculpture  at  Takt-i-Bustan,  or 
the  close  of  the  Parthian  era.  The  existence  of  mail 
is  often  incorrectly  inferred  from  our  translators  using 
the  word  wherever  flexible  armor  is  to  be  mentioned. 
The  tachra  could  not  well  be  worn  without  an  un- 
der garment  of  some  density  to  resist  the  friction  of 
metal ;  and  this  may  have  been  a  kind  of  sagum,  the 
shir  yon  of  the  Hebrews,  under  another  form  —  the 
dress  Saul  put  upon  David  before  he  assumed  the 
breastplate  and  girdle.  The  Roman  sagum  offers  a 
parallel  instance.  Under  that  name  it  was  worn  at 
first  a  lor  led,  then  beneath  it,  and  at  last  again  with- 
out, but  the  stuff  itself  made  into  a  kind  of  felt. 

The  Cuirass  and  Corslet,  strictly  speaking,  were  of 
prepared  leather  (corium),  but  often  also  composed  of 
quilted  cloths  :  the  former  in  ancient  times  generally 
denoted  a  suit  with  leathern  appendages  at  the  bottom 
and  at  the  shoulder,  as  used  by  the  Romans ;  the  lat- 
ter, one  in  which  the  barrel  did  not  come  down  below 
the  hips,  and  usually  destitute  of  leathern  vittm,  which 
was  nationally  Greek.  In  later  ages  it  always  desig- 
nates a  breast  and  back  piece  of  steel.  It  is,  however, 
requisite  to  observe  that,  in  estimating  the  meaning  of 
Hebrew  names  for  armor  of  all  kinds,  they  are  liable 
to  the  same  laxity  of  use  which  all  other  languages 
have  manifested;  for  in  military  matters,  more  per- 


Ancient  Cuirassc?  and  Helmet?.    1,  2,  Early  Greek;  3,  Greek; 
4,  5,  Roman ;  G,  Barbarian. 


ARMOR 


425 


ARMSTRONG 


haps  than  in  any  other,  a  name  once  adopted  remains  ' 
the  same,  though  the  object  may  be  changed  by  suc- 
cessive modifications  till  there  remains  but  little  re- 
semblance to  that  to  which  the  designation  was  origin- 
ally applied.  The  objects  above  denominated  append- 
ages and  vitta  (in  the  feudal  ages,  lambrequins),  were 
straps  of  leather  secured  to  the  lower  rim  of  the  barrel 
of  a  suit  of  armor,  and  to  the  openings  for  arm-holes  : 
the  first  were  about  three  and  a  half  inches  in  width ; 
the  second,  two  and  a  half.  They  were  ornamented 
with  embroidery,  covered  with  rich  stuffs  and  gold- 
smiths' work,  and  made  heavy  at  the  lower  extremity, 
to  cause  them  always  to  hang  down  in  proper  order ; 
but  those  on  the  arm-holes  had  a  slight  connection,  so 
as  to  keep  them  equal  when  the  arm  was  lifted.  These 
vittoe  were  rarely  in  a  single  row,  but  in  general  form- 
ed two  or  three  rows,  alternately  covering  the  opening 
between  those  underneath,  and  then  protecting  the 
thighs  nearly  to  the  knee,  and  half  the  upper  arm.  In 
the  Roman  service,  under  the  suit  of  armor,  was  the 
sagum,  made  of  red  serge  or  baize,  coming  down  to  the 
cap  of  the  knee  and  folding  of  the  arm,  so  that  the  vit- 
tae  hung  entirely  upon  it.  Other  nations  had  always 
an  equivalent  to  this,  but  not  equally  long;  and,  in 
the  opinion  of  some,  the  Hebrew  shiryon  served  the 
same  purpose.  The  Roman  and  Greek  suits  were, 
with  slight  difference,  similarly  laced  together  on  the 
left,  or  shield  side ;  and  on  the  shoulders  were  bands 
and  clasps,  comparatively  narrow  in  those  of  the  Ro- 
mans, which  covered  the  joinings  of  the  breast  and 
back  pieces  on  the  shoulders,  came  from  behind,  and 
were  fastened  to  a  button  on  each  breast.  At  the  throat 
the  suit  of  armor  had  always  a  double  edging,  often  a 
band  of  brass  or  silver ;  in  the  Roman,  and  often  in  the 
Greek,  adorned  with  a  lion's  or  a  Gorgon's  head.  It 
was  here  that,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  probably 
much  earlier,  the  warriors  distinguished  for  particular 
acts  of  valor  wore  insignia ;  a  practice  only  revived 
by  the  moderns  under  the  names  of  crosses  and  decora- 
tions. The  Romans,  it  appears,  had  phiake  and  phalerce 
of  honor,  terms  which  have  been  supposed  to  signify 
bracelets  and  medals ;  but  all  opinion  on  the  subject  was 
only  conjectural  previously  to  the  discovery,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Rhine,  of  a  monumental  bass-relief,  raised 
by  the  freedman  of  Marcus  Caslius  Lembo,  tribune  of 
the  (xiix)  18th  legion,  who  fell  in  the  disastrous  over- 


Armor  of  a  Human  Soldier. 


throw  of  Varus.  The  effigy  is  of  three-quarter  length, 
in  a  full  suit  of  armor,  with  a  laurel  crown  on  the  head, 
a  Gallic  twisted  torque  round  the  neck ;  and  from  the 
lion-head  shoulder-clasps  of  the  cuirass  hang  two  em- 
bossed bracelets,  having  beneath  them  a  label  with 
three  points,  from  which  are  suspended  five  medals  of 
honor;  one  large,  on  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  represent- 
ing a  face  of  Medusa ;  and  two  on  each  side,  one  be- 
neath the  other  ;  and  all,  as  far  as  can  be  seen,  charged 
with  lions'  faces  and  lions'  heads  in  profile.  The  monu- 
ment is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  university  at  Bonn. 
See  Coat  of  Mail. 

The  girdle,  or,  more  properly,  the  baldric  or  belt  (cin- 


gula  or  balteus),  was  used  by  the  Hebrews  under  the 
name  of  "HTX,  ezor'  ("girdle");  it  was  of  leather, 
studded  with  metal  plates  or  bullae;  when  the  armor 
was  slight,  broad,  and  capable  of  being  girt  upon  the 
hips ;  otherwise  it  supported  the  sword  scarf-wise  from 
the  shoulder.     See  Girdle. 

4.  Gi  eaves  were  likewise  known,  even  so  early  as 
the  time  of  David,  for  Goliath  wore  them.  They  con- 
sisted of  a  pair  of  shin-covers  of  brass  or  strong  leather, 
bound  by  thongs  round  the  calves  and  above  the 
ankles.  They  reached  only  to  the  knees,  excepting 
among  the  Greeks,  whose  greaves,  elastic  behind, 
caught  nearly  the  whole  leg,  and  were  raised  in  front 
above  the  knees.  The  Hebrew  word  "J'XD,  seon 
("battle"),  in  Isaiah  ix,  5,  is  supposed  to  mean  a  half- 
greave,  though  the  passage  is  altogether  obscure. 
Perhaps  the  war-boot  may  be  explained  by  the  war- 
shoe  of  Egypt  with  a  metal  point;  and  then  the  words 
might  be  rendered,  "For  every  greave  of  the  armed 
foot  is  with  confused  noise  and  garments  rolled  in 
blood,"  etc.,  instead  of  "every  battle  of  the  warrior," 
etc.  But,  after  all,  this  is  not  quite  satisfactory. — Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Bkeastplate;  Gheaves. 

Armor-bearer  (n^bs  N^i,  nose  kelim'),  an  of- 
ficer selected  by  kings  and  generals  from  the  bravest 
of  their  favorites,  whose  service  it  was  not  only  to  bear 
their  armor,  but  to  stand  by  them  in  danger  and  carry 
their  orders,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  adjutants 
in  modern  service.  (Jud.  ix,  54 ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  6 ;  xvi, 
21 ;  xxxiii,  4.) 

Armory  (ItT'Qbn,  talpiyoth',  destructives,  i.  e. 
•weapons,  Cant,  iv,  4),  the  place  in  which  armor  was 
deposited  in  times  of  peace.  Solomon  had  a  naval  ar- 
senal at  Ezion-geber  (Jer.  i,  25;  1  Kings  ix,  26). 
There  is  mention  made  in  Neh.  iii,  19,  of  an  armory 
(pU3,  ne'shek,  elsewhere  armor)  in  Jerusalem,  "at  the 
turning  of  the  wall,"  meaning  probably  the  bend  in 
the  browofZion  opposite  the  south-western  corner  of 
the  Temple,  near  where  the  bridge  connected  them, 
although  Josephus  {Ant.  ix,  7,  2)  speaks  of  the  armory 
as  being  in  the  temple  itself.  This  was  probably  the 
arsenal  ("house  of  armor")  which  Hezekiah  took  so 
much  pride  in  showing  to  the  Babylonian  ambassadors 
(Isa.  xxxix,  2).  Dr.  Barclay  (City  of  the  Great  King, 
p.  155)  thinks  it  was  the  same  as  "the  house  of  the 
forest  of  Lebanon"  (2  Kings  x,  17;  Isa.  xxii,  8),  and 
locates  it  at  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Zion,  adjoining 
the  north-western  angle  of  the  Xystus.    See  Arsenal. 

Armstrong,  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Ireland  in  1787  or  '8,  emigrated  in 
childhood,  was  converted  in  Philadelphia  at  seventeen, 
licensed  as  local  preacher  in  Baltimore  at  twenty-four, 
emigrated  to  Indiana  in  1821  and  entered  the  itiner- 
ant ministry,  in  which  he  labored  with  ability  and 
great  success  until  his  death,  which  occurred  in  Laporte 
county  in  Sept.  1834. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  ii,  344. 

Armstrong,  John,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
Nov.  27,  1798,  at  Philadelphia,  graduated  at  Columbian 
College,  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1825,  and  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Newbern,  N.  C,  where  he 
remained  several  j'ears.  In  1835  Mr.  Armstrong  was 
appointed  professor  in  Wake  Forest  Institute  ;  and, 
being  desirous  of  increasing  his  usefulness,  travelled 
for  some  time  in  1837-39  in  Europe.  In  1840  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  church  in  Columbus,  Miss.,  whence 
he  removed  in  1843  to  his  plantation  in  Noxubee  coun- 
ty, Miss.,  where  he  died  Sept.  15,  1844. — Sprague,  An- 
nals, vi,  753. 

Armstrong,  William  Jessup,  D.D.,  an  emi- 
nent Presbyterian  minister,  born  at  Mendham,  N.  J., 
in  1796,  and  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1816,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1818.  He  labored  in  Trenton  and 
Richmond  till  1834,  when  he  became  secretary  to  the 
Am.  Bd.  Comm.  for  Foreign  Missions.  By  the  wreck 
of  the  steamer  Atlantic  in  Long  Island  Sound,  Nov. 


ARMY 


426 


ARMY 


27,  1846,  he  was  drowned.  A  Memoir,  by  Eev.  H. 
Read,  with  A  Selection  of  Armstrong's  Sermons,  was 
published  in  1853. — Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  612. 

Army,  represented  by  several  Heb.  and  Gr.  words. 
See  War. 

I.  Jewish. — The  military  organization  of  the  Jews 
commenced  with  their  departure  from  the  land  of 
Egypt,  and  was  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  expedi- 
tion on  which  they  then  entered.  Every  man  above 
20  years  of  age  was  a  soldier  (Num.  i,  3);  each  tribe 
formed  a  regiment,  with  its  own  banner  and  its  own 
lead  r  |  Num.  ii,  2  ;  x,  14) ;  their  positions  in  the  camp 
or  on  the  march  were  accurately  rixed  (Num.  ii) ;  the 
whole  army  started  and  stopped  at  a  given  signal 
(Num.  x,  5,  6)  ;  thus  they  came  up  out  of  Egypt  ready 
for  the  fight  (Exod.  xiii,  18).  That  the  Israelites  pre- 
served the  same  exact  order  throughout  their  march 
may  be  inferred  from  Balaam's  language  (Num.  xxiv, 
6).  On  the  approach  of  an  enemy,  a  conscription  was 
made  from  the  general  body  under  the  direction  of  a 
muster-master  (originally  named  "IBia,  Dent,  xx,  5, 
"officer,"  afterward  IBID,  2  Kings  xxv,  19,  "scribe 
of  the  host,"  both  terms  occurring,  however,  together 
in  2  Chron.  xxvi,  11,  the  meaning  of  each  being  pri- 
marily a  writer),  by  whom  also  the  officers  were  ap- 
pointed (Deut.  xx,  9).  From  the  number  so  selected 
some  might  be  excused  serving  on  certain  specified 
grounds  (Deut.  xx,  5-8 ;  1  Mace,  hi,  56).  The  army 
was  then  divided  into  thousands  and  hundreds  under 
their  respective  captains  (a^sbxn  "VJ  and  TINE!!  "lb, 
Num.  xxxi,  14),  and  still  farther  into  families  (Num. 
ii,  34 ;  2  Chron.  xxv,  5 ;  xxvi,  12),  the  family  being 
regarded  as  the  unit  in  the  Jewish  polity.  From  the 
time  the  Israelites  entered  the  land  of  Canaan  un- 
til the  establishment  of  the  kingdom,  little  progress 
was  made  in  military  affairs:  their  wars  resembled 
border  forays,  and  the  tactics  turned  upon  stratagem 
rather  than  upon  the  discipline  and  disposition  of  the 
forces.  Skilfully  availing  themselves  of  the  opportu- 
nities which  the  country  offered,  they  gained  the  vic- 
tory sometimes  by  an  ambush  (Josh,  viii,  4),  some- 
times by  surprising  the  enemy  (Josh,  x,  9;  xi,  7; 
Judg.  vii,  21  ),  and  sometimes  by  a  judicious  attack  at 
the  time  of  fording  a  river  (Judg.  til,  28 ;  iv,  7 ;  vii, 
24;  xii,  5).  No  general  muster  was  made  at  this  pe- 
riod ;  but  the  combatants  were  summoned  on  the  spur 
of  the  moment  either  by  trumpet-call  (Judg.  iii,  27), 
by  messengers  (Judg.  vi,  35),  by  some  significant  to- 
ken (1  Sam.  xi,  7),  or,  as  in  later  times,  by  the  erec- 
tion of  a  standard  (63,  Isa.  xviii,  3 ;  Jer.  iv,  21 ;  li, 
27),  or  a  beacon-fire  on  an  eminence  (Jer.  vi,  1).  See 
Battle. 

With  the  kings  arose  the  custom  of  maintaining  a 
body-guard,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  standing 
army.  Thus  Saul  had  a  band  of  3000  select  warriors 
(1  Sam.  xiii,  2;  xiv,  52;  xxiv,  2),  and  David,  before 
his  accession  to  the  throne,  600  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  13; 
xxv,  13).  This  band  he  retained  after  he  became 
kin-  and  added  the  Chebethites  and  Pelethites 
C-'  Sam.  xv,  18;  xx,  7),  together  with  another  class, 
whose  name,  Shalishim'  (C^bd,  Sept.  rpiardrai, 
Autli.  Vers,  "a  third  part"),  has^een  variously  in- 
t  srpreted  to  mean  (1.)  a  corps  of  veteran  guards  =  R0- 
1,1:1,1  '''""";  (Winer,  Lex.  Heb.  p.  991);  (2.)  chariot- 
warrior,  as  being  //(,-.,.  in  ea.h  chariot  (Gesen.  Thes. 
p.  ll.".i.:  (3.)  officers  of  the  guard,  thirty  in  number 
(Ewald,  Gesch.  ii,  601).  The  fad  that  the  Egyptian 
war-chariot,  with  which  the  Jews  were  first  acquaint- 
ed, contained  but  two  warriors,  forms  an  objection  to 
i  Qd  of  these  opinions  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  /%/»/. 
i.  B85),  and  the  frequent  use  of  the  term  in  the  singu- 
lar number  (2  Kinga  vii,  2;  i\,  25;  xv,  25)  to  the 
third.  Whatever  be  tin-  meaning  of  the  name,  it  is 
evident  that  it  indicated  officers  of  high  rank,  the 
chief  of  whom  (--r':;n,   "lord,"  2  Kings  vii,  2    or 


Q^w^Vrri  ttJSh,  "chief  of  the  captains,"  1  Chron. 
xii,  18)  was  immediately  about  the  king's  person,  as 
adjutant  or  secretary-at-war.  David  farther  organized 
a  national  militia,  divided  into  twelve  regiments,  each 
of  which  was  called  out  for  one  month  in  the  year  un- 
der their  respective  officers  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  1) ;  at  the 
head  of  the  army  when  in  active  service  he  appointed 
a  commander-in-chief  (JOS~*lb,  "captain  of  the 
host,"  1  Sam.  .xiv,  50). 

Hitherto  the  arm)'  had  consisted  entirely  of  infan- 
cy C^H^i  1  Sam.  iv,  10 ;  xv,  4),  the  use  of  horses 
having  been  restrained  by  divine  command  (Deut. 
xvii,  16).  The  Jews  had,  however,  experienced  the 
great  advantage  to  be  obtained  by  chariots,  both  in 
their  encounters  with  the  Canaanites  (Josh,  xvii,  16 ; 
Judg.  i,  19),  and  at  a  later  period  with  the  Syrians 
(2  Sam.  viii,  4 ;  x,  18).  The  interior  of  Palestine  was 
indeed  general])'  unsuited  to  the  use  of  chariots ;  the 
Canaanites  had  employed  them  only  in  the  plains  and 
valleys,  such  as  Jezreel  (Josh,  xvii,  16),  the  plain  of 
Philistia  (Judg.  i,  19 ;  1  Sam.  xiii,  5),  and  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Jordan  (Josh,  xi,  9 ;  Judg.  iv,  2).  But 
the  border,  both  on  the  side  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  was 
admirably  adapted  to  their  use ;  and  accordingly  we 
find  that  as  the  foreign  relations  of  the  kingdoms  ex- 
tended, much  importance  was  attached  to  them.  Da- 
vid had  reserved  a  hundred  chariots  from  the  spoil  of 
the  Syrians  (2  Sam.  viii,  4) :  these  probably  served  as 
the  foundation  of  the  force  which  Solomon  afterward 
enlarged  through  his  alliance  with  Egypt  (2  Kings  x, 
28,  29),  and  applied  to  the  protection  of  his  border, 
stations  or  barracks  being  erected  for  them  in  different 
localities  (1  Kings  ix,  19).  The  force  amounted  to 
1400  chariots,  4000  horses,  at  the  rate  (in  round  num- 
bers) of  three  horses  for  each  chariot,  the  third  being 
kept  as  a  reserve,  and  12,000  horsemen  (2  Kings  x,  26; 
2  Chron.  i,  14).  At  this  period  the  organization  of  tho 
army  was  complete ;  and  we  have,  in  1  Kings  ix,  22, 
apparently  a  list  of  tho  various  gradations  of  rank  in 
the  service,  as  follow:  (1.)  ilEfTbsain  ^b^N,  "men 
of  war"  —privates;  (2.)  D"1"!-?)  "servants,"  the  low- 
est rank  of  officers  =  lieutenants;  (3.)  6"H'C3,  "princes" 
=  captains;  (4.)  d^ttJiptU,  "captains,"  already  no- 
ticed, perhaps  =  staff- officers;  (5.)  ~=~il  "^b  and 
D'vJ^Qfl  itj,  "rulers  of  his  chariots  and  his  horse- 
men" =  cavalry  officers.     See  Captain. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  system  established  by 
David  was  maintained  by  the  kings  of  Judah  ;  but  in 
Israel  the  proximity  of  the  hostile  kingdom  of  Syria 
necessitated  the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army.  The 
militia  was  occasionally  called  out  in  time  of  peace,  as 
by  Asa  (2  Chron.  xiv,  8),  by  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron. 
xvii,  14),  by  Amaziah  (2  Chron.  xxv,  5),  and  lastly 
by  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  11) ;  but  these  notices  prove 
that  such  cases  were  exceptional.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  incidental  notices  of  the  body-guard  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  was  regularly  kept  up  (1  Kings  xiv, 
28;  2  Kings  xi,  4,  11).  Occasional  reference  is  made 
to  war-chariots  (2  Kings  viii,  21),  and  it  would  appear 
that  this  branch  of  the  service  was  maintained  until 
the  wars  with  the  Syrians  weakened  the  resources  of 
the  kingdom  (2  Kings  xiii,  7);  it  was  restored  by 
Jotham  (Isa.  ii,  7),  but  in  Hezekiah's  reign  no  force 
of  the  kind  could  be  maintained,  and  the  Jews  were 
obliged  to  seek  the  aid  of  Egypt  for  horses  and  char- 
iots (2  Kings  xviii,  23,  24)7  This  was  an  evident 
breach  of  the  injunction  in  Deut.  xvii,  16,  and  met 
with  strong  reprobation  on  the  part  of  the  prophet 
Isaiah  (xxxi,  1).     See  Chariot. 

With  regard  to  the  arrangement  and  manoeuvring 
of  the  army  in  the  field,  we  know  but  little.  A  divi- 
sion into  three  bodies  is  frequently  mentioned  (Judg. 
vii,  16;  ix,  43;  1  Sam.  xi,  11;  2  Sam.  xviii,  2);  such 
a  division  served  various  purposes:  in  action  there 
would  be  a  centre  and  two  wings ;  in  camp,  relays  for 


ARMY 


427 


ARNAUD 


the  night-watches  (Judg.  vii,  19);  and  by  the  com- 
bination of  two  of  the  divisions,  there  would  be  a  main 
body  and  a  reserve,  or  a  strong  advanced  guard  (1  Sam . 
xiii,  2 ;  xxv,  13).  Jehoshaphat  divided  his  army  into 
five  bodies,  corresponding,  according  to  Ewald  (Ge- 
schich/e,  iii,  192),  to  the  geographical  divisions  of  the 
kingdom  at  that  time :  may  not,  however,  the  three- 
fold principle  of  division  be  noticed  here  also,  the 
heavy-armed  troops  of  Judah  being  considered  as  the 
proper  army,  and  the  two  divisions  of  light-armed  of 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin  as  an  appendage  (2  Chron.  xvii, 
14-18)  ?     See  Fight. 

The  maintenance  and  equipment  of  the  soldiers  at 
the  public  expense  dates  from  the  establishment  of  a 
standing  army  ;  before  which,  each  soldier  armed  him- 
self, and  obtained  his  food  either  by  voluntary  offer- 
ings (2  Sam.  xvii,  28,  29),  by  forced  exactions  (1  Sam. 
xxv,  13),  or  by  the  natural  resources  of  the  country 
(1  Sam.  xiv,  27) ;  on  one  occasion  only  do  we  hear  of 
any  systematic  arrangement  for  provisioning  the  host 
(Judg.  xx,  10).  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  soldier 
ever  received  pay  even  under  the  kings  (the  only  in- 
stance of  pay  being  mentioned  applies  to  mercenaries, 
2  Chron.  xxv,  6)  ;  but  that  he  was  maintained,  while 
on  active  service,  and  provided  with  arms,  appears 
from  1  Kings  iv,  27;  x,  1G,  17;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  14: 
notices  occur  of  an  arsenal  or  armory,  in  which  the 
weapons  were  stored  (1  Kings  xiv,  28;  Neh.  iii,  19; 
Cant,  iv,  4).     See  Armor. 

The  numerical  strength  of  the  Jewish  army  can- 
not be  ascertained  with  any  degree  of  accuracy ;  the 
numbers,  as  given  in  the  text,  are  manifestly  cor- 
rupt, and  the  various  statements  therefore  irreconcila- 
ble. At  the  Exodus  the  number  of  the  warriors  was 
600,000  (Exod.  xii,  37),  or  603,350  (Exod.  xxxviii,  26; 
Num.  i,  46);  at  the  entrance  into  Canaan,  601,730 
(Num.  xxvi,  51).  In  David's  time  the  army  amount- 
ed, according  to  one  statement  (2  Sam.  xxiv,  9),  to 
1,300,000,  viz.  800,000  for  Israel  and  500,000  for  Judah  ; 
but  according  to  another  statement  (1  Chron.  xxi,  5,  6) 
to  1,470,000,  viz.  1,000,000  for  Israel  and  470,000  for 
Judah.  The  militia  at  the  same  period  amounted  to 
24,000X12  =  288,000  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  1  sq.).  At  a 
later  period  the  army  of  Judah  under  Abijah  is  stated 
at  400, 000,  and  that  of  Israel  under  Jeroboam  at  300,000 
(2  Chron.  xiii,  3).  Still  later,  Asa's  army,  derived 
from  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  alone,  is  put 
at  530,000  (2  Chron.  xiv,  8),  and  Jehoshaphat's  at 
1,160,000  (2  Chron.  xvii,  14  sq.).     See  Number. 

Little  need  be  said  on  this  subject  with  regard  to  the 
period  that  succeeded  the  return  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity  until  the  organization  of  military  affairs  in 
Judaea  under  the  Romans.  The  system  adopted  by 
Judas  Maccabaeus  was  in  strict  conformity  with  the 
Mosaic  law  (1  Mac.  iii,  55) ;  and  though  he  maintained 
a  standing  army,  varying  from  3000  to  6000  men 
(1  Mac.  iv,  6 ;  2  Mac.  viii,  16),  yet  the  custom  of  pay- 
ing the  soldiers  appears  to  have  been  still  unknown, 
and  to  have  originated  with  Simon  (1  Mac.  xiv,  32). 
The  introduction  of  mercenaries  commenced  with  John 
Hyrcanus,  who,  according  to  Josephus  (Ant.  xiii,  8,  4), 
rifled  the  tombs  of  the  kings  in  order  to  pa}'  them ; 
the  intestine  commotions  that  prevailed  in  the  reign 
of  Alexander  Jannaeus  obliged  him  to  increase  the 
number  to  6200  men  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  13,  5 ;  14, 1)  ; 
and  the  same  policy  was  followed  by  Alexandra  {Ant. 
xiii,  16,  2),  and  by  Herod  the  Great,  who  had  in  his 
pay  Thracian,  German,  and  Gallic  troops  (Ant.  xvii, 
8,  3).  The  discipline  and  arrangement  of  the  army 
was  gradually  assimilated  to  that  of  the  Romans,  and 
the  titles  of  the  officers  borrowed  from  it  (Josephus, 
War,  ii,  20,  7).     See  Soldier. 

II.  Roman  Army. — This  was  divided  into  legions, 
the  number  of  which  varied  considerably,  each  under 
six  tribunes  (\i\iapxoc,  "  chief  captain,"  Acts  xxi,  31), 
who  commanded  by  turns.  The  legion  (q.  v.)  was 
subdivided  into  ten  cohorts  (airtipa,  "band,"  Acts  x, 


1),  the  cohort  into  three  maniples,  and  the  maniple  into 
two  centuries,  containing  originally  100  men,  as  the 
name  implies,  but  subsequently  from  50  to  100  men, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  legion.  (See  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Ant.  s.  v.)  There  were  thus 
60  centuries  in  a  legion,  each  under  the  command  of  a 
centurion  (tKaTOVTap\tic,  Acts  x,  1,  22  ;  tKar6vTap\oc, 
Matt,  viii,  5 ;  xxvii,  54).  In  addition  to  the  legionary 
cohorts,  independent  cohorts  of  volunteers  served  un- 
der the  Roman  standards  ;  and  Biscoe  (History  of  A  <-tsl 
p.  220)  supposes  that  all  the  Roman  forces  stationed  in 
Judsea  were  of  this  class.  Josephus  speaks  of  five  co- 
horts as  stationed  at  Caesarea  at  the  time  of  Herod 
Agrippa's  death  (Ant.  xix,  9,  2),  and  frequently  men- 
tions that  the  inhabitants  of  Caesarea  and  Sebaste  served 
in  the  ranks  (Ant.  xx,  8,  7).  One  of  these  cohorts 
was  named  the  "  Italian"  (Acts  x,  1),  not  as  being  a 
portion  of  the  Jtalica  legio  (for  this  was  not  embodied 
until  Nero's  reign),  but  as  consisting  of  volunteers 
from  Italy  (Gruter,  Inscr.  i,  434).  This  cohort  proba- 
bly acted  as  the  body-guard  of  the  procurator.  The 
cohort  named  "Augustus"  (mzupa  St/jotr-/;,  Acts 
xxvii,  1)  may  have  consisted  of  the  volunteers  from 
Sebaste  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  12,  5;  Biscoe,  p.  223). 
Others;  however,  think  that  it  was  a  cohors  Augusta, 
similar  to  the  legio  Augusta.  The  head-quarters  of 
the  Roman  forces  in  Judsea  were  at  Caesarea.  A  sin- 
gle cohort  was  probably  stationed  at  Jerusalem  as  the 
ordinary  guard ;  at  the  time  of  the  great  feasts,  how- 
ever, and  on  other  public  occasions,  a  larger  force  was 
sent  up,  for  the  sake  of  preserving  order  (Josephus, 
War,  ii,  12,  1;  15,  3).  Frequent  disturbances  arose 
in  reference  to  the  images  and  other  emblems  carried 
by  the  Roman  troops  among  their  military  ensigns, 
which  the  Jews  regarded  as  idolatrous  ;  deference  was 
paid  to  their  prejudices  by  a  removal  of  the  objects  from 
Jerusalem  (Ant.  xviii,  3,  1 ;  5,  3).  For  the  sentry 
(Acts  xii,  4)  and  their  "  captain"  (Acts  xxviii,  10), 
see  Guard.  The  SfZioXafim  (Vulg.  lancearii;  A.  V. 
"sper.rmen,"),  noticed  in  Acts  xxiii,  23,  appear  to  have 
been  light-armed,  irregular  troops ;  the  origin  of  the 
name  is,  however,  quite  uncertain  (Alford,  Comm.  in 
loc). — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Host. 

Ar'na  (Lat.  Arna,  for  the  Greek  text  is  not  ex- 
tant), a  name  given  as  the  father  of  Marinoth  and  son 
of  Ozias,  in  the  genealogy  of  Ezra  (2  [Vulg.  4]  Esdr. 
i,  2) ;  evidently  meaning  the  Zerahiah  (q.  v.)  of  the 
genuine  list  (Ezra  vii,  3). 

Arnald,  Richard,  M.A.,  a  divine  of  the  Church 
of  England,  born  in  London  about  1G96(?);  entered 
Benedict  College,  Cambridge,  1714 ;  became  fellow  of 
Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  1720;  afterward  rector 
of  Marcaston,  Leicestershire,  where  he  died  in  1756. 
He  is  known  chiefly  by  his  Critical  Commentary  on  the 
Apocrypha  (new  ed.  Lond.  1822,  4to),  which  is  printed 
together  with  Patrick's,  Louth's,  and  Whitby's  Com- 
mentaries (best  ed.  Tegg,  Lond.  4  vols.  8vo). — Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibliog.  i,  99;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  69. 

Arnaldo.     See  Arnold  of  Brescia. 

Ar'nan  (Heb.  Arnan' ,  "3"1X,  nimble ;  Sept.  'Oqvo), 
the  great-grandson  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii,  21). 
He  is  probably  the  same  with  Christ's  maternal  ances- 
tor Joanna,  in  Luke  iii,  27  (see  Strong's  Harmony  and 
Exposition,  p.  17).     B.C.  considerably  post  536. 

Arnaud,  Henri,  pastor  and  military  leader  of  the 
Vaudois,  was  born  at  La  Tour,  in  Piedmont,  1611. 
His  early  history  is  obscure,  but  he  is  said  to  have  been 
a  soldier  before  entering  the  ministry  among  the  per- 
secuted Vaudois.  In  1G89  he  led  his  people  in  their 
efforts  to  recover  their  native  land  and  their  right  to 
worship  God  in  peace.  William  III  of  England  gave 
him  a  colonel's  commission,  and  he  served  with  great 
distinction,  at  the  head  of  1200  Vaudois,  under  Marl- 
borough.  When  his  people  were  exiled  in  1698,  he 
became  their  pastor  at  Schonberg,  and  died  there  in 
1721.     In  this  retirement  he  wrote  the  history  of  his 


ARNAUD 


428 


ARNAULD 


enterprise,  under  the  title  Jfistoire  (h  la  glorieuse  Ren- 
tree  des  Vaudois  duns  lews  Vallees,  printed  in  1710, 
and  dedicated  to  Anne,  Queen  of  Great  Britain.  The 
French  edition  of  this  work  is  very  rare ;  it  has  been 
translated  into  English,  under  the  title  The  glorious 
Recovery  by  the  Vaudois  of  their  Valleys,  trans,  by  H. 
D.  Ackland  (Lond.  1827,  8vo).     See  Vaudois. 

Arnaud  or  Arnauld  de  Villeneuve.  See  Ar- 
nold. 

Arnaud  of  Bkesse.     See  Arnold  op  Brescia. 

Amauld,  Angelique,  abbess  of  Port-Royal,  a 
daughter  of  Robert  Arnauld  d'Andilly,  was  born  28th 
Novembr,  1621.  From  her  earliest  years  she  exhib- 
ited an  extraordinary  force  and  resoluteness  of  char- 
acter, and  excited  much  anxious  speculation  concern- 
ing her  future  career  among  her  relatives.  When  not 
quite  twenty  years  of  age  she  became  a  nun  at  Port- 
Royal  des  Champs,  where  she  had  been  educated  by 
her  aunt,  Marie  Jaqueline  Angelique  Arnauld,  sister 
of  the  great  Arnauld.  Nine  years  after  she  was  made 
sub-prioress ;  and  on  removing  some  j'ears  later  to 
Port-Royal  de  Paris,  she  held  the  same  office.  During 
the  persecution  of  the  Port-Royalists,  Angelique,  by 
her  piety  and  courage,  sustained  the  spirit  of  the  sister- 
hood. The  whole  family,  male  and  female,  were  de- 
termined Jansenists,  and  none  more  so  than  Mere  An- 
gelique de  St.  Jean  (her  conventual  name).  She  had 
much  to  endure,  but  she  met  misfortune  with  earnest 
intrepidity.  A  royal  order  was  issued  to  break  up  the 
nunnery.  Ths  police  arrested  the  inmates,  who  were 
dispersed  in  various  convents  throughout  France,  and 
constant  efforts  were  made  by  the  Jesuits  to  induce 
them  to  sign  the  "Formulary  of  Alexander  VII." 
Angelique  was  alone  exempted  from  listening  to  their 
arguments  and  solicitations,  her  "obstinacy"  being 
supposed  invincible.  At  length,  by  command  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  the  nuns  were  restored  to  Port- 
Royal  des  Champs ;  but  for  some  years  they  were  sub- 
jected to  a  strict  surveillance  by  soldiers,  who  watch- 
ed all  their  movements,  and  allowed  them  no  inter- 
course with  persons  out  of  the  convent.  In  1669,  how- 
ever, was  issued  the  edict  of  Clement  IX  for  the  peace 
of  the  church,  which  was  a  kind  of  compromise  on 
this  vexed  question  of  Jansenism  and  Jesuitism.  The 
nuns  received  back  the  privileges  of  which  they  had 
baen  stripped,  and  constituted  their  society  anew.  An- 
gelique was  again  elected  prioress.  In  1G78  she  was 
made  abbess.  The  next  year  her  protectress,  the 
Duchcsse  de  Longueville,  died,  and  the  persecution  re- 
commenced by  the  prohibition  to  receive  any  more 
novices.  Still  Angelique  did  not  despair.  She  con- 
soled the  nuns,  and  exerted  all  her  influence  with  per- 
sons in  power,  but  with  little  effect.  At  last  she  sank 
under  a  complication  of  griefs,  and  expired  on  the  29th 
of  January,  1684,  leaving  behind  her  as  bright  and 
beautiful  a  memory  as  any  of  her  countrywomen.  She 
was  learned  without  being  pedantic,  pious  without 
bigotry,  and  gentle  to  others  in  proportion  as  she  was 
severe  to  herself.  Angelique  wrote  several  works. 
Of  these,  one,  perhaps  the  most  valuable  work  relative 
to  Port-Royal,  is  entitled  Memoires pour  servir  a  VHis- 
toire  de  Port-Royal,  it  a  la  Vie  de  la  Reverende  Mere 
Mark  Angelique  de  Sainte  Magdelevne  Arnauld,  Re- 
•  de  ce  Monastere  (Utrecht,  1712,  12mo,  3 
vols.).  While  the  Memoires  of  Da  Foss6,  Fontaine, 
and  Lancelot  detail  the  external  history  of  Port-Royal, 
these  Memoires  represent  its  internal  history,  with  the 
mind  and  habits  of  its  members,  particularly  of  the 
elder  Angelique.  The  Memoires  were  edited" by  Bar- 
beau  de  la  Bruyere  in  1712.  The  originals,  from  which 
Barbeau  de  la  Bruyere  printed  the  Memoires,  were 
preserved  in  the  library  of  Saint  Germain  des  Pres  at 
Paris.  Angelique  also  took  a  great  part  in  the  com- 
position of  the  Necrohge  de  Port-Royal  des  Champs 
(Amst.  172:'.,  4  to),  and  wrote  other  works  in  defence  of 
the  monastery. — Memoires  pour  servir  a  V Histoire  de 


Port-Royal,  iii,  498,  etc. ;  Querard,  La  France  Litte- 
raire  ;  Reuchlin,  Geschichte  v.  Port-Royal  (Lips.  1839)  ; 
Edlnb.  Review,  No.  cxlviii;  Methodist  Quarterly,  April, 
1853  ;  Princeton  Review,  xxi,  467  ;  English  Cyclupcedia. 

Arnauld,  Antoine,  one  of  a  family  distinguished 
for  piety,  talent,  and  suffering,  and  which  greatly  in- 
fluenced both  religion  and  literature  in  France,  was 
born  at  Paris  Feb.  6,  1612.  His  father,  named  also 
Antoine  Arnauld  (died  29th  Dec.  1619),  was  a  distin- 
guished advocate,  and  a  great  antagonist  of  the  Jesu- 
its. The  Jesuits  met  with  an  opponent  in  the  younger 
Arnauld  as  determined  as  his  father  had  been.  Ar- 
nauld the  younger  was  educated  at  Calvi.  lie  origin- 
ally studied  for  the  law,  but  was  induced  by  the  Abbot 
de  St.  Cyran  to  turn  bis  attention  to  theology.  In 
1641  he  was  made  priest  and  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne, 
where  he  had  been  pupil  of  Lescot  (afterward  Bishop 
of  Chartres),  who  taught  him  the  scholastic  theology. 
In  this  period  of  study  he  imbibed  a  love  for  Augustine 
and  his  writings,  which  he  ever  after  preserved.  In 
1643  he  was  made  an  honorary  member  of  the  Society 
of  Sorbonne  for  his  extraordinary  merit.  In  this  year, 
1643,  he  published  his  famous  work,  De  la  frequente 
Communion  (7th  ed.  1783),  which  excited  great  atten- 
tion, and  was  vigorously  attacked  by  the  Jesuits.  Ar- 
nauld now  put  forth,  in  reply,  his  Theoloffie  Morale  des 
Jesuites — the  beginning  of  a  fierce  and  protracted  con- 
troversy. The  Jesuits  endeavored  to  have  Arnauld 
sent  to  Rome;  to  escape  this  peril,  he  retired  from 
public  life  for  many  years,  but  kept  his  pen  ever  busy, 
at  the  convent  of  Port-Royal  des  Champs,  near  Paris. 
Sec  Port-Royal.  Soon  after,  he  became  involved  in 
the  disputes  about  Jansenius  (q.  v.),  bishop  of  Ypres, 
and  his  book  Augustinus,  several  propositions  of  which 
concerning  the  intricate  questions  of  grace  and  free- 
will had  been  condemned  by  Pope  Urban  VII  (Aug.  1, 
1641).  Arnauld  boldly  ventured  to  defend  it  against 
the  censures  of  the  papal  bull.  He  published  several 
pamphlets,  closing  with  a  first  and  second  Apolooie  de 
Jansenius.  In  these  years  of  strife,  whenever  a  mo- 
ment of  armistice  permitted,  he  occupied  it  in  writing 
such  works  as  Maeurs  de  I'Eg'ise  Catholique,  La  Correc- 
tion, L,a  Grace,  La  Verite  de  la  Religion,  De  la  Foi,  de 
VEsperance,  et  de  la  Charite,  and  the  Manuel  de  Saint 
A  ugustine.  He  also  varied  these  occupations  by  trans- 
lating into  Latin  his  Frequent  Communion,  and  by  the 
composition  of  his  Xovce  objectiones  contra  Renat.  Des- 
cartis  Meditationes,  and  several  smaller  tractates.  In 
addition  to  his  literary  labors,  he  undertook  the  direc- 
tion of  the  nuns  at  Port-Royal,  of  which  his  sister, 
Marie  Jaqueline  Angelique  Arnauld,  was  abbess.  In 
his  retreat  he  had  the  society  of  such  men  as  Pascal, 
Nicole,  etc.  Here  they  wrote  in  common  numerous 
excellent  works,  e.  i*.  Grammaire  Generate  Raisonnee, 
Elements  de  Geometrie,  and  V Art  de  Denser.  In  16-19 
the  Jansenist  controversy  broke  out  more  fiercely  than 
ever.  The  Augustinus  of  the  Bishop  of  Ypres  was 
again  attacked  and  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne  and 
the  pope.  Arnauld  replied  in  his  Considerations.  Iii 
1650  appeared  what  he  conceived  to  be  his  best  work, 
VApologie  pour  les  Saints  Peres.  For  the  next  half 
dozen  years  he  was  engaged  in  constant  and  painful 
disputes;  }'et,  in  spite  of  the  polemical  character  of 
his  life,  the  impression  of  his  piety  and  earnestness 
was  deepened  in  the  mind  of  the  nation  ;  and,  on  read- 
ing some  of  his  compositions,  even  Alexander  VII  is 
reported  to  have  praised  the  author,  and  to  have  ex- 
horted him  for  the  future  to  despise  the  libels  of  his 
adversaries.  During  the  strife  he  published  La  Con- 
corde des  Evangiles  and  V Office  du  Saint-Sacrement. 
In  1655-56,  for  prudential  reasons,  he  left  his  retreat 
at  Port-Royal,  and  sought  a  secret  place  of  security. 
About  the  same  time  he  was  expelled  from  the  Sor- 
bonne and  the  faculty  of  theology.  Seventy-two  doc- 
tors and  many  licentiates  and  bachelors  went  with 
him.  In  1656,  the  war  with  the  Jesuits  was  renewed 
— not,  however,  by  Arnold  in  person.     Under  the  nom 


ARNAULD 


429 


ARND 


deplume  of  Louis  de  Montalto,  the  great  Pascal  (q.  v.) 
discharged  his  scorpion  wit  against  the  Jesuits  for 
about  a  year  and  a  half  in  the  Provincial  Letters.  Ar- 
nauld  furnished  him  with  materials.  In  1G58  he  took 
the  field  in  propria  persona,  by  publishing  his  Cinq 
Ecrits  enfaveur  des  Cures  de  Paris  contre  les  Casuistes 
reldehis.  In  1662  appeared  La  Nouvelle  Heresie  (of  the 
Jesuits) ;  in  1669  the  first  volume  of  his  Morale  Pratique 
(of  the  Jesuits),  the  last  of  which  was  not  published 
until  the  year  of  his  death.  After  the  peace  of  Clement 
IX,  which  tor  a  time  allayed  the  Jansenist  controversy, 
and  to  which  Arnauld  contributed  by  an  eloquent  me- 
morial to  the  pontiff,  he  was  presented  to  the  pope's 
nuncio,  and  also  to  Louis  XIV,  who  received  him  gra- 
ciously, and  invited  him  "to  employ  his  golden  pen  in 
defence  of  religion."  His  next  work,  in  which  he  was 
associated  with  his  friend  Nicole,  De  la  Perpituite  de  la 
Foi  de  VEglise  Catholique  touckant  V Eucharistie,  was 
dedicated  to  the  pope.  This  occasioned  a  warm  con- 
troversy between  Arnauld  and  the  reformed  minister 
Claude,  in  the  course  of  which  Arnauld  wrote  Du  Ren- 
versement  de  la  Morale  de  J.  C.  par  la  Doctrine  des 
Calvinistes  touckant  la  Justification  (Paris,  1672).  Ar- 
nauld at  the  same  time  continued  his  war  against  the 
Jesuits,  and  wrote  the  greater  part  of  the  work  styled 
Morale  Pratique  des  Jesirites  (8  vols.  12mo),  in  which 
many  authentic  facts  and  documents  are  mixed  up 
with  party  bitterness  and  exaggeration.  The  Jesuits, 
of  course,  an  ambitious  society,  did  not  bear  this  pa- 
tiently. Harlay,  the  archbishop  of  Paris,  assisted  in 
prejudicing  the  king  against  Arnauld,  and  Louis  XIV 
issued  an  order  for  his  arrest.  Arnauld  concealed 
himself  for  some  time  at  the  house  of  the  Duchess 
of  Longueville;  but  in  1679  he  repaired  to  Brussels, 
where  the  Marquis  of  Grana,  the  Spanish  governor  of 
the  Low  Countries,  assured  him  of  his  protection. 
There  he  published  in  1681  his  Apologie  pour  les  Catho- 
liques,  a  defence  of  the  English  Bomanists  against  the 
charges  of  Titus  Oates's  conspiracy.  In  this  work  he 
undertook  the  defence  of  his  old  antagonists  the  Jesu- 
its, whom  he  considered  as  having  been  calumniated 
in  those  transactions.  Another  work,  not  so  credita- 
ble to  Arnauld's  judgment,  is  one  against  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  William  III  of  England,  whom  he  styled  a 
new  Absalom,  a  new  Herod,  and  a  new  Cromwell  (Svo, 
16S9).  It  was  published  anonymously,  but  it  after- 
ward appeared  that  he  was  the  author.  In  refuta- 
tion of  his  old  friend  Malebranche's  opinions,  Arnauld 
wrote  his  Trail 'e  des  Vraies  et  des  Fausses  Idees  (Cologne, 
1683)  ;  and  afterward,  Reflexions  Phi/osopkiques  et  The- 
ologiques  sur  le  Nouveau  Sysfime  de  la  Nature  et  de  la 
Grace  du  Pere  Malebranche  (1685).  He  continued  to 
the  last,  although  past  80  years  of  age,  to  carry  on  his 
various  controversies  with  the  Jesuits,  with  Male- 
branche, with  the  Calvinists,  and  with  the  sceptic  phi- 
losophers, among  whom  was  Bayle.  His  last  work 
was  Reflexions  sur  V Eloquence  ds  Predicateurs,  1694. 
He  died  in  his  exile  at  Brussels,  on  the  8th  of  August 
of  that  year,  after  receiving  the  sacrament  from  the 
curate  of  his  parish.  His  works,  which  filled  more 
than  100  volumes  of  various  sizes,  were  collected  and 
published  at  Lausanne  and  at  Paris,  in  -18  volumes, 
4to,  1775-83.  The  last  volume  contains  the  author's 
biography.  Moreri  gives  a  catalogue  of  his  writings, 
320  in  number. — Penny  Cyclopaedia ;  Ranke,  History 
of  Papacy,  ii,  259  sq. ;  Edinburgh  Review,  July,  1841; 
Princeton  Review,  xxi,  407;  Biog.  Univ<  rselle,  ii,  501; 
St.  Beuve,  Port-Royal,  vol.  ii ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generate,  ii,  286. 

Arnauld,  Henri,  brother  of  Antoine,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1597.  He  was  originally  designed  for  the  bar, 
but,  on  receiving  from  the  court  the  abbey  of  St.  Nich- 
olas, he  entered  the  church.  He  was  elected  bishop 
of  Toul  by  the  diocesan  chapter;  but,  as  the  election 
gave  rise  to  disputes,  he  would  not  accept  it.  In  16f  5 
he  went  to  Borne  to  appease  the  quarrel  between  the 
Barbcrini  family  and  Pope  Innocent  X ;  and  such  was 


his  success  that  the  family  had  a  medal  struck  and  a 
statue  erected  in  his  honor.  On  his  return  to  France, 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Angers  in  1649,  devoted  him- 
self to  his  sacred  calling,  and  became,  like  the  rest  of 
his  family,  a  zealous  Jansenist.  He  was  one  of  the 
four  bishops  who  refused  to  sign  the  acceptance  of  the 
pope's  bull  condemning  the  "Augustinus"  of  Jansc- 
nius.  He  was  accustomed  to  take  only  five  hours' 
sleep,  that  he  might  have  time  for  prayer  and  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptures  without  encroaching  on  the 
duties  of  his  episcopal  office.  He  was  regular  in  visit- 
ing the  sick.  When  there  was  a  scarcity  of  provisions 
at  Angers,  on  one  occasion,  he  sent  ten  thousand  livres 
so  secretly  that  the  donation  was  attributed  to  another, 
and  the  real  donor  was  only  discovered  by  accident 
some  time  afterward.  His  diocese  he  never  left  but 
once,  and  that  was  to  reconcile  the  Prince  of  Tarento 
to  his  father,  the  Duke  de  la  Tremouille.  When  An- 
gers revolted  in  1652,  the  queen-mother  was  about  to 
take  heavy  vengeance  upon  it,  but  was  prevented  by 
this  bishop,  who,  as  he  administered  the  sacrament  to 
her,  said:  "Take  the  body  of  Him  who  forgave  His 


!  enemies  when  on  the  cross."  Some  one  advising  him 
i  to  take  one  day  in  the  week  for  recreation,  he  replied, 
'  "  Yes,'I  will,  Avhen  j'ou  find  me  a  day  in  which  I  am 
not  bishop."  His  Negotiations  a  la  Cour  de  Rome 
(1748,  5  vols.)  contain  many  curious  facts  and  anec- 
dotes. He  died  at  Angers,  June  8, 1694. — Memoires 
de  Port-Royal  (Utrecht,  1742),  vol.  i ;  Besoigne,  Vie  de 
Henri  Arnaidd  (Cologne,  1756,  2  vols.  12mo);  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generate,  ii,  290. 

Arnauld  (of  Andili.y),  Robert,  eldest  brother 
of  Antoine  Arnauld,  was  horn  at  Paris  in  1588,  and  en- 
tered early  into  public  life,  and  filled  several  offices  at 
|  the  French  court.  At  fifty-two  he  retired  into  the 
!  convent  of  Port -Royal,  where  he  wrote  numerous 
I  translations,  and  other  works,  printed  in  8  vols.  fol. 
I  1675.  He  died  Sept.  27,  1674.  His  Vies  des  Salutes 
j  Peres  du  desert  were  translated  into  English  :  Lives  of 
i  the  Fathers  of  the  Desert  (London,  1757,  2  vols.  Svo). 
|  — Collier,  Hist.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Gcnerale,  ii, 
|  282. 

|  Arnd  or  Arndt,  John,  the  first  of  the  Pietists  (q. 
I  v.),  was  born  December  2,  1555,  at  Ballenstadt,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Harz  Mountains.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Helmstadt,  and  devoted  himself  at  first  to 
medicine,  but  afterward  applied  himself  to  theology 
at  Strasburg  under  Pappus,  a  theologian  of  the  rigid 
Lutheran  school.  In  1583  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Lutheran  church  at  Badeborn,  in  Anhalt ;  in  1590,  at 
Quedlinburg;  in  1599,  at  St.  Martin's,  Brunswick. 
His  theological  learning  was  varied  and  accurate  ;  but 
his  chief  peculiarity  was  his  heart  religion,  in  which 
respect  he  was  the  Spencr  or  the  Wesley  of  his  time. 
While  at  Brunswick  he  published  (1605)  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  "True  Christianity"  (\~ier  Biichervomwali- 
ren  Ckristenthum),  designed  to  awaken  students,  min- 
isters, and  others  to  practical  and  experimental  relig- 
ion, and  to  mend,  if  possible,  the  loose  morals  of  the 
age.  The  book  created  a  great  sensation,  and  was  at 
once  translated  into  several  languages.  Its  revivalism 
also  brought  out  the  enmity  of  the  scholastic  theologi- 
ans and  of  the  "dry"  religionists;  a  controversy  of 
many  years'  duration  was  the  result.  See  Scharff,  Sup- 
plem.  Hist.  Litisque  Arndtiana;  (1727).  In  1608  Arndt 
was  called  to  Eisleben,  and  in  1609  the  three  other 
books  of  his  True  Christianity  were  given  to  the  press. 
No  book  of  practical  religion  has  been  more  widely  cir- 
culated, not  even  Bunyan's  Pilgrim  or  Baxter's  Saints' 
Rest.  The  substance  of  the  book  is  as  follows  :  Book 
I  is  called  the  Book  of  Scripture  :  it  seeks  to  show  the 
way  of  the  inward  and  spiritual  life,  and  that  Adam 
ought  to  die  every  day  more  and  more  in  the  heart  of 
a  Christian,  and  Christ  to  gain  the  ascendant  there. 
The  second  is  called  the  Book  of  Life :  he  proposes  in 
it  to  direct  the  Christian  to  a  greater  degree  of  perfec- 


ARNDT 


430 


ARNOLD 


tion,  to  give  him  a  relish  for  sufferings,  to  encourage 
him  to  resist  his  enemies  after  the  example  of  his  Sav- 
iour. The  third  is  entitled  the  Book  of  Conscience : 
in  this  he  recalls  the  Christian  within  himself,  and 
discovers  to  him  the  kingdom  of  God  seated  in  the 
midst  of  his  own  heart,  the  last  hook  is  entitled  the 
Book  of  Nature :  the  author  proves  here  that  all  the 
creatures  lead  men  to  the  knowledge  of  their  Creator. 
New  editions  of  the  work  are  very  numerous;  those 
by  J.  F.  von  Meyer  (4th  ed.  Francf.  1857)  and  Krum- 
macher  (4th  ed.  Leipz.  1859)  contain  biographies  of 
the  author.  For  a  complete  list  of  the  new  German 
editions  of  Arndt's  work,  see  Zuchold,  Bibl.  Theol.,  s. 
v.  Arnd.  The  work  was  translated  into  main-  differ- 
ent languages  :  Latin,  Luneburg,  in  1625 ;  Frankfort, 
in  1628 ;  and  Leipsic,  in  1704.  It  was  printed  in  Low 
Dutch  in  1642  and  1647,  and  translated  into  Danish  and 
Bohemian.  It  was  translated  into  French  by  Samuel 
Basnage  de  Beauval.  The  first  hook  was  printed  in 
English  in  1646;  in  1708  the  Latin  translation  was 
reprinted  at  London ;  an  English  translation  was  pub- 
lished in  1712,  8vo,  dedicated  to  Queen  Anne,  by  M. 
Boehm.  A  new  English  translation  was  published  in 
1815  by  William  Jaques — True  Christianity,  or  the  whole 
Economy  of  God  toward  Man,  and  the  whole  Duty  of  Man 
toward  God  (2  vols.  8vo,  Lond.),  and  an  American  edi- 
tion (Philad.  1842,  8vo).  In  1611  Arndt  was  trans- 
ferred to  Celle,  when  the  duke  of  Luneburg  made 
him  court  chaplain  and  superintendent,  and  his  last 
years  were  spent  in  promoting  the  religious  interests 
of  the  duchy.  He  died  in  1621.  Among  the  charges 
brought  against  Arndt,  one  was  that  he  was  a  mem- 
her  of  the  Rosicrueian  fraternity ;  but  that  has  been 
disproved  (Henke,  Deutsche  Zeitschrift,  1852,  No.  35) ; 
yet  his  medical  studies  had  undoubtedly  led  him  to 
dabble  in  alchemy.  Besides  the  True  Christianity,  he 
published  a  number  of  minor  writings,  which  may  be 
found  in  the  edition  of  his  works  by  Rambach  (Leipzig, 
1734,  3  vols.  8vo).  See  Arnold,  Kirchen  and  Ketzerhis- 
torie,  II,  xvii,  §  6;  F.  Arndt,  Joh.  Arndt,  tin  biog. 
Versuch  (Berlin,  1838);  Pertz,  De  Joanne  A  rndtio,  etc. 
(Hanover,  1852) ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyMopiidie,  i,  540 ; 
Hurst,  History  of  Rationalism,  ch.  i;  Morris,  Life  of 
John  Arndt  (Baltimore,  1853,  12mo). 

Arndt,  Joshua,  a  Lutheran  clergyman,  born  in 
1626,  was  a  professor  at  Rostock,  and  published  several 
works  on  philosophy,  divinity,  and  history ;  among  oth- 
er.-, lexicon  Auliqiiitatum  L'rrlesiaslicarum  (4to,  Greifs- 
wald,  1669).     He  died  in  1685. 

Arnebeth.     See  Hare. 

Arno,  archbishop  of  Salzburg,  frequently  called, 
with  a  Latin  name,  Aquila,  was  probably  a  native  of 
Germany,  and  not,  as  has  been  erroneously  inferred 
from  some  figurative  expressions  of  Alcuin,  a  brother 
of  the  latter.  Arno  (or,  as  he  calls  himself,  Arn)  was 
educated  at  Freisin^;  (Bavaria),  and  was  consecrated 
in  the  same  city  deacon  in  765,  and  priest  in  776.  He 
was  ;i  frequent  attendant  of  Duke  Thassilo,  of  Bavaria, 
and  no  less  than  25  documents  of  the  church  of  Frei- 
Bin»  have  hi-  name  as  a  witness.  He  became,  in  782, 
abbot  at  Elmon,  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  the  same 
ui  his  intimate  relations  with  Alcuin,  who  at 
that  time  was  residing  near  Elmon.  In  785  he  return- 
ed to  Bavaria,  having  been  appointed  by  Duke  Thassilo 
bishop  of  Salzburg.    While  sojourning  at  Rome  in  798, 

he  was,  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  King  Karl  and 
the  Bavarian  bishops,  raised  to  the  dignity  of  arch- 
bishop. Arno  presided  at  several  sj  nods,  and  was,  in 
813,  one  ofthe  presidents  of  the  Council  of  Mentz.  Ho 
also  converted  many  Huns  and  Wends,  and  died  in  820. 
He  wrote, together  with  Deacon  Benedict, the  Conges- 
tion (Indiculus)  Arnonis,  a  list  of  all  the  churches,  vil- 
lages, etc.,  ofthe  archbishopric  of  Salzburg,  which  is 
a  very  valuable  contribution  to  the  early  Church  his- 
tory of  southwestern  Germany.— Herzog,  Red-Ency- 
klqjpddii ,  i,  542. 


Arnobius,  the  Elder,  also  called  "Afer,"  lived 
about  297,  and  taught  rhetoric  at  Sicca,  in  Africa.  He 
was  originally  a  pagan,  and  the  master  of  Lactantius, 
but  about  the  time  of  Diocletian  he  embraced  the 
Christian  faith,  and,  according  to  Jerome  (De  Yiris  II- 
lust.  c.  79),  in  order  the  more  readily  to  induce  the 
bishops  to  receive  him  among  the  number  ofthe  faith- 
ful, he  composed,  before  his  baptism,  about  the  year 
303,  seven  books  against  the  Gentiles  (adversus  Gen- 
tes,  libri  vii).  This  account  of  Jerome's  is  followed  by 
many  writers  (e.  g.  Tillemont,  Cave ;  Smith,  Diction- 
ary, s.  v.);  but  Lardner's  argument  against  it  (iii,  458) 
seems  to  be  conclusive.  Arnobius  writes  in  the  tone, 
not  of  a  catechumen,  but  of  a  Christian  ;  and  he  no- 
where hints  at  any  necessity  or  compulsion  for  his 
task,  but,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
book,  he  speaks  of  it  as  a  task  voluntarily  undertaken 

j  in  view  of  the  injurious  reproaches  cast  upon  the 
Christians.     The  book  begins  with  a  vindication  of 

',  Christianity  from  the  charges  brought  against  it  by 
the  pagans.      In  a  few  points  Arnobius  makes  state- 

I  ments  savoring  of  Gnosticism,  and  he  does  not  mani- 

I  fest  a  complete  acquaintance  with  the  Christian  sys- 
tem or  with  the  Scriptures.  He  shows,  however,  an 
extensive  knowledge  of  pagan  worship  and  literature, 

I  and  the  book  is  a  valuable  source  of  information  on 
these  topics.     The  marked  peculiarity  of  his  Apology, 

j  as  distinguished  from  those  of  his  predecessors,  con- 

I  sists  in  the  fact  that  he  not.  only  repels  the  charges 

i  made  against  Christianity,  but  also  undertakes  to 
show  that  Christianity  itself  is  demonstrable  by  evi- 
dence. In  his  argument  for  the  divinity  of  Christ  and 
of  his  religion,  he  anticipates  many  ofthe  leading  ar- 
guments of  modern  apologists,  especially  of  Paley. 
For  a  very  clear  summary  of  it,  see  Woodham,  Intro- 
duction to  Tertidliani  Liber  Apologeticus,  ch.  iii.  Villc- 
main  gives  Arnobius  a  very  high  place  among  the 

.  early  writers,  in  Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  Generate,  iii,  311. 
See  also  Dorner,  Person  of  Christ,  div.  i,  vol.  ii,  p.  190. 
The  works  of  Arnobius  were  published,  for  the  first 
time,  by  Faustus  Sabeus,  at  Rome,  in  1542,  but  with 
many  faults.  Many  editions  have  since  been  issued, 
but  the  best  are  those  of  Orel/i  (Leips.  1810,  3  vols. 
8vo),  of  Ilildebrandt  (Halle,  1844,  8vo).  See  Geret, 
De  Arnobio  indicia  (Viteb.  1752);  Meyer,  De  ratione 
Amobiana  (Hafn.  1815)  ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  i,  112. 

Arnobius,  the  Younger,  lived  about  460,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  a  priest  of  Gaul,  brought  up  in  the 
monastery  of  Lerins.  He  wrote  a  Commcntaiius  in 
Psalmos  Davidis  (Basle,  1522  ;  Paris,  1639),  which 
shows  him  to  have  been  a  semi-Pelagian.  His  extant 
remains  may  be  found  in  Bib.  3fax.  Patr.  vol.  viii. — 
Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  cent,  v ;  Bayle,  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Du- 
pin,  Eccl.  Writers,  cent.  v. 

Arnold  (Arnaldo,  Arnaud)  of  Brescia  was 
born  in  the  town  of  Brescia  about  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth  century.  Our  information  as  to  his  history  is 
scanty,  and  depends  chiefly  upon  the  accounts  of  his 
enemies.  The  chief  sources  are  Otto  of  Freisingen,  de 
Gestis  Frider.  I,  and  Gunther,  Ligurmus  (12th  cent., 
both  printed  together,  Basle,  1569,  fol.).  He  studied 
under  Abclard  at  the  desert  of  Nogent.  Having  re- 
turned to  Italy  he  became  a  monk.  The  corruption 
ofthe  clergy  was  very  great  at  that  time,  and  Arnold, 
endowed  with  an  impassioned  oratory,  began  to  preach 

I  against  the  ambition  and  luxury  of  abbots,  prelates, 
and  cardinals,  not  sparing  the  pope  himself.     He  main- 

!  tained  that  ecclesiastics  as  well  as  laymen  ought  to 
be  subordinate  to  the  civil  power;  that  the  disposal 
of  kingdoms  and  principalities  did  not  belong  to  the 
(  hurch  of  Christ ;  that  the  clergy  should  not  accumu- 
late wealth,  but  should  depend  upon  the  offerings  of 
the  faithful,  or,  at  most,  upon  tithes,  for  their  support. 
His  vehement  eloquence  inflamed  the  minds  of  the 
people,  who  had  been  alienated  from  the  clergy  before 

j  by  the  excessive  corruption  of  the  times.      Brescia  re- 

i  volted  against  its  bishop,  the  fermentation  spread  to 


ARNOLD 


431 


ARNOLD 


other  towns,  and  complaints  against  the  author  of  all 
this  poured  in  at  Rome.  Innocent  II  had  Arnold  con- 
demned, together  with  other  heretics,  in  the  council  of 
Lateran,  in  1139.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  positive  state- 
ment of  Otto  of  Freisingen  and  other  historians  of 
those  times,  but  Arnold's  name  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  canons  of  the  council ;  and  it  is  only  clear  that,  bjr 
Innocent's  order,  he  was  prohibited  from  preaching, 
■was  banished  from  Italy,  and  forbidden  to  return  with- 
out the  pope's  permission.  He  then  proceeded  to 
France,  where  he  fell  in  with  an  old  fellow-student, 
the  papal  legate  Guido,  afterward  Pope  Celestinus  II ; 
but  he  met  with  an  unrelenting  adversary  in  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux,  who  forced  him  to  seek  refuge  at  Zurich, 
and  afterward  at  Constance  (about  1140).  He  there 
resumed  his  preaching  against  the  abuses  of  the  clergy, 
and  found  many  favorable  listeners.  But  Bernard 
traced  him  there  also,  and  caused  the  Bishop  of  Con- 
stance to  banish  him.  After  the  death  of  Innocent  II 
(1143),  Arnold  returned  to  Italy,  and,  hearing  that  the 
people  of  Rome  had  revolted  against  the  pope,  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurrection.  Lucius  II 
had  died  of  the  wounds  received  in  a  popular  affray, 
and  Eugenius  III,  a  disciple  of  Bernard,  succeeded 
him  in  the  papal  chair,  but  was  driven  away  from  the 
city  by  the  people  and  the  senate.  -The  multitude 
hurried  on  to  excesses  which  Arnold  probably  had 
never  contemplated.  They  attacked  the  houses  of  the 
cardinals  and  nobles,  and  shared  the  plunder.  Ar- 
nold, however,  still  remained  poor ;  he  really  despised 
wealth,  and  his  morals  were  irreproachable.  Borne 
continued  for  ten  years  in  a  state  of  agitation  little 
differing  from  anarchy,  at  war  with  the  pope  and  the 
people  of  Tibur,  and  at  variance  within  itself.  Ber- 
nard, in  his  epistles,  draws  a  fearful  picture  of  the 
state  of  the  city  at  that  time.  Eugenius  III  died  in 
1153,  and  his  successor,  Anastasius  IV,  having  fol- 
lowed him  to  the  grave  shortly  after,  Adrian  IV  was 
elected  pope  in  1154.  He  was  a  man  of  a  more  de- 
termined spirit  than  his  predecessors.  A  cardinal 
having  been  attacked  and  seriously  wounded  in  the 
streets  of  Rome,  Adrian  resorted  to  the  bold  measure 
of  excommunicating  the  first  city  in  Christendom,  a 
thing  without  a  precedent.  The  Romans,  who  had  set 
at  naught  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  quailed  be- 
fore his  spiritual  authority.  In  order  to  be  reconciled 
to  the  pontiff  they  exiled  Arnold,  who  took  refuge 
among  some  friendly  nobles  in  Campania.  "When  the 
Emperor  Frederick  I  came  to  Rome  to  be  crowned,  the 
pope  applied  to  him  to  have  Arnold  arrested.  Freder- 
ick accordingly  gave  his  orders,  and  Arnold  was  stran- 
gled, his  body  burnt,  and  the  ashes  thrown  into  the 
Til>er  in  the  year  1155  {Penny  Cyclopaedia).  See 
Adrian  IV.  The  Roman  Catholic  writers  naturally 
give  Arnold  a  bad  character.  In  truth,  he  was  a  great 
reforming  spirit — the  Savonarola  or  Luther  of  his  time 
— but  driven  by  the  evil  circumstances  of  his  age  into 
errors  and  excesses.  Neander  is  doubtless  only  just 
in  saying  that  the  inspiring  idea  of  his  movements  was 
that  of  a  holy  and  pure  church,  a  renovation  of  the 
spiritual  order  after  the  pattern  of  the  apostolic  church. 
Baptist  writers  class  him  among  the  forerunners  of 
their  church,  as  one  of  the  charges  brought  against 
him  in  1139  was  the  denial  of  infant  baptism.  Ba- 
ronius  calls  him  "the  patriarch  of  political  heretics" 
(.1  ////-//  g,  anno  1155).  See  Koler,  De  A  rnolio  Brixiensi 
(Gott.  1742,  4to);  Francke,  Arnold  v.  Brescia  u.  seine 
Zed  (Zurich,  1825,  8\o).—Biog.  Diet.  Soc.  Useful 
Know}. ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  149  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist.  cent,  xii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  10;  N.  Brit.  Rev.  i,  458; 
Bohringer,  Dk  Kirch,  Christi.  mid  Hire  Zeugen,  ii,  719; 
Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Generate,  iii,  276.  Compare  Ar- 
noldists. 

Arnold  of  Ussixgen.  See  Arnoldi,  Barthol- 
omew. 

Arnold  of  Villexeuve,  a  celebrated  physician 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  was  born  about  1240.     He 


was  eminently  skilled  in  natural  science  and  general 
literature.  In  1285  he  was  made  physician  to  Pedro 
III  of  Aragon  ;  but  his  heterodox  opinions  brought  on 
his  excommunication  by  the  bishop  of  Tarragona,  and 
he  wandered  from  place  to  place  for  years,  until  final- 
ly he  found  refuge  with  Frederick  II  at  Palermo.  The 
monks  stigmatized  him  as  a  magician,  not  so  much 
for  his  science  as  for  his  attacks  upon  their  bad  lives 
and  principles.  He  taught  that  the  monks  had  cor- 
rupted the  doctrine  of  Christ,  and  that  the  founding  of 
masses  and  benefits  was  useless.  In  1311,  Pope  Clem- 
ent V,  being  ill  of  gravel,  sought  the  medical  skill  of 
Arnold,  who  was  shipwrecked,  and  perished  on  the 
voyage  to  Rome.  Ilis  remains  were  buried  at  Genoa 
in  1313,  and  his  writings  were  afterward  burnt  by  the 
Inquisition.  Among  the  propositions  in  them  which 
were  condemned  are  the  following :  1.  that  the  human 
nature  of  Christ  is  equal  to  the  divinity ;  2.  that  the 
soul  of  Christ,  immediately  after  the  union,  knew  as 
much  as  the  divinity ;  3.  that  the  devil  has  perverted 
the  whole  human  race,  and  destroyed  faith  ;  4.  that 
the  monks  corrupted  the  doctrine  of  Jesus  Christ ;  5. 
that  the  study  of  philosophy  ought  to  be  banished 
from  the  schools  ;  6.  that  the  revelation  made  to 
Cyril  is  more  valuable  than  Holy  Scripture;  7.  that 
works  of  mercy  are  more  pleasing  to  God  than  the 
sacrifice  of  the  altar ;  8.  that  founding  benefices  and 
masses  is  useless;  9.  that  he  who  gathers  a  great 
number  of  beggars,  and  founds  chapels  and  perpetual 
masses,  incurs  everlasting  damnation ;  10.  that  the 
sacrificing  priest  and  the  offerer  offer  nothing  of  their 
own  to  God;  11.  that  the  passion  of  Jesus  Christ  is 
better  represented  by  the  giving  of  alms  than  bj'  the 
sacrifice  of  the  altar;  12.  that  God  is  not  honored  in 
deed  in  the  mass,  but  in  word  only;  13.  that  the  papal 
constitutions  are  simply  the  works  of  men ;  14.  that 
God  threatens  with  damnation,  not  all  those  who  sin, 
but  all  those  Mho  afford  a  bad  exnrple;  15.  that  the 
end  of  the  world  would  happen  in  1335, 1345,  or  1376. 
His  works  were  printed  at  Lyons  in  1520,  in  one  vol. 
fol. ;  and  1585;  also  at  Basle. — Nieeron.  Mem.  torn. 
xxxiv,  p.  82  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  541;  Hoefer,  Kouv. 
Biog.  Generate,  iii,  281. 

Arnold,  Godfrey,  an  eminent  German  Pietist  and 
Mystic,  born  at  Annaberg,  Saxony,  16G6.  Educated 
at  Wittenberg,  he  became  a  tutor,  1G89,  at  Dresden, 
where  he  imbibed  an  ardent  Pietistic  tendency  from 
Spener,  who  obtained  him  a  situation  as  private  tutor 
at  Quedlinburg,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  mystic  writers  and  of  Church  history.  After 
condemning  marriage,  he  married  in  1700,  and  lost 
some  of  his  fanatical  views.  In  1707  he  obtained  a 
pastorate  in  Perleberg,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death  in  1714.  In  spite  of  all  his  errors,  Arnold  was 
eminently  pious,  and  was  a  faithful  preacher.  He 
wrote  largely,  but  his  most  important  work  is  his  Un- 
partemche  Kirchen-und-Ketzergcschichfe  (Frankf.  1698- 
1700;  repub.  at  Schaffhausen,  witli  additions,  1740— 
1743,  3  vols.).  This  "  Impartial  Church  History' '  was 
the  first  written  in  German  instead  of  Latin.  It  makes 
personal  piety  the  central  idea  of  Christianity.  But, 
while  bent  on  showing  fair  play,  as  no  historian  before 
had  done,  to  all  sorts  of  heretics  and  schismatics,  par- 
ticularly to  the  Mystics,  for  whom  he  had  a  special 
predilection,  Arnold  fell  into  the  most  gross  wrong  to- 
ward the  representatives  of  orthodoxy,  ascribing  to 
them  the  basest  motives,  and  aspersing  their  character 
in  every  possible  way.  See  Schaff,  History  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Church,  §  30 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encykhpiidie,  i,  548. 
The  number  of  works  which  were  published  against 
Arnold  is  very  large.  A  list  of  them  is  given  in  the 
preface  to  the  third  volume  of  his  works  in  the  Schaff- 
hausen edition.  The  most  important  among  these 
is  by  Groschius,  Nothwendige  Yerthridiguug  der  evange- 
lischcn  Kirche  wider  die  Arnoldische  Ketzerhistorie 
(Francf.  1745).  Among  the  other  works  of  Arnold 
are,  Historia  et  descriptio  theosophias,  1702  (German, 


ARNOLD 


432 


ARNOLDI 


1703);  Das  Geheimtdss  der  gdtlKchen  Sophia  (Leipz. 
1700).  Some  of  the  works  of  Arnold  continue  to  be  in 
common  use  among  the  German  Pietists,  and  are  still 
being  published  in  new  editions;  as,  Die  Erste  Lithe 
(an  essay  on  the  life  of  the  first  Christians  ;  new  edit. 
by  Lammert,  Stuttgardt,  1844;  and  with  an  appendix 
containing  all  the  religious  poems  of  Arnold,  by  Knapp, 
Stuttgardt,  1814);  Paradlesischer  Lustgarten(&  Prayer- 
book;  with  biography  of  Arnold,  and  selection  of  his 
religious  poems  by  Ehmann,  Reutlingen,  1852)  ;  Geist- 
liche  Erfahrungs-Lekre  (an  essay  on  experimental 
Christianity,  from  the  beginning  of  the  conversion  to 
its  completion  (Milford  Square,  Pennsylvania,  1855). 
Complete  collections  of  the  religious  poems  of  Arnold 
Q'Sammtlicke  Geistliche  Lieder")  have  been  published 
bv  Knapp  (Stuttgardt,  1845")  and  Ehmann  (Stuttgardt, 
1856);  a  selection  ("Geistliche  Minneliede)■,,)  by  Eh- 
mann (Stuttgardt,  1850).  .  See  G.  Arnold's  G(dippelter 
Lebenslauf  (partly  autobiography,  171G) ;  Coler,  Sum- 
mariseke  Xachrichf,  von  G.  A  molds  Leben  und  Schriften 
(Wittenberg,  1718);  Knapp,  Biographic  G.  Arnolds 
(Stuttgardt.  1845);  Gobel,  Gesch.  des  christlichen  Le- 
bens  in  der  rheinisch-westphalischen  evangelischen  Kirche 
(vol.  ii,  p.  G98-735). 

Arnold,  Nicholas,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was 
born  at  Lesna,  in  Poland,  December,  1618 ;  died  Oct. 
13, 1680.  He  became,  in  1639,  rector  of  the  school  in 
Jablonow,  and  in  1654  succeeded  Cocceius  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Franeker,  where  he  became  espe- 
cially noted  as  a  pulpit  orator.  His  writings  were  chief- 
ly polemical,  e.  g.  Religio  Sociniana  refutata  (Franeker, 
1654,  4to):  —  Atkeismus  Socinianus  (1659,  4to):  —  Dis- 
cing, thiol,  cont.  Comenium  (1660,  4to): — a  refutation 
of  the  Catechism  of  the  Socinians  (Atheismus  Socinia- 
nus F.  Bidal'i  refutahts,  Amst.  1659)  : — a  work  entitled 
Lux  in  Tenebris  {Light  in  Darkness),  in  which  he  ex- 
plains those  passages  of  Scripture  which  the  Socinians 
use  as  arguments  for  their  doctrines  (Franeker,  1662, 
2  vols.) : — and  a  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews.— Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  iii,  326. 

Arnold,  Smith,  a  highly  esteemed  Methodist 
preacher,  was  horn  in  Middlebury,  Conn.,  in  1766,  and 
removed  in  1791  to  Herkimer  Co.,  N.  Y.  In  the  year 
1800  he  connected  himself  with  the  itinerant  ministry, 
and  continued  in  the  field  of  active  labor  until  1821, 
when  he  assumed  a  supernumerary  relation.  He  died 
at  Rochester,  March  16, 1839.— Wakely,  Heroes  of  Meth- 
odism .-  Min.  ofConf  r.  ii,  670;  Sprague,  Anna!.'!,  vii,  337. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Cowes,  Eng- 
land, .June  13tb,  1795.  In  1803  he  was  sent  to  Win- 
chester school,  where  he  remained  until  1811.  In  1811 
he  obtained  a  scholarship  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1815  a  fellowship  in  Oriel,  where  he 
was  associated  with  Coplestone,  Whately,  and  Hamp- 
den, a  noble  band.  In  1818  he  was  ordained  deacon, 
in  1819  settled  at  Laleham,  where  he  opened  a  school 
to  lit  a  few  young  men  for  the  university.  In  1820  he 
married.  In  1828  lie  was  made  head  master  of  Rugby 
school,  and  ordained  priest.  It  soon  began  to  be  noised 
abroad  that  a  reform  was  in  progress  in  Rugby;  and 
the  effects  of  Dr.  Arnold's  administration  of  the  school 
are  visible  to-day,  not  only  in  Rugby,  but  in  most 
schools  in  En-land.  In  this  occupation  he  spent  the 
last  fourteen  years  of  Ids  life,  and  during  that  period 
took  the  deepesi  interest  in  all  the  political  questions 
Of  the  time.  lb>  was  one  of  the  most  decided  opponents 
of  the  ( (xford  new  school  of  theology.  Ilis  idea  of  a 
Christian  Church  was  first  given  in'  his  pamphlet  on 
"Church  Reform,"  whir],  i„.  was  induced  to  publish 
in  1833,  in  consequence  of  the  apprehensions  he  enter- 
tained of  the  danger  which  then  threatened  the  Estab- 
lishment. His  theory  is  much  the  same  as  Hooker's 
—that  the    Church    and    state    are    identical;    that  a 

church  is  a  Christian  state.     1 1  i  -  views  on  this  subject 

are  again  stated  in  his  Fragment  on  the  church,  sub- 
sequently published,  in  which  he  hits  the  kev-stone 


of  the  Tractarian  heresy  in  attacking  what  he  consid- 
ers to  be  their  false  notions  of  the  Christian  priest- 
hood. Dr.  Arnold's  mind  was  early  directed  to  the 
social  condition  of  the  working  classes ;  and  many  ef- 
forts were  made,  and  a  variety  of  plans  devised  by  him, 
not  only  for  improving  it,  but  for  directing  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public  to  a  subject  of  so  much  importance. 
In  1841  he  was  appointed  by  Lord  Melbourne  to  the 
Eegius-Professorship  of  Modern  History  at  Oxford — 
an  appointment  wdiich  gave  him  the  most  lively  satis- 
faction. But  he  lived  to  deliver  only  his  introducto- 
ry course  of  lectures.  When  at  the  very  summit  of 
his  reputation  as  a  teacher,  and  at  the  time  when  the 
odium  in  which,  for  the  liberality  of  his  religious  and 
political  opinions,  his  name  had  been  held  by  men  of 
his  own  profession  was  fast  disappearing,  and  the  gran- 
deur of  his  character  was  every  day  becoming  more 
manifest  and  more  distinctly  understood,  he  was  seized 
with  a  fatal  disease,  which  carried  him  off  in  a  few 
hours.  He  died  on  the  12th  of  June,  1842,  of  spasm  at 
the  heart.  His  great  work,  and  the  one  by  which  he 
will  be  remembered,  is  his  History  of  Rome  (Loud.  1840- 
1843,  3  vols.  8vo),  comprehending  the  period  between 
the  origin  of  the  state  and  the  end  of  the  Second  Punic 
War;  with  his  History  of  the  later  Reman  Common- 
wealth (Lond.  1849,  2d  ed.  2  vols.  8vo),  reprinted  from 
the  Eneyclopadia  Metropolitana,  carrying  on  the  his- 
tory to  the  time  of  Trajan.  In  the  Notes  and  Dis- 
sertations to  his  edition  of  Thucydides  he  has  given  a 
social  and  political,  as  well  as  a  critical  interest  to  his 
author.  History  and  divinity — man  and  man's  rela- 
tion to  God — were  his  favorite  studies.  In  both  he 
preferred  the  practical  to  the  theoretical.  His  Sermons 
(5  vols.  8vo)  demonstrate  with  what  earnestness  and 
devotion  he  labored  to  bring  religion  into  the  daily 
concerns  of  men,  and  to  invest  ever}-  act  of  life  with  a 
Christian  character.  His  remaining  productions  are, 
a  volume  of  Lectures  on  Modern  History,  delivered  at 
Oxford  (London,  1843,  8vo),  and  Miscellaneous  Worls 
(Lond.  1845,  8vo),  which  include  many  articles  written 
for  reviews,  etc.,  and  essays.  Most  of  Dr.  Arnold's 
writings  have  been  reprinted  in  New  York.  They 
are  not  important  to  scientific  theology,  a  branch  to 
which  Arnold  seems  to  have  given  no  serious  or  pro- 
longed study.  In  some  points  he  approximated  to 
rationalistic  views  of  inspiration  and  interpretation, 
but  his  hold  of  Christ  and  of  the  atonement  saved  him 
from  going  to  extremes.  Still  he  is,  perhaps  justly, 
styled  the  founder  of  the  "Broad  School"  of  the 
Church  of  England. — Stanlej',  Life  and  Correspond!  nee 
of  Dr.  Arnold;  Eng.  Encyclop. ;  Methodist  Quart.  Rev. 
April,  1846,  p.  266 ;  North  Brit.  Rev.  ii,  403 ;  Quartt  fly 
Rev.  (Lond.)lxxiv,  252;  Edinb.  Rev.  lxxxi,  99;  Prince- 
ton Rev.  xvii,  283. 

Arnoldi,  August  Wilhelm,  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  of  Germany,  born  at  Baden,  near  Treves,  in 
Prussia,  died  in  1861.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
1825,  became  professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  elo- 
quence at  the  seminary  of  Treves,  and  subsequently 
canon  at  the  Cathedral.  He  was  elected  bishop  of 
Treves  in  18r9,  but  the  Prussian  government  refused 
to  ratify  the  election.  He  was  again  elected  in  1842, 
when  he  was  recognised  by  the  government,  but  was 
at  once  involved  in  new  difficulties  by  his  refusal 
to  take  the  constitutional  oath.  He  became  widely 
known,  and  produced  a  great  commotion  in  1845  hy  or- 
dering the  public  exhibition  of  a  relic  of  the  Church  of 
Treves,  claimed  to  be  "  the  holy  coat"  of  Christ.  He 
is  the  author  of  a  German  translation  of  the  Tlomilki 
of  Chrysostom  and  his  book  on  the  priesthood; — Pie- 
rcr,  i,  753;  Vapcreau,  66. 

Arnoldi  (Arnold),  Bartholomew,  a  German 

Augustine  monk.  He  was  a  professor  of  theology  at 
Erfurt.  He  was  Luther's  teacher,  and  at  first  agreed 
with  his  views ;  but  when  he  broke  with  the  papacy, 
Arnoldi  became  his  warm  antagonist.    lie  wrote  many 


ARNOLDISTS 


433 


AROER 


works,  ehiefly  against  the  Lutherans.     He  died  at  Er-  j  yards  in  -width,  with  a  few  oleanders  and  willows  on 
furt  in  1532.  '    i  the  margin.     Lieut.  Lynch  describes  it  at  its  mouth  in 

Arnoldists,  followers  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  (a.  v.).  \  AP'-il  as  "■  considerable  stream  of  water,  clear,  fresh, 
Many  seem  to  have  adhered  to  the  doctrines  of  Arnold  and  moderately  cool,  and  having  some  small  fish  in  it" 
even'  after  his  death,  and  to  have  propagated  them  in  (Expedition,  p.  299).  Where  it  bursts  into  the  Dead 
Upper  Italy.  The  Arnoldists  were  condemned  by  i  Sea  tllis  stream  is  82  feet  wide  and  4  feet  deep,  flow- 
Pope  Lucius  III  atthe  council  of  Verona  in  1184.  The  |  ing  through  a  chasm  with  perpendicular  sides  of  red, 
name  occurs  also  later,  as  in  a  law  of  Frederick  II  |  brown,  and  yellow  sandstone,  97  feet  wide.  It  then 
against  the  heretics  (1224);  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  i  runs  through  the  delta  in  a  S.W.  course,  narrowing  as 


the  name  was  merely  copied  from  the  condemnatory 
decree,  or  whether  they  continued  to  exist  as  a  sect, 
Ar'non   (Ileb.  Arnon,  *13"iX,  a  murmur;  Sept. 


it  goes,  and  is  10  feet  where  its  waters  meet  those  of 
the  Dead  Sea  (Lynch,  Report,  May  3,  1847,  p.  20). 
According  to  the  information  given  to  Burekhardt, 


'  „  r.     its  principal  source  is  near  Katrane,  on  the  Haj  route. 
Apvmu,  sometimes  Apvwv\  a  river  (*Q,  torrent,  Deut.  i  ^^  under  ^  name  of  ^  cs_Sa;deh;  it  flowJ8  N  w 

ii,  24,  forming  the  southern  boundary  of  trans- Jot-   to  its  junction  with  the  W.  Lejum,  onehourE.of  Arair, 

danic  Palestine  (originally  of  the  Amoritish  territory,  and  then  ag  w  Mojeb,  more  directlv  W.  to  the  Dead 
Num.  xxi,  13,  2G),  and  separating  it  from  the  land  of  |  Sea.  The  W-  Moj-eb  receives  on  the  "north  the  streams 
Moab  (Deut.  ill,  8, 16 ;  Josh,  xii,  1 ;  Judg.  xi,  22 ;  Isa.  I  0f  the  W<  Waleh,  and  on  the  south  those  of  W.  She- 
xvi,  2;  Jer.  xlviii,  20).  Josephus  speaks  of  it  as  is-  j  kik  and  W.  Saliheh.  At  its  junction  with  the  Is- 
suing from  the  mountains  of  Arabia  (Ant.  iv,  5,  1).  !  jUm  (W.  Enkeileh)  is  a  piece  of  pasture-ground,  ia  the 
Among  these  hills  are  probably  to  be  sought  the  midst  of  which  stands  a-  hill  with  ruins  on  it  (Burck. 
"  heights  of  Arnon"  (Num.  xxi,  28).  See  Bamoth.  p.  374)_  May  not  these  ruins  ,,e  the  s5te  of  the  mvg_ 
It  is  also  named  in  Deut.  ii,  30;  m,  12;  iv,  48;  Josh.  ]  terious  "city  that  is  in  the  midst  of  the  river"  (Josh, 
xii,  2 ;  xiii,  9,  16;  Judg.  xi,  13,  26.  From  Judg.  xi,  :  xiii)  9j  16.  Deut>  ^  SG)  so  often  COupled  with  Aroer? 
18,  it  (i.  e.  one  of  its  branches  N.E.  of  Arnon)  would  j  Fr(nr  the  above  description  of  the  ravine,  it  is  plain 
seem  to  have  been  also  the  east  border  of  Moab  (sec  ■  that  that  city  cannot  have  been  situated  immediately 
also  2  Kings  x,  33).  In  many  of  the  above  passages  ,  bclow  Aroer)  as  has  been  conjectured. 
it  occurs  in  the  formula  for  the  site  of  Aroer,  "which  i  ,  ,  .  ,  „  T  .  .  ,  .... 

is  by  the  brink  of  the  river  Arnon."  In  Numbers  it  Arnoul,  bishop  of  Lisieux,  born  at  the  beginning 
is  simply  "Arnon,"  but  in  Dent,  and  Joshua  general-  !  of  ^e  twelfth  centnry,  died  August  0d i  1183.  He 
ly  "the  river  Arnon"  (A.  V.  sometimes  "river  of  Ar-  j  mad?  fr.ult!e?s  em?rt?  ,to  reconcile  King  Henry  II  of 
non").     Isaiah  (xvi,  2)  mentions   its  fords;   and  in 


Judg.  xi,  26,  a  word  of  rare  occurrence  (~P,  hand, 
comp.  Num.  xiii,  29)  is  used  for  the  sides  of  the  stream. 
In  the  time  of  Jerome  it  was  still  known  as  Arnon ; 
but  in  the  Samarito-Arabic  version  of  the  Pentateuch 
by  Abu-Said  (10th  to  12th  century)  it  is  given  as  el- 
Mojeb.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Wady  t  l-Mojeb 
of  the  present  day  is  the  Arnon  (Seetzen,  Heine,  1854, 
ii,  347;  and  in  Bitter,  Erdk.  xv,  1195).  The  ravine 
throu.h  which  it  flows  is  still  the  "locum  vallis  in  proc- 
rupta  demersse  satis  horribilem  et  periculosum"  which 
it  was  in  the  days  of  Jerome  (Onom.).  The  Roman 
road  from  Rabba  to  Dhi!  an  crosses  it  at  about  two 


England  with  Archbishop  Thomas  of  Canterbury.  In 
his  old  age  he  resigned  his  bishopric,  and  retired  to 
the  abbey  of  St.  Victor  of  Paris,  where  he  died.  We 
have  from  him  a  volume  of  epistles,  of  discourses,  and 
epigrams  (Epistoke,  Condones,  et  Epigrammata,  pub- 
lished by  Turnebe,  Pari?,  1585,  8vo),  which  contains 
interesting  details  on  the  history  of  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline during  his  time.  He  is  also  the  author  of  some 
poems,  and  of  an  essay  on  the  schism  which  followed 
the  death  of  Honorius  II  (published  in  the  Biblu  theca 
Potium,  and  the  Spiciligivm  d'Atkery). — Hoofer,  B'o- 
graphie  Generate,  iii,  3E3. 

Arnulphus,  St.,  bishop  of  Metz.     In  609,  at  the 
entreaty  of  his  parents,  he  married,  but  in  612  his  wife 


hours'  distance  from  the  former.  On  the  south  edge 
of  the  ravine  are  some  ruins  called  Mehatet  el-IIai,  and  i t0(lk  thc  vei1  m  the  monastery  of  Treves ;  and  in  014, 
on  the  north  edge,  directlv  opposite,  those  still  1  earing  j the  '  lshoPnc  of  Metz  becoming  vacant,  the  people  m- 
thfi  name  of  Arair.  SeeAROER.  Burekhardt  was  the  B1?ted  on  having  Arnulphus  for  their  bishop.  As  bish- 
first  to  give  a  satisfactory  account  of  this  river  under  j  °P  hc  managed  his  diocese  with  rare  excellence,  and 
thc  name  which  it  now  bears.  It  rises  in  the  moun-  !  was  made  bJ'  King  Clotaire  prime  minister  of  his  son 
tains  of  Gilead,  near  Katrane,  whence  it  pursues  a  cir-  |  Dagobert,  whom  he  had  associated  with  him  in  the 
cuitous  course  of  abou't  eighty  miles  to  the  Dead  Sea.  I  eniPire-  L  P01)  the  death  of  Clotaire  Arnulphus  rc- 
It  flows  in  a  rockv  bed,  and,  at  the  part  visited  by  tircd  into  a  solitude,  where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his 
Burekhardt,  in  a  channel  so  deep  and  precipitous  as  to  life  in  l,ra.VPr  and  mortification  and  in  every  work  of 
appear  inaccessible  (comp.  Seetzen,  Monad.  Corresp.  fll:irity-  He  dicd  m  629  and  his  relics  are  preserved 
xviii,  432) ;  vet  along  this,  winding  among  huge  frag-  ;  in  the  **>*>*?  fli  St  Arnoul  de  Metz  He  is  commem- 
ments  of  rock,  lies  the  most  frequented  road,  and,  be-  i  orated  on  the  1Gtb  of  August.-Baillet  t  us  de  Scants, 
ing  not  far  from  Dibon,  probably  that  taken  by  the  !  AuS- 16  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Duttoi 
Israelites.  The  descent  into  the  valley  from  the  south 
took  Ir'oy  and  Mangles  (Letters,  p.  461)  one  hour  and 


Arob.     See  Fly. 

A'rod  (Ileb.  Arod',  Ti*i*,  perhaps  affliction,  othcr- 


a  half;  the  descent  from  the  north  took  Burekhardt    wige  a  7r;j,, a^  Sept.  Aooom),  the  sixth  son  (or  branch 
(Syria,  p.  372)  thirty-live  minutes.     The  last-named    of  tJ]e  fami]y)  of  Gad  (Num.  xxvi)  17).     B.C.  1856. 


traveller  declares  that  he  had  never  felt  such  suffoca-    TT 

...       ,      .        ,  .         .  .     ...         „       r         ,,       His  descendants  (Ileli.  Arodi  ,     1.    N)  are  called  .1 

ting  heat  as  he  experienced  in  this  valley  from  the  ■ 

concentrated  rays  of  the  sun  and  their  reflection  from 
the  rocks.  The  stream  is  almost  dried  up  in  summer; 
but  huge  masses  of  rock,  torn  from  the  banks,  and  de- 
posited high  above  the  channel,  evince  its  fulness  and 
impetuosity  in  the  rain}'  season.  Irby  and  Mangles 
suppose  that  it  is  this  which  renders  the  valley  of  the 
Arnon  less  shrubby  than  that  of  most  other  streams 
in  the  countn\  "There  are,  however,  a  few  tama- 
risks, and  here  and  there  are  oleanders  growing  about 


di  (Gen.  xlvi,  16,  Sept.  'Apor^tig)  or  Aroditcs  (Num. 
xxvi,  17  ;  Sept.  'Apoaci). 

Arod.     See  Ass. 

Ar'odi,  A'rodite.     See  Arod. 

Ar'oer  (Ileb.  Aroer',  ISilS  [once  "H"";",  Judg. 
xi,  26],  ruins,  as  in  Jer.  xlviii,  G^'/ieath;"  Sept.  'Apuf/p 
and  'Ap(n)p'),  the  name  of  three  places 
2,  "cities  of  Aroer"   are   mentioned; 


In  Isa.  xvn, 
hut   it    should 


it."     On  each  face  of  the  ravine  traces  of  the  paved  j  rather  be  translated  "  ruined  cities,"  as  Aroer  was  not 
Eoman  road  are  still  found,  with  milestones,  and  one  1  a  metropolis,  and  the  name  does  not  suit  the  connec- 
arch  of  a  bridge,  31  feet  6  inches  in  span,  is  standing.  '  tion  (see  Gesenius,  Comment,  in  loc). 
1  he  stream  runs  through  a  level  strip  of  grass  some  40  i      1.  A  town  "  by  the  brink,"  or  "on  thc  bank  of" 
Ee 


AROKR 


434 


AROMATICS 


(both  the  same  expression — Heb.  "on  the  lip"),  or 
'.'by,"  i.  e.  on  the  north  side  of  the  torrent  Arnon 
(Deut.  iv,  48;  Judg.  xi,  26;  2  Kings  x,  33;  1  Chron. 
v,  8),  anil  therefore  on  the  southern  border  of  the  ter- 
ritory conquered  from  Sihon,  which  was  assigned  to 
the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  (Deut.  ii,  36;  iii,  12;  Josh, 
xii,  2;  xiii,  '.•)•  The  Amorites  had  previously  dispos- 
sessed the  Ammonites  of  this  territorj' ;  and  although 
the  town  seems  to  be  given  to  Reuben  (Josh,  xiii,  16), 
it  is  mentioned  as  a  Moabitish  city  by  Jeremiah  (xlviii, 
19).  According  to  Eusebius  (Onomast.  s.  v.  'Apo'qp)  it 
stood  "on  the  brow  of  the  hill."  Burckhardt  (comp. 
Macmichael,  Journey,  p.  212)  found  the  ruins  of  this 
town,  under  the  name  of  Araayr,  on  the  edge  of  a 
precipice  overlooking  Wady  Mojeb  (Travels  in  Syria,  p. 
372).  Thej-  are  also  mentioned  under  the  nam 3  Arair 
in  Robinson's  Researches  (App.  to  vol.  iii,  p.  170,  and 
Map).  Schwarz  places  it  15  miles  from  the  Dead  Sea 
(Palest,  p.  226).  Aroer  is  always  named  in  conjunc- 
tion with  "the  city  that  is  in  the  midst  of  the  river;" 
whence  Dr.  Mansford  (Script.  Gaz.)  conjectures  that, 
like  Rabbath  Ammon  (q.  v.),  it  consisted  of  two  parts, 
or  distinct  cities ;  the  one  on  the  bank  of  the  river, 
and  the  other  in  the  valley  beneath,  surrounded,  either 
naturally  or  artificially,  by  the  waters  of  the  river. 
For  another  explanation,  see  Arxon. 

2.  One  of  the  towns  "built,"  or  probably  rebuilt, 
by  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii,  34).  It  is  said  in 
Josh,  xiii,  25,  to  be  "before  ("'33-'br)  Kabbah"  [of 
Ammon]  ;  but,  as  Raumer  well  remarks  (Pali  stint,  p. 
249),  tliis  could  not  possibly  have  been  in  the  topo- 
graphical sense  of  the  words  (in  which  before  means 
east  of),  seeing  that  Aroer,  as  a  town  on  the  eastern 
border  of  Gad,  must  have  been  west  of  Rabbah  ;  while 
to  a  person  in  Palestine  proper,  or  coming  from  the 
Jordan,  Aroer  would  be  before  Rabbah  in  the  ordi- 
dary  sense.  It  is  (see  Ritter,  Erdk.  xv,  1130)  appar- 
ently the  place  discovered  by  Burckhardt  (Syria,  p. 
335),  who,  in  journeying  toward  Rabbath  Ammon, 
notices  a  ruined  site,  called  Ayra,  about  seven  miles 
south-west  from  es-Salt ;  probably  the  same  with  the 
Array  el-Emir  visited  by  Legh  (p.  246)  on  his  way 
from  Heshbon  to  es-Salt  (comp.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p. 
231).  It  is  also  called  Air  eh  in  Robinson's  Researches 
(iii,  App.  p.  169).  Aroer  of  Gad  is  also  mentioned  in 
Judg.  xi,  33,  and  2  Sam.  xxiv,  5,  in  which  latter  pas- 
sage it  is  stated  to  have  been  situated  on  the  "river" 
(brook)  of  Gad,  i.  e.  apparently  on  the  Wady  Nimrin 
(and  not  the  Arnon,  see  Reland,  Pahest.  p.  583).  Keil 
(Comment,  on  Josh.  p.  339),  approved  by  Van  de  Velde 
{Memoir,  p.  288),  fixes  upon  Kulat  Zeska  Gadda,  as 
lying  in  ,i  wady  and  eist  of  Rabbah;  but  the  passage 
in  2  Sam.  ("and  they  passed  over  Jordan,  and  pitched 
in  Aroer,  on  the  right  side  of  the  city,  that  lieth  in  the 
midst  of  the  river  of  Gad,  and  toward  Jazer")  can 
only  signify  [if,  indeed,  the  word  nCN,  which)  do  not 
signify  here  merely  "to  wit,"  or  rather  be  not  alto- 
gether spurious]  that  the  party  of  Joab  encamped  just 
across  the  Jordan,  in  the  bed  of  one  of  the  brooks  of 
Gad  (the  Wady  Nimrin),  south  of  Aroer  and  not  far 
from  Jaazer.  Jerome  speaks  of  it  as  Aruir  (Euseb. 
'Apovii),  a  village  still  found  on  a  hill  20  Roman  miles 
south  of  Jerusalem  (Onomast.  s.  v.);  but  this,  if  cor- 
rect, can  only  mean  south-east. 

3.  A  city  in  the  south  of  Judah  (i.  e.  in  Simeon),  to 
which  David  sent  presents  after  recovering  the  spoil 
of  Ziklag  (1  Sain,  xxx,  26,  28).  It  appears  to  have 
been  the  native  city  of  two  of  David's  warriors  (1 
Chron.  xi,  4  ! ).  At  the  distance  of  twenty  geograph- 
ical miles  south  by  west  from  Hebron,  Dr.  Robinson 
(Research,  s,  ii,  (lis)  came  to  a  broad  wady  where  there 
are  many  pita  for  water,  which  are  called  Ararah,  and 
which  gave  name  to  the  valley.  In  the  valley  and  on 
the  western  hill  are  evident  traces  of  an  ancient  vil- 
lage or  town,  consisting  only  of  foundations  of  unhewn 
S,  now  much  scattered,  but  yet  sufficiently  dis- 


tinct to  mark  them  as  foundations.  Small  fragments 
of  pottery  are  also  everywhere  visible.  The  same  iden' 
tification  is  proposed  by  Schwarz,  who  calls  the  place 
"the  modern  village  Arar,  two  and  a  half  English 
miles  south  of  Moladah"  (Palest,  p.  113). 

Aroer.     See  Heath. 

Ar'oerite  (Heb.  Aroeri',  ^SpS,  Sept.  'Apapt), 
an  inhabitant  of  one  of  the  cities  of  Aroer,  probably 
that  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  xi,  44). 

A'rom  (  Ap6/t,  prob.  interpolated),  the  name  of  a 
man  whose  descendants  (or  of  a  place  whose  inhabi- 
tants), to  the  number  of  thirty-two,  are  said  to  have 
returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v, 
16) ;  but  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  17, 18)  has  no  cor- 
responding name,  unless  it  lie  a  mistake  for  Asom,  and 
represents  the  Hashum  of  Ezra  xi,  19. 

Aromatics  (from  the  Gr.  dpojpa,  a  pleasant  smell) 
is  a  general  term  including  all  those  odoriferous  sub- 
stances denoted  by  several  Hebrew  words,  frequently 
designated  as  "  spices"  in  the  Auth.  Vers.,  e.  g.  ahalim 
("aloes"),  "al/iivy"  or  "a/gum,'"  bedolach  ("bdel- 
lium"), chelbenah  ("  galbanum"),  basam,  or  balsam, 
kaneh  ("calamus"),  ketsioth  and  Hddah  ("cassia"), 
"cinnamon,"  lebonah  ("frankincense"),  lot  and  mor 
("myrrh"), nerd(" spikenard"),  natof(u  stacte"),  tseri 
("balm"),  shecheleth  ("onycha"),  also  rehach,  bosen 
or  besen,  sammim,  and  nelcoth  ("spice"),  all  which  see 
in  their  alphabetical  place,  and  compare  "mint," 
"rue,"  "anise,"  "  thyine  wood,"  etc.,  mentioned  in 
the  N.  T.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  exact  prod- 
ucts which  the  most  of  the  words  refer  to,  but  when 
they  are  separately  noticed,  especially  when  several 
are  enumerated,  their  names  may  lead  us  to  their  iden- 
tification. Dr.  Vincent  has  observed  that  "in  Exod. 
xxx  we  find  an  enumeration  of  cinnamon,  cassia, 
myrrh,  frankincense,  stacte,  onycha,  and  galbanum, 
all  of  which  are  the  produce  either  of  India  or  Arabia." 
More  correctly,  cinnamon,  cassia,  frankincense,  and 
onycha  were  probably  obtained  from  India ;  myrrh, 
stacte,  and  some  frankincense,  from  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  and  galbanum  from  Persia.  More  than  1000 
years  later,  or  about  B.C.  588,  in  Ezek.  xxvii,  the 
chief  spices  are  referred  to,  with  the  addition,  however, 
of  calamus.  They  are  probably  the  same  as  those  just 
enumerated.  Dr.  Vincent  refers  chiefly  to  the  Perip'us, 
ascribed  to  Arrian,  written  in  the  second  century,  as 
furnishing  a  proof  that  many  Indian  substances  were 
at  that  time  well  known  to  commerce,  as  aloe  or  agila 
wood,  gum  bdellium,  the  googal  of  India,  cassia  and 
cinnamon,  nard,  costus,  incense — that  is,  olibanum — 
ginger,  pepper,  and  spices.  If  we  examine  the  work 
of  Dioscorides,  we  shall  find  all  these,  and  several  oth- 
er Indian  products,  not  only  mentioned,  but  described, 
as  schoznanthus,  calamus  aromaticus  cyperns,  malaba- 
thrum,  turmeric.  Among  others,  Lycium  indicum.  is 
mentioned.  This  is  the  extract  of  barberry  root,  and 
is  prepared  in  the  Himalayan  Mountains  (Royle,  on 
the  Lycium  of  Dioscorides,  Lineman  Trans.).  It  is  not 
unworthy  of  notice  that  we  find  no  mention  of  several 
very  remarkable  products  of  the  East,  such  as  cam- 
phor, cloves,  nutmeg,  betel-leaf,  cubebs,  gamboge,  all 
of  which  are  so  peculiar  in  their  nature  that  we  could 
not  have  failed  to  recognise  them  if  they  had  been  de- 
scribed at  all,  like  those  we  have  enumerated  as  the 
produce  of  India.  These  omissions  are  significant  of 
the  countries  to  which  commerce  and  navigation  had 
not  extended  at  the  time  when  the  other  articles  were 
well  known  ( Hindoo  Medicine,  p.  93).  If  we  trace 
these  up  to  still  earlier  authors,  we  shall  find  many  of 
them  mentioned  by  Theophrastus,  and  even  by  Hip- 
pocrates; and  if  we  trace  them  downward  to  the  time 
of  the  Arabs,  and  from  that  to  modern  times,  we  find 
many  of  them  described  under  their  present  names  in 
works  current  throughout  the  East,  and  in  which  their 
ancient  names  are  given  as  synonyms.  We  have, 
therefore,  as  much  assurance  as  is  possible  in  such 


AROPILEUS 


435 


ARROW 


cases,  that  the  majority  of  the  substances  mentioned 
by  the  ancients  have  been  identified  ;  and  that  among 
the  spices  of  early  times  were  included  many  of  those 
which  now  form  articles  of  commerce  from  India  to 
Europe. — Kitto,  ii,  787.     See  Spicery  ;  Perfume. 

Arophaeus.     See  Amariah. 

Ar'pad  (Isa.  xxxvi,  19 ;  xxxvii,  13)  or  Ar'phad 
(Heb.  Arpad',  IS^X,  perhaps  a  support;  but  see  be- 
low ;  Sept.  in  2  Kings  'Apfdc,  elsewhere  'AptyaS,  in 
Isa.  x,  9  undistinguishable),  a  Syrian  city,  having  its 
own  king  (2  Kings  xix,  13;  Isa.  xxxvii,  13),  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hamath  (2  Kings  xviii,  34 ;  Isa.  x, 
9  ;  xxxvi,  19)  and  Damascus  (Jer.  xlix,  23),  with  both 
of  which  it  appears  to  have  been  conquered  by  the  As- 
syrians under  Sennacherib.  Michaelis  and  others  seek 
Arphad  in  Raphanee  or  Raphaneie  of  the  Greek  geog- 
raphers (Ptol.  v,  15;  Steph.  Byzant.  in  'EirKpdvtia  ; 
Joseph.  War,  vii,  1,  3;  vii,  5,  1),  which  was  a  day's 
journey  west  of  Hamath  (Mannert,  VI,  i,  431).  Pau- 
lus  {Comment,  in  Isa.  x,  9)  thinks  it  was  a  city  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Some, 
however,  are  content  to  find  this  Arphad  in  the  Arpha 
('Apfci)  which  Josephus  (War,  iii,  3,  5)  mentions  as 
situated  on  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  the  northern- 
most province  of  Herod  Agrippa's  tetrarehy  ;  also  call- 
ed A  rtha  (Ap$a)  or  A  rfa  by  other  ancient  writers  (Re- 
land,  Palccst.  p.  584).  But  it  seems  best  (with  Doder- 
lein  and  others)  to  refer  it  to  the  Phoenician  island 
city  Arvad  or  Aradus  (q.  v.),  which  was  opposite  Ha- 
math (the  interchange  of  £  and  1  being  very  natural). 

Arpha.     See  Arpad. 

Arphax'ad  (Heb.  Arpakshad',  'TODB'IX  [on  the 
signif.  see  below]  ;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  'Apfa^dc,  Josephus 
'An<pa£da){),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  first  antediluvian  patriarch,  son  of  Shem, 
and  father  of  Salah ;  born  one  year  after  the  end  of 
the  Deluge,  and  died  B.C.  2075,  at  the  age  of  438  vears 
(Gen.  xi,  10-13;  1  Chron.  i,  17,  18;  Luke  iii,"  36). 
From  Gen.  x,  22,  24,  it  appears  that  the  region  settled 
by  this  patriarch's  descendants  likewise  took  his  name. 
The  conjecture  of  Bochart  (Ph'd<g,  ii,  4)  has  been 
adopted  by  several  others  (Michaelis,  Suppl.  p.  129 ; 
Orient.  Bibl.  xvii,  77  sq. ;  Mannert,  v,  439),  that  it  is 
the  province  Arrhapachitis  ('Appa-rraxiTtv),  in  northern 
Assyria,  near  Armenia  (Ptol.  vi,  1),  the  primitive  coun- 
try of  the  Chaldaaans  (Josephus,  Ant.  i,  G,  4 ;  comp. 
Syncell.  Chron.  p.  4G),  whose  national  title  (D"HC3, 
Kasd'nn)  appears  to  form  the  latter  part  of  the  name 
Arphaxad  (12)3) ;  the  first  part  being  referred  by  Mi- 
chaelis (Spicileg.  i,  73  sq.)  to  an  Arabic  root  signifying 
boundary/  (q.  d.  "border  of  the  Chaldseans"),  but  with 
as  little  felicity  (see  Tuch,  Gen.  p.  25G)  as  the  deriva- 
tion by  Ewald  (Jsr.  Gesch.  i,  333)  from  another  Arabic 
root  signifying  to  bind  (q.  d.  "  fortress  of  the  Chal- 
daeans").  (See  Gesenius,  Comment,  lib.  Jesv.  xxiii, 
13;  and  comp.  Niebuhr,  Gesch.  Assur's,  p.  414,  note.) 
Bohlen  (Gen.  in  loc),  with  even  less  probability,  com- 
pares the  Sanscrit  Arjapakshata  "(a  land)  by  the  side 
of  Asia;"  comp.  Porussia,  i.  q.  Po-rus,  i.  e.  near  the 
Russians.  (See  Schliizer  in  the  Repert.  f.  bibl.  Lit. 
viii,  137 ;  Lengerke,  Kenaan,  i,  211 ;  Knobel,  Vulker- 
tafel  d.  Genesis,  Giess.  1850.) 

2.  A  king  of  Media  at  Ecbatana,  which  city  he  had 
fortified  during  an  open  campaign  and  siege  by  his 
contemporary  Nebuchadnezzar  (Judith  i,  1  sq.).  From 
the  connection  of  his  name  with  Ecbatana  he  has  been 
frequenthr  identified  with  Deioces  (Ctes.  "Artaeus"), 
the  founder  of  Ecbatana  (Herod,  i,  98)  ;  but  as  Deioces 
died  peaceably  (Herod,  i,  102),  it  seems  better  to  look 
for  the  original  of  Arphaxad  in  his  son  Phraortes 
(Ctes.  "Artynes"),  who  greatly  extended  the  Median 
empire,  and  at  last  fell  in  a  battle  with  the  Assyrians, 
B.C.  633  (Herod,  i,  102).  But  this  would  disagree 
with  the  date  and  circumstances  of  Nebuchadnezzar; 
moreover,  the  half-fabulous  book  of  Judith  abounds 


with  statements  respecting  the  Median  kings  scarcely 
reconcilable  with  genuine  history.  See  Media;  Ju- 
dith. Niebuhr  (Gesch.  Assur's,  p.  32)  endeavors  to 
identify  the  name  with  " Ash/ages"  =Ashdahak,  the 
common  title  of  the  Median  dynasty,  and  refers  the 
events  to  a  war  in  the  twelfth  vear  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, king  of  Babylon,  B.C.  592  (Ibid.  p.  212,  285).  See 
Nkijihiadnezzar. 

Arrhabon  (apjjap&v,  earnest  or  pledge).  The 
early  church  used  a  great  varietj'  of  expressions  to  de- 
scribe the  elements  of  bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  among  the  rest,  the  expressions  dppaftwv 
and  appa/iujv  r<jc  ptWovmig  £wijc,  earnest  of  the  life 
to  come,  probably  with  reference  to  2  Cor.  i,  22 ;  v,  5  ; 
and  Eph.  i,  14.  See  Earnest.  The  Arrhabonarii 
were  sacramentarians  in  the  16th  century  who  held 
that  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  Eucharist  are  neither 
the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  nor  the  signs  of 
them,  but  only  the  pledge  and  earnest  thereof.— Far- 
rar,  s.  v. 

Arriaga,  Paul  Joseph  de,  a  Spanish  Jesuit, 
born  at  Vergara  in  1562.  Having  been  sent  by  his 
superiors  to  Peru,  he  founded  several  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  was,  in  succession,  rector  of  the  college 
of  Arequipa  and  of  that  of  Lima.  He  perished  in  a 
shipwreck,  but  it  is  not  known  in  what  year.  He  is 
the  author  of  a  work  on  the  Indians  in  Peru  (ExHrpa- 
cion  de  la  idolatria  de  los  Indios  del  Peru,  Lima,  1621), 
and  of  several  other  works. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate, 
iii,  354. 

Arriaga,  Roderigo  de,  an  eminent  Spanish  Jes- 
uit, was  born  at  Logrono,  Spain,  Jan.  17,  1592.  At 
fourteen  he  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  afterward 
taught  philosophy  and  theology  at  Valladolid  and  Sal- 
amanca. He  was  sent  to  Prague  in  1624,  and  taught 
theology  there  till  1627.  He  was  a  man  of  great  acute- 
ness  of  mind,  and  had  deservedly  a  great  reputation 
in  his  day  for  learning  and  skill  in  dogmatic  theology. 
He  died  at  Prague  June,  17,  1667.  Bayle  hints  that 
he  was  inclined  to  Pyrrhonism.  Among  his  writings 
are  Cursus  Philosophies  (Antwerp,  1632,  fol.) ;  Disput. 
Theol.  in  summam  Aqvinatis  (8  vols,  fol.,  1643-1655; 
and  again  at  Lyons,  1669). — Bayle,  Dicticnmry,  s.  v. ; 
Walch,  Bibliotheca,  i,  152 ;  Sotuel,  Script.  Soc.  Jesu,  729. 

Arrow.  There  are  several  words  thus  rendered 
in  the  English  Bible,  namely,  properly  VH  (chefs,  from 
its  sharp?:ess),  of  frequent  occurrence  (rendered  "  dart" 
in  Prov.  vii,  23;  "wound,"  i.  e.  of  an  arrow,  Job 
xxxiv,  6;  "staff"  by  an  error  of  transcription  for 
"V,  the  haft  of  a  spear,  1  Sam.  xvii,  7),  with  its  deriv- 
atives ">SH  (chetsi',  1  Sam.  xx,  36,  37,  38  ;  2  Kings  ix, 
24)  and  "j'^H  (chatsats',  Psa.  lxxvii,  17;  elsewhere 
"gravel");  poetically  7(C^\  (re'sheph,  Psa.  lxxvi,  31, 
lightning,  as  it  is  elsewhere  rendered),  and  i"HEj3"jSl 
(ben-ke' sheth,  i.  e.  son  of  a  bow,  Job  xli,  28).  Among 
the  Hebrews  arrows  were  probably  at  first  made  of 
reed,  as  common  among  the  Egyptians  ;  subsequently 
they  were  made  from  some  light  sort  of  wood,  and  tip- 
ped with  an  iron  point.  Whether  they  were  ever  dip- 
ped in  poison  is  not  clear  from  Job  vi,  4  ;  Deut.  xxxii, 
24.  They  were  often  composed,  in  part  at  least,  of  the 
shrub  CPi,  ro'them,  "juniper,"  which,  being  discharged 
from  the  bow  while  on  fire,  kindled  upon  the  baggage 
or  armament  of  the  enemy  (Psa.  exx,  4  ;  Job  xxx,  4). 
Hence  arrows  are  sometimes  put  tropically  for  light- 
nings (Deut.  xxxii,  23,  42;  Psa.  vii,  13;  Zech.  ix,  14). 
Arrows  were  used  in  war  as  well  as  in  hunting  (Gen. 
xxvii,  3;  xlvii,  22).  See  Archer.  They  were  kept 
in  a  case  called  a  quiver  (q.  v.),  which  was  slung  over 
the  shoulder  in  such  a  position  that  the  soldier  could 
draw  them  out  when  needed  (Psa.  xci,  5  ;  exx,  4).  See 
Bow.  They  were  also  used  in  divination  (Ezek.  xxi, 
21).  See  Divixatiox.  The  arrows  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  varied  from  22  to  34  inches  in  length ;  some 


ARROW 


436 


ARSEXAL 


Ancient  Egyptian  reed- 


i'oiv.-.     1,  Hard-wood  point;  2,  Stone 
head. 


were  of  wood,  others  of  reed  ;  frequently  tipped  with 
a  metal  head,  and  winged  with  three  feathers,  glued 
longitudinally,  and  at  equal  distances,  upon  the  other 


Ancient  r.j_'vptian  Sportsman,  with  spare  Arrows, 
end  of  the  shaft,  as  on  modern  arrows.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  the  metal  head,  a  piece  of  hard  wood  was 
inserted  into  the  reed,  which  terminated  in  a  long  ta- 
pering point ;  but  these  were  of  too  light  and  powerless 
a  nature  to  he  employed  in  war,  and  could  only  have 
been  intended  for  the  chase :  in  others,  the  place  of 
the  metal  was  supplied  by  a  small  piece  of  flint  or  oth- 
er sharp  stone,  secured  by  a  firm  black  paste ;  and,  al- 
though used  occasionally  in  bat- 
tle, they  appear  from  the  sculp- 
tures to  have  belonged  more 
particularly  to  the  huntsman ; 
while  the  arrows  of  archers  are 
generally  represented  with 
bronze  heads,  some  barbed,  oth- 
ers triangular,  and  many  with 
three  or  four  projecting  blades, 
placed  at  right  angles  and  meet- 
ing in  a  common  point  (Wilkin- 
son, A nc.  Egypt,  i,  356).  The  an- 
cient Assyrians  appear  also  to 
have  used  arrows  made  of  reeds, 
which  were  kept  in  a  quiver 
slung  over  the  back.     The  barbs 

Of  winch  have  been  discovered 
among  the  ruins  (Layard,  Nineveh,  ii,  263).  See  AR- 
MOR. 

The  word  "arrow"  is  frequently  used  as  the  sym- 
bol of  calamity  or  disease  inflicted  by  God  (Job  vi,  4; 
xxxiv,  (i:  Psa.  xxxviii,  2;  Deut.  xxxii,  23;  comp. 
Ezek.  v,  16;  /ech.  ix,  11).  The  metaphor  thus  ap- 
plied was  also  in  use  among  the  heathen  (Ovid,£p. 
xvi,  275).  It  derived  its  propriety  and  force  from  the 
popular  belief  that  all  diseases  were  immediate  and 
Bpecial  inflictions  from  heaven.  Lightnings  are.  by  a 
very  fine  figure,  described  as  the  arrows  of  God  (Psa 
xviii.  II;  cxliv.  6;  Habak.  iii.  11  .  compare  Wisd.  v, 
21  :  i'  .sam.  xxii,  15).  "Arrow"  is  occasionally  used 
to  denote  some  sudden  or  inevitable  danger  as  in  Psa. 
Xd,  5:  "The  arrow  that  llieth  by  day."  '  It  is  also 
figurative  of  any  thins;  injurious,  as  a  deceitful  tongue 
(Psa.  exxix,  4;  Jer.  ix,  7),  a  bitter  word  (Psa.  lxiv, 


3),  a  false  testimony  (Prov.  xxv,  18).  As  symbolical 
of  oral  wrong  the  figure  may  perhaps  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  darting  "  arrowy  tongue"  of  serpents. 
The  arrow,  however,  is  not  always  symbolical  of  evil. 
In  Psa.  exxvii,  4,  5,  well-conditicned  children  are  com- 
pared to  "arrows  in  the  hands  of  a  mighty  man." 
i.  e.  instruments  of  power  and  action.  The  arrow  is 
also  used  in  a  good  sense  to  denote  the  efficient  and  ir- 
resistible energy  of  the  word  of  God  in  the  hands  of 
the  Messiah  (Psa.  xlv,  6 ;  Isa.  xliv,  2  ;  comp.  Lowth's 
note  thereon).     (See  AVemyss,  Clavis  Symbolica,  s.  v.) 

Arrow-headed  Writing.  See  Cuneiform  In- 
scriptions. 

Arrowsmith,  John,  D.D.,  a  Puritan  divine,  was 
born  at  Newcastle,  1602,  and  died  in  1659.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  became  minister  at  Lynn,  and 
afterward  in  London.  He  was  a  member  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly,  and  afterward  master  of  St.  John's 
College  and  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Of  his 
numerous  writings,  the  most  important  arc  Armilla 
Catechetica,  a  chain  of  theological  aphorisms  (Cambr. 
1659,  4to: — Tactica  Sacra,  de  mil  it  e  spirit uali  pugnante, 
vincente  et  triumpkanti,  dissertatio  (Cantab.  1657,  4to). 
See  Brook,  Lives  of  the  Puritans,  iii,  315  ;  Neal,  Histo- 
ry of  the  Puritans,  iii,  115 ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors, i,  71. 

Ar'saces  (  Apovkj/c,  prob.  of  Persian  or  Armenian 
origin,  Pott,  Etymol.  Forschungen,  ii,  172),  the  name 
of  the  founder  of  the  Parthian  empire  (Justin,  xli,  ft, 
5),  and  hence  borne  by  his  successors,  the  Arsacidae 
(see  Smith's  Did.  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.).  The  nama 
occurs  in  the  Apocrypha  (1  Mace,  xiv,  2,  3;  xv,  22) 
as  that  of  the  king  of  Parthia  and  Media  (Diod.  Sic. 
Excerpt,  p.  597.  ed.  Wessel),  B.C.  138.  The  Syrian 
king  Demetrius  (II)  Nicator,  having  invaded  his  coun- 
try, at  first  obtained  several  advantages.  Media  de- 
clared for  him,  and  the  Elymseans,  Persians,  and  Bae- 
trians  joined  him  :  but  Arsaccs  having  sent  one  of  his 
officers  to  him,  under  pretence  of  treating  for  peace, 
he.  fell  into  an  ambuscade,  his  army  was  cut  off  by  the 
Persians,  and  he  himself  fell  into  the  hands  of  Arsaces 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  5,  11).  As  Arsaces  is  the  com- 
mon name  of  all  the  Parthian  kings  (Strabo,  xv,  702), 
and  of  many  Armenian  (see  Kosegarten  in  the  Hall. 
Encyclop.  v,  408  sq.),  the  one  here  intended  is  probably 
Arsaces  VI,  properly  named  Mithridates  (or  Phraates) 
I,  a  prince  of  distinguished  bravery,  who  conquered 
Bactria,  penetrated  India,  reduced  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, and  greatly  improved  the  condition  of  the  Par- 
thian empire  (Justin,  xxxvi,  1 ;  xxxviii,  9;  xli,  6, 
Oros.  v,  4  ;  Strabo,  xi,  516,  517,  524  sq.).     Mithridates 


VI  of  Parthia. 


treated  his  prisoner  Demetrius  with  respect,  and  gave 
him  his  daughter  in  marriage  (App.  Syr.  67),  but  kept 
him  in  confinement  till  his  own  death,  cir.  B.C.  130 
(App.  Syr.  68;  Diod.  ap.  Miiller,  Fragm.  Hist,  ii,  ID). 
The  reference  to  him  in  the  Maccabees  is,  however, 
somewhat  confused  (see  Wernsdorf,  De  fide  Maccab. 
p.  175). 

Ar'sareth  (Lat.  Arsareth,  for  the  Greek  text  is 
not  extant),  a  region  beyond  the  Euphrates,  apparent- 
ly of  great  extent  if  the  fanciful  passage  (2  [Vulg.  4] 
Esdr.  xiii,  15)  where  alone  it  occurs  can  be  relied  upon 
as  historical. 

Arsenal.  The  ancient  Hebrews  had  each  man 
his  own  arms,  because  all  went  to  the  wars ;  the3*  had 


ARSENIUS 


437 


ART 


no  arsenals  or  magazines  of  arms,  because  they  had  no 
regular  troops  or  soldiers  in  constant  pay.  See  Army. 
There  were  no  arsenals  in  Israel  till  the  reigns  of  Da- 
vid and  Solomon.  See  Armor.  David  made  a  large 
collection  of  arms  and  consecrated  them  to  the  Lord 
in  his  tabernacle  (1  Sam.  xxi,  9  ;  2  Sam.  viii,  7-12;  1 
Chron.  xxvi,  26,  27).  The  high-priest  Jehoiada  took 
them  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  temple  to  arm  the  peo- 
ple and  Levites  on  the  day  of  the  young  king  Joash's 
elevation  to  the  throne  (2  Chron.  xxiii,  9).  Solomon 
collected  a  great  quantity  of  arms  in  his  palace  of  the 
forest  of  Lebanon,  and  established  well-provided  arse- 
nals in  all  the  cities  of  Judah,  which  he  fortified  (2 
Chron.  xi,  12).  He  sometimes  compelled  the  con- 
quered and  tributary  people  to  forge  arms  for  him  (1 
Kings  x,  25).  Uzziah  not  only  furnished  his  arsenals 
with  spears,  helmets,  shields,  cuirasses,  swords,  bows, 
and  slinks,  but  also  with  such  machines  as  were  proper 
for  sieges  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  14, 15).  Hezekiah  had  the 
same  precaution ;  he  also  made  stores  of  arms  of  all 
sorts  (see  2  Chron.  xxxii,  5 ;  comp.  2  Kings  xx,  13). 
Jonathan  and  Simon  Maccabseus  had  arsenals  stored 
with  good  arms;  not  only  such  as  had  been  taken 
from  their  enemies,  but  others  which  they  had  pur- 
chased or  commissioned  to  be  forged  for  them  (1  Mace. 
x,  21 ;  xiv,  23,  42 ;  2  Mace,  viii,  27 ;  xv,  21).  See 
Armory. 

Arsenius,  an  anchoret,  born  at  Rome  in  350 ;  died 
in  445.  While  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  he 
was  chosen,  in  38:>,  by  Pope  Damasus  as  tutor  of  Ar- 
cadius,  the  elder  son  of  Theodosius.  As  Arsenius  did 
not  succeed  in  the  education  of  this  prince,  he  quitted 
the  court,  and  penetrated  into  the  desert  of  Said  (The- 
bais),  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  Arsenius  is 
commemorated  in  the  Roman  martyrology  on  July  19 
(Hoefer,  Biograph'e  Generate,  ii,  3G9). 

Arsenius,  Antorianus,  head  of  a  monastery  in 
Nicea,  afterward  a  hermit  on  Mt.  Athos.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Greek  patriarch  about  1255,  and  ordained  dea- 
con, priest,  and  patriarch  in  the  same  week.  On  the 
death  of  Th.  Lascaris  II  he  was  charged  with  the  tu- 
telage of  his  son  John.  Michael  Palaioiogus,  aiming 
at  the  sole  authority,  put  out  the  ej-es  of  the  young 
prince,  and  Arsenius  excommunicated  him,  and  re- 
fused to  remit  the  sentence  unless  he  would  abdicate 
in  favor  of  the  legitimate  heir.  Palseologus  refused. 
Arsenius  remaining  firm,  a  synod  held  in  Constanti- 
nople, 12(34,  deposed  him.  He  died  on  an  island  in  the 
Propontis  in  1207.  Here  he  wrote  his  Eccleshe  dnecv 
Monumenta  (Paris,  1081,  4 to)  ;  and  aim  Synopsis  Dlcl- 
norum  Cctnonum,  published  in  Justellus's  Bibliotheca 
Jur.  Canon,  vol*,  ii  (Paris,  1601). — Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno 
1255. 

Arsenius  of  Elasso,  a  dignitary  of  the  Greek 
Church,  lived  toward  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  "History  of  the  Variations  of 
the  Greek  Church."  From  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into  Russia  (992)  until  1587,  this  church  was 
governed  by  metropolitans  dependent  upon  foreign 
patriarchs.  In  1587,  Job,  the  first  Russian  patriarch, 
was  consecrated  by  Jeremiah  II,  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  and  this  form  of  ecclesiastical  government 
continued  until  1700,  when  the  Czar  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Russian  Church.  The  details  which  Arse- 
nius gives  us  on  these  "variations  in  the  Greek 
Church"  have  been  printed  in  1749,  in  the  first  part  of 
the  Catalogue  of  Manuscripts  of  Turin.  A  Latin 
translation  was  given  in  1820  I  y  Wiehmann,  in  his 
Sammlung  hleiner  Schrifien. — Hoefer,  Biographic  Uni- 
verselle,  iii,  370. 

Arsuf.     See  Apoli.onia. 

Art,  Sacred. — Art  is  the  embodiment  of  aesthetic 
feeling  in  human  productions.  The  Fine  Arts — or  the 
different  methods  of  this  embodiment — are  classified 
into  two  grand  divisions  :  (1)  those  that  reach  the  soul 
through  the  channel  of  the  eye,  termed  the  formative 


arts  (in  German,  the  bildende  Kilnsle) ;  and  (2)  those 
that  reach  the  soul  through  the  channel  of  the  ear 
(termed  in  German  the  redende  Kiinste,  but  for  which 
we  have  no  appropriate  word  in  English).  To  the  for- 
mer belong  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  engraving, 
etc. ;  to  the  latter,  music,  poetry,  and  oratory.  The 
applied  arts  are  those  in  which  the  ornamentation  is 
I  applied  to  productions  that  are  not,  in  their  primary 
purpose,  works  of  art.  In  all  nations,  and  in  all  ages 
of  the  world,  the  emotions  of  the  human  soul  have 
sought  expression  in  aesthetic  or  artistic  forms.  Espe- 
cially has  this  been  the  case  with  the  highest  emotions 
of  the  heart — the  religious.  In  return,  the  propaga- 
tors of  all  religions  have  availed  themselves  of  aesthet- 
ic forms  and  modes  of  presenting  their  doctrines  and 
creeds  to  the  consciences  and  hearts  of  men  ;  some  em- 
ploying all  the  fine  arts,  others  only  a  part  of  them. 
Thus  has  been  developed  religious  art,  both  pagan  and 
sacred.  Sacred  art,  or  that  of  revealed  religion,  divides 
itself  into  (1)  Jewish  and  (2)  Christian. 

I.  Jewish. — Under  the  Old-Testament  covenant,  the 
arts  of  architecture,  music,  poetry,  dancing  (and,  to  a 
limited  degree,  sculpture  and  the  applied  arts),  were 
used  in  the  worship  of  God.  For  Architecture,  Mu- 
sic, and  Poetry,  see  the  separate  articles,  as  in  this 
article  we  treat  of  art  mostly  in  its  restricted,  popular 
signification,  embracing  only  the  formative  arts  of 
painting  and  sculpture.  That  the  second  command- 
ment was  not  intended  to  prohibit  the  making  of  all 
artistic  representations,  as  is  often  supposed,  but  that 
it  referred  to  the  mak'ng  and  worshipping  of  idols,  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  Moses  himself  had  images  of 
cherubim  made  for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle,  and 
that  in  the  Temple  of  Solomon  the  cherubim  retained 
their  place  over  the  mercy-seat,  and  the  molten  sea 
rested  upon  twelve  oxen,  and  the  base  of  the  sea  was 
adorned  with  figures  of  cherubim,  oxen,  and  lions, 
while  carvings  of  cherubim,  palms,  and  tiowers  cov- 
ered many  of  the  doors,  pillars,  and  walls  of  the  inte- 
rior of  the  temple.  The  golden  candlestick  was  also 
adorned  with  knops  of  flowers,  and  the  garments  of 
the  priests  were  richly  embroidered.  In  short,  no 
pains  were  spared  to  make  the  temple  glorious,  not 
only  by  its  rich  and  gorgeous  construction,  but  also 
by  its  truly  aesthetic  character.  See  Arts,  Jewish 
(below). 

II.  Christian. — 1.  First  Period  (1st  to  4th  centuries). 
— The  earliest  Christians  made  use,  in  their  service, 

:  of  only  the  arts  of  music,  poetry,  and  oratory.  In  the 
second  and  third  centuries  they  availed  themselves  of 
painting  and  sculpture  in  their  retired  places  of  wor- 
ship and  burial  in  the  catacombs.  As  the  societies 
increased  in  numbers  and  wealth,  and,  by  the  cessa- 
tion of  persecution,  were  permitted  to  build  churches 
above-ground,  and  more  especially  on  Christianity  be- 
ing declared  the  religion  of  the  state,  architecture  was 
used,  and  soon,  in  its  most  impressive  forms,  gave  dig- 
nity and  attractiveness  to  the  house  of  God.  The  first 
period  of  Christian,  as  of  all  other  arts,  was  one  of 
symbolism.  The  letters  X  p  and  A  10  were  placed  en 
the  tombs  and  the  vessels  of  the  sanctuary.  Then 
appeared  the  mystical  word  i'x^i'C.  afterward  repre- 
sented by  a  fish  carved  and  painted.  See  Ichthus. 
Christ  was  introduced  as  the  Good  Shepherd,  etc.  See 
Christ,  Images  of.  The  parables  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment were  introduced  with  parallel  scenes  or  subjects 
from  the  Old  Testament,  evincing  a  deep  feeling  for 
scriptural  typos  and  allegory.  Plants  and  animals 
were  used  symbolically,  and  symbols  of  Christian  doc- 
trine and  life  were  drawn  from  the  pagan  mythology 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  A  study  of  the  doctrine, 
customs,  and  spirit  of  the  early  church,  as  shown  in  its 
monuments  of  art,  is  a  most  useful  complement  to  the 
stud}'  of  the  writings  of  its  great  minds.  See  Archae- 
ology. The  composition  and  execution  of  the  paint- 
ings and  sculptures  in  the  catacombs  are  far  superior 
to  those  of  the  immediately  succeeding  ages;  but  the 


ART 


438 


ART 


artists  lived  among  the  finest  works  of  Greek  and  Bo- 1 
man  art,  and  drew  from  them  their  technical  knowl- 
edge. At  the  same  time,  they,  were  inspired  by  the 
deep  emotions  of  the  new  Christian  faith. 

2.  Second  Period  (4th  to  12th  centuries).— As  church 
edifices  were  erected,  the  arts  that  had  sprung  up  in 
the  catacombs  were  transplanted  to  the  stately  house 
of  God,  and,  though  subordinate  to  the  architecture, 
were  developed  into  styles  consistent  with  their  mon- 
umental character  and  use,  but  not  without  remon- 
strance from  some  of  the  synods.  See  Iconoclast. 
Mosaic  painting  gradually  supplanted  the  fresco  style, 
and  in  the  Byzantine  churches  was  applied  with  all 
the  splendor  of  the  Oriental  fancy.  The  Greek  Church 
permitted  no  sculpture  in  its  edifices  of  worship,  but  it 
developed  a  style  of  painting  marked,  in  its  best  peri- 
ods, by  the  dignity  of  its  composition,  the  grandeur 
of  the  outlines,  and  the  expressiveness  of  its  figures 
and  the  brilliancy  of  its  colors.  Later,  the  composi- 
tion of  the  mystic  cycluses  of  painting  that  adorned 
the  walls  of  the  churches,  and  even  of  the  altar-pieces, 
was  prescribed  by  the  theologians;  the  colors  to  be 
used  had  their  symbolical  doctrinal  significance,  and 
were  also  prescribed.  This  led  to  the  stiffness  of 
drawing,  and  the  deadness  of  all  art-feeling,  that  marks 
the  Byzantine  school  after  the  eighth  century. 

In  the  Western  Church  painting  and  sculpture  rap- 
idly sank  to  a  most  degraded  technical  condition. 
Among  the  most  important  works  of  the  period  are 
the  mosaic  paintings  of  Ravenna  and  Borne,  and  the 
bronze  doors  of  Amain  and  Verona.  Both  in  its  tech- 
nical knowledge,  and  in  the  rules  of  its  composition, 
the  Byzantine  school  influenced  the  arts,  not  only  of 
Italy,  but  of  all  Europe,  especially  that  of  South  France. 

3.  Third  Period  (12th  to  lGth  centuries).— The  ex- 
traordinary activity  of  the  twelfth  century  in  Europe 
extended  to  every  department  of  life,  and  gave  a  great 
impulse  to  the  fine  arts,  as  a  means  in  the  hands  of  the 
church  to  teach  its  doctrines.  The  purest  religious 
feeling  still  animated  the  artists,  who,  for  piety  of  life, 
were  often  reckoned  superior  to  many  of  the  priests  or 
other  persons  in  holy  orders.  Indeed  the  artists  often 
were  themselves  of  the  holy  orders.  Gradually  (first 
in  Tuscany)  the  sombre  color,  the  formal  composition 
and  stiffness  of  figure  of  the  decadent  Byzantine  style, 
gave  way  to  better  drawing,  freer  treatment,  and  bril- 
liant coloring.  In  short,  Christian  art,  for  religious 
character  and  technical  merits,  reached  its  highest  cli- 
max under  such  artists  as  Cimabue,  Giotto,  Orcagna, 
and  Fra  Angelico.  In  Italy  fresco  painting  kept  its 
predominance  in  the  church  edifice,  and  largely  modi- 
lied  the  architecture.  In  other  parts  of  Europe,  espe- 
cially  during  the  Gothic  period,  sculpture  gained  a 
large  predominance  over  painting,  and  was  confined 
mostly  to  adorning  the  windows  with  biblical  scenes 
and  subjects.  The  progress  in  sculpture  was  perhaps 
more  tardy  than  that  of  painting.  Its  first  works  of 
excellence  were  carvings  in  ivory  on  vessels  of  the. 
sanctuary  (often  of  complicate  composition).  The 
doors,  doorways,  columns,  pulpits,  altars,  and  baptis- 
mal fonts  were  covered  with  bronze  or  marble  works, 
often  of  great  merit.  Giotto  and  the  Bisanos  (13th 
century)  marked  the  first  great  epoch  of  progress  in 
sculpture,  and  introduced  a  perfection  of  composition 
and  execution  hardly  excelled  in  later  times,  and  nev- 
er Burpassed  for  religious  spirit. 

During  the  Gothic  period  of  architecture  schools  of 
sculpture  grew  up  in  most  countries  of  Europe,  and 
sculpture  was  profusely  distributed  in  every  part  of 
the  church  edifice,  especially  in  the  exterior. 

•1.  Fourth  Period  (16th  to  19th  centuries).— The  in- 
troduction of  the  use  of  oil  in  painting,  the  invention 
of  chiaroscuro,  the  growing  devotion  of  the  age  to 
classicism,  the  decadence  of  Christian  life  in  the  church, 
all  contributed  to  change  the  character  of  Christian 
art.  What  was  gained  in  technical  knowledge  was 
lost  in  inspiration.    After  the  sublime  compositions  of 


the  massive  genius  of  Michael  Angelo  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel  and  the  Transfiguration  by  Raphael,  religious 
art  fell  from  its  pure  character  of  the  preceding  cen- 
tury into  a  depth  of  sensuousness  and  extravagance. 
For  the  next  century,  what  then  existed  that  was  no- 
ble in  art  was  to  be  sought  mostty  north  of  the  Alps. 
During  the  eighteenth  century  an  almost  entire  blank 
marks  the  history  of  religious  art. 

5.  Fifth  Ptriod  (19th  century). — At  the  beginning 
of  this  century  art  had  sunk  (like  the  society  of  the 
age)  to  the  lowest  sensuousness,  and  was  separated 
almost  entirely  from  its  divine  mission.  Overbeck, 
Cornelius,  and  Schnorr,  in  Germany,  tried  to  stem  the 
tide,  and  return  art  to  the  mission  it  filled  from  the 
second  to  the  fifteenth  centuries.  Their  labors  were 
seconded  later  by  such  artists  as  Ary  Schcffer  and 
Flandrin  in  France,  and  Hohnan  Hunt,  and  Millais 
in  England.  The  Cyclus  of  Revelation,  now  being  pre- 
pared by  Cornelius  at  Berlin,  is  perhaps  the  most  com- 
plete work  of  Christian  art  ever  undertaken.  Sculp- 
ture has  not  been  imbued  as  much  as  painting  with 
the  religious  feeling  of  its  earlier  histoiy. 

6.  Protestant  A  rt. — The  Roman  Church  has  always 
availed  itself  of  all  the  fine  arts  in  its  worship.  Ihe 
Frotestant  Church  in  Germany,  while  cutting  away 
every  work  of  Roman  tendency,  has  always  retained 
a  free  use  of  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture,  which 
were  rejected  by  the  Reformers  in  England  and  Hol- 
land as  inherently  Popish  in  nature  and  tendency, 
and  as  opposed  to  the  second  commandment.  Ameri- 
ca has  inherited  this  feeling  from  the  two  countries 
(Holland  and  England)  from  which  she  was  colonized. 
The  art  of  engraving,  however,  is  freely  used  in  loth 
countries  to  illustrate  religious  books  and  periodicals, 
and  even  the  Bible  itself,  though  the  same  work  would 
give  offence  if  painted  upon  the  walls  of  a  church. 
In  the  Church  of  England  there  is  a  strong  tendency 
to  return  to  the  use  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  fill- 
ing up  the  walls  of  the  cathedral  and  other  churches. 

7.  The  history  of  religious  art  has  recently  been 
studied  with  great  zeal.  In  the  Roman  Church  gen- 
erally the  opinion  prevails  that  a  return  to  the  art  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  that  alone,  can  bring  back  the 
golden  ape  of  art.  Art  associations  are  especially  nu- 
merous in  France  and  Germany,  the  literature  on  re- 
ligious art  is  becoming  veiy  extensive,  and  periodi- 
cals exclusively  devoted  to  it  have  been  established  in 
both  countries.  The  Protestant  churches  of  Germain' 
are  generally  in  favor  of  making  a  more  extended  use 
of  art  for  religious  purposes  than  has  been  the  case 
heretofore.  The  church  diet  of  Elberfeld,  in  1851, 
discussed  the  question  of  Protestant  Art  Unions,  and 
in  1853  several  evangelical  societies  were  established, 
In  1858,  a  paper  (Christliches  Kunstblatf)  devoted  to  the 

;  cultivation  of  religious  art  from  a  Protestant  point  of 
view  was  established  by  Schnaase,  the  author  of  the 
best  "History  of  Plastic  Art,"  in  connection  with 
Schnorr  von  Karolsfeld,  the  director  of  the  art-gallery 

i  in  Dresden,  ar.d  Gruneisen,  court  preacher  at  Stutt- 
gardt. 

8.  Literature. — The  best  work  on  the  history  of 
Christian  art,  though  not  extending  over  the  entire 
field,  is  Schnaase,  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kimstc 
(Dusseldorf,  1844-G6).  Other  works:  Kiipler,  Hand- 
l)in  h  der  Ktmsfgeschichie  (Stuttgardt,  3d  ed.  1855;  Eng- 
lish translation  [partial]  in  Bohn's  librarj*,  Historical 
Manual  if  Sculpt.,  Paint.,  Ar<h.,  anc.  ami  mod..  Lond. 
1852);  Kinkel,  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kunste  bei  dm 
CAristlichen  V&lkern  (Bonn,  1845);  Lord  Lindsay, 
Sketches  of  the  History  of  Christian  Art  (Lond.  1847,  3 
vols.  8vo) ;  Geschichte  </'  /■  Mak  ret  (Berlin.  1847,  trans- 
lated into  English);  Ltibke,  Kmstgeschichte  (Stutt- 
gardt, 1864);  Geschichte  der  Plastik  (Leipzig,  1863); 
Piper,  Mytholotjii  >ind  Symbolik  der  t'hristlii  hi  v  Kvnxt 
(Weimar,  1851  66);  Mrs.  Jameson;  Lit/end*  ,f  Chris- 
tian Art.  i  le.  (Host.  1866);  Wornum,  Epochs  of  Paint- 
fag  (London,  1865);  Jarves,  Art  Studies  (N.  Y.  18G1). 


ART 


439 


ARTAXERXES 


ARTS,  Jewish  (nb"*2,  maiiseh',  work,  as  elsewhere 
rendered),  Exod.  xxx,  25 ;  2  Chron.  xvi,  14  (t:-xi'>1, 
elsewhere  "craft,"  "occupation"),  Acts  xvil,  29; 
Wisd.  xiv,  4;  xvii,  7  (ipyov,  "work"),  Eeclus.  xlix, 
1  (TToaomo,  to  do,  "practise"),  Acts  xix,  19.  (See 
Cleghorn,  Hist,  of  Anc.  and  Mod.  Art,  Edinb.  1848; 
Rochette,  Lectures  on  Anc.  Art,  Lond.  1854;  Gugler. 
Kunst  der  Hebraer,  Landshut,  1G14;  De  Saulcy,  Hist, 
de  VArt  Judaique,  Par.  1858.)     See  Artificer. 

The  rudiments  of  the  arts,  which  are  now  among 
civilized  nations  brought  to  such  an  admirable  state 
of  perfection,  exist  also  among  the  rudest  nations, 
whence  we  infer  that  they  must  have  originated  part- 
ly in  necessity  and  parti}'  in  accident.  At  first  their 
processes  were  doubtless  very  imperfect  and  very  lim- 
ited; but  the  inquisitive  and  active  mind  of  man,  im- 
pelled by  his  wants,  soon  enlarged  and  improved  them. 
Accordingly,  in  the  fourth  generation  from  Adam,  we 
find  mention  made  of  "  Tubal-Cain,  an  instructor  of 
every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron  ;"  and  also  of  Jubal, 
as  "  the  father  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  or- 
gan;" but  in  the  fragments  of  antediluvian  history 
preserved  by  Moses,  there  is  nothing  more  explicit  on 
this  subject,  as  the  book  of  Genesis  appears  to  be  de- 
signed chiefly  as  an  introduction  to  the  history  of  the 
Mosaic  legislation.  See  Antediluvians.  The  first 
man  undoubtedly  kept  his  children  and  other  descend- 
ants about  him  as  long  as  possible,  and  exercised  pa- 
ternal authority  over  them.  Cain  was  the  first  who 
separated  from  his  father's  society,  and  he  was  im- 
pelled to  this  step  through  fear  of  punishment  for  the 
murder  of  his  brother.  In  the  course  of  time  various 
motives,  such  as  a  desire  to  obtain  land  for  cultivation 
or  pasturage  for  cattle,  might  induce  others  to  follow 
his  example.  Thus  there  arose  separate  families, 
which  wrere  governed  by  their  own  patriarchs.  When 
families  had  increased  to  tribes  and  nations,  we  find 
that  men  were  engaged  in  agriculture  and  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  arts.  (See  Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illus- 
trations, 1st  series,  4th  week,  Sat.)  The  family  of 
Noah  preserved  the  knowledge  of  the  first  principles 
of  civil  society  and  of  the  infant  arts  which  had  exist- 
ed before  the  Deluge,  and  as  early  as  the  time  of  Jacob 
it  appears  that  the  laboring  class  comprehended  hus- 
bandmen, mechanics,  artists,  and  merchants.  E-iypt, 
in  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  excelled  all  other  na- 
tions in  a  knowledge  of  the  arts,  as  may  be  sufficient- 
ly proved  by  the  extraordinary  magnitude  and  per- 
manency of  the  Egyptian  monuments,  the  magnificent 
temples  dedicated  to  their  gods,  and  the  splendid  obe- 
lisks erected  in  honor  of  their  kings.  The  learning  of 
the  Egyptians  has  been  made  known  to  us  by  the  sa- 
cred historian.  By  this  record  we  have  been  taught 
to  believe  in  the  wisdom  of  this  ancient  people,  and  to 
feel  astonishment  at  the  nature  of  their  institutions, 
the  extent  of  their  learning,  and  the  perfection  they 
had  attained  in  the  arts  at  so  early  a  period.  Moses, 
it  is  true,  did  not  enact  any  special  laws  in  favor  of 
the  arts  among  the  Hebrews,  nor  did  he  interdict  or 
endeavor  to  lessen  them  in  the  estimation  of  the  peo- 
ple, but,  on  the  contrary,  speaks  in  praise  of  artificers 
(Exod.  xxxv,  30,  35).  The  descendants  of  Jacob  hav- 
ing lived  on  terms  of  amity  with  their  neighbors  of 
Mizraim,  "until  another  king  arose  who  knew  not 
Joseph,"  they  undoubtedly  borrowed  from  them  many 
of  their  instruments  of  agriculture,  of  commerce,  and 
of  luxury,  and  as  the  artists  of  Esrypt  descended  to 
depict  the  minutest  particulars  of  their  household  ar- 
rangements, and  every  circumstance  connected  with 
their  national  habits  and  observances  was  faithfully 
represented,  we  have  the  means  of  forming  a  judgment 
respecting  the  aits  and  usages  which  prevailed  among 
the  Hebrews.  See  Egypt.  No  one  can  pretend  to 
doubt  that  the  scriptural  narrative  is  singularly  illus- 
trated and  confirmed  by  the  monuments.  A  rich  vein 
of  illustration  is  thus  opened  by  comparing  the  various 
processes  depicted  oil  those  monuments  with  the  state- 


ments scattered  throughout  the  inspired  records,  more 
especially  the  numerous  metaphors  employed  by  the 
prophets  in  relation  to  many  of  these  arts  and  manu- 
factures ;  and  we  shall,  therefore,  in  the  order  of  the 
alphabetical  series,  give  descriptive  particulars  of  the 
various  arts  as  practised  among  the  Egyptians,  presum- 
ing that  those  subsequently  practised  by  the  Hebrews 
differed  but  little  from  them.     See  Carpenter. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Joshua  a  place  was  expressly 
allotted  by  Joab  to  artificers  ;  it  was  called  the  valley 
of  craftsmen,  C^'jiri  5t",5>  (1  Chron.  iv,  14;  comp.Neh. 
xi,  35).  See  Craftsman.  About  this  time  mention 
is  also  made  of  artificers  in  gold  and  silver  (Judg.  xvii, 
3,  5).  See  Metal.  Some  of  the  less  complicated  in- 
struments used  in  agriculture  ever}'  one  made  for  him- 
self. The  women  spun,  wove,  and  embroidered ;  they 
made  clothing,  not  only  for  their  families,  but  for  sale 
(Exod.  xxxv,  25).  See  Woman.  Artificers  among 
the  Hebrews  wrere  not,  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, servants  and  slaves,  but  men  of  some  rank,  and 
as  luxury  increased,  they  became  very  numerous  (Jer. 
xxiv,  1 ;  xxix,  2).  See  Handicraft.  In  the  time 
of  David  and  Solomon  there  were  Israelites  who  un- 
derstood the  construction  of  temples  and  palaces,  but 
they  were  still  inferior  to  the  Tynans,  from  whom 
they  were  willing  to  receive  instruction  (1  Chron.  xiv, 
1 ;  xxii,  15).  See  Architecture.  During  the  cap- 
tivity many  of  the  Hebrews  applied  themselves  to  the 
arts  and  merchandise ;  and  subsequently,  when  they 
were  scattered  abroad  among  different  nations,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  arts  became  so  popular  that  the  Talmud- 
ists  taught  that  all  parents  should  have  their  children 
instructed  in  some  art  or  handicraft.  They  mention 
many  learned  men  of  their  nation  who  practised  some 
kind  of  manual  labor,  or,  as  we  should  term  it,  fol- 
lowed some  trade ;  and  we  find  the  cb-cumstance  fre- 
quently alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament  (Matt,  xiii, 
55  ;  Acts  ix,  43  ;  2  Tim.  iv,  14,  etc.).  The  Jews,  like 
other  nations  of  their  time,  reckoned  certain  trades  in- 
famous ;  among  these,  the  Rabbins  classed  the  drivers 
of  asses  and  camels,  barbers,  sailors,  shepherds,  and 
inn-keepers,  placing  them  on  a  level  with  robbers. 
See  Publican.  The  more  eminent  Greek  tradesmen 
in  the  apostolic  age  were  united,  it  appears,  in  a  sort 
of  corporation  or  society  (Acts  xix,  25),  and  such  was 
probably  the  case  with  the  Jews  also.    See  Mechanic. 

Artaba  (Anrafttj),  a  dry  measure  used  by  the 
Babylonians  (Herod,  i,  192),  containing  seventy-two 
sextarii  according  to  Epiphanius  (de  Pondcrib.  et 
Mens.)  and  Isidore  of  Seville  (lib.  xvi,  Origen) ;  or, 
according  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  tables,  one  bushel,  one 
gallon,  and  one  pint,  allowing,  with  him,  four  pecks 
I  and  six  pints  to  the  medimnus,  and  one  pint  to  the 
choenix  (for  it  was  equal  to  1  medininus  +  2  choe- 
nices).  It  is  found  only  in  the  apocryphal  Daniel,  or 
Dan.  xiv,  3,Vulg.  (Au'tb.  Vers,  "measure,"  Bel,  ver. 
3).     See  Measure. 

Artaxer'xes,  the  Greek  form  (Apratfr,£j;c)  of 
the  name,  or  rather  title,  of  several  Persian  kings  (on 
each  of  which  see  fully  in  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biop. 
s.  v.),  and  applied  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  to  several  of 
them  occurring  in  the  0.  T.  The  Hebrew  form  (Ar- 
tachshast',  XPprnn-iX,  Ezra  vii,  1,  7;  or  Artach- 
shasht',  Xrir'w'nniX,  Ezra  iv,  8,  11,  2G;  vi,  14;  once 
Artachshash'tu',  XtT^'rHP-lX,  Ezraiv,  7 ;  Sept.  'AnSa- 
oarjSa)  is  a  slight  corruption  of  irrnr-X,  which 
letters  De  Sacy  has  deciphered  in  the  inscriptions  of 
Nakshi  Rustam,  and  which  he  vocalizes  Artahshetr 
(An'io.  d.  I.  Perse,  p.  100).  C.esenius  pronounces  them 
Artackshdtr;  and,  by  assuming  the  easy  change  of  r 
into  ,t,  and  the  transposition  of  the  s,  makes  Artach- 
sbast  very  closely  represent  its  prototype  (Tkes.  Heb. 
p.  155).  The  word  is  a  compound,  the  tir?t  element  of 
which,  urta— found  in  several  Persian  names— is  gen- 
erallv  admitted  to  mean  great;  the  latter  part  being 


ARTAXERXES 


440 


ARTAXERXES 


the  Zend  Ihshethro,  Jang  (Lassen,  in  the  Zeitseh.  zur\A);  but  Bertholdt  (Einhit. iii,  1014)  shows  that ttie  age 
Kvnde  d.  Morgenl.  vi,  161  sqA  Thus  the  sense  of  I  of  Eliashib  (q.  v.)  will  not  allow  this  (eomp.  Neh.  iii, 
(jruil  warrior  (juyag  apr)iov),  which  Herodotus  (vi,  98)  ,  1,  with  xii,  1,  10);  for  Eliashib,  Avho  was  high-priest 
assigned  to  the  Greek  form  Artaxerxes,  accords  with  j  when  Nehemiah  reached  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii,  ]),  i.  c. 
that  which  etymology  (see  Lassen,  Keilschrift,  p.  30)  j  on  this  last  supposition,  B.C.  365,  was  grandson  of 
discovers  in  the  original  Persian  title  (particularly  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii,  10),  high-priest  in  the  time  of  Zerub- 
whcn  we  consider  that  as  the  king  could  only  be  !  babel  (Ezra  iii,  2),  B.C.  535.  We  cannot  think  that  the 
chosen  from  the  soldier-caste — from  the  Kshatriyas —  '  grandfather  and  grandson  were  separated  by  an  inter- 
warrior  and  king  are  so  far  cognate  terms) ;  although  j  val  of  150  years.  Besides,  as  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
Pott,  according  to  his  etymology  of  Xirxes,  takes  Ar-  were  contemporaries  (Neh.  viii,  9),  this  theory  trans- 
taxerxes  to  be  more  than  equivalent  to  Artachshatr —  fers  the  whole  history  contained  in  Ezra  vii,  ad  fin., 
to  be  "magnus  regum  rex"  (Etym.  Forsik.  i,  p.  lxvii).  j  and  Nehemiah  to  this  date,  and  it  is  hard  to  believe 
See  Cuneiform  Inscriptions;  Hieroglyphics.        \  that  in  this  critical  period  of  Jewish  annals  there  are 

no  events  recorded  between  the  reigns  of  Darius  Hys- 


Cuneiform. 


Hieroglyphic. 


^^^Kdir^Tn^ 


Ancient  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  furn 

1.  The  Persian  king  who,  at  the  instigation  of  the 


taspis  (Ezra  vi)  and  Artaxerxes  Mnemon.  As  already 
observed,  there  are  again  some  who  maintain  that  as 
Darius  Hystaspis  is  the  king  in  the  sixth  chapter  of 
Ezra,  the  king  mentioned  next  after  him,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventh,  must  be  Xerxes,  and  thus  they 
distinguish  three  Persian  kings  called  Artaxerxes  in 
d       sh  sh   s   ,  the  old  Testament,  (1)  Smerdis  in  Ezra  iv,  (2)  Xerxes 

!  of  the  name  Artaxerxes.  ;„  Ezra  v;i)  an(j  ($)  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  in  Nehe- 
miah. But  (in  addition  to  the  arguments  above)  it  is 
adversaries  of  the  Jews,'obstr"ucted  the"rebunding"of  almost  demonstrable  that  Xerxes  is  the  Ahasuerus  of 
the  Temple,  from  his  time  to  that  of  Darius,  king  of  the  ' ook  of  Estllcr  [>ee  Ahasuerus],  and  it  is  hard 
Persia  (Ezra  iv,  7-24).  The  monarch  here  referred  to  i  to  SUPP0SC  that  l,esldes  .his  ordl»ary  name  he  would 
is  probablv  (see  Ahasuerus)  not  Cambyses  (as  Jose-  ,  h:,ve  been  called  Loth  Ahasuerus  and  Artaxerxes  in 
phus  says, Ant.  xi,  2, 1),  but  the  immediate  predecessor  i  the  °-  T;  Jt  seems»  ^  ^  probable  that  the  policy 
of  Darius  Hvstaspis,  and  can  be  no  other  than  the  Ma-  °f  ^eh-.»  was  a  continuation  and  renewal  ot  that  of 
dan  impostor  Smerdis  (Voftc),  who  ssized  on  the  F*?  "$  .  *  "T^  king  was  the  author  of 
throne  B.C.  522,  and  was  murdered  after  a  usurpation  !  ,!0tn-  ^ow  jtT  ls  n0*  Possible  for  Xerxes  to  be  the  Ar- 
of  less  than  eight  months  (Herod,  iii,  61-78).  Profane  |  taxerxes  of  Nehemiah,  as  Josephus  asserts  (Ant  xi, 
historians,  indeed,  have  not  mentioned  him  under  the  5-  fl),  for  Xerxes  only  reigned  21  years  whereas  Ne- 
title  of  Artaxerxes;  but  neither  do  Herodotus  and  hemiah  (xni,  6)  speaks  of  the  32d  year  of  Artaxerxes. 
Justin  (the  latter  of  whom  calls  him  Oropastes,  i,  9)  N<,r  ?  *  necessary  to  believe  that  the  book  of  Ezra  is 
agree  in  his  name  (see  Bertheau,  Gesch,  d.  Jsr.  p.  397).    a  stnctly  continuous  history.     It  is  evident  from  the 

first  words  of  eh.  vn  that  there  is  a  pause  at  the  end 
of  ch.  vi.     Indeed,  as  ch.  vi  concludes  in  the  Gth  year 


See  Smerdis. 

2.  As  to  the  second  Artaxerxes,  in  the  seventh  year 
of  whose  reign  Ezra  led  a  second  colon}-  of  the  Jewish 
exiles  back  to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  vii,  1  ?q. ),  the  opinions 
are  divided  1  etween  Xerxes  (with  Michaelis  in  loc. ; 
Jahn,  Einl.  II,  i,  270;  Arckuol.  II,  i,  259;  De  Wette, 
Einl.  §  195,  and  others)  and  his  son  Artaxerxes  Lnnrji- 
mcmw  (so  II.  Michaelis;  Offerhaus;  Eichhorn,  Einl. 
iii,  697;  Bertholdt,  Einl.  iii,  989;  Gesenius,  Thesanr. 
p.  150:  Kleinert,  in  the  Dorpat.  Beitr.  i,  1;  Keil, 
Chron.  p.  103;  Archinard,  Chronology,  p.  128,  and  many 
others).  Josephus  (Ant.  xi,  5,  6)  calls  him  Xerxes; 
but,  from  various  considerations  (chiefly  that  because 
the  first  portion  of  the  book  of  Ezra  relates  to  Darius 
Hystaspis,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  next  king  spoken 
of  must  be  his  successor  Xerxes;  that  Nehemiah's  a!  - 
sence  of  twelve  years  is  ample  to  allow  the  confusion 
in  the  infant  colony  under  the  merely  moral  sway  of 
Ezra ;  and  that  Josephus  likewise  confounds  the  Ar- 
taxerxes of  Nehemiah  with  Xerxes,  while  the  author 
of  the  apocryphal  version  of  Esdras  [1  Esdr.  ii,  17; 
vii,  4  ;  viii,  8]  correctly  calls  both  these  kings  Arta 
name,  moreov 


of  Darius,  and  ch.  vii  begins  with  the  7th  year  of  Ar- 
taxerxes, we  cannot  even  believe  the  latter  king  to  be 
Xerxes  without  assuming  an  interval  of  36  years  (B.C. 
516-479)  between  the  chapters,  and  it  is  not  more  dif- 
ficult to  imagine  one  of  50,  which  will  cany  us  to  B.C. 
459,  the  7th  year  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  We 
conclude,  therefore,  that  this  is  the  king  of  Persia  un- 
der whom  both  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  carried  on  their 
work ;  that  in  B.C.  457  he  sent  Ezra  to  Jerusalem  ; 
that  after  13  years  it  became  evident  that  a  civil  as 
well  as  an  ecclesiastical  head  was  required  for  the  new 
settlement,  and  therefore  that  in  446  he  allowed  Nehe- 
miah to  go  up  in  the  latter  capacity.  From  the  testi- 
mony of  profane  historians,  this  king  appears  remark- 
able among  Persian  monarchs  for  wisdom  and  right 
feeling,  and  with  this  character  his  conduct  to  the 
Jews  coincides  (Diod.  xi,  71). 

Artaxerxes  I,  surnamed  Longimanus  (Gr.  Mo- 
ki>i\hi),  long-handed),  from  the  circumstance  that  his 
right  hand  was  longer  than  his  left  (Plutarch,  Artax. 


Xerxes,  a  name,  moreover,  more  like  the  Heb.  form,  1),  was  king  of  Persia  for  forty  years,  B.C.  465-425 
and  in  that  case  not  conflicting  with  the  distinctive  [strictly  406-425]  (Diod.  xi,  09 ;  xii,  04;  Time,  iv,  50). 
title  <>f  Xerxes  in  Esther),  it  is  nearly  certain  that  (as  He  ascended  the  throne  after  his  father,  Xerxes  I.  had 
in  Syncell.  Chron.  p.  251)  lie  is  the  same  with  the  third  been  murdered  by  Artabanus,  and  after  he  bad  him- 
Artaxerxes,  the  Persian  king  who,  in  the  twentieth  self  put  to  death  his  own  brother  Darius,  at  the  insti- 
ycar  of  his  reign,  considerately  allowed  Nehemiah  to  gation  of  Artabanus  (Justin,  iii,  1 ;  Ctesias  ap.  Phot. 
go  to  Jerusalem  for  the  furtherance  of  purely  national  Eibl.  p.  40,  o,  ed.  Bekk.).  His  reign  is  characterized 
objects,  invested  him  with  the  government  of  his  own  (I'lut.  nt  sup.)  as  wise  and  temperate,  but  it  was  dis- 
people, and  allowed  biin  to  remain  there  for  twelve  turhed  by  several  dangerous  insurrections  of  the  sa- 
yeare  I  S<h.  ii.  l  gq,  ■  v,  14),  it  is  almost  unanimous-  traps ;  and  after  the  reduction  of  there,  by  a  revolt  of 
lv  agree. 1  that  the  kiiii.'  here  intended  is  Artaxerxes  the  Egyptians  (li.C.  402  [Clinton,  400]  i,  in  the  course 
Longimanits{  IprflSipSi/c [otherwise  'AoTaZi-nEijc,  Biihr  of  which  the  Athenians  became  involved,  and  gained 
ad  Ctes.  p.  166, 176]).  See  Nehemiah.  As  this  prince  two  memorable  victories  over  the  forces  of  Artaxerxes 
bcf;an  to  reign  B.C.  466,  the  restoration  under  Ezra  (B.C.  449),  the  one  by  land  and  the  other  by  sea  (Diod. 
will  fill  in  B.C.  469,  and  the  lir-t  under  Nehemiah  in  xii,  4;  Thucyd.  i,  104  sq.).  This  is  said  to  have  led 
B.C.  -140.  See  the  Mith.  Quart,  Revu  w,  July.  I860,  p.  to  a  treat}-  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians,  on  terms 
495.  Others  (as  J,  I».  Michaelis)  understand  Arta-  very  favorable  to  the  former  (Tbirlwall's  History  of 
.n-xm  Mnemon  (reigned  B.C.  H)4  869)  to  be  meant  Greece,  i,  S04;  Smith's  Hist,  of  Greece,  p.  262).  Ar- 
(comp.  Neh.  xiii,  28,  with  Josephus,  Ant.  xi,  8,  3  and  taxerxes  appears  to  have  passed  the  remainder  of  his 


ARTEMAS 


441 


ARTICLES 


reign  in  peace.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes 
II  (Clinton,  Fasti  Hell,  ii,  380). 

Ar'temas  ('Aprefiag  for  'AprifuSwpoc,  Artemido- 
rus,  i.  e.  given  by  Diana)  occurs  once  (Tit.  iii,  12)  as 
the  name  of  an  esteemed  disciple  in  connection  with 
Tychichus,  one  of  whom  Paul  designed  to  send  into 
Crete  to  supply  the  place  of  Titus,  when  he  invited 
the  latter  to  visit  him  at  Nicopolis.  A.D.  C3.  Eccle- 
siastical tradition  makes  him  to  have  been  bishop  of 
Lystra. 

Artemis.     See  Diana. 

Artemon.     .See  Mainsail. 

Artemon,  a  heretic,  toward  the  end  of  the  second 
century.  Little  is  known  of  his  historj' ;  even  his 
name  is  sometimes  given  Artemon  and  sometimes  Ar- 
temas.  The  principal  sources  of  our  scanty  informa- 
tion are  Eusebius,  Feci.  Hist,  v,  28,  where  he  uses  the 
name  Artemon,  and  vii,  30,  where  it  is  Artemas ;  The- 
odoret,  Iheret.  Fab.  Epit.  ii,  4  ;  Epiphanius,  liar,  lxv, 
1,  4;  Photius,  EijVoth.  48.  Eusebius  cites  names  of 
writers  against  Artemon,  and  gives  some  hints  of  his 
doctrine  as  being  the  same  with  that  of  Theodotus  the 
tanner,  viz.  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man.  Theodoret 
(1.  c.)  says  that  Artemon  believed  in  God  the  creator, 
but  asserted  Christ  to  be  a  mere  man;  born  of  a  vir- 
gin, however,  and  superior  to  the  prophets.  Eusebi- 
us speaks  of  Artemon  and  his  followers  as  abandon- 
ing the  Scriptures  for  "syllogisms  and  geometiy." 
He  states  also  that  Paul  of  Samosata  revived  the  her- 
esy of  Artemon.  Schleiermachar  {Theol.  Zeitschrift, 
1822,  iii,  295  sq. ;  translated  by  Moses  Stuart  in  Btbl. 
Repository,  v,  334  sq.)  goes  into  a  c  ireful  examination 
of  the  fragments  of  our  knowledge  about  Artemon, 
and  adopts  the  view  previously  given  out  by  Genna- 
dius  of  Marseilles,  that  Artemon  was,  in  reality,  a  S.i- 
b.ellian.  See  also  Lardner,  Works,  ii,  403  sq. ;  Schaff- 
hausen,  Historia  Artmonis  et  Artcmonilariim,  Leipzig, 
1737,  4to ;  Dorner,  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  div. 
i,  vol.  ii,  8  ;  Neander,  Church  History,  i,  580. 

Artemonites,  followers  of  Artemon  (q.  v.).  A 
small  remnant  of  the  Artemonites  existed  in  the  third 
century. — Euseb.  Ch.  Hist,  v,  28. 

Article,  in  Grammar.  Of  this  part  of  speech, 
but  one  kind,  the  definite  article,  requires  an)'  consid- 
eration here,  since  the  indefinite  article  in  those  lan- 
guages where  it  is  grammatically  treated  as  a  peculiar 
form  is,  after  all,  but  a  modification  of  the  numeral 
for  one  (Gr.  tic,  ivoc,;  Lat.  units;  French,  un ;  Germ. 
ein;  En-r.  an,  etc.).  In  Hebrew  the  definite  article  is 
denoted  by  the  syllable  fl  prefixed  to  the  noun  (or 
other  word  so  employed),  and  the  Dagcsh  forte  insert- 
ed in  the  following  letter  (whenever  this  will  admit) 
shows  that  this  was  but  a  contraction  for  some  older 
form,  probably  ?rj  (or  perhaps  a  modified  form  of  the 
demonstrative  pronoun  S12X),  corresponding  to  the  Ar- 
abic al  or  el,  which  in  like  manner  assimilates  its  last 
letter  to  that  of  many  words  with  which  it  is  joined. 
In  Chaldee  and  Syriac,  however,  this  prefix  is  never 
employed,  but  in  its  stead  the  letter  X  (or  syllable  ah) 
is  appended  to  the  noun,  which  is  then  said  to  be  in 
the  "definite  or  emphatic  state."  In  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, on  the  other  hand,  the  article  is  pronominal  in 
form  and  construction,  being,  in  fact,  originally  (e.  g. 
in  Homer)  actually  a  demonstrative  pronoun.  The 
point  of  the  greatest  importance  in  biblical  criticism, 
and  that  for  the  interest  connected  with  which  the 
subject  is  here  introduced,  is  the  frequent  omission 
of  the  definite  article  in  the  New  Testament,  where  in 
classical  Greek  its  presence  is  grammatically  requisite. 
Bishop  Middleton  has  treated  copiously  of  this  peculi- 
arity {Doctrine  of  the  Creek  Article,  Lond.  1824,  and 
often  since);  but  many  of  the  "canons"  that  he  lays 
down  fur  its  use  or  disuse,  upon  which  important  theo- 
logical conclusions  have  often  been  made  to  depend, 
are  highly  fanciful,  and  unsupported  by  general  Hel- 


lenistic usage.  The  idiom  in  question  is,  in  fact,  noth- 
ing more  than  a  transfer  of  the  Hebrew  laws  for  the 
omission  or  insertion  of  the  article  prefix,  which  may 
be  found  clearly  drawn  out  in  Nordheimer's  Heb.  Cram. 
ii,  §  716-729,  especially  §  717,  718;  and  depend  upon 
this  essential  principle,  that  the  article  may  be  omit- 
ted before  any  word  that  is  regarded  as  being  already 
sufficiently  definite,  either  by  reason  of  being  in  con- 
struction with  another  noun,  adjective,  pronoun,  or 
other  qualifying  term,  or  by  being  distinctive  in  itself, 
so  as  not  to  be  specially  liable  to  misinterpretation. 

Article  (Aoyot;)  of  Agreement  (1  Mace,  xiii,  29 ; 
2  Mace,  xiv,  28).     See  Alliance. 

Articles  of  Faith,  statements  of  the  main  points 
of  belief  of  any  single  church  framed  by  authority  of 
the  church,  and  binding  upon  its  ministers  or  mem- 
bers, or  upon  both.  Some  object  to  Articles  of  Faith. 
Among  the  grounds  of  objection  are  the  following, 
viz.  that  they  infringe  Christian  liberty,  and  super- 
sede the  Scriptures  by  substituting  in  their  place  a 
number  of  humanly-formed  propositions;  that  to  ex- 
hibit the  Christian  faith  in  any  limited  number  of 
statements  is  virtually  to  declare  that  all  besides  is 
superfluous.  It  is  objected,  also,  that  such  articles 
nourish  hypocrisy,  and  hinder  advancement  in  divine 
knowledge.  "If  employed  at  all,"  it  is  said,  "they 
should  be  in  the  words  of  Scripture."  The  advocates 
for  "articles  of  faith,"  on  the  other  hand,  affirm  that  it 
is  not  their  purpose  to  sum  up  the  whole  of  Christianity 
in  any  number  of  propositions,  but  merety  to  set  forth 
the  belief  of  a  given  church  upon  the  leading  truths  of 
religion,  as  well  as  upon  those  matters  which  have  at 
anj'  period  been  subjects  of  heretical  corruption  or  of 
controversy,  and  respecting  which  it  is  necessary  that 
there  should  be  agreement  among  such  as  are  to  .be 
members  of  the  same  church  ;  that  articles  are  not  in- 
tended to  be  guides  through  the  whole  voyage  of 
Christian  inquiry,  but  only  beacon-lights  to  inform 
the  mariner  where  lie  those  rocks  and  shoals  on  which 
preceding  voyagers  have  made  shipwreck.  It  is  clear 
that  there  is  a  necessity  for  such  articles,  because  the 
sense  of  Scripture  upon  any  one  point  of  faith  lies  scat- 
tered over  too  large  a  surface  to  be  easily  collected  for 
himself  by  every  individual  member  of  the  church  ; 
that  scriptural  truths  are  as  capable  as  any  other  of 
being  translated  into  common  language ;  and  that  con- 
troversies within  the  church  upon  the  meaning  of 
Scripture  would  abound,  if  the  church  itself  should 
give  no  interpretation  of  them  (comp.  Rom.  vi,  17 ;  2 
Tim.  i,  13).  — Buck,  Theol.  Diet.;  Eden,  Theol.  Diet. 
See  Confessions  ;  Creeds. 

ARTICLES,  Lambeth.  The  Calvinistic  doctrine 
concerning  Predestination,  Free-will,  etc.,  which  had 
been  the  cause  of  vehement  disputes  on  the  Continent, 
had  been  brought  into  England  by  the  refugees,  and 
gained  Lreat  footing,  about  the  year  1594,  at  Cam- 
bridge, by  the  influence  of  Cartwright,  the  Lady  Mar- 
garet professor.  Barret,  a  fellow  of  Caius  College, 
preached  ad  clcrum  against  Calvin's  doctrines.  Arch- 
bishop Whitgift  at  first  took  Barret's  part;  but  at  last, 
urged  by  the  heads  of  colleges,  sent  for  him  to  Lam- 
beth, and  directed  him  not  to  preach  such  doctrine 
again.  Dr.  Whittaker,  the  regius  professor,  support- 
ed the  novel  doctrines ;  and  this  party,  having  stated 
the  controversy  to  their  own  liking,  drew  up  nine  ar- 
ticles into  form,  and  laid  them  before  Archbishop 
Whitgift,  who  called,  November  10th,  an  assembly  at 
Lambeth  to  consider  the  question,  consisting  of  Fletch- 
er, the  elect  of  London;  Vaughan,  elect  of  Bangor; 
Trindall,  dean  of  Ely;  and  Whittaker  and  the  Cam- 
bridge divines.  They  drew  up  the  following  nine  ar- 
ticles, known  as  the  "  Lambeth  Articles :"  "  1.  God 
hath  from  eternity  predestinated  certain  persons  to 
life,  and  hath  reprobated  certain  persons  unto  death. 
2.  The  moving  or  efficient  cause  of  predestination  unto 
life  is  not  the  foresight  of  faith,  or  of  perseverance,  or 


ARTICLES 


44: 


of  good  works,  or  of  any  thing  that  is  in  the  persons 
predestinated,  but  the  alone  will  of  God's  good  pleas- 
ure. 3.  The  predestinati  are  a  predetermined  and  cer- 
tain number,  which  can  neither  be  lessened  nor  in- 
creased. 4.  .Such  as  are  not  predestinated  to  salvation 
shall  inevitably  be  condemned  on  account  of  their 
sins.  5.  The  true,  lively,  and  justifying  faith,  and 
the  Spirit  of  God  justifying,  is  not  extinguished,  doth 
not  utterly  fail,  doth  not  vanish  away  in  the  elect, 
either  finally  or  totally.  6.  A  true  believer — that  is, 
one  who  is  endued  with  justifying  faith — is  certified 
by  the  full  assurance  of  faith  that  his  sins  are  forgiven, 
aiid  that  he  shall  be  everlastingly  saved  by  Christ. 
7.  Saving  grace  is  not  allowed,  is  not  imparted,  is  not 
granted  to  all  men,  by  which  they  may  be  saved  if 
they  will.  8.  No  man  is  able  to  come  to  Christ  un- 
less it  be  given  him,  and  unless  the  Father  draw  him  ; 
and  all  men  are  not  drawn  by  the  Father,  that  they 
may  come  to  his  Son.  9.  It  is  not  in  the  will  or  power 
of  every  man  to  be  saved."  The  archbishop  approved 
the  articles  Nov.  20,  1595,  and  sent  them  to  Cam- 
hridge;  but  the  queen  ordered  them  to  be  recalled, 
and  censured  Whitgift  severely.  As  the  meeting  at 
Lambeth  wras  not  a  lawful  synod,  its  resolutions  can- 
not be  regarded  as  the  act  of  the  church  of  that  day ; 
nor,  indeed,  in  any  other  light  than  as  declaring  the 
opinion  of  some  of  the  church  authorities  of  that  period 
upon  the  subject  of  predestination.  The  very  effort 
to  enact  them  seems  to  show  that  the  Calvinistic  bish- 
ops (if  the  time  were  not  satisfied  that  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  were  Calvinistic. — Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  vii,  187; 
Hardwick,  Hist,  of  3d  Article*,  ch.  vii,  and  Appendix, 
No.  vi;  Strype's  Whitgift,  p.  4G2;  Browne  On  39  Ar- 
ticles, p.  379. 

ARTICLES  of  PERTir,  five  articles  agreed  upon  at 
a  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  con- 
vened at  Perth  by  command  of  James  VI  on  the  25th 
of  August,  1618.  These  articles  enjoined  kneeling  at 
the  Lord's  Supper,  the  observance  of  Christmas,  Good 
Friday,  Easter,  and  Pentecost,  and  confirmation,  and 
sanctioned  the  private  administration  of  baptism  and 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  They  were  highly  obnoxious 
to  the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  not  only  on  their 
own  account,  but  as  part  of  an  attempt  to  change  the 
whole  constitution  of  the  church  ;  and  because  they 
were  adopted  without  free  discussion  in  the  Assembly, 
and  in  mere  compliance  with  the  will  of  the  king,  who 
was  also  regarded  as  having  unduly  interfered  with 
the  constitution  of  the  Assembly  itself.  They  were, 
however,  ratified  by  the  Parliament  on  the  4th  of  Au- 
gust, 1021 — a  day  long  remembered  in  Scotland  as 
Bluck  Saturday — were  enforced  by  the  Court  of  High 
Commission,  and  became  one  of  the  chief  subjects  of 
that  contention  between  flu  king  and  the  people  which 
produced  results  so  grave  and  sad  for  both  in  the  sub- 
sequent reign.  The  General  Assembly  of  Glasgow  in 
1638  declared  that  of  Perth  to  have  been  "  unfree, 
unlawful,  and  null,"  and  condemned  the  Five  Arti- 
cles.—  Chambers's  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.  ;  Calderwood, 
History  of  Church  of  Scotland,  vol.  ii;  Iletherington, 
Church  of  Scotland,  i,  239. 

ARTICLES  OF  Scum At.KAi.n.  —  The  Protestants 
had  formed  die  Schmalkaldic  League  (q.  v.)  in  1531, 
and  the  emperor,  by  the  Religious  Peace  of  1532,  had 
agreed  to  maini  lin  thastatm  quo  until  a  council  should 
meet  to  settle  all  questions.  He  endeavored  to  have 
a  papal  council  called  in  15:57 :  but  the  'Wittenberg 
divine,  not  willing  to  trust  such  a  body,  agreed  to 
certain  articles  drawn  up  by  Luther,  and  presented  at 

the   ' sting  of  the   electors,  princes,  and  states  at 

Schmalkajd  (I'd.,  15,  1537).  They  were  principally 
designed  to  show  how  far  the  Lutherans  were  disposed 

to  go  in  order  to  avoid  a  final  rupture  with  Lome,  and 
in  what  sense  they  were  willing  to  adopt  the  doctrine 
of  Christ's  presence  in  the  Eucharist.  In  these  arti- 
cles opposition  to  the  Romish  doctrine  is  very  strongly 
expressed.     The  articles  afterward  became  "one  of  the 


ARTICLES 

authoritative  symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
Dr.  Murdoch,  in  his  notes  to  Mosheim  (Ch.  History 
cent,  xvi,  sec.  i,  ch.  iii,  §  9),  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  them:  "The  Augsburg  Confession  was  in- 
tended to  soften  prejudice  against  the  Lutherans,  and 
to  conciliate  the  good-will  of  the  Catholics.  Of  course, 
the  gentle  Melancthon  was  employed  to  write  it.  The 
Articles  of  Schmalkald,  on  the  contrary,  were  a  prep- 
aration for  a  campaign  against  an  enemy  with  whom 
no  compromise  was  deemed  possible,  and  in  which 
victory  or  death  was  the  only  alternative.  Of  course, 
all  delicacy  toward  the  Catholics  was  dispensed  with, 
and  Luther's  fiery  style  was  chosen,  and  allowed  full 
scope.  In  words  the  Articles  flatly  contradict  the 
Confession  in  some  instances,  though  in  some  they 
are  the  same.  Thus  the  Confession  (article  24)  says: 
'  We  are  unjustly  charged  with  having  abolished  the 
mass.  For  it  is  manifest  that,  without  boasting,  we 
may  say  the  mass  is  observed  by  us  with  greater  de- 
votion and  earnestness  than  by  our  opposers.'  But 
in  the  Articles  of  Schmalkald,  part  ii,  art.  11,  it  is  said 
'that  the  popish  mass  is  the  greatest  and  most  hor- 
rid abomination,  as  militating  directly  and  violently 
against  these  articles  ;  and  yet  it  has  become  the  chief 
and  most  splendid  of  all  the  popish  idolatries.'  In 
the  Confession  they  applied  the  name  of  the  mass  to 
the  Lutheran  form  of  the  Eucharist ;  but  in  these  Ar- 
ticles they  confine  that  term  to  the  proper  import,  the 
ordinary  public  service  among  the  Catholics.  The 
Articles  of  Schmalkald  cover  28  folio  pages,  and  arc 
preceded  by  a  preface,  and  followed  by  a  treatise  on 
the  power  and  supremacy  of  the  pope.  The  first  part 
contains  four  concise  articles  respecting  God,  the  Trin- 
ity, and  the  incarnation,  passion,  and  ascension  of 
Christ,  in  accordance  with  the  Apostles'  and  the  Atha- 
nasian  Creeds.  On  these  articles  the  Protestants  pro- 
fessed to  agree  together  with  the  Papists.  The  sec- 
ond part  also  contains  four  articles  of  fundamental  im- 
portance, but  in  which  the  Protestants  and  Papists  are 
declared  to  be  totally  and  irreconcilably  at  variance. 
They  relate  to  the  nature  and  to  the  grounds  of  justi- 
fication, the  mass  and  saint  worship,  ecclesiastical  and 
monkish  establishments,  and  the  claims  of  the  pope. 
The  third  part  contains  fifteen  articles,  which  the  Prot- 
estants considered  as  relating  to  very  important  sub- 
jects, but  on  which  the  Papists  laid  little  stress.  The 
subjects  arc  sin,  the  law,  repentance,  the  Gospel,  bap- 
tism, the  sacrament  of  the  altar,  the  keys  (or  spiritual 
power),  confession,  excommunication,  ordination,  cel- 
ibacy of  the  clergy,  churches,  good  works,  monastic 
vows,  and  human  satisfaction  for  sin.  When  the  Prot- 
estants subscribed  these  articles,  Melancthon  annexed 
a  reservation  to  his  signature  purporting  that  he  could 
admit  of  a  pope,  provided  he  would  allow  the  Gospel 
to  be  preached  in  its  purity,  and  would  give  up  his 
pretensions  to  a  divine  right  to  rule,  and  would  found 
Ins  claims  wholly  on  expediency  and  human  compact. 
In  consequence  of  this  dissent  from  Luther,  Melanc- 
thon was  requested  to  draw  up  an  article  on  the  power 
and  supremacy  of  the  pope.  He  did  so,  and  the  Prot- 
estants were  well  pleased  with  it,  and  subscribed  to  it. 
It  is  annexed  to  the  Articles  of  Schmalkald."  See  J. 
G.  Walch's  Introd.  to  Biblioth.  Theol.  i,  317,  362. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Articles  of  Schmalkald  ap- 
peared in  Wittenberg,  1538,  4to,  in  German;  in  Lat- 
in (by  Generanus),  1541,  8vo.  Selnekker  afterward 
made  a  new  Latin  version,  which  is  the  one  adopted 
in  the  collection  of  Lutheran  creeds  in  Latin.  A  new 
edition  of  the  German  text,  with  the  literature  of  the 
subject,  was  published  by  Marheineke  (Berlin,  1817, 
4to).  See  also,  for  the  text  and  history,  Francke,  Li- 
hi  Symiolici  Eccl.  Luther  ana  (Lips.  1847, 12mo);  Gue- 
ricke,  Chris//.  Symbolik,  §  14;  Ranke,  History  rf  the 
Reformation,  vol.  iii. 

'ARTICLES,  Six.  This  was  an  act  (known  as 
"the  bloody  statute")  passed  during  that  period  of  re- 
action against  the  Reformation  in  the  mind  of  Henry 


ARTICLES 


443 


ARTICLES 


VIII,  which  lasted  from  1538  to  1544.  Gardner  and 
Tonstall  took  advantage  of  this  mood  of  the  king's 
mind,  and  procured  the  enactment,  in  1539,  of  the  "six 
articles  for  the  abolishing  of  diversity  of  opinions  ;"  in 
reality,  a  law  to  punish  with  death  all  persons  who 
should  adopt  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers  on  the 
points  covered  by  it.  These  points  were,  that  in  the 
sacrament  of  the  altar,  after  consecration,  there  re- 
mains no  substance  of  bread  and  wine,  but  the  natural 
bod}r  and  blood  of  Christ;  that  communion  in  both 
kinds  is  not  necessary ;  that  priests,  according  to  the 
law  of  God,  may  not  marry ;  that  vows  of  chastity 
ought  to  be  observed  ;  that  private  masses  ought  to  be 
continued;  and  that  auricular  confession  is  expedient 
and  necessary,  and  ought  to  be  retained  in  the  church. 
Cranmer  strenuously  opposed  this  act,  but  afterward 
complied.  Latimer  and  Shaxton  resigned  their  bish- 
oprics. It  was  under  this  act  that  Anne  Askew  (q. 
v.),  or  Ascough,  was  executed  in  154G. — Burnet,  Flint. 
Engl.  Reform,  i,  416;  ii,  G3 ;  Maitland,  Essays  of  the 
Reformation,  essay  xii ;  Hard  wick,  Church  History,  iii, 
205  ;  Neal,  History  of  the  Puritans,  vol.  i,  ch.  i. 

ARTICLES,  Twenty-five,  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.     They  are  as  follows  : 

I.  Of  Faith  in  the  Holy  Trinity.— There  is  but  one  living 
and  true  God,  everlasting,  without  body  or  part?,  of  infinite 
power,  wisdom,  and  goodness;  the  maker  and  preserver  of 
all  things,  visible  and  invisible.  And  in  unity  of  this  God- 
head there  are  three  persons,  of  one  substance,  power,  and 
eternity,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost. 

II.  Of  the  Word,  or  Son  of  God,  who  was  made  very  Man. 
— The  Son,  who  is  the  Word  of  the  Father,  the  very  and  eter- 
nal God,  of  one  substance  with  the  Father,  took  man's  nature 
in  the  womb  of  the  blessed  Virgin  ;  so  that  two  whole  and  per- 
fect natures,  that  is  to  say,  the  Godhead  and  manhood,  were 
joined  together  in  one  person,  never  to  be  divided,  whereof 
is  one  Christ,  very  God  and  very  man,  who  truly  suffered, 
was  crucified,  dead  and  buried,  to  reconcile  his  Father  to  us, 
and  to  be  a  sacrifice,  not  only  for  original  guilt,  but  also  for 
actual  sins  of  men. 

III.  Of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ.— Christ  did  truly  rise 
again  from  the  dead,  and  took  again  his  body,  with  all  things 
appertaining  to  the  perfection  of  man's  nature,  wherewith  he 
ascended  into  heaven,  and  there  sitteth  until  he  return  to 
judge  all  men  at  the  last  day. 

IV.  Of  the  Holy  Gliost The  Holy  Ghost,  proceeding  from 

the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  of  o.ie  substance,  majesty,  and  glo- 
ry with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  very  and  eternal  God. 

V.  The  Suficif  ney  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  for  Solvation. — 
The  Holy  Scriptures  contain  all  things  necessary  to  salvation  ; 
so  that  whatsoever  is  not  read  therein,  nor  may  be  proved 
thereby,  is  not  to  b?  required  of  any  man  that  it  should  lie 
believed  as  an  article  of  faith,  or  be  thought  requisite  or  nec- 
essary to  salvation.  In  the  name  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  we 
do  understand  those  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament, of  whose  authority  was  never  any  doubt  in  the  church. 

The  Sanies  of  the  Canonical  Iiook<:  Gi  nesis,  Kxodus,  Le- 
viticus, Numbers,  Deuteronomv,  do-hua.  Judges,  Until,  The 
First  Book  of  Samuel,  The  Second  Book  of  Samuel,  The  First 
I?  >ok  of  Kings,  The  Second  Book  of  Kings,  The  First  Book  of 
Chronicles,  The  Second  Book  of  Chronicles,  The  Book  of  Kzra, 
The  Book  of  Nehemiah,  The  Book  of  Ksther,  The  Book  of  Job, 
The  Psalms,  The  Proverbs,  l'.c.clesiastes,  or  the  Preacher, 
Cantica,  or  Songs  of  Solomon,  Four  prophets  the  greater, 
Twelve  Prophets  the  less;  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  they  are  commonly  received,  we  do  receive  and  ac- 
count canonical. 

VI.  Of  the  Old  Testament The  Old  Testament  is  not  con- 
trary to  the  New;  for  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
everlasting  life  is  offered  to  mankind  by  Christ,  who  is  the 
only  Mediator  between  God  and  man,  b  ing  both  God  and 
man.  Wherefore  they  are  not  to  be  heard  who  feign  that  the 
old  fathers  did  look  only  for  transitory  promises.  Although 
the  law  given  from  God  by  Moses,  as  touching  ceremonies  and 
rites,  doth  not  bind  Christians,  nor  ought  the  civil  precepts 
thereof  of  necessity  be  received  in  any  commonwealth  ;  yet, 
notwithstanding,  no  Christian  whatsoever  is  fn  e  from  the 
obedience  of  the  commandments  which  are  called  moral. 

VII.  Of  Original  or  Birth  Sin — Original  sin  standeth  not 
in  the  following  of  Adam  (as  the  Pelagians  do  vainly  talk), 
but  it  is  the  corruption  of  the  nature  of  every  man,  that  nat- 
urally is  engendered  of  the  offspring  of  Adam,  whereby  man 
is  very  far  gone  from  original  righteousness,  and  of  his  own 
nature  inclined  to  evil,  and  that  continually. 

VIII.  Of  Free  Will.— The  condition  of  man  after  the  fall 
of  Adam  is  such,  that  he  cannot  turn  and  prepare  himself,  by 
his  own  natural  strength  and  works,  to  faith,  and  calling  upon 
God;  wherefore  we  have  no  power  to  do  good  works  pleasant 
and  acceptable  to  God,  without  the  grace  of  God  by  ( 'hrist 
preventing  us,  that  we  may  have  a  good  will,  and  working 
with  us  when  we  have  that  good  will. 

IX.  Of  the  Justification  of  Man — We  are  accounted  right- 


eous before  God  only  for  the  merit  of  our  Ford  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ  by  faith,  and  not  for  our  own  works  or  desei v- 
ings.  Wherefore,  that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only,  is  a  most 
wholesome  doctrine,  and  very  full  of  comfort. 

X.  Of  Good  Works — Although  good  works,  which  are  the 
fruits  of  faith,  and  follow  after  justification,  cannot  put  away 
our  Bins  and  endure  the  severity  of  God's  judgments,  yet  are 
they  pleasing  and  acceptable  to  Cod  in  Christ,  and  spring  out 
of  a  true  and  lively  faith,  insomuch  that  by  them  a  lively  faith 
may  be  as  evidently  known  as  a  tree  is  discerned  by  its"  fruit 

XI.  Of  Wmks  of  Supererogation.— Xoluntarv  works,  be- 
sides over  and  above  (rod's  commandments,  which  are  called 
works  of  supererogation,  cannot  be  taught  without  arrogancy 
and  impiety.  For  by  them  men  do  declare  that  they  do  not 
only  render  unto  God  as  much  as  they  are  bound  to  do,  but 
that  they  do  more  for  his  sake  than  of  bounden  duty  is  re- 
quir.'d;  whereas  Christ  saitli  plainly,  When  ye  have  done  all 
that  is  commanded  you,  say,  We  are  unprofitable  servants. 

XII.  Of  Sin  after  Justification.—  Not  every  sin  willingly 
committed  after  justification  is  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  unpardonable.  Wherefore,  the  -rant  of  rep  ntanee  is  not 
to  be  denied  to  such  as  fall  into  sin  after  justification ;  utter 
we  have  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  we  may  depart  from  grace 
given  and  fall  into  sin,  and,  by  the  grace  of  Cod,  rise  again 
and  amend  our  lives.  And  therefore  they  are  to  be  con- 
demned who  say  they  can  no  more  sin  as  long  as  thev  live  here, 
or  deny  the  place  of  forgiveness  to  such  as  truly  repent. 

XIII.  Of  the  Church — The  visible  Church  of  Christ  is  a 
congregation  of  faithful  men,  in  which  the  pure  Word  of  Gol 
is  preached,  and  the  sacraments  duly  administered,  according 
to  Christ's  ordinance,  in  all  those  things  that  of  necessity  are 
requisite  to  the  same. 

XIV.  Of  Purgatory. — The  Romish  doctrine  concerning  pur- 
gatory, pardon,  worshipping,  and  adoration,  as  well  of  images 
as  of  relics,  and  also  invocation  of  saints,  is  a  fond  thing, 
vainly  invented,  and  grounded  upon  no  warrant  of  Scripture, 
but  repugnant  to  the  Word  of  God. 

XV.  Of  speaking  in  the  Congregation  in  swh  a  Tongue  as 
the  People  understand — It  is'  a  thing  plainly  repugnant  to 
the  Word  of  God,  and  the  custom  of  the  primitive  church,  to 
have  public  prayer  in  the  church,  or  to  minister  the  sacra- 
ments in  a  tongue  not  understood  by  the  people. 

XVI.  Of  the  Sacraments.— Sacraments  ordained  of  Christ 
!  are  not  only  badges  or  tokens  of  Christian  men's  profession, 

but,  rather,  they  are  certain  signs  of  grace,  and  God's  good 
will  toward  us,  by  the  which  he  doth  work  invisibly  in  us, 
and  doth  not  only  quicken,  but  also  strengthen  and  confirm 
our  faith  in  him. 

There  are  two  sacraments  ordained  of  Christ  our  Lord  in  the 
Gospel ;  that  is  to  say,  Baptism  and  the  Supper  of  the  Lord. 

Those  five  commonly  called  sacraments,  that  is  to  say,  con- 
firmation, penance,  orders,  matrimony,  and  extreme  unction, 

j  are  i.otto  be  counted  for  sacraments  of  the  Go-pel,  being  such 
as  have  partly  grown  out  of  the  corrupt  following  of  the  apos- 
tles, and  partly  are  states  of  life  allowed  in  the  Scriptures,  but 

|  yet  have  not  the  like  nature  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per,  because  they  have  not  any  visible  sign  or  ceremony  or- 
dained of  God. 

I      The  sacraments  were  not  ordained  of  Christ  to  be  gazed 

[  upon  or  to  be  carried  about,  but  that  we  should  duly  use  them. 
And  in  such  only  as  worthily  receive  the  same,  they  have  a 
whop,  some  effect  or  operation;  but  they  that  receive  them  un- 
worthily purchase  to  themselves  condemnation,  as  St.  Paul 
saith,  1  Cor.  xi,  29. 

XVII.  Of  llajitism. — Baptism  is  not  only  a  sign  of  profes- 
sion and  mark  of  difference  whereby  Christians  are  distin- 
guished from  others  that  are  not  baptized,  but  it  is  also  a  sign 
of  regeneration,  or  the  new  birth.  The  baptism  of  young  chil- 
dren is  to  be  retained  in  the  church. 

XVIII.  Of  the  Lord's  Supper.— The  Supper  of  the  Lord  is 
not  only  a  sign  of  the  love  that  Christians  ought  to  have 
among  themselves  one  to  another,  but  rather  is  a  sacrament 
of  our  redemption  by  Christ's  death  ;  insomuch  that,  to  such 
as  rightly,  worthily,  and  with  faith  receive  the  same,  the 
bread  which  we  break  is  a  partaking  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
and  likewise  the  cup  of  blessing  is  a  partaking  of  the  blood  of 
Christ. 

Transubstantiation,  or  the  change  of  the  substance  of  bread 
and  wine  in  the  Supper  of  our  Lord,  cannot  be  proved  by  Holy 
Writ,  but  is  repugnant  to  the  plain  words  of  Scripture,  over- 
throweth  the  nature  of  a  sacrament,  and  hath  given  occasion 
to  many  superstitions. 

The  body  of  Christ  i-<  given,  taken,  and  eaten  in  the  Sup- 
per only  after  a  heavenly  and  spiritual  manner;  and  the 
means  whereby  the  body  of  Christ  is  received  and  eaten  in 
the  Supper  is  faith. 

The  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  not  by  Christ's  or- 
dinance reserved,  carried  about,  lifted  up,  or  worshipped. 

XIX.  Of  both  Kind*.— The  cup  of  the  Lord  is  not  to  be  de- 
nied to  the  lay  people;  for  both  the  parts  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
by  Christ's  ordinance  and  commandment,  ought  to  be  admin- 
istered to  all  Christians  alike. 

NX.  Of  lite  one  Oblation  of  Christ,  finished  uj.on  the  Cross. 
— The  offering  of  Christ,  once  made,  is  that  perfect  redemp- 
tion, propitiation,  and  satisfaction  for  .all  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world,  both  original  and  actual;  ami  there  is  none  other  sat- 
isfaction for  sin  but  that  alone.  Wherefore  the  sacrifice  of 
masses,  in  the  which  it  is  commonly  said  that  the  prie  t  doth 
offer  Christ  for  the  quick  ami  the  dead,  to  have  remission  of 
pain  or  guilt,  is  a  blasphemous  fable  and  dangerous  dectit. 


ARTICLES 


444 


ARTICLES 


XXI.  Of  the  Marriage  of  Ministers. —The  ministers  of 

Christ  are  not  commanded  by  (rod's  law  either  to  vow  the 
state  of  single  Hie,  or  to  ah-tain  from  marriage  ;  therefore  it 
is  lawful  for  them,  as  for  all  other  Christians,  to  marry  at 
their  own  discretion,  as  they  shall  judge  the  same  to  serve 
best  to  godliness. 

XXII.  Of  the  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  Churches.— It  is  not 
D  cs-arv  that  rites  and  ceremonies   should  in  all  places  be 

or  exactly  alike;  for  they  have  been  always  differ- 
ent, and  may  be  changed  according  to  the  diversity  of  coun- 
tries times,  and  men's  manners,  so  that  nothing  be  ordained 
against  God's  Word.  Whosoever,  through  his  private  judg- 
ment, willinglyand  purposely  doth  openly  break  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of 'the  church  to  which  he  belongs,  which  are  not 
repugnant  to  the  Word  of  God,  and  are  ordained  and  approved 
by  common  authority,  ought  to  be  rebuked  openly,  that  others 
may  fear  to  do  the  like,  as  one  that  offendcth  against  the  com- 
mon order  of  the  church,  and  wouudeth  the  consciences  of 
weak  brethren. 

Kvery  particular  church  may  ordain,  change,  or  abolish  rites 
and  ceremonies,  so  that  all  things  may  be  done  to  edification. 

XXIII.  Of  the  Rulers  of  the  United  State*  of  America — 
The  President,  the  Congress,  the  General  Assemblies,  the  gov- 
ernors, and  the  Councils  of  State,  as  the  del;  ates  of  the  peo- 
ple, are  the  rulers  of  the  United  States  of  America,  according 
to  the  division  of  power  made  to  them  by  the  Constitution  of 
the  L'nited  States,  and  by  the  Constitutions  of  their  respect- 
ive states.  And  the  said  states  are  a  sovereign  and  indepen- 
dent nation,  and  ought  not  to  be  subject  to  any  foreign  juris- 
diction. As  far  as  it  respects  civil  affairs,  we  believe  it  the 
duty  of  Christians,  and  especially  all  Christian  ministers,  to 
be  subject  to  the  supreme  authority  of  the  country  where  they 
may  reside,  and  to  use  all  lawful  means  to  enjoin  obedience 
to  the  powers  that  be;  and  therefore,  it  is  expedient  that  all 
our  preachers  and  people,  who  may  be  under  the  British  or 
any  other  government,  will  behave  themselves  as  peaceable 
and  orderly  subjects. 

XXIV.  Of  Christian  Men's  Goods. — The  riches  and  goods 
of  Christians  are  not  common,  as  touching  the  right,  title,  and 
possession  of  the  same,  as  some  do  falsely  boast.  Notwith- 
standing, every  man  ought,  of  such  things  as  he  possesseth, 
liberally  to  give  alms  to  the  poor,  according  to  his  ability. 

XXV.  Of  a   Christian  Man's  Oath As  we  confess   that 

vain  and  rash  swearing  is  forbidden  Christian  men  by  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  James  his  apostle,  so  we  judge  that  the 
Christian  religion  doth  not  prohibit,  but  that  a  man  may 
swear  when  the  magistrate  reiuireth,  in  a  cause  of  faith  and 
charity,  so  it  be  done  according  to  the  prophet's  teaching,  in 
justice,  judgment,  and  truth. 

These  are,  in  substance,  the  Articles  of  the  Church 
of  England,  omitting  the  3d,  8th,  13th,  loth,  17th, 
18th,  20th,  21st,  23d,  26th,  29th,  33d,  31th,  36th,  and 
37th.  On  comparison,  it  will  be  found  that  these 
omissions  are  nearly  all  made  in  order  to  greater  com- 
prehension and  liberality  in  the  Creed.  The  23d  arti- 
cle (adopted  in  1804)  is  especially  to  be  noted,  as  giv- 
ing the  adhesion  of  the  church  at  that  early  period  to 
the  doctrine  that  the  "United  States"  constitute  "a 
sovereign  nation."  The  articles,  in  their  present  form, 
are  a  modification  of  those  originally  framed  for  the 
church  by  Wesley,  and  printed  in  the  Sunday  Service 
of  the  Mrtkotlisfs.  They  were  adopted,  with  the  Litur- 
gy, at  the  Christian  Conference  of  1781.  The  changes 
made  in  them  since  that  period  (except  the  political 
one  above  referred  to,  made  necessary  by  the  adoption 
of  the  national  Constitution)  arc  chiefly  verbal;  and 
some  of  them  appear  to  be  due  to  typographical  errors 
in  successive  reprints  of  the  Book  of  Discipline.  For 
a  list  of  the  changes,  see  Emory,  History  of  the  Disci- 
pline, oh.  i,  |  2.  See  also  Jimeson,  Notes  on  the  25 
Articles  (Cincinnati,  1853,  12mo);  Comfort,  Exposition 
of  the  Articles  I  X.  Y.  1847,  12mo);  Stevens.  History  of 
the  M<  thodist  Episcopal  <  %urch  (N.  Y.  1865, 3  vols.  8vo). 
See  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

ARTICLES  (Tin:  Thirty-nine)  of  the  Church  of 
England  contain  what  may  be  called  the  "symbol," 
"creed,"  or  "confession  of  faith"  of  the  Church  of 
England,  especially  as  to  the  points  on  which,  at  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  the  articles,  disputes  existed. 
They  constitute  also,  substantially,  the  Creed  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  (see 
below). 

The  history  of  their  origin,  as  nearly  as  can  be  as- 
certained,  is  about  as  follows.  As  early  as  1519  Cran- 
mer  drew  up  and  circulated  a  series  of  articles  designed 
"to  test  tiie  orthodoxy  of  preachers  and  lecturers  in 
divinity."  Hooper  objected  to  them  because  of  the 
expression  that  "the  sacraments  confer  grace,"  and 


for  other  reasons  (Hooper,  Original  fetters,  p.  71). 
About  this  time  three  eminent  Continental  reformers 
were  domiciled  in  England,  viz.  John  a  Lasco  or  Laski 
(q.  v.),  as  preacher  in  London,  Bucer  (q.  v.),  as  theo- 
logical lecturer  at  Cambridge,  and  Peter  Martyr  (q. 
v.),  as  professor  at  Oxford.  The  influence  of  these 
great  men  went  all  in  the  current  of  thoroughly  Prot- 
estant reformation,  and  was  especially  felt  in  the  revi- 
sion of  the  Prayer-book  and  of  the  Articles,  in  which 
they  were  consulted  to  a  greater  tr  less  extent.  Cal- 
vin, Melancthon,  Bullingcr,  and  other  eminent  Conti- 
nental Protestants  were  in  correspondence  with  Cran- 
mer  on  the  settlement  of  doctrinal  points.  In  1519, 
an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  empowering  the  king 
to  appoint  a  commission  of  32  persons  to  make  eccle- 
siastical laws.  Under  this  act  a  commission  of  8  bish- 
ops, 8  divines,  8  civilians,  and  8  lawyers  (among  whom 
were  Cranmer,  Ridley,  Hooper,  Coverdale,  Scory,  Pe- 
ter Martyr,  Justice  Hales,  etc.),  was  appointed  in  1551. 
Cranmer  seems  to  have  laid  before  this  body,  as  a  ba- 
sis, a  series  of  13  articles,  chiefly  from  the  Augsburg 
Confession  (reported  in  Hard  wick,  History  of  the  Ar- 
ticles, App.  iii).  Finally,  "Forty-two  articles"  were 
laid  before  the  royal  council,  Nov.  24, 1552  (text  given 
in  Burnet,  iv,  311).  In  March,  1553,  they  were  laid 
before  Convocation,  but  whether  adopted  by  that  body 
or  not  is  undecided.  Strype  and  others  assert  that 
they  were  ;  Burnet,  that  they  were  not  {Hist,  Bef  iii, 
316).  Fuller,  speaking  in  his  quaint  way  of  this  con 
vocation,  declares  that  it  had  "no  commission  from 
the  king  to  meddle  with  church  business,  and,"  lie 
adds,  "every  convocation  in  itself  is  born  deaf  and 
dumb,  so  that  it  can  neither  hear  nor  speak  concerning 
complaints  in  religion  till  first  Ephphatht,  '  Be  thou 
opened,'  be  pronounced  unto  it  by  royal  authority. 
However,"  he  continues,  "this  barren  convocation  is 
entitled  the  parent  of  those  forty-two  articles  which 
are  printed  with  this  title,  Articuli  de  quibus  in  Synodo 
Londinensi  1552  A.I),  inter  Episcopos  et  alios  c.onvene- 
rat."  To  these  articles  was  prefixed  the  Catechism, 
and  the  preparation  of  them  was  chiefly  the  work  of 
Cranmer  and  Ridley,  on  the  basis  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  (Laurence,  Hampton  Lecture,  p.  230).  Im- 
mediately' after  their  publication  Edward  died  (July 
6, 1553).  Under  Queen  Mary,  Cranmer  and  Ridley 
went  to  the  stake,  and  Gardner  and  the  Papists  took 
their  places  as  authorities  in  religion.  In  1558  Mary 
died.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  Matthew 
Parker  (q.  v.)  was  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1559).  One  of  Ins  first  tasks  was  to  restore  and  re- 
cast the  XLII  articles.  He  expunged  some  parts  and 
added  others,  making  special  use  of  both  the  Augsburg 
and  Wurtemberg  Confessions  (Laurence,  Bampt.  Lect. 
233;  Browne,  XXXIX  Articles,  15).  The  revised 
draught  was  laid  before  Convocation,  which  body 
made  some  minor  alterations,  and  finally  adopted  the 
Thirty-eight  Articles  (January,  1562-3).  The}'  are 
given  in  Hardwick,  History  of  the  Articles,  p.  124. 

In  1566  a  bill  was  brought  into  Parliament  to  con- 
firm them.  The  bill  passed  the  Commons,  but  by  the 
queen's  command  was  dropped  in  the  Lords.  In  1571 
the  Convocation  revised  the  articles  of  1562,  and  made 
some  alterations  in  them.  In  the  same  }-ear  an  act 
was  passed  "to  provide  that  the  ministers  of  the 
church  should  be  of  sound  religion."  It  enacted  that 
all  ecclesiastical  persons  should  subscribe  to  "all  the 
articles  of  religion  which  onlj'  contained  the  confession 
of  the  true  faith  and  of  the  sacraments,  comprised  in  a 
book  imprinted,  entitled  'Articles,'  whereupon  it  was 
agreed  by  the  archbishops  and  bishops,  and  the  whole 
clergy  in  convocation  holden  in  London,  in  the  year 
of  our  Lord  God  1562,  according  to  the  computation  of 
the  Church  of  England,  for  the  avoiding  of  diversities 
of  opinions,  and  for  the  establishing  of  consent  touching 
true  religion,  put  forth  by  the  queen's  authority."  In 
1628  an  English  edition  was  published  by  royal  authori- 
ty, to  which  is  prefixed  the  declaration  of  Charles  I. 


ARTICLES 


445 


ARTICLES 


The  following  are  the  Articles  in  full,  as  found  in 
the  Prayer-book  of  the  Church  of  England : 

I.  Of  Faith  in  the  Holy  Trinity.— There  is  but  one  living 

and  true  God,  everlasting,  without  body,  parts,  or  passions; 
of  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness;  the  maker  and  pre- 
server of  all  things,  both  visible  and  invisible.  And  in  unity 
of  this  Godhead  there  be  three  Persons,  of  one  substance, 
power,  and  eternity,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

II.  Of  the  Word  or  Son  nf  God,  which  was  wade  very  Man. 
—The  Son,  which  is  the  Word  of  the  Father,  begotten  from  ev- 
erlasting of  the  Father,  the  very  and  eternal  God,  and  of  one 
substance  with  the  Father,  took  man's  nature  in  the  womb 
of  the  blessed  Virgin,  of  her  substance;  so  that  two  whole 
and  perfect  natures,  that  is  to  say,  the  Godhead  and  Man- 
hood, were  joined  together  in  one  person,  never  to  be  divided, 
whereof  is  one  Christ,  very  God  and  very  .Man;  who  truly 
suffered,  was  crucified,  dead  and  buried,  to  reconcile  his  Fa- 
ther to  us,  and  to  be  a  sacrifice,  not  only  for  original  guilt,  but 
also  for  actual  sins  of  men. 

III.  Of  the  going  down  of  Christ  into  Hell.— As  Christ  died 
for  us,  and  was  buried,  so  also  is  it  to  be  believed  that  he  went 
down  into  hell. 

IV.  Of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ — Christ  did  truly  rise 
again  from  death,  and  took  again  his  body,  with  flesh,  bones, 
and  all  things  appertaining  to  the  perfection  of  man's  nature, 
wherewith  he  ascended  into  heaven,  and  there  sitteth,  until 
lie  return  to  judge  all  men  at  the  last  day. 

V.  Of  the  Holy  Ghost.—  The  Holy  Ghost,  proceeding  from 
the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  of  one  substance,  majesty,  and  glo- 
ry with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  very  and  eternal  Cod. 

VI.  Of  the  Siilliciencii  of  the  Holy  Scripture*  for  salvation. 
—Holy  Scripture  containeth  all  thing'  necessary  to  salvation; 
so  that  whatsoever  is  not  read  therein,  nor  may  be  proved 
thereby,  is  not  to  be  required  of  any  man  that  it  should  be 
believed  as  an  article  of  the  faith,  or  be  thought  requisite  or 
necessary  to  salvation.  In  the  name  of  the  Holy  Scripture 
we  do  understand  those  canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  of  whose  authority  was  never  any  doubt  in  the 
church. 

Of  the  names  and  numb: r  of  the  Canonical  Books:  Gen- 
esis, Fxodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Joshua, 
Judge-',  Ruth,  The  First  Book  of  Samuel,  The  Second  Book 
of  Samuel,  The  First  Book  of  Kings,  The  Second  Book  of 
Kings,  The  First  Book  of  Chronicles,  The  Second  Book  of 
Chronicles,  The  First  Book  of  Esdras,  The  Second  Book  of 
Ksdnu,  The  Book  of  Esther,  The  Book  of  Job,  The  Psalms, 
The  Proverbs.  Fcclesiastes,  or  Preacher,  Cantica,  or  Songs 
of  Solomon,  Four  Prophets  the  greater,  Twelve  Prophets  the 
less.  And  the  other  Hooks  (as  Hierouie  saith)  the  church  doth 
read  for  example  of  life  and  instruction  of  manners;  but  yet 
doth  it  not  apply  them  to  establish  any  doctrine;  such  are 
these  following  :  The  Third  Book  of  Isdras,  The  Fourth  Book 
of  Esdras,  The  Book  of  Tobias,  The  Book  of  Judith,  The  rest 
of  the  Book  of  Esther,  The  Book  i.f  Wisdom,  Jesus  the  Son 
of  Sirach,  Baruch  the  Prophet,  The  Fong  of  the  Three  Chil- 
dren, The  Story  of  Susanna,  Of  liel  and  the  Dragon,  The 
Prayer  of  Manasses,The  First  Book  of  Maccabees,  The  Second 
Book  of  Maccabees.  All  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  as 
they  are  commonly  received,  we  do  receive,  and  account  them 
canonical. 

VII.  Of  the  Old  Testament.— The  Old  Testament  is  not 
contrary  to  the.  New;  for  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
everlasting  life  is  offered  to  mankind  by  Christ,  who  is  the 
only  mediator  between  God  and  man,  being  both  God  and 
man.  Wherefore  they  are  not  to  be  heard  which  feign  that 
the  old  fathers  did  look  only  for  transitory  promises.  Al- 
though the  law  given  from  God  by  Moses,  as  touching  cere- 
monies and  rites,  do  not  bind  Christian  men,  nor  the  civil 
precepts  thereof  ought  of  necessity  to  be  received  in  any  com- 
monwealth, yet,  notwithstanding,  no  Christian  man  whatso- 
ever is  free  from  the  obedience  of  the  commandments  which 
are  called  moral. 

VIII.  Of  the  Three.  Creeds.— The  Three  Creeds,  Kicene 
Creed,  Athanasius's  Creed,  and  that  which  is  commonly  call- 
ed the  A]>ostles'  Creed,  ought  thoroughly  to  he  received  and 
believed,  for  they  may  be  proved  by  most  certain  warrants  of 
Holy  Scripture. 

IX.  Of  Original  or  Lirth  Sin. — Original  sin  standeth  not 
in  the  following  of  A  daw  (as  the  Pelagians  do  vainly  talk), 
but  it  is  the  fault  and  corruption  of  the  nature  of  every  man, 
that  naturally  is  engendered  of  the  offspring  of , I  dam  ;  where- 
by man  is  very  far  gone  from  original  righteousness,  and  is 
of  his  own  nature  inclined  to  evil,  so  that  the  flesh  lusteth  al- 
ways contrary  to  the  Spirit;  and  therefore,  in  every  person 
born  into  this  world,  it  deserveth  Cod's  wrath  and  damnation. 
And  this  infection  of  nature  doth  remain,  yea,  in  them  that 
are  regenerated ;  whereby  the  lust  of  the  flesh,  called  in  the 
Greek  phronnna  saiknr,  which  some  do  expound  the  wisdom, 
some  sensuality,  some  the  affection,  some  the  desire  of  the 
flesh,  is  not  subject  to  the  law  of  God.  And  although  there 
is  no  condemnation  for  them  that  believe  and  arc  baptized, 
yet  the  apostle  doth  confess  that  concupiscence  and  lust  hath 
of  itself  the  nature  of  sin. 

X.  Of  Free  Will.—  The  condition  of  man  after  the  fall  of 
Adam  is  such  that  he  cannot  turn  and  prepare  himself,  by  his 
own  natural  strength  and  good  works,  to  faith  and  calling 
upon  God  :  wherefore  we  have  no  power  to  do  good  works 
pleasant  and  acceptable  to  God,  without  the  grace  of  God  by 


Christ  preventing  us,  that  we  may  have  a  good  will,  and 
working  with  us  when  we  have  that  good  will. 

XI.  Vf  the  Justification  if  Man. — We  are  accounted  right- 
eous  before  God  only  for  the  merit  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ  by  faith,  and  not  for  our  own  works  or  deserv- 
ing.-*; wherefore  that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only  is  a  most 
wholesome  doctrine,  and  very  full  of  comfort,  as  more  largely 
is  expressed  in  the  Homily  of  Justification. 

XII.  Of  Good  Works. — Albeit  that  good  works,  which  are 
the  fruits  of  faith,  and  follow  after  justification,  cannot  put 
away  our  sins,  and  endure  the  severity  of  God's  judgment, 
yet  are  they  pleasing  and  acceptable  to  God  in  Christ,  and  do 
spring  out  necessarily  of  a  true  and  lively  faith ;  insomuch 
that  by  them  a  lively  faith  may  be  as  evidently  known  as  a 
tree  discerned  by  the  fruit. 

XIII.  Of  Works  before  Justification. — Works  done  before 
the  grace  of  Christ,  and  the  inspiration  of  his  Spirit,  are  not 
pleasant  to  God,  forasmuch  as  they  spring  not  of  faith  in  Je- 
sus Christ,  neither  do  they  make  men  meet  to  receive  grace, 
or  (as  the  school-authors  say)  deserve  grace  of  congruity ;  yea, 
rather,  for  that  they  are  not  done  as  God  hath  willed  and 
commanded  them  to  be  done,  we  doubt  not  but  they  have  the 
nature  of  sin. 

XIV.  Of  Works  of  Supererogation.— Voluntary  works  be- 
sides, over  and  above  God's  commandments,  which  they  call 
works  of  supererogation,  cannot  be  taught  without  arrogancy 
and  impiety;  for  by  them  men  do  declare  that  they  do  not 
only  render  unto  God  as  much  as  they  are  bound  to  do,  but 
that  they  do  more  for  his  sake  than  of  bounden  duty  is  re- 
quired ;  whereas  Christ  saith  plainly,  When  ye  have  done  all 
that  are  commanded  to  you,  say,  We  are  unprofitable  servants. 

XV.  Of  Christ  alone  icitlmut  Sin. — Christ,  in  the  truth  of 
cur  nature,  was  made  like  unto  us  in  all  things,  sin  only  ex- 
cept, from  which  he  was  clearly  void,  both  in  his  flesh  and  in 
his  spirit,  lie  came  to  be  the  Lamb  without  spot,  who,  by 
sacrifice  of  himself  once  made,  should  take  away  the  sins  of 
the  world,  and  sin,  as  Saint  John  saith,  was  not  in  him.  But 
all  we  the  /est,  although  baptized  and  born  again  in  Christ, 
yet  offend  in  many  things;  and  if  we  say  we  have  no  sin,  we 
deceive  ourselves,  and  the  truth  is  not  in  us. 

XVI.  Of  Sin  after  Baptism. — Not  every  deadly  sin  willing- 
ly committed  after  baptism  is  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
unpardonable.  Wherefore  the  grant  of  repentance  is  not  to 
be  denied  to  such  as  fall  into  sin  after  baptism.  After  wo 
have  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  we  may  depart  from  grace 
given  and  fall  into  sin,  and  by  the  grace  of  God  we  may  arise 
again  and  amend  our  lives.  And  therefore  they  are  to  be  con- 
demned which  say  they  can  no  more  sin  as  long  as  they  live 
here,  or  deny  the  place  of  forgiveness  to  such  as  truly  repent. 

XVII.  Of  Predestination  and  Flection — Predestination  to 
life  is  the  everlasting  purpose  of  God,  whereby  (before  the 
foundations  of  the  world  were  laid)  he  hath  constantly  decreed 
by  his  counsel,  secret  to  us,  to  deliver  from  curse  and  damna- 
tion those  whom  he  hath  chosen  in  Christ  out  of  mankind, 
and  to  bring  them  by  Christ  to  everlasting  salvation,  as  ves- 
sels made  to  honor.  Wherefore  they  which  be  endued  with 
so  excellent  a  benefit  of  God  be  called  according  to  God's  pur- 
pose by  his  Spirit  working  in  due  season:  they  through  grac3 
obey  the  calling  ;  they  be  justified  freely  ;  they  be  made  sons 
of  God  bv  adoption  ;  they  be  made  like  the  image  of  his  only- 
begotten' Son  Jesus  Christ;  they  walk  religiously  in  good 
works,  and  at  length,  by  God's  mercy,  they  attain  to  ever- 
lasting felicity. 

As  the  godly  consideration  of  predestination  and  our  elec- 
tion in  Christ  is  full  of  sweet,  pleasant,  and  unspeakable  com- 
fort to  godly  persons,  and  such  as  feel  in  themselves  the  work- 
ing of  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  mortifying  the  works  of  the  flesh 
and  their  earthlv  members,  and  drawing  up  their  mind  to 
high  and  heavenly  things,  as  well  because  it  doth  greatly  es- 
tablish and  confirm  their  faith  of  eternal  salvation  to  be  en- 
joyed  through  Christ,  as  because  it  doth  fervently  kindle 
their  love  toward  God,  so,  for  curious  and  carnal  persons, 
lacking  the  Spirit  of  Christ,  to  have  continually  before  their 
eyes  the  sentence  of  God's  predestination,  is  a  most  dangerous 
downfall,  whereby  the  devil  doth  thrust  them  either  into  des- 
peration, or  into  wretchedness  of  mo-t  unclean  living  no  less 
perilous  than  desperation. 

Furthermore,  we  must  receive  God's  promises  in  such  wise 
as  they  be  generally  set  forth  to  us  in  Holy  Scripture,  and,  in 
our  doings,  that  will  of  God  is  to  be  followed  which  we  have 
exp-essly  declared  unto  us  in  the  Word  of  God. 

XVIII.  Of  obtaining  eternal  Salvation  only  by  the  Name 
of  Christ.— They  also  are  to  be  had  accursed  that  presume  to 
say,  That  every  man  shall  be  saved  by  the  law  or  sect  which 
he  professeth,  so  that  be  be  diligent  to  frame  his  life  accord- 
ing to  that  law  and  the  light  of  nature;  for  Holy  Scripture 
doth  set  out  unto  us  only  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  whereby 
men  must  be  saved. 

XIX.  Of  the  Ch arch.  —The  visible  Church  of  Christ  is  a 
congregation  of  faithful  men,  in  the  which  the  pure  Word  oi 
God  is  preached,  and  the  sacraments  be  duly  administered 
according  to  Christ's  ordinance  in  all  those  things  that  of  ne- 
cessity- aie  requisite  to  the  same.  . 

As  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and  Antiach 
have  erred,  so  also  the  Church  of  Home  hath  erred,  not  only 
in  their  living  and  manner  of  ceremonies,  but  also  in  matters 
of  faith.  ,     .      , 

1  XX.  Of  the  Authority  of  the  Church.— The  church  hath 
I  power  to  decree  rites  or  ceremonies,  and  authority  in  contro- 
[  versies  of  faith ;  and  yet  it  is  not  lawful  for  the  church  to  or- 


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ARTICLES 


(lain  anv  tiling  that  is  contrary  to  God's  Word  written,  nei- 
ther may  it  so  expound  one  place  of  Scripture  that  it  be  re- 
pugnant to  another.  Wherefore,  although  the  church  tie  a  wit- 
in--  and  a  keeper  of  Holy  Writ,  yet,  as  it  ought  not  to  decree 
any  thing  against  the  same,  so,  besides  the  same,  ought  it  not 
to  enforce  anv  thing  to  be  believed  for  necessity  of  salvation. 

XXI.  or  the  Authority  <>/  General  Councils.  —General 
councils  may  not  he  gathered  together  without  the  command- 
ment and  will  of  princes.  And  when  they  be  gathered  to- 
gether (forasmuch  as  thev  be  an  assembly  of  men,  whereof  all 
be  no!  govc  rued  with  the  Spirit  and  Word  of  God)  they  may 
err.  and  sometimes  have  erred,  even  in  things  pertaining 
unto  God.  Wherefore  things  ordained  by  them  as  necessary 
to  salvation  have  neither  strength  nor  authority,  unless  it 
mav  be  declared  that  they  be  taken  out  of  Holy  scripture. 

XXII.  0/ Purgatory. — The  Romish  doctrine  concerning 
purgatory  .'pardons,  worshipping  and  adoration,  as  well  of 

of  rel'iipics,  and  also  invocation  of  saints,  is  a  fond 
thing  vainly  invented,  and  grounded  upon  no  warranty  of 
Scripture,  but  rather  repugnant  to  the  Word  of  God. 

XXIII.  Of  Ministerial)  til  the  Conyreaalion.—  It  is  not  law- 
ful for  anv  person  to  take  upon  him  the  office  of  public  preach- 
ing, or  ministering  the  sacraments  in  the  congregation,  before 
lie  be  lawfnlly  called,  and  sent  to  execute  the  same.  And 
those  we  ought  to  judge  lawfully  called  and  sent  which  be 
chosen  and  called  to  this  work  by  men  who  have  public  au- 
thority given  unto  them  in  the  congregation  to  call  and  send 
ministers  into  the  Lord's  vineyard. 

XXIV.  Of  speaking  in  the  Cnnnreaation  in  such  a  tongue. 
as  the  people  anderstandeth — It  is  a  thing  plainly  repugnant 
to  the  Word  of  God  and  the  custom  of  the  primitive  church 
to  have  public  prayer  in  the  church,  or  to  minister  the  sacra- 
ments, in  a  tongue' not  understanded  of  the  people. 

XXV.  Of  the  Sacraments. — Sacraments  ordained  of  Christ 
be  not  only  badges  or  tokens  of  Christian  men's  profession, 
but  rather  they  be  certain  sure  witnesses,  and  effectual  signs 
of  grace  and  God's  good  will  toward  us,  by  the  which  he  doth 
work  invisibly  in  ns,  and  doth  not  only  quicken,  but  also 
strengthen  and  confirm  our  faith  in  him. 

There  are  two  sacraments  ordained  of  Christ  our  Lord  in  the 
Gospel,  that  is  to  say,  Baptism  and  the  Supper  of  the  Lord. 

Those  five  commonly  called  sacraments,  that  is  to  say,  Con- 
firmation, reliance,  <  'rders,  Matrimony,  and  Extreme  Unction, 
are  not  to  be  counted  for  sacraments  of  the  Gospel,  being  such 
as  have  grown  partly  of  the  corrupt  following  of  the  apos'les, 
partly  are  states  of  life  allowed  in  the  Scriptures,  but  yet  have 
not  like  nature  of  sacraments  with  Baptism  and  the  I  ord's 
Supper,  for  that  they  have  not  any  visible  sign  or  ceremony 
ordained  of  God. 

The  sacraments  were  not  o  darned  of  Christ  to  be  gazed 
upon,  or  to  be  carried  about,  but  that  we  should  duly  use 
them.  Aud  in  such  only  as  worthily  receive  the  same  they 
have  a  wholesome  effect  or  operation;  but  they  that  receive 
tin  in  unworthily  purchase  to  themselves  damnation,  as  St. 
Paul  saith. 

XXVI.  Of  the  Vnvortldness  of  the  Ministers,  which  hin- 
ders not  the  effect  of  the  Sacrament.— Although  in  the  visible 
church  the  evil  be  cv,  r  mingled  with  the  good,  and  sometimes 
the  evil  have  chief  authority  in  the  ministration  of  the  word 
and  sacraments,  yet  fora-mueh  as  they  do  not  the  same  in 
their  own  name,  but  in  Christ's,  and  do  minister  by  his  com- 
mission aud  authority,  we  may  use  their  ministry,  both  in 
hearing  the  Word  of  God  and  in  receiving  the  sacraments. 
Neither  is  the  effect  of  Christ's  ordinance  taken  away  by  their 
wickedness,  nor  the  grace  of  God's  gifts  diminished  from  such 
as  by  faith  and  rightly  do  receive  the  sacraments  ministered 
onto  them  ;  which  be  effectual,  because  of  ( 'host's  institution 
and  promi.-e,  although  they  he  ministered  by  evil  men. 

Ne\  ortholoss,  it  appertaincth  to  the  discipline  of  the  church 
that  inquiry  be  made  of  evil  ministers,  and  that  they  be  ac- 
cuse 1  by  those  that  have  knowledge  of  their  offenses;  and 
iieing  found  guilty,  by  just  judgment  be  deposed. 

X.W'II.  Of  Baptism.  —  Baptism  is  not  only  a  sign  of  profes- 
sion, and  mark  of  difference,  whereby  Christian  men  are  dis- 
cerned from  others  that  be  not  christened,  but  it  is  also  a  sign 
of  regeneration  or  new  birth,  whereby,  as  by  an  instrument, 
tin  %  thai  receive  baptism  rightly  are  grafted  into  the  church  ; 
the  pnuiii-eJ  ..f  forgiveness  of  sin,  aud  of  our  adoption  to  be 
t  t.od  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  visibly  signed  and 
scaled;  faith  is  continued,  and  grace  increased  by  virtue  of 

prayer  unto  God.    The  baptism  of  young  children  is  in  any 

wi-o  to  I,  ■  retained  iii  the  church,  as  most  agreeable  with  the 
institution  of  Christ. 

X.Will.  Oftlie  Lorffa  Supper.— The  Supper  of  the  Lord 
i-  nol  onlj  a  Bign  of  the  love  that  Christians  ought  to  have 
among  them-  Ives  one  to  another,  but  rather  is  a  sacrament 
of  our  redemption  by  Christ's  death;  insomuch  that  to  such 

at  rightly,  worthily,  and  with  faith  receive  the  same,  the 
bread  which  we  break  i-  a  partaking  oftlie  body  of  Christ, 
and  likewise  the  cup  of  ble.-sing  i-  a  partaking  of  the  blood 
of  Christ. 

Transubstantiation  (or  the  change  of  the  substance  of  bread 
and  wine)  In  the  Supper  of  the  lord  cannot  be  proved  by 
Holy  Writ,  but  is  repugnant  to  the  plain  words  of  Scripture, 
overthroweth  the  nature  of  a  sacrament,  And  hath  given  oc- 
casion to  many  superstitious. 

The  body  of  Christ  is  given,  taken,  and  eaten  in  the  Supper 
only  after  an  heavenly  and  spiritual  manner.  And  the  mean 
whereby  the  body  of  Christ  is  received  and  eaten  in  the  Sup- 
per is  faith. 


The  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  not  by  Christ's  or- 
dinance reserved,  carried  about,  lilted  up,  or  worshipped. 

XXIX.  Of  the  Wicked  which  eat  not  the  Lody  oi  Christ  in 

the  use  of  the  Lord's  Siqiper The  wicked,  and  such  as  be 

void  of  a  lively  faith,  although  they  do  carnally  and  visibly 
press  with  their  teeth  (as  St.  Augustine  saith)  the  sacrament 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  yet  in  no  wise  are  they  par- 
takers of  Christ,  but  rather,  to  their  condemnation,  do  eat  and 
drink  the  sign  and  sacrament  of  so  great  a  thing. 

XXX.  Of  both  kinds. — The  cup  of  the  Lord  is  not  to  be  de- 
nied to  the  lay  people,  for  both  the  parts  of  the  Lord's  sacra- 
ment, by  Christ's  ordinance  aud  commandment,  ought  to  be 
ministered  to  all  Christian  men  alike. 

XXXI.  Of  the  one  Oblation  of  Christ  finished  upon  the 
Cross. — The  offering  of  Christ  once  made  is  that  perfect  re- 
demption, propitiation,  and  satisfaction  for  all  the  sins  of  the 
whole  world,  both  original  and  actual ;  and  there  is  none  other 
satisfaction  for  sin  but  that  alone.  Wherefore  the  sacrifices 
of  masses,  in  the  which  it  was  commonly  said  that  the  priest 
did  offer  Christ  for  the  quick  and  the  dead,  to  have  remission 
of  pain  or  guilt,  were  blasphemous  fables  and  dangerous  de- 
ceits. 

XXXII.  Of  the  Marriage  of  Priests—  Bishops,  priests,  and 
deacons  are  not  commanded  by  God's  law  either  to  avow  the 
estate  of  single  life  or  to  abstain  from  marriage;  therefore  it 
is  lawful  for  them,  as  for  all  other  Christian  men,  to  many  at 
their  own  discretion,  as  they  shall  judge  the  same  to  serve 
bitter  to  godliness. 

XXXIII.  Of  excommunicate  Person,?,  how  they  are  to  be 
avoided. — That  person  which  by  open  denunciation  of  the 
church  is  rightly  cut  off  from  the  unity  of  the  church  and  ex. 
communicated,  ought  to  be  taken  of  the  whole  multitude  of 
the  faithful  as  an  heathen  and  publican  until  ha  be  openly 
reconciled  by  penance,  and  received  into  the  church  by  a 
judge  that  hath  authority  thereunto. 

XXXIV.  Of  the  Traditions  of  the  Church. — It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  traditions  and  ceremonies  be  in  all  places  one  and 
utterly  like,  for  at  all  times  they  have  been  divers,  and  may 
be  changed  according  to  the  diversities  of  countries,  times, 
and  men's  manners,  so  that  nothing  be  ordained  against  God's 
Word.  Whosoever  through  his  private  judgment,  willingly 
and  purposely,  doth  openly  break  the  traditions  and  ceremo. 
nies  of  the  church,  which  be  not  repugnant  to  the  Word  of 
God,  and  he  ordained  and  approved  by  common  authority, 
ought  to  be  rebuked  openly  (that  others  may  fear  to  do  the 
like),  as  he  that  offendc  th  aga  nst  the  common  order  of  the 
church,  and  lmrteth  the  autlurity  of  the  magistrate,  aud 
woundeth  the  consciences  cf  the  weak  brethren. 

Every  particular  or  national  church  hath  authority  to  or- 
dain, change,  and  abolish  ceremonies  or  rites  of  the  church 
ordained  only  by  man's  authority,  so  that  all  things  be  done 
to  edifying. 

XXXV.  Of  the  Homilies.— The  second  Book  of  Homilies, 
the  several  titles  whereof  we  have  joined  under  this  article, 
doth  contain  a  godly  and  wholesome  doctrine,  and  necessary 
for  these  times,  as  doth  the  former  Book  of  Homilies,  which 
were  set  forth  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Sixth ;  and  therefore 
we  judge  them  to  be  read  in  churches  by  the  ministers,  dili- 
gently and  distinctly,  that  they  may  be  understanded  of  the 
people. 

Of  the  names  of  the  Homilies— 1.  Of  the  right  Use  of  the 
Church;  2.  Against  peril  of  Idolatry;  3.  Of  repairing  and 
keeping  clean  of  Churches  ;  4.  Of  good  Works  :  first,  of  Fast- 
ing; 5.  Against  Gluttony  and  Drunkenness;  G.  Against  Ex, 
cess  of  Apparel;  1.  Of  Prayer;  S.  Of  the  Place  and  Time  of 
Prayer;  9.  That  Common  Prayers  and  Sacraments  ought  to 
he  ministered  in  a  known  tongue;  10.  Of  the  reverend  estima- 
tion of  God's  Word;  11.  Of  Alms-doing  ;  12.  Oftlie  Nativity 
of  Christ;  13.  Of  the  Passion  of  Christ ;  14.  Of  the  Resurn  c- 
tion  of  Christ ;  15.  Of  the  worthy  receiving  of  the  Sacrament 
of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ;  16.  Of  the  Gifts  of  the  Holy 
Ghost;  IT.  For  the  Rogation  days;  is.  of  the  state  of  Matri- 
mony ;  I'd.  Of  Repentance;  £0.  Against  Idleness;  21.  Against 
Rebellion. 

XXXVI.  Of  Consecration  of  nixhojis  and  Ministers. — The 
Book  of  Consecration  of  Archbishops  and  Bishops,  and  Order- 
ing of  Priests  and  Deacons,  lately  set  forth  in  the  time  of  Ed- 
ward the  Sixth,  and  confirmed  at  the  same  time  by  authority 
of  Parliament,  doth  contain  all  things  necessary  to  such  con- 
secration and  ordering;  neither  hath  it  anything" that  of  it- 
self is  superstitious  and  ungodly.  And  therefore  whosoever 
are  consecrated  or  ordered  according  to  the  rites  of  that  look, 
since  the  second  year  of  the  forenanied  King  Edward  unto 
this  time,  or  hereafter  shall  be  consecrated  or  ordered  accord- 
ing to  the  same  rites,  we  decree  all  such  to  be  rightly,  orderly, 
and  lawfully  consecrated  and  ordered. 

XXXVII.'  (if  the  Civil  Mm  tint  rotes.— The  queen's  majesty 
hath  the  chief  power  in  this  realm  of  England,  and  other  her 
dominions,  unto  whom  the  chief  government  of  all  estates  of 

this  realm,  whether  they  he  ecclesiastical  or  civil,  in  all  cases 
doth  appertain,  and  is  not,  nor  ought  to  be,  subject  to  any  for- 


Where  we  attribute  to  the  queen's  maje-ty  the  chief  govern- 
ment, by  which  titles  we  understand  the  minds  of  some  slan- 
derous folk-  to  he  offended,  we  give  not  to  our  princes  the 
ministering  either  of  Cod's  Word  or  of  the  sacraments,  the 
which  thing  the  injunctions  also  lately  set  forth  by  Elizabeth 
our  queen  do  most  plainly  testify,  but  that  only  prerogative 
Which  we  Pee  to  have  been  given  always  to  all  godly  princes 
in  Holy  Scriptures  by  God  himself;  that  is,  that  they  should 


ARTICLES 


447 


ARTIFICER 


rule  all  states  and  degree.?  committed  to  their  charge  by  God, 
whether  they  be  ecclesiastical  or  temporal,  and  restrain  with  j 
the  civil  sword  the  stubborn  and  evil-doers. 

The  Bishop  of  Rome  hath  no  jurisdiction  in  this  realm  of 
England. 

The  laws  of  the  realm  may  punish  Christian  men  with  death 
for  heinous  and  grievous  offences. 

It  is  lawful  for  Christian  men,  at  the  commandment  of  the 
magistrate,  to  wear  weapons  and  serve  in  the  wars. 

XXXVIII.  Of  Christian  men's  Goods,  which  are  not  com- 
mon.  The  riches  and  goods  of  Christians  are  not  common,  as 

touching  the  right,  title,  and  possession  of  the  same,  as  certain 
Anabaptists  do  falsely  boast.  Notwithstanding,  every  man 
ought,  of  such  things  as  he  possesseth,  liberally  to  give  alms 
to  the  poor,  according  to  his  ability. 

XXXIX.  Of  a  Christian  man's  Oath.— As  we  confess  that 
vain  and  rash  swearing  i<  forbidden  Christian  men  by  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  dames  the  apostle,  so  we  judge  that 
Christian  religion  doth  not  prohibit,  but  that  a  man  may  swear 
when  the  magistrate  requireth,  in  a  cause  of  faith  and  chari- 
ty, so  it  be  done  according  to  the  prophet's  teaching,  in  jus- 
tice, judgment,  and  truth. 

The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  adopted  in  convention,  September  12,  1801,  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  except  the  21st,  with  certain  mod- 
ifications, which  are  stated  as  follows  by  the  American 
editor  of  Hook's  Church  Dictionary: 

"  In  the  eighth  article  we  have  left  out  the  words 
'three  creeds'  and  'Athanasius  creed,'  having  reject- 
ed that  creed  as  an  exponent  of  our  faith.  The  21st 
article,  'Of  the  authority  of  general  councils,'  i;  left 
out  altogether ;  and,  though  the  No.  xxi  and  title 
is  retained,  an  asterisk  refers  us  to  a  foot-note  which 
says,  'the  21st  of  the  former  articles  is  omitted  lie- 
cause  it  is  partly  of  a  local  and  civil  nature,  and  is 
provided  for  as  to  the  remaining  p  irt  of  it  in  other  ar- 
ticles.' After  the  35th  article,  'Of  homilies,'  our  re- 
viewers have  inserted  the  following  explanation  in 
bracket.  'This  article  is  received  in  this  church  so 
far  as  it  declares  the  books  of  homilies  to  be  an  expli- 
cation of  Christian  doctrine,  and  instructive  on  piety 
and  morals.  But  all  references  to  the  constitution  and 
laws  of  England  are  considered  as  inapplicable  to  the 
circumstances  of  this  church,  which  also  suspend  the 
order  for  the  reading  of  said  homilies  in  churches,  un- 
til a  revision  of  them  may  be  conveniently  made,  for 
the  clearing  of  them,  as  well  from  obsolete  words  and 
phrases  as  from  the  local  references.'  The  36th  arti- 
cle, 'Of  the  consecration  of  bishops  and  ministers,'  is 
altered  to  suit  the  peculiarities  of  the  American  Church. 
The  37th  article  '  Of  the  power  of  the  civil  magis- 
trates,' is  a  new  one  entirely  superseding  that  of  the 
Church  of  England,  which  sets  forth  the  queen's  su- 
premacy in  church  and  state,  the  annulling  of  papal 
jurisdiction  in  England,  the  power  of  the  laws  of  the 
realm  to  punish  with  death,  and  the  lawfulness  of 
wearing  weapons  and  serving  in  wars  at  the  com- 
mandment of  the  magistrates.  The  Am?riean  article 
is  a  biblical  statement  of  a  great  and  fundamental  j 
principle,  applicable  to  all  men,  and  under  all  circum- 
stances. The  American  articles  were  ordered  to  be  set  | 
forth  by  the  General  Convention  assembled  in  Tren-  j 
ton,  New  Jersey,  in  September,  1801." 

As  to  the  sources  of  the  English  articles,  besides  what 
has  been  said  above,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  add  that 
the  1st,  2d,  25th,  and  31st  agree  not  only  in  their  doc- 
trine, but  in  most  of  their  wording,  with  the  Confes- 
sion of  Augsburg.  The  9th  and  16th  are  clearly  due 
to  the  same  source.  Some  of  them,  as  the  19th,  20th, 
25th,  and  34th,  resemble,  both  in  doctrine  and  language, 
certain  articles  drawn  up  by  a  commission  appoint- 
ed by  Henry  VIII,  and  annotated  by  the  king's  own 
hand.  The  11th  article,  on  justification,  is  ascribed  to 
Cranmer,  but  the  latter  part  of  it  only  existed  in  the 
articles  of  1552.  The  17th,  on  predestination,  has 
afforded  matter  of  great  dispute  as  to  the  question 
whether  it  is  meant  to  affirm  the  Calvinistic  doctrine 
or  no.  On  this  point,  see  Laurence,  Hampton  Lectures ; 
Browne  On  39  Articles,  p.  120  sq.,  and  our  articles 
Arminianism,  Calvinism,  with  further  references 
there.  The  Thirty-nine  Articles  have  been  described 
as  "containing  a  whole  body  of  divinity."     This  can 


hardly  be  maintained.  They  contain,  however,  what 
the  Church  of  England  holds  to  be  a  fair  scriptural  ac- 
count of  the  leading  doctrines  of  Christianity,  together 
with  a  condemnation  of  what  she  considers  to  be  the 
principal  errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome  and  of  certain 
Protestant  sects.  As  far  as  they  go  (and  there  are 
many  things  unnoticed  by  them),  they  are  a  legal  def- 
inition of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England  and 
Ireland,  though  the  members  of  that  communion  look 
to  the  Prayer-book  as  well  as  to  the  articles  for  the 
genuine  expression  of  her  faith.  The  articles  are  far 
more  thoroughly  Protestant  than  the  Prayer-book,  ta- 
ken as  a  whole.  Although  the  articles  expressly  as- 
sert that  the  Church  of  Koine  lias  erred,  attempts  have 
repeatedly  been  made  by  the  High-Church  party  of  the 
Church  of  England  to  show  that  there  is  no  irreconcil- 
able difference  between  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  and  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  that  a  construc- 
tion can  lie  put  upon  them  fully  harmonizing  them. 
To  show  this  was,  in  particular,  the  object  of  Dr.  New- 
man's celebrated  tract  (Tracts  for  the  Times,  No.  90, 
Oxf.  1839),  and  more  recently  of  Ur.  Pusey's  Eirenicon 
(Lond.  1805;  N.  Y.  1800).  See  also  Christ.  Remembr. 
Jan.  1866,  art.  vi.  The  articles  were  adopted  by  the 
Convocation  of  the  Irish  Church  in  1035,  and  by  the 
Scotch  Episcopal  Church  at  the  close  of  the  18th  centu- 
ry. Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  contains  the 
only  copies  of  the  articles  in  manuscript  or  print  that 
arc  of  any  authority.  Among  them  are  the  Latin  manu- 
script of  the  articles  of  1502  and  the  English  manuscript 
of  the  articles  of  1571,  each  with  the  signatures  of  the 
archbishops  and  bishops  who  subscribed  them.  See 
Lamb,  Account  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  (Camb.  2d  ed. 
1835).  One  of  the  best  accounts  of  the  origin  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  is  given  by  Hardwick,  History  of 
the  Articles  of  Religion  (Lond.  1855,  8vo).  For  exposi- 
tions of  them,  see  Burnet  On  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
(N.  Y.  1815,  8vo) ;  Welchman,  XXXTX  Articles  (Lond. 
1834,  8vo,  13th  ed.)  ;  Sworde,  The  first  Seventeen  A,  'i- 
cles  (Lond.  1847,  8vo)  ;  Wilson,  XXXIX  Articles  Il'-us* 
trated  (Oxf.  1840,  8vo) ;  Dimock,  XXXIX  Articles  Ex- 
plained (Lond.  1845,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Browne.  Erpositim 
of  Thirty-nine  Articles  (Lond.  1851,  8vo;  N.  Y.  ed.  by 
Williams,  1805,  8vo) ;  Cardwcll,  Synodalia  ;  Palmer 
On  the  Church,  ii,  242  sq. ;  Lee,  The  Articles  paraphrase 
tically  explained  by  Sancta  Clara  (Dr.  Davenport)  (from 
the  edition  of  1040 ;  London,  1865,  post  8vo). 

Artificer  (some  form  of  the  verb  d^n,  chtrash', 
to  engrave,  as  elsewhere),  a  person  engaged  in  any 
kind  of  trade  or  manual  occupation  [see  Carpenter, 
Mason,  etc.],  Gen.  iv,  22;  Isa.  iii,  3.  See  Handi- 
craft. In  the  early  periods  to  which  the  scriptural 
history  refers,  we  do  not  meet  with  those  artificial  feel- 
ings and  unreasonable  prejudices  against  hand-labor 
which  prevail  and  arc  so  banefully  influential  in  mod- 
ern society.  See  Labor.  Accordingly,  even  the  cre- 
ation of  the  world  is  spoken  of  as  the  work  of  God's 
hands,  and  the  firmament  is  said  to  show  his  handi- 
work (Psa.  viii,  3 ;  xix,  1  ;  Gen.  ii,  2  ;  Job  xxxiv,  19). 
The  primitive  history,  too,  which  the  Bible  presents  is 
the  history  of  hand-laborers.  Adam  dressed  the  gar- 
den in  which  God  bad  placed  him  (Gen.  ii,  15),  Abel 
was  a  keeper  of  sheep,  Cain  a  tiller  of  the  ground 
(Gen.  iv,  3),  Tubal-Cain  a  smith  (Gen.  iv,  22).  See 
Art.  The  shepherd-life  which  the  patriarchs  previ- 
ously led  in  their  own  pasture-grounds  was  not  favora- 
ble to  the  cultivation  of  the  practical  arts  of  life,  much 
less  of  those  arts  by  which  it  is  embellished.  Egypt, 
in  consequence,  must  have  presented  to  Joseph  and 
his  father  not  only  a  land  of  wonders,  but  a  source  of 
rich  and  attractive  knowledge.  Another  source  of 
knowledge  to  the  Hebrews  of  handicrafts  were  the 
maritime  and  commercial  Phoenicians.  Commerce 
and  navigation  imply  great  skill  in  art  and  science; 
and  the  pursuits  to  which  they  lead  largely  increase 
the  skill  whence  they  emanate."     See  Commerce.     It 


ARTIFICER 


441 


is  not,  therefore,  surprising  that  the  origin  of  so  many  j 
arts  has  been  referred  to  the  north-eastern  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea ;  nor  is  there  any  difficulty  in  un- 
derstanding how  arts  and  letters  should  be  propagated 
from  the  coast  to  the  interior,  conferring  high  advan- 
tages  on  the  inhabitants  of  Syria  in  general,  as  well 
hefore  as  after  the  settlement  of  the  Hebrew  tribes  in 
the  land  of  promise.  At  first  the  division  of  labor  was 
only  very  partial.  The  master  of  the  family  himself 
exercised  such  arts  as  were  found  of  absolute  necessi- 
ty. Among  these  may  be  reckoned  not  only  those 
which  pasturage  and  tillage  required,  but  most  of  those 
which  were  of  that  rough  and  severe  nature  which  de- 
mand strength  as  well  as  skill ;  such,  for  instance,  as 
the  preparation  of  wood-work  for  the  dwelling,  the 
slaving  of  animals  for  food,  which  every  householder 
understood,  together  with  the  art  of  extracting  the 
blood  from  the  entire  carcass.  The  lighter  labors  of 
the  hand  fell  to  the  share  of  the  housewife ;  such  as 
baking  bread  —  for  it  was  only  in  large  towns  that 
baking  was  carried  on  as  a  trade  (2  Sam.  xiii,  8) — such 
also  as  cooking  in  general,  supplying  the  house  with 
water — no  very  easy  office,  as  the  fountains  often  lay 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  dwelling;  more- 
over, weaving,  making  of  clothes  for  males  as  well  as 
females,  working  in  wool,  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  tapes- 
try, richly-colored  hangings,  and  that  not  only  for  do- 
mestic use,  but  for  "merchandise,"  were  carried  on 
within  the  precincts  of  the  house  by  the  mistress  and 
her  maidens  (Exod.  xxxv,  25 ;  1  Sam.  ii,  19 ;  2  Kings 
xxiii,  7  ;  Prov.  xxxi).     See  Weaving. 

The  skill  of  the  Hebrews  during  their  wanderings 
in  the  desert  does  not  appear  to  have  been  inconsider- 
able ;  but  the  pursuits  of  war  and  the  entire  absorp- 
tion of  the  energies  of  the  nation  in  the  one  great  work  ; 
of  gaining  the  land  which  had  been  given  to  them, 
may  have  led  to  their  falling  off  in  the  arts  of  peace  ;  ! 
and  from  a  passage  in  1  Sam.  (xiii,  20)  it  would  appear  I 
that  not  long  after  the}'  had  taken  possession  of  the  j 
country  they  were  in  a  low  condition  as  to  the  instru-  j 
ments  of  handicraft.  A  comparatively  settled  state 
of  society,  however,  soon  led  to  the  revival  of  skill  by  j 
the  encouragement  of  industry.  A  more  minute  di-  ! 
vision  of  labor  ensued.  Trades,  strictly  so  called,  j 
arose,  carried  on  by  persons  exclusively  devoted  to 
one  pursuit.  Thus,  in  Judg.  xvii,  4,  and  Jer.  x,  14, 
'•  the  founder"'  is  mentioned — a  trade  which  implies  a 
practical  knowledge  of  metallurgy;  the  smelting  and 
working  of  metals  were  well  known  to  the  Hebrews 
(Job  xxxvii,  18);  brass  was  in  use  before  iron;  arms  I 
and  instruments  of  husbandry  were  made  of  iron.  In 
Exodus  (xxxv,  30-35)  a  passage  occurs  which  may  j 
serve  to  specify  many  arts  that  were  practised  among 
the  Israelites,  though  it  seems  also  to  intimate  that  at 
the  time  to  which  it  refers  artificers  of  the  description 
referred  to  were  not  numerous :  "  See,  the  Lord  hath 
called  by  name  Bezaleel,  and  hath  filled  him  with  the 
spirit  of  God,  in  knowledge  and  all  manner  of  work- 
manship, and  to  devise  curious  works,  to  work  in  gold, 
and  in  silver,  and  in  brass,  and  in  the  cutting  of  stones, 
to  Bet  them,  and  in  carving  of  wood,  to  make  any  man- 
ner of  cunning  work ;  and  he  hath  put  in  his  heart 
that  he  may  teach  ;  both  he  and  Aholiab:  them  hath 
he  filled  with  wisdom  of  heart  to  work  all  manner  of  j 
work  of///'  i  ngravi  r,  and  of  the  cunning  workman,  and 
ot the  embroiderer  in  blue  and  in  purple,  in  scarlet  and 
in  line  linen,  .(nil  of  the  wearer."  From  the  ensuing 
chapter  (ver.  34)  it  appears  that  gilding  was  known 
before  the  settlement  in  Canaan/  The.  ark  (Exod. 
xxxvii,  2)  was  overlaid  with  pure  gold  within  and 
without.  The  cherubim  were  wrought  ("beaten," 
Exod.  xxxvii,  7i  in  gold.  The  candlestick  was  of 
beaten  gold  I  verses  17,  22).  Wire-drawing  was  prob- 
ably understood  «  Exod.  xxxviii.  1 ;  xxxix,  3).  Cov- 
ering witli  bra-s  (Exod.  xxxviii,  •_>  >  and  with  silver 
(Prov.  xxvi.  23)  was  practised.  Architecture  and  the 
kindred  arts  do  not  appear  to  have  made  much  progress  1 


ARTOTYRITJ3 

till  the  days  of  Solomon,  who  employed  an  incredible 
number  of  persons  to  procure  timber  (1  Kings  v,  13  sq.) ; 
but  the  men  of  skill  for  building  his  temple  he  obtain- 
ed from  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre  (1  Kings  v  sq.  ;  1  Chron. 
xiv,  1 ;  2  Chron.  ii,  7).  Without  pursuing  the  sub- 
ject into  all  its  details  (see  Scholz,  Handb.  der  Bib. 
Archdol.  p.  390  sq. ;  De  Wette,  Lthrb.  der  Arch&ol.  p. 
115  sq.),  we  remark  that  the  intercourse  which  the 
Babylonish  captivity  gave  the  Jews  seems  to  have 
greatly  improved  their  knowledge  and  skill  in  both 
the  practical  and  the  fine  arts,  and  to  have  led  them  to 
hold  them  in  very  high  estimation.  The  arts  were 
even  carried  on  by  persons  of  learning,  who  took  a  title 
of  honor  from  their  trade  (Rosenmiiller,  Morgtnl.  vi, 
J2).  It  was  held  a  sign  of  a  bad  education  if  a  father 
did  not  teach  his  son  some  handicraft :  "  Whoever  does 
not  teach  his  son  a  trade,  teaches  him  robbing"  (Light- 
foot,  p.  G16;  Mishna,  Pirlce  Aboth,  ii,  2;  Wa^enseil's 
Sota,  p.  597  ;  Otho,  Lex.  JRabb.  p.  491). 

In  the  Apocrypha  and  New  Testament  there  are 
mentioned  tanners  (Acts  ix,  43),  tent-makers  (Acts 
xviii,  3);  in  Josephus  (II"«r,  v,  4,  1),  cheese-makers; 
domestics  (Kovptlr,  Ant.  xvi,  11,  5);  in  the  Talmud, 
with  others,  we  find  tailors,  shoe-makers,  blood-letters, 
glaziers,  goldsmiths,  plasterers.  Certain  handicrafts- 
men could  never  rise  to  the  rank  of  high-priest  (Mishna, 
Kiddmh,  lxxxii,  1),  such  as  weavers,  barbers,  fullers, 
perfumers,  cuppers,  tanners ;  which  pursuits,  especial- 
ly the  last,  were  held  in  disestccm  (Mishna,  Megillah, 
iii,  2;  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  155;  Wetstein,  N.  T.  ii, 
516).  In  large  cities  particular  localities  were  set 
apart  for  particular  trades,  as  is  the  case  in  the  East 
to  the  present  da}'.  Thus  in  Jeremiah  (xxxvii,  21) 
we  read  of  "the  bakers'  street."  So  in  the  Talmud 
(Mishna,  v,  1G9,  225). mention  is  made  of  a  flesh-mar- 
ket; in  Josephus  (  War,  v,  4,  1),  of  a  cheese-market; 
and  in  the  New  Testament  (John  v,  2)  we  read  of  a 
sheep-market,  or  at  least  a  sheep-gate,  which,  like  sev- 
eral other  gates  [see  Jerusalem],  appears  to  have 
been  named  from  some  special  bazaar  (q.  v.)  adjoining. 
(See  Iken,  Antiq.  Ilcbr.  iii-ix,  p.  578  sq.  ;  Bellermann, 
Handb.  i,  22  sq.)— Kitto,  ii,  808.     See  Mechanic. 

Artillery  ("?2,  Iceli' ,  apparatus,  elsewhere  ren- 
dered "vessel,-'  "instrument,"  etc.)  occurs  in  1  Sam. 
xx,  40,  where  it  signifies  collectively  any  missile 
weapons,  as  arrows  and  lances.  See  Armor.  In 
1  Mace,  vi,  51,  the  term  so  rendered  is  /3iXtijTaaic, 
i.  e.  balista,  or  "catapult,"  a  machine  for  hurling 
darts  or  stones.     See  Engine. 

Artomacliy  (q.  d.  aprofiaxta,  dispute  reepect'ng 
bread,  from  dprog  and  /<«\n),  a  c<  ntroversy  respecting 
the  bread  of  the  Eucharist,  criginated  in  1053  by  Mi- 
chael Cerularius.  This  dispute  existed  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches ;  the  former  contending 
that  the  bread  used  should  be  leavened,  the  latter  urging 
the  necessity  of  being  unleavened  bread.  Protestant 
writers  have  taken  part  with  the  Greek  Church  in  this 
controversy.  Early  Christian  writers  make  no  men- 
tion of  the  use  of  unleavened  bread;  the  fame  kind  of 
bread  was  eaten  in  the  agapa?  that  was  consecrated  for 
the  Eucharist,  viz.,  common  I  read.  Leavened  bread 
appears  to  have  been  in  use  when  Epiphanius  and  Am- 
1  irose  wrote.  Unleavened  bread  was  generally  discon- 
tinued at  the  Reformation ;  but  the  Lutherans  retain 
it;  Farrar,  Eccl.  Diet.  s. v.     See  Azymites. 

Artotyrltae  (q.  d.  ('tprori'pirai,  from  apTOQ,  bread, 
and  Tv{>i'e,  (//r< si),  a  branch  of  the  Montanists,  who 
tirst  appeared  in  the  second  century.  They  used  bread 
ami  cheese  in  the  Eucharist;  or,  perhaps,  bread  baked 
with  cheese.  The  reason  assigned  was,  according  to 
Augustine  (liar.  cap.  xxviii),  that  the  first  men  offered 
to  God  not  only  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  but  of  their 
flocks  also.  The  Artotyritae  admitted  women  to  the 
priesthood,  and  even  consecrated  them  bishops. — Bing- 
ham, Orig.  Keel,  xv,  2,  S  ;  Epiphanius,  Heir,  xlix  ; 
Farrar,  Led.  Diet.  s.  v. 


ARTS 


449 


ARVAD 


Arts,  one  of  the  faculties  in  which  decrees  are  con- 
ferred in  the  universities.  The  circle  of  the  arts  was 
formerly  divided  into  the  Tritium,  viz.  grammar',  rhet- 
oric, and  logic ;  and  the  Quadriv'um,  viz.  arithmetic, 
g3ometry,  music,  and  astronomy.  It  now  includes  all 
branches  not  technical  or  professional. — Hook,  Chunk 
Diet.  s.  v.     See  Degrees  ;  Universities. 

Ar'uboth  (Heb.  Arubboth',  ?Vi3,lSj:,  a  lattice ;  Sept. 
'Apa(3o>Si),  a  city  or  district,  probably  in  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (or  Simeon),  being  the  third  of  Solomon's  pur- 
veyorships,  under  the  charge  of  Hesed  or  Ben-Hesed, 
and  including  Socoh  and  Hepher  within  its  limits  (1 
Kings  iv,  10).  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  237)  fancies  it  is 
represented  by  the  modern  village  and  wady  Rdbith 
in  the  limits  of  Zebulon  ;  but  the  associated  names  in- 
dicate the  region  Jebel  Khali/,  S.W.  of  Hebron. 

Aruch  (JB.eb.Aruh',  Tp"1^,  arranged,  sc.  in  alpha- 
betical order),  the  title  of  a  Talmudical  lexicon,  com- 
piled by  R.  Nathan  ben-Jechiel,  who  was  rector  of  the 
synagogue  at  Rome  A.D.  1106,  according  to  the  Chron- 
icon  "  Zemach  David,"  and  who  is  usually  styled  by 
the  Jewish  writers  Trl"1^  ^32,  Auctor  AruJi  (Buxtorf, 
Lex  Talm.  col.  1GG5).  It  was  first  published  by  Sou- 
cini  (Pesaro,  1517,  iol.),  and  edited  bv  Archinotti  (Ven- 
ice, 1531, 1533,  fbl.),  Eekendorf  (Basle,  1599,  fol.),  Mu- 
safia  (Amst.  1655,  i'ol.),  and  with  Germ,  notes  by  Lan- 
dau (Prague,  1819-24,  5  vols.  8vo).  See  Furst,  Bib. 
Jud.  iii,  20  sq. ;  Berlin,  Additamenta  zum  Aruch  (Vien. 
1830-59,  2  vols.  8vo). 

Aru'mah  (Heb.  Arumah' ,  fTC^nx,  prob.  for  Ru- 
mah,  with  X  prosthetic ;  Sept.  'Apr/fia),  a  city  appar- 
ently near  Shechem,  in  which  Abimelech  the  son  of 
Gideon  resided  (Judg.  ix,  41).  It  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  word  in  ver.  31,  lT;"ir2,  rendered  "privily," 
and  in  the  margin  "  at  Tormah,"  may  signify  "  at  Aru- 
mah" by  changing  the  M  to  an  X.  It  seems  to  be  con- 
founded with  Rumah  (2  Kings  xxiii,  36)  by  Euseb.  and 
Jerome,  who  state  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Rama)  that  it  ('Api'/i, 
Arima)  was  then  called  Remphis  or  Arimathaea  !  The 
suggestion  of  Van  de  Veldo  (Memoir,  p.  288)  appears  to 
be  correct  that  it  is  represented  by  the  modern  ruin  El- 
Ormah,  on  the  brow  of  a  mountain  S.E.  of  Shechem. 

Arundel,  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
second  son  of  Robert  Fitz-Alan,  earl  of  Arundel  and 
Warren,  and  was  born  at  Arundel  Castle  in  1353.  His 
powerful  family  connections  gave  him  early  promotion  : 
at  20  he  was  archdeacon  of  Taunton,  and  in  1374  the 
pope  nominated  him  to  the  vacant  see  of  Ely,  the  king 
and  the  monks  of  Ely  having,  at  the  same  time,  re- 
spectively nominated  two  others;  but  Arundel  was 
consecrated  without  dispute.  In  1388  he  was  removed 
to  the  see  of  York,  and  was  the  first  archbishop  of  that 
see  who  was  translated  to  Canterbury,  which  was  the 
case  in  1398.  Very  shortly  after  Arundel  was  forced 
into  banishment  by  Richard  II,  as  an  accomplice  of 
his  brother,  the  earl  of  Arundel  (executed  as  a  parti- 
san of  the  duke  of  Gloucester),  and  Roger  Walden  was 
put  into  the  chair  of  Canterbury,  and  acted  as  arch- 
bishop  for  about  two  years.  (Johnson,  Ercl.  Canons, 
ii,  A.D.  1398.)  The  archbishop,  in  the  mean  time, 
went  to  Rome,  and  afterward  to  Cologne.  He  figured 
largely  in  the  political  intrigues  by  which  Richard 
was  deposed,  and  on  the  accession  of  Henry  IV,  1399, 
he  was  restored  to  his  see.  He  was  a  great  persecutor 
of  the  WIckliffites,  and  in  1408  he  published,  in  convo- 
cation at  Oxford,  "Ten  Constitutions  against  the  Lol- 
lards." He  established  in  that  year  an  inquisition  for 
heresy  at  Oxford,  and  put  in  force  the  statute  de  heere- 
tico  comburend  >  ( 2  Hen.  IV,  ch.  xv),  and  prohibited  the 
circulation  of  the  English  Scriptures.  He  built  the 
tower  called  the  "Arundel  Tower,"  and  gave  to  the 
cathedral  of  Canterbury  a  chime  of  bells,  known  as 
"Arundel's  ring,"  and  was  a  great  benefactor  in  many 
ways  to  the  cathedral  establishments.  He  died  Feb- 
Ff 


ruary  20.th,  1413.— Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  England,  iii, 
213-301. 

Ar'vad  (Heb.  Arvad',  THX,  tcandering ;  Sept. 
'ApaSiot,  but  properly  "Apadotj,  1  Mace,  xv,  23,  or,  as 
it  might  be  spelt,  Arud,  'M'HK,  whence  the  present 
name  Ruad),  a  small  island  and  city  on  the  coast  of 
Syria,  called  by  the  Greeks  Aradus  (q.  v.),  by  which 
name  it  is  mentioned  in  the  above  passage  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha. It  is  a  rocky  islet,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Eleutherus  (Mel.  ii,  7),  50  miles  to  the  north 
of  Tripoli  (Itin.  Anton.),  about  one  mile  in  circumfer- 
ence (Curt,  iv,  1,  6),  and  two  miles  (Pliny,  v,  17)  from 
the  shore  (Rosenmiiller,  Handb.  Bibl.  Alt.  II,  i,  7; 
Mannert,  VI,  i,  398  ;  Pococke,  East,  ii,  292  sq. ;  Ilames- 
veld,  iii,  44  sq.).  Strabo  (xvi,  p.  753)  describes  it  as  a 
rock  rising  in  the  midst  of  the  waves;  and  modern 
travellers  state  that  it  is  steep  on  every  side.  (See 
Volney,  ii,  131 ;  Niebuhr,  Reisen,  iii,  92 ;  Buckingham, 
ii,  435;  Chesnej',  Euphrat.  Exped.  i,  451;  Shaw,  p. 
232.)  Strabo  also  describes  the  houses  as  exceedingly 
lofty,  and  they  were  doubtless  so  built  on  account  of 
the  scantiness  of  the  site  ;  hence,  for  its  size,  it  was  ex- 
ceedingly populous  (Pomp.  Mela,  ii,  7,  6).  Those  of 
the  Arvadites  whom  the  island  could  not  accommodate 
found  room  in  the  town  and  district  of  Antaradus  (q. 
v.),  on  the  opposite  coast,  which  also  belonged  to  them 
(  Targ.  Hieros.  in  Gen .  x,  18).  Arvad  is  usually  regard- 
ed as  the  same  with  A  rpad  (q.  v.)  or  Arphad  (but  see 
Miehaelis,  Oriental.  Bibl.  viii,  45).  It  is  mentioned  in 
Ezek.  xxvii,  8,  11,  as  furnishing  mariners  and  soldiers 
for  Tyre,  which  was  situated  on  the  shore  opposite. 
In  agreement  with  this  is  the  mention  of  "the  Arvad- 
ite"  (q.  v.)  in  Gen.  x,  18,  and  1  Chron.  i,  16,  as  a  son 
of  Canaan,  with  Zidon,  Hamath,  and  other  northern 
localities.  It  was  founded,  according  to  Strabo  (xvi, 
2,  §  13),  by  fugitives  from  Sidon  (comp.  Josephus,  A  nt. 
i,  6,  2);  hence  probabty  the  etymology  of  the  name  as 
above.  Tarsus  was  settled  by  a  colony  from  it  (Dion 
Chrys.  Oral.  Tarsen.  ii,  20,  ed.  Reiske).  Although 
originally  independent  (Arrian,  Alex,  ii,  90\  and,  in- 
deed, the  metropolis  of  the  strip  of  land  adjoining  it,  it 
eventually  fell  under  the  power  of  Persia,  but  assisted 
the  Macedonians  in  the  siege  of  Tyre  (Arrian,  Anab.  i, 
13,  20).  It  thence  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ptole- 
mies (B.C.  320);  but,  regaining  its  liberty  under  Se- 
leucus  Callinicus  (B.C.  242),  it  attained  such  impor- 
tance as  to  form  an  alliance  with  Antiochus  the  Great 
(Eckhel,  Doctr.  num.  i,  393).     Antiochus  Epiphanes, 


of  Aradus. 


however,  took  forcible  mastery  over  it  (Jerome  in  Dan. 
xi),  and  after  becoming  involved  in  the  broils  of  his 
successors,  it  finally  came  under  the  power  of  Tigrancs, 
and  with  his  fall  became  subject  to  Rome,  into  whose 
triumviral  wars  its  history  enters  (Appian,  Bell.  Civ. 
iv,  69;  v,  1).  Under  the  Emperor  Constans,  Muawi- 
yeh,  the  lieutenant  of  the  Caliph  Omar,  destroyed  the 
city  and  expelled  its  inhabitants  (Cedren.  Hist.  p.  355; 
Theophan.  p.  227).  It  was  not  rebuilt  in  mediaeval 
times  (Mignot,  Mem.  de  V Acad,  des  Inscript.  xxxiv, 
229).  The  curious  submarine  springs  from  which  th" 
ancient  city  was  supplied  with  water  (Strabo,  ed.  Gros- 
kund,  p.  754  n.)  have  been  partially  discovered  (AVal- 
pole,  Ansayrii,  iii,  391).  The  site  is  now  covered,  ex- 
cept a  small  space  on  the  east  side,  with  heavy  castles, 
within  which  resides  a  maritime  population  of  aboirt 
2000  souls. '  On  the  very  margin  of  the  sea  there  are  the 


ARYADITE 


450 


ASA 


remains  of  double  Phoenician  walls,  of  huge  bevelled 
Stoni  s.  which  mark  it  as  being  anciently  a  very  strong 
place  i  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1848,  p.  251).  The  nautical 
pursuits  of  the  inhabitants,  attested  also  by  Strabo  (ut 
sup.),  remain  in  full  force  (see  Allen's  Bead  Sea,  ii, 
183,  at  the  end  of  which  vol.  may  be  found  a  plan  of 
the  island,  from  the  Admiralty  Charts,  2050,  "Island 
of  Ruad").     See  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 

Ar'vadite  (Heb.  Arvadi',  ^"HIX,  Sept.  'Apddioe, 
Gen.  x,  18;  1  Chron.  i,  16),  an  inhabitant  of  the  isl- 
and Aradus  or  Arvad  (q.  v.)  (so  Josephus  explains 
'ApovSdioi,  Ant.  i,  6,  2),  and  doubtless  also  of  the  neigh- 
boring coast.  The  Arvadites  were  descended  from  one 
of  the  sons  of  Canaan  (Gen.  x,  18).  Strabo  (xvi,  731) 
describes  the  Arvadites  as  a  colony  from  Sidon.  They 
were  noted  mariners  (Ezek.  xxvii,  8,  11 ;  Strabo,  xvi, 
754),  and  formed  a  distinct  state,  with  a  king  of  their 
own  (Arrian,  Exped.  A  lex.  ii,  90) ;  yet  they  appear  to 
have  been  in  some  dependence  upon  Tyre,  for  the 
prophet  represents  them  as  furnishing  their  contingent 
of  mariners  to  that  city  (Ezek.  xxvii,  8,  11).  The  Ar- 
vadites took  their  full  share  in  Phoenician  maritime  traf- 
fic, particularly  after  Tyre  and  Sidon  had  fallen  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Graeco-Syrian  kings.  They  early 
entered  into  alliance  with  the  Romans,  and  Aradus  is 
mentioned  among  the  states  to  which  the  consul  Lucius 
formally  made  known  the  league  which  had  been  con- 
tracted with  Simon  Maccabaeus  (1  Mace,  xv,  23). 

Aryeh.     See  Lion. 

Ar'za  (Heb.  Artsa' ',  N^"iX,  an  Aramaean  form,  the 
earth;  Sept.  'Qpaci  v.  r.  'Apaa),  a  steward  over  the 
house  of  Elah,  king  of  Israel,  in  whose  house  at  Tir- 
zah,  Zimri,  the  captain  of  the  half  of  the  chariots,  con- 
spired against  Elah,  and  killed  him  during  a  drinking 
debauch  (1  Kings  xvi,  9),  B.C.  926". 

Arzan,  an  Armenian  writer  (died  A.D.  459),  who 
translated  into  the  lan3uag3  of  his  country  the  works 
of  Athanasius.— Hoefer,  Biog.  Gen.  iii,  409. 

A'sa  (Heb.  Asa' ',  NOX,  healing,  or  physician),  the 
name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  Ao-o,  Josephus,  "Aaavog.)  The  son  of  Abi- 
jah,  grandson  of  Rehoboam,  and  third  king  of  the  sep- 
arate kingdom  of  Judah  (1  Kings  xv ;  2  Chron.  xiv- 
xvi ;  Matt,  i,  7,  8).  He  began  to  reign  two  years  be- 
fore the  death  of  Jeroboam,  in  Israel,  and  he  reigned 
forty-one  years  (B.C.  953-912).  As  Asa  was  very 
young  at  his  accession,  the  affairs  of  the  government 
were  administered  by  his  mother,  or,  according  to  some 
(comp.  1  Kings  xv,  1,  10),  his  grandmother  Maachah, 
who  is  understood  to  have  been  a  granddaughter  of 
Absalom.  See  Maachah.  But  the  young  king,  on 
assuming  the  reins  of  government,  was  conspicuous 
for  his  earnestness  in  supporting  the  worship  of  God, 
and  rooting  out  idolatry  with  its  attendant  immorali- 
ties, and  for  the  vigor  and  wisdom  with  which  he  pro- 
vided for  the  prosperity  of  his  kingdom.  In  his  zeal 
against  heathenism  he  did  not  spare  his  grandmother 
Maachah,  who  occupied  the  special  dignity  of  "  King's 
Mother,"  to  which  great  importance  was  attached  in 
the  Jewish  court,  as  afterward  in  Persia,  and  to  which 
parallels  have  been  found  in  modern  Eastern  countries, 
as  in  the  position  of  the  Sultana  Valide  inTurkev  (see 
1  KingaHi,  19;  2  Kings  xxiv,  12;  Jer.  xxix,  2~;  also 
Calmet,  Fragm.  xvi;  and  Bruce' s  Travels,  ii,  537,  and 
iv,  244).  Site  had  Bet  up  some  impure  worship  in  a 
grove  (the  word  translated  "idol,"  1  Kings  xv,  13,  is 
"tV??"2*  a,  fright  or  horrible  image,  while  in  the  Vulg. 
we  read  ne  e$iet  [Jlfaacha]  princeps  in  sun-is  Priap'i); 
but  Asa  burnt  the  symbol  of  her  religion,  and  threw 
fa  :i-li.<  into  the  brook  Kidron,  as  Moses  had  done  to 
the  golden  calf  (Exod.  xxxii,  20),  and  then  deposed 
Maachah  from  her  dignity,  lie  also  placed  in  the 
Temple  certain  Lifts  which  his  father  had  dedicated, 
probably  in  the  earlier  and  better  period  of  his  reign 
[see  AnuAii],  and  which  the  heathen  priests  must 


have  used  for  their  own  worship,  and  renewed  the  preat 
altar  which  they  apparently  had  desecrated  (2  Chron. 
xv,  8)  during  his  minority  and  under  the  preceding 
reigns,  and  only  the  altars  in  the  "high-places"  were 
suffered  to  remain  (1  Kings  xv,  11-13;  2  Chron.  xiv, 
2-5).  He  neglected  no  human  means  of  putting  his 
kingdom  in  the  best  possible  military  condition,  for 
which  ample  opportunity  was  afforded  by  the  peace 
which  he  enjoyed  for  ten  years  (B.C.  938-928)  in  the 
middle  of  his  reign.  His  resources  were  so  well  or- 
ganized, and  the  population  had  so  increased,  that  he 
fortified  cities  on  his  frontiers,  and  raised  an  army 
amounting,  according  to  2  Chron.  xiv,  8,  to  580,000 

j  men ;  but  the  uncertainty  attaching  to  the  numbers  in 
our  present  text  of  Chronicles  has  been  pointed  out  by 
Kennicott  and  by  Davidson  {Introduction  to  the  0.  T. 
p.  G86),  who  consider  that  the  copyists  were  led  into 
error  by  the  different  modes  of  marking  them,  and  by 
confounding  the  different  letters  which  denoted  them, 
bearing  as  they  do  a  great  resemblance  to  each  other. 
See  Number.  Thus  Asa's  reign  marks  the  return  of 
Judah  to  a  consciousness  of  the  high  destiny  to  which 
God  had  called  her,  and  to  the  belief  that  the  Divine 
power  was  truly  at  work  within  her.  The  pood  effects 
of  this  were  visible  in  the  13th  year  of  his  reign,  when, 
relying  upon  the  Divine  aid,  Asa  attacked  and  defeat- 
ed the  numerous  host  of  the  Cushite  king  Zerah  (q.  v.), 
who  had  penetrated  through  Arabia  Petrjea  into  the 
vale  of  Zephathah  with  an  immense  host,  reckoned  at 
a  million  of  men  (which  Josephus  reduces,  however,  to 
90,000  infantry  and  100,000  cavalry,  Ant.  viii,  12,  1) 
and  300  chariots  (2  Chron.  xiv,  9-15).  As  the  tri- 
umphant Judahites  were  returning,  laden  with  spoil, 
to  Jerusalem,  they  were  met  by  the  prophet  Azariah, 
who  declared  this  splendid  victory  to  be  a  consequence 
of  Asa's  confidence  in  Jehovah,  and  exhorted  him  to 
perseverance.      Thus   encouraged,  the  king   exerted 

i  himself  during  the  ten  ensuing  years  of  tranquillity  to 
extirpate  the  remains  of  idolatry,  and  caused  the  peo- 
ple to  renew  their  covenant  with  Jehovah  (2  Chron. 
xv,  1-15).  It  was  this  clear  knowledge  of  his  depend- 
ent political  position,  as  the  vicegerent  of  Jehovah, 
which  won  for  Asa  the  highest  praise  that  could  be 
given  to  a  Jewish  king — that  he  walked  in  the  steps 
of  his  ancestor  David  (1  Kings  xv,  11).  Nevertheless, 
toward  the  latter  end  of  his  reian  (the  numbers  in  2 
Chron.  xv,  19,  and  xvi,  1,  should  be  25th  and  26th) 
the  king  failed  to  maintain  the  character  he  had  thus 
acquired.  When  Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  had  renew- 
ed the  war  between  the  two  kingdoms,  and  had  taken 
Ramah,  which  he  was  proceeding  to"  fortify  as  a  fron- 
tier barrier,  Asa,  the  conqueror  of  Zerah,  was  so  far 
wanting  to  his  kingdom  and  his  God  as  to  emploj^  the 
wealth  of  the  Ter.ple  and  of  the  royal  treasury  to  in- 
duce the  King  of  Syria  (Damascus)  to  make  a  diversion 
in  his  favor  by  invading  the  dominions  of  Paasha  (see 
Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Must,  in  loc).  By  this  means  he 
recovered  Ramah,  indeed ;  but  his  treasures  were 
squandered,  and  he  incurred  the  rebuke  of  the  prophet 
Hanani,  whom  he  cast  into  prison,  being,  as  it  seems, 
both  alarmed  and  enraged  at  the  effect  his  address  was 
calculated  to  produce  upon  the  people.  Other  persons 
(who  had  probably  manifested  their  disapprobation) 
also  suffered  from  his  anger  (1  Kings  xv,  16  22;  2 
Chron.  xvi,  1-10).  The  prophet  threatened  Asa  with 
war,  which  appears  to  have  been  fulfilled  hy  the  con- 
tinuance for  some  time  of  that  with  Baasha,  as  we  in- 
fer from  an  allusion,  in  2  Chron.  xvii,  2,  to  the  cities 
of  Ephraim  which  he  took,  and  which  can  hardly  re- 
fer to  any  events  prior  to  the  destruction  of  Ramah. 
In  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  Asa  was  afflicted  with 
a  grievous  "disease  in  his  feet,"  probably  the  gout 
[see  Disease]  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  to  his  reproach 
that  he  placed  too  much  confidence  in  his  physicians 
(q.  v.),  i.  e.  he  acted  in  an  arrogant  and  independent 
spirit,  and  without  seeking  God's  blessing  on  their 
remedies.      At  his  death,  however,  it  appeared  that 


ASADIAS 


451 


ASARELAII 


his  popularity  had  not  been  substantially  impaired,  for 
he  was  honored  with  a  funeral  of  unusual  cost  and 
magnificence  (2  Chron.  xvi,  11-14;  with  which  1 
Kings  xv,  24,  does  not  conflict).  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Jehoshaphat.     See  Judah,  Kingdom  of. 

2.  (Sept.  'Orrna.)  A  Levite,  son  of  Elkanah  and  fa- 
ther of  Berechiah,  which  last  was  one  of  those  who  re- 
sided in  the  villages  of  the  Netophathites  on  the  return 
from  Babylon  (1  Chron.  ix,  16).     B.C.  ante  53G. 

Asadi'as  (Atratiiac.,  i.  e.  Hasadiah),  the  son  of 
Chelcias  and  father  of  Sedecias,  in  the  ancestry  of  Ba- 
ruch  (q.  v.),  according  to  the  apocryphal  book  that 
bears  his  name  (Bar.  i,  1).     Comp.  1  Chr.  iii,  21. 

Asae'as  (or  rather  Asai'as,  'Aaaiac),  one  of  the 
"sons"  of  Annas  that  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after 
the  exile  (1  Esdr.  ix,  32) ;  evidently  the  Ishijaii 
(q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  x,  31). 

As'ael  (or  rather  A' ml,  'AmijX,  prob.  for  Jahziel), 
the  father  of  Gabael,  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  among 
the  ancestors  of  Tobit  (Tob.  i,  1). 

As'ahel  (Heb.  Asah-el',  bxilbs?,  creature  of 
God"),  the  name  of  four  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'AaafjX,  Josephus,  'AadtjXog,  Ant.  vii,  3, 
1.)  The  youngest  son  of  David's  sister  Zeruiah  (2  Sam. 
ii,  18),  and  brother  of  Joab  and  Abishai  (1  Chron.  ii, 
16).  He  was  one  of  David's  early  adherents  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  24),  and  with  his  son  Zebadiah  was  commander 
of  the  fourth  division  of  the  royal  army  (1  Chron. 
xxvii,  7).  He  was  noted  for  his  swiftness  of  foot,  a 
gift  much  valued  in  ancient  times  (comp.  Iliad,  xv, 
570;  Plutarch,  Vit.  Romuli,  25 ;  Liv.  ix,  16;  Curt,  vii, 
7,  32 ;  Veget.  Mil.  i,  9) ;  and  after  the  battle  at  Gibeon 
he  pursued  and  overtook  Abner  (q.  v.),  who,  with 
great  reluctance,  in  order  to  preserve  his  own  life,  slew 
him  by  a  back-thrust  with  the  sharp  iron  heel  of  his 
spear, *B.C.  cir.  1051  (2  Sam.  ii,  18-23).  To  revenge 
his  death,  his  brother  Joab  some  years  after  treacher- 
ously killed  Abner,  who  had  come  to  wait  on  David  at 
Hebron  (2  Sam.  iii,  26,  27).     See  Joab. 

2.  (Sept.  'AuarjX  v.  r.  'lamrjX.)  One  of  the  Levites 
sent  by  Jehoshaphat  to  teach  the  people  of  Judah  the 
law  of  the  Lord  (2  Chron.  xvii,  8),  B.C.  909. 

3.  (Sept.  'AaarjX.)  One  of  the  Levites  appointed  by 
Hezekiah  as  overseer  of  the  contributions  to  the  house 
of  the  Lord  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  13),  B.C.  726. 

4.  (Sept.  Aow/X.)  The  father  of  Jonathan,  which 
latter  was  one  of  the  elders  who  assisted  Ezra  in  put- 
ting away  the  foreign  wives  of  the  Jews  on  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  x,  15).      B.C.  ante  459. 

Asahi'ah.     See  Asaiah,  3. 

Asai'ah.  (Heb.  Asayah',  rni.'",  constituted  by  Je- 
hwih;  Sept.  'Aaa'ia  or  'Arraiac,  v.  r.  'Aad  in  1  Chron. 
ix,  5),  the  name  of  four  men. 

1.  The  son  of  Hag^iah  (1  Chron.  vi,  30)  and  chief 
of  the  220  Levites  of  the  family  of  Merari,  appointed 
by  David  to  remove  the  ark  of  the  covenant  from  the 
house  of  Obed-edom,  and  afterward  to  take  charge  of 
the  singing  exercises  (1  Chron.  xv,  6,  11).  B.C.  cir. 
1043. 

2.  The  head  of  one  of  the  families  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon,  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  iv,  36,  as  dispossessing 
the  descendants  of  Ham  from  the  rich  pastures  near 
Gedor  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  B.C.  cir.  712. 

3.  A  servant  of  Josiah,  sent  with  others  to  consult 
the  prophetess  Huldah  concerning  the  book  of  the  law 
found  in  the  Temple  (2  Kings  xxii,  12,  14  [where  the 
name  is  less  correctlv  Anglicized  "Asahiah"];  2 
Chron.  xxxiv,  20).     B.C.  623. 

4.  The  "first-born"  of  the  Shilonites  (q.  v.)  who 
returned  to  Jerusalem  after  the  captivity  (1  Chron.  ix, 
5).     B.C.  536.     See  Maaseiah  9. 

Asamon  (Affa/nov),  a  mountain  in  the  central 
part  of  Galilee,  opposite  Sepphoris,  where  the  rebels 
from  this  city  having  taken  refuge,  were  destroyed  by 
tiie  Roman  general  Gallus  (Josephus,  War,  ii,  18,  II). 


It  is  thought  by  Robinson  (Later  Bib.  Res.  p.  77)  to  be 
the  broken  ridge  which  commences  with  the  high  sum- 
mit of  Jebel  Kaukab  on  the  XV.  and  runs  eastward 
along  the  N.  side  of  the  plain  El-Buttauf  (Van  de 
Velde,  Memoir,  p.  288). 

AsamoiiEean,  Asamousus.  See  Asmo.vi:- 
ax. 

As'ana  QAooava),  a  man  (or  place)  whose  "sons" 
(servants  of  the  Temple)  returned  from  the  captivity 
(1  Esdr.  v,  31) ;  evidently  the  Asnah  (q.  v.)  of  Ezra 
ii,  50,  rather  than  the  Ashnah  (q.  v.)  of  Josh,  xv,  33 
or  43. 

A'saph  (Heb.  Asaph',  fDX,  assembler;  Sept. 
'Aaa(f),  the  names  of  three  persons.     See  Ebiasaph. 

1.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Gershom  (see  below), 
son  of  Barachiah  (1  Chron.  vi,  39;  xv,  17),  eminent 
as  a  musician,  and  appointed  by  David  to  preside  over 
the  sacred  choral  services  which  he  organized  (1  Chron. 
xvi,  5),  B.C.  1014.  The  "sons  of  Asaph"  are  after- 
ward mentioned  as  choristers  of  the  Temple  (1  Chron. 
xxv,  1,  2;  2  Chron.  xx,  14;  xxix,  13;  Ezra  ii,  41; 
iii,  10;  Neh.  vii,  44;  xi,  22);  and  this  office  appears 
to  have  been  made  hereditary  in  his  family  (1  Chron. 
xxv,  1,  2).  Asaph  was  celebrated  in  after  times  as  a 
prophet  (!~t? H,  seer)  and  poet  (2  Chron.  xxix,  30 ;  Neh. 
xii,  46),  and  the  titles  of  twelve  of  the  Psalms  (1,  lxxiii, 
to  lxxxiii)  bear  his  name,  in  some  of  which  he  evident- 
ly  stands  (as  a  patronymic,  Neh.  xi,  17)  for  the  Levites 
generally  (see  Huetii  Demonstr.  ev.  p.  332  ;  Bertholdt, 
v,  1956 ;  Herder,  Ebr.  Poesie,  ii,  331 ;  comp.  Niemeyer, 
Charakterist.  iv,  356  sq.  ;  Carpzov,  Jntrod.  103  sq.  ; 
Eichhorn,  Einl.  v,  17  sq.) ;  or  he  may  have  been  the 
founder  of  a  school  of  poets  and  musical  composers, 
who  were  called  after  him  "the  sons  of  Asaph"  (comp. 
the  Homeridoe).  See  Psalms.  The  following  is  his 
ancestry  (see  Reinhard,  De  Asapho,  Vien.  1742). 


Names. 

1  Chron.  vi. 

1  Chrou.  vi. 

Bom,  cir.  B.C. 

Levi 

1 

20 
20 
10 

20 
21 

21 

21 

10 
43 

IT 
43 
42 
42 

42 
41 

41 
41 

40 
40 
4) 
33 
39 
33 

11117 

Gershom 

18G0? 

1750? 

10P5? 

164'J? 

Joali 

or  Ethan 

15S5? 

or  Iddo 

1530? 
1475? 

or  Jeaterai  . . 

Malchiah 

Baa^eiah 

1420? 
1365? 
1310? 

1255? 

1200? 

Berachiah 

Aaaph 

1146? 
1090? 

2.  The  "father"  of  Joah,  which  latter  was  "record- 
er" in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xviii,  18,  37 ;  Isa. 
xxxvi,  3, 22).     B.C.  ante  726.     Perhaps  i.  q.  No.  1. 

3.  A  "keeper  of  the  king's  forests"  (prob.  in  Leba- 
non), to  whom  Nehemiah  requested  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  an  order  for  timber  to  rebuild  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem  (Neh.  ii,  8).     B.C.  446. 

Asapll's,  St.,  a  bishop's  see  in  Flintshire,  Wales, 
founded  in  the  6th  century.  The  chapter  consists  of 
a  dean,  precentor,  chancellor,  treasurer,  three  canons, 
two  archdeacons,  seven  cursal  canons,  and  two  minor 
canons.  The  present  incumbent  is  Thomas  Vowler 
Short,  D.D.,  transferred  from  Sodor  and  Man  in  1846. 

Asar'eel  (Heb.  AsareV,  b>0;rx,  bound  by  God, 
sc.  under  a  vow;  Sept.  'EaepaijX  v.  r.  'Ecrepi)X),  the 
last  named  of  the  four  sons  of  Jehaleleel,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  16).     B.C.  prob.  post  1618. 

Asare'lah  (Heb.  Asharelah' ',  nbx-OX,  upright 
before  God;  Sept.  TrW/\  v.  r.  'Eoa»';X,  'AairfKa,  'Aati- 
pjjXo),  the  last  named  of  the  four  sons  of  the  Levite 
Asaph,  who  were  appointed  by  David  in  charge  of  the 


ASBURY 


452 


ASBURY 


Temple  music  in  connection  with  ethers  (1  Chron.  xxv,  I  mained  comparatively  secluded  for  ten  months.     Al- 

2):  elsewhere  (ver.  14)  called  by  the  equivalent  name  ,  though  his  movements  were  now  circumscribed,  yet 

JESHARELAH  (q.  v.).  he  was  bj'  no  means  idle,  and  remarks  that  it  was  "a 

-,  .„       .    ,  ...         e  .,      ,r  ,.     rJ  season  of  the  most  active,  the  most  useful,  and  the 

Asburv.   Daniel,   a  minister  of  the   Methodist  .       «.    .  .     ,  .  .  ' ...   ,,      ,    .     .     ' 

Asuiuy    i/cii^ci,  „„„„«.„   vn     '  most  suffering  part  of  his  life."      indeed,  two  vears 

Fn -emu     <  huivh,  was  born  in   iairfax   countv,  \  a.,      .  i  ■    ,•        ,  ,  .     ,  ,  . 

"   '     Revolu     claPsed  'jeiora  he  presumed  to  leave  his  retreat,  and 


to  travel  extensively  in  the  performance   of  his  du- 


Feb.  18,  1762.      He  served  in  the  war  of  the 

lion   and  soon  after  its  close  was  converted.     In  1786  .. 

'       ,     ...  .      ..  .        „„ ,  ,„„f-„^  •     ;f  ties  as  superintendent;  when,  the  authorities  becom- 

lie  entered  the  itinerant .  mmistrv,  and  continued  in  it,  .  . r     ,  ,,    .  .,    '  '  .  ^y" 

wltn  an  interval  of  nine  years,  up  to  1824,  and  during  ^ZT!^^^  12  "1  lo!"  *»  *fr 


this  long  service  his  fidelity  and  diligence  were  signal 


odist  preachers,  but  that  their  scruples  were  of  a  relk 


,.,7  _  ymutes  0f    10USi  not   of  a  political   nature,  and  that  they  we 
„::"l97        '  merely  intent  upon  preaching  the  gospel  of  peace 

>!',    1_(.  1 1.1.      l!_i_       .1 ...        i     , 


ly  manifest.      He  died  suddenly  in  185 

i  'mfi  r,  nces,  i,  506 ;  Sprague,  Armals 

humble  evangelists,  they  were  permitted  to  exercise 
Asbury,  Francis,  the  first  bishop  of  the  Method-    their  functions  unmolested.     At  the  close  of  the  war 
ist  Episcopal  Church  ordained  in  America,  was  born    in  1783  there  were  83  Methodist  ministers  in  the  work, 


at  Handsworth,  Staffordshire,  England,  Aug.  20, 1745.  ;  with  nearly  14,000  members. 


1784  the  Methodist 


His  parents  were  pious   Methodists,  and  trained  him1  societies  were  organized  into  an  Episcopal  Church, 


with  religious  care,  so  that  it  is  no  wonder  that  he  was 
converted  at  thirteen.  In  his  youth  he  sat  under  the 
mini-try  of  Ryland,  Hawes,  and  Venn,  as  well  as  of 
the  Methodist  preachers.  He  obtained  the  rudiments 
of  education  at  the  village  school  of  Barrc,  and  in  his 
fourteenth  year  was  apprenticed  to  a  maker  of  ''  buckle- 
chapes."  At  sixteen  he  became  a  local  preacher;  at 
twenty-two  he  was  received  into  the  itinerant  ministry 
by  Mr.  Wesley.  In  1771  he  was  appointed  missionary 
to  America,  and  landed  at  Philadelphia,  with  the  Rev 


four  years  before  the  organization  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  and  Mr.  Asbury  was  elected  bish- 
op, and  consecrated  by  Dr.  Coke,  who  had  been  or- 
dained in  England  by  Wesley.  From  this  time  to  the 
day  of  his  death  his  whole  life  was  devoted  to  the 
preaching  of  the  Gospel  and  to  the  superintendence  of 
the  churches.  His  personal  history  is  almost  the  his- 
tory of  the  growth  of  Methodism  in  his  time.  His 
Journals  (3  vols.  8vo)  contain  a  wonderful  record  of 
postolic  zeal  and  fidelity,  of  a  spirit  of  self-sacrifice 


Richard  Wright  as  his  companion,  on  the  27th  October  rivalling  that  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  of  the  early 
in  that  year.  The  first  Methodist  church  in  America  church,  of  an  industry  which  no  toils  could  weary,  of 
had  been  built  three  years  before;  and  in  1771  the  a  patience  which  no  privations  could  exhaust.  He 
whole  number  of  communicants  was  about  GOO,  chiefly  remained  unmarried  through  life,  that  he  might  not 
in  Philadelphia  and  New  York.  The  country  was  be  hindered  in  his  work.  His  salary  was  sixty-four 
disturbed  by  political  agitation,  soon  to  develop  into  dollars  a  year.  His  horses  and  carriages  were  given 
revolution.  In  1772  Asbury  Mas  appointed  Mr.  Wes-  by  his  friends,  all  donations  of  money  from  whom  he 
ley's  '-general  assistant  in  America,"  with  power  of  j  assigned  to  his  fellow-sufferers  and  fellow-laborers. 
supervision  over  all  the  preachers  and  societies,  but  At  one  of  the  early  Western  Conferences,  where  the 
was  superseded  in  the  year  following  by  an  older  ;  assembled  itinerants  presented  painful  evidences  of 
preacher  from  England,  Mr.  Rankin.  When  the  war  j  want,  he  parted  with  his  watch,  his  coat,  and  his  shirts 
broke  out  Rankin  returned  to  England;  but  Asbury,  j  for  them.  He  was  asked  by  a  friend  to  lend  him  fifty 
foreseeing  the  great  work  of  the  church  in  America,  i  pounds.  "He  might  as  well  have  asked  me  for  Peru,'' 
remained.  He  thought  it  would  be  an  eternal  (lis-  j  wrote  the  bishop.  "  I  showed  him  all  the  money  I 
grace  to  forsake  in  this  time  of  trial  the  thousands  of  [  had  in  the  world,  about  twelve  dollars,  and  gave  him 
poor  sheep  in  the  wilderness  who  had  placed  them- I  five."  In  spite  of  his  defective  education,  he  acquired 
selves  under  the  c  ire  of  the  Methodists,  and,  fully  |  a  tolerable  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Hebrew;  but  his 
sympathizing  with  the  cause  of  the  struggling  colo-  j  wisdom  was  far  greater  than  his  learning.  As  early 
nies,  he  resolved  to  remain  and  share  the  sufferings  |  as  1785  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  Methodist 
and  the  fate  of  the  infant  connection  and  of  the  coun-  college;  and  some  time  after  he  formed  a  plan  for  di- 
try.  Like  many  religious  people  of  those  times,  ho  j  viding  the  whole  country  into  districts,  with  a  classical 
was,  from  conscientious  scruples,  a  non-juror,  as  were  I  academy  in  each.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  clear,  ear- 
all  the  other  Methodist  preachers,  and  also  many  of  |  nest,  pungent,  and  often  powerfully  eloquent.  The 
the  clergy  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  who  yet  chose  to  j  monument  of  his  organizing  and  administrative  talent 
remain  in  the  country.  As  their  character  and  mo-  \  may  be  seen  in  the  discipline  and  organization  of  the 
tivea  were  not  understood,  they  were  exposed  to  much  Methodist  Church,  which  grew  under  bis  hands,  during 
suffering  and  persecution.  The  Rev.  F.  Garrettson  his  lifetime,  from  a  feeble  band  of  4  preachers  and  310 
and  Joseph  Hartley  were  imprisoned  on  the  Eastern  members  to  nearly  700  itinerants,  2000  local  preachers, 
Shor,- of  .Maryland;  Mr.  Chew,  also  one  of  the  preach-  and  over  214,000  members.  Within  the  compass  of 
ers,  being  brought  before  the  sheriff  of  one  of  the  :  every  year,  the  borderers  of  Canada  and  the  planters 
counties  of  the  same  state,  and  required  to  take  the  !  of  Mississippi  looked  for  the  coming  of  this  primitive 
oath  of  allegiance,  replied  that  scruples  of  conscience  bishop,  and  were  not  disappointed.  His  travels  aver- 
would  not  permit  him  to  do  so.  The  sheriff  then  in-  J  aged  6000  miles  a  year  :  and  this  not  in  a  splendid  car- 
form  id  him  that  he  was  bound  by  oath  to  execute  the  I  riage,  over  smooth  roads ;  not  with  the  ease  and  -peed 
laws,  and  if"  be  persisted  in  his  refusal,  no  alternative  of  the  railway,  but  often  through  pathless  forests  and 
was  left  but  to  commit  him  to  prison.  To  this  the  untravelled  wildernesses;  among  the  swamps  of  the 
prisoner  answered  very  mildly  that  he  by  no  means  South  and  the  prairies  of  the  West;  amid  the  heats 
Wished  to  be  the  cause  of  perjury,  and  was  therefore  j  of  the  Carolinas  and  the  snows  of  New  England, 
perfectly  resigned  to  bear  the  penally.  "You  are  a  There  grew  up  under  his  hands  an  entire  church,  with 
strange  man,"  said  the  sheriff;  "I  cannot  bear  to  pun-  fearless  preachers  and  untrained  members;  but  he 
l.-h  you,  and  therefore  my  own  house  shall  be  your  governed  the  multitude  as  he  had  done  the  handful, 
I'"""1-  "''  accordingly  formally  committed  him  to  with  a  gentle  charilv  and  an  unflinching  firmness.  In 
bis  own  house,  and  kept  him  there  three  months.  In  diligent  activity,  no  apostle,  no  missionary,  no  warrior 
the  course  of  this  time  this  gentleman  and  his  wife  ever  surpassed  him.  He  rivalled  Melancthon  and 
were  both  converted  to  God,  and  joined  the  Methodist  Luther  in  boldness.  He  combined  the  enthusiasm  of 
Church.  On  the  20th  of  June,1776,  Mr.  Asburv.  not- ,  Xavier  with  the  far-reaching  foresight  and  keen  dis- 
Wrthstanding  his  extreme  prudence,  was  arrested  near  crimination  of  Wesley.  With  a  mind  untrained  in 
Baltimore, and  fined  five  pounds;  and  in  March.  1778,  the  schools, he  yet  seemed  to  seize  upon  truth  by  intu- 
he  retired  to  the  house  of  his  friend,  Thomas  White,  a  Ltion  j  and  though  men  might  vanquish  him  in  logic, 
iudgc  of  one  of  the  court-  of  Delaware,  where  he  re- 


uilil  not  denv  his  conclusions 


Hi 


•  ASCALON 


453 


ASCENSION 


ting  labors  exhausted  a  constitution  originally  frail ; 
yet,  with  the  old  martyr  spirit,  ho  continued  to  travel 
and  to  preach,  even  when  he  was  so  weak  that  he  had 
to  be  carried  from  the  couch  to  the  pulpit.  He  died 
in  Spottsylvania,  Ya.,  March  31, 1816. 

In  Church  History  Francis  Asbury  deserves  to  be 
classed  with  the  greatest  propagators  of  Christianity 
in  ancient  or  in  modern  times ;  and  when  the  secular 
history  of  America  comes  to  be  faithfully  written,  his 
name  will  be  handed  down  to  posterity  as  having  con- 
tributed, in  no  small  degree,  to  the  progress  of  civil- 
ization in  the  United  States.  In  the  language  of  Dr. 
Stevens,  in  the  Knickerbocker  Magazine  (January, 
1859),  "He  sent  his  preachers  across  the  Alleghanies, 
and  kept  them  in  the  very  van  of  the  westward  march 
of  emigration.  The  first  'ordination'  in  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi  was  performed  by  his  hands  ;  and  it  is 
a  grave  question  what  Mould  have  been  the  moral  de- 
velopment of  the  mighty  states  throughout  that  impe- 
rial domain,  had  it  not  been  for  the  brave  'itinerant' 
corps  of  Asbury,  which  carried  and  expounded  the 
Bible  among  its  log  cabins  at  a  time  in  our  national 
history  when  it  was  absolutely  impossible  for  the 
American  churches  to  send  thither  regular  or  educated 
clergymen  in  any  proportion  to  the  growth  of  its  pop- 
ulation. If  what  is  called  the  'Methodist  itinerancy' 
has  done  an}'  important  service  for  the  moral  salva- 
tion of  that  vast  region,  now  the  theatre  of  our  noblest 
state?,  the  credit  is  due,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  un- 
paralleled energy  of  Francis  Asbury.  He  not  only 
pointed  Ins  preachers  thither,  but  led  the  way.  No 
records  of  American  frontier  adventure  show  greater 
endurance  or  courage  than  Asbury's  travels  beyond 
the  mountains'.  Armed  hunters,  twenty-five  or  fifty 
in  number,  used  to  escort  him  from  point  to  point  to 
protect  him  from  the  Indians,  and  great  were  the  gath- 
erings and  grand  the  jubilees  wherever  ho  appeared." 
—Asbury,  Journals  (N.York,  1S52,  3  vols.  8vo);  Bangs, 
History  cf  the  M.  E.  Church  (N.  York,  18C9,  4  vols. 
12mo)  ;  Meth.  Qu.  lievieu;  April,  1852,  and  July,  1854  ; 
Strickland,  Life  of  Asbury  (X.York,  1858,' 12mo); 
Wakely,  Heroes  of  Methodism  (N.York,  1859,  12mo) ; 
Stevens,  Memorials  of  Methodism  (2  vols.  12)  ;  Stevens, 
Hist,  of  the  M.  E.  Church  (  X.  York,  186-1)  ;  Centenary  of 
Methodism  (N.  York,  1866,  12mo);  Sprague,  Annals, 
vii,  13 ;  Boehm,  Reminiscences  Historical,  and  Bioffraj  h- 
ical,  edited  by  \Vakeley(N.  Y.  1865,  12mo)  ;  Larrabee, 
Asbury  and  his  Coadjutors  (N.  Y.  2  vols.  12mo).  See 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

As'calon  (Judith  ii,  28;  1  Mace,  x,  86;  xi,  60; 
xii,  33).     See  Ashkelon. 

Ascension  of  Christ,  his  visible  passing  from 
earth  to  heaven  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples,  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  fortv  days  after  the  resurrection 
(Mark  xvi,  19  ;  Luke  xxiv,  50,  51 ;  Acts  i,  1-11).  (1) 
The  ascension  was  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  res- 
urrection. Had  Christ  died  a  natural  death,  or  simply 
disappeared  from  view  in  obscurity,  the  resurrection, 
as  a  proof  of  Divine  power,  would  have  gone  for  noth- 
ing. It  was  essential  that  He  should  "  die  no  more," 
so  as  to  demonstrate  forever  his  victory  over  death. 
(2)  It  was  predicted  in  the  O.  T.  in  several  striking 
passages  (c.  g.  Psa.  xxiv,  lxviii,  ciii,  ex)  ;  and  also  by 
Christ  himself  (John  vi.  62;  xx,  17).  (3)  It  was  pre- 
figured in  the  patriarchal  dispensation  by  the  transla- 
tion of  Enoch  (Gen.  v,  24 ;  Heb.  xi,  5)  ;  and  in  the 
Jewish,  by  the  translation  of  Elijah  (2  Kings  ii,  11); 
so  that  each  of  the  three  dispensations  have  had  a  vis- 
ible proof  of  the  immortal  destiny  of  human  nature. 
(4)  The  fact  of  the  ascension  is  given  by  tvvo  evange- 
lists only ;  but  John  presupposes  it  in  the  passages 
above  cited.  It  is  referred  to,  and  doctrines  built  upon 
it,  by  the  apostles  (2  Cor.  xiii,  4;  Eph.  ii,  6;  iv,  10; 
1  Pet.  iii,  22  ;  1  Tim.  iii,  16 ;  Heb.  vi,  20).  "  The  evi- 
dences of  this  occurrence  were  numerous  :  the  disci- 
ples saw  him  ascend  (Acts  i,  9) ;  two  angels  testified 


that  he  did  ascend  (Acts  i,  10, 11) ;  Stephen,  Paul,  and 
John  saw  him  in  his  ascended  state  (Acts  vii,  55,  56; 

;  ix,  3-5;  Rev.  i,  9-18);  the  ascension  was  demonstrated 

|  by  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (John  xvi,  7-14  ; 
Acts  ii,  33)  ;  and  had  been  prophesied  by  our  Lord  him- 
self (Matt,  xxvi,  64;  John  viii,  21).  (5)  The  time  of 
Christ's  ascension  was  forty  days  after  his  resurrec- 
tion. He  continued  that  number  of  days  upon  earth 
in  order  that  he  might  give  repeated  proofs  of  the  fact 
of  his  resurrection  (Acts  i,  3),  and  instruct  his  apostles 
in  everything  of  importance  respecting  their  office  and 
ministry,  opening  to  them  the  Scriptures  concerning 
himself  (Mark  xvi,  15;  Acts  i,  5-8).  (6)  As  to  the 
manner  of  his  ascension,  it  was  from  Mt.  Olivet,  not  in 
appearance  only,  but  in  reality,  and  that  visibly  and 

;  locally.  It  was  sudden,  swift,  glorious,  and  in  a  tri- 
umphant manner.    See  Glorification.    Hewaspart- 

l  ed  from  his  disciples  while  he  was  solemnly  blessing 
them,  and  multitudes   of  angels  attended  him  with 

j  shouts  of  praise  (Psa.  xxiv,  7-10;  xlvii,  5,  6;  lxviii, 

]  18)"  (Watson,  Theol.  Dictionary,  s.  v.).  (7)  Its  residts 
to  the  church  are  :  (a)  the  assumption  of  regal  domin- 

!  ion  by  Christ,  the  head  of  the  church  (Heb.  x,  12, 13 ; 
Eph.'iv,  8,10;  Psa.  lxviii) ;  (6)  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (John  xvi,  7,  14;  Acts  ii,  33;  John  xiv,  16-19); 
(c)  the  intercession  of  Christ,  as  mediator,  at  the  right 
hand  of  God  (Rom.  viii,  34  ;  Heb.  vi,  20). 

The  3d  Article  of  the  Church  of  England  and  of  the 

1  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  runs  thus  :   "Christ  did 

!  truly  rise  again  from  death,  and  took  again  his  body, 
with  flesh,  bones,  and  all  things  appertaining  to  the 
perfection  of  man's  nature,  wherewith  he  ascended 
into  heaven,  and  there  sittcth,  until  he  return  to  judge 
all  men  at  the  last  day."  Ihe  corresponding  article 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is  the  same,  omit- 
ting the  words  "with  flesh,  bones,  and;"  an  omission 
which  does  net  affect  the  substance  of  the  article. 
Browne's  note  on  this  article  is  as  follows:  "It  is 
clear"  (from  the  account  in  the  Goepel)  that  "our 
Lord's  body,  after  he  rose  from  the  grave,  was  that 
bod}'  in  which  ho  was  buried,  having  hands  and  feet, 
and  flesh  and  bones,  capable  of  being  handled,  and  in 
which  he  spoke,  and  ate,  and  drank  (Luke  xxiv,  42, 
43).  Moreover,  it  appears  that  our  Lord  thus  showed 
his  hands  and  feet  to  his  disciples  at  that  very  inter- 
view with  them  in  which  he  was  parted  from  them 
and  received  up  into  heaven.     This  will  be  ?een  by 

i  reading  the  last  chapter  of  St.  Luke  from  verse  36  to 
the  end,  and  comparing  it  with  the  first  chapter  of  the 
Acts,  verse  4-9;  especially  comparing  Luke  xxiv,  49, 
50,  with  Acts  i,  4,  8,  9.  In  that  body,  then,  which  the 
disciples  felt  and  handled,  and  which  was  proved  to 

I  them  to  have  flesh  and  bones,  these  disciples  saw  our 
Lord  ascend  into  heaven  ;  and,  immediately  after  his 
ascent,  angels  came  and  declared  to  them  that  that 
'  same  Jesus  whom  they  had  seen  taken  up  into  heaven 

;  should  so  come  in  like  manner  as  the}*  had  seen  him 
go  into  heaven'  (Acts  i,  11).     All  this,  connected  to- 

i  gether,  seems  to  prove  the  identity  of  our  Lord's  body 
after  bis  resurrection,  at  his  ascension,  and  so  on,  even 
till  his  coming  to  judgment,  with  the  body  in  which 
he  suffered,  and  in  which  he  was  buried,  and  so  fully 
justifies  the  language  used  in  the  article  of  our  church. 
But  because  we  maintain  that  the  body  of  Christ,  even 
after  his  resurrection  and  ascension,  is  a  true  human 
body,  with  all  things  pertaining  to  the  perfection  of 
man's  nature  (to  deny  which  would  be  to  deny  the 
important  truth  that  Christie  still  perfect  man  as  well 

'  as  perfect  God),  it  by  no  means,  therefore,  follows  that 
we  should  deny  that  his  risen  body  is  now  a  glorified, 
and,  as  St.  Paul  calls  it,  a  spiritual  body. 

"But,  after  his  ascension,  we  have  St.  Paul's  dis- 
tinct assurance  that  the  body  of  Christ  is  a  clorious, 
is  a  spiritual  body.  In  1  Cor.  xv,  we  have  St.  Paul's 
assertion  that,  in  the  resurrection  of  all  men,  the  body 
shall  rise  again,  but  that  it  shall  no  longer  be  a  nat- 
ural body,  but  a  spiritual  body  ;  no  longer  a  corrupt!- 


ASCENSION  DAY 


4^4 


ASCETICISM 


hie  and  vile,  but  an  incorruptible  and  glorious  body 
(1  Cor.  xv.  42-53);  and  this  change  of  our  bodies  from 
natural  to  spiritual  is  expressly  stated  to  be  bearing 
the  image  of  our  glorified  Lord— the  image  of  that 
heavenly  man  the  Lord  from  heaven  (ver.  47-49).  So, 
again,  the  glorified  state  of  the  saint's  bodies  after  the 
resurrection,  which  in  1  Cor.  xv  had  been  called  the 
receiving  a  spiritual  body,  is  in  Phil,  iii,  21  said  to 
I.,,  a  fashioning  of  their  bodies  to  the  likeness  of  Christ's 
glorious  body:  'who  shall  change  our  vile  body,  that 
i!  may  be  fashioned  like  unto  his  glorious  body.'  AVe 
must  therefore  conclude  that,  though  Christ  rose  with 
the  -inn'  body  in  which  he  died,  and  that  body  neither 
did  nor  shall  cease  to  be  a  human  body,  still  it  ac- 
quired, either  at  his  resurrection  or  at  his  ascension, 
the  qualities  and  attributes  of  a  spiritual  as  distin- 
guished by  the  apostle  from  a  natural  body,  of  an  in- 
corruptible as  distinguished  from  a  corruptible  body" 
( i hi  Thirty-nine  Articles,  p.  115). 

On  the  fact  and  doctrine  of  the  ascension,  see  Nean- 
der,  Life  of  Christ,  p.  437  sq. ;  Olshausen,  Comm.  on 
Acts,  i,  1-11 ;  Baumgarten,  Apostolic  History,  i,  24- 
28;  Bossuet,  Sermons,  iv,  88;  Watson,  Sermons,  ii, 
21i);  Farindon,  Sermons,  ii,  477-495;  South,  Sermons, 
iii,  1(1.) ;  Bibliotkeca  Sacra,  i,  152 ;  ii,  162  ;  Knapp,  The- 
ology,  §  97 ;  Dorner,  Doct.  of  Person  of  Christ,  vol.  ii ; 
Barrow,  Sermons,  ii,  501,  (i08 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklo- 
pi'ulie,  vi,  106 ;  Maurice,  Theol.  Essays,  p.  251.  Mon- 
ographs connected  with  the  subject  have  been  written, 
among  others,  by  Amnion  (Gott.  1800),  Anger  (Lips. 
1830),  Bose  (Lips.  1741),  Crusius  (Lips.  1757),  Deyling 
(05*.  iii.  198),  Doederlein  (Opp.  p.  59),  Eichler  (Lips. 
1737),  Flugge  (Han.  1808),  Fogtmaim  (Hafn.  1826), 
Georgius  (Viteb.  1748),  Griesbach  (Jen.  1793),  Himly 
(Argent.  1811),  Hasse  (Regiom.  1805),  Loescher  (Vi- 
teb. 1698),  Mayer  (Gryph.  1704),  C.  B.  Michaelis  (Hal. 
1749),  Otterbein  (Duisb.  1802),  Schlegel  (Henke's  Mag. 
iv,  277),  Setter  (Erlang.  1798),  id.  (ib.  1803),  Steen- 
bach  (Hafn.  171  ),  Weichert  (Viteb.  1811),  Zickier 
(Jen.  175s),  Brennecke  (Lnxemb.  1819  [replies  by  Hau- 
mann,  Iken,  Soltmann,  Starum,  Tinius,  Webor,  Wit- 
ting] i,  Kikebusch  (Schneeb.  1751),  Korner  (Sachs. 
Geistl.  Stud,  i,  10),  Liebknecht  (Giess.  1737),  Mosheim 
(Helmst.  1729),  Schmid  (Lips.  1712),  Andrea  (Marb. 
1676),  Mahn  (Lips.  1700),  Remling  (Viteb.  1685).  See 
Jesus. 

Ascension  Day,  or  Holy  Thursday,  a  festival 
of  the  church  held  in  commemoration  of  the  ascension 
of  our  Lord,  forty  days  after  Easter,  and  ten  before 
Whitsuntide.  Augustine  (Ep.  54,)  supposed  it  to  be 
among  the  festivals  instituted  by  the  apostles  them- 
selves, but  it  was  not  observed  in  the  church  until  the 
third  century.  It  is  also  noticed  in  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions,  It  is  especially  observed  in  the  Roman 
<  hurch,  and  also,  though  with  less  form,  in  tl>e  Church 
of  England.  It  is  one  of  the  six  days  in  the  year  for 
\\  hich  the  <  'hurch  of  England  appoints  special  psalms. 
— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xx.  cap.  (I,  §  5;  Procter,  On 
th    Common  Prayer-book,  ip.  288. 

Ascension  ok  Isaiah.     See  Isaiah. 

Ascent  (some  form  of  tlhv,  alah' ,  to  go  up,  as 
elsewhere  often  rendered),  2  Sain,  xv,  30;  1  Kings,  x, 
5 ;  2  (  hron.  ix,  4.     See  Akrabbim  ;  Causeway.' 

Asceterinm  (aoKnrhpiov),  the  place  of  retreat  of 
in  later  times,  often  applied  to  monasteries. 
— Suicer,  Thesaurus,  s.  v. 

Asceticism,  Ascetics.  The  name  cmk>)->)c 
(from  aoKiw,  to  exercise')  is  borrowed  from  profane 
writer-,  by  whom  it  is  generally  employed  to  describe 
the  athletes,  or  Hi'  11  trained  to  the  profession  of  gladi- 
ators or  prize-fighters.  In  the  early  Christian  church 
the  name  ua>  given  to  sueli  as  inured  themselves  to 
greater  degrees  of  fasting  ami  abstinence  than  other 
men,  in  order  to  subdue  or  mortify  their  passions.      See 

Exercise.  The  Christian  ascetics  were  divided  into 
ubstinetUts,  or  those  who  abstained  from  wine,  meat, 


and  agreeable  food,  and  cont'nentes,  or  those  who,  ab- 
staining from  matrimony  also,  were  considered  to  at- 
tain to  a  higher  degree  of  sanctity.  Many  laymen  as 
well  as  ecclesiastics  were  ascetics  in  the  first  cvnturies 
of  our  era,  without  retiring  on  that  account  from  the 
business  and  bustle  of  life.  Some  of  them  wore  the 
pill 'rum  philosophicum,  or  the  philosophic  mantle,  and 
were  therefore  called  Christian  philosophers,  and  form- 
ed thus  the  transition  link  to  the  life  of  hermits  and 
monks.  Romanist  writers  pretend  that  the  ascetics 
were  originally  the  same  with  monks :  the  monastic 
life,  however,  was  not  known  till  the  fourth  centurv 
(Pagi,  Crit.  in  Bar.  A.D.  62,  N.  4).  The  difference 
between  ascetics  and  monks  may  be  thus  stated :  1. 
The  monks  were  such  as  retired  from  the  business  and 
conversation  of  the  world  to  some  desert  or  mountain  ; 
but  the  ascetics  were  of  an  active  life,  living  in  cities 
as  other  men,  and  only  differing  from  them  in  the  ar- 
dor of  their  devotional  acts  and  habits.  2.  The  monks 
were  only  laymen  ;  the  ascetics  were  of  any  order. 
3.  The  monks  were  bound  by  certain  laws  and  disci- 
plinary regulations ;  but  the  ancient  ascetics  had  no 
such  laws.  The  habits  and  exercises  of  the  ascetics 
may  nevertheless  be  regarded  as  the  introduction  of 
monasticism.  The  root  of  asceticism  in  the  early 
Christian  ehurch  is  to  be  found  in  a  Gnostic  leaven, 
remaining  from  the  early  struggle  of  the  church  with 
Gnosticism  (q.  v.).  The  open  Gnosticism  was  crush- 
ed ;  but  its  more  seductive  principle  was  imbibed,  to  a 
large  extent,  even  by  the  best  of  the  church  fathers, 
and  remained  to  plague  Christianity  for  hundreds  of 
years  in  the  forms  of  asceticism,  celibacy,  monasti- 
cism, and  the  various  superstitions  of  the  same  class  in 
the  Pomish  Church.  That  principle  makes  the  "con- 
ditions of  animal  life,  and  the  common  alliances  of 
men  in  the  social  system,  the  antithesis  of  the  Divine 
perfections,  and  so  to  be  escaped  from,  and  decried 
by  all  who  pant  after  the  highest  excellence."  See 
Taylor,  Ancient  Christianity,  vol.  i,  where  this  subject 
is  treated  at  length  and  with  great  mastery  of  both 
history  and  philosophy.  See  Abstinence;  Fast- 
ing; Monks. 

As  soon  as  the  inward  and  spiritual  life  of  the  Chris- 
tians declined,  the  tendency  to  rely  on  external  acts 
and  forms  increased ;  and  if  the  previous  bloody  per- 
secutions had  driven  individuals  from  human  society 
into  the  deserts,  the  growing  secularization  of  the 
church,  after  Christianity  became  the  state  religion, 
had  the  same  effect  to  a  still  greater  degree.  All  this 
paved  the  way  for  monasticism  (q.  v.)  ;  and  the  church 
thought  herself  compelled  by  the  overwhelming  tide 
of  opinion  within  and  without  to  recognise  this  form 
of  asceticism,  and  to  take  it  under  her  protection  and 
care.  From  the  African  Church  a  gloomy  and  super- 
stitious spirit  spread  over  the  Western  Church,  intensi- 
fying the  ascetic  tendencies. '  There  were  not  wanting 
healthier  minds — as  Vigilantius  (q.  v.)  and  others — to 
raise  their  voices  against  fasting,  monkery,  and  the 
outward  works  of  asceticism  generally  ;  but  such  pro- 
tests were  vain,  and  became  ever  rarer.  From  the 
11th  century,  the  Cathari,  Waldenses,  and  other  sects 
assailed  the  external  asceticism  of  the  church  ;  the 
classic  Petrarch  fought  on  the  same  side ;  and  so  did 
Wickliffe,  Hubs,  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  in  their  strug- 
gles at  reformation.  After  a  preliminary  skirmish  by 
Erasmus,  the  struggle  was  decided  in  the  Reformation 
of  the  10th  centurv.  The  fundamental  principle  of 
that  movement,  that  salvation  is  secured  by  justifica- 
tion through  faith,  and  not  through  dead  works,  struck 
at  the  root  of  monkery  and  mortification  in  general. 
But  the  victory  has  not  been  so  complete  as  is  often 
assumed.  The  ascetic  spirit  often  shows  itself  still 
alive  under  various  disguises  even  in  Protestantism. 
See  Shakers.  The  great  error  of  asceticism  is  to 
hold  self-denial  and  suffering  to  be  meritorious  in  the 
sight  of  (bid,  in  and  for  itself.  Its  germinant  princi- 
ple, in  all  ages  of  the  church,  has  been,  as  stated 


ASCHE 


455 


ASH 


above,  a  Gnostic  way  of  viewing  the  relations  between 
God,  man,  and  nature,  tending  to  dualism  and  to  the 
confounding  of  sin  with  the  very  nature  of  matter. 
See  Zockler,  Kiitische  Gesckickte  der  Askete  (Frankf. 
1863,  8vo);  Schafij  Church  History,  §  94;  Mercersburg 
Review,  1858,  p.  600;  Coleman,  Ancient  Christianity,  ch. 
vii,  §  5 ;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Oct.  1858,  p.  600 ;  Bing- 
ham, Oriff.  Eccl.  bk.  vii,  ch.  i ;  Mosheim,  Coram,  i,  381. 
See  Hermit. 

Asche.     See  Asser. 

Ascitae  (q.  d.  aoKirai,  replete)  or  Ascodrogit.e, 
heretics  who  appeared  in  Galatia  about  173.  They 
pretended  to  be  tilled  with  the  "paraclete"  of  Monta- 
nus,  and  introduced  bacchanalian  indecencies  into  the 
churches,  where  they  brought  a  skin  of  wine,  and, 
marching  round  it,  declared  that  they  were  the  vessels 
filled  with  new  wine  of  which  the  Lord  speaks  in  the 
Gospels.  Hence  their  name  from  the  Greek  ckjkoc., 
which  means  "a  skin."— Augustine,  liar,  62;  Landon, 
Eccl.  Diet,  i,  506.     See  Montanists. 

Ascough,  or,  according  to  Godwin,  "  William 
Ayscoth,  doctor  of  laws  and  clerk  of  the  counsel,  was 
consecrated  in  the  chapel  of  Windsor,  July  20,  1438. 
The  year  1450  it  happened  the  commons  to  arise  in 
sundry  parts  of  the  realm,  by  the  stirring  of  Jack 
Cade,  naming  himself  John  Mortimer.  A  certain 
number  of  lewd  persons  (tenants  for  the  most  part  to 
this  bishop),  intending  to  join  themselves  to  the  rest 
of  that  crew,  came  to  Evendon,  where  he  was  then 
saying  of  mass.  What  was  their  quarrel  to  him  I 
find  not.  But  certain  it  is,  they  drew  him  from  the 
altar  in  his  alb,  with  his  stole  about  his  neck,  to  the 
top  of  a  hill  not  far  off,  and  there,  as  he  kneeled  on  his 
knees  praying,  they  cleft  his  head,  spoiled  him  to  the 
skin,  and,  rending  his  bloody  shirt  into  a  number  of 
pieces,  took  every  man  a  rag  to  keep  for  a  monument 
of  their  worthy  exploit.  The  day  before  they  had 
robbed  his  carriages  of  10,000  marks  in  ready  money. 
This  barbarous  murder  was  committed  June  29th,  the 
year  aforesaid."  Dr.  Fuller  supposes  that  the  bishop 
was  attacked  because  he  was  "learned,  pious,  and 
rich,  three  capital  crimes  in  a  clergyman."  He  also 
gives  ns  the  following  distich,  which  may  be  applicable 
in  other  times : 

"  Sic  concusso  cadit  popular!  mitra  tumultu, 
Protegat  optamus  nunc  diadema  Deus. 
"  By  people's  fury  mitres  thus  cast  down 
We  pray  henceforward  God  preserve  the  crown." 

—Bioff.  Britannica  ,•  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  323.  See  As- 
kew. 

Ase'as.     See  Asjzas. 

Asebebi'a  ('AertjSjjjSia),  one  of  the  Levites  who, 
with  his  sons,  joined  the  caravan  under  Ezra  (1  Esdr. 
viii,  47)  ;  evidently  the  Sherebiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  gen- 
uine text  (Ezra  viii,  18). 

Asebi'a  CAaifiia),  another  of  the  Levites  who  re- 
turned in  Ezra's  party  to  Palestine  (1  Esdr.  viii,  48) ; 
evidently  the  Hashabiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text 
(Ezra  '  :ii,  19). 

As'enath  (Heb.  Asenath' ,  MDS,  on  the  signif. 
see  below;  Sept.  'AmviQ  v.  r. '  Ami'viS),  the  daughter 
of  Potipherah,  priest  of  On,  whom  the  king  of  Egypt 
bestowed  in  marriage  upon  Joseph  (Gen.  xli,  45;  xlvi, 
20),  with  the  view  probably  of  strengthening  his  posi- 
tion in  Egypt  by  this  high  connection,  B.C.  1883.  See 
Josei'H.  Siie  became  the  mother  of  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh  (Gen.  xli,  50).  No  better  etymology  of  As- 
enath  has  been  proposed  than  that  by  Jablonski,  who 
(Panth.  Egypt,  i,  50  ;  Opuscul.  ii,  208)  regards  it  as 
representative  of  a  Coptic  compound,  Assheneit.  The 
latter  part  of  this  word  he  takes  to  be  the  name  of 
Neith,  the  titular  goddess  of  Sais,  the  Athene  of  the 
Greeks,  and  considers  the  whole  to  mean  worshipper 
of  Neith.  Gesenius,  in  his  Thesaurus,  suggests  that 
the  original  Coptic  form  was  A  smith,  which  means 


who  belongs  to  Keith.  That  the  name  refers  to  this 
goddess  is  the  generally  received  opinion  (in  modern 
times  Von  Bohlen  alone  has,  in  his  Genesis,  proposed 
an  unsatisfactory  Shemitic  etymology  [see  Lepsius, 
Chron  d.  yEgypter,  i,  382])  :  it  is  favored  by  the  fact 
that  the  Egyptians,  as  Jablonski  has  shown,  were  ac- 
customed to  choose  names  expressive  of  some  relation 
to  their  gods  ;  and  it  appears  liable  to  no  stronger  ob- 
jection than  the  doubt  whether  the  worship  of  Neith 
existed  at  so  early  a  period  as  that  of  the  composition 
of  the  book  of  Genesis  (see  Champollion,  Pantheon 
Egyptienne,  No.  6).  Even  this  doubt  is  now  removed, 
as  it  appears  that  she  was  realty  one  of  the  primitive 
deities  of  Lower  Egypt  (Bunsen,  Egypt's  Place,  i,  389), 
for  her  name  occurs  as  an  element  in  that  of  Nitocris 
(Neith-akri),  a  queen  of  the  sixth  dynasty  (Wilkinson, 
in  Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  ii,  142,  note  2). 

A'ser  ('Affi/n),  the  Grseeized  form  of  Asher  (q.  v.), 
both  the  tribe  (Luke  ii,  36 ;  Rev.  vii,  0)  and  the  city 
(Tobit  i,  2). 

Ase'rer  (Sifjap),  one  of  the  heads  of  the  temple- 
servants  that  returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v, 
32)  ;  evidently  the  Sisera  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text 
(Ezra  ii,  53). 

Asgill,  John,  member  of  the  Irish  Parliament, 
and  author  of  an  eccentric  book  entitled  An  Argument 
proving  that,  according  to  the  Covenant  of  eternal  Life 
revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  Man  may  be  translated  hence 
into  that  eterned  Life  without  passing  through  Death,  al- 
though the  humane.  Nature  of  Christ  himself  coidd  not 
thus  be  translated  till  he  had  passed  through  Death  (Dub- 
lin, 1698,  8vo).  The  Irish  Parliament  voted  it  a  blas- 
phemous libel,  and  expelled  Asgill  from  the  House 
after  four  days.  In  1705  he  entered  the  English  Par- 
liament as  member  for  Bramber,  in  Sussex.  But  the 
English  House,  resolving  to  be  not  less  virtuous  than 
the  Irish,  condemned  his  bock  to  be  burnt  by  the  com- 
mon hangman  as  profane  and  blasphemous,  and  ex- 
pelled Asgill  on  the  18th  December,  1707.  After  this 
his  circumstances  rapidly  grew  worse,  until  at  last  he 
found  something  like  peace  in  the  King's  Bench  and 
the  Fleet,  between  which  two  places  his  excursions 
were  confined  for  the  term  of  his  natural  life.  He 
died  in  November,  1738.  See  Southey,  The  Doctor,  pt. 
ii ;  Coleridge,  Works  (Harpers'  ed.),  vol.  v ;  Allibone, 
i,  73. 

Ash  Ci*^,  o'ren,  probably  tremulous,  from  the  mo- 
tion of  the  leaves)  occurs  only  once  in  Scripture  as 
the  name  of  a  tree,  in  connection  with  other  trees,  of 
whose  timber  idols  were  made,  Isa.  xliv,  14:  "He 
heweth  him  down  cedars,  and  taketh  the  cypress  and 
the  oak,  which  he  strengtheneth  for  himself  among  the 
trees  of  the  forest;  he  planteth  an  ash  (oren),  and  the 
rain  doth  nourish  it."  Others  consider  pine-tree,  to  be 
the  correct  translation  ;  but  for  neither  docs  there  ap- 
pear to  be  an)'  decisive  proof,  nor  for  the  ruhus  or 
bramble  adopted  for  oren  in  the  fable  of  the  Cedar  and 
Rubus,  translated  from  the  Hebrew  of  R.  Bcrechia 
Hannakdan  by  Celsius  (Hierobot.  i,  180).  Oren  is 
translated  pine-tree  both  in  the  Sept.  ([ttitvc)  and  the 
Vulg.,  and  this  has  been  acquiesced  in  by  several  of 
the  most  learned  critics,  and  among  them  by  Calvin 
and  Bochart.  Celsius  (ut  sup.  p.  191)  states,  more- 
over, that  some  of  the  rabbins  also  consider  oren  to  be 
the  same  as  the  Arabic  sunober  (which  is  no  doubt 
a  pine),  and  that  they  often  join  together  arzim,  or- 
nim,  and  beroshim,  as  trees  of  the  same  nature  ("^XS 
D^iyi""!^  C"?7X  C"T"X,  "cedars"  and  "ash- trees" 
and  "cypresses,"  Talmud  Babyl.  Para,  fol.  xevi,  1). 
Luther  and  the  Portuguese  version  read  cedar.  Ro« 
senmuller  (Altherth.  IV,  i,  243  sq. ;  comp.  Gesenius, 
Thes.  Heb.  p.  152)  contends  that  it  is  not  the  common 
wild  pine  (Pinus  sy/rcs/ris)  which  is  intended,  but  what 
the  ancients  called  the  domestic  pine,  which  was  raised 
in  gardens  en  account  of  its  elegant  shape  and  the 


ash 


456 


ASHDOD 


pleasant  fruit  it  yields,  the  Pignole  nuts  of  the  Ital- 
ians (Pimapinea  of  Linnaeus),  and  quotes  Virgil  {Eel. 


Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  mention  a  vil- 
{Pinus pinen  of  Linnaeus),  and  quotes  Virgil  (Let.  lage  named  Bethasan  as  15  or  1G  miles  west  of  Jerusa- 
vii,  65;  Georg.  iv,  112).  The  English  version,  in  the  lem ;  but  this,  though  agreeing  sufficiently  with  the 
translation  of  oren,  follows  those  interpreters  who  have  position  of  the  place  in  John  xv,  42,  is  not  far  enough 
adopted  ornus,  apparently  only  because  the  clementa-  south  for  the  indications  of  the  other  passages;  and 
rv  letters  of  the  Hebrew  are  found  also  in  the  Latin  indeed  this  is  a  doubtful  intimation  (Cellar.  Notit.  ii, 
word.  See  Pine.  Celsius  objects  to  this  as  an  in-  496).  See  Ashnaii.  It  appears  to  have  been  situa- 
Bufficient  reason  for  supposing  that  the  ash  was  in-  '.  ted  in  the  southern  part  of  the  hilly  region  adjoining 
tended ;  and  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  other  the  plain  (Keil,  Comment,  on  Josh,  xv,  42) ;  perhaps 
proof.  Ornus  Europcea,  or  manna  ash  (Fraxinus  ornus,  j  not  far  from  the  present  Deir  Samil.  See  Ain.  The 
LinnsBUS,  Pftjnzemyst.  ii,  516 ),  does,  however,  grow  in  I  above  conflicting  notices  of  its  position  would  almost 
Syria,  but,  being  a  cultivated  plant,  it  may  have  been  I  seem  to  require  two  cities  of  the  name  of  Ashan,  one 
introduced.  See  Manna.  The  common  ash  was  an-  j  in  Judah  (?=Eshean),  and  the  other  in  Simeon  (dis- 
ciently  associated  with  the  oak  (Stat.  Theb.  vi,  102)  as  !  tinctively  Chor-ashan);  but,  on  the  whole,  they  may 
a  hard  (Ovid,  Met.  xii,  337;  Lucan.  vi,  390;  Colum.  ■  best  be  reconciled  by  supposing  one  locality,  properly 
xi,  2)  and  durable  (Horace,  Od.  i,  9,  2)  tree  (Pliny,    in  the  plain  of  Judah,  but  assigned  (with  Ether,  q.  v.) 


>;  Virg.  Geo.  ii,  65  sq.),  of  hardy  growth  (Virj 
Geo.  ii,  111 ;  jEn.  ii,  626).  Celsius  (ut  sup.  p.  192) 
quotes  from  the  Arab  author  'Abu-1-Fadli  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  tree  called  aran,  which  appears  well  suited 
to  the  passage,  though  it  has  not  yet  been  ascertained 
what  tree  is  intended.     The  aran  is  said  to  be  a  tree 


to  Simeon.      See  Tribe. 


Ash'bea  (Heb.  As'bea,  "31TX,  adjuration,  other- 
wise swelling  ;  Sept.  'Eero/3a),  the  head  of  a  family  men- 
tioned as  working  in  fine  linen,  a  branch  of  the  descend- 
|  ants  of  Shokh,  the  son  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  21).    B.C. 

".*"T"  VT~  n  1 V    iC  "•\T\-1"  "  "2-v."  '  prob.  cir.  1017.     The  clause  in  which  the  word  occurs 

of  Arabia  Petrrea,  of  a  thorny  nature,  inhabiting  the    !      ,  ,       „    iL  „  '  .    .      .      TT       :        ■ 

,,         ,    .  r       \    ,       .     .,  .   .  ,         ...  .       is  obscure  (see  hertheau,  t  omrm  nf. in  loc.  .    Iloubigant 

valleys,  but  found  also  m  the  mountains,  where  it  is,  .  „     A  v    ,        ,  ',         ,       x    ,     J  t  ,       , 

,  i        ...  rn  i  •        -a it    i.  u    and  Bootruyd  understand  a  place  to  be  meant  by  the 

however,  less  thorny.      I  he  wood  is  said  to  be  much  .       •'    j7      ,,  oV     ™  e  n    T- 

valued  for  cleaning  the  teeth.  The  fruit  is  in  bunch-  i  **f™*1™  B'th-ash^ea-  ™«  Jargon,  °U\  u™?1* 
es  like  small  grapes.  The  berry  is  noxious  while  j  <etU  Wllkms)  P*™phrases  it  the  house  of  Eshba." 
green,  and  bitter  like  galls;  as  it  ripens  it  becomes  Ash'bel  (Heb.  Ashbtl' ',  ?3£JX,  prob.  for  Eshbaal; 
red,  then  black  and  somewhat  sweetish,  and  when  \  Sept.  'A(7/3»'/X  ;  in  Num.  'Aaovf3i)\  v.  r.  'Aovftt'ip),  the 
eaten  is  grateful  to  the  stomach,  and  seems  to  act  as  I  second  son  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  xlvi,  21 ;  1  Chron.  viii, 
a  stimulant  medicine.  Sprengel  {/list,  reiherb.  i,  14)  :  ]).  B.C.  1856.  SeeJEDiAEL.  His  descendants  were 
supposes  this  to  be  the  caper  plant  {Capparis  spinosa  i  called  Askbelites  (Num.  xxvi,  38).  See  Becher. 
of  Linnaeus)  Faber  thought  it ;to be ithe  Mamnus  si- I  Asb/belite  (Hcb.  with  the  art.  ha-AshSdi' 
cii'us  ptntaphyUus  of  Shaw.    Link  (m  Sehrader  s  Journ.  \  „v-   •.._      r,     .     .    • .         -,  w  >.      „     ,    „  , 

1  isaiBStfl ;   Sept.  o    Acov^Xi  v.  r.    Aavftijc.i,  Vulg. 


f.  Batan.  iv,  252)  identifies  it  with  Flacourtia  sepiaria 
of  Roxburgh,  a  tree,  however,  which  has  not  been 
found  in  Syria.  It  appears  to  agree  in  some  respects 
with  the  Salcadora  Persica,  but  not  in  all  points,  and 
therefore   it  requires  further  investigation  by  some 


Asbelitce,  A.  V.  "the  Ashbelites"),  the  descendants  of 
Ashbel  (q.  v.),  son  of  Benjamin  (Num.  xxvi,  38). 
Ash-cake  (ilW,  ugah',  or  it?;',  uggah',  "cake," 
cake  baked  on  the  hearth,"  Gen.  xviii,  6;  xix,  3;  1 


traveller  in  Syria  conversant  both  with  plants  and    Kings  xvii,  13 ;   Ezek.  iv,  12,  etc. ;   Sept.  tyicpvfia), 
their  Oriental  names  and  uses— Kitto.    See  Botany.     a  thin  round  pancake  baked  over  hot  sand  or  a  slab  of 
Ash.     See  Arcturus  ;  Moth.  stone  by  means  of  ashes  or  coals  put  over  them,  or  bc- 

Ash,  St.  George,  bishop  of  Derry,  was  born  in  tween  two  layers  of  hot  embers  of  the  dung  of  cows  or 
1658,  became  fellow  of  Trinity  College',  Dublin,  1679,  j  camels  (see  Schubert,  iii,  28;  Arvieux,  iii,  227).  Such 
and  provost  of  Trinity,  1692.  He  was  appointed  bishop  j  are  still  relished  in  the  East  (by  the  Arabs  of  the  des- 
of  Cloyne  in  1695,  was  translated  to  Clogher,  1697,  and  I  ert)  as  a  tolerably  delicious  dish  (see  Thevenot,  ii,  32, 
thence  to  Derry  in  1716.  He  died  in  Dublin  in  1717.  I  P-  '-35;  Schweigger,  p.  283;  Niehuhr,  Beschr.  p.  52). 
He  published  a  number  of  separate  sermons,  and  con-  !  See  Cake.  Such  cake  is  made  especially  when  there 
tributed  to  the  papers  of  the  Royal  Society,  of  which  j  is  not  much  time  for  linking.  It  must  be  turned  in 
he  was  a  member.  j  order  to  be  baked  through  and  not  to  burn  on  one  side 

Ash,  John,  LL.D..  an  Independent  minister,  was  !  (Hos-  vii>  8)-  Xt  was  made  commonly  of  wheat  flour 
born  in  Dorsetshire,  1724.  He  devoted  himself  at  first  I  (Gen-  xvni>  G)-  Barley-cakes  are  mentioned  (for  the 
to  mathematics,  but  afterward  studied  theology,  and  time  of  scarcity)  in  Ezek.  iv,  12.— Winer.  See  Bread. 
entered  the  ministry.  He  was  associated  with  Dr.  Ash'chenaz  (Heb.  Ashkenaz',  M313K  ;  Vulg. 
Caleb  Evans  in  founding  the  "  Bristol  Education  So-  Ascenez),  a  less  correct  form  (1  Chron.  i,  6  ;=  Sept.  'Aa- 
ciety."  He  settled  as  pastor  at  Tershore,  Worcester-  j  Xlva$  v.  r.  'AoXavdZ ;  Jer.  Ii,  27,  Sept.  ot  'Aa\aZa,oi 
shire,  and  devoted  a  large  part  of  his  time  to  the  prep-  j  v.  r.  ' AoXavdt,iOi,  'AXavdZioL, ' AoKavaZ,aloi)  of  Angli- 
aration  of  A  New  and  Complete  Dictionary  of  the  Eng-  \  cizing  the  name  Ashkenaz  (q.  v.). 
ItshLangmge  (2  vols,  large  8vo,  1775),  on  an  extended  i      Aaii,AnA  m  .      ..,,,    „„■--*«    „    „,,.., 


plan,  and  the  best  work  of  its  class  at  the  time.  He 
also  published  Sentiments  on  Education  (1777,  2  vols. 
12mo  i :  -  -The  Dialogues  of  Eumenes.— Gentleman's  Mag- 
azine, xlix,  215;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliograph.  i,  113." 

A'shan  (Heb.  Ashan',  "rr,  smoke;  Sept.  'Avav ; 
in  1  Chron.  iv,  32,  'Aioav  v.  r.  'Aarap ;  in  Josh,  xv, 
4.',  omits  i,  a  Levitical  city  in  the  low  country  of  Ju- 
dah named  in  Josh,  xv,  42  with  Libnah  and  Ether. 
In  Josh,  xix,  7,  and  1  Chron.  iv,  32,  it  is  mentioned 
again  as  belonging  to  Simeon,  but  iii  company  with 
Ain  and  Bimmon,  which  (see  Josh,  xv,  31)  appear  to 
have  been  much  more  to  the  south.  In  1  Chron.  vi, 
59,  it  is  given  as  a  priests'  city,  occupying  (perhaps  by 
error  of  transcription)  the  Bame  place  as  the  somewhat 
similar  word  Ain  ("PS)  doeg  iii  the  list  of  Josh,  xxi, 
16.  In  1  Sam.  xxx,  30,  the  fuller  form  Ch  r-ashan  is 
named  with  Honnah  and  other  cities  of  "  the  South." 


Asll'dod  (Heb.  Ashdod',  ^IVX,  a  stronghold; 
Sept.  and  N.  T.  "A'^iotoo),  the  Azotus  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  so  called  in  1  Mace,  iv,  15 ;  Acts  viii,  40 
(see  also  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  v,  14  ;  Ptolem.  v,  16) ;  a  city 
of  the  Philistine  Pentapolis,  on  the  summit  of  a  grassy 
hill  (Richardson,  Travels,  ii,  206),  near  the  Mediterra- 
nean coast  (com p.  Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  4,  4),  nearly  mid- 
way between  Gaza  and  Joppa,  being  18  geographical 
miles  north  by  east  from  the  former  (270  stadia  north, 
according  to  Diod.  Sic.  xix,  85),  and  21  south  from 
the  latter;  and,  more  exactly,  midway  between  Aske- 
lon  and  Ekron,  being  10  geographical  miles  north  by 
east  from  the  former,  and  south  by  west  from  the  lat- 
ter (see  Cellar.  Notit.  ii,  599  ;  Mannert,  VI,  i,  261  sq.). 
Ashdod  was  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  and  the  chief 
town  of  one  of  their  five  confederate  states  (Josh,  xiii, 
8;  1  Sam.  vi,  17).  It  was  the  seat  of  the  worship  of 
i  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v,  5 ;   1  Mace,  xi,  4),  before  whose 


ASHDODITE 


457 


ASHER 


shrine  in  this  city  it  was  that  the  captured  ark  was  de- 
posited and  triumphed  over  the  idol  (1  Sam.  v,  1-9). 
Ashdod  was  assigned  to  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  47);  but 
many  centuries  passed  before  it  and  the  other  Philis- 
tine towns  were  subdued  (1  Kings  iv,  2-1)  [see  Philis- 
tines] ;  and  it  appears  never  to  have  been  permanent- 
ly in  possession  of  the  Judahites,  although  it  was  dis- 
mantled by  Uzziah,  who  built  towns  in  the  territory 
of  Ashdod  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  G).  It  is  mentioned  to  the 
reproach  of  the  Jews  after  their  return  from  captivity 
that  they  married  wives  of  Ashdod  ;  the  result  of  which 
was  that  the  children  of  these  marriages  spoke  a  mon- 
grel dialect,  compounded  of  Hebrew  and  the  speech 
of  Ashdod  (Neh.  xiii,  23,  24).  It  was  a  place  of  great 
strength  ;  and  being  on  the  usual  military  route  be- 
tween Syria  and  Egypt,  the  possession  of  it  became 
an  object  of  importance  in  the  wars  between  Egypt 
and  the  great  northern  powers.  Hence  it  was  secured 
by  the  Assyrians  under  Tartan  (B.C.  715)  before  inva- 
ding Egypt  (Isa.  xx,  1  sq.)  ;  and  about  B.C.  630  it  was 
taken  by  Psammetichus,  after  a  siege  of  twenty-nine 
years,  the  longest  on  record  (Herodot.  ii,  157).  That 
it  recovered  from  this  blow  appears  from  its  being 
mentioned  as  an  independent  power  in  alliance,  after 
the  exile,  with  the  Arabians  and  others  against  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  iv,  7).  The  destruction  of  Ashdod  was 
foretold  by  the  prophets  (Jer.  xxv,  20;  Amos  i,  8;  iii, 
9 ;  Zeph.  ii,  4  ;  Zach.  ix,  6),  and  was  accomplished  by 
the  Maccabees  (1  Mace,  v,  68 ;  x,  77-84 ;  xi,  4).  It  is 
enumerated  among  the  towns  which  Pompey  joined  to 
the  province  of  Syria  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  4,  4;  War,  i, 
7,  7),  and  among  the  cities  ruined  in  the  wars,  which 
Gabinius  ordered  to  be  rebuilt  (Ant.  xiv,  5,  3).  It 
was  included  in  Herod's  dominion,  and  was  one  of  the 
three  towns  bequeathed  by  him  to  his  sister  Salome 
{War,  xvii,  8,  1;  xi,  5).  The  evangelist  Philip  was 
found  at  Ashdod  after  he  had  baptized  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch  .(Acts  viii,  40).  Azotus  early  became  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric ;  and  we  find  a  bishop  of  this  city  pres- 
ent at  the  councils  of  Nice,  Chalcedon,  A.D.  359,  Se- 
leucia,  and  Jerusalem,  A.D.  536  (Poland,  Palastina, 
p.  609).  Ashdod  subsisted  as  a  small  unwalled  town 
in  the  time  of  Jerome.  It  was  in  ruins  when  Benja- 
min of  Tudela  visited  Palestine.  (/tin.  ed.  Asher,  i,  79)  ; 
but  we  learn  from  William  of  Tyre  and  Vitriacus  that 
the  bishopric  was  revived  by  the  Latin  Christians,  at 
least  titularly,  and  made  suffragan  of  Treves.  San- 
dys (Travailes,  p.  151)  describes  it  "as  a  place  of  no 
reckoning;"  and  Zuallart  {Voyage,  iv,  132)  speaks  of 
it  as  an  Arab  village  (comp.  Van  Troilo,  1666,  p.  349). 
Irby  and  Mangles  (p.  180)  describe  it  as  an  inhabited 
site  marked  by  ancient  ruins,  such  as  broken  arches 
and  partly-buried  fragments  of  marble  columns  ;  there 
is  also  what  appeared  to  these  travellers  to  be  a  very 
ancient  khan,  the  principal  chamber  of  which  had  ob- 
viously, at  some  former  period,  been  used  as  a  Chris- 
tian chapel.  The  place  is  still  called  Esdud  (Volney, 
Trav.  ii,  251 ;  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  120).  The  name  oc- 
curs in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  (q.  v.).  The  ancient 
remains  are  few  and  indistinct  (Haekett,  Jllustra.  of 
Script,  p.  135).  The  ruined  khan  to  the  west  of  the 
village  marks  the  Acropolis  of  the  ancient  town,  and 
the  grove  near  it  alone  protects  the  site  from  the  shift- 
ing sand  of  the  adjoining  plain,  which  threatens,  at  no 
distant  day,  entirely  to  overwhelm  the  spot  (Thomson, 
Land  and  Boh/l,  ii,  319). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  inhabitants  are  styled  Askdodiieg^^^,  Neh. 
iv,  7;  "  Ashdotkites,,,  Josh,  xiii,  3;  the  dialect  is  the 
fem.  rpnilCN,  Ashdodith',  Sept.  'A^.j-otW,  Vulg. 
Azotice,  A.  V.  "in  the  speech  of  Ashdod,"  Neh.  xiii,  24). 

Ash'dcdite  (Heb.  in  the  plur.  with  the  art.  ha- 
Ashdodim',  CTiT^Xln;  Sept.  omits,  but  some  copies 
have  oi'AZtoTioi, Vulg.  Azotii,  A.V.  " the  Ashdodites"), 
the  inhabitants  (Neh.  iv.  7  [Heb.  1])  of  Ashdod  (q.  v.). 

Ash'dothite   (Heb.  with  the   art.  ha-Ashdodi', 


"tiTdxn ;  Sept.  6  'Mwnor,  Vulg.  Azotii,  A.  V.  "  the 
Ashdothite"),  a  less  correct  mode  (Josh,  xiii,  3)  of  An- 
glicizing the  name  Ashdodite  (Neh.  iv,  7),  or  inhabi- 
tant of  Ashdod  (q.  v.). 

Ash'doth-Pis'gah  (Heb.  Askdoth'  haji-Pisgah' ', 
njpEn  m'TOX,  ravines  of  Pisgah  ;  Sept.  'AarjCiiS 
[r/)i']  <t>acrya,  and  'Ac.  t))v  Xa^ivrijv),  apparently  the 
water-courses  running  from  the  base  of  Mount  Pisgah, 
which  formed  the  southern  boundary  of  the  territory 
of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites  ("  Springs  of  Pisgah," 
Deut.  iv.  49);  transferred  as  a  proper  name  in  Josh. 
xii,  3;  xiii,  20;  Deut.  iii,  17).  See  Pisgah.  This 
curious  and  (since  it  occurs  in  none  of  the  later  books) 
probably  very  ancient  term  in  the  two  passages  from 
Deut.  forms  part  of  a  formula  by  which,  apparently, 
the  mountains  that  enclose  the  Dead  Sea  on  the  east 
side  are  defined.  Thus  in  iii,  17,  we  read,  "the  '  Ara- 
bah'  also  (i.  e.  the  Jordan  valley)  and  the  'border,' 
from  Cinnereth  (Sea  of  Galilee)  unto  the  sea  of  the 
'Arabah,'  the  Salt  Sea,  under  Ashdoth  hap-Pisgah 
eastward;"  and  so  also  in  iv,  49,  though  here  our 
translators  have  chosen  to  vary  the  formula  for  Eng- 
lish readers.  The  same  intention  is  evident  in  the 
passages  cited  from  Joshua ;  and  in  x,  40,  and  xii,  8, 
of  the  same  book,  Ashdoth  is  used  alone  —  "  the 
springs,"  to  denote  one  of  the  main  natural  divisions 
of  the  country.  The  only  other  instance  of  the  use  of 
the  word  is  in  the  highly  poetical  passage,  Num.  xxi, 
15,  "the  ^  pouring  fortK  of  the  'torrents,'  which  ex- 
tendeth  to  Shcbeth-Ar."  This  undoubtedly  refers 
also  to  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Doubtless,  like  the 
other  topographical  words  of  the  Bible,  it  has  a  precise 
meaning;  but  whether  it  be  the  streams  poured  forth 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of  Moab,  or  the  roots  or 
spurs  of  those  mountains,  or  the  mountains  themselves, 
it  is  impossible,  in  our  present  ignorance  of  the  coun- 
try east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  to  determine  with  certainty. 

Ashdowne,  William,  an  English  Unitarian,  who 
wrote  a  number  of  controversial  pieces  toward  the 
close  of  the  18th  century,  viz.  An  Essay  Concerning  the 
true  Meaning  of  Jesus  in  his  Parables  (Canterbury,  1780, 
8vo): — The,  Unitarian,  Arian,and  Trinitarian  Opinions 
respecting  Christ  tried  by  Scripture  (Canterbury,  1789, 
8vo)  :  —  The  Doctrine  of  Satan,  as  Tempter,  etc.  not 
founded  in  Scripture  (1791,  8vo)  : — Proofs  that  Adults 
only  are  included  in  the  New  Covenant  (1792,  8vo). — 
Gentleman's  Magazine,  1790,  1800, 1805  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generate,  iii,  435. 

Ashe.     See  Asser. 

Ashe,  Simeon,  a  Nonconformist  and  Presbj'teri- 
an,  was  educated  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and 
afterward  settled  in  Staffordshire,  from  whence  he 
removed  to  London,  where  he  exercised  his  ministry 
twenty-three  years.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies  who 
went  to  congratulate  Charles  II  on  his  restoration  at 
Breda.  He  died  in  1662  ;  "a  man  of  holy  life,  cheer- 
ful mind,  and  fluent  elegancy"  (Baxter).  He  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  the  Power  of  Godliness,  and  sever- 
al single  sermons. — Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Orme,  Life 
of  Baiter,  i,  217. 

Ashe.     See  Asser. 

Asher  Ben-Jechiel,  called  Magister  Asher,  a 
Jewish  writer,  was  born  at  Rothenburg  toward  the  end 
of  the  13th  century,  and  died  in  1327.  He  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Spanish  Jews, 
and  taught  with  high  repute  at  Toledo  ;  but  he  did  not 
escape  the  persecuting  spirit  of  the  time,  and  was 
driven  from  Toledo.  He  published  chiefly  (1.)  vari- 
ous commentaries  or  special  tracts  of  the  Talmud  (print- 
ed at  different  times  and  places,  especially  Prague, 
1725,  and  Leghorn,  Berlin,  Amst.  etc.  later);  (2.)  a 
general  collection  of  decisions  relating  to  the  entire 
Talmud,  entitled  Pl'SSil  "^pE  (usually  contained  in 
extended  editions  of  the  Talmud),  more  commonly  de- 
nominated, from  him,  "H'^Xri,  the   Asheri,  abstracts 


ASHEK 


458 


ASHER 


of  which,  under  the  title  of  tB&htt  1J205^2|3  (Con- 
stantinople, 1520,  fol.  ond  later),  r.iEpin  i^CE,  etc. 
have  been  made;  (3.)  m'^XttJ,  etc.  questions  and  an- 
swers on  Jewish  ceremonies  (Venice,  1552,  fol.  and 
Since)  ;  (4.)  i~!.".n:n,  moral  precepts  or  institutes  (Ven. 
1579,  Ito,  and  often  since). — Bartolocci,  Bibl.  Magn. 
Rabbin,  i.  493;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Generate,  iii,  437; 
Fiirst,  Bib.  Jxtd.  i,  57  sq. 

Ash'er  (Heb.  Asher',  "'1'X,  happiness;  Sept.  and 
New  Test.  'A<rij|o),  the  name  of  a  man  (and  the  tribe 
descended  from  him),  and  of  one  or  two  places. 

1.  The  eleventh  of  the  sons  of  Jacob,  and  his  third 
by  Zilpah,  the  handmaid  of  Leah  (Gen.  xxxv,  26),  and 
founder  of  one  of  the  twelves  tribes  (Num.  xxvi,  44- 
47).  Born  B.C.  1914.  The  name  is  interpreted  in  a 
passage  full  of  the  paronomastic  turns  which  distin- 
guish these  very  ancient  records:  "And  Leah  said, 
'In  my  happiness  am  I  (^"rrxa),  for  the  daughters 
have  called  me  happy'  ("^"I'i'X),  and  she  called  his 
name  Asher"  ("112518),  i.  c.  "happy"  (Gen.  xxx,  13). 
A  similar  play  occurs  in  the  blessing  of  Moses  (Deut. 
xxxiii,  24).  Gad  was  Zilpah's  other  and  elder  son, 
but  the  fortunes  of  the  brothers  were  not  at  all  con- 
nected. Asher  had  four  sons  and  one  daughter  (Gen. 
xlix,  20 ;  Deut,  xxxiii,  24). 

Tbibe  of  Asher.— Of  the  tribe  descended  from 
Asher  no  action  is  recorded  during  the  whole  course  of 
the  sacred  history.  Its  name  is  found  in  the  various 
lists  of  the  tribes  which  occur  throughout  the  earlier 
books,  as  Gen.  xxxv,  xlvi,  Exod.  i,  Num.  i,  ii,  xiii, 
etc.,  and  like  the  rest,  Asher  sent  his  chief  as  one  of 
the  spies  from  Kadesh-barnea  (Num.  xiii).  During 
the  march  through  the  desert  his  place  was  between 
Dan  and  Naphtali,  on  the  north  side  of  the  tabernacle 
(Num.  ii,  27) ;  and  after  the  conquest  he  took  up  his 
allotted  position  without  any  special  mention.  On 
quitting  Egypt  th"  number  of  adult  males  in  the  tribe 
of  Asher  was  41,500,  which  made  it  the  ninth  of  the 
tribes  (excluding  Levi)  in  numbers — Ephraim,  Manas- 
seh,  and  Benjamin  only  being  below  it.  But  before 
entering  Canaan  an  increase  of  11,900 — an  addition 
exceeded  only  by  Manasseh — raised  the  number  to 
53,400,  and  made  it  the  fifth  of  the  tribes  in  population 
(comp.  Num.  i,  40,  41 ;  xxvi,  47).  The  genealogy  of 
the  tribe  appears  in  some  instances  to  have  been  pre- 
served till  the  time  of  Christ  (Luke  ii,  36,  "Aser"). 

The  limits  of  the  territory  assigned  to  Asher  are, 
like  those  of  all  the  tribes,  and  especially  of  the  north- 
ern tribes,  extremely  difficult  to  trace.  This  is  partly 
owing  tn  our  ignorance  of  the  principle  on  which  these 
ancient  boundaries  were  drawn  and  recorded,  and  part- 
ly from  the  absence  of  identification  of  the  majority  of 
the  places  named.'  The  general  position  of  the  tribe 
was  on  the  sea-shore  from  Carmel  northward,  with 
Manasseh  on  the  south,  Zebulun  and  Issachar  on  the 
south-east,  and  Naphtali  on  the  north-cast  (Josephus, 
An/,  v,  1,  22).  The  boundaries  and  towns  are  given 
in  Josh.  xix.  24-31;  xvii,  Id,  11;  and  Judg.  i,  31,  32. 
From  a  comparison  of  these  passages  it  seems  plain 
that  Dor  (Tantura)  must  have  been  just  without  the 
limit-  of  the  tribe,  in  which  case  the  southern  boun- 
dary wa-  probably  on.'  of  the  streams  which  enter  the 
Mediterranean  north  of  that  place,  apparently  the  em- 
bouchure of  Wady  Milium.  Crossing  the  promontory 
of  Carmel,  the  tribe  then  possessed  the  maritime  con- 
tinuation of  tin'  rich  plain  of  Esdraelon,  probably  for 

a  distan if  live  or  >i\  miles  from  the  shore.     The 

bound  trj  then  ran  northward  from  the  valley  of  Jiph- 
thah-el  (Jefat)  to  thai  of  the  Leontes,  and  reaching 
Zidi.u.it  turned  and  came  down  by  Tyre  to  Achzih 
(Ecdippa,  now  es-ZiV).  See  Tribe.  It  is  usually 
stated  that  tie-  whole  of  the  Phoenician  territories,  in- 
cluding Sidon,  were  assigned  to  this  tribe  (comp.  Jo- 
Bephus,  An/,  v.  1.  22;  see  Reland,  Palaxt.  p.  ."» 7 r>  sq.). 
But  there  are  various  considerations  which   militate 


against  this  conclusion  (see  the  Pictorial  Bible,  Num. 
xxvi,  24 ;  Josh,  xix,  24 ;  Judg.  i,  31),  and  tend  to  show 
that  the  assigned  frontier-line  was  drawn  out  to  the 
sea  south  of  Sidon.  The  strongest  text  for  the  inclu- 
sion of  Sidon  (Tyre  was  not  then  founded)  is  that  in 
which  it  is  mentioned  to  the  reproach  of  the  Asherites, 
that  they  did  not  drive  out  the  Sidonians  (Judg.  i,  31). 
This  Michaelis  is  disposed  to  reject  as  an  interpolation  ; 
but  Kitto  (Pict.  Bib.  in  loc.)  conceives  it  to  denote  that 
the  Asherites  were  unable  to  expel  the  Sidonians,  who 
by  that  time  had  encroached  southward  into  parts  of 
the  coast  actually  assigned  to  the  Asherites;  and  he 
strengthens  this  by  referring  to  the  subsequent  founda- 
tion of  Tyre,  as  evincing  the  disposition  of  the  Sido- 
nians to  colonize  the  coast  south  of  their  own  proper 
territories.  The  Asherites  were  for  a  long  time  unable 
to  gain  possession  of  the  territories  actually  assigned 
them,  and  "dwelt  among  the  Canaanites,  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  land"  (Judg.  i,  32);  and,  "as  it  is  not 
usual  to  say  of  a  larger  number  that  it  dwells  among 
the  smaller,  the  inference  is  that  they  expelled  but 
comparatively  few  of  the  Canaanites,  leaving  them,  in 
fact,  a  majority  of  the  population"  (Bush,  note  on 
Judg.  i,  32).     See  Sidon. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  places  within  this  tribe 
that  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  with  the  modern  lo- 
calities to  which  they  appear  to  correspond.  Such  of 
the  latter  as  have  not  been  identified  by  any  traveller 
are  enclosed  in  brackets  : 


Abdon. 

Town. 

Abdeh. 

Aceho. 

do. 

A  /.  ka. 

Achshaph. 

do. 

Kesaf. 

Achzih. 

do. 

Es-Zib. 

Ahlab. 

do. 

[Athlit]?' 

Alnmmelech. 

do. 

[El-Habaji]1 

Aloth. 

District, 

See  Bealoth. 

Amad. 

Town. 

[.!?»«/]? 

Aphek  or  Aphik. 

do. 

[Tell  Kismql 

Bealoth. 

District. 

[PI.  of  Akka]  ? 

Beten. 

Town. 

El-Baneh. 

Beth-dagon. 

do. 

[Hajeljl 

Beth-enuk. 

do. 

A  mka. 

CabuL 

do. 

Kabul. 

Carmel. 

Mountain. 

Jebel  Mar-Elias. 

llali. 

Town. 

A  Ha. 

Ilnnimon. 

do. 

Hawaii 

Hebron. 

do. 

See  AnnoN. 

Ilelbah. 

do. 

[Ilaifi,]  f 

llelkath. 

do. 

Ukritli  t 

Hosah. 

do. 

[El-Ghaziyeh]1 

Jiphthah-cL 

Valley. 

Wady  AbilinT 

Kan  all. 

Town. 

Kama. 

Eishon. 

Brook. 

A'alir  Mukatta. 

Mashal  or  Mishal.  Town.  Misalli. 

MeieL  do.  [Eistav]t 

l'ti.l.  nir.i-'.  do.  See  Aocno. 

Ramah.  do.  Rarru  It. 

Rehob  (Josh,  xix,  30).  do.  [Tell  Kurtiani  ]  ? 

Ii.  hob  (Josh,  xix,  '2S).  do.  [/iezieA]  ? 

Sbibor-libnath.  River.  [ Wady  Milheh]  ? 

Ummah.  Town.  Alum'? 

Zebulon.  do.  A  Win  ? 

This  territory  contained  some  of  the  richest  soil  in 
all  Palestine  (Stanley,  p.  265 ;  Kenrick,  Phan.  p.  35), 
and  in  its  productiveness  it  well  fulfilled  the  promise 
involved  in  the  name  "Asher,"  and  in  the  blessings 
which  had  been  pronounced  on  him  by  Jacob  and  ly 
Moses.  Here  was  the  oil  in  which  he  was  to  "  dip  his 
foot,"  the  "bread"  which  was  to  be  "fat,"  and  the 
"  royal  dainties"  in  which  he  was  to  indulge  (for  the 
crops,  see  Robinson,  new  ed.  of  Researches,  iii,  102; 
for  the  oil,  Kenrick,  p.  31  ;  Belaud,  p.  817)  ;  and  here 
in  the  metallic  manufactures  of  the  Phoenicians  (Ken- 
rick, p.  38)  were  the  "  iron  and  brass"  for  his  "shoes." 
The  Phoenician  settlements  were  even  at  that  early 
period  in  full  vigor  (Zidon  was  then  distinguished  by 
the  name.  Kabbah  =  "the  Strong,"  Josh,  xix,  28); 
and  it  is  not  surprising  that  Asher  was  soon  contented 
to  partake  their  luxuries,  and  to  "dwell  among  them" 
without  attempting  the  conquest  and  extermination 
enjoined  in  regard  to  all  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  i,  31, 
32).  Accordingly  he  did  not  drive  out  the  inhabitants 
of  Aceho,  nor  Dor  (Sept.  adds  this  name),  nor  Zidon, 
nor  Ahlab,  nor  Aehzib,  nor  Helbah,  nor  Aphik,  nor 


ASHER 


/SBeST-D-a'apn  ?  \\ 

MANAS  S EH      » 


"^  Scale  of  Miles 

60  to  aDiyrec 


Map  of  the  Tribe  of  Asher. 
Rehob  (Judg.  i,  31),  all  which  seem  to  have  been  in 
the  shore-strip  preoccupied  by  the  Phoenicians,  and 
the  natural  consequence  of  this  inert  acquiescence  is 
immediately  visible.  While  Zebulun  and  Naphtali 
"jeoparded  their  lives  unto  the  death"  in  the  struggle 
against  Sisera,  Asher  was  content  to  forget  the  peril 
of  his  fellows  in  the  creeks  and  harbors  of  his  new 


ASHERAH 

allies  (Judg.  v,  17,  18).  At  the  numbering  of  Israel 
at  Sinai,  Asher  was  more  numerous  than  either  Ephra- 
im,  Manasseh,  or  Benjamin  (Num.  i,  32-41),  but  in 
the  reign  of  David,  so  insignificant  had  the  tribe  be- 
come, that  its  name  is  altogether  omitted  from  the  list 
of  the  chief  rulers  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  16-22)  ;  and  it  is 
with  a  kind  of  astonishment  that  it  is  related  that 

I  "divers  of  Asher  and  Manasseh  and  Zebulun"  came 

I  to  Jerusalem  to  the  Passover  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron. 
xxx,  11).     With  the  exception  of  Simeon,  Asher  is 

j  the  only  tribe  west  of  the  Jordan  which  furnished  no 
hero  or  judge  to  the  nation.  "  One  name  alone  shines 
out  of  the  general  obscurity — the  aged  widow,  '  Anna, 
the  daughter  of  Phanuel  oi  the  tribe  of  Aser,'  who,  in 

j  the  very  close  of  the  history,  departed  not  from  the 
Temple,  but  'served  God  with  fastings  and  prayers 

■  night  and  day'  "  (Stanley,  Palest,  p.  261). 

{  The  inhabitants  of  the  tribe  were  also  called  Asher- 
ites (lieb.  Asheri' ,  ^rx,  Sept.  iv  'Aai/p,  Judg.  i,  32). 
2.  A  city  on  the  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
near  Michmethah  and  east  of  Shechem  (Josh,  xvii,  7) ; 
according  to  Eusebius  (Onomast.  s.  v.  A<r»/p)  a  village 
15,  according  to  the  Itin.  Hieros.,  9  Roman  miles  from 
Shechem.  toward  Scythopolis,  near  the  highway.    This 

I  position  nearly  corresponds  to  that  of  the  modern  vil- 
lage Yasir,  containing  ruins,  about  half  way  between 

)  Nablous  and  Beisan  (Van  de  Veldc,  Memoir,  p.  289)  ; 
the  Teyasir  suggested  by  Porter  (Hundb.  p.  348). 

]  3.  A  city  in  Galilee  near  Thesbe  (Tobit  i,  2,  Engl. 
Vers.  "  Aser"),  possibly  a  corruption  for  Hazor  (q.  v.), 

[  a  cit}'  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (see  Fritzsche,  Comment. 

|  in  loc),  or  perhaps  identical  with  the  foregoing  place. 

Asherah  (nyzii,  As/terah';  Auth.Vers.  "grove," 
after  the  Sept.  dXaog;  Vulg.  Incus),  a  Canaanitish 
(Phoenician)  divinity,  whose  worship,  in  connection 
with  that  of  Baal,  spread  among  the  Israelites  already 
in  the  age  of  the  judges  (Judg.  iii,  7;  vi,  25),  was 
more  permanently  establish,  d  later  by  the  Queen  Jez- 
ebel in  the  land  of  Ephraim  (1  Kings  xvi,  33 ;  xviii, 
19),  but  at  times  prevailed  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
also  (2  Kings  xviii,  4;  xxi,  3;  xxiii,  4;  2  Chron. 
xxxi,  1  sq.).  See  Grove.  She  had  prophets,  like  Baal 
(1  Kings  xviii,  19),  and  her  rites  were  characterized 
by  licentiousness  (2  Kings  xxiii,  7 ;  Ezek.  xxiii,  42). 
Her  images,  CHUX,  or  n'lCX,  were  of  wood  (Judg. 
vi,  26),  (as  appears  ever  from  the  words  used  to  ex- 
press their  annihilation,  Gcsen.  Tkes.  p.  162  ;  Movers, 
Pfioniz.  p.  567),  which  were  erected  sometimes  together 
with  those  of  Baal,  as  Otoi  ovfifiu/ioi,  over  the  altar 
of  the  latter  (Judg.  vi,  25) ;  at  one  time  even  in  the 
Temple  of  Jehovah  at  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xxi,  7; 
xxiii,  6);  besides,  there  is  mention  of  C"Fi2  (houses), 
tents  or  canopies,  woven  by  the  women  for  the  idol 
(2  Kings  xxiii,  7),  which  circumstance  in  itself  would 
be  indicative  of  a  connection  with  the  worship  of  Baal 
(Judg.  iii,  7 ;  vi,  25 ;  1  Kings  xvi,  32  sq.  ;  xviii,  19). 
That  Asherah  is  an  identical  divinity  with  Astoreth 
or  Astarte  is  evident  from  the  translation  of  the  Sept. 
at  2  Chron.  xv,  16 ;  xxiv,  18,  from  that  of  Symmachus 
or  Aquila  at  Judg.  iii,  7 ;  2  Kings  xvii,  10  (as  also 
from  the   Syriac  at  Judg.  iii,  7;  vi,  25;    see  Gesen. 

j  Thes.  p.  16".);  and  this  was  the  prevailing  opinion  of 
the  Biblical  antiquarians  up  to  Movers,  who  (/  tenia. 

i  p.  560)  thinks  that  Asherah  should  be  distinguished 
from  Astoreth,  and  declares  Asherah  to  be  a  sort  of 
Phallus  erected  to  the  telluric  goddess  Baaltis  (Dea 

;  Syra,  whence   the   goddess   herself  was  then   called 

j  Asherah,  i.  e.  opOUi),  while  Astarte  should  be  consider- 
ed a  sidereal  divinity.  See  Astarte.  It  may  appear 
strange   that   the  same  divinity  is  mentioned  under 

j  two  names  in  the  historical  books  of  the  0.  T.,  and  it 
remains  doubtful  in  what  sense  Astarte  mi.ulit  have 
been  called  Asherah  ;  the  identity  of  the  two  idols, 
however,  is  evident  from  Judg.  ii,  13  (see  iii,  7);  and 
this  invalidates  also  the  objection  that  there  is  no  men- 


ASHERITE 


460 


ASHDIA 


tion  of  obscene  rites  in  tho  worship  of  Astarte  (2  Kings 
xxiii,  7).  It  does  not  appear  from  2  Kings  xxiii,  that 
Asherah  and  Astoreth  were  two  distinct  divinities, 
for  the  only  distinction  made  here  is  between  the  dif- 
ferent places  of  worship;  ver.  G  mentions  an  Asherah 
erected  in  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem  (see  2  Kings  xxi, 
7).  and  ver.  13  speaks  of  the  idols  which  were  on  the 
high-places  before  Jerusalem  (since  the  times  of  Solo- 
mon ?  see  1  Kings  xi,  7) ;  ver.  14  is  connected  with 
ver.  13,  and  treats  of  the  same  idols,  while  ver.  15  re- 
fers tn  another  locality  (see  2  Kings  xxiii,  10).  Final- 
ly, though  Asherah  is  never  expressly  called  a  Sido- 
ni.in  divinity  like  Astarte,  yet  she  is  mentioned  (1 
Kings  xvi,  33;  xviii,  19)  with  the  idols  introduced  by 
Jezebel  (see  De  Wette,  Archiiol.  p.  323  sq.).  Hence 
Bertheau  (JRichi.  p.  G6  sq.)  declares  himself  also  in 
favor  of  the  identity  of  Astoreth  with  Asherah,  sup- 
posing, however,  that  the  former  might  have  been  tli3 
name  of  the  goddess,  and  the  latter  that  of  her  idol 
(see  Movers,  p.  565),  and  agrees  with  Movers  in  think- 
ing that  i"H2J5$  signifies  erect  (pillar),  and  is  indica- 
tive of  the  Phallus  worship.  But  though  Asherim 
and  Asheroth  are  so  often  mentioned  separately  from 
statues  that  we  could  hardly  think  these  terms  to 
have  been  used  likewise  to  signify  carved  idols,  but 
are  rather  inclined  to  suppose  the}'  must  have  been 
something  more  rough  and  simple  (though,  perhaps, 
not  a  mere  tree,  as  in  Deut.  xvi,  21 ;  see  Dan.  xi,  45) ; 
yet  from  this  it  does  not  follow  that  the  word  should 
originally  have  signitied  the  (wooden)  fetish;  and 
against  the  translation  with  recta  we  might  adduce, 
that  to  be  erect  is  more  properly  expressed  in  the  He- 
brew by  the  verb  Tr^  than  by  "I'JX  ;  and  if  we  would 
grant  the  above  distinction  in  such  passages  as  1  Kings 
xviiii,  19;  2  Kings  xxiii,  4,  undoubtedly  fijffiZW 
should  have  been  written.  Consequently  we  must 
let  tho  Phallus  character  of  Asherah  also  rest  as  it  is ; 
and  until  more  correct  explanations  can  be  given,  we 
must  be  content  with  the  result  that  Asherah  is  essen- 
tially identical  with  Astarte ;  and  both  these  are  not 
differing  from  the  Syrian  goddess,  whose  rites  were 
of  obscene  character,  who  is  certainly  reflected  in  tho 
Cyprian  Aphrodite,  and  is  furthermore  blended  with 
the  Western  mythological  representations.  (See  J. 
van  Yperen,  Obs.  crlt.  de  sacrls  quibusd.  fluvialibus  et 
Ash  m  tin.  in  the  Ilibl.  Hagan.iv,  81-122;  Gesenius, 
Comment,  z.  Jesa.  ii,  338;  Stuhr,  Relig.  d.  Orients,  p. 
439;  Vatke,  Relig.  d.  Alt-Test.  p.  372;  Dupuis,  Origm 
d.  cultes,  i,  181 ;  iii,  471 ;  Schwenk,  Mythol.  d.  Semiten, 
]>.  207;  comp.  Augustine,  De  civ.  Dei,  iv,  10;  ii,  3.) 
— Winer,  s.  y.     See  Ashtoketh. 

Ash'erite  (Judg.  i,  32).     See  Asher. 

Ashes  (properly  1SX,  e'pher,  from  its  whiteness, 
(TirodoQ;  twice  "1SS,  aphar',  Num.  xix,  17;  2  Kings 
xxiii,  1,  elsewhere  "dust;"  also  yiH,  de'shen,  \\t.  fat- 
ness, i.  c.  the  fat  ashes  from  the  victims  of  the  altar, 
Lev.  i,  16;  iv,  12;  vi,  10, 11;  1  Kings  xiii,  3,  5;  or  of 
corpses  burnt,  Jer.  xxxi,  40,  ashes  being  used  as  a 
manure  for  land,  Plin.  xvii,  9.  In  1  Kings  xx,  38,  41, 
"X  apher,  incorrectly  rendered  "ashes,"  signifies 
a  covering  for  the  head  or  turban,  Sept.  rtXa/itov,  and 
80  ''"•  (  h  'Wee  ami  Ahulwalid  represent  it  by  this  lat- 
ter word,  which  in  Syriac  means  a  priestly  tiara  ;  New 
Tost.  airoSoi  ).     See  Ash-cake. 

In  general,  respecting  the  Biblical  mention  of  ashes 
CjSn,  •/  'sh  n;  ~z\.  e'pher),  the  following  things  de- 
B*ve  QOtice:  (1.)  As  the  ashes  of  the  sacrifices  con- 
Mimed  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings  accumulated 
continually  (Lev.  vi,  :;  Bq.),  they  were  from  time  to 
time  removed  go  as  to  cleanse  (V»B-J)  the  altar.  For 
this  purpose  there  were  in  the  sanctuary  -hovels  (D"iS  •) 
and  ash-pots  (ri^-p)  of  hra-s,  Kxod.  xxvii,  3;  xxxviii, 
3).  The  performance  of  this  ofiice  (by  the  priests)  is 
not  prescribed  in  the  law;  but,  according  to  the  Mish- 


na  {Tamil,  i  and  ii),  tho  scouring  of  the  altar  was  as- 
signed by  lot  to  a  priest,  who,  after  the  top  of  the  altar 
had  been  cleared  of  coals,  etc.,  swept  the  ashes  togeth- 
er into  a  heap  (TOBt-l,  apple,  from  its  shape),  and  (ac- 
cording to  the  rabbins)  took  the  greatest  part  of  it 
away  (for  some  of  the  ashes  must  always  be  allowed  to 
remain),  in  order  that  they  might  be  carried  out  of  the 
city  to  a  spot  undisturbed  by  the  wind.  Only  on  high 
festivals  the  ashes  were  suffered  to  lie  upon  the  altar 
as  an  ornament  (Mishna,  Tamid,  ii,  2).  Also  upon  the 
altar  of  incense  ashes  gradually  accumulated  ;  and  the 
removal  of  these  was  likewise  apportioned  among  the 
priests  by  lot.  The  priest  to  whom  this  function  fell 
gathered  them  in  a  basket,  and  then,  after  another 
priest  had  used  a  part  in  cleansing  the  candlestick, 
carried  out  and  poured  the  contents  on  the  floor  of  the 
porch  (Mishna,  Tamid,  iii,  9;  vi,  1;  i,  4).  See  Al- 
tar. (2.)  On  the  expiatory  ashes  of  the  red  heifer 
(1£X,  Num.  xix),  see  Purification.  (3.)  In  deep 
affliction  persons  were  accustomed,  as  an  act  suitable 
to  the  violence  of  internal  emotions,  to  scatter  dust  or 
ashes  ("EX)  on  their  heads  or  in  their  hair,  and  to  sit, 
or  lie,  or  even  roll  in  ashes,  whence  ashes  became  the 
symbol  of  penitential  mourning  (Job  xlii,  0 ;  Matt. 
xi,  21).  See  Grief.  The  Mishna  (Taamith,  ii,  1) 
mentions  a  custom  of  covering  the  ark  that  contained 
the  law  with  ashes  on  fast-days,  and  the  rabbins  even 
allude  to  a  ceremonial  sprinkling  of  persons  with  ashes 
on  the  same  occasions  (see  Bartenora,  on  Taamith  ii). 
(See  generally  Reinhard,  De  sacco  et  cmere,  Vitemb. 
1698;  Plade,  De  c'.neris  usu  lugentibus,  Hafn.  1713; 
Schmid,  De  cinerum,  in  sacris  usu,  Lips.  1722 ;  Carpzov, 
Cinerum  up.  Heb.  usus,  Post.  1739 ;  Quanat,  Be  cinere 
in  sacris  Ilebr.  Regiom.  1713;  Goetze,  De  cinerum  in 
sacris  usu,  Lips.  1722.)  (4.)  The  ancient  Persians  had 
a  punishment  which  consisted  in  executing  certain 
criminals  by  stifling  them  in  ashes  (Valerius  Maximus, 
ix,  2).  Thus  the  wicked  Menelaus  was  despatched, 
who  caused  the  troubles  which  had  disquieted  Judaja 
(2  Mace,  xiii,  5,  6),  being  thrown  headlong  into  a  tower 
lift)'  cubits  deep,  which  was  filled  with  ashes  to  a  cer- 
tain height.  The  action  of  the  criminal  to  disengage 
himself  plunged  him  still  deeper  in  the  whirling  ashes  ; 
and  this  agitation  was  increased  by  a  wheel,  which 
kept  them  in  continual  movement  till  he  was  entirely 
choked. — Winer.     Soe  Execution. 

Ashes  were  a  symbol  of  human  frailty  (Gen.  xviii, 
27);  of  deep  humiliation  (Esth.  iv,  1;  Jon.  iii,  G; 
Matt,  xi,  21;  Luke  x,  13;  Job  xlii,  G;  Jer.  vi,  2G; 
Dan.  ix,  3) ;  a  ceremonial  mode  of  purification  (Ileb. 
ix,  13;  Num.  xix,  17);  they  are  likened  to  hoar-frost 
(Psa.  cxlvii,  16).  In  Ezek.  xxvii,  30,  we  find  the 
mourning  Tyrians  described  as  wallowing  in  ashes; 
and  we  may  remark  that  the  Greeks  had  the  like  cus- 
tom of  strewing  themselves  with  ashes  in  mourning 
(Homer,  Iliad,  xviii,  22;  Odyss.  xxiv,  315;  comp.  Vir- 
gil, Jin.  x,  844,  and  Ovid"s  Mctam.  viii,  528):     Job  ii, 

8,  "And  he  sat  down  among  the  ashes."  So  Ulysses 
in  Odyssey,  vii,  153  (see  also  Iliad,  xviii,  26).     Psa.  cii, 

9,  "  I  have  eaten  ashes  like  bread,  and  mingled  my 
drink  with  weeping,"  i.  e.  I  have  eaten  the  bread  of 
humiliation,  and  drunk  the  water  of  affliction  ;  ashes 
being  the  emblem  of  the  one,  and  tears  the  conse- 
quence of  the  other  (see  Home,  w  loc).  So  Isa.  lxi, 
3,  "A  beautiful  crown  instead  of  ashes"  (sec  Lowth's 
note).  See  2  Sam.  xiv,  2  ;  Judith  x,  3.  Isa.  xliv,  20, 
"  lie  feedeth  on  ashes."  i.  e.  on  that  which  affords  no 
nourishment;  a  proverbial  expression  for  using  in- 
effectual means,  and  bestowing  labor  to  no  purpose. 
In  the  same  sense  Hosea  says  (xii,  1),  "  Ephraim  feed- 
eth on  wind"  (see  Lowth,  in  loc).     See  Mourning. 

Ash'ima  (Heb.  Ashima,  X^dX,  etymology  un- 
known ;  Sept.  'Aaipah),  is  only  once  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  as  the  god  of  the  people  of  Hamath, 
whose  worship  the  colonists  settled  by  Shalmanezer 
introduced   into   Samaria  (2  Kings   xvii,   30).      Tho 


ASHKELOX 


461 


ASHKELOX 


Babylonian  Talmud,  in  the  treatise  Sanhedrin  (cited 
in  Carpzov's  Apparatus,  p.  51G),  and  the  majority  of 
Jewish  writers  (see  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  236),  as- 
sert that  Ashima  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a 
goat  without  wool;  the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  (Carpzov, 
ib.)  says  under  that  of  a  lamb.  Elias  Levita,  a  learn- 
ed rabbi  of  the  sixteenth  century,  assigns  the  word  the 
sense  of  ape ;  in  which  he  was,  in  all  probability,  de- 
ceived by  the  resemblance  in  sound  to  the  Latin  simia. 
Jurieu  and  Calmet  have  proposed  other  fanciful  con- 
jectures. Aben  Ezra's  ascription  {Prof,  ad  Esth.)  of 
the  name  to  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  at  Gen.  i,l,  may 
be  seen  in  Hottinger's  Exercit.  Antimorin.  p.  40.  The 
opinion,  however,  that  this  idol  had  the  form  of  a  goat 
appears  to  be  the  one  best  supported  by  arguments  as 
well  as  by  authorities  (see  Sevrl'.rih,  Systema  astron. 
p.  154  sq.).  This  agrees  with  the  Egyptian  worship 
of  Pan  (see  Selden,  De  diis  Syr.  p.  327,  305  sq.),  as 
well  as  the  appearance  of  the  goat  among  the  sacred 
animals  delineated  on  the  Babylonian  relics  (Millin, 
Monumens  inedits,  i,  tab.  8,  9).  Some  have  compared 
the  Samaritan  Ashmath  (r-'I.:X)  of  Deut.  xiv,  5  (see 
Castell,  Annot.  <Samar.~),  a  kind  of  buck.  Barkey,  on 
the  other  hand  (in  the  Biblioth.  Brem.  nov.  I,  i,  125 
sq. ;  II,  iii,  572  sq.),  refers  to  the  Phoenician  god  Es- 
mun  {Ea/iovvog,  Damasc.  in  Photii  Biblioth.  p.  242, 
573;  in  Phoenician  "J "'i'X,  Gesenius,  Monum.  Phan.  i, 
136),  corresponding  to  the  god  of  health,  the  Greek 
yEseulapius  (see  Movers,  Phoniz.  i,  5i9  sq.).  Hiller 
{Onomast.  p.  G09)  proposes  a  Semitic  etymology  from 
the  Arabic  asamat,  a  title  of  the  lion  applied  to  the 
sun;  and  Lette  (in  the  Biblioth.  Brem.  ncv.  I,  i,  60  sq.) 
compares  Asam,  the  Arabic  name  for  a  valley  or  river 
of  the  infernal  regions.  Gesenius  {Comment,  ub.  Jesa. 
ii,  348)  refers  to  Ashuma,  or  the  genius  (star)  of  Jupi- 
ter (the  heaven),  i.  e.  Mercury,  of  the  Zend-Avesta 
{Bundehesh,  iii,  66) ;  but  against  this  Kleuker  (in  loc.) 
objects  that  in  the  Paris  edition  (ii,  356)  the  name  is 
Anhouma.  (See  Schulde,  De  Asima  Hamathceor.  idolo, 
Viteb.  1722.) 

Ash'kelon  (Heb.  Ashkelon',  *fb*£'d*A,  prob.  mi- 
gration [the  usual  form  would  be  PpiaSt,  Ashkal;  Ro- 
diger  (in  Gesenius,  Thes.  p.  1476)  suggests  that  the 
uncommon  termination  is  a  Philistine  form];  Sept. 
and  Josephus,  »)  ' kvKaXuv  ;  Auth.  Vers.  "  Askelon," 
in  Judg.  i,  18 ;  1  Sam.  vi,  17  ;  2  Sam.  i,  20  ;  the  As- 
calon  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  and  mediaeval  writ- 
ers), a  city  of  the  Philistines,  and  the  seat  of  one  of 
their  five  states  (Judg.  xiv,  19  ;  1  Sam.  vi,  17  ;  2  Sam. 
i,  20),  but  less  often  mentioned,  and  apparently  less 
known  to  the  Jews  than  the  other  four.  This,  doubt- 
less, arose  from  its  remote  situation,  alone,  of  all  the 
Philistine  towns,  on  the  extreme  edge  of  the  shore  of 
the  Mediterranean  (Jer.  xlvii,  7),  and  also  well  down 
to  the  south.  Gaza,  indeed,  was  still  farther  south, 
but  then  it  was  on  the  main  road  from  Egypt  to  the 
centre  and  north  of  Palestine,  while  Ashkelon  lay  con- 
siderably to  the  left.  The  site  fully  bears  out  the 
above  inference  ;  but  some  indications  of  the  fact  may 
be  traced,  even  in  the  scanty  notices  of  Ashkelon 
which  occur  in  the  Bible.  Thus,  the  name  is  omitted 
from  the  list  in  Josh,  xv  of  the  Philistine  towns  fall- 
ing to  the  lot  of  Judah  (but  comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  v,  1, 
22,  where  it  is  specified),  although  Ekron,  Ashdod, 
and  Gaza  are  all  named  ;  and  considerable  uncertainty 
rests  over  its  mention  in  Judg.  i,  18  (sec  Bertheau  in 
Exetj.  Hand'),  in  loc).  Samson  went  down  from  Tim- 
nath  to  Ashkelon,  when  he  slew  the  thirty  men  and 
aook  their  spoil,  as  if  to  a  remote  place  whence  his  ex- 
ploit was  not  likely  to  be  heard  of;  and  the  only  other 
mention  of  it  in  the  historical  books  is  in  the  formu- 
listic  passages,  Josh,  xiii,  3,  and  1  Sam.  vi,  17,  and  in 
the  casual  notices  of  Jud.  ii,  £8;  1  Maec.  x,  86;  xi, 
60  ;  xii,  33.  The  other  Philistine  cities  are  each  dis- 
tinguished by  some  special  occurrence  or  fact  connect- 


ed with  it,  but  except  the  one  exploit  of  Samson,  Ash 
kelon  is  to  us  no  more  than  a  name.  In  the  poetical 
passage  2  Sam.  i,  20,  it  is  named  among  heathen  foes. 
The  inhabitants  were  called  Ashkelonites  (Heb.  Ash- 
keloni',  "Oibp/dX,  Sept.  'AaKaXioviTtjc,  Auth.  Vers. 
"  Eshkalonites,"  Josh,  xiii,  3). 

It  was  a  port  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  between 
Gaza  and  Jamnia  (Joseph.  War,  iv,  11,  5),  12  geogr. 
miles  N.  of  the  former,  10  S.  by  W.  from  Ashdod,  and 
37  W.S.W.  from  Jerusalem  (comp.  Reland,  Palast. 
p.  443).  Ashkelon  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(Josh,  xiii,  13 ;  comp.  Judg.  i,  18) ;  but  it  was  never 
for  any  length  of  time  in  possession  of  the  Israelites 
(comp.  1  Kings  iv,  24).  It  is  farther  mentioned  in 
the  denunciations  of  the  prophets  (Jer.  xxv,  20  ;  xlvii, 
5,  7  ;  Amos  i,  8  ;  Zeph.  ii,  4,  7  ;  Zech.  ix,  5).  The  part 
of  the  country  in  which  it  stood  abounded  in  aromatic 
plants  (Plin.  xii,  51),  and  especially  onions  (shallots, 
ascalonke,  Plin.  xix,  S2 ;  Strabo,  xvi,  759;  Athen.  ii, 
68;  Theophr.  Plant,  vii,  4;  Dioscor.  i,  124;  Colum. 
xii,  10),  and  vines  (Alex.  Trail,  viii,  3).  The  soil 
around  the  town  was  remarkable  for  its  fertility ;  the 
wine  of  Ashkelon  was  celebrated,  and  the  *1  l-henna 
plant  flourished  better  than  in  any  other  place  except 
Canopus  (Kenrick,  p.  28).  It  was  also  celebrated  for 
its  cypresses,  for  figs,  olives,  and  pomegranates,  and 
for  its  bees,  which  gave  their  name  to  a  valley  in  the 
neighborhood  (Ibn  Batuta  in  Eitter,  Paldstina,  88). 
It  was  well  fortified  (Joseph.  War,  iii,  21 ;  cemp. 
Mela,  i,  11),  and  early  became  the  seat  of  the  worship 
of  Derceto  (Diod.  Sic.  ii,  4),  the  Syrian  Venus,  whose 
temple  was  plundered  by  the  Scythians  (Herod,  i,  105). 
She  represented  the  passive  principle  of  nature,  and 
was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  a  fish  with  a  wom- 
an's head  (comp.  Ovid,  Fast,  ii,  406).-  See  Ater- 
gatis.  "The  sacred  doves  of  Venus  still  fill  with 
their  cooings  the  luxuriant  gardens  which  grow  in  the 
sandy  hollow  within  the  ruined  walls"  (Stanley,  p. 
257).  Alter  the  time  of  Alexander,  Ashkelon  shared 
the  let  of  Phoenicia  and  Judasa,  being  tributary  seme- 
times  to  Egypt  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  4,  5),  and  at  ether 
times  to  Syria  (1  Mace,  x,  86  ;  xi,  60  ;  xii,  33).  Herod 
the  Great  wr.s  born  at  Ashkelon,  and  although  the 
city  did  not  belong  to  his  dominion,  he  adorned  it  with 
fountains,  baths,  and  colonnades  {War,  i,  21,  11);  and 
after  his  death  Salome,  his  sister,  resided  in  a  palace 
at  Ashkelon  which  Cassar  bestowed  upon  her  {Ant. 
xvii,  11,  5).  It  suffered  much  in  the  Jewish  war  with 
the  Romans  {War,  ii,  18,  5;  iii,  2,  1-3);  for  its  in- 
habitants were  noted  for  their  dislike  of  the  Jews,  of 
whom  thej'  slew  2500  who  dwelt  there  (ii,  18,  5;  iii,  2, 
1).  After  this  Ashkelon  again  revived,  and  in  the 
Middle  Ages  was  noted  not  only  as  a  stronghold,  but 
as  a  wealth}-  and  important  town  (Will.  Tyr.  xvii, 
21).  In  the  fourth  century  it  was  the  see  of  a  bishop, 
but  in  the  seventh  century  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens.  Abulfeda  {Tab.  Syr.)  speaks  of  it  as  one 
of  the  famous  strongholds  of  Mohammedanism  ;  and 
the  Orientals  call  it  the  Bride  of  Syria  (Schultens,  In- 
dex Geogr.  s.  v. ;  Edrisi,  ed.  Jaubert,  i,  340).  It  shared 
with  Gaza  an  infamous  reputation  for  the  steadfast- 
ness of  its  heathenism  and  for  the  cruelties  there  prac- 
tised on  Christians  by  Julian  (Reland,  p.  588,  590). 
As  a  sea-port  merely  it  never  could  have  enjoyed  much 
advantage,  the  coast  being  sandy  and  difficult  of  ac- 
cess. There  is  no  bay  or  shelter  for  ships,  but  a  email 
harbor  toward  the  east  advanced  a  little  way  into  the 
town,  and  anciently  bore,  like  that  of  Gr.za,  the  name 
of  Majumas  (Kenrick,  p.  28).  In  the  time  of  Origen 
some  wells  of  remarkable  shape  were  shown  near  the 
town  which  were  believed  to  be  those  dug  by  Isaac, 
or,  at  any  rate,  to  be  of  the  time  of  the  patriarchs.  In 
connection  with  this  tradition  may  be  mentioned  the 
fact  that  in  the  Samaritan  version  of  Gen.  xx,  1,  2, 
and  xxvi,  1,  Ashkelon  CpbpO")  is  put  for  the  "  Gerar" 
of  the  Hebrew  text.     The  town  bears  a  prominent 


ASHKEXAZ 


462 


ASHPEXAZ 


part  in  the  history  of  the  Crusades  (see  Ibn  Ferath,  in  j 
Beinaud's  Extracts,  p.  525).  After  being  several  times 
dismantled  and  re-fortified  in  the  times  of  Saladin  and 
Richard,  its  fortifications  were  at  length  totally  de- 
stroyed by  the  Sultan  Bibars  A.D.  1270,  and  the  port 
filled  up  with  stones,  for  fear  of  future  attempts  on  the 
part  of  the  Crusaders  (Wilkin,  Gesck.  der  Kreuz.  vii, 
586  ).  This,  no  doubt,  sealed  the  ruin  of  the  place  (see 
Cellar.  Notit.  ii,  GOO  sq. ;  Rosenmuller,  Alterth.  II,  ii, 
377  sq.)-  Sandys  (Trarailes,  p.  151,  A.D.  1610)  de- 
scribes it  as  "now  a  place  of  no  note,  more  than  that 
the  Turke  doth  keepe  there  a  garrison."  Fifty  years 
after  (A.D.  1G60),  Von  Troilo  found  it  still  partially 
inhabited.  But  its  desolation  has  long  been  complete, 
and  little  now  remains  of  it  but  the  walls,  with  numer- 
ous fragments  of  granite  pillars  (Arvieux,  ii,  59 ;  Jo- 
liffe,  p.  270).  The  situation  is  described  as  strong; 
the  thick  walls,  flanked  with  towers,  were  built  on 
the  top  of  a  ridge  of  rock  that  encircles  the  town,  and 
terminates  at  each  end  in  the  sea  (Robinson's  Re- 
searches, ii,  368  note).  The  ground  within  sinks  in 
the  manner  of  an  amphitheatre  (Richardson,  ii,  202- 
204  ;  EH  Smith,  in  Missionary  Herald  for  1827,  p.  341). 
The  place  still  bears  the  name  of  Askulan,  and  is  in- 
habited by  Arabs  and  Christians  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p. 
120).  The  modern  village  is  a  little  north  of  the  old 
site,  and  the  houses  are  built  of  the  fragments  of  the 
ancient  city.  It  is  situated  in  a  cove  formed  by  a 
lofty  ridge  rising  abruptly  near  the  shore,  running  up 
eastward,  then  bending  to  the  south,  next  to  the  west, 
and  finally  to  the  north-west  again.  The  position, 
now  surrounded  with  desolate  ruins  of  its  former 
grandeur,  is  still  beautiful,  the  whole  interior  being 
planted  with  orchards  (Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  ii, 
327  sq.).    See  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 

Ash'kenaz  (Heb.  Ashkenaz' ',  t32'^3X,  signif.  un- 
known [comp.  Ashpenaz]  ;  Sept.  'A<TYav«£,  Gen.  x, 
3,  v.  r.  'Ao~xsv&Z  in  1  Chrun.  i,  6;  'Aa\avaZcuoi  v.  r. 
'.\\(ira^'-oi  in  Jer.  Ii,  27;  in  both  the  latter  passages 
Autli.  Vers.  "  Ashchenaz"),  the  first  named  of  the 
three  sons  of  Corner,  son  of  Japhet  (B.C.  cir.  2478), 
and  of  a  tribe  of  his  descendants.  In  Jeremiah  it  is 
placed  with  Ararat  and  Minni,  provinces  of  Armenia; 
whence  it  is  probable  that  Ashkenaz  was  a  province 
of  Armenia  (q.  v.),  or,  at  least,  that  it  lay  not  far  from 
it,  near  the  Caucasus,  or  toward  the  Black  Sea  (see  Ro- 
senmuller, Bill.  Geogr.  I,  i,  258).  Among  other  less 
probable  conjectures  may  bo  named  the  following: 
Bochart  (Phaleg,  iii,  9)  refers  it  to  the  lake  Ascanius 
in  Bithynia  (Strabo,  xii,  563  sq. ;  Plin.  v,  43;  xxxi, 
46,  2),  and  the  city  and  region  of  Ascania  in  Phrygia 
Minor  (Arrian,  Alex,  i,  30;  Plin.  v,  40;  see  Michaelis, 
Spicili  //.  i,  58  sq.)  ;  Calmet  to  the  Askanlians  at  Tanais 
and  tin-  marsh  Mseotis  (  Plin.  vi,  7,  where,  however,  the 
best  editions  read  "  Contacaptas"  for  "Ascanticos"); 
Schulthess  (Parad.  p.  178)  to  the  district  Astaunitis  (in 
the  vicinity  of  Ararat)  and  the  neighboring  city  of  As- 
tanaca.  IIa>se  <  Entdeck.  i,  19)  regards  the  word  as  a 
corruption  for  "  Pont  us  Axenus,"  so  as  to  designate  the 
inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Pontus  ;  Josephus  (Ant. 
i.  6,  1  i  merely  says  "Aschenaz  (  A.(j\ava'£oiS)  founded 
the  Aschanazians  CAaxava^ovg),  whom  the  Greeks 
now  call  Rhegians  ('Pjjyu/Ec) ;"  but  this  latter  name 
does  let  occur  in  classical  geography  (Joseph  Mede 
conjectures  the  Rhatians,  'Pjjnwc,  but  these  arc  as 
far  from  probability  as  tlie  supposition  of  the  modern 
Jews  that  the  Germans  are  meant,  see  Vater,  Com.  i, 
inn,.  TheTargum  of  Jonathan  understands  Adiabene 
f""1"1-'1  province  of  Assyria;  and  the  Arabic  in  Gen. 
tie-  Sclavi,  in  Jr.  the  inhabitants  near  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Assuming  thai  tic  Japhetic  tribes  migrated 
from  their  original  seats  westward  and  northward  [see 
Japhet],  thus  peopling  Asia  Minor  and  Europe,  we 
may  perhaps  recognise  the  tribe  of  Ashkenaz  (as  hav- 
ing migrated  along  the  northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor) 
in  Europe  in  the  name  Scand-ia,  Scand-inaxia.    Knobel 


(Yijlkertafd,  p.  35)  regards  the  word  as  a  compound 
(t:"U."N),  the  latter  element  being  equivalent  to  the 
Gr.  y'ivoc,  Lat.  gens,  genus,  Eng.  kind,  kin;  the  mean- 
ing, therefore,  being  the  ^4s-raee.  If  this  were  so,  it 
might  seem  that  we  here  find  the  origin  of  the  name 
Asia,  which  has  subsequently  been  extended  to  the 
whole  eastern  part  of  the  world.  The  slightness  of 
the  foundation,  however,  of  all  these  identifications  is 
evident.  The  opinion  of  Gcirres  (Volkertofel,  p.  92) 
that  Ashkenaz  is  to  be  identified  with  the  Cymry  or 
Gaelic  race  seems  even  less  probable  than  that  of 
Knobel.     See  Ethnology. 

Ashmead,  William,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
born  at  Philadelphia  in  1798,  and  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1818.  After  studying 
under  Dr.  J.  P.  Wilson,  he  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
1820.  He  labored  in  Lancaster  till  1828,  when  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Charleston,  S.C.,  and  entered  on  his 
duties  there  in  May,  1829.  Returning  to  the  north 
for  his  family,  he  was  taken  ill,  and,  after  one  or  two 
relapses,  died  at  Philadelphia,  Dec.  2,  1829.  He  was 
an  accomplished  scholar  and  a  devoted  minister.  Af- 
ter his  death  appeared  Sermons,  with  Sketch  of  Life 
(Philad.  1830,  8vo).— Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  643. 

Ashmun,  Jehudi,  agent  of  the  American  Coloni- 
zation Society,  was  born  at  Champlain,  N.  Y.,  in  April, 
1794.  He  was  educated  at  Burlington,  where  he  grad- 
uated in  1816.  Some  time  after  he  was  made  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  "  Maine  Charity  School,"  where  his  stay 
was  brief.  He  afterward  removed  to  the  District  of 
Columbia,  where  he  joined  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  and  edited  the  "Theological  Repertory."  Be- 
ing appointed  to  take  charge  of  a  re-enforcement  to  the 
colony  at  Liberia,  he  embarked  for  Africa  June  19, 1822, 
and  arrived  at  Cape  Vonser..do  August  8.  About  three 
months  after  his  arrival,  while  his  whole  force  was 
35  men  and  boys,  he  was  attacked  by  800  armed  sav- 
ages, but  by  his  energy  and  desperate  valor  the  assail- 
ants were  repulsed,  and  again,  in  a  few  days,  when 
they  returned  with  redoubled  numbers,  were  utterly 
defeated.  When  ill-health  compelled  him  in  1828  to 
take  a  voyage  to  America,  he  left  behind  him  in  Afri- 
ca a  community  of  1200  freemen.  He  died  at  New 
Haven  August  25,  1828.  He  was  a  person  of  great 
enemy  of  character,and  most  devoted  piety,  and  his 
services  to  the  infant  colony  were  invaluable. — Gurley, 
Life  of  Ash  mini  (Washington,  1835);  Quarterly  Chris- 
tian Spectator,  vii,  330;  North  Amer.  Rcvieio,  xli,  565. 

Ash'nah  (Heb.  Ashnah',  FtrrX,  fortified,  other- 
wise bright;  Sept.  'Aava),  the  name  of  two  cities,  both 
in  the  "plain"  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

1.  One  mentioned  between  Zornh  and  Zanoah 
(Josh,  xv,  33),  apparently  in  the  region  north  of  Eleu- 
theropolis  and  west  of  Jerusalem  (see  Keil,  Comment. 
in  loc),  and  near  the  boundary-line,  almost  within 
the  territory  afterward  assigned  to  Dan  (see  Josh, 
xix,  41),  and  probably  near  Beth-Shemesh,  possibly 
afr  the  site  of  the  modern  "large  village  Dew  Alma" 
(Robinson,  Researches,  new  ed.  iii,  154).  It  is  pi-oba- 
bly  the  Asan  (^Aaav)  or  Bethasan  (Qnfiaaa)  placed  by 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  at  15  or  16  Ro- 
man miles  west  of  Jerusalem. 

2.  Another  town,  certainly  in  Judah,  mentioned 
between  Jiphtah  and  Nezib  (Josh,  xv,  43);  apparent- 
ly in  the  region  immediately  south  and  east  of  Eleu- 
theropolis  (comp.  Keil,  Comment,  in  loc),  probably  not 
very  far  from  this  last;  possibly  the  present  licit  A  lam, 
a  ruined  village  on  a  low  mound  (Robinson.  /,'<  st  arch*  s, 
ii,  403).  Eusebius  and  Jerome  also  speak  of  an  A  ma 
(Aava,  Onomast.  s.  v.),  but  without  any  particulars. 

Ash'penaz  (Heb.  Ashpenaz',  T_33rN,  perh.  from 
Persic  and  Sanscrit  arnas,  horse,  and  nasa,  nose,  i.  q. 
"horse-nose;"  Sept.  'Aatpavic),  the  master  of  the  eu- 
nuchs, or,  rather,  one  of  the  principal  chamberlains  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  (B.C.  604),  who  was  commanded  to 


ASHRIEL 


463 


ASHTORETII 


select  certain  Jewish  captives  to  be  instructed  in  the 
literature  and  science  of  the  Chaldeans  (Dan.  i,  3). 
In  this  number  he  included  Daniel  and  his  three  com- 
panions, whose  Hebrew  names  he  changed  to  Chaldee 
(Dan.  i,  7).  Their  refusal  to  partake  of  the  provisions 
sjnt  from  the  monarch's  table  filled  Ashpenaz  with 
apprehension,  for  at  that  time,  as  in  our  days,  the  Asi- 
atic despots  frequently  punished  with  death  the  least 
infraction  of  their  will.  He  had,  however,  the  gene- 
rosity not  to  use  constraint  toward  them.  In  acceding 
to  the  request  of  Daniel,  Ashpenaz  had  every  thing  to 
apprehend ;  and  the  grateful  prophet  specially  records 
that  God  had  disposed  Ashpenaz  to  treat  him  with 
kindness  (ver.  8-16).     See  Daniel. 

Ash'riel  (1  Chron.  vii,  14).  See  Asriel. 
Ash'taroth  (Heb.  Ashtaroth',  Pli"lPiUJ?,  plur.  of 
Ashtoreth,  Josh,  ix,  10;  xii,  4;  xiii,  12,  31;  Sept.  'Aa- 
rapioS;  but  Auth.  Vers.  "Astaroth,"  in  Deut.  i,  4; 
Sept.  in  1  Chron.  vi,  71,  v.  r.  'Am/puSr  and  'PafiwB), 
a  city  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  in  Bashan,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Og,  doubtless  so  called  from  being  a  seat  of  the 
worship  of  the  goddess  of  the  same  name.  See  Ash- 
toreth. It  is  generally  mentioned  as  a  description 
or  definition  of  Og,  who  "dwelt  in  Astaroth  in  Edrei" 
(Deut.  i,  4),  "at  Ashtaroth  and  at  Edrei"  (Josh,  xii, 
4;  xiii,  12),  or  "who  was  at  Ashtaroth"  (ix,  10).  It 
fell  into  possession  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Josh, 
xiii,  31),  and  was  given  with  its  suburbs  or  surround- 
ing pasture-lands  (IS^El)  to  the  Gershonites  (1  Chron. 
vi,  71  [56]),  the  other  Levitical  city  in  this  tribe  being 
Golan.  In  the  list  in  Josh,  xxi,  27,  the  name  is  given 
as  Beeshterah  ("house  of  Ashtoreth;"  Belaud,  p. 
621).  Nothing  more  is  heard  of  Ashtaroth,  except  that 
Uzziah,  an  Ashterathite,  is  named  in  1  Chron.  xi,  44. 
It  is  not  named  in  any  of  the  lists,  such  as  those  in 
Chronicles,  or  of  Jeremiah,  in  which  so  many  of  the 
trans-Jordanic  places  are  enumerated  ;  and  hence  it  has 
usually  been  considered  the  same  with  the  place  else- 
where called  Ashteroth-Karnaim  (q.  v.).  Eusebius 
and  Jerome,  however  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Astaroth,  'Aara- 
pu>S),  mention  it  as  situated  6  Boman  miles  from  Adraa 
or  Adar  (Edrei),  which  again  was  25  from  Bostra ;  and 
the  former  adds  that  it  lay  on  higher  ground  (aviDTtpw) 
than  Ashteroth-karnaim,  which  they  farther  distin- 
guish by  stating  (in  the  next  art.)  that  there  were  two 
villages  (iciufiai,  castelki)  lying  9  miles  apart,  between 
Adara  and  Abila.  One  of  these  was  probably  that 
called  Ashtaroth  simply,  and  the  other  may  have  been 
Ashteroth-karnaim.  The  only  trace  of  the  name  j'et 
recovered  in  the  region  indicated  is  TeU-Ashterdh  or 
Asherah  (Bitter,  Erdk.  xv,  819;  Porter,  ii,  212);  and 
as  this  is  situated  on  a  hill,  it  would  seem  to  correspond 
to  the  Ashtaroth  in  question. — ^mith,  s.  v. 

Ash'terathite  (Heb.  AshteratW,  irnpidS1 ;  Sept. 
'AartpwSi),  an  epithet  of  Uzziah,  one  of  David's  braves 
(1  Chron.  xi,  44),  prob.  as  being  an  Ashtarothite,  or 
citizen  of  Ashtaroth  (q.  v.)  in  Bashan. 

Ash'teroth-Kar'naim  (Heb.  Ashteroth'  Kama- 
yim,  0^"lj5  r.nffr",  Ashtaroth  of  the  two  horns, 
from  the  horned  image  of  Ashtoreth,  Gen.  xiv,  5; 
Sept.  'AarapioS  [wii]  Kapvaiv),  a  place  of  very  great 
antiquity,  the  abode  of  the  Bephaim  at  the  time  of 
the  incursion  of  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv,  5),  while 
the  cities  of  the  plain  were  still  standing  in  their  oasis. 
Its  name  of  Ashtaroth  appears  to  be  derived  from  the 
worship  of  the  moon  under  that  name  [see  Astarte]  ; 
there  is  little  need  to  look  further  than  the  crescent 
of  that  luminary  and  its  symbolical  image  for  an  ex- 
planation of  the  addition  Karnaim,  "horned"  (San- 
choniathon,  in  Euseb.  Prop.  Ev.  i,  10;  ed.  Orelli,  p. 
35).  In  2  Mace,  xii,  21,  26,  mention  is  made  of  the 
temple  of  Atergatis  (Ashtoreth)  in  Camion  (Kapviov), 
which  is  described  as  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  dif- 
ficult access,  but  which  was  taken  by  Judas  Macca- 
bseus,  who  slew  25,000  of  the  people  therein.     The  I 


same  place  is  doubtless  that  called  C amain  (Kapv  air") 
in  1  Mace,  v,  43  (comp.  Kapva'tv,  Josephus,  Ant.  xii, 
8,  4).  These  notices,  however,  give  us  no  indication 
of  its  locality  beyond  its  being  in  "the  land  of  Galaad  ;" 
the  inference  of  Bitter  {Erdk.  xv,  822)  that  the  Car- 
nion  of  the  Apocrypha  was  in  a  narrow  valley,  is  not 
sustained  by  the  passages  themselves.  It  is  usually 
assumed  to  be  the  same  place  as  the  preceding  Ash- 
taroth, but  the  few  facts  that  can  be  ascertained  are 
all  against  such  an  identification.  (1.)  The  affix 
"  Karnaim,"  which  certainly  indicates  some  distinc- 
tion, and  which  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  as  quoted 
above,  appears  to  have  superseded  the  other  name. 
(2.)  The  fact  that  Eusebius  and  Jerome  in  the  Ono- 
masticon,  though  not  very  clear  on  the  point,  j-et  cer- 
tainly make  a  distinction  between  Ashtaroth  and 
A.-Carnaim,  describing  the  latter  (s.  v.  Kapvaii/t, 
Carnaim)  as  a  "large  village"  (icai/i?)  /.uytart)  ri)Q 
'Apa/ji'oc,  vicus  grandis  in  angulo  Batana;®).  (3.) 
Some  weight  is  due  to  the  rendering  of  the  Samaritan 
version,  and  of  the  Arabic  version  of  Saadiah,  which 
give  Ashtaroth  as  in  the  text,  but  A. -Karnaim  by  en- 
tirely different  names ;  the  former  rendering  it  Aphinith, 
which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  yet  recognised ; 
but  the  latter,  es-Sanamein,  apparently  meaning  the 
still  important  place  which  continues  to  bear  precisely 
the  same  name,  on  the  Haj  route,  about  c.'.b  miles  south 
of  Damascus,  and  to  the  N.W.  of  the  Lejah  (Burckh. 
p.  55 ;  Bitter,  Erdk.  xv,  812),  but  which  seems  to  be 
identical  with  another  place  [see  Aere],  and  is  too 
far  from  Edrei.  See  Ashtaroth.  Astaroth-Karnaim 
is  now  usually  identified  with  Mezareib,  the  situation 
of  which  corresponds  accurately  enough  with  the  dis- 
tances given  by  Eusebius  (Leake,  Preface  to  Burck- 
hardt's  Travels,  p.  xii).  Here  is  the  first  castle  on  the 
great  pilgrim  road  from  Damascus  to  Mecca.  It  was 
built  about  340  years  ago  by  the  Sultan  Selim,  and  is 
a  square  structure,  about  100  feet  on  each  side,  with 
square  towers  at  the  angles  and  iu  the  centre  of  each 
face,  the  walls  being  40  feet  high.  The  interior  is  an 
open  yard,  with  ranges  of  warehouses  against  the  cas- 
tle wall  to  contain  stores  of  provisions  for  the  pilgrims. 
There  are  no  dwellings  beyond  the  castle,  and  within 
it  only  a  few  mud  huts  upon  the  flat  roofs  of  the  ware- 
houses, occupied  by  the  peasants  who  cultivate  the 
neighboring  grounds.  Close  to  this  building  on  the 
north  and  east  side  are  a  great  number  of  springs, 
whose  waters  at  a  short  distance  collect  into  a  lake  or 
pond  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circumference.  In 
the  midst  of  this  lake  is  an  island,  and  at  an  elevated 
spot  at  the  extremity  of  a  promontory  advancing  into 
the  lake  stands  a  sort  of  chapel,  around  which  are 
many  remains  of  ancient  buildings.  There  are  no  oth- 
er ruins.  (Burckhardt,  Travels,  p.  241  sq. ;  Bucking- 
ham's Arab  Tribes,  p.  162  ;  Chesney,  Euphrat.  Exped. 
i,  511 ;  Capt.  Newbold,  in  the  Lond.  Geog.  Jour,  xvi, 
333;  comp.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  223,  236.)  See  also 
Ashtoreth;  Chalamish. 

Ashton,  Wm.  Easterly,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  May  18,  1793,  in  Philadelphia,  licensed  as  a 
preacher  in  1814,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Bap- 
tist Church  at  Hopewell,  N.  J.,  the  following  year. 
In  1816  he  removed  to  Blockley,  Philadelphia  count}', 
Pa.,  where  he  labored  successfully  for  seven  years. 
Mr.  Ashton  devoted  part  of  his  time  to  teaching,  estab- 
lishing a  female  school  in  Philadelphia,  which  soon 
became  very  popular.  In  1823  he  accepted  a  call 
from  the  third  Baptist  Church  in  Philadelphia,  which 
charge  he  held  till  the  year  before  his  death,  when 
disease  compelled  him  to  relinquish  it.  He  died  July 
26,  1836.— Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  631. 

Ash'toreth  (Heb.  Ashto'reth,  t-HvmS,  1  Kings 
xi,  5,  33;  2Kingsxxiii,13;  Sept.  'AaTc'tpri)'),  also  in  the 
plur.  ASH'TAKOTH  (Heb.  Ashtaroth',  m'lfil??, 
Sept.  in  Judg.  x,  6 ;  1  Sam.  vii,  4,  'AarapoiS  ;  in  Jndg. 
ii,  13,  at  'Aaraprcn  ;  in  1  Sam.  vii,  3 ;  xii,  10,  to.  uXcrij ; 


ASHTOKETH 


464 


ASHTORETH 


in  1  Sam.  xxxi,  10,  to  'AoTapriiov),  the  name 
of  a  goddess  of  the  Sidonians  (1  Kings  xi, 
5,  33),  and  also  of  the  Philistines  <  1  Sam. 
xxxi,  10),  whose  worship  was  introduced 
among  the  Israelites  during  the  period  of  the 
judges  (Judg.  ii,  13;  1  Sam.  vii,  4),  was  cele- 
lr.it. -d  by  Solomon  himself  (1  Kings  xi,  5), 
and  was  finally  put  down  by  Josiah  (2  Kings 
xxiii,  13).  She  is  frequently  mentioned  in 
connection  with  Baal,  as  the  corresponding  fe- 
male Ah  inity  (Judg.  ii,  13)  ;  and,  from  the  ;. 
dition  of  the  words  "and  all  the  host  of  hea 
en,"  in  2  Kings  xxiii,  4  [see  Asherah],  it 
probable  that  she  represented  one  of  the  celes- 
tial bodies.  There  is  also  reason  to  believe  th;.t  she  is  | 
meant  by  the  "queen  of  heaven,"  in  Jer.  vii,  18;  xliv,  | 
17;  whose  worship  is  there  said  to  have  been  solemnized 
by  burning  incense,  pouring  libations,  and  offering 
cakes.  Further,  by  comparing  the  two  passages  2  Kings 
xxiii,  4,  and  Jer.  viii,  2,  which  last  speaks  of  the  "  sun 
and  moon,  and  all  the  host  of  heaven,  whom  Un- 
served," we  may  conclude  that  the  moojjwas  worship- 
ped under  the  names  of  queen  of  heaven  and  of  Ash- 
toreth,  provided  the  connection  between  these  titles  is 
established.     See  Idolatry. 

The  worship  of  Astarte  was  very  ancient  and  very 
widely  spread.  AYe  find  the  plural  Ashtaroth  united 
with  the  adjunct  Karnaim,  as  the  name  of  a  city,  so 
early  as  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv,  5),  and  we 
read  of  a  temple  of  this  goddess,  apparently  as  the 
goddess  of  war,  among  the  Philistines  in  the  time  of 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxxi,  10).  From  the  connection  of  this 
goddess  with  Baal  or  Bf.l,  we  should,  moreover,  nat- 
urally conclude  that  she  would  be  found  in  the  Assyr- 
ian Pantheon,  and,  in  fact,  the  name  Ishtar  appears 
to  be  clearly  identified  in  the  list  of  the  great  gods  of 
Assvria  (Layard,  Nin.  and  Bab.  p.  352,  629  ;  Rawlin- 
son,"  Early  History  "/Babylon,  Lond.  1854,  p.  23  ;  Raw- 
linson,  Herodotus,  i,  634).  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
that  this  Assyrian  goddess  is  the  Ashtoreth  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  Astarte  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
The  worship  of  Astarte  seems  to  have  extended  wherev- 
er Phoenician  colonies  were  founded.  Thus  we  find 
her  name  in  inscriptions  still  existing  in  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Citium,  and  also  at 
Carthage  (Gesenius,  Mon.  I'han.  p.  125,  449),  and  not 
unfrequently  as  an  element  in  Phoenician  proper  names, 
as  "Aaraproc,  'Aftcaare'iproc,  AtXttaarapToc  (Joseph. 
Ap.  i,  18).  The  name  occurs,  moreover,  written  in 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  as  Astart  (Gesenius,  T/ies.  s.  v. 
For  evidence  of  her  wide-spread  worship,  see  also  Eck- 
hel,  Doct.  Num.  iii,  369  sq.).  It  is  worthy  of  remark 
that  Rodiger,  in  his  recently  published  Addenda  to 
Gesenius'  Thesaurus  (p.  106),  notices  that  in  the  in- 
scription on  the  sarcophagus  of  a  king  named  Esmuna- 
zar,  discovered  in  January,  1855  (see  Robinson,  Re- 
search's, new  ed.  iii,  36  note),  the  founding,  or  at  least 
restoration  of  the  temple  of  this  goddess,  at  Sidon,  is 
attributed  to  him  and  to  his  mother,  Amashtoreth,  who 
is  farther  styled  priestess  of  Ashtoreth.  Accordingto 
tli^  testimonies  of  profane  writers,  the  worship  of  this 
goddess,  under  different  names,  existed  in  all  coun- 
tries and  colonies  of  the  Syro-Arabian  nations.  She 
was  especially  tin-  chief  female  divinity  of  the  Phceni 
cians  and  Syrians— the  Hani  lis  or  female  Baal ;  Astarte 
tin  Great,  as  Sanchoniathon  calls  her  (ed.  Orelli,  p. 
34).  She  was  known  to  the  Babylonians  as  Mylitta 
(i.  e.  possibly  Xr":-",  the  emphatic  state  of  the  fern. 
participle  act.  Aphd  of  -;;-,  genetrix)  (Herod,  i,  31); 
to  the  Arabians  as  Alitta  or  Alilat  fllerod.  iii,  8)  (i.  e. 
according  t<,  Pococke's  etymology  [Specim.  p.  110],  al- 
flahat,  the  goddess  [which  may,  however,  also  mean 
tin-  crescent  moon — ee  Freytag's  /.'.-•.  .!>•.];  or  al- 
Hit&l,  ill'  moon;  or,  according  to  Kleuker's  suggestion, 
aUWalid,  genetrix  [see  Bergmann,  D<  Relig.  A  rati.  An- 
tcislamka,  Argentor.  lt>34,  p.  7]  ).     The  supposed  Punic 


SiuouianMeihil  of  the  Goddess  Astaite. 

name  Tholath,  TPP,  which  Munter,  Hamaker,  and 
others  considered  to  mean  genetrix,  and  to  belong  to 
this  goddess,  cannot  be  adduced  here,  as  Gesenius  has 
recently  shown  that  the  name  has  arisen  from  a  false 
reading  of  the  inscriptions  (see  his  Monum.  Ling. 
Phcenic.  p.  114).  But  it  is  not  at  all  open  to  doubt 
that  this  goddess  was  worshipped  at  ancient  Carthage, 
and  probably  under  her  Phoenician  name.  The  classi- 
cal writers,  who  usually  endeavored  to  identify  the 
irods  of  other  nations  with  their  own,  rather  than  to 
discriminate  between  them,  have  recognised  several 
of  their  own  divinities  in  Ashtoreth.  Thus  she  was 
considered  to  be  Juno  (Augustin.  Queest.  in  Jud.  xvi); 
or  Venus,  especially  Venus  Urania  (Cicer.  Nat.  Dear. 
iii,  23;  Theodoret,  In  Libr.  iii,  Beg.  Queest.  l  ;  and  the 
numerous  inscriptions  of  Bona  Dea  Coelestis,  Venus 
Ccelestis,  etc.,  cited  in  Miinter's  Religion  der  Karihager, 
p.  75);  or  Luna  (Herodian,  v,  13,  where  she  is  "named 
' A<jTpoap\i}\  Lucian,  L)e  Dea  Syra,  iv).  A  part  of 
the  Phoenician  mythus  respecting  Astarte  is  given  by 
Sanchoniathon  (Euseb.  De  Prap.  Evang.  i,  10)  :  "As- 
tarte the  most  high,  and  Jupiter  Demarous,  and  Adc- 
dus,  king  of  the- gods,  reigned  over  the  country,  with 
the  assent  of  Saturn.  And  Astarte  placed  the  head 
of  a  bull  upon  her  own  head,  as  an  emblem  of  sover- 
eignty. As  she  was  journeying  about  the  world,  she 
found  a  star  wandering  in  the  air,  and  having  taken 
possession  of  it,  she  consecrated  it  in  the  sacred  island 
of  Tyre.  The  Phoenicians  say  that  Astarte  is  Venus." 
This  serves  to  account 
for  the  horned'  figure 
under  which  she  was 
represented,  and  af- 
fords testimony  of  a 
star  consecrated  as  her 
symbol.  Theyarfthat 
there  is  a  connection 
between  all  these  di- 
vinities cannot  escape 
any  student  of  ancient 
religions  ;  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  discover  the 
precise  link  of  that 
connection.        Ashto-  Medal  of  Ashtoreth. 

reth  was  probably  confounded  with  Juno,  because 
she  is  the  female  counterpart  to  Baal,  the  chief  god 
of  the  Syrians — their  Jupiter,  as  it  were  ;  and  with 
Venus,  because  the  same  lascivious  rites  were  com- 
mon to  her  worship  and  to  that  of  Ashtoreth  and 
her  cognate  Mylitta  (Creuzer,  Synibolik,  ii,  23).  But 
so  great  is  the  intermixture  and  confusion  between 
the  gods  of  pagan  religions,  that  Munter  further  iden- 
tifies Ashtoreth — due  allowance  being  made  for  differ- 
ence of  time  and  place — with  the  female  Kafir,  Azio- 
kersa,  with  the  Egyptian  Isis,  with  the  Paphian  Ve- 
nus, with  the  Taurian  and  Ephesian  Pinna,  with  the 
Bellona  of  Comana,  with  the  Armenian  AndMd,  and 
with  the  Samian,  Maltesian,  and  Lacinian  Juno.  She 
has  also  been  considered  to  be  the  same  as  the  Syrian 
jish-d<iii/,  the  Atergatis  of  2  Mace,  xii,  26,  whose  tem- 
ple appears,  from  1  Mace,  v,  43,  to  have  been  situated 
at  Ashteroth-Kumain.     See  Atergatis.     Her  figure 


ASHTORETH 


465 


ASHURITE 


(in  various  forms)  is  certainly  found  on  the  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  monuments  (Layard's  Nineveh,  ii,  169); 
which  likewise  contain  illustrations  of  most  of  the  at- 
tributes ascribed  to  her  in  scriptural  as  well  as  profane 
authorities  (see  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  Oct.  1852,  p.  88  sq.). 
As  for  the  power  of  nature,  which  was  worshipped  un- 
der the  name  of  Ashtoreth,  Creuzer  and  Miinter  assert 
that  it  was  the  principle  of  conception  and  parturition 
— that  subordinate  power  which  is  fecundated  by  a 
superior  influence,  but  which  is  the  agent  of  all  births 
throughout  the  universe.  As  such,  Miinter  maintains 
(Religiem  der  Babylonier,  p.  21),  in  opposition  to  the 
remarks  of  Gesenius  (Jesaias,  iii,  337),  that  the  orig- 
inal form  under  which  Ashtoreth  was  worshipped  was 
the  moon;  and  that  the  transition  from  that  to  the 
planet  Venus  (which  we  will  immediately  notice)  was 
unquestionably  an  innovation  of  a  later  date.  It  is 
evident  that  the  moon  alone  can  be  properly  called 
the  queen  of  heaven ;  as  also  that  the  dependent  re- 
lation of  the  moon  to  the  sun  makes  it  a  more  appro- 
priate symbol  of  that  sex,  whose  functions  as  female 
and  mother,  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  animated 
nature,  were  embodied  in  Ashtoreth.  See  Baal. 
Movers  (Phon.  607)  distinguishes  two  Astartes,  one 
Carthaginian-Sidonian,  a  virgin  goddess  symbolized 
by  the  moon,  the  other  Syro-Phcenieian,  symbolized  by 
the  planet  Venus.  But  it  seems  most  likely  that  both 
the  moon  and  the  planet  were  looked  upon  as  sym- 
bols, under  different  aspects  and  perhaps  at  different 
periods,  of  the  goddess,  just  as  each  of  them  may  in 
different  aspects  of  the  heavens  be  regarded  as  the 
"queen  of  heaven"  (q.  v.). 

The  rites  of  her  worship,  if  we  may  assume  their 
resembling  those  which  profane  authors  describe  as 
paid  to  the  cognate  goddesses,  in  part  agree  with  the 
few  indications  in  the  Old  Testament,  in  part  com- 
plete the  brief  notices  there  into  an  accordant  picture. 
The  cakes  mentioned  in  Jer.  vii,  18,  which  arc  called 
in  Hebrew  C^S,  kavvanim' ',  were  also  known  to  the 
Greeks  by  the  name  yafiSivEC.,  and  were  by  them  made 
in  the  shape  of  a  sickle,  in  reference  to  the  new  moon. 
Among  animals,  the  dove,  the  crab,  and,  in  later  times, 
the  lion  were  sacred  to  her,  and  among  fruits  the  pom- 
egranate. No  blood  was  shed  on  her  altar ;  but  male 
animals,  and  chiefly  kids,  were  sacrificed  to  her  (Tacit. 
Hist,  ii,  3).  Hence  some  suppose  that  the  reason  why 
Judah  promised  the  harlot  a  kid  was  that  she  might 
sacrifice  it  to  Ashtoreth  (see  Tuch's  note  to  Gen. 
xxxviii,  17).  The  most  prominent  part  of  her  wor- 
ship, however,  consisted  of  those  libidinous  orgies 
which  Augustine,  who  was  an  eye-witness  of  their 
horrors  in  Carthage,  describes  with  such  indignation 
(De  Chit.  Dei,  ii,  3).  Her  priests  were  eunuchs  in 
women's  attire  (the  peculiar  name  of  whom  is  D^dlp, 
kadeshim',  male  devotees,  sacri,  i.  e.  cim-cdi,  Galli,  1 
Kings  xiv,  24),  and  women  (ridnp,  Icedeshoth' ',  female 
devotees,  sacrce,  i.  e.  meretrices,  Hos.  iv,  14,  which 
term  ought  to  be  distinguished  from  ordinary  harlots, 
niai'T),  who,  like  the  Bayaderes  of  India,  prostituted 
themselves  to  enrich  the  temple  of  this  goddess.  See 
Sodomite.  The  prohibition  in  Deut.  xxiii,  18,  appears 
to  allude  to  the  dedication  of  such  funds  to  such  a  pur- 
pose. As  for  the  places  consecrated  to  her  worship,  al- 
though the  numerous  passages  in  which  the  Auth.Vers. 
has  erroneously  rendered  HTjx,  Asherah,  by  grove,  are 
to  be  deducted  [see  Grove],  there  are  yet  several  oc- 
casions on  which  gardens  and  shady  trees  are  mentioned 
as  peculiar  seats  of  (probably  her)  lascivious  rites  (Isa. 
i,  29;  Ixv,  3;  1  Kings  xiv*  23;  Hos.  iv,  13;  Jer.  ii, 
20 ;  iii,  13).  She  also  had  celebrated  temples  (1  Sam. 
xxxi,  10).  As  to  the  form  and  attributes  with  which 
Ashtoreth  was  represented,  the  oldest  known  image, 
that  in  Paphos,  was  a  white  conical  stone,  often  seen 
on  Phoenician  remains  in  the  figure  which  Tacitus  thus 
describes,  1.  c.  :  "  The  statue  of  the  goddess  bears  no 
Go 


resemblance  to  the  human  form  :  you  see  a  round  fig- 
ure, broad  at  the  base,  but  growing  fine  by  degrees, 
till,  like  a  cone,  it  lessens  to  a  point."'  In  Canaan 
she  was  probably  represented  as  a  cmo.  It  is  said  in 
the  book  of  Tobit,  i,  5,  that  the  tribes  which  revolted 
sacrificed  "to  the  heifer 
Baal."  In  Phoenicia  she 
had  the  head  of  a  cow  or 
bull,  as  she  is  seen  on 
coins.  At  length  she  was 
figured  with  the  human 
form,  as  Lucian  express- 
ly testifies  of  the  Syrian 
goddess,  which  is  sub- 
stantially the  same  as 
Ashtoreth;  and  she  is  so 
found  on  coins  of  Seve- 
rus,  with  her  head  sur-  Medal  of  the  Female  Baal, 
rounded  with  rays,  sitting  on  a  lion,  and  holding  a 
thunderbolt  and  a  sceptre  in  either  hand.  What  Kim- 
chi  says  of  her  being  worshipped  under  the  figure  of 
a  sheep  is  a  mere  figment  of  the  rabbins,  founded  on 
a  misapprehension  of  Deut.  vii,  13.  As  the  words 
"  flocks  (Ashtaroth)  of  sheep"  there  occurring  may  be 
legitimately  taken  as  the  loves  of  the  flock  (Veneres 
pecoris\  i.  e.  either  the  ewes  or  the  lambs,  the  whole 
foundation  of  that  opinion,  as  well  as  of  the  notion 
that  the  word  means  .sheep,  is  unsound. 

The  word  Ashtoreth  cannot  be  plausibly  derived 
from  an)'  root  or  combination  of  roots  in  the  Syro- 
Arabian  languages.  The  best  etymology,  that  ap- 
proved by  Gesenius  (Thes.  Heb.  p.  1083),  deduces  it 
from  the  Persian  sitdrah,  star,  with  a  prosthetic  gut- 
tural (i.  q.  1ttt>X,  "Esther,"  aorrip).  Ashtoreth  is 
feminine  as  to  form ;  its  plural  Ashtaroth  also  oc- 
curs (Judg.  ii,  13  ;  x,  16;  1  Sam.  vii,  4  ;  xii,  10  ;  xxxi, 
10),  as  is  likewise  the  case  with  Baal,  with  which  it  is 
in  this  form  often  associated  (Judg.  x,  C  ;  1  Sam.  vii, 
4;  xii,  10);  and  this  peculiarity  of  both  words  is 
thought  (by  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  s.  v.)  to  denote  a  plu- 
rality of  images  (like  the  Greek  Hernia?),  or  to  belong 
to  that  usage  of  the  plural  which  is  found  in  words 
denoting  lord  (Ewald,  Ilebr.  Gram.  §  361).  Movers, 
however,  contends  (Phon.  i,  175,  602)  that  the  plurals 
are  used  to  indicate  different  modifications  of  the  di- 
vinities themselves.  In  the  earlier  books  of  the  O.  T. 
only  the  plural,  Ashtaroth,  occurs,  and  it  is  not  till 
the  time  of  Solomon,  who  introduced  the  worship  of 
the  Sidonian  Astarte,  and  only  in  reference  to  that  par- 
ticular goddess,  Ashtoreth  of  the  Sidonians,  that  the 
singular  is  found  in  the  O.  T.  (1  Kings  xi,  5,  33 ;  2 
Kings  xxiii,  13). — Kitto;  Smith.  See  Astarte. 
Ash-tree.     See  Ash. 

Ash'uath  (Heb.  Ashvath',  VXJ'J,  perh.  for  hilDS, 
bright;  Sept.  'AaeiSr  v.  r.  'AaiS,  Vulg.  Asoth),  the  last 
named  of  the  three  sons  of  Japhlet,  great-grandson  of 
Asher  (1  Chron.  vii,  33).     B.C.  cir.  1612. 

Ash'ur  (Heb.  Ashchur',  "iWdN,  perh.  black,  oth- 
erwise man  of  nobility ;  Sept.  'Aa\(.o  v.  r.  'Accojo,  and 
'Aaovp  v.  r.  'AvotV>)>  a  posthumous  son  of  Hezron 
(grandson  of  Judah),  by  one  of  his  wives  (the  daugh- 
ter of  Machir),  Abiah  (1  Chron.  ii,  24).  He  had  sev- 
eral sons  by  each  of  his  two  wives  (1  Chron.  iv,  5), 
and  through  these  he  is  called  (in  both  passages)  the 
"father"  (founder)  of  Tekoa,  which  appears  to  have 
been  the  place  of  their  eventual  settlement.  B.C.  cir. 
1658.  Schwarz  suggests  (Palest,  p.  119)  that  the  name 
may  be  connected  with  the  Both-Zachaj-ias  (q.  v.)  of 
Josephus  (War,  i,  1,  5);  but  this  lies  at  some  distance 
from  Tekoa.      See  also  Asshur. 

Ash'urite  (Heb.  Ashuri' ',  I'nittJSJ,  prob.  originally 
from  llttJX,  a  step;  Sept.  'Aaepi,  Vulg.  Gessuri ;  Auth. 
Vers.  "  Ashurites"),  apparently  the  designation  of  a 
tribe  in  the  vicinity  of  Gilead,  one  of  the  trans-Jordanic 
districts  over  whom  the  revolting  Abner  made  Ish- 


ASH-WEDXESDAY 


466 


ASIA 


boshcth  king  (2  Sam.  ii,  9).  The  Chaldee  paraphrast  I 
(Targum  of  Jonathan)  supposes  the  inhabitants  of 
Asher  ("IttJK  "d?,  "of  the  house  of  Asher"),  which 
is  supported  by  several  MSS.  that  read  "''■Sn  (Da-  | 
vidson,  TIebr.  Text,  ad  loc).  "  The  Asherites"  will 
then  denote  the  whole  of  the  country  west  of  the  Jor-  I 
dun  above  Jezreel  (the  district  of  the  plain  of  Esdrae-  j 
Ion),  and  the  enumeration  will  proceed  regularly  from  i 
north  to  south,  Asher  to  Benjamin.  The  form  "  Ash- 
erite"  occurs  in  Judg.  i,  32.  See  Asher.  By  some 
of  the  old  interpreters— Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Vulgate 
versions — and  in  modern  times  by  Ewald  (Gesck.  Isr. 
Hi,  145),  the  name  is  taken  as  meaning  the  Geshurites, 
the  members  of  a  small  kingdom  to  the  S.  or  S.E.  of 
Damascus,  one  of  the  petty  states  which  were  included 
under  the  general  title  of  Aram  (q.  v.).  The  difficulty 
in  accepting  this  substitution  is  that  Geshur  had  a  king 
of  its  own,  Talmai,  whose  daughter,  moreover,  wras  mar- 
ried to  David  somewhere  about  this  very  time  (1  Chron. 
iii,  2,  compared  with  4),  a  circumstance  not  consistent 
with  his  being  the  ally  of  Ishbosheth,  or  with  the  latter 
being  made  king  over  the  people  of  Geshur.  Talmai  ■ 
was  still  king  many  years  after  this  occurrence  (2  Sam.  [ 
xiii,  37).  In  addition,  Geshur  was  surely  too  remote  j 
from  Mahanaim  and  from  the  rest  of  Ishbosheth's  ter- 
ritory to  be  intended  here.  See  Geshur.  Still  oth- 
ers understand  that  the  clan  referred  to  are- the  same  j 
with  the  Asskurites  (Heb.  Asshurim',  CHVi'X ;  Sept.  j 
'Aatrovpit  i'/i,  Vulg.  Assitrim ;  Auth .  Vers. ' '  Asshurim"), 
an  Arab  tribe  said  (with  the  Letushim  and  Leummim) 
to  be  descended  from  Dedan  (Gen.  xxv,  3),  and  who 
appear  from  these  notices  to  have  settled  in  the 
south-western  part  of  the  Hauran,  where  they  became 
somewhat  incorporated  with  the  Israelites.  See  Ara- 
bia. 

In  Ezek.  xxvii,  6,  Ashur  ("1>1  .X,  plur.  Ashurim' ,  in 
the  expression,  D"nm~ra  ^"IBJS  tl^P,  thy 
benches  [or  decks']  they  hare  made  of  ivory,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  ashur-trees,  i.  e.  inlaid  or  bordered  with 
that  wood;  Sept.  r«  iepa  gov  tiroirjaav  t£  iXiQavToc;, 
ohovg  ct\<jioctic,  Vulg.  et  transtra  tua  fecerunt  tibi  ex 
ebore  Indico  et  prateriula,  Auth.  Vers.  "  the  company 
of  the  Ashurites  have  made  thy  benches  of  ivory") 
evidently  stands  for  teiisshur'  ("!Ti"XFl),  or  box-wood. 
See  Box-tree. 

Ash-Wednesday  (dies  cinerum),  the  first  day  of 
Lent.  It  is  so  called  from  the  custom  observed  in  the 
ancient  Church  of  penitents  expressing  their  humilia- 
tion at  this  time  by  appearing  in  sackcloth  and  ashes. 
But  it  is  not  certain  that  this  was  always  done  precise- 
ly on  Ash- Wednesday,  there  being  a  perfect  silence  in 
the  most  ancient  writers  about  it.  The  discipline  used 
toward  penitents  in  Lent,  as  described  by  Gratian,  dif- 
fered  from  their  treatment  at  other  times  ;  for  on  Ash- 
Wednesday  they  were  presented  to  the  bishop,  clothed 
in  sackcloth,  and  barefooted ;  then  the  seven  peniten- 
tial psalms  were  sung;  after  which  the  bishop  laid  his 
hands  on  them,  sprinkled  them  with  holy  water,  and 
poured  ashes  upon  their  heads,  declaring  to  them  that 
as  Adam  was  cast  out  of  paradise,  so  they,  for  their 
sins,  were  cast  out  of  the  Church.  Then  the  inferior 
ministers  expelled  them  out  of  the  doors  of  the  church. 
In  the  end  of  Lent,  on  the  Thursday  before  Easter, 
they  were  again  presented  for  reconciliation  by  the 
and  presbyters  at  the  gates  of  the  church. 
But  this  method  of  treating  penitents  in  Lent  carries 
with  it  the  marks  of  a  more  modern  practice  ;  for  there 
was  ii"  use  of  the  holy  water  in  the  ancient  discipline, 
nor  seven  penitential  psalms  in  their  service,  but  only 
one,  viz.  the  tifty-lirst.  Neither  was  Ash-Wednesday 
anciently  the  first  day  of  Lent,  till  Gregory  the  Great 
first  added  it  to  bent  to  make  the  number  of  fa-ting- 
days  completely  forty,  which  before  were  but  thirty- 
six.  N..r  does  it  appear  that  anciently  the  time  of 
imposing  penance  was  confined  to  the  beginning  of 


Lent,  but  was  granted  at  all  times,  whenever  the 
bishop  thought  the  penitent  qualified  for  it.  In  Borne 
the  spectacle  on  this  occasion  is  most  ridiculous.  Af- 
ter giving  themselves  up  to  all  kinds  of  gayety  and 
licentiousness  during  the  Carnival,  till  twelve  o'clock 
on  Tuesday  night,  the  people  go  on  Ash-Wednes- 
day morning  into  the  churches,  when  the  officiating 
priests  put  ashes  on  their  head,  repeating  the  words, 
"Dust  thou  art,  and  unto  dust  thou  shalt  return." 
The  day  is  kept  in  the  English  Church  by  proper  col- 
lects and  lessons,  but  without  the  ashes  ceremony. — 
See  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xviii,  ch.  ii,  §  2 ;  Procter, 
Common  Prayer,  p.  278  ;  Burnet,  Hist.  ofEng.  Ref  ii, 
94;  Martene,  de  Ant.  Eccl.  Ritibus,  lib.  iv,  cap.  xvii. 
Treatises  on  this  observance  have  been  written  by 
Gleich  (Viteb.  1689),  Mittwoch  (Lips.  1G93),  Schmid 
(Helmst.  1702),  Siber  (Lips.  1709).     See  Ashes. 

Ashwell,  George,  born  in  1612,  became  a  fellow 
of  Wadham  College,  and  afterward  rector  of  Hanwell, 
Oxfordshire,  England.  He  died  in  1G93,  leaving  the 
following  works:  1.  Fides  Apistolica  (Oxon.1653): — 2. 
Gcstus  Eucharistrcus  (Oxon.  16G3)  : — 3.  De  Socino  et  So- 
cinianismo  (Oxon.  1G80)  :— 4.  De  Ecclesid  (Oxon.  1688). 

A'sia  ('A<ria,  referred  by  the  Greeks  to  a  person, 
Herod,  iv,  45,  but  by  moderns  to  an  Eastern,  usually 
Shemitic  etymology,  eomp.  Bochart,  Phaleg,  iv,  33,  p. 
3379;  Sicklcr,  Alte  Geogr.  p.  89;  Wahl,  in  the  Hall. 
Encycl.  vi,  76  sq. ;  Forbiger,  Alte  Geogr.  ii,  39;  Hit- 
zig,  J'lii/ist.  p.  93),  a  geographical  name  which  is  em- 
ployed by  the  writers  of  antiquity  to  denote  regions  of 
very  different  extent,  designating  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Herodotus  (iv,  36)  an  entire  continent,  in  contrast 
with  Europe  and  Africa  (eomp.  Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  10. 
1),  the  boundaries  of  which  have  been  clearly  defined 
(Forbiger,  Alte  Geogr.  ii,  39)  since  the  descriptions  of 
Strabo  (i,  35)  and  Ptolemy  (iv,  5) ;  in  the  Roman  pe- 
riod, however,  it  was  generally  applied  only  to  a 
single  district  of  Western  Asia  (Asia  Minor).  It  is  in 
the  latter  sense  alone  that  the  word  occurs  in  the 
Apocrypha  (1  Mace,  viii,  6 ;  xi,  13 ;  xii,  39 ;  xiii,  32 ; 
2  Mace,  iii,  3 ;  x,  24)  and  New  Test.  (Acts  H,  9 ;  vi, 
9  ;  xvi,  6  ;  xix,  10,  22,  26,  27  ;  xx.  4,  16,  18  ;  xxi,  27  ; 
xxvii,  2;  Rom.  xvi,  5  [where  the  true  reading  is 
'Amag];  1  Cor.  xvi,  19;  2  Cor.  i.  8 ;  2  Tim.  i,  15;  1 
Pet.  i,  1 ;  Rev.  i,  4,  11). 

1.  Continent  of  Asia. — The  ancient  Hebrews 
were  strangers  to  the  division  of  the  earth  into  parts 
or  quarters,  and  hence  we  never  find  the  word  Asia 
in  any  Hebrew  book.  It  occurs  first  in  Biblical  writ- 
ers in  the  books  of  the  Maccabees,  and  there  in  a  re- 
stricted sense.  In  its  widest  application,  however,  as 
designating  in  modern  geography  a  leading  division 
of  the  globe,  it  is  of  the  deepest  interest  in  sacred  lit- 
erature. This  part  of  the  world  is  regarded  as  having 
been  the  most  favored.  Here  the  first  man  was  cre- 
ated ;  here  the  patriarchs  lived ;  here  the  law  was 
given  ;  here  the  greatest  and  most  celebrated  monarch- 
ies were  formed  ;  and  from  hence  the  first  founders  of 
cities  and  nations  in  other  parts  of  the  world  conduct- 
ed their  colonies.  In  Asia  our  blessed  Redeemer  ap- 
peared, wrought  salvation  for  mankind,  died,  and  rose 
again ;  and  from  hence  the  light  of  the  Gospel  has  been 
diffused  over  the  world.  Laws,  arts,  sciences,  and 
religions  almost  all  have  had  their  origin  in  Asia. 
See  Ethnology. 

I.  Geographical.  Description. — Asia,  which  forms  the 
eastern  and  northern  portion  of  the  great  tra<  t  of  land 
in  the  eastern  hemisphere,  is  the  oldest  known  portion 
of  the  globe,  and  is  usually  called  the  cradle  of  the  hu- 
man race,  of  nations,  and  of  arts.  It  is  separated  from 
Australia  by  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans;  from 
America  on  the  north-east  by  Behring's  Straits,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  great  Eastern  or  Pacific  Ocean; 
from  Africa  by  the  Arabian  Sea  (at  the  west  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea)  and  by  the  Arabian  Gulf,  or  Red 
Sea,  with  the  Straits  of  Babelmandeb ;  from  Europe  by 


ASIA 


467 


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ASIA 


468 


ASIA 


the  Kaskaia  Gulf  (at  the  extreme  north-west),  by  the 
(  aspian  Sea  and  the  Kiver  Ural,  by  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Bosphorus,  by  the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Dar- 
danelles, and  by  the  Grecian  Archipelago.  It  is  united 
with  Africa  by  the  desert  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  with  Eu- 
rope  by  the  lofty  Caucasian  Mountains  and  the  long 
Ural  range.     The  area  is  about  16,175,000 square  miles. 

The  inhabitants  of  Asia  (whose  number  is  variously 
estimated  atfrom  500,000,000  to  800,000,000)  are  divided 
into  three  great  branches :  The  Tatar-Caucasian,  in  the 
Western  Asia,  exhibits  the  finest  features  of  our  race  in 
the  Circassian  form ;  the  Mongolian  race  is  spread 
through  Eastern  Asia ;  the  Malay  in  Southern  Asia  and 
the  islands.  The  north  is  inhabited  by  the  Samoiedes, 
Tchooktches,  and  others.  The  following  tribes,  of  dif- 
ferent language  and  origin,  may  be  distinguished, 
some  of  which  are  relics  of  scattered  tribes  of  no- 
mades :  Kamtschatdales,  Ostiacs,  Samoiedes,  Koriacks, 
Kurilians,  Aleutians,  Coreans,  Mongols,  and  Kal- 
mucks, Mantchoos  (Tungoos,  Daurians,  and  Mant- 
choos  Proper),  Finns,  Circassians,  Georgians,  Greeks, 
Syrians  and  Armenians,  Tatars  and  Turks,  Persians 
and  Afghans,  Thibetans,  Hindoos,  Siamese,  Malays, 
Annamites  (in  Cochin  China  and  Tonquin),  Burmese, 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  besides  the  indigenous  inhabit- 
ants of  the  East  Indian  islands,  Jews  and  Europeans. 
The  principal  languages  are  the  Arabian,  Persian,  Ar- 
menian, Turkish,  Tatar,  Hindoo,  Malayan,  Mongol, 
Mantchoo,  Chinese,  and  Sanscrit.  The  principal  re- 
ligions which  prevail  are  Mohammedanism  in  the  west- 
ern parts,  the  worship  of  the  Lama  of  Thibet  in  the 
central  region,  Buddhism  in  the  Burmese  territory,  and 
Hindooism  or  Brahminism  in  India.  For  farther  de- 
tails and  statistics  of  the  Asiatic  countries,  see  each  in 
its  alphabetical  place,  especially  Turkey,  Persia,  Chi- 
na, and  India. 

From  this  great  continent  must  undoubtedly  have 
issued  at  some  unknown  period  that  extraordinary  emi- 
gration which  peopled  America.  It  cannot  be  ques- 
tioned that  the  inhabitants  of  the  north-eastern  parts 
of  Asia,  little  attached  to  the  soil,  and  subsisting  chief- 
ly by  hunting  and  fishing,  might  pass  either  in  their 
canoes  in  summer,  or  upon  the  ice  in  winter,  from  their 
own  country  to  the  American  shore.  Or  a  passage  of 
this  kind  may  not  be  necessary,  for  it  is  by  no  means 
unlikely  that  the  Straits  of  Behring  were  formerly  oc- 
cupied by  the  land,  and  that  the  isthmus  which  joined 
the  old  world  to  the  new  was  subverted  and  over- 
whelmed  by  one  of  those  great  revolutions  of  nature 
which  shake  whole  continents,  and  extend  the  domin- 
ion of  the  sea  to  places  where  its  waters  are  unknown. 
Dr.  Prichard,  in  his  Researches  into  the  Physical  His- 
tory of  Man,  is  decidedly  of  opinion  that  America  was 
peopled  by  an  Asiatic  migration  ;  and  in  the  examples 
he  gives  of  the  coincidences  of  words,  he  has  fully  es- 
tablished the  fact  of  an  intercourse  between  the  na- 
tions of  Northern  Asia  and  those  of  America,  long  before 
the  very  existence  of  the  latter  continent  was  known 
to  modern  Europe.  Later  investigations  have,  almost 
without  exception,  tended  to  confirm  this  conclusion. 

The  Scriptures  make  no  mention  of  many  of  the 
empires  and  nations  of  Asia,  such  as  the  Chinese  em- 
pire, the  Hindoos,  and  the  numerous  tribes  inhabiting 
the  extensive  region  of  Siberia  or  Asiatic  Russia.  In- 
dia is  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Esther,  but  only  in 
reference  to  the  extensive  dominions  of  Ahasuerus. 
The  Medo-Persian  branch  of  the  Indo-European  na- 
tions who  inhabited  Asia,  of  whom  were  the  Medes  and 
ancienl  Persians,  Parthians,  and  Armenians,  are,  how- 
ever, mentioned  in  sacred  history;  and  among  the  na- 
tions of  Asia  Minor  we  have  the  Phrygians,  the  Mys- 
i.m  ,  and  the  Bithynians.  Of  the  ancient  western 
Asiatic  nations,  those  connected  with  sacred  history 
arc'  the  Elamites,  or  descendants  ofElam;  the  Assyri- 
an-, or  descendants  of  Ashur;  Hebrews  and  Idumse- 
aus,  or  Edomites;  Beni-Jaktan,  or  Arabs;  the  f'has- 
dim,  or  Chaldeans;   the  Aramaeans,  who  inhabited 


Syria  and  Mesopotamia ;  the  Phoenicians,  or  descend- 
ants of  Canaan  ;  the  Mizraim,  or  the  Egyptians ;  the 
Cushites,  or  Ethiopians;  and  the  Philistines.  Of  the 
ancient  empires  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  the  As- 
syrian is  the  earliest,  so  called  from  Asshur,  the  son 
of  Shem.  Out  of  the  empire  founded  by  Nimrod  at 
Babylon  sprung  the  Babylonian  or  Chaldaean,  the 
capital  of  which  was  Babylon,  while  that  of  Assyria 
was  Nineveh.  The  empire  of  the  Medes  also  sprung 
from  the  Assyrian,  and  was  at  length  united  by  Cyrus 
with  Persia,  a  country  which,  previous  to  the  reign  of 
that  great  prince,  did  not  contain  more  than  a  single 
province  of  the  present  extensive  kingdom,  and  which 
continued  to  rule  over  Asia  upward  of  two  centuries, 
until  its  power  was  overthrown  by  Alexander  the 
Great.  Elam,  which  originally  denoted  the  country 
of  the  Elymsei  in  the  modern  Khusistan,  afterward  be- 
came the  Hebrew  term  for  Persia  and  the  Persians, 
who  were  allied  to  the  Madai  or  Medes.  The  other 
nations  of  Asia  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  have  each 
their  appropriate  designations,  such  as  the  Arphaxad, 
or  Arph-Chesad,  supposed  to  be  the  Chaldseans;  the 
Lud  or  Ludim,  alleged  by  Josephus  and  Bochart  to  be 
the  Lydians ;  and  the  Aramites  or  the  Sj'rians.  The 
Asiatic  countries  more  especially  mentioned  as  the 
scenes  of  great  events  and  important  transactions  are 
Arabia,  Armenia,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Sj'ria,  and  Ju- 
daja  or  Palestine,  Phoenicia  and  Persia.  See  each  in 
its  alphabetical  order. 

II.  Church  History. — Christianity  spread  rapidly  in 
the  first  centuries  in  Western  Asia,  which,  after  the 
times  of  Constantine,  belonged  among  the  Christian 
countries.  The  apostolic  churches  of  Antioch  (q.  v.) 
and  Jerusalem  (q.  v.)  received  along  with  Rome  and 
Alexandria  the  rank  of  patriarchates.  The  diocese  of 
Asia,  of  which  Ephesus  was  the  metropolis,  was  reck- 
oned next  in  rank  to  the  four  patriarchates  up  till  the 
council  of  Chalcedon,  which  sul  ordinated  the  diocese 
to  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  In  the  fifth,  sixth, 
and  seventh  centuries  the  Nestorians  and  Monophy- 
sites  were  excluded  by  oecumenical  synods  from  the 
Church,  and  organized  themselves  as  independent  de- 

I  nominations,  which  still  exist.  See  Nestorians  ; 
j  Armenians  ;  Jacobites.  Down  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  churches  of  Western  Asia  were  still  in  a  mod- 
I  erately  flourishing  condition  ;  but  about  that  time  the 
j  Saracens  succeeded  in  establishing  several  principali- 
'  ties,  which  were  the  cause  of  sad  desolation  to  the 
j  Church.  The  Turks,  who  succeeded,  completed  the 
wreck.  For  the  Church  history  of  the  following  cen- 
turies, we  refer,  besides  to  the  articles  already  men- 
tioned, to  Turkey  ;  Greek  Cihrch.  Also  in  other 
portions  of  Asia  the  Gospel  was  early  proclaimed,  and 
Christianity  flourished  for  seme  time  in  Persia,  till 
it  succumbed  to  the  rising  power  of  Mohammedanism. 
The  outposts  of  Christianity  in  China  and  India, 
which  probably  reach  back  to  an  early  period,  were 
lost  sight  of  by  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches.  The 
Roman  Church,  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  modern  times, 
made  great  effort  to  unite  with  itself  the  churches  of 
Western  Asia,  and  to  convert  the  pagans  in  various 
Asiatic  countries.  She  succeeded  in  most  of  the  Portu- 
guese and  Spanish  possessions,  and  founded  a  number 
of  dioceses  in  other  countries.  The  history  of  Protest- 
antism begins  with  the  establishment  of  the  rule  of  the 
East  India  Company;  and  in  the  nineteenth  century  its 
missions  have  developed  on  so  large  a  scale  that  the 
time  appears  to  be  near  when  it  will  have  the  ascendency 
in  a  lar^e  portion  of  Eastern  Asia.  For  more  details 
on  the  history  of  both  the  Boman  and  the  Protestant 
churches,  wcrefer  to  the  articles  Persia;  China;  In- 
dia; Farther  India;  Indian  Archipelago;  Ja- 
pan. 

III.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — The  followim:  tabular 
survey  of  the  statistics  of  the  Roman  Catholic,  Prot- 
estant, and  total  Christian  population  is  taken  from 
Schem's  Ecclesiastical  Year-book  for  1859. 


ASIA 


4G9 


ASIA 


Asiatic  Russia 

China 

East  India 

Farther  India 

Turkey 

Archipelago  . . 

Japan 

Tartary 

Persia 

Afghanistan . . 
Beloochistan. . 
Arabia 


Total  . . 


7,000,000 
400,000,000 
171,000,000 
15,000,000 

15,000,000 
S0,000,000 
35,000,000 

S,  000, 000 
13,000,000 
4,000,000 
2,000,000 
5,000,000 


755,000,000 


:.M  1(1,(11  10 

360,000 

1,200,000 


70,000 
3,000 


The  Greek  Church  is  the  largest  Christian  body  in 
Asiatic  Russia  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  is  at  present 
spreading,  together  with  Russian  influence,  in  Central 
Asia  and  China.  Armenians  are  numerous  in  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  Persia,  and  scattered  in  India.  Nestori- 
ans  and  Jacobites  are  mostly  found  in  Turkey  and  India, 
the  former  also  in  Persia.  By  many  it  is  believed  that 
there  are  still  numerous  descendants  of  Christians  in 
various  parts  of  Asia  as  yet  unknown  to  the  rest  of  the 
Christian  world.  In  1855  a  report  spread  that,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  eighteen  days'  journey  from  Cabul,  there  exist- 
ed 12,000  Christian  villages,  and  in  1859  it  was  assert- 
ed that  30,000  native  Christians  had  been  discovered 
in  the  island  of  Celebes.  Buddhism,  Brahminism,  and 
the  other  religious  systems  of  India,  China,  and  Ja- 
pan, count  together  a  population  of  about  GOO  millions. 
Mohammedanism  prevails  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  Arabia, 
Persia,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan,  and  Tartary,  and 
is,  in  general,  professed  by  a  population  of  about  50 
millions.  The  Jews  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  estimated 
at  about  350,000 ;  small  numbers  live  scattered  in  near- 
ly every  country.  The  rest  belong  to  a  great  variety 
of  pagan  systems. 

2.  Asia  Minor  was  the  name  anciently  given  to  the 
region  nearly  inclosed  by  the  Euxine,  jEgsean,  and 
Mediterranean  Seas,  and  now  forming  a  part  of  Tur- 
key. Respecting  the  Biblical  notices  of  this  district 
we  have  to  remark :  (a)  Antiochus  the  Great  is  called 
king  of  Asia  in  1  Mace,  viii,  6 ;  a  title  that  he  assumed 
as  master  (not  only  of  Syria,  but  also)  of  the  greater  part 
of  Asia  Minor  (which  had  passed  over  to  the  Mace- 
donian princes  as  a  Persian  province),  hut  was  com- 


pelled (B.C.  189)  to  relinquish  all  the  Asiatic  districts 
west  of  the  Taurus  to  the  Romans  (Liv.  xxxviii,  38 ; 
1  Mace,  viii,  8),  who  committed  Mysia,  Lydia,  and 
Phrygia  to  Eumenes  (II),  king  of  Pergamus  (Liv. 
xxxvii,  55  ;  xxxviii,  39).  Hence  (i)  the  kingdom  of 
Pergamus  was  called  the  Asiatic  empire,  although  the 
Syrian  Seleucidas,  who  only  occupied  Cilicia,  likewise 
(perhaps  only  out  of  empty  pretence)  assumed  this  title 
(1  Mace,  xii,  39;  xiii,  32;  2  Mace,  iii,  3),  and. so  the 
empires  of  Egypt  and  Asia  are  found  in  contrast  (1 
Mace,  xiii,  13)."  (e)  By  the  will  of  Attalus  (III)  Philo- 
metor  (q.  v.),  the  kingdom  of  Pergamus  passed  over 
(B.C.  133)  as  a  province  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
in  whose  diplomatic  phraseology  Asia  was  now  termed 
simply  "Asia  cis  TaUrum"  (comp.  Cicero,  Flare.  27; 
Nep.  Attic.  54;  Plin.  40),  i.  e.  including  the  districts 
Mysia,  Lydia,  Phrygia,  and  Caria  (which  last  the 
Rhodians  obtained  after  the  conquest  of  Antiochus  the 
Great).  It  was  governed  by  a  prater  until  the  Em- 
peror Augustus  made  it  a  proconsular  province.  In 
this  extent  it  is  styled  Asia  Proper  (//  iSLwQ  icaXovph'ii 
'Affia,  Ptolem.  v,  2;  comp.  Strabo,  xii,  577).  To  this 
connection  appear  to  belong  the  following  passages  of 
the  N.  T. :  Acts  vi,  9  (where  Asia  and  Cilicia  are  names 
of  Roman  provinces  in  Asia  Minor)  ;  xx,  16  ;  1  Pet.  i, 
1  (see  Steiger,  in  loc.) ;  Rev.  i,  4 ;  comp.  ii  and  iii, 
where  letters  to  the  Christian  communities  in  the  seven 
cities  of  (proconsular)  Asia  designate  those  in  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  Pergamus,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and 
Laodicea  (q.  v.  severally)  (see  Liieke,  Off'enbar.  J  oil.  p. 
201;  comp.  T.  Smith,  Septem  Asiw  ecclesiar.  notitia, 
Lond.  1671,  Utr.  1694;  Arundell,  Visit  to  the  Seven 
Churches  of  Asia,  Lond.  1828).  On  the  other  hand, 
in  Acts  ii,  9  (comp.  xvi,  6 ;  see  Wiggers,  in  the  Stud.  u. 
Krit.  1838,  i,  169),  it  appears  to  denote  Phrygia,  or,  as 
the  commentators  will  have  it,  only  Ionia  (see  Kuinol, 
in  loc.) ;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  in  Roman  times 
Ionia  was  called  Asia  by  pre-eminence  (see  Pliny,  v, 
28 ;  comp.  Solin.  43).  The  extent  in  2  Cor.  i,  8,  is  un- 
certain, and,  moreover,  the  boundaries  of  Asia  Minor 
varied  at  different  periods  (see  Mannert,  VI,  ii,  15  sq. ; 
Wetstein,  ii,  464).  Thus  it  may  be  regarded  as  pretty 
well  settled:  (1.)  That  "Asia"  denotes  the  whole  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  texts  Acts  xix,  26,  27;  xxi,  27; 


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Map  of  Asia  Minor. 


ASIA 


470 


ASIARCH 


xxiv,  18;  xxvii,  2;  but  (2.),  that  only  Asia  Proper, 
the  Unman  or  Proconsular  Asia,  is  denoted  in  Acts  ii, 
9  ;  vi.  9  ;  xvi,  6 ;  xix,  10,  22 ;  xx,  4,  1G,  18  [Rom.  xvi, 
5]  :  1  Cor.  xvi,  19;  2  Cor.  i,  8;  2  Tim.  i,  15;  1  Pet.  i, 
1 ;  Rev.  i,  4, 11.  Asia  Minor  comprehended  Bithynia, 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Cilicia,  Pamphylia,  Pisid- 
i:i.  Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  Mysia,  Troas  (all  of  which  are 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament),  Lydia,  Ionia,  vEolis 
(which  are  sometimes  included  under  Lydia),  Caria, 
Doris,  and  Lvcia.  Asia  Proper,  or  Proconsular 
Asia,  comprehended  the  provinces  of  Phrygia,  Mysia, 
(aria,  and  Lydia  (Cicero,  Ep.  Fain,  ii,  15).  But  it  is 
evident  that  Luke  uses  the  term  Asia  in  a  sense  still 
more  restricted;  for  in  one  place  he  counts  Phrygia 
(Acts  ii,  9,  10),  and  in  another  Mysia  (xvi,  6,  7),  as 
provinces  distinct  from  Asia.  Hence  it  is  probable 
that  in  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  second  set  of  references 
above,  the  word  Asia  denotes  only  Ionia,  or  the  entire 
western  coast,  of  which  Ephesus  was  the  capital,  and 
in  which  the  seven  churches  were  situated.  See  gen- 
erally, Usher,  Be  Asia  procomulari  (Lond.  1681)  ;  id. 
Be  episcop.  metropol.  in  Asia  ]»vconsulari  (Lond.  1G87) ; 
Carpzov,  Be  A  sice  ecclesiis  (Lips.  1698);  Cellarius,  id. 
(Hal.  1701)  ;  Conybeare  and  Howson's  St. Paul,  i,  237 ; 
Penny  Cyc.  s.  v.  Anatolia;  Smith's  Did.  of  Class.  Geogr. 
i.  232  sq.,  238  sq. ;  Texier,  Asie  Mineure  (Paris,  1863); 
Le  Bas  and  Cheron,  Hist.  Ancienne  de  VAs.  Min.  (Par. 
1864);  Perrot,  Voyage  en  As.  Min.  (Paris,  1864). 

3.  Proconsular  Asia,  therefore,  seems  to  te  usu- 
ally that  designated  in  the  New  Test.,  being  a  Roman 
province  which  embraced  the  western  part  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Asia  Minor,  and  of  which  Ephesus  was  the 
capital.  This  province  originated  in  the  bequest  of 
Attains,  king  of  Pergamus,  or  king  of  Asia,  who  left 
by  will  to  the  Roman  Republic  his  hereditary  domin- 
ions in  the  west  of  the  peninsula  (B.C.  133).  Some 
rectifications  of  the  frontier  were  made,  and  "Asia" 
was  constituted  a  province.  Under  the  early  emper- 
ors it  was  rich  an  1  flourishing,  though  it  had  been  se- 
verely plundered  under  the  republic.  In  the  division 
made  bj>-  Augustus  of  senatorial  and  imperial  prov- 
inces, it  was  placed  in  the  former  class,  and  was  gov- 
erned by  a  proconsul.  (Hence  dvdvTraroi,  Acts  xix, 
38,  and  on  coins.)  It  contained  many  important  cities, 
among  which  were  the  seven  churches  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, and  it  was  divided  into  assize  districts  for  judi- 
cial business.  (Hence  ayopaioi,  i.  e.  r)fikpai,  Acts, 
ibid.)  It  is  not  possible  absolutely  to  define  the  in- 
land boundary  of  this  province  during  the  life  of  the 
Apostle  Paul ;  indeed,  the  limits  of  the  provinces  were 
frequently  undergoing  change;  but  generally  it  may 
be  said  that  it  included  the  territory  anciently  subdi- 
vided into  yEolis,  Ionia,  and  Doris,  and  afterward  into 
Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria.  See  Mysia;  Lycia;  Bi- 
thynia; Phrygia;  Galatia.  These  were  orignal- 
I  \  Gri  iek  colonies  (see  Smith's  Smaller  Hist,  of  Greece. 
p.  40  sq.).  Meyer  (in  his  Comment,  on  Acts  xvi,  6) 
unnecessarily  imagines  that  the  divine  intimation 
given  to  Paul  had  reference  to  the  continent  of  Asia, 
as  opposed  to  Europe,  and  that  the  apostle  supposed  it 
illicit  have  reference  simply  to  "Asia  cis  Taurum," 
and  therefore  attempted  to' penetrate  into  Bithynia. 
The  sriew  of  Meyer  and  De  Wette  on  Acts  xxvii,  2 
(and  of  the  former  on  Acts  xix,  10),  viz.  that  the  pen- 
insula of  Asia  Minor  is  intended,  involves  a  bad  geo- 
graphical mistake;  for  this  term  "Asia  Minor"  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  so  applied  till  some  centuries 
after  the  Christian  era.  Neither  is  it  strictly  correct 
to  speak  of  Asia  in  the  N.  T.  as  being  at  that  time  call- 
ed  A. proconsulates;  for  this  phrase  also  was  of  later 
date,  and  denoted  one  of  <  Sonstantine's  subdivisions  of 
the  province  of  which  we  are  speaking.  (See  Cony- 
beare and  Bowson's  Ufe  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  eh. 
ariv;  Marquardt's  Rom.  Alterthumor,  iii,  130  146.) 
See  AsiABi  ii. 

4.  Seven  Churches  op  Asia. —These,  celebrated 
in  the  Apocalypse,  in  the  apostolic  times,  and  in  ec- 


clesiastical history,  were,  as  they  are  classified  by  the 
writer  of  the  book  of  Revelation  (ch.  i— iii),  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  Pergamos,  Thyatira,  Sardis,  Philadelphia, 
and  Laodicea,  which  see  under  the  respective  names. 
See  Asia  Minor  (No.  2,  above) ;  Revelation. 

Asiarcll  (^Aaidpxne,  rider  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
plur.,  Acts  xix,  31;  Vulg.  Asia  principes ;  Auth.  Vers, 
"the  chief  of  Asia"),  the  title  of  the  ten  persons  an- 
nually chosen  in  Proconsular  Asia  as  chief  presidents 
of  the  religious  rites  (prasides  sacerdotales,  Tertull.  De 
Spect.  2),  and  whose  office  it  was  to  exhibit  solemn 
games  in  the  theatre  every  year,  in  honor  of  the  gods 
and  of  the  Roman  Emperor  (Cod.  Theodos.  xv,  9,  2). 
This  they  did  at  their  own  expense  (like  the  Roman 
aediles),  whence  none  but  the  most  opulent  persons 
could  bear  the  office,  although  only  of  one  year's  con- 
tinuance (see  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Life  and  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul,  ii,  83).  The  appointment  was  much  as 
follows :  at  the  beginning  of  every  year  (i.  e.  about  the 
autumnal  equinox),  each  of  the  cities  of  Asia  held  a 
public  assembly,  in  order  to  nominate  one  of  their  cit- 
izens as  asiarch  (Spanheim,  Be  usu  cl  prastant.  num. 
p.  694).  A  person  was  then  sent  to  the  general  coun- 
cil of  the  province,  at  some  one  of  the  principal  cities, 
as  Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Sardis,  etc.,  to  announce  the  name 
of  the  individual  who  had  been  selected  (JEA.  Arist.  p. 
344  sq.,  cd.  Jebb  ;  p.  613  sq.,  ed.  Cant).  Of  the  persons 
thus  nominated  by  the  cities  the  council  designated  ten. 
As  the  asiarchs  arc  repeatedly  mentioned  in  the  plural, 
some  suppose  that  the  whole  ten  presided  as  a  college 
over  the  sacred  rites  (comp.  Strabo,  xiv,  649).  But  in 
Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.  iv,  15)  Polycarp  is  said  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom  when  "Philip  was  asiarch  and 
Statius  Quadratus  proconsul  of  Asia ;"  from  which  and 
other  circumstances  it  is  deemed  more  probable  that, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  irenarch,  the  names  of  the  ten 
nominated  by  the  general  council  were  submitted  to 
the  proconsul,  who  chose  one  of  the  number  to  be 
asiarch  (see  Vales,  in  loc. ;  Deyling,  Observ.  iii,  379 
sq.).  Kuinoel  (at  Acts  xix,  31)  admits  that  one  chos- 
en by  the  proconsul  was  pre-eminently  the  asiarch,  but 
conceives  that  the  other  nine  acted  as  his  assessors, 
and  also  bore  that  title.  Others,  however,  think  the 
plurality  of  asiarchs  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  sup- 
posing that  those  who  had  served  the  office  continued 
to  bear  the  title,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Jewish  high- 
priests  ;  but  the  other  branch  of  the  alternative  is  usu- 
ally preferred.  It  is  probal  de  that  in  the  course  of  time 
changes  were  made  in  the  office,  which  our  fragmentary 
information  does  not  enable  us  to  trace ;  and  that  the 
solitary  testimony  of  Eusebius  amounts  to  no  more 
than  that  one  asiarch,  Philip,  then  and  there  presided 
at  the  public  games,  but  not  that  the  arrangements  of 
all  the  games  were  made  and  provided  by  that  one 
asiarch.  Even  the  college  of  these  officers  appear  to 
have  had  jurisdiction  in  Proconsular  Asia  (q.  v.)  only, 
for  we  find  mention  of  similar  functionaries  in  the  oth- 
er provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  e.  g.  Bithyniarch,  Gala- 
tarch,  Lyciarch,  Cariarch,  etc.  (Strabo,  xiv,  3;  Mala- 
las,  p.  285,  289,  ed.  Bonn),  and  likewise  in  other  parts 
of  the  Roman  empire,  e.  g.  Syriarch  (Liban.  Ep.  1217), 
Phoeniciarch,  Cypriarch  (2  Mace,  xii,  2),  etc.,  each 
charged  with  similar  duties  in  their  respective  districts 
(see  the  Hall.  Encycl.  iii,  284  sq.).  There  is  no  ground 
for  the  supposition  of  Schottgen  (Miscel.  Lips,  v,  178 
sq.),  that  the  asiarchs  wore  city  magistrates,  having 
appellate  or  superior  jurisdiction  over  the  decisions  of 
local  courts :  they  should  by  no  means  be  confounded 
with  the  archon,  or  chief  magistrate  of  Ephesus ;  for 
they  were  representatives,  not  of  a  single  city,  but  of 
many  cities  united.  This  notion  of  the  asiarchs  is 
confirmed  by  a  medal  of  Rhodes,  struck  under  Ha- 
drian, on  the  reverse  of  which  we  read,  "A  coin 
struck  in  common  by  thirteen  cities,  in  honor  of  the 
magistrate  of  Rhodes,  ClaudioFronto,  asiarch  and  high- 
priest  of  the  thirteen  cities."  The  office  might  be  tilled 
by  the  same  person  several  times  (Ackennan,  Num.  III. 


ASIATIC  BRETHREN 


471 


ASMOD^EUS 


p.  51).  Their  place  of  res- 
idence was  at  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  Sardis,  Cyzicus, 
or  at  any  other  city  where 
the  council  washeld.  Their 
office  was  thus,  in  a  great 
measure  at  least,  religious, 
and  they  arc,  in  conse- 
quence, sometimes  called 
"priests"  (apxtEpuc),  and 
their  office  a  "  priesthood" 

(iinwavi'ii)  (Mart.  S.  Polii- 
Coin  of  llypa-pa  m  I.ydia  :    a  .       „v        ,  91\ 

military  ii-ure  pourin-  tin  ™'P-  ln  ratr-  AP-  c-  -1> 
contents  of  a  patera  upon  an  Probably  it  represented  the 
altar  with  the  fire  kindled,  religious  element  of  the  an- 
while  Victory  places  a  gar-  .  t  Panionian  League, 
land  on  his  head :  legend  (in  .  "      ! 

Greek),  "Of  the  Hypaepeni-  to  tne  territorial  limits  ot 
ans  under  Menander,  second  which  also  the  circle  of  the 
time  Asiarch  and  Praetor."  functions  of  the  asiarchs 
nearly  corresponded  (see  Herod,  i,  142).  Coins  or  in- 
scriptions hearing  the  names  of  persons  who  had  served 
the  office  of  asiarch  one  or  more  times,  are  known  as 
belonging  to  the  following  cities :  Aphrodisias,  Cyzi- 
cus, Hypaepa,  Laodicea,  Pergamos,  Philadelphia,  Sar- 
dis, Smyrna,  Thyatira.  (Aristid.  Or.  xxvi,  518,  ed. 
Dind. ;  Eckhel,  ii,  507  ;  iv,  207  ;  Bockb,  Inscr.  vol.  ii ; 
Krause,  Civitates  Ncocor.ce,  p.  71;  Wetstein,  On  Acts 
XIX ;  Herod,  v,  38  ;  Hammond,  On  X.  T.  in  loc.) 

These  chiefs,  then  holding  such  games  at  Ephesus, 
out  of  friendly  consideration  for  Paul,  restrained  him 
from  appearing,  as  he  proposed,  in  the  theatre,  during 
the  sedition  raised  by  Demetrius,  the  goldsmith,  respect- 
ing Diana  of  Ephesus  (Acts  xix,  31).  The  considera- 
tion of  these  asiarchs  for  the  Apostle  Paul,  during  the 
tumult,  is  not  only  extremely  honorable  to  his  charac- 
ter and  to  theirs,  but  is  also  a  strong  confirmation  of 
the  remark  made  by  the  evangelist  (ver.  10),  that  "all 
they  who  dwelt  in  Asia  heard  the  word  of  the  Lord, 
both  Jews  and  Greeks"  (see  Conybeare  and  Ilowson, 
ii,  86).  It  shows  also  in  what  light  the  tumult  of  De- 
metrius was  beheld,  since  he  took  especial  care  to 
observe  that  "all  Asia"  worshipped  their  goddess. 
Yet  were  the  very  asiarchs,  now  engaged  in  this  wor- 
ship, intent  on  saving  the  man  whom  Demetrius  repre- 
sented as  its  most  formidable  enemy  (Carstens,  De 
Asiarchis  Paulo  quondam  amicis,  Lubee.  1744).  See 
generally  Salmas.  ad  SoL'n.  40,  p.  566  ;  Van  Dale,  Dis- 
sert, ad  antiq.  et  marmor.  p.  273  sq. ;  Carstens,  Meditat. 
gubseciv.  spec,  ii  (Lubec.  1744);  Ziebich,  Observ.  e  nu- 
mis  antiq.  sacr.  (Viteb.  1745),  p.  36  sq. ;  Smith's  Diet. 
of  ('hiss.  Ant.  s.  v.;  and  the  treatises  De  Asiarchis, 
of  Boysen  (Hal.  1716),  Lintrup  (Hafn.  1715),  Siber 
(Viteb.  1683),  Sontag  (Altorf,  1712),  and  Wesseling 
(Utr.  1753). 

Asiatic  Brethren,  a  secret  society  greatly  re- 
sembling the  Kosicrucians  (q.  v.).  It  arose  in  Austria 
in  1780,  spread  throughout  German}',  applied  itself 
chief]}'  to  cabalistics  and  theosophy,  and  occasioned 
many  frauds.  Baron  Ecker  von  Eckhofen  and  one 
Boheman  at  Stockholm  were  the  principal  defenders 
of  this  order.  See  Die  Bruder  St.  Johannis  des  Evany, 
aus  Asien  (Berl.  1830). 

Asibi'as  (Aatftiac,  comp.  Asebia,  1  Esdr.  viii,  48), 
one  of  the  Israelites  who  renounced  his  Gentile  wife 
after  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  ix,  26) ;  doubtless  a  cor- 
ruption for  the  MalChijah  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text 
(Ezra  x,  25). 

A'siel,  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Heb.  AsieT,  iK^fe)?,  created  by  God;  Sept. 
Ao-u'/X.)  The  father  of  Seraiah,  and  progenitor  of  one 
of  the  Simeonite  chiefs  that  expelled  the  Hamite  abo- 
rigines from  the  fertile  valleys  near  Gedor  in  the  time 
of  Hezekiah  (1  Chron.  iv,  35).     B.C.  ante  712. 

2.  (Vulg.  Asiel,  for  the  Greek  text  is  not  extant.) 
The  last  named  of  the  five  scribes  whom  the  divine 
voice  is  represented,  in  the  fanciful  vision  of  2  Esdr. 


xiv,  24,  as  directing  Ezra  to  bring  for  the  purpose  of 
recording  the  revelation  about  to  be  communicated  to 
him. 

Asinaeus  (AcnvaToc),  a  Jew  during  the  captivity 
at  Babylon,  of  whose  exploits,  in  connection  with  his 
brother  Anilseus  ('AwAaioc),  in  raising  himself  from 
obscurity  to  the  chief  power  in  the  province  of  Meso- 
potamia, and  of  whose  reverses  afterward  in  conse- 
quence of  an  idolatrous  marriage,  Josephus  gives  a  de- 
tailed but  apparently  apocryphal  account  (Ant.  xviii, 
9). 

As'ipha  ('Ao-(0d),  one  of  the  family-heads  of  the 
"temple-servants"  that  returned  from  Babylon  (1 
Esdr.  v,  "29) ;  evidently  the  Hasupha  (q.  v.)  of  the 
true  text  (Ezra  ii,  43). 

As'kelon  (Judg.  i,  18).     See  Ashkelon. 

Askew,  Anne  (otherwise  Ascough  or  Ascue),  born 
in  1521,  was  second  daughter  of  Sir  Wm.  Askew,  of  Lin- 
colnshire. By  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  she  became  a 
convert  to  the  opinions  of  the  Reformers,  at  which  her 
husband,  one  Kyme,  a  papist,  turned  her  out  of  doors. 
She  came  up  to  London  to  sue  for  a  separation,  and 
appears  to  have  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of  some 
ladies  high  at  court.  She  was  soon  accused  of  heresy 
and  committed  to  prison.  Being  examined  before  the 
Bishop  of  London  and  others,  she  is  said  to  have  re- 
plied boldly  to  the  lord-mayor's  question,  "Whether 
the  priests  cannot  make  the  body  of  Christ?"  "I 
have  read  that  God  made  man ;  but  that  man  can  make 
God  I  never  yet  read"  (Strype,  Memorials,  i,  387). 
Yet  it  is  said  by  Burnet  that  "after  much  pains  she 
set  her  hand  to  a  recantation,  by  which  she  acknowl- 
edged that  the  natural  body  of  Christ  was  present  in 
the  sacrament  after  the  consecration,  whether  the 
priest  were  a  good  or  an  ill  man  ;  and  that,  whether  it 
was  presently  consumed  or  reserved  in  the  pix,  it  was 
the  true  body  of  Christ"  {Hist,  of  Reformation,  bk.  iii). 
Her  recantation,  however,  was  not  effectual,  for  she 
was  soon  apprehended  again  ;.nd  committed  to  New- 
gate, where  she  was  again  strictly  questioned  as  to 
what  ladies  at  court  had  shown  her  favor  and  encour- 
agement. She  was  placed  on  the  rack  and  cruelly 
tortured  in  the  sight,  and,  as  Fox  says,  by  the  hand  of 
the  Lord  Chancellor  Wriothesly,  whose  eagerness  in 
this  matter  is  ascribed  to  his  desire  to  gain  some  ground 
of  offence  against  the  Duchess  of  Suffolk,  the  ( lountess 
of  Hertford,  or  some  other  ladies.  But  her  patience 
and  fortitude  could  not  be  shaken.  She  was  burnt 
with  four  others  at  the  stake  in  Smithfield,  July  16, 
1546.  She  wrote  several  works,  one  of  which  is  en- 
titled Eraminationes  piec. — Penny  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Fox, 
Book  of  Martyrs,  p.  600-614 ;  Burnet,  Hist,  of  Reforma- 
tion, bk.  i,  p.  547. 

Aslac,  Conrad,  a  learned  Danish  divine,  born  at 
Bergen,  in  Norway,  in  1564,  studied  at  Copenhagen, 
and  in  the  years  1593-99  travelled  through  Germany, 
Switzerland,  France,  England,  and  Ireland.  He  re- 
turned to  Copenhagen  in  1600,  and  professed  the  He- 
brew, Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  and  theology.  He 
died  in  1624,  leaving  among  other  works :  1.  A  Treat- 
ise on  Election  (Danish,  Copenhagen,  1612,  8vo) : — 2. 
Physica  et  Ethica  Mosaica  (Hanau,  1613)  :— 3.  De  Di- 
j  cendi  et.  Dissercndi  Ratione,  lib.  iii  (Copenhagen,  1612, 
4to.  This  book  is  placed  on  the  Roman  Index'): — 4. 
De  Christo  vero  Deo  et  Homine  in  una  Indivisa,  Persona, 
etc.  (Frankfort,  1620,  8vo) :— 5.  De  Statu  Christ!  ante 
Incarnationem  et  in  Incarwtione  (Copenhagen,  1022, 
4to) :— 6.  Oratio  de  Statu  Religionis  in  Dania,  ab  1517 
ad  1628  (Copenhagen,  1631,  4to)  :— 7.  De  Religionis 
per  Lutherum  Plantatione  in  Daniam  et  Norvegiam 
(Copenhagen,  1620,  4to) ;  besides  many  disputations, 
etc.,  on  Free  Will,  Original  Sin,  the  Creation,  etc. 

Asmodae'us  (AofioSaToe'),  a  daemon  or  evil  spirit 
mentioned  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Tobit  (iii,  8)  as 
having  become  enamored  of  Sara,  the  daughter  of 
Kagucl,  and  killed  the  seven  husbands  whom  she  had 


ASMONJEAN  4 

married  (Tob.  vi,  14),  but  as  being  put  to  flight  by 
the  charm  used  by  Tobias  on  his  marriage  with  her 
(Tub.  viii,  2,  3).  The  rabbins  have  a  number  of  absurd 
traditions  respecting  Asmodaeus  ("H-rrX  or  ^S^a^K, 
Talm.  Getten,  lxviii,  1)  as  a  libidinous  daemon  (comp. 
Gen.  vi,  1),  and  indeed  the  Talmudists  represent  him 
as  the  prince  of  devils,  even  Satan  himself  (see  Eisen- 
menger,  Enid.  Jul  nth.  ii,  410;  Lightfoot,  Ilor.  Ilebr. 
ad  Luc.  xi,  15).  Hence  Beelzebub  has  been  supposed 
tn  refer  to  the  same  daemon.  But  a  similar  title  they 
also  give  to  "  the  angel  of  death,"  as  the  destroyer  of 
all  mankind ;  hence  some  derive  the  name  Asmodaeus 
from  the  Hebrew  Ted,  shamad' ',  to  exterminate,  which 
identifies  it  also  with  Abaddon  (q.  v.),  the  same  as 
Apollyon  (Rev.  ix,  11,  where  he  is  called  "a  king, 
the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit"),  and  6  '0\o9pevu)i>, 
Wisd.  xviii,  25,  where  he  is  represented  as  the  "evil 
angel"  (Psa.  lxxviii,  40)  of  the  plague  (Schleusner's 
Thesaur.  s.  v.),  the  angel  of  death  (see  Ilgen,  zu  Tob. 
p.  42).  Thus  the  story  in  Tobit  means  no  more  than 
that  the  seven  husbands  died  successively  on  their 
marriage  with  Sara.  (For  other  interpretations,  see 
Fritzsche,  Comment,  p.  38.)  Others,  however  (Ge- 
senius,  Alg.  Lit.  Zeit.  1815,  No.  123  ;  De  Wette,  Bibl. 
Theol.  p.  146 ;  Reland,  Ant.  Sacr.  iv,  6),  rather  refer  it 
to  the  Persic  word  azmadan,  to  tempt  (Castelli  Lex. 
Pers.  col.  24  sq.).  In  the  book  of  Tobit,  this  evil 
spirit  is  represented  as  causing,  through  jealousy,  the 
death  of  Sara's  seven  husbands  in  succession  on  the 
bridal  night ;  gaining  the  power  to  do  so  (as  is  hinted) 
through  their  incontinence.  Tobias,  instructed  by 
Raphael,  burns  on  "the  ashes  of  perfume"  the  heart 
and  liver  of  the  fish  which  he  caught  in  the  Tigris; 
"the  which  smell  when  the  evil  spirit  had  smelled,  he 
fled  into  the  utmost  parts  of  E-jypt,  and  the  angel 
bound  him"  (Tob.  viii,  3).  It  is  obviously  a  vain  en- 
deavor to  attempt  to  rationalize  this  story,  since  it  is 
throughout  founded  on  Jewish  daemonology,  and  "  the 
loves  of  the  angels,"  a  strange  fancy  derived  from 
Gen.  vi,  2.  Those,  however,  who  attempt  this  task 
make  Asmodaeus  the  daemon  of  impurity,  and  suppose 
merely  that  the  fumes  deadened  the  passions  of  Tobias 
and  bis  wife.  The  rabbins  (among  other  odd  fables) 
make  this  daemon  the  offspring  of  the  incest  of  Tubal- 
cain  with  his  sister  Noema,  and  say  (in  allusion  to 
Solomon's  many  wives)  that  Asmodaeus  once  drove 
him  from  his  kingdom,  but,  being  dispossessed,  was 
forced  to  serve  in  building  the  Temple,  which  he  did 
noiselessly,  by  means  of  a  mysterious  stone  Shamir 
(Calmet,  s.  v.  and  Fragments,  p.  271,  where  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  fanciful  and  groundless  speculation). 
See  generally  Wichmann,  De  Asmodmo  spiritu  ma- 
ligno  avSpuiiroKTOvtft  (Lub.  lOOli)  ;  Hosum,  Di  Aschmo- 
dcEo  dcemonio  maligna  (Hafn.  1709);  Neubauer,  De  an- 
gelo  mortis  cr  mente  Ebr.  et  Muhzmmedanorum  (Hal. 
17.12);  Hezel,  Schrijftforscher  (Giess.  1792),  ii,  1  sq. ; 
Calmet's  Dissertation  on  the  dcemon  Asmodmis  (trans- 
lated in  Arnald's  Commentary  on  the  Apocrypha)  ;  Ode, 
De  Angelis,  p.  Gil  Bq.     See  Demon. 

Asmonaean  (^AaafiuvaJoc,  'Avcrapiovaloc,  Joseph. 
Ant.  xii,  G,  1  sq. ;  in  Joseph.  Gorionid.  plur.  D^Waft 
Chashmonim' ;  more  fully  "Wrrrn  r^n,  Jonathan's 
Targ.  on  1  Sam.  ii,  4;  comp.  Arab,  chaskim,  noble,- 
C^p'rn,  Psa.  lxviii,  82;  fat  ones,  i.  e.  opulent),  the 
proper  designation  of  the  family  of  the  priest  Mattathi- 
as,  wlio-'  Bona  became  better  known  by  the  surname 
of  tli  ■  Maccabees.  (For  the  linear  and  history  of  the 
Asmonseans  in  full,  see  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.") 
See  Jdda8  Macoab*08.  With  Mattathias(B.C.  167) 
began  tli  •  exploits  of  the  Asroonseans  in  delivering  the 
Jewish  people  from  the  oppressive  yoke  of  the  Syrian 
Seleucidae,  which  was  accomplished  by  Jonathan,  son 
of  Matt.it  bias  already  a  high-priest  in  rank — a  dignity 
that  was  now  attached  t<>  thai  of  Syrian  "meridareh." 
Simon,  another  sou  of  Mattathiua,  became  himself  he- 


2  ASOR 

reditary  prince  of  the  Jews.  His  grandson  Aristobu- 
lus assumed  the  diadem,  and  the  royal  dynasty  of  the 
Asmonaeans  continued  on  the  Jewish  throne  till  the  in- 
terference of  Pompey  in  Jewish  affairs.  Aristobulus 
II,  the  third  king  of  the  Asmonaean  line,  was  dethroned 
by  the  Romans,  and  upon  his  sons  devolved  the  peril- 
ous endeavor  of  regaining  their  ancestral  crown,  but 
without  permanence.  They  both  paid  therefor  the  pen- 
alty of  their  lives,  the  last  being  Antigonus  (whom  An- 
tony caused  to  be  beheaded  at  Antioch,  Joseph.  Ant. 
xv,  1,  2), with  whom  the  Asmonaean  dynasty  expired, 
after  a  duration  of  126  years,  in  the  consulship  of  M. 
Vips.  Agrippa  and  Canin.  Gallus,  i.  e.  B.C.  37  (see 
Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  16,  4).  The  two  surviving  members 
of  the  family,  Aristobulus  and  Mariamne,  grandchil- 
dren of  Aristobulus  II,  appear,  it  is  true,  at  first  to 
have  striven  to  maintain  a  position  in  life  under  the 
Herodian  sway  suitable  to  their  rank;  but  they  soon 
fell  under  the  suspicion  of  King  Herod,  and,  with  the 
assassination  of  Mariamne,  the  family  of  the  Asmonae- 
ans  likewise  became  extinct  (apparently  after  Herod's 
return  from  Antioch,  where  he  had  met  Octavianus  on 
his  return  from  Egypt,  B.C.  29 ;  Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  7,  4). 
The  exploits  of  the  Maccabees  under  Simon  are  related 
in  the  books  of  the  Apocrypha  that  bear  their  name 
(1  and  2  Mace,  among  the  Jews,  n^XSTa'i'n  "HB&, 
books  of  the  Chashmonceans ;  see  Eichhorn,  Einl.  in  die 
Apokr.  Schr.  A.  T.  p.  208  sq. ;  Jahn,  II,  iv,  949  sq. ; 
Bertholdt,  iii,  1036) ;  but  the  complete  history  of  the 
Asmonaeans  is  given  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xii,  6  to  xiv, 
16),  who  was  himself  a  descendant  of  their  lineage  (Ant. 
xvi,  7,  1).     See  Maccabee. 

As'nah  (Heb.  Asnah',  f!2DX,  peril,  hateful,  or 
thor?i,  otherwise  store-house ;  Sept.  'Aaevd),  the  head 
of  one  of  the  families  of  the  Nethinim  that  returned 
from  the  Babylonian  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii,  50).     B.C.  ante  536. 

Asnap'per  (Chald.  Osnappar',  ~iB3C)X;  some 
MSS.  "I230X,  Asenappar' ',  whence  Sept.  'Ajaivatyap 
v.  r.  N«0«p;  Vulg.  Asenaphar),  the  name  of  an  As- 
syrian king  or  satrap  who  is  said  to  have  planted  col- 
onies (probably  from  some  distant  conquered  terri- 
tory) in  Samaria,  or  perhaps  other  parts  of  Palestine 
and  Syria  (Ezra  iv,  10).  On  the  supposition  that  a 
king  of  Assyria  is  meant,  and  by  comparison  with  2 
Kings  xvii,  24,  many  (with  Grotius)  identify  him  with 
Shalmaneser;  others  (as  Rosenmuller,  Alterth.  I,  ii, 
109;  Hengstenberg,  Authent.  Dan.  p.  178)  understand 
Esarhaddon  (comp.  Ezra  iv,  2  ;  so  Michaelis  ;  but  see 
on  the  contrary  Herzfeld,  Gesch.  d.  Yolks  Israel,  i, 
473) ;  while  most  of  the  Jewish  interpreters  assume 
Sennacherib  to  be  meant.  He  was  probably,  how- 
ever, only  a  satrap  of  some  of  the  Assyrian  provinces 
(B.C.  cir.  712),  and  the  epithet  applied  to  him  in  the 
passage  in  Ezra  (Xl"1^!  KSl1!,  the  great  and  the  ex- 
cellent, i.  e.  most  eminent  [comp.  koc'itigtoc,  Luke  i,  3]  ; 
Auth.  Vers.  "  the  great  and  noble")  is  apparently  the 
usual  title  of  persons  in  that  capacity,  heimj;  indeed 
perhaps  the  translation  of  the  official  title  Osnapper 
itself  (OX  =  Sanscrit  osna,  great ;  "iQ  =  Sanscrit  para, 
noble;  see  Luzath,  Le  Sanscrit/sme  de  la  langue  Assy- 
rienne,  p.  38-40).  Bohlen,  on  the  other  hand,  com- 
pares Sanscrit  Senapa,  leader  of  an  army  ;  according 
to  which  the  name  would  become  merely  a  designa- 
tion of  an  Assyrian  general. 

A'som  (\m'i/i),  one  of  the  Israelites  whose  "sons" 
had  taken  foreign  wives  on  the  return  from  Babylon 
(1  Esdr.  ix,  33)  ;  evidently  the  Hasiium  (q.  v.)  of  the 
true  text  (Ezra  X,  33). 

A'sor  (Aawp),  a  plain  in  Galilee  near  the  Sea  of 
Gennesaret  (1  Mace,  xi,  67,  according  to  the  Vulg.  and 
Syr.  ;  the  common  Greek  has  Kamop,  Auth.  Vers. 
"Nasor;"  but  the  initial  v  has  apparently  been  bor- 
rowed from  the  preceding  irtSiov),  probably  Razor 


ASP 


473 


ASPALATHUS 


(Tl5jn,  which  is  thus  Grascized  in  the  Sept.),  in  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali  (comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  xiii,  5,  7).  See 
Hazor. 

Asp  CjflB,  pe'tken,  so  called  probably  from  extend- 
ing itself,  Deut.  xxxii,  33;  Job  xx,  14,  1G ;  Isa.  xi, 
8;  "adder,"  Psa.  lviii,  4;  xci,  13 ;  obttiq,  Rom.  iii,  3), 
a  venomous  kind  of  serpent,  perhaps  correctly  desig- 
nated by  this  rendering,  since  the  Chald.,  Syr.,  and 
Arabic  equivalents  appear  to  denote  some  member  of 
the  Coluber  family  (see  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  p.  1140). 
Bocbart  (Ilieroz.  iii,  156,  ed.  Lips.)  incorrectlj-  refers 
to  the  Syr.  name  for  dragon  (comp.  his  treatise  De 
aspide  surda  ad  Psa.  lviii,  5,  ibid.  p.  161  sq:).  Kitto 
(Pict.  Bible,  at  Job  xx,  14)  compares  the  bceten  of  the 
Arabs,  called  by  the  Cyprians  hifi  (Kwfi),  deaf,  comp. 
Psa.  lviii,  4).  This  reptile,  which  more  exactly  cor- 
responds in  name  to  the  Heb.,  is  thus  described  by 
Forskal  (Descr.  Anim.  p.  15)  :  "  Spotted  all  over  with 
black  and  white  ;  a  foot  long,  and  about  twice  as  thick 
as  one's  thumb ;  oviparous ;  the  bite  instantly  fatal, 
causing  the  body  to  swell."  See  Adder.  The  "asp" 
is  often  mentioned  by  ancient  authors  (see  Smith's 


Asp  as  Aijatliinkcmon,  or  tu- 
telary Spirit,  at  the  en- 
trance of  an  ancient  Egyp- 
tian Store-house. 


The  Asp  (.Haje):  1,  at  rest; 

Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Aspis),  but  in  such  vague 
terms  (except  that  they  agree  in  its  extreme  venom, 
whence  it  was  selected  by  Cleopatra  as  the  surest  and 
speediest  means  of  her  suicide)  that  little  can  be  posi- 
tively determined  respecting  it,  if  indeed  several  spe- 
cies of  serpent  are  not  thus  designated.  From  the  de- 
scription of  Pliny,  however  (His/.  Nat.  viii,  35),  nat- 
uralists have  generally  fixed  upon  the  el-Eaje  (<<r 
Nasher,  described  by  Forskal,  Anim.  p.  14)  of  the 
Arabs  (Vipcra  Haje  of  Daudin)  as  representing  the 
ancient  asp.  It  is  from  three  to  five  feet  in  length, 
of  a  dark  green  color,  marked  obliquely  with  bands  of 


brown,  and  closely  allied  to  the  celebrated  cobra-de-ca- 
pello  of  India  in  its  power  of 
swelling  the  neck  when  ir- 
ritated, and  of  rising  on  its 
tail  in  striking  its  prey  (see 
Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.). 
It  is  often  figured  as  a  sa- 
cred symbol  on  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments  under  the 
name  Kneph  (Rawlinson's 
Herodotus,  ii,  105).  See 
I  Serpent. 

Aspal'athus  (dff7r«A«(?oc),  a  word  which  occurs 
|  only  in  Ecclus.  xxiv,  15,  of  the  Apocrypha,  where  the 
substance  which  it  indicates  is  enumerated  with  other 
spices  and  perfumes  to  which  wisdom  is  compared.  It 
was  no  doubt  one  of  the  drugs  employed  by  the  an- 
cients as  a  perfume  and  incense,  as  it  is  described  by 
Dioscorides  (i,  19),  as  well  as  enumerated  by  Theo- 
phrastus  (ix,  7),  and  by  both  among  aromatic  sub- 
stances. It  forms  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  cyj  h:, 
or  compound  incense  made  use  of  by  the  Egyptian 
priests,  as  related  both  by  Plutarch  and  Dioscorides. 
From  the  notices  in  the  classical  authors  (comp. 
Theogn.  1103  ;  Theocr.  xxiv,  87  ;  Plin.  xii,  24,  52)  we 
can  only  gather  that  it  was  a  thorny  shrub,  whose  bark, 
especially  of  the  roots,  yielded  a  fragrant  oil.  In  the 
Arabian  works  on  husbandry  the  plant  is  stated  to 
\  have  an  acid  taste,  and  to  bear  a  purple  flower,  but  no 
fruit  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.).  Lig- 
num Rhodium  is  sometimes  considered  to  be  one  of 
the  kinds  of  aspalathus  described  by  Dioscorides,  but 
\  this  is  a  produce  of  the  Canary  Islands,  and  of  the 
j  plant  called  Convolvulus  scoparius.  By  others  as- 
palathus, which  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  same 
thing  as  Syrian  aloe,  or  that  of  Rhodes  and  of  Candia, 
is  thought  to  have  been  yielded  by  species  of  the  genus 
which  has  been  called  Aspalathus,  and  especially  by 
the  species  A.  Creticns,  which  is  now  called  Anthyllis 
Hermanniw;  but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  sufficient 
proof  of  this.  Others  again  have  held  that  aspalathus 
was  a  kind  of  agallochum  [see  Aloe],  and  Dr.  Harris 
(sub.  Lign. — aloe)  seems  to  have  thought  that  he  got 
rid  of  a  difficulty  by  suggesting  that  ahalim,  which 
was  probably  agallochum,  should  be  rendered  Aspal- 
athus. Aral)  authors,  as  Avicenna  and  Serapion,  give 
Dar-shishan  as  the  Arabic  synonym  of  aspalathus. 
They  quote  some  of  their  own  countrymen  as  authori- 
ties respecting  it,  in  addition  to  Galen  and  Dioscorides. 
Hence  it  would  appear  to  have  been  a  product  of  the 
East  rather  than  of  the  "West,  as  for  such  they  usually 
give  only  the  Greek  name  or  its  translation,  and 
quote  only  Greek  authorities.  Avicenna,  in  addition 
to  his  description,  says  that  some  think  it  may  be  the 
root  of  Indian  nard.  Hence  it  may  justty  be  inferred 
that  Dar-shishan,  which  the  Arabians  thought  to  be 
aspalathus,  must  have  come  to  them  from  India,  or 
they  would  not  have  hazarded  this  supposition.  In 
India  the  name  Dar-shishan  is  applied  to  the  bark  of 
a  tree  which  is  called  haiphul  or  Tcyphul.  This  tree  is 
a  native  of  the  Himalayan  Mountains  from  Nepal  to 
the  Sutlej,  and  has  been  figured  and  described  by  Dr. 
Wallich,  in  his  Tentamen  Flora;  Xepahnsis,  p.  59,  t. 
45,  by  the  name  Myrica  sapida,  in  consequence  of  its 
fruit,  which  is  something  like  that  of  the  arbutus, 
being  edible.  The  leaves,  on  being  rubbed,  have  a 
pleasantly  aromatic  though  faint  smell.  The  bark 
forms  an  article  of  commerce  from  the  hills  to  the 
plains,  being  esteemed  in  the  latter  as  a  valuable  stim- 
ulant medicine.  It  may  be  seen  mentioned  by  the 
name  ka-i-phul  in  Gladwin's  translation  of  the  Persian 
Ulfaz-i-Udwieh,  No.  884,  as  a  synonj'm  of  Dar-shee- 
j  shan,  which  is  described  as  an  aromatic  bark,  while  at 
No.  157  Dar-shishan  is  considered  to  be  a  synonym 
of  ishtelayus,  which  seems  to  be  a  corruption  of  aspal- 
athus from  the  errors  of  transcribers  in  the  diacritical 
I  points.     Kaiphul  has,  moreover,  been  long  celebrated 


ASPATHA 


474 


ASPHAR 


by  Sanscrit  authors,  and  it  may  therefore  have  easily 
form  (1  one  of  the  early  articles  of  commerce  from  the 
E  ist  to  the  West,  together  with  nard,  costus,  and  lycium 
from  these  mountains.— Kitto,  s.  v.      See  Spicehy. 

As'patha  (Heh.  Aspatha',  xriQOX,  prob.  San- 
scrit Aspadata,  given  by  a  horse,  i.  e.  by  Brahmah  in 
the  form  of  a  horse  [comp.  the  Persian  name  'Acnra,- 
ddrijc  or  'Arnraaic.,  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  33]  ;  Sept.  <Paayd, 
etc.),  the  third  of  the  sons  of  Hainan  slain  by  the 
Jews  of  Babylonia  (Esth.  ix,  7).     B.C.  473. 

Aspergillum  or  Aspersorium,  the  brush  or 
mop  from  which  holy  water  (q.  v.)  is  sprinkled  in  the 
Roman  Church. 

Aspersion,  (1.)  a  name  given  by  the  early  writers 
to  baptism  by  pouring  or  sprinkling.     See  Baptism. 

(2.)  In  the  Roman  Church,  sprinkling  of  person  or 
things  with  the  so-called  holy  water  is  called  "  asper- 
sion." The  water  is  mixed  with  salt,  and  blessed  by 
a  given  form  of  benediction  for  use  in  the  church  or 
at  the  altar. — Boissonnet,  Diet,  des  Ceremonies,  p.  105. 
See  Holy  Water. 

Asphaltites.     See  Dead  Sea. 

Asphaltum  is  probably  the  substance  denoted 
by  the  Heb.  ""ICtt,  chemar' ;  Arab,  chomar  (Sept-  ua- 
<l>a\Tog,  Auth.  Vers.  "  slime,"  Gen.  xi,  3 ;  xiv,  10  ; 
Exod.  ii,  3,  where  Luther,  like  the  modern  rabbins, 
translates  by  "clay").  The  Hebrew  and  Arabic 
names  probably  refer  to  the  reddish  color  of  some  of 
the  specimens  (Dioscorides,  i,  99).  (The  Greek  name, 
whence  the  Latin  asphaltum,  has  doubtless  given 
name  to  the  Lake  Asphaltites  [Dead  Sea],  whence  it 
was  abundantly  obtained.)  Usually,  however,  asphal- 
tum, or  compact  bitumen,  is  of  a  shining  black  color; 
it  is  solid  and  brittle,  with  a  conchoidal  fracture,  alto- 
gether not  unlike  common  pitch.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  from  1  to  1.6,  and  it  consists  chiefly  of  bituminous 
oil,  hydrogen  gas,  and  charcoal.  It  is  found  partly 
as  a  solid  dry  fos.il,  intermixed  in  layers  of  plaster, 
marl,  or  slate,  and  partly  as  liquid  tar  flowing  from 
cavities  in  rocks  or  in  the  earth,  or  swimming  upon 
the  surface  of  lakes  or  natural  wells  (Burckhardt,  ii, 
77).  To  judge  from  Gen.  xiv,  10,  mines  of  asphaltum 
must  have  existed  formerly  on  the  spot  where  subse- 
quently the  Dead  Sea,  or  Lake  Asphaltites,  was  form- 
ed, such  as  Mariti  (Travels,  iv,  27)  discovered  on  the 
western  shore  of  that  sea.  The  Palestine  earth-pitch, 
however,  seems  to  have  had  the  preference  over  all 
the  other  sorts  (Plin.  xxviii,  23 ;  Discor.  i,  100).  It 
was  used  among  the  ancients  partly  for  covering  boats, 
paying  the  bottoms  of  vessels  (comp.  "Nicbuhr,  ii,  336  ; 
Cen.  vi,  14;  Exod.  ii,  3;  Josephus,  War,  iv,  8,  4; 
Buckingham,  Mesopot.  p.  346),  and  partly  as  a  substi- 
tute for  mortar  in  buildings;  and  it  is  thought  that 
tli.'  bricks  of  which  the  walls  of  Babylon  were  built 
(Km.  xi,  3;  Strabo,  xvi,  743;  Herod,  i,  179;  Plin. 
xxxv,  51;  Ammian.  Marcell.  xxiii,  fi;  Virtruv.  viii, 
.".:  comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  i,  4,  :;)  had  been  cemented 
with  hot  bitumen,  which  imparted  to  them  great  solid- 
ity. In  ancient  Babylon  asphaltum  was  made  use  of 
also  lor  fuel,  as  the  environs  (in  the  place  called  7s  or 
//</,  Bee  D'Herbelot,  Bibl.  Orient,  s.  v.  Hit)  have  from 

11 arlies(  'i""1-  been  renowned  for  the  abundance  of 

,'"t  substance  (Diod.  Sicii,  12;  Herod,  i,  179;  Dion. 
Cass.  Ixvffi,  26;  Strabo,  xiv,  8,  4  ;  Plut.  Alex.  c.  35; 
Theodoret,  Quaest.  in  Genes.  50;  Ritter,  Erdk.  ii  345- 
Buckingham,  Mesopot.  p.  346).  Neither  were  the  an- 
cient -leu-  unacquainted  with  the  medicinal  properties 
"t  that  mineral  (Josephus,  War,  iv,  8,  4).  Asphaltum 
f"  al8°  U8ed  an«>ng  the  ancient  Egyptians  for  em- 
balming the  dead.  Strabo  (xvi)  and  many  other  an- 
cient and  modern  writers  assert  that  only  the  asphalt 
of  the  Dead  Sea  was  used  for  that  purpose;  but  it  has 
1,1  """'■'  recenl  times  been  proved,  from  experiments 
mad.'  on  mummies,  that  tin'  Egyptians  employed  slag- 
gy  mineral  pitch  in  embalming  the  dead.     This  opera- 


tion was  performed  in  three  different  ways:  first,  with 
slangy  mineral  pitch  alone;  second,  with  a  mixture 
of  this  bitumen  and  a  liquor  extracted  from  the  cedar, 
called  cedoria ;  and  third,  with  a  similar  mixture,  to 
which  resinous  and  aromatic  substances  were  added 
(Hatty,  Mineral,  ii,  315).      See  Bitumen. 

Asphaltum  is  found  in  masses  on  the  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  or  floating  on  the  surface  of  its  waters.  Dr. 
Shaw  (Travels  in  Barbai-y  and  the  Levant)  was  told 
that  this  bitumen,  for  which  the  Dead  Sea  is  so  famous, 
rises  at  certain  times  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in 
large  pieces  of  semi-globular  form,  which,  as  soon  as 
the}'  touch  the  surface  and  the  external  air  operates 
upon  them,  burst  asunder  in  a  thousand  pieces  with  a 
terrible  crash,  like  the  pulcis  fulminans  of  the  chemists. 
This,  however,  he  continues,  only  occurs  along  the 
shore  ;  for  in  deep  water  it  is  supposed  that  these  erup- 
tions show  themselves  in  large  columns  of  smoke,  which 
are  often  seen  to  rise  from  the  lake.  The  fact  of  the 
ascending  smoke  has  been  much  questioned  by  natu- 
ralists ;  and  although  apparently  confirmed  by  the  tes- 
timonies of  various  travellers,  collected  1  y  Bi'isching 
in  his  Erdbeschreibung,  it  is  not  established  by  the  more 
observant  travellers  of  recent  years.  Pococke  (De- 
scription of  the  East,  etc.,  ii,  46)  presumes  that  the 
thick  clumps  of  asphalt  collected  at  the  bottom  of  the 
lake  have  been  brought  up  by  subterranean  fire,  and 
afterward  melted  by  the  agitation  of  the  waters.  Also 
Strabo  (xvi,  764)  speaks  of  subterraneous  fires  in  those 
parts  (comp.  Burckhardt,  Syria,  394).  Dr.  Robinson, 
when  in  the  neighborhood,  heard  from  the  natives  the 
same  story  which  had  previously  been  told  to  Seetzen 
and  Burckhardt,  namely,  that  the  asphaltum"  flows 
down  the  face  of  a  precipice  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
lake  until  a  large  mass  is  collected,  when,  from  its 
weight  or  some  shock,  it  breaks  off  and  falls  into  tli3 
sea  (Seetzen,  in  Zaeh's  Monatl.  Correspond,  xviii,  441 ; 
Burckhardt,  p.  394;  Robinson,  ii,  229).  This,  how- 
ever, he  strong!}'  doubts  for  assigned  reasons,  and  it 
is  agreed  that  nothing  of  the  kind  occurs  on  the  west- 
ern shore.  He  rather  inclines  to  receive  the  testimony 
of  the  local  Arabs,  who  affirm  that  the  bitumen  only 
appears  after  earthquakes.  They  allege  that  after  the 
earthquake  of  1834  huge  quantities  of  it  were  cast  upon 
the  shore,  of  which  the  Jehalin  Arabs  alone  took  about 
60  kuntars  (each  of  98  lbs.)  to  market;  and  it  was  cor- 
roboratiyely  recollected  by  the  Rev.  Eli  Smith  that  a 
large  amount  had  that  year  been  purchased  at  Beirut 
by  the  Frank  merchants.  There  was  another  earth- 
quake on  January  1,  1837,  and  soon  after  a  large  mass 
of  asphaltum  (compared  by  one  person  to  an  island, 
and  by  another  to  a  house)  was  discovered  floating  on 
the  sea,  and  was  driven  aground  on  the  western  side 
near  Usduni.  The  neighboring  Arabs  assembled,  cut 
it  up  with  axes,  removed  it  by  camel  loads,  and  sold 
it  at  the  rate  of  four  piastres  the  rutl,  or  pound ;  the 
product  is  said  to  have  been  about  $3000.  Except  dur- 
ing these  two  years,  the  sheik  of  the  Jehalin,  a  man 
fifty  years  old,  had  never  known  bitumen  appear  in 
the  sea,  nor  heard  of  it  from  his  fathers  (Robinson's 
Bib.  Researches,  ii,  230).  This  information  may  serve 
to  illustrate  the  account  of  Josephus  that  "the  sea  in 
man}-  places  sends  up  black  masses  of  asphaltum,  which 
float  on  the  surface,  having  the  form  and  size  of  head- 
less oxen"  (War,  ix,  8,  4);  and  that  of  Diodorus  (ii, 
48),  who  states  that  the  bitumen  is  thrown  up  in  mass- 
es, covering  sometimes  two  or  three  plethra,  and  hav- 
ing the  appearance  of  islands. — Kitto,  s.  v.   See  Pitch. 

As'phar  ('Acr^ap  v.  r.  'An<pa$,  1  Mace,  ix,  33),  a 
"pool"  (XaKKOC,  not  sea,  as  the  Vulg.  and  some  other 
versions  render,  but  which  often  stands  in  the  Sept. 
for  '112,  a  pit,  or  "iX2,  a  well),  i.  c.  fountain  or  cistern 
in  the  south  or  south-east  of  Palestine  (in  the  "  wilder- 
ness of  Thecoe"  or  Tekoa),  where  the  Jews  under 
Jonathan  Maecabanis  had  an  encampment  at  the  be- 
ginning of  their  struggle  with  Bacchides  (see  Joseph. 


ASPHARASUS 


475 


ASS 


Ant.  xiii,  1,  2);  meaning  doubtless  (if  the  Dead  [.4s- 
phaltic]  Sea,  as  Grotius  and  others  suppose)  some  con- 
siderable reservoirs  in  the  direction  of  Arabia  (comp. 
ver.  35),  near  the  territory  of  the  Nabathajans  (see 
Diod.  Sic.  xix,  94). 

Asphar'asus  ('A<T<papaooc;  Vulg.  Mechpsator), 
one  of  the  associates  of  Zerubbabel  in  the  return  from 
Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  8) ;  doubtless  a  corruption  of  the 
Mizi'ar  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text  (Ezra  ii,  2). 

Aspland,  Robert,  an  English  Unitarian  minister, 
born  in  1742,  educated  for  the  Calvinistic  ministry  at 
Highgate  and  Hackney,  and  afterward  at  Aberdeen, 
where  he  threw  up  his  beneficiary  scholarship  on  be- 
coming a  Unitarian  in  1800.  At  20  he  was  ordained 
pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  at  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight, 
with  liberty  to  preach  Unitarianism.  In  1805  he  was 
installed  at  Gravel  Pit  Chapel,  Hackney,  where  he  re- 
mained pastor  till  his  death,  Dec.  HO,  1845.  For  years 
he  was  a  leader  among  English  Unitarians,  edited  the 
"Monthly  Repository"  and  the  "Christian  Reform- 
er," and  published  a  number  of  sermons  and  pam- 
phlets. His  Life,  Works,  and  Correspondence  were 
published  by  his  son  (Lond.  1850,  8vo). 

As'riel  (Heb.  Asriel',  ifcO'lbX,  a  fuller  form  of 
Asarc'el;  Sept.  'Effpi'jjX),  a  son  of  Manasseh  (Josh,  xvii, 
2),  apparently  his  first  by  a  Syrian  concubine  (1  Chron. 
vii,  14,  where  the  name  is  improperly  Anglicized  "Ash- 
riel").  B.C.  post  1856.  His  descendants  were  called 
Asrielites  (Heb.  Asrieli,  ibx'ndX;  Sept.  'EvpujXi, 
Num.  xxvii,  31). 

As'rielite.     See  Asriel. 

Ass  (properly  Trail,  chamor',  from  the  reddish 
dun  color  of  the  hair  of  the  wild  ass ;  female  lirSt, 
atlion  ;  Gr.  ovoq),  (I.)  a  domestic  animal  (Gen.  xii,  1G  ; 
xxiv,  35  ;  xxx,  43  ;  xxxii,  5  ;  Josh,  vi,  21 ;  vii,  24  ; 
comp.  Exod.  xx,  17  ;  xxii,  4  ;  xxiii,  4  sq. ;  1  Sam.  viii, 
1G  ;  Luke  xiii,  15 ;  xiv,  5),  found  generally  in  the  East 
(comp.  1  Chron.  xxvii,  30 ;  for  Mosaic  precepts  respect- 
ing the  animal,  see  Exod.  xx,  17;  xxi,  33;  xxii,  10; 
xxiii,  4  sq. ;  Deut.  xxii,  3  sq. ;  comp.  Mishna,  Baba 
Mess,  vi,  3 ;  Baba  Bathra,  v,  2),  and  very  serviceable 
(particularly  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  Varro,  Ii.  R. 
ii,  6 ;  Pallad.  xviii,  14),  although  not  to  be  compared 
with  the  modern  ass  of  northern  countries,  but  by  far 
more  stately  (Olear.  Trav.  p.  301,  estimates  a  Persian 
ass  to  be  worth  nearly  $100;  comp.  Plin.  viii,  G8;  see 
Hasselquist,  Trav.  p.  67),  more  active,  more  mettle- 
some, and  quicker  (according  to  Niebuhr,  Reisen,  i,  311, 
an  ass  of  ordinary  speed  will  go  over  1750  double  paces 
of  a  man  in  half  an  hour:  comp.  Abdallatif,  Denkw.  p. 
1375;  Sonini,  ii,  89  sq.).  Asses  were  therefore  (as  still) 
held  in  great  estimation ;  so  that  while  with  us  the 
word  ass  is  a  low  term  of  contempt,  with  the  Orien- 
tals anciently  as  now  the  very  opposite  was  the  case 
(Gen.  xlix,  14 ;  comp.  Iliad,  xi,  588  sq. ;  see  DTIerbe- 
lot,  Biblioth.  Or.  s.  v.  Hsmar;  Freytag,  ad  select,  ex 
hislor.  Halebi,  p.  59;  Gessner,  in  the  Commentar.  Soc. 
Gott.  ii,  32  sq. ;  Jablonski,  Panth.  sEfj.  iii,  45;  Mi- 
chaelis,  in  the  Commentar.  Soc.  Gott.  iv,  G  sq.).  The 
ass  (perhaps  the  young  ass,  Job  i,  3 ;  Num.  xxii,  21 ; 
2  Kings  iv,  24 ;  Matt,  xxi,  2  sq.)  was,  on  account  of 
his  sure  step  over  hilly  tracts,  the  usual  animal  for 
riding  (Exod.  iv,  20;  Num.  xxii,  21 ;  Judg.  x,  4  ;  xii, 
14;  1  Kings  ii,  40;  xiii,  27;  2  Sam.  xix,  26),  even  for 
ladies  (Josh,  xv,  18;  Judg.  i,  14;  1  Sam.  xxv,  23;  2 
Kings  iv,  22,  24;  comp.  Fabric.  Cod.  Apogr.  i,  104; 
see  Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  44 ;  Sehwei'-'ger,  Reisen,  p. 
272  ;  Rosenmiiller,  Morrjenl.  iii,  222)  and  nobles  (2  Sam. 
xvii,  23;  1  Kings  xiii,  13,  23;  Zech.  ix,  9;  comp.  Matt. 
xxi,  2  sq.  [see  Ligntfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  in  loc.  p.  408; 
Sehottgen,  i,  169  sq.] ;  Mark  xi,  1  sq. ;  Luke  xix,  29 
sq. ;  John  xii,  14  sq. ;  see  Russel,  Aleppo,  ii,  49;  Po- 
cocke,  East,  i,  309).  The  last  preferred  dappled  asses, 
i.  e.  such  as  had  a  brownish-red  skin  marked  with 
white  streaks  (,Judg.  v,  10;    comp.  Morier,   Truv.  p. 


13G;  Paulus,  Samml.  i,  244).  No  saddle,  however, 
was  used  from  the  earliest  time  (Hasselquist,  Trav. 
p.  66),  but  simply  a  covering  consisting  of  a  piece  of 
cloth  or  a  cushion  (hence  0*011  Tan,  a  bound  or  girt 
ass,  means  a  beast  saddled  and  bridled,  Gen.  xxi,  3; 
Num.  xxii,  21;  Judg.  xix,  10),  so  that  the  driver 
(Judg.  xix,  3 ;  2  Kings  iv,  24 ;  Talm.  Tan,  chammar', 
Mishna,  Erub.  iv,  10,  etc.)  ran  beside  or  behind  the 
rider  (Hasselquist,  Trav.  p.  66).  The  ass,  moreover, 
was  not  only  employed  for  bearing  burdens  (Neh.  xiii, 
15;  Josh,  ix,  4;  1  Sam.  xvi,  20;  xxv,  18),  but  even 
for  distant  journeys  (Gen.  xliii,  26 ;  xliv,  3,  13 ;  xlv, 
23;  comp.  Josephus,  Life,  24;  Mishna,  Parah,  xii,  9), 
and  also  for  drawing  the  plough  (Deut.  xxii,  10;  comp. 
Exod.  xxiii,  12;  Isa.  xxx,  24;  xxxii,  20;  so,  too, 
among  the  Romans,  Plin.  viii,  68;  xvii,  3;  "Varro, 
R.  R.  ii,  6 ;  Colum.  vii,  1)  and  in  mills  (Matt,  xviii, 
6;  Luke  xvii,  2;  "asinus  molarius,"  Colum.  vii,  2; 
niTPTn  Tan,  Buxtorf,  Floril.  Hebr.  p.  308;  comp. 
Brouckhus,  ad  Tibull.  ii,  1,  8).  In  war  they  carried  the 
baggage  (2  Kings  vii,  7  ;  comp.  Polluc.  Unom.  i,  10) ; 
but,  according  to  Isa.  xxi,  7,  the  Persian  king  Cyrus 
had  cavalry  mounted  on  asses ;  and  not  only  Strabo 
(xv,  726)  assures  us  that  the  Caramanians,  a  people 
forming  part  of  the  Persian  empire,  rode  on  asses  in, 
battle,  but  Herodotus  (iv,  129)  expressly  states  that 
Darius  Hystaspis  made  use  of  the  ass  in  a  fight  with 
the  Scythians  (comp.  iElian,  Anim.  xii,  32).  See, 
generally,  Bochart,  Hieroz.  i,  148  sq. ;  ii,  214  sq.  ; 
Len-erke,  Kendan,  i,  140  sq.,  146,  165.—  Winer,i,  346. 
The  domestic  ass,  being  an  animal  of  a  patient,  labo- 
rious, and  stupid  nature,  the  emblem  of  persons  of  a 
similar  disposition.  Issachar  is  called  a  strong  ass 
(Gen.  xlix,  14),  in  reference  to  his  descendants,  as 
being  a  settled  agricultural  tribe,  who  cultivated  their 
own  territory  with  patient  labor,  emblematized  by  the 
ass.  We  rarely  read  of  Issachar  being  engaged  in 
any  war,  which  is  ever  hostile  to  agriculture.  Of 
Jehoiukim  it  is  said,  in  Jer.  xxii,  19,  "  With  the  burial 
of  an  ass  shall  he  be  buried,  dragged  along,  and  cast 
forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem  ;"  an  event  men- 
tioned by  Josephus,  who  says  that  "the  king  of  Bab- 
ylon advanced  with  an  army,  that  Jehoiakim  admit- 
ted him  readily  into  Jerusalem,  and  that  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, having  entered  the  city,  instantly  put  him  to 
death,  and  cast  his  dead  body  unburied  without  the 
walls."  It  is  recorded  of  Christ  in  Zech.  ix,  9,  and 
quoted  thence  in  Matt,  xxi,  5,  that  he  should  be 
"humble,  and  sitting  on  an  ass,  even  on  a  colt  the 
foal  of  an  ass."  As  horses  were  used  in  war,  Christ 
may  be  supposed,  by  this  action,  to  have  shown  the 
humble  and  peaceable  nature  of  his  kingdom.  On 
the  contrary,  Ephraim  is  compared  to  a  wild  ass,  in 
Hos.  viii,  9,  i.  e.  he  was  untamed  to  the  yoke,  and 
traversed  the  desert  as  earnestly  in  the  pursuit  of  idols 
as  the  onaejer  in  quest  of  his  mates. 

In  the  gospels  is  mentioned  the  jtn'Aoc  IvikI.c  (Matt, 
xviii,  6 ;  Mark  ix,  41),  to  express  a  large  mill-stone, 
turned, by  asses,  heavier  than  that  turned  by  women  or 
by  slaves.     See  Jahn's  Archceol.  §  1S8, 1£9. 

(II.)  The  ass  is  the  Equus  Asinvs  of  Linnseus;  by 
some  formed  into  a  sub-genus,  containing  that  group  of 
the  Equidse  which  arc  not  striped  like  zebras,  and  have 
forms  and  characters  distinguishable  from  true  horses, 
such  as  a  peculiar  shape  of  body  and  limbs,  long  ears, 
an  upright  mane,  a  tail  only  tufted  at  the  end,  a  ;treak 
along  the  spine,  often  crossed  with  another  on  the 
shoulders,  a  braying  voice,  etc.  To  designate  these 
animals  the  Hebrews  used  various  terms,  by  which, 
no  doubt,  though  not  with  the  strict  precision  of  sci- 
ence, different  species  and  distinct  races  of  the  group, 
as  well  as  qualities  of  sex  and  age,  were  indicated; 
but  the  contexts  in  general  afford  only  slight  assist- 
ance in  discriminating  them  ;  and  reliance  mi  cognate 
languages  is  often  unavailing,  since  we  find  that  sim- 
ilar" words  frequently  point  to  secondary  and  not  to 


ASS 


476 


ASS 


identical  acceptations.  The  name  is  assigned  by  the 
Auth.  Vers,  to  several  distinct  Ileb.  words,  viz.  "pHX, 
lion,  — ".  "I"-",  and  JOS,  and  the  Greek  words  uvoc 
and  viroivyiov.  It  occurs  also  in  two  passages  of  Ec- 
clus.  xiii,  19 ;  xxxiii,  24,  in  the  first  of  which  it  stands 
for  ovaypoQ.     Sec  Hi: -ass;  She-ass;  Foal. 

1.  The  ordinary  term  ITan  (chamor',  oi/oc)  we 
take  to  be  the  name  of  the  common  working  ass  of 
AV'estern  Asia,  an  animal  of  small  stature,  fre- 
quenly  represented  on  Egyptian  monuments  with 
panniers  on  the  back,  usually  of  a  reddish  color 
(the  Arabic  hamar  and  chamara  denoting  red), 
and  the  same  as  the  Turkish  hymar.  It  appears 
to  be  a  domesticated  race  of  the  wild  ass  of  Ara- 
bia, Mesopotamia,  and  Southern  Persia,  where  it 
is  denominated  gour.  In  Scripture  this  wild  ori- 
ginal variety  is  distinguished  by  the  name  TT2 
{arod' ',  Job  xxxix,  5;  Chald.  T"I3>,  arad',  Dan. 
v.  21 ;  both  rendered  "  wild  ass"),  a  term  most 
likely  derived  from  the  braying  voice  of  the  ani- 
mal. In  its  natural  state  it  never  seeks  woody, 
but  upland  pasture,  mountainous  and  rocky  re- 
treats ;  and  it  is  habituated  to  stand  on  the  brink 
of  precipices  (a  practice  not  entirely  obliterated  in 
oar  own  domestic  races),  whence,  with  protruded     The 


and  asses  thus  painted  occur  frequently  in  Oriental 
illuminated  MSS.,  and  although  the  taste  may  be  pue- 
rile, we  conceive  that  it  is  the  record  of  remote  con- 
quest achieved  by  a  nation  of  Central  Asia,  mounted 
on  spotted  or  clouded  horses,  and  revived  by  the  Par- 
tisans, who  were  similarly  equipped  (see  Introd.  to  the 
Hist,  of  the  Horse,  in  the  Naturalist's  Library,  vol.  xii). 
No  other  primeval  invasion  from  the  East  by  horsemen 
on  such  animals  than  that  of  the  so-called  Centaurs  is 


Domestic  Ass  of  Western  Asia. 

ears,  it  surveys  the  scene  below,  blowing  and  at  length 
braying  in  extreme  excitement.  This  habit  is  beau- 
tifully depicted  by  Jeremiah  (xvii,  6;  xlviii,  G).  Va- 
rieties of  this  species  are  designated  by  the  following 
terms :  "PS  (a'yir~)  is  translated  in  the  Auth.  Vers. 
"  young  ass,"  "  colt,"  "foal ;"  but  this  rendering  does 
not  appear  on  all  occasions  to  be  correct,  the  word  be- 
ing sometimes  used  for  animals  that  carry  loads  and 
till  the  ground,  which  seems  to  afford  evidence  of  at 
least  full  growth  (Isa.  xxx,  C,  24).  ]TX  (athon', 
usually  "ass"  simply)  is  sometimes  unsatisfactori- 
ly rendered  "she-ass,"  unless  we  suppose  it  to  re- 
fer to  a  breed  of  greater  beauty  and  importance  than 
the  common,  namely,  the  silver-gray  of  Africa,  which, 
being  lar^e  and  indocile,  the  females  were  anciently 
selected  in  preference  for  riding,  and  on  that  account 
formed  a  valuable  kind  of  property.  From  early  apes 
a  white  breed  of  this  race  was  reared  at  Zobeir,  the 
ancient  Dassora  and  capital  of  the  Orcheni,  from  which 
place  i  i\  il  dignitaries  still  obtain  their  white  asses  and 
white  mules.  It  is  now  tin-  fashion,  as  it  was  during 
the  Parthian  empire,  and  probably  in  the  time  of  the 
judges,  to  dapple  this  breed  with  spots  of  orange  or 
crimson,  or  of  both  colors  together;  and  this  is  prob- 
ably the  meaning  of  the  word  ihs  (checkered?),  ren- 
dered "white"  in  Judg.  v,  10  •  an  interpretation  which 
is  confirmed  by  the  Babylonian  Sanhedrim,  who,  in 
answer  to  King  Sapor's  offer  of  a  horse  to  convey  the 
Jewish  Messiah,  say.  "Thou  hast  not  a  hundred-spot- 
ted horse,  such  as  his  (the   Messiah's)  ass."      Horses 


She-ass  used  as  a.  Bsast  of  Burden  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

recorded ;  their  era  coincides  nearly  with  that  of  the 
judges  (see  Kitto,  Plci.  Bible,  at  Judg.  v,  10). 

Asses  have  always  been  in  extensive  use  in  the  East 
(Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  ii,  407) ;  and  they  were  em- 
ployed by  Joseph's  brethren  to  carry  grain  from  Eg}-pt 
• — a  journey  to  which  they  are  competent,  notwithstand- 
ing the  intervening  deserts  (Hacketfs  Illustra.  of 
Script,  p.  29).  They  were  abundant  in  Ancient  Egypt 
(as  donkej-s  still  are,  Lane's  Mod.  Eg.  i,  209"),  where 
they  were  employed  in  treading  out  grain,  and  for  other 
purposes  (Wilkinson's  Anc.  Eg.  i,  231).  They  are  not 
represented  on  the  Assyrian  monuments  (Layard's 
Nineveh,  ii,  328),  although  the  onager  or  wild  ass  is  still 
celebrated  in  that  region  for  its  swiftness  (jb.  i,  265). 

2.  SOS,  pe're,  rendered  likewise  "wild  ass,"  is  a  de- 
rivative of  the  same  root  which  in  Hebrew  has  pro- 
duced paras,  horse,  and  parasim,  horsemen,  Persians 
and  Parthians.  Though  evidently  a  generical  term, 
the  Scripture  uses  it  in  a  specific  sense,  and  seems  to 
intend  by  it  the  horse-ass  or  wild  mule,  which  the 
Greeks  denominated  hemionos,  and  the  moderns  jig- 
getal ;  though  we  think  there  still  remains  some  com- 
mixture in  the  descriptions  of  the  species  and  those  of 
the  koulan,  or  wild  ass  of  Northern  Asia.     Both  are 


Wild  A 


nearly  of  the  same  stature,  and  not  unlike  in  the  gen- 
eral  distribution  of  colors  and  markings,  but  the  he- 
mionos is  distinguished  from  the  other  by  its  neighing 
voice  and  the  deficiency  of  two  teeth  in  the  jaws. 
The  species  is  first  noticed  by  Aristotle,  who  mentions 
nine  of  these  animals  as  beinc:  brought  to  Phryajia  by 
Pharnaces  the  satrap,  of  which  three  were  living  in 
the  time  of  his  son  Pharnabazus.  This  was  while 
the  onager  still  roamed  wild  in  Cappadocia  and  Syria, 


ASS 


477 


ASS 


and  proves  that  it  had  until  then  been  considered  the 
same  species,  or  that  from  its  rarity  it  had  escaped 
discrimination;  but  no  doubt  remains  that  it  was 
the  gourkhur,  or  horse-ass,  which  is  implied  by  the 
name  hemionos.  The  allusion  of  Jeremiah,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  pere  (xiv,  G),  most  forcibly  depicts  the 
scarcity  of  food  when  this  species,  inured  to  the  des- 
ert and  to  want  of  water,  are  made  the  prominent 
example  of  suffering.  See  Mule.  They  were  most 
likely  used  in  traces  to  draw  chariots.  The  ani- 
mals so  noticed  in  Isa.  xxi,  7,  and  by  Herodotus,  are 
the  same  which  Pliny,  Strabo,  and  Arnobius  make 
the  Caramanians  and  Scythians  employ  in  the  same 
way.  We  claim  the  pere,  and  not  the  arod,  to  be 
this  species,  because  the  hemionos,  or  at  least  the  gourk- 
hur, does  not  bray,  as  before  noticed;  and  because, 
notwithstanding  its  fierceness  and  velocity,  it  is  ac- 
tually used  at  present  as  a  domestic  animal  at  Luck- 
now,  where  it  was  observed  by  Duvaucel.  The  hemi- 
onos is  little  inferior  to  the  wild  horse ;  in  shape  it  re- 
sembles a  mule,  in  gracefulness  a  horse,  and  in  color 
it  is  silvery,  with  broad  spaces  of  flaxen  or  bright  bay 
on  the  thigh,  flank,  shoulder,  neck,  and  head ;  the  ears 
are  wide  like  the  zebra's,  and  the  neck  is  clothed  with 
a  vertical  dark  mane  prolonged  in  a  stripe  to  the  tuft 
of  the  tail.  The  company  of  this  animal  is  liked  by 
horses,  and,  when  domesticated,  it  is  gentle.  It  is  now 
found  wild  from  the  deserts  of  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes 
to  China  and  Central  India.  In  Cutch  it  is  never 
known  to  drink,  and  in  whole  districts  which  it  fre- 
quents water  is  not  to  be  found;  and  though  the  na- 
tives talk  of  the  fine  flavor  of  the  flesh,  and  the  gour 
in  Persia  is  the  food  of  heroes,  to  a  European  its 
smell  is  abominable. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Wild  Ass. 

Ass's  Head. — 1.  By  the  law  of  Moses  the  ass  was 
declared  unclean,  and  therefore  was  not  used  as  food, 
excepting,  as  it  would  appear,  in  cases  of  extreme 
famine.  This  inference,  however,  is  drawn  from  a  case 
where  the  term  "ass's  head"  may  be  explained  to  mean 
not  literally  the  head  of  an  ass,  but  a  certain  measure 
or  weight  so  called,  as  in  1  Sam.  xvi,  20,  where  it  is 
said  that  Jesse  sent  to  Saul  "an  ass  of  bread  ;"  for,  in 
our  version,  "laden  with"  is  an  addition  to  the  text. 
Although,  therefore,  the  famine  in  Samaria  may  possi- 
bly have  compelled  the  people  to  eat  asses,  and  a  head 
may  have  been  very  dear,  still  the  expression  may  de- 
note the  measure  or  weight  which  bore  the  same  name. 
The  prohibition,  however,  had  more  probably  an  eco- 
nomical than  a  religious  purpose ;  hunting  was  thus 
discouraged,  and  no  horses  being  used,  it  was  of  im- 
portance to  augment  the  number  and  improve  the 
qualities  of  the  ass.  This  example  of  the  use  of  asses' 
flesh  (an  "ass's  head")  in  extreme  famine  (sometimes 
the  flesh  was  regarded  as  a  delicacy,  Apul.  Metam.  vii, 
p.  158,  Bip.  ed. ;  comp.  Galen,  Facult.  alim.  i,  2,  p.  486, 
ed.  Kuhn ;  Plin.  viii,  68)  occurs  in  2  Kings  vi,  25  (comp. 
Plutarch,  Vit.  Artax.  24;  Barhebr.  Chron.  p.  149,  488), 
although  it  was  unclean  (Philo,  Opp.  ii,  400;  comp. 
Exod.  xiii,  13;  xxxiv,  20),  and  the  ass  could  not  be 
offered  in  sacrifice  (Porphyr.  Austin,  ii,  25  ;  but  it  was 
otherwise  among  the  Persians,  Strabo,  xv,  727 ;  even 
in  magic  its  flesh  was  used,  Ammian.  Marc,  xxx,  5,  p. 
228,  Pip.  ed.).     See  Food. 

2.  As  this  animal  was  most  serviceable  to  man,  its 
name  was  held  in  respect  rather  than  contempt.  The 
slandpr,  therefore,  current  among  the  Romans,  and  di- 
rected against  the  Jews,  that  they  adored  the  head  of 
an  ass  in  secret,  may  not  have  originated  in  direct  mal- 
ice or  misinterpretation,  but  have  arisen  out  of  some 
Gnostic  fancies,  in  which  the  Alexandrian  Jews,  who 
had  nearly  forsaken  the  Scriptures  in  search  of  the  mag- 
ical delusions  of  the  Cabala,  and  new  semi-Christians 
in  that  city  so  deeply  indulged  during  the  first  centu- 
ries of  our  era.  Hence  the  Ophite  sect  figured  in  the 
circles  of  Behemoth,  the  last  genius  or  iEon  (?),  under 
the  name  of  Onoel,  shaped  like  an  ass ;  and  there  ex- 
ists an  engraved  abraxas,  or  talisman,  of  Gentile  or 


Gnostic  origin,  bearing  the  whole  length  form  of  a 
man  in  flowing  robes  with  an  ass's  head,  and  holding 
an  open  book  with  the  inscription  "  Deus  Christiano- 
rum  menenychites."  It  is  not  likely  that  mere  malice 
would  engrave  its  spite  upon  amulets,  although,  if  Ja- 
blonski  be  correct,  the  ass  was  held  in  contempt  in 
Egypt,  and,  therefore,  in  Alexandria ;  but  among  the 
Arabs  and  Jews  we  have  "  the  voice  of  one  crying  in 
the  wilderness,"  a  solemn  allusion  derived  from  the 
wild  ass,  almost  the  only  voice  in  the  desert;  and  in 
the  distinguishing  epithet  of  Mirvan  II,  last  Ommiad 
caliph,  who  was  called  Hymar  al-Gezerah,  or  wild  ass 
of  Mesopotamia—  proofs  that  no  idea  of  contempt  was 
associated  with  the  prophet's  metaphor,  and  that,  by 
such  a  designation,  no  insult  was  intended  to  the  per- 
son or  dignity  of  the  prince.  In  more  remote  ages 
Tartak  or  Tarhak  was  an  ass-god  of  the  Avim,  and 
Yauk  was  the  Arabian  name  of  another  equine  divin- 
ity, or  a  different  name  for  the  same  Tartak,  whose 
form  may  possibly  be  preserved  to  the  present  day  in 
the  image  of  the  Borak,  or  mystical  camel,  which,"  ac- 
cording to  the  Koran,  bore  Mohammed,  and  is  now 
carried  in  processions  at  the  Nurus.  It  is  shaped  like 
a  horse,  having  a  white  body  with  red  legs,  a  pea- 
cock's- tail,  and  a  woman's  instead  of  an  ass's  head. 
Yet  this  attributing  of  the  worship  of  the  ass  (ass's 
head)  to  the  Jews  (Plut.  Si/mpos.  iv,  5 ;  Tacit.  Hist. 
v,  4 ;  Diod.  Sic.  Exc.  ii,  225 ;  comp.  Josephus,  Apion, 
ii,  7)  was  a  highly  odious  misconstruction  (see  Bernhold, 
in  the  Erlang.  Anzelg.  1744,  No.  52).  The  historical 
foundation  of  this  tradition  cannot  be  traced  to  the 
well-known  legend  of  a  fountain  of  water  discovered 
in  the  desert  by  an  ass  (Tacit,  ut  svpra),  for  the  ar- 
guments adduced  by  Creuzer  {Comment.  Herod,  i,  270 
sq.)  lead  to  no  clear  result  (see  Fuller,  Miscell.  hi,  8, 
p.  332  sq.),  and  the  etymological  reference  by  Hase 
(De  lapide  fundamenti,  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  viii)  to  the 
idol  Ashimam  (q.  v.)  is  as  little  satisfactory  (see  Mai- 
ler, in  the  Stud,  u.  Krit.  1843,  iv,  909  sq. ;  Bochart, 
Hieroz.  i,  199  sq. ;  comp.  Minuc.  Fel.  ix,  4 ;  and  the 
Talmud,  Shalb.  v,  1).  See  generally,  on  this  subject 
of  onolatry,  the  treatises  of  Polemann  (Brem.  1706); 
Morinus  (in  his  Dissert,  p.  285-336) ;  Hasanis  and  Ot- 
tius  (Erf.  1716) ;  Del  Monaco  (Neap.  1715) ;  Bernhard 
(in  the  Erl.  Gel.  Anzeig.  1744,  No.  52);  Linder  (Exc. 
ad  Minuc.  Fel.  ix,  4);  Grape  (Lips.  1696);  Hasanis 
(in  the  Bill.  Brem.  iii,  1036  sq.) ;  Heine  (in  his  Dis- 
sert, ii,  1.  c.  10);  Schulze  (in  his  Dissert,  i);  Schu- 
macher (De  cultu  animalium,  p.  G0-90);  Miinter  (D. 
Christen  im  heidn.  Hause,  p.  118  sq.).  See  Onolatry. 
Ass  of  Balaam.  —  Here  we  shall  only  inquire 
whether  it  were  a  reality  or  an  allegory ;  an  imagina- 
tion, or  a  vision  of  Balaam.  Augustine,  with  the  great- 
er number  of  commentators,  supposes  it  was  a  certain 
fact,  and  takes  it  literally  (QucBst.  in  Gen.  48,  50). 
He  discovers  nothing  in  the  whole  relation  more  sur- 
prising than  the  stupidity  of  Balaam,  who  heard  his 
ass  speak  to  him,  and  who  replied  to  it,  as  to  a  reason- 
able person  ;  and  adds,  as  his  opinion,  that  God  did  not 
give  the  ass  a  reasonable  soul,  but  permitted  it  to  pro- 
nounce certain  words,  to  reprove  the  prophet's  covct- 
ousness.  Gregor}'  of  Nyssa  (in  Vita  Jllosis)  seems  to 
think  that  the  ass  did  not  utter  words  ;  but  that,  hav- 
ing brayed  as  usual,  or  a  little  more  than  usual,  the 
diviner,  practised  in  drawing  presages  from  the  voices 
of  beasts  and  of  birds,  easily  comprehended  the  mean- 
ing of  the  ass ;  and  that  Moses,  designing  to  ridicule 
this  superstitious  art  of  augury,  relates  the  matter  as 
if  the  ass  really  spoke  articulately.  (But  see  2  Peter 
ii,  16.)  Maimonides  asserts  the  whole  dialogue  to  be 
but  a  kind  of  fiction  and  allegory,  whereby  Moses  re- 
lates what  passed  only  in  Balaam's  imagination  as  real 
history.  Philo,  in  his  life  of  Moses,  suppresses  it  entire- 
ly. So  most  Jewish  authors  (not  Joseph.  Ant.  iv,  6,  3) 
consider  it,  not  as  a  circumstance  which  actually  took 
place,  but  as  a  vision,  or  some  similar  occurrence.  Le 
Clerc  solves  the  difficulty  by  saying  Balaam  believed 


ASSABIAS 


478 


ASSASSINS 


in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  passing  from  one  body 
into  another,  from  a  man  into  a  beast,  reciprocally ; 
and,  therefore,  he  was  not  surprised  at  the  ass's  com- 
plaint, but  conversed  with  it  as  if  it  were  rational. 
Others  have  imagined  different  ways  of  solving  the 
difficulties  of  this  history.  In  considering  this  ques- 
tion, Mr.  Taylor  (in  Calmet,  Diet.)  assumes  as  facts, 
(1.)  That  Balaam  was  accustomed  to  augury  and  pre- 
sages. (2.)  That  on  this  occasion  he  would  notice  every 
event  capable  of  such  interpretation,  as  presages  were 
supposed  to  indicate.  (3.)  That  he  was  deeply  intent 
on  the  issue  of  his  journey.  (4.)  That  the  whole  of 
his  conduct  toward  Balak  was  calculated  to  represent 
himself  as  an  extraordinary  personage.  (5.)  That  the 
behavior  of  the  ass  did  actually  prefigure  the  conduct 
of  Balaam  in  the  three  particulars  of  it  which  are  re- 
corded. First,  the  ass  turned  aside,  and  went  into  the 
field,  for  which  she  was  smitten,  punished,  reproved ; 
so  Balaam,  on  the  first  of  his  perverse  attempts  to  curse 
Israel,  was,  as  it  were,  smitten,  reproved,  punished, 
[1.]  by  God,  [2.]  by  Balak.  The  second  time  the  ass 
was  more  harshly  treated  for  hurting  Balaam's  foot 
against  the  wall ;  so  Balaam,  for  his  second  attempt, 
was,  no  doubt,  still  farther  mortified.  Thirdly,  the  ass, 
seeing  inevitable  danger,  fell  down  and  was  smitten 
severely ;  in  like  manner,  Balaam,  the  third  time,  was 
overruled  by  God  to  speak  truth,  to  his  own  disgrace, 
and  escaped,  not  without  hazard  of  his  life,  from  the 
anger  of  Balak.  Nevertheless,  as  Balaam  had  no 
sword  in  his  hand,  though  he  wished  for  one,  with 
which  to  slay  his  ass,  so  Balak,  notwithstanding  his 
fury,  and  his  seeming  inclination,  had  no  power  to  de- 
stroy Balaam.  In  short,  as  the  ass  was  opposed  by 
the  angel,  but  was  driven  forward  by  Balaam,  so  Ba- 
laam was  opposed  by  God,  but  was  driven  forward  by 
Balak,  against  his  better  knowledge.  Were  we  suvo 
that  Balaam  wrote  this  narrative,  and  that  Moses  cop- 
ied it,  as  the  rabbins  affirm,  this  view  of  the  subject 
would  remove  the  difficulties  which  have  been  raised 
against  it.  It  might  then  be  entitled  "a  specimen  of 
Balaam's  augury."     See  Balaam. 

Assabi'as  ('A<ra/3<«c  v.  r.  2«/3t'ac),  one  of  the 
"  captains  over  thousands"  who  presented  victims  for 
the  I'assover  under  Josiah  (1  Esdr.  i,  9);  evidently  the 
Hashabiah  (q.  v.)  of  2  Chron.  xxxv,  9. 

Assal'imoth  (AuaaXiiiUoSr  v.  r.  2aA(/*w$),  son  of 
Josaphias  of  the  "sons"  of  Bania,  who  returned  with 
1G0  retainers  from  their  exile  (1  Esdr.  viii,  36) ;  evi- 
dently the  Shelomitii  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text 
(Ezra  viii,  10). 

Assam,  a  British  province  of  Farther  India,  hav- 
ing an  area  estimated  at  18,200  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  602,500  souls.  It  was  an  independent 
state  until  1822,  when  it  was  incorporated  with  Bur- 
mah.  In  1826  it  was  ceded  to  the  English.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  is  Brahminism,  which  in  this  province 
lias  superseded  Buddhism.  Among  the  tribes  which 
inhabit  the  country,  the  Assamese,  the  Khamtis,  the 
Singphos,  and  the  Nagas  are  the  most  important. 
The  Grst  mission  in  Assam  was  established  by  the 
American  Baptist  Union  in  1837,  on  the  invitation  of 
Captain  Jenkins,  commissioner  general  of  India  for 
Assam.  It  was  at  first  intended  to  embrace  all  the 
four  principal  tribes  in  the  missionary  operations,  but 
insurrectionary  movements  in  1839  and  1842  induced 
thnii  to  restrict  their  labors  to  the  Assamese.  In  1844 
tlii>  missionaries  established  an  orphan  institution  at 
Nowgong,  which  numbered  for  several  years  from  50 

1 ;  "" smbers.     In  1819  the  translation  of  the  New 

Testament  in  Assamese  was  completed,  and  printed  at 
Sibsagar,  in  Assam,  in  is  p.).  There  were  in  Assam, 
in  1859,  7  American  and  3  native  missionaries,  3 
churches,  50  church-members,  1  boarding-school  with 
45  pupils.— Newcomb,  Cyclopedia  of  Missions;  (Bos- 
ton) Missionary  Magazine,  1859,  p.  27*6.     See  India. 

Assaui'as  (Aooafiiac,  v.  r.  Eapiac > Vulg.  Assan- 


nas),  one  of  the  twelve  priests  selected  by  Ezra  to 
transport  the  sacred  vessels  to  Jerusalem  (1  Esdr.  viii, 
54) ;  a  corruption  for  Hashabiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  orig- 
inal text  (Ezra,  viii,  24). 

Assarius.     See  Farthing. 

Assassins,  a  secret  military  and  religious  order 
in  Syria  and  Persia,  a  branch  of  the  "Ismaelites" 
(q.  v.)  or  "  Shiites."  They  were  suppressed  in  the 
11th  and  12th  centuries,  but  their  principles  to  some 
extent  survive  in  the  Ansarians  (q.  v.).  The  secret 
doctrines  of  the  Ismaelites,  who  had  their  head-quar- 
ters in  Cairo,  declared  the  descendants  of  Ismael,  the 
last  of  the  seven  so-called  imaums,  to  be  alone  entitled 
to  the  caliphate ;  and  gave  an  allegorical  interpretation 
to  the  precepts  of  Islam,  which  led,  as  their  adversa- 
ries asserted,  to  considering  all  positive  religions  equal- 
ly right,  and  all  actions  morally  indifferent.  The 
atrocious  career  of  the  Assassins  was  but  a  natural  se- 
quence of  such  teaching.  The  founder  of  these  last, 
Hassan  ben-Sabbah  el-Homairi,  of  Persian  descent, 
about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century,  studied  at  Nish- 
pur,  under  the  celebrated  Mowasek,  and  had  subse- 
quently obtained  from  Ismaelite  dais,  or  religious 
leaders,  a  partial  insight  into  their  secret  doctrines, 
and  a  partial  consecration  to  the  rank  of  dai.  But,  on 
betaking  himself  to  the  central  lodge  at  Cairo,  he 
quarreled  with  the  sect,  and  was  doomed  to  banish- 
ment. He  succeeded,  however,  in  making  his  escape 
from  the  ship,  and  reaching  the  Syrian  coast,  after 
which  he  returned  to  Persia,  everywhere  collecting  ad- 
herents, with  the  view  of  founding,  upon  the  Ismael' 
ite  model,  a  secret  order  of  his  own,  a  species  o'f  or- 
ganized society  which  should  be  a  terror  to  his  most 
powerful  neighbors.  The  internal  constitution  of  the 
order,  which  had  some  resemblance  to  the  orders  of 
Christian  knighthood,  was  as  follows :  First,  as  su- 
preme and  absolute  ruler,  came  the  Sheikh-al-jebal, 
the  Prince  or  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain.  His  vice- 
gerents in  Jebal,  Kuhistan,  and  Syria  were  the  three 
Dai-al-kebir,  or  grand  priors  of  the  order.  Next  came 
the  dais  and  refiks,  which  last  were  not,  however, 
initiated,  like  the  former,  into  every  stage  of  the  se- 
cret doctrines,  and  had  no  authority  as  teachers.  To 
the  uninitiated  belonged,  first  of  all,  the  fedavis  or 
fedais — i.  e.  the  devoted ;  a  band  of  resolute  youths, 
the  ever  ready  and  blindly  obedient  executioners  of 
the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain.  Before  he  assigned  to 
them  their  bloody  tasks,  he  used  to  have  them  thrown 
into  a  state  of  ecstasy  by  the  intoxicating  influence 
of  the  hashish  (the  hemp-plant),  which  circumstance 
led  to  the  order  being  called  Hashishim,  or  hemp-eat- 
ers. The  word  was  changed  by  Europeans  into  As- 
sassins, and  transplanted  into  the  languages  of  the 
West  with  the  signification  of  murderers.  The  Lasiks, 
or  novices,  formed  the  sixth  division  of  the  order,  and 
the  laborers  and  mechanics  the  seventh.  Upon  these 
the  most  rigid  observance  of  the  Koran  was  enjoined  ; 
while  the  initiated,  on  the  contrary,  looked  upon  all 
positive  religion  as  null.  The  catechism  of  the  order, 
placed  by  Hassan  in  the  hands  of  his  dais,  consisted 
of  seven  parts,  of  which  the  second  treated,  among 
other  things,  of  the  art  of  worming  themselves  into  the 
confidence  of  men.  It  is  easy  to  conceive  the  terror 
which  so  unscrupulous  a  sect  must  have  inspired. 
Several  princes  secretly  paid  tribute  to  the  Old  Man 
of  the  Mountain.  Hassan,  who  died  at  the  age  of  70 
(1125  A. I).),  appointed  as  his  successor  Kia-Busurg- 
Omid,  one  of  his  grand  priors.  Kia-Busurg-Omid  was 
succeeded  in  1138  by  his  son  Mohammed,  who  knew 
how  to  maintain  his  power  against  Nureddin  and  Jus- 
Buf-Salaheddin.  In  1163,  Hassan  II  was  rash  enough 
to  extend  the  secret  privilege  of  the  initiated — exemp- 
tion, namely,  from  the  positive  precepts  of  religion — 
to  the  people  generally,  and  to  abolish  Islam  in  the 
Assassin  state,  which  led  to  his  falling  a  victim  to  his 
brother-in-law's  dagger.     Under  the  rule  of  his  son, 


ASSEMANI 


479 


ASSEMBLY 


Mohammed  II,  who  acted  in  his  father's  spirit,  the 
Syrian  Dai-al-kebir,  Sinan,  became  independent,  and 
entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Christian  king  of 
Jerusalem  for  coming  over,  on  certain  conditions,  to 
the  Christian  faith ;  but  the  Templars  killed  his  en- 
voys and  rejected  his  overtures,  that  they  might  not 
lose  the  yearly  tribute  which  the}'  drew  from  him. 
Mohammed  was  poisoned  by  his  son,  Hassan  III,  who 
reinstated  Islamism,  and  thence  obtained  the  surname 
of  the  New  Moslem.  Hassan  was  succeeded  by  Mo- 
hammed III,  a  boy  of  nine  years  old,  who,  by  his  ef- 
feminate rule,  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  order,  and 
was  eventually  murdered  by  command  of  his  son, 
Rokn-eddin,  the  seventh  and  last  Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain.  In  1256,  the  Mongolian  prince,  Hulagu, 
burst  with  his  hordes  upon  the  hill-forts  of  Persia  held 
by  the  Assassins,  which  amounted  to  about  a  hundred, 
capturing  and  destroying  them.  The  Syrian  branch 
was  also  put  down  about  the  end  of  the  13th  century, 
but  remnants  of  the  sect  still  lingered  for  some  time 
longer  in  Kuhistan.  In  1352  the  Assassins  reappear- 
ed in  Syria,  and,  indeed,  they  are  still  reported  to  exist 
as  a  heretical  sect  both  there  and  in  Persia.  The  Per- 
sian Ismaelites  have  an  imaum,  or  superintendent,  in 
the  district  of  Kum,  and  still  inhabit  the  neighborhood 
of  Alamut  under  the  name  of  Hosseinis.  The  Syrian 
Ismaelites  live  in  the  district  of  Massiat  or  Massyad. 
Their  castle  was  taken  in  1809  by  the  Nossaries,  but 
restored.— Chambers,  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. ;  Withof,  das 
Reich  der  Assassinen  (Cleve,  17G5);  Hammer,  Gcschichte 
der  Assassinen  (Stuttg.  and  Tub.  1818). 

Assemani,  the  family  name  of  three  of  the  most 
eminent  Orientalists  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They 
were  Maronites  (q.  v.),  born  in  Mt.  Lebanon,  Syria. 

1.  Joseph  Simonius,  came  to  Rome  toward  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  made  arch- 
bishop injmrtibus  of  Tyre,  and  librarian  of  the  Vatican, 
by  Clement  XI.  He  was  sent  by  that  pontiff  on  a  lit- 
erary mission  to  Egypt  and  Syria  in  the  years  1715- 
1716,  and  he  brought  back  to  Rome  150  valuable  MSS. 
On  a  second  visit  to  the  East  (1735-1738)  he  obtained 
many  more  MSS.,  with  2000  ancient  coins,  medals, 
etc.  Assemani  was  a  man  of  immense  erudition  and 
industry.  His  most  important  publications  were:  1. 
Bibliotheca  Orientalis  Clementina  Vaticana(l\ome,  1719— 
1728,  4  vols,  fol.),  a  biographical  account  of  the  Syrian 
writers,  divided  into  three  classes,  i.  e.  Orthodox,  Jac- 
obites, and  Nestorians,  with  copious  extracts  in  the 
Syriac  text,  and  a  Latin  version,  lists  of  their  works, 
and  comments  on  the  same.  He  intended  to  proceed 
with  the  Arabian,  Copt,  and  other  Eastern  writers,  but 
nothing  appeared  in  print  beyond  the  Syriac.  The 
fourth  volume  of  the  Bibliotheca  is  engrossed  by  a 
learned  dissertation  on  the  Syrian  Nestorians.  2.  St. 
Ephraem  Syri  Opera  omnia  que  extant  (Kome,  1732- 
1746,  6  vols.  fol.).  This  edition  of  the  works  of  St. 
Ephraim,  one  of  the  old  Syrian  fathers,  containing  the 
Syriac  text  and  a  Latin  translation,  was  begun  by  Am- 
barach,  another  learned  Maronite,  living  at  Rome,  and 
better  known  as  Father  Benedetti,  being  a  member  of 
the  society  of  the  Jesuits,  and  after  his  death  was  com- 
pleted by  Assemani.  This  work  is  much  esteemed, 
and  the  Latin  is  better  than  that  of  the  other  works  of 
Assemani,  who  was  more  skilled  in  the  Oriental  than 
in  the  Latin  language.  3.  Kalendaria  Ecchahv  uni- 
verse, in  quibus  Sanctorum  nomina,  imagines,  festi  dies, 
Ecclesiarum  Orientis  ac  Occidentis,  prcem'ssis  unins  cu- 
jusque.  Ecclesie  originibus,  recensentur,  describuntur,  et 
notis  ilhtstrantiir  (Rome,  1755-1757,  6  vols.  4to).  4. 
Bibliotheca  Juris  Orientalis  Canonic')  et  Civilis  (Rome, 
1762-1764,  4  vols.  4to).  Besides  these,  he  published 
Rudimenta  Linguae,  Arabicce  (Rome,  1732,  4to)  and  oth- 
er works.  Many  of  his  writings  were  burnt  in  a  fire 
at  the  Vatican  in  1768.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1768,  at 
the  age  of  eighty.  He  left  MSS.,  several  historical 
dissertations,  and  other  fragments,  on  the  Christian 
population  of  the  ancient  patriarchate  of  Antioch,  on 


the  nation  of  the  Copts,  on  the  Nestorians,  and  other 
Eastern  sects,  etc.,  which  have  been  published  by  Mai. 
It  is  said  that  there  are  still  at  Rome  MSS.  in  his  hand- 
writing enough  to  fill  100  volumes. 

2.  Joseph  Aloysius,  nephew  of  the  preceding,  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  languages  at  Rome,  where  he  died, 
Feb.  9,  1782.  His  most  important  work  is  the  Codex 
Liturgicus  Ecclesie  Universce  (Rome,  1749-1766, 13  vols. 
4to).  This  vast  work  was  intended  to  include  all  Ori- 
ental and  Western  liturgies,  but  was  never  completed. 
Still  it  is  of  great  value.  He  also  wrote  a  Commenta- 
rius  hist.-theologicus  de  Catholicis  sen.  Patriarch's  Chal- 
dceorum  et  Nestoriemorum  (Romae,  1775,  4to) : — Disserta- 
tio  de  Sacris  Ritibus  (Rome,  1757,  4to): — Comment,  dc 
ecclesiis,  earum  reveraitia  et  asylo  (1766,  fob). 

3.  Stephen  Evodius,  another  nephew  of  Joseph 
Assemani,  was  born  at  Tripoli  in  Syria  about  1707. 
He  studied  at  Rome,  and  returned  to  Syria  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  Propaganda.  He  was  present  at  the 
Synod  of  Lebanon,  1736,  at  which  his  uncle  acted  as 
legate.  Subsequently  he  spent  some  months  in  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. Having  established  himself  at  Rome,  he  was 
employed  as  assistant  to  his  uncle  at  the  Vatican,  and 
on  his  uncle's  death  succeeded  him  as  upper  keeper  of 
the  library.  He  also  became  titular  Bishop  of  Apamea. 
He  died  in  1784.  His  literary  reputation  is  not  very 
high.  The  only  works  of  any  consequence  which  he 
published  are  the  following:  Bibliotheca;  Mediceo-Lau- 
rentiane  et  Palatine  Codicnm  MSS.  Orient edium  Catalo- 
gus  (Flor.  1742,  fob),  with  notes  by  Gori : — A  eta  Sancto- 
rum Martyrum  Oricntalium  et  Occidentcdium  (Rome, 
1748,  2  vols.  fob).  To  this  work,  which  he  compiles 
from  manuscripts  in  the  Vatican,  he  added  the  Acts  of 
St. Simon,  called  "  Stylite"  in  Chaldaic  and  Latin.  He 
also  began  a  general  catalogue  of  the  Vatican  manu- 
scripts, divided  into  three  classes,  Oriental,  Greek  and 
Latin,  Italian  and  other  modern  languages,  of  which, 
however,  he  published  only  the  first  volume,  in  17;  6, 
the  fire  in  the  Vatican  having  destroyed  his  papers-. 
Mai  has  continued  parts  of  this  catalogue  in  his  Scrip- 
torum  Veterum  nova  colkctio. — Herzog,  i,  560. 

Assembly  (in  Heb.  IS'lB,  moid',  etc.;  in  Gr. 
EfocXi)<T('a),  a  term  used  in  the  New  Testament  to  de- 
note a  convocation  or  congregation  of  persons  legally 
called  out  or  summoned.  See  Congregation.  (1.) 
In  the  usual  or  secular  sense  (Acts  xix,  39).  Asia 
Minor,  in  the  time  of  the  apostles,  was  divided  into 
several  districts,  each  of  which  had  its  own  legal  as- 
sembly. See  Asiarch.  Some  of  these  are  referred 
to  by  Cicero,  and  others  by  Pliny,  particularly  the  one 
at  Ephesus.  The  regular  periods  of  such  assemblies, 
it  appears,  were  three  or  four  times  a  month  ;  although 
the}'  were  convoked  extraordinarily  for  the  dispatch 
of  any  urgent  business.  See  Asia  (Minor).  (2.)  In 
the  Jewish  sense,  the  word  implies  a  religious  meet- 
ing, as  in  a  synagogue  (Matt,  xviii,  17);  and  in  the 
Christian  sense,  a  congregation  of  believers  (1  Cor.  xi, 
18)  ;  hence  a  church,  the  Christian  Church,  and  is 
used  of  any  particular  church,  as  that  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  viii,  1)  and  Antioch  (Acts  xi,  26).  See  Syna- 
gogue ;  Church. 

Masters  of  Assemblies  (fViBbftj!  *^"2,  baaley' 
asuphoth',  lords  of  the  gatherings;  Sept.  oi  izapa  rwv 
(jwayj-iarniv,  Vulg.  per  magistrorum  consilium),  is  a 
phrase  occurring  in  Eccles.  xii,  11,  and  supposed  to  re- 
fer to  the  master-spirits  or  associates  of  the  meetings 
of  the  wise  and  curious  (Qi^-H,  of  the  parallel  clause), 
held  in  Eastern  countries,  and  where  sages  and  philos- 
ophers uttered  their  weighty  sayings.  See  Master. 
The  preacher  endeavored  to  clothe  the  infinitely  wise 
and  perfect  doctrines  which  he  taught  in  proper  lan- 
guage. They  were  the  words  of  truth,  and  were  de- 
signed to  prove  quickening  to  the  sluggish  soul  as 
goads  are  to  the  dull  ox  (Acts  ii,  37).  They  were  re- 
ceived from  the  one  great  shepherd  or  teacher,  and 


ASSEMBLY 


480 


ASSESSMENT 


came  with  great  power  as  the  sayings  of  the  most  wise 
and  eloquent  of  their  learned  assemblies  ;  and  they 
would  take  hold  of  the  hearts  and  consciences  of  men, 
holding  them  to  the  obedience  of  the  truth,  as  nails 
driven  through  a  sound  board  firmly  bind  and  fasten 
it  where  we  will  (see  Stuart,  Comment,  in  loc).  Heng- 
Btenberg,  however  {Comment,  in  loc),  fancifully  under- 
stands the  participators  in  the  sacred  collection  (or  apo- 
thegms of  Scripture)  to  be  meant.    See  Ecclesiastes. 

Assembly,  General,  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and 
the  United  States,  denotes  the  highest  court  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  It  differs  from  the  Anglican 
Convocation  at  once  in  its  constitution  and  in  its 
powers,  representing  as  it  does  both  the  lay  and  the 
clerical  elements  in  the  Church,  and  possessing  su- 
preme legislative  and  judicial  authority  in  all  matters 
purely  ecclesiastical.  The  General  Assembly  of  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland  consists  of  representa- 
tives, clerical  and  lay,  from  all  the  presbyteries  of  the 
Church.  The  royal  burghs  of  Scotland  also  return 
elders  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  each  of  the  Scottish  universities  sends  a 
representative.  The  Assembly  meets  once  a  year  in 
the  middle  of  May,  at  Edinburgh,  and  sits  for  ten  days. 
Its  deliberations  are  presided  over  by  a  moderator, 
whose  election  is  the  first  step  in  the  proceedings,  after 
a  sermon  by  his  predecessor.  In  former  times  this 
office  was  sometimes  filled  by  laymen  :  among  others, 
in  1567,  by  George  Buchanan.  In  modern  times  the 
moderator  is  always  a  clergyman.  8-1  presbyteries, 
composing  16  synods,  return  members  to  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland.  Its 
relation  to  the  state  is  represented  by  a  royal  commis- 
sioner, who  exercises  no  function  in  the  Assembly  be- 
yond that  of  adding  by  his  presence  the  sanction  of  the 
civil  authority  to  its  proceedings.  The  other  function- 
aries are  a  principal  and  a  deputy  clerk,  both  clergy- 
men, a  procurator,  and  an  agent.  All  business  not 
dispatched  during  the  session  of  the  Assembly  is  re- 
ferred to  a  commission,  with  the  moderator  as  con- 
vener, which  meets  immediately  after  the  dissolution 
of  the  Assembly,  and  again  quarterly.  The  General 
Assembly  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  which  has 
16  synods,  comprising  71  presbyteries,  and  of  the  Irish 
Presbyterian  Church,  are  similarly  constituted,  the 
principal  point  of  difference  being  the  absence  of  the 
royal  commissioner.  See  Presbytery;  Synod; 
Free  Church.  For  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States,  see  Pres- 
byterian Church. — Chambers,  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. 

Assembly  of  Divines.     See  Westminster. 

Asser,  or  more  correctly  Ashe,  the  principal  au- 
thor of  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  He  was  born  at  Bab- 
ylon A.l).  353  (A.M.  4113).  His  Jewish  biographers 
relate  that  he  was  appointed  head  of  the  college  of 
Sori,  in  Babylon,  at  the  age  of  fourteen  !  He  held 
this  post  till  liis  death  in  426.  Rabbi  Abraham  ben- 
Dim-  asserts,  in  his  Kabbalah,  p.  68,  that  since  the  days 
of  Rabbi  Jehuda-Hannasi,  or  Kabbenu-Hakkadosh,  in 
no  one  but  Ashe  had  been  combined  at  once  knowledge 
of  the  law,  piety,  humility,  and  magnificence.  His 
fame  attracted  to  his  lectures  many  thousands  of  stu- 
dents. I'll'-  expositions  of  the  Mislnia  which  he  de- 
livered in  his  lectures  were  collected,  and  form  the 
basis  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  The  continuation 
was  the  work  of  his  disciples  and  followers:  it  was 
cool  i-d  seventy-three  years  after  the  death  of  Ashe 
by  R.Josd,  president  of  the  college  of  Pumbedita  in 
Babylon.  (( iompare  the  Tsemarfi  David,  first  part,  in 
the  years  4127  and  4187;  Sepher  Juchasin,  fol.  117; 
Halichoth  Olam,  p.  18;  Wolfii  Bibliotheca  Ihbrcea,  i, 
224.)    See  Talmud. 

Asser,  a  learned  monk  of  St.  David's,  whence  (the 
name  of  that  place  in  Latin  being  written  Menapia  or 
Menevia)  he  obtained  the  appellation  of  Asserius 
Mbnevensis.     Asser  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Al- 


fred the  Great,  as  is  generally  believed,  in  or  about 
the  j'ear  880,  but  probably  earlier,  merely  from  the 
reputation  of  his  learning.  His  name  is  preserved  by 
his  Annales  Rerum  Gestarum  JElfredi  Magni. — Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  anno  890 ;  Eng.  Cyclop.     See  Alfred. 

Asses,  Feast  of.     See  Feast  of  Asses. 

Assessment  (XtiJE  or  Pl!K©T3;  also  0373  and 
fi^SE)  among  the  Israelites  was  of  two  kinds  :  (a)  Ec- 
clesiastical.— According  to  Exod.  xxx,  13,  each  Is- 
raelite (over  twenty  years  old)  was  obliged  to  contrib- 
ute yearly  a  silver  half-shekel  (a  didrachm,  about  35 
cents)  to  the  Temple  (2  Chron.  xxiv,  6).  This  tax  ex- 
isted still  in  full  force  after  the  Babylonian  exile  (Matt. 
xvii,  24;  comp.  Philo,  Opp.  iii,  224;  Josephus,  War, 
vii,  6,  6),  and  all  Jews  residing  in  Palestine  were  un- 
der the  obligation  of  paying  it  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii. 
9,  1).  See  generally  the  Mishna  {Shekalim,  ii,  4),  ac- 
cording to  which  this  payment  became  due  between 
the  15th  and  25th  of  Adar  (in  March  or  April).  See 
Temple.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  at  Je- 
rusalem, the  Jews  were  obliged  by  a  decree  of  the  Em- 
peror Vespasian  to  pay  this  sum  yearly  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  Capitoline  at  Rome  (Joseph.  War,  vii,  6, 
6;  Dio  Cass,  lxvi,  7,  p.  1082).  An  increase  of  the 
temple-tax,  which  the  pressure  of  circumstances  ap- 
pears to  have  compelled,  is  mentioned  in  Neh.  x,  32 
(see  Rambach,  in  loc).  Besides  this,  there  were  for 
the  support  of  the  Temple  certain  definite  assessments 
(2  Kings  xii,  4),  such  as  the  tithes,  first-fruits,  and 
first-born  offerings  (see  each  of  these  in  alphabetical 
order).  Yet,  on  account  of  the  great  fertility  of  the 
soil  and  the  original  proprietorship  of  each  Israelite 
over  it,  these  sacred  laws  were  certainly  not  onerous, 
however  much  the}'  may  resemble  direct  imposts  upon 
the  citizens  of  modern  states.  (6)  Civil. — Of  these  no 
trace  appears  prior  to  the  introduction  of  royalty.  But 
the  kings  not  only  required  liege  duties  (1  Sam.  viii, 
12,  16),  but  also  tribute  in  kind  (1  Sam.  viii,  15),  from 
which  exemption  was  allowed  only  in  certain  cases  (1 
Sam.  xvii,  25),  and  likewise  personal  service  (Amos  vii, 
1),  as  well  as  a  capitation-tax  in  extraordinary  emer- 
gencies (2  Kings  xv,  20;  xxiii,  35).  They  also  re- 
ceived voluntary  presents  from  their  subjects  and  chief 
vassals  (1  Sam.  x,  27;  xvi,  20;  1  Kings  x,  25;  2 
Chron.  ix,  24;  xvii,  5),  as  is  still  customary  in  the 
East.  See  King;  Gift.  Crown-lands  (or  royal  pri- 
vate property  ?)  seem  also  to  be  alluded  to  (1  Kings 
iv,  27  sq. ;  1  Chron.  xxvii,  26  sq. ;  xxvi,  10  sq.),  as 
well  as  tolls  on  goods  in  transit  (1  Kings  x,  15),  and 
even  regal  privileges  and  monopolies  of  a  commercial 
character  (1  Kings  x,  28 ;  comp.  ix,  26  sq. ;  xxii,  49). 
During  the  exile  and  later,  the  Jews  of  Palestine  paid 
taxes  of  various  kinds  to  their  foreign  masters,  and  so 
the  remnant  of  the  Jews  under  the  Chaldrcan  regents 
(see  Josephus,  Ant.  x,  9,  1  and  3).  As  Persian  taxes 
levied  upon  the  new  Jewish  colonies  are  mentioned 
(Ezra  iv,  13,  20;  vii,  24),  Cnri,  tribute,  tea,  excise, 
and  Tjbn,  toll  (Sept.  and  Joseph.  Ant.  xi,  2,  1,  in  gen- 
eral tyopoi,  duties;  as  the  Auth.  Vers,  "tribute"  for 
the  first  two,  "custom"  for  the  last).  The  distinction 
between  these  terms,  it  is  true,  is  not  at  all  clear ;  the 
foregoing  renderings  follow  the  etymology;  the  last 
term  ("3!"!,  halak')  signifying  u-ay-money  (from  ~3i"', 
to  170),  the  second  (iP3,  belo'),  consumption-tax  (from 
1H52,  to  consume') ;  the  first  (STTO,  middah'},  the  direct 
(ground  or  income)  tax  {apportionment,  from  ill  "2,  to 
measure  out),  which  individuals  had  to  pay  (comp.  Lat. 
demensuni),  as  Grotius  and  Cocceius  have  supposed 
(see  Gesenius,  Heb.  Lex.  s.  vv.  severally).  Abcn-Ezra's 
interpretation  of  this  last  by  cattle-tax  has  no  good 
foundation.  The  governors  increased  the  severe  tax- 
ation of  the  people  (Neh.  ix,  37)  by  many  additional 
assumptions  of  extortion  (Neh.  v,  15).  We  find  men- 
tion (Ezra  vi,  8 ;  vii,  20  sq.)  of  royal  exchequers. 
The  priests  and  Levites  were  (under  Artaxer.\es?)  ex- 


ASSESSMENT 


481 


ASSHUR 


empt  from  taxes  (Ezra  vii,  24).  In  the  Ptolemaic  pe- 
riod of  the  Egyptian  rule  over  Palestine  instances  occur 
of  the  farming  or  leasing  out  of  the  collection  of  the 
public  revenues  (tolls  ?)  to  the  highest  bidder  (Joseph. 
Ant.  xii,  4,  1,  4  and  5).  The  yearly  rent  of  all  such 
dues  in  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine  amounted  under 
Ptolemj'  Evergetes  to  1G  talents  of  silver;  and  we  may 
easily  imagine  what  vexation  it  occasioned  when  the 
taxes  reached  so  enormous  a  sum  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  4, 
5).  Imposts  by  the  Syrian  rulers  of  Palestine  are  also 
named  (1  Mace,  x,  29 ;  xi,  35 ;  xiii,  39).  They  con- 
sisted in  the  levy  of  duties  (0iipoi)  upon  salt  (n/o) 
aXui;)  ;  the  royal  tribute  (artipavoi,  crown  dues,  comp. 
the  Lat.  "aurum  coronarium,"  see  Adams's  Rom.  Ant. 
i,  295 ;  in  a  rescript  of  Antiochus  the  Great  [Joseph. 
Ant.  xii,  3,  3]  this  assessment  is  called  technically  an- 
(pavirnc  tpupog.  Atfirstthe  Jews  were  obliged  to  bring 
a  gold  "crown-piece"  as  the  [expected]  "gift,"  but 
afterward  it  might  be  rendered  in  any  coin ;  such  a 
regal  due  is  indicated  in  2  Mace,  iv,  9);  the  third  of 
the  seed  (rpirov  rijg  mropac),  and  the  half  of  the  prod- 
uce of  the  trees  (j'^uav  tov  Kapnov  tov  %v\ivov),  these 
latter  being  payments  in  kind  common  to  most  nations 
of  antiquity  (comp.  Pausan.  iv,  14,  3 ;  see  the  Hall.  En- 
cyclop,  xxi,  90).  There  existed  also  tolls  and  poll- 
taxes  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  3,  3;  xiii,  8,  3),  as  these  are 
not  classed  under  the  usual  name  (ipt'ioot)  of  imposts 
(on  1  Mace,  x,  33,  see  Michaelis  in  loc).  The  priests 
and  Levites  mostly  enjoyed  an  exemption  from  these 
assessments  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  3,  3).  Letting  out  of 
the  (royal)  ground-rents  (of  single  districts)  was  also, 
at  this  time,  not  uncommon  (1  Mace,  xi,  28 ;  xiii,  15). 
A  species  of  forced  contribution  also  appears  to  be  re- 
ferred to  (1  Mace,  xv,  31).  Jiukea  was  first  brought 
under  tribute  (vtt-oteXijc,  (popov,  Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  4,  4; 
perhaps,  however,  this  refers  to  Jerusalem  only)  to  the 
Romans  by  Pompey,  although  the  country  as  yet  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  subject  to  a  yearly  payment, 
but  rather  to  occasional  exactions  at  the  caprice  of  the 
governor  in  power  at  the  time.  The  regular  taxes 
were  raised  by  the  native  princes  (whether  yearly 
is  uncertain,  comp.  Appian,  Civ.  v,  75;  but  the  Ro- 
mans were  accustomed  to  impose  tribute  upon  their 
dependencies,  1  Mace,  viii,  7 ;  2  Mace,  viii,  10),  and 
Julius  Cwsar  ordained  this  by  a  special  decree  (Joseph. 
Ant.  xiv,  10,  5  sq. ;  comp.  2'/).  These  revenues  were 
not  inconsiderable  (Joseph.  Ant.  xix,  8,  2),  and  were 
derived  parti y  from  royal  lands  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  10, 
6),  partly  from  the  ground  and  income  taxes  (Joseph. 
Ant.  xv,  9,  1;  10,  4 ;  xvii,  2,  1 ;  8,  4.  Josephus,  Ant. 
xix,  6,  3,  likewise  mentions  a  house-tax,  either  a  duty 
upon  the  simple  dwelling,  or  the  premises  in  general), 
and  partly  from  tolls  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  10,  G,  22);  and 
under  the  Herods  were  also  added  very  oppressive  city 
taxes  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  8,  4 ;  comp.  xviii,  4,  3).  In 
addition  to  all  these,  the  Jews,  in  consequence  of  their 
partisan  warfare  against  the  Romans,  were  compelled 
to  pay  man}'  special  war  taxes  (Joseph.  An',  xiv,  11, 
2).  As  at  first  single  parts  of  Judaea,  and  finally  the 
whole  country,  came  under  the  immediate  Roman  gov- 
ernment, the  Jews  were  obliged  (Plin.  Hist.  Xat.  xii, 
54),  like  other  Roman  provinces  (see  Savigny,  in  the 
Abhandl.  der  Berl.  Akademie,  1822  and  1823,  Histor- 
philol.  Class,  p.  27  sq.),  to  pa}'  the  ground  and  head 
tax  (Matt,  xxii,  17),  with  a  view  to  which  a  census  and 
assessment  had  alreadj'  been  made  out  by  Augustus 
(Lukcii,  1,  2;  comp.  Acts  v,  37;  see  Joseph.  Ant.  xviii, 
1,  1);  moreover,  the  city  consumption  excise  (in  Je- 
rusalem) continued  still  for  a  long  time  (Joseph.  Ant. 
xviii,  4,  3),  and  the  tolls  (on  <popoc  and  r!-\oc,  the  Lat. 
tributum  and  vectigal,  Rom.  xiii,  7,  see  Kype,  Observ. 
ii,  183  sq.),  which  were  considerable  along  the  com- 
mercial routes  (especially  between  Damascus  and  Ptol- 
emais)  and  at  the  sea-ports,  and  also  from  the  export  of 
balsam  and  cotton,  were  exacted  as  elsewhere.  See 
Custom.  These  united  imposts,  but  especially  the 
capitation-tax  (Appian,  Syr.  50),  severely  oppressed 
Hh 


the  people  (Tacit.  Annals,  ii,  42),  particularly,  no 
doubt,  because  they  were  not  apportioned  according  to 
an  exact  ratio  of  taxation ;  and,  in  addition,  the  pro- 
curators, who  superintended  the  collection,  and  were 
responsible  for  the  retun/of  the  duties  into  the  impe- 
rial treasury,  as  well  as  the  principal  collectors  them- 
selves (one  such,  <j)6pwv  iicXoytve,,  under  the  Emperor 
Caius,  by  the  name  of  Capito,  is  depicted  in  Philo,  ii, 
575,  comp.  325  sq.),  in  various  ways  made  use  of  ex- 
tortion. See  Publican.  The  power  of  remitting  tax- 
es, where  circumstances  rendered  it  reasonable,  be- 
longed, under  the  direct  Roman  rule,  only  to  the  Pres- 
ident of  Syria  (Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  4,  3).  See,  gener- 
ally, P.  Zorn,  Historiajisci  Jud.  sub  imperio  vet.  Roman. 
(Alton.  1734 ;  also  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  xxvi) ;  Jost, 
Gesch.  d.  Israelit.  1  Anhang,  p.  49  sq.  — Winer,  i,  4. 
See  Census  ;  Tax. 

As'shur  (Heb.  Ashshur',  "lilffiN,  prob.  i.  q.  1*ltt3& 
a  step ;  Sept.  'Aaaovp  and  'Airoovpioi  ;  Auth.  Vers. 
"Asshur,"  in  Gen.  x,  11;  Num.  xxiv,  22,  24;  1 
Chron.  i,  17 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  23 ;  xxxii,  22 ;  Hos.  xiv, 
3;  " Assur"  in  Ezra  iv,  2 ;  Psa.  lxxxiii,  8;  "Assyr- 
ian" or  "Assyrians"  in  Psa.  xiv,  25;  xix,  23;  xxx, 
31;  xxxi,  8;  lii,  4;  Lam.  v,  6;  Ezek.  xvi,  28 ;  xxiii, 
9,  12,  23  ;  Hos.  v,  13  ;  xi,  5  ;  xii,  1 ;  Mic.  v,  5,  6  ; 
elsewhere  and  usually  "Assyria"  in  very  many  oc- 
currences) appears  in  the  O.  T.  to  be  the  name  (1.) 
properly  (Gen.  x,  11 ;  see  Michaelis,  Spic.  i,  235  sq. ; 
Vater,  Comm.  i,  125,  in  loc.)  of  a  state  in  Western  Asia, 
different  from  Babylonia  (Shinar),  of  which  it  was  ac- 
counted a  colony.  The  metropolis  was  Nineveh  (q. 
v.),  i.  e.  the  Kinus  of  the  Greeks ;  besides  which  the, 
cities  Resen,  Rehoboth,  and  Calnah  (q.  v.  severally) 
are  named,  apparently  as  included  in  the  same  dis- 
trict, although  the  signification  and  application  of  these 
names  are  uncertain.  (2.)  In  the  books  of  the  Kings 
(and  the  prophets)  it  designates  a  victorious  and  ty- 
rannical kingdom,  which  (according  to  2  Kings  xviii, 
11)  included  also  Mesopotamia,  Media  (comp.  Isa.  vii, 
20;  x,  8,  9;  xxii,  26),  as  well  as  (according  to  2 
Kings  xvii,  20;  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  11)  Babylonia,  and 
whose  inhabitants  are  described  (Ezek.  xxiii,  6,  17, 
23)  as  wealthy  (Nineveh  being  a  mart,  Nah.  iii,  16, 
the  entrepot  between  the  eastern  and  western  trade), 
but  also  arrogant  (Isa.  x,  9  sq. ;  Zach.  x,  11),  and  oc- 
cupying a  fertile  tract  (Isa.  xviii,  2,  7;  Nah.  iii,  If). 
It  is  the  region  also  well  known  to  the  Greeks  as  As- 
syria  (once,  Mic.  v,  5,  called  "the  land  of  Nimrod"), 
which,  together  with  its  capital  Ninus,  was  destro)-ed 
by  the  Medes  and  Chaldueans.  As  in  the  Bible,  we 
find  likewise  (a.)  in  Greek  and  Roman  writers  Assyr- 
ia CAtrovpia,  Ptol.  vi,  1;  oftener  'Arovpia,  Strabo, 
xvi,  507,  or  'Arvpia,  Dio  Cass,  lxviii,  28)  named  as 
the  country  shut  in  on  the  north  by  the  high  mountain 
range  (Mt.  Niphates)  of  Armenia,  on  the  south  almost 
entirely  level,  watered  by  several  rivers,  and  hence 
very  fruitful ;  which  was  bounded  on  the  east  by  Me- 
dia, on  the  south  by  Susiana  and  Babylonia,  on  the 
west  (by  means  of  the  Tigris)  by  Mesopotamia,  and 
now  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  province  of  Kurdis- 
tan (comp.  Plin.  v,  13;  Strabo,  xvi,  736;  see  Bern- 
hard,  ad  Dionys.  Perieg.  p.  730).  (6.)  Far  oftener  As- 
syria was  the  name  given  1  y  the  ancients  to  the  pro- 
vincial satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire,  consisting  of 
the  joint  districts  Assyria  and  Babylonia  (Herod,  i, 
178;  comp.  10G;  Strabo,  xvi,  507;  Ammian.  Marc. 
xxiii,  £0),  including  Mesopotamia  (Arrian,  Alex,  vii, 
21,  2 ;  Ammian.  Marc,  xxiv,  2),  and  even  extended  at 
times  its  name  to  a  part  of  Asia  Minor  (Dionys.  Pe- 
rieg. 975  ;  comp.  Mannert,  V,  ii,  424  sq.).  Assyria 
Proper  (Herod,  i,  102,  "the  Assyrians  who  live  in 
Ninus")  is,  on  the  other  hand,  called  Adiabene  (Plin. 
v,  13,  6;  Strabo,  xvi,  512;  Ammian.  Marc,  xxiii,  6; 
in  the  Syriac,  Chedib,  Assemani,  Biblioth.  Or.  Ill,  ii, 
708;  by  the  Talmudists,  Clmdib,  ^IPT;  comp.  Dib, 
the  Arabic  name  of  two  streams  of  this  province,  Ro- 


ASSHUR 


482 


ASSHUR 


senmuller,  Alterth.  I,  ii,  113),  which  was  only  a  prov- 
ince of  Assyria,  lying  between  Arrapachitis  and  the 
Garamaeans  (Plin.  vi,  1G;  Mannert,  V,  ii,  450  sq.). 
See  Babylonia  ;  Mesopotamia. 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  for  the  ancient  accounts  are  not  only  scant}-, 
but  confused,  and  in  some  cases  contradictory,  so 
that  the  most  deserving  efforts  of  modern  (especially 
recent)  scholars  have  scarcely  availed  to  clear  it  up 
(see  Schroer,  Imperium  Babylon,  et  Nini  ex  monument, 
antiq.  Frckf.  1726 ;  Uhland,  Chronologia  sacra  in  prw- 
c!p.  chron.  et  hist.  Babylon.  Assyr.  monumentis  vindi- 
cata,  Tubing.  1763).  The  Biblical  notices,  which  em- 
brace but  a  small  part  of  its  history,  do  not  form  a 
connected  whole  with  those  of  profane  (Greek)  au- 
thors. According  to  the  former  (Gen.  x,  10)  the  king- 
dom of  Assyria  was  founded  by  Nimrod  (q.  v.)  of 
Babylon,  but  its  princes  are  not  named  earlier  than 
the  Israelitish  king  Menahem  (2  Kings  xv,  19  sq.),  and 
they  appear  subsequently  in  the  hostile  collisions  with 
the  two  Hebrew  kingdoms  (comp.  Hos.  v,  13 ;  vii,  11). 
Those  thus  mentioned  are  the  following:  (1.)  Pul  (2 
Kings,  as  above),  who  exacted  tribute  (B.C.  7G9)  of 
Israel  (under  Menahem).  (2.)  Tiglath-Pileser  (2  Kings 
xvi,  7-10  ;  1  Chron.  xxviii,  16  sq.),  in  the  time  of  Ahaz 
of  Judah  and  Pekah  of  Israel,  the  latter  of  whom,  with 
his  ally  Rezin  (of  Damascene  Syria),  was  beaten  by 
him  (as  a  mercenary  ally  of  Ahaz),  and  many  of  their 
subjects  carried  into  captivity  (B.C.  739).  (3.)  Shal- 
maneser, who  (B.C.  720)  overthrew  the  kingdom  of 
Israel  and  carried  away  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  into 
exile  (2  Kings  xvii,  5  sq. ;  xviii,  9).  Judah  was  also 
tributary  to  him  (2  Kings  xviii,  7).  Media  and  Per- 
sia formed  part  of  this  Assyrian  king's  dominions  (2 
Kings  xviii,  11),  and  he  made  successful  incursions 
against  Phoenicia  (Joseph.  Ant.  ix,  14,  2).  (4.)  Sen- 
nacherib, who  (B.C.  713)  appeared  before  Jerusalem 
under  Hezekiah  after  sin  attack  upon  Egypt  (2  Kings 
xviii,  13  sq.  ;  xix,  39  ;  Isa.  xvii,  xviii).  (5.)  Esar- 
haddon  (B.C.  post  712),  the  son  of  the  preceding  (2 
Kings  xix,  37 ;  Isa.  xxxvii,  38 ;  Ezra  iv,  2).  There 
is,  moreover,  mention  made  of  Sargon  (only  Isa.  xx, 
1),  who  probably  reigned  but  for  a  short  time  between 
Shalmaneser  and  Sennacherib  (B.C.  715).  None  of 
these  names  except  Sennacherib  (Sanacharib,  2«i'a- 
Xcuujioc,  Herod,  ii,  141),  the  contemporary  of  the 
Egyptian  king  Setho  (comp.  Berosus,  in  Joseph.  Ant. 
x,  1,  4),  occur  in  Grecian  authors  (allusion  is  made 
to  Shalmaneser  in  the  passage  cited  by  Joseph.  Ant. 
ix,  14,  2,  from  Menander  the  Ephesian,  although  the 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  extract).  Moreover,  Cte- 
sias  (in  Diod.  Sic.  ii;  comp.  Agathias,  I)e  rebus  J us- 
tiniani,  2),  Julius  Africanus,  Eusebius  (Chron.  Armen. 
i,  98  sq.,  599;  ii,  15  sq.),  and  Syncellus  begin  their 
series  of  proper  Assyrian  kings,  whose  empire  ex- 
tended during  its  prime  to  the  Euphrates  (although 
the  notices  in  the  Hebrew  writers  from  the  time  of 
David  are  silent  respecting  its  growth),  with  Ninus 
(Belus),  and  close  it  (260  years  before  Cyrus)  with 
Sardanapalus  (after  a  duration  of  6520  vears,  accord- 
ing to  Herod,  i,  95,  130;  of  1306  [1360]  years  accord- 
ing to  Ctesias,  in  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  21,  28;  of  1460  years 
according  to  Syncellus,  p.  165;  of  1240  years  accord- 
ing to  Eusebius,  Chron.  Armen.  ii,  16, 167)  or  (in  Syn- 
"II  ii-  |  Thonoscon-Colerus  (Euseb.  Chron.  ii,  167,  places 
this  Sardanapalus  in  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II,  and 
makes  him  a  contemporary  of  Lyeurgus).  From  this 
point  they  begin,  with  Arbaces,  the  conqueror  of  Sar- 
danapalus,  a  new  Median  dynasty  (comp.  Athen.  xii, 
528  sq.),  which  is  continued  down  to  Astyages  (.Marsh- 
am,  Can.  Chron.  p.  517  sq.,  525  sq. ;  Vignoles,  Chro- 
nologie^  ii.  161  sq.).  Herodotus,  who,  however,  gives 
merely  general  references  to  Assyrian  history,  names 
(i,  98  8q.  |  as  the  first  independent  king  of  Media,  De- 
joces  (comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  x,  2,  2),  and  reckons  to 
Astyages  only  four  (comp.  Dion.  Hal.  i,  2)  Median 
princes,  including  Astyages  (according  to  him,  these 


four  Median  kings  reigned  150  years;  according  to 
Diod.  Sic.  the  Median  kingdom  lasted  from  Arbace3 
over  282  years  ;  according  to  Syncellus,  275  years , 
according  to  Eusebius,  259  years ;  the  statements  of 
Ctesias  can  hardly  be  reconciled  with  those  of  Herod- 
otus ;  see  Larcher,  Chronolog.  zu  Herod,  p.  144  sq. ; 
Volney,  Chronol.  d 'Herod,  p.  199  sq.).  Now,  in  or- 
der to  reconcile  the  Biblical  notices  with  those  of  the 
Greek  historians  and  chronographers,  nearly  all  mod- 
ern investigators  of  history  have  been  compelled  to 
assume  a  new  Assyrian  empire  (subsequent  to  this  Sar- 
danapalus), which  Herodotus  appears  to  sustain,  in 
as  much  as  after  the  revolt  of  the  Medes  under  Dejo- 
ces  he  still  constantly  speaks  of  a  not  inconsiderable 
(comp.  i,  102)  Assyrian  kingdom,  with  Ninus  as  its 
capital,  which  (but  with  the  exception  of  the  Babylo- 
nian portion,  ir\))v  rijc  BafivXiovhjc,  ftoipijg)  Cyaxares 
first  (i,  106)  subdued  (comp.  Gatterer,  Handb.  p.  288 
sq. ;  Beck,  Weltgesch.  i,  605  sq. ;  Jahn,  Archdol.  II,  i, 
184;  EM.  II,  ii,  6)5;  Bredow,  Handb.  p.  192  sq.; 
Kannegiesser,  in  the  Hall.  Encyclop.  vi,  131  sq. ;  Rau- 
mer,  Yorles.  i,  98;  in  vain  opposed  by  Hartmann,  in 
the  Ally.  Lit.  Zeit.  1813,  No.  39;  and  Linguist.  Einl. 
p.  145  sq.).  The  late  independence  of  Assyria,  which, 
in  consequence  of  this  Median  revolution,  had  become 
for  a  long  time  merely  a  satrap}'  (comp.  Syncellus, 
Chron.  p.  205),  must  have  been  established  before 
B.C.  759,  which  is  the  latest  date  assignable  to  Pul ; 
Tiglath-Pileser  succeeded  in  conquering  Western  Asia: 
Shalmaneser  (B.C.  cir.  728)  was  already  master  of 
Babylon  and  Media  (2  Kings  xvii,  24;  xviii,  11),  and 
extended  the  Assyrian  rule  (Menander  Ephes.  in  Jo- 
seph, ut  sup.)  in  the  west  (as  far  as  Phoenicia) ;  and 
Sennacherib  even  attacked  Egypt  (Herod,  ii,  141),  but 
was  compelled  to  retire.  The  attempt  of  the  Babylo- 
nians to  free  themselves  from  the  dominion  of  the  As- 
syrians was  not  yet  successful  (Euseb. Chron.  Armen.  i, 
42  sq.) ;  but  under  Esarhaddon  the  empire  appears  to 
have  declined.  Babylonia  renewed  her  efforts  to  free 
herself  from  the  Assyrian  yoke,  as  Media  (under  Dejo- 
ces,  according  to  Herod.)  had  earlier  done  (perhaps  dur- 
ing Sennacherib's  campaigns  in  the  West),  and  finally 
(B.C.  625)  the  Median  king  Cyaxares  (probably  with 
Babylonian  aid ;  see  Abyden.  in  Euseb.  Chron.  p.  5-1) 
took  and  destroyed  Ninus  (Herod,  i,  103,  106;  Offer- 
haus,  De  regno  Assyr.  Hans.  1700).     See  Nineveh. 

The  lately  discovered  abstract  of  Assyrian  history 
in  the  Armenian  Chronicle  of  Eusebius  enables  us  to 
connect  it  more  closely  with  the  Biblical  notices,  al- 
though they  by  no  means  agree  entirely  with  each 
other.  In  the  extracts  by  Alexander  Polyhistor  from 
Berosus  (in  Euseb.  Chron.  Armen.  i,  44  sq.),  Assyrian 
kings  (of  the  later  period)  are  named  in  the  following 
series  :  Phul  (more  than  520  years  after  Semiramis) ; 
Sanherib,  18  years;  Asordam,  8  years;  Sammughes, 
21  years ;  his  brother,  21  years ;  Nabupalassar,  20 
years;  Nabucodrossor  (Nebuchadnezzar),  43  years. 
Yet  Sardanapal  is  mentioned  (p.  44)  as  having  engaged 
his  son  Nabucodrossor  in  a  matrimonial  alliance  with 
the daughterof  the  Median  king  Asdahages( Astyages). 
Abydenus  gives  (Euseb.  Chron.  Armen.  i,  53  sq.)  the 
Assyrian  princes  in  the  following  order:  Saiiherib, 
Ncrgilus  (Adrameles),  Axerdis,  Sardanapallus,  Sara- 
cus.  This  last  introduced  a  barbarian  army  from  be- 
yond the  sea,  and  sent  his  general,  Busalossor  (Nabo- 
polassar),  to  Babylon  ;  but  the  latter  set  himself  up  as 
King  of  Babylonia,  and  married  his  son  Nabucadros- 
sor  to  the  daughter  of  the  Median  Prince  Astyages, 
and  thus  Nineveh  was  overthrown.  With  the  position 
which  both  these  references  assign  to  Sardanapalus 
(after  Sennacherib)  essentially  agrees  Moses  Choren- 
sis  (who,  however,  probably  makes  Sardanapalus  a 
contemporary  of  the  Median  Arbaces).  This  so  disa- 
grees with  the  accounts  of  Herodotus,  Ctesias,  and 
Syncellus  (see  Baumgarten,  Allgem.  WeUhist.  iii,  549), 
as  to  lead  to  the  supposition  of  a  second  Sardanapalus 
(see  Suidas,  s.  v. ;  the  name  is  perhaps  rather  a  royal 


ASSHURIM 


483 


ASSOS 


title  than  a  personal  appellation  ;  comp.  Sosenmiiller, 
Alterth.  I,  ii,  129).  Otherwise  the  revolution  of  Dc- 
joces  will  fall  during  the  reign  of  Sennacherib,  about 
the  same  time  when  the  Babylonians  also  revolted 
under  Merodach-Baladan  (q.  v.).  See  Chald.ean  ; 
Sennacherib.    In  Persian  cuneiform  (q.  v.)  the  name 

is  written  Taj  9/j  /««  *—1  Tft  '  or  A^mra'y 
comp.  the  '  Arvpia  of  Dio  Cass.,  'Arovpia  of  Strabo. 
(See  Hertz,  Cat  of  Assy r.  and  Bab.  Ant.  Lond.  1852.) 
—Winer,  i,  102.     Comp.  Assyria. 

Asshu'rim  (Gen.  xxv,  3).     See  Asiiurite. 

Assidae'an  (only  in  the  plur.  'AmSalot,  Vulg.  As- 
sidcti,  prob.  for  D",~I>1On,  chasidim',  saints)  occurs  only 
in  the  Apocrypha  (1  Mace,  ii,  42;  vii.  13;  2  Mace. 
xiv,  18),  where  it  is  applied  to  the  body  of  zealous  and 
devoted  men  who  rose  at  the  signal  for  armed  resistance 
given  bj-  Mattathias,  the  father  of  the  Maccabees,  and 
who,  under  him  and  his  successors,  upheld  with  the 
sword  the  great  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  God,  and 
stemmed  the  advancing  tide  of  Grecian  manners  and 
idolatries.  The  epithet  evidently  designates  a  section 
of  the  orthodox  Jews  (1  Mace,  ii,  42,  v.  r.  'loveaiiov 
probably  by  correction),  as  distinguished  from  "the 
impious"  (oi  dtrtfiCic,  1  Mace,  iii,  8;  vi,  21;  vii,  5, 
etc.),  "the  lawless"  (ot  uvopot,  1  Mace,  iii,  G;  ix,  23, 
etc.),  "the  transgressors"  (oi  Trapdvo/^oi,  1  Mace,  i, 
11,  etc.);  that  is,  the  Hellenizing  faction.  When 
Bacchides  came  against  Jerusalem,  they  used  their  in- 
fluence (1  Mace,  vii,  13,  izpwroi  oi  'Avid,  t/aav  tv  vlolg 
'lapaiiX)  to  conclude  a  peace,  because  "a  priest  of  the 
seed  of  Aaron"  (Alcimus)  was  with  him,  and  sixty  of 
them  fell  by  his  treachery.  See  Alctmi.t.  The  Jews 
at  a  later  period  gave  the  name  of  Chasid  m  to  those  pi- 
ous persons  who  devoted  themselves  to  a  life  of  austeri- 
ties and  religious  exercises  in  the  hope  of  hastening  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  of  making  an  atonement  for 
their  own  sins  and  for  the  sins  of  others  (see  Solomon 
Maimon.  Memoirs,  Berlin,  1792).  The  name  of  Chasi- 
dim has  also  been  assumed  by  a  Jewish  sect  which  orig- 
inated in  Poland  about  a  hundred  years  since,  who  took 
as  the  basis  of  their  mystical  system  the  doctrines  of 
the  cabalistic  book  Zohar  (Beer,  in  Ersch  und  Gruber, 
s.  v.  Chassidaer),  and  which  still  subsists  (see  the  Pen- 
ny Cydopcedia,  s.  v.  Assidians).  The  ideas  connected 
with  this  later  appropriation  of  the  term  have,  by  an 
obvious  association,  been  carried  back  to  and  connect- 
ed with  the  Chasidim  or  Assidteans  who  joined  Matta- 
thias, and  who  have  generally  been  regarded  as  a  sect 
subsisting  at  that  time.  No  such  sect,  however,  is  men- 
tioned by  Josephus  in  treating  of  the  affairs  of  that  pe- 
riod; and  the  texts  in  the  books  of  the  Maccabees 
which  refer  to  them  afford  no  sufficient  evidence  that 
the  Assidoeans  formed  a  sect  distinct  from  other  pious 
and  faithful  Jews.  Yet  they  may  have  existed  as  an 
undefined  party  before  the  Maccabaean  rising,  and 
were  probably  thereupon  bound  by  some  peculiar  vow 
to  the  external  observance  of  the  Law  (1  Mace,  ii,  42, 
iKoiKSia'CtnOai  toj  vofitp).  They  seem  afterward  to 
have  been  merged  in  the  general  body  of  the  faithful 
(2  Mace,  xiv,  G,  oi  XeySfitvoi  twv  'lovdaiiov  'Aaicaloi, 
mv  CKpiiyurcu  'loudag  b  MaKKaftcuoQ  .  .  .).  The  anal- 
ogous Hebrew  term  Chasidim  (  =  oi  ivctfitic,  oi  '(>otoi) 
occurs  in  various  passages  of  Scripture  appellatively 
for  good  and  pious  men  (Psa.  cxlv,  10  ;  cxlix,  1 ;  Isa. 
Ivii,  1 ;  Mic.  vii,  2),  but  is  never  applied  to  an)'  sect 
or  body  of  men.  Upon  the  whole,  in  the  entire  ab- 
sence of  collateral  information,  it  seems  the  safest 
course  to  conclude  that  the  Assidaians  were  a  body  of 
eminently  zealous  men,  devoted  to  the  Law,  who  join- 
ed Mattathias  very  early,  and  remained  the  constant 
adherents  of  him  and  his  son  Judas — not,  like  the  mass 
of  their  supporters,  rising  occasionally  and  then  re- 
lapsing into  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  life.  It.  is  possi- 
ble that,  as  Jennings  conjectures  (Antiq.  p.  298),  the 
name  dciciuoi,  or   "saints,"  came  to  be  applied  to 


them  by  their  enemies  as  a  term  of  reproach,  like 
"  Puritans"  formerly,  and  "saints"  very  often  in  the 
present  day. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Saint;  Chasidim. 

As'sir  (Heb.  Assir' ,  ""PSX,  prisoner),  the  name  of 
two  or  three  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'AiTfi'o  v.  r.  'Affi)p.)  A  son  of  Korah  (of 
the  Kohathite  Levites),  father  (brother)  of  Elkanah, 
and  grandfather  (brother)  of  Abiasaph  (q.  v.)  or  Ebia- 
saph  (Exod.  vi,  24;  1  Chron.  vi,  22).     B.C.  cir.  1740. 

2.  (Sept.  'Aerdp  v.  r.  '[vuadp  or  'loaap  and  A<r»'/p.) 
A  great-grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  father  of  Ta- 
hath  (1  Chron.  vi,  23,  37).  B.C.  cir.  1620.  See  Sam- 
uel. There  is  some  suspicion,  however,  that  the  name 
here  has  crept  in  by  repetition  from  the  preceding  (see 
Jour,  of  Sac.  Lit.  Apr.  1852,  p.  200 ;  comp.  Bertheau, 
Comment,  in  loc). 

3.  "Assir"  ("15X,  Sept.  'Aai'tp  v.  r.  'A<ri'p)  occurs  (1 
Chron.  iii,  17)  as  the  name  of  a  son  of  Jeconiah  the 
king,  but  it  is  more  likely  an  appellative,  referring  to 
the  captivity  of  that  prince  at  Babylon  (see  Strong's 
Harmony  and  Exposition  of  the  Gospels,  note  I,  at  the 
close  of  §  9).     See  Jehoiachin. 

Assisi,  Francis  of.     See  Francis  d'Assisi. 

Associate  Presbyterian  Church.  See  Pres- 
byterian (Associate)  Church. 

Associated  Baptists,  a  name  often  given  to  the 
main  body  of  Baptists  in  the  United  States,  who  are 
associated  by  their  pastors  in  District  Associations.  See 
Baptists. 

As'sos  or  Asstts  ("Ao-o-oc,  also  "Aaaov,  and  Apol- 
lunia,  Plin.  v,  32),  a  town  and  sea-port  of  the  Soman 
province  of  Asia,  in  the  district  anciently  called 
Mysia.  It  was  situated  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  Adramyttium  (Ptol.  v,  2  ;  Plin.  ii,  98  ;  Strabo, 
xiii,  581,  614;  Athen.  ix,  375;  Pausan.  vi,  45).  It 
was  only  about  seven  miles  from  the  opposite  coast  of 
Lesbos  (or  Mitylene),  near  Methyn.n.i  (Strab.  xiii,  p. 
G18).  A  good  Soman  road,  connecting  the  towns  of 
the  central  parts  of  the  province  with  Alexandria  Tro- 
as  (q.  v.),  passed  through  Assos,  the  distance  between 
the  two  latter  places  being  about  20  miles  (Jtin.  An- 
ton.). These  geographical  points  illustrate  the  Apos- 
tle Paul's  rapid  passage  through  the  town,  as  he  came 
hither  on  foot  from  Troas  to  meet  with  his  friends,  in 
order  to  take  shipping  for  Mitylene  (Acts  xx,  13, 14). 
The  ship  in  which  he  was  to  accomplish  his  voyage 
from  Troas  to  Csesarea  went  round  Cape  Lectum, 
while  he  took  the  much  shorter  journey  by  land. 
Thus  he  was  able  to  join  the  ship  without  difficulty, 
and  in  sufficient  time  for  her  to  anchor  off  Mitj'lene 
at  the  close  of  the  day  on  which  Troas  had  been  left 
(see  Conybeare  and  Howson,  ii,  209).  It  was  noted 
for  its  wheat  (Strabo,  p.  735)  and  for  a  peculiar  stone 
(lapis  Assius)  that  was  used  for  sarcophagi,  on  account 
of  its  flesh-consuming  properties  (Plin.  ii,  9G).  It  was 
founded  (according  to  different  authors)  by  a  colony 
from  Lesbos,  by  Gargara,  the  ^Eolian,  and  by  the  Me- 
thymnaM,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Cleanthes  the  stoic. 
Strabo  (p.  G10)  describes  it  as  well  fortified  both,  by 
nature  and  art.  The  chief  characteristic  of  Assos 
was  that  it  was  singularly  Greek.  Fellows  found 
there  "no  trace  of  the  Somans."  It  is  now  a  miser- 
able village  (the  neighborhood  of  which  still  bears  the 
name  Asso),  built  high  upon  the  rocks  on  the  side  to- 
ward the  land  (Sichter,  p.  4G5  sq.).  The  remains  are 
numerous  and  remarkably  well  preserved,  partly  be- 
cause many  of  the  buildings  were  of  granite.  The 
citadel,  above  the  the- 
atre, commands  a  glo- 
rious view,  and  must 
itself  have  been  a  no- 
ble object  from  the  sea. 
The  Street  of  Tombs, 
leading  to  the  Great 
Gate,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  Assos. 


Coin  of  Assos. 


ASSUERUS 


484 


ASSURANCE 


Leake  (Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  128)  says :  "  The  ruins 
of  Assos  at  Iiihrem  or  Beridm  Kalesi  are  extremely  cu- 
rious. There  is  a  theatre  in  very  perfect  preservation, 
and  the  remains  of  several  temples  lying  in  confused 
heaps  upon  the  ground.  An  inscription  upon  an 
architrave  belonging  to  one  of  these  buildings  shows 
that  it  was  dedicated  to  Augustus ;  but  some  figures 
in  low  relief  on  another  architrave  appear  to  be  in  a 
much  more  ancient  style  of  art,  and  the}-  are  sculp- 
tured upon  the  hard  granite  of  Mount  Ida,  which 
forms  the  materials  of  several  of  the  buildings.  On 
the  western  side  of  the  city  the  remains  of  the  walls 
and  towers,  with  a  gate,  arc  in  complete  preservation 
and  without  the  walls  is  seen  the  cemetery,  with  nu 
merous  sarcophagi  still  standing  in  their  places,  and 
an  ancient  causeway  leading  through  them  to  the 
gate.  Some  of  these  sarcophagi  are  of  gigantic  di- 
mensions. The  whole  gives,  perhaps,  the  most  per- 
fect idea  of  a  Greek  city  that  anywhere  exists."  See 
also  Fellows's  Asia  Minor,  p.  46;  Wetstein,  ii,  592; 
comp.  Quandt,  De  Asso  (Regiom.  1710);  Amnell,  De 
'Aaaifi  (Upsal.  1758). 

Assue'rus  ('Aouqpoe  v.  r.  'Arrovijpoc),  the  Grre- 
cized  form  (Tobit  xiv,  15)  of  the  Persian  royal  title 
usually  Anglicized  Ahasuerus  (q.  v.). 

Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  a  festival  insti- 
tuted in  the  Roman  Church  in  commemoration  of  the 
death  and  pretended  resurrection  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  her  triumphant  entry  into  heaven.  The  apocry- 
phal tradition  upon  which  this  festival  is  founded  is  as 
follows:  "  That  the  Blessed  Virgin  died  at  the  age  of 
seventy-two  (one  hundred  and  fifty-nine,  according  to 
Nicephorus),  and  that  at  her  death  all  the  apostles  of 
our  Lord,  except  St.  Thomas,  were  miraculously  pres- 
ent, having  been  conve3red  in  clouds  from  the  various 
countries  where  they  were  preaching;  that  they  buried 
her  at  Gethsemane;  and  that  St.  Thomas,  upon  his 
return  from  Ethiopia  at  the  end  of  three  da}rs,  express- 
ed such  a  longing  desire  to  see  her  face  once  again, 
that  they  opened  her  tomb,  but  found  there  nothing 
but  the  grave-clothes,  although  the  grave  had  been 
fastened  and  watched,  da3r  and  night,  by  some  of  the 
apostles  and  many  other  Christians."  The  Assump- 
tion of  Mary  was  not  always  a  point  of  faith  in  the 
Roman  Church,  but  is  now  universally  received.  The 
da}'  of  celebration  is  Aug.  15.  It  is  also  celebrated 
in  the  Greek  Church.  See  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints, 
vii,  367  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.,  s.  v. 

Assumption  of  Moses,  an  apocryphal  book  so 
called,  said  to  contain  an  account  of  the  death  of  Moses 
and  of  the  translation  of  his  soul  to  Paradise.  Some 
have  supposed  that  the  particulars  of  the  combat  be- 
tween St.  Michael  and  the  devil,  alluded  to  in  the  Epis- 
tle of  Jude  (ver.  9),  were  contained  in  this  book  (Moreri, 
who  cites  Calmet). — J.  A.  Fabric.  Cod.  Pseudep.  V.  T. 
i,  839-847.     See  Moses. 

As'sur,  a  less  correct  form  of  two  names. 

1.  (Heb.  Ashshur',  "iTi'N,  Sept.  and  Apoc.  'Arrtrovp.) 
An  inaccurate  method  of  Anglicizing  (Ezra  iv,  2 ;  Psa. 
lxxxiii,  8)  or  Gracizing  (2  Esd.  ii,  8;  Jud.  ii,  14;  v, 
1;  vi,  1,  17;  vii,  20,  24;  xiii,  15;  xiv,  3;  xv,  6;  xvi, 
4)  the  original  [see  Asshur]  word  for  Assyria  (q.  v.). 

2.  (AiTo/'p  v.  r.  'Affow/S,  while  other  copies  omit ; 
Vulg.  Azi.)  One  of  the  heads  of  the  "temple  ser- 
vants," whose  descendants  are  said  to  have  returned 
from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  v,  31),  doubtless  a  corruption 
for  the  H  AKin  i:(q.  v.)  of  the  true  text  (Ezra  ii,  51). 

Assurance,  in  theology,  is  a  firm  persuasion  of  our 
being  in  a  state  if  salvation. 

(1.)  "The  doctrine  itself  has  been  matter  of  dispute 
among  divines,  and  when  considered  as  implying  not 
only  that  we  are  now  accepted  of  God  through  Christ, 
but  that  we  shall  be  finally  saved,  or  when  it  is  so 
taken  as  to  deny  a  state  of  salvation  to  those  who 
arc  not  so  assured  as  to  be  free  from  all  doubt,  it  is 


in  many  views  questionable.  Assurance  of  final  sal- 
vation must  stand  or  fall  with  the  doctrine  of  per- 
sonal unconditional  election,  and  is  chiefly  held  by 
divines  of  the  Calvinistic  school.  The  18th  article 
of  the  Westminster  Confession  {Of  the  Assurance  of 
Grace  and  Salvation)  says,  'Although  hypocrites,  and 
other  unregenerated  men,  may  vainly  deceive  them- 
selves with  false  hopes  and  carnal  presumptions  of 
being  in  the  favor  of  God  and  estate  of  salvation  ; 
which  hope  of  theirs  shall  perish ;  yet  such  as  truly 
believe  in  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  love  him  in  sincerity, 
endeavoring  to  walk  in  all  good  conscience  before  him, 
may  in  this  life  be  certainly  assured  that  they  are  in  a 
state  of  grace,  and  may  rejoice  in  the  hope  of  the  glory 
of  God,  which  hope  shall  never  make  them  ashamed. 
This,  certainly,  is  not  a  bare  conjectural  and  probable 
persuasion,  grounded  upon  a  fallible  hope,  but  an  in- 
fallible assurance  of  faith,  founded  upon  the  divine 
truth  of  the  promises  of  salvation,  the  inward  evidence 
of  those  graces  unto  which  these  promises  are  made, 
the  testimony  of  the  Spirit  of  adoption  witnessing  with 
our  spirits  that  we  are  the  children  of  God ;  which 
Spirit  is  the  earnest  of  our  inheritance,  whereby  we 
are  sealed  to  the  day  of  redemption.  This  infallible 
assurance  doth  not  so  belong  to  the  essence  of  faith 
but  that  a  true  believer  may  wait  Ion:;,  and  conflict 
with  many  difficulties  before  he  can  be  a  partaker  of 
it ;  yet,  being  enabled  by  the  Spirit  to  know  the  things 
which  are  freely  given  him  of  God,  he  may,  without 
extraordinary  revelation,  in  the  right  use  of  ordinary 
means,  attain  thereunto.  And,  therefore,  it  is  the  duty 
of  every  one  to  give  all  diligence  to  make  his  calling 
and  election  sure,  that  thereby  his  heart  maj-  be  en- 
larged in  peace  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  love  and 
thankfulness  to  God,  and  in  strength  and  cheerfulness 
in  the  duties  of  obedience,  the  proper  fruits  of  this  as- 
surance :  so  far  is  it  from  inclining  men  to  looseness. 
Truo  believers  may  have  the  assurance  of  their  salva- 
tion divers  ways  shaken,  diminished  and  intermitted ; 
as  by  negligence  in  preserving  it ;  by  falling  into 
some  special  sin,  which  woundeth  the  conscience,  and 
grieveth  the  Spirit ;  by  some  sudden  or  vehement 
temptation;  by  God's  withdrawing  the  light  of  his 
countenance,  and  suffering  even  such  as  fear  him  to 
walk  in  darkness  and  to  have  no  light.  Yet  are  they 
never  utterly  destitute  of  that  need  of  God,  and  life  of 
faith,  that  love  of  Christ  and  the  brethren,  that  sincer- 
ity of  heart  and  conscience  of  duty  out  of  which,  by 
the  operation  of  the  Spirit,  this  assurance  may  in  due 
time  be  revived,  and  by  the  which,  in  the  mean  time, 
they  are  supported  from  utter  despair.' 

"On  the  other  hand,  that  nothing  is  an  evidence  of 
a  state  of  present  salvation  but  so  entire  a  persuasion 
as  amounts  to  assurance  in  the  strongest  sense,  might 
be  denied  upon  the  ground  that  degrees  of  grace,  of  real 
saving  grace,  are  undoubtedly  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
Assurance,  however,  is  spoken  of  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  stands  prominent  as  one  of  the  leading  doc- 
trines of  religious  experience.  We  have  'full  assur- 
ance of  understanding;'  that  is,  a  perfect  knowledge 
and  entire  persuasion  of  the  truth  of  the  doctrine  of 
Christ.  The  'assurance  of  faith,'  in  Hebrews  ix,  22, 
is  an  entire  trust  in  the  sacrifice  and  priestly  office  of 
Christ.  The  'assurance  of  hope,'  mentioned  in  He- 
brews vi,  11,  relates  to  the  heavenly  inheritance,  and 
must  necessarily  imply  a  full  persuasion  that  we  are 
the  children  of  God,  and  therefore  'heirs  of  his  glory  ;' 
and  from  this  passage  it  must  certainly  be  concluded 
that  such  an  assurance  is  what  every  Christian  ought 
to  aim  at,  and  that  it  is  attainable.  This,  however, 
does  not  exclude  occasional  doubt  and  weakness  of 
faith  from  the  earlier  stages  of  his  experience. 

(2.)  "A  comforting  and  abiding  persuasion  of  pres- 
ent acceptance  by  God,  through  Chnst,  we  may  therefore 
affirm,  must  in  various  degrees  follow  true  faith.  In 
support  of  this  view  the  following  remarks  may  be 
offered :    If  the  Bible  teaches  that  man  is  by  nature 


ASSURANCE 


4S5 


ASSURANCE 


prone  to  evil,  and  that  in  practice  he  violates  God's 
law,  and  is  thereby  exposed  to  punishment;  that  an 
'  act  of  grace  and  pardon  is  promised  on  condition  of 
repentance  toward  God,  and  faith  in  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ ;  that  repentance  implies  consideration  of  our 
ways,  a  sense  of  the  displeasure  of  Almighty  God,  con- 
trition of  heart,  and  consequently  trouble  and  grief  of 
mind,  mixed,  however,  with  a  hope  inspired  by  the 
promise  of  forgiveness,  and  which  leads  to  earnest  sup- 
plication for  the  actual  pardon  of  sin  so  promised  ;  it 
will  follow  from  these  premises  either,  l.that  forgive- 
ness is  not  to  be  expected  till  after  the  termination  of 
our  course  of  probation,  that  is,  in  another  life ;  and 
that,  therefore,  this  trouble  and  apprehension  of  mind 
can  only  be  assuaged  by  the  hope  we  may  have  of  a 
favorable  final  decision  on  our  case;  or,  2.  that  sin  is, 
in  the  present  life,  forgiven  as  often  as  it  is  thus  re- 
pented of,  and  as  often  as  we  exercise  the  required  and 
specific  acts  of  trust  in  the  merits  of  our  Saviour;  but 
that  this  forgiveness  of  our  sins  is  not  in  any  way  made 
known  unto  us ;  so  that  we  are  left,  as  to  our  feelings, 
in  precisely  the  same  state  as  if  sin  were  not  forgiven 
till  after  death,  namely,  in  grief  and  trouble  of  mind, 
relieved  only  by  hope  ;  or,  3.  that  (and  this  is  the  script- 
ural view)  when  sin  is  forgiven  by  the  mercy  of  God 
through  Christ,  we  are  by  some  means  assured  of  it,  and 
peace  and  satisfaction  of  mind  take  the  place  of  anxiety 
and  fear.  The  first  of  these  conclusions  is  sufficiently 
disproved  by  the  authority  of  Scripture,  which  exhib- 
its justification  as  a  blessing  attainable  in  this  life,  and 
represents  it  as  actually  experienced  by  true  believers. 
'Therefore  being  justified  by  faith.'  'There  is  now 
no  condemnation  to  them  who  are  in  Christ  Jesus.' 
'Whosoever  believeth  is  justified  from  all  things,'  etc. 
The  quotations  might  be  multiplied,  but  these  are  de- 
cisive. The  notion  that,  though  an  act  of  forgiveness 
may  take  place,  we  are  unable  to  ascertain  a  fact  so 
important  to  us,  is  also  irreconcilable  with  many  pas- 
sages, in  which  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  speak 
of  an  experience  not  confined  personally  to  themselves, 
or  to  those  Christians  who  were  endowed  with  spiritu- 
al gifts,  but  common  to  all  Christians.  '  Being  justi- 
fied b)r  faith,  we  have  peace  with  God.'  '  We  joy  in 
God,  by  whom  we  have  received  the  reconciliation.' 
'  Being  reconciled  unto  God  by  the  death  of  his  Son.' 
'We  have  not  received  the  spirit  of  bondage  again 
unto  fear,  but  the  spirit  of  adoption,  by  which  we  cry, 
Abba,  Father.'  To  these  may  be  added  innumerable 
passages  which  express  the  comfort,  the  confidence, 
and  the  joy  of  Christians  ;  their  '  friendship'  with  God  ; 
their  'access'  to  him  ;  their  entire  union  and  delight- 
ful intercourse  with  him  ;  and  their  absolute  confidence 
in  the  success  of  their  prayers.  All  such  passages  are 
perfectly  consistent  with  deep  humility  and  self-diffi- 
dence, but  they  are  irreconcilable  with  a  state  of  hos- 
tility between  the  parties,  and  with  an  unascertained 
and  only  hoped-for  restoration  of  friendship  and  favor. 
An  assurance,  therefore,  that  the  sins  which  are  felt 
to  '  be  a  burden  intolerable'  are  forgiven,  and  that  the 
ground  of  that  apprehension  of  future  punishment 
which  caHses  the  penitent  to  '  bewail  his  manifold  sins, ' 
is  taken  away  by  restoration  to  the  favor  of  the  offend- 
ed God,  must  be  allowed,  or  nothing  would  be  more 
incongruous  and  impossible  than  the  comfort,  the 
peace,  the  rejoicing  of  spirit,  which  in  the  Scriptures 
are  attributed  to  believers. 

"Few  Christians  of  evangelical  views  have,  there- 
fore, denied  the  possibility  of  our  becoming  assured 
of  the  favor  of  God  in  a  sufficient  degree  to  give  sub- 
stantial comfort  to  the  mind.  Their  differences  have 
rather  respected  the  means  by  which  the  contrite  be- 
come assured  of  that  change  in  their  relation  to  Al- 
mighty God,  whom  they  have  offended,  which  in 
Scripture  is  expressed  by  the  term  justification.  The 
question  has  been  (where  the  notion  of  an  assurance 
of  eternal  salvation  has  not  been  under  discussion),  by 
what  means  the  assurance  of  the  divine  favor  is  con- 1 


ive 

nil 


veyed  to  the  mind.  Some  have  concluded  that  we 
obtain  it  by  inference,  others  by  the  direct  testimony  of 
I  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the  mind"  (Watson,  s.  v.). 

(3.)  With  regard  to  the  history  of  the  doctrine,  Wes- 
ley remarks  :   ''1  apprehend  that  the  whole  Christian 
1  Church  in  the  first  centuries  enjoyed  it.     For,  though 
we  have  few  points  of  doctrine  explicitly  taught  in  the 
1  small  remains  of  the  ante-Nicene  fathers,  yet  I  think 
,  none  that  carefully  read  Clemens  Komanus,  Ignatius, 
Polycarp,  Origen,  or  any  other  of  them,  can  doubt 
whether  either  the  writer  himself  possessed  it,  or  all 
whom  he  mentions  as  real  Christians.     And  I  really 
i  conceive,  both  from  the  Harmonia  Confessionum  and 
1  whatever  else  I  have  occasionally  read,  that  all  reform- 
ed churches  in  Europe  did  once  believe,  '  Every  true 
Christian  has  the  divine  evidence  of  his  being  in  favor 
with  God.'  "     "  I  know  likewise  that  Luther,  Melanc- 
thon,  and  many  other  (if  not  all)  of  the  reformers  fre- 
quently and  strongly  assert  that  every  believer  is  con- 
scious of  his  own  acceptance  with  God,  and  that  by  a 
supernatural  evidence"  (see  below). 

Thomas  Aquinas  supposed  (Summ.  pt.  ii,  1,  quest. 
112,  art.  5)  a  threefold  way  in  which  man  could  as- 
certain whether  he  was  a  subject  of  divine  grace  or 
not:  1.  By  direct  revelation  on  the  part  of  God  ;   2. 
By  himself  (certitudinaliter)  ;   3.  By  certain   indica- 
tions (conjecturaliter  per  aliqua  signa).     But  the  last 
two  were,  in  his  opinion,  uncertain ;  as  for  the  first, 
God  very  seldom  makes  use  of  it,  and  only  in  particu- 
lar cases  (revelat  Deus  hoc  aliquando  aliquibus  ex 
speciali  privilegio),  so  that  no  one  can  have  perfect 
certainty  on  the  subject ;  only  there  are  signs,  if  prop- 
er attention  be  paid,  such  as  that  a  man  has  his  joy  in 
God,  that  he  despises  the  world,  and  is  conscious  of  no 
gross  sins.     A  presage  ma)'  thus  be  formed  of  his  for- 
giveness (nullus   certitudinaliter  potest  scire  se  ha- 
bere caritatem,  sed  potest  e  aliquibus  signis  probabili- 
bus  conjicere.  —  In  HI),  i.  Sentt.  dist.  17,  quest.  1,  art. 
4).     Alexander  of  Hales  contended  that  on  this  point 
there  was  a  peculiar  knowledge  —  since  neither  the 
cause  nor  the  effect  fell  within  the  province  of  human 
knowledge,  yet  a  certain  feeling  of  knowledge  might 
be  possessed  upon  it;  only  it  is  not  infallible,  but  ver- 
\  ifies  itself  by  experience  in  the  feelings  when  these 
three  signs  concur,  light,  peace,  and  joy.     God  does 
not  will  either  to  give  to  us  complete  certainty,  or  to 
leave  us  wholly  in  uncertainty.     If  man  experienced 
nothing  of  the  sweetness  of  the  divine  life,  he  would 
j  not  be  attracted  to  the  love  of  God ;  if  he  had  perfect 
assurance  it  would  easily  seduce  him  into  pride.     Lu- 
:  thcr  denounced  the  notion  of  the  uncertainly  of  man 
I  being  in  a  state  of  grace  (in  his  Comment,  upon  Gal. 
I  iv,  6)  as  a  dangerous  and  sophistical  doctrine.     The 
doctrine  that  personal  assurance  is  involved  in  saving 
J  faith  is  taught  in  the  Augsburg  Confession  (art.  iv), 
and  also  in  the  Apologia  Confessionis.     The  doctrine 
1  of  the  certitudo  salutis  (certainty  of  salvation)  is  taught 
r  by  Calvin  (Institutes,  Hi,  c.  24,  §  4). 

Sir  W.  Hamilton,  in  a  foot-note  to  his  article  on  the 
English  Universities  (Discussions  on  Philosophy,  etc.), 
while  speaking  on  religious  tests  as  a  term  of  admis- 
sion, has  the  following  passage :  "Assurance,  personal 
assurance  (the  feeling  of  certainty  that  God  is  propi- 
tious to  me,  that  my  sins  are  forgiven,  fiducia,  plero- 
phoria  fidei),  was  long  universally  held  in  the  Protest- 
ant communities  to  be  the  criterion  and  condition  of  a 
true  or  savinr/  faith.  Luther  declares  that  he  who  hath 
not  assurance  spews  faith  out ;  and  Melanethon  makes 
assurance  the  discriminating  line  of  Christianity  from 
heathenism.  It  was  maintained  by  Calvin,  najr,  even 
by  Arminius,  and  is  part  and  parcel  of  all  the  confes- 
sions of  all  the  churches  of  the  Reformation  down  to 
the  Westminster  Assembly.  In  that  synod  assurance 
was,  in  Protestantism,  for  the  first  time  declared  not  to 
be  of  the  essence  of  faith;  and,  accordingly, the  Scottish 
General  Assembly  has  subsequently,  once  and  aganij 
condemned  the  holders  of  this,  the  doctrine  of  Luther,. 


ASSURANCE 


486 


ASSURANCE 


of  Calvin,  and  of  the  older  Scottish  Church  itself.  In 
the  English,  and  more  particularly  in  the  Irish  Estab- 
lishment, it  still  stands  a  necessary  tenet  of  belief. 
The  doctrine  is  now,  however,  disavowed,  when  appre- 
hended, by  Anglican  churchmen."  These  strong 
Statements  are  controverted  in  the  Brit,  and  For.  Evan* 
n<  lical  Review  (Oct.  1856),  by  Cunningham  (see  the  ar- 
ticle,  enlarged,  in  Cunningham,  Theology  of  the  Refor- 
mation, Essay  iii),  who  shows  that  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton has  greatly  mistaken  the  reformed  doctrine  in 
representing  assurance  as,  in  the  opinion  of  all  the 
reformed  churches,  an  essential  part  of  saving  faith. 
Dr.  <  unningham  proves,  on  the  contrary,  from  several 
of  the  confessions  of  the  churches  of  the  Reformation, 
and  from  the  writings  of  some  leading  reformers, 
that,  in  their  opinion,  "this  assurance  was  not  the 
proper  act  of  justifying  and  saving  faith,  and  did  not 
belong  to  its  essence ;  .  .  .  that  it  was  a  result 
or  consequence  of  faith,  posterior  to  it  in  the  order  of 
nature,  and  frequently  also  of  time."  Regarded  as  an 
exposure  of  Sir  William  Hamilton's  historical  inaccu- 
racies, this  essay  is  complete,  but  as  an  exhibition  of 
the  scriptural  doctrine  of  assurance  it  is  seriousl}-  de- 
fective. It  not  only  encumbers  the  doctrine  by  add- 
ing the  assurance  of  final  salvation  to  that  of  present 
forgiveness — a  mistake  full  both  of  embarrassment  to 
timid  consciences,  and  of  peril  to  the  interests  of  prac- 
tical religion — but  it  almost  puts  out  of  sight  that  di- 
rect and  blessed  witness  of  the  Spirit  to  the  believer's 
acceptance  which  is  so  prominent  a  feature  of  the  ex- 
perimental theology  of  the  Bible,  and  without  which 
the  Christian  life  must  be  one  of  distressing  uncertain- 
ty and  doubt.  But  Sir  William  was  quite  right  in 
saying  that  the  Westminster  Assembly  was  the  first 
Protestant  synod  that  formally  declared  assurance  not 
to  be  of  the  essence  of  faith.  Yet  it  declares  that  as- 
surance is  practicable  and  obligatory  in  very  strong 
language,  and  calls  it  "an  infallible  assurance"  [see 
above,  (1)]. 

Wesley,  and  the  Methodist  theologians  generally, 
advocate  the  doctrine  of  assurance  of  present  (not  of 
eternal)  salvation  in  the  sense  stated  above  (2),  con- 
necting it  with  the  "witness  of  the  Spirit,''  as  in  the 
following  practical  passage :  "  Every  man,  applying 
the  scriptural  marks  to  himself,  may  know  whether  he 
is  a  child  of  God.  Thus,  if  he  know,  first, '  As  many 
as  are  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God'  into  all  holy  tempers 
and  actions,  'they  are  the  sons  of  God'  (for  which  he 
has  the  infallible  assurance  of  Holy  Writ);  secondly, 
I  am  thus  '  led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,'  he  will  easily 
conclude,  therefore  I  am  a  son  of  God.  Agreeably  to 
this  arc  those  plain  declarations  of  John  in  his  first 
epistle:  'Hereby  we  know  that  we  do  know  him,  if 
we  keep  his  commandments'  (ch.  ii,  3).  'Whoso 
keepeth  his  word,  in  him  verily  is  the  love  of  God 
perfected  :  hereby  know  we  that  wc  are  in  him  ;'  that 
we  are  indeed  the  children  of  God  (ver.  5).  'If  ye 
know  that  he  is  righteous,  ye  know  that  every  one 
that  doeth  righteousness  is  born  of  him'  (ver.  29). 
1  We  know  that  we  have  passed  from  death  unto  life, 
because  we  love  the  brethren'  (ch.  iii,  14).  'Hereby 
we  know  that  we  are  of  the  truth,  and  shall  assure  our 
hearts  before  him'  (ver.  19),  namely,  because  we  'love 
one  another,  not  in  word,  neither  in  tongue,  but  in 
deed  and  in  truth.'  See  also  ch.  iii,  '24,  and  iv,  13. 
It  is  highly  probable  there  never  were  any  children 
of  God,  from  the  beginning  of  the  world  unto  this 
da\  .  who  were  further  advanced  in  the  grace  of  God, 
and  the  knowledge  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  than 
the  apostle  John  at  the  time  when  he  wrote  these 
words,  and  the  fathers  in  Christ  to  whom  he  wrote. 
Notwithstanding  which,  it  is  evident  both  the  apostle 
himself,  and  ail  those  pillars  in  (iod's  temple,  were 
very  far  from  despising  these  marks  of  their  being  the 
children  of  God;  and  that  they  applied  them  to  their 
own  souls  for  the  confirmation  of  their  faith.  Yet  all 
this  is  no  other  than  rational  evidence,  the  witness  of 


our  spirit,  our  reason,  our  understanding.  It  all  re- 
solves into  this  :  Those  who  have  these  marks  are 
children  of  God :  but  we  have  these  marks,  therefore 
we  are  children  of  God.  But  how  does  it  appear  that 
we  have  these  marks  ?  This  is  a  question  which  still 
remains.  How  does  it  appear  that  we  do  love  God 
and  our  neighbor,  and  that  we  keep  his  command- 
ments ?  Observe  that  the  meaning  of  the  question  is, 
How  does  it  appear  to  ourselves?  not  to  others.  I 
would  ask  him,  then,  that  proposes  this  question,  How 
does  it  appear  to  you  that  you  are  alive  ?  and  that  you 
arc  now  in  ease,  and  not  in  pain  ?  Are  you  not  im- 
mediately conscious  of  it  ?  By  the  same  immediate 
consciousness  you  will  know  if  your  soul  is  alive  to 
God  ;  if  you  are  saved  from  the  pain  of  proud  wrath, 
and  have  the  ease  of  a  meek  and  quiet  spirit.  By  the 
same  means  you  cannot  but  perceive  if  you  love,  re- 
joice, and  delight  in  God.  By  the  same  you  must  be 
directly  assured  if  you  love  your  neighbor -as  yourself ; 
if  you  are  kindly  affectioned  to  all  mankind,  and  full 
of  gentleness  and  long-suffering.  And  with  regard  to 
the  outward  mark  of  the  children  of  God,  which  is,  ac- 
cording to  John,  the  keeping  his  commandments,  you 
undoubtedly  know  in  your  own  breasts  if,  by  the 
grace  of  God,  it  belongs  to  you.  Now  this  is  proper- 
ly the  testimony  of  our  own  spirit,  even  the  testimony 
of  our  own  conscience,  that  God  hath  given  us  to  be 
holy  of  heart,  and  holy  in  outward  conversation.  It 
is  a  consciousness  that  we  are  inwardly  conformed, 
by  the  Spirit  of  God,  to  the  image  of  his  Son,  and  that 
we  walk  before  him  in  justice,  mercy,  and  truth,  doing 
the  things  which  are  pleasing  in  his  sight"  (Wesley, 
Sermons,  i,  8G,  87).     See  Spikit,  Witness  of." 

The  Council  of  Trent  (sess.  vi,  ch.  ix.  Be  Justijica- 
tione)  decided  that  "it  is  on  no  account  to  be  main- 
tained that  those  who  are  really  justified  ought  to  feel 
fully  assured  of  the  fact,  without  any  doubt  whatever; 
or  that  none  are  absolved  and  justified  but  those  who 
believe  themselves  to  be  so ;  or  that  by  this  faith  only 
absolution  and  justification  are  procured  ;  as  if  he  who 
does  not  believe  this  doubts  the  promises  of  God,  and 
the  efficacy  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ. 
For,  while  no  godly  person  ought  to  doubt  the  mercy 
of  God,  the  merit  of  Christ,  or  the  virtue  and  efficacy 
of  the  sacraments,  so,  on  the  other  hand,  whoever 
considers  his  own  infirmity  and  corruption  may  doubt 
and  fear  whether  he  is  in  a  state  of  grace,  since  no  one 
can  certainly  and  infallibly  know  that  he  has  obtained 
the  grace  of  God." 

For  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  as  contrasted  with 
that  of  Calvin,  see  Mohler,  Symbolism,  §  20.  See  also 
the  Methodist  Quarterly,  Oct.  1857,  art.  iv  ;  Watson, 
Theol.  Inst,  ii,  280;  Smith's  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doc- 
trines, ii,  G5,  277;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  ii,  586; 
Wesley,  Works,  v,  19  sq. ;  Colo,  Godly  Assurance  (1633, 
4to) ;  Petto,  Treatise  on  A  ssurance  (1693)  ;  Hamilton, 
On  Assurance  of  Faith  (1830, 12mo). 

Assyr'ia  QAoavpici).  We  must  here  distinguish 
between  the  country  of  Assyria  and  the  Assyrian 
empire.  They  are  both  designated  in  Hebrew  by 
illEK,  Asshur,  the  people  being  also  described  by 
the  same  term,  only  that  in  the  latter  sense  it  is  mas- 
culine, in  the  former  feminine.  In  the  Septuagint 
it  is  commonly  rendered  by  'Aaaovp  or  'Anavpwi,  and 
in  the  Vulgate  by  Assur  and  Assi/rii,  and  seldom  or 
never  by  'Aaovoia,  or  Assyria.  The  Asshurim  ('Ac- 
trovpuifi)  of  Gen.  xxv,  3,  were  an  Arab  tribe:  and 
at  Ezek.  xxvii,  6,  the  word  ashurim  (in  our  version 
"Ashurites")  is  only  an  abbreviated  form  of  teashur, 
box-wood.  Assyria  derived  its  name  from  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants — Asshur,  the  sec- 
ond son  of  Shem  (Gen.  x,  22;  1  Chron.  i,  17),  a  differ- 
ent person  from  Ashchur,  son  of  Hezron,  and  Caleb's 
grandson  (1  Chron.  ii,  24  ;  iv,  5).  In  later  times  it  is 
thought  that  Asshur  was  worshipped  as  their  chief 
god  by  the  Assyrians  (Layard,  An».  and  Bab.  p.  537). 


ASSYRIA 


487 


ASSYRIA 


Supposed  Figure  of  Asshur,  the  tutelary  Deity  of  the  ancient 
Assyrians.     From  the  Monuments. 

See  Cuneiform  Inscriptions.  The  extent  of  As- 
syria differed  greatly  at  different  periods.  Probably 
in  the  earliest  times  it  was  confined  to  a  small  tract 
of  low  country  between  the  Jebel  Maklub,  or  Taurus 
range  on  the  N.,  and  the  Lesser  Zab  (Zab  Asfal)  to- 
ward the  S.,  lying  chiefly  on  the  immediate  bank  of 
the  Tigris.  Gradually  its  limits  were  extended,  until 
it  came  to  be  regarded  as  comprising  the  whole  region 
between  the  Armenian  mountains  (lat.  37°  30')  upon 
the  north,  and  upon  the  south  the  country  about  Bag- 
dad (lat.  33°  30').  Eastward  its  boundary  was  the 
high  range  of  Zagros,  or  mountains  of  Kurdistan  ; 
westward  it  naturally  retained  the  Tigris  as  its  boun- 
dary, although,  according  to  the  views  of  some,  it 
was  eventually  bounded  by  the  Mesopotamian  desert, 
while,  according  to  others,  it  reached  the  Euphrates. 
Taking  the  greatest  of  these  dimensions,  Assyria  may 
be  said  to  have  extended  in  a  direction  from  N.E.  to 
S.W.  a  distance  of  nearly  500  miles,  with  a  width 
varying  from  350  to  100  miles.  Its  area  would  thus 
a  little  exceed  100,000  square  miles,  or  about  equal 
that  of  Italy. — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

I.  Assyria  Proper. — 1.  Ancient  Notices  of  its  Po- 
sition.— This  was  a  great  and  powerful  country,  lying 
on  the  east  of  the  Tigris  (Gen.  ii,  14),  the  capital  of 
which  was  Nineveh  (Gen.  x,  11,  etc.).  Its  exact 
limits  in  early  times  are  unknown  ;  but  when  its  mon- 
archs  enlarged  their  dominions  by  conquest,  the  name 
of  this  metropolitan  province  was  extended  to  the 
whole  empire.  Hence,  while  Homer  calls  the  in- 
habitants of  the  country  north  of  Palestine  Arimoi 
(evidently  the  Aramim  or  Aramaeans  of  the  Hebrews), 
the  Greeks  of  a  later  period,  finding  them  subject  to 
the  Assyrians,  called  the  country  Assyria,  or  (by  con- 
traction) Syria,  a  name  which  it  has  ever  since  borne. 
It  is  on  this  account  that,  in  classical  writers,  the 
names  Assyria  and  8}'ria  are  so  often  found  inter- 
changed (Henderson,  On  Isa.  p.  173;  Hitzig,  Begriff 
d.  Krit.  Alt.  Test.  p.  98);  but  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  in  Hebrew  "Asshur"  and  "Aram"  are  ever 
confounded.     The  same,  however,  cannot  be  affirmed 


of  those  parts  of  the  Assyrian  empire  which  lay  east 
of  the  Euphrates,  but  west  of  the  Tigris.  The  He- 
brews, as  well  as  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  appear  to 
have  spoken  of  them  in  a  loose  sense  as  being  in  As- 
syria, because  in  the  Assyrian  empire.  Thus  Isaiah 
(vii,  20)  describes  the  Assyrians  as  those  "  beyond  the 
river,"  i.  e.  east  of  the  Euphrates,  which  river,  and 
not  the  Tigris,  is  introduced  at  viii,  7,  as  an  image  of 
their  power.  In  Gen.  xxv,  18,  the  locality  of  the  Isk- 
maelites  is  described  as  being  east  of  Egypt,  "  as  thou 
goest  to  Assyria,"  which,  however,  could  only  be 
reached  through  Mesopotamia  or  Babylonia,  and  this 
idea  best  reconciles  the  apparent  incongruity  of  the 
statement  in  the  same  book  (ii,  1-4),  that  the  Hiddekel, 
or  Tigris,  runs  "on  the  east  of  Assyria,"  i.  c.  of  the 
Assyrian  provinces  of  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia; 
for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  not  only  during  the 
existence  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  but  long  after 
its  overthrow,  the  name  of  Assyria  was  given  to  those 
provinces,  as  having  once  formed  so  important  a  part 
of  it.  For  example,  in  2  Kings  xxiii,  29,  Nebuchad- 
nezzar is  termed  the  kint!;  of  Assyria,  though  resident 
at  Babylon  (comp.  Jer.  ii,  18 ;  Lament,  v,  G ;  Judith 
i,  7;  ii,  1);  even  Darius,  king  of  Persia,  is  called,  in 
Ezra  Vi,  22,  king  of  Assyria  (comp.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat. 
xix,  19) ;  and,  on  a  similar  principle,  in  2  Mace,  i,  19, 
the  Jews  are  said  to  have  been  carried  captive  to  Per- 
sia, i.  e.  Babylonia,  because,  as  it  had  formerly  been 
subject  to  the  Assyrians,  so  it  was  afterward  under  the 
dominion  of  Persia.  (Comp.  Herodotus,  i,  106,  178; 
iii,  5 ;  vii,  03 ;  Strabo,  ii,  84 ;  xvi,  1 ;  Arrian,  vii ; 
Exped.  Alex,  vii,  21, 2;  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  xxiii, 
20  ;  xxiv,  2  ;  Justin,  i,  2,  13.)  One  writer,  Dionysius 
Periegetes  (v,  975),  applies  the  designation  of  Assyria 
even  to  Asia  Minor,  as  far  as  the  Black  Sea.  Yet, 
ultimately,  this  name  again  became  restricted  to  the 
original  province  east  of  the  Tigris,  which  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  'Aaavpia  (Ptolemy,  vi,  1),  and  more 
commonly  'Arovpia  (Strabo,  xvi,  507),  or  'Arvpia 
(Dion  Cassius,  lxviii,  28),  the  latter  being  only  a  dia- 
lectic variety  of  pronunciation,  derived  from  the  Ara- 
maean custom  of  changing  s  into  t.  A  trace  of  the 
name  is  supposed  to  be  preserved  in  that  of  a  very  an- 
cient place,  Athur,  on  the  Tigris,  from  four  to  six  hours 
N.E.  of  Mosul.  Rich,  in  his  Residence  in  Kurdistan 
(ii,  129),  describes  the  ruins'as  those  of  the  "  city  of 
Nimrod,"  and  states  that  some  of  the  better  informed 
of  the  Turks  at  Mosul  "  said  that  it  was  Al  Athur,  or 
Ashur,  from  which  the  whole  country  was  denomi- 
nated. 

2.  Boundaries. — According  to  Ptolemy,  Assyria  was 
in  his  day  bounded  on  the  north  by  Armenia,  the 
Gordisean  or  Carduchian  mountains,  especially  by 
Mount  Niphates  ;  on  the  west  by  the  River  Tigris  and 
Mesopotamia;  on  the  south  by  Susiana,  or  Chuzistan, 
in  Persia,  and  by  Babylonia;  and  on  the  east  by  a  part 
of  Media,  and  Mounts  Choathras  and  Zagros  (Ptolemy, 
vi,  1;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.x, '13;  Strabo,  xvi,  73G).  It 
corresponded  to  the  modern  Kurdistan,  or  country  of 
the  Kurds  (at  least  to  its  larger  and  western  portion), 
with  part  of  the  pashalic  of  Mosul. — Kitto. 

Toward  the  north  Assyria  bordered  on  the  strong 
and  mountainous  region  of  Armenia,  which  may  have 
been  at  times  under  Assyrian  dominion,  but  was  never 
reckoned  an  actual  part  of  the  country.  (See  2  Kings 
xix,  37.)  Toward  the  east  her  neighbors  were  orig- 
inally a  multitude  of  independent  tribes,  scattered 
along  the  Zagros  chain,  who  have  their  fitting  repre- 
sentatives in  the  modern  Kurds  and  Lurs— the  real 
sovereigns  of  that  mountain  range.  Beyond  these 
tribes  lay  Media,  which  ultimately  subjected  the  moun- 
taineers^ and  was  thereby  brought  into  direct  contact 
with  Assyria  in  this  quarter.  On  the  south,  Elam  or 
Susiana  was  the  border  state  east  of  the  Tigris,  while 
Babylonia  occupied  the  same  position  between  the 
rivers.  West  of  the  Euphrates  was  Arabia,  and  higher 
up  Syria,  and  the  country  of  the  llittites,  which  last 


ASSYRIA 


488 


ASSYRIA 


reached  from  the  neighborhood  of  Damascus  to  Anti- 
Taurus  and  Amanus. — Smith. 

3.  General  geographical  character.  —  The  country 
within  these  limits  is  of  a  varied  aspect.  "Assyria," 
says  Mr.  Ainsworth  {Researches  in  Assyria,  Babylonia, 
and  Chaldtea,  Lond.  1838,  p.  17),  "including  Taurus, 
is  distinguished  into  three  districts  :  by  its  structure, 
into  a  district  of  plutonic  and  metamorphic  rocks,  a 
district  of  sedimentary  formations,  and  a  district  of 
alluvial  deposits;  by  configuration,  into  a  district  of 
mountains,  a  district  of  stony  or  sandy  plains,  and  a 
district  of  low  watery  plains  ;  by  natural  productions, 
into  a  country  of  forests  and  fruit-trees,  of  olives, 
wine,  corn,  and  pasturage,  or  of  barren  rocks  ;  a  coun- 
try of  mulberry,  cotton,  maize,  tobacco,  or  of  barren 
clay,  sand,  pebbly  or  rocky  plains ;  and  into  a  country 
of  date-trees,  rice,  and  pasturage,  or  a  land  of  saline 
plants."  The  northern  part  is  little  else  than  a  mass 
of  mountains,  which,  near  Julamerk,  rise  to  a  very 
great  height,  Mount  Jewar  being  supposed  to  have  an 
elevation  of  15,000  feet ;  in  the  south  it  is  more  level, 
but  the  plains  are  often  burnt  up  with  scorching  heat, 
while  the  traveller,  looking  northward,  sees  a  snowy 
alpine  ridge  hanging  like  a  cloud  in  mid  air.  On  the 
west  this  country  is  skirted  by  the  great  river  Tigris, 
the  Hiddekel  of  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  ii,  14;  Dan.  x,  4), 
the  Dijlah  of  the  Arabs,  noted  for  the  impetuosity  of 
its  current.  Its  banks,  once  the  residence  of  mighty 
kings,  are  now  desolate,  covered,  like  those  of  its  twin 
river  the  Euphrates,  with  relics  of  ancient  greatness, 
in  the  ruins  of  fortresses,  mounds,  and  dams,  which 
had  been  erected  for  the  defence  or  irrigation  of  the 
country.  Niebuhr  describes  a  large  stone  dam  at  the 
castle  of  Nimrod,  eight  leagues  below  Mosul,  as  a 
work  of  great  skill  and  labor,  and  now  venerable  ft  r 
its  antiquity ;  and  some  suppose  that  it  was  from  the 
circumstance  of  so  many  canals  from  the  Tigris  water- 
ing the  country,  and  rendering  it  fruitful,  that  that 
river  received  the  Arabic  name  of  Nahr  es-Salam,  the 
River  of  Peace,  i.  e.  prosperity.  It  leaves  the  high 
land  at  some  distance  above  Tekrit,  rushing  with  great 
velocity  through  a  pass  in  the  Hamrine  mountains. 
Ta  its  progress  along  Assyria,  the  Tigris  receives  from 
that  country,  besides  other  rivers,  two  rapid  mountain 
streams — the  Great  and  Little  Zab  (Arab.  Dhab,  i.  e. 
Wolf),  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Lykos,  or  Wolf,  and 
the  Capros,  or  Wild  Boar.  The  Greater  Zab  (called 
by  the  Kurds  Zerb),  used  to  be  laid  down  as  a  differ- 
ent river  from  the  Hakkary,  but  Dr.  Grant  found  them 
to  be  identic  il ;  and  he  likewise  detected  an  error  of 
Kinneir,  in  representing  the  Bitlis-su  as  the  same  as 
the  Khabur,  whereas  they  are  different  streams.  (See 
Grant's  Nestorians,  p.  46.) — Kitto. 

On  the  north  and  east  the  high  mountain  chains  of 
Armenia  and  Kurdistan  are  succeeded  by  low  ranges 
of  limestone  hills  of  a  somewhat  arid  aspect,  which 
detach  themselves  from  the  principal  ridges,  running 
parallel  to  them,  and  occasionally  inclosing,  between 
their  northern  or  north-eastern  flank  and  the  main 
mountain-line,  rich  plains  and  fertile  valleys.  To 
these  ridges  there  succeeds  at  first  an  undulating  zone 
of  country,  well  watered  and  fairly  productive,  which 
finally  -inks  down  with  some  suddenness  upon  the 
great  Mesopotamian  plain,  the  modern  district  of  P>1- 
Jezireh.  This  vast  flat,  which  extends  in  length  for 
260  miles  from  the  latitude  of  Mardin  (37°  20')  to  that 
of  Tekrit  c.  i  ;;:,',.  and  which  is  in  places  of  nearly 
equal  width,  is  interrupted  only  by  a  single  limestone 
range,  a  narrow-  ridge  rising  abruptly  out  of  the  plain, 
which,  splitting  off'  from  Zagroa  in  lat.  33°  30',  may 
be  traced  under  the  names  of  Sarazur,  Hamrin,  and 
Sinjar,  from  Iwan  in  Luristan  nearly  to  Rakkah  on 
the  Euphrates.  "  Prom  all  parts  of  the  plain  the  Sin- 
jar  is  a  beautiful  object.  Its  limestone  rocks,  wooded 
hero  and  there  with  dwarf  oak,  are  of  a  rich  golden 
color;  anil  the  numberless  ravines  which  furrow  its 
sides  form  ribs  of  deep  purple  shadow''  (Layard,  Nil* 


ereh  and  Babylon,  p.  2G5).  Above  and  below  this  bar- 
rier, stretching  southward  and  westward  farther  than 
the  eye  can  reach,  and  extending  northward  and  east- 
ward 70  or  80  miles  to  the  hill-country  before  men- 
tioned, is  an  immense  level  tract,  now  for  the  most 
part  a  wilderness,  scantily  watered  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  but  abundantly  supplied  on  the  left, 
which  bears  marks  of  having  been  in  early  times 
throughout  well  cultivated  and  thickly  peopled.  This 
plain  is  not  alluvial,  and  most  parts  of  it  are  even  con- 
siderably raised  above  the  level  of  the  rivers.  It  is 
covered  in  spring  time  with  the  richest  vegetation, 
presenting  to  the  eye  a  carpet  of  flowers,  varying  in 
hue  from  day  to  day ;  but  as  the  summer  advances  it 
is  parched  up,  and  gradually  changes  to  an  arid  and 
yellow  waste,  except  along  the  courses  of  the  rivers. 
All  over  this  vast  flat,  on  both  sides  of  the  Tigris,  rise 
"grass-covered  heaps,  marking  the  site  of  ancient 
habitations"  (Layard,  p.  2-15).  Mr.  Layard  counted 
from  one  spot  nearly  a  hundred  {Nineveh  and  its  Re- 
mains, i,  315) ;  from  another  above  200  of  these  lofty 
mounds  (Am.  and  Bab.  p.  245).  Those  which  have 
been  examined  have  been  uniformly  found  to  present 
appearances  distinctly  connecting  them  with  the  re- 
mains of  Nineveh.  See  Nineveh.  It  may  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  certain  that  they  belong  to  tho 
time  of  Assyrian  greatness,  and  thus  they  will  serve 
to  mark  the  extent  of  the  real  Assyrian  dominion. 
They  are  numerous  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris  from 
Bavian  to  the  Diyaleh,  and  on  the  right  the}'  thickly 
stud  the  entire  country  both  north  and  south  of  the 
Sinjar  range,  extending  eastward  beyond  the  Khabouv 
(Layard,  chs.  xii-xiv),  northward  to  Mardin",  and 
southward  to  the  vicinity  of  Bagdad. — Smith. 

4.  Natural  Productions. — The  most  remarkable  fea- 
ture, says  Ainsworth,  in  the  vegetation  of  Taurus,  is 
the  abundance  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants  in  the  north- 
ern, and  their  comparative  absence  in  the  southern  dis- 
trict. Besides  the  productions  above  enumerated, 
Kurdistan  yields  gall-nuts,  gum  Arabic,  niastich,  man- 

<  na  (used  as  sugar),  madder,  castor-oil,  and  various 
kinds  of  grain,   pulse,  and  fruit.     An  old  traveller, 
I  Rauwolf,  who  passed  by  Mosul  in  1574,  dwells  with 
admiration  on  tho  finely-cultivated  fields  on  the  Ti- 
gris, so  fruitful  in  corn,  wine,  and  honey  as  to  remind 
him  of  the  Assyrian  Kabshakeh's  description  of  his 
native  countiy  in  2  Kings  xviii,  32.     Eich  informs  us 
that  a  great  quantity  of  honey,  of  the  finest  quality, 
is  produced  ;  the  bees  (cemp.  Isa.  vii,  18,  "the  bee  in 
the  land  of  Assyria")  are  kept  in  hives  of  mud.      The 
naphtha  springs   on  the  east  of  the  Tigris   are  less 
productive  than  those  in  Mesopotamia,  but  thejr  are 
j  much  more  numerous.     The  zoology  of  the  mountain 
I  district  includes  bears  (black  and  brown),  panthers, 
i  lynxes,  wolves,  foxes,  marmots,  dormice,  fallow  and 
red  deer,  roebucks,  antelopes,  etc.,  and  likewise  goats, 
!  but  not  (as  was  once  supposed)  of  the  Angora  breed. 
In  the  plains  are  found  lions,  tigers,  hyenas,  beavers, 
jerboas,  wild  boars,  camels,  etc. — Kitto. 

5.  Subdivisions  and  Principal  Towns. — Assyria  in 
Scripture  is  commonly  spoken  of  in  its  entirety,  and 
unless  the  Huzzab  (2Si"t)  of  Nahum  (ii,  7)  is  an  equiva- 
lent for  the  Adiabene  of  the  geographers,  no  name  of 
a  district  can  be  said  to  be  mentioned.  The  classical 
geographers,  on  the  contrary,  divided  Assyria  into  a 
number  of  regions — Strabo  (xvi,  1  and  4)  into  Atvria, 
Arh, ■■litis,  Artacrne,  Apolloniatis,  Chtt/onitis,  Dolomene, 
Calachene,  Adiabene,  Mesopotamia,  etc.;  rtolemy  (vi, 
1)  into  Arrapachitis,  Adiabene,  the  Garamaan  coun- 
try, Apolloniatis,  A  rbelitis,  the  countrj-  of  the  Sambatts, 
Calacine,  and  Sittacene.  These  provinces  appear  to 
be  chiefly  named  from  cities,  as  Arbelitis  from  Arbela; 
Calcine  (or  Calachene)  from  Calah  or  Halah  (Gen.  x, 
11);  Apolloniatis  from  Apollonia;  Sittacene  from  Sit- 
tace,  etc.  Adiabene,  however,  the  richest  region  of 
all,  derived  its  appellation  from  the  Zab  (Diab)  rivers 
on  which  it  lav,  as  Anmiianus  Marcellinus  informs  us 


ASSYRIA 


489 


ASSYRIA 


(xxiii,  20).  Ptolemy  (v,  18)  made  Mesopotamia  (which 
he  understood  literally  as  the  whole  country  between 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris)  distinct  from  Assyria, 
just  as  the  sacred  writers  distinguish  "  Aram-Naha- 
rain"  from  "  Asshur."  Strabo  (xvi,  1)  extended  As- 
syria to  the  Euphratss,  and  even  across  it  into  Arabia 
and  Syria!  Farthest  north  lay  the  province  Arra- 
pachitis,  so  called,  as  Rosenmiiller  conjectures,  from 
Arphaxad,  Asshur's  brother  (Gen.  x.  22-24 ;  but  see 
Vater  on  Genesis,  i,  151).  South  of  it  was  Ccdacine, 
by  Strabo  written  Calachene ;  perhaps  the  Chalach  of 
2  Kings  xvii,  6;  xviii,  11.  Next  came  Adiabene,  so 
important  a  district  of  Assyria  as  sometimes  to  give 
name  to  the  whole  country.  See  Adiabene.  In 
Aramaean  it  is  called  Chadyab  or  Hadyab.  North-east 
of  it  lay  Arbelitis,  in  which  was  Arbcla  (now  Arbil,  of 
which  see  an  account  in  Rich's  Kurdistan,  ii,  14 ;  and 
Appendix,  No.  i  and  ii),  famous  for  the  battle  in  which 
Alexander  triumphed  over  Darius.  South  of  this  lay 
the  two  provinces  of  Apolloniatis  and  Sittacene.  The 
country  of  Kir,  to  which  the  Ass.yrians  transported 
the  Damascene  Syrians  (2  Kings  xvi,  9 ;  Amos  i,  5), 
was  probably  the  region  about  the  river  Kur  (the 
Cyrus  of  the  Greeks),  i.  e.  Iberia  and  Georgia. 

The  chief  cities  of  Assyria  in  the  time  of  its  great- 
ness appear  to  be  the  following:  Nineveh,  which  is 
marked  by  the  mounds  opposite  Mosul  (Nebbi-Yunus 
and  Kouyunjik) ;  Calah  or  Halah,  now  Nimrud ;  As- 
shur, now  Kaleh  Sherghat ;  Sargina,  or  Dur-Sargina, 
now  Khorsabad;  Arbela,  still  Arbil;  Opis,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Diyaleh  with  the  Tigris ;  and  Sittace,  a 
little  farther  down  the  latter  river,  if  this  place  should 
not  rather  be  reckoned  to  Babylonia.  (Sec  the  Journal 
of  the  Georjraph.  Soc.  vol,  ix,  part  i,  p.  35,  Lond.  1830.) 
The  capital  of  the  whole  country  was  Nineveh,  the 
Ninos  of  the  Greeks  (Herodot.  i,  102),  the  Hebrew 
name  being  supposed  to  denote  "the  abode  of  Ninus," 
the  founder  of  the  empire.  Its  site  is  believed  to  have 
been  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  the  mod- 
ern town  of  Mosul,  where  there  is  now  a  small  town 
called  Nebbi  Yunus  (i.  e.  the  prophet  Jonah),  the  ruins 
around  which  were  explored  by  Rich,  and  are  described 
in  his  work  on  Kurdistan.  See  Nineveh.  In  Gen. 
x,  11,  12,  three  other  cities  are  mentioned  along  with 
Nineveh,  viz.  Rechoboth  Ir,  i.  e.  the  city  of  Rehoboth, 
the  locality  of  which  is  unknown.  Calack  (in  our  ver- 
sion Calah),  either  a  place  in  the  province  of  Cala- 
chene above  mentioned,  or  the  modern  Hulwan,  called 
by  the  Syrians  Chalach;  and  Resen,  "a  great  city  be- 
tween Nineveh  and  Calach,"  which  Bochart  identities 
with  the  Larissa  of  Xenophon  (Anabasis,  iii,  47),  and 
Michaelis  with  a  place  called  Ressin  (Rish-Ain,  caput 
fontis?),  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  A.D.  772.  Rich 
notices  an  old  place  and  convent  of  that  name  near 
Mosul  (ii,  81).  At  the  town  of  Al-Kosh,  north  of 
Mosul,  tradition  places  the  birth  and  burial  of  the 
prophet  Nahum,  and  the  Jews  resort  thither  in  pil- 
grimage to  his  tomb.  But,  though  he  is  styled  an  El- 
koshite  (Nah.  i,  1),  his  denunciation  against  Assyria 
and  Nineveh  were  evidently  uttered  in  Palestine  ;  and 
St.  Jerome  fixes  his  birthplace  at  Helkesei,  a  village 
in  Galilee. — Kitto  ;  Smith.    See  Jonah. 

6.  Present  Condition. — The  greater  part  of  the  coun- 
try which  formed  Assyria  Proper  is  under  the  nominal 
sway  of  the  Turks,  who  compose  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  population  of  the  towns  and  larger  vil- 
lages, filling  nearly  all  public  offices,  and  differing  in 
nothing  from  other  Osmanlis.  The  Pasha  of  Mosul  is 
nominated  by  the  Porte,  but  is  subject  to  the  Pasha  of 
Bagdad ;  there  is  also  a  pasha  at  Solymaneah  and  Akra ; 
a  bey  at  Arbil,  a  mussellim  at  Kirkuk,  etc.  But  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  of  the  whole 
mountain  tract  that  here  divides  Turkey  from  Persia, 
are  the  Kurds,  the  Carduchii  of  the  (Jreeks;  from  them 
a  chain  of  these  mountains  were  anciently  called  the 
Carduchian  or  Gordyaean,  and  from  them  now  the 
country  is  designated  Kurdistan.      Klaproth,  in  his 


Asia  Polyglotta  (Paris,  1823,  4to,  p.  75),  derives  the 
name  from  the  Persian  root  kurd,  i.  e.  strong,  brave. 
They  are  still,  as  of  old,  a  barbarous  and  warlike  race, 
occasionally  yielding  a  formal  allegiance,  on  the  west, 
to  the  Turks,  and  on  the  east  to  the  Persians,  but  nev- 
er wholly  subdued ;  indeed,  some  of  the  more  powerful 
tribes,  such  as  the  Hakkary,  have  maintained  an  en- 
tire independence.  Some  of  them  are  stationary  in 
villages,  while  others  roam  far  and  wide,  beyond  the 
limits  of  their  own  country,  as  nomadic  shepherds;  but 
they  are  all  more  or  less  addicted  to  predatory  habits, 
and  are  regarded  with  great  dread  by  their  more  peace- 
ful neighbors.  They  profess  the  faith  of  Islam,  and 
are  of  the  Sunite  sect.  All  travellers  have  remarked 
man  j'  points  of  resemblance  between  them  and  the  an- 
cient Highlanders  of  Scotland.  (See  Mr.  Ainsworth's 
second  work,  Travels  and  Researches  in  Asia  Minor, 
Mesopotamia,  etc.,  Lond.  1842,  2  vols.) 

The  Christian  population  is  scattered  over  the  whole 
region,  but  is  found  chiefly  in  the  north.  It  includes 
Chalda?ans,  who  form  that  branch  of  the  Nestorians 
that  adheres  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  a  few  Jacobites,  or 
monophysite  Syrians,  Armenians,  etc.  But  the  most 
interesting  portion  is  the  ancient  Church  of  the  prim- 
itive Nestorians,  a  livelj'  interest  in  which  has  lately 
been  excited  in  the  religious  world  by  the  publications 
of  the  American  missionaries  (see,  especially,  The  Nes- 
torians, by  Asahel  Grant,  M.D.,  Lond.  1841 ;  and  com- 
pare Dr.  E.  Robinson,  in  the  Am.  Bibl.Repos.  Oct.  1841; 
Jan.  1842 ;  Rev.  J.  Perkins,  ib.  Jan.  1843 ;  and  Resi- 
dence in  Persia,  N.  Y.  1843).  Sec  Nestorians.  An- 
other peculiar  race  that  is  met  with  in  this  and  the 
neighboring  countries  is  that  of  the  Yezidees  (q.  v.), 
whom  Grant  and  Ainsworth  would  likewise  connect 
with  the  ten  tribes ;  but  it  seems  much  more  probable 
that  they  are  an  offshoot  from  the  ancient  Manichees, 
their  alleged  worship  of  the  Evil  Principle  amounting 
to  no  more  than  a  reverence  which  keeps  them  from 
speaking  of  him  with  disrespect  (see  Homes.,  in  the  Am. 
Bibl.  Rejws.  for  April,  1842).  Besides  the  dwellers  in 
|  towns  and  the  agricultural  population,  there  are  a  vast 
:  number  of  wandering  tribes,  not  only  of  Kurds,  but  of 
|  Arabs,  Turkomans,  and  other  classes  of  robbers,  who, 
,  by  keeping  the  settled  inhabitants  in  constant  dread 
\  of  property  and  life,  check  every  effort  at  improve- 
ment; and,  in  consequence  of  this  and  the  influence  of 
bad  government,  many  of  the  finest  portions  of  the 
country  are  little  better  than  unproductive  wastes.  A 
copy  of  a  famous  history  of  Kurdistan,  entitled  Tarikh 
al-Akrad  (Akratf  being  the  collective  name  of  the  peo- 
ple), was  procured  by  Mr.  Rich  when  in  the  country, 
and  is  now,  along  with  the  other  valuable  Oriental 
MSS.  of  that  lamented  traveller,  preserved  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.     See  Kurdistan. 

II.  The  Assyrian  Empire.— No  portion  of  ancient 
history  is  involved  in  greater  obscurity  than  that  of 
the  empire  of  Assyria.  Nor  is  this  obscurity  in  any 
very  great  degree  removed  by  the  recent  remarkable 
discoveries  of  the  monumental  records  of  the  nation  by 
Layard,  Botta,  and  Loftus. 

1.  Scriptural  Notices  of  Assyrian  History. — In  at- 
tempting to  arrange  even  the  facts  deducible  from 
Scripture,  a  difficulty  presents  itself  at  the  outset, 
arising  from  the  ambiguity  of  the  account  given  of  the 
'  origin  of  the  earliest  Assyrian  state  in  Gen.  x,  11. 
After  describing  Nimrod,  son  of  Cush,  "  as  a  mighty 
j  one  in  the  earth,"  the  historian  adds  (ver.  10),  "  And 
the  beginning  of  his  kingdom  (or,  rather,  the  first  the- 
atre of  his  dominion)  was  Babel,  and  Erech,  and  Accad, 
and  Calneh,  in  the  land  of  Shinar,"  i.  e.  Babylonia. 
Then  follow  the  words  (as  it  is  in  the  margin),  "  Out 
1  of  that  land  he  (i.  e.  Nimrod)  went  out  into  Assyria 
and  builded  Nineveh,"  (comp.  Noldius,  Concord.  Hebr, 
Particles,  ed.  Tymp.,  p.  223.)  Moses  is  enumerating 
the  descendants  of  Ham,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  he 
:  would  interrupt  the  details  to  give  an  account  of  As- 
;  shur,  a  son  of  Shem,  whose  posterity  are  not  introduced 


ASSYRIA 


490 


ASSYRIA 


till  ver.  21.  Besides,  in  the  circumstance  of  Asshur 
Leaving  one  country  to  settle  in  another,  there  was 
nothing  remarkable,  for  that  was  the  case  with  almost 
all  Noah's  grandchildren.  But  if  we  understand  it 
of  Nimrod,  both  the  connection  and  the  sense  will  be 
manifest.  The  design  obviously  is  to  represent  him 
as  a  potent  monarch  and  ambitious  conqueror.  His 
brethren,  the  other  sons  of  Cush,  settled  in  the  south, 
but  he,  advancing  northward,  lirst  seized  on  Baby- 
lonia, and,  proceeding  thence  into  Assyria  (already 
partially  colonized  by  the  Asshurites,  from  whom  it 
took  its  name),  he  built  Nineveh  and  the  other  strong- 
holds mentioned,  in  order  to  secure  his  conquests. 
This  view  is  confirmed  by  a  passage  in  Mic.  v,  G, 
where,  predicting  the  overthrow  of  Assyria  by  the 
Medes  and  Babylonians,  the  prophet  says,  "  They 
shall  devour  the  land  of  Asshur  with  the  sword :  even 
the  land  of  Nimrod  in  the  entrances  thereof"  (comp. 
v.  5).  It  likewise  agrees  with  the  native  tradition 
(if  we  can  depend  on  the  report  of  Ctesias),  that  the 
founder  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy  and  the  builder  of 
Nineveh  was  one  and  the  same  person,  viz.,  Ninus, 
from  whom  it  derived  its  name  (q.  d.  Nin's  Abode), 
and  in  that  case  the  designation  of  Nimrod  (the  Rebel) 
was  not  his  proper  name,  but  an  opprobrious  appella- 
tion imposed  on  him  by  his  enemies.  Modern  tradi- 
tion likewise  connects  Nimrod  with  Assyria ;  for  while, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  memory  of  Asshur  is  preserved 
in  the  locality  of  A  thur,  that  place  is  also  termed  the 
"city  of  Nimrud,"  and  (as  the  above-mentioned  dam 
on  the  Tigris  is  styled  Nimrod's  Castle)  Rich  informs 
us  that  "the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  village  of 
Deraweish  consider  him  as  their  founder."  He  adds, 
that  the  village  story-tellers  have  a  book  they  call  the 
Kissek-Nimrud,  or  "Tales  of  Nimrod." 

It  is  true  that  the  Authorized  Version  of  Gen.  x,  11 
is  countenanced  by  most  of  the  ancient  translators 
and  by  Josephus ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  one  we 
have  preferred  is  that  of  the  Targums  of  Onkelos  and 
Jonathan,  and  of  Jerome;  and  (among  the  moderns) 
of  Bochart,  Hyde,  Marsham,  Wells,  Faber,  Hales,  and 
many  others.  Yet,  though  Nimrod's  "  kingdom"  em- 
braced the  lands  both  of  Shinar  and  Asshur,  we  are 
left  in  the  dark  as  to  whether  Babylon  or  Nineveh  be- 
came the  permanent  seat  of  government,  and  conse- 
quently whether  his  empire  should  be  designated  that 
of  Babylonia  or  that  of  Assyria.  No  certain  traces  of 
it,  indeed,  are  to  be  found  in  Scripture  for  ages  after  its 
erection.  In  the  days  of  Abraham,  we  hear  of  a  king 
of  Elam  ( i.  e.  Elymais,  in  the  south  of  Persia)  named 
Chedorlaomer,  who  had  held  in  subjection  for  twelve 
years  five  petty  princes  of  Palestine  (Gen.  xiv,  4),  and 
who,  in  consequence  of  their  rebellion,  invaded  that 
country  along  with  three  other  kings,  one  of  whom 
was  "Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar.'"  Josephus  says  "  the 
Assyrians  had  then  dominion  over  Asia  ;"  and  he  styles 
these  four  kings  merely  commanders  in  the  Assyrian 
army.  It  is  possible  that  Chedorlaomer  was  an  As- 
syrian viceroy,  and  the  others  his  deputies;  for  at  a 
later  period  the  Assyrian  boasted,  "Are  not  my  princes 
altogether  kings  ?•"  (ha.  x.  8.)  Yet  some  have  rather 
concluded  from  the  narrative  that  by  this  time  the 
monarchy  of  Nimrod  bad  been  broken  up,  or  that  at 
least  tin-  s>';;t.  of  government  had  been  transferred  to 
Elam.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  name  of  Assyria  as  an 
independent  state  does  not  again  appear  in  Scripture 
till  the  closing  period  of  the  age  of  Moses.  Balaam, 
a  seer  from  the  northern  part  of  Mesopotamia,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Assyria,  addressing  the  Kenites,  a 
mountain  tribe  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan,  "took 
»ip  his  parable,"  i.  e.  raised  his  oracular,  prophetic 
chant,  and  said,  "  Durable  is  thy  dwelling-place!  yea, 
in  a  rock  puttest  thou  thy  nest:  nevertheless,  wasted 
shall  be  the  Kenite,  until  Asshur  shall  lead  them  cap- 
tive." In  this  verse,  besides  the  play  upon  the  word 
ken  (the  Hebrew  for  a  nest),  the  reader  may  remark 
the  striking  contrast  drawn  between  the  permanent 


nature  of  the  abode,  and  the  transient  possession  of  it 
by  the  occupants.  The  prediction  found  its  fulfilment 
in  the  Kenites  being  gradually  reduced  in  strength 
(comp.  1  Sam.  xv,  6),  till  they  finally  shared  the  fate 
of  the  Transjordanite  tribes,  and  were  swept  away 
into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians  (1  Chr.  v,  2G ;  2  Kings 
xvi,  9  ;  xix,  12,  13  ;  1  Chr.  ii,  55.)  But,  as  a  counter- 
part to  this,  Balaam  next  sees  a  vision  of  retaliatory 
vengeance  on  their  oppressors,  and  the  awful  prospect 
of  the  threatened  devastations,  though  beheld  in  far 
distant  times,  extorts  from  him  the  exclamation,  "Ah! 
who  shall  live  when  God  doeth  this  ?  For  ships  shall 
come  from  the  coast  of  Chittim,  and  shall  afflict  As- 
shur, and  shall  afflict  Eber,  but  he  also  [the  invader] 
shall  perish  forever."  This  is  not  without  obscurity  ; 
but  it  has  commonly  been  supposed  to  point  to  the 
conquest  of  the  regions  that  once  formed  the  Assyrian 
empire,  first  by  the  Macedonians  from  Greece,  and 
then  by  the  Romans,  both  of  whose  empires  were  in 
their  turn  overthrown. 

In  the  time  of  the  Judges,  the  people  of  Israel  be- 
came subject  to  a  king  of  Mesopotamia,  Ckushan-risha- 
thaim  (Judg.  iii,  8),  who  is  by  Josephus  styled  King 
of  the  Assyrians  ;  but  we  are  left  in  the  same  igno- 
rance as  in  the  case  of  Chedorlaomer  as  to  whether  1  e 
was  an  independent  sovereign  or  only  a  vicegerent  for 
another.  The  eighty-third  Psalm  (ver.  9)  mentions 
Ashur  as  one  of  the  nations  leagued  against  Israel ; 
but  as  the  date  of  that  composition  is  unknown,  noth- 
ing certain  can  be  founded  on  it.  The  first  king  of 
Assyria  alluded  to  in  the  Bible  is  he  who  reigned  at 
Nineveh  when  the  prophet  Jonah  was  sent  thither 
(Jon.  iii.  G).  Hales  supposes  him  to  have  been  the  fa- 
ther of  Pul,  the  first  Assyrian  monarch  named  in  Scrip- 
ture, and  dates  the  commencement  of  his  reign  B.C. 
821.  By  that  time  the  metropolis  of  the  empire  had 
become  "an  exceeding  great"  and  populous  city,  but 
one  pre-eminent  in  wickedness  (Jon.  i,  2 ;  iii,  3 ;  iv,  11). 
See  Jonah. 

The  first  expressly  recorded  appearance  of  the  As- 
syrian power  in  the  countries  west  of  the  Euphrates  is 
in  the  reign  of  Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  against  whom 
"the  God  of  Israel  stirred  up  the  spirit  of  Pul  or  (Pktil), 
king  of  Assyria"  (1  Chron.  v.,  20),  who  invaded  the 
country,  and  exacted  a  tribute  of  a  thousand  talents 
of  silver  "that  his  hand,"  i.  e.  his  favor,  "might  be 
with  him  to  confirm  the  kingdom  in'his  hand"  (2  Kings 
xv,  19,  20).  Newton  places  this  event  in  the  year 
B.C.  770,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  I  ul*s  reign,  the 
commencement  of  which  he  fixes  in  the  year  B.C.  790. 
As  to  his  name,  we  find  the  syllable  Pal,  Pel,  or  Pul 
entering  into  the  names  of  several  Assyrian  kings 
(e.  (j.  Piloses,  Sardana/w/-us)  ;  and  hence  some  connect 
it  with  the  Persian  "bales"  i.  e.  high,  exalted,  and  think 
it  may  have  been  part  of  the  title  which  the  Assyrian 
monarchs  bore.  Hales  conjectures  that  Pul  may  have 
been  the  second  Belus  of  the  Greeks,  his  fame  having 
reached  them  by  his  excursions  into  Western  Asia. 
About  this  period  we  find  the  prophet  Ilosea  making 
frequent  allusions  to  the  practice  both  of  Israel  and 
Jud.ca,  of  throwing  themselves  for  support  on  the  kings 
of  Assyria.  In  ch.  v,  13;  x,  G,  our  version  speaks 
of  their  specially  seeking  the  protection  of  a  "King 
Jareb,"  but  the  original  there  is  very  obscure;  and 
the  next  Assyrian  monarch  mentioned  by  name  is 
Tiglath-pileser.  The  supposition  of  Newton  is  adopted 
by  Hales,  that  at  Pul's  death  his  dominions  were  di- 
vided between  his  two  sons,  Tiglath-pileser  and  Nab- 
onassar,  the  latter  being  made  ruler  at  Babylon,  from 
the  date  of  whose  government  or  reign  the  celebrated 
era  of  Nubonassar  took  its  rise,  corresponding  to  B.C. 
747.  The  name  of  the  other  is  variously  written  Tig- 
lath  and  Tilgath,  Pileser  and  Pilreser  :  the  etymology 
of  the  first  is  unknown  (some  think  it  has  a  reference 
to  the  river  Dijlath,  i.  e.  the  Tigris).  Pileser  signifies 
in  Persian  "exalted  prince."  When  Ahaz,  king  of 
Judah,  was  hard  pressed  bj-  the  combined  forces  of 


ASSYRIA 


491 


ASSYRIA 


3        Nisjbis  or' 


lAntio&irrlsy'i/dortica.  V^     '''£,,; 


MS> 


5 1  LJicb-racus  «         V  v        >Vj_i 


ilH\^ 


Ecbaraun 

■ler. Veiling 

konkohor  ' O- 


Map  of  the  Assyrian  Empire. 


Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and  Rezin,  king  of  Damascene- 
Syria,  he  purchased  Tiglath-pileser's  assistance  with  a 
large  sum,  taken  out  of  his  own  and  the  Temple  treas- 
ury. The  Assyrian  king  accordingly  invaded  territo- 
ries of  hoth  the  confederate  kings,  and  annexed  a  por- 
tion of  them  to  his  own  dominions,  carrying  captive  a 
number  of  their  subjects  (2  Kings  xv,  29;  xvi,  5-10; 
1  Chr.  v,  26  ;  2  Chr.  xxviii,  16 ;  Isa.  vii,  1-11 ;  comp. 
Amos  i,  5;  ix,  7).  His  successor  was  Shalman  (Hos. 
x,  4),  Shalmaneser  or  Salmanassar,  the  Enemessar 
of  the  apocryphal  book  of  Tobit  (ch.  i,  2).  He  made 
Hoshea,  king  of  Israel,  his  tributary  vassal  (2  Kings 
xvii,  3)  ;  but  finding  him  secretly  negotiating  with  So 
or  Sabaco  (the  Sabakoph  of  the  monuments),  king 
of  Egypt,  he  laid  siege  to  the  Israelitish  capital, 
Samaria,  took  it  after  an  investment  of  three  years 
(B.C.  720),  and  then  reduced  the  country  of  the  ten 
tribes  to  a  province  of  his  empire,  carrying  into  cap- 
tivity the  king  and  his  people,  and  settling  Cuthaeans 
from  Babylonia  in  their  room  (2  Kings  xvii,  3-6; 
xviii,  0, 11).  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  seems  to  have 
been  for  some  time  his  vassal  (2  Kings  xviii,  7);  and 
we  learn  from  the  Tyrian  annals,  preserved  by  Me- 
nander  of  Ephesus  (as  citad  by  Josephus.  Ant.  x,  14, 
2),  that  ha  subdued  the  whole  of  Phoenicia,  with  the 
exception  of  insular  Tyre,  which  successfully  resisted 
a  siege  of  five  years.  The  empire  of  Assyria  seems 
now  to  have  reached  its  greatest  extent,  having  had 
the  Mediterranean  for  its  boundary  on  the  west,  and 
including  within  its  limits  Media  and  Kir  on  the  north, 
as  well  as  Elam  on  the  south  (2  Kin^s  xvi,  9 ;  xvii, 
6;  Isa.  xx,  6).  In  the  twentieth  chapter  of  Isaiah 
(ver.  1)  there  is  mention  of  a  king  of  Assyria,  Sargon, 


in  whose  reign  Tartan  besieged  and  took  Ashdod  in 
Philistia  (B.C.  715)  [see  Sargon]  ;  and  as  Tartan  is 
elsewhere  spoken  of  (2  Kings  xviii,  17)  as  a  general 
of  Sennacherib,  some  have  supposed  that  Sargon  is 
but  another  name  of  that  monarch,  while  others  would 
identify  him  either  with  Shalmaneser,  or  with  Esar- 
haddon,  Sennacherib's  successor.  But  the  correctness 
of  all  these  conjectures  may  fairly  be  questioned  ;  and 
we  adhere  to  the  opinion  of  Gesenius  (Comment,  zu 
Jesa.  in  loc),  that  Sargon  was  a  king  of  Assyria,  who 
succeeded  Shalmaneser,  and  had  a  short  reign  of  two 
or  three  years.  He  thinks  the  name  may  be  equiva- 
lent to  Ser-jmineh,  "Prince  of  the  Sun."  Von  Boh- 
len  prefers  the  derivation  of  sergun,  "gold-colored." 
His  attack  on  Egypt  may  have  arisen  from  the  jealous}' 
which  the  Assyrians  entertained  of  that  nation's  influ- 
ence over  Palestine  ever  since  the  negotiation  between 
its  king  So,  and  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel.  From  many 
incidental  expressions  in  the  book  of  Isaiah  we  can 
infer  that  there  was  at  this  time  a  strong  Egyptian 
party  among  the  Jews,  for  that  people  are  often  warn- 
ed against  relying  for  help  on  Egypt,  instead  of  simply 
confiding  in  Jehovah  (Isa.  xxx,  2;  xxxi,  1;  comp. 
xx,  5,  6).  The  result  of  Tartan's  expedition  against 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia  was  predicted  by  Isaiah  whila 
that  genera? was  yet  on  the  Egyptian  frontier  at  Ash- 
dod (Isa.  xx,  1-4);  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  is 
to  this  Assyrian  invasion  that  the  prophet  Xahum  re- 
fers when  he  speaks  (iii,  8-10)  of  the  subjugation  of 
No,  i.  e.  No-Ammun,  or  Thebes,  the  capital  of  Upper 
Egypt,  and  the  captivity  of  its  inhabitants.  The  oc- 
cupation of  the  country  by  the  Assyrians,  however, 
must  have  been  very  transient,  for  in  the  reign  of  Sar< 


ASSYRIA 


492 


ASSYRIA 


gon's  successor,  Sennacherib,  or  Sancherib,  we  find 
Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  throwing  off  the  Assyrian 
yoke,  and  allying  himself  with  Egypt  (2  Kings  xviii, 
7,  21).  This  brought  against  him  .Sennacherib  with  a 
mighty  host,  which,  without  difficulty,  subdued  the 
fenced  cities  of  Judah,  and  compelled  him  to  purchase 
peace  by  the  payment  of  a  large  tribute.  But  "the 
treacherous  dealer  dealt  very  treacherously"  (Isa. 
xxxiii,  1),  and,  notwithstanding  the  agreement,  pro- 
ceeded to  invest  Jerusalem.  In  answer,  however,  to 
the  prayers  of  the  "  good  king"  of  Judah,  the  Assyrian 
was  diverted  from  his  purpose,  partly  by  the  "rumor" 
(Isa.  xxxvii,  6)  of  the  approach  of  Tirhakah,  king  of 
Ethiopia,  and  partly  by  the  sudden  and  miraculous 
destruction  of  a  great  put  of  his  army  (2  Kings  xviii, 
13-37;  xix;  Isa.  xxxvi  and  xxxvii).  He  himself 
fled  (B.C.  712)  to  Nineveh,  where,  in  course  of  time, 
when  worshipping  in  the  temple  of  his  god  Nisroch, 
he  was  slain  by  his  sons  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer, 
the  parricides  escaping  into  the  land  of  Armenia — a 
fact  which  is  preserved  in  that  country's  traditionary 
history.  See  Ararat.  Regarding  the  period  of 
Sennacherib's  death  chronologists  differ.  Hales,  fol- 
lowing the  apocryphal  book  of  Tobit  (i,  21),  places  it 
fifty-five  days  after  his  return  from  his  Jewish  expedi- 
tion ;  but  Gesenius  (Comment,  zu  Jesa.  p.  999)  has  ren- 
dered it  extremely  probable  that  it  did  not  take  place 
till  lung  after.  He  founds  this  opinion  chiefly  on  a 
curious  fragment  of  Berosus,  preserved  in  the  Armeni- 
an translation  of  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius.  It  states 
that,  after  Sennacherib's  brother  had  governed  Baby- 
lon as  the  Assyrian  viceroy,  the  sovereignty  was  suc- 
cessively usurped  by  Acises,  Merodach,  or  Berodach- 
Baladan  (Isa.  xxxix,  1 ;  2  Kings  xx,  12),  and  Elibus 
or  Belibus.  But,  after  three  years,  Sennacherib  re- 
gained dominion  in  Babylonia,  and  appointed  as  vice- 
roy his  own  son  Assordan,  the  Esarhaddon  of  Scrip- 
ture. This  statement  serves  to  explain  how  there  was 
in  Hezekiah's  time  a  king  at  Babylon,  though,  both 
before  and  after,  it  was  subject  to  Assyria.  See  Sex- 
naciiekib.  Sennacherib  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Esarhaddon,  or  Assarhaddon,  who  had  been  his  fa- 
ther's viceroy  at  Babylon  (2  Kings  xix,  37;  Isa. 
xxxvii.  38).  He  is  the  Sacherdon  or  Sarchedon  of 
Tobit  (i,  21),  and  the  Asaradinus  of  Ptolemy's  Canon 
(B.C.  6-<0).  Hales  regards  him  as  the  first  Sardanap- 
alus.  The  chief  notice  taken  of  him  in  Scripture  is 
that  he  settled  some  colonists  in  Samaria  (Ezra  iv.  2), 
and  as  (at  ver.  10)  that  colonization  is  ascribed  to  the 
"great  and  noble  Asnapper,"  it  is  supposed  that  that 
was  another  name  for  Esarhaddon,  but  it  may  have 
been  one  of  the  great  officers  of  his  empire.  It  seems 
to  have  been  in  his  reign  that  the  captains  of  the  As- 
syrian host  invaded  and  ravaged  Judah,  carrying  Ma- 
nasseh,  the  king,  captive  to  Babylon.  The  subse- 
quent history  of  the  empire  is  involved  in  almost  as 
much  obscurity  as  that  of  its  origin  and  rise.  The 
Modes  had  already  shaken  off  the  yoke,  and  the  Chal- 
dxans  soon  appear  on  the  scene  as  the  dominant  na- 
tion of  Western  Ash;  yet  Assyria,  though  much  re- 
duced in  extent,  existed  as  an  independent  state  for  a 
consid  srable  period  after  Esarhaddon.  Hales,  follow- 
ing Syncellus,  makes  him  succeeded  by  a  prince  call- 
ed Ninus  (B.C.  667),  who  had  for  his  successor  Nebu- 
Chodon  .-.r  (B.C.  658),  for  the  transactions  of  whose 
reign,  including  the  expedition  of  his  general  Holo- 
fernes  into  Judaja,  Hales  relies  on  the  apocrvphal 
book  of  Judith,  the  authority  of  which,  however,  is 
eery  questionable.  The  last  monarch  was  Sarac,  or 
Sardanapalus  II  |  B.C.  636),  in  whose  reign  Cyaxares, 
kin-  <il'  Media,  and  Nabopolassar,  viceroy  of  Babylon, 
combined  against  Assyria,  took  Nineveh,  and,  divid- 
ing what  remained  of  the  empire  between  them,  re- 
duced Assyria  Proper  to  a  province  of  Media  (B.C 
606).  V 

2.  Comparison,  villi,  ancient  Historians  and  the  Inti- 
mations on  the  Monuments. — The  original  sources  of 


profane  history  on  this  subject  are  Herodotus  and  Cte- 
sias;  but  every  attempt  to  reconcile  their  statements 
with  those  of  Scripture,  or  even  with  each  other,  has 
hitherto  failed.  The  former  fixes  the  duration  of  the 
Assyrian  dominion  in  Upper  Asia  at  520  years  (Herod, 
i,  95),  while  the  latter  again  assigns  to  the  Assyrian 
empire,  from  Ninus  to  Sardanapalus,  no  less  a  period 
than  1305  years  (Diodor.  Sicul.  ii,  21).  The  authority 
of  Ctesias,  however,  is  very  generally  discredited  (it 
was  so  even  by  Aristotle),  though  he  has  recently  found 
a  defender  in  Dr.  Russell,  in  his  Connection  of  Sacred 
and  Profane  History.  The  truth  is  (as  is  remarked  by 
the  judicious  Heeren),  that  the  accounts  of  both  these 
historians  are  little  better  than  mere  traditions  of  an- 
cient heroes  and  heroines  (witness  the  fables  about 
Semiramis!),  without  any  chronological  data,  and  en- 
tirely in  the  style  of  the  East.  To  detail  all  the  fanci- 
ful hypotheses  which  have  been  propounded,  with  the 
view  of  forming  out  of  them  a  consistent  and  coherent 
narrative,  forms  no  part  of  our  present  design.  Con- 
siderable light,  however,  has  been  thrown,  by  recent 
researches,  upon  certain  points  of  this  history. — Kitto. 

(1.)  The  original  Settlement  of  the  Country. — Scrip- 
ture informs  us  that  Assyria  was  peopled  from  Babylon 
(Gen.  x,  11),  and  both  classical  tradition  and  the  mon- 
uments of  the  country  agree  in  this  representation.  In 
Herodotus  (i.  7),  Ninus,  the  mythic  founder  of  Nine- 
veh, is  the  son  (descendant)  of  Belus,  the  mythic  found- 
er of  Babylon — a  tradition  in  which  the  derivation  of 
Assyria  from  Babylon,  and  the  greater  antiquity  and 
superior  position  of  the  latter  in  early  times,  are  shad- 
owed forth  sufficiently.  That  Ctesias  (ap.  Diod.  Sic. 
ii,  7)  inverts  the  relation,  making  Semiramis  (accord- 
ing to  him,  the  wife  and  successor  of  Ninus)  found  Bab- 
ylon, is  only  one  out  of  a  thousand  proofs  of  the  un- 
trustworthy character  of  his  history.  The  researches 
recently  carried  on  in  the  two  countries  clearly  show, 
not  merely  by  the  statements  which  are  said  to  have 
been  deciphered  on  the  historical  monuments,  but  by 
the  whole  character  of  the  remains  discovered,  that 
Babylonian  greatness  and  civilization  was  earlier  than 
Assyrian,  and  that,  while  the  former  was  of  native 
growth,  the  latter  was  derived  from  the  neighboring 
country.  The  cuneiform  writing,  for  instance,  which 
is  rapidly  punched  with  a  very  simple  instrument  upon 
moist  clay,  but  is  only  with  much  labor  and  trouble 
inscribed  by  the  chisel  upon  rock,  must  have  been  in- 
vented in  a  country  where  men  "had  brick  for  stone" 
(Gen.  xi,  3),  and  have  thence  passed  to  one  where  the 
material  was  unsuited  for  it.  It  may  be  observed,  also, 
that  while  writing  occurs  in  a  very  rude  form  in  the 
earlier  Babylonian  ruins  (Loftus's  Chaldaia,  p.  109), 
and  gradually  improves  in  the  later  ones,  it  is  in  As- 
svria  uniformly  of  an  advanced  type,  having  apparent- 
ly been  introduced  there  after  it  had  attained  to  per- 
fection. 

(2.)  Date  of  the  Foundation  of  the  Kinqdom. — "With 
respect  to  the  exact  time  at  which  Assyria  became  a 
separate  and  independent  country,  there  is  an  impor- 
tant difference  between  classical  authorities,  Herodo- 
tus placing  the  commencement  of  the  empire  almost  a 
thousand  years  later  than  Ctesias !  Scripture  does  but 
little  to  determine  the  controversy  ;  that  little,  howev- 
er, is  in  favor  of  the  former  author.  Geographically, 
as  a  country,  Assj'ria  was  evidently  known  to  Moses 
(Gen.  ii,  14;  xxv,  18;  Num.  xxiv,  22,  24);  but  it  does 
not  appear  in  Jewish  history  as  a  kingdom  till  the  reign 
of  Menahem  (B.C.  cir.  770).  In  Abraham's  time  (B.C. 
2000  ?)  it  is  almost  certain  that  there  can  have  been  no 
Assyrian  kingdom,  or  its  monarch  would  have  been 
found  among  those  who  invaded  Palestine  with  Che- 
dorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv,  1).  In  the  time  of  the  early 
judges  (B.C.  1575),  Assyria,  if  it  existed,  can  have  been 
of  no  great  strength ;  for  Chushan-Kishathaim,  the  first 
of  the  foreigners  who  oppressed  Israel  (Judg.  iii,  8),  is 
master  of  the  whole  country  between  the  rivers  (1mm- 
A 'aharim  =  "  Syria  between  the  two  rivers").     These 


ASSYRIA 


493 


ASSYRIA 


facts  militate  strongly  against  the  views  of  Ctesias, 
whose  numbers  produce  for  the  founding  of  the  empire 
the  date  of  B.C.  2182  (Clinton,  Fast,  Hell,  i,  263).  The 
more  modest  account  of  Herodotus  is  at  once  more 
probable  in  itself,  more  agreeable  to  Scripture,  and 
more  in  accordance  with  the  native  writer  Berosus. 
Herodotus  relates  that  the  Assyrians  were  "lords  of 
Asia"  for  520  years,  when  their  empire  was  partially 
broken  up  by  a  revolt  of  the  subject-nations  (i,  95). 
After  a  period  of  anarchy,  the  length  of  which  he  does 
not  estimate,  the  Median  kingdom  was  formed,  179 
years  before  the  death  of  Cyrus,  or  B.C.  708.  He 
would  thus,  it  appears,  have  assigned  to  the  foundation 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  a  date  not  very  greatly  anterior 
to  B.C.  1228.  Berosus,  who  made  the.  empire  last  526 
years  to  the  reign  of  Pul  (ap.  Euseb.  Chron.  Arm.  i,  4), 
must  have  agreed  nearly  with  this  view — at  least  he 
would  certainly  have  placed  the  rise  of  the  kingdom 
within  the  13th  century.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  utmost 
that  can  be  determined  with  any  approach  to  certainty. 
If,  for  convenience'  sake,  a  more  exact  date  be  desired, 
the  conjecture  of  Dr.  Brandis  has  some  claim  to  be 
adopted,  which  fixes  the  year  B.C.  1273  as  that  from 
which  the  526  years  of  Berosus  are  to  be  reckoned  (Re- 
rum  Assyriarum  Tempora  Emendata,  p.  17). 

•(3.)  Early  Kings,  from  the  foundation  of  the  King- 
dom to  Pul. — The  long  list  of  Assyrian  kings  which 
has  come  down  to  us  in  two  or  three  forms,  only 
slightly  varied  (Clinton,  F.  II.  i,  267),  and  which  is 
almost  certainly  derived  from  Ctesias,  must  of  necessi- 
ty be  discarded,  together  with  his  date  for  the  king- 
dom. It  covers  a  space  of  above  1200  years,  and 
bears  marks  besides  of  audacious  fraud,  being  com- 
posed of  names  snatched  from  all  quarters,  Arian, 
Semitic,  and  Greek — names  of  gods,  names  of  towns, 
names  of  rivers — and  in  its  estimate  of  time  present- 
ing the  impossible  average  of  34  or  35  years  to  a  reign, 
and  the  very  improbable  phenomenon  of  reigns  in 
half  the  instances  amounting  exactly  to  a  decimal 
number.  Unfortunately,  we  have  no  authentic  list  to 
substitute  for  the  forger}'  of  Ctesias.  Berosus  spoke 
of  45  kin^s  as  reigning  during  his  period  of  526  years, 
and  mentioned  all  their  names  (Euseb.  ut  sup.) ;  but 
they  have  unluckily  not  been  preserved  to  us.  The 
work  of  Herodotus  on  Assyrian  history  (Herod,  i,  106 
and  184)  has  likewise  entirely  perished,  and  neither 
Greek  nor  Oriental  sources  are  available  to  supply  the 
loss,  which  has  hitherto  proved  irreparable.  Recent- 
ly the  researches  in  Mesopotamia  have  done  some- 
thing toward  filling  up  this  sad  gap  in  our  knowledge ; 
but  the  reading  of  names  is  still  so  doubtful  that  it 
seems  best,  in  the  present  condition  of  cuneiform  in- 
quiry, to  treat  the  early  period  of  Assyrian  history  in 
a  very  general  way,  only  mentioning  kings  by  name 
when,  through  the  satisfactory  identification  of  a  cu- 
neiform royal  designation  with  some  name  known  to 
us  from  sacred  or  profane  sources,  firm  ground  has  been 
reached,  and  serious  error  rendered  almost  impossible. 

The  Mesopotamia^  researches  have  rendered  it  ap- 
parent that  the  original  seat  of  government  was  not 
at  Nineveh.  The  oldest  Assyrian  remains  have  been 
found  at  Kaleh-Sherghat,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  60  miles  south  of  the  later  capital ;  and  this 
place  the  monuments  show  to  have  been  the  residence 
of  the  earliest  kings,  as  well  as  of  the  Babylonian 
governors  who  previously  exercised  authority  over 
the  country.  The  ancient  name  of  the  town  appears 
to  have  been  identical  with  that  of  the  country,  viz. 
Asshur.  It  was  built  of  brick,  and  has  yielded  but  a 
very  small  number  of  sculptures.  The  kings  proved 
to  have  reigned  there  are  fourteen  in  number,  divisi- 
ble into  three  groups;  and  their  reigns  are  thought  to 
have  covered  a  space  of  nearly  350  years,  from  B.C. 
1273  to  B.C.  930.  The  most  remarkable  monarch  of 
the  series  was  called  Tiglath-Pileser.  He  appears  to 
have  been  king  toward  the  close  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  thus  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Sam- 


son, and  an  earlier  king  than  the  Tiglath-Pileser  of 
Scripture.  He  overran  the  whole  country  between 
Assyria  Proper  and  the  Euphrates  ;  swept  the  valley  of 
the  Euphrates  from  south  to  north,  from  the  borders 
of  Babylon  to  Mount  Taurus  ;  crossed  the  Euphrates, 
and  contended  in  northern  Syria  with  the  Ilittites  ; 
invaded  Armenia  and  Cappadocia ;  and  claims  to  have 
subdued  forty-two  countries  "  from  the  channel  of  the 
Lower  Zab  (Zab  Asfal)  to  the  Upper  Sea  of  the  Set- 
ting Sun."  All  this  he  accomplished  in  the  first  five 
years  of  his  reign.  At  a  later  date  he  appears  to  have 
suffered  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  king  of  Babylon, 
who  had  invaded  his  territory  and  succeeded  in  carry- 
ing off  to  Babylon  various  idols  from  the  Assyrian  tem- 
ples (Offerhaus,  Be.  ant.  Assyr.  imperio,  Linga,  1727). 

The  other  monarchs  of  the  Kaleh-Sherghat  series, 
both  before  and  after  Tiglath-Pileser,  are  compara- 
tively insignificant.  The  later  kings  of  the  series  are 
only  known  to  us  as  the  ancestors  of  the  two  great 
monarchs  Sardanapalus  the  first  and  his  son,  Shal- 
maneser  or  Shalmanubar,  who  were  among  the  most 
warlike  of  the  Assyrian  princes.  Sardanapalus  the 
first,  who  appears  to  have  been  the  warlike  Sarda- 
napalus of  the  Greeks  (Suidas,  s.  v. ;  comp.  Hellan. 
Frag.  p.  158),  transferred  the  seat  of  government  from 
Kaleh-Sherghat  to  Kimrud  (probably  the  Scriptural 
Calah),  where  he  built  the  first  of  those  magnificent 
palaces  which  have  recently  been  exhumed  by  Eng- 
lish explorers.  A  great  portion  of  the  Assyrian  sculp- 
tures now  in  the  British  Museum  are  derived  from 
this  edifice.  A  description  of  the  building  has  been 
given  by  Mr.  Layard  (Nin.  and  its  Remains,  vol.  ii, 
ch.  11).  By  an  inscription  repeated  more  than  a 
hundred  times  upon  its  sculptures  we  learn  that  Sar- 
danapalus carried  his  arms  far  and  wide  through  West- 
ern Asia,  warring  on  the  one  hand  in  Lower  Babylonia 
and  Chaldasa,  on  the  other  in  Syria  and  upon  the  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean.  His  son,  Shalmaneser  or  Shal- 
manubar, the  monarch  who  set  up  the  Black  Obelisk, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  to  commemorate  his  vic- 
tories, was  a  still  greater  conqueror.  He  appears  to 
have  overrun  Cappadocia,  Armenia,  Azerbejan,  great 
portions  of  Media  Magna,  the  Kurdish  mountains, 
Babylonia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia ;  every- 
where making  the  kings  of  the  countries  tributary  to 
him.  If  we  may  trust  the  reading  of  certain  names, 
on  which  cuneiform  scholars  appear  to  be  entirely 
agreed,  he  came  in  contact  with  various  Scriptural 
j  personages,  being  opposed  in  his  Syrian  wars  by  Ben- 
hadad  and  Hazael,  kings  of  Damascus,  and  taking 
tribute  from  Jehu,  king  of  Israel.  His  son  and  grand- 
son followed  in  his  steps,  but  scarcely  equalled  his 
glory.  The  latter  is  thought  to  be  identical  with  the 
Biblical  Pul,  Phul,  or  Phaloch,  who  is  the  first  of  the 
Assyrian  kings  of  whom  we  have  mention  in  Scrip- 
ture.    See  Pul. 

(4.)  The  Kings  from  rid  to  Esarhaddon. — The  suc- 
cession of  the  Assyrian  kings  from  Pul  almost  to  the 
,  close  of  the  empire  is  rendered  tolerably  certain,  not 
j  merely  by  the  inscriptions,  but  also  by  the  Jewish 
I  records.  In  the  2d  book  of  Kings  we  find  the  names 
of  Pul,  Tiglath-Pileser,  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherib, 
and  Esarhaddon,  following  one  another  in  rapid  suc- 
cession (2  Kings  xv,  19  and  29;  xvii,  3;  xviii,  13; 
xix,  37)  ;  and  in  Isaiah  we  have  the  name  of  "  Sargon, 
king  of  Assyria"  (xx,  1),  who  is  a  contemporary  of 
the  prophet,  and  who  must  evidently,  therefore,  belong 
to  the  same  series.  The  inscriptions,  by  showing  us 
that  Sargon  was  the  father  of  Sennacherib,  fix  his 
place  in  the  list,  and  give  us  for  the  monarchs  of  the 
last  half  of  the  8th  and  the  first  half  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury B.C.  the  (probably)  complete  list  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II,  Shalmaneser  IT,  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and 
Esarhaddon.  For  a  detailed  account  of  the  actions 
of  these  kings,  see  each  name  in  its  place.  (See  Op- 
pert,  Chronologic  des  Assy7iens  et  des  Babylon'.ens,  Paris, 
1857.)— Smith,  s.  v. 


ASSYRIA 


494 


ASSYRIA 


:op  As 


History.— (Condense.!  from  Dr.  J.  Oppert's  Chronologic  ties  Attvrient  el  rf«  Babylot 
mucins  untl  cylinders.     The  names  and  dales  in  brackets  are  according  to  other  auluoril 
"  "    -Fairbairn,  s.  v. 


Synoptical  Tabi 
t,.  i„-  derived  i>, 
cylinders  have  been  found  bearing  the 

Epoch  at  which  the  Chaldeans  place  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  (42  amar,  or  2940  [?  1900]  years  before         h.c. 

Nebuchadnezzar 3540[?2500] 

I.  DYNASTIES  NON-SIIEMITIC,  comprehended  under  the  name  of  Scythic  Supremacy  during  1500  [?500]  years. 

1.  Hamite  Kingdom 3540-2441 

2.  Au, an  Invasion 2449-2225 

3.  Turanian  Domination  (Scythic) 2225-201T 

II.  SHEMITIC  DOMINATION. 

1.  First  Chald.ean  Empire.    Forty-nine  [?]  kings  during  450  years 2017-1559 

First  king  unknown  [H'hedorlaomer,  li.C.  cir.  20S0]. 

Ismidngon,  Lord  of  Assyria  (about  1950). 

Samsi-hu,  son  of  Ismidagon  (044  years  before  Assurdayan). 

Naramsin,  king  of  the  four  regions.     (The  names  of  the  other  kings  are  not  yet  deciphered.) 

2.  Aeah  Invasion.     Eight  p]  kings  during  245  years 1559-1314 

The  Khet  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  according  to  M.  de  Kongo,  probably  the  Dummukh  of  the  Assyrians. 

3.  Great  Assyrian  Empire.    Forty-five  1  ?]  kings  during  526  years 1314-7S8 

[Bel -lush  (cir.  1273?;. 

Fudil. 

Iva-lush. 

Shalma-bar,  or  Shamarish  (?  Shalmaneser)]. 

i.  First  Dynasty.      Ninippallukin  [Nin-pala-kina],  first  king 1314 

Assurdayan  [Asshur-dapal-ilJ,  son  of  the  preceding about  1300 

Mutakkii-nabu,  son  of  the  preceding "      1270 

Assur-ris-ili,  son  of  the  preceding.     (Commencement  of  the  Assyrian  power,  following 

the  Egyptian  preponderance,  which  had  lasted  500  years) about        1250 

*Tiglath-Pileser  I,  son  of  the  preceding  (historical  cylinder  of  S00  lines) "  1220 

Sardanapalus  I.  [Asshur-bani-pal],  son  of  the  preceding "  1-00 

Tiglath-Bileser  II "  [?  1150] 

Sack  of  Nineveh  by  Chaldeans,  41S  years  before  the  first  year  of  Sennacherib     "  1122  [1132] 

Belochus  I,  son  of  the  preceding "  1100 

ii.  Second  Dynasty.  Belitaras  (Bel-kat-irassu),  usurper "  1100 

Shalmaneser  I,  founder  of  the  palace  of  Calah  (Nimrud) "  1050 

Sardanapalus  II  (?  Asshtir  adan-akhi),  great-grandson  of  Belitaras u  1020 

Shalmaneser  II,  son  of  the  preceding "  1000 

Assttr-dan-il  I  [Asshur-danin-il],  son  of  the  preceding "  9S0 

Belochus  II  [Iva-lush  II],  grandson  of  Assur-dan-il  I "  970 

Tiglath-I'ileser  III  [Tiglathi-nin],  son  of  the  preceding "  950 

Sardanapalus  III  [Asshur-dani-pal],  son  of  the  preceding.     Great  conqueror     "  930-900 
Shalmaneser  II 1  [shalmanu-bar],  son  of  the  preceding.     Adversary  of  Jehu, 

king  of  Israel  ( JWtn  rud  Obelisk) "  POO-SCO 

Samsi-ou  II  [Shamas-iva],  son  of  the  preceding "  S6U-S40 

Belochus  III  [Iva-lush  III],  son  of  the  preceding,  husband  of  Semiramis "  S40-S2O 

Semiramis  (Sammuramit),  17  years  alone '. u  S20-S03 

Sardanapalus  IV,  probably  son  of  the  preceding,  last  king  of  the  great  empire     "  S07-7SS 

III.  DIVISION  OF  DOMINION  BETWEEN  S1IEMITES  AND  APJANS. 

Med.  and  Pf.rs. 
Avian  republic. 


Baivyxon. 
Pnl  Belesis  founds  the  empire  of  Chal 
dsea.    King  of  Babylon  till 


Nabonassar 74' 

Nadius 

Chinzinus  and  Porus 


Nineveh. 
First  king  of  Babylon  subjugates  As- 


Elulams 726-721 

Merodach  Baladan 721-709 


SS-769Arbaces  first 
Tiglath-Bileser  IV  re-eetablishes  the  j     chief  .7SS-710 

Assyrian  monarchy 769-725 

,^.-733  Commencement  of  captivity  of  Israel .        740] 
...733  720 

20  Shalmaneser  IV  takes  Samaria  (720),  Aspabara, 

and  is  dethroned  by  Sargon 725-720J  about  720 

Last  Ninevite  Dynasty  (Sargonides,  Dynasty  of  the 

720-025).  |      Deiocides. 


"Sargon, king  of  Babvlon  [721-714]. 

Anarchy 704-702 

Belibus 702-699 

Assurinaddinson,  son  of  Sennacherib. 699-693 

Irigibel,  or  Regibelus 693-692 

Meseaimordacus 092- 

Anarchy 


i  Sargon  (founded  Khorsabad)  [72 1-?714]7 
.  709-704  Arceanus  of  Ptolemy [709 


Sennacherib,  son  of  Sargon  [714-692]  704-076 
(Cylinders,  and  seal  of  contemporary 
Egyptian  king  Sabaco,  probably  the 
So  of  2  Kings  xvii,  4,  have  been 
found  at  Nineveh.) 
Campaign  against  Egypt  and  Judrca  [713]  702 

Esarhaddon,  son  of  Sennacherib  .  . .  .0s0  06>,  [Aparanadiua  of  Ptolemy] [699-693] 

king  of  Assyria,  of  Egypt,  and  of  Meroe 676-66S 

Saosduchin CGS-647  Tiglath-Pileser  V,  son  of  Esarhaddon  66S-660 

'Sardanapalus  V  |  As.-hur-bani-pal  II], 
|     son  of  Esarhaddon 660-647 

Assur-dan-il  II  [Aswir-emit-ili],  son  of  Sardanapalus  V  (Cinneladan  of  the  Greeks), 

last  king  of  Assyria 647-625 

Tc ital  dt  strnctii >n  of  Nineveh  [?  Saracus] C25 

P.  Ml  (..MAN  Dynasty 625-53S 

Nabopolassar  (Nahn-pal-assur),  and  Nitocris  the  Egytian 625-604 

•Nebuchadnezzar  i Nahu-kudurr-usur) 604-561 

Evil  Merodach  (Avil-marduk) 801-550 

Wergalsliareser  (Niigal-sarr-usur) 559-555 

Labusardochus  (liel-iikh-isruki,  sou  of  the  preceding,  9  months 555 

•Nabonid  (Nabu-nahid),  boh  of  Nabu-balatirib 555-53S 

Cyrus  the  Persian  takes   Unl.vlon 53S 

[Cyaxares  II.  viceroy  at  Pabvloii,  "  Darius  the  Mede" .r,3S_T,36] 

Cyrus,  king  of  Babylon  and  of  nations [530-529]  538-529 

Cainliysos  the  Persian 529-522 

NIdintabel,  pMndn-NYl.iichadnezzar.  son  of  Nabonid 522-518 

Darius,  son  of  Ilystiispcs  the  Persian,  takes  Babylon  the  first  time 513 

Arakhu,  pseiido-Nebuehadnez/.ar 517-516 

Darius  the  Persian  takes  Babylon  the  second  time 516 

Nabiiimtuk  renders  himself  independent,  and  reigns  with  his  son  Bclsarussur,  about  50js_4SS 
Complete  submission  of  the  Chuldaans  to  the  Persians 4SS 


0-704  Deioces,  kin 

710-4557 

704] 


Phraortes, 

657-035 
Acha?menes 
submits,     650 

Cyaxares 


SUSIANA. 

Kingdom  of  Su- 
siana. 

[ta. 
Sntruk  Nakhun- 


Kutir-  Nakhun- 
ta,  son  of  the 
preceding. 


Tarhak,  brother 
of  the  preceding, 
llumbanigas 
vanquished  by 


Tiumman  con- 
quered by  Sar- 
danapalus V. 


Astyagea 595-500 

AcrtiEMENiAN  Dynasty. 

Cyrus,  king  of  Persia  . . .  500-529 


Cambyses 529-522 

Gomates     the     Magian, 

pseudo-Smerdis 522 

Darius,  son  of  llystaspes  521-486 


Xerxes  I,  Ahasuerus  of 
the  Jews  (Esther,  473 
[479]) 4S0-465 


ASSYRIA 


495 


ASSYRIA 


(a.)  Establishment  of  the  Lower  Dynasty.— It  seems 
to  be  certain  that  at  or  near  the  accession  of  Pul  a 
great  change  of  some  kind  or  other  occurred  in  Assyria. 
Berosus  is  said  to  have  brought  his  grand  dynasty  of 
forty-rive  kings  in  526  years  to  a  close  at  the  reign  of 
Pul  (Polyhist.  ap.  Euseb.  1.  c),  and  to  have  made  him 
the  first  king  of  a  new  series.  By  the  synchronism  of 
Menahem  (2  Kings  xv,  19),  the  date  of  Pul  may  be 
determined  to  about  B.C.  770.  It  was  only  twenty- 
three  years  later,  as  we  find  by  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy, 
that  the  Babylonians  considered  their  independence  to 
have  commenced  (B.C.  747).  Herodotus  probably  in- 
tended to  assign  nearly  to  this  same  era  the  great  com- 
motion which  (according  to  him)  broke  up  the  Assyri- 
an empire  into  a  number  of  fragments,  out  of  which 
were  formed  the  Median  and  other  kingdoms.  These 
traditions  may  none  of  them  be  altogether  trustwor- 
thy ;  but  their  coincidence  is  at  least  remarkable,  and 
seems  to  show  that  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury B.C.  there  must  have  been  a  break  in  the  line  of 
Assyrian  kings — a  revolution,  foreign  or  domestic — 
and  a  consequent  weakening  or  dissolution  of  the 
bonds  which  united  the  conquered  nations  with  their 
conquerors. 

It  was  related  by  Bion  and  Polyhistor  (Agathias,  ii, 
25),  that  the  original  dynasty  of  Assyrian  kings  ended 
with  a  certain  Belochus  or  Beleus,  who  was  succeeded 
by  a  usurper  (called  by  them  Beletaras  or  Balatorus), 
in  whose  family  the  crown  continued  until  the  destruc- 
tion of  Nineveh.  The  general  character  of  the  cir- 
cumstances narrated,  combined  with  a  certain  degree 
of  resemblance  in  the  names — for  Belochus  is  close 
upon  Phaloch,  and  Beletaras  may  represent  the  second 
element  in  Tiglath-P/few  (who  in  the  inscriptions  is 
called  uTiglath-.Patos/'ra") — induce  a  suspicion  that 
probably  the  Pul  or  Phaloch  of  Scripture  was  really 
the  last  king  of  the  old  monarchy,  and  that  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II,  his  successor,  was  the  founder  of  what  has 
been  called  the  "Lower  Empire."  It  maybe  suspect- 
ed that  Derosus  really  gave  this  account,  and  that  Poly- 
histor, who  repeated  it,  has  been  misreported  by  Euse- 
bius.  The  synchronism  between  the  revolution  in  As- 
syria and  the  era  of  Babylonian  independence  is  thus 
brought  almost  to  exactness,  for  Tiglath-Pileser  is 
known  to  have  been  upon  the  throne  about  B.C.  740 
(Clinton,  Fast.  Hell,  i,  278),  and  may  well  have  as- 
cended it  in  B.C.  747. 

(6.)  Supposed  Loss  of  the  Empire  at  this  Period. — 
Many  writers  of  repute — among  them  Clinton  and  Nie- 
buhr — have  been  inclined  to  accept  the  statement  of 
Herodotus  with  respect  to  the  breaking  up  of  the  whole 
empire  at  this  period.  It  is  evident,  however,  both 
from  Scripture  and  from  the  monuments,  that  the  shock 
sustained  through  the  domestic  revolution  has  been 
greatly  exaggerated.  Niebuhr  himself  observes  (  Vor- 
triirje  iiber  alte  Geschichte,  i,  38)  that,  after  the  revolu- 
tion, Assyria  soon  "recovered  herself,  and  displayed 
the  most  extraordinary  energy."  It  is  plain,  from 
Scripture,  that  in  the  reigns  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  Shal- 
maneser,  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  Esarhaddon,  As- 
syria was  as  great  as  at  any  former  era.  These  kings 
all  warred  successfully  in  Palestine  and  its  neighbor- 
hood ;  some  attacked  Egypt  (Isa.  xx.  4)  ;  one  appears 
as  master  of  Media  (:}  Kings  xvii,  6) ;  while  another 
has  authority  over  Babylon,  Susiana,  and  Elymais  (2 
Kings  xvii,  24;  Ezra  iv,  0).  So  far  from  our  observ- 
ing symptoms  of  weakness  and  curtailed  dominion,  it 
is  clear  that  at  no  time  were  the  Assyrian  arms  push- 
ed farther,  or  their  efforts  more  sustained  and  vigorous. 
The  Ass3"rian  annals  for  the  period  are  in  the  most 
complete  accordance  with  these  representations.  The}' 
exhibit  to  us  the  above-mentioned  monarchs  as  extend- 
ing their  dominions  farther  than  any  of  their  predeces- 
sors. The  empire  is  continually  rising  under  them, 
and  reaches  its  culminating  point  in  the  reign  of  Esar- 
haddon. The  statements  of  the  inscriptions  on  these 
subjects  are  fully  borne  out  by  the  indications  of  great- 


ness to  be  traced  in  the  architectural  monuments.  No 
palace  of  the  old  monarchy  equalled,  either  in  size  or 
splendor,  that  of  Sennacherib  at  Nineveh.  No  series 
of  kings  belonging  to  it  left  buildings  at  all  to  be  com- 
pared with  those  which  were  erected  by  Sargon,  his 
son,  and  his  grandson.  The  magnificent  remains  at 
Kouyunjik  and  Khorsabad  belong  entirely  to  these  later 
kings,  while  those  at  Nimrud  are  about  equally  divided 
between  them  and  their  predecessors.  It  is  farther 
noticeable  that  the  writers  who  may  be  presumed  to 
have  drawn  from  Berosus,  as  Polyhistor  and  Abyde- 
nus,  particularly  expatiated  upon  the  glories  of  these 
later  kings.  Polyhistor  said  (ap.  Euseb.  i,  5)  that  Sen- 
nacherib conquered  Babylon,  defeated  a  Greek  army 
in  Cilicia,  and  built  there  Tarsus,  the  capital.  Abyde- 
nus  related  the  same  facts,  except  that  he  substituted 
for  the  Greek  army  of  Polyhistor  a  Greek  fleet;  and 
added  that  Esarhaddon  (his  Axerdis)  conquered  Lower 
Syria  and  Egypt  (ibid,  i,  9).  Similarly  Menander,  the 
Tyrian  historian,  assigned  to  Shalmaneser  an  expedi- 
tion to  Cyprus  (ap.  Joseph.  Ant.  ix,  14),  and  Herodotus 
himself  admitted  that  Sennacherib  invaded  Egypt  (ii, 
141).  On  everj'  ground  it  seems  necessary  to  con- 
clude that  the  second  Assyrian  kingdom  was  really 
greater  and  more  glorious  than  the  first ;  that  under 
it  the  limits  of  the  empire  reached  their  fullest  extent, 
and  the  internal  prosperity  was  at  the  highest. 

The  statement  of  Herodotus  is  not,  however,  with- 
out a  basis  of  truth.  It  is  certain  that  Babylon,  about 
the  time  of  Tiglath-Pileser's  accession,  ventured  upon 
a  revolt,  which  she  seems  afterward  to  have  reckoned 
the  commencement  of  her  independence.  See  Baby- 
lon. The  knowledge  of  this  fact  may  have  led  He- 
rodotus into  his  error ;  for  he  would  naturally  suppose 
that,  when  Babylon  became  free,  there  was  a  general 
dissolution  of  the  empire.  It  has  been  shown  that  this 
is  far  from  th3  truth ;  and  it  may  farther  be  observed 
that,  even  as  regards  Babylon,  the  Assyrian  loss  was 
not  permanent.  Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  Esarhad- 
don all  exercised  full  authority  over  that  country, 
which  appears  to  have  been  still  an  Assyrian  fiof  at 
the  close  of  the  kingdom. 

(5.)  Successors  of  Esarhaddon. — By  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Esarhaddon  the  triumph  of  the  Assyrian  arms 
had  been  so  complete  that  scarcely  an  enemy  was  left 
who  could  cause  her  serious  anxiety.  The  kingdoms 
of  Hamath,  of  Damascus,  and  of  Samaria  had  been  suc- 
cessively absorbed ;  Phoenicia  had  been  conquered ; 
Judaea  had  been  made  a  feudatory ;  Philistia  and  Idu- 
maea  had  been  subjected,  Egypt  chastised,  Babylon  re- 
covered, cities  planted  in  Media.  Unless  in  Armenia 
and  Susiana  there  was  no  foe  left  to  reduce,  and  the 
consequence  appears  to  have  been  that  a  time  of  pro- 
found peace  succeeded  to  the  long  and  bloody  wars  of 
Sargon  and  his  immediate  successors.  In  Scripture 
it  is  remarkable  that  we  hear  nothing  of  Assyria  after 
the  reign  of  Esarhaddon,  and  profane  history  is  equal- 
ly silent  until  the  attacks  begin  which  brought  about 
her  downfall.  The  monuments  show  that  the  son  of 
Esarhaddon,  who  was  called  Sardanapalus  by  Abyde- 
nus  (ap.  Euseb.  i,  9),  made  scarcely  any  military  ex- 
peditions, but  occupied  almost  his  whole  time  in  the 
enjoyment  of  the  pleasures  of  the  chase.  Instead  of 
adorning  his  residence — as  his  predecessors  had  been 
accustomed  to  do — with  a  record  and  representation  of 
his  conquests,  Sardanapalus  II  covered  the  walls  of 
his  palace  at  Nineveh  with  sculptures  exhibiting  his 
skill  and  prowess  as  a  hunter.  No  doubt  the  military 
spirit  rapidly  decayed  under  such  a  ruler;  and  the  ad- 
vent of  fresh  enemies,  synchronizing  with  this  decline, 
produced  the  ruin  of  a  power  which  had  for  six  cen- 
turies been  dominant  in  Western  Asia. 

(6.)  Fall  of  Assyria.— -The  fate  of  Assyria,  long  pre- 
viously prop'hesied  by  Isaiah  (x,  5-19),  was  effected 
(humanly  speaking)  by  the  growing  strength  and 
boldness*  of  the  Medes.  If  we  may  trust  Herodotus, 
the  first  Median  attack  on  Nineveh  took  place  about  the 


ASSYRIA 


496 


ASSYRIA 


year  B.C.  633.  By  what  circumstances  this  people, 
who  had  so  long  been  engaged  in  contests  with  the 
Assyrians,  and  had  hitherto  shown  themselves  so  ut- 
terly unable  to  resist  them,  became  suddenly  strong 
enough  to  assume  an  aggressive  attitude,  and  to  force 
the  Ninevites  to  submit  to  a  siege,  can  only  be  conjec- 
tured. Whether  mere  natural  increase,  or  whether 
fresh  immigrations  from  the  east  had  raised  the  Medi- 
an nation  at  this  time  so  far  above  its  former  condi- 
tion, it  is  impossible  to  determine.  We  can  only  say 
that  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  they 
began  to  press  upon  the  Assyrians,  and  that,  gradually 
increasing  in  strength,  they  proceeded,  about  the  year 
B.C.  633,  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  the  country.  For 
some  time  their  efforts  were  unsuccessful ;  but  after  a 
while,  having  won  over  the  Babylonians  to  their  side, 
they  became  superior  to  the  Assyrians  in  the  field,  and 
about  B.C.  625,  or  a  little  earlier,  laid  final  siege  to  the 
capital.  See  Media.  Saracus,  the  last  king— prob- 
ably the  grandson  of  Esarhaddon — made  a  stout  and 
prolonged  defence,  but  at  length,  finding  resistance 
vaiir,  he  collected  his  wives  and  his  treasures  in  his 
palace,  and  with  his  own  hand  setting  fire  to  the  build- 
ing, perished  in  the  flames.  This  account  is  given  in 
brief  by  Abydenus,  who  probably  follows  Berosus  ; 
and  its  outline  so  far  agrees  with  Ctesias  (ap.  Diod.  ii, 
27)  as  to  give  an  important  value  to  that  writer's  de- 
tails of  the  siege.  See  Nineveh.  In  the  general 
fact  that  Assyria  was  overcome,  and  Nineveh  captured 
and  destroyed  by  a  combined  attack  of  Medes  and 
Babylonians,  Josephus  (Ant.  x,  5)  and  the  book  of 
Tobit  (xiv,  15)  are  agreed.  Polyhistor  also  implies  it 
(ap.  Euseb.  i,  5) ;  and  these  authorities  must  be  re- 
garded as  outweighing  the  silence  of  Herodotus,  who 
mentions  only  the  Medes  in  connection  with  the  cap- 
ture (i,  106),  and  says  nothing  of  the  Babylonians. 

(7.)  Fulfilment  of  Prophecy. — The  prophecies  of  Na- 
hum  and  Zephaniah  (ii,  13-5)  against  Assyria  were 
probably  delivered  shortly  before  the  catastrophe. 
The  date  of  Nahum  is  very  doubtful,  but  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  he  wrote  about  B.C.  718,  or  at  the  close 
of  the  reign  of  Ilosea.  Zephaniah  is  even  later,  since 
lie  prophesied  under  Josiah,  who  reigned  from  B.C. 
639  to  609.  If  B.C.  625  be  the  date  of  the  destruction 
of  Nineveh,  we  may  place  Zephaniah's  prophecy  about 
B.C.  635.  Ezekiel,  writing  in  B.C.  588,  bears  wit 
ness  historically  to  the  complete  destruction  which 
had  come  upon  the  Assyrians,  using  the  example  as  a 
warning  to  Pkaraoh-Hophra  and  the  Egyptians  (ch. 
xxxi). 

It  was  declared  by  Nahum  (q.  v.)  emphatically,  at  the 
close  of  his  prophecy,  that  there  should  be  "no  heal- 
ing of  Assyria's  bruise"  (iii,  19).  In  accordance  with 
this  announcement  we  find  that  Assyria  never  rose 
again  to  any  importance,  nor  even  succeeded  in  main- 
taining a  distinct  nationality.  Once  only  was  revolt 
attempted,  and  then  in  conjunction  with  Armenia  and 
Media,  the  latter  heading  the  rebellion.  This  attempt 
took  place  about  a  century  after  the  Median  conquest, 
during  the  troubles  which  followed  upon  the  accession 
of  Darius  Hystaspis.  It  failed  signally,  and  appears 
never  to  have  been  repeated,  the  Assyrians  remaining 
thenceforth  submissive  subjects  of  the  Persian  empire. 
They  were  reckoned  in  the  same  satrapy  with  Baby- 
lon I  Berod.  iii.  92;  comp.  i,  192),  and  paid  an  annual 
tribute  of  a  thousand  talents  of  silver.  In  the  Per- 
sian armies,  which  were  drawn  in  great  part  from  the 
Subject-nations,  tiny  appear  never  to  have  been  held 
of  much  account,  though  they  fought,  in  common  with 
the  other  lcvi.-s,  at  Thermopylae,  at  Cunaxa,  at  Issus, 

anil  at  Arliela. 

(s.i  General  Character  of  the  Empire. — In  the  first 
place,  like  all  the  early  monarchies  which  attained  to 
any  great  extent,  the  Assyrian  empire  was  composed 
of  a  number  of  separate  kingdoms.  In  the  East,  eon- 
quest  has  scarcely  ever  been  followed  by  amalgama- 
tion, and  in  the  primitive  empires  there  was  not  even 


anj'  attempt  at  that  governmental  centralization  which 
we  find  at  a  later  period  in  the  satrapial  system  of  Per- 
sia. As  Solomon  "reigned  over  all  the  kingdoms  from 
the  river  (Euphrates)  unto  the  land  of  the  Philistines 
and  the  border  of  Egypt,"  so  the  Assyrian  monarchs 
bore  sway  over  a  number  of  petty  kings — the  native 
rulers  of  the  several  countries — through  the  entire  ex- 
tent of  their  dominions.  These  native  princes — the 
sole  governors  of  their  own  kingdoms — were  feudato- 
ries of  the  Great  Monarch,  of  whom  they  held  their 
crown  by  the  double  tenure  of  homage  and  tribute. 
Menahem  (2  Kings  xv,  19),  Hoshea  (ibid,  xvii,  4), 
Ahaz  (ibid,  xvi,  8),  Hezekiah  (ibid,  xviii,  14),  and  Ma- 
nasseh  (2  Chron.  xxxiii,  11-13),  were  certainly  in  this 
position,  as  were  many  native  kings  of  Babylon,  both 
prior  and  subsequent  to  Nahonassar ;  and  this  system 
(if  we  may  trust  the  inscriptions)  was  universal 
throughout  the  empire.  It  naturally  involved  the 
frequent  recurrence  of  troubles.  Princes  circum- 
stanced as  were  the  Assyrian  feudatories  would  always 
be  looking  for  an  occasion  when  they  might  revolt 
and  re-establish  their  independence.  The  offer  of  a 
foreign  alliance  would  be  a  bait  which  they  could 
scarcely  resist,  and  hence  the  continual  warnings 
given  to  the  Jews  to  beware  of  trusting  in  Egypt. 
Apart  from  this,  on  the  occurrence  of  any  imperial 
misfortune  or  difficulty,  such,  for  instance,  as  a  disas- 
trous expedition,  a  formidable  attack,  or  a  sudden 
death,  natural  or  violent,  of  the  reigning  monarch, 
there  would  be  a  strong  temptation  to  throw  off  the 
yoke,  which  would  lead,  almost  of  necessity,  to  a  re- 
bellion. The  history  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah 
sufficiently  illustrates  the  tendency  in  question',  which 
required  to  be  met  by  checks  and  remedies  of  the  se- 
verest character.  ,The  deposition  of  the  rebel  prince, 
the  Avasting  of  his  country,  the  plunder  of  his  capital, 
a  considerable  increase  in  the  amount  of  the  tribute 
thenceforth  required,  were  the  usual  consequences  of 
an  unsuccessful  revolt ;  to  which  were  added,  upon  oc- 
casion, still  more  stringent  measures,  as  the  wholesale 
execution  of  those  chiefly  concerned  in  the  attempt, 
or  the  transplantation  of  the  rebel  nation  to  a  distant 
locality.  The  captivity  of  Israel  is  only  an  instance 
of  a  practice  long  previously  known  to  the  Assj'rians, 
and  by  them  handed  on  to  the  Babylonian  and  Persian 
governments. 

It  is  not  quite  certain  how  far  Assyria  required  a 
religious  conformity  from  the  subject  people.  Her  re- 
ligion wasrn  gross  and  complex  polytheism,  comprising 
the  worship  of  thirteen  principal  and  numerous  minor 
divinities,  at  the  head  of  the  whole  of  whom  stood  the 
chief  god,  Asshur,  who  seems  to  be  the  deified  patri- 
arch of  the  nation  (Gen.  x,  22).  The  inscriptions  ap- 
pear to  state  that  in  all  countries  over  which  the  As- 
syrians established  their  supremacy,  they  set  up  "the 
laws  of  Asshur,"  and  "  altars  to  the  Great  Gods."  It 
was  probably  in  connection  with  this  Assyrian  re- 
quirement that  Ahaz,  on  his  return  from  Damascus, 
where  he  had  made  his  submission  to  Tiglath-Pileser, 
incurred  the  guilt  of  idolatr}'  (2  Kings  xvi,  10-18). 
The  history  of  Hezekiah  would  seem,  however,  to  show 
that  the  rule,  if  resisted,  was  not  rigidly  enforced  ;  for 
it  cannot  be  supposed  that  he  would  have  consented 
to  re-establish  the  idolatry  which  he  had  removed,  yet 
he  certainly  came  to  terms  with  Sennacherib,  and  re- 
sumed his  position  of  tributary  (2  Kings  xviii,  14). 
In  any  case  it  must  be  understood  that  the  worship 
which  the  conquerors  introduced  was  not  intended  to 
supersede  the  religion  of  the  conquered  race,  but  was 
only  required  to  be  superadded  as  a  mark  and  badge 
of  subjection. — Smith,  s.  v. 

The  political  constitution  of  the  Assyrian  empire 
was  no  doubt  similar  to  that  of  other  ancient  states 
of  the  East,  such  as  Chaldaea  and  Persia.  The  mon- 
arch, called  "  the  great  king"  (2  Kings  xviii,  19;  Isa. 
xxxvi,  4),  ruled  as  a  despot,  surrounded  with  his 
guards,  and  only  accessible  to  those  who  were  near 


ASSYRIA 


497 


ASSYRIA 


his  person  (Diod.  Sicul.  ii,  21,  23 ;  comp.  Cephalion,  in 
Syncell.  p.  167).  Under  him  there  were  provisional 
satraps,  called  in  Isa.  x,  8,  "princes,"  of  the  rank 
and  power  of  ordinary  kings  (Diod.  Sic.  ii,  24).  The 
great  officers  of  the  household  were  commonly  eunuchs 
(comp.  Gesenius  on  Isa.  xxxvi,  2).  The  religion  of 
the  Assyrians  was,  in  its  leading  features,  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Chaldaeans,  viz.  the  symbolical  worship  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,  especially  the  planets.  In  Scrip- 
ture there  is  mention  of  Nisroch  (Isa.  xxxvii,  38), 
Adrammelech,  Anammelech,  Nibhaz,  Tartak  (2  Kings 
xvii,  31),  as  the  names  of  idols  worshipped  by  the  na- 
tives either  of  Assyria  Proper  or  of  the  adjacent  coun- 
tries which  the}'  had   subdued,  besides  planets  (see 


Gesenius,  Zu  Jesafas, 
not  belong  to  the  Se- 
mitic, but  to  the  Medo- 
Persian  family.  As  Ar- 
amaic, however,  was 
spoken  by  a  large  part 
of  the  Western  popu- 
lation, it  was  proba- 
bly understood  by  the 
great  officers  of  state, 
which  accounts  for 
Rabshakeh  address- 
ing Hezekiah's  mes- 
sengers in  Hebrew  (2 
Kings  xviii,  26),  al- 
though  the  rabbins  ex- 
plain the  circumstance 
bj'  supposing  that  he 
was  an  apostate  Jew 
(but  see  Strabo  xvi, 
745). — Kitto,  s.  v. 

(:>.)  Its  Extent.— 
With  regard  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  Assyrian 
empire  very  exagger- 
ated views  have  been 
entertrined  by  many 
writers.  Ctesias  took 
Semiramis  to  India, 
and  made  the  empire 
of  Assyria  at  least  co- 
extensive with  that  of 
Persia  in  his  own  day. 
This  false  notion  has 
long  been  exploded, 
but  even  Niebuhr  ap- 
pears to  have  believed 
in  the  extension  of  As- 
sj'rian  influence  over 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  ex- 
pedition of  Memnon- — ■ 
whom  he  considered 
an  Assyrian — to  Troj', 
and  in  the  derivation 
of  the  Lydian  Hera- 
clids  from  the  first 
dynasty  of  Ninevite 
mon.irehs  (.1  It.  Ge- 
schickt.  i,  28-lJ).  The 
information  derived 
from  the  native  mon- 
uments tends  to  con- 
tract the  empire  with- 
in more  reasonable 
bounds,  and  to  give 
it  only  the  expansion 
which  is  indicated  for 
it  in  Scripture.  On 
the  west,  the  Medi- 
terranean and  the  riv- 
er Halys  appear  to 
have  been  the  extreme 
boundaries,  but  the  do- 


;uage  did 


minion  beyond  the  confines  of  S3'ria  and  Asia  Minor  was 
not  of  a  strict  character ;  on  the  north,  a  fluctuating 
line,  never  reaching  the  Euxine,  nor  extending  beyond 
the  northern  frontier  of  Armenia ;  on  the  east,  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  and  the  Great  Salt  Desert ;  on  the  south,  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Desert  of  Arabia.  The  countries 
included  within  these  utmost  limits  are  the  following  : 
Susiana,  Chaldaea,  Babylonia,  Media,  Matiene,  Arme- 
nia, Assyria  Proper,  Mesopotamia,  parts  of  Cappadoeia 
and  Cilicia,  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  Idumsea. 
Cyprus  was  also  for  a  while  a  dependency  of  the  Assyr- 
ian kings,  and  they  may  perhaps  have  held  at  one  time 
certain  portions  of  Lower  Egypt.  Lydia,  however, 
Phrygia,  Lycia,  Pamphylia,  Pontus,  Iberia,  on  the  west 
and  north,  Bactria,  Sacia,  Parthia,  India — even  Car- 


ASSYRIA 


498 


ASTARTE 


mania  and  Persia  Proper — upon  the  cast,  were  alto- 
gether beyond  the  limit  of  the  Assyrian  sway,  and 
appeal  at  "no  time  even  to  have  been  overrun  by  the 
Assyrian  armies. 

(10.)  Civilization  of 'the  Assyrians.— -This,  as  has  been 
already  observed,  was  derived  originally  from  the  Bab- 
ylonians. They  were  a  Semitic  race,  originally  res- 
ident in  Babylonia  (which  at  that  time  was  Cushite), 
and  thus  acquainted  with  the  Babylonian  inventions 
and  discoveries,  who  ascended  the  valley  of  the  Tigris 
and  established  in  the  tract  immediately  below  the 
Armenian  mountains  a  separate  and  distinct  national- 
ity. Their  modes  of  writing  and  building,  the  form 
and  size  of  their  bricks,  their  architectural  ornamenta- 
tion, their  religion  and  worship,  in  a  great  measure, 
were  drawn  from  Babylon,  which  they  always  regard- 
ed as  a  sacred  land — the  orignal  seat  of  their  nation, 
and  the  true  home  of  all  their  gods,  with  the  one  ex- 
ception of  Asshur.  Still,  as  their  civilization  devel- 
oped, it  became  in  many  respects  peculiar.  Their  art 
is  of  home  growth.  The  alabaster  quarries  in  their 
neighborhood  supplied  them  with  a  material  unknown 
to  their  southern  neighbors,  on  which  they  could  rep- 
resent, far  better  than  upon  enamelled  bricks,  the  scenes 
which  interested  them.  Their  artists,  faithful  and  la- 
borious, acquired  a  considerable  power  of  rendering 
the  human  and  animal  forms,  and  made  vivid  and 
striking  representations  of  the  principal  occupations 
of  human  life.  If  they  do  not  greatly  affect  the  ideal, 
and  do  not,  in  this  branch,  attain  to  any  very  exalted 
rank,  yet  even  here  their  emblematic  figures  of  the 
gods  have  a  dignity  and  grandeur  which  is  worthy  of 
remark,  and  which  implies  the  possession  of  some  ele- 
vated feelings.  But  their  chief  glory  is  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  actual.  Their  pictures  of  war,  and  of 
the  chase,  and  even  sometimes  of  the  more  peaceful 
incidents  of  human  life,  have  a  fidelity,  a  spirit,  a  bold- 
ness, and  an  appearance  of  life,  which  place  them  high 
among  realistic  schools.  Their  art,  it  should  lie  also 
noted,  is  progressive.  Unlike  that  of  the  Egyptians, 
which  continues  comparativel}'  stationary  from  the 
earliest  to  the  latest  times,  it  plainly  advances,  becom- 
ing continually  more  natural  and  less  uncouth,  more 
life-like  and  less  stiff,  more  varied  and  less  conven- 
tional. The  latest  sculptures,  which  are  those  in  the 
hunting-palace  of  the  son  of  Esarhaddon,  are  decidedly 
the  best.  Here  the  animal  forms  approach  perfection, 
and  in  the  striking  attitudes,  the  new  groupings,  and 
the  more  careful  and  exact  drawing  of  the  whole,  we 
see  the  beginnings  of  a  taste  and  a  power  which  might 
have  expanded  under  favorable  circumstances  into  the 
finished  excellence  of  the  Greeks.  The  advanced  con- 
dition of  the  Assj'rians  in  various  other  respects  is 
abundantly  evidenced  alike  by  the  representations  on 
the  sculptures  and  by  the  remains  discovered  among 
their  buildings.  They  are  found  to  have  understood 
and  applied  the  arch  ;  to  have  made  tunnels,  aqueducts, 
and  drains;  to  have  used  the  lever  and  the  roller;  to 
have  engraved  gems  ;  to  have  understood  the  arts  of 
inlaying,  enamelling,  and  overlaying  with  metals ;  to 
have  manufactured  glass,  and  been  acquainted  with 
the  lens;  to  have  possessed  vases,  jars,  bronze  and 
ivory  ornaments,  dishes,  bells,  ear-rings,  mostly  of  good 
workmanship  and  elegant  forms — in  a  word,  to  have 
attained  to  a  very  high  pitch  of  material  comfort  and 
prosperity.  They  were  still,  however,  in  the  most  im- 
portant points  barbarians.  Their  government  was 
rude  and  inartificial  ;  their  religion  coarse  and  sensu- 
al; their  conduct  of  war  cruel;  even  their  art  mate- 
rialistic  and  bo  debasing;  they  had  served  their  pur- 
pose when  they  bad  prepared  the  East  for  centralized 
government,  and  been  (iod's  scourge  to  punish  the  peo- 
ple of  Israel  ( Is.-i.  x,  5-6);  they  were, therefore,  swept 
away  to  allow  the  rise  of  that  Arian  race  which,  with 
less  appreciation  of  art,  was  to  introduce  into  Western 
Asia  a  more  spiritual  form  of  religion,  a  better  treatment 
of  captives,  and  a  superior  government.— Smith,  s.  v. 


A  fuller  account  of  the  customs  and  antiquities  of 
Assyria  than  has  heretofore  been  possible  may  be 
found  in  the  recent  works  of  Rich,  Botta,  and  Layard  ; 
see  also  Manners,  Customs,  Arts,  and  Arms  of  Assyria, 
restored  from  the  Monuments,  by  P.  H.  Gosse  (Lond. 
1852) ;  Fresnel,  Thomas,  and  Oppert,  Expedition  en 
Mesopotamie  (Par.  1858);  Outline  of  the  Hist,  of  As- 
syria, by  Col.  Rawlinson  (Lond.  1852)  ;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit. 
2d  ser.  iv,  373  sq. ;  Critica  Biblica,  vol.  i ;  Fergusson, 
Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persejwlis  (Lond.  1851).  See 
Nineveh  ;  Babylon.  On  the  recent  efforts  to  de- 
cipher the  cuneiform  inscriptions  on  the  Assyrian  mon- 
uments, see  Rawlinson,  in  the  Jour.  As.  Soc.  xii,  No. 
2;  xiv,  No.  1;  Hincks,  ib.  xii,  No.  1;  Botta,  Mem. 
sur  VEcriture  Ass.  (Par.  1848);  Lowenstein,  Essai  de 
dech'ffr.  de  VEcrit.  Assyr.  (Par.  1850).  See  Cunei- 
form Inscriptions.  For  the  geography,  see  Captain 
Jones's  paper,  in  vol.  xiv  of  the  Asiatic  Society's  Jour- 
nal (pt.  2) ;  Col.  Chesney 's  Euphrates  Expedition  (Lond. 
1850).  See  Eden.  For  the  historical  views,  see  Raw- 
linson's  Herodotus,  vol.  i ;  Brandis's  Rerum  Assyriarum 
Tempora  Emcndata ;  Sir  H.  Rawlinson's  Contributions 
to  the  Asiat.  Soc.  Journ.  and  the  Athcnmim;  Bosan- 
quet's  Sacred  and  prof  ane  Chronology ;  Oppert's  Pap- 
port  a  son  Excellence  M.  le  Ministre  de  V Instruction; 
Dr.  Hincks's  Contributions  to  the  Lublin  University 
Magazine  ;  Vance  Smith's  Exposition  of  the  Prophecies 
relating  to  Nineveh  and  Assyria;  and  comp.  Niebuhr's 
Vortrdge  iiber  alte  Geschichte,  vol.  i ;  Clinton's  Fasti 
Hell.  vol.  i;  Niebuhr's  Geschichte  Assw's  unci  Babel's  ; 
Gumpach,  Abriss  der  Babylonish-Assyrischtn  Geschichte 
(Mannheim,  1854).     Compare  Asshur. 

Assyr'ian  (Heb.  same  as  Asshur  ;  Sept.  and  Apoc- 
rypha 'Ao-ffi'pioc).     See  Assyria. 

As'taroth  (Deut.  i,  14).     See  Ashtaroth. 

Astarte  (AaTdprrj),  the  Greek  form  of  the  Heb. 
Ashtoreth  or  Asherah  (q.  v.),  Grsecized  also  As- 
trodrch'e  ('A<T<rio«px»7i  Herodian,  v,  G,  10),  the  chief 
Syrian  deity  (Lucian,  De  dea  Syr.  4),  being  the  god- 
dess of  the  Sidonians  (1  Kings  xi,  5,  33),  also  intro- 
duced (from  the  Tyrians,  see  Josephus,  Apion,  i,  18) 
among  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxxi,  10),  and  worship- 
ped by  the  apostate  Israelites  (2  Kings  xxiii,  4;  Mic. 
v,  13).  She  was  likewise  adored  by  the  Phoenician 
colony  at  Carthage  (Augustine,  Qucest.  in  Jud.  xvi; 
comp.  Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  270  sq.),  among  whom  her 
name  appears  as  a  component  of  common  appellations 
of  individuals  (Gescnius,  in  the  Hall.  Encycl.  xxi,  98; 
comp.  Abdastartus  [i.  e.  "servant  of  Astarte"],  in  Jo- 
sephus, Apion,  i,  18).  She  was  also  worshipped  in 
Fhrygia  and  at  Hicrapolis  (Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  61). 
She  is  usually  named  in  connection  with  Baal  (Judg. 
ii,  13;  iii,  7;  x,  6;  1  Sam.  vii,  4;  xii,  10;  1  Kings 
xviii,  19;  2  Kings  xxiii,  24,  etc.),  and  corresponds  to 
the  female  (generative)  principle,  otherwise  called 
Paaltis  (BaaXric,  worshipped  especially  at  ByLlus,  see 
Philo,  in  Euscb.  Prap.  Evang.  i,  10),  the  chief  goddess 
of  the  Phoenicians  and  Syrians  ("Astarte  the  Great," 
Sanchoniath.  Frag.  cd.  Orelli,  p.  34),  and  probal  ly  the 
same  with  the  "queen  of  heaven"  (Jer.  vii.  18;  xliv, 
17;  comp.  2  Kings  xxiii,  4).  Man)' 
(Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  65  sq.)  identify 
her  with  Ati-rgatis  (q.  v.)  or  Derceto 
(comp.  Herod,  i,  105);  but  this  lat- 
ter, as  a  fish-goddess,  hardly  agrees 
with  the  description  of  Ashtoreth 
(q.  v.)  by  Sanchoniathon  (Frag.  ed. 
Orelli,  p.  34;  and  in  Euseb.  J'rup. 
Fv.  i,  10),  nor  does  Astarte  appear  in 
this  form  on  coins  (see  Montfaucon,  Antique  Oca  of  A.=. 
,.  tf  ••  ooa  -r-.  i  i  i  tarte,  found  liy 
Anttq.  exphq.  II,  n,  3.c6;  Ecknel,  r)r.-\vilson  at  Da- 
Doctr.  Numor.  I,  iii,  3G9  sq.,  comp.  masons  (^nnrfso/ 
372 ;  Gesenius,  in  the  Hall.  Encycl.  ^tble,  ii,  709). 
xxi,  99).  The  Greeks  and  Romans,  according  to  their 
usual  method  in  treating  foreign  divinities,  comparo 
her  to  Venus,  i.  c.  Urania  (comp.  Cic.  Nat.  Dcor.  iii, 


ASTATH 


499 


ASTRONOMY 


23;  Euseb.  Prcep.  Er.i,  10;  Theodoret,  iii,  50;  Nonni 
Vionys.  iii,  110);  sometimes  with  Juno  (Augustine, 
Qwest,  in  Jud.  xvi ;  comp.  Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  270) ; 
and  sometimes  with  Luna  (Lucian,  De  dea  Syria,  4; 
comp.  Herodian,  v,  6,  10).  She  also  appears  as  the 
Mylitta  of  the  Babylonians  (Herod,  i,  131,  11)9),  the 
Alytta  of  the  Arabians  and  Armenians  (of  Anaitis, 
Strabo,  xv,  806),  a  general  representation  of  the  god- 
doss  of  love  and  fruitfulness  (Herod,  i,  144 ;  Baruch 
vi,  43 ;  Euseb.  Vit.  Constant,  iii,  55 ;  Yal.  Max.  ii,  6, 
15;  comp.  2  Kings  xxiii,  7;  see  Creuzer,  Symbolik,  ii, 
23  sq.).  Some  also  find  traces  of  the  name  in  the  Per- 
sic and  Syriac  terms  of  the  Sabian  religious  books 
(Nordberg,  Onom.  p.  20  sq.).  Under  the  form  Ashe- 
rah  (inl'IJU)  it  appears  to  designate  the  goddess  of 
good  fortune  (from  "Vw'X,  to  be  happy).  See  Meni. 
(See  generally  Selden,  Dz  diis  Syris,  ii,  2;  Gruber,  in 
the  Hall.  Eucycl.  iv,  135 ;  Gesenius,  Comment,  z.  Jesa. 
ii,  338 ;  Thes.  Ileb.  p.  1082  sq. ;  Hasc,  in  the  Biblioth. 
Brem.  viii,  707  sq. ;  also  in  Ugolini  Thcsaur.  xxiii ; 
Fourmont,  Reflexions  critiques  sur  les  h'stoires  des  an- 
cicns  peuples,  ii,  301  sq. ;  Graff,  Beit-rage  z.  richtig. 
Beurtheil.  d.  Ilauptmom.  in  d.  alte  Gesch.  d.  Assyr. 
Babylonier  u.  Meder,  Wetzlar,  1828;  Hug,  Myth.  p. 
118  sq. ;  Movers,  Phdnis'er,  i;  Munter,  Relig.  d.  Kar- 
thager ;  Stuhr,  Relig.  d.  Orients,  p.  439 ;  Vatks,  Relig. 
d.  Alt.  Test.  p.  372  sq. ;  Dupuis,  Origine  des  cultes,  i, 
181  sq. ;  iii,  471  sq. ;  Schmenk,  Mythol.  d.  Semiten,  p. 
207;  Van  Dale,  Di  origine  idolatries,  p.  17  sq.)— Wi- 
ner, i,  108.     See  Ashtoreth  ;  Queen  of  Heaven. 

As'tath  (Acrrc'tS,  Vulg.  Ezead),  one  of  the  heads 
of  Israelitish  families,  whose  members  (to  the  number 
of  120)  returned  (with  Johannes,  the  son  of  Acatan)  in 
the  party  of  Ezra  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  viii,  38)  ;  evi- 
dently the  Azgad  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text  (Ezra  viii,  12). 

Asterius.  There  were  several  ancient  writers  of 
this  name. 

1.  A  Cappadocian,  converted  from  paganism  to 
Christianity,  who  became  an  Arian.  He  nourished 
after  the  Nicene  Council,  about  the  year  330,  when  he 
published  his  celebrated  Syntagma,  or  Syntagmateon, 
which  is  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Athanasius,  in  which 
he  openly  declares  that  there  is  in  God  another  wisdom 
than  Christ,  which  was  the  creator  of  Christ  himself 
and  of  the  world.  Nor  would  he  allow  that  Christ 
was  the  virtue  of  God  in  any  other  sense  than  that  in 
which  Moses  called  the  locusts  "a  virtue  of  God." 
Athanasius  quotes  from  this  work  in  his  Ep.  de  Synod. 
Arimin.  et  Selene,  p.  084,  and  elsewhere. — Baronius, 
Annates,  370;  Lardner,  Works,  iii,  587  sq. 

2.  Bishop  of  Petra,  in  Arabia.  He  was  originally 
an  Arian,  and  accompanied  the  Arian  bishops  to  the 
Council  of  Sardica  in  347 ;  but  when  there  he  renounced 
Arianism.  Hence  he  suffered,  and  was  banished  into 
Upper  Libya.  In  3G2  he  attended  the  council  held  by 
Athanasius  at  Alexandria,  and  was  deputed  to  endeav- 
or to  restore  union  to  the  Church  of  Antioch. 

3.  Archbishop  of  Amasea  ;  flourished  about  401. 
Eleven  sermons  and  homilies  of  his  are  given  in  Com- 
befis.  Bibl.  Pair.  Appendix,  1G48. 

Astorga,  a  town  and  diocese  of  Spain.  In  446  a 
council  was  held  in  the  town  of  Astorga  on  account  of 
the  Priscillianists. 

Astric.     See  Anastasius. 

Astrologer  (Ileb.  and  Chald.  r'JXN:,  ashshaph' ,  an 
enchanter,  Dan.  i,  20;  ii,  2,  10,  27;  iv,  7;  v,  7, 11,  15; 
once  Heb.  D"1"?'^?  "I^"1'""1!  hober'  shama'yim,  sky-dividi  r, 
i.  e.  former  of  horoscopes  ;  Sept.  AoTpokoyog  rot*  ovpa- 
vov ;  Vulg.  augur  call,  Isa.  xlvii,  13),  a  person  who  pro- 
fesses to  divine  future  events  by  the  appearance  of 
the  stars.  See  Astrology.  The  Babylonians  were 
anciently  famous  for  this  kind  of  lore  (Rawlinson's 
Herodotus,  i,  Essay  x;  Simplicius  ad  Aristot.  De  Ccelo, 
ii,  123  ;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  vi!,  56 ;  Vitruv.  ix,  9).  See 
Astronomy. 


Astrology  (aarpoXoyia,  science  of  the  stars),  a 
pretended  science,  which  was  said  to  discover  future 
events  by  means  of  the  stars.  Astrology  (according 
to  the  old  distinction)  was  of  two  kinds,  natural  and 
judicial.  The  former  predicted  certain  natural  effects 
which  appear  to  depend  upon  the  influence  of  the  stars, 
such  as  winds,  rain,  storms,  etc.  By  the  latter,  it  was 
pretended,  could  be  predicted  events  which  were  de- 
pendent upon  the  human  will,  as  particular  actions, 
peace,  war,  etc.  Astrology  accords  well  with  the 
predestinarian  doctrines  of  Mohammedanism,  and  was 
accordingly  cultivated  with  great  ardor  by  the  Arabs 
from  the  seventh  to  the  thirteenth  century.  Some  of 
the  early  Christian  fathers  argued  against  the  doctrines 
of  astrology ;  others  received  them  in  a  modified  form. 
In  its  public  capacity  the  Roman  Church  several 
times  condemned  the  system,  but  many  zealous  church- 
men cultivated  it.  Cardinal  D'Ailly,  "  the  eagle  of 
the  doctors  of  France"  (died  1420),  is  said  to  have  cal- 
culated the  horoscope  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  maintained 
that  the  Deluge  might  have  been  predicted  by  astrol- 
ogy. Regiomontanus,  the  famous  mathematician  Car- 
dan, even  Tycho  Brahe  and  Kepler  could  not  shake 
off  the  fascination.  Kepler  saw  the  weakness  of  as- 
trology as  a  science,  but  could  not  bring  himself  to 
deny  a  certain  connection  between  the  positions  ("con- 
stellations") of  the  planets  and  the  qualities  of  those 
born  under  them.  The  Copernican  system  gave  the 
death-blow  to  astrology.  Belief  in  astrology  is  not 
now  ostensibly  professed  in  any  Christian  country, 
though  a  few  solitary  advocates  have  from  time  to 
time  appeared,  as  J.  M.  Pfaff  in  Germany,  Astrologie 
(Niirnb.  1816).  But  it  still  holds  sway  in  the  East, 
and  anions  Mohammedans  wherever  situated.  Even 
in  Europe  the  craving  of  the  ignorant  of  all  countries 
for  divination  is  still  gratified  by  the  publication  of 
multitudes  of  almanacs  containing  astrological  predic- 
tions, though  the  writers  no  longer  believe  in  them. 

Many  passages  of  our  old  writers  are  unintelligible 
without  some  knowledge  of  astrological  terms.  In  the 
technical  rules  by  which  human  destiny  was  foreseen, 
the  heavenly  houses  played  an  important  part.  As- 
trologers were  by  no  means  at  one  as  to  the  way  of 
laying  out  those  houses.  A  very  general  way  was  to 
draw  great  circles  through  the  north  and  south  points 
of  the  horizon  as  meridians  pass  through  the  poles,  di- 
viding the  heavens,  visible  and  invisible,  into  twelve 
equal  parts — six  above  the  horizon,  and  six  below. 
These  were  the  twelve  houses,  and  were  numbered  on- 
ward, beginning  with  that  which  lay  in  the  east  im- 
mediately below  the  horizon.  The  first  was  called 
the  house  of  life  ;  the  second,  of  fortune,  or  riches ; 
the  third,  of  brethren ;  the  fourth,  of  relations  ;  the 
fifth,  of  children ;  the  sixth,  of  health ;  the  seventh, 
of  marriage;  the  eighth,  of  death,  or  the  upper  portal; 
the  ninth,  of  religion ;  the  tenth,  of  dignities ;  the  elev- 
enth, of  friends  and  benefactors ;  the  twelfth,  of  ene- 
mies, or  of  captivity.  The  position  of  the  twelve 
houses  for  a  given  time  and  place — the  instant  of  an 
individual's  birth,  for  instance,  was  a  theme.  To  con- 
struct such  a  plan  was  to  cast  the  person's  nativity. 
The  houses  had.different  powers,  the  strongest  being 
the  first ;  as  it  contained  the  part  of  the  heavens  about 
to  rise,  it  was  called  the  ascendant,  and  the  point  of  the 
ecliptic  cut  by  its  upper  boundary  was  the  horoscope. 
Each  house  bad  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies  as  its  lord, 
who  was  strongest  in  his  own  house.  See  Ptolcmaei 
Opus  quadripartitum  de  astrorum  judiciis ;  Schoner, 
I)e nativitatibus CNurnh.lb32);  Kepler,  Harmonia  mun- 
<fc'(Linz.  1619);  Prodromus,  Diss,  xosmograph.  (Tub 
1596)  ;  Pfaff,  Astrnlogische  Taschenbiicher  for  1822  and 
1823;  Meyer's  Blatter  fur  hdhere  Wahrheit,  ii,  141; 
Quarterly  Review,  xxvi,  180  ;  Westminster  Review,  Jan. 
1864.     See  Astronomy. 

Astronomy  (aarpovoftia,  the  laws  of  the  stars'), 
a  science  which  appears  to  have  grown  out  of  astrolo- 
gy (q.  v.).     The  cradle  of  astronomy  is  to  bo  found  in 


ASTRONOMY 


500 


ASTRUC 


Asia.  Pliny,  in  his  celebrated  enumeration  (Hist. 
Nat.  vii,  57)  of  the  inventors  of  the  arts,  sciences,  and 
conveniences  of  life,  ascribes  the  discovery  of  astrono- 
my to  Phoenician  mariners,  and  in  the  same  chapter 
he  speaks  of  astronomical  observations  found  on  burnt 
bricks  (coctilibus  laterculis)  among  the  Babylonians, 
which  ascend  to  above  2200  years  before  his  time. 
Alexander  sent  to  Aristotle  from  Babylon  a  series  of 
astronomical  observations,  extending  through  l'JOO 
years.  The  astronomical  knowledge  of  the  Chinese 
and  Indians  goes  up  to  a  still  earlier  period  (ITin. 
Hist.  Nat.  vi,  17-21).  From  the  remote  East  astron- 
omy travelled  in  a  westerly  direction.  The  Egyptians 
at  a  very  early  period  had  some  acquaintance  with  it. 
To  them  is  to  be  ascribed  a  pretty  near  determination 
of  the  length  of  the  year,  as  consisting  of  3G5  days 
(Herodotus,  ii,  4).  The  Egyptians  were  the  teachers 
of  the  Greeks.  Some  portion  of  the  knowledge  which 
prevailed  on  the  subject  would  no  doubt  penetrate  to 
and  become  the  inheritance  of  the  Hebrews,  who  do 
not,  however,  appear  to  have  possessed  any  views  of 
astronomy  which  raised  their  knowledge  to  the  rank 
of  a  science,  or  made  it  approach  to  a  more  correct 
theory  of  the  mechanism  of  the  heavens  than  that 
which  was  generally  held.  A  peculiarity  of  the  great- 
est importance  belongs  to  the  knowledge  which  the 
Israelites  display  of  the  heavens,  namely,  that  it  is 
thoroughly  imbued  with  a  religious  character;  nor  is 
it  possible  to  find  in  any  other  writings,  even  at  this 
day,  so  much  pure  and  elevated  piety,  in  connection 
with  observations  on  the  starry  firmament,  as  may  be 
gathered  even  in  single  books  of  the  Bible  (Amos  v, 
8 ;  Psalm  xix).  This  was  no  doubt  owing  in  part  to 
the  fact  that  the  practice  of  astrology  was  interdicted 
to  the  Hebrews  (Deut.  xviii,  10).  As  earl)'  as  the  time 
of  the  composition  of  perhaps  the  oldest  book  in  the  Bi- 
ble, namely,  that  of  Job,  the  constellations  were  distin- 
guished one  from  another,  and  designated  by  peculiar 
and  appropriate  names  (Job  ix,  9 ;  xxxviii,  31).  In  the 
Bible  are  found,  (1)  Heylel'  (^j?"1!^),  "the  morning 
star,"  the  planet  Venus  (Isa.  xiv,  12;  Rev.  ii,  28); 
(2)  Klmali'  (!T2"),  "Lucifer,"  "  Pleiades,"  "the  sev- 
en stars"  (Job  ix,  9 ;  xxxviii,  31 ;  Amos  v,  8),  the 
Pleiades;  (3)  Kesil'  (b^OS),  "Orion,"  a  large  and 
brilliant  constellation,  which  stands  in  a  line  with  the 
Pleiades.  The  Orientals  seem  to  have  conceived  of 
Orion  as  a  huge  giant  who  had  warred  against  God, 
and  as  bound  in  chains  to  the  firmament  of  heaven 
(Job  xxxviii,  31) ;  and  it  has  been  conjectured  that 
this  notion  is  the  foundation  of  the  history  of  Nimrod 
(Gesen.  Comment,  zu  Isaiah,  i,  457).  (4)  Ash  (233?),  (Job 
ix,  9),  "  Arcturus,"  the  Great  Bear,  which  has  still  the 
same  name  among  the  Arabians  (Niebuhr,  p.  113). 
See  Job  xxxviii,  32,  where  the  sons  of  Arcturus  are 
the  three  stars  in  the  tail  of  the  Bear,  which  stand  in 
a  curved  line  to  the  left.  (5)  Nachash'  (EJUS),  (Job 
xxvi,  13,  "the  crooked  serpent"),  Draco,  between  the 
Great  and  the  Little  Bear;  a  constellation  which 
spreads  itself  in  windings  across  the  heavens.  (G) 
Dioscuri,  kioaKovpoi  (Acts  xxviii,  11,  "Castor  and 
Pollux").  Gemini,  or  the  Twins,  on  the  belt  of  the  Zo- 
diac,  which  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings  xxiii,  5,  under  the 
general  name  of  "the  planets"  (r.ib-f-^.  Maze  loth"), 
a  word  which  signifies  dwellings,  stations  in  which 
the  sun  tarries  in  his  apparent  course  through  the 
heavens;  and  also  by  the  kindred  term  "  Mazza- 
ttOTH"  (I  Vq,  Job  xxxviii,  32).  (Compare  Gen. 
xxxvii,  9.)  The  entire  body  of  the  stars  was  called 
"the  uost  of  beaven"  (Isa.  xl,  26;  Jer.  xxxiii,  22). 

's a.h  of  tiie  words  here  enumerated  in  its  alpha* 

betical  order.)  No  trace  is  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment of  a  division  of  the  heavenly  bodies  into  planets, 
fixed  stars,  and  comet-;  but  in  .hide  13,  the  phrase 
■'-wandering  stars"  i«rr;„,,:  irXavrjrai)  is  employed 
figuratively.     After  the   Babylonish  exile,  the  Jews 


were  compelled,  even  for  the  sake  of  their  calendar, 
to  attend  at  least  to  the  course  of  the  moon,  which  be- 
came an  object  of  study,  and  delineations  were  made 
of  the  shapes  that  she  assumes  (Mishna,  Ilosh  ll.is.h.  ii, 
8 ;  Mitchell,  Astron.  of  Bible,  N.  Y.  1863).  See  Year. 
At  an  early  period  of  the  world  the  worship  of  the 
stars  arose  from  that  contemplation  of  them  which  in 
every  part  of  the  globe,  and  particularly  in  the  East, 
has  been  found  a  source  of  deep  and  tranquil  pleasure. 
See  Adoration.  "Men  by  nature"  "deemed  either 
fire  or  wind,  or  the  swift  air,  or  the  circle  of  the  stars, 
or  the  violent  water,  or  the  lights  of  heaven  to  be  the 
gods  which  govern  the  world ;"  "  with  whose  beauty 
being  delighted,  they  took  them  to  be  gods"  (Wisdom 
xiii,  2).  Accordingly,  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians, 
of  the  Chaldees,  Assj'rians,  and  the  ancient  Arabians, 
was  nothing  else  than  star-worship,  although  in  the 
case  of  the  first  its  origin  is  more  thickly  veiled.  The 
sun,  moon,  and  seven  planets  (those,  that  is,  of  the 
fixed  stars  which  shine  with  especial  brightness)  ex- 
cited most  attention,  and  won  the  greatest  observance. 
We  thus  find,  among  the  Babylonians,  Jupiter  (Belus, 
Gad,  *l|,,  Isa.  lxv,  11),  Venus  ("Op,  Meni' ',  Isa.  lxv,  11, 
where  the  first  is  rendered  in  the  common  version 
"that  troop,"  the  second,  "that  number").  Both 
these  were  considered  good  principles,  the  Heb.  words 
both  signifying  fortune,  i.  e.  good  luck.  Mercury, 
honored  as  the  secretary  of  heaven,  is  also  found  in 
Isa.  xlvi,  1,  "Neeo  (133)  stoopeth;"  Saturn  ("^3, 
Kiyun,  "  Chiun,"  Amos  v,  26);  Mars  ('5"0,  "  Ner- 
gal,"  2  Kings  xvii,  30);  the  last  two  were  worship- 
ped as  principles  of  evil.  The  character  of  this  wor- 
ship was  formed  from  the  notions  which  were  enter- 
tained of  the  good  or  ill  which  certain  stars  occasioned. 
Astrology  found  its  sphere  principally  in  stars  con- 
nected with  the  birth  of  individuals.  Thus  Herodotus 
(ii,  82)  states  that  among  the  Egyptians  every  day 
was  under  the  influence  of  some  god  (some  star),  and 
that  according  to  the  day  on  which  each  person  was 
born,  so  would  be  the  events  he  would  meet  with,  the 
character  he  would  bear,  and  the  period  of  his  death. 
Astrology  concerned  itself  also  with  the  determination 
of  lucky  and  unlucky  days ;  so  in  Job  iii,  3,  "  Let  the 
day  perish  wherein  1  was  born  ;"  and  Gal.  iv,  10,  "Ye 
observe  days,  and  months,  and  times,  and  j'ears." 
The  Chaldaeans,  who  studied  the  stars  at  a  very  early 
period,  were  much  given  to  astrology,  and  were  cele- 
brated for  their  skill  in  that  pretended  science  (Isa. 
xlvii,  13).  (See  further  on  this  general  subject,  Ham- 
mer, Ueber  die  Stembilder  der  Araber;  Ideler,  Unter- 
suchungen  iib.  d.  Sternnamen,  Berl.  1809;  also  Ueb.  die 
Astron.  der  Alten,  Berl.  1806;  Weidler,  Hist.  Astronom. 
Viteb.  1714  ;  Neumann,  A strognostischs  Benenniinyen 
im  A.  T.  Bresl.  1819.)—  Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Star. 

Astruc,  Jeant,  an  eminent  French  physician,  was 
born  at  Sauve,  in  Languedoc,  March  19,  1684.  His 
father  was  a  Protestant  minister,  who,  on  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  became  a. Roman  Catholic. 
The  son  studied  in  the  University  of  Montpellier,  and 
became  M.D.  in  1703.  In  1710  he  was  made  professor 
of  anatomy  and  medicine  in  Toulouse  ;  and  he  was 
called  to  Montpellier  in  1715,  where  he  remained  un- 
til 172S.  In  1731  he  was  appointed  professor  of  medi- 
cine in  the.  College  of  France,  and  he  remained  in 
Paris  until  his  death,  May  5, 1766.  In  his  profession 
Astruc  was  very  eminent  as  teacher,  practitioner,  and 
writer;  but  ho  is  entitled  to  a  place  here  from  a  work 
published  in  1753,  entitled  Conjectures  si/r  les  Memoires 
originaux  dm//  ilparait  que  Moise  s'est  servi pour  com- 
poser le  livre  de  la  Genese  (Bruxelles  and  Paris,  1753, 
12mo),  in  which  he  started  for  the  first  time  the  the- 
ory now  so  prevalent,  that  the  fact  that  Moses  com- 
piled Genesis,  in  part  at  least,  from  pre-existing  doc- 
uments, is  shown  by  the  distinction  in  the  use  of  the 
two  names  Flohini  and  Jehovah  in  the  different  parts 
of  the  book.     The  work  is  marked  by  great  skill  and 


ASTYAGES 


501 


ASYLUM 


aeuteness,  and  opened  a  new  sera  in  the  criticism  of 
the  Pentateuch.  See  Genesis.  In  1755  Astruc  pub- 
lished a  treatise  Sur  Vimmortalite,  I'immnti  rinlit, ■',  it  In 
liberte  de  fame  (Paris,  12mo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generate,  iii,  487;  Herzog,  Real- Eneyklopiidie,  Suppl. 
i,  103. 

Astyages  (Aarvdyijc,  Diodorus  'A&iraSag)  was 
the  son  and  successor  of  Cyaxares  (Smith's  Diet,  of 
Class.  Biog.  s.  v.),  and  the  last  king  of  the  Medes, 
B.C.  595-5G0  or  B.C.  592-558,  who  was  conquered  by 
Cyrus  (Bel  and  Dragon  1).  The  name  is  identified 
by  Hawlinson  andNiebuhr  (Gesch.  Assur's,  p.  32)  with 
Deioces  =  Ashdahak  (Arm.),  Ajis  Dahaka  (Pers.),  the 
biting  snake,  the  emblem  of  the  Median  power.  See 
Darius  the  Mede.  According  to  Herodotus,  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Abyaltes  (i,  74),  ascended  the 
throne  B.C.  595,  and  reigned  thirty-five  years  (i,  130), 
with  great  severity  (i,  123).  The  same  historian 
states  that  his  daughter  was  married  to  Cambyses,  a 
Persian  noble,  but  that,  in  consequence  of  a  dream, 
the  king  caused  her  child  (Cyrus)  to  be  exposed  by  a 
herdsman,  who,  on  the  contrary,  brought  him  up,  till, 
on  attaining  manhood,  he  dethroned  his  grandfather 
(i,  107).  The  account  of  Ctesias  (who  calls  him  A  s- 
tyigas,  '  Av-viyac)  makes  him  to  have  been  only  the 
father-in-law  of  Cyrus,  by  whom  he  was  conquered 
and  deposed,  but  treated  with  respect,  until  at  length 
treacherously  left  to  perish  by  a  royal  eunuch  (Ctes. 
Ap.  Phot.  cod.  72,  p.  36,  ed.  Bekker).  Xenophon,  like 
Herodotus,  makes  Cyrus  the  grandson  of  Astyages, 
but  says  that  Astyages  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cy- 
axares II,  on  whose  death  Cyrus  succeeded  to  the  va- 
cant throne  (Cyrop.  i,  5,  2).  This  account  tallies  bet- 
ter with  the  notices  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  (v,  31 ;  vi, 
1 ;  ix,  1)  and  Josephus  (Ant.  x,  11,  4),  where  "  Darius 
(q.  v.)  the  Mede"  appears  to  be  the  same  with  this  Cy- 
axares (q.  v.).  In  that  case  Astyages  will  be  identi- 
cal with  the  "Ahasuerus"  (q.  v.)  there  named  as  the 
father  of  Darius.     See  Cyrus. 

Asup'pim  (Ileb.  Asuppim',  D^SCX,  collections; 
Sept.  'Aaa<pt!v  v.  r.  'Eatcpi/.i'),  a  part  of  the  Temple,  to 
which  two  of  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Obed-edom 
were  assigned  as  guards  (1  Chron.  xxvi,  15,  17). 
They  were  apparently  the  two  northernmost  gates  in 
the  western  outer  wall  of  the  Temple,  the  space  be- 
tween them  being  inclosed  for  store-chambers,  by  the 
name  of  the  "house  of  Asuppim"  (see  Strong's  Har- 
mony and  Exposition  of  the  Gospels,  Appendix  ii,  p.  30). 
In  the  reference  to  the  same  building,  as  restored  after 
the  captivity  (Neh.  xii,  25),  the  term  is  falsely  render- 
ed "thresholds"  (Z^V'^'tl  12SX2,  in  the  stoi-e-houses 
of  the  gates,  Sept.  iruXwpoi  <&uAaia/c).     See  Temple. 

Asylum  ("3^":,  mihlat',  (pvyaStXov,  "refuge"),  a 
place  of  safety,  where  it  is  not  permitted  to  offer  vio- 
lence to,  or  touch  any  person,  even  though  a  criminal. 

I.  Such  a  purpose  was  served  (see  Mishna,  Maccoth, 
ii,  1-3;  comp.  Philo,  De  profugiis,  in  his  Opp.  i,  54G 
sq.)  for  the  unpremeditated  murderer,  in  accordance 
with  an  ancient  usage,  by  the  altar  (in  the  Tabernacle 
and  Temple,  Exod.  xxi,  14;  1  Kings  i,  50),  the  horns 
of  which  were  seized  by  the  refugee.  See  Altar. 
Under  the  Law  there  were  instituted,  in  order  to  res- 
cue such  manslayers  from  the  (doubtless  very  barbar- 
ous) blood-revenge  (Num.  xxxv,  6  sq. ;  Dent,  iv,  41 
sq. ;  xix,  3  sq.  ;  comp.  Exod.  xxi,  13;  Josephus,  Ant. 
iv,  7,  4),  six  free  cities  (Vib'p-q  *"iV,  Sept.  TrtWur  <;,v- 
yaOiVTijpiioj',  TroXf.ig  icaracpuyijc,  Vulg.  urbes  fugitivo- 
rum,  Auth.  Vers,  "cities  of  refuge"),  which  lay  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  entire  country,  and  were  some  of 
them  sacerdotal,  others  Levitical  cities,  namely,  east 
of  the  Jordan,  Bezer,  Eamoth-Gilead,  and  Golan  ;  west 
of  the  Jordan,  Kedesh,  Shechem,  and  (Hebron)  Kir- 
jath-Arba  (Josh,  xx,  7,  8).  Here  the  fugitive,  after 
having  undergone  a  strict  investigation  to  prove  that 
he  had  not  committed  the  slaughter  intentionally,  was 


obliged  to  remain  until  the  death  of  the  then  incum- 
bent of  the  high-priesthood  (comp.  the  similar  exile 
according  to  the  Athenian  statutes,  Heffter,  Athen. 
Grichtsverf.  p.  136) ;  if  he  quitted  the  city  earlier,  the 
blood-avenger  might  kill  him  with  impunity  (Num. 
xxxv,  24  sq.).  The  roads  to  the  cities  of  refuge  were 
to  be  kept  in  good  order  (Deut.  xix,  3 ;  for  other  par- 
ticulars, see  Maccoth,  ii,  5;  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  66;  on 
the  boundaries  of  these  cities,  see  the  Mishna,  Manser. 
iii,  10).  Wilful  murderers  (Num.  xxxv,  12;  comp. 
Mishna,  Maccoth,  ii,  6)  were  to  be  put  to  death,  after 
a  legal  investigation,  even  if  they  had  escaped  to  a  city 
of  refuge.  See  generally  Michaelis,  Mas.  Recht.  ii, 
434  sq. ;  Moebii  Disputat.  theol.  p.  105  sq. ;  Wich- 
mannshausen,  I)ePrcesidiariisLevitarumurbibus(Yi^a. 
1715);  Keis,  De  urbibus  refugii  V.  T.  eorumque  fructu 
(Marburg,  1753) ;  Osiander,  De  asylis  Hebr.  (Tubing. 
1672,  also  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  xxxi).  The  reason  for 
assigning  the  Levitical  cities  for  this  purpose  was 
probabty  in  part  from  their  connection  with  the  sacred- 
ness  of  Jehovah,  and  partly  because  the  Levites,  as 
guardians  of  the  Law,  were  present  to  decide  concern- 
ing the  murder  as  to  whether  it  was  intentional  or 
not  (see  Carpzov,  Appar.  p.  340).  It  is  not  easy  to 
explain  the  connection  of  the  expiration  of  the  blood- 
revenge  with  the  death  of  the  high-priest,  except  that 
this  was  regarded  as  beginning  a  fresh  era  (Tabula} 
nora:~).  Biihr  (Symbol,  ii,  52),  following  Maimonides 
(More  Nevochim),  advances  the  not  improbable  suppo- 
sition that  the  high-priest  was  so  eminently  the  head 
of  the  theocracy,  and  representative  of  the  whole  na- 
tion, that  upon  his  demise  every  other  death  should  be 
forgotten,  or,  at  least,  mortal  enmities  buried  (for  alle- 
gorical significations,  see  Philo,  De  pi-ofugiis,  i,  466). 
See  Blood-revenge. 

II.  Grecian  and  Roman  antiquity  likewise  affords 
mention  of  the  right  of  asylum  (Serv.  ad  ^En.  viii, 
341),  not  only  at  altars,  and  temples,  and  sacred  places 
(Ilerod.  ii,  113;  Eurip.  Bee.  149;  P.  .isan.  ii,5,6;  iii 
5.  0  ;  Dio  Cass,  xlvii,  14 ;  Strabo,  v,  230  ;  Tacit.  Annul. 
iii,  60,  1 ;  Flor.  ii,  12),  but  also  in  cities  and  their  vicin- 
ity (Polyb.  vi,  14,  8 ;  comp.  Potter,  Greek  A  nt.  i,  48 ; 
see  Cramer,  De  ara  exter.  t,  mplisi  c.  p.  16  sq. ;  Dougtaji 
Anal,  i,  102  sq.),  for  insolvent  debtors  (Plutarch.  De 
vitando  aere  al.  3),  for  slaves  who  had  fled  from  the  se- 
verity of  their  masters  (comp.  Philo,  Opp.  ii,  468), 
also  for  murderers.  An  especially  famous  city  of  ex- 
emption was  Daphne,  near  Antioch  (2  Mace,  iv,  33), 
as  also  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  (Strabo,  xiv, 
641 ;  Apollon.  Ephes.  Ep.  65).  But  as  the  abuse  of 
the  privileges  of  asylum  often  interfered  with  crim- 
inal jurisprudence,  it  was  circumscribed  by  Tiberius 
throughout  the  Roman  empire  (Suet.  Tib.  37;  comp. 
Ernesti  Excurs.  in  loc).  On  the  immunities  referred 
to  in  Acts  xvi,  12,  see  Colony.  (On  cities  of  refuge 
in  Abyssinia,  see  Euppell,  ii,  71.)— Winer,  i,  379.  See 
City'  of  Refuge. 

III.  The  privilege  of  asylum  was  retained  in  the 
Christian  Church,  probably  in  imitation  of  the  cities 
of  refuge,  under  the  old  dispensation.  All  criminals 
who  fled  to  such  asylums  were  held  to  be  safe,  and  any 
person  violating  an  asylum  was  punished  with  excom- 
munication. All  Christian  churches,  in  the  early 
ages,  possessed  this  privilege  of  affording  protection  or 
asylum.  It  was  introduced  by  Constantine,  and  first 
regulated  by  law  under  the  emperors  Theodosius  the 
Great,  Arcadius,  Honorius,  Theodosius,  and  Justinian. 
The  multiplication  of  these  privileged  places  soon  be- 
came exceedingly  inconvenient,  and  it  was  found  nec- 
essary, from  time  to  time,  to  circumscribe  the  ecclesi- 
astical right  of  asylum  by  various  limitations.  Bish- 
ops and  councils  became  jealous  of  the  interference  of 
the  civil  power  in  this  matter  :  they  contended  strong- 
ly for  the  right  of  sanctuary,  and  continued  to  uphold 
it  to  an  injurious  and  demoralizing  extent.  The  privi- 
lege was  extended  by  the  councils  of  Orange,  A.D. 
441 ;  of  Orleans,  511 ;  of  Aries,  541 ;  of  Macon,  586  ; 


ASYNCRITUS 


502 


ATARGATIS 


of  Rheims,  630;  of  Toledo,  681.  It  was  recognised 
and  confirmed  by  Charlemagne  and  his  successors. 
The  practice  long  prevailed  in  popish  countries  ;  but 
the  evils  at  length  became  so  enormous,  that  even 
popes  and  councils  were  obliged  to  set  limits  to  the 
privilege.  The  custom  has  now  become  extinct,  or 
has  been  greatly  reformed. — Bingham,  Orirj.  Eccles. 
bk.  viii.  eh.  xi. 

IV.  The  laws  of  King  Alfred  recognised  the  right 
of  asylum  in  England.  It  was  not  till  the  year  1487, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII,  that  by  a  bull  of  Pope  In- 
nocent VIII  it  was  declared  that,  if  thieves,  robbers, 
and  murderers,  having  taken  refuge  in  sanctuaries, 
should  sally  out  and  commit  fresh  offences,  and  then 
return  to  their  place  of  shelter,  they  might  be  taken 
out  by  the  king's  officers.  It  was  only  by  an  act  of 
Parliament,  passed  in  1534,  after  the  Reformation,  that 
persons  accused  of  treason  were  debarred  of  the  privi- 
lege of  sanctuary.  After  the  complete  establishment 
of  the  Reformation,  however,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
neither  the  churches  nor  sanctuaries  of  any  other  de- 
scription were  allowed  to  become  places  of  refuge  for 
either  murderers  or  other  criminals.  But  various 
buildings  and  precincts  in  and  near  London  contin- 
ued for  a  long  time  after  this  to  afford  shelter  to 
debtors.  At  length,  in  1697,  all  such  sanctuaries, 
or  pretended  sanctuaries,  were  finally  suppressed  by 
the  act  8  and  9  William  III,  chap.  26*— Penny  Cyclop. 
s.  v. 

On  the  subject  generally,  see  Helfrecht,  Abhandlung 
von  den  Asijlen  (Haf.  1801  j  8vo)  ;  Dann,  Ueber  den  Ur- 
sprung  des  Asylrechts  und  dessen  Schicksale  und  Ueber- 
resti  in  Europa  (in  Reyscher  and  Wilda,  Zeitschriftjur 
deutsches  Reiht,  iii,  327  sq.)  ;  Vau\y,  Real-Encykl.  i,*889 
sq. ;  comp.  Liebner,  De  asylis  (Lips.  1673) ;  Moebius, 
'Aav\o\oyia  (Lips.  1673);  Kampmuller,  L)e  asylis  pon- 
tijicorum  (Lips.  1711)  ;  Bohner,  De  sanctitate  ecclesiar. 
(Hal.  1732);  Zech,  De  jure  asyli  eccl.  (Ingolst.  1761; 
also  in  Schmidt's  Thes.jur.  eccl.  v,  284);  Neininger, 
De  orig.  asyli  iccl.  (Frib.  1788).  Other  treatises  are 
bv  Benzel  (in  his  Dissertt.  Acad,  i,  437),  Carlholm 
(Upsal.  1682),  Goetze  (Jen.  1660),  Ehrenbach  (Tub. 
1686),  Engelbrecht  (Helmst.  1720),  Gronwall  (Lips. 
1726),  Gimther  (Lips.  1689),  Lobbetius  (Leod.  1641), 
Tophoff  (Paderb.  1839),  Lyncker  (Frcft.  1698).  See 
Sanctuary. 

Asyn'critus  C  AavyKpirog,  not  to  be  compared), 
the  name  of  a  Christian  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul  sent  a 
salutation  (Rom.  xvi,  14),  A.I).  55.  The  Greek  Church 
hold  that  he  was  a  bishop  of  Hyrcania,  and  observe  his 
festival  April  8. 

A'tad  (Heb.  Atad',  TJX,  a  thorn;  Sept.  'Ardc), 
the  person  (B.C.  1856  or  ante)  on  whose  threshing- 
floor  the  sons  of  Jacob  and  the  Egyptians  who  accom- 
panied th^m  performed  their  final  act  of  solemn  mourn- 
ing for  Jacob  (Gen.  1,  10,  11);  on  which  account  the 
place  was  afterward  called  AjJEL-MlZRAlM  (q.  v.), 
'•the  mourning  of  the  Egyptians."  Schwarz  (Palest. 
p.  79)  causes  unnecessary  difficulty  by  placing  it  east 
of  the  .Ionian;  whereas  the  expression  "beyond  Jor- 
dan" is  to  be  understood  with  reference  to  a  foreign 
approach  from  the  east.  According  to  Jerome  (Onom. 
s.  v.  Area-atad),  it  was  in  his  day  called  Bethgla  or 
Bethacla  <  Beth-Hogla),  a  name  which  he  connects  with 
the  gyratory  dances  or  races  of  the  funeral  ceremony: 
'•locus  pyri ;  co  quod  ill  more  plangentium  circurcie- 
rint."  Beth-Hoglah  is  known  to  have  lain  between 
the  Jordan  and  Jericho,  therefore  on  ihe  west  Fide  of 
Jordan  [see  Beth-Hoglah];  and  with  this  agrees  the 
fad  of  the  mention  of  the  (  anaauitcs,  "the  inhabitants 
of  the  land."  who  were  confined  to  the  west  side  of  the 
river  (see,  among  others,  verse  13  of  this  chapter),  and 
one  of  whose  special  haunts  was  the  sunken  district 
"by  the  'side'  of  Jordan"  (Num.  xiii.  29).  See  Ca- 
naan. The  word  --:'.  "beyond,"  although  usually 
signifying  the  cast  oif  Jordan,  is  yet  used  for  either 


J  east  or  west,  according  to  the  position  of  the  speaker. 
;  So  Jerome  quotes  "  trans  Jordanem  ;"  but  Dr.  Thonv 
■  son,  rejecting  this  authority,  supposes  Abel-mizraim  to 
,  have  been  located  near  Hebron  (Lund  and  Book,  ii,  385). 
Atad,  as  a  name,  is  possibly  only  an  appellative  de- 
scriptive of  a  "thorny"  locality  ("II2XPI  *|"?i\  =  "  the 
floor  [or  trodden  space]  of  the  thorn").  See  Jacob. 
Atad.  See  Thorn. 
Atalleph.     See  Bat. 

At'arah  (Heb.  Atarah',  fTlOSj  a  crown;  Sept. 
'Eripn  v.  r.  'Arono),  the  second  wife  of  Jerahmeel,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  mother  of  Onam  (1  Chron.  ii, 
26).     B.C.  ante  1658. 
'      Atar'gatis  (Arapyanc,  Strab.  xvi,  p.  785  [Arcrr,- 

yariov  ok  ti)v  'AOapau oi  "EAAjjvfi;  iKaXovv]  v.  r. 

j  'ATipydrig,  also  'Arepyarijc)  is  the  name  of  a  Syrian 
!  goddess  whose  temple  CArapyaTuci'  v.  r.  'ATtpyariloi  ) 
is  mentioned  in  2  Mace,  xii,  26.  It  was  destroyed  1  y 
Judas  Maccabeus  (1  Mace,  v,  43,  44),  from  which  pas- 
sage it  appears  to  have  been  situated  at  Ashteroth-Kar- 
naim.  Her  worship  also  flourished  at  Mabug  (i.  e. 
Bambyce,  afterward  called  Hierapolis),  according  to 
Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.  v,  19),  who  also  states  that  Atergatis 
is  the  same  divinity  as  Derceto,  AtpKtrio  (Diod.  Sic.  vii, 
4),  or  Dercetio  (Ovid,  Met.  iv,  45).  Besides  internal 
evidences  of  identity  (see  Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  76  sq.), 
Strabo  incidentally  cites  Ctesias  to  that  effect  (xvi,  p. 
1132).  Derccto  was  worshipped  in  Phoenicia  and  at 
Ascalon  (where  fountains  containing  sacred  fish  are 
still  kept — Thomson,  Land  and  Boole,  ii,  330)  under  the 
form  of  a  woman  with  a  fish's  tail,  or  with  a  woman's 
face  only  and  the  entire  body  of  a  fi:  h  (Athen.  viii, 
346).  Eishes  were  sacred  to  her,  and  the  inhabitants 
abstained  from  eating  them  in  honor  of  her  (Lucian, 
De  Dea  Syria,  xiv).  Farther,  by  combining  Diodorus 
(ii,  4)  with  Herodotus  (i,  105),  we  may  legitimately 
conclude  that  the  Derceto  of  the  former  is  the  Venus 
(Aphrodite)  Urania  of  the  latter.  Lucian  compared  her 
with  Here,  though  he  allowed  that  she  combined  traits 
of  other  deities  (Aphrodite,  Rhea,  Selene,  etc.).  Plu- 
tarch (C?-ass.  17)  says  that  some  regarded  her  as  "Aph- 
rodite, others  as  Here,  others  as  the  cause  and  natural 
power  which  provides  the  principles  and  seeds  for  all 
things  from  moisture."  This  last  view  is  probably  an 
accurate  description  of  the  attributes  of  the  goddess, 
and  explains  her  fishlike  form  and  popular  identifica- 
tion with  Aphrodite.  Lucian  also  mentions  a  ceremony 
in  her  worship  at  Hierapolis  which  appears  to  be  con- 
ne<  t  id  with  the  same  belief,  and  with  the  origin  of  her 
name.  Twice  a  year  water  was  brought  from  distant 
places  and  poured  into  a  chasm  in  the  temple ;  because, 
i  he  adds,  according  to  tradition,  the  waters  of  the  Del- 
I  uge  were  drained  away  through  that  opening  (De  Syria 
i  dea,  p.  883).  Compare  Burns,  ad  Ovid,  Met.  iv,  45, 
where  most  of  the  references  are  given  at  length  ;  Mo- 
vers, Plioniz.  i,  584  sq.  Atergatis  is  thus  a  name  un- 
der which  they  worshipped  some  modification  of  the 
same  power  which  was  adored  under  that  of  Astarte 
,  (q.  v.).  That  the  'ArepyariTov  of  2  Mace,  xii,  26j  was 
at  Ashteroth-Karnaim,  shows  also  an  immediate  con- 
nection with  Ashtoreih  (q.  v.).  Whether,  like  the  lat- 
ter, she  bore  any  particular  relation  to  the  moon  or  to 
the  planet  Venus,  is  not  evident.  Macrobius  (Sat.  i, 
|  23,  p.  322,  Bip.  ed.)  makes  Adargatis  to  be  the  earth 
(which,  as  a  symbol,  is  analogous  to  the  moon),  and 
says  that  her  image  was  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
sun  by  the  direction  of  the  rays  around  it  (but  see  Swin- 
ton,  in  the  Philosoph.  Transactions,  lxi,  pt.  1,  p.  845 
sq.).  Creuzer  maintains  that  those  representations  of 
this  goddess  which  contain  parts  of  a  fish  are  the  most 
ancient,  and  endeavors  to  reconcile  Strabo's  statement 
that  the  Syrian  goddess  of  Hierapolis  was  Atergatis, 
j  with  Lucian's  express  notice  that  the  former  was  rep- 
resented under  ihe  form  of  an  entire  woman,  by  distin- 
guishing between  the  forms  of  different  periods  (Sym- 
I  bolik,  ii,  68).     This  fish  form  thows  that  Atergatis  bears 


ATAROTH 


503 


ATBACH 


some  relation,  perhaps 
that  of  a  female  coun- 
terpart, to  Dagon  (q. 


on  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jaffa,  west  of  Saris, 
which  (although  slightly  beyond  the  ancient  bounds 
of  Judah)  appears  plausible,  as  the  well  Ayub  in  the 


Ancient  Medal  of  Atergutis. 
soph.  Transactions,  LXI,  ii,  345  sq.). 

No  satisfactory  etymology  of  the  word  has  been  dis- 
covered.    That  which  assumes  that  Atergatis  is  "P^X 


l)  v.).     There  is  an  an-    immediate  vicinity  may  be  a  relic  of  the  epithet  here 


applied  distinctively  to  this  place. 

4.  Ataroth -Shophan  (Heb.  Atroth'  Shophan' ', 
"jBtiJ  Mfk??;  crowns  of  Shophan  {hiding] ;  Sept.  mere- 
ly Eo^ap),  another  city  (nominally)  of  the  tribe  of  Gad, 
mentioned  in  connection  with  No.  1  (Num.  xxxii,  35). 
The  English  version  overlooks  the  distinction  evident- 


tique  coin  extant  rep- 
resenting this  goddess 
(Swinton,  in  the  Philo- 


Jft  addir'  dag,  i.  e.  magnificent  fish,  which  has  often  lv  intended  by  the  suffixed  word,  translating  "Atroth, 
been  adopted  from  the  time  of  Selden  down  to  the  pros-  I  Shophan,"  as  if  two  places  were  thus  denoted  The 
ent  day,  cannot  be  taken  exactly  in  that  sense.  The  |  associated  names  would  appear  to  indicate  a  locality 
syntax  of  the  language  requires',  as  Michaelis  has  al-  not  far  from  the  border  between  Gad  and  Reuben 
ready  objected  to  this  etymology  {Orient.  Biblioth.  vi,  (probably,  however,  within  the  latter)  perhaps  at  the 
97),  that  an  adjective  placed  before  its  subject  in  this  |  bead  of  Wady  Eshteh,  near  Merj-hkhh  (Lobinson  s 
manner  must  be  the  predicate  of  a  proposition.      The  j  Map),  as  the  place  was  famous  for  pasturage 


words,  therefore,  would  mean  "the  fish  is  magnificent'' 
(Ewald's  Hebr.  Gram.  §  554).  Michaelis  himself,  as 
he  found  that  the  Syriac  name  of  some  idol  of  Haran 
was  XPSUt,  which  might  mean  aperture  (see  Assema- 
ni,  Bibl.  Or.  i,  327  sq.),  asserts  that  that  is  the  Syriac 
form  of  Derceto,  and  brings  it  into  connection  with  the 
great  fissure  in  the  earth  mentioned  in  Lucian  (ut  sup. 


At'aroth-A'dar,  At'aroth-Ad'dar.  See  Ata- 
rotii. 

Atbach  (na^X)  is  not  a  real  word,  but  a  factitious 
cabalistic  term  denoting  by  its  very  letters  the  mode 
of  changing  one  word  into  another  by  a  peculiar  com- 
mutation of  letters.  The  system  on  which  it  is  found- 
ed is  this :  as  all  the  letters  have  a  numerical  value, 


xiii)  which  swallowed  up  the  waters  of  the  Flood  (see  ■  they  are  divided  into  three  classes,  in  the  first  of  which 


his  edition  of  Castell's  Lex.  Syr.  p.  975).  On  the  other 
hand,  Gcsenius  (Thesaur.  sub  voce  "J131)  prefers  con- 
sidering Derceto  to  be  the  Syriac  XMII  for  JtWI, 
fish;  and  it  is  certain  that  such  an  intrusion  of  the 
Resh  is  not  uncommon  in  Aramaic.  (For  other  ety- 
mological derivations,  see  Alphen,  Diss,  d?  terra  Chad- 
rach,  c.  5.)  It  has  been  supposed  that  Atargatis  was 
the  tutelary  goddess  of  the  first  Assyrian  dynasty  (Der- 
cetadx,  fr.  Derceto;  Niebuhr,  Gesch.  Assur's,  p.  131, 
138),  and  that  the  name  appears  in  Tiglath-  or  Tilgath- 
Pileser  (ibid.  p.  37). 

At'aroth  (Heb.  Ataroth' ',  rVilBS,  croicns ;  Sept. 
'Ar«poj.j),  the  name  of  several  places  in  Palestine. 

1.  A  city  east  of  Jordan,  not  far  from  Gilcad,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  Dibon,  Jazer,  and  Aroer,  in  a  fertile 
grazing  district  (Num.  xxxii,  3),  rebuilt  by  the  Gad- 
ites  (ver.  34),  although  it  must  have  lain  within  the 
tribe  of  Reuben,  probably  on  the  slope  of  the  hill  still 
retaining  the  name  Attarus  (Burckhardt,  ii,  630),  where 
there  is  a  river  having  the  same  name  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  220). 

2.  A  city  on  the  border  of  Ephraim  and  Benjamin, 
between  Janohah  and  Naarath,  toward  Jericho  (Josh, 
xvi,  7),  and  also  between  Archi  and  Japhleti  (ver.  2). 
Professor  Robinson  discovered  a  place  by  the  name  of 
Atara,  perhaps  identical  with  this,  now  a  large  village 
on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  about  six  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Bethel  (Researches,  iii,  80).  The  ruins  of  another 
place  by  the  same  name,  nearer  Jerusalem  on  the 
north,  have  also  been  noticed  {ibid,  iii,  Appendix,  p. 


every  pair  makes  the  number  tai;  in  the  second,  a 
hundred ;  and  in  the  third,  a  thousand.     Thus  : 

"11   U,  f"Q,  tSS:,  every  pair  making  ten. 

0*2   vb   EZ,  2"1  "■        a  hundred. 

DT  1 13  Cp  ]'p  "  a  thousand. 
Three  letters  only  cannot  enter  into  any  of  these  nu- 
merical combinations,  n,  5,  and  ~.  The  first  two  are 
nevertheless  coupled  together  ;  and  the  last  is  suffered 
to  stand  without  commutation.  The  commutation 
then  takes  place  between  the  two  letters  of  every  pair; 
and  the  term  Atbach  thus  expresses  that  X  is  taken  for 
D,  and  3  for  H,  and  conversely.  To  illustrate  its  ap- 
plication, the  obscure  word  "pSO,  in  Prov.  xxix,  21, 
may  be  turned  by  Atbach  into  !~H!~lO,  testimony  (Bux- 
torf,  De  Abbrcviaturis,  s.  v.). 

Athbash  (rsrN)  is  a  similar  term  for  a  somewhat 
different  principle  of  commutation.  In  this,  namely, 
the  letters  are  also  mutually  interchanged  by  pairs ; 
but  every  pair  consists  of  a  letter  from  each  end  of  the 
alphabet",  in  regular  succession.  Thus,  as  the  techni- 
cal torm  Athbash  shows,  X  and  T,  and  3  and  d,  are 
interchangeable ;  and  so  on  throughout  the  whole 
series.  By  writing  the  Hebrew  alphabet  twice  in  two 
parallel  lines,  but  the  second  time  in  an  inverse  order, 
the  two  letters  which  f<  rm  every  pair  will  come  to 
stand  in  a  perpendicular  line.  1  his  system  is  also  re- 
markable on  account  of  Jerome  having  so  confidently 
applied  it  to  the  word  Sh"shak,  in  Jer.  xxv,  26.      He 


north,  have  also  been  noticed  {Una    ,.,,  Appendix    p.      -  nds  the  parre  system  of  commutation  as 

122)   situated  at  both  ends  of  a  defile,  leading  into  the    fW  P^P   ^^  ^J  ^.^  H  that  name  how. 
\\  ady  Atara,  which  extends  a  distance  of  2000  yards, 
about  halfway  between  Beeroth  and  Mizpah  (De  Saul- 


cy,  i,  101;  ii,  257).  This  locality  agrees  better  with 
the  Ataroth  of  Ephraim  than  the  other  (see  Schwarz, 
Palest,  p.  146).  The  Ataroth  ('ArrrpoiVj)  of  Eusebius 
(Onomast.  s.  v.)  lay  four  miles  north  of  Samaria.  This 
Ataroth  is  also  called  "ATAROTii-AnnAit"  or  "Ata- 
roth-Adar"  (Heb.  Atroth'  Addar',  "lIX  fYHHJJ, 
crowns  of  Addar  [greatness"]  ;  Sept.  'ArapwS  'Aoap  and 
'ASaip)  in  Josh,  xvi,  5;  xviii,  13;  where,  as  well  as 
above,  it  is  located  between  Bethel  and  Bcth-horon  (see 
Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  124). 

3.  "Ataroth  [of]  the  house  of  Joab"  (Heb. 
Atroth'  Beyth-Yoilh,  nXl'i  tVSl  Who?'  crowns  of  the 
house  of  Joab;  Sept.  'ArapibSr  o'ikov  '\wfir'tfi  v.r.'lioaft), 
a  city  (nominally)  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  founded  by 
the  descendants  of  Salma  (1  Chron.  ii,  54).  Schwarz 
(Palest,  p.  143)  identifies  it  with  Lntrum  (for  el- A  iron), 


that  called  Athbash  (without  giving  ] 
ever,  and  without  adducing  any  higher  authority  frr 
assuming  this  mode  of  commutation  than  the  fact  that 
it  was  customary  to  learn  the  Greek  alphabet  first 
straight  through*  and  then,  by  way  of  insuring  accu- 
rate retention,  to  repeat  it  by  taking  a  letter  from  each 
end  alternately),  and  makes  -{013  to  be  the  same  as 
bna.  (See  Rosenmullcr's  Scholia,  ad  loc.)  Ilottin- 
ger  possessed  an  entire  Pentateuch  explained  en  the 
principle  of  Athbash  (Thesaur.  Philol.  p.  450). 

There  is  also  another  system  of  less  note,  called 
Albasi  (aS&fct),  which  is  only  a  modification  of  the 
preceding ;  for  in  it  the  alphabet  is  divided  into  halves, 
and  one  portion  placed  over  the  other  in  the  natural  or- 
der, and  the  pairs  are  formed  out  of  those  letters  which 
would  then  stand  in  a  row  together.  —  Kit  to,  s.  v. 

All  these  methods  belong  to  that  branch  of  the  Cab- 
ala (q.  v.)  which  is  called  rHSlBtl,  commutation. 


ATER 


504 


ATHALIAII 


A'ter  (ITcl).  .iter',  *CX,  shut  up;  Sept.  Arjjp  v.  r. 
in  Ezra  ii.  42,  Arri)p),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  A  descendant  (?)  of  one  Hezekiah  (q.  v.),  whose 
family,  to  the  number  of  98,  returned  from  Babylon 
with  "Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii,  1G ;  Neh.  vii,  21).  B.C. 
ante  536. 

2.  The  head  of  a  family  of  Levitical  "porters"  to 
the  Temple,  that  returned  at  the  same  time  with  the 
above  (Ezra  ii,  42;  Neh.  vii,  45).     B.C.  536. 

3.  One  of  the  chief  Israelites  that  subscribed  the 
sacred  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x,  17).  B.C. 
cir.  410. 

Aterezi'as  ('Ar>)p  'E&iciou),  a  mistake  (1  Esdr. 
v,  15)  for  the  phrase  "Ater  (q.  v.)  of  Hezekiah" 
(Ezra  ii,  16  ;  Xeh.  vii,  21).     See  Hezekiah. 

A  thach  (Heb.  Athak',  ~^".,  lodging;  Sept.  'Axax 
v.  r.'No/(/3f),  one  of  the  cities  of  Judah  (i.  e.  Simeon) 
to  which  David  sent  a  present  of  the  spoils  recovered 
from  the  Amalekites  who  had  sacked  Ziklag  (1  Sam. 
xxx,  30).  According  to  Schvvarz  (Palest,  p.  113),  it  is 
marked  by  the  modern  valley  Athaca,  north  of  Jebel 
Madurah,  on  the  edge  of  the  Idumsean  deserts;  given 
on  Zimmermann's  map  as  Wady  Ateichs,  S.  of  Hebron, 
opposite  the  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  perhaps  at  the 
ruins  (with  water)  marked  as  Abu  Teratfeh  on  Van  de 
Velde's  Map.  Others  regard  the  name  as  an  error  of 
transcription  for  Ether  (Josh,  xv,  42). 

Athai'ah  (Heb.  Athayah',  iT^fiS,  perhaps  the 
same  as  Asaiah;  Sept.  'A&aia),  a  son  of  Uzziah  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  who  returned  to  Jerusalem  from  Bab- 
ylon (Xeh.  xi,  4).     B.C.  536.     See  Utiiai. 

Athali'ah  (Heb.  Athalyali' ,  tl^brr,  2  Kings  xi, 
1,  3,  13,  14  ;  1  Chron.  viii,  26  ;  2  Chron.  xxii,  12  ;  Ezra 
viii,  17;  in  the  prolonged  form  Athalya'hu,  '~"~~:', 
2  Kings  viii,  26 ;  xi,  2,  20 ;  2  Chron.  xxii.  2,  10"  11 ; 
xxiii,  12,  13,  21 ;  xxiv,  7 ;  afflicted  by  Jchovali),  the 
name  of  two  men  and  one  woman. 

,1.  (Sept.  VoSoXia,  and  so  Josephus,  Ant.  ix,  7,  1.) 
The  daughter  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  doubtless  by  his 
idolatrous  wife  Jezebel.  She  is  also  called  the  daugh- 
ter of  Omri  (2  Chron.  xxii,  2),  who  was  the  father  of 
Ahab ;  but  by  a  comparison  of  texts  it  would  appear 
that  she  is  so  called  only  as  being  his  granddaughter. 
Athaliah  became  the  wife  of  Jchoram,  the  son  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,  king  of  Judah.  This  marriage  may  fairly 
be  considered  the  act  of  the  parents  ;  and  it  is  one  of 
the  few  stains  upon  the  character  of  the  good  Jchosha- 
phat  that  he  was  so  ready,  if  not  anxious,  to  connect  him- 
self with  the  idolatrous  house  of  Ahab.  Had  he  not 
married  the  heir  of  his  crown  to  Athaliah,  many  evils 
and  much  bloodshed  might  have  been  spared  to  the  roy- 
al family  and  to  the  kingdom.  When  Jehorain  came 
to  the  throne,  he,  as  might  be  expected,  "walked  in  the 
ways  of  the  house  of  Ahab,"  which  the  sacred  writer 
obviously  attributes  to  this  marriage  by  adding,  "for 
he  bad  the  daughter  of  Ahab  to  wife"  (2  Chron.  xxi, 
G).  Jchoram  died  (B.C.  884)  of  wounds  received  in  a 
war  with  the  Syrians  into  which  his  wife's  counsel  had 
led  him.  and  was  succeeded  by  his  youngest  son  Aha- 
ziah, who  reigned  but  one  year,  and  whose  death  arose 
from  his  being,  by  blood  and  by  circumstances,  in- 
volved in  the  doom  of  Ahab's  house.  See  Ahaziah. 
Before  this  Athaliah  bad  acquired  much  influence  in 
public  affairs  (comp.  1  Kings  x,  1  ;  Prov.  xxi,  1),  and 
bad  used  that  influence  for  evil ;  and  when  the  tidings 
of  her  son's  untimely  death  reached  Jerusalem,  she 
resolve, l  to  seat  herself  upon  the  throne  of  David  at 
whatever  cost  (B.C.  883),  availing  herself  probably  of 
her  position  as  king's  mother  [see  Asa]  to  carry  out  her 
design.  Most  likely  she  exercised  the  regal  functions 
during  Ahaziah's  absence  at  Jezreel  (2  Kings  ix),  and 
resolved  to  retain  her  power,  especially  after  seeing  the 
danger  to  which  she  was  exposed  I  y  the  overthrow  of 
the  house  of  Omri,  and  of  Baal-worship  in  Samaria. 
It  was  not  unusual  in  those  days  for  women  in  the 


East  to  attain  a  prominent  position,  their  present  deg- 
radation being  the  result  of  Mahommedanism.  Mir- 
iam, Deborah,  Abigail,  are  instances  from  the  Bible, 
and  Dido  was  not  far  removed  from  Athaliah,  either 
in  birthplace  or  date,  if  Carthage  was  founded  B.C. 
£61  (Josephus,  c.  Apion.  i,  18).  In  order  to  remove 
all  rivals,  Athaliah  caused  all  the  male  branches  of 
the  royal  family  to  be  massacred  (2  Kings  xi,  1)  ;  and 
by  thus  shedding  the  blood  of  her  own  grandchildren, 
she  undesignedly  became  the  instrument  of  giving 
completion  to  the  doom  on  her  father's  house,  which 
Jehu  had  partially  accomplished.  From  the  slaughter 
of  the  royal  house  one  infant  named  Joash,  the  young- 
est son  of  Ahaziah,  was  rescued  by  his  aunt  Jehosheba, 
daughter  of  Jehoram  (probably  by  another  wife  than 
Athaliah),  who  had  married  Jehoiada  (2  Chron.  xxii, 
11),  the  high-prbst  (2  Chron.  xxiv,  6).  The  child, 
under  Jehoiada's  care,  was  concealed  within  the  walls  of 
the  Temple,  and  there  brought  up  so  secretly  that  his 
existence  was  unsuspected  by  Athaliah.  But  in  the 
seventh  year  (B.C.  877)  of  her  bloodstained  and  evil 
reign,  Jehoiada  thought  it  time  to  produce  the  lawful 
king  to  the  people,  trusting  to  their  zeal  for  the  wor- 
ship of  God,  and  loyalty  to  the  house  of  David,  -which 
had  been  so  strenuously  called  out  by  Asa  and  Jehosh- 
aphat.  After  communicating  his  design  to  five  "cap- 
tains of  hundreds,"  whose  names  are  given  in  2  Chron. 
xxiii,  1,  and  securing  the  co-operation  of  the  Levites 
and  chief  men  in  the  country-towns  in  case  of  necessi- 
ty, he  brought  the  young  Joash  into  the  Temple  to  re- 
ceive the  allegiance  of  the  soldiers  of  the  guard.  It 
was  customary  on  the  Sabbath  for  a  third  part  of  them 
to  do  duty  at  the  palace,  while  two  thirds  restrained 
the  crowd  of  visitors  and  worshippers  who  thronged 
the  Temple  on  that  day,  by  occupying  the  gate  of  Sur 
(T'O,  1  Kings  xi,  6,  called  cf  the  foundation,  *PC?, 
2  Chron.  xxiii,  5,  which  Gsrlach,  in  loco,  considers  the 
right  reading  in  Kings  also),  and  the  gate  "behind 
the  guard"  (Vulg.  porta  gum  est  post  habitaculum  scuta- 
riorurn),  which  seem  to  have  been  the  N.  and  S.  en- 
trances into  the  Temple,  according  to  Ewald's  descrip- 
tion of  it  (Geschichte,  iii,  306-7).  On  the  day  fixed 
for  the  outbreak  there  was  to  be  no  change  in  the  ar- 
rangement at  the  palace,  lest  Athaliah,  who  did  not 
worship  in  the  Temple,  should  form  any  suspicions  from 
missing  her  usual  guard,  but  the  latter  two  thirds  were 
to  protect  the  king's  person  by  forming  a  long  and 
closely-serried  line  across  the  Temple,  and  killing  any 
one  who  should  approach  within  certain  limits.  They 
were  also  furnished  with  David's  spears  and  shields, 
that  the  work  of  restoring  his  descendant  might  be 
associated  with  his  own  sacred  weapons.  When  the 
guard  had  taken  up  their  position,  the  young  prince 
was  anointed,  crowned,  and  presented  with  the  Testi- 
mony or  Law,  and  Athaliah  was  first  roused  to  a  sense 
of  her  danger  by  the  shouts  and  music  which  accom- 
panied the  inauguration  of  her  grandson.  She  hurried 
into  the  Temple,  but  found  Joash  alreadj'  standing 
"  by  a  pillar,"  or  more  properly  on  it,  i.  e.  on  the  tri- 
bunal or  throne  apparently  raised  on  a  massive  column 
or  cluster  of  columns,  which  the  king  occupied  when 
he  attended  the  service  on  solemn  occasions.  The 
phrase  in  the  original  is  ^^'"b",  rendered  i—l  rov 
(ttuXov  by  the  Sept.,  and  super  tribunal  in  the  Vulgate, 
while  Gesenius  gives  for  the  substantive  a  stage  or 
pulpit,  (('omp.  2  Kings  xxiii,  3,  and  Ezck.  xlvi,  2.) 
She  arrived,  however,  only  to  behold  the  young  Joash 
standing  as  a  crowned  king  by  the  pillar  of  inaugura- 
tion, and  acknowledged  as  sovereign  by  the  acclama- 
tions of  the  assembled  multitude.  Her  cries  of  "  Trea- 
son !"  failed  to  excite  any  movement  in  her  favor,  and 
Jehoiada,  the  high-priest,  who  had  enjamzed  this  bold 
and  successful  attempt,  without  allowing  time  for 
pause,  ordered  the  Levitical  guards  to  remove  her 
from  the  sacred  precincts  to  instant  death  (2  Kings 
xi ;  2  Chron.  xxi,  6 ;  xxii,  10-12 ;  xxiii).     The  Tyr- 


ATHANASIAN  CREED 


505 


ATHANASIUS 


ians  afterward  avenged  her  death  (Joel  ii).  The  only 
other  recorded  victim  of  this  happy  and  almost  blood- 
less revolution  was  Mattan,  the  priest  of  Baal.  (On 
its  plan,  see  De  Wette,  Beitrfige,  p.  95  sq. ;  Gramberg, 
Chron.  p.  135  sq. ;  Keil,  Ckron.  p.  361  sq. ;  Ewald, 
Geschickte,  iii,  574  sq.  The  latter  words  of  2  Kings 
xi,  6,  in  our  version,  "that  it  be  not  broken  down"  are 
probably  wrong:  Ewald  translates  "according  to  cus- 
tom;" Gesenius  gives  in  his  Lexicon  "«  keeping  off.") 
In  modern  times  the  history  of  Athaliah  has  been  il- 
lustrated by  the  music  of  Handel  and  of  Mendelssohn, 
and  the  stately  declamation  of  Racine. — Kitto ;  Smith. 

2.  (Sept.  ToSoXiac  v.  r.  roSroXta.)  One  of  the 
"so»s"  of  Jeroham  and  chieftains  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin, resident  at  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii,  27).  B.C. 
apparently  530. 

3.  (Sept.  'AStsXla  v.  r.  'ASMor.)  The  father  of 
Jcshaiah,  which  latter  was  one  of  the  "sons"  of  Elam 
that  returned  with  seventy  dependents  from  Babylon 
under  Ezra  (Ezra  viii,  7).     B.C.  ante  459. 

Athanasian  Creed.  See  Creed  (Athanasian): 
Athanasius,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  was  born 
in  that  city  about  A.D.  296.  The  precise  date  is  not 
known,  nor  have  we  any  accurate  knowledge  of  his 
.family  or  of  his  earlier  years.  It  is  clear,  however, 
that  he  was  brought  up  and  educated  with  a  view  to 
the  Christian  ministry  by  Alexander,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, and  gave  promise  of  his  future  eminence  in 
early  youth.  When  a  young  man,  he  became  very 
intimate  with  the  hermit  Anthony  (q.  v.),  whose  life 
he  afterward  wrote.  His  intellect  matured  so  early 
that  before  he  was  twenty-four  he  wrote  the  treatises 
Against  the  Greeks,  and  Concerning  the  Incarnation  of 
the  Word  (of  which  see  an  account  below).  While 
only  a  deacon  he  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Nice  (A.D. 
325),  where  he  contributed  largely  to  the  decision 
against  the  Arians,  and  to  the -adoption  of  the  Nicene 
Creed.  See  Nice,  Council  of.  It  was  the  great  task 
of  his  whole  after  life  to  defend  this  creed  against  the 
Arians  and  other  heretical  sects.  On  the  death  of  Al- 
exander (A.D.  326),  he  was  made  bishop  of  Alexan- 
dria by  the  voice  of  the  people  as  well  as  of  the  eccle- 
siastics. He  discharged  his  duties  with  exemplary 
fidelity ;  but  the  Arians  soon  commenced  a  series  of 
violent  attacks  upon  him,  which  embittered  all  his  re- 
maining life.  About  331,  Arius,  who  had  been  ban- 
ished after  his  condemnation  by  the  Council  of  Nice, 
made  a. plausible  confession  of  faith,  and  Constantine 
recalled  him,  directing  that  he  should  lie  received  by 
the  Alexandrian  Church.  But  Athanasius  firmly  re- 
fused to  admit  him  to  communion,  and  exposed  his  pre- 
varication. The  Arians,  upon  this,  exerted  themselves 
to  raise  tumults  at  Alexandria,  and  to  injure  the  char- 
acter of  Athanasius  with  the  emperor.  In  334  a  synod 
of  hostile  bishops  was  called  to  meet  at  Cresarea.  To 
this  council  Athanasius  was  summoned  to  defend  him- 
self against  the  charge  of  having  murdered  a  certain 
Meletian  bishop  called  Arsenius;  but,  knowing  the 
enmity  entertained  by  all  the  members  of  the  council 
against  him,  he  refused  to  attend.  In  the  following 
year  a  more  important  council  was  convoked  at  Tyre, 
at  which  sixty  Arian  bishops  were  present,  and  many 
of  the  orthodox  faith.  No  accusation  was  brought 
against  the  faith  of  Athanasius,  but  the  old  charge  of 
the  murder  of  Arsenius  was  renewed,  and  he  was  also 
accused  of  having  violated  the  person  of  a  virgin.  The 
first  accusation  was  most  clearly  refuted  by  the  appear- 
ance of  Arsenius  himself  before  the  synod ;  and  the 
falsehood  of  the  second  as  clearly  proved  by  the  wom- 
an (who  was,  in  fact,  a  common  prostitute,  and  who 
had  never  before  seen  the  bishop)  fixing,  by  mistake, 
upon  another  man,  Timotheus,  who  stood  near  Athana- 
sius, and  declaring  that  it  was  he  who  had  committed 
the  sin.  But  Athanasius,  seeing  that  his  condemna- 
tion was  resolved  on  by  the  majority,  left  the  council. 
Athanasius  was  deposed,  fifty  bishops,  however,  pro- 


testing against  the  judgment.  Athanasius  went  at  once 
to  the  emperor,  and  laid  his  complaint  before  him,  upon 
which,  in  336,  Constantine  called  the  leaders  of  the 
opposing  party  before  him,  who,  seeing  that  some  new 
charge  must  be  trumped  up  to  support  their  conduct, 
declared  that  Athanasius  had  threatened  that  he  would 
prevent  the  yearly  export  of  corn  from  Alexandria  to 
Constantinople  ;  upon  which  the  emperor  exiled  him 
to  Treves.  At  the  expiration  of  a  year  and  six  months, 
i.  e.  in  June,  337,  Constantine  the  Great  being  dead, 
Athanasius  was  restored  to  his  see.  In  340  Constan- 
tine the  younger,  who  was  the  friend  of  Athanasius, 
was  killed  ;  and  in  341  Athanasius  was  again  deposed 
in  a  synod  held  at  Antioch,  and  Gregory  of  Cappado- 
cia  was  elected  to  succeed  him.  In  the  mean  time 
Athanasius  betook  himself  to  Borne,  where  Pope  Julius 
declared  his  innocence  in  a  synod  held  in  3-12.  At 
Rome  or  in  the  West  he  remained  till  the  S3-nod  of 
Sardica,  in  347,  had  pronounced  his  acquittal  of  all  tho 
charges  brought  against  him  ;  after  which  the  emper- 
or Constantius,  at  the  entreat)'  of  his  lu-other  Constans, 
recalled  him  to  his  see  (A.D.  349).  In  the  verj'  next 
year  Constans  was  slain  by  Magnentius  in  Gaul,  and 
I  in  him  Athanasius  lost  his  protector.  Constantius, 
now  sole  emperor,  soon  gathered  the  Arians  around 
him,  and  the  court  determined  to  ruin  Athanasius. 
New  accusations  were  trumped  up,  and  he  was  con- 
demned by  a  council  convened  at  Aries  (353),  and  by 
j  another  at  Milan  (355),  and  was  a  third  time  obliged 
!  to  flee  into  the  deserts  of  Thebais.  His  enemies  pur- 
sued him  even  here,  and  set  a  price  upon  his  head.  In 
!  this  situation  Athanasius  composed  his  most  important 
:  writings  to  strengthen  the  faith  of  believers,  and  ex- 
I  pose  the  falsehood  of  his  enemies.  He  returned  with 
the  other  bishops  whom  Julian  the  Apostate  recalled 
j  from  banishment,  and  in  A.D.  362  held  a  council  at 
1  Alexandria,  where  the  belief  of  a  (unsubstantial  Trin- 
ity was  openly  professed.  Julian  so~n  became  alarmed 
|  at  the  energy  with  which  Athanasius  opposed  pagan- 
ism, and  banished  him,  even  (according  to  Theodoret) 
threatening  him  with  death.  He  escaped  to  the  des- 
1  ert  (A.D.  362).  The  accession  of  Jovian  brought  him 
1  back  in  363 ;  but  Jovian  died  in  364,  and  Valens,  be- 
|  ing  an  Arian,  compelled  him  to  retire  from  his  see 
(A.D.  367).  He  hid  himself  in  his  father's  tomb  at 
the  gates  of  Alexandria  for  four  months.  At  last  Va- 
lens (according  to  one  account,  for  fear  of  the  people  of 
Alexandria,  who  took  arms  in  favor  of  Athanasius)  re- 
called the  heroic  bishop,  and  he  was  permitted  to  sit 
down  in  quiet  and  govern  his  affectionate  Church  of 
Alexandria  until  his  death,  May  2,  373  (according  to 
Baronius,  372).  Of  the  forty-six  years  of  his  official 
life  he  spent  twenty  in  banishment.  Athanasius  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  man  in  the  early  church.  ' '  With 
the  most  daring  courage  and  perseverance  of  purpose, 
i  he  combined  a  discreet  flexibility,  which  allowed  him 
after  defeats  to  wait  for  new  contingencies,  and  pre- 
pare himself  for  fresh  exertions.  He  was  no  less  calm 
!  and  considerate  than  determined;  and  while  he  shun- 
:  ned  useless  danger  (see  his  'Apology  for  his  Flight'); 
he  never  admitted  the  slightest  compromise  of  his  doc- 
trine, nor  attempted  to  conciliate  by  concession  even 
his  imperial  adversaries.  '  In  his  life  and  conduct,' 
says  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  'he  exhibited  the  model 
of  episcopal  government — in  his  doctrine,  the  rule  of 
orthodoxy.'  Again,  the  independent  courage  with 
which  he  resisted  the  will  of  successive  emperors  for 
forty-six  years  of  alternate  dignity  and  misfortune  in- 
troduced a  new  feature  into  the  history  of  Rome.  An 
obstacle  was  at  once  raised  against  imperial  tyranny : 
a  limit  was  discovered  which  it  could  not  pass  over. 
Here  was  a  refractory  subject  who  could  not  be  de- 
nounced as  a  rebel,  nor  destroyed  by  the  naked  exer- 
cise of  arbitrary  power;  the  weight  of  spiritual  influ- 
ence, in  the  skilful  hand  of  Athanasius.  was  beginning 
to  balance  and  mitigate  the  temporal  despotism,  and 
the  artifices  to  which  Constantius  was  compelled  to 


ATIIANASIUS 


506 


ATHAXASIUS 


resort,  in  order  to  gain  a  verdict  from  the  councils  of  I 
Aries  and  Milan,  proved  that  his  a!  solute  power  had 
already  ceased  to  exist.  Athanasius  did  not,  indeed, 
like  the  Gregories,  establish  a  system  of  ecclesiastical 
policy  and  power— that  belonged  to  later  ages  and  to 
another  climate— hut  he  exerted  more  extensive  per- 
sonal influence  over  his  own  age,  for  the  advancement 
of  the  church,  than  any  individual  in  any  age,  except 
perhaps  Bernard.  '  In  all  his  writings,'  says  Photius, 
'  he  is  clear  in  expression,  concise,  and  simple ;  acute, 
profound,  and  very  vehement  in  his  disputations,  with 
wonderful  fertility  of  invention  ;  and  in  his  method  of 
reasoning  he  treats  no  subject  with  baldness  or  puer- 
ilitv,  but  all  philosophically  and  magnificently.'" 

Gregory  of  Nazianzus  has  an  oration  on  Athana- 
sius, from  which  the  following  passage  is  given  by 
Cave  {lives  of  the  Fathers,  vol.  ii)  :  "  He  was  one  that 
so  governed  himself  that  his  life  supplied  the  place  of 
sermons,  and  his  sermons  prevented  his  corrections ; 
much  less  need  had  he  to  cut  or  lance  where  he  did  but 
once  shake  his  rod.  In  him  all  ranks  and  orders  might 
rind  something  to  admire,  something  particular  for  their 
imitation  :  one  might  commend  his  unwearied  constan- 
cy in  fasting  and  prayer ;  another,  his  vigorous  and  in- 
cessant persevering  in  watch ings  and  praise;  a  third, 
his  admirable  care  and  protection  of  the  poor ;  a  fourth, 
his  resolute  opposition  to  the  proud,  or  his  condescen- 
sion to  the  humble.  The  virgins  may  celebrate  him 
as  their  bridesman,  the  married  as  their  governor,  the 
hermits  as  their  monitor,  the  cenobites  as  their  law- 
giver, the  simple  as  their  guide,  the  contemplative  as 
a  divine,  the  merry  as  a  bridle,  the  miserable  as  a  com- 
forter, the  aged  as  a  staff,  the  youth  as  a  tutor,  the 
poor  as  a  benefactor,  and  the  rich  as  a  steward.  He 
was  a  patron  to  the  widows,  a  father  to  orphans,  a 
friend  to  the  poor,  a  harbor  to  strangers,  a  brother  to 
brethren,  a  physician  to  the  sick,  a  keeper  of  the 
healthful,  one  who  'became  all  things  to  all  men,  that, 
if  not  all,  he  might  at  least  gain  the  more.'  .... 
With  respect  to  his  predecessors  in  that  see,  he  equalled 
some,  came  near  others,  and  exceeded  others ;  in  some 
he  imitated  their  discourses,  in  others  their  actions; 
the  meekness  of  some,  the  zeal  of  others,  the  patience 
and  constancy  of  the  rest;  borrowing  many  perfec- 
tions from  some,  and  all  from  others ;  and  so  making 
up  a  complete  representation  of  virtue,  like  skilful  lim- 
ners, who,  to  make  the  piece  absolute,  do  first  from 
several  persons  draw  the  several  perfections  of  beauty 
within  the  idea  of  their  own  minds;  so  he,  insomuch 
that  in  practice  he  outdid  the  eloquent,  and  in  his  dis- 
courses outwent  those  who  were  most  versed  in  prac- 
tice; or,  if  you  will,  in  his  discourses  he  excelled  the 
eloquent,  and  in  his  practice  those  who  were  most  used 
to  business;  and  for  those  that  had  made  but  an  ordi- 
nary advance  in  either,  he  was  far  superior  to  them,  as 
being  eminent  but  in  one  kind;  and  for  those  who 
Mere  masters  in  the  other,  he  outdid  them  in  that  he 
excelled  in  both." 

The  aptitude  of  his  remarkable  intellect  for  grap- 
pling with  the  deepest  problems  is  shown  in  all  his 
writings,  even  in  the  earliest  (\oyo£  Kara  rwv  'EX\/;- 
vaiv,  Oralion  against  the  Greeks'),  an  apologetic  work 
to  refute  the  Grecian  attacks  on  Christianity,  which 
evinces  his  culture  in  Greek  learning,  as  well  as  rare 
metaphysical  acuteness,  written  as  it  was  before  the 
author  was  twenty-live  (A.D.  318  ?)  '1  he  treatise  Be 
TncamalioTU  verlA  appeared  about  the  same  time,  and, 
indeed,  is  cited  by  Jerome  as  the  same  work.  It  treats 
of  the  deepest  themes,  God,  creation,  anthropology, 
and  Christology.  His  other  most  important  writings 
are  Epistola  d*  decretis  Nicence  Synodi  contra  Arianos; 
Epist.  ili'  sententia  DiongsH;  Orationes  contra  Arianos; 
Epistola  <il  Si  rapiorwm  .•  E)  istola  ad  Epictetwm  ,•  Epis- 
tola ad  A  delphum ;  Contra  Apollmarium.  Besides  these 
are  Apologia  d  Fuga  sua  (to  justify  his  flight  from 
persecution):  Epistola  ad  Mcnachos,  written  by  re- 
quest of  certain  monks,  to  yive  an  account  of  his  suf- 


ferings and  of  the  Arian  heresy.  The  first,  or  dog- 
matical part,  is  lost.  The  following  passage  from 
this  book  manifests  the  modest  humility  of  a  grand 
intellect.  Speaking  of  his  attempts  to  explain  the 
doctrine  of  the  Logos,  he  says :  "  rl  he  more  I  think  on 
the  subject,  the  more  incomprehensible  it  appears  to 
me;  and  I  should  abandon  it  entirely  were  it  not  for 
your  importunity  and  the  blasphemy  of  your  oppo- 
nents. I  therefore  think  it  proper  to  say  something 
on  the  subject;  for,  though  it  be  impossible  to  compre- 
hend what  God  is,  yet  it  is  possible  to  tell  what  he 
is  not.  In  like  manner,  though  it  is  impossible  fully 
to  explain  the  nature  of  the  Logos,  yet  it  is  easy  to 
condemn  and  refute  what  his  adversaries  have  said 
against  him."  After  having  made  this  apology,  he 
begs  them  to  return  the  letter  after  they  had  read  it, 
without  either  copying  or  permitting  it  to  be  copied, 
as  it  was  at  least  but  an  inadequate  defence  of  that 
p-eat  truth,  and  was  too  inconsiderable  to  deserve  be- 
ing transmitted  to  posterity.  In  this  epistle  his  views 
on  persecution  contrast  nohly  with  those  of  Augustine's 
later  years.  "  Nothing,"  he  observes,  "  more  forcibly 
marks  the  weakness  of  a  bad  cause.  Satan,  who  has 
no  truth  to  propose  to  men,  comes  with  axe  and  swoid 
to  make  way  for  his  errors.  The  method  made  use 
of  by  Christ  to  persuade  men  to  receive  his  beneficent 
religion  is  widely  different,  fcr  he  teaches  the  truth, 
end  says,  Jf  any  man  will  come  after  me,  and  le  my 
disciple,  etc.  When  he  comes  to  the  heart  he  uses  no 
viohnce,  but  says,  Open  to  me,  my  sister,  my  spouse ;  if 
we  open,  he  comes  in  ;  if  we  trill  not  open,  he  retires ; 
for  the  truth  is  not  preached  with  swords  and. spears, 
nor  by  the  authority  of  soldiers,  but  by  counsel  and 
persuasion.  But  of  what  use  can  persuasion  be  where 
the  imperial  terror  reigns  ?  And  what  place  is  there 
for  counsel  where  resistance  to  the  imperial  authority 
in  these  matters  must  terminate  in  exile  or  death? 
It  is  the  property  of  the  true  religion  to  have  no  re- 
course to  force,  but  to  persuasion.  But  the  state  makes 
use  cf  compulsion  in  matters  of  religion,  and  what  is 
the  consequence  ?  Why,  the  church  is  filled  with  hy- 
pocrisy and  impiety,  and  the  faithful  servants  of  Christ 
are  obliged  to  hide  themselves  in  caves  and  holes  of 
the  earth,  or  to  wander  about  in  the  deserts." 

The  Orationes  centra  Arianos,  four  in  number,  were 
written,  it  is  supposed,  during  the  stay  of  Athanasius 
in  Egypt.  In  the  frst  discourse  he  answers  the  objec- 
tions which  the  Arians  brought  against  what  is  now 
commonly  termed  the  Eternal  Sonship  of  Christ.  In  the 
second  he  shows  the  dignity  of  Christ's  nature,  and  its 
superiority  to  that  of  angels  and  to  all  created  beings, 
and  explains  several  portions  of  Scripture,  especially 
Prov.  viii,  which  he  applies  to  Christ,  pointing  out 
what  parts  relate  to  his  divine  nature,  and  those  which 
are  to  be  understood  of  his  human  nature.  The  third 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts.  In  the  first  he  shows 
the  essential  unity  and  identity  of  the  Father  and  Son; 
in  the  second  he  explains  certain  passages  of  Scripture 
which  relate  only  to  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  and 
which  the  Arians  had  perverted  by  applying  them  to 
his  a 'ivinity,  in  order  the  better  to  serve  their  own 
cause;  in  the  third  part  he  answers  their  objections; 
in  the  fourth  discourse  Athanasius  shows  the  unity  of 
the  divine  nature,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  distinct 
personality  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.  Most  of  this 
oration  refers  to  other  heresies  than  Arianism.  '•  We 
do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  the  four  orations  of  Atha- 
nasius against  the  Arians  contain  a  dialectics  as  sharp 
and  penetrating,  and  a  metaphysics  as  transcendental 
as  any  tiling  in  Aristotle  or  Ilegel"  (Shedd,  History 
•  f  /)  ctrines,  i,  78).  Bishop  Kaye  gives  a  digest  of  the 
four  orations  in  his  Council  of Nicaa  |  Lond.  1853,  pt.  ii). 
The  Epistola  ad  Serapionem  (four  in  number)  were 
written  in  reply  to  Serapion,  an  Egyptian  bishop,  who 
asked  Athanasius  to  answer  certain  heretics  who  main- 
tained that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  a  mature,  and  one 
of  the  ministering  spirits  of  God,  different  from  angels 


ATHANASIUS  507  ATHANASIUS 

only  in  rank,  but  not  in  nature.  "  If,"  say  tliey,  "  the  also  a  digest  of  the  "  Four  Orations  against  the  Ari- 
Holy  Spirit  be  neither  an  angel  nor  created  being,  if  ans."  See  also  the  articles  Ariamsm  ;  Trinity. 
he  proceed  from  the  Father,  he  is  his  Son,  and  the  Lo-  |  Athanasius  brought  against  the  Arian  and  other  her- 
gos  and  he  are  brothers ;  if  so,  how  can  the  Logos  be  !  esies  three  classes  of  arguments :  (1)  from  the  author- 
called  the  only  son  of  God?  If  they  be  equal,  why  t  ity  of  preceding  writers  and  the  general  sense  of  the 
is  he  called  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  not  Son ;  and  why  is  church  ;  (2)  philosophical  and  rational  arguments ;  (3) 
it  that  he  is  not  also  said  to  have  been  begotten  by  the  i  scriptural  and  exegetieal  proofs.  In  each  of  these 
Father?"  To  show  them  the  futility  of  such  objec-  fields  he  showed  entire  mastery  of  the  material.  But 
tions,  which  suppose  that,  in  speaking  of  God  and  his  the  great  merit  of  his  position  was  his  assertion  of  the 
son  Jesus,  wo  must  be  governed  by  the  ideas  of  natu-  supreme  authority  of  Scripture  as  against  the  asser- 
ral  generation,  Athanasius  asks  in  his  turn,  "  Who,  ;  tions  or  presuppositions  of  reason.  The  Arians,  Sa- 
then,  is  the  father  of  the  Father,  the  son  of  the  Son?  ,  bellians,  etc.  were  simply  precursors  of  the  modern 
who  the  grandchildren,  seeing,  among  men,  father  im-  :  Rationalism  ;  Athanasius,  on  the  other  hand,  main- 
plies  father  antecedent,  and  son  implies  son  consequent,  '  tained  that  the  mind  of  man  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  the 
and  so  on  ad  infinitum?  Son  among  men  is  only  a  ■  measure  of  the  universe,  still  less  of  God,  the  creator 
portion  of  his  father ;  but  in  God,  the  Son  is  the  entire  of  the  universe.  Neander  sums  up  his  share  in  the 
image  of  the  Father,  and  always  Son,  as  the  Father  is  Arian  controversy  as  follows  :  "When  the  Arians 
always  Father;  nor  can  the  Father  be  the  Son,  nor  i  maintained  that  the  Son  of  God  was  only  distinguished 
the  Son  the  Father.  We  cannot,  therefore,  speak  of  '  from  other  created  beings  by  the  fact  that  God  created 
God  as  having  brother  or  ancestor  of  any  kind,  seeing  t  him  first  of  all,  and  then  all  other  beings  by  him  ; 
the  Scriptures  speak  of  no  such  thing ;  nor  do  they  ;  Athanasius,  on  the  contrary,  said,  It  is  a  narrow- 
ever  give  the  Holy  Spirit  the  name  of  So?i,  but  only  minded  representation  that  God  must  require  an  in- 
that  of  the  Spirit  of  the  Father  and  the  Spirit  of  the  strument  for  creation ;  it  looks  as  if  the  Son  of  God 
Son.  The  holy  Trinity  has  one  and  the  same  godhead  came  into  existence  only  for  our  sakes;  and  by  such 
or  divinity;  it  is  all  but  one  God ;  we  must  not  attach  ;  a  representation  we  might  be  led  to  regard  the  Son  of 
the  idea  of  creature  to  it ;  human  reason  can  pene-  :  God,  not  as  participating  immediately  in  the  divine 
trate  no  further;  the  cherubim  cover  the  rest  with  essence,  but  as  requiring  an  intermediate  agency  for 
their  wings."  In  the  second  letter  Athanasius  com-  himself.  What,  then,  could  that  agency  be  between 
bats  those  who  place  the  Son  in  the  rank  of  created  be-  him  and  God?  Grant  that  such  existed,  then  that 
ings,  and  advances  the  proofs  of  his  divinity.  Thethird  would  be  the  Son  of  God  in  a  proper  sense;  nothing 
letter  shows  that  what  the  Scriptures  say  of  the  Son  else,  indeed,  than  the  divine  essence  communicating 
as  to  his  divine  nature,  they  say  the  same  also  of  the  itself.  If  we  do  not  stand  in  connection  with  God 
Holy  Spirit ;  and  that  the  proofs  which  establish  the  through  the  Son  of  God  as  thus  conceived  of,  we  have 
divinity  of  the  one,  establish  also  the  divinity  of  the  no  true  communion  with  him,  but  something  stands 
other.  In  the  fourth  letter  he  shows  how  the  Holy  between  us  and  God,  and  we  are,  therefore,  not  the 
Spirit  cannot  be  termed  Son,  and  insists  on  the  neces-  children  of  God  in  a  proper  sense.  For,  in  reference 
sity  of  saying  nothing  of  God  but  what  he  has  revealed  to  our  original  relation,  we  are  only  creatures  of  God, 
concerning  himself;  and  that  we  must  not  judge  of  and  he  is  not  in  a  proper  sense  our  Father  ;  onlj- so  far 
the  divine  nature  by  what  we  see  in  men;  and  that  is  he  our  Father  as  we  are  placed  in  communion  with 
the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  cannot  be  fathomed  by  hu-  the  Father  through  Christ,  who  is  the  Son  of  God  by  a 
man  wisdom.  As  Serapion  had  asked  his  opinion  con-  communication  of  the  divine  essence :  without  this 
cerning  that  text,  lie  who  blasphemeth  against  the  Holy  doctrine  it  could  not  be  said  that  we  are  partakers  of 
Ghost  hath  no  forgiveness,  neither  in  this  world  nor  in  that  the  divine  nature  (Orat.  contr.  Arian.  1,  16). — dvayicn 
which  is  to  come,  he  employs  the  conclusion  of  this  let-  Xtynv  to  Ik  ri]Q  ovesiac.  tov  Tvarpbg  iciov  aiirov  ov/i- 
ter  in  discussing  this  point.  Origen  and  Theognostus,  irav  tivca  tov  vibv  to  yap  oXiog  /jiTtxioOai  rbvStiv, 
he  observes,  asserted  that  the  sin  against  the  Holy  labv  tori  X&ytiv  iin  icai  ytvvq,'  to  Si  yti'vav  ti  aijfica- 
Ghost  was  apostasy  after  baptism.  This  Athanasius  ph  i)  v'ibv;  avrov  yovv  tov  v'iov  //myu  tu  uravra 
denies,  because  the  words  were  addressed  to  the  rhar-  \  Kara  ti)v  tov  irvevj-iaTog  yuojiiv)}V  Trap'  avrov  Xc'<ptv, 
isees,  who  had  not  been  baptized,  and  yet  are  charged  \  Kai  (pavtpw  tic  rovrov  yiviTai,  iin  avrog  /itv  b  uioc 
with  having  committed  this  sin;  he  then  asserts  that  as  ■  ovcevbg  ^iTt\n,  to  vt  Ik  tov  liarpbg  iitrexofiivov, 
the  Jews  had  seen  the  miracles  which  Christ  wrought,  !  tovto  tan  b  viae,  •■  avrov  yap  tov  v'iov  fisrexovrsg  tov 
and  attributed  them  to  the  power  of  Beelzebub,  there-  I  Stov  fitTtxtiv  \ey6fxs9a  (''  'iva  y'ivi}rt  3-a'nc  koividvoi 
by  denying  his  divinity,  that  this  alone  constitutes  epvotaig" — "  ovk  o'ibart,  on  vabg  Seov  tart ;' — "  i/fitXg 
the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost.  Those,  says  he,  who  yap  vabg  Stoii  lofiiv  Z,<mvtoc,"  2,  59).  Thus,  in  Atha- 
consider  only  the  human  acts  of  Christ,  and  suppose  nasius,  the  ideas  of  redemption,  adoption,  and  commit 
him,  therefore,  to  be  a  man  only,  are  in  some  sort  ex-  nion  with  God  were  connected  with  the  idea  of  Jesus 
disable.  Those  also  who,  seeing  his  miracles,  doubted  as  the  true  Son  of  God.  As  the  Arians  believed  that 
whether  he  was  a  man,  could  scared}'  be  deemed  cul-  they  ought  to  pay  divine  honor  to  Christ  according  to 
pable ;  but  those  who,  seeing  his  miracles  and  divine  !  the  Scriptures,  he  charged  them  with  inconsistency, 
actions,  obstinately  attributed  them  to  the  power  of  since,  on  their  principles,  men  were  made  idolaters 
the  devil,  as  the  Pharisees  did,  committed  a  crime  so  and  worshippers  of  a  creature.  The  Arians  objected 
enormous  that  there  is  reason  to  fear  such  a  sin  is  un-  to  the  Nicene  doctrine  that  the  idea  of  the  Son  of  God 
pardonable.  This,  therefore,  is  the  sin  against  the  could  not  be  distinguished  from  that  of  a  created  lie- 
Holy  Ghost  of  which  Christ  speaks.  The  treatise  ing  unless  anthropopathical  notions  were  admitted. 
against  ApolUnaris  and  the  Epxtk  to  Epictetus  treat  Athanasius  replied  that  certainly  all  religious  expres- 
with  unrivalled  skill  and  acumen  of  the  true  doctrine  sions  are  symbolical,  and  have  something  anthropo- 
of  the  humanity  of  Christ.  !  pathical  at  their  basis,  which  we  must  abstract  from 

The  Athanasian  Creed,  so  called,  is  not  the  work  them  in  order  to  get  the  correct  idea.  But  the  same 
of  Athanasius.  See  Creed,  Athaxasian.  For  the  is  the  case  with  the  idea  of  creation,  which  the  Arians 
doctrinal  views  of  Athanasius,  end  for  bis  great  ser- 


vices to  the  church  in  settling  the  scientific  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  see  Shedd,  History  of  Christian  Doctrine^ 
bk.  iii,  ch.iii;  bk.  v,  ch.  vi;  Smith's  Hagenbacb,  His- 
tory of  Doctrines,  §  87-105  ;  Neander,  History  of  Dog- 
mas; ii,  290  sq.  Bishop  Kaye's  Account  of  the  Council  of  unity  of  essence  and  derivation  of  nature.  Athana- 
of  Niceea  (Lond.  1853,  8vo)  gives  a  history  of  the  Ari-  sius  objects  to  the  Semi-Arians  that  the  ideas  of  like- 
an  heresv  from  its  rise  to  the  death  of  Athanasius,  and    ness  and  unlikencss  suit  only  creaturely  relations  ;  in 


willing  to  maintain;  we  should  fall  into  error  if 


we  tried  to  develop  this  according  to  human  represent- 
ations. In  like  manner  we  must  abstract  from  the 
ideas  Son  of  God  and  begotten  of  God  what  belongs  to 
sensuous  relations,  and  then  there  is  left  to  us  the  idea 


ATIIANASIUS  508 

reference  to  God  we  can  speak  only  of  unity  cr  diver- 
sity. It  belongs  to  the  idea  of  creation  that  some- 
thing is  created  out  of  nothing,  ab  extra,  by  the  will 
of  God;  to  the  idea  of  the  Son  of  God  belongs  deriva- 
tion from  the  essence  of  God.  It  was  a  difficulty  to 
the  Semi- Aiians  in  general,  as  well  as  to  the  Arians, 
that  the  Son  of  God  was  asserted  to  maintain  his  exist- 
ence not  by  a  direct  act  of  the  Father's  will,  and  both 
parties  urged  against  the  Nicseans  the  dilemma  that 
either  ( lod  brought  the  Son  into  being  by  his  own  will, 
or  that  he  was  begotten  against  his  will  by  necessity. 
Athanasius  emphatically  maintained  the  doctrine  they 
impugned.  If  the  will  of  God  be  supposed  to  be  the 
origin  of  the  Son's  existence,  then  the  Son  of  God  be- 
longs to  the  class  of  creatures.  The  existence  of  the 
divine  Logos  precedes  all  particular  acts  of  the  divine 
will,  which  are  all  effectuated  only  by  the  Logos,  who 
himself  is  the  living  divine  will.  Our  opponents  think 
only  of  the  contrast  between  will  and  compulsion ;  they 
ignore  what  is  higher,  namely,  the  idea  of  that  which 
is  founded  in  the  divine  essence.  We  cannot  say  God 
is  good  and  merciful  first  of  all,  by  a  special  act  of  his 
will,  but  all  the  acts  of  the  divine  will  presuppose  the 
being  of  God.  The  same  holds  good  of  the  Logos  and 
the  acts  of  God's  will." — Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  i, 


ATHEISM 


Athanasius  must  be  classed  among  the  greatest  of 
Christian  theologians^  Yet  in  some  points  he  was 
"  weak  like  other  men  ;"  and  the  ascetic  and  monastic 
spirit  received  a  strong  impulse  from  his  writings,  and 
especially  from  his  Life  of  St.  Anthony  (q.  v.).  This 
and  some  other  of  his  writings  were  doubtless  interpo- 
lated by  later  writers  in  the  interest  of  Romish  corrup- 
tions, yet  enough  remains  to  show  that  he  shared  in 
some  of  the  Gnostic  errors,  especially  with  regard  to 
religious  virginity  and  celibacy.  Thus,  in  his  oration 
Against  the  Greeks,  the  following  passage  occurs : 
"The  Son  of  God,"  says  Athanasius  (i,  698),  "made 
man  for  us,  and  having  abolished  death,  and  having 
liberated  our  race  from  the  servitude  of  corruption, 
hath,  besides  his  other  gifts,  granted  to  us  to  have 
upon  earth  an  image  of  the  sanctity  of  angels,  namely, 
virginity.  The  maids  possessing  this  (sanctity),  and 
whom  the  church  catholic  is  wont  to  call  the  brides  of 
Christ,  are  admired,  even  by  the  gentiles,  as  being  the 
temple  of  the  Logos.  Nowhere,  truly,  except  among 
us  ( Ihristians,  is  this  holy  and  heavenly  profession  fully 
borne  out  or  perfected  ;  so  that  we  ma}'  appeal  to  this 
very  fact  as  a  convincing  proof  that  it  is  among  us  that 
true  religion  is  to  be  found."  And  thus,  in  the  un- 
doubted tract  of  the  same  father  on  the  Incarnation, 
we  meet  the  very  same  prominent  doctrine  spoken 
of  as  a  characteristic  of  the  Christian  system,  and  even 
including  the  Gnostic  phrase  applied  to  virginity,  that 
it  was  an  excellence  obeying  a  rule  "above  law." 
"  Who  is  there  but  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Christ  that 
has  not  deemed  this  virtue  (of  virginity)  to  be  utterly 
impracticable  (or  unattainable)  among  men,  and  yet 
be  has  so  shown  his  divine  power  as  to  impel  youths, 
as  yet  under  age,  lo  profess  it,  a  virtue  beyond  law  ?" 
(i.  II  5).  (Taylor,  Ancient  Christianity,  i,  222;  see  also 
Taylor's  remarks  on  Athanasius's  Life  ef  Anthony,  p. 
280.) 

The  most  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Athana- 
sius is  thai  of  the  Benedictines  (Athanasii  Opera  om- 
tda  '/in'  extant,  vel  qua  ejus  nomine  i-irciimf  runtur,  etc. 
Padua,  1777, 4  vols.fol.).  Very  convenient  for  ordi- 
nary  students  is  Ath  nasii  opera  dogmatica  selecta,  ed. 
Thilo  (  Lips.  1853,  1000  pp.  8vo),  which  contains  all  the 
really  important  writings  of  Athanasius.  The  Four 
Orations  against  the  Arians  were  translated  by  S.  Par- 
ker (Oxf.  171:;,  -J  toIs.  8vo).  We  have  also  in  English, 
Select  Treatises  in  Controversy  with  the  Arians,  in  the 
"  Library  of  the  Fathers,''  vols,  viii,  xix  (Oxf.  1*42- 
II);  HUtorical  Tracts  (  Lib.  of  Fathers,  xiii,  Oxf.  1843). 
The  '-Festal  Letters"  of  Athanasius  were  long  lost, 
but  were  edited  in  1848  bj  Mr.  Cureton,  from  a  newly- 


found  Syrian  MS.,  and  translated  into  German  under 
the  title  Die  Fest-Briefe  des  Heiligen  Athanasius,  uus 
dem  Syrischen  iibersetzt  und  durch  Anmerkungai  erlau- 
tert  von  F.  Larzow  (Leipzig,  1852,  pp.  156)  ;  also  into 
English  by  Burgess  (Oxf.  1854,  8vo,  pp.  190).  Sec 
Journal  of  Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1855,  p.  255.  A  complete  list 
of  the  works  of  Athanasius,  including  the  doubtful  and 
supposititious  as  well  as  the  genuine,  is  given  in  Fabri- 
cius.  Willi.  Grrvc.  ed.  Harles,  vii,  184-215.  The  sources 
of  information  as  to  the  life  of  Athanasius,  besides  his 
own  writings,  are  the  church  histories  of  Socrates  (lib. 
i,  iii),  Sozomen  (ii,  iii),  Theodoret  (i,  ii),  and  the  ma- 
terial is  well  arranged  by  Montfaucon,  Vita  Athanasii, 
prefixed  to  the  Benedictine  ed.  of  his  works.  There  is 
also  a  modern  biography  by  Mohler,  Athanasius  d. 
Crosse  und  die  Kirche  seiner  Zeit,  which  gives  a  careful 
analysis  of  his  doctrine  and  writings.  See  also  Boh- 
ninger,  Kirchengeschichte  in  Eiographien  (vol.  i,  pt.  ii, 
Zurich,  1842)  ;  Hitter,  Gesch.  der  Christlkh.  Philosophic^ 
vol.  ii ;  Baur,  Christ!.  Lehre  v.  der  Dreieinigkeit,  vol.  i ; 
Dorner,  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ, 
vol.  i,  div.  ii  (Edinb.  ed.) ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  380 ; 
Murdoch's  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  239 ;  Eng.  Cyclopad'a  ; 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Foil,  ch.  xxi-xxiv;  Dupin,  Fee/. 
Script,  i ;  Tillemont,  Jlemoires,  vol.  viii ;  Cave,  Hist, 
Lit.  anno  326;  Clarke,  Sticcession  of  Sacred  Literature, 
i,  260 ;  Voigt,  die  Lehre  des  Athanasius  von  Alexandrit  n 
(partly  trans),  in  Libliotheca  Sacra,  Jan.  1864) ;  Shedd, 
History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  bk.  iii,  ch.  iii;  Kaye, 
Council  of  Nwea  (Lond.  1853,  8vo) ;  Christian  Remem- 
brancer, Jan.  1854.  art.  iv;  Herzog,  Eeal-Fncyklopddie, 
i,  571  sq. ;  Villemain,  Eloepitnce  Chret.  au  ime  siecle,  92 
sq. 

Athanasius,  a  priest  of  Alexandria,  was  the  son 
of  Isidora,  sister  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  He  was  rob- 
bed of  his  property  .  nd  degraded  by  Dioscorus,  and, 
being  driven  out  of  Egypt,  wandered  about  in  poverty 
and  distress  until  451,  in  which  year  he  carried  his 
complaint  before  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  This 
complaint  is  given  in  Labbe,  iv,  405.  —  Cave,  Hist. 
Lit.  anno  451. 

Athanasius  (Junior),  cr  Celetes,  surnamed 
Herniosus,  was  bishop  of  Alexandria  from  about  A.  D. 
490  to  497,  and  was  esteemed  a  good  Biblical  scholar, 
an  active  bishop,  and  a  devout  man.  He  is  supposed 
to  be  the  author  of  several  works  ascribed  to  Athana- 
sius the  Great,  particularly  the  Sacras  Scriptune  Sy- 
nopsis ;  Quvstiones  et  Eesponsiones  ad  Antiochum  ;  two 
tracts,  De  Incarnatione  Yerbi  Dei ;  Syntagma  Doctrinal 
ad  Clericos  et  Laicos;  de  Yirginitate  sire  Ascesi. — Penny 
Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Athari'as  ('Ar3-api'ac),  a  name  given  (1  Esdr.  v, 
40)  in  connection  with  that  of  Nehemias  (Nehc  miah), 
evidently  by  the  translator  misunderstanding  the  title 
Tirshatha  (q.  v.)  of  the  original  text  (Ezra  ii,  63 ; 
comp.  Neh.  viii,  9). 

Ath'arim  (Ileb.  Atharim  ,  bl'iriX,  regions;  Sept. 
'A&crpti'/t),  a  place  in  the  south  of  Palestine  near  which 
the  Israelites  passed  on  their  way  thither  (Num.  xxi, 
1,  where  the  English  version  improperlj'  renders  ~~1? 
E^TNn,  uthc  tray  of  the  spies;"  see  Gesenius,  Thee. 
Heb.  p.  171).  It  was,  perhaps,  a  general  designation 
of  the  region  north  of  Mount  Seir  through  which  the 
Canaanites  presumed  that  the  Israelites  were  about  to 
pass,  as  indeed  they  would  have  done  but  for  the  lidom- 
ites'  refusal  of  a  passage  to  them.     See  Exode. 

Athbash.     See  Atbacii. 

Atheism  (from  aQtoe,  without  God),  in  popular 
language,  means  the  negation  of  the  existence  of  God. 

1.  Use  of  the  Word. — In  all  ages  the  term  has  been 
applied  according  to  the  popular  conception  of  <>nV 
(God).  Thus  the  word  uBtoc,  atheist,  in  old  Greek 
usage,  meant  one  who  denied  "the  gods,"  especially  the 
gods  recognised  1  y  the  law  of  the  state.     In  this  way 


ATHEISM 


509 


ATHEISM 


several  of  the  Greek  philosophers  (even  Socrates)  were 
called  atheists  (Cicero,  Nat.  Deorum,  i,  23).  Cicero 
himself  defines  an  atheist  as  one  who  in  theory  denies 
the  existence  of  any  God,  or  practically  refuses  to 
worship  any  {Athens,  qui  sine  Beo  est,  impius,  qui  Deum 
esse  non  credit,  (tut  si  credat,  non  colit,  Deorum  contemp- 
tor).  This  distinction  of  atheism  into  theoretical  and 
practical  has  remained,  in  popular  language,  to  this 
d.iy.  At  a  later  period  the  Pagans  applied  the  term 
atheists  to  the  Christians  as  a  generic  name  of  re- 
proach, because  they  denied  the  heathen  gods  and 
derided  their  worship  (Eusebius,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  15  ;  Bing- 
ham, Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  i,  ch.  ii,  §  1).  In  the  theologi- 
cal strifes  of  the  early  church  it  was  not  uncommon 
for  the  contending  parties  to  call  each  other  atheists, 
and,  later  still,  the  burning  of  heretics  was  justified  by 
calling  them  atheists.  The  term  was  applied,  in  sci- 
entific theology,  to  such  forms  of  unbelief  as  that  of 
Pomponatius  (Pomponazzi,  f  1524) and  Vanini  (f  1619). 
Bacon  (Essay  xvi)  uses  the  term  to  designate  infidelity 
in  general,  and  the  denial  of  God  in  particular  ("  I 
had  rather  believe,"  he  says,  "all  the  fabulous  tales 
in  the  Talmud  and  the  Alcoran,  than  that  the  univer- 
sal frame  is  without  a  mind'').  So  also  in  the  Be  A  ug- 
mentis  (i,  11)  he  speaks  of  "a  little  knowledge  inclin- 
ing the  mind  of  man  to  atheism."  Toward  the  end  of 
the  17th  century  the  term  is  not  unfrequently  found, 
e.  g.  in  Kortholt's  Be  Tribus  Impostoribus,  1080,  to  in- 
clude Deism  such  as  that  of  Hobbes,  as  well  as  blank 
Pantheism  like  Spinoza's,  which  more  justly  deserves 
the  name.  The  same  use  is  seen  in  Colerus's  work 
against  Spinoza,  Arcana  Atheismi  Revelata.  Tillotson 
(Serm.  i  on  Atheism)  and  Bentley  (Boyle  Lectures)  use 
the  word  more  exactly,  and  the  invention  of  the  term 
deism  induced  in  the  writers  of  the  18th  century  a 
more  limited  and  exact  use  of  the  word  atheism.  But 
in  Germany,  Keimannus  (Historia  Urdu.  Atheismi, 
1725,  p.  437  sq.)  and  Buddaeus  (De  Athelsmo  et  Super- 
set ione,  1723,  ch.  iii,  §  2)  use  it  most  widely,  and  es- 
pecially make  it  include  disbelief  of  immortality  (Far- 
rar,  Critical  History  of  Free  Th  right,  414).  Waleh 
(lli'ili  itheca  Theol.  Selecta,  1757,  i,  G7C,  etc.)  uses  it  to 
include  Spinoza,  Hobbes,  and  Collins  as  writers  who, 
if  not  avowed  atheists,  are  yet  substantially  such.  It 
is  a  great  mistake,  in  the  interest  of  truth  as  well  as  in 
view  of  charity,  to  extend  too  far  the  application  of  the 
word  atheist.  Bayle  does  it  (Bib.  Crit.),  also  Brucker 
(Hist.  Phil.  t.  i),  both  probably  of  design  ;  and  Har- 
duin  (Athei  Betect.  i.  Amsterd.  17S3)  puts  Jansenius, 
Malebranche,  Quesnel,  and  others  in  his  black  list. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  both  unwise  and  uncritical  to 
except  the  extreme  Pantheists  (e.  g.  Spinoza)  and  Ma- 
terialists from  the  number  of  Atheists.  Lewes,  in  his 
Biographical  History  of  Philosophy,  and  also  in  Fort- 
nightly Review,  18GG,  p.  398,  vindicates  Spinoza  from 
the  charge  of  spiritual  atheism,  and  states  that  Spino- 
za himself  emphatically  repudiated  Atheism  ;  but  yet 
Lewes  admits  that  logically  there  is  little  difference 
between  Spinoza's  Acosmism,  which  makes  God  the 
one  universal  being,  and  Atheism,  which  makes  the 
cosmos  the  one  universal  existence.  This  point  is 
fully  discussed  in  Brenna,  Be  gen.  human,  consensu  in 
agnoscenda  Bivinitate  (Florence,  1773,  2  vols.  4to). 
See  also  Perrone,  Prcelect.  Theological  (Paris,  1S5G,  i, 
238). 

2.  In  scientific  theology,  atheism  is  opposed  to  the- 
ism. The  doctrine  of  Christian  theism  is  that  God  is 
absolute,  self-conscious  personal  spirit,  the  beneficent 
creator  and  upholder  of  the  universe.  Every  system 
of  philosophy  or  religion  must  be  built  upon  this  prin- 
ciple or  its  opposite  ;  that  is,  must  be  either  theistic  or 
atheistic.  Hence  a  great  deal  of  what  passes  for  De- 
ism and  Pantheism  is  in  fact  Atheism.  Christianity 
apprehends  God  not  as  entirely  apart  from  the  world 
and  exerting  no  providence  (Deism),  nor  as  existing 
only  in  the  world  (Pantheism),  but  as  existing  apart 
from  creation,  but  himself  creator  and  controller  (i.  c. 


Providence).  On  this  theory  of  a  living  and  personal 
God  Christianity  undertakes  to  explain  the  phenome- 
na of  the  universe.  Those  who  seek  to  explain  these 
phenomena  by  substituting  other  ideas  for  this  idea 
of  God  are,  in  the  view  of  Christian  theology,  atheists. 
The  term  should  be  applied  to  none  who  profess  to  be- 
lieve in  a  personal,  self-conscious,  spiritual  God.  Athe- 
ism is  divided  into  positive  or  dogmatic,  which  ab- 
solutely declares  that  there  is  no  God,  and  negative 
or  sceptical,  which  declares  either  (a)  that,  if  there  be 
a  God,  we  cannot  know  either  the  fact  or  the  nature 
of  his  existence,  and  therefore  it  is  no  concern  of  ours, 
or  (b)  that,  if  there  be  a  God,  we  can  only  know  of 
him  by  tradition  or  by  faith,  and  can  never  have  proof 
satisfactory  to  the  intellect  of  his  existence.  Some 
Christian  writers  and  philosophers  have  incautiously 
attempted  to  stand  upon  this  latter  ground.  The.so- 
j  called  Positive  Philosophy  stands  upon  the  first  ground 
(a),  but  logically  leads  (in  spite  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill's  de- 
j  nial,  in  his  Exposition  of  Comte)  to  dogmatical  atheism. 
J  To  state  that  we  only  know,  and  only  can  know  phe- 
;  nomena,  is  to  exclude  God ;  for  God  is  not  only  no 
!  phenomenon,  but  is,  in  the  Christian  sense,  the  abso- 
j  lute  ground  of  all  phenomena.  The  theories  which  at- 
;  tempt  to  explain  phenomena  without  the  idea  of  God 
|  may  be  classed  as  (1)  the  Idealistic,  which  substitutes 
for  the  absolute,  self-conscious  Spirit,  a  so-called 
'  world-spirit ;  not  a  living,  personal  being,  but  an  un- 
conscious and  abstract  one — in  a  word,  a  mere  concep- 
tion of  ideal  being  as  the  abstract  totality  of  all  indi- 
vidual conceptions  ;  (2)  the  Materialistic,  which  sub- 
stitutes for  a  personal  God  the  forces  inherent  in  mat- 
!  ter,  and  holds  that  these  sufficiently  explain  all  phe- 
nomena ;  (3)  the  Subjective-idealistic,  which  asserts 
that  phenomena  are  nothing  but  the  creations  or  mod- 
ifications of  the  thinking  mind  or  subject,  and  that 
thought  creates  not  only  matter,  so  called,  but  God. 
To  the  first  and  third  of  these  classes  belong  Fichte, 
Hegel,  and  (during  his  early  life)  Schelling,  among  the 
Germans,  and  their  followers  in  England  and  Ameri- 
ca. To  the  second  class  belong  Comte,  and  the  so- 
called  Positive  philosophers  in  general.  It  is  true  that 
Lewes  (Philosophy  of  the  Sciences,  p.  24)  denies  that 
Comte  was  an  atheist ;  and  Wallace  (Art,  Scenery,  and 
Philosojihy  in  Europe),  while  admitting  Comte's  indi- 
vidual atheism,  denies  that  atheism  is  a  characteristic 
of  Positivism.  But  these  denials  are  vain,  so  long  as 
the  very  aim  of  the  Positive  method  is  to  eliminate 
mind  and  will  from  the  universe.  A  science  of  pure 
phenomenalism  can  never  coexist  with  Christian  the- 
ism. Perhaps  the  most  open  declarations  of  atheism 
in  modern  times  are  to  be  found  in  D'Holbach's  Sys- 
thne  de  la  Nature  (1770),  the  ultimate  fruit,  in  athe- 
istic materialism,  of  the  sensational  philosophy.  Even 
Voltaire  pronounced  it  "abominable"  (see  note  to 
Brougham,  Biscourse  on  Natural  Theology;  Itenouvier, 
Philosophic  Moderne,  bk.  v,  §  2).  The  doctrine  of  the 
book  is  that  nothing,  in  fact,  exists  but  matter  and 
motion,  which  are  inseparable.  "If  matter  is  at  rest, 
it  is  only  because  hindered  in  motion,  for  in  its  essence 
it  is  not  a  dead  mass.  Motion  is  twofold,  attraction 
and  repulsion,  and  the  different  motions  we  see  are 
the  products  of  these  two;  and  through  these  arise  the 
different  connections  and  the  whole  manifoldness  of 
things,  under  laws  which  arc  eternal  and  unchangea- 
ble. It  flows  from  these  positions,  first,  that  man  is 
material,  and,  secondly,  that  the  belief  in  Cod  is  a 
chimera.  Another  chimera,  the  belief  in  the  being 
of  a  God,  is  the  twofold  division  of  man  into  body 
and  soul.  This  belief  arises  like  the  hypothesis  of  a 
soul-substance,  because  mind  is  falsely  divided  from 
matter,  and  nature  is  thus  made  twofold.  The  evil 
which  men  experienced,  and  whose  natural  cause  they 
could  not  discover,  they  assigned  to  a  deity  which 
they  imagined  for  the  purpose.  The  first  notions  of 
a  God  have  their  source,  therefore,  in  sorrow,  fear, 
and  uncertainty.     We  tremble  because  our  forefathers 


ATHEISM 


510 


ATHEISM 


for  thousands  of  years  have  done  the  same.  This  cir- 
cumstance awakens  no  auspicious  prepossession.  But 
not  only  the  rude,  but  also  the  theological  idea  of  God 
is  worthless,  for  it  explains  no  phenomena  of  nature. 
It  is,  moreover,  full  of  absurdities  ;  for  since  it  as- 
cribes  moral  attributes  to  God,  it  renders  him  human  ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  by  a  mass  of  negative  attri- 
butes, it  seeks  to  distinguish  him  absolutely  from  ev- 
ery other  human  being.  The  true  system,  the  system 
of  nature,  is  hence  atheistic.  But  such  a  doctrine 
requires  a  culture  and  a  courage  which  neither  all 
men  nor  most  men  possess.  If  we  understand  by  the 
word  atheist  one.  who  considers  only  dead  matter,  or 
who  designates  the  moving  power  in  nature  with  the 
name  God,  then  is  there  no  atheist,  or  whoever  would 
be  one  is  a  fool.  But  if  the  word  means  one  who  de- 
nies the  existence  of  a  spiritual  being,  a  being  whose 
attributes  can  only  be  a  source  of  annoyance  to  men, 
then  are  there  indeed  atheists,  and  there  would  be 
more  of  them,  if  a  correct  knowledge  of  nature  and  a 
sound  reason  were  more  widely  diffused.  But  if  athe- 
ism is  true,  then  should  it  be  diffused.  There  are,  in- 
deed, many  who  have  cast  off  the  yoke  of  religion, 
who  nevertheless  think  it  is  necessary  for  the  common 
people  in  order  to  keep  them  within  proper  limits. 
But  this  is  just  as  if  we  should  determine  to  give  a 
man  poison  lest  he  should  abuse  his  strength.  Ever}' 
kind  of  Deism  leads  necessarily  to  superstition,  since 
it  is  not  possible  to  continue  on  the  stand-point  of  pure 
Deism.  "With  such  premises  the  freedom  and  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  both  disappear.  Man,  like  every 
other  substance  in  nature,  is  a  link  in  the  chain  of 
necessary  connection,  a  blind  instrument  in  the  hands 
of  necessity.  If  an}'  thing  should  be  endowed  with 
self-motion,  that  is,  with  a  capacity  to  produce  mo- 
tion without  any  other  cause,  then  would  it  have  the 
power  to  destroy  motion  in  the  universe ;  but  this  is 
contrary  to  the  conception  of  the  universe,  which  is 
only  an  endless  series  of  necessary  motions  spread- 
ing out  into  wider  circles  continually.  The  claim 
of  an  individual  immortality  is  absurd.  For  to  af- 
firm that  the  soul  exists  after  the  destruction  of  the 
body,  is  to  affirm  that  a  modification  of  a  substance 
can  exist  after  the  substance  itself  has  disappear- 
ed. There  is  no  other  immortality  than  the  remem- 
brance of  posterity"  (Schwcgler,  History  of  Philosophy, 
§  32).  The  Dict'ummtire  des  A  tines  of  Sylvain  Mare- 
chal,  edited  by  Lalande  (Paris,  1799),  is  a  flagrant 
specimen  of  the  same  kind.  The  strongest  German 
development  is  Strauss's  identification  of  God  with  the 
universal  being  of  man,  in  his  Dogmatik;  and  Feuer- 
bach's  bald  atheism,  in  his  Wesen  des  Christenthums 
(Smith's  Hagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines,  §  293).  The 
so-called  English  "secularism"  is  an  atheistic  doctrine 
resting  on,  or  similar  to  that  of  the  Positive  Philoso- 
phy. It  holds  the  eternity  of  matter;  it  knows  of 
nothing  greater  than  nature;  its  creed  is  a  stern  fa- 
talism ;  its  win-ship  is  labor;  its  religion  is  science;  its 
future  is  a  "  black,  impenetrable  curtain."  One  of  its 
advocates  says,  "A  deep  silence  reigns  behind  the 
curtain  ;  no  one  within  will  answer  those  he  has  left 
without;  all  that  you  can  hear  is  a  hollow  echo  of 
your  question,  as  if  you  shouted  into  a  cavern"  (Hol- 
yoake,  Logic  of  />■  atK).  Such  is  the  wretched  atheism 
which  is  expounded  by  itinerant  lecturers,  and  dissem- 
inated by  periodical  pamphlets  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  Great  Britain,  and  which  is  perverting 
and  contaminating  the  minds  of  the  more  thoughtful 
and  inquisitive  among  the  working  classes  of  that 
country  to  an  unprecedented  and  incredible  extent 
{London  Review,  xi,  20.  See  also  Christian  Examiner, 
Boston,  Nov.  1859;  Vorth  British  Review,  Nov.  18G0). 
We  close  this  article  with  the  following  admirable 
passage  from  a  modern  writer:  "The  whole  history 
of  philosophy  and  theology  shows  that,  when  the  ma- 
terial world  is  taken  by  itself,  it  is  a  contradiction  of 
God.     Atheism  was  not  coeval  with  man.     No  atheist 


J  pretends  that  it  was.  It  was  always  a  denial,  and  a 
denial  presupposes  an  affirmation.  The  denial  of  a 
God  presupposes  the  existence  in  man  of  some  faculty 
anterior  to  reflection  which  may  apprehend  Infinite 
Being.  It  is  a  denial,  also,  which  has  always  been 
preceded  by  misapprehension  of  God.  Pseudo-theism 
precedes  atheism.  The  first  denial  of  God  is  made 
unintentionally.  Men  begin  to  worship  remarkable 
peculiarities  of  the  material  universe.  Thus  worship 
fell  from  its  primitive  spirit  and  truth  into  deification 
of  the  heavens  and  earth,  to  which  the  overflowing 
soul  of  man  lent  some  of  its  own  unbounded  life.  The 
Book  of  Job,  one  of  the  oldest  of  human  writings,  re- 
',  fers  to  this  primitive  idolatry  in  the  following  words : 
,  '  If  I  beheld  the  sun  when  it  shined,  or  the  moon  walk- 
!  ing  in  brightness,  and  my  heart  hath  been  secretly 
enticed,  or  my  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand,  this  also 
were  an  iniquity  to  be  punished  by  the  judge  ;  for  I 
should  have  denied  the  God  that  is  above.'  This  dec- 
laration plainly  shows  that  such  things  had  begun  to 
be  in  his  day,  but  were  not  universal.  It  is  a  very 
simple  expositien  of  the  rise  of  idolatry  everywhere. 
Pseudo-theism  is  incipient  atheism ;  but  it  testifies  to 
a  pure  theism  going  before  it.  The  mistake  of  this 
early  false  worship  is,  as  every  one  sees,  the  radical 
mistake  of  materializing  the  conception  of  God.  It  is 
the  result  of  idly  resting  in  an  impression  made  by 
material  objects.  This  impression  would  never  have 
been  made  unless  those  objects  expressed  a  life  corre- 
sponding to  ours.  It  was  an  impression  at  first  per- 
haps innocently  cherished  as  a  religious  influence  ;  but 
it  proved  the  means  of  shutting  out  God,  the  Being  of 
love,  wisdom,  and  power,  as  an  object  of  true  faith",  and 
the  source  of  a  glowing  worship.  It  ended  in  atheism. 
In  modern  times,  the  same  result  has  followed  from 
men's  seizing  on  the  external  as  their  means  of  mak- 
ing clear  the  Divine  Life.  It  would  be  quite  possible 
to  trace  a  parallel  between  the  consequences  of  giving 
the  great  name  of  God  to  the  sun,  moon,  and  earth, 
and  the  consequences  of  giving  the  same  august  name 
to  laws  of  nature  which  are  simple  categories  of  the 
human  understanding;  for  the  forms  of  the  under- 
standing may  stand  between  the  soul  and  God,  pre- 
venting his  immanence  in  the  consciousness,  no  less 
than  the  stars  of  heaven  and  the  imposing  forms  of 
earth.  The  forms  of  the  understanding,  though  im- 
palpable, are  media,  no  less  than  visible  and  palpable 
matter;  and  it  is  important  to  observe  that  they  are 
as  much  so.  They  have  proved  as  fruitful  sources  of 
atheism  when  rested  on  as  ultimate ;  for  if  they  have 
not  corrupted  man's  sensual  nature  by  making  his  rites 
of  worship  bodily  vice,  they  have  paralyzed  his  spirit 
by  substituting  intellectual  speculation  for  the  fervent 
spiritual  exercise  which  involves  his  might  and  heart, 
no  less  than  his  mind,  in  a  reasonable  service.  But  to 
give  a  logical  priority  of  matter  to  mind,  in  an  argu- 
ment for  the  being  of  the  spiritual  God,  is  to  beg  the 
question  at  once.  This  Plato  has  observed.  He  says 
in  his  Lairs:  'Atheists  make  the  assumption  that  fire 
and  water,  earth  and  air,  stand  first  in  the  order  of  ex- 
istences, and  calling  them  nature,  they  evolve  soul 
out  of  them.  In  scrutinizing  this  position  of  the  class 
of  men  who  busy  themselves  with  physical  investiga- 
tions, it  will  perhaps  appear  that  those  who  come  to 
conclusions  so  different  from  ours,  and  irreverent  of 
God,  follow  an  erroneous  method.  The  cause  of  pro- 
duction and  dissolution,  which  is  the  mind,  they  make, 
not  a  primary,  but  a  secondary  existence"  {Christian 
Examim  r,  Sept.  1858).  See  the  articles  Infidelity  ; 
i  Materialism ;  Pantheism;  Theism.  See  also  , be- 
sides the  authors  cited  in  the  course  of  this  article, 
BuddsBUS,  Theses  de  Atheismo  (Jena,  1717;  in  German, 
1723);  Heidenreich, Briefs  fib.  d.  Athe'ismus  (Leipzig, 
1796)  ;  Reimann,  Historic  atheismi  (Hildesh.  1725); 
Stapfer,  Tnstxt.  Theol.  Polem.  vol.  ii,  ch.  vi ;  Doddridge, 
J.i  cturt  s  "a  I'm  wmatdogy,  etc.,  Lect.  xxxiii ;  Cudworth, 
Intellectual  System,  bk.  i,  ch.  iii;  Buchanan,  Modern 


ATIIEXAGORAS 


511 


ATHENS 


Atheism,  under  its  Farms  of  Pantheism,  Secularism,  De- 
velopment, and  Natural  Lairs  (Boston,  1859,  12mo) ; 
Gioberti,  V etude  de  la  Philosophie,  iii,  105  ;  Thompson, 
Christian  Theism  (N.  Y.  1855, 12mo) ;  Tulloch,  Theism 
(N.  Y.  1855.  12mo)  ;  Morell,  History  of  Modern  Philos- 
ophy ;  Constant,  Be  la  Religion,  iii,  20 ;  New  A  merican 
Cyclopedia,  s.  v.  ;  Hcrzog,  Real-Encyklopadk,  i,  577  ; 
Bartholmess,  Hist.  Crit.  des  Doctrines  de  la  Philoso- 
phie Moderne,  bk.  xiii;  Farrar,  Critical  History  of  Free 
Thought,  chap,  vii ;  Pearson,  Modern  Infidelity,  chap, 
i,  and  Appendix  ;  Chalmers,  Institutes  of  Theology, 
book  i,  chap,  iii ;  Riddle,  Bampton  Lecture,  18G2,  Lec- 
ture iii;  Van  Mildert,  Boyle  Lectures  (London,  1820, 
2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Watson,  Theological  Institutes,  part  ii, 
chap.  i. 

Athenagoras  ^ASrrjvayopag,  a  frequent  Greek 
name),  a  philosopher  of  Athens,  celebrated  for  his 
knowledge  of  theology  and  science,  both  Christian  and 
pagan.  lie  flourished  about  177.  (This  has  been 
shown  by  Mosheim  in  his  essay  De  vera  at  ate  Apologe- 
tici  quern  A  then,  scrips't,  in  his  Dissert,  ad  Hist.  Fccles. 
pertin.  i,  272  sq.)  Neithsr  Eusebius  nor  Jerome  men- 
tion Athenagoras,  but  he  is  cited  by  Methodius  in  a 
passage  preserved  by  Epiphanius  (Hcer.  G5)  and  by 
Photius  (Biblioth.  Cod  234).  Philip  Sidetes  (5th  centu- 
ry) gives  an  account  of  him  in  a  fragment  first  publish- 
ed by  Dodwell  (Append,  ad  Dissert,  in  Irena?uni) ,  but 
Basnagc  and  others  have  shown  that  this  account  is  in- 
accurate, to  say  the  least.  It  is  said  that  when  a  Gentile, 
Athenagoras  strove  against  the  Christian  faith  ;  but  as 
he  was  engaged  in  searching  the  Holy  Scriptures  for 
weapons  to  turn  against  the  faithful,  it  pleased  God  to 
convert  him.  After  this  he  left  Athens  and  went  to 
Alexandria,  where,  according  to  the  account  of  Side- 
tes, he  became  head  of  the  catechetical  school  there ; 
but  this  account  is  not  to  be  relied  upon.  He  wrote 
a  work  called  Upivfitia  ttkh  Xpianav&v,  An  Apology 
(or  Embassy)  in  behalf  of  the  Christians,  and  addressed 
it  either  to  Marcus  Antoninus  and  Lucius  Verus  (about 
A.D.  16(5),  or  to  the  emperors  Marcus  Aurelius  and 
his  son  Commodus  (about  A.D.  177).  In  this  apology 
he  refutes  the  three  chief  calumnies  urged  against  the 
Christians  in  that  day,  viz.  (1)  that  they  were  athe- 
ists ;  (2)  that  they  ate  human  flesh;  (3)  that  they 
committed  the  most  horrible  crimes  in  their  assemblies. 
He  also  claimed  for  the  Christians  the  benefit  of  the 
toleration  which  in  the  Roman  Empire  was  granted  to 
all  religions.  Athenagoras  wrote  another  treatise  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  Resurrection  (— tpi  (\va(jra<Jiuc  tujv 
viKp&v),  arguing  the  doctrine  from  the  goodness,  wis- 
dom, and  power  of  God,  together  with  the  natural  con- 
stitution of  man.  On  the  clearness  of  his  conception 
of  God,  see  Dorner,  Doct.  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  i,  283. 
The  best  editions  of  his  works  are  those  of  the  Bene- 
dictines (Par.  17-42,  fol.)  and  of  Otto  (Jena,  1857,  8vo). 
Separate  editions  of  his  Apology  were  published  by 
Lindner  (Langensal.  1774)  and  by  Paul  (Halle,  1856). 
There  is  an  English  translation  by  David  Humphreys, 
The  Apologetics  of  Athenagoras  (Loud.  1714,  8vo)  ;  and 
an  older  one  of  The  Resurrection  by  Richard  Porder 
(Lond.  1573,  8vo).  See  Landon,  Ecclesiastical  Diction- 
ary, i,  602;  Lcyserus,  Diss.  de  Ath<  nagora  p'tilos.  Chris- 
tiana (Lips.  17:;G,  4to);  Fabricius,  Bihliotheca  Grceca, 
vi,  8G ;  Clarisse,  De  .  I  thenagoree  Vila  ef.  Scriptis  (Lugd. 
Bat.  1810) ;  Mosheim,  Comm.  i,  394  ;  Neandcr,  Ch.  Hist. 
i,  G73;  Guericke,  De  scholi  once  Aler.  floruit,  catech. ; 
Dupin,  Hist.  Eccles.  Writers,  i,  GO;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit. 
anno  177;  Lardner,  Works,  ii,  193;  Smith's  Diet,  of 
Classical  Bipg.  s.  v.;  Zeitschr.  far  d.  histor.  Theol. 
1856,  iv ;  Donaldson,  Hist,  of  Christ.  Lit.  iii,  107  f q. 

Athe'nian  (^ASrrivalog,  Acts  xviii,  21,  rendered 
"of  Athens"  in  ver.  22,  also  in  2  Mace,  vi,  7  ;  ix,  15), 
an  inhabitant  of  the  city  of  Athens  (q.  v.). 

Atheno'bins  (A9r/v6j3ioc.'),  a  "friend"  of  the  Syr- 
ian king  Antiochus  (VII)  Sidetes,  sent  by  him  as  a 
special  ambassador  to  Simon,  the  Jewish  high-priest. 


to  demand  possession  of  the  chief  fortresses  of  Pales- 
tine ;  which  being  refused,  the  envoy,  although  great- 
ly impressed  with  what  he  saw  of  the  splendor  of  Jeru- 
salem, yet  returned  enraged  to  his  master  (1  Mace,  xv, 
28-36).  Josephus,  however,  gives  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent account  of  the  negotiation  (Ant.  xiii,  7,  2 ;  War,  i, 
2,  2),  and  does  not  name  Athenobius.  See  Antiochus. 
Ath'ens  ('A&ijvat,  plural  of  'A&fivn,  Minerva,  the 
tutelary  goddess  of  the  place),  mentioned  in  several 
passages  of  Scripture  (2  Mace,  ix,  15 ;  Acts  xvii,  15 
sq. ;  xviii,  1 ;  1  Thess.  iii,  1),  a  celebrated  city,  the 
capital  of  Attica  and  of  the  leading  Grecian  republic, 
and  the  seat  of  the  Greek  literature  in  the  golden  pe- 
riod of  the  nation  (M  idler,  Topog.  of  Athens,  trans,  by 
Lockhart,  Lond.  1842;  Kruse,  Hellas,  Lpz.  1826,  II,  i, 
10  sq.;  Leake,  Topography  of  Athens,  Lond.  1841,  2d 
ed. ;  Forchhammer,  Topograj  hie  von  Athen,  Kiel,  1841 ; 
Wachsmuth,  Hellen.  Alterth.  i,  1783  sq. ;  Grote,  Hist. 
of  Greece,  vi,  20  sq.  ;  Wordsworth,  Athms  and  Attica, 
Lond.  1836;  Stuart  and  Revelt.  Antiquities  of  Allans, 
Lond.  1762-1816,4  vols.,  and  later;  DodweJl,  Tout 
through  Greece,  Lond.  1819;  Pittakis,  Ai  izaXatal  'A3?j- 
rcn,  Athens,  1835  ;  rrokesch,  Dcnkiriirdigkeitrr,  Stutg, 
18C6,  ii ;  Mure,  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Greece,  Edinb. 
1842,  ii ;  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Life  and  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul,  i,  344  sq.),  belonged  in  the  apostle's  time  to 
the  Roman  province  of  Achaja  (q.  v.).  The  inhabi- 
tants had  the  reputation  of  being  fond  of  novelty  (Acta 
xvii,  21;  comp.  iElian,  Var.  Hist,  v,  1%5 ;  Demosth. 
Phil,  i,  4;  Schol.  ad  Time,  ii,  38;  ad  A.ristoph.  Pint. 
S38;  see  Wetstein,  ii,  567),  and  as  beirig  remarkably 
zealous  in  the  worship  of  the  gods  (Arts  xvii,  16; 
comp.  Pausan.  i,  24,  3;  Stral  o,  x.  471;  Philostr. 
Apol.  vi,  3;  iv,  19;  /Elian,  Var.  Hid.  v,  17;  Himer. 


in  Phot.  cod.  243  ;  see  Eckhard,  A  thence  superstition, 
Viteb.  1618);  hence  the  city  was  full  of  temples,  al- 
tars, and  other  sacred  places  (Liv.  xlv,  27).  Paul 
visited  Athens  on  his  second  missionary  journey  from 
Bercea  (Acts  xvii,  14  sq. ;  comp.  1  Thess.  iii,  1),  and 
delivered  in  (but  not  before)  the  Areopagus  (q.  v.)  his 
famous  speech  (Acts  xvii,  22-31).— Winer,  i,  111. 

The  earlier  and  more  obscure  period  of  the  Grecian 
province  named  Attica  reaches  down  nearly  to  the 
final  establishment  of  democracy  in  it,  and  even  then 
the  foundations  of  her  greatness  were  already  laid. 
The  infertile  soil  and  dry  atmosphere  of  Attica,  in 
connection  with  the  slender  appetite  of  the  people, 
have  been  thought  favorable  to  their  mental  develop- 
ment ;  the  barrenness  of  the  soil,  moreover,  prevented 
invaders  from  coveting  it ;  so  that,  through  a  course 
of  ages,  the  population  remained  unchanged,  and  a 
moral  union  grew  up  between  the  several  districts. 
To  a  king  named  Theseus  (whose  deeds  are  too  much 
mixed  with  fable  to  be  narrated  as  history)  is  ascribed 
the  credit  of  uniting  all  the  country  towns  of  Attica 
into  a  single  state,  the  capital  of  which  was  Athens. 
The  population  of  this  province  was  variously  called 
Pelasgian,  Achaian,  and  Ionian,  and  probably  corre- 
sponds most  nearly  to  what  was  afterward  called 
/Eolian  (Prichard,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Man,  iii,  4S4).  When 
the  Dorians,  another  tribe  of  Greeks  of  very  different 
temperament,  invaded  and  occupied  the  southern  pen- 
insula, great  numbers  of  its  Achaian  inhabitants  took 
refuge  in  Attica.  Shortly  after,  the  Dorians  were 
repulsed  in  an  inroad  against  Athens,  an  event  which 


ATHENS 


512 


ATHEXS 


has  transmitted  to  legendary  renown  the  name  of  King 
■Codrus,  and  thenceforward  Athens  was  looked  upon 
as  the  bulwark  of  the  Ionian  tribes  against  the  bar- 
barous Dorians.  Overloaded  with  population,  Attica 
now  poured  forth  colonies  into  Asia,  some  of  which, 
as  Miletus,  soon  rose  to  great  eminence,  and  sent  out 
numerous  colonies  themselves,  so  that  Athens  was 
reverenced  as  a  mother  of  nations  by  powerful  chil- 
dren scattered  along  the  western  and  northern  coasts 
of  Anatolia.  Dim  tradition  shows  us  isolated  priest- 
hoods and  elective  kings  in  the  earliest  times  of  Atti- 
ca ;  these,  however,  gradually  gave  way  to  an  aris- 
tocracy, which  in  a  series  of  years  established  them- 
selves as  a  hereditary  ruling  caste.  But  a  country 
"ever  unravaged"  (such  Avas  their  boast)  could  not 
fail  to  increase  in  wealth  and  numbers;  and  after  two 
or  three  centuries,  while  the  highest  commoners  press- 
ed on  the  nobles,  the  lowest  became  overwhelmed 
with  debt.  The  disorders  caused  by  the  strife  of  the 
former  were  vainly  sought  to  be  stayed  by  the  insti- 
tutions of  Draco;  the  sufferings  of  the  latter  were 
ended,  and  the  sources  of  violence  dried  up  by  the  en- 
actments of  Solon.  Henceforth  the  Athenians  revered 
the  laws  of  Solon  ()'o7<oi)  as  the  groundwork  of  their 
whole  civil  polity ;  yet  they  retained  by  the  side  of 
them  th"  ordinances  of  Draco  (9t<jjici)  in  many 
matters  pertaining  to  religion.  The  date  of  So- 
lon's reforms  was  probably  B.C.  594.  The 
usurpation  of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons  made  a 
partial  breach  in  the  constitution;  but  upon 
their  expulsion,  a  more  serious  change  was  ef- 
fected by  Clisthenes,  head  of  the  noble  house 
of  the  Alcmoeonidae  (B.C.  508),  almost  in  the 
same  year  in  which  Tarquin  was  expelled  from 
Rome.  An  entirely  new  organization  of  the 
Attic  tribes  was  framed,  which  destroyed  what- 
ever remained  of  the  power  of  the  nobles  as  an 
order,  and  established  among  the  freemen  a 
democracy,  in  fact  as  well  as  in  form.  Out 
of  this  proceeded  all  the  good  and  all  the  evil  with 
which  the  name  of  Athens  is  associated ;  and  though 
greatness  which  shot  up  so  suddenly  could  not  be 
permanent,  there  can  be  no  difficulty  in  deciding 
that  the  good  greatly  preponderated.  Very  soon  af- 
ter this  commenced  hostilities  with  Persia;  and  the 
self-denying,  romantic,  successful  bravery  of  Athens, 
with  the  generous  affability  and  great  talents  of  her 
statesmen,  soon  raised  her  to  the  head  of  the  whole 
Ionian  confederacy.  As  long  as  Persia  was  to  be 
feared,  Athens  was  loved ;  but  after  tasting  the  sweets 
of  power,  her  sway  degenerated  into  a  despotism, 
and  created  at  length,  in  the  war  called  the  Pelopon- 
nesian,  a  coalition  of  all  Dorian  and  ^Eolian  Greece 
against  her  (B.C.  431).  In  spite  of  a  fatal  pesti- 
lence and  the  revolt  of  her  Ionian  subjects,  the  naval 
skill  of  Athenian  seamen  and  the  enterprise  of  Athe- 
ni  m  commanders  proved  more  than  a  match  for  the 
hostile  confederacy;  and  when  Athens  at  last  fell 
(  I!.''.  I'll),  she  fell  by  the  effects  of  internal  sedition 
inure  truly  than  by  Spartan  lances  or  Persian  gold,  or 
even  by  her  own  rash  and  over-grasping  ambition. 
Th  •  demoralizing  effects  of  this  war  oa  all  Greece 
were  infinitely  the  worst  result  of  it,  and  they  were 
transmitted  to  succeeding  generations.  It  was  sub- 
stantially a  civil  war  iii  every  province  ;  and,  as  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Attica  were  every  summer  forced  to 
take  refuge  in  the  few  fortresses  they  possessed,  or  in 
Athen-  itself,  the  simple  countrymen  became  trans- 
formed  mt,,  a  hungry  and  profligate  town  rabble. 
From  th-  earliest  times  the  Ionians  loved  the  lyre  and 
the  song,  and  tin'  hymns  of  poets  formed  the  staple  of 
Athenian  education.  The  constitution  of  Solon  ad- 
mitted and  demanded  in  the  people  a  great  knowledge 
of  law,  with  a  large  share  in  its  daily  administration. 
Thus  the  acutcness  of  the  lawyer  was  grafted  on  the 
imagination  of  the  poet.  These  are  tlie  two  intellec- 
tual elements  out  of  which  Athenian  wisdom  was  de- 


veloped ;  but  it  was  stimulated  and  enriched  by  ex. 
tended  political  action  and  political  experience.  His- 
tory and  philosophy,  as  the  words  are  understood  in 
modern  Europe,  had  their  birth  in  Athens  about  the 
time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Then  first,  also,  the 
oratory  of  the  bar  and  of  the  popular  assembly  was  sys- 
tematically cultivated,  and  the  elements  of  mathemati- 
cal science  were  admitted  into  the  education  of  an  ac- 
complished man.  This  was  the  period  of  the  youth  of 
Plato,  whose  philosophy  was  destined  to  leave  so  deep 
an  impress  on  the  Jewish  and  Christian  schools  of 
Alexandria.  Its  great  effort  was  to  unite  the  con- 
templative mysticism  of  Eastern  sages  with  the  accu- 
rate science  of  Greece ;  to  combine,  in  short,  the  two 
qualities — intellectual  and  moral,  argumentative  and 
spiritual — into  a  single  harmonious  whole ;  and  what- 
ever opinion  may  be  formed  of  the  success  which  at- 
tended the  experiment,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  so  mag- 
nificent an  aim  attracted  the  desires  and  riveted  the 
attention  of  thoughtful  and  contemplative  minds  for 
ages  afterward.  In  the  imitative  arts  of  sculpture 
and  painting,  as  well  as  in  architecture,  it  need  hardly 
be  said  that  Athens  carried  off  the  palm  in  Greece ; 
yet,  in  all  these,  the  Asiatic  colonies  vied  with  her. 
Miletus  took  the  start  of  her  in  literary  composition  ; 


Coin  of  Athens 


and,  under  slight  conceivable  changes,  might  have  be- 
come the  Athens  of  the  world.  That  Athens  after  the 
Peloponnesian  war  never  recovered  the  political  place 
which  she  previously  held,  can  excite  no  surprise — 
that  she  rose  so  high  toward  it  was  truly  wonderful. 
Sparta  and  Thebes,  which  successively  aspired  to  the 
"leadership"  of  Greece,  abused  their  power  as  fla- 
grantly as  Athens  had  done,  and,  at  the  same  time,  more 
coarsely.  The  never-ending  cabals,  the  treaties  made 
and  violated,  the  coalitions  and  breaches,  the  alliances 
and  wars,  recurring  every  few  years,  destroyed  all 
mutual  confidence,  and  all  possibility  of  again  uniting 
Greece  in  any  permanent  form  of  independence  ;  and, 
in  consequence,  the  whole  country  was  soon  swallow- 
ed up  in  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia.  With  the  loss 
of  civil  liberty,  Athens  lost  her  genius,  her  manly 
mind,  and  whatever  remained  of  her  virtue:  she  long 
continued  to  produce  talents,  which  were  too  often 
made  tools  of  iniquity,  panders  to  power,  and  petty 
artificers  of  false  philosophy.  Under  the  Roman  em- 
pire, into  which  it  was  absorbed  with  the  rest  of  Greece, 
its  literary  importance  still  continued,  and  it  was  the 
great  resort  of  students  from  Rome  itself.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  it  languished  under  the  Ottoman  yoke  in 
every  respect,  but  since  Greece  regained  its  independ- 
ence Tin  1834),  it  has  revived  (see  Schubert,  Eeisen, 
iii,  473  sq.)  as  the  capital  of  the  new  European  king- 
dom. (For  a  detailed  account  of  the  history  and  to- 
pography of  Athens,  see  the  Prtin?/  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. ; 
M'Culloch's  Gazetteer,  s.  v.;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class. 
Geoejr.  s.  v.  Athenai.)  See  Greece.  In  order  to 
understand  the  localities  mentioned  in  the  sacred  nar- 
rative, it  may  be  observed  that  four  hills  of  moderate 
height  ri<e  within  the  walls  of  the  city.  Of  these,  one 
to  the  north-east  is  the  celebrated  Acropolis,  or  citadel, 
boin^  a  square  craggy  rock  of  about  150  feet  high. 
Immediately  to  the  west  of  the  Acropolis  is  a  second 
hill  of  irregular  form,  but  inferior  height,  called  the 


ATHENS 


51: 


ATHENS 


Areopagus.  To  the  south-west  rises  a  third  hill,  the 
Pnyx,  on  which  the  assemblies  of  the  citizens  were 
held ;  and  to  the  south  of  the  latter  is  a_  fourth  hill, 
known  as  the  Museum. — Kitto.     See  Areopagus. 

A  Christian  Church  existed  in  Athens  soon  after  the 
apostolic  times,  having  doubtless  been  planted  by  the 
labors  of  Paul  (although  no  allusions  to  it  occur  in  the 
N.  T.),  but  as  the  city  had  no  political  importance,  the 
Church  never  assumed  any  eminent  position  (see  Ba- 
ronius,  Annal.  Eccl.  an.  354,  n.  25,  26).  Tradition, 
however  (Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  iii,  4),  assigns  as  its  first 
bishop  Dionysius  (q.  v.)  the  Areopagito  (Acts  xvii,  34). 
There  are  two  points  requiring  special  elucidation  con- 
nected with  the  N.  T.  mention  of  Athens  (from  Winer): 

(1.)  Respecting  the  "  altar  on  which  was  inscribed, 
To  the  Unknown  God,"  referred  to  in  Acts  xvii,  23, 
various  opinions  have  been  expressed  by  interpreters 
(see  Fabric.  Bibliogr.  antlq,  p.  29G  ;  Wolf,  Cur.  ii,  12G1 
sq. ;  Dougtasi  Anal.  p.  86  sq. ;  Kuinol,  Comment,  iv, 
598  sq. ;  comp.  also  Grube  [Sogers],  De  ara  ignoti 
dei,  Regiom.  1710;  Heller,  Be  deo  ignoto  Athen.  in 
Gronov.  Thes.  vii,  223  sq. ;  Schickendanz,  De  ara  ig- 
noto deo  consecrata,  Tervest.  1748;  Geiger,  De  ignoto 
A  then,  deo,  Marb.  1754 ;  Wallenius,  De  deo  ignoto, 
Gryph.  1797;  Baden,  Diss,  arm  deo  ignoto  dicatce, 
Havn.  1787).  It  by  no  means  follows  from  the  classi- 
cal passages  usually  adduced  (Pausan.  i,  1,  4;  Phi- 
lostr.  Apoll.  vi,  3  ;  comp.  Lucian,  Philopatr.  9,  29),  that 
an}'  of  the  single  altars  mentioned  in  these  writers  had 
the  inscription  "  to  unknown  gods"  (ayvMaroic  Stole), 
in  the  plural,  but  more  naturally  that  each  was  dedi- 
cated separately  to  on  unknown  deity  (ayv&OTip  9"«rp)  ; 
yet  these  instances  in  the  singular  must  have  been  col- 
lectively employed  with  a  plural  reference,  since  they 
unitedly  speak  of  all  such  altars.  There  appear,  more- 
over, to  have  been  several  altars  in  various  parts  of 
Athens  with  the  inscription  "to  an  unknown  god,"  a 
circumstance  that  is  not  invalidated  by  the  mention 
(Pausan.  v,  14,  6)  of  a  single  (in  Elis!)  "altar  of  un- 
known gods  (fiwphe,  ayvu"TTU)v  Siioi').  One  plausible 
interpretation  respecting  the  altar  in  question  (in  Eich- 
horn's  Bibl.  d.  bibl.  Lit.  iii,  414)  supposes  that,  as  in 
ancient  times  the  art  of  writing  was  not  generally 
known,  or  but  little  practised,  there  were  (perhaps 
several)  altars  at  Athens  without  any  inscription  (/3w- 
/joi  avwiwfioi,  Diog.  Laert.  i,  10,  3).  Eventually  these, 
when  found  standing  thus  indefinite  by  the  religious 
K  K 


the  I'ny: 


Athenians,  Mould  be  marked  by  the  words  "to  seme 
unknown  god"  (ayv.  Sitij).  It  is  simpler,  however,  to 
suppose  that  in  spots  where  some  supposed  preternatu- 
ral event  had  occurred,  which  persons  sought  ly  a  me- 
morial to  attribute  to  some  distinct  deity  as  author, 
thej'  erected  such  an  altar,  that  profane  steps  might  not 
approach  too  near  (compare  the  phrases  Si  deo,  Si  due, 
used  in  such  cases,  Gcll.  i,  28,  3;  Macrob.  Saturn,  iii, 
9,  ed.  Bip. ;  see  Dougt&'i  Anal,  ii,  87)  the  unrecognised 
deity  (comp.  Ncandcr,  Planting,  i,  202  sq.).  'I  hat  the 
expression  was  intended  to  designate  specially  the  God 
of  the  Jews  (comp.  the  ironical  expression  "Judaea  de- 
voted to  the  worship  of  an  uncertain  god,"  in  Lucian, 
ii,  592),  as  Anton  insists  (Progr.  in  Act.  xvii,  22  sq., 
Gorlic.  1822),  is  very  unlikely.  (The  treatise  of  Wolle, 
De  ignoto  Jvdaor.  ct  A  then,  deo,  Lips.  1727,  is  without 
worth ;  and  Mosheim,  Cogit.  inN.  T.  loc.  i,  77  sq.,  treats 
the  subject  in  an  unantiquarian  manner.)  See  Altar. 
(2.)  The  "market"  (ctyope't)  at  Athens,  mentioned 
(Acts  xvii,  17)  as  the  place  where  Paul  spoke  to  the 
assembled  populace,  has  (with  most  modern  interpret- 
ers since  Kuinol)  been  understood  as  meaning,  not  the 
proper  definite  market-place  called  "the  Forum  in  the 
Ceramicus"  (oyopu  iv  KipapiiKio),  but  a  so-called  new 
market-place  lying  much  farther  north,  to  which  Meur- 
sius  (Ceramic,  gemin.  c.  10)  was  the  first  to  call  atten- 
tion, and  which  Miiller  (Hall.  Encyclop.  vi,  132)  located 
on  his  plan  frcm  the  notice  in  Pausanias  (i,  17)  and 
Strabo  (x,  447);  according  to  the  latter  of  which,  this 
spot  appears  to  have  borne  the  designation  of  the  Ere- 
tria  (Epfrpin).  Pausanias,  however,  refers  to  no  other 
market-place  than  the  well-known  one  lying  between 
the  Acropolis,  the  Pnyx,  and  the  place  of  holding  the 
Areopagus  (Forchhammer,  ut  sup.  p.  53  f  q.)  ;  End  Stra- 
bo's  words  ("from  the  Eretria  at  Athens,  which  is 
now  the  market-place"),  vhich  have  been  regarded  as 
indicating  that  the  Forum  was  situated  there  in  his 
time,  are  susceptible  of  another  end  more  probable  in- 
terpretation (Leake,  Attica,  p.  21).  Later  inquirers 
have  therefore  acquiesced  in  the  c  pinion  that  the  pas- 
sage in  the  Acts  refers  to  nothing  more  than  the  usual 
market-place,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  (see  Forch- 
hammer's  Plan,  opposite  the  Acropolis  on  the  west), 
moreover,  lay  the  "miscellaneous  porch"  (orod  7roi- 
Ki\ti),  of  which  avail  may  be  made  (as  has  usually  been 
found  necessary)  fur  the  explanation  of  Acts  xvii.  18 
(Cookesly,  Map  of  A  flu  ns,  Loud.  1852).     See  Mark  ex 


ATIILAI 


514 


ATHRONGES 


w;.,;;:',usV,0l.5/,«'j,/-i^,ru  .      / 


III 


Map  of  ancient  Athens. 


Treatises  on  Paul's  proceedings  in  Athens  have  been 
written  by  Olearius  (Lips.  170G,  and  since),  Strimesius 
(Lund.  1706),  Majus  (Giess.  1727,  and  in  Ikenii  Thess. 
Diss,  ii,  6G9  sq.) ;  on  his  address  in  the  Areopagus,  by 
Anspach  (Lugd.  B.  1829),  Anton  (Gorl.  1822),  Bentzel 
(Upsal,  1669),  Eskuche  (Rint.  1735),  Heumann  (Gott. 
1721);  on  his  disputations  with  the  philosophers,  by 
Boemer  (Jen.  1751);  also  the  essays  of  Joch,  Be  Spi- 
ritti  A  ttico  (Viteb.  1726) ;  Schurtzmann,  Be  avaaraau 
den  Athenunsibus  credita  (Lips.  1708);  Zorn,  Be  Athc- 
n:ensium  sarcasmo  (Kilon.  1710);  Alexander,  it.  Paul 
at  Athens  (Edinb.  1865).     See  Paul. 

Ath'lai  (Ileb.  Aihlay',  ^P",  oppressive;  Sept. 
'Ocr«Xi'  v.  r.  GaXi,  QaXtifi),  one  of  the  "sons  of  Bebai," 
who  divorced  his  foreign  wife  married  on  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  x,  '28).     B.C.  459. 

Athom.     See  Ass. 

Athos,  a  mountain  at  the  extremity  of  the  prom- 
ontory of  Chalcis,  in  the  province  of  Salonica,  in  Eu- 
ropean Turkey.  It  was  an  early  resort  of  monks  and 
anchorets,  and  is  called  Monte  Santo,  or  "Holy  Moun- 
tain," in  the  lingua  franca,  and  in  Greek  uyioi-  opoc\ 
There  arc  now  upon  the  sides  of  the  mountain  between 
twenty  and  thirty  monasteries,  and  a  vast  multitude 
of  hermitages,  which  contain  more  than  six  thousand 
monks  called  Caloyers  (q.  v.),  mostly  Russian,  of  the 
order  of  St.  Basil.  Here  they  live  in  a  state  of  com- 
plete abstraction  from  the  world  ;  and  so  strict  are  their 
regulation  thai  they  do  nottolerate  any  female  being, 
not  even  of  the  class  of  domestic  animals,  among  them. 
They  still  own  considerable  possessions  in  Bulgaria, 
Servia,  the  !  »anubian  Principalities,  and  Russia.  They 
elect  annually  a  common  council  of  administration,  call- 
ed Prototaton.  They  arc  now  chiefly  occupied  in  carv- 
ing little  images  of  the  saints,  which  they  send  down  to 
the  market-town  of  Kareis,  where  a  Meekly  market  is 
held,  and  where  purchases  are  made  for  various  parts, 


especially  Russia ;  but  formerly  they  were  occupied  with 
the  nobler  work  of  transcription.  The  libraries  of  the 
monasteries  are  particularly  rich  in  MSS.  and  ether  lit- 
erary treasures.  Many  of  these  works  have  of  late 
years  been  purchased  by  travellers,  and  thus  found 
their  way  into  various  libraries  of  Europe.  The  monas- 
teries and  churches  on  this  mountain  Ere  the  only  ones 
in  the  Ottoman  empire  that  have  bells.  Under  the  reign 
of  Catharine  II  of  Russia,  the.  learned  Eugen  Bulgaris 
took  up  his  abode  on  Mount  Athos  as  director  of  an 
academy  founded  by  Patriarch  Cyril  of  Constantino- 
ple. For  some  time  the  academy  was  very  nourishing, 
but  at  length  the  patriarch  had  to  yield  to  the  demands 
of  the  ignorant  portion  of  the  monks  and  to  al  olish  it. 
From  that  time  ignorance  has  generally  prevailed 
among  the  monks,  and  only  recently  (1859)  they  have 
set  up  a  printing-press  and  commenced  the  pul  lication 
of  a  religious  newspaper.  No  complete  list  of  the 
MSS.  extant  at  Mount  Athos  has  yet  been  made.  See 
Curzon,  Monasteries  of  the  Levant  (N.  Y.  1851, 12mo) ; 
Leake,  Trav.  in  N.  Greece,  vol.  iii ;  Jour,  of  Geog.  Soc. 
ofLond,  1837,  vii,  61 ;  Fallmeraycr,  Frogmente  aus  dem 
Orient,  ii,  1  sq.  (Stuttg.  1845);  Didron  aine,  Ann.  Ar- 
chedog.  i,  29  sq.,  173  sq. ;  iv,  70  sq. ;  v,  148  sq. ;  vii,  41 
sq. ;  Midler,  in  Miclosich's  Slav.  Bib.  vol.  i  (Vienna, 
1837);  Pischon,  Bie  Mdnchsrepublik  des  Athos,  in  Eau- 
mcr's  Hist.  Tasckenbuch  (Leipz.  1860) ;  Gass,  Zur  Ge- 
schichte  der  Aikos-Kloster  (Giossen,  18C3). 

Athronges  CASpoyyjjc),  a  person  of  mean  extrac- 
tion, and  by  occupation  a  shepherd,  i\ho,  without  any 
other  advantages  than  great  bodily  stature  and  un- 
daunted hardihood,  raised  a  body  of  banditti  in  Judaea, 
in  connection  with  his  four  brothers,  during  the  rule 
of  Gratus,  so  powerful  that  they  at  last  cssnmed  royal- 
ty, and  were  with  difficulty  subdued  in  detail  and  cap- 
tured by  the  successive  procurators  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii, 
10,  7).  In  the  parallel  account  (liar,  ii,  4,  3)  ho  is 
called  Athrongaus  (ASpoyymof). 


ATIPIIA 


ATONEMENT 


At'ipha  ('Arrffi,  Vulg.  Agisti),  one  of  the  "tem- 
ple-servants" whose  "sons"  returned  from  the  captiv- 
ity (1  Esdr.  v,  32)  ;  evidently  the  Hatipha  (q.  v.)  of 
the  true  text  (Ezra  ii,  5-1). 

Atonement  (expressed  in  Heb.  by  122,  kapha/, 
to  cover  over  sin,  hence  to  forgive ;  Gr.  KaraXXayij, 
reconciliation,  as  usually  rendered),  the  satisfaction  of- 
fered to  divine  justice  for  the  sins  of  mankind  by  the 
death  of  Jesus  Christ,  by  virtue  of  which  all  penitent 
believers  in  Christ  are  reconciled  to  God,  and  freed 
from  the  penalties  of  sin. 

I.  Scripture  Doctrine. — 1.  The  words  used  to  d  s  ribe 
Christ's  work. — The  redeeming  work  of  Christ,  in  its 
several  aspects,  is  denoted  in  Scripture  by  various 
terms,  namely,  reconciliation,  propitiation,  expiation, 
atonement,  redemption,  satisfaction,  substitution,  and 
salvation.  The  following  summary  of  the  uses  and 
meanings  of  these  terms  is  taken,  with  slight  modi- 
fications, from  Angus,  Bible  Hand-book,  §  329.  (a.) 
Looking  into  the  English  N.  T.,  we  find  "reconcilia- 
tion" and  "reconcile"  in  several  passages,  in  all  of 
which  (except  one)  the  Greek  word  is  some  form  of 
aWaacroj,  "to  produce  a  change  between  parties" 
(when,  for  example,  they  have  been  at  variance) ;  in 
turning  to  the  Sept.  we  find  this  word  never  used  in 
this  sense  at  all,  nor  have  the  many  passages  in  the 
O.  T.,  which  speak  of  "making  reconciliation,"  any 
verbal  reference  to  these  passages  in  the  N.  T.  The 
idea  is  involved  in  several  passages,  but  it  is  never  ex- 
pressed by  this  word,  nor  by  any  single  word.  "To 
turn  away  anger,"  "to  restore  to  favor,"  "to  accept," 
are  the  common  expressions,  generally  forms  of  J"!^ 
and  StKTog  (Isa.  lvi,  7  ;  lx,  7  ;  Jer.  vi,  20 ;  Lev.  xix,  7). 
Hence  the  conclusion,  that  in  the  word  of  the  N.  T. 
translated  "reconcile"  there  is  reference  only  to  the 
change  or  effect  produced  by  some  measure  of  mercy, 
and  not  to  the  nature  of  that  measure  itself:  it  describes 
merely  the  change  produced  in  our  relation  to  God  ; 
his  moral  sentiment  of  displeasure  against  sin  (called 
his  "wrath")  is  appeased,  and  the  sinner's  enmity 
and  misgivings  arc  removed.  That  there  is  this  double 
change  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  passages : 
Heb.  x,  26,  27  ;  Rom.  v,  9 ;  Heb.  ix,  20,  28 ;  2  Cor.  v, 
18-20 ;  Eph.  ii,  1G ;  1  Cor.  vii,  11 ;  Col.  i,  20,  21.  (6.) 
In  one  passage,  however  (Heb.  ii,  17),  we  have  in 
Greek  another  word,  iXdaKOfiat,  translated  also  "  make 
reconciliation."  Its  meaning  may  be  gathered  from 
the  passages  in  the  0.  T.  in  which  it  occurs.  It  is, 
in  fact,  the  constant  rendering  of  a  word  translated  in 
the  English  version  "to  make  reconciliation"  or  "to 
atone  for"  (Lev.  vi,  30;  viii,  15;  Ezek.  xlv,  20;  Dan. 
ix,  2-1,  etc.).  (c.)  But  it  would  excite  surprise  if  this 
were  the  only  passage  in  the  N.  T.  where  this  phrase 
is  found.  It  occurs  agaiu,  in  fact,  in  Rom.  iii,  25 ;  1 
John  ii,  2  ;  iv,  10;  but  in  each  of  these  passages  it  is 
translated  propitiation,  a  word  which  does  not  occur 
in  the  O.  T.  Expiation,  again,  does  not  occur  in  the 
New,  and  but  once  in  the  Old  (Numb,  xxxiii,  35);  it 
is  the  same  word,  however,  as  is  translated  elsewhere 
'•to  make  reconciliation"  or  "to  atone  for."  Atone- 
ment itself  does  not  occur  in  the  N.  T.,  except  in  Rom. 
v,  2,  ami  there  it  has  no  connection  with  the  O.  T. 
phrase,  but  is  the  same  word  as  is  translated  "  recon- 
ciliation" in  the  first  sense  above  indicated  ;  a  change, 
that  is,  of  state  between  parties  previously  at  variance. 
('/.)  Thus  far,  therefore,  the  result  is  clear.  Recon- 
ciliation and  atonement  are,  in  all  the  N.  T.,  except 
Heb.  ii.  17,  translations  of  the  same  word,  and  mean 
the  state  of  friendship  and  acceptance  into  which  the 
Gospel  introduces  us.  "Reconciliation"  in  the  sense 
in  which  it  is  used  in  Heb.  ii,  17,  and  "atonement"  in 
the  uniform  sense  of  the  Old  Testament,  "propitiation" 
in  the  New  Testament,  and  "  expiation"  in  the  Old, 
are  all  different  renderings  of  one  and  the  same  He- 
brew and  Greek  words  "133,  Icaphar  (in  the  Piel  form 
"IS3)  and  t'iiXaoKoiuu,  in  some  of  their  forms.    These 


words,  which  may  be  regarded  as  one,  have  two  senses, 
each  involving  the  other.  They  mean  to  appease 
pacify,  or  propitiate  (Gen.  xxxiii,  20;  Prov.  xvi,  14  ; 
Ezek.  xvi,  03);  and  also  to  clear  from  guilt  (1  Sam. 
iii,  14;  Psa.  lxv,  3  ;  Prov.  xvi,  0  ;  Isa.  vi,  7,  etc.).  In 
propitiation,  we  have  prominence  given  to  the  first 
idea ;  in  expiation,  to  the  second ;  in  atonement,  we  have 
a  distinct  reference  to  both,  (e.)  The  thing  which 
atones,  propitiates,  or  expiates  is  called  in  Greek 
iXaapuc,  iliXaaixoc,,  and  Xvrpov,  all  translations  of 
two  derivatives  of  the  Hebrew  word  "lES  (D^->22 
and  "i£3),  i.  e.  price  or  covering.  (f)  The  use  oi' 
XxWpcv  for  T22  introduces  another  form  of  expression, 
"redemption."  This  word,  as  a  noun,  always  repre- 
sents in  the  N.  T.  XvrpwaiQ  or  aTroXvrpwvtg.  Both  are 
descriptive  of  the  act  of  procuring  the  liberation  of  an- 
other by  paying  some  Ai'rpov  or  airoiva,  i.  e.  "ran- 
som" or  "forfeit,"  and  hence  always  in  the  N.  T.  of 
the  state  of  being  ransomed  in  this  way.  These  words 
mean  (1)  to  buy  back,  by  paying  the  price,  what  has 
been  sold  (Lev.  xxv,  25),  and  (2)  to  redeem  what  has 
been  devoted  by  substituting  something  else  in  its 
place  (Lev.  xxvii,  27;  Exod.  xiii,  13;  Psa.  lxxii,  11  ; 
Psa.exxx,  8;  Isa. lxiii,  9).  The  price  paid  is  called  A i>- 
rpov  (Matt,  xx,  28 ;  Mark  x,  45),  di'riXvrpov  (1  Tim.  ii, 
0),  the  Hebrew  terms  being  <"l!?X5  and  ""'"IE',  answering 
precisely  to  Xvrpor,  and  "122,  which  again  answers  to 
Wao-fiuc,.  In  1  Tim.  ii,  0,  this  ransom  is  said  to  be 
Christ  himself.  "  Redemption,"  therefore,  is  general- 
ly a  state  of  deliverance  by  means  of  ransom.     Hence 

;  it  is  used  to  indicate  deliverance  from  punishment  or 
guilt  (Eph.  i,  7  ;  Col.  i,  14) ;  sanctif  cation,  which  is  de- 
liverance from  the  dominion  of  sin  (1  Pet.  i,  18) ;  the 
resurrection,  which  is  the   actual  deliverance  of  the 

|  bod}'  from  the  grave,  the  consequence  of  sin  (Rom. 
viii,  23)  ;  comjrteted  salvation,  which  is  actual  deliver- 
ance from  all  evil  (Eph.  i,  14  ;  iv,  30;  1  Cor.  i,  30;  Tit. 
ii,  14).  Once  it  is  used  without  reference  to  sin  (Heb. 
xi,  35),  and  perhaps  in  Luke  xxi,  28.  (ff.~)  Another 
word,  translated  "redemption"  («yop«4'io,Gal.  iii,  L">; 
iv,  5;  Rev.  v,  9;  xiv,  3,  4),  means,  as  it  is  every- 
where else  translated,  to  buy,  referring  to  a  purchase 
made  in.  the  market.  What  is  paid  in  this  case  is 
called  Tififj  (price),  and  this  price  is  said  to  be  Chrut 
(Gal.  iii,  13),  or  his  blood  (Rom.  v,  9).  In  Acts  xx, 
28,  the  word  rendered  "purchase"  (7r5p(7roi£7<T0«()  has 
no  reference  to  redemption  or  to  price,  but  means  sim- 
pfy  "acquired  for  himself :"  the  following  words,  how- 
ever, indicate  that  the  sense  is  not  materially  different 
from  purchasing,  as  that  term  is  used  elsewhere.  (A.) 
The  word  "satisfacticn"  is  not  found  in  the  N.  T.,  but 
it  occurs  twice  in  the  Old  (Numb,  xxxv,  31,  32).  It 
is  there  a  translation  of  "1E3  or  Xvrpov,  "that  which 
expiates"  or  "ransoms."  The  use  of  these  terms,  in 
reference  to  the  N.  T.  doctrine,  implies  that  what  was 
done  and  paid  in  the  death  of  our  Lord  satisfied  the 
claims  of  justice,  and  answered  all  the  moral  purposes 
which  God  deemed  necessary,  under  a  system  of  holy 
law.  (/.)  The  word  (t substitution"  is  not  to  be  found 
in  either  Testament,  but  the  idea  is  frequently  ex- 
pressed in  both  :  "it  shall  be  accepted  fok  him"  (Lev. 
i.  4  ;  vii,  18)  is  the  O.  T.  phrase,  and  the  New  corre- 
sponds. There  we  find  in  frequent  use  inrip  and  cirri, 
the  former  meaning  "on  behalf  of,"  "for,"  and  "in- 
stead," and  the  latter  meaning  undoubtedly  "instead 
of."  Much  stress  ought  not  to  be  laid  upon  the  first 
of  these  terms,  as  it  is  frequently  used  where  it  may 
mean  "for  the  advantage  of"  (Rom.  viii,  20,  31;  2 
Cor.  i,  2);  yet  in  John  xv,  13,  and  1  John  iii,  10,  it 
seems  to  mean  "instead  of;"  and  this  is  certainfy  the 
meaning  of  avri  (Matt,  xx,  28  ;  Mark  x,  45  ;  see  Matt, 
ii,  22,  "m  the  room  of").  Apart,  however,  from  par- 
ticular prepositions,  three  sets  of  phrases  clearly  teach 
this  doctrine.  (1)  Christ  was  made  a  curse  for  us 
(Gal.  iii,  13);  so  a  similar  phrase  (2  Cor.  v,  21).     (2) 


ATONEMENT 


516 


ATONEMENT 


He  cave  himself  as  a  sacrifice  for  our  sins  (1  Cor.  xv, 
:• ;  Eph.  v,  1' .  Gal.  i,  -1 ;  1  Vim.  ii,  6,  14  ;  Heb.  vii,  27  ; 
v,  1,  ;',:  x.  12;  Rom.  v.  6,  7,  8;  i  Cor.  i,  13;  v,  7;  xi, 
24  ;  1  Pet.  iii,  18 ;  iv,  1).  (3)  <  Jhrist  g  ive  kis  life  for 
„„r  life,  or  we  live  by  his  death  (Gal.  ii,  20  ;  Rom.  xiv, 
15;  2  (or.  v,  1").  Compare  Rom.  xvi,  4;  Isa.  liii,  45). 
The  idea  of  substitution  is  in  all  these  passages,  and 
the  phrase,  though  not  scriptural,  is  a  convenient  sum- 
mary of  them  all.  (j.)  "Salvation"  is  everywhere  in 
the  X.  T.  the  representative  of  <noT>ipla  or  gutijoiov  ; 
aiorijpia  is  always  translated  "  salvation"  except  in 
three  passages  (Acts  vii.  25  ;  xxvii,  34,  and  Heb.  xi,  7, 
where  it  refers  to  temporal  deliverance),  and  the  idea 
included  in  the  term  is  whatever  blessings  redemption 
includes,  but  without  any  reference  to  Xvrpov,  or  any- 
thing else  as  the  ground  of  them.  It  includes  present 
deliverance  (Luke  xix,  9)  or  future  (Phil,  i,  19  ;  Rom. 
xiii,  11).  "Salvation,"  therefore,  is  the  state  into 
which  the  Gospel  introduces  all  who  believe,  and  with- 
out reference  to  the  means  used.  On  turning  to  the 
Sept.,  however,  we  find  that  the  idea  of  propitiation  is 
involved  even  here ;  fftmjpioj*  is  very  frequently  the 
translation  of  ub'O  (l"Ct),  ^jeace-offering,  Srvola  awri]- 
piov  (Lev.  iii,  1-3  ;  iv,  10  ;  vii,  20  ;  xi,  4  ;  Judg.  xx,  26  ; 
xxi,  4).  DP13  is  the  sacrifice  or  retribution  restoring 
peace,  and  thus  the  meaning  of  oio-iipiov  touches  upon 
the  meaning  of  propitiation. 

"  From  this  comparison,  therefore,  of  the  X.  T..  the 
Sept..  and  the  Hebrew,  we  gather  the  following  con- 
clusions :  Propitiation,  giving  prominence  to  the  sec- 
ondary meaning  of  HS3,  kaphar,  and  the  primary 
meaning  of  tZiXaOKOfiai,  is  an  act  prompting  to  the 
exercise  of  mercy,  and  providing  for  its  exercise  in  a 
way  consistent  with  justice;  Expiation,  giving  promi- 
nence to  the  primary  meaning  of  1£3  and  the  second- 
ary meaning  of  i'iiKaoKOfiai,  is  an  act  which  provides 
for  the  removal  of  sin,  and  cancels  the  obligation  to 
punishment;  Atonement,  giving  prominence  to  both, 
and  meaning  expiation  and  propitiation  combined. 
Chrisfs  atonement  is  said  to  be  by  substitution,  for  he 
suffered  in  our  stead,  and  he  bears  our  sin  ;  and  it  is  by 
satisfaction,  for  the  broken  law  is  vindicated,  all  the 
purposes  of  punishment  are  answered  with  honor  to 
the  Lawgiver,  and  eventual  holiness  to  the  Christian. 
Its  result  is  reconciliation  (tca-aWa-/)))  ;  the  moral  sen- 
timent of  justice  in  God  is  reconciled  to  the  sinner,  and 
provision  is  made  for  the  removal  of  our  enmity;  and 
it  is  redemption,  or  actual  deliverance  for  a  price  from 
sin  in  its  guilt  and  dominion,  from  all  misery,  and 
from  death.  Salvation  is  also  actual  deliverance,  but 
without  a  distinct  reference  to  a  price  paid.  Atone- 
ment,  therefore,  is  something  offered  to  God;  redemp- 
tion or  salvation  is  something  bestowed  upon  man; 
atonement  is  the  ground  of  redemption,  and  redemption 
is  the  result  of  atonement  (Isa.  liii,  4-9, 10, 12).  The 
design  of  the  first  is  to  satisfy  God's  justice,  the  design 
of  tli-  second  to  make  man  blessed;  the  first  was  fin- 
ished upon  the  cross,  the  second  is  in  daily  operation, 
and  will  not  be  completed  in  the  ease  of  the  whole 
church  till  the  consummation  of  all  things  (Dan.  ix, 
l1  :  Eph.  iv.SO)." 

■J.  The  Scripiurt  doctrim  of  the  vicarious  sacrifice 
of  Chrisl  is  taughl  in  the  passages  above  cited,  and 
indeed  seems  t"  underlie  the  whole  "  gospel"  of  salva- 
ntaincd  in  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  his  apos- 
tles. Ii  may  be  Btated  further  (1)  that  the  sacrifices 
of  the  < ».  T.  were  (at  hast  many  of  them)  expiatory 
[see  this  shown  under  Expiation],  and  the  terms 
used  by  Christ  and  his  apostles  (ransom,  sacrifice,  of- 
fering, etc.  i  were  necessarily  understood  by  their  hear- 
era  in  the  sense  which  they  had  been  accustomed  for 
ages  to  attach  to  them.  (2)  If  this  be  so.  then  noth- 
ing could  "  be  more  misleading,  and  even  absurd,  than 
to  employ  those  terms  which,  both  among  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  were  in  use  to  express  the  various  processes 


and  means  of  atonement  and  piacular  propitiation,  if 
the  apostles  and  Christ  himself  did  not  intend  to  rep- 
resent his  death  strictly  as  an  expiation  for  sin ;  mis- 
leading, because  such  would  be  the  natural  and  neces- 
sary inference  from  the  terms  themselves,  which  had 
acquired  this  as  their  established  meaning;  and  absurd, 
because  if,  as  Socinians  say,  they  used  them  metaphor- 
ically, there  was  not  even  an  ideal  resemblance  be- 
tween the  figures  and  that  which  it  was  intended  to 
illustrate.  So  totally  irrelevant,  indeed,  will  those 
terms  appear  to  any  notion  entertained  of  the  death 
of  Christ  which  excludes  its  expiatory  character,  that 
to  assume  that  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  used  them  as 
metaphors  is  profanety  to  assume  them  to  be  such 
writers  as  would  not  in  any  other  case  be  tolerated ; 
writers  wholly  unacquainted  with  the  commonest  rules 
of  language,  and,  therefore,  wholly  unfit  to  be  teach- 
ers of  others,  and  that  not  only  in  religion,  but  in 
things  of  inferior  importance"  (Watson,  Diet.  s.  v. 
Expiation). 

Immediately  upon  the  first  public  manifestation  of 
Christ,  John  the  Baptist  declares,  when  he  sees  Jesus 
coming  to  him,  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  ta- 
keth  away  the  sin  of  the  world"  (John  i,  29) :  where 
it  is  obvious  that,  when  John  called  our  Lord  "the 
Lamb  of  God,"  he  spoke  of  him  under  a  sacrificial 
character,  and  of  the  effect  of  that  sacrifice  as  an  atone- 
ment for  the  sins  of  mankind.  This  was  said  of  our 
Lord  even  before  he  entered  on  his  public  office ;  but 
if  any  doubt  should  exist  respecting  the  meaning  of 
the  Baptist's  expression,  it  is  removed  by  other  pas- 
sages, in  which  a  similar  allusion  is  adopted,  and  in 
which  it  is  specifically  applied  to  the  death  of  Christ 
as  an  atonement  for  sin.  In  the  Acts  (viii,  32)  the 
following  words  of  Isaiah  (liii,  7)  are  by  Philip  the 
Evangelist  distinctly  applied  to  Christ  and  to  his 
death  :  "  He  was  led  as  a  sheep  to  the  slaughter ;  and 
like  a  lamb  dumb  before  his  shearer,  so  opened  he  not 
his  mouth:  in  his  humiliation  his  judgment  was  taken 
away :  and  who  shall  declare  his  generation  ?  for  his 
life  is  taken  from  the  earth."  This  particular  part  of 
the  prophecy  being  applied  to  our  Lord's  death,  the 
whole  must  relate  to  the  same  subject,  for  it  is  un- 
doubtedly cne  entire  prophecy  ;  and  the  other  expres- 
sions in  it  are  still  stronger:  "He  was  wounded  for 
our  transgressions;  he  was  bruised  for  our  iniquities; 
the  chastisement  of  our  peace  was  upon  him  ;  and  with 
his  stripes  we  are  healed :  the  Lord  hath  laid  on  him 
the  iniquity  of  us  all."  In  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter 
is  also  a  strong  and  very  apposite  text,  in  which  the 
application  of  the  term  "lamb"  to  our  Lord,  and  the 
sense  in  which  it  is  applied,  can  admit  of  no  doubt: 
"  Forasmuch  as  ye  know  that  ye  were  not  redeemed 
with  corruptible  things,  but  with  the  precious  blood 
of  Christ,  as  of  a  lamb  without  blemish  and  without 
spot"  (1  Pet.  i,  IS,  19).  It  is  therefore  evident  that 
the  prophet  Isaiah,  seven  hundred  years  before  the 
Lirth  of  Jesus;  that  John  the  Baptist,  at  the  eon  - 
mencement  of  Christ's  ministry;  and  that  Peter,  his 
companion  and  apostle,  subsequent  to  the  transaction, 
speak  of  Christ's  death  as  an  atonement  for  sin  under 
the  figure  of  a  lamb  sacrificed.  The  passages  that  fol- 
low plainly  and  distinctly  declare  the  atoning  efficacy 
of  Christ's  death  :  "  Now  once  in  the  end  of  the  world 
hath  he  appeared  to  put  away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of 
himself."  "Christ  was  once  offered  to  bear  the  sins 
of  many  ;  and  unto  them  that  look  for  him  shall  he  ap- 
pear the  second  time  without  sin  unto  salvation"  (Heb. 
ix,  26,  28).  "This  man,  after  he  had  offered  one  sac- 
rifice for  sin,  forever  sat  down  on  the  right  hand  of 
(hid;  for  by  one  offering  he  hath  perfected  forever 
them  that  are  sanctified"  (Ileb.  x,  12).  It  is  observa- 
ble that  nothing  similar  is  said  of  the  death  of  any  oth- 
er person,  and  that  no  such  efficacy  is  imputed  to  any 
other  martyrdom.  "  While  we  were  yet  sinners  Christ 
died  for  us  ;  much  more  then,  being  now  justified  by 
|  his  llood,  we  shall  be  saved  from  wrath  through  him ; 


ATONEMENT 


517 


ATONEMENT 


for  if,  when  we  were  enemies,  we  were  reconciled  to 
God  by  the  death  of  his  Son,  much  more,  being  rec- 
onciled, we  shall  be  saved  by  his  life"  (Rom.  v,  8-10). 
The  words  "  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his  Son" 
show  that  his  death  had  an  efficacy  in  our  reconcilia- 
tion ;  but  reconciliation  is  only  preparatory  to  salva- 
tion. "  lie  has  reconciled  us  to  his  Father  in  his  cross, 
and  in  the  body  of  his  flesh  through  death''  (Col.  i,  20, 
22).  "What  is  said  of  reconciliation  in  these  texts  is  in 
some  others  spoken  of  sanctitication,  which  is  also  pre- 
paratory to  salvation.  "We  are  sanctified" — how? 
"by  the  offering  of  the  body  of  Christ  once  for  all" 
(Ileb.  x,  10).  In  the  same  epistle  (x,  20),  the  blood  of 
Jesus  is  called  "the  blood  of  the  covenant  by  which 
we  are  sanctified."  In  these  and  many  other  passages 
that  occur  in  different  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  it 
is  therefore  asserted  that  the  death  of  Christ  was  effica- 
cious in  the  procuring  of  human  salvation.  Such  ex- 
pressions are  used  concerning  no  other  person,  and  the 
death  of  no  other  person ;  and  it  is  therefore  evident 
that  Christ's  death  included  something  more  than  a 
confirmation  of  his  preaching;  something  more  than 
a  pattern  of  a  holy  and  patient  martyrdom  ;  something 
more  than  a  necessary  antecedent  to  his  resurrection, 
by  which  he  gave  a  grand  and  clear  proof  of  our  resur- 
rection from  the  dead.  Christ's  death  was  all  these, 
but  it  was  much  more.  It  was  an  atonement  for  the 
sins  of  mankind,  and  in  this  way  only  it  became  the  ac- 
complishment of  our  eternal  redemption. 

The  teaching  of  the  New  Testament,  and  the  agree- 
ment  of  the  statements  of  Christ  with  those  of  his 
apostles  on  this  subject,  are  thus  set  forth  (without  re- 
gard to  theological  distinctions)  by  Dr.  Thomson,  bish- 
op of  Gloucester:  "God  sent  his  Son  into  the  world 
to  redeem  lost  and  ruined  man  from  sin  and  death, 
and  the  Son  willingly  took  upon  him  the  form  of  a  ser- 
vant for  this  purpose  ;  and  thus  the  Father  and  the  Son 
manifested  their  love  for  us.  God  the  Father  laid 
upon  his  Son  the  weight  of  the  sins  of  the  whole  world, 
so  that  he  bare  in  his  own  body  the  wrath  which  men 
must  else  have  borne,  because  there  was  no  other  way 
of  escape  for  them  ;  and  thus  the  atonement  was  a  man- 
ifestation of  divine  justice.  The  effect  of  the  atone- 
ment thus  wrought  is  that  man  is  placed  in  a  new  po- 
sition, freed  from  the  dominion  of  sin,  and  able  to  fol- 
low holiness,  and  thus  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement 
ought  to  work  in  all  the  hearers  a  sense  of  love,  of 
obedience,  and  of  self-sacrifice.  In  shorter  words,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  death  of  Christ  is  a  proof  of  divine  love 
and  of  divine  justice,  and  is  for  us  a  document  of  obe- 
dience. Of  the  four  great  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Peter,  Paul,  and  John  set  forth  every  one  of 
these  points.  Peter,  the  '  witness  of  the  sufferings  of 
Christ,'  tells  us  that  we  were  'redeemed  with  the  blood 
of  Jesus,  as  of  a  lamb  without  blemish  and  without 
spot;'  says  that  "Christ  bare  our  sins  in  his  own  body 
on  the  tree.'  If  we  '  have  tasted  that  the  Lord  is  gra- 
cious,' we  must  not  rest  satisfied  with  a  contemplation 
of  oar  redeemed  state,  but  must  live  a  life  worthy  of 
it.  Xo  one.  can  well  doubt,  who  reads  the  two  epis- 
tles, that  the  love  of  God  and  Christ,  and  the  justice 
of  Cod,  and  the  duties  thereby  laid  on  us,  all  have  their 
value  in  them;  but  the  love  is  loss  dwelt  on  than  the 
justice,  while  the  most  prominent  idea  of  all  is  the 
moral  and  practical  working  of  the  cross  of  Christ  upon 
the  lives  of  men.  With  St.  John,  again,  all  three 
points  find  place:  that  Jesus  willingly  laid  down  his 
life  for  us,  and  is  an  advocate  with  t lie  Father;  that 
He  is  also  the  propitiation,  the  suffering  sacrifice  for 
our  sins;  and  that  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  cleanseth 
us  from  all  sin,  for  that  whoever  is  born  of  God  doth 
not  commit  sin  :  all  are  put  forward.  The  death  of 
Christ  is  both  justice  and  love — both  a  propitiation  and 
an  act  of  loving  self-surrender;  but  the  moral  effect 
upon  us  is  more  prominent  even  than  these.  In  the 
epistles  of  Paul  the  three  elements  are  all  present : 
in  such  expressions  as  a  ransom,  a  propitiation  who 


was  '  made  sin  for  us,'  the  wrath  of  God  against  sin, 
and  the  mode  in  which  it  was  turned  away,  are  pre- 
sented to  us.  Yet  not  wrath  alone :  '  The  love  of 
Christ  constraineth  us  ;  because  we  thus  judge,  that 
if  one  died  for  all,  then  were  all  dead  ;  and  that  he  died 
for  all,  that  they  which  live  should  not  henceforth  live 
unto  themselves,  but  unto  him  which  died  for  them 
and  rose  again.'  Love  in  him  begets  love  in  us  ;  and, 
in  our  reconciled  state,  the  holiness  which  we  could 
not  practice  before  becomes  easy.  Now  in  which  of 
these  points  is  there  the  semblance  of  contradiction 
between  the  apostles  and  their  Master  ?  In  none  of 
them.  In  the  gospels,  as  in  the  epistles,  Jesus  is  held 
up  as  the  sacrifice  and  victim,  quaffing  a  cup  from 
which  his  human  nature  shrank,  feeling  in  him  a 
sense  of  desolation  such  as  we  fail  utterly  to  compre- 
hend on  a  theory  of  human  motives.  Yet  no  one  takes 
from  him  his  precious  redeeming  life ;  he  lays  it  down 
of  himself  out  of  his  great  love  for  men;  but  men  are 
to  deny  themselves,  and  take  up  their  cross,  and  tread 
in  his  steps.  They  are  his  friends  only  if  they  keep 
his  commands  and  follow  his  footsteps"  (Aids  to  Faith, 
p.  337.  See  also  Storr  and  Flatt,  Biblical  Theology, 
§  G5-70). 

II.  History  of  the  Doctrine.— (1.)  The  Fathers.— Tn 
the  earl  j' ages  of  the  church  the  atoning  work  of  Christ 
was  spoken  of  generally  in  the  words  of  Scripture. 
The  value  of  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ,  in  the 
work  of  redemption,  was  from  the  beginning  both  held 
in  Christian  faith,  and  also  plainly  set  forth,  but  the 
doctrine  was  not  scientifically  developed  by  the  primi- 
tive fathers.  But  it  is  one  thing  to  admit  that  the 
atonement  was  not  sti:ntifira.l!y  apprehended,  and  quite 
another  thing  to  assert  that  it  was  not  realty  held  at 
all  in  the  sense  of  vicarious  sacrifice.  The  relation 
between  the  death  of  Christ  and  the  remission  of  sins 
was  not  a  matter  of  much  dispute  in  that  early  period. 
The  person  of  Christ  was  the,  great  topic  ofmetaphys- 
ico-theological  inquiry,  and  it  was  not  until  after  this 
was  settled  by  the  general  prevalence  of  the  Nicene 
Creed  that  anthropological  and  soteriological  ques- 
tions come  up  into  decided  prominence.  Baur  (in 
whose  Yersbhnungslehre  this  subject  is  treated  with  am- 
ple learning,  though  often  with  dogmatic  assertion  of 
conclusions  arrived  at  hastily  and  without  just  ground) 
admits  that  in  the  writings  of  the  apostolical  fathers 
there  is  abundant  recognition  of  the  sacrificial  and  re- 
demptive death  of  Christ.  Thus  Barnabas  :  "  The 
Lord  condescended  to  deliver  his  body  to  death,  that, 
by  remission  of  our  sins,  we  might  be  sanctified,  and 
this  is  effected  by  the  shedding  of  his  blood"  (c.  v). 
So  also  Clement  quotes  Isa.  liii  and  I'sa.  xxii,  7,  0, 
adding,  "His  blood  was  shed  for  our  salvation;  by 
the  will  of  God  he  has  given  his  body  for  our  body, 
his  soul  for  our  soul."  Similar  passages  exist  in  Ig- 
natius and  Polycarp,  and  stronger  still  in  the  Epist.  ad 
Diognet.  ch.  ix.  (See  citations  in  Shedd,  History  of 
Doctrines,  bk.  v,  ch.  i:  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines, 
§08;  Thomson, Hampton  Lectures,  1853,  Lect. vi).  In 
the  second  century  Justin  Martyr  (A.I).  147)  says  that 
"the  Father  willed  that  bis  Christ  should  take  upon 
himself  the  curses  of  all  for  the  whole  race  of  man" 
(Dial.  c.  Tryjh.  95).  "  In  Justin  may  be  found  the 
idea  of  satisfaction  rendered  by  ( 'hrist  through  suffer- 
ing, at  least  lying  at  the  bottom,  if  not  clearly  grasped 
in  tin'  form  of  conscious  thought"  (Dial.  c.  Tryph.  c. 
30;  Neander,  Ch.  History,  i,  642).  The  victory  of  the 
death  of  Christ  over  the  power  of  the  devil  begins  now 
to  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  idea  of  the  atonement. 
Baur  maintains  that  this  was  really  due  to  Gnostic 
ideas  taken  up  into  the  line  of  Christian  thought ; 
"that  as  the  relation  between  the  Demiurge  and  Re- 
deemer was,  in  the  Marcionitc  and  Ophitic  systems, 
essentially  hostile,  so  the  death  of  Jesus  was  a  contri- 
vance of  the  Demiurge,  -which  failed  of  its  purpose 
and  disappointed  him."  Baur  asserts  that  Irenseus 
(A.D.  180)  borrowed  this  idea  from  Gnosticism,  only 


ATONEMENT 


51S 


ATONEMENT 


substituting  Satan  for  the  Demiurge.  But  Dorncr 
shows  clearly  that  [rcnams,  with  entire  knowledge  of 
Gnosticism,  repelled  all  its  ideas,  and  that  Baur's 
charge  rests  upon  a  misinterpretation  of  a  passage 
(tidv.ffcer.  v.  1,  1)  in  which,  although  the  Satanic  idea 
is  prominent,  it  is  far  removed  from  Gnosticism  (Dor- 
ner,  Person  of  Christ,  i,  463;  see  also  Shedd^Hist.  of 
Doctrines,  ii,  213).  Baur's  theory  that  the  founda- 
tions of  the  doctrine  of  vicarious  satisfaction  were  laid 
in  the  notion  that  it  was  the  claims  of  Satan,  and  not 
of  God,  that  were  satisfied,  falls  to  the  ground ;  for 
'•  if  this  theory  can  he  found  in  any  of  the  fathers,  it 
is  in  Irenseus"  (Shedd,  1.  c).  Nevertheless,  it  is  true 
(though  not  in  the  Gnostic  spirit)  that  Irenseus  repre- 
sents the  sufferings  of  Christ  as  made  necessary  by  the 
hold  of  Satan  on  man,  and  ia  order  to  a  rightful  de- 
liverance from  that  bondage.  Tertullian  (A.D.  200) 
uses  the  word  satisfactio,  but  not  with  reference  to  the 
vicarious  sufferings  of  Christ,  yet  in  several  of  his 
writings  he  assumes  the  efficacious  work  of  Christ's 
sufferings  for  salvation.  In  the  Alexandrian  fathers 
we  find,  as  might  be  expected,  the  Gnostic  influence 
more  obvious,  and  the  idea  of  ransom  paid  to  the  devil 
comes  out  full}'  in  Origen  (A.D.  230).  Yet  it  is  going 
quite  too  far  to  say  that  Origen  does  not  recognise  the 
vicarious  'suffering  of  Christ;  so  (Horn.  24  en  Num- 
bers) he  saj's  that  "  the  entrance  of  sin  into  the  world 
made  a  propitiation  necessary,  and  there  can  be  no 
propitiation  without  a  sacrificial  offering."  Dr.  Shedd 
finds  the  general  doctrine  of  the  Alexandrian  school 
inconsistent  with  vicarious  atonement,  and  interprets 
the  special  passages  which  imply  it  accordingly;  but 
in  this  lie  differs  from  Thomasius  (Origenes,  Niirnb. 
1837)  and  Thomson  (Bawpion  Lectun  s).  Origen  doubt- 
less held  the  vicarious  atonement,  though  it  was  mixed 
up  with  speculations  as  to  the  value  of  the  blood  cf 
the  martyrs,  and  debased  by  his  fanciful  views  of 
the  relation  of  Christ's  work  to  the  devil.  This  was 
carried  to  a  greater  extent  by  later  fathers,  e.  g. 
Gregory  of  Nj'ssa  (A.D.  370),  who  says  in  substance 
that  the  devil  was  cheated  in  the  transaction  by  a 
just  retaliation  for  his  deception  of  men:  "Men  have 
come  under  the  dominion  of  the  devil  by  sin.  Jesus 
offered  himself  to  the  devil  as  the  ransom  for  which 
he  should  release  all  others.  The  crafty  devil  as- 
si  nted,  I  ecaue  ■  he  cared  mere  for  the  one  Jesus,  who 
was  so  much  superior  to  him,  than  for  all  the  rest. 
But,  notwithstanding  his  craft,  he  was  deceived,  since 
he  could  not  retain  Jesus  in  his  power.  It  was,  as  it 
were,  a  deception  on  the  part  of  God  («— an]  tic  ten 
rpi'iTTvv  riva),  that  Jesus  veiled  his  divine  nature, 
which  the  devil  would  have  feared,  by  means  of  his 
humanity,  and  thus  deceived  the  devil  by  the  appear- 
ance of'flesh"  (Graf.  Catech.  22-2G).  Athanasius 
(A.D.  370),  on  the  other  hand,  not  onfy  maintained 
the  expiation  of  Christ,  but  rejected  the  fanciful  Satan 
theorj  i  //.  fncarn.  Virbi,  vi,  et  al.).  Cyril  of  Jerusa- 
lem (A.D.  350)  (Catech.  xii,  §  83)  enters  more  deeply 
into  this  doctrine,  developing  a  theory  to  show  why  it 
sary  that  Jesus  should  die  for  man.  Similar 
re  expressed  by  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  Grego- 
ry of  Nazianzen,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  and  Chrysostom 
ler,  Dogmengeschickte,  p.  383).  Several  of 
'I;  i  fathers  also  maintain  that  Christ,  by  his  death, 
did  more  than  would  have  been  necessary  for  the  re- 
■i  of  men.  They  undertook  to  show  that  Christ 
alone  was  able  to  achieve  redemption,  and  discussed 
the  qualities  which  were  necessary  for  his  redemptive 
character.  The  e  di  cus  iont  are  especially  met  with 
in  tli"  writings  against  the  Arians  and  the  Ncstorians. 
Augustine  (  \.l>.  C98)  was  occupied  more,  in  all  Ids 
controversies,  with  anthropology  than  with  poteriolo- 

gy,  but  the  vici  rioui   al ment  is  clearly  taught  or 

implied  in  his  D<  /'•"•,/.  Meritls,  i.  56,  and  in  other 
places;  bul  l>  ■  called  those  <!■  Its.  (stulli)  who  main- 
tained that  God  could  provide  no  other  means  of  re- 
demption (2)i    \gom  Christ,  c.lf).    Gregory  the  Great 


(A.D.  590)  taught  the  doctrine  with  groat  clearness, 
and  approached  the  scientific  precision  of  a  later  age 
(Moralia,  xvii,  46).  Little  is  to  be  added  to  these 
statements  up  to  the  time  of  Anselm.  Enough  has 
been  said  to  show  that,  although  the  earlier  view  may 
have  been  incomplete  and  mingled  with  error,  it  is 
wrong  to  assert,  as  Baur  and  his  English  followers 
(Jowett,  Garden,  etc.)  do,  that  the  "  doctrine  of  substi- 
tution is  not  in  the  fathers,  and  laj'  dormant  till  the 
voice  of  Anselm  woke  it;  or  that  Anselm  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  doctrine."  (Ccmp.  Brit,  and  For.  Ex. 
Review,  Jan.  1861,  p.  48.) 

2.  The  Scholastic  Period. — Nevertheless,  Anselm 
(f  1100)  undoubtedly  gave  the  doctrine  a  more  scien- 
tific form  by  giving  the  central  position  to  the  idea 
of  satisfaction  to  the  divine  justice  {Cur  Dtus  hemof 
transl.  in  Bibliofheca  Sacra,  vols,  xi,  xii).  Nicholas 
of  Methone  (11th  or  12th  cent.  ?),  in  the  Greek  Church, 
developed  the  necessity  of  vicarious  satisfaction  from 
the  nature  of  God  and  his  relations  to  man,  but  it  is 
not  certain  that  he  had  not  seen  Anselm's  writings. 
Anselm's  view  is,  in  substance,  as  follows  :  "The  in- 
finite guilt  which  man  had  contracted  by  the  dishonor 
of  his  sin  against  the  infinitely  great  God  could  be 
atoned  fcr  by  no  mere  creature;  only  the  God-man 
Christ  Jesus  could  render  to  God  the  infinite  satisfac- 
tion required.  God  only  can  satisfy  himself.  The 
human  nature  of  Christ  enables  him  to  incur,  the  in- 
finity of  his  divine  nature  to  pay  this  debt.  But  it 
was  incumbent  upon  Christ  as  a  man  to  order  his  life 
according  to  the  law  of  God  ;  the  obedience  of  his  life, 
therefore,  was  not  able  to  render  satisfaction  for  our 
guilt.  But,  although  he  was  under  obligation  to  live 
in  obedience  to  the  law,  as  the  Holy  One  he  was  under 
no  obligation  to  die.  Seeing,  then,  that  he  neverthe- 
less voluntarily  surrendered  his  infinitely  precious  life 
to  the  honor  of  God,  a  recompense  frcm  God  became 
his  due,  and  his  recompense  consists  in  the  forgive- 
ness of  the  sins  of  his  brethren"  (Chambers,  Eneycl.  s. 
v. ;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  Bohn's  eel.  ii,  517).  An- 
selm rejects  entirely  the  claims  of  Satan,  and  places 
the  necessity  of  atonement  entirely  in  the  justice  of 
God.  His  theory  is  defective  with  regard  to  the  ap- 
propriation of  the  merits  of  Christ  by  the  believer; 
tut,  on  the  whole,  it.  is  substantially  that  in  which  the 
Christian  Church  has  rested  from  that  time  forward. 
His  doetrine  was  opposed  by  Abelard,  who  treated  the 
atonement,  in  its  relation  to  the  love  of  God,  and  not 
to  his  justice,  giving  it  moral  rather  than  legal  sig- 
nificance. Peter  Lombard  seems  confusedly  to  blend 
Abelard's  views  and  Anselm's.  Thomas  Aquinas  de- 
veloped Anselm's  theory,  and  brought  out  also  the 
superabundant  merit  of  his  death,  while  he  does  not 
clearly  affirm  the  absolute  necessity  of  the  death  of 
Christ  (Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  §  181).  See 
Aquinas.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  in  opposition  to 
Abelard,  1  rought  up  again  the  idea  of  the  claims  of 
Satan.  Duns  Scotus,  in  opposition  to  Anselm,  denied 
the  necessity  of  Christ's  death,  and  denied  also  that  the 
satisfaction  rendered  was  an  equivalent  for  the  claims 
of  justice,  holding  that  God  accepted  Christ's  sacrifice 
as  sufficient.  See  AccErTii.ATio.  On  the  -u  hole,  the 
scholastic  period  left  two  streams  of  thought  closcfy 
allied,  yet  with  an  element  of  difference  afterward 
fully  developed,  viz.  the  Anselmic,  of  the  satisfaction 
of  divine  justice,  absolutely  considered;  and  that  of 
Aquinas,  that  this  satisfaction  was  relative,  and  also 
superabundant.  The  Romish  doctrine  of  supereroga- 
tion and  indulgence  doul  tless  grew  out  of  this. 

.'!.  From  the  Reformation. — All  the  great  confessions 
—Greek,  Roman,  Lutheran,  Reformed,  and  Methodist 
— agree  in  placing  the  salvation  of  the  sinner  in  the 
mediatorial  work  of  Christ.  But  there  are  various 
modes  of  apprehending  the  doctrine  in  this  period  (sec 
Winer,  Comparat.  Darstt Hung,  ch.  vii).  The  Council 
of  Trent  cenfounds  justification  with  sanctification, 
and  hence  denies  that  the  satisfaction  of  Christ  is  the 


ATONEMENT 


519 


ATONEMENT 


sole  ground  of  the  remission  of  sin  (Canones,  De  Justifi- 
catione,  vii,  viii).  The  Romanist  writers  generally 
adopt  the  "  acceptilation"  theorj'  of  Scotns  rather  than 
that  of  Anselra,  and  hold  that  the  death  of  Christ  made 
satisfaction  only  for  sins  before  baptism,  while  as  to 
sins  after  baptism  only  the  eternal  punishment  du< 
to  them  is  remitted ;  so  that,  for  the  temporal  punish 
ment  due  to  them,  satisfaction  is  still  required  by  pen 
ance  and  purgatory.  Luther  does  not  treat  of  satis 
faction  in  any  special  treatise  ;  he  was  occupied  rather 
with  the  appropriation  of  salvation  by  faith  alone, 
though  he  held  fast  the  doctrine  of  expiation  through 
Christ.  So,  in  Melancthon's  Loci,  and  in  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  (A.D.  1530),  the  atoning  work  of 
Christ  is  fully  stated,  but  under  the  head  of  justifying 
faith.  "Men  are  justified  gratuitously  for  Christ 
sake  through  faith  when  they  believe  that  they  are 
received  into  favor,  and  that  their  sins  are  remitted  on 
account  of  Christ,  who  made  satisfaction  for  our  trans- 
gressions by  his  death.  This  faith  God  imputes  to  us 
as  righteousness"  (Augsburg  Confession,  art.  iv).  The 
distinction  between  the  active  and  passive  obedience  of 
Christ  came  later ;  its  first  clear  statement  in  the  Lu- 
theran Church  is  in  the  Formula  of  Concord  (157G)  : 
"That  righteousness  which  is  imputed  to  the  believer 
simply  by  the  grace  of  God  is  the  obedience,  the  suffer- 
ing, and  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  by  which  he  has 
satisfied  the  claims  of  the  law  and  atoned  for  our  sins. 
For  as  Christ  is  not  merely  man,  but  God  and  man  in 
one  person,  he  was,  as  Lord  of  the  law,  no  more  sub- 
ject to  it  than  he  was  subject  to  suffering  death ;  hence 
not  only  his  obedience  to  God  the  Father,  as  exhibited 
in  his  sufferings  and  death,  but  also  by  his  righteous 
fulfilment  of  the  law  on  our  behalf,  is  imputed  to  us, 
and  God  acquits  us  of  our  sins,  and  regards  us  as  just 
in  view  of  his  complete  obedience  in  what  he  did  and 
suffered,  in  life  and  in  death"  (Francke,  Lib.  Symj. 
68.3).  Nor  did  this  distinction  appear  early  among  the 
Calvinists  any  more  than  among  the  Lutherans.  Cal- 
vin joins  them  together  (Institutes,  bk.  ii,  §  16, 5).  None 
of  the  reformed  confessions  distinguish  between  the 
active  and  passive  obedience  before  the  Formula  Con- 
sensus Helvetica  (1675  ;  comp.  Guericke,  Symbolik,  §  47). 

The  Socinians  deny  the  vicarious  atonement  entire- 
ly. They  assert  that  satisfaction  and  forgiveness  are 
incompatible  ideas  ;  that  the  work  of  atonement  is  sub- 
jective, i.  e.  the  repentance  and  moral  renovation  of 
the  sinner  ;  that  God  needs  no  reconciliation  with  man. 
Christ  suffered,  not  to  satisfy  the  divine  justice,  but  as 
a  martyr  to  his  truth  and  an  example  to  his  followers. 
Socinus  did,  however,  admit  that  the  death  of  Christ 
affords  a  pledge  of  divine  forgiveness,  and  of  man's 
resurrection  as  following  Christ's  (see  Winer,  Comp. 
Darstellung,  vii,  1 ;  and  comp.  Hagenbach,  History  of 
Doctrines,  §  268  ;  Shedd,  Hist,  of  'Doctrines,  bk.  v). 

In  opposition  to  Socinus,  Grotius  wrote  his  D/fensio 
fidei  Cathol.  de  Satisfactione  (1617),  which  forms  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  the  doctrine.  He  deduced  the 
necessity  of  satisfaction  from  the  administrative  or 
rectoral  justice  of  God,  and  not  from  his  retributive 
justice.  He  taught  that  the  prerogative  of  punishing 
is  to  be  ascribed  to  God,  not  as  an  injured  party,  but 
as  moral  governor  of  the  world.  So  the  prerogative 
of  substitution,  in  place  of  punishment,  belongs  to  God 
as  moral  governor.  If,  by  any  other  means  than  pun- 
ishment, he  can  vindicate  the  claims  of  justice,  he  is  at 
liberty,  as  moral  governor,  to  use  those  means.  The 
atonement  does  thus  satisfy  justice  ;  and  through 
Christ's  voluntary  offering,  the  sinner  can  be  pardoned 
and  the  law  vindicated.  The  defect  of  this  theory  lies 
in  its  not  referring  the  work  of  Christ  sufficiently  to  the 
nature  of  God,  contemplating  it  rather  in  its  moral  as- 
pects as  an  exhibition  of  the  evil  of  sin.  The  Dutch 
Arminian  divines  bring  out  more  prominently  the  idea 
of  sacrifice  in  the  death  of  <  Ihrist.  The  Methodist  the- 
ology' asserts  the  doctrine  of  satisfaction  strongly,  e.  g. 
"Watson:  "Satisfaction  [by  the  death  of  Christ]  by 


Christ  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  merely  fit  and  wise 
expedient  of  government  (to  which  Grotius  leans  too 
much),  for  this  may  imply  that  it  was  one  of  many 
other  possible  expedients,  though  the  best ;  whereas 
we  have  seen  that  it  is  everywhere  in  Scripture  repre- 
sented as  necessary  to  human  salvation,  and  that  it  is 
to  be  concluded  that  no  alternative  existed  but  that  of 
exchanging  a  righteous  government  for  one  careless 
and  relaxed,  to  the  dishonor  of  the  divine  attributes, 
and  the  sanctioning  of  moral  disorder,  or  the  uphold- 
ing of  such  government  by  the  personal  and  extreme 
punishment  of  every  offender,  or  else  the  acceptance 
of  the  vicarious  death  of  an  infinitely  dignified  and 
glorious  being,  through  whom  pardon  should  be  of- 
fered, and  in  whose  hands  a  process  for  the  moral  res- 
toration of  the  lapsed  should  be  placed.  The  humilia- 
tion, sufferings,  and  death  of  such  a  being  did  most 
obviously  demonstrate  the  righteous  character  and  ad- 
ministration of  God  ;  and  if  the  greatest  means  we  can 
conceive  was  employed  for  this  end,  then  we  may  safe- 
ly conclude  that  the  righteousness  of  God  in  the  for- 
giveness of  sin  could  not  have  been  demonstrated  by 
inferior  means ;  and  as  God  cannot  cease  to  be  a  right- 
eous governor,  man  in  that  case  could  have  had  no 
hope"  (Watson,  Theol.  Institutes,  vol.  ii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  xx). 
The  Arminian  theology  did  nevertheless,  maintain 
that  God  is  free,  not  necessitated  as  moral  governor, 
and  that  the.  satisfaction  of  Christ  has  reference  to  the 
general  justice  of  God,  and  not  to  his  distributive  jus- 
tice. The  Methodist  theology  also  brings  out  promi- 
nently the  love  of  God,  which  is  organic  and  eternal  in 
him — his  essential  nature — as  the  source  of  redemp- 
tion, and  holds  that  the  free  manifestation  of  the  divine 
love  is  under  no  law  of  necessity.  Even  Ebrard,  one 
of  the  most  eminent  modern  writers  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  sets  this  forth  as  a  great  service  rendered  to 
theology  by  the  Arminians  (Ebrard,  Lehre  der  stellver- 
tretenden  Genug'huiing,  Konigsb.  1857,  p.  25  ;  compare 
also  Warren,  in  Methodist  Quarterly,  duly,  1866,  390  sq. ; 
and,  on  the  other  side,  Shedd,  History  of  Doctrines,  bk. 
v,  ch.  v;  and  his  Discourses  and  Essays,  291).  Hill 
(Calvinist),  in  his  Lectures  on  Divinity  (bk.  iv,  ch.  iii), 
appears  to  adopt  the  Grotian  theory. 

Extent  of  the  Atonement. — One  of  the  most  important 
questions  in  the  modern  Church  with  regard  to  the 
atonement  is  that  of  its  extent,  viz.  whether  the  bene- 
fits of  Christ's  death  were  intended  by  God  to  extend 
to  the  whole  human  race,  or  only  to  a  part.  The  for- 
mer view  is  called  universal  or  general  atonement; 
the  latter,  particular,  or  limited.  What  is  called  the 
strict  school  of  Calvinists  holds  the  latter  doctrine,  as 
stated  in  the  Westminster  Confession.  "As  God  hath 
appointed  the  elect  unto  glory,  so  hath  he,  by  the  eter- 
nal and  most  free  purpose  'of  his  will,  foreordained  all 
the  means  thereunto.  Wherefore  they  who  are  elect- 
ed, being  fallen  in  Adam,  are  redeemed  by  Christ;  are 
effectually  called  unto  faith  in  Christ  by  his  Spirit 
working  in  due  season  ;  are  justified,  adopted,  sancti- 
fied, and  kept  by  his  power  through  faith  unto  salva- 
tion. Neither  are  any  other  redeemed  by  Christ, 
effectually  called,  justified,  adopted,  sanctified,  and 
saved,  but  the  elect  only"  (ch.  iii,  §  6;  comp.  also  ch. 
viii,  §§  5  and  8).  The  so-called  moderate  (or  modern) 
Calvinists,  the  Arminians,  the  Church  of  England,  and 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  adopt  the  doctrine 
of  general  or  universal  atonement.  See  Calvinism. 
The  advocates  of  a  limited  atonement  maintain  that 
the  atonement  cannot  properly  be  considered  apart 
from  its  actual  application,  or  from  the  intention  of  the 
author  in  regard  to  its  application  ;  that,  in  strictness 
of  speech,  the  death  of  Christ  is  not  an  atonement  to 
any  until  it  be  applied ;  that  the  sufferings  of  the 
Lamb  of  God  are  therefore  truly  vicarious,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  Christ,  in  suffering,  became  a  real  substi- 
tute for  his  people,  was  charged  with  their  sins,  and 
bore  the  punishment  of  them,  and  thus  has  made  a  full 
and  complete  satisfaction  to  divine  justice  in  behalf  of 


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ATOXEMEXT 


all  who  shall  ever  believe  on  him:  that  this  atonement 
will  e\  entually  he  applied  to  all  for  whom  in  the  divine 
intention  it  was  made,  or  to  all  to  whom  God  in  his 
sovereignty  has  been  pleased  to  decree  its  application. 
But  th  y  believe  that  although  the  atonement  is  to 
be  properly  considered  as  exactly  commensurate  with 
its  intended  application,  yet  that  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
did  offer  a  sacrifice  sufficient  in  its  intrinsic  value  to 
expiate  the  sins  of  the  whole  world,  and  that,  if  it  had 
been  the  pleasure  of  God  to  apply  it  to  every  individ- 
ual, the  whole  human  race  would  have  been  saved  by 
its  immeasurable  worth.  They  hold,  therefore,  that, 
on  the  -round  of  the  infinite  value  of  the  atonement, 
the  offer  of  salvation  can  be  consistently  and  sincerely 
made  to  all  who  hear  the  Gospel,  assuring  them  that 
if  they  will  believe  they  shall  be  saved ;  whereas,  if  [ 
they  wilfully  reject  the  overtures  of  mercy,  they  will  i 
increase  their  guilt  and  aggravate  their  damnation. 
At  the  same  time,  as  they  believe,  the  Scriptures  plain-  I 
ly  teach  that  the  will  and  disposition  to  comply  with 
this  condition  depends  upon  the  sovereign  gift  of  God, 
and  that  the  actual  compliance  is  secured  to  those  only 
for  whom,  in  the  divine  counsels,  the  atonement  was 
specifically  intended.  The  doctrine,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  Christ  died  fcr  all  men,  so  as  to  make  sal-  i 
ration  attainable  by  all  men,  is  maintained,  first  and 
chiefly,  on  scriptural  ground,  viz.  that,  according  to 
the  whole  tenor  of  Scripture,  the  atonement  of  Christ 
was  made  for  all  men.  The  advocates  of  this  view  ad-  j 
duce,  (1.)  Passages  which  expressly  declare  the  doc-  ! 
trine,  [a]  Those  which  say  that  Christ  died  "for  all  i 
men,"  and  speak  of  his  death  as  an  atonement  for  the  ' 
sins  of  the  whole  world,  [b]  Those  which  attribute 
an  equal  extent  to  the  death  of  Christ  as  to  the  effects 
of  the  fall.  (2.)  Passages  which  necessarily  imply  the 
doctrine,  viz. :  [a]  Those  which  declare  that  Christ 
died  not  only  for  those  that  are  saved,  but  for  those 
who  do  or  may  perish.  \b~]  Those  which  make  it  the 
duty  of  men  to  believe  the  Gospel,  and  place  them  un- 
der guilt  and  the  penalty  of  death  for  rejecting  it.  [c] 
Those  in  which  men's  failure  to  obtain  salvation  is 
placed  to  the  account  of  their  own  opposing  w  ills,  and 
made  wholly  their  own  fault.  (See  the  argument  in 
full,  on  the  Arminian  side,  in  Watson,  T/ieol.  Institutes, 
Li,  284  sq. ;  Storr  and  Flatt,  Bibl.  Theology,  bk.  iv,  pt. 
ii;  Fletcher,  Works,  ii,  63  ct  al.)  The  Arminian  doc- 
trine is  summed  up  in  the  declaration  that  Christ  "  ob- 
tained (impetravit)  for  all  men  by  his  death  reconcili- 
ation and  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  but  upon,  this  con- 
dition, that  none  actually  possess  and  enjoy  this  for- 
giveness of  sins  except  belie  vers"  (.4  eta  Synod.  Eemonst. 
pt.  ii,  p.  280  ;  Nicholls,  Arminianism  and  Calvinism,  p. 
114  sq. ).  It  has  been  asserted  (e.  g.  by  Amyraut,  q.  v.) 
that  Calvin  himself  held  to  general  redemption;  and 
certainly  his  language  in  his  Comm.  in  Job,  iii,  15, 16, 
and  in  1  Tim.  ii,  5,  seems  fairly  to  assert  the  doctrine. 
Cornp.  Fletcher,  Works  (N.  Y.  ed.  ii,  71);  but  see  also 
Cunningham,  The  Reformers  (Essay  vii).  As  to  the 
variations  of  the  Calvinistic  confessions,  see  Hagen- 
bach,  History  of  Doctrines,  %  "2-19.  In  the  French  Re- 
formed Church,  the  divines  of  Saumur,  Camero,  Amy- 
raldus,  and  Placseus  maintained  universal  grace  (see 
the  articles  on  these  names).  The  English  divines  who 
attended  the  Synod  of  Dort  (Hall,  Hales,  Davenant) 
;.ll  advocated  general  atonement,  in  which  they  were 
follow,-.]  by  Baxter  (JJn'versal  Redemption;  Metliodus 
Tkeolcffice;  Orme,  l.f<  of  Beater,  ii,  64).  The  most 
abb-  advocate  of  universal  grace  in  the  17th  century 
was  John  Goodwin,  Redemption  Redeemed,  1G50  (see 
Ja.k-,. ii.  Lift  of  Goodwin,  1828). 

on  the  other  hand,  Owen,  the  so-called  strict  Cal- 
vinists  of  England,  and  the  Old-School  Presbyterian 
church  in  America,  adhere  to  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion, interpreting  it  as  maintaining  limited  atonement. 
Their  doctrine  on  tin'  whole  subject  in  substance  is, 
that  the  atonement  was  made  and  intended  only  for 
the  elect ;  and  that  its  necessity  with  respect  to  them 


arose  out  of  the  eternal  justice  of  God,  which  required 
that  every  individual  should  receive  his  due  desert; 
and,  consequently,  that  the  sufferings  of  Christ  were 
the  endurance  of  punishment  equivalent  in  amount  of 
suffering,  if  not  identical  in  nature  (as  Owen  main- 
tains) with  that  to  which  the  elect  were  exposed  ;  and, 
moreover,  that  the  meritorious  obedience  of  Christ  in 
fulfilling  the  law  imputes  a  righteousness  to  those  for 
whom  the  atonement  secures  salvation,  which  gives 
them  a  claim  to  the  reward  of  righteousness  in  ever- 
lasting life.  The  differences  of  view  in  the  two  divis- 
ions of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  America  are  thus 
stated  by  Dr.  Duffield  :  "  Old-School  Presbyterians 
regard  the  satisfaction  rendered  to  the  justice  of  God 
by  the  obedience  and  death  of  Christ  as  explicable 
upon  principles  of  justice  recognised  among  men  in 
strict  judiciary  procedures.  "While  they  concede  that 
there  is  grace  on  the  part  of  God  in  its  application  to 
the  believer,  inasmuch  as  he  has  provided  in  Christ  a 
substitute  for  him,  they  nevertheless  insist  that  he  is 
pardoned  and  justified  of  God  as  judge,  and  as  matter 
of  riglit  and  strict  justice  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  inas- 
much as  his  claims  against  him  have  all  been  met  and 
satisfied  by  his  surety.  The  obligations  in  the  bond 
having  been  discharged  by  his  security,  the  judge, 
according  to  this  view,  is  bound  to  give  sentence  of 
release  and  acquittal  to  the  original  failing  party,  the 
grace  shown  being  in  the  acceptance  of  the  substitute. 
Their  ideas  of  the  nature  of  the  divine  justice,  exer- 
cised in  the  pardon  and  justification  of  the  sinner  be- 
cause of  the  righteousness  of  Christ,  are  all  taken  from 
the  transactions  of  a  court  of  law.  New-School  Pres- 
byterians, equally  with  the  Old,  concede  the  grace  of 
God  in  the  substitution  of  Christ,  the  whole  work  of 
his  redemption  to  be  the  development  of  'the  exceed- 
ing riches  of  his  grace  in  his  kindness  toward  us 
through  Jesus  Christ;'  but  they  prefer  to  regard  and 
speak  of  the  atonement  of  Christ,  his  obedience  and 
death,  by  which  he  satisfied  the  justice  of  God  for  our 
[  sins,  as  the  great  expedient  and  governmental  proce- 
dure adopted  by  the  great  God  of  heaven  and  of  earth 
|  in  his  character  of  chief  executive,  the  governor  of 
the  universe,  in  order  to  magnify  his  law  and  make  it 
honorable,  rather  than  as  a  juridical  plea  to  obtain  a 
sentence  in  court  for  discharging  an  accused  party  on 
trial"  (Bibliotheca  Sacra,  xx,  G18). 

The  doctrine  of  Payne,  Wardlaw,  Pyc  Smith,  and 
other  so-called  moderate  Calvinists  in  England,  and  of 
many  in  America,  is  in  substance  that  the  atonement 
consists  in  "that  satisfaction  for  sin  which  was  ren- 
dered to  God  as  moral  governor  of  the  world  by  the 
obedience  unto  death  of  his  son  Jesus  Christ.  This 
satisfaction  preserves  the  authority  of  the  moral  gov- 
ernment of  God,  and  yet  enables  him  to  forgive  sin- 
ners. That  this  forgiveness  could  not  be  given  by 
God  without  atonement  constitutes  its  necessity.  The 
whole  contents  of  Christ's  earthly  existence,  embra- 
cing both  his  active  and  passive  obedience — a  distinc- 
tion which  is  unsupported  by  the  Word  of  God — must 
be  regarded  as  contributing  to  the  atonement  which 
he  made.  As  to  the  '  extent'  of  the  atonement,  there 
is  a  broad  distinction  to  be  made  between  the  sufficien- 
cy of  the  atonement  and  its  effi<  iency.  It  may  be  true 
that  Jehovah  did  not  intend  to  exercise  that  influence 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  all  which  is  necessary  to  se- 
cure the  salvation  of  any  one  ;  but  as  the  atonement 
was  to  become  the  I  asis  of  moral  government,  it  was 
necessary  Ihat  it  should  be  one  of  infinite  worth,  and 
so  in  itself  adequate  to  the  salvation  of  all."  In  New 
England  the  younger  Edwards  (f  1801)  modified  the 
Calvinistic  doctrine  of  the  atonement,  representing  it, 
as  the  Arminians  do,  as  a  satisfaction  to  the  gener- 
al justice,  and  not  to  the  distributive  justice  of  God. 
Among  American  Calvinistic  divines  Dr.  E.  D.  Grif- 
fin holds  a  very  high  place.  His  "Mumble  Attempt 
to  reconcile  the  DijJ\  renrcs  of  Christians''  was  repub- 
lished by  Dr.  E.  A.  Park  in  1859.  in  a  volume  of  es- 


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521 


ATONEMENT 


jays  en  the  atonement  by  eminent  New  England  di- 
vines. A  summary  of  it  is  given  in  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  for  Jan.  1858,  and  is  noticed  in  the  Methodist 
Quarterly,  April,  1858,  p.  311.  "Dr.  Griffin  held  that 
the  atonement  was  not  a  literal  suffering  of  the  penal- 
ty, nor  a  literal  satisfaction  of  the  distributive  justice 
of  God,  nor  a  literal  removal  of  our  desert  of  eternal 
death,  nor  a  literal  surplusage  of  Christ's  meritorious 
personal  obedience  becoming  our  imputed  obedience. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  atonement  was  a  divine  meth- 
od by  which  the  literal  suffering  of  the  penalty  might 
be  dispensed  with,  by  which  government  could  lie  sus- 
tained and  honored  without  inflicting  distributive  jus- 
tice, by  which  the  acceptors  of  the  work  might  lie  saved 
without  the  removal  of  their  intrinsic  desert  of  hell ; 
and  all  this  without  imputing  Christ's  personal  obedi- 
ence as  our  personal  obedience,  but  by  Christ  obtain- 
ing a  meritorious  right  to  save  us,  as  his  own  exceed- 
ing great  reward  from  God."  The  article  named  in 
the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  contains  a  valuable  sketch  of 
the  rise  of  the  "Edwardean  theory  of  the  atonement," 
and  sums  up  that  theory  itself  as  follows:  "1.  Our 
Lord  suffered  pains  which  were  substituted  for  the 
penalty  of  the  law,  and  may  be  called  punishment  in 
the  more  general  sense  of  that  word,  but  were  not, 
strictly  and  literally,  the  penalty  which  the  law  had 
threatened.  2.  The  sufferings  of  our  Lord  satisfied 
the  general  justice  of  God,  but  did  not  satisfy  his  dis- 
tributive justice.  3.  The  humiliation,  pains,  and  death 
of  our  Redeemer  were  equivalent  in  meaning  to  the 
punishment  threatened  in  the  moral  law,  and  thus 
they  satisfied  Him  who  is  determined  to  maintain  the 
honor  of  this  law,  but  they  did  not  satisfy  the  demands 
of  the  law  itself  for  our  punishment.  4.  The  active 
obedience,  viewed  as  the  holiness  of  Christ,  was  hon- 
orable to  the  law,  but  was  not  a  work  of  supereroga- 
tion performed  by  our  substitute,  and  then  transferred 
and  imputed  to  us,  so  as  to  satisfy  the  requisitions  of 
the  law  for  our  own  active  obedience.  The  last  three 
statements  are  sometimes  comprehended  in  the  more 
general  proposition  that  the  atonement  was  equal,  in 
the  meaning  and  spirit  of  it,  to  the  payment  of  our 
debts  ;  but  it  was  not  literally  the  payment  of  either 
our  debt  of  obedience  or  our  debt  of  punishment,  or 
any  other  debt  which  we  owed  to  law  or  distributive 
justice.  Therefore,  5.  The  law  and  the  distributive 
justice  of  God,  although  honored  by  the  life  and  death 
of  Christ,  will  yet  eternally  demand  the  punishment 
of  every  one  who  has  sinned.  G.  The  atonement  ren- 
dered it  consistent  and  desirable  for  God  to  save  all 
who  exercise  evangelical  faith,  yet  it  did  not  render  it 
obligatory  in  him,  in  distributive  justice,  to  save  them. 
7.  The  atonement  was  designed  for  the  welfare  of  all 
men,  to  make  the  eternal  salvation  of  all  men  possible, 
to  remove 'all  the  obstacles  which  the  honor  of  the 
law  and  of  distributive  justice  presented  against  the 
salvation  of  the  non-elect  as  well  as  the  elect.  8.  The 
atonement  does  not  constitute  the  reason  why  some 
men  are  regenerated  and  others  not,  but  this  reason  is 
found  only  in  the  sovereign,  electing  will  of  God  : 
'  Even  so,  Father,  for  so  it  seemed  good  in  thy  sight.' 
9.  The  atonement  is  useful  on  men's  account,  and  in 
order  to  furnish  new  motives  to  holiness;  but  it  is 
necessary  on  God's  account,  and  in  order  to  enable 
him,  as  a  consistent  ruler,  to  pardon  any,  even  the 
smallest  sin,  and  therefore  to  bestow  on  sinners  any, 
even  the  smallest  favor."  That  tiiis  so-called  "Ed- 
wardean theory"  is  in  substance  the  Arminian  theory, 
is  shown  by  Dr.  Warren  in  the  Methodist  Quarterly  for 
July,  18G0.  See  also  Fiske,  The  New  England  Theolo- 
gy {Bibliotheca  Sacra,  18G5,  p.  577). 

As  to  minor  forms  of  opinion  we  must  be  very  brief. 
The  orthodox  Quakers  admit  the  doctrine  of  the  aton- 
ing death  of  Christ,  but  not  the  full  Anselmic  doc- 
trine of  satisfaction  ;  thus  W.  Penn  :  "  We  cannot  say 
the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ  were  a  strict  and 
rigid  satisfaction  for  that  eternal  death  and  miserv 


due  to  man  for  sin  and  transgression.  As  Christ  died 
for  sin,  so  we  must  die  to  sin,  or  we  cannot  be  saved 
by  the  death  and  sufferings  of  Christ."  Barclay 
treats  redemption  as  twofold :  one  wrought  out  in  the 
body  of  Christ  upon  the  cross,  the  other  wrought  in  man 
by  the  spirit  of  Christ  (Apol.  Thes.  vii,  3).  Zinzendorf 
and  the  Moravians  made  the  doctrine  of  atonement,  in 
its  more  internal  connection  with  the  Christian  life, 
the  essence  of  Christianity,  but  at  the  same  time  gave 
to  it  a  certain  sensuous  aspect.  On  mystical  grounds, 
the  doctrine  of  atonement  was  altogether  rejected  by 
Swedenborg.  Kant  assigned  to  the  death  of  Christ 
only  a  symbolico- moral  significance:  "Man  must, 
after  all,  deliver  himself.  A  substitution,  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word,  cannot  take  place ;  moral 
liabilities  are  not  transmissible  like  debts.  The  sin- 
ner who  reforms  suffers,  as  does  the  impenitent  ; 
but  the  former  suffers  willingly  for  the  sake  of  vir- 
tue. Now  what  takes  place  internally  in  the  re- 
pentant sinner  takes  place  in  Christ,  as  the  personi- 
fication of  the  idea  of  suffering  for  sin.  In  the  death 
which  he  suffered  once  for  all,  he  represents  for  all 
mankind  what  the  new  man  takes  upon  himself  while 
the  old  man  is  dying"  {Religion  innerhalb  d.  Grenzen 
d.  blos'sen  Vernunft,  p.  87,  cited  by  Hagenbach,  His- 
tory of  Doctrines,  §  3C0).  The  Rationalists  of  Ger- 
many lost  sight  even  of  the  symbolical  in  the  merely 
moral,  but  De  Wette  made  the  symbolical  more  prom- 
inent. Schleiermacher  represented  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  as  vicarious,  but  not  as  making  satisfaction ; 
and  his  obedience  as  making  satisfaction,  but  not  as 
vicarious.  He  held  that  "  the  redeeming  and  atoning 
principle  is  not  the  single  fact  that  Christ  died,  but 
the  vital  union  of  man  with  Christ.  By  means  of 
this  vital  union,  man  appropriates  the  righteousness 
of  Christ"  (Schleiermacher,  Christl.  Glaube.  ii,  103, 
128,  cited  by  Hagenbach,  1.  c).  The  Hegelian  spec- 
ulative school  of  German  theology  regards  the  death 
of  the  God-man  as  "the  cessation  of  being  another 
(Aufheben  des  Anderssein),  and  the  necessary  return 
of  the  life  of  God,  which  had  assumed  a  finite  form, 
into  the  sphere  of  the  infinite."  Some  of  the  strict  su- 
pernaturalists  (e.  g.  Sticr)  find  fault  with  the  theory 
of  Anselm,  and  endeavor  to  substitute  for  it  one  which 
they  regard  as  more  scriptural;  and  in  1856,  even 
among  the  strict  Lutherans  of  Germany,  a  controversy 
arose  on  this  doctrine  which  is  at  present  (18G6)  not  yet 
ended;  Prof.  Hofmann,  in  Erlangen,  rejects  the  idea 
of  vicarious  satisfaction,  which  is  defended  by  Prof. 
Philippi  and  others.  Schneider,  in  Stud.  u.  Krit.  Sept. 
18G0,  shows  clearly  that  Ansclm's  doctrine  is  that  of 
the  Lutheran  as  well  as  of  the  Reformed  Church,  in 
opposition  to  Hofmann,  who  maintains  that  his  view 
accords  with  the  church  doctrine  as  well  as  with 
Scripture.  See  also  Smith's  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of  Doc- 
trines, §  300,  and  the  references  there  given.  The  mod- 
ern Unitarian  view  may  perhaps  be  safely  gathered, 
in  its  best  form,  from  the  following  statement  of  one 
of  its  ablest  writers:  "'There  is  one  mediator  be- 
tween God  and  men,  the  man  Christ  Jesus.'  This 
can  only  refer  to  unrivalled  pre-eminence,  not  to  ex- 
clusive function.  For  all  higher  minds  do,  in  fact, 
mediate  between  their  less  gifted  fellow-creatures  and 
the  great  realities  of  the  invisible  world.  This  '  one1 
is  a  human  mediator,  'the  man  Christ  Jesus;'  not  a 
being  from  another  sphere,  an  angel,  or  a  God,  but  a 
brother  from  the  bosom  of  our  own  human  family. 
'  He  gave  himself  a  ransom  for  all1  who  embrace  his 
offers  and  will  hearken  to  his  voice.  He  brings  from 
God  a  general  summons  to  repent,  and  with  that  he 
conveys,  through  faith,  a  spiritual  power  to  shake  off 
the  bondage  of  sin,  and  put  on  the  freedom  of  a  new 
heart  and  a  new  life.  He  is  a  deliverer  from  the  pow- 
er of  sin  and  the  fear  of  death.  This  is  the  end  of  his 
mediation.  This  is  the  redemption  of  which  he  paid 
the  price.  His  death,  cheerfully  met  in  the  inevitable 
sequence  of  faithful  duty,  was  only  one  among  many 


ATONEMENT 


522 


ATONEMENT 


links  in  the  chain  of  instrumentalities  by  which  that 
deliverance  was  effected.  It  was  a  proof  such  as  could 
1  e  given  in  no  other  way  of  trust  in  God  and  immor- 
tality, "t"  fidelity  to  duty,*and  of  love  for  mankind.  In 
those  who  earnestly  contemplated  it  and  saw  all  that 
it  implied,  it  awoke*  a  tender  response  of  gratitude  and 
confidence  which  softened  the  obdurate  heart,  and 
opened  it  to  serious  impressions  and  the  quickening 
influences  of  a  religious  spirit"  (Tayler,  Christian  As- 
pects of  Faith  and  Duty). 

The  semi-infidelity  which  has  recently  sprung  up  in 
high  places  in  the  Church  of  England,  so  far  as  it  re- 
firs  to  the  atonement,  may  be  represented  by  Jowett 
as  follows:  "The  only  sacrifice,  atonement,  or  satis- 
faction with  which  the  Christian  has  to  do  is  a  moral 
and  spiritual  one ;  not  the  pouring  out  of  blood  upon 
the  earth,  but  the  living  sacrifice  'to  do  thy  will,  0 
Cod;'  in  which  the  believer  has  part  as  well  as  his 
Lord ;  about  the  meaning  of  which  there  can  be  no 
more  question  in  our  day  than  there  was  in  the  first 
ages."  "Heathen  and  Jewish  sacrifices  rather  show 
us  what  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  was  not,  than  what  it 
was.  They  are  the  dim,  vague,  rude,  almost  barbar- 
ous expression  of  that  want  in  human  nature  which 
has  received  satisfaction  in  him  only.  Men  are  afraid 
of  something;  they  wish  to  give  away  something; 
they  feel  themselves  bound  by  something ;  the  fear  is 
done  away,  the  gift  offered,  the  obligation  fulfilled  in 
Christ.  Such  fears  and  desires  can  no  more  occupy 
their  souls ;  they  are  free  to  lead  a  better  life ;  they 
are  at  the  end  of  the  old  world,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  a  new  one.  The  work  of  Christ  is  set  forth  in 
Scripture  tinder  many  different  figures,  lest  we  should 
rest  in  one  only.  His  death,  for  instance,  is  described 
as  a  ransom.  He  will  set  the  captives  free.  Ransom 
is  deliverance  to  the  captive.  '  Whosoever  commit- 
tetb.  sin  is  the  servant  of  sin.'  Christ  delivers  from 
sin.  '  If  the  Son  shall  make  you  free,  ye  shall  be  free 
indeed.'  To  whom  ?  for  what  was  the  ransom  paid  ? 
are  questions  about  which  Scripture  is  silent,  to  which 
reason  refuses  to  answer"  (Jowett,  On  St.  Paul's  Epis- 
tles, ii,  568).  See  also  Essays  and  Reviews;  Replies  to 
Essays  and  Reviews;  Ails  to  Faith  (all  republished  in 
New  York).  Maurice  (Theological  Essays;  Doctrine  of 
:  Tracts  for  Priests  and  People)  is  uncertain 
and  obscure  in  this,  as  in  other  points  of  theology  (see 
Rigg,  Anglican  Theolgy;  and  Bibliotheca  Sac?-a,  1865, 
G59).  The  so-called  Broad  School,  in  the  Church  of 
England,  tends  to  eviscerate  the  atonement  of  all 
meaning  except  as  a  moral  illustration  or  example. 
Dr.  Bushnell  (of  Hartford)  has  set  forth  some  of  the  old 
heresies  in  very  attractive  stjde  in  his  God  in  Christ 
(1819),  and  Vicarious  Sacrifice  (1865).  In  the  former 
work  he  distinguishes  three  forms  of  the  doctrine  of 
atonement  —  "the  Protestant  form,  which  takes  the 
ritualistic  (objective)  side  of  the  Gospel,  hut  turns  it 
into  a  human  dogma;  the  speculative,  or  philosophic 
form,  identifying  atonement  with  reconciliation  of 
men  unto  God,  one  of  the  varieties  of  which  is  the 
Unitarian  doctrine,  which  'pumps  out'  the  contents 
of  tin-  e  holy  forms;  and  the  Romish  form,  which  pass- 
es beyond  the  ritual,  objective  view,  and  Judaizes  or 
paganizes  it  by  dealing  with  blood  ;<s  a  real  and  mi- 
raculous entity."  In  the  later  work  he  makes  "the 
•  and  cross  of  Christ  his  simple  duty,  and  not 
any  superlative,  optional  kind  of  good,  outside  of  all 
the  common  principles  of  virtue.  .  .  .  rt  is  only  just 
.- >  good  a-  ii  ought  to  i.e.  or  the  highest  law  of  right 
required  it  to  be."  lie  holds  that  Christ  did  not  sat- 
isfy, by  his  own  Buffering,  the  violated  justice  of  God. 
Christ  did  not.  c,  on'  to  the  world  to  die,  but  died  sim- 
ply because  he  was  lore;  there  was  nothing  penal  in 
the  agony  and  tie-  cross;  the  importance  of  the  phys- 
i  al  Bufferings  ofChrisI  consists  to  us  not  in  what  they 
are.  but  in  what  they  express  or  morally  signify; 
(  lni-t  is  not  a  ground,  but  a  power  of  justification. ; 
and  th  ■  lie'  raw  Sacrifices  were  not  types  of  Christ  to 


them  who  worshiped  in  them,  but  were  only  necessary 
as  types  of  Christian  language  (see  Method' st  Quart,  r- 
ly,  Jan.  1851,  p.  114;  American  Preshyt.  Review,  Jan. 
1866,  p.  162).  A  view  somewhat  similar  to  Bushnell' s 
is  given  by  Schultz,  Begriffd.  stellvertretenden  Leidens 
(Basel,  1864).      See  N.  Brit.  Rev.  June,  1867,  art.  iii. 

III.  Literature. — For  the  histonj  of  the  doctrine  of 
atonement,  see  Ziegler,  Hist.  doom,  de  Redemptione 
(Gutting.  1791) ;  Baur,  Lehre  v.  d.  Versohnung  ( 1  ubint;. 
1838,  8vo);  Thomasius,  Hist.  dogm.  de  Obed.  C/iristi  Ac- 
t'va  (Erlan  r.  1845)  ;  Cotta,  De  Hist.  Doct.  de  R<  <h  rr.pt. 
(in  Gerhard's  Loci,  t.  iv,  p.  1()5  sq.)  ;  Hagenbach,  his- 
tory of  Doctrines;  Shedd,  History  of  Doctrines,  bk.  v; 
Neander,  Planting  and  Training,  bk.  vi,  ch.  i;  Ibid. 
History  of  Doctrines ;  Cunningham,  Historical  Theolo- 
gy, vol.  ii,  ch.  xxiv;  Beck,  Dogmengeschichte,  p.  199 
sq. ;  Knapp,  Theology,  §  cx-exvi ;  Hase,  Dogmatik,  § 
119  ;  Wilson,  Hist  triced  Sketch  of  Opinions  on  the  Atone- 
ment (Philadel.  1817);  Gas?,  Geschichte  d.  Prot.  Dog- 
matik (Berlin,  1854-66,  3  vols.);  Heppe,  Dogmatik  d. 
Evang.  Ref.  Kirche,\oc.  xviii;  Weber,  Yom  Zorne  Got- 
tes,  1862  (with  preface  ly  Delitzsch,  containing  a  good 
condensed  history  of  the  doctrine  of  atonement). — On 
the  doctrine  of  edonement,  besides  the  books  on  systemat- 
ic theology  and  the  works  named  in  the  course  of  this  ar- 
ticle, see  Leblanc,  Genvgthuung  Christi  (Gicssen,  17S3 
8vo);  Loftier,  Lie  kirchl.  Genvgthuungslehre  (1796, 8vo; 
opposes  vicarious  atonement) ;  Tholuck,  Lehre  v.  d. 
Simde  unci  v.  Yersuhner ;  Thomasius  Christi  Person  una 
\Yerk,  t.  iii;  Sykes,  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Rah  mpiit  n 
!  (Lond.  1756,  8vo) ;  Kienlen,  De  Christi  Satisfact.  Yi- 
caria  (Argent.  1839)  ;  Edwards,  Necessity  of  Sqti fac- 
tion for  Sin  (Works,  vol.  ii) ;  Baur,  On  Grotian  Theo- 
ry, transl.  in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  ix,  259 ;  Coleridge, 
Aids  to  Refection,  and  review  in  Am.  Bib.  Repos.  July, 
18-14;  Baxter,  Universal  Redemption  (1650);  Goodwin, 
Redemption  Redeemed  (1650,  8vo)  ;  and  in  Dunn,  Good- 
win's Theology  (Lond.  1836,  12mo  ;  also  in  Goodwin's 
Exposition  of  Rom.  ix,  1663,  8vo) ;  Owen,  Works,  vol. 
v,  vi  (reply  to  Goodwin) ;  Home,  Extent  of  the  Death 
of  Christ  (reply  to  Owen,  1650)  ;  Barrow,  Works  ( N.  Y. 
ed.  ii,  77  sq.)  ;  Stillingfleet,  Cn  Christ" s  Satisfaction 
(maintains  the  view  of  Grotius;  Works,  vol.  iii);  Ma- 
gee,  On  Atonement  and  Sacrifice  (Lond.  1832,  5th  ed. 
3  vols.  8vo) ;  J.  Pye  Smith,  On  the  Sacrifice  of  Christ 
(Lond.  1813,  8vo)  ;  Jenkyn,  On  the  Extent  of  the  Atone- 
ment (Lond.  1842,  3d  ed.  8vo ;  Boston,  12mo);  Syming- 
ton, On  Atonement  and  Intercession  (New  York,  12mo); 
Shinn,  On  Salvation  (Philadel.  8vo);  Trench,  Hulsean 
Lectures  (1846),  and  Five  Sermons;  Gilbert,  The  Chris- 
tian Atonement  (London,  1852,  8vo) ;  Wardlaw,  J)is- 
courses  on  the  Atonement ;  Marshall,  Catholic  Duct  tine 
of  Redemption,  in  answer  to  Wardlaw  (Glasgow,  1844, 
8vo)  ;  Beman,  Christ  the  only  Sacrifice  (N.  Y.  1844, 
12mo);  reviewed  in  Princeton  Rev.  xvii,  84,  and  Meth. 
Quarterly,  vii,  379;  Penrose,  Moral  Principle  of  the 
Atonement  (London,  1843,  8vo,  maintains  the  natural 
availableness  of  repentance)  ;  Thomson  (Bp.  of  Glou- 
cester), Bampton  Lecture,  1853;  Oxenham  (Roman 
Catholic),  Doctrine  of  the.  Atonement  (Lond.  1865,  8vo) ; 
J.  M'L.  Campbell,  Nature  of  the  Atonement  (1856; 
makes  atonement  a  moral  work  of  confession  and  in- 
tercession"! ;  Candlish,  On  the  Atonement,  replj-  to  Mau- 
rice (London,  1861);  Wilson,  True  Doctrine  of  At  ne- 
ment  (London,  186(1);  Mellor,  Atonement  in  Relation  to 
Pardon  (I860);  Kern,  The  Atonement  (Lond.  1860); 
MTlvaine,  The  Atonement  (Lond.  1860);  Solly,  Doc- 
trine of .  1  ton,  in. Tit  (Lond.  1861) ;  Shedd,  Discourses  and 
Essay*,  272  sq.  (Andover,  LS62") ;  various  articles  in 
the  Princeton  Review  and  Bibliotheca  Sacra  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  controversy  within  the  Calvinistic  school 
as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  atonement;  also 
Barnes,  The  Atonement  (Philadel.  1859),  reviewed  in 
Princeton  Rev.  July,  1859.  For  the  Methodist  view, 
Methodist  Quarterly,  1846,  p.  392;  1847,  p.  382,  414; 
1860,  387;  1861,  653;  and  Dr.  Whedon's  article  on 
Methodist  theology,  Biblioth  ca  Sacra,  If  62,  256.    For 


ATONEMENT 


523 


ATONEMENT 


Unitarian  views,  Christian  Examine?;  :,  SG7 ;  xviii, 
142;  xxviii,  C3 ;  xxxiv,  1-16;  xxxvi,  3M  ;  xxxvii, 
403.  See  Expiation;  Redemption;  Satisfaction. 
ATONEMENT,  DAY  OF  (d^MSl  dl'i,  yom  hak- 
kippurim' ',  rfa?/  n/7Ae  expiations ;  Sept.  i)pina  i£i\aofiov, 
Vulg.  f/tVs  expiationvm  or'dies propitiations),  the  Jewish 
day  of  annual  expiation  for  national  sin.  In  the  Tal- 
mud  this  day  is  called  n^TlS  tVWP),  great  fasting,  and 
so  in  Philo,  vnartiag  iop-i)  (Lib.  de  Sept.  v,  47,  ed. 
Tauehn.)  ;  and  in  Acts  xxvii,  9,  ?/  vi]<jTtia.  The  Tal- 
mudical  writers,  however,  often  designate  it  merely  as 
N-T,  the  day;  a  circumstance  which  has  suggested 
to  some  commentators  the  notion  that  by  rjfikpa  (Heb. 
vii,  27)  the  apostle  intended  this  atonement  day. 
Though  perhaps  originally  meant  as  a  temporary  day 
of  expiation  for  the  sin  of  the  golden  calf  (as  some 
would  infer  from  Exod.  xxxiii),  yet  it  was  permanent- 
ly instituted  by  Moses  as  a  day  of  atonement  for  sins 
in  general ;  indeed,  it  was  the  great  day  of  national 
humiliation,  and  the  only  one  commanded  in  the  Mo- 
saic law,  though  the  later  Jews,  in  commemoration  of 
some  disastrous  events,  especially  those  which  occurred 
at  and  after  the  destruction  of  the  two  temples,  insti- 
tuted a  few  more  fast  days,  which  they  observed  with 
scarcely  less  rigor  and  strictness  than  the  one  ordained 
by  Moses  for  the  purpose  of  general  absolution  (Hot- 
tinger,  Solen.  expiationum  diei,  Tigur.  1754).    See  Fast. 

I.  The  Time. — It  was  kept  on  the  tenth  day  of  Tisri, 
that  is,  from  the  evening  of  the  ninth  to  the  evening 
of  the  tenth  of  that  month,  five  days  before  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles.  See  Festival.  This  would  corre- 
spond to  the  early  part  of  October.  See  Calendar 
(Jewish).  This  great  fast,  like  all  others  among  the 
Jews,  commenced  at  sunset  of  the  previous  da}',  and 
lasted  twenty-four  hours,  that  is,  from  sunset  to  sun- 
set, or,  as  the  rabbins  will  have  it,  until  three  stars 
were  visible  in  the  horizon. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Day. 

II.  Commemorative  Signification.— Some  have  infer- 
red from  Lev.  xvi,  1,  that  the  day  was  instituted  on 
account  of  the  sin  and  punishment  of  Nadab  and  Abi- 
hu.  Maimonides  (Jfore  Nevochim,  xviii)  regards  it  as 
a  commemoration  of  the  day  on  which  Moses  came 
down  from  the  mount  with  the  second  tables  of  the 
law,  and  proclaimed  to  the  people  the  forgiveness 
of  their  great  sin  in  worshipping  the  golden  calf 
Oh  v.). 

III.  Scriptural  Prescriptions  respecting  it.  —  The 
mode  of  its  observance  is  described  in  Lev.  xvi,  where 
it  should  be  noticed  that  in  v.  3  to  10  an  outline  of  the 
whole  ceremonial  is  given,  while  in  the  rest  of  the 
chapter  certain  points  are  mentioned  with  more  details. 
The  victims  which  were  offered,  in  addition  to  those 
strictly  belonging  to  the  special  service  of  the  day,  and 
to  those  of  the  usual  daily  sacrifice,  are  enumerated  in 
Num.  xxix,  7-11 ;  and  the  conduct  of  the  people  is 
emphatically  enjoined  in  Lev.  xxiii,  2G-32.  The  cere- 
monies were  of  a  very  laborious  character,  especially 
for  the  high-priest,  who  had  to  prepare  himself  during 
the  previous  seven  days  in  nearly  solitary  confinement 
for  the  peculiar  services  that  awaited  him,  and  abstain 
during  that  period  from  all  that  could  render  him  un- 
clean, or  disturb  his  devotions.  It  was  kept  by  the 
people  as  a  solemn  sabbath.  The}-  were  commanded 
to  set  aside  all  work  and  "to  afflict  their  souls,"  under 
pain  of  being  "cut  off  from  among  the  people."  It 
was  on  this  occasion  only  that  the  high-priest  was  per- 
mitted to  enter  into  the  Holy  of  Holies. 

1.  Having  bathed  his  person  and  dressed  himself 
entirely  in  the.  holy  white  linen  garments,  he  brought 
forward  a  young  bullock  for  a  sin-offering  and  a  ram 
for  a  burnt-offering,  purchased  at  his  own  cost,  on  ac- 
count of  himself  and  his  family,  and  two  young  goats 
for  a  sin-offering  with  a  ram  for  a  burnt-offering',  which 
were  paid  for  out  of  the  public  treasury,  on  account  of 
the  people.  He  then  presented  the  two  goats  before 
the  Lord  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  and  cast  lots 


upon  them.  On  one  lot  the  word  iliiTP  (i.  e.for  Je- 
hnrali)  was  inscribed,  and  on  the  other  ^TNT"3  (i.  e, 
for  Azazel).  He  next  sacrificed  the  young  bullock  as 
a  sin-offering  for  himself  and  his  family.  Taking  with 
him  some  of  the  blood  of  the  bullock,  he  filled  a  censer 
with  burning  coals  from  the  brazen  altar,  took  a  hand- 
ful of  incense,  and  entered  into  the  most  holy  place. 
He  then  threw  the  incense  upon  the  coals  and  envel- 
oped the  mercy-seat  in  a  cloud  of  smoke.  Then,  dip- 
ping his  finger  into  the  blood,  he  sprinkled  it  seven 
times  before  the  mercy-seat,  eastward.  ^  (See  Lev.  xvi, 
14.  The  English  version,  "upon  the  mercy-seat," 
appears  to  be  opposed  to  even-  Jewish  authority. 
[See  Drusius  in  loc.  in  the  Critici  Sacri."]  It  has,  how- 
ever the  support  of  Ewald's  authority.  The  Vulgate 
omits  the  clause ;  the  Sept.  follows  the  ambiguity  of 
the  Hebrew.  The  word  eastward  must  mean  either 
the  direction  in  which  the  drops  were  thrown  by  the 
priest,  or  else  on  the  east  side  of  the  ark,  i.  e.  the  side 
toward  the  vail.  The  last  clause  of  the  verse  may  be 
taken  as  a  repetition  of  the  command,  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis  on  the  number  of  sprinklings  :  "And  he  shall 
take  of  the  blood  of  the  bullock  and  sprinkle  it  before 
the  mercy-seat,  on  the  east ;  and  seven  times  shall  he 
sprinkle  the  blood  with  his  finger  before  the  mercy- 
seat.")  The  goat  upon  which  the  lot  "for  Jehovah" 
had  fallen  was  then  slain,  and  the  high-priest  sprinkled 
its  blood  before  the  mercy-seat  in  the  same  manner  as 
he  had  done  that  of  the  bullock.  Going  out  from  the 
Holy  of  Holies,  he  purified  the  holy  place,  sprinkling 
some  of  the  blood  of  both  the  victims  on  the  altar  of 
incense.  (That  the  altar  of  incense  was  thus  purified 
on  the  da}'  of  atonement  we  learn  expressly  from  Ex. 
xxx.  10.  Most  critics  consider  that  this  is  what  is 
spoken  of  in  Lev.  xvi,  18  and  20.  But  some  suppose 
that  it  is  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings  which  is  referred 
to  in  those  verses,  the  purification  of  the  altar  of  in- 
cense being  implied  in  that  of  the  holy  place  mention- 
ed in  ver.  16.  Abenezra  was  of  this  opinion  [see 
Drusius  in  loc.].  That  the  expression  "before  the 
Lord"  does  not  necessarily  mean  within  the  taber- 
nacle, is  evident  from  Ex.  xxix,  11.  If  the  golden 
altar  is  here  referred  to,  it  seems  remarkable  that  no 
mention  is  made  in  the  ritual  of  the  cleansing  of  the 
brazen  altar.  But  perhaps  the  practice  spoken  of  by 
Josephus  and  in  the  Mishna  of  pouring  what  remained 
of  the  mixed  blood  at  the  foot  of  the  large  altar  was 
an  ancient  one,  and  was  regarded  as  its  purification.) 
At  this  time  no  one  besides  the  high-priest  was  suffer- 
ed to  be  present  in  the  holy  place.  The  purification 
of  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  of  the  holy  place,  being  thus 
completed,  the  high-priest  laid  his  hands  upon  the  head 
of  the  goat  on  which  the  lot  "for  Azazel"  had  fallen, 
and  confessed  over  it  all  the  sins  of  the  people.  The 
goat  was  then  led,  by  a  man  chosen  for  the  purpose, 
into  the  wilderness,  into  "a  land  not  inhabited."  and 
was  there  let  loose. 

2.  The  high-priest  after  this  returned  into  the  holy 
place,  bathed  himself  again,  put  on  his  usual  garments 
of  office,  and  offered  the  two  rams  as  burnt-offerings, 
one  feu-  himself  and  one  for  the  people.  He  also  burnt 
upon  the  altar  the  fat  of  the  two  sin-offerings,  while 
their  flesh  was  carried  away  and  burned  outside  the 
camp.  Those  who  took  away  the  flesh  and  the  man 
who  had  led  away  the  goat  had  to  bathe  their  persons 
and  wash  their  clothes  as  soon  as  their  service  was 
performed. 

The  accessory  burnt-offerings  mentioned  Num.  xxix, 
7-11,  were  a  young  bullock,  a  ram,  seven  lambs,  and 
a  young  goat.  It  would  seem  that  (at  least  in  the 
time  of  the  second  Temple)  these  were  offered  1  y  the 
high-priest  along  with  the  evening  sacrifice  (see  be- 
low, V,  7). — Smith,  s.  v. 

3.  The  ceremonies  of  worship  peculiar  to  this  day 
alone  (besides  those  which  were  common  to  it  with  all 
other  days)  were  :  (1.)  That  the  high-priest,  in  his  pon- 


ATONEMENT 


524 


ATONEMENT 


tilie:il  dress,  confessed  his  own  sins  and  those  of  his 
family,  for  the  expiation  of  which  he  offered  a  bullock, 
on  which  he  laid  them;  (_•_».)  That  two  goats  were  set 
aside,  one  of  which  was  by  lot  sacrificed  to  Jehovah, 
While  the  other  (Aza/.kl),  which  was  determined  by 
lot  to  b  ■  set  at  liberty,  was  sent  to  the  desert  burdened 
with  the  .-ins  of  the  people.  (3.)  On  this  day,  also,  the 
high-priest  gave  his  blessing  to  the  whole  nation ;  and 
the  remainder  of  the  day  was  spent  in  prayers  and  oth- 
er works  of  penance.  It  may  be  seen  that  in  the  spc- 
cial  rites  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  there  is  a  natural 
gradation.  In  the  first  place,  the  high-priest  and  his 
family  are  cleansed;  then  atonement  is  made  by  the 
purified  priest  for  the  sanctuary  and  all  contained  in 
it ;  then  (if  the  view  to  which  reference  has  been  made 
be  6  irrect)  for  the  brazen  altar  in  the  court,  and,  last- 
ly, reconciliation  is  made  for  the  people.  —  Kitto,  s.  v. 

See  XlN'-OFFEIUXG. 

IV.  Statement  of  Josephus. — In  the  short  account  of 
the  ritual  of  the  day  which  is  given  by  this  Jewish 
writer  in  one  passage  (Ant.  iii,  10,  3),  there  arc  a  few 
particulars  which  are  worthy  of  notice.  His  words,  of 
course,  apply  to  the  practice  in  the  second  Temple, 
when  the  ark  of  the  covenant  had  disappeared.  He 
states  that  the  high-priest  sprinkled  the  blood  with  his 
finger  seven  times  on  the  ceiling  and  seven  times  on 
the  floor  of  the  most  holy  place,  and  seven  times  to- 
ward it  (as  it  would  appear,  outside  the  vail),  and 
round  the  golden  altar.  Then,  going  into  the  court, 
he  either  sprinkled  or  poured  the  blood  round  the  great 
alt  tr.  He  also  informs  us  that  along  with  the  fat, 
the  kidneys,  the  top  of  the  liver,  and  the  extremities 
(«i  t'£o\at)  of  the  victims  were  burned. 

Y.  Ruhbiivcal  Details. — The  treatise  of  the  Mishna, 
entitled  Yoma,  professes  to  give  a  full  account  of  the 
observances  of  the  day  according  to  the  usage  in  the 
second  Temple.  The  following  particulars  appear  ei- 
ther to  be  interesting  in  themselves,  or  to  illustrate  the 
language  of  the  Pentateuch. 

1.  The  high-priest  himself,  dressed  in  his  colored 
official  garments,  used,  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  to 
p  srform  all  the  duties  of  the  ordinary  daily  service, 
such  as  lighting  the  lamps,  presenting  the  daily  sacri- 
fices,  and  offering  the  incense.  After  this  he  bathed 
himself,  put  on  the  white  garments,  and  commenced 
the  special  rites  of  the  day.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
i  >1 1  Testament  to  render  it  improbable  that  this  was 
th  ■  original  practice. 

2.  The  high-priest  went  into  the  Holy  of  Holies  four 
times  in  the  course  of  the  day:  first,  with  the  censer 
and  iiuense,  while  a  priest  continued  to  agitate  the 
blood  of  the  bullock  lest  it  should  coagulate;  second- 
ly, with  the  blood  of  the  bullock;  thirdly,  with  the 
blood  of  the  goat;  fourthly,  after  havingoffered  the 
evening  sacrifice,  to  fetch  out  the  censer  and  the  plate 
which  hid  contained  the  incense.  These  four  en- 
trances, forming,  as  they  do,  parts  of  the  one  great 
annual  rite,  are  not  opposed  to  a  reasonable  view  of 
tie-  8f  itement  in  Heb.  ix,  7  (where  the  apostle  tells  us 
that  the  high-priest  entered  only  once  on  that  day, 
•in-.,  the  expression,  li.ira.%  tov  Ivtarou, may  refer  to 
the  ,,„,  day  in  the  year  when  such  a  service  alone  took 
place),  and  that  in  Josephus  {War,  v,  5,  7).     Three 

(,nl ntrances  seem  to  be  very  distinctly  implied  in 

Lev.  xvi.  12,  II,  and  15. 

3.  It  is  said  thai  the  blood  of  the  bullock  and  that 
of  the  goat  were  each  sprinkled  eight  times— once  to- 
ward the  ceiling,  and  seven  limes  on  the  floor.     This 

agree  with  the  WOrds  of  Josephus  (sec  above, 

I.  After  he  had  gone  into  the  most  holy  place  the 
third  tune,  and  had  returned  into  the  holy  place,  the 
high-priest  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  bullock  eight 
tines  toward  the  vail,  and  did  the  same  with  the  blood 
of  the  goat.  Having  then  mine;],.,!  the  blood  of  the 
two  victims  together  and  sprinkled  the  altar  of  incense 
with  the  mixture,  he  came  into  the  court  and  poured 


out  what  remained  at  the  foot  of  the  altar  of  burnt-of- 
fering. 

5.  Most  careful  directions  are  given  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  high-priest  for  the  services  of  the  day. 
For  seven  days  previously  he  kept  away  from  his  own 
house  and  dwelt  in  a  chamber  appointed  for  his  use. 
This  was  to  avoid  the  accidental  causes  of  pollution 
which  he  might  meet  with  in  his  domestic  life.  Hut, 
to  provide  for  the  possibility  of  his  incurring  some  un- 
cleanness  in  spite  of  this  precaution,  a  deputy  was  chos- 
en who  might  act  for  him  when  the  day  came.  In 
the  treatise  of  the  Mishna  entitled  "Pirke  Aboth,"  it 
is  stated  that  no  such  mischance  ever  befell  the  high- 
priest.  But  Josephus  (Ant.  xvii,  6,  4)  relates  an  in- 
stance of  the  high-priest  Matthias,  in  the  time  of  Her- 
od the  Great,  when  his  relation,  Joseph,  took  his  place 
in  the  sacred  office.  During  the  whole  of  the  seven 
days  the  high-priest  had  to  perform  the  ordinary  sacer- 
dotal duties  of  the  daily  service  himself,  as  well  as  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement.  On  the  third  day  and  on  the 
seventh  he  was  sprinkled  with  the  ashes  of  the  red 
heifer,  in  order  to  cleanse  him  in  the  event  of  his  hav- 
ing touched  a  dead  body  without  knowing  it.  On  the 
seventh  day  he  was  also  required  to  take  a  solemn  oath 
before  the  ciders  that  he  would  alter  nothing  whatev- 
er in  the  accustomed  rites  of  the  Day  of  Atonement. 
(This,  according  to  the  "Jerusalem  Gemara"  on  Yoma 
[quoted  by  Lightfoot],  was  instituted  in  consequence 
of  an  innovation  of  the  Sadducean  party,  who  had  di- 
rected the  high-priest  to  throw  the  incense  upon  the 
censer  outside  the  vail,  and  to  carry  it,  smoking,  into 
the  Holy  of  Holies.) 

6.  Several  curious  particulars  are  stated  regarding 
the  seap^-goat.  The  two  goats  of  the  sin-offering  were 
to  be  of  similar  appearance,  size,  and  value.  The  lots 
were  originally  of  boxwood,  but  in  later  times  they 
were  of  gold.  They  were  put  into  a  little  box  or  urn, 
into  which  the  high-priest  put  both  his  hands  and  took 
out  a  lot  in  each,  while  the  two  goats  stood  before  him, 
one  at  the  right  side  and  the  other  on  the  left.  The 
lot  in  each  hand  belonged  to  the  goat  in  the  correspond- 
ing position;  and  when  the  lot  "for  AzazeV'  happen- 
ed to  be  in  the  right  hand,  it  was  regarded  as  a  good 
omen.  The  high-priest  then  tied  a  piece  of  scarlet 
cloth  on  the  scape-goat's  head,  called  "the  scarlet 
tongue"  from  the  shape  in  which  it  was  cut.  Mai- 
monides  says  that  this  was  onby  to  distinguish  him,  in 
order  that  he  might  be  known  when  the  time  came 
for  him  to  be  sent  away.  But  in  the  Gemara  it  is  as- 
serted that  the  red  cloth  ought  to  turn  white,  as  a  token 
of  God's  acceptance  of  the  atonement  of  the  day,  re- 
ferring to  Isa.  i,  18.  A  particular  instance  of  such  a 
change,  when  also  the  lot  ufor  Azazel"  was  in  the 
priest's  right  hand,  is  related  as  having  occurred  in  the 
time  of  Simon  the  Just.  It  is  farther  stated  that  no 
such  change  took  place  for  forty  years  before  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  The  prayer  which  the  high- 
priest  uttered  over  the  head  of  the  goat  was  as  follows  : 
"  O  Lord,the  house  of  Israel,  thy  people,  have  trespass- 
ed, rebelled,  and  sinned  before  thee.  I  beseech  thee,  0 
Lord,  forgive  now  their  trespasses,  rebellions,  and  sins 
which  thy  people  have  committed,  as  it  is  written  in 
the  law  of  Moses,  thy  servant,  saying  that  in  that  day 
there  shall  be  'an  atonement  for  you  to  cleanse  you, 
that  ye  may  be  clean  from  all  your  sins  before  the 
Lord'  "  (Gemara  on  Yoma,  quoted  by  Frischmuth). 
The  goat  was  then  goaded  and  rudely  treated  by  the 
people  till  it  was  led  away  by  the  man  appointed.  As 
soon  as  il  reached  a  certain  spot,  which  seems  to  have 
been  regarded  as  the  commencement  of  the  wilderness, 
a  signal  was  made  by  some  sort  of  telegraphic  contri- 
vance to  the  high-priest,  who  waited  for  it.  The  man 
who  led  the  goat  is  said  to  have  taken  him  to  the  top 
of  a  high  precipice  and  thrown  him  down  backward,  so 
as  to  dash  him  to  pieces.  If  this  was  not  a  mistake  of 
the  writer  of  Yoma,  it  must  have  been,  as  Spencer  ar- 
gues, a  modern  innovation.     It  cannot  be  doubted  that 


ATONEMENT 


525 


ATONEMENT 


the  goat  was  originally  set  free.  Even  if  there  be  any 
uncertainty  in  the  words  of  the  Hebrew,  the  explicit 
rendering  of  the  Sept.  must  be  better  authority  than 
the  Talmud  (/cai  6  k'iairooTtWiov  tLv  x<['«pov  tov  81- 
KjTaXfdvou  fif  u<pi.cni>  k.  t.  X.  Lev.  xvi,  2G). 

7.  The  high-priest,  as  soon  as  he  had  received  the 
signal  that  the  goat  had  reached  the  wilderness,  read 
some  lessons  from  the  law,  and  offered  up  some  pray- 
ers. He  then  bathed  himself,  resumed  his  colored 
garments,  and  offered  either  the  whole  or  a  yreat  part 
of  the  necessary  offering  (mentioned  Num.  xxxix,  7- 
11)  with  the  regular  evening  sacrilice.  After  this  he 
washed  again,  put  on  the  white  garments,  and  entered 
the  most  holy  place  for  the  fourth  time,  to  fetch  out 
the  censer  and  the  incense-plate.  This  terminated  the 
special  rites  of  the  day. 

8.  The  Mishna  gives  very  strict  rules  for  the  fasting 
of  the  people.  In  the  law  itself  no  express  mention  is 
made  of  abstinence  from  food  ;  but  it  is  most  likely  im- 
plied in  the  command  that  the  people  were  "to  afflict 
their  souls."  According  to  Yoma,  every  Jew  (except 
invalids,  and  children  under  thirteen  years  of  age)  is 
forbidden  to  eat  anything  so  large  as  a  date,  to  drink, 
or  to  wash  from  sunset  to  sunset.— Smith,  s.  v. 

VI.  On  the  Scape-goat,  see  Azazel. 

VII.  Modern  Observance  of /he  Day. — The  day  pre- 
vious to  the  day  of  expiation,  the  strict  class  of  Jews 
provide  a  cock,  which  they  send  to  an  inferior  rabbi  to 
be  slain ;  the  person  whose  property  it  is  then  takes 
the  fowl  by  the  legs,  and  with  uplifted  hands  swings 
it  nine  times  over  the  heads  of  himself  and  his  com- 
pany, and  at  the  same  time  prays  to  God  that  the  sins 
they  have  been  guilty  of  during  the  year  may  enter 
into  the  fowl.  This  cock,  which  they  call  (Tn&3 
(pardon,  atonement),  seems  to  be  substituted  for  the 
scape-goat  of  old.  They  then  take  the  fowl  and  give 
it  to  the  poor  to  eat,  with  a  donation  according  to  their 
means.  On  the  same  evening,  one  hour  before  syn- 
agogue service,  the}-  partake  of  a  sumptuous  feast, 
which  they  call  taking  their  fast,  after  which  the}-  go 
to  the  synagogue.  In  the  great  synagogue  in  L<  n- 
don,  the  clerk  stands  up  in  the  midst,  where  a  large 
stage  is  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  the  singers, 
who  chant  the  customary  prayers.  The  clerk  offers 
up  a  blessing,  and  afterward  the  free-gift  offering. 
Every  man,  according  to  his  capacity  (but  it  is  not 
compulsory),  gives  a  sum,  which  is  offered  up,  and  in- 
serted in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose.  Most  of  the 
Jews  endeavor  on  this  occasion  to  provide  themselves 
with  the  best  apparel,  as  they  say  they  appear  before 
the  King  of  kings  to  have  their  final  doom  settled 
upon  them.  Then  begins  the  evening  prayer  of  the 
fast,  when  the  reader  and  chief  rabbi,  and  many  of  the 
congregation,  are  clad  with  the  shroud  in  which  they 
are  to  be  buried,  continuing  in  prayer  and  supplication 
for  upward  of  three  hours.  There  are  many  who  will 
stand  upon  one  spot  from  the  ninth  day  (of  Tisri)  at 
even  until  the  tenth  day  at  even ;  and  when  the  ser- 
vice is  ended  on  the  ninth  eve,  those  who  return  home 
ro  their  dwellings  come  again  in  the  morning  at  five 
o'clock,  and  continue  until  dark,  observing  the  follow- 
ing order:  First  are  said  the  morning  prayers,  which 
commence  as  soon  as  they  come  to  the  synagogue. 
After  saying  the  usual  prayers  and  supplications  pe- 
culiar to  the  day,  they  then  take  forth  the  Law,  and 
read  the  portion  Lev.  xvi ;  the  mopkter  (a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  Law  so  named  by  the  Jews)  is  Num.  xxix, 
7-11 ;  the  portion  from  the  prophets  from  Isa.  lvii,  14, 
to  the  end  of  chap,  lviii.  They  then  say  the  prayer 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  government  under  which  they 
dwell,  and  then  put  the  Law  into  the  ark  again,  which 
ends  the  morning  prayer,  after  having  continued  for 
six  hours  without  intermission.  They  next  say  the 
prayer  of  the  masoph  (i.  e.  "  addition"),  which  makes 
mention  of  the  additional  sacrilice  of  the  day  (Num. 
xxix,  7),  and  supplicates  the  Almighty  to  be  propi- 


tious to  them.  They  finally  say  the  offering  of  the 
day  from  Num.  xxix,  7-27.  They  abstain  from  food 
altogether  during  the  day.  For  many  more  ceremo- 
nies observed  among  the  present  Jews  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  see  Picard,  Ceremonies  et  Coutumes  Jieii- 
(ji<  uses,  etc.  t.  i,  c.  6,  p.  18. 

VIII.  Typical  Import  of  the  Entire  Observance.— As 
it  might  be  supposed,  the  Talmudists  miserably  de- 
graded the  meaning  of  the  Day  of  Atonement.  They 
regarded  it  as  an  opportunity  afforded  them  of  wiping 
off  the  score  of  their  more  heavy  offences.  Thus  Yoma 
(cap.  viii)  says,  "The  day  of  atonement  and  death 
make  atonement  through  penitence.  Penitence  itself 
makes  atonement  for  slight  transgressions,  and  in  the 
case  of  grosser  sins  it  obtains  a  respite  until  the  com- 
ing of  the  Day  of  Atonement,  which  completes  the 
reconciliation."  More  authorities  to  the  same  general 
purpose  are  quoted  by  Frischmuth  (p.  917),  some  of 
which  seem  also  to  indicate  that  the  peculiar  atoning 
virtue  of  the  day  was  supposed  to  rest  in  the  scape- 
goat. Philo  (Lib.  de  Stptenario)  regarded  the  day  in 
a  far  nobler  light.  He  speaks  of  it  as  an  occasion  for 
the  discipline  of  self-restraint  in  regard  to  bodily  indul- 
gence, and  for  bringing  home  to  our  minds  the  truth 
that  man  does  not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by  what- 
ever God  is  pleased  to  appoint.  The  prayers  proper 
for  the  day,  he  says,  are  those  for  forgiveness  of  sins 
past  and  for  amendment  of  life  in  future,  to  be  offered 
in  dependence,  not  on  our  own  merits,  but  on  the  good- 
ness of  God.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  what  especial- 
ly distinguished  the  symbolical  expiation  of  this  day 
from  that  of  the  other  services  of  the  law  was  its  broad 
and  national  character,  with  perhaps  a  deeper  refer- 
ence to  the  sin  which  belongs  to  the  nature  of  man. 
Ewald  instructively  remarks  that,  though  the  least  un- 
cleanness  of  an  individual  might  be  atoned  by  the  rites 
of  the  law  which  could  be  observed  at  other  times, 
there  was  a  consciousness  of  secret  and  indefinite  sin 
pervading  the  congregation  which  was  aptly  met  by 
this  great  annual  fast.  Hence,  in  its  national  char- 
acter, he  sees  an  antithesis  between  it  and  the  Pass- 
over, the  great  festival  of  social  life ;  and  in  its  aton- 
ing significance,  he  regards  it  as  a  fit  preparation 
for  the  rejoicing  at  the  ingathering  of  the  fruits  of 
the  earth  in  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  Philo  looked 
upon  its  position  in  the  Jewish  calendar  in  the  same 
light. 

In  considering  the  meaning  of  the  particular  rites 
of  the  day,  three  points  appear  to  be  of  a  very  distinc- 
tive character:  1.  The  white  garments  of  the  high- 
priest.  2.  His  entrance  into  the  Holy  of  Holies.  3. 
The  scape-goat.  The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews (ix,  7-25)  teaches  us  to  apply  the  first  two  par- 
ticulars. The  high-priest  himself,  with  his  person 
cleansed  and  dressed  in  white  garments,  was  the  best 
outward  type  which  a  living  man  could  present  in 
his  own  person  of  that  pure  and  holy  One  who  was 
to  purify  His  people  and  to  cleanse  them  from  their 
sins.  But  respecting  the  meaning  of  the  scape-goat 
we  have  no  such  light  to  guide  us,  and  (as  may  be 
seen  from  the  discussion  under  the  word  Azazel)  the 
subject  is  one  of  great  doubt  and  difficulty.  Of  those 
who  take  Azazel  for  the  Evil  Spirit,  some  have  sup- 
posed that  the  goat  was  a  sort  of  bribe  or  retaining 
fee  for  the  accuser  of  men.  Spencer,  in  supposing 
that  it  was  given  up  with  its  load  of  sin  to  the  ene- 
my to  be  tormented,  made  it  a  symbol  of  the  punish- 
ment of  the  wicked ;  while,  according  to  the  strange 
notion  of  Hengstenberg,  that  it  was  sent  to  mock  the 
devil,  it  was  significant  of  the  freedom  of  those  who 
had  become  reconciled  to  God.  Some  few  of  those 
who  have  held  a  different  opinion  on  the  word  Azazel 
have  supposed  that  the  goat  was  taken  into  the  wilder- 
ness to  suffer  there  vicariously  for  the  sins  of  the  peo- 
ple. But  it  has  been  generally  considered  that  it  was 
dismissed  to  signify  the  carrying  away  of  their  sins,  as 
it  were,  out  of  the  sight  of  Jehovah.     (In  the  similar 


ATRIUM 


520 


ATTALUS 


part  of  the  rite  for  the  purification  of  the  leper  [Lev. 
xiv,  6,  7],  in  which  a  live  bird  was  set  free,  it  must  be 
evident  that  the  bird  signified  the  carrying  away  of 
the  uncleanness  of  the  sufferer  in  precisely  the  same 
manner.)  If  we  keep  in  view  that  the  two  goats  are 
spoken  of  as  parts  of  one  and  the  same  sin-offering, 
and  that  every  circumstance  connected  with  them  ap- 
pears to  have  been  carefully  arranged  to  bring  them 
under  the  same  conditions  up  to  the  time  of  the  casting 
of  tin'  lots,  we  shall  not  have  much  difficulty  in  seeing 
that  they  form  together  but  one  symbolical  expression. 
Why  there  were  two  individuals  instead  of  one  may  be 
simply  this— that  a  single  material  object  could  not,  in 
its  nature,  symbolically  embrace  the  whole  of  the  truth 
which  was  to  be  expressed.  This  is  implied  in  the 
reasoning  of  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
on  the  office  and  sacrifice  of  Christ  (Heb.  ix).  Hence 
some,  regarding  each  goat  as  a  type  of  Christ,  sup- 
posed that  the  one  which  was  slain  represented  his 
death,  and  that  the  goat  set  free  signified  his  resurrec- 
tion (Cyril,  Bochart,  and  others,  quoted  by  Spencer). 
But  we  shall  take  a  simpler,  and  perhaps  a  truer  view, 
if  we  look  upon  the  slain  goat  as  setting  forth  the  act 
of  sacrifice,  in  giving  up  its  own  life  for  others  "  to  Je- 
hovah," in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the 
divine  law  ;  and  the  goat  which  carried  off  its  load  of 
sin  "to  an  utter  distance"  as  signifying  the  cleansing 
influence  of  faith  in  that  sacrifice.  Thus,  in  his  degree, 
the  devout  Israelite  might  have  felt  the  truth  of  the 
Psalmist's  words,  "As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west, 
so  far  hath  he  removed  our  transgressions  from  us." 
But  for  us  the  whole  spiritual  truth  has  been  revealed 
in  historical  fact  in  the  life,  death,  and  resurrection  of 
Him  who  was  made  sin  for  us,  who  died  for  us,  and 
who  rose  again  for  our  justification.  This  Mediator  it 
was  necessary  should,  "  in  some  unspeakable  manner, 
unite  death  and  life"  (Maurice,  On  Sacrifice,  p.  85). 
Sec  Journ.  Sue.  Lit.  Jan.  1849,  p.  74  sq. — Smith,  s.  v. 

IX.  Literature. — Josephus,  Ant.  iii, 10, 3  ;  the  Talmud 
(Mishna,  tract  Yoma,  ed.  by  Sheringham  [Franeq.  1696, 
17108],  also  with  notes  in  Surenhusius,  ii,  5),  with  the 
Jerus.  Gemara  thereupon  ;  Maimonides  dl"1  WO" 
d — "Z-~  {Worship  of  the  Day  of  Atonement)  ;  also  in 
( Irenii,  Opusc.  ad  philol.  sacr.  spect.  vii,  G51  sq.,  819  sq. ; 
( rtbo,  Lex,  Rabb.  p.  216  sq. ;  Spencer,  De  li  gibus  Hebrcc- 
orum.  Ritualibus,  lib.  iii,  diss,  viii;  Lightfoot's  Temple 
Service,  c.  xv;  Buxtorf,  Synagoga  Judaica,  cap.  xs; 
Ugolini  Thesaur.  xviii ;  see  Eeland,  Antiq.  Sacr.  iv, 
C;  Carpzov,  Appar.  p.  433  sq. ;  Moller,  De  ritlb.festi 
i  vpiat.  I  Jen.  1689)  ;  Hochstetter,  Defesto  expiat,  (Tub. 
17o7  ) ;  Hottinger,  De  ministerio  did  eorpiationis  (Marb. 
1708;  Tur.  1754);  Danz,  in  Menschen's  Nov.  Test. 
'I'n1  in.  y.  912;  Balir,  Symbol,  ii,  664  sq. ;  Langenberg, 
/v  pontif.  'ni'  expiationis  die  rieario  (Griefsw.  1739); 
Michaelis,  Num  tip.  dies  sub  templo  secundo  fuerit  cele- 
bratus  (Hal.  17.r>1);  Danzere's  two  Dissert ationes  de 
Functione  Pontifieis  Maximi  in  Adyto  Anniversario ; 
Kraft,  De  mysterio  !>'/!  inaugurationum  (Marb.  1749); 
Ci  hn,  Bedeutung  mi'l  Zwech  des  Versuhnungsfagrs  (Lpz. 
1862);  Ewald,  Die  Alterthumer  des  Volhes Israel,  p.  370 
sq.;  Hengstenberg,  Egypt  and  the  Books  of  Moses,  on 
Lev.  xvi  (English  translation);  Thomson's  Hampton 
/.■•fur,.-,  let.  iii,  and  notes.     Sec  Expiation. 

Atrium.  In  ancient  churches,  between  the  first 
porch,  called  the  propylaum,  or  vestibulum  magnum, 
and  the  church  itself,  was  a  lar^e  area  or  square  plot 
of  ground,  which  the  Latins  called  atrium  or  impluvi- 
H, <i.  because  it  was  a  court  open  to  the  air  without  any 
com  rin.;.  It  was  surrounded  by  cloisters.  In  this 
place   Btood    the    first   class  of  penitents,  according  to 

Eusebius,  who  says  it  was  the  mansion  of  those  who 
were  not  allowed  to  enter  farther  into  the  church. 
They  generally  stood  in  this  porch  to  beg  the  prayers 
of  the  faithful.  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  viii,  ch.  iii,  § 
5  ;  Farrar,  /  •  V  .  Diction  try,  s.  v. 

A'trotii  (Num.  xxxii,  85).     Sec  Ataroth. 


At'tai  (Heb.  A  ttay/,  ^frS,  perhaps  opportune,  comp, 
Ittai),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'I&Sti  v.  r.  'E37.)  A  son  of  the  daughter 
of  Sheshan  (of  the  tribe  of  Judah)  by  his  Egyptian 
servant  Jarha,  and  the  father  of  Nathan  (1  Chron.  ii, 
35,  36).     B.C.  prob.  ante  1658. 

2.  (Sept.  'ESSrti  v.  r.  'Iwi.)  The  sixth  of  David's 
mighty  men  from  the  tribe  of  Gad  during  his  freeboot- 
er's life  in  the  desert  of  Judcea  (1  Chron.  xii,  11).  B.C. 
cir.  1061. 

3.  (Sept.  'l&Si  v.  r.  'lirSa.)  The  s^ond  of  the  four 
sons  of  King  Kehoboam,  by  his  second  and  favorite 
wife  Maachah,  the  daughter  of  Absalom  (2  Chron.  xi, 
20).     B.C.  post  972. 

Attali'a  ('ArraXna),  a  maritime  city  of  Pamphylia 
(near  Lycia,  to  which  it  is  assigned  by  Stephen  of 
Byzantium),  in  Asia  Minor,  near  the  mouth  of  the  riv- 
er Catarrhactes  (see  Wesseling,  ad  Antonin.  /tin.  p. 
579,  670).  It  derived  its  name  from  its  founder,  Atta- 
ins Philadelphns,  king  of  Pergamus  (Strabo,  xiv,  657), 
who  ruled  over  the  western  part  of  the  peninsula  from 
the  north  to  the  south,  and  was  in  want  of  a  port  which 
should  be  useful  for  the  trade  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  as 
Troas  was  for  that  of  the  iEgean.  All  its  remains  are 
characteristic  of  the  date  of  its  foundation.  It  was 
visited  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on  their  first  missionary 
tour,  being  the  place  from  which  they  sailed  on  their 
return  to  Antioch  from  their  journey  into  the  inland 
parts  of  Asia  Minor  (Acts  xiv,  25).  It  does  not  appear 
that  they  made  any  stay,  or  attempted  to  preach  the 
Gospel  in  Attalia  (see  Conybeare  and  Howson's  St. 
Paul,  i,  200).  This  city,  however,  though  compara- 
tively modern  at  that  time,  was  a  place  of  considera- 
ble importance  in  the  first  century.  Its  name  in  the 
twelfth  century  appears  to  have  been  Satalia,  a  corrup- 
tion, of  which  the  crusading  chronicler,  William  of 
Tyre,  gives  a  curious  explanation.  It  still  exists  un- 
der the  name  of  Adalia  (Biisching,  Erdbeschr.  xi,  1, 
121),  and  extensive  and  important  ruins  attest  the  for- 
mer consequence  of  the  city  (Leake's  Asia  Minor,  p. 
193).  This  place  stands  on  the  west  of  the  Catarrhac- 
tes, where  Strabo  (xiv,  4)  places  it;  Ptolemy,  how- 
ever (v,  5,  2),  places  the  ancient  city  on  the  east  of  the 
river,  on  which  accounts  Admiral  Beaufort  {Karama- 
nia,  p.  135)  held  the  present  Laara  to  be  the  represent- 
ative of  Attalia,  and  the  modern  Adalia  (or  Satalia)  to 
be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Olbia,  which  Mannert  (Geog. 
vi,  130)  thought  to  be  the  same  with  Attalia  (see  For- 
biger,  A  tie  Geogr.  ii,  268);  but  Spratt  and  Forbes  {Ly- 
cia, i,  217)  have  found  the  remains  of  Olbia  farther 
west,  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  the  bed  of  the 
Catarrhactes  changed  at  different  times  (see  Smith's 
Diet,  nf 'Class.  Geogr.  s.  v.). 

At'talus  {"\Tra\or,  a  Macedonian  name  of  uncer- 
tain signification),  a  king  of  Pergamus  in  the  time  of 
the  Jewish  prince  Simon  (1  Mace,  xi,  22),  and,  as 
would  appear  from  the  connected  circumstances,  about 
B.C.  139;  a  closer  determination  of  the  date  depends 
upon  the  year  of  the  consul  Lucius  (q.  v.),  named  in 
the  same  connection  (ver.  16).  which  is  itself  doubtful. 
As  Attains  was  the  name  of  three  kings  of  Pergamus, 
who  reigned  respectively  B.C.  241-197,  159rlS8  (Phil- 
adelphia). 138-133  (Philometor),  and  were  all  faithful 
allies  of  the  Romans  (Liv.  xiv,  13),  it  is  uncertain 
whether  the  letters  sent  from  Pome  in  favor  of  the 
Jews  (1  Mace,  xv,  22)  were  addressed  to  Attalus  II 
(Polyb.  xxv,  6;  xxxi,  9;  xxxii,  3,  5,  8,  etc.,  25  sq. ; 
Just',  xxxv.  1  ;  xxxvi,  I,  5  ;  App.  Midi,  62),  known  as 
the  "friend  of  the  Roman  people"  (Strabo,  xiii,  p. 
624),  or  Attalus  III  (Philometor),  the  nephew  and 
successor  of  Attalus  II,  and  son  of  Eumenes  II,  who 
ascended  the  throne  B.C.  138,  and  by  whose  testament 
the  kingdom  of  Pergamus  passed  over  (B.C.  133)  into 
the  hands  of  the,  Romans  (Justin,  xxxvi,  4 ;  Flor.  ii, 
20;  Strabo,  xiii,  021).  Josephus  quotes  a  decree  of 
the  Pergamenes  in  favcr  of  the  Jews  {Ant.  xiv,  10.  22) 


ATTENDANT  527 

in  the  time  of  Hjrcanus,  about  B.C.  112  (comp.  Rev. 
ii,  12-17).— Smith,  s.  v. 

Attendant  Genius.    See  Guardian  Axgel. 

Atterbury,  Francis,  bishop  of  Rochester,  was 
born  March  6th,  1GC2,  at  Milton-Keynes,  Bucks,  where 
his  father  was  rector.  See  Atterbury,  Lewis,  be- 
low. He  began  his  studies  at  Westminster,  and  fin- 
ished his  course  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  first 
distinguished  himself  by  the  publication,  at  Oxford, 
in  1687,  of  a  "Reply  to  some  Considerations  on  the 
Spirit  of  Martin  Luther,  and  the  Original  of  the  Ref- 
ormation," a  tract  written  by  Walker,  master  of  Uni- 
versity College.  In  the  same  year  he  took  the  degree 
of  Master  of  Arts,  and  became  tutor  to  the  earl  of  Or- 
rery's son.  In  1630  he  married,  and  soon  after  went 
to  London,  and  established  so  high  a  reputation  by  his 
preaching  that  he  was  made  almoner  to  the  king.  In 
1700  he  published  a  vindication  of  the  rights,  powers, 
and  privileges  of  the  Lower  House  of  Convocation, 
which  occasioned  a  warm  controversy  with  Archbish- 
op Wake  and  others,  and  raised  up  a  host  of  adver- 
saries (see  Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Biography,  i,  358,  and 
Lathbury,  History  of  Convocation).  The  University 
of  Oxford,  however,  testified  its  approval  of  his  work 
by  granting  him  the  degree  of  D.D.  without  the  usual 
fees.  In  1704  he  became  dean  of  Carlisle.  In  1706 
he  had  a  controversy  with  Hoadley  as  to  "the  ad- 
vantages of  virtue  with  regard  to  the  present  life." 
In  a  funeral  sermon  he  had  asserted  that,  "  if  the  ben- 
efits resulting  from  Christianity  were  confined  to  our 
present  state,  Christians  would  be,  of  the  whole  hu- 
man race,  the  most  miserable."  Hoadley,  on  the  con- 
trary, maintained,  in  a  printed  letter  to  Atterbury, 
that  it  was  a  point  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
Gospel  itself  to  vindicate  the  tendency  of  virtue  to 
the  temporal  happiness  of  man.  In  1707  he  had  an- 
other controversy  with  Hoadley  concerning  "passive 
obedience."  Under  Queen  Anne,  Atterbury  was  in 
high  favor,  and  in  1713  was  made  bishop  of  Roches- 
ter and  dean  of  Westminster,  and  was  on  the  point  of 
being  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  when  George 
I,  who  had  justly  conceived  a  strong  prejudice  against 
him,  came  to  the  throne.  From  this  time  he  op- 
posed the  house  of  Hanover,  and  used  all  his  ener- 
gies to  secure  the  return  of  the  Stuarts.  In  1715, 
when  an  attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  Stuarts, 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  drew  up  an  address  to 
the  bishops  of  his  province,  exhorting  them  to  ex- 
cite the  devotion  of  the  clergy  of  their  dioceses  to- 
ward the  house  of  Brunswick.  This  address  Atter- 
bury, and  Smalridge,  the  bishop  of  Bristol,  refused 
either  to  sign  or  to  publish  in  their  dioceses;  and  this 
conduct  rendered  him  suspected  at  court.  In  1722 
he  was  accused  of  being  in  correspondence  with  "  the 
Pretender,"  and  was  seized  and  sent  to  the  Tower. 
No  proof  was  alleged  sufficient  to  warrant  the  charge  ; 
but,  on  the  Oth  of  April,  1723,  a  bill  of  attainder  was 
introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords,  and  he  was  called 
upon  to  make  his  defense,  which  he  did  in  the  most 
admirable  manner,  in  a  speech  abounding  in  eloquence. 
The  court  influence,  however,  was  too  great:  a  special 
law  was  introduced  against  him  and  passed,  and  he 
was  condemned  to  be  stripped  of  all  his  places  and 
dignities,  and  to  be  banished  from  his  country  forever. 
On  the  18th  of  June  he  left  England  for  Calais.  He 
retired  first  to  Brussels,  and  afterward  to  Paris,  where 
he  died,  February  15th,  1731. 

The  fame  of  Atterbury  rests  chiefly  on  his  sermons, 
which  are  both  argumentative  and  unaffectedly  elo- 
quent, and  on  his  epistolary  correspondence  with  Pope. 
His  familiar  letters,  for  their  ease  and  elegance,  are 
preferred  to  the  more  labored  efforts  of  his  corre- 
spondent, Tope.  As  a  controversialist,  his  parts  were 
splendid ;  but  his  prejudices  were  too  strong,  and  his 
judgment  not  sufficiently  cool  to  entitle  him  to  a  high 
rank  among  the  inquirers  after  truth.     It  was,  how- 


ATTERBURY 


ever,  thought  at  the  time  that  no  man  understood  bet- 
ter than  he  the  points  in  dispute  between  the  Church 
I  of  England  and  the  Church  of  Rome,  as  well  as  the 
|  dissenters  of  all  denominations.     Atterbury  has  been 
■  somewhat  absurdly  charged,  on  the  strength  of  an  im- 
!  probable  anecdote  which  Dr.  Maty  says  Lord  Chester- 
I  field  related  to  him,  with  having  been,  at  least  in  early 
,  life,  a  sceptic  ;  but  the  whole  tenor  of  his  conduct,  and 
1  every  reference  in  his  private  as  well  as  public  writ- 
|  ings,  contradict  such  a  supposition.    He  was  a  worldly- 
minded  and  ambitious  man,  but  that  he  firmly  believed 
the  religious  truths  which  he  so  eloquently  defended 
i  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt.     (See  a  refutation 
of  this  story,  in  detail,  in  the  New  and  General  Bio- 
graphical D  ctionary,  1784,  i,  389.)     The  conduct  of 
Atterbury  with  reference  to  the  Stuart  dynasty  is  the 
i  great  blot  on  his  public  career,  and  though  perhaps 
|  illegally'  convicted,  he  was  undoubtedly  guilty  of  the 
i  treason  for  which  he  was  condemned.     But  it  was  for 
no  selfish  ends  that  he  adhered  to  its  desperate  for- 
I  tunes,  nor  was  his  conduct  wholly  inconsistent  with 
:  his  position  as  a  prelate  of  the  English  Church.     The 
•  plan  on  which  he  had  fixed  his  hope  of  securing  the 
1  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  was  that  of  inducing  James 
!  to  educate  his  son  in  the  Protestant  faith ;  an  absurd 
j  expectation  undoubtedly,  but  it  was  characteristic  of 
1  Atterbury  to  overlook  obstacles  when  he  had  set  his 
j  heart  on  accomplishing  a  great  purpose.     Hook  (Ec- 
cles.  Biography,  i,  374)   calls  him   "  an  ecclesiastical 
politician  and  intriguer,  devoting  himself,  not  to  the 
establishment  of  a  principle,  but  to  the  mere  triumph 
|  of  a  party.    Great  principles  were  injured  by  his  advo- 
!  cacy  of  them,  since  he  gave  to  them  a  party  coloring, 
j  and  made  what  was  heavenly  appear  earthly."    In  pri- 
vate  life  the  haughtiness  and  asperity  of  the  politician 
!  and  controversialist  wholly  disappeared,  and  no  man 
|  ever  succeeded  in  winning  a  more  affectionate  attach- 
ment from  friends  as  well  as  relatives.    As  a  preacher, 
a  speaker,  and  a  writer,  he  had  few  rivals  ;  and  Lord 
Mahon  (Hist,  of  Eng.  c.  xii)  hardly  exaggerates  his 
I  literary  merits  when  he  says  that  "few  men  have  at- 
]  tained  a  more  complete  mastery  over  the  English  lan- 
guage than  Atterbury ;  and  all  his  compositions  are 
\  marked  with  peculiar  force,  elegance,  and  dignity  of 
1  style"  (English  Cyclopaedia').     Doddridge  (Lectures  on 
!  Preaching,  iv,  18)  calls  him  the  "  glory  of  English  pul- 
I  pit  orators."     Wesley  (Works,  vii,  420)  says  that  in 
'  Atterbury  "all  the  qualities  of  a  good  writer  meet." 
The  Taller  (No.  66),  having  observed  that  the  Eng- 
!  lish   clergy  too  much  neglect  the  art  of  speaking, 
!  makes  a  particular  exception  with  regard  to  Atter- 
I  bury,  who  "has  so  particular  a  regard  to  his  congre- 
gation that  he  commits  to  his  memory  what  he  has  to 
say  to  them,  and  has  so  soft  and  graceful  a  behavior 
that   it  must   attract  your  attention.     His   person," 
continues  this  author,  "it  is  to  lie   confessed,  is  no 
small  recommendation  ;   but  he  is  to  be  highly  com- 
'  mended  for  not  losing  that  advantage,  and  adding  to 
propriety  of  speech  (which  might  pass  the  criticism 
of  Longinus)  an  action  which  would  have  been  ap- 
i  proved  by  Demosthenes.     He  has  a  peculiar  force  in 
his  way,  and  has  many  of  his  audience  who  could  not 
be  intelligent  hearers  of  his  discourse  were  there  no 
explanation  as  well  as  grace  in  his  action.     This  art 
j  of  his  is  used  with  the  most  exact  and  honest  skill. 
He  never  attempts  your  passions  till  lie  lias  convinced 
!  your  reason.     All  the  objections  which  you  can  form 
!  are  laid  open  and  dispersed  before  he  uses  the  least 
j  vehemence  in  his  sermon  ;  but  when  he  thinks  he  has 
\  your  head,  he  very  soon  wins  your  heart,  and  never 
pretends  to  show  the  beauty  of  holiness  till  he  has 
convinced  you  of  the  truth  of  it."      His  writings  in- 
clude Sermons  (Lond.  1740,  4  vols.  8vo,  5th  ed.)  •.—Cor- 
respondence and  Charges  (bond.  1783-87,  4  vols.  8vo); 
besides  many  controversial  tracts  and  pamphlets  of 
temporary  interest.      See  Stackhouse,  Memoirs  of  At- 
terbury, 1727,  8vo;  Burnet,  History  of  his  Onn  Times; 


ATTEKUriJY 


52i 


Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  SO;  Hook,  Eccled- 
!  Biography,  i,  350  sq. 
Atterbury,  Lewis,  father  of  Bishop  Atterbury, 
was  horn  about  the  year  1631.  He  was  the  son  of 
Francis  Atterbury,  rector  of  Milton,  Northampton- 
shire, who.  among  other  ministers,  subscribed  the  Sol- 
emn League  and  Covenant  in  1048.  Lewis  was  enter- 
ed a  student  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1647,  took 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  February  23,  1649,  and 
was  created  M.A.  by  a  dispensation  from  Oliver  Crom- 
well March  1,  1051.  He  was  one  of  those  who  sub- 
mitted to  the  authority  of  the  visitors  appointed  by 
the  Parliament.  In  1654  he  became  rector  of  Great 
or  Broad  Rissington,  in  Gloucestershire,  and,  after  the 
R(  storation,  took  a  presentation  for  that  benefice  un- 
der the  great  seal,  and  was  instituted  again,  to  confirm 
his  title  to  it.  On  the  11th  of  September,- 1657,  he 
was  admitted  rector  of  Middleton  or  Middleton  Keynes, 
in  Bucks,  and  at  the  return  of  Charles  II  took  the 
same  prudent  method  to  corroborate  his  title  to  this 
living.  July  25,  1660,  he  was  made  chaplain  extraor- 
dinary to  Henry,  duke  of  Gloucester,  and  on  the  1st 
of  December,  in  the  same  year,  was  created  doctor  in 
divinity.  Returning  from  London,  whither  the  law- 
suits he  was  frequently  involved  in  had  brought  him, 
he  was  drowned  near  his  own  house  in  the  beginning 
of  December,  1693.  He  published  three  occasional 
sermons,  the  titles  of  which  may  he  seen  in  Wood's 
Athen.  Oxon.  vol.  ii,  col.  911. — New  Gen.  Biog.  Diet. 
i,  377. 

Atterbury,  Lewis,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Caldecot,  in  Bucks,  on  the  2d  of  Ma}', 
1056.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster  School  under 
Dr.  Busby,  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  was  or- 
dained deacon  in  September,  1670.  In  1683  he  served 
as  chaplain  to  Sir  William  Pritchard,  lord-mayor  of 
London.  In  February,  1684,  he  was  instituted  rector 
of  Symel,  in  Northamptonshire.  In  1691  we  find  him 
lecturer  of  St.  Mary  Hill,  in  London.  Soon  after  his 
marriage  he  settled  at  Highgate,  where  he  supplied  the 
pulpit  of  the  reverend  Mr.  Daniel  Lathom,  on  whose 
death,  in  June,  1695,  he  became  pastor  of  the  chapel. 
He  had  a  little  before  been  appointed  one  of  the  six 
preaching  chaplains  to  the  princess  Anne  of  Denmark 
at  Whitehall  and  St.  James's,  which  place  he  contin- 
ued to  supply  after  she  came  to  the  crown,  and  like- 
wise during  part  of  the  reign  of  George  I.  To  help 
the  poor  of  his  parish,  he  studied  physic  ;  and  after 
acquiring  considerable  skill,  practiced  gratis  anions 
his  poor  neighbors.  In  1707  the  queen  presented  him 
to  the  rectory  of  Shepperton,  in  Middlesex,  and  in 
March,  1719,  the  bishop  of  London  collated  him  to  the 
rectory  of  lionise}-.  In  1720,  on  a  report  of  the  death 
of  Dr.  Sprat,  archdeacon  of  Rochester,  he  applied  to 
his  1  rother  to  succeed  him.  The  bishop  giving  his 
brother  Bome  reasons  why  he  thought  it  improper  to 
make  him  his  archdeacon,  the  doctor  replied,  "Your 
lordship  very  well  knows  that  Lanfranc,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  had  a  brother  for  his  archdeacon,  and 
that  Sir  Thomas  More's  father  was  a  puisne  judge 
when  lio  was  lord  chancellor.  And  thus,  in  the  sa- 
cred history,  did  God  himself  appoint  that  the  safety 
and  advancement  of  the  patriarchs  should  be  procured 
by  their  younger  brother,  and  that  they,  with  their 
father,  should  live  under  the  protection  and  govern- 
ment of  Joseph."  In  answer  to  this,  the  bishop  in- 
form- bis  brother  that  the  archdeacon  was  not  dead, 
hut  well,  anil  likely  to  continue  so.  He  died,  how- 
ever, soon  after;  and  on  the  20th  of  May,  1720,  the 
bishop  collated  Dr.  Brydges,  the  duke  of  Chandos's 
brother,  to  the  archdeaconry,  after  writing  thus  in 
tie-  morning  to  the  doctor:  ••  I  hope  you  are  convinced, 
by  what  I  have  said  and  written,  that  nothing  could 
have  been  more  improper  than  the  placing  you  in  that 
post  Immediately  under  myself.  Could  [have  been 
easy  under  that  thought,  you  may  he  sure  no  man  liv- 


ATTICUS 

ing  should  have  had  the  preference  to  yon."  To  this 
the  doctor  answered:  "  .  .  .  .  There  is  some  show  of 
reason,  I  think,  for  the  non-acceptance,  but  none  for 
the  not  giving  it.  And  since  your  lordship  was  pleased 
to  signify  to  me  that  I  should  overrule  you  in  this  mat- 
ter, I  confess  it  was  some  disappointment  to  me.  .  .  . 
I  hope  I  shall  he  content  with  that  meaner  post  in 
which  I  am ;  my  time  at  longest  being  but  short  in 
this  world,  and  my  health  not  suffering  me  to  make 
those  necessary  applications  others  do,  nor  do  I  un- 
derstand the  language  of  the  present  times;  for  I  find 
I  begin  to  grow  an  old-fashioned  gentleman,  and  am 
ignorant  of  the  weight  and  value  of  words,  which  in 
our  times  rise  and  fall  like,  stock."  This  correspond- 
ence is  creditable  to  the  bishop,  at  least. 

Dr.  Atterbury  died  at  Bath,  October  20.  1731.  He 
published  Twelve  Sermons  (London,  1720,  8vo) : — Ten 
Sermons  (Lond.  1699,  8vo) : — Select  Senium?,  edited  by 
Yardley,  with  a  life  of  Dr.  Atterbury  (2  vols.  8vo, 
1745): — Letters  on  the  Council  of  Trent;  and  several 
translations  from  the  French.  In  his  will  he  gave 
some  few  books  to  the  libraries  at  Bedford  and  New- 
port, and  his  whole  collection  of  pamphlets,  amount- 
ing to  upward  of  two  hundred  volumes,  to  the  libra- 
ry of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  charged  his  es- 
tate forever  with  the  payment  of  ten  pounds  yearly 
to  a  schoolmistress  to  instruct  girls  at  Newport-Pag- 
nel,  which  salary  he  had  himself  in  his  lifetime  paid 
for  many  years.  He  remembered  some  of  his  friends, 
and  left  a  respectful  legacy  of  one  hundred  pounds 
to  his  "dear  brother,  in  token  of  his  true  esteem  and 
affection,"  as  the  words  of  the  will  are,  and  made  the 
bishop's  son  Osborn  (after  his  granddaughter,  who  did 
not  long  survive  him)  heir  to  all  his  fortune. — New 
Gen.  Biog.  Diclionaiy,  i,  377 ;  Biographica  Brltannica, 
vol.  i. 

Attersoll,  William,  a  clergyman  of  the  Church 
of  England,  rector  of  East  Hoadley,  was  ejected  for 
non-conformity  in  1662,  and  was  subsequently  minis- 
ter at  Isfield,  Sussex.  His  writings  include  A  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  Philemon  (London,  1612  and 
1633,  fol.) : — A  Commentary  on  the  History  of  Balaam 
and  Balac  (Ito) : — A  Commenlarie  vpon  the  Fourth 
Book  of  Moses,  called  Numbers  (London,  1618;  and  in 
Dutch,  at  Amsterdam-,  in  1667)  :—The  Trumpet  of  God 
(London) : — De  Saerameniis  (4 to)  : — Catechismus.  The 
work  on  the  sacraments  was  printed  in  English  in  1614, 
under  the  title  The  New  Covenant.  He  also  wrote 
Three  Treatises,  on  Luke  xii,  1 ;  xiii,  1 ;  Jonah  iii,  4. 
— Landon,  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  i,  610  ;  Allibone, 
Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  81. 

Atthar'ates  (ATZanariic),  given  (1  Esdr.  ix,  49) 
as  a  person's  name ;  evidently  by  a  mistake  of  the 
translator  (comp.  Athakias)  for  the  title  Tirshatha 
(q.  v.)  of  the  original  text  (Neh.  viii,  9). 

Atticus,  St.,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  406, 
during  the  life  of  the  rightful  patriarch,  Chrysostom ; 
he  succeeded  Arsacius,  who  was  intruded  into  the 
throne  when  Chrysostom  was  driven  away.  He  was 
born  at  Sebaste,  in  Armenia,  and  led  an  ascetic  life 
under  Eustathius,  the  bishop  of  that  see.  He  was  a 
man  of  ability.  Palladius  accuses  him  of  being  the 
author  of  the  conspiracy  against  Chrysostom  ;  and  the 
share  he  took  in  the  persecution  cf  that  saint,  and  his 
refusal  after  his  death  to  replace  his  name  on  the  dip- 
tychs,  caused  the  Western  bishops  and  the  people  of 
Constantinople  to  refuse  him  their  communion  until 
the  name  of  St.  Chrysostom  was  restored.  Socrates, 
who  was  no  great  admirer  of  Chrysostcm,  pives  a  more 
favorable  account  of  Attieus  (lib.  vi,  cap.  20  ;  vii,  cap. 
2).  lie  died  Oct.  10, 126,  having  filled  the  see  twenty 
years.  Socrates  has  preserved  a  letter  of  this  patri- 
arch to  Calliopius,  bishop  of  Nicffla,  in  which  he  in- 
forms him  that  he  has  sent  him  three  hundred  golden 
crowns  lor  the  poor  of  that  city.  He  directs  him  to 
administer  to  the  wants  of  those  pcor  persons  who  were 


ATTILA 


529 


ATTIRE 


ashamed  to  come  forward  for  relief,  and  on  no  account 
to  give  anything  to  those  who  made  a  business  of  beg- 
ging. He  also  recommends  that  the  distribution  should 
be  made  without  any  distinction  as  to  religious  grounds 
{Hist.  Eccles.  vii,  25).  Sozomen  (Hist.  Eccles.  viii, 
27)  says  of  him  that  "he  possessed  more  natural  gifts 
than  literary  attainments,  while  he  evinced  aptitude 
for  the  management  of  affairs,  and  was  as  skilful  in 
carrying  on  intrigues  as  in  evading  the  machinations 
of  others.  His  sermons  did  not  rise  above  mediocri- 
ty, and  were  not  accounted  by  his  auditors  of  sufficient 
value  to  be  preserved  in  writing,"  and  asserts  that 
"as  Atticus  was  distinguished  alike  for  learning,  pi- 
ety, and  discretion,  the  churches  under  his  episco- 
pate attained  a  very  flourishing  condition."  He  also 
wrote  to  Eupsychius  concerning  the  incarnation  (The- 
odoret),  and  to  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  concerning  the 
restitution  of  the  name  of  St.  Chrysostom  in  the  dip- 
tychs,  and  another  to  Peter  and  yEdesius,  deacons  of 
the  church  of  Alexandria,  concerning  the  restoration 
of  peace  in  that  church.  A  fragment  of  a  homily  on 
the  Nativitjr  will  be  found  in  Labbe,  hi,  11G. — Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  i,  384  ;  Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  i,  610. 

Attila  (called  by  the  ancient  Germans  Etzel,  in 
the  Magyar  language  Atzel),  a  celebrated  king  of  the 
Huns,  ruled  from  434  to  453.  He  assured  his  people 
that  he  had  discovered  the  sword  of  their  god,  with 
which  he  was  to  procure  for  them  the  dominion  of  the 
world.  He  called  himself  the  Scourge  of  God,  and  his 
subjects  looked  upon  him  with  superstitious  awe.  He 
extended  his  sway  over  a  large  portion  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  but  for  his  defeat  by  iEtius  in  the  Catalau- 
nian  plains,  in  451,  would  have  destroyed  the  Roman 
Empire.  He  spared  the  city  of  Rome  in  consequence, 
it  is  believed,  of  the  impression  made  upon  his  mind 
by  Pope  Leo  I.     See  Leo  I,  Pope. 

Attire  (Q^l'jp,  keshurim',  girdles,  Jer.  ii,  32 ; 
"  headbands,"  Isa.  iii,  20).  Under  this  head  we  pro- 
pose to  bring  together  a  general  description  of  the  va- 
rious articles  of  apparel  with  either  sex  among  the 
ancient  Jews,  so  far  as  this  can  be  gathered  from  the 
notices  of  antiquit}',  leaving  a  more  detailed  account 
to  each  portion  of  dress  in  its  alphabetical  place,  while 
a  comparison  with  modern  Oriental  styles  will  be 
found  under  Costume,  and  a  statement  of  the  mate- 
rials under  Clothing.  (See  generally  Jahn's  Ar- 
cheology, §  118-135.)     Compare  also  Dress. 

I.  Male  garments. — The  regular  pieces  of  raiment 
worn  by  men  were  chiefly  the  following,  to  which  may 
be  added,  in  cases  of  royalty  or  eminence,  the  signet, 
crown,  and  sceptre,  and  (for  ornament)  the  anklet, 
bracelet,  etc.  (which  see  severally). 

1.  The  shirt  or  tunic,  in  Heb.  rOJFlB,  kitto'neth,  gen- 
erally rendered  by  the  Sept.  \lT^vi  which  indeed  is 
but  a  Grrecized  form  of  the  Heb.  word  (see  Gesenius, 
Thes.  Heb.  p.  724).  It  was  the  usual  under-garment 
(comp.  Lev.  xvi,  4)  of  youths  (Gen.  xxvii,  3,  23,  etc.) 
and  men  (2  Sam.  xv,  32),  also  of  the  priests  and  Le- 
vites  in  their  service  (Exod.  xxviii,  40 ;  Lev.  viii,  7, 
13 ;  x,  5).  Female  tunics  or  "  chemises"  were  also 
called  by  the  same  name  (2  Sam.  xiii,  18  ;  Cant,  v,  3). 
The  kittoneth  was  commonly  quite  short,  scarcely 
reaching  to  the  knee ;  but  eventually,  as  a  peculiar 
kind,  there  is  mentioned  (Gen.  xxvii,  3  ;  xxiii,  32 ;  2 
Sam.  xiii,  18  sq.),  as  an  ornamental  dress  of  young 
persons  of  either  sex,  the  kittoneth  passim',  MFlS 
En32,  tunic  of  the  extremities,  i.  e.  reaching  to  the 
feet  (for  so  the  word  appears  to  signify;  see  Gesenius, 
Tins.  Heb.  p.  1117 ;  rather  than  party-colored  tunic, 
"coat  of  many  colors,"  as  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  after 
the  Sept.  and  Vulg.),  which  was  an  under-dress  with 
sleeves,  and  extending  to  the  ankles  (Josephus,  Ant. 
vii,  8,  1).— Winer,  ii,  333.     See  Tunic. 

2.  The  mantle  or  robe,  a  comprehensive  term  that 
appears  to  include  several  Heb.  words,  signifying  not 

Ll 


only  a  long  flowing  outer  garment,  but  sometimes  also 
a  wide  under-garment  or  double  tunic.  See  Kobe. 
It  sometimes  approaches  the  signification  of  "veil" 
(see  below),  as  this  was  often  like  a  modern  cloak,  or 
at  least  shawl.  Wide  flowing  mantles  were  a  fashion 
introduced  by  the  ancients  from  the  Babylonians, 
Medes,  and  Persians  (Herod,  i,  195 ;  Strabo,  xi,  526). 
Such  are  doubtless  referred  to  in  Dan.  iii,  21 ;  it  only 
remains  uncertain  which  of  the  Chaldee  terms  there 
employed  (J0313,  karbela ',  Auth.  Vers.  "  hat,"  or 
5<b2"i&,  sarbela  ,  "coat")  has  this  signification.  'Ge- 
senius {Thes.  Heb.  in  verb.)  renders  both  pallium,  or 
cloak,  against  the  improbability  that  in  a  single  verse 
two  kinds  of  mantle  would  be  named.  Others,  as 
Lengerke,  understand  the  second  word  to  mean  stock- 
ings, which  would  yield  a  good  sense,  and  one  agree- 
able to  etymology,  could  we  be  sure  that  hosiery  was 
employed  by  the  ancient  Babylonians.  The  word 
^■^.Q,  pethigil'  (Isa.  iii,  24,  Auth.  Vers,  "stomach- 
er"), which  some  regard  as  a  cloak,  is  probably  a  fes- 
tive garment  or  finery  (see  Gesenius,  Thes.  Ihb.  p. 
1137).  Ewald  separates  the  word  thus:  V^\  "rE, 
breadth  of  mantle  (comp.  Syr.  NP&la).  In  the  N.  T. 
the  mantle  is  denoted  by  oroXi],  a  robe,  such  as  the 
scribes  wore  (Mark  xii,  38),  a  long  garment  like  a 
gown,  reaching  to  the  feet.     For  the  xXapvc,  and  <pc.(- 

X6vt]Q,  see  Apparel Winer,  ii,  54. 

3.  The  girdle,  in  Heb.  "TUn,  chagor' ,  or  iTniatt, 
chagorah'  (the  usual  name  both  for  male  and  female 
girdles,  Isa.  iii,  24 ;  whether  the  same  article  of  ap- 
parel is  designated  by  d^tSS,  genazim' ' ,  "  chests,"  in 
Ezek.  xxvii,  24,  as  supposed  by  Hartmann,  is  doubt- 
ful), Gr.  Z,mvt],  one  of  the  most  distinguished  articles 
of  attire  among  the  Hebrews  and  Orientals  generally 
(comp.  Ezek.  xxiii,  15 ;  Dan.  x,  5),  except  the  Phoe- 
nicians (Auson.  Paneg.  Grat.  14;  Tertull.  Pall,  i; 
Plaut.  Pan.  v,  2,  15;  see  Crcdner,  Joel,  p.  140  sq.), 
being  a  belt  by  which  the  under-garment  (tunic)  was 
gathered  at  the  waist,  and  thus  prevented  from  float- 
ing, as  well  as  hindering  the  person  in  walking  (1  Kings 
xviii,  46 ;  2  Kings  iv,  29 ;  ix,  1)  or  in  any  other  bod- 
ily motion  (sometimes  dancing,  2  Sam.  vi,  14).  Hence 
girdles  were  often  bestowed  as  presents  (2  Sam.  xviii, 
11 ;  1  Mace,  x,  87),  and  were  an  article  of  fancy  goods 
(Prov.  xxxi,  24).  The  poor  and  ascetic  classes  wore 
girdles  of  leather  (2  Kings  i,  8 ;  Matt,  iii,  4 ;  Mark  i, 
6,  as  they  still  do  in  the  East,  of  half  a  foot  in  width), 
the  rich  of  linen  (Jer.  xiii,  1 ;  comp.  Arvieux,  iii,  247) 
or  byssus  (Ezek.  xvi,  10 ;  the  moderns  even  of  silk, 
of  some  four  fingers'  breadth,  Mariti,  p.  214 ;  Char- 
din,  iii,  68),  ornamented  (Dan.  x,  5 ;  1  Mace,  x,  89 ; 
xi,  58;  xiv,  44;  Curt,  iii,  3,  18;  comp.  Arvieux,  iii, 
241 ;  a  Persian  fashion,  Xenoph.  Anab.  i,  4,  9 ;  comp. 
Brisson,  Regn.  Pcrs.  p.  109  sq.)  in  a  costly  manner 
(with  gold,  jewels,  etc.) ;  this  last  description  was  es- 
pecially valued  in  female  girdles,  which,  being  an  in- 
dispensable part  of  household  manufacture  (Prov. 
xxxi,  17),  was  probably  the  chief  article  of  feminine 
luxury  (Isa.  iii,  20,  24  ;  comp.  Iliad,  xiv,  181 ;  Odyss. 
v,  231;  Hartmann,  Hebrderin.  ii,  299  sq.).  The  men 
wore  girdles  about  the  loins  (1  Kings  ii,  5;  xviii,  40 ; 
2  Kinsjcs  iv,  29 ;  Jer.  xiii,  11 ;  Rev.  i,  13 ;  xv,  0,  etc.), 
but  the  priests  somewhat  higher  around  the  breast 
(Josephus,  Ant.  iii,  7,  2);  the  women,  as  still  in  the 
East,  wore  the  girdle  lower  and  looser  (Niebuhr,  Pels. 
ii,  184,  pi.  27;  236,  pi.  04;  comp.  Odyss.  iii,  154). 
The  sacerdotal  girdle  is  called  I332N,  abnet' ,  and  was 
tied  up  in  front,  so  that  the  two  ends  hung  down  to 
the  feet ;  female  girdles  were  called  b^lBp,  kishshu- 
rvrnf  (Isa.  iii,  20;  Jer.  ii,  32);  while  men's  girdles 
were  generally  called  "mi*,  ezor'.  Anciently,  as  still, 
persons  wore  in  the  girdle  the  sword  (dagger,  2  Sam. 
xx,  8  ;  xxv,  13  ;  Judg.  iii,  10  ;  Curt,  iii,  3,  18  ;  comp. 
Arvieux,  iii,  241 ;  hence  a  secure  girdle  was  an  essen- 


ATTIRE 


530 


ATTIRE 


tial  part  of  a  good  equipment  of  the  -warrior,  1  Kings 
ii,  ."> :  [sa.  v.  27  ;  and  the  phrase  "  to  gird  one's  self" 
is  tantamount  to  arming  for  battle,  Isa.  viii,  9 ;  Psa. 
lxxvi,  11;  1  Mace,  iii,  58;  comp.  Herod,  viii,  120; 
Plutarch,  Coriol.  9)  and  the  inkstand  (Ezek.  ix,  2; 
comp.  Shaw,  p.  199;  Schulz,  Leit.  v,  390);  it  also 
served  as  a  purse  (Matt,  x,  9 ;  Mark  vi,  8 ;  comp.  2 
Sam.  xviii,  11;  Jamblich.  Vit.  Pythag.  27,  p.  121; 
I.iv.  xxxiii.  29;  Suet.  Vit.  16;  Plaut.  Pan.  v,  2,  48 
sq.;   Juven.   xiv,  297;    Cell,   xv,  12,   4;    Niebuhr, 


Beschr.  p.  64 ;  Shaw,  p.  199 ;  see  Rost,  De  vet.  zona 
pecuniaria,  Jen.  1681).  The  passing  over  one's  gir- 
dle to  another  is  among  friends  a  mark  of  great  confi- 
dence and  intimate  relation  (1  Sam.  xviii,  4 ;  see  Ro- 
senmiiller,  Morgenl.  iii,  103)  ;  when  it  occurs  between 
(high)  functionaries  it  is  a  symbol  of  installation  into 
honor  (Isa.  xxii,  21 ;  on  Isa.  iii,  24,  see  Gesenius,  in 
loc. ;  and  in  general  see  Credner,  Joel,  p.  142  sq.). 
— Winer,  i,  448.     See  Girdle. 

4.  The  turban,  of  which  there  were  various  kinds : 


Ancient  Oriental  Modes  of  Attire. 
1.   Egyptian — a.  Royal.    6.  Female,    c.  Sacerdotal. 
:'.  Assyrian — a.  King.     e.  l'riest.      /.  Sceptre-bearer  (EunuchJ. 


ATTIRE 


531 


ATTIRE 


Modern  <  (riental  Modes  of  Attire. 
Bedouin,     b.  Mamelook.     c,  Bethlehemite  Women. 


(1.)  Among  the  ancient  Hebrews  of  either  sex,  coifs, 
formed  of  folds  wound  about  (comp.  "jSS  11530)  the 
head,  were  in  common  use,  but  nothing  distinct  is 
given  as  to  their  shape.  Their  usual  names  are  as 
follows:  (a.)  CpSX,  tsaniph' ',  which  is  applied  to  men 
(Job  xxix,  14"),  women  (Tsa.  iii,  23),  and  the  high- 
priest  (Zech.  iii,  5);  but  which,  according  to  all  the 
passages,  was  a  prominent  distinctive  costume.  (6.) 
rKSJ1?,  mitsne'pheth  (Sept.  Kidapig  or  pirpci),  which 
occurs  more  frequently  of  the  cap  of  the  high-priest 
(Exod.  xxviii,  4,  37,  39;  xxix,  6;  Lev.  xvi,  4,  etc.), 
and  but  once  of  the  king  (Ezek.  xxi,  31).  See  High- 
priest,  (c.)  i"i;'35?3,  migbaah',  simply  the  bonnet 
of  the  ordinary  priests  (Exod.  xxviii,  40;  xxix,  9; 
Lev.  viii,  13:  see  the  description  of  Josephus,  under 
the  article  Sacerdotal  Order),  (d.)  ^X0,  peer', 
which  occurs  of  the  head-dress  of  men  (Isa.  lxi,  3,  10; 
Ezek.  xxiv,  17)  and  women  (Isa.  iii,  20),  and  some- 
times stands  in  connection  with  the  foregoing  term 
(1115355311  "nXD,  Exod.  xxxix,  28;  comp.  Ezek.  xliv, 
18).  This  was  likewise  a  piece  of  special  apparel. 
Schroeder  (Vestit.  Mill.  p.  94  sq.)  understands  a  high- 
towering  turban.  The  iTI^SS,  tsephirah'  (Isa.  xxviii, 
o),  signifies  a  crown  or  diadem,  and  does  not  belong 
here  (see  Gesenius  in  loc.) ;  on  the  other  hand,  Hart- 
maim  (JHebraer.  iii,  262)  explains  it  of  a  chaplet  of 
gorgeous  flowers.  See  Crown.  Among  the  modern 
Arabs  and  Persians  there  are  very  various  kinds  of 
turbans  (some  of  them  exceedingly  costly),  which  are 
always  wound  out  of  a  long  piece  of  muslin  (Arvieux, 
Voyage,  iii,  243;  Niebuhr,  Reisen,  i,  159,  comp.  pi. 
14-23).  Nevertheless,  this  species  of  head  attire  ap- 
pears not  to  have  been  customary  in  the  ancient  East. 
On  the  ruins  of  Persepolis  are  delineated  sometimes 
caps  ( flat  and  pointed),  sometimes  turbans,  which  were 
wholly  wound  out  of  strips  of  cloth,  and  ended  in  a 
point  (Niebuhr,  Reisen,  ii,  pi.  21,  22).  The  latter  is 
the  more  probable  form  of  the  coiffure  of  the  Hebrews. 
Ordinary  Israelites,  i.  e.  laborers,  probably  bound  the 
hair  about  only  with  a  cord  or  ribbon  (Niebuhr,  Besc.hr. 
p.  64;  Reisen,  i,  292;  comp.  the  Persepolitan  figures 
in  vol.  ii,  pi.  22,  fig.  9;  pi.  23,  fig.  5,  G,  11),  or 
wrapped  a  cloth  around  the  head,  as  is  yet  customary 
in  Arabia.  The  nets  (r":;D)  mentioned  in  the  Tal- 
mud (Mishna,  Chel.  xxiv,  16)  were  not  hoods  (of 
women),  but  protectives  for  the  eye-si^ht..  (2.)  The 
tiaras  of  the  Chaldaeans  (Herod,  i,  195)  are  called 
ETpSQU,  tebulim'  (Ezek.  xxiii,  15),  probably  from  their 


colored  material ;  they  were,  according  to  the  monu- 
ments (Miinter,  Rel,  <l.  Babyl.  p.  97),  high  in  form; 
and  such  some  interpreters  (as  Jahn,  Archaol.  I,  ii, 
118  sq.)  find  among  the  Persians  ("^r^i  takrih' ' , 
Esth.  viii,  15;  X^S*^,  karbela ',  Dan. 'iii,  21),  al- 
though both  these  passages  rather  refer  to  cloaks  (see 
Lengerke,  in  loc). — Winer,  ii,  634.  See  Head-dress. 
5.  The  shoe  (323,  nn'al;  inrocijpa,  travSaXtov,  san- 
dal) was  among  the  Orientals  (as  also  anions  the 
Greeks  and  Romans),  and  still  is,  a  simple  sole  of  leath- 
er or  wood,  which  was  fastened  under  the  foot  (comp. 
Niebuhr,  Bcschr.  p.  63,  pi.  2 ;  Mariti,  Trav.  p.  214 ; 
Harmer,  Obs.  iii,  304  sq.)  by  a  thong  (~*"1C,  serok', 
Gen.  xiv,  23 ;  Isa.  v,  27 ;  ipc'ic,  Mark  i,  7 ;  Luke  iii, 
16,  etc. ;  comp.  Perizzonius  ad  Mlian.  Var.  Hist,  ix, 
11)  passing  over  it.  This  protection  for  the  feet,  at 
once  suitable  to  the  climate  of  the  East,  and  probably 
cheap  (comp.  Amos  ii,  6 ;  viii,  6),  is  found  very  gen- 
erally represented  on  the  Persepolitan  monuments 
(Niebuhr,  Reisen,  ii,  132,  pi.  23,  6;  Ker  Porter,  Trav. 
i,  pi.  39,  40,  41,  47).  Females  probably  wore  a  more 
costly  sort  of  sandals  (Jud.  xvi,  11 ;  comp.  Cant,  vii, 
1  [see  the  Targ.~\  ;  Ezek.  xvi,  10),  since  also  among 
the  Syrians  (Virg.  A-'.n.  i,  366  sq.),  the  Persians,  the 
Greeks,  and  the  Romans  (Martial,  ii,  29, 8),  shoes  of  va- 
riegated (especially  purple-colored)  leather,  and  even 
gilt  (calcei  aurei),  were  a  favorite  article  of  luxury  ; 
and,  although  a  considerable  part  of  this  decoration 
might  be  expended  upon  the  latchet  merely,  yet  there 
is  also  evidence  that  sandals  with  a  side  and  upper 
leather  (like  slippers)  were  employed.  The  (eminent) 
Persians  certainly  wore  actual  shoes  (Xenoph.  Cyrop. 
viii,  1,  41 ;  Strabo,  xv,  734),  and  the  monuments  rep- 
resent a  kind  of  half-boot  (Ker  Porter,  Trav.  i,  pi. 
39) ;  the  shoes  of  the  Babylonians,  according  to  Strabo 
(xvi,  746),  were  no  ordinary  sandal,  and  it  is  possible 
that  the  later  Hebrews  wore  a  covering  for  the  feet 
similar  to  theirs.  The  task  of  binding  on  and  unbind- 
ing (\veiv,  Aristoph.  Thesmoph.  1183;  in  Heb.  ^123, 
*|rbn,  or  rVw)  these  soles,  and  of  carrying  them  about 
for  one's  use,  was  assigned  to  (menial)  slaves  (Matt. 
iii.  11;  Mark  i.  7;  John  i,  27;  Acts  xiii,  25;  comp. 
Talm.  Bab.  Kidditsh,  xvii,  2  ;  Ketkuboih,  lxvi,  1 ;  Plu- 
tarch, Sympos.  vii,  8,  4;  Arrian,  Epict.  iii,  26,  21 ;  Eu- 
seb.  Hist.  Eccl.  iv,  15;  see  Kype,  Observ.  i,  12  sq. ;  C. 
W.  Volland  [A.  Plathner],  De  sandaligerulis  Hebr.  Vi- 
tel).  1712;  also  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  xxix).  Indoors 
the  Orientals  wore  no  shoes,  which  visitors  were  re- 
quired to  leave  in  the  outer  hall  (comp.  also  Plat.  %ra> 


ATTIRE 


532 


ATTIRE 


pos.  p.  213).  Only  at  the  paschal  meal  were  the  Is- 
raelites td  keep  their  shoes  on  (Exod.  xii,  11),  in  order 
to  complete  their  equipment  for  travelling,  since  for 
a  journey  and  on  going  out  persons  of  course  assumed 
their  sandals  (Acts  xii,  8).  It  was  customary  in  very 
early  times,  however,  to  walk  barefoot  (t]f£,  I'm^H 
:":n,  nudopedi )  in  sacred  spots,  where  the  Deity  was 
believed  to  have  been  disclosed  (Exod.  iii,  5;  Acts  vii, 
33;  Josh,  v,  15);  and,  according  to  Jewish  tradition 
(see  Josephus,  Ant.  ii,  15,  1),  which  the  O.  T.  by  no 
means  contradicts,  the  Jewish  priests  performed  their 
sacred  services  unsandalled  (comp.  Ovid,  Fast,  vi, 
S:>7  :  see  Balduin,  De  calceo,  p.'23 ;  Dougtrci  Analect.  i, 
57  sq. ;  Spanheim  ad  Callim.  Cerer.  325  ;  Carpzov,  De 
discalcatione  in  loco  sacra,  Lips.  1729 ;  also  in  his  Ap- 
parat.  antiq.  p.  769  sq. ;  Walch,  De  religiosa  veterum 
ari'-ocijrTia,  Jen.  1756;  also  in  his  Dissert,  ad  Acta 
Ap.  i;  Wichtmannshausen,  De  c<ilr,,<  in  Ebrceor.  sacris 
deponendo,  Viteb.  1721;  also  in  Ugolini  Thesaur.  xxix). 
Also,  in  deep  grief,  persons  went  unshod  (2  Sam.  xv, 
30;  Ezek.  xxiv,  17,  23;  Isa.  xx,  2;  comp.  Bion,  Idyll. 
i.  21;  Stat.  Theb.  ix,  572;  Kirchmann,  De  funerib. 
Horn.  p.  355;  Eosenmuller,  Morgenl.  iv,  340).  The 
pulling  off  the  shoe  was  a  legal  act,  symbolical,  with  re- 
spect to  the  Levirate  marriage  (Deut.  xxv,  9,  10;  Faith 
iv.  7 ;  comp.  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  112),  that  the  indi- 
vidual surrendered  his  title  or  passed  it  over  to  anoth- 
er, who  thus,  as  it  were,  stepped  into  his  shoes  (Eosen- 
miillcr,  Morgenl.  iii,  71  sq.),  a  usage  that  seems  to  be 
alluded  to  in  Psa.  Ix,  10;  cviii,  10  (comp.  Castell.  Lex. 
J  ptaghtt.  2342;  Balduin,  De  calceo,  p.  217  sq. ;  see 
Ewald,  Psalm,  p.  313).  The  generally  unavoidable 
collection  of  dust  and  stains  upon  the  covering  of  the 
feet  among  the  Israelites  rendered  the  frequent  wash- 
ing of  the  feet  necessary.  See  Uncleaxness.  Shoe- 
makers are  named  in  the  Talmud  [see  Mechanic]; 
among  the  Persians  the  fabrication  of  foot-clothing  was 
carried  on  in  manrfactories  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  viii,  2,  5). 
On  the  subject  generally,  see  Bynseus,  De  calceis  vet. 
Ilebr.  (Dordr.  1682,  1715 ;  also'  in  Ugolini  Thesaur. 
xxix) ;  Rottboll,  De  vestib.  et  calceis  Israelii.  (Hafn. 
1755) ;  Balduin,  Calceus  cintiej. ;  and  Nigron,  De  cali- 
f/a vet.  (L.  B.  1711).— Winer,  ii,  428.     See  Sandal. 

II.  Female  articles  of  apparel  consisted,  in  addition 
to  the  foregoing,  of  the  following  pieces  of  ornament 
(unless  we  except  the  veil)  rather  than  necessity.  See 
also  Paint;  Ornament;  Head-dress. 

6.  The  veil  (in  general  perhaps  f'D*"  M&3,  a  cov- 
ering of  the  eyes,  Gen.  xx,  16)  belongs  throughout  the 
East  tn  this  day  as  a  most  indispensable  piece  of  fe- 
male attire,  and  no  lady  of  character  and  respectabili- 
ty allows  herself  to  bo  seen  without  it  in  public,  or  even 
by  strangers  within  doors  (comp.  the  Koran,  xxxiii, 
06).  Only  female  slaves  |  Niebuhr,  JReisen,  ii,  162), 
public  dancing-girls  (who  are  probably  always  prosti- 
tutes, yet  do  not  usually  dispense  with  the  veil,  Ilas- 
E  ilquist,  Trav.  p.  7:>,  but  are  easily  induced  to  lay  it 
aside,  Niebuhr,  Reisen,  i,  184),  and  in  general  women 
of  the  lowest  class  constitute  an  exception  to  this  uni- 
versal custom.  These  usages  appear,  on  the  whole,  to 
have  been  prevalent  among  the  Israelites  (see  Bucher, 
Antiquit.  Hebr.  et  Grac.  de  rc/a/is  f  minis,  Budiss. 
1717 1,  Bince  we  cannot  suppose  the  privacy  and  re- 
straint of  females  to  have  been  less  than  in  modern 
Oriental  Bociety  [see  Wife],  although  in  patriarchal 
times  a  less  strict  etiquette  would  seem  to  have  pre- 
vailed with  regard  to  the  use  of  the  veil.  Virgins 
(Gen.  xxiv,  15  sq.)  and  even  wives  (Gen.  xii,  11)  of 
the  old  Hebrew  nomads,  especially  in  domestic  em- 
ployments, appear  to  have  gone  unhesitatingly  with- 
out a  veil,  as  still  in  Arabia (Wellsted,  i.  2 19)  and  Pal- 
estine! Russegger,  iii,  109);  but  the  betrothed  covered 
herself  in  the  presence  of  her  bridegroom  (Gen.  xxiv. 
t;.", :   comp.  tin-  phrase  nvben  viro),  and  to  this  ad  of 

delicacy  the  apOStle  appears   to  allude  in  ]   (J0r.  xi,  5 

sq.     Courtesans  were  known  by  their  deep  veiling 


(Gen.  xxxviii,  15;  comp.  Petron.  16),  and  sought  the 
more  to  decoy  by  this  mark  of  modesty.  That  the 
veil  was  a  principal  article  of  female  costume  in  the 
Israelitish  republic  appears  from  Isa.  iii,  22;  Cunt,  v, 
7;  and  ladies  of  rank  may  have  worn  several  veils, 
one  over  the  other,  like  the  modern  Oriental  women 
(Buckingham,  ii,  383).  The  various  species  of  veils 
designated  by  the  several  Heb.  terms  having  this  gen- 
eral significance  are  but  uncertainly  indicated  by  the 
etymologies  of  the  different  words:  (1.)  b^'j,  ra' ill 
(Isa.  iii,  19),  is  thought  (in  accordance  with  its  Arabic 
synonym  ral)  to  be  the  large  general  covering  thrown 
looseby  around  the  head  and  temples,  and  hanging 
down  in  walking,  yet  so  arranged  about  the  eyes  as  to 
allow  the  female  to  see  through  the  folds  (see  Jahn, 
pi.  9,  fig.  10).  In  the  Talmud  (Mishna,  Shabb.  vi,  6) 
Arab  women  are  designated  (ri?h""')  from  this  pecu- 
liarity of  dress.  (2.)  T^,  radio"  (Isa.  iii,  23  ;  Cant, 
v,  7),  may  denote  the  thin  covering  that  Oriental  fe- 
males still  wear  over  the  entire  clothing,  and  might 
have  been  earlier  styled  a  mantle  (see  Jahn,  pi.  8,  fig. 
12;  comp.  Schroder,  Vestit.  mulier.  p.  368  sq.V  (3.) 
A  still  different  kind  of  veil,  which  is  yet  worn  in 
Egypt  (Niebuhr,  Reisen,  i,  166)  and  Syria  (Arvieux, 
Voyage,  iii,  247),  covered  the  bosom,  neck,  and  cheek 
as  far  as  the  nose,  while  the  eyes  were  left  free  (see 
Jahn,  pi.  10,  fig.  1).  This  form  is  depicted  on  the 
Persepolitan  ruins,  and  may  also  have  been  in  com- 
mon use  by  the  Hebrewesses.  Yet  this  import  cannot, 
on  intrinsic  grounds,  be  assigned  to  either  of  the  words 
SpSX,  tsa'iph'  (Gen.  xxiv,  65;  xxxviii,  14,  19;  Sept. 
S-fptarpo)'),  or  rt52^,  tsammah'  (Cant,  iv,  1,  3 ;  vi,  7  ; 
Isa.  xlvii,  2)  ;  and  whether  this  last  means  in  general 
veil  (Hartmann,  Hebriierin.  iii,  236  sq.)  is  doubtful  (Ge- 
senius,  Jesa.  in  loc. ;  Rosenmiiller,  Cant,  in  loc). — Wi- 
ner, ii,  416.     See  Veil. 

7.  The  armlet,  or  band  for  the  wrist  (I^EX,  tsamid', 
or  n*!*1"^,  tsamidah'},  was  a  very  favorite  ornament, 
not  only  of  all  ancient  nations  (Plin.  xxxiii,  10,  12; 
xii,  42 ;  vii,  29 ;  Liv.  x,  44 ;  Suet.  Ner.  30),  but  espe- 
cially of  Orientals  (so  much  so  that  gold  and  silver 
ones  are  forbidden  in  the  Koran,  xviii,  30;  xxxv,  30; 
lxxvi,  21 ;  on  the  forms  of  ancient  Egyptian  ones,  see 
Wilkinson,  iii,  374),  being  worn  by  men  as  well  as 
women  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  i,  3,  2 ;  Anab.  i,  5,  8;  Curt, 
viii,  9,  21;  Petron.  Sat.  32;  comp.  Bartholin,  De  ar- 
millis  vet.  Amst.  1676;  Schroder,  De  Vestit.  mul.  p. 
56  sq.).  Among  the  Hebrew  females  it  was  general 
from  the  earliest  times  (Gen.  xxiv,  22,  30,  47 ;  comp. 
Isa.  iii,  19;  Ezek.  xvi,  11  ;  xxiii,42;  Jud.  x,  14),  but 
among  the  men  those  of  rank  only  appear  to  have  worn 
it  (2  Sam.  i,  10;  comp.  Num.  xxxi,  50;  see  Harmer, 
ii,  126  sq.  ;  Ker  Porter,  ii,  pi.  60).  They  consisted 
either  of  rings  (of  ivory,  precious  metals,  etc. ;  among 
the  poor  probably  likewise  of  horn,  as  in  modern  times, 
Harmer,  iii,  3C8)  or  of  cords  and  chains,  T'~'£,  she- 
roth'  (Isa.  iii,  19).  They  were  worn  on  both  arms  or 
(more  usually)  on  one  arm  (the  right?  Sirach,  xxi, 
23),  and  partly  covered  the  wrist  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  vi, 
4,  2);  but  (in  Persia)  they  are  often  so  broad  as  to 
reach  to  the  elbows  (com]).  Niebuhr,  Reisen,  i,  164; 
Hartmann,  IUbr.  ii,  178  sq.  ;  Buckingham,  Mesopot. 
p.  433).  See  Bracelet.  Like  the  ear-rings,  the  arm- 
lets also  generally  served  as  amulets  (Plin.  xxviii,  47). 
—Winer,  i,  88.     See  Talisman. 

8.  The  anklet  (&35,  e'hes;  comp.  Tipiufvoiov.  He- 
rod, iv,  1(1^,  periscelis;  also  ir'iStj,  Lucian,  Lexiphan. 
9),  of  metal,  born,  ivory,  etc.,  was  in  ancient  times,  as 
still  by  Eastern  ladies,  extensively  worn  about  the 
feet  (Isa.  iii,  18;  see  Michaelis,  in  Pott's  Sylhge,  ii, 
'.):);  Niebuhr,  Reisen,  i,  161;  Russell,  Aleppo,  ii,  130; 
Harmer,  ii,  400  sq.  ;  Euppel,  Abyss,  i,  201;  ii,  179; 
com]..  Longi  Pastor,  i,  2;  Aristamct.  Kp.  i,  19'.  being 
indeed  an  Oriental  fashion  (Horace,  Ep.  i,  17,  56 ;  Plin. 


ATTIRE 


533 


ATTIRE 


xxxiii,  54 ;  comp.  Jud.  x,  4).  They  are  generally  so 
arranged  that  in  walking  a  clapping  or  clinking  is 
heard  (Isa.  iii,  16;  comp.  Koran,  xxiv,  32;  Tertull. 
Cult.  fin.  7;  Dougtaei  Analect.  i,  243;  Arvieux,  iii, 
251;  Shaw,  p.  211),  of  which  the  wearer  is  greatly 
proud  (comp.  Eosenmuller,  Morgenl.  iv,  212),  especial- 
ly among  coquettish  females  (comp.  Aristsenet.  Ep.  i, 
4;  Dougtsei  Analect.  i,  248).  Sometimes  small  chains 
(m'nr^,  tsearoth' ',  Isa.  iii,  20;  Talm.  D^SS,  keba- 
Um")  were  fastened  from  one  foot  to  the  other,  proba- 
bly in  order  to  secure  a  short  genteel  step  (Harmer, 
iii,  408  ;  Itiippel,  Abyss,  ii,  53 ;  comp.  Clem.  Alex. 
Pcedag.  ii,  89;  and  the  Gemara,  in  Shabb.  vi,  4);  ac- 
cording to  the  rabbins  (see  Surcnhusius's  Mischna,  ii, 
25),  perhaps  to  prove  their  maidenly  innocence  (Mi- 
chaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  ii,  156  sq.).  (See  generally  Schro- 
der, De  Vestit.  mul.  c.  i,  §  3 ;  Bynarns,  De  calceis  Hebr. 
i,  8 ;  Hartmann,  Hebrderin.  ii,  183  sq. ;  iii,  217  sq. ; 
[P.  Lyser]  C.  G.  Blumberg,  De  d^03?,  Lips.  1683 ; 
also  in  Hasan  et  Ikenii  Nov.  thes.  i,  853  sq. ;  also  in  Ugo- 
lini  Thesaur.  xxix). — Winer,  i,  381.     See  Anklet. 

9.  The  necklace,  TW,  rabid'',  a  still  very  favorite 
ornament  in  the  East  (Prov.  i,  9;  iii,  3;  xxv,  12; 
Ezek.  xvi,  11 ;  Hos.  ii,  13),  which  not  only  women 
(Cant,  iv,  9 ;  Xenoph.  Cyrop.  viii,  5, 18),  but  also  (em- 
inent) men,  even  warriors,  perhaps  the  last,  however, 
among  the  Medes  and  Persians  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  i,  3, 
2;  ii,  4,  6;  A nab.  i,  5,  8;  8,  29;  Curt,  iii,  3,  13;  Phi- 
Iostr.  Apoll.  ii,  1;  Strabo,  iv,  197;  comp.  Odyss.  xv, 
460 ;  Adams,  Rom.  Antiq.  ii,  198),  as  among  the  Belgic 
Gauls  (Strabo,  iv,  197),  for  we  find  no  trace  of  this  as 
an  article  of  male  attire  among  the  Israelites  (see 
SchefTer,  De  torquibus,  Holm.  1658;  c.  notis  a  J.  Nic- 
olai,  Hamb.  1707).  Necklaces  were  made  sometimes 
of  metal,  at  others  of  stones  or  pearls,  which  were 
strung  upon  a  cord  (D^Tlin,  charuzim',  Cant,  i,  10; 
comp.  Frahn,  ad  Ibn  Foszlan.  Petropol.  1823,  p.  86  sq. ; 
the  0"1"nn,  torim',  Cant,  i,  10,  are  probably  not  a  neck- 
lace [Vulg.  muranulce],  but  an  ornament  for  the  head, 
most  likely  strings  of  pearls  entwisted  in  the  hair  or 
attached  to  the  head-dress  [q.  v.]  and  flowing  down, 
see  Michaelis,  in  loc),  and  hung  down  to  the  breast, 
or  even  as  far  as  the  girdle  (Jerome  ad  Ezech.  xvii,  11 ; 
Arvieux,  iii,  253).  Persons  of  rank  perhaps  wore  sev- 
eral such.  Other  articles  of  finery  were  also  at  times 
attached  to  them,  such  as  (1.)  d^3"lilJB,  sahnronim' ', 
ha-'f-moons  or  crescents,  Isa.  iii,  18  (Sept.  pipnoicoi ; 
comp.  lunula,  Plaut.  lipid,  v,  i,  34 ;  see  Tertull.  Cidt. 
fern,  ii,  10;  called  in  Arabic  ahalat);  comp.  Judg. 
viii,  21  (where  similar  trinkets  appear  as  ornaments 
for  camels'  necks);  (2.)  Smelling-bottles,  "CJS.3  "'OS, 
bottey'  ne'phesh  (lit.  houses  of  the  soul),  Isa.  iii,  20 
(comp.  Le  Bruyn,  Voyage,  i,  217  ;  Chardin,  iii,  72)  ; 
(3.)  perhaps  little  stellated  studs,  d^CTd-:;,  shebisim/, 
Isa.  iii.  18  ;  and  (4.)  serpents,  d^lUtT?,  lechashim' ',  Isa. 
iii,  20,  probably  as  amulets  (q.  v.) ;  but  see  Gesenius, 
Comm.  ::.  Jesa.  i,  209,  211.  Ladies  may  also  have 
worn  rings  (collars)  of  metal  around  the  neck  (see  Nie- 
buhr,  Reisen,  i,  164;  comp.  Virg.  .En.  v,  559).  Among 
the  Persians  kings  used  to  invest  men  with  a  neck- 
lace (7t",?'pn,  hamnik' ',  which,  however,  may  mean 
armlet)  as  a  mark  of  favor  (Dan.  v,  7  ;  xvi,  29 ;  comp. 
Xenoph.  Anab.  i,  2,  27;  Cyrop.  viii,  5,  18);  and  it  ap- 
pears that  a  higher  rank  was  associated  with  this  dis- 
tinction (Dan.  v,  7).  In  Egypt  the  prime  minister  of 
state  was  adorned  with  a  (state)  necklace  (Gen.  xli, 
42) ;  the  chief-justice  also  wore  a  golden  chain,  with 
the  symbol  of  truth  attached  (Diod.  Sic.  i,  48 ;  comp. 
Hengstenberg,  Moses,  p.  29  sq.).  (See  generally 
Schroder,  Vestit.  mulier.  p.  130  sq. ;  Hartmann,  Heb- 
raerin. ii,  172  sq.,  259  sq. ;  iii,  208,  267  sq.)— Winer, 
i,  450.     See  Necklace. 

10.  Ear-rings  were  universal  in  the  East  with  wom- 
en (Exod.  xxxii,  2;   Ezek.  xvi,  12;   Jud.  x,  4)  and 


children  of  both  sexes  (Exod.  xxxii,  2 ;  comp.  Buck- 
ingham, Trav.  p.  241,  342).  Travellers  have  found 
them  sometimes  small  and  closely  fitting  the  ear,  some- 
times very  large  and  heavy  (Mandelslo,  Reisen,  p.  21 ; 
in  North  Africa  as  thick  as  a  good-sized  pipe-stem, 
Host,  Morocco,  p.  119),  four  fingers'  breadth  in  diam- 
eter ;  they  so  enlarge  the  hole  through  the  lobe  of  the 
ear  that  it  is  said  one  can  pass  two  fingers  through  it 
(Harmer,  Obs.  iii,  314).  Luxury  has  carried  the  fash- 
ion to  such  a  pitch  that  women  puncture  as  many  ap- 
ertures in  the  ear-lobe  as  possible,  and  hang  a  ring 
through  each  (Arvieux,  iii,  25)  ;  Wellsted  {Travels,  i, 
224)  counted  sometimes  fifteen  in  a  single  ear,  and 
Eussegger  (II,  ii,  180)  speaks  of  even  twenty.  The 
ancient  Hebrews  designated  this  ornament  by  the 
terms  fit 3,  ne'zem  (e.  g.  Gen.  xxxv,  4,  "HOIK  C"1*^"? 
ti"r.3TX2,  the  rings  that  were  in  their  ears),  and  5"1V, 
agil  (Ezek.  xvi,  2),  which  almost  everywhere  also 
signify  ring  or  hoop.  See  Eing.  Besides  proper 
rings  (of  horn,  bone,  or  metal),  persons  also  wore  oth- 
er trinkets  in  the  ear,  which  were  called,  for  exam- 
ple, (1.)  mSvJ3,  netiphoth' ',  little  drops  (Judg.  viii, 
26  ;  Isa.  iii,  19),  i.  e.  ear  pendants  with  tiny  bells,  name- 
ly pearls  (Gr.  ordXaypa,  Lat.  stalagmium,  Plaut.  Mi  n. 
iii,  18)  ;  (2.)  tOlB,  kumaz' ,  on  the  other  hand,  is  prob- 
ably not  an  ear-ring,  but  necklace  or  amulet  (see  Ge- 
senius, Thes.  Heb.  p.  692) ;  (3.)  for  a  peculiar  kind  of 
Jewish  ear-ring,  see  the  Mishna  (Chelim,  xi,  9;  ac- 
cording to  the  Mishna,  Shabb.  vi,  6,  the  girls  first  drew 
a  cord  through  the  ear  after  piercing,  until  it  was  heal- 
ed). Whether  men  among  the  Jews  made  use  of  ear 
ornaments  is  uncertain  ;  Pliny  (xi,  50)  asserts  the  cus- 
tom of  Orientals  without  distinction,  and  other  writers 
state  the  usage  in  the  case  of  men  with  respect  to  sev- 
eral Eastern  nations  more  or  less  positively  and  relia- 
bly: e.  g.  the  inhabitants  along  the  Euphrates  (Juven. 
i,  104),  the  Lydians  (Xenoph.  Anab.  iii,  1,  31),  the  Lib- 
yans (Macrob.  Sat.  vii,  3),  the  Arabians  (Petron.  Sat. 
102),  the  Carthaginians  (Plaut.  Pan.  v,  2,  21),  the  In- 
dians (Curt,  ix,  1,  30),  the  Parthians  (Tertull.  Cult, 
fern,  x),  the  Assyrians  (Asiatic  Journ.  1843,  No.  8,  pi. 
xvii),  and  probably  others  (see  Bochart,  Hieroz.  i,  342). 
The  modern  Arabs  likewise  certainly  wear  ear-rings 
(Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  65;  Reisen,  p.  164  sq,),  as  an- 
ciently the  Midianites  (Judg.  viii,  24).  Among  the 
Greeks  onlv  children  wore  rings,  and  that  but  in  the 
right  ear  (Isid.  Grig,  xix,  31, 10;  Appul.  Habit,  i,  160, 
ed.  Bip. ;  yet  see  Dio  Chrys.  xxxii,  361  [or  654  ed. 
Reiske]) ;  among  the  Eomans  the  women  had  reached 
the  highest  pitch  of  luxury  in  ear-rings,  wearing  gold, 
jewels,  and  the  most  costly  pearls  in  their  ears,  not 
singly,  but  in  pairs  and  triple  (Seneca,  Benef.  vii,  9 ; 
17/.  In-lit.  17;  Pliny,  ix,  56).  Nevertheless,  Exod. 
xxxii,  2,  appears  indirectly  to  forbid  the  supposition 
that  they  were  at  that  time  worn  by  male  Israelites; 
and  we  may  ass.ume  from  the  Mishna  (Shabb.  vi,  6) 
that  among  the  later  Jews  even  children  did  not  usual- 
ly have  these  ornaments.  It  remains  to  notice  that  in 
early  times  ear-rings  were  employed  as  charms  ^Gen. 
xxxv,  4;  comp.  Jonathan's  Targ.  in  loc;  see  Mai- 
monid.  Tdolol.  vii,  10;  Augustine,  Ep.  73);  and  Eich- 
horn  (Einleit.  ins  X.  T.  i,  524)  would  introduce  iheir 
mention  into  Matt,  vii,  6,  as  the  rendering  (for 
"pearls")  of  the  original  Aramaean  Gospel.  See  Am- 
ulet. On  the  boring  the  ear  of  a  slave  (Deut.  xv,  17), 
see  Servant.  (See  generally  Schroder,  Vestit.  mul. 
p.  187  sq. ;  Hartmann,  Hebraerin.  ii,  163  sq. ;  Bartho- 
lin, De  inaurib.  vet.  syntagma,  Amstel.  1676;  Rathge- 
ber,  in  the  Hall.  Encyclop.  Ill,  ii,  333  sq.) — Winer,  ii. 
173.     See  Ear-ring. 

11.  The  nose-ring  (in  general  faM,  ne'zem,,  comp. 
Prov.  xi,  22  ;  Ezek.  xvi,  12  ;  more  definitely  dXH  DM, 
ne'zem  ha-aph,  jewel  of  the  nose,  Isa.  iii,  21;  probably 
also  nr:,  chach,  Exod.  xxxv,  22),  a  very  favorite 
adornment  among  Oriental  females  from  the  earliest 


ATTITUDE 


534 


ATTITUDE 


times  (Gem  xxiv,  22,  47;  comp.  Mishna,  Shalb.  vi,  1, 
where  it  appears  that  the  Jewesses  wore  no  nose-rings 
on  the  Sabbath,  but  ear-rings  only).  Eastern  women 
to  this  day  wear  in  the  perforated  extremity  of  the  car- 
tilage of  the  left  (Chardin,  in  Harmer,  iii,  310  sq.)  or 
right  nostril  (see  the  fig.  in  Hartmann,  Hebrderin.  pi. 
2),  or  even  in  the  middle  partition  of  the  nose  (Mariti, 
p.  216),  a  ring  of  ivory  or  metal  (doubtless  often  deco- 
rated with  jewels)  of  two  or  three  inches  diameter, 
which  hangs  down  over  the  mouth,  and  through  which 
the  men  are  fond  of  applying  their  kiss  (Arvieux,  iii, 
252;  see  Tavernier,  i,  92;  Shaw,  p.  211;  Niebuhr, 
Beschr.  p.  65;  Joliffe,  p.  35;  Eiippel,  Arab.  p.  203; 
comp.  Hartmann,  Hebrderin.  ii,  1C6  sq.,  292;  Bartho- 
lin, J)ij  annulis  narium,  in  his  treatise  Be  morbis  Bibl. 
c.  19;  also  in  his  work  De  inauribus  vet.  Amstel.  1767). 
Even  among  the  aborigines  of  America  this  ornament 
has  been  found.  Occasionally  men  also  in  the  East 
affect  the  use  of  the  nose-ring  (Russegger,  II,  ii,  180). 
But  whether  it  was  derived  from  the  practice  of  treat- 
ing animals  thus  (as  Hartmann  thinks)  is  not  clear; 
for  the  female  love  of  decoration  might  naturally  in- 
troduce nose-rings  as  well  as  ear-rings,  since  the  nose 
and  the  ears  are  such  conspicuous  parts  of  the  person 
as  readily  to  lead  to  a  desire  to  set  them  off  by  artifi- 
cial finery. — Wild  beasts  were  led  (as  still  bears  and 
buffaloes  are)  by  a  ring  through  the  nose,  as  the  easi- 
est mode  of  subduing  and  holding  them  ;  the  same  is 
sometimes  done  with  large  fishes  that  have  been  caught 


and  again  placed  in  the  water  (comp.  Bruce,  ii,  314). 
Such  a  ring  is  likewise  called  Pin,  ckach,  or  Hit"!,  cho'- 
ach  (Job  xl,  26  [21]  ;  comp.  2  Kings  xix,  28 ;  Isa. 
xxxvii,  29 ;  Ezek.  xix,  4 ;  xxix,  4 ;  xxxviii,  2),  by 
the  Arabs  Chizdm. — Winer,  ii,  137.    See  Nose-jeavel. 

Attitude.  From  the  numerous  allusions  in  Scrip- 
ture to  postures  expressive  of  adoration,  supplication, 
and  respect,  we  learn  enough  to  perceive  that  the 
usages  of  the  Hebrews  in  this  respect  were  very  near- 
ly, if  not  altogether,  the  same  as  those  which  are  still 
practised  in  the  East,  and  which  the  paintings  and 
sculptures  of  Egypt  show  to  have  been  of  old  em- 
ployed in  that  country.     See  Salutation. 

I.  Adoration  and  Homage. — The  Moslems  in 
their  prayers  throw  themselves  successively,  and  ac- 
cording to  an  established  routine,  into  the  various  pos- 
tures {nine  in  number)  which  they  deem  the  most  ap- 
propriate to  the  several  parts  of  the  service.  For  the 
sake  of  reference  and  comparison,  we  have  introduced 
them  all  at  the  head  of  this  article ;  as  we  have  no 
doubt  that  the  Hebrews  employed  on  one  occasion  or 
another  nearly  all  the  various  postures  which  the 
Moslems  exhibit  on  one  occasion.  This  is  the  chief 
difference.  (See  Lane's  Arabian  Xights,  passim  ;  Mod. 
Egyptians,  i,  105  sq. ;  Thomson's  Land  and  Book,  i, 
26.)  In  public  and  common  worship  the  Hebrews 
prayed  standing  (1  Kings  viii,  54;  Ezra  ix,  5;  Dan. 
vi,  10;  2  Chron.  vi,  13);  but  in  their  separate  and 


Mohammedan  Postures  of  Worship. 


private  acts  of  worship  they  assumed  the  position 
which,  according  to  their  modes  of  doing  homage  or 
showing  respect,  .seemed  to  them  the  most  suitable  to 
their  present  feelings  or  objects.  It  would  appeal-, 
however,  that  some  form  of  kneeling  was  most  usual 
in  private  devotions.     See  Adoration. 

1.  Standing  in  public  prayer  is  still  the  practice  of 
the  Jews.  This  posture  was  adopted  from  the  syna- 
gogue by  the  primitive  Christians,  and  is  still  main- 
tained by  the  Oriental  Churches.  This  appears,  from 
their  monuments,  to  have  been  the  custom  also  among 
the  ancient  Persians  and  Egyptians,  although  the  lat- 
ter certainly  sometimes  knelt  before  their  gods.  In 
the  Moslem  worship,  four  of  the  nine  positions  (1,  2, 
4,  8)  are  standing  ones  ;  and  that  posture  which  is  re- 
peated in  three  out  of  these  four (2, 4, 8)  maybe  point- 
ed out  as  the  proper  Oriental  posture  of  reverential 
standing,  with  folded  bands.  It  is  the  posture  in 
which  people  stand  before  kings  and  great  men. 

While  in  this  attitude  of  worship,  the  hands  were 
sometimes  stretched  forth  toward  heaven  in  supplica- 
tion or  invocation  (1  Kings  viii,  22 ;  2  Chron.  vi,  12, 
29;  Isa.  i,  15).  This  was  perhaps  not  so  much  the 
conventional  posture  (1)  in  the  Moslem  series,  as  the 
itural  posture  of  standing  adoration  with  out- 
spread  hands,  which  we  observe  on  the  Egyptian  mon- 


Ancient  I  !gj  ptiane  Pray 


ight)  only 


uments.  The  uplifting  of  one  hand  (the 
in  taking  an  oath  was 
so  common,  that  to  say 
"  I  have  lifted  up  my 
hand"  was  equivalent  to 
"  I  have  sworn"  (Gen. 
xiv,  22;  comp.  xli,  44  ; 
Deut.  xxxii,40).  This 
posture  was  also  com- 
mon among  other  an- 
cient nations ;  and  we 
find  examples  of  it  in  Ancient  Persian  and  Roman  Pray- 
the  sculptures  of  Per-  inS  standing, 

sia  (fig.  1)  and  Rome  (fig.  2,  above). 

2.  Kneeling  is  very  often  described  as  a  posture  of 
worship  (1  Kings  viii,  54  ;  Ezra  ix,  5 ;  Dan.  vi,  10 ; 
2  Chron.  vi,  13;  comp.  1  Kings  xix,  18;  Luke  xxii, 
41 ;  Acts  vii,  60).  This  is  still  an  Oriental  custom, 
and  three  forms  of  it  occur  (54  6,  9)  in  the  Moslem  devo- 
tions. It  was  also  in  use,  although  not  very  frequent, 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians ;  who  likewise,  as  well 
as  the  Hebrews  (Exod.  xxxiv,  18 ;  2  Chron.  xxix,  29 ; 
Isa.  i,  15),  sometimes  prostrated  themselves  upon  the 
ground.     The  usual  mode  of  prostration  among  the 


Ancient  Egyptian  kneeling  in  Prayer. 


ATTITUDE 


535 


ATTITUDE 


Mo.lern  Oriental  lYu.-trutiuii. 


Hebrews  by  which  thej'  expressed  the  most  intense 
humiliation  was  by  bringing  not  only  the  body,  but 
the  head  to  the  ground. 
The  ordinary  mode  of 
prostration  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  and  proba- 
-  E$35-e==  bly  anciently,  is  that 
shown  in  one  of  the 
postures  of  Moslem 
worship  (5),  in  which 
the  body  is  not  thrown  flat  upon  the  ground,  but  rests 
upon  the  arms,  knees,  and  head.  In  order  to  express 
devotion,  sorrow,  compunction,  or  humiliation,  the 
Israelites  threw  dust  upon  their  heads  (Josh,  vii,  0; 
Job  ii,  12 ;  Lam.  ii,  10 ;  Ezek.  xxiv,  7 ;  Rev.  xviii, 
10),  as  was  done  also  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and 
is  still  done  by  the  modern  Orientals.  Under  similar 
circumstances  it  was  usual  to  smite  the  breast  (Luke 
xviii,  13).  This  was  also  a  practice  among  the  Egyp- 
tians (Herod,  ii,  85),  and  the  monuments  at  Thebes 


Ancient  lVyptians  Smiting  the  Breast. 

exhibit  persons  engaged  in  this  act  while  they  kneel 
upon  one  knee. 

3.  In  1  Chron.  xvii,  16,  we  are  told  that  "David 
the  king  came  and  sat  before  the  Lord,"  and  in  that 
posture  gave  utterance  to  eloquent  prayer,  or  rather 
thanksgiving,  which  the  sequel  of  the  chapter  contains. 
Those  unacquainted  with  Eastern  manners  are  sur- 
prised at  this.  But  there  is  a  mode  of  sitting  in  the 
East  which  is  highly  respectful  and  even  reverential. 
It  is  that  which  occurs  in  the  Moslem  forms  of  wor- 
ship (9).  The  person  first  kneels,  and  then  sits  back 
upon  his  heels.  Attention  is  also  paid 
to  the  position  of  the  hands,  which 
they  cross,  fold,  or  hide  in  the  oppo- 
site sleeves.  The  variety  of  this  for- 
mal sitting  which  the  annexed  figure 
represents  is  highly  respectful.  Th 
prophet  Elijah  must  have  been  in  this 
or  some  other  similar  posture  when  he 
inclined  himself  so  much  forward  in 
prayer  that  his  head  almost  touched 
his  knees  (1  Kings  xviii,  42).    See  Site. 

II.  Supplication,  when  addressed  externally  to 
man,  cannot  possibly  be  exhibited  in  any  other  forms 
than  those  which  are  used  in  supplication  to  God. 
Uplifted  hands,  kneeling,  prostration,  are  common  to 
both.  On  the  Egyptian  monuments  suppliant  cap- 
tives, of  different  nations,  are  represented  as  kneeling 
or  standing  with  outspread  hands.     This  also  occurs 


iv,  37 ;  Esth.  viii,  3 ;  Matt,  xviii,  29  ;  xxviii,  9 ;  Marl- 
v,  22 ;  Luke  viii,  41 ;  John  xi,  32 ;  Acts  x,  25).  In 
the  instance  last  referred  to,  where  Cornelius  threw 
himself  at  the  feet  of  Peter,  it  may  be  asked  why  the 
apostle  forbade  an  act  which  was  not  unusual  among 
his  own  people,  alleging  as  the  reason,  "  I  myself  also 
am  a  man."  The  answer  is  that,  among  the  Romans, 
prostration  was  exclusively  an  act  of  adoration,  render- 
ed only  to  the  gods,  and  therefore  it  had  in  him  a  sig- 
nificance which  it  would  not  have  had  in  an  Oriental 
(Kuinoel,  ad  Act.  x,  26).  This  custom  is  still  very 
general  among  the  Orientals ;  but,  as  an  act  of  rev- 
erence merely,  it  is  seldom  shown  except  to  kings  ;  as 
expressive  of  alarm  or  supplication,  it  is  more  frequent 
(Hackett's  I/lustra,  of  Script,  p.  109). 

2.  Sometimes  in  this  posture,  or  with  the  knees  bent 
as  before  indicated,  the  Orientals  bring  their  forehead 
to  the  ground,  and  before  resuming  an  erect  position 
either  kiss  the  earth,  or  the  feet,  or  border  of  the  gar- 
ment of  the  king  or  prince  before  whom  they  are  al- 


Ancient  Egyptian  Suppliants. 

in  the  sculptures  of  ancient  Persia  (Persepolis).  The 
first  of  the  accompanying  figures  is  of  peculiar  interest, 
as  representing  an  inhabitant  of  Lebanon. 

1.  Prostration,  or  falling  at  the  feet  of  a  person,  is 
often  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  an  act  of  supplication 
or  of  reverence,  or  of  both  (1  Sam.  xxv,  24  ;  2  Kings 


Oriental  Kissing  the  Feet. 

lowed  to  appear.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  similar 
practice  existed  among  the  Jews,  especially  when  we 
refer  to  the  original  words  which  describe  the  acts  and 
attitudes  of  salutation,  as  HS'n&fl  ^53,  to  bend  doicn  to 
the  earth,  HlpX  iTIrTO'Ori,  to  fall  prostrate  on  the 
earth,  ns^N  C^EN;  2^3,  to  fall  with  the  face  to  the 
earth,  and  connect  them  with  allusions  to  the  act  of 
kissing  the  feet  or  the  hem  of  the  garment  (Matt,  ix, 
20 ;  Luke  vii,  38,  45). 

3.  Kissing  the  hand  of  another  as  a  mark  of  affection- 
ate respect  we  do  not  remember  as  distinctly  mention- 
ed in  Scripture.  But  as  the  Jews  had  the  other  forms 
of  Oriental  salutation,  we  may  conclude  that  they  had 
this  also,  although  it  does  not  happen  to  have  been 
specially  noticed.  It  is  observed  by  servants  or  pupils 
to  masters,  by  the  wife  to  her  husband,  and  by  chil- 
dren to  their  father,  and  sometimes  their  mother.  It 
is  also  an  act  of  homage  paid  to  the  aged  bj  the  young, 
or  to  learned  and  religious  men  by  the  less  instructed 


Oriental  Kissing  the  II 


or  less  devout.  Kissing  one's  own  hand  is  mentioned 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Job  (xxxi,  27),  as  an  act  of 
homage  to  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  was  properly  a 
salutation,  and  as  such  an  act  of  adoration  to  them. 
The  Romans  in  like  manner  kissed  their  hands  as  they 
passed  the  temples  or  statues  of  their  gods.  See  A\u 
oration.  It  appears  from  1  Sam.  x,  1  ;  1  Kings  xix, 
18;  Psa.  ii,  12,  that  there  was  a  peculiar  kiss  of  horn* 
age,  the  character  of  which  is  not  indicated.  It  was 
probably  that  kiss  upon  the  forehead  expressive  of 
high  respect  which  was  formerly,  if  not  now,  in  use 
among  the  Bedouins  (Antar,  ii,  119).  See  Kiss. 
III.  Bowing. — In  the  Scriptures  there  are  different 


ATTO 


536 


AUBERLEN 


words  descriptive  of  various  postures  of  respectful 
bowing:  as  Tip,  to  incline  or  bow  down  the  head; 
2H3,  to  bend  down  tin-  bad//  very  low  ;  7p2,  to  bend  the 
knee,  also  to  bless.  These  terms  indicate  a  conformity 
with  the  existing  usages  of  the  East,  in  which  the 
modes  of  bowing  are  equally  diversified,  and,  in  all 
likelihood,  the  same,  'these  are,  1,  touching  the  lips 
i  2 


Modern  Orientals  IJowing. 

(is  this  the  kissing  of  the  hand  noticed  above  ?)  and 
the  forehead  with  the  right  hand,  with  or  without  an 
inclination  of  the  head  or  of  the  body,  and  with  or 
without  previously  touching  the  ground ;  2,  placing 
the  right  hand  upon  the  breast,  with  or  without  an  in- 
clination of  the  head  or  of  the  body;  3,  bending  the 
body  very  low,  with  folded  arms  ;  4,  bending  the  body 
and  resting  the  hands  on  the  knees  :  this  is  one  of  the 
postures  of  prayer,  and  is  indicative  of  the  highest 
respect  in  the  presence  of  kings  and  princes.  In  the 
Egyptian  paintings  we  see  persons  drop  their  arms 
toward  the  ground  while  bowing  to  a  superior,  or 
standing  respectfully  with  the  right  hand  resting  on 
the  left  shoulder.     See  Bowing. 


Ancient  Egyptians  Bowing. 
It  is  observable  that,  as  before  noticed,  the  word 
"p2,  barak,  means  to  bless  and  to  bend  the  knee,  which 
suggests  the  idea  that  it  was  usual  for  a  person  to  re- 
ceive a  blessing  in  a  kneeling  posture.  We  know 
also  that  the  person  who  gave  the  blessing  laid  his 
hands  upon  the  head  of  the  person  blessed  (Gen.  xlviii, 
!  1).  This  is  exactly  the  case  at  the  present  day  in 
the  East,  and  a  picture  of  the  existing  custom  would 
furnish  a  perfect  illustration  of  the  patriarchal  form 
of  blessing. — Kitto,  s.  v. 


<  Mental  Blessing  of  one  knei  ling. 

I V    For  the  attitude  at  meals,  see  Accubation. 

Atto.     See  IIatto. 

Attributes  of  God.     See  God. 

Attrition,  in  the  Romish  theology,  means  imper- 
fect contrition.  See  Contrition.  The  term  was  in- 
troduced by  the  schoolmen  in  the  twelfth  century,  to 
make  a  distinction  between  a  perfect  and  an  imperfect 
st  they  had  brought  penance  into  the 
number  of  the  sacraments.  By  contrition  they  mean 
a  thorough  or  complete  repentance  (contritio  'cordis), 
the  spirit  being  crushed  under  a  Bense  of  sin  ;  by  attri- 
tion, they  mean  an  inferior  degree  of  sorrow,  such  as 


may  arise  from  a  consideration  of  the  turpitude  of  sin 
or  from  the  fear  of  hell  (timor  senilis).  Alexander  of 
Hales  distinguishes  as  follows  (p.  4,  qu.  74,  membr. 
1)  :  Timor  servilis  principium  est  attritionis,  timor  ini- 
tialis  (i.  e.  that  with  which  the  life  of  sanctification 
begins)  principium  est  contritionis.  . .  .  Item  contritio 
est  a  gratia  gratum  faciente,  attritio  a  gratia  gratis 
data,  fjomp.  Thoni.  Aquinas,  qu.  1,  art.  2  ;  Bonaven- 
tura,  in  lib.  iv,  dist.  17,  p.  1,  art.  2,  qu.  3  (Hagenbach, 
Hist,  of  Doctrines,  §  198).  This  distinction  is  main- 
tained by  the  Council  of  Trent  as  follows  :  "  Imperfect 
contrition,  which  is  called  attrition,  commonly  aris- 
ing from  a  consideration  of  the  turpitude  of  sin  and 
a  fear  of  hell  and  punishment,  the  intention  of  contin- 
uing in  sin  with  the  hope  of  receiving  pardon  at  last 
being  disavowed,  not  only  does  not  make  a  man  a  hyp- 
ocrite and  a  greater  sinner,  but  is  really  a  gift  of  God 
and  an  impulse  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  not  that  the  Spirit 
does  as  yet  dwell  in  the  soul,  but  merely  excites  the 
penitent,  who,  thus  aided,  prepares  his  way  to  right- 
eousness. And  although  it  cannot  of  itself  conduct 
the  sinner  to  justification  without  the  sacrament  of  pen- 
ance, yet  it  disposes  him  to  seek  the  grace  of  God  in 
the  sacrifice  of  penance"  (Sess.  xiv,  c.  iv).  To  Prot- 
estant eyes,  attrition  seems  to  have  been  devised  to 
make  a  way  of  salvation  easier  than  contrition.  If 
attrition,  with  penance  and  priestly  absolution,  avail 
before  God  unto  justification,  then  imperfect  repent- 
ance, arising  from  fear,  is  all  the  repentance  neces- 
sary in  practice  to  a  sinner,  whatever  the  theory  may 
be.  So  Dens  :  "  Imperfect  contrition  is  required,  and 
it  is  sufficient ;  perfect  contrition,  though  best,  is  not 
absolutely  required,  because  this  last  justifies  without 
the  sacrament"  (Theologia,  t.  vi,  no.  51).  This  is  one 
of  the  worst  features  of  the  Romish  theology.  "A 
belief  in  sacerdotal  power  to  procure  acceptance  for 
those  who  merely  feel  a  servile  fear  of  divine  wrath  is 
one  of  those  things  that  require  to  be  plucked  up  by 
the  roots,"  if  human  society,  in  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries, is  to  be  preserved  pure.  The  better  class  of  di- 
vines in  that  church  seek  to  palliate  this  doctrine ; 
they  would  do  better  to  conspire  for  its  subversion. — 
Elliott,  Delineation  of  Romanism,  bk.  ii,  c.  x  ;  Bergier, 
Diet,  de  Theologie,  i,  210  ;  Perrone,  Predict.  Theologicw, 
ii,  337  ;  Gibson,  Preservative  against  Popery,  ii,  3G  (fol. 
ed.) ;  Soames,  Latin  Church,  p.  98 ;  Ferraris,  Prorata 
Bibliotheca,  s.  v.  Baptismus. 

Attud.     See  Goat. 

Atwater,  Jeremiah,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  born  at  New  Haven  in  1 774 ;  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1793 ;  was  tutor  in  that  college  from 
1795  to  1799 ;  president  of  Middlebury  College  from 
1800  to  1809 ;  and  president,  of  Dickinson  College,  Car- 
lisle, from  1810  to  1818.  From  that  period  he  lived  in 
retirement  until  his  death,  July  29th,  1858.  Dr.  At- 
water was  a  man  of  great  reading,  and  of  a  retentive 
memory,  especially  of  historical  events,  and  the  lives 
and  characters  of  men  he  had  known,  but  he  bad  no 
fondness  for  writing,  and  has  left,  it  is  believed,  but 
few  literary  remains. — Am.  Cong.  Year-book  (vol.  vi, 
1859,  p.  118). 

Auberlen,  Karl  August,  an  eminent  German 
theologian,  was  born  November  19,  1824,  at  Fellbach, 
near  Stuttgardt.  He  studied  four  years,  from  1837,  at 
Blaubeuern,  and  in  1841  entered  the  University  of  Tu- 
bingen as  theological  student.  F.  C.  Baur  (q.  v.)  was 
then  at  the  height  of  his  glorj',  and  Auberlen  for  a 
time  was  carried  away  by  this  brilliant  Rationalist; 
a  discipline  which  probably  helped  to  fit  him  for  his 
later  work  in  resisting  the  destructive  school  of  theo- 
logians. The  lectures  of  Schmid  and  Beck  (wdio  came 
to  Tubingen  in  1843)  helped  to  save  him  from  the 
abyss  of  Pantheism.  He  had  hardly  taken  his  doctor's 
degree  when  he  published  Die  Theosophi  Oetinger's, 
ein  lii-itrag  .:.  Dogmingeschichte,  etc.  (Tubingen,  1847, 
8vo),  showing  the  higher  sphere  into  which  his  studies 


AUBERTIN 


537 


AUDIN 


had  ascended.  See  Oetixger.  lie  had  previously 
(1845)  become  a  pastor;  and  in  1848  he  followed  Hof- 
acker  (q.  v.)  in  that  office.  In  1849  he  became  rep- 
etent  at  Tubingen,  and  in  1851  professor  extraordinaiy 
at  Basel.  In  the  same  year  he  married  the  daughter 
of  Wolfgang  Menzel.  From  this  time  his  labors  as 
teacher,  preacher,  and  author  were  most  abundant  and 
successful  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  published  in 
1855  Zehn  Predigten  (Basel,  8vo) ;  Der  Prophet  Daniel 
und  die  Offenbarung  Jukannis  (Basel,  185-4,  2d  ed.  1857; 
translated  into  both  French  and  English),  a  work  which 
contributed  greatly  to  the  revival  of  sound  Biblical 
theology  in  Germany ;  Zehn  Vortrage  zur  Veranttcortung 
des  Christlichen  Glaubens  (Basel,  1861,  8vo);  Die  Gbtt- 
liehe  Offenbarung,  ein  apologet.  Versuch  (vol.  i,  1861; 
vol.  ii,  posthumous,  1864).  In  part  one  he  undertakes 
to  show  "that,  even  if  we  accept  only  those  New  Tes- 
tament Scriptures  which  the  most  destructive  of  the 
Tubingen  critics  grant  to  be  genuine,  to  wit,  the  Epis- 
tles to  the  Galatians,  Corinthians,  and  Romans,  a 
strictly  scientific  and  logical  method  of  interpretation 
forces  us  to  the  inevitable  conclusion  that  the  extra- 
ordinary gifts  of  the  apostolic  church,  the  miracles  of 
the  apostles,  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  his  manifesta- 
tion of  himself  to  Saul  on  the  way  to  Damascus,  as 
also  his  continued  intercourse  with  him,  are  facts. 
In  the  gospels  he  asks  but  one  concession,  to  wit,  the 
historical  genuineness  of  Christ's  testimony  respecting 
himself  when  on  trial  (and  this  is  granted  by  Baur, 
Strauss,  etc.),  in  order  to  put  all  deniers  of  the  divini- 
ty of  Christ  in  a  very  disagreeable  predicament.  In 
the  same  regressive  way  he  goes  back  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  by  a  sure  induction  mounts  from  the  patent 
and  undeniable  fact-phenomena  of  the  Old  Dispensa- 
tion to  a  supernatural  and  divine  factor  in  the  whole 
history.  The  result  of  this  part  of  the  discussion  is 
this:  'Were  the  revelations  of  God,  the  miracles,  not 
facts,  then  has  the  inmost  consciousness  of  all  the  holy 
men  of  old — that  is  to  say,  of  the  noblest  and  mightiest 
spirits,  the  real  pillars  of  human  history — reposed  upon 
illusion  and  mental  derangement.  The  world  is  either 
a  Bedlam,  an  insane  asylum,  or  it  is  a  temple,  a  place 
of  divine  epiphanies.'  The  second,  or  historical  part, 
is  a  succinct  history  of  the  long  struggle  in  Germany 
between  rationalism  and  supranaturalism."  A  trans- 
lation of  part  of  vol.  i,  by  Professor  Flackett,  is  given 
in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  July,  1865.  His  career  was  prem- 
aturely cut  short  by  consumption,  May  2,  1864.  In 
the  last  hour  he  said,  in  the  fulness  of  Christian  faith, 
' '  God  be  thanked,  of  death  I  have  no  fear ;  the  Lord 
Jesus  is  my  light  and  my  song"  (sketch  of  his  life  in 
preface  to  2d  vol.  of  Die  Giitil.  Offenbarung). — Herzog, 
Real-Encyldopiidie,  Supplem.  i,  793 ;  Bibliotheca  Scl- 
era, 1*G5J  p.  395,  517. 

Aubertin,  Edmund,  one  of  the  most  learned  di- 
vines of  the  French  Protestant  Church,  was  born  at 
Chalons-sur-Marne  in  1596,  and  became  minister  at 
Chartres  in  1618.  He  was  called  to  Paris  in  1631.  and 
died  there  April  5th,  1652.  He  wrote  Conformite  de  la 
Creance  de  Veglise  et  de  St.  Augustine  sur  le  Sacrement 
de  VEucharistie  (1626,  8vo),  which  attracted  great  atten- 
tion, and  was  afterward  enlarged  into  U  Eucharistie  de 
Vancienne  ('glise,  etc.  (1633,  fol.).  This  work  awakened 
great  attention  and  controversy.  Arnauld  answered 
it,  but  ineffectively.  It  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
Blonde],  De  Eucharistia  sire  canm  Domini  li.bri  tres  (De- 
venter,  1654). — Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  i,  149. 

Aubigne,  Theodore  -Agrippa  d' ,  a  French 
writer  and  historian,  born  the  8th  of  February,  1550, 
at  Saint-Maury  en  Saintonge.  He  showed  at  a  very 
early  age  signs  of  what  he  was  afterward  to  become. 
At  six  years  of  age  he  studied  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew ;  at  ten  he  translated  the  Crito  of  Plato,  on  his 
father's  promise  to  print  it  with  his  portrait.  A  year 
after,  his  father,  who  was  a  zealous  Protestant,  made 
him  swear  (upon  the  scaffold  on  which  some  Protest- 


ants were  executed)  eternal  hatred  to  Rome.  lie  kept 
the  vow.  At  fifteen  he  was  a  student  at  Geneva  un- 
der Beza,  but  soon  quit  his  studies  to  serve  in  the 
army  under  the  Prince  de  Condo  and  the  King  of  Na- 
varre. He  soon  rose  to  the  first  rank  of  Protestant 
warriors,  and  did  not  lay  down  his  sword  till  Henry 
IV  was  established  on  the  throne.  He  served  his  king 
only  too  faithfully,  and  by  his  plain  rebukes  often 
brought  down  upon  his  head  the  wrath  of  the  monarch. 
After  the  death  of  Henry  he  published  I'Eistoire  univer- 
selle  de  son  temps  de  1550  a  1601  (Paris  and  Amsterdam, 
1616-26,  3  vols.  fol.).  The  book  was  condemned  to  be 
burnt  by  the  Parliament,  and  the  author  took  refuge 
at  Geneva,  where  he  died  the  29th  of  April,  1630.  He 
was  a  species  of  Admirable  Crichton,  combining  the 
statesman's  skill,  the  warrior's  intrepidity,  the  schol- 
ar's learning,  and  the  poet's  genius  with  all  the  ster- 
ling virtues  of  the  Christian.  His  daughter  became 
afterward  the  mother  of  Madame  de  Maintenon,  who 
inherited  many  of  the  qualities  of  her  ancestor,  but  not 
his  religion.  A  new  Life  of  D'Aubigne,  from  a  MS. 
found  in  the  library  of  the  Louvre  in  1851,  was  pub- 
lished in  1854  by  M.  Lalanne  (Paris,  8vo),  who  also 
published  reprints  of  the  minor  writings  of  D'Aubigne 
(Les  Tragiques?18b7 ;  Aventures  da  Fanesie,  edited  by 
Merimee,  with  a  sketch  of  D'Aubigne,  1855). — Haag, 
La  France  Protestante,  s.  v. ;  Herzog,  Eecd-Encyhlopa- 
die,  Suppl.  p.  117 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  iii, 
576. 

Aucher,  Pascal,  an  Armenian  monk,  born  1771 
in  Armenia,  died  1854.  He  was,  while  yet  very  young, 
sent,  together  with  his  elder  brother,  J.  B.  Aucher 
(born  1760,  died  1853),  to  the  Armenian  convent  of 
San  Lazaro  at  Venice,  where  they  were  educated,  and 
subsequently  joined  the  order  of  Mechitarists.  Both 
deserved  well  of  the  theological  literature  of  Armenia 
by  publishing  a  number  of  important  works  of  ancient 
Armenian  literature  (e.  g.  the  Chrnncles  of  Eusebius, 
the  Discourses  of  Philo,  etc.).  Paschal  Aucher  also 
published  an  Armenian-English  Dictionary  (2  vols. 
Venice,  1821). 

Audaeans,  Audeans,  or  Audians,  followers  of 
Audasus  or  Audius  (A.D.  340  or  350),  a  native  of  Syria, 
who  boldly  castigated  the  luxury  and  vice  of  the  cler- 
gy, and  who  finally  left  the  church.  He  and  his  fol- 
lowers afterward  deviated  from  the  usages  of  the 
church,  especially  on  the  date  of  Easter.  He  was 
charged  with  anthropomorphism.  He  had  himself  ir- 
regularly consecrated  as  bishop  ;  was  banished  to 
Scythia,  and  died  before  372.  His  personal  character 
was  remarkably  pure.  The  sect  died  out  in  the  fifth 
century.  See  Schroder,  De  Audeo  <J  Audianis  (Mar- 
burg, 1716);  Lardner,  Works,  iv,  176;  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist,  i,  309 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  705. 

Audientes.     See  Hearers. 

Audientia  Episcopalis  (i.  e.  episcqml  judg- 
ment), a  name  first  used  in  the  code  of  Justinian,  and 
thence  generally  employed  in  the  ecclesiastical  law  of 
the  Middle  Ages  to  designate  the  right  of  the  bishops 
to  act  as  arbiters  in  civil  affairs.  See  Bishop;  Juris- 
diction.— Herzog,  Real-Encyldop.  s.  v. 

Audin,  J.  M.  V.,  a  French  littiratfur,  was  born  at 
Lyons  in  1793,  and  studied  theology  at  the  seminary 
of  Argentiere.  He  soon  abandoned  theology  for  the 
study  of  the  law,  but  after  being  admitted  to  the  bar 
he  never  practiced.  In  1814  he  came  to  Paris  and 
commenced  bookseller,  at  the  same  time  keeping  up 
his  literary  pursuits.  The  books  for  which  his  name 
is  mentioned  here  arc  Histoire  <!•  hi  St.  Barthelemy 
|  (1826,  2  vols.  12mo);  Histoire  de  la  Vie,  des  Ouvrages, 
et  des  Doctrines  de  Luther  (2  vols.  8vo;  translated  by 
Turnbull,  London,  1854,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Histoire  de  la 
Vie,  etc.,  de,  Calvin  (1843,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Henry  VIII  et 
le  Schisme  <f Avgleterre  (2  vols.  8vo;  transl.  by  Browne, 
Lond.  1852,  Svo).  He  died  February  21st,  1851.  His 
lives  of  Luther  and  Calvin  are  written  in  a  controver- 


AUDITORES 


538 


AUGSBURG  CONFESSION 


sial  spirit,  and  are  often  unjust  as  well  as  inaccurate. 
Brownson  (Roman  Catholic)  says  of  him  that,  as  a 
writer  of  history,  "he  is  conscientious  and  painstak- 
ing, bnt  we  cannot  regard  him  as  very  sagacious  or 
profound;  and,  under  the  relation  of  style  and  man- 
ner, he  is  not  sufficiently  grave  and  dignified  to  suit 
our  taste,  or  to  inspire  us  with  full  conlidence  in  his 
judgment.  He  takes  too  much  pains  to  be  striking 
and  brilliant,  and  appears  to  weigh  the  phrase  more 
than  the  thought.  Regarded  as  popular  works,  as 
they  probably  were  designed  to  be,  we  esteem  very 
highly  Audin's  biographies;  but,  regarded  as  studies 
on  the  Reformation,  the}-  are  deficient  in  philosophical 
depth  and  comprehensiveness.  They  take,  in  our 
judgment,  quite  too  narrow  and  too  superficial  a  view 
of  the  great  Protestant  movement,  and  afford  us  very 
little  aid  in  understanding  its  real  causes  and  internal 
character.''  —  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Blog.  Generate,  iii,  604; 
Brownson1  s  Review,  January,  1855. 

Auditores  (hearers').  The  Manichaeans  were  di- 
vided into  electi  and  auditores,  corresponding,  accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  to  clergy  and  laity,  and,  accord- 
ing to  others,  to  the  faithful  and  catechumens.  By 
the  Manichsean  rule  a  different  courseof  conduct  was 
prescribed  to  the  elect  from  that  of  the  auditors.  The 
latter  might  eat  flesh,  drink  wine,  bathe,  marry,  trade, 
possess  estates,  etc.,  all  which  things  were  forbidden  to 
the  elect. — Moshcim,  Comm.  ii,  399 ;  Farrar,  s.  v. 

Au'gia  (Ai'71'0),  the  daughter  of  Berzelees  and 
wife  of  Addus  (1  Esdr.  v,  38),  probably  a  conjecture 
of  the  copyists  or  translator,  since  her  name  is  not 
given  in  either  of  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii,  61 ;  Neh. 
vii,  63),  nor  even  in  the  Vulg.  at  the  passage  in  Esdras. 

Augian  Manuscript  (Codex  Augiensis),  a 
Creek  and  Latin  MS.  of  the  epistles  of  Paul,  supposed 
to  have  been  written  in  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth 
century,  and  so  called  from  Avgia  major,  the  name  of 
a  monastery  at  Rheinau,  to  which  it  belonged.  After 
passing  through  sevei-al  hands,  it  was,  in  1718,  pur- 
chased by  Dr.  Bentley  for  250  Dutch  florins,  and  it  is 
now  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
This  noted  MS,  F,  is  contained  on  136  leaves  of  good 
vellum,  4to  (the  signatures  proving  that  7  more  are 
lost),  9  inches  by  7£,  with  the  two  languages  in  paral- 
lel columns  of  28  lines  on  each  page,  the  Greek  being 
always  inside,  the  Latin  next  the  edge  of  the  book.  It 
is  neatly  written  in  uncial  letters,  and  without  accents ; 
not  coniinua  serie,  as  is  common  with  more  ancient 
copies,  but  with  intervals  between  the  words,  and  a 
dot  at  the  end  of  each.  The  Greek  text  is  very  valu- 
able. The  Latin  is  a  pure  form  of  the  Vulgate,  but  in 
the  style  of  character  usually  called  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
whence  it  is  tolerably  clear  that  it  must  have  been 
written  in  the  west  of  Europe,  where  that  formation  of 
letters  Mas  in  general  use  between  the  seventh  and 
twelfth  centuries.  The  first  sheets,  containing  Ptom. 
i,  1  iii.  10,  are  wholly  absent;  in  four  passages  (1  Cor. 
iii.  8  16;  vi,  7  11;  Col.  ii,  1-8;  Philem.  21-25),  the 
Greek  column  is  empty,  although  the  Latin  is  given; 
in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  Latin  occupies  both 
columns,  the  Greek  being  absent.  Tischendorf  exam- 
ined ii  in  is  12,  and  Tregelles  in  1845.  Scrivener  pub- 
lished an  editi f  this  Codex  in  common  type  (Lond. 

1859,  8vo),  with  prolegomena  and  a  photograph  of  one 
rregelles,in  Home's  tntrod.  iv,  197,  255;  Scriv- 
ener, Tnlrod.  p.  133  sq.     See  Manuscripts. 

Augsburg  Confession  (Confessio  Augustand), 
thefirsl  Protestant  confession  of  faith. 

I.  History.-  Alter  Charles  V  concluded  peace  with 
France,  he  Bummoned  a  German  Diet  to  meetatAugs- 
burg  April  8,  1530.  The  writ  of  invitation  called  for 
aid  against  the  Turks,  who  i„  1529  had  besieged  Vi- 
enna; it  also  promised  a  discussion  of  the  religions 
questions  of  the  time,  and  Buch  a  settlement  of  them 
as  both  to  abolish  existing  abuses  and  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  the  pope.     Elector  John  of  Saxony,"  who 


this  writ  March  11,  directed  (March  1-1)  Lu- 
ther, Jonas,  Bugenhagen,  and  Melancthon  to  meet  in 
Torgau  (q.  v.),  and  draw  up  a  summary  of  the  most 
important  and  necessary  articles  of  faith,  in  support 
of  which  the  evangelical  princes  and  states  should 
combine.  These  theologians  (with  the  exception  of 
Jonas,  who  joined  them  somewhat  later)  drew  up  a 
profession  of  their  faith  on  the  ground  of  the  seventeen 
articles  which  had  been  prepared  by  Luther  for  the 
convention  at  Schwalbach  (q.  v.),  and  fifteen  other 
articles,  which  had  been  drawn  up  at  the  theological 
colloquy  at  Marburg  (q.  v.),  Oct.  3,  1529,  and  subse- 
quently presented  to  the  Saxon  elector  John  at  Tor- 
gau. (The  articles  of  Schwalbach  were  for  the  first 
time  published  by  Hcppe,  in  Niedner's  Zeitschrift  fur 
histor.  Theologie,  1848,  1st  number.)  The  first  draft 
made  by  the  four  theologians,  in  seventeen  articles, 
was  at  once  published,  and  called  forth  a  joint  reply 
from  Wimpina,  Mensing,  Redoerfer,  and  Dr.  Elgers, 
which  Luther  immediately  answered.  The  subject  of 
the  controversy  had  thus  become  generally  known. 
Luther,  Melancthon,  and  Jonas  were  invited  by  the 
I  Saxon  elector  to  accompany  him  to  Augsburg.  Sub- 
j  sequently  it  was,  however,  deemed  best  for  Luther's 
safety  to  leave  him  behind.  Melancthon,  soon  after 
his  arrival  at  Augsburg,  completed  the  Confession, 
and  gave  to  it  the  name  of  Apologia.  On  May  11  he 
sent  it  to  Luther,  who  was  then  at  Coburg,  and  on 
May  15  he  received  from  Luther  an  approving  an- 
swer. Several  alterations  Avere  suggested  to  Melanc- 
thon in  his  conferences  with  Jonas,  the  Saxon  chancel- 
lor Bri'iek,  the  conciliatory  bishop  Stadion  of  Augs- 
burg, and  the  imperial  secretary  Valdes.  To  the  lat- 
1  ter,  upon  his  request,  17  articles  were  handed  by  Me- 
!  lancthon,  with  the  consent  of  the  Saxon  elector,  and  he 
was  to  have  a  preliminary  discussion  concerning  them 
I  with  the  papal  legate  Pimpinelli.  Upon  the  opening 
of  the  Diet,  June  20,  the  evangelical  theologians  who 
:  were  present — Melancthon,  Jonas,  Agricola,  Brenz, 
Schnepf,  and  others — presented  the  Confession  to  the 
elector.  The  latter,  on  June  23,  had  it  signed  by  the 
evangelical  princes  and  representatives  of  cities  who 
were  present.  The}'  were  the  following :  John,  elec- 
;  tor  of  Saxon}- ;  George,  margrave  of  Brandenburg ; 
I  Ernest,  duke  of  Lunenburg ;  Philip,  landgrave  of 
I  Hesse ;  John  Frederic,  duke  of  Saxe  ;  Francis,  duke 
of  Lunenburg ;  Wolfgang,  prince  of  Anhalt ;  and  the 
S  magistrates  of  Nuremberg  and  Reutlingen.  The  em- 
i  peror  had  ordered  the  Confession  to  be  presented  to  him 
j  at  the  next  session,  June  24;  but  when  the  evangel- 
:  ical  princes  asked  for  permission  to  read  it,  their  peti- 
;  tion  was  refused,  and  efforts  were  made  to  prevent  the 
public  reading  of  the  document  altogether.  The  evan- 
gelical princes  declared,  however,  that  they  would  not 
part  with  the  Confession  until  its  reading  should  be 
I  allowed.  The  25th  was  then  fixed  for  the  day  of  its 
:  presentation.  In  order  to  exclude  the  people,  the  lit- 
tle chapel  of  the  episcopal  palace  was  appointed  in  the 
place  of  the  spacious  City  Hall,  where  the  meetings  of 
the  Diet  were  held.  In  this  episcopal  chapel  the  Prot- 
i  estant  princes  assembled  on  the  appointed  day,  Satur- 
day, June  25,  1530,  at  3  P.M.  The  Saxon  chancellor 
1  Bruck  (Pontanus)  held  in  his  hands  the  Latin,  Dr. 
Christian  Bayer  the  German  copy.  They  stepped  into 
I  the  middle  of  the  assembly,  and  all  the  Protestant 
princes  rose  from  their  seats,  but  were  commanded  to 
sit  down.  The  emperor  wished  to  hear  first  the  Latin 
copy  read,  but  the  elector  replied  that  they  were  on 
I  German  ground ;  whereupon  the  emperor  consented 
j  to  the  reading  of  the  German  copy,  which  was  done 
by  Dr.  Bayer.  The  reading  lasted  from  4  to  6  o'clock. 
The  reading  being  over,  the  emperor  commanded  both 
copies  to  be  given  to  him.  The  German  copy  he  hand- 
j  ed  to  the  archbishop  of  Mayence,  the  Latin  he  took 
along  to  Brussels.  Neither  of  them  is  now  extant, 
lie  promised  to  take  this  highly  important  matter  into 
serious  consideration,  and  make  known  his  decision ; 


AUGSBURG  CONFESSION        539 


AUGUSTA 


in  the  mean  while  the  Confession  was  not  to  he  printed 
without  imperial  permission.  The  Protestant  princes 
promised  to  comply  with  this ;  but  when,  soon  after 
the  reading,  an  erroneous  edition  of  the  Confession 
appeared,  it  became  necessary  to  have  both  the  Latin 
and  German  texts  published,  which  was  done  through 
Melancthon.  On  June  27  the  Confession  was  given, 
in  the  presence  of  the  whole  assembly,  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  theologians  to  be  refuted.  The  most  promi- 
nent among  them  were  Eck,  Faber,  Wimpina,  Coeh- 
laeus,  and  Dietenberger.  Before  they  got  through 
with  their  work  a  letter  was  received  from  Erasmus, 
who  had  been  asked  for  his  opinion  by  cardinal  Cam- 
pegius,  recommending  caution,  and  the  concession  of 
the  Protestant  demands  concerning  the  marriage  of 
the  priests,  monastic  vows,  and  the  Lord's  Supper. 
On  July  12  the  Roman  Catholic  "Confutation"  was 
presented,  which  so  little  pleased  the  emperor,  that 
"of  280  leaves,  only  twelve  remained  whole."  A 
new  "Confutation"  was  therefore  prepared  and  read 
to  the  Diet,  August  3,  by  the  imperial  secretary 
Schweiss.  No  cop}'  of  it  was  given  to  the  evangelical 
members  of  the  Diet,  and  it  was  not  published  until 
1573  (by  Fabricius,  in  his  Harmonia  dmf.  Aug.  Co- 
logne, 1573  ;  the  German  text  in  Chytrteus,  Ilistorie  der 
A  ugsburg  Con/.,  Rostock,  1576).  Immediately  after  the 
reading  of  the  Confutation,  the  Protestants  were  com- 
manded to  conform  to  it.  Negotiations  for  effecting 
a  compromise  were  commenced  by  both  parties,  but 
led  to  no  result.  Negotiations  between  the  Lutherans 
and  the  Zuinglians  were  equally  fruitless.  Zuinglius 
had  sent  to  the  emperor  a  memorial,  dated  July  4 
{Ad  Carolum  Rom.  Imperatorem  comiiia  Augnstw  cele- 
brant em  jidei  Huldryehi  Zwinglio  ratio),  and  Bucer,  Cap- 
ito,  and  Hedio  had  drawn  up,  in  the  name  of  the  cities 
of  Strasburg,  Constance,  Memmingen,  and  Lindau,  the 
Confessio  Tetrapolitana,  which  was  presented  to  the  em- 
peror Jul}'  11.  Neither  of  these  two  confessions  was 
read,  and  both  were  rejected. 

Against  the  Roman  Catholic  "Confutation,"  Me- 
lancthon, at  the  request  of  the  evangelical  princes  and 
cities,  prepared  an  "  Apology  of  the  Confession"  {Apo- 
logia Confessionis),  which  was  presented  by  the  chan- 
cellor Brack,  on  Sept.  22,  to  the  emperor,  who  refused 
to  receive  it.  Subsequently  Melancthon  received  a 
copy  of  the  "  Confutation,"  which  led  to  many  altera- 
tions in  the  first  draft  of  the  Apology.  It  was  then 
published  in  Latin,  and  in  a  German  translation  by 
Jonas  (Wittenberg,  1531).  A  controversy  subsequent- 
ly arose,  in  consequence  of  which  Melancthon  after 
1540  made  considerable  alterations  in  the  original 
Augsburg  Confession,  altering,  especially  in  Art.,  x, 
the  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in 
favor  of  the  Reformed  view.  Melancthon,  who  had 
already  before  been  charged  with  "crypto-Calvinism," 
was  severely  attacked  on  account  of  these  alterations  ; 
yet  the  "Confessio  Variola"  remained  in  the  ascend- 
ency until  1580,  when  the  Confessio  Invariata  was 
put  into  the  "  Concordienbuch"  in  its  place,  and  thus 
the  unaltered  Confession  has  come  to  be  generally 
regarded  as  the  standard  of  the  Lutheran  churches. 
But  the  altered  Confession  has  not  ceased  to  find  ad- 
vocates, and  several  branches  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
have  even  abrogated  the  authoritative  character  of  the 
Confession,  and  do  not  demand  from  the  clergy  a  be- 
lief in  all  its  doctrines. 

II.  The  following  is  the  table  of  contents  of  the  Con- 
fession and  of  the  Apology:  Part  I. — 1.  Acknowl- 
edges four  oecumenical  councils  :  — 2.  Declares  original 
sin  to  consist  wholly  in  concupiscence : — 3.  Contains 
the  substance  of  the  Apostles'  Creed: — 4.  Declares 
that  justification  is  the  effect  of  faith,  exclusive  of 
good  works :— 5.  Declares  the  Word  of  God  and  the 
sacraments  to  be  the  means  of  conveying  the  Holy 
Spirit,  but  never  without  faith  : — 6".  That  faith  must 
produce  good  works  purely  in  obedience  to  God,  and 
not  in  order  to  the  meriting  justification  :— 7.  The  true 


church  consists  of  the  godly  only : — 8.  Allows  the  va- 
lidity of  the  sacraments,  though  administered  by  the 
evil : — 9.  Declares  the  necessity  of  infant  baptism  : — 
10.  Declares  the  real  presence  in  the  Eucharist,  con- 
tinued with  the  elements  only  during  the  period  of  re- 
ceiving; insists  upon  communion  in  both  kinds: — 11. 
Declares  absolution  to  be  necessary,  but  not  so  partic- 
ular confession  :— 12.  Against  the  Anabaptists  :— 13. 
Requires  actual  faith  in  all  who  receive  the  sacra- 
ments:— 14.  Forbids  to  teach  in  the  church,  or  to  ad- 
minister the  sacraments,  without  being  lawfully  call- 
ed : — 15.  Orders  the  observation  of  the  holy  days  and 
ceremonies  of  the  church: — 16.  Of  civil  matters  and 
marriage  :— 17.  Of  the  resurrection,  last  judgment, 
heaven,  and  hell :— 18.  Of  free  will :— 19.  That  God  is 
not  the  author  of  sin  : — 20.  That  good  works  are  not 
altogether  unprofitable :— 21.  Forbids  the  invocation 
of  saints.  Part  II. — 1.  Enjoins  communion  in  both 
kinds,  and  forbids  the  procession  of  the  holy  sacra- 
ment:— 2.  Condemns  the  law  of  celibacy  of  priests : — 
3.  Condemns  private  masses,  and  enjoins  that  some  of 
the  congregation  shall  always  communicate  with  the 
priest : — 4.  Against  the  necessity  of  auricular  confes- 
sion:— 5.  Against  tradition  and  human  ceremonies: — 
6.  Condemns  monastic  vows  : — 7.  Discriminates  be- 
tween civil  and  religious  power,  and  declares  the  pow- 
er of  the  church  to  consist  only  in  preaching  and  ad- 
ministering the  sacraments. 

The  ApcAogy  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  contains  six- 
teen articles,  which  treat  of  original  sin,  justification 
by  faith,  fulfilment  of  the  law,  penitence,  repentance, 
confession,  satisfaction,  number  and  use  of  the  sac- 
raments, human  ordinances,  invocation  of  the  saints, 
communion  in  both  kinds,  celibacy,  monastic  vows, 
and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  The  "  Confessio,"  with 
the  "Apologia,"  may  be  found  in  Francke,  Libri  Sym- 
bolici  Eccleske.  Lutherance  (Lips.  1847,  12mo)  ;  in  Hase, 
Libri  Symbolici  Ecd.  Evangelicce  (Lips.  1846,  12mo), 
which  contains  also  the  papal  Augustance  Confessionis 
Resptnsio  of  Faber,  in  Tittmann,  Libri  Symbolici  (1817, 
8vo).  It  has  also  been  edited  by  Winer  (1825),  Zwei- 
ten  (1840,  1850),  Francke  (1846),  Muller  (1848),  Heppe 
(Kassel,  1855).  There  are  woiks  on  the  history  of  the 
Confession  by  Chytrseus  (Rost.  1576);  Muller  (Jena, 
1705);  Cyprian  (Gotha,  1730);  Salig  {Ilistorie  der  A. 
C.  unci  dertn  Apologie,  Halle,  1730,  3  vols.);  Weber 
(Kritische.  Gcsch.  der  A .  C.  Leipz.  1783,  2  vols.) ;  Rot- 
termund  (Hann.  1830);  Danz  {D.'eA.C.  nach  Hirer 
Gesch.  Jena,  1829) ;  Rudelbach  {Ilistorische  Einlcitunq 
in  d'e  A.  C.  Dresd.  1841);  Ruckert  {Linkers  Verhalt- 
niss  zur  A .  C.  Jena,  1854)  ;  Calinich  {Luther  und  die.  A . 
C.  Leipzig,  1861).  See  also  Erang.  Qu.  Review,  April, 
1864,  art.  6;  Zeitsch rift  far  hist.  Theol.  1865,  Heft.  3; 
Hardwiek,  Hist,  of  32  Articles,  ch.  ii ;  Smith's  Hagen- 
bach,  Hist,  of  Bactrim  s,  §  215;  Gieseler,  Church  His- 
tory (Smith's  edit/),  iv,  432.  The  history  and  liter- 
ature of  the  "  Confession"  are  given  in  a  very  sum- 
mary but  accurate  way  by  Hase,  in  his  Prohgomcna, 
etc.,  to  the  Lib.  Symb. ;  see  also  Guericke,  Christliche 
Symbolic,  §  14.  On  the  relation  of  the  Variata  edition 
of  1540  to  the  original,  see  Heppe,  Die  confessionelle 
EntiricHung  der  alt-proUstantischtn  Kirche  Deutschlands 
(Marb.  1854);  Forstemann,  Urkundenbuch  (Halle, 
1833-35).  English  versions  of  the  "  Confession"  have 
been  published  by  Rev.  W.  H.  Teale  (Leeds,  184l')  ; 
also  in  P.  Hall's  Harmony  of  Confessions  (Lond.  1*42), 
and  in  Barrow,  Summary  oj'  Christian  Faith  and  Prac- 
tice, vol.  i  (London,  1822,  3  vols.  12mo)  ;  the  latest 
American  edition  is  Henkel's,  of  Baltimore,  1853  (a  re- 
vised translation).     See  Confessions. 

Augsburg  Interim.     See  Interim. 

Augusta,  John,  a  Bohemian  theologian,  born  at 
Prague  in  1500,  died  Jan.  13th,  1575.  He  studied  at 
Wittenberg  under  Luther  and  Melancthon,  with  whom 
he  subsequently  remained  in  correspondence,  without, 
however,  adopting  all  the  views  of  Luther.     He  be- 


AUGUSTI 


540 


AUGUSTINE 


oame  a  minister  of  the  Bohemian  brethren,  and  subse- 
quently  a  bishop  in  the  Church.  He  tried  to  bring 
about  an  understanding  among  the  Protestants  at  an 
inten  iew  with  Luther  in  1542.  After  the  Schmalkal- 
dic  war  many  of  the  Bohemian  brethren  were  banished, 
and  Augusta,  together  with  the  chief  preachers,  was 
To  recover  his  liberty,  he  consented  to  join 
again  the  "  Ctraquists,"  to  whom  he  had  originally  be- 
longed, but  he  refused  to  make  a  public  retractation. 
He  was  liberated  in  15G4,  but  had  to  pledge  himself  by 
not  to  teach  or  preach.  He  is  the  author  of  an 
'•  Outline  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren," 
and  of  two  works  on  "the  Duties  of  the  Christian  Re- 
ligion" and  on  "  Temptations."  — Hoefer,  Biographie 
Generate,  Hi,  G42- 

Augusti,  Christian  Johann  Wilhelm,  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  27th  of  October.  1772,  at 
Eschenberg,  near  Gotha,  where  his  father  was  pastor. 
He  wis  educated  in  the  gymnasium  of  Gotha  and  at 
the  University  of  Jena,  where,  under  Griesbach,  he 
devoted  himself  to  theology  and  philology.  In  1798 
he  began  teaching  at  Jena.  In  1800  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor extraordinary,  and  in  1803  he  succeeded  Ilgen 
in  the  chair  of  Oriental  literature,  which  he  exchanged 
in  1807  for  that  of  theology.  In  1812  he  accepted  the 
chair  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Breslau,  in  ad- 
dition to  which  he  was  honored  with  a  seat  in  the  con- 
sistory of  the  province  of  Silesia.  His  influence  upon 
the  University  of  Breslau,  and  upon  all  the  education- 
al establishments  of  Silesia,  was  very  great.  At  the 
time  when  the  French  marched  into  Russia,  Augusti 
was  rector  of  the  university,  and  it  was  owing  to  his 
intrepidity  and  patriotic  spirit  that  the  property  of  the 
university  was  saved.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  newly-established  University 
of  Bonn,  and  received  the  title  of  councillor  of  the 
Consistory  at  Cologne.  In  1K28  he  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  Consistory  of  ( "oblenz.  Notwithstanding 
his  numerous  duties,  he  still  continued  his  lectures  in 
the  university  until  his  death,  2.Sth  April,  1841.  Au- 
gusti was  one  of  the  most  voluminous  theological 
writers  of  Germany.  He  was  originally  led  by  the 
influence  of  Griesbach  to  join  the  critical  or  philosoph- 
ical school  of  theology,  but  this  did  not  suit  his  natural 
bi  is,  which  was  more  inclined  to  maintain  things  as 
tiny  are  than  to  speculative  investigations;  and  dur- 
ing the  last  forty  years  of  his  life  he  was  a  zealous,  al- 
though not  a  bigoted  advocate  of  the  established  form 
of  religion.  In  doctrine  he  maybe  considered  an  or- 
thodox Lutheran.  II is  writings,  most  of  which  are 
of  a  historical  or  archaeological  nature,  are  useful  as 
if  reference,  but  they  are  deficient  in  elegance 
and  simplicity  of  form,  and  contain  more  evidence  of 
learning  and  industry  than  of  the  true  spirit  of  a  his- 
torian. The  most  important  of  all  his  works  is  the 
/'  !■!.  ourdigkeiten  mis  der  christlichen  Archaologie  (12 
vols.  8vo,  Leipz.  1817-1K31),  which  be  subsequently 
condensed  into  the  Handbuch  d.  ckristl.  Archaologie 
(Leipz.  1837,  3  vols,  8vo).  Among  his  other  works 
are  Lehrbueh  d.  christl.  Dogmengesckichte  (Leipz.  1835, 
4th  ed. 8vo);  Beitriige  -.  christl.  Kiiustgcschichte  u.Li- 
twgik  (Leipz.  184]  46,  2  vols.  8vo);  Einleitung  in  das 
all  Testament  (Leipz.  last  ed.  1827)  ;  System  der  christl. 
L  ipz.  last  ed.  1826);  Corpus  Ubrorum  sym- 
bol, eccl  ■-  reform.  (Elberf.  1827).— English  Cyclopw- 
d  i  ■.  Herzog,  ReaUEncyhlop.  Supplem.  i,  123. 

Augustine,  bishop  of  Hippo,  in  Africa,  was  born 
at  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  November  13th,  354.  His 
Monica,  was  a  Christian  and  a  woman  of  piety, 
who  took  c  re  to  have  her  eon  instructed  in  the  true 
faith  and  plac  id  among  the  catechumens.  His  father 
I,  and  appears  to  have  cared  more 
I  i  ce  his  son  in  worldly  knowledge:  he  spared 

nothing  for  his  education  ;  and,  after  giving  him  the 
rudiments  of  grammar  .-it  Tagaste,  sent  him  to  Ma- 
daura,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood,  and  afterward  re- 


moved him  to  Carthage,  to  learn  rhetoric  (this  was 
about  the  end  of  the  year  371) ;  and  here  he  first  im- 
bibed the  Manichsean  errors.  He  also  fell  into  im- 
moral habits,  of  which  he  afterward  gave  a  minute 
account  in  his  remarkable  "Confessions."  In  383  he 
left  Carthage,  against  the  will  of  his  mother,  and  re- 
paired to  Rome  ;  and,  still  adhering  to  his  sect,  he 
lodged  at  the  house  of  a  Manichsean,  where  he  fell  ill. 
After  his  recovery  he  was  sent  by  Symmachus,  the  pre- 
fect of  the  city,  to  Milan,  where  the  inhabitants  were 
in  want  of  a  professor  of  rhetoric.  Here  he  came  into 
intercourse  with  Ambrose,  and  was  in  a  short  time  so 
convinced  by  his  doctrine  that  he  resolved  to  forsake 
the  Manichasan  sect:  this  design  he  communicated 
to  his  mother,  who  came  to  Milan  to  see  him.  "  Au- 
gustine listened  to  the  preaching  of  Ambrose  frequent- 
ly, but  the  more  he  was  forced  to  admire  his  eloquence, 
the  more  he  guarded  himself  against  persuasion.  Ob- 
stinate in  seeking  truth  outside  of  her  only  sanctua- 
ry, agitated  by  the  stings  of  his  conscience,  bound  by 
habit,  drawn  by  fear,  subjugated  by  passion,  touched 
with  the  beauty  of  virtue,  seduced  by  the  charms  of 
vice,  victim  of  both,  never  satisfied  in  his  false  de- 
lights, struggling  constantly  against  the  errors  of  his 
sect  and  the  mysteries  of  religion,  an  unfortunate  run- 
ning from  rock  to  rock  to  escape  shipwreck,  he  flees 
from  the  light  which  pursues  him — such  is  the  picture 
by  which  he  himself  describes  his  conflicts  in  his  Con.: 
fessions.  At  last,  one  day,  torn  by  the  most  violent 
struggles,  his  face  bathed  in  tears,  which  flowed  invol- 
untarily, he  fled  for  solitude  and  calm  to  a  retired  spot 
in  his  garden.  There,  throwing  himself  on  the  ground, 
he  implored,  though  confusedly,  the  aid  of  Heaven. 
All  at  once  he  seemed  to  hear  a  voice,  as  if  coming 
from  a  neighboring  house,  which  said  to  him,  Tolle; 
lege  :  Take  and  7-ead.  Never  before  had  such  emotion 
seized  his  soul.  Surprised,  beside  himself,  he  asks 
himself  in  vain  whence  came  the  voice,  or  what  he 
was  to  read.  He  was  sustained  by  a  force  he  knew 
not,  and  sought  his  friend  Alype.  A  book  was  placed 
before  him — the  epistles  of  St.  Paul.  Augustine  opens 
it  at  hazard,  and  falls  upon  this  passage  of  the  apos- 
tle :  '  Let  us  walk  honestly,  as  in  the  day ;  not  in 
rioting  and  drunkenness.  .  .  .  But  put  ye  on  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not  provision  for  the  flesh  to 
fulfil  the  lusts  thereof.'  Augustine  needed  not  any 
further  reading.  Hardly  had  he  finished  this  passage 
before  a  ray  of  divine  light  broke  upon  him,  enlight- 
ening his  understanding,  dissipating  all  his  shadows, 
and  kindling  in  his  heart  a  flame  of  celestial  fire.  The 
conversion  of  Augustine  was  fully  as  striking  and  effi- 
cacious as  St.  Paul's  had  been.  All  the  apostle's  spirit 
had  passed  in  an  instant  into  the  new  proselyte.  He 
was  then  in  his  thirty-second  year.  When  once  again 
with  his  mother,  the  virtuous  Monica,  to  whom  his 
wanderings  had  cost  so  many  tears,  he  related  to  her 
all  that  had  passed,  and  also  communicated  his  new 
resolutions,  with  that  peaceful  firmness  which  changes' 
not.  Monica  heard  this  consoling  recital  with  lively 
joy.  All  these  particulars  he  himself  gives  in  his 
Confessions-,  with  a  charm  and  simplicity  which  have, 
before  or  since,  never  been  surpassed." 

After  remaining  for  the  space  of  two  years  among 
the  catechumens,  ho  was  baptized  hj-  Ambrose  at 
Easter,  387.  Soon  after  his  baptism,  having  given  up 
his  profession,  he  resolved  to  return  to  his  own  coun- 
try ;  and  on  his  way  thither,  while  at  Ostia,  his  mother 
died.  About  this  time  he  wrote  his  treatises  Be  Mo- 
ribus  Eccl.  Catholicce  et  de  Moribns  Maniclurimim,  also 
De  Quantitate  Aninvr.  He  arrived  in  Africa  at  the  end 
of  388,  and  removed  to  Tagaste,  where  he  dwelt  for 
three  years  with  some  of  his  friends,  occupied  solely 
with  prayer,  meditation,  and  study.  At  this  period  he 
wrote  the  treatises  De  Genesi  contra  Afanichasos  and  De 
1  'era  R*  ligione.  In  391  he  went  to  Hippo  ;  and  while 
there,  in  spite  of  his  tears  and  reluctance,  the  people 
of  that  city  chose  him  to  fill  the  office  of  priest  in  their 


AUGUSTINE 


541 


AUGUSTINE 


church,  and  brought  him  to  Valerius,  their  bishop, 
that  he  might  ordain  him.  When  priest,  he  instituted 
a  monastery  in  the  chnreh  of  Hippo,  where  he  entirely 
devoted  himself  to  works  of  piety  and  devotion,  and 
to  teaching.  Valerius,  the  bishop,  contrary  to  the  cus- 
tom nf  the  African  churches,  permitted  Augustine  to 
preach  in  his  place,  even  when  he  himself  was  pres- 
ent; and,  when  this  was  objected  to,  he  excused  him- 
self on  the  ground  that,  being  himself  a  Greek,  he 
could  not  so  well  preach  in  Latin.  After  this  the 
practice  became  more  general.  About  393  Augustine 
wrote  the  treatise  De  duabiis  ani  mains,  contra  Mani- 
chcBOS.  In  395  he  was  elected  colleague  to  Valerius  in 
his  episcopacy,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Hippo,  con- 
trary to  the  canons  of  the  church.  The  duties  of  his 
office  were  discharged  with  the  greatest  fidelity;  but, 
amid  all  his  labors,  he  found  time  for  the  composition 
of  his  most  elaborate  works.  His  treatise  De  Libero 
Ai-bitrio  was  finished  in  395;  the  Ccmfessionum  Libri 
XIII  in  398  ;  most  of  the  treatises  against  the  Donatists 
between  400  and  415 ;  those  against  the  Pelagians  be- 
tween 412  and  428.  The  De  Cirttate  Dei  was  begun 
in  413  and  finished  in  42G.  The  singular  candor  of 
Augustine  is  shown  in  his  Retractationes  (written  in 
428),  in  which  he  explains  and  qualifies  his  former 
writings,  and  not  unfrequently  acknowledges  his  mis- 
takes of  opinion.  In  430,  the  Vandals,  under  Genseric, 
laid  siege  to  Hippo,  and  in  the  third  month  of  the  siege 
(August  28)  Augustine  died,  in  his  7Gth  year. 

His  whole  career,  after  his  profession  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  was  consistent  with  his  high  calling;  the 
only  faults  with  which  he  can  be  charged  are  an  oc- 
casional undue  severity  in  controversy  and  the  share 
which  he  bore  in  the  persecution  of  the  Donatists 
(q.  v.).  His  intellect  was  acute,  vigorous,  and  com- 
prehensive; his  style  rapid  and  forcible,  but  not  re- 
markable for  purity  or  elegance.  "  Of  all  the  fathers 
of  the  Latin  Church"  (says  M.  Villemain,  in  his  Tab- 
leau de  V Eloquence  de  la  chaire  au  quatrieme  siecle,  1849, 
8vo),  "St. Augustine  brought  the  highest  degree  of 
imagination  in  theology,  and  the  most  eloquence  and 
even  sensibility  in  scholasticism.  Give  him  another 
century,  place  him  in  the  highest  civilization,  and  a 
man  never  will  have  appeared  endowed  with  a  vaster 
or  more  flexible  genius.  Metaphysics,  history,  an- 
tiquities, science,  and  manners,  Augustine  had  em- 
braced them  all.  He  writes  on  music  as  well  as  on 
the  freedom  of  the  will ;  he  explains  the  intellectual 
phenomenon  of  the  memory  as  well  as  reasons  on  the 
fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  His  subtile  and  vigorous 
mind  has  often  consumed  in  mystical  problems  an 
amount  of  sagacity  which  would  suffice  for  the  most 
sublime  conceptions.  His  eloquence,  tinged  with  af- 
fectation and  barbarisms,  is  often  fresh  and  simple. 
His  austere  morality  displeased  the  corrupt  casuists 
whom  Pascal  had  so  severely  handled.  His  works  are 
not  only  the  perennial  source  of  that  scientific  theology 
which  has  agitated  Europe  for  so  many  ages,  but  also 
the  most  vivid  image  of  Christian  society  at  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century." 

"If  we  contemplate  Augustine  as  a  scholar,  our 
judgment  of  him  will  vary  according  to  the  different 
demands  we  make  of  a  theologian.  If  we  compare  the 
famous  bishop  with  learned  theologians  of  the  present 
time,  he  can  scarcely  deserve  the  name  of  such  a  one  ; 
for  we  shall  not  readily  reckon  among  learned  theo- 
logians any  one  who  knows  nothing  at  all  of  Hebrew 
and  but  little  of  Greek.  But  if  we  estimate  Augustine 
according  to  his  own  period,  as  it  is  proper  we  should, 
he  was  by  all  means  a  learned  man,  and  was  surpassed 
by  but  few,  and  among  the  Latin  fathers  perhaps  onty 
by  Jerome,  though  by  him  in  a  high  degree.  Thus 
much,  however,  is  certain,  Augustine  had  more  genius 
than  learning,  more  wit  and  penetration  than  funda- 
mental science.  Augustine's  was  a  philosophical  and 
especially  a  logical  mind.  His  works  sufficiently  prove 
his  talent  for  system-making  and  a  logical  develop- 


ment of  ideas.  We  also  find  in  them  much  philosoph- 
ical speculation  peculiar  to  himself.  But  the  value  of 
those  speculations  is  not  to  be  highly  rated,  since  be 
was  far  from  being  so  much  of  a  metaphysician  in  gen- 
eral as  he  was  of  a  logician.  Nor  was  he  wanting  in 
a  knowledge  of  philosophical  systems  and  the  specula- 
tions of  others.  His  weakest  point  as  a  scholar  was 
in  a  knowledge  of  languages.  In  this  he  was  sur- 
passed even  by  Pelagius,  who  was  only  a  layman; 
for  although,  as  before  remarked,  he  was  not  entirely 
ignorant  of  Greek,  his  knowledge  of  it  was  very  lim- 
ited, and  we  meet  with  a  multitude  of  oversights  on 
this  account.  Hence  he  generally  used  only  the  Latin 
translation  of  the  Bible,  which  is  so  often  faulty ;  and 
even  in  the  New  Testament  he  recurs  but  seldom  to 
the  original  text.  His  ignorance  and  incapacity  in 
expounding  the  Scriptures,  at  least  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, he  himself  acknowledges  (Retract,  i,  18).  Hence 
he  very  often  founds  his  arguments  from  the  sacred 
books  on  erroneous  interpretations.  He  also  employed 
philosophical  reasons  to  support  his  positive  doctrines, 
and  strove  to  unite  the  rational  with  the  revealed  be- 
lief, as  Christian  theologians  had  before  attempted  to 
do  from  the  time  of  Justin.  His  supernatural  system 
he  defended  not  only  with  exegetical,  but  also  with 
philosophical  weapons.  His  knowledge  of  the  opinions 
of  the  earlier  fathers  often  failed  him.  In  a  letter  to 
Jerome  (Ep.  67 ;  Opp.  Hieron.  Vail.  ed.~),  he  frankly 
confesses  that  he  knows  not  the  errors  charged  upon 
Origen,  and  begs  Jerome  to  point  them  out  to  him; 
His  taste  was  not  sufficiently  formed  by  the  study  of 
the  classics.  Hence  his  style  (though  we  find  some 
good  remarks  of  his  on  grammar,  and  his  ability  for 
eloquence  is  sufficiently  manifest  in  particular  pas- 
sages) was  on  the  whole  defective  in  purity  and  ele- 
gance, as  could  not  but  be  expected  in  an  age  when 
the  study  of  Cicero  had  begun  to  be  regarded  as  a  sin. 
He  also  believed  that  rhetorical  euphony  was  rather 
hurtful  than  beneficial  to  t!  c  presentation  of  Christian 
truths,  as  they  thus  lose  their  dignity.  In  other  re- 
spects he  did  not  despise  the  liberal  arts,  but  believed 
they  could  be  profitably  used  only  when  those  who 
practice  them  are  inspired  by  the  Christian  spirit  (Ep. 
101,  ad  Memoriian." — Wigiicrs,  Avgudi.nism  and  Pela- 
gianism,  chap,  i.)  His  knowledge  of  Greek  was  mod- 
erate, and  his  biblical  criticisms  are  therefore  of  com- 
paratively little  value  (see  Clausen,  Augustinus  S.  Scr. 
interpres,  Hafn.  1828);  but  as  a  theologian  he  made  a 
deep  impression  upon  his  own  age,  and,  indeed,  upon 
the  whole  theology  of  the  church  down  to  the  present 
time.  "His  influence  may  be  compared  with  that  of 
Origen  in  the  East,  but  it  was  more  general  and  en- 
during in  the  West.  He  was  one  of  those  great  men, 
of  world-wide  celebrity,  whose  agency  is  not  limited 
to  their  own  times,  but  is  felt  afresh  at  various  epochs 
in  the  lapse  of  centuries.  His  position  in  reference  to 
theology  was  similar  to  that  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  in 
the  department  of  philosophy.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
development  of  the  Catholic  dogma  which  appears  in 
the  writings  of  the  schoolmen  proceeded  from  him, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  a  reaction  of  the  pure  Chris- 
tian consciousness  against  the  foreign  elements  of  the 
Catholic  dogma.  Those  tendencies  within  the  pale  of 
the  Catholic  Church  from  which  a  new  Christian  life 
emanated  connect  themselves  with  him.  Even  the 
more  complete  reaction  at  the  Reformation,  and  the 
various  revivals  which  the  evangelical  church  has  ex- 
perienced, may  be  traceable  to  the  same  source.  He 
resembled  Origen  in  his  turn  for  speculation,  but  sur- 
passed him  in  originality,  depth,  and  acuteness.  Both 
passed  through  Platonism  in  the  process  of  their  cul- 
ture ;  he  did  not,  however,  like  Origen,  mingle  the 
Christian  and  Platonic  elements,  but  developed  the 
principles  of  Christianity  independently  of  Platonism, 
and  even  in  opposition  to  it.  But  Origen  excelled 
him  in  greater  mental  freedom  and  erudite  historical 
culture,  while  Augustine's  mind  was  fettered  by  a  def- 


AUGUSTINE 


542 


AUGUSTINE 


inite  church  system.  The  union  of  their  mental  ele- 
ments would,  without  doubt,  have  made  the  most  com- 
plete church  teacher.  Nevertheless,  many  qualities 
were  united  in  Augustine,  which  we  find  scattered  in 
Beparate  tendencies  of  theological  development,  and 
hence  we  Bee  the  various  periods  of  the  church  shad- 
owed  forth  in  his  mental  career"  (Neander,  Hist,  of 
Dogmas,  ii,  258). 

•■  In  estimating  Augustine  as  a  theologian,  we  must 
remember  that  he  commenced  life  as  a  Manichoean  ; 
and  many  believe  that  traces  of  the  Manichaean  doc- 
trine (of  the  evil  nature  of  matter,  etc.)  can  be  traced 
in  the  later  and  severer  forms  of  his  belief.  In  at- 
tacking the  Maniehieans,  he  wrote  his  treatise  De 
Libero  Arbitrio,  which  certainly  would  have  received 
a  different  shape  had  he  written  it  at  a  later  period, 
i.  e.  during  his  disputes  with  the  Pelagians.  In  the 
various  discussions  which  have  arisen  concerning  pre- 
destination and  the  doctrines  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected, some  modern  divines  have  quoted  the  argu- 
ments of  Augustine  against  the  Manichreans,  and  oth- 
ers those  which  he  employed  against  the  Pelagians, 
according  to  the  discordant  views  which  the  comba- 
tants severally  entertain  on  these  controverted  points.  j 
One  of  them  has  thus  expressed  himself,  in  his  en- 
deavor to  reconcile  Augustine  with  himself:  '  The 
heresy  of  Pelagius  being  suppressed,  the  catholic  doc- 
trine in  that  point  became  more  settled  and  confirmed 
b3r  the  opposition ;  such  freedom  being  left  to  the  will  i 
of  man  as  was  subservient  unto  grace,  co-operating  in 
some  measure  with  those  heavenly  influences.  And 
so  much  is  confessed  by  Augustine  himself,  where  he 
asks  this  question,  "Doth  any  man  affirm  that  free  will 
is  perished  utterly  from  man  by  the  fall  of  Adam?" 
And  thereunto  he  makes  this  answer:  "Freedom  is 
perished  by  sin  ;  but  it  is  that  freedom  only  which  we 
had  in  Paradise,  of  having  perfect  righteousness  with 
immortality."  For,  otherwise,  it  appears  to  be  his 
opinion  that  man  was  not  merely  passive  in  all  the 
acts  of  grace  which  conduced  to  glory,  according  to 
the  memorable  saying  of  his,  so  common  in  the  mouths 
of  all  men,  "  He  who  first  niade  us  without  our  help,  ' 
will  not  vouchsafe  to  save  us  at  least  without  our  con- 
currence." If  any  harsher  expressions  have  escaped 
his  pen  (as  commonly  it  happeneth  in  the  heats  of  a  ! 
disputation),  they  are  to  be  qualified  by  this  last  rule,  j 
and  by  that  before,  in  which  it  was  affirmed  that  "  God  j 
could  not  with  justice  judge  and  condemn  the  world,  : 
if  all  men's  sins  proceeded  not  from  their  own  free  j 
will,  but  from  some  overruling  providence  which  en- 
forced them  to  it."'  Another  admirer  of  this  father 
offers  the  following  as  an  attempt  at  reconciliation: 
'Augustine  denied  that  the  co-operation  of  man  is  at 
all  exerted  to  produce  the  renewal  of  our  nature  ;  but,  ' 
when  the  renewal  had  been  produced,  he  admitted  ' 
th  it  there  was  an  exercise  of  the  will  combined  with 
the  workings  of  grace.  In  the  tenth  chapter  of  his  | 
work  against  the  Manichseans,  the  bishop  of  Hippo 
thus  expresses  himself:  "  Who  is  it  that  will  not  ex- 
claim, How  foolish  it  is  to  deliver  precepts  to  that  man 
not  at  liberty  to  perform  what  is  commanded ! 
An  I  li  w  unjust  it  is  to  condi  mn  him  who  had  not  power 
tofaljil  the  commands!  Yet  these  unhappy  persons 
[the  Manichseans]  do  not  perceive  that  they  are  as- 
cribing such  injustice  and  want  of  equity  to  God.  But 
whal  greater  truth  is  there  than  this,  that  God  has  de- 
livered precepts,  and  that  human  spirits  have  freedom 
of  will  ?"  Elsewhere  he  says,  ••  Nothing  is  more  with- 
in our  power  than  our  own  will.  The  will  is  that  by 
which  we  commit  sin,  and  by  which  we  live  right- 
eously." Nothing  can  be  plainer  than  that  the  writer 
of  these  passages  admitted  the  liberty  of  the  human 
will,  and  the  necessity  of  our  own  exertions  in  con- 
junction with  divine  grace.  How  this  is  to  be  recon-  ' 
ciled  with  his  general  doctrine  is  perhaps  indicated  in 
tbe  foH<»  ;"  !  pas  age  from  his  book  De  Gratia  et  lib. 
Arbitrio,  <:.  17.     Speaking  of  grace,  he  says  "that  we 


may  will  God  works  without  us ;  but  when  we  will,  and 
so  will  as  to  do,  lie  co-works  with  us ;  yet,  unless  he 
either  works  that  we  may  will,  or  co-works  when  we 
do  will,  Ave  are  utterly  incapable  of  doing  any  thing  in 
the  good  works  of  piety.'  "  These  are  but  very  slight 
specimens  of  the  mode  in  which  learned  and  ingenious 
men  have  tried  to  give  a  kind  of  symmetrical  propor- 
tion to  this  father's  doctrinal  system.  Several  large 
treatises  have  been  published  with  the  same  praise- 
worthy intention  ;  the  pious  authors  of  them  either 
entirely  forgetting,  or  having  never  read  the  rather 
latitudinarian  indulgence  of  opinion  which  St.  Au- 
gustine claims  for  himself  in  his  'Retractations.'  If. 
however,  an  estimate  may  be  formed  of  what  this  fa- 
ther intended  in  his  various  pacificatory  doctrinal  ex- 
planations from  what  he  has  actually  admitted  and  ex- 
pressed, it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  no  systematic 
writer  of  theology  seems  so  completely  to  have  enter- 
ed into  the  best  views  of  the  bishop  of  Hippo,  or  so 
nearly  reconciled  the  apparent  discordances  in  them, 
as  Armixius  has  done"  (Watson,  Theol.  Dictionary, 
s.  v.).  The  changes  in  Augustine's  theology  are  de- 
scribed as  follows  by  Neander  {History  of  Dor/mas,  ii, 
847).  "In  his  treatises  de  Lib.  Arbitrio  and  de  Vera 
Religione  he  supposes  everything  in  man  to  be  condi- 
tioned on  free  will.  In  his  exposition  of  Rom.  ix 
(A.D.  394)  he  expressly  opposes  the  interpretation  of 
that  passage  as  implying  predestination  and  the  exclu- 
sion of  free  will.  Man  indeed,  he  says,  could  not 
merit  divine  grace  by  his  works,  for,  in  order  to  per- 
form works  that  are  truly  pious,  he  must  have  first  a 
suitable  state  of  heart,  the  inward  justitia.  But  this 
source  of  goodness  man  has  not  from  himself-;  only 
the  Holy  Spirit  can  impart  it  to  him  in  regeneration ; 
antecedently  to  this  all  men  are  in  equal  estrangement 
from  God ;  but  it  depends  on  themselves  whether,  by 
believing,  they  make  themselves  susceptible  for  the 
Holy  Spirit  or  not.  (Cap.  60. — Quod  credimus  nos- 
trum est ;  quod  autem  bonum  operamur  illius  qui  cre- 
dentibus  in  se  dat  Spiritum  Sanctum.)  God  has  cho- 
sen faith.  It  is  written,  God  works  all  in  all  men,  but 
he  does  not  believe  all  in  all.  Faith  is  man's  concern. 
(Non  quidem  Deus  elegit  opera  qua?  ipse  largitur  quum 
dat  Spiritum  Sanctum  ut  per  caritatem  bona  opere- 
mur;  sed  tamen  elegit  fidem.)  From  this  point  we 
can  trace  the  gradual  revolution  in  Augustine's  mode 
of  thinking  to  its  later  harsher  form.  Yet  in  his 
treatise  De  83  diversis  quwstionibus  (written  about  A.D. 
388),  he  says,  in  explaining  Rom.  ix,  18  ('  Therefore 
hath  he  mercy  on  whom  he  will  have  mercy,  and 
whom  he  will  he  hardeneth').  This  will  of  God  is  not 
unrighteous,  for  it  is  conditioned  by  the  most  secret 
relations  of  congruity;  all  men,  indeed,  are  corrupt, 
but  yet  there  is  a  difference  among  them ;  there  is  in 
sinners  something  antecedent  by  which  they  become 
deserving  of  justification  or  of  hardening  (Qusestio 
68,  §  4. — Venit  enim  de  occultissimis  meritis,  quia  et 
ipsi  peccatores  cum  propter  generale  peccatum  unam 
massam  fecerint,  non  tamen  nulla  est  inter  illos  di- 
versitas.  Prajcedit  ergo  aliquid  in  peccatoribus  quo, 
quamvis  nondum  sint  justificati  digni  efficiantur  jus- 
tificatione  et  item  prascedit  in  aliis  peccatoribus  quo 
digni  sunt  obtusione).  The  calling  of  individuals 
and  of  whole  nations  belongs  to  those  high  and  deep 
things  which  man  does  not  understand  if  he  is  not 
spiritually  minded.  But  it  must  be  always  main- 
tained that  God  does  nothing  unrighteous,  and  that 
there  is  no  being  who  does  not  owe  everything  to  God. 
The  more  Augustine  advanced  in  a  deeper  perception 
of  faith,  the  more  he  recognised  it  as  a  living  principle, 
and  not  as  a  mere  faith  of  authority,  and  he  acquired 
a  stronger  conviction  that  faith  presupposed  a  divine 
operation  in  the  soul  of  man,  and  that  the  Bible  re- 
ferred it  to  divine  agency.  He  was  now  easily  im- 
pelled to  the  other  extreme,  and  to  give  a  one-sided 
prominence  to  the  divine  factor  in  faith.  Resignation 
to  God  became  his  ruling  principle,  and.  looking  back 


AUGUSTINE 


543 


AUGUSTINE 


at  his  earlier  life,  he  learned  more  and  more  to  trace 
everything  to  his  training  by  divine  grace.  He  now 
allowed  the  conditioning  element  of  free  human  sus- 
ceptibility to  vanish  altogether.  That  theodicy  now 
appeared  to  him  untenable,  which  made  the  attain- 
ment of  faith  by  individuals  or  nations,  or  their  re- 
maining strangers  to  the  Gospel,  dependent  on  their 
worthiness  and  the  divine  prescience  ;  in  opposition  to 
this  view,  he  now  sought  for  a  foundation  in  the  secret 
absolute  decrees  of  God,  according  to  which  one  was 
chosen  and  another  not.  This  view  was  confirmed  by 
the  opinion  prevalent  in  the  North  African  Church, 
that  outward  baptism  was  essential  to  salvation.  He 
now  inquired  how  it  was  that  one  child  received  bap- 
tism and  another  not,  and  this  seemed  to  confirm  the 
unconditionality  of  the  divine  predestination.  The 
alteration  in  his  mode  of  thinking  occupied  perhaps  a 
space  of  four  years.  In  the  diversce  questiones  ad  Sim- 
plicianum,  written  about  A.D.  397,  this  is  shown  most 
decidedly,  as  he  himself  says  in  his  treatise  de  dono 
perseverantim  that  he  had  then  arrived  at  the  perception 
that  even  the  beginning  of  faith  was  the  gift  of  God. 
In  that  work  (lib.  i,  questio  2)  he  derives  all  good  in 
man  from  the  divine  agency ;  from  the  words  of  Paul, 
'What  hast  thou  that  thou  hast  not  received  ?'  (1  Cor. 
iv,  7),  he  infers  that  nothing  can  come  from  man 
himself.  'How  can  it  be  explained,'  he  asks,  'that 
the  Gospel  reaches  one  man  and  not  another?  and 
that  even  the  same  dispensations  act  quite  differently 
on  different  persons?  It  belongs  to  God  to  furnish 
the  means  which  lead  every  man  to  believe;  conse- 
quently, the  reason  of  the  difference  can  only  be  that, 
according  to  his  own  decree,  it  seems  good  to  with- 
hold it  from  one  and  not  from  another.  All  men,  in 
consequence  of  the  first  transgression,  are  exposed  to 
perdition ;  in  this  state  there  can  be  no  higher  move- 
ment, therefore  none  at  all,  in  them  toward  conver- 
sion. But  God,  out  of  compassion,  chooses  some  to 
■whom  he  imparts  divine  grace,  [/ratio,  efficax,  Avhich 
operates  upon  them  in  an  irresistible  manner,  but  yet 
in  accordance  with  their  rational  nature,  so  that  they 
cannot  do  otherwise  than  follow  it.  The  rest  he  leaves 
to  their  merited  perdition.'  From  the  preceding  re- 
marks it  is  clear  that  Augustine  reached  the  stand- 
point fixed  by  his  own  experience;  and  we  perceive 
how  false  it  is  that  his  system  in  this  form  was  derived 
from  his  excessive  opposition  to  Pelagianism,  since  it 
had  been  formed  ten  years  before  his  conflict  with  it. 
We  might  rather  affirm  of  Pelagius  that  he  would  not 
have  developed  his  doctrine  in  its  actual  form  had  he 
not  been  opposed  to  Augustine." 

In  the  year  412  Augustine  began  to  write  against 
the  doctrines  of  Pelagius,  a  native  of  Britain,  who 
had  resided  for  a  considerable  time  at  Rome,  and  ac- 
quired universal  esteem  by  the  purity  of  his  man- 
ners, his  piety,  and  his  erudition.  In  the  defense  of 
his  opinions  Pelagius  was  seconded  by  Celestius,  a 
man  equally  eminent  for  his  talents  and  his  virtues. 
Their  principles  were  propagated  rapidly,  and  were 
speedily  transplanted  to  almost  every  corner  of  Chris- 
tendom. If  the  brief  notices  which  have  come  down 
to  us  respecting  their  tenets,  in  the  writings  of  their 
adversaries,  be  correct,  they  (1)  denied  the  regenera- 
tion of  infants  in  baptism  and  the  damnation  of  all  un- 
baptized  infants ;  (2)  they  denied  that  Adam's  sin  was 
imputed  to  his  posterity,  and  went  so  far  as  to  reject 
original  sin  entirely ;  (3)  they  asserted  the  freedom 
of  the  will,  and  its  capacity  for  good  without  super- 
natural grace.  "It  is  not,"  they  said,  "free  will  if 
it  requires  the  aid  of  God ;  because  every  one  has  it 
within  the  power  of  his  own  will  to  do  any  thing,  or 
not  to  do  it.  Our  victory  over  sin  and  Satan  proceeds 
not  from  the  help  which  God  affords,  but  is  owing  to 
our  own  free  will.  The  unrestricted  capability  of 
men's  own  free  will  is  amply  sufficient  for  all  these 
things,  and  therefore  no  necessity  exists  for  asking  of 
God  those  things  which  we  are  able  of  ourselves  to  ob- 


tain ;  the  gifts  of  grace  being  only  necessary  to  enable 
men  to  do  that  more  easily  and  completely  which  yet 
they  could  do  themselves  though  more  slowly  and  with 
:  greater  difficulty,  seeing  that  they  are  perfectly  free 
creatures."     These  opinions  were  assailed  by  St.  Au- 
gustine and  St.  Jerome,  as  well  as  by  Orosius,  a  Span- 
ish presbyter,  and  they  were  condemned  as  heresies  in 
the  Council  of  Carthage  and  in  that  of  Milevis.     In  his 
eagerness  to  confute  these  opponents,  St.  Augustine 
employed  language  so  strong  as  made  it  susceptible  of 
an  interpretation  wholly  at  variance  with  the  account- 
ability of  man.     This  led  to  farther  explanations  and 
modifications  of  his  sentiments,  which  were  multiplied 
when  the  Semi-Pelagians  arose,  who  thought  that  the 
truth  lay  between  his  doctrines  and  those  of  the  Pelagi- 
|  ans.    Concerning  original  sin,  he  maintained  that  it  was 
!  derived  from  our  first  parents  ;  and  he  believed  he  had 
I  ascertained  in  what  the  original  sin  conveyed  by  Adam 
|  to  his  posterity  consisted.    In  his  sentiments,  however, 
'  upon  the  latter  point  he  was  rather  inconsistent,  at  one 
J  time  asserting  that  the  essence  of  original  sin  was  con- 
cupiscence, and  at  another  expressing  doubts  respect- 
I  ing  his  own  position.    This  subject  was  bequeathed  as 
a  legacy  to  the  schoolmen  of  a  subsequent  age,  who  ex- 
|  ercised  their  subtle  wits  upon  all  its  ramifications  down 
to  the  period  of  the  Council  of  Trent.     On  the  conse- 
!  quences  of  the  fall  of  our  first  parents,  St.  Augustine 
taught  that  by  it  human  nature  was  totally  corrupted, 
I  and  deprived  of  all  inclination  and  ability  to  do  good. 
|  Before  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  the  early  fathers 
!  held  what,  in  the  language  of  systematic  theology,  is 
|  termed  the  sjmergistic  system,  or  the  needfulness  of 
|  human   co-operation  in  the  works  of  holiness  ;    but, 
:  though  the  freedom  of  the  will  was  not  considered  by 
j  them  as  excluding  or  rendering  unnecessary  the  grace 
;  of  God,  yet  much  vagueness  is  perceptible  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  express  themselves.      In  fact,  there 
was  no  scientific  view  as  yet  on  these  topics.     Those 
early  divines  generally  used  the  language  of  Scrip- 
ture, the  fertile  invention  of  controversial  writers  not 
having  as  yet  displayed  itself,  except  on  the  divine 
nature  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  subsidiarj'  terms  and  learn- 
ed distinctions  not  being  then  required  by  any  great 
differences  of  opinion.    But  as  soon  as  Pelagius  broach- 
ed his  errors,  the  attention  of  Christians  was  natural- 
ly turned  to  the  investigation  of  the  doctrine  of  grace. 
The  personal  experience  of  Augustine,  coinciding  with 
the  views  of  the  great  body  of  the  Christian  Church, 
admitted  the  necessity  of  divine  grace,  or  the  influence 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  for  our  obedience  to  the  law  of  God. 
He  ascribed  the  renovation  of  our  moral  constitution 
wholly  to  this  grace,  denied  all  co-operation  of  man 
with  it  for  answering  the  end  to  be  accomplished,  and 
represented  it  as  irresistible.     He  farther  affirmed  that 
it  was  given  only  to  a  certain  portion  of  the  human 
race,  to  those  who  showed  the  fruits  of  it  in  their  sanc- 
tification,  and  that  it  secured  the  perseverance  of  all 
upon  whom  it  was  bestowed.     His  view  of  predesti- 
nation has  been  summed  up  as  follows  :  1.  That  God 
from  all  eternity  decreed  to  create  mankind  boh'  and 
good.     2.  That  he  foresaw  man,  being  tempted  by  Sa- 
tan, would  fall  into  sin,  if  God  did  not  hinder  it ;  he 
decreed  not  to  hinder.     3.  That  out  of  mankind,  seen 
fallen  into  sin  and  miseiy,  he  chose  a  certain  number 
to  raise  to  righteousness  and  to  eternal  life,  and  re- 
jected the  rest,  leaving  them  in  their  sins.     4.  That 
for  these  his  chosen  he  decreed  to  send  his  Son  to  re- 
deem them,  and  his  Spirit  to  call  them  and  sanctify 
them  ;  the  rest  he  decreed  to  forsake,  leaving  them  to 
Satan  and  themselves,  and  to  punish  them  for  their 
sins.     After  Augustine  had  thus  almost  newly  mould- 
ed the  science  of  theology,  and  had  combined  with  it, 
as  an  essential  part  of  divine  truth,  that  the  fate  of 
men  was  determined  by  the  divine  decree  indepen- 
dently of  their   own    efforts   and   conduct,  and   that 
they  were  thus  divided  into  the  elect  and  reprobate, 
it  became  necessary,  in  order  to  preserve  consistency, 


AU(iUSTINE 


544 


AUGUSTINE 


to  introduce  into  his  system  a  limitation  with  respect 
to  baptism,  and  to  preserve  the  opinions  concerning 
it  from  interfering  with  those  which  flowed  from  the 
doctrine  of  predestination.  He  accordingly  taught  that 
baptism  brings  with  it  the  forgiveness  of  sins;  that  it 
iiii.il  that  the  omission  of  it  will  expose  us  to 
condemnation;  and  that  it  is  attended  with  regenera- 
tion, lie  also  affirmed  that  the  virtue  of  baptism  is 
not  in  the  water;  that  the  ministers  of  Christ  perform 
the  external  ceremony,  but  that  Christ  accompanies  it 
with  invisible  grace;  that  baptism  is  common  to  all, 
while  grace  is  not  so;  and  that  the  same  external  rite 
may  be  death  to  some  and  life  to  others.  By  this  dis- 
tinction he  rids  himself  of  the  difficult}'-  which  would 
have  pressed  upon  his  scheme  of  theology,  had  par- 
don, regeneration,  and  salvation  been  necessarily  con- 
nected with  the  outward  ordinance  of  baptism,  and 
limits  its  proper  efficacy  to  those  who  are  comprehend- 
ed, as  the  heirs  of  eternal  life,  in  the  decree  of  the  Al- 
mighty. Many,  however,  of  those  who  strictly  ad- 
here to  him  in  other  parts  of  his  doctrinal  system  de- 
sert him  at  this  point.  See  Pelagianism.  His  hon- 
est anxiety  for  the  honor  of  the  grace  of  God  led  him 
to  overlook  the  human  side  of  the  question,  and  to 
make  the  operation  of  grace  more  like  physical  neces- 
sity than  moral  influence.  The  traces  of  his  Mani- 
chsean  habit  of  thought  appear  plainly  here.  "  Here," 
says  Kling,  in  his  excellent  article  on  Augustine  in 
Herzog's  Ri'al-Encyklipadie  (i,  623),  "is  a  weak  side 
in  Augustine's  system.  In  the  attempt  of  his  fiery 
and  impulsive  intellect  to  give  fixity  and  stability  to 
the  doctrine  of  Christian  anthropology,  and  to  leave 
no  room  in  his  system  for  self-righteousness,  he  fell 
into  the  labyrinth  of  unconditional  predestination,  im- 
plying a  dualism  in  the  Divine  will  which  has  never 
gained  the  mind  of  the  Christian  Church  as  a  correct 
interpretation  of  Scripture  as  a  whole.  In  fact,  the 
system  has  been  a  stumbling-block  in  the  church  from 
Augustine's  time  till  now.  As  for  the  better  part  of 
Augustine's  doctrine,  which  is,  in  fact,  its  true  essence, 
viz.  that  the  entire  glory  of  the  renewal  of  human  na- 
ture is  due  to  divine  grace,  and  is  due  in  no  respect 
whatever  to  mere  human  ability,  because  the  conse- 
quences  of  the  fall  have  left  that  nature  incapable  of 
renewal  except  by  a  divine  power  of  renovation,  this 
doctrine  has  penetrated  the  heart  and  intellect  of  the 
church,  and  has  found  expression  in  her  creeds  and 
confessions  in  all  ages."     See  Augustinism. 

The  Donalist  controversy  was  one  of  the  bitterest 
wag  td  by  Augustine,  and  was,  perhaps,  on  the  whole, 
the  least  honorable  to  him.  Before  this  controversy, 
and  even  during  the  earlier  period  of  it,  lie  had  always 
treated  heretics  with  mildness  and  charity,  and  op- 
posed  Hi"  passage  of  several  laws  against  "the  Dona- 
tists.  '•  But  at  a  later  period,  after  the  Donatists  had 
made  alarming  progress  among  the  African  churches, 
tin-  urgent  representations  of  his  colleagues  caused  a 
radical  change  of  his  views.  He  became  the  most  ar- 
ofthe  compulsory  suppression  of  every 
I  '!  I  he  In.- 1  i  his  shocking  theory  on  the  pas- 
l.uke  xiv,  where  the  master  of  a  house,  after 
the  invited  guests  have  declined  to  come,  orders  the 
servants  to  l„ing  in  the  poor,  the  maimed,  the  halt, 
the  blind,  from  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  city,  and, 
when  tier-  was  yel  t n,  to  'go  out  into  the  high- 
id  led--,  and  ,„,„/>,/  them  to  n.-me  in.1  This 
interpretation  by  a  church  father  s<>  profoundly  re- 
i,  in  all  following  centuries,  the  source 
of  incalculable  mischief.  It  is  one  of  the  principal 
with  which  ecclesiastical  and  royal  despots 
iiy  the  murder  of  millions  on 
tie-  charge  of  heresy.  Even  men  like  Bossuet  were 
induced,  by  the  weight  of  Augustine's  authority,  to 
•  compulsory  measures  against  heretics"  (Ne- 
ander.  Church  History,  iii,  197  217;  Flottes,  Eludes sur 
Saint  Augustin,  Pari-,  1862). 

St.  Augustine;,  works  have  been  printed  in  a  col- 


lected form  repeatedly :  at  Paris,  in  10  vols,  folio, 
1532;  by  Erasmus,  from  Frobenius's  press,  10  vols, 
folio,  1540-13;  by  the  divines  of  Louvain,  10  vols, 
folio,  Lugd.  158G ;  and  by  the  Benedictines  of  the  con- 
gregation of  St.  Maur,  10  vols,  folio,  Paris,  1679-1700, 
12  vols,  folio,  1C88-1703,  and  12  vols,  folio,  Antwerp, 
1700-1703;  reprinted,  Paris,  183G-39,  11  vols.  4to. 
The  latest  edition  (not  the  best)  is  that  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, edited  by  Migne  (Paris,  1842,  15  vols.  imp. 
8vo).  A  review  of  his  literary  activity  is  given  by 
Busch,  Librarian  August  ni  recensus  (Dorpat.  1826). 
Of  his  separate  works  many  editions  have  been  pub- 
lished. The  Benedictine  edition  gives  a  copious  Life 
of  Augustine;  and  the  13th  vol.  of  Tillemont's  Mi- 
moires  pour  servlr  it  V Histoire  EccUsiastique  is  a  4to  of 
1075  pages  devoted  entirely  to  his  biography.  Dupin 
(Eccles.  Writers')  gives  a  copious  and  minute  analysis 
of  all  of  Augustine's  works.  English  versions  of  the 
Confessions,  and  of  the  Expositions  of  the  Gospels  and 
Psalms,  may  be  found  in  the  Library  if  the  Fathers 
(Oxf.  1839-1855).  A  translation  of  the  Confessions, 
with  an  introduction  by  Prof.  Shedd,  has  also  been 
published  at  Andover  (18G0).     M.  Poujoulat,  the  au- 

!  thor  of  a  Life  of  St.  Augustine  and  numerous  other 

!  works,  has  commenced  (18G4),  in  connection  with  abbe 
Eaulx,  a  translation  of  the  complete  works  of  St.  Au- 
gustine. The  translators  claim  that  this  is  the  first 
complete  French  translation  of  the  great  church  fa- 
ther. The  work  will  be  completed  in  twelve  vol- 
umes (Saint  Anr/iistiii;  (Fuvres  Completes).  Recent 
editions  of  the  De  Cicitate  Dei  have  been  published  by 
Bruder  (Leipsic,  1838)  and  Strange  (Cologne,  1850); 
of  the  Confessiones,  by  Bruder  (Leipsic,  1837),  Pusey 
(Oxford,  1838),   Raumer  (Stuttgardt,  1856);    of  the 

;  Meditaliones,  by  Sintzel  (Sulzbach,  1844)  and  'West- 
hoff(Miinster,  1854).    German  translations  of  the  Con- 

I  fessions  have  been  published  by  Bapp  (3d  edit.  Stutt- 
gardt, 1856),  Groninger  (4th  edit.  Minister,  1859),  and 

i  by  several  anonymous  translators  (Passau,  6th  edit. 
1856 ;  Ratisbon,  1853 ;  Reutlingen,  1858) ;  and  of  the 

!  City  of  God,  by  Silbert  (1825,  2  vols.)— Neandcr,  Ch. 
Jlist.  ii,  354,  5G4 ;  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  vol.  i,  passim ; 
Mozley,  Augustinian  Doctrine  of  Predestination  (Lond. 
1850);'  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  110,  156;  Wiggers,  His- 
tory of  A  ugustiniauism  and  Pidagianism  (vol.  i  trans,  by 
Emerson,  And.  1840,  8vo);  Schaff,  Life  and  Labors  of 
Augustine  (X.  Y.  1854,  12mo) ;  Bohringer,  Kircheng. 
in  Biographien,  I,  pt.  iii,  99  sq.  ;  Kloth,  Dcr  heil.  Kir- 

\  chenlehrer  Augustinus  (Aachen,  1840)  ;  Bindemann, Der 
heil.  Augustinus  (Berlin,  1844);  Poujoulat,  Histoire  de 
St.Augustin  (Paris,  1844,  3  vols.);  Shedd,  History  if 
Doctrines,  bk.  iv;  Am.  Bib.  Repos.  v,  195;  Meth.  (>u. 
Rev.  1857,  352  sq. ;  Princeton  Rev.  July,  18G2,  art.  iii  ; 
Watson,  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Bioff.  vol.  i ; 
Taylor,  Ancient  Christianity,  5,  231;  Jahrb.f  dcutsche 

1  Theolog'e,  1862;  Church  Review,  July,  1863,  31G. 

Augustine  (or  Austin),  first  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, was  a  monk  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  of 
St.  Andrew,  at  Pome,  and  was  sent  by  Pope  Gregory, 
who  had  been  prior  of  that  convent,  soon  after  his  ac- 
cession to  the  papal  throne,  as  a  missionary  into  Eng- 
land, together  with  forty  companions,  also  Benedic- 
tines, A.D.  596  (Bede,  Hist.  Eccl.  i,  23)-  Augustine 
and  his  company  became  discouraged,  and  Augus- 
tine was  dispatched  back  to  Borne  to  obtain  the  pope's 
leave  for  their  return  ;  but  Gregory  disregarded  his 
remonstrances,  ami,  providing  him  with  new  letters 
of  protection,  commanded  him  to  proceed.  Augus- 
tine and  his  companions  landed  late  in  59(i  in  the 
isle  of  Thanet,  whence  they  sent  messengers  to  Eth- 
elbert,  king  of  Kent,  to  inform  him  of  the  object  of 
their  mission.  Ethelbert's  queen,  Bertha,  daughter 
of  Cherebert,  king  of  the  Parisii,  was  a  Christian, 
and  by  the  articles  of  her  marriage  (as  early  as  570) 
had  the  free  exercise  of  her  religion  allowed  her.  Eth- 
elbert  ordered  the  missionaries  at  first  to  continue  in 
the  isle  of  Thanet,  but  some  time  after  came  to  them 


AUGUSTINIAN  MONKS 


545 


AUGUSTINIAN  MONKS 


and  invited  them  to  an  audience  in  the  open  air.  Al- 
though he  refused  at  first  to  abandon  the  gods  of  his 
fathers,  he  allowed  them  to  preach  without  molesta- 
tion, and  assigned  them  a  residence  in  Canterbury, 
then  called  Dorobernia,  which  they  entered  in  proces- 
sion, singing  hymns.  After  the  conversion  and  bap- 
tism of  the  king  himself,  they  received  license  to 
preach  in  any  part  of  his  dominions,  which  Bede  as- 
sures us  (c.  25)  extended  (probably  over  tributary 
kingdoms)  as  far  as  the  river  Ilumber,  and  proselytes 
were  now  made  in  remarkable  numbers.  In  597,  Au- 
gustine, by  direction  of  Pope  Gregory,  went  over  to 
Aries,  in  France,  where  he  was  consecrated  archbish- 
op, and  metropolitan  of  the  English  nation,  by  the 
archbishop  of  that  place;  after  which,  returning  into 
Britain,  he  sent  Lawrence,  the  presbyter,  and  Peter, 
the  monk,  to  Rome,  to  acquaint  the  pope  with  the  suc- 
cess of  his  mission,  and  to  desire  his  solution  of  certain 
questions  respecting  church  discipline,  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  clergy,  etc.  which  Bede  (1.  i,  c.  27)  has 
reported  at  length  in  the  form  of  interrogatories  and 
answers.  Gregory  sent  over  more  missionaries,  and 
directed  him  to  constitute  a  bishop  at  York,  who  might 
have  other  subordinate  bishops,  yet  in  such  a  manner 
that  Augustine  of  Canterbury  should  be  metropolitan 
of  all  England.  Augustine  now  made  an  attempt  to 
establish  uniformity  of  discipline  in  the  island,  and,  as 
a  necessary  step,  to  gain  over  the  Welsh  bishops  to 
bis  opinion.  For  this  purpose  a  conference  was  held 
in  Worcestershire,  at  a  place  since  called  Augustine's 
Oak,  where  the  archbishop  endeavored  to  persuade 
the  prelates  to  make  one  communion,  and  assist  in 
preaching  to  the  unconverted  Saxons ;  but  neither 
this,  nor  a  second  conference,  in  which  he  threatened 
divine  vengeance  in  case  of  non-obedience,  was  suc- 
cessful. After  Augustine's  death,  Ethelfrid,  king  of 
Northumberland,  marched  with  an  army  to  Caerleon, 
and  near  twelve  hundred  monks  of  Bangor  were  put 
to  the  sword.  In  the  year  G04  Augustine  consecrated 
two  of  his  companions,  Mellitus  and  Justus,  the  for- 
mer to  the  see  of  London,  the  latter  to  that  of  Roches- 
ter.  He  died  at  Canterbury,  probably  in  607,  but  the 
date  of  his  death  is  variously  given  from  G04  to  G1-! 
The  observation  of  the  festival  of  St.  Augustine  was 
first  enjoined  in  a  synod  held  under  Cuthbert,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  (Gervase,  Act.  Pontif.  Cantuar. 
Script,  x,  col.  1041),  and  afterward  by  the  pope's  bull 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  See  Bede,  Hist.  Eccl.  lib. 
i  and  ii ;  Gregorius,  Epis/ohr',  1.  vii,  ep.  5,  30 ;  1.  ix, 
ep.  56;  Joan  Diacon.  Vita  S.  Greg.;  Stanley,  Memo- 
rials of  Canterbury  (London,  1855);  Acta  Sanctorum, 
Mensis  Maii,  vi,  378 ;  English  Cyclopaedia  ,•  Neander, 
Ck.  Hist,  iii,  11-18  ;  Smith,  Religion  of  . !  ncient  Britain, 
ch.  x.     See  England,  Church  of. 

Augustinian  Monks  are  divided  into  two  class- 
es: 

I.  Canons  Regular. — In  the  year  1038,  four  can- 
ons of  the  Church  of  Avignon,  called  Arnaldus,  Odelo, 
Pontius,  and  Durandus,  being  desirous  of  hading  a 
more  strictly  religious  life,  betook  themselves,  with 
the  permission  of  the  bishop  Benedict,  to  a  solitude, 
where  they  led  an  ascetic  life;  and  having  thus  orig- 
inally been  under  the  canonical  institution  before  the 
monastic,  they  acquired  the  name  of  "  regular  canons." 
A  large  number  of  canons,  both  lay  and  clerical,  in- 
duced by  their  example,  set  themselves  to  follow  this 
new  rule  of  life,  and  ere  long  monasteries  wore  built 
in  various  places,  but  chief!}'  in  solitudes,  and  filled 
with  these  new  candidates  for  the  regular  life,  who 
differed  from  the  monks  in  name  only.  At  first  they 
appear  to  have  had  no  rule  peculiar  to  themselves,  anil 
probably  followed  that  of  Aix-la-(  hapelle  (A.D.  81G)  ; 
but  subsequently  they  assumed  for  their  rule  that  of 
Augustine  (;.  e.  his  letter  ad  Sanctimomales),  adding 
to  it  various  constitutions  taken  from  the  rule  of  Ben- 
edict and  elsewhere.  Stevens  says  that  they  did  not 
take  any  vows  until  the  twelfth  centurv,  nor  do  thev 
Mm 


appear  to  have  assumed  the  name  of  "Regular  Canons 
of  St.  Augustine"  until  Innocent  II,  at  Lateran,  in 
1139,  ordained  that  all  regular  canons  should  be  under 
the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  contained  in  his  100th  epis- 
tle. The  dress  of  the  regular  canons  was  usually  a 
long  black  cassock,  and  a  white  rochet  over  it,  and 
over  that  a  black  cloak  and  hood ;  they  also  wore 
beards  and  caps.  They  were  a  numerous  body  in 
England,  where  they  were  probably  first  settled  at 
Colchester  in  1105.  They  are  said  to  have  had  170 
houses  in  England.  They  were  established  in  Scot- 
land in  1114,  at  the  desire  of  Alexander  I,  and  had  in 
that  country  28  monasteries,  of  which  the  chief  were 
Scone,  Loch  Tay,  Inch  Colme,  St.  Andrew's,  Holy- 
rood,  Cambuskcnneth,  and  Jedburgh. — Dugdale,  Mo- 
nasticon,  vi,  37. 

II.  Hermits,  one  of  the  four  great  mendicant  or- 
ders [see  Mendicant  Orders]  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church.  The  Augustir.ians  endeavor  to  trace  their 
origin  back  to  the  time  when  St.  Augustine,  after  his 
conversion,  lived  fcr  three  years  in  a  villa  near  Ta- 
gaste,  w  holly  given  up  to  ascetic  exercises.  But  even 
the  Kcmanist  historians  generally  reject  this  claim  as 
utterly  without  foundation.  The  order  originated  in 
1256,  when  Pope  Alexander  IV,  in  pursuance  of  a  de- 
cree, compelled  eight  minor  monastic  congregations, 
among  which  the  John-Bonites  (founded  in  1168  bj' 
John  Bon),  the  Brittinians,  and  the  Tuscan  hermits 
were  the  most  important,  to  unite.  The  united  order 
was  called  the  Hermits  of  St.  August line,  because  most 
of  the  congregations  followed  the  Rule  of  Augustine,  a 
compilation  of  precepts  taken  from  two  sermons  of  St. 
Augustine  on  the  morals  of  priests  and  from  his  letter 
to  the  nuns  of  Hippo.  Though  now  monks,  they  re- 
tained the  name  hermits,  because  all  the  congregations 
had  been  hermits.  In  1257  they  were  exempted  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  and  divided  into  four 
provinces,  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  Germany.  Un- 
like the  other  mendicant  orders,  they  started  with  a 
lax  rule,  and  gross  disorders  ;.nd  immorality  grew  up 
among  them  sooner  and  mere  generally  than  among 
the  others. 


[Jflual  Style  of  the  Augustine  Hermits.    1.  In-doors;  '2.  Abroad. 

Since  the  fourteenth  century  many  attempts  at  in- 
troducing a  stricter  discipline  have  been  made  by  zeal- 
ous members,  and  have  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a 
large  number  of  special  congregations,  of  which  the  con- 
gregation of  Lombardy,  with  80  convents,  became  the 
most  numerous.  The  congregation  of  Saxony,  which 
was  established  in  1498,  and  with  which  the  convents 
of  Germany  generally  connected  themselves,  separa- 
ted itself  entirely  from  the  order,  and  its  superior, 
John  Staupitz,  assumed  the  title  of  vicar -general. 
Among  the  friends  of  Staupitz  was  Martin  Luther, 
the  most  celebrated  of  all  who  ever  wore  the  habit  of 
Augustine,  and  through  wbo6e  inlluence  the  majority 


AUGUSTINIAN  NUNS 


546 


AUGUSTINISM 


of  the  convents  of  the  Saxon   congregation  seceded 
from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

The  Discalceated  or  Barefooted  Augustini- 
ans (Observants,  Recollects)  owe  their  origin  to  the! 
Portuguese  monk  Thomas  a  Jesu  de  Andrade  (died  in 
1582),  though  their  first  convent  was  not  organized  ■ 
until  after  his  death,  in  1588,  by  order  of  the  king  of 
Spain.  They  adopted  a  rule  which  in  strictness  sur- 
passes the  primitive  one,  and  were  afterward  divided 
into  three  separate  congregations,  the  Italian-German, 
until  Hi,")!;,  in  four  provinces,  subsequently  in  seven  j 
(2  of  Naples,  2  of  Sicily,  1  of  Genoa,  1  of  Germany,  ' 
1  of  Piedmont),  the  French  in  three  provinces,  and  [ 
the  Spanish,  the  most  rigorous  of  all,  which  extended  I 
to  the  East  and  West  Indies,  to  the  Philippine  Isl-  j 
ands,  to  Japan  and  Rome.  They  have  in  every  prov-  , 
ince  a  retired  convent,  with  a  hermitage  close  by,  in 
which  monks  desirous  of  a  particular  ascetic  perfec- 
tion may  live. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Pius  V  conferred  on 
them  the  privileges  of  the  other  mendicant  orders,  the 
Augustinians  counted  2000  convents  of  men  and  300 
of  females,  together  with  35,000  inmates.  The  order 
has  fallen  in  the  general  suppression  of  convents  in  j 
Portugal,  Spain,  France,  Northern  and  Western  Ger- 
many, and  quite  recently  in  Italy.  At  the  beginning 
of  18G0,  the  Augustinian  Hermits  had  131  convents  in  J 
Italy,  10  in  Germany,  G  in  Poland,  1  in  France,  13  in 
Great  Britain,  1  in  Holland,  2  in  Belgium,  22  in  Mex- 
ico, 2  in  the  United  States  (in  the  dioceses  of  Phila- 
delphia and  Albany),  13  in  South  America,  and  1  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  The  Barefooted  Augustinians 
had  6  monasteries  in  Italy,  1  in  Germany,  2  in  South 
America,  and  6  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 

The  Augustinians  have  never  been  able  to  gain  the 
same  importance  as  the  other  mendicant  orders,  and  j 
at  present  they  exert  no  great  influence  in  the  Church  i 
of  Roma.  The  most  remarkable  men,  besides  Luther,  j 
which  the  order  has  produced,  are  Onuphrius  Panvini 
(of  the  sixteenth  century),  Cardinal  Korris,  Abraham  j 
a  Santa  Clara,  and  Ludovicus  Leon.  The  constitu- 
tion, which  was  established  at  the  general  chapters  of  J 
1287,  1290,  1575,  and  especially  at  that  of  1580,  is  aris- 
tocratic. The  general  chapters,  which  assemble  ev- 
erj'  sixth  year,  elect  a  prior-general,  and  may  depose 
him.  His  power  is  limited  by  the  definitores,  who,  as 
his  councillors,  reside  with  him.  Every  province  has 
a  provincial,  four  definitores,  and  one  or  several  visi- 
tatores.  Every  convent  has  a  prior.  The  Discalcea- 
ted  Augustinians  have  their  vicar-generals,  while  the 
general  of  the  order  is  taken  from  the  calceated  (con- 
ventual-). 

The  sources  of  information  are  Bingham,  Orig.  Ec- 
<•'<;<.  I  Mink  vii ;  Dugdale,  Monasticon  Anglicanvm,  vi; 
Fchr's  Geschichte  der  Monchsorden ;  Helyot,  Ordres  Re- 
Ugieux,  i,  288  sq.,  with  the  authorities  cited  there,  es- 
pecially  N.Crusenii  Monasticon  Augustinianum(162S); 
St.  Martin,  Vie  de  St.  Augustin,  etc.  (Toulouse,  1611); 
Osingeri  Bibliothec  i  Augustina  (Ingolstadt,  17GS,  fol.);  j 
Zunggo,  Histories  Can.  Keg.  August.  Prodronm  (Ratisb. 
1  i  12,  •-'  vols,  fol.) ;  P.  Karl  vom  heil.  Aloys,  JakrbucA  j 
der  Kirche  (Regensb.  1860);  Migne,  Dictionntxire  des 
Ordres  Religieux,  torn.  Lv  (Paris,  1859). 

Augustinian  Nuns,  a  religious  order  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  following  the  rule  of  Augustine. 
Like  the  Augustinian  monks,  they  have  claimed  Au- 
gustine as  founder,  without,  however,  any  historical 
proofs.  They  partly  form  congregations*  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Augustinian  monks,  and  partly  are  j 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  diocesan  bishops. 
Congregations  of  Disoalceated  or  Barefooted  Augus- 
tinian nans  were  founded  iii  1589,  1597,  and  1604  in 
Spain,  and  one  about  the  same  time  in  Portugal  by 
Queen  Louisa,  wife  of  John  IV.  The  most  recent 
congregation  of  Augustinian  nuns  is  that  called  An- 
gustmes  de  VInterieur  d<  Marie,  established  on  Oct.  14. 
lllJ.     It  had.  in  1839,  «-»nly  one  house,  at  Crand  Mon-  , 


trouge.  In  I860  the  Augustinian  nuns  had,  altogether, 
42  establishments  in  France,  and  a  few  others  in  Italy, 
Switzerland,  Prussia,  Spain,  Holland  and  Belgium, 
Poland,  Canada  (at  Quebec),  and  South  America. 
The  sources  of  information  are  the  same  as  those  men- 
tioned at  the  close  of  the  preceding  article.  See  also 
Migne,  Diet,  des  Ordres  Religieux,  torn,  iv,  p.  105-11G. 

Augustinism,  the  theological  system  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, as  developed  in  opposition  to  Pelagianism 
and  Semi- Pelagianism.  "Augustine  considered  the 
human  race  as  a  compact  mass,  a  collective  body,  re- 
sponsible in  its  unity  and  solidarity.  Carrying  out 
his  system  in  all  its  logical  consequences,  he  laid  down 
the  following  rigid  proposition  as  his  doctrine:  'As 
all  men  have  sinned  in  Adam,  they  are  subject  to  the 
condemnation  of  God  on  account  of  this  hereditary 
sin  and  the  guilt  thereof"  (Smith's  Hagenbach,  His- 
tory of  Doctrines,  i,  299).  Wiggers  {Augustinism  and 
Pelagianism,  p.  2G8)  gives  the  following  summary 
view  of  the  theological  system  of  Augustine:  I.  In- 
fant Baptism.  —  The  baptism  of  infants  as  well  as 
adults  is  for  the  forgiveness  of  sin.  Children  have, 
indeed,  committed  no  actual  sins,  yet  by  original  sin 
they  are  under  the  power  of  the  devil,  from  which 
they  are  freed  by  baptism.  Hence  Christian  chil- 
dren who  die  before  baptism  no  more  escape  positive 
punishment  in  the  future  life  than  do  all  who  are 
not  Christians.  II.  Original  Sin. — By  Adam's  sin,  in 
whom  all  men  jointly  sinned  together,  sin,  and  the  oth- 
er positive  punishments  of  Adam's  sin,  came  into  the 
world.  B3'  it  human  nature  has  been  both  physically 
and  morally  corrupted.  Every  man  brings  into  the 
world  with  him  a  nature  already  so  corrupt  that  he 
can  do  nothing  but  sin.  The  propagation  of  this  qual- 
ity of  his  nature  is  by  concupiscence.  III.  Free  Will. 
—\iy  Adam's  transgression,  the  freedom  of  the  human 
will  has  been  entirely  lost.  In  his  present  corrupt 
state,  man  can  will  and  do  only  evil.  IV.  Grace. — If 
nevertheless  man,  in  his  present  state,  wills  and  does 
good,  it  is  merely  the  work  of  grace.  It  is  an  inward, 
secret,  and  wonderful  operation  of  God  upon  man.  It 
is  a  preceding  as  well  as  an  accompanying  work.  Bjr 
preceding  grace,  man  attains  faith,  by  which  he  comes 
into  an  insight  of  good,  and  by  which  power  is  given 
him  to  will  the  good.  He  needs  co-operating  grace 
for  the  performance  of  every  individual  good  act.  As 
man  can  do  nothing  without  grace,  so  he  can  do  noth- 
ing against  it.  It  is  irresistible.  And  as  man  by  na- 
ture has  no  merit  at  all,  no  respect  at  all  can  be  had 
to  man's  moral  disposition  in  imparting  grace,  but  God 
acts  according  to  his  own  free  will.  V.  Predestination 
and  Redemption. — From  eternity  God  made  a  free  and 
unconditional  decree  to  save  a  few  from  the  mass  that 
was  corrupted  and  subjected  to  damnation.  To  those 
whom  he  predestinated  to  this  salvation,  he  gives  the 
requisite  means  for  the  purpose.  But  on  the  rest,  who 
do  not  belong  to  this  small  number  of  the  elect,  the 
merited  ruin  falls.  Christ  came  into  the  world  and 
died  for  the  elect  only. 

These  are  the  principles  of  Augustinism.  Its  an- 
thropological principle,  of  the  native  corruption  of 
man,  and  of  his  utter  incapacity  to  do  good  apart 
from  divine  grace,  has  remained  fixed  in  the  church 
to  this  day.  Pelagius  maintained,  on  the  contrary, 
that  "every  man,  in  respect  to  his  moral  nature,  is 
born  in  precisely  the  same  condition  in  which  Adam 
was  ere  .ted,  and  has  the  capacity  of  willing  and  do- 
ing good  without  Cod's  special  aid.  It  was  Augus- 
tine's mission  to  enunciate  clearly  and  to  fix  forever 
the  Christian  doctrine  as  to  the  condition  of  human  na- 
ture in  its  fallen  state.  But  the  anxiety  of  Augustine 
to  save  the  divine  glory  in  the  work  of  man's  salva- 
tion led  him  to  the  doctrine  of  unconditional  election 
and  predestination — a  doctrine  to  which  the  mind  and 
heart  of  the  church,  as  a  whole,  has  never  acceded.  It 
has  been  a  stumbling-block  from  Augustine's  day  until 
now.    But  Augustine,  in  his  combat  against  Pelagius, 


AUGUSTINISM 


547 


AUGUSTINISM 


was  entirety  successful.  The  church  of  his  times  sided 
with  him,  and  Pelagius  and  his  adherents  were  con- 
demned by  a  numher  of  synods,  and  by  Zosimus,  the 
bishop  of  Rome.  After  the  death  of  Augustine,  the 
controversy  about  the  chief  points  of  his  system  con- 
tinued for  a  long  time  to  agitate  the  entire  church. 
The  General  Synod  of  Ephesus  (431)  condemned  the 
Pelagians,  together  with  the  Nestorians ;  yet,  on  the 
whole,  the  Greek  Church  did  not  take  any  real  inter- 
est in  the  controversy,  and  never  adopted  the  doc- 
trines of  absolute  predestination  and  irresistible  grace. 
In  Africa  and  Rome  a  tendency  to  Augustinism  pre- 
vailed ;  and  at  the  synods  of  Arausio  (Orange)  and 
Valentia  (529)  a  decision  was  obtained  in  favor  of  the 
exclusive  operation  of  divine  grace,  although  predesti- 
nation was  evidently  evaded.  In  Gaul  Augustinism 
did  not  exercise  the  same  influence  ;  and  although  the 
authority  of  Augustine  was  too  great  to  permit  an  open 
opposition  to  his  system,  Semi -Pelagian  tendencies 
seemed  to  be  for  a  long  time  in  the  ascendency. 

The  authority  of  Augustine's  name  remained  unim- 
paired, although  his  peculiar  doctrines  were  but  little 
understood  by  the  church  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
first  important  controversy  concerning  Augustinism 
was  that  called  forth  by  the  monk  Gottschalk  (q.  v.), 
who  in  the  most  decided  forms  of  expression  announced 
the  doctrine  of  a  double  predestination,  founded  upon 
the  absolute  foreknowledge  of  God,  according  to  which 
some  were  devoted  to  life,  and  others  were  consigned 
to  destruction.  Gottschalk,  who  pretended  to  be  a 
strict  follower  of  Augustine,  was  condemned  by  the 
Synod  of  Mayence  (848),  and  died  in  prison  (8G8). 
His  doctrine  was  a  development,  not  of  the  good  side 
of  Augustinism,  viz.  its  anthropology,  but  of  the  false 
side,  viz.  its  view  of  the  relations  between  God  and 
man  in  the  work  of  salvation.  Augustine  maintained 
unconditional  election,  but  not  reprobation;  he  held 
that  God  chose  from  the  massa  i>erditionis  such  and 
such  persons  to  be  saved,  because  he  pleased  to  choose 
them,  and  for  no  other  reason  whatever;  while  the 
rest  were  lost,  not  because  God  chose  to  damn  them, 
but  because  they  were  sinners.  Gottschalk  was  the 
first  to  announce  in  clear  terms  the  doctrine  of  the  di- 
vine reprobation  of  sinners,  i.  e.  that  they  are  damned, 
not  simply  because  of  their  sins,  but  because  of  God's 
decree  to  damn  them,  for  no  other  reason  than  because 
it  pleased  him  so  to  do.  In  the  subsequent  centuries, 
the  rise  of  scholasticism  and  mysticism,  and  the  con- 
troversy between  these  two  systems,  diverted  the  at- 
tention of  the  church  from  Augustinism.  Anselm, 
Peter  Lombard,  and  Thomas  Aquinas  endeavored  to 
retain  Augustine's  doctrine  of  an  unconditional  elec- 
tion, though  with  many  limitations.  The  current  of 
theological  opinion  in  the  church  in  general  was  in  a 
direction  toward  Pelagianism,  and  the  learned  Thom- 
ist,  Thomas  de  Bradwardina  (q.  v.),  a  professor  at 
Oxford,  and  subsequently  archbishop  at  Canterbury 
(d.  1349),  charged  the  whole  age  with  having  adopted 
Pelagianism.  On  the  whole,  the  Thomists  claimed 
to  stand  on  the  same  ground  as  Augustine ;  yet, 
while  they  regarded  original  sin  as  a  culpable  of- 
fence, and  divine  grace  as  predestination,  they  never- 
theless believed  that  man  has  some  remnants  of  power 
by  which  he  may  make  himself  worthy  of  divine  fa- 
vor (meritum  e  congmo\  and  regarded  divine  grace  as 
dependent  upon  divine  foreknowledge.  The  Scotists 
(adherents  of  Duns  Scotus),  on  the  other  hand,  de- 
scribed both  original  sin  and  grace  as  rather  the  inva- 
riable condition  of  all  men,  and  as  developments  of 
the  spiritual  world  in  the  course  of  Providence.  As 
Thomas  was  a  Dominican  and  Duns  Scotus  a  Fran- 
ciscan, the  controversy  between  Thomists  and  Sco- 
tists on  the  subject  of  original  sin  and  divine  grace 
gradually  became  a  controversy  between  the  two  or- 
ders of  mendicant  friars.  After  the  Reformation,  the 
Jesuits,  in  accordance  with  the  moral  system  of  their 
school,  adopted  the  views  of  the  Scotists.     Augustin- 


ism found  very  zealous  champions  in  the  professors  of 
the  University  of  Louvain.    One  of  them,  Bams  (q.  v.), 
was  denounced  by  the  Franciscans  to  Pope  Pius  V, 
who  in  15G7  condemned  79  propositions  extracted  from 
the  writings  of  Baius,  a  sentence  which  was  confirmed 
j  by  Gregory  XIII  (1579).      In  return,  the  theological 
faculty  of  Louvain   censured  34  propositions  in  the 
works  of  the  Jesuits  Less  and  Hamel,  as  opposed  to 
the  teachings  of  St.  Augustine,  and  to  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  Scriptures.     As  the  controversy  wax- 
1  ed  very  warm,  Sixtus  V  forbade  its  continuance;  but 
when  this  proved  fruitless,  a  committee  (the  celebrated 
congrrgatio  de  mtxilus)  was  appointed  by  Clement  VIII 
for  the  full  decision  of  the  question,  "In  what  way  is 
the  assistance  of  divine  grace  concerned  in  the  con- 
version of  the  sinner?"     The  congregation  was,  how- 
:  ever,  dismissed  in  1607,  without  having  accomplished 
1  its  object,  and  the  antagonism  between  the  Augustin- 
\  ian  school  and  its  opponents  continued  as  before.     An 
■  elaborate  representation  of  the  Augustinian  and  Pela- 
gian systems  was  given  by  Bishop  Jansenius,  of  Ypres, 
in  his  work  August  inus  s.  "doctrina  Augustini  de  humance 
i  natural  sanitate,  osgritudine,  et  meditina  adversus  Pela- 
\  glum  et  Massilknses,  which    was  published  after  the 
death  of  the  author,  and  gave  rise  to  the  celebrated 
Jansenist  controversy,  and  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Jan- 
senists  from  the  church.     See  Jansenius  and  Jan- 
senists.      The  condemnation  of  Jansenius   and  the 
Jansenists  did,  however,  not  terminate  the  controver- 
;  sy  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  concerning  the  Au- 
gustinian theology,  though  the  subsequent  history  of 
the  controversy  is  not  marked  by  any  prominent  event. 
!  But  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  as  a  whole,  rejects 
!  that  part  of  Augustinism  which  teaches  absolute  pre- 

destination  (see  Mohler,  Symbolism,  ch.  iii,  §  10). 
I       Some  of  the  forerunners  of  the  Reformation  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  as  Wickliffe  and  Savonarola,  were 
strict  Augustinians  ;  but  others,  e.  g.  Wessel,  urged  the 
necessity  of  a  free  appropriation  of  divine  grace  on  the 
part  of  man  as  a  conditio  sine  qua  non.     Luther  was  an 
:  Augustinian  monk,  and,  as  a  reformer,  he  was  at  first 
'  confirmed  in  his  Augustinian  views  by  the  contests 
which  he  had  to  maintain  against  the  doctrine  of  the 
meritoriousness  of  works.     But  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that,  in  common  with  Melancthon,  he  modified 
his  views  as  to  absolute  predestination;   and,  under 
the   guidance  of  Melancthon,  the  Lutheran  Church 
has  avoided  the  strict  consequences  of  the  Augustin- 
ian system  by  asserting  that  the  decrees  of  God  are 
conditional.     Calvin   was  a  strict  Augustinian,  and 
even  went  beyond  Augustine,  by  maintaining  repro- 
;  bation.     He,  and  the  early  reformed  theologians  gen- 
'  erally,  in  their  religious  controversies,  not  only  ad- 
mitted all  the  consequences  of  the  Augustinian  sys- 
tem, but,  having  once  determined  the  idea  of  predes- 
tination, went  beyond  the  premises  so  far  as  to  main- 
tain that  the  fall  of  man  was  itself  predestinated  by 
God  (supralapsarianism).     This   view,  however,  did 
I  not  meet  with  much  approbation,  and  was  at  last  al- 
most entirely  abandoned.     In  opposition  to  the  ultra 
Augustinian  views,  Arminius,  admitting  Augustine's 
anthropology,  defined  the  true  doctrine  of  the  rela- 
tions between  God  and  man  in  the  work  of  salvation. 
In  Germany,  the  Rationalists  and  the  school  of  Spec- 
ulative Philosophy  discarded  Augustinism,  while  the 
Pietists,  and  other  theologians  who  returned  to  the  old 
|  faith  of  the  church,  and  (though  with  various  modifi- 
l  cations)  the  followers  of  Schleiermacher,  revived  it  in 
|  its  essential  points.     At  present,  hardly  one  of  the 
great  theologians  of  Germany  holds  the  extreme  Au- 
gustinian doctrine  of  absolute  predestination. 

The  first  good  work  on  the  Augustinian  system  was 

written  by  Wiggers,  Versuch  einer  pragmatischen  Dar- 

stellung  di's  August inismus  nnd  Pelagianismns  (Berlin, 

I  1821 ;  Hamburg,  1833,  vol.  i  translated  by  Prof.  Fmer- 

;  son,  Andover,  1840,  8vo).     See  also  Gangauf,  Psycho* 

{  logie  des  htil.  August  inus  (Augsb.  1852).     More  philo- 


AUGUSTUS 


548 


AUGUSTUS 


Bophica]  than  theological,  yet  of  great  value  forthe  his- 
tory of  the  theological  system  of  Augustine,  is  the  work 
ofNourrisson  on  "The  Philosophy  of  St.  Augustine" 
(  La  Philosophic  d>  Saint  Avgustin,"  Par.  1865,  2  vols.). 
This  work  received  a  prize  from  the  French  Academie 
,1 ,  Sa\  rues  Moral  s  and  Politique*.  The  first  volume 
contains  a  memoir  of  the  bishop,  and  a  detailed  expo- 
sition of  his  philosophical  views;  the  second  gives  an 
account  of  the  sources  from  which  Augustine  borrow- 
ed bis  ideas,  an  estimate  of  the  influence  which  the 
Augustinian  theories  exercised,  especially  during  the 
seventh  century,  and  a  critical  discussion  of  the  Au- 
gustinian theories.  See  Armixiaxism  ;  Augustixe. 
Augustus  (venerable,  Graecized  Avyovo-roc),  the 
imperial  title  assumed  by  Octavius,  or  Octavianus,  the 
successor  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  first  peacefully  ac- 
knowledged emperor  of  Rome.  He  was  emperor  at  the 
birth  and  during  half  the  lifetime  of  our  Lord  (B.C.  30 
to  A.D.  14),  but  his  name  occurs  only  once  (Luke  ii,  1) 
in  the  New  Testament,  as  the  emperor  who  appointed  the 
enrolment  in  consequence  of  which  Joseph  and  Mary 
went  to  Bethlehem,  the  place  where  the  Messiah  was 
to  be  born.  See  Jesos.  The  successors  of  the  first 
Augustus  took  the  same  name  or  title,  but  it  is  seldom 
applied  to  them  by  the  Latin  writers.  In  the  eastern 
part  of  the  empire  the  Greek  StjSaoroc  (which  is  equiv- 
alent) seems  to  have  been  more  common,  and  hence  is 
used  of  Nero  (Acts  xxv,  21).  In  later  times  (after 
Diocletian)  the  title  of  "Augustus"  was  given  to  one 
of  the  two  heirs-apparent  of  the  empire,  and  "Caesar" 
to  their  younger  colleagues  and  heirs-apparent. 


Toiii  of  Angti.-tus. 


Augustus  was  descended  from  the  Octavian  family 
(gens  Octavia),  being  the  son  of  a  certain  praetor,  Caius 
Octavius,  and  born  in  the  year  of  Rome  G91,  B.C.  62 
(  Sueton.  Octav.  5).  His  mother  was  Atia,  daughter  of 
Julia,  the  sister  of  C.  Julius  Csesar.  He  bore  the  same 
name  as  his  father,  Caius  Octavius.  Being  adopted  and 
educated  by  his  great  uncle  Julius  Csesar,  he  changed 
his  name  from  Octavius  to  that  of  Caius  Julius  Caesar 
<  Ictavianus  (i.  e.  ex-Octavius),  in  accordance  with  Ro- 
man usage.  After  the  assassination  of  Caesar,  he  went, 
although  still  a  youth,  into  Italy,  and  soon  acquired 
Buch  political  connections  and  importance  (Suet.  Cces. 
83  sq. ;  Octav.  8)  that  Antony  and  Lepidus  took  him 
into  their  triumvirate  (Suet.  Octav.  13).  After  the  re- 
moval of  the  weak  Lepidus,  he  shared  with  Antony 
the  chief  power  over  the  entire  Roman  empire,  having 
iharge  of  the  western  provinces,  as  Antony  did 
over  the  eastern  (Suet.  Octav.  16,  54;  Appian.  Civ.  v, 
122  Bq.).  But  there  was  no  cordial  union  between 
these  two  ambitious  men;  their  opposition  gradually 
developed  itself,  and  soon  reached  its  crisis  in  the  de- 
cisive Qava]  battle  of  Actium  (B.C.  31),  in  which  Oc- 
tavius was  victor  (Suet.  Octar.  17;  Dio  Cass.  1. 15  sq. : 
Veil.  Paterc.  ii.  85).  Two  years  afterward  he  was 
greeted  as  "emperor"  (imperator)  by  the  senate,  and 
somewhat  later  |  B.C.  27),  when  he  desired  voluntarily 
to  receive  the  supreme  power,  as  "Augustus"  (Veil. 
Paterc.  ii.  '.'1  ;  Dio  Cass.  liii.  16).  Liberality  toward 
the  army,  moderation  toward  the  senate,  which  he  al- 
lowed to  retain  the  gemblam fits  ancient  authority, 

affability  and  clemency  toward  the  populace,  strength- 
ened the  supremacy  which  Augustus,  uniting  in  his 
own  person  the  highest  offices  of  the  republic,  main- 
tained with  imperial  power,  but  without  a  regal  title. 
To  Herod,  who  had  attached  himself  to  the  party  of 
Antony,  he  was  unexpectedly  gracious,  instated  him 
as  king  of  Judaea  ("  rex  Judaeorum,"  Joseph.  Ant,  xv, 


7,  3),  raising  also  somewhat  later  his  brother  Pheroras 
to  the  tetrarchate  (Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  10,  3).  In  thank- 
fulness for  these  favors,  Herod  built  him  a  marble  tem- 
ple near  the  source  of  the  Jordan  (Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  10, 
3),  and  remained  during  his  whole  life  a  firm  adherent 
of  the  imperial  family.  After  the  death  of  Herod 
(A.D.  4)  his  dominions,  almost  in  exact  accordance 
with  the  will  which  he  left,  were  divided  among  his 
sons  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  11,  4)  by  Augustus,  who  was 
soon  compelled,  however  (A.D.  6),  to  exile  one  of 
them,  Archelaus,  and  to  join  his  territory  of  Judaea 
and  Samaria  to  the  province  of  Syria  (Joseph.  Ant. 
xxii,  13,  '_')•  Augustus  died  in  the  7Cth  year  of  his 
age  at  Nola  in  Campania,  August  19,  in  the  year  of 
Rome  767  (see  Wurm,  in  Bengel's  Archiv.  ii,  8  sq.), 
or  A.D.  14  (Suet.  Octav.  99  sq. ;  Dio  Cass,  lvi,  29  sq. ; 
Joseph.  Ant.  xviii,  3,  2;  War,  ii,  9,  1),  having  some 
time  previously  nominated  Tiberius  as  his  associate 
(Suet.  Tib.  xxi;  Tacit.  Annal.  i,  3).  The  kindness 
of  Augustus  toward  the  Herods,  and  the  Jews  through 
them  (Philo,  ii,  588,  591,  592),  was  founded,  not  upon 
any  regard  for  the  Jewish  people  themselves  (as  the 
contrary  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with  all  the 
Roman  emperors,  Suet.  Octav.  93),  but  upon  political 
considerations,  and,  as  it  would  seem,  a  personal  esteem 
for  Herod.  Augustus  not  only  procured  the  crown  of 
Judaea  for  Herod,  whom  he  loaded  with  honors  and 
riches,  but  was  pleased  also  to  undertake  the  education 
of  Alexander  and  Aristobulus,  his  sons,  to  whom  he 
gave  apartments  in  his  palace.  When  he  came  into 
Syria,  Zenodorus  and  the  Gadarenes  waited  on  him 
with  complaints  against  Herod ;  but  he  cleared  him- 
self of  the  accusations,  and  Augustus  added  to  his  hon- 
ors and  kingdom  the  tetrarchy  of  Zenodorus.  He  also 
examined  into  the  quarrels  between  Herod  and  his 
sons,  and  reconciled  them.  See  Herod.  Syllaeus, 
minister  to  Obodas,  king  of  the  Nabathaeans,  having 
accused  Herod  of  invading  Arabia,  and  destroying 
many  people  there,  Augustus,  in  anger,  wrote  to  Herod 
about  it ;  but  he  so  well  justified  his  conduct  that  the 
emperor  restored  him  to  favor,  and  continued  it  ever 
after.  He  disapproved,  however,  of  the  rigor  exer- 
cised by  Herod  toward  his  sons,  Alexander,  Aristo- 
bulus, and  Antipater :  and  when  they  were  executed 
he  is  said  to  have  observed  "that  it  were  better  a 
great  deal  to  be  Herod's  swine  than  his  son"  (Macrob. 
Saturn,  ii.  4).  It  was  through  the  warm  attachment 
of  Augustus  for  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa  that  the  latter 


Coin  of  Augustus  with  the  Head  of  M.  Vipsanius  Agrippa. 
was  enabled  to  exercise  a  strong  influence  in  favor  of 
the  Jews.  See  Agrippa.  After  the  death  of  Lepi- 
dus, Augustus  assumed  the  office  of  high-priest,  a  dig- 
nity  which  gave  him  the  inspection  over  ceremonies 
and  religious  concerns.  ( hie  of  his  first  proceedings 
was  an  examination  of  the  Sibyls'  books,  many  of 
which  he  burnt,  and  placed  the  others  in  two  gold 
boxes  under  the  pedestal  of  Apollo's  statue,  whose 
temple  was  within  the  enclosure  of  the  palace.  This 
is  worthy  of  note,  if  these  prophecies  had  excited  a 
general  expectation  of  some  great  person  about  that 
time  to  be  born,  as  there  is  reason  to  suppose  was  the 
fact.  It  should  be  remembered,  also,  that  Augustus 
had  the  honor  to  shut  the  temple  of  Janus,  in  token 
of  universal  peace,  at  the  time  when  the  Prince  of 
Peace  was  born.  This  is  remarkable,  .because  that 
temple  was  shut  but  a  very  few  times.  For  further 
details  of  the  life  of  Augustus,  see  Smith's  D'ct.  of 
Biog.  s.  v.  ( m  the  question  whether  this  emperor  had 
1  any  knowledge  respecting  Christ,  there  are  treatises 


AUNT 


549       AURICULAR  CONFESSION 


by  Hasse  (Reborn.  1S05),  Hering  (Stettin,  1727), 
Kober  (Gerl.  1669),  Sperling  (Viteb.  170:!),  Ziebich 
(Gera,  1718,  and  in  his  Verm.  Beitr.  i,  3),  Zorn  (Opusc. 
ii,  481  sq.). 

AUGUSTUS'  BAND  (piretpr)  2f)8a<rr^,  the  Augus- 
tan cohort),  the  title  of  the  body  of  Roman  imperial 
troops  to  which  the  centurion  who  had  charge  of  Paul 
on  his  voyage  to  Rome  belonged  (Acts  xxvii,  1).  See 
Cohort. 

Aunt  (iTlifr,  dodali,  fem.  of  "HI,  a  friend,  hence 
uncle),  one's  father's  sister  (Exod.  vi,  20),  also  an  un- 
cle's wife  (Lev.  xviii,  14;  xx,  20).     See  Affinity. 

Aurandt.  John  Dietrich,  a  minister  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformed  Church,  was  born  on  Maiden  Creek, 
Berks  county,  Pa.,  1760,  and  in  his  youth  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  miller.  In  1778  he  enlisted  as  a  soldier  in 
the  brigade  of  the  Pennsylvania  Regulars  under  Gen. 
Wayne.  He  continued  in  the  army  till  1781,  when 
he  received  an  honorable  discharge.  He  now  resumed 
his  business  as  a  miller,  but  after  several  years  turned 
his  attention  to  farming.  Meanwhile  his  mind  had 
been  strongly  turned  toward  the  holy  ministry.  He 
began  by  exhorting  in  meetings  for  prayer,  studying 
privately  as  best  he  could.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1806,  and  ordained  in  1809.  He  settled  in  Hunting- 
ton county,  Pa.  His  field  of  labor  extended  east  and 
west  sixty  miles,  north  and  south  from  forty  to  fifty 
miles.  Here  he  labored  with  apostolic  zeal  as  a  pio- 
neer, laying  the  foundation  of  numerous  and  flourish- 
ing congregations.  His  travelling  over  these  moun- 
tain regions  of  Pennsylvania  was  done  on  horseback. 
This  was  his  first  and  also  his  last  field  of  labor.  His 
health  failed  toward  the  last,  and  sometimes  for  a  short 
period  his  labors  were  interrupted;  but  he  continued 
his  work,  though  often  amid  much  suffering,  till  near 
his  end.  He  preached  his  last  sermon  the  latter  part 
of  the  summer  of  1830,  and  died  April  24th,  1831,  in 
the  71st  year  of  his  age.  Mr.  Aurandt's  power  of  use- 
fulness lay  in  extraordinary  natural  gifts,  deep  and 
earnest  piety,  rather  than  in  acquired  learning  or  in- 
tellectual polish.  He  was  gifted  with  a  good  memory, 
quick  perception,  a  ready  flow  of  language,  and  a  clear 
enunciation.  He  preached  only  in  the  German  lan- 
guage. 

Auranltis.     See  Hauran. 

Aura'nus  (Avpavoc.),  given  as  the  name  of  the 
leader  in  the  riots  at  Jerusalem  against  Lysimachus 
(2  Mace,  iv,  40),  where  he  is  described  as  '"a  man  far 
gone  in  years,  and  no  less  in  folly."  Other  MSS., 
however  (followed  by  the  Vulg.),  read  Tupavvog,  Tij- 
rannus,  which  may  be  takeii  either  as  a  proper  name 
or  appellative,  q.  d.  ringleader, 

Aurelius,  Marcus  Annius  Verus  Antoninus, 
Roman  emperor  from  161  to  180,  was  born  in  121,  and 
at  the  age  of  eighteen  adopted  by  the  Emperor  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  whom  he  succeeded,  in  161,  on  the  throne. 
He  was  educated  by  Sextus  of  Chasronea,  a  grandson 
of  Plutarch,  and  became  early  in  life  an  ardent  ad- 
mirer and  adherent  of  the  Stoic  philosophy.  On  his 
accession  to  the  throne  he  magnanimously  shared  the 
government  with  his  adopted  brother  Verus.  Shortly 
after  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Parthians,  which  was 
victoriously  terminated  hy  the  generals  of  Verus. 
Both  emperors  held  a  triumph,  and  assumed  the  title 
Parthicus.  A  more  dangerous  war  broke  out  on  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  empire,  with  a  number  of  Gor- 
man tribes,  as  the  Marcomanni,  Alani,  and  many  oth- 
ers. It  was  carried  on,  with  many  vicissitudes,  until 
169,  when  the  barbarians  sued  for  peace.  In  the  same 
year  Verus  died.  Soon  the  war  was  renewed  ;  and  in 
the  course  of  it,  in  174,  a  celebrated  victory  was  gain- 
ed by  Marcus  Aurelius  over  the  Quadri  in  consequence 
of  a  sudden  thunder-storm,  by  which  the  Romans,  who 
greatly  suffered  from  want  of  water,  were  saved  from 
apparently  imminent  defeat.     The  emperor  ascribed 


the  victorj'  to  Jupiter  Tonans  ;  but  the  twelfth  legion, 
I  composed  largely  of  Christians,  ascribed  it  to  their 
J  prayers.  The  statement  of  Eusebius,  that  the  emperor 
gave  to  this  legion  the  name  Legio  Fulminatrix  (Thun- 
!  dering  Legion),  and  threatened  penalties  on  such  as 
1  accused  Christians  merely  on  account  of  their  religion, 
is  generally  rejected  as  inaccurate  (Eusebius,  Ch.  Hist. 
\  v,  5).  See  Lardner,  Works,  vii,  178-198.  Avidius 
j  Cassius  rebelled  against  Aurelius,  but  was  murdered 
I  by  his  own  adherents.  Aurelius  pardoned  the  rebels, 
j  revisited  Rome  in  176,  celebrated  his  victories  by  a  tri- 
umph, and  soon  after  inarched  again,  with  his  son 
I  Commodus,  against  the  Marcomanni ;  but  before  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  he  died  at  Vindobona  (now  Vi- 
enna), in  180.  Aurelius  was  one  of  the  best  emperors 
the  Roman  Empire  ever  had;  truthful,  just,  severe 
against  himself,  but  mild  toward  all  other  men ;  and 
his  life,  in  the  main,  corresponded  to  his  philosophical 
principles.  The  only  blot  in  his  reign  is  the  persecu- 
tion of  Christians.  The  first  persecution  during  his 
j  reign  seems  to  have  occurred  at  Lingona  in  167,  and 
in  it  Polycarp,  the  last  surviving  disciple  of  the  apostle 
John,  lost  his  life.  In  177,  the  Christians  of  Gaul, 
!  especially  the  churches  of  Lyons  and  Vienna,  were 
subjected  to  a  cruel  persecution,  in  which  a  great 
many  Christians  fell,  and  among  them  Pothinus,  bish- 
op of  Lyons.  See  Persecutions.  The  philosophical 
emperor  acted  logically  in  persecuting  the  Christians, 
|  who  disobeyed  the  laws  of  Rome,  while  he  held  it  his 
duty  to  uphold  those  laws.  He  believed  that  the 
new  religion  was  a  superstition,  and  that  it  was  dan- 
gerous to  the  state.  This  was  enough  for  him.  Au- 
relius wrote  a  work  (in  Greek)  entitled  T«  eig  tcwrov 
(Meditations),  from  the  composition  of  which  he  has  re- 
ceived the  title  of  "  Philosopher."  There  are  editions 
I  of  it  by  Casaubonus  (London,  1643),  Gataker  (Cambr. 
1 1654),  Schulz  (Schlesw.  1802),  and  Koraes  (Par.  1816). 
It  has  been  translated  into  the  languages  of  all  civilized 
nations,  and  even  into  Persian  by  Hammer  (Vienna, 
j  1831).  A  new  English  version  by  G.  Long  appeared 
|  in  1863  (London). — Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. ; 
Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  105-115  ;  Lardner,  Works,  1.  c. ; 
Neander,  On  Greek  Ethics,  Bihlioiheca  Sacra,  x,  476  sq. 

j  Aureola  or  Aureole  (gold-colored),  the  crown 
|  of  rays  designed  to  represent  flame,  put  by  the  old 

painters  around  the  figures  of  saints,  investing  the 
I  whole  body,  as  the  nimbus  (q.  v.)  does  the  head.     Its 

form  is  generally  ovoidal. — Didron,  Chr.  Iconography, 

107  sq. 

Auricular  Confession,  the  confession  of  sin  into 
the  ear  of  the  priest,  whicfi,  as  part  of  penance,  is  one 
of  the  sacraments  of  the  Romish  Church. 

1.  Before  the  time  of  Leo  the  Great  (fifth  century) 
it  had  been  the  custom  for  the  more  grievous  offendv 
ers  to  make  confession  of  their  sins  publicly,  in  the 
face  of  the  congregation,  or,  at  least,  for  the  minis- 
ters occasionally  to  proclaim  before  the  whole  assem- 
bly the  nature  of  the  confessions  which  they  had  re- 
ceived. This  public  act,  called  exomologesis,  included 
not  only  public  confession,  but  public  mortification  in 
sackcloth  and  ashes ;  and,  as  such,  was  entirely  differ- 
ent from  auricular  confession,  which  was  wholly  un- 
known to  the  ancient  Church  (see  the  authorities  in 
Bingham.  Grig.  Eccl.  bk.  xviii,  ch.  iii;  Daille,  De  Con- 
fess. Auricular,  iv,  25).  As  for  the  Eastern  Church, 
Sozomen,  in  his  account  of  the  confessional,  says  that 
the  public  confession  in  the  presence  of  all  the  people, 
which  formerly  obtained,  having  been  found  grievous 
QPoqtikov  ibe  i i'koc),  a  well-bred,  silent,  and  prudent  pres- 
bj'ter  was  set  in  charge  of  it;  thus  plainly  denoting 
the  change  from  public,  to  auricular  confessions.  It 
was  this  penitential  presbyter  whose  office  was  abol- 
ished by  Nectarius  in  the  fourth  century,  on  account 
of  a  rape  conrmitted  on  a  female  penitent  by  the  priest 
(Sozom.  Hist.  Bed.  vii,  16;  Socrat.  Hist  Bed.  v,  19). 
Pope  Leo  discouraged  the  ancient  practice  of  public 


AURICULAR  CONFESSION       550 


AUSTIN 


confession,  or,  rather,  the  publication  by  the  priest  of 
flagrant  sins  confessed,  and  permitted,  and  even  en- 
joined with  some  earnestness,  that  confession  should 
rather  be  private,  and  confided  to  the  priest  alone. 
The  evil  most  obviously  proceeding  from  this  relaxa- 
tion was  the  general  increase,  or,  at  least,  the  more  in- 
decent practice  of  the  mortal  sins,  and  especially  (as 
Mosheim,  Church.  Hist.  cent,  v,  pt.  ii,  eh.  iv,  has  ob- 
served) of  that  of  incontinence;  unless,  indeed,  we  are 
to  suppose  that  the  original  publicity  of  confession  was 
abandoned  from  its  being  no  longer  practicable  in  a 
numerous  body  and  a  corrupt  age.  But  another  con- 
sequence which  certainly  flowed  from  this  measure, 
and  which,  in  the  eye  of  an  ambitious  churchman, 
might  counterbalance  its  demoralizing  effect,  was  the 
\ rast  addition  of  influence  which  it  save  to  the  clergy. 
When  he  delivered  over  the  conscience  of  the  people 
into  the  hands  of  the  priests,  when  he  consigned  the 
most  secret  acts  and  thoughts  of  individual  imperfec- 
tion to  the  torture  of  private  inquisition  and  scrutiny, 
Leo  the  Great  had  indeed  the  glory  of  laying  the  first 
and  corner-stone  of  the  papal  edilice — that  on  which 
it  rose  and  rested,  and  without  which  the  industry  of 
his  successors  would  have  been  vainly  exerted,  or  (as 
is  more  probable)  their  boldest  projects  would  never 
have  been  formed. 

2.  But  Leo  made  no  law  requiring  private  confes- 
sion before  communion.  That  step  was  not  taken  till 
the  fourth  council  of  Lateran,  A.D.  1215,  when  it  was 
decreed  that  all  persons  should  confess  privately,  and 
be  absolved  once  a  year,  under  pain  of  excommunica- 
tion (can.  xxi;  Hard.  Cone.  t.  vii).  The  doctrine  that 
penance  is  a  sacrament  seems  to  have  been  first  broach- 
ed by  Aquinas  (Summa,  pt.  iii,  2,  84).  The  Romish 
system  of  sacramental  penance  was  completed  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  (sess.  xiv,  cap.  5,  6),  which  declared 
that  "from  the  institution  of  the  sacrament  of  penance 
already  set  forth,  the  Church  has  always  understood 
that  an  entire  confession  of  sins  was  also  appointed  by 
the  Lord,  and  that  it  is  of  divine  right  necessary  to 
all  who  have  lapsed  after  baptism.  Because  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  when  about  to  ascend  from  earth  to  heav- 
en, left  his  priests,  his  vicars,  to  be,  as  it  were,  the 
presidents  and  judges,  to  whom  all  mortal  sins  into 
which  Christ's  faithful  people  should  fall  should  be 
brought,  in  order  that,  by  the  power  of  the  keys,  they 
might  pronounce  sentence  of  remission  or  retention. 
For  it  is  plain  that  the  priests  cannot  exercise  this  judg- 
ment without  knowledge  of  the  cause,  nor  can  they  ob- 
serve equity  in  enjoining  penalties  if  men  declare  their 
sins  only  generally,  and  not  rather  particularly  and 
separately.  From  this  it  is  inferred  that  it  is  riLfht 
that  t  lie  penitents  should  recount  in  confession  all  the 
deadly  sins  of  which,  upon  examination,  their  con- 
science accuses  them,  even  though  they  be  most  se- 
cret, and  only  against  the  last  two  commandments, 
which  not  unfrequently  grievously  wound  the  soul, 
and  are  more  dantrerous  than  those  which  are  openly 
practised,"  etc.  Here  an  attempt  is  made  to  invest 
the  Christian  priesthood  with  the  prerogative  of  the 
.Most  High,  who  is  a  searcher  of  the  hearts  and  a  dis- 
oerner  of  the  thoughts,  in  forgetfulness  of  the  very  dis- 
tinction which  God  drew  between  himself  and  all  men, 
"  Man  looketh  to  the  outward  part,  the  Lord  trieth  the 
heart."  As  Christ  has  invested  his  ministers  with  no 
power  to  do  this  of  themselves,  the  Tridentine  fathers 
have  BOUghl  to  supply  what  they  must  needs  consider 
ous  omission  on  his  part  by  enjoining  all  men 
to  unlock  the  Becrets  of  their  hearts  at  the  command 
of  their  priest,  and  persons  of  all  ages  and  sexes  to 
submit  not  only  to  general  questions  a-  to  a  state  of 
sin  or  repentance,  bul  to  fhe  mosl  minute  and  search- 
ing questions  as  to  their  inmost  thoughts.  Auricular 
confession  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  greatest  cor. 
ruptions  of  the  Romish  Church.  It  goes  upon  the 
ground  that  the  priest  has  power  to  forgive  sins;  it  es- 
tabliahea  the  tyrannical  influence  of  the  priesthood;  it 


turns  the  penitent  from  God,  who  only  can  forgive 
sins,  to  man,  who  is  himself  a  sinner ;  and  it  tends  to 
corrupt  both  the  confessors  and  the  confessed  by  a  foul 
and  particular  disclosure  of  sinful  thoughts  and  actions 
of  every  kind  without  exception. 

3.  The  confessor  must  be  an  ordained  priest;  and 
no  penitent  can  confess  to  any  other  than  his  parish 
priest  without  the  consent  of  the  latter,  except  in  ar- 
ticulo  mortis.  Special  confessors  are  provided  for  monks 
and  nuns.  For  the  place  of  confession,  see  Confes- 
sional. The  laws  of  confession  may  be  found  in  the 
Romish  directories  and  books  of  moral  theology  ;  and 
a  glance  at  them  is  enough  to  satisfy  any  candid  mind 
of  the  fearful  dangers  of  such  a  system.  Any  one  who 
may  think  it  necessary  to  satisfy  himself  upon  the 
point  may  consult  the  cases  contemplated  and  provided 
for  (among  others)  bj'  Cardinal  Cajetan  in  his  Opuscu- 
la  (Lusd.  1562),  p.  114.  In  the  Bull  of  Pius  IV,  Con- 
tra solicitantes  in  confessione,  dated  Apr.  16, 1561  (£ul- 
larium  Magn.  Luxemb.  1727,  ii,  48),  and  in  a  similar 
one  of  Gregory  XV,  dated  Aug.  30, 1622  {Gregory  AT, 
Const  it.  Rom.  1622,  p.  114),  there  is  laid  open  another 
fearful  scene  of  danger  to  female  confitents  from  wicked 
priests.  For  a  full  account,  of  the  history  of  the  sys- 
tem, its  laws  and  its  dangers,  see  Hopkins,  History  of 
the  Confessional  (N.  Y.  1850,  12mo). 

4.  The  Protestant  churches  reject  auricular  confes- 
sion. The  Lutheran  Church,  however,  allows  confes- 
sion, only  with  this  difference,  that  while  the  Catholic 
Church  requires  from  the  penitent  the  avowal  of  his 
particular  and  single  crimes,  the  Lutheran  requires 
only  a  general  acknowledgment,  leaving  it,  however, 
at  the  option  of  its  members  to  reveal  their  particular 
sins  to  the  confessor,  and  to  relieve  the  conscience  by 
such  an  avowal.  The  Reformed  churches  of  the  Con- 
tinent generally  practise  only  general  confession  pre- 
paratory to  the  sacrament.  There  is  a  tendency,  how- 
ever, in  the  high  Lutheran  reaction  in  Germany,  to 
return  to  auricular  confession.  The  Church  of  Eng- 
land, in  some  cases,  exhorts  to  confession,  but  she 
makes  it  no  part  of  her  discipline,  nor  does  she  (as  the 
Church  of  Rome  insists  upon,  or  as  some  of  her  own 
members  would  fondly  introduce  the  practice)  prescribe 
regular,  complete,  periodical  confession.  For  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  of  England  upon  the  subject  of  con- 
fession to  a  pastor,  see  (in  the  Prayer-book)  the  former 
of  the  two  exhortations  in  giving  warning  for  the  Com- 
munion, and  the  order  for  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick. 
The  Church  of  England  has  recently  been  greatly  agi- 
tated by  what  appears  to  be  a  concerted  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  Romanizing  part  of  her  clergy  to  restore  au- 
ricular confession. — Bingham,  1.  c. ;  Hopkins,  Hist,  of 
the  Confessional;  Elliott,  On  Romanism,  i,  312  sq. ;  Klee, 
Die  Beickte,  eine  histor.  trit.  Untersuch.  (Francf.  1828); 
Kliefoth,  Die  Beichte  and  Absolution  (Schwerin.  1856). 
— Hook,  Ch.  Diet.  s.  v.    See  Penance  ;  Confession. 

Austin,  David,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1760,  and  graduated  at  Yale 
College,  1779.  After  studying  with  Dr.  Bellam.y,  he 
spent  some  time  in  European  travel,  and  in  1788  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Eliza- 
bethtown,  N.  J.  He  labored" faithfully  till  1795,  when 
he  became  deranged  from  fever.  On  his  recovery  the 
derangement  continued,  and  he  preached  that  Christ 
would  appear  in  May,  1796.  The  failure  of  his  pre- 
diction only  confirmed  his  delusion,  and  he  went  about 
preaching  the  advent  with  great  zeal,  and  creating 
great  excitement.  In  1797  he  was  dismissed  from  his 
pastorate.  After  some  years  he  recovered  his  sanity, 
and  was  installed  in  1815  pastor  at  Bozrah,  Conn., 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1831.  He  edited 
a  Commentary  and  published  several  millennial  pam- 
phlets.— Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  197. 

Austin,  Samuel,  D.D.,  was  born  in  New  Haven, 
176(1,  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1783.  After  teach- 
ing and  travelling  a  few  years,  he  was  ordained,  as 


AUSTIN 


551 


AUSTRIA 


the  successor  of  Allen  Mather,  at  Fairhaven,  Conn., 
Nov.  9,  1786,  where  he  remained  until  1790.  He  then 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  where 
he  labored  faithfully  nearly  25  years.  In  1815  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  University  of  Vermont,  which 
office  he  resigned  in  1821.  After  preaching  a  few 
years  in  Newport,  he  fell  into  ill  health  and  melan- 
choly, and  died  at  Glastonbury,  Conn.,  Dec.  4,  1830. 
He  was  eminently  pious  and  distinguished  as  a  minis- 
ter. He  published  letters  on  baptism,  examining  Mer- 
rill's seven  sermons,  1805  ;  a  reply  to  Merrill's  twelve 
letters,  1806;  and  a  number  of  occasional  sermons.— 
Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  224. 

Austin,  St.     See  Augustine. 

Australasia,  a  division  of  the  globe  forming  a 
part  of  Oceanica.  It  comprises  the  continent  of  Aus- 
tralia, Tasmania  (Van  Diemen's  Land),  New  Guinea, 
and  the  Louisiade  Archipelago,  New  Britain,  New 
Ireland,  and  neighboring  islands,  Solomon's  Islands, 
New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  New  Zealand,  and  the 
isles  to  the  southward,  Kergueland  Islands,  St.  Paul, 
and  Amsterdam,  and  numerous  coral  reefs  and  islets. 
■ — Newcomb,  Cyclopedia  of  Missions.    See  Australia. 

Australia,  or  New  Holland,  a  vast  extent  of 
land  forming  the  main  portion  of  Australasia.  Its 
area  is  about  2,700,000  square  miles.  The  population 
in  the  five  English  colonies,  New  South  Wales,  Victo- 
ria, South  Australia,  West  Australia,  and  Queensland, 
was,  in  1802,  about  1,240,000  souls.  The  native  pop- 
ulation is  rapidly  decreasing.  Their  numbers  are  esti- 
mated at  from  15,000  to  20,000.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  last  century  Episcopal  chaplains  were  appointed  by 
the  British  government  in  New  South  Wales,  which  at 
that  time  was  a  penal  settlement.  In  1795  the  Society 
for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts  commenced 
its  missionary  operations.  In  1836  the  first  bishop  was 
consecrated,  and  in  1847  three  new  sees  were  consti- 
tuted. In  1865  the  Anglican  Church  had  in  Australia 
(exclusive  of  Tasmania,  q.  v.)  seven  dioceses,  Syd- 


ney, Newcastle,  Melbourne,  Adelaide,  Perth,  Bris- 
bane, and  Goulburn.  The  Roman  Church  has  an  arch- 
bishop at  Sydney,  and  bishops  at  Perth,  Adelaide,  Mel- 
bourne, Maitland,  and  Brisbane,  and  a  population  of 
about  80,000  souls.  The  Moravians  established  a  mis- 
sion to  the  aborigines  in  1849.  In  1858  they  sustained 
there  two  missionaries,  but  no  specific  results  are  yet 
reported.  The  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  opened 
a  mission  in  New  South  Wales  in  1815,  in  South  Aus- 
tralia in  1838,  in  Western  Australia  in  1839.  Their 
missions,  both  among  the  English  population  and  the 
natives,  have  been  blessed  with  remarkable  success. 
They  had,  in  1865,  99  circuits,  484  chapels,  256  other 
preaching  places;  1-15  missionaries  and  assistant  mis- 
sionaries, 5226  subordinate  agents,  16,246  members, 
2707  on  trial  for  membership,  35,612  scholars  in  schools. 
91,870  attendants  on  public  worship.  There  are  also 
Congregationalists,  Baptists.  German  Lutherans,  and 
other  denominations,  though  less  numerous.  The 
government  contributes  to  the  support  of  the  churches 
and  clergy  of  the  Episcopalians,  Wesleyans,  Presby- 
terians, and  Roman  Catholics.  In  1855  there  were 
613  public,  Roman  Catholic,  and  private  schools,  in 
which  40,000  children  received  instruction.— .  I  Imanac 
de  Gotha ;  Schem,  Ecclesiastical  Year-book  for  1859. 

Austria,  one  of  the  principal  states  of  modern  Eu- 
rope (q.  v.),  with  an  area  of  11,751  geogr.  sq.  miles, 
and  a  population  in  1857  of  35,040,810  souls. 

I.  Church  History. — For  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity into  those  countries  which  now  constitute  Aus- 
tria, and  for  their  early  church  history,  we  refer  to  the 
articles  Germany;  Sclavonians:  and  to  those  on 
the  several  provinces  of  Austria  (see  below).  The 
Reformation  spread  at  first  in  Austria  with  great  rapid- 
it}'.  In  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Austria  Proper  (the  arch- 
duchy), Styria,  Carinthia,  and  the  Tyrol,  it  soon  be- 
came very  powerful.  See  Reformation.  Even  one 
of  the  emperors,  Maximilian  II,  favored  it,  and  was 
believed  secretly  to  belong  to  it.     But  Ferdinand  II 


EUS^ 


AUSTRIA  5, 

(1G19-37),  the  most  fanatic  adherent  of  the  Church  of 
Kome  in  the  entire  series  of  Austrian  rulers,  initiated 
a  period  of  long  and  cruel  persecution,  by  which  thou- 
sands were  frightened  into  apostasy,  and  many  more 
thousands  expelled  from  their  native  land.  This  rig- 
orous legislation  lasted  until  the  accession  of  Joseph 
II  (1765-90),  who  not  only  endeavored  to  loosen  the 
connection  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  with  the 
Pope,  but  who  gave  also  to  the  Protestants,  by  his  cel- 
ebrated Edict  of  Toleration,  Oct.  31,1781,  protection 
of  their  religious  worship,  and  declared  them  admissi- 
ble to  the  highest  civil  offices.  Still,  in  those  provinces 
where  they  were  merely  tolerated,  they  were  not  al- 
lowed to  have  churches,  but  only  chapels  without 
steeples  and  bells ;  nor  could  they  have,  independent 
parishes,  but  they  had  to  pay  the  fees  for  ecclesiastical 
functions  to  the  Roman  Catholic  parish  priest.  In 
Hungary  and  Transylvania,  they  possessed  from  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  and  preserved  unimpaired, 
much  greater  rights.  The  successors  of  Joseph  II  re- 
voked a  part  of  his  legislation,  and,  in  general,  sec- 
onded the  diplomacy  of  the  Pope  abroad,  but  continued 
to  withhold  from  the  Roman  Church  in  Austria  many 
rights  which  she  possessed  in  most  other  states  (as 
holding  of  councils,  connection  of  the  monastic  orders 
with  their  several  superiors  in  Rome,  formations  of 
religious  associations,  etc.).  The  year  18-18  brought 
to  all  the  religious  denominations  the  promise  of  self- 
government,  and  independence  of  both  the  state  and 
other  denominations.  The  '-Provisional  Decrees"  of 
1849  redressed  several  of  the  Protestant  grievances; 
thus,  e.  g.,  the  term  "acatholic,"  by  which  Protest- 
ants had  before  been  officially  designated,  was  abol- 
ished, the  official  character  of  the  lists  of  baptisms, 
marriages,  and  deaths  kept  by  Protestant  clergymen 
was  recognised,  and  the  taxes  which  Protestants  had 
to  pay  to  Catholic  priests  were  abolished.  Notwith- 
standing these  partial  concessions  made  to  the  spirit 
of  the  times,  the  emperor  Francis  Joseph  openly  fa- 
vored the  schemes  of  the  ultramontane  party.  The 
Concordat,  signed  on  Aug.  18, 1855  [see  Concordat]. 
did  away  with  the  whole  Josephine  legislation,  and 
recognised,  in  its  first  article,  all  the  rights  and  pre- 
rogatives which  the  R.  C.  Church  derived  from  the 
canon  law.  Through  the  Concordat  the  R.C.  Church 
reobtained  the  right  of  holding  councils  (a  conference 
of  fourteen  archbishops  and  forty-eight  bishops  met  in 
185G),  a  great  influence  on  public  education,  an  exten- 
sive jurisdiction  in  marriage  affairs,  and,  in  general,  a 
vigorous  support  on  the  part  of  the  government.  The 
relation  between  the  monastic  orders  of  Austria  and 
their  superiors  was  also  restored,  and  the  bishops,  at 
the  wish  of  Rome  and  with  the  aid  of  the  government, 
commenced  to  enforce  again  the  old  strict  monastic 
disciplines.  A  majority  of  the  members  of  every  or- 
der which  was  thus  to  be  brought  back  to  its  former 
condition  opposed  this  plan,  but  unsuccessfully.  The 
reformatory  measures  were  carried  through  in  all  the 
monastic  orders  in  1850.  The  Protestants  received. 
after  the  publication  of  the  Concordat,  the  promise  that 
also  their  church  should  receive  a  greater  independence 
and  a  higher  degree  of  self-government ;  but,  in  fact, 
their  grievances  became  much  greater  under  the  influ- 
ence which  tin'  ( !oncorda1  gave  to  the  priests.  Impor- 
tant decrees  concerning  the  reorganization  of  the  Prot- 
estanl  i  hurches  "I"  Hungary  Mere  issued  on  Aug.  21, 
tl  Sept.  1, 1859,  for  which  we  refertothe  article 
Hdugari  .  For  the  Protestants  in  the  provinces  form- 
ing pari  of  the  German  Confederacy  it  was,  in  1859, 
d  that  in  future  the  Protestant  <  lonsistoryof  Vi- 
enna should  always  be  presided  over  by  a  Protestant, 
and  not,  as  had  been  the  custom  until  "that  date,  by  a 
Roman  I  latholic.  On  April  8, 1861,  an  imperial  letter 
was  issued,  and  on  April  9  a  draft  of  a  church  constitu- 
tion, to  regulate  provisionally  the  affairs  of  the  Luther- 
an and  the  Reformed  Churches  in  tin-  German  and 
Slavic  provinces.     Each  of  these  two  churches  was  to 


2  AUSTRIA 

have  a  general  synod,  which  was  to  revise  the  draft 
of  church  constitution  prepared  by  the  government, 
and  have  hereafter  the  chief  control  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  of  the  two  churches.  The  convocation  of 
the  first  general  synod  was  delayed  no  less  than  three 
years,  and  did  not  take  place  until  the  22d  of  May, 
18G4.  The  synods  of  both  the  churches  met  in  Vi- 
enna on  the  same  day.  Both  synods  passed  a  reso- 
lution to  discuss  such  topics  as  are  not  of  a  strictly 
denominational  character  in  joint  session.  The  pro- 
visional draft  of  a  church  constitution  was  adopted 
in  all  its  essential  points.  The  synods  resolved  to 
present  conjointly  to  the  emperor  the  following  memo- 
rial, containing  the  chief  demands  of  the  Protestants 
of  the  empire :  The  General  Synod  protests  —  1. 
Against  the  denomination  of  non-catholic,  which  is  the 
term  used  in  the  decrees  and  ordinances  of  the  political 
authorities  to  designate  the  adherents  of  the  two  Pro- 
testant confessions,  the  Augsburg  and  the  Helvetian ; 
2.  The  Synod  demands  that  those  obstacles  which,  in 
some  parts  of  the  monarch}',  are  still  presented  to  the 
establishment  of  Protestant  congregations,  shall  be  re- 
moved ;  3.  That  booksellers  shall  be  allowed  to  deal  in 
Protestant  books :  4.  A  community  of  cemeteries ;  5. 
The  admission  of  Protestant  pastors,  as  of  priests,  into 
houses  of  retirement  and  charitable  institutions,  to  ex- 
ercise their  functions  in  them ;  6.  The  establishment 
of  the  equality  of  the  Protestant  and  the  Catholic  fes- 
tivals, in  order  that  the  authorities  may  be  bound  to 
protect  the  festivals  of  the  Protestants  in  the  localities 
in  which  they  are  the  most  numerous;  7.  The  Synod 
protests  against  all  interference  by  the  subordinate 
political  authorities  in  the  affairs  of  the  schools' of  the 
Protestant  congregations ;  8.  It  protests  against  the 
ordinance  which  prohibits  the  children  of  Jews  from 
frequenting  Protestant,  if  there  are  Catholic  schools 
in  existence  in  the  same  locality ;  as  it  also  protests 
against  tho  ordinance  which  forbids  Catholic  parents 
placing  their  children  with  Protestant  foster-parents; 

9.  The  General  Synod  advances  claims  on  the  funds  of 
the  normal  schools  in  favor  of  the  Protestant  schools; 

10.  It  demands  the  admission  of  Protestant  teachers  in 
the  medial  Catholic  schools;  11.  The  institution  of 
Protestant  catechists  in  the  schools;  12.  The  incorpo- 
ration of  the  Protestant  theological  faculty  into  the 
University  of  Vienna  ;  13.  The  representation  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  in  the  Diet  and  in  the  Municipal 
Council.  The  proceedings  in  both  the  General  Synods 
v.rere  very  harmonious.  A  union  between  the  Luther- 
an and  the  Reformed  churches,  as  it  has  been  consum- 
mated in  several  German  countries,  was  not  resolved 
upon,  but  both  synods  will  continue  to  meet  simulta- 
neously, and  at  the  same  place,  and  to  deliberate  on 
all  subjects  not  strictly  denominational  in  joint  session. 
The  nationality  question,  which  produces  so  much 
trouble  in  the  politics  of  Austria,  led  on  some  ques- 
tions to  a  disagreement  between  the  German  majority 
and  the  Slavic  minority,  as  the  former  were  unwilling 
to  concede  everything  the  latter  demanded,  but  it  pro- 
duced no  open  rupture. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — The  following  table 
exhibits  the  membership  of  the  several  denominations 
in  every  province  according  to  the  census  of  1857. 
It  appears  from  this  table  that  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  if  we  include  the  United  Greeks,  has  a  ma- 
jority in  every  province  except  Transylvania.  In 
Galicia  the  United  Greeks  exceed  a  little  in  number 
the  Roman  Catholics  of  the  Latin  rite.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  (Latin  rite)  had,  in  1859,  13  arch- 
bishoprics :  Agram,  Colocza,  Erlau,  Gran,  Gocritz 
and  Gradisca,  Lemberg,  Olmutz,  Prague,  Salzburg, 
Udine,  Venice,  Zara.  The  archbishop  of  Venice  has 
the  title  patriarch,  and  the.  archbishop  of  LMine  is 
merely  nominal,  not  being  at  the  head  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical province.  Tho  number  of  bishops  since  the 
separation  of  Lombardy  is  53.  There  were,  in  1851, 
4285  parishes  and  local  chaplaincies,  and  40,810  priests. 


AUTxEAS 


553 


AUTHORITY 


_ 

Catho 

| 

Greeks. 

Protestnnts. 

Unita- 

Other 
Sects. 

Israelites. 

Lntm. 

Greek. 

Non-united. 

Augsburg 

Hclvellc 
Confession 

Austria,  below  the  Enus 

Austria,  above  the  Euus 

1,350,684 

(173,4114 
140,132 

1,004,919 
307,042 
40(1,708 
502,729 
804,  S89 

4,001,335 

1,784,593 
3.10,843 

2,072,033 
42,720 
337,800 

2,440,97.! 

5,138,013 
720,893 
228,095 
448,701 
43S,912 
23,9GS,0S0 

103 
1 

'"4 

278 
151 

"is 

23 

4 

2,079,421 

10,107 

341 

81 

S27,702 

1,844 

551,994 

5,535 

59,019 

1,030 

"32 

1 
294 
S7S 

"37 
10 

5 

251 

f53,403 

77,144 

!S 

1,100,588 

129,737 

02H,i  '55 

587, 2SS 

41,1S0 

s,(145 

14,SJ0 

5S 

4,977 

10,000 

75 

320 

74 

34,139 

17,1SS 

61,S72 

2G,9G0 

7,;  82 

17 

SI 

795,930 

SS5 

195,S01 

15,S04 

10,411 

1,495 

50 

7 

135 

13 

',5 

138 

41 

50,797 

34,077 

45 

4,140 

751 

S 

55 

1,553,308 

4,425 

205,970 

4,274 

37,359 

20 

"i 
.... 

1 

22 
9 

1 

95 

"is 

904 

31 

4S,040 

4 

1,007 

1 

'"3 
.... 

2 
1 
2S 
9 
2 
488 
2,939 

"'24 

1,001 

31 

48,040 

4 

2,114 

6,999 

4 

"0 

3*,713 

548 
86,339 

41,529 

3,280 

44S,973 

29,187 

31S 

0,423 

393,105 

5,041 

14,152 

404 

9,850 

Goriz  and  Istiia,  Trieste 

Bohemia 

Silesia 

Galieia 

Military 

Totals 

3,536,689 

2,921,039  |  1,218.831 

1,903,7S5 

50,870 

54.  vr. 

1,049,S71 

The  Greek  United  Church  has  two  archbishoprics, 
Lemberg  and  Fogaras  (the  latter  of  recent  erection), 
and  .8  bishops;  the  United  Armenian  Church,  1  arch- 
bishop at  Lemberg:  these  two  churches  together  had, 
in  1851,  4285  parishes  and  local  chaplaincies,  and  5098 
secular  priests.  The  Greek  (non-united)  Church  has 
a  patriarch-archbishop  at  Carlovitz,  10  bishops,  3201 
parishes  or  local  chaplaincies,  and  4036  secular  priests. 
The  number  of  convents  is  constantly  increasing.  In 
1849,  739  convents  of  monks  and  17G  of  nuns  were 
counted  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  44  con- 
vents of  monks,  with  271  members,  in  the  Greek  (non- 
united)  Church.  The  Protestants  of  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg  (Lutherans)  were,  until  1859,  divided  into 
10  superintendencies,  and  the  Protestants  of  the  Hel- 
vetic Confession  (Reformed  Church)  into  8,  4  superin- 
tendencies of  each  church  being  in  Hungary.  In  a  ter- 
ritorial respect  the  Protestant  churches  are  divided  into 
three  groups,  which,  with  regard  to  church  govern- 
ment, are  independent  of  each  other:  viz.  1,  Hungary, 
with  the  adjacent  countries ;  2,  Transylvania ,  3,  the 
other  provinces.  The  two  Protestant  churches  of  the 
last  group  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Consistory 
of  Vienna.  Together  they  had,  in  1851,  31G2  parishes, 
which  number  has  since  considerably  increased.  The 
Unitarians  have  1  superintendent  at  Klausenburg, 
Transylvania.  Theological  faculties  for  education  of 
Roman  Catholic  priests  are  connected  with  each  of  the 
nine  Austrian  universities;  that  of  the  University  of 
Innspruck  has  been  wholly  transferred  to  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits.  Besides  these  theological  faculties  there 
are  episcopal  seminaries,  in  which  theology  and  phi- 
losophy are  taught,  in  nearly  every  diocese.  In  addi- 
tion to  them,  seminaria  puerorum  (seminaries  for  boys 
.  who  have  the  priesthood  in  view)  have,  since  1848, 
been  ei-ected  in  many  dioceses.  The  priests  of  the 
United  Greeks  are  educated  at  Lemberg  and  Fogaras, 
those  of  the  Non-united  Greeks  at  Czernowicz  (Gali- 
eia) ami  Carlovitz  (Hungary).  For  Protestant  theo- 
logians there  is  a  theological  faculty  at  Vienna,  winch, 
however,  is  not  connected  with  the  university.  Hun- 
gary has  six  schools  for  the  study  of  theology  and 
philosophy,  three  for  each  of  the  two  churches.  The 
Unitarians  have  a  college  at  Klausenburg.  See  Coxe, 
History  of  the  Home  of  Austria,  Lichnowsky,  Gesck. 
des  Hauses  Hdbsburg  (Wien,  8  vols.  183G-1844)  ,  Mai- 
lath,  Gesck.  des  ostr.  Kaiserstaafs  (Hamburg',  5  vols. 
1834-1850);  Hoffmann,  Ueher  dm  <;<>t'isdiemt  middle 
Religion  In  d<  n  nsi relchlschen  Staafen  (Wien,  1783-1785, 
6  vols.);  Helfert,  Die  Rechte  und  Verf turning  der  Aca- 
tholiken  in  Oestreich  (Wien,  2d  ed.  1827);  Wiggefs, 
Kirchl.  Statistlk;  Schem,  Eccles.  Year-book  for  1859. 

Autas'as  (AiJratVu),  one  of  the  Levites  who  ex- 
pounded the  law  as  read  by  Ezra  (1  Esdr.  ix,  48) ;  ev- 
idently a  corruption  for  the  Hodijah  (q.  v.)  of  the 
true  text  (Neh.  viii,  7). 


Autenrieth,  Ix  Hen.  Fred,  vox,  M.D.,  was 
born  at  Stuttgart,  20th  October,  1772,  and  died  2d 
May,  1835,  at  Tubingen,  where  he  was  professor  of 
medicine.  He  was  the  author  of  a  treatise,  Ueber  das 
Buck  Hiob  (Tub.  1823),  and  of  an  essay,  I'ihn-  den 
Ursprung  der  Beschneldung  bei  wilden  und  haUnoilden 
Volkern  mit  Bezkhung  an f  die  Besch.  d.  Israeliten  (Tub. 
1829)  — Kitto.  Cyelopmlia,  s.  v. 

Authenticity,  a  term  frequently  used  in  refer- 
ence to  the  literary  history  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
(1 .)  In  a  broad  and  loose  sense,  by  the  authenticity  of 
j  the  canonical  books  is  meant  that  they  were  really 
I  written  by  the  authors  whose  names  they  bear ;  that 
those  which  are.  anonymous  were  written  at  the  time 
I  in  which  they  profess  that  they  were  written ;  and 
'  that  their  contents  are  credible.     (2.)  In  careful  and 
scientific  language,  authenticity  implies  authority;  an 
authentic  account  is  truthful,  and  therefore  credible. 
A  genuine  book,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  written  by 
the  person  whose  name  it  bears,  whether  it  be  truthful 
or  not.     Thus,  for  instance,  Alison's  History  of  Europe 
is  genuine,  because  it  was  written  by  Alison  ;  but  it  is 
not  authentic,  because  it  looks  at  facts  with  partisan 
eyes. — Home,  Introduction,  ii,  1. 

Authority,  (1.)  in  matters  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical, an  assumed  right  of  dictation,  attributed  to  cer- 
tain fathers,  councils,  or  church  courts.  On  this  sub- 
ject Bishop  Hoadley  writes:  "Authority  is  the  great- 
est and  most  irreconcilable  enemy  to  truth  and  argu- 
ment that  this  world  ever  furnished.  All  the  sophis- 
try—all the  color  of  plausibility— all  the  artifice  and 
cunning  of  the  subtlest  disputer  in  the  world  may  be 
j  laid  open  and  turned  to  the  advantage  of  that  very 
:  truth  which  they  are  designed  to  hide ;  but  against 
1  authority  there  is  no  defence."  He  shows  that  it  was 
authority  which  crushed  the  noble  sentiments  of  Soc- 
rates and  others  ,  and  that  by  authority  the  Jews  and 
heathens  combated  the  truth  of  the  Gospel;  and  that, 
when  Christians  increased  into  a  majority,  and  came 
to  think  the  same  method  to  be  the  only  proper  one 
for  the  advantage  of  their  cause  which  had  been  the 
enemy  and  destroyer  of  it,  then  it  was  the  authority  of 
Christians,  which,  by  degrees,  not  only  laid  waste  the 
honor  of  Christianity,  but  well-nigh  extinguished  it 
among  men.  It  was  authority  which  would  have  pre- 
vented all  reformation  where  it  is,  and  which  has  put 
a  barrier  against  it  wherever  it  is  not.  The  remark 
of  Charles  II.  is  worthy  of  notice — that  those  of  the 
established  faith  make  much  of  the  authority  of  the 
church  in  their  disputes  with  dissenters,  but  that  they 
take  it  all  away  when  they  deal  with  papists.— Buck, 
Tluol.  Dirt.  s.  v. 

(2.)  In  a  proper  sense,  by  the  "authority  of  the 
church"  is  meant  either  the  power  residing  generally 
in  the  whole  body  of  the  faithful  to  execute  the  trust 
committed  by  Christ  to  his  church,  or  the  particular 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION        554        AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


power  residing  in  certain  official  members  of  that  body. 
The  first-named  authority  is  vested  in  the  clergy  and 
laity  jointly ,  the  latter  in  the  clergy  alone.  In  the 
interpretation  of  Scripture  for  any  particular  church, 
that  church's  authority  does  not  belong  to  all  divines 
or  "  distinguished  theologians"  who  may  be  members 
of  the  church,  but  only  to  the  authorized  formularies. 
Single  writers  of  every  age  are  to  be  taken  as  express- 
ing only  their  individual  opinions.  The  agreement  of 
these  (.pinions  at  any  one  period,  or  for  any  lengthened 
space  of  time,  may  and  must  be  used  as  proof  to  our- 
selves, privately,  as  to  the  predominant  sentiments  of 
the  church  at  that  time  ,  but  no  opinions  can  be  quoted 
as  deciding  authoritatively  any  disputed  question. 
The  universal  church  deserves  deference  in  all  contro- 
versies of  faith ;  and  every  particular  church  has  a 
right  to  decree  such  rights  and  ceremonies  as  are  not 
contrary  to  God's  written  word ;  but  no  church  has  a 
right  to  enforce  any  thing  as  necessary  for  salvation, 
unless  it  can  be  shown  so  to  be  by  the  express  declara- 
tion of  Holy  Scripture.  See  the  XXth  and  XXXIVth 
Articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  the  Vth  and 
XXIId  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  Eden, 
Tkeol.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Rule  of  Eaith  ;  Tradition. 

Authorized  (ENGLISH)  Version  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  As  this  was  not  a  strictly  new 
or  original  translation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider 
briefly  those  earlier  English  versions  upon  which  it 
was  founded,  and  it  will  enable  the  reader  better  to 
appreciate  its  value  and  character  if  we  prefix  some 
account  of  the  still  earlier  Anglo-Saxon  versions  which 
led  the  way  to  these.  (See  Mrs.  Conant's  Hist,  of  Engl. 
llibh'  Translation,  N.  Y.  185G.)  See  Versions  (of  the 
Bible). 

I.  Anglo-Saxon  Translations. — Though  our  Anglo- 
Saxon  ancestors  earty  possessed  translations,  chiefly 
from  the  Latin,  of  at  least  portions  of  _the  Scriptures, 
the  first  attempt  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is  the 
rude  but  interesting  poem  ascribed  to  C.edmon,  a 
monk  of  Whitby,  in  the  seventh  century.  It  contains 
the  leading  events  of  Old-Testament  history,  and  ren- 
ders several  passages  with  tolerable  fidelity;  but  the 
epic  and  legendary  character  of  the  composition  pre- 
clude it  from  being  ranked  among  the  versions  of  Holy 
Writ.  The  first  portion  of  it,  entitled  The  Fall  of  Man, 
has  been  translated  into  verse  by  Bosanquct  (Lond. 
I860,  8vo).  This  work  was  succeeded  in  the  follow- 
ing century  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  Psalter,  said  to  have 
been  translated  by  Aldiieui,  bishop  of  Sherborn,  who 
died  in  7n0;  the  first  fifty  Psalms  are  in  prose,  the 
Others  in  verse.  About  the  same  period,  Guthlac, 
the  first  Saxon  anchorite,  is  reported  to  have  transla- 
ted the  Psalms.  The  next  laborer  in  the  field  was  the 
Venerable  Bede,  who  turned  the  Apostles'  Creed  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer  into  Anglo-Saxon.  He  also  trans- 
lated the  Gospel  of  John,  and  completed  it  just  as 
death  put  an  end  to  his  learned  labors,  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Jarrow,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tyne,  A.D. 
73").  The  dose  of  the  next  century  probably  produced 
the  celebrated  Durham  Booh,  containing  the  four  Gos- 
pels  in  Anglo-Saxon,  written  between  the  lines  of  an 
earlier  Latin  copy,  by  Aldred,  a  priest.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  Lord's  Prayer  from  this  version— Matt,  vi, 
9-13: 

Fader  uren  thu  artli  in  heofnum,  sic  gehalgud  noma  thin  : 
to  cymeth  ric  thin  ;  -it-  will.,  thin  siuels  inlieofne  &  in  eortlio; 

hlaf ne  ol'i  i    Ai-tlir  scl  us  toihog:   <t  for-cl'us  sevlda  usnu 

|"  ii-uin  :  am!  in-  inlttd  usih  in  cos- 
tunge  oh  gefrigusich  from  yfle. 

The  Rush/worth  Gloss,  having  the  Anglo-Saxon  word 
placed  over  the  corresponding  Latin,  was  probably 
executed  about  the  same  period,  by  Owun,  aided  by 
Fabxbn,  a  priest  at  Harewood.  About  this  time, 
Ai.i  bed  the  Great  Bet  at  the  head  of  his  laws  an  An- 
glo-Saxon translation  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  with 
so.  h  of  the  Mosaic  injunctions  fr<  m  the  .\xi,  xxii,  and 
xxiii  chapters  of  Exodus  as  were  most  to  his  purpose. 


He  is  also  said  to  have  entered  upon  a  translation  of 
the  Psalms,  which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  Next  in 
order  come  some  fragments  of  an  imperfect  interlinary 
version  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  Similar  glosses  were 
made  on  the  Psalter;  also  on  the  Canticles  of  the 
Church,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  other  portions  of  Scrip- 
ture. In  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century,  the 
monk  jElfric  translated — omitting  some  parts,  and 
greatly  abridging  others  —  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua, 
Judges,  a  portion  of  the  Books  of  Kings,  Esther,  Job, 
Judith,  and  the  Maccabees.  He  also  drew  up,  in  An- 
glo-Saxon, a  brief  account  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments ;  and,  by  the  texts  and  quotations 
used  in  his  homilies,  he  contributed  greatly  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures.  A  third  Anglo-Saxon 
version  of  the  four  Evangelists,  of  which  there  are  two 
copies,  and  a  few  copies  of  the  Psalms,  appear  to  have 
been  executed  at  a  later  period,  probably  but  a  little 
before  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest.  With  these, 
the  series  of  Anglo-Saxon  translations  of  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture would  seem  to  end ;  though  it  is  not  improbable 
that  other  portions  of  Scripture  were  translated  which 
have  not  come  down  to  us. 

Before  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  the  lan- 
guage of  Caedmon  and  Bede  had  undergone  important 
changes,  probably  through  the  influence  of  Edward 
the  Confessor  and  his  Norman  associates,  among  whom 
he  had  been  educated.  At  the  period  of  the  Conquest, 
A.D.  10G6,  the  Norman  began  rapidly  to  revolutionize 
the  old  Anglo-Saxon  language.  Soon  after  this  period 
a  version  of  the  Gospels  appears  to  have  been  made, 
of  which  there  are  three  copies,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  whether  they  are  to  be  assigned  to  the  An- 
glo-Saxon or  Anglo-Norman  class  of  literary  remains. 
Before  the  year  1200  the  Anglo-Normans  had  transla- 
ted into  their  own  dialect,  in  prose,  the  Psalter  and 
Canticles  of  the  Church  ;  and  towards  the  middle  of 
the  following  century  appear  to  have  possessed  not 
only  a  history  of  the  Old  Testament  in  verse,  as  far  as 
the  end  of  the  books  of  Kings,  but  also,  it  is  supposed, 
a  prose  version  of  a  great  part  of  the  Bible.  Never- 
theless, the  Anglo-Saxon  versions  and  glosses  of  the 
Gospels,  and  other  portions  of  Scripture,  remained  long 
after  in  partial  use.     See  Anglo-Saxon  Versions. 

II.  Early  English  Translations. — The  earliest  essays 
of  Biblical  translation  assumed  in  English,  as  in  most 
other  languages,  a  poetical  form.  The  Ormulum,  writ- 
ten perhaps  at  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tm-y,  is  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of  the  narrative  of  the 
Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  Biblical  poem 
called  "  Soulhele"  was  probably  written  about  the 
same  period.  To  a  later  period  of  the  same  century 
belongs  the  poem  reciting  the  principal  events  in  the 
books  of  Genesis  and  Exodus.  Apparentty  coeval 
with  this  is  the  metrical  version,  from  the  Latin,  of  the 
whole  book  of  Psalms.  In  some  manuscripts  a  ver- 
sion is  found  partly  similar,  but  with  amendments  and 
revisions,  probably  the  partial  adaptation  of  the  same 
version  to  a  more  modern  diction  and  orthography; 
The  100th  Psalm  is  here  given  as  a  specimen  of  this 
ancient  English  version  : 

Mirthea  to  f.ocl  nl  erthe  that  es 

Serves  b>  louerd  in  faines. 

In  go  yhe  ai  in  his  siht, 

In  gladness  that  is  so  hi-iht. 

Whites  that  louerd  god  is  he  thus, 

He  us  made  and  our  self  noht  r.s, 

His  folke  and  shep  of  his  fode: 

In  gos  his  yhates  that  are  gode; 

In  schrifl  his  worches  belive, 

In  ympnes  to  him  yhe  schrive. 

Heryhea  his  name  for  louerde  is  hem'e. 

In  all  his  inerci  do  in  strende  and  strende. 

The  earliest  version  in  English  prose  of  any  entire 
book  of  Scripture  is  the  book  of  Psalms,  translated  by 
William  db  Schorham,  vicar  of  Chart  Sutton,  in 
Kent.  The  translation  is  generally  faithful  and  liter- 
al. The  following  is  a  specimen  of  this  version — Ps. 
xxiii,  1-G : 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION        555        AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


Our  Lord  gouerneth  me  and  nothyng  shal  defailen  to  me ; 
in  the  stede  of  pasture  he  sett  me  ther.  lie  norissed  me  vp 
water  fyllvnge ;  he  turned  my  soule  fram  the  fende.  lie  lad  j 
me  vp  the"  bristiyets  of  riytfulnes  ;  for  his  name.  For  yif  that 
icli  banc  uon  amiddes  of  the  shadowe  of  deth.  Y  shal  nouyt 
douten  inels,  for  thou  art  wyth  me.  Thy  disciplinn  and  tliyn 
amendyng;  conforted  me.  Thou  madeat  radi  grace  in  my 
sight;  oyayns  liem  that  trublen  me.  Thou  makest  fatt  myn 
heued  wyth  mercy ;  and  my  drynke  makand  drunken  ys  ful 
clere.  And  thy  merci  slial  folwen  me ;  alle  daies  of  mi  lif. 
And  that  ich  woonne  iu  the  hous  of  our  Lord ;  in  lengthe  of 
daies. 

Scborham's  version  of  the  Psalms  could  scarcely 
have  been  completed,  when  another  was  undertaken 
by  Richard  Rolle,  chantrv  priest  at  Hampole,  near  j 
Doncaster,  who  died  in  1349.  Of  this  work  of  Rolle, 
to  which  he  subjoined  a  commentary,  there  were  copies 
which  differed  from  each  other,  showing  that  the  orig- 
inal must  have  been  altered  to  some  extent.  The  fol-  j 
lowing  is  a  specimen  of  this  version — Ps.  lxxix,  1-6 :    j 

God,  gens  come  in  thin  heritage;  thei  filed  thi  holy  tem- 
pul,  thei  sette  Jerusalem  in  kepyng  of  appuls.     Thei  sette  the 
dyande  bodyes  of  thi  seruaunts  mete  to  the  fowles  of  the  lyft; 
flesche  of  thi  halowes  to  bestis  of  erthe.     Thei  spille  hore  Mode 
as  watir  in  vmgong  of  Jerusalem ;  and  none  was  for  to  graue,  : 
hade  we  are  reprofe  to  oure  neghbors  ;  skornynge  and  heth- 
ing  to  alle  that  in  oure  vmgong  are.     Howe  lunge,  Lord,  shalt 
thou  be  wrothe  in  ende ;  kyndelt  shal  be  thi  luf  as  fire.  ! 
Helde,  or  het,  thi  wrathe  in  gens  that  thee  not  knew ;  and  in  | 
kyngdoms  that  thi  nome  incalde  not. 

All  these  versions  were  made  from  the  Latin ;  and 
some  of  the  venerable  relics  still  exist  in  manuscript 
in  the  public  libraries  in  the  kingdom.  A  few  of  them 
have  been  printed  as  objects  of  literary  curiosity. 

It  was  not  till  about  the  year  1382  that  our  lan- 
guage was  enriched  with  a  complete  copy  of  the 
Scriptures,  by  the  hands  of  Wycliffe  and  his  coad-  ; 
jutors,  not  improbably  with  the  aid  of  other  fragment- 
ary portions  then  existing.  This  translation  was  made 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  collated  with  other  old  copies. 
For  several  centuries  there  had  occasionally  been 
found  in  England  some  scholars  acquainted  with  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  languages  ;  and,  though  Wycliffe 
occasionally  introduced  Greek  words  in  some  of  his 
writings,  yet  it  seems  scarcely  probable  that  the  knowl- 
edge of  Greek  possessed  by  him  was  at  all  sufficient  to 
enable  him  to  translate  from  that  language.  Hence, 
if  the  E-ible  must  be  translated  at  all,  it  must  be  from 
the  Latin.  It  belonged  to  a  later  and  more  critical  ! 
age  to  use  the  originals  in  forming  vernacular  versions 
of  the  Scriptures.  The  translation  of  the  New  Testa-  j 
nient  was  probably  the  work  of  Wycliffe  himself. 
During  its  progress,  the  Old  Testament  was  taken  in  j 
hand  by  one  of  Wycliffe's  coadjutors;  and  from  a  note 
written  in  one  manuscript,  at  the  end  of  a  portion  of 
the  Rook  of  Baruch,  the  translation  is  assigned  to 
Nicholas  de  Hereford.  Not  unlikely  the  cause 
of  this  manuscript,  and  also  of  another  which  is  prob- 
ably a  copy,  suddenly  breaking  off  in  the  Book  of  Ba- 
ruch, was  the  summons  which  Hereford  received  to 
appear  before  the  Synod  in  1382.  The  translation  was 
evidently  completed  by  a  different  hand,  not  improba- 
bly by  Wycliffe  himself.  However  this  may  be,  it 
was  certainly  through  Wycliffe's  energy  that  the 
earliest  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  in  the  English 
language  was  carried  on  and  executed.  Many  of  the 
peculiarities  of  this  translation  are  to  be  attributed  to 
the  time  in  which  Wycliffe  lived ;  and  it  is  remark- 
aide  that,  in  his  version  of  the  Scriptures,  he  writes 
far  more  intelligible  English  than  is  found  in  his  orig- 
inal works;  the  dignity  of  the  book  which  b.3  trans- 
lated seems  to  have  imparted  an  excellence  of  ex- 
pression to  the  version  itself.  No  part  of  the  gen- 
uine version  of  Wycliffe  was  printed,  excepting  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  by  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  in  his  Com- 
mentary,  until  1848,  when  Mr.  L.  Wilson  published  the 
New  Testament  in  a  beautiful  Gothic- letter  quarto 
volume.  More  recently,  the  entire  Bible,  accompanied 
with  Purvey's  revision,  has  been  published.  The  fol- 
lowing are  specimens  of  Wycliffe's  translation — Gen. 
iii,  7,8;  Luke  viii,  31-33: 


And  the  eizen  of  both  being  openyd ;  and  whanne  thei 
fenewen  hem  silf  to  be  nakid,  thei  soweden  to  gidre  leeues  of  a 
fige  tree,  and  maden  hem  brechis.  And  whanne  thei  herden 
the  voys  of  the  Lord  (rod  goynge  in  paradis  at  the  shynyng 
after  myd  dai,  Adam  hid  hym  and  his  wijf  fro  the  face  of 
the  Lord  t;od  in  the  myddel  of  the  tree  of  paradis. 

And  thei  preiden  him,  that  he  schulde  not  comaunde  hem, 
that  thei  echulden  go  in  to  the  depnesse.  _  Forsothea  flok  of 
manye  hoggis  was  there  lesewynge  in  an  hil,  and  thei  preiedeu 
him,  that  he  schulde  suffre  hem  to  entre  in  to  hem.  And  he 
suflride  hem.  Therefore  fendis  wenten  out  fro  the  man,  and 
entride  iu  to  hoggis ;  and  with  hire  the  Hoc  wente  hedlinge  in 
to  the  lake  of  water,  and  was  stranglid. 

As  Wycliffe's  translation  was  completed  in  a  com- 
paratively short  space  of  time,  and  necessarily  pos- 
sessed blemishes  incident  to  a  first  edition,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  a  revised  version  was  contemplated 
even  in  the  lifetime  of  Wycliffe  himself.  According- 
ly, about  the  year  1388,  not  more  than  four  years  after 
the  death  of  Wycliffe,  the  revision  was  accomplished, 
but  with  few  substantial  differences  of  interpretation, 
by  Purvey,  who  had  been  Wycliffe's  curate,  and,  af-  . 
ter  his  death,  became  the  leader  of  the  Lollard  party. 
Purvey's  revision  rendered  the  version  more  correct, 
intelligible,  and  popular,  and  caused  the  earlier  trans- 
lation to  fall  into  disuse.  Copies  of  this  revision  were 
rapidly  multiplied  ;  even  now,  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  copies  of  the  whole  or  part  of  Purvey's  Bible 
are  in  existence.  The  following  are  specimens  of 
Purvey's  version — Gen.  iii,  7,  8;  Luke  viii,  31-33  : 

And  tiie  izen  of  bothe  weren  opened;  and  whanne  thei 
knewen  that  thei  weren  nakid,  thei  sewiden  the  leeues  of  a 
fige  tre,  and  maden  brechis  to  hem  silf.  And  whanne  thei 
herden  the  vois  of  the  Lord  God  goynge  in  paradijs  at  the 
wynd  after  myd-dai,  Adam  and  his  wijf  bidden  them  fro  the 
face  of  the  Lord  God  in  the  middia  of  the  tre  of  pardijs. 

And  thei  preiden  hym,  that  he  schulde  not  comaunde  hem, 
that  thei  schulden  go  in  to  belle.  And  there  was  a  flok  of 
many  swyne  lesewynge  in  an  hil,  and  thei  preiden  hym,  that 
he  schulde  suffre  hem  to  entre  into  hem.  And  he  suffride 
hem.  And  so  the  deuelis  wenten  out  fro  the  man,  and  entriden 
in  to  the  swyne ;  and  with  a  birre  the  flok  went  heedlyng  in 
to  the  pool,  and  was  drenchid. 

Notwithstanding  the  prohibitory  constitutions  of 
Archbishop  Arundel  in  1408,  and  the  high  price  of 
manuscripts,  both  versions  were  extensively  multi- 
plied; they  contributed  largely  to  the  religious  knowl- 
edge which  prevailed  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Reformation,  and  probably  hastened  that  event.  In 
the  year  1420,  the  price  of  one  of  Wycliffe's  Testa- 
ments was  not  less  than  four  marks  and  forty  pence,  or 
£2  16s.  Sd.,  equal  to  £42  Gs.  go?,  now,  taking  sixteen  as 
the  multiple  for  bringing  down  the  money  of  that  time 
to  our  standard.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the 
revised  version  by  Purvey  has  been  taken  until  re- 
cently for  Wycliffe's  own  translation,  and  as  such  the 
New  Testament  portion  was  published  by  Lewis,  1731 ; 
by  Baber,  1810 ;  and  again  by  Bagster,  in  his  English 
Hexapla.  It  is,  however,  now  known  that  the  most 
ancient  version  is  Wycliffe's,  and  the  revised  or  more 
modern  one  is  by  Purvey.  These  two  earliest  English 
versions  of  the  entire  Bible  by  Wycliffe  and  Purvey 
were  printed,  column  by  column  on  the  same  page, 
with  various  readings  from  the  several  manuscripts, 
in  four  splendid  quarto  volumes,  under  the  care  of  the 
Rev.  -T.  Forshall  and  Sir  F.  Madden,  Oxford  Univers- 
ity Press,  1850. 

The  circulation  of  Wycliffe's  version,  and  that  of 
his  reviser,  Purvey,  in  manuscript,  was  the  sowing  of 
seed  destined  to  yield  a  mighty  harvest.  The  down- 
fall of  the  Eastern  empire  in  1453  contributed  to  the 
revival  of  learning  by  scattering  learned  Greeks,  who 
carried  with  them  manuscript  treasures  from  Constan- 
tinople. The  printing-press  contributed  immensely 
to  revolutionize  society  throughout  Europe.  In  sev- 
eral places  on  the  Continent  the  Scriptures  were  print- 
ed not  only  in  Latin,  but  in  Hebrew  and  Greek,  thus 
providentially  preparing  for  setting  forth  the  Inspired 
Oracles  in  the  vernacular  tongues.  In  England,  how- 
ever, the  operation  of  the  press  was  slow.  In  vain  do 
we  look  over  the  list  of  works  by  Caxton,  the  father 
of  the  press  in  England,  for  a  copy  of  any  portion  of 


AITIIORIZED  VERSION" 


556 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


the  Scriptures.  The  earliest  attempt  at  giving  forth 
any  portion  of  the  Scriptures  in  print  in  English  was 
a  translation  and  exposition  of  the  seven  penitential 
Psalms,  in  1505,  by  Fysher,  the  Romish  bishop  of 
Rochester;  and  even  this  was  printed  on  the  Conti- 
nent, though  published  at  London.  The  instrument  in 
the  haul  of  God  for  translating  the  New  Testament, 
ami  a  great  part  of  the  Old,  out  of  the  original  tongues 
into  English,  was  William  Tyndale.  But  in,  Eng- 
land T\  ndale  could  find  no  place  to  print  his  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament.  In  the  year  1524  he 
passed  over  to  Hamburg,  where  he  is  said  to  have  pub- 
lished the  same  year  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark. 
As,  however,  no  fragment  of  this  first  fruit  of  Tyndale's 
labor  is  known  to  be  remaining,  we  suspect  that  it  is 
merely  another  reference  to  the  following  fragment, 
printed  at  Cologne.  In  September,  1525,  Tyndale, 
with  bis  assistant  Roye,  was  at  Cologne,  actually  en- 
gaged in  bringing  the  first  edition  of  his  New  Testa- 
ment, in  quarto,  through  the  press.  When  the  sheets 
of  this  edition  were  printed  as  far  as  the  signature  K, 
the  printer,  through  the  influence  of  Cochlseus,  a  Rom- 
ish deacon,  was  interdicted  from  proceeding  further 
with  the  work.  Tyndale  and  his  assistant  snatched 
away  some  of  the  printed  sheets,  and  fled  to  Worms. 
In  this  city  Tyndale  immediately  printed  an  octavo 
edition  of  his  Testament ;  then,  it  is  said,  he  completed 
the  quarto  which  had  been  interrupted,  and  published 
both  editions  at  the  close  of  1525  or  early  in  1526. 
The  only  relic  of  the  precious  old  quarto,  which  was 
the  first  partially  printed  edition,  for  we  are  inclined 
to  think  that  it  never  was  completed,  was  discovered 
in  1831  by  the  late  Mr.  Rodd,  and  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  only  contains  the  prologue,  a  table  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  and  part  of  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew — chap,  i-xxii.  The  following  is  a  speci- 
men of  this  fragment,  printed  at  Cologne  by  P.  Quen- 
tell— Matt,  ii,  1,  2 : 

When  Jesus  was  borne  in  bethleliem  a  tonne  of  itiry,  in 
the  time  kynge  llerode,  btholde,  there  came  wyse  me  fro  the 
este  t"  Jerusalem  sayinge  :  where  is  he  that  is  borne  kinge  of 
the  iewes,  we  have  sene  his  starre  in  the  este,  and  are  come 
to  worshippe  liym. 

The  only  known  perfect  copy  of  the  octavo,  which 
was  the  second  printed,  but  the  first  published  com- 
plete edition  of  Tyndale's  New  Testament,  is  preserved 
in  the  Baptist  College  Library,  Bristol.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  specimen  of  this  edition,  printed  at  Worms  at 
the  close  of  1525  or  early  in  1526 — Mark  xiv,  3-5 : 

When  he  was  in  bethania  in  the  housse  off  Simon  the  le- 
per, even  ae  lie  sate  att  meate,  there  cam  a  woma  with  an  ala- 
blaster  boxe  of  oyntmeut,  called  narde,  that  was  pure  and 
costly,  and  she  brake  the  boxe  ad  powred  it  on  his  heed. 
There  were  souk;  that  disdayned  i  themselves,  and  sayde : 
what  neded  this  waste  of  oyntment?  For  it  might  have  bene 
BOolde  for  more  the  two  hnundred  pens  and  bene  geve  unto 
the  poure.     And  they  grudged  agaynste  her. 

In  November,  1534,  Tyndale  published  at  Antwerp 
a  third  edition,  "dylygently  corrected  and  compared 
with  the  Greke."  The  second  or  first  complete  edi- 
tion, though  a  most  important  advance,  certainly  bears 
marks  of  haste;  but  the  edition  of  1534,  revised  by 
himself,  stands  in  the  first  place  as  exhibiting  Tyndale 
•is  a  translator.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  this 
edition — Mark  xiv,  3-5: 

When  he  was  in  Bethania,  in  the  housse  of  Simon  the  le- 

per,  even  a    he      t    at  meate,  ther  came  a  woma  hauynge  an 

alabla  i  u ni  called  narde,  that  was  pure  and 

brake  the  boxe  and  powred  it  on  is  heed. 

And  ther  were  some  that  were  not  content  in  themselves,  & 

i  d  this  waste  of  oyntment  :   For  it  might 

have  ben< Ide  for  more  than  tine  hundred  pens,  and  been 

oto  the  poore.     And  they  grudged  agaynst  hir. 
That  Tyndale's  New  Testament  was  translated  from 

the  Greek, te  can  question  who  has  examined  it 

with  care:  it  will  be  found  continually  to  leave  the 
readings  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  adhere  to  the  third 
edition  of  Erasmus's  Greek  Testament,  printed  in  1522. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  great  deference  is  paid  to  the  crit- 
ical observations  of  Erasmus  ;  but  still  the  translation 


is  made  from  the  Greek,  and  not  from  his  Latin  ver- 
sion. When  Erasmus  departed  from  the  Greek,  as  he 
does  in  several  places,  apparently  through  inadvert- 
ence, Tyndale  does  not  follow  him,  but  adheres  closely 
to  the  original.  As  Tyndale's  New  Testaments  were 
eagerly  bought  up,  partly  by  earnest  inquirers,  and 
parti j'  by  others  for  destruction,  numerous  surrepti- 
tious copies  rapidly  issued  from  different  presses,  chief- 
ly by  the  Dutch  printers;  so  that  in  the  translator's 
time  about  fourteen  editions  were  issued,  and  eight  or 
nine  in  1536,  the  year  of  his  death.  A  very  curious 
edition  of  Tyndale's  Testament  was  printed,  probably 
at  Antwerp  in  1535,  during  the  translator's  imprison- 
ment at  Vilvorde  The  letter  and  the  spelling  prove 
that  it  was  printed  in  the  Low  Countries.  Some  sup- 
pose that  it  is  executed  in  a  provincial  orthography, 
probably  that  of  Tyndale's  native  county,  peculiarly 
adapted  to  agricultural  laborers ;  and  that,  by  this  edi- 
tion, he  nobly  redeemed  his  bold  pledge  given  to  the 
priest  in  Gloucestershire  many  years  before,  "  If  God 
spare  me  life,  ere  many  years  I  will  cause  the  boy  that 
driveth  the  plow  to  know  more  of  the  Scriptures  than 
you  do."  He  also  put  headings  for  the  first  time  to 
the  chapters.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  this  edi- 
tion— 1  Cor.  xv,  41 : 

Thear  is  oone  manner  glory  of  the  sunne,  &  a  noether  glory 
of  the  moane,  &  a  noether  glory  ye  starres.  For  oone  stan-e 
differth  fro  a  noether  in  glory. 

The  edition  of  Tyndale's  New  Testament,  printed  in 
folio,  at  London,  by  Thomas  Berthelet,  in  1536,  from 
the  revised  edition  of  1534,  was  the  first  portion  of  the 
English  Scriptures  printed  on  English  ground.  The 
following  is  a  specimen  of  this  rare  and  interesting 
edition — 1  Cor.  xv,-  45,  46 : 

The  fyrst  man  Adam  was  made  a  lyvynge  soule,  and  the 
last  Adam  was  made  a  quyckenyng  spiryte.  Howe  be  it,  that 
is  nat  fyrst  which  is  spiritnall :  but  that  which  is  naturall,  & 
than  that  which  is  spiritnall. 

The  martyr  Tyndale  was  also  the  first  to  translate 
the  five  books  of  Moses  into  English  from  the  Hebrew. 
As  the  books  of  Genesis  and  Numbers  are  in  Gothic 
letter,  while  those  of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Deuter- 
onomy are  in  Roman  type,  it  would  appear  that  these 
books  were  printed  at  separate  times  and  in  different 
places.  The  following  occurs  at  the  end  of  Genesis : 
"  Emprented  at  Malborow,  in  the  lande  of  Hesse,  by 
me,  Hans  Luft,  the  yere  of  oure  Lorde  1530,  the  17 
dayes  of  Januarii."  Tyndale  also  translated  and  pub- 
lished the  Book  of  Jonah.  In  the  succeeding  years 
of  his  life  he  was  engaged  in  translating,  perhaps  in 
conjunction  with  Rogers,  the  remaining  books  of  the 
Bible.  Tyndale's  translation,  as  far  as  the  end  of 
Chronicles,  and  other  manuscripts,  appear,  at  the  time 
of  his  martyrdom,  to  have  been  in  the  possession  of 
Rogers.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  Tyndale's  Pen- 
tateuch of  1530— Gen.  xxiv,  18-20: 

And  she  hasted  and  late  downe  her  pytcher  apon  hyr  armo 
and  gaue  him  drinke.  And  whe  she  had  geuen  hym  drynke, 
she  sayde  :  I  will  drawe  water  for  thy  camels  also,  vntili  they 
hauo  dronke  ynough.  And  she  poured  out  hyr  pitcher  in  to 
the  trough  hastely  and  ranne  agayne  unto  the  well,  to  fett 
water:  and  drewe  for  all  his  camels. 

During  the  year  1530,  the  Argentine  English  Psalter 
was  printed.  The  translator,  who  rendered  from  the 
Latin,  calls  himself  Joiian  Aleph.  The  date  at  the 
end  of  this  Psalter  is  January  10,  1530;  it  thus  seems 
to  have  been,  perhaps  by  antedating,  the  first  whole 
book  of  the  Old  Testament  which  was  printed  in  Eng- 
lish, the  completion  of  Tyndale's  Genesis  having  been 
one  day  subsequent.  In  1531  there  was  published  a 
translation  of  Isaiah  by  George  Joye  ;  in  1533,  two 
leaves  of  Genesis;  and  in  1534  he  published  a  transla- 
tion of  Jeremiah  and  the  Book  of  Psalms.  These  por- 
tions were  also  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate. 

Myi.i.s  COVBRDALB  was  the  first  to  publish,  if  not 
to  translate,  the.  whole  Bible  into  English.  He  com- 
menced this  work  in  November,  1534,  and  it  was  print- 
ed, probably  at  Zurich,  in  October,  1535.     Though 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION"        557 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


Coverdale  had  evidently  the  Hebrew-  and  Greek  be- 
fore him,  he  freely  used  the  translations  of  Tyndale, 
both  printed  and  perhaps  manuscript.  He  speaks  of 
his  having  been  aided  by  live  sundry  interpreters  in 
the  Dutch,  German,  and  Latin  languages.  In  the 
Old  Testament  he  may  have  had,  1st,  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate; 2d,  Pagninus's  version;  3d,  Luther's  German 
translation  ;  4th,  Leo  Juda's  German-Swiss  version  ; 
5th,  the  Latin  version  connected  with  Sebastian  Mini- 
ster's Hebrew  Bible,  the  first  volume  of  which  was 
printed  in  1534.  The  New  Testament  appears  to  be 
in  part  a  revision  of  Tyndale's,  in  which  Coverdale 
took  much  care,  and  availed  himself  both  of  the  edition 
of  1525  and  the  amended  one  of  1534.  This  Bible, 
which  was  dedicated  to  King  Henry  VIII,  had  the 
following  as  the  title  :  "Bibi.ia.  The  Bible,  that  is, 
the  holy  Scripture  of  the  Okie  and  New  Testament, 
faithfully  and  truly  translated  out  of  Douche  and  Latyn 
in  to  Englishe.  1535."  However,  it  must  be  observed, 
the  use  of  the  words  "out  of  Douche,  i.  e.  German,  and 
Latyn,"  was  merely  a  bookselling  artifice  by  the  print- 
ers, to  make  the  work  circulate  better,  as  being  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  reformed  doctrines,  which 
■were  then  equally  well  known  by  the  name  of  German 
or  Dutch  doctrines.  In  the  new  title  inserted  the  fol- 
lowing year,  these  terms  were  left  out.  Coverdale  cer- 
tainly did  not  follow  the  Latin,  nor  even  Luther's  ver- 
sion, but  he  no  doubt  availed  himself  of  all  the  differ- 
ent means  of  assistance  within  his  power.  This  Bible 
■was  reprinted  with  some  amendments  at  Zurich  in 
1537,  with  a  London  title-page,  and  was  then  allowed 
by  the  king  to  "go  abroad  among  the  people,"  but 
without  any  regal  imprimatur  or  license.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  specimen  of  Coverdale's  translation — Ps.  xc 
(xci),  4,  5 : 

lie  shal  couer  the  vnder  his  wynges,  that  thou  mayest  be 
safe  vnder  hi-*  fethers  :  his  fnithfulnesso  ami  truetli  shal  be  thy 
ehylde  and  buckler.  So  yt  thou  shalt  not  nede  to  lie  afrayed 
for  eny  bugges  by  night,  ner  for  arowe  that  flyeth  by  daye. 

In  the  year  1537,  the  translations  of  Tyndale  were 
published  in  a  collected  form,  under  the  name  of 
"  Thomas  Matthew."  The  editing  of  this  Bible  was 
really  the  work  of  the  martyr  Rogers.  To  this  edition 
was  prefixed,  An  Exhortation  to  the  Study  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  beneath  which  stand  J.  R.,  the  initials  of 
his  name.  In  the  execution  of  this  work,  Rogers  had 
the  whole  of  Tyndale's  translations,  ■whether  imprint  or 
manuscript,  before  him.  The  Old  Testament  is  a  reprint 
of  Tyndale's  Pentateuch  ;  the  remainder,  as  far  as  the 
Second  Book  of  Chronicles,  was  copied  from  Tyndale's 
manuscripts,  which  were  undoubtedly  in  Rogers's  safe 
keeping.  The  New  Testament  was  Tyndale's  of  1534 
This  Bible  has  the  character  of  Tyndale's  labors  so 
stamped  upon  it  as  clearly  to  show  that  at  least  two 
thirds  of  the  translation  were  his  work  ;  the  remainder 
is  the  work  of  Rogers,  who  was  probably  aided  by  Cov- 
erdale's sheets.  At  the  end  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
letters  YV.  T.  are  printed  in  very  large  text  capitals  cu- 
riously flourished.  This  Bible  was  probably  printed 
at  Lubeck ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  actual- 
ly in  the  press,  under  the  joint  labors  of  Tyndale  and 
Rogers,  at  the  time  of  Tyndale's  arrest  and  martyr- 
dom. Much  credit  is  clue  to  Rogers,  who  probably 
resided  at  the  place  of  printing,  as  the  careful  editor 
of  this  Bible;  he  was  evidently  a  line  scholar,  and  he 
seems  to  have  acted  both  as  desiring  to  give  his  coun- 
trymen a  Bible  as  correct  as  possible,  and  likewise  to 
perpetuate  the  labors  of  Tyndale,  his  friend  and  in- 
structor in  the  truth  of  the  Gospel.  This  Bible  was 
translated  by  the  first  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  English 
scholars,  and  is  executed  most  in  conformity  witli  the 
views  of  the  latest  and  best  Biblical  critics.  This 
revision,  which  is  frequently  but  not  inaptly  called 
"Tyndale's  Bible,"  appeared  with  the  then  much  cov- 
eted words,  "  Set  forth  with  the  king's  most  gracious 
license;"  hence  it  was  the  first  properly  authorized 
edition  of  the  English  Bible.    This  Bible— -at  least  part 


of  it — appears  to  have  been  printed  at  the  expense  of 
Richard  Grafton  and  his  partner,  Edward  Whitchurch 
— who  afterwards  married  the  widow  of  Archbishop 
Cranmer.  They,  about  the  same  period,  became  print- 
ers themselves,  as  their  initials  appear  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Prophets,  where,  perhaps,  the  part  of  the 
expense  which  they  defrayed  commenced.  "Thomas 
Matthew"  may  actually  have  been  the  person  at  whose 
cost  the  preceding  portion  was  printed.  This  Bible 
was  the  popular  translation,  and  from  the  various  edi- 
tions it  appears  to  have  been  much  used  for  many 
years.  The  following  is  a  fine  specimen  of  Tyndale's 
rendering  from  the  Hebrew — 2  Sam.  i,  17, 18  : 

And  Dauid  sang  thys  songe  of  mournynge  oner  Saul  and 
ouer  Jonathas  hys  Sonne,  &  bad  to  teache  the  chyldren  of  Is- 
raeli the  staues  thereof. 

In  1538,  several  editions  of  Coverdale's  new  version 
of  the  New  Testament  were  published.  He  also  is- 
sued several  editions  of  the  English  New  Testament, 
together  with  the  text  of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The 
printing  of  this  Diglott  Testament  was  executed  witli 
'  great  carelessness,  so  that  Coverdale  had  it  speed' 
ily  reprinted  in  Paris.  It  is  probable  that  Nicholson 
the  printer,  hearing  that  Coverdale's  Latin  and  English 
Testament  was  about  to  be  reprinted  at  Paris,  with 
more  attention  to  accuracy,  printed  the  one  bearing  the 
name  of  "  Johan  Hollybushe''  without  delay,  in  order 
to  anticipate  the  Paris  edition.  The  following  is  a 
specimen  of  Coverdale's  Testament — Matt.  v.  13 : 

Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth.  Put  yf  ye  salt  vanishe  away, 
wherin  shal  it  be  salted  ?  It  is  thece  forth  good  vnto  nothing, 
but  yt  it  be  cast  out,  &  trode  vndr  of  men. 

In  the  year  1539  was  published  the  English  transla- 
|  tion  known  by  the  name  of  the  "Great  Bible."     This 
edition  was  executed  under  the  superintendence  of 
Grafton,  to  whom  Coverdale  lent  his  aid  as  corrector. 
This  Bible  was  printed  at  Paris  by  the  permission  of 
Francis  I.,  obtained  by  Henry  VIII.     But,  notwith- 
standing the  royal  license,  just  as  the  work  was  well  ad- 
vanced, the  Inquisition  intei  posed,  and  issued  an  order, 
dated  December  17,1538,  summoning  the  French  print- 
ers, their  English  employers,  and  Coverdale,  the  correct- 
or of  the  work,  and  inhibited  their  farther  proceeding, 
i  The  impression,  consisting  of  2500  copies,  was  seized, 
1  confiscated,  and  condemned  to  the  flames.     Four  great 
J  dry-fats  full,  however,  of  these  books  escaped  the  fire  by 
J  the  avarice  of  the  person  appointed  to  superintend  the 
burning  of  them ;  and  the  English  proprietors,  who  had 
i  fled  on  the  first  alarm,  returned  to  Paris  as  soon  as  it 
subsided,  and  not  only  recovered  some  of  these  copies, 
but  brought  with  them  to  London  the  presses,  types, 
!  and  even  the  workmen,  and  resuming  the  work,  fin- 
i  ished  it  in  the  following  year.     This  Bible,  which 
is  a  revision  of  Matthew's  version,  probably  by  the 
hand  of  Coverdale,  has   been   unhappily  confounded 
with  "Cranmer's  Bible,"  issued  in  1540.    The  preface 
written  by  Cranmer  for  the  edition  of  1540  was  in- 
serted in  some  copies  of  the  Great  Bible,  but  subse- 
quently to  their  completion.     The  statesman  Crom- 
I  well,  not  Cranmer,  was  the  master-spirit,  not  only  in 
getting  up  this  edition,  but  in  securing  the  royal  in- 
junction that  "the  whole  Bible,  of  the  largest  volume 
in  English,"  should  be  set  up  in  the  churches.     This 
continued,  with  slight  alterations,  to  be  the  author- 
|  ized  English  version  of  the  Bible — except,  of  course, 
during  the  revival  of  popery  in  Mary's  reign — until, 
in  1568,  it  was  superseded  by  the  Bishops'  Bible.     The 
Psalms  in  this  Bible  were  the  same  as  those  found  in 
the  book  of  Common  Prayer,  having  seventeen  inter- 
polations from  the  Septuagint  or  Latin  Vulgate,  but 
printed  in  a  smaller  type,  and  between  parentheses. 
These  readings  were  marked  in  Coverdale's  Bible  as 
not  being  in  the  Hebrew  text ;  they  are  also  continued 
in  Cranmer's  editions.     The  following  is  a  specimen, 
with  the  interpolation  in  smaller  type,  which  includes 
three  verses — Psa.  xiv,  3,  4  : 
But  they  are  all  gone  out  of  the  waye,  they  are  altogether 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


558 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


become  abbominable  :  there  is  none  that  doth  good,  no  not  one 
(tluvr  thr.,te  is  »u  open  sep.il.-lire  :   wyth  their  tongee  they  haue  .lys- 

eeuuV. I,  tlu.  i.« .if  H<|i.-,  is  i.ml.r  tlieyr  Jyppes       rheyr  mouth  is  full 

:„i,l  l.vtterness:   tl.eyr  fete  lire  swxtt  to  shede  t.loude      De- 
Btnicevoli  illi.l  uuhlippwios  is  Ml  tiny  r  waves,  liti.l  tlie  wave  of  peace  haue 

they  not  knowen,  there  is  no  feare  of  God  before  theyr  eyes).     ]Iane 

they  if  knowledge  that  they  are  all  such  workers  of  mys- 
clie'lT. ,  oatyn-c  up  my  people  as  it  were  breade. 

In  the  year  1539,  another  edition  of  the  Bible  ap- 
peared, dedicated  to  the  king.  It  was  a  mere  recen- 
sion of  Matthew's  Bible,  executed  by  Richard  Tav- 
ERNEB,  under  the  patronage  of  Lord  Cromwell.  The 
three  editions  through  which  this  Bible  almost  imme- 
diately went  prove  that  its  circulation  was  consider- 
able, though  it  is  to  be  observed  that  they  were  pri- 
vate readers  alone  who  used  it,  as  it  was  never,  even 
for  a  time,  publicly  made  an  authorized  version.  Tav- 
erner's  New  Testament,  of  which  he  published  two 
editions,  is  a  different  recension  from  that  which  ac- 
companied his  "Recognition  of  the  Bible." 

In  the  year  1540  "Cranmer's  Bible"  was  issued 
from  Grafton  and  Whitchurch's  press.  This  was 
probably  the  first  complete  Bible  ever  printed  in  Eng- 
land. This  edition,  of  which  only  five  hundred  copies 
were  printed,  was  a  mere  revision  of  the  Great  Bible 
of  1539,  and  had  a  preface  by  Cranmer.  Another  edi- 
tion, "overseen  and  perused,"  by  the  king's  command, 
by  Ccthbf.rt  Tonstall,  bishop  of  Durham,  and 
Nicholas  Heath,  bishop  of  Rochester,  who  also  made 
a  few  variations  in  the  text,  appeared  in  1541.  The 
following  is  a  specimen  from  Cranmer's  New  Testa- 
ment— Matt,  vi,  9-13: 

Cure  father  which  art  in  heauen,  halowed  be  thy  name. 
Let  thy  kingdome  come.  Thy  will  be  fulfilled,  as  well  in  ertli, 
as  it  is  in  hetien.  Gene  vs  this  daye  oure  dayly  bred.  And 
forgeue  vs  oure  dettes,  as  we  forgeue  oure  detters.  And  leade 
vs  not  into  temptation  :  but  delyuer  vs  from  euyll.  For  tbyne 
is  the  kyngdom  and  the  power,  and  the  glorye  for  euer. 
Amen. 

The  only  impressions  of  anjr  portions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures which  were  printed  during  the  remainder  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  appear  to  have  been  the  Epistles  and 
Gospels  for  the  Sundays,  in  1542,  probably  an  edition 
of  tiie  Pentateuch  in  1544,  Joye's  book  of  Daniel  and 
the  books  of  Solomon  in  1545,  and  the  New  Testament 
according  to  the  text  of  the  Great  Bible  in  1546.  The 
number  of  copies  of  the  Scriptures  in  circulation  at 
this  time  must,  however,  have  been  very  considerable. 
In  1543  the  Parliament  prohibited  the  use  of  Tyndale's 
version,  and  in  1546  Coverdale's  translation,  as  well 
as  Tyndale's,  was  prohibited  by  a  stringent  proclama- 
tion, and  all  such  books  were  to  be  delivered  up  to 
persons  appointed  for  the  purpose,  in  order  that  they 
might  be  burned.  The  diligence  with  which  Henry's 
proclamation  was  executed,  in  the  destruction  of  the 
earlier  editions,  accounts  for  the  very  few  copies  which 
have  come  down  to  our  time.  The  destruction  ap- 
pears to  have  been  almost  as  complete  as  that  of  the 
earlier  editions  of  Tyndale's  New  Testament. 

Among  the  early  acts  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI 
waa  the  reversing  of  the  restrictions  which  had  been 
laid  on  the  circulation  and  the  reading  of  the  Script- 
ures. Vet  no  new  recension  or  translation  was  pub- 
lished, except  a  translation  of  the  paraphrase  of  Eras- 
mus in  1549-50.  Among  those  who  took  part  in  this 
work  was  Coverdale  ;  and  the  Princess  Mary— the  fu- 
ture persecuting  queen — translated  a  portion  of  the 
Gospel  of  John.  Cranmer  contemplated  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible;  but  Fagius  and  Bucer  died,  and 
the  work  was  frustrated.  An  edition  of  Coverdale's 
Bible,  said  to  have  been  printed  at  Zurich,  was  pub- 
Kshed  in  1550.  This  edition  was  probably  one  of  the 
two  revisions  which  Coverdale  mentioned  in  his  ser- 
mon .it  Paul's  <  !ross,  in  which  he  defended  his  version, 
and  said  "  if  he  mi  ht  review  the  book  once  again,  as 
be  had  twice  before,  he  doubted  not  he  should  amend." 
During  some  part  of  this  reign  Sir  John  Cheke  trans- 
lated the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  perhaps  part  of  Mark, 
bul  the  translation  waa  not  then  published.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  specimen  of  Choke's  version — Matt,  ii,  1: 


When  Jesus  was  boorn  in  Betblem  a  citi  of  Juri  in  king 
Herood's  dais,  lo  then  the  YVisard's  cam  fro  thest  parties. 

However,  many  editions  of  the  Bible  were  printed, 
some  being  reprints  of  Matthew's  Bible,  some  of  Cran- 
mer's, and  some  of  Taverner's  Recognition.  The  total 
number  of  impressions  of  the  Bible  in  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward was  at  least  thirteen.  There  were  also  several 
editions  of  the  New  Testament,  some  of  Tyndale's 
translations,  some  of  Coverdale's  version,  and  some 
according  to  Cranmer's  Bible.  The  number  of  these 
editions  of  the  New  Testament  amounts  to  at  least 
twenty-five,  so  that  the  whole  number  of  Bibles  and 
Testaments  in  circulation  comprised  man)-  thousand 
copies. 

On  the  accession  of  Mary  the  printing  and  the  cir- 
culation of  the  Scriptures  in  English  was  hindered, 
so  that  her  reign  onl)-  witnessed  the  printing  of  one 
edition  of  the  New  Testament,  printed  at  Geneva  in 
1557.  The  translator  of  the  Genevan  Testament  was 
William  Whittingham,  a  native  of  Holmset,  six 
miles  from  Durham,  who  was  one  of  the  exiles  from 
England.  This  was  a  small  square  volume,  printed 
in  Roman  letters,  with  the  supplementary  words  in 
italics.  It  was  the  first  English  New  Testament  di- 
vided into  verses  and  broken  into  small  sections  or  par- 
agraphs. The  preface  was  written  by  John  Calvin, 
whose  sister  Catharine  was  married  to  Whittingham. 
In  the  manner  of  rendering  not  a  few  passages  the 
translator  followed  the  judgment  of  Beza  in  his  theo- 
logical views.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  this 
version — Matt,  xiii,  19 : 

When  soeur  a  man  hearetb  the  worde  of  the  kyngdome, 
and  vnderstandeth  it  not,  there  commeth  that  euyl  one,  and 
catchetb  away  that  which  was  sowen  in  his  heart,  and  this  is 
the  corne  which  was  sowen  by  the  way  syde. 

Whittingham  and  his  companions  in  exile  also  ex- 
ecuted a  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  at  Geneva,  and 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  Coverdale  aided  in  the  work. 
The  translators  probably  had  motives  which  sufficient- 
ly influenced  them  in  executing  a  new  version,  instead 
of  giving  a  mere  reprint  or  revision  of  any  which  had 
preceded.  The  intention  of  such  a  work  had  been  en- 
tertained in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  and  it  is  proba-. 
ble  that  in  this  projected  revision,  from  the  manner  in 
which  the  name  of  Bucer  was  connected  with  it,  there 
would  have  been  embodied  whatever  might  be  learned 
from  the  biblical  knowledge  possessed  by  the  Reform- 
ers on  the  Continent.  This  translation  differed  from 
all  that  had  preceded  it  not  only  in  its  plan,  but  also 
in  its  execution.  The  other  versions  had  been  gener- 
ally the  work  or  the  revision  of  an  individual,  or,  at 
most,  a  revision  in  which  certain  individuals  executed 
certain  particular  parts;  in  this  translation  we  find, 
on  the  contrary,  many  acting  unitedly  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  version,  and  thus,  in  the  plan  of  operation, 
there  was  a  principle  of  completeness  which  had  not 
been  acted  on  previously.  The  translators,  by  the  use 
of  supplementary  words,  often  aided  the  sense  with- 
out seeming  to  insert  what  was  not  found  in  the  orig- 
inal. It  was  also  stored  with  marginal  notes.  This 
version  of  the  whole  Bible  was  printed  at  Geneva  by 
Rowland  Hall  in  1560,  so  that  it  was  not  published 
until  after  many  of  the  exiles  had  returned  home.  In 
this  translation,  which  was  the  first  complete  English 
Bible  divided  by  verses,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  differs  in  several 
respects  from  that  which  had  been  separately  printed 
in  1556.  The  expense  of  preparing  the  Genevan  Rilile 
was  chiefly  borne  by  John  Bodley,  the  father  of  Sir 
Thomas,  the  founder  of  the  noble  library  at  Oxford. 
On  the  return  of  the  exiles,  Queen  Elizabeth  granted 
a  patent  to  Bodley  solely,  for  the  term  of  seven  years, 
to  print  this  edition  ;  yet,  on  account  of  the  interfer- 
ence of  Archbishop  Parker,  no  edition  of  the  Genevan 
Testament  or  Bible  was  published  in  England  till  the 
year  1576.  Immediately  after  Parker's  death  this 
version  was  published  ;  it  continued  to  be  frequently 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


559 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


reprinted  in  this  country,  and  was  for  many  years  the 
popular  version  in  England,  having  been  only  gradu- 
ally displaced  by  King  James's  translation,  which  ap- 
peared fifty-one  years  afterward.  From  the  peculiar 
reading  in  Gen.  iii,  7,  the  editions  of  the  Geneva  ver- 
sion have  been  commonly  known  hy  the  name  of 
"Breeches  Bibles;"  but  this  reading,  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  is  as  old  as  Wycliffe's  time,  and  occurs  in 
his  translation.  To  some  editions  of  the  Geneva  Bible 
is  subjoined  Beza's  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
Englished  by  L.  Thomson.  The  following  are  speci- 
mens of  the  Geneva  Bible — Gen.  xli,  42,  43,  and  Matt, 
xiii,  19-: 

And  Pharaoh  toke  of  his  ring  from  his  hand,  and  put  vpon 
Ioseph's  hand,  and  araied  him  in  garments  of  fine  linen  and 
put  a  golden  eheine  about  his  necke.  So  he  set  him  vpon  the 
best  charet  that  he  had,  sane  one  :  &  they  cryed  before  hime 
Abrech,  and  placed  him  oner  all  the  land  of  Egypt. 

Whensoeur  a  man  heareth  the  worde  of  the  kingdome,  and 
vnderstandeth  it  not,  the  euil  one  cometh,  and  catcheth  away 
that  which  was  sowen  in  his  heart:  and  this  is  he  which  hathe 
receiued  the  sede  by  the  way  side. 

The  next  version  of  the  Bible  was  superintended 
by  Archbishop  Parker,  hence  sometimes  called 
"Parker's  Bible,"  and  published  in  15G8.  This  ver- 
sion was  executed  with  great  care  by  more  than  fif- 
teen learned  men,  the  initials  of  whose  names  occur  at 
the  end  of  the  portions  executed  by  them.  From  the 
greater  part  of  those  who  were  engaged  in  its  prepa- 
ration being  bishops,  this  version  is  also  called  the 
"Bishops'  Bible."  This  edition  is  adorned  with  one 
hundred  and  forty-three  engravings,  including  por- 
traits and  maps,  which  give  it  quite  a  pictorial  appear- 
ance. The  passages  from  the  Vulgate,  which  had  been 
introduced  into  Cranmer's  Psalms,  are  omitted  in  this 
edition.  This  continued  to  be  the  version  authorized  to 
be  read  in  the  parish  churches  for  forty-three  years ; 
but  in  private  use  it  never  displaced  the  Geneva  ver- 
sion. Though  the  Bishops'  Bible  was  the  avowed 
basis  of  our  authorized  version,  this  latter  was  ex- 
ecuted upon  wholly  different  principles,  and  is  very 
different  in  its  general  character.  To  this  Bible  was 
prefixed,  among  other  things,  the  sum  of  Scrijrfwe,  ta- 
bles of  genealogy,  and  a  preface  written  by  Parker. 
In  1585,  under  Archbishop  Whitgift,  the  seventeen 
readings  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  were  re-introduced, 
so  as  to  harmonize  with  the  Psalms  in  the  Prayer- 
book.  The  edition  of  1572  contains  a  double  version 
of  the  Psalms,  that  of  Cranmer's  and  that  of  the  bish- 
ops'. The  edition  of  1595  has  the  Psalms  according  to 
Cranmer's  Bible.  The  following  is  a  specimen  of  this 
version— Mai.  iii,  17 : 

And  they  shal  be  to  me,  saith  the  I.orde  of  honstes,  in  that 
day  wherein  I  shall  do  [iudgment],  a  rlocke  :  and  I  wyl  spare 
them  as  a  man  spareth  his  owne  sonne  which  serueth  him. 

In  the  year  1582  was  published  the  Anglo-Rhemish 
version  of  the  New  Testament.  The  circumstances 
which  led  to  the  execution  of  this  version  are  to  be 
found  in  the  history  of  the  expulsion  of  Romanism 
from  England  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  ver- 
sions of  the  New  Testament  previously  executed, 
from  that  of  Tyndale  to  the  Bishops'  Hible  inclusively 
■ — the  English  text  of  Coverdale's  Diglott  New  Tes- 
tament excepted — had  been  made  from  the  original 
Greek;  but  the  Rhemish  translators  took  for  their 
basis  the  Latin  Vulgate.  One  of  the  principal  objects 
which  the  Rhemish  translators  had  in  view  was  evi- 
dently to  circulate  their  doctrinal  and  controversial 
notes,  together  with  the  Scriptures  translated  by  them. 
Though  the  translators  desired  anything  rather  than 
to  give  the  rendering  of  the  text  simply  and  fairly, 
few  passages  show  a  really  dishonest  perversion ;  yet 
very  many  passages  exhibit  a  desire  of  expressing  the 
sense  obscurely,  or  at  least  in  such  a  way  that  a  com- 
mon reader  may  find  not  a  little  difficulty  in  gathering 
from  the  words  a  definite  meaning.  However,  if  we 
take  the  whole  version,  we  shall  find  a  very  large  por- 
tion well  translated,  and  truly  exhibiting  the  sense  of 
the  Latin  Vulgate,  such  as  they  had  it.     Though  the 


Council  of  Trent  had  defined  the  Latin  Vulgate  to  be 
the  "authentic"  version,  as  yet,  when  the  Rhemish 
version  was  printed,  there  had  been  no  decision  as  to 
what  copy  was  to  be  regarded  as  such.  The  Rhemish 
translators,  as  may  be  supposed,  do  not  exactly  agree 
with  either  the  Sixtine  published  in  1590,  or  the  Clem- 
entine edition  published  in  1592.  Sometimes  they 
have  the  reading  adopted  afterward  by  the  one,  some- 
times that  which  is  found  in  the  other.  This  may  be 
said  to  be  a  matter  of  comparatively  small  importance, 
so  long  as  they  used  the  best  readings  which  were 
within  their  reach,  in  the  absence  of  an  authentic  edi- 
tion of  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The  following  is  a  speci- 
men of  this  version — Heb.  xi,  4  : 

By  faith  Abel  offered  a  greater  hoste  to  God  then  Cain; 
by  which  he  obtained  testinionie  that  he  was  inst,  God  giving 
testimonie  to  his  guifts,  and  by  it,  he  being  dead  yet  speak- 
eth. 

The  Romish  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
published  at  Douay,  in  two  volumes,  in  the  years  1009 
and  1610.  The  editors  of  this  part  of  the  version  speak 
of  it  as  having  been  executed  many  years  before,  but 
that  the  poor  estate  of  the  English  Romanists,  in  their 
banishment,  hindered  its  publication.  They  say  that 
they  have  revised  the  version  according  to  the  Clem- 
entine edition  of  the  Vulgate,  that  thus  it  might  be 
full}'  in  accordance  with  "the  authenticated  Latin." 
The  following  is  a  specimen  of  this  version  —  Gen. 
xlix,10: 

The  scepter  shal  not  be  taken  away  from,  Ivdas.  and  a 
dvke  ovt  of  his  thigh,  til  he  doe  come  that  is  to  be  sent,  and 
the  same  shal  be  the  expectation  of  the  gentiles. 

In  the  modern  editions  of  the  Douay  Bible  and  the 
Rhemish  Testament,  many  changes  have  been  intro- 
duced, some  of  which  approximate  to  the  authorized 
version,  while  others  are  not  improvements. 

It  is  marvellous  how  editions  of  t  he  Scriptures  were 
multiplied  after  the  time  of  Tyndale,  notwithstanding 
the  severity  of  occasional  persecutions.  Besides  about 
fourteen  editions  issued  in  Tyndale's  life-time,  eight 
or  nine  were  issued  in  the  year  of  his  death.  From 
the  death  of  Tyndale  to  the  close  of  Mary's  reign, 
1558,  no  fewer  than  fifty  editions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  twenty-six  of  the  entire  Bible  were  printed, 
and  from  1558  to  1611  there  were  issued  more  than 
fifty  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  and  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  of  the  Bible,  besides  separate 
books.  Of  this  number,  twenty-one  editions  of  the 
New  Testament  and  sixty-four  of  the  Bible  were  of  the 
Genevan  translation.  Still  the  work  of  Tyndale  forms 
substantially  the  basis  of  every  revision,  not  except- 
ing the  translation  now  in  common  use. — Bastow\ 

III.  History  of  the  English  Translation  now  in  com- 
mon Use. — The  authorised  version  was  undertaken  at 
the  command  of  King  James  I,  in  consequence  of  sev- 
eral objections  having  been  made  by  the  Puritans  to 
the  bishops'  translation  at  the  second  day's  sitting  of 
the  conference  held  at  the  palace  of  Hampton  Court, 
January  16th,  1603-4.  The  method  proposed  by  the 
king  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  new  translation 
was  thus  •  That  the  version  should  be  made  by  some 
of  the  most  learned  men  in  both  the  universities ;  that 
it  then  should  be  reviewed  by  certain  of  the  bish- 
ops ;  that  it  should  then  be  laid  before  the  privy 
council ;  and,  last  of  ali,  be  ratified  by  royal  authority. 
Accordingly,  fifty-four  men,  pre-eminently  distin- 
guished for  piety  and  learning,  were  appointed  to  exe- 
cute this  great  work.  However,  the  list  of  persons 
actually  employed  in  the  translation  contains  only 
forty-seven  names.  Though  several  of  the  persons 
thus  appointed  were  made  bishops  before  the  work 
was  completed,  yet,  as  none  of  them  were  so  at  the 
time  of  the  appointment,  it  would  appear  that  the 
number  needed  to  make  up  the  deficiency  is  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  of  certain  bishops  having  been  espe- 
cially named  as  having  the  work  in  some  manner  un- 
der their  control.     This  view  is  not  improbable  when 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION         560         AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


it  is  known  that  Bancroft,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
Lb  said  to  have  made  some  alterations  in  the  version; 
and  Bilson,  bishop  of  Winchester,  was  one  of  those 
who  gave  the  work  its  final  revision.  The  following 
is  a  list  of  the  translators'  names,  with  the  parts  as- 
signed to  each  company  (see  Clarke's  Comment.  Gen. 
l'ref.  to  0.  T. ;  Macclure,  Authors  of  Engl.  Bible,  N.  Y. 
1853) : 

l  The  Pentateuch ;  the  story  from  Joshua  to  the  First  Book 
of  ilie  Chnmiclcs  exehtsirely ;  these  ten  persons  at  Westmin- 
ster: Dr.  Amif.i.u  s,  fellow  and  master  of  Pembroke  Hall,  in 
Cambridge;  then  dean  of  "Westminster;  afterward  bishop  of 
Westminster.  Dr.  Overall,  fellow  of  Trinity  Coll. ;  master 
of  Katb.  Hall,  in  Cambridge;  then  dean  of  St.  Paul's;  after- 
ward bishop  of  Norwich.  Dr.  Sabavia.  Dr.  Clarke,  fellow 
of  Christ.  Coll.,  in  Cambridge;  preacher  in  Canterbury.  Dr. 
L.\ii--ir.t.i>,  fellow  of  Trin.  Coll..  in  Cambridge:  parson  of  St. 
Clement  Hams,  living  skilled  in  architecture,  bis  judgment 
was  much  relied  on  for  the  fabric  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Tem- 
ple.) Dr.  Leioii,  archdeacon  of  Middlesex;  parson  of  All- 
Hallows,  linking.  Master  Bum; ley.  Mr.  King.  Mr.  THOMP- 
SON. Mr.  Beuwell,  of  Cambridge ;  vicar  of  Tottenham,  near 
London. 

2.  From  the  First  of  the  Chronicle*,  with  the  Rest,  of  the 
S'nrn,  ii, ill  tli?  11  yir.,jrapha,  r/-.,  Joh,  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Canticles.  Fcchsiastcs:  the  following  eight  persons  at.  Cam- 
bridge. ■  Master  KinvAim  Lively.  Mr.  Riciiaui>si>\,  fellow  of 
Emman.  Coll.,  afterward  D.  D. ;  master  first  of  Peter-House 
Coll.,  then  of  Trin.  Coll.  Mr.  Ciiaderton,  afterward  D.D.  ; 
fellow  first  of  Christ  Coll.,  then  master  of  Emman.  Coll.     Mr. 

Dii.i.iM.iiAM,  fellow  of  Christ.  Coll.;  beneficed  at  ,  in 

Bedfordshire,  where  he  died,  a  single  and  a  wealthy  man. 
Mr.  Andrews,  afterward  D.D  ,  brother  to  the  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  master  of  Jesus  Coll.  Mr.  Harrison,  the  rev. 
vice-master  of  Trinity  Coll.  Mr.  Spalding,  fellow  of  St. 
John's  Coll.,  in  Cambridge,  and  Hebrew  professor  there.  Mr. 
Bing,  fellow  of  Peter-House  Coll.,  in  Cambridge,  and  Hebrew 
professor  there. 

:i.  The  Four  Greater  Prophets,  with  the  Lamentations,  and 
the  Twelve  Lesser  Prophets ;  these  seven  persons  at  Oxford : 
Dr.  Harding,  pros,  of  Magdalen  Coll.  I  r  Reynolds,  pres. 
of  i  lorpus  christi  Coll.  Dr.  Holland,  rector  of  Exeter  Coll., 
and  king's  professor.  Dr.  Kilijy,  rector  of  Lincoln  Coll.,  and 
regius  professor.  Master  Smith,  afterward  D.D.,  and  bp.  of 
Gloucester,  (lie  wrote  the  preface  to  the  version.)  Mr.  Brett, 
of  a  good  family,  beneficed  at  Qaiuton,  in  Buckinghamshire. 
>Ir.  Faieclowb. 

4.  The  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  and  the  Rest  of  the  Apocrypha ; 
tlie  following  seven  at  Cambridge:  Dr.  Du port,  prebend  of 
Ely,  and  master  of  Jesus  Coll.  Dr.  Braintiiwait,  first  mas- 
ter of  Emmanuel  Coll.,  then  master  of  Gonvil  and  Cains  Coll. 
Dr.  Radclvfee,  one  of  the  senior  fellows  of  Trinity  Coll. 
Master  Ward,  of  Emman.  Coll.,  afterward  D.D.  ;  master  of 
Sidney  Coll.,  and  Margaret  professor.  Mr.  Downs,  fellow  of 
St.  John's  Coll.,  and  Creek  professor.  Mr.  Boyce,  (ellow  of 
St.  John's  Coll.,  prebend  of  Ely,  parson  of  Box  worth,  in  Cam- 
bridgeshire. Mr.  Ward,  regal,  afterward  D.D.,  prebend  of 
Chichester,  rector  of  Bishop- Waltham,  in  Hampshire. 

5.  Th?  Four  (,'osp,ls,  Acts  if  th?  Apostles,  Ajiocilyps? ; 
these  eight  at  Oxford-  Dr.  Ravis,  dean  of  Christ  Church,  af- 
terward bp.  of  London.  Dr.  Abbott,  master  of  University 
Coll.,  afterward  archbp.  of  Canterbury.  Mr.  Eedes.  Mr. 
Thomson.  Mr.  Savill.  Dr.  Peryn.  Dr.  Ravens.  Mr. 
Harmer. 

ii.  Th?  Fpisths  if  St.  Paul,  and  the  Canonical  Epistles; 
these  seven  at  Westminster:  Dr.  Barlowe,  of  Trinity  Coll., 
ia  Cambridge,  dean  of  Chester,  afti  rwa.rd  bishop  of  Lincoln. 
Dr.  IUt,  inv.ox.  Dr.  Spencer.  Mr.  Eenton.  Mr.  Rabbet. 
Mr.  Sanderson.    Mr.  Dakinq. 

The  following  instructions  were  drawn  up  for  their 
proceedings : 

1.  "  The  ordinary  Bible  read  in  the  church,  commonly  called 
the  Bishops'  Bible,  i"  be  followed,  and  as  little  altered  as  the 

•J.  "The  name-  .if  the  prophets  and  the  holy  writers,  with 
•  lie  othi  r  name-  in  the  text,  to  be  retained  as  near  as  may  be, 

I ding  a     lhe\     ire  \  ulgarly  used." 

'■'•■  "The  old  ecclesiastical  words  to  be  kept,  as  the  word 
rh'irch  not  to  he  translate  1  congregation." 

hen  any  word  bath  divers  significations,  that  to  be 
'  '<  hath  been  most,  commonly  used  by  the  mosl  emi- 
nent fathers,  h.  inj  agn  cable  to  the  propriety  of  the  place  and 

the  anal..  ".    ■  I  faith." 

"  ■  i  in.    .'le.pters  to  be  altered  either  not  at 
all,  ore     little  a-   ma\    be,  if  necessity  so  require." 

o.  ■■  \  .  i.eir  ie  >i  „..t  -  at  all  to  be  affixed,  but  only  for  the 
explanation  of  the  Hebrew  or  Creek  words,  which  cannot, 
without  "nmo  circ locution,    ..  briefly  and  nil)  be  expressed 


in 


place    to  be  marginally  set  down  as 

for  i  in-  tit  ivt.  rence   of  one  Set  ipture  to  another." 
8.  ■•  Everj   particular  man  .,i  each  eompanj   to  take  the 

same  chapter  .,i-  chapter  :  and  haviie.'  translated  or  amended 
them  severally  by  hiin-elf,  where  he  think  good,  all  to  meet 
together,  to  confer  v.  hat  they  have  ,1. me,  and  agree  for  their 
part  what  shall  stand." 


9.  "  As  any  one  company  has  despatched  any  one  book  in 
this  manner,  they  shall  send  it  to  the  rest,  to  be  consideied 
of  seriously  and  judiciously ;  for  his  majesty  is  very  careful  in 
this  point." 

10.  "If  any  company,  upon  the  review  of  the  book  so  sent, 
shall  doubt  or  differ  upon  any  places,  to  send  them  word 
thereof  to  note  the  places,  and  therewithal  to  send  their  rea- 
sons ;  to  which  if  they  consent  not,  the  difference  to  be  com- 
pounded at  the  general  meeting,  which  is  to  be  of  the  chief 
persons  of  each  company,  at  the  end  of  the  work." 

11.  "  When  any  place  of  special  obscurity  is  doubted  of,  let- 
ters to  be  directed  by  authority,  to  send  to  any  learned  in  the 
land  for  bis  judgment  in  such  a  place." 

12.  "Letters  to  be  sent  from  every  bishop  to  the  rest  of  his 
clergy,  admonishing  them  of  this  translation  in  hand,  and  to 
move  and  charge  as  many  as,  being  skilful  in  the  tongues, 
have  taken  pains  in  that  kind,  to  send  their  particular  ob- 
servations to  the  company,  either  at  Westminster,  Cambridge, 
or  Oxford,  according  as  it  was  directed  before  in  the  king's 
letter  to  the  archbishop." 

13.  "The  directors  in  each  company  to  be  the  deans  of 
Westminster  and  Chester  for  Westminster,  and  the  king's 
professors  in  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  the  two  Universities." 

14.  "These  translations  to  be  used  when  they  agree  better 
with  the  text  than  the  Bishops'  Bible,  viz.,  Tyndale's,  Cover- 
dale's,  Matthew's,  Whitchurch's,  Geneva." 

To  these  the  following  rule  was  added : 

15.  "Besides  the  said  directors  before  mentioned,  three  or 
four  of  the  most  ancient  and  grave  divines  in  either  of  the 
I'niversities,  not  employed  in  translating,  to  be  assigned  by 
the  vice-chancellor,  upon  conference  with  the  re>t  of  the  hi  ads, 
to  be  overseers  of  the  translation,  as  well  Hebrew  as  Greek, 
for  the  better-observation  of  the  4th  rule  above  specified." 

According  to  these  regulations,  each  book  passed 
the  scrutiny  of  all  the  translators  successively.  In 
the  first  instance,  each  individual  translated  every 
hook  which  was  allotted  to  his  division.  Secondly, 
the  readings  to  be  adopted  were  agreed  upon  by  the 
whole  of  that  company  assembled  together,  at  which 
meeting  each  translator  must  have  been  solely  occu- 
pied by  his  own  version.  The  book  thus  finished  was 
sent  to  each  of  the  other  companies  to  be  again  exam- 
ined ;  and  at  these  meetings  it  probably  was,  as  Sel- 
den  informs  us,  that  "one  read  the  translation,  the 
rest  holding  in  their  hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the 
learned  tongues,  or  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  etc.  If 
they  found  any  fault,  they  spoke ;  if  not,  he  read  on." 
In  this  way  every  precaution  was  taken  to  secure  a 
faithful  translation,  as  the  whole  Bible  underwent  at 
least  six  different  revisions  by  the  most  learned  men 
in  the  kingdom.  The  translation  was  commenced  in 
the  spring;  of  1607,  and  occupied  about  three  years,  and 
the  revision  of  it  occupied  about  three  quarters  of  a 
year  more.  It  was  printed  in  Gothic  letter,  and  first 
published  in  folio  in  Hill,  with  the  title,  "The  Holy 
Bible  Conteyning  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  New: 
Newly  translated  out  of  the  originall  Tongues :  And 
with  the  former  translations  diligently  compared  and 
reuiscd  by  bis  Maiestias  speciall  Comandcment.  Ap- 
pointed to  be  read  in  Churches."  The  expense  of  this 
translation  appears  not  to  have  been  borne  by  the 
king,  nor  by  any  government  commission,  but  chiefly, 
if  not  entirely,  by  Mr.  Barker. 

IV.  Critical  Estimatt  if  the  Authorized  Version, — It 
has  often  been  affirmed  that  "King  James's  Bible  is 
in  no  part  a  new  translation  taken  directly  from  the 
originals,  but  that  it  is  merely  a  revision  of  the  earlier 
English  versions,  and  compared  with  various  Conti- 
nental translations."  These  remarks  are  not  strictly 
correct.  The  translators  themselves  give  us  a  correct 
view  of  the  nature  of  their  work.  In  their  dedication 
to  King  James,  they  observe,  "  Your  highness,  out  of 
deep  judgment,  apprehended  how  convenient  it.  was 
that,  out  of  tin  original  tongues,  together  with  compar- 
ing of  the  labors,  both  in  our  own  and  other  foreign 
languages,  of  many  worthy  men  who  went  before  us, 
there  should  be  one  more  exact  translation  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  into  the  English  tongue."  It  must 
be  admitted,  however,  that  they  closely  followed  the 
Septuagint  and  Vulgate  in  their  emendations  of  pre- 
vious English  translations  to  suit  the  originals.  As 
King;  James's  version  has  been  as  extravagantly  eulo- 
i  gized  by  some  as  it  has  been  unduly  decried  by  oth- 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


561 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


ers,  it  will  be  well  calmly  and  briefly  to  consider  its 
merits  as  well  as  its  faults. 

The  most  prominent  perhaps  among  its  excellences 
is  its  simple,  pure,  and  nervous  style.  Its  words  are 
usually  chosen  from  the  old  and  more  expressive  Saxon 
element.  It  is  this  feature,  no  doubt,  that  has  so  en- 
deared it  to  the  popular  heart,  and  which  gives  it  a 
charm  to  the  youngest  reader.  There  are  some  no- 
ticeable exceptions  to  this  remark,  however,  for  it 
sometimes  uses  Latin  terms  when  Saxon  were  at  hand, 
e.  g.  "cogitation"  for  thought,  "illuminate"  for  en- 
lightened; "matrix"  for  womb;  "  prognosticator"  for 
foreteller;  "terrestrial"  for  earthly;  "vocation"  for 
calling,  etc.  In  the  Lord's  Prayer,  at  both  passages 
(Matt,  vi,  13;  Luke  xi,  4),  our  translators  employ 
"temptation"  instead  of  trial.  Another  marked  ex- 
cellence that  has  usually  been  attributed  to  the  Auth. 
Vers,  is  its  general  accuracy  and  fidelity  to  the  orig- 
inal. In  this  respect  it  compares  to  great  advantage 
with  the  Septuagint,  which  not  only  very  often  misses 
or  misconstrues  the  entire  drift  of  a  clause,  but  some- 
times interpolates  words  and  whole  verses  from  apoc- 
ryphal sources ;  and  also  with  the  Vulgate  and  other 
ancient  versions,  which,  if  they  do  not,  like  the  Tar- 
gums,  run  into  paraphrase,  yet  are  very  often  misled 
into  fanciful  and  erroneous  interpretations.  To  this 
commendation,  however,  there  must,  in  candor  and 
truth,  lie  made  very  large  drawbacks  in  many  indi- 
vidual renderings  of  the  A.  V.,  and  even  in  whole 
classes  of  renderings.  Not  only  were  the  sciences  of 
sacred  philology,  and  especially  of  Biblical  geography 
and  antiquities,  in  too  crude  a  state  to  enable  the  trans- 
lators to  lix  the  exact  meaning  of  obscure  and  doubt- 
ful terms  with  precision,  but  they  have  totally  ignored 
the  diction,  style,  and  arrangement  of  the  poetic  por- 
tions, especially  the  laws  of  parallelism  (q.  v.),  re- 
ducing poetry  to  prose,  and  transposing  the  words  in 
the  clauses  arbitrarily  and  without  reference  to  the 
original.  They  habitually  neglect  the  import  of  moods 
and  tenses,  especially  in  the  Hebrew  (constantly  ren- 
dering the  pneter  or  future  by  the  p)-esent  or  indefinite 
past,  or  the  reverse),  and  they  constantly  lose  the  true 
force  of  particles  and  the  nice  shades  of  meaning  in  the 
prepositions,  the  article,  and  syntactical  construction. 
Occasionally  they  are  very  happy  in  their  renderings, 
but  there  is  scarcely  a  verse,  especially  in  the  more 
highly-wrought  and  terse  utterances  of  the  0.  T.,  that 
is  not  marred  or  obscured  by  some  loose  or  incorrect 
expression.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  one  half  of 
modern  popular  commentaries  is  taken  up  with  the 
correction  of  errors  and  the  solution  of  difficulties, 
which  a  close,  idiomatic,  lucid,  and  judicious  transla- 
tion would  at  once  have  dissipated.  It  is  true,  few 
if  any  who  have  tried  their  hand  at  improved  versions 
have  succeeded  any  better ;  but  this  has  usually  been 
either  because  they  were  incompetent  persons,  or  by 
reason  of  some  dogmatic  aim  the}'  had  in  view.  Schol- 
ars who  hive  been  otherwise  qualified  have  not  tliem- 
S3lves  sufficiently  appreciated  the  poetic  element  per- 
vading the  Hebrew  writings,  or  they  have  overdone 
the  task  by  embellishing  rather  than  following  the 
text. 

Among  the  more  obvious  blemishes  of  the  A.  V.  are 
its  obsolete  and  indelicate  phrases,  its  arbitrary  and 
often  absurd,  always  confusing,  subdivision  into  chap- 
ters and  verses,  and  its  inexact  and  defective  mode  of 
punctuation.  These  are  so  objectionable,  that,  but  for 
the  attachment  which  long  and  early  association  pro- 
duces for  the  version,  it  would  often  be  laid  aside  for 
anjr  other  which  avoided  these  faults.  From  these 
causes  alone  the  Song  of  Solomon  has  been  practically 
discarded  from  both  public  and  private  reading,  and 
many  parts  of  the  Bible  cannot  be  safely  ventured 
upon  in  a  promiscuous  company.  The  difficulty,  it  is 
true,  sometimes  lies  in  the  passage  itself,  but  there  are 
very  few  instances  where  such  phraseology  might  not 
properly  be  employed  as  would  obviate  all  cmbarrass- 
Nx 


'  ment.  If  any  other  book  were  as  badly  edited  as  out 
|  common  Bibles,  it  would  have  provoked  severe  liter- 
i  ary  animadversion.  But  the  inherent  interest  of  the 
volume,  the  ineffaceable  beauty  of  its  sentiments,  and 
■  the  irrepressible  force  of  its  teachings  break  through 
every  disguise,  and  command  the  attention  of  all  minds 
and  hearts. 
I  Among  the  lesser  failings  of  the  Auth.  Version  may 
be  mentioned  its  frequent  renderings  of  the  same  word 
or  phrase  in  the  original  by  various  terms  or  expres- 
sions. This  want  of  uniformity  (which  those  who  ure 
this  Cyclopaedia  will  continually  have  occasion  to  ob- 
serve) was  the  result,  probably,  in  part  at  least,  of  the 
execution  of  the  translation  by  various  parties.  In 
proper  names  and  technical  terms,  the  identification 
not  unfrequently  becomes  impossible  to  ordinary  read- 
ers. Other  infelicities  seem  to  have  been,  in  part  at 
least,  the  result  of  king  James's  restrictive  rules. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  criticism,  which  may  ap- 
pear harsh  to  those  who  have  not  minutely  investigated 
the  matter,  without  expressing  the  hope  that  the  day 
is  not  far  distant  when  a  thorough  revision  on  liben.1 
principles  will  be  made  of  the  common  version  by  a 
committee  of  learned  men  chosen  from  all  evangelical 
denominations;  or,  what  would  perhaps  be  still  more 
satisfactory,  a  new  translation  be  put  forth  under  the 
auspices  of  such  an  authority,  and  then  left  to  secure 
its  acceptance  for  critical  purposes  by  its  intrinsic 
merits.  However  excellent,  it  could  not  be  expected 
to  supersede  the  extensively  circulated  and  familiar 
version  for  general  use.  See  Versions  (of  the  Bible). 
V.  Standard  English  Bibles.  —  1.  The  Original  Edi- 
tion.— This,  as  stated  above,  was  published  in  the  year 
1611,  the  translation  having  been  commenced  in  1604. 
The  probability  is  that  the  translation  was  finished  in 
1608,  at  the  latest,  leaving  the  unnecessarily  long 
time  of  three  years  occupied  in  printing;  but  the  ree- 
i  sons  for  this  delay  are  not  now  known. 

The  volume  is  a  stately  folio,  each  page  measuring 
;  144;  inches  by  8|,  exclusive  of  margin.  Two  columns 
of  text  are  on  each  page,  each  having  59  lines  when 
full,  and  two  marginal  columns.  The  text  is  printrd 
i  from  an  uncommonly  heavy  and  noble  Old-English 
type— "great  primer"  in  size,  reduced  by  the  shrink- 
I  ing  of  the  paper  to  nearly  "two-line  brevier."  The 
;  head-lines  of  the  pages  are  in  a  very  large  Roman  let- 
ter, three  quarters  of  an  inch  deep.  Each  chaptT 
commences  with  an  engraved  initial,  about  an  inch 
square ;  and  each  book  with  one  yet  larger,  often  2i 
inches  square.  In  addition,  engraved  ornaments  are 
at  the  beginning  of  every  book,  and  the  title-page 
consists  of  a  heavy  engraved  border,  having  a  very 
little  place  for  letter-press.  The  effect  of  this  display, 
however,  is  somewhat  reduced  when  we  learn  that 
none  of  these  embellishments  were  provided  expressly 
for  this  Bible,  but  that  they  had  all  appeared  in  pre- 
vious editions  of  other  translations.  One  or  two  of 
the  large  initials,  indeed,  were  engraved  for  an  edition 
of  Ovid.  The  parts  usually  printed  in  italic,  as  the 
headings  and  supplied  words,  are  in  Eoman. 

The  volume  contains,  besides  the  text  and  Apocry- 
pha (this  latter  being  printed  from  the  same  type  as 
the  rest  of  the  book),  the  Address  to  the  Reader,  a  very 
valuable  document,  which,  most  unfortunately,  is  now 
almost  entirely  lost  sight  of;  the  Dedication  "to  the 
most  high  and  mighty  Prince  James,"  which  is  just 
as  worthless  as  the  other  is  valuable,  and  is  neverthe- 
less printed  in  all  English  Bibles  to  this  day;  Speed's 
Genealogies,  covering  34  pages,  very  intricate,  pro- 
found, ingenious,  and  dry ;  and,  apparently,  a  Calen^ 
dar,  though  copies  containing  this  last  are  very  rare. 
The  pages  are  not  numbered,  but  the  signatures,  or 
printer's  guide-letters,  placed  at  the  foot  of  certain 
pages,  run  up  in  the  Apocrypha  to  Ccccc,  which  is 
equal,  counting  by  sixes,  to  1368  pages,  and  in  the 
New  Testament  to  Aa,  which  counts  £00  more.  This 
covers  the  text  only. 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


562 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


The  spelling  and  punctuation  are  very  irregular,  as  in 
all  books  ofthe  time.  The  following  two  verses,  taken 
at  random,  will  be  a  sufficient  example— Matt,  ix,  1,  2 : 

-A.Nd  hee  entred  into  a  Chip,  and  patted  ouer,  and  came  into 
his  owne  citie.  , 

2  And  behold  ,  thev  brought  to  him  a  man  ficke  ot  the  pal- 
lie,  lying  on  a  bed  :  and  Ielus  feeing  their  faith  ,  faid  vnto  the 
ficke  ofthe  pallie,  Sonne,  be  of  good  cheere,  thy  finnes  be  lor- 
giuen  thee. 

There  are  also  many  typographical  errors — more,  in- 
deed, than  would  he  borne  with  in  any  Bible  printed 
now.  The  most  striking  is  in  Exodus  xiv,  10,  which 
reads  thus,  modernizing  the  spelling  : 

10  And  when  Pharaoh  drew  nigh,  the  children  of  Israel  lift 
up  their  eves,  and  behold,  the  Egyptian-  marched  after  them, 
and  thev  were  sere  afraid  :  and  the  children  of  Israel  lift  up 
their  eyes,  and  behold,  the  Knvptinns  marched  after  them, 
and  thev  were  sore  afiaid  :  and  the  children  of  Israel  cried  out 
unto  the  Lord. 

Other  notable  errors  are  in  Lev.  xiii,  56,  "the  plain 
be  somewhat  dark,''  where  we  must  read,  "the  plague 
be  somewhat  dark;"  Lev.  xvii,  14,  "  Ye  shall  not  eat 
the  blood,"  for  "Ye  shall  eat;"  Jer.  xxii,  3,  "deliver 
the  spoiler,"  instead  of  "deliver  the  spoiled;"  Ezek. 
xxiv,7,  "pouredit  upon  the  ground,"  for  "not  upon;" 
Hosea  vi,  5,  "  shewed  them,"  for  "  hewed  them  ;"  and 
many  others.     These,  however,  were  soon  corrected. 

Notwithstanding  that  by  the  king's  command  mar- 
ginal notes  were  not  to  be  affixed,  some  were  found 
indispensable.  For  instance,  at  Matt,  xxii,  2,  we  have 
the  note,  "  The  Roman  penny  is  the  eighth  part  of  an 
ounce,  which,  after  five  shillings  the  ounce,  is  seven- 
pence  halfpenny."  Others  of  this  class  are  found.  In 
other  places,  the  translators  did  not  even  avoid  critical 
r.otes.  Baruch  i,  10,  at  "prepare  ye  manna,"  has 
"  Gr.  corruptly  for  mincha,  that  is,  a  meat-offering." 
Others  of  these  notes  might  be  pointed. out;  but,  as  a 
general  thing,  these  would  be  quite  as  well  omitted,  as 
they  now  generally  are.  The  number  of  marginal  ref- 
erences is  very  small — only  8980,  including  the  Apocry- 
pha. At  present  the  best  Bibles,  without  the  Apocry- 
pha, have  over  seventy  thousand.  Bagster's  Com- 
prehensive Bible  claims  to  have  "nearly  half  a  mil- 
lion," which,  we  opine,  is  incorrect. 

The  translators'  manuscript  has  been  lost.  Accord- 
ing to  a  pamphlet  published  in  1660,  it  was,  five  years 
previously,  in  the  possession  of  the  king's  printers. 
It  has  not  since  been  heard  of.  The  manuscript  of 
the  Translators'  Address  to  the  Reader  is  said  to  be 
preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford.  Copies  of 
this  edition  are  now  pretty  scarce.  The  commonest 
loss,  as  with  other  books,  is  of  title-pages. 

Much  care  is  necessary  to  identify  an  imperfect 
copy  of  this  edition,  for  a  second  was  printed  in  1611, 
and" others  in  1613, 1617, 1631,  and  1640,  from  the  same 
type,  and  running  page  for  page.  Each  edition  pre- 
sents typographical  errors  peculiar  to  itself.  The  only 
clew  we  have  here  space  to  give  is,  that  the  two  edi- 
tions of  161]  are  the  only  ones  in  which  the  signatures 
rcei  mmence  with  the  New  .Testament,  and  the  second 
of  that  year  has  the  before-mentioned  errors  corrected. 
Many  bad  ones,  however,  are  found  in  it,  not  the  least 
of  which  is  the  enumeration  of  "1  Corinthians"  and 
"2  Corinthians"  in  the  list  ofthe  books  ofthe  Old  Tes- 
tament instead  of  Chronicles.  In  1833  a  reprint  of 
this  first  edition,  page  for  page,  but  in  Roman  letter, 
wa  made  at  Oxford,  so  exact  as  to  follow  even  the 
most  obvious  typographical  errors,  and  showing  the 
ancient  spelling  throughout.  Bag6ter's  English  Hexa- 
pla  also  contains  the  text  of  the  New  Testament  print- 
ed verbatim  from  this  edition;  and  where  the  bock 
itself  is  unattainable,  these  are  perhaps  the  best  sub- 
stitutes for  those  who,  for  anj  reason,  require  to  go 
behind  the  Bibles  now  in  use 

A  close  scrutiny  ofthe  volume  reveals  indisputably 
the  tacts  that  no  member  of  the  original  companies  of 
translators  took  cognizance  ofthe  volume  as  it  passed 
through  the  press,  but  that  the  printer  was  depended 


on  to  secure  accuracy ;  and  that,  notwithstanding  the 
lapse  of  three,  perhaps  four  years  between  the  comple- 
tion of  the  translation  and  its  publication,  it  was  run 
through  the  press  with  great  haste.  Add  to  this  the 
fact  that  from  1600  to  1670  the  British  press  was  at 
its  lowest  point  in  improvement,  and  it  will  at  once 
be  seen  that  the  chances  of  obtaining  correct  Bibles  at 
first,  or  subsequently,  were  very  small.  Upon  its  pub- 
lication, editions  were  very  rapidly  multiplied.  Each 
new  one  partly  copied  and  partly  corrected  the  errors 
of  its  exemplar;  but  each,  to  some  extent,  created 
new  errors  of  its  own,  to  be  in  like  manner  perpetua- 
ted. In  1638,  for  instance,  a  Cambridge  Bible  printed 
"ye"  for  "we"  in  Acts  vi,  3,  thus  throwing  the  ap- 
pointment of  deacons  into  the  hands  of  the  laity  rather 
than  the  apostles;  and  this  error  continued  down  to 
1691.  It  has  been  insinuated  that  the  Independents 
made  this  change  intentionally;  DTsraeli,  indeed,  goes 
so  far  as  to  charge  Field,  the  king's  printer,  with  re- 
ceiving a  present  of  £1500  to  make  it;  and  only  the 
fact  of  its  being  first  found  in  a  Cambridge  University 
edition  disproves  the  statement.  Many  other  errata, 
curious,  whimsical,  absurd,  and  shocking  by  turns, 
might  be  brought  up  from  Bibles  of  the  period,  such 
as,  for  a  few  instances,  "I  pray  God  it  may  be  laid  to 
their  charge,"  2  Tim.  iv,  16,  in  1613;  "Thou  shalt 
commit  adultery,"  in  1632;  "the  unrighteous  shall 
inherit  the  kingdom  of  God,"  1  Cor.  vi,  fj,  in  1653.  In 
each  of  these  cases  "not"  is  omitted  ;  but  often  words 
are  transposed  or  changed,  and  the  quarto  of  1013 
leaves  two  verses  entirely  out.  The  first  attempt  at 
correcting  these  errors  seems  to  have  been  made  by 
a  Dr.  Scattergood  about  1680.  From  a  collation  of 
various  old  Bibles,  we  have  ecme  to  the  conclusion  that 
he  did  but  little.  The  next  notable  edition  was  that 
of  Archbishop  Tenison,  1701.  This  was  intended  for  a 
standard,  but  unluckily  was  so  full  of  typographical 
errors  that  a  complaint  was  entered  against  the  print- 
ers by  Convocation. 

2.  Bkiyncy'.-  Edition-— Sufficient  care  not  being  yet 
taken,  King  George  I,  in  1724,  directed  that  the  per- 
sons licensed  to  print  the  Bible — for  in  England,  for 
the  sake  of  insuring  accuracy  as  far  as  possible,  the 
book  can  only  be  printed  by  the  universities,  the  king's 
printers,  and  persons  by  them  licensed — should  em- 
ploy such  correctors  of  the  press,  and  pay  them  such 
salaries  as  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  Bishop  of 
London  should  approve.  Errors,  however,  most  per- 
tinaciously crept  in,  and  r.t  length  the  University  of 
Oxford  employed  Dr.Blayney  to  revise  the  English 
Bible  and  correct  it  throughout.  His  work  was  pub- 
lished in  1701*.  It  was  issued  in  two  forms,  folio  and 
quarto,  the  former  being  claimed  to  be  the  most  cor- 
rect. His  collation  was  made  by  comparing  through- 
out the  edition  of  1611  (but  which  one  cannot  now  be 
known,  for  it  has  only  recently  be<  n  settled  that  two 
editions  were  published  in  that  year),  that  of  1701, 
which  has  already  been  mentioned  for  its  incorrect- 
ness, and  two  recent  Cambridge  copies.  Firm  th»se 
somewhat  unpromising  materials  he  claims  to  have 
reformed  the  text  "to  such  a  standard  of  purity  as,  it 
is  presumed,  is  not  to  be  met  with  in  any  other  edition 
hitherto  extant."  How  far  this  is  the  case  will  be 
seen  by-and-by.  Besides  this,  the  punctuation  was 
revised  throughout  "with  a  view  to  preserve  the  true 
sense;"  upon  comparison  with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals,  many  alterations  were  made  in  the  words 
printed  in  italic;  "considerable  alterations"  were 
made  in  the  "heads  or  contents  prefixed  to  the  chap- 
ters;" many  proper  names  were  translated  in  the  mar- 
gin, where  the  narrative  contained  an  .illusion  to  their 
meaning  ( this  should  have  been  done  fully)  ;  the  chro- 
nology, which  was  first  added  in  1680,  was  rectified ; 
and  the  marginal  references  were  compared  and  cor- 
rected throughout,  besides  having  30,495  new  ones 
added. 

Dr.  Blayncy  makes  an  accidental  admission,  tending 


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to  lower  confidence  in  the  book,  that  two  proofs  were 
read,  "and,  generally  speaking,  the  third  likewise," 
whicli  is  quite  insufficient  for  a  standard  edition  of 
any  work,  or  even  an  ordinary  edition  of  the  Bible. 
Four  proofs  are  the  least  allowable  on  such  a  work. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  afterward  one  hundred  and  six- 
teen typographical  errors  were  discovered  in  it.  The 
most  important  is  in  Rev.  xviii,  22,  which  in  the  quar- 
to copy  reads : 

22  And  tlie  voice  of  harpers,  and  musicians,  and  of  pipers, 
and  trumpeters,  shall  be  heard  no  mure  in  thee;   and  the 
sound  of  a  milstone  shall  be  heard  no  more  at  all  in  thee ; 
Reference  to  a  correct  Bible  will  show  that  the  fol- 
lowing words  are  omitted:  "at  all  in  thee;  and  no 
craftsman,  of  whatsoever  craft  he  be,  shall  be  found 
any  more."     But,  saying  nothing  of  accidental  errors 
like  this,  there  is  yet  abundant  ground  for  complaint 
against  the  text  for  incorrectness.      In  Joshua  iii,  12. 
all  previous  editions  had  read  "Take  ye  twelve  men  ;" 
it  appears   here,  to   the   confusion   of  the   grammar, 
"Take  you  twelve  men."      In  Joshua  xi,  19,  "unto 
my  place"  is  changed  to  "into  my  place  ;"  and,  so  far 
as  there  is  a  difference  in  the  sense,  the  change  is  in- 
correct.    But  these  errors,  though  utterly  out  of  place 
in  a  standard  Bible,  are  venial  by  the  side  of  others. 
In  Judges  xi,  7,  all  editions  before,  and  most  after, 
read  "the  elders  of  Gilead  ;"  he  has,  "the  children  of 
Gilead."      In   Psalm  xxiv,  3,  instead   of  "  and   who 
shall  stand  in  his  holy  place?"   he   introduced  "or 
who  shall   stand."     In   Psalm  cvii,  16,  he,  followed 
only  by  editions  copied  from  him,  reads  "for  he  hath 
broken  the  gates  of  brass,  and  cut  the  gates  of  iron  in 
sunder,"  the  true  reading  being  "bars  of  iron."     In 
Psalm  cxv,  3,  he  is  the  first  to  read  "  whatsoever  he 
hath  pleased,"  the  inserted  "hath"  being  quite  super- 
fluous.    His  is  the  only  edition  we  have  met  with 
•which  reads,  in  Isaiah  xlvii,  9,  "  But  these  two  things 
■which  shall  come  in  a  moment."      Most  important  is 
the  change  he  introduced  into  Matt,  xvi,  10,  where  he 
reads  "Thou  art  the  Christ"    instead  of  "Thou  art 
Christ."      In  this  edition  we  find,  for  the  first  time,  in 
2  Cor.  xii,  2,  "  I  knew  a  man  in  Christ  about  fourteen 
years  ago"  instead  of  "above."      In  1  John  i,  4,  the 
reading  "our  joy"  for  "your  joy,"  though  often  met 
with  now,  is  only  an  error  first  made  in  this  edition. 
In   punctuation,  too,  Blavney   did    but   little    better. 
There  are  few  places  where  lie  for  the  first  time  mis- 
pointed  a  verse,  but  he  has  perpetuated  many  errors. 
In  Dent,  ix,  3,  the  original,  and  all  down  to  his  time, 
are  pointed  substantially  thus  :  "  The  Lord  thy  God  is 
he  which  goeth  over  before  thee  as  a  consuming  fire: 
he  shall  destroy  them,"  etc. ;  but  the  sense  is  entirely 
changed  by  putting  the  colon  after  "thee,"  and  no 
point  at  "fire."      In   Acts   xxvii,  18,  the  translators 
placed  the  comma  after  "day,"  but  he  perpetuated 
the  mistake  of  placing  it  after  "tempest,"  the  effect 
of  which  is  to  make  the  mariners  endure  an  exceeding 
storm  for  twenty-four  hours  before  the}'  lightened  the 
ship.     In   Heb.  x,  12,  the  sense  is  entirely  lost  by 
placing  the  comma  after  "sins"  instead  of  at  "for- 
ever," according  to  the  translators.     Other  typograph- 
ical errors  remained  uncorrected.     For  instance,  the 
marginal  reading  of  Jonah  iv,  6,  is  the  meaningless 
"  palmcrist."    In  1  Tim.  ii,  9,  Blavney  reads  "  shame- 
facedncss"  instead  of  "shamefastncss,"  a  word  of  an 
entirely  different  meaning ;   and  this  error,  unfortu- 
nately, has  been  continued  to  our  day.      In  the  same 
text  he  perpetuated  the  nonsensical  corruption  "  broid- 
ered;"  and  in  1  Tim.  iv,  1(5,  he  continues  the   error 
made  a  century  before  of  "  thy  doctrine"  for  "  the  doc- 
trine."     He  is  faulty  in  a  critical  point :  the  distinc- 
tion between  "  Lord"  and  "  Lord."    The  word  seems 
to  be  uniformly  printed  "  Lortn"  with  him  ;  certainly 
in  ever}'  case  we  have  noticed,  including  many  where 
the  Hebrew  is  Adonai.     On  the  other  hand,  Blavney 
did    some    good   things.      He    changed   the    obsolete 


unchanged  in  two  others  :  Ezek.  xxxv,  0,  and  the 
heading  to  Bom.  v.  In  a  few  cases  in  which  "mo" 
had  remained  unaltered  to  his  time,  he  changed  it  to 
"more."  lie  changed  "fet,". taken  as  a  preterite, 
into  "fetched  ;"  as  a  verb  present  it  had  been  altered 
before.  He  attempted,  too,  to  change  "glister,"  but, 
as  with  "sith,"  only  partially.  Had  he  carried  out 
his  plan  of  translating  significant  proper  names,  he 
would  have  conferred  a  great  benefit  on  his  readers  ; 
but  here  again  he  stopped  halfway. 

The  quarto  edition,  the  one  here  referred  to,  is  in 
three  volumes,  containing  respectively  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Apocrypha,  and  the  New  Testament.  It 
contains  no  special  preface,  or  mention  of  its  peculiari- 
ties on  the  title-page  or  elsewhere,  but  is  simply  dated 
"  Oxford :  Printed  by  T.  Wright  and  W.  Gill,  printers 
to  the  University."  It  was  published  at  four  guineas. 
The  University  of  Oxford  paid  Dr.  Blayney  £5000 
for  his  labor  in  revising  the  Bible.  They  thereupon 
concluded  that  they  had  an  available  standard,  and  in- 
continently adopted  it.  The  other  privileged  presses 
followed.  But  very  soon  his  errors,  one  by  one,  came 
to  light;  some  were  corrected  at  one  press,  some  at 
another;  just  as  had  been  the  case  before,  passages 
really  correct  were  changed  in  ignorance,  and  the  up- 
shot "of  it  all  was,  that  in  a  very  few  years  there  was 
no  standard  again. 

In  1804  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was 
formed,  and  proceeded  to  work  on  the  principle  of 
buying  the  cheapest  Bibles  it  could  and  trusting  to 
the  printers  for  accuracy.  The  American  Revolution 
had  erected  a  new  Bible-reading  nation;  an  effort 
made  in  its  first  Congress  to  restrict  the  printing  of 
the  book  to  licensed  houses  was  cut  short  by  the  first 
amendment  to  the  Constitution,  and  the  book  was 
thrown  into  the  hands  of  the  trade  at  large,  witli  any- 
thing but  a  beneficial  effect  on  its  general  integrity. 
To  crown  all,  the  English  printers  became  careless  in 
supplying  the  foreign  market.  Charles  Knight  tells 
us  of'  a  Bible  so  full  of  typographical  errors  that  its 
printers  dare  not  publish  it  in  England,  and  he  was 
assured  "  we  had  to  send  the  whole  edition  to  Amer- 
ica!" 

The  editions  of  1800  and  1813,  though  adopted  as 
standards  by  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  were 
but  careful  "reprints  of  Blayney  without  further  edi- 
torial care. 

3.  The  American  Bible  Society's  Revision. — This  so- 
ciety was  formed  in  1816,  and  proceeded  to  print  its 
own  Bibles,  thus  making  itself  responsible  for  their 
correctness.  For  the  first  thirty  years  it  seems  to  have 
followed  almost  any  respectable  copy  that  came  to 
hand,  disregarding  discrepancies.  But  in  so  many 
editions  as  were  now  produced  in  England  and  here, 
these  differences  were  constantly  increasing  in  num- 
ber. They  were  chiefly  in  punctuation,  the  use  of 
capitals  and  italics,  and  such  minor  points.  At  length, 
in  1847.  these  had  accumulated  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  proof-readers  of  the  Society  really  did  not  know 
what  to  follow.  The  matter  was  now  referred  to  the 
Board  of  Managers  of  the  Society,  and  in  February, 
1848,  they  resolved  to  have  a  thorough  collation  of 
the  English  Bible  made,  and  appointed  Rev.  J.  W; 
McLane,  D.D.,  of  the  (New-School)  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Williamsburg,  N.  Y.,  to  proceed  with  it. 
Accordingly,  recent  copies  from  the  four  "standard" 
British  houses  were  obtained,  an  American  Bible  So- 
ciety's copy  was  the  fifth,  and  the  edition  of  1011  the 
sixth.  Blayney  was  ignored.  These  were  carefully 
compared  throughout ;  every  variation,  no  matter  how 
minute,  noted  ;  and  this  comparison  furnished  the  data 
whence  to  prepare  the  text  of  a  future  edition.  The 
number  of  variations  found  was  about  twenty-foul 
thousand.  The  Apocrypha  formed  no  part  of  the  work. 
The  rules  governing  the  formation  of  this  standard 
text  were  simple.     The  reading  of  a  majority 


of  the 


'sith"  into  "since"  in  two  places,  though  he  left  it    copies  was  to  be  followed;  when  the  three  English 


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564 


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copies  agreed  as  to  the  use  of  the  hyphen,  their  usage 
■was  to  be  accepted.  In  other  matters,  where  each 
copy  was  inconsistent  with  itself,  a  system  was  agreed 
on.  For  instance,  each  copy  had  in  one  place  "  a  high- 
way," in  another  "an  highway."  So,  too,  every  copy 
had  sometimes  "a  husband"  and  "an  husband,"  "a 
hole"  and  "an  hole,"  "a  hill"  and  "an  hill,"  "a 
hammer"  and  "an  hammer,"  and  so  on.  Here  the 
strict  grammatical  rule  was  enforced.  The  distinction 
between  "0"  and  "Oh,"  which  had  been  lost  sight 
of,  was  brought  out,  either  form  being  used,  as  the 
sense  of  the  passage  required.  In  capital  letters  the 
words  "Spirit"  and  "Scripture"  were  found  very  ir- 
regular ;  the  first  was  made  to  be  capital  when  refer- 
ring to  the  Spirit  of  God,  not  elsewhere ;  the  second, 
when  referring  to  the  whole  volume.  Some  spellings, 
now  obsolete,  were  reformed,  as  "spunge,"  "sope," 
"  cuckow,"  "plaister,"  "rasor,"  "morter,"  "as- 
swaged,"  and  others;  and,  what  was  of  more  import- 
ance, some  names  of  Old-Testament  characters  given 
in  the  New  Testament,  and  there  spelled  according  to 
the  Greek,  were  changed  to  the  ordinary  Old-Testa- 
ment spelling.  Thus  "Juda"  was  changed  to  "Ju- 
dah,"  because  it  was  already  spelled  so  in  the  Old 
Testament;  "  Gedeon"  to  "Gideon,"  "Jephthae"  to 
"  Jephthah,"  "  Sina,"  to  "  Sinai,"  "Chanaan"  to  "Ca- 
naan," "Core"  to  "Korah,"  and  so  with  some — not 
all — others.  In  the  words  of  the  text  the  following 
changes  from  the  modern  copies  were  made.  In  Josh. 
xix,  2,  "  and  Sheba"  was  made  "  or  Sheba."  In  Ruth 
iii,  15,  "she  went"  was  changed  to  "he  went."  In 
Solomon's  Song  ii,  7,  "he  please"  was  made  "she 
please."  In  Isa.  i,  16,  "wash  you"  was  altered  to 
"  wash  ye."  But  all  of  these  corrections  were  accord- 
ing to  the  original  edition,  which  had  been  departed 
from  in  each  case  wrongly.  Farther,  in  Matt,  xii,  41, 
"  in  judgment"  was  made  "  in  the  judgment,"  because 
the  Greek  required  it,  and  very  manj'  early  English 
copies  had  it,  though  not  the  first.  Also  in  Solomon's 
Song  iii,  5,  and  viii,  4,  the  same  change  was  made  as 
in  ii,7  ;  for,  though  the  original  edition  here  read  "  he,", 
the  probability,  all  things  considered,  was  that  it  was 
but  a  typographical  error  in  each  case.  In  prosecuting 
the  collation,  the.  headings  of  the  chapters  came  under 
notice.  These  often  differed ;  but,  so  far  as  they  agreed 
with  the  edition  of  1611,  or  that  of  Blayney,  they  were 
frequently  faulty.  Some  were  distinctly  and  positive- 
ly false,  as  those  to  Daniel  viii,  Isaiah  xli,  Zech.  xii; 
others  were  comments  on  the  text,  as  those  to  Psa. 
xlix,  Dan.  xi,  and  the  whole  of  Solomon's  Song; 
others  were  incomprehensibly  clumsy,  as  the  few  first 
of  Acts;  some  positively  shocking,  as  "the  Lord  re- 
fuseth  to  go  as  he  had  promised  with  his  people" 
(Exod.  xxxiii)  ;  "  Samuel  sent  by  God  under  pretense 
of  a  sacrifice"  (1  Sam.  xvi).  These  headings  had  not 
been  prepared  by  the  body  of  the  original  forty-seven 
translators,  but  by  one  of  their  number  and  one  other 
person;  they  never  were  considered  as  forming  part 
of  the  version;  they  had  been  extensively  altered  be- 
fore, both  by  Blayney  and  by  many  anonymous  par- 
ties, and  therefore  the  committee  under  whose  care 
the  collation  was  going  on  resolved  to  remodel  these 
where  necessary .  Wherever  "Christ"  or  "the  Church" 
was  mentioned  in  any  Old-Testament  heading,  "Mes- 
siah" and  "Zion,"  the  equivalent  words  used  in  the 
(  Mil-Testament  text,  were  substituted,  in  order  to  avoid 
comment.  The  marginal  references  were  again  recti- 
fied, many  errors  corrected,  and  their  number,  upon 
the  whole,  diminished.  A  very  few  marginal  read- 
ings were  added,  chiefly  explanatory  of  proper  names. 
To  .Matt,  xxiii,  24,  where  "at"  is  now  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  a  misprint  from  the  first  for  "out,"  a 
nole  was  put,  "Or,  strain  out;"  and  to  ".Tesus,"  in 
Acts  vii,  46,  the  committee  put  the  note,  "That  is, 
Joshua,"  as  the  translators  themselves  had  done  in 
Ileb.  iv,  8.      (See,  on  the  whole  subject,  the  Society's 

pamphlet  entitled  "  Report  on  the  History  of  the  Be- ; 


cent  Collation  of  the  English  Version  of  the  Bible," 
N.  Y.  1857.) 

The  standard  thus  prepared  was  published  in  1851. 
Though  issued  in  a  quiet  way,  it  was  received  with 
general  approval.  For  six  years  it  remained  the 
standard  of  the  Society,  and  during  that  time  not  a 
whisper  of  disapprobation  was  heard.  But  in  1857  a 
Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman  of  Baltimore  pub- 
lished a  pamphlet  aimed  at  this  work,  in  which,  while 
carefully  avoiding  specific  charges,  the  most  severe 
spirit  was  exhibited.  The  Society  was  accused  of  an 
attempt  to  "supersede  the  time-honored  version  in  its 
integrity;"  it  was  making  a  "half-way  adventure" 
toward  a  new  translation  ;  it  was  "  debasing  the  stand- 
ard ;"  its  Bible  was  "a  vulgarized  work,"  and  so  on. 
The  committee  had  found  twenty-four  thousand  varia- 
tions in  the  Bibles  in  common  use ;  their  language  was 
converted  into  a  statement  that  they  had  made  twen- 
ty-four thousand  changes.  The  New-York  organ  of 
the  same  church  at  once  joined  in  the  attack,  but  the 
amount  of  its  charge  was  that  the  standard  was  differ- 
ent from  every  copy  collated.  In  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  Old-School  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  same 
year,  the  same  subject  was  brought  up  by  a  speaker 
wdio  stigmatized  the  standard  as  being  "tinkered  up" 
by  "an  anonymous  printer  and  a  New-School  preach- 
er!" Asking,  "  Why  discard  these  captions  that  have 
been  acquiesced  in  two  hundred  years  ?"  he  forgot  that 
they  had  not  been  so  acquiesced  in,  and  that  abundant 
reason  had  been  shown  for  "discarding"  them.  In 
Jul}',  1857,  the  (Presbyterian)  Princeton  Review  had  a 
most  bitter  article  on  the  same  subject.  The. only  at- 
tempt to  meet  the  difficulties  of  the  case  was  the  state- 
ment (page  510)  that  the  Society  should  "give  up  en- 
tirely all  idea  of  producing  a  standard  text,"  or  other- 
wise should  "  take  the  standard  editions  and  collate 
them."  But  if  this  latter  course  wras  followed,  as  it 
had  been,  "the  Society  would  have  no  right  to  exer- 
cise its  own  discretion  in  selecting  the  readings  or  the 
punctuation  it  would  adopt."  In  compliance  with 
these  and  similar  demands  from  auxiliary  bodies,  the 
Board  of  Managers,  in  Februaty,  1858,  revoked  this 
standard.  Their  present  imperial  quarto  edition  is 
now  their  printer's  guide.  With  this  action  perished 
the  hope  of  having  for  the  present  a  generally-ac- 
cepted standard  e>f  King  James's  translation.  One 
cannot  now  be  got  up  in  England  by  any  one  church, 
because  dissent  in  many  branches  is  so  extensive;  nor 
by  co-operation,  because  they  have  no  union ;  nor  by 
their  Bible  Society,  because  it  does  not  print  its  own 
books.  In  this  country  the  American  Bible  Society  is 
the  only  body  which  has  any  general  authority.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  this  society  has  not  felt  itself  au- 
thorized by  its  constitution  to  retain  and  prosecute  the 
needed  work.     See  Bible  Societies,  3,  xii. 

VI.  Marginal  Readings. — These  are  generally  passed 
over  by  Bible  readers,  but  a  careful  student  will  find 
them  invaluable  for  ascertaining  the  precise  meaning 
of  any  text.  They  are  of  two  kinds:  the  first,  com- 
monly marked  by  a  dagger  (f),  giving  the  literal 
translation  of  a  peculiar  idiom  in  the  originals  where 
it  could  not.  be  rendered  in  good  English,  also  the 
translation  of  significant  proper  names ;  and  the  other, 
marked  by  a  parallel  (||),  representing  a  possible  dif- 
ferent rendering  where  the  original  is  in  doubt  from 
any  cause.  They  are  further  distinguished  by  being 
prefaced  by  "That  is,"  in  the  translations  of  names, 
or  "Ileb.,"  "Chald.,"  or  "Gr.,"  according  to  the 
original  language  in  the  first  class;  and  "Or,"  in  the 
second  class.  In  many  modern  Bibles  they  are  re- 
ferred to  by  consecutive  figures  or  Greek  letters  ;  hut 
the  system  here  described  is  that  used  by  the  original 
translators  and  by  the  American  Bilde  Society.  The 
translators  regarded  these  readings  as  a  component 
part  of  their  work  ;  and  to  the  present  day  ministers  of 
the  Church  of  England  read  and  use  either  the  marginal 
rendering  or  that  in  the  text  at  pleasure.     They  were 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION         5( 

first  used  by  the  translators  of  the  Geneva  version  of 
the  Bible  half  a  century  before  ours  was  made. 

Since  the  publication  of  our  translation  in  the  year 
1611,  the  marginal  readings  have  at  various  times 
been  enlarged  and  improved.  There  are  now  about 
three  hundred  of  these  more  than  the  original  number, 
and  a  few  have  been  omitted.  Of  the  others,  many 
have  been  extended  by  adding  the  necessary  exple- 
tives. A  few  palpable  errors  have  been  corrected,  as 
in  the  note  to  1  Sam.  v,  4,  where  the  stump  of  the  fish- 
idol  Dagon  was  ludicrously  described  as  "the  filthy 
part,"  now  correctly  printed  "the  fishy  part."  In 
other  cases  one  note  has  been  divided  into  two,  one  of 
each  class.  In  one  instance  an  odd  typographical  error 
has  been  introduced  into  a  note  and  perpetuated  •  Jo- 
nah's gourd  (Jonah  iv,  6)  is  in  the  first  edition  de- 
scribed as  a  "  palme-crist,"  or palma  chrlsti  (the  cas- 
tor-oil plant),  in  the  margin;  but  the  word  has  been 
corrupted  into  "palmerist,"  to  which  no  meaning  can 
be  attached. 

There  is  no  trace  of  any  person  or  body  authorized 
to  make  these  changes,  and  except  in  the  correction 
of  palpable  typographical  errors,  as  above  noticed,  it 
would  seem  that  they  should  no  more  be  meddled  with 
than  should  those  other  readings  which  form  the  body 
of  the  text.  Both  came  originally  from  the  same 
translators,  and  both  were  intended  to  be  of  equal  au- 
thority. This  fact  at  once  places  them  above  the  rank 
of  mere  commentary,  and  renders  their  study  most  im- 
portant. Ruth  i,  20,  for  example,  is  almost  meaning- 
less as  commonly  printed;  but  when  opposite  "Nao- 
mi" we  read  "that  is,  Pleasant,"  and  opposite  "Ma- 
ra," "  that  is,  Bitter,"  we  see  at  once  a  beauty  in  the 
passage  of  which  otherwise  we  could  form  no  idea. 
So,  also,  with  strength  of  expression.  Verse  13  of  the 
same  chapter  is  made  much  stronger  when,  instead  of 
"it  grieveth  me  much  for  your  sakes,"  we  read,  "I 
have  much  bitterness  for  your  sakes."  Job  xvi,  3,  is 
wonderfully  strengthened  if  we  adopt  the  Hebrew 
idiom — never  mind  if  the  English  is  not  so  good — and 
instead  of  "vain  words,"  read  "words  of  wind." 
So  when,  in  Job  v,  7,  we  read  "sons  of  the  burning 
coal"  instead  of  "  sparks,"  we  at  once  see,  better  than 
by  any  commentary  ever  written,  the  metaphorical 
character  of  Old-Testament  poetry,  and  thenceforth 
can  read  the  poetical  books  with  vastly-increased  ap- 
preciation. 

VII.  Chapter  and  Verse. — Among  the  Jews,  witli 
whom  the  only  divisions  of  the  Scripture  was  into 
books,  according  to  authorship,  references  were  made 
by  citing  the  subject  treated  of  near  where  the  passage 
quoted  was  to  be  found.  In  this  way  Jesus  referred 
the  Sadducees  to  what  we  call  Exodus  iii,  6,  as  we  see 
by  Mark  xii,  26.  The  meaning  here  is  not  that  God 
spoke  to  Moses  in  the  bush,  for  the  text  says  that  he 
spoke  to  him  out  of  it-  but  rather,  "  Have  ye  not  read 
in  the  Book  of  Moses,  in  The  Bush,  how  God  spake 
unto  him?"  that  is,  "in  that  part  of  the  Book  of  Moses 
called  The  Bush."  "  I  may  observe,"  says  Arch- 
bishop Trench,  "that  Romans  xi,  2,  is  a  quotation  of 
the  same  kind.  It  can  never  mean  'of  Elias,'  as  in 
our  version,  but  is  rather  'in  [the  history  of]  Elias,' 
in  that  portion  of  Scripture  which  tells  of  him."  The 
Koran  is  quoted  by  this  means  now.  Its  chapters  are 
called  from  their  subjects  by  such  names  as  "The 
Cow,"  "Thunder,"  "Smoke,"  "The  Moon,"  "Di- 
vorce," "The  Spider,"  "The  Resurrection,"  "The 
Slanderer,"  and  so  on. 

The  division  into  chapters  Avas  made  by  a  cardinal, 
Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro,  about  the  year  1250.  He  was 
employed  in  compiling  a  Latin  Concordance,  the  first 
of  which  we  have  any  account,  and  invented  this  divi- 
sion to  facilitate  his  labor.  The  Boole  of  Psalms  is 
naturally  divided.  Paul  quotes  "  the  second  Psalm" 
and  "  another  Psalm"  in  Acts  xiii,  33,  35.  The  chap- 
ters having  been  marked,  greater  precision  was  ob- 
tained by  putting  capital  A,  B,  C,  and  so  on,  at  regu- 


5         AUTHORIZED  VERSION 

lar  distances  down  in  the  margin,  so  that  any  passage 
near  the  beginning  of  a  chapter  would  be  quoted;  u% 
for  example,  "John,  10,  A;"  further  down,  "Jeremi- 
ah, 14,  D,"  and  so  on.  The  early  English  versions  all 
showed  this  arrangement,  and  Marbeck's  Concordance, 
the  first  one  in  English,  makes  its  references  in  this 
manner.  These  smaller  divisions  by  letters  were  in- 
convenient, because  they  were  not  made  by  any  sys- 
tem, and  in  different  translations  were  of  different 
lengths.  The}'  generally  embraced  about  six  or  seven 
verses  under  one  letter.  The  divisions  into  chapters 
were  not  uniform  ;  at  least  they  are  not  so  in  our  early 
English  translations.  Wj'cliffe,  for  instance,  divides 
Jude  into  two  chapters;  and  Coverdale  makes  thirty 
chapters  in  1  Chronicles  by  dividing  the  fourth  chap- 
ter into  two.  Very  frequently  in  the  Pentateuch  and 
Job,  and  occasionally  elsewhere,  there  is  a  difference 
of  one  to  four  verses  in  the  beginning  of  a  chapter. 
Where  this  is  the  case,  too,  our  version  often  makes 
the  division  in  the  worst  place. 

The  divisions  into  verses  were  made  by  several  per- 
sons. About  1430  Rabbi  Mordecai  Nathan  divided 
the  Hebrew  Bible  thus,  using  Cardinal  Hugo's  chap- 
ters. In  1527  a  Latin  Bible  was  published  at  Lyons 
in  which  this  division  of  the  Old  Testament  Avas  fol- 
lowed, and  the  New  Testament  also  divided,  but  into 
verses  averaging  twice  as  long  as  ours.  But  our  pres- 
ent arrangement  in  this  part  of  the  Scriptures  was 
made  about  1550,  by  Robert  Stephens,  a  printer  of 
Paris,  who  executed  the  work  while  making  a  horse- 
back journey  from  Lyons  to  Paris.  This  was  done 
only  as  an  advertisement  for  an  edition  of  the  Testa- 
ment he  soon  after  published  in  Greek,  with  two  Latin 
versions.  The  circumstances  under  which  the  work 
was  done  effectually  prevented  the  exercise  of  any 
scholastic  or  critical  care  or  ability.  But,  though  the 
Old  Testament  was  divided  first,  no  edition  of  it  in 
Hebrew  was  printed  thus  till  1661.  The  first  English 
Scripture  printed  with  verses  was  the  Testament  print- 
ed at  Geneva,  1557,  and  in  1560  the  whole  Bible  at  the 
same  place.  The  Bishops'  Bible,  next  in  order,  pub- 
lished in  1568,  had  them,  but  also  had  the  marginal 
guide  letters,  as  in  the  earlier  translations,  and  in  its 
marginal  references  it  uses  the  letters  instead  of  the 
verses.  In  the  next  Protestant  translation,  King 
James's,  or  our  present  one,  the  letters  are  altogether 
omitted.  It  seems  never  to  have  been  considered  that 
the  division  into  verses  superseded  chapters;  but  real- 
ly a  reference  to  Luke  243  would  be  much  shorter  than 
to  Luke  xii,  13.  The  Psalms  are,  by  their  structure, 
naturally  divided  into  verses.  But  yet  our  transla- 
tions are  not  uniform  in  this,  even  here.  Psalm  xlii, 
for  instance,  is  in  Coverdale's  Bible  made  one  para- 
graph; Matthew's,  twelve  verses ;  Cranmer's,  fifteen, 
Geneva  and  Bishops',  eleven ;  and  the  Douay,  twelve. 
In  Cranmer's  Bible  each  of  the  alphabetical  sections 
of  Psalm  cxix  is  numbered  independently,  1  to  8. 

From  all  this  it  appears  that  these  divisions  have  no 
divine  warrant  whatever,  were  carelessly  made,  and 
should  be  disregarded  in  seeking  the  sense  of  any  part 
of  Scripture.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  best  Bibles 
for  common  use  are  those  called  Paragraph  Bibles,  in 
which  the  matter  is  reduced  to  ordinary  prose  form, 
except  in  the  poetical  books,  which  are  printed  in 
short  lines,  so  as  to  show  their  poetic  structure.  Un- 
fortunately, but  few  editions  are  thus  published.  The 
Religious  Tract  Society  of  London  issue  a  few;  one  in 
12mo,  some  thirty  years  ago,  was  the  best.  One  they 
have  recently  got  out,  in  royal  8vo,  with  notes  and 
maps,  has  all  the  parallel  passages,  and,  though  very 
useful,  is  so  encumbered  with  reference  marks  in  the 
text  as  to  distract  the  reader's  attention  constantly. 
Rev.  T.  W.  Coit  published  a  very  good  one  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  1834.  Before  that,  others  had  been  got 
out  at  Oxford,  chiefly  objectionable  as  not  showing  the 
poetic  form  of  some  parts.  One  of  the  most  useful 
Paragraph  Bibles  to  the  English  student  is  that  of 


AUTHORIZED  VERSION 


566 


AUTOCEPHALT 


Bishop  Wilson,  Bath,  1785,  3  vols.  4to ;  but  it  labors 
under  the  disadvantage  just  spoken  of. 

After  all.  the  I  .est  way  of  making  references  would 
have  been  by  a  system  like  the  "folios"  of  the  law- 
yers.  Put  a  special  mark  at  every  hundredth  -word, 
and  a  corresponding  number  in  the  margin,  and  you 
ha\  >■  not  only  a  ready  means  of  reference  but  a  guard 
against  changes  in  the  text,  and  are  yet  at  full  liberty 
to  print  the  matter  either  as  prose  or  poetry,  without 
distracting  the  eye  or  breaking  the  sense  in  the  slight- 
est degree.  It  is,  however,  too  late  to  do  this  with 
our  present  version.  As  the  next  best  thing,  more 
Paragraph  Bibles  should  be  printed,  in  all  respects 
like  other  books,  except  that  the  commencement  of 
each  verse  may  be  shown  by  a  very  small  mark  in  the 
body  of  the  line,  and  its  number  in  the  margin  oppo- 
site"— Christian  Advocate  (N.  Y.).     See  Bible. 

VIII.  Literature. — 1.  On  the  history  of  the  subject: 
Baber,  Account  of  Saxon  and  English  Versions  (in  his 
ed.  of  Wycliffe's  N.  T.) ;  Newcome,  English  Biblical 
Translations,  etc  fDubl.  1792);  Tomline,  Engl.  Trans- 
lation  of  the  Bible  (in  his  Christ.  Theol.  ii);  Timperley, 
in  his  Encycl.  of  Typographical  A  necdote,  passim  ;  Wil- 
son, Catalogue  of  Bibles,  etc.  (Lond.  18-15)  ;  Hewlet, 
in  his  Bible,  p.  1;  M'Clure,  77/c  Translators  Revieiced 
(N.  Y.  1853).  2.  On  the  criticism  of  the  present  and 
proposed  versions :  Macknis;ht  On  the  Epistles,  i ; 
Campbel  On  the  Gospels,  ii,  141,  241  ;  Broughton, 
Works,  p.  557,  575;  Fulke,  Defence,  etc.  (reprinted  for 
the  Parker  Soc,  Camhr.  1843);  Kilburn,  Dangerous 
Errors,  etc.  (Lond.  10'59) ;  Lee,  Memorial,  etc.  (Edinb. 
1824);  Curtis,  The  Monopoly,  etc.  (Lond.  1833;  an- 
swered by  Cardwell  [Oxf.  1833],  and  Tutton  [Cambr. 
1833,  again  1834]);  Whetenhall,  Scripture  Authentic 
(Lond.  168G);  Gell,  Essay  toward  Amendments,  etc. 
(Lond.  1659);  Le  Cene,  Essay  for  a  New  Translation 
(Lond.  1727) ;  Lookup,  Erroneous  Translations,  etc. 
(Lond.  1739)  ;  Bret>,  Letter,  etc.  (Lond.  1743  ;  enlarged, 
1760;  also  in  Bp.  Watson's  Tracts);  Penn,  Mistrans- 
lations, etc.  (in  his  Tracts  [1757],  p.  367);  Garnham, 
Letter  to  Dp.  of  Norwich  (Lond  17*9)  ;  Roberts,  Cor- 
r>  ctions,  etc.  (Lond.  1794)  ;  Ward,  Errata,  etc.  (Lond. 
1688 ;  Dublin,  1807 ;  replied  to  by  Ryan  [Dublin, 
1808],  and  Grier  [Lond.  1812])  ;  White",  Sermon,  etc. 
(Oxf.  1779,  p.  24)  ;  Symonds.  Observations,  etc.  (Cambr. 
1789-94);  Burgess,v#e«soras,  etc.  (Durham,  1810);  We- 
niyss,  l;ibrc,il  i,h  anings  (York,  1816);  Fuller,  Remarks, 
etc.  {Works,  p.  990);  Burges,  Reasons,  etc.  (Lond. 
1819);  Whittaker,  Inquiry,  etc.  (Lond.  1819,  1820); 
Hurwitz,  Defence,  etc.  (Lond.  1820);  Laurence,  Re- 
marks, etc.  (Oxf.  1820) ;  Harness,  State  of  the  Engl. 
Bible  ( Lond.  1856)  ;  Malan,  Vindication,  etc.  (Lond. 
1856);  Iliff,  Plea,  etc.  (Lond.  1856);  Cumming,  Bible 
/,'.  v 'sin,,  i  Lond.  1856) ;  Baber,  Plea,  etc.  (Lond.  1857 ) ; 
M'<  !aul,  Reasons,  etc.  (Lond.  1857)  ;  Burgess,  Revision, 
etc.  i  Lond.  1857);  Trench,  Revision, etc.  (new  ed.  Lond. 
1859). 

I  In'  following  are  the  principal  editions  referred  to 
in  tliis  article  (see  also  Bagster's  "  English  Hexapla," 
containing  the  versions  of  Wyclifte,  Tyndale,  Cran- 
mer,  <  lenevan,  Anglo-Khemish,  Authorized,  etc.,  Lond. 
1841,  Ito;  also  the  exact  reprint  of  the  A.  V.  of  1611, 
issued  from  the  Clarendon  Press,  1833,  4to). 

I.  Anglo-Saxon. 
ton,  original,,  with  translation  and  note-  bv  Thorpe 

(Loll, I.    1  -:..'. 

Vbp.  Parker  (Lond.  1671,  4to> ;  by  Thorpe 
(Lond.  1342,  12mo). 

Latin-Saxon,  ed.  by  Spehnan  (Lond.  1640,  4to);  bv 

4.  Job,  etc.,  Anglo-Saxon,  ed.  bj  Thwaites  (Oxford,  1699, 8  vo). 

II.   l'.Aia.v   Bnoi.ii  ii. 

1.  Wv.i.nri::  Bible  (ed.by  Forahall  and  Madden,  Oxf.  1880, 

4  vol,-.   11,,);   .\'.i/'   T'si.  ,.-  W,,nn„.  15_'.\  sv,,  [oxactly  re- 
printed at  i.oti.1.  KX}:  c.,i,,hti(.  .•■],,]  Wciin  ,  15  :..  tto: 

nl-o  III    li'.'O,    i:,.'7,    l'.Js.    I  .VIM;    ,.1.   |,v   l.rwi,,    I.,,n(l     W.'A, 

f,,l.:  by  Baber,  Lond.  1810,  Ito). 

2.  Tvmialk  :  Hew  Teat.  (Ante.  1534, 12mo ;  altered  by  Joyce, 


Antw.  1534, 16mo)  :  Matth.  and  Mark  (1534) ;  the  rest  un- 
certain. 

3.  Coverpale:   Bible  (?  Zurich,  1535,  fol.  [reprinted  by  Bol- 

ster, Lond.  4to,  1835, 1S47] ;  fol.  and  4to,  1537  ■   Zur  and 
Lond.  4to,  1550  [and  1553] I. 

4.  Matthew  (i.  e.  John  Rogers) :  Bible  (fol.  Lond.  1537,  1549 

twice,  1551  twice). 

5.  Cbanmek's:  Bible  (fol.  Lond.  1539,  1540,  1541,  1549  twice; 

4to,  1550, 1552, 1553  ;  fol.  155s  ;  4to,  1501 ;  iol.  15.0, 1500  ; 
8vo,15G6;  4to,  15GS, "  150.0. 

6.  Taverner:  Bible  (fol.  Lond.  1539;  5  vols.  Svo,  1549). 

7.  Genevan:  Bible  (Geneva,  4 to,  1500,  fol.  1501;  4to.  15(19, 

1570,  1575,  Lond.  fol.  1570,  1577.  157s'.  Edinb.  1579.  fol  ■ 

Lond.  4to.  1579,  15S0,  15S1 ;   Svo,  15S1 ;  fol.  15s-.'.  ir,s:;; 

4to,  15S5,  15S6,  Svo,  15SG  ;  4to.  1587,  15S^,  15s"'.  l.v  o, 

Svo,  (Jamb.  1591  ;  fol.  Lond.  1512;  Svo,  1593,  4to,  1594; 

fol.  and  4to,  1595;  4to,  1590;  fol.  15:i7.  4to,  1598,  1599, 

1000,  Dort,  1601,  lOmo;   Lond.  fol.  1002;  4to  and  Svo, 

1003,  1G0G;  fol.,  4to,  and  Svo,  1G07;  4to  and  8vo,  1608; 

4to,  1009;  fol.,  4to,  and  Svo,  1G10;   fol.  and  4to,  1611; 

Edinb.  fol.  1610;  Lond.  4to,  1013,  1014,  1615;  fol.  1616; 

Amst.   fol.   161T;   4to,  1633,  etc.):  Sciv  Test.  (Geneva, 

155T,  Svo). 
S.  Bishops'  (or  Parker's) :  Bible  (Lond.  4to,  156S  ;  4to,  1509; 

fol.  1572;  4to,  1573;  fol.  1574,  1575,  4to,  1570,  1577;  fol. 

157 S,  15S4:  4to,  15S4;   fol.  15S5,  15Ss,  1591,  15(5,  159s, 

1602,1606). 
9.  Beza's  Lat.  tr.  by  Tomson  :  New  Test.  (Lond.  157C,  Svo)  ; 

afterward  in  many  '•'•Genevan"  Bibles. 

III.  King  James's. 
The  editions  of  this  have  been  innumerable  (see  the  Appendix 
to  Anderson's  Annals  of  the  Bible,  Lond.  ed.). 

The  following  are  some  of  the  attempts  at  an  im- 
proved English  version  of  the  Scriptures  (not  includ- 
ing those  for  critical  purposes  contained  in  commen- 
taries, etc.)  :  Harwood,  ATew  Test.  (Lond.  1768,  2  vols. 
8vo)  ;  Purver,  Old  and  New  Test.  (Lond.  1764,  2  vols, 
fol);  Worsley,  New  Covenant  (Lond.  1770,  8vo) ;  Ged- 

;  des,  Bible  [Gen.  to  Ruth]  (Lond.  1792-1800,  3  vols. 
4to)  ;  Wakefield,  New  Test.  (Lond.  1795,  2  vols.'  8vo); 
Newcome,  New  Covenant  (Duhl.  1796,  2  vols.  8vo); 
McKae,  Eastern  Bible  (Lond.  1799,  8vo;  Glasg.  1815, 
4to,  and  3  vols.  8vo)  ;  Tomlinson,  Attempt,  etc.  (Lond. 
1803,  8vo) ;  Bellamy,  Bible  (incomplete,  Lond.  1818 
sq.,  4to;  severely  criticized);  Webster,  Bible  (N.  H. 
1833,  Svo) ;  Penn,  New  Covenant  (Lond.  1836,  8vo) ; 
Greaves,  Gospel,  etc.  (Lond.  1828, 18mo);  Hussey,  Bi- 
ble (Lond.  1844,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  Cambpell,  New  Test. 
(3d  ed.  Bethany,  Va.  1833,  24mo)  ;  Sawyer,  New  Test. 
(Bost.  1858,  8vo) ;  Boothroyd,  Bible  (Lond.  1853,  royal 
8vo)  ;  Norton,  Gospels  (Bost.  1855,  Svo)  ;  and  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Am.  [Bapt.]  Bible  Union  (q.  v.).  See 
English  Versions. 

Autocephali  (avroiek^aXoi),  a  term  applied,  in 

|  the  Greek  Church,  to  bishops  not  subject  to  patriarchal 
jurisdiction.      Such  were,  in  the  Greek  Church,  the 

;  Archbishop  of  Bulgaria  and  some  other  metropolitans, 
who  claimed  to  be  independent  of  the  see  of  Constanti- 
nople; in  the  Church  of  Antioch,  the  Archbishop  of 
Salamis,  in  Cyprus  ;  and  among  the  Latins,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Ravenna,  who  denied  all  dependence  on  the 
popes.  Such  also  was  the  ancient  liberty  of  the  Brit- 
ish Church,  of  which  the  remaining  seven  bishops,  in 
the  time  of  St.  Augustine,  acknowledged  no  superior 
but  the  Archbishop  of  Caerleon  (Spelman,  Con.  Brit. 
A.D.  601).  Originally  all  metropolitans  were  inde- 
pendent of  any  patriarch  or  exarch,  ordering  the  af- 
fairs of  their  own  province  with  their  provincial  bish- 

I  ops,  and  accountable  to  no  superior  but  a  synod  ;  but 

I  in  process  of  time  the  bishops  of  the  great  cities  of  the 
empire  arrogated  to  themselves  rights  over  the  prov- 
inces of  their  dioceses,  such  as  that  of  ordaining  metro- 
politans, convoking  the  synod  of  the  diocese,  and  of 
inspection  over  all  the  provinces  in  their  obediences. 
Such  were  the  rights  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  over  the 
diocese  of  the  vicariate  of  Rome,  or  the  suburbicarian 
churches  (6th  can.  of  Nicaja).  and  those  of  the  see  of 
Alexandria  over  Egypt,  Libya,  and  the  Thebaid.  Be- 
sides these  autocephali,  those  bishops  who  were  subject 
to  no  metropolitan,  but  were  immediately  dependent 
on  the  patriarch,  who  was  to  them  instead  of  a  metrc- 
politan,  were  so  styled.  In  the  diocese  of  Constanti- 
nople there  were  thirty-nine,  or,  as  some  accounts  have 


AUTO  DA  FE 


567 


AVARAN 


it,  forty-two  such  bishops  ;  in  that  of  Antioch,  sixteen  ; 
in  that  of  Jerusalem,  twenty-five.  The  earliest  men- 
tion of  such  bishops  is  in  the  Notifiu  of  the  Emperor 
Leo  in  the  ninth  century. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk. 
ii,  ch.  xxix,  §  1,  2,  3;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Auto  da  Fe  (Spanish,  from  the  Latin  Actus  Fi- 
dei,  "act  of  faith"),  a  ceremony  in  the  acts  of  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  in  which  condemned  heretics  were 
punished,  and  those  acquitted  of  heresy  were  released. 
The  auto  da  fo  generally  took  place  on  a  Sunday,  be- 
tween Pentecost  and  Advent,  and  very  often  on  All- 
saints'-day.  The  procession  was  headed  by  the  Do- 
minican monks,  carrying  the  banner  of  the  Inquisition. 
Following  these,  and  separated  from  them  by  a  cruci- 
fix, were  those  whom  the  Inquisition  had  pardoned. 
Next  marched  those  who  were  condemned  to  death, 
attired  in  a  peculiar  habit,  barefooted,  their  head  cov- 
ered with  a  high  cap,  on  which  were  painted  devils 
and  flames.  Finally  came  effigies  of  such  as  had  avoid- 
ed condemnation  by  flight,  and  the  coffins  of  the  vic- 
tims, painted  black,  with  images  of  devils  and  flames 
on  them.  The  march  was  closed  by  priests,  who  ac- 
companied the  procession  through  the  principal  streets 
of  the  city  as  far  as  the  church,  where  a  sermon  on 
faith  was  delivered.  The  verdict  of  the  Inquisition 
was  then  read  to  the  accused,  who  were  obliged  to 
stand  in  front  of  a  cross,  with  extinguished  tapers  in 
their  hands.  As  soon  as  the  sentence  of  death  was 
read  against  anyone,  an  officer  of  the  Inquisition  gave 
the  accused  a  slight  tap  on  the  chest  to  signify  his  sur- 
rendering the  culprit  to  the  secular  authorities.  The 
condemned  wrere  then  loaded  with  chains,  taken  to 
prison,  and  two  hours  afterward  cited  before  the  high- 
er court,  where  they  were  asked  in  what  religion  they 
preferred  to  die.  Such  as  declared  their  adherence  to 
the  Roman  Church  were  strangled,  the  others  burnt 
alive.  A  stake  was  prepared  on  the  place  of  execution 
for  each  victim.  Two  priests  invited  each  of  them  to 
make  their  peace  with  the  church,  and,  when  all  their 
efforts  failed,  solemnly  consigned  them  to  the  devil. 
The  burning  then  commenced  ;  and  the  remains  of 
such  as  were  already  dead,  together  with  the  effigies 
of  such  as  had  fled,  were  also  thrown  into  the  fire.  The 
daj'  after  the  auto  da  fe,  those  whom  the  Inquisition 
had  pardoned  were  (after  swearing  never  to  reveal 
what  had  taken  place  during  their  trial)  restored  to 
the  places  from  whence  they  had  been  taken  when  ar- 
rested. On  the  occasion  of  an  auto  da  fe,  the  Inquis- 
itors wrcre  accompanied  by  the  civil  and  military  au- 
thorities, the  nobility,  and  even  the  king  and  princes, 
while  people  of  all  ranks  crowded  to  see  the  exhibi- 
tion. No  auto  da  fe  has  taken  place  since  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  ;  and  the  sentences  after  that  time, 
up  to  the  abolition  of  the  Inquisition  in  1808  by  Joseph 
Napoleon,  were  carried  into  execution  privately,  in  the 
buildings  of  the  Inquisition.     See  Inquisition. 

Auvergne,  Guillaume  d',  bishop  of  Paris,  born 
at  Aurillac  in  the  second  half  of  the  12th  century,  died 
March  30, 1249.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  the- 
ologians and  philosophers  of  his  day,  and  undertook 
to  refute  Aristotle  on  metaphysical  questions.  He 
was  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  and  professor  of  theology, 
and  subsequently  was  called  to  the  see  of  Paris.  His 
sermons  and  essays  on  several  points  of  ethics  were 
published  by  Le  Feron  in  1G74  (2  vols.  fob). — Iloefcr, 
Biographic  Generate,  iii,  795. 

Auvergne,  Fierre  d',  or  Petri's  de  Cros,  a 
French  theologian  and  philosopher,  died  Sept.  25, 1307 
(according  to  others,  1301).  He  became,  under  the 
guidance  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  a  distinguished  theolo- 
gian and  philosopher.  He  was  doctor  of  the  Sor- 
bonne and  canon  of  the  chapter  of  Paris.  According 
to  Samarthanus  (in  Gallia  Christiana),  he  was  subse- 
quently bishop  of  Clermont.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
commentaries  to  Aristotle. — Hoefer,  Biographie  Gene- 
rale,  iii,  795. 


Auxentius.  1.  Arian  bishop  of  Milan,  A.D. 
355-374  (Sozomen,  Hist,  Eccl.  vi,  23).  He  was  tha 
leader  of  the  Arians  in  the  Western  churches.  When 
the  orthodox  bishops,  at  a  provincial  synod  held  in 
3(39,  under  the  presidency  of  Bishop  Damasus  of  Home, 
condemned  Arianism,  the}'  did  not  dare  to  pronounce 
the  anathema  against  Auxentius,  becauso  they  knew 
him  to  be  protected  by  the  favor  of  the  Emperor  Val- 
entinian  I.  Although  they  were  at  last  prevailed  upon 
by  Athanasius  to  mention  in  their  synodal  epistle  to 
the  Illyrians  the  condemnation  of  Auxentius,  the  lat- 
ter maintained  himself  in  his  see  until  his  death.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Ambrose  (q.  v.). 

2.  Abbot,  born  in  Syria,  being  the  son  of  Abdus,  who 
was  compelled  by  the  persecution  under  King  Sapor  to 
leave  his  country  and  settle  in  Syria.  In  432  Auxen- 
tius came  to  Constantinople,  where  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  royal  guards,  but  afterward  retired  to 
a  solitary  mountain  in  Bithynia,  named  ( >xius,  where, 
clothed  only  in  the  skins  of  animals,  he  led  a  life  of  the 
most  complete  austerity.  When  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon  was  convoked,  Auxentius  was  unwillingly  com- 
pelled to  attend,  and  subscribed  the  decrees.  After 
this  he  retired  to  a  more  remote  mountain,  called  Si- 
ope,  where  multitudes  of  persons  flocked  to  hear  him. 
Of  these,  many  continued  to  abide  near  him  in  cells, 
and  followed  the  example  of  his  ascetic  course  of  life 
He  died  in  470.  His  memory  is  celebrated  on  the  14th 
of  February.  —  Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccl.  vii,  21 ;  Butler, 
Lives  of  Saints,  Feb.  14  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

A'va(Heb.  Avra',  Xl?,  ruin;  Sept.  Aou«,2Kings 
xvii,  24),  also  Ivai-i  (Heb.  Ivvati ',  itHS,  same  signif. ; 
Sept.  'Aova,  2  Kings  xviii,  34 ;  xix,  13 ;  but  in  Isa. 
xxxvii,  13,  unites  with  the  preceding  word,  Avaey- 
yovyavc'i  v.  r.  Avayovyc'wa),  the  capital  of  a  small 
monarchical  state  conquered  by  the  Assyrians,  and 
from  which  King  Shalmaneser  sent  colonies  into  Sa- 
maria. The  early  Jewish  translators  (Symmachus  and 
the  Targums)  understand  it  as  a  mere  appellative;  but 
it  is  associated  with  other  proper  names  as  a  city. 
Some  take  it  for  the  river,  or  rather  the  town  which 
gave  name  to  the  river  Ahava  of  Ezra  viii,  21  (Beller- 
mann,  Handbuch,  iii,  374) ;  but  this  name  is  quite  dif- 
ferent in  the  Ilcb.  (XiriX).  Iken  (Dissent.  Philol. 
Theolcg.  p.  15i)  would  identify  it  with  the  Phoenician 
town  Avatha,  mentioned  in  the  Notitia  Vet.  Dignitatum 
Imper.  Rom.  (but  the  reading  here  is  rather  doubtful, 
see  Roland,  Palest,  p.  232  sq.) ;  or  with  the  town  of 
Abeje,  between  Beirut  and  Sidon,  which  Paul  Lucas 
mentions  as  the  seat  of  a  Druse  prince.  Michaelis 
supposes  it  to  be  the  land  of  the  Avites  between  Trip- 
oli and  Beirut,  because  they  are  described  as  worship- 
pers of  Nibhaz  (2  Kings  xvii,  31),  an  idol  which  ho 
compares  with  the  great  stone  dog  that  formerly  stood 
in  that  quarter,  on  which  account  the  Lycus  obtained 
its  name  of  Nahr  el-Kelb,  Dog  River  (comp.  Mannert, 
VI,  i,  380).  This,  however,  rests  upon  a  confusion  of 
the  A  vim  of  2  Kings  xvii,  31,  with  those  of  Deut.  ii, 
23;  Josh,  xiii,  3.  See  Avite.  Avva  or  Ivvah  was 
doubtless  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  in  the  region  indi- 
cated by  the  associated  names  (Babylon,  Cuth,  Ha- 
math,  Sepharvaim),  perhaps  somewhere  farther  east, 
in  the  direction  of  the  classical  Aria. 

Ayalonius,  Elvax,  an  apostle  of  England,  lived 
in  the  second  century.  He  preached  Christianity  to 
the  Britons,  and  converted  king  Lucius,  with  his  en- 
tire court.  This  king  sent  him  to  bishop  Eleutherus 
to  Rome,  who  made  him  bishop  of  London  about  181. 
An  "Essay  on  the  Origin  of  the  Church  of  Great  Brit- 
ain" is  attributed  to  Avalonius. — Hoefer,  Biographic 
Generate,  iii,  804, 

Av'aran  (Avapav,  Josephus  Aiipav,  Ant.  xii,  0, 1 ; 
Vulg.  Auram  and  Aharon;  prob.  of  Arabic  derivation, 
see  Grimm,  in  loc),  an  epithet  of  Eleazar,  the  brother 
of  Judas  Maccabajus  (1  Mace,  ii,  5). 


AVARICE 


568 


AVEN 


Avarice  (from  Lat.  avarus,  from  aveo,  crave,  strive 
after),  an  undue  love  of  money.  Avarice  consists  not 
merely  in  seeking  after  worldly  wealth  too  eagerly,  or 
by  unjust  means,  but  in  loving  it  excessively,  even 
though  it  be  our  own.  Avarice  is  in  its  nature  sin, 
and,  according  to  St.  Taul,  a  kind  of  idolatry.  Greg- 
ory the  Great  enumerates  seven  particular  sins  which 
spring  from  avarice,  or,  as  lie  calls  them,  "  daughters 
of  avarice,*'  viz.  treasons,  frauds,  lies,  perjuries,  rest- 
lessness, violences,  hardness  of  hearts  (.l/or.  in  Jobum, 
lili.  xxxi,  cap.  17).  The  cause  of  this,  vice  is  really 
unbelief.  It  "  is  because  men  believe  not  Providence, 
therefore  do  they  so  greedily  scrape  and  hoard"  (Bar- 
row On  the  Creed,  Sermon  I).  It  grows  by  indulgence, 
and  is  strongest  in  the  aged,  as  if,  by  a  penal  irony, 
they  who  can  least  enjoy  riches  should  most  desire 
them  OVesley,  Sei-mons,  serm.  exxx). 

Avaris  (AiVjott),  the  name  of  a  city  on  the  borders 
of  Egypt  and  Syria,  which  the  shepherd-kings  (Hyk- 
sos)  again  occupied  after  their  expulsion  from  it,  ac- 
cording to  Manetho,  as  recited  by  Josephus  (Apion,  i, 
26).  Rawlinson  {Historical  Ev.  p.  74)  thinks  it  is  a 
corruption  of  the  name  Hebrews,  who  are  referred  to  as 
being  settled  in  Goshen.     See  Abarim. 

Avatar  or  Avatara,  a  term  in  Hindoo  mytholo- 
gy for  the  incarnation  of  the  Deity.  The  number  of 
the  Avataras  mentioned  in  the  Puranas,  or  legendary 
poems  of  the  Hindoos,  is  verj'  great.  Those  of  Vishnu 
alone,  who  is  distinguished  by  the  character  of '•Pre- 
server" in  the  Trimurti,  or  triad  of  the  principal  Hin- 
doo deities,  are  stated  to  be  endless.  They  are  vari- 
ously enumerated  ;  but  all  accounts  seem  to  agree  in 
selecting  the  following  ten  as  the  most  conspicuous: 

1.  Afatsya,  the  Fish,  under  whose  form  Vishnu  pre- 
served Manu,  the  ancestor  of  the  present  human  race, 
during  a  universal  delude. 

2.  Kiirma,  the  Tortoise,  which  incarnation  Vishnu 
underwent  in  order  to  support  Mount  Mairdara,  or 
rather  the  entire  earth,  when  the  celestial  gods  and 
their  opponents  the  Asuras,  or  Daityas,  were  churning 
the  sea  for  the  beverage  of  immortality  (amrita). 

3.  Vardka,  the  Boar.  Vishnu,  with  the  head  of  a 
monstrous  boar,  is  represented  as  slaying  Hiranyaksha, 
the  chief  of  the  Asuras,  who  had  taken  possession  of 
the  celestial  regions,  and  as  uplifting  the  earth,  which 
had  been  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

4.  In  his  incarnation  as  Narasinha,  a  being  half 
man  and  half  lion,  Vishnu  killed  Hiranyakasipu,  the 
brother  of  Hiranyaksha. 

5.  The  form  of  Vdmana,  the  Dwarf,  was  assumed  by 
Vishnu  to  humble  the  pride  of  King  Bali.  He  went 
to  a  sacrifice  which  the  king  was  performing,  and  sup- 
plicated for  as  much  ground  as  he  could  measure  with 
three  steps,  which  request  being  granted,  the  dwarf 
suddenly  ^rcw  to  an  immense  size,  and  with  his  steps 
comprised  earth,  mid-air,  and  heaven. 

<i.  Vishnu  appeared  in  a  human  form,  as  Parasur- 
ama,  the  son  of  Jamadagni  and  Renuka,  in  order  to 
preserve  mankind,  and  especially  the  Brahmins,  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  military  tribe  of  the  Kshatri}^?. 

7.  Vishnu  was  born  as  the  son  of  King  Dasaratha, 
and  under  the  name  of  Rama,  in  order  to  destroj' 
Havana,  the  Daitya  sovereign  of  Ceylon,  and  other 
daemons  who  were  then  infesting  the  earth.  The  ac- 
tions of  Baina  form  the  subject  of  a  celebrated  epic 
poem  in  Sanscrit,  called  the  Ramayana,  and  attributed 
to  thr  an<  le.nl  sage  Valmiki. 

8.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  Avataras  of  Vishnu 
is  hi-  appearance  in  the  human  form  of  Kris/ma,  in 
which  lie  i-,  supposed  to  have  been  wholly  and  com- 
pletely incarnate,  whereas  the  other  Avataras  are  only 
considered  a-  emanations  from  his  being,  Krishna 
assisted  the  family  of  the  Patidavas  in  their  war  with 
the  Kunis,  and  through  them  relieved  the  earth  from 

the  wicked  men  wl ppressed  it.     The  history  of  this 

conflict  is  told  at  length  in  the  Mahabbarata,  another 
great  epic  poem  in  Sanscrit. 


9.  Buddha  is,  by  the  followers  of  the  Brahminical  re- 
ligion, considered  as  a  delusive  incarnation  of  Vishnu, 
assumed  by  him  in  order  to  induce  the  Asuras  to  aban- 
don the  sacred  ordinances  of  the  Vedas,  by  which  they 
lost  their  strength  and  supremacy. 

10.  Kalki  is  the  name  of  an  Avatara  in  which  Vishnu 
will  appear  at  the  end  of  the  Kaliyuga,  or  present  age 
of  the  world,  to  destroy  all  vice  and  wickedness,  an'd  to 
restore  the  world  to  virtue  and  purity. — Penny  Cyclopce- 

I  dia.     See  Buddhism  ;  Hixdooism. 

Ave  Maria  or  Ave  Mary  {Hail,  Mary!),  the 
angel  Gabriel's  salutation  of  the  Virgin  Mary  when 
he  brought  her  the  tidings  of  the  incarnation  (Luke  i, 
28).     It  is  now  a  prayer  or  form  of  devotion  in  the 
,  Romish  Church,  called  the  Angelic  Salutation  (q.  v.), 
:  and  used  to  invoke  the  aid  of  Mary.     The  chaplcts 
and  rosaries  arc  divided  into  so  many  Ave-Marys  and 
so  many  Pater-noster?.     The  papists  ascribe  a  won- 
derful efficacy  to  the  Ave.  Mary.     'I  he  following  is  the 
prayer:  "Hail,  Mary,  full  of  grace,  the  Lord  is  with 
thee ;  blessed  art  thou  among  women,  and  blessed  is 
the  fruit  of  thy  womb,  Jesus.     Holy  Mary,  mother  of 
Cod,  pray  for   us   sinners,  now,  and  in   the   hour  of 
I  death.     Amen."     The  practice  of  using  this  prayer  at 
all  is  not  older  than  the  eleventh  century,  and  its  use 
before  sermon  is  to  be  traced  to  the  fifteenth  century, 
when  Vincentius  Ferrerius,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  be- 
,  gan  to  use  it  before  his  sermons,  from  wdiose  example 
;  it  gained  such  authority  as  not  only  to  be  prefixed  to 
!  sermons,  but  to  be  joined  to  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the 
Roman  breviary. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  xiv,  ch. 
iv  ;  Farrar,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen 
Lexikon,  s.  v.     See  Rosary. 

A'ven  (Heb.  id.,  ""iX,  nothingness ,  hence  iniquity, 
as  often,  especially  idolatry,  and  so  concretely  an  idol 
itself,  as  in  Isa.  lxvi,  3),  a  contemptuous  name  given 
to  three  places  on  account  of  the  idolatry  practised 
there.     See  also  Ben-om. 

1.  (Sept.  '£})'.)  A  plain  (pVpZ,  bikah,',  ralhy),  "  the 
plain  of  the  sun,"  of  Damascene  Sj'ria,  mentioned  by 

!  Amos  (i,  5)  in  his  denunciation  of  Aram  (Syria)  and 
j  the  country  to  the  north  of  Palestine.  It  is  usually 
supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  plain  of  Baalbek,  or 
valley  of  Baal,  where  there  was  a  magnificent  temple 
dedicated  to  the  sun.  See  Baalbek.  Being  between 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  it  is  supposed  by  Rosen- 
midler  and  others  (in  loc.)  to  be  the  same  plain  or  val- 
ley that  is  mentioned  as  "the  valley  of  Lebanon"  in 
Josh,  xi,  17  (comp.  Gesenius,  Thes,  Heb.  p.  52).  Some, 
however,  would  rather  seek  Aven  in  the  plain  four 
leagues  from  Damascus  toward  the  desert,  where  Mi- 
chaelis  (Xotes  on  Amos)  heard  from  a  native  of  Damas- 
cus of  a  valley  near  that  city  called  Un,  and  he  quotes 
a  Damascene  proverb  referring  thereto ;  but  this  lo- 
cality lacks  confirmation  (see  Henderson,  in  loc);  fcr 
the  information  was  at  best  suspicious,  and  has  not 
been  confirmed,  although  the  neighborhood  of  Damas- 
cus has  been  tolerably  well  explored  by  Burckhardt 
(A pp.  iv)  and  by  Porter.  The  prophet,  however,  would 
seem  to  be  alluding  to  some  principal  district  of  the 
country  of  equal  importance  with  Damascus  itself;  and 
so  the  Sept.  have  understood  it.  taking  the  letters  as  if 
pointed,  ""S,  Cn,  and  expressing  it  in  their  version  as 
"the  plain"  of  On,  by  which  they  doubtless  intend 
the  great  plain  of  Lebanon,  Ccele-Syria,  in  which  the 
renowned  idol-temple  of  Baalbek  or  Heliopolis  was  sit- 
uated, and  which  still  retains  the  very  same  name  by 
which  Amos  and  Joshua  designated  it,  el-Buha'a.  The 
application  of  Aven  as  a  term  of  reproach  or  contempt 
to  a  nourishing  idol-sanctuary,  and  the  play  or  paro- 
nomasia therein  contained,  is  quite  in  keeping  with  the 
ir>inner  of  Amos  and  of  Hosea.  The  latter  frequently 
applies  the  very  same  word  to  Bethel.    See  Bki'iiaven. 

2.  (Sept.  'HAioi'ttoXic,  Eng.  marg.  "Heliopolis.") 
Another  name  for  ( >x  (q.  v.)  in  Egypt  (Ezek.  xxx,  17). 
The  intention  of  the  prophet  is  doubtless  to  play  upon 


AVEXARIUS 


569 


AVITE 


the  name  in  the  same  manner  as  Amos  and  Hosea. 
See  No.  1,  above. 

3.  (Sept.  JQv.)  A  shorter  form  (Amos  x,  8)  of  Beth- 
aven  (q.  v.)  or  Bethel. 

I  Avenarius,  John,  a  Protestant  theologian,  born 
.at  Eger  in  1520,  died  at  Zeitz,  Dec.  5,  1590.  After 
having  been  in  succession  pastor  at  Plauen,  Gessnitz, 
Schoenfels,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at 
Jena,  and  in  1575  became  superintendent  at  Zeitz. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  celebrated  Prayer-book,  which 
went  through  a  great  number  of  editions  (Strasburg, 


Avila,  Juan  de,  a  famous  Spanish  preacher,  sur- 
named  the  "Apostle  of  Andalusia,"  because  he  spent 
40  years  of  his  life  in  preaching  to  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages of  Andalusia,  was  born  in  1500  at  Almodovar 
del  Campo,  in  New  Castile,  and  died  May  10,  1509. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  religious  works,  which 
are  still  held  in  great  esteem  by  Roman  Catholics.  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works,  together  with  a  biogra- 
phy, was  published  by  Martin  Kuiz  under  the  title 
Vida  y  Obras  de  Juan  de  A  rili,  predicador  apostolico  de 
VAndahma  (Madrid,  1618,  2  vols.  4to,  reprinted  in 
1757).  A  French  translation  of  his  works  was  pub- 
lished by  Arnauld  d'Andilly  (Paris,  1073,  fol.),  and  a 


1578,  etc.),  and  was  translated  by  Zader  into  Latin 

He  also  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar  and  Dictionary,  J  Qe^an  bv  Schermer  ( 
and  several  other  works. — lloefer,  Biographic  Gene-  \ 

rale,  iii,  826.  A'vim  (Heb.  Avvim',  with  the  article,  b^Stt,  the 

Avenger  of  Blood  (biti,  goeV ,  fully  Gin  ixa),  I  ruins,  or  the  Avmtet1  tower ;  Sept.  Aiifi  v.  r.  Aveiv),  a 
a  term  applied  to  the  nearest  relative  of  a  murdered  I  «tv  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  between 
person,  inasmuch  as  he  had  the  right,  and  on  him  de-  !  Bethel  and  P?rah  (J?sb-  svnl:  2:3)-  ?  'Wl,avc  been 
volved  the  obligation  of  killing  the  murderer  (2  Sam. 


xiv,  7,  11)  wherever  he  met  him  (outside  an}'  of  the 
cities  of  refuge).  Respecting  this  custom,  universal 
among  the  Hebrews  from  the  earliest  times  (Gen.  x, 
14;  xxvii,  45),  as  among  other  nations  of  antiquity 
(e.  fr.  the  Greeks  ;  see  Welker,  p.  301  sq. ;  Wachsmuth, 
ITellen.  Alterth.  iii,  241,  2*4:   the  inhabitants  of  Tra- 


so  named  as  having  been  settled  by  the  Avites  (q.  v.) 
when  expelled  from  Philistia,  although  it  is  uncertain 
whether  they  penetrated  so  far  into  the  interior  of  the 
country  (Keil, Comment,  in  loc).  The  associated  names 
afford  a  conjectural  location  eastward  of  Bethel,  and  it 
is  possibly  the  same  with  Ai  (q  v  ).  See  Avite. 
Avis  or  Aviz,  knights  of  a  military  order  of  Por- 


chonitis;  see  Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  9,  1),  and  in  the  East  tugal  (order  of  St.  Benito  de.  Ariz),  instituted  by  Al- 
to this  day  among  the  Arabians,  Persians,  Abyssini-  !  phonso  I,  in  1147  or  1162,  in  commemoration  of  the 
ans,  Druses,  Circassians,  etc.  (see  Chardin,  iii,  417  sq. ;  capture  of  Evora  from  the  Moors,  whence  the  knights 
Niehuhr,  Beschr.  p.  33  sq. ;  Reisen,  ii,  430  ;  East  Ind.  !  of  this  order  were  at  first  called  knights  of  Santa  Ma- 
Mission.  Her.  iii,  491 ;  Burckhardt,  Trav.  ii,  872, 1011 ;  ria  oV Evora.  They  were  afterward  styled  the  Knights 
Lobo,  Relation  d1  Abyss,  p.  123  sq.),  the  Jewish  law-  :  of  Avis,  from  a  place  of  that  name 
giver,  in  order  to  restrain  its  abuse,  appointed  (Exod.  j  where  they  built  a  fortress.  These 


xxi,  13 ;  Numb,  xxxv,  9  sq. ;  Deut.  xix,  1  sq. ;  comp. 
Joseph.  Ant.  iv,  7,  4)  six  cities  of  refuge  (B5J3Q  ^S') 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  to  which  the  man- 
slayer  might  have  recourse,  and  where,  if  his  offence 
had  not  been  premeditated,  he  might  remain  in  safety 
till  the  death  of  the  high-priest  at  that  time  acting 
should  release  him  from  the   danger  of  retribution, 


knights  followed  the  rule  of  Cv- « 
teaux,  with  some  variations,  and  1' 
their  duty  was  to  defend  the  true 
faitli  by  force  of  arms,  to  keep 
chastity,  and  to  wear  a  religious 
dress,  consisting  of  a  scapulary 
and  hood,  so  made  that  it  did 
not  hinder  their  fightine.  Their 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wilful  murderer  w^s  to  |  dresg  of  ceremonv  is  a  white 
be  in  any  case  surrendered  to  the  pursuer  for  ven-  Lloak  havm  on  [he  left  side  a 
geance.  _  It  however,  the  man-slayer  quitted  the  city  ;  „0S8  1kur_de_(;,^  at  the  foot  of 
(Deut.  xix,  6),  or  even  went  beyond  the  prescribed  l.m-  |  which'  are  twQ  b'irdg  Jn  their 
its  of  its  environs  (Numb,  xxxv,  25  sq.),  the  avenger  I  armo].ial  ))eari        they  alg0  hav 


might  kill  him  with  impunity.  See  Asylum.  A 
similar  provision  prevailed  among  the  Athenians  (see 
Wachsmuth,  Hellen.  Alterth.  II,  i,  263;  Hefter,  Athen. 
Gerichtsverf,  p.  136)  for  the  rescue  of  the  accidental 
man-slayer.  (See  generally  Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  ii, 
401  sq.  ;  vi,  32  sq. ;  Hoffmann,  in  the  Hall.  Encycl.  xi, 
89  sq. ;  Jahn,  Archaol.  II,  ii,  372  sq.)  —  Winer,  'i,  189. 
See  Blood-revenge. 

Avera.     See  Aara. 

Avesta.     See  Zend-Avesta. 


two  birds  and  a  tower.      They   Badge  ofthe  Order  of 

possessed  in  Portugal  about  fort}' 
commanderies,  and  since  1550  the  grand  mastership 
of  the  order  has  been  in  the  crown. — Helyot,  Ordres 
Reliy.  i,  350;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  674. 

A'vite  (Heb.  Avvi',  only  in  the  plur.  D^jlS,  gen- 
tile from  Ava),  the  name  of  two  tribes  of  people. 

1.  (Sept.  Eimloi,  Auth.  Vers.  "Avims,"  in  Deut.  ; 
Eocrioc,  "Avites"'  in  Josh.)   A  people  who  originally 


occupied  the  southernmost  portion  of  that  territory  in 
Avignon  {Avenio),  an  episcopal  see  of  France,  on  !  Palestine  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  which  the 
the  Rhone,  capital  ofthe  department  of  Vaucluse,  20  ]  Caphtorim  or  Philistines  afterward  possessed  (Deut. 
miles  N.E.  of  Nismes.  In  1348  it  passed  into  the  pos-  j  ii,  23).  They  are  usually  considered  a  branch  of  the 
session  of  Pop?  Clement  VI  and  his  successors,  and  j  Hivites,  a  people  descended  from  Canaan  (Gen.  x,  17). 
was  the  see  ofthe  pontiffs  from  Clement  X  to  Gregory  ;  See  IIivite.  As  the  territory  of  the  Avites  is  men- 
XI,  i.  e.  for  sixty  years.  Baluze's  Vies  des  Rapes  [  tioned  in  Josh,  xiii,  3,  in  addition  to  the  five  Philis- 
d'A  vignon  (1G93,  2  vols.  4to)  is  an  admirable  refutation  i  tine  states,  it  would  appear  that  it  was  not  included  in 
of  the  ultramontane  pretensions.  It  maintains  that ''  theirs,  and  that  the  expulsion  of  the  Avites  was  by  a 
the  holy  see  is  not  necessarily  fixed  at  Rome.  By  the  Philistine  invasion  prior  to  that  by  which  the  five 
Concordat  of  1801  Avignon  ceased  to  be  a  metropolis,     principalities  were   founded.      Their  territory  began 


but  by  that  of  1821  it  was  re-established.     See  Pa- 
pacy 

Several  councils  were  held  in  Avignon.  The  most 
important  were .  1,  in  1209,  in  which  29  canons  were 
adopted,  some  concerning  discipline,  and  the  others 
against  heretics  ;  the  inhabitants  of  Toulouse  were  ex- 
communicated for  not  having  expulsed  the  Albigenses ; 
2,  in  1327,  against  the  antipope  Pierre  de.  Corbiere. — 
Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  Smith,  Tables  of  Church 
Hist.  I 


at  Gaza,  and  extended  southward  to  "the  river  of 
Egypt"  (Deut.  ii,  23),  forming  what  was  the  Philistine 
kingdom  of  Gerar  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  when  we 
do  not  hear  of  any  other  Philistine  states.  There 
were  then  Avites,  or  Hivites,  at  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiv, 
2),  and  wc  afterward  find  them  also  at  Gibeon  (Josh. 
ix,  7),  and  beyond  the  Jordan,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Hermon  (Josh,  xi,  3)  ;  but  we  have  no  means  of  know- 
ing whether  these  were  original  settlements  of  the 
Avites,  or  were  formed  out  of  the  fragments  of  the 


AVITII 


570 


AWAKENING 


nation  which  the  Philistines  expelled  from  southern 
Palestine.  See  Gerak;  Philistine.  According  to 
Ewald  (Geschkhte,  i,  310)  and  Bertheau,  the  Avvim 
■were  the  aborigines  of  Palestine  Proper.  They  may 
have  been  so,  but  there  is  nothing  to  prove  it,  while 
the  mode  of  their  dwellings  points  rather  to  a  no- 
madic origin.  Thus  they  may  have  made  their  way 
northward  from  the  Desert  (Stanley,  Sinai  and  Pal. 
App.  §  83).  In  Dent.  ii.  23,  we  see  them  "dwelling 
in  'the'  villages"  (or  nomade  encampments — Ckat- 
-_,  rim)  in  the  south  part  of  the  "  plain,"  or  great  west- 
ern lowland,  "as  far  as  Gaza."  In  these  rich  posses- 
sions they  were  attacked  by  the  invading  Philistines, 
"the  Caphtorim  which  came  forth  out  of  Caphtor," 
and  who,  after  '-destroying"  them  and  "dwelling  in 
their  stead,"  appear  to  have  pushed  them  farther 
north.  This  must  be  inferred  from  the  terms  of  the 
passage  in  Josh.  xiii.  2,  3,  the  enumeration  of  the  rest 
of  the  land  still  remaining  to  be  conquered.  (The 
punctuation  of  this  passage  in  our  Bibles  is  not  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Hebrew  text,  which  has  a  full  stop 
at  Geshuri  [vcr.  2],  thus  :  "  This  is  the  land  that  yet 
remaineth,  all  the  herders  of  the  Philistines  and  all  the 

Geshurite.     From  Sihor even  to  the  border  of 

Ekron  northward,  is  counted  to  the  Canaanite,"  etc.) 
Beginning  from" Sihor,  which  is  before  Egypt,"  prob- 
ably the  Wady  el-Arish,  the  list  proceeds  northward 
along  the  lowland  plains  of  the  sea-coast,  through  the 
five  lordships  of  the  Philistines- — all  apparently  taken 
in  their  order  from  south  to  north — till  we  reach  the 
Avvim,  as  if  they  had  been  driven  up  out  of  the  more 
southerly  position  which  they  occupied  at  the  date  of 
the  earlier  record  into  the  plains  of  Sharon.  It  is  per- 
haps worth  notice,  where  every  syllable  has  some  sig- 
nificance, that  while  "the  Gazathite the  Ekron- 

ite,"  are  all  in  the  singular,  "the  Avvim"  is  plural. 
So  with  the  other  aboriginal  names.  Nothing  more  is 
told  us  of  this  ancient  people,  whose  very  name  is  said 
to  signify  "  ruin."  Possibly  a  trace  of  their  existence 
is  to  be  found  in  the  town  "  Avim"  (accurately,  as  in 
the  other  cases,  "the  Avvim"),  which  occurs  among 
the  cities  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii,  23),  and  which 
may  have  preserved  the  memory  of  some  family  of  the 
extinct  people  driven  up  out  of  their  fertile  plains  to 
take  refuge  in  the  wild  hills  of  Bethel ;  just  as  in  the 
"  Zemaraim"  of  the  preceding  verse  we  have  probably 
a  reminiscence  of  the  otherwise  forgotten  Zemarites. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  that  the  word  in 
this  place  is  but  a  variation  or  corruption  of  the  name 
ofAi.  SeeAviM.  The  inhabitants  of  the  north-cen- 
tral districts  of  Palestine  (Galila?ans)  were  in  later 
times  distinguished  by  a  habit  of  confounding  the  gut- 
turals, as,  for  instance.  "  with  H  (see  Lightfoot,  Chor. 
Cent.  ch.  87  .  P.uxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  col.  134).  It  is  pos- 
sible that  "^It,  Hivite,  is  a  variation,  arising  from  this 
cause,  of  ""'.  Avite,  and  that  this  people  were  known 
to  the  Israelites  at  the.  date  of  the  conquest  by  the 
name  of  Ilivitcs.  At  any  rate,  it  is  a  curious  fact  that 
both  the  Sept.  and  Vulg.  identified  the  two  names,  and 
also  that  the  town  of  ha-Avvim  was  in  the  actual  dis- 
trict of  the  Hivites,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
Gibeon,  Chephirah,  and  their  other  chief  cities  (Josh, 
ix,  7,  17.  compared  with  xviii,  22-27).  The  name  of 
the  Av\  im  lias  been  derived  from  Avva  (Ava),  or  Iv- 
vah  (  I '.ali),  as  if  they  had  migrated  thence  into  Pales- 
tine; but  there  is  no  argument  for  this  beyond  the 
mere  similarity  of  the  names.     See  Ava. 

2.  (Sept.  Rvaloi,  Auih.  Vers.  "Avites.")    The  oric-- 

iual  designati f  the  colonists  transported  from  Ava 

into  Samaria  !,\  Shalmaneser (2  Kingsxvii,  31).  Thev 
were  idolaters,  worshipping  gods  called  Nibhaz  and 
Tartak.     See  Ava. 

A'vith  (Heb.  Avith',  tVW,  nans;  Sept.  Vidaift, 
Vulg.  Avith),  a  city  of  the  Edomites,  and  the  native 
place  (capital)  of  one  of  their  kings,  Hadad  ben-Bedad, 


before  there  were  kings  in  Israel  (Gen.  xxxvi,  35;  1 
i  Chron.  i,  46,  where  the  Heb.  text  has  rVP3>j  Ayoth', 
Sept.  TfSrbafi,  v.  r.  Pf^at'/t,  EviS,  Vulg.  Avith).  It 
would  seem  to  have  been  situated  at  the  north-eastern 
extremity  of  the  range  of  Mount  Seir,  as  the  king  is 
i  stated  to  have  thence  made  a  hostile  incursion  into  the 
territory  of  his  Moabitish  neighbors  who  were  leagued' 
with  the  Midianites.  The  name  may  be  compared 
with  el-Ghoweitheh,  a  "chain  of  low  hills"  mentioned 
by  Burckhardt  (p.  375)  as  lying  to  the  east  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Kerek  in  Moab  (Knobel,  Genesis,  p.  257). 

Avltus  (properly  Fextus  Alcimus  Edicmt,  or  Ecdi- 
tius,  Avitus),  bishop  of  Vienne,  was  born  at  Vienne 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century.  At  a  religious 
disputation  between  the  orthodox  "and  Arian  theolo- 
gians in  499,  he  was  the  leading  spokesman  of  the 
orthodox,  and  gained  the  confidence  of  king  Gonde- 
baud  of  Burgundy,  whose  son  and  successor,  Sigis- 
mund,  he  converted  from  Arianism  (after  Gondebaud's 
|  death).  He  vigorously  attacked  the  Arian  heresy, 
!  both  by  writing  and  speaking,  and  presided  at  the 
I  council  of  Epaone  in  517.  He  died,  according  to  the 
commonly  received  opinion,  February  5th,  525,  al- 
though other  accounts  assign  an  earlier  date.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  learning,  and  there  are  still  extant  a 
number  of  his  letters,  homilies,  and  poems,  which  may 
be  found  in  Bib.  Max.  Patr.  ix,  560 ;  and  in  Bib.  Patr. 
Gotland,  t.  x. — Dupin,  Hist.  Eccl  Writers,  v,  4. 

Avoidance,  in  the  Church  of  England,  takes  place 
where  a  benefice  becomes  void  of  an  incumbent.  This 
happens  either  by  the  death  of  the  incumbent,  or  by 
his  beina;  appointed  to  a  preferment  of  such  a  kind  as 
necessarily  makes  the  living  vacant ;  as  when  a  cler- 
gyman is  made  a  bishop  all  the  preferments  he  holds 
fall  to  the  crown,  who  is  the  patron  for  that  time,  un- 
less there  be  some  special  dispensation  ;  or,  finally,  by 
cession,  deprivation,  or  resignation.  In  the  first-named 
instance,  which  is  avoidance  by  fact,  the  patron  must 
take  notice  of  the  avoidance  at  his  peril ;  in  the  last 
case,  which  is  avoidance  by  law,  the  ordinary  must 
give  notice  to  the  patron  to  prevent  a  lapse. 

Avrillon,  John  Baptistk  Eltas,  a  Franciscan 
(Minim),  born  at  Paris,  1652  ;  he  made  profession,  Jan- 
uary 3d,  1671,  in  the  convent  of  the  Minims  (called 
Bons-hommes)  at  Nigeon.  He  began  his  career  as  a 
preacher  in  1676,  and  continued  until  1728,  i.  c.  for 
fifty-three  years,  and  died  at  Paris,  May  16th,  1729, 
aged  seventy-eight.  He  was  much  sought  after  as  a 
preacher,  and  left  many  devotional  works,  which  are 
highly  esteemed  in  the  Roman  Church.  '1  he  follow- 
ing have  been  translated  by  the  Romanizing  party  of 
the  ( Ihurch  of  England  ;  "Conduite  pour  passer  sainte- 
ment  le  temps  de  PA  vent,"  Guide  for  passing  Advent 
holily,  with  preface  by  Dr.  Pusey  (Loncl.  1844,  12mo) ; 
J  "Conduite  pour  passer  saintement  le  Caremc,"  Guide 
for  passing  Lent  holily,  ed.  by  Pusey  (Lond.  1844, 
jl2mo);  ''LAnnee  Affective,"  The  Year  of  Affections^ 
ed.  by  Pusey  (Lond.  1845, 12m o) ;  Eucharistic  Medita- 
tions, ed.  by' Shipley  (Lond.  1862, 12mo). 

Awakening#(l)  is  used  with  regard  to  individu- 
als, and  designates  the  first  work  of  the  Spirit  in  con- 
version, i.  e.  conviction;  (2)  it  is  also  applied  to  revi- 
vals of  religion,  in  which  multitudes  of  sinners  are 
awakened.  The  state  of  sin  is  in  the  New  Testament 
represented  as  a  sort  of  sleep  or  death;  Eph.  5,  14, 
"Awake,  thou  that  sleepesf,  and  arise  fr<  m  the  dead, 
and  Christ  shall  give  thee  light."  "When  man.  then, 
is  brought  to  a  consciousness  of  his  sins,  and  to  feel 
sorrow  and  contrition  on  account  of  them,  and  these 
arc  followed  by  a  desire  for  the  forgiving  and  renew- 
ing grace  of  God,  and  partly  for  improvement,  the 
process  is  called  awakening.  The  expression  is  not 
found  in  the  New  Testament,  although  the  thing  itself 
is  largely  explained  therein.  The  prodigal  son  was 
awake 1  by  his  self-inflicted  poverty,  Peter  by  the 


AWAKENING 


571 


AXE 


correcting  look  of  the  Lord,  Paul  by  the  miraculous; 
apparition  of  Christ,  Judas  by  the  consequences  of  his 
betrayal,  and  many  by  the  preaching  of  Jesus  or  by 
his  miracles.  Awakening  takes  place  when  the  sin- 
ner, who  before  did  either  not  know  the  truth,  or  else 
treated  it  lightly,  becomes  strongly  impressed  with  it, 
and  gives  up  his  heart  and  mind  to  it.  Comp.  Acts 
ii,  36,  37  :  "Therefore  let  all  the  house  of  Israel  know 
assuredly  that  God  hath  made  that  same  Jesus  whom 
ye  have'  crucified  both  Lord  and  Christ.  Now  when 
thej'  heard  this  they  were  pricked  in  their  heart,  and 
said  unto  Peter  and  to  the  rest  of  the  apostles,  Men 
and  brethren,  what  shall  we  do  ?"  (Comp  also  ii,  43 ; 
iv,  4  ;  v,  11 ;  xi,  23,  24.)  One  of  the  principal  aims  of 
the  preacher  in  presenting  the  word  of  God  and  of  the 
church  in  the  exercises  of  divine  worship  is  to  produce 
the  awakening  of  sinners. 

As,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament, 
all  possible  agencies  of  deliverance  and  of  moral  im- 
provement in  humanity  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  church  holds,  and  rightly,  that  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  united  with  the  word  of 
Christian  truth,  and  also  with  visible  religious  exer- 
cises, in  the  awakening  of  sinners.  It  is  also  right  in 
considering  the  word  as  the  messenger  or  the  medium 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Awakening  may  also  result,  from 
external  changes  and  events  in  life,  by  which  truth, 
previously  received  into  the  heart  and  mind  of  the 
sinner,  after  lying  apparently  dead,  is  rendered  active, 
as  if  awakened  from  slumber,  so  that  the  sinner  him- 
self awakes  from  the  sleep  or  death  of  sin.  Among  the 
outward  causes  often  producing  awakening  are  sick- 
ness, either  our  own  or  others,  particularly  such  as  is 
the  result  of  sin ;  the  death  of  those  we  love,  or  some- 
times of  those  who  have  fallen  victims  to  their  sins  or  to 
those  of  others,  or  perhaps  have  ended  their  life  by  sui- 
cide ;  or  the  death  of  such  as  were  associated  with  us  in 
our  sinful  career  ,  also  shame  and  contumely  or  a  fall 
into  gross  sin,  either  by  ourselves  or  others,  which  dis- 
closes to  us  the  bottomless  nature  of  sin  ;  deliverance 
out  of  danger,  or,  on  the  other  h"nd,  undeserved  bless- 
ings. Intercourse  with  pious  and  good  persons,  or 
sometimes  of  the  bad,  may  lead  to  awakening.  Some- 
times the  Spirit  uses  the  memories  of  youth  and  of  its 
inexplicable  feelings  and  of  confused  impulses  ,  some- 
times solitary  meditation ;  sometimes  the  contempla- 
tion of  nature;  the  reading  of  biographies,  the  study 
of  works  of  art,  as  means  of  awakening.  Both  good 
and  evil  can  be  made  awakening  in  the  life  of  man  , 
thus  Rom.  ii,  4:  "Or  despisest  thou  the  riches  of  his 
goodness,  and  forbearance,  and  long-suffering;  not 
knowing  that  the  goodness  of  God  leadeth  thee  to  re- 
pentance?" xi,  22:  "Behold  therefore  the  goodness 
and  severity  of  God:  on  them  which  fell,  severity ; 
but  toward  thee,  goodness,  if  thou  continue  in  his 
goodness;  otherwise  thou  also  shaltbe  cutoff;"  1  Cor. 
x,  0, 11 :  "Now  these  things  were  our  examples,  to  the 
intent  we  should  not  lust  after  evil  things,  as  the)'  also 
lusted.  Now  all  these  things  happened  unto  them  for 
ensamples ;  and  they  are  written  for  our  admonition, 
upon  whom  the  ends  of  the  world  are  come." 

The  effects  produced  by  an  awakening  cause  differ 
widely,  both  for  objective  and  subjective  reasons.  In 
more  quiet  and  tranquil  natures,  its  effect  may  be 
slow  and  gentle;  in  the  more  vigorous  ones  it  is  more 
forcible,  and  often  sudden.  But  the  weaker  natures 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  more  easily  awakened  than 
stronger  ones,  while  the  latter,  though  requiring  a 
stronger  impulse,  are  more  likely  to  be  lastingly  im- 
pressed. Where  moral  self- consciousness,  or  con- 
science, is  yet  awake,  the  feeblest  awakening  can  act 
effectually  ;  but  where  conscience  has  become  be- 
numbed and  dormant,  a  more  powerful  impression  is 
required.  It  is  evident,  besides,  that  the  result  will 
be  influenced  by  a  variety  of  other  causes,  such  as  the 
more  or  less  enlightened  state  of  the  subject,  the  ener- 
gy- of  the  impulses,  the  relations  of  life,  either  favora- 


ble or  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  moral  sense, 
etc.  Of  course,  to  produce  saving  effects,  the  impres- 
sion must  be  lasting,  i.  e.  it  must  not  merely  had  to  a 
resolve  to  amendment,  but  must  work  it  out  also. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  work  of  a  moment,  but  of  a 
whole  lifetime,  through  which  the  awakening  must 
steadfastly  and  unceasingly  act.  The  sinner  must  do 
all  in  his  power  to  apply  the  prevenient  grace,  which  is 
the  source  of  the  awakening,  to  the  redemption  of  his 
soul;  for  without  the  sinner's  own  co-operation,  the 
work  of  sanctification  will  not  be  accomplished.  In 
order,  then,  to  render  the  effect  of  awakening  persist- 
ent, it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  memory  of  it  continu- 
ally in  the  soul,  and  to  connect  with  it  all  that  follows. 
We  see,  therefore,  how  great  an  obstacle  is  frivolity, 
which  never  looks  back,  but  only  considers  the  present 
or  the  future;  and  for  that  reason  the  sanguine  tem- 
perament, while  more  readily  awakened  for  a  moment, 
is  more  difficult  to  impress  lastingly ,  choleric  natures 
are  touched  easily  and  deeply,  the  melancholy  lasting- 
ly, and  the  phlegmatic  with  difficulty.  The  strength 
of  the  awakening  is  measured  by  the  inward  pains  of 
penitence,  but  cannot  be  estimated  by  the  outward 
tears  or  demonstrations,  partly  on  account  of  differ- 
ence in  .temperaments.  Sanguine  and  choleric  sub- 
jects will  be  more  demonstrative  than  phlegmatic  or 
melancholic  while  under  the  same  force  of  awakening. 
— Krehl,  Ar.  T.  Handworterbuch,  s.  v.  See  also  Con- 
viction ;  Revival. 

Awl  (l"£~i'Q,marise' ii, perforator ,  Sept.  gtt)]tioi>), 
an  instrument  for  boring  a  small  hole  (Exod.  xxi,  6 ; 
Deut.  xv,  17).  Considering  that  the  Israelites  had  re- 
cently withdrawn  from  their  long  sojourn  in  Egypt, 
there"  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  instruments  were  the 
same  as  those  of  that  country,  used  by  the  sandal- 
makers  and  other  workers  in  leather  (Wilkinson,  ii, 


Ancient  Egyptian  A 


105).  In  the  above  passages  the  word  is  employed 
in  reference  to  piercing  the  ear  as  a  sign  of  perpetual 
servitude,  which  it  seems  was  a  custom  among  other 
Oriental  nations  (Petronius.  Satyr.  102),  and  it  was  the 
practice  in  Lydia,  India,  and  Persia  to  perforate  the  ears 
of  bovs  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  gods  (Xen.  Anab. 
iii,  1,  31 ;  Plutarch,  Sympos.  ii,  1,  4).     See  Servant. 

Axe.  Several  instruments  of  this  description  are 
so  discriminated  in  Scripture  as  to  show  that  the  He- 
brews had  them  of  different  forms  and  for  various 
uses.  (1.)  "jna,  garzm'  (so  called  from  chopping), 
which  occurs  in  Deut.  xix,  5;  xx,  19;  1  Kings  vi,  7; 
Isa.  x,  15;  a'tivri,  Mitt,  iii,  10;  Luke  iii,  9;  corre- 
sponding to  the  Lat.  s"curis).  Erom  these  passages 
it  appears  that  this  kind  was  employed  in  felling  trees 
(comp.  Isa.  x,  34),  and  in  hewing  large  timber  for 
building.  The  conjecture  of  Gesenius,  that  in  1  Kings 
v,  7,  it  denotes  the  axe  of  a  stone-mason,  is  by  no  means 
conclusive.  The  first  text  supposes  a  case  of  the  head 
slipping  from  the  helve  in  felling  a  tree  (comp.  2  Kings 
vi,  5).  This  would  suggest  that  it  was  shaped  like  tig. 
3,  which  is  just  the  same  instrument  as  our  common 
hatchet,  and  appears  to  have  been  applied  by  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  to  the  same  general  use  as  with  us. 
The  reader  will  observe  the  contrivance  in  all  the  oth- 
ers (wanting  in  this)  of  fastening  the  head  to  the  haft 
by  thongs.      (2.)  nxSJiO,  madtsad'  (a  hewing  instru- 


AXE 


572 


AXLE 


Ancient  Kgyptian  Axes,  (  leaver,  and  Adzes.     From  the  Brit- 
ish Museum. 

ment),  which  occurs  only  in  Isa.  xliv,  12  (where  it  is 
rendered  "tongs")  and  Jer.  x,  3.  From  the  latter  of 
these  passages  it  appears  to  have  been  a  lighter  in- 
strument than  the  preceding,  or  a  kind  of  adze,  used 
for  fashioning  or  carving  wood  into  shape ;  it  was 
probably,  therefore,  like  tigs.  4  to  7,  which  the  Egyp- 
tians employed  for  this  purpose.  Other  texts  of  Scrip- 
ture represent  such  implements  as  being  employed  in 
carving  images,  the  use  to  which  the  prophets  refer. 
The  differences  of  form  and  size,  as  indicated  in  the 
figures,  appear  to  have  been  determined  with  reference 
to  light  or  heavy  work.  The  passage  in  Isaiah,  how- 
ever, as  it  refers  to  the  blacksmith's  operations  at  the. 
forge,  may  possibly  designate  some  kind  of  chisel. 
(3.)  n^lj?,  k'ardoni  (from  its  sharpness) ;  this  is  the 
commonest  name  for  an  axe  or  hatchet.  It  is  of  this 
which  we  read  in  Judg.  ix,  4*  ;  Psa.  lxxiv,  5  ;  1  Sam. 
xiii,  20,  21 ;  Jer.  xlvi,  22.  It  appears  to  have  been 
more  exclusively  employed  than  the  garzen  for  felling 
trees,  and  had  therefore  probably  a  heavier  head.  In 
one  of  the  Egyptian  sculptures  the  inhabitants  of  Leb- 
anon are  represented  as  felling  pine-trees  with  axes 
like  fig.  1.  See  Lebanon.  As  the  one  used  by  the 
Egyptians  for  the  same  purpose  was  also  of  this  shape, 
there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  also  in  use  among  the 
Hebrews.  (4.)  The  term  2"in,  che'rcb  (destroyer),  usu- 
ally '"a  sword,"  is  used  of  other  cutting  instruments, 
as  a  "knife"  (Josh,  v,  2),  or  razor  (Ezek.  vi,  1),  or  a 
tool  for  hewing  or  dressing  stones  (Exod.  xx,  25),  and 
is  once  rendered  "axe"  (Ezek.  xxvi,  9),  and  there 
may  probably  mean  a  heavy  cutlass,  like  fig.  2,  or  per- 
haps battle-axe,  or  possibly  even  pick-axe,  as  it  is 
there  used  to  denote  a  weapon  for  destroying  build- 
ings. (.">.)  A  similar  instrument,  3*1!!??,  kaslishil'  (J'ell- 
once  spoken  of  (Psa.  lxxiv,  (!)  as  a  battle-axe. 
1 1  also  occurs  in  the  Targum  (Jer.  xlvi,  22)  in  the 
Bense  of  broad-axe.  (6.)  Iron  implements  of  severe 
labor.  ""*:.",  magzerah'  ("axe,"  2  Sam.  xii,  31),  and 
--;:.  megi  rah'  (--axe,"  2  Chron.  xx,  3;  also  in  the 
same  verse  more  properly  "saw,"  and  in  2  Sam.  xii, 
31  ;  1  Kings  vii.  It),  were  used  by  David  in  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  inhabitants  of  Rabbah,  but  their  form  can- 
not be  made  out.  See  Saw.  (7.)  The  word  Vna, 
ban  I '.  rendered  "axe-head"  in  2  Kings  vi,  5,  is  liter- 
ally "iron;"  but,  as  an  axe  is  certainly  intended,  the 
is  valuable  as  Bhowing  that  the  axe-heads 
among  the  Hebrews  were  of  iron.  Those  which  have 
been  found  iii  Egypt  are  of. bronze, which  was  very 
anciently  and  generally  nsed  for  the  purpose.  But 
this  does  not  prove  thai  they  had  none  of  iron;  it 
seems  rather  to  suggest  thai  those  of  iron  have  been 

consul I  by  the  corrosion  <>f  three  thousand  j'ears, 

while   those   of  bronze  have  been   preserved.     See 


Helve.  (8.)  The  "  battle-axe,"  "j'B1?,  mappets'  (Jer. 
li,  20),  was  probably,  as  its  root  indicates,  a  heavy  mace 
or  maul,  like  that  which  gave  his  surname  to  Charles 
Muriel.     See  Battle-axe. 


Ancient  Assy.ian  Axe-head.     From  the  British  Museum 


The  most  common  use  of  the  axe,  as  is  well  known, 
is  to  cut  down  trees  ;  hence  the  expression  in  Matt,  iii, 
10,  and  Luke  iii,  9,  "the  axe  is  laid  at  the  root  of  the 
trees"  (comp.  Silius  Italicus,  10;  also  Virgil,  Aln.  vi, 
180;  Isa.  x,  33).  That  trees  are  a  general  symbol  of 
men  is  well  known.  See  Forest  ;  Tree.  (See  also 
Ezek.  xxxi,  3;  Dan.  iv,  7,  8;  Matt,  vii,  19;  xii,  33; 
Psa.  i,  3 ;  Zech.  xi,  1,  2).  What  John  Baptist  there- 
fore refers  to  is  probably  the  excision  of  the  Jewish 
nation.  But  there  is  a  force  in  the  preposition  used 
here  which  escapes  the  ordinary  reader :  the  expression 
;rpo£  ti)v  pi%av  ruJv  SivOpwv  Kilrai,  denotes  that  it  b:;d 
already  been  struck  into  the  tree  preparatory  to  felling 
it,  and  now  only  awaited  the  signal  for  the  utter  ven- 
geance of  Heaven.  The  axe  was  also  used  as  the  in- 
strument of  decollation,  to  which  there  is  allusion  in 
Iiev.  xx,  4,  "The  souls  of  them  that  were  leheaded 
for  the  testimony  of  Jesus,"  literally,  "cut  with  an 
axe."  Hence  the  axe  becomes  a  symbol  of  the  divine 
judgments.  Sometimes  it  is  applied  to  a  human  instru- 
ment, as  in  Isa.  x,  15,  "Shall  the  axe  boast  itself 
against  him  that  heweth  therewith  ?"  i.  e.  Shall  the 
proud  king  of  Assyria  boast  himself  against  God, 
whose  instrument  he  is  to  execute  his  purpose  ?  In 
Jer.  li,  20,  the  army  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  is  most 
probably  intended,  as  elsewhere  the  instrument  of 
God's  vengeance  is  called  a  sword,  a  rod,  a  scourge 
(see  also  Jer.  xlvi,  22).  By  axes,  which  were  a  part 
of  the  insignia  of  the  Roman  magistracy,  was  denoted 
the  power  of  life  and  death  and  of  supreme  judgment. 
Axes  were  also  used  in  war  (Sidonius,  Carm.  El.  v, 
247  ;  Horace,  Ode  iv,  4  ;  Carm.  Seait.  54 ;  Virgil,  j£n. 
ii,  480).  Axes  were  used  in  sacrifice ;  hence  called 
the  axe  of  the,  Hierophant.  These  are  seen  on  various 
coins  (Smith's  Hist,  of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Securis). 

Axel.     See  Absalon. 

Axioramus  (  k^uopa^oQ),  given  by  Josephns 
(Ant.  x,  8,  G)  as  the  son  (or  successor)  of  Isus,  and  fa- 
ther (or  predecessor)  of  Phideas,  in  the  list  of  the  Jew- 
ish high-priests,  apparently  instead  of  Jehoiada  (q. 
v.).     See  High-priest. 

Axle  occurs  only  in  1  Kings  vii,  32,  33,  as  a  trans- 


Ancient  Egyptian  • ' 

the  Axle  to  the  W 
Car. 


it,  Bhowing  the  niel 

s,  to  the  Pole,  and  to  the  Body  of  the 


AXTELL 


573 


AZAIIAZL 


lation  of  "P,  yad,  hand,  in  the  phrase  d^SBIittl  Hff, 
yedoth'  ha-ophannim' ,  Aarads  o/"  fAe  wheels,  i.  e.  their 
axle-trees,  as  in  the  Auth.  Vers. ;  Sept.  X"P££  '"  ro't' 
rpovole,  Valg.  axes.     See  Chariot. 

Axtell,  Henry,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Mendham,  N. 
J.,  June  9,  1773,  and  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1796. 
After  teaching  several  years  in  New  Jersey,  he  re- 
moved in  1804  to  Geneva,  N.  Y  ,  where  he  kept  a  clas- 
sical school.  In  1810  he  was  licensed,  and  in  1812 
called  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Geneva.  At  the 
time  of  his  ordination  in  1812,  his  church  consisted  of 
70  members ;  at  the  time  of  his  death  of  about  100. 
In  two  revivals  his  labors  had  been  particularly  bless- 
ed. He  died  Feb.  11,  1829.  His  eldest  daughter  died 
a  few  days  after  him,  and  was  placed  in  the  same 
grave. — Sprague,  A  nnals,  iv,  454. 

Ayah.  '  See  Kite. 

Aydelott,  Joseph,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  1758,  and  entered  the 
itinerant  ministry  in  the  Philadelphia  Conference  in 
1802.  After  23  years  of  active  service,  he  died  at  Phil- 
adelphia, in  May,  1824.  "Perhaps  no  man  gave  a 
more  decided  character  to  the  purity  and  excellence 
of  religion.  His  life,  as  well  as  his  preaching,  was  a 
living  comment  upon  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of 
Christ,  and  his  Master  owned  his  labors." — Minutes 
of  Conferences,  i,  47a. 

Ayir.     See  Foal. 

Ayliffe,  John,  D.D.,  fellow  of  New  College,  Ox- 
ford ;  degraded  and  expelled  for  the  publication  of  a 
work  said  to  contain  scandalous  aspersions,  entitled 
"The  Ancient  and  Present  State  of  the  University  of 
Oxford"  (2  vols.  8vo,  1714),  taken,  in  fact,  chiefly  from 
Wood's  Athene.  He  also  published  Parergon  Juris 
Canonicl  Ang'icani,  1726,  and  a  ''New  Pandect  of  the 
Roman  Civil  Law"  (Lond.  1734,  fol.),  one  of  the  most 
elaborate  works  in  English  on  the  civil  law.  —  New 
Gen.  Biog.  Diet. 

Aylrner,  John,  bishop  of  London,  born  in  1521, 
of  a  good  family,  in  Norfolk.  He  studied  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  but  chiefly  at  the  latter ;  and  after 
leaving  the  universities  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  cel- 
ebrated Lady  Jane  Grey.  In  1553  he  was  made  arch- 
deacon of  Stow,  but  on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary 
was  obliged  to  leave  England,  and  retired  to  Zurich. 
In  15G2  he  became  archdeacon  of  Lincoln,  and  in  1576 
succeeded  Sandys  in  the  see  of  London.  He  seems  to 
have  been  as  vigorously  opposed  to  the  Puritans  as  to 
the  Romanists ;  and  unhappily,  amid  many  excellen- 
cies of  character,  he  had  a  persecuting  spirit.  On 
more  than  one  occasion  his  severity  M"as  rebuked  by 
the  privy  council.  In  the  case  of  a  clergyman  named 
Benison,  who  was  imprisoned  by  Aylrner  for  a  sup- 
posed irregularity  in  regard  to  his  marriage,  the  bishop 
was  desired  by  the  privy  council  to  make  him  com- 
pensation, lest  in  an  action  for  false  imprisonment  he 
should  recover  damages  "  which  would  touch  his  lord- 
ship's credit."  By  the  Puritans  Aylrner  was  ridiculed 
in  pamphlets,  scandalous  reports  were  actively  circu- 
lated to  his  injury,  and  frequent  complaints  of  his  con- 
duct were  made  to  the  privy  council.  Aylrner  would 
gladly  have  exchanged  into  a  more  retired  diocese, 
but  none  of  his  plans  for  this  purpose  succeeded;  and 
he  was  still  bishop  of  London  when  he  died  on  June 
3d,  1594.  See  Maitland,  Essays  on  tlm  Reformation; 
Neal,  Hist,  of  Puritans,  i,  224,  365,  etc. 

Aylworth,  James  P.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  and  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Oneida 
Conference,  was  born  in  1783.  He  entered  the  minis- 
try in  1822,  serving  chiefly  in  Central  New  York,  un- 
til his  superannuation  in  1847  He  died  in  1848. — 
Minutes  of  Conferences. 

Aymo.     See  IIaymo. 

Aymon,  John,  a  French  writer,  lived  at  the  close 


of  the  17th  and  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century. 
He  was  at  first  a  Catholic  priest,  then  left  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  at  Geneva,  and  married  at  the  Hague. 
He  again  returned  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  in 
1706  was  put  by  the  Cardinal  de  Noailles  in  the  Sem- 
inary of  Foreign  Missions.  In  1707  he  fled  to  Holland 
with  a  manuscript  (the  original  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Council  held  at  Jerusalem  in  1672  and  1673),  and  had 
it  printed  at  the  Hague  under  the  title  Monuments 
Authentiques  de  V Eglise  Grecque  (1708, 4to),  reproduced 
under  the  title  Lettres  Anecdotes  de  Cyril  Lucar  (Am- 
sterdam, 1708).  Aymon  was  judicially  pursued  by 
Clement,  the  librarian  of  the  French  king,  and  in 
1709  the  States-General  ordered  the  restoration  of  the 
manuscript.  Aymon  wrote  also  Actes  Ecclesiastiques 
et  civils  de  tous  les  Sy  nodes  Nationaux  des  Eglisis  Re- 
formees  de  la  France  (Rotterdam,  1710.  4to),  and  sev- 
eral works  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. — Hoefer. 
BiogrcqMe  Generate,  iii,  900. 

A'zael  ('A^aj/Aoc),  the  father  of  Jonathan,  which 
latter  was  one  of  those  who  superintended  the  repudi- 
ation of  the  Gentile  wives  after  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon (1  Esdr.  ix,  14);  evidently  the  Asahel  (q.  v.)  of 
the  genuine  text  (Ezra  x,  15). 

Azae'lus  (  A£«(/Aor),  one  of  the  Israelites,  "sons 
of  Maani,"  who  is  said  to  have  divorced  his  < untile 
wife  after  the  exile  (1  Esdr.  ix,  34) ;  but  the  name  is 
apparently  an  erroneous  repetition  for  the  Esril  just 
preceding*  it  (Azareel  of  Ezra  x,  41).     See  Azael. 

A'zal  (Hcb.  AtsaV,  hsU,  prob.  the  same  as  Azel, 
in  pause;  Sept.  Affo^Xv.r.  'laoui"),  apparently  a  place 
near  Jerusalem  on  the  east,  mentioned  only  in  Zech. 
xiv,  5,  as  the  limit  to  which  the  "ravine''  or  cleft 
(SOS)  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  will  extend  when  "Je- 
hovah shall  go  forth  to  fight."  Henderson  (Comment. 
in  loc.)  regards  it  as  the  proper  name  of  a  place  close 
to  one  of  the  gates  on  the  east  side  of  Jerusalem,  to 
which  the  cleft  or  valley  was  to  extend  westward,  so 
as  at  once  to  admit  those  who  should  flee  from  the  en- 
emy ;  but  this  seems  too  strict  a  literalism  for  so  figu, 
rative  a  prophecy.  Fi'irst  (lleb.  Worterb.  s.  v.)  inclines 
to  identify  it  with  the  Beth-ezel  of  Mic.  i,  11.  Perhaps 
the  conjecture  of  Gesenius  (Thes.  Hcb  p.  144)  is  the 
most  easy  of  adoption,  that  the  term  is  simply  an  ap- 
pellative for  b^N,  q.  d.  at  the  side,  i.  e.  foot  of  the 
mountain,  sc.  Olivet.  The  supposition  of  Schwarz 
(Palest,  p.  135)  that  it  is  the  present  village  Azaria,  or 
Bethany  (according  to  him,  the  Huzal  of  the  Talmud, 
Megillah,  v,  6),  evidently  proceeds  from  his  Jewish 
prejudices  against  the  account  respecting  Lazarus  in 
the  Gospels.     Sec  Erogl-. 

Azali'ah  (Heb.  in  the  prolonged  form  Atsalya'hu, 
WlpXK,  reserved  by  Jehovah ;  Sept.  'EvotXiac,  v.  r. 
'ECeXfac;  in  Chron.  'Etrekia  v.  r.  SAi'a),  the  son  of 
Meshullam  (2  Kings  xxii,  3),  and  father  of  the  scribe 
Shaphan,  which  last  was  sent  with  others  by  Josiah 
to  repair  the  Temple  (2  Chron.  xxxiv,  8).  B.C.  ante 
623. 

Azani'all  (Heb.  Azamyah',  FP3JK,  heard  by  Jeho- 
vah; Sept.  'AZavia),  the  father  of  Jesb.ua,  which  lat- 
ter was  one  of  the  Levites  that  subscribed  the  sacred 
covenant  after  the  exile  (Neh.  x,  9).     B.C.  ante  410. 

Aza'phion  CAaoairipubS),  given  in  1  Esdr.  v,  33, 
as  the  first  named  of  the  family  heads  of  the  "sons  of 
Solomon's  servants"  that  returned  from  Babylon;  ap- 
parently meaning  the  Sophereth  (q.  v.)  of  the  genu- 
ine text  (Ezra  ii,  55),  where  the  Heb  has  the  article, 
rVns'Srt,  has-Sophereth. 

Az'ara  ('Affapd),  one  of  the  heads  of  the  "temple 
servants,"  said  to  have  returned  from  the  exile  (1 
Esdr.  v,  31) ;  but  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  49)  has 
no  such  name  at  all. 

Azar'ael  (Neh.  xii,  C6).     See  Azareel. 


AZAUEEL 


574 


AZARIAS 


Aza'reel  (Deb.  Azarel',  P&ntN,  helped  by  God), 
the  name  of  five  men. 

1.  (Sept  '0£pi//\  v.  r.  K\n)\.)  One  of  theBenjamite 
slingers  and  archers  that  repaired  to  David  at  Ziklag 
(1  Chron.  xii,  6).     B.C.  1054. 

2.  (Sept.  i:-!<//,.\  v.  r.  \\<Tf,u)\.)  The  head  of  the 
eleventh  division  of  the  musicians  in  the  Temple,  con- 
sisting of  himself  and  eleven  others  of  his  family  (1 
Chron.  xxv,  18  ;  called  Uzziel  in  ver.  4).    B.C.  1014. 

3.  i  Sept.  iCnu/A  v.  r.  AJ>fi>i//A.)  Son  of  Jeroham, 
and  viceroy  over  the  tribe  of  Dan  under  David  and 
Solomon  1 1  Chron.  xxvii,  22).     B.C.  1014. 

4.  (Sept.  'Kl';in'/\.)  An  Israelite,  one  of  the  descend- 
ants of  Bani,  who  renounced  the  Gentile  wife  whom 
he  had  married  on  the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezra  x, 
41).     B.C.  459. 

5.  (Sept.  'EapiTjX  v.  r.  'Eaiou'iX,  Ol'u'/X.)  Son  of 
Ahasai  and  father  of  Amashai,  which  last  was  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  128  mighty  men  of  the  priests  who 
served  at  the  Temple  under  the  supervision  of  Zabdiel, 
on  the  restoration  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi,  13).  B.C. 
cir.  440.  He  is  probably  the  same  with  one  of  the 
first  company  of  priests  who  were  appointed  with  Ezra 
to  make  the  circuit  of  the  newly  completed  walls  with 
trumpets  in  their  hands  (Neh.  xii,  30,  where  the  name 
is  Anglicized  "Azarael").     B.C.  446. 

Azari'ah  (Heb.  Azaryah',  ili'ntS,  helped  b.v  Je- 
hovah, answering  to  the  German  name  Gotthe'f,  also 
in  the  prolonged  form  .4 zaryahu,  lii^'lTS,  *  Kings  iv, 
2,  5:  2  Kings  xv,  6,  8 ;  2  Chron.  xvVl;  xxi,  2;  xxii, 
G;  xxiii,  1;  xxvi,  17,  20;  xxviii,  12;  xxix,  12;  xxxi, 
10,  13;  Sept.  'A^apiag  and  'Autpia),  a  very  common 
name  among  the  Hebrews,  and  hence  borne  by  a  con- 
siderable number  of  persons  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
especially  in  the  families  of  the  priests  of  the  line  of 
Eleazar,  whose  name  has  precisely  the  same  mean- 
ing as  Azariak.  It  is  nearly  identical  and  is  often 
confounded  with  Ezra,  as  well  as  with  Zerahiah  and 
Serai.ih.     See  also  Azarias. 

1.  Apparently  the  only  son  of  Ethan,  the  grandson 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  8)."     B.C.  1856. 

2.  A  son  of  Jehu  and  father  of  Helez,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  38,  39).     B.C.  post  1046. 

3.  A  person  named  as  son  of  the  high-priett  Zadok, 
and  an  officer  in  the  cabinet  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv, 
2  |.  !!.('.  cir.  1000.  He  is  perhaps  the  same,  however, 
with  Xo  0  below. 

4.  A  son  of  Nathan  and  captain  of  King  Solomon's 
guards  (1  Kings  iv,  5).     B.C.  cir.  1000. 

5.  A  prophet  who  met  King  Asa  on  his  return  from 
a  great  victory  over  the  Cushite  king  Zerah  (2  Chron. 
xv.  1,  where  he  is  called  the  son  of  Oded,  but  Oded 
simply  in  ver.  H).  See  Asa.  B.C.  939.  He  power- 
fully stirred  up  the  spirit  of  Asa,  and  of  the  people  of 
Judah  and  Benjamin,  in  a  brief  but  pithy  prophecy, 
which  has  been  preserved,  to  put  away  all  idolatrous 
worship,  and  to  restore  the  altar  of  the  one  true  God 
before  tie'  porch  of  the  Temple.  Great  numbers  of 
Israelites  from  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh,  and  Simeon, 
and  all  Israel,  joined  in  the  national  reformation,  to 
the  great  strengthening  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  a  season 
of  rest  and  great  prosperity  ensued. — Smith,  s.  v. 

6.  A  high-priest,  son  of  Ahimaaz  and  father  (grand- 
father, of  Johanan  d  Chron.  \i.  9),  perhaps  the  father 
ofAmariah,  who  lived  under  Jehoshaphat,  king  of  Ju- 
dah i  2  Chron.  xix,  11).  B.C.  ante  912.  See  IIigh- 
l-l.-n  ST. 

7.  One  of  the  of  kin-  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  j 

xxi,  2,  where  the  m is  repeated,  as  if  he  had  two 

BOnS  "I  this  name)        B.C.  post  912. 

8.  Otherwise  called  Ahaziah  (q.  v.),  king  of  Judah 
(2  Chron.  xxii.  6). 

9.  A  bod  of  Jeroham,  who  joined  Jehoiada  in  his 
pious  efforts  to  restore  the  worship  of  the  Temple,  and 
put  down  the  usurpation  of  Athaliab  (2  Chron.  xxiii 
1).     B.C.K77. 


10.  A  son  of  Obed,  another  "  captain  of  a  hundred," 
who  joined  Jehoiada  in  the  same  enterprise  (2  Chron. 
xxiii,  1).     B.C.  877. 

11.  A  person  named  as  son  of  Johanan  and  father 
of  another  Amariah,  a  high-priest  (1  Chron.  vi,  10, 11), 
whom  some  suppose  the  same  as  Zechariah,  son  of 
Jehoiada,  who  was  killed  in  the  reign  of  Joash  of  Ju- 
dah (2  Chron.  xxiv,  20-22).  In  Ezra  vii,  3,  either  his 
or  a  former  person's  father  is  called  Mesaroth.  B  C. 
cir.  809.  See  High-priest.  From  the  date  he  ap- 
pears to  be  the  same  with  the  high-priest  who  opposed 
King  Uzziah  (q.  v.)  in  offering  incense  to  Jehovah  (2 
Chron.  xxvi.  17,  20).     B.C.  781. 

12.  Otherwise  called  Uzziah  (q.  v.),  king  of  Judah, 
(2  Kings  xiv,  21 ;  xv,  1,  G,  7,  8, 17,  23,  27 ;  1  Chron.  iii, 
12,  etc.). 

13.  A  son  of  Johanan  and  chief  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  one  of  those  that  protested  against  enslaving 

i  their  captive  brethren  of  Jerusalem  during  the  reign 
of  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  12).     B.C.  739. 

14.  A  Levite,  son  of  Zephaniah  and  father  of  Joel 
(1  Chron.  vi,  3G).     In  ver.  24  he  is  called  Uzziah,  the 

i  son  of  Uriel  and  father  of  Shaul.  It  appears  from  2 
Chron.  xxix,  12,  that  his  son  Joel  lived  under  Heze- 
|  kiah.     B.C.  ante  726. 

15.  A  high-priest  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxi,  10,13).  B.C.  7iG.  He  seems  to  be  the  same 
incorrectly  called  Ahitdb  in  1  Chron.  vi,  11, 12.  He 
appears  to  have  co-operated  zealously  with  the  king  in 
that  throrough  purification  of  the  Temple  and  restora- 
tion of  the  Temple  services  which  was  so  conspicuous 
an  event  in  Hezekiah's  reign.  He  especially  interest- 
ed himself  in  providing  chambers  in  the  house  of  the 
Lord  in  which  to  stow  the  tithes,  and  offerings,  and 
consecrated  things  for  the  use  of  the  priests  and  Le- 
vites,  and  in  appointing  overseers  to  have  the  charge 
of  them.  As  the  attendance  of  priests  and  Levites 
and  the  maintenance  of  the  Temple  services  depended 
entirely  upon  the  supply  of  such  offerings,  whenever 
the  people  neglected  them  the  priests  and  Levites 
were  forced  to  disperse  themselves  to  their  villages, 
and  so  the  house  of  God  was  deserted  (comp.  Neh.  x, 
35-39  ;  xii,  27-hO,  44-47) — Smith,  a.  v. 

16.  The  son  of  Hilkiah  and  father  of  Seraiah,  which 
latter  wTas  the  last  high-priest  before  the  captivity  (1 
Chron.  vi,  13, 14 ;  ix,  11 ;  Ezra  vii,  1,  3).     B.C.  cir.  6C0. 

17.  One  of  the  "proud  men"  who  rebuked  Jere- 
miah for  advising  the  people  that  remained  in  Pales- 
tine after  the  expatriation  to  Babylon  not  to  retire 
into  Egypt,  and  who  took  the  prophet  himself  and  Ba- 
ruch  along  with  them  to  that  countrv  (Jer.  xliii,  2-7). 
B.C.  587. 

18.  The  Hebrew  name  of  Abednego  (q.  v.),  One 
of  Daniel's  three  friends  wdio  were  cast  into  the  fiery 
furnace  (Dan.  i,  7;  iii,  9).  He  appears  to  have  been 
of  the  royal  lineage  of  Judah,  and  for  this  reason  se- 
lected, with  Daniel  and  his  two  other  companions,  for 
Nebuchadnezzar's  especial  service.  The  three  chil- 
dren, as  they  were  called,  were  remarkable  for  their 
1  eanty,  and  wisdom,  and  knowledge,  and  intelligence. 
They  were  no  less  remarkable  for  their  piety,  their 
strict  adherence  to  the  law  of  Moses,  and  the  steadfast- 
ness of  their  faith,  even  in  the  face  of  death,  and  their 
wonderful  deliverance. .    B.C.  003.     See  Daniel. 

19  One  of  the  nobles  who  returned  from  Babylon 
(Neh.  vii,  7  ;  xii,  33),  and  joined  in  the  oath  of  fidelity 
to  the  law  (x,  2),  and  assisted  in  interpreting  it  to  the 
people  ( viii,  7).  1 1  is  father's  name  was  Maaseiah,  and 
he  repaired  that  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  opposite 
his  house  (iii,  23,  24).  In  Ezra  ii,  2,  he  is  called  Se- 
raiah.    B.C.  446-410. 

Azari'as  ('A'Caaiag,  the  Greek  form  of  AzarlaK), 
the  name  (if  several  men  in  the  Apocrypha. 

1.  The  last  named  of  the  "sons"  of  Emmen  (rather 
Ilarim)  among  the  priests  who  promised  to  renounce 
their  Gentile  wives  after  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  ix,  21)  ; 


AZAZ 


575 


AZAZEL 


evidently  the  UzziAH  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text  (Ezra  x, 
21). 

2.  One  of  the  nobles  stated  to  have  supported  Ezra 
on  the  right  while  reading  the  law  to  the  people  (1 
Esdr.  ix,  43) ;  but  the  genuine  list  (Neh.  viii,  4)  does 
not  contain  this  name. 

3.  One  of  the  priests  who  expounded  the  law  on  the 
same  occasion  (1  Esdr.  ix,  48)  ;  the  AzARIAH  (q.  v.) 
of  the  Heb.  text  (Neh.  viii,  7). 

4.  The  son  of  Helchias  and  father  of  Seraias  in  the 
genealogy  of  Ezra  (2  [Vulg.  4]  Esdr.  i,  1) ;  the  Aza- 
IlIAH  (q.  v.)  of  the  Heb.  lineage  (Ezra  vii,  1). 

5.  A  name  assumed  by  the  angel  Raphael  (Tobit  v, 
12;  vi,  6,13;  vii,  8;  ix,  2).      . 

.  6.  The  name  (Song  of  3  Children,  ver.  2,  26,  66)  of 
Abednego,  Daniel's  companion  in  trial,  i.  c.  Azariah 
(q.  v.)  of  Dan.  i,  7.  He  is  mentioned  by  this  Greek 
appellation  also  in  1  Mace,  ii,  59,  and  by  Josephus 
(Ant.  x,  10, 1).     See  Daniel,  Additions  to. 

7.  One  of  the  generals  under  Judas  Maccabeus  (1 
Mace,  v,  18) ;  he  was  defeated  by  Gorgias  near  Jamnia 
(1  Mace,  v,  56,  60 ;  Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  8,  2  and  6). 

A'zaz  (Heb.  Azaz',  TT2>,  strong;  Sept.  'AZavZ  v.  r. 
'OZoii'Q,  the  son  of  Shema  and  father  of  Bela,  a  Reu- 
benite  (1  Chron.  v,  8).     B.C.  apparently  ante  747. 

Azazel  [so  Milton]  (Heb.  Azazel',  hlXIS),  a  word 
of  doubtful  interpretation,  occurring  only  in  the  ordi- 
nance of  the  festival  of  expiation  (Lev.  xvi.  8,  10,  26). 

1.  Some  contend  that  it  is  the  name  itself  of  the 
gnat  sent  into  the  desert.  So  Symmachus  roayog 
a—  spvo/ffi'of,  Aquila  rpc'iyos  cnro\i\vfxivoc,  Vulgate 
hircus  emissarius;  but  not  the  Septuagint  (fur  r<£  'A7ro- 
Tro/(7T«(^,  in  ver.  8,  is  by  no  means  to  be  explained, 
with  Theodoret  and  Cyril,  by  T<ji  cnroi7ifnroi.iii'<{>),  nor 
the  Mishna  (for  the  expression  ffiflin  I"1"-,  hircus 
emissus,  of  Yoma,  iv,  2 ;  vi,  1,  2,  is  only  added  as  a  gloss 
on  account-of  the  occurrence  of  Tli'C  in  the  Heb.  text). 
It  should  also  be  observed  that  in  the  latter  clause  of 
Lev.  xvi,  10,  the  Sept.  renders  the  Hebrew  term  as  if 
it  was  an  abstract  noun,  translating  ^TNT"b  by  tic 
ti)v  a—  otto/ct//?'.  Buxtorf  (Ileb.  Lex.)  and  Fagius 
(Critici  Sacii  in  loc.),  in  accordance  with  this  view  of 
its  meaning,  derived  the  word  from  T;.",  a.  goat,  and 
PTX,  to  depart.  To  this  derivation  it  has  been  object- 
ed by  Bochart,  Winer,  and  others,  that  1"  denotes  a 
she-goat.  It  is,  however,  alleged  that  the  word  ap- 
pears to  be  epicene  in  Gen.  xxx,  33,  Lev.  iii,  12,  etc. 

But  the  application  of  b"XT"  to  the  goat  itself  in- 
volves the  Hebrew  text  in  insuperable  difficulties.  In 
ver.  10,  26,  the  azaz  I  clearly  seems  to  be  distinguished 
as  that  /wr  or  to  which  the  goat  is  let  loose.  It  can 
hardly  be  supposed  that  the  prefix  which  is  common 
to  the  designation  of  the  two  lots  should  be  used  in 
two  different  meanings,  if  both  objects  were  beings. 

2.  Some  have  taken  Azazel  for  the  name  of  the  place 
to  which  the  goat  was  sent.  (1)  Aben-Ezra  quotes  the 
words  of  an  anonymous  writer  referring  it  to  a  hill 
near  Mount  Sinai.  Vatablus  adopts  this  opinion  (Cri- 
tici Sacri,  in  Lev.  xvi).  (2)  Some  of  the  Jewish  writers, 
with  Le  Clerc,  consider  that  it  denotes  the  cliff  to 
which  the  goat  was  taken  to  be  thrown  down.  So 
Pseudo-Jonathan,  Saadias,  Arabs  Erpenii  and  Jarchi, 
interpret  a  hard  or  difficult  place  (romp.  .Mishna,  Yoma, 
vi,  0).  (3)  Bochart  (Hieruz.  i,  740  sq.)  regarded  the 
word  as  a  "pluralis  fractus"  signifying  desert  /dans, 
and  understood  it  as  a  general  name  for  any  lit  place 
to  which  the  goat  might  be  sent.  This  has  the  appro- 
bation of  Hackmann  (Prcecid.  Sacr.  i,  232-275).  But 
Gesenius  remarks  that  the  "pluralis  fractus,"  which 
exists  in  Arabic,  is  not  found  in  Hebrew.  Moreover, 
on  this  interpretation  the  context  (ver.  in)  would  con- 
tain a  palpable  tautology,  for  the  goat  was  to  be  sent 
to  Azazel  in  the  wilderness.     Moreover,  no  such  place 


as  Azazel  is  elsewhere  mentioned ;  anfl  had  it  been  a 
mountain,  *ifi  would  not  have  been  omitted. 

3.  Many  of  those  who  have  studied  the  subject  very 
closely  take  Azazel  for  a  personal  being  to  whom  the 
goat  was  sent.  (1 )  Gesenius  gives  to  b"TXT"  the  same 
meaning  as  the  Sept.  has  assigned  to  it,  if  aironofi- 
Tralog  is  to  be  taken  in  its  usual  sense ;  but  the  being 
so  designated  he  supposes  to  be  some  false  deity  who 
was  to  be  appeased  by  such  a  sacrifice  as  that  of  the 
goat.  He  derives  the  word  from  a  root  unused  in  He- 
brew, but  found  in  Arabic,  Pt2J,  to  remove  or  take  a  wag 
(Heb.  Lex.  s.  v.).  Ewald  agrees  with  Gesenius,  and 
speaks  of  Azazel  as  a  daemon  belonging  to  the  pre- 
Mosaic  religion.  (2)  But  others,  with  scarcely  less  su- 
perstition, have  regarded  him  as  an  evil  spirit,  or  the 
devil  himself.  So,  among  the  rabbins,  Menahem,  who 
mentions  the  four  arch-daemons  Sammael.  Azazel,  Aza- 
61,  and  Machazecl.  In  Pirke  Elieser,  c.  46,  it  is  stated 
that  Azazel,  for  the  propitiation  of  which  the  goat  was 
let  loose,  is  the  same  daemon  with  Sammael  (compare 
Eisenmenger,  L'n/d.  Judenth.  ii,  157  ;  Zohar,  ad  Gen.  ii, 
in  Castell,  Opp.  Posth.  p.  309).  In  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Enoch,  Azazel  (not  Azazyel)  is  among  the 
chief  of  the  spirits  by  whose  doctrine  and  influence  the 
earth  was  corrupted  (viii,  1 ;  x,  12  ;  xiii,  1  sq.  ;  xv,  9)  , 
and  among  the  Greek  writers  the  same  name  (Azalzel, 
'A'£a As'yA)  occurs  (Fabric.  Cod.  pseudepigr.  i,  18,  183 ; 
sometimes  Azt'el,  'AZa>)\,  but  this  by  confusion  for  an- 
other daemon,  Asael);  and  in  Syrian  authors  (Cod. 
Xasur.  i,  240)  it  is  the  name  of  an  evil  spirit  otherwise 
called  Barbag.  The  same  title  ('A£a£»;X)  among  the 
Gnostics  signified  either  Satan  or  some  other  daemon 
(Epiphan.  Hcer.  34);  on  which  account  Origen  (contra 
Cds.  vi,  p.  305,  ed.  Spenc.)  did  not  hesitate,  in  the  pas- 
I  sage  of  Leviticus  in  question,  to  understand  the  devil 
\  as  meant.  From  the  Jews  and  Christians,  the  word 
passed  over  to  the  Arabians  (see  Relandj  De  Rel.  Mo- 
hammed, p.  189);  and  so,  in  later  magical  treatises, 
j  Azazel  and  Azael  are  reckoned  among  the  genii  that 
j  preside  over  the  elements.  Among  moderns  this  view- 
has  been  copiously  illustrated  by  Spencer  (De  legibus 
j  Hebrceorum  ritualibus,  iii,  diss.  8,  p.  1039-1085),  and  has 
been  assented  to  by  Rosenmuller  (ad  Lev.  in  loc), 
Amnion  (Bill.  Theol  i,  360),  Von  Coin  (Bibl.  Theol.  i, 
199),  Hengstenberg  (Christol.  I,  i.  36).  The  following 
are  the  arguments  used  in  its  support :  («)  The  con- 
trast of  terms  ("to  the  Lord,"  ''to  Azazel")  in  the 
text  naturally  presumes  a  person  to  be  intended, 
in  opposition  to  and  contradistinction  from  Jehovah. 
(b)  The  desert,  whither  the  consecrated  goat  of  Azazel 
was  sent  away,  was  accounted  the  peculiar  abode  of 
|  daemons  (sec  Isa.  xiii,  21 ;  xxxiv,  13, 14 ;  Baruch  iv, 
135;  Tobit  viii,  3;  Matt,  xii,  43;  Lev.  xviii,  2;  Mai- 
!  monid.  Nevoch.  iii,  30).  (c)  This  interpretation  may 
j  be  confirmed  by  the  early  derivation  of  the  word,  i.  q. 
I  bx~TT",  signifying  either  strength  of  God  (comp.  Ga- 
j  briel),  if  referred  to  a  once  good  but  now  fallen  angel, 
or  powerful  against  God,  as  applied  to  a  malignant  daa- 
I  mon.  Spencer  derives  the  word  from  1$,jbrtis,  and 
;  PTX,  explaining  it  as  cito  recedens,  which  he  affirms  to 
|  be  a  most  suitable  name  for  the  evil  spirit.  He  sup- 
j  poses  that  the  goat  was  given  up  to  the  devil,  and 
j  committed  to  his  disposal.  Hengstenberg  affirms  with 
great  confidence  that  Azazel  cannot  possibly  be  any 
thing  but  another  name  for  Satan.  He  repudiates  the 
conclusion  that  the  goat  was  in  any  sense  a  sacrifice  to 
Satan,  and  does  not  doubt  that  it  was  sent  away  laden 
with  the  sins  of  God' a  people,  now  forgiven,  in  order 
to  mock  their  spiritual  enemy  in  the  desert,  his  proper 
abode,  and  to  symbolize  by  its  free  gambols  their  ex- 
ulting triumph.  He  considers  that  the  origin  of  the 
rite  was  Egyptian,  and  that  the  Jews  substituted  Satan 
for  Typhon,  whose  dwelling  was  the  desert. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  explanation  is  forbidden  by 
the  total  absence  in  the  O.  Test,  of  any  reference  to 


AZAZIAH 


576 


AZIEL 


evil  genii ;  and  it  would  be  especially  abhorrent  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Mosaic  economy  to  suppose  a  solemn  offer- 
ing of  this  kind  to  have  been  made  out  of  deference  to 
any  of  those  daemons  the  propitiation  of  which  the  law 
so  explicitly  condemns  (Lev.  xvii,  7;  Dent,  xxii,  17; 
comp.  2  Chron.  xi,  15;  Psa.  cvi,  37).  The  obvious  ob- 
jection to  Spencer's  view  is  that  the  goat  formed  part 
of  a  sin-offering  to  the  Lord.  Few,  perhaps,  will  be 
satisfied  with  Hengstenberg's  mode  of  meeting  this 
difficulty. 

4.  A  better  explanation  of  the  word  renders  the  de- 
signation of  the  lot  PTKtSa,  "for  complete  sending 
away" — solitude,  desert,  by  reduplication  from  ?T3>  (the 
root  adopted  by  Gesenius),  being  the  Pealpal  form, 
which  indicates  intensity  (see  Ewald,  Kr.  Gr.  p.  242; 
comp.  Lehrgeb.  p.  869),  so  as  to  signify  total  sep  iration 
(Tholuck,  J/ebr.  p.  80:  Bahr,  Symbolik  d.  Mos.  Cullvs, 
ii,  668),  i.  e.  from  sin,  q.  d.  a  bearer  away  of  guilt; 
a  sense  agreeable  to  the  rendering  of  the  Sept.  (0x0- 
7TO|U7r«(or,  as  explained  by  Suidas,  and  as  used  b)r .Pol- 
lux, v.  26),  the  solution  of  Josephus  (Ant.  iii,  10,  3),  and 
the  explanation  of  other  ancient  writers  (Cyrill,  contra 
Julian,  ix  ;  comp.  Suicer.  Thesaur.  Eccles.  i,  468).  The 
only  objection  that  has  been  offered  to  this  interpreta- 
tion is  that  it  destroys  the  exact  antithesis  between 
Jehovah  and  Azazel,  by  making  the  latter  a  thing  and 
not  a  person,  like  the  former.  But  this  assumes  that 
it  was  the  design  of  Moses,  in  expressing  himself  thus, 
to  preserve  an  exact  antithesis,  which  is  by  no  means 
evident.  If  we  render  "the  one  for  Jehovah  and  the 
other  for  an  utter  removal,"  a  meaning  sufficiently 
clear  and  good  is  obtained.    See  Atonement,  Day  of. 

For  a  farther  discussion  of  the  import  and  applica- 
tion of  this  word,  see  Prof.  Bush,  Azazel.  or  the  Levit- 
ical  Scape-goat,  in  the  Am.  Bib.  Bepos.  July.  1842,  p. 
116-136;  Hermansen,  Obs.  de  nomine  Azazel  (Havn. 
1833;  comp.  Tkeobg.  Literafarbl.1835)',  Gesenius.  Thes. 
lleb.  p.  1012  sq. ;  Schaffshausen,  De  kirco  emissario 
ejusque  ritibus  (Lips.  173G);  Shroder,  De  Azazelis  hirco 
ejusque  n't.  (Marb.  1725)  ,  Von  Slooten,  De  hirco  qui  ex- 
piationis  die  cessit.  Azazeli  (Franec.  1726) ;  Frischmuth, 
De  hirco  emissario  (Jen.  1664-1668);  Zeitmann,  Dejdrci 
emissarii  ductore  (Jen.  1701).     See  Scape-goat. 

Azazi'ah  (Heb.  in  the  prolonged  form  Azazya'hu, 
*ll"Pn",  strengthened  by  Jehovah ;  Sept.  'O'^tac,  but  v. 
r.  in  2  Chron.  rO£«£dc),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  One  of  the  Levitical  harpers  in  the  Temple  un- 
der David  (1  Chron.  xv,  21).     B.C.  cir.  1043. 

2.  The  father  of  Hoshea,  which  latter  was  the  vice- 
roy over  the  Ephraimites  under  David  and  Solomon  (1 
Chron.  xxvii,  20).     B.C.  ante  1014. 

3.  <  hie  of  the  inferior  overseers  of  the  Temple  offer- 
ings under  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  13).     B.C.  726. 

Azbaz'areth('Ao-/3o<7rtpt3v.r. 'Aff/3n/ca(/)«c,Vulg. 
AsbazaretK),  given  (1  Esdr.  v,  69)  as  the  name  of  the 
Assyrian  king  who  planted  the  Samaritan  colonies  in 
Palestine;  evidently  a  corruption  for  Esarhaddon 
(q.  v.)  in  the  true  text  (Ezra  iv,  2). 

Az'buk  (lleb.  Azbuk',  p12T3>,  strong  devastation; 
Sept.  A£/3ow>  v.  r.  'A^a/SovK),  the  father  of  Nehe- 
miali.  which  latter  was  ruler  of  the  half  of  Beth-zur, 
and  repaired  part  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  after  the 
return  fr Babylon  (Neh.  iii, 16).     B.C.  ante  446. 

Aze'kah  (Heb.  Azekah',  M^.fr,  dug  over;  Sept.  in 
Josh  xv,  85,  laZnicd;  Jer.  xxxiv,  7,  *A£?jica;  else- 
where  Afrficd),  a  town  in  the  plain  of  Judah  (Josh, 
xv,  35;  1  Sam.  xvii,  1).  It  had  suburban  villages 
(Neh.  i.  30),  and  was  a  place  of  considerable  strength 
(Jer.  \wiv.  7 1.  The  confederated  Amoritish  kings 
of  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Jarmuth,  Lachish,  and  Eglon, 
were  here  defeated  and  slain  by  Joshua,  and  their 
army  totally  destroyed  by  an  extraordinary  shower  of 
hailstones  from  heaven  (Josh,  x,  10,  11).  It  is  named 
with  Adullam,  Shaaraim,  and  other  places  known  to 


have  been  in  that  locality  (Josh,  xv,  35;  2  Chron.  xi, 
9 ;  Neh.  xi,  30),  but  is  most  clearly  defined  as  being 
near  Shochoh  (that  is,  the  northern  one)  [see  Shochoh] 
(1  Sam.  xvii,  1).  Joshua's  pursuit  of  the  Canaanites 
after  the  battle  of  Beth-boron  extended  to  Azekah 
(Josh,  x,  10,  11).  Between  Azekah  and  Shochoh,  an 
easy  step  out  of  their  own  territory,  the  Philistines  en- 
camped before  the  battle  in  which  Goliath  was  killed 
(1  Sam.  xvii,  1).  It  was  among  the  cities  fortified  by 
Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi,  9),  was  still  standing  at  the 
time  of  the  invasion  of  the  kings  of  Babylon  (Jer. 
xxxiv,  7),  and  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  places  re- 
occupied  by  the  Jews  after  their  return  from  captivity 
(Neh.  xi,  30).  Eusebius  and  Jerome  state  (Onomast. 
s.  v.)  that  there  was  in  their  time  a  town  in  this  quar- 
ter called  Ezeca,  situated  between  Jerusalem  and  Eleu- 
theropolis,  which  was  probably  the  same  as  that  men- 
tioned by  Joshua  (see  Reland,  Pakest.  p.  603).  Ac- 
cording to  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  102),  it  is  represented 
by  the  modern  village  Tell  Ezakaria,  three  miles  east 
of  Saphia  or  Alba  Specula  ;  but  this  appears  rather  to 
be  from  the  name  Zechariah  (Tell  Zachariyn,  Robin- 
son's Researches,  ii,  343).  The  notices  would  corre- 
spond better  to  the  present  Zaokuka,  marked  on  Zim- 
mermann's  Map  a  little  to  the  north-cast  of  Beit-Jibrin 
(Eleutheropolis) ;  but  that  is  in  the  hill  country,  be- 
yond the  Jerusalem  road,  which  was  the  boundary  of 
the  group  in  Josh,  xv,  35.  See  Tribe.  Van  de  Yelde 
(Memoir,  p.  291)  seems  to  have  fixed  its  site  as  that  of 
a  village  on  a  high  hill-top  called  Ahbek,  about  H  miles 
N.  of  Daman,  and  between  4  and  5  miles  E.N.E.  of 
Shuweikeh  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  342  note). 

A'zel  (Heb.  Atsel',  bsX,  noble;  Sept.  'EorjK),  the 
son  of  Eleasah,  of  the  descendants  of  king  Saul,  and 
father  of  six  sons  (1  Chron.  viii,  37,  38;  ix,  43,  44). 
B.C.  considerably  post  1037.     See  Azal. 

A'zem  (Heb.  E'tsem,  CSV,  a  bone,  in  pause  A  'tsem, 
t3X5;  Sept.  Aai/i  v.  r.  'Aaop,  'laooi'),  a  city  in  the 
tribe  of  Simeon,  originally  included  within  the  south- 
ern territorvof  Judah, in  the  neighborhood  ofBalab  (or 
Bilhah)  and  Eltolad  (or  Tolad)  (Josh,  xv,  29;  xix,  3; 
1  Chron.  iv,  29,  in  which  last  passage  it  is  Anglicized 
"Ezem,"  Sept.  Boncrd/j  v.  r.  Aiatfi).  These  notices 
afford  only  a  slight  ground  for  a  conjectural  location, 
perhaps  in  the  great  plain  at  the  south-west  extremity 
of  the  tribe,  possibly  at  the  ruins  on  TeU Akhmar  (Van 
de  Velde,  Map). 

Azephn'ritll  ('Apaapovni^.  Yulg.  omits),  given 
(1  Esdr.  v,  16)  as  the  name  of  a  man  whose  descend- 
ants (or  a  place  whose  inhabitants),  to  the  number  of 
102,  returned  from  the  captivity  ;  but  the  original  lists 
have  the  name  Jorah  (Ezra  ii,  18)  or  Haripii  (Neh. 
vii,  24),  and  the  number  112. 

Aze'tas  ('A'CnTe'ir  v.  r.  'A^nvdv"),  given  (1  Esdr. 
v,  15),  in  connection  with  Ceilan,  as  the  name  of  an- 
other man  whose  descendants  (or  place  whose  inhab- 
itants), to  the  number  of  67,  returned  from  the  captiv- 
ity; but  the  genuine  lists  (Ezra  ii,  16;  Neh.  vii,  21) 
have  no  corresponding  names. 

Az'gad  (lleb.  Azgad',  ~ir<T",  strong  in  fortune ; 
Sept.  'AtrydS,  'AZyabj,  the  head  of  one  of  the  families 
of  the  Israelites  whose  descendants,  to  the  number  of 
1222  persons,  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii,  12;  Neh.  vii,  17),  and  111  males  afterward 
with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii,  12 ;  Neh.  x,  15).     B.C.  ante  536. 

Azi'a  ('AZiag),  one  of  the  "  temple  servants"  whose 
sons  returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  31);  evi- 
dently the  UzzA  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii, 
49;  Neh.  vii,  51). 

Azi'e'i  (Lat.  id.,  for  the  Greek  text  is  lost),  the  son 
of  Marimoth  and  father  of  Amarias,  in  the  genealogy 
of  Ezra  (2  [Vulg.  4]  Esdr.  i,  1)  ;  evidently  the  Azari- 
1  AH  (q.  v.)  of  the  lleb.  list  (  Ezra  vii,  3). 

A'ziel  (Heb.  Az'el',  bvplS,  Sept.  'Ofr/'/X),  prob.  a 


AZIZA 


577 


AZYMITES 


contracted  form  (1  Chron.  xv,  20)  of  the  name  Jaazi- 
el  (q.  v.)  in  the  same  chapter  (ver.  18). 

Azi'za  (Heb.  Aziz  i ' ,  Nt^T",  strong ;  Sept.  '()£(£«)> 
an  Israelite,  one  of  the  descendants  of  Zattu,  who  di- 
vorced the  foreign  wife  that  he  had  married  on  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon  (Ezra  x,  27).     B.C.  45!). 

Azizus  ('A'Ci'Coc),  a  king  of  Emesa,  who  embraced 
Judaism  in  order  to  marry  Drusilla ;  but  she  after- 
ward deserted  him  for  Felix  (Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  7,  1,  ' 
2).  He  died  in  the  first  year  of  Nero  (A.D.  54),  and  j 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Soasmus  (Joseph,  ib.  8,  4). 

Az'maveth  (Heb.  Azma'veth,  T^)",  perhaps 
strong  as  death ;  Sept.  'Aoy<w3  and  'AZpioS),  the  name  j 
of  three  men,  and  also  of  a  place. 

1.  A  Barhumite  (or  Baharumite),  one  of  David's 
thirty  warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  31 ;  1  Chron.  xi,  33),  and 
father  of  two  of  his  famous  slingers  (1  Chron.  xii,  3). 
B.C.10G1. 

2.  The  second  named  of  the  three  sons  of  Jehoadah 
(1  Chron.  viii,  36)  or  Jarah  (ix,  42),  a  descendant  of 
Jonathan.     B.C.  post  1037. 

3.  A  son  of  Adiel,  and  overseer  of  the  royal  treasu- 
ry under  David  and  Solomon  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  25). 
B.C.  1014. 

4.  A  village  of  Judah  or  Benjamin,  and  mentioned 
in  connection  with  Geba  (Neh.  xii,  29).  Forty-two  j 
persons  residents  of  this  place  were  enrolled  in  the  j 
list  of  those  that  returned  from  the  captivity  at  Baby- 
lon (Ezra  ii,  24 ;  Neh.  vii,  28 ;  in  which  latter  passage 
the  place  is  called  Beth-AZMAveth).  The  corre- 
sponding Arabic  name  Azmut  is  still  found  in  Pales-  j 
tine,  but  not  in  a  location  corresponding  to  the  one  in 
question  (Robinson's  Researches,  iii,  102 ;  De  Saulcy's 
Narrative,  i,  91).  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  129)  conjectures 
that  the  name  of  this  place  may  have  been  derived  i 
from  that  of  the  Benjamite  preceding;  but  he  con- 
founds it  with  Alemeth,  Almon,  and  even  Bahurim. 
The  notices  seem  to  point  to  some  locality  in  the  north- 
ern environs  of  Jerusalem ;  hence  Ritter  (Erdk.  xvi, 
519)  identities  it  with  Hizmeh,  a  village  north  of  the 
site  of  Anathoth  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  291). 

Az'mon  (Heb.  Atsmon' ,  ''iiZZV,  strong;  Sept.  'Acrt- 
[iioi'a,  '2{\fiiDvdv),  a  place  on  the  southern  border  of  ! 
Palestine,  between  Hazar-adar  (beyond  a  bend  at  Kar- 
k:ia)  and  "the  river  of  Egypt"  (Num.  xxxiv,  4,  5; 
Josh,  xv,  4).  The  site  is  perhaps  marked  by  the  ruins 
on  a  hill  near  Wad;/  es-Shutin  (Robinson,  Researches,  i, 
2^)0),  near  the  junction  of  Wady  Futeis  with  Wady  Ru- 
haibeh  [see  Tribe],  about  half  way  between  Elusa 
and  Rehoboth  (Van  de  Velde's  Map).    See  Heshmon. 

Az'noth-ta'bor  (Heb.  Aznoth'  Tabor',  M'itK 
1130,  ears  [i.  e.  summits]  of  Tabor  [comp.  Uzzen-She- 
rah,"  "Chisloth-Tabor"];  Sept.  'A£vw3'3,a/3uJp),atown 
on  the  western  border  of  Naphtali,  between  the  Jordan 
and  Ilukkok  (Josh,  xix,  34).  It  is  placed  by  Euse- 
bius  (Onomast.  s.  v.  'AoavioS)  in  a  plain  not  far  from 
Dioeassarea.  Neither  of  these  notices,  however,  would 
allow  a  position  near  Tabo^  as  the  name  implies ;  for 
the  territory  of  Zebulon,  at  least,  intervened.  See 
Tribe.  They  may,  however,  be  somewhat  combined 
in  a  conjectural  locality  at  the  eastern  edge  of  the 
plain  el-Buttauf,  in  the  vicinity  of  Kurn  Ilattin. 

A'zor  ('A£wp,  from  "ItS,  to  help),  one  of  the  pater- 
nal ancestors  of  Christ  (Matt,  i,  13,  14) ;  perhaps  the 
same  with  Azrikam  (1  Chron.  iii,  23)      See  Azzur. 

Azor,  or  Azorius,  John,  a  Spanish  theologian, 
born  in  1533  at  Zamora,  in  Spain,  died  in  1G03.  Hav- 
ing entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  first  at  Alcala,  and  subsequently 
in  the  Jesuit  College  at  Rome.  He  published  his  lec- 
tures on  moral  theology  under  the  title  Institutions 
Morales.  Some  of  the  opinions  advanced  in  this  work 
produced  a  considerable  sensation.  He,  for  instance, 
finds  it  "probable"  that  it  is  allowable  for  a  man  who 
Oo 


is  threatened  by  another  with  a  box  on  the  ear  to  kill 
the  aggressor.  The  Dominicans  violently  attacked  this 
proposition,  but  Pope  Clement  VIII  authorized  a  new 
edition  of  the  work.  Subsequently  Pascal  resumed  the 
attack  in  his  Lettres  Provinciales,  in  which  the  "prob- 
abilism,"  or  the  doctrine  of  probable  opinions,  of  which 
Azorius  is  one  of  the  authors,  is  severely  censured. 
Notwithstanding  these  attacks,  the  work  of  Azorius 
had  a  large  circulation  in  Italy,  in  Spain,  and  eveti 
in  France,  and  was  recommended  by  Bossuet  to  his 
priests.  The  Institutiones  have  frequently  been  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  Cologne,  Rome,  Lyons,  and  other 
places. — Hoefer,  Biographic  Generate,  iii,  935. 

Azo'tus  ( "A^mtoc),  the  Gra;cized  form  (Acts  viii, 
40;  so  1  Mace,  iv,  15  ;  v,  68  ;  x,  77,  78,  83;  xi,  4  ;  xiii, 
34  ;  xvi,  10)  of  the  name  of  the  city  Ashdod  (q.  v.). 

AZO'TUS,  MOUNT  (A&tov  opoc,  or  "A$wroc 
lipoc  ;  Vulg.  mons  Azoti),  a  spot  to  which,  in  the  battle 
in  which  Judas  Maccabseus  fell,  he  pursued  the  broken 
right  wing  of  Bacchides'  army  (1  Mace,  ix,  15).  Jose- 
phus (Ant.  xii,  11, 1)  calls  it  Aza  ('A£a,  or  Atara,  "A£a- 
pa,  according  to  many  MSS.),  which  Ewald  finds  in  a 
mountain  west  of  Birzeit,  under  the  form  Atara,  the 
Philistine  Ashdod  being,  in  his  opinion,  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. But  it  is  possible  that  the  last-named  encamp- 
ment, Eleasa,  was  at  some  distance. 

Az'riel  (Heb.  AzrieV ,  ^"It?,  help  of  God),  the 
name  of  three  men. 

1.  (Sept.  'Oso'/A.)  The  father  of  Jerimoth,  which 
latter  was  phylarch  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  under  Da- 
vid (1  Chron.  xxvii,  19).     B.C.  1014. 

2.  (Sept.  'It£pi»jX.)  One  of  the  valiant  heads  of 
families  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  east  who  were  taken 
into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians  as  a  punishment  of 
their  national  idolatry  (1  Chron.  v,  24).     B.C.  cir.  741. 

3.  (Sept.  'Errpu)\.)  The  father  of  Seraiah,  which  lat- 
ter was  one  of  the  persons  ordered  by  King  Jehoiakim 
to  seize  Baruch  and  Jeremiah,  and  imprison  them  for 
sending  him  the  roll  of  threatening  prophecy  (Jer. 
xxxvi,  26).     B.C.  605. 

Az'rikam  (Heb.  Azrikam',  "Cp^yj,  help  against 
the  enemy ;  Sept.  'EZpuca/i  or  'E^ptKctfi,  once  [2  Chron. 
xxviii,  7]  EZpiKch'),  the  name  of  four  men. 

1.  The  first  of  the  six  sons  of  Azel,  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii,  38 ;  ix,  44).     B.C.  post  1037. 

2.  (Josephus,  'EpiKav,  Ant.  ix,  12, 1.)  The  governor 
of  the  king's  house  in  the  time  of  Ahaz,  slain  by  Zichri 
an  Ephraimite  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  7).     B.C.  cir.  738. 

3.  A  Levite,  son  of  Hashahiah  and  father  of  Has- 
shub  (1  Chron.  ix,  14 ;  Neh.  xi,  15).     B.C.  ante  536. 

4.  The  last  named  of  the  three  sons  of  Neariah,  a 
descendant  of  Zerubbabel  (1  Chron.  iii,  23).  B.C.  cir. 
404.  He  is  perhaps  the  same  as  Azou  (q.  v.),  the  son 
of  Eliakim  and  father  of  Sadoc  in  Matt,  i,  13,  14  (see 
Strong's  Harm,  and  Expos,  of  Gospels,  p.  16,  17). 

Azu'bah  (Heb.  Azubah',  httt£,  deserted),  the 
hame  of  two  women. 

1.  (Sept.  'AZovjiu  v.  r.  YaZovfia.)  The  first  wife  of 
Caleb,  Judah's  grandson,  by  whom  he  had  three  sons 
(1  Chron.  ii,  18, 19).     B.C.  ante  1658. 

2.  (Sept.  'AZovfia.)  The  daughter  of  Shilhi  and 
mother  of  King  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kings  xxii,  42 ;  2 
Chron.  xx,  31).     B.C.  947-913. 

A'zur,  a  less  correct  mode  of  Anglicizing  (Jer. 
xxviii,  1 ;  Ezek.  xi,  1)  the  name  Azzur  (q.  v.). 

Az'uran  (A'Capoq  v.  r.  'AZovpog),  the  name  of  a 
man  whose  descendants  (or  a  place  whose  inhabitants), 
to  the  number  of  432,  are  stated  (1  Esdr.  v,  15)  to  have 
returned  from  the  captivity ;  but  the  true  lists  (Ezra 
ii,  16 ;  Neh.  vii,  21)  have  no  corresponding  name. 

Azymites  (from  a  negative  and  t,vpi],  leaven),  a 
title  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  the  Western  Church, 
because  it  uses  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist. 
The  Greek  Church  has  always  maintained  the  use  of 


AZZAII 


578 


BAAL 


leavened  bread  (Conf.  Ecc.  Orient,  c.  9).  The  practice  J 
in  the  Latin  Church  of  consecrating  with  unleavened  j 
bread  was  one  of  the  charges  brought  against  that  J 
Churcli  by  the  Greeks  in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century,  and  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any 
dispute  "ii  the  subject  between  the  two  churches  much 
before  thai  period.  Indeed  Sirmondus  maintains  that 
the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  holy  Eucharist  was 
unknown  to  the  Latin  Churcli  before  the  tenth  centu- 
rv,  and  his  opinion  has  the  support  of  Cardinal  Bona 
(Eer.  Litur.  i,  23),  Schelstrat,  and  Pagi. — Bingham, 
Oriff.  Eccles.  bk.  xv,  ch.  ii,  §  5. 

Az'cah,  an  unusual  (but  more  correct)  mode  of 
Anglicizing  ( Deut.  ii,  23 ;  1  Kings  iv,  24 ;  Jcr.  xxv, 
20)  the  name  Gaza  (q.  v.). 

Az'zan  (Heb.  Azzan',  "JTS,  perhaps  a  Ihorn;  Sept. 
G^c\v  v.  r.  'OZac).  the  father  of  Paltiel,  which  latter 
was  the  commissioner  from  the  tribe  of  Issachar  for 


dividing  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv,  2G).     B.C. 
ante  1G18. 

As'zur  (Heb.  Azzur' ,  "fj  and  1WS,  helper),  the 
name  of  three  men.     See  also  Azor. 

1.  (Sept.  'A£wo.)  The  father  of  Hananiah  of  Gib- 
eon,  which  latter  was  the  prophet  who  falsely  encour- 
aged King  Zedekiah  against  the  Babylonians  (Jer. 
xxviii.  1,  where  the  name  is  Anglicized  "Azur").  B.C. 
ante  595. 

2.  (Sept.  'IrtL'eo  v.  r.'Estp.)  The  father  of  Jaazani- 
ah,  which  latter  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  people 
whom  the  prophet  in  vision  saw  devising  false  schemes 
of  safety  for  Jerusalem  against  the  Babylonians  (Ezek. 
xi,  1,  where  the  name  is  Anglicized  "Azur").  B.C. 
ante  593. 

3.  (Sept.  'A£oiV>.)  One  of  the  chief  Israelites  who 
signed  the  covenant  of  faith  with  Jehovah  on  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon  (Nch.  x,  17).     B.C.  cir.  410. 


B. 


Baader,  Francis  Xavier,  a  Roman  Catholic  phi- 
losopher of  Germany,  was  born  at  Munich  in  17C5, 
and  died  in  the  same  city  in  1841.  In  early  life  he 
devoted  himself  especially  to  the  study  of  medicine 
and  natural  science,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  services 
in  the  mining  interests  of  his  country  by  the  title  of 
nobility.  He  established  a  greater  reputation  by  his 
lectures  and  works  on  philosophy  and  theology. 
Though  a  layman,  he  was  appointed,  in  1S27,  Professor 
of  Speculative  Dogmatics  at  the  University  of  Munich, 
which  chair  he  retained  until  1838,  when  a  ministerial 
decree  excluded  laymen  from  the  delivery  of  lectures 
on  the  philosophy  of  religion.  From  early  youth  he 
had  a  great  aversion  to  Rationalism,  and  a  great  long- 
ing for  a  deeper  understanding  of  the  mysteries  of 
the  Christian  revelation.  He  studied  with  particu- 
lar interest  the  mystic  and  theosophic  writers,  among 
whom  he  took  especially  Jacob  Boehme  (q.  v.)  for  his 
guide.  After  his  example,  he  built  up  a  system  of 
theology  and  philosophy,  which,  as  all  admit,  is  full 
of  profound  and  original  ideas,  though,  on  the  whole, 
visionary  and  paradoxical  in  the  extreme.  Baader  nev- 
er separated  from  the  Roman  Church,  but  published 
several  works  against  the  primacy  of  the  Pope.  His 
system  of  philosophy  has  still  (1860)  a  number  of 
followers,  both  among  Romanists  and  Protestants. 
Among  his  principal  works  are  :  Vorlemngen  ubet  tpec- 
uhitm  Dni/matik  (Stuttg.  5  vols.  1828-38)  ;  Revision  dcr 
PI,  lusnpheme  der  Ifer/dschen  Schule  (Stuttg.  18,'!9)  ;  D. 
in  iri/ciil'lndische  mid  der  abendliindische  Kafholicisiirns 
(Stuttg.  1841).  His  complete  works  have  been  edited, 
with  explicit  introductions,  by  six  of  his  followers, 
Fr.  Hoffmann,  Ilamberger,  Lutterbeck,  Oten-Saeken, 
Schaden,  and  Schluter  (Baader's  Sammt'iehe  Werle, 
Leipz.  1850-GO,  1G  vols.).  The  sixteenth  volume  con- 
tains a  copious  general  index,  and  an  introduction  on 
t  !;<  -\  Btem  and  the  history  of  the  philosophy  of  Baader, 
by  Dr.  Lutterbeck.  See  also  Hoffmann,  VorkaUe  zur 
.-;«  ulativi  n  Lehre  Frar.z  Baaders  (Aschaffenburg,  183G). 
Ba'al  (Heb.  id.  ?V2,  lord  or  master),  a  generic  term 
for  f)  d  in  many  of  the  Syro-Arabian  languages.  As 
the  idolatrous  nations  of  that  race  had  several  gods, 
this  word,  by  means  of  some  accessory  distinction,  be- 
came applicable  as  a  name  to  many  different  deities. 
See  Baal-Berith,  Baal-Peor;  Baal-Zebub.  There 
is  no  e\  idence,  however,  that  the  Israelites  ever  called 
Jehovah  by  the  name  of  Baal ;  for  the  passage  in  Hos. 
ii,  1G,  which  lias  been  cited  as  such,  only  contains  the 
*ord  Umd  as  the  sterner,  less  affectionate  representa- 
tive of  husband.  It  is  spoken  of  the  master  and  owner 
of  a  house  (Kxod.  xxii,  7;  Judg.  xix,  2'2);  of  a  land- 
holder (Job  xxxi,  39);  of  an  owner  of  cattle  (Kxod. 
xxi,  28  ;   Isa.  i,  3)  ;  of  a  lender  of  monev,  i.  c.  creditor 


(Deut.  xv,  2)  ;  r.lso  of  the  head  cf  a  family  (Lev.  xxi, 
4)  ;  and  even  of  the  Assyrians  (or  the  princes)  as  con- 
querors of  nations  (Isa.  xvi,  8).  See  Baalim.  It 
also  occurs  very  frequently  as  the  first  part  of  the 
names  of  towns  and  men,  e.  g.  Baal-Gad,  Baal-Ha- 
juon,  Baal-Hanan,  etc.,  all  which  sec  in  their  al- 
phabetical order,  and  compare  Baal-.  As  a  strictly 
proper  name,  and  in  its  simple  form,  Baal  stands  in 
the  Bible  for  a  deity,  and  also  for  two  men  and  one 
village.  See  also  Gur-Baal;  Kirjatii-Baal  ;  Me- 
rib-Baal. 


Ancient  Medals  v.-ith  tin-  Head  ot  linul. 


1.  This  name  (with  the  article,  ??3^i  hab-Ea'al, 
Judg.  ii,  13 ;  Sept.  6  B««X,  but  also  >'/  Baa\,  Jer.  xix, 
5  ;  xxxix,  35  ;  Rom.  xi,  4)  is  appropriated  to  the  chief 
male  divinity  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  principal  scat  of 
whose  worship  was  at  Tyre,  and  thus  corresponds 
with  Ashtoreth,  their  supreme  female  divinity. 
Both  names  have  the  peculiarity  of  being  used  in  the 
plural,  and  it  seems  that  these  plurals  designate  either 
(as  Gesenius,  Thes.  s.  v.  maintains)  statues  of  the  di- 
vinities, or  different  modifications  of  the  divinities 
themselves.  That  there  were  many  such  modifica- 
tions of  Baal  is  certain  from  the  fact  that  his  name 
occurs  with  numerous  adjuncts,  both  in  the  O.  T.  ;  nd 
elsewhere,  as  we  have  seen  above.  The  plural  Baalim 
is  found  frequently  alone  (e.  g.  Judg.  ii,  11;  x,  10; 
1  Kings  xviii,  18;  Jer.  ix,  14;  Hos.  ii,  17),  as  well  as 
in  connection  with  Ashtoreth  (Judg.  x,  G  ;  1  Sam.  vii, 
4),  and  with  Asherah,  or,  as  our  version  renders  it, 
"the  groves"  (Judg.  iii,  7  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  3).  There 
is  no  difficulty  in  determining  the  meaning  of  the  name, 
since  the  word  is  in  Hebrew  a  common  noun  of  fre- 
quent occurrence,  having  the  meaning  lord,  not  eo 
much,  however,  in  the  sense  of  ruler  as  of  master, 
owner,  possessor.  The  name  of  the  god,  whether  sin- 
gular or  plural,  is  always  distinguished  from  the  com- 
mon noun  by  the  presence  of  the  article  (?^'?ri, 
E^b-^ti),  except  when  it  stands  in  connection  with 
some  other  word  which  designates  a  peculiar  moriifi- 


BAAL 


579 


BAAL 


cation  of  Baal.  In  the  Chaldaic  form  the  word  be- 
comes shortened  into  ?"3,  and  thence,  dropping  the 
guttural,  ^3,  Bel,  which  is  the  Babylonian  name  of 
this  god  (Bnxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  et  Talm.  ;  so  Gesenius, 
Fiirst,  Movers ;  the  identity  of  the  two  words  is,  how- 
ever, doubted  by  Kawlinson,  Herod,  i,  247). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  very  high  antiquity 
of  the  worship  of  Baal.  We  find  his  cultus  establish- 
ed among  the  Moabites  and  their  allies  the  Midian- 
ites  in  the  time  of  Moses  (Num.  xxii,  41),  and  through 
these  nations  the  Israelites  were  seduced  to  the  wor- 
ship of  this  god  under  the  particular  form  of  Baal-peor 
(Num.  xxv,  3  sq. ;  Dent,  iv,  3).  Notwithstanding 
the  fearful  punishment  which  their  idolatry  brought 
upon  them  in  this  instance,  the  succeeding  generation 
returned  to  the  worship  of  Baal  (Judg.  ii,  10-13),  and 
with  the  exception  of  the  period  during  which  Gideon 
was  judge  (Judg.  vi,  26  sq. ;  viii,  33)  this  form  of  idol- 
atry seems  to  have  prevailed  among  them  up  to  the 
time  of  Samuel  (Judg.  x,  10 ;  1  Sam.  vii,  4),  at  whose 
rebuke  the  people  renounced  the  worship  of  Baalim. 
Two  centuries  pass  over  before  we  hear  again  of  Baal 
in  connection  with  the  people  of  Israel,  though  we 
can  scarcely  conclude  from  this  silence  that  his  wor- 
ship was  altogether  abandoned.  We  know  that  in  the 
time  of  Solomon  the  service  of  many  gods  of  the  sur- 
rounding nations  was  introduced,  and  particularly  that 
of  Ashtoreth,  with  which  Baal  is  so  frequently  con- 
nected. However  this  may  be,  the  worship  of  Baal 
spread  greatly,  and,  together  with  that  of  Asherah,  be- 
came the  religion  of  the  court  and  people  of  the  ten 
tribes  under  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  who,  partly  through 
the  influence  of  his  wife  Jezebel  (q.  v.),  the  daughter 
of  the  Sidonian  king  Ethbaal,  appears  to  have  made  a 
systematic  attempt  to  suppress  the  worship  of  God 
altogether,  and  to  substitute  that  of  Ba il  in  its  stead 
(1  Kings  xvi,  31-33;  xviii,  19,  22).  And  though  this 
idolatry  was  occasionally  put  down  (2  Kings  iii,  2 ;  x, 
28).  it  appears  never  to  have  been  permanently  or  ef- 
fectually abolished  in  that  kingdom  (2  Kings  xvii,  1G). 
In  the  kingdom  of  Judahalso  Baal-worship  extensive- 
ly prevailed.  During  the  short  reign  of  Ahaziah  and 
the  subsequent  usurpation  of  his  mother  Athaliah,  the 
sister  of  Ahab,  it  appears  to  have  been  the  religion  of 
the  court  (2  Kings  viii,  27;  comp.  xi,  18),  as  it  was 
subsequently  under  Ahaz  (2  Kings  xvi,  3;  2  Chron. 
xxviii,  2),  and  Manasseh  (2  Kings  xxi,  3) Smith. 

The  worship  of  Bail  among  the  Jews  appears  to 
have  been  appointed  with  much  pomp  and  ceremonial. 
Temples  were  erected  to  him  (1  Kings  xvi,  32  ;  2  Kings 
xi,  18);  his  images  were  set  up  (2  Kings  x,  26);  his 
altars  were  very  numerous  (Jer.  xi,  13),  being  erected 
particularly  on  lofty  eminences  [see  High-place] 
(1  Kings  xviii,  20),  and  on  the  roofs  of  houses  (Jer. 
xxxii,  29);  there  were  priests  in  great  numbers  (1 
Kings  xviii,  19),  and  of  various  classes  (2  Kings  x, 
19) ;  the  worshippers  appear  to  have  been  arrayed  in 
appropriate  robes  (2  Kings  x,  22 ;  comp.  Lucian,  De 
Be-%  Sijra,  50).  His  priesthood  (the  proper  term  for 
which  seems  to  be  Q-H^S),  kemarim',  so  called  from 
their  bitch  garments)  were  a  very  numerous  body 
(1  Kings  xviii,  19),  and  were  divided  into  the  two 
classes  of  prophets  and  of  priests  (unless  the  term 
"servants,"  which  comes  between  those  words,  may 
denote  a  third  order — a  kind  of  Levites,  2  Kings  x, 
19).  As  to  the  rites  by  which  he  was  worshipped, 
there  is  most  frequent  mention  of  incense  being  offer- 
ed to  him  (2  Kings  xxiii.  5),  but  also  of  bullocks  being 
sacrificed  (1  Kings  xviii,  26),  and  even  of  children,  as 
to  Moloch  (Jer.  xix,  5).  According  to  the  description 
in  1  Kings  xviii,  the  priests  during  the  sacrifice  danced 
(or,  in  the  sarcastic  expression  of  the  original,  limped) 
about  the  altar,  and,  when  their  prayers  were  not  an- 
swered, cut  themselves  with  knives  until  the  blood 
flowed,  like  the  priests  of  Bellona  (Lucan.  Pharstd. 
i,  565;  Tertull.  Apologet.  ix;   Lactant.  Div.  In-tit.  i, 


21).  AVe  also  read  of  homage  paid  to  him  by  bow- 
ing the  knee,  and  by  kissing  his  image  (1  Kings 
xix,  18;  comp.  Cicero,  in  Verrem,  iv,  43),  and  that 
his  worshippers  used  to  swear  by  his  name  (Jer.  xii, 
16). — Kitto;  Smith.     See  Chemauim. 

Throughout  all  the  Phoenician  colonies  we  contin- 
ually find  traces  of  the  worship  of  this  god,  partly  in 
the  names  of  men,  such  as  A&her-bal,  Azdm-bul,  Ilan- 
m-bal,  and  still  more  distinctly  in  Phoenician  inscrip- 
tions yet  remaining  (Gesenius,  Mon.  Phcen.  passim). 
Nor  need  we  hesitate  to  regard  the  Babylonian  Bel 
(Isa.  xlvi,  1)  or  L'elus  (Herod,  i,  181)  as  essentially 
identical  with  Baal,  though  perhaps  under  some  mod- 
ified form.  Bawlinson  distinguishes  between  the  sec- 
ond god  of  the  first  triad  of  the  Assyrian  pantheon, 
whom  he  names  provisionally  Bel-Nimrod,  and  the 
Babylonian  Bel,  whom  ho  considers  identical  with  Me- 
rodach  {Herod,  i,  510  sq.;  521  sq.).  Traces  of  the 
idolatry  symbolized  under  it  are  even  found  in  the 
British  Isles,  Baal,  Bal,  or  Beal  being,  according  to 
many,  the  name  of  the  principal  deity  of  the  ancient 
Irish ;  and  on  the  tops  of  many  hills  in  Scotland  there 
are  heaps  of  stones  called  by  the  common  people  "  Bel's 
cairns,"  where  it  is  supposed  that  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered in  early  times  (Statistical  Account  of  Scotland, 
iii,  105;  xi,  621).     See  Ethbaal. 

The  same  perplexity  occurs  respecting  the  connec- 
tion of  this  god  with  the  heavenly  bodies  as  we  have 
already  noticed  in  regard  to  Ashtoreth.  Creuzer 
(S/jmb.  ii,  413)  and  Movers  (Phon.  i,  180)  declare  Baal 
to  be  the  Sun-god  ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Bal >y Ionian 
god  is  identified  with  Zeus  by  Herodotus,  and  there 
seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  Bel-Merodach  is  the  planet 
Jupiter  (Bawlinson,  Herod,  i,  512).  On  the  whole,  Baal 
probably  represents  properly  the  sun,  and,  in  connection 
with  Astarte,  or  the  moon,  was  very  generally  worship- 
ped by  the  idolatrous  nations  of  Western  Asia,  as  rep- 
resenting the  great  generative  powers  of  nature,  the 
former  as  a  symbol  of  the  active,  and  the  latter  of  the 
passive  principle.  Traces  of  this  tendency  to  worship 
the  principal  luminaries  of  heaven  appear  frequently 
in  the  history  of  the  Israelites  at  a  very  early  period, 
before  Sabianism  as  such  was  distinctly  developed 
(Exod.  xx,  4;  Deut.  iv,  19;  xvii,  3;  2  Kings  xxiii, 
11).  Gesenius,  however  (in  his  Tkesiur.  Heb.),  con- 
tends that  Baal  was  not  the  sun,  but  the  planet  Jupi- 
ter, as  the  guardian  and  giver  of  good  fortune  ;  but  the 
view  of  Milnter  (in  his  Relgion  der  Babi/lonkr)  seems 
most  tenable,  who,  while  he  does  not  deny  the  astro- 
logical character  of  this  worship,  still  maintains  that, 
together  with  and  besides  that,  there  existed  in  very 
earl}'  times  a  cosmogonical  idea  of  the  primitive  power 
of  nature,  as  seen  in  the  two  functions  of  generation 
and  conception  or  parturition,  and  that  the  sun  and 
moon  were  the  fittest  representatives  of  these  two 
powers.  It  is  quite  likely  that  in  the  case  of  Paul,  as 
well  as  of  Ashtoreth,  the  symbol  of  the  god  varied  at 
different  times  and  in  different  localities.  Indeed,  the 
great  number  of  adjuncts  with  which  the  name  of  Baal 
is  found  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the  diversity  of  charac- 
ters in  which  he  was  regarded,  and  there  must  no  doubt 
have  existed  a  corresponding  diversity  in  the  worship. 
It  may  even  be  a  question  whether  in  the  original  no- 
tion of  Baal  there  was  reference  to  any  of  the  heaven- 
ly bodies,  since  the  derivation  of  the  name  does  not  in 
this  instance,  as  it  does  in  the  case  of  Ashtoreth,  point 
directly  to  them.  If  we  separate  the  name  Baal  from 
idolatry,  we  seem,  according  to  its  meaning,  to  obtain 
simply  the  notion  of  lord  and  proprietor  of  all.  With 
this  the  idea  of  productive  power  is  naturally  associ- 
ated, and  that  power  is  as  naturally  symbolized  by  the 
sun ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ideas  of  providen- 
tial arrangement  and  rule,  and  so  of  prosperity,  are  as 
naturally  suggested  by  the  word,  and  in  the  astral 
mythology  these  ideas  are  associated  with  the  planet 
Jupiter.  In  point  of  fact,  we  find  adjuncts  to  the  name 
of  Baal  answering  to  all  these  notions,  e.  g.  Bff\aafxr,v, 


BAAL 


5SU 


BAALAH 


Bdbamen  (Plant.  Pan.  v,  2,  G7)  =  liBO-PSa,  "Lord 
of  the  heavens"  *"r!->rn,  Baal-Hamon  (Gesenius, 
Man.  Phan.  p.  349),  the  Sun-Baal  (comp.  the  similar 
name  of  a  city  in  Cant,  viii,  11);  ^5~P53,  Baal-Gad, 
the  name  of  a  city  (Josh,  xi,  17),  q.  d.  Baal  the  For- 
tune-bringer,  which  god  may  he  regarded  as  identical 
with  the  planet  Jupiter.  Many  more  compounds  of 
Baal  in  the  0.  T.  occur,  and  among  them  a  large  num- 
ber of  cities,  which  are  given  below.  There  has  re- 
cently been  discovered  among  the  ruins  of  a  temple 
on  Mount  Lebanon  an  inscription  containing  the  name 
BaUmarcos,  the  first  part  of  which  is  evidently  identical 
with  the  Phoenician  Baal,  -who  appears  to  have  been 
■worshipped  then  under  the  title  of  "the 
god  of  dancing"  (Bihlioth.  Sacra,  1843,  p. 
559  sq.).  Dr.  "Wilson,  -when  at  Damas- 
cus, obtained  the  impression  of  an  ancient 
scarabaws,  on  which  was  carved  an  in- 
scription, in  the  old  Phoenician  alpha- 
bet, containing  the  title  bl"zb,  "to Baal" 
(Lands  of  Bible,  ii,  769).     See  Baalim. 

2.  (Sept.  B««X.)  A  Benjamite,  fourth  son  of  Jehiel, 
the  progenitor  of  the  Gibeonites,  by  his  wife  Maachah 
(1  Chron.  viii,  £0 ;  ix,  3C).     B.C.  post  1618. 

3.  (Sept.  B«fi\  v.  r.  Bit)\  and  even  'W/X.)  AReu- 
benite,  son  of  Reia  and  father  of  Beerah,  which  last 
was  among  the  captives  transported  to  Assyria  by 
Tiglath-Pileser  (1  Chron.  v,  5).     B.C.  ante  738. 

4.  (Sept.  BadA.)  A  place  in  the  vicinity  of  Ain  and 
Ashan,  inhabited  by  the  Simeonites  (1  Chron.  iv,  33); 
probably  the  same  elsewhere  (Josh,  xix,  8)  called 
Baalath-Beer  (q.  v.).     See  Baal-. 

Baal-  or  -baal  (Ileb.  id.  ~'""3  or  £>?3~,  i.  e.  Baal), 
a  geographical  word  occurring  as  the  prefix  or  suffix 
to  the  names  of  several  places  in  Palestine  (see  those 
following,  also  Glr-Baal,  etc.).  Gesenius  has  ex- 
pressed his  opinion  (Thes.  Beb.  p.  225,  col.  o)  that  in 
these  cases  it  has  no  reference  to  any  worship  of  the 
god  Baal  at  the  particular  spot,  but  merely  expresses 
that  the  place  "possesses"  or  contains  something  spe- 
cial denoted  by  the  other  part  of  the  name,  the  word 
Baal  bearing  in  that  case  a  force  synonymous  with 
that  of  Beth  (q.  v.).  See  Baal-tamar,  etc.  "With- 
out contradicting  this  conclusion,  some  reasons  may 
be  mentioned  for  reconsidering  it.     Sec  Baalim. 

1.  Though  employed  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  to 
a  certain  extent  metaphorically,  and  there  certainly 
with  the  force  of  "possession"  or  "ownership,"  as  a 
"lord  of  hair"  (2  KiiiL's  i,  8),  "lord  of  dreams"  (Gen. 
xxxvii,  10),  etc.,  Baal  never  seems  to  have  become  a 
naturalized  Hebrew  word,  but  frequently  occurs  so  as 
to  betray  its  Canaanite  origin  and  relationship.  Thus 
it  is  several  times  employed  to  designate  the  inhabi- 
tants of  towns  either  certainly  or  probably  heathen, 
but  rarely,  if  ever,  those  of  one  undoubtedly  Hebrew. 
It  is  applied  to  the  men  of  Jericho  before  the  conquest 
(Josh,  xxiv,  11);  to  the  men  of  Shechem,  the  ancient 
city  of  Hamor  the  Hivite,  who  rose  to  recover  the 
rights  of  Hamor's  descendants  long  after  the  conquest 
of  the  land  (Judg.  ix,  2  51,  with  Ewald's  commentary, 
Gesch.  ii,  1 15  1 17),  and  in  the  account  of  which  strug- 
gle the  distinction  between  the  "lords"  (Erbr'£)  of 
Shechem  and  the  "men"  (D"Va5K — Hebrew  relations) 
of  Abimelech  is  carefully  maintained.  It  is  used  for 
the  men  of  Keilah,  a  place  on  the  western  confines 
of  Judah,  exposed  to  all  the  attacks  and  the  influen- 
ces  of  the  surrounding  heathen  (1  Samuel  xxiii,  11, 
12),  for  Uriah  the  Hittite  (2  Sam.  xi,  26),  and  for 
Others  (Isa.  xvi.  8,  etc.).  Add  to  this  the  considera- 
tion that  if  Baal  forms  part  of  the  name  of  a  person, 
we  arc  sure  to  find  the  name  mentioned  with  some  Ile- 
brew  alt.  rati. .u.  as  Jerubbesheth  for  Jerub-haal;  Me- 
phiboBheth  for  Merib-baal;  Ishbosheth  for  Esh-baal, 
and  others.  In  Hos.  ii,  16,  a  remarkable  instance  is 
preserved  of  the  distinction,  noticed  above  in  connec- 


tion with  the  record  of  the  revolt  at  Shechem,  between 
the  heathen  Baal  and  the  Hebrew  Ish  :  "At  that  day, 
saith  Jehovah,  men  shall  call  me  '  Ishi,'  and  shall  call 
me  no  more  'Baali,'  "  both  words  having  the  sense  of 
"my  husband." 

2.  Such  places  called  by  this  name,  or  its  compounds, 
as  can  be  identified,  and  several  of  which  existed  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest,  were  either  near  Phoenicia, 
as  Baal-gad,  Baal-hermon,  Belmarkos  (of  later  times), 
or  in  proximity  to  some  other  acknowledged  seat  of 
heathen  worship,  as  Baal-meon  and  Bamoth-Baal,  near 
Baal-poor;  or  Kirjath-Baal  and  Baal-tamar,  connected 
with  Gibeon  and  Bethel  (see  Denis,  "Der  Baal  in  d. 
Hebr.  F.igennamen,"  in  the  Zeilschr.  d.  deutsch.  mor- 
qenl.  Gesellsch.  1862,  iv,  728). 

3.  On  more  than  one  occasion  Baal  forms  part  of 
the  names  of  places  which  we  elsewhere  discover  to 
have  been  elevated  spots,  spots  in  which  the  worship 
of  the  Canaanites  delighted.  Thus  Baal-hermcn  in 
elsewhere  called  "Mount  Baal,"  and  Baal-Pcrazim  is 
(very  probably)  "Mount  Perazim."  Baalath-beer,  too, 
is  called  in  the  parallel  lists  Ramath  (i.  e.  "height") 
Compare  the  Vulgate  rendering  of  Baalah  in  1  Chron. 
xiii,  6,  "ad  collem  Cariathiarim ;"  also  Mount  Baalah 
(Josh,  xv,  11). 

4.  There  is  the  consideration  of  the  very  deep  sig- 
nificance with  which  the  name  of  Baal  must  always 
have  been  invested,  both  for  the  Israelites  and  for  their 
predecessors  in  the  country — for  those  who  venerated 
and  those  who  were  commanded  to  hate  him.  Surely 
this  significance  must  have  been  sufficient  to  prevent 
that  portentous  name  from  becoming  a  mere  altc  rna- 
tive  for  a  term  which,  like  Beth-  (q.  v.),  wa's  in  tho 
commonest  daily  use.— Smith,  s.  v. 

5.  The  most  significant  form  in  which  this  compcund 
word  occurs  is  its  use  as  an  element  (in  a  manner  com- 
mon to  all  the  Shemitic  languages)  in  proper  names, 
like  el-  (PX)  and  Jah  (PP)  of  the  Hebrew ;  sometimes  at 
the  end,  c.  g.  Eth-baal\b?2Ti<),  Meri-baal(bv^.";^\ 
Esh-baal  (?r'Z"l:X),  Jerub-baal  fcv'2.^),  etc.  (which 
see  severally);  at  other  times  at  the  beginning,  e.  g. 
Baal-hancn  ("I'rbvi'),  Eali-yah  (fi'bv^),  and  in  some 
instances  the  heathenish  "Baal"'  has  supplanted  the 
corresponding  Jewish  sacred  name,  e.  g.  El-ir.da 
(ST&B,  2  Sam.  v,  lQ>)  =  EeeU:;da  (V^bv'Z,  1  Chrcn. 
xiv,  7).  This  was  a  frequent  method  of  formation  in 
Phoenician  proper  names,  as  appears  from  those  occur- 
ring in  classical  and  Biblical  history,  and  still  mere 
clearly  in  inscriptions  en  coins,  e.  g.  Btobaal  (b"'ZV',iiJ 
"with  Baal,"  Gcrb.  i,  2),  Bathbaal  (bvzrs,  "daugh- 
ter of  Baal,"  Carth.  8),  Hikkembaal  (bv'Z-Ztr,  "sage 
of  Baal,"  Numid.  i,  2),  Hikkebbaal  (V?5isfl,  the  same 
by  assimilation  of  the  "2,  ib.  ii,  3),  IliHemshlbaal 
(bv'Z'-'Zt.y*,  the  same  with  the  insertion  of  the  rela- 
tive prefix  D,  ib.  ii,  2),  Jevbaal  (bi'^X/,  "desire  of 
Baal,"  Cit.  26),  Jaasherbaal  (^SS^S??!1,  "  enriched  by 
Baal,"  Numid.  vii,  1),  MalMbaal  (bv'Z'lb-g,  "ruled  by 
Baal,"  Malt,  iii,  1),  Mezclhbaal  (bt'Sr-^-;,  "kindled 
by  Baal,''  Numid.  i,  4),  Mosibaal  (bv^"'^  for 
bv'Z'tV-t,  "made  by  Baal,"  ib.  i,  3),  Mottanbaal 
(bvZtV^,  "given  by  Baal,"  ib.  vii,  1),  etc.  (see  Gese- 
nius, Thes.  I/ih.  p.  224,  b~). — Fiirst,  s.  v.     See  Name. 

Ba'alah  (Heb.  Baalah',  fibr'.a,  mistress,  civi/as), 
the  name  of  two  cities  and  of  one  mountain.  See  also 
Baalath. 

1.  (Sept.  Baa\a$  v.  r.  B«X«.)  A  city  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  Judah,  mentioned  in  connection  with  Beer- 
sheba  and  Iim  (Josh,  xv,  29),  apparently  the  same 
elsewhere  called  Balaii  (Josh,  xix,  3),  also  Biliiaii, 
and  assigned  to  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv,  29).  In  the  first- 
named  passage  it  forms  part  of  the  preceding  name  — 
Bizjothjah-Baalah.     See  Bizjothjaii. 


BAALATH 


581 


BAALBEK 


2.  (Sept.  Btttt\«.3r  v.  r.  BadX,  but  omits  in  1  Chron.) 
A  city  on  the  northern  border  of  Judali  (Josh,  xv,  10), 
better  known  as  Kirjatii-jearim  (q.  v.)  (Josh,  xv, 
9 ;  1  Chron.  xiii,  C),  otherwise  called  Baale  of  Judah 
(2  Sam.  vi,  2).  In  Josh,  xv,  GO,  and  xviii,  14,  it  is  call- 
ed Kirjath-Baal.  From  the  expression  "Baalah, 
which  is  Kirjath-jearim"  (comp.  "  Jebusi,  wMch  is  Je- 
rusalem," xviii,  28),  it  would  seem  as  if  Baalah  were 
the  earlier  or  Canaanite  appellation  of  the  place. 

3.  (Sept.  yf;  BaaXaSt  v.  r.  trri  Xifia,  etc.)  A  moun- 
tain (TT.)  on  the  N.W.  boundary  of  Judah,  between  j 
Shicron  and  Jabneel  (Josh,  xv,  11),  usually  regarded 
as  the  same  with  Mount  Jearim  (ver.  10),  from  the  ', 
neighboring  Kirjath-baal ;  but  erroneously  (see  Keil,  j 
Comment,  in  loc),  for  the  direction  in  the  text  requires  j 
a  location  more  westerly,  apparently  at  the  modern 
Tell  Hermes  (Van  de  Velde,  Map).     See  Teibe. 

Ba'alath  (Heb.  Baalath',  ni?a,  another  form  of 
the  name  Baalah;  Sept.  BaaXdS  [v.  r.  rtSstXdv  in 
Josh.],  but  Ba\n«3  v.  r.  BaXadg  in  2  Chron.),  a  town 
in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  named  wTith  Gibbethon,  Gath- 
rimmon,  and  other  Philistine  places  (Josh,  xix,  44), 
apparently  the  same  that  was  afterward  rebuilt  by 
Solomon  (1  Kings  ix,  18;  2  Chron.  viii,  6).  Many 
have  conjectured  this  Baalath  to  be  the  same  as  Baal- 
bek (so  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  62);  but  in  that  case  it 
must  have  lain  in  northernmost  Dan,  whereas  the  pos- 
session of  it  is  ascribed  to  that  tribe  when  its  terri- 
tory was  wholly  in  the  south  near  Judah,  and  many 
years  before- the  migration  (recorded  in  Judg.  xviii) 
which  gave  Dan  a  northern  territory.  Correspond- 
ingly, Josephus  places  the  Baalath  of  Solomon  (which 
he  calls  Baleth,  BaXtSi)  in  the  southern  part  of  Pales- 
tine, near  Gazara  or  Gezer  (Ant.  viii,  6, 1),  within  the 
territory  which  would  have  belonged  to  Dan  had  it 
acquired  possession  of  the  lands  originally  assigned  to 
it.  The  Jerusalem  Talmud  (Sanhedr.  1)  affirms  that 
Baalath  lay  so  near  the  line  of  separation  between  Dan 
and  Judah  that  the  fields  only  were  in  the  former 
tribe,  the  buildings  being  in  the  latter.  Schwarz, 
however  {Palest,  p.  138  note),  disputes  this  position; 
the  statement  seems  to  have  reference  to  the  post- 
exilian  distribution  of  Palestine,  by  which  Judah  gave 
name  (Judaea)  to  the  entire  neighborhood,  including 
Benjamin  as  well  as  Dan  and  Simeon,  an  arrange- 
ment evidently  growing  out  of  the  earlier  division 
into  the  two  rival  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
Van  de  Velde  is  probably  correct  in  identifying  the 
Kite  with  that  of  Dor  Balut,  on  the  high  southern  brow 
of  Wady  Kerama,  about  half  way  between  Jaffa  and 
Nablous ;  but  he  distinguishes  this  from  the  Baalath 
of  Solomon,  assigning  only  the  insufficient  reason  that 
this  locality  is  not  situated  near  a  highway  where  a 
fortified  place  would  be  required  {Memoir,  p.  291). 

Ba'alath-be'er  (Ileb.  Baalath'  Beer',  rb"3 
"1X3,  Baalah  of  [or  having]  a  well;  Sept.  BaaXdS 
c.  r.  BrtXk-),  probably  the  same  as  the  Baal  of  1 
Chron.  iv,  33,  a  city  of  Simeon ;  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  RAMATK-Negeb,  or  Southern  Ramah  (Josh. 
xix,  8 ;  comp.  1  Sam.  xxx,  27),  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  them  identical  (so  the  Sept.  B.  iropcvoniviov 
ByppafithS ;  Vulg.  Baalath- Beerramoth).  See  Ra- 
math.  It  is  also  the  same  with  the  Bkaloth  (q.  v.) 
of  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  24).  Other  sacred  wells  in  this 
parched  region  were  the  Beer-lahai-roi,  the  "  well  of 
the  vision  of  God;"  and  Beer-sheba,  the  "well  of  the 
oath."     See  Beer-. 

Baalbek,  a  city  of  Code-Syria,  celebrated  for  its 
superb  ruins  yet  extant  of  an  ancient  temple  of  the 
sun,  and  supposed  by  many  to  be  the  site  designated 
by  Solomon's  famous  "  House  of  the  Forest  of  Leba- 
non" (1  Kings  vii,  2 ;  x,  17  ;  2  Chron.  ix,  16).  We 
are  also  informed  that  among  those  parts  of  Palestine 
which  were  unsubdued  by  the  Hebrews  at  the  death 
of  Joshua  was  "all  Lebanon  toward  the  sun-rising, 


from  Baal-gad,  under  Mount  Hermon,  unto  the  enter 
ing  into  Hamath"  (Josh,  xiii,  5).  This  position  ot 
Baal-gad  is  not  unfavorable  to  the  conclusion  which 
some  have  reached,  that  it  is  no  other  than  the  place 
which,  from  a  temple  consecrated  to  the  sun  that  stood 
there,  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Heliopolis,  i.  e.  city  of 
the  sun ;  and  which  the  natives  called  and  still  call 
Baalbek,  a  word  apparently  of  the  same  meaning. 
The  honor  of  being  identified  with  Baalbek  has  also 
been  claimed  for  the  Baalath  which  Solomon  built  or 
fortified  ;  but  this  claim  has  already  been  disposed  of 
[see  Baalath]  ;  and  no  weight  is  to  be  attached  to 
the  local  traditions  which  claim  Solomon  as  the  found- 
er of  Baalbek,  seeing  that  it  is  the  practice  of  the  na- 
tives to  ascribe  to  that  great  king  every  grand  ancient 
work  of  unknown  date  which  the  country  contains. 
It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  those  who  contend  for 
Baalath  admit  its  possible  identity  with  Baal-gad,  and 
hence  there  are  no  conflicting  claims  to  adjust.  Even 
those  who  suppose  the  Baal-hamon  of  the  Canticles 
(viii,  11)  to  be  Baalbek,  conceive  that  to  be  a  later 
name  for  Baal-gad,  and  hence  the  only  question  that 
remains  is  whether  Baal-gad  be  not  the  more  ancient 
name  of  the  place  afterward  known  as  Heliopolis  and 
Baalbek.  Baalbek,  in  the  Syrian  language,  signifies 
the  city  of  Baal,  or  of  the  sun ;  and,  as  the  Syrians 
never  borrowed  names  from  the  Greeks,  or  translated 
Greek  names,  it  is  certain  that  when  the  Greeks  came 
into  Syria  they  found  the  place  bearing  this  name,  or 
some  other  signifying  "city  of  the  sun,"  since  they 
termed  it  Heliopolis,  which  is  doubtless  a  translation 
of  the  native  designation.  Now  the  question  is  wheth- 
er this  word  has  the  same  meaning  as  Baal-gad,  and, 
if  not,  whether  any  circumstances  can  be  pointed  out 
as  likely  to  occasion  the  change  of  name.  If  we  take 
Baal  for  the  name  of  the  idol,  then,  as  in  the  case  of 
Baalbek,  the  last  member  of  the  word  must  be  taken 
as  a  modifying  appellation,  not  as  in  itself  a  proper 
name;  and  as  Gad  means  a  troop,  a  multitude,  or  a 
press  of  people,  Baal-gad  will  mean  Baal's  crowd, 
whether  applied  to  the  inhabitants,  or  to  the  place  as  a 
resort  of  pilgrims.  The  syllable  bek  has  precisely  the 
same  meaning  in  the  Arabic.  If  this  should  not  seem 
satisfactory,  we  may  conclude  that  Baal  was  so  com- 
mon an  element  in  the  composition  of  proper  names 
that  it  is  not  sufficiently  distinctive  to  bear  the  stress 
of  such  an  interpretation,  and  may  rather  take  it  to 
signify  (as  Gesenius  says  it  always  does  in  geograph- 
ical combinations)  the  place  where  a  thing  is  found. 
See  Baal-.  According  to  this  view,  Baal-gad  would 
mean  the  place  of  Gad.  Now  Gad  was  an  idol  (Isa. 
lxv,  11),  supposed  to  have  been  the  god  or  goddess  of 
good  fortune  (comp.  Sept.  Ti>xn;  Vulg.  Fortuna),  and 
identified  by  the  Jewish  commentators  with  the  planet 
Jupiter.  See  Gad.  But  it  is  well  known  that  Baal 
was  identified  with  Jupiter  as  well  as  with  the  sun ; 
and  it  is  not  difficult  to  connect  Baalbek  with  the  wor- 
ship of  Jupiter.  John  of  Antioch  affirms  that  the 
great  temple  at  Baalbek  was  dedicated  to  Jupiter;  and 
in  the  celebrated  passage  of  Macrobius  {Saturn,  i,  23), 
in  which  he  reports  that  the  worship  of  the  sun  was 
brought  by  Egyptian  priests  to  Heliopolis  in  Syria,  he 
expressly  states  that  they  introduced  it  under  the  name 
of  Jupiter  (sub  nomine  Jovis).  This  implies  that  the 
worship  of  Jupiter  was  already  established  and  popu- 
lar at  the  place,  and  that  heliolatry  previously  was 
not;  and  therefore  we  should  rather  expect  the  town 
to  have  borne  some  name  referring  to  Jupiter  than  to 
the  sun,  and  may  be  sure  that  a  name  indicative  of 
heliolatry  must  have  been  posterior  to  the  introduction 
of  that  worship  by  the  Egyptians  ;  and,  as  we  have  no 
ground  for  supposing  that  this  took  place  before  or  till 
long  after  the  age  of  Joshua,  it  could  not  then  be  call- 
ed by  any  name  corresponding  to  Heliopolis.  But 
1  see  Baal-gad. 

Baalbek  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  lowest  decliv- 
ity of  Anti-Libanus,  at  the  opening  of  a  small  valley 


BAALBEK 


532 


BAALBEK 


i;:ii:i-'  nf  Haalbek. 


into  the  plain  El-Bekaa.  Through  this  valley  runs 
a  small  stream,  divided  into  numberless  rills  for  irri- 
gation. The  place,  according  to  the  determination 
of  Maj.  Rennell  (Geogr.  of  W.  Asia,  i,  75),  is  in  N. 
hit.  34°  1  80",  and  E.  long.  36°  11',  distant  109  geog. 
miles  from  Palmyra,  and  082  from  Tripoli.  Its  origin 
appears  to  be  lost  in  the  most  remote  antiquity,  and 
the  historical  notices  of  it  are  very  scanty  ;  the  silence 
of  the  classical  writers  respecting  it  would  alone,  seem 
to  imply  that  it  had  previously  existed  under  another 
name.  In  the  absence  of  more  positive  information, 
we  can  only  conjecture  that  its  situation  on  the  high- 
road of  commerce  between  Tyro,  Palmyra,  and  the 
farther  East,  must  have  contributed  largely  to  the 
wealth  and  magnificence  which  it  manifestly  attained. 
It  is  mentioned  under  the  name  of  Heliopolis  by  Jo- 
scphus  (Ant.  xiv,  3,  4),  and  also  by  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat. 
v.  22).  Two  Roman  inscri]  tions  of  the  time  of  Anto- 
ninus Pius  give  sanction  to  the  statement  of  John  of 
Antioch,  who  alleges  that  this  emperor  built  a  great 
temple  to  Jupiter  at  Heliopolis,  which  was  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world  (Hist.  Citron,  lib.  xi).  From 
the  reverses  of  Roman  coins  we  learn  that  Heliopolis 
was  constituted  a  colony  by  Julius  Caesar;  that  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  Roman  garrison  in  the  time  of  Augustus, 
and  obtained tho  Jus Italicum from  Scverus  (Ulpian, 
It.  Censibus,ff).  Some  ofthe  coins  oflater  date  con-  4- 
tain  curious  representations  of  the  temple  (Acker- 
man,  Rom.  Coins,  i,  339).  After  the  age  of  Constan- 
tine  the  splendid  temples  of  Baalbek  were  prob- 
ably consigned  to  neglect  and  decay,  unless,  in- 
deed, as  some  appearances  indicate,  they  were  then 
consecrated  to  Christian  worship  (see  Chron.  Pasch. 
p.  303,  id.  1'i.ilin;  comp.  Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccles.  v, 
10;  Theodoret,  Hist,  Eccles.  iii,  7;  iv,  22).  From 
the  accounts  of  Oriental  writers  Baalbek  seems  to 
have  continued  a  place  of  importance  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Moslem  invasion  of  Syria  (see  Am- 
mian.  Marcell.  xiv,  8).  They  describe  it  as  one 
of  the  nmst  splendid  of  Syrian  cities,  enriched 
with  stately  palaces,  adorned  with  monuments  of 
ancient   times,  and  abounding  with   trees,  foun- 

iri  I  whatever  contributes  to  luxurious  enjoy- 
ment (D'Herbelot,  Biblwth.  Or.  s.  v.).  On  the  ad- 
vance ofthe  Moslems,  it  was  reported  to  the  Emperor 
Heraclius  as  protected  by  a  citadel  of  great  Btrength, 
and  well  able  to  sustain  a  siege.  After  tho  capture 
of  Damascus  it  was  regularly  invested  by  the  Mos- 
lems, and,  eont  lining  an  overflowing  population,  am- 
ply supplied  With  provisions  and  military  stores,  it 
nurageous  defence,  but  at  length  capitulated. 
!t-  invtortance  at  that  period  is  attested  by  the  ran- 


som exacted  by  the  conquerors,  consisting  of  2f  00 
ounces  of  gold,  4000  ounces  of  silver,  2000  silk  vests, 
and  1000  swords,  together  with  the  arms  ofthe  garri- 
son. It  afterward  became  the  mart  for  the  rich  pil- 
lage of  Syria  ;  but  its  prosperity  soon  received  a  fatal 
blow  from  the  caliph  of  Damascus,  by  whom  it  was 
sacked  and  dismantled,  and  the  principal  inhabitants 
put  to  the  sword  (A.D.  748).  During  the  Crusades, 
being  incapable  of  making  any  resistance,  it  seems  to 
have  quietly  submitted  to  the  strongest.  In  the  ye;.r 
1400  it  was  pillaged  by  Timour  Beg,  in  his  ingress 
to  Damascus,  after  he  had  taken  Aleppo.  Aftcrwurd 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mctawcli— a  barbarous 
predatory  tribe,  who  were  nearly  exterminated  when 
Djezzar  Pasha  permanently  subjected  the  whole  dis- 
trict to  Turkish  supremacy.  In  1750  an  earthquake 
completed  the  devastation  already  begun  1  y  Moham- 
medan vandalism. 

The  ruins  of  Heliopolis  lie  on  an  eastern  branch  of 
the  mountain,  and  are  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  tho 
Castle.  The  most  prominent  objects  visible  from  the 
plain  are  a  lofty  portico  of  six  columns,  part  of  the 
great  temple,  and  the  walls  and  columns  of  another 
smaller  temple  a  little  below,  surrounded  by  green 


Octagonal  Temple  at  Baalbek, 
trees.  There  is  also  a  singular  temple  of  nearly  cir- 
cular form.  These,  with  a  curious  column  on  the 
highest  point  within  the  walls  (winch  may  possibly 
have  been  a  clepsydra,  or  water-dial),  form  the  only 
erect  portions  ofthe  ruins.  These  ruins  have  been  so 
often  and  so  minutely  described  by  scores  of  travel- 
lers, as  well  as  in  many  works  of  general  reference, 
that,  since  their  identification  as  a  Scriptural  site  is 
uncertain,  a  few  additional  observations  only  may 
suffice.     The  ruins  of  Baalbek  in  the  mass  are  eppar- 


BAALBEK 


583 


BAAL-GAD 


ently  of  three  successive  eras :  first,  the  gigantic  hewn 
stones,  in  the  face  of  the  platform  or  basement  on 
which  the  temple  stands,  and  which  appear  to  be  re- 
mains of  older  buildings,  perhaps  of  the  more  ancient 
temple  which  occupied  the  site.  Among  these  are  at 
least  twenty  standing  upon  a  basement  of  rough 
stones,  which  would  be  called  enormous  anywhere 
but  here.  These  celebrated  blocks,  which  in  fact  form 
th-3  great  wonder  of  the  place,  vary  from  30  to  40  feet 
in  length;  but  there  are  three,  forming  an  upper 
course  20  feet  from  the  ground,  which  together  meas- 
ure 190  feet,  being  severally  of  the  enormous  dimen- 
sions of  63  and  64  feet  in  length,  by  12  in  breadth  and 
thickness  (Addison's  Damascus  and  Palmyra,  ii,  55). 
"They  are,"  says  Richter  (Wallfuhrlen,  p.  281),  "the 
largest  stones  I  have  ever  seen,  and  might  of  them- 
selves have  easily  given  rise  to  the  popular  opinion 
that  Baalbek  was  built  by  angels  at  the  command  of 
Solomon.  The  whole  wall,  indeed,  is  composed  of 
immense  stones,  and  its  resemblance  to  the  remains  of 
the  Temple  of  Solomon,  which  are  still  shown  in  the 
foundations  of  the,  mosque  Es-Sakkara  on  Mount  Mori- 
ah,  cannot  fail  to  be  observed.''  This  was  also  point- 
ed out  by  Dr.  Richardson.  In  the  neighboring  quar- 
ries (q.  v.)  from  which  the}-  were  cut,  one  stone,  hewn 
out  but  not  carried  away,  is  of  much  larger  dimensions 
than  any  of  those  which  have  been  mentioned.  To 
the  second  and  third  eras  belong  the  Roman  temples, 
which,  being  of  and  about  the  time  of  Antoninus  Pius, 
present  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Corinthian 
architecture  in  existence,  and  possess  a  wonderful 
grandeur  and  majesty  from  their  lofty  and  imposing 

Twcltc  pedestab  In  the  wall. 

nuuuuuuuuuuLXi 


Plan  of  the  Great  Temple  at  Baalbek. 


situation  (Addison,  ii,  57).  Among  the  ornaments  of 
these  buildings  Richter  finds  confirmation  of  the  fol- 
lowing statement  of  Macrobius:  "  Isis  and  Horus 
often  unequivocally  appear.  The  winged  globes  sur- 
rounded with  serpents  show  that  the  priests  of  Baalbek 
received  their  ideas  of  divinity  from  On,  the  Heliopo- 
lis  of  Egypt."  Speaking  generally  of  these  remains, 
Burckhardt  says,  "The  entire  view  of  the  ruins  of 
Palmyra,  when  seen  at  a  certain  distance,  is  infinitely 
more  striking  than  those  of  Baalbek,  but  there  is  not 
any  one  spot  in  the  ruins  of  Tadmor  so  imposing  as 
the  interior  view  of  the  temple  of  Baalbek"  {Syria,  p. 
13).  He  adds  that  the  architecture  of  Baalbek  is 
richer  than  that  of  Tadmor.  Mr.  Addison  remarks 
that  "the  ruins,  though  so  striking  and  magnificent. 
are,  nevertheless,  quite  second-rate  when  compared 
with  the  Athenian  ruins,  and  display  in  their  decora- 
tion none  of  the  bold  conceptions  and  the  genius  which 
characterize  the  Athenian  architecture."  The  present 
Baalbek  is  a  small  village  to  the  east  of  the  ruins,  in  a 
sad  state  of  wretchedness  and  decay.  It  is  little  more 
than  a  heap  of  rubbish,  the  houses  being  built  of  mud 
and  sun-dried  bricks.  The  population  of  5000  which 
the  place  is  said  to  have  contained  in  1751  is  now  re- 
duced to  barely  2000  persons;  the  two  handsome 
mosques  and  fine  serai  of  the  emir,  mentioned  by 
Burckhardt,  are  no  longer  distinguishable;  and  trav- 
ellers may  now  inquire  in  vain  for  the  grapes,  the 
pomegranates,  and  the  fruits  which  were  formerly  so 
abundant  (Iken,  Dissert,  de  Baal-Hamon  et  Baal-Gad, 
in  Dissertt.  Ph:,lologico-Theolog.  i,  136  ;  Wood  and  Daw- 
kins,  Ruins  of  Baal'jec,  Lond.  1757;  Pococke,  Descrip- 
tion ofthe  East,  ii,  106-113;  Maundrell,  Journey  from 
Aleppo  to  Jerusalem,  p.  134,  139;  Volney,  Voyage  en 
rie,  ii,  215-230;  Thevet,  Cosmngraplw,  bk.  vi,  ch. 
xiv;  Schubert,  Reise  in  das  Morgenland,  Erlangen, 
1841 ;  see  also  Rosenmuller,  Biblical  Geography,  ii, 
252-257;  Thomson,  Land  and  Boole,  i,  350-361;  Kel- 
ly's Syria,  p.  256-266;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geg. 
s.  v.  Heliopolis  Syrise). — Kitto,  s.  v.     Baal-gad. 

Ba'al-be'rith  (Heb.  Ba'al  Berith',  m">3  ?33, 
covenmt-lord;  Sept.  Baa\j3tpi9  v.  r.  Baa\  cia9r)KiiQ ; 
Judg.  ix,  4)  is  the  name  of  a  god  worshipped  by  the 
people  of  Shechem  (Judg.  viii,  33),  who,  on  account 
of  the  signification  of  the  name,  has  been  compared 
to  the  Zs<''c  "OpicioQ  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Latin  Deus 
Fidius.     Bochart  and  Crcuzer  think  that  this  name 
means  "God  of  Berj-tus;"  bat,  whether  or  not  the 
name  of  that  town  is  to  be  recognised  in  the  Berothah 
of  Ezek.  xlvii,  16,  there  is  hardly  any  ground  for  their 
opinion.     Movers  (Phonizer,  i,  169)  considers  the  name 
equivalent  to  "  Baal  in  covenant  with  the  idolaters  of 
Israel."     The  meaning,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be 
the  god  who  presides  over  cove- 
nants, but  the  god  who  comes 
into  covenant  with  the  worship- 
pers.    In   Judg.   ix,  46,  he   is 
called  simply  "the  god  Berith" 
(n"73  bx).     We  know  nothing 
of  the  particular  form  of  worship 
paid  to  this  god.     See  Baalim. 
Ba'ale  of  Judah  (Heb.  Ba~ 
aley    Yehuddi,  rnirn  r?r3, 

lord;  or  cities  of  Judah;  Sept. 
and  Vulg.  translate  oi  dpxovrtc 
'Invda,  liri  Judo),  a  city  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  from  which  Da- 
vid brought  the  ark  into  Jerusa- 
lem (2  Sam.  vi,  2).  It  is  else- 
where called  Baai.au  (q.  v.), 
and  was  still  better  known  as 
Kik.jath-jeaium  (1  Chron.  xiii, 
6). 

Ba'al-gad^Heb.  id.,  13  W3, 
lord  of  fortune  ;  Sept.  BaaXydS 


BAAL-GUR 


584 


BAALIM 


r.  r.  BaXaydc,  once  [Josh,  xiii,  5]  r«Xy«X),  a  city 
of  the  Canaanites,  perhaps  in  the  valley  of  Leb- 
anon, at  the  source  of  the  Jordan  and  foot  of  Mount 
Hermon,  whose  kings  were  taken  and  put  to  death 
by  Joshua,  hut  the  city  itself  remained  unsubdued 
in  his  day  (Josh,  xi,  17;  xii,  7;  xiii,  5).  It  was  a 
place  evidently  well  known  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Palestine,  and,  as  such,  used  to  denote  the 
most  northern  (Josh,  xi,  17 ,  xii,  7),  or  perhaps  north- 
western (xiii,  5,  Hamath  being  to  the  extreme  north- 
east) point  to  which  Joshua's  victories  extended.  It 
was  in  all  probability  a  Phoenician  or  Canaanite  sanc- 
tuary of  Baal  under  the  aspect  of  Gad  or  Fortune  [see 
Gad]  ,  from  whose  worship  it  appears  to  have  derived  its 
name.  See  Baalim.  The  words  "the  plain  (nrpa) 
of  Lebanon"  would  lead  to  the  supposition  that  it  lay 
between  the  two  ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Leba- 
non, which  is  still  known  by  the  same  name  el-Biikaa  , 
and  it  has  according^  been  identified  b)r  Iken  and 
others  (including  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  i,  353) 
with  Baalbek  (Ritter,  Erdkunde,  xvii,  230).  See  Baal- 
bek. But  against  this  are  the  too  great  distance  of 
Baalbek  to  the  north,  and  the  precise  expression  of 
the  text — "under  Mount  Hermon."  The  conjecture 
of  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  60),  supported  by  Robinson 
(Researches,  new  ed.  iii,  519),  is,  that  the  modern  rep- 
resentative of  Baal-gad  is  Banias,  a  place  which  long 
maintained  a  great  reputation  as  the  sanctuary  of  Pan. 
See  C.esarea  Philippi.  From  its  association  with 
Mount  Hermon,  it  would  seem  to  be  the  same  with 
Baal-hermon  (Judg.  iii,  3;  1  Chron.  v,  23). — Smith. 

Baal-gur.     See  Gcr-baal. 

Ba'al-ha'mon  (Heb.  Ba'iil  Hainan',  "l-fl  ^ra, 
place  of  multitude ;  Sept.  Re iXci/im/),  a  place  where 
Solomon  is  said  to  have  had  an  extensive  vineyard 
(Cant,  viii,  11).  Rosenmiiller  (AllertL  I,  ii,  281)"con- 
ceives  that  if  this  Baal-hamon  was  the  name  of  a 
place  that  actually  existed,  it  may  be  reasonably  sup- 
posed identical  with  Baal-gad  or  IMwpolis;  for  Ha- 
mon was  a  chief  Phoenician  god  (Davis,  Carthage, 
p.  256,  262),  perhaps  the  Amnion  of  the  Egyptians 
(see  Nah.  iii,  8),  whom  the  Greeks  identified  with 
Jupiter  (Bib.  Geog.  ii,  253).  We  are  not  inclined  to 
lay  much  stress  on  this  conjecture  (see  Iken,  Dissertt. 
philol.  in  loc),  which,  however,  is  adopted  by  Schwarz 
(Palest,  p.  61).  See  Baal-gad.  There  was  a  place 
called  Ilammon,  in  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Josh,  xix,  28), 
which  Ewald  (Comment,  in  loc.)  thinks  was  the  same 
as  Baal-hamon ;  but  there  is  little  probability  in  this 
conjecture.  The  book  of  Judith  (viii,  3)  places  a  Bala- 
mon  (BaXafttoi)  or  Belamon  (RtXctjiMv)  in  central  Pal- 
estine, near  Doth  aim,  and  therefore  in  the  mountains 
of  Ephraim,  not  far  north  of  Samaria.  See  Balamo. 
If  it  be  the  same  place  (see  Gesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p. 
225),  this  vineyard  may  have  been  in  one  of  the  "  fat 
valleys"  of  the  "drunkards  of  Ephraim,  who  are  over- 
come with  wine,"  to  which  allusion  is  made  in  Isa. 
xx viii,  1.  It  appears  to  have  been  situated  among 
the  eminences  south-east  of  Jenin.  —  Kitto  ;  Smith. 
See  Beth-haggan;  Baalim. 

Ba'al-ha'nan  (Heb.  Ba'iil  Chanan  ,  'SH  bra, 
lord  <f  grace,  or  Baal  is  gracious),  the  name  of  two 
men. 

1.  (Sept.  BaWatvwv  and  RaXaiwioi'  v.  r.  BnXXt- 
vwv  aiid  BaXatwdp.)  An  early  king  of  Edom,  son  of 
Achbor,  successor  of  Saul,  and  succeeded  by  Hadar 
(Gen.  xxxvi,  88,  39;  1  Chron.  i,  49,  50).  B.C.  prob. 
ante  1619. 

2.  (Sept.  BaWavav  v.  r.  BaXXava.)  A  Gederite, 
royal  overseer  of  "  the  olive-trees  and  sycamore-trees 
in  the  low  plains"  under  David  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  28). 
B.C.  L014.  From  his  name  we  may  conjecture  that 
he  was  of  Canaanitish  extraction. 

Ba'al-ha'zor  (Heb.  Ba'al  Chatsor',  "nsn  bra, 
having  a  village;  Sept,  BaaXavwp  v.  r.  RtXamop),  the 


place  where  Absalom  kept  his  flocks,  and  held  tin 
sheep-shearing  feast  at  which  Amnon  was  assassinated 
(2  Sam.  xiii,  23).  The  Targum  makes  it  "  the  plain 
of  Hazor,"  and  so  Ewald  (Isr.  Gesch.  ii,  639)  ;  but  this 
localit}'  would  be  far  from  that  of  the  above  passage, 
where  it  is  said  to  have  been  "  beside  (Cr)  Ephraim ;" 
not  in  the  tribe  of  that  name,  but  near  the  city  called 
Ephraim,  which  was  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  is 
mentioned  in  2  Chr.  xiii,  19 ;  John  xi,  54.  This  Ephra- 
im is  placed  by  Eusebius  eight  miles  from  Jerusa- 
lem on  the  road  to  Jericho,  and  is  supposed  by  Reland 
to  have  been  between  Bethel  and  Jericho  (Pala>stini, 
i,  377).  Perhaps  Baal-hazor  is  the  same  with  Hazor 
(q.  v.)  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (Neh.  xi,  33),  now  Asur 
in  the  vicinity  indicated  (see  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  133). 

Ba'al  -  her'mon  (Heb.  Ba'iil  Chermon  ,  bra 
"(i-*n,  lord  of  Hermon),  the  name  of  a  city  and  a  hill 
adjoining. 

1.  (Sept. makes  two  names,  Bo«X  'Ep/.twv.)  A  town 
not  far  from  Mount  Hermon,  mentioned  as  inhabited 
by  the  Ephraimites  in  connection  with  Bashan  and 
Senir  (1  Chron.  v,  23).  It  was  probably  the  same 
with  the  Baal-gad  (q.  v.)  of  Josh,  xi,  17  (Robinson, 
Researches,  new  ed.  iii,  409). 

2.  (Sept.  translates  6'poc.  too  'Aip/.uov,  Mount  Ihr- 
mon.)  A  mountain  (~!l)  east  of  Lebanon,  from  which 
the  Israelites  were  unable  to  expel  the  Hivites  (Judg-. 
iii,  3).  This  is  usually  considered  as  a  distinct  place 
from  Mount  Hermon ;  but  the  only  apparent  ground 

J  for  doing  so  is  the  statement  in  1  Chron.  v,  23,  "  unto 
Baal-hermon,  and  Senir, and  [unto]  Mount  Hermon;" 
but  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  conjunction  "  and"  may 
be  here,  as  elsewhere,  used  as  an  expletive-^"  unto 
Baal-hermon,  even  Senir,  even  Mount  Hermon." 
Perhaps  this  derives  some  color  from  the  fact,  which 
Ave  know,  that  this  mountain  had  at  least  three  names 
(Deut.  iii,  9).  May  not  Baal-hermon  have  been  a 
fourth,  in  use  among  the  Phoenician  worshippers  of 
Baal,  one  of  whose  sanctuaries,  Baal-gad,  was  at  the 
foot  of  this  very  mountain  ? — Smith.     See  Baalim. 

Ba'ali (Heb. Baali' ,  hbS3,  mylord,  Sept.  RaaXei/i), 
a  colder  and  more  distant  title  for  husband,  which  the 
prophet  reproaches  the  Jewish  Church  for  hitherto  ap- 
plying to  Jehovah,  instead  of  the  more  endearing  term 
Ishi  (my  man,  i.  e.  husband),  which  he  predicts  she 
would  be  emboldened  to  employ  when  freed  from  her 
idolatries  (Hos.  ii,  16).  Some  have  supposed  from 
this  that  the  JewTs  had  even  borrowed  the  term  Baal 
from  the  surrounding  nations  as  expressive  of  sover- 
eign deity,  and  so  applied  it  to  Jehovah ;  but  this  is 
not  likehy.     See  Baal. 

Ba'alim  (Heb.  hab-beiilim' ,  cbrart,  plural  of 
Baal,  with  the  def.  article  prefixed;  Sept.  BcraXi'//), 
according  to  most,  images  of  the  god  Baal  set  up  in 
temples  and  worshipped,  usually  in  connection  with 
those  of  Astarte  (Judg.  ii,  11;  1  Sam.  vii,  4,  etc.); 
according  to  others,  various  forms  of  Baal  (Ort,  Dienst 
der  B.  in  Israel,  Leyden,  1864).     See  Ashtoretii. 

Baal  seems  to  have  been  the  general  name  for  the 
deity  among  the  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians  (Ser- 
vius,  ad  jEn.  i,  729;  "lingua  Punica  Deus  B  il  dici- 
tur,"  Isidor.  Orig.  viii,  11),  but  with  the  article  (bra!~t, 
hab-Baal,  "the  Baal'1)  Baal  distinctively,  the  chief 
male  divinity  (on  the  fern,  i)  RaaX,  Rom.  xi,  4,  and 
often  in  the  Sept. ,  see  Winer,  New  Ted.  Gr.  §  205)  of 
the  Phoenician  (i.  e.  proper  Sidonian,  Syrian,  Cartha- 
ginian, and  colonial  Punic)  race  (hence  the  syllable 
-(iaXoc  or  -bal  so  often  found  at  the  end  of  their  prop, 
er  names,  e.  g.  'I3-o/3nXo£  or  Ethbaal  (q.  v.),  "Ay/SoXog 
[Herod,  vii,  78],  'EwifiaXoc  and  Mfp/3d\oc  [Joseph. 
Ap.  i,  21];  also  Hannibal,  Ahibal,  Adherbal,  Hasdru- 
bal,  Maharbal,  etc.  [comp.  Fromann,  Be  cultu  dei.r.  ex 
ovofiaStoia  illustri.,  Altdorf,  1744-45,  p.  17  sq.] ;  yet 
that  the  suffix  in  these  names  is  not  expressive  of  deity 


BAALIM 


585 


BAALIM 


in  general,  but  only  of  Baal  specifically,  appears  from 
a  similar  use  of  the  titles  Melkart,  Astarte,  etc.,  in  oth- 
er personal  appellations  [see  generally  Munter,  Re'ig. 
d.  Karthager,  2d  ed.  Kopenh.  1821]),  like  Bel  among 
the  Babylonians  (for  the  contraction  52,  Bal,  for  522, 
Baal,  see  Gesenius,  Monum.  Phan.  p.  452),  and  the  tu- 
telary Be'us  of  Cyprus  ("Citium  of  Bel,"  Steph.  Byz. 
p.  510).  The  apostate  Israelites  worshipped  him  (in 
connection  with  Astarte)  in  the  period  of  the  judges 
(Judg.  ii,  11, 13 ;  ill,  7  ;  vi,  25  sq.),  and  the  later  kings, 
especially  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  2)  and  Manasseh  (2 
Kings  xxi,  3)  of  Judah,  and  Ahab  and  Hoshea  of  Is- 
rael (1  Kings  xvi,  31  sq. ;  xviii,  19  sq. ;  2  Kings  xvii, 
1G  sq. ;  comp.  also  Jer.  ii,  S ;  vii,  9 ;  xxxii,  29,  etc.), 
with  but  little  interruption  (2  Kings  iii,  2;  x,  28;  xi, 
18).  They  had  temples  to  him  (1  Kings  xvi,  32 ;  2 
Kings  x,  21  sq.),  and  altars  (Jer.  xi,  13)  erected  espe- 
cially on  eminences  and  roofs  (Jer.  xix,  5  ;  xxxii,  29), 
as  well  as  images  set  up  in  his  honor  (2  Kings  iii,  2). 
Respecting  the  form  of  his  worship  we  have  very  few 
distinct  notices.  His  priests  and  prophets  were  very 
numerous  (1  Kings  xviii,  22;  2  Kings  x,  19  sq.),  and 
divided  into  various  classes  (2  Kings  x,  19).  They 
ottered  incense  to  this  god  (Jer.  vii,  9;  xi,  13;  xxxii, 
29,  etc.),  and,  clothed  in  a  peculiar  costume  (2  Kings 
x,  22),  presented  to  him  bloody  offerings,  including 
children  (Jer.  xix,  5).  In  connection  with  these,  the 
priests  danced  (derisively,  "leaped,"  1  Kings  xviii, 
2(5)  around  the  altar,  and  gashed  themselves  with 
knives  (1  Kings  xviii,  28)  when  they  did  not  speedily 
gain  their  suit  (Propert.  ii,  18,  15 ;  Tibull.  i,  G,  17  sq. ; 
Lucan.  i,  565;  Lucian,  Dei  Syra,  50  [Ling.  1723]; 
Movers,  Phoniz.  i,  G82).  On  the  adoration  (q.  v.)  by 
kissing  (1  Kings  xix,  18),  see  Kiss.  That  this  Baal 
worshipped  by  the  Israelites  was  the  same  as  the  wide- 
ly famed  Tyrim  Baal,  whom  the  Greeks  called  Hercu- 
les, admits  of  scarcely  a  doubt  (Movers,  i,  178  sq.),  and 
thus  Baal  is  identified  with  Melkart  also.  The  an- 
cients in  general  compare  Baal  with  the  Greek  Zeus  or 
Jove  (Sanchoniathon,  p.  11,  ed.  Orelli ;  Augustine, 
(incest,  in  Jud.  16 ;  Dio  Cass,  lxxviii,  8),  as  they  still 
more  frequently  do  the  Belus  of  the  Babylonians  [see 
Bel],  but  sometimes  identify  him  with  Chronus  or 
Saturn  (Ctes  ap.  Phot.  p.  343).  Most  investigators 
recognise  in  him  the  sun  as  the  fructifying  principle  of 
nature  (Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  2GG  sq. ;  comp.  Vatke, 
BUI.  Theol.  p.  3G6  sq.) ;  while  Gesenius  {Comment,  zu 
Jes.  ii,  335,  and  Thesaur.  p.  224)  interprets  the  Babylo- 
nian Bel  and  the  Phoenician  Baal  as  the  principal  lucky 
etar  of  the  Asiatic  astrolatry,  i.  e.  the  planet  Jupiter. 
The  latter  view  has  the  following  considerations  in  its 
favor  :  (1.)  In  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Saltans,  the 
usual  title  of  this  planet  (in  Syriac)  is  Beil;  (2.)  A  star 
of  good  fortune,  Gad,  was  evidently  esteemed  a  deity 
in  Western  Asia  (comp.  Isa.  lxv,  11),  and  from  this  the 
city  Baal-Gad  doubtless  had  its  name ;  (3.)  In  2 
Kings  xxiii,  5,  Baal  (52211)  would  seem  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  sun  as  an  object  of  worship  ;  (4.)  On 
Phoenician  coins  likewise  the  sun-god  is  constantly 
named  distinctively  "Lord  of  Heaven"  (E7"2'.2  522), 
"  Lord  of  Heat"  (]*2tl  522),  "  Lord  of  the  Sun" 
(O'aia  522).  But  that  Baal  originally  represented 
the  sun,  which  with  its  light  and  warmth  controls  and 
vitalizes  all  nature,  is  clearly  indicated  by  Sanchonia- 
thon (ut  sup.)  in  the  statement  that  the  Phoenicians 
had  designated  the  sun  as  the  "sole  lord  of  heaven, 
BeeUameii'1  (jiovov  ovpavoii  icvpiov,  WitXaapijv,  i.  e. 
■pO'JB  522;  comp.  also  Augustine,  in  Jud.  10).  The 
same  name  (Balsameri)  occurs  in  Plautus  (Pan.  v,  2,  G7). 
For  other  reasons  for  the  identification  of  the  Babylo- 
nian, Syrian,  and  Phoenician  Baal  with  the  solar  deity, 
see  Movers,  Phon.  p.  180  sq.,  who  has  extensively  in- 
vestigated (p.  185  sq.)  the  relations  of  this  divinity 
to  the  other  ancient  Asiatic  deification  of  the  powers 
of  nature,  some  of  which  appear  in  the  names  Tammuz, 


Moloch,  and  Chiun  (q.  v.  severally).  Without  tracing 
these  out  minutely,  it  is  appropriate  in  this  connection 
to  specif}'  some  of  the  functions  and  spheres  of  activ- 
ity which  Baal,  like  Zeus  among  the  Greeks,  appears 
to  have  fulfilled  among  the  Phoenicians,  especially  in- 
asmuch as  the  plural  form  Baalim  is  thought  by  many 
to  be  expressive  of  this  multiform  development.  The 
following  are  referred  to  in  the  Bible. 

1.  Baal-Berith  (r^"i2  522,  Covenant-Baal'),  cor- 
responding to  the  Zei'Q  onictog,  Deus  Fidius,  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  mythology,  lie  was  worshipped 
in  this  capacity  in  a  special  temple  by  the  Shechemites 
(Judg.  viii,  33;  ix,  4,  4G),  among  whom  Canaanites 
were  also  resident  (Judg.  ix,  28).  Bochart  (Canaan, 
xvii,  p.  859),  whom  Creuzer  (Symbol,  ii,  87)  follows, 
renders  the  name  "Baal  of  Berytus"  (comp.  also 
Steph.  Byz.  s.  v.  Bipvrog),  like  the  titles  Baal  of  Sy- 
rus  (-12  522),  Baal  of  Tarsus  (Tin  522),  found  in 
inscriptions.  As  the  Heb.  name  of  Berytus  (q.  v.) 
accords  with  this  title  (WHS  or  "iri12),  and  a  deity 
of  alliance  or  contracts  might  well  be  requisite  to  the 
polity  of  the  Phoenicians  (in  whose  territory  this  city 
was  included),  q.  d.  a  guardian  of  compacts ;  the  inter- 
pretation'of  Movers  (p.  171),  with  which  Bertheau  (on 
Judg.  ix,  4)  accords,  namely  "Baal  with  whom  the 
league  is  formed"  (comp.  Gen.  xiv,  3;  Exod.  xxiii, 
32 ;  xxxiv,  12  sq.),  gives  a  signification  not  altogeth- 
er inapposite.     See  Baal-berith. 

2.  Baal-Zebub  (2^12T  522,  Fly-Baal;  the  Sept. 
construes  the  latter  part  of  the  name  differently,  iizi- 
£i)Tiiv  tu  T<ii  Baa\  (ivtav  $ibi>  'AxKapdv,  but  Josephus 
has  the  usual  interpretation,  Ant.  ix,  2,  1),  an  oracu- 
lar deity  of  the  Philistines  at  Ekron  (2  Kings  i,  2,  3, 
1G),  corresponding  to  the  Zero,  airopviog  or  pviaypog 
(Pausan.  v,  14,  2 ;  viii,  26,  4)  and  Deus  Myiagrus  or 
Myiodes  (Plin.  x,  40 ;  xxix,  24)  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  (Salmas.  Exerc.  p.  9  sq. ;  Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii, 
487  ;  iv,  392 ;  Hitzig,  Philist.  p.  313),  and  to  the  Her- 
cules Myiagrus  (jiviaypog)  of  other  notices  (Solin.  c.  2 ; 
Clem.  Alex.  Protrept.  p.  11,  ed.  Sylb.).  Flies  (and 
gnats)  are  in  the  East  a  much  greater  annoyance  than 
with  us  (comp.  Bochart,  Hieroz.  iii,  346  sq.).  See 
Fly.  From  this  explanation  of  Baal-Zebub  only  Hug 
has  of  late  dissented  (Freiburg.  Zeitschr.  vii,  104  sq.); 
his  assertion,  however,  that  this  Philistine  divinity  is 
the  dung-beetle  (scarabams  pillularius),  worshipped  also 
in  Egypt  (as  a  symbol  of  the  world-god),  rests  on 
many  uncertain  assumptions,  and  is  therefore  improb- 
able. (For  other  interpretations,  see  the  Exeg.  Iland'o. 
d.  A.  T.  ix,  2  sq.)     See  Beel-zebub. 

3.  Baal-Peor  C*liSfi  522,  Priapism-Baal),  or  sim- 
ply Peor  (1125),  was  the  name  of  a  god  of  the  Moab- 
ites  (Num.  xxv,  1  sq. ;  xxxi,  1G ;  Josh,  xxii,  17),  ap- 
parently worshipped  by  the  prostitution  (perhaps  pro- 
ceeds of  the  hire)  of  young  girls  (whence,  according 
to  the  rabbins,  the  name,  from  *\'$l3,paar/,  to  frac- 
ture, i.  q.  to  deprive  of  virginity,  comp.  Jonathan, 
Targ.  on  Num.  xxv,  1),  probably  corresponding  to  the 
Roman  Priapus  (see  Jerome,  ad  Has.  iv,  14)  and  Mu- 
tunus  (Creuzer,  Symbol,  ii,  976).  If  the  above  rabbin- 
ical significance  of  the  title  be  correct,  he  would  seem 
to  have  given  name  to  Mt.  Peor  [see  Beth-peor], 
where  was  the  seat  of  his  worship  ;  but  it  is  more  like- 
ly that  the  title  was  borrowed  from  the  hill  (q.  d.  "ra- 
vine") as  a  distinctive  epithet  (Movers,  p.  6G7)  for  his 
form  of  worship  in  that  locality  (see  Creuzer,  Symbol. 
ii,  85).  Jerome  (in  Jovin.  i,  12)  considers  this  deity  to 
be  Chemosh  (q.  v.). — Winer,  i,  118.    See  Baal-peor. 

4.  The  deity  styled  emphatically  the  Baal  (522H, 
q.  d.  "  the  great  lord"),  whose  worship  was  introduced 
into  Israel  by  Jezebel  (1  Kings  xvi,  32  sq.),  was  ap- 
parently the  god  with  whom  the  Greeks  compared 
their  Hercules  (2  Mace,  iv,  18,  £0).  His  Phoenician 
appellation   was  Melkart  ("king  of  the  city,"  i.  c. 


BAALIM 


586 


BAAL-MEOX 


Tyre),  or  Harold  ("  merchant,"  he  being  supposed  to 
be  a  great  navigator),  which  the  Greeks  corrupted  into 
a  resemblance  to  their  own  'HpdjcAjje,  and  under  the 
name  of  the  "  Tyrian  Hercules"  he  was  much  cele- 
brated (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvi,  5;  Arriau,  Exped. 
Alex,  ii,  lb').  When  Herodotus  was  in  Egypt  he 
learned  that  Hercules  was  there  regarded  as  one  of 
the  primeval  gods  of  that  country,  and  being  anxious 
to  obtain  more  explicit  information  on  the  subject,  he 
undertook  a  voyage  to  Tyre.  The  priests  there  inform- 
ed him  that  the  foundation  of  the  temple  was  coeval 
with  that  of  the  city,  which  they  said  was  founded  2300 
years  before  that  time.  It  was  in  honor  of  this  god 
that  the  Carthaginians  for  a  long  time  annually  sent 
the  tenth  of  their  income  to  Tyre  (Herod,  ii,  -14).  The 
account  of  the  Baai  of  Jezebel  and  Athaiiah  agrees 
with  this  Hercules,  since  the  representation  of  Scrip- 
ture (1  Kings  xix,  18)  is  the  same  with  that  of  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  (ii,  10),  that  the  fire  was  always  burn- 
ing on  his  altar,  the  priests  officiated  barefooted,  and 
kissing  was  among  the  acts  of  worship  (Cicero,  in 
Verrem,  iv,  43).  Many  representations  of  the  Tyrian 
Hercules  are  extant  on  coins,  of  which  there  are  two 
specimens  in  the  British  Museum.  The  first  was 
found  in  the  island  of  Cossyra  (now  Pantellaria), 
which  belonged  to  the  Tynans  ;  the  other  is  a  Tyrian 
coin  of  silver,  weighing  214J  grains,  and  exhibits  a 
very  striking  head  of  the  same  idol  in  a  more  modern 
and  perfect  style  of  art.  One  of  the  figures  of  the 
date  is  obliterated,  but  it  is  thought  that  the  complete 
date  may  have  given  84  B.C.     See  Hercules. 


Coins  with  7'lifigipi  of  the  Tyrian  Daal. 

5.  In  addition  to  the  above,  Fiirst  (Htb.  TTi:ndwurtcr- 
buch,  s.  v.)  enumerates  the  following  as  local  or  special 
attributes  of  Baal.  (<<)  Baal-Gad  (13  b?3,  q.  d. 
Luck-Baal),  the  epithet  of  Baal  as  bringing  good 
fortune,  like  the  luck-dispensing  star  Jupiter;  and 
thence  given  as  the  name  of  a  city  (Josh,  xi,  17  ;  xii, 
7;  xiii,  5)  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon  (Jebel  esh- 
Sheik),  in  which  neighborhood  was  also  situated  the 
city  Baal-Hermon  (1  Chron.  v,  23).  See  Baal-gad. 
(h)  Baal-IIamon  (lion  bra,  q.  a.  Heat-Baal),  the 
title  of  the  Phoenician  Baal,  as  representing  the  vivi- 
fying warmth  of  nature,  like  the  Egyptian  Amnion 
(Sun-god)  [see  Amon]  ;  and  thence  given  to  a  city  in 
Samaria  (Cant,  viii,  1'  ),  where  his  worship  may  have 

1 "  practised.     See  Baal-hamon.    (<•)  Baal-Chat- 

sou  (~"Un  bra,  q.  d.  i»7%e-protecting  Baal),  the  cpi- 
"'"!  of  Baal  as  the  tutelary  deity  of  Hazor  (q.  v); 
then  tin-  name  of  a  city  in  the  vicinitv  of  Ephraim  or 
Ephron  (2  Sam.  xiii,  23;  2  Chron. 'xiii,  10).  Sec 
Baal-hazor.  Baa]  is  repeatedly  named  among  the 
Phoenicians  as  the  guardian  divinity  of  towns,  e.  g. 
"Baal-Tyre"  (-;;  bra,  Malt,  i,  1),  "Baal-Tarsus" 
0?&  ^a.on  coins  of  thai  city),  "  Baal-Lybia"  (bra 
-z'rn.  ZmV  \;/3vc,  Numid.  iv,  1),  etc.  Sec  Baal-. 
Ch  Baal-Chermon  (--;-n  bra,  q.  d.  Hill-Baal), 
1  as  the  protector  of  Mount  Hermon,  in  a  city 
near  which  his  worship  was  instituted;  thence  applied 
to  the  city  itself  1 1  <  Jhron.  v.  23),  mar  Baal-gad  (q.  v.). 
That  part  of  Hermon  (q.  v.)  on  which  this  town  lav  is 
called  (Judg.  iii,  3)  Mount  Baal-Hermon  (q.  v.).  See 
Baai.-iihkmon.      (e)  Baal-Mkon  ("p'sa  bra,  q.  d. 


heaven-dwellMy  Baal),  i.  e.  Baal  as  associated  with  the 
hill  of  Baal  or  Saturn,  supposed  to  be  in  the  seventh 
heaven,  as  the  term  divine  "habitation"  ("ir^)  often 
signifies  (Deut.  xxvi,  15 ;  Psa.  lxviii,  6),  and  thus 
equivalent  to  the  later  Baal-Zebul  (biat  bra,  lord  of 
the  celestial  dwelling,  i.  e.  "prince  of  the  power  of  the 
air"),  and  the  Phoenician  Beelsamen  (BmX<x«/<mi',  i.  e. 
D^wd  bra,  lord  of heaven,  as  interpreted  by  Sancho- 
niathon  [p.  14,  Kvpiog  oipavov]  and  Augustine  [in  loc. 
Judg.,  dominus  call])  ;  whence  the  name  of  the  place 
Bet/i-Baal-Meon  (q.  v.),  in  Josh,  xiii,  17,  or  simply 
Baal-Meon  (Num.  xxxii,  38;  1  Chron.  v,  8),  or  even 
abridged  into  Been  (Num.  xxxii,  3).  See  Baal- 
meon;  Beelzebub.  (/)  Baal-Peratsim  (bra 
d^X^S,  q.  d.  ravine-Baal),  so  called  apparently  as  the 
presiding  deity  of  the  mountain  Perazim  (q.  v.),  an 
eminence  famous  for  an  ancient  victory  (Isa.  xxviii, 
21),  and  probably  a  seat  of  his  worship ;  and  hence  ap- 
plied in  this  form  to  the  place  itself  (2  Sam.  v,  20;  1 
Chron.  xiv,  11),  in  the  same  way  as  Hermon  and  Peor 
above,  and  at  length  Lebanon  itself,  as  mountains  rep* 
resenting  great  natural  features.  See  Baal-pera- 
zim.  (ff)  Baal-Tsephon  ("J iS2  bra,  i.  e.  Typhon- 
Baal),  the  name  of  Baal  as  the  opposing  genius  of 
cosmical  order  (comp.  "*E2J,  the  north,  i.  e.  the  dark, 
cold  quarter),  or  the  ruling  spirit  of  winter.  This  was 
an  Egyptian  phasis  of  the  divinity,  and  the  name  wa* 
transferred  to  the  city^  or  locality  of  Baal-Zephon,  ov 
the  route  of  the  Israelites  to  Canaan  (Exod.  xiv,  2), 
See  Baal-zepiion.  (h)  Baal  -  Shalishah  (bra 
ri'^3"^,  q.  d.  Baal  of  the  third  or  trinal  district),  the 
tutelary  deity  of  the  region  Shdisha  (q.  v.),  to*  a  citv 
of  which  (1  Sam.  ix,  4)  his  name  was  thus  transferred 
(1  Kings  iv,  20),  situated  (according  to  the  Onomasti- 
con)  15  Koman  miles  north  of  Diospolis,  and  called  by 
the  Sept.  and  Eusebius  Beth-Shalisha  (by  a  frequent 
interchange  of  prefixes).  See  Baal-Shalisha.  (f) 
Baal-Tamar  pOPl  h?3,q.d.2mlm-stick-Baal,  comp. 
Jer.  x,  5),  is  Baal  the  phallus  of  Bacchus,  or  the  scare- 
crow Priapus  in  the  melon-patches  (see  the  apocryphal 
explanation  in  Baruch  vi,  70),  and  thence  assigned  to 
a  city  in  the  fertile  meadow  near  Gibeah  (Judg.  xx, 
33),  called  in  the  Onomast.  Beth-Tamar.  See  Baal- 
tamar. 

On  the  subject  generally,  see  (in  addition  to  the 
works  above  referred  to)  Selden,  De  Bits  Syris;  Peri- 
zonius,  Orir/ines  Babyl. ;  Bullmann,  Veb.  Kronos,  in 
the  Abhan'dl.  d.  Berl.  Akad.  1814,  1815;  Buttmann, 
Mythol.;  Gesenius,  in  Ersch's  Encycl.  viii;  Stuhr, £e- 
Ug.  d.  heidn.  Volker  d.  Orients;  Metzger,  in  Pauli's 
ReaUenc.  <1.  llusmch.  Wissensdwft,  s.  v.  Hercules; 
Movers,  in  Ersch's  Encycl.  xxiv.     See  Baal. 

Ba'alis  (Heb.  Baalis',  O^bra,  prob.  for  O^bS"*?, 
ton  of  exultation;  Sept.  BfX/cra  v.  r.  BtXuuaa,  and 
even  BaaiXiaaa;  Vulg.  Baalis),  kinij;  of  the  Ammon- 
ites about  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity,  whom 
Johanan  and  his  fellow-generals  reported  to  Gedaliah, 
the  viceroy,  as  having  sent  Ishmael  to  assassinate  him 
(Jer.  xl,  14).  B.C.  587.  Some  MSS.  have  Baalim 
(Cnbra),  and  so  Josephus  (Baa\ii/i,  Ant.  x,  9,  3). 

Ba'al-me'cn  (Heb.  Ba'iil  Meonf,  ""'"  bra,  lord, 
of  dwelling;  Sept.  t)  BffX/./fwp,  but  in  Chron.  B«A- 
/tatiii>  v.  r.  V,n\jutnrn'ov,  and  in  Ezek.  omits ;  other- 
wise Beth-Meon,  Jer.  xlviii,  23,  and  Betii-Baal- 
Meon,  Josh,  xiii,  17),  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben 
beyond  the  Jordan,  or  at  least  one  of  the  towns  which 
were  "  built"  by  the  Ueubenites  (Num.  xxxii,  38),  and 
to  which  they  "gave  other  names."  Possibly  the 
"  Beth-"  (q.  v.),  which  is  added  to  the  name  in  its 
mention  elsewhere,  and  which  sometimes  superseded 
the  "  Baal-"  (q,  v.)  of  the  original  name,  is  one  of  the 
changes  referred  to.  See  Baalim.  It  is  also  named 
in  1  Chron.  v,  8,  and  on  each  occasion  with  Nebo. 


BAAL-PERAZIM 


587 


BAAL-ZEBUB 


In  the  time  of  Ezekiel  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Moabites,  and  under  that  prosperous  dominion  had 
evidently  become  a  place  of  distinction,  being  noticed 
as  one  of  the  cities  which  are  the  "glory  of  the  coun- 
try" (Ezek.  xxv,  9).  In  the  days  of  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  BuXfiaovc,  Balmen)  it  was  still 
a  very  larije  village  called  Balmano,  9  miles  distant 
from  Heshbon  Qlkjiovq,  Esbus),  near  the  "mountain 
of  the  hot  springs,"  and  reputed  to  be  the  native  place 
of  Elisha.  At  the  distance  of  two  miles  south-east  of 
Heshbon,  Burekkardt  (ii,  624)  found  the  ruins  of  a 
place  called  Myoun,  or  (as  Dr.  Robinson  [Researches, 
iii,  Append,  p.  170]  corrects  it)  MdVn,  which  is  doubt- 
less the  same;  so  Sehwarz,  Mam  {Pahs',  p.  227).  In 
Num.  xxxii,  3,  apparently  the  same  place  is  called 
Beon,  perhaps  by  an  error  of  the  copyists  or  by  con- 
traction.— Kitto ;  Smith. 

Ba'al-pe'or  (Heb.  Ba'al  Peor',  *)i"3  ?V2,  lord 
of  Peor,  or  sometimes  only  "fi"B,  Peor,  respectively 
represented  in  the  Sept.  by  BaX<p£yMp  and  $oywp) 
appears  to  have  been  properly  the  idol  of  the  Moabites 
(Num.  xxv,  1-9;  Deut.  iv,  3;  Josh,  xxii,  17;  Psa. 
cvi,  28;  Hos.  ix,  10);  but  also  of  the  Midianit.es  (Num. 
xxxi,  15,  16).  It  is  the  common  opinion  that  this  god 
was  worshipped  by  obscene  rites,  and  from  the  time 
of  Jerome  downward  it  has  been  usual  to  compare  him 
to  Pr'mpus  (see  Sickler,  in  Augusti's  Theol.  Blatt.  i, 
193  sq.).  Selden  and  J.  Owen  {De  Diis  Syris,  i,  5 ; 
Theolor/otimena,  v,  4)  seem  to  be  the  only  persons  who 
have  disputed  whether  any  of  the  passages  in  which 
tins  god  is  named  really  warrant  such  a  conclusion. 
The  narrative  (Num.  xxv)  seems  clearly  to  show  that 
this  form  of  B.ial-worship  was  connected  with  licen- 
tious rites.  The  least  that  the  above  passages  ex- 
press is  the  fact  that  the  Israelites  received  this  idola- 
try from  the  women  of  Moab,  an  1  ml- re  led  away  to 
eat  of  their  sacrifices  (comp.  Psa.  cvi,  28);  anil  it  is 
possible  for  that  sex  to  have  been  the  mans  of  seduc- 
ing them  into  the  adoption  of  their  worship,  without 
the  idolatry  itself  being  of  an  obscene  kind.  It  is  also 
remarkable  that  so  few  authors  are  agreed  even  as  to 
the  general  character  of  these  rites.  Most  Jewish  aa- 
thorities  (except  the  Targum  of  Jonathan  on  Num. 
xxv)  represent  his  worship  to  have  consisted  of  rites 
which  are  filthy  in  the  extreme,  but  not  lascivious  (see 
Braunius,  Dz  Vestit.  Sacerd.  i,  7,  for  one  of  the  fullest 
collections  of  Jewish  testimonies  on  this  subject). 
Without  laying  too  much  stress  on  the  rabbinical  der- 
ivation of  the  word  "1133,  hiatus,  i.  e.  "apcrire  hyme- 
nsm  virgineum,"  we  seem  to  have  reason  to  conclude 
that  this  was  the  nature  of  the  worship.  This  is,  more- 
over, the  view  of  Creuzer  (ii,  411),  Winer,  Gesenius, 
Furst,  and  almost  all  critics.  The  reader  is  referred 
for  more  detailed  information  particularly  to  Creuzer's 
Symbolik  and  Movers'  Phijnizier.  The  identification 
of  Baal  with  the  sun  [see  Baal]  as  the  generative 
power  of  nature  confirms  the  opinion  of  the  lascivious 
character  of  this  worship.  Peor  is  properly  the  name 
of  a  mountain  [see  Peor],  and  Baal-Peor  was  the 
name  of  the  god  worshipped  there.  Some  identify 
this  god  with  Ciiemosii  (q.  v.).— Kitto.  See  Baalim. 
Ba'al-per'azim  (Ileb.  Ba'al  Paratdm',  hV'Z 
d^S^S,  having  rents;  Sept.  [at  the  first  occurrence  in 
Sim.]  BcuiX  Qapaotv  [v.  r.  $apa<7fiV]),  the  scene  of 
a  victory  of  David  over  the  Philistines,  and  of  a  great 
destruction  of  their  images,  and  so  named  by  him  in  a 
characteristic  passage  of  exulting  poetry — ""'Jehovah 
hath  burst  Cj'^S)  upon  mine  enemies  before  mo  as  a 
burst  (""?  ;3)  of  waters.'  Therefore  he  called  the  name 
of  that  place  '  Baal-peraziin,' "  i.  c.  hursts  or  destruc- 
tions (2  Sam.  v,  20 ;  1  Chron.  xiv,  1 1).  The  place  and 
the  circumstance  appear  to  be  again  alluded  to  in  Isa. 
xxviii,  21,  where  it  is  called  ^f^^ul!  Perazim.  Perhaps 
this  may  indicate  the  previous  existence  of  a  high- 
place  or  sanctuary  of  Baal  at  this  spot,  which  would 


lend  more  point  to  David's  exclamation  (see  Gesenius, 
Jes.  in  loc).  The  Sept.  render  the  name  in  its  two  oc- 
currences respectively  'Eirdvu  ciukottCuv  and  Aiukoiti) 
(jtapaoiv,  the  latter  an  instance  of  retention  of  the 
original  word  and  its  explanation  side  by  side;  the 
former  uncertain.  See  Perazim.  It  is  important  as 
being  the  only  one  with  the  prefix  Baal  [see  Baal-] 
of  which  we  know  the  circumstances  under  which  it 
was  imposed ;  and  yet  even  here  it  was  rather  an  op- 
probrious application  of  a  term  already  in  use  than  a 
new  name.  —  Smith,  s.  v.  The  locality  appears  to 
have  been  near  the  valley  of  Kephaim,  west  of  Jeru- 
salem; perhaps  identical  with  the  modem  Jebel  Aly 
(Van  de  Velde,  Map).     See  Perazim. 

Ba'al-skal'isha  (Heb.  Baal  Shalishah'  b?2 
iTIPPEJ,  loi\l  of  Shalishah,  or  having  a  third;  Sept. 
BaaXoaXtaa  v.  r.  Baidapiad  and  BaiSroapiaa),  a  place 
named  only  in  2  Kings  iv,  42,  as  that  from  which  the 
man  came  with  provisions  for  Elisha,  apparently  not 
far  from  (the  Ephraimite)  Gilgal  (comp.  v,  38).  It 
was  doubtless  in  the  district  of  Shalisha  (q.  v.)  which 
is  mentioned  in  1  Sam.  ix,  4  ;  but  whether  it  took  its 
name  thence,  or  from  some  modification  of  the  worship 
of  Baal  (q.  v.),  of  which  it  was  the  seat,  is  uncertain. 
See  Baalim.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  describe  it  (Ono- 
mast.  BauSoaoicrax,  Bethsalisa,  where  the  frequent 
interchange  of  "  Baal"  and  "  Beth"  is  observable)  as 
a  city  15  R.  miles  N.  of  Diospolis,  near  Mt.  Ephraim. 
These  indications  correspond  to  the  site  of  the  present 
ruins  Khurbit  Hatta,  about  midway  between  Yafj, 
and  Sebustieh  (Van  de  Velde,  Map). 

Ba'al-ta'mar  (Heb.  Ba'al  Tamar',  lEFi  X'?, 
place  of  palm-trees ;  Sept.  Bc'iaX  9a/.idp),  a  place  near 
Gibeah,  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  where  the  other 
tribes  fought  with  the  Benjamites  (Judg.  xx,  33). 
It  was  doubtless  so  called  as  being  one  of  the  sanctu- 
aries or  groves  of  Baal.  See  Baalim.  The  palm- 
tree  ("ratt)  of  Deborah  (Judg.  iv,  5)  was  situated 
somewhere  in  the  locality,  and  is  possibly  alluded  to 
(Stanley,  Paksf.  p.  145).  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Ono- 
mast.  s.  v.  BaaXda/.iap,  Baalthamar)  call  it  Bethamar 
(Bii^a/idp,  Bethamari),  thus  affording  another  in- 
stance of  that  interchange  of  Beth  and  Baal  which  is 
also  exemplified  in  Baal-shalisha  and  Baal-Meon.  The 
notices  seem  to  correspond  to  the  present  ruined  site 
Erh'ih,  about  three  miles  N.E.  of  Jerusalem  (Van  de 
Velde,  Map),  on  a  ravine  running  toward  Anathoth 
(Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  315  note). 

Baaltis  (BaaXric,  prob.  fern,  of  Baal),  another 
name  apparently  for  the  Syrian  Venus,  the  chief  female 
deit}*  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  Ashtoretii  of  the  0.  T. 
See  Astakte. 

Ba'al-se'bub  (Heb.  Ba'al  Zcbub' ,  dint  "b'JZ, 
fly-hrd;  Sept.  u  [v.  r.  ?'/]  B«rr\  pviav)  occurs  in  2 
Kings  i,  2,  3,  16,  as  the  god  of  the  Philistines  at  Ek- 
ron,  whose  oracle  Ahaziah  sent  to  consult.  Though 
such  a  designation  of  the  god  appears  to  us  a  kind  of 
mockery,  and  has  consequently  been  regarded  as  a 
term  of  derision  (Selden,  De  Diis  Syris,  p.  375),  yet 
there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this  was  the  name 
given  to  the  god  by  his  worshippers,  and  the  plague 
of  flies  in  hot  climates  furnishes  a  sufficient  reason  for 
the  designation.  See  Fly.  Similarly  the  Greeks 
gave  the  epithet  c'nrofivioc  to  Zeus  (Clem.  Alex.  Pro- 
trept.  ii,  38)  as  worshipped  at  Elis  (Pausan.  v,  14,  2), 
the  Myiagrua  deus  of  the  Romans  (Solin.  Polyhist.  1), 
and  Pliny  (xxix,  G,  34,  ink.)  speaks  of  a  Fly-god 
Myiodes.  As  this  name  is  the  one  used  by  Ahaziah 
himself,  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  it  was  not  the 
proper  and  reverential  title  of  the  god  ;  and  the  more 
so,  as  Beelzebul (BuX'^SovX)  in  Matt,  x,  25,  seems  to  be 
the  contemptuous  corruption  of  it.  See  Beelzebud. 
Any  explanation,  however,  of  the  symbolical  sense  in 
which  flies  may  have  been  regarded  in  ancient  relig- 
ions, and  by  which  Ave  could  conceive  how  his  wor- 


BAAL-ZEPHOX 


588 


BAASEIAH 


shippers  could  honor  him  as  the  god  of  flies,  would  ap- 
pear to  us  much  more  compatible  with  his  name  than 
the  only  sense  which  can  be  derived  from  the  Greek 
parallel'.  This  receives  some  confirmation,  perhaps, 
from  the  words  of  Josephus  (Ant.  ix,  2,  1),  who  says, 
"  Aha/.iah  sent  to  the  Fly  (ri)v  Mwhc),  for  that  is  the 
name  of  the  god"  (ry  Oiy).  The  analogy  of  classical 
idolatry  would  lead  us  to  conclude  that  all  these  Baals 
are  only  the  same  god  under  various  modifications  of 
attributes  and  emblems,  but  the  scanty  notices  to 
which  we  owe  all  our  knowledge  of  Syro-Arabian  idol- 
atry do  not  furnish  data  for  any  decided  opinion  on 
this  phasis  of  Baal.— Kitto  ;  Smith.     See  Baalim. 

Ba'al-ze'phon  (Heb.  Ba'iil  Tsepkon' ,  "pE^  WS, 
plan  of  Typhon;  Sept.  BuXgittQujv or  BttXai-ntytov,  Jo- 
sephus Bi\at$iov,  Ant.  ii,  15,  1),  a  town  belonging  to 
Egypt,  on  the  border  of  the  Bed  Sea  (Exod.  xiv,  2 ; 
Num.  xxxiii,  7).     Forster  (Epist.  ad  J.  D.  Michaekm, 
p.  28)  believes  it  to  have  been  the  same  place  as  He- 
roopolis  ('HnwoJ/ToXic),  on  the  western  gulf  of  the  Bed 
Sea  (.Pliny,'  Hist.  Nat.  v,  12;    Strabo,  xvii,  p.  836; 
Ptolem.  iv,  5),  where  Typhon  (which  Forster  makes 
in  Coptic  Aii^QN  ;  but,  contra,  see  Rosenmiiller,  Al- 
terikum.  iii,  261),  the  evil  genius   of  the  Egyptians, 
was  worshipped.     See   Baalim.     But,  according  to 
Manetho  (Josephus  contra  Apian,  i,  26),  the  name  of 
Trillion's  city  was  Avaris  (Auapie),  which  some,  as 
Champollion  (who  writes  OVAP1,  and  renders  "caus- 
ing malediction;"  L'Egypte  Sius  les  Pharaons,  ii,  87 
sq.),  consider,  wrongly,  to  be  the  same   place,  the 
stronghold  of  the  Hyksos,  both  which  places  were  con- 
nected with  Typhon  (Steph.  Byz.  s.  v.  'HpoV).     Avaris 
c.innot  be  Heroopolis,  for  geographical  reasons.    (Com- 
pare, as  to  the  site  of  Avaris,  Brugsch,  Geograpk'sche 
Jnschriften,  i,  86  sq. ;  as  to  that  of  Heroopolis,  Lepsius, 
Chron.  d'.Egypt.  i,  344  sq.,  and  342,  against  the  two 
places  being  the  same.)     In  fact,  nothing  is  known 
of  the  situation  of  Baal-zephon  except  what  is  con- 
nected with  a  consideration  of  the  route  taken  by  the 
Israelites  in  leaving  Egypt,  for  it  was  "  over  against 
Baal-zephon"  that  they  were  encamped  before  they 
passed  the  Bed  Sea.     The  supposition  that  identifies 
its  site  with  Jebel  Deraj  or  Kulalah,  the   southern 
barrier  of  the  mouth  of  the  valley  leading  from  Cairo 
to  the  Red  Sea,  is  as  likely  as  any  other.     See  Exode. 
From  the  position  of  Goshen,  and  the  indications  af- 
forded by  the  narrative  of  the  route  of  the  Israelites, 
Baal-zephon  must  have  been  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Gulf  of  Suez,  a  little  below  its  head,  which  at  that 
time,  however,  has  been  located  by  some  many  miles 
northward  of  the  present  head.     See  Goshen;  Bed 
Sea,  Passage  of.     Its  position  with  respect  to  the 
other  places  mentioned  with  it  is   clearly  indicated. 
The  Israelites  encamped  before  or  at  Pi-hahiroth,  be- 
tween Migdol  and  the  sea,  before  Baal-zephon,  accord- 
ing to  Exodus  (xiv,  2,  9),  while  in  Numbers  Pi-hahi- 
roth is  described  as  being  before  Baal-zephon;  and  it 
i<  said  that  when  the  people  came  to  the  former  place 
they  pitched  before  Migdol  (xxxiii,  7);   and  again, 
that  afterward  they  departed  from  before  Pi-hahiroth, 
here  in  Heb.  Hahiroth  (v.  8).     Migdol  and  Baal-ze- 
phon must  therefore  have  been  opposite  to  one  anoth- 
er, and  the  latter  behind  Pi-hahiroth,  with  reference 
to  the  Israelites.     Baal-zephon  was  perhaps  a  well- 
known  place,  if,  as  seems  likely,  it  is  always  mention- 
ed to  indicate  the  position  of  Pi-hahiroth,  which  we 
take   to  be  a  natural  locality.      Sec    Pi-iiaiiiroth. 
The  name  lias  been  supposed  to  mean  "sanctuary  of 
Typhon,'1  or  "sacred  to  Typhon,"  an  etymology  ap- 
proved by  Gesenius  [Thet.  Heb.  p.  225),  but  not  by 
Pttrst  I 1 1' l'.  Handw.  b.  v.).    Zephon  would  well  enough 
correspond  in  sound  to  Typhon,  had  we  any  ground 
for  considering  the  latter  name  to  be  either  Egyptian 
or   Semitic;    and    even    then    Zephon   in    Baal-zephon 
might  not  be  its  Hebrew  transcription,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  joined  with  the  Hebrew  form  ~VZ.     Hence  many 


connect  Baal-zephon,  as  a  Hebrew  compound,  with  the 
root  H312,  to  spy,  as  if  it  were  named  from  a  watch- 
tower  on  the  frontier  like  the  neighboring  P'^J'O,  "  the 
tower."  It  is  noticeable  that  the  name  of  the  son  of 
Gad,  called  Ziphion  ("piSS)  in  Gen.  xlvi,  16,  is  writ- 
ten Zephon  C|is^)  in  Num.  xxvi,  15. — Kitto;  Smith. 
Ba'ana  (Heb.  Baana',  N3V.?»  Pr°b-  for  N:"~"2, 
son  of  affliction),  the  name  of  three  or  four  men. 

1.  (Sept.  Bavd.)  Son  of  Ahilud,  one  of  Solomon's 
twelve  purveyors  ;  his  district  comprised  Taanach,  Me- 
giddo,  and  all  Bethshean,  with  the  adjacent  region  (1 
Kings  iv,  12).     B.C.  1012. 

2.  (Sept.  Baava.)  Son  of  Hushai,  another  of  Solo- 
mon's purve3"ors,  having  Asher  and  Bealoth  (1  Kings 
iv,  16,  where,  however,  the  name  is  incorrectly  An- 
glicized "Baanah").     B.C.  1012. 

3.  (Sept.  Baava.)  Father  of  Zadok,  which  latter 
repaired  a  portion  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  on  the  re- 
turn from  Babvlon,  between  the  fish-gate  and  the  old- 
gate  (Neh.  iii,  4).     B.C.  446. 

4.  (Baava.)  One  of  those  who  returned  from  Baby- 
lon with  Zerubbabel  (1  Esdr.  v,  8) ;  the  Baanah  (q. 
v.)  of  the  Heb.  text  (Ezra  ii,  2). 

Ba'anah  (Heb.  Baanah',  !"I3SS1,  another  form  of 
the  name  Baani  [q.  v.] ;  Sept.  Baava),  the  name  of 
four  men. 

1.  One  of  the  two  sons  of  Bimmon  the  Beerothite. 
captains  of  bands  in  Saul's  army,  who  assassinated 
Ishbosheth  (2  Sam.  iv,  2);    for  which  murder  they 

rerc  slain  by  David,  and  their  mutilated  bodies  hung 
up  over  the  pool  at  Hebron  (ver.  5,  6, 19).  B.C.  1046. 
Josephus  represents  him  (BavaoSa,  Ant.  vii,  2,  1)  as 
a  person  of  noble  family,  and  instigated  by  personal 
ambition.     See  David. 

2.  A  Netophathite,  father  of  Heleb  or  Heled,  which 
latter  was  one  of  David's  thirty  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii, 
29  ;  1  Chron.  xi,  30).  B.C.  ante  1061.  The  Sept.  ut- 
terly confounds  the  list  of  names  at  this  part,  but  some 
copies  retain  the  Baava. 

3.  (1  Kings  iv,  16.)  See  Baana,  2. 

4.  One  of  the  chief  Jews  who  returned  from  Baby- 
lon with  Zerubbabel,  B.C.  536  (Ezra  ii,  2;  Neh.  vii, 
7) ;  possibly  the  same  with  one  of  those  who  long  af- 
terward (B.C.  410)  united  in  the  sacred  covenant  with. 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x,  27). 

Baanes.     See  Baanites. 

Baani'as  (rather  Banaias  [q.  v.],  Bavaiac),  one 
of  the  Israelites,  sons  of  Phoros,  who  divorced  his  Gen- 
tile wife  after  the  exile  (1  Esdr.  v,  26) ;  evidently  the 
Benaiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  correct  text  (Ezra  ii,  25). 

Baanites,  a  sect  of  Paulicians,  called  by  the  name 
of  their  leader,  Baanes,  in  the  ninth  century. — Nean- 
dcr,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  250,  266.     See  Paulicians. 

Ba'ara  (Heb.  Eaiira' ,  KJJS3,  brutish  ;  Sept.  Baapa 
v.  r.  Baaed),  one  of  the  wives  of  Shaharaim,  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  (1  Chron.  viii,  8,  where,  however, 
there  is  some  confusion  as  to  his  prior  children),  by 
whom  she  had  several  children  (ver.  9,  where  by  some 
error  she  is  called  Hodesh,  compare  ver.  11).  B.C. 
ante  1612.     See  Shaharaim. 

Baaras  (Badpar),  the  name  (according  to  Jose- 
phus, War,  vii,  6,  3)  of  a  valley  inclosing  the  city  of 
Herodium  on  the  north,  and  so  called  from  an  extra- 
ordinary species  of  plant  (but  whether  the  same  with 
the  gigantic  me,  irifyavov,  mentioned  in  the  same  con- 
nection, does  not  appear),  to  the  root  of  which  the 
credulous  Jewish  historian  ascribes  magical  properties 
of  a  most  marvellous  character.  See  Herodium.  For 
other  faint  notices  of  a  locality  by  names  similar  to 
Baaris,  in  the  vicinity  of  Machamis,  see  Roland,  Pa- 
laest.  p.  881. 


Baasei'ahdleb.  Baaseyah',  i1*~3S,  ft>riT£iyS|-"ja, 
snn  nf  A  sain h,  or  work  of  Jehovah;  Sept.  Baaaia),  a 
Gershonite  Levite,  son  of  Malchia,  and  father  of  Mi- 


BAASHA 


589 


BABEL 


chad,  in  the  lineage  of  Asaph  (1  Chron.  vi,  40  [25]). 
B.  C.  cir.  1310. 

Ba'asha  (Heb.  Basha',  &WJ3S,  for  SWJ?3,  from  an 
obsolete  root,  113S3,  signifying,  according  to  Furst 
[Heb.  Handw.  s.  v.],  to  be  bold,  but  according  to  Gese- 
nius  [Thes.  Neb.  s.  v.]  =  U3X3,  to  be  offensive,  hence 
wicked;  Sept.  Baaaa,  Josephus  Baaavijc,  Ant.  viii,  11, 
4,  etc.),  third  sovereign  of  the  separate  kingdom  of 
Israel,  and  the  founder  of  its  second  dynasty  (1  Kings 


and  finally  to  the  whole  province  of  Babylonia  (Ezek. 
xxiii,  17,  margin),  of  which  this  was  the  capital.  For 
these  latter,  see  Babylon-,  Babylonia. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Tower. — From  the  account  in  Gen. 
xi,  1-9,  it  appears  that  the  primitive  fathers  of  man- 
kind having,  from  the  time  of  the  Deluge,  wandered 
without  fixed  abode,  settled  at  length  in  the  land  of 
Shinar,  where  they  took  up  a  permanent  residence. 
As  yet  they  had  remained  together  without  experien- 
cing those  vicissitudes  and  changes  in  their  outward 


2  Chron.  xvi ;  Jer.  xli,  9).  He  reigned  i  lot  which  encourage  the  formation  of  different  modes 
B.C.  950-927.  Baasha  was  son  of  Ahijah,  of  the  tribe  of  speech,  and  were  therefore  of  one  language.  Ar- 
of  Issachar,  and  commander  of  the  royal  forces  of  the  I  rived,  however,  in  the  hind  of  Shinar,  and  finding  ma- 
northern  kingdom ;  he  conspired  against  King  Nadab,  i  terials  suitable  for  the  construction  of  edifices,  they 
son  of  Jeroboam,  when  he  was  besieging  the  Philistine  I  proceeded  to.  make  and  burn  bricks,  and  using  the 
town  of  Gibbethon,  and,  having  killed  him,  proceeded  j  bitumen,  in  which  parts  of  the  country  abound,  for 
to  extirpate  his  entire  circle  of  relatives.  He  appears  cement,  they  built  a  city  and  a  tower  of  great  eleva- 
to  have  been  of  humble  origin,  as  the  Prophet  Jehu  !  tion.  A  divine  interference,  however,  is  related  to 
speaks  of  him  as  having  been  "exalted  out  of  the  j  have  taken  place.  In  consequence,  the  language  of 
dust"  (1  Kings  xvi,  2).     In  matters  of  religion  his  j  the  builders  was  confounded,  so  that  they  were  no 


reign  was  no  improvement  on  that  of  Jeroboam ;  he 
equally  forgot  his  position  as  king  of  the  nation  of 
God's  election,  and  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  his  per- 
severing hostility  to  Judah.  It  was  probabpy  in  the 
twenty-third  year  of  his  reign  [see  Asa]  that  he  made 
war  on  its  king,  Asa,  and  began  to  fortify  Raman  as  a 
barrier  against  it.  He  was  compelled  to  desist,  how- 
ever, being  defeated  by  the  unexpected  alliance  of  Asa 
with  Bcnhadad  I  of  Damascus,  who  had  previously 
been  friendly  to  Baasha.  Benhadad  took  several 
towns  in  the  north  of  Israel,  and  conquered  lands  be- 
longing to  it  near  the  sources  of  Jordan  (1  Kings  xv, 
18  sq.).  Baasha  died  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  his 
reign,  and  was  honorably  buried  in  the  beautiful  city 
of  Tirzah  (Cant,  vi,  4),  which  he  had  made  his  capital 
(1  Kings  xv,  33). — Smith,  s.  v.  For  his  idolatries,  the 
Prophet  Jehu  declared  to  him  the  determination  of 
God  to  exterminate  his  family  likewise,  which  was  ac- 
complished in  the  days  of  his  son  Klah  (q.  v.)  by  Ziinri 
(1  Kings  xvi.  30  13).     See  Israel,  Kingdom  of. 

Baba.     See  Mishxa. 

Babai  (Bd  lag  or  Ba'/3«,  since  the  latter  only  ap- 
pears as  a  genitive),  a  person  mentioned  by  Josephus 
as  the  last  descendant  of  the  Asmonteans,  but  simply 
to  relate  that  his  sons  were  preserved  by  Costabarus 
from  the  general  massacre  of  the  adherents  of  Antigo- 
nus  ordered  by  Herod  the  Great  on  obtaining  posses- 
sion of  Jerusalem,  until  their  concealment  was  dis- 
closed by  Salome  to  the  tyrant,  who  immediately  made 
sure  of  their  death  (Ant.  xv,  7,  10). 

Babe  (5?ii3>,  del',  or  bhs,  olal',  so  called  from  its 
petulance,  Psa.  viii,  2;  xvii,  14,  elsewhere  "child"  or 
"infant ;"  WOAbvp},  taalulim' ',  from  the  same  root,  Isa. 
iii,  4;  once  "C'3,  na'ar,  Exod.  ii,  G,  usually  a  "fore?;" 
Gr.  j3pi<poc.,  prop,  an  unborn  ftelus,  Luke  i,  41,  44,  but 
also  a  very  young  child,  Luke  ii,  12,  16;  1  Pet.  ii,  2 ; 
vi\iziov,  strictly  an  infant  [i.  c.  as  yet  unable  to  talk], 
but  likewise  used  of  children  generally,  Matt,  xi,  25 ; 
xxi,  16  ;  Luke  x,  21 ;  Rom.  ii,  10;  1  Cor.  iii,  1 ;  Heb. 
v,  13).  This  term  is  used  figuratively  in  Isa.  iii,  4,  to 
represent  the  succession  of  weak  and  wicked  princes 
who  reigned  over  the  kingdom  of  Judah  from  the  death 
of  Joeiah  to  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  Temple. 
In  the  New  Testament,  the  term  refers  to  those  who 
are  weak  in  the  Christian  faith  and  knowledge,  being 
ignorant  and  inconstant :  or  being  but  just  born  again, 
begotten  from  above,  they  require  that  heavenly 
nourishment  which  is  suited  to  their  nature — "the 
sincere  milk  of  the  word"  (1  Cor.  iii,  1 ;  Heb.  v,  13  ;  1 
Pet.  ii,  2).     See  Child. 

Ba'bel  (Heb.  Babel',  333,  confusion;  and  so  the 
Sept.  Suyxw'd  Gen.  xi,  9),  originalhy  the  name  ap- 
plied to  the  Tower  of  Babel  (Gen.  xi,  9),  but  afterward 
extended  (in  the  Heb.)  to  the  city  of  Babylon  (Gen. 
x,  10),  which  appears  to  have  grown  up  around  it, 


longer  able  to  understand  each  other.  They  therefore 
"  left  off  to  build  the  city,"  and  were  scattered  "abroad 
upon  the  face  of  all  the  earth."  The  narrative  adds 
that  the  place  took  its  name  of  Babel  (confusion) 
from  this'  confusion  of  dialect.  See  Confusion  of 
Tongues. 

2.  Its  Design. — The  sacred  narrative  (Gen.  xi,  4) 
assigns  as  the  reason  which  prompted  men  to  the  un- 
dertaking simply  a  desire  to  possess  a  building  so 
large  and  high  as  might  be  a  mark  and  rallying-point 
in  the  vast  plains  where  they  had  settled,  in  order  to 
prevent  their  being  scattered  abroad,  and  thus  the  ties 
of  kindred  be  rudely  sundered,  individuals  be  involved 
in  peril,  and  their  numbers  be  prematurely  thinned  at 
a  time  when  population  was  weak  and  insufficient. 
The  idea  of  preventing  their  being  scattered  abroad 
by  building  a  lofty  tower  is  applicable  in  the  most  re- 
markable manner  to  the  wide  and  level  plains  of  Baby- 
lonia, where  scarcely  one  object  exists  different  from 
another  to  guide  the  traveller  in  his  journeying,  and 
which,  in  those  early  days,  as  at  present,  were  a  sea 
of  land,  the  compass  being  then  unknown.  Such  an 
attempt  agrees  with  the  circumstances  in  which  the 
sons  of  Noah  were  placed,  and  is  in  itself  of  a  com- 
mendable nature.  But  that  some  ambitious  and  un- 
worthy motives  were  blended  with  these  feelings  is 
clearly  implied  in  the  sacred  record,  which,  however, 
is  evidently  conceived  and  set  forth  in  a  dramatic 
manner  (vcr.  6,  7),  and  may  wear  around  a  historical 
substance  somewhat  of  a  poetical  dress  (Bauer,  Mythol. 
i,  223).  The  apostate  Julian  has  attempted  to  turn 
the  narrative  into  ridicule ;  but  even  if  viewed  only 
as  an  attempt  to  account  for  the  origin  of  diversity  of 
languages,  and  of  the  dispersion  of  the  human  family, 
it  challenges  consideration  and  respect.  The  opinion 
of  Heeren  (Asiatic  Nations,  ii,  146)  is  far  different  and 
more  correct :  "  There  is,"  says  he,  "  perhaps  nowhere 
else  to  be  found  a  narrative  so  venerable  for  its  an- 
tiquity, or  so  important  in  the  history  of  civilization, 
in  which  we  have  at  once  preserved  the  traces  of  pri- 
maeval international  commerce,  the  first  political  asso- 
ciations, and  the  first  erection  of  secure  and  permanent 
dwellings."  A  comparison  of  this  narrative  with  the 
absurd  or  visionary  pictures  which  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  give  of  the  primitive  condition  of  mankind, 
will  gratify  the  student  of  the  Bible  and  confirm  tho 
faith  of  the  Christian  by  showing  the  marked  differ- 
ence there  is  between  the  history  contained  in  Genesis 
and  the  fictions  of  the  poet,  or  the  traditions  of  the 
mythologist.  (See  Eichhorn,  Diversitatis  linguaram  ex 
traditione  Scmitica  origines,  Goett.  1788;  also  in  the  B'b- 
lioth.  d.  bibl.  Lit.  iii,  981  sq.) 

3.  Traditions  concern:ng  it. — Versions  more  or  less 
substantially  correct  of  this  account  are  found  among 
other  nations.  The  Chaldieans  themselves  relate 
(Abydenus,  quoted  by  Eusebius,  Prcpar.  Evang.  i,  14  ; 
convp.  Chron.  Armen.  i,  38  and  59)  that  "  the  first  men, 


BABEL 


590 


BABEL 


relying  on  their  size  and  strength,  raised  a  tower  reach- 
ing toward  heaven  in  the  place  where  Babylon  after- 
ward stood,  but  that  the  winds,  assisting  the  gods, 
brought  the  building  down  on  the  heads  of  the  build- 
ers, out  of  the  ruins  of  which  Babylon  itself  was  built. 
Before  this  event  men  had  spoken  the  same  tongue, 
but  afterward,  by  the  act  of  the  gods,  they  were  made 
to  differ  in  their  speech."  Plato  also  reports  (Polit.  p. 
272)  a  tradition  that  in  the  Golden  Age  men  and  ani- 
mals made  use  of  one  common  language,  but,  too  am- 
bitiously aspiring  to  immortality,  were,  as  a  punish- 
ment, confounded  in  their  speech  by  Jupiter.  In  the 
details  of  the  story  of  the  war  of  the  Titans  against 
the  gods  may  also  be  traced  some  traditionary  resem- 
blance to  the  narrative  of  the  Bible  (sec. Pliny,  vii,  1, 
11  and  112;  Hygin.  Fab.  143).  "The  sibyl,"  says 
Joscphus  (Ant.  i,  4,  3),  "also  makes  mention  of  this 
town,  and  of  the  confusion  of  language,  when  she  says 
thus  :  '  When  all  men  were  of  one  language,  some  of 
them  built  a  high  tower,  as  if  they  would  thereby  as- 
cend up  to  heaven ;  but  the  gods  sent  storms  of  wind 
and  overthrew  the  tower,  and  gave  every  one  his  pe- 
culiar language ;  and  for  this  reason  it  was  that  the 
city  was  called  Babylon'  "  (comp.  Philo,  Opp.  i,  400). 
The  same  writer  (ib.  2)  assigns  as  the  reason  of  this 
overthrow  and  confusion  the  displeasure  of  God  at  see- 
ing them  act  so  madly  under  the  influence  of  Nimrod, 
'•  a  bold  bad  man,"  who,  in  order  to  alienate  the  minds 
of  the  people  from  God,  and  to  take  revenge  for  the 
Deluge  which  had  destroyed  their  forefathers,  induced 
them  to  build  a  tower  too  high  for  the  waters  to  be  able 
to  reach.  Aben  Ezra  (in  loc.  Gen.")  has  given  a  more 
probable  explanation.  "  Those,"  ho  says,  "who  built 
the  Tower  of  Babel  were  not  so  insensate  as  to  imag- 
ine thej'  could  by  any  such  means  reach  to  heaven ; 
nor  did  they  fear  another  Deluge,  since  they  had  the 
promise  of  God  to  the  contrary ;  but  they  wished  for 
a  city  which  should  be  a  common  residence  and  a  gen- 
eral rendezvous,  serving  in  the  wide  and  open  plains 
of  Babylonia  to  prevent  the  traveller  from  losing  his 
way ;  in  order  that  while  they  took  measures  for  their 
own  convenience  and  advantage,  they  might  also  gain  a 
name  with  future  ages." — Kitto,  s.  v.      See  Nimrod. 

4.  Its  subsequent  History. — The  "Tower  of  Babel"  is 
only  mentioned  once  in  Scripture  (Gen.  xi,  4-5),  and 
then  as  incomplete.  No  reference  to  it  appears  in  the 
prophetic  denunciations  ofthe  punishments  which  were 
to  fall  on  Babylon  for  her  pride.  It  is  therefore  quite 
uncertain  whether  the  building  ever  advanced  beyond 
its  foundations.  As,  however,  the  classical  writers 
universally,  in  their  descriptions  of  Babylon,  gave  a 
prominent  place  to  a  certain  tower-like  building,  which 
they  called  the  temple  (Herod,  ut  inf.;  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  9; 
Arrian,  Erped.  Alex,  vii,  17,  etc.),  or  the  tomb  (Strabo, 
xvi,  p.  738)  of  Belus,  it  has  generally  been  supposed 
thai  the  tower  was  in  course  of  time  finished,  and  be- 
came the  principal  temple  ofthe  Chaldsean  metropolis. 
See  Bel.  Certainly  this  may  have  been  the  case;  but, 
while  there  is  presumption  in  favor  of  it,  there  is  some 
evidence  against  it.  A  Jewish  tradition,  recorded  by 
I  lochart  |  Phalt ,,,  i,  it),  declared  that  fire  fell  from  heaven, 
and  split  the  tower  through  to  its  foundation;  while 
Alexander  Polyhistor  (Frag.  10),  and  the  other  profane 
writers  who  noticed  the  tower  (as  Abydenus,  Frs.  5 
and  in,  paid  that  it  had  been  blown  down  by  the  winds. 
Such  authorities,  therefore,  as  we  possess,  represent  the 

building  as  destroyed  s i  after  its  erection.    When  the 

Jew-,  however,  were  carried  captive  into  Babylonia, 
stnie'.  with  the  vast  magnitude  and  peculiar  character 
of  certain  ofthe  Babylonian  temples,  they  imagined 
that  they  saw  in  them  not  merely  buildings  similar  in 
type  and  mode  of  construction  to  tie-  "tower"  (b'oT,*:) 
of  their  Bcriptures,  but  in  this  or  that  temple  they 
thought  to  recognise  the  Fery  tower  itself.— Smith,  s. 

V.       See   BABYLOX. 

5.  77c-  '•  Timer  <■/  Belus  "  presumed  to  occupy  its  site. 


— Herodotus  describes  the  temple  in  his  own  simple 
but  graphic  manner  (i,  181).  "In  the  other  division 
of  the  city  is  the  temple  of  the  god  Belus,  with  brazen 
gates,  remaining  till  my  own  time,  quadrangular,  and 
in  all  of  two  stadia.  In  the  middle  of  the  sacred  en- 
closure there  stands  a  solid  tower  of  a  stadium  both  in 
depth  and  width ;  upon  this  tower  another  is  raised, 
and  another  upon  that,  to  the  number  of  eight  towei-s. 
An  ascent  to  them  has  been  made  on  the  outside,  in  a 
circle  extending  round  all  the  towers.  When  you 
reach  about  half  way  you  find  resting-places.  In  the 
last  tower  is  a  large  temple,  and  in  the  temple  lies  a 
large  bed  well  furnished,  and  near  it  stands  a  golden 
table  ;  but  there  is  no  image  within  ;  nor  does  any  one 
remain  there  by  night,  only  a  native  female,  one  whom 
the  god  has  chosen  in  preference  to  all  others,  as  say 
the  Chaldseans  who  are  priests  of  that  god.  And  these 
persons  also  say,  asserting  what  I  do  not  believe,  that 
the  god  himself  frequents  the  temple  and  reposes  on 
the  couch.  And  there  belongs  to  the  temple  in  Baby- 
lon another  shrine  lower  down,  where  there  stands  a 
large  golden  image  of  the  god,  and  near  it  is  placed 
a  large  golden  table,  and  the  pedestal  and  throne  are 
gold,  and,  as  the  ChaldaeanB  say,  these  things  were 
made  for  eight  hundred  talents  of  gold.  And  out  of 
the  shrine  is  a  golden  altar ;  and  there  is  another  great 
altar  where  sheep-offerings  are  sacrificed,  for  it  is  not 
permitted  to  sacrifice  upon  the  golden  altar,  except 
sucklings  only ;  but  upon  the  greater  altar  the  Chal- 
daeans  offer  every  year  a  thousand  talents'  worth  of 
frankincense  r.t  the  time  when  they  celebrate  the  fes- 
tival of  the  god.  And  there  was  at  that  time  in  the 
temple  a  statue  of  twelve  cubits  of  solid  gold ;  but  I 
did  not  see  it,  and  relate  merely  what  was  told  me  by 
the  Chaldse  :ns.  Darius  Hystaspis  wished  to  have  this 
statue,  but  did  not  dare  to  take  it ;  but  Xerxes,  his  son, 
took  it,  and  slew  the  priest  who  forbade  him  to  mew. 
the  statue.  Thus  is  this  sacred  place  adorned ;  and 
there  are  also  in  it  many  private  offerings."  These 
offerings,  made  by  individuals,  consisting  of  statues, 
censers,  cups,  and  sacred  vessels  of  massive  gold,  con- 
stituted a  property  of  immense  value.  On  the  top 
Semiramis  placed  three  golden  statues  of  Jupiter, 
Juno,  and  Ehea.  The  first  was  40  feet  high,  and 
weighed  1000  Babylonish  talents.  The  statue  of  Ehea 
was  ofthe  same  weight:  the  goddess  was  seated  on  a 
golden  throne  with  lions  at  each  knee,  and  two  ser- 
pents of  silver.  The  statue  of  Juno  was  erect  like  that 
of  Jupiter,  weighing  800  talents ;  she  grasped  a  serpent 
by  the  head  with  her  right  hand,  and  held  in  her  left 
a  sceptre  enriched  with  gems.  A  table  of  beaten  gold 
was  common  to  these  three  divinities,  weighing  500 
talents.  On  the  table  were  two  goblets  of  ;J0  talents, 
and  two  censers  of  500  talents  each,  and  three  vases  of 
prodigious  magnitude.  The  total  value  of  the  precious 
articles  and  treasures  contained  in  this  proud  achieve- 
ment of  idolatry  has  been  computed  to  exceed  six 
hundred  millions  of  dollars. 

From  the  Holy  Scriptures  it  appears  that  when  Ne- 
buchadnezzar conquered  Jerusalem  and  levelled  most 
ofthe  city  with  the  ground,  "he  brought  away  the 
treasures  ofthe  temple,  and  the  treasures  ofthe  king's 
house,  and  put  them  all  into  the  temple  of  Bel  at  Bab- 
ylon" (2  Chron.  xxxvii,  7).  The  brazen  and  other 
vessels  which  Solomon  had  caused  to  be  made  for  the 
service  of  Jehovah  are  said  to  have  been  broken  up  by 
order  of  the  Assyrian  monarch,  and  formed  into  the 
famous  <;ates  of  brass  which  so  long  adorned  the  superb 
entrances  into  the  great  area  ofthe  temple  of  Belus 
(comp.  Hecatseus  ap.  Joseph.  Ant.  i,  4,  3). 

The  purposes  to  which  this  splendid  edifice  was  ap- 
propriated may  be  parti}'  gathered  from  the  preced- 
ing statements.  These  purposes  varied  in  some  de- 
gree with  the  changes  in  opinions  and  manners  which 
successive  ages  brought.  The  signal  disappointment 
inflicted  on  its  original  founders  show  that  even  in  its 
origin  there  was  connected  with  it  something  greatly 


BABEL 


591 


BABEL 


displeasing  to  God.  It 
seems,  indeed,  always 
to  have  existed  in  dero- 
gation of  the  divine  glo- 
ry. Consecrated  at  the 
first,  as  it  probably  was, 
to  the  immoderate  am- 
bition of  the  monothe- 
istic children  of  the 
Deluge,  it  passed  to  the 
Sabian  religion,  and 
thus,  falling  one  degree 
from  purity  of  worship, 
became  a  temple  of  the 
sun  and  the  rest  of  the 
host  of  heaven,  till,  in 
the  natural  progress  of 
corruption,  it  sank  in- 
to gross  idolatry,  and, 
as  the  passage  from 
Herodotus  shows,  was 
polluted  by  the  vices 
which  generally  accom- 
panied the  observances 
of  heathen  superstition. 
In  on3  purpose  it  un- 
doubtedly proved  of 
service  to  mankind. 
The  Babylonians  were 
given  to  the  study  of 
astronomy.  This  en- 
nobling pursuit  was 
one  of  the  peculiar 
functions  of  the  learn- 
ed men  denominated 
by  Herodotus  Chalde- 
ans, the  priests  of  Belus ;  and  the  temple  was  crowned 
by  an  astronomical  observatory,  from  the  elevation  of 
which  the  starry  heavens  could  be  most  advantageous- 
ly studied  over  plains  so  open  and  wide,  and  in  an  at- 
mosphere so  clear  and  bright  as  tho6e  of  Babylonia. 

To  Nimrod  the  first  foundations  of  the  tower  are  as- 
cribed ;  Semiramis  enlarged  and  beautified  it  (Ctesias 
ap.  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  7) ;  but  it  appears  that  the  temple  of 
Bel,  in  its  most  renowned  state,  was  not  completed  till 
the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who,  after  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  many  conquests,  consecrated  this  superb 
edifice  to  the  idolatrous  object  to  whom  he  ascribed 
his  victories.  That  the  observatory  on  the  tower  was 
erected  in  remote  times  there  is  good  reason  to  be- 
lieve. Prideaux  mentions  {Connection,  i,  123)  the  cir- 
cumstance that  when  Alexander  made  himself  master 
of  Babylon,  Callisthencs,  the  philosopher,  who  attended 
him  thither,  found  astronomical  observations  ascend- 
ing upward  1900  years. — Kitto.     See  Astronomy. 

6.  Evidence  as  to  its  present  Remains. — After  the  lapse 
of  so  man}'  centuries,  and  the  occurrence  in  "the  land 
of  Shinar"  of  so  many  revolutions,  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  the  identification  of  the  Tower  of  Babel 
with  any  actual  ruin  should  be  easy,  or  lead  to  any 
very  certain  result.  The  majority  of  opinions,  how- 
ever, among  the  learned,  make  it  the  same  as  the 
above-described  temple  of  Belus ;  and  as  to  its  mod- 
ern locality,  the  predominant  opinion  has  been  in  favor 
of  the  great  temple  of  Nebo  at  Borsippa,  the  modern 
Birs  Nimrttd,  although  the  distance  of  that  place  from 
Babylon  is  a  great  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  identifi- 
cation. When  Christian  travellers  first  began  to  visit 
the  Mesopotamian  ruins,  they  generally  attached  the 
name  of  "the  Tower  of  Babel"  to  whatever  mass,  I 
among  those  beheld  by  them,  was  the  loftiest  and 
most  imposing.  Rawulf,  in  the  lGth  century,  found 
the  "  Tower  of  Babel"  at  Fehigiah ;  Pietro  della  Valle, 
in  the  18th,  identified  it  with  the  ruin  Babil  near  Hillah  ; 
while  early  in  the  present  century  Rich  and  Ker  Porter 
revived  the  Jewish  notion,  and  argued  for  its  identity 
with  the  Birs.   There  are,  in  reality,  no  positive  grounds 


Ruins  of  Uiiri  Nimrud. 

either  for  identifying  the  tower  with  the  temple  of 
Belus,  or  for  supposing  that  any  remains  of  it  long 
survived  the  check  which  the  builders  received  when 
they  were  "scattered  abroad  upon  the  face  of  the 
earth,"  and  "left  off  to  build  the  city"  (Gen.  xi,  8);  yet 
the  striking  general  similarity  of  its  form  and  con- 
struction to  those  structures,  taken  in  connection  with 
its  evidently  great  antiquity,  create  a  presumption  in 
favor  of  the  identification  that  it  is  difficult  to  resist. 
See  Shinar.  Nor,  indeed,  does  the  Birs  Nimrud  lie 
much,  if  any,  farther  distant  from  Hillah  (the  modern 
representative  of  Babylon)  than  do  (in  an  opposite 
direction)  some  other  ruins  (e.  g.  especially  the  mound 
called  BabU,  the  only  other  rival  to  the  honor  of  rep- 
resenting the  ancient  Tower  of  Babel  and  temple  of 
Belus  in  the  vicinity),  which  were  yet  undoubtedly 
included  within  the  ample  circuit  of  the  ancient  walls ; 
in  fact,  the  Birs  itself  will  fall  within  the  line  of  the 
outer  walls  of  Babylon,  if  laid  down  of  the  extent  de- 
scribed by  Herodotus.  Sec  Babylon.  Its  pyramidal 
structure,  also,  with  the  numerous  contractions  of  its 
successive  stages,  still  traceable  in  the  ruins,  favors 
the  identification  (sec  below). — Smith  ;  Kitto. 

7.  Description  if  "  Birs  Nimrud"  its  supposed  mod- 
ern Belie. — The  appearance  of  this  massive  ruin  is 
deeply  impressive,  rising  suddenly  as  it  does  out  of  a 
wide  desert  plain,  with  its  rent,  fragmentary,  and  fire- 
blasted  pile,  masses  of  vitrified  matter  lying  around, 
and  the  whole  hill  itself  on  which  it  stands  caked  and 
hardened  out  of  the  materials  with  which  the  temple 
had  been  built.  Its  dreary  aspect  seems  to  justify 
the  name  which  the  remnant  of  the  captivity,  still 
abiding  among  the  waters  of  Babylon,  give  to  the 
place,  namely,  "  Nebuchadnezzar's  Prison  ;"  an  ap- 
pellation which  may  have  been  assigned  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  that  monarch's  being  confined  there,  un- 
der the  care  of  the  priesthood,  during  the  period  of  his 
madness,  or  from  the  King  of  Israel's  having  been 
incarcerated  within  its  precincts  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
after  his  last  conquest  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xxv).  A 
very  considerable  space  round  the  tower,  forming  a  vast 


BABEL 


592 


BABEL 


i,  is  covered  with  ruins,  affording  abun- 
5  of  former  buildings,  exhibiting  uneven 


court  or  area 
dant  vestiges 

heaps  of  various  sizes,  covered  with  masses  of  broken 
brick,  tiles,  and  vitrified  fragments— all  bespeaking 
some  signal  overthrow  in  former  days.  The  tower- 
like ruin  on  the  summit  is  a  solid  mass  28  feet  broad, 
constructed  of  the  most  beautiful  brick  masonry.  It 
is  rent  from  the  top  nearly  half  way  to  the  bottom. 
It  is  perforated  in  ranges  of  square  openings.  At  its 
base  lie  several  immense  unshapen  masses  of  fine  brick- 
work, some  changed  to  a  state  of  the  hardest  vitrifica- 
tion, affording  evidence  of  the  action  of  fire  which 
seems  to  have  been  the  lightning  of  heaven.  The  base 
of  the  tower  at  present  measures  2082  feet  in  circum- 
ference. Hardly  half  of  its  former  altitude  remains. 
Of  the  original  pyramidal  form,  the  erections  of  Se- 
miramis  and  Nebuchadnezzar  appear  to  have  begun  at 
the  stage  of  the  former  overthrow.  From  its  summit, 
the  view  in  the  distance  presents  to  the  south  an  arid 
desert  plain;  to  the  west  the  same  trackless  waste; 
toward  the  north-east  marks  of  buried  ruins  are  visi- 
ble to  a  vast  distance.  The  bricks  which  compose  the 
tower  are  mostly  stamped  with  several  lines  of  in- 
scription, in  the  cuneiform  or  Babylonian  character. 
Some  extend  to  four,  or  even  seven  lines,  but  the  di- 
mensions of  all  are  the  same.  The  bricks  of  Babylon 
are  of  two  kinds,  sun-dried  and  fire-burnt.  The  for- 
mer are  larger  and  of  a  coarser  make  than  the  latter. 
Their  solidity  is  equal  to  that  of  many  kinds  of  stone. 
They  are  composed  of  clay  mixed  with  chopped  straw 
or  broken  reeds,  in  order  to  increase  their  compact- 
ness. This  is  the  sort  of  brick  which  the  children  of 
Israel  made  while  in  Egyptian  bondage.  The  un- 
burnt  bricks  commonly  form  the  interior  or  mass  of 
a  building.  This  is  the  case  with  the  great  tower, 
while  it  was  faced  with  the  more  beautiful  fabric  made 
in  the  furnace  or  kiln.  See  full  particulars  in  Rich's 
Memoir  of  Babylon  and  Persepolis;  Kcr  Porter's  Trav-  ! 
els  in  Persii ;  comp.  Bitter,  Erik,  xi,  870  sq. — Kitto.  | 
8.  Type  and  Character  of  the  Building. — It  must  be  j 
allowed  that  the  Birs  Nimrud,  though  it  may  not  be  the 
Tower  of  Babel  itself,  which  was  at  Babylon  (Gen.  xi, 
9),  yet,  as  the  most  perfect  representative  of  an  an- 
cient Babylonian  temple-tower,  may  well  be  taken  to 
show,  better  than  any  other  ruin,  the  probable  shape 
and  style  of  the  edifice.  This  building  appears,  by  the 
careful  examinations  recently  made  of  it,  to  have  been 
a  kind  of  retreating  pyramid  built  in  seven  receding 


stages.  "  Upon  a  platform  of  crude  brick,  raised  a 
few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  alluvial  plain,  was  built 
of  burnt  brick  the  first  or  basement  stage — an  exact 
square,  272  feet  each  way,  and  26  feet  in  perpendicu- 
lar height.  Upon  this  stage  was  erected  a  second, 
230  feet  each  way,  and  likewise  26  feet  high;  which, 
however,  was  not  placed  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the 
first,  but  considerably  nearer  to  the  south-western 
end,  which  constituted  the  back  of  the  building.  The 
other  stages  were  arranged  similarly,  the  third  being 
188  feet,  and  again  26  feet  high ;  the  fourth  146  feet 
square,  and  15  feet  high;  the  fifth  104  feet  square, 
and  the  same  height  as  the  fourth ;  the  sixth  62  feet 
square,  and  again  the  same  height ;  and  the  seventh 
20  feet  square,  and  ence  more  the  same  height.  On 
the  seventh  stage  there  was  probably  placed  the  ark, 
or  tabernacle,  which  seems  to  have  been  again  15  feet 
high,  and  must  have  nearly,  if  not  entirely,  covered 
the  top  of  the  seventh  story.  The  entire  original 
height,  allowing  three  feet  for  the  platform,  would 
thus  have  been  156  feet,  or,  without  the  platform,  153 
feet.  The  whole  formed  a  sort  of  oblique  pyramid, 
the  gentler  slope  facing  the  N.E.,  and  the  steeper  in- 
clining to  the  S.W.  On  the  N.E.  side  was  the  grand 
entrance,  and  here  stood  the  vestibule,  a  separate 
building,  the  debris  from  which,  having  joined  those 
from  the  temple  itself,  fill  up  the  intermediate  space, 
and  very  remarkably  prolong  the  mound  in  this  direc- 
tion" (Kawlinson's  Herodotus,  ii,  480-3).  The  Birs 
temple,  if  the  same  called  the  "Temple  of  the  Seven 
Spheres,"  was  ornamented  with  the  planetary  colors 
(see  the  plan),  but  this  was  most  likely  a  peculiarity. 
The  other  chief  features  of  it  seem  to  have  been  com- 
mon to  most,  if  not  all  of  the  Babylonian  temple-tow- 
ers. The  feature  of  stages  is  found  in  the  temples  at 
Warka  and  Mugheir  (Loftus's  Chaldaa,  p.  129  and 
168),  which  belong  to  very  primitive  times  (B.C. 
22;JO)  ;  that  of  the  emplacement,  so  that  the  four  an-] 
gles  face  the  four  cardinal  points,  is  likewise  common 
to  those  ancient  structures ;  while  the  square  form  is 
universal.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  so  large  a  number  of  stages  was  common. 
The  Mugheir  and  Warka  temples  have  no  more  than 
two,  and  probably  never  had  more  than  three,  or  at 
most  four  stages.  The  great  temple  of  Belus  at  Bab- 
ylon (if  Babil)  shows  only  one  stage  ;  though,  accord- 
ing to  the  best  authorities,  it  too  was  a  sort  of  pyramid 
(Herod.,  Strab.).     The  height  of  the  Birs  is  153}  feet, 


A  The  basement  stage— black. 
B  The  second  stage— orange. 
C  The  third  stage— red. 
D  The  fourth  stage— golden  (?). 
E  The  fifth  stage— yellow. 
F   The  sixth  stage— blue. 
G  The  seventh  stage— silver  (?). 
H  The  shrine  or  chapeL 


1  (Elevation  restored). 


BABEL 


593 


BABI 


that  of  Babil  140  (?),  that  of  the  Warka  temple  100, 
that  of  the  temple  at  Mugheir  50  feet.  Strabo's  state- 
ment that  the  tomb  of  Belus  was  a  stade  (GOG  feet  in 
height)  would  thus  seem  to  be  a  gross  exaggeration. 
Probably  no  Babylonian  tower  ever  equalled  the 
Great  Fyramid,  the  original  height  of  which  was  180 
feet.     See  Pyramids. 

9.  Its  Materials  and  Manner  of  Construction. — On 
these  points  more  light  is  to  be  obtained  from  the 
Warka  and  Mugheir  buildings  than  from  the  Birs. 
The  Birs  was  rebuilt  from  top  to  bottom  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and  shows  the  mode  of  construction  prev- 
alent in  Babylon  at  the  best  period ;  the  temples  at 
Warka  and  Mugheir  remain  to  a  certain  extent  in 
their  primitive  condition,  the  upper  stories  alone  hav- 
ing been  renovated.  The  Warka  temple  is  composed 
entirely  of  sun-dried  bricks,  which  are  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes  ;  the  cement  used  is  mud ;  and  reeds 
are  largely  employed  in  the  construction.  It  is  a 
building  of  the  most  primitive  type,  and  exhibits  a 
ruder  style  of  art  than  that  which  we  perceive  from 
Scripture  to  have  obtained  at  the  date  of  the  tower. 
Burnt  bricks  were  employed  in  the  composition  of  the 
tower  (Gen.  xi,  3)  ;  and  though  perhaps  it  is  somewhat 
doubtful  what  the  chemar  ("i^H,  "slime")  used  for 
mortar  may  have  been  (see  Fresnel  in  Journ.  Asiat.'que 
for  June,  1853,  p.  9),  yet,  on  the  whole,  it  is  most  prob- 
able that  bitumen  (which  abounds  in  Babylonia)  is  the 
substance  intended.  See  Bitumen.  Now  the  lower 
basement  of  the  Mugheir  temple  exhibits  this  com- 
bination in  a  decidedly  primitive  form.  The  burnt 
bricks  are  of  small  size  and  of  an  inferior  quality; 
they  are  laid  in  bitumen ;  and  they  face  a  mass  of 
sun-dried  brick,  forming  a  solid  wall  outside  it  ten 
feet  in  thickness.  No  reeds  are  used  in  the  building. 
Writing  appears  on  it,  but  of  an  antique  cast.  The 
supposed  date  is  B.C.  2300,  but  little  later  than  the 
era  commonly  assigned  to  the  building  of  Babel.  Prob- 
ably the  erection  of  the  two  buildings  was  not  sepa- 
rated by  a  very  Ions  interval,  though  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  of  the  two  the  tower  was  the  earlier. 
If  we  mark  its  date,  as  perhaps  we  are  entitled  to  do, 
by  the  time  of  Teleg,  the  son  of  Eber,  and  father  of 
Keu  (see  Gen.  x,  25),  we  may  perhaps  place  it  about 
B.C.  2400.     See  Dispersion  of  Nations. 

10.  Advantages  of  this  form.. — It  is  not  necessary  to 
suppose  that  any  real  idea  of  "scaling  heaven"  was 
present  to  the  minds  of  those  who  raised  either  the 
Tower  of  Babel,  or  any  other  of  the  Babylonian  tem- 
ple-towers. The  expression  used  in  Genesis  (xi,  4)  is 
a  mere  hyperbole  for  great  height  (comp.  Deut.  i,  28 ; 
Dan.  iv,  11,  etc.),  and  should  not  be  taken  literally. 
Military  defence  was  probably  the  primary  object  of 
such  edifices  in  early  times;  but  with  the  wish  for 
this  may  have  been  combined  further  secondary  mo- 
tives, which  remained  when  such  defence  was  other- 
wise provided  for.  Diodorus  states  that  the  great 
tower  of  the  temple  of  Belus  was  used  by  the  Chal- 
dacans  as  an  observatory  (ii,  9),  and  the  careful  em- 
placement of  the  Babylonian  temples  with  the  angles 
facing  the  four  cardinal  points  would  be  a  natural 
consequence,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  strong  con- 
firmation of  the  reality  of  this  application.  M.  Fresnel 
has  recently  conjectured  that  they  were  also  used  as 
sleeping-places  for  the  chief  priests  in  the  summer 
time  (Journ.  Asiatique,  June,  1853,  p.  529-31).  The 
upper  air  is  cooler,  and  is  free  from  the  insects,  espe- 
cially mosquitoes,  which  abound  below  ;  and  the  de- 
scription which  Herodotus  gives  of  the  chamber  at  the 
top  of  the  Belus  tower  (i,  181)  goes  far  to  confirm  this 
ingenious  view. — Smith,  s.  v. 

11.  Confirmation  from  other  Pyramidal  Temples. — 
Mr.  Taylor  (Fragments  to  Calmet's  Diet.)  has  given 
views  of  several  similar  structures  now  extant,  of 
which  we  copy  two.  The  first,  rising  in  several  steps 
or  stages,  is  at  Tanjore,  in  the  East  Indies;  and  af- 

P  p 


East  Indian-ryramid. 

fords,  it  is  presumed,  a  just  idea  of  the  Tower  of  Babel. 
It  is,  indeed,  wholly  constructed  of  stone,  in  which  it 
differs  from  that  more  ancient  edifice,  which,  being 
situated  in  a  country  destitute  of  stone,  was,  of  neces- 
sity, constructed  of  brick.  On  the  top  of  this  pyra- 
mid is  a  chapel  or  temple,  affording  a  specimen  of  the 
general  nature  of  this  kind  of  sacred  edifices  in  India. 
These  amazing  structures  are  commonly  erected  on  or 
near  the  banks  of  great  rivers,  for  the  advantage  of 
ablution.  In  the  courts  that  surround  them  innumer- 
able multitudes  assemble  at  the  rising  of  the  sun,  after 
having  bathed  in  the  stream  below.  The  gate  of  the 
pagoda  uniformly  fronts  the  east.  The  internal  cham- 
ber commonly  receives  light  only  from  the  door.  An 
external  pathwajr,  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the  chap- 
el at  the  top,  merits  observation. 

The  next  is  an  ancient  pyramid  built  by  the  Mexi- 
cans in  America;  it 
agrees  in  figure  with 
the  former,  and  has 
on  the  outside  an  as- 
cent of  stairs  leading 
up  one  side  to  the  up- 
per story,  proceed- 
ing to  the  chapels  on 
its  summit.  This  as- 
cent implies  that  the 
chapels  were  used 
from  time  to  time, 
and  no  doubt  it 
marks  the  shortest 
track  for  that  pur- 
pose, as  it  occupies 
one  side  only. 

12.  Literature. — Kircher,  Turris  Babel(Amst.  1778); 
Zentgravius,  De  turri  Babel  (Vitemb.  1774) ;  Hoyno- 
vius,  Do  turri  Babylonica  (Regiom.  1694)  ;  Colombus, 
De  causis  tur.  Bab.  (Regiom.  1675)  ;  Cyrill.  Alex.  De 
Turri  (in  his  Opp.  i,  44) ;  Heidegger,  De  Turn  Babel 
(in  his  Hist.  Patriarch,  i) ;  Saurin,  Tour  de  Babel  (in 
his  Disc,  i,  135;  and  Dissert,  p.  75);  Calmet,  Le  Tour 
de  Babel  (in  his  Commentairc,  i,  pt.  1,  diss.  34)  ;  De- 
lany,  Of  the.  Building  of  Babel  (in  his  Rev.  Examined, 
ii,  79)  ;  Berington,  Tlie  Tmcer  of  Babel  (in  his  Disser- 
tations, p.  407) ;  Drew,  Babel,  (in  his  Sc7-ip(.  Studies,  p. 
39)  ;  Deyling,  De.  ortu  Babelis  (in  his  Observat.  iii,  24)  ; 
Dietric,  Turris  Babylonica  (in  his  Antiq.  p.  110);  Pe- 
rizonii  Origg.  Babylon,  c.  9;  Hezel,  Ueb.  d.  Babyl. 
Stadt  u.  Thurmbau  (Hildb.  1774);  anonymous,  Trac- 
latus  de  locis  qnibusd.  difficil.  (Frcf.  1839)  ;  Kurtz,  Hist, 
of  the  Old  Covenant,  §  29. 

Ba'bi  (Bafti  v.  r.  Bnftai),  a  chief  Israelite  whose 
"son"  returned  from  Babylon  (1  Esdr.  viii,  37)  ;  evi- 
denth-  the  Bebai  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  ii, 
11),  which  also  recurs  in  the  same  verse  of  Esdras. 

Babi,  or  Babists,  a  Persian  sect  of  Mohammed- 
ans, whose  founder,  according  to  one  account,  was 


Mexican  Tvi'MiiM. 


BABI 


594 


BABI 


Moollah  Sadik;  according  to  others,  a  certain  Bab, 
who,  coming  forth  in  1835  as  a  prophet,  was  shot  by 
order  of  the  shah  of  Persia.  It  is  probable  that  both 
names  refer  to  the  same  person,  and  that  Sadik  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Bab,  i.  e.  Papa,  Father;  or,  accord- 
ing t>>  another  version,  the  Gale,  through  which  alone 
truth  and  eternal  bliss  can  be  reached.  A  more  re- 
cent account  is  given  by  Gobineau,  Les  Religions  et 
les  Philosophies  d'Asie  Centra/e  (cited  in  The  Nation, 
June  22,  1866,  from  which  this  account  is  taken). 
About  18-13  a  youth  of  Shiraz,  named  Mirza  Ali  Mo- 
hammed, after  reading  the  Christian  Scriptures,  as 
well  as  the  Oriental  Sacred  Books,  came  out  as  a 
prophet,  to  reform  or  destroy  Islamism.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  endowed  with  many  graces  of  person 
and  manner,  and  to  have  soon  made  many  prose- 
lytes. Inspired  by  success,  he  now  declared  that,  in- 
stead of  the  Gate,  he  was  the  Point;  that  is,  the  very 
creator  of  truth ;  no  longer  a  simple  prophet,  but  a  liv- 
ing manifestation  of  divinity.  The  title  of  the  Bab 
was  now  conferred  upon  a  priest  of  the  Khorassan, 
Moollah  Housseln  Bousrhewich,  who  became  the  act- 
ive chief  and  soon  the  warrior -apostle  of  Babism. 
Houssei'n  was  sent  on  a  missionary  tour  into  Irak  and 
Khorassan,  taking  with  him  the  writings  of  his  master. 
He  made  a  great  sensation  by  his  preaching.  Another 
missionary  was  a  woman,  possessed  of  extraordinary 
beauty  and  eloquence.  About  1848,  Houssei'n  and  the 
Babists  generally  gathered  at  a  place  called  Sheik  Te- 
bersi,  and  built  a  huge  tower,  providing  it  for  a  siege. 
They  now  gave  out  political  predictions,  in  which  the 
advent  of  the  Bab  as  universal  sovereign  was  an- 
nounced. All  who  died  fighting  for  the  new  faith 
were  to  rise  again,  to  become  princes  of  some  of  the 
countries  over  which  the  Bab  would  extend  his  sway. 
Two  large  armies  sent  against  the  Babists  were  sur- 
prised and  routed.  A  third  expedition,  though  it  suc- 
ceeded in  withstanding  the  sortie  of  the  Babists,  and 
in  mortally  wounding  the  Babist  chief,  Moollah  Hous- 
seln, retired.  The  next  campaign  was  more  success- 
ful. For  four  months  the  Babists  held  out,  in  spite  of 
tremendous  odds,  but  at  last,  worn  out  by  famine,  they 
tried  to  force  their  way  through  the  enemy's  lines, 
but  were  overpowered,  and  when  the}'  surrendered 
only  214  were  living.  The  survivors,  and  multitudes 
of  others,  even  those  who  professed  to  renounce  the 
heresy,  were  cruelly  put  to  death.  A  similar  Babist 
insurrection  in  Khamseh  was  also  put  down.  Mean- 
while Ali  Mohammed  had  been  living  in  semi-conceal- 
ment at  Shiraz.  After  the  insurrection  of  Mezenderan 
he  was  brought  before  a  court  of  royal  commissioners 
and  Mohammedan  priests.  In  the  examination  which 
took  place,  the  Bab,  as  he  was  still  popularly  called, 
gained  the  advantage.  Seeing  this,  the  discussion 
was  abruptly  broken  off,  and  the  Bab,  with  two  of  his 
disciples,  was  condemned  to  death,  which  was  inflicted 
the  next  day.  Even-thing  now  seemed  to  be  finished  ; 
but  the  new  Bab,  Mirza  Iaia,  whom  a  divine  mark  had 
pointed  out  at  the  age  of  fifteen  as  the  successor  to  the 
office,  established  himself  at  Bagdad,  where  he  kept 
up  communication  with  his  followers  through  the  pil- 
grims to  the  shrines  there.  The  Babists  were  now 
forbidden  from  making  any  more  attempts  at  insur- 
rection until  the  Bab  should  decide  that  the  hour  had 
come  and  should  give  them  the  signal.  In  1852  an 
attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  the  king,  but  failed. 
The  attempted  assassins  were  recognized  as  Babists. 
Forty  others  were  arrested,  among  them  the  feminine 
apostle,  Gourret-Oul-Ajm,  the  Consolation  of  Eves. 
The  next,  day  Bhe  publicly  confessed  her  Babism,  was 
burnt  at  the  stake  with  insult  and  indignity,  and  her 
ashes  were  scattered  to  the  wind.  The  rest  of  the 
prisoners  were  distributed  each  to  a  courtier  as  his  es- 
pecial victim.  Then  was  seen  at  Teheran  a  si«bt 
never  to  be  forgotten.  Through  the  streets,  between 
the  lines  of  executioners,  marched  men,  women,  and 
Children,   with   burning  splinters    flaming    in  'their 


wounds.  The  victims  sing :  "  In  truth  we  come  from 
God,  and  we  return  to  him."  A  sufferer  falls  in  the 
road  ;  he  is  raised  by  lashes  and  bayonet  thrusts.  But 
no  apostate  was  found  among  the  sufferers. 

Babism,  like  Mohammedanism,  asserts  the  absolute 
unity  of  God ;  but  the  eternal  unity,  far  from  shut- 
ting himself  up  in  himself,  is,  on  the  contrary,  an 
ever-expanding  principle  of  life.  It  is  ceaselessly 
moving,  acting,  creating.  God  has  created  the  world 
by  means  of  seven  words — Force,  Power,  Will,  Action, 
Condescension,  Glory,  and  Revelation — which  words 
embrace  the  active  plenitude  of  the  virtues  which  they 
respectively  represent.  God  possesses  other  virtues, 
even  to  infinity,  but  he  manifests  only  these.  The 
creature  who  emanates  from  God  is  distinguished  from 
him  by  the  privation  of  all  emanatory  action,  but  he  is 
not  altogether  separated  from  him,  and  at  the  last  day 
of  judgment  he  will  be  confounded  anew  with  him  in 
the  eternal  unity.  The  Babist  doctrine  of  revelation 
does  not  claim  that  the  Bab  has  revealed  the  complete 
truth,  but  only  as  his  predecessors,  the  prophets  before 
him,  have  done — that  portion  of  truth  necessary  for 
the  age.  The  Bab  is  declared  superior  to  Mohammed 
as  Mohammed  was  to  Jesus  ;  and  another  revelation, 
which  will  complete  the  Bab's,  is  announced  as  com- 
ing in  the  future.  Nineteen  is  a  sacred  number, 
which  the  Bab  declares  ouuht  to  preside  over  every- 
thing. Originally,  he  says,  the  Unit}-  was  composed 
of  nineteen  persons,  among  whom  the  highest  rank 
belongs  to  the  Bab.  All  the  prophets  who  have  ap- 
peared are,  like  the  world,  manifestations  of  God  ;  di- 
vine words;  not  God,  but  beings  who  come  from  God 
more  really  than  common  men.  At  the  death  of  a 
prophet  or  a  saint,  his  soul  does  not  quit  the  earth,  but 
joins  itself  to  some  soul  still  in  the  flesh,  who  then 
completes  his  work.  Babism  enjoins  few  prayers, 
and  only  upon  fixed  occasions,  and  neither  prescribes 
nor  defends  ablutions,  so  common  in  the  religious  rites 
of  Mohammedanism.  All  the  faithful  wear  amulets. 
Mendicancy,  so  much  in  honor  among  the  Mussulman 
people,  is  forbidden.  "Women  are  ordered  to  discard 
veils,  and  to  share  in  the  intercourse  of  social  life, 
from  which  Persian  usage  excludes  them. 

"What  will  be  the  future  of  Babism  it  is  difficult  to 
tell.  Since  1852  it  has  changed  its  character  to  a  se- 
cret doctrine,  which  recruits  its  disciples  in  silence. 
The  same  Babists  who  before  suffered  martyrdom  so 
courageously  rather  than  deny  their  religion,  now, 
obedient  to  the  new  order  of  their  chief,  conceal  their 
faith  with  Oriental  dissimulation.  Babism  is  much 
more  in  harmony  with  the  subtle  and  imaginative 
genius  of  the  Persian  people  than  the  Shiite  Moham- 
medanism. The  growing  spirit  cf  nationality  makes 
their  present  religion  and  the  present  dynasty,  both 
of  which  were  established  among  them  by  foreign  con- 
quest, less  and  less  acceptable  every  year.  The  hour 
when  the  Bab  shall  send  word  from  Bagdad  that  the 
time  has  come  for  the  Babists  to  take  up  arms  again 
will  be  a  very  critical  one  for  the  present  dynasty  of 
Persia  and  for  Shiite  Mohammedanism. 

The  first  thorough  work  on  the  origin  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  Babis  is  the  one  above  referred  to  by  Count 
Gobineau  (formerly  French  minister  in  Teheran). 
Little  had  previously  been  published  in  Europe  con- 
cerning the  sect.  (See  Zatschrift  tie)-  dcittschen  Mor- 
genldnd.  Gesellschaft,  vol.  v ;  Petermann,  Rcisen  im 
Orient,  vol.  ii.)  The  history  of  the  Babis  in  Gobineau's 
work  is  followed  by  treatises  on  their  doctrines,  and, 
as  a  concluding  appendix,  he  gives  the  sacred  book  of 
the  Babis,  "The  Booh  of  Precepts."  See  also  Polak 
(a  German,  court-physician  of  the  shah,  and  director 
of  a  medical  school  at  Teheran),  Per sien.  Das  Land  und 
seine  Bewohncr  (Leipzig,  18G5,  2  vols.,  vol.  i,  p.  350- 
351). — Pierer,  Universal  Lerikon,  ii,  117;  The  Nation, 
June  22, 18GG  ;  Avierican  Ann.  Cyclopaedia,  18C5,  p.  698. 
Babington,  Gervase,  an  eminent  English  prel- 
ate, was  born  at  Nottingham  in  the  year  1551.     He 


BABYLAS 


595 


BABYLON 


was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  master  of  arts  in  1578.  He  applied  himself 
closely  to  theology,  and  became  one  of  the  most  im- 
pressive and  useful  preachers  of  his  da}'.  In  1588  he 
was  installed  into  the  prebend  of  Wellington,  in  the 
cathedral  of  Hereford,  and  through  the  interest  of  the 
E.irl  of  Pembroke  was  advanced  to  the  bishopric  of 
Llandaff  in  1591.  In  1594  he  was  translated  to  the 
see  of  Exeter,  from  whence,  in  1597,  he  was  translated 
to  Worcester.  Bishop  Babington  was  a  man  of  emi- 
nent Christian  character  as  well  as  scholarship.  Ful- 
ler testifies  that  he  "  was  not  tainted  with  pride,  idle- 
ness, or  covetousness."  He  died  17th  May,  1G10. 
His  works  are  collected  under  the  title  "  The  Works 
of  the  Right  Reverend  Father  in  God,  Gervase  Babing- 
ton, late  Bishop  of  Worcester"  (Lond.  1C22,  fob).  They 
contain  Notes  on  the  Pentateuch,  Exposition  of  the 
Creed,  the  Commandments,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
with  a  Conference  between  Man's  Frailty  and  Faith, 
and  three  sermons. — Jones,  Christian  Biography,  p.  16; 
Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  446. 

Babylas,  St.,  became  bishop  of  Antioch  about  the 
year  230.  When  the  Emperor  Philip,  who,  in  ascend- 
ing the  throne,  had  murdered  the  young  Emperor  Gor- 
dian,  came  to  Antioch  on  his  way  to  Rome,  about  East- 
er, 244,  Babylas  repulsed  him  from  the  church  door, 
and  refused  to  permit  him  to  join  in  worship.  Philip, 
according  to  the  legend,  humbly  confessed  his  sins, 
and  appeared  among  the  public  penitents.  After  a 
time  Decius  robbed  Philip  of  his  empire  and  life,  and 
stirred  up  a  virulent  persecution  against  the  Chris- 
tians. Babylas,  conspicuous  from  his  lofty  station, 
did  not  escape  this  storm,  and  about  the  end  of  the 
year  250  he  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison,  where, 
in  the  following  year,  he  died.  The  Latins  commem- 
orate him  on  the  24th  of  January,  the  Greeks  on  the 
4th  of  September.  Chrvsostom  has  a  homily  in  honor 
of  Babylas  (t.  ii,  575,  ed.  Montf.).  See  Eusebius,  Ch. 
Hist,  vi,  39;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  xxiii. 

Bab'yloil  (Heb.  and  Chald.  Babel',  ^22,  Gr. 
B«/3u\ai)'),  the  name  of  more  than  one  city  in  the  Scrip- 
tures and  other  ancient  writings.     See  also  Babel. 

1.  Originally  the  capital  of  the  country  called  in 
Genesis  Shinar  ("Cri").  and  in  the  later  Scriptures 
Chaldcea,  or  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans  (r^bS).  See 
those  articles  severally. 

1.  The  Xante. — The  word  Babel  seems  to  be  con- 
nected in  its  first  occurrence  with  the  Hebrew  root 
.-32,  balal' ,  "to  confound"  (as  if  by  contraction  from 
the  reduplicated  form  22?2,  Balbel'),  "  because  the 
Lord  did  there  confound  the  language  of  all  the  earth" 
(Gen.  xi,  9) ;  but  the  native  etymology  (see  the  Koran, 
ii,  66)  is  Bab-il,  "  the  gate  of  the  god  //,"  or  perhaps 
more  simply  "the  gate  of  God;"  and  this  no  doubt 
was  the  original  intention  of  the  appellation  as  given 
by  Nimrod,  though  the  other  sense  came  to  be  attach- 
ed to  it  after  the  confusion  of  tongues  (see  Eichhom, 
Biblioth.  d.  bibl.  Lit.  iii,  1001).  Another  derivation  de- 
duces the  word  from  b2  2X2,  "the  court  or  city  of 
Belus"  (see  Abulfeda  in  Rosenmuller,  Aliherth.  ii,  60), 
or  ^2"-l2  (=  *P3),  Bel's  Hill  (Furst,  lib.  Ilandu: 
s.  v.).  A  still  different  etymology  is  proposed  by 
Tuch  {Gen.  p.  270),  from  ^2  PH3,  "the  house  of  Bel." 
Whichever  of  these  etymologies  may  be  regarded  as 
the  preferable  one,  the  name  was  doubtless  understood 
or  accommodated  by  the  sacred  writer  in  Genesis  so 
as  to  lie  expressive  of  the  disaster  that  soon  befell  the 
founders  of  the  place.  In  the  Bible  at  a  later  date 
the  place  is  appropriately  termed  "  Babylon  the  Great" 
(rnrnn  b22,  Jer.  li,_58;  Xr>2^  ^22,  Dan.  iv,  27), 
and  by  Josephus  also  (Ant.  viii,  6,  1,  i)  j.nya\i)  Bafiv- 
\tbv).  The  name  Babylon  is  likewise  that  by  which 
it  is  constantly  denominated  in  the.  Sept.  and  later  ver- 
sions, as  well  as  by  the  Apocrypha  CI  Mace,  vi,  4; 


Susann.  i,  5)  and  New  Test.  (Acts  vii,  43),  and  final- 
ly by  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  writers  (see 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Geogr.  s.  v.).  On  the  outland- 
ish name  Shesh  ik  (TltijttJ),  applied  to  it  in  Jer.  xxv, 
26  ;  li,  41,  see  the  various  conjectures  in  Rosenmuller, 
Altherth.  I,  ii,  50  sq.  The  Jews  believe  it  is  a  cabalis- 
tic mode  of  writing  by  the  method  known  as  "Ath- 
bash"  (q.  v.).     See  Shishak. 

The  word  "Babel,"  besides  its  original  application 
to  the  tower  (Gen.  xi,  9),  and  its  usual  one  (in  the 
original)  to  the  city  of  Babylon,  is  also  occasionally 
applied  to  the  whole  district  of  Chaldaja,  coincident 
with  the  plain  of  Shinar  (Isa.  xiv.  2),  as  well  as  to 
Babylonia,  the  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire  of 
which  it  was  the  metropolis  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  31; 
xxxiii,  11),  and  eventually  to  Persia  itself  (Ezra  v, 
13;  Neh.  xiii,  6).     See  Nineveh. 

2.  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  City. — This  famous  city 
was  the  metropolis  of  the  province  of  Babylon  and  of 
the  Babylonio-Chaldsean  empire.  It  was  situated  in 
a  wide  plain  on  the  Euphrates,  which  divided  it  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts.  According  to  the  book  of 
Genesis,  its  foundations  were  laid  at  the  same  time 
with  those  of  the  Tower  of  Babel.  In  the  revolutions 
of  centuries  it  underwent  man}'  changes,  and  received 
successive  reparations  and  additions.  The  ancients 
were  not  agreed  as  to  the  authors  or  times  of  these, 
and  any  attempt  to  determine  them  now  with  strict 
accuracy  must  be  fruitless.  Semiramis  and  Nebu- 
chadnezzar are  those  to  wdiom  the  city  was  indebted 
for  its  greatest  augmentations  and  its  chief  splendor. 
Probably  a  temple  was  the  first  building  raised  by  the 
primitive  nomades,  and  in  the  gate  of  this  temple  justice 
would  be  administered  in  early  times  (comp.  2  Sam. 
xix,  8),  after  which  houses  would  grow  up  about  the 
gate,  and  in  this  way  the  name  would  readily  pass 
from  the  actual  portal  of  the  temple  to  the  settlement. 
According  to  the  traditions  which  the  Greeks  derived 
from  the  Babylonians  in  Alexander's  age,  the  city  was 
originally  built  about  the  year  B.C.  2230.  The  archi- 
tectural remains  discovered  in  southern  Babylonia, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  the  monumental  records, 
seem  to  .indicate  that  it  was  not  at  first  the  capital, 
nor,  indeed,  a  town  of  very  <;reat  importance.  It  prob- 
ably owed  its  position  at  the  head  of  Nimrod's  cities 
(Gen.  x,  10)  to  the  power  and  pre-eminence  to  which 
it  afterward  attained  rather  than  to  any  original  su- 
periority that  it  could  boast  over  the  places  coupled 
with  it.  Erech,  Ur,  and  Ellasar  appear  to  have  been 
all  more  ancient  than  Babylon,  and  were  capital  cities 
when  Babil  was  a  provincial  village.  The  first  rise 
of  the  Chaldasan  power  was  in  the  region  close  upon 
the  Persian  Gulf,  as  Berosus  indicated  b}r  his  fish-god 
Oannes,  who  brought  the  Babylonians  civilization  and 
the  arts  out  of  the  sea  (ap.  Syncell.  p.  28,  B).  Thence 
the  nation  spread  northward  up  the  course  of  the  riv- 
ers, and  the  seat  of  government  moved  in  the  same 
direction,  being  finally  fixed  at  Babylon,  perhaps  not 
earlier  than  B.C.  1700. — Kitto;  Smith.    See  Assyria. 

3.  Its  Fall  and  subsequent  Condition. — Under  Nabon- 
nadus,  the  last  king,  B.C.  538,  Babylon  was  taken  by 
Cyrus,  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  in  the  dead  of  the 
night.  Having  first,  by  means  of  its  canals,  turned 
the  river  into  the  great  dry  lake  west  of  Babylon,  and 
then  marched  through  the  emptied  channel,  he  made 
his  way  to  the  outer  walls  of  the  fortified  palace  on  its 
banks,  when,  finding  the  brazen  gates  incautiously 
left  open  by  the  royal  guards  while  engaged  in  carous- 
als, he  entered  with  all  his  train  ;  "the  Lord  of  Hosts 
was  his  leader,"  and  Babylon,  as  an  empire,  was  no 
more.  An  insurrection,  under  Darius  Hystaspis  (B.C. 
5011),  the  object  of  which  was  to  gain  emancipation 
from  Persian  bondage,  led  that  prince  to  punish  the 
Babylonians  by  throwing  down  the  walls  and  gates 
which  had  been  left  by  Cyrus,  and  by  expelling  them 
from  their  homes.  Xerxes  plundered  and  destroyed 
the  temple  of  Belus,  which  Alexander  the  Great  would 


BABYLON 


596 


BABYLON 


rrobably,  but  for  his  death,  have  restored.  Under 
Seleucus  Nicator  the  city  began  to  sink  speedily,  after 
that  monarch  built  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris,  and  made 
it  his  place  of  abode.  In  the  time  of  Strabo  and  Di- 
odorus  Siculus  the  place  lay  in  ruins.  Jerome,  in  the 
fourtli  century  of  the  Christian  era,  learned  that  the 
site  of  Babylon  had  been  converted  into  a  park  or 
hunting-ground  for  the  recreation  of  the  Persian  mon- 
arch*, and  that,  in  order  to  preserve  the  game,  the 
walls  had  been  from  time  to  time  repaired.  If  the 
following  extract  from  Rich  (p.  30)  is  compared  with 
these  historical  facts,  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  (xiii,  19) 
will  appear  to  have  been  strikingly  fulfilled  to  the  let- 
ter: "I  had  always  imagined  the  belief  of  the  exist- 
ence of  satyrs  was  confined  to  the  mythology  of  the 
West ;  but  a  choadar  who  was  with  me  when  I  exam- 
ined this  ruin  (the  Mujelibeh)  mentioned  that  in  this 
desert  an  animal  is  found  resembling  a  man  from  the 
head  to  the  waist,  but  having  the  thighs  and  legs  of 
a  sheep  or  goat ;  he  also  said  that  the  Arabs  hunt  it 
with  dogs,  and  eat  the  lower  parts,  abstaining  from  the 
upper,  on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
human  species."  More  thorough  destruction  than  that 
which  has  overtaken  Babylon  cannot  well  be  conceived. 
Rich  was  unable  to  discover  any  traces  of  its  vast  walls, 
and  even  its  site  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute.  "  On 
its  ruins,"  says  he,  "  there  is  not  a  single  tree  growing, 
except  an  old  one,"  which  only  serves  to  make  the 
desolation  more  apparent.  Ruins  like  those  of  Baby- 
lon, composed  of  rubbish  impregnated  with  nitre,  can- 
not be  cultivated.  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  the 
history  of  Babylon,  see  the  article  Babylonia. — Kitto. 

4.  Ancient  Descriptions. — The  statements  respecting 
the  topograph}-  and  appearance  of  Babylon  which 
have  come  down  to  us  in  classical  writers  are  derived 
chiefly  from  two  sources,  the  works  of  Herodotus  and 
of  Ctesias.  These  authors  were  both  of  them  eye- 
witnesses of  the  glories  of  Babylon — not,  indeed,  at 
their  highest  point,  but  before  the}*  had  greatly  de- 
clined— and  left  accounts  of  the  city  and  its  chief 
buildings,  which  the  historians  and  geographers  of 
later  times  were,  for  the  most  part,  content  to  copy. 
To  these  accounts  are  to  be  added  various  other  details 
by  Quintus  Curtius,  and  Pliny,  and  a  few  notices  by 
other  ancient  visitors. 

According  to  the  account  of  Herodotus  (i,  178-18G) 
the  walls  of  Babylon  were  double,  the  outer  line  being 
56  miles  in  circumference,  built  of  large  bricks  cement- 
ed together  with  bitumen,  and  raised  round  the  city  in 
the  form  of  an  exact  square;  hence  they  measured  14 
miles  along  each  face.  They  were  87  feet  thick  and 
350  feet  high  (Quintus  Curtius  says  four  horse-chariots 
could  pass  each  other  on  them  without  danger),  pro- 
tected on  the  outside  by  a  vast  ditch  lined  with  the 
same  material,  and  proportioned  in  depth  and  width  to 
ation  of  the  walls.  The  city  was  entered  by 
twenty-five  gates  on  each  side,  made  of  solid  brass,  and 
additionally  strengthened  by  250  towers,  so  placed 
thai  between  every  two  gates  were  four  towers,  and 
four  additional  ones  at  the  four  corners.  From  all 
I  is  proceeded  streets  running  in  straight  lines, 

each  Btreet  being  nearly  fifteen  miles  in  length,  fifty 
in  number,  ami  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles. 
Other  minor  divisions  occurred,  and  the  whole  city 
'  676  squares,  each  about  two  miles  and  a 
quarter  in  circumference.  Herodotus  appears  to  im- 
ply that  this  whole  space  was  covered  with  houses, 
which,  lie  observes,  were  frequently  three  or  four  sto- 
The  river  ran  through  the  city  from  north 
to  -"lib,  and  on  each  side  w;ls  a  quay  of  the  same 
thickness  as  the  walls  of  the  city,  and  100  stadia  in 
length.  In  these  quays  wen-  gates  of  brass,  and  from 
each  of  them  steps  descending  into  the  river.  A 
bridge  was  tlirown  across  the  river,  of  great  beauty 
and  admirable  contrivance,  a  furlong  in  length  and  30 
feet  in  breadth.  As  the  Euphrates  overflows  during 
the  summer  months,  through  the  melting  of  the  snows 


on  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  two  canals  were  cut  to 
turn  the  course  of  the  waters  into  the  Tigris,  and  vast 
artificial  embankments  were  raised  on  each  side  of  the 
river.  On  the  western  side  of  the  city  an  immense 
lake,  forty  miles  square,  was  excavated  to  the  depth, 
according  to  Herodotus,  of  35  feet,  and  into  this  lake 
the  river  was  turned  till  the  work  was  completed.  At 
each  end  of  the  bridge  was  a  palace,  and  these  had  a 
subterraneous  communication.  In  each  division  of  the 
town,  Herodotus  says,  there  was  a  fortress  or  strong- 
hold, consisting  in  the  one  case  of  the  royal  palace,  in 
the  other  of  the  great  temple  of  Belus.  This  last  was 
a  species  of  pyramid,  composed  of  eight  square  towers 
placed  one  above  the  other,  the  dimensions  of  the  base- 
ment tower  being  a  stade — or  above  200  yards — each 
way.  The  height  of  the  temple  is  not  mentioned  by 
Herodotus.  A  winding  ascent,  which  passed  round 
all  the  towers,  led  to  the  summit,  on  which  was  placed 
a  spacious  ark  or  chapel,  containing  no  statue,  but  re- 
garded by  the  natives  as  the  habitation  of  the  god. 
The  temple  stood  in  a  sacred  precinct,  two  stades  (or 
400  yards)  square,  which  contained  two  altars  for  burnt- 
ofi'erings  and  a  sacred  ark  or  chapel,  wherein  was  the 
golden  image  of  Bel. — Kitto;  Smith. 

According  to  Ctesias  (ap.  Liod.  Sic.  ii,  7  sq.),  the  cir- 
cuit of  the  city  was  a  little,  under  42  miles.  It  lay,  he 
says,  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  and  the  two  parts 
were  connected  together  by  a  stone  bridge  above  1000 
yards  long,  and  30  feet  broad,  of  the  kind  described  by 
Herodotus.  At  either  extremity  of  the  bridge  was  a 
royal  palace,  that  in  the  eastern  city  being  the  most 
magnificent  of  the  two.  It  •was  defended  by  a  triple 
enceinte,  the  outermost  7  miles  round ;  the  second,  which 
was  circular,  A\  miles ;  and  the  third  1\  miles.  The 
height  of  the  second  or  middle  wall  was  300  feet,  and 
its  towers  were  420  feet.  The  elevation  of  the  inner- 
most circuit  was  even  greater  than  this.  The  walls 
of  both  the  second  and  the  third  enclosure  were  made 
of  colored  trick,  and  represented  hunting  scenes — the 
chase  of  the  leopard  and  the.  lion — with  figures,  male 
and  female,  regarded  by  Ctesias  as  those  of  Ninus  and 
Semiramis.  The  other  palace  was  inferior  both  in  size 
and  magnificence.  It  was  enclosed  within  a  single 
enceinte  8§-  miles  in  circumference,  and  contained  rep- 
resentations of  hunting  and  battle  scenes,  as  well  as 
statues  in  bronze,  said  to  be  those  of  Ninus,  Semiramis, 
and  Jupiter  Belus.  The  two  palaces  were  joined,  not 
only  by  the  bridge,  but  by  a  tunnel  under  the  river. 
Ctesias'  account  of  the  temple  of  Belus  has  not  come 
down  to  us.  We  may  gather,  however,  that  he  rep- 
resented its  general  character  in  much  the  same  way 
as  Herodotus,  but  spoke  of  it  as  surmounted  by  three 
statues,  one  of  Bel,  40  feet  high,  another  of  Rhea,  and 
a  third  of  Juno  or  Beltis. — Smith. 

The  account  given  by  Quintus  Curtius  (v,  1)  of  the 
entrance  of  Alexander  into  Babylon  may  serve  to  en- 
liven the  narrative,  and,  at  the  same  time,  make  the 
impression  on  the  reader's  mind  more  distinct.  "A 
great  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Babylon  stood  on  the 
walls,  eager  to  catch  a  sight  of  their  new  monarch. 
Many  went  forth  to  meet  him.  Among  these,  Ba- 
gophanes,  keeper  of  the  citadel  and  of  the  royal  treas- 
ure, strewed  the  entire  way  before  the  king  with  flow- 
ers and  crowns  ;  silver  altars  were  also  placed  on  both 
sides  of  the  road,  which  were  loaded  not  merely  with 
frankincense,  but  all  kinds  of  odoriferous  herbs.  He 
brou.L'ht  with  him  for  Alexander  gifts  of  various  kinds 
—  flocks  of  sheep  and  horses;  lions  also  and  panthers 
were  carried  before  him  in  their  dens.  The  magi 
came  next,  singing,  in  their  usual  manner,  their  an- 
cient hymns.  After  them  came  the  Chaldaeans,  with 
their  musical  instruments,  who  are  not  only  the  proph- 
ets of  the  Babylonians,  but  their  artists.  The  first 
are  wont  to  sing  the  praises  of  the  kings ;  the  Chal- 
daeans  teach  the  motions  of  the  stars  and  the  periodic 
vicissitudes  of  the  times  and  seasons.  Then  followed, 
last  of  all,  the  Babylonian  knights,  whose  equipment, 


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BABYLON 


as  well  as  that  of  their  horses,  seemed  designed  more 
for  luxury  than  magnificence.  The  king,  Alexander, 
attended  by  armed  men,  having  ordered  the  crowd  of 
the  towns-people  to  proceed  in  the  rear  of  his  infantry, 
entered  the  city  in  a  chariot  and  repaired  to  the  pal- 
ace. The  next  day  he  carefully  surveyed  the  house- 
hold treasure  of  Darius,  and  all  his  money.  For  the 
rest,  the  beauty  of  the  city  and  its  age  turned  the  eyes 
not  only  of  the  king,  but  of  every  one,  on  itself,  and 
that  with  good  reason."  Within  a  brief  period  after 
this  Alexander  lay  a  corpse  in  the  palace. 

One  or  two  additional  facts  may  aid  in  conveying  a 
full  idea  of  this  great  and  magnificent  city.  When 
Cyrus  took  Babylon  by  turning  the  Euphrates  into  a 
neighboring  lake,  the  dwellers  in  the  middle  of  the 
place  were  not  for  some  time  aware  that  their  fellow- 
townsmen  who  were  near  the  walls  had  been  captured. 
This,  says  Herodotus  (i,  191),  was  owing  to  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  city,  and  to  the  circumstance  that  at  the 
time  the  inhabitants  were  engaged  in  carousals,  it  be- 
ing a  festive  occasion.  Nor,  according  to  Xenophon, 
did  the  citizens  of  the  opposite  quarter  learn  the  event 
till  three  hours  after  sunrise,  the  city  having  been 
taken  in  the  night.  Alexander  had  to  employ  10,000 
men  during  two  months  to  remove  the  accumulated 
ruins  precipitated  by  order  of  Xerxes  nearly  200  years 
before.  From  the  fallen  towers  of  Babylon  have  aris- 
en not  only  all  the  present  cities  in  its  vicinity,  but 
others  which,  like  itself,  have  long  since  gone  down 
into  the  dust.  Since  the  days  of  Alexander,  four  cap- 
itals, at  least,  have  been  built  out  of  its  remains :  Se- 
leucia,  by  the  Greeks;  Ctesiphon,  by  the  Parthians; 
Al  Maidan,  by  the  Persians;  and  Kufa,  by  the  ca- 
liphs; with  towns,  villages,  and  caravansaries  with- 
out number.  The  necessary  fragments  and  materials 
were  transported  along  the  rivers  and  the  canals. 

The  antiquity  of  the  canals  of  Babylonia  dates  from 
the  most  remote  periods  of  the  Chaldseo-Babylonian 
monarchy.  The  ancient  kings  of  Assyria  and  Babj'- 
lonia  well  understood  the  value  of  canals,  and  their 
empire  arose  upon  alluvial  plains,  amid  a  system  of  ir- 
rigation and  draining  which  spread  like  a  net-work 
over  the  land.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  specify  the 
Nahr  Malikah,  or  Royal  Canal,  the  origin  of  which  has 
been  referred  both  to  Nimrod  and  Cush.  Abydenus, 
however,  attributes  it  to  Nebuchadnezzar.  From  the 
account  of  Herodotus,  it  appears  to  have  been  of  suffi- 
cient breadth  and  depth  to  be  navigable  for  merchant 
vessels.  It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  that  some 
writers  have  considered  it  as  the  ancient  bed  of  the 
Euphrates.  The  soil  around  Babylon  is  of  a  light, 
yielding  nature,  easily  wrought  for  canals  and  other 
purposes,  whether  of  art  or  war.  Cyrus,  therefore, 
would  find  no  great  difficulty  in  digging  a  trench  about 
the  city  sufficient  to  contain  the  waters  of  the  river 
(Cyrop.  vii).  Alexander  (Strabo,  xvi,  p.  510),  in  en- 
larging one  of  the  canals  and  forming  basins  for  his 
fleet,  laid  open  the  graves  of  many  buried  kings  and 
princes,  which  shows  how  readily  the  soil  yields  and 
gives  way  before  the  labors  of  man. 

The  new  palace  built  by  Nebuchadnezzar  was  pro- 
digious in  size  and  superb  in  embellishments.  Its 
outer  wall  embraced  six  miles;  within  that  circum- 
ference were  two  other  embattled  walls,  besides  a 
great  tower.  Three  brazen  gates  led  into  the  grand 
area,  and  every  gate  of  consequence  throughout  the 
city  was  of  brass.  In  accordance  with  this  fact  are 
the  terms  which  Isaiah  (xlv,  1,  2)  employs  when,  in 
the  name  of  Jehovah,  ho  promises  Cyrus  that  the  city 
should  fall  before  him:  "  I  will  open  before  him  the 
two-leaved  gates ;  I  will  break  in  pieces  the  gates  of 
brass;"  a  prophecy  which  was  fullilled  to  the  letter 
when  Cyrus  made  himself  master  of  the  place.  The 
palace  was  splendidl}'  decorated  with  statues  of  men 
and  animals,  with  vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  and  fur- 
nished witli  luxuries  of  all  kinds  brought  thither  from 
conquests  in  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  lyre.     Its  great- 


est boast  were  the  hanging  gardens,  which  acquired 
even  from  Grecian  writers  the  appellation  of  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  world.  They  are  attributed  to  the 
gallantry  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  constructed  them 
in  compliance  with  a  wish  of  his  queen  Amytis  to  pos- 
sess elevated  groves  such  as  she  had  enjoyed  on  the 
hills  around  her  native  Ecbatana.  Babylon  was  all 
flat;  and  to  accomplish  so  extravagant  a  desire,  an 
artificial  mountain  was  reared,  400  feet  on  each  side, 
while  terraces  one  above  another  rose  to  a  height  that 
1  overtopped  the  walls  of  the  city,  that  is,  above  300 
feet  in  elevation.  The  ascent  from  terrace  to  terrace 
I  was  made  by  corresponding  flights  of  steps,  while  the 
|  terraces  themselves  were  reared  to  their  various  stages 
J  on  ranges  of  regular  piers,  which,  forming  a  kind  of 
j  vaulting,  rose  in  succession  one  over  the  other  to  the 
J  required  height  of  each  terrace,  the  whole  being  bound 
together  by  a  wall  of  22  feet  in  thickness.  The  level 
of  each  terrace  or  garden  was  then  formed  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner :  the  top  of  the  piers  was  first  laid  over 
with  flat  stones,  16  feet  in  length  and  4  feet  in  width  ; 
I  on  these  stones  were  spread  beds  of  matting,  then  a 
thick  layer  of  bitumen  ;  after  which  came  two  courses 
of  bricks,  which  were  covered  with  sheets  of  solid  lead. 
j  The  earth  was  heaped  on  this  platform ;  and  in  order 
to  admit  the  roots  of  large  trees,  prodigious  hollow 
I  piers  were  built  and  filled  with  mould.  From  the 
'  Euphrates,  which  flowed  close  to  the  foundation,  water 
was  drawn  up  by  machinery.  The  whole,  says  Q. 
Curtius  (v,  5),  had,  to  those  who  saw  it  from  a  dis- 
[  tance,  the  appearance  of  woods  overhanging  moun- 
tains. Such  was  the  completion  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
work,  when  he  found  himself  at  rest  in  his  house,  and 
flourished  in  his  palace.  The  king  spoke  and  said, 
"Is  not  this  great  Babylon  that  I  have  built  for  the 
house  of  the  kingdom  by  the  might  of  my  power  and 
the  honor  of  my  majesty"  (Dan.  iv),  a  picture  which 
is  amply  justified  by  the  descriptions  of  heathen  writ- 
ers. Nowhere  could  the  king  have  taken  so  compre- 
hensive a  view  of  the  city  he  had  so  magnificently 
constructed  and  adorned  as  when  walking  on  the  high- 
est terrace  of  the  gardens  of  his  palace. 

Babylon,  as  the  centre  of  a  great  kingdom,  was  the 
seat  of  boundless  luxury,  and  its  inhabitants  were  no- 
torious for  their  addiction  to  self-indulgence  and  ef- 
|  feniinacy.  Q.  Curtius  (v,  1)  asserts  that  "  nothing 
could  be  more  corrupt  than  its  morals,  nothing  more 
j  fitted  to  excite  and  allure  to  immoderate  pleasures. 
I  The  rites  of  hospitality  were  polluted  by  the  grossest 
and  most  shameless  lusts.  Money  dissolved  every 
!  tie,  whether  of  kindred,  respect,  or  esteem.  The 
I  Babylonians  were  very  greatly  given  to  wine  and  the 
enjo}rments  which  accompany  inebriety.  Women  were 
'  present  at  their  convivialities,  first  with  some  degree 
of  propriety,  but,  growing  worse  and  worse  by  de- 
grees, they  ended  by  throwing  off  at  once  their  modes- 
ty and  their  clothing."  Once  in  her  life,  according  to 
Herodotus  (i,  199),  every  native  female  was  obliged  to 
visit  the  temple  of  Mylitta,  the  Babylonian  Astarte 
(q.  v.)  or  Venus,  and  there  receive  the  embraces  of 
the  first  stranger  who  threw  a  piece  of  money  into  her 
lap;  an  abominable  custom,  that  is  alluded  to  in  the 
Apocrypha  (Baruch  vi,  43)  and  by  Strabo  (vi,  1058). 
On  the  ground  of  their  awful  wickedness,  the  Baby- 
lonians were  threatened  with  condign  punishment, 
through  the  mouths  of  the  prophets ;  and  the  tyranny 
with  which  the  rulers  of  the  city  exercised  their  sway 
was  not  without  a  decided  effect  in  bringing  on  them 
the  terrific  consequences  of  the  Divine  vengeance. 
Nor  in  the  whole  range  of  literature  is  there  any  thing 
to  be  found  approaching  to  the  sublimity,  force,  and 
terror  with  which  Isaiah  and  others  speak  on  this 
painful  subject  (Isa.  xiv.  11;  xlvii,  1;  Jer.  li,  39; 
Dan.  v,  1).  Babylon  even  stands,  therefore,  in  the 
New  Test.  (Iiev.  xvii,  5)  as  the  type  of  the  most  shame- 
less profligacy  and  idolatry. — Kitto. 

5.  Investigation  of  th;  ancient  Topogroj)hy .■ — In  ex- 


BABYLON 


598 


BABYLON 


amining  tlic  truth  of  these  descriptions,  we  shall  most 
conveniently  commence  from  the  outer  circuit  of  the 
town.  All  the  ancient  writers  appear  to  agree  in  the 
fact  of  a  district  of  vast  size,  more  or  less  inhabited, 
having  been  enclosed  within  lofty  walls,  and  included 
under  the  name  of  Babylon.  With  respect  to  the  ex- 
act extent  of  the  circuit  they  differ.  The  estimate  of 
Herodotus  and  of  Pliny  (//.  K.  vi,  26)  is  480  stades, 
of  Strabo  (xvi,  i,  5)  385,  of  Q.  Curtius  (v,  i,  2G)  368, 
of  Clitarchus  (ap.  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  7)  365,  and  of  Ctesias 
(ap.  eund.)  3G0  stades.  It  is  evident  that  here  we 
have  merely  the  moderate  variations  to  be  expected  in 
independent  measurements,  except  in  the  first  of  the 
numbers.  Setting  this  aside,  the  difference  between 
the  greatest  and  the  least  of  the  estimates  is  little 
more  than  one  half  per  cent.  With  this  near  agree- 
ment on  the  part  of  so  many  authors,  it  is  the  more 
surprising  that  in  the  remaining  case  we  should  find 
the  great  difference  of  one  third  more,  or  33J-  per  cent. 
Perhaps  the  true  explanation  is  that  Herodotus  spoke 
of  the  outer  wall,  which  could  be  traced  in  his  time, 
while  the  later  writers,  who  never  speak  of  an  inner 
and  an  outer  barrier,  give  the  measurement  of  Herodo- 
tus's  inner  wall,  which  may  have  alone  remained  in 
their  day.  This  is  the  opinion  of  M.  Oppert,  who  even 
believes  that  he  has  found  traces  of  both  enclosures, 
showing  them  to  have  been  really  of  the  size  ascribed 
to  them.  This  conclusion  is  at  present  disputed,  and 
it  is  the  more  general  belief  of  those  who  have  exam- 
ined the  ruins  with  attention  that  no  vestiges  of  the 
ancient  walls  are  to  be  found,  or,  at  least,  that  none 
have  as  yet  been  discovered.  Still  it  is  impossible  to 
doubt  that  a  line  of  wall  inclosing  an  enormous  area 
originally  existed.  The  testimony  to  this  effect  is  too 
gtrong  to  be  set  aside,  and  the  disappearance  of  the 
wall  is  easily  accounted  for,  either  by  the  constant 
quarrying,  which  would  naturally  have  commenced 
with  it  (Rich,  First  Mem.  p.  4-1),  or  by  the  subsidence 
of  the  bulwark  into  the  moat  from  which  it  was  raised. 
Taking  the  lowest  estimate  of  the  extent  of  the  cir- 
cuit, we  shall  have  for  the  space  within  the  rampart  an 
area  of  above  100  square  miles — nearly  five  times  the 
size  of  London.  It  is  evident  that  this  vast  space 
cannot  have  been  entirely  covered  with  houses.  Dio- 
dorus  confesses  (ii,  0,  cdft'n.)  that  but  a  small  part  of 
the  enclosure  was  inhabited  in  his  own  day,  and  Q. 
Curtius  (v,  i,  27)  says  that  as  much  as  nine  tenths  con- 
sisted, even  in  the  most  flourishing  times,  of  gardens, 
parks,  paradises,  fields,  and  orchards. 

With  regard  to  the  height  and  breadth  of  the  walls 
there  is  nearh'  as  much  difference  of  statement  as  with 
regard  to  their  extent.  Herodotus  makes  the  height 
200  royal  cubits,  or  337i  feet ;  Ctesias,  50  fathoms,  or 
SOOfee't;  Pliny  and  Solinus,  200  royal  feet ;  Strabo,  50 
oubits,  or  75  feet.  Here  there  is  less  appearance  of  in- 
dependent measurements  than  in  the  estimates  of 
length.  The.  two  original  statements  seem  to  be  those 
i  !'  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  which  onPy  differ  accidental- 
ly, the  Litter  having  omitted  to  notice  that  the  royal 
BCale  was  used.  The  later  writers  do  not  possess  fresh 
data  ;  they  merely  soften  down  what  seems  to  them  an 

ition— Pliny  and  Solinus  changing  the  cubits 
of  Herodotus  into  feet,  and  Strabo  the  fathoms  of  Cte- 
Bias  into  cubits.  We  arc  forced,  then,  to  fall  back  on 
the  earlier  authorities,  who  are  also  the  only  oye-wit- 

and,  surprising  as  it  seems,  perhaps  we  must 
believe  the  Btatement  that  the  vast  enclosed  space 
above  mentioned  was  surrounded  by  walls  which  have 

well  l n  termed  "artificial  mountains,"  being  nearly 

the  height  of  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's  (see  Grote's  Greece, 
iii,  39;  ;  and,  on  the  <  the,-  side,  Mure's  Lit,  of  Greeco, 
iv,  5  16  i.  The  ruined  wall  of  Nineveh  was,  it  must  be 
remembered,  in  Xenophon's  time,  150feet  high  (Anuh. 
iii.  I,  1").  and  another  wall  which  he  passed  in  Meso- 
pol  imia  was  loo  feet  (ib.  ii.  1,  12). 

The  estimates  for  the  thickness  of  the  wall  are  the 
following;  Herodotus,  50  royal  cubits,  or  nearly  85 


feet ;  Pliny  and  Solinus,  50  royal,  or  about  60  common 
feet ;  and  Strabo,  32  feet.  Here  again  Pliny  and  So- 
linus have  merely  softened  down  Herodotus ;  Strabo, 
however,  has  a  new  number.  This  may  belong  prop- 
erly to  the  inner  wall,  which,  Herodotus  remarks  (i, 
181),  was  of  less  thickness  than  the  outer. 

According  to  Ctesias,  the  wall  was  strengthened 
with  250  towers,  irregularly  disposed,  to  guard  the 
weakest  parts  (Diod.  Sic.  ii,  7)  ;  and,  according  to  He- 
rodotus, it  was  pierced  with  a  hundred  gates,  which 
were  made  of  brass,  with  brazen  lintels  and  side-posts 
(i,  179).  The  gates  and  walls  are  alike  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  the  height  of  the  one  and  the  breadth  of  the 
other  being  specially  noticed  (Jer.  Ii,  58 ;  comp.  1,  15, 
and  li,  53). 

Herodotus  and  Ctesias  both  relate  that  the  banks 
of  the  river,  as  it  flowed  through  the  city,  were  on  each 
side  ornamented  with  quays.  The  stream  has  proba- 
bly often  changed  its  course  since  the  time  of  Baby- 
lonian greatness,  but  some  remains  of  a  quay  or  em- 
bankment on  the  eastern  side  of  the  stream  still 
exist,  upon  the  bricks  of  which  is  read  the  name  of 
the  last  king.  The  two  writers  also  agree  as  to  the 
existence  of  a  bridge,  and  describe  it  very  similarly. 
Perhaps  a  remarkable  mound  which  interrupts  the 
long  flat  valley — evidently  the  ancient  course  of  the 
river — closing  in  the  principal  ruins  on  the  west,  may 
be  a  trace  of  this  structure. 

6.  Present  Character  and  Extent  of  the  Ruins  of 
Babylon. — The  locality  and  principal  structures  of  this 
once  famous  city  are  now  almost  universally  admitted 
to  be  indicated  by  the  remarkable  remains  near  the 
modern  village  of  Hillah,  which  lies  on  the  W.  bank  of 
the  Euphrates,  about  50  miles  directly  S.  of  Bagdad. 


7/.'- 


CI  1  >" 


V 


rian  of  part  of  the  Ruins  of  Babylon,  on  the  eastern  hr.uk  c.r 
the  Euphrates. 

About  Cwc  miles  above  Hillah,  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  occur  a  series  of  artificial  mounds  of 
enormous  size,  which  have  been  recognised  in  all  ages 
as  probably  indicating  the  site  of  the  capital  of  south- 
ern Mesopotamia.  They  consist  chiefly  of  three  great 
masses  of  building— the  high  pile  of  unbaked  brick- 
work called  by  Rich  " Mujellibe,"  but  which  is  known 
to  the  Arabs  as  "Babil;"  the  building  denominated 
tho  "A'asr"  or  palace;  and  a  lofty  mound  upon  which 


BABYLON 


599 


BABYLON 


stands  the  modern  tomb  of  Amran  ihn-Alb  (Loftus's 
Chaldxa,  p.  17).  Besides  these  principal  masses  the 
most  remarkable  features  are  two  parallel  lines  of 
rampart  bounding  the  chief  ruins  on  the  east,  some 
similar  but  inferior  remains  on  the  north  and  west,  an 
embankment  along  the  river  side,  a  remarkable  iso- 
lated heap  in  the  middle  of  a  long  valley,  which  seems 
to  have  been  the  ancient  bed  of  the  stream,  and  two 
Ion?  lines  of  rampart,  meeting  at  a  right  angle,  and 
with  the  river  forming  an  irregular  triangle,  within  j 
which  all  the  ruins  on  this  side  (except  Babil)  are 
enclosed.  On  the  west,  or  right  bank,  the  remains 
ar3  very  slight  and  scanty.  There  is  the  appearance 
of  an  enclosure,  and  of  a  building  of  moderate  size  with-  j 
in  it,  nearly  opposite  the  great  mound  of  Amran,  but 
otherwise,  unless  at  a  long  distance  from  the  stream, 
this  side  of  the  Euphrates  is  absolutely  bare  of  ruins. 
(See  Rawlinson*s  Herodotus,  ii,  473). 


Scattered  over  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  reducible  to  no  regular  plan,  are  a  num- 
ber of  remarkable  mounds,  usually  standing  single, 
which  are  plainly  of  the  same  date  with  the  great 
mass  of  ruins  upon  the  river  bank.  Of  these  by  far 
the  most  striking  is  the  vast  ruin  called  the  Mrs 
Nimrud,  which  many  regard  as  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
situated  about  six  miles  to  the  S.W.  of  Hillah,  and 
almost  that  distance  from  the  Euphrates  at  the  near- 
est point.  This  is  a  pyramidical  mound,  crowned  ap- 
parently by  the  ruins  of  a  tower,  rising  to  the  height 
of  153$  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain,  and  in  cir- 
cumference somewhat  more  than  20U0  feet.  See  Ba- 
bel (Tower  of).  There  is  considerable  reason  to  be- 
lieve from  the  inscriptions  discovered  on  the  spot,  and 
from  other  documents  of  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
that  it  marks  the  site  of  Borsippa,  and  may  thus  have 
been  beyond  the  limits  of  Babylon  (Beros.  Fr.  1-1). 


Portion.?  of  ancient  Babylon  distiagui-hable  in  the  present  Ruina 


7.  Identification  of  SIIjs. — On  comparing  the  exist- 
in  i ;  ruins  with  the  accounts  of  the  ancient  writers,  the 
great  difficulty  which  meets  us  is  the  position  of  the 
remains  almost  exclusively  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river.  All  the  old  accounts  agree  in  representing  the 
Euphrates  as  running  through  the  town,  and  the  prin- 
cipal buildings  as  placed  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
stream.  In  explanation  of  this  difficulty,  it  has  been 
urged,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  Euphrates,  having  a 
tendency  to  run  off  to  the  right,  has  obliterated  all 
trace  of  the  buildings  in  this  direction  (Layard's  Nin. 
and  Bab.  p.  420)  ;  on  the  other,  that,  by  a  due  exten- 


sion of  the  area  of  Babylon,  it  may  be  made  to  include 
the  Birs  Nimrud,  and  that  thus  the  chief  existing  re- 
mains will  really  lie  on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  river 
(Rich,  Second  Memoir,  p.  32 ;  Ker  Porter,  Travels,  ii, 
383).  But  the  identification  of  the  Birs  with  Borsippa 
seems  to  interfere  with  this  latter  theory;  while  the 
former  is  unsatisfactory,  since  we  can  scarcely  suppose 
the  abrasion  of  the  river  to  have  entirely  removed  all 
trace  of  such  gigantic  buildings  as  those  which  the  an- 
cient writers  describe.  Perhaps  the  most  probable 
solution  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  a  large  canal 
(called  Shcbll)  intervened  in  ancient  times  between 
the  Kasr  mound  and 
¥^=__J?T  the    ruin   now   called 

Kpv_      ^      Babil,  which  may  ea- 

sily   have    been    con- 
■=■_        founded  by  Herodotus 
"-    ""_._  with  the  main  stream. 

This  would  have  had 
the  two  principal  buil- 
dings upon  opposite 
sides;  while  the  real 
-~"  river,  which  ran  down 
the  long  valley  to  the 
west  of  the  Kasr  and 
Amran  mounds, would 
also  have  separated(as 
Ctesias  related)  be- 
tween the  greater  and 
the  lesser  palace.  If 
this  explanation  be  ac- 
:  cepted  as  probable,  we 
m  may  identify  the  prin- 
cipal ruins  as  follows : 
1.  The  great  mound 
of  Babil  will  be  the 
ancient  temple  of  Be- 
lus.      It  is  an  oblottg 


BABYLON 


600 


BABYLON 


of  the  Kasr. 

mass,  composed  chiefly  of  unbaked  brick,  rising  from 
the  plain  to  the  height  of  140  feet,  flattish  at  the  top, 
in  length  about  200,  and  in  breadth  about  140  yards. 
This  oblong  shape  is  common  to  the  temples,  or  rather 
temple-towers  of  Low- 
er Babylonia,  which 
seem  to  have  had  near- 
ly the  same  propor- 
tions. It  was  origi- 
nally coated  with  fine 
burnt  brick  laid  in  an 
excellent  mortar,  as 
was  proved  by  Mr. 
Layard  (Xin.  and  Bab. 
p.  452) ;  and  was,  no 
doubt,  built  in  stages, 
most  of  which  have 
crumbled  down,  but 
which  may  still  be  in 
part  concealed  under 
the  rubbish.  The 
statement  of  Berosus 
{Fragm.  14),  that  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, is  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that 
all  the  inscribed  bricks 
which  have  been  found 
in  it  bear  the  name  of 
that  king.  It  form- 
ed the  tower  of  the 
temple,  and  was  sur- 
mounted by  a  chapel; 
but  the  main  shrine, 
thealtars,andnodoubt 
the  residences  of  the 
priests,  were  at  the 
foot,  in  a  sacred  pre- 
cinct. 2.  The  mound 
of  the  Kasr  will  mark 
the  site  of  the  great 
palace  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. It  is  an  irreg- 
ular square  of  about 
700  yards  each  way, 
and  may  be.  regarded 
as  chiefly  formed  of 


the  old  palace  plat- 
form (which  resem- 
bles those  at  Nine- 
veh, Susa,  and  else- 
where), upon  which 
I  are  still  standing  cer- 
tain portions  of  the 
ancient  residences  to 
which  the  name  of 
"A'«sr"  or  "  palace" 
^  especialky  attaches.' 
j  The  walls  are  com- 
posed of  burnt  bricks, 
|S  of  a  pale  yellow  col- 
v  or,  and  of  excellent 
9  quality,  bound  to- 
i^  gether  by  a  fine  lime 
M^-  cement,  and  stamped 
g^,  with  the  name  and 
■''^  titles  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. They  con- 
tain traces  of  archi- 
tectural ornament — 
piers,  buttresses,  pi- 
lasters, etc. ;  and  in 
the  rubbish  at  their 
base  have  been  found 
slabs  inscribed  by 
Nebuehadnezzar,ancl 
containing  an  ac- 
count of  the  building  of  the  edifice,  as  well  as  a  few 
sculptured  fragments,  and  many  pieces  of  enamelled 
brick  of  brilliant  hues.  On  these  last  portions  of  figures 
are  traceable,  recalling  the  statements  of  Ctesias  (ap. 


Chart  of  the  Country  round  Babylon,  with  Limits  of  the  ancient  City. 


BABYLON 


C01 


BABYLON 


Diodor.  Sicul.)  that  the  brick  walls  of  the  palace  were 
colored,  and  represented  hunting-scenes.  No  plan  of 
the  palace  is  to  be  made  out  from  the  existing  re- 
mains, which  are  tossed  in  apparent  confusion  on  the 
highest  point  of  the  mound.  3.  The  mound  of  Amran 
is  thought  by  M.  Oppert  to  represent  the  "hanging 
gardens"  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  but  this  conjecture  does 
not  seem  to  be  a  very  happy  one.  The  mound  is  com- 
posed of  poorer  materials  than  the  edifices  of  that 
prince,  and  has  furnished  no  bricks  containing  his 
name.  Again,  it  is  far  too  large  for  the  hanging  gar- 
dens, which  are  said  to  have  been  only  400  feet  each 
way.  The  Amran  mound  is  described  by  Rich  as  an 
irregular  parallelogram,  1100  yards  long  by  800  broad, 
and  by  Ker  Porter  as  a  triangle,  the  sides  of  which  are 
respectively  1400,  1100,  and  850  feet.  Its  dimensions 
therefore,  very  greatly  exceed  those  of  the  curious 
structure  with  which  it  has  been  identified.  Most 
probably  it  represents  the  ancient  palace,  coeval  with 
Babylon  itself,  of  which  Nebuchadnezzar  speaks  in  his 
inscriptions  as  adjoining  his  own  more  magnificent 
residence.  It  is  the  only  part  of  the  ruins  from  which 
bricks  have  been  derived  containing  the  names  of  kings 
earlier  than  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  is  therefore  entitled 
to  be  considered  the  most  ancient  of  the  existing  re- 
mains. 4.  The  ruins  near  each  side  of  the  Euphrates, 
together  with  all  the  other  remains  on  the  west  bank, 
may  be  considered  to  represent  the  lesser  palace  of 
Ctesias,  which  is  said  to  have  been  connected  with  the 
greater  by  a  bridge  across  the  river,  as  well  as  bj'  a 
tunnel  under  the  channel  of  the  stream  (!).  The  old 
course  of  the  Euphrates  seems  to  have  been  a  little  east 
of  the  present  one,  passing  between  the  two  parallel 
ridges  near  it  at  the  bend  in  the  middle,  and  then 
closely  skirting  the  mound  of  Amran,  so  as  to  have 
both  the  ruins  just  named  upon  its  right  bank.  These 
ruins  are  of  the  same  date  and  style.  The  bricks  of 
that  on  the  east  bank  bear  the  name  of  Neriglissar ; 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  ruin,  together 
with  those  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stream,  are  the 
remains  of  a  palace  built  by  him.  Perhaps  (as  already 
remarked)  the  little  mound  immediately  south  of  this 
point,  near  the  east  bank,  may  be  a  remnant  of  the  an- 
cient bridge.  5.  The  two  long  parallel  lines  of  em- 
bankment on  the  «ast,  which  form  so  striking  a  feature 
in  the  remains  as  represented  by  Porter  and  Rich,  but 
which  are  ignored  by  M.  Oppert,  may  either  be  the 
lines  of  an  outer  and  inner  enclosure,  of  which  Nebu- 
chadnezzar speaks  as  defences  of  his  palace,  or  they 
may  represent  the  embankments  of  an  enormous  reser- 
voir, which  is  often  mentioned  by  that  monarch  as  ad- 
joining his  palace  toward  the  east.  G.  The  southern- 
most embankment,  near  the  east  bank  of  the  river,  is 
composed  of  bricks  marked  with  the  name  of  Labyne- 
tus  or  Nabunit,  and  is  undoubtedly  a  portion  of  the 
work  which  Berosus  ascribes  to  the  last  king  (Eragm. 
14).—  Smith. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the  foregoing 
scheme  of  identification  (which  is  that  proposed  by 
Rawlinson,  Herodotus,  ii,  Essay  iv)  involves  the  improb- 
able supposition  of  a  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  ancient 
authorities  concerning  the  course  of  the  Euphrates 
through  the  middle  of  the  city ;  it  seems  also  unduly 
to  restrict  the  ancient  limits,  and  thus  excludes  the 
Bira  Nimrud ;  and  it  affords  no  explanation  of  the  re- 
markable line  of  mounds  meeting  in  a  right  angle  on 
tie  east  of  the  ruins,  and  most  naturally  thought  by 
nearly  all  topographers  (Rich,  Ker  Porter,  Flandin, 
Layard,  and  Fergusson)  to  have  been  one  of  the  cor- 
ners of  the  city  wall.  Nor  does  it  altogether  agree 
with  th^  recent  conjectural  restoration  of  the  royal  res- 
idence at  Babylon  on  the  bold  plan  of  M.  Oppert  (in 
the  Altas  accompanying  his  Expedition  en  Mesopotamia, 
Par.  1858),  who  supposes  the  extant  remains  opposite 
Hillah  to  be  those  alone  of  the  palace,  with  its  accom- 
panying structures,  and  gardens,  and  enclosing  walls, 
the  double  line  of  city  walls  being  of  much  larger  ex- 


tent. He  appears,  however,  to  have  disregarded  many 
details  of  the  modern  as  well  as  ancient  indication  in 
his  identification  (see  Rawlinson,  ut  sup.  p.  487  sq.). 
Perhaps  it  will  yet  appear  that,  while  Rawlinson's  lo- 
cations (as  above)  are  correct  so  far  as  concerns  the 
royal  buildings  themselves,  the  chart  of  Oppert  (given 
above)  truly  represents  the  entire  circuit  of  the  city ; 
and  that  the  palace,  with  its  appendages,  was  enclosed 
in  an  interior  quadrangle,  which  the  river  likewise  di- 
vided diagonally,  its  eastern  half  corresponding  to  the 
triangle  embracing  the  modern  ruins  here  described. 

The  most  remarkable  fact  connected  with  the  mag- 
nificence of  Babylon  is  the  poorness  of  the  material 
with  which  such  wonderful  results  were  produced. 
The  whole  country,  being  alluvial,  was  entirely  desti- 
tute jof  stone,  and  even  wood  was  scarce  and  of  bad 
quality,  being  only  yielded  by  the  palm-groves  which 
fringed  the  courses  of  the  canals  and  rivers.  In  de- 
fault of  these,  the  ordinary  materials  for  building,  re- 
course was  had  to  the  soil  of  the  country — in  many 
parts  an  excellent  clay — and  with  bricks  made  from 
this,  either  sun-dried  or  baked,  the  vast  structures 
were  raised  which,  when  they  stood  in  their  integrity, 
provoked  comparison  with  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  and 
which,  even  in  their  decay,  excite  the  astonishment  of 
the  traveller.  A  modern  writer  has  noticed,  as  the 
true  secret  of  the  extraordinary  results  produced,  "  the 
unbounded  command  of  naked  human  strength"  which 
the  Babylonian  monarchs  had  at  their  disposal  (Grote's 
Hist,  of  Greece,  ii,  401);  but  this  alone  will  not  ac- 
count for  the  phenomena ;  and  we  must  give  the  Baby- 
lonians credit  for  a  genius  and  a  grandeur  of  concep- 
tion rarely  surpassed,  which  led  them  to  employ  the 
labor  whereof  the)'  had  the  command  in  works  of  so 
imposing  a  character.  With  only  "  brick  for  stone," 
and  at  first  only  "slime  (T^n)  for  mortar"  (Gen.  xi, 
3),  they  constructed  edifices  of  so  vast  a  size  that  they 
still  remain  at  the  present  day  among  the  most  enor- 
mous ruins  in  the  world,  impressing  the  beholder  at 
once  with  awe  and  admiration. — Smith. 

8.  Literature. — For  the  descriptive  portions,  Rich's 
Two  Memoirs  on  Babylon ;  Ker  Porter's  Travels,  ii,  238 
sq. ;  Layard's  Xineveh  and  Babylon,  ch.  xxii ;  Fresnel's 
Two  Letters  to  M.  Mold,  in  the  Journal  Asiatique,  June 
and  July,  1853 ;  Loftus's  Chaldwa,  ch.  ii ;  Olivier, 
Voyages,  ii,  436  sq. ;  Maurice,  Observ.  on  the  Ruins  of 
Bab.  (Lond.  1816);  Wellsted,  Travels  (Lond.  1838); 
Ritter,  Erdkunde,  xi,  865  sq. ;  Mannert,  Geographic, 
VI,  i,  408  sq. ;  Ainsworth's  Researches  (Lond.  1838) ; 
Chesney,  Euphrates  Exped.  (Lond.  1850);  Bucking- 
ham, Trav.  in  Mesopotamia  (Lond.  1828);  Mignan,  Trav. 
in  Chaldcca  (Lond.  1829);  Fraser,  Travels  in  Kurdistan 
(Lond.  1840).  On  the  identification  of  the  ruins  with 
ancient  sites,  compare  Rawlinson's  Ileroditus,  vol.  ii, 
Essay  iv ;  Oppert's  Maps  and  Plans  (Paris,  1858)  ; 
Rennell's  Essay  in  Rich's  Bahybm  and  Persepolis  (Lond. 
1839) ;  Jour.  Royal  Asiatic  Soc.  (Lond.  1855),  xv,  pt. 
2.  On  the  architecture,  Hirt,  Gesch.  d.  Bauhmst,  5, 
145  sq. ;  Fergusson,  Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepilis 
(Lond.  1851).  On  the  religion,  language,  arts,  and 
customs,  Munter,  Rel.  d.  Babylon.  (Copenh.  1829) ; 
Miiller,  Archaol.  p.  283  sq. ;  Botticber,  Vasengemalde,  i, 
105  sq. ;  Heine,  Be  Babyism,  mulier,  in  templo  Veneris, 
in  the  Comment.  Soc.  Coiling,  xvi,  32  sq. ;  Bertholdt, 
Ueb.  d.  Magier-Institut,  in  his  ote  Exc.  zu  Dan. ;  Wahl, 
Gesch.  d.  morg.  Spr,,ch.  p.  570  sq. ;  Jahn,  Einleit.  i,  284 ; 
Grotefend,  in  the  Zeitschr.f.  Kunde  d.  Morgenl.  i,  212 
sq.  ;  ii,  171  sq. ;  iii,  179  sq. ;  Rawlinson,  Cuneiform  In- 
scriptions (Lond.  1850)  ;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1859.  See 
Babylonia. 

2.  Another  Babylon  la}'  in  Eg}'pt,  south  of  Heliop- 
olis,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile  (Strabo,  xvii,  807) ; 
it  was  founded  by  Babylonians,  who  had  emigrated  to 
Egypt  during  the  civil  commotions  between  the  two 
empires  (Diod.  Sic.  i,  56;  Joscphus,  Ant.  ii,  15,  1). 
Its  ruins  are  described  by  Ilartmann  (Erdbeschr.  u. 
Africa,  192G),  Prokesch  (Erinnervngen,  i,  59  sq.),  and 


BABYLONIA 


002 


BABYLONIA 


Champollion  (VEgypte,  ii,  33).     It  is  now  called  Ba- 
boul  (Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Ueogr.  s.  v.). 

3.  The  Babylon  in  1  Pet.  v,  13,  is  thought  by  some 
to  be  Rome,  but  by  others  (in  accordance  with  a  tradi- 
tion of  the  Coptic  Christians)  to  be  the  above  place  in 
Egvpt.  Baroniua  contradicts  this  last  assertion  by 
Baying  there  is  no  mention  of  a  Bishop  of  Babylon  till 
,r,iHi  years  after  Peter's  time,  under  Justin  the  Younger 
(see" also  Bertholdt,  EM.  vi,  3063;  Steiger,  Br.  Pet. 
p.  21  sq.).  There  is  no  good  reason  for  supposing  any 
other  than  ancient  Babylon  to  be  here  meant,  since  it 
is  known  that  this  continued  to  be  inhabited  by  Jews 
down  to  the  Christian  era  (Gesen.  Jesa.  i,  470.  Com- 
pare Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  79,  80;  Davidson,  Introd.  to 
K.  T.  iii,  366.     See  Peter  (Epistles  of). 

4.  In  the  Apocalypse  (xiv,  8;  xvi,  10;  xvii,  5; 
xviii,  2)  Babylon  stands  for  Iiome,  symbolizing  hea- 
thenism :  "  Babylon  is  fallen,  that  great  city,  because 
she  made  all  nations  drink  of  the  wine  of  the  wrath 
of  her  fornication."  This  reference  appears  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  practice  of  the  Jews,  who  were 
accustomed  to  designate  Rome,  which  they  hated,  by 
the  opprobrious  and  not  inappropriate  name  of  Bal  y- 
lon  (Schottgen,  Ear.  Hebr.  i,  1125).  The  literal  Baby- 
lon was  the  beginner  and  supporter  of  tyranny  and 
idolatry  ;  first  by  Ximrod  or  Ninus,  and  afterward  by 
Nebuchadnezzar;  and  therefore,  in  Isa.  xlvii,  12,  she 
is  accused  of  magical  enchantments  from  her  youth  or 
infancy,  i.  e.  from  her  very  first  origin  as  a  city  or  na- 
tion. This  city  and  its  whole  empire  were  taken  by 
the  Persians  under  Cyrus ;  the  Persians  were  subdued 
by  the  Macedonians,  and  the  Macedonians  by  the  Ro- 
mans ;  so  that  Rome  succeeded  to  (he  power  of  Old  Baby- 
lon.  And  it  was  her  method  to  adopt  tlie  v-orship  of  the 
false  deities  she  had  conquered ;  so  that  by  her  own 
acts  she  1  lecame  the  heiress  and  successor  of  all  the  Baby- 
lonian idolatry,  and  of  all  that  was  introduced  into  it 
by  the  intermediate  successors  of  Babylon,  and  conse- 
quently of  all  the  idolatry  of  the  earth.  See  Revela- 
tion. 

Further,  that  Babylon  is  Rome  is  evident  from  the 
explanation  given  by  the  angel  in  Rev.  xvii,  18,  where 
it  is  expressly  said  to  be  "  that  great,  city  which  rulcth 
over  the  kings  of  the  earth  ;"  no  other  city  but  Rome 
being  in  the  exercise  of  such  power  at  the  time  when 
the  vision  was  seen.  That  Constantinople  is  not 
meant  by  Babylon  is  plain  also  from  what  Mcde  has 
stated  (Works,  p.  922):  "The  seven  heads  of  the  beast 
(says  he)  are  by  the  angel  made  a  double  type,  both 
of  the  seven  hills  where  the  woman  sitteth,  and  of  the 
seven  snrerdrjiitks  with  which  in  a  successive  order  the 
beast  should  reign.  This  is  a  pair  of  fetters  to  tie 
both  beast  and  whore  to  Western  Eome."  Rome  or 
Mystic  Babylon  (says  the  same  author,  p.  484)  is  call- 
ed the  "  Grc  t  City,"  not  from  any  reference  to  its  ex- 
tent, but  because  it  was  the  queen  of  other  cities.  See 
Rome. 

Babylonia  (Bafiv\wvia), a  name  forthe  southern 
portion  of  Mesopotamia,  constituting  the  region  of 
which  Babylon  was  the  chief  city.  The  latter  name 
alone  is  occasionally  used  in  Scripture  for  the  entire 
region;  but  its  most  usual  designation  is  Chalikea 
(q.  v.).  The  ( ihaldseans  proper,  or  <  'hasc&m,  however, 
were  probably  originally  from  the  mountainous  region 
farther  north,  now  occupied  by  the  Kiir<l<  (with  which 
name,  indeed,  many  find  an  etymological  connection; 
sec  Golius,  ad  Alfrag.  p.  17;  Rodiger,  in  the  Zdtschr. 
f.  d.  Kunded.  Morgetd.  iii,  8),  a  portion  of  whom  un- 
der tin-  Asbj  rian  sway  may  have  migrated  into  Meso- 
potamia (see  [sa.  xxiii,  13),  and  thus  eventually  be- 
came ma  tera  of  the  rich  plain  of  Shinar  (see  Vitringa, 
</./  Jesa.  i.  412  Bq.;  Gesenius,  art.  Chaldaer,  in  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  Encyd.).  The  original  inhabitants  nev- 
ertheless appear  to  have  been  of  the  Shemitic  family 
(see  Adelung,  Mithridal.  i,  .".1 1  sq. ;  Olshausen,  Emend. 
Z'i  .1.  T.  p.  II  sq.);  and  their  language  belonged  to 
the  class  of  tongues  spoken  by  that  race,  particularly 


to  the  Aramaic  branch,  and  was  indeed  a  dialect  sim- 
ilar to  that  which  is  now  called  the  Chaldee.  See 
Aramaean  Language;  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 
The  two  words,  Babylonia  and  Chalda^a,  were,  how- 
ever, sometimes  used  in  another  signification  ;  Baby- 
lonia, as  containing  in  an  extended  sense  Assyria  also 
and  Mesopotamia,  nearly  all  the  countries  which  As- 
syria in  its  widest  meaning  embraced ;  while  Chaldaea 
indicated,  in  a  narrower  signification,  the  south-west- 
ern part  of  Babylonia  between  the  Euphrates  and 
Babylon  (Strabo,  xvi ;  Ptol.).  In  Hebrew,  Babylonia 
bore  the  name  of  Shinar  (q.  v.),  or  "the  land  of 
Shinar  ;"  while  "  Babylon"  (Psa.  exxxvii,  1)  and  "  the 
land  of  the  Chalda:ans"  (Jer.  xxiv,  5;  Ezek.  xii,  13) 
seem  to  signify  the  empire  of  Babylon.  It  is  in  the 
latter  sense  that  we  shall  here  treat  it.  See  Chal- 
d.eans. 

I.  Geography  and  general  Description. — This  province 
of  Middle  Asia  was  bordered  on  the  north  by  Meso- 
potamia, on  the  east  by  the  Tigris,  on  the  south  by 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian 
Desert.  On  the  north  it  began  at  the  point  where  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  approach  each  other,  and  ex- 
tended to  their  common  outlet  in  the  Persian  Gulf, 
pretty  nearly  comprising  the  country  now  designated 
Irak  Arahi.  The  climate  is  temperate  and  salubrious. 
The  country  in  ancient  times  was  very  prolific,  espe- 
cially in  corn  and  palms.  Timber-trees  it  did  not 
produce.  Many  parts  have  springs  of  naphtha.  As 
rain  is  infrequent,  even  in  the  winter  months,  the 
country  owes  its  fruitfulness  to  the  annual  overflow 
of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  whose  waters  are  con- 
veyed over  the  land  by  means  of  canals.  Quintus 
Curtius  (i,  5)  declares  that  the  country  between  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  was  covered  with  so  rich  a 
soil  that  the  cattle  were  driven  from  their  pastures 
lest  they  should  be  destroyed  by  satiety  and  fatness. 
During  the  three  great  empires  of  the  East,  no  tract 
of  the  whole  appears  to  have  been  so  reputed  for  fer- 
tility and  riches  as  the  district  cf  Babylcnia,  which 
arose  in  the  main  from  the  proper  management  of  the 
mighty  river  which  flowed  through  it.  Herodotus 
mentions  that,  when  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  province, 
it  yielded  a  revenue  to  the  kings  of  Persia  which  com- 
prised half  their  income.  The  terms  in  which  the 
Scriptures  describe  its  natural  as  well  as  its  acquired 
supremacy  when  it  was  the  imperial  city,  evidence  the 
same  facts.  They  call  it  "Babylon,  the  glory  of 
kingdoms;  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldee  excellency;  the 
lady  of  kingdoms,  given  to  pleasure  ;  that  dwelleth 
carelessly,  and  sayeth  in  her  heart  I  am,  and  there  is 
none  else  beside  me."  But  now,  in  the  expressive 
and  inimitable  language  of  the  same  book,  may  it  bo 
said,  "  She  sits  as  a  widow  on  the  ground.  'Ihere  is 
no  more  a  throne  for  thee,  O  daughter  of  the  Chal- 
daeans !"  As  for  the  abundance  of  the  country,  it  has 
vanished  r.s  clean  awa}-  as  if  "the  besom  of  desola- 
tion" had  swept  it  from  north  to  south,  the  whole 
land,  from  the  outskirts  of  Bagdad  to  the  farthest 
reach  of  sight,  lying  a  melancholy  waste. 

In  order  to  defend  the  country  against  hostile  at- 
tacks from  its  neighbors,  northward  from  Babylonia, 
between  the  two  rivers,  a  wall  was  built,  which  is 
known  under  the  name  of  the  Median  Wall  (Xen. 
Anab.  ii,  4,  12). — The  Babylonians  were  famous  fcr 
the  manufacture  of  cloth  and  carpets;  they  also  ex- 
ec lied  in  making  perfumes,  in  carving  in  wood,  and  in 
working  in  precious  stones.  They  were  a  commercial 
a<  well  as  manufacturing  people,  and  carried  on  a  very 
extensive  trade  alike  by  land  and  by  sea.  Babylon 
was  indeed  a  commercial  depot  between  the  Eastern 
and  the  Western  worlds  (Ezek.  xvii,  4  ;  Isa.  xliii,  14). 
See  Commerce.  Thus  favored  by  nature  and  aided 
by  art,  Babylonia  became  the  first  abode  of  social  order 
and  the  cradle  of  civilization.  Here  first  arose  a  pow- 
erful empire — here  astronomy  was  first  cultivated — 
here  moasures  and  weights  were  first  employed.     He- 


BABYLONIA 


G03 


BABYLONIA 


rodotus  has  noticed  the  Chaldaeans  as  a  tribe  of  priests 
(i,  28);  Diodorus  (i,  28)  as  a  separate  caste  under 
Belus,  an  Egyptian  priest ;  while  the  book  of  Daniel  re- 
fers to  them  as  astrologers,  magicians,  and  soothsayers  ; 
but  there  can  be  little  doubt,  as  laid  down  by  Gesenius 
(Jesa.  xxiii,  13),  that  it  was  the  name  of  a  distinct  na- 
tion, if  not,  as  Heeren  {Manual  ofAnc.  Hist.  p.  28)  has 
maintained,  the  name  of  the  northern  nomades  in  gen- 
eral. In  connection  with  Babylonia,  the  Chaldreans 
are  to  be  regarded  as  a  conquering  nation  as  well  as  a 
learned  people ;  they  introduced  a  correct  method  of 
reckoning  time,  and  began  their  reign  with  Nabonas- 
sar,  B.C.  747.  There  is  a  scriptural  reference  to  the 
proud  period  in  the  history  of  the  Chaldees  when 
learned  men  filled  the  streets  and  the  temples  of  Nine- 
veh and  Babel :  "  Behold  the  land  of  the  Chahh-eans  ; 
this  people  was  not,  till  the  Assyrian  founded  it  for 
them  that  dwell  in  the  wilderness:  they  set  up  the 
towers  thereof,  they  raised  up  the  palaces  thereof;  and 
he  brought  it  to  ruin"  (Isa.  xxiii,  13).  Babylonia, 
during  this  period,  was  "  the  land  of  the  Chaldaeans," 
the  same  as  that  into  which  the  children  of  Judah 
were  carried  away  captive  (Jer.  xxiv,  5). — Kitto,  s.  v. 
See  Captivity. 

II.  Tlktovy  of  the  Babyhnian  Empire. — The  history 
of  Babylon  itself  mounts  up  to  a  time  not  very  much 
later  than  the  Flood.  See  Babel.  The  native  his- 
torian seems  to  have  possessed  authentic  records  of  his 
country  for  above  2000  years  before  the  conquest  by 
Alexander  (Berosus,  Fragm.  11)  ;  and  Scripture  rep- 
resents the  "  beginning  of  the  kingdom"  as  belonging 
to  the  time  of  Nimrod,  the  grandson  of  Ham,  and  the 
great-grandson  of  Noah  (Gen.  x,  G  10).  Of  Nimrod 
no  trace  has  been  found  in  the  Babylonian  remains, 
unless  he  is  identical  with  the  god  Bel  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Pantheon,  and  so  with  the  G.-eek  Belus,  tin 
hero-founder  of  the  city.  This  identity  is  possible, 
and  at  any  rate  the  most  ancient  inscriptions  appear 
to  show  that  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  country 
were  really  Cushite,  i.  e.  identical  in  race  with  the 
early  inhabitants  of  Southern  Arabia  and  of  Ethiopia. 
The  seat  of  government  at  this  early  time  was,  as  h  is 
been  stated,  in  lower  Babylonia,  Erech  (Warkci)  and 
Ur  (Mvghrir)  being  the  capitals,  and  Babylon  (if  built) 
bein.c  a  place  of  no  consequence.  The  country  was 
called  Shinar  ClSSS?),  and  the  people  the  Alhad'm 
(comp.  Accad  of  Gen.  x,  10).  Of  the  art  of  this  period 
we  have  specimens  in  the  ruins  of  Mugheir  and  Warka, 
the  remains  of  which  date  from  at  least  the  20th  cen- 
tury before  our  era.  We  find  the  use  of  kiln-baked  as 
well  as  of  sun-dried  bricks  already  begun;  we  find 
writing  practised,  for  the  bricks  are  stamped  with  the 
names  and  titles  of  the  kings ;  we  find  buttresses  em- 
ployed to  support  buildings,  and  we  have  probable  in- 
dications of  the  system  of  erecting  lofty  buildings  in 
stages.  On  the  other  hand,  mortar  is  unknown,  and 
the  bricks  are  laid  either  in  clay  or  in  bitumen  (comp. 
Gen.  xi,  3) ;  they  are  rudely  moulded,  and  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes;  sun-dried  bricks  predominate,  and 
some  large  buildings  are  composed  entirely  of  them  ; 
in  these  reed-matting  occurs  at  intervals/apparently 
used  to  protect  the  mass  from  disintegration.  There 
is  no  trace  of  ornament  in  the  erections  of  this  date, 
which  were  imposing  merely  by  their  size  and  solidity. 

The  first  important  change  which  we  are  able  to 
trace  in  the  external  condition  of  Babylon  is  its  sub- 
jection, at  a  time  anterior  to  Abraham",  by  the  neigh- 
boring kingdom  of  Elam  or  Susiana.  Berosus  spoke 
of  a  first  Chaldsean  dynasty  consisting  of  eleven  kings, 
whom  ho  probably  represented  as  reigning  from  B.C. 
2231  to  B.C.  1070."  At  the  last  mentioned  date  he  said 
there  was  a  change,  and  a  new  dynasty  succeeded, 
consisting  of  19  kin^s,  who  reigned  -158  years  (from 
B.C.  1976  to  B.C.  1518).  It  is  thought  that  this  tran- 
sition may  mark  the  invasion  of  Babylonia  from  the 
East,  and  the  establishment  of  Ehunitic  influence  in 


the  country,  under  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv),  whose 
representative  appears  as  a  conqueror  in  the  inscrip- 
tions. Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar,  and  Arioch,  king 
of  Ellasar  (Larsa),  would  be  tributary  princes  whom 
Chedorlaomer  had  subjected,  while  he  himself  may 
have  become  the  founder  of  the  new  dynasty,  which, 
according  to  Berosus,  continued  on  the  throne  for  above 
450  years.  From  this  point  the  history  of  Babylon  is 
almost  a  blank  for  above  twelve  centuries.  Except 
in  the  mention  of  the  plundering  of  Job  by  the  Chal- 
da;ans  (Job  i,  17),  and  of  the  "goodly  Babylonish  gar- 
ment" which  Achan  coveted  (Josh,  vii,  21),  Scripture 
is  silent  with  regard  to  the  Balylonians  from  the  time 
of  Abraham  to  that  of  Hezekiah.  Berosus  covered 
this  space  with  three  dynasties ;  one  (which  has  been 
already  mentioned)  of  49  Chaldajan  kings,  who  reigned 
458  years ;  another  of  9  Arab  kings,  who  reigned  245 
years  ;  and  a  third  of  49  Assyrian  monarchs,  who  held 
dominion  for  5^6  years ;  but  nothing  be3'ond  this  bare 
outline  has  come  down  to  us  on  his  authority  concern- 
ing the  period  in  question.  The  monumental  records 
of  the  country  furnish  a  series  of  names,  the  reading 
of  which  is  very  uncertain,  which  may  be  arranged 
with  a  good  deal  of  probability  in  chronological  order, 
apparently  belonging  to  the  first  of  these  three  dynas- 
ties. Of  the  second  no  traces  have  been  hitherto  dis- 
covered. The  third  would  seem  to  be  identical  with 
the  Upper  Dynasty  of  Assyria,  of  which  some  account 
has  been  given  in  the  article  Assyria.  It  would  ap- 
pear, then,  as  if  Babylon,  after  having  a  native  Chal- 
drean  dynasty  which  ruled  for  224  years  (Brandis,  p. 
17),  and  a  second  dynasty  of  Elamitic  Chaldaeans  who 
ruled  for  a  further  period  of  458  j'ears,  fell  wholly 
under  Semitic  influence,  becoming  subject  first  to  Ara- 
bia for  two  centuries  and  a  half,  and  then  to  Assyria 
for  above  live  centuries,  and  not  regaining  even  a  quali- 
fied independence  till  the  time  marked  by  the  close  of 
the  Upper  and  the  formation  of  the  Lower  Assyrian 
empire.  This  is  the  conclusion  which  seems  naturally 
to  follow  from  the  abstract  which  is  all  that  we  pos- 
sess of  Bei-osus  ;  and  doubtless  it  is  to  a  certain  extent 
true.  But  the  statement  is  too  broad  to  be  exact ;  and 
the  monuments  show  that  Babylon  was  at  no  time  ab- 
sorbed into  Assyria,  or  even  for  very  many  years  to- 
gether a  submissive  vassal.  Assyria,  which  she  had 
colonized  daring  the  time  of  the  second  or  great  Chal- 
dnean  dynasty,  to  which  she  had  given  letters  and  the 
arts,  and  which  she  had  held  in  subjection  for  many 
hundred  years,  became  in  her  turn  (about  B.C.  1270) 
the  predominant  Mesopotamian  power,  and  the  glory 
of  Babylon  in  consequence  suffered  eclipse.  But  she 
had  her  native  kings  during  the  whole  of  the  Assyrian 
period,  and  she  frequently  contended  with  her  great 
neighbor,  being  sometimes  even  the  agressor.  Though 
much  sunk  from  her  former  greatness,  she  continued 
to  be  the  second  power  in  Asia,  and  retained  a  vitali- 
ty which  at  a  later  date  enabled  her  to  become  once 
more  the  head  of  an  empire. 

The  line  of  Babylonian  kings  becomes  exactly 
known  to  us  from  the  j'ear  B.C.  747.  An  astronomi- 
cal work  of  the  geographer  Ptolemy  has  preserved  to 
us  a  document,  the  importance  of  which  for  compara- 
tive chronology  it  is  scared}-  possible  to  exaggerate. 
The  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  as  it  is  called,  gives  us  the  suc- 
cession of  Babylonian  monarchs,  with  the  exact  length 
of  the  reign  of  each,  from  the  year  B.C.  717,  when 
Nabonassar  mounted  the  throne,  to  B.C.  331,  when  the 
last  Persian  king  was  dethroned  by  Alexander.  This 
document,  which,  from  its  close  accordance  with  the 
statements  of  Scripture,  always  vindicated  to  itself  a 
high  authority  in  the  eyes  of  Christian  chronologers, 
has  recently  been  confirmed  in  so  many  points  by  the 
inscriptions  that  its  authentic  character  is  estal dished 
beyond  all  possibility  of  cavil  or  dispute.  As  the  basis 
of  all  accurate  calculation  for  Oriental  dates  previous 
to  Cyrus,  it  seems  proper  to  transcribe  the  earlier  por- 
tion of  it  in  this  place.     [The  accessions  are  given  ac- 


BABYLONIA 


604 


BABYLONIA 


cording  to  the  asra  of  Nabonassar,  and  dates  B.C.  are 
added  for  convenience  sake.] 


Km: 


Nabonassar 

Nadiua 

Chinzinus  and  Turns 

EluLi  tis 

Mardocempalua 

Arceanus 

First  interregnum... 

Belibus 

Aparanadins 

Eegibelua 

Mesesimordacua 

Second  interregnum  . 

Asaridanus 

Saosduchinua 

Cinneladanua 

Nabopolassar 

Nebuchadnezzar. . . . 

Illoarudamua 

XeriLrassolaaaaroa  . . 

Nabonadiua 

Cyrua 


Of  Nabonassar,  the  first  king  in  Ttolemy's  list, 
nothing  can  be  said  to  be  known  except  the  fact,  re- 
ported by  Berosus,  that  he  destroyed  all  the  annals  of 
his  predecessors  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the 
Babylonians  to  date  from  himself  (Fragm.  11  a).  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  the  husband  or  son 
of  Semiramis,  and  owed  to  her  his  possession  of  the 
throne.  But  of  this  theory  there  is  at  present  no 
proof.  It  rests  mainly  upon  a  synchronism  obtained 
from  Herodotus,  who  makes  Semiramis  a  Babylonian 
queen,  and  places  her  five  generations  (167  years)  be- 
fore Xitoeris,  the  mother  of  the  last  king.  The  As- 
syrian discoveries  have  shown  that  there  was  a  Se- 
miramis about  this  time,  but  they  furnish  no  evidence 
of  her  connection  with  Babylon,  which  still  continues 
uncertain.  The  immediate  successors  of  Nabonassar 
are  still  more  obscure  than  himself.  Absolutely  noth- 
ing beyond  the  brief  notation  of  the  canon  has  reached 
us  concerning  Nadius  (or  Nabius),  Chinzinus  (or 
Chinzirus),  and  Porus,  or  Elulams,  who  certainly  can- 
not be  the  Tyrian  king  of  that  name  mentioned  by 
Menander  (ap.  Joseph.  Ant.  is,  14,  2).  Mardocem- 
palus,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  monarch  to  whom  great 
interest  attaches.  He  is  undoubtedly  the  Merodach- 
Baladan,  or  Berodach-Baladan  (q.  v.)  of  Scripture, 
and  was  a  personage  of  great  consequence,  reigning 
himself  twice,  the  first  time  for  12  years,  contempo- 
raneously with  the  Assyrian  king  Sargon,  and  the  sec- 
ond time  for  six  months  only,  during  the  first  year  of 
Sennacherib ;  and  leaving  a  sort  of  hereditary  claim 
to  his  sons  and  grandsons,  who  are  found  to  have  been 
engaged  in  hostilities  with  Essarhaddon  and  his  suc- 
cessor. His  dealings  with  Hezekiab  sufficiently  indi- 
cate the  independent  position  of  Babylon  at  this  period, 
while  the  interest  which  he  felt  in  an  astronomical 
phenomenon  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  31)  harmonizes  with  the 
character  of  a  native  Ohakbean  king  which  appears  to 
belong  to  him.  The  Assyrian  inscriptions  show  that 
after  reigning  12  years  Merodach-Baladan  was  de- 
prived of  his  crown  and  driven  into  banishment  by 
Sargon,  who  appears  to  have  placed  Arceanus  (his 
son? )  upon  tli.'  throne  as  viceroy,  a  position  which  he 
maintained  tor  five  years.  A  time  of  trouble  then  en- 
sued, estimated  in  the  canon  at  two  years,  during 
which  various  pretenders  assumed  the  crown,  among 
them  a  certain  Hagisa,  or  Acises,  who  reigned  for 
about  a  month,  and  Merodach-Baladan,  who  held  the 
throne  for  half  a  year  |  I'olyhist.  ap.  Euseb.).  Sen- 
na, herib,  bent  on  re-establishing  the  influence  of  As- 
syria over  Babylon,  proceeded  against  Merodach-Bala- 
dan (as  lie  informs  us)  in  his  first  year,  and  having  de- 
throned him,  placed  an  Assyrian  named  /;</if>,  or  Beli- 
bus,  upon  the  thn.ne,  who  ruled  as  his  viceroy  for 
three  years.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  the  party  of 
Merodach-Baladan  still  giving  trouble,  Sennacherib 
descended  again  into  Babylonia,  once  more  overran  it, 


removed  Be  lib,  and  placed  his  eldest  son — who  appears 
in  the  canon  as  Aparanadius — upon  the  throne.  Apa- 
ranadius  reigned  for  six  years,  when  he  was  succeeded 
b}-  a  certain  Regibelus,  who  reigned  for  one  year ; 
after  which  Mesesimordacus  held  the  throne  for  four 
years.  Nothing  more  is  known  of  these  kings,  and  it 
is  uncertain  whether  they  were  viceroj-s  or  independ- 
ent native  monarchs.  They  were  contemporary  with 
Sennacherib,  to  whose  reign  belongs  also  the  second 
interregnum,  extending  to  eight  years,  which  the 
canon  interposes  between  the  reigns  of  Mesesimorda- 
cus and  Asaridanus.  In  Asaridanus  critical  eyes  long 
ago  detected  Esarhaddon,  Sennacherib's  son  and  suc- 
cessor ;  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  certain  from  the  in- 
scriptions that  this  king  ruled  in  person  over  both 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  holding  his  court  alternately 
at  their  respective  capitals.  Hence  we  may  under- 
stand how  Manasseh,  his  contemporary,  came  to  be 
"carried  by  the  captains  of  the  king  of  Assyria  to 
Babylon"  instead  of  to  Nineveh,  as  would  have  been 
done  in  any  other  reign.  See  Esarhaddox.  Saos- 
duchinus  and  Ciniladanus  (orCinneladanus),  his  broth- 
|  er  (Polyhist.),  the  successors  of  Asaridanus,  are  kings 
|  of  whose  history  we  know  nothing.  Probably  they 
'  were  viceroys  under  the  later  Assyrian  monarchs,  who 
are  represented  by  Abydenus  (ap.  Euseb.)  as  retaining 
their  authority  over  Babylon  up  to  the  time  of  the  last 
1  siege  of  Nineveh. 

"With  Nabopolassar,  the  successor  of  Cinneladanus, 
,  and  the  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  a  new  era  in  the 
:  history  of  Babylon  commences.  According  to  Aby- 
denus, who  probably  drew  his  information  from  Be- 
rosus, he  was  appointed  to  the  government  of  Babylon 
i  by  the  last  Assyrian  king,  at  the  moment  when  the 
Medes  were  about  to  make  their  final  attack ;  where- 
upon, betraying  the  trust  reposed  in  him,  he  went  over 
to  the  enemy,  arranged  a  marriage  between  his  son 
i  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  daughter  of  the  Median  lead- 
er, and  joined  in  the  last  siege  of  the  city.  See  Nin- 
eveh. On  the  success  of  the  confederates  (B.C.  625) 
j  Babylon  became  not  only  an  independent  kingdom, 
I  but  an  empire ;  the  southern  and  western  portions  of 
the  Assyrian  territory  were  assigned  to  Nabopolassar 
in  the  partition  of  the  spoils  which  followed  on  the 
conquest,  and  thereby  the  Babylonian  dominion  be- 
came extended  over  the  whole  valley  of  the  Euphrates 
as  far  as  the  Taurus  range,  over  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Pal- 
estine, Idumsea,  and  (perhaps)  a  portion  of  Egypt. 
Thus,  among  others,  the  Jews  passed  quietly  and  al- 
most without  remark  from  one  feudal  head  to  another, 
exchanging  dependency  on  Assyria  for  dependency  on 
Babylon,  and  continuing  to  pay  to  Nabopolassar  the 
same  tribute  and  service  which  they  had  previously 
'  rendered  to  the  Assyrians.  Friendly  relations  seem 
to  have  been  maintained  with  Media  throughout  the 
reign  of  Nabopolassar,  who  led  or  sent  a  contingent  to 
j  help  Cyaxares  in  his  Lydian  war,  and  acted  as  medi- 
I  ator  in  the  negotiations  by  which  that  war  was  con- 
|  eluded  (Herod,  i,  74).  At  a  later  date  hostilities  broke 
out  with  Egypt.  Necho,  the  son  of  Psamatik  I,  about 
!  the  year  B.C.  608  invaded  the  Babylonian  dominions 
on  the  south-west,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  en- 
;  tire  tract  between  his  own  country  and  the  Euphrates 
I  (2  Kings  xxiii,  29,  and  xxiv,  7).  Nabopolassar  was 
I  now  advanced  in  life,  and  not  able  to  take  the  field  in 
!  person  (Beros.  Frag.  14).  He  therefore  sent  his  son, 
,  Nebuchadnezzar,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  against 
the  Egyptians,  and  the  battle  of  Carchemish.  which 
soon  followed,  restored  to  Babylon  the  former  limits 
of  her  territory  (comp.  2  Kings  xxiv,  7  with  Jer.  xlvi, 
1  2-12).  Nebuchadnezzar  pressed  forward  and  had 
reached  Egypt,  when  news  of  his  father's  death  re- 
called him,  and  hastily  returning  to  Babylon,  he  was 
fortunate  enough  to  find  himself,  without  any  strug- 
gle, acknowledged  king  (B.C.  604). 

A  complete  account  of  the  works  and  exploits  of 
this  great  monarch— by  far  the  most  remarkable  of 


BABYLONIA 


605 


BABYLONIA 


all  the  Babylonian  kings — will  be  given  in  the  article 
Nebuchadnezzar.  It  is  enough  to  note  in  this  place 
that  he  was  great  both  in  peace  and  in  war,  but  great- 
er in  the  former.  Besides  recovering  the  possession 
of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  carrying  off  the  Jews  after 
repeated  rebellions  into  captivity,  he  reduced  Phoeni- 
cia, besieged  and  took  Tyre,  and  ravaged,  if  he  did  not 
actually  conquer,  Egypt.  But  it  was  as  the  adorner 
and  beautifier  of  his  native  land — as  the  builder  and 
restorer  of  almost  all  her  cities  and  temples — that  this 
monarch  obtained  that  great  reputation  which  has 
handed  down  his  name  traditionally  in  the  East  on  a 
par  with  those  of  Nimrod,  Solomon,  and  Alexander, 
and  made  it  still  a  familiar  term  in  the  mouths  of  the 
people.  Probably  no  single  man  ever  left  behind  him 
as  Ids  memorial  upon  the  earth  one  half  the  amount 
of  building  that  was  erected  by  this  king.  The  an- 
cient ruins  and  the  modern  towns  of  Babylonia  are 
alike  built  almost  exclusively  of  his  bricks.  Babylon 
itself,  the  capital,  was  peculiarly  the  object  of  his  at- 
tention. It  was  here  that,  besides  repairing  the  walls 
and  restoring  the  temples,  he  constructed  that  mag- 
nificent palace,  which,  with  its  triple  enclosure,  its 
hanging  gardens,  its  plated  pillars,  and  its  rich  orna- 
mentation of  enamelled  brick,  was  regarded  in  ancient 
times  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  (Strab. 
xvi,  1,  §  5). 

Nebuchadnezzar  died  B.C.  561,  having  reigned  43 
years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Evil-Merodach,  his  son, 
who  is  called  in  the  Canon  Illoarudamus.  This  prince, 
who,  "in  the  year  that  he  began  to  reign,  did  lift 
up  the  head  of  Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah,  out  of  pris- 
on" (2  Kings  xxv,  27),  was  murdered,  after  having 
held  the  crown  for  two  years  onhr,  by  Neriglissar,  his 
brother-in-law.  See  Evil-Merodach.  Neriglissar 
— the  Nerigassolassar  of  the  Canon — is  (apparently) 
identical  with  the  "  Nergal-shar-ezer,  Bab-Mag"  of 
Jeremiah  (xxxix,  3, 13, 14).  He  bears  this  title,  which 
has  been  translated  "chief  of  the  Magi"  (Gesenius), 
or  "  chief  priest"  (Col.  Rawlinson),  in  the  inscriptions, 
and  calls  himself  the  son  of  a  "king  of  Babylon." 
Some  writers  have  considered  him  identical  with  "Da- 
rius the  Mede"  (Larcher,  Conringius,  Bouhier);  but 
this  is  improbable  [see  Darius  the  Mede],  and  he 
must  rather  be  regarded  as  a  Babylonian  of  high  rank, 
who,  having  married  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
raised  his  thoughts  to  the  crown,  and  finding  Evil- 
Merodach  unpopular  with  his  subjects,  murdered  him, 
and  became  his  successor.  Neriglissar  built  the  pal- 
ace at  Babylon,  which  seems  to  have  been  placed 
originally  on  the  west  bank  of  tho  river.  He  was 
probably  advanced  in  life  at  his  accession,  and  thus 
reigned  but  four  years,  though  he  died  a  natural  death, 
and  left  the  crown  to  his  son  Laborosoarchod.  This 
prince,  though  a  mere  lad  at  tho  time  of  his  father's 
decease,  was  allowed  to  ascend  the  throne  without 
difficulty;  but  when  ho  had  reigned  nine  months  he 
became  the  victim  of  a  conspiracy  among  his  friends 
and  connections,  who,  professing  to  detect  in  him 
symptoms  of  a  bad  disposition,  seized  him,  and  tor- 
tured him  to  death.  Nabonidus  (or  Labynetus),  one 
of  the  conspirators,  succeeded  ;  he  is  called  by  Bcrosus 
"a  certain  Nabonidus,  a  Babylonian"  (ap.  Joseph.  Ap. 
i,  21),  by  which  it  would  appear  that  lie  was  not  a 
member  of  the  royal  family;  and  tins  is  likewise  evi- 
dent from  Ids  inscriptions,  in  which  he  only  claims  for 
his  father  the  rank  of  "  Rab-Mag."  Herodotus  seems 
to  have  been  mistaken  in  supposing  him  (i,  188)  the 
son  of  a  great  queen,  Nitocris,  and  (apparently)  of  a 
former  king,  Labynetus  (Nebuchadnezzar?).  Indeed, 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  Babylonian  Nitocris 
of  Herodotus  is  really  a  historical  personage.  His 
authority  is  the  sole  argument  for  her  existence,  which 
it  is  difficult  to  credit  against  the  silence  of  Scripture, 
Berosus,  the  Canon,  and  the  Babylonian  monuments. 
She  may  perhaps  have  been  the  wife  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, but  in  that  case  she  must  have  been  wholly  un- 


connected with  Nabonidus,  who  certainly  bore  no  re- 
lation to  that  monarch. 

Nabonidus,  or  Labynetus  (as  he  was  called  by  the 
Greeks),  mounted  the  throne  in  the  year  B.C.  555, 
very  shortly  before  the  war  broke  out  between  Cyrus 
and  Croesus.  He  entered  into  alliance  with  the  latter 
of  these  monarchs  against  the  former,  and,  had  the 
struggle  been  prolonged,  would  have  sent  a  contingent 
into  Asia  Minor.  Events  proceeded  too  rapidly  to  al- 
low of  this ;  but  Nabonidus  had  provoked  the  hostility 
of  Cyrus  by  the  mere  fact  of  the  alliance,  and  felt  at 
once  that  sooner  or  later  he  would  have  to  resist  the 
attack  of  an  avenging  army.  He  probably  employed 
his  long  and  peaceful  reign  of  17  years  in  preparations 
against  the  dreaded  foe,  executing  the  defensive  works 
which  Herodotus  ascribes  to  his  mother  (i,  185),  and 
accumulating  in  the  town  abundant  stores  of  provisions 
(ib.  c.  190).  In  the  year  B.C.  539  the  attack  came. 
Cyrus  advanced  at  the  head  of  his  irresistible  hordes, 
but  wintered  upon  the  Diyaleh  or  Gyndes,  making  his 
final  approaches  in  the  ensuing  spring.  Nabonidus 
appears  by  the  inscriptions  to  have  shortly  before  this 
associated  with  him  in  the  government  of  the  king- 
dom his  son,  Bel-shar-ezer  or  Belshazzar ;  on  the  ap- 
proach of  Cyrus,  therefore,  he  took  the  field  himself  at 
the  head  of  his  army,  leaving  his  son  to  command  in 
the  city.  In  this  way,  by  help  of  a  recent  discovery, 
the  accounts  of  Berosus  and  the  book  of  Daniel — hith- 
erto regarded  as  hopelessly  conflicting — may  be  recon- 
ciled. See  Belshazzar.  Nabonidus  engaged  the 
army  of  Cyrus,  but  was  defeated  and  forced  to  shut 
himself  up  in  the  neighboring  town  of  Borsippa  (mark- 
ed now  by  the  Birs-Ximrud),  where  he  continued  till 
after  the  fall  of  Babylon  (Beros.  ap.  Joseph.  Ap.  i,  21). 
Belshazzar  guarded  the  city,  but,  over-confident  in  its 
strength,  kept  insufficient  watch,  and  recklessly  in- 
dulging in  untimehr  and  impious  festivities  (Dan.  v), 
allowed  the  enemy  to  enter  the  town  by  the  channel 
of  the  river  (Herod,  i,  191 ;  Xen.  Cyrop.  vii,  7).  Baby- 
lon was  thus  taken  by  a  surprise,  as  Jeremiah  had 
prophesied  (li,  31) — by  an  army  of  Medes  and  Persians, 
as  intimated  170  years  earlier  by  Isaiah  (xxi,  1-9), 
and,  as  Jeremiah  had  also  foreshown  (li,  39),  during  a 
festival.  In  the  carnage  which  ensued  upon  the  tak- 
ing of  the  town,  Belshazzar  was  slain  (Dan.  v,  30). 
Nabonidus,  on  receiving  the  intelligence,  submitted, 
and  was  treated  kindly  by  the  conqueror,  who  not 
only  spared  his  life,  but  gave  him  estates  in  Carmania 
(Beros.  id  sup. ;  comp.  Abyd.  Fragm.  9). 

Such  is  the  general  outline  of  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  as  derivable  from  the  fragments 
of  Berosus,  illustrated  by  the  account  in  Daniel,  and 
reduced  to  harmony  by  aid  of  the  important  fact,  ob- 
tained recently  from  the  monuments,  of  the  relation- 
ship between  Belshazzar  and  Nabonidus.  It  is  scarce- 
ly necessary  to  remark  that  it  differs  in  many  points 
from  the  accounts  of  Herodotus  and  Xcnophon ;  but 
the  latter  of  these  two  writers  is  in  his  Cr/ropwdia  a 
mere  romancer,  and  the  former  is  very  imperfectly  ac- 
quainted with  the  history  of  the  Babylonians.  The 
native  writer,  whose  information  was  drawn  from 
authentic  and  contemporary  documents,  is  far  better 
authority  than  cither  of  the  Greek  authors,  the  earlier 
of  whom  visited  Babylon  nearly  a  century  after  its 
capture  by  Cyrus,  when  the  tradition  had  doubtless 
become  in  many  respects  corrupted. 

According  to  the  book  of  Daniel,  it  would  seem  as 
if  Babylon  was  taken  on  this  occasion,  not  by  Cyrus, 
king  of  Persia,  but  by  a  Median  king  named  Darius 
(v,  31).  The  question  of  the  identity  of  this  person- 
age with  any  Median  or  Babylonian  king  known  to  us 
from  profane  sources  will  be  discussed  under  Darius 
the  Mede.  It  need  only  be  remarked  here  that 
Scripture  does  not  really  conflict  on  this  point  with 
profane  authorities,  since  there  is  sufficient  indication, 
from  the  terms  used  by  the  sacred  writer,  that  "  Darius 
the  Mede,"  whoever  he  may  have  been,  was  not  the 


BABYLONIA  6 

real  conqueror,  nor  a  kin?  who  ruled  in  his  own  right, 
but  a  monarch  intrusted  by  another  with  a  certain 
delegated  authority  (see  Dan.  v,  31,  and  ix,  1). 

With  the  conquest  by  Cyrus  commenced  the  decay 
and  ruin  of  Babylon.  The  "broad  walls"  were  then 
to  some  extent  "broken  down"  (Beros.  Fr.  14),  and 
the  "high  gates"  probably  "burnt  with  fire"  (Jer.  li, 
58).  The  defences,  that  is  to  say,  were  ruined ;  though 
it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  laborious  and  useless 
task  of  entirely  demolishing  the  gigantic  fortifications 
of  the  place  was  attempted  or  even  contemplated  by 
the  conqueror.  Babylon  was  weakened,  but  it  con- 
tinued a  royal  residence  not  only  during  the  lifetime 
of  Darius  the  Mede,  but  through  the  entire  period  of 
the  Persian  empire.  The  Persian  kings  held  their 
court  at  Babylon  during  the  larger  portion  of  the  year, 
and  at  the  time  of  Alexander's  conquests  it  was  still 
the  second,  if  not  the  first  city  of  the  empire.  It  had, 
however,  suffered  considerably  on  more  than  one  oc- 
casion subsequent  to  the  time  of  Cyrus.  Twice  in  the 
reign  of  Darius  (Behist.  Ins.),  and  once  in  that  of 
Xerxes  (Ctes.  Pers.  §  22),  it  had  risen  against  the  Per- 
sians, and  made  an  effort  to  regain  its  independence. 
After  each  rebellion  its  defences  were  weakened,  and 
during  the  long  period  of  profound  peace  which  the 
Persian  empire  enjoyed  from  the  reign  of  Xerxes  to 
that  of  Darius  Codomannus  they  were  allowed  to  go 
completely  to  decay.  The  public  buildings  also  suf- 
fered grievoush'  from  neglect.  Alexander  found  the 
great  temple  of  Belus  in  so  ruined  a  condition  that  it 
would  have  required  the  labor  of  10,000  men  for  two 
months  even  to  clear  away  the  rubbish  with  which  it 
was  encumbered  (Strabo,  xvi,  1,  5).  His  designs  for 
the  restoration  of  the  temple  and  the  general  embel- 
lishment of  the  city  were  frustrated  by  his  untimely 
death,  and  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Anti- 
och  under  the  Seleucida;  gave  the  finishing  blow  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  place.  The  great  city  of  Seleucia, 
which  soon  after  arose  in  its  neighborhood,  not  onlj' 
drew  away  its  population,  but  was  actually  construct- 
ed of  materials  derived  from  its  buildings  (Plin.  //.  JV. 
vi,  30).  Since  then  Babylon  has  been  a  quarry  from 
which  all  the  tribes  in  the  vicinity  have  perpetually 
derived  the  bricks  with  which  the}'  have  built  their 
cities,  and  (besides  Seleucia)  Ctesiphon,  Al-Modain, 
Bagdad,  Kufa,  Kerbelah,  Hillah,  and  numerous  other 
towns,  have  risen  from  its  ruins.  The  "great  city," 
"the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees'  excellency,"  has  thus 
emphatically  "become  heaps"  (Jer.  li,  37) — she  is  truly 
"an  astonishment  and  a  hissing,  without  an  inhabit- 
ant." Her  walls  have  altogether  disappeared — they 
have  "fallen"  (Jer.  li,  44),  been  "thrown  down"  (1, 
15),  been  "  broken  utterly"  (li,  58).  "  A  drought  is 
upon  her  waters"  (1,  39);  for  the  system  of  irrigation, 
on  which,  in  Babylonia,  fertility  altogether  depends,  has 
long  been  laid  aside  ;  "  her  cities"  are  everywhere  "  a 
desolation"  (li,  43),  her  "land  a  wilderness;"  "wild 
beasts  of  the  desert"  (jackals)  "lie  there,"  and  "owls 
dwell  there"  (comp.  Layard,  Nin.  and  Bab.  p.  4*4,  with 
Isa.  xiii,  21,  22,  and  Jer.  1,  39) :  the  natives  regard  the 
whole  site  as  haunted,  and  neither  will  the  "Arab  pitch 
tent  nor  the  shepherd  fold  sheep  there."— Smith. 

After  the  exile  many  of  the  Jews  continued  settled 
in  Babylonia;  the  capital  even  contained  an  entire 
quarter  of  them  (comp.  Susann.  i,  5  sq.  ;1  Pet.  v,  13; 
Josephus,  Ant.  xx,  2,  2;  xv,  3,  1;  xviii,  9,  1;  Philo, 
Opp.  ii.  578,  68<  ) ;  and  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem these  Babylonian  Jews  established  schools  of  con- 
siderable repute,  although  the  natives  were  stigmatized 
as  "Babylonians"  by  the  bigoted  Jewish  population 
(Talm.  Babyl.  Joma,  fol.  66).  Traces  of  their  learn- 
ing exist  not  only  in  much  rabbinical  literature  that 
emanated  from  tin--  now  extinct  schools,  but  M. 
Layard  has  recently  discovered  several  earthen  bowls 
covered  with  their  Hebrew  inscriptions  in  an  early 
character,  copies  and  translations  of  which  are  given 
in  his  Bab.  and  Nin.  p.  I:  6  pq. 


6  BACA 

III.  Literature. — On  the  history,  see  Niebuhr's  Ge- 
schickte  Asshur's  und  Babel's ;  Brandis's  Iicmm  Assyr- 
iarum  Tempora  Emendata;  Bosanquet's  Sacred  and 
Profane  Chronology;  and  Bawlinson's  Herodotus,  vol. 
i,  Essaj's  vi  and  viii.  Compare  also  the  A  in.  Biblical 
[  Repository,  April,  183G,  p.  S64-3G8;  July,  1836,  p.  158- 
[  185 ;  Jour.  Sac.  Literature,  July,  1860,  p.  492  sq. ; 
Kollin,  Anc.  Hist,  ii,  54  etc. ;  Prideaux,  Connection,  i, 
|  51  etc. ;  Heeren,  Ideen,  I,  ii,  172  sq.  ;  Cellarii  No/it. 
ii,  746  sq. ;  Norberg,  Opusc.  acad.  iii,  222  sq. ;  Kesler, 
Ilistoria  excidii  Babyl.  (Tubing.  1766) ;  Bredow,  Un- 
tersuchungen  ub.  alt.  Gesch.  (Altona,  1800);  Jour.  Boy. 
As.  Soc.  (Lond.  1855),  xv,  pt.  2,  and  Maps  accompa- 
nying it.     See  Babylon. 

Babylo'nian  (Heb.  Ben-Babel',  bia-^,  son  of 
!  Babel  or  Babylon,  Ezek.  xxiii,  15,  17,T23-  Chald. 
!  Bablay,  "£na,  Ezra  iv,  9 ;  Gr.  Baj3v\mnoc,  Bel  3), 
j  an  inhabitant  of  Babylon  or  Babylonia. 

Babylo'nian  Captivity.  See  Captivity. 
(  Babylo'nish  Garment  C'Ji^  ^1?'iJK,  adde'reth 
Sh'nar';  Sept.  ipi\>}  ttoikiXii,  Vulg. pallium  coccineuni), 
a  Babylonish  mantle  [see  Attire],  i.  e.  a  large  robe 
\  variegated  with  the  figures  of  men  and  animals  intcr- 
1  woven  in  rich  colors  (comp.  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  viii,  48), 
I  such  as  were  fabricated  at  Babylon  (q.  v.) ;  hence  a 
valuable  piece  of  clothing  in  general  (Josh,  vii,  21). 
;  Sec  Emeroidery. 

;  Ba'ca,  Valley  of  (Heb.  E'mclc  hab-Baha',  p~V 
|  ^:an,  vale  of  [the']  weeping;  Sept.  koi\«c  tov  kXou- 
Buuii'OQ,  Vulg.  Vallis  lacrymaruni),  a  valley  apparently 
somewhere  in  Palestine,  through  which  the  "exiled 
Psalmist  sees  in  vision  the  pilgrims  passing  in  their 
march  toward  the  sanctuary  of  Jehovah  at  Zion  (Psa. 
lxxxiv,  6).  The  passage  seems  to  contain  a  play,  in 
the  manner  of  Hebrew  poetry,  on  the  name  of  the 
trees  (D^Nra,  beha'im' ;  see  Mulberry)  from  which 
the  valley  probably  derived  its  name,  and  the  "  tears" 
(^za,  held')  shed  by  the  pilgrims  in  their  joy  at  their 
approach  to  Zion.  These  tears  are  conceived  to  be  so 
abundant  as  to  turn  the  dry  valley  in  which  the  bafot- 
trees  delighted  (so  Lengerke,  Ktnaan,  p.  135)  into  a 
I  spring}'  or  marshy  place  ("£""?).  That  a  real  locality 
j  was  in  the  mind  of  the  Psalmist  is  most  probable,  from 
the  use  of  the  definite  article  before  the  name  (Gesen. 
Tins.  p.  205).  A  valley  of  the  same  name  (Bekad) 
still  exists  in  the  Sinaitic  district  (Burckhardt,  p.  619) ; 
but  this,  as  well  as  the  valley  near  Mecca  (Niebuhr, 
Beschr.  p.  339),  is  entirely  out  of  the  region  demanded 
by  the  context.  Some  regard  this  as  a  valley  (el- 
Behaa)  or  plain  in  which  Baalbek  is  situated.  But 
this  spot  is  far  from  possessing  the  dreariness  and 
drought  on  which  the  point  of  the  Psalmist's  allusion 
depends.  The  rendering  of  the  Targum  is  Gehenna, 
i.  e.  the  Ge-Hinnom  or  ravine  below  Mount  Zion.  This 
i  locality  agrees  well  with  the  mention  of  bahrim-trecs 
in  2  Sam.  v,  £3.  To  the  majority  of  interpreters,  how- 
ever, it  docs  not  appear  necessary  to  understand  that 
there  is  any  reference  to  a  valley  actually  called  by 
this  name.  The  Psalmist  in  exile,  or  at  least  at  a 
I  distance  from  Jerusalem,  is  speaking  of  the  privileges 
and  happiness  of  those  who  are  permitted  to  make  the 
usual  pilgrimages  to  that  city  in  order  to  worship  Je- 
hovah in  the  Temple  :  "  They  knew  the  ways  that  lead 
thither;  yea,  though  they  must  pass  through  rough 
and  dreary  paths,  even  a  vale  of  tears;  yet  such  are 
their  hope  and  joy  of  heart,  that  all  this  is  to  them 
as  a  well-watered  country,  a  land  crowned  with  bless- 
ings of  the  early  rain."  Dr.  Robinson  (Add.  to  t'al- 
mct's  Diet.)  concludes  that  something  like  this  is  the 
sense  of  the  passage ;  and  it  seems,  on  the  whole,  the 
most  intelligible  and  forcible  explanation  of  the  pas- 
i  sage  to  suppose  that  the  sacred  writer  thus  poetical- 
!  ly  describes  some  one  of  the  many  desolate  valleys 
I  which  the  stated  worshippers  at  Jerusalem  were  obliged 


BACCALAUREUS 


G07 


BACCHUS 


to  traverse  in  their  yearly  visits  to  the  solemn  festi- 
vals.— Smith,  s.  v.  ;  Kitto,  s.  v. 

Baccalaureus  (i.  e.  Bachelor),  one  who  takes 
a  first  decree  in  divinity,  arts,  medicine,  or  civil  law. 
This  degree  was  first  introduced  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  L'henanus  maintains  that 
the  title  is  taken  from  the  Bandits  placed  in  the  hand 
of  the  new  graduate.  The  usual  derivation  is  that 
given  by  Alciatus,  viz.  lacca  laurea,  a  laurel  berry; 
"but  the  Spanish  bachillir,  which  means  at  once  « 
babbler  and  a  master  of  arts,  taken  in  conjunction  with 
the  Portuguese  bacharel  and  baclllo,  a  shoot  or  twig  of 
the  vine  (from  the  Latin  bacillus  or  bacvlum,  a  stick  or 
shoot),  and  the  French  bachelette,  a  damsel,  seem  to 
point  to  its  original  and  generic  meaning,  which  prob- 
ably was  a,  person  shooting  or  protruding  from  one  stage 
of  hk  career  Into  another  more  advanced.  AYith  this 
general  signification,  all  the  special  meanings  of  the 
word  given  by  Ducange  (Glossarium,  s.  v.)  eeem  to 
have  some  analogy.  1.  It  was  used,  he  says,  to  indi- 
cate a  person  who  cultivated  certain  portions  of  church 
lands  called  baccalarla — which  he  supposed  to  have 
been  a  corruption  of  vassele.ria — a  feu  belonging  to  an 
inferior  vassal,  or  to  one  who  had  not  attained  to  a  full 
feudal  recognition.  2.  It  indicated  ecclesiastics  of  a 
lower  dignity  than  the  other  members  of  a  religious 
brotherhood,  i.  e.  monks  who  were  still  in  the  first 
stage  of  monkhood.  3.  It  was  used  hy  later  writers 
to  indicate  persons  in  the  first  or  probationary  stage 
of  knighthood ;  i.  e.  not  esquires  simply,  but  knights 
who,  from  poverty  and  the  insufficient  number  of  their 
retainers,  from  their  possessing,  perhaps,  only  the  bac- 
calaria  above  referred  to,  or  from  nonage,  had  not  yet 
raised  their  banners  in  the  field  (leve  banniere).  4.  It 
was  adopted  to  indicate  the  first  grade  or  step  in  the 
career  of  university  life.  As  an  academical  title,  it 
was  first  introduced  by  Pope  Gregory  IX  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  into  the  University  of  Paris  to  denote 
a  candidate  who  had  undergone  his  first  academical 
trials,  and  was  authorized  to  give  lectures,  but  was 
not  yet  admitted  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  master 
or  doctor.  At  a  later  period  it  was  introduced  into  the 
other  faculties  as  the  lowest  academical  honor,  and 
adopted  by  the  other  universities  of  Europe."  In  the 
Middle  Ages  two  kinds  of  bachelors  were  recognized 
in  theological  studies,  viz.  Baccalaurei  cursores  and 
Baccalaurei  formati.  The  former  were  those  who, 
after  six  years  of  study,  were  admitted  to  perform 
their  courses.  There  were  two  courses,  one  in  explain- 
ing the  Bible  for  three  years,  and  the  other  in  explain- 
ing for  one  year  the  Master  of  the  Sentences ;  conse- 
quently, those  who  performed  the  biblical  course  were 
called  Baccalaurei  biblici ;  the  others,  Baccalaurei  scn- 
tentiaril;  while  those  who  had  finished  both  courses 
were  known  as  Baccalaurei  formati. — Chambers,  En- 
cyclopedia., s.  v.  ;  Herzog,  Iieal-Encyldopadle ,  Suppl. 
i,  424 ;  Hilscher,  de  nomine  Baccalaurei  (Lips.  17H3)  ; 
Gottsched,  de  dlgnltate  Bacc.  Llpsiensls  (Lips.  1739); 
Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  s.  v.  See  Degrees  ;  Uni- 
versities. 

Baccanarists,  a  society  in  the  Church  of  Pome, 
founded  in  Italy  by  one  Baccanari  after  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Jesuits  in  1773.  Its  object  was  to  restore 
the  order  under  a  new  name  and  form.  Pius  VI  fa- 
vored the  organization,  and  it  spread  into  Austria,  Hol- 
land, and  England.  In  1*14  its  members  were  united 
with  the  re-established  order  of  Jesuits.     See  Jesuits. 

Bac'chides  (Bmcyi'c'jjc,  son  of  Bacchus'),  a  friend 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  10,  2)  and 
governor  of  Mesopotamia  (lv  -oj  iripav  tov  jrora/toS, 
1  Mace,  vii,  8),  who  was  commissioned  by  Demetrius 
Soter  to  investigate  the  charges  whicli  Aleimus  (q.  v.) 
preferred  against  Judas  Maccabaeus.  He  confirmed 
Aleimus  in  the  high-priesthood  ;  and,  having  inflicted 
signal  vengeance  on  the  extreme  party  of  the  Assidw- 
ans  (q.  v.),  he  returned  to  Antioch.     After  the  expul- 


sion of  Aleimus  and  the  defeat  and  death  of  Nicanor, 
he  led  a  second  expedition  into  Judea.  Judas  Macca- 
beus fell  in  the  battle  which  ensued  at  Laisa  (B.C. 
1G1),  and  Bacchides  re-established  the  supremacy  of 
the  Syrian  faction  (1  Mace,  ix,  25,  oi  aatfiuc  avtipeg ; 
Joseph.  Ant.  xiii,  1, 1).  He  next  attempted  to  surprise 
Jonathan,  who  had  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  na- 
tional party  after  the  death  of  Judas;  but  Jonathan 
escaped  across  the  Jordan.  Bacchides  then  placed  gar- 
risons in  several  important  positions,  and  took  hostages 
for  the  security  of  the  present  government.  Having 
completed  the  pacification  of  the  country  (Joseph.  Ant. 
xiii,  1,  5),  he  returned  to  Demetrius  (B.C.  160).  After 
two  years  he  came  back  at  the  request  of  the  Syrian 
j  faction,  in  the  hope  of  overpowering  Jonathan  and  Si- 
I  mon,  who  still  maintained  a  small  force  in  the  desert ; 
j  but,  meeting  with  ill  success,  he  turned  against  those 
|  who  had  induced  him  to  undertake  the  expedition,  and 
sought  an  honorable  retreat.  When  this  was  known 
by  Jonathan  he  sent  envoys  to  Bacchides  and  con- 
cluded a  peace  (B.C.  158)  with  him,  acknowledging 
him  as  governor  under  the  Syrian  king,  while  Bacchi- 
des pledged  himself  not  to  enter  the  land  again,  a  con- 
dition which  he  faithfully  observed  (1  Mace,  ix,  70  sq. ; 
Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  1,  G ;  xiii,  1 ;  comp.  2  Mace,  viii,  30). 
He  must  have  been  a  different  person  from  the  Bac- 
chides, the  general  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  charge 
of  the  fortresses  of  Judaia,  whom  the  Asmomean  priest 
Matthias,  with  his  sons,  slew  with  their  daggers  (Jo- 
seph. War,,  i,  1,  2).— Smith,  s.  v. 

Bacchu'rns  (Bn/>-\of'poc  ;  Vulg.  Zaccarus),  given 
as  one  of  the  "holy  singers"  (tmv  'teno^aXrwr')  who 
had  taken  a  foreign  wife  (1  Esdr.  ix,  24);  but  no  name 
corresponding  with  this  is  added  in  the  genuine  list 
(Ezra,  x,  24). 

Bac'chus,  the  Latinized  form  (in  the  Auth.  Vers, 
at  2  Mace,  vi,  7 ;  xiv,  33)  of  the  heathen  deity  called 
by  the  Greeks  Dionysus  (q.  v.).  The  latter  occurs 
also  in  (the  so-called)  3  Mace,  ii,  29.  In  all  these  in- 
stances this  mythic  deity  is  named  in  connection  with 
circumstances  which  would  indicate  that  he  was  an 
object  of  special  abhorrence  to  the  Jews;  for  in  the 
first  it  is  stated  that  the  Jews  were  compelled  to  go  in 
procession  to  Bacchus ;  in  the  second,  the  erection  of  a 
temple  to  him  is  threatened  in  order  to  compel  the 
priests  to  deliver  up  Judas  to  Nicanor;  and  in  the 
third,  the  branding  with  the  ivy  leaf,  sacred  to  him,  is 
reported  as  inflicted  on  them  by  way  of  punishment. 
This  falls  in  with  what  Tacitus  says,  that  it  was  a  mis- 
take to  imagine  that,  because  the  priests  of  the  Jews  ac- 
companied their  singing  with  flute  and  cymbals,  and 
had  garlands  of  ivy,  and  a  golden  vine  was  found  in 
the  Temple,  they  worshipped  Bacchus,  for  that  this  was 
not  at  all  in  accordance  with  their  institutes  (nequa- 
quam  congruentibus  institutis,  Hist,  v,  5).  As  Bac- 
chus was  the  god  of  wine,  and  in  general  of  earthly 
festivity  and  jollity,  and  as  his  rites  sanctioned  the 
most  frantic  excesses  of  revelry  and  tumultuous  ex- 
citement, he  would  necessarily  be  an  object  of  abhor- 
rence to  all  who  believed  in  and  worshipped  Jehovah. 
Probably  also  the  very  fact  that  some  things  connected 
with  the  Jewish  worship  had,  as  mentioned  by  Taci- 
tus, and  still  more  full}'  by  Plutarch  (Symposiac.  iv, 
qu.  6),  led  to  the  supposition  that  they  reverenced 
Bacchus,  may  have  produced  in  their  minds  a  more  de- 
termined recoil  from  and  hatred  of  all  pertaining  to 
his  name.  In  the  pagan  system  Bacchus  is  the  god 
of  wine,  and  is  represented  as  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Semele,  the  daughter  of  Cadmus.  His  mother  per- 
ished in  the  burning  embraces  of  the  god,  whom  she 
persuaded  to  visit  her  with  his  attribute  of  royalty, 
the  thunderbolt;  the  embryo  child  was  sewn  up  in 
Jupiter's  thigh,  whence,  in  due  time,  he  was  produced 
to  light.  Mythology  abounds  with  the  adventures  of 
Bacchus,  the  most  noted  of  which  are  the  transforma- 
tion of  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates,  who  carried  him  off  to 


BACENOR 


608 


BACKUS 


sell  for  a  slave,  into  dolphins;  his  revenge  on  the 
scoffing  Pentiums  and  his  invasion  and  conquest  of 
India.  Bacchus  was  generally  figured  as  a  young  man 
of  effeminate  appearance  (3tjA.v/m>p^o£,  Eurip.  Bacch. 
353  :  Euseb.  Chron.  p.  29),  with  a  garland  of  ivy  bind- 
ing his  long  hair  (Strabo,  xv,  p.  1038) ;  in  his  hand 
he"  bore  a  thyrsus,  or  rod  wreathed  with  ivy,  and 
at  his  feet  lay  his  attendant  panther.  His  compan- 
ions were  the  Bacchantes,  the  Lenae,  the  Naiads 
and  Nymphs,  etc.,  and  especially  Silenus.  His  wor- 
ship seems  to  have  arisen  from  that  "striving  after 
objectivity"  (Wachsmuth,  Ilellen.  Alterthumsk.  ii,  2,  p. 
113),  which  is  the  characteristic  of  a  primitive  people. 
The  southern  coast  of  Thrace  appears  to  have  been 
the  original  seat  of  this  religion,  and  it  was  intro- 
duced thence  into  Greece  shortly  after  the  coloniza- 
tion by  the  iEolians  of  the  Asiatic  coast  of  the  Helles- 
pont. "  The  admission  of  the  identity  of  Osiris  and 
Dionysus  by  Plutarch  and  other  mythological  theo- 
rists," as  well  as  Herodotus's  simple  statement  of  the 
assertions  of  the  Egyptian  priests  to  that  effect,  is  no 
proof  of  the  common  origin  of  the  worship  of  this  di- 
vinity in  Egypt  and  Greece;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  "certain  modifications  of  the  Dionysiac  rites  took 
place  after  the  commencement  of  the  intercourse  be- 
tween the  Ionians  and  the  Egyptians  {Penny  Cyclop. 
s.  v.).  The  worship  of  Bacchus  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  that  of  Demeter,  and  under  the  name  of 
lacchus  he  was  adored  along  with  that  goddess  at  Eleu- 
sis.  Virgil  invokes  them  together  (Georg.  i,  5)  as  the 
lights  of  the  universe.  According  to  the  Egyptians, 
they  were  the  joint  rulers  of  the  world  below  (Herod. 
ii,  123).  In  a  cameo  he  is  represented  as  sitting  with 
her  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  male  and  female  centaurs. 
(For  a  fuller  account  of  the  mythological  history  and 
attributes  of  Bacchus,  see  Creuzer,  Xymbolik  unci  My- 
thologie,  pt.  iii,  bk.  3,  ch.  2  of  Moser's  Abridgment.) 

Bace'nor  (Baicljvwp  ;  Vulg.  Bttcenor),  apparenth' 
a  captain  of  horse  in  the  army  of  Judas  Maccabseus,  to 
whose  detachment  Dositheus  belonged  ("2  Mace,  xii, 
35)  ;  or  possibly  it  may  have  been  only  the  title  of  one 
of  the  Jewish  companies  or  squadrons. 

Bachelor.     See  Baccalaurecs. 

Bach'rite  (Heb.  with  the  article  hab-Bakri, 
*1"|r??1;  Sept.  omits,  but  some  copies  have  6  BtYtpi ; 
Vulg.  familia  Becheritarum ;  Auth.  Vers,  "the  Bach- 
rites"),  the  family  name  of  the  descendants  of  Bechek 
(q.  v.),  the  son  of  Ephraim  (Num.  xxvi,  35).  See 
Beriaii. 

Bachuth.     See  Allon-bachuth. 

Backbite  (in  Psa.  xv.  3,  ijp,  vagal',  to  run  about 
tattling;  in  Prov.  xxv,  23,  "tro,  se'ther,  secj-ecy  in 
tale-bearing ;  in  Rom.  i,  30,  /camXaXoc,  an  evil  speak- 
er,- in  2  Cor.  xii,  20,  KaraXaXici,  evil-speaking),  mali- 
ciously to  defame  an  absent  person.     See  Slander. 

Backslide  (in  Prov.  xiv,  14,  MO,  sug,  to  go  back; 
in  Hos.  iv.  1G,  "HO,  sarar' ',  to  be  refractory;  else- 
where in  the  O.  T.  ~rr,  slmb,  to  return;  in  Heb.  x, 
39,  viroorkWii),  to  "draw  back").     See  Apostasy. 

1.  This  term  popularly  denotes  a  falling  off  or  do- 
faction  in  matters  of  religion;  an  apostasy,  Acts  xxi, 
21  ;  2  Thess.  ii,  3;  1  Tim.  iv,  1.  This  mav  be  either 
partial  or  complete;  partial,  when  it  is  in  the  heart,  as 
Prov.  xiv,  1 1 ;  complete,  as  that  described  in  Heb.  vi, 
*,  etc.  :  s,  6,  etc.  On  the  latter  passage  Chrvsostom 
observes:  "When  a  house  has  a  strong  foundation, 
Buppose  an  arch  fall,  some  of  the  beams  break,  or  a 
wall  decline,  while  the  foundation  is  good,  these 
breaches  may  be  repaired  ;  so  in  religion,  while  a  per- 
son maintains  the  true  doctrines,  and  remains  on  the 
firm  rock,  though  he  fall,  true  repentance  mav  restore 
him  to  the  favor  and  image  of  God:  but  as  in  a  house, 
when  the  foundation  is  bad,  nothing  can  save  the 
building  from  ruin ;  so,  when  heretical  doctrines  are 


admitted  for  a  foundation,  nothing  can  save  the  pro- 
fessor from  destruction."  It  is  important,  in  inter- 
preting these  passages,  to  keep  it  steadfastly  in  mind 
that  the  apostasy  they  speak  of  is  not  only  moral,  but 
doctrinal.      See  Falling  away. 

2.  It  is  also  used  less  accurately  of  a  loss  of  fervor 
in  religious  feeling  and  of  zeal  in  religious  duty.  In 
this  sense  it  should  be  called  partial  backsliding,  which 
must  be  distinguished  from  hypocrisy,  as  the  former 
may  exist  where  there  are  good  intentions  on  the 
whole ;  but  the  latter  is  a  studied  profession  of  appear- 
ing to  be  what  we  are  not.  The  causes  of  backsliding 
are  —  the  cares  of  the  world;  improper  connections; 
inattention  to  secret  or  cioset  duties ;  self-conceit  and 
dependence  ;  indulgence  ;  listening  to  and  parleying 
with  temptations.  A  backslidden  state  is  manifested  by 
indifference  to  prayer  and  self-examination ;  trifling 
or  unprofitable  conversation;  neglect  of  public  ordi- 
nances ;  shunning  the  people  of  God  ;  associating  with 
the  world  ;  thinking  lightly  of  sin  ;  neglect  of  the  Bi- 
ble ;  and  often  by  gross  immorality.  The  consequences 
of  this  awful  state  are — loss  of  character ;  loss  of  com- 
fort ;  loss  of  usefulness ;  and  loss  of  a  well-grounded 
hope  of  future  happiness.  To  avoid  this  state,  or  re- 
cover from  it,  we  should  beware  of  the  first  appearance 
of  sin  ;  be  much  in  prayer ;  attend  the  ordinances  ;  and 
unite  with  the  people  of  God.  We  should  consider  the 
awful  instances  of  apostasy,  as  Saul,  Judas,  Demas, 
etc. ;  the  many  warnings  we  have  of  it,  Matt,  xxiv, 
13;  Heb.  x,  38;  Luke  ix,  02;  how  it  grieves  the  Holy 
Spirit;  and  how  wretched  it  makes  us;  above  all 
things,  our  dependence  should  be  on  God,  that  we 
ma}'  always  be  directed  lry  his  Spirit,  and  kept  by  his 
power. — Watson,  Theol.  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Buck,  Theol. 
Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Clarke,  Theology  (by  Dunn),  p.  360. 
On  the  possibility  of  "  falling  from  grace,"  see  Perse- 
verance. 

Backus,  Azel,  D.D.,  president  of  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, was  born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Oct.  13th,  1765. 
While  yet  a  boy  he  imbibed  infidel  principles,  but  was 
reclaimed  by  the  instructions  of  his  uncle,  the  Rev. 
Charles  Backus.  He  graduated  A.B.  at  Yale  in  1787. 
He  was  licensed  in  1789,  and  succeeded  Dr.  Bellamy 
as  pastor  at  Bethlem  in  1791.  Here  he  labored  faith- 
fully, both  as  pastor  and  as  principal  of  a  classical 
school,  till  1812,  when  he  was  elected  president  of 
Hamilton  College.  After  five  years  of  successful  ad- 
ministration, he  died  of  typhus  fever,  Dec.  9,  1817. 
He  was  a  man  of  tjood  endowments  and  great  indus- 
try.— Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  287. 

Backus,  Charles,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  Nov.  5, 
1749.  He  lost  his  parents  in  his  childhood,  but,  as  he 
early  discovered  a  love  of  learning,  his  friends  assist- 
ed him  to  obtain  a  liberal  education.  He  graduated 
A.B.  at  Yale  in  1769,  and,  after  studying  theology 
under  Dr.  Hart,  of  Preston,  he  was  licensed  in  1773. 
In  1774  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  in  Somers,  where  he  remained  until  his  death, 
December  30, 1803.  During  the  course  of  his  minis- 
try nearly  fifty  young  men  studied  theology  under  his 
roof,  and  among  them  were  Dr.  Woods,  of  Andovcr, 
President  Moore,  of  Amherst,  and  others.  His  repu- 
tation brought  him  invitations  to  the  chair  of  theology 
at  Dartmouth,  and  also  at  Yale,  but  he  declined  both 
calls.  He  published  a  number  of  occasional  sermons. 
— Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  61. 

Backus,  Isaac,  A.M.,  a  distinguished  Baptist 
minister,  was  born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  Jan.  9,  1724. 
In  1748  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Congregational 
church  in  Titicut,  Middleborough,  Mass.  In  1749  a 
number  of  the  members  of  Mr.  Backus' s  church  alter- 
ed their  sentiments  with  regard  to  baptism,  and  he  at 
length  united  with  them  in  opinion.  He  was  immersed 
in  1751.  For  some  years  he  held  to  open  communion, 
but  afterward  abandoned  it.     A  Baptist  church  was 


BACON 


GOO 


BACON 


duly  constituted  in  1756,  and  he  was  installed  its  pas- 
tor. He  faithfully  discharged  his  pastoral  duties  for 
more  than  half  a  century.  To  his  labors  during  this 
long  period  the  Baptists  of  America  owe  much  of  their 
success.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  published, 
among  other  works,  a  History  of  the  Bajitists  (3  vols.), 
and  also  an  Abridgment  of  the  same  (1  vol.).  A  list 
of  his  writings  may  be  seen  in  Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  56. 
See  also  Hovey,  Life  and  Times  of  Backus  (Bost.  1858, 
12mo)  ;  Christian  Review,  xiv,  197. 

Bacon,  Francis,  Viscount  St.  Albans  and  Baron 
Verulam,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  philosophers  of 
modern  times,  was  born  in  London,  Jan.  22,  1560. 
His  father,  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  was  keeper  of  the  seal 
under  Elizabeth,  and  a  distinguished  lawyer  and  states- 
man;  his  mother  was  a  learned  and  pious  woman, 
who  had  translated  several  ascetic  works  from  Italian, 
and  had  taken  part  in  the  theological  controversies 
of  her  time.  Early  in  life  he  gave  signs  of  extra- 
ordinary talent,  and  Queen  Elizabeth  used  to  call 
him  playfully  her  young  lord  keeper.  In  his  twelfth 
year  he  is  said  to  have  speculated  on  the  laws  of  imag- 
ination, and  in  the  next  year  he  was  matriculated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  remained  for 
three  years  and  a  half.  After  the  termination  of  his 
studies  in  1577,  his  father  sent  him  to  France,  under 
the  care  of  Sir  Amyas  Paulet,  English  ambassador  at 
the  French  court.  There  he  came  in  contact  with  a 
number  of  distinguished  men,  and  laid  out  a  plan  for 
a  reconstruction  of  the  philosophical  sciences.  The 
death  of  his  father  recalled  him  to  England  in  1580, 
and,  failing  to  get  an  office  for  which  he  applied,  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  law.  In  1582  he  was 
called  to  the  bar,  in  1586  he  was  made  a  bencher,  and 
in  1580,  at  the  age  of  28,  counsel  extraordinary  to  the 
queen.  Still  he  could  not  rise  under  Elizabeth,  who 
rejected  his  claims  for  preferment  on  the  ground  that 
he  was  "  not  very  deep."  As  some  compensation  for 
his  disappointment,  Count  Essex  made  him  a  present 
of  Twickenham  Court,  worth  about  £1800,  and  so  beau- 
tiful that  Bacon  called  it  the  Garden  of  Paradise.  Ba- 
con, some  years  later,  was  charged  with  rewarding  this 
disinterested  kindness  with  ingratitude  on  the  trial  of 
Essex ;  but  probably  unjustly  (see  the  Penny  Cyclopae- 
dia, s.  v.).  In  1595  he  was  returned  to  Parliament 
as  member  for  Middlesex,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself  for  parliamentary  eloquence.  After  the  ac- 
cession to  the  throne  of  James  I,  he  rapidly  rose  in 
dignities  and  influence.  In  1C03  he  received  the  hon- 
or of  knighthood,  in  1604  he  was  appointed  king's 
counsel,  in  1607  solicitor  general,  in  1613  attorney  gen- 
eral, in  1617  keeper  of  the  great  seal.  In  January 
of  1618  he  was  appointed  lord  high  chancellor,  and  in 
the  same  year  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  of  Ve- 
rulam. Three  years  later  the  title  of  Viscount  of  St. 
Albans  was  conferred  on  him.  From  the  same  year, 
1621,  dates  his  fall.  A  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  reported  two  cases  of  corruption  against 
him,  and  before  the  close  of  the  proceedings  similar 
cases  to  the  number  of  24  were  presented.  When  his 
case  was  referred  to  the  House  of  Peers  he  abandoned 
all  defence,  confessed  his  guilt,  and  was  sentenced, 
on  May  3d,  to  a  fine  of  £40,000,  and  to  imprisonment 
in  the  Tower  during  the  king's  pleasure.  The  sen- 
tence proved  to  be  little  more  than  a  form.  He  was 
released  from  imprisonment  after  two  days,  and  the 
fine  was  subsequently  remitted,  but  he  never  recov- 
ered bis  standing.  Only  once  he  was  afterward  sum- 
moned to  attend  Parliament,  and  the  remainder  of  his 
life  was  spent  in  humble  circumstances  and  among  the 
few  friends  whom  adversity  left  him.  He  died  at 
Highgate,  April  9, 1626. 

Bacon  was  tho  author  of  a  philosophical  system 
which  is  called  after  him  the  Baconian  philosophy,  and 
which  has  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  subsequent 
development  of  philosophy  and  of  literature  in  gen- 
eral. "The  sciences,"  he  savs,  "have  hitherto  been 
QQ 


in  a  most  sad  condition.  Philosophy,  wasted  in  emp- 
ty and  fruitless  logomachies,  has  failed  during  so  many 
centuries  to  bring  out  a  single  work  or  experiment 
of  actual  benefit  to  human  life.  Logic  hitherto  has 
served  more  to  the  establishment  of  error  than  to 
the  investigation  of  truth.  Whence  all  this  ?  Why 
this  penury  of  science  ?  Simply  because  they  have 
broken  away  from  their  root  in  nature  and  experience. 
The  blame  of  this  is  chargeable  to  many  sources  :  fir6t, 
the  old  and  rooted  prejudice  that  the  human  mind 
loses  somewhat  of  its  dignity  when  it  busies  itself 
much  and  continuously  with  experiments  and  material 
things ;  next,  superstition  and  a  blind  religious  zeal, 
which  has  been  the  most  irreconcilable  opposer  to  nat- 
ural philosophy;  again,  the  exclusive  attention  paid 
to  morals  and  politics  by  the  Piomans,  and  since  the 
Christian  era  to  theology  by  every  acute  mind ;  still 
farther,  the  great  authority  which  certain  philosophers 
have  exercised,  and  the  great  reverence  given  to  an- 
tiquity ;  and,  in  fine,  a  want  of  courage,  and  a  despair 
of  overcoming  the  many  and  great  difficulties  which 
lie  in  the  -way  of  the  investigation  of  nature.  All 
these  causes  have  contributed  to  keep  down  the 
sciences.  Hence  they  must  now  be  renewed,  and  re- 
generated; and  reformed  in  their  most  fundamental 
principles ;  there  must  now  be  found  a  new  basis  of 
knowledge  and  new  principles  of  science.  Thus  rad- 
ical reformation  of  the  sciences  depends  upon  two  con- 
ditions— objectively,  upon  the  referring  of  science  to 
experience  and  the  philosophy  of  nature ;  and  sub- 
jectively, upon  tho  purifying  of  the  sense  and  the  in- 
tellect from  all  abstract  theories  and  traditional  preju- 
dices, Both  conditions  furnish  the  correct  method  of 
natural  science,  which  is  nothing  other  than  the  meth- 
od of  induction.  Upon  a  true  induction  depends  all 
the  soundness  of  the  sciences."  In  these  propositions 
the  Baconian  philosophy  is  contained.  The  historical 
significance  of  its  founder  is,  therefore,  in  general  this : 
that  he  directed  the  attention  and  reflection  of  his  con- 
temporaries again  upon  the  given  actuality,  upon  na- 
ture;  that  he  affirmed  the  necessity  of  experience, 
which  had  been  formerly  only  a  matter  of  accident, 
and  made  it  as  in  and  for  itself  an  object  of  thought. 
His  merit  consists  in  having  brought  up  the  principle 
of  scientific  empiricism,  and  only  in  this  (Schwegler, 
History  of  Philosophy,  transl.  by  Seelye,  p.  166).  The 
principles  of  his  method  are  to  be  found  in  many  writ- 
ers before  him,  even  in  Aristotle ;  but  it  was  Bacon's 
glory  that  he  so  set  forth  those  principles  as  to  bring 
mankind  to  act  upon  them.  His  plagiarisms,  espe- 
cially from  his  great  namesake,  Itoger  Bacon,  are  un- 
questionable (see  De  Maistre,  Soirees  de  St.Petersbourg ; 
Methodist  Quarterly,  Jan.  and  April,  1858  ;  and  Bacon, 
Roger). 

So  far  as  Bacon's  own  mind  was  concerned,  he  was 
a  firm  believer  in  divine  revelation  (see  his  Confes- 
sion of  Faith;  Prayers;  Character  of  a  Christian; 
Works,  ed.  Montague,  vol.  vii).  Theology,  as  science, 
he  held  to  rest  on  data  given  by  inspiration,  just  as 
metaphysics  must  rest  on  postulates.  On  this  last 
point  the  following  passage  is  pregnant:  "Where- 
fore, whatever  primitive  matter  is,  together  with  its 
influence  and  action,  it  is  sui  generis,  and  admits  of 
no  definition  drawn  from  perception,  and  is  to  be  taken 
just  as  it  is  found,  and  not  to  be  judged  of  from  any 
preconceived  idea.  For  the  mode  of  it,  if  it  is  given 
to  us  to  know  it,  cannot  be  judged  of  by  means  of  its 
cause,  seeing  that  it  is,  next  to  God,  the  cause  of 
causes,  itself  without  cause.  For  there  is  a  certain 
real  limit  of  causes  in  nature,  and  it  would  argue  levi- 
ty and  inexperience  in  a  philosopher  to  require  or  im- 
agine a  cause  for  the  last  and  positive  power  and  law 
of  nature,  as  much  as  it  would  not  to  demand  a  cause 
in  those  that  are  subordinate"  (Fable  of  Cupid,  Works, 
ed.  Montague,  xv,  45).  As  to  theology,  his  language 
is:  "Omnis  enim  scientia  duplicem  sortitur  informa- 
i  tionem.     Una  inspiratur  divinitus ;  alter  oritur  a  sen- 


BACON 


610 


BACOX 


su.  Partiemur,  igitur,  scientiam  in  theologian)  et 
philoscphiam.  Theologiam  hie  intelligimus  inspira- 
tam,  iion  naturalem"  (/'  Augmentis,  iii,  1).  In  book 
ix  of  the  same  work  be  expressly  sots  religion  in  op- 
position,  so  far  as  its  Bource  is  concerned,  totbe  induc- 
tive sciences,  inasmuch  as  in  religion  the  first  princi- 
ples are  independent  and  self-subsistent  {per  si  subsis- 
•Let  u.s  conclude,"  he  says,  "that  sacred 
theology  ought  to  be  drawn  from  the  word  and  oracles 
of  God,  not  from  the  light  of  nature  or  the  dictates  of 
reason.  For  it  is  written,  the  heavens  declare  the  glory 
of  God,  but  not  the  heavens  declare  the  will  of  God." 
See  also  his  striking  prayer  in  the  preface  to  the  In- 
stauratio  Magna.  Bacon's  own  position,  then,  is  clear- 
ly defined,  although  De  Maistre,  in  his  Soirees  de  St. 
j\  I,  rsbourg,  seeks  to  deprive  him  not  only  of  all  merit 
with  regard  to  the  science  of  induction,  but  also  al- 
most of  the  name  of  Christian.  It  is  another  question 
how  far  the  influence  of  the  Baconian  system,  confined 
as  it  is  to  the  material  sciences,  has  tended  to  generate 
a  materialist  and  rationalist  way  of  thinking.  On 
this  point,  see  Rationalism;  Philosophy. 

The  greatest  of  the  philosophical  works  of  Bacon  is 
the  Novum  Orgamim  (Lond.  1620, translated  in  Bonn's 
Scit  iithic  library,  Lond.).  The  most  important  among 
the  other  works  of  Bacon  are:  (1)  Essays,  or  Counsels 
Civil  and  Moral  (Lond.  1597,  augment,  edit.  1012  and 
1624),  the  best  known  and  most  popular  of  his  works. 
A  new  edition,  with  an  introduction  and  many  valua- 
ble notes,  has  been  published  by  archbishop  Whately 
(Lond.  1857  ;  Boston,  I860)  :  —  (2)  A  treatise  On  the 
Advancement  of  Learning  (Lond.  1605).  This  work, 
revised  and  enlarged,  was  afterward  translated  by 
Ben  Jonson,  George  Herbert,  and  other  friends  of  Ba- 
con, into  Latin,  and  published  under  the  title  De  Avg- 
mentis  Scientiarum  (  Lond.  1623).  The  works  Be  Sa- 
pientia  Veterum,  Sylva  Sylvarum,  Nova  Atlantis,  are 
likewise  highly  valued.  Complete  editions  were  pub- 
lished by  Rawley  (Amsterd.  1663,  6  vols.);  Mallet 
(Lond.  1740);  Stephens,  Locker,  and  Birch  (Lond. 
1765,  5  vols.  4to);  Basil  Montagu  (Lond.  1825-34,  17 
vols.  8vo);  Spedding,  Ellis,  and  Heath  (Lond.  1857 
sq.) ;  American  ed.,  Boston,  1*63-65.  A  biography  of 
Bacon  may  be  found  at  the  head  of  every  complete 
edition  of  his  works ;  that  by  Montagu  is  especially 
valued  (reprinted  in  Bacon's  Works,  Fhila.  3  vols. 
8vo).  See  also  Bouillet,  Les  (Euvres  Philos.  de  B. 
(Paris,  1834  35);  De  Maistre,  Examen  de,  la  Philos.de 
/;.  i  Paris,  1836,  2  vols.)  ;  Remusat,  Bacon,sa  Tieetson 
fajuenct  (Paris,  1857);  Tenison,  Baconicma  (167!)); 
Macaulay,  in  Edinburgh  Review,  July,  1837 ;  Methodist 
Quarterly,  Jan.  1848,  p.  22;  April,  1851,  art.  1 ;  Jan. 
1859,  art.  1 ;  April,  1851,  art.  1 ;  Princeton  Review,  xii, 
350;  xv,  1^1  ;  Am.  Bib.  Repository,  3d  series,  iii,  127; 
Qu.  Christian  Spectator,  iv,  528;  Encyclop.  Brit.  (1st 
and  3d  Prelim.  Diss,  by  Stewart  and  I'layfair);  K. 
Fisher,  Bacon  von  Verulam  (Leipz.  1856,  tr.  by  Oxen- 
ford,  Lond.  1*57);  Dixon,  Personal  History  of  Bacon 

(L 1.1860);  l-ini/li.-h  Cf/e/nprdi,i ;  Morell,  History  of 

Philosophy,  pt.  i,  oh.  i,  §  1 ;  Lewes,  Biog.  Hist.  ofPhi- 
los.  vol.  iii,  epoch.  1. 

Bacon,  John,  an  English  writer  of  the  fourteenth 
centurj  .  born  at  Baconthorp,  in  Norfolk,  and  styled 
"the  Resolute  Doctor"  i  Doctor  Resolutw).  He  took 
the  degrees  of  doctor  of  canon  and  civil  law  and  of 
divinity  at  Paris,  and  became  so  strongly  attached  to 
the  opinion-  of  the  Averroists  that  he  was  looked  upon 
as  their  head.  In  1829  he  was  elected  provincial  of 
the  <  larmelite  order,  which  he  had  out.  rod  in  his  youth, 
and  died  at  London  in  1346.  He  wrote  Commentaria 
tuper  quatuor  libros  sententiarum  i  Paris,  1484,  fol.,  often 
reprinted),  and  many  other  works.      See  Dupin,  //is/. 

Eccl.  Writers,  I  lth  cent. ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  192. 

Eacon,  Roger,  the  greatest  of  English  philoso- 
phers before  the  time  of  Ins  namesake.  Lord  Bacon, 
was  born  near  [lchester,  in  Somersetshire,  about  1214. 


'  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and,  according  to  the  cus- 
tom of  his  day,  proceeded  to  the  university  of  Paris  to 
study  philosophy  and  theology.  Here  he  received  his 
doctor's  degree.  About  1240  (?)  he  returned  to  Ox- 
ford, and  there  (perhaps  on  the  advice  of  Grossetete 

J  q.  v.),  be  took  the  vows  as  a  Franciscan,  and  applied 
himself  closely  in  his  convent  to  the  study  of  lan- 
guages, as  w.ell  as  to  experimental  philosophy.  It 
was  the  mistake  of  his  life  that  he  joined  the  Francis- 

'  cans  ;  his  brethren  soon  began  to  manifest  a  spirit  of 
enmity,  a  prohibition  being  issued  against  Bacon's 

;  lectures  in  the  university,  as  well  as  against  the  pub- 
lication of  any  of  his  writings.  He  was  charged  with 
magic  and  diabolism,  as  was  commonly  the  case  at 

|  that  time  with  those  who  studied  the  sciences,  and 
particularly  chemistry.  Bacon  was  a  true  thinker, 
and,  as  such,  was  necessarily  regarded  as  an  innovator 

!  in  such  an  age,  although  it  was  the  age  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  Bonaventura.     He  complained   of  the 

'  absolute  submission  to  authority.      "I  would  burn  all 

|  the  books  of  Aristotle  if  I  had  them  in  hand"  {Comp. 

j  Theol.  pt.  i,  ch.  2).  He  was  very  severe  upon  the 
scholastic  theology,  even  upon  Alexander  de  Hales, 
Albert  the  Great,  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  whom  be 
styles  vir  erroneus  etfamosus.  It  was  not  unnatural 
that  the  monks  should  suspect  so  plainspoken  a  man, 

j  especially  one  who  kept  cauldrons  and  crucibles  at 
work,  studied  the  stars,  and  made  strange  experiments 
of  all  sorts.  Wadding,  the  historian  of  the  Francis- 
cans, says  that  Bacon  was  condemned  propter  novitatcs 
quasdam  suspectas.  From  1257  until  1267  he  was  con- 
tinually persecuted;  most  of  the  time  kept  in  prifon, 
his  studies  hindered,  and  all  intercourse  with  the 
outer  world  prohibited.  In  1265  Clement  IV  (Guy 
Foulques,  a  Frenchman)  became  pope.  He  had  been 
Bacon's  friend  when  cardinal  legate  in  England,  had 
taken  great  interest  in  his  studies,  and  had  sought  to 
get  hold  of  his  writings,  but  the  strict  watch  kept  on 
Bacon  prevented  him  from  sending  them.  Bacon 
managed  to  get  letters  conveyed  to  the  new  pope, 
stating  his  sad  case,  and  asking  help  in  the  name  of 

:  religion  and  good  learning.  Clement's  answer  re- 
quired him  to  send  his  writings  with  haste,  any  com- 

,  mand  of  his  superiors  or  constitution  of  his  order  not- 
withstanding. Bacon  at  once  prepared  his  Opus  Ma- 
jus  from  his  materials  on  hand,  with  an  account  of  his 
troubles  and  persecutions  in  the  preface.  The  book 
was  sent  in  the  year  1267,  but  the  pope  did  not  ven- 
ture to  release  him  from  prison  till  several  months 
had  elapsed,  so  great  was  the  power  of  the  Franciscan 
order.  Clement  died  in  November,  1268,  and  Bacon 
was  thus  again  at  the  mercy  of  his  enemies ;  but  he 
still  pursued  his  studies,  and  was  allowed  to  remain 
free  from  open  persecution  up  to  1278 ;  but  in  that 
year  Jerome  of  Ascoli,  general  of  the  Franciscan  or- 

'  der,  afterward  pope  under  the  title  of  Nicholas  IV, 
was  appointed  legate  to  the  court  of  France.     Bacon, 

I  then  sixty-four  years  old,  was  summoned  to  Paris, 
where  a  council  of  Franciscans,  with  Jerome  at  their 
head,  condemned  his  writings,  and  committed  him  to 
close  confinement.  A  confirmation  of  the  proceeding 
was  immediately  obtained  from  the  court  of  Pome.1 
During  ten  years  every  effort  made  by  him  to  procure 
his  enlargement  was  without  success;  but,  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Jerome  (Nicholas  IV),  that  which  was  not 
to  be  obtained  from  the  justice  of  the  pope  was  con- 
ceded to  private  interest,  and  Bacon  was  at  last  re- 
stored to  liberty  by  the  intercession  of  some  powerful 
nobles.  Some  say  he  died  in  prison;  but  the  lest 
authorities  unite  in  stating  that  he  returned  to  Oxford, 
where  he  wrote  his  Compendium  Theologice,  and  died 
some  months,  or  perhaps  a  year  and  a  half,  after 
Nicholas  IV  (who  died  April,  1292).  The  suspicion 
and  fear  of  the  monks  followed  the  great  man's  Looks 
after  his  death  ;  "  the  books  were  nailed  to  boards,  so 
that  they  could  not  be  read,  and  were  left  to  rot  amid 
dirt  and  damp.'' 


BACON 


611 


BACON 


Of  the  grandeur  of  Bacon's  scientific  intellect,  and 
of  the  marvellous  discoveries  made  by  him,  this  is  not 
the  place  to  speak  at  length.  Humboldt  calls  him 
the  greatest  apparition  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the 
depths  of  an  age  of  tradition,  he  saw  what  science  was, 
and  devoted  his  life  to  its  pursuit.  In  languages,  he 
mastered  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic.  He 
held,  with  Plato,  that  Mathematics  is  the  mistress  and 
key  of  all  the  sciences  {Opus  Majus,  pt.  iv).  In  twen- 
ty years  he  spent  2000  livres  (a  vast  sum  for  that  age) 
in  books,  apparatus,  and  experiments.  As  early  as 
1264  he  sent  the  pope  a  proposal  to  rectify  the  Julian 
calendar — three  centuries  before  the  thing  was  done. 
"  Roger  Bacon,  the  vastest  intellect  that  England  has 
produced,  studied  nature  as  a  natural  philosopher 
rather  than  as  a  chemist,  and  the  extraordinary  dis- 
coveries he  made  in  those  branches  of  science  are  fa- 
miliarly known :  the  rectification  of  the  errors  com- 
mitted in  the  Julian  calendar  with  regard  to  the  solar 
year ;  the  physical  analysis  of  the  action  of  lenses  and 
convex  glasses ;  the  invention  of  spectacles  for  the 
aged ;  that  of  achromatic  lenses  ;  the  theory  and  per- 
haps the  first  construction  of  the  telescope.  From  the 
principles  and  laws  laid  down  or  partially  apprehend- 
ed by  him,  a  system  of  unanticipated  facts  was  sure  to 
spring,  as  he  himself  remarked  ;  nevertheless,  his  in- 
quiries into  chemical  phenomena  have  not  been  with- 
out fruit  for  us.  He  carefully  studied  the  properties 
of  saltpetre,  and  if,  in  opposition  to  the  ordinary  opin- 
ion, he  did  not  discover  gunpowder,  which  had  been 
explicitly  described  by  Marcus  Grsecus  fifty  years  be- 
fore, he  improved  its  preparation  by  teaching  the  mode 
of  purifying  saltpetre  by  first  dissolving  the  salt  in 
water  and  then  crystallizing  it.  He  also  called  atten- 
tion to  the  chemical  action  of  air  in  combustion"  (Fi- 
guier,  UAlchimie  et  les  A/ckimistcs,  part  i,  ch.  iv,  p. 
80,  81). 

The  history  of  Bacon's  writings  is  among  the  curi- 
osities of  literature.  A  number  of  his  smaller  works 
were  printed  before  the  18th  century,  but  his  greatest 
writings  waited  until  that  date.  Among  the  former  are 
his  Perspectiva  (Frank.  1614)  ;  Be  Speculis  and  Specula 
Mathematica  (Frank.  1G14,  reprinted  in  1671);  De. 
Mirabili  Potestate  Artis  et  Naturcc  (Paris,  1542);  Gi- 
rard,  De  V admirable  Pouvoir,  etc.,  ou  est  traicle  de  la 
Pierre  Philosophale  (translation  of  the  preceding)  (Par- 
is, 1557,  reprinted  in  1629);  Scripta  quadam  de  Arte 
Chemio?  (Frank.  1603  and  1620);  Speculum  Alcliemw: 
and  De  Secretis  Operibus  Artis  et  Natures,  et  de  Nullitctte 
Hughe  (in  vols,  ii  and  v  of  Zetzner's  Theatrum  Chem- 
icum,  Strasb.  1659,  transl.  by  Girard,  under  the  title 
Miroir  d'Alauimie,  Lyon,  1557 ;  Paris,  1612  and  1627) ; 
De  retardandis  Senectutis  Accidentilvs  (Oxf.  1590,  trans- 
lated by  Dr.  R.  Browne,  Lond.  1683).  The  greatest 
of  his  works  were  not  published  until  1733.  A  num- 
ber of  Bacon's  MSS.  were  known  to  exist  in  the  libra- 
ries of  the  Continent  and  of  England,  especially  in 
the  Cottonian  Library  and  in  that  of  Dublin,  and  Dr. 
Samuel  Jebb,  at  the  request  of  Eichard  Mead  (court 
physician),  edited  and  printed  the.  Opus  Majus  (Lond. 
1733,  fol.).  It  is  carefully  done,  but  yet  omits  ch.  vii 
(the  Ethicd),  and  inserts  other  things  not  belonging  to 
this  book.  Professor  Ingram,  of  the  University  of 
Dublin,  has  discovered  some  of  the  missing  part  of 
the  work,  and  a  complete  edition  of  his  works  is  prom- 
ised, as  the  British  government  intrusted  the  task  to 
Professor  Brewer,  of  King's  College,  who  published 
vol.  i  in  1859,  including  the  Opvs  Minus,  Opus  Tertium, 
Compendium  ph'losnphice,  and  de  Nuliitate  Magia  (large 
8vo).  The  Opus  Minus  is  an  epitome  and  complement 
of  the  Opus  Majus;  the  Opus  Tertium  is  an  enlarge- 
ment of  it.  Cousin  discovered  a  MS.  of  this  last  work 
in  the  library  of  Douai,  and  published  an  enthusiastic 
account  of  it  and  of  Bacon  in  the  Journal  des  Savants, 
1848.  Pursuing  his  researches,  he  found  in  the 
Amiens  library  a  manuscript,  commenting  on  Aristotle. 
Cousin  now  appealed  to  England  to  vindicate  the 


name  of  one  of  her  greatest  sons,  and  the  result  is  seen 
in  the  edition  announced  above.  A  French  scholar, 
M.  Emile  Charles,  also  devoted  years  of  study  and 
travel  to  Roger  Bacon,  and  published  Roger  Bacon,  sa 
vie,  ses  ceuvres,  ses  doctrines,  d'apr'es  des  textes  inedits 
(1862,  8vo). 

Roger  Bacon  was  the  forerunner,  in  philosophy,  of 
Lord  Bacon,  who  borrowed  largely  from  him,  not  only 
in  method,  but  also  even  in  details.  The  monk  pos- 
sessed, what  the  chancellor  had  not,  the  power  of  pen- 
etrating the  secrets  of  nature.  Lord  Bacon  promoted 
science  by  his  method,  but  in  actual  application  of  the 
method  he  was  a  child.  Roger  Bacon  anticipated  him 
in  the  method,  and  was,  at  the  same  time,  himself  a 
great  experimenter  and  successful  inventor.  On  the 
relations  between  these  two  great  men,  see  Professor 
Holmes's  excellent  articles  in  the  Methodist  Quarterly, 
January  and  April,  1858,  where  the  subject  is  more 
ably  and  thoroughly  treated  than  by  any  other  writer. 
Professor  Holmes  sums  up  as  follows:  "That  Lord 
Bacon  was  anticipated  by  Roger  Bacon  in  nearly 
everything  that  was  most  distinctive  in  the  double 
forms  of  the  same  identical  philosophy  cannot  be 
doubted  after  the  copious  illustrations  given  in  this 
essay.  That  he  borrowed  directly  and  consciously 
from  him  is  our  own  private  conclusion  ;  and  that  the 
forced  loan  amounted  to  plagiarism,  and  was  levied, 
like  one  of  James  I's  voluntary  gifts  from  his  people, 
forcibfy  and  without  acknowledgment,  is  also  our  con- 
viction, though  we  will  not  demand  from  the  public 
an  absolute  verdict  to  this  effect.  But  we  do  claim 
that  the  highest  honors  which -have  been  assigned  to 
Francis  Bacon  are  due  to  Roger  Bacon  and  his  con- 
temporaries, and  we  do  assert  that  the  friar  has  been 
as  harshly  and  unjustly  dealt  with  by  the  lord  chan- 
cellor of  nature  as  Aubrey,  and  Egerton,  and  the  other 
suitors  in  the  court  of  equity  were  handled  by  the 
lord  high  chancellor  of  England." 

"Throughout  the  whole  of  his  writings  Bacon  is  a 
strict  Roman  Catholic ;  that  is,  he  expressly  submits 
matters  of  opinion  to  the  authority  of  the  church,  say- 
ing (Cott.  MSS.  cited  by  Jebb)  that  if  the  respect  due 
to  the  vicar  of  the  Savior  (yicarius  Salvatoris)  alone, 
and  the  benefit  of  the  world,  could  be  consulted  in  any 
other  way  than  by  the  progress  of  philosophy,  he  would 
not,  under  such  experiments  as  lay  in  his  way,  proceed 
with  his  undertaking  for  the  whole  Church  of  God, 
however  much  it  might  entreat  or  insist.  His  zeal 
for  Christianity,  in  its  Latin  or  Western  form,  breaks 
out  in  every  page ;  and  all  science  is  considered  with 
direct  reference  to  theology,  and  not  otherwise.  But, 
at  the  same  time,  to  the  credit  of  his  principles,  consid- 
ering the  book-burning,  heretic-hunting  age  in  which 
he  lived,  there  is  not  a  word  of  any  other  force  except 
that  of  persuasion.  He  takes  care  to  have  both  au- 
thority and  reason  for  every  proposition  that  he  ad- 
vances; perhaps,  indeed,  he  might  have  experienced 
forbearance  at  the  hand  of  those  who  were  his  perse- 
cutors, had  he  not  so  clearly  made  out  prophets,  apos- 
tles, and  fathers  to  have  been  partakers  of  his  opinions. 
'But  let  not  your  serenity  imagine,'  he  says,  'that 
I  intend  to  excite  the  clemency  of  your  holiness,  in  or- 
der that  the  papal  majesty  should  employ  force  against 
weak  authors  and  the  multitude,  or  that  my  unwor- 
thy self  should  raise  any  stumbling-Uoek  to  study' 
{Penny  Cyclopadia,  s.  v.)„  Indeed,  the  whole  scope  of 
the  first  part  of  the  work  is  to  prove,  from  authority 
and  from  reason,  that  philosophy  and  Christianity 
cannot  disagree — a  sentiment  altogether  of  his  own 
revival,  in  an  age  in  which  all  philosophers,  and  mathe- 
maticians in  particular,  were  considered  as  at  best  of 
dubious  orthodoxy.  The  effect  of  his  writings  on  the- 
ology was  to  introduce  a  freer  spirit,  and  to  prepare 
the  way  for  Wickliffe,  -Huss,  and  the  later  reformers. 
He  combated  the  one-sided  supremacy  of  Aristotle, 
and  even  the  authority  of  the  fathers ;  he  pointed  out 
errors  in  their  writings,  and  appealed  to  the  original 


BACON 


612 


BADEN 


sources  of  theological  knowledge.  He  was  distin- 
guished  for  his  knowledge  of  languages,  and  made 
himself  familiar  with  the  original  Scriptures.  In  a 
treatise  on  the  advantages  of  grammar,  he  endeav- 
ored to  prove  the  necessity  of  linguistic  studies,  in 
order  better  to  understand  the  Bible,  which,  he  said, 
every  layman  ought  to  study  in  the  original.  He  dis- 
puted the  authority  of  the  Vulgate,  in  which  he  de- 
tected mi-takes.  The  Bible,  according  to  his  view, 
ought  to  he  the  supreme  law.  to  which  every  depart- 
ment of  life  and  knowledge,  must  be  subjected.  A 
reformatory  germ  lay  in  this  exaltation  of  the  Bible 
above  the  authority  of  the  church  and  tradition.  The- 
ology he  placed  at  the  head  of  all  the  sciences;  reve- 
lation is  the  completion  and  perfecting  of  human  rea- 
son ;  in  all  knowledge,  including  philosophical  and 
theological,  harmony  necessarily  reigns.  "  Theology 
develops  immediately  the  contents  of  Scripture;  spec- 
ulation is  the  link  between  Scripture  and  natural 
reason.  It  receives  what  is  true  in  earlier  specula- 
tion, and  connects  with  it  those  truths  which  reason 
might  indeed  know  of  itself,  but  which  it  would  never 
have  found  without  the  impulse  which  revelation  gives 
it.  (  hristian  philosophy  can  therefore  be  reconciled 
with  faith,  since  it  asserts  rational  truths  which  every 
wise  man  admits,  although  if  left  to  himself  he  would 
not  have  known  them.  This  corresponds  not  only  to 
Christian  philosophy,  but  also  to  the  Christian  con- 
sciousness, which  must  bring  all  truth  to  divine  truth, 
to  be  subordinate  to  it  and  serve  it.  Propter  conscien- 
tiani  Chrisiianam,  qiue  valet  omnem  veritalem  ducere  ad 
dirinam,  >it  i  i  snhjiriatur  et  famuletur.  Opus  Ma-jus,  p. 
41."  I  Neander,  History  of  Dogmas,  ii,  554,  577.)  See 
an  essay  by  Saisset,  in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  also 
in  Saisset's  Precurseurs  et  disciples  de  Descartes  (Paris, 
1862  ;  transl.  by  Howland,  in  American  Presb.  Review, 
Oct.  1863);  and,  besides  the  works  cited  in  the  course 
of  this  article,  see  Daunou  and  Leclerc,  in  Hist.  Lift,  de 
li  France,  xx,  230 ;  Hoefer,  Histoire  de  la  Chimie,  t.  i . 
Iloefer,  Novo.  Bioy.  Generate,  iii,  91;  Bitter,  Oeschiehte 
d.  Ckristlicken  Philosopkie,  iv,  17:!  sq. :  Gieseler,  Chunk 
Hist.  §  74  ;  Neander,  Church  Hist,  iv,  424  ;  Btographia 
Britannica,  iv,  01(5:  Ingram,  On  the  Opus  Majus  of 
Roger  Bacon  (Dublin,  1858.  8vo). 

Bacon,  Thomas,  one  of  the  early  Episcopal  min- 
isters of  America,  was  born  in  the  Isle  of  Man  about 
1700,  and  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  1744.  He 
had  previously  been  engaged  in  civil  pursuits,  and  in 
17:;7  published,  by  order  of  the  chief  commissioners 
and  governors  of  the  revenue  of  the  kingdom,  a  vol- 
ume entitled  a  "Complete  System  of  Revenue  in  Eng- 
ine!." fn  1715  he  came  to  Maryland,  and  became 
pastor  of  the  English  church  at  Oxford,  Talbot  county. 
Here  he  labored  faithfully  both  for  whites  and  colored 
and  published  in  1750  Four  Sermons  on  the  Duties  of 
Masters  (London,  12m.,).  They  were  republished  in 
IBM  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Meade  (late  bishop  of  Virginia), 
who,  however,  left  out  the  title-page,  the  very  valua- 
ble preface,  and  some  other  portions,  in  one  place  to  the 
amount  of  six  pages,  and  this,  too,  without  a  hint  of 
any  such  omissions.  In  1758  be  was  transferred  to 
A  Saints  ,  Frederick  county,  a  parish  worth  about 
«°°°Per  annum.  I„  1765  he  published  a  Collection 
<;/  no  /,,„■;  oj  Maryland  1 1000  pp.  fob).  He  did  May 
-.'  ,68;  fPrajruo,^nnafo,  v,  120;  Am.  Quar.  Church 
',  Oct.  I860. 

Bacon,  William,  a  Preshyterian  (X.  S.)  minis- 

,,,r;  ,l""'",i"  Cherry  Valley,  K.Y.,  August,  1789, 

S££**»5Jif  Union  College  in  1815.  lie  studied 
^e°i°eyjfDrs.Nott  and  Yates,  and  was  ordained 
bj    he  Presbytery  ol  Buffalo  in  1817.     He  served  as 

pastoral  Waterloo,  Cayuga,  Cortland,  and  Saral , 

Springs,  and  as  missionary  in  Troy,  N.T.,and  Phila- 
''•■'l'1"1-  Pa., and  New  Orleans,  La.  m.  Liter  years 
were  spentin  retirement  and  affliction,  but  not  in idle- 
ness; his  time  was  taken  up  in  writing  for  the  press 


Besides  numerous  contributions  to  periodicals,  he  pub- 
lished Tracts  on  Episcopacy,  Old  and  Xctc  School  Pres- 
byterianism,  Salvation  made  Sure,  Salvation  in  Earnest, 
etc.  He  died  April  2, 1863.— Wilson,  Presbyterian  Hist. 
A  Imanac,  1864,  p.  283. 

Baconthorp.     See  Bacon,  John. 

Bacularii,  a  sect  of  Anabaptists  which  sprung  up 
in  1528,  and  was  so  called  because  its  members  be- 
lieved that  it  was  a  sin  to  carry  any  other  arms  than 
a  stick  (baculus):  and  that  it  was  forbidden  to  Chris- 
tians to  resist  violence  by  violence,  because  our  Lord 
orders  him  who  is  smitten  on  one  cheek  to  offer  the 
other ;  they  also  held  it  to  be  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
Christianity  to  bring  any  one  to  justice.  They  are 
also  called  Steblevians. — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  693. 

Bad.     See  Linen'. 

Badby,  John,  an  English  mechanic,  horn  in  the 
14th  century,  and  who  fell  a  martyr  in  the  persecution 
against  the  Lollards,  whose  principles  he  had  adopted. 
He  replied  to  Arundel,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
who  was  disputing  with  him  on  transubstantiation, 
that,  were  the  Host  the  body  of  God,  there  would  be 
some  20,000  gods  in  England,  while  he  believed  but 
in  one.  He  was  burnt  at  Smithfield  in  1409,  and  re- 
mained steadfast  to  the  end. 

Badcock,  Samuel,  an  English  theologian,  born 
at  South  Molton,  Devonshire,  in  1747,  died  at  London 
in  1788.     He  was  first  a  dissenting  minister,  but  in 
1787  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England.     He  was 
a  contributor  to  the  London  Review,  Monthly  Review, 
and  several  other  periodicals.     His  review  of  Priest- 
ley's   History   of  the    Corruptions   of  Christianity   (in 
Monthly  Review,  June  and  August,  1783)  was  general- 
ly regarded  as  the  best  refutation  of  Priestley's  views. 
Priestley  answered  immediately  (".4  Reply  to  the  An- 
imadversions,  etc,    in   the    Monthly   Review  for  June, 
I  1783,"),  and  Badcock  again  replied  by  another  article 
'  in  the   Monthly  Review  (Sept.  1783)."     He  also  pub- 
|  lished  in   the   Gentleman's  Magazine,  1785,  some   me- 
'  moirs  of  the  Wesleys,  charging  them  with  Jacobitism, 
which  John  Wesley  refuted. — Allibone,  Dictionary  of 
Authors,  i,  98  ;  Jones,  Christ.  Biography,  s.  v. ;  Weslej-, 
1 1  'oris,  N.  Y.  ed.  vii.  256,  414. 

Baden,  Grand-duchy  of,  one  of  the  minor  Ger- 
man states.     See  Germany. 

I.  Church  History. — We  have  no  precise  information 
as  to  the  first  introduction  of  Christianity  into  the 
country  now  forming  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden.  The 
reports  of  the  missionary  labors  of  Fridolin  (q.  v.)  in 
the  6th  or  7th  century,  Trudprat  in  the  Breisgau  about 
640,  and  Pirmins  on  the  island  of  Reichenau,  are  large- 
ly mixed  up  with  legends.  Toward  the  beginning  of 
the  8th  century  the  majority  of  the  population  was 
(■(inverted,  principally  through  the  efforts  of  the  bish- 
ops of  Strasburg  and  Constance,  which  sees  had  been 
creeled  in  the  7th  century.  The  University  of  Heidel- 
berg, in  the  Palatinate,  was  founded  in  1386;  that  of 
Freiburg  (then  under  Austrian  rule)  in  1456,  both  of 
which  fostered  a  spirit  of  opposition  to  the  corruptions 
in  the  Church.  Under  the  influence  of  Tauler  (q.  v.) 
when  preacher  at  Strasburg,  and  of  the  writings  of  Suso 
(q.  v.),  an  association  of  pious  mystics,  the  Friends  of 
God  (<).  v.),  labored  zealously  for  evangelizing  the  low- 
er classes  of  the  people.  Among  other  illustrious  men 
who  prepared,  in  this  region,  the  way  for  the  Reforma- 
tion of  the  10th  century,  we  mention  Jerome  of  Prague, 
John  Wessel,  Keuchlin,  Agricola,  and,  later  (1511), 
Wolfgang  Capito.  Of  great  influence  was  the  visit 
of  Luther  and  his  disputation  in  April,  1518,  and  two 
years  later  be  received  assurances  of  the  approbation 
of  bis  writings  from  John  von  Botzheim  in  Constance, 
and  Caspar  Hedio  (Heyd).  Among  the  pioneers  of 
evangelical  preaching  were  Urban  Begins,  John  Eber- 
lin.  Jacob  Otter,  Erhard  Schnepf,  etc.;  among  the 
first  noblemen  who  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Ref- 


BADEN 


613 


BADER 


ormation,  the  Count  von  Wertheim  and  Goetz  von 
Berliehingen.  The  bishops  of  Mentz,  Wurzburg,  and 
Spires,  however,  opposed  the  Reformation,  especially 
after  the  promulgation  of  the  Edict  of  "Worms.  In 
Freiburg  some  2000  evangelical  books  were  burnt  in 
the  presence  of  the  minister,  and  many  Protestants, 
both  ministers  and  laymen,  had  to  flee.  In  Constance, 
however,  the  citizens  protected  the  works  of  Luther 
against  the  imperial  edict,  and  John  Wanner,  a  follow- 
er of  Luther,  became  cathedral  preacher.  In  the  Aus- 
trian part  of  Baden,  where  Anabaptist  and  revolution- 
ary movements  mixed  themselves  up  with  the  progress 
of  the,  Reformation,  the  Austrian  government  succeed- 
ed in  crushing  out  Protestantism  altogether(Dec.l525). 
After  the  Diet  of  Spires  (1521))  the  Reformation  made 
rapid  progress  in  Wertheim,  the  Lowlands  of  Baden, 
Pforzheim,  Durlach,  and  even  in  the  Palatinate  under 
the  ministry  of  John  Gailing.  Yet  the  opposition  con- 
tinued in  the  upper  countries,  and  in  Freiburg  Peter 
Speyler,  preacher  at  Schlatt,  was  drowned  in  the  111. 
In  Constance,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Reformation  was 
firmly  established  ;  clerical  celibacy  was  abolished  in 
1525,  and  the  bishops  and  chapter  were  compelled  to 
leave.  In  1530  Constance  adopted  the  Tetrapolitan 
Confession,  and  joined  the  Schmalcaldian  confederacy. 
After  Margrave  Philip's  death,  1535,  the  northern 
half  became  altogether  Protestant,  while  the  southern 
remained  Romish.  In  August,  1548,  Constance  was 
put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  for  not  accepting  the 
Interim  (q.  v.),  and  the  Romish  worship  was  re-estab- 
lished, and- persecutions  commenced  afresh,  which  did 
not  end  even  at  the  peace  of  Augsburg  (1555).  Yet 
after  that  event,  Margraves  Charles  II  of  Baden-Dur- 
lach,  Philibert  of  Baden-Baden,  and  Duke  Christopher 
of  Wiirtemberg  aided  the  progress  of  Protestantism. 
Under  the  Elector  Frederick  III  Calvinism  was  more 
particularly  favored.  In  15(31  the  elector  introduced 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  which  he  himself  had  com- 
posed with  the  aid  of  Olevianus  and  Ursinus,  in  the 
place  of  the  catechisms  of  Luther  and  Brentz.  In 
his  possessions  Calvinism  was  established,  but  in  the 
other  districts  of  Baden  Lutheranism  maintained  the 
ascendency.  The  Romish  worship  was  for  a  time  re- 
established in  Baden-Baden  by  Duke  Albrecht  of  Ba- 
varia and  Margrave  Philip,  successor  of  Philibert,  who 
joined  the  Romish  Church  in  his  fifteenth  year.  The 
contest  between  the  two  evangelical  confessions  was 
renewed  by  the  Formula  Concordia;  (q.  v.),  till  a  union 
was  effected  in  1821  at  a  synod  of  the  clergy  and  laity 
of  both  the  churches.  Since  1834,  when  the  General 
Synod  met  again  for  the  first  time,  this  union  has  been 
confirmed  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  catechism,  a 
new  agenda  (q.  v.),  and  a  new  hymn-book.  In  1843  a 
supreme  ecclesiastical  council  was  created  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The  greater  por- 
tion of  the  clergy  and  people  were  pleased  with  the 
union  :  only  a  small  body  of  Lutherans -demanded  the 
maintenance  of  the  pure  doctrines  and  practices  of 
their  church  ;  and  when  they  saw  that  their  wishes 
could  not  be  gratified  in  the  State  Church,  they  se- 
ceded. Several  years  of  persecution,  however,  passed 
before  the}'  succeeded  in  obtaining  legal  recognition  as 
a  Lutheran  Church.  Within  the  State  Church,  in 
which,  at  the  conclusion  of  this  union,  Rationalism  pre- 
vailed, and  was  taught  by  men  like  Paulus  (q.  v.),  a 
hot  contest  arose  between  the  Rationalistic  and  evan- 
gelical parties.  The.'  General  Synod  of  1857  resolved 
to  introduce  after  1859  a  new  agenda,  in  which  the  lit- 
urgical part  of  divine  service  is  considerably  enlarged 
and  the  forms  of  prayer  greatly  changed  (see  Bahr, 
Das  Badische  Kirchenbuch,  Carlsruhe,  1859).  About 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  the  more  cultivated 
of  the  Roman  clergy  of  Baden,  under  the  guidance  of 
such  men  asWessenberg  (q.v.),  proposed  many  liberal 
reforms.  Indeed  a  large  portion  of  the  priesthood  de- 
manded the  abolition  of  celibacy,  the  introduction  of 
the  German  language  at  divine  service,  the  convoca- 


tion of  diocesan  synods  with  lay  delegations,  and  oth- 
er reforms.  The  government  desired  to  make  Wes- 
senberg  the  first  archbishop  of  the  newly-erected  see 
of  Freiburg,  but  could  not  obtain  the  papal  confirma- 
tion. A  reaction  in  favor  of  ultramontane  views  com- 
menced under  the  Archbishop  Vicari  (1844),  and  in 
1853  a  violent  contest  began  between  State  and  Church. 
The  priests  received  one  class  of  directions  from  the 
archbishop,  and  another  from  the  supreme  ecclesiastical 
council  of  the  state.  Some  priests  were  arrested  for 
siding  with  the  archbishop,  others  were  suspended  ec- 
clesiastically for  obeying  the  government.  The  arch- 
bishop excommunicated  the  members  of  the  Catholic 
supreme  ecclesiastical  council,  and  was  himself  arrest- 
ed in  1854.  The  Legislature  unwaveringly  supported 
the  government,  which,  however,  showed  itself  anxious 
to  conclude  a  compromise  with  the  archbishop.  Ne- 
gotiations with  Rome  concerning  a  convention  (con- 
cordat) were  eagerly  pursued  in  1855,  but  Avere  not 
concluded  before  1859.  The  convention  with  Rome 
created  a  great  deal  of  dissatisfaction  among  the  peo- 
ple ;  the  Chambers  in  1860  decidedly  refused  to  ratify 
it,  and  it  was  at  length  abandoned  by  the  government 
also.    .  See  Concordat. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — The  number  of  Roman 
Catholics  was,  in  1864,  933,476;  of  members  of  the 
Evangelical  Church,  472,258  ;  of  Mennonites  and  other 
dissidents,  2554  ;  of  Israelites,  25,263.  The  Evangeli- 
cal Church  is  divided  into  28  dioceses  (deaneries)  and 
330  parishes.  All  the  pastors  of  a  diocese,  with  half 
the  number  of  lay  deputies  of  the  local  church  coun- 
cils, meet  ever}-  third  year  in  a  synod.  In  the  year 
after  the  meeting  of  a  synod,  all  the  clergymen  of  a 
diocese  meet  under  the  presidency  of  the  dean  for  the 
discussion  of  moral  questions ;  and  in  the  third  year 
a  school  convention  is  held  in  a  similar  manner  for 
discussing  the  affairs  of  the  primary  schools,  which  in 
Baden,  as  in  every  German  state,  have  a  denomina- 
tional character,  and  are  subject  to  the  control  of  the 
clergy.  The  General  Synod  meets  regularly  every 
seventh  year,  but  may  at  any  time  be  convoked  by 
order  of  the  grand-duke.  Every  two  dioceses  elect  a 
clerical  delegate,  and  every  four  dioceses  a  lay  dele- 
gate. The  grand-duke  adds  to  this  number  of  dele- 
gates two  clerical  and  two  lay  members  of  the  supreme 
ecclesiastical  council,  one  professor  of  the  theological 
faculty  of  Heidelberg,  and  a  commissary  Avho  pre- 
sides. A  theological  faculty  is  connected  with  the 
University  of  Heidelberg:  it  has  counted  among  its 
members  some  of  the  most  distinguished  theologians 
of  Germany,  such  as  Rothe,  Schenkel,  Umbreit,  and 
Ullmann.  The  two  latter  are  known  in  the  literary 
world  as  the  founders  of  the  best  German  theological 
quarterly,  the  Studien  and  Kritihen.  Connected  with 
the  theological  faculty  is  also  an  evangelical  Preach- 
ers' Seminary,  at  which  every  native  candidate  for  the 
ministry  must  spend  one  year.  For  the  training  of 
teachers  there  is  a  Protestant  Normal  School.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  under  the  Archbishop  of  Frei- 
burg, has  35  deaneries,  with  747  parishes,  2  normal 
schools,  and  a  theological  faculty  connected  with  the 
University  of  Freiburg.  The  liberal  school  among  the 
Roman  clergy  is  dying  out.  A  theological  quarterly 
was  for  some  years  published  by  the  theological  fac- 
ulty of  Freiburg,  but  is  discontinued.  The  most  cel- 
ebrated Roman  theologians  in  the  present  century 
have  been  Hug  and  Hirscher;  a  Romanist  wrriter  of 
great  influence  among  the  people  is  Alban  Stolz.  Some 
convents  of  nuns  have  been  established  since  1848. 
The  Lutheran  seceders  from  the  State  Church  (old 
Lutheran  Church)  had,  in  1859,  three  parishes  with 
about  900  members.  The  principal  work  on  the  his- 
tory of  Protestantism  in  Baden  is  Vierordt,  Geschichte 
der  Evang<  lischm  Kirche  in  Baden.  See  also  Wiggers, 
Kirchl.  Statist!/.-,  ii,  203,  207  ;  Schem,  Eccles.  Year-book 
for  1859,  p.  115  sq.,  and  p.  203. 

Bader,  Johannes,  one  of  the  German  reformers 


BADGER  6 

of  the  10th  century,  was  born  about  1490.  He  was 
the  tutor  of  Duke  Ludwig  II  of  Zweibrucken,  and  sub- 
sequently (after  1518)  pastor  of  Landau,  a  town  in  the 
I',  ivarian  Palatinate.  He  adhered  to  the  Reformation 
in  1521,  and  worked  for  its  introduction  into  Landau 
with  such  zeal  and  success,  that  at  the  time  of  his 
death  only  a  few  canons  and  monks  of  the  Augus- 
tine convent  remained  in  connection  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  Bader  was  one  of  the  first  reform- 
er- who  published  an  outline  of  the  doctrines  held  by 
the  reformed  churches  (E'm  Gesprach-Buchlein  vom 
Anfange  d,s  christlichen  Lebens,  Strasburg,  1526)  sev- 
eral years  before  the  appearance  of  Luther's  cate- 
chisms.  In  1527  he  wrote  a  pamphlet  against  the 
Anabaptists,  and  especially  against  the  learned  Denck. 
His  views  on  the  Lord's  Supper  were  nearly  the  same 
as  those  of  Zuinglius  and  Biicer,  and  a  tabular  sum- 
mary of  them  [S'liiiiiitiriiiii)  und  Rechenschaft  vom 
Oil  unseres  //■mi  J.  <_'.')  was  printed  in  1533  at 
Sflfasbnrg  on  one  side  of  a  folio  sheet.  He  was,  in 
general,  like  his  friend  Bucer,  for  a  reconciliation  of 
the  reformatory  parties.  In  later  years  Bader  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  Schwenkfeld,  who  visited  him  at 
Landau,  and  most  of  his  friends  at  Strasburg  and 
Zweibrucken  were  on  this  account  greatly  displeased 
with  him.  Bader  died  in  August,  1545. — Herzog, 
/:  al-Encyklopadie,  supplem.  i,  1G0. 

Badger  is  the  interpretation  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of 
t!i"  word  "l'~n,  lack' ask  (Ezek.  xvi,  10;  Sept.  Cipria- 
ni vciKivQiva  ;  Aid.  ed.  iavdiva  ;  Compl.  vc'ivBiva,  al. 
imrvpiDixtva  in  Exod.  xxv,  5  ;  Alex,  cipjiara  ciyia 
in  Exod.  xxxv,  7;  viikivOoc,  Aq.  and  Sym.  iavdiva 
in  Ezek.  xvi,  10;  Vulg.  pelles  ianthinie,  ianthinus)  •  but 
many  doubt  its  correctness,  since  the  badger  is  not 
found  in  Southern  Asia,  and  has  not  as  yet  been  no- 
ticed out  of  Europe.  The  word  occurs  in  the  plural 
firm  in  Exod.  xxv,  5;  xxvi,  14;  xxxv,  7,  23;  xxxvi, 
19;  xxxix,  34;  Nam. iv,  6,  8, 10, 11, 12, 14,  25 ;  and, 
in  connection  with  tV\3,  oroth',  "skins,"  is  used  to 
d  snote  the  covering  of  the  Tabernacle,  of  the  Ark  of 
the  ( lovenant,  and  of  other  sacred  vessels.  In  Ezek. 
xvi,  10,  it  indicates  the  material  of  which  the  shoes  of 
Women  wen-  made.     Possibly  the  Latin  taxus  or  taxo, 

th riginal  of  the  Spanish  taxon,  Ital.  tasso,  Fr.  tais- 

sm,  Germ,  docks,  is  the  same  word  as  taehash;  and 
these  designate  the  badger.  This,  however,  appears 
to  I"-  the  only  support  for  the  rendering  "badger" 
(pieles  taxus)  besides  that  of  the  Chaldee  paraphrast 
(NJISDD,  "taxus,  sic  dictus  quia  gaudet  et  superbit  in 
coloribus  multis,"  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Rab.  s.  v.).  See  Zo- 
OLOGY. 


The  ancienl  interpreters  understand  by  it  a  color 
Sept.  vaKivSiva:  so  Aquila 
Bymmachns,  and  the  Syriac,  which  are  followed  by 
Bocharl  (Iheroz.  ii, 387),  I;..  enmuller  (Schol  ad  V  T 
Exod.  xxk.-,;    Ezek.  xvi.  10),  Bynaus   ,  ,/.    Cdcek 
Utbrwomm,  hb.  i,  ch.  :;;.  Scheuchzer  (I'hys.  Sacr  in 


4  BADGER 

Exod.  xxv,  5),  and  others.  Parkhurst  (Heb.  Lex. 
s.  v.),  ohsarves  that  "an  outermost  covering  for  the 
tabernacle  of  azure  or  sky-blue  was  very  proper  to 
represent  the  sky  or  azure  boundary  of  the  system." 
But  this  is  mere  conjecture.  The  Talmudists  say  that 
it  is  an  animal  like  a  weasel.  Others,  as  Gesner  and 
Harenberg  (in  Mus;eo  Brem.  ii,  312),  have  thought 
that  some  kind  of  wolf,  known  by  the  Greek  name 
&.jc,  and  the  Arabic  Shaghul  is  intended.  Hasaeus 
(in  Dissert.  Philolog.  Sylloge.  diss,  ix,  §  17)  and  Bus- 
ching,  in  his  preface  to  the  Epitome  of  Scheuchzer's 
Physica  Sacra,  are  of  opinion  that  taehash  denotes  a 
cetacean  animal,  the  Trickechus  manatus  of  Linnoeus, 
which,  however,  is  only  found  in  America  arid  the 
West  Indies.  Others,  with  Sebald  Rau  {Comment,  de 
iis  quae,  ex  Arab,  in  usum  Tabernac.  fucrunt  repetila, 
Traj;  ad  Rhen.  1753,  ch.  ii),  are  in  favor  of  taehash  rep- 
resenting some  kind  of  seal  (Phoca  vitulina,  Lin.).  Dr. 
Geddes  (Crit.  Hem.  Exod.  xxv,  5)  is  of  the  same  opin- 
ion. Gesenius  understands  (Heb.  Lex.  s.  v.)  some 
'•  kind  of  seal  or  badger,  or  other  similar  (!)  creature." 
Of  modern  writers  Dr.  Kitto  (Pict.  Bibl.  on  Exod.  xxv, 
5)  thinks  that  taehash  denotes  some  clean  animal,  as 
in  all  probability  the  skin  of  an  unclean  animal  would 
not  have  been  used  for  the  sacred  coverings.  The 
corresponding  Arabic  word  is  not  only  a  dolphin,  but 
also  a  seal,  and  seals  (?)  were  numerous  on  the  shores 
of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  (Strab.  xvi,  776).  The  ety- 
mology of  the  word  in  Heb.  is  favorable  to  this  view, 
from  the  root  Hun,  chashah',  to  rest;  and  seals  no  less 
than  badgers  are  somnolent  animals.  (See  Simonis 
Exercitatio  de  CJnin,  Hal.  1735.)  Maurer,  however 
(Comment,  in  Exod.),  derives  it  from  the  root  'i'ljp, 
taehash',  to  penetrate,  a  notion  which  suits  the  burrow- 
ing of  the  badger  as  well  as  the  plunging  of  the  seal. 
Pliny  (ii,  56)  mentions  the  use  of  the  skins  of  seals  as 
a  covering  for  tents,  and  as  a  protection  from  light- 
ning. (Comp.  Pint.  Symp.  v,  9;  Sueton.  Oct.iv.  90; 
Faber,  Archaol.  Hebr.  i,  115.)  The  taehash  has  also 
been  identified  with  the  Trickechus  marlnus  of  Lin- 
na?us,  and  with  the  sea-cow  called  lamantin  or  dugnng. 
Others  find  it  in  an  animal  of  the  hyena  kind,  which 
is  called  by  the  Arabs  tahesh  (Botta's  Voyage  in  Yemen, 
1841).  Robinson  (Researches,  i,  171)  mentions  sandals 
made  of  the  thick  skin  of  a  fish  which  is  caught  in  the 
Red  Sea.  It  is  a  species  of  halicore,  named  by  Ehren- 
berg  (Symb.  f:hys.  ii)  Halicora  Ilempriehii.  The  skin 
is  clumsy  and  coarse,  and  might  answer  very  well  for 
the  external  covering  of  the  Tabernacle.  According 
to  Ehrenberg,  the  Arab's  on  the  coast  call  this  animal 
NaJsa  and  Lottnm.  Arabian  naturalists  applied  the 
term  ensan  alma,  "man  of  the  sea,"  to  this  creature. 
Thevenot  speaks  of  a  kind  of  sea-man,  which  is  taken 
near  the  port  of  Tor.  "  It  is  a  great  strong  fish,  and 
hath  two  hands,  which  are  like  the  hands  of  a  man, 
saving  that  the  fingers  are  joined  together  with  a  skin, 
like  the  foot  of  a  goose  ;  but  the  skin  of  the  fish  is  like 
the  skin  of  a  wild  goat  or  chamois.  "When  they  spy 
that  fish,  they  strike  him  on  the  back  with  harping 
irons,  as  they  do  whales,  and  so  kill  him.  They  use 
the  skin  of  it  for  making  bucklers,  which  arc  musket- 
proof."  Niebuhr  adds  the  information  that  "a  mer- 
chant of  Abushahr  called  dakash  that  fish  which  the 
captains  of  English  ships  call  porpoise."  The  same 
traveler  reports  that  he  saw  prodigious  schools  of  these 
animals  swimming.  Professor  Etippell  (Mns.  Send-. 
i.  113,  t.  6),  who  saw  the  creature  on  the  coral  banks 
of  the  Abyssinian  coast,  ascertained  by  personal  ex- 
amination that  the  creature  in  question  was  a  sort  of 
dugong,  a  genus  of  marine  Pachydermata,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  Halicore  tabemaculi,  from  a  convic- 
tion that  it  was  the  taehash  of  Moses.  It  grows  to 
eighteen  feet  in  length.      See  WhAUB. 

"  In  the  present  state  of  zoological  knowledge,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  necessary  to  refute  the  notions  that 
taehash  was  the  naino  of  a  mermaid  or  homo-marinus, 


BADGEU 


615 


BAG 


Halicore  Tabernaculi,  with  enlarged  drawiug  of  the  head. 

or  of  ths  walrus,  a  Polar  animal,  or  of  the  dugong  or 
seal,  for  neither  of  these  is  known  in  the  Indian,  Red, 
or  Persian  Seas,  and  there  is  little  probability  that  in 
remote  ages  they  frequented  the  south-east  extremity 
of  the  Mediterranean,  where  the  current  sweeps  all 
things  northward ;  still  less  that  they  nestled  in  the 
lakes  of  the  Delta,  where  crocodiles  then  abounded. 
But  Niebuhr's  hint  respecting  the  name  tackash,  given, 
with  some  reference  to  colors,  to  a  species  of  delphinus 
or  porpoise,  by  the  Arabs  near  Cape  Mussendum,  may 
deserve  consideration,  since  the  same  people  still  make 
small  rounded  bucklers  and  soles  of  sandals  of  the 
koufs  skin,  which  is  a  cetaceous  animal,  perhaps  iden- 
tical with  Niebuhr's.  This  material  might  have  been 
obtained  from  the  caravan-traders  of  Yemen,  or  from 
the  Ismaelites  of  Edom,  but  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  litted  for  other  purposes  than  pack-saddles  and 
sandal-soles.  Considering  tackash,  therefore,  not  to  in- 
dicate a  color,  but  the  skin  of  an  animal,  which  may 
have  derived  its  name  from  its  color,  probablj-  deep 
gray,  ash,  or  slaty  (hysr/huis),  we  must  look  for  the  ob- 
ject in  question  to  the  zoology  of  the  region  around,  or 
to  places  accessible  by  means  of  the  traders  and  trib- 
ute importations  of  raw  materials  in  Egypt,  where  we 
actually  observe  leopard  or  panther  skins,  and  others 
of  a  smaller  animal  with  a  long  fox-tail,  represented 
in  the  triumphal  procession  ofThothmes  III  at  Thebes 
(Wilkinson's  A nc.  Egyptians,  i,  pi.  4).  These  may  have 
been  of  a  canine  genus,  such  as  the  agriodus,  or  mega- 
lotis  Lalandii,  which  is  actually  iron-gray ;  or  of  a 
viverrous  species,  of  which  there  are  many  in  Africa 
both  gray  and  spotted.  Still  these  are  unclean  ani- 
mals, and  for  this  reason  we  turn  to  another  view  of 
the  case,  which  may  prove  the  most  satisfactory  that 
can  now  be  obtained.     Negroland  and  Central  and 


The  Taehaitze  (.Antilope  Darbata). 


Eastern  Africa  contain  a  number  of  ruminating  ani- 
mals of  the  great  antelope  family ;  they  are  known 
to  the  natives  under  various  names,  such  as  pacasse, 
empacasse,  tkacasse,  facasse,  and  tachaitze,  all  more  or 
less  varieties  of  the  word  tackash ;  they  are  of  consid- 
erable size,  often  of  slaty  and  purple-gray  colors,  and 
might  be  termed  stag-goats  and  ox-goats.  Of  these 
one  or  more  occur  in  the  hunting-scenes  on  Egyptian 
monuments,  and  therefore  we  may  conclude  that  the 
skins  were  accessible  in  abundance,  and  may  have 
been  dressed  with  the  hair  on  for  coverings  of  bag- 
gage, and  for  boots,  such  as  we  see  worn  by  the  human 
figures  in  the  same  processions.  Thus  we  have  the 
greater  number  of  the  conditions  of  the  question  suf- 
ficiently realized  to  enable  us  to  draw  the  inference 
that  tackash  refers  to  a  ruminant  of  the  Aigocerine  or 
Damaline  groups,  most  likely  of  an  iron-gray  or  slaty- 
colored  species"  (Kitto,  s.  v.).     See  Antelope. 

Bag,  a  purse  or  pouch.  The  following  words  in 
the  original  are  thus  rendered  in  the  English  version 
of  the  Bible:  1.  D^M,  charit',  a  pocket  (Sept.  QvXa- 
koc,  Vulg.  saccus),  the  "  bags"  in  which  Naaman 
bound  up  the  two  talents  of  silver  for  Gehazi  (2  Kings 
v,  23),  probably  so  called,  according  to  Gesenius,  from 
their  long,  cone-like  shape.  The  word  only  occurs  be- 
sides in  Isa.  iii,  22  (A.  V.  "  erisping-pins"),  and  there 
denotes  the  reticules  carried  by  the  Hebrew  ladies.  2. 
Dn3,  Ms  (Sept.  fu'lfxnTrTroc,  pafjuinrioi',  Vulg.  saccuhts, 
saccellus),  a  bag  for  carrying  weights  (Deut.  xxv,  13  ; 
Prov.  xvi,  11 ;  Mic,  vi,  11) ;  also  used  as  a  purse  (Prov. 
i,  14 ;  Isa.  xlvi,  6)  ,  hence  a  cup  (Prov.  xxiii,  31).  3. 
1^3,  Mi'  (Sept.  kuCwv,  Vulg.  pera),  translated  "  bag'' 
in  1  Sam.  xvii,  40,  49,  is  a  word  of  most  general  mean- 
ing, and  is  generally  rendered  "vessel"  or  "instru- 
ment." In  Gen.  xlii,  25,  it  is  the  "sack"  in  which 
Jacob's  sons  carried  the  corn  which  they  brought 
from  Egypt,  and  in  1  Sam.  ix.  7 ;  xxi,  5,  it  denotes  a 
bag  or  wallet  for  carrying  iood  (A.  V.  "vessel;" 
compare  Judg.  x,  5  ;  xiii,  10,  15).  The  shepherd's 
"  bag"  which  David  had  seems  to  have  been  worn  by 
him  as  necessary  to  his  calling,  and  was  probably, 
from  a  comparison  of  Zech.  xi,  15,  1G  (where  A.  V. 
"instruments"  is  the  same  word),  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  the  lambs  which  were  unable  to  walk  or 
were  lost,  and  contained  materials  for  healing  such  as 
were  sick  and  binding  up  those  that  were  broken 
(comp.  Ezek.  xxxiv,  4, 16).  4.  11*121,  tseror'  (Sept.  h- 
tW/toc,  Smt/.i<)£,  Vulg.  saccuhis),  properly  a  "bundle" 
(Gen.  xlii,  35 ;  1  Sam.  xxv,  29),  appears  to  have  been 
used  by  travellers  for  carrying  money  during  a  long, 
journey  (Prov.  vii,  20;  Hag.  i,  6;  compare  Luke  xii, 
33 ;  Tob.  ix,  5).  In  such  "  bundles"  the  priests  bound 
up  the  money  which  was  contributed  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Temple  under  Jehoiada  (2  Kings  xii,  10 ; 
A.  V.  "put  up  in  bags").  5.  The  "bag"  (yXwffffOKO- 
fiof,  Vulg.  loculi)  which  Judas  carried  was  probably 
a  small  box  or  chest  (John  xii,  G ;  xiii,  29).  The 
Greek  word  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  Sept.  for 
"chest"  in  2  Chron.  xxiv,  8, 10, 11,  and  originally  sig- 
nified a  box  used  by  musicians  for  carrying  the  mouth- 
pieces of  their  instruments,  6.  The  (3a\avTtov,  or  wal- 
let (Luke  x,  4  ;  xii,  33 ;  xxii,  35, 36).  Of  these  terms  it 
will  only  be  necessary  here  to  discuss  one  application, 
which  they  all  sustain,  i.  e.  as  a  receptacle  for  money. 
The  money  deposited  in  the  treasuries  of  Eastern 
princes,  or  intended  for  large  payments,  or  to  lie  sent 
to  a  government  as  taxes  or  tribute,  is  collected  in 
long,  narrow  bags  or  purses,  each  containing  a  certain 
amount  of  money,  and  sealed  with  the  official  seal. 
As  the  money  is  counted  for  this  purpose,  and  sealed 
with  great  care  by  officers  properly  appointed,  the  bag 
or  purse  passes  current,  as  long  as  the  seal  remains 
unbroken,  for  the  amount  marked  thereon.  In  the 
receipt  and  payment  of  large  sums,  this  is  a  great  and 
important  convenience  in  countries  where  the  manage- 


BAGGER 


61G 


BAHURIM 


Ancient  Egyptian  Money-bags. 


ment  of  large  transactions  by  paper  is  unknown,  or 
where  a  currency  is  chiefly  or  wholly  of  silver;  it 
Baves  the  great  trouble  of  counting  or  weighing  loose 
money.  This  usage  is  so  well  established  that,  at  this 
daw  in  the  Levant,  "a  purse"  is  the  very  name  for  a 
certain  amount  of  money  (now  twenty -five  dollars), 
and  all  large  payments  are  stated  in  "purses."  The 
antiquity  of  this  cus- 
tom is  attested  by  the 
monuments  ofEgypt, 
in  which  the  ambas- 
sadors of  distant  na- 
tions are  represented 
as  bringing  their  trib- 
utes in  sealed  bags  of 
money  to  Thothmes 
III;  and  we  see  the 
same  bags  deposited  intact  in  the  royal  treasury  (Wil- 
kinson, i,  148,  abridgm.).  When  coined  money  was 
not  used,  the  seal  must  have  been  considered  a  vouch- 
er not  only  for  the  amount,  but  for  the  purity  of  the 
metal.  The  money  collected  in  the  Temple,  in  the 
time  of  Joash,  seems  to  have  been  made  up  into  bags 
of  equal  value  after  this  fashion,  which  were  probably 
delivered  sealed  to  those  who  paid  the  workmen  (2 
Kings,  xii,  10 ;  comp.  also  2  Kings  v,  23 ;  Tobit  ix,  5 ; 
xi,lG).— Smith,  Append. ;  Kitto,  s.  v.    See  Money. 

Bagger,  Hans  Olesan,  a  Danish  theologian,  born 
at  Lund  in  1646,  became  bishop  of  Zealand  in  1675, 
and  died  at  Copenhagen  in  1693.  He  is  the  author  of 
the  Danish  Church-Ritual,  which  was  introduced  in 
16^6,  and  of  a  revised  altar-book,  both  of  which  are 
still  in  use  in  the  Danish  Church.  Being  consulted 
by  tin-  Danish  government  as  to  whether  the  interest 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  allowed  the  admission  to  Den- 
mark of  the  French  Calvinists,  who  had  been  expelled 
by  Louis  XIV,  he  answered  in  the  negative,  because 
such  an  admission  "would  expose  the  souls  of  the  Lu- 
therans to  temptation  and  to  the  risk  of  everlasting 
d  initiation." — Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Ba'go  (Bayw).  the  head  of  one  of  the  Israelitish 
families  ("sons"),  to  which  is  assigned  the  Uthi,  son 
of  Istalcuriorus,  who  returned  from  the  captivity  (1 
Efldr.  viii,  40);  evidently  the  Bigvai  (q.  v.)  of  the 
true  text  (  Ezra  viii,  14). 

Bago'as  (Baywac),  the  eunuch  (or  chamberlain) 
who  had  charge  of  the  tent  of  Ilolofernes,  and  intro- 
duced Judith  (Jud.  xii,  11, 13, 15;  xiii,  1,  3;  xiv,  14). 
The  name  is  said  (Pott,  Etymol.  Forsch.  I,  xxxvii)  to 
be  equivalent  to  eunuch  in  Persian  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat. 
.xiii,  4,  9),  and,  as  such,  was  probably  a  title  of  office 
rather  than  a  personal  appellation  (see  Quintil.v,  12; 
comp.  Burmann  ad  Ovid.  Am.  ii,  2,1).  Accordingly, 
we  find  the  name  often  recurring  in  Eastern  history 
(see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.)  even  so  late  as 
that  of  tin-  chief  eunuch  of  Herod's  harem,  who  was 
put  to  death  for  intriguing  with  the  Pharisees  (Jose- 
phus,  Ant,  xvii,  2,4  ad  I'm.). 

Bag'oi  (Bayot),  one  of  the  Israelitish  family  beads, 
whose  -son-"  (to  the  number  of  2066)  returned  from 
I  l  Esdr  v.  1 1 ) ;  evidently  the  Bigvai  (q.  v.) 
of  the  Heb.  text  (Ezra  ii,  14). 

Bagoses  (Bayuwjc),  the  general  of  Artaxerxcs 
(probably  Mnemon;  the  text,  as  emended  by  Hudson, 
has  roS  aA  <ov  ipra&pEou  \ .  v.  rov  "  \\i>"  '  Ipr.)  ;  he 
ously  entered  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and 
Imposed  oppressive  taxes  upon  the  Jews  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xi.7,  1,.  '        ' 

Bagot,  Lewis,  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England, 
was  born  in  1,  10.  He  was  a  gon  ofLord  Bagot.  After 
studying  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  be  became  a 
canon,  and  late,-,  successively  bishop  of  Bristol,  Nor- 
wich, and  St.  Asaph,     lb-  died  in  1802.     He  is  the  ;ui. 

♦hoi-  of  mi reus  theological  works,  the  mosl  important 

of  which  ia  Twelve  Discovnei  on  tht  Prophecies  concern? 


i  ing  flic  first  Establishment  and  subsequent  nistory  of 
Christianity,  preached  at  the  Warburtonian  Lecture,  in 
Lincoln's  Inn  Chapel,  1780. — Allibone,  Dictionary  of 
Authors,  i,  99;  Hoefer,  Biographie  Ginirale,  iv,  168. 

Bagsliaw,  William,  a  Nonconformist  minister, 
was  born  in  1628,  and  died  in  1702.  His  zeal  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Derbyshire  acquired  for  him  the  title 
of  "the  Apostle  of  the  Peak."  He  published  Water 
for  a  Thirsty  Soul,  in  several  sermons  on  Rev.  xxi,  6 
(1653),  and  a  number  of  other  works.  Some  50  of  his 
works,  upon  various  subjects,  have  never  been  printed. 
— Allibone,  Die  ionary  of  Authors,  i,  99. 

Baha'rumite  (Heb.  with  the  art.  hab-Bacharuml' , 
"^"iPtan  ;  Sept.  6  Bapo-api  v.  r.  Bapw///),  an  epithet 
of  Azmaveth,  one  of  David's  warriors  (1  Chron.  xi, 
33)  ;  doubtless  as  being  a  native  of  Bahurim  (q.  v.). 

Bahat.     See  Marble. 

Bahr,  Joseph  Friedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  in  1713,  and  died  in  1775.  He  became,  in 
1739,  deacon  at  Bischofswerda ;  in  1741,  pastor  at 
Schbnfeld ;  and,  after  filling  several'  other  church  po- 
sitions, finally  became  superintendent.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works  against  the  Socinians,  Abhandlung 
cler  reinen  Lehre  unserer  ecangelischen  Kirehe  von  der 
Sterblichheil  und  dem  leiblichen  Tode  des  menschlichen 
Geschlechtes :  a  life  of  Christ  (Lebensgeschichte  Jesu 
Christi),  1772. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  iv,  172. 

Bahrdt,  Charles  Frederick,  a  German  Ration, 
alist,  notorious  alike  for  his  bold  infidelity  and  for  his 
evil  life,  was  born  in  1741  at  Bischofswerda.  He  stud- 
ied at  Pforta  and  at  Leipzig,  where  his  father  .was  pro- 
fessor of  theology.  The  old  Lutheran  faith  was  still 
taught  there ;  but  Ernesti  was  one  of  the  professors, 
and  a  new  era  was  dawning.  Bahrdt  first  imbibed 
Crusius's  (q.  v.)  philosophical  orthodoxy.  In  1701  he 
became  master,  and  began  to  lecture,  and  did  it  flu- 
ently and  with  applause,  on  dogmatic  theology.  He 
soon  became  very  popular,  also,  from  his  eloquence  in 
the  pulpit.  In  1708  he  was  compelled  to  resign  as 
professor  ext.  of  theology  on  account  of  a  charge  of 
adulter}',  and  it  is  clear  that  even  thus  early  he  was 
leading  a  very  immoral  life.  Through  the  influence 
of  Klotz,  a  man  of  kindred  spirit,  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  Biblical  archaeology  at  Erfurt;  but  he  soon 
fell  into  ill  repute  there,  and  next  obtained  a  chair  at 
Giessen.  Here  he  abandoned  the  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity  and  the  Atonement,  and  published  several 
books  which  brought  down  the  wrath  even  of  Semler 
(q.  v.).  After  many  wanderings  to  and  fro  in  search 
of  fame  and  wealth,  of  which  he  was  always  greedy, 
yet  always  poor,  he  returned  to  Halle  in  1779.  His 
career  here  for  ten  years  was  erratic  and  disgraceful ; 
he  wrote  books,  lectured  when  he  could  get  hearers, 
and  opened  a  tavern  in  a  vineyard,  with  the  assistance 
of  his  maid,  who  lived  with  him  as  his  wife,  though 
his  own  good  wife  was  yet  alive.  In  1787  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  one  year  in  a  fortress.  In  1792  he  died. 
He  was  the  living  type  and  illustration  of  the  vulgar 
rationalism  of  his  age.  His  writings  were  -ery  nu- 
merous (nearly  150  in  number),  but  are  of  no  critical 
or  theological  value,  and  therefore  need  not  be  enu- 
merated.— Kahnis,  German  Protestantism,  ch.  ii,  p. 
130;  Hurst,  History  of  Rationalism,  p.  139-142. 

Bahu'rim  (Heb.  Bachurirn,  O^Fia,  or  [in  2 
Sam.  iii,  1G  ;  xix,  17]  fi'H^na,  low  grounds,  otherwise 
young  mi  u's  village  ;  Sept.  B«o»'pi//,but  Ba\ovpifi  [v.  r. 
Bapaicifi]  in  2  Sam.  iii,  16;  Josephus  Baxovprje,  Ant, 
vii,  9,7,  ed.  Havercamp ;  for  other  var.  readings,  see 
Reland,  Potest,  p.  611),  a  place  not  far  from  Jerusa- 
lem, of  which  the  slight  notices  remaining  connect  it 
almost  exclusively  with  the  flight,  of  David  (q.  v.)from 
his  son  Absalom  (q.  v.).  It  was  apparently  on  or  close 
to  the  road  leading  up  from  the  Jordan  valley  to  Jeru- 
salem. Shimei,  the  son  of  Gera,  resided  here  (2  Sam. 
I  xvii,  18;  1  Kings  ii,  8),  and  from  the  village,  when 


BAIER 


617 


BAILLIE 


David,  having  left  the  "  top  of  the  mount"  behind  him, 
•was  making  his  way  down  the  eastern  slopes  of  Olivet 
into  the  Jordan  valley  below,  Shimei  issued  forth,  and 
running  along  (Josephus  StaTpkxwv)  on  the  side  or 
"rib"  of  the  hill  over  against  the  king's  party,  flung 
his  stones  and  dust,  and  foul  abuse  (xvi,  5),  with  a 
virulence  which  is  to  this  day  exhibited  in  the  East 
toward  fallen  greatness,  however  eminent  it  may  pre- 
viously have  been.  Here  in  the  court  of  a  house  was 
the  well  in  which  Jonathan  and  Ahimaaz  eluded  their 
pursuers  (xvii,  18).  In  his  account  of  the  occurrence, 
Josephus  (Ant.  vii,  9,  7)  distinctly  states  that  Bahurim 
lay  oft'  the  main  road  (7r«iffc  ticrpairevrtg  rijc  u/JoiJ), 
which  agrees  well  with  the  account  of  Shimei's  be- 
havior. Here  Phaltiel,  the  husband  of  Miehal,  bade 
farewell  to  his  wife  on  her  return  to  king  David  at 
Hebron  (2  Sam.  iii,  16).  Bahurim  must  have  been 
near  the  southern  boundary  of  Benjamin ;  but  it  is 
not  mentioned  in  the  lists  in  Joshua,  nor  is  any  expla- 
nation given  of  its  being  Benjamite,  as,  from  Shimei's 
residing  there,  we  may  conclude  it  was.  In  the  Tar- 
gum  Jonathan  on  2  Sam.  xvi,  5,  we  find  it  given  as 
Almon  (""2?") ;  but  the  situation  of  Almon  (see  Josh. 
xxi,  18)  will  not  at  all  suit  the  requirements  of  Bahu- 
rim. Dr.  Barclay  conjectures  that  the  place  lay  where 
some  ruins  (apparently  those  called  Kubbeh  on  Van  de 
Velde's  Map,  near  the  remains  of  Deir  es-Sid,  as  in 
Robinson's  Researches,  ii,  109)  still  exist  close  to  a  Wa- 
dy  Ruwaby,  which  runs  in  a  straight  course  for  three 
miles  from  Olivet  toward  Jordan,  offering  the  near- 
est, though  not  the  best  route  (City  of  the  Great  King, 
p.  563). 

Azmaveth  "the  Barhumite"  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  31),  or 
"the  Baharumite"  (1  Chron.  xi,  33),  one  of  the  heroes 
of  David's  guard,  is  the  only  native  of  Bahurim  that 
we  hear  of  except  Shimei. — Smith,  s.  v. 

Baier,  John  William,  a  Lutheran  divine,  born  at 
Nuremberg  in  16-17.  He  was  a  member  of  several 
German  universities,  and  rector  and  theological  pro- 
fessor of  the  University  of  Halle,  where  he  died  in 
1694.  He  wrote,  Compendium  Tkeologice  Positives  (Jena, 
1686,  8vo,  often  reprinted) : — De  Purgatorio  (Jena,  1677, 
4to) : — De  A  qua  lustrali  Pontificiorum  (Jena,  1692,  4to)  : 
— Collatio  doctrinal  Quackerurum  et  Protestantium  (Jena, 
1694,  4to).—Biog.  Univ.  iii,  223  ;  Winer,  Thtol.  Litera- 
tur. — Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Bail  (Heb.  S'lS,  urab' ,  to  become  surety;  Gr.  ey- 
yvaaSrai),  as  a  legal  regulation,  does  not  occur  in  the 
Mosaic  civil  polity,  nor  is  the  word  found  in  the  Auth. 
Vers,  of  the  Scriptures ;  but  the  custom  nevertheless 
prevailed  among  the  (later)  Hebrews,  as  is  evident 
from  the  many  allusions  to  it  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs. 
Indeed,  these  maxims  are  evidence  of  great  rigor  in 
the  enforcement  of  such  obligations  (Prov.  xi,  15  ;  xvii, 
18;  xxii,  26),  and  recommend  great  caution  (vi  sq.) 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  security  was  treated  quite 
as  severely  as  the  debtor  (comp.  the  Mishna,  Baba 
Bathra,  x,  7)  in  whose  stead  he  was  held  (Prov.  xx, 
16 ;  xxii,  27).  A  somewhat  milder  sentiment  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  Apocrypha  (Sir.  xxix,  17),  yet  not  with- 
out a  warning  to  prudence  (viii,  16;  xxix,  21  [24]). 
— Winer,  i,  200.     See  Surety. 

Bailey,  Jacob,  a  "frontier  missionary"  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Rowley, 
Mass.,  1731.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1755,  and 
in  1758  was  licensed  to  preach  hy  the  Congregational 
Association  at  Exeter,  N.  H.  In  1759  he  left  the  Con- 
gregational Church,  and  embarked  for  England,  to  be 
ordained  for  the  ministry  in  the  Church  of  England. 
In  March  of  the  following  year  he  was  ordained,  and 
appointed  a  missionary  of  the  "  Society  for  Propagat- 
ing the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts"  to  Pownalboro',  Me. 
He  immediately  returned  and  entered  on  his  duties. 
Taking  the  side  of  England  in  the  Revolution,  he  es- 
caped to  Halifax,  N.  S.,  in  1779.  and  labored  as  a  mis- 
sionary there  and  at  Cornwallis  until  his  death,  July 


26, 1808.    See  Bartlct,  Life  of  Rev.  Jacob  Bailey  (N.  Y. 
8vo). — Sprague,  Annals,  v,  204. 

Bailey,  John,  Congregational  minister,  was  born 
in  Lancashire,  England,  Feb.  24,  1044,  studied  under 
Dr.  J.  Harrison,  and  entered  the  ministry  at  Chester, 
1666.  As  a  Nonconformist,  he  was  imprisoned  in  Lan- 
cashire jail  for  some  time,  and  after  his  release  he 
went  to  Limerick,  Ireland,  where  he  labored  faithfully 
as  pastor  for  14  years.  The  office  of  chaplain  to  the 
Duke  of  Ormond,  with  the  promise  of  a  deanery  and 
bishopric,  was  tendered  to  him  on  condition  of  con- 
forming to  the  Established  Church,  but  he  refused. 
He  was  finally  imprisoned,  and  only  released  on  a 
promise  to  leave  the  country.  About  1684  he  came  to 
New  England,  and  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Con- 
gregational Society  at  Watertown,  October  6,  1686, 
with  his  brother,  Thomas  Bailey,  as  his  assistant.  He 
removed  to  Boston  in  1692,  and  became  assistant  to 
Mr.  Allen,  of  the  First  Church,  in  1693.  Here  he  la- 
bored, as  his  failing  health  would  allow,  till  his  death, 
December  12,  1697.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  piety 
and  exemplary  life.  A  volume  of  his  discourses  was 
published  in  1689. — Sprague,  Annals,  i,  201. 

Baillet,  Adrian,  a  Bomanist  writer  of  repute,  was 
born  at  Neuville,  near  Beauvais,  June  13th,  1649,  and 
was  educated  at  a  Franciscan  convent.  He  afterward 
\  studied  at  Beauvais,  and  in  1676  was  admitted  to  holy 
I  orders.  For  a  time  he  served  a  cure ;  but,  feeling 
himself  to  be  unsuited  for  this  kind  of  life,  he  left  it, 
and  took  the  charge  of  the  library  of  M.  de  Lamoig- 
non,  the  advocate  general,  with  whom  he  passed  the 
[  remainder  of  his  days,  and  died  January  21st,  1706. 
His  works  are:  Jvgtment  des  Suvans  (4  vols.).  The 
j  work  was  to  have  consisted  of  seven  parts  ;  the  first  is 
,  a  kind  of  preface  to  the  other,  and  gives  general  rules 
for  forming  a  sound  judgment  of  a  work ;  the  other 
six  parts  were  to  have  contained  his  own  opinions  and 
the  judgments  of  others  concerning  works  of  every 
kind;  but  he  only  finished  a  small  part  of  his  design. 
This  work  was  reprinted,  revised,  at  Paris  (7  vols.  4to, 
1722)  ;  and  Amsterdam  (1725,  17  vols.  12mo)  : — Life 
of  Descartes  (1692)  : — Treatise,  on  Devotion  to  the  Bless- 
ed Virgin  Mary  (1693).  This  work  was  condemned  at 
I  Rome  in  1695,  and  denounced  to  the  Sorbonne  as  soon 
as  it  appeared  as  derogating  from  the  worship  due  to 
the  Virgin: — Les  Vies  des  Saints,  his  most  celebrated 
work,  printed  in  1701,  in  3  vols.  fol.  and  in  12  vols. 
8vo;  and  reprinted  in  1704  and  1708  with  the  addition 
of  the  Histoire  des  Fetes  Mobiles  and  Les  Vies  des  Saints 
de  PAncien  Testament,  in  4  vols.  fol.  and  17  vols.  8vo. 
These  last  editions  are  the  most  highty  esteemed. 
Baillet  also  published  several  less  important  works, 
and  left  thirty-five  folio  volumes  in  MS.,  containing 
the  catalogue  of  the  library  of  Lamoignon.  During 
the  twenty-six  years  that  he  was  librarian  to  that 
gentleman,  he  only  went  out  once  a  week  ;  all  the  rest 
of  his  time  he  spent  in  reading  or  conversing  with  the 
savans.  He  slept  only  five  hours,  and  most  frequent- 
ly in  his  clothes. — Bug.  Univ.  iii,  226 ;  Landon,  Eccles. 
Diet.  s.  v. 

Baillie  (or  Bailey),  Robert,  principal  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1599, 
and  educated  at  the  university  of  that  town.  During 
the  rebellion  he  was  an  active  opponent  of  Episcopacy, 
and  he  obtained  much  credit  for  his  refusal  in  1Q37  to 
preach  before  the  General  Assembly  in  favor  of  the  lit- 
urgy and  canons,  which  the.  king  was  desirous  to  intro- 
duce into  Scotland.  In  1638  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  assembly  held  at  Glasgow,  where  the  Cov- 
enant was  agreed  upon,  and  in  1640  he  was  deputed  to 
London  to  carry  the  accusations  of  the  lords  of  the  cov- 
enant against  Laud.  In  3642  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  In 
1643  he  was  sent  as  one  of  the  commissaries  of  the 
Scotch  Presbyterians  to  the  assembly  at  Westminster: 
He  execrated  the  murder  of  the  king,  and  denounced 


BAIN  BRIDGE 


CIS 


BAIUS 


it  as  a  horrible  parricide,  and  was  always  faithful  to 
the  house  of  Stuart.  Charles  II  would  have  made  him 
bishop,  but,  true  t  i  his  principles,  Baillie  refused  this. 
He  was  said  to  know  twelve  or  thirteen  languages, 
and  wrote  very  pure  Latin.  In  1661  he  was  appoint- 
ed principal  of  the  university.  In  1GG2  he  died.  Of 
Baillie's  works,  the  most  important  are,  Dissuasivefrom 
i  ofth  Time  (4to,  Lond.  1645) : — Anabaptism, 
/mn, fain  of  Independency,  Brotcn:sm,  Antino- 
my. Familism,  etc.  (a  second  part  of  the  Dissuasive,  Ho, 
Lond.  1647): — App  ndix  Practica  ad  Joannis  Buxtorfii 
Grammatical  Behram  (8vo,  Edinh.  1653): — 
Op  ris  Historic*  et  Ckronoloffici  Libri  Duo  (fol.  Amst. 
1663,  and  Basil,  1669).  He  also  published  several  ser- 
ninn^  and  other  short  tracts.  But  of  all  the  produce 
of  his  pen.  by  far  the  most  interesting  part  consists  of 
his  Letters,  written  to  various  friends,  which  throw 
much  light  on  the  history  of  the  times.  A  complete 
edition  was  produced  under  the  care  of  David  Laing, 
Esq.  ( in  3  vols,  crown  8vo,  Edinh.  1841-4-2),  with  anno- 
tations and  a  life  of  Baillie.  See  Hetherington,  Church 
of  Scotland,  ii,  135. 

Bambridge  or  Bambridge,  Christopher, 
archbishop  of  York,  and  cardinal-priest  of  the  Roman 
Church,  was  born  at  Hilton,  in  Westmoreland,  and  edu- 
cated at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became 
provost  in  1495.  lie  was  afterward  a  liberal  benefactor 
to  his  college.  In  1503  he  became  dean  of  York  ;  in 
15  »5  dean  of  Windsor.  In  1507  he  was  advanced  to 
th  ■  Bee  of  Durham,  and  was  translated  the  next  year  to 
the  archbishopric  of  York.  Bainbridge  distinguished 
himself  chiefly  by  his  embassy  from  King  Henry  VIII 
to  Pope  Julius  II,  who  created  him  cardinal  of  St. 
Praxede  in  March,  1511.  His  letter  to  King  Henry 
VIII  concerning  the  pope's  hull,  giving  him  the  title 
of  Most  Christian  Kin.:,  is  extant  in  Rymer's  Fcedsra 
(edit.  1704-1735,  xiii,  376).  Cardinal  Bainbridge  died 
at  Rome,  July  14,  1514.  His  death  was  caused  by 
poison  administer  d  by  Rinaldo  de  Modena,  a  priest 
whom  he  had  employed  in  menial  offices,  and  who,  af- 
ter confessing  that  he  was  suborned  to  this  act  by  Syl- 
vester de  Giglis,  bishop  of  Worcester,  who  was  at  that 
time  envoy  from  Kin-  Henry  VIII  to  Rome,  commit- 
ted suicide.  Sit  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Biog.Britan.  ed. 
177*.  i,  515  :  Wood,  Mli>  nee  Oxon.  ed.  Bliss,  ii,  702. 

Baines,  Ralph,  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  and  edu- 
cated  at  St. John's  College,  Cambridge:  he  was  emi- 
n  nt  as  a  Hebraist,  and  was  made  regius  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Paris.  In  1554  he  was  made  bishop  of  Lich- 
field  and  Coventry;  in  1559  he  was  ejected  by  Quesn 
Elizabeth,  and  very  shortly  after  died  at  Islington, 
llr  wrote  a  Commentary  mi  the  Proverbs,  1555,  and  a 
f.u  Hebrew  works. — Godwin  ,DePrass.  Ang!ia;,p.  324. 
Baird,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyterian 
minister  and  philanthropist,  was  born  in  Fayette  Co., 

Penn.,Ocl sr6,  17ns.     After  academical  training  at 

Dniohtown,  he  entered  Washington  College,  and  pass- 
ed tie  ne.'  to  Jefferson  College,  where  he  graduated  in 
Lfter  spending  a  year  as  a  teacher  in  Belle- 
fonte,  where  heVas  a  frequent  newspaper  contributor, 
he  entered  the  theological  seminary  at  Princeton,  where 
lie  rtudied  for  three  years,  officiating  one  year  as  tutor 
'"  toe  college.  In  1822  he  was  licensed  to  preach  by 
th-  Presbytery  of  New  Brunswick,  and  in  the  same 
year  took  charge  of  an  academy  in  Princeton,  which 
position  he  held  for  live  years.  In  1828  he  was  or- 
dain, -d  to  the  work  of  the  Gospel  ministry.  In  1827 
1  i  the  great  field  of  all  Ids' subsequent 

n  of  Protestantism  and  the  evan- 


gelization oftl 


"I  connection  with  the  great  re- 


ligious and  benevolent  societies."  He  took  a  leading 
pari  in  the  movement  m  ide  by  the  New  Jersey  Bible 
Society  to  supply  every  destitute  family  in  New  Jersey 
with  the  Script,,,-,..  This  plan  was  carried  into  exe- 
cution -i„ Hilly.     Next,  a-  agent  of  the  New  Jer- 

krnary  Society,  Dr.  Baird  did  much  to  lay  the 


foundation  of  public  education  in  that  state,  and  orig- 
inated the  first  system  of  common  schools  established 
in  the  state,  which,  with  few  modifications,  still  remains 
in  force.  In  1829  he  became  agent  of  the  American 
Sunday-school  Union,  and  for  live  years  he  held  meet- 
ings all  over  the  country,  doing  much  to  advance  the 
influence  of  the  society,  and  adding  largely  to  its  funds. 
In  1835  Dr.  Baird  went  to  Europe,  and  resided  in  Paris 
and  Geneva,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  months,  for 
the  next  eight  years.  His  primary  object  was  to  as- 
certain what  the  American  churches  could  do  to  re- 

1  vive  the  Protestant  faith  where  it  had  lost  its  vitality, 
and  to  convert  the  Roman  Catholics.  Among  the  re- 
sults of  his  labors  was  the  formation  of  the  Foreign 
Evangelical  Society,  since  merged  into  the  American 
and  Foreign  Christian  Union,  of  which  he  was  one  of 
the  founders.      In  the  Scandinavian  countries,  in  Rus- 

'  sia  and  in  Germany,  he  met  with  extraordinary  suc- 
cess in  giving  an  impulse  to  the  temperance  reform. 
His  exertions  in  behalf  of  the  Bible  and  Tract  Socic- 

|  ties  were  confined  to  no  single   country  of  Europe, 

j  while  his  intercessions  for  the  persecuted  were  put 
forth  alike  in  Protestant  Sweden  and  in  Roman  Cath- 
olic France.  The  recent  translation  ami  pul  lication 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  in  the  modern  Russ,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  imperial  government,  are  believed 
to  have  been  greatly  attributable  to  Dr.  Baird's  stren- 
uous personal  efforts.  To  the  cause  of  Protestantism, 
of  temperance,  and  of  education,  Dr.  Baird  was  en- 
thusiastically devoted.  Possessed  of  a  fine  personal 
appearance,  an  amiable  disposition,  and  rare  affability 
of  manner,  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  a  man  of 
broad  information,  Dr.  Baird  had  a  large  personal  ac- 
quaintance among  the  great  and  good  men  of  America 
and  Europe.  He  was  admitted  to  interviews  and  dis- 
cussions with  all  the  monarchs  that  rule  the  destinies 
of  the  Old  World.  His  thorough  honesty  and  sincer- 
ity, his  pure  religious  character,  and  his  unbounded 
charity,  stamped  him  as  a  man  who  could  give  counsel 
to  kings,  and  who  had  access  by  right  to  every  source 
of  influence  and  power.     In  1843  he  returned  to  Amcr- 

I  ica,  continuing  to  be  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
Foreign  Evangelical  Society  and  of  the  American  and 
Foreign  Christian  Union  (with  slight  interruption,  and 
making  several  visits  to  Europe)  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  March  15, 1863. 

This  brief  sketch  suffices  to  show  Dr.  Baird  as  an 
indefatigable  laborer.  His  sympathies  were  eminently 
catholic,  and  his  activities  were  cosmopolitan.  His 
name,  and  even  his  person,  were  known  to  all  Protes- 
tant branches  of  the  church  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Europe.  Amid  his  incessant  missionary 
labors  and  travels  he  found  time  also  for  a  large  lit- 
erary activity.  Besides  numerous  reports  for  the  be- 
nevolent societies  with  which  he  was  connected,  and 
many  contributions  to  newspapers,  magazines,  and  re- 
views, he  wrote  A  View  of  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi 
(Phila.  1832,  12mo);  Memoir  of  Anna  Jane  Linnard 
(Phila.  1835,  18mo);  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  San- 
ford  (Phila.  1836,  121110s);  Histoiredes  Societesd  Tem- 
perance </<■■••  Etats-l'i.is  d'Auh'riijue  (Paris,  1836, 12mo; 
translated  into  German,  Dutch,  Danish,  Finnish,  Puss, 
and  Swedish — the  latter  translation  by  order  of  Berna- 
dotte);  UUnion  de  VEglise  et  de  I'Etat  dans  In  Nouvelle 
Angleterre  (Paris,  1837,  18mo);  Visit  to  Northern  Eu- 
rope  (X.  Y.  1841,  2  vols.  12mo);  Religion  in  Ann  rim 
(Glasgow  and  Edinburgh,  1842,  8vo;  translated  into 
German,  Dutch,  French,  Swedish,  etc.;  revised  ed. 
N.  Y.  1844;  enlarged  and  rewritten,  X.  Y.  1856); 
Protestantism  in  I/ah/  (Boston,  1845,  12mo);  2d.  ed. 
1847);  Chris/ion  Retrospect  and  Register  (X.  Y.  1851, 
12mo,  in  part). — See  Life  of  Dr.  Baird,  by  his  son, 
Prof.  II.  M.  Baird  (X.  Y.  1866);  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Au- 
thors, i.  112;  Princeton  Review,  1843,  p.  489;  Christian 
Intelligencer  (newspaper);  Wilson,  Presb.  Alumnae, 
186  I ;  Sprague,  s,  rmon  mi  ]>,-.  Baird  (Albany,  1863). 
Baius,  or  De  Bay,  Michael,  a  Romanist  writei 


BAIUS 


619 


BAKE 


of  eminence,  was  born  at  Melun  in  1513,  and  studied 
at  Louvain.  In  1551  lie  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Louvain,  as  substitute  for  Professor  Tap- 
per, a  delegate  to  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  lectures 
which  he  delivered  in  this  capacity  gave  great  offence, 
and  when  Tapper  and  Ravenstein  returned,  they  de- 
nounced eighteen  propositions  taken  from  his  lectures 
and  writings  to  the  faculty  of  theology  at  Paris  as  he- 
retical. In  1560  a  censure  was  issued  by  that  body, 
whereby  three  of  these  dogmas  were  declared  to  be 
erroneous,  and  fifteen  either  wholly  or  partly  heretical. 
The  following  propositions  and  the  corresponding  cen- 
sures may  be  cited : 

" Proposition  4.  Free-will  is  in  itself  sinful;  and 
every  act  of  the  free-will,  left  to  itself,  is  either  mortal 
or  venial  sin.- — Censure.  This  proposition  is  heretical  in 
both  its  parts.  Proposition  5.  Man  sins  in  every  thing 
that  depends  on  himself,  and  cannot  avoid  sinning.— 
Censure.  This  proposition  is  heretical.  Proposition  7. 
Man's  free-will  cannot  avoid  sin  without  God's  special 
grace ;  whence  it  follows  that  all  the  actions  of  unbe- 
lievers are  sinful. — Censure.  That  the  second  part  of 
this  proposition  is  not  properly  deduced  from  the  first, 
and  is  false.  Proposition  9.  A  schismatic  or  a  heretic, 
or  a  man  who  is  not  purely  an  infidel,  may  sometimes 
merit  eternal  life  by  merit  of  condignity. — Censure. 
This  proposition  is  heretical.  Proposition  11.  Contri- 
tion does  not  remit  sin  without  the  sacrament  of  bap- 
tism or  that  of  penance,  except  in  cases  of  martyrdom 
or  necessity. —Censure.  This  proposition  is  heretical. 
Proposition  12.  If  a  sinner  does  all  that  is  ordered  him, 
neither  his  contrition  nor  his  confession  avail  to  the 
remission  of  his  sin,  unless  the  priest  gives  him  abso- 
lution, even  though  the  priest  refuse  absolution  out 
of  malice,  or  unreasonably. — Censure.  This  proposition 
is  heretical.  Proposition  14.  Grace  is  never  given  to 
those  who  oppose  it,  and  the  same  holds  of  the  first 
justification  ;  for  justification  is  faith  itself,  and  it  is 
through  faith  that  the  sinner  is  made  righteous. — Cen- 
sure. The  first  two  parts  are  heretical,  and  the  last 
false.  Proposition  16.  No  one  is  w  ilhout  original  sin, 
save  Jesus  Christ  only ;  and,  accordingly,  the  Blessed 
Virgin  died  owing  to  the  sin  which  she  had  contracted 
in  Adam ;  and  all  her  sufferings  in  this  life  were,  like 
those  of  all  the  other  righteous,  the  penalty  of  actual  or 
original  sin. — Censure.  This  proposition  is  heretical  in 
all  its  parts,  and  injurious  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and 
all  the  saints." 

The  Franciscans  appealed  against  the  doctrines  of 
Baius  to  the  Cardinal  Granvella,  governor  of  the  Low 
Countries,  but  he  refused  to  receive  the  appeal,  and 
enjoined  silence  on  all  parties.  Baius  and  John  Hes- 
sels  were  sent,  in  1563,  to  the  Council  of  Trent  by 
Granvella  as  deputies  of  the  University  of  Louvain. 
At  the  council  the  learning  and  talent  of  Baius  gained 
him  general  admiration.  On  his  return  he  published 
several  works  on  the  controverted  points,  viz.  De 
Mentis  Operum  (1561) : — De  Prima  Hominis  Justitia  et 
I  "trtatihiis  Impiorvm  (1565)  :—De  Saeramt  litis  in  C<  in  re 
contra  Calvinum  (1565): — De  Libera  Hominis  Arbitrio, 
de  Charitatc  et  Justijkatione  (1566).  The  controversy 
was  bitterly  renewed,  and  on  the  1st  of  October,  1567, 
Pius  V  issued  a  bull  condemning  seventy-six  dogmas, 
but  without  naming  Baius,  for  whom  he  had  great  re- 
gard ;  and  to  this  Baius,  after  having  written  to  the 
pope,  was  compelled  to  yield,  which  he  did  before  Mo- 
rillon,  the  grand  vicar  of  the  Cardinal  Granvella,  and 
afterward  before  Cardinal  Tolet.  In  1577  he  was  made 
inquisitor  general  of  Holland.  lie  died  December 
16th,  15S9.  His  doctrine  (called  Baianisni)  was  after- 
ward taken  up  by  the  Jansenists.  His  works  were 
edited  1)}'  Quesnel  and  Gerberon  (Colon.  16f!6,  2  vols. 
4to)  :  the  edition  was  condemned  at  Borne,  1697. — Biog. 
Univ.  iii,  215  ;  Duchesne,  Jlistoire  du  Biijnnismi  (Douay, 
1731);  Bayle,  Dictionary,  s.  v.;  Kulin  (R.  C),  Dqg- 
matik;  p.  180  sq. ;  answered  by  Schazler  (II.  C),  Dogma 
v.  der  Gnade  (Mainz,  1865,  8vo) ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte, 


Kirchen-Lerikon,  s.  v.  The  bull  of  Pius  V  is  given  in 
Dens,  Theoloijia,  viii,  139. 

Ba'jitll  (Ileb.  with  the  art.  hab-ba  yith,  r^3n,  the 
house),  taken  by  some  to  be  the  name  of  a  city  in  Moab, 
where  there  may  have  been  a  celebrated  idol  temple. 
It  occurs  in  the  prophecy  against  Moab  (Isa.  xv,  2): 
"He  is  gone  up  to  Bajith  and  to  Dibon,  the  high  places, 
to  weep,"  which  passage  is  thus  interpreted  by  Bishop 
Lowth  :  "He  is  used  for  the  people  of  Moab.  Bajith 
and  Dibon  are  in  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  versions  made 
into  the  name  of  one  place,  Beth-Dibon.  Beth  [  i.  e. 
BajHft]  may  signify  the  house  or  temple  of  an  idol." 
The  Sept.  has  AvTrtlaSe  i<t>'  iavrovc,  Vulg.  Ascendit 
domus.  Gesenius  (Comment,  zu  Jesa.  in  loc.)  under- 
stands it  as  referring,  not  to  a  place  of  this  name,  but  to 
the  "temple"  of  the  false  gods  of  Moab,  as  opposed  to 
the  "  high  places"  in  the  same  sentence  (comp.  xvi,12). 
The  allusion  has  been  supposed  to  be  to  Beth-Baal- 
meon,  or  Beth-diblathaim,  which  are  named  in  Jer. 
xlviii,  22,  as  here,  with  Dibon  and  Nebo.  In  this  view 
Henderson  (Comment,  in  loc.)  coincides.    See  Bamoth. 

Baka.     See  Mulberry. 

Bakar.     See  Ox. 

Bakbak'kar  (Heb.  Bakbakkar',  "ip3p3,  prob. 
from  "Ip3  reduplicated,  admirable  or  searcher,  perhaps 
i.  q.  ^i?~p3p3,  wasting  of 'the  mount;  Sept.  BaKfictKap), 
one  of  the  Levites  inhabiting  the  villages  of  the  Ne- 
tophathites,  who  were  carried  captive  to  Babvlon  (1 
Chron.  ix,  15).     B.C.  588. 

Bak'buk  (Heb.  Bakbuk' ',  p^pS,  a  bottle;  Sept. 
BaKfiovic),  the  head  of  one  of  the  families  of  the  Nethi- 
nim  that  returned  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii,  51 ;  Neb.  vii, 
53).     B.C.  ante  536. 

Bakbuki'ah  (Heb.  Bakbukyah' ,  |-Pp3p3,  prob. 
u-asting  of  Jehovah ;  Sept.  Bak-/3ai.-i'ac,  BoKyn'ac,  but 
other  copies  omit),  a  Levite.  "  second  among  his  breth- 
ren," who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem:  on  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon (Neh.  xi,  17  ;  xii,  9,  25,  where  the  identity-  is  proved 
by  the  associated  names).     B.C.  post  536. 

Bake  0"!EX,  aphah").  This  domestic  operation 
was  usually,  among  the  ancient  Israelites,  committed 
to  the  females  or  slaves  of  the  family  (Gen.  xviii,  6 ; 
Lev.  xxvi,  26;  1  Sam.  viii,  13;  xxviii,  24;  2  Sam. 
xiii,  8  ;  Matt,  xiii,  33 ;  comp.  Jer.  vii,  18 ;  xliv,  19 ; 
see  the  Mishna,  Challah,  ii,  7;  Thilo,  Cod.  apocryph. 
i,  96;  Pliny,  xviii,  28;  Arvieux,  Yeyages,  iii,  226;  v, 
418;  Burckhardt,  ii,  1003;  Russell,  Aleppo,  i,  146; 
Robinson,  ii,  180),  but  later  they  had  regular  bakers 
(CSN,  opium' ',  Hos.  vii,  4,  6;  comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  xv, 
9,  2),  and  in  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxvii,  21)  there  was  a 
special  "  Bakers'  Street"  (bazaar,  forum  pistorium). 
See  Mechanic.  The  dough  (p^3,  batsek',  Sept. 
aralc)  was  made  of  wheat,  barley,  or  spelt  flour  (Mish- 
na, Shebuoth,  iii,  2),  and  every  family  took  care  to 
bake  their  own  supply  in  small  quantities  fresh  daily 
(comp.  Arvieux,  i,  69;  iii,  227;  Tavernier,  ii,  280; 
Harmer,  iii,  474),  prepared  in  a  wooden  bowl  or  trough 
(r"iX'd"0,  mishe'reth,  Exod.  xii,  28 ;  comp.  Shaw, 
Trav.  p.  231 ;  Rosenmullcr,  Morge.nl.  i,  303  sq.),  leaven- 
ed (an  act  denoted  by  the  verb  VEfi,  chamets")  proper- 
ly (Plin.  xviii,  26),  and  kneaded  (an  operation  desig- 
nated by  ttJlb,  lush).  The  ferment  was  omitted  when- 
ever it  was  necessary  to  bake  in  haste  (Gen.  xix,  3 ; 
Exod.  xii,  34  sq.,  39;  Judg.  vi,  19;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  24  ; 
comp.  Plin.  xviii.  27),  and  the  modern  Bedouins  scarce- 
ly use  leaven  at  all  (Arvieux,  iii,  227;  Robinson,  iii, 
76);  and  even  in  cities,  for  the  most  part,  bread  is 
baked  unfermented  in  the  East  (Ruppell,  Abyss,  i,  199). 
See  Passover  ;  Leaven.  The  bread  is  made  in  the 
form  of  long  or  round  cakes  (2~3  n'~22,  kikkeroth' 
le'chem,  Exod.  xxix,  23;  1  Sam.  ii,  36;  Judg.  viii,  5; 
Sept.  KoXkvpic,  apTOv),  of  the  size  of  a  plate  and  the 


BAKE  620 

(jbicknesa  of  the  thumb  (Korte,  Rets.  p.  436;  Russell, 
Aleppo,  i,  1 1<> :  Banner,  Obs.  iii,  60  sq. ;  Robinson,  ii. 

4%);  hence  in  eating  they  were  not  cut,  but  broken 
(Isa.  lvii,  7;  Matt,  xiv,  1!);  xxvi,  26;  Acts  xx,  11; 
comp.  Xenoph.  An  to.  vii,  3,  22 ;  Phut.  Pan.  iii,  5,  19 ; 
Curt,  iv,  2,  1 ! ;  Robinson,  ii,  497).  See  Meal.  The 
proper  oven  C"1"",  tannur',  comp.  Hos.  vii,  4,  6), 
which  in  Oriental  cities  is  sometimes  public  (Shaw, 
Trav.  p.  202;  Manner,  i,  246),  diners  little  from  ours 
(Arvieux,  iii,  229).  But,  besides  these,  use  was  prin- 
cipally made  of  large  stone  jars,  open  at  the  mouth, 
about  three  feet  high,  with  a  fire  made  inside  (regular- 
ly with  wood,  comp.  Isa.  xliv,  15,  but  on  occasion  also 
of  dry  dung,  Ezek.  iv,  12 ;  comp.  Arvieux,  iii,  228  sq. ; 
Korte,  p.  438  ;  see  Fuel),  for  baking  bread  and  cakes, 
as  suon  as  the  sides  were  sufficiently  heated,  by  apply- 


BAKE 


ing  the  thin  dough  to  the  exterior  (according  to  oth- 
ers, to  the  interior  surface  likewise),  the  opening  at  the 
top  being  closed  (comp.  Arvieux,  iii,  227;  Niebuhr, 
Beschr.  p.  57  ;  Tavernier,  i,  280 ;  Riippell,  ut  sup.). 
Such  a  pot  is  still  called  tanur  by  the  Arabs  (Michaelis, 
Orient.  Bib!,  vii,  176).  Another  mode  of  baking,  which 
is  still  very  common  in  the  East,  consists  either  in  fill- 
ing a  shallow  pit  with  red-hot  gravel-stones,  which,  as 
soon  as  they  have  imparted  their  heat  to  the  hole,  are 
taken  out  and  the  cakes  of  dough  laid  in  their  place 
(Tavernier,  i,  64)  ;  or  a  jar  is  half  filled  with  hot  peb- 
bles and  the  dough  spread  on  the  surface  of  these  (Ar- 
vieux, iii,  229).  This  preparation  of  bread  is  prob- 
ably denoted  by  the  C^S^l  T^yj,  tiggoth'  retsaphimf 
("  cakes  baken  on  the  coals"),  of  1  Kings  xix,  6.  That 
baked  regularly  in  the  oven,  ou  the  other  hand,  is  call- 


BAKE-MEATS 


621 


BALAAM 


ed  ""IISPl  SlSX'S,  maapheh'  tannur'  ("baken  in  the 
oven,"  Lev.  ii,  4).  Still  another  kind  was  baked  in 
the  ashes  (comp.  Robinson,  ii,  49G).  See  Ash-cake. 
The  Israelites  doubtless  became  early  acquainted  with 
the  liner  method  of  preparing  bread  practised  among 
the  Egyptians  (comp.  Kossellini,  II,  ii,  464).  See 
Cook.  The  operations  are  delineated  on  the  annexed 
cut,  taken  from  the  representations  on  the  tombs  of 
Kameses  III  at  Thebes  (Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egyptians, 
abrklgm.  i,  174  sq.). — Winer,  i,  129.     See  Bread. 

Bake-meats  (IlSX  i"lil)55a  33 XT3,  maakal'  maii- 
seh'  opheh' ,  food  the  work  of  the  bake?-),  baked  provi- 
sions (Gen.  xl,  17).     See  Bake. 
Baker.     See  Bake. 

Baker,  Charles,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  born  in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  April  7, 
1798.  In  1821  he  was  received  into  the  New  England 
Conference  on  probation,  and  subsequently  labored 
for  thirty-six  consecutive  years  chiefly  in  Maine  and 
Massachusetts.  After  eight  years  of  superannuation, 
he  died,  in  triumph,  at  Somerville,  Mass.,  August  16, 
1864.— Minutes  of  Conferences,  1865,  p.  61. 

Baker,  Daniel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Midway,  Ga.,  Aug.  17, 1791,  and  studied 
at  Hampden  Sidney  College,  and  at  Princeton,  where 
he  graduated  A.B.  in  1815.  He  studied  theology  with 
Mr.  Hill,  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  Win- 
chester, Va.,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Harrisburg,  Va.,  March  5,  1818.  Finding  himself 
called  to  a  missionary  career,  he  resigned  his  charge 
in  1821 ;  and  from  1822  to  1828  was  pastor  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  Here  John  Quincy  Adams  was  one  of 
his  hearers,  and  several  acts  of  great  kindness  on  the 
part  of  that  eminent  man  are  recorded  in  his  life. 
Here  he  wrote  A  Scriptural  View  of  Baptism,  afterward 
expanded  into  a  work  with  the  quaint,  title,  Bap/ism  in 
a  Nutshell.  In  1830,  his  great  success  as  a  revivalist 
having  been  noised  abroad,  he  began  to  travel  among 
the  churches,  and  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  chiefly 
spent  in  this  way.  His  travels  extended  through- 
out the  Southern  States,  and  even  to  Texas,  -where  he 
finally  settled.  Here,  among  other  labors,  he  founded 
Austin  College,  of  which  he  was  the  first  president. 
He  died  at  Austin,  Dec.  10, 1857. — ^[emoirs  of  Daniel 
Baker,  by  his  Son  (Philadelphia,  1859, 12mo). 

Bakers,  one  of  the  scurrilous  names  given  by  the 
heathen  to  the  early  Christians.  In  Minucius  Felix 
(Octavius,  c.  14),  the  heathen  interlocutor  calls  the 
Christians  Planting  prosapim  homines  et  pistores,  "men 
of  the  race  of  Plautus,  bakers."  Jerome  says  that  Plau- 
tus  was  so  poor  that,  in  a  time  of  famine,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  hire  himself  out  to  a  baker  to  grind  in  his  mill 
(Chron.  an.  1.  Olymp.  145).  Such  sort  of  men  Csecilius 
says  the  Christians  were  in  the  dialogue  above  cited  from 
Minucius. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  i,  ch.  ii,  §  12. 
Baking.     See  Bake. 

Ba'laam  (Heb.  Bilam' ',  35^3;  Sept.  and  N.  T. 
and  Philo,  Ba\aa/.i,  Josephus,  Bd\a/.ioc).  The  name 
is  derived  by  Vitringa  from  3^3  and  D3>,  q.  d.  lord 
of  the  people ;  but  by  Simonis  from  "bs  and  3",  de- 
struction of  the  people — an  allusion  to  his  supposed  su- 
pernatural powers;  Gesenius  derives  it  from  33,  not, 
and  C",  in  the  sense  of foreigner ;  Fiirst  does  not  de- 
cide which  etymology  to  prefer.  His  father's  name, 
Beor,  comes  likewise  from  a  root  which  means  to  con- 
sume or  devour.  It  is  deserving  of  notice  that  Pela  (q. 
v.),  the  first  king  of  the  Edomites,  was  also  the  son  of 
a  Beor  (Gen.  xxxvi,  32).  In  2  Peter  ii,  15,  Balaam  is 
called  the  son  of  Bosor,  which  Gesenius  attributes  to 
an  early  corruption  of  the  text;  but  Lightfoot  con- 
siders it  to  be  a  Chaldaism,  and  infers  from  the  apos- 
tle's use  of  it  that  he  was  then  resident  at  Babylon 
{Works,  vii,  80  ;  Sermon  on  the  way  of  Balaam).  See 
Bileam.      In  the  other  passage  of  the  New  Testa- 


ment (Rev.  ii,  14,  15),  the  sect  of  the  Nicolaitans  is 
described  as  following  the  doctrine  or  teaching  of 
Balaam  ;  and  it  appears  not  improbable  that  this  name 
is  employed  symbolically,  as  Nicolaus  (NucoXaof,  peo- 
ple-conquering) is  equivalent  in  meaning  to  Balaam. 

The  first  mention  of  this  remarkable  person  is  in 
Numbers  xxii,  5,  where  we  are  informed  that  Balak 
"  sent  messengers  unto  Balaam,  the  son  of  Beor,  to 
Pethor,  which  is  by  the  river  of  the  land  of  the  chil- 
dren of  his  people."  B.C.  1619.  He  belonged  to  the 
Midianites,  and  perhaps,  as  the  prophet  of  his  people, 
possessed  the  same  authority  that  Moses  did  among 
the  Israelites.  At  any  rate,  he  is  mentioned  in  con- 
junction with  the  five  kings  of  Midian,  apparently  as 
a  person  of  the  same  rank  (Num.  xxxi,  8  ;  cf.  xxxi, 
16).  He  seems  to  have  lived  at  Pethor,  which  is  said 
at  Deut.  xxiii,  4,  to  have  been  a  city  of  Mesopotamia 
(D"nrO  DnX).  He  himself  speaks  of  being  "  brought 
from  Aram  out  of  the  mountains  of  the  East"  (Num. 
xxiii,  7).  The  reading,  therefore,  "pHS  1.53,  instead 
of  "IB2  153)  which  at  Num.  xxii,  5,  is  found  in  some 
MSS.,  and  is  adopted  by  the  Samaritan,  Syriac,  and 
Vulgate,  versions,  need  not  be  preferred,  as  the  Am- 
monites do  not  appear  to  have  ever  extended  so  far  as 
the  Euphrates,  which  is  probably  the  river  alluded  to 
in  this  place.  If  the  received  reading  be  correct,  it 
intimates  that  Pethor  was  situated  in  Balaam's  native 
country,  and  that  he  was  not  a  mere  sojourner  in  Mes- 
opotamia, as  the  Jewish  patriarchs  were  in  Canaan. 
In  Josh,  xiii,  22,  Balaam  is  termed  "the  Soothsayer, " 
B31p,  a  word  which,  with  its  cognates,  is  used  almost 
without  exception  in  an  unfavorable  sense.  Josephus 
calls  him  an  eminent  diviner  (^c'ivtiq  uqkjtoq,  Ant.  iv, 
G,  2) ;  and  what  is  to  be  understood  by  this  appella- 
tion may  be  perhaps  best  learned  from  the  following 
description  by  Philo:  "There  was  a  man  at  that  time 
celebrated  for  divination  who  lived  in  Mesopotamia, 
and  was  an  adept  in  all  the  forms  of  the  divining  art ; 
but  in  no  branch  was  he  more  admired  than  in  augury ; 
to  manj'  persons  and  on  many  occasions  he  gave  great 
and  astounding  proofs  of  his  skill.  For  to  some  he 
foretold  storms  in  the  height  of  summer;  to  others 
drought  and  heat  in  the  depth  of  winter ;  to  some 
scarcity  succeeding  a  fruitful  year,  and  then  again 
abundance  after  scarcitj' ;  to  others  the  overflowing 
and  the  drying  up  of  rivers ;  and  the  remedies  of  pes- 
tilential diseases,  and  a  vast  multitude  of  other  things, 
each  of  which  he  acquired  great  fame  for  predicting" 
(Vita  Moysis,  §  48).  Origen  speaks  of  Balaam  as  fa- 
mous for  his  skill  in  magic,  and  the  use  of  noxious  in- 
cantations, but  denies  that  he  had  any  power  to  bless, 
for  which  he  gives  the  following  reason  :  "  For  magic, 
like  dcemons,  is  unable  to  bless"  (In  Num.  Horn.  xiii). 
Balak's  language,  "I  wot  he  whom  thou  blessest  is 
blessed"  (Num.  xxii,  6),  he  considers  as  only  designed 
to  flatter  Balaam,  and  render  him  compliant  with  his 
wishes.  (See  Berr,  La  prophetie  de  Balaam,  Par.  1832.) 

Balaam  is  one  of  those  instances  which  meet  us  in 
Scripture  of  persons  dwelling  among  heathens,  but 
possessing  a  certain  knowledge  of  the  one  true  God. 
He  was  endowed  with  a  greater  than  ordinary  knowl- 
edge of  God;  he  was  possessed  of  high  gifts  of  intel- 
lect and  genius ;  he  had  the  intuition  of  truth,  and 
could  see  into  the  life  of  things- — in  short,  he  was  a 
poet  and  a  prophet.  Moreover,  he  confessed  that  all 
these  superior  advantages  were  not  his  own,  but  de- 
rived from  God,  and  were  his  gift.  And  thus,  doubt- 
less, he  had  won  for  himself,  among  his  contemporaries 
far  and  wide,  a  high  reputation  for  wisdom  and  sanc- 
tity. It  was  believed  that  he  whom  he  blessed  was 
blessed,  and  he  whom  lie  cursed  was  cursed.  Elated, 
however,  by  his  fame  and  his  spiritual  elevation,  he 
had  begun  to  conceive  that  these  gifts  were  his  own, 
and  that  they  might  be  used  to  the  furtherance  of  his 
own  ends.  He  could  make  merchandise  of  them,  and 
might  acquire  riches  and  honor  by  means  of  them.    A 


BALAAM 


'.22 


BALAAM 


custom  existed  among  many  nations  of  antiquity  of 
devoting  enemies  to  destruction  before  entering  upon 
a  war  with  them.  At  this  time  the  Israelites  were 
marching  forward  to  the  occupation  of  Palestine;  they 
were  now  encamped  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  on  the  east 
of  Jord  in  liy  Jericho.  Balak,  the  king  of  Moab,  bav- 
in- witnessed  the  discomfiture  of  his  neighbors,  the 
Amorites,  by  this  people,  entered  into  a  league  with 
the  Mldianites  against  them,  and  despatched  messen- 
gers  to  Balaam  with  the  rewards  of  divination  in  their 
hands.  We  see  from  this,  therefore,  that  Balaam  was 
in  the  habit  of  using  his  wisdom  as  a  trade,  and  of 
mingling  with  it  devices  of  his  own  by  which  he  im- 
posed upon  others  and  perhaps  partially  deceived  him- 
self. When  the  elders  of  Moab  and  Midian  told  him 
their  message,  he  seems  to  have  some  misgivings  as  to 
the  lawfulness  of  their  request,  for  he  invited  them  to 
tarry  the  night  with  him,  that  he  might  learn  how  the 
Lord  would  regard  it.  These  misgivings  were  con- 
firmed by  the  express  prohibition  of  God  upon  his 
journey.  Balaam  reported  the.  answer,  and  the  mes- 
Bengers  of  Balak  returned.  The  King  of  Moab,  how- 
ever, not  deterred  by  this  failure,  sent  a-ain  more  and 
more  honorable  princes  to  Balaam,  with  the  promise 
that  he  should  be  promoted  to  very  great  honor  upon 
complying  with  his  request.  The  prophet  again  re- 
fused, but,  notwithstanding,  invited  the  embassy  to 
tarry  the  night  with  him,  that  he  might  know  what 
the  Lord  would  say  unto  him  farther;  and  thus,  by  his 
importunity,  he  extorted  from  God  the  permission  he 
desired,  but  was  warned  at  the  same  time  that  his  ac- 
tions would  be  overruled  according  to  the  Divine  will. 
Balaam  therefore  proceeded  on  his  journey  with  the 
messengers  of  Balak.  But  God's  anger  was  kindled 
at  this  manifestation  of  determined  self-will,  and  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  stood  in  the  way  for  an  adversary 
against  him.  The  words  of  the  Psalmist,  "  Be  ye  not 
like  to  horse  and  mule  which  have  no  understanding, 
whose  mouths  must  be  held  with  bit  and  bridle,  other- 
wise they  will  not  come  near  unto  thee"  (Psa.  xxxii,  9), 
had  they  been  familiar  to  Balaam,  would  have  come 
home  to  him  with  most  tremendous  force ;  for  never 
have  they  received  a  more  forcible  illustration  than 
the  comparison  of  Balaam's  conduct  to  his  Maker  with 
his  treatment  of  his  ass  affords  us.  The  wisdom  with 
which  the  tractable  brute  was  allowed  to  "  speak  with 
in  ins  voice,"  and  "  forbid"  the  untractable  "  madness 
of  the  prophet,"  impalpable  and  conspicuous.  He  was 
taught,  moreover,  that  even  she  had  a  spiritual  percep- 
)i on  to  which  he,  though  a  prophet,  was  a  stranger; 
and  when  bis  eyes  were  opened  to  behold  the  angel 
of  the  Lord,  "he  bowed  down  his  head  and  fell  flat  on 
Ills  fiee."  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  suppose,  as  some 
do,  that  the  event  here  referred  to  happened  only  in  a 

" '■!"■ '  vision,  though  such  an  opinion  might  seem 

to  be  supported  by  the  fact  that  our  translators  render 
tie-  word  hz:  in  xxiv,  ■!,  16,  ^falling  into  a  trance," 
Whereas  no  other  idea  than  that  of  simple  falling  is 
1  by  it.  Tin-  Apostle  Peter  refers  "to  it  as  a 
real  historical  event:  "  The  dumb  ass,  speaking  with 
man's  voice,  forbade  the  madness  of  the  prophet"  (2  Pet. 
ii,  16).  We  are  not  told  how  these  things  happened, 
but  that  they  did  happen,  and  that  it  pleased  God  thus 
to  int  srfere  ,,n  behalf  of  His  elect  people,  and  to  bring 
forth  from  the  genius  of  a  self-willed  prophet,  who 
thought  thai  his  talents  were  his  own,  strains  of  poetry 
bearing  upon  the  destiny  of  the  Jewish  nation  and  the 
Church  at  large,  which  are  not  surpassed  throughout 
the  Mosaic  records.  It  is  evident  that  Balaam,  al- 
though acquainted  with  God,  was  desirous  of  throwing 
an  air  of  mystery  round  his  wisdom,  from  the  instruc- 
tions lie  gave  Balak  to  offer  a  bullock  and  a  ram  on 

•i"1  seven  all  «   I verywhere  prepared  for  him;  but 

he  -rem-  to  have  thought  also  that  these  sacrifices 
would  be  of  some  avail  to  change  the  mind  of  the  Al- 
mighty, because  he  pleads  the  merit  of  them  (xxiii,  4), 
and  after  experiencing  their  impotency  to  effect  such 


an  object,  "he  went  no  more,"  we  are  told,  "to  seek 
for  enchantments"  (xxiv,  1).  His  religion,  therefore, 
was  probably  such  as  would  be  the  natural  result  of  a 
general  acquaintance  with  God  not  confirmed  by  any 
covenant.  He  knew  Him  as  the  fountain  of  wisdom ; 
how  to  worship  Him  he  could  merely  guess  from  the 
customs  in  vogue  at  the  time.  Sacrifices  had  been 
used  by  the  patriarchs ;  to  what  extent  they  were  ef- 
ficient could  only  be  surmised.  There  is  an  allusion 
to  Balaam  in  the  Prophet  Micah  (vi,  5),  where  Bishop 
Butler  thinks  that  a  conversation  is  preserved  which 
occurred  between  him  and  the  King  of  Moab  upon  this 
occasion.  But  such  an  opinion  is  hardly  tenable,  if 
ws  bear  in  mind  that  Balak  is  nowhere  represented  as 
consulting  Balaam  upon  the  acceptable  mode  of  wor- 
shipping God,  and  that  the  directions  found  in  Micah 
are  of  quite  an  opposite  character  to  those  which  were 
given  by  the  son  of  Beor  upon  the  high-places  of  Baal. 
The  prophet  is  recounting  "  the  righteousness  of  the 
Lord"  in  delivering  His  people  out  of  the  hand  of 
Moab  under  Balak,  and  at  the  mention  of  his  name  the 
histor3r  of  Balaam  comes  back  upon  his  mind,  and  he  is 
led  to  make  those  noble  reflections  upon  it  which  occur 
in  the  following  verse.  "  The  doctrine  of  Balaam"  is 
spoken  of  in  Lev.  ii,  14,  where  an  allusion  has  been 
supposed  to  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Nicolaitans, 
mentioned  in  v.  15.  See  Nicolaitans.  Though  the 
utterance  of  Balaam  was  overruled  so  that  he  could 
not  curse  the  children  of  Israel,  he  nevertheless  sug- 
gested to  the  Moabites  the  expedient  of  seducing  them 
to  commit  fornication.  The  effect  of  this  is  recorded 
in  ch.  xxv.  A  battle  was  afterward  fought  against 
the  Midianites,  in  which  Balaam  sided  with  them,  and 
was  slain  by  the  sword  of  the  people  whom  he  had  en- 
deavored to  curse  (Num.  xxxi,  8).  B.C.  1018.  (Comp. 
Bishop  Butler's  Servians,  scrm.  vii;  Ewald,  Gesch.  des 
Volkes  Israel,  ii,  277;  Stanley,  Jewish  Ch.  i,  209  sq.)  i 
Of  the  numerous  paradoxes  which  we  find  in  "  this 
strange  mixture  of  a  man,"  as  Bishop  Newton  terms 
him,  not  the  least  striking  is  that  with  the  practice  of 
an  art  expressly  forbidden  to  the  Israelites  ("there 
shall  not  be  found  among  you  one  that  useth  divina- 
tion" [Dent,  xviii,  10],  "  for  all  that  do  these  things  are 
an  abomination  to  the  Lord,"  ver.  12)  he  united  the 
knowledge  and  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  was  in  the 
habit  of  receiving  intimations  of  his  will :  "I  will 
bring  you  word  again  as  the  Lord  (Jehovah)  shall 
speak  unto  me"  (Num.  xxii,  8).  The  inquiry  natu- 
rally arises,  by  what  means  did  he  become  acquainted 
with  the  true  religion  ?  Dr.  Hengstenberg  suggests 
that  he  was  led  to  renounce  idolatry  by  the  reports 
that  reached  him  of  the  miracles  attending  the  Exodus  ; 
and  that,  having  experienced  the  deceptive  nature  of 
the  soothsaying  art,  he  hoped,  by  becoming  a  worship- 
per of  the  God  of  the  Hebrews,  to  acquire  fresh  power 
over  nature,  and  a  clearer  insight  into  futurity.  Yet 
the  sacred  narrative  gives  us  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
he  had  any  previous  knowledge  of  the  Israelites.  In 
Num.  xxii,  11,  he  merely  repeats  Balak's  message, 
"  Behold,  there  is  a  people  come  out  of  Egypt,"  etc., 
without  intimating  that  he  had  heard  of  the  miracles 
wrought  on  their  behalf.  The  allusion  in  Num.  xxiii, 
22,  might  be  prompted  by  the  divine  afflatus  which  he 
then  felt.  And  had  he  been  actuated  in  the  first  in- 
stance, by  motives  of  personal  aggrandizement,  it  seems 
hardly  probable  that  he  would  have  been  favored  with 
those  divine  communications  with  which  his  language, 
in  Num.  xxii,  8,  implies  a  familiarity.  Since,  in  the 
case  of  Simon  Magus,  the  offer  to  "  purchase  the  gift 
of  God  with  money"  (Acts  viii,  20)  called  forth  an  im- 
mediate and  awful  rebuke  from  the  apostles,  would 
not  Balaam's  attempt  to  obtain  a  similar  gift,  with  a 
direct  view  to  personal  emolument  and  fame,  have  met 
with  a  similar  repulse  ?  Dr.  Hengstenberg  supposes, 
indeed,  that  there  was  a  mixture  of  a  higher  order  of 
sentiments,  a  sense  of  the  wants  of  his  moral  nature, 
which  led  him  to  seek  Jehovah,  and  laid  a  foundation 


BALAAM 


623 


BALAMO 


for  intercourse  with  him.  In  the  absence  of  more  co- 
pious and  precise  information,  may  we  not  reasonably 
conjecture  that  Jacob's  residence  for  twenty  years  in 
Mesopotamia  contributed  to  maintain  some  just  ideas 
of  religion,  though  mingled  with  much  superstition? 
To  this  source,  and  the  existing  remains  of  patriarchal 
religion,  Balaam  was  probably  indebted  for  that  truth 
which  he  unhappily  "restrained  by  unrighteousness" 
(Rom.  i,  18).     (See  Onder,  De  Bileamo,  Jen.  1715.) 

On  the  narrative  contained  in  Num.  xxii,  22-35,  a 
difference  of  opinion  has  long  existed,  even  among 
those  who  full}'  admit  its  authenticity.  The  advo- 
cates for  a  literal  interpretation  urge  that,  in  a  histori- 
cal work  and  a  narrative  bearing  the  same  character, 
it  would  be  unnatural  to  regard  any  of  the  occurrences 
as  taking  place  in  vision,  unless  expressly  so  stated ; 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  determine  where  the  vision 
begins  and  where  it  ends;  that  Jehovah's  "opening 
the  mouth  of  the  ass"  (Num.  xxii,  28)  must  have  been 
an  external  act ;  and,  finally,  that  Peter's  language  is 
decidedly  in  favor  of  the  literal  sense  :  "  The  dumb  ass, 
speaking  with  a  man's  voice,  reproved  the  madness  of 
the  prophet"  (2  Pet.  ii,  1G).  Those  who  conceive  that 
the  speaking  of  the  ass  and  the  appearance  of  the  an- 
gel occurred  in  vision  to  Balaam  (among  whom  are 
Maimonides,  Leibnitz,  and  Hengstenberg)  insist  upon 
the  fact  that  dreams  and  visions  were  the  ordinary 
methods  by  which  God  made  himself  known  to  the 
prophets  (Num.  xii,  G) ;  they  remark  that  Balaam,  in 
the  introduction  to  his  third  and  fourth  prophecies 
(xxiv,  3,  4,  15),  speaks  of  himself  as  "the  man  who 
had  his  eyes  shut,"  and  who,  on  falling  down  in  pro- 
phetic ecstasy,  had  his  eyes  opened  ;  that  he  express- 
ed no  surprise  on  hearing  the  ass  speak  ;  and  that  nei- 
ther his  servants  nor  the  Moabitish  princes  who  accom- 
panied him  appear  to  have  been  cognizant  of  any  su- 
•pernatural  appearance.  Dr.  Jortin  supposes  that  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  suffered  himself  to  be  seen  by  the 
beast,  but  not  by  the  prophet ;  that  the  beast  was  ter- 
rified, and  Balaam  smote  her,  and  then  fell  into  a 
trance,  and  in  that  state  conversed  first  with  the  beast 
and  then  with  the  angel.  The  angel  presented  these 
objects  to  his  imagination  as  strongly  as  if  they  had 
been  before  his  eyes,  so  that  this  was  still  a  miraculous 
or  preternatural  operation.  In  dreaming,  many  sin- 
gular incongruities  occur  without  exciting  our  aston- 
ishment ;  it  is  therefore  not  wonderful  if  the  prophet 
conversed  with  his  beast  in  vision  without  being 
startled  at  such  a  phenomenon  (sec  Jortin' s  Disserta- 
tion on  Balaam,  p.  190-194).     See  Ass  (of  Balaam). 

The  limits  of  this  article  will  not  allow  of  an  exam- 
ination of  Balaam's  magnificent  prophecies,  which,  as 
Herder  remarks  (Gdst  der  Ebrdischen  Poesie,  ii,  221), 
"are  distinguished  for  dignity,  compression,  vividness, 
and  fulness  of  imager}'.  There  is  scarcely  any  thing 
equal  to  them  in  the  later  prophets,  and"  (he  adds, 
what  few  readers,  probably,  of  Dent,  xxxii,  xxxiii, 
will  be  disposed  to  admit)  "nothing  in  the  discourses 
of  Moses."  Hengstenberg  has  ably  discussed  the 
doubts  raised  by  De  Wette  and  other  German  critics 
respecting  the  antiquity  and  genuineness  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch.  A  full  discussion  of  the  Char- 
acter and  Prophecies  of  Balaam  may  be  found  in  the 
Bib.  Sac.  1846,  p.  347  sq.— Kitto,  s.  v.;  Smith,  s.  v. 

See  generally  Moebius,  Hist.  Bileami  (in  his  Dis- 
ser/t.  theol.  p.  286  sq.) ;  Benzel,  Dissent,  ii,  37  sq. ; 
Riehter,  De  Bil.  incantatore  (Viteb.  173!));  Luderwald, 
Gesck.  Bil.  erldart  (Helmst.  1781);  Geer,  Diss,  de  Bi- 
leamo (Utrecht,  1816);  Tholuck,  in  the  Lit.  Anzeig. 
1832,  No.  78-80;  1833,  1  (also  in  his  Verm.  Schrift.  i); 
Hoffmann,  in  the  Hall.  Encyclop.  x,  184  sq. ;  Steudel, 
in  the  Tithing.  Zeitschr.  1831,  ii,  66  sq. ;  Hengstenberg 
Gesch.  Bileams  (Berl.  1842  ;  History  and  Prophejvs  of 
Balaam,  transl.  by  Ryland,  in  Clark's  ed.  of  his  Authn- 
ticity  of  Dan.  Edinb.  1847)  ;  Wolff.  Demodo  vaticinandi 
Bileam  (Lips.  1741);  Niemeyer,  Charakt.  iii,  37:5  sq.  ; 
Less,  Verm.  Schrift.  i,  130  sq.  ;  Justi,  Diss,  de  Beleami 


asina  (Marb.  1774);  Bauer,  Heir.  Mytlwlogie,  i,  306  sq. ; 
Hartmann,  Exc.  zu  Micha,  p.  255  sq.  ;  also  Kjerner, 
Circa  hist.  Bileami  (Gryph.  1786);  Rungius,  Abhandl. 
f.  Freunde  d.  Bibel  (Lp'z.  1786-1789),  ii ;  Geer,  De  Bi- 
leamo (Traj.  a.  R.  1816) ;  Jortin,  Hist,  and  Charach  r  of 
Balaam  (in  the  Brit.  Theol.  Mag.  I,  i,  72  sq. ;  also  in 
his  Dissertations,  p.  127);  Ward,  Character  of  Balaam 
(ib.  iv,  574  sq.) ;  Butler,  id.  (ib.  I,  ii,  36  sq.)  ;  Benner, 
D.  Esel  Bileams  (Giess.  1759)  ;  Schutte,  Vaticin.  Bilea- 
mi (in  the  Bibl.  Ilagan.  I,  i,  2);  Origen,  Opp.  ii,  316, 
325;  Saurin,  Dissert,  p.  597;  Deyling,  Observatt.  iii, 
102;  Sherlock,  Works,  v;  Essays  (Lond.  1753) ;  New- 
ton, Prophecies,  i,  66;  Bryant,  Observations,  i;  Hunter, 
Sacred  Biog.  iii,  226 ;  Horsley,  Bib.  Criticism,  ii,  407, 
4J9 ;  Robinson,  Script.  Characters,  i ;  Evans,  Script. 
Biog.  ii,  28;  Williams,  O.  T.  Characters,  p.  130;  Sime- 
on, Works,  ii,  131, 136, 141 ;  Cowie,  Hulsean  Led.  (1853), 
p.  25 ;  Noel,  Hist.  Eccles.  ii,  413 ;  Collyier,  Script.  Proph- 
ecy, p.  172;  Kitto,  Daily  Bible  Ilhist'.W,  201,  206;  Bud- 
dan  Hist.  V.  T.  i,  753 ;  Witsii  Mscell.  i,  143  sq. ;  Wolf, 
De  exemplis  Bibl.  ii,  13  sq. ;  De  Wette,  Kritik:  i,  363, 
365;  Vater,  Comment,  iib.  Pentat.  iii,  119;  Ranke,  Pcn- 
tat.  ii,  234;  Jahn,  Einleit.  ii,  132;  Havernick,  Einleit. 
I,  ii,  505;  comp.  Mosch.  Idyll,  ii,  119  sq.  ;  Plutarch, 
Fluv.  i,  6;  iElian,  Anim.  xii,  3;  Val.  Max.  i,  6,  5; 
Jour.  Asiatique  (1843),  i,  216;  Bochart,  Hieroz.  i,  161; 
Fabricii  Cod.  Pseudepigr.  V.  T.  i,  801 ;  Thilo,  Apocr.  p. 
307;  Talmud,  Pirhe  A  both,  v,  19 ;  Targum  of  Jonathan, 
in  loc. ;  Wetstein,  N.  T.  ii,  707. 

Ba'lac  (BaXcac),  another  method  of  Anglicizing 
(Rev.  ii,  14)  the  name  Balak  (q.  v.). 

Bal'adan  (Heb.  Baladan  ,  17^2,  Bel  is  his 
lord;  Sept.  BaXadav),  a  name  used  in  a  double  ca- 
pacity. Fiirst  observes  (fleb.  Handw.  s.  v.)  that,  if 
of  Shemitic  origin,  it  corresponds  to  the  Phoenician 
Baal-Adonis  CpX  ^??>  Ba' al-Adon  of  coins,  Numid. 
v,  1);  but  as  the  associate  name  ^rerodach  (q.  v.)  is 
prob.  not  Shemitic,  we  may  perhaps  better  derive  Bal- 
adan from  the  Sanscrit  bala  (strength)  and  dhana  (rich- 
es), with  the  sense  of  valiant  and  icealthy. 

1.  The  father  of  the  Babylonian  king  Merodach. 
baladan  (2  Kings  xx,  12 ;  Isa.  xxxix,  1).  B.C.  ante 
711.     See  Merodach-Baladan. 

2.  A  surname  of  Merodach-baladan  (Isa.  xxxix, 
1),  or  Berodacii-daladan  (2  Kings  xx,  12)  himself 
(q.  v.). 

Ea'lall  (Heb.  Balali,  hba,  a  contraction  of  the 
name  Baalah  or  Bilhah;  Sept.  Ba\d  v.  r.  BwXa),  a 
city  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  mentioned  in  connection 
with  Hazar-shual  and  Azem  (Josh,  xix,  3).  It  seems 
to  have  been  the  same  with  that  elsewhere  called  Bil- 
hah (1  Chron.  iv,  29)  or  Baalah  (Josh,  xv,  29),  and, 
if  so,  it  must  have  been  transferred  to  Judah,  or  so  ac- 
counted in  later  times,  like  many  other  cities  of  this 
region.     See  Bizjothjaii. 

Ba'lak  (Heb.  Balak',  pba,  empty;  Sept.  and  N, 
T.  BoXck-,  Jocephus,  BaXaicoc,  Ant.  iv,  6,  2),  son  of 
Zippor,  and  king  of  the  Moabites  (Num.  xxii,  2,  4); 
he  was  so  terrified  at  the  approach  of  the  victorious 
army  of  the  Israelites,  who,  in  their  passage  through 
the  desert,  had  encamped  near  the  confines  of  his  ter- 
ritory, that  he  applied  to  Balaam,  who  was  then  re- 
puted to  possess  great  influence  with  the  higher  spirits, 
to  curse  them.  B.C.  1618.  But  his  hostile  designs 
(Josh,  xxiv,  9)  were  frustrated.  See  Balaam.  From 
Judg.  xi,  25,  it  is  clear  that  Balak  was  so  certain  of 
the  fulfilment  of  Balaam's  blessing,  "  Blessed  is  he 
that  blesseth  thee,  and  cursed  is  he  that  curseth  thee" 
(Num.  xxiv,  9),  that  he  never  afterward  made  the  least 
military  attempt  to  oppose  the  Israelites  (comp.  Mic. 
vi,  5;  Eev.  ii,  14).— Kitto,  s.  v. 

Bal'amo  (rather  Bel'amon,  BtXa/itor,  v.  r.  Bat '- 
amon,  BaXapwi'),  a  place  named  in  the  Apocrypha 
(Jud.  viii,  3)  as  not  far  from  Dothaim  (Dothar),  and 
usually  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  Bclmen  of  J  udith 


BALANCES 


624 


BALD 


iv,  4,  ami  the  Abel-maim  (q.  v.)  of  Scripture.  Reland 
p.  615,  022)  inclines,  however,  to  identify  it 
with  the  Bekmoth  (Bt.\f/«"c)  stated  by  Epiphanius 
(lit.  Prophetarum,  p.  244)  to  have  been  the  native 
place  of  the  prophet  Hoaea,  and  called  Bt lemon  (Bt\t- 
fmv)  in  the  Packed  Ch 

Balances  (IIeb.  in  the  dual  D?3tXB,  mozena'yim, 
i.  e.  ttoopoisi  rs  ;  and  so  the  Chald.  equivalent,  ""'DTK'S, 
'/?,  Pan.  v.  27;  once  the  Heb.  n.D£,  kaneh', 
j,ro|..  a  branch,  as  of  "cane,"  used  in  the  sing.  Isa. 
xlvi,  G,  the  rod  or  beam  of  a  steel-yard;  in  Rev.  vi,  5, 
%{<yoc,  a  yoke,  hence  a  "pair  of  balances").  In  the 
e  irlv  periods  of  the  world  gold  and  silver  were  paid 
by  weight,  so  that  persons  employed  in  traffic  of  any 
kind  carried  with  them  a  pair  of  scales  or  balances  and 
different  weights  (generally  stones  of  different  sizes) 
in  a  pouch  or  bag.  Fraudulent  men  would  carry  two 
sorts  of  weights,  the  lighter  to  sell  with  and  the  other 
to  bay  with  (Mic.  vi,  11).  Balances  or  scales  of  va- 
rious forms  are  frequently  seen  upon  the  most  ancient 
Egyptian  monuments,  and  were  also  used  for  dividing 
the  spoil  by  the  ancient  Assyrian  warriors  (Bonomi, 
yin  r  h,  p.  1G3,  268);  they  bear  a  general  resemblance 
to  those  now  in  use,  and  most  likely  they  are  similar 
to  those  used  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  (Lev.  xix,  36). 

Among  the  Egyptians  large  scales  were  generally 
a  flat  wooden  board,  with  four  ropes  attached  to  a  ring 
at  the  extremity  of  the  beam  ;  and  those  of  smaller 
size  were  of  bronze,  one  and  a  half  inch  in  diameter, 
pierced  near  the  edge  in  three  places  for  the  strings. 
The  principle  of  the  common  balance  was  simple  and 
ingenious :  the  beam  passed  through  a  ring  suspended 
from  a  horizontal  rod,  immediately  above  and  parallel 
to  it,  and  when  equally  balanced,  the  ring,  which  was 
large  enough  to  allow  the  beam  to  play  freely,  showed 
when  the  scales  were  equally  poised,  and  had  the  addi- 
tional effect  of  preventing  the  beam  tilting  when  the 
goods  were  taken  out  of  one  and  the  weights  suffered 
to  remain  in  the  other  scale.  To  the  lower  part  of  the 
rin^  a  small  plummet  was  fixed,  and  this  being  touch- 
ed by  the  hand,  and  found  to  hang  freely,  indicated, 
without  the  necessity  of  looking  at  the  beam,  that  the 
weight  was  just.     The  figure  of  a  baboon  was  some- 


Al"  '  "'  ;'  "  -  Rings  of  Metal,  with  Weights  in 

of  ;i    eated  Animal. 

timi  •  placed  upon  the  top,  as  the  emblem  of  the  god 
Thoth,  the  regulator  of  measures,  of  time,  and  of 
"i  his  i  haracter  of  the  moon;  but  there  is  no 
goddess  of  justice  being  connected 
with  the  balam  s,exc  pi  in  the  judgment  scenes  of  the 
'!  •"!•  I  he  pair  of  scales  was  the  ordinary  and,  appar- 
ently, only  kind  of  balance  used  by  the  Egyptians,  no 

'"'' ,,r''      teel-yard  being  met  with  in  the  paint- 

inga  "I   H"!"  ■  "i-  of  Beni  Hassan;  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  latl  t  is  confined  to  a  Roman  era.     The 

other  kind  of  balance,  ui invention  has  been  as- 

cribed  by  Pliny  to  Disdains,  is  Bhown  to  have  been 


known  and  applied  in  Egypt  at  least  as  early  as  the 
time  of  the  Osirtasens.  One  kind  of  balance  used 
for  weighing  gold  [see  Goldsmith]  differed  slightly 
from  those  of  ordinary  construction,  and  was  probably 
more  delicately  formed.  It  was  made,  as  usual,  with 
an  upright  pole,  rising  from  a  broad  base  or  stand,  and 
a  cross-beam  turning  on  a  pin  at  its  summit ;  but  in- 
stead of  strings  suspending  the  scales  was  an  arm  on 
either  side,  terminating  in  a  hook,  to  which  the  gold 
was  attached  in  small  bags  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt. 
abridg.  ii,  151,  152).     See  Weight. 

A  pair  of  scales  is  likewise  a  well-known  symbol  of 
a  strict  observation  of  justice  and  fair  dealing.  It  is 
thus  used  in  several  places  of  Scripture,  as  Job  xxxi, 
6;  Psa.  lxii,  9;  Prov.  xi,  1,  and  xvi,  11.  But  balance, 
joined  with  symbols  denoting  the  sale  of  corn  and 
fruits  by  weight,  becomes  the  symbol  of  scarcity; 
bread  by  weight  being  a  curse  in  Lev.  xxvi,  26,  and  in 
Ezek.  iv,  16,  17.  So  in  Rev.  vi,  5,  "He  that  sat  upon 
him  had  a  pair  of  balances  in  his  hand."  Here  the 
balance  is  used  to  weigh  corn  and  the  necessaries  of 
life,  in  order  to  signify  great  want  and  scarcity,  and 
to  threaten  the  world  with  famine.     See  Scales. 

Balas.     Sec  Alexander. 

Balas'amus  (or  rathsr  Baal'samus,  Waa\ca^og ; 
comp.  Belsamen  in  the  art.  Baal-),  the  last  named  of 
those  that  stood  at  the  right  hind  of  Ezra  while  read- 
ing the  law  (1  Esdr.  ix,  43);  but  the  corresponding 
name  in  the  true  text  fNeb.  viii,  4)  is  Maaseiah 
(q.  v.). 

Bald  (prop.  Tj~}p,  kare'iich,  naturally  bare  of  hair 
on  the  top  or  back  of  the  head ;  Sept.  (paXciKpoc  ;  differ- 
ent was  the  n2S,  g:bbe'ach,  diseased  loss  of  hair  on 
forehead,  Lev.  xiii,  41;  Sept.  c'tvafiaXai'Toc).  There 
are  two  kinds  cf  baldness,  viz.,  artificial  and  natural. 
The  latter  seems  to  have  been  uncommon,  since  it  ex- 
posed people  to  public  derision,  and  is  perpetually  al- 
luded to  as  a  ma>-k  of  squalor  and  misery  (2  Kings  ii, 
23;  Isa.  iii,  24,  "instead  of  well-set  hair,  baldness, 
and  burning  instead  of  beauty."  Isa.  xv,  2;  Jer. 
xlvii,  5  ;  Ezek.  vii,  18,  etc.).  For  this  reason  it  seems 
to  have  been  included  under  the  "scab"  and  "scurf" 
(Lev.  xxi,  20,  perhaps  i.  q.  dandruff),  which  were  dis- 
qualifications for  priesthood  (Mishna,  Bcrachoth,  vii, 
2).  In  Lev.  xiii,  29  sq.,  very  careful  directions  are 
given  to  distinguish  the  scall (pf?'3,  bohak' ,  "freckled 
spot,"  ver.  39),  described  as  "a  plague  (SM,  ne'gn, 
stroke)  upon  the  head  and  beard"  (which  probably 
is  the  Mentagra  of  Pliny,  and  is  a  sort  of  leprosy), 
from  mere  natural  baldness  which  is  pronounced  to 
be  clean,  v,  40  (Jahn,  Bibl.  Arch.  189).  See  Lep- 
rosy. But  this  shows  that  even  natural  baldness 
subjected  men  to  an  unpleasant  suspicion.  It  was  a 
defect  with  which  the  Israelites  were  by  no  means 
familiar,  since  the  Egyptians  were  very  rarely  subject 
to  it,  according  to  Herodotus  (iii,  12) ;  an  immunity 
which  he  attributes  to  their  constant  shaving.  They 
adopted  this  practice  for  purposes  of  cleanliness,  and 
generally  wore  wigs,  some  of  which  have  been  found 
in  the  ruins  of  Thebes.  Contrary  to  the  general  prac- 
tice of  the  East,  they  only  let  the  hair  grow  as  a  sign 
of  mourning  (Herod,  ii,  36),  and  shaved  themselves  on 
all  joyous  occasions ;  hence  in  Gen.  xli,  44,  we  have 
an  undesigned  coincidence.  The  same  custom  obtains 
in  China  and  among  the  modern  Egyptians,  who  shave 
off  all  the  hair  except  the  shoosheh,  a  tuft  on  the  fore- 
head and  crown  of  the  head  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt. 
iii,  359  sq. ;  Lane,  Mod.  Egypt,  i,  ch.  1).  Baldness 
was  despised  both  among  Greeks  and  Romans.  In 
Homer  (II.  ii,  219)  it  is  one  of  the  defects  of  Thersites ; 
Aristophanes  (who  was  probably  bald  himself,  Pax, 
767  ;  Eq.  55b)  takes  pride  in  not  joining  in  the  ridicule 
against  it  (Nub.  540).  Caesar  was  said  to  have  had 
some  deformity  of  this  sort,  and  he  generally  endeav- 
ored to   conceal  it   (Suet.  Caes.  45;    comp.  Bom.  18). 


BALDACHIN 


625 


BxVLE 


Artificial  baldness  marked  the  conclusion  of  a  Naza- 
rite's  vow  (Acts  xviii,  18 ;  Num.  vi,  9),  and  was  a  sign 
of  mourning  (Cic.  Tusc.  Z%).  iii,  2G).  It  is  often  al- 
luded to  in  Scripture,  as  in  Mic.  i,  16 ;  Amos  viii,  10 ; 
Jer.  xlvii,  5,  etc. ;  and  in  Deut.  xiv,  1,  the  reason  for 
its  being  forbidden  to  the  Israelites  is  their  being  "a 
holy  and  peculiar  people"  (comp.  Lev.  xix,  27,  and 
Jer.  ix,  26,  marg.).  The  practices  alluded  to  in  the 
latter  passages  were  adopted  by  heathen  nations  (e.  g. 
the  Arabs,  etc.)  in  honor  of  various  gods.  The  Aban- 
tes  and  other  half-civilized  tribes  shaved  off  the  fore- 
locks, to  avoid  the  danger  of  being  seized  by  them  in 
battle  (Herod,  ii,  36 ;  i,  82).— Smith.     See  Hair. 

Baldachin  or  Baldaquin  (utribraculuni),  (1.)  the 
cilorium,  or  canopy,  overhanging  the  altar,  imitating 
a,  roof  supported  by  pillars.  (2.)  The  canopy  which 
is  borne  over  the  host,  or  over  the  head  of  the  pope, 
on  daj's  of  ceremony.  The  name  itself  is  an  ancient 
French  term,  signifying  the  richest  kind  of  silks  and 
tissues,  especially  of  gold  thread ;  so  called,  perhaps, 
because  imported  from  Baldak,  the  mediaeval  name  of 
Babylon  in  Persia, — Ducange,  Gloss,  s.  v. 

Balde,  Joiiann  Jacob,  surnamed  by  his  contem- 
poraries "the  German  Horace,"  was  born  at  Ensis- 
heim,  near  Colmar,  Alsace,  in  1603,  and  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Ingolstadt.  He  entered  the  order 
of  Jesuits  in  1624,  became  in  1G38  court  preacher  at 
Munich,  and  afterward  confessor  of  Philip  William, 
duke  of  Bavaria.  He  died  Aug.  9th,  1668.  His  prin- 
cipal writings,  all  of  which  are  written  in  classic  Latin, 
are — Carmina  lyrica  libri  IV,  Epoclon  liber,  Sylvtv  lyri- 
ca>.  Be  vanitate  mundi: — Solatium  podagricorum  (Co- 
logne, 1660):— Opera  poetica  (Munich,  1726,  8  vols.), 
etc.  His  Uranie  victorieuse  was  rewarded  by  Alex- 
ander VII  with  a  gold  medal.  A  selection  of  his  works 
was  published  by  Orelli  (Zurich,  2d  ed.  1818)  and  by 
Cleska  (Augsbg.  1829,  2  vols.) ;  a  biography  by  Cleska 
(Nurnb.  1842). 

Bald  Locust.     See  Locust. 

Baldness.     See  Bald. 

Baldwin,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  born  at 
Exeter,  where  he  received  a  liberal  education.  He 
became  archdeacon  of  Exeter,  but  soon  resigned,  and 
became  a  monk  in  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Ford,  in  Dev- 
onshire, of  which  in  a  few  years  he  was  elected  abbot. 
In  1181  he  was  made  bishop  of  Worcester,  and  in  1184 
Henry  II  translated  him  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  Ur- 
ban III  afterward  made  Baldwin  his  legate  for  the  dio- 
cese of  Canterbury.  On  September,  3, 1189,  Baldwin 
performed  the  ceremony  of  crowning  Richard  I  at  West- 
minster ;  and  in  the  same  year,  when  that  king's  nat- 
ural brother,  Geoffrey,  was  translated  from  the  see  of 
Lincoln  to  York,  he  successfully  asserted  the  pre-emi- 
nence of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  forbidding  the  bishops 
of  England  to  receive  consecration  from  any  other  than 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In  1190  he  made  a 
progress  into  Wales  to  preach  the  Crusade  ;  and  in  the 
same  3Tear,  having  held  a  council  at  Westminster,  he 
followed  King  Richard  I  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  em- 
barked at  Dover  March  25, 1191,  abandoning  the  im- 
portant duties  of  his  station,  and,  after  suffering  many 
hardships  on  his  voyage,  arrived  at  Acre  during  the 
siege,  where  he  died,  November  20,  in  the  same  year, 
and  where  his  body  was  interred.  Bishop  Tanner  has 
given  a  list  of  a  great  many  treatises  by  Archbishop 
Baldwin,  which  remain  in  manuscript,  and  has  noticed 
the  different  libraries  in  which  they  are  deposited. 
The  most  important  were  collected  by  Bertrand  Tis- 
sier,  and  published,  in  1602,  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the 
"  Scriptores  Biblioth.  Cisterciensis."  See  Engl.  Cyclo- 
pedia; Godwin,  De  Frees.  Ang.  p.  79;  Collier,  Eccl. 
Hist,  ii,  374  sq. 

Baldwin,  Ebenezer,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  July  3, 1745.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1763,  and  became  tutor  there  in  17PD, 
Re 


In  1770  he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  first  Cong, 
church  in  Danbury.  In  the  Revolution  he  was  an  ar- 
dent Whig,  and,  as  chaplain  in  the  army,  contracted 
the  disease  of  which  he  died,  Oct.  1,  1776. — Sprague, 
Annals,  i,  645. 

Baldwin,  Elihu  W.,  D.D.,an  efficient  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  born  in  Greene  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1789,  and 
educated  at  Yale  and  Andover,  was  licensed  to  preach 
in  1817,  and  by  his  labors  established  the  Seventh 
Presb.  Church  in  New  York,  of  which  he  became  pas- 
tor in  1820.  In  1835  he  became  president  of  Wabash 
College,  at  that  time  a  very  arduous  post,  on  account 
of  the  pecuniary  difficulties  in  which  the  institution 
was  involved.  In  18:  9  Mr.  Baldwin  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  from  Indiana  College.  He  died  Oct.  15, 
1840,  having  published  several  tracts  and  sermons. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  572. 

Baldwin,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister,  was 
born  at  Bozrah,  Conn.,  Dec.  23,  1753,  and  died  at  Wa- 
terville,  Me.,  Aug.  29, 1826.  Though  educated  among 
Pasdobaptists,  he  adopted  Baptist  views,  and  was  bap- 
tized by  immersion  in  1781.  In  the  following  year  he 
began  to  preach,  and  was  ordained  in  1783  pastor  of 
the  Baptist  church  in  Canaan,  N.  H.,  where  he  was  re- 
siding. In  1790  he  removed  to  Boston,  taking  charge 
of  the  Second  Baptist  Church  in  that  place.  In  1794 
he  received  the  degree  of  A.M.  from  Brown  Univer- 
sity, and  in  1803  that  of  D.D.  from  Union  College. 
From  the  latter  year  till  his  death  he  was  the  chief  ed- 
itor of  the  "Mass.  Bapt.  Miss.  Magazine,"  published  in 
Boston.  Dr.  Baldwin  published  several  pamphlets  on 
baptism  and  communion,  besides  "A  Series  of  Letters 
in  Answer  to  the  Rev.  Samuel  Worcester,"  published 
in  1810,  and  various  tracts  and  sermons. — Sprague, 
A  nnals,  vi,  208  ;  Mass.  Bapt.  Miss.  Mag.  v. 

Bale,  John  (Batons),  bishop  of  Ossory,  an  English 
historian  and  theologian,  was  born  rt  Cove  Hithe,  in 
Suffolk,  Nov.  21, 1495,  and  was  educated  at  Jesus  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  early  gained  a  reputation  for 
letters  and  opposed  the  Reformation.  He  attributes 
his  conversion  to  Lord  Wentworth,  and  soon  beijan  to 
write  against  Romanism  ;  and  although  protected  for  a 
time  by  the  Earl  of  Essex,  he  was,  after  the  death  of 
Cromwell,  obliged  to  retire  into  Flanders.  He  returned 
under  Edward  VI,  and  received  the  living  of  Bishop- 
stoke,  in  Hampshire.  On  Feb.  2, 1553,  he  was  made  1  >isk- 
op  of  Ossory.  When  Edward  died  he  took  refuge  at  Ba- 
sle, where  he  remained  till  1559,  when  ho  returned  into 
England,  and,  refusing  to  resume  his  bishopric  (which 
he  at  the  first  was  earnestly  desirous  not  to  accept),  he 
was  made  prebend  of  the  Church  of  Canterbury.  His 
chief  work  is  his  Ilhistrium  majoris  Britannia-  Scrijito- 
rum  Summarium,  first  printed  at  Ipswich  in  1549.  This 
edition  contained  only  five  centuries  of  writers  ;  but  an 
enlarged  edition  was  published  at  Basle  in  1557,  etc., 
containing  nine  centuries,  under  the  following  title  : 
Scriptorum  Illustrium,  M.  Britannia,  quain  nunc  Angli- 
can et  Scotiam  meant,  Catalogue,  a  Japketoper  3618  an- 
nos  usque  ad  annum  hunc  Domini  1557,  ex  Beroso,  Gen- 

nadio,  Beda,  etc collectus ;  and  in  1559  a  third 

edition  appeared.,  containing  five  more  centuries.  Ho 
was  a  very  voluminous  writer ;  a  long  list  of  his  print- 
ed works  is  given  by  Fuller,  and  also  in  the  Engl.  <  '//- 
clopadia  (s.  v.  Bale).  His  works  were  placed  on  the 
prohibitory  Index,  printed  at  Madrid  in  1667,  as  those 
of  a  heretic  of  the  first  class.  No  character  has  been 
more  variously  represented  than  Bale's.  Gesner,  in 
his  Bibliotheca,  calls  him  a  writer  of  the  greatest  dili- 
gence, and  Bishop  Godwin  gives  him  the  character  of 
a  laborious  inquirer  into  British  antiquities.  Similar 
praise  is  also  bestowed  upon  him  by  Vogler  (Introd. 
Universal,  in  Notit.  Scriptor.).  Anthony  a  Wood,  how- 
ever, styles  him  "the  foul-mouthed  Bale."  Hearne 
(Pre/,  to  Ileminrf.)  calls  him  "  Baljcus  in  multis  men- 
dax."  And  even  Fuller  {Worthies,  last  edit,  ii,  332) 
says  "  Biliosus  Balauis  passeth  for  his  true  character." 


BALFOUR 


626 


BALLDIATHLE 


He  inveighed  with  much  asperity  against  the  pope  I 
and  papists,  and  his  intemperate  zeal,  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, often  carried  him  beyond  the  bounds  of 
and  candor.  Fuller,  in  his  Church  History 
(cent.  ix.  p.  68),  pleads  for  Hale's  railing  against  the! 
papists.  "Old  age  and  ill  usage,"  he  says,  "will 
make  any  man  angry.  When  young,  he  had  seen 
tin  ;r  superstition  ;  when  old,  he  felt  their  oppression." 
The  greatest  fault  of  Hale's  book  on  the  British  writers 
i-  its  multiplication  of  their  works  by  frequently  giv- 
ing the  heads  of  chapters  or  sections  of  a  book  as  the 
titles  of  distinct  treatises.  A  selection  from  his  works 
was  published  by  the  Parker  Society  (Cambridge,  1849, 
8vo).  See  Sfrype,  Memorials  qfCranmer,  p.  206,  3C0; 
Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  v,  500 ;  Penny  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Balfour,  Walter,  was  born  at  St.  Ninian's,  Scot- 
land, 1776,  and  educated  in  the  Scotch  Church  at  the 
expense  of  Mr.  Robert  Ilaldane.  After  some  years' 
preaching  he  came  to  America,  and  became  a  Baptist 
about  1806.  In  1823  he  avowed  himself  a  Universal- 
ist,  and  labored,  both  as  preacher  and  writer,  in  behalf 
ofTJniversalism  until  his  death  at  Charlestown,  Mass., 
Jan.  3,  1852.  He  published  Essays  en  the  intermediate 
Stat  of  the  Dead  (Charlestown,  1828, 12mo).  See  Whit- 
temore,  M<  moir  of  Rev.  W.  BaJfjur  (Bost.  1830). 

Balguy,  John,  an  English  divine,  was  born  at 
Sheffield  in  1686,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  passed  M.A.  in  1720.  In  the  Bangorian  controver- 
sy (q.  v.)  he  maintained  the  views  of  Bishop  Hoadley, 
and  wrote,  in  1718,  1719,  several  tracts  on  the  dispute. 
In  1726,  in  view  of  the  infidel  principles  of  Lord  Shaftes- 
bury, he  published  A  Letter  to  a  Deist,  and  The  Foun- 
dati  m  of  Moral  Virtue.  These,  with  others,  are  given 
in  .1  Collection  of  Tracts,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Balguy  (Lond. 
1734,  8vo).  His  Sermons  (2  vols.  8vo)  had  reached  a 
third  edition  in  1790.  Balguy  was  a  "  latitudinarian" 
(q.  v.)  in  theology.     He  died  in  1748. — Allibone,  s.  v. 

Balguy,  Thomas,  D.D.,  son  of  John,  was  born  in 
Yorkshire  in  1716,  and  educated  at  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  in  1741  he  became  M.A.,  and  in 
1758  D.D.  In  1757,  under  the  patronage  of  Hoadley, 
he  was  made  prebendary  of  Winchester,  and  afterward 
archdeacon  of  Salisbury  and  Winchester.  He  aban- 
don d  Hoadley's  "  latitudinarianism,"  and  brought  his 
sound  scholarship  to  the  "defence  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion and  of  the  English  Church."  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  excellent  sermons  and  charges,  which  may  be 
found  in  his  I)isrniir.,es  on  various  Subjects,  edited  by 
Drake,  with  a  .Memoir  of  Balguy  (Cambridge,  1822,  2 
vols.  8vo).  lb'  wrote,  also.  Divine  Hiwvilence  vindi- 
catedfrom  th>  Reflections  of  Sceptics  (Lond.  2d  ed.  1803, 
12mo).  lie  died  unmarried,  Jan.  19, 1795.  See  Hook, 
/       .  Bioff.  i,  177  ;    Hose,   BlOff.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Ball  (in,  dur),  well  known  as  being  used  in  vari- 
rl     and  games  from  the  earliest  times,  several 
kind-  of  which  are  depicted  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments (Wilkinson,  i,  198  sq.  abridg.).     The  word  oc- 
cura  in  tlii-  sense  in  Isa.  xxii,  18,  but  in  a  subsequent 
K3UX,  3)  it  is  employed  of  a  ring  or  circle,  and 
translated  '-round  about"  in  the  prophecy  of  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem.     In  Ezek.  xxiv,  5,  in  the  symbol  of  the 
same  event,   it   i.  translated  "burn,"   but  probably 
'r.  as  in  the  margin. 


Auriont  Egyptian  Balls— 1.  Leather;  1.  Painted  r.anhemrare. 


Among  the  Egyptians  the  balls  were  made  of  leather 
or  skin,  sewed  with  string,  crosswise,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  our  own,  and  stuffed  with  bran  or  husks  of 
corn  ;  and  those  which  have  been  found  at  Thebes  are 
about  three  inches  in  diameter.  Others  were  made 
of  string,  or  of  the  stalks  of  rushes  platted  together  so 
as  to  form  a  circular  mass,  and  covered,  like  the  for- 
mer, with  leather.  They  appear  also  to  have  a  smaller 
kind  of  ball,  probably  of  the  same  materials,  and  cov- 
ered, like  many  of  our  own,  with  slips  of  leather  of  an 
elliptical  shape,  sewed  together  longitudinally,  and 
meeting  in  a  common  point  at  both  ends,  each  alter- 
nate slip  being  of  a  different  color;  but  these  have 
only  been  met  with  in  pottery  (Wilkinson,  i,  200). 

Ball,  John,  a  Roman  priest,  who  seems  to  have 
imbibed  Wickliffe's  doctrines,  and  who  was  (previous- 
ly to  1366)  excommunicated  repeatedly  for  preaching 
"errors,  and  schisms,  and  scandals  against  the  pope, 
archbishops,  bishops,  and  clergy."  He  preached  in 
favor  of  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler,  and  was  executed 
at  Coventry  in  1381.  See  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  iii, 
148  sq. 

Ball,  John,  a  Puritan  divine,  was  born  in  1585,  at 
Cassington,  in  Oxfordshire.  He  studied  at  Brazen- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  and  was  admitted  to  holy  orders, 
and  passed  his  life  in  poverty  on  a  small  cure  at  Whit- 
more,  Staffordshire,  to  which  was  united  the  care  of  a 
school.  He  died  in  1640.  His  Catechism  had  gone 
through  fourteen  editions  before  the  year  1632,  and 
has  had  the  singular  lot  of  being  translated  into  Turk- 
ish. His  Treatise  on  Faith  (Lond.  1632,  4to)  also 
passed  through  many  editions.  He  published  also 
Th?  Power  of  Godliness  and  other  treatises  (Lond.  1657, 
fol.)     See  Rose,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v.  ;  Allibone,  i,  108. 

Balle,  Nikolai  Edinger,  a  distinguished  Luther- 
an theologian  of  Denmark,  was  born  in  1744  in  Zealand, 
became  in  1772  Professor  of  Theology  at  Copenhagen, 
and  in  1783  bishop  of  Zealand.  He  died  in  1816.  He 
wrote,  Theses  theologicce  (Copenh.  1776),  and  A  Manual 
of  Religious  Doctrines  (Copenh.  1781);  he  was  also  the 
editor  of  a  magazine  for  modern  church  history  of  Den- 
mark {Magazin  for  den  nyere  danske  Kir  Ice  historic,  Co- 
penh. 1792-94,  2  vols.). 

Ballerini,  Peter  and  Jerome,  brothers,  priests 
of  Verona,  distinguished  for  their  learning.  Peter 
was  born  in  1698,  Jerome  in  1702.  They  lived  and 
studied  together,  and  published,  in  conjunction  and 
separately,  many  important  worlds  on  jurisprudence 
and  theology.  Among  these  were,  The  Works  of  <  'ar- 
dinal  Norris,  containing,  among  other  matters,  a  Life 
of  the  Writer;  a  History  of  the  various  Congregations 
hehl  for  the  Reform  of  the  Calendar,  at  which  the  car- 
dinal presided  ;  a  History  of  the  Donatists,  in  2  parts, 
Supplements,  and  an  Appendix  (Verona,  1732,  1  vols. 
fol.);  Suncti  Antonini  Archiep.  Florentini  Siimma  The- 
ologice,  etc.  (Verona,  1740-41,  2  vols,  fol.);  8.  Pai- 
mundi  de  Pennaforte  Summa  Theologicalis,  etc.  (Verona, 
1744).  Among  the  works  edited  by  them  may  be 
mentioned  the  Sermons  of  Zeno,  bishop  of  Verona, 
1739;  the  works,  of  John  Mathew  Gibert,  bishop  of 
Verona,  1736 ;  the  works  of  Pope  St.  Leo,  in  3  vols, 
folio,  containing  works  of  that  pope  which  are  not  to 
be  found  in  Qnesnel's  edition.  Peter  wrote  several 
treatises  in  behalf  of  the  papacy,  especially  De  Pntes- 
tafe  8.  Pontif.  etc.  (1765),  and  De  Vi  ac  ratione  prima- 
tes Pontif.  (1766). — Biog.  Universelle. 

Ballimathise  {wanton  dances,  from  fia\\iZfu\ 
is  generally  understood  to  refer  to  those  wanton  dances 
which  were  practised  at  marriage  festivals,  but  some- 
times indicates  the  practice  of  playing  on  cymbals 
and  other  musical  instruments.  The  word  flaWiZfiv 
means  to  throw  the  legs  and  feet  about  rapidly ;  hence 
to  dance  a  certain  lively  dance  peculiar  to  Magna 
Greecia  and  Sicily.  The  words  ballet  and  ball  are 
from  this  root.  The  Council  of  Laodicea,  and  the  third 
Council  of  Toledo,  forbade  the  promiscuous  and  lasciv- 


BALLOU 


627 


BALM 


ious  dancing  of  men  and  women  together  under  this 
name,  which  is  generally  interpreted  wanton  dances 
associated  with  lascivious  songs.  Ambrose,  Chrysos- 
tom,  and  others  of  the  fathers,  are  faithful  in  condemn- 
ing the  practices  which  were  adopted  in  their  day  at 
marriage  ceremonies,  many  of  which  were  highly  dis- 
graceful. See  Bingham,  Oriff,  Eccles.  bk.  xvi,  ch.  xi, 
§16. 

Ballou,  Hosea,  a  Universalist  minister,  was  born 
April  30th,  1771,  at  Richmond,  N.  II.  At  an  early 
age  he  joined  the  Baptist  Church,  of  which  his  father 
was  a  minister,  but  was  soon  after  expelled  on  account 
of  his  embracing  Universalist  and  Unitarian  opinions. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  became  an  itinerant 
preacher  of  the  then  new  doctrines  he  had  adopted. 
His  ability  and  eloquence  attracting  attention,  he  was 
invited  in  1791  to  a  permanent  charge  at  Dana,  Mass., 
which  he  accepted.  In  1802  he  removed  to  Barnard, 
Vt. ;  in  1807,  to  Portsmouth,  N.  H. ;  and  in  1815,  to 
Salem,  Mass.  Two  years  later  he  accepted  the  charge 
of  the.  Second  Universalist  Society  at  Boston,  which 
he  held  till  his  death,  June  7th,'l852.  Mr.  Ballou 
was  an  industrious  writer.  In  1819  he  commenced 
the  Universalist  Magazine,  and  in  1831  the  Universalist 
Expositor  (now  the  Universalist  Quarterly).  He  pub- 
lished The  Doctrine  of  future  Retribution  (1834),  and 
numerous  other  controversial  works,  besides  Notes  on 
the  Parables ;  A  Treatise  on  the  A  tonement ;  and  several 
volumes  of  Sc  rmons.  See  Whittemore,  Life  of  the  Rev. 
H.  Ballou. 

Balm  (for  the  original  term,  see  below),  a  produc- 
tion more  particularly  ascribed  to  Gilcad  (Gen.  xxxvii, 
25;  Jer.  viii,  22).  Balm  or  bals  in  is  used  as  a  com- 
mon name  for  many  of  those  oily,  resinous  substances 
which  flow  spontaneously  or  by  incision  from  certain 
trees  or  plants,  and  are  of  considerable  use  in  medicine 
and  surgery.  Kimchi  and  some  of  the  modern  inter- 
preters understand  the  Ileb.  word  rendered  "balm" 
to  be  that  particular  species  called  opobalsamum,  or 
balm  of  Gilead,  so  much  celebrated  by  Pliny,  Strabo, 
Diodorus  Siculus,  Tacitus,  Justin,  and  others,  for  its 
costliness,  its  medicinal  virtues,  and  for  being  the  prod- 
uct of  Juckea  only ;  and  which  Josephus  says  grew  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Jericho,  the  tree,  according  to 
tradition,  having  been  originally  brought  by  the  Queen 
of  Sheba  as  a  present  to  King  Solomon.  On  the  other 
hand,  Bochart  strongly  contends  that  the  balm  men- 
tioned Jer.  viii,  22,  could  not  possibly  be  that  of  Gil- 
ead, and  considers  it  as  no  other  than  the  resin  drawn 
from  the  terebinth  or  turpentine  tree.  Pliny  says, 
"The  trees  of  the  opobalsamum  have  a  resemblance  to 
fir-trees,  but  they  are  lower,  and  are  planted  and  hus- 
banded after  the  manner  of  vines.  On  a  particular 
season  of  the  year  they  sweat  balsam.  The  darkness 
of  the  place  is,  besides,  as  wonderful  as  the  fruitfulness 
of  it;  for,  though  the  sun  shines  nowhere  hotter  in 
the  world,  there  is  naturally  a  moderate  and  perpetual 
gloominess  of  the  air.*'  Mr.  Buckingham  observes 
upon  this  passage,  that  "the  situation,  boundaries,  and 
local  features  of  the  valley  of  Jericho  are  accurately 
given  in  these  details,  though  darkness,  in  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  commonly  understood,  would  be  an  improp- 
er term  to  apply  to  the  gloom.  At  the  present  time 
there  is  not  a  tree  of  any  description,  either  of  palm  or 
balsam,  and  scarcely  any  verdure  or  bushes  to  be  seen, 
but  the  complete  desolation  is  undoubtedly  rather  to 
be  attributed  to  the  cessation  of  the  usual  agricultural 
labors,  and  to  the  want  of  a  proper  distribution  of  wa- 
ter over  it  by  the  aqueducts,  the  remains  of  which 
evince  that  they  were  constructed  chiefly  for  that  pur- 
pose, rather  than  to  any  radical  change  in  the  climate 
or  the  soil."  The  balsam,  carried  originally,  says 
Arab  tradition,  from  Yemen  by  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  as 
a  gift  to  Solomon,  and  planted  by  him  in  the  gardens 
of  Jericho,  was  brought  to  Egypt  by  Cleopatra,  and 
planted  at  Ain-Shemesh,  now  Matara,  in   a  garden 


which  all  the  old  travellers,  Arab  and  Christian,  men- 
tion with  deep  interest.  The  balsam  of  Jericho,  or 
true  balm  of  Gilead,  has  long  been  lost  (De  Sacy). 

Balsam,  at  present,  is  procured  in  some  cases  from 
the  fruit  of  a  shrub  which  is  indigenous  in  the  moun- 
tains between  Mecca  and  Medina.  This  shrub  was 
cultivated  in  gardens  in  Egypt  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  and  that  this  was  also  the  case 
in  Palestine,  in  very  early  times,  appears  from  the 
original  text  in  Gen.  xliii,  11,  and  Jer.  xlvi,  11.  The 
balsam  of  Mecca  has  always  been  deemed  a  substance 
of  the  greatest  value ;  though  it  is  not  the  only  one 
possessing  medicinal  properties,  yet  it  is,  perhaps,  more 
eminently  distinguished  for  them  than  other  balsamic 
plants  of  the  same  genus,  of  which  sixteen  are  enu- 
merated by  botanists,  each  exhibiting  some  peculiari- 
ty. There  are  three  species  of  this  balsam,  two  of 
\n  Inch  are  shrubs,  and  the  other  a  tree.  In  June,  July, 
and  August  they  yield  their  sap,  which  is  received  into 
|  an  earthen  vessel.  The  fruit,  also,  when  pierced  with 
I  an  instrument,  emits  a  juice  of  the  same  kind,  and  in 
I  greater  abundance,  but  less  rich.  The  sap  extracted 
I  from  the  body  of  the  tree  or  shrub  is  called  the  opobal- 
)  samum  ;  the  juice  of  the  balsam  fruit  is  denominated 
I  carpobalsamum,  and  the  liquid  extracted  from  the 
I  branches  when  cut  off,  the  xylobalsamum  (Jahn,  Bibl. 
|  Arckceol.  i,  §  74).  According  to  Bruce,  "The  balsam 
I  is  an  evergreen  shrub  or  tree,  which  grows  to  about 
j  fourteen  feet  high,  spontaneously  and  without  culture, 
|  in  its  native  country,  Azab,  and  all  along  the  coast  to 
i  Babelmandeb.  The  trunk  is  about  eight  or  ten  inches 
j  in  diameter,  the  wood  light  and  open,  gummy,  and 
,  outwardly  of  a  reddish  color,  incapable  of  receiving  a 
!  polish,  and  covered  with  a  smooth  bark,  like  that  of  a 
!  young  cherry-tree.  It  is  remarkable  for  a  penury  of 
leaves.  The  flowers  are  like  those  of  the  acacia,  small 
and  white,  only  that  three  hang  upon  three  filaments 
or  stalks,"  where  the  acacia  has  but  one.  Two  of  these 
flowers  fall  off",  and  leave  a  single  fruit.  After  the 
blossoms  follow  yellow  fine-scented  seed,  inclosed  in  a 
reddish-black  pulpy  nut,  very  sweet,  and  containing 
a  yellowish  liquor  like  honey."     A  traveller,  who  as- 


"15alm  of  Gilcad"  (Halmmodendron  Gileadense). 
sumed  the  name  of  Ali  Bey,  says  that  "  there  is  no 
balsam  made  at  Mecca ;  that,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
very  scarce,  and  is  obtained  principally  in  the  territory 
of  Medina.  As  the  repute  of  the  balsam  of  Mecca  rose, 
the  balm  of  Gilead  disappeared ;  though  in  the  era  of 
Galen,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century,  and  trav- 


BALMES 


628 


BALSAM 


clled  into  Palestine  and  Syria  purposely  to  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  this  Bubstance,  it  grew  in  Jericho  and 
many  other  parts  of  the  Holy  Land.  The  cause  of  its 
total  decay  has  been  ascribed,  not  without  reason,  to 
the  royal  attention  being  withdrawn  from  it  by  the 
distractions  of  the  country.  In  more  recent  times  its 
naturalization  seems  to  have  been  attempted  in  Egypt; 
for  Prosper  Alpinus  relates  that  forty  plants  were 
brought  by  a  governor  of  Cairo  to  the  garden  there, 
and  ten  remained  when  Belon  travelled  in  Egypt, 
nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  ;  but,  whether 
from  "not  agreeing  with  the  African  soil  or  otherwise, 
only  one  existed  in  the  last  century,  and  now  there 
appears  to  be  none.  (See  also  Thomson,  Land  and 
Book,  ii.  193,  457.)     See  Gilead,  Balm  of. 

The  word  balm  occurs  frequently  in  the  Authorized 
Version,  as  in  Gen.  xxxvii,  25;  xliii,  11;  Jer.  viii, 
22;  xlvi,  11;  li,8;  and  Ezek.  xxviii,  17.  In  all  these 
passages  the  Hebrew  text  has  1*1^  or  1*13  Qsori'  or 
tseri',  Sept.  pnrivri),  which  is  generally  understood  to 
be  the  true  balsam,  and  is  considered  a  produce  of 
Gilead,  a  mountainous  district,  where  the  vegetation  is 
that  of  the  Mediterranean  region  and  of  Europe,  with 
few  traces  of  that  of  Africa  or  of  Asia.  Lee  {Lex.  p. 
520)  supposes  it  to  be  mastich,  a  gum  obtained  from 
the  Ptsfaccia  Lentiscus;  but  Gescnius  defends  the  com- 
mon rendering,  balsam.  It  was  the  gum  of  a  tree  or 
shrub  growing  in  Gilead,  and  very  precious.  It  was 
one  of  the  best  fruits  of  Palestine  (Gen.  xliii,  11),  ex- 
ported (Gen.  xxxvii,  25;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17),  and  espe- 
cially used  for  healing  wounds  (Jer.  viii,  22 ;  xlvi,  11 ; 
li,  8).  The  balsam  was  almost  peculiar  to  Palestine 
(Strab.  xvi,  2,  p.  7(33;  Tac.  Hist,  v,  6;  Plin.  xii,  25,  § 
54 ;  32,  §  59),  distilling  from  a  shrub  like  the  vine  and 
rue,  which  in  the  time  of  Josephus  was  cultivated  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Jericho  and  of  the  Dead  Sea  {Ant. 
xiv,  4,  1 ;  xv,  4,  2),  and  still  grows  in  gardens  near 
Tiberias  (Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  323).  In  Ezek.  xxvii, 
17,  the  Auth.  Vers,  gives  in  the  margin  rosin.  The 
fact  that  the  tsori  grew  originally  in  Gilead  does  not 
forbid  us  to  identify  it  with  the  shrub  mentioned  by 
Josephus  as  cultivated  near  Jericho.  The  name  bal- 
sam is  no  doubt  derived  from  the  Arabic  balasan,  which 
is  probably  also  the  origin  of  the  /3«A<r«/(oi'  of  the 
Greeks.  Forskal  informs  us  that  the  balsam-tree  of 
Mecca  is  there  called  abusham,  i.  e.  "  very  odorous." 
The  word  basham,  given  by  him,  is  the  name  of  a  fra- 
grant shrub  growing  near  Mecca,  with  the  branches 
and  tufts  of  which  the}-  clean  the  teeth,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  the  same  plant.  These  names  are 
very  similar  to  words  which  occur  in  the  Hebrew  text 
of  several  passages  of  Scripture,  as  in  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  v,  1,  "  I  have  gathered  my  myrrh  with  my 
spice"  {basam) ;  ver.  13,  "  His  cheeks  are  as  a  bed  of 
spices"  {basam);  and  in  vi,  2,  "gone  down  into  his 
garden  to  the  beds  of  spices"  {basam).  The  same  word 
■  ii  ed  in  Exod.  xxxv,  28,  and  in  1  Kings  x,  10, 
"There  came  no  more  such  great  abundance  of  spices 
those  which  the  Queen  of  Sheba  gave  to 
King  Solomon."  In  all  these  passages  basam'  or  bo'- 
sem  (Dba  and  fib's),  though  translated  "spices," 
would  seem  to  indicate  the  balsam-tree,  if  we  may  in- 
fer identity  of  plant  or  substance  from  similarity  in 
the  Hebrew  and  Arabic  names.  But  the  word  ma3- 
indicate  only  a  fragrant  aromatic  substance  in  general. 
The  passages  in  the  Son-;  of  Solomon  may  with  propri- 
ety be  understood  as  referring  to  a  plant  cultivated  in 
■'u'l.ei,  i,ut  no!  to  spices  in  the  general  sense  of  that 
term.  Queen  Sheba  might  have  brought  balsam  or 
rees,  as  well  as  spices,  for  both  are  the  produce 
of  southern  latitudes,  though  far  removed  from  each 
other.  1 I  >u  the  balsams  of  modern  commerce,  sec  the 
Penny  Cyclop  ?dia,  -.  v.  Balsaminea;  el  sq.)  See  Bal- 
sam. 

Balmes,  Jaime,  a  Spanish  theologian,  was  born 
Aug.  28,  1810,  at   VieJi   iii  Catalonia,  and  died   there 


July  9, 1848.  He  was  for  some  time  teacher  of  math- 
ematics at  Vich,  was  exiled  under  the  regency  of  Es- 
partero,  and  founded  in  1844,  at  Madrid,  a  political 
weekly,  El  Pensamiento  de  la  Nation,  as  an  organ  of  the 
Conservative  or  Catholic  party.  In  1847  a  pamphlet 
in  favor  of  the  political  reforms  of  Pius  IX  {Pio  IX, 
Madrid  and  Paris,  1847)  brought  him  into  conflict  with 
his  party.  His  principal  works  are  a  comparison  of 
the  relation  of  Protestantism  and  Roman  Catholicism 
to  European  civilization  {El  Protestantismo  comparado 
con  el  Catolicismo  en  sits  relaciones  con  la  ciriHsacion, 
Europea,  3  vols.  8vo,  Madrid,  1848;  Engl,  transl.  Lon- 
don, 1849,  8vo) ;  a  Filosojia  fondamental  (Barcelona, 
1846,  4  vols. ;  translated  into  French,  3  vols.  1852 ; 
into  English,  by  H.  F.  Brownson,  2  vols.  New  York, 
1857);  and  a  Curso  de  Filosofta  Elemental  (Madrid, 
1837).  See  A.  de  Blanche-Baffin,  Jacques  Balmes,  sa 
vie  et  ses  ouvrages  (Paris,  1850)  ;  North  British  Review, 
May,  1852,  art.  iv. 

'  Balnu'us  {BaXvovoc),  one  of  the  "  sons"  of  Addi 
that  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  exile  (1  Esdr. 
ix,  31) ;  evidently  the  Binxui  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text 
(Ezra  x,  30). 

Balsac.     See  Bolsec. 

Balsam  (Gr.  /3a\aafjoy,  i.  e.  opobahamnm,  Arab. 
balasan),  the  fragrant  resin  of  the  balsam-tree,  possess- 
ing medicinal  properties  ;  according  to  Pliny  (xii,  54), 
indigenous  only  to  Judaea,  but  known  to  Diodorus  Sic. 
(iii,  46)  as  a  product  of  Arabia  also.  In  Palestine, 
praised  by  other  writers  also  for  its  balsam  (Justin, 
xxxvi,  3;  Tacit.  Hist,  v,  6;  Plutarch,  Vita  Anton,  c. 
xxxvi ;  Florus,  iii,  5,  29;  Dioscor.  i,  18),  this  plant 
was  cultivated  in  the  environs  of  Jericho  (Strabo,  xvi, 
763 ;  Diod.  Sic.  ii,  48 ;  xix,  98),  in  gardens  set  apart 
for  this  use  (Plin.  xii,  54;  see  Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  4, 1; 
xv,  4,  2;  War,  i,  6,  6);  and  after  the  destruction  of 
the  state  of  Judaja,  these  plantations  formed  a  lucra- 
tive source  of  the  Roman  imperial  revenue  (see  Diod. 
Sic.  ii,  48).  riiny  distinguishes  three  different  species 
of  this  plant;  the  first  with  thin,  capillaceous  leaves; 
the  second  a  crooked  scabrous  shrub;  and  the  third 
with  smooth  rind  and  of  taller  growth  than  the  two 
former.  He  tells  us  that,  in  general,  the  balsam  plant, 
a  shrub,  has  the  nearest  resemblance  to  the  grape- 
vine, and  its  mode  of  cultivation  is  almost  the  same. 
The  leaves,  however,  more  closely  resemble  those  of 
the  rue,  and  the  plant  is  an  evergreen.     Its  height 


From  Bruce. 


does  not  exceed  two  cubits.  From  slight  incisions 
made  very  cautiously  into  the  rind  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv, 
4,  1;  War,  i,  6,  6)  the  balsam  trickles  in  thin  drops, 
which  arc.  collected  with  wool  into  a  horn,  and  then 
preserved  in  new  earthen  jars.  At  first  it  is  whitish 
and  pellucid,  but  afterward  it  becomes  harder  and  red- 
dish.    That  is  considered  to  be  the  best  quality  which 


BALSAM 


629 


BALTTZE 


trickles  before  the  appearance  of  the  fruit.  Much  in- 
ferior to  this  is  the  resin  pressed  from  the  seeds,  the 
rind,  and  even  from  the  stems  (see  Theophrast.  Plantt. 
ix,  6;  Straho,  xvi,  763;  Pausan.  ix,  28,  2).  This  de- 
scription, which  is  not  sufficiently  characteristic  of  the 
plant  itself,  suits  for  the  most  part  the  Egyptian  bal- 
sam-shrub found  by  Belort  (Paulus,  Samml.  iv,  188 
sq.)  in  a  garden  near  Cairo  (the  plant,  however,  is  not 
indigenous  to  Egypt,  but  the  layers  are  brought  there 
from  Arabia  Felix ;  Prosp.  Alpin.  De  balsamo,  iii ; 
Plant,  .Eg.  xiv,  30,  with  the  plats  ;  Abdullatif,  Me- 
moirs, p.  58).  Forskal  found  between  Mecca  and  Me- 
dina a  shrub,  abusham  (Niebuhr,  Reis.  i,  351),  which 
he  considered  to  be  the  genuine  balsam-plant,  and  he 
gave  its  botanical  description  under  the  name  Amyris 
opobalsamum,  in  his  Flora  /Egypt.  Arab.  p.  79  sq.,  to- 
gether with  two  other  varieties,  Amyris  kataf  and 
Amyris  kafal.  There  are  two  species  distinguished 
in  the  Linnsean  system,  the  Amyris  Gileadensis  (Forsk. 
"A.  opobals.")  and  A.  opobals.  (the  species  described 
by  Belon  and  Alpin) ;  see  Linne's  Vollst.  Pflanzensyst. 
i,  473  sq.,  plates;  Plenck,  Plantt.  Med.  pi.  155;  Ber- 
lin. Jahrb.  d.  Pharmac.  1795,  pi.  i ;  Ainslie,  Mater. 
Indira,  i,  26  sq.  More  recent  naturalists  have  in- 
cluded the  species  Amyris  Gilead.  in  the  genus  Proti- 
um ,-  see  Wight  and  Walker  (Arnott),  Prodrom.  florce 
pminsulce  India  Orient.  (London,  1834),  i,  177;  Lind- 
ley,  Flora  Medica  (London,  1838,  8vo),  p.  169.  This 
tree,  .from  which  the  Mecca  balsam  is  gained  in  very 
small  quantity  (Plin.  xii,  54,  "  succus  e  plaga  manat 

sed  tenui  gvitta  plorata"),  which  never  reaches 

ns  unadulterated,  grows  only  in  a  single  district  of 
Yemen ;  of  late,  however,  it  was  discovered  in  the  East 
Indies  also.  See  generally  Prosp.  Alpin.  Dial,  de  bal- 
salmo  (Venet.  1591 ;  as  also,  in  several  editions  of  his 
•work  De  Plantt.  /Eg.  p.  1592 ;  and  in  Ugolini,  Thesaur. 
xi,  with  plates)  ;  Veiling,  Opobalsami  veterib.  cogniti 
vindxia?,  p.  217  sq. ;  Bochart,  Ilieroz.  i,  628  sq.  ;  Mi- 
chaelis,  Suppl.  2142  sq. ;  Le  Moyne,  Diss.  Opobaham. 
declaratum  (Upsal.  17C4) ;  Wildenow,  in  the  Berl. 
Jahrb.  d.  Pharmac.  1795,  p.  14.3  sq.,  with  plates ;  Oken, 
Lehrb.  d.  Botanik.  II,  ii,  681  sq. ;  Martius,  Pharmakogn. 
p.  343  sq. ;  Sprengel,  zu  Dioscor.  ii,  355  sq.— Winer. 

Our  only  reason  for  mentioning  all  this  is  of  course 
the  presupposition  that  the  Palestinian  balsam  is  named 
in  the  Bible  also,  and,  indeed,  the  bosem  (~i*3,  Cant. 
v,  13),  also  basam  (Qb3,  v,  1 ;  comp.  Arab,  bashauni), 
■which  in  loth  passages  appear  to  be  names  of  garden- 
plants,  must  be  taken  for  the  balsam-shrub  (the  ancient 
translators  consider  the  word  as  a  name).  It  is  more 
difficult  to  determine  whether  the  resin  of  the  balsam- 
tree  is  mentioned  also  in  the  books  of  the  0.  T.  The 
tseri  or  tsori  (*~}'4  or  "'"^I)  is  commonly  taken  for  such. 
This  name  is  given  to  a  precious  resin  found  in  Gilead 
(Gen.  xxxvii,  25  ;  Jer.  xlvi,  11),  and  circulated  as  an 
article  of  merchandise  by  Arab  and  Phoenician  mer- 
chants (Gen.  xxxvii,  25;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17).  It  was 
one  of  the  principal  products  of  Palestine  which  was 
thought  to  be  worth}'  to  be  offered  as  a  gift  even  to 
Egyptian  princes  (Gen.  xliii,  11),  and  was  considered 
a  powerful  salve  (Jer.  viii,  22;  xlvi,  11;  li,  8).  He- 
brew commentators  understand,  in  fact,  balsam  by 
tseri.  The  ancient  translators  render  it  mostly  by 
gum.  Others,  however  (Oedmann,  Samml.  iii,  110  sq. ; 
Rosenmuller,  Alt,  tilt.  IV,  i,  168  sq.),  take  it  to  be  the 
oil  of  the  Myrobalanus  of  the  ancients  (Plin.  xii,  46  sq.) 
or  the  Elaagnus  angustifolia  of  Linnaeus.  The  fruit 
of  this  plant  resembles  the  olive,  and  is  of  the  size  of 
a  walnut.  It  contains  a  fat,  oily  kernel,  from  which 
the  Arabs  press  an  oil  highly  esteemed  for  its  medicinal 
properties,  especially  for  open  wounds  (Maundrell,  in 
Paulus,  Samml.  1,  110;  Mariti,  Trav.  p.  415;  Troilo, 
Trav.  p.  107\  That  this  tree  grows  in  Palestine, 
especially  in  the  environs  of  Jericho,  we  are  told  not 
only  by  modern  travellers  (Hasselquist,  Voyages,  p.  150 ; 
Arvieux,  ii,  155 ;  Pococke,  East,  ii,  47  sq. ;  Yolney, 


Voyages,  ii,  240 ;  Robinson,  ii,  291),  but  even  by  Jo- 
sephus  (War,  iv,  8,  3).  We  must  admit,  however, 
that  the  Hebrew  name  tseri  seems  to  imply  rather  a 
resin  trickling  from  some  plant  than  a  pressed  oil,  and 
that  the  arguments  of  Rosenmuller  in  favor  of  his 
statement,  that  the  Mecca  balsam  is  a  mere  perfume 
and  not  a  medicine,  have  not  much  weight  (see  Ge- 
senius,  Thes.  iii,  1185).  Our  physicians  make,  indeed, 
no  medicinal  use  of  it ;  but  we  can  never  obtain  the 
genuine  Mecca  balsam.  The  ancients  certainly  as- 
cribed medicinal  powers  to  the  balsam  (see  Dioscor. 
ut  sup.),  and  it  is  considered  even  at  present  as  a  med- 
icine of  well-attested  quality,  especially  if  applied  ex- 
ternally (Prosp.  Alpin.  Rer.  sEg.  iii,  15,  p.  192 ;  Has- 
selquist, p.  565,  "rescivi  quod  vulnerarium  Turcis  sit 
excellentissimum  et  palmarium,  dum  in  vulnera  recens 
inflieta  guttas  aliquot  infundunt  quo  continuato  brevis- 
simo  tempore  vulnera  maximi  momenti  persanant"). 
The  tseri,  therefore,  might  have  been  the  balsam,  and 
if  so,  the  shrub,  which  originally  grew  in  Gilead, 
may  have  been  transplanted  and  cultivated  as  a  gar- 
den-plant on  the  plains  of  Jericho,  and  preserved  only 
there.  We  greatly  doubt,  however,  -whether  the  bal- 
sam shrub  ever  grew  wild  anywhere  but  in  Arabia, 
and  it  seems  to  us  more  probable  that  it  was  brought 
from  Arabia  to  Palestine,  though,  perhaps,  not  by  the 
Queen  of  Sheba  (Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  6,  6).  Besides 
the  tseri  (^X),  another  word,  nataph  (~-3),  mentioned 
in  Exod.  xxx,  34,  as  an  ingredient  of  the  holy  incense, 
is  taken  by  Hebrew  commentators  for  opobalsamum  ; 
this,  however,  is  perhaps  rather  Stacte  (q.  v.).  See 
Mastick  ;  Aromatics. 

Balsamon,  Theodore,  an  eminent  canonist  of 
the  Greek  Church,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  the 
twelfth  century;  was  made  chancellor  and  librarian 
of  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  and  about  1186  became 
patriarch  of  Antioch,  without,  however,  being  able  to 
go  there  to  discharge  the  functions  of  the  office,  since 
the  city  was  occupied  by  the  Latins,  who  had  intruded 
a  bishop  of  their  own.  He  died  about  1200.  His  first 
work  (which  he  undertook  at  the  wish  of  the  Emperor 
Manuel  Comnenus  and  the  patriarch  Michael  Anchia- 
lius)  was  Photii  Nomocanon  Canones  SS.  Apostolorum, 
etc.  (with  a  Commentary  on  the  Canons  of  the  Apostles 
and  the  general  and  particular  Councils,  and  on  the 
Canonical  Epistles  of  the  Fathers),  printed  at  Paris, 
1615,  fol. ;  also  a  Commentary  on  the  Syntagma  of 
Photius,  given  in  Beveridge,  Synodicon,  sire,  Pandeclce 
Canonum  (Oxon.  1672-82,  2  vols.  fol.).  For  an  ac- 
:  count  of  Balsamon  and  his  works,  see  Beveridge's 
:  Synodicon,  Prolegomena  to  vol.  i. — Cave,  Hist.  Lit- 
i  anno  1180 ;  Hoefer,  Bi«g.  Generate,  iv,  311. 

Baltha'sar  (Ba\-d<7an),  a  Grascized  form  (Baruch 
;  i,  11,  12)  of  the  name  of  the  Babylonian  king  Bel- 
j  SHAZZAR  (q.  v.). 

|  Balthasar,  the  name  given  in  the  Romish  legends, 
without  any  foundation,  to  one  of  the  magi  who  came 
j  to  adore  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.     See  Magi. 

Baltus,  John  Francis,  a  Jesuit,  born  at  Metz, 
!  June  8th,  1667.  He  became  a  Jesuit  in  1682,  and  in 
1717  was  called  to  Rome  to  examine  the  bocks  writ- 
I  ten  by  the  members  of  his  company.  Returning  to 
I  France,  he  was,  in  succession,  rector  of  several  col- 
j  leges  of  his  order,  and  died  at  Rheims,  librarian  of  the 
college, March  19th,  1743.  He  wrote,  Reponse  a  THis- 
j  toire  des  Oracles  de  M.  Fnntenel/e  (Strasb.  1707  and 
1 1709, 8vo)  :—Dty  nse  des  Saints  Peres  accuses  de  Platan. 
isme  (Paris,  1711,  4to);  now  ed.  under  the  title  Purete 
da  Chrltiairismei  P;iri-,  2  vols.  8vu,  1838): — Defense  drs 
ProphJties  de  la  Rel'giin  Chritienne  (1737,  3  vols.  12mo), 
j  with  other  works.. — h'iog.  Universelle. 
j  Baluze,  Stephen,  an  eminent  canonist  and  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Tulle,  in  Limousin,  December  24th, 
i  1630.  He  studied  first  among  the  Jesuits  at  Tulle, 
I  and  in  1646  was  sent  to  the  college  of  the  company  at 


BAMAH 


630 


BAMPTON  LECTURES 


Toulouse,  where  ho  remained  for  eight  years.  He 
soon  acquired  a  higb  reputation  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory and  the  canon  law.  Not  wishing  to  serve  as  a 
priest,  bul  desirous  of  opportunity  to  pursue  his  studies 
quietly,  he  received  the  tonsure,  and  put  himself  under 
the  patronage  of  Peter  de  Marca,  who  brought  him  to 
Paris  in  1656,  and  made  him  the  associate  of  his  la- 
bors. Upon  the  death  of  He  Marca  in  1602,  the 
chancellor  of  France,  Le  Tellier,  took  Baluze  under 
his  pro!  sction  ;  but  in  1GG7  he  attached  himself  to  Col- 
bert,  who  made  him  his  librarian,  and  it  was  by  his 
care  that  the  library  of  that  eminent  man  acquired  its 
richest  treasures,  and  attained  to  such  great  celebrity 
among  the  learned.  He  left  the  family  of  Colbert  in 
1670,  and  afterward  Louis  XIV  mad'  him  director  of 
the  royal  college,  with  a  pension.  This  situation  he 
held  until  his  eightieth  year,  when  he  was  banished 
for  having  published  the  "  Genealogical  History  of  the 
House  of  Auvergne,"  in  2  vols.  fol.  (170>),  by  order  of 
the  Cardinal  de  Bouillon,  who  had  fallen  into  disgrace 
at  court.  He  obtained  a  recall  in  1713,  after  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  without,  however,  recovering  his  appoint- 
ments, and  died  July  28th,  1718.  His  library,  when  it 
was  sold  after  his  death,  contained  1500  MSS.,  which 
were  purchased  for  the  Bibliotheque  Royale.  Baluze 
left  as  many  as  forty-five  published  works,  of  which  the 
most  important  are — Regnum  Francorum  Capitularia 
(1677,  2  vols.  fol. ;  also,  edited  by  Chiniac  in  1780,  2 
vols.  fol.  a  superb  edition)  -.—Epistolce  Innocentii  Papce 
III  (1682,  2  vols.  fol.  This  collection  is  incomplete, 
owin_c  to  the  unwillingness  of  the  Romans  at  the  time 
to  give  him  free  access  to  the  pieces  in  the  Vatican  li- 
brary. Brequiny  and  De  la  Porte  du  Theil,  in  their 
Diplomat^  Charta,  etc.,  1701,  have  given  the  letters 
which  Baluze  could  not  obtain): — Condl'orwn  Nova  Col- 
lect  to  (1683,  vol.  i,  fol.  This  work  was  intended  to  em- 
brace all  the  known  councils  which  Labbe  has  omitted 
in  his  collection,  and  would  have  filled  many  volumes  ; 
but  Baluze  abandoned  his  first  design,  and  limited  him- 
self to  one  volume): — Vita  Paparum  Avinioncnsium 
(■'  Vies  des  Papes  d' Avignon,"  1693,  2  vols.  4to,  an  ad- 
mirable refutation  of  the  ultramontane  pretensions. 
Hi-  maintains  that  the  holy  see  is  not  necessarily  fixed 
at  Home) : — Miscellanea  (7  vols.  8vo.  A  new  edition, 
considerably  enlarged  and  improved,  was  published  by 
Mansi  at  Lucca  in  1761,  in  4  vols.  fol.).  A  complete 
list  of  his  works  may  be  found  at  p.  06  of  the  Capitu- 
laria.  See Dupin, Eccl.  Writers,  17th cent. ;  ViedeBa- 
luze,  written  by  himself,  and  continued  by  Martin. 

Ba'mah  (Heb.  Bamah',  tltt,  a  height;  Sept. 
\  lafia),  an  eminence  or  high-place,  where  the  Jews 
worshipped  their  idols,  occurs  as  a  proper  name,  Ezek. 
xx,  29.  In  other  passages  it  is  usually  translated 
"high  place;"  and  in  Ezek,  xxxvi,  2,  such  spots  arc 
termed  'ancient  high  places,  "or  ancient  heights.  See 
Bamoth.  (In  such  high  places  the  Hebrews  made 
oblations  to  idols,  and  also  to  the  Lord  himself,  before 
"lit. lined  that  unity  <>f  place  for  the  divine 
worship  was  indispensable.  The  Jewish  historians, 
re,  for  the  most  part,  describe  this  as  an  unlaw- 
ful worship,  in  consequence  of  its  being  so  generally 
associated  with  idolatrous  rites.  See  High-place. 
The  above  passage  in  Ezekiel  is  very  obscure,  and  full 

ol'  the  J •  i r asia  so  dear  to  the  Hebrew  poets,  so 

difficult  for  us  to  appreciate  :  "  What  is  the  high  place 
(""9"'  whereunto  ye  hie  f^xan)?  and  the  name 
of  it  i-  called  Bamah  (rnaa)  unto' this  day."  Ewald 
(Prophetm,  p.  286)  pronounces  this  verse  to  be  an  ex- 
tra, t  from  an  older  prophet  than  Ezekiel.  The  name 
here,  however,  seems  to  refer,  not  to  a  particular  spot, 
but  to  any  Buch  locality  Individualized  by  the-  term 
I  nderson,  Comment,  in  loe.). 
Bambas,  Nbophytos,  an  archimandrite  of  the 
Greek  Church,  and  on.-  of  tin-  principal  prose  writers 

of  modem  Gr a,  was  horn  upon  the  island  of  I  Ihios, 

aud  died  at  Athens  ja  Feb.  1855.     lie  studied  at  the 


College  of  Chios  and  at  the  University  of  Paris,  reor- 
ganized, after  his  return  from  Paris,  the  College  of 
Chios,  and  remained  its  president  until  the  war  of  in- 
dependence in  1821.  In  1824  he  became  Professor  of 
Philosophy  at  the  University  of  Corfu,  afterward  di- 
rector of  the  college  at  Syra,  and,  at  last,  Professor  of 
Philosophy  and  Rhetoric  at  the  University  of  Athens. 
On  account  of  his  extensive  learning,  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  confided  to  him  the  task  of 
translating,  in  union  with  Rev.  Mr.  Lowndes,  and  Mr. 
Nicolaides  of  Philadelphia  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Bible  into 
modern  Greek.  During  the  latter  years  of  his  life, 
Mr.  Bambas  attached  himself,  however,  to  the  Russian 
or  Napsean  party,  which  is  hostile  to  the  reformation 
of  the  Church.  He  wrote  a  manual  of  sacred  elo- 
quence (Eyxtipiciov  Tiig  rov  \epov  «/</3un'or,  ptiropiKijr, 
Athens,  1^51),  a  manual  of  ethics  ('Eyvnoicioi'  rijfc 
tjBucnc,  Athens,  1853),  and  other  works  on  philosophy, 
ethics,  and  rhetoric,  and  several  Greek  grammars.  See 
Baird,  Modern  Greece,  p.  80,  330  (N.  Y.  1850). 

Bambino,  the  name  of  the  swaddled  figure  of  the 
infant  Saviour,  which,  surrounded  by  a  halo,  and 
watched  over  by  angels,  occasionally  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  altar-pieces  in  Roman  Catholic  churches.  The 
Santissimo  Bambino  in  the  church  of  the  Ara  Coeli  at 
Rome  is  held  in  great  veneration  for  its  supposed  mi- 
raculous power  of  curing  the  sick.  It  is  carved  in 
wood,  painted,  and  richly  decorated  with  jewels  and 
precious  stones.  The  carving  is  attributed  to  a  Fran- 
ciscan pilgrim,  out  of  a  tree  that  grew  on  Mount  Oli- 
vet, and  the  painting  to  the  evangelist  Luke.  The 
festival  of  the  Bambino,  which  occurs  at  the  Epiphany, 
is  attended  by  great  numbers  of  country  people,  and 
the  Bambino  is  said  to  draw  more  in  the  shape  of  fees 
than  the  most  successful  medical  practitioner  in  Rome. 
— Chambers's  Encyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Bambridge.     See  Baixbridge. 

Ba'moth  (Heb.  Bamoth',  niBS,  heights;  Sept. 
BafuitSr),  the  forty-seventh  station  of  the  Israelites,  on 
the  borders  of  Moab  (Num.  xxi,  19,  20) ;  according  to 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  B«/3w3,  Bamoth), 
a  city  near  the  river  Arnon.  As  it  was  the  next  en- 
campment before  reaching  Pisgah  (usually  identified 
with  Jebel  Attarus  [see  Nebo]),  it  may  not  improb- 
ably be  identified  with  Jebe\-//uitxh,  immediately  east, 
a  position  which  seems  to  agree  with  the  circumstances 
of  all  the  notices.  Kruse,  however  (in  Seetzen's  Beise, 
iv,  225),  thinks  it  the  place  now  called  Waleh,  on  the 
wady  of  the  same  name.  It  is  probably  the  same 
place  elsewhere  called  Bamoth-Baal  (Josh,  xiii,  17). 

Ba'moth -ba'al  (Heb.  Bamoth'- Ba'al,  "Piiaa 

X'3,  heights  of  Baal;  Sept.  Bci/auS  BaaX  v.  r.  B«t- 
fuitv  BaaX,  and  a!  orsXai  rov  BaaX),  or,  as  the  mar- 
gin of  our  version  reads,  "the  high  plares  of  Baal" 
[see  B.vai.J,  a  place  given  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  and 
situated  on  the  river  Arnon,  or  in  the  plain  through 
which  that  stream  flows,  east  of  the  Jordan  (Josh,  xiii, 
17;  comp.  Num.  xxi,  28;  xxii,  41;  not  Jer.  xxxii, 
35).  It  is  probably  the  same  place  elsewhere  (Num. 
xxi,  19)  called  simply  Bamoth  (q.  v  ).  Knohel  (Com* 
ment.  in  loe.)  identities  it  with  the  modern  ./<  '><  /  .1  //ants, 
a  site  marked  by  stone-heaps  observed  both  by  Seetzen 
(ii,  342)  and  Burckhardt  (Syria,  p.  370);  but  this  is 
rather  the  summit  of  Neho. 

Bampton  Lectures,  a  course  of  eight  sermons 
preached  annually  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  under 
the  will  of  the  Rev.  John  Bampton,  canon  of  Salis- 
bury, who  died  in  1751.  According  to  the  directions 
in  his  will,  they  are  to  be  preached  upon  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects:  To  confirm  and  establish  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  and  to  confute  all  heretics  and  schismatics; 
upon  the  divine  authority  of  the  holy  Scriptures  ;  upon 
the  authority  of  the  writings  of  the  primitive  fathers 
as  to  the  faith  and  practice  of  the  primitive  Church; 
upon  the  divinity  of  our  Loud  and  Saviouk  Jesus 


BAN 


G31 


BAND 


Christ  ;  upon  the  divinity  of  tlic  Holy  Ghost  ;  upon 
the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith,  as  comprehended  in 
the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  Creeds.  For  the  support  of 
this  lecture  he  bequeathed  his  lands  and  estates.  The 
lecturer  must  have  taken  the  degree  of  master  of  arts 
in  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  and  must  never  preach  the 
sermons  twice.  When  the  lectures  were  commenced 
in  1780,  the  income  of  the  estate  was  £120  per  annum. 
A  list  of  the  Bampton  Lectures,  as  far  as  published  in 
1854,  is  given  by  Darling,  Cyclopaedia  Bibliographiea,  i. 
1GG.  More  than  seventy  volumes  (8vo)  of  the  Bamp- 
ton lectures  are  now  before  the  public,  and  one  is  added 
annually.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  following: 
Those  delivered  in  1784,  on  Christianity  and  Moham- 
medanism, by  Dr.  White,  who  was  accused  of  having 
obtained  assistance  in  their  composition  from  Dr.  Parr 
and  Dr.  Badcock  ;  those  by  Dr.Tatham  in  1790,  on  the 
Logic  of  Theology ;  those  of  Dr.  Nott  in  1802,  on  Re- 
ligious Enthusiasm — this  series  was  directed  against 
Weslev  and  Whitefield  ;  those  of  Dr.  Mant  in  1812  ; 
those  of  Reginald  Ileber  in  1815 ;  Whately  in  1822 ; 
Milman  in  1827;  Burton  in  1829,  on  the  Heresies  of 
the  Apostolic  Age;  Soames  in  1830,  on  the  Doctrines 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church.  But  of  the  whole  series, 
none  have  caused  greater  controversy  than  those  by 
Dr.  Hampden  in  1832,  on  The  Scholastic  Philosophy 
considered  in  its  Relation  to  Christian  Theology.  They 
•were  attacked  on  all  sides,  but  especially  bjr  the  lead- 
ers of  the  Oxford  Tract  Association.  When  Hampden 
was  appointed  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  in  1836, 
a  petition  against  his  appointment  was  sent  up  to  the 
throne,  and  upon  this  being  rejected,  a  censure  was 
passed  upon  him  in  convocation  by  a  large  majori- 
ty, declaring  his  teaching  to  be  unsound,  and  re- 
leasing undergraduates  from  attendance  at  his  lec- 
tures. In  spite  of  this  clerical  persecution,  he  was 
raised  to  the  see  of  Hereford  in  1847.  A  recent  course 
of  Bampton  Lectures,  delivered  by  Mansel  in  1858,  on 
The  Limits  of  Religious  Thought,  has  caused  a  less  bit- 
ter, but  scarcely  less  interesting  controversy.  The 
main  position  which  he  takes  up  is,  "That  the  human 
mind  inevitably,  and  by  virtue  of  its  essential  consti- 
tution, finds  itself  involved  in  self-contradictions  when- 
ever it  ventures  on  certain  courses  of  speculation," 
i.  e.  on  speculations  concerninii;  the  infinite  nature  of 
God.  He  maintains  that  all  attempts  to  construct  an 
objective  or  metaphysical  theology  must  necessarily 
fail,  and  that  the  attainment  of  a  philosophy  of  the  in-  | 
finite  is  utterly  impossible,  under  the  existing  laws  of 
human  thought — the  practical  aim  of  the  whole  course 
being  to  show  the  "right  use  of  reason  in  religious 
questions."  Mr.  Mansel  has  been  accused  by  his  crit- 
ics of  condemning  all  dogmatic  theology  (e.  g.  all 
creeds  and  articles),  and  of  making  revelation  itself 
impossible.  The  Bampton  Lectures  for  1859  were  de- 
livered by  Geo.  Rawlinson,  the  subject  being  The  llis- 
torical  Evidences  of  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture  Records, 
statu/  anew,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Doubts  and 
Discoveries  of  Modern  Times.  The  volume  for  1862 
was  Farrar's  Critical  History  of  Free  Thought  (N.  Y. 
1863,  12mo). — Chambers,  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. ;  Metho- 
d's! Quarterly,  1863,  p.  687. 

Ban  (bannus,  bannum),  in  ancient  jurisprudence,  a 
declaration,  especially  a  declaration  of  outlawry;  in 
ecclesiastical  law,  a  declaration  of  excommunication 
(q.  v.).  According  to  the  canon  law  of  the  Roman 
Church  the  authority  to  decree  the  ban  lies  in  the 
pope  for  the  whole  church,  in  the  bishop  for  his  dio- 
cese, in  the  apostolic  legate  for  his  legation,  and  in  the 
prior  of  an  order  for  his  subordinates.  Priests  had 
formerly  an  independent  right  of  excommunication, 
but  can  now  exercise  that  right  only  by  authority  of 
the  bishop.  The  ban  covers  all  Christians,  whether 
heretics  or  not,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  adminis- 
trator (Cone.  Trident.  Sess.  xxv,  cap.  3).  See  Ex- 
communication. 

For  Banns  of  Marriage,  see  Banns. 


Ban  (too  TSav  v.  r.  Baivav ;  Vulg.  Tubal),  given 
as  the  name  of  one  of  the  priestty  families  that  had 
lost  their  pedigree  after  the  exile  in  a  very  corrupt 
passage  (1  Esdr.  v,  37)  ;  it  doubtless  stands  for  TobiAH 
(q.  v.),  i.  e.  nr2b~^:2,  in  the  parallel  lists  of  Ezra  (ii, 
60)  and  Nehemiah  (vii",  62). 

Banai'as  (Bavaiac),  the  last  named  of  the  "sons 
of  Ethma"  among  the  Israelites  who  had  taken  foreign 
wives  after  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  ix,  35);  evidently 
the  Benaiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  list  (Ezra,  x,  43).* 

Bancroft,  Aaron,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Reading, 
Penn.,  1755,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  College.  In 
1785  he  became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church 
of  Worcester,  Mass.,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
He  was  educated  a  Calvinist,  but  became  an  Arian  in 
middle  life.  In  1808  he  published  a  Life  of  Washing- 
ton, which  was  well  received,  and  has  been  often  re- 
printed (last  ed.  N.  Y.,  2  vols.  12mo).  In  1822  he 
published  a  volume  of  Sermons. — Allibone ;  New  Am. 
Encycl. 

Bancroft,  Richard,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  born  at  Farnworth  in  1544,  and  entered  at  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1584  he  was  made  rector  of 
St.  Andrew's  in  Holborn.  When  chaplain  to  Arch- 
bishop Whitgift,  he  delivered  a  sermon  at  St.  Paul's 
Cross,  in  which  he  strongly  warned  the  Parliament 
against  the  Puritans.  In  1597  he  was  made  bishop 
of  London  through  the  influence  of  the  archbishop, 
and  was  sent  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1600  to  Embden, 
to  put  an  end  to  the  differences  which  existed  between 
the  English  and  Danes,  but  his  mission  was  unsuc- 
cessful. He  attended  the  Hampton  Court  Conference 
in  1603-4,  and  in  March  in  that  year  was  appointed  by 
the  king's  writ  president  of  convocation,  the  see  of 
Canterbury  being  vacant.  In  the  eleventh  session, 
held  May  2d,  he  presented  the  Book  of  Canons  now  in 
force,  which  he  had  selected  out  of  the  articles,  injunc- 
tions, and  synodical  acts  passed  in  the  two  previous 
reigns.  After  this  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Can- 
terbury, and  his  primacy  is  distinguished  for  the  com- 
mencement of  the  now  authorized  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. He  was  a  strenuous  High-Churchman,  and  a 
bitter  opponent  of  the  Puritans.  He  was  the  first  An- 
glican divine  who  publicly  maintained  the  divine  right 
of  bishops.  This  was  in  a  sermon  preached  at  St. 
Paul's  Cross,  February,  1588-9,  in  which  he  main- 
tained that  "  bishops  were,  as  an  order,  superior  to 
priests  and  deacons  ;  that  they  governed  by  divine  ap- 
pointment ;  and  that  to  deny  these  truths  was  to  deny 
a  portion  of  the  Christian  faith."  On  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  this  sermon,  see  Heylin,  Aerius  Redivivus,  p. 
284.  He  died  at  Lambeth  in  1610,  leaving  his  hooks 
to  his  church.  His  principal  published  works  were, 
Discovery  of  the  Untruths  and  Slanders  against  Reforma- 
tion (sermon  preached  February,  1588): — Survey  of  the 
pretended  Holy  Discipline  (Loud.  1593,  4to)  :—Danffi  r- 
ous  Positions  and  Proceedings  jmblishtd  umhr  the  I'n.~ 
fence  of  Reformation,  for  the  Presbyterial  Discipline 
(Lond.  1595,  8vo).  See  Biog.  Brit.  vol.  i ;  Neal,  Hist, 
of  Puritans,  i,  449  ;  Lathbury,  Hist,  of  Convocation 
(Lond.  1842,  8vo):  Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  i,  506. 

Band,  the  representative  of  several  Heb.  and  Gr. 
words,  and  in  the  N.  T.  especially  of  oiruQa,  a  cohort 
(q.  v.). 

Band,  a  part  of  clerical  dress,  said  to  be.  a  relic  of 
the  ancient  amice  (q.  v.).  It  belongs  to  the  full  dress 
of  the  bar  and  university  in  England.  "  In  Scotland 
it  distinguishes  ordained  ministers  from  licentiates  or 
probationers,  and  is  said  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  old 
cravat  worn  universally  by  the  clergy  a  hundred  years 
ago." — (Eadie.)  It  is  worn  in  the  Church  of  England, 
in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  America,  and  by 
the  Protestant  ministers  of  the  Continental  churches 
of  Europe  generally.      See  Clergy,  Dress  of  the. 

Band  (Societies);    See  Bands. 


r.ANDIXEL 


G32 


BANGS 


Bandinel,  James,  D.D.,  was  educated  at  Jesus 
.  i  >xford :  became  M.A.  in  1758,  D.D.  in  1777, 
and  died  at  Winchester  in  1804.     He  was  rector  of 
Netherby,  Dorsetshire,  for  many  years.     He  publish- 
ed Eight  Sermons  on  the  p  adiar  Doctrines  ofCkristi- 
ing  the  Bampton  Lectures  for  1780  (Oxford, 
1 1,  which  arc  marked  by  ingenuity  and  critical 
talent 

Bands,  small    societies   instituted  by  Wesley  to 
promote  personal  holiness  and  good  works  among  the 
[ethodists.     The  first  "rides  of  the  band  socie- 
rawn  up  December  25, 1738,  may  be  found  in 
History   of  the    Methodist    luscijiline,    p.   -NO. 
ocietics  were  more  select  than  class-meetings 
(q.  v.\  and  admitted  only  persons  of  the  same  sex,  all 
married  <>r  all  single,  who  were  put  in  charge  of  a 
■•  band-leader."     They  have  nearly  gone  out  of  use  in 
America,  the  article  relating  to  them  in  the  Discipline 
having  been  struck  out  by  the  General  Conference  of 
1856.    They  still  may  be  found  in  England,  though  not 
very  numerous.     See  Emory,  History  of  the  Discipline, 
p.  200sq. ;  Grindrod,  Compendium  of  Laws  of  Method- 
ism, 17-1  sq. ;   Porter,  Compnidimn    of  Methodism,  50, 
460;   Stevens.  History  of  Methodism,  i,  122 ;   ii,  455; 
Wesley,  Works,  x,  183. 

Banduri    Manuscript.      See  Moxtfaucon's 
"Mam  script. 

Bangius  or  Bang,  Pkter,  a  Swedish  theologian, 
was  born  at  Helsingfors  in  103:;,  was  made  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Abo,  and  bishop  of 
Wiborg.  He  died  in  1696,  having  published  a  Com- 
ius  in  Hebrccos,  and  a  Hlstoria  Ecclesiastica. 
Bangor  (Bangertiuni),  an  episcopal  see  in  Wales, 
in  Caernarvonshire.  The  foundation  of  this  see  is  al- 
together involved  in  obscurity.  The  cathedral  is  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Daniel,  its  first  bishop,  and  the  chapter  con- 
sists of  a  dean,  treasurer,  precentor,  two  archdeacons, 
five  canons,  and  two  minor  canons.  The  diocese  com- 
prises Anglesea,  and  parts  of  Caernarvonshire,  Den- 
bigh. Montgomery,  and  Merionethshire,  containing  one 
hundred  and  seventy  parishes,  of  which  thirty-seven 
are  impropriated.  The  present  (1866)  incumbent  is 
James  Colquhoun  ( lampbell,  D.D.,  consecrated  in  1859. 
Bangorian  Controversy,  a  title  derived  from 
the  bishop  of  Bangor  (Hoadley),  who,  in  the  reign  of 
<■ "ge  [,  wrote  "A  Preservative  against  the  Prin- 
ciples and  Practices  of  Non-Jurors;"  and  afterward 
preached  and  published  a  sermon  from  the  passage, 
"  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world"  (John  xviii,  36),  in 
which  he  maintained  the  supreme  authority  of  Christ 
as  king  in  his  own  kingdom ;  and  that  he  had  not  del- 
egated hi-  power,  like  temporal  lawgivers  during  their 
absence  from  their  kingdom,  to  any  persons  as  his 
n  nis  and  deputies.  The  publication  of  this  ser- 
mon by  order  of  the  king  led  to  the  controversy  above 
named,  in  which  Dr.  Snape  and  Dr.  Sherlock,  the 
i  baplains,  took  a  prominent  part  as  the  oppo- 
nents of  Hoadley,  maintaining  that  (here  were  certain 
powers  distinctly  vested  in  the  church  by  Christ,  its 
king,  of  which  the  ministers  of  the  church  were  the 
constitutionally -appointed  executive.  This  contro- 
versy lasted  many  veins,  and  led  to  the  discontinu- 
ance of  the  Convocation.  The  pamphlets  on  the  sub- 
ject are  very  numerou  :  on  of  the  most  important  is, 
William  Law,  Thret  Letters  to  Bishop  Hoadley,  to  be 
found  in  Law's  Scholar  Armed,  i,  279,  and  also  in  La-vt  's 
l.i  See  England, 
ii  of;  Hoadley. 

Bangs,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
lorn  in  Stratford,)  onn.,in  1781,  commenced  preach- 
ing in  1806,  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  N.  Y. 
Conference  in  1819,  became  supernumerary  in  1836, 
and  died  in  great  peace,  Feb.4,  1849.  His  youth  was 
vain  and  profane.  I, ui  from  his  conversion  ho  was  full 
of  holy  zeal  and  love  fur  BOuls.     "lie  preached  holi- 


ness to  others,  and  enjoyed  its  exalted  felicity  himself," 
and  about  three  thousand  conversions  were  the  fruit 
of  his  labors. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  iv,  328. 

Bangs,  Nathan,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  May  2,  1778, 
near  Bridgeport,  Conn.  When  he  was  about  thirteen, 
the  family  removed  to  Stamford,  Delaware  Co.,  N.  Y., 
and  here,  on  the  home  farm,  the  boj-  grew  up,  receiv- 
ing the  common  school  education  of  the  time,  by  which 
he  profited  so  well  that  at  eighteen  he  was  capable  of 
teaching  such  a  school  himself.  In  1799  he  went  to 
Canada,  and  spent  three  years  there  in  teaching  and 
in  surveying  land.  In  1800  he  was  converted,  and  in 
1802  was  admitted  into  the  New  York  Conference  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  which  then  embraced 
Canada.  The  next  six  years  he  spent  in  arduous  la- 
bors in  Canada,  going  from  village  to  village'as  an 
itinerant  minister,  often  through  virgin  forests,  guided 
only  by  the  "marks"  of  the  wood-cutter  or  the  hunter. 
In  1808  he  was  returned  to  the  state  of  New  York,  be- 
ing appointed  by  the  bishop  to  Delaware  Circuit.  Such 
had  been  his  rapid  rise  in  influence  that  his  brethren 
sent  him  to  the  General  Conference  of  this  .year,  and 
so  commanding  were  his  subsequent  services  that  he 
was  a  delegate  in  every  session  after,  except  that  of 
1848,  down  to  1856,  when  his  advanced  years  justified 
bis  release  from  such  responsibilities.  In  1810  he  was 
sent  to  New  York  City,  which  was  ever  after  the  head- 
quarters of  his  labors  and  influence  for  his  denomina- 
tion. Methodism  here  was  then  still  in  its  youthful 
struggles  ;  it  consisted  of  one  circuit,  with  five  preach- 
ing-places. The  city  population  was  below  one  hun- 
dred thousand.  The  city  and  its  suburbs  now  (1865) 
comprise  a  million  of  people,  and  more  than  twice  as 
manjr  Methodist  preachers  as  the  whole  Conference 
then  reported,  though  it  swept  over  much  of  Connecti- 
cut, Massachusetts,  Vermont,  and  over  Eastern  New 
York,  up  the  Hudson  into  Canada  to  even  Montreal 
and  Quebec!  What  a  history  for  one.  life!  In  1813 
he  was  appointed  presiding  elder  of  the  Rhinebeck  Dis- 
trict ;  from  1817  to  1820  he  was  pastor  in  New  York ; 
and  in  1820  he  was  elected  "Book  Agent,"  and  as- 
sumed the  charge  of  the  Methodist  Book  Concern,  then 
a  small  business,  and  deeply  involved  in  debt.  Under 
his  skilful  management  (from  1820  to  1828)  the  Con- 
cern rapidly  recovered  from  its  embarrassments,  and 
its  business  was  immensely  extended.  In  1826  the 
"Christian  Advocate"  was  established,  and  the  edi- 
torial matter  from  1826  to  1828  was  chiefly  furnished 
by  Dr.  Bangs,  though  he  was  still  discharging  the  ar- 
duous duties  of  senior  book-agent.  During  the  whole 
period  of  his  agency  (1820-1828)  he  was  also  editor  of 
the  Methodic  Magazine.  Such  an  amount  of  labor 
would  have  worn  out  any  man  not  endowed  with  great 
intellectual  and  bodily  vigor — qualities  which,  in  Dr. 
Bangs,  were  supplemented  by  indomitable  industry 
and  perseverance.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  editor 
of  the  Advocate,  including,  also,  the  editorial  labors  of 
the  Magazine.  In  1832  the  General  Conference  ap- 
pointed him  editor  of  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review, 
a  new  form  of  the  Methodist  Magazine.  His  office  com- 
prised also  the  editorial  charge  of  the  books  of  the 
general  catalogue.  He  had  no  paid  assistance  in  the 
labors  of  the  two  periodicals,  no  appropriation  being 
made  for  contributions;  but  the  variety  and  vigor  of 
his  own  articles  imparted  continued  freshness  and 
power  to  their  pages. 

His  services  to  the  missionary  cause  were  perhaps 
the  most  important  of  all  his  vast  and  varied  labors. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the.  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society  ;  he  framed  its  original  Constitution;  he 
v  rote  its  first  "  Circular  Address"  to  the  church.  Dur- 
ing sixteen  years  prior  to  the  organization  of  the  sec- 
retaryship as  a  special  and  salaried  function,  he  la- 
bored jndefatigably  and  gratuitously  for  the  society 
as  its  vice-president,  secretary,  or  treasurer.  He  wrote 
in  these  years  all  its  annual  reports.     In  1836  he  was 


BANGS 


C33 


BAN  I 


appointed  "  Missionary  Secretary."  He  now  devoted 
his  entire  energies  to  the  Missionary  Society,  conduct- 
ing its  correspondence,  seeking  missionaries  for  it, 
planning  its  mission-fields,  pleading  for  it  in  the  pul- 
pits, and  representing  it  in  the  Conferences  until  1841, 
■when  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity at  Middletown,  Conn.  In  1842  he  returned  to 
pastoral  work  in  New  York,  and  remained  in  active 
service  until  1852.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was 
passed  in  quiet  literary  labor,  with  occasional  preach- 
ing as  his  health  served.  Much  of  the  literary  labor 
of  Ins  later  years  was  devoted  to  the  exposition  of  the 
doctrine  of  entire  sanctitication.  In  his  eightieth  year 
he  preached  with  vigor,  and  his  writings  of  that  period 
are  luminous  and  powerful.  His  last  sermon  was  on 
the  certain  triumph  of  the  Gospel.  He  died  in  great 
peace  May  3,  1862. 

Dr.  Bangs  was  a  man  of  vigor  and  force — a  fighter, 
when  need  be,  to  the  last.  "  No  man  could  show 
a  nobler  indignation  against  anything  unrighteous  or 
mean ;  no  man  could  speak  more  unflinchingly  or  di- 
rectly to  the  very  face  and  teeth  of  a  pretentious,  an 
evasive,  or  disingenuous  disputant,  but  no  man  ever 
had  a  more  genial  heart,  a  more  instinctive  sympathy 
with  whatever  is  generous,  heroic,  or  tender.  His 
friendships  were  as  steadfast  as  adamant.  Unlike 
most  old  men,  he  was,  to  the  last,  progressive  in  his 
views.  He  sympathized  with  all  well-considered  meas- 
ures for  the  improvement  of  his  church,  but  its  old 
honor  was  dearer  to  him  than  life,  and  woe  to  the  man 
that  dare  impeach  it  in  his  presence.  To  him  its  his- 
tory was  all  providential,  and  the  very  necessity  of 
changes  was  the  gracious  summons  of  Providence  for 
it  to  arise  and  shine  still  brighter.  This  hearty,  reso- 
lute love  of  his  friends  and  Ins  cause,  was  one  of  the 
strongest,  noblest  traits  of  the  war-worn  old  hero. 
It  made  him  lovable  as  he  was  loving.  His  old  age 
seemed  to  mellow  rather  than  wither  his  generous  dis- 
positions. He  was  always  deeply  devout,  but  with 
advanced  years  he  seemed  to  attain  advanced  heights 
of  Christian  experience  and  consolation.  The  Pauline 
doctrine  of  sanctitication,  as  denned  by  Wesley,  be- 
came his  habitual  theme  ofiiiierest  and  conversation. 
He  delighted  to  attend  social  gatherings  for  prayer  on 
this  subject,  and  during  several  late  years  he  presided 
over  one  of  the  most  frequented  assemblies  of  this  kind 
in  New  York.  He  seemed  to  take  increasingly  cheer- 
ful views  of  life,  and  of  the  prospects  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  in  the  world,  as  he  approached  the  end  of  his 
career.  There  was  no  querulousness  in  his  temper, 
no  repining  in  his  conversation,  at  the  changes  which 
ware  displacing  him  from  public  view." 

His  writings  alone  would  have  made  him  an  histor- 
ical character  of  his  church.  His  editorial  productions 
in  the  Advocate,  the  Magazine,  and  the  Quarterly  Re- 
r:<  w  would  fill  scores  of  volumes.  His  Annual  Mis- 
sionary Reports  would  make  no  small  library  of  mis- 
sionary literature.  His  more  substantial  publications 
are  more  numerous  than  those  of  any  other  American 
Methodist.  As  early  as  1809  he  began  his  career  as 
an  author  by  a  volume  against  "  Christianism,"  an 
heretical  sect  of  New  England.  Three  years  later  the 
General  Conference  appointed  him  chairman  of  a  com- 
mittee to  collect  the  historical  materials  of  the  denom- 
ination, and  thus  began  the  researches  which  resulted 
in  his  History  of  tlie  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Be- 
fore the  appearance  of  this,  his  most  important  pro- 
duction, he  published  Errors  of  //ojikinsianism  (1815, 
12nio)  ;  Predestimd'on  examined  (1817,  12mo)  ;  Refor- 
mer Reformed (1818, 12mo);  Methodist  E.piscopacy (1*820, 
12mo)  ;  Life  of  the  Rev.  Freeborn  Garrettson,  one  of  the 
best  of  our  biographies,  and  an  essential  collection  of 
data  for  the  history  of  the  church.  In  1832  appeared 
his  Authentic  History  of  the  Missions  tauter  tin-  emu  if 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  a  volume  which  has 
aided  much  the  missionary  enterprise  of  the  denomi- 
nation.   In  1835  he  published  Letters  to  a  Young  Preach- 


er, full  of  excellent  counsels  on  ministerial  habits,  on 
books,  study,  preaching,  etc. ;  and  in  1836,  TJie  Orig- 
inal Church  of  Christ  (12mo).  In  1839  appeared  the 
first  volume  of  his  History  of  the  M.  E.  Church.  In 
three  years  the  remaining  three  volumes  were  issued. 
It  was  a  book  for  the  times,  if  not  for  all  time.  His 
other  publications  are  an  Essay  on  Emancipation  (1818, 
8vo);  Stale  and  Responsibilities  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  (1850,  12mo);  Letters  on  Sonet  feat  ion 
(1851,  12mo);  Life  of  Arminius  (18mo);  and  numerous 
;  occasional  sermons.  His  scheme  of  "  Emancipation" 
is  substantially  that  recommended  in  the  message  of 
I  the  President  of  the  United  States  to  Congress,  1862. 
I  "Let  Congress,"  he  says,  "make  a  proposition  to  the 
several  slave  states  that  so  much  per  head  shall  be  al- 
lowed for  every  slave  that  shall  be  emancipated,  leav- 
I  ing  it  to  the  state  Legislatures  respectively  to  adopt 
|  their  own  measures  to  effect  the  object."  Thus  did 
i  this  sagacious  old  man  anticipate  by  several  years  the 
I  best  suggestion  which  our  national  leaders  were  able 
to  utter  on  our  greatest  national  problem  before  its 
final  solution  by  the  sword.  It  is  elaborated  with 
skilful  and  intrepid  ability,  and  fortified  by  decisive 
proofs  from  facts  and  figures.  It  has  been  said  of  his 
concluding  "array  of  motives  to  emancipation,"  that 
they  "are  strong  enough,  one  would  think,  to  rouse 
all  but  the  dead  to  the  importance  of  the  task."  See 
Stevens,  Life  and  Times  of  Xatlian  Bangs,  D.D.  (N.  Y. 
1863, 12mo)  ;  Ladies'  Repository,  June,  1859  ;  The  Mt  th- 
odist,  May  10, 1862 ;  Methodist  Quarterly,  Januarv,  1864, 
p.  172.    ' 

Bangs,  Stephen  Beekman,  a  prominent  young 
Methodist  preacher,  son  of  the  Rev.  Heman  Bangs, 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1823.  graduated  at  the  N.  Y. 
University  in  1843,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  the 
following  year,  joining  the  N.  Y.  Conference.  His 
style  of  preaching  excited  strong  anticipations  of  great 
usefulness,  which  were,  however,  disappointed  by  his 
early  death,  March  20,1846  — Magruder,  Memoir  of  3. 
B.  Bangs  (New  York,  1853);  Minutes  of  Conferences, 
iv,3I. 

Bangs,  William  M'Kendree,  son  of  the  Rev. 
Nathan  Bangs,  D.D.,  was  born  in  New  York,  Decem- 
i  ber  15, 1810,  and  graduated  at  19  years  of  age  at  the 
|  University  of  Ohio  with  the  highest  honors.  He  was 
immediately  offered  a  professorship  in  Augusta  Col- 
lege, Ky.,  which  he  held  for  only  one  year,  being  im- 
pressed with  the  dut}'  of  entering  the  Christian  minis- 
try. In  1831  he  entered  the  N.  Y.  Conference  of  the 
M.  E.  Church,  and  continued  to  labor,  except  when  his 
I  feeble  health  compelled  him  to  desist,  till  his  death  in 
1852.  His  logical  powers  were  of  the  highest  order,  and 
his  command  of  language  rarely  equalled.  "Whether 
conversing  familiarly  with  his  friends,  discussing  some 
difficult  abstract  question,  or  preaching  to  a  congre- 
gation, his  style  was  remarkably  adapted  to  the  sub- 
J  ject  and  the  occasion.  His  sermons  were  clear,  sys- 
j  tematic,  easy  to  be  understood,  neither  encumbered  by 
extraneous  matter,  nor  disfigured  by  learned  pedantry. 
They  were  characterized  by  a  beautiful  simplicity,  and 
1  always  bore  the  impress  of  a  great  mind."  As  a  con- 
troversial writer  he  excelled  greatly;  his  articles  in 
the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review,  especially  those  of 
1836  and  1837,  in  reply  to  the  "Christian  Spectator," 
and  his  reviews  of  Watson's  Theo/oyind.  Institutes,  are 
fine  specimens  of  analytical  as  well  as  comprehensive 
thinking. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  v,  211 ;  Sprague, 
Annals,  vii,  773. 

Ba'ni  (Heb.  Bani',  h53,  built;  Sept.  usually  Bavl, 
sometimes  Boui'i  or  Bavov't,  etc.),  the  name  of  at  least 
five  men. 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Shamer,  and  father  of  Amzi,  of 
the  family  of  Gershon  (1  Chron.  vi,  46).  B.C.  long 
ante  1043* 

2.  A  Gadite,  one  of  David's  thirty-seven  warriors 
(2  Sam.  xxiii,  3G).     B.C.  1046. 


BANID 


634 


BANNER 


3.  A  descendant  <>f  Pharez,  and  father  of  Imri,  one  I  parentlv  a  corruption  for  Zabad  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine 
of  whose  descendants  returned  from  Babylon  (1  Chron.    text  (Ezra  x,  33). 


Ancient  Banner? 


ix,  4).      B.C.  long  ante  536. 

4.  One  of  the  heads  of  families  whose  retainers  to 
the  number  of  642  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  ii.  1";  x,  29,  34  ;  Neh.  x,  14;  1  Esdr.  v, 
12).  11.-  is  elsewhere  (Neh.  vii,  15)  called  Binnui 
(q.  v.).  See  also  Banid.  He 
was  himself  one  of  those  who  di- 
vorce'1  their  heathen  wives  (Ezra 
x.  38).  Others  consider  this  last 
a  different  person,  and  identify 
him  with  some,  of  those  referred 
to   below.     B.C.  536-410. 

5.  A  Levitc,  whose  son  Rehum 
repaired  a  portion  of  the  (branch) 
wall  of  Jerusalem   skirting  the 
brow  of  Mount  Zion  on  the  east 
(Neh.  iii,  17).     Apparently  the 
same  Bani  was  among  those  who 
were  conspicuous  in  all  the  re- 
forms on  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  viii,  7 ;  ix, 
4  twice,  5 ;  x,  13).     He  had  another  son  named  Uzzi, 
who  was  appointed  overseer  of  the  Levites  at  Jeru- 
salem ;   his  own  father's  name  was  Hashabiah  (Neh. 
xi,  22).     B.C.  446-410.     See  Chenani. 

Ba'nid  (Baviag  v.  r.  Bavi;  Vulg.  Banid),  the  an- 
cestor or  family-head  of  one  of  the  parties  (that  of  As- 
salimoth,  son  of  Josa,  with  160  retainers)  that  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Ezra  (1  Esd.  viii,  36).  This  rep- 
resents a  name,  Bani  (q.  v.),  which  has  apparently 
escaped  from  the  present  Hebrew  text  (Ezra  viii,  10). 

Banish  (found  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  only  in  the  forms 
"banished,"  Heb.  m?,  niddach',  2  Sam.  xiv,  13, 14,  out- 
cast, as  elsewhere  ;  and  "  banishment,"  Heb.  DTIWi, 
madduch 

ductions;  Chald.  rzJTJ  or  "<^'2 ,  sheroshu'  or  sheroshi', 
lit.  a  rooting  out,  Ezra  vii,  26).  This  was  not  a  pun- 
ishment enjoined  by  the  Mosaic  law;  but  after  the 
captivity,  both  exile  and  forfeiture  of  property  were 
introduced  among  the  Jews ;  and  it  also  existed  under 
the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  called  d'minntio  capitis, 
because  the  person  banished  lost  the  rights  of  a  citi- 
zen,  and  the  city  of  Rome  thereby  lost  a  head.  But 
there  was  another  description  of  exile  termed  disporta- 
>'">,  which  was  a  punishment  of  greater  severity.  The 
party  banished  forfeited  his  estate,  and,  being  bound, 
was  put  on  board  ship  and  transported  to  some  island 
specified  by  the  emperor,  there  to  be  confined  in  per- 
petual banishment  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq. 
s.  v.  Banishment).  In  this  manner  the  apostle  John 
was  exiled  to  the  little  island  of  I'atmos  (Rev.  i,  9). 
See  Exile. 

Bank.  In  Luke  xix,  23,  the  Greek  word  Tpairtfa, 
table,  is  rendered  "bank"  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
term,  which,  by  a  similar  appropriation,  is  derived  from 
the  same  root  as  bench.  In  Matt,  xxi,  12;  Mark  xi, 
15;  and  John  ii,  15,  it  is  employed  literally,  and  de- 
notes Hi'  ••table"  ,,f  the  money-changer  '(q.  v.),  at 
which  he  satin  the  market-place, as  is  still  the  custom 
'"  ""'  East,  and  also  in  the  outer  court  of  the  Temple. 
In  oiler  passages  it  denotes  an  ordinary  table  for  food. 
'"'  "bank,"  rttb,  soldah',  also  occurs  in  2 
Sun.  xx.  15;  2  Ki„,s  xix,  3.';  Isa.  xxxvii,  33,  as  the 
named  the  mound  raised  against  a  besieged  city;  it 
"'"  rendered   "mount"  in  the  same  sense. 

See  Si: 

I  he  -  bank"  or  shore  of  a  river  or  sea  is  designated 
by  the  ii,.,,.  ter,„  rr,:,  or  rrns,  gadah'  or  gidyah',  and 
iphah',  a  Up, 
Bann.     See  Banns. 

Bannai'a  «  2a/3awatoc  v.  r.  Bavvaioc,  Vulg.  Ban- 
Ofthe  "BOnSofAsom"  that  renounced  their 

Gentile  wives  after  the  captivity  i  l  Esdr.ix,33);  ap- 


Banner,  or  Standard,  or  Ensign,  or  Signal  (q. 
v.  severally).  These  words  are  probably  used  indis- 
criminately by  the  sacred  writers.  Some  of  the  rab- 
bins suppose  that  the  ancient  Hebrew  tribe-standards 
were  flags  bearing  figures  derived  from  the  compari- 


Kgyptian  ;  3,  4,  Persian  ;  5,  6,  Roman. 


sons  used  by  Jacob  in  his  final  prophetic  blessing  on 
his  sons.  Thus  they  have  Judah  represented  by  a 
lion,  Dan  by  a  serpent,  Benjamin  by  a  wolf,  etc.  (Gen. 
xlix,  1-28).  Sir  Thomas  Brown,  indeed,  observes 
(Vulgar  Errors,  v,  10),  "The  escutcheons  of  the  tribes, 
as  determined  by  these  ingenious  triflers,  do  not  in  ev- 
ery instance  correspond  with  any  possible  interpreta- 
tion of  Jacob's  prophecy,  nor  with  the  analogous  proph- 
ecy of  Moses  when  about  to  die."  However,  there 
may  he  some  truth  in  the  rabbinical  notion  after  all. 
And  as  the  tribe  of  Judah  was  represented  by  a  lion, 
may  not  its  motto  have  been,  "  Who  shall  rouse  him 
up?"  Thus  the  banner  of  the  royal  tribe  would  be  an 
interesting  prediction  of  the  appearance  and  universal 
triumph  of  Christ,  who  is  called  "the  lion  of  the  tribe 
causes  of  ban.,"  Lam.  ii,  14,  rather  se-  J  of  Judah"  (Hos.  v,  14  ;  Rev.  v,  5).  The  four  follow- 
ing Hebrew  words  signify  banner,  standard,  ensign, 
flag,  or  signal : 

1.  Ds'gel  (PW,  as  being  conspicuous'),  flag,  ban- 
ner, or  standard  of  a  larger  kind,  serving  for  three 
tribes  together,  one  of  which  pertained  to  each  of  the 
four  general  divisions.  The  four  standards  of  this 
name  were  large,  and  ornamented  with  colors  in  white, 
purple,  crimson,  and  dark  blue.  The  Jewish  rabbins 
assert  (founding  their  statement  on  Gen.  xlix,  3,  9,  17, 
22,  which  in  this  case  is  very  doubtful  authority)  that 
the  first  of  these  standards,  that  of  Judah,  bore  a  lion; 
the  second,  or  that  of  Reuben,  bore  a  mn:  that  of 
Ephraim,  which  was  the  third,  displayed  the  figure  of 
a  bull:  while  that  of  Dan,  which  was  the  fourth,  ex- 
hibited the  representation  of  cherubim.  The  standards 
were  wrorked  with  embroidery  (Num.  i,  52 ;  ii,  2,  3, 10, 
18,  25 ;  Sol.  Song  ii,  4 ;  vi,  4,"  10).     See  Camp. 

2.  Otii  (riX,  a  sign),  an  ensign  or  flag  of  a  smaller 
kind.  It  belonged  to  each  single  tribe,  and  perhaps  to 
the  separate  classes  of  families.  Most  likely  it  was 
originally  merefy  a  pole  or  spear,  to  the  end  of  which 
a  bunch  of  leaves  was  fastened,  or  something  similar. 
Subsequently  it  may  have  been  a  shield  suspended  on 
the  elevated  point  of  such  pole  or  spear,  as  was  some- 
times done  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  Tar- 
guinists,  however,  believe  that  the  banners  were  dis- 
tinguished by  their  colors,  the  color  for  each  tribe  be- 
ing analogous  to  that  of  the  precious  stone  for  that 
tribe  in  the  breast-plate  of  the  high-priest;  and  that 
the  great  standard  (tlgel)  of  each  of  the  four  camps 
combined  the  three  colors  of  the  tribes  wdiich  composed 
it.  They  add  that  the  names  of  the  tribes  appeared  ><n 
the  standards,  together  with  a  particular  sentence  from 
the  law,  and  were  moreover  charged  with  appropriate 
representations,  as  of  the  lion  for  Judah,  etc.  Most 
modern  expositors  seem  to  incline  to  the  opinion  that 
the  ensigns  were  flags  distinguished  by  their  colors,  or 
by  the  name  of  the  tribe  to  which  each  belonged  (Num. 
ii,  2,  34).     See  Flag. 


i 


BANUS 


635 


BANQUET 


3.  Nes  (D3,  from  its  loftiness),  a  lofty  signal,  a  stand- 
ard. This  standard  was  not,  like  the  others,  borne 
from  place  to  place.  It  appears  from  Num.  xxi,  8,  9, 
that  it  was  a  long  pole  fixed  in  the  earth;  a  flag  was 
fastened  to  its  top,  which  was  agitated  by  the  wind, 
and  seen  at  a  great  distance.  In  order  to  render  it 
visible  as  far  as  possible,  it  was  erected  on  lofty  moun- 
tains, chiefly  on  the  irruption  of  an  enemy,  in  order  to 
point  out  to  the  people  a  place  of  rendezvous.  It  no 
sooner  made  its  appearance  on  such  an  elevated  posi- 
tion than  the  war-cry  was  uttered,  and  the  trumpets 
were  blown  (Psa.  lx,  4;  Isa.  v,  2G;  xi,  12;  xiii,  2; 
xviii,  3;  xxx,  17 ;  xlix,22;  lxii,10;  Jer.iv,  G,21;  li, 
12,  27 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  7 ;  in  this  last  passage  it  is  the 
standard  or  flag  of  a  ship,  not  the  sail).     See  War. 

4.  MASETH'(HXbp,  from  its  elevation),  a.  sign,  a.  sig- 
nal given  by  fire.  Some  writers  have  supposed  that 
this  signal  was  a  long  pole,  on  the  top  of  which  was  a 
grate  not  unlike  a  chafing-dish,  mad*  of  iron  bars,  and 
supplied  with  fire,  the  size,  height,  and  shape  of  which 
denoted  the  party  or  company  to  whom  it  belonged 
(Jer.  vi,  1).     See  Beacon. 

There  appear  to  be  several  allusions  in  Scripture 
to  the  banners,  standards,  or  ensigns  of  ancient  na- 
tions ;  a  proper  knowledge  of  them  might  aid  us  in  un- 
derstanding more  clearly  many  of  the  sacred  predic- 
tions. In  Daniel,  the  various  national  symbols  or 
standards  are  probably  referred  to  instead  of  the  names 
of  the  nations,  as  the  he-goat  with  one  horn  was  the 
symbol  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Macedonian 
people,  and  the  ram  with  two  horns  Media  and  Persia, 
etc.  (Dan.  viii,  3-9).  See  Macedox.  The  banners 
and  ensigns  of  the  Poman  army  had  idolatrous,  and, 
therefore,  abominable  images  upon  them,  hence  called 
"the  abomination  (q.  v.)  of  desolation;"  but  their 
principal  standard  was  an  eagle.  Among  the  evils 
threatened  to  the  Hebrews  in  consequence  of  their  dis- 
obedience, Moses  predicted  one  in  the  following  terms : 
"  The  Lord  shall  bring  a  nation  against  thee  from  far, 
from  the  end  of  the  earth,  as  swift  as  the  eagle  flieth" 
(Deut.  xxxviii,  49 ;  compare  also  Jer.  iv,  IS).  In 
Matt,  xxiv,  28 ;  Luke  xvii,  37,  the  Jewish  nation,  on 
account  of  its  iniquity,  is  compared  to  a  dead  body,  ex- 
posed in  the  open  field,  and  inviting  the  Poman  army, 
whose  standard  often  bore  the  figure  of  an  eagle,  to 
come  together  and  devour  it.     See  Eagle. 

It  was  customary  to  give  a  defeated  party  a  banner 
as  a  token  of  protection,  and  it  was  regarded  as  the 
surest  pledge  of  fidelity.  God's  lifting  or  setting  up  a 
banner  is  a  most  expressive  figure,  and  imports  his  pe- 
culiar presence,  protection,  and  aid  in  leading  and  di- 
recting his  people  in  the  execution  of  his  righteous  will, 
and  giving  them  comfort  and  peace  in  his  service  (Psa. 
xx,  5;  lx,  4;  Sol.  Song  ii,  4;  see  the  dissert,  on  the 
latter  passage  by  Lowe,  in  Eichhorn's  Bill,  ii,  184  sq.). 
See  Standard-bearer. 

Banns  of  Matrimony  (bannum  nuptiale),  a  phrase 
that  has  been  for  many  ages  used  to  signify  the  public 
announcement  in  church  of  the  intention  of  two  parties 
to  become  united  in  matrimony.  Ignatius,  in  his  Ep. 
to  rolycarp,  cap.  5,  says  that  it  becomes  those  who 
marry  to  do  so  with  the  consent  or  direction  of  the 
bishop.  And  Tertullian  (ad  Uxorem,  lib.  ii,  cap.  2  and 
9  ;  De  Ptidicitia,  cap.  4)  implies  that  the  Church,  in  the 
primitive  ages,  was  forewarned  of  marriages.  The  earli- 
est existing  canonical  enactment  on  the  subject  in  the 
English  Church  is  that  in  the  11th  canon  of  the  synod  of 
Westminster,  A.D.  1200,  which  enacts  that  "no  mar- 
riage shall  be  contracted  without  banns  thrice  published 
in  the  church."  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  the  prac- 
tice was  introduced  into  France  as  early  as  the  ninth 
century  ;  and  it  is  certain  that  Odo,  bishop  of  Paris,  or- 
dered it  in  1176.  The  council  of  Lateran,  in  1215,  pre- 
scribed it  to  the  whole  Latin  Church  ;  and  the  62d 
canon  of  the  synod  of  London,  1603-4,  forbids  the  cel- 
ebration of  marriage  "except  the  banns  of  matrimony 


have  been  first  published  three  several  Sundays  or 
holy-days  in  the  time  of  divine  service  in  the  parish 
churches  or  chapels  where  the  parties  dwell,"  on  pain 
of  suspension  for  three  years.  Marriage  without  the 
publication  of  banns  is  valid  in  England,  but  the  par- 
ties so  married  offend  against  the  spirit  of  the  laws. 
The  principal  motives  which  led  to  the  order  for  the 
publication  of  banns  were  to  prevent  clandestine  mar- 
riages, and  to  discover  whether  or  no  the  parties  have 
any  lawful  hinderance.  The  Church  of  England  enacts 
that  the  banns  shall  be  published  in  church  immedi- 
ately before  the  sentences  for  the  offertory.  If  the 
parties  dwell  in  different  parishes,  then  banns  must  be 
published  in  both.  In  the  Poman  Church  the  banns 
are  ordered  to  be  published  at  the  parochial  mass,  at 
sermon-time,  vpon  some  three  Sundays  or  festivals  of 
observance.  With  regard  to  dispensations  of  banns, 
the  council  of  Lateran  speaks  of  nothing  of  the  kind. 
The  council  of  Trent  (De  Reform,  sess.  xxiv,  cap.  1) 
permits  them  in  certain  cases.  Such  dispensations 
have  been  granted  by  bishops  in  England  ever  since 
Archbishop  Meopham's  time  at  least,  who  died  in  1333, 
which  power  of  dispensing  was  continued  to  them  by 
the  statute  law,  viz.  the  Act  xxv  Hen.  VIII,  cap.  21, 
by  which  all  bishops  arc  allowed  to  dispense  as  the}- 
werc  wont  to  do.  Before  publishing  the  banns  it  was 
the  custom  for  the  curate  anciently  to  affiance  the  two 
persons  to  be  married  in  the  name  of  the  Blessed  Trin- 
ity ;  and  the  banns  were  sometimes  published  at  ves- 
pers, as  well  as  during  the  time  of  mass.  See  Bing- 
ham, Or.  Eccl.  lib.  xxii,  cap.  ii,  §  2;  Martene,  De  Ant. 
Bit.  lib.  ii,  cap.  ix,  art.  v,  p.  135,  136 ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Ban'mis  (Bavvovc),  one  of  the  "sons  of  Maani" 
who  renounced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  return  from 
Babylon  (1  Esdr.  ix,  34)  ;  apparently  either  the  Bani 
or  Binnui  (q.  v.)  of  the  true  text  (Ezra  x,  38). 

Banquet  (i"lSlEJ53,  mishteh',  a  feast;  and  so  render- 
ed except  on  the  formal  occasions  in  Esther  v,  vi,  vii ; 
in  1  Pet.  iv,  3,  ttvtoc,  from  the  drivking  prevalent 
among  the  heathen  on  such  occasions).  The  enter- 
tainments spoken  of  in  Scripture,  however  large  and 
sumptuous,  were  all  provided  at  the  expense  of  one  in- 
dividual;  the  tpavuepic-nic,  of  the  Greeks,  to  which 
even-  guest  present  contributed  his  proportion,  being 
apparently  unknown  to  the  Jews,  or  at  least  practised 
only  by  the  humbler  classes,  as  some  suppose  that  an 
instance  of  it  occurs  in  the  feast  given  to  our  Lord, 
shortly  before  his  Passion,  by  his  friends  in  Bethany 
(Matt,  xxvi,  2 ;  Mark  xiv,  1 ;  comp.  with  John  xii,  2). 
Festive  meetings  of  this  kind  were  held  onby  toward 
the  close  of  the  day,  as  it  was  not  till  business  was 
over  that  the  Jews  freely  indulged  in  the  pleasures  of 
the  table ;  and  although,  in  the  days  of  Christ,  these 
meals  were,  after  the  Poman  fashion,  called  suppers, 
they  corresponded  exactly  to  the  dinners  of  modern 
times,  the  hour  fixed  for  them  varying  from  five  to  six 
o'clock  P.M.,  or  sometimes  later.     See  Meal. 

On  occasions  of  ceremony  the  company  were  invited 
a  considerable  time  previous;  and  on  the  day  and  at 
the  hour  appointed,  an  express  by  one  or  more  ser- 
vants, according  to  the  number  and  distance  of  the  ex- 
pected guests,  was  dispatched  to  announce  that  the 
preparations  were  completed,  and  that  their  presence 
was  looked  for  immediately  (Matt,  xxii,  8;  Luke  xiv, 
17).  (Grotius,  in.  lor. ;  also  Morier's  Journey,  p.  73.) 
This  custom  obtains  in  the  East  at  the  present  day  ; 
and  the  second  invitation,  which  is  always  verbal,  is 
delivered  by  the  messenger  in  his  master's  name,  and 
frequently  in  the  verjr  language  of  Scripture  (Matt. 
xxii,  4).  It  is  observable,  however,  that  this  after- 
summons  is  sent  to  none  but  such  as  have  been  al- 
ready invited,  and  have  declared  their  acceptance  ; 
and  as,  in  these  circumstances,  people  are  bound  by 
every  feeling  of  honor  and  propriety  to  postpone  all 
other  engagements  to  the  duty  of  waiting  upon  their 
entertainer,  it  is  manifest  that  the  vehement  resent- 


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ment  of  the  grandee  in  the  p  treble  of  the  great  supper 
(Luke  xiv.  16  Bq.),  where  e  ich  of  the  guests  is  described 
as  offering  1 1  the  bearer  of  the  express  some  frivolous 
for  absence,  was.  bo  far  from  being  harsh  and 
nnreasonable,  as  infidels  have  characterized  it,  fully 
warranted  and  most  natural  according  to  the  manners 
of  th  ■  age  and  coi  utry.  By  accepting  his  invitation 
they  had  given  a  pledge  of  their  presence,  the  viola- 
,i  ,,,  0f  which  iai  such  trivial  grounds,  and  especially 
after  the  liberal  preparations  made  for  their  entertain- 
ment, could  be  \  iewed  in  no  other  light  than  as  agross  ' 
and  deliberate  insult. 

At  the  small  entrance-door  a  servant  was  stationed 
t .  receive  the  tablets  or  cards  of  those  who  were  ex- 
p  it  id  :  ami  as  curiosity  USU  illy  collected  a  crowd  of 
troublesome  spectator-,  anxious  to  press  forward  into 
of  gayety,  the  git.1  was  opened  only  so  far  as 
•  - ary  for  the  admission  of  a  single  person  at  a 
time,  who,  on  presenting  his  invitation-ticket,  was  con- 
ducted  through  a  long  and  narrow  passage  into  the  re- 
ceiving-mom ;  and  then,  after  the  whole  company  was 
assembled,  the  master  of  the  house  shut  the  door  with 
his  own  hands — a  signal  to  the  servant  to  allow  him- 
self to  be  prevailed  on  neither  by  noise  nor  by  impor- 
tunities, however  loud  and  long-continued,  to  admit 
-tinders.  To  this  custom  there  is  a  manifest 
reference  in  Luke  xiii,  24,  and  Matt.  xxv.  10  (see 
Morier's  Journey,  p.  142). 

One  of  the  first  marks  of  courtesy  shown  to  the 
guests,  after  saluting  the  host,  was  the  refreshment 
of  water  ami  fragrant  oil  or  psrfumes ;  and  hence  we 
find  our  Lord  complaining  of  Simon's  omission  of  these 
customary  civilities  (Luke  vii,  -1 1 ;  see  also  Mark  vii,  4). 
See  Anointing.  But  a  far  higher,  though  necessarily 
less  frequent  attention  paid  to  their  friends  by  the 
great  was  the  custom  of  furnishing  each  of  the  com- 
pany with  a  magnificent  habit  of  a  light  and  showy 
color,  and  richly  embroidered,  to  be  worn  during  the 
festivity  (Eccles.  ix,  8  ;  Rev.  iii,  4,  5).     The  loose  and 


flowing  style  of  this  gorgeous  mantle  made  it  equally 
suitable  for  all;  and  it  is  almost  incredible  what  a 
varietj-  of  such  sumptuous  garments  the  wardrobes  of 
some  great  men  could  supply  to  equip  a  numerous 
party.  In  a  large  companj',  even  of  respectable  per- 
sons, some  might  appear  in  a  plainer  and  humbler 
garb  than  accorded  with  the  taste  of  the  voluptuous 
gentry  of  our  Lord's  time,  and  where  this  arose  from 
necessity  or  limited  means,  it  would  have  been  harsh 
and  unreasonable  in  the  extreme  to  attach  blame,  or  to 
command  his  instant  and  ignominious  expulsion  from 
the  banquet-room.  But  where  a  well-appointed  and 
sumptuous  wardrobe  was  opened  for  the  use  of  every 
guest,  to  refuse  the  gay  and  splendid  costume  which 
the  munificence  of  the  host  provided,  and  to  persist  in 
appearing  in  one's  own  habiliments,  implied  a  con- 
tempt both  for  the  master  of  the  house  and  his  enter- 
tainment, which  could  not  fail  to  provoke  resentment ; 
and  our  Lord  therefore  spoke  in  accordance  with  a 
well-known  custom  of  his  country  when,  in  the  para- 
ble of  the  marriage  of  the  king's  son,  he  describes  the 
stern  displeasure  of  the  king  on  discovering  one  of  the 
guests  without  a  wedding  garment,  and  his  instant 
command  to  thrust  him  out  (Matt,  xxii,  11). 

At  private  banquets  the  master  of  the  house  of 
course  presided,  and  did  the  honors  of  the  occasion ; 
but  in  large  and  mixed  companies  it  was  anciently 
customary  to  elect  a  governor  of  the  feast  (John  ii,  8 ; 
see  also  Ecclus.  xxxii,  1),  who  should  not  merely  per- 
form the  office  of  chairman,  ap\tTpiic\ivoc,  in  preserv- 
ing order  and  decorum,  but  take  upon  himself  the  gen- 
eral management  of  the  festivities.  As  this  office  was 
considered  a  post  of  great  responsibility  and  delicacy, 
as  well  as  honor,  the  choice,  which  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  was  left. to  the  decision  of  dice,  was  more 
wisely  made  b}T  the  Jews  to  fall  upon  him  who  was 
known  to  be  possessed  of  the  requsite  qualities — a 
ready  wit  and  convivial  turn,  and  at  the  same  time 
firmness  of  character  and  habits  of  temperance.     See 


12      > 15~ "14    X^"1S         1G  n  18  19        20 

Aoclenl  I    jrptUn  Party  of  G urate,  to  whom  Wine,  Ointment,  and  Garlands  are  brought. 

a  cup  of  wine  to  n  gentleman  and  lady,  2,  3,  seated  on  chairs  with  cushions,  probably  of 
leather;  4.  Anothi  r  holding  n  vase  of  ointment  and  n  garland;  5,  Present*  a  lotus-flower,  and  9,  a  necklace  or  garland, 

wl"  h  '  '   """"1  tlin  neck  ol  the.  guest,  10;   12,  A  female  attendant  offering  wine  to  a  guert;  in  her  left  hand 

r  •■.  ,|„iil-  tlir  month  after  drinking.     The  tables,  «.-./,  have  cakes  of  Invad,  c,  r;  meat,  <h  <] ;  geese,  »;  and 

;  flowera,p;  and  other  things  prepared  for  the  feast;  and  beneath  them  are 


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637 


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Architriclinos.  The  guests  were  scrupulously  ar- 
ranged either  by  the  host  or  governor,  who,  in  the  case 
of  a  family,  placed  them  according  to  seniority  (Gen. 
xlii,  33),  and  in  the  case  of  others,  assigned  the  most 
honorable  (comp.  1  Sam.  ix,  22)  a  place  near  his  own 
person ;  or  it  was  done  by  the  party  themselves,  on 
their  successive  arrivals,  and  after  surveying  the  com- 
pany, taking  up  the  position  which  appeared  fittest 
for  each.  It  might  be  expected  that  among  the  Ori- 
entals, by  whom  the  laws  of  etiquette  in  these  matters 
are  strictly  observed,  many  absurd  and  ludicrous  con- 
tests for  precedence  must  take  place,  from  the  arro- 
gance of  some  and  the  determined  perseverance  of 
others  to  wedge  themselves  into  the  seat  they  deem 
themselves  entitled  to.  Accordingly,  Morier  informs 
us  "  that  it  is  easy  to  observe,  by  the  countenances  of 
those  present,  when  any  one  has  taken  a  higher  place 
than  he  ought."  "On  one  occasion,"  ha  adds,  "  when 
an  assembly  was  nearly  full,  the  Governor  of  Kaslian, 
a  man  of  humble  mien,  came  in,  and  had  seated  him- 
self at  the  lowest  place,  when  the  host,  after  having 
testified  his  particular  attentions  to  him  by  numerous 
expressions  of  welcome,  pointed  with  his  hand  to  an 
upper  seat,  which  he  desired  him  to  take"  {Second 
Journey).  As  a  counterpart  to  this,  Dr.  Clarke  states 
that  "  at  a  wedding  feast  he  attended  in  the  house  of  a 
rich  merchant  at  St.  Jean  d Acre,  two  persons  who  had 
seated  themselves  at  the  top  were  noticed  by  the  mas- 
ter of  ceremonies,  and  obliged  to  move  lower  down" 
(see  also  Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  24.)  The  knowledge  of  these 
peculiarities  serves  to  illustrate  several  passages  of 
Scripture  (Prov.  xxv,  6,  7 ;  Matt,  xxiii,  6 ;  and  espe- 
cially Luke  xiv,  7,  where  we  find  Jesus  making  the 
unseemly  ambition  of  the  Pharisees  the  subject  of  se- 
vere and  merited  animadversion). 

In  ancient  Egypt,  as  in  Persia,  the  tables  were 
ranged  along  the  sides  of  the  room,  and  the  guests 
were  placed  with  their  faces  toward  the  walls.  Per- 
sons of  high  official  station  were  honored  with  a  table 
apart  for  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  room;  and  in 
these  particulars  we  trace  an  exact  correspondence 
to  the  arrangements  of  Joseph's  entertainment  to  his 
brethren.  According  to  Lightfoot  (Exercit.  on  John 
xiii,  23),  the  tables  of  the  Jews  were  either  wholly  un- 
covered, or  two  thirds  were  spread  with  a  cloth,  while 
the  remaining  third  was  left  bare  for  the  dishes  and 
vegetables.  In  the  days  of  our  Lord  the  prevailing 
form  was  the  triclinium,  the  mode  of  reclining  at  which 
is  described  elsewhere.  See  Acciuatiox.  This  ef- 
feminate practice  was  not  introduced  until  near  the 
close  of  the  Old  Testament  history,  for  among  all  its 
writers  prior  to  the  age  of  Amos,  2'J1"1,  to  sit,  is  the  word 
invariably  used  to  describe  the  posture  at  table  (1  Sam. 
xvi,  margin,  and  Psa.  exxviii,  3,  implying  that  the  an- 
cient Israelites  sat  round  a  low  table,  cross-legged,  like 
the  Orientals  of  the  present  day),  whereas  dvaKkivio, 
signifying  a  recumbent  posture,  is  the  word  employed 
in  the  Gospels.  And  whenever  the  word  "  sit"  occurs 
in  the  New  Testament,  it  ought  to  lie  translated  "lie," 
or  n  dine,  according  to  the  universal  practice  of  that  age. 

The  convenience  of  spoons,  knives,  and  forks  being 
unknown  in  the  East,  or,  where  known,  being  a  modern 
innovation,  the  hand  is  the  only  instrument  used  in 
conveying  food  to  the  mouth ;  and  the  common  practice, 
their  fond  being  chiefly  prepared  in  a  liquid  form,  is  to 
dip  their  thin,  wafer-like  bread  in  the  dish,  and,  folding 
it  between  their  thumb  and  two  fingers,  enclose  a  por- 
tion of  the  contents.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  sev- 
eral hands  plunged  into  one  dish  at  the  same  time. 
But  where  the  party  is  numerous,  the  two  persons  near 
or  opposite  are  commonly  joined  in  one  dish  ;  and  ac- 
cordingly, at  the  last  Passover,  Judas,  being  close  to 
his  master,  was  pointed  out  as  the  traitor  by  being  de- 
signated as  the  person  "dipping  his  hand  with  Jesus 
in  the  dish."  The  Apostle  John,  whose  advantageous 
situation  enabled  him  to  hear  the  minutest  parts  of  the 
conversation,  has  recorded  the  fact  of  our  Lord,  in  re- 


ply to  the  question,  "Who  is  it?"  answering  it  by 
"giving  a  sop  to  Judas  when  he  had  dipped"  (John 
xiii,  27.)  It  is  not  the  least  among  the  peculiarities  of 
Oriental  manners  that  a  host  often  dips  his  hand  into 
a  dish,  and,  lifting  a  handful  of  what  he  considers  a 
dainty,  offers  the  Tpuj/.tiov  or  sop  to  one  of  his  friends, 
and  to  decline  it  would  be  a  violation  of  propriety  and 
good  manners  (see  Jowett's  Christian  Researches).  In 
earlier  ages,  a  double  or  a  more  liberal  portion,  or  a 
choice  piece  of  cookery,  was  the  form  in  which  a  land- 
lord showed  his  respect  for  the  individual  he  delighted 
to  honor  (Gen.  xliii,  34  ;  1  Sam.  i,  4;  ix,  23  ;  Prov.  xxxi, 
15;  seeVoller's  Grec.Ant.  ii,  387;  Forbes,  Orient.  Mem. 
iii,  187.) 

While  the  guests  reclined  in  the  manner  described 
above,  their  feet,  of  course,  being  stretched  out  behind, 
were  the  most  accessible  parts  of  their  person,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  woman  with  the  alabaster  box  of  oint- 
ment could  pay  her  grateful  and  reverential  attentions 
to  Jesus  without  disturbing  him  in  the  business  of  the 
table.  Nor  can  the  presence  of  this  woman,  uninvited 
and  unknown  even  as  she  was  to  the  master  of  the 
house,  appear  at  all  an  incredible  or  strange  circum- 
stance, when  we  consider  that  entertainments  are  often 
given  in  gardens,  or  in  the  outer  courts,  where  strangers 
are  freely  admitted,  and  that  Simon's  table  was  in  all 
likelihood  accessible  to  the  same  promiscuous  visitors 
as  are  found  hovering  about  at  the  banquets  and  en- 
tering into  the  houses  of  the  most  respectable  Orientals 
of  the  present  da)'  (Forbes,  Orient.  Mem.).  In  the 
course  of  the  entertainment  servants  are  frequently 
employed  in  sprinkling  the  head  and  person  of  the 
guests  with  odoriferous  perfumes,  which,  probabty  to 
counteract  the  scent  of  too  copious  perspiration,  they 
use  in  great  profusion,  and  the  fragrance  of  which, 
though  generally  too  strong  for  Europeans,  is  deemed 
an  agreeable  refreshment  (see  Psa.  xlv,  8 ;  xxiii,  5 ; 
exxxiii,  2). 

The  various  items  of  which  an  Oriental  entert  iin- 
ment  consists,  bread,  flesh,  fish,  fowls,  melted  butter, 
honey,  and  fruits,  are  in  many  places  set  on  the  table 
at  once,  in  defiance  of  all  taste.  They  are  brought  in 
upon  trays — one,  containing  several  dishes,  being  as- 
signed to  a  group  of  two,  or  at  most  three  persons,  and 
the  number  and  quality  of  the  dishes  being  regulated 
according  to  the  rank  and  consideration  of  the  party 
seated  before  it.  In  ordinary  cases  four  or  five  dishes 
constitute  the  portion  allotted  to  a  guest ;  but  if  he  be 
a  person  of  consequence,  or  one  to  whom  the  host  is 
desirous  of  showing  more  than  ordinary  marks  of  at- 
tention, other  viands  are  successively  brought  in,  un- 
til, if  every  vacant  corner  of  the  tray  is  occupied,  the 
bowls  are  piled  one  above  another.  The  object  of  this 
rude  but  liberal  hospitality  is,  not  that  the  individual 
thus  honored  is  expected  to  surfeit  himself  by  an  ex- 
cess of  indulgence  in  order  to  testify  his  sense  of  the 
entertainer's  kindness,  but  that  he  may  enjoy  the 
means  of  gratifying  his  palate  with  greater  variety; 
and  hence  we  read  of  Joseph's  displaying  his  partiality 
for  Benjamin  by  making  his  "  mess  five  times  so  much 
as  any  of  theirs"  (Gen.  xliii,  34).  The  shoulder  of  a 
lamb,  roasted,  and  plentifully  besmeared  with  butter 
and  milk,  is  regarded  as  a  great  delicacy  still  (Buck- 
ingham's Travels,  ii,  136),  as  it  was  also  in  the  days  of 
Samuel.  But  according  to  the  favorite  cookery  of  the 
Orientals,  their  animal  food  is  for  the  most  part  cut 
into  small  pieces,  stewed,  or  prepared  in  a  liquid  state, 
such  as  seems  to  have  been  the  "broth"  presented  by 
Gideon  to  the  angel  (Judg.  vi,  10).  The  made-up 
dishes  are  "savory  meat,"  being  highly  seasoned,  and 
bring  to  remembrance  the  marrow  and  fatness  which 
were  esteemed  as  the  most  choice  morsels  in  ancient 
times.  As  to  drink,  when  particular  attention  was  in- 
tended to  be  shown  to  a  guest,  his  cup  was  filled  with 
wine  till  it  ran  over  (Psa.  xxiii,  5),  and  it  is  said  that 
the  ancient  Persians  began  their  feafts  with  wine, 
whence  it  was  called  "a  banquet  of  wine"  (^Esther 


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Ancient  Assyrian  Guests  driuking  a  Toast. 


v,  6).  See  Rinck,  De  apparatu  conv'vii  regis  Persa- 
rum  (Regiom.  1755);  Kohler,  Observutt.  (Lips.  17G3), 
p.  1  sq. 

The  hands,  for  occasionally  both  were  required,  be- 
smeared with  grease  during  the  process  of  eating,  were 
anciently  cleaned  by  rubbing  them  with  the  soft  part 
of  the- bread,  the  crumbs  of  which,  being  allowed  to 
fall,  became  the  portion  of  dogs  (Matt,  xv,  27;  Luke 
xvi,  21).  But  the  most  common  way  now  at  the  con- 
clusion of  a  feast  is  for  a  servant  to  go  round  to  each 
guest  with  water  to  wash,  a  service  which  is  performed 
by  the  menial  pouring  a  stream  over  their  hands, 
wb.ich.is  received  into  a  strainer  at  the  bottom  of  the 
basin.  This  humble  office  Elisha  performed  to  his 
master  (2  Kings  iii,  11).     See  Ewer. 


food.  The  firstlings  of 
cattle  were  to  be  sacrificed 
and  eaten  at  the  sanctuary 
if  not  too  far  from  the  res- 
idence (1  Sam.  ix,  13;  2 
Sam.  vi,  19 ;  Exod.  xxii, 
£9,  30;  Lev.  xix,  5,  6; 
Deut.  xii,  17,  20,  21 ;  xv, 
19-22).  From  the  sacri- 
ficial banquet  probably 
sprang  the  Agafve  ;  as 
the  Lord's  Supper,  with 
which  it  for  a  while  coa- 
lesced, was  derived  from 
the  Passover.  Besides  re- 
ligious celebrations,  such 
events  as  the  weaning  a 


son  and  heir,  a  marriage,  the  separation  or  reunion  of 
friends,  and  sheep-shearing,  were  customarily  attended 
by  a  banquet  or  revel  (Gen.  xxi,  8;  xxix,  22;  xxxi, 
27,  54;  1  Sam.  xxv,  2,  36 ;  2  Sam.  xiii,  23).  At  a 
funeral,  also,  refreshment  was  taken  in  common  by 
the  mourners,  and  this  might  tend  to  become  a  scene 
of  indulgence,  but  ordinarily  abstemiousness  seems  on 
such  occasions  to  have  been  the  rule.  The  case  of 
Archelaus  is  not  conclusive,  but  his  inclination  toward 
alien  usages  was  doubtless  shared  by  the  Herodian- 
izing  Jews  (Jer.  xvi,  5-7  ;  Ezek.  xxiv,  17  ;  Hos.  ix,  4  ; 
Eccl.  vii,  2;  Josephus,  War,  ii,  1).  Birthday-ban- 
quets are  only  mentioned  in  the  cases  of  Pharaoh  and 
Herod  (Gen.  xl,  20;  Matt,  xiv,  C).  A  leading  topic 
of  prophetic  rebuke  is  the  abuse  of  festivals  to  an  occa- 


People  of  rank  and  opulence  in  the  East  frequently    sion  of  drunken  revelry,  and  the  growth  of  fashion  in 


give  public  entertainments  to  the  poor.  The  rich  man 
in  the  parable,  whose  guests  disappointed  him,  dispatch- 
ed his  servants  on  the  instant  to  invite  those  that 
might  lie  found  sitting  by  the  hedges  and  the  high- 
ways— a  measure  which,  in  the  circumstances,  was  ab- 
solutely necessary,  as  the  he;.t  of  the  climate  would 
spoil  the  meats  long  before  they  could  be  consumed  by 
the  members  of  his  own  household.  But  many  of  the 
gnat,  from  benevolence  or  ostentation,  are  in  the  habit 
of  proclaiming  set  days  for  giving  feasts  to  the  poor; 
and  then,  at  the  time  appointed,  may  be  seen  crowds 
of  the  blind,  the  halt,  and  the  maimed  bending  their 
steps  to  the  scene  of  entertainment.  This  species  of 
charity  claims  a  venerable  antiquity.  Our  Lord  rec- 
ommended his  wealthy  hearers  to  practice  it  rather 
than  spend  their  fortunes,  as  the}*  did,  on  luxurious 
living  (Luke  xiv,  12);  and  as  such  invitations  to  the 
poor  are  of  necessity  given  by  public  proclamation, 
and  female  messengers  are  employed  to  publish  them 
(Hasselquist  saw  ten  or  twelve  thus  perambulating  a 
town  in  Egypt),  it  is  probably  to  the  same  venerable 
practice  that  Solomon  alludes  in  Prov.  ix,  3. — Kit- 
to.  s.  v.     Sec  Feast. 

Among  the  1  lei irews  banquets  were  not  only  a  means 
of  social  enjoyment,  but  were  a  part  of  the  observance 
of  religious  festivity.  At  the  three  solemn  festivals, 
when  all  the  males  appeared  before  the  Lord,  the 
family  also  had  its  domestic  fast,  as  appears  from  the 
place  and  the  share,  in  it  to  which  "the  widow,  the 
fatherless,  and  the  Stranger"  were  legally  entitled 
(Deut  xvi,  l!  i.  Probably,  when  the  distance  allowed 
and  no  inconvenience,  hindered,  both  males  and  fe- 
males went   up  (e.  g.  to  Shiloh;  1  Sam.  i,  9)  together 

to  bold  the  festival.  These  domestic  festivities  were 
doubtless  to  a  great  extent  retained,  after  laxity  had 
-d  in  as  regards  the  special  observance  by  the  male 
sex  i  N.  h.  viii,  17 ).  Sacrifices,  both  ordinary  and  ex- 
traordinary, as  among  heathen  nations  i  Exod.  xxxiv, 
l.".;  Judg.  xvi,  23),  included  a  banquet,  and  Eli's  sons 

made   this   latter  the   prominent    part.      The  two.  thus 

united,  marked  strongly  both  domestic  and  civil  life. 

It  may  even   be  said  that   BOme  sacrificial  recognition, 

if  only  in  pouring  the  blood  solemnly  forth  as  before 
God,  always  attended  the  slaughter  of  an  animal  for 


favor  of  drinking-parties.  Such  was  the  invitation 
typically  given  by  Jeremiah  to  the  Reehabites  (Jer. 
xxxv,  5).  The  usual  time  of  the  banquet  was  the 
evening,  and  to  begin  early  was  a  mark  of  excess  (Isa.v, 
11 ;  Eccl.  x,  16).  The  slaughtering  of  the  cattle,  which 
was  the  preliminary  of  a  banquet,  occupied  the  earlier 
part  of  the  same  day  (Prov.  ix,  2  ;  Isa.  xxii,  13  ;  Matt, 
xxii,  4).  The  most  essential  materials  of  the  banquet- 
ing-room,  next  to  the  viands  and  wine,  which  last  was 
often  drugged  with  spices  (Prov.  ix,  2;  Cant,  viii,  2), 
were  garlands  or  loose  flowers,  exhibitions  of  music, 
singers,  and  dancers,  riddles,  jesting  and  merriment 
i  Isa.  xxviii,  1 ;  Wisd.  ii,  6  ;  2  Sam.  xix,  35  ;  Isa.  xxv, 
6;  v,  12;  Judg.  xiv,  12;  Neh.  viii,  10;  Eccl.  x,  19; 
Matt,  xxii,  11 ;  Amos  vi,  5,  6;  Luke  xv,  25).  Seven 
clays  was  a  not  uncommon  duration  of  a  festival,  espe- 
cially for  a  wedding,  but  sometimes  fourteen  (Tob. 
viii,  19;  Gen.  xxix,  27;  Judg.  xiv,  12);  but  if  the 
bride  were  a  widow,  three  days  formed  the  limit  (Bux- 
torf,  Be  Ccnvlv.  II<b>\).  The  reminder  sent  to  the 
guests  (Luke  xiv,  17)  was  prol  ably  only  usual  in 
princely  banquets  on  a  large  scale,  involving  protract- 
ed preparation.  There  seems  r.o  doubt  that  the  Jews 
of  the  O.  T.  period  used  a  common  table  fcr  all  the 
guests.  Li  Joseph's  entertainment  a  ceremonial  sep- 
aration prevailed,  but  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing 
a  separate  table  for  each,  as  is  distinctly  asserted  in 
the  Talmud  ( Tosejahot  Bciach.  c.  vi)  to  have  been 
usual.  The  latter  custom  certainly  was  in  use  among 
the  ancient  Greeks  and  Germans  (Horn.  Od.  xxiii, 
xxii,  74;  Tae.  Germ.  22),  and  perhaps  among  the 
Egyptians  (Wilkinson,  ii,  202,  engravings).  But  the 
common  phrase  to  "sit  at  table,"  or  "eat  at  any  one's 
table,"  shows  the  originality  of  the  opposite  usage. 
The  separation  of  the  woman's  banquet  was  not  a  Jew- 
ish custom  (Esth.  i,  9).  Portions  or  messes  were  sent 
from  the  entertainer  to  each  guest  at  tabic,  and  a 
special  part  was  sometimes  reserved  for  a  late  comer 
(  1  Sam.  i,  5;  Gen.  xliii,  34;  1  Sam.  ix,  23,  24).  Por- 
tions were  similarly  sent  to  poorer  friends  direct  from 
the  banquet-table  (Neh.  viii,  10;  Esth.  ix,  19,  22). 
The  kiss  on  receiving  a  guest  was  a  point  of  friendly 
courtesy  (Luke  vii,  45).  It  was  strictly  enjoined  by 
the  rabbins  to  wash  both  before  and  after  eating,  which 


BANUAS 


C39 


BAPTISM 


they  called  the  "first  water"  and  the  "last  water" 
(B^ibiO  d?B  and  CJ^SiltlSjl  &??);  but  washing  the 
feet  seems  to  have  been  limited  to  the  case  of  a  guest 
who  was  also  a  traveller.     See  Ablution. 

In  religious  banquets  the  wine  was  mixed,  by  rab- 
binical regulation,  with  three  parts  of  water,  and  four 
short  forms  of  benediction  were  pronounced  over  it. 
At  the  Passover  four  such  cups  were  mixed,  blessed, 
and  passed  round  by  the  master  of  the  feast  (dpxirpi- 
kXivoq).  It  is  probable  that  the  character  of  this 
official  varied  with  that  of  the  entertainment ;  if  it 
were  a  religious  one,  his  office  would  be  quasi-prisstly ; 
if  a  revel,  he  would  be  the  mere  symposiarch  (ti^itto- 
mdpxns)  or  arbiter  blbendi.  (See  Smith's  Diet,  of 
Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Symposium;  Comissatio.) — Smith,  s 
v.    See  Entertainment  ;  Eating  ;  Hospitality,  etc. 

Ban'uas  (Bdvvog,  Vulg.  Bamis),  a  name  of  a  Le^ 
vite  occurring  in  the  lists  of  those  who  returned  from 
captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  26) ;  this,  with  the  following 
name,  answers  to  Hodaviah  (q.  v.)  or  Hodevah  in 
the  parallel  lists  of  Ezra  (ii,  40)  and  Nehemiah  (vii,  43). 

Baphomet  (Batp))  MrjTSwg,  baptism  of  Metis,  or 
of  fire,  the  Gnostic  baptism),  is  the  name  given  to  cer- 
tain symbolic  figures,  half  male  and  half  female,  carv- 
ed in  stone,  etc.,  which  are  said  by  some  to  have  be- 
longed to  the  insignia  of  the  Knight  Templars.  Speci- 
mens of  them  are  to  be  found  in  the  collections  of  an- 
tiquities of  Weimar  and  Vienna.  These  figures  have 
generally  two  heads  or  faces,  one  of  which  is  bearded; 
they  are  surrounded  by  serpents,  and  bear  various  in- 
scriptions and  representations  of  the  sun,  moon,  trun- 
cated crosses  (otherwise  called  Egyptian  key  of  life 
and  death),  etc.  Some  have  considered  them  as  im- 
ages of  the  devil,  others  as  representing  Mete  (Wis- 
dom), the  Gnostic  divinity,  and  others,  seeing  in  them 
busts  of  Mohammed,  considered  them  as  proofs  of  the 
apostasy  of  the  Templars.  It  seems  more  probable, 
however,  that  they  were  merely  some  alchemico-theo- 
sophical  symbols.  See  Joseph  von  Hammer,  Fund- 
gruben  d.  Orients  (6  vols.);  Von  Nell,  Baphometische 
Actenstiicke,  etc.  (Vienna,  1819);  Same,  Essay  on  a 
Cosmological  Interpretation  of  ih:  I'hanician  Worship 
of  the  Cabiri,  etc. 

Baptism,  a  rite  of  purification  or  initiation,  in 
which  water  is  used;  one  of  the  sacraments  (q.  v.)  of 
the  Christian  Church.  The  word  baptism  is  simply 
an  Anglicized  form  of  the  Greek  fiairTiopoc,  a  verbal 
noun  from  liairri'^oj  (likewise  Anglicized  "baptize"), 
and  this,  again,  is  a  derivative  from  f3dirr<o,  the  pre- 
dominant signification  of  which  latter  is  to  whelm  or 
"dye,"  Lat.  tingo.  Not  being  a  verb  implying  mo- 
tion, j3airri^tit  is  property  followed  in  Greek  by  the 
preposition  tr,  denoting  the  means  or  method  (with  the 
"instrumental  dative"),  which  has  unfortunately,  in 
the  Auth.  Engl.  Vers.,  often  been  rendered  by  the  am- 
biguous particle  "in,"  whereas  it  really  (in  this  con- 
nection) signifies  only  with  or  by,  or  at  most  merely 
designates  the  locality  where  the  act  is  performed. 
The  derivative  verb  and  noun  are  sometimes  used 
with  reference  to  ordinary  lustration,  and  occasionally 
with  respect  to  merely  secular  acts ;  also  in  a  figura- 
tive sense.  In  certain  cases  it  is  followed  by  the  prep- 
osition tits,  with  the  meaning  "to,"  "for,"  or  "unto," 
as  pointing  out  the  design  of  the  act,  especially  in 
phrases  (comp.  moTtvtiv  tic)  expressive  of  the  cove- 
nant or  relation  of  which  this  rite  was  the  seal.  (In 
Mark  i,  9,  the  tits  depends  upon  rj\$ev  preceding;  and 
in  Mark  xiv,  20,  there  is  a  construct io  prcegnans  by 
which  some  other  verb  of  motion  is  to  be  supplied  be- 
fore the  preposition.)  On  these  and  other  applications 
of  the  Greek  word,  see  Robinson's  Lex.  of  the  N.  T. 
s.  v. ;  where,  however  (as  in  some  other  Lexicons),  the 
statement  that  the  primary  force  of  the  verb  is  "to 
dip,  immerse,"  etc.,  is  not  sustained  by  its  actual  usage 
and  grammatical  construction.     This  would  always 


require  tic,  "into,"  after  it;  which  occurs  in  15  ex- 
amples only  out  of  the  exhaustive  list  (175)  adduced 
by  Dr.  Conant  {Meaning  and  Use  of  Bapliztin,  N.  Y. 
1860)  ;  and  a  closer  and  more  critical  examination 
will  show  that  it  is  only  the  context  and  association 
of  the  word  that  in  any  case  put  this  signification  upon 
it,  and  it  is  therefore  a  mere  gloss  or  inference  to  as- 
sign this  as  the  proper  sense  of  the  term.  The  signi- 
fications "plunge,"  "submerge,"  etc.,  are  here  strict- 
ly derived,  as  cognates,  from  the  more  general  and 
primitive  one  of  that  complete  envelopment  with  a 
liquid  which  a  thorough  wetting,  saturation,  or  dyeing 
usually  implies.  In  like  manner,  Dr.  E.  Beecher  (in 
a  series  of  articles  first  published  in  the  Am.  Bib.  Jie- 
pos.  during  1840  and  1841)  has  mistaken  the  allied  or 
inferential  signification  of  purification  for  the  primitive 
sense  of  the  word,  whereas  it  is  only  the  result  expect- 
ed or  attendant  in  the  act  of  washing.  See  further 
below. 

As  preliminary  to  the  theological  discussion  of  this 
subject,  it  will  be  proper  here  to  discuss,  more  fully 
than  can  be  conveniently  done  elsewhere,  the  classical 
and  Biblical  uses  of  the  word,  and  some  subordinate 
topics.  We  here  make  use  chiefly  of  Kitto's  Cyclopa-- 
<ft«,  s.v.' 

I.  Philological  Usage  of  the  Word  flaw-i^ur. — 1.  Bg 
Classical  Writers. — No  instance  occurs  in  these  writers 
of  the  use  of  /3dirrio-pa,  and  oitly  one  in  a  very  late 
author  (Antyllus)  of  the  use  of  its  equivalent  fia-xTKJ- 
pog  ;  but  the  verb  occurs  frequently,  especially  in  the 
later  writers.     It  is  used  to  designate  : 

(1.)  The  washing  of  an  object  by  dipping  it  into  water, 
or  any  other  fluid,  or  quasi-fluid,  for  any  purpose,  what- 
ever: as  fidizTitJov  atavrbv  tie  QdXaoaav,  "bathe 
yourself  by  going  into  the  sea"  (Plut.  Mor.  p.  166 
A.) ;  l3airTiZtti>  rbv  Aiuvvtrov  irpbg  ti)v  QaXarrav 
(Ibid.  p.  914). 

(2.)  The  plunging  or  sinking  of  an  object:  as  OvSt 
yap  roic  dKo\vp/3oig  fiairrCCtaBai  avfifiaivti  ZvXtov 
Tpbirov  iTrnroXa^ot'tri,  where  f3aTTTiX,to9ai,  in  the  sense 
of  "submerged,"  is  contrasted  with  t7rnroXdc,ovot,  in 
the  sense  of  "float;"  iv  vSaai  yivtaOcii  t>)v  noptiav 
ovvkj3n,  iik%pi  6p<f>a\ov  fiairnZopsvwv, being  in  water 
up  to  the  navel  (Strabo,  Geogr.  xiv,  p.  667) ;  poXtg  'itoc 
tojv  patJTM>  in  ire%oi  fiaTrnZofitvoi  fiiefiaivov  {Polyb. 
iii).  So  Pindar  says  (Pyth.  ii,  145),  dfldirTWTOQ  tlpi, 
tptXXbg  H>Q,  where  the  cork  of  the  fisherman  is  styled 
unbaptized,  in  contrast  with  the  net  which  sinks  into 
the  water.  From  this,  by  metonomy  of  cause  for  ef- 
fect, is  derived  the  sense  to  drown,  as  tfic'nrTia  tig  rbv 
olvov,  "I  whelmed  him  in  the  wine"  (Julian  iEgypt. 
Anacreont.'). 

(3.)  The  covering  over  of  any  object  by  the  flowing  or 
pouring  of  a  fluid  on  it;  and  metaphorically  (in  the 
passive),  the.  being  overwhelmed  or  oppressed:  thus  the 
Pseudo-Aristotle  speaks  of  places  full  of  bulrushes  and 
sea-weeds,  which,  when  the  tide  is  at  the  ebb,  are  not 
baptized  (i.  e.  covered  by  the  water),  but  at  full  tide  are 
flooded  over  (Mirabil.  Auscult.  §  137,  p.  50,  in  Wester- 
man's  edit,  of  the  Script.  Per.  Mir.  Gr.);  Diodorus 
Siculus  (bk.  i)  speaks  of  bind  animals  being  destroyed 
by  the  river  overtaking  them  {UiatpQtiptTai  fianTt'Cv- 
/.ni'tt);  Plato  and  Athenaaus  describe  men  in  a  state 
of  ebriety  as  baptized  (Sympos.  p.  176  B. ;  and  Deipnos. 
v.);  and  the  former  says  the  same  of  a  youth  over- 
whelmed with  sophistry  (Eulhyd.  277  D.);  Plutarch 
denounces  the  forcing  of  knowledge  on  children  be- 
yond what  they  can  receive  as  a  process  by  which  the 
soul  is  baptized  (De  Lib.educ.');  and  he  speaks  of  men 
as  baptized  by  debts  (Galbce,  v.  21);  Diodorus  Siculus 
speaks  of  baptizing  people  with  tears  (bk.  i,  c.  73) ;  and 
Libanius  says,  "  He  who  hardly  bears  what  he  now 
bears,  would  be  baptized  by  a  little  addition"  (Epist. 
310).  and  "  I  am  one  of  those  baptized  by  that  great 
wave"  (Ep.  25). 

(4.)  The  complete  drenching  of  an  object,  whether  by 
aspersion  or  immersion;  as  'AcKvg  /SoTrn^y,  vbvca  St 


BAPTISM 


640 


BAPTISM 


?oi  ov  Ot^uc  tan,  "As  a  bladder  thou  shaltbe  washed 
( i.  e.  by  the  waves  breaking  over  thee),  but  thou  canst 
HOI   go  down"  (Oruc.  Sibyll.  de  Athenis.  ap.  Plutarch, 

From  this  it  appears  that  in  classical  usage  [iaTrri- 
_',,r  is  not  fixed  to  any  special  mode  of  applying  the 
baptizing  element  to  the  object  baptized;  all  that  is 
implied  by  the  term  is,  that  the  former  is  closely  in 
contact  with  the  latter,  or  that  the  latter  is  wholly  in 
the  former. 

2.  By  the  Septuagint. — Here  the  word  occurs  only 
four  times,  viz.  2  Kings  v,  14:  "And  Naaman  went 
down  and  baptized  himself  (j-fSaTrrioaTd)  seven  times 
in  the  river  .Ionian,"  where  the  original  Hebrew  is 
Vz-"",  from  "-,  to  dip, plunge,  immerse;  Isa.  xxi,  4, 
"  Iniquity  baptizes  me"  (»)  avofxia  jit  fia~-iZti),  where 
the  word  is  plainly  used  in  the  sense  of  overwhelm, 
answering  to  the  lleb.  MS,  to  come  upon  suddenly,  to 
terrify;  Judith  xii,  7,  "She  went  out  by  night  .  .  . 
and  baptized  herself  (ijiairriZ.tTo)  at  the  fountain;" 
and  Ecclus.  xxxi  [xxxiv],  30,  "He  who  is  baptized 
from  a  corpse"  (jicnrriZofikvog  c'nrb  vtKpov),  etc.  In 
these  last  two  instances  the  word  merely  denotes 
w  ished,  without  indicating  any  special  mode  by  which 
this  was  done,  though  in  the  former  the  circumstances 
of  the  case  make  it  improbable  that  the  act  described 
was  that  of  bathing  (camp.  Num.  xix,  19). 

In  the  Greek,  then,  of  the  Sept.,  j3cnrri^ttv  signifies 
to  plunge,  to  bathe,  or  to  overwhelm.  It  is  never  used 
to  describe  the  act  of  one  who  dips  another  object  into 
a  fluid,  or  the  case  of  one  who  is  dipped  by  another. 

3.  In  the  New  Testament. — Confining  our  notice  here 
simply  to  the  philology  of  the  subject,  the  instances 
of  this  usage  may  be  classified  thus  : 

(1.)  The.  verb  or  noun  alone,  or  with  the  object  baptiz-d 
merely:  as  fiawrtaOrjvai,  Matt,  iii,  13, 14;  jiaiTTiadtir, 
Mark  xvi.  16;  fiairriZuv,  Mark  i,  4;  fiaTrriaiovTai, 
vii,  4;  liaTTTt'ltic,  John  i,  25;  ijic'nrT  icy  a,  1  Cor.  i,  14, 
etc. ;  /3<<7T7<cr/.<rt  avrov,  Matt,  iii,  7  ;  tv  p>inrTia\\a,  Eph. 
iv,  5  ;  ilc'nrriapa,  Col.  ii,  12  ;  1  Pet.  iii,  21,  etc. ;  j3aTr- 
riofioi'C  7TOTT)piwv,  Mark  vii,  4,  8;  ija-rayf-iojv  SiSa- 
XJIC,  lleb.  vi,  2  :  Sia(p6poiQ  pa—  napoXc,  ix,  10. 

(2.)  With  addition  of  the  element  of  baptism:  as  iv 
vdan,  Mark  i,  8,  etc.;  iv  ■Kvivfian  ayim  icai  irvpi, 
Matr.  iii,  11,  etc. ;  'vdan,  Luke  iii,  16,  etc.  The  force 
of  iv  in  such  formulae  has  by  some  been  pressed,  as  if 
it  indicated  that  the  object  of  baptism  was  in  the  ele- 
ment of  baptism;  but  by  most  the  iv  is  regarded 
a-  mereh  the  nota  dativi,  so  that  iv  vcan  means  no 
more  than  the  simple  JuSan,  as  the  iv  Ti\oiit>  of  Matt. 
xiv,13,  means  no  more  than  the  -\oii;j  of  Mark  vi,  32. 
(See  Matthias,  sec.  401,  ohs.  2 ;  Kiihner,  sec.  585,  Anm. 
"-'. )  Only  in  one  instance  does  the  accusative  appear 
in  the  X.  T.,  Mark  i,  9,  where  we  have  tic  -iv  'lopcd- 
j)/r,  and  this  can  hardly  lie  regarded  as  a  real  excep- 
tion to  the  ordinary  usage  of  the  N.  T.,  because  tic 
here  is  loeal  rather  than  instrumental.  In  connection 
with  this  may  be  noticed  the  phrases  Kara)iaivuv  tig 
.  and  airoftaivuv  tic  or  euro  roe  vScitoq.  Ac- 
cording to  some,  these  decisively  prove  that  the  party 
baptized,  ae  "ell  a-  the  baptizer,  went  down  into  the 
water,  and  came  up  out  of  ii.  lint,  on  the  other  hand. 
it  i-  contended  thai  the  phrases  do  not  necessarily  im- 
ply more  than  that  they  went  to  (i.  e.  to  the  margin 
ol")  tin-  water  and  returned  thence. 

(.;.  i  With  specification  ofth  end  or  purpose  for  which 
tl,<  baptism  is  effected.  This  is  usually  indicated  by  e«c: 
as   Qam  ovopa,  Matt,  xxviii,  19,  and 

frequently;  Iftairriafhiutv  u'r  Xpiar&v  .  .  .  tic  rbv 
Rom.  vi,  3,  al. ;  tic  rbv  Mwvarjv  i/3ax- 
ria9qaav,l  Cor.  x,  3;  u'r  j'j.  awfia  ipairriaBnpev,  xii, 
irrta9j)Tw  iKaeroc.  .  .  .  tit-  dftaiv  aftapnwv, 
Acts  ii.  ."•-<,  etc.     In  ft  etains  its  proper 

?ignificancy,  as  indicating  tin-  terminus  ad  quern,  ami 
tropically,  that  for  which,  or  uith  ./  view  /,,  which  the 
thing  is  done,   modified  according  as  this  is  a  person 


I  or  a  thing.  Thus,  to  be  baptized  for  Mose*;,  means  to 
be  baptized  with  a  view  to  following  or  being  subject 
to  the  rule  of  Moses;  to  be  baptized  for  Christ  means 
to  be  baptized  with  a  view  to  becoming  a  true  follower 
of  Christ;  to  be  baptized  for  his  death  means  to  be 

|  baptized  with  a  view  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  benefits 
of  his  death ;  to  be  baptized  for  the  remission  of  sins 
means  to  be  baptized  with  a  view  to  receiving  this ;  to 
be  baptized  for  the  name  of  any  one  means  to  be  bap- 
tized with  a  view  to  the  realization  of  all  that  the 
meaning  of  this  name  implies,  etc.  In  one  passage 
Paul  uses  oirifj  to  express  the  end  or  design  of  baptism, 
/x(— TiZi'i^uvoi  i'—'to  riitv  vtKpwv,  1  Cor.  xv,  29;  but 
here  the  involved  idea  of  substitution  justifies  the  use 
of  the  preposition.  Instead  of  a  preposition,  the  geni- 
tive of  object  is  sometimes  used,  as  iia7TTiapa  ptra- 
voiaq,  Luke  iii,  3,  al.  =/3ft<rr(cr/.'a  tig  ptravo'iav,  the 
baptism  which  has  /ifravoia  as  its  end  and  purpose. 

(4.)  With  specification  of  the  ground  or  basis  on  ichich 
the  baptism  rests.  This  is  expressed  by  the  use  of  iv 
in  the  phrases  iv  cvopan  rii'oc,  and  once  by  the  use 
of  i-rri  with  the  dative,  Acts  ii,  £8:  "to  be  baptized  on 
the  name  of  Christ,  i.  e.  so  that  the  baptism  is  ground- 
ed on  the  confession  of  his  name"  (Winer,  p.  469). 
Some  regard  these  formula?  as  identical  in  meaning 
with  those  in  which  tir  is  used  with  ovopa,  but  the 
more  exact  scholars  view  them  as  distinct. 

The  two  last-mentioned  usages  are  peculiar  to  the 
N.  T.,  and  arise  directly  from  the  new  significancy 
which  its  writers  attached  to  baptism  as  a  rite. 

II.  Non-ritued  Baptisms  mentioned  in  the  X.  T. — 
These  are : 

1.  The  baptism  of  xdensils  and  articles  of  furniture, 
Mark  vii,  4,  8. 

2.  The  baptism  of  persons,  Mark  vii,  3,  4;  Luke  xi, 
38,  etc. 

These  are  the  only  instances  in  which  the  verb  or 
noun  is  used  in  a  strictly  literal  sense  in  the  N.  T., 
and  there  may  be  some  doubt  as  to  whether  the  last 
instance  should  not  be  remanded  to  the  head  of  ritual 
baptisms.  These  instances  are  chiefly  valuable  as 
bearing  on  the  question  of  the  mode  of  baptism  ;  they 
show  that  no  special  mode  is  indicated  by  the  mere 
use  of  the  word  baptize,  for  the  washing  of  cups,  of 
couches,  and  of  persons  is  accomplished  in  a  different 
>  manner  in  each  case:  in  the  first  by  dipping,  or  im- 
mersing, or  rinsing,  or  pouring,  or  simply  wiping  with 
a  wet  cloth  ;  in  the  second  by  aspersion  and  wiping; 
and  in  the  third  by  plunging  or  stepping  into  the  bath. 

3.  Bajitism  cf  affliction,  Mark  x,  38,  39;  Luke  xii, 
50.  In  both  these  passages  our  Lord  refers  to  his  im- 
pending sufferings  as  a  baptism  which  he  had  to  un- 
dergo. Chrysostom,  and  some  others  of  the  fathers, 
understand  this  objectively,  as  referring  to  the  purga- 
tion which  his  sufferings  were  to  effect  (see  the  pas- 
sages in  Suicer,  Tins.  s.  v.  fidima/ia,  i,  7);  but  this 
does  not  seem  to  be  the  idea  of  the  speaker.  Our 
Lord  rather  means  that  his  sufferings  were  to  come  on 
him  as  a  mighty  overwhelming  torrent  (see  Kumol 
on  Matt,  xx,  22,  -3;  Blomfield,  ibid.).  Some  inter- 
preters suppose  there  is  an  allusion  in  this  language  to 
submersion  as  essential  to  baptism  (see  Olshausen  in 
loc. ;  Meyer  on  Mark  x,  3*~) ;  but  nothing  more  seems 
to  be  implied  than  simply  the  being  overwhelmed  in  a 
figurative  sense,  according  to  what  we  have  seen  to  be 
a  common  use  of  the  word  by  the  classical  writers. 

1.  Baptism  with  the  Spirit,  Matt,  iii,  11  ;  Mark  i,  8; 
Luke  iii, 16;  John  i,  33;  Acts  5,5;  xi,16;  1  Cor.  xii, 
13.  In  the  first  of  these  passages  it  is  said  of  our  Lord 
that  he  shall  baptize  with  the  Holy  Spirit  and  with 
tire.  Whether  this  be  taken  as  a  hendiadys  the 
Spirit  as  fire,  or  as  pointing  out.  two  distinct  baptisms, 
the  one  by  the  Spirit,  the  other  by  lire;  and  whether, 
on  the  latter  assumption,  the  baptism  by  fire  means  the 
destruction  by  Christ  of  his  enemies,  or  the  miraculous 
endowment  of  his  apostles,  it  does  not  concern  us  at 
present  to  inquire.     Respecting  the  intent  of  baptism 


BAPTISM 


G41 


BAPTISM 


by  the  Spirit,  there  can  bo  little  room  for  doubt  or  dif-  I 
ference  of  opinion ;  it  is  obviously  a  figurative  mode 
of  describing  the  agency  of  the  Divine  Spirit  given  ! 
through  and  by  Christ,  both  in  conferring  miraculous 
endowments   and   in   purifying    and   sanctifying  the  | 
heart  of  man.     By  this  Spirit  the  disciples  were  bap-  J 
tized  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  "  there  appeared  ' 
unto  them  cloven  tongues  of  lire,  and  it  sat  upon  each  ; 
of  them  ;  and  they  were  all  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  j 
and  they  began  to  speak  with  tongues  as  the  Spirit  , 
gave  them  utterance"  (Acts  ii,  3,  4);  by  this  Spirit 
men  are  saved  when  they  are  ''born  again  of  Mater 
and  of  the   Spirit"  (John  iii,  u) ,  when  they  receive  j 
"  the  washing  of  regeneration  and  renewing  of  the  j 
Holy  Ghost"  (Tit.  iii,  5);  and  when  there  is  the  put- 
ting away  from  them  of  the  tilth  of  the  flesh,  and  the)' 
have  the  answer  of  a  good  conscience  toward  God  (1  j 
Pet.  iii,  21) ;  and  by  this  Spirit  believers  are  baptized  ; 
for  one  body,  when  through  his  gracious  agency  they  | 
receive  that  Spirit,  and  those  impulses  by  which  they  j 
are  led  to  realize  their  unity  in  Christ  Jesus  (1  Cor.  j 
xii,  18).      Some  refer  to  the  Spirit's  baptism  also,  the 
apostle's  expression,  iv  ftcnvrtcr^ia,  Eph.  iv,  5  ;  but  the 
common  and  more  probable  opinion  is  that  the  refer- 
ence here  is  to  ritual  baptism  as  the  outward  sign  of 
that  inner  unity  which  the  tic;  Kvpioc  and  the   ptia  j 
iritmc.  secure  and  produce  (see  Alford,  Ellicott,  Meyer, 
Matthies,  etc.  etc.  in  foe).     In  this  figurative  use  of 
the  term  "  baptism"  the  tertium  eomparatiords  is  found  j 
by  some  in  the  Spirit's  being  viewed  as  the  element  in 
which  the  believer  is  made  to  live,  and  in  which  he 
receives  the  transforming  influence  ;  while  others  find 
it  in  the  biblical  representation  of  the  Spirit  as  com- 
ing upon  men,  as  poured  upon  them  (Isa.  xxxii,  15; 
Zech.  xii,  10;  Joel  ii,  "28  ;  Acts  ii,  17),  and  as  sprinkled 
on  them  like  clean  water  (Ezek.  xxxvi,  25). 

5.  Baptism  for  Moses.— In  1  Cor.  x,  2,  the  apostle 
says  of  the  Israelites,  "And  they  all  received  bap- 
tism ('  the  middle  voice  is  selected  to  express  a  recep- 
tive sense,'  Meyer)  for  Moses  (tig  tuv  Mojvai'iv  ifiair- 
rieavTv)  in  (or  by,  iv)  the  cloud,  and  in  (or  by)  the 
sea."  In  the  Syr.  ejc  t.  M.  is  translated  "by  the; 
hand  of  Moses ;"  and  this  is  followed  by  Beza  and  oth- 
ers. Some  render  una  cum  Mose;  others,  auspiciis 
J\/osis;  others,  in  Mose,  i.  e.  "sub  ministerio  ct  ductu  j 
Mosis"  (Calvin),  etc.  But  all  these  interpretations 
are  precluded  by  the  proper  meaning  of  tic,  and  the 
fixed  significance  of  the  phrase  ftairri'Cuv  sir  in  the  N. 
T  The  only  rendering  that  can  be  admitted  is  "for 
Moses,"  i.  e.  with  a  view  to  him,  in  reference  to  him, 
in  respect  of  him.  '"They  were  baptized  for  Moses. 
i.  e.  they  became  bound  to  fidelity  and  obedience,  and 
were  accepted  into  the  covenant  which  God  then  made 
with  the  people  through  Moses"  (Ktickcrt  in  foe;  sec 
also  Meyer  and  Alford  on  the  passage). 

III.  The  Types  of  Baptism. — 1.  The  apostle  Peter 
(1  Pet.  iii,  21)  compares  the  deliverance  of  Noah  in 
the  Deluge  to  the  deliverance  of  Christians  in  baptism. 
The  apostle  had  been  speaking  of  those  who  had  per- 
ished  "  in  the  days  of  Noah  when  the.  ark  was  a-pre- 
paring,  in  which  few,  that  is  eight  souls,  were  saved 
by  water."  According  to  the  A.  V.,  he  goes  on,  "  The 
like  figure  whereunto  baptism  doth  now  save  us." 
The  Greek,  in  the  best  MSS.,  is"()  Ka\  »//uac  civtitv- 
■kov  vi'V  c(o£ei  l3c'n7Ti(Tiia.  Grotius  well  expounds 
avrirvTrov  by  avrio-oi\cv,  "accurately  correspond- 
ing." The  difficulty  is  in  the  relative  o.  There  is  no 
antecedent  to  which  it  can  refer  except  i>8aTOQ,  "wa- 
ter;" and  it  seems  as  if  ficnrTitrpa  must  be  put  in  ap- 
position with  o,  and  as  an  explanation  of  it.  Noah 
and  his  company  were  saved  by  water,  "which  water 
also,  that  is,  the  water  of  baptism,  correspondin'  ly 
saves  us."  F.ven  if  the  reading  were  <7i,  it  would 
most  naturally  refer  to  the  preceding  vccitoc.  Cer- 
tainly it  could  not  refer  to  Kifiwrov,  which  is  feminine. 
We  must,  then,  probably  interpret  that,  though  water 
was  the  instrument  for  destroying  the  disobedient,  it 


was  j'et  the  instrument  ordained  of  God  for  floating 
the  ark,  and  so  for  saving  Noah  and  his  family ;  and 
it  is  in  correspondence  with  this  that  water  also,  viz. 
the  water  of  baptism,  saves  Christians.  Augustine, 
commenting  on  these  words,  writes  that  "the  events 
in  the  days  of  Noah  were  a  figure  of  things  to  come, 
so  that  they  who  believe  not  the  Gospel,  when  the 
church  is  building,  may  be  considered  as  like  those 
who  believed  not  when  the  ark  was  preparing;  while 
those  who  have  believed  and  are  baptized  (i.  e.  arc 
saved  by  baptism)  may  be.  con  pared  to  those  who  were 
formerly  saved  in  the  ark  by  water"  (Epist.  1G4,  torn, 
ii,  p.  579).  "The  building  of  the  ark,"  he  says  again, 
"was  a  kind  of  preaching."  "The  waters  of  the 
deluge  presignified  baptism  to  those  who  believed — 
punishment  to  the  unbelieving"  («'&.). 

It  would  be  irrip<  ssible  to  give  any  def  nitc  explana- 
tion of  the  w<  rds  "  baptism  doth  save  us"  without  en- 
tering upon  the  theological  question  of  baptismal  re- 
generation. The  apostle,  however,  gives  a  caution 
which  no  doubt  may  itself  have  need  of  an  interpreter, 
when  he  adds,  "  not  the  putting  away  the  filth  of  the 
flesh,  but  the  answer  (tiripurrifjia)  of  a  rood  conscience 
toward  God."  Probably  all  will  agree  that  he  intended 
here  to  warn  us  against  resting  on  the  outward  admin- 
istration of  a  sacrament,  with  no  ccrres  ponding  prepa- 
ration of  the  conscience  and  the  soul.  I  he  connection 
in  this  passage  between  baptism  and  "the  resurrection 
of  Jesus  Christ"  may  be  compared  with  Col.  ii,  12. 

2.  In  1  Cor.  x,  1,  2,  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  end 
the  shadowing  of  the  miraculous  cloud  are  treated  as 
tj'pes  of  baptism.  In  all  the  early  part  of  this  chap- 
ter the  wanderings  of  Israel  in  the  wilderness  are  put 
in  comparison  with  the  life  of  the  Christian.  '1  he 
being  under  the  cloud  and  the  passing  through  the  sea 
resemble  baptism  ;  eating  manna  and  drinking  of  the 
rock  are  as  the  spiritual  food  which  feeds  the  church; 
and  the  different  temptations,  sins,  and  punishments 
of  the  Israelites  on  their  journey  to  Canaan  are  held 
up  as  a  warning  to  the  Corinthian  Church.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  Rabbins  themselves  speak  of  a  hi  ptism 
in  the  cloud  (sec  Wetstein  in  loc,  who  quotes  Piike 
I!.  Eliezer,  44  ;  see  also  Schottgen  in  loc).  The  pas- 
sage from  the  condition  of  bondmen  in  Egypt  was 
through  the  Red  Sea,  and  with  the  protection  of  the 
luminous  cloud.  When  the  sea  was  passed  the  peo- 
ple were  no  longer  subjects  of  Pharaoh,  but  were,  un- 
der the  guidance  of  Moses,  forming  into  a  new  com- 
monwealth, and  on  their  ivay  to  the  promised  land. 
It  is  sufficiently  apparent  how  this  may  reseml  le  the 
enlisting  of  a  new  convert  into  the  body  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  his  being  placed  in  a  new  relation,  under 
a  new  condition,  in  a  spiritual  commonwealth,  with  a 
way  before  him  to  a  better  country,  though  surround- 
ed with  dangers,  subject  to  temptations,  and  with  ene- 
mies on  all  sides  to  encounter  in  his  prof  ress. 

3.  Another  type  of,  <r  rather  a  rite  analogous  to, 
baptism  was  circumcision.  Paul  (Col.  ii,  11)  speaks 
of  the  Colossian  Christians  as  having  been  circumcised 
with  a  circumcision  made  without  hands,  when  they 
were  buried  with  Christ  in  baptism,  in  which  they 
were  also  raised  again  with  him  (tp  ip  TTipurj.ujPi]ri 
.  .  .  .  GvvrafykvTtc,  arriii  it'  to>  ^airriafian.  "The 
aorist  participle,  as  often,  is  contemporary  with  the 
preceding  past  verb."— Alford  in  lcc.).  The  obvious 
reason  for  the  comparison  of  the  two  rites  is  that  cir- 
cumcision was  the  entrance  to  the  Jewish  Church  and 
the  ancient  covenant,  baptism  to  the  Christian  Church 
and  to  the  new  covenant;  and  perhaps  also  that  the 
spiritual  significance  of  circumcision  had  a  resemblance 
to  the  spiritual  import  of  baptism,  viz.  "the  putting 
off  the  body  of  the  sins  of  the  flesh,"  and  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  heart  by  the  grace  of  God.  Paul  therefore 
calls  baptism  the  circumcision  made  without  hands, 
and  speaks  of  the  putting  off  of  the  sins  of  the  flesh  by 
Christian  circumcision  (iv  Tt)  rripiTopiJ  rov  Xpiarov), 
i.  c.  by  baptism. 


BAPTISM 


642 


BAPTISM 


4.  Before  leaving  this  part  of  the  subject,  we  ought 
perhaps  to  observe  that  in  more  than  one  instance 
death  is  called  a  baptism.  In  Matt,  xx,  22;  Mark  x, 
29,  our  Lord  speaks  of  the  cup  which  he  had  to  drink, 
and  tlic  baptism  that  lie  was  to  he  baptized  with  ;  and 
again,  in  Luke  xii,  ">i»,  "  I  have  a  baptism  to  he  bap- 
tized with."  It  is  generally  thought  that  baptism 
here  means  an  inundation  of  Borrows;  that,  as  the 
baptized  went  down  in  the  water,  and  water  was  to  be 
poured  over  him,  so  our  Lord  meant  to  indicate  that 
he  himself  had  to  pass  through  "the  deep  waters  of 
affliction"  (see  Kuinol  on  Matt,  xx,  22 ;  Schleusner, 
s.  v.  nu-ri-w).  In  after  times  martyrdom  was  called 
a  baptism  of  blood.  But  the  metaphor  in  this  latter 
case  is  evidently  different;  and  in  the  above  words  of 
our  Lord  baptism  is  used  without  any  qualification, 
whereas  in  passages  adduced  from  profane  authors  we 
always  find  some  words  explanatory  of  the  mode  of 
the  immersion.  Is  it  not  then  probable  that  some 
deeper  significance  attaches  to  the  comparison  of 
death,  especially  of  our  Lord's  death,  to  baptism, 
when  we  consider,  too,  that  the  connection  of  baptism 
with  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Christ  is  so  much 
insisted  on  by  Paul  ? 

IV.  Names  of  Baptism. — 1.  "Baptism"  (/3«— nupa  : 
the  word  fiaTTTUTpoQ  occurs  only  three  times,  viz. 
Mark  vii,  8;  Heb.vi,  2;  ix,  10).  The  verb  fiaTrri'Cuv 
(from  fid-KTtiv,  to  wet)  is  the  rendering  of  h'Sa,  to 
plunge,  by  the  Sept.  in  2  Kings  v,  14 ;  and  according- 
ly the  Rabbins  used  fih"^  for  /3«-n<x/<o;.  The  Lat- 
in fathers  render  jia-ri'Cuv  by  tine/ere  (e.  g.  Tertull. 
adv.  Prax.  c.  26,  "Novissime  mandavit  ut  tingerent 
in  Patrem  Filium et Spiritum  Sanctum");  by  merger e 
(as  Ambros.  De  Sacramenlis,  lib.  ii,  c.  7,  "  Interrogatus 
es,  Credis  in  Deum  Patrem  Omnipotentem?  Dixisti 
Credo ;  et  mersisti,  hoc  est  sepultus  es") ;  by  mergi- 
tare  (as  Tertullian,  De  Corona  Hilitis,  c.  3,  "  Dehinc 
ter  mergitamur") ;  see  Suicer,  s.  v.  avaduut.  By  the 
Greek  lathers  the  word  /3ajm'£«v  is  often  used  figura- 
tively for  overwhelming  with  sleep,  sorrow,  sin,  etc. 
Thus  inrb  fi't9)]Q  fiaTrTiZo^tvoQ  eig  vttvoi',  buried  in 
sleep  through  drunkenness.  So  pvpiaig  /3«7rri£d>£- 
voq  (ppovTiatv,  absorbed  in  thought  (Chrysost.).  Tate 
Qapwdraiq  apapriaig  fiefiairTia pivot,  steeped  in  sin 
i  Justin  M.).     See  Suicer,  s.  v.  |3<Mrn'£a>. 

2.  "  The  Water"  (to  vCiop)  is  a  name  of  baptism 
which  occurs  in  Acts  x,  47.  After  Peter's  discourse, 
the  Holy  .Spirit  came,  visibly  on  Cornelius  and  his 
company;  and  the  apostle  asked,  "Can  any  man  for- 
bid the  water,  that  these  should  not  be  baptized,  who 
have  received  the  Holy  Ghost?"  In  ordinary  cases 
the  water  had  been  first  administered,  after  that  the 
apostles  laid  on  their  hands,  and  then  the  Spirit  was 
given.  But  here  the  Spirit  had  come  down  manifestly, 
before  the  administration  of  baptism;  and  Peter  ar- 
gued that  no  one  could  then  reasonably  withhold  bap- 
tism (calling  it  "  the  water")  from  tho"se  who  had  vis- 
iblj  received  that  of  which  baptism  was  the  sign  and 
>eal.  With  this  phrase,  T0  vSo»p,  "the  water,"  used 
of  baptism,  compare  -  the  breaking  of  bread"  as  a  title 
of  the  Eucharist,  Acts  ii,  12. 

B.  •'!  be  Washing  of  Water"  (Tb  \o„mw  to?  }'.,?„. 

bathofthe water")  occurs  Eph.v,  26.  There 

api-ar-  clearly  in  these  words  a  reference  to  the  bridal 

bath  :  but  the  allusion  to  baptism  is  dearer  still,  bap- 

U* '  wh,ch  the  bridal  bath  was  an  emblem,  a  type 

or  mystery,  signifying  to  us  the  spiritual  union  be- 
fcWIXl    I   hrist    and  his   church.       For   as   the   bride   was 

"""'  '"  batho  l"'l'",v  being  presented  to  the  bride- 
rr"""'-.\"  "»<>hingii,  the  water  is  that  initiatory  rite 
">'.? Mch  ""•  Christian  Church  is  betrothed  to  the 
Bridegroom,  Christ. 

There  u,  gome  difficulty  in  the  construction  and  in- 
terpretation of  the  qualifyinR  words.  ;,.  p>ar«, "  by 
the  word.  According  to  the  more  ancient  interpre- 
tation, they  would  indicate  that  the  outward  rite  of 


washing  is  insufficient  and  unavailing  without  the 
added  potency  of  the  Word  of  God  (eomp.  1  Pet.  iii, 
21),  "Not  the  putting  away  the  tilth  of  the  flesh," 
etc.)  ;  and  as  the  Xovrpbv  too  vCcitoc,  had  reference  to 
the  bridal  bath,  so  there  might  be  an  allusion  to  the 
wt  rds  of  betrothal.  The  bridal  bath  and  the  words  of 
betrothal  typified  the  water  and  the  words  of  baptism. 
On  the  doctrine  so  expressed  the  language  of  Augus- 
tine is  famous:  "  Detrahe  verbum,  et  quid  est  aqua 
nisi  aqua?  Accedit  verbum  ad  elementum,  ct  fit  sac- 
ramentum"  (Tract.  80  in  Jolian.).  Yet  the  general 
use  of  pi)j.ia  in  the  New  Testament  and  the  grammati- 
cal construction  of  the  passage  seem  to  favor  the  opin- 
ion that  the  Word  of  God  preached  to  the  church, 
rather  than  the  words  made  use  of  in  baptism,  is  that 
accompaniment  of  the  laver  without  which  it  would 
be  imperfect  (see  Ellicott,  in  loc). 

4.  "  The  washing  of  regeneration"  (\ovrpov  ttoXij- 
ytvtoiac)  is  a  phrase  naturally  connected  with  the 
foregoing.  It  occurs  Tit.  iii,  5.  All  ancient  and  most 
modern  commentators  have  interpreted  it  of  baptism. 
Controversy  has  made  some  persons  unwilling  to  ad- 
mit this  interpretation ;  but  the  question  probably 
should  be,  not  as  to  the  significance  of  the  phrase,  but 
as  to  the  degree  of  importance  attached  in  the  words 
of  the  apostle  to  that  which  the  phrase  indicates.  Thus 
Calvin  held  that  the  "  bath"  meant  baptism ;  but  he 
explained  its  occurrence  in  this  context  by  saying 
that  "Baptism  is  to  us  the  seal  of  salvation  which 
Christ  hath  obtained  for  us."  The  current  of  the 
apostle's  reasoning  is  this.  He  tells  Titus  to  exhort 
the  Christians  of  Crete  to  be  submissive  to  authority, 
showing  all  meekness  to  all  men :  "  for  we  ourselves 
were  once  foolish,  erring,  serving  our  own  lusts ;  but 
when  the  kindness  of  God  our  Saviour  and  His  love 
toward  man  appeared,  not  by  works  of  righteousness 
which  we  performed,  but  according  to  His  own  mercy 
He  saved  us  by  (through  the  instrumentality  of)  the 
bath  of  regeneration,  and  the  renewing  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (cut  Xovrpov  TraXiyytviaiaq  Kai  dvaKaivdimoig 
ni'ii'jxuTOQ  ayiov),  which  He  shed  on  us  abundantly 
through  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour,  that,  being  justified 
by  His  grace,  we  might  bo  made  heirs  of  eternal  life 
through  hope  (or  according  to  hope,  kcit  iXiriSa)."' 
The  argument  is,  that  Christians  should  be  kind  to  all 
men,  remembering  that  the}'  themselves  had  been  fc  r- 
merly  disobedient,  but  that  by  God's  free  mercy  in 
Christ  they  had  been  transplanted  into  a  better  state, 
even  a  state  of  salvation  (tvwatv  )//<«<_').  and  that  by 
means  of  the  bath  of  regeneration  and  the  renewal  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  If,  according  to  the  more  ancient 
and  common  interpretation,  the  laver  means  baptism, 
the  whole  will  seem  pertinent.  Christians  are  placed 
in  a  new  condition,  made  members  of  the  Church  of 
Christ  bjr  baptism,  and  the}-  arc  renewed  in  the  spirit 
of  their  minds  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 

There  is  so  much  resemblance,  both  in  the  phrase- 
ology and  in  the  argument,  between  this  passage  in 
Titus  and  1  Cor.  vi,  11,  that  the  latter  ought  by  all 
means  to  be  compared  with  the  former.  Paul  tells 
the  Corinthians  that  in  their  heathen  state  they  had 
been  stained  with  heathen  vices  ;  "  but,"  he  adds,  "ye 
were  washed"  (lit.  ye  washed  or  bathed  yourselves, 
cnrtKovtmatii),  "but  ye  were  sanctified,  but  yc  were 
justified  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  1  y 
the  Spirit  of  our  God."  It  is  generally  believed  that 
lure  is  an  allusion  to  the  being  baptized  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  though  some  connect  "sanc- 
tified" and  "justified,"  as  well  as  ••washed,"  with  the 
words  "  in  the  name,"  etc.  (see  Stanley,  in  loc).  But, 
however  this  may  be,  the  reference  to  baptism  seems 
unquestionable. 

Another  passage  containing  very  similar  thoughts, 
clothed  in  almost  the  same  words,  is  Acts  xxii,  lo', 
where  Ananias  says  to  Saul  of  Tarsus,  "Arise,  and  be 
baptized,  and  wash  away  thy  sins,  calling  upon  the 
name  of  the  Lord"  (uraffTctg  jid-Tirrcn  rcri  air'XiWcai 


BAPTISM 


643 


BAPTISM 


Tt)g  iipapriaQ  gov,  iTTiKaXtaai.itvoc.   to  uvofia  aixot). 
See  Calvin's  Commentary  on  this  passage. 

5.  "  Illumination"  (</>wr«x/«Jc).  It  has  been  much 
questioned  whether  QtoriZtoOai,  "enlightened,"  in 
Heb.  vi,  4 ;  x,  32,  be  used  of  baptism  or  not.  Justin 
M.,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  almost  all  the  Greek 
fathers,  use  (tnoriapoc  as  a  synonym  for  baptism.  The 
Syriac  version,  the  most  ancient  in  existence,  gives 
this  sense  to  the  word  in  both  the  passages  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Chrysostom,  Theodorct, 
Tlieophylact,  and  other  Greek  commentators  so  inter- 
pret it;  and  they  are  followed  by  Ernesti,  Michaelis,  j 
and  man}'  modern  interpreters  of  the  highest  author-  i 
ity  (Wetstein  cites  from  Orac.  Sibyll.  i,  vean  0wri's«T- 
6ai).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  now  very  commonly 
alleged  that  the  use  is  entirely  ecclesiastical,  not  scrip-  ] 
tural,  and  that  it  arose  from  the  undue  esteem  for  bap- 
tism in  the  primitive  church.  It  is  impossible  to  enter  '■ 
into  all  the  merits  of  the  question  here.  If  the  usage 
be  scriptural,  it  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  two  passages 
in  Hebrews  above  mentioned  ;  but  it  ma}'  perhaps  cor- 
respond with  other  figures  and  expressions  in  the  New 
Testament.  The  patristic  use  of  the  word  may  be  seen 
by  referring  to  Suicer,  s.  v.  0(or<<T/u<ic,  and  to  Bingham 
(A'.  .1 .  Ik.  xi,  ch.  i,  §  4).  The  rationale  of  the  name, 
according  to  Justin  Martyr,  is,  that  the  catechumens,  '[ 
before  admission  to  baptism,  were  instructed  in  all  the  | 
principal  doctrines  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  hence 
"  this  laver  is  called  illumination,  because  those  who 
learn  these  things  are  illuminated  in  their  understand- 
ing" (Apol.  ii,  94).  But  if  this  word  be  used  in  the 
sense  of  baptism  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  as  we 
have  no  mention  of  any  training  of  catechumens  in  the 
New  Testament,  we  must  probably  seek  for  a  different 
explanation  of  its  origin.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
fpoiTayojyia  was  a  term  for  admission  into  the  ancient 
mysteries.  Baptism  was  without  question  the  initia- 
tory rite  in  reference  to  the  Christian  faith  (comp.  rpia 
flaTZTtcpaTu  iliac  uvr\mtnQ,  Can.  Apost.  i).  Now  that 
Christian  faith  is  more  than  once  called  by  Paul  the 
Christian  '-mystery."  The  "mystery  of  God's  will" 
(Eph.  i,  9),  "the  mystery  of  Christ"  (Col.  iv,  3;  Eph.  j 
iii,  4),  "the  mystery  of  the  Gospel"  (Eph.  vi,  19),  and 
other  like  phrases,  are  common  in  his  epistles.  A 
Greek  could  hardly  fail  to  be  reminded  by  such  lan- 
guage of  the  religious  mysteries  of  his  own  former 
heathenism.  But,  moreover,  seeing  that  "in  Him  are 
hid  all  the  treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowledge,"  it 
seems  highly  probable  that  in  three  memorable  pas- 
sages Paul  speaks,  not  merely  of  the  Gospel  or  the 
faith,  but  of  Christ  himself  as  the  great  Mystery  of 
God  or  of  godliness.  (1)  In  Col.  i,  27,  we  read,  "the 
glory  of  this  mystery,  which  is  Christ  in  you,"  rod 
/.w(TT>ipiov  tovtov,  oq  tmiv  Xpicsroc  Iv  vfjlv.  (2)  In 
Col.  ii,  2,  Lachmann;  Tregelles,  and  Ellicott,  as  we  j 
think  on  good  grounds,  adopt  the  reading  too  pvoTi]- 
piov  rov  Ofof',  XpifTToi;  rightly  compared  by  15]).  El- 
licott with  the  preceding  passage  occurring  only  four 
verses  before  it,  and  interpreted  by  him  "  the  mystery 
of  God,  even  Christ."  (3)  It  deserves  to  be  careful- 
ly considered  whether  the  above  usage  in  Colossians 
does  not  suggest  a  clear  exposition  of  1  Tim.  iii,  10, 
to  r»/£  tvatjhictc  /ivryTiiptov  o£  i<j>avip<i>6T]  k.  t.  A 
For,  if  Christ  be  the  "  Mystery  of  God,"  he  may  well 
be  called  also  the  "Mystery  of  godliness;"  and  the 
masculine  relative  is  then  easily  intelligible,  as  being 
referred  to  Xoiotoc.  understood  and  implied  in  uvo~Ti\- 
piov;  for,  in  the  words  of  Hilary,  "Ueus  Christus  est 
Sacramentum." 

But,  if  all  this  be  true,  as  baptism  is  the  initiatory 
Christian  rite  admitting  us  to  the  service  of  God  and 
to  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  it  may  not  improbably 
have  been  called  (pioTiapoc,  and  afterward  Quraytoyia, 
as  having  reference,  and  as  admitting  to  the  mystery 
of  the  Gospel,  and  to  Christ  himself,  who  is  the  Mys- 
tery of  God. 

V    "We  pass  to  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  pas- 


sages, not  already  considered,  in  which  baptism  is  re- 
ferred to. 

1.  John  iii,  5 — il  Except  a  man  be  born  of  water  and 
of  the  Spirit,  he  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of 
God" — has  been  a  well-established  battle-field  from 
the  time  of  Calvin.  Hooker  states  that  for  the  first 
fifteen  centuries  no  one  had  ever  doubted  its  applica- 
tion to  baptism  {Feci.  Pol.  v,  lix).  Zuinglius  was 
probably  the  first  who  interpreted  it  otherwise.  Cal- 
vin understood  the  words  "of  water  and  of  the  Spirit" 
as  'iv  did  cvolf,  "the  washing  or  cleansing  of  the  Spir- 
it" (or  rather  perhaps  "  by  the  Spirit"),  "  who  cleanses 
as  water,"  referring  to  Matt,  iii,  11  ("He  shall  bap- 
tize you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire"),  as  a 
parallel  usage.  Stier  (Words  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  in  loc.) 
observes  that  Liicke  has  rightly  said  that  we  may  re- 
gard this  interpretation  by  means  of  a  heudi  id;/.',  which 
erroneously  appealed  to  Matt,  iii,  11,  as  now  g(  n  rally 
abandoned.  Stier,  moreover,  quotes  with  entire  ap- 
probation the  words  of  Meyer  (on  John  iii,  5)  :  "Jesus 
speaks  here  concerning  a  spiritual  baptism,  as  in  chap. 
vi,  concerning  a  spiritual  feeding ;  in  both  places,  how- 
ever, with  reference  to  their  visible  auxiliary  means." 
That  our  Lord  probably  adopted  expressions  famili.r 
to  the  Jews  in  this  discourse  with  Nicodemus  may  be 
seen  by  reference  to  Lightfoot,  Ilor.  Heb.  in  loc. 

2.  The  prophecy  of  John  the  Baptist  just  referred 
to,  viz.  that  our  Lord  should  baptize  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  with  fire  (Matt,  iii,  11),  has  usually  been 
interpreted  by  that  rhetorical  figure  (kmdiadys)  which 
designates  one  thing  by  a  double  expression.  Ben- 
gel  thus  paraphrases  it :  "  The  Holy  Spirit,  with  which 
Christ  baptizes,  has  a  fiery  force,  and  this  was  once 
even  manifest  to  human  sight"  (Acts  ii,  3).  The  fa- 
thers, indeed,  spoke  of  a  threefold  baptism  with  fire : 
first,  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  shape  of  fiery  tongues 
at  Pentecost;  second!}',  of  the  fiery  trial  of  affliction 
and  temptation  (1  Pet.  i,  7)  ;  thirdly,  of  the  fire  which 
at  the  last  day  is  to  try  every  man's  works  (1  Cor.  iii, 
13).  It  is,  however,  very  improbable  that  there  is 
any  allusion  to  either  of  the  last  two  in  Matt,  iii,  11. 
There  is  an  antithesis  in  John  the  Baptist's  language 
between  his  own  lower  mission  and  the  divine  author- 
ity of  the  Saviour.  John  baptized  with  a  mere  earth- 
ly element,  teaching  men  to  repent,  and  pointing  them 
to  Christ ;  but  He  that  should  come  after,  0  tp\opn'oe, 
was  empowered  to  baptize  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
with  fire.  The  water  of  John's  baptism  could  but 
wash  the  body;  the  Holy  Ghost,  with  which  Christ 
was  to  baptize,  should  purify  the  soul  as  with  fire. 
See  Baptism  with  Fire. 

3.  Gal.  iii,  27  :  "For  as  many  as  have  been  baptized 
into  Christ  have  put  on  Christ."  In  the  Avhole  of 
this  very  important  and  difficult  chapter  Paul  is  rea- 
soning on  the  inheritance  by  the  Church  of  Christ  of 
the  promises  made  to  Abraham.  Christ — i.  e.  Christ 
comprehending  his  whole  body  mystical — is  the  true 
seed  of  Abraham,  to  whom  the  promises  belong  (vcr. 
1G).  The  law,  which  came  afterward,  could  not  annul 
the  promises  thus  made.  The  law  was  fit  to  restrain 
(or  perhaps  rather  to  manifest)  transgression  (ver.  23). 
The  law  acted  as  a  pedagogue,  keeping  us  for  and 
leading  us  on  to  Christ,  that  he  might  bestow  on  us 
freedom  and  justification  by  faith  in  him  (ver.  21). 
But  after  the  coming  of  faith  we  arc  no  longer,  like 
young  children,  under  a  pedagogue,  but  we  arc  free, 
as  heirs  in  our  Father's  house  (ver.  25;  eon  p.  ch.  iv, 
1-5).  "For  ye  all  are  God's  sons  (filii  emancipati, 
not  ~(;7t~:c,  but  viol,  Bengel  and  Ellicott)  through  the 
faith  in  Christ  Jesus.  For  as  many  as  have  been  bap- 
tized into  Christ  have  put  on  (clothed  yourselves  in) 
Christ  (see  Schottgen  on  Pom,  xiii,  14).  In  him  is 
neither  Jew  nor  Greek,  neither  1  ond  nor  free,  neither 
male  nor  female  ;  for  all  yc  are  one  in  Christ  Jesus" 
(ver.  26-28).  The  argument  is  plain.  All  Christians 
are  God's  sons  through  union  with  the  Only-begotten. 
Before  the  faith  in  him  came  into  the  world,  men  were 


BAFflSM 


044 


BAPTISM 


held  under  the  tutelage  of  the  law,  like  children,  kept 
as  in  a  stal  ■  of  bondage  under  a  pedagogue,  lint  after 
the  preaching  of  the  faith,  all  who  are  baptized  into 
<  'liri-t  clot  he  t  hemselves  in  him  ;  so  they  are  esteemed 
as  adult  sons  of  his  Father,  and  by  faith  in  him  they 
may  be  justified  from  their  sins,  from  which  the  law 
could  not  justify  them  (Acts  xiii,  37).  The  contrast 
is  between  the  Christian  and  the  Jewish  Church:  one 
bond,  the  oth  r  free  ;  one  infant,  the  other  adult.  The 
transition  point  is  naturally  when  by  baptism  the 
service  of  Christ  is  undertaken  and  the  promises  of 
tin-  Gospel  are  claimed.  This  is  represented  as  put- 
ting on  Christ  and  in  him  assuming  the  position  of 
full-grown  men.  In  this  more  privileged  condition 
there  is  the  power  of  obtaining  justification  by  faith,  a 
justification  which  the  law  had  not  to  offer. 

•1.  1  (or.  xii,  13:  "For  by  one  Spirit  (or  in  one 
spirit,  iv  iri  -I'si'/ion)  we  were  all  baptized  into  one 
body,  whether  Jews  or  Greeks,  whether  bond  or  free, 
ami  wore  all  made  to  drink  of  one  Spirit."  The  re- 
semblance  of  this  passage  to  the  last  is  very  clear.  In 
the  old  dispensation  there  was  a  marked  division  be- 
tweenJew  .nil  Gentile;  under  the  Gospel  there  is  one 
body  in  Christ.  As  in  Gal.  iii,  16,  Christ  is  the  seed 
(to  n-rn/ict),  so  here  he  is  the  bod}'  (to  adfia)  into 
which  all  Christians  become  incorporated.  All  dis- 
tinction;  of  .lew  and  Gentile,  bond  and  free,  are  abol- 
ished. By  the  grace  of  the  same  Spirit  (or  perhaps 
••  in  ono  spirit"  of  Christian  love  and  fellowship  (comp. 
Eph.  ii,  is  i,  without  division  or  separate  interests)  all 
ar^  joined  in  baptism  to  the  one  body  of  Christ,  his 
universal  church.  Possibly  there  is  an  allusion  to 
both  sacraments.  "We  were  baptized  into  one  body, 
v.  ■  wore  made  to  drink  of  one  Spirit"  (cvTIvEvpa  tiro- 
rioQnfiev :  Lachm.  and  Tisch.  omit  ta).  Both  our 
baptism  and  our  partaking  of  the  cup  in  the  commu- 
nion are  tokens  and  pledges  of  Christian  unity.  They 
in  uk  our  union  with  the  one  body  of  Christ,  and  they 
sir  •  means  of  grace,  in  which  we  may  look  for  one 
Spirit  to  be  present  with  blessing  (comp.  1  Cor.  x,  3, 
17;  see  Waterland  on  the  Euchari  t,  ch.  x,  and  Stan- 
ley on  1  Cm-,  xii,  13). 

5.  Com.  \i,  !.  and  Col.  ii,  12,  are  so  closely  parallel 
that  we  may  notice  them  together.  As  the  apostle  in 
the  two  last-considered  passages  views  baptism  as  a 
joining  to  the  mystical  body  of  Christ,  so  in  these  two 
passages  he  goes  on  to  speak  of  Christians  in  their 
b  iptism  as  buried  with  Christ  in  his  death,  and  raised 
again  with  him  in  Ins  resurrection.  As  the  natural 
bodj  of  I  Ihrisl  was  laid  in  the  ground  and  then  raised 
ii]>  again,  so  his  mystic  d  body,  the  church,  descends 
in  baptism  into  the  waters,  in  which  also  (ev  <.j,  sc. 
ftrnrrlo-pan,  Col.  ii,  12)  it  is  raised  up  again  with 
Christ,  through  "  faith  in  the  mighty  working  of  God, 
who  raised  him  from  the  dead."  Probably,  as  in  the 
former  passages  Paul  had  brought  forward  baptism  as 
the  Bymbol  of  Christian  unity,  so  in  those  now  before 
M-  he  refers  t  >  it  as  the  token  and  pledge  of  the  spirit- 
ual death  to  sin  and  resurrection  to  righteousness; 
and  moreover  of  the  final  victory  over  death  in  the 
through  the  power  of  the  resurrection  of 
It  is  said  that  it  was  partly  in  reference  to 
'  i  i  in  Colossians  that  the  early  Christians  so 

gen  irally  used  trine  immersion,  as  signifying  thereby 
the  three  days  in  which  Christ  lay  in  the  grave  (see 
Suicer,s.  ..    ...,„,  II.  a).— Smith,  Append,  s.  v. 

J    Jewish    Baptism.  — Purifications  by  washing 

common  among  the  Jews.     See  Ad- 

1  ''•''.%.      I"  the  language  of  the  prophets,  cleansing 

d  as  an  emblem  ofthe  purification  of 

I    whii  l,  in  the  Messianic  age  is  to  glorify  the 

-  iul  in   her  innsrmost   recesses,  and  to  embrace  the 

who!  »  of  I  ti     nation  |  Ezek.  xxxvi,  25  sq. ; 

Zech.  xiii   1  >.     Of  the  antiquity  of  lustrations  by  wal 

rows  there  is  no  question,  but  it  is  still 

1  ! I  whether  baptism  was  practised,  as  an 

rite,  in  connection  with  circumcision  before 


the  coming  of  Christ.  It  is  well  established  that,  as 
early  as  the  second  century  ofthe  Christian  sera,  this 
proselyU  baptism  was  an  established  rite  among  tiro 
.lews;  and  their  writers,  as  well  as  many  Christian 
theologians  (e.  g.  Lightfoot,  Wetstein,  Wall,  and  oth- 
ers), claim  for  it  a  much  greater  antiquity.  But  this 
opinion  is  hardly  tenable,  for,  as  an  act  which  strictly 
gives  validity  to  the  admission  of  a  proselyte,  and  is  no 
mere  accompaniment  to  his  admission,  baptism  certain- 
ly is  not  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament;  while,  ::s 
to  the  passages  quoted  in  proof  from  the  classical  (pro- 
fane) writers  of  that  period,  they  are  all  open  to  the 
most  fundamental  objections.  Nor  is  the  utter  silence 
of  Josephus  and  Philo  on  the  subject,  notwithstanding 
their  various  opportunities  of  touching  on  it,  a  less 
weighty  argument  against  this  view.  It  is  true  that 
mention  is  made  in  the  Talmud  of  that  regulation  as 
already  existing  in  the  first  century  A.D. ;  but  such 
statements  belong  only  to  the  traditions  of  the  Gema- 
ra,  and  require  careful  investigation  before  they  can 
serve  as  proper  authority.  This  Jewish  rite  was  prob- 
ably originally  only  a  purifying  ceremony ;  and  it  was 
raised  to  the  character  of  an  initiating  and  indispensa- 
ble rite,  co-ordinate  with  that  of  sacrifice  and  circum- 
cision, only  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  when 
sacrifices  had  ceased,  and  the  circumcision  of  prose- 
h'tes  had,  by  reason  of  public  edicts,  become  more 
and  more  impracticable.     See  Proselyte. 

2.  John's  Baptism. — "  It  was  the  principal  object 
of  John  the  Baptist  to  combat  the  prevailing  opinion 
that  the  performance  of  external  ceremonies  was  suffi- 
cient to  secure  participation  in  the  kingdom  of  God 
and  his  promises;  he  required  repentance,  therefore, 
as  a  preparation  for  the  approaching  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah.  That  he  may  possibly  have  baptized  heathens 
also  seems  to  follow  from  his  censuring  the  Pharisees 
for  confiding  in  their  descent  from  Abraham,  while 
they  had  no  share  in  his  spirit ;  yet  it  should  not  be 
overlooked  that  this  remark  was  drawn  from  him  by 
the  course  of  the  argument  (Matt,  iii,  8,  {) ;  Luke  iii, 
7,  8).  We  must,  on  the  whole,  assume  that  John  con- 
sidered the  existing  Judaism  as  a  stepping-stone  by 
which  the  Gentiles  were  to  arrive  at  the  kingdom  of 
God  in  its  Messianic  form.  The  general  point  of  view 
from  which  John  contemplated  the  Messiah  and  his 
kingdom  was  that  of  the  Old  Testament,  though  close- 
ly bordering  on  Christianity.  He  regards,  it  is  true, 
an  alteration  in  the  mind  and  spirit  as  an  indispensa- 
ble condition  for  partaking  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Mes- 
siah ;  still,  he  looked  for  its  establishment  by  means 
of  conflict  and  external  force,  with  which  the  Messiah 
was  to  be  endowed ;  and  he  expected  in  him  a  Judge 
and  Avenger,  who  was  to  set  up  outward  and  visible 
distinctions.  It  is,  therefore,  by  no  means  a  matter  of 
indifference  whether  baptism  be  administered  in  the 
name  of  that  Christ  who  floated  before  the  mind  of 
John,  or  of  the  suffering  and  glorified  One,  such  as  the 
apostles  knew  him ;  and  whether  it  was  considered  a 
preparation  for  a  political,  or  a  consecration  into  a 
spiritual  theocracy.  John  was  so  far  from  this  latter 
view,  so  far  from  contemplating  a  purely  spiritual  de- 
velopment of  the  kingdom  of  God,  that  he  even  began 
subsequently  to  entertain  doubts  concerning  Christ 
(Matt,  xi,  2).  John's  baptism  had  not  the  character 
of  an  immediate,  but  merely  of  a  preparatory  conse- 
cration for  the  glorified  theocracy'  (John  i,  31).  The 
apostles,  therefore,  found  it  necessary  to  rebaptize  the 
disciples  of  John,  who  had  still  adhered  to  the  notions 
of  their  master  on  that  head  (Acts  xix).  To  this  apos- 
tolic judgment  Tertullian  appeals,  and  in  his  opinion 
coincide  the  most  eminent  teachers  of  the  ancient 
church,  both  ofthe  East  and  the  West.". — Jacobi,  in 
Kitto1*  Cyclop,  s.  v.     See  John  (the  Baptist). 

The  Baptism  of  Jesus  hij  John  (Matt,  iii,  13;  Mark  i, 
0  ;  Luke  iii,  21 ;  comp.  John  i,  19),  as  the  first  act  of 
Christ's  public  career,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
events  recorded  in  the  evangelical  historv.    We  might 


BAPTISM 


C45 


BAPTISM 


he  apt  to  infer  from  Luke  and  Matthew  that  there  had 
been  an  acquaintance  between  Christ  and  John  prior 
to  i he  baptism,  and  that  hence  John  declines  (Matt. 
iii,  14)  t>  baptize  Jesus,  arguing  that  he  needed  to  be 
baptized  by  him.  This,  however,  has  been  thought  to 
be  at  variance  with  John  i,  31,  33.  Lucke  (Comment. 
i,  416  sq.,  3d  edit.)  takes  the  words  "  I  knew  him  not" 
in  their  strict  and  exclusive  sense.  John,  he  says, 
could  not  have  spoken  in  this  manner  if  he  had  at  all 
known  Jesus;  and  had  he  known  him,  he  could  not, 
as  a  prophet,  have  failed  to  discover,  even  at  an  earlier 
period,  the  but  too  evident  "  glory"  of  the  Messiah. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  narrative  of  the  first  three  Gos- 
pels presupposes  John's  personal  acquaintance  with 
him,  since,  although  the  herald  of  the  Messiah,  he 
could  not  otherwise  have  given  that  refusal  (Matt,  iii, 
14 )  to  the  Messiah  alone  ;  for  his  own  language  neces- 
sarily implies  that  Jesus  was  not  a  stranger  to  him. 
See  Messiah. 

With  regard  to  the  object  of  Christ  in  undergoing 
baptism,  we  find,  in  the  first  instance,  that  he  ranked 
this  action  among  those  of  his  Messianic  calling.  This 
object  is  still  more  defined  by  John  the  Baptist  (John 
i,  31),  which  passage  Liicke  interprets  in  the  following 
words  :  ' '  Only  by  entering  into  that  community  which 
was  to  be  introductory  to  the  Messianic,  by  attaching 
himself  to  the  Baptist  like  any  other  man,  was  it  pos- 
sible  for  Christ  to  reveal  himself  to  the  Baptist,  and  , 
through  him  to  others."  Christ  himself  never  for  a 
moment  could  doubt  his  own  mission,  or  the  right  pe-  j 
riod  when  his  character  was  to  be  made  manifest  by  j 
God ;  but  John  needed  to  receive  that  assurance,  in 
order  to  be  the  herald  of  the  Messiah  who  was  actually 
come.  For  all  others  whom  John  baptized,  either  be-  j 
fore  or  after  Christ,  this  act  was  a  mere  preparatory  , 
consecration  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  ;  while  for 
Jesus  it  was  a  direct  and  immediate  consecration,  by 
means  of  which  he  manifested  the  commencement  of 
his  career  as  the  founder  of  the  new  theocracy,  which 
began  at  the  very  moment  of  his  baptism,  the  initia- 
tory character  of  which  constituted  its  general  princi- 
ple and  tendency.     See  Jesus. 

Baptism  of  the  Disciples   of  Christ. — Whether  our  | 
Lord  ever  baptized  has  been  doubted.      (See  Schenk, 
De  lotione  a  Christo  administrate),  Marb.  1745.)     The 
only  passage  which  may  distinctly  bear  on  the  ques- 
tion is  John  iv,  1,  2,  where  it  is  said  "that  Jesus  made  , 
and  baptized  more  disciples  than  John,  though  Jesus 
himself  baptized  not,  but  his  disciples."     We  neces-  , 
sarily  infer  from  it  that,  as  soon  as  our  Lord  began  his  ' 
ministry,  and  gathered  to  him  a  company  of  disciples, 
lie,  like  John  the  Baptist,  admitted  into  that  company 
by  the  administration  of  baptism.     Normally,  howev- 
er, to  say  the  least  of  it,  the  administration  of  baptism 
was  by  the  hands  of  his  disciples.     Some  suppose  that 
the  first-called  disciples  had  all  received  baptism  at 
the  hands  of  John  the  Baptist,  as  must  have  pretty  j 
certainly  been  the  case  with  Andrew  (see  John  i,  35,  ' 
37,  40),  and  that  they  were  not  again  baptized  with 
water  after  they  joined  the  company  of  Christ.      Oth- 
ers believe  that  Christ  himself  baptized  some  few  of 
his  earlier  disciples,  who  were  afterward  authorized  to  ' 
baptize  the  rest.     But  in  any  case  the  words  above 
cited  seem  to  show  that  making  disciples  and  baptiz- 
ing them  went  together;  and  that  baptism  was,  even  ! 
during  our  Lords  earthly  ministry,  the  formal  mode 
of  accepting  his  service  and  becoming  attached  to  his 
company. 

Alter  the  resurrection,  when  the  church  was  to  be 
spread  and  the  Gospel  preached,  our  Lord's  own  com- 
mission conjoins  the  making  of  disciples  with  their  | 
baptism.  The  command,  "Make  disciples  of  all  na-  ; 
tions  by  baptizing  them"  (Matt,  xxviii,  19),  is  merely  I 
the  extension  of  his  own  practice,  "Jesus  made  disci- 
ples and  baptized  them"  (John  iv,  1).  The  conduct 
of  the  apostles  is  the  plainest  comment  on  both  ;  for  so 
soon  as  ever  men,  convinced  by  their  preaching,  asked 


for  guidance  and  direction,  their  first  exhortation  was 
to  repentance  and  baptism,  that  thus  the  convert  should 
be  at  once  publicly  received  into  the  fold  of  Christ  (see 
Acts  ii,  38  ;  viii,  12,  36 ;  ix,  18  ;  x,  47  ;  xvi,  15,  33,  etc.). 
(See  Zimmcrmann,  De  Baptsmi  or'gine  et  usu,  Gott. 
1816.)     See  Disciple. 

3.  Christian  Baptism  is  a  sacrament  instituted  by 
Christ  himself.  When  he  could  no  longer  personally 
and  immediately  choose  and  receive  members  of  his 
kingdom,  when  at  the  same  time  all  had  been  accom- 
plished which  the  founder  thought  necessary  for  its 
completion,  he  gave  power  to  the  spiritual  community 
to  receive,  in  his  name,  members  by  baptism.  The  au- 
thority and  obligation  of  baptism  as  a  universal  ordi- 
nance of  the  Christian  Church  is  derived  from  tiie 
commission  of  Christ,  "Go  ye  therefore,  and  teach  all 
nations,  baptizing  them  in  (to,  tic)  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (Matt, 
xxviii,  19).      See  II  below. 

I.  Design  and  Benefits  of  Baptism. — As  to  the  design 
and  benefits  of  baptism  there  are  various  views  held. 
The  principal  are  the  following:  1.  That  it  is  a  direct 
instrument  of  grace ;  the  application  of  water  to  the 
person  by  a  properly  qualified  functionary  being  re- 
garded as  the  appointed  vehicle  by  which  God  bestows 
regenerating  grace  upon  men.  This  is  the  view  of  the 
Roman  and  Eastern  churches,  and  of  one  (the  "High- 
Church")  party  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  and  the 
Lutheran  churches.  Nearly  the  same  view  is  held  by 
the  Disciples  of  Christ  (Campbellites),  who  regard  bap- 
tism as  the  remitting  ordinance  of  the  Gospel,  or  the 
appointed  means  through  which  the  penitent  sinner 
obtains  the  assurance  of  that  remission  of  sins  procured 
by  the  death  of  Christ.  See  Regeneration.  2.  That 
it  is  neither  an  instrument  nor  a  seal  of  grace,  but  simp'g 
a  ceremony  of  initiation  into  church  membership.  This 
is  the  Socinian  view  of  the  ordinance.  3.  That  it  is  a 
token  of  regeneration,  to  be  received  only  by  those  who 
give  evidence  of  being  really  regenerated.  This  is 
the  view  adopted  by  the  Baptists.  4.  That  it  is  a  sym- 
bol of  purification,  the  use  of  which  simply  announces 
that  the  religion  of  Christ  is  a  purifying  religion,  and 
intimates  that  the  party  receiving  the  rite  assumes  the 
profession,  and  is  to  be  instructed  in  the  principles  of 
that  religion.  This  opinion  is  extensively  entertained 
among  the  Congregationalists  of  England.  5.  That  it 
is  the  rite  of  initiation  into  the  visible  church,  and  that, 
though  not  an  instrument,  it  is  a  seal  of  grace,  divine 
blessings  being  thereby  confirmed  and  obsignated  to 
the  individual.  This  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Confessions 
of  the  majority  of  the  Reformed  churches.  The  Augs- 
burg Confession  states,  Art.  9  :  "  Concerning  baptism, 
our  churches  teach  that  it  is  a  necessary  ordinance  ; 
that  it  is  a  means  of  grace,  and  ought  to  be  adminis- 
tered also  to  children,  who  are  thereb}'  dedicated  to 
God,  and  received  into  his  favor.  They  condemn  the 
Anahaptists  who  reject  the  baptism  of  children,  and 
who  affirm  that  infants  may  be  saved  without  bap- 
tism." The  Westminster  Confession,  Art.  28  :  "  Bap- 
tism is  a  sacrament  of  the  New  Testament,  ordained 
b)'  Jesus  Christ,  not  only  for  the  solemn  admission  of 
the  party  baptized  into  the  visible  church,  but  also  to 
be  unto  him  a  sign  and  seal  of  the  covenant  of  grace, 
of  his  ingrafting  into  Christ,  of  regeneration,  of  remis- 
sion of  sins,  and  of  his  giving  up  unto  God,  through 
Jesus  Christ,  to  walk  in  newness  of  life;  which  sacra- 
ment is,  by  Christ's  own  appointment,  to  be  continued 
in  his  church  until  the  end  of  the  world.  The  out- 
ward element  to  be  used  in  this  sacrament  is  water, 
wherewith  the  party  is  to  lie  baptized  in  the  name  of 
the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  by 
a  minister  of  the  Gospel  lawfully  called  thereunto. 
Dipping  of  the  person  into  water  is  not  necessan- ;  but 
baptism  is  rightly  administered  by  pouring  or  sprink- 
ling water  upon  the  person.  Not  only  those  that  do 
actually  profess  faith  in  and  obedience  unto  <  Ihrist,  but 
also  the  infants  of  one  or  both  believing  parents,  are  to 


IJAITISM 


646 


BAPTISM 


i  baj  tized.  Although  it  be  a  great  Bin  to  contemn 
01  oe^lect  this  ordinance,  yet  grace  and  salvation  are 
inseparably  annexed  unto  it  as  that  no  person 
;  {generated  or  Bared  withoutit,  or  that  all  that 
ate  baptized  arc  undoubtedly  regenerated.  The  effi- 
cacy  "I"  baptism  is  not  tied  to  that  moment  of  time 
wherein  it  i>  administered;  yet,  notwithstanding, by 
the  right  use  of  this  ordinance  the  grace  promised  is 
not  only  offered,  but  really  exhibited  and  conferred  by 
;  ■  Holy  Ghost  to  such  (whether  of  age  or  infants)  as 
that  grace  belongeth  unto,  according  to  the  counsel  of 
( io  l's  <>w  a  will,  in  his  appointed  time.  The  sacrament 
<  f  bapl  ism  is  l>ut  once  to  lie  administered  to  any  person." 
in  the  17th  article  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
it  is  declared  that  "Baptism  is  not  only  a  sign  of  pro- 
fession  and  mark  of  difference  ■whereby  Christians  are 
distinguished  from  others  that  are  not  baptized,  but  it 
i-  also  a  sign  of  regeneration,  or  the  new  birth.  The 
baptism  of  young  children  is  to  be  retained  in  the 
church."  The  same  formula  appears  in  the  Articles  of 
the  Church  of  England  and  of  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church  in  the  United  States,  with  certain  addi- 
tions, as  follows  :  "  Art.  '27.  Baptism  is  not  only  a  sign 
of  profession  and  mark  of  difference  whereby  Chris- 
tian  men  are  discerned  from  others  that  be  not  chris- 
tened,  but  it  is  also  a  sign  of  regeneration,  or  new 
birth,  whereby,  as  by  an  instrument,  they  that  receive 
baptism  rightly  are  grafted  into  the  church  :  the  prom- 
ises  of  the  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  of  our  adoption  to  be 
the  -ons  of  Cod  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  visibly  signed 
and  sealed  :  faith  is  continued,  and  grace  increased  by 
virtue  of  prayer  unto  God.  The  baptism  of  young 
children  is  in  any  wise  to  be  retained  in  the  church  as 
most  agreeable  with  the  institution  of  Christ."  The 
following  excellent  summary  of  the  benefits  of  baptism 
is  given  by  Watson  (Institutes,  ii,  G46) :  "Baptism  in- 
trodu  ;es  the  adult  believer  into  the  covenant  of  grace 
and  the  Church  of  Christ,  and  is  the  seal,  the  pledge 
to  him  on  the  part  of  God  of  the  fulfilment  of  all  its 
provisions  in  time  and  in  eternity,  while  on  his  part  he 
takes  upon  himself  the  obligations  of  steadfast  faith 
and  obedience.  To  the  infant  child  it  is  a  visible  re- 
ception into  the  same  covenant  and  church — a  pledge 
of  acceptance  through  Christ — the  bestowment  of  a 
title  to  all  the  grac  ■  of  the  covenant  as  circumstances 
may  require,  ami  as  the  mind  of  the  child  may  be  ca- 
pable, or  made  capable  of  receiving  it,  and  as  it  may 
ill  in  future  life  by  prayer,  when  the  period  of 
and  moral  choice  shall  arrive.  It  conveys, 
al-o,  the  present  L  blessing'  of  Christ,  of  which  we  are 
assured  by  his  taking  children  in  his  arms  and  bless- 
ing them;  which  blessing  cannot  be  merely  nominal, 
but  musl  be  substantial  and  efficacious.  It  recures, 
too,  the  git!  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  those  secret  spiritual 
influences  by  which  the  actual  regeneration  of  those 
children  who  die  in  infancy  is  effected,  and  which  are 
a  -.-oil  of  life  in  those  who  arc  spared,  to  prepare  them 
lor  instruction  in  the  Word  of  (bid,  as  they  are  taught 
ii  by  parental  care,  to  incline  their  will  and  affections 

to  g I-  aid  lo  begin  and  maintain  in  them   the  war 

againsl  inward  and  outward  evil,  so  that  they  may  be 
divinely  assist*  d,  as  reason  strengthens,  to  make  their 
calling  and  election  Bure.  in  a  word,  it  is,  both  as  to 
infants  and  lo  adults,  the  Blgn  and  pledge  of  that  in- 
ward grace  which,  though  modified  in  its  operations 
by  tin-  difference  of  their  circumstances,  has  respect  to, 
and  flows  from,  a  covenant  relation  to  each  of  the  three 
■'  whose  one  n  ime  they  an-  baptized— accept- 
ance bj  lb-  Father,  union  win,  Christ  as  the  head  of  his 
mystical  body,  the  church,  and  the  communion  of  the 
i.  To  these  advantages  must  lie  added  the 
i-  io  il„.  believing  acl  of  tin 
parents,  ami  to  their  solemn  prayers  on  tin-  occasion, 
in  both  which  ih-  .  bild  h  interested,  as  well  as  in  that 
solemn  engagement  of  the  parents  which  the  rite  neces- 
sarily implies  to  brio-  up  their  children  in  the  nurture 
and  admoniti  m  of  the  Lord." 


Exaggerated  ideas  of  the  necessity  and  efficacy  of 
baptism  developed  themselves  as  early  as  the  second 
and  third  centuries  (see  references  in  llagcnbach, His- 
tory of  Doctrines,  §  72).  It  became  the  custom  to  de- 
fer baptism  as  Ioul;  as  possible  (a  practice  recommend- 
ed, e.  g.  by  Tertullian,  Be  Bapt.  c.  18).  Many  would 
not  be  baptized  until  just  before  death  ;  e.  g.  Constan- 
titie.  They  supposed  that  baptism  removes  all  pre- 
vious sins  in  a  sort  of  magical  way  ;  but  that  sins  after 
baptism  are  remitted  with  difficulty,  or  not  at  all. 
Hence  the  baptism  of  new  converts  was  delayed,  en- 
tirely contrary  to  the  spirit  and  practice  of  the  apos- 
tles, who  baptized  converts  immediately  (Acts  ii,  41 ; 
xvi,  15).  See  Baumgarten,  Be  Proerastinativne  Bap- 
tismi  np.  Veteres,  Halle,  1747.  After  Augustine,  throiiL  h 
whom  the  doctrine  of  "  no  salvation  out  of  the  church" 
came  to  be  received,  it  began  to  be  held  that  infants 
dying  without  baptism  were  lost,  and  the  baptism  of 
very  young  infants  became  the  common  rule,  while 
the  baptism  of  adult  converts  was  hastened  (Knapp, 
Theolorjy,  §  141). 

The  Church  of  Rome  continues  to  teach  that  original 
sin  is  effaced  by  the  sacrament  of  baptism.  The  An- 
glican Church  holds  that  "  this  infection  of  nature 
doth  remain  in  them  that  are  regenerated."  The  Rus- 
sian Catechism  declares  that  in  holy  baptism  the  be- 
liever "  dies  to  the  carnal  life  of  sin,  and  is  born  again 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  a  life  spiritual  and  holy;"  which 
is  the  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Church  generally.  Sea 
Grace;  Regeneration ;  Sacraments. 

II.  Obl'ffilion  and  Perpetuity  of  Baptism.— That  bap- 
tism is  obligatory  is  evident  from  the  example  of 
Christ,  who  by  his  disciples  baptized  many  that,  by 
his  miracles  and  discourses,  were  1  rought  to  profess 
faith  in  him  as  the  Messiah  ;  from  his  command  to  his 
apostles  after  his  resurrection  (Matt,  xxviii,  10 1 :  end 
from  the  practice  of  the  apostles  themselves  (Aits  ii, 
38).  But  the  Quakers  assert  that  Water  baptism  was 
never  intended  to  continue  in  the  Church  of  <  hrist  any 
longer  than  while  Jewish  prejudices  made  such  an  ex- 
ternal ceremony  necessary.  They  argue  from  Eph. 
iv,  5,  in  which  one  baptism  is  spoken  of  as  neoersavy  to 
Christians,  that  this  must  be  a  baptism  of  the  Spirit. 
But,  from  comparing  the  texts  that  relate  to  this  inrti- 
tution,  it  will  plainly  appear  th;  t  water  baptism  was 
instituted  by  Christ  in  more  general  terms  than  will 
agree  with  this  explication.  That  it  was  administered 
to  all  the  Gentile  converts,  and  not  confined  to  the 
Jews,  appears  from  Matt,  xxviii,  lit,  20,  compared  with 
Acts  x,47;  and  that  the  baptism  of  the  Spirit  did  not 
supersede  water  baptism  appears  to  have  been  the 
judgment  of  Peter  and  of  those  that  were  with  him  ; 
so  that  the  one  baptism  spoken  of  seems  to  have  Ik  en 
that  of  water,  the  communication  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
being  only  called  baptism  in  a  figurative  sense.  As 
for  any  objection  which  may  be  drawn  from  1  Cor.  i, 
17,  it  is  sufficiently  answered  by  the  preceding  verses, 
and  all  the  numerous  texts  in  which,  in  epistles  writ- 
ten  long  after  this,  the  apostle  speaks  of  all  Christians 
as  baptized,  and  argues  from  the  obligation  of  baptfcm 
in  such  a  manner  as  we  could  never  imagine  he  would 
have  don-  it'  he  had  apprehended  it  to  have  been  the 
will  of  (bid  that  it  should  be  discontinued  in  the  church 
(compare  Rom.  vi,  •'',  etc. ;  Col.  ii,  12;  Gal.  iii,  27). — 
Doddridge,  Lectures  on  Divinity,  Lect.  201.  For  a 
clear  view  of  the  obligation  of  baptism,  see  Hibbard 
on  Christian  Baptism,  pt.  ii,  ch.  x.  See  Anti-bap- 
tists; Quakers. 

III.  Mode  of  Baptism. — The  ceremonies  used  in  bap- 
tism have  varied  in  different  ages  and  countries;  a 
brief  account  of  them  is  given  below  (VII).  Among 
Protesl  ints  baptism  is  performed  with  great  simplici- 
ty; all  that  is  deemed  essential  to  the  ordinance  being 
the  application  of  water  by  sprinkling,  pouring,  or  im- 
mersion, in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  (.host. 

1.  The  Baptists  (q.  v.)  maintain,  however,  that  im- 


BAPTISM 

mersion  is  the  only  valid  baptism,  in  this  point  sepa- 
rating themselves  from  all  the  rest  of  Christendom. 
They  rely  for  their  justification  chiefly  upon  the  follow- 
ing arguments :  (1.)  That  the  word  |3a7rTi£w  means, 
literal!//,  to  '•immerse,"  and  nothing  else;  while  its 
figurative  uses  always  include  the  idea  of  "burying" 
or  "overwhelming;"  (2.)  that  the  terms  washing,  pu- 
rifying, burying  in  baptism,  so  often  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures,  allude  to  this  mode  ;  (3.)  that  the  places  se- 
lected for  baptism  in  the  New  Test,  imply  immersion ; 
(1.)  that  immersion  only  was  the  practice  of  the  apos- 
tles, the  first  Christians,  and  the  church  in  general  for 
many  ages,  and  that  it  wa.s  only  laid  aside  from  the 
love  of  novelty  and  the  coldness  of  climate.  These 
positions,  they  think,  are  so  clear  from  Scripture  and 
the  history  of  the  church  that  they  stand  in  need  of 
hut  little  argument  for  their  support.  (5.)  Farther, 
they  also  insist  that  all  positive  institutions  depend  en- 
tirely upon  the  will  and  declaration  of  the  institutor ; 
and  that,  therefore,  reasoning  hy  analogy  from  pre- 
viously abrogated  rites  is  to  be  rejected,  and  the  ex- 
press command  of  Christ  respecting  baptism  ought  to 
be  our  rule.     See  Lmmersiox. 

2.  The  Christian  Church  generally,  on  the  other 
hand,  denies  that  immersion  is  essential  to  the  ordi- 
nance of  baptism,  and  admits  any  of  the  three  modes, 
sprinkling,  pouring,  or  immersion.  The  Greek  ( Ihurcb 
requires  trine  immersion  in  its  rubrics,  but  in  Russia 
baptism  by  sprinkling  or  affusion  is  regarded  as  equal- 
ly valid.  The  lioman  ritual  favors  affusion  thrice  re- 
peated, but  admits  also  of  immersion.  In  the  "  Office 
fur  tbe  Public  Baptism  of  Infants"  in  the  Church  of 
Eng'and  it  is  directed  that  the  "priest  shall  dip  the 
clulil  in  the  water  if  the  sponsors  shall  certify  him 
th  it  the  child  may  well  endure  it ;"  but  "  if  they  ccr- 
tify  that  the  child,  is  weak,  it  shall  suffice  to  pour  wa- 
ter upon  it."  In  the  "  Office  for  the  Private  Baptism 
of  Infants"  it  is  directed  that  tbe  baptism  shall  be  by 
affusion,  the  infant  in  such  cases  being  always  certi- 
fied to  be  weak.  In  the  "Office  for  the  Baptism  of 
Adults,"  it  is  left  altogether  to  the  discretion  of  the 
minister  to  dip  the  person  to  be  baptized  in  the  water 
or  to  pour  water  upon  him.  The  framers  of  the  Office 
evidently,  by  the  discretionary  power  left  to  the  offi- 
ciating minister,  have  decided  that  the  mode  in  this 
respect  is  immaterial.  The  ritual  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  in  like  manner,  leaves  the  adminis- 
trator free;  and  he  is  so,  in  fact,  in  most  (but  not  all) 
Protestant  Churches.  The  substantial  question,  there- 
fore, between  the  Baptists  and  the  Christian  Church 
generally,  is  whether  immersion  is  essential  to  baptism 
or  not.  The  negative  is  maintained  by  the  following 
arguments  (besides  others  for  which  we  have  not 
space),  viz. : 

(1.)  As  to  the  meaning  of /3rt7rn'sw,  it  is  allowed,  on 
all  hands,  that  it  is  (at  least  sometimes)  applied  to  acts 
involving  the  process  of  immersion  both  by  profane 
and  sacred  writers  (see  above).  But  the  best  lexi- 
cographers agree  that  this  is  not  its  exclusive  mean- 
ing, and  none  but  a  daring  controversialist  would  as- 
sert that  it  is.  The  word  /3«7rri^u>  is  derived  from 
fiairroc.,  the  verbal  adjective  of /3aVrw,  to  icet  thorough- 
ly, and  its  etymological  meaning  is  to  put  into  a  dnnc/t- 
ed  or  imbued  condition  (Meth.  Quart  Tiev.  i860,  p.  406). 
In  the  New  Testament  it  generally  means  to  purify 
by  the  application  of  water.  (See  Beecher  on  B.ip- 
t  sm ;  Mnrdock,  in  Bib.  Sac.  Oct.  1850,  on  the  Syriac 
words  for  baptism.)  "As  the  word  fiairTi'Coi  is  used 
to  express  the  various  ablutions  among  the  Jews,  such 
as  sprinkling,  pouring,  etc.  (Heb.  ix,  111),  for  the  cus- 
tom of  washing  before  meals,  and  the  washing  of 
household  furniture,  pots,  etc.,  it  is  evident  from  hence 
that  it  does  not  express  the  manner  of  doing  a  thing, 
whether  by  immersion  or  affusion,  but  only  the  thing 
done — that  is,  washing,  or  the  application  of  water  in 
some  form  or  other.  It  nowhere  signifies  to  dip,  but 
in  denoting  a  mode  of,  and  in  order  to,  washing  or 


047  BAPTISM 

cleansing;  and  the  mode  or  use  is  only  the  ceremonial 
part  of  a  positive  institute,  just  as  in  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per the  time  of  day,  the  number  and  posture  of  the 
communicants,  the' quantity  and  quality  of  bread  and 
wine,  are  circumstances  not  accounted  essential  by  any 
part  of  Christians.  If  in  baptism  there  be  an  expres- 
sive emblem  of  the  descending  influence  of  the  Spirit, 
pouring  must  be  the  mode  of  administration,  for  that 
is  the  scriptural  term  most  commonly  and  properly 
used  for  the  communication  of  divine  influences  (Matt, 
iii,  11;  Mark  i,  8,  10;  Luke  iii,  16-22;  John  i,  33; 
Acts  i,  5;  ii,  38,  39;  viii,  12,  17;  xi,  15,  16).  The 
term  sprinkling,  also,  is  made  use  of  in  reference  to  the 
act  of  purification  (Isa.  Iii,  15 ;  Ezek.  xxxvi,  25  ;  Heb. 
ix,  13,  14),  and  therefore  cannot  be  inapplicable  to 
baptismal  purification"  (Watson).  So  far,  then,  as 
the  word  /3«7rri£w  is  concerned,  there  is  no  foundation 
for  the  exclusive  theory  of  the  Baptists. 

(2.)  As  for  the  fact  that  John  baptized  "  in  Jordan,' 
it  is  enough  to  reply  that  to  infer  always  a  plunging 
of  the  whole  body  in  water  from  this  particle  would, 
in  many  instances,  be  false  and  absurd.  Indeed,  if 
immersion  were  intended,  the  preposition  should  be- 
tie  and  not  iv.  The  same  preposition,  Iv,  is  used  when 
it  is  said  'they  should  be  "  baptized  with  fire,"  but  few 
will  assert  that  the)'  should  be  plunged  into  it.  The 
apostle,  speaking  of  Christ,  says  he  came  not,  iv,  "by 
water  only,"  but,  iv,  "by  water  and  blood."  There 
the  same  word,  iv,  is  translated  by;  and  with  justice 
and  propriety,  for  we  know  no  good  sense  in  which  we 
could  say  he  came  in  water.  Jesus,  it  is  said,  came  up 
out  of  the  water,  but  this  is  no  proof  that  he  was  im- 
mersed, as  the  Greek  term  e'nro  properly  significsyVom  ; 
for  instance,  "Who  hath  warned  you  to  flee /row," 
not  out  of  the  "wrath  to  come?"  with  many  others 
that  might  be  mentioned.  Again,  it  is  urged  that 
Philip  and  the  eunuch  went  down  both  into  the  water. 
To  this  it  is  answered  that  here  also  is  no  proof  of  im- 
mersion ,  for  if  the  expression  of  their  going  down  into 
the  water  necessarily  includes  dipping,  then  Philip 
was  dipped  as  well  as  the  eunuch.  The  preposition 
tig,  translated  into,  often  signifies  no  more  than  to  or 
unto,  see  Matt,  xv,  24 ;  Rom.  x,  10  ;  Acts  xxviii,  14 ; 
Matt,  iii,  11 ;  xvii,  27;  so  that  from  none  of  these  cir- 
cumstances can  it  be  proved  that  there  was  one  person 
of  all  the  baptized  who  went  into  the  water  ankle  deep. 
As  to  the  apostle's  expression,  "  buried  with  him  in 
baptism,"  that  has  no  force  in  the  argument  for  im- 
mersion, since  it  does  not  allude  to  a  custom  of  dip- 
ping, any  more  than  our  baptismal  crucifixion  and 
death  has  an)'  such  reference.  It  is  not  the  sign,  but 
the  thing  signified,  that  is  here  alluded  to.  As  Christ 
was  buried  and  rose  again  to  a  heavenly  life,  so  we  by 
baptism  signify  that  we  are  separated  from  sin,  that  we 
may  live  a  new  life  of  faith  and  love.     (See  above.) 

(3).  It  is  urged  further  against  immersion  that  it 
carries  with  it  too  much  of  the  appearance  of  a  burden- 
some rite  for  the  Gospel  dispensation  ;  that  it  is  too  in- 
decent for  so  solemn  an  ordinance;  that  it  has  a  ten- 
dency to  agitate  the  spirits,  often  rendering  the  subject 
unfit  for  the  exercise  of  proper  thoughts  and  affections, 
and,  indeed,  utterly  incapable  of  them  ;  that  in  many 
cases  the  immersion  of  the  body  would,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, be  instant  death ;  that  in  other  situations  it  would 
be  impracticable  for  want  of  water :  hence  it  cannot  be 
considered  as  necessary  to  the  ordinance  of  baptism, 
and  there  is  the  strongest  improbability  that  it  was 
universally  practised  in  the  times  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, or  in  the  earliest  periods  of  the  Christian  Church; 
indeed,  the  allegation  of  the  txclusiveness  of  this  mode 
is  far  from  being  adequately  supported  by  ancient  tes- 
timony, while  in  many  instances  (e.  g.  that  of  the  Phil- 
ippine jailer,  Acts  xvii,  33)  this  theory  involves  the 
most  unlikely  suppositions.     See  above  (I-V). 

1Y.  Subjects  of  Baptism. — The  Christian  churches 
generally  baptize  infants  as  well  as  adult  believers, 
and  this  is  believed  to  have  been  the  practice  of  the 


BAPTISM 


648 


BAPTISM 


church  from  the  apostolical  age.  The  Roman  ana 
Lutheran  churches  teach  that  baptism  admits  children 
into  the  church  and  makes  them  members  of  the  body 
of  Christ  The  Reformed  churches,  generally,  teach 
that  the  children  of  believers  are  included  in  the  cov- 
enant, and  arc  therefore  entitled  to  baptism.  The 
Methodist  Church  holds  that  all  infants  are  redeemed 
by  Christ,  and  are  therefore  entitled  to  baptism,  wher- 
ever tluy  can  receive  the  instruction  and  care  of  a 
Christian  church  or  family. 

(i.)  As  to  the  antiquity  of  infant  baptism,  it  is  ad- 
mitted by  Baptist  writers  themselves  that  it  was  prac- 
ticed in  Tertullian's  time  (A.D.  200);  but  they  insist 
that  beyond  that  date  there  is  no  proof  of  any  other 
baptism  than  that  of  adult  believers.  The  principal 
passages  cited  in  the  controversy  are  from  Origen, 
Tertullian,  Irenaws,  and  Justin  Martyr. 

1.  Origen  (A.D.  185-253)  speaks  in  the  most  un- 
equivocal terms  of  the  baptism  of  infants,  as  the  gen- 
eral practice  of  the  church  in  his  time,  and  as  having 
been  received  from  the  apostles.  His  testimony  is  as 
follows :  "  According  to  the  usage  of  the  church,  bap- 
.tism  is  given  even  to  infants;  when,  if  there  were 
nothing  in  infants  which  needed  forgiveness  and 
mercy,  the  grace  of  baptism  would  seem  to  be  super- 
fluous" {Homil.  VIII  in  Levit.  ch.  xii).  Again  :  "  In- 
fants are  baptized  for  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  Of  what 
sins  ?  Or,  when  have  they  sinned  ?  Or,  can  there  be 
any  reason  for  the  laver  in  their  case,  unless  it  be  ac- 
cording to  the  sense  which  we  have  mentioned  above, 
viz.  that  no  one  is  free  from  pollution,  though  he  has 
lived  but  one  da}-  upon  earth?  And  because  by  bap- 
tism native  pollution  is  taken  away,  therefore  infants 
are  baptized"  (flomil.  in  Luc.  xiv).  Again:  "For this 
cause  it  was  that  the  church  received  a  tradition  from 
the  apostles  (-apdeome;  aTTOTroXiKi))  to  give  baptism 
even  to  infants"  (Comm.  on  Rom.  lib.  v,  cap.  9).  Ne- 
ander  (Ch.  Hist,  i,  514)  depreciates  this  testimony,  but 
without  any  real  ground.  On  any  ordinary  subject  it 
would  be  taken  as  decisive,  at  least  as  to  the  prevalence 
of  infant  baptism  in  Origen's  time,  and  long  before. 

2.  7\  rtullian  (A.D.  1G0-240),  in  his  treatise  De  Bap- 
tismo  (e.  18),  opposes  infant  baptism  on  the  ground  (1) 
"that  it  is  too  important;  not  even  earthly  goods  are 
intrusted  to  infants;"  (2)  that  "sponsors  are  imper- 
illed by  the  responsibility  they  incur."  Tertullian 
adopted  tie-  superstitious  idea  that  baptism  was  ac- 
companied with  the  remission  of  all  past  sins,  and  that 
sins  committed  after  baptism  were  peculiarly  danger- 
ous. He  therefore  advised  that  not  merely  infants, 
but  young  men  and  young  women,  and  even  young 
widows  and  widowers,  should  postpone  their  baptism 
until  the  period  of  their  youthful  appetite  and  passion 
should  have  passed.  In  short,  he  advised  that,  in  all 
e  i-es  in  which  (hath  was  not  likely  to  intervene,  bap- 
tisra  lie  postponed  until  the  subjects  of  it  should  have 
arrived  at  a  period  of  life  when  they  would  be  no 
longer  in  danger  of  being  led  astray  by  youthful  lusts. 
And  thus,  f,,r  more  than  a  century  after  the  age  of 
Tertullian,  we  find  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  con- 
vert, to  the  Christian  faith  postponing  baptism  till  the 
-  lose  of  life.  Further,  if  he  could  have  said  that  infant 
baptism  was  ••an  innovation,"  he  would;  no  argu- 
ment was  -nr-r  or  weightier  in  that  age;  and  lie  con- 
st intly  appe  lis  to  i other  subjects.     All  attempts 

to  invalidate  this  testimony  have  failed.  If  any  fact 
in  history  is  certain,  it  is  that  infant  baptism  was  prac- 
tised  io  Tertullian'-  time,  and  long  before.  For  the. 
Baptist  \i.  w,  however,  on  this  point,  see  an  able  arti- 
cle in  the  Chrutian  Review,  xvi.  610.  See  also  Bib- 
I  ..•/„, ;,  Sat  ii.  iii.  680;  v,  ::ii7. 

B.  frenaut  (circ.  A.D.  125  190)  has  the  following 
Gib.  'i-  cap.  S9):  "Omnes  venit per  semetip- 
Bum  salvare;  omnes,  inquam,  qui  per  cum  renatcuntor 
in  Deum,  infantes  el  parvulos  ,.t  pueros,"  etc.-  i.e. 
"He  «  me  to  gave  all  by  himself;  all,  I  say,  who.'by 
him,  an  born  agak  unto  God,  infanta,  and  little  chil- 


dren, and  youth,"  etc.  All  turns  here  on  the  mean- 
ing attached  by  Irenasus  to  the  word  renasci;  and  this 
is  clear  from  a  passage  (lib.  iii,  c.  19)  in  which  he 
speaks  of  the  Gospel  commission.  "  When,"  says  he, 
"[Christ]  gave  this  commission  of  regenerating  to  Cod 
[renasci],  he  said,  'Go,  teach  all  nations,  baptizing 
them,  etc'  "  Neander  (whose  loose  admissions  as  to 
the  entire  question  are  eagerly  made  use  of  by  Bap- 
tists) remarks  of  this  passage  that  "it  is  difficult  to 
conceive  how  the  term  regeneration  can  be  employed 
in  reference  to  this  age  (i.  e.  infancy),  to  denote  any- 
thing else  than  baptism"  (Ch.  Hist.  \,  314). 

i  4.  Justin  Martyr,  who  wrote  his  "Apology"  about 
A.D.  138,  declares  that  there  were  among  Christians, 
in  his  time,  "many  persons  of  both  sexes,  some  sixty 
and  some  seventy  years  old,  who  had  been  made  dis- 
ciples to  Christ  from  their  infancy"  (</<  tic  -aicwv  i/ia- 
6i]Tii'Qi]aav  T<ji  XpicrrcJ,  Apol.  2),  and  who  must  there- 
fore have  been  baptized  during  the  lifetime  of  some  of 
the  apostles.  In  his  Trypho  he  says,  "We  are  cir- 
cumcised by  baptism,  with  Christ's  circumcision."  If 
ek  iraidwv  means  from  infancy,  which  is  probable,  but 

!  not  absolutely  certain,  this  passage  is  conclusive. 

These  citations  seem  clearly  to  carry  back  the  prac- 
tice of  infant  baptism  to  a  date  very  near  the  apostles' 

I  time.  If  it  were  then  "  an  innovation,"  we  should 
have  had  some  indication  of  so  great  a  change ;  but 
there  is  none.  Up  to  the  rise  of  the  Anabaptists  in 
the  lGth  century,  the  practice  of  infant  baptism  exist- 
ed in  the  church  without  opposition,  or  with  only  here 
and  there  an  occasional  word  of  question. 

|  (ii.)  At  the  present  clay  the  Greek  Church,  the  Ro- 
man Church,  and  all  Protestant  churches  (except  the 
Baptists)  hold  to  infant  baptism.  The  usage  rests  on 
the  following  grounds  (among  others),  viz.  : 

1.  If  the  practice  of  infant  baptism  prevailed  at  the 
early  period  above  mentioned,  and  all  history  is  silent 
as  to  the  time  of  its  introduction,  and  gives  no  intima- 
tion of  an}'  excitement,  controversy,  or  opposition  to 
an  innovation  so  remarkable  as  this  must  have  been 

I  had  it  been  obtruded  on  the  churches  without  apos- 
tolical authority,  we  may  fairly  conclude,  even  were 
Scripture  silent  on  the  subject,  that  infant  baptism  has 
invariably  prevailed  in  the  church  as  a  new  Testament 
institution. 

2.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  the  first  sub- 
:  jects  of  the  baptism  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  were 

adults  converted  from  Judaism  or  heathenism.  But 
although  there  are  no  express  examples  in  the  New 
Testament  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  baptizing  infants, 
there  is  no  proof  that  they  were  excluded.  Jesus 
Christ  actually  blessed  little  children  ;  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  believe  that  such  received  his  blessing,  and  yet 
were  not  to  be  members  of  the  Gospel  church.  If 
Christ  received  them,  and  would  have  us  "  receive" 
them,  how  can  we  keep  them  out  of  the  visible  church  ? 
Besides,  if  children  were  not  to  be  baptized,  it  is  reason- 
able to  expect  that  they  would  have  been  expressly 
forbidden.  As  whole  households  were  baptized,  it  is 
also  probable  there  were  children  among  them. 
:  3.  Infants  are  included  in  Christ's  act  of  redemp- 
tion, and  are  entitled  thereby  to  the  benefits  and  bless- 
ings of  his  church.  Moreover,  they  are  specifically 
embraced  in  the  Gospel  covenant.  The  covenant 
with  Abraham,  of  which  circumcision  was  made  the 
sign  and  seal,  is  not  to  be  regarded  wholly,  nor  even 
chiefly,  as  a  political  and  national  covenant.  The  en- 
gagement was,  (1.)  That  God  would  bless  Abraham. 
This  included  justification,  and  the  imputation  of  his 
faith  for  righteousness,  with  all  spiritual  blessings. 
(2.)  That  he  should  be  the  father  of  many  nations. 
This  refers  quite  as  much  to  his  sp' ritual  seed  as  to  his 
natural  descendants.  (3.)  The  promise  of  Canaan; 
and  this  included  the  higher  promise  of  the  eternal  in- 
heritance (Ileb.  xi,  9, 10).  (4.)  God  would  be  "  a  God 
to  Abraham  and  to  his  seed  after  him,"  a  promise  con- 
nected with  the  highest  spiritual  blessing,  and  which 


BAPTISM 


649 


BAPTISM 


included  the  justification  of  all  believers  in  all  nations. 
See  Gal.  iii,  8,  9.  Now  of  this  spiritual  covenant,  cir- 
cumcision was  the  sign  and  the  sea!,  and,  being  enjoined 
on  all  Abraham's  posterity,  was  a  constant  publication 
of  God's  covenant  grace  among  the  descendants  of 
Abraham,  and  its  repetition  a  continual  confirmation 
of  that  covenant.  Baptism  is,  in  like  manner,  the  in- 
itiatory sign  and  seal  of  the  same  covenant,  in  its  new 
and  perfect  form  in  Christ  Jesus;  otherwise  the  new 
covenant  has  no  initiatory  rite  or  sacrament.  The 
argument  that  baptism  has  precisely  the  same  federal 
and  initiatory  character  as  circumcision,  and  that  it 
was  instituted  for  the  same  ends,  and  in  its  place,  is 
clearly  established  in  several  important  passages  of 
the  New  Testament.  To  these  we  can  only  refer  (Col. 
ii,  10-12;  Gal.  iii,  27,  29  ;  1  Pet.  iii,  21). 

"The  ultimate  authority  for  infant  baptism  in  the 
Losom  of  a  regular  Christian  community  and  under  a 
sufficient  guarantee  of  pious  education- — for  only  on 
these  terms  do  we  advocate  it — lies  in  the  universal 
import  of  Christ's  person  and  work,  which  extends  as 
far  as  humanity  itself.  Christ  is  not  only  able,  but 
■willing  to  save  mankind  of  all  classes,  in  all  circum- 
stances, of  both  sexes,  and  at  all  stages  of  life,  and 
consequently  to  provide  for  all  these  the  necessary 
means  of  grace  (comp.  Gal.  iii,  28).  A  Christ  able 
and  willing  to  save  none  but  adults  would  be  no  such 
Christ  as  the  Gospel  presents.  In  the  significant  par- 
allel, Rom.  v,  12  s(j.,  the  apostle  earnestly  presses  the 
point  that  the  reign  of  righteousness  and  life  is,  in  its 
divine  intent  and  intrinsic  efficacy,  fully  as  compre- 
hensive as  the  reign  of  sin  and  doubt,  to  which  chil- 
dren among  the  rest  are  subject — nay,  far  more  com- 
prehensive and  availing;  and  that  the  blessing  and 
gain  by  the  second  Adam  far  outweigh  the  curse  and 
the  loss  by  the  first.  When  the  Lord,  after  solemnly 
declaring  that  all  power  is  given  to  him  in  heaven  and 
earth,  commands  his  apostles  to  make  all  nations  disci- 
ples (paBij-evar)  by  baptism  and  instruction,  there  is 
not  the  least  reason  for  limiting  this  to  those  of  maturer 
age.  Or  do  nations  consist  only  of  men,  and  not  of 
youth  also,  and  children  ?  According  to  Ps.  cxvii,  1, 
'all  nations,'  and  according  to  Ps.  cl,  G,  'every  thing 
that  hath  breath,'  should  praise  the  Lord;  and  that 
these  include  babes  and  sucklings  is  explicitly  told  us 
in  Ps.  viii,  2,  and  Matt.  Nxi,  16.  With  this  is  closely 
connected  the  beautiful  idea,  already  clearly  brought 
out  by  Irenaeus,  the  disciple  of  Poly  carp,  and  the  faith- 
ful medium  of  the  apostolical  tradition  descending  from 
John's  field  of  labor — the  idea  that  Jesus  Christ  be- 
came for  children  a  child,  for  youth  a  youth,  for  men 
a  man;  and  by  thus  entering  into  the  various  condi- 
tions and  stages  of  our  earthly  existence,  sanctified  ev- 
ery period  of  life,  infancy  as  well  as  manhood.  The 
Baptist  view  robs  the  Saviour's  infancy  of  its  profound 
and  cheering  significance.'" — Sehaff,  Apost.  Ch.,  §  143. 

(iii.)  The  Baptists  reject  infant  baptism,  and  main- 
tain that  the  ordinance  is  only  to  be  administered  to 
persons  making  a  profession  of  faith  in  Christ.  The 
arguments  by  which  they  seek  to  maintain  this  view 
are  substantially  as  follows,  viz. : 

1.  The  commission  of  Christ  to  the  disciples  (Mark 
xvi,  15,  16)  fixes  instruction  in  the  truths  of  the  Gos- 
pel and  belief  in  them  as  prerequisites  to  baptism. 

2.  The  instances  of  baptism  given  in  the  N.  T.  are 
adduced  as  confirming  this  view.  "Those  baptized 
by  Jobn  confessed  their  sins  (Matt,  iii,  6).  The  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  gave  the  command  to  teach  and  baptize 
(Matt,  xxviii,  19;  Mark  xvi,  15, 16).  At  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  they  who  gladly  received  the  word  were  bap- 
tized, and  they  afterward  continued  steadfastly  in  the 
apostles'  doctrine  and  fellowship  (Acts  ii,  41,  42,  47). 
At  Samaria,  those  who  believed  were  baptized,  both 
men  and  women  (Acts  viii,  12).  The  eunuch  openly 
avowed  his  faith  (in  reply  to  Philip's  statement,  If 
thou  believest  with  all  thine  heart  thou  mayest),  and 
went  down  into  the  water  and  was  baptized  (Acts  viii, 


I  35,  39).  Saul  of  Tarsus,  after  his  sight  was  restored, 
and  he  had  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  arose  and  was 
baptized  (Acts  ix,  17, 18).     Cornelius  and  his  friends 

!  heard  Peter,  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  were  bap- 
tized (Acts  x,  44-48).  Lydia  heard  Paul  and  Silas  ; 
the  Lord  opened  her  heart,  and  she  was  baptized,  and 
her  household." 

3.  The  Baptists  farther  assert  that  the  N.  T.  affords 
no  single  example  of  infant  baptism.  They  explain 
the  baptisms  of  "households"  by  the  assumption  that 
none  of  their  members  were  infants. 

4.  They  argue  that  if  infant  baptism  be  a  Christian 
ordinance,  it  must  be  expressly  enjoined  in  Scripture, 
which  is  not  the  case. 

5.  They  argue,  finally,  that  as  "Christian  faith  is  a 
personal  matter,  its  profession  ought  to  be  a  matter  of 
free  conviction  and  choice,  which  cannot  be  the  case 
with  infants." 

V.  The  Minister  of  Baptism. — The  administration  by 
baptism  is  a  function  of  the  ministerial  office  (Matt, 
xxviii,  16-20).  But  it  is  the  general  opinion,  both  of 
the  Roman  and  Protestant  churches,  that  the  presence 
of  an  ordained  minister  is  not  absolutely  essential  to 

i  the  ordinance,  and  that,  in  extreme  cases,  it  is  lawful 
for  lay  persons  to  baptize.  At  the  present  day,  not 
only  lay  baptism,  but  baptism  administered  by  here- 
tics, schismatics,  and  even  women,  is  held  to  be  valid 
by  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches.  The  Lutherans 
also  hold  the  same  view.  Baptism  by  mid  wives  was 
admitted  by  the  Church  of  England  in  extreme  cases 
down  to  the  Great  Rebellion.  Not  that  it  was  believed 
that  laymen  have  the  right  to  baptize,  but  that,  the 
baptism  having  been  once  performed,  it  is  valid  to 
such  an  extent  that  rebaptism  is  improper.  See  Bap- 
tism (Lay). 

VI.  Repetition  of  Baptism.— -In  the  third  century  the 
question  arose  whether  the  baptism  of  heretics  was  to 
be  accounted  valid,  or  whether  a  heretic  who  returned 
to  the  Catholic  Church  was  to  be  rebaptized.  In  op- 
position to  the  usrge  of  the  Eastern  and  African 
churches,  which  was  defended  by  Cyprian,  the  princi- 
ple was  established  in  the  Roman  Church  under  Ste- 
phen, that  the  right  of  baptism,  if  duly  performed,  was 
always  valid,  and  its  repetition  contrary  to  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  church.  In  the  next  age  Basil  and  Gregory 
of  Nazianzen  followed  Cyprian's  view,  but  by  the  in- 
fluence of  Augustine  the  Roman  view  became  the 
prevalent  one  ;  but  the  Dcnatists  maintained  that  her- 
etics must  be  rebaptized.  See  Donatists  (Hagen- 
bach,  Hist,  of  Doct.  §  72  and  137,  and  references  there). 
After  the  Reformation,  the  Roman  Church,  compelled  by 
its  old  usage  and  principle,  continued  to  acknowledge 
the  validity  of  Protestant  baptisms,  while  Protestants, 
in  turn,  admit  the  validity  of  Roman  Catholic  baptism. 

VII.  Sponsors  or  Godfathers. — Sponsors  (called  also 
godfathers  and  godmothers)  are  persons  who,  at  the 
baptism  of  infants,  answer  for  their  future  conduct, 
and  solemnly  promise  that  they  will  renounce  the  devil 
and  all  his  works,  and  follow  a  life  of  purity  and  virtue  ; 
and  by  these  means  lay  themselves  under  an  indispen- 
sable obligation  to  instruct  them  and  watch  over  their 
conduct.  In  the  Roman  Church  the  number  of  godfa- 
thers and  godmothers  is  reduced  to  two ;  in  the  Church 
of  England,  to  three;  formerly  the  number  was  not 
limited.  It  is  prohibited,  in  the  Roman  Church,  to 
sponsors  to  marry  their  godchildren,  or  each  other,  or 
either  parent  of  their  godchild;  nor  may  the  baptizer 
many  the  child  baptized  or  its  parent.  The  custom 
of  having  sponsors  is  not  in  use  among  the  dissenting 
denominations  in  England,  nor  among  the  evangelical 
churches  in  America.  The  parents  are  held  to  be  the 
proper  persons  to  present  their  children  for  baptism, 
and  to  train  them  up  afterward;  indeed,  while  they 
live,  no  other  persons  can  possibly  take  this  duty  from 
them.  In  the  earh'  church  the  parents  were  com. 
inonly  the  sponsors  of  infants.  The  duty  of  those  who 
undertook  the  office  of  sponsor  for  adult  persons  was 


BAPTISM 


G50 


BAPTISM 


not  to  answer  in  their  names,  but  to  admonish  and  in- 
struct them,  both  before  and  after  baptism.  In  many 
churches  this  office  was  chiefly  imposed  upon  the  dea- 
cons and  deaconesses.  The  only  persons  excluded 
from  this  office  by  the  ancient  Church  were  catechu- 
mens, energumens,  heretics,  and  penitents;  also  per- 
sons not  con  firm  d  are  excluded  by  some  canons.  An- 
ciently one  Bponsor  only  was  required  for  each  person 
to  be  baptized,  who  was  to  be  of  the  same  sex  as  the 
latter  in  the  case  of  adult  persons;  in  the  case  of  in- 
fant.- the  sex  was  indifferent.  The  origin  of  the  pro- 
hibition of  sponsors  marrying  within  the  forbidden  de- 
grees of  spiritual  relationship  appears  to  have  been  a 
law  of  Justinian,  still  extant  in  the  Codex  (lib.  v,  tit. 
I.  lh  Suptiis,  !.<<;.  xxvi).  which  forbade  a  godfather 
tn  marry  the  woman  for  whom  he  had  stood  sponsor 
at  baptism.  The  council  in  Tndlo  extended  this  pro- 
hibition to  the  marrying  the  mother  of  the  baptized  in- 
fant (can.  53);  and  it  was  subsequently  carried  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiv,  Be. 
Reform.  Matrimon.  cap.  ii)  was  compelled  to  relax  it 
in  some  degree. — Bingham,  xi,  viii.     See  Sponsors. 

VIII.  Ceremonies,  Placet,  and  Times  of  Baptism. — 1. 
In  the  earlier  ages  of  the  Church  there  -were  several 
peculiarities  in  the  mode  of  baptism  which  have  now 
fallen  into  disuse,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  Eoman  Cath- 
olic and  Greek  churches.  Among  these  usages  were 
trine  immersion  (i.  e.  dipping  three  times,  once  at  the 
naming  of  each  person  in  the  Trinity,  Tertull.  Cunt. 
I'ni.r.  xxvH,  anointing  with  oil,  giving  n.ilk  and  hon- 
ey to  the  baptized  person,  etc.  After  the  council  of 
Nice,  Christians  added  to  baptism  the  ceremonies  of 
exorcism  and  adjuration,  to  make  evil  spirits  depart 
from  the  persons  to  be  baptized.  They  made  several 
signings  with  the  cross,  they  used  lighted  candles,  thej' 
gave  salt  to  the  baptized  person  to  taste,  and  the  priest 
touched  his  mouth  and  ears  with  spittle,  and  also  blew 
and  spat  upon  his  face.  At  that  time  also  baptized 
persons  wore  white  garments  till  the  Sunday  following. 

Three  things  were  required  of  the  catechumens  im- 
mediately before  their  baptism:  (1.)  A  solemn  renun- 
ciation of  the  devil ;  (2.)  A  profession  of  faith  in  the 
words  of  some  received  creed;  and  (3.)  An  engage- 
ment to  live  a  Christian  life.  The  form  of  renuncia- 
tion is  given  in  the  Const.  Apost.  lib.  vii,  cap.  41. 

The  time  of  administering  the  rite  was  subject  to 
various  changes;  at  first  it  was  without  limitation. 
Soon  Mast  rand  Whitsuntide  were  considered  the  most 
appropriate  seasons,  and  Easter-eve  deemed  the  most 
saeieil ;  afterward,  Epiphany  and  the  festivals  of  the 
apostles  and  martyrs  were  selected  in  addition.  From 
tli  ■  tenth  century  the  observance  of  the  stated  seasons 
fell  into  disuse,  and  children  were  required  to  be  bap- 
tized within  a  month  of  their  birth  (Bingham,  Orig. 
Eccles.  Iik.  xi,  ch.  vi;  Coleman,  Ancient  Christianity, 
ch.  xix).    See  Imposition  of  Hands. 

Until  tlie  time  of  Justin  Martyr  there  appears  to 
n  no  fixed  plaee  for  baptism,  which  was  ad- 
ministered wherever  it  best  suited;  but  in  after  times 
baptisteries  were  built  near  the  churches,  in  which 
.done  baptism  might  be  administered.  Baptism  was 
not  permitted  to  be  conferred  in  private  houses  with- 
out the  bishop's  express  license,  and  persons  so  bap- 
tized could  never  be  received  into  priest's  orders 
'.  oan.  2).  Such  private  bap- 
re  called  vapaParrTiapara.  Afterward  the 
font  appear.-  to  have  b.-en  set  up  in  the  church  porch, 
and  thence  WSJ  removed  into  the  church  itself.  See 
BaPTISI  i  i:V. 

■J.  The  following  are  the  baptismal  ceremonies  of 
h  -i'  Home,  though  not  all  ,.r  universal  obli- 
gation; i  1.!  The  child  i-  held  without  the  Church,  to 
signify  an  actual  exclusion  from  heaven,  which  is 
symbolized   by   the  Church.     (2.)  The  priest  blows 

three  times  in  the  face  of  the  child,  signifying  thereby 

thai  the  devil  can  be  displaced  only  bj  the  Spirit  of 
God.     (8.)  The  sign  of  the  cross  i-  made  on  the  tore- 


head  and  bosom  of  the  child.  (4.)  The  priest,  having 
exorcised  the  salt  (to  show  that  the  devil,  until  God 
prevents,  avails  himself  of  every  creature  in  order  to 
injure  mankind),  puts  it  into  the  mouth  of  the  infant, 
signifying  by  it  that  wisdom  which  shall  preserve  him 
from  corruption.  (5.)  The  child  is  exorcised.  (6.) 
The  priest  touches  his  mouth  and  ears  with  saliva,  pro- 
nouncing the  word  Ephphatha.  (7.)  The  child  is  un- 
:  clothed,  signifying  the  laying  aside  the  old  man.  (8.) 
He  is  presented  by  the  sponsors,  who  represent  the 
Church.  (9.)  The  renunciation  of  the  devil  and  his 
works  is  made.  (10.)  He  is  anointed  with  oil.  (11.) 
The  profession  of  faith  is  made.  (12.)  He  is  question- 
ed whether  he  will  be  baptized.  (13.)  The  name  of 
some  saint  is  given  to  him,  who  shall  be  his  example 
and  protector.  (14.)  He  is  clipped  thrice,  or  water  is 
poured  thrice  on  his  head.  (15.)  He  receives  the  kiss 
of  peace.  (16.)  He  is  anointed  on  the  head,  to  show 
that  by  baptism  he  becomes  a  king  and  a  priest.  (17.) 
He  receives  the  lighted  taper,  to  mark  that  he  has  be- 
come a  child  of  light.  (18.)  He  is  folded  in  the  alb, 
to  show  his  baptismal  purity  (Elliott,  Belineation  of 
Romanism,  i,  241). 

The  practice  of  exorcising  water  for  baptism  is  kept 
up  in  the  Eoman  Church  to  this  day.  It  exhibits  a 
thoroughly  pagan  spirit.  The  following  formula,  taken 
from  the  Rituale  Romananum,  is  used  at  the  ceremony 
of  exorcising  the  water:  "  I  exorcise  thee,  creature  of 
water,  by  God  +  the  living,  by  God  +  the  true,  by 
God  +  the  holy ;  by  God  who,  in  the  beginning,  sepa- 
rated thee  by  a  word  from  the  dry  land,  whose  Spirit 
over  thee  was  borne,  who  from  Paradise  commanded 
thee  to  flow."  Then  follows  the  rubric  :  "  Let  him  with 
his  hand  divide  the  water,  and  tlun  pour  some  of  it  over 
the  edge  of  the  font  toward  the  four  quarters  of  the  glole, 
and  then  proceed  thus :  I  exorcise  thee  also  by  Jesus 
Christ  his  only  Son,  our  Lord,  who,  in  Cana  of  Galilee, 
changed  thee  by  his  wonderful  power  into  wine ;  who 
walked  upon  thee  on  foot,  and  who  was  baptized  in 
thee  by  John  in  Judaea,  etc. ; .  . . .  that  thou  mayest  be 
made  water  holy,  water  blessed,  water  which  washes 
away  our  filth,  and  cleanses  our  guilty  stain.  Thee 
therefore  I  command — every  foul  spirit— every  phan- 
tasm— every  lie — be  thou  eradicated,  and  put  to  flight 
from  the  creature  of  water;  that,  to  those  who  are  to 
be  baptized  in  it,  it  may  become  a  fountain  of  water 
springing  up  into  life  eternal,  regenerating  them  to 
God  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost, 
in  the  name  of  the  same  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who 
shall  come  again  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead,  and 
the  whole  world  by  fire,  Amen."  Then  follows  a 
prayer,  in  which  the  priest  supplicates  the  Almighty 
to  send  down  the  "angel  of  sanctity"  over  the  wa- 
ters thus  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  purification.  Af- 
terward the  rubric  directs  that  "he  shall  blow  three 
times  upon  the  water,  in  three  different  directions,  accord- 
ing to  a  prescribed  figure,  ¥.  hi  the  next  place,  he  is  to 
deposit  the  inn  nst  upon  the  censer,  and  to  incense  the  font. 
Afterward,  pouring  of  the  Oil  of  the  Catechumens  into 
the  water  after  the  form  of  a  Cross,  he  says,  with  a  A  ud 
voice,  Let  this  font  lie  sanctified,  and  made  fruitful  by 
the  Oil  of  salvation  for  those  who  are  born  again  there- 
by unto  life  eternal  in  the  name  of  the  Father  +,  and 
of  the  Son  +  ,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  +,  Amen." 
Then  follows  another  rubric:  "Next,  he  pours  in  if  the 
Chrism  after  the  manner  above  mentioned,  saying,  Let 
this  infusion  of  the  Chrism  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  the  Comforter,  be  made  in  the 
name  of  the  sacred  Trinity,  Amen."  Again  :  "  Aft<  r- 
vard  lie  tales  the  /to  vessels  of  th  be  fin  -mentioned  holy 
(HI  and  Chrism,  and  in  jmu  ring  from  inch  in  the  fin  m 
if  a  Cnss,  he  says,  Let  this  mixture  of  the  Chrism  of 
Sanetilieation,  of  the  Oil  of  Unction,  and  of  the  Wa- 
ter of  Baptism,  be  made  together  in  the  name  of  the 
Father  H  ,  and  of  the  Son  +^  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost +, 
Amen."  Finally,  the  rubric  again  directs  as  follows: 
"  Th<n  tin  vessel  being  put  aside,  he  mingles  iciih  his  right 


BAPTISM 


651 


BAPTISM 


han't  the  holy  Oil  and  the  infused  Chrism  uith  the  water, 
and  sprinkles  it  all  over  the  font.  Then  he  wipes  his 
hand  upon  (what  is  termed')  medulla  panis ;  and  if  any 
one  is  to  be  baptized,  lie  baptizes  him  as  above.  But  if 
there  is  no  one  to  be  baptized,  he  is  forthwith  to  wash  his 
hands,  and  the  water  of  ablution  must  be  poured  out  into 
the  sacrarium  (see  Rit.  Bom.  p.  58. — Elliott,  Delineation 
of  Iionvinism,  bk.  ii,  ch.  ii). 

3.  The  ceremonies  of  baptism  in  the  Protestant 
churches  are  generally  very  simple,  consisting,  as  has 
been  said,  in  the  application  of  water,  by  sprinkling, 
pouring,  or  immersion,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Ritual  services 
are  fixed  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  the  same  (or 
nearly  the  same)  are  used  in  the  Protest  int  Episcopal 
Church  in  America  (see  Prayer-book,  Ministration  of 
Baptism).  The  same  forms,  omitting  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  and  those  parts  which  imply  baptismal  regener- 
ation (ex  ipve)  and  the  use  of  sponsors,  is  used  in  the 
Methodist  Episcop.il  Church  (Discipline,  pt.  iv,  ch.  i). 
The  Presbyterian  Church  prescribes  no  complete  rit- 
ual, but  gives  certain  rules  in  the  Directory  for  Wor- 
ship, ch.  vii.  The  Reformed  Dutch  Church  prescribes 
a  simple  and  scriptural  form  (Constitution  of  R.  D. 
Church,  ed.  Mentz,  p.  93).  The  German  Reformed 
Church  admits  sponsors,  but  they  must  be  "in  full 
communion  with  some  Christian  church  (Constitution, 
pt.  iv)  ;  and  a  form  approaching  to  that  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church  is  given  in  the  Provisional  Lit- 
urgy of  1858,  p.  204.  The  Lutheran  Church  prescribes 
forms  of  baptism  (Liturgy,  §  4),  and  admits  sponsors, 
who  may  lie  the  parents  of  the  child. 

The  sign  of  the  cross  is  used  in  baptism  in  tha  Greek 
and  Roman  churches,  and  in  the  Church  of  England ; 
it  is  optional  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  See 
Cross  ix  Baptism. 

IX.  Works  on  Baptism.— The  lit, >r  it  ire  of  the  bu]  - 
ject  is  very  ample.  Resides  the  work;  cited  in  the 
course  of  this  article,  and  the  writers  on  systematic 
theology,  see  Baxter,  Plain  Prof  of  Ji  fin's'  Church 
Membership  (1656);  Wall,  History  of  Infant  Baptism, 
with  Gale's  Reflections  and  Wall's  Defence,  edited  by 
Cotton  (Oxford,  1836  ami  1844,  4  vols.W) :  Matthies, 
Baptismatis  Expositio  Bibl.-Hisl.-Dogmaiica  (Berlin, 
1831,  8vo)  ;  Range,  Die  Kin  lertaufe  (Jena,  1*34,  8vo); 
Walch,  Historia  Pcedobaptismi  (Jenae,  1739);  Williams, 
Aut'p  edobap'ism  examined (1789,  2  vol?.  12mo);  Facts 
and  Evidences  on  Baptism,  by  the  editor  of  Calmet's 
Dictionary  (London,  1815,  2  vols.  8vo ;  condensed  into 
one  vol.,  entitled  Apostolic  Bap'ism,  X.  Y.  1850, 12mo)  ; 
Towgood,  Dissertations  on  Christian  Baptism  (Lond. 
1815,  12mo);  Ewing,  Essay  on  Baptism  (Glasgow, 
1823) ;  Bradbury.  Duty  and  Doctrine  of  Baptism  (Lond. 
1749,  8vo);  Woods,  Lectures  on  Infant  Baptism  (Ando- 
ver,  1829, 12mo) ;  Slicer  On  Baptism  (  X.  Y.  1841, 12mo)  ; 
Wardlaw, Dissertation  on  Infant  Baptism  i  Lond.l2mo) ; 
Neander,  History  of  Doctrines,  i,  229  sq. ;  Beoeher,  Bap- 
tism, its  Import  and  Modes  (N.  Y.  1849,  12mo) ;  Cole- 
ridge, Works  (X.  Y.  ed.,  v,  187);  Hibbard,  Christian 
Baptism,  its  Subjects,  Mode,  and  Obligation  (X.  Y.  18-15, 
12mo);  Ilouing,  Sacrament  der  Taufe  (Erlang.  1846, 
2  vols.);  Rosser,  Baptism,  its  Nature,  Obligation,  etc. 
(Richmond,  1853,  12mo)  ;  Gibson,  The  Fathers  on  Na- 
ture and  Effects  of 'Baptism  (Lond.  1854);  Cunning- 
ham, Reformers  an  I  Theology  of  Reformation,  Essay 
v  ;  Summers  On  Baptism  (Richmond,  1853,  12mo)  ; 
Hall.  Law  of  Baptism  (X.  Y.  1846,  12mo) ;  Studkn  u. 
Kritiken,  1861,  p.  219;  Litton  On  the  Church,  243  sq. 
One  of  the  best  tracts  on  infant  baptism  is  Dr.  Miller's, 
No.  VIII  of  the  Tracts  of  the  Presbyterian  Board.  On 
early  history,  doctrines,  and  usages,  Coleman,  Ancient 
(  la's' in  nity,  ch.  xix  ;  Sehaft',  Apostolical  Church,  §  142  ; 
Palmer,  Origines  Liturgica,  ii,  166  sq.  ;  Procter  On 
Common  Prayer,  361  sq.  ;  Mosheim,  Commentaries  ; 
Dorner,  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  i,  168  sq. 

On  the  Baptist  side:  Gale,  Reply  to  Wall  (bound  in 
Cotton's  edition  of  Wall)  ;  Booth,  Apology  fa-  the  Baj)- 


tists  ( Works,  vol.  ii) ;  Booth,  Ptedobaptism  Examined 
(Lond.  1829,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  Gill,  Divine  Right  of  Infant 
Baptism  and  other  Essays  (in  "Collection  of  Sermons 
and  Tracts,"  Lond.  1773,  2  vols.  4to)  ;  Hinton,  History 
of  Baptism  (Phil.  1849,  12mo) ;  Robinson,  History  of 
Baptism  (Lond.  1790,  and  later  editions,  4to);  Carson, 
Baptism  in  its  Mods  and  Objects  (Lond.  1844,  8vo; 
Phila.  5th  ed.  1857,  8vo)  ;  Xoel,  Essay  on  <  'liristian  Bap- 
tism (X.  Y.  185b,  12ino)  ;  Orchard,  Concise  History  of 
Foreign  Baptists,  etc.  (Lond.  1838)  ;  <  'urtis,  Progress  of 
Baptist  Principles  (Boston,  1856) ;  Pengilly,  Scripture 
Guide  to  Baptism  (Phila.  1849, 12mo);  J.  T.  Smith,  Ar- 
guments for  Infant  Baptism  examined  (Phila.  1850, 
12mo);  Haynes,  The  Baptist  Denomination  (X.Y.  1856, 
12mo)  ;  Jewett  On  Baptism  (Bapt.  Pub.  Soc.)  ;  Conant, 
Meaning  and  Use  of '  Baptist  in  (X.Y.  1860,  4  to).  On 
sacramental  grace  and  regeneration  by  baptism,  see 
Grace;    Sacraments  ;    Regeneration  (Baftis? 

MAT.). 

BAPTISM,  LAY,  baptism  administered  by  uncr- 
ddntd  persons.  In  ordinary  practice,  the  Christian 
Church  has  always  held  that  baptism  should  lie  per- 
formed by  ordained  ministers  (see  above,  Ministi  rs  of 
Bapt  ism).  Nevertheless,  in  case  of  necessity,  baptism 
may  be  performed  by  any  Christian,  and  is  valid  if 
performed  according  to  Christ's  order  in  Matt,  xxviii, 
19.  It  would  be  clearly  wrong  to  assert  that  lay  bap- 
tism is,  under  all  circumstances,  as  regular  as  that  by 
a  minister;  but  it  is  also  very  difficult  to  decide  that 
lay  baptism  is  invalid  where  the  services  of  a  minister 
cannot  be  procured.  The  principle  upon  which  this 
view  of  the  case  rests  has  been  thus  fairly  stated  by 
Hooker  (Eccl.  Polity,  bk.  v,  Ixii,  19)  :  "The  grace  of 
baptism  cometh  by  donation  from  God  alone.  That 
God  hath  committed  the  ministry  of  baptism  unto  spe- 
cial men,  it  is  for  order's  sake  in  his  church,  and  not 
to  the  end  that  their  authority  might  give  being,  or 
add  force  to  the  sacrament  itself.  That  infants  have 
right  to  the  sacrament  of  baptism  we  all  acknowledge. 
Charge  them  we  cannot  as  guileful  and  wrongful  pos- 
sessors of  that  whereunto  they  have  right,  by  the  man- 
ifest will  of  the  donor,  and  are  not  parties  unto  any 
defect  or  disorder  in  the  maimer  of  receiving  the  same. 
And,  if  any  such  disorder  be.  we  have  sufficiently  be- 
fore declared  that,  'delictum  cum  capite  semper  am- 
bulat,'  men's  own  faults  are  their  own  harms."  From 
this  reasoning  (which  appears  to  be  just),  the  inference 
is,  that  in  the  case  of  lay  baptism,  infants  are  not  de- 
prived of  whatever  benefits  and  privileges  belong  to 
that  sacrament,  the  administrator,  in  any  instance,  be- 
ing alone  responsible  for  the  urgency  of  the  circum- 
stances under  which  he  performs  the  rite.  By  the 
rubrics  of  the  second  and  of  the  fifth  of  Edward  VI  it 
was  ordered  thus:  "The  pastors  and  curates  shall 
often  admonish  the  people,  that  without  great  cause 
and  necessity  they  baptize  not  children  at  home  in 
their  houses  ;  end  when  great  need  shall  compel  them 
so  to  do,  that  then  they  minister  it  in  this  fashion: 
First,  let  them  that  be  present  call  upon  God  fir  his 
grace,  and  say  the  Lord's  Prayer,  if  the  time  will  suf- 
fir;  and  then  cne  of  them  shall  name  the  child  and 
dip  him  in  the  water,  or  pour  water  upon  him,  saying 
these  words  :  I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  But  in  the 
revision  of  the  Prayer-boc  k  after  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference  (1604),  the  nil  rics  were  altered  so  as  to 
exclude  entirely  this  authority  for  lay  baptism.  Still, 
such  baptism  is  not  decided  to  be  invalid.  The  Ro- 
manists admit  its  validity.  Sec  Procter  On  Common 
Prayer,  p.  378,  382  ;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  Ik.  xvi,  ch. 
i,  §  4.  On  the  practice  of  the  Church  of  England  with 
regard  to  lay  baptism,  sec  Bingham,  Scholastical  His- 
tory of  Lay  Baptism  (1712,  2  vols.),  ch.  iii,  §  5,  ex- 
tracted in  Henry,  Compendium  of  Christian  Antiquities, 
Appendix.  See  also  Waterland,  Letters  on  Lay  Bapt 
t'sm  (  Works,  vol.  x)  ;  Hagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines, 
§  137 ;  Summers  On  Baptism,  ch.  iv.     The  Presbytc 


BAPTISM 


G52 


BAPTISM 


nan  Directory  for  Worship  declares  that  "baptism  is 
not  to  I"'  unnecessarily  delayed;  nor  to  be  adminis- 
tered in  any  case,  by  any  private  person,  but  by  a 
minister  of  Christ,  called  to  be  the  steward  of  the  mys- 
,..,.;  ,a  of  God"  (ch.  vii,  §  1).  The  Reformed  Confes- 
sions, so  fir  a-  they  speak  on  this  point,  generally 
oppose  1  ly  baptism  :  see  t 'onf  //<  In  t.  ii,  20 ;  Conf.  Sco- 
tica  xxii.    Comii.  also  Calvin,  Institutes,  bk.  iv,  ch.  xv, 

BAPTISM  FOE  THE  DEAD  (vrrip  tSjv  vtupCov, 
1  Cor.  xv.  29).  This  difficult  passage  has  given  rise 
to  multitudinous  expositions.  Among  them  are  the 
following  (see  also  Am.  Presb.  Rev,  Jan.  18G3): 

1.  The  Corinthians  i  according  to  Suicer),  and  after 
them  the  Marcionites  and  other  heretics,  practised  a 
sort  of  vicarious  baptism  in  the  case  of  those  who  had 
died  unbaptized;  that  is,  they  caused  a  relation  or 
friend  of  the  dead  person  to  be  baptized  in  his  stead, 
in  the  belief  that  such  baptism  would  operate  to  ob- 
tain the  remission  of  the  sins  of  the  deceased  in  the 
other  world  (< 'hrysostom,  Horn,  xl  in  1  Cor.,  and  Ter- 
tullian  c  ntra  Marcion,  lib.  v,  cap.  10).  The  apostle 
then  drew  an  argument  from  the  heretical  practice  to 
prove  their  belief  in  the  resurrection. 

2.  Chrysostom,  however,  declares  that  Paul  refers 
to  the  declaration  made  by  each  catechumen  at  his 
baptism,  of  his  belief  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
meaning  to  say  this  :  "  If  there  is,  in  fact,  no  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  why,  then,  art  thou  baptized  for  the 
de  el.  i.  e.  the  body?"  An  improvement,  perhaps,  upon 
thi-  interpretation  would  be  to  consider  the  ancient 
martyrs  to  be  referred  to,  over  whose  remains  the 
churches  were  often  built  (probably,  however,  not  as 
yet),  in  which  such  vows  were  taken. 

.'i.  Among  the  best  interpretations  is  that  of  Span- 
h  'ni  i  see  Wolf,  Cur.  in  N.  T.  in  loc),  which  considers 
'"the  dead"  to  be  martyrs  and  other  believers,  who, 
by  firmness  and  cheerful  hope  of  resurrection,  have 
given  in  death  a  worth)'  example,  by  which  others  were 
also  animated  to  receive  baptism.  Still,  this  meaning 
would  he  almost  too  briefly  and  enigmatically  express- 
ed, when  no  particular  reason  for  it  is  known,  while 
also  the  allusion  to  the  exemplary  death  of  many 
Christians  could  chiefly  apply  to  the  martyrs  alone,  of 
whom  there  were  as  yet  none  at  Corinth.  This  inter- 
pretation, however,  may  perhaps  also  be  improved  if 
ch  1st  be  considered  as  prominently  referred  to  among 
these  deceased,  by  virtue  of  whose  resurrection  all  his 
followers  expect  to  be  likewise  raised. 

I.  i  Hshausen's  interpretation  is  of  a  rather  doubtful 
oh  ir act  r.  The  meaning  of  the  passage  he  takes  to 
be,  that  "all  who  are  converted  to  the  church  arc 
b  iptiz  'A  for  ih<>  good  of  the  dead,  as  it  requires  a  cer- 
t  till  number  (  Rom,  xi,  12-25),  a  'fulness'  of  believers, 
before  the  resurrection  can  take  place.  Every  one, 
therefore,  who  is  baptized  is  for  the  good  of  believers 
collectively,  and  of  those  who  have  already  died  in  the 
Lord."  Olshausen  is  himself  aware  that  the  apostle 
could  not  have  expected  that  such  a  difficult  and  re- 
mol  '  id,-.,,  which  he  himself  calls  "a  mystery."  would 
be  understood  by  his  readers  without  a  further  ex- 
planation and  development  of  his  doctrine.  He  there- 
fore proposes  an  explanation,  in  which  it  is  argued 
tint  tic  miseries  and  hardships  Christians  have  to 
'Struggle  againsl  in  this  life  can  only  be  compensated 
by  resurrection.  Death  causes,  as  it  were,  vacancies 
in  the  full  ranks  of  the  believers,  which  are  again  fill- 
ed up  by  othe,-  individuals.  »  What  would  it  profit 
those  who  ore  baptized  in  the  plqce  of  the  dead  (to  fill 
up  their  place  in  the  community)  if  there  be  no  resur- 
rection ?"— Kitto,  o.  v. 

■'>•  ■N"1 f  these  explanations,  however,  well  suits 

t:.  ■  signification  of  f,mp,  "for,"  i.  e.  in  behu'fof,  on 

'    I     •   '  lie  -ame  tine-,  consistent  in  other 

Dr.  Tregelles  |  Printed  '/'-  H  of  the  Gr.  Test. 

p.  216)  has  proposed  a  slight  e ndation  of  the  text 

that  opp  tie-  difficulty  almost  entirely. 


It  consists  simply  in  the  following  punctuation  :  "  Elso 
what  shall  they  do  which  are  baptized?  [It  is]  for 
the  dead,  if  the  dead  rise  not  at  all,"  i.  e.  we  are  bap- 
tized merely  in  the  name  of  (for  the  sake  of,  out  of  re- 
gard to)  dead  persons,  namely,  Christ  and  the  proph- 
ets who  testified  of  him.  This  interpretation  renders 
No.  3  above  more  easy  of  adoption. 

Treatises  entitled  De  bqptismo  imp  riov  vucntZv 
have  been  written  by  Schmidt  (Argent.  1C5G),  Calon 
(Viteb.  1C84),  Deutsch  (Kegiom.  1G'J8),  Grade  (Gryph. 
lG'JO),  Hastcus  (Brem.  1725),  Milller  (Host.  1665),  Ole- 
arius  (Lips.  1704),  Reichmann  (Viteb.  1652),  Schenck 
(Franeq.  1667),  Zeutschner  (Fcft.  a.  V.  170G),  Facius 
(Col.  17!>2),  Neumann  (Jen.  1740),  Nobling  (Sus.  1784), 
Kichter  (Zwic.  180;?),  Heumann  (Isen.  1710,  Jen.  1740), 
Streccius  (Jen.  1730). 

BAPTISM  OF  THE  DEAD,  a  superstitious  custom 
which  anciently  prevailed  among  the  people  in  Africa 
of  baptizing  the  dead.  The  third  council  of  Carthage 
(canon  vi)  speaks  of  it  as  a  matter  of  which  ignorant 
Christians  were  fond,  and  forbids  "  to  believe  that  the 
dead  can  be.  baptized."  Gregory  Nazianzen  also  ob- 
serves that  the  same  superstitious  opinion  prevailed 
among  some  who  delayed  to  be  baptized,  it  is  also 
mentioned  by  Philastrius  (De  Uteres,  cap.  2)  as  the 
\  general  error  of  the  Montanists  or  Cataphrygians,  that 
they  baptized  men  after  death.  The  practice  seems  to 
be  founded  on  a  vain  opinion  that  when  men  had  ne  :- 
lected  to  receive  baptism  during  their  life,  some  com- 
pensation might  be  made  for  this  default  by  receiving 
I  it  after  death.  Sec  Burton,  Bampton  Lectures,  art.  78  ; 
Bingham,  Oriq.  Keel.  bk.  xi,  ch.  iv,  §  3. 

BAPTISM'  OF  FIRE.  The  words  of  John  the 
Baptist  (Matt,  iii,  11),  "  He  that  cometh  after  me  sh  .11 
baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire,"  have 
I  given  occasion  to  various  interpretations.  Soma  of 
j  the  fathers  (e.  g.  John  Damascenus)  hold  it  to  mean 
i  the  everlasting  fire  of  hell.  Others  of  the  fathers  (as 
j  Chrj'sostom,  Horn.  11  in  Matt.')  declare  that  by  fire  in 
;  this  passage  the  Baptist  means  the  Holy  Spirit,  who, 
I  as  fire,  should  destroy  the  pollutions  of  sin  in  the  re- 
generation conferred  by  holy  baptism.  Others  again, 
I  as  Hilary  and  Ambrose,  as  well  as  Origen,  believe  it 
to  mean  a  purifying  fire  through  which  the  faithful 
shall  pass  before  entering  Paradise,  thus  giving  rise 
to  the  Romish  doctrine  of  purgatory.  Others  think 
that  it  means  the  fire  of  tribulations  and  sorrows;  oth- 
ers, the  abundance  of  graces;  others,  the  fire  of  peni- 
tence and  self-mortification,  etc.  (Suicer,  Thesaurus,  p. 
629).  Some  old  heretics,  as  the  Seleucians  and  Her. 
mians,  understood  the  passage  literally,  and  maintain- 
ed that  material  fire  was  necessary  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  baptism  ;  but  we  are  not  told  either  how,  or 
to  what  part  of  the  body  they  applied  it,  or  whether 
they  obliged  the  baptized  to  pass  through  or  over  the 
flames.  Valentinus  rebaptized  those  who  had  received 
baptism  out  of  his  sect,  and  drew  them  through  the 
fire  ;  and  Heraclion,  who  is  cited  by  Clemens  Alex- 
andrinus,  says  that  some  applied  a  red-hot  iron  to  the 
ears  of  the  baptized,  as  if  to  impress  on  them  some 
mark. 

The  simplest  and  most  natural  view  is  that  the  pas- 
sage is  not  to  be  interpreted  of  any  separate  form  of 
baptism  from  that  "with  the  Holy  Ghost;"  but  the 
expression  "with  fire"  is  epexegetical,  or  explanatory 
of  the  words  "with  the  Holy  Ghost."  Such  a  mode 
1  of  expression,  in  which  the  connecting  particle  and 
j  only  introduces  an  amplification  of  the  former  idea,  is 
very  common  in  the  Scriptures.  The  sense  will  there- 
fore be,  "  He  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
through  the  outward  symbol  of  fire,"  viz.  the  "cloven 

ton/lies  like  as  of  tire'''  (Acts  ii,  3).      See  PENTECOST; 

Iloi.v  Ghost.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  against 
this  view,  that  ''fire"  elsewhere  is  the  symbol  of  ven- 
geance or  destruction,  and  that  in  all  the  parallel  pas- 
sages it  has  this  import  (see  Kuinol  in  loc).  It  would 
therefore  be  more  appropriate  to  understand  the  fiery 


B AP TI SM AL  FORMULA 


653 


BAPTISTS 


Baptism  to  lie  the  temporal  and  eternal  punishments 
to  which  the  Jews  were  exposed,  in  contrast  with  the 
spiritual  baptism  offered  as  the  other  alternative  (comp. 
the  context  in  Matt,  and  Luke ;  also  the  parallel  pas- 
sages in  Acts).     See  Fire. 

Baptismal  Formula  (Matt,  xxviii,  19).  See 
Baptism;  Trinity;  Sacrament. 

Baptismal  Regeneration.  See  Baptism;  Re- 
generation. 

Baptist,  John  the.     See  John  (the  Baptist). 

Baptist  Denomination.     See  Baptists. 

Baptistery,  a  place  or  room  set  apart  for  per- 
forming baptism.  We  have  no  account  in  the  New 
Testament  of  any  such  separated  places.  John  and 
the  disciples  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  baptized  in  the 
Jordan.  But  baptism  could  be  administered  in  other 
places  (see  Acts  viii,  36,  37;  xvi,  13-16').  There  was 
a  public  baptism  of  three  thousand  converts  on  the 
day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii,  41),  but  no  account  is  given 
of  the  place.  Examples  also  occur  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  of  baptism  in  private  houses.  Passages  in 
the  writings  of  Justin  Martyr,  Clement,  and  Tertullian 
show  that,  during  their  time,  there  were  no  baptisteries. 
In  later  times  the  baptistery  was  one  of  the  exedrce,  or 
buildings  distinct  from  the  church  itself,  and  consist- 
ed of  the  porch,  where  the  person  about  to  be  baptized 
made  the  confession  of  faith,  and  an  inner  room,  w  here 
the  ceremony  was  performed.  Thus  it  remained  till 
the  sixth  century,  when  the  baptistery  was  taken  into 
the  church  porch,  and  afterward  into  the  church  it- 
self. The  ancient  baptisteries  were  sometimes  called 
foj-irrri'ipia  (iUumhmtorui),  either  because  baptism  was 
sometimes  called  q&wrtcr/zoc,  illumination,  or  because 
they  were  places  of  illumination  or  instruction,  preced- 
ing baptism,  where  the  catechumens  were  taught  the 
first  principles  of  the  Christian  faith.  We  occasion- 
ally meet  with  the  word  KoXvjxfiriQpa,  or  piscina  (the 
font).  The  octagonal  or  circular  form  was  adopted, 
surmounted  with  a  dome,  and  the  baptistery  was  situ-  , 
ated  at  the  entrance  to  the  principal  or  western  gate.  ' 
These  edifices  arc  of  considerable  antiquity,  since  one 
was  prepared  for  the  ceremonial  of  the  baptism  of  Clo- 
vis.  It  is  not  possible  to  decide  at  what  period  they 
began  to  be  multiplied,  and  at  length  united  to,  or  I 
changed  into  parish  churches  ;  yet  it  appears  that  the 
alteration  took  place  when  stated  seasons  of  baptism 
ceased,  and  the  right  of  administration  was  ceded  to  ; 
all  presbyters  and  deacons.  The  word  baptistery  is 
now  applied  also  to  the  baptismal  font. — Bingham, 
Orifj.  Eccles.  bk.  viii,  ch.  vii,  §  14;  Farrar,  s.  v. 

Baptists,  a  name  given  to  those  Christian  denom- 
inations which  reject  the  validity  of  infant  baptism,  and 
bold  that  the  ordinance  of  baptism  can  be  administered 
only  to  those  who  have  made  a  personal  profession  of 
faith  in  Christ.  The  Baptist  churches  also,  in  general, 
maintain  that  the  entire  immersion  of  the  body  is  the 
only  scriptural  mode  of  baptism  ;  yet  the  Mennonites, 
who  are  generally  regarded  as  Baptists,  use  sprinkling. 
The  name  Baptist,  as  assumed  by  the  Baptist  denom- 
inations, of  course  implies  that  they  alone  maintain  the 
Christian  doctrine  and  practice  of  baptism  ;  and  in  this  j 
sense  their  right  to  this  distinctive  name  is  denied  by  . 
all  other  Christian  denominations,  as  well  as  the  simi- 
lar claims  of  the  Unitarians  and  (Raman)  Catholics  to 
their  respective  names.  But,  as  established  by  usage, 
without  having  regard  to  its  original  signification,  it 
is  now  generally  adopted.  The  name  Anabaptist  is  ! 
rejected  by  the  Baptists  as  a  term  of  reproach,  because 
they  protest  against  being  identified  with  the  Anabap- 
tists of  Minister,  and  as  also  incorrect,  because  most 
of  their  members  receive  the  rite  for  the  first  time  on 
their  admission  to  a  Baptist  church. 

I.  History. — 1.  Before  the  sixteenth  Century. — All 
Baptists,  of  course,  claim  that  the  apostolic  church 
was  essentially  Baptist,  and  that  infant  baptism  is  an 


innovation.  But  Baptist  writers  differ  concerning  the 
time  of  the  introduction  of  infant  baptism,  and  also  as 
to  the  question  whether  it  is  possible  to  trace  an  unin- 
terrupted succession  of  Baptist  churches  from  the  apos- 
tles' time  down  to  the  present.  Some  Baptist  writers 
have  attempted  to  trace  this  succession,  as  Orchard 
(History  of  Foreign  Baptists,  Lond.  1838),  who  gives, 
as  the  summing  up  of  his  researches,  that  "all  Chris- 
tian communities  during  the  first  three  centuries  were 
of  the  Baptist  denomination  in  constitution  and  prac- 
tice. In  the  middle  of  the  third  century  the  Kovatian 
Baptists  established  separate  and  independent  societies, 
which  continued  until  the  end  of  the  sixth  age,  when 
these  communities  were  succeeded  by  the  Patcrines, 
which  continued  until  the  Reformation  (1517).  The 
Oriental  Baptist  churches,  with  their  successors,  the 
Paulicians,  continued  in  their  purity  until  the  tenth 
century,  when  they  visited  France,  resuscitating  and 
extending  the  ( 'hristian  profession  in  Languedoc,  where 
they  nourished  rill  the  crusading  army  scattered,  cr 
drowned  in  blood,  one  million  of  unoffending  profess- 
ors. The  Baptists  in  Piedmont  and  Germany  are  ex- 
hibited as  existing  under  different  names  down  to  the 
Reformation.  These  churches,  with  their  genuine  suc- 
cessors, the  Mcnnonilcs  of  Holland,  are  connectedly 
and  chronologically  detailed  to  the  present  period." 

This  view  is,  however,  far  from  being  shared  by  all 
Baptists.  The  leading  Baptist  Quarterly  of  America, 
The  Christian  tttview  (Jan.  1855,  p.  23),  remarks  as  fol- 
lows :  "We  know  of  no  assumption  more  arrogant, 
and  more  destitute  of  proper  historic  support,  than  that 
which  claims  to  be  able  to  trace  the  distinct  and  un- 
broken existence  of  a  church  substantially  Baptist 
from  the  time  of  the  apostles  down  to  our  own."  Thus 
also  Cutting  (Historic  Vindications,  Boston,  1859,  p.  14) 
remarks  on  such  attempts :  "  I  have  little  confidence 
in  the  results  of  any  attempt  of  that  kind  which  have 
met  my  notice,  and  I  attach  little  value  to  inquiries 
pursued  for  the  predetermined  purpose  of  such  a  dem- 
onstration." 

The  non-Baptist  historians  of  the  Christian  Church 
almost  unanimously  assert  that  infant  baptism  was 
practised  from  the  beginning  of  Christianity  [see  Bap- 
tism], and  generally  maintain  that  no  organized  body 
holding  Baptist  principles  can  be  found  before  the  rise 
of  the  Anabaptists  (q.  v.),  about  1520.  See  Pauli- 
cians: Lollards;  Waldenses.  Soon  after  the  An- 
abaptists, Menno  (q.  v.)  renounced  the  doctrines  of  the 
Roman  church,  and  organized  (after  153(i)  a  Baptist 
denomination,  which  spread  widely,  especially  in  Ger- 
many and  Holland,  and  still  exists.  See  Menno- 
nites. 

.  2.  Great  Britain. — Whether  and  to  what  extent  Bap- 
tist principles  were  held  in  Great  Britain  before  the 
sixteenth  century  is  still  a  matter  of  historic  contro- 
versy. In  1535  Henry  VIII  ordered  sixteen  Dutch- 
men to  be  put  to  death  for  being  Anabaptists,  and  in 
1539,  30  persons  were  exiled  because  they  rejected  in- 
fant baptism.  The  general  pardon  of  1550  excepted 
the  Baptists.  Elizabeth  commanded  all  Anabaptists 
to  depart  out  of  the  kingdom  within  21  days.  King 
James  refused  all  concessions  to  Baptists,  as  well  as  to 
Nonconformists  in  general.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  Mr.  Smyth  (1610),  a  leading  min- 
ister among  the  Baptists,  published  a  work  against 
persecution,  but  it  called  forth  a  new  proclamation 
against  the  Baptists  and  their  looks,  and  in  1611,  an- 
other Baptist,  Mr.  Wightman,  was  burned.  Cromwell 
protected  the  Baptists,  but  they  were  again  persecuted 
under  Charles  II  and  James  II.  The  Toleration  Act 
of  William  III,  1689,  recognised  them  as  the  third 
dissenting  denomination.  The  first  Baptist  churches 
were  Arminian  ;  a  Calvinistic  Baptist  church  was  es- 
tablished about  1033.  In  1640  there  were  7  Baptist 
congregations  in  London,  and  about  40  more  in  the 
country.  Those  who  held  Arminian  views  received 
the  name  General,  those  who  held  Calvinistic  views, 


T.ALTISTS 


654 


BAPTISTS 


the  name  Particular  Baptists.  Many  General  Bap- '  founded  in  Bhodc  Island,  with  full  and  entire  freedom 
tists  adopted  Arianism  and  Socinianism  ;  and  in  1770,  j  of  conscience.  Ehode  Island  thus  became  the  rirst 
the  orthodox  portion  seceded,  and  formed  what  is  Christian  stato  which  ever  granted  full  religious  lib- 
known  as  the  "New  Connection  of  General  Baptists."  erty.  In  the  other  British  colonies  the  persecution 
Jn  17!»2  William  Carey  prevailed  on  the  Nottingham  against  the  Baptists  continued  a  long  time.  Massa- 
Aasociation  to  found  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  an  chusetts  issued  laws  against  them  in  1G14,  imprisoned 
event  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  history  of  the  ■  several  Baptists  in  1651,  and  banished  others  in  16G9. 
Christian  church  in  general,  for  from  it  dates  the  J  In  1GS0  the  doors  of  a  Baptist  meeting-house  were 
awakening  of  a  new  zeal  in  the  European  and  Amer-  \  nailed  up.  In  New  York  laws  were  issued  against 
lean  churches  for  the  conversion  of  the  pagan  world,  j  them  in  1G62,  in  Virginia  in  1GG4.  With  the  begin- 
in  1842  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  reported  at  its  '  ning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  persecution  greatly 


"Jubilee"  that  it  had  translated  the  Scriptures,  whol- 
ly or  in  part,  into  forty-four  languages  or  dialects  of 
India,  and  printed,  of  the  Scriptures  alone,  in  foreign 
languages  nearly  half  a  million. 


abated.  They  were  released  from  tithes  in  1727 
Massachusetts,  in  1729  in  New  Hampshire  and  Con- 
necticut, but  not  before  1785  in  Virginia.  The  spread 
of  their  principles  was  greatly  hindered  by  these  per- 


Among  the  earliest  writers  of  the  Baptist  denomi-  j  seditions,  especially  in  the  South,  where  in  177G  they 
nation  in  England  were  Edward  Barker,  Samuel  Eieh-  i  counted  about  100  societies.  After  the  Revolution 
ardson,  Christopher  Blackwood,  Hansard  Knollys,  I  they  spread  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  especially  in 
Francis  Cornwell,  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the  seven-  j  the  South  and  South-west,  and  were  inferior  in  this 
t  i  nth  century,  Jeremiah  Ives,  John  Tombes,  John  ,  respect  only  to  the  Methodists.  In  1817  a  triennial 
Norcott,  Henry  D'Anvers,  Benjamin  and  Elias  Reach,  general  convention  was  organized,  which,  however., 
Edward  Hutchinson,  Thomas  Grantham,  Nehemiah  has  since  been  discontinued.  In  1845  the  discussion 
Cox,  D.D.,  Thomas  de  Launne,  and  Dr.  Russell  Col-  ,  of  the  slavery  question  led  to  a  division  of  the  North- 
lins.     But  by  far  the  most  celebrated  of  all  Baptist  ;  em  and  Southern  Baptists.     The  destruction  of  slav- 


writers  is  John  Bunyan.  John  Milton  also  is  claimed 
by  the  Baptists,  though  not  as  a  member  of  their  de- 
nomination,  at  least  as  a  professor  of  their  distinctive 
principles;  for  they  say  he  "composed  his  two  most 


cry,  in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the  Great  Rebellion 
and  the  adoption  of  the  constitutional  amendment  in 
18G5,  led  to  efforts  to  reunite  the  societies  of  the  North- 
ern and  the  Southern  States.     The  Northern  associa- 


i-l a  borate,  painstaking  volumes  to  prove  from  the  ,  tions  generally  expressed  a  desire  to  co-operate  again 
Scriptures  the  divine  origin  and  authority  of  the  dis-  with  their  Southern  brethren  in  the  fellowship  of 
languishing  principles  of  Baptists."  Among  the  Bap-  j  Christian  labor,  but  the}'  demanded  from  the  Southern 
tist  writers  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century    associations  a  profession  of  loyalty  to  the  United  States 


were  Samuel  Ewen,  John  Brine,  Benjamin  Beddome 
the  three  Stennetts  (Joseph  Stennett,  Joseph  Sten- 
nett,  jun.,  D.D.,  Samuel  Stennett,  D.D.),  John  Ev- 
ans. LL.D.,  J.  H.  Evans,  Dr.  Gala,  the  famous  Dr. 
Gill,  Joseph  Burroughs,  William  Zoat,  Caleb  Evans. 
D.D.,  Abraham  Booth,  and  Joseph  Jenkins.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  last  and  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  the  Baptist  denomination  had  a  large  num- 
ber of  writers,  among  whom  were  William  Jones, 
Thomas  Llewellyn,  William  Richards,  Robert  Hall, 
John   Foster,   Andrew   Fuller,  Christopher  Anderson. 


government,  and  they  themselves  deemed  it  necessary 
t j  repeat  the  testimony  which,  during  the  war,  they 
had,  at  each  annual  meeting,  borne  against  slaver}'. 
The  Southern  associations  that  met  during  the  year 
18G5  were  unanimous  in  favor  of  continuing  their  for- 
mer separate  societies,  and  against  fraternization  with 
the  Northern  societies.  They  censured  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society  for  proposing,  with- 
out consultation  or  co-operation  with  the  churches, 
associations,  conventions,  or  organized  boards  of  the 
Southern  States,  to  appoint  ministers  and  missionaries 


and  Joseph  [vimey.  The  Rev.  F.  A.  Cox  (a  Baptist  j  to  preach  and  raise  churches  within  the  bounds  of  the 
writer)  -tabs  (Encyc.  Metrop.},  however,  that,  "till  Southern  associations.  Some  of  the  Southern  associ- 
of  late  years,  Baptist  literature  must  be  regarded  as,  on  ations,  like  that  of  Virginia,  consequently  advised  the 
the  whole,  somewhat  inferior."  Cox  enumerates  among  churches  "to  decline  any  co-operation  "or  fellowship 
the  great  men  of  the  English  Baptists,  "Gale  and  Car-  I  with  any  of  the  missionaries,  ministers,  or  agents  of 
son  for  Greek  scholarship;  Gill  for  Hebrew  knowledge  the  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society."  A 
and  rabbinical  lore;  Carey  for  Oriental  research ;  Ful-  number  of  negro  Baptist  churches  in  the  Southern 
ler  for  theological  wisdom  and  controversial  acuteness ;  States  separated  from  the  Southern  associations,  and 
Hughes  for  the  union  of  elegant  taste  and  public  zeal  either  connected  themselves  with  those  of  the  North, 
in  the  formation  of  the  Bible  and  Tract  Societies;  Fos- j  or  organized,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  Northern 
ter  for  the  reach  and  profundity  of  his  mind  ;  and  Hall !  missionaries,  independent  associations.  Divisions 
as  the  most  chaste  and  beautiful  of  writers,  and,  per-  among  the  American  Baptists  commenced  early  to 
haps,  the  greatest  of  English  preachers."  More  re- 'take  place;  see  Six -Principle  Baptists;  Sev- 
cently,  the  Rev.  C.  II.  Spurgeon  acquired  the  reputa-  kxtii-day  Baptists;  Seventh-day  German  Bap- 
tura  of  being  one  of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  the  tists;  Anti-mission  Baptists;  Free-will  Bap- 
nineteenth  century.  Sir  Morton  Pcto  has  become  a  tists;  Disciples;  Church  of Gon.  Somediviskms 
prouim.„t  m3mber  of  the  House  of  Commons.  See  have  become  extinct,  as  the  Rogerenes,  organized  in 
<  rou.-il.  Lit,  r  ititre  of  Ann  rican  Baptists  in  Missionary  1680  in  Connecticut,  and  called  after  Jonathan  Rogers. 
■'"..'   '  '  P;  ''l!l'  l03  ■  They  observed  the  seventh  dav  instead  of  Sunday,  and 

...   United    States.  — The  Baptist   churches   in   the    believed  in  spiritual  marriages.     The  Free  or  Open 
uted  States  owe  their  origin  to  Roger  Williams  (q.    Communion  Baptists,  who  were  organized  about  1810, 
v.;,  who,  before  his  immersion,  was  an   Episcopalian  United  in  1841  with  the  Free-will  Baptists, 
minuter.       Io   was  persecuted  for  opposing  the  au-        The  Baptist  literature  of  the  United  States  begins 
■         "".'  q"'    "'  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  for    in  the  seventeenth  century  with  the  pleas  of  Roger 
'""l        "l"'1'      'ended  to  Anabaptism."     In  1689    Williams  and  his  companion,  John  Clarke,  for  religious 
'mmersed  by  Ezekiel  Holliman,  and  in  turn    liberty.     Contributions  to  the  denominational  litera- 
."  '•"I  'I  'II""".  and  ten  others,  who  with  him  or-    tore  were  also  made  by  the  Wightmans,  of  Connecti- 
ganizeda  Baptist  Church  al  Providence,  Rhode  Island,    cot  (Valentine,  Timothy,  and  John  Gano"),  the  two 
a  raw  yean  before  (163o  .  though  unknown  to  Wil-   Abel  Morgans,  John  Callender,  and  Benjamin  Griffith. 
ban-,  a  Bapt.stprcacherof  England,  Hansard  Knol-   The  first  Baptist  book  on  Systematic  Theologv  was 
l.y,  had  settled  in  Nee    Hampshire  and  taken  charge    published  in  1700  by  the  Rev.  John  Watts.  'About 
Of  a  Cure!,  ,,,  Dover;  but  he  resigned  in  1689  and  re-    the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  centurv  the  Rev.  Isaac 

turned  to   England.     Wilhai bfc 1    in   Kill    a    Backus  commenced  bis  literary  career.     He  was  fol- 

.  I.  r.  r  for  the  colony  which  he  and  his  associates  had    lowed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Stillman,  Rev.  Morgan  Edwards, 


BAPTISTS 


655 


BAPTISTS 


Samuel  Shepard,  Rev.  William  Roger?,  Rev.  Richard 
Furman,  and  the  eccentric  John  Leland.  Fruitful 
authors  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  were 
Thomas  Baldwin,  D.D.,  Rev.  Henry  Holcombe,  James 
Manning,  D.D.,  Rev.  Dr.  Stanford,  Rev.  Dr.  Mercer, 
Rev.  A.  Broaddus,  Rev.  Jonathan  Maxey,  D.D.,  and 
Rev.  William  Staughton,  D.D.  The  literature  of  the 
last  fifty  years  is  very  numerous.  We  give  below 
(from  Crowell,  Literature  of  the  American  Baptists 
during  the  last  fifty  years,  in  Missionary  Jubilee,  N.  Y. 
1865,  p.  405-465)  a  list  of  the  most  important  denomi- 
national works  of  Baptist  authors,  and  of  the  most 
important  contributions  of  Baptist  authors  to  religious 
and  general  literature. 

A.  Denominational  Literature.  —  a.  Didactic. — Jesse 
Mercer,  of  Georgia  (on  Ordination;  Church  Authority; 
Lord's  Supper) ;  Andrew  Broaddus,  Va.  (Church  Dis- 
cipline) ;  W.  Crowell,  111.  (Church  Members'  Manu- 
al); Warham  Walker,  N.  Y.  (Church  Discipline);  E. 
Savage  (Church  Discipline)  ;  J.  L.  Reynolds  (Church 
Order)  ;  Th.  F.  Curtis  (Progress  of  Baptist  Principles  , 
Communion)  ;  Fr.  Wayland  (Principles  and  Practices 
of  Baptist  Churches) ;  D.  C.  Haynes  (The  Baptist  De- 
nomination) ;  E.  T.  Hiscox  (Church  Directorv) ;  W. 
Jewell,  S.  W.  Lynd,  Mill,  R.  Fuller,  T.  L.  Davidson, 
N.  M.  Crawford,  E.  Turney,  W.  C.  Duncan,  M.  G. 
Clarke  (Baptism);  A.  N.  Arnold  (Communion);  J.  L. 
Dagg  (Church  Order),  b.  Historical. — Benedict  (Hist, 
of  Baptists,  the  standard  American  work) ;  Duncan 
(Early  Baptists)  ;  W.  Gammell  (American  Baptist  Mis- 
sions) ;  W.  Hague  (Baptist  Church  transplanted  from 
the  Old  to  the  New  World)  ;  J.  Newton  Brown  (Hist, 
of  Bapt,  Publication  Society  ;  Baptist  Martyrs  ;  Simon 
Menno)  ;  F.  Dennison  (Baptists  and  their  Principles)  ; 
S.  S.  Cutting  (Provinces  and  Uses  of  Baptist  History). 
c.  Polemic  (against  other  denominations). — S.  Wilcox, 
D.  Haseall,  Th.  Baldwin,  G.  Foote,  J.  T.  Hinton,  W. 
Hague,  J.  Richards,  J.  J.  Woolsey,  C.  H.  Hosken,  R. 
B.  C.  Howell,  E.  Turney,  G.  W.  Anderson,  J.  T.  Smith, 
T.  G.  Jones,  S.  Henderson,  A.  C.  Dayton  (the  latter 
two  specially  against  Methodism).  <l.  Apologetic  (in 
defence  of  Baptist  principles).. —  Among  those  who 
wrote  in  defence  of  the  Baptists  respecting  the  Lord's 
Supper  were  T.  Baldwin,  J.  Mercer,  D.  Sharp,  Spen- 
cer C.  Cone,  A.  Broaddus,  D.  Merrill,  G.  F.  Davis,  II. 
J.  Ripley,  Barnas  Sears,  J.  B.  Taylor,  T.  F.  Curtis,  J. 
Knapp,  A.  N.  Arnold,  W.  Crowell,  II.  Harvey,  John 
L.  Waller,  A.  Hovey,  C.  H.  Pendleton,  M.  V.  Kitz 
Miller,  Willard  Judd,  James  Pyper,  J.  M.  C.  Brcaher, 
M.  G.  Clarke,  J.  Wheaton  Smith.  Among  the  writers 
defending  the  denominational  view  of  Baptism  are  D. 
Merrill,  H.  Holcomb,  Irah  Chase,  H.  J.  Ripley,  Ado- 
niram  Judson,  W.  Judd,  A.  Bronson,  J.  T.  Smith,  W. 
Hague,  T.  G.  Jones,  Richard  Fuller,  J.  Bates,  J.  Dow- 
ling,  e.  Hymn-books. — The  principal  writers  of  lyric 
poetry  arc  S.  F.  Smith,  S.  Dver,  S.  D.  Phelps,  S.  P. 
Hill,  H.  S.  Washburn,  James  D.  Knowles,  J.  R.  Scott, 
Miss  M.  A.  Collier,  Mill,  L.  H.  Hill,  J.  N.  Brown,  R. 
Turnbull. 

B.  Contributions  of  Baptist  Authors  to  Religions  Lit- 
erature.— a.  Didactic. — Broaddus  (Hist,  of  the  Bible); 
W.  Collier  (Gospel  Treasury);  H.  Holcombe  (Primi- 
tive Theology)  ;  J.  Newton  Brown  (Encyclopaedia  of 
Religious  Knowledge;  Obligations  of  the  Sabbath); 
Howard  Malcom  (Bible  Dictionary;  Extent  of  Atone- 
ment) ;  Francis  Wayland  (The  Ministry  ;  Human  Re- 
sponsibility); W.  R.  Williams  (The  Lord's  Prayer; 
Religious  Progress)  ;  H.  C.  Fish  (History  of  Pulpit 
Eloquence),  b.  Critical  and  Lixegetical. — Irah  Chase 
(Constitutions  and  Canons  of  the  Apostles  ;  Daniel)  ; 
H.  J.  Ripley  (Four  Gospels ;  Acts  ;  Romans) ;  H.  B. 
Hackett(Chaldee  and  Hebrew  Grammars;  Acts;  Phi- 
lemon) ;  A.  C.  Kendrick  (Olshausen's  Commentary)  : 
Th.  C.  Conant  (Gesenius's  Hebrew  Grammar ;  Job ;  the 
word  HaTrTiZuv~) ;  Mrs.  H.  C.  Conant  (Neander's  Com- 
mentaries); R.  E.  Pattison  (Ephesians);  J.  T.  Hinton 
(Daniel)  ;  A.  Hovey  (Miracles  of  Christ) ;  E.  Hutchin- 


son (Syriac  Grammar)  ;  A.  Sherwood  (Notes  on  New 
Testament),  c.  Pohmicid. — Against  Universalism,  by 
E.  Andrews,  J.  Tripp,  J.  Russell,  W.  C.  Rider,  R.  R. 
Coon  ;  against  Roman  Catholicism,  by  J.  Dowling  and 
R.  Fuller,  d.  Historical.— Benedict  (Hist,  of  all  Re- 
ligions);  J.  O.  Choules  (Hist,  of  Missions);  Mrs.  11. 
C.  Conant  (Popular  Hist,  of  the  Bible). 

4.  Continent  of  Europe. — After  the  extirpation  of  the 
Anabaptists,  the  Baptist  principles  were  represented 
on  the  European  continent  almost  exclusively  by  the 
Mennonites  (q.  v.).  In  1834  a  Baptist  society  was  or- 
ganized in  Hamburg  by  Oncken,  a  native  German,  who 
was  immersed  in  the  Elbe  in  1833  by  Dr.  Sears,  since 
which  time  the  Baptists  have  spread  rapidly  in  North- 
ern Europe.  In  several  states,  as  Sweden  and  Meck- 
lenburg, they  met  with  cruel  persecution,  but  in  Ham- 
burg they  were  recognised  by  the  state  in  1859.  Be- 
sides the  independent  churches  organized  by  them, 
Baptist  doctrine,  or  at  least  the  rejection  of  paedobap- 
tism,  has  found  some  adherents  in  several  other  church- 
es, e.  g.  some  pastors  in  the  Free  Evangelical  churches  of 
France,  in  the  Eeformal  State  Church  of  France,  and  in 
the  Free  Apostolic  Church,  founded  in  1856  in  Norway. 
Among  the  missions  established  by  the  Baptists  in  Asia, 
Africa,  and  Australasia,  those  in  India,  especially  those 
among  the  Karens  in  Burmah  (q.  v.),  have  been  the 
most  successful.  The  Karen  mission  not  only  counts 
numerous  congregations,  but  is  already  the  nucleus  of 
a  Christian  nation. 

II.  Doctrines  and  Government. — The  Baptists  have 
no  standard  Confession  of  Faith.  As  their  churches 
are  independent,  each  adopts  its  own  articles  of  re- 
ligion. In  England,  as  has  been  stated  above,  the 
"Old  Connection"  are  chief!}'  Socinians;  the  "New 
Connection,"  evangelical  Arminians  ;  the  "  Particular 
Baptists,"  Calvinists  of  various  shades.  In  the  United 
States,  the  regular  Baptists  are  for  the  most  part  Cal- 
vinists, perhaps  of  a  stricter  order  than  their  British 
brethren.  The  Baptists  generally  form  "Associa- 
tions," which,  however,  exercise  no  jurisdiction  over 
the  churches.  They  recognise  no  higher  church  offi- 
cers than  pastors  and  deacons.  Elders  are  sometimes 
ordained  as  evangelists  and  missionaries.  Between 
clergy  and  laity  the}'  recognise  no  other  distinction  but 
that  of  office. 

Though  Regular  Baptists  accept  of  no  authority 
other  than  the  Bible  for  their  faith  and  practice,  yet 
nearly  all  of  the  societies  have  a  confession  of  faith  in 
pamphlet  form  for  distribution  among  its  members. 
The  following  form,  generally  known  as  the  "New 
Hampshire  Confession  of  Faith,"  is  perhaps  in  mere 
general  use  among  the  societies  in  the  North  and 
East,  while  the  "Philadelphia  Confession  of  Faith" 
is  that  generally  adopted  in  the  South.  We  give 
both : 


Covfe 


of  Faith  of  Regular  fiapti±ts  (Xorthcrn). 


1.  The  Scriptures.— W~e  believe  that  the  Holy  Bible  wns 
written  by  men  divinely  inspired,  ami  is  a  perfect  treasure  of 
heavenly  instruction;  that  it  has  God  for  its  author,  salva- 
tion fur  its  end,  and  truth,  without  any  mixtuie  of  error,  for 

its  matter;  that  it  reveals  the  principles  by  which  Cod  will 
judge  us;  and  therefore  is,  and  shall  remain  to  the  end  of  the 
world,  the  true  centre  of  Christian  union,  and  the  supreme 
standard  by  which  all  human  conduct,  creeds,  and  opinions 
should  be  tried. 

2.  The  True  God. — We,  believe  th  ■  Scriptures  teach  that 
there  is  one,  and  only  one,  living  and  t  ue  God,  an  infinite, 
intelligent  Spirit,  whose  name  is  JEHOVAH,  the  Maker  and 
Supreme  Ruler  of  heaven  and  earth;  inexpressibly  glorious 
in  holiness,  and  worthy  of  all  possible  honor,  confidence,  and 
love;  that  in  the  unity  of  the  Godhead  tin  re  are  three  per- 
sons, the  Father,  the  Son, and  the  Holy  Ghost,  equal  in  ev- 
ery divine  perfection,  and  executing  distinct  but  harmonious 
offices  in  the  great  work  of  redemption. 

3.  The  Fall  of  Man.— We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach  that 
man  was  created  in  holiness,  under  the  law  of  his  Maker;  but 
by  voluntary  transgression  fell  from  that  holy  and  happy 
state;  in  consequence  of  which  all  mankind  are  now  sinners, 
not  by  constraint,  but  choice;  being  by  nature  utterly  void  of 
that  holiness  required  by  the  law  of  Cod.  pi.-itively  inclined 
to  evil,  and  therefore  under  just  condemnation  to  etcra.l  ruin, 
without  defence  or  excuse. 


BAPTISTS 


U5G 


BAPTISTS 


4.  The  Wa  I  Of  Salt  Ition.-We  believe  the  scrip turcs  tench 
that  tlu-  salvation  of  sinners  is  wl...lly  ..j  grace  through  the 
SedUtorijJ  office,  of  the  Son  of  God,  who,  by  the  appoint. 
mot  of  the  fetter,  fra  ly  to  *  up  n  Mm  our  nature,  yet  with- 

S  in;  honored  the  divine  law  by  his  personal  obedience, 
„,,,  i.vhis  death  mule  a  full  atonement    „r  our  sans  ;  that, 

having  ri-en  fr the  dead,  he  is  now  enthroned  in  heaven; 

„„,,  „„!,!„,  in  his  wond  rful  person  the  tenderest  sympathies 
with  .li»  in-  perfoe.inns  he  ,s  ,-very  way  qualified  to  be  a  suit- 

.,  .,  ,.,,.,  ,..;  ,„:lt,..  and  an  all  Mitheient  Saviour. 
"  r,  '/,/,  ,  .„/  ,,,,.  We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach  that  the 
ing  which  Chri.-t  secures  to  such  as  believe 
in  him  is  justification;  that  justification  includes  the  pardon 
of  sin  and  the  promise  of  eternal  Life  on  principles  of  right - 
thai  ii  is  bestowed,  not  in  consideration  of  any 
works  ofii"hte  'usness  which  we  have  done,  but  solely  through 
faith  in  the  Redeemer's  blond,  by  virtue  of  which  faith  his 
11  :t  ct  ri-hteousncss  is  freely  imputed  to  ns  of  God;  that  it 
brings  us  into  a  state  of  most  blessed  peace  and  favor  with 
God,  and  secures  every  other  blessing  needful  for  time  and 
eternity.  ,    ..    .  ., 

<;.  S.tlrili»i>.—We  belive  the  Scriptures  teach  that  the 
fsah  ation  are  made  free,  to  all  by  the  Gospel;  that 
it  i-  the  immediate  duty  of  all  to  accept  tluni  by  a  cordial, 
|,  nit, -it.  and  obedient  faith;  and  that  nothing  prevents  the 
salvation  of  the  greatest  sinner  on  earth  but  his  own  deter- 
mine !  depravity  and  voluntary  rejection  of  the  Gospel,  which 
reji  cioii  involves  him  in  an  aggravated  condemnation. 

7,  Regeneration.—  We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach  that  in 
order  to  be  saved  sinners  must  be  regenerated,  or  born  again; 
that  rig  iteration  consists  in  giving  a  holy  disposition  to  the 
mind;  that  it  is  effected  in  a  manner  above  our  comprehen- 
sion by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  connection  with  divine 
truth,  so  as  to  secure  our  voluntary  obedience  to  the  Go-pel; 
tin  1  that  its  proper  evidence  appears  in  the  holy  fruits  of  re- 
pentance, .and  faith,  and  newness  of  life. 

B.  /.'  />■  ntan  ■<:  and  Faith.  —We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach 
that  repentance  and  faith  are  sacred  duties,  and  also  insepa- 
rable graces,  wrought  in  our  souls  by  the  regenerating  Spirit 
ot  t ...  1.  w  hereby,  being  deeply  convinced  of  our  guilt,  danger, 
and  helplessness,  and  of  the  way  of  salvation  by  Christ,  we 
turn  to  God  with  uufeigned  contrition,  confession,  and  suppli- 
cation for  mercy;  at  the  same  time  heartily  receiving  the 
I. md  .lesii-  Christ  as  our  prophet,  priest,  and  king,  and  rely- 
ing on  him  alone  as  the  only  and  all-sufficient  Saviour. 

9.  God's  Purpose  of  Grace. — We  believs  the  Scriptures 
teach  that  election  is  the  eternal  purpose  of  God,  according  to 
which  he  graciously  regenerates,  sanctiti  s,  and  saves  sinners ; 
that,  being  perfectly  consist, ait  with  the  free  agency  of  man,  it 

a  Is  all  the  means  in  connection  with  the  end;  that 
r  is  a  most  glorious  display  of  God's  sovereign  goodness,  being 
infinitely  tree,  wise,  holy,  and   unehangeabl  ■;   that  it  utterly 

excludes  boasting,  and  pr tes  humility,  love,  prayer, praise, 

tru-t  in  God,  and  active  imitation  of  his  free  mercy;  that  it 
encourages  the  use  of  means  in  the  highest  degree;  that  it 
may  be  ascertained  by  its  effects  in  all  who  truly  believe  the 
Gospel;  that  it  is  the  foundation  of  Christian  assurance;  and 
thai  to  ascertain  i;  with  regard  to  ourselves  demands  and  de- 
serves (he  utmost  diligence. 

10.  Saiirti/ication      We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach  that 

e,  ,u   is  the  process  by  which,  according  to  the  will 

of  c,,!.  we  are  made  partaken  of  his  holiness;  that  it  is  a 
work;  that  it  ie  begun  in  regeneration;  and  that 
it  i-  carried  Oil  in  the  bear  s  of  believers  by  the  presence  and 
power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Sealer  and' Comforter,  in  the 
continual  use  of  the  appointed  means  especially  the  word  of 
God,  self-examination,  self  denial,  watchfulness,"  and  prayer. 

11.  Pi-meverancc  of  Saint*  We  beli  ve  the  Scriptures 
teach  that  Buch  only  are  real  believers  as  endure  unto  the 
end;  that  their  | n  ring  attachment  to  Chri-t  is  the  grand 

ich  distingui  In-  them  from  superficial  professors; 

K  C  al    Providcnc  ■    watches    OV   r   their    welfare;    and 

thej   are  kepi  by  the  power  of  God  through  faith  unto  salva- 

ti  in. 

12.  The  Law  and.  Gospel.  -We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach 
thai   the  la«   refGod   i-  the  eternal  and  inn  haieje able  rule  of 

I  ivernment;  that  it  is  holy,  just,  and  good;  and 
tint  the  inability  «  h'ch  Hi-  Scriptures  ascribe  to  fallen  man 
•"  ml"'  Its  pre  epta  (irises  entirely  from  their  love  of  sin;  to 

deliver  thorn  (mm  which,  and  to  restore  them  through  a  Me- 
dial.,r  to  i, nt  ague  1  oho  ho-,ee  (,,  th     holy  law,  is  ,„„.  gr  at  end 
the  i. .-pel.  and  of  the  means   of  g  •;,,.,.  connected  with  the 

establishment  of  the  risible  church. 

':;-  •'  '■  kVe  believe  the  Scriptures  tench  that 

'         a  ■    .llgfeeatio-l  of  baptized  h    liev- 

ml  in  the  faith  nnd  fellowship  of  the 

Co- pel  ;  ob-.rviie.-  the  ..,■  li„ ,,,,, .,._  ,,|  (  ],,.;,,  .    ,.,lVeriied  bv  his 

I  its.and  p  ivlle  a-  invested 

In  them  ,   ••,i,,,-,i"„fncers  are 

an  1  d  ■ai-  a-,  w  le.-e  on  ,|  ti   ation-    claims 

end  duties  are  define  I  in  the  i  i,i.n...  t,,  ■  i  --.,,...» i ..  -  ..,,,i"  ■!•,,, .  ' 


the  dying  love  of  Christ,  preceded  always  by  solemn  self-ex- 
amination. 

15.  The  Christian  Sabbath.  —We  believe  the  Scriptures 
teach  that  the  first  day  of  the  week  is  the  Lord's  day,  or 
Christian  Sabbath;  and  it  is  to  be  kept  sacred  to  religious 
purposes  by  abstaining  from  all  secular  labor  and  sinful  re- 
creation ,  by  the  devout  observance  of  all  the  means  of  grace, 
both  private  and  public,  and  by  preparation  for  that  rest 
which  teiiiainetli  for  the  people  of  God. 

10.  Civil  Government.  —We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach 
that  civil  government  is  of  divine  appointment,  for  the  inter- 
est and  good  order  of  human  society;  and  that  magistrates 
are  to  be  prayed  for,  conscientiously  honored  and  obeyed,  ex- 
cept only  iu  tilings  opposed  to  the  will  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who  is  the  only  Lord  of  the  conscience,  and  the  Prince 
of  the  kings  of  the  earth. 

IT.  Righteous  and  Wicked. — We  believe  the  Scriptures 
teach  that  there  is  a  radical  and  essential  difference  between 
the  righteous  and  the  wicked  ;  that  such  only  as  through  faith 
are  justified  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  sanctified  by 
the  :?pirit  of  our  God,  are  truly  righteous  in  his  esteem  ;  while 
all  such  as  continue  in  impenitence  and  unbelief  are,  in  his 
sight,  wicked  and  under  the  curse ;  and  this  distinction  holds 
among  men  both  in  anil  after  death. 

IS.  The  World  to  Come We  believe  the  Scriptures  teach 

that  the  end  of  the  world  is  approaching;  that  at  the  last  day 
Christ  will  descend  from  heaven,  and  raise  the  dead  from  the 
grave  for  tinal  retribution ;  that  a  solemn  separation  will  then 
take  place;  that  the  wicked  will  be  adjudged  to  endless  pun- 
ishment, and  the  righteous  to  endless  joy  ;  and  that  this  judg- 
ment will  fix  forever  the  final  state  of  men  in  heaven  or  hell, 
on  principles  of  righteousness. 

19.  Covenant. — Having  been,  as  we  trust,  brought  by  divine 
grace  to  embrace  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  give  ourselves 
wholly  to  him,  we  do  now  solemnly  and  joyfully  covenant  wi.h 
each  other  to  walk  TOGETHER  in  him,  with  brotherly  love, 
to  his  glory  as  our  common  Lord.  We  do  therefore,  in  his 
strength,  engage — 

That  we  will  exercise  a  Christian  care  and  watchfulness 
over  each  other,  and  faithfully  warn,  exhort,  and  admonish 
each  other  as  occasion  may  require  : 

That  we  will  not  forsake  the  assembling  of  ourselves  togeth- 
er, but  will  uphold  the  public  worship  of  God  and  the  ordi- 
nances of  his  house : 

That  we  will  not  omit  closet  and  family  religion  at  home, 
nor  neglect  the  great  duty  of  religiously  training  our  children 
and  those  under  our  care  for  the  service  of  Christ  and  the  en- 
joyment of  heaven : 

That,  as  we  are  the  light  of  the  world  and  salt  of  the  earth, 
we  will  seek  divine  aid  to  enable  us  to  deny  ungodliness,  and 
even  worldly  lust,  and  to  walk  circumspectly  in  the  world, 
that  we  may  win  the  souls  of  men: 

That  we  will  cheerfully  contribute  of  our  property,  accord- 
ing as  God  has  prospered  us,  for  the  maintenance  of  a  faith- 
f nl  and  evangelical  ministry  among  us,  for  the  support  of  the 
poor,  and  to  spread  the  Gospel  over  the  earth  : 

That  v.*  will  in  all  conditions,  even  till  death,  strive  to  live 
to  the  glory  of  him  who  hath  called  us  out  of  darkness  into 
his  marvellous  light. 

"And  may  the  Cod  of  peace,  who  brought  again  from  the 
dead  our  Lord  Jesus,  that  great  shepherd  of  the  sheep,  through 
the  blood  of  the  everlasting  covenant,  make  us  perfect  in  every 
good  work,  to  do  his  will,  working  in  us  that  which  is  well 
pleading  in  his  sight,  through  Je.-us  Chri.-t;  to  whom  be  glory 
forever  and  ever.     Amen." 

Cjnfession  of  Faith  of  Baptist  Churches  (Southern). 

1.  Holy  Scripture.— The  holy  Scripture  is  the  only  snffi. 
cient,  certain,  and  infallible  rule  of  all  saving  knowledge, 
faith,  and  obedience;  the  supreme  judge  by  which  all  con- 
troversies i)f  r,  ligion  arc  to  be  di  ter mined,  and  all  decrees  of 
councils,  opinions  of  ancient  writers,  doctrines  of  men,  and 
private  spirits,  are  to  be  examined,  and  in  whose  sentence  we 
are  to  rest. 

2.  God  the  Trinttv The  Lord  our  Clod  is  but  one  only  liv- 
ing and  true  Cod,  infinite  i:i  being  and  perfection.  In  this 
divine  and  infinite  being  there  are  three  snbsisteneies,  the 
Lather,  the  Word  (or  Son),  and  Holy  Spirit,  of  one  substance, 
power,  and  eternity. 

3  God's  Decree.— Those  of  mankind  that  are  predestinated 
to  life,  Cod,  before  the  foundation  of  the  world  was  laid,  ac- 
cording to  his  eternal  and  immutable  purpose,  and  the  secret 
Counsel  and  good  pleasure  of  his  will,  hath  chose  in  Christ 
unto  everlasting  glory,  out  of  his  mere  free  grace  and  love, 
without  any  other  tliing  in  I  he  creature  as  a  condition  or 
cause   moving  him  thereunto.     As  Cod  bath  appointed  the 


I  I    / 


•t  the  I  ather.  and  Son,  and   Holy 

nd  beautiful  emblem  our 

a  Saviour,  with  its  effect 

irrectlon  to  a  new  life;  that  it  is 

te  to  the  privilege*  ,,f  „  ,.,,„,,.,,  lv,;lti,„,_  „„,,  ,,,  „|(. 

upper,  lii  «h  eh  the  members  of  the  church  by  the 
..-■!  use  of  bread  and  wine,  are  to  commemorate  together 


lore  thev  who  are  elected,  being  fallen  in  Adam,  are  redeemed 
by  Chris,,  are  effectually  called  unto  faith  by  Christ, by  his 
Spirit  working  in  due  season,  are  justified,  adopted,  sanctified, 
and  kept  by  his  power  through  faith  unto  salvation. 

4  The  Fall  of  Man  and  Sin, — Although  God  created  man 
upright  and  perfect,  and  gave  to  him  a  righteous  law,  yet  he 
did  not  long  abide  In  this  honor,  but  did  Wilfully  transgress 
the  command  given  unto  him  in  eating  the  forbidden  fruit; 
which  God  was  pleased,  aceordiiig  to  hi-  wise  and  holy  ,-ounscl, 
to  permit,  having  purposed  to  order  it  to  his  own  glory.  I  Irr 
first  parents,  by  this  »j>,  fell  from  their  original  righteous- 
ness and  communion  wi  h  God,  whereby  death  came  upon  all; 


BAPTISTS 


057 


BAPTISTS 


nil  becoming  dead  in  sin,  and  wholly  defiled  in  all  the  facul- 
ties and  parts  of  .soul  and  body.  They  being  the  root,  cor- 
rupted nature  was  conveyed  to  all  thi  ir  posterity,  descending 
from  them  by  ordinary  generation,  being  now  conceived  in 
sin,  and  by  nature  children  of  wrath. 

5.  God's  Covenant. — .Man  having  brought  himself  under  the 
curse  of  the  law  by  his  fall,  it  pleased  the  Lord  to  reveal  the 
Covenant  of  Grac  •,  wherein  he  freely  offereth  unto  sinners 
life  and  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ,  requiring  of  them  faith  in 
him  that  they  might  be  saved  ;  and  promising  to  give  unto  all 
those  that  are  ordained  unto  eternal  lite  his  Holy  Spirit,  to 
make  them  trilling  and  able  to  believe. 

0.  Christ  the.  Mediator.— The  Son  of  Cod,  the  second  person 
in  the  Holy  Trinity,  being  very  and  eternal  God,  the  bright- 
ness of  the  Father's  glory,  of  one  substance,  and  equal  with 
him,  who  made  the  world,  who  upholdeth  and  governeth  all 
things  he  hath  made,  did,  when  the  fullness  of  time  was  come, 
take  upon  him  man's  nature,  with  all  the  essential  properties 
and  common  infirmities  thereof,  yet  without  sin — so  that  two 
whole,  perfect,  and  distinct  natures  were  inseparably  joined 
together  in  one  person,  which  person  is  very  God  and  very 
man,  yet  one  Christ,  the  only  Mediator  between  God  and  man. 

7.  Redemption.—  The  Lord  Jesus,  by  his  perfect  obedience 
and  sacrifice  of  himself,  which  he,  through  the  eternal  Spirit, 
once  offered  up  unto  God,  hath  fully  satisfied  the  justice  of 
God,  procured  reconciliation,  and  purchased  an  everlasting 
inheritance  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  for  all  those  whom  the 
Father  hath  given  unto  him. 

To  all  those  for  whom  Christ  hath  obtained  eternal  redemp- 
tion he  doth  certainly  and  effectually  apply  and  communicate 
the  same ;  making  intercession  for  them ;  uniting  them  to 
himself  by  his  Spirit ;  revealing  unto  them,  in  and  by  the 
word,  the  mystery  of  salvation;  persuading  them  to  believe 
and  obey;  governing  their  hearts  by  his  word  and  Spirit, 
and  overcoming  all  their  enemies  by  his  almighty  power  and 
wisdom,  in  such  manner  and  ways  as  are  most  consonant  to 
his  wonderful  and  unsearchable  dispensation,  and  all  of  free 
and  absolute  grace,  without  any  condition  foreseen  in  them  to 
procure  it. 

S.  The  K'?7/.— Man,  by  his  fall  into  a  state  of  sin,  hath  whol- 
ly lost  all  will  to  any  spiritual  good  accompanying  salvation; 
so  as  a  natural  man,  being  altogether  averse  from  that  good, 
and  dead  in  sin,  is  not  able  by  his  own  strength  to  convert 
himself,  or  to  prepare  himself  thereunto. 

When  God  converts  a  sinner,  and  translates  him  into  a 
»tate  of  grace,  he  freeth  him  from  his  natural  bondage  under 
sin,  and  by  his  grace  alone  enables  him  freely  to  will  and  to 
do  that  which  is  spiritually  good. 

i».  Effi-c'ual  Calling.— Those  whom  God  hath  predestinated 
unto  life  he  is  pleased,  in  his  appointed  and  ace  pted  time, 
effectually  to  call  by  his  word  and  Spirit  out  of  that  state  of 
sin  and  death  in  which  they  are  by  nature,  to  grace  of  salva- 
tion by  Jesus  Christ. 

10.  Justification.— Those  whom  God  effectually  calleth  he 
also  freely  justifieth.  accounting  and  accepting  their  persons 
as  righteous;  not  for  anything" wrought  in  them  or  done  by 
them,  but  for  Christ's  sake  alone. 

11.  Adoption.  —  All  those  that  are  justified,  God  vouchsafed, 
in  and  for  the  sake  of  Irs  only  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  to  make  par- 
takers of  the  grace  of  adoption,  by  which  they  are  taken  into 
the  number,  and  enjoy  the  liberties  and  privileges  of  children 
of  God. 

12.  Sanctification.— They  who  are  united  to  Christ,  effectu 
ally  called  and  regenerated,  having  a  new  heart  and  a  new 
spirit  created  in  them,  through  the  virtue  of  Christ's  death 
and  resurrection,  are  also  further  sanctified,  really  and  per 
s  inally,  through  the  tame  virtue,  by  his  word  and  Spirit 
dwelling  in  them. 

13.  Saving  Faith. — The  grace  of  faith,  whereby  the  elect 
are  enabled  to  believe  to  the  saving  of  their  souls,  is  the  work 
of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  in  their  hearts,  and  is  ordinarily  wrought 
by  the  ministry  of  the  word. 

14.  Hcpentanec.—X-.wing  repentance  is  an  evangelical  g'aoe, 
whereby  a  person,  being  by  the  Holy  Spirit  made  sensible  of 
the  manifold  evils  of  his  sin,  doth,  by  faith  in  Christ,  humble 
himself  for  it,  with  godly  sorrow,  detestation  of  it,  and  self-ab- 
horreney. 

15.  Gdod  Works. — Good  works,  done  in  obedience  to  God's 
commandments,  are  the  fruits  and  evidences  of  a  true  and  live- 
ly faith. 

111.  I  •ersererance.— Those  whom  God  hath  accepted  in  the 
Beloved,  effectually  called  and  sanctified  by  his  Spirit,  shall 
certainly  persevere  therein  to  the  end,  and  b  •  eternally  savul. 

IT.  Moral  Lave. — The  moral  law  doth  forever  bind  all,  as 
well  justified  persons  as  others,  to  the  obedience  thereof,  and 
that  not  only  in  regard  to  the  mutter  contained  in  it,  but  also 
in  respect  of  the  authority  of  God  the  Creator  who  gave  it; 
neither  doth  Christ  in  the  Gospel  any  way  diss<  lvc,  but  much 
strengthen  this  obligation. 

IS.  Tlic  Sabbath. — God,  by  his  word,  in  a  positive,  moral, 
ami  perpetual  commandment,  binding  all  men,  in  all  ages, 
hath  particularly  app  >inted  one  day  in  seven  for  a  Sabbath  to 
bo  kept  holy  unto  him,  which,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world  to  the"  resurrection  of  Christ,  was  the  last  day  of  the 
week;  and  from  the  resurrection  of  Christ  was  changed  into 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  which  he  called  the  Lord's  day. 

19.  The  Chui  ch The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  U  the  head  of  the 

church,  in  whom,  by  the  appointment  of  the  Fatlu  r,  all  pow<  r 

for  the  calling,  institution,  order,  or  government  of  the  church 

is  invested  in  a  supreme  and  severer  n  m:\nrie"-.     :  n  the  ex  en- 

Tt 


tion  of  this  power,  the  Lord  Jesus  calleth  out  of  the  world  unto 
himself,  through  the  ministry  of  his  word,  by  his  Spirit,  tho-e 
that  are  given  unto  him  by  his  Father,  that  they  may  walk 
before  him  in  all  the  ways  of  obedience,  which  he  prescribeth 
to  them  in  his  word. 

20.  Church  Officers.— A  particular  church  gathered,  end 
completely  organized  according  to  the  mind  of  Christ,  consists 
of  officers  and  members:  and  the  officers  appointed  by  Chr'st 
to  be  chosen  and  set  apart  by  the  church  are  bishops,  or  elders, 
and  deacons. 

21.  Minister ',  their  Luty  and  Support The  voik  of  rap- 
tors being  constantly  to  attend  the  service  of  Christ,  in  his 
churches,  in  the  ministry  of  the  word,  and  prayer,  with  watch- 
ing for  their  souls,  as  they  that  must  give  an  account  to  him, 
it  is  incumbent  on  the  churches  to  whom  they  minister  not 
only  to  give  them  all  due  respect,  but  to  communicate  to  them 
of  all  their  good  things,  according  to  their  ability. 

22.  Baptism.— Baptism  is  an  ordinance  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, ordained  by  Jesus  Christ  to  be  unt.o  the  party  baptized 
a  sign  of  his  fellowship  with  him  in  Ins  death  and  resurrec- 
tion; of  his  being  ingralted  into  him;  of  remission  of  sins; 
and  of  his  giving  up  unto  God,  through  Jesus  Chiist,  to  live 
and  walk  in  newness  of  life.  Those  who  do  actually  profess 
repentance  toward  God,  and  obedience  to  our  Lord  Jesus 
t  hrist,  are  the  only  props  r  subjects  of  this  ordinance.  '1  he 
outward  element  to  be  used  in  this  e  refinance  is  water,  where- 
in the  party  is  to  he  immersed,  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Gh(  st. 

23.  Loia's  Supper The  supper  of  the  Lord  Jesus  was  in- 

f  tit u ted  by  him,  the  same  night  wherein  he  was  betrayed,  to 
be  observed  in  his  chinches  unto  the  end  of  the  world,  for  the 
perpetual  remembrance  and  showing  forth  the  sacrifice  of 
himself  in  his  dt  ath. 

24.  The  Reiurrection.—The  bodies  of  men  after  death  re- 
turn to  dust,  hut  their  souls,  which  neither  die  nor  sleep,  hav- 
ing an  immortal  subsistence,  immediately  return  to  Cod  who 
gave  them  ;  the  souls  of  the  righteous,  being  then  made  per- 
fect in  holiness,  are  leceived  into  paradise,  wl  e:e  they  are 
with  Christ,  and  behold  the  face  of  Gi d, in  light  and  glory, 
waiting  for  the  full  redemption  of  their  booh  s  ;  aid  the  si  uls 
ef  the  wicked  are  cast  into  hell,  where  (bey  remain  in  torment 
rnd  utter  darkness,  reserved  to  the  jucgnient  of  the  gr.Kt 
day. 

25.  The  Judgment — God  hath  appointed  a  day  wherein  he 
will  judge  the  world  in  righti  ousness,by  Jesus  Chiist.  to  whom 
all  power  and  judgment  is  given  of  the  Father ,  then  shall  the 
righteous  go  into  c  vei  lasting  life,  and  receive  the  fulness  of 
joy  and  gloiy,  with  evei lasting  reward,  in  the  presence  of  tha 
Lord;  but  the  wicked  who  know  not  God,  and  obey  not  the 
Gospel  ef  Jesus  Christ,  shall  be  east  into  eternal  torments, 
and  i  uni.-hed  with  everlasting  destracti'  n,  from  the  presence 
of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  gloiy  of  his  pi  wer. 

The  American  Br.ptists  differ  clso  from  the  Pritish 
in  a  mere  general  adoption  of  ''elese  communion." 
See  Communion. 

III.  statistics:  1.  United  States.—  According  to  the 
Baptist  Almcnac  for  I860,  there  were,  in  18G5,  502  asso- 
ciations, 12,7C2  churches,  7807  ordained  ministers,  end 
1,040,31  3  members.    Of  the  latter,  E244  -were  members 
in  German    and  Dutch,  600  in  Swedish,  end  1400  in 
Welsh  churches.     The  number  of  Baptist  colleges  in 
1859   was   i'4.     The   oldest  is   Brown   University,  at 
Provider.ce,  l.hcde  Island,  which  was  founded  in  1704. 
The  next  in   age,  Madison  University,  at  Hamilton, 
New  York,  was  founded  in  1819.    Fifteen  were  organ- 
ized from  le55  to  1859.     The  oldest  theological  school 
was  organized  in  connection  with  Madison  University 
in  1820.     The   whole  number  in  If- 59  was  12.     'lhe 
Baptists,  in  1859,  published  28  weekly  papers,  14  month- 
j  lies,  and  2  quarterlies  — the  Christian  Review,  at  New 
!  York,  and  the  Southern  Review  and  Eclectic,  at  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.     Two  of  the  monthlies  were  published  in 
!  foreign  languages  — one   in    German,  one  in  Welsh. 
.  During  the  Civil  War  (from  18C0  to  1£64)  nearly  all 
!  colleges,  seminaries,  and  papers  in  the  states  1  eh  ng- 
j  ing  to  the  Southern  Confederacy  were  suspended,  but 
after  the  close  of  the  war  were  gradually  revived. 

The  general  benevolent  associations  are  (1.)  Amer- 
ican Baptist  Missionary  Union,  established  in  1814. 
The  receipts  in  18G5  were  $169,792.      The  Board  has 
,  under  its  care  19  missions:  3  among  the  Indians  of 
i  North  America,  2  in  Europe,  and  14  in  South-eastern 
|  Asia.     The   Asiatic   missions   have   15    stations,    and 
more  than  400  out-stations.     There  are  now  connected 
with  the  missions,  including  tlmse  in  this  country  and 
exclusive  of  Europe,  84  American  laborers — 41  males 
and  -!3  females— together  with  over  500  native  help- 
|  ert,  of  whom  about  50  are  ordained..     Of  native  labor- 


BAPTISTS 


058 


BAPTISTS 


ers  in  Europe  there  are  200.  According  to  incomplete 
returns,  there  are  about  36,000  members.  Sec  Mis- 
SIOKS. 

(2.)  American  Baptist  Publication  Society,  estab- 
lished in  1824.  In  1865  its  receipts  amounted  to 
$158,954  93.  Twenty-eight  new  publications  were 
issued  during  the  year,  making  99,997,150  pages  18mo. 
The  total  uumber  of  pages  printed  since  the  society's 
organization  is  about  531,000,000.  The  Reaper  has  a 
circulation  of  over  100,000.  Twenty-six  colporteurs 
were  in  commission,  distributed  in  the  different  states 
and  in  Sweden. 

Connected  with  the  American  Baptist  Publication 
Society  is  the  American  Baptist  Historical  Society, 
which  was  established  in  1853. 

(3.)  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  estab- 
lished in  1832.  Total  receipts  in  1865,  $122,519.  Mis- 
sionaries and  agents  employed  during  the  year,  24G. 

(4.)  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  See  Bi- 
blb  Societies. 

(5.)  American  Baptist  Free  Mission  Society,  estab- 
lished in  1843.   Total  receipts  for  the  year  1865,  $26,631. 

(6.)  Southern  Baptist  Convention,  established  in 
1845.  It  holds  biennial  meetings.  Its  Foreign  Mis- 
sion Board  is  located  at  Richmond,  Va.,  and  reported 
in  1859,  receipts,  $39,824  38 ;  expenditures,  $31,024  63. 
The  Domestic  and  Indian  Mission  Board  is  located 
at  Marion,  Ala.  Receipts,  $47,698  27  ;  expenditures, 
$41,369  70.  There  have  been  under  commission  dur- 
ing the  year  35  missionaries :  19  among  the  Creeks, 
10  among  the  Choctaws,  and  6  anions  the  Cherokees. 
The  Bible  Board  is  located  at  Nashville,  Tenn. 

(7.)  Southern  Baptist  Publication  Society,  estab- 
lished in  1847.  Receipts  in  1858,  $9794  25 ;  expend- 
itures, $9159  69.  The  amount  of  volumes  issued  by 
the  society  from  the  first  is  222,175,  containing 
82,775, 666 'pages. 

2.  Great  Britain. — According  to  the  English  Baptist 
Manual  for  1858,  there  were  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land 33  associations  of  Particular  Baptists,  1917  church- 
es (of  which  1132  were  associated),  101,397  members, 
137,524  pupils  of  Sunday-schools.  The  annual  report 
of  the  secretary  of  the  Baptist  Union  in  1865  contained 
the  following  statistical  statements:  "All  the  coun- 
try and  district  associations  in  England  but  one  were 
now  affiliated  with  the  Union,  and  in  all  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  but  four.  Twenty  churches  had  joined 
the  Union  during  the  year.  The  total  number  of 
churches  in  connection  with  the  Union  is  1332,  the 
number  of  Baptist  churches  in  the  kingdom  (England 
and  Wale-)  being  about  2400.  Returns  had  been  ob- 
tained from  1898  churches,  and  these  showed  a  total 
Of  198,295  members,  or  an  excess  of  22,063  over  the 
preceding  year.''  In  Scotland  there  were,  in  1865,  97 
Baptist  churches,  95  ministers,  and  5000  members.  In 
Ireland,  37  churches,  24  ministers,  950  members.  The 
Particular  Baptists  have  6  colleges:  Bristol  (founded 
in  1770):  Horton  College,  Bradford  (1804);  Regent's 
Park,  London  (1810)  ;  Pontypool  (1807)  ;  Haverford 
West  (1841  I;  and  Edinburgh.  The  first  five  had  to- 
gether, in  1859,  103  pupils.  The  General  Baptists 
li  ive  a  college  at  Nottingham  (since  1798),  with  7  stu- 
dent- ;  the  New  Connection  of  General  Baptists  a  col- 
lege at  Leicester.  The  religious  and  benevolent  so- 
cietiea  arc  very  numerous:  the  Baptist  Year-book  for 
itions  17.  The  Baptist  Missionary  Socu  fy  had 
in  1859  an  income  of  £26,518,  and  missions  in  India, 
Ceylon,  the  West  Indies,  Africa,  and  Trance.  The 
trives  to  be  a  bond  of  union  for  the 
independent  churches,  to  obtain  statistical  information 
on  Baptist  churches  and  institutions  throughout  the 
world,  and  to  prepare  an  annual  report  on  the  stale  of 
the  denomination.  I  ]„■  General  Baptist  Missionary 
Society  of  the  New  Connection  of  General  Baptists  sus- 
tains a  mission  in  India.  (A  complete  list  is  also 
given  in  Schem'a  Ecclesiastical  Year-book  for  1859,  p. 
110.)     According  to  th  ./„„,/■,  the  period- 


icals of  the  English  Baptists  consist  of  1  weekly,  3 
annual,  and  9  monthly  magazines. 

3.  In  other  Countries. — The  British  Possessions  in 
America  had,  in  1859,  17  associations,  460  churches,  337 
ordained  ministers,  65,450  members,  and  6  periodicals, 
of  which  one  was  in  the  French  language.  For  Ger- 
many, the  Report  of  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,  in  Ma}',  1866,  gives  11,239  members;  for 
Switzerland,  269;  for  Denmark,  1702.  Sweden  had, 
in  1865,  6606  members.  The  membership  of  the  Bap- 
tist churches  in  France  is  estimated  at  about  700. 
Baptist  periodicals  are  published  in  Sweden  and  in 
Germany.  The  number  of  Baptists  in  Holland  is 
given  (by  Dr.  Cox)  in  the  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana 
as  238.  The  mission  in  Greece  has  been  discontinued. 
In  Asia  the  missions  of  the  American  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Union  (in  India,  Burmah,  and  Ceylon)  reported, 
in  1859,  14,323  members;  those  of  the  English  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  (in  India  and  Ceylon),  2123  mem- 
bers ;  those  of  the  General  Baptist  Missionary  Society 
of  England  (in  India),  333  members ;  those  of  the 
American  Southern  Baptists  (in  China),  30  members. 
In  Africa,  the  American  Southern  Baptists  have  mis- 
sions in  Liberia,  with  about  1200  members.  The  mis- 
sions, of  the  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society  had, 
in  1859,  184  members.  The  number  of  Baptists  in 
Australasia  is  estimated  at  from  4000  to  6000. — Bene- 
dict, History  of  the  Baptists ;  Cox,  The  Baptists  (in  the 
Enc.  Metr.)  ;  Missionary  Jubilee  (N.  Y.  1865)  ;  Smith, 
Tables  of  Church  History;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie, 
s.  v. ;  Baptist  Manual  (of  England)  ;  American  Baptist 
Almanac ;  Schem,  Ecclesiastical  Year-book  for  1859,  p. 
27,  41,  110;  Cutting,  Historical  Vindications.  For  a 
fuller  account  of  works  on  the  history  of  American  Bap- 
tists, compare  above,  Baptist  Literature. 

BAPTISTS,  FREE -COMMUNION,  a  denomina- 
tion of  Baptists  which  arose  in  the  eighteenth  century 
in  Rhode  Isand  and  Connecticut,  and  owed  its  origin 
to  the  preaching  of  Whitfield.  Many  of  those  who 
were  converted  through  his  instrumentality  formed  a 
separate  organization,  and  took  the  name  "  Separates." 
Gradually  they  became  Baptists,  without,  however, 
practicing  close  communion.  In  1785  they  formed  an 
association  called  the  "Groton  Union  Conference." 
In  1820  they  had  25  churches,  some  of  which  soon 
united  with  the  Free-will  Baptists.  A  General  Con- 
ference was  organized  in  1835,  but  in  1841  the  whole 
body  united  with  the  Free-will  Baptists.  See  Belcher, 
Religious  Denominations ;  Cox,  The  Baptists  (in  the  En- 
cyclopedia Metropolitana). 

BAPTISTS,  FREE-WILL,  a  section  of  Baptists 
which  commenced  in  North  America  in  1780.  The 
first  church  was  organized  at  New  Durham,  N.  H.,  by 
Benjamin  Randall,  who  in  his  twenty-second  year  was 
a  convert  of  George  Whitfield.  In  1784  the  first  quar- 
terly meeting  was  organized  :  in  1792,  the  first  yearly 
meeting,  consisting  of  delegates  of  the  quarterly  meet- 
ings. The  most  successful  minister  of  this  denomina- 
tion was  John  Colby,  who  entered  the  ministry  in 
1809,  and  died  in  1817.  In  1827  a  general  conference 
was  formed,  which  was  at  first  annual,  then  biennial, 
and  is  now  triennial,  and  is  composed  of  delegates  ap- 
pointed by  the  yearly  meetings.  In  1841,  nearly  the 
whole  body  of  another  Baptist  denomination,  the  Free- 
Communion  Baptists,  united  with  them,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  withdrew,  a  few  years  ago,  connection 
from  4000  members  in  North  Carolina  on  account  of 
their  being  slaveholders.  On  the  same  principle,  they 
refused  to  receive  into  the  connection  some  12,000  from 
Kentucky  and  vicinity,  who  sent  deputies  to  the  gen- 
eral conference  for  that  purpose.  They  are  Arminians, 
and  agree  in  doctrine  almost  wholly  with  the  New 
(  onnection  of  General  Baptists  in  England,  except  that 
they  are  open  communionists,  while  the  English  New 
Connection  generally  hold  to  strict  communion.  At 
the  fifth  general  conference,  held  at  Wilton,  Me.,  in 
October,  1831,  the  subject  of  "Washing  the  Saints' 


BAPTISTS 


059 


BAPTISTS 


Feet,"  which  had  produced  no  small  excitement  among 
this  denomination,  was  discussed,  and  it  was  agreed 
that  the  churches  of  the  denomination  should  be  at  full 
liberty  to  retain  the  ordinance  or  not.  It  is  now  not 
generally  practised,  though  not  entirely  in  desuetude. 
The  ecclesiastical  bodies  among  Free-will  Baptists  are, 
the  church,  the  quarterly  meeting  conference,  the  an- 
nual meeting,  and  the  general  conference.  The  offi- 
cers in  the  church  are  two — elders  and  deacons.  Each 
church  elects  its  own  pastor,  and  exercises  discipline 
over  its  own  members ;  but,  as  a  church,  it  is  account- 
able to  the  yearly  meeting.  Also  ministers  are  ac- 
countable to  the  quarterly  meetings  to  which  they  be- 
long, and  not  to  the  churches  over  which  they  are 
pastors.  A  council  from  the  quarterly  meeting  or- 
ganizes churches  and  ordains  ministers.  The  quar- 
terly meetings  consist  of  ministers  and  such  brethren 
as  the  churches  may  select.  The  general  conference 
meets  every  three  years,  and  consists  of  delegates 
chosen  from  the  annual  conferences. 
Confession  of  Faith. 

1.  The  Scriptures.— The  Holy  Scriptures,  embracing  the 
Olil  and  New  Testaments,  were  giveu  by  inspiration  of  God, 
and  constitute  the  Christian's  perfect  rule  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice. 

2.  God. — There  is  only  one  true  and  living  God,  who  is  a 
spirit,  self-existent,  eternal,  immutable,  omnipresent,  omni- 
scient, omnipotent,  independent,  good,  wise,  just,  and  merci- 
ful; the  creator,  preserver,  and  governor  of  the  universe  ;  the 
redeemer,  saviour,  sanctifier,  and  judge  of  mi  n  ;  and  the  only 
proper  object  of  divine  worship,  lie  exists  in  three  persons, 
offices,  distinctions,  and  relations  —  Father,  Son,  and  Ih>ly 
Ghost,  which  mode  of  existence  is  above  the  understanding 
of  finite  men. 

3.  Christ. The  Son  of  God  possesses  all  divine  perfections, 

which  is  proven  from  his  titles  :  true  God,  great  God,  mighty 
(oid,  ( rod  over  all,  etc. ;  his  attributes  :  eternal,  unchangeable, 
omniscient,  etc.,  and  from  his  works,  lie  is  the  only  incarna- 
tion of  the  Divine  Being. 

4.  The  Until  Spirit.— He  has  the  attributes  of  God  ascribed 
to  him  in  the  Scriptures  ;  is  the  sanctifier  of  the  souls  of  men, 
and  is  the  third  person  in  the  Godhead. 

5.  Creition. — God  created  the  world  and  all  it  contains  for 
his  own  glory,  and  the  enjoyment  of  his  creatures;  and  the 
angels,  to  glorify  and  obey  him. 

C.  Marts  Primitive  State,  and  his  Fall.— Out  first  parents 
were  created  in  the  image  of  God,  holy,  and  upright,  and 
free;  but,  by  yielding  to  temptation,  fell  from  that  state,  and 
all  their  posterity  with  them,  they  then  being  in  Adam's  loins  ; 
ami  the  whole  human  family  became  exposed  to  temporal  and 
eternal  death. 

1.  The  Atonemen'. —  As  sin  cannot,  be  pardoned  without  a 
sacrifice,  ami  the  blond  of  beasts  could  never  actually  wash 
away  sin,  Christ  gave  himself  a  sacrlfi-e  for  the  sins  of  the 
world,  and  thus  mad''  salvation  possible  for  all  men.  Through 
the  redemption  of  Christ  man  is  placed  on  n  second  state  of 
trial;  this  second  state  so  far  differing  from  the  first,  that  non- 
men  are  naturally  inclined  to  transgress  the  commands  of 
God,  and  will  not  regain  the  image  of  God  in  holiness  but 
through  the  atonement  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
All  who  die  short  of  the  aire  of  accountability  are  rendered 
sure  of  eternal  life.  Through  the  provisions  of  the  atonement 
all  are  abilitated  to  repent  of  their  sins  and  yield  to  God;  the 
Gospel  call  is  to  all,  the  Spirit  enlightens  all,  and  men  are 
agents  capable  of  choo-ing  or  refusing. 

S.  Ucarncration  is  an  instantaneous  renovation  of  the  soul 
by  the  Spirit  of  God,  whereby  the  p  nit  nt  sinner,  belli  ving 
in  and  giving  up  all  for  <  'brist,  receives  new  life,  and  becomes 
a  child  of  (oid.  This  change  is  preceded  by  true  conviction, 
repentance  of  and  penitent  sorrow  for  sin;  it  is  called  in  Scrip- 
ture being  born  again,  born  of  the  Spirit,  passing  from  death 
unto  life.     The  soul  is  then  justified  with  God. 

0.  SanctifiC'ition  is  a  setting  apart  the  soul  and  body  for 
holy  service,  an  entire  consecration  of  all  our  ransomed  pow- 
ers to  God;  believers  arc  to  strive  for  this  with  all  diligence. 

10.  I'erseee  hi  nee. — As  the  regenerate  are  placed  in  a  state 
of  trial  during  life,  their  future  obedience  and  final  salvation 
are  neither  determined  nor  certain  ;  it  is,  however,  their  duty 
and  privilege  to  be  steadfast  in  the  truth,  to  grow  in  grace, 
persevere  in  holiness,  and  make  their  election  sure. 

11.  Immediately  after  death  nun  enter  Into  a  state  of  hap- 
piness or  misery,  according  to  their  character.  At  some  fu- 
ture period,  known  only  to  God,  there  will  be  a  resurrection 
both  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked,  when  there  will  he  a 
general  jiuhniient,  when  all  will  lie  judged  according  to  the 
deeds  done  in  the  body;  the  righteous  be  admitted  into  eter- 
nal happiness,  and  the  wicked  assigned  to  eternal  misery. 

12.  The  Church.— A  Christian  church  is  an  assembly  of 
persons  who  believe  in  Christ,  and  worship  the  true  God 
agreeably  to  his  word.  In  a  more  general  sense,  it  signifies 
the  whole  body  of  real  Christians  throughout  the.  world.  The 
church  being  the  body  of  Christ,  none  but.  the  regenerate,  wdio 
obey  the  Gospel,  are  its  real  memb  rs.      Believers  are  re- 


ceived into  a  particular  church  on  their  giving  evidence  of 
faith,  covenanting  to  walk  according  to  the  Christian  rule, 
and  being  baptized. 

13.  Bajjtism.— Baptism  is  an  immersion  of  the  candidate 
in  water,  in  the  name  of  the  lather,  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost;  the  only  proper  candidate  being  one  who  gives 
evidence  of  a  change  of  heart. 

14.  Communion.—  Communion  is  a  solemn  partaking  of 
bread  and  wine,  in  commemoration  of  the  death  and  suffer- 
ings of  Christ. — American  Christian  Record. 

The  denomination  has  a  printing  establishment  at 
Dover,  N.  H.  ;  two  colleges — Bates,  at  Lewiston,  Me., 
with  48  students,  and  Hillsdale,  Mich.,  with  COO  stu- 
dents ;  two  theological  institutions — one  at  New  Hamp- 
ton, N.  H.,  with  16  students,  the  other  at  Hillsdale, 
Mich.,  with  21  students  (1SG7).  In  1866  the  following 
statistics  were  reported:  Yearly  meetings,  31;  quar- 
terly meetings,  117;  ordained  preachers,  1076;  licensed 
preachers,  161  ;  churches,  1264  ;  total  membership, 
56,258.  The  Foreign  Missionary  Society  has  a  mis- 
sion at  Orissa,  India  (receipts  for  1866,  $12,166)  ;  they 
have  also  a  Home  Miss.  Society  and  an  Education  So- 
ciety. In  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  they  have 
about  4000  members,  and  a  journal,  the  Religious  In- 
telligencer, published  at  St.  John's,  N.  B.  See  Stewart, 
History  of  Free-vnll  Baptists,  Dover,  1862,  vol.  i,  from 
1780  to  1*830  ;  (Winebrenner)  History  of  Denominations 
in  the  United  States ;  Belcher,  Religious  Denominations ; 
Cox,  The  Baptists  (in  the  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana) ; 
Schem,  Ecclesiastical  Year-book  for  1859  ;  Free-trill 
Baptist  Register. 

BAPTISTS,  GERMAN,  a  denomination  of  Ameri- 
can Baptists  who  are  commonly  called  Dunkers,  while 
they  call  themselves  Brethren.  They  originated  at 
Schwarzenau,  in  Germany,  in  1708,  but  were  driven 
by  persecution  to  America  between  1719  and  1729. 
They  purposely  neglect  any  record  of  their  proceed- 
ings, and  are  opposed  to  statistics,  which  they  believe 
to  savor  of  pride.  They  originally  settled  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, but  are  now  most  numerous  in  Ohio.  In  1790, 
a  party  of  Universalists,  led  by  one  John  Dam,  sepa- 
rated from  the  Dunkers,  since  which  time  there  has 
been  no  connection  between  them.  The  seceders  are 
to  be  found  in  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Iowa. 
The  whole  denomination  has  been  believed  to  hold  Uni- 
versalist  views,  but  they  have  always  protested  against 
the  charge.  With  the  Mennonites,  they  appeal  to  the 
Confessions  of  Faith  published  in  Holland  two  centu- 
ries ago.  They  practise  trine  immersion,  with  laying 
''  on  of  hands  while  the  person  is  in  the  water.  They 
lay  their  candidate  forward  in  the  water  instead  of 
|  backward,  as  the  regular  Baptists  do.  Their  officers 
are  bishops  (or  ministers),  elders,  teachers,  and  dea- 
cons  (or  visiting  brethren).  They  also  have  deacon- 
esses— aged  women,  who  are  allowed  to  exercise  their 
gifts  statedly.  Bishops  arc  chosen  firm  the  teachers, 
after  they  have  been  fully  tried  and  found  faithful 
It  is  their  duty  to  travel  from  one  congregation  to  an- 
other, to  preach,  to  officiate  at  marriages  and  funerals, 
to  set  in  order  whatever  may  be  wanting,  to  be  pres- 
ent at  love-feasts  and  communions,  when  a  bishop  is 
to  be  ordained,  when  teachers  or  deacons  are  chosen 
or  elected,  and  when  any  officer  is  to  be  excommuni- 
cated. An  elder  is  the  first  or  eldest  chosen  teacher 
in  a  congregation  where  there  is  no  bishop.  It  is  his 
duty  to  appoint  meetings,  to  assist  in  excommunica- 
tion, to  exhort  and  preach,  to  baptize,  to  travel  occa- 
sionally, and,  where  no  bishop  is  present,  to  perform 
all  the  duties  of  the  latter.  Teachers  are  chosen  by 
vote.  It  is  their  duty  to  exhort  and  preach  at  any  of 
their  stated  meetings,  and,  when  so  requested  by  a 
bishop  or  elder,  to  perform  the  ceremonies  of  matrimo- 
ny and  of  baptism.  It  is  the  duty  of  deacons  to  keep 
a  constant  oversight  of  poor  widows  and  their  chil- 
dren, and  give  them  such  aid  from  time  to  time  as  may 
be  necessary ;  to  visit  all  the  families  in  the  congre- 
gation at  least  once  a  year,  and  exhort,  comfort,  and 
edify  them,  as  well  as  to  reconcile  all  offences  and 
misunderstandings    that    may  occur    from    time    to 


iJAPTISTS 


660 


BAR 


time;  and.  whtn  necessary,  to  read  the  Scriptures, 
pray,  and  exhort  at  the  regular  meetings.  An  an- 
nual meeting  is  held  about  Whitsuntide,  and  attended 
by  bishops  and  teachers,  as  well  as  by  such  other  mem- 
bers as  may  he  delegated  by  the  congregations.  A 
committee  of  five  of  the  oldest  bishops  hears  those 
(  s  a  which  may  be  referred  to  them  by  the  teachers  | 
and  representatives  from  the  congregations.  Their  de- 
cisions  are  published  in  English  and  German.  In 
plainness  of  speech  and  dress  they  resemble  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends.  They  will  not  go  to  law,  nor  engage 
in  war.  and  seldom  take  interest  for  the  money  which 
they  lend  to  their  poorer  brethren.  The  Baptist  Al- 
manac for  1860  estimates  the  number  of  their  preachers 
at  200,  of  congregations  at  150,  of  members  at  8200.  ; 
The  census  of  1850  gives  them  only  52  church  edifices, 
which  indicates  that  a  large  number  of  their  congrega- 
tions worship  in  school-houses.  See  Belcher,  Religious 
Denominations;  Baptist  Almanac  for  1860. 

BAPTISTS,  OLD-SCHOOL.     A  name  assumed  by 
those  Baptists  who,  in  the  second  half  of  the  past  cen- 
tury, opposed  the  formation  of  missionary  societies, 
Sunday-schools,  and  similar  institutions,  which  they 
considered  as  floodgates  for  letting  in  all  those  con- 
trivances in  religion  which  make  the  salvation  of  men 
appear  to  depend  on  human  effort.    They  are  frequent- 
ly, also,  called  Anti-mission   or  Anti-effort  Baptists.  \ 
1  hey   have  neither  colleges  nor  theological   institu-  I 
tions,  and  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  Western 
and  South-western  States.    Their  number  is  at  present  I 
on  the  decrease.      In  1844  they  counted  01,000  mem-  | 
hers;  in  1854,  66,500;  in  1859,  58,000.     In  1859  thoy 
had  155  associations,  1720  churches,  825  ordained  min- 
isters, and  15(10  had  been  baptized  in  1858.      Sec  Bel- 
cher,   Religious    Denominations;    Cox,    The    Baptists; 
A  mi  fir, m  Baptist  Almanac. 

BAPTISTS,  SEVENTH-DAY,  a  denomination  of 
Baptists  who  keep  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  instead 
of  the  first  as  the  Sabbath.  In  England  they  assumed, 
soon  after  the  Reformation,  the  name  of  Sabbatarians ; 
but  in  1818  this  term  was  rejected  by  the  general  con- 
fcrence  in  America,  and  the  term  Seventh-day  Bap- 
tists adopted.  They  believe  that  the  first  day  was  not 
generally  used  in  the  Christian  Church  as  Sabbath  be-  I 
fore  the  reign  of  Constantine.  Traces  of  seventh-day 
1.'  ipers  are  found  in  the  times  of  Gregory  I,  Gregory 
VII,  and  in  the  twelfth  century  in  Lombardy.  In  j 
Germany  they  appeared  late  in  the  fifteenth,  ;:nd  in 
England  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1595,  a  work 
advancing  their  views  was  published  in  England  by 
on  !  Nicholas  Bound,  D.D.,  and  several  of  their  mem-  | 
bers  suffered  imprisonment.  They  assumed  adenomi- ! 
n  itional  organization  in  1650,  and  counted  at  the  end  | 
of  the  seventeenth  century  eleven  churches,  of  which 
now  only  three  remain.  In  America  the  first  Seventh-  ! 
■  '  Baptists  were  connected  with  First-day  Baptist 
churches.  A  separate  organization  was  commenced 
in  1671.  Yearly  meetings  commenced  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  a  general  confer- 
ence was  organized  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  which  held  its  meetings  at  first  annually,  later 
(since  1846)  triennially.  In  1845  they  divided  them- 
into  live  associations  (Eastern^  Western,  Cen- 
tral. Virginia,  and  Ohio).  They  have  repeatedly 
u  tion  against  slavery,  and  in  favor  of  temper- 
ance and  other  reforms.  A  foreign  missionary  society 
w:i~  e-t  iblishcd  iu  1842,  and  supports  missionaries  in 
China  and  Palestine.  Besides,  they  have  a  Trad  and 
Publishing  Society.  The  latter  issues  a  weekly,  a 
monthly,  and  a  quarterly  periodical.  Their  literary 
institutions  are  De  Ruyter  institute  and  Alfred  (ni- 
v  rsity,  both  In  the  State  of  New  York,  besides  several 
smaller  academies.  The  Bap'ist  llmanac  for  18G0 
givea  the  following  statistics:  07  churches,  70  minis- 
ters, 17  licentiates,  7250  members.  See  Belcher,  Re- 
ligious hi  nominations. 

BAPTISTS,  SEVENTH-DAY  (GERMAN),  a  de- 


nomination of  Baptists  which  arose  by  secession  ficm 
the  German  Baptists  (q.  v.)  or  Dunkers.  In  1725 
Conrad  Beissel  published  a  tract  against  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  first  day,  and,  when  this  created  some  dis- 
turbance in  the  society  at  Mill  Creek,  of  which  he  was 
a  member,  he  retired  to  a  cell  on  the  banks  of  the  Co- 
calico,  and  lived  there  for  some  time  unknown  to  the 
people  he  had  left.  When  discovered,  some  other 
members  of  the  society  at  Mill  Creek  settled  around 
him,  and  in  1728  introduced  the  seventh  day  into  pub- 
lic worship.  In  1732  the  solitary  life  was  changed 
into  a  conventual  one,  and  a  monastical  societ}-  was 
established  in  May,  1733.  The  establishment  received 
the  name  Ephrata.  The  habit  of  Capuchins  was  adopt- 
ed by  both  the  brethren  and  the  sisters,  and  monastic 
names  given  to  all  who  entered  the  cloister.  No  mo- 
nastic vows,  however,  were  taken,  neither  had  they  any 
written  covenant.  The  property  which  belonged  to 
the  society  was  common  stock,  yet  none  were  obliged 
to  give  up  any  of  their  possessions.  Celibacy  they 
recommend  as  a  virtue,  but  do  not  require  it.  Gov- 
ernor Penn,  who  visited  them  frequently,  offered  to 
them  five  thousand  acres  of  land,  but  they  refused  it. 
At  an  earl}'  period  they  established  a  literary  institu- 
tion, a  Sabbath-school,  and  a  printing-office,  and  great- 
ly cultivated  music.  Branches  of  the  society  of  Ephra- 
ta were  established  in  1756  in  York  count}-,  and  in 
1763  in  Bedford  county.  Their  principal  settlement 
at  present  is  at  Snowhill,  near  the  Antidam  Cretk,  in 
Franklin  county,  Pa.  Dr.  Baird  says,  "They  are  not 
believed  to  exceed  a  few  hundreds  in  numbers,  and. 
their  ministers  may  be  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve." 
See  Belcher,  Religious  Denominations ;  (Winebrenner) 
Hist,  of  Denom.  in  the  U.S. 

BAPTISTS,  SIX -PRINCIPLE.  The  six  prin- 
ciples which  distinguish  this  section  of  Baptists  from 
all  others  are  those  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  vi,  1,  2,  viz.  :  1.  Repentance  from  dead 
works ;  2.  Faith  toward  God  ;  3.  The  doctrine  of  bap- 
tisms; 4.  The  laying  on  of  hands;  5.  The  resurrection 
of  the  dead  ;  6.  Eternal  judgment.  They  distinguish 
four  baptisms  :  1.  John's  "  baptizing  with  the  baptism 
of  repentance ;"  2.  The  baptism  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
with  fire  on  the  day  of  Pentecost;  3.  The  baptism  of 
Christ's  sufferings.  But  after  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  there  is  only  one  kind  of  baptism  to  remain,  viz., 
4.  The  1  aptism  of  the  believers  in  Christ  in  the  name 
of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Their  rite  of  "laying  on  of  hands"  corresponds  with 
Episcopal  confirmation,  and  is  the  chief  point  in  their 
system  on  which  they  insist.  They  refuse  communion 
as  well  as  church-fellowship  with  churches  who  do  not 
practise  it.  The  Six-Principle  Baptists  are  Armeni- 
ans, holding  to  a  general  atonement.  Their  ministry 
generally  has  not  been  liberally  educated  nor  adequate- 
ly supported.  They  are  almost  confined  to  Rhode 
Inland,  out  of  which  they  have  <  nly  a  few  congrega- 
tions in  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania. 
They  originated  as  a  separate  organization  in  1639, 
and  at  no  period  of  their  history  counted  more  than  39 
churches.  In  1852  they  formed  two  yearly  confer- 
ences, the  one  of  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts, 
the  other  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The  Bap- 
tist Almanac  for  1860  gives  the  following  statistics: 
18  churches,  16  ordained  ministers,  3000  members. 
See  (Winebrenner)  History  of  Denominations  in  the 
U.S.  :  Belcher,  Uilir/ii.iis Denominations :  Smith,  Tables 
of  Church  History;  American  Baptist  Almanac. 

Baptize.     Sec  Baptism. 

Bar  (properly  rj"1*!^,  heri'aih)  chiefly  occurs  in  the 
following  senses:  that  whereby  a  door  is  bolted  and 
made  fast  (Neb.  iii,  3)  ;  a  narrow  cross-board  or  rafter 
wherewith  to  fasten  other  boards  (Exod.  xxvi,  26);  a 
rock  in  the  sea  (Jonah  ii,  6) ;  the  bank  or  shore  of  the 
sea,  which,  as  a  bar,  shuts  up  its  waves  in  their  own 
place  (Job  xxxviii,  10)  ;  strong  fortifications  and  pow- 


BAR- 


661 


BARBADOES 


erful  impediments  are  called  bars,  or  bars  of  iron  (Isa. 
xlv,  2;  Amos  i,  5).     See  Door. 

Bar.     See  Corn. 

Bar-  Q3ch-,  Heb.  and  Chald.  13,  a  son),  a  patro- 
nymic sign,  as  Bar-Jesus,  Bar-Jona,  etc.    Sec  Ben-. 

Barabbas  (Bapa/3/3«r,  for  the  Chald.  N3X  13, 
son  of  Abb  i,  Simonis,  Onom.  N.  T.  p.  38 ;  a  common 
name  in  the  Talmud,  Lightfoot,  Hot:  Heb.  p.  489),  a 
robber  (Kytrrqc,  John  xviii,  40)  who  had  committed 
murder  in  an  insurrection  (Mark  xiv,  7 ;  Luke  xxiii, 
10)  in  Jerusalem,  and  was  lying  in  prison  at  the  time 
of  the  trial  of  Jesus  before  Pilate,  A.D.  29.  The  procu- 
rator, in  his  anxietj'  to  save  Jesus,  proposed  to  release 
him  to  the  people,  in  accordance  with  their  demand 
that  he  should  release  one  prisoner  to  them  at  the  Pass- 
over. As  a  rebel,  he  was  subject  to  the  punishment 
laid  down  by  the  Roman  law  for  such  political  offences, 
■while  as  a  murderer  he  could  not  escape  death  even 
by  the  civil  code  of  the  Jews.  But  the  latter  were  so 
bent  on  the  death  of  Jesus  that,  of  the  two,  they  pre- 
ferred pardoning  this  double  criminal  (Matt,  xxvii, 
16-26;  Mark  xv,  7-15;  Luke  xxiii,  18-25  ;  John  xviii, 
40),  who  was  accordingly  set  free  (Acts  iii,  14).  There 
appears  to  have  been  a  usage  in  Jerusalem,  at  the  pas- 
chal feast,  for  the  governor  to  release  to  the  people  a 
prisoner  whom  they  might  particularly  desire.  This 
custom  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ancient ;  it  was 
probably  derived  either  from  the  Syrians  or  from  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  the  former  of  whom  had  such  a 
custom  at  their  Thesmophorise,  the  latter  at  their  Lec- 
tisternh.  Some  think  the  policy  of  this  provision 
was  obviously  to  conciliate  the  favor  of  the  Jews  to- 
ward the  Roman  government.     See  Passover. 

Origan  says  that  in  many  copies  Barabbas  was  also 
called  Jesus  (  I y to vvBapafifiav;  see  the  Darmst.  Liter. 
III.  1843,  p.  538).  The  Armenian  Version  has  the  same 
reading:  "Whom  will  you  that  I  shall  deliver  unto 
you,  Jesus  Barabbas,  or  Jesus  that  is  called  Christ?" 
Griesbach,  in  his  Comment.,  considers  this  as  an  inter- 
polation, while  Fritzsche  has  adopted  it  in  his  text 
(so  also  Tischendorf  in  Matt,  xxvii,  16,  17,  but  not 
his  lasted.).  We  can  certainly  conceive  that  a  name 
afterward  so  sacred  may  have  been  thrown  out  of  the 
taxt  by  some  bigoted  transcriber.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  contrast  in  ver.  20,  "  that  they  should  ask  Barab- 
bas and  destroy  Jesus,"  seems  fatal  to  its  original  po- 
sition in  the  text.     See  Jesus. 

Bar'achel  (Heb.  BaraheV,  ixa^S,  whom  God  has 
blessed;  Sept.  Bap«x<''/X),  the  father  of  Elihu  the  Buzite, 
one  of  Job's  three  "  friends"  (Job  xxxii,  2,  G).  B.C. 
prob.  ante  2000. 

Barachi'ah  (same  name  as  Bereciiiaii  ;  Sept. 
Bapa\iac),  the  father  of  the  prophet  Zechariah  (Zech. 
i,  1,  7).     B.C.  ante  500. 

Barachi'as  (Bapaxiag,  the  Greek  form  of  the  name 
Baraciiiah),  fatherof  the  Zechariah  (Zacharias)  men- 
tioned in  Matt,  xxiii,  35,  as  having  been  murdered  by 
the  Jews.     See  Zechariah. 

BaradcEUS,  Jacobus.     See  Jacobites. 

Barah.     See  Beth-barah. 

Ba'rak  (Heb.  Barak',  p^3,  lightning;  Sept.  and 
N.  T.  BapaK,  Joseph.  Ant.  v,  5,  2,  BdpaieoQ  ;  comp. 
the  family  name  of  Hannibal,  Barca="  lightning  of 
war"),  son  of  Abinoam  of  Kedesh-naphtali,  a  Galilean 
city  of  refuge  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (Judg.  iv,  6 ; 
comp.  Josh,  xix,  37 ;  xxi,  32).  He  was  summoned 
by  the  prophetess  Deborah  to  take  the  field  against  the 
hostile  army  of  the  Canaanitish  kins  Jabin  (q.  v.), 
commanded  by  Sisera  (q.  v.),  with  10,000  men  from 
the  tribes  of  Naphtali  and  Zebulon,  and  to  encamp  on 
Mount  Tabor,  probably  because  the  900  chariots  of 
iron  (Judg.  iv,  3),  in  which  the  main  force  of  Sisera 
consisted,  could  not  so  easily  manoeuvre  on  uneven 
ground.     After  some  hesitation,  he  resolved  to  do  her 


bidding,  on  condition  that  she  would  go  with  him, 
which  she  readily  promised.  At  a  signal  gfven  by  the 
prophetess,  the  little  arm}',  seizing  the  opportunity  of 
a  providential  storm  (Joseph.  Ant.  v,  4)  and  a  wind 
that  blew  in  the  faces  of  the  enemy,  boldly  rushed 
down  the  hill,  and  utterly  routed  the  unwieldy  host  of 
the  Canaanites  in  the  plain  of  Jezreel  (Esdraelon), 
"the  battle-field  of  Palestine."  From  the  prominent 
mention  of  Taanach  (Judg.  v,  19,  "  sandy  soil")  and  of 
the  river  Kishon,  it  is  most  likely  that  the  victory  was 
partly  due  to  the  suddenly  swollen  waves  of  that  im- 
petuous torrent,  particularly  its  western  branch,  called 
Megiddo.  The  victory  was  decisive,  Harosheth  taken 
(Judg.  iv,  1C),  Sisera  murdered,  and  Jabin  ruined.  A 
peace  of  forty  years  ensued,  and  the  next  danger  came 
from  a  different  quarter.  The  victors  composed  a 
splendid  epinician  ode  in  commemoration  of  their  de- 
liverance (Judg.  v).  Sec  Deborah.  Barak's  faith 
is  commended  among  the  other  worthies  of  the  Old 
Test,  in  Heb.  xi,  32.     See  also  Bene-barak. 

From  the  incidental  date  apparently  given  in  Judg. 
v,  6,  some  have  regarded  Barak  as  a  contemporary  of 
Shamgar.  If  so,  he  could  not  have  been  so  late  as 
178  years  after  Joshua,  where  he  is  generally  placed 
Lord  A.  Hervey  supposes  the  narrative  to  be  a  repeti- 
tion of  Josh,  xi,  1-12  {Genealogies,  p.  228  sq.).  A  great 
deal  may  be  said  for  this  view  :  the  names  Jabin  and 
Hazor;  the  mention  of  subordinate  kings  (Judg.  v. 
19  ;  comp.  Josh,  xi,  2  sq.)  ;  the  general  locality  of  the 
battle ;  the  prominence  of  chariots  in  both  narratives, 
and  especially  the  name  Misrephoth-maiin,  which 
seems  to  mean  "burning  by  the  waters,"  as  in  the 
margin  of  the  A.  V.,  and  not  "the  flow  of  waters." 
Man)'  chronological  difficulties  are  also  thus  removed  ; 
but  it  is  fair  to  add  that,  in  Stanley's  opinion  (Palest. 
p.  392  note),  there  are  geographical  difficulties  in  the 
way  (Ewald,  Gesch.  des  Israel;  Thomson,  Land  and 
Book,  ii,  141  sq.).  There  appears,  therefore,  on  the. 
whole,  no  good  reason  for  departing  from  the  regular 
order  of  the  judges,  which  places  his  rule  B.C.  1409- 
1369. — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v.     See  Judges. 

Baratier,  John  Philip,  an  eminent  boy-scholar, 
was  born  January  19th,  1721,  at  Schwabach,  in  An- 
spach.  His  father,  Francis,  was  pastor  of  the  French 
Protestant  church  in  Schwabach,  and  gave  his  son 
careful  education  from  infancy.  At  five  years  old  he 
could  speak  Latin,  French,  and  German,  and  at  seven 
he  knew  by  heart  the  Psalms  in  Hebrew.  In  his  tenth 
year  he  composed  a  Hebrew  Dictionary  of  rare  words, 
and  in  his  thirteenth  he  translated  the  Itinerary  of 
Benjamin  of  Tudcla  (Amst.  1734,  2  vols.  8vo).  He 
afterward  applied  himself  to  ecclesiastical  history,  the 
fathers,  and  theology,  and  answered  a  Unitarian  work 
which  Crellius  published  (under  the  name  of  Artemo- 
nius)  in  a  book  entitled  Antiartemonius  (Xuremb.  1735). 
In  1735,  on  his  way  to  Berlin,  he  passed  through 
Halle,  where  he  was  made  M.A. ;  upon  which  occasion 
he  composed,  impromptu,  fourteen  theses  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  professors,  and  on  the  following  day  de- 
fended them  for  three  hours  before  a  public  audience 
with  entire  success.  At  Berlin  he  was  received  with 
honor  by  the  king,  and  was  enrolled  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Royal  Society.  At  the  king's  request  he 
established  himself  at  Halle  to  study  law,  and  died 
there  October  5th,  1740,  being  only  nineteen  years  of 
age.  He  also  published  Dbquidtio  Chronologica  de 
Successione  antiquissima  Rom.  Pontijicum  (Utrecht,  1740, 
4to),  and  some  other  works.  His  life,  by  Formey,  was 
published  at  Halle,  1741  (2d  ed.  Frankfort,  1755).— 
Biog.  Univ.  iii,  322  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Barbadoes,  one  of  the  Windward  group  of  the 
West  India  Islands,  which  in  1850  had  a  population  of 
125,864  inhabitants,  seven  eighths  of  wdiom  arc  Macks. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England, 
whose  diocese  comprises  all  the  British  Windward  Isb 
ands,  and  had,  in  1859,  88  clergymen,  including  two 


BARBARA 


662 


BARBER 


-.t  hdeacons.     There  are  many  well-endowed  public 
schools,  among  which  Codrington  College  lias  a  rev- 

i  Que  of  £8 a  year  {Clergy  Lktfor  I860,  Lond.  18G0, 

See  \Ve8t  Ihdii  -• 
Barbara,  St.,  whose  day  is  observed  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches  December  4th,  is  said  to  have 
Buffered  martyrdom  at  Helicpolis,  Egypt,  under  Ga- 
1  rius,  A.  1 1.  306  (Assemanni,  Bibl.  Orient,  i,  63).  An- 
other  account  makes  the  place  Nicomedia,  the  time 
A.  P.  '-':'.•">.  and  says  that  after  her  conversion  she  ex- 
h<  rtcd  her  father  to  be  converted,  but  he  accused  her 
and  put  her  to  death  with  torture. — A.  Butler,  Lives  of 
Saints,  Dec.  1. 

Barbarian  (jSao/Saoof),  a  term  used  in  the  New 
Testament,  as  in  classical  writers,  to  denote  other  na- 
tions of  the  earth  in  distinction  from  the  Greeks  (Serv. 
ai  Virg.  .7:'n.  ii,  504).  "I  am  debtor  both  to  the 
Greeks  and  Barbarians"  (Rom.  i,  14).  (Comp.  Plato, 
Polit.  p.  -JGO;  Erai.  p.  383;  Theat.  p.  175;  Pliny,  xxix, 
7  ;  Aristot.  De  Cado,  i,  3;  Polyb.  v,  33,  5.)  In  Coloss. 
iii,  11,  "Greek  nor  Jew — Barbarian,  Scythian" — Bap- 
fiapoi;  seems  to  refer  to  those  nations  of  the  Roman 
empire  who  did  not  speak  Greek,  and  SkuSjjc.  to  nations 
not  under  the  Roman  dominion.  In  1  Cor.  xiv,  11, 
the  t  arm  i-  applied  to  a  difference  of  language:  ''If  I 
know  not  the  meaning  of  the  voice,  I  shall  be  unto 
him  that  speaketh  a  barbarian,  and  he  that  speaketh 
shall  be  a  barbarian  unto  me."  Thus  Ovid,  "Barba- 
ras hie  ego  sum,  quia  non  intelligor  ulli"  (Tiist.  v,  10, 
37).  In  Acts  xxviii,  the  inhabitants  of  Malta  are 
called  fiapfiapoi,  because  they  were  originally  a  Car- 
thaginian colony,  and  chiefly  spoke  the  Punic  lan- 
guage. In  the  Sept.  fiapjictpoc;  is  used  for  the  Hebrew 
*;•".  ///:',  "a  people  of  strange  language"  (Psa.  cxiv, 
1) ;  Chaldee  ",N"212.  In  the  rabbinical  writers  the 
same  lleli.  word  is  applied  to  foreigners  in  distinction 
from  the  Jews;  and  in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud  it  is  ex- 
plained as  meaning  the  Greek  language;  Rabbi  Solo- 
mon remarks  that  whatever  is  not  in  the  holy  tongue 
is  called  by  this  term  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  s.  v.).  Ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  the  Egyptians  called  all  men 
barbarians  who  did  not  speak  the  same  language  as 
themselves  (ii,  158).  Clement  of  Alexandria  uses  it 
respecting  the  Egyptians  and  other  nations,  even  when 
speaking  of  their  progress  in  civilization,  as  in  his 
Strom,  i,  ch.  xvi,  §  74:  "Barbarians  have  been  in- 
ventors not  only  of  philosophy,  but  likewise  of  almost 
every  art.  The  Egyptians,  and,  in  like  manner,  the 
Chaldseans,  first  introduced  among  men  the  knowledge 
of  astrology."  In  a  singular  passage  of  Justin  Mar- 
tyr's lirst  Apology  the  t  srm  is  applied  to  Abraham  and 
other  distinguished  Hebrews  :  "  We  have  learned  and 
have  before  explained  thai  Christ  is 
ih-  first-begotten  of  God,  being  the 
Word  (or  reason,  \6yov  ovra)  of 
which  the  whole  human  race  partake. 
And  they  who  live  agreeably  to  the 
Word  (or  reason,  ol  fitra  \6you  (iuii- 
a  'i  -  ■  I  are  I  'hristians,  even  though 
esteemed  atheists:  such  among  the 
n  i  So  :ra1  is,  Heraclitus, 
and  Hi  ■  I  i  :  and  an  ong  the  barba- 
t'.n  .  n  itionp,'  Chev- 
ron?.), ti'/3«p/3rt|Ooie,Abra- 
h  im,  Ananias,  Azarias,  Misael,  and 
I  I  many  othci  -."   l/< ./.  i,  16. 

Stral  o  i  -.;•:.  2)  suggests  that  the 
word  /-  ir-bar-t  g  was  originally  an  im- 
itative sound,  designed  to  express  a 
harsh,  di  sonant  language,  or  some- 
times the  indistinct  articulation  of 

Hi"    <  ir.v-k    by    foreigners,    and    m- 

:  inces  ili  •  I  larians,  who,  on  1 1 1  -  -  lat- 
t  r  account,  he  conjectures,  were 
t  nrmedl  yHo  ovot  1 11- 

.'.  ',  ii,  E67),  although  ii  is  doubtful 


whether  in  the  same  sense  (Thucyd.  i,  3).  The  word 
appears  to  have  acquired  a  reproachful  sense  during 
the  wars  with  the  Persians ;  their  country  was  called 
»)  [Hapfiapoc  (yi))  (Demosth.  Pkilipp.  iii).  In  1  Cor. 
v,  13, 1  Tim.  iii,  7,  we  have  "those  outside"  (oi  i£w)f 
and  Matt,  vi,  3:',  "the  nations"  (rii  'iOvij),  used  He- 
braistically  for  "the  Gentiles"  (Q^IJ,  C'N,  in  very 

:  much  the  same  sort  of  sense  as  that  of  fiapj3apot),  to 
distinguish  all  other  nations  from  the  Jews;   and  in 

!  the  Talmudists  we  find  Palestine  opposed  to  "  the 
lands"  (r.ijnN),  just  as  Greece  was  to  Barbaria  or  i) 
liapjiapoc.  (con  p.  Cic.  Fin.  ii,  15 ;  Lightfoot,  Centuria 
Chorogr.  ad  ink.).  And  yet  so  completely  was  the  term 
(SapjSapoG  accepted,  that  even  Josephus  (Ant.  xi,  7,  1; 
xiv,  10,  1;  xxvi,  6,  8;  War,  introd. ;  Apion,  i,  11  and 
22)  and  Philo  (('pp.  i,  29)  scruple  as  little  to  reckon 
the  Jews  among  them  as  the  early  Romans  did  to  ap* 
ply  the  term  to  themselves  ("  Deniophilus  scripsit, 
Marcus  vertit  barbare,"  Plant.  Asm.  prol.  10).  Very 
naturally,  the  word,  after  a  time,  began  to  involve  no- 
tions of  cruelty  and  contempt  (Brjpbg  liapfiapov,  2 
Mace,  iv,  25 ;  xv,  2,  etc.),  and  then  the  Komans  ex- 
cepted themselves  from  the  scope  of  its  meaning  (Cic. 
J'e  Rep.  i,  37,  §  G8).  Afterward  only  the  savage  na- 
tions were  called  barbarians,  though  the  Greek  Con- 
stantinopolitans  called  the  Romans  "barbarians"  to 
the  very  last  (Gibbon,  li ;  Ai,  351,  cd.  Smith).  See 
I  ken,  De  Scylhis  et  Barbaris,  in  the  Biblioih.  Brem.  I, 
v,  767  sq. ;  Kvpe,  Observ.  ii,  152 ;  Schleusncr,  TJies. 
Phil,  i,  50;  Dougtiei  Analect.  ii,  100  sq. ;  Rauth,  Utfi, 
Sinn  v.  Gibrauch  des  Wortes  Barbar  (Nurnb.  1814). 
— Kitto,  s.  v.  ;  Winer,  i,  137.     See  Hellenist.' 

Barbelo,  one  of  the  chief  female  a>ons  of  the  Gnos- 
tics, especially  of  the'Nicolaites  and  the  Borborians, 
the  mother  of  every  thing  living.  She  lived  with  the 
father  of  the  universe  and  with  Christ  in  the  eighth 
heaven.  Hence  the  surname  Barhelkcs,  which  was 
given  to  the  Gnostics.     Sec  Gnosticism. 

Barber  (-.22,  gallab').  "Son  of  man,  take  thee  a 
sharp  knife,  take  thee  a  barler's  razor,  and  cause  it  to 
pass  upon  thine  head  and  upon  thy  beard"  (Ezek.  v, 
1).  Shaving  the  head  was  custcmai}'  among  the  Jews 
as  an  act  of  mourning.  See  Grief.  Sometimes,  for 
the  same  reason,  the  hair  of  the  beard  was  also  shaven, 
or  plucked  off,  as  was  done  by  Ezra  on  his  arrival  at 
Jerusalem  on  rinding  that  the  Hebrews  had  intermixed 
with  the  nations  around  them,  and  plunged  into  all 
their  idolatries  (Ezra  ix,  3).  See  Hair.  The  opera- 
tion of  shaving  the  head  was  probably  performed  much 
in  the  same  manner  as  is  now  usual  in  the  East.  'I  he 
operdor  rubs  the  head  gently  and  comfortably  with 


Modern  Egyptian  Barber. 


BARBER 


660 


BARCLAY 


his  hand  moistened  with  water.  This  he  does  for  a  j 
considerable  time ;  and  he  afterward  applies  the  razor 
(q.  v.),  shaving  from  the  top  of  the  head  downward. 

Barber,  John,  an  English  civilian  of  All  Souls', 
Oxford,  who  graduated  D.C.L.  in  1532.  He  was  pat- 
ronized l>y  Archbishop  Craumer,  and  assisted  in  the 
preparation  of  the  well-known  king's  book,  the  X>  0- 
essary  Doctrine  of  a  Christian  Man.  Barber  died  at 
Wrotham  about  the  beginning  of  1549. — New  Gen. 
B'wg.  Diet,  iii,  143 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Barbets,  a  name  given  to  the  Vaudois  of  the 
mountains  of  Piedmont  from  the  fact  of  their  minis- 
ters being  styled  Barbes,  or  elders.     See  Vaudois. 

Barburim.     See  Fowl, 

Barcelona,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Spain,  and 
.see  of  a  Roman  Catholic  archbishop.  Councils  were 
held  there  in  540,  599,  90G,  1054,  and  1068.  They 
passed  canons  respecting  church  discipline  and  church 
property,  and  the  last,  in  particular,  proposed  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  Roman  for  the  Gothic  rite. 

Bar-cepha,  Moses  a  Jacobite  bishop  and  author, 
who  early  in  life  entered  the  convent  of  Sergius,  on 
the  Tigris.  He  was  afterward  raised  to  the  episcopal 
order  under  the  name  of  Severus,  and  is  sometimes 
called  bishop  of  Beth-Ceno,  sometimes  of  Bethraman. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  in  913.  He  composed  a  "Com- 
mentary on  Paradise"  in  Syriac,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  And.  Masius,  and  printed  at  Ant- 
werp in  15G9,  8vo  (also  in  Bibliotheca  I'atrum  and  in 
Critic.  S.tai).  This  work  is  divided  into  three  parts. 
Part  I  inquires  whether  there  was  both  a  terrestrial 
and  a  spiritual  paradise,  and  concludes  that  there  was 
but  one.  Part  II  gives  the  mystic  signification  of  all 
the  passages  of  Holy  Scripture  relating  to  the  terres- 
trial paradise.  Part  III  answers  the  objection  of  her- 
etics, e.  g.  that  of  Simon  Magus,  who  accused  the  Al- 
mighty of  the  want  of  power  to  preserve  Adam  from 
the  full'— Clarke,  Sacred  Literature,  ii,  555. 

Barckhausen,  Conrad  Heixricii,  a  German 
theologian  of  the  18th  century.  He  was  professor, 
and  later  rector  of  one  of  the  Berlin  colleges.  He  had 
with  his  colleague  Volckmann  an  animated  controversj' 
on  the  subject  of  divine  grace,  Volckmann  advocating 
universal  grace,  and  Barckhausen  maintaining  particu- 
larism. The  title  of  the  work  of  Barckhausen,  which 
he  published  under  the  name  of  Pacificus  Verinus,  is 
Arnica  Collatio  doctrine  de  gratia  quam  vera  reformata 
confitetur  ecclesia,  cum  doctrina  quam.  Volckmannvs  pub- 
lici  juris  fecit  (Furth,  1714).  The  controversy  was 
joined  iu  by  several  other  theologians  on  both  sides  ; 
and  Barckhausen  himself  is  said  to  be  the  author  of 
another  work  on  the  subject,  published  in  the  German 
language  (Abgenothigfe  Ehr-  und  Lehr-Petiung  der  Re- 
formirtcn  Ktrchen  [1714]).  In  1719,  a  royal  edict  of 
King  Friedrich  Wilhelm  f.  imposed  silence  upon  both 
parties. — Herzog,  Siqip'em.  i,  167. 

Barclay,  Barklay,  or  De  Barklay,  Alexan- 
der, a  poet  and  prose  writer,  born  toward  the  end  of  ! 
the  15th  century,  but  whether  English  or  Scotch  by 
birth  is  uncertain.  He  was  certainly  at  Oriel  ( !ollegc, 
Oxford,  about  1495,  and,  after  finishing  his  studies,  he  ' 
travelled  in  Holland,  Germany,  Italy,  and  France,  and 
.  studied  the  languages  and  literature  ofthose  countries. 
Returning  to  England,  he  became  one  of  the  priests  or 
I  prebendaries  of  the  college  of  St.  Mary  Ottery,  Devon- 
shire, and  was  afterward  a  monk  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Ely,  where  ho  continued  till  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  monastery  in  1539.  In  1546  he  obtained 
the  vicarage  of  Great  Badow  and  that  of  Wokey.  On 
30th  April,  1552,  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Allhallows,  but  died  in  June  of  that  year  at  Croydon. 
His  character  as  a  priest  is  dubious,  but  of  his  merit 
as  a  writer  there  is  no  dispute,  if  there  were  no  other 
proof  of  it  than  his  famous  Ship  of  Fooh,  partly  a 
translation  and  partly  an  imitation  from  the  German 


of  Sebastian  Brandt,  the  old  title  being  The  Shyp  of 
Folys  of  the  Worlde  (London,  1509). — New  Gen.  Bug. 
Diet,  ii,  47  ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  116. 

Barclay,  Henry,  D.D.,  was  born  in  1714,  and 
graduted  at  Yale  in  1734,  serving  for  some  years  as 
missionary  among  the  Mohawks.  He  went  to  England 
in  1737  to  be  ordained,  and  on  his  return  assumed  the 
charge  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  at  Albany 
In  1746  he  became  rector  of  Trinity  Church,  New 
York,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1764.  He 
was  made  D.U.  by  the  University  of  Oxford  in  1760. 
Dr.  Barclay  was  zealous  and  indefatigable,  his  disposi- 
tion engaging,  and  his  life  most  exemplary.— Sprague, 
Annals,  v,  91. 

Barclay,  John,  was  born  at  Pont-a-Mousson,  in 
Lorrain,  where  his  father,  William  Barclay  (q.  v.),  was 
law  professor,  in  1582.  He  studied  at  the  college  of 
the  Jesuits  there,  and  the  brethren,  observing  his  gen- 
ius, attempted  to  draw  him  into  their  order.  This 
offended  his  father,  who  left  the  college  with  his  son 
in  1603  and  returned  to  England.  He  wrote  verses 
in  praise  of  King  James,  and  would  doubtless  have 
succeeded  at  court  had  he  not  been  a  Romanist.  His 
literary'  reputation  rests  on  his  Argenis  (1621,  and 
many  editions  since),  which  had  an  immense  popular- 
ity, and  was  translated  into  various  languages.  We 
mention  him  here  for  the  following  works  :  Series 
patefacte  divinitus  pirricid'i,  etc.  (A  History  of  the 
Gunpowder  Plot,  Amst.  1605,  12mo);  Pietas,  etc.  (a 
defence  of  his  father's  work,  De  Potentate  Papa',  against 
Bellarmine  ;  Paris,  1611,  4to)  ;  Paranesis  ad  Sectarios 
hujus  temporis  (Rome,  1617,  12mo;  an  appeal  to  Prot- 
estants in  favor  of  Romanism).  He  died  at  Rome, 
Aug.  12. 1621.—  Neio  Gen.  Biog.  Dictionary,  ii,  49  ;  Alli- 
bone, Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  117. 

Barclay.  John,  founder  of  the  "  Bereans"  (q.  v  ), 
was  born  at  Muthill,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  in  1734,  and 
studied  at  St.  Andrews,  where  he  graduated  A.M.  In 
1759  he  was  licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  Auchtcrar- 
der,  and  became  assistant  minister  of  Errol,  and  in 
1763  assistant  minister  of  Fettercairn  in  Forfarshire. 
Here  he  began  to  act  the  religious  leader,  and  attract- 
ed crowds  of  hearers  by  his  novelties  of  doctrine.  In 
1766  be  published  a  Paraphrase  of  the  Book  of  Psalms, 
with  a  dissertation  on  interpretation,  which  was  cen- 
sured by  the  presbytery.  On  the  death  of  the  clergy- 
man to  whom  he  was  assistant  in  1772,  the  presbytery 
refused  him  the  necessary  testimonials  for  accepting  a 
benefice  elsewhere,  and  he  then  left  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  and  became  the  leader  of  the  sect  called  Be- 
reans, of  which  a  few  congregations  still  exist.  He 
preached  for  some  time  in  Edinburgh,  and  subsequent- 
ly in  London  and  Bristol.  In  London  he  kept  open 
a  debating  society,  where  he  supported  his  doctrines 
against  all  impugners.  He  died  on  the  29th  of  July, 
1798.— Penny  Cyclopedia,  s.  v.     See  Bereans. 

Barclay,  Robert,  of  Fry,  the  eminent  Quaker, 
was  the  son  of  Colonel  David  Barclay,  and  was  born 
at  Gordonstown,  in  Morayshire,  Scotland,  December 
23, 1648.  His  elementary  education  over,  he  was  sent 
to  the  Scotch  college  at  Paris,  where  his  uncle  was 
rector,  and  there  he  imbibed  a  strong  predilection  for 
Romanism.  His  uncle  offered  to  make  him  his  heir 
if  he  would  stay  in  France  and  enter  the  Roman 
Church  ;  but,  though  bis  youthful  imagination  had 
been  impressed  by  the  splendid  services  of  the  church, 
he  refused,  and  returned  to  England  in  1664.  It  is 
said  that  even  at  this  time  (when  he  was  only  sixteen) 
he  was  an  excellent  scholar,  and  could  speak  in  the 
Latin  language,  with  wonderful  fluency  and  correct- 
ness. His  father  joined  the  Quakers  in  1666,  and  his 
example  was  soon  followed  by  his  son,  who  thence- 
forward bee;. me  an  indefatigable  propagator  of  their 
opinions  both  at  home  and  in  Holland.  He  gives  an 
account  of  his  change,  in  substance,  as  follows  (in  his 
Treatise  on  Universal  Love),  viz.  :  that  "his  'first  ed- 


BARCLAY 


664 


BARCLAY 


■cation  fell  among  the  strictest  sort  of  Calvinists,' 
those  of  hi9  country  'surpassing  in  the  heat  of  zeal 
not  only  Geneva,  from  whence  they  derive  their  pedi- 
gree, but  all  the  other  so-called  reformed  churches;' 
That  Bhortly  afterward,  his  transition  to  France  had 
thrown  him  among  the  opposite  'sect  of  papists,' 
whom,  after  a  time,  he  found  to  he  no  less  deficient  in 
charity  than  the  other:  and  that  consequently  he  had 
refrained  from  joining  any,  though  he  had  listened  to 
several.  '1'he  ultimate  eil'ect  of  this  was  to  liberalize 
hi-  mind  by  convincing  him  of  the  folly  and  wicked- 
ness of  religious  strife.  In  both  Calvinists  and  Cath- 
olic- he  found  an  absence  of  'the  principles  of  love,' 
'a  straitness  of  doctrine,'  and  a  'practice  of  persecu- 
tion.' which  offended  his  idea  of  Christianity,  as  well 
as  bis  gentle  and  generous  nature.  He  therefore  al- 
lied himself  gladly  to  this  new  sect,  whose  distinguish- 
ing feature  was  its  charity  and  pure  simplicity  of 
Christian  life,  and  soon  became  one  of  its  most  devo- 
ted adherents  and  its  ablest  advocate.  In  the  course 
of  his  life  he  made  several  excursions  into  England, 
Holland,  and  Germany,  earnestly  propagating  his 
peaceful  views  wherever  he  went,  and  occasionally  en- 
joying the  companionship  of  William  Penn." 

Barclay  believed,  as  the  Society  of  Friends  now  do, 
that  divine  revelation  is  not  incompatible  with  right 
reason,  yet  he  believed,  as  orthodox  Friends  also  now 
do  that  the  faculty  of  reason  alone,  unassisted  by  di- 
vine illumination,  is  unable  to  comprehend  or  receive 
the  sul  lime  truths  relative  to  that  redemption  and  sal- 
vation which  came  by  Jesus  Christ.  To  show  that  the 
tenets  held  by  the  society  were  capable  of  a  rational 
vindication,  Barclay  employed  all  the  powers  of  his  in- 
tellect and  produced  a  succession  of  works  in  explana- 
tion and  defence  of  Quakerism.  The  first  was  Truth 
cleared  of  ('alumnus  (1607),  especially  in  reply  to 
Mitchell,  a  minister  near  Aberdeen,  who  reiterated  his 
Bland)  is  in  a  pamphlet,  which  was  answered  by  Bar- 
clay in  his  William  Mitchell  unmasked,  etc.  (Cry,  1G71). 
Then  followed  an  exposition  of  the  doctrines  and  prin- 
ciplcs  of  the  Quakers,  bearing  the  title  ".-1  Catechism 
mi!  CtniJ'i-ssiiDi  i  j  Fn'th,  approved  of  and  agreed  unto 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Patriarchs,  Prophets, 
and  Apostles,  Christ  himself  chief  Speaker  in  and 
among  them;  in  which  the  answers  are  all  given  in 
the  language  of  the  Bible"  (1675);  translated  into 
Latin,  Catechismw  et  Fidei  Confess/o  Approbata,  etc. 
(Eotterd.  ir,:r,.  8vo);  The  Anarchy  of  the  Ranters 
(1676,  12mo)  ;  a  Vindication  of  the  same  (1679); 
Tins  s  Theolcg'.cce,  comprising,  in  fifteen  propositions, 
the  doctrines  maintained  by  the  Quakers.  This  was 
sent  abroad,  in  various  languages,  to  the  principal 
clergy  of  Europe,  and  was  made  the  basis  of  Barclay's 
greatest  work,  Theologies  vere  Christiana  Apologia  (Am- 
Bterd.  1676,  4to) ;  translated  into  English,  A n  Apology 
for  the  int"  Christian  Divinity,  etc.  (London,  1678 ;  of- 
ten nprinted,  and  translated  into  German  and  other 
languages).  The  Apology  was  dedicated  to  King 
Charles  II,  and  had  the  misfortune  to  receive  the 
praise  of  Voltaire.  "  The  leading  doctrine  which  runs 
through  the  whole  look  is,  that  "divine  truth  is  made 
known  to  us  not  by  logical  investigation,  but  by  intu- 
ition or  immediate  revelation  ;  and  that  the  faculty,  if 
>'  can  be  technically  defined,  by  which  such  intuition 
'-1  possible,  is  the  'internal  light,'  the  source 
of  which  i-  Cod,  or,  more  properly,  Christ,  who  is  the 
'light  that  lighteth  every  man  that  eometh  into  the 
World.'  I  he  identity  of  this  doctrine  with  that  held 
by  Mr  Maurice  and  others  of  the  Broad  Church  in  the 
present  daj  has  been  more  than  once  remarked." 
"Hoi]  Writ,"  according  to  Barclay,"is  a  declaratio 
fontis,  not  the  original  source  of  knowing  the  truth ;  it 
la  no  adequate  rule  f,,r  doctrine  and  morals,  though 
it  gives  a  true  and  credible  testimony  to  the  original 
source  of  knowledge.  It  is  subordinate  to  the  HolySpir- 
it,  from  whom  it  derives  it-  excellence.  It  is  worthy  of 
notice,  that  ho  argues  for  the  sul  ordination  of  Scrip- 


ture to  the  inward  light  on  the  same  grounds  as  Boman- 
ism  pleads  for  the  necessity  of  tradition.  He  points 
to  the  many  contradictory  interpretations  of  the  Bible, 
which  require  a  higher  criterion,  and  asserts  that  this 
can  only  be  found  in  the  inward  divine  word.  The 
subjective  tendency,  if  carried  out  to  its  consequences, 
might  lead  to  entirely  giving  up  the  objectivity  of  di- 
vine revelation"  (Neander,  History  of  Dogmas,  ii,  672). 
So  able  a  book  naturally  gave  rise  to  controversy, 
the  assumption  of  inward  light  being  supposed  by 
many  to  set  aside  the  superior  authority  of  Scripture, 
and  the  denial  of  the  perpetuity  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper  occasioning  a  suspicion  of  infidelity. 
On  this  supposed  tendency'  of  the  system  it  was  acri- 
moniously attacked  by  John  Brown,  in  a  work  to  which 
he  gave  the  title  of  "  Quakerism  the  Pathway  to  Pa- 
ganism." The  Apology  was  also  much  canvassed  in 
various  seats  of  learning.  Nicholas  Arnold,  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Franeker,  wrote  against  it, 
and  Barclay  replied ;  and  in  the  same  year  an  oral 
discussion  took  place  between  some  students  in  the 
University  of  Aberdeen  on  the  one  side,  and  the  au- 
thor, assisted  by  his  friend  George  Keith,  on  the  other. 
"No  part  of  the  'Apology'  was  controverted  by  so 
many  opponents  as  that  in  which  the  necessity  of  an 
inward  and  immediate  revelation  was  insisted  upon. 
It  was  the  only  portion  of  the  work  which  could  be 
considered  original.  The  other  doctrines  contained  in 
it  had  all  been  maintained  by  abler  defenders,  their 
arrangement  in  the  Quaker  system  of  theology  being 
the  only  point  in  which  they  differed  from  the  Armin- 
ian  scheme.  None  of  the  numerous  publications  in 
which  this  leading  tenet  of  this  new  faith  was  at- 
tempted to  be  disproved  called  forth  a  reply  from  the 
writer ;  but  having  been  requested  by  Adrian  Paets, 
an  ambassador  from  the  court  of  the  Netherlands,  with 
whom  he  had  some  conversation  on  the  principles  of 
the  Friends,  to  reconsider  the  strength  of  some  objec- 
tions which  he  had  advanced  against  them,  Barclay 
addressed  him  in  Latin  on  the  subject  while  he  was  in 
the  prison  at  Aberdeen,  reviewed  his  former  arguments, 
and  declared  himself  more  convinced  of  their  truth 
than  he  had  ever  been,  in  his  treatise  on  Immediate 
Revelation  (see  below). 

"The  discipline  or  church  government  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Friends  was  as  much  defamed  as  their  relig- 
ious opinions.  It  could  not  be  denied  that  in  their 
forms  of  worship,  of  marriage,  and  of  burial  there  was 
a  wide  departure  from  the  customary  ceremonial,  and 
it  was  generally  understood  that  the  society  carried 
its  interference  to  a  great  extent  in  the  private  con- 
cerns of  those  who  belonged  to  its  communion.  These 
regulations  were  vindicated  by  Barclay  in  a  work 
wherein  he  contrasts  the  internal  government  of  the 
Quakers  with  the  anarchy  of  the  Banters  and  the  hier- 
archy of  the  Bomanists,  justifying  the  discipline  of  his 
sect,  and  defending  its  members  'from  those  who  ac- 
cuse them  of  confusion  and  disorder,  and  from  such  as 
charge  them  with  tyranny  and  imposition.'  The  pub- 
lication of  this  treatise  engaged  its  author  in  a  long 
altercation  with  some  persons  of  his  own  persuasion, 
who  took  offence  at  various  parts  of  it  as  tending  to 
violate  the  rights  of  private  judgment  and  to  restrain 
the  operations  of  the  Spirit.  Their  opposition,  being 
discountenanced  by  the  society,  soon  passed  away, 
and  the  work  itself  rose  into  such  favor  among  the  sect 
that  its  title  was  changed  at  one  of  its  yearly  meet- 
ings to  A  Treatise  on  Christian  Discipline,  and  it  lo- 
came  the  standard  authority  on  all  matters  to  which  it 
relates." 

In  1677  Barclay  was  in  prisoned  at  Aberdeen,  to- 
gether with  his  father  and  many  others,  but  was  re- 
leased at  the  instigation  of  Elizabeth,  the  princess 
palatine  of  the  Rhine,  who  greatly  favored  him  and 
"William  Penn.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  his  Uni- 
versal  Lave  cons/den d  and  < stallhluil  vp<n  its  light 
Foundation,  etc.  (J.ondon,  1677),  a  work  breathing  the 


BARCLAY 


G65 


BAR  DES  AXES 


purest  spirit  of  Christian  benevolence  and  peace.  His 
last  literary  work  was  his  Possibility  and  Necessity  nf 
the  immediate  Revelation  of  the  Spirit  o/GW(1686,  8vo). 
He  afterward  enjoyed  so  high  a  reputation  that  in 
1G82  he  was  appointed  governor  of  New  Jersey,  in 
America,  by  royal  commission,  liberty  being  granted 
to  him  of  appointing  a  deputy,  which  he  did,  and  never 
visited  his  government  in  person,  lie  died  October 
13th,  1G90,  at  his  estate  of  Ury. — Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s. 
v. ;  Chambers's  Encyclopcvd'a,  s.  v. :  Biographia  Britan- 
niea;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  117;  Collect- 
ed Works  of  Robert  Barclay,  by  Penn  (London,  1G92, 
fol.,  and  1718,  3  vols.  8vo) ;  Short  Account  of  the  Life 
and  Writings  of  R.  Barclay  (Lond.  1782,  12mo).  See 
Friends. 

Barclay,  William,  was  born  in  Aberdeen,  Scot- 
land, about  1515,  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  a  favor- 
its  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  After  her  fall  he  went 
to  France,  studied  law,  and  was  made  professor  of 
that  branch  at  the  new  University  of  Pont-a-Mousson. 
Finding  that  the  Jesuits  were  likely  to  draw  his  son 
John  into  their  ranks  (see  Barclay,  John),  he  left 
the  University,  returned  to  England,  and  was  offered 
a  professorship  of  civil  law  at  one  of  the  universities 
if  he  would  conform  to  the  Anglican  Church.  This, 
however,  he  refused  to  do,  and  returned  to  France, 
where  he  was  made  professor  at  Angers,  and  died  in 
1605  (or  1G09).  He  wrote  (besides  other  works  on 
law,  etc.)  De  Potestate  Papre,  an  et  quatenus  in  Reges  et 
Principes  seculares  Jus  et  fmperium  h'ibeat  (London, 
1609,  8vo  ;  Pont-a-Mousson,  1G10,  8vo  ;  transl.  into 
French,  Pont-a-Mousson,  1611 ;  Cologne,  1688,  8vo). 
In  this  work  he  vindicates  the  independent  rights  of 
princes  against  the  usurpations  of  the  pope. — Bayle, 
Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generate,  iii,  471. 

Bar-COCheba  (dial.  X3213  13,  son  ofthestar), 
or  Simeon  Bar-cochda,  a  Jewish  impostor,  who  ap- 
plied to  himself  the  prophecy  of  Balaam  (Num.  xxiv, 
17),  and  incited  the  Jews  to  revolt  against  the  em- 
peror Hadrian  (A.D.  130).  He  passed  himself  oft"  for 
the  Messiah,  and  his  pretensions  were  supported  by 
Akiba  (q.  v.),  the  chief  of  the  Sanhedrim.  The  better 
to  deceive  the  credulous  Jews,  according  to  Jerome, 
he  pretended  to  vomit  flames,  by  means  of  a  piece  of 
lighted  tow  which  he  kept  in  his  mouth.  Bar-cocheba 
profited  by  the  seditious  state  in  which  he  found  the 
Jews,  and  took  Jerusalem,  A.D.  132.  He  issued  coins 
having  on  one  side  his  own  name,  and  on  the  other 
"  Freedom  of  Jerusalem."  In  the  British  Museum  is  a 
coin  ascribed  by  some  to  Simon  the  Maccabee  (q.  v.), 
aftsr  some  of  whose  it  appears  to  have  been  modelled, 
corresponding  to  the  description  given  by  Tychsen  and 
others  of  a  coin  of  Bar-cocheba.  One  side  of  this  coin 
represents  a  portion  of  four  columns,  in  the  midst  of 
which  is  a  lyre;  a  serpentine  stroke  below  is  said  to 
represent  the  brook  of  Kedron,  and  a  star  seems  to 
allude  to  Numbers  xxiv,  17.  The  other  side  has  a 
vessel  of  manna  and  a  leaf.  Miinter  concluded,  from 
a  similar  coin,  that  Bar-cocheba  had  commenced  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  ;  but  Nicephorus  Callist. 
(//is/.  Eccl.  iii,  c.  21)  and  Cedrenus  (Script.  Byz.  xii, 
2L>)  say  only  that  the  Jews  intended  to  rebuild  the 


:.ksl  fif  Rar-coclii  bo.  representing  tin'  porch  of  the  T.niplj 
an  1  his  "star;"  on  the  other  side  a  pot  of  manna  c>r  bunch 
of  fruits),  with  tli-  inscription  (in  old  llehj,  "  Fur  the  deliv- 
erance of  Jerusalem." 


|  Temple.  All  the  thieves,  murderers,  and  disorderly 
characters  in  the  country  quickly  repaired  to  his  stand- 
ard, and  he  was  soon  strong  enough  to  vanquish,  in 
several  engagements,  J.  Annius  Rufus,  the  Roman 
commandant  in  Judaea.  On  this  the  emperor  Hadrian 
ordered  his  most  able  commander,  Julius  Severus,  to 
leave  his  post  in  Britain  and  repair  to  Palestine ;  but 
the  time  which  elapsed  during  his  journey  was  favor- 
able to  the  rebels.  After  his  arrival,  Julius  Severus 
prudently  avoided  battles,  but  took  a  number  of  forti- 
fied places  before  he  marched  against  Jerusalem,  which 
he  took  and  destroyed  after  sustaining  great  losses. 
The  Jews,  after  the  capture  of  the  city,  concentrated 
their  forces  in  the  mountain-fortress  of  Bethar,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Jerusalem.  While  Julius  Severus  was 
gradually  reconquering  the  country,  Bar-cocheba  still 
played  the  king  in  Bethar  for  three  years,  and,  on  the 
unfounded  suspicion  of  treason,  executed  the  learned 
Eleazar  of  Modain,  who,  having  prayed  for  the  welfare 
of  the  fortress,  was  slandered  by  a  Cuthite  (that  is,  a 
Samaritan),  as  if  he  intended  to  betray  Bethar  to  Ha- 
drian. According  to  Talmudical  statements,  Bethar 
was  taken  in  135  by  the  Romans,  on  the  9th  day  of  the 
month  of  Ab,  the  anniversary  of  the  burning  of  the 
Temple  under  Titus.  It  has  been  stated  that  on  this 
occasion  580,000  Jews  perished,  but  this  must  be  great- 
ly exaggerated.  Bar-cocheba  fell  in  the  combat,  and 
his  head  was  brought  into  the  Roman  camp.  Akiba 
(according  to  most  accounts),  and  many  rabbins,  who 
were  considered  authors  of  the  rebellion,  were  put  to 
a  cruel  death.  The  new  city,  yElia  Capitolina  (q.  v.), 
was  founded  on  the  site  of  Jerusalem. — Jost,  t:<sch. 
d.  Isr.  Volkcs,  vol.  ii ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  IJist.  cent,  ii,  pt. 
i,  ch.  i,  §  11 ;  Gibbon,  Roman  Empire,  ch.  xvi.  See 
Bether. 

Bardesanes,  a  Gnostic  heresiarch,  scholar,  and 
poet  of  the  second  century  at  Edessa,  in  Mesopotamia 
(about  A.D.  170).  Lucius  Verus,  it  is  said,  tried  to  se- 
duce him  from  the  Christian  faith,  and  at  last  threat- 
ened him.  He  replied  "that  he  feared  not  death, 
from  which  he  should  not  escape,  even  if  he  complied 
with  the  emperor's  desire."  According  to  Epiphanius, 
he  defended  the  faith  against  Apollonius,  a  Stoic,  and 
wrote  against  Marcion  ;  but  afterward  he  fell  into  the 
errors  of  the  Valentinian  Gnostics,  though  in  some 
points  he  differed  materially  from  Valentinus.  Jerome 
speaks  highly  of  the  style  in  which  his  works  were 
written,  and  Eusebius  speaks  of  his  recantation  of  er- 
ror before  his  death.  His  treatise  on  Fate  will  be 
found  translated  in  Cureton's  Spicilegium  Syriacum 
(Lond.  1855).  See  Eusebius,  Prop.  Evang.  lib.  vi, 
ch.  x.  Bardesanes  left  a  son  called  Harmonius,  and 
many  other  disciples,  who  added  to  the  errors  which 
he  had  sown.  He  maintained  that  the  supreme  God. 
being  free  from  all  imperfection,  created  the  world 
and  its  inhabitants  pure  and  incorrupt ;  that  the  Prince 
of  Darkness,  who  is  the  fountain  of  all  evil  and  misery, 
enticed  men  to  sin  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  God  per- 
mitted them  to  be  divested  of  those  ethereal  bodies 
with  which  he  had  endued  them,  and  to  fall  into  slug- 
gish and  gross  bodies,  formed  by  the  evil  principle; 
and  that  Jesus  descended  from  heaven,  clothed  with 
an  unreal  or  aerial  body,  to  recover  mankind  from  that 
body  of  corruption  which  they  now  carry  about  them  ; 
and  that  he  will  raise  the  obedient  to  mansions  of  fe- 
licity, clothed  witli  aerial  vehicles,  or  celestial  bodies. 
The  errors  of  Bardesanes  arose  chiefly  from  his  at- 
tempt to  explain  the  origin  of  evil.  Admitting  a  be- 
neficent Supreme  Being,  he  could  not  believe  him  the 
source  of  evil.  He  sought  that  source  in  Satan,  whom 
he  described,  not  as  the  creature,  but  the  enemy  of  God, 
and  as  endowed  witli  self-existence  (iyio  riu'  Au'i- 
[3o\ov  avroQvij  \oyi%opai,  (ccri  avroysvvrirov,  is  the 
phrase  of  the  Bardesanist  in  Origen,  Dial.  cont.  Mar- 
cionitas).  Yet  he  represents  God  alone  as  immortal, 
and  therefore  probably  held  Satan  to  be  the  production 
of  matter  (which  he  supposed  eternal),  and  that  he 


T.AKKFOOT 


G6G 


15AR-JONA 


would  perish  on  the  dissolution  of  his  component  par- 
ticles. Be  taught  that  the  Boul,  created  pure,  was  not 
originally  clothed  with  flesh,  but  after  the  fell  was  im- 
prisoned in  flesh,  the  "coat  of  skins"  of  Gen.  iii,  21 
(comp.  ('Inn.  Alex.  Strom,  iii,  JOG).  Hence  a  per- 
petual conflict)  the  union  of  soul  and  body  is  the 
Cause  of  all  existing  evils,  and  hence  the  apostle's  de- 
-ir  •  to  be  (reed  from  the  "  body  of  this  death"  (Rom. 
vii.  24).  To  deliver  man,  Christ  came,  not  in  sinful 
flesh,  but  with  an  ethereal  body;  through  the  Virgin, 
but  not  formed  of  her  substance  (dtct  Mapiag  dXX'  ovk 
te  Maniac).  Fasting  and  subjugation  of  the  body  are 
the  means  of  becoming  like  Christ;  and  his  followers 
at  the  resurrection  will  have  a  body  like  his  (1  Cor. 
xv,  37),  with  which,  and  not  with  "flesh  and  blood," 
they  shall  inherit  the  kingdom  (1  Cor.  xv,  50).  Bar- 
desanes  was  the  first  Syrian  hymn-writer,  and  his 
hymns,  being  very  attractive,  were  popular,  and  con- 
tributed largely  to  diffuse  his  opinions.  As  a  poet, 
his  fame  rested  upon  the  150  psalms  which,  in  imita- 
tion of  David,  he  composed  for  the  edification  of  his 
countrymen.  The  popularity  of  this  work  was  im- 
mense* and  when  Ephrem  "Syrus  subsequently  re- 
placed it  by  another  more  agreeable  to  sound  doctrine, 
he  was  compelled  to  associate  his  orthodoxy  with  the 
heretical  tunes  to  which  the  musical  genius  of  his  an- 
tagonist had  given  birth.  None  of  Bardesanes's 
psalms  are  preserved,  and  we  only  know  that  bis  met- 
rical system  was  entirely  of  his  own  invention,  and 
was  based  upon  accent  instead  of  quantity.  Nor  are 
any  of  his  prose  writings  extant;  a  dialogue  under  his 
name,  fragments  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  Eu- 
sebius,  being  undoubtedly  spurious,  and  chiefly  derived 
from  the  Pseudo-Clementine  Recoc/nitiones.  See  Hil- 
genfeld,  Bardes  ines,  der  letzte  Gnostiker  (Leips.  1864)  ; 
North  British  Review,  Aug.  1853,  art.  vi ;  Christian 
R  membrancer,  Jan.  1856,  p.  201 ;  Lardner,  Works,  ii, 
318  Bq,  :  Origen,  Dial.  emit.  Marcionitas ;  Jeremie, 
t larch  History,  p.  125 ;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1856,  p.  256; 
Eosebius,  Eccl.  Hist,  iv,  30;  Augustine,  De  Hares. 
xxxv ;  Mosheim,  Comm,  i,  477  ;  Beausobre,  Hist,  du 
Mamcheisme,  t.  ii,  1.  iv,  c.  9;  Hahn,  Bardesanes  Gnos- 
rtCiM  t  Lips.  1819)  ;  Kuhner,  Bardesanis  numina  astralia 
(Ilildb.  183;;);  Neander,  Church  His/or;/,  i,  441.  See 
Gnosticism. 

Barefoot  (Heb.  T~",  yacheph',  '•unshod,"  Jcr.  ii, 
25).  To  go  barefoot  was  an  indication  of  great  distress 
(Isa.  xx.  :.',  3.  Ii;  for  in  ancient  times  the  shoes  of 
great  ami  wealthy  persons  were  made  of  very  rich  ma- 
terial-, and  ornamented  with  jewels,  gold,  and  silver. 
See  Shoe.  When  any  great  calamity  befell  them, 
cither  public  or  private,  they  not  only  stripped  them- 
selves  of  these  ornaments,  but  of  their  very  shoes,  and 
talked  baref  ot  (2  Sam.  xv,  20).  See  Grief.  Per- 
son- were  also  accustomed  to  put  off  their  shoes  on 
spots  account  d  holy  (Exod.  iii,  5).  Sec  Attire. 
Barefooted  Monks.  See  Discalceati. 
Bareketh.     See  Carbuncle. 

Bargain.  Buying  and  selling  in  the  E  ist  are  very 
tiresome  processes  to  persons  unaccustomed  to  such 
of  bargaining.  When  a  shopkeeper  is  asked 
the  price  of  any  of  his  goods,  he  generally  demands 
more  than  he  expects  to  receive:  the  customer  de- 
clares the  price  exorbitant,  and  offers  about  half  or 
two  thirds  of  the  sum  first  named.  The  price  thus 
bidden  i-.  of  course,  rejected  ;  but  the  shopkeeper  low- 
ers Id-  demand,  and  then  the  customer  in  his  turn  bids 
somewhat  higher  than  bi  lore.  'I  bus  they  usually  go 
on.  until  they  meet  about  halfway  between  the  sum 
tir-t  demanded  and  thai  firsl  offered,  and  so  the  bar- 
gain i-  concluded.  To  a  regular  customer,  or  one  who 
makes  an}  considerable  purchase,  the  shopkeeper  gen- 
erally presents  a  pip-  (unless  the  former  have  his  own 
with  him.  and  it  be  filled  and  lighted),  and  he  calls  or 

sends  to  the  boy  of  the  nearest  coffee-shop  and  desires 
him  to  bring  some  coffee,  which  i-  served  in  the  same 


[  manner  as  in  the  house,  in  small  china  cups  placed 
within  cups  of  brass.    When  a  person  would  make  any 

|  but  a  trifling  purchase,  having  found  the  article  that 
exactly  suits  him,  he  generally  makes  up  his  mind  for 
a  long  altercation  ;  he  mounts  upon  the  mastab'ah  of 

j  the  shop,  seats  himself  at  his  ease,  fills  and  lights  his 

'  pipe,  and  then  the  contest  of  words  commences,  and 
lasts  often  half  an  hour,  or  even  more.  Among  the 
lower  orders  a  bargain  of  the  most  trifling  nature  is 

I  often  made  with  a  great  deal  of  vehemence  of  voice 
and  gesture.      A  person  ignorant  of  their  language 

!  would  imagine  that  the  parties  engaged  in  it  were 
quarrelling,  and  highly  enraged.     The  peasants  will 

j  often  say,  when  a  person  asks  the  price  of  any  thing 
which  they  have  for  sale,  "Receive  it  as  a  present," 

I  as  Ephron  did  to  Abraham  when  the  latter  expressed 
his  wish  to  purchase  the  cave  and  field  of  Machpelah 
(Gen.  xxxiii,  11).  This  answer  having  become  a  com- 
mon form  of  speech,  they  know  that  advantage  will  not 

j  he  taken  of  it ;  and  when  desired  again  to  name  the 
price,  they  will  do  so,  but  generally  name  a  sum  that 

|  is  exorbitant  (Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  ii,  15 ;  Kitto,  Pict.  Bi- 
ble, note  in  loc.  Gen. ;  Daily  Bible  lllust.  i,  255).  See 
Merchant  ;  Contract. 

Barger,  John  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Kentucky,  June  29,  1831.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Illinois  Wesleyan  Cniversity,  where  he 
passed  A.B.  in  1853.  In  the  same  year  he  entered 
the  itinerant  ministry  in  the  Illinois  Conference,  and 
was  appointed  successive^/  to  Perry,  Payson, Winches- 
ter, Griggsville,  and  Carlinsville,  in  all  which  appoint- 
ments his  ministry  was  signally  acceptable  and  useful, 
scores,  and  even  hundreds,  being  added  to  the  church 
in  these  places  during  his  term  of  service.  In  I860 
he  was  appointed  presiding  elder  of  Quincy  District, 
where  he  was  actively  engaged  until  his  life,  which 
was  so  full  of  promise  to  the  church,  was  suddenly  cut 
short.  On  the  31st  of  Oct.,  1861,  he  was  accidentally 
shot  on  a  hunting  excursion  on  an  island  in  the  Mis- 
sissippi.— Minutes  of  Conferences,  1862,  p.  223. 
Bar-Hebragus.  See  Abulfaragius. 
Bar'uumite  (Heb.  Barchwni',  "^rna  ;  Sept. 
BrtpY/a-»;t),  -1  transposed  form  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  31)  of  the 
gentile  name  Baharumite  (q.  v.). 

Bari,  a  town  in  Southern  Italy,  and  see  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop.  An  important  council  was  held 
there  in  1098,  at  which  Anselm  of  Canterbury  spoke 
against  the  Greek  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the 
Spirit. — Hasse,  Lebcn  Anselm' 's,  i,  345;  Hefele,  Concili- 
engesckickte,  v,  225. 

Bari'ah  (Heb.  Barrack,  n^S,  fugitive ;  Sept.  B£- 
oia  v.  r.  BspjOi),  one  of  the.  five  sons  of  Shemaiah.  of 
the  descendants  of  David  (who  are  counted  as  six,  in- 
cluding their  father,  1  Chron.  iii,  22).  B.C.  ante  410. 
Baris  (B«p«c,  from  Chald.  !T^2,  birah' ' ,  a,  fortress"), 
the  name  attributed  by  Josephus  to  two  structures. 

1.  A  tower  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  prophet 
Daniel  at  Eebatana.  and  described  as  "a  most  elegant 
building,  and  wonderfully  made,"  remaining  in  later 
times,  where/  "they  bury  the  kings  of  Media,  Persia, 
and  Parthia  to  this  day."  A  Jewish  priest  is  said  to 
have  been  intrusted  with  the  care  of  it  (Joseph.  Ai,t. 
x,  11,  7).      See  EcuATANA. 

2.  A  palace  begun  1  y  John  Ilyrcanus  on  the  moun- 
tain of  the  Temple,  and  which  afterward  was  used  for 
the  residence  of  the  Asmonsean  princes.  Herod  the 
Great  made  a  citadel  of  it,  which  he  called  Antonia.  in 
honor  of  his  friend  Mark  Antony  (Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  11, 
4).      Sec  Antonia. 

Bar-je'sus  (Bdp-i'naouc,  son  of  Joshua),  the  patro- 
nymic of  Ei. y.mas  (q.  v.)  the  sorcerer  (Acts  xiii,  6). 
Sec'  Bar-;  Jesus. 

Bar-jo'na  (Bap-iWa,  son  of  Jonah),  the  patro- 
nymic appellation  (Matt,  xvi,  17;  comp.  John  i,  42) 
!  of  the  apostle  Peter  (q.  v.).      See  Bar-;  Jonas. 


BAltKANIM 


BARLOW 


Barkanim.     See  Brier.  '  or  rather  as  soon  as  the  depth  of  winter  had  passed 

Barker,  Thomas,  an  English  theological  writer,  I  (Mishna,  Berackotk,  p.  18).  This  later  sowing  has  not 
was  born  in  1721,  and  died  in  1809.  He  was  a  grand-  hitherto  been  much  noticed  by  writers  on  this  part  of 
son  of  the  celebrated  Thomas  Whiston.  Among  his  Biblical  illustration,  but  is  confirmed  by  various  trav- 
theological  works  are  a  work  on  baptism  (1771);  The  ellers  who  observed  the  sowing  of  barley  at  this  time 
Messiah  (1780)  ;  The  Demoniacs  of  the  Gospel  (1780).—  of  the  year.  Russell  says  that  it  continues  to  be  sown 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  p.  121.  j  to  the  end  of  February  (Nat.  Hist.  A  leppo,  i,  74 ;  see  his 

_  ,rT  ,    ,-,     ,     /  >_.:_i-,  ,    <•     _._*._...     meaning  evolved  in  Kitto's  Phis.  Hist,  of  Palis!  me,  p. 

Bar'kos (Heb. Barhos  ,  blp^a, prob. for  Sip?    (|,    2U .  ^  p  229)      The  b&T^y  of  the ^  crop  W;;s 

painter;  Sept.  Bap/coe,  Bap/cove),  the  head  of  one  of  I  readv  by  the  time  of  the  passover)  jn  the  month  Abib, 
the  families  of  Nethinim  that  returned  with  Zerubba-  March— April  (Ruth  i,  22;  2  Sam.  xxi,  9;  Judith  viii, 
bel  from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii,  53  ;  Neh.  vii,  55).  B.C.  I  2) .  and  if  not  ripe  at  the  expiration  of  a  (Hebrew)  year 
ante  530.  Schwarz,  however,  regards  it  as  the  name  from  the  last  celebration,  the  year  was  intercalated 
of  a  place,  identical  with  the  modern  village  Berkusia,  (Lightfoot,  ut  supra)  to  preserve  that  connection  he- 
six:  miles  north-west  of  Beit-Jebrin  (Palestine,  p.  110).   !  tvveen  the  feast  ancl  the  barley-harvest  which  the  law 

Barlaam,  a  martyr  of  Syria  or  Cappadocia  (men-  required  (Exod.  xxiii,  15, 16 ;  Deut.  xvi,  16).  Accord- 
tioned  by  Basil  and  Chrysostom),  who  was  forced  to  ingly,  travellers  concur  in  showing  that  the  barley- 
hold  liia  hand,  filled  with  incense,  over  the  fire  of  an  !  harvest  in  Palestine  is  in  March  and  April — advancing 
idol  altar,  in  order  that  the  pain  might  compel  him  to  '  into  May  in  the  northern  and  mountainous  parts  of 
open  his  hand,  and  so  let  the  incense  fall  upon  the  the  land ;  but  April  is  the  month  in  which  the  barley- 
flames.  In  the  course  of  this  torment  he  died. — Basil,  j  harvest  is  chiefly  gathered  in,  although  it  begins  earlier 
Horn,  xviii ;  Chrysost.  Horn,  lxxiii ;  Butler,  Lives  of  ■  in  some  parts  and  later  in  others  (Pict.  Palestine,  p.  214, 
Saints,  Nov.  19.  229, 239).    At  Jerusalem,  Niebuhr  found  barley  ripe  at 

Barlaam,  a  Calabrian  monk  of  St.  Basil.  He  was  the  end  of  March,  when  the  later  (autumnal)  crop  had 
educated  among  the  Latins,  but  afterward  went  over  to  !  only  been  lately  sown  (Beschreib.  von  Arabien,  p.  160). 
the  Greeks.  He  is  chiefly  known  for  his  attack  upon  the  [  It  was  earlier  than  wheat  (Exod.  ix,  31),  and  less 
Hesychists  or  Quietists,  as  the  monks  of  Mount  Athos  j  prized  (Thomson,  Land  and  Booh,  ii,  166),  although 
were  styled,  who  held  certain  very  peculiar  views,  reckoned  among  the  valuable  products  of  the  promised 
The  question  was  brought  before  a  synod  at  Constant'!-  land  in  Deut.  viii,  8.  We  read  of  barley-meal  in  Num. 
nople  in  1341,  but  nothing  was  definitively  determined,  v,  15,  of  barley-bread  in  Judg.  vii,  13,  and  barley-cakes 
In  1339  Barlaam  went  to  Pope  John,  at  Avignon,  to  in  Ezek.  iv,  12.  It  was  measured  by  the  ephah  and 
induce  him  to  take  up  the  case,  but  in  vain.      He  was  I  homer.     The  jealousy-offering  (Num.  v,  15)  was  to  be 


afterward  condemned  in  various  synods.  He  then  for- 
sook the  Greek  side,  and  took  part  with  the  Latins, 
strenuously  opposing  the  dogmas  peculiar  to  the  Greek 
Church,  for  which  service  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
see  of  Gierace,  in  Naples.  He  was  the  Greek  tutor  of 
Petrarch.  He  died  about  A.D.  1:98.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  controversial  bocks,  and  ami  ng  them  a  Li- 
ber contra  Primatum  Papce  (Oxford,  1592  ;  Hanov. 
1638).  Also  Ethica  secundum  Stoicos,  lib.  2  (Bib.  Mar. 
Pat.  xxvi,  4).  See  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  aim.  1340  ;  Floefer, 
Liioij.  Generate,  iv,  575 ;  Landon,  Feci.  Diet,  ii, 
Hesychists. 


barley-meal,  though  the  common  mincha  was  of  fino 
wheat-flour  (Lev.  ii,  1),  the  meaner  grain  being  ap- 
pointed to  denote  the  vile  condition  of  the  person  on 
whose  behalf  it  was  offered.  The  purchase-money  of 
the  adulteress  in  Hos.  iii,  2,  is  generally  believed  to  be 
a  mean  price.     See  Cereals. 

The  passage  in  Isa.  xxxii,  20,  has  been  supposed  by 
many  to  refer  to  rice,  as  a  mode  of  culture  by  submer- 
sion of  the  land  after  sowing,  similar  to  that  of  rice,  is 
indicated.  The  celebrated  passage,  "Cast  thy  bread 
See!  upon  the  waters,"  etc.  (Eccles.  xi,  1),  has  been  by 
I  some  supposed  to  refer  also  to  such  a  mode  of  culture. 


Barletta,  Gabriel,  a  Dominican  monk  of  Barlet- 1  But  it  is  precarious  to  build  so  important  a  conclusion 
ta,  in  Naples,  who  was  living  in  1-180.  He  became  ro  j  as  that  rice  had  been  so  early  introduced  into  the 
distinguished  as  a  preacher  that  it  was  a  saving  in  his  Levant  upon  such  slight  indications;  and  it  now  ap- 
time,  "Qui  nescit  Barlettare  nescit  prajdicare."  He  |  Pears  that  barley  is  in  some  parts  subjected  to  the 
published  some  extraordinary  sermons,  entitled  Ser-  j  same  submersion  after  sowing  as  rice,  as  was  particu- 
ffionn  a  Septuagesima  ad  Feriam  tertium  post  Pascha.  I  krly  noticed  by  Major  Skinner  (.,  320)  in  the  vicinity 
Item  Sermones  28  de  Sanctis.  Item  Sermones  3,  de  Pau-  |  of  Damascus.  In  Exod.  ix,  31,  we  are  told  that  the 
cite  salvandorum,  de  Ira  Dei,  et  de  Chords,  et  4  pro  Plag™s  of  hail,  some  time  before  the  Passover,  destroy- 
Dominicis  Acbentus  (Brescia,  1498,  Bio,,.  Un>r. ;  Paris,  |  «1  the  barley,  which  was  then  in  the  green  ear;  but 
1502),  etc.— Biog.  Univ.  iii,  384;  Landon,  Eccles.  Die- .not  the  wheat  or  the  rye,  which  were  only  in  the 
iionary  ii  37.     "  I  blade.     This  is  minutely  corroborated  by  the  tact  that 

„''"..  , .    „  .,.,.,        .      the  barley  sown  after  the  inundation  is  reaped,  some 

Barley  (ST^S,  seorah  ,  from  its  bristling  beard;  I  after  nine'ty  dayg]  some  in  the  fourth  month  cWKkm- 

the  plur.  C^SIB,  scorini ',  designates  the  grains;  Gr.  son's  Thebes,  p.  395),  and  that  it  there  ripens  a  month 
tcp&ij),  a  grain  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  cultivated  \  earlier  than  the  wheat  (Sonnini,  p.  395). — Kitto,  s.  v. 
and  used  in  Egypt  (Exod.  ix,  31),  and  in  Palestine  I  See  Agriculture. 

(Lev.  xxvii,  16;  Num.  v,  15;  Deut.  viii,  8;  2  Chron.  I  Barlow,  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  born  in 
ii,  10;  Ruth  ii,  17;  2  Sam.  xiv,  30;  Isa.  xxviii,  25;  i  Westmoreland  in  1607;  educated  at  Appleby,  and  re- 
Jer.  xli,  8  :  Joel  i,  11 ;  etc.).  Barley  was  given  to  cat-  moved  thence  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  Although 
tie,  especially  horses  (1  Kings  iv,  28),  and  was,  indeed,  !  no  favorer  of  the  Parliamentary  party,  he  retained  his 
the  only  corn  grain  given  to  them,  as  oats  and  rye  fellowship  through  the  Commonwealth,  and  in  1054 
were  unknown  to  the  Hebrews,  and  are  not  now  grown  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Bodleian.  Afterward  he 
in  Palestine,  although  Volney  affirms  (ii,  117)  that  was  made  provost  of  his  college,  Lady-Margaret  pro- 
small  quantities  are  raised  in  some  parts  of  Syria  as  fessor,  and  in  1675  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  being  then  near- 
food  for  horses  (comp.  Homer,  //.  v,  196).  Hence  ly  seventy  years  of  age.  He  never  removed  to  his  see. 
barley  is  mentioned  in  the  Mishna  (Pesach,  fol.  3)  as  '  He  died  in  1691,  on  the  8th  of  October.  He  was  of  the 
the  food  of  horses  and  asses.  This  is  still  the  chief  use  Calvinistic  school  of  theology,  and  left,  among  other 
of  barley  in  Western  Asia.  Bread  made  of  barlej-  was,  |  writings,  the  following,  viz. :  (1.)  The  Case  of  Tolera- 
however,  used  by  the  poorer  classes  (Judg.  vii,  13;  2  tion  in  Matters  of  Religion  (1660)  ;  (2.)  The  Original 
Kings  iv,  42  ;  John  vi,  9,  13;  comp.  Ezek.  iv,  9).  In  '  of  Sinecures  (1676)  ;  (3.)  Popery,  or  the  Principles  and 
Palestine  barley  was  for  the  most  part  sown  at  the  time  j  Opinions  of  the  Church  of  Rome  ;  (4.)  Brntum  fulrm  », 
of  the  autumnal  rains,  October — November  (Lightfoot,  \  or  the  Bull  of  Pope  Pins  V,  etc.  (Lond.  1681,  4to).  After 
Hor.  Hebr.  ad  Matt,  xii,  1),  and  again  in  early  spring,  !  his  death,  Sir  Peter  Pett  published  a  volume  of  Cases 


BARLOW 


G68 


BARNABAS 


of  Conscience,  resolved  by  Barlow,  and  another  volume 
of  <;,  mtim  /.'<  ma  nt  I  Lond.  1693,  8vo).— Darling,  s.  v. 

Barlow,  William,  Bishop  of  Chichester,  was 
born  in  Essex,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was  a 
regular  canon  of  St.  Augustine,  and  became  prior  of 
tli"  In. us.'  of  Bisbam,  in  Berks,  in  1535,  in  which  year 
Henn  VIII  sent  him  on  an  embassy  into  Scotland. 
He  rendered  up  his  house  at  the  time  of  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  monastic  houses,  and  endeavored  to  induce 
others  to  follow  his  example.  He  was  rewarded  with 
the  see  of  St.  Asaph  in  1535,  from  which  he  was  trans- 
lated, in  1536,  to  St.  David's,  and  thence  again  to  Bath 
and  Wells  in  1547.  He  was  one  of  the  strongest  op- 
ponents  of  popery  in  England,  and  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  spreading  the  reformation.  He  married 
Agatha  Wellesbourne,  and  was,  in  consequence,  de- 
prived on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary.  During  the 
reign  of  that  princess  he  lived  in  Germany  ;  but  after 
her  death  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  appointed, 
in  1559,  to  the  see  of  Chichester,  which  he  held  till  his 
death  in  August,  15G8.  He  left  eleven  children  ;  five 
of  them  were  daughters,  all  of  whom  were  married  to 
bishops.  His  son  William  was  an  eminent  mathema- 
tician. See  Burnet,  Hist,  of  Reformation,  iii,  158,  391, 
623 ;  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  512. 

Barn  (EOS,  asam',  Prov.  iii,  10;  "store-house," 
Deut.  xxviii,  8;  «jto3//k»/,  "barn"  or  "garner"),  a 
magazine  or  place  of  deposit  for  grain,  which,  among 
the  <  (rientalSjWas  frequently  under-ground.  See  Cave. 
The  phraseology  in  Luke  xii,  18,  shows  that  the  Jews 
at  that  time  had  granaries  above-ground,  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  they  had  altogether  relinquished  the 
older  and  still  common  custom  of  depositing  grain  in 
subterranean  store-houses,  in  which  it  was  more  secure, 
and,  as  some  think,  preserved  in  better  condition,  than 
in  the  other.  Those  who  are  exposed  to  danger  and 
alarm  would  naturally  prefer  the.  subterraneous  gran- 
ary, which  may,  on  occasions  of  emergency,  be  aban- 
doned by  the  proprietor  with  tolerable  confidence  that 
when  he  is  enabled  to  return  he  shall  find  his  treasured 
grain  untouched,  the  entrance  being  so  carefully  con- 
cealed that  it  is  sometimes  discovered  with  difficulty 
even  by  the  owner  himself.  This  plan  may  in  general 
be  said  to  be  resorted  to  by  the  peasantry  throughout 
the  East,  granaries  above-ground  being  confined  to 
towns  and  their  vicinities,  a  distinction  which  may 
also  have  prevailed  among  the  Jews.     See  Granary. 

The  Heb.  word  """•,  go'ren,  rendered  "barn"  in  Job 
xxxix,  12  ;  2  Kings  vi,  27,  signifies  rather  a  threshmg- 
Jloor,  as  it  is  elsewhere  translated.  In  Hag.  ii,  19; 
Joel  i.  17,  the  original  terms  are  fTn^O,  megurah' ',  and 
n~5"2"C,  mammegurah' ,  a  granary.    See  Agriculture. 

Bar'nabas  (Bapvafiae,  from  the  Syro-Chaldee 
riX"~:  "2  i,  originally  'lworjc,  Jose.i,  or  'Iwo7;</>,  Joseph 
(Acts  Lv,  ISii);  but  he  received  from  the  apostles  the 
i  urname  of  Barnabas,  which  signifies  the  so?i  ofproph- 
itis  interpreted  in  the  above  text,  eioc.  irapa- 
rXjjfffujc,  i.  e.  ton  of  exhortation  (Auth.  Vers,  less  accu- 
rately, "son  of  consolation").  The  Hebrew  term 
fix":  and  its  cognates  are  used  in  the  Old  Testament 
wiMi  a  certain  latitude  of  meaning,  and  are  not  limited 
to  that  of  foretelling  future  events  (see  Gen.  xx,  7; 
Exod.  \  ii,  i  ).  See  Prophecy.  In  like  manner, 
-n,,'. nr, 1. 1.  in  the  New  Testament,  means  not  merely 
prediction,  bul  includes  the  idea  of  declarations,  ex- 
hortation .  or  warnings  uttered  by  the  prophets  while 
under  divine  influence  (seel  Cor.  xiv,  3).  Of  Silas 
and  .lie la-  it  i-  said,  "being  prophets,  they  exhorted 
(iraptKoXtaav)  the  brethren"  (Acts  xv,  32).  It  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  this  name  was  given  to  Joses 
to  denote  bi<  eminence  as  a  Christian  teacher.  In 
Act-  \iii.  1,  his  name  is  placed  first  in  the  list  of  proph- 
ets and  teachers  belonging  to  the  Church  at  Antioch. 
loin,   however,   understands  the   surname  to 


have  been  given  to  Barnabas  on  account  of  his  mild 
I  and  gentle  disposition  (In  Act.  Apost.  Horn.  xxi).  He 
!  is  described  by  Luke  as  "  a  good  man,  full  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  of  faith"  (Acts  xi,  24).  He  was  a  native 
of  Cyprus,  but  the  son  of  Jewish  parents  of  the  tribe 
'  of  Levi ;  be  was  possessed  of  land  (but  whether  in  Ju- 
j  dsea  or  Cyprus  is  not  stated),  and  generously  disposed 
of  the  whole  for  the  benefit  of  the  Christian  commu- 
nity, and  "  laid  the  money  at  the  apostles'  feet"  (Acts 
iv,  36,  37).  A.D.  29.  As  this  transaction  occurred 
soon  after  the  day  of  Pentecost,  he  must  have  been  an 
earl}r  convert  to  the  Christian  faith  (comp.  Asscmr ni, 
Bill.  Or.  Ill,  i,  319  sq.).  According  to  Clement  of 
Alexandria  (Strom,  ii,  c.  20,  vol.  ii,  p.  192,  ed.  Klotz), 
Eusebius  (Hist.  Eceles.  i,  12),  and  Epiphanius  (Ilcer. 
xx,  4),  he  was  one  of  the  seventy  disciples  (Luke  x,  1). 
I  It  has  been  maintained  that  Barnabas  is  identical  with 
Joseph  Barsabas,  whose  name  occurs  in  Acts  i,  23. 
Most  modern  critics,  however,  embrace  the  contrary 
opinion,  which  they  conceive  is  supported  by  the  cir- 
cumstantial manner  in  which  Barnabas  is  first  men- 
tioned. However  similar  in  sound,  the  meanings  of 
the  names  are  very  different ;  and  if  no  farther  notice 
is  taken  of  Barsabas  (a  circumstance  which  Ullmann 
urges  in  favor  of  his  identity  with  Barnabas),  the  same 
may  be  affirmed  of  Matthias  (see  Chrysostom,  In  Ait. 
Apost.  Homil.  xi,  1).  From  the  incident  narrated  in 
Acts  xiv,  8-12,  Chrysostom  infers  that  the  personal 
appearance  of  Barnabas  was  dignified  and  command- 
i  Lag,  "When  the  inhabitants  of  Lystra,  on  the  cure  of 
i  the  impotent  man,  imagined  that  the  gods  were  come 
i  down  to  them  in  the  likeness  of  men,  they  called  Bar- 
nabas Zeus  (their  tutelary  deity),  and  Paul  Hermes, 
because  he  was  the  chief  speaker"  (In  Act.  Apost.  Horn, 
xxx). 

When  Paul  made  his  first  appearance  in  Jerusalem 
after  his  conversion,  Barnabas  introduced  him  to  the 
apostles,  and  attested  his  sincerity  (Acts  ix,  27).  A.D. 
30.  This  fact  lends  some  support  to  an  ancient  tradi- 
tion (Theodor.  Lector,  Hist.  Eccl.  ii,  557,  ed.  Vales.) 
that  they  had  studied  together  in  the  school  of  Gama- 
liel ;  that  Barnabas  had  often  attempted  to  bring  his 
companion  over  to  the  Christian  faith,  but  hitherto  in 
vain ;  that,  meeting  with  him  at  this  time  in  Jerusa- 
lem, not  aware  of  what  had  occurred  at  Damascus,  he 
once  more  renewed  his  efforts,  when  Paul  threw  him- 
self weeping  at  his  feet,  informed  him  of  "  the  heaven- 
ly vision,"  and  of  the  happy  transformation  of  the 
persecutor  and  blasphemer  into  the  obedient  and  zeal- 
ous disciple  (Acts  xxvi,  16).  Though  the  conversion 
of  Cornelius  and  his  household,  with  its  attendant  cir- 
cumstances, had  given  the  Jewish  Christians  clearer 
views  of  the  comprehensive  character  of  the  new  dis- 
pensation, yet  the  accession  of  a  large  number  of  Gen- 
tiles to  the  Church  at  Antioch  was  an  event  so  extra- 
ordinary that  the  apostles  and  brethren  at  Jerusalem 
resolved  on  deputing  one  of  their  number  to  investi- 
gate it.  Their  choice  was  fixed  on  Barnabas.  After 
witnessing  the  flourishing  condition  of  the  Church, 
and  adding  fresh  converts  by  his  personal  exertions, 
he  visited  Tarsus  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  Saul,  who 
returned  with  him  to  Antioch,  where  thej'  labored  for 
a  whole  year  (Acts  xi,  23-26).  A.D.  34.  In  antici- 
pation of  the  famine  predicted  by  Agabus,  the  Anti- 
ochian  Christians  made  a  contribution  for  their  poorer 
brethren  at  Jerusalem,  and  sent  it  by  the  hands  of 
Barnabas  and  Saul  (Acts  xi,  28-30),  A.D.  44,  who 
speedily  returned,  bringing  with  them  John  Mark,  a 
nephew  of  the  former.  By  divine  direction  (Acts  xii, 
2),  they  were  separated  to  the  office  of  missionaries, 
and  as  such  visited  Cyprus  and  some  of  the  principal 
cities  in  Asia  Minor  (Acts  xiii,  14).  §oon  after  their 
return  to  Antioch,  A.D.  45,  the  peace  of  the  Church 
was  disturbed  by  certain  zealots  from  Judaea,  who  in- 
sisted on  the  observance  of  the  rite  of  circumcision  by 
the  Gentile  converts.  To  settle  the  controversy,  Paul 
and  Barnabas  were  deputed  to  consult  the  apostles  and 


BARNABAS 


BARNABAS 


elders  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv,  1,  2) ;  they  returned  to 
communicate  the  result  of  their  conference  (ver.  22) 
accompanied  by  Judas  Barsabas  and  Silas,  or  Silva- 
nus,  A.D.  47.  On  preparing  for  a  second  missionar}' 
tour  a  dispute  arose  between  them  on  account  of  John 
Mark,  which  ended  in  their  taking  different  routes ; 
Paul  and  Silas  went  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  while 
Barnabas  and  his  nephew  revisited  his  native  island 
(Acts  xv,  36-41).  A.D.  47-51.  In  reference  to  this 
event,  Chrysostom  remarks,  "What  then  ?  Did  they 
part  as  enemies  ?  Far  from  it.  For  you  sec  that  after 
this  Paul  bestows  in  his  Epistles  many  commendations 
on  Bjrnabas."  If  we  may  judge  from  the  hint  fur- 
nished by  the  notice  that  Paul  was  commended  by  the 
brethren  to  the  grace  of  God,  it  would  seem  that  Bar- 
n.ibas  was  in  the  wrong.  At  this  point  Barnabas  dis- 
appeai's  from  Luke's  narrative,  which  to  its  close  is 
occupied  solely  with  the  labors  and  sufferings  of  Paul. 
From  the  Epistles  of  the  latter  a  few  hints  (the  only 
authentic  sources  of  information)  may  be  gleaned  rel- 
ative to  his  early  friend  and  associate.  From  1  Cor. 
ix,  5,  6,  it  would  appear  that  Barnabas  was  unmarried, 
and  supported  himself,  like  Paul,  by  some  manual  oc- 
cupation. In  Gal.  ii,  1,  we  have  an  account  of  the  re- 
ception given  to  Paul  and  Barnabas  by  the  apostles  at 
Jerusalem,  probably  on  the  occasion  mentioned  in  Acts 
xv.  In  the  same  chapter  (ver.  13)  we  are-  informed 
that  Barnabas  so  far  yielded  to  the  Judiizing  zealots 
at  Antioch  as  to  separate  himself  for  a  time  from  com- 
munion with  the  Gentile  converts.  This  event  took 
place  about  A.D.  47.  See  Paul.  It  has  been  infer- 
red from  2  Cor.  viii,  18,  10;  that  Barnabas  was  not 
only  reconciled  to  Paul  after  their  separation  (Acts 
xv,  39),  but  also  became  again  his  coadjutor;  that  ho 
was  "the  brother  whose  praise  was  in  the  Gospel 
through  all  the  churches."  Chrysostom  says  that 
some  suppose  the  brother  was  Luke,  and  others  Bar- 
nabas. Theodoret  asserts  that  it  was  Barnabas,  and 
appeals  to  Acts  xiii,  3,  which  rather  serves  to  disprove 
his  assertion,  for  it  ascribes  the  appointment  of  Paul 
and  Barnabas  to  an  express  divine  injunction,  and  not 
to  an  elective  act  of  the  Church;  and,  besides,  the 
brother  alluded  to  was  chosen,  not  by  a  single  church, 
but  by  several  cliMtches,  to  travel  with  Paul  (2  Cor. 
viii,  19).  In  Coloss.  iv,  10,  and  Philemon,  ver.  24, 
Paul  mentions  Mark  as  his  fellow-laborer;  and  at  a 
still  later  period,  2  Tim.  iv,  11,  he  refers  with  strong 
approbation  to  his  services,  and  requests  Timothy  to 
brin  ;■  him  to  Rome;  but  of  Barnabas  (his  relationship 
to  Mirk  excepted)  nothing  is  said.  The  most  proba- 
ble inference  is  that  he  was  already  dead,  and  that 
Mark  had  subsequently  associated  himself  with  Paul. 
Barnabas  seems  not  to  have  possessed  Paul's  thorough- 
ness of  purpose. 

For  the  latter  years  of  Barnabas  we  have  no  better 
guides  than  the  Acta  et  Passio  Barnabas  in  Cupro  (first 
complete  edition,  from  a  Paris  codex  of  the  9th  cent.,  in 
Tischendorf's  Acta.  Apostolorum  Apocrypha,  Lpz.  1841), 
a  forgery  in  the  name  of  John  Mark,  and,  from  the  ac- 
quaintance it  discovers  with  the  localities  of  Cyprus, 
probably  written  by  a  resident  in  that  island  ;  and  the 
legends  of  Alcxandei-,  a  Cyprian  monk,  and  of  Theo- 
dore, commonly  called  Lector  (that  is,  an  avayvioari'tc, 
or  reader),  of  Constantinople  ;  the  two  latter  belong  to 
the  sixth  century.  According  to  Alexander,  Barnabas, 
after  taking  leave  of  Paul,  landed  in  Cyprus,  passed 
through  the  whole  island,  converted  numbers  to  the 
Christian  faith,  and  at  last  arrived  at  Salamis,  where 
he  preached  in  the  synagogue  with  great  success. 
Thither  he  was  followed  by  some  Jews  from  Syria 
(the  author  of  the  Acta  names  Bar-jesus  as  their  leader), 
who  stirred  up  the  people  against  him.  Barnabas,  in 
anticipation  of  bis  approaching  end,  celebrated  the  Eu- 
charist with  his  brethren,  and  bade  them  farewell.  He 
give  his  nephew  directions  respecting  his  interment, 
and  charged  him  to  go  after  his  decease  to  the  apostle 
Paul.      He  then  entered  the  synagogue,  and  began  as 


usual  to  preach  Christ.  But  the  Jews  at  once  laid 
hands  on  him,  shut  him  up  till  night,  then  dragged 
him  forth,  and,  after  stoning  him,  endeavored  to  burn 
his  mangled  body.  The  corpse,  however,  resisted  the 
action  of  the  flames  ;  Mark  secretly  conveyed  it  to  a 
cave  about  five  stadia  from  the  city;  he  then  joined 
Paul  at  Epbesus,  and  afterward  accompanied  him  to 
Rome.  A  violent  persecution,  consequent  on  the  death 
of  Barnabas,  scattered  the  Christians  at  Salamis,  so  that 
a  knowledge  of  the  place  of  his  interment  was  lost. 
This  account  agrees  with  that  of  the  pseudo  Mark,  ex- 
cepting that,  according  to  the  latter,  the  corpse  was 
reduced  to  ashes.  Under  the  emperor  Zeno  (A.D. 
474-491),  Alexander  goes  on  to  say,  Peter  Fullo,  a 
noted  Monophysite,  became  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple. He  aimed  at  bringing  the  Cyprian  church  under 
his  patriarchate,  in  which  attempt  he  was  supported 
by  the  emperor.  When  the  Bishop  of  Salamis,  a  very 
worthy  man,  but  an  indifferent  debater,  was  called 
upon  to  defend  bis  rights  publicly  at  Constantinople, 
he  was  thrown  into  the  greatest  perplexity.  But  Bar- 
nabas took  compassion  on  his  fellow-countryman,  ap- 
peared to  him  by  night  no  less  than  three  times,  as- 
sured him  of  success,  and  told  him  where  he  might 
find  his  body,  with  a  copy  of  Matthew's  gospel  lying 
upon  it.  The  bishop  awoke,  assembled  the  clergy  and 
laity,  and  found  the  body  as  described.  The  sequel 
may  easily  be  conjectured.  Fullo  was  expelled  from 
Antioch  ;  the  independence  of  the  Cyprian  church  ac- 
knowledged ;  the  manuscript  of  Matthew's  gospel  was 
deposited  in  the  palace  at  Constantinople,  and  at  Easter 
lessons  were  publicly  read  from  it;  and  by  the  em- 
peror's command  a  church  was  erected  on  the  spot 
where  the  corpse  had  been  interred.  These  suspicious 
visions  of  Barnabas  are  termed  by  Dr.  Cave  "a  mere 
addition  to  the  story,  designed  only  to  serve  a  present 
turn,  to  gain  credit  to  the  cause,  and  advance  it  with 
the  emperor."  Neither  Alexander  nor  Theodore  is 
very  explicit  respecting  the  copy  of  Matthew's  gospel 
which  was  found  with  the  corpse  of  Barnabas.  '1  he 
former  represents  Barnabas  as  sa3'ing  to  Anthemius, 
"There  my  whole  body  is  deposited,  and  an  autograph 
gospel  which  I  received  from  Matthew."  Theodore 
says,  "  Having  on  his  breast  the  Gospel  according  to 
Matthew,  an  autograph  of  Barnabas."  The  pseudo 
Mark  omits  the  latter  circumstance.  If  we  believe 
that,  as  Alexander  reports,  it  was  read  at  Constantino- 
ple, it  must  have  been  written,  not  in  Hebrew,  but  in 
Greek.  The  year  wdien  Barnabas  died  cannot  be  de- 
termined with  certainty;  if  his  nephew  joined  Paul 
after  that  event,  it  must  have  taken  place  not  later 
than  A.D.  56  or  57.  "Chrysostom,"  it  has  been  as- 
serted, "speaks  of  Barnabas  as  alive  during  Paul's 
first  imprisonment  at  Rome."  The  exact  statement 
is  this :  in  bis  Eleventh  Homily  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
lossieins  he  remarks,  on  ch.  iv,  10,  "  'touching  whom 
ye  received  commandments,  if  he  come  unto  you  re- 
ceive him' — perhaps  they  received  commands  from 
Barnabas."  There  is  a  vague  tradition  that  Barnabas 
was  the  first  bishop  of  the  church  at  Milan,  but  it  is 
so  ill  supported  as  scarcely  to  deserve  notice.  It  is 
enough  to  say  that  the  celebrated  Ambrose  (b.  A.D. 
340,  d.  397)  makes  no  allusion  to  Barnabas  when  speak- 
ing of  the  bishops  who  preceded  himself  (see  Hefele, 
Das  Sendschreiben  eles  Apostels  Barnabas,  Tubing.  1840, 
p.  42-47).  His  festival  is  celebrated  throughout  the 
Roman  Church  on  the  11th  of  June.  The  Church  of 
Toulouse  pretends  to  possess  his  body,  and  no  less  than 
eight  or  nine  other  churches  lay  claim  to  the  posses- 
sion of  his  head.  See  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  torn,  iii ; 
Baronius,  Martyrol.  Rom.  11th  of  June;  Fabric.  Cod. 
Apocr.  p.  781  sq. ;  Ullmann,  in  the  Theol.  Stud,  i,  382 
sq. ;  Hug,  in  the  Freiburg.  Zeitschr.  ii,  132  sq. ;  Schul- 
thess,  in  the  Neuest.  theol.  Anna!.  1829,  p.  943  sq. ;  Ne- 
ander,  Planting,  etc.  i,  190  sq.  ;  conip.  generally  Mo- 
sheim,  Comment,  de  reb.  Christianor.  ante  Constant,  p. 
1G1  sq.  ;  Rysewyk,  Diss.  hist. -theol.  de  Barneiba  (Arnh. 


BARNABAS 


G70 


BARNABAS 


1835);  also  Brehme,  De  Barnabajusto  (Leucop.  1735); 
I'm  belli,  l/'  i  di  Sant  ■  B  trnaba  (Mediol.  1649).— Etto. 

BARNABAS,  EPISTLE  OF.  An  epistle  has  come 
dun  n  to  us  bearing  the  name  of  Barnabas,  but  clearly 
not  written  by  him. 

1.  literary  History. — This  epistle  was  known  to  the 
early  church,  as  it  is  cited  by  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Strom.  1.  ii.  p.  273,  Paris,  1G29,  et  al.  seven  times);  by 
Origen  (contra  Celsurn,  p.  49,  Cantab.  1*577,  et  al.  three 
times);  and  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccks. 
vi,  14),  and  by  Jerome  (( 'atal.  Script.  Eccles.  c.  vi).  It 
was  lost  sight  of  for  several  centuries,  until  Sirmond 
(17th  century)  discovered  it  at  the  end  of  a  manuscript 
of  Polycarp's  Epist.  ad  Pkilpp.  Hugo  Menardus  also 
found  a  Latin  version  of  it  in  the  abbey  of  Corbey, 
and  prepared  it  for  publication.  It  appeared  after  his 
death,  edited  by  D'Achery  (Paris,  1645),  and  this  was 
tli  ■  first  printed  edition  of  the  epistle.  Isaac  Yossius 
had  previously  obtained  a  copy  of  the  Corbey  MS.  and 
of  that  of  Sirmond,  and  had  conveyed  them  to  arch- 
bishop I'sher.  who  annexed  them  to  a  copy  of  the  Ig- 
nati.m  Epistles  lie  was  preparing  for  the  press.  But 
the  tire  at  Oxf<  rd  (1614)  destroyed  all  but  a  few  pagss, 
which  are  given  by  Fell  in  the  prof  ice  to  his  edition 
of  Barnabas  (Oxford,  1685).  Yossius  published  tli ! 
epistle  in  1646,  at  the  end  of  the  Ignatian  Epistles.  It 
is  given  also  in  Cotelerius,  Pair.  Apostol.  (1072).  in 
both  what  was  then  known  of  the  Greek  text  and  also 
in  the  Corbey  Latin  version  ;  in  Eussel,  A  post.  Fathers 
(1716);  Galland,  Biblioth.  Patrum  (17G5);  and  recent- 
ly in  llefele,  Pair.  Apostol.  Opera  (1842).  Several 
German  translations  were  made;  also  an  English  one 
by  Wake,  Apostolic  Fathers.  All  these  editions  were 
based  on  the  same  materials,  viz.  a  defective  Greek 
text,  iii  which  the  first  four  chapters,  and  part  of  the 
fifth,  were  wanting,  and  the  Latin  version  of  Corbey, 
which  lacked  four  chapters  at  the  end.  But  in  1859 
Tischendorf  brought  from  Mt.  Sinai  a  manuscript  con- 
t  lining  the  entire  epistle  in  Greek,  with  a  part  of  the 
Pastor  of  Hernias.  It  was  published  in  his  Novum 
Testamentum  Sinaiticum  (2d  edit.  Lips.  186:3).  The 
first  live  chapters  are  also  given  in  the  second  edition 
of  Dressel,  Pair.  Apostol.  Opera  (Lips.  1863,  8vo),  with 
a  preface  by  Tischendorf;  also,  separately,  byVolk- 
mur,  under  the  title  Monumentum  vetust.  Christiana:  in- 
(Zurich,  1864),  with  a  critical  and  exegetieal 
commentary.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Hflgenfeld, 
// 1  n  hi  i  Epist. :  integ.  Grmce  primum  ed.,  with  the  an- 
cient Latin  version,  a  critical  commentary  and  notes 
(  Lips.  1865,  8vo).  An  English  version  of  "the  Epistle, 
from  the  Codex  Sinaiticus,  is  given  in  the  Journal  of 
So-:-,, I  Literature,  Oct.  1863;  reprinted  in  the  Ameri- 
can Presbyterian  Review,  Jan.  and  July,1864. 

•_'.  Au/h  irsMp  mi./  Date.— Some  of  the  e  irly  editors 
(e.  g.  Voss),  and  some  eminent  modern  critics  (e.  g. 
Pearson,  Carr,  Wake,  Lardner,  Giescder,  Black),  main- 
tain tint  this  epistle  was  written  by  Barnabas,  the 
companion  of  St.  Paul.  But  the  current  of  criticism 
i  In-  other  way,  and  it  is  now  held  as  settled 
that  Barnabas  was  not  the  author.  For  a  history  of 
the  discussion,  see  Jones,  Canonical  Authority  of  the 
New  Testament  (Lond.  1726;  new  ed.  Oxford",  1827,  3 
vol-.  8vo);  Lardner,  Credibility,  etc..  Works,  ii,  19; 
Hefele,  Patres  Apost.  Prolegomena.  Kitto's  Cyclopae- 
dia gives  tb-  following  summary  of  the  reasons  against 
'"■lie-  of  the  epistle:  ' 

"  '■  Though  the  exact  date  of  the  death  of  Barnabas 
cannot  be  ascertained,  yet,  from  the  particulars  already 
-t  ,t  id  respecting  his  nephew,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
that  eve,,'  took  plaee  before  the  martyrdom  of  Paul, 
A.D.64.  Bui  a  passage  in  the  epistle  (ch.xvi) speaks 
■  J  the  r/emple  at  Jerusalem  as  already  destroyed,  it 
was  consequently  written  after  ti„.  vear  7o_ 

•••-'.  Several  passages  have  been  adduced  to  show 
writer,  as  well  a-  the  persons  addressed,  be- 
longed to  the  Gentile  section  of  tl hurcn  ;  but.  waiv- 
ing this  point,  the  whole  tone  of  the  epistic  is  different 


'  from  what  the  knowledge  we  possess  of  the  character  of 
Barnabas  would  lead  us  to  expect,  if  it  proceeded  from 
bis  pen.  From  the  hints  given  in  the  Acts,  he  appears 
to  have  been  a  man  of  strong  attachments,  keenly  alive 
to  the  ties  of  kindred  and  father-land.  We  find  that, 
on  both  his  missionary  tours,  his  native  island  and  the 
Jewish  synagogues  claimed  his  first  attention.  But 
throughout  the  epistle  there  is  a  total  absence  of  sym- 
pathetic regard  for  the  Jewish  nation ;  all  is  cold  and 
distant,  if  not  contemptuous.  '  It  remains  yet  that  I 
speak  to  you  (the  lGth  chapter  begins)  concerning  the 
Temple  ;  how  those  miserable  men,  being  deceived,  have 
put  their  trust  in  the  house.'  How  unlike  the  friend 
and  fellow-laborer  of  him  who  had  '  great  heaviness 
and  continual  sorrow  in  his  heart  for  his  brethren,  his 
kindred  according  to  the  flesh'  (Rom.  ix,  2). 

"  3.  Barnabas  was  not  only  a  Jew  by  birth,  but  a 
Levite.  From  this  circumstance,  combined  with  what 
j  is  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  active  part  he  took  in 
!  the  settlement  of  the  points  at  issue  between  the  Jew- 
ish and  the  Gentile  converts,  we  might  reasonably  ex- 
I  pect  to  find,  in  a  composition  bearing  his  name,  an  ac- 
j  curate  acquaintance  with  the  Mosaic  ritual,  a  clear 
conception  of  the  nature  of  the  Old  Economy  and  its 
relation  to  the  New  Dispensation,  and  a  freedom  from 
that  addiction  to  allegorical  interpretation  which  mark- 
ed the  Christians  of  the  Alexandrian  school  in  the  sec- 
ond and  succeeding  centuries.  But  the  following  spe- 
cimens will  suffice  to  show  that  exactly  the  contrary 
may  be  affirmed  of  the  writer  of  this  epistle  ;  that  he 
makes  unauthorized  additions  to  various  parts  of  the 
Jewish  Cultus  ;  that  his  views  of  the  Old  Economy  arc 
confused  and  erroneous;  and  that  he  adopts  a  mode 
of  interpretation  countenanced  by  none  of  the  inspired 
writers,  and  at  utter  variance  with  every  principle  of 
sound  criticism,  being  to  the  last  degree  puerile  and 
absurd. 

"(1.)  He  mentions  in  two  passages  the  fact  record- 
ed in  Exod.  xxxii,  19,  of  Moses  breaking  the  two  ta- 
bles of  stone,  and  infers  that  Jehovah's  covenant  was 
thereby  annulled.  The  falsity  of  this  statement  need 
not  be  pointed  out  to  the  Biblical  student.  He  says, 
•  They  (the  Jews)  have  forever  lost  that  which  Moses 
received.     For  thus  saith  the  Scripture :  And  Moses 

received  the  covenant  from  the  Lord,  even 

two  tables  of  stone,  etc.  But,  having  turned  them- 
selves to  idols,  they  lost  it ;  as  the  Lord  said  unto  Mo- 
ses, Go  down  quickly,  etc.  And  Moses  cast  the  two 
tables  out  of  his  hands,  and  their  covenant  was  broken, 
that  the  love  of  Jesus  might  be  sealed  in  your  hearts 
unto  the  hope  of  his  faith'  (eh.  iv).  The  second  pas- 
sage, in  eh.  xiv,  is  very  similar,  and  need  not  be 
quoted. 

"(2.)  On  the  rite  of  circumcision  (Acts  xv,  1,  2)  wc 
find  in  this  epistle  equal  incorrectness.  The  writer 
denies  that  circumcision  was  a  sign  of  the  covenant. 
'You  will  say  the  Jews  were  circumcised  for  a  sign, 
and  so  arc  all  the  Syrians  and  Arabians,  and  all  the 
idolatrous  priests.'  Herodotus  (ii,  37),  indeed,  asserts 
that  the  Syrians  in  Palestine  received  the  practice  of 
circumcision  from  the  Egyptians ;  but  Josephus,  both 
in  his  Antiquities  and  Treatise  against  Apion,  remarks 
that  he  must  have  alluded  to  the  Jews,  because  they 
were  the  only  nation  in  Palestine  who  were  circum- 
cised (A  nt.  viii,  10,  3 ;  Apion,  i,  22).  '  How, '  says  H ug, 
'could  Barnabas,  who  travelled  with  Paul  through  the 
southern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  make  such  an  asser- 
tion respecting  the  heathen  priests  !' 

"(3.)  Referring  to  the  goat  (ch.  vii),  either  that 
mentioned  in  Num.  xix  or  Lev.  xvi,  he  says,  'All  the 
priests,  and  they  only,  shall  eat  the  unwashed  entrails 
with  vinegar.'  Of  this  direction,  in  itself  highly  im- 
probable, not.  a  trace  can  be  found  in  the  Bible,  or  even 
in  the  Talmud. 

"(4.)  In  the  same  chapter,  he  says  of  the  scape-goat 
that  all  the  congregation  were  commanded  to  spit  upon 
it,  and  put  scarlet  wool  about  its  head;  and  that  the 


BARNABAS 


671 


BARNABAS 


person  appointed  to  convey  the  goat  into  the  wilder- 
ness took  away  the  scarlet  wool  and  put  it  on  a  thorn- 
bush,  whose  young  sprouts,  when  we  find  them  in  the 
field,  we  are  wont  to  eat;  so  the  fruit  of  that  thorn 
only  is  sweet.  On  all  these  particulars  the  Scriptures 
are  silent. 

"(5.)  In  ch.  viii  the  author's  fancy  seems  to  grow 
more  fruitful  and  luxuriant.  In  referring  to  the  red 
heifer  (Num.  xi.x),  he  says  that  men  in  whom  sins  are 
come  to  perfection  (ii'  oig  ufiapriai  riXfiai)  were  to 
bring  the  heifer  and  kill  it ;  that  three  youths  were  to 
t.ike  up  the  ashes  and  put  them  in  vessels ;  then  to  tie 
a  piece  of  scarlet  wool  and  h3'ssop  upon  a  stick,  and 
so  sprinkle  even'  one  of  the  people.  '  This  heifer  is 
Jesus  Christ ;  the  wicked  men  that  were  to  offer  it  are 
those  sinners  that  brought  him  to  death ;  the  young 
men  signify  those  to  whom  the  Lord  gave  authority 
to  preach  his  gospel,  being  at  the  beginning  twelve, 
because  there  were  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.'  But  why 
(he  asks)  were  there  three  young  men  appointed  to 
sprinkle  ?  To  denote  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 
And  why  was  wool  put  upon  a  stick  ?  Because  the 
kingdom  of  Jesus  was  founded  upon  the  cross,  etc. 

"  (6.)  He  interprets  the  distinction  of  clean  and  un- 
clean animals  in  a  spiritual  sense.  '  Is  it  not  CAria 
ci'K — see  Dr.  Hefele's  valuable  note,  p.  85)  the  com- 
mand of  God  that  they  should  not  eat  these  things  ? 
(Yes.)  But  Moses  spoke  in  spirit  (tv  nveufiaTi).  He 
named  the  swine  in  order  to  say,  "  Thou  shalt  not  join 
those  men  who  are  like  swine,  who,  while  they  live  in 
pleasure,  forget  their  Lord,"  '  etc.  He  adds,  'Neither 
shalt  thou  eat  of  the  hyena ;  that  is,  thou  shalt  not  be 
an  adulterer.'  If  these  were  the  views  entertained  by 
Barnabas,  how  must  he  have  been  astonished  at  the 
want  of  spiritual  discernment  in  the  apostle  Peter, 
when  he  heard  from  his  own  lips  the  account  of  the 
symbolic  vision  at  Joppa,  and  his  reply  to  the  com- 
mand, 'Arise,  Peter,  slay  and  eat.  But  I  said,  Not  so, 
Lord,  for  nothing  common  or  unclean  hath  at  any  time 
entered  into  my  mouth'  (Acts  xi,  8). 

"(7.)  In  ch.  ix  he  attempts  to  show  that  Abraham, 
in  circumcising  his  servants,  had  an  especial  reference 
to  Christ  and  his  crucifixion:  'Learn,  my  children, 
that  Abraham,  who  first  circumcised  in  spirit,  having 
a  regard  to  the  Son  (in  Jesum,  Lat.  Vers),  circumcised, 
applying  the  mystic  sense  of  the  three  letters  (Xajlujv 
tiuCjv  ypafUfiaTwv  BoyfxaTa — den  geheimen  Sinn  dreier 
Buchstaben  anwendend,  Hefele).  For  the  Scripture 
says  that  Abraham  circumcised  318  men  of  his  house. 
"What,  then,  was  the  deeper  insight  (yvSiciQ)  imparted 
to  him  ?  Mark  first  the  18,  and  next  the  300.  The 
numeral  letters  of  18  are  I  (Iota)  and  H  (Eta),  I  =  10, 
H  =  8;  here  you  have  Jesus,  'lHffovv;  and  because  the 
cross  in  the  T  (Tau)  must  express  the  grace  ("of  our  re- 
demption), he  names  300  ;  therefore  lie  signified  Jesus 
by  two  letters,  and  the  cross  by  one.'  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  writer  hastily  assumes  (from  Gen.  xiv, 
11)  that  Abraham  circumcised  only  318  persons,  that 
being  the  number  of  'the  servants  born  in  his  own 
house,'  whom  he  armed  against  the  four  kings ;  but 
he  circumcised  his  household  nearly  twenty  j'ears  later, 
including  not  only  those  born  in  his  house  (with  the 
addition  of  Ishmael),  but  '  all  that  were  bought  with 
money'  (Gen.  xvii,  23).  The  writer  evidently  was  un- 
acquainted with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  has  com- 
mitted the  blunder  of  supposing  that  Abraham  was 
familiar  with  the  Greek  alphabet  some  centuries  before 
it  existed." 

The  probable  opinion  is  that  this  epistle  existed  an- 
onymously in  the  Alexandrian  Church,  and  was  igno- 
rantly  attributed  to  Barnabas.  It  was  probably  writ- 
ten by  a  Jewish  Christian,  who  had  studied  Philo,  and 
who  handled  the  O.  T.  in  an  allegorical  way  in  behalf 
of  his  view  of  Christianity.  Its  date  is  assigned  to 
the  first  centurj'  bv  Hilgenfeld,  Die  App.  Vater  (Halle, 
1853);  Reuss,  Geschichte  d.  Schriften  d,  N.  T.  i,  233; 
Lwald.  Gesch.  d.  Volls  Israel,  vii,  13G ;  and  to  the  ear- 


j  ly  part  of  the  2d  century  by  Dressel,  Patres  Apost. 

'  Proleg.,  and  Kitsch],  Entstehung  d.  Altkath.  Kirche, 
294.  Volkmar  gives  the  date  as  119,  or  later,  in  Ha- 
drian's time.  Hefele  puts  it  between  107  and  120. 
Weizsacker,  in  his  treatise  Zur  Kritik  d<:s  Barnabas- 

\  briefes  am  dem  Codex Sinaiticus  (Tubingen,  1801),  seeks 
to  prove  that  the  epistle  was  written  shortly  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  not  under  Hadrian. 
See  also  Weizsacker  in  d.  Jahrbuclier  fur  Deutsche 
Theologie,  18G5,  p.  391. 

3.  Contents  and  Object  of  the  Epistle. —The  first  part 
of  the  epistle  (ch.  i-xvii)  is  directed  against  the  Ju- 
daizing  party,  and  aims  to  show  that  the  abolition  of 
Judaism,  by  means  of  the  spiritual  institutions  of 
Christianity,  is  foretold  in  the  O.  T.,  so  that  the  true 
covenant  people  of  God  arc  the  Christians,  not  the 
Jews.  The  four  remaining  chapters  are  ethical,  con- 
taining practical  advices  and  exhortations  for  walking 
"in  the  way  of  light,"  and  avoiding  "the  way  of  dark- 
ness." "The  names  and  residence  of  the  persons  to 
whom  it  is  addressed  are  not  mentioned,  on  which 
account,  probably,  it  was  called  by  Origen  a  Catholic 
epistle  (Origen  contr.  Cels.  lib.  i,  p.  49).  But  if  by 
this  title  he  meant  an  epistle  addressed  to  the  general 
body  of  Christians,  the  propriety  of  its  application  is 
doubtful,  for  we  meet  with  several  expressions  which 
imply  a  personal  knowledge  of  the  parties.  It  has 
been  disputed  whether  the  persons  addressed  were 
Jewish  or  Gentile  Christians.  Dr.  Hefele  strenuously 
contends  that  they  were  of  the  former  class.  His  chief 
argument  appears  to  be,  that  it  would  be  unnecessary 
to  insist  so  earnestly  on  the  abolition  of  the  Mosaic 
economy  in  writing  to  Gentile  converts.    But  the  EpiS- 

|  tie  of  Paul  to  the  Galatians  is  a  proof  to  what  danger 
Gentile  Christians  were  exposed  in  the  first  ages  from 
the  attempts  of  Judaizing  teachers  ;  so  that,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  more  exact  information,  the  supposition  that 
the  persons  addressed  were  of  this  class  is  at  least  not 
inconsistent  with  the  train  of  thought  in  the  epistle. 

,  But  more  than  this:  throughout  the  epistle  we  find 
a  distinction  maintained  between  the  writer  and  his 
friends  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Jews  on  tl  c  other. 
Thus,  in  chap,  iii,  'God  speaketh  to  them  (the  Jews) 
concerning  these  things,  "Ye  shall  not  fast  as  ye  do 
this  day,"  etc. ;  but  to  us  he  saith,  "  Is  not  this  the  fast 
that  I  have  chosen  ?"  '  etc. ;  and  at  the  end  of  the  same 
chapter,  '  He  hath  shown  these  things  to  all  of  us,  that 
we  should  not  run  as  proselytes  to  the  Jewish  law.' 
This  would  be  singular  language  to  address  to  persons 
who  were  Jews  by  birth,  but  perfectl}-  suited  to  Gen- 
tile converts.  In  chap,  xiii  he  says,  '  Let  us  inquire 
whether  the  covenant  be  with  us  or  with  them'  (tin: 
Jews);  and  concludes  with  quoting  the  promise  to 
Abraham  (with  a  slight  verbal  difference),  '  Behold,  I 
have  made  thee  a  father  of  the  nations  which  vilhout 

!  circumcision  believe  in  the  Lord' — a  passage  which  is 
totally  irrelevant  to  Jewish   Christians.      For  other 

'  similar  passages,  sec  Jones  On  the  Canon,  pt.  iii,  chap. 

i  xxxix"  (Kitto,  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.).  Dr.  Schaff  remarks 
of  the  epistle,  as  a  whole,  that  "it  has  many  go<  d 
ideas  and  valuable  testimonies,  such  as  that  in  favor 
of  the  observance  of  the  Christian  Sabbath.  But  it 
goes  to  extremes  in  opposition  to  Judaism,  and  in- 
dulges in  all  sorts  of  artificial,  sometimes  absurd,  al- 
legorical fancies.  .  .  .  It  is  an  unsound  application  of 
the  true  thought,  that  the  old  is  passed  away,  ami  that 
all  is  made  new  by  ( 'lirist.    Compare  especially  ch.  iv" 

I  (Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  §  121).     Be- 


sides the  works  cited  in  the  course  of  this  article,  sec 


Zeitschrift  f.  d.  histor.  Theologie,  1800,  p.  32  ;  Donald- 
1  son,  Christian  Lit.  i,  201  sq. ;  Neander,  Church  History, 
l,  381 ;  Henke,  Be  epistohc  qua:  Barnabo',  tribuitur  au- 
theniia  (Jen.  1827)  ;  Rordam,  De  authentia  ep.  Barnabas 
(Havn.  182s)  (both  argue  for  the  genuineness  of  the 
epistle);  Heberle.  in  the  Stud.  d.  ururt.  Geistl.  1846,  i ; 
LTlmann,  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1828,  p.  2  (opposes  the 
genuineness)  ;  Schenkel,  ib.  1837  (contends  that  ch.  vii 


BARNABAS  6- 

-xvii  are  interpolations) ;  Hug,  in  the  Zeitschrift  </. 
Erzbisth.  Freiburg,  p.  2;  Lardner,  Works,  ii,  p.  2. 

BARNABAS,  GOSPEL  OF.  A  spurious  gospel, 
attributed  to  Barnabas,  exists  in  Arabic,  r.nd  has  been 
translated  into  Italian,  Spanish,  and  English.  It  was 
probably  forged  by  feme  heretical  Christians,  and  has 
since  been  interpolated  I  y  the  Mohammedans,  in  order 
to  support  the  pretensions  of  their  proj  het.  Dr.  "White 
has  given  copious  extracts  from  it  in  his  Eampton  Lec- 
tures, 1784;  Sermon  viii,  p.  358,  and  Notes,  p.  41- G9. 
See  also  Sale's  Koran,  Prelim.  Dissert,  sect.  4.  It 
is  placed  among  the  tpocTyphal  bocks  in  the  Sticho- 
metry  prefixed  by  Cotelerius  to  his  edition  of  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions  (Lardner's  Credibility,  part 
ii,  ch.  cxlvii).  It  was  condemned  by  Pope  Gelasius  I 
(Tillemont,  Memoires,  etc.,  i,  p.  1055).— Kitto,  s.  v.  See 
Gospi  t.s.  Srnuors. 

Barnabites,  a  congregation  of  regular  clerks  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded  in  1532  by  three 
priests— Zaccharia  of  Cremona,  Ferrari  and  Morigia  of 
Milan.  From  their  first  church,  St.  Paul's  in  Milan, 
they  were  originally  called  the  Regular  Clerks  of  St. 
Paul  (Paulines),  which  name  they  exchanged  for  Bar- 
nabites when,  in  1545,  they  were  presented  with  the 
church  of  St.  Barnabas  in  Milan.  A  new  rule  for  the 
congregation  was  drawn  up  by  the  General  Chapter 
in  1579,  aj  proved  by  Charles  Borromco,  the  protector 
of  the  order,  and  ratified  by  the  pope.  In  addition  to 
the  three  monastic  vows,  they  take  a  fourth,  never  to 
exert  themselves  for  an  office  within  the  con.  regation 
or  without,  and  never  to  accept  a  dignity  out  of  the 
congregation  except  by  a  special  permission  of  the 
pope.  Their  houses  arc  called  colleges.  The  supe- 
rior is  chosen  every  third 
year  by  a  General  Chapter. 
The  lay  brothers  have  to 
pass  through  a  novitiate  of 
five  years.  The  extension 
has  been  limited  to  Italy, 
Austria.  France,  and  Spain. 
In  the  two  latter  countries 
they  were  destroyed  1  y  the 
Revolution,  but  they  re-en- 
tered France,  full  of  h<  pe, 
in  1857.  The  most  cele- 
bral  '1  member  of  the  ordi  r 
in  modern  times  was  ( !ar- 
dinal  Lambruschini.  The 
/irder  has  also,  in  late  ye  ir  . 
been  entered  by  several  Rus- 
sians of  the  highest  fami- 
lies who  had  left  the  Greek 
Church  for  that  of  Homo, 
o.  g.  by  Count  Schuwaloflf. 
'I  bej  bad,  in  1860,22  houses  Kress  ofthe  Barnabites. 
in  Italy,  .!  in  Austria,  and  1  in  France.  See  Helyot, 
Ordres  ReUffieux,  i,  372. 

Barnard,  John,  a  Congregational   minister,  was 

born  in  Boston  Sfov.6,  1681,  and  educated  at  Harvard, 

where  he  graduated  in  1 7<  0.    In  17117  he  was  appointed 

n  in  the  army,  and  went  with  Captain  YVcnt- 

WOrth  to  England  in   1709.       In  1716  he  was  ordained 

collegiate  pastor  at  Marblehead,  and  continued  to  b,- 

1  '"■  there  until  bis  death,  .Ian.  24, 177n.     lie  publish- 

•  of  the  Christian  Religion 

tl  1752);   and  a  number 

a  lonal  sermon-.     Sprague,  Annals,  i.  252. 

Barnea.     See  Kadesh-barxea. 

Barnes,  Daniel  Henry,  a  B  iptist  minister,  was 
born  in  <  olumbia  I  o.,  N.Y.,  April  25, 1785,  was  grad- 

'Mt'"1""1'  l;l r«<  '  "ion  College  in  1809,  and  in  1811 

became  principal  ofthc  Ponghkeepsie Academy, where 
he  joined  the   Baptist   Church,  and  was  licensed  to 


preach.     Mr  Barnes 


m  I  1  i^hkeepBi  ,inCn  mm 


oci  ■  sful  a-  a  t  sacher 


d  in  Now  York  cil 


2  BARNES 

Anions  His  pupils  were  President  Wayland,  Bishop 
Potter  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Drs.  E.  Mason,  \V.  R. 
Williams,  and  John  Macaulay.  He  was  elected  pres- 
ident of  several  colleges,  but  declined.  Mr.  Barnes 
was  a  contributor  to  several  periodicals.  He  was 
thrown  from  a  coach  and  killed,  (let.  27,  1818.— 
Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  021;  Fourth  Ann.  Report  A'.  Y. 
High  .Sch  oL 

Barnes,  John,  an  Englishman,  who  entered  the 
Benedictine  order  at  Douai  partly  from  fear  ofthe  In- 
quisition. In  1625  he  published  at  Paris  a  Dlssertatio 
contra  E pilcocatlones,  which  received  the  approbation 
of  the  faculty  at  Paris.  In  1G30  his  Cathollco-Romanus 
Pacifit  us  appeared  at  Oxford.  His  works  gave  great 
offence  to  the  ultramontane  party,  and,  at  the  request 
of  Pope  Urban  VIII,  Barnes  was  sent  to  Rome  by 
Louis  XIII  in  1G27.  He  was  at  once  confined  in  the 
Inquisition,  and,  after  thirty  years  of  imprisonment, 
died  there.  In  his  C.ttholicc-Romanus  Pacificus  his  de- 
sign was  to  induce  the  pope  to  receive  Anglicans  to  his 
communion,  without  requiring  them  to  acknowledge  de- 
pendence on  the  Holy  See,  until  such  time  as  a  free  and 
oecumenical  council  could  be  convoked  to  settle  all  dif- 
ferences.— Bioff.  Univ.  iii,  394  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Barnes,  Robert,  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.  and 
one  of  the  English  Reformers,  who  began  his  career 
by  preaching  against  the  pride  and  display  of  Wol- 
sey.  In  1535  he  was  sent  to  Wittenberg  by  Henry 
VIII  to  confer  with  the  theologians  there  about  the 
king's  divorce,  and  he  imbibed  Lutheran  views,  which, 
on  his  return  to  England,  he  began  to  preach.  Some 
time  after,  finding  himself  in  danger,  he  escaped  into 
Germany,  and  there  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Lu- 
ther, Melanethon,  and  other  Protestant  leaders.  In 
1536,  as  the  reformers  were  in  favor  with  Henry  VIII, 
ho  returned  to  England ;  but,  preaching  imprudently 
against  Gardiner  and  against  the  royal  supremacy,  he 
incurred  the  king's  displeasure,  r.nd  was  compelled  to 
recant.  Subsequently  he  retracted  his  recantation, 
and  was  tried  and  condemned  to  death  by  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1540.  On  the  30th  of  July  in  that  year  he 
was  burnt,  with  William  Jerome  and  Thomas  Gerard. 
They  all  suffered  with  the  patience  and  fortitude  of 
the  old  martyrs.  His  published  writings  are  A  Trea- 
tise conta'ninga  Profession  of  Faith  (first  published  in 
Latin,  1531s) :  —  Vita  Roman.  Pontificorum  que*  jwpos 
vocamus  (Witt, inb.  1536,  with  preface  by  Luther;  also 
Bale,  156*,  8vo).  Sec  Burnet,  History  ofthe  Reformat- 
lion,  i,  474,  477 ;  Fox,  Book  of  Martyrs;  Collier,  Eccl. 
Ills/,  of  England,  v,  78  ;  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  i,  522. 

Barnes,  William,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  near  Cookstown,  Tyrone 
county,  Ireland,  about  Easter,  1795.  At  an  early  age 
he  came  with  some  relatives  to  America,  and  resided 
for  some  time  at  Baltimore,  where,  at  nineteen,  he  was 
converted,  and  was  admitted  into  the  church.  Soon 
after,  his  talents  attracted  the  attention  ofthe  Rev.  S 
G.  Roszcl,  and  he  was  called  out  to  labor  on  a  circuit. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Baltimore  Conference  in 
1817,  and  for  nearly  fifty  years  preached,  almost  with- 
out intermission  and  with  extraordinary  success,  as 
an  itinerant  minister,  in  Virginia,  Maryland,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Delaware.  Nearly  forty  years  of 
this  time  he  spent  within  the  bounds  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Conference,  the  rest  in  the  Baltimore  and  Pitts- 
burg Conferences.  His  mind  was  active  and  imagi- 
native to  a  rare  degree,  and  his  preaching  was  very 
original  and  striking;  few  men  of  his  time  were  more 
popular  or  useful.  A  poetical  vein  was  manifest  in 
his  style,  and  he  left  a  number  of  pieces  of  verse  in 
manuscript.  lie  died  suddenly  November  24,  1865. 
Among  his  manuscript  remains  are  a  number  of  ser- 
mons and  controversial  writings,  which  are  now  (1866) 
preparing  for  the  press.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Castle,  in  a 
discourse  at  1 1  it?  funeral  of  Mr.  Barnes,  thus  spoke  of 
him:  "In  the  world  he  was  not  ofthe  warld.      He 


173 


BARREL 


nals  ;  and  the  rest  of  the  work,  continued  down  to  the 
year  1198,  appeared  at  different  intervals.  This  work 
is  distributed  under  the  several  years,  so  that  under 
the  head  of  each  year  are  given  the  events  of  that 


BARO 

was  a  chosen  vessel,  called  of  God  and  sanctified,  and 
sent  to  bear  his  Master's  message  to  his  fellow-men. 
Tor  this  he  bowed  his  neck  to  the  yoke.  For  this  he 
consecrated  his  towering  intellect,  the  gushing  feel- 
ings of  a  generous  heart,  and  the  energies  of  his  whole  j  year,  in  every  thing  in  any  way  relating  to  the  history 
life.  Equal  ability,  fidelity,  and  perseverance,  de-  of  the  church.  Baronius  himself  informs  us  that  this 
voted  to  any  earth-born  calling,  would  have  led  to  work  was  deemed  necessary  to  oppose  the  Magdeburg 
fame  and  fortune.  But,  like  the  Italian  painter,  he  ;  Centuriators ;  and  he  also  says  that  he  was  unwill- 
worked  for  eternity,  and  in  eternity  he  receives  his  ing  that  the  task  should  be  given  to  him ;  and  that  he 
rich  reward." — Christian  Adv.  und  Journ.  No.  2050.  I  desired  that  Onufrius  Panvinius  should  have  been 
Baro  or  Baron,  Peter,  was  Ijprn  at  Etampes  in  ]  charSed  wi*h  !t-    ThouSh  very  elaborate  and  learned 

it  is  throughout  a  partisan  work,  and  must  he  studied 
as  such.  The  first  edition  appeared  at  Rome  under 
the  title  Annates  Fecli . niastici  a  Chr.  nut  >  ad  annum  1198 


France,  and  was  educated  at  Bourges.  Having  em-  i 
braced  Protestantism,  he  came  over  into  England  in 
the  time  of  Elizabeth  to  avoid  persecution.  Here  he  , 
entered  himself  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  (J™*.  ™ «»',  12  vols,  fob).  It  was  followedby 
1575  was  made  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  :  « jtjons  at  Antwerp,  1589  sq  and  Paris  1609.  The 
on  the  recommendation  of  Lord  Burghley.  Dr.  Whit-  «**•»  °f.Me"tz  (1601-1605,  12  vols  fob)  was  revised 
aker,  then  professor  of  divinity,  and  several  of  the  ^  Baronius  himself,  and  designated  as  a  standard  for 
heads  of  houses,  were  strong  Calvinists.  Baro,  in  his  !  future  e^ons  Many  Protestant  authors,  as  Casau- 
lectures,  opposed  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  and  \  b°n,  Basnage,  Ivor  hold,  and  others,  wrote  against  him 
about  1581  he  was  charged  with  heresy.  From  that  |  ««.  ^as  defended  by  the  Franc.scan  Pagi  in  his  work 
time  on  he  suffered  many  vexations  and  annoyances,  I  CriUcausorrco-chronologicam  vmversnsannaksC.Ba. 
but  he  held  his  ground  until  1595,  when  his  opponents,  ;  ro»u  (Ant w.  1 ,  0o  4  vols. ;  rev.ed.t  1,24  ,  who,  howev- 
desiring  to  support  their  Calvinistic  views  by  author-  j  ™,  himself  corrected  many  chronological  errors  of  Ba- 
itv,  drew  up  the  nine  celebrated  articles  known  as  the  f~  '  T>'e  m08t  <7?le'e  J^10"  f  *J?  ^  '. ! 
Lambeth  Articles  (q.  v.),  which  were  confirmed  by  |  *V  Mansi  (L«<*a,  V 38-1. A  38  vols.),  which  contains 
Archbishop  Whitgift  and  others.  These  articles  Baro  :  the  CnHca of  Pag,  printed  under  the  corresponding 
opposed  in  a  sermon,  whereupon  he  was  ordered  by  the  Pf  ™&s  °f  Baronius,  the  Continuation  of  Raynaldus, 
v  e-chancellor  to  give  in  a  copv  of  his  sermon,  and  to  j  the  learned  Apparatus  of  the  editor,  and  very  valuable 
abstain  thenceforward  from  all  controversy  on  articles  ,  ^exes  in  3  vols  Abraham  Bzovius,  a  Polish  Dom.n- 
of  faith.     His  position  was  made  so  disagreeable  that :  >can>  P"0™  a  C™*"     ?"  f  ^Z  5. 

in  159G  he  resigned  his  professorship  and  removed  to  year  1571  (Rome,  1616  sq.  8  vols  ) ;  another  was  pub- 
London,  where  he  died  about  1G00.  He  wrote,  among  hshed  by  Henry  Spondanus,  at  Pans,  in  1640,  2  vols. 
other  things-1.  In  Jonam  Prophetam  Prvlectioncs  39,  <°'->  and  fe*  ^  j™  ^  T*  C°^'fTZ  ( 
etc.  (London,  1579)  :-2.  De  Fide,  ejusaue  Ortu  et  Na-  ;  Je  year  1198  to  1566)  is  perhaps  that  by  Odericus 
fam,  etc.  (Ibid.  1580)  :-3.  SummatriL  Smtentiarum  ^ynaMus,  of  the  Con,regat,on  of  the  Oratory  (Rome 
de  Preeekstinatione  (1613)  :-4.  Sermons,  etc.  (4to):-5.  :  1640-1663,  9  vols.)  The  work  of  Ra  naUus  was  far, 
De  Pra-slimtia  el  Dianitate  Divince  legis  (Loncl.  8vo,  n.  !  ther  continued  by  Laderchi  Lome,  1^8-1,0,,  3  vols.). 
d.)._Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  i,  202 ;  Hook,  Feci.  '  ^tot  add.fon  to  the  work  ,s  that  ot  helner  (Rom. 
Biog.  i,  540;  Strvpe,  Life  of  Whhgft)  Hardwick ,!  ^  3 ^  ;f°V'bn"f1|  *?  j1^  ^'VlSn 
Histon  of  the  Article,  ch.  vii.  I  ^an  style,  to  1586     The  Epistote  of  Baronius,  his  1  ita 

•>•>■>  St.Gregom  A  as.,  together  with  a  brief  biography  ot 

Baro'dis  (Baow&c.Vulg.  Rahohs),  a  name  insert- i  BaroniuSj  were  published  by  Albericus  (Rome,  1670). 
ed  in  the  list  of  those  "  servants  of  Solomon"  whose  There  are  j~eg  of  Baronius  in  Latin  by  the  Oratorian 
"  sons"  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (1  Esdr.  v,  34);  but  B.n.nabeus  (translated  into  German  by  Fritz,  Wien, 
there  is  no  corresponding  name  in  the  genuine  list  of  m8  an  abriagment  of  which  translation  was  pub- 
Ezra  (ii,  57)  or  Nehemiah  (vii,  59).  |  lishedi  Augsb#  1845)j  and  in  French  by  La  Croze.     See 

Baronius  or  Baronio,  C.esak,  the  eminent  Ro- '  Dupin,  Eccks.  Writers,  cent,  xvii  ;  Schaff,  Apostolic 
man  ecclesiastical  annalist,  was  born  at  Sora,  in  Na- !  Church,  p.  56 ;  Christian  Remembrancer,  xxiv,  232 ; 
pies,  October  30th,  1538.     He  pursued  his  first  studies  |  Landon,  Feel.  Diet,  ii,  42. 

at  Veroli,  and  theology  and  jurisprudence  at  Naples.  |  Barre,  Joseph,  a  French  priest  and  writer,  born 
In  1557  he  went  with  his  father,  Camillo  Baronio,  to  1G98)  entered  early  into  the  congregation  of  St.  Gene- 
Rome,  where  he  placed  himself  under  the  direction  of  v;eve)  at  Paris,  and  became  eminent  for  his  historical 
Philip  Neri,  who  had,  at  that  period,  just  founded  the  anci  ecclesiastical  knowledge.  He  was  made  chancel- 
Congregation  of  the  Oratory,  whose  chief  pursuit  was  ]or  of  tne  University  of  Paris,  where  he  died,  1764. 
to  be  the  study  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity.     The  rules    h;s  principal  works  are  Vindicin-  Lihromm  d-ut. -canon. 


prmcipa 

!  Vtt.  Test.  (1730,  12mo) : — Histoire  d'Allemagne  (1784, 
11  vols.)  -.—Examen  des  difauts  theologiques  (Amst.  1744, 

!  2  vols.  12mo). 

i  Barre,  Louis  Francois  Joseph  de  la,  an  in- 
dustrious French  scholar,  was  born  at  Toumay,  March 
9, 1688.  At  Paris  he  met  with  Banduri,  who  had  ar- 
rived thither  from  Florence,  and  whom  he  assisted  in 

\  the  preparation  of  the  Imperium  Orientate  (2  vols,  ml.), 
and  his  work  on  Medals  (Pecueil  de  Mnlnlles  (hs  Fm- 

j  pereurs).  Afterward  De  la  Barro  published  a  new  edi- 
tion of  the  Spicikgivm  of  Luc  d'Achery  (3  vols.  fol. 

j  1723),  with  corrections  and  notes.  He  also  had  a  large 
share  in  the  edition  of  Moreri's  Dietionnaire  Jlistorique, 
published  in  1725.    He  died  in  1738.    He  was  a  mem- 


of  the  order,  requiring  a  portion  of  each  day  to  be  given 
to  the  study  and  discussion  of  points  in  church  history, 
antiquities,  and  biography,  gave  the  bent  to  Baronius's 
pursuits  for  life.  Clement  VIII  made  him  his  confess- 
or, and  created  him  cardinal,  by  the  title  of  SS.  Mar- 
tyrum  Nerei  and  Achillei,  5th  June,  1596.  Soon  af- 
ter he  was  made  librarian  of  the  Vatican  Library  and 
member  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  On  the  death 
of  Clement,  and  again  upon  the  death  of  Leo  XI, 
he  was  within  a  little  of  being  elected  pope ;  but  his 
own  strong  opposition,  and  the  opposition  of  the  Span- 
iards, who  could  not  forgive  his  De  Monarchia  Sicilire, 
in  which  he  opposed  the  claim  of  Spain  to  Sicily,  pre- 
vented it.     He  died  June  30th,  1607.     His  Annales 

Fcclesiastki  was   undertaken  in  obedience  to  the  in-  ,  , 

...  .       „,.,.    >T    .  .      .  -     ,  t,  ber  of  the  "Academv  of  Inscriptions, 

junction  of  his  superior,  Philip  Jseri,  to  defend  Rome  •  ' 

against  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  (q.  v.)  For  thirty  j  Barrel  (12,  lead  [koSoq,  cadus~],  a  pitcher  or  pail), 
j'ears  he  labored  at  this  immense  work,  and  in  1586,  in  a  vessel  used  for  the  keeping  of  flour  (1  Kings  xvii,  12, 
order,  as  it  were,  to  try  his  strength,  he  put  forth  the  I  14,  16;  xviii,  33).  The  same  word  is  in  other  places 
Notes  on  the  Roman  Martyrology.  This  was  shortly  rendered  "  pitcher,"  as  the  same  vessel  appears  to  have 
after  (in  1588)  followed  by  the  first  volume  of  the  An- !  been  also  used  for  carrying  water  (Gen.  xxiv,  14  ; 
U  u 


BARREN  674 

Judg.  vii,  lf> ;  Ecel.  xii,  6).  It  was  borne  on  the 
shoulders  as  is  tin-  custom  in  the  East  in  the  present 
day.     See  Pitcher. 

Barren  (when  spoken  of  persons,  properly  "ij??, 
al  i/-'.  artiooe)-  Barrenness  is,  in  the  East,  the  hard- 
est lot  that  can  befall  a  woman,  and  was  considered 
among  the  [sraelites  as  the  heaviest  punishment  with 
which  the  Lord  could  visit  a  female  (Gen.  xvi,  2; 
xxx,  1  23;  1  Sam.  i,  6,  29;  Isa.  xlvii,  9;  xlix,  21; 
Luke  i,  25;  Niebubx,  p.  76;  Volney,  ii,  359;  Lane's 
Egyptians,  i,  74).  In  the  Talmud  (Yeramoth,  vi,  6)  a 
man  was  bound,  after  ten  years  of  childless  conjugal 
life,  to  marry  another  woman  (with  or  without  repu- 
diation of  the  first),  and  even  a  third  one  it*  the  second 
proved  also  barren.  Nor  is  it  improbable  that  Moses 
himsi  If  contributed  to  strengthen  the  opinion  of  dis- 
grace by  the  promises  of  the  Lord  of  exemption  from 
barrenness  as  a  blessing  (Exod.  xxiii,  26;  Deut.  vii, 
14).  Instances  of  childless  wives  are  found  in  Gen. 
xi,  3!);  xxv,  21  ;  xxix,  .".1  ;  Judg.  xiii,  2,  3;  Luke  i, 
7,  36.  Some  cases  of  unlawful  marriages,  and  more 
especially  with  a  brother's  wife,  were  visited  with  the 
punishment  of  barrenness  (Lev.  xx,  20,  21);  Mi- 
chaelis,  however  {Mosalsches  Recht,  v,  290),  takes  the 
word  ----"  ,/  stUute,  ■•childless")  herein  a  figurative 
sense,  implying  that  the  children  born  in  such  an  il- 
licit marriage  should  not  be  ascribed  to  the  real  father, 
but  to  the  former  brother,  thus  depriving  the  second 
husband  of  the  share  of  patrimonial  inheritance  which 
would  otherwise  have  fallen  to  his  lot  if  the  first  broth- 
er had  died  childless.  The  reproach  attached  to  steril- 
ity, especially  by  the  Hebrews,  ma)'  perhaps  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  constant  expectation  of  the  Messiah, 
and  the  hope  that  every  woman  cherished  that  she 
might  be  the  mother  of  the  promised  Seed.  This  con- 
stant hope  seems  to  account  for  man}'  circumstances  in 
the  Old  Testament  history  which  might  otherwise  ap- 
pear extraordinary  or  exceptionable  (Gen.iii,  15  ;  xxi, 
6,7;  xxv,  21-23;"  xxvii,  13;  xxviii,  14;  xxxviii,  11- 
18;  Deut.  xxv,  9).  This  general  notion  of  the  dis- 
grace of  barrenness  in  a  woman  may  earl)'  have  given 
rise,  in  the  patriarchal  age,  to  the  custom  among  bar- 
ren wives  of  introducing  to  their  husbands  their  maid- 
servants, and  of  regarding  the  children  born  in  that 
concubinage  as  their  own.  by  which  they  thought  to 
cover  their  own  disgrace  of  barrenness  (Gen.  xvi,  2; 
xxx,  3).  — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Child. 

Barri,  Giualdus  de.     See  Giu.yldus  Camerex- 

SIS. 

Barrington  (John  Shute),  Viscouxt,  was  born 
1678,  educated  at  Utrecht,  created  Viscount  Barrington 
1720,  and  died  1734.  He  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of 
Locke,  and  greatly  devoted  to  theological  pursuits.  In 
the  year  1725  he  published,  in  two  volumes  octavo,  his 
Mi  a  Han*  a  Sacra,  or  a  New  Method  of  considering  so 
much  of  the  History  of  the  Apostles  as  is  contained  in 
Scripture,  with  four  Critical  Essays :  1.  On  the  Wit- 
ness of  the  Holy  Spirit;  2.  On  the  distinction  between 
the  Apostles,  Elders,  and  Brethren;  3.  On  the  Time 
when  I 'aid  and  Barnabas  became  Apostles  ;  4.  On  the 
Apostolical  Decrees.  In  this  work  the  author  traces 
the  methods  take,,  by  the  apostles  and  first  preachers 
of  the  Gospel  for  propagating  Christianity,  and  ex- 
plains,  «,tl,  rr,.at  ,listinetness,  the  several  gifts  of  the 
Spirit  by  which  they  Were  enabled  to  discharge  that 
office.  ,\  new  edition  of  hi.  Theological  Work,  was 
published  m  London  in  1828  (3  vols.  8vo).— Jones 
<-  p.  27;  Allibone,  Did.  of  Authors,  s.  v. 

Barrow,  Isaac,  D.I).,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
'■  '  -'  ]l  h  livini  and  a  distinguished  mathematician. 
',m  "'  London,  October,  1630,  and  was  educa- 
ted •''  "'"  Cbarl  r  I  rouse,  and  at  Felsted  in  Essex  Af- 
terward ho  wet  to  Cambridge,  and  became  a  pension- 
er of  Trinity  College  in  1645.  In  1649  he  was  elected 
fdlow  of  his  college;  but  the  religious  and  political 


BARROW 


troubles  of  the  time  greatly  checked  his  progress,  and 
induced  him  to  leave  England  to  travel  abroad.  He 
visited  France  and  Italy,  and  proceeded  as  far  as 
Smyrna,  in  the  course  of  which  voyage  he  signalized 
himself  by  his  courage  in  a  combat  with  an  Algerine 
pirate.  At  Constantinople  he  remained  some  time, 
and  returned  to  England,  through  Germany  and  Hol- 
land, in  1659.  He  was  ordained  by  Bishop  Brownrigg, 
and  in  1660,  after  the  restoration,  obtained  the  Greek 
chair  at  Cambridge.  In  1662  he  was  made  Gresham 
Professor  of  Geometry,  and  in  1663  Lucasian  Professor 
of  Mathematics,  in  which  capacity  he  had  Newton  as 
a  pupil.  In  1670  he  was  made  D.D.,  and  in  Febru- 
ary, 1672,  was  nominated  to  the  mastership  of  Trinity 
College.  In  his  later  years  he  gave  up  mathematics 
for  divinity,  feeling  himself  bound  to  this  course  by 
his  ordination  vows.  He  died  in  London  on  the  4th 
of  May,  1677,  and  is  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
His  moral  character  was  of  the  highest  type,  resting 
upon  true  religion.  Tillotson  says  that  he  "came  as 
near  as  is  possible  for  human  frailty  to  do  to  the  per- 
fect man  of  St.  James." 

Barrow's  intellect  was  of  the  highest  order.  As  a 
mathematician  he  was  "second  only  to  Newton,"  ac- 
cording to  English  writers,  though  this  is  rather  too 
high  praise.  Of  his  numerous  mathematical  writings 
this  is  not  the  place  to  speak  ;  his  fame  as  a  theologian 
rests  chiefly  upon  his  Treatise  on  the  Pope's  Supremacy, 
his  Exposition  of  the  Creed,  and  on  his  Sermons.  Of 
the  Supremacy,  Tillotson  remarks  that  "  no  argument 
of  moment,  nay,  hardly  any  consideration  properly  be- 
longing to  the  subject,  has  escaped  Barrow's  compre- 
hensive mind.  He  has  said  enough  to  silence' the  con- 
troversy forever,  and  to  deter  all  wise  men,  of  both 
sides,  from  meddling  any  farther  with  it."  See  Til- 
lotson, preface  to  the  Theological  Works  of  Dr.  Barrow 
(Lond.  16S3,  3  vols.  fol.).  In  theology  Barrow  was  an 
Arminian,  and  his  writings  are,  in  many  respects,  an 
illustration  of  the  Arminian  system,  though  not  con- 
troversially so.  "His  sermons,"  as  Le  Clerc  observes, 
"  are  rather  treatises  and  dissertations  than  harangues, 
and  he  wrote  and  rewrote  them  three  or  four  times. 
They  are  always  cited  as  exact  and  comprehensive 
arguments,  the  produce  of  a  grasp  which  could  collect 
and  of  a  patience  which  could  combine  all  that  was  to 
be  said  upon  the  subject  in  question.  But,  in  addition 
to  this,  Barrow  was  an  original  thinker.  From  his 
desire  to  set  the  whole  subject  before  his  hearers,  he  is 
often  prolix,  and  his  style  is  frequently  redundant. 
But  the  sermons  of  Barrow  are  store-houses  of  thought, 
and  they  are  often  resorted  to  as  store-houses  by  popu- 
lar preachers  and  writers.  Nor  are  they  wanting  in 
passages  which,  as  examples  of  a  somewhat  redund- 
ant, but  ^rave,  powerful,  and  exhaustive  eloquence,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  parallel  in  the  whole  range  of 
English  pulpit  literature."  The  best  edition  of  his  the- 
ological writings  is  that  published  at  Cambridge  (1859, 
8  vols.  8vo) ;  a  cheaper  and  yet  good  one,  with  a  me- 
moir by  Hamilton,  London,  1828  (3  vols.  8vo),  reprint- 
ed N.  Y.  1846  (3  vols.  8vo).  They  include  seventy- 
eight  sermons  on  various  topics;  an  Exposition  of  the 
Apostles1  Creed,  in  34  discourses;  expositions  of  the 
ford's  Supper,  the  Decalogue,  the  Sacraments;  the  Trea- 
tise on  the  Pope's  Supremacy ;  with  his  Opuscula  Thcolo- 
aica,  including  a  number  of  Latin  dissertations,  etc. 
See  Methodist  Quarterly  Renew,  1846,  p.  165  sq.  ;  Alli- 
bone, Dictionary  if  Authors,  i,  130  sq. ;  Hook,  Eccles. 
Hi  igraphy,  i,  555. 

Barrow,  William,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Yorkshire 
about  1754,  and  was  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford. In  1814  he  was  made  prebendary  of  Southwell, 
and  shortly  afterward  vicar  of  Farnsfield.  In  1829  he 
was  made  archdeacon  of  Nottingham,  which  office  he 
held  till  his  death  in  1836.  He  published  Eight  Ser- 
mons on  ///■  Bampton  Lecture  (Lond.  1799,  8vo): — Fa- 
miliar Sermons  on  Doctrines  and  Duties  (Lond.  3  vols. 
8vo).— Darling,  C:/c'.  BibKogr.  i,  185. 


BARSABAS 


675 


BARTHOLOMEW 


Bar'sabas  (Bapaafici';,  a  Chald.  patronymic),  the 
surname  of  two  men. 

1.  Of  Joseph  (q.  v.),  mentioned  in  Acts  i,  23. 

2.  Of  Judas  (q.  v.),  mentioned  in  Acts  xv,  22. 

Barsuma  or  Barsumas,  bishop  of  Nisibis,  a  zeal- 
ous Nestorian  of  the  fifth  century.  Having  been  eject- 
ed from  the  school  of  Edessa,  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Nisibis  A.D.  435,  and  devoted  himself  earnestly  for 
nearly  half  a  century  to  the  establishment  of  Nestori- 
anism  in  Persia.  He  founded  the  school  of  Nisibis,  a 
prolific  source  of  Nestorianism.  He  advocated  the 
right  of  priests  to  marry,  and  himself  married  a  nun. 
See  Assemanni,  Bibl.  Orient.  Ill,  ii,  77;  Moshcim,  Ch. 
Hist,  i,  3G3.     See  Nestorians. 

Barsumas,  a  Syrian  archimandrite,  head  of  the 
Eutychian  party  at  the  robber-council  of  Ephesus,  A.D. 
449.  Among  the  Jacobites  (q.  v.)  he  is  held  as  a  saint 
and  miracle-worker.  See  Ephesus,  Robber- council 
of. 

Bar'tacus  (Bapraeoe ;  "Vulg.  Bczax),  the  father  of 
Apame,  the  concubine  of  King  Darius  (1  Esdr.  iv,  29, 
where  he  is  called  "the  admirable"  [o  Bav/iaaro^, 
probably  an  official  title  belonging  to  his  rank).  The 
Syriac  version  has  Artak,  a  name  which  recalls  that 
of  Artachoeas  ('Ap7-«Yo<>/<),  who  is  named  by  Herodo- 
tus (vii,  22, 117)  as  being  in  a  high  position  in  the  Per- 
sian army  under  Xerxes,  and  a  special  favorite  of  that 
kin-j;  (Simonis,  Onom.;  Smith's  Bid.  of  Class.  Biog.  i, 
369).     See  Apame. 

Bartas,  Du.     See  Du  Bartas. 

Earth,  Christian  Gotti.ob,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
German  divine  and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Stutt- 
gardt,  Juh7  31,  1799,  obtained  his  academical  education 
at  the  Gymnasium  there,  and  from  1817  to  1821  studied 
theology  at  Tubingen.  He  early  manifested  strong 
religious  feelings,  and  during  all  his  life  kept  him- 
self free  from  the  prevailing  rationalism.  In  1824  he 
became  pastor  at  Mottlingen,  Wurtemberg,  and  in 
1838  retired  to  Calw,  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  the 
missionary  cause,  and  to  the  production  of  books  of 
practical  religion,  to  which  objects  he  had  already 
given  much  of  his  attention.  He  had,  with  the  flour- 
ishing missionary  institute  at  Basle,  formed  the  first 
(Calwer)  missionary  society  in  Wurtemberg,  published 
a  periodical,  "  The  Calwer  Mission  Sheet,"  and  was  the 
means  of  exciting  a  wide-spread  interest  in  the  cause 
of  missions. 

From  this  period  his  life  became  still  more,  active. 
The  interests  of  the  mission  led  him  to  travel  far  and 
near,  sometimes  to  England,  to  France,  and  to  the  in- 
terior of  Switzerland  ;  and  he  was  brought  into  friend- 
ly relationship  with  the  courts  of  Wurtemberg,  Baden, 
Bavaria,  Austria,  Russia,  England,  Prussia,  etc.  His 
house  became  a  sojourn  for  persons  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  He  founded  a  conference  of  evangelical 
pastors  and  a  training-school  for  poor  children.  Among 
his  multitudinous  publications  of  practical  reading, 
both  for  adults  and  children,  are  Kindcrbliltter  (Calw, 
1836);  Christ.  Kinderschrif 'ten (Stuttg. 4  vols.);  Christ 
Gedichte  (Stutt.  1836);  Kirchengeschichte  fur  Schuhn 
und  Familial  (Calw,  1835) ;  Bihlische  Geschichte  fur 
Schulen  und  Familien.  The  sale  of  these  books  has 
been  unparalleled.  Of  the  Bible  History  and  Bible 
Stories  more  than  a  million  copies  have  been  pub- 
lfehed  in  ten  or  twelve  languages  of  the  Christian  and 
heathen  world.  He  was  also  a  ready  versifier,  and 
wrote  many  hymns  and  short  poems  for  children  ;  and 
several  of  bis  hymns,  especially  those  on  Missions,  have 
found  their  way  into  the  later  German  collections  of 
hymns.  In  1838,  the  University  of  Tubingen  confer- 
red upon  him  the  decree  of  Doctor  of  Theology.  His 
health  was  feeble  during  his  later  years,  but  he  contin- 
ued to  work  up  to  the  last  day,  and  was  only  induced 
to  lie  down  about  half  an  hour  before  his  death,  Nov. 
12,  18G2.  —  Pierer,  Universal-Lexiccn,  s.  v. ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  Supp.  i,  p.  1G8. 


Barthel,  Johann  Caspar,  a  German  canonist, 
born  in  1697  at  Kitzingen.  He  studied  at  Wurzburg 
with  the  Jesuits,  and  subsequently  at  Pome  under  Car- 
dinal Lambertini,  afterward  Benedict  XIV.  In  1727 
he  was  made  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  University 
of  Wurzburg,  of  which  he  afterward  became  vice-chan- 
cellor. To  intense  hatred  of  Protestantism  Barthel 
.united  a  steadfast  resistance  to  all  papal  claims  unau- 
thorized by  law.  He  died  in  1771,  having  greatly  im- 
proved the  teaching  of  the  canon  law,  which  before 
his  time  consisted  simply  in  repeating  the  decretals 
and  comments  of  the  court  of  Pome.  Barthel  followed 
zealously  in  the  path  of  De  Marca,  Thomassin,  Fleury, 
and  other  great  theologians  of  France,  and  reduced  the 
canon  law  to  a  form  suited  to  the  wants  and  peculiar 
circumstances  of  Germany.  The  following  are  his 
chief  works:  1.  Historia  Pacificaiionum  Imperii  circa 
Religionum  consistent  (Wurzburg,  1736,  4to)  :  —  2.  De 
Jure  Reformandi  antiquo  et  novo  (Ibid.  1744,  4to) : — 3. 
De  restituta  canonlcarum  in  Gcrmanid  electionum  poli- 
tid  (Ibid.  1749)  : — Tractatus  de  to  quod  circa  liberta- 
tem  exercitii  religionis  ex  lege  d'vina  et  ex  lege  imperii 
justum  est  (Ibid.  17G4,  4to). — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  47; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  iv,  645. 

Barthol'omew  (BapOoXopcuog,  for  Chald.  13 
h,?5Fi,  i.  e.  son  of  Tolmai;  the  latter  being  a  name 
that  occurs  in  Josh,  xv,  14,  Sept.  QoXafii  and  QoX/iai ; 
Auth.  Vers.  Tolmai ;  2  Sam.  xiii,  37,  Sept.  GoA/u  and 
QoXofiai.  In  Josephus  we  find  OoXo/jcuoo,  Ant.  xx, 
1,  1.  The  OoXficuor  in  Ant.  xiv,  8,  1,  is  called  nro\- 
f/<«ioe  in  War,  i,  9,  3,  not  improbably  by  an  error  of 
the  transcriber,  as  another  person  of  the  latter  name  is 
mentioned  in  the  same  sentence),  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles  of  Christ  (Matt,  x,  3 ;  Mark  iii,  18 ;  Luke  vi, 
14;  Acts  i,  13),  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the 
same  individual  who  in  John's  Gospel  is  called  Na- 
tiianael  (q.  v.).  The  reason  of  this  opinion  is  that 
in  the  first  three  gospels  Philip  and  Bartholomew  are 
constantly  named  together,  while  Nathanael  is  no- 
where mentioned ;  on  the  contrary,  in  the  fourth  gos- 
pel the  names  of  Philip  and  Nathanael  are  similarly 
combined,  but  nothing  is  said  of  Bartholomew  (see  As- 
semanni, Biblioth.  Or.  Ill,  i,  306 ;  ii,  4  sq. ;  Nahr,  De 
Nathan,  a  Earth/lorn,  non  dicerso,  Lips.  1740).  Na- 
thanael, therefore,  must  be  considered  as  his  real  name, 
while  Bartholomew  merely  expresses  his  filial  relation 
(see  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Hebr.  p.  325).  If  so,  he  was  a  na- 
tive of  Cana  in  Galilee  (John  xxi,  2).  Bernard  and 
Abbot  Rupert  were  of  opinion  that  he  was  the  bride- 
groom at  the  marriage  of  Cana.  (For  traditions  re- 
specting his  parentage,  see  Cotelerius,  Pair.  Apost. 
372).  He  was  introduced  by  Philip  to  Jesus,  who,  «n 
seeing  him  approach,  at  once  pronounced  that  eulogy 
on  his  character  which  has  made  his  name  almost  sy- 
nonymous with  sincerity,  "  Behold  an  Israelite  indeed, 
in  whom  there  is  no  guile"  (John  i,  47).  A.D.  26.  He 
was  one  of  the  disciples  to  whom  our  Lord  appeared 
after  his  resurrection,  at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  (John  xxi; 
2)  ;  he  was  also  a  witness  of  the  ascension,  and  return- 
ed with  the  other  apostles  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  i,  4, 12, 13). 
A.D.  29.  On  his  character,  see  Niemeyer,  Charakt.  i, 
111  sq.     See  Apostle. 

Of  the  subsequent  history  of  Bartholomew,  or  Na- 
thanael, we  have  little  more  than  vague  traditions. 
According  to  Eusebius  (Hist.  Ecclcs.  v,  10),  when  Pan- 
t:cnus  went  on  a  mission  to  the  Indians  (toward  the 
close  of  the  second  century),  he  found  among  them  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew,  written  in  Hebrew,  which  had  been 
left  there  by  the  Apostle  Bartholomew.  Jerome  (De 
Vir.  Illustr.  c.  36)  gives  a  similar  account,  and  adds 
that  Pantsenus  brought  the  copy  of  Matthew's  Gospel 
back  to  Alexandria  with  him.  See  Matthew,  Gos- 
pel of.  But  the  title  of  "Indians"  is  applied  by  an- 
cient writers  to  so  many  different  nations  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  determine  the  scene  of  Bartholomew's  labors. 
Moshcim  (with  whom  Neander  agrees)  is  of  opinion 
that  it  was  a  part  of  Arabia  Felix,  inhabited  by  Jews, 


BARTHOLOMEW 


076 


BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY 


to  whom  alone  a  Ik-brow  gospel  could  be  of  any  ser- 
vice. Socrates  (Hist.  Eccles.  i,  19)  says  that  it  was  the 
India  bordering  on  Ethiopia;  and  Sophronius  reports 
that  Bartholomew  preached  the  Gospel  of  Christ  to  the 
inhabitants  of  India  Felix  ('Ivootc  role  KciXovfisvoic 
tbSaipoaiv).  This  apostle  is  said  to  have  suffered  cru- 
cifixion with  his  head  downward  at  Albanopolis,  in  Ar- 
nunia  Minor  (Assemanni,  Bibl.  Or.  Ill,  ii,  20),  or,  ac- 
c  irding  to  the  pseudo-Chrysostom  (Opp.  viii,  622,  ed. 
Par.  nor.),  in  Lycaonia;  according  to  Nicephorus,  at 
(Jrbanopotis,  in  Cilicia  (see  Abdias,  in  Fabricius,  Cod. 
Apocr.  ii,  685  sq. ;  Baronius,  ad  Martyrol.  Rom.  p.  500 
sq. ;  Perionii  Vitm  Apostelor.  p.  127  sq.).  See  Bar- 
tholomew's Day. 

A  spurious  Gospel  which  bears  his  name  is  in  the 
catalogue  of  apocryphal  books  condemned  by  Pope  Gc- 
lasius  (Fabric.  Cod.  Apocr.  X.  T.  i,  341  sq.).—  Kitto,  s. 
v.     See  Gospels  (spurious). 

Bartholomew  of  Edessa,  a  monk,  probably  a 
Syrian,  but  of  what  date  is  totally  unknown.  Accord- 
ing to  Cave,  he  displays  considerable  learning  and  a 
profound  knowledge  of  the  writings  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Chaldees,  Arabians,  and  Mohammedans.  He 
wrote,  in  Greek,  Elenchus,  or  Confutatio  Hagarmi,  in 
which  he  exposes  the  follies  of  the  Koran,  and  the  or- 
igin,  life,  manners,  rites,  and  dogmas  of  the  false 
prophet  Mohammed.  This  work,  in  Greek,  with  a 
Latin  version,  is  given  by  Le  Moyne  at  p.  302  of  his 
Collection  (Lyons,  1685). — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  49. 

Bartholomew  of  Cotton,  a  monk  of  Norwich, 
who  flourished  about  1292.  He  wrote  a  History  of 
England,  divided  into  three  parts.  Part  I  contains  an 
a  i  omit  of  the  Britons;  Part  II  treats  of  the  Saxon 
and  Norman  kings  down  to  the  year  1292;  Part  III 
gives  much  information  concerning  the  archbishops 
and  bishops  of  England  from  1152  to  1292,  and  may 
be  found  in  Wharton,  Anglia  Surra,  i,  397.  See 
Clarke,  Succession  of  Sac.  Lit.  ii,  764  ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Bartholomew  of  Glaxville  (also  called  An- 
glicus),  an  Englishman,  of  the  family  of  the  earls  of 
Suffolk,  and  a  Franciscan.  He  applied  himself  to  the 
discovery  of  the  morals  hidden  under  the  outward  ap- 
pearance  of  natural  things,  on  which  he  composed  a 
large  work,  entitled  Opus  de  Proprietatibw  Rerum,  in 
nineteen  I  ooks:  (1.)  Of  God;  (2.)  of  angels  and  dev- 
ils ;  (3.)  of  the  soul ;  (4.)  of  the  bod}',  etc.  (Argent. 
1488:  Nnremb.  1492;  Strasb.  1505  ;  Paris,  1574).  He 
flourished  about  1360,  and  a  volume  of  Sermons,  print- 
ed at  Strasburg  in  1495,  is  attributed  to  him.     See 

I  ave,  Uist.  Lit.  anno  1360;  1  lupin,  Eccl.  Writers. 

Bartholomew  or  Bartolomeo  dos  Marty- 
res,  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  church  of  "Our 
Lady  of  Martyrs"  at  Lisbon,  in  which  he  was  bap- 
tized, was  one  of  the  best  men  in  the  Romish  Church 
of  the  16th  century.  He  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  May, 
l"'l  I,  and  assumed  the  habit  of  St.  Dominic  at  Lisbon, 

II  h  December,  1528.  Having  been  for  twenty  years 
professor  of  philosophy  and  theology,  his  high  reputa- 
1  a  ed  him  to  be  selected  as  preceptor  of  the  son 
'  I  Dom  Louis,  infant  of  Portugal.  It  was  only  at  the 
positive  command  of  Louia  of  Granada,  as  his  superior, 
thai  he  accepted  the  archbishopric  of  Braga  (1558), 
and  tint  with  such  reluctance  as  threw  him  upon  a 
bed  of  sickness.     He  entered  upon  his  see  on  the  4th 

tnd  commenced  af  once  the  execution 
<  f  hi-  design  of  teaching  his  (lock  by  his  own  example 
H  of  his  household,  lie  Belected  one  small 
room  out  of  all  the  magnificent  apartments  of  the  pal- 
furnished  it  like  a  cell;  he  went  to  bed  at 
el(  v  in  at  night,  and  rose  at  three  in  the  morning  ;  his 
bed  was  bard  and  Bcanty;  his  body  always  covered 

With  the  hair  cloth  ;   his  table  always  poorly  supplied. 

Of  the  usi.  .1  attendants  of  great  houses,  such  as  mdvbret 
d'Mtel,  etc.,  he  had  none,  contenting  himself  with 
e  fen  necessary  domestics.  As  booh  as  be  had  thus 
le)  hi-  own  house  in  order,  he  hastened  to  endeavor  to 


do  the  same  with  the  city  of  Braga  and  his  diocese  in 
general.  He  established  schools  and  hospitals,  and 
devoted  himself  to  works  of  charity  and  mercy.  As 
one  of  the  delegates  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  he  espe- 
cially signalized  himself  there  by  his  zeal  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  reform  of  the.  cardinals.  On  one  occasion 
he  delivered  those  well-known  words  on  this  subject, 
"  Eminentissimi  Cardinales  eminentissima  egent  re- 
formation,"  and  expressed  his  strong  condemnation 
of  their  luxurious  and  unfitting  kind  of  life.  He  it 
was  also  who  first  induced  the  council  to  begin  their 
sessions  with  the  question  of  the  reform  of  the  clergy. 
In  1582  Pope  Gregory  XIII  allowed  him  to  resign  his 
see,  and  he  retired  to  a  convent  at  Viana,  where  he 
died  in  1590.  His  life  was  written  by  Isaac  de  Sacy, 
and  his  writings,  among  which  the  Stimulus  Pastorum, 
a  guide  for  bishops,  has  had  the  largest  circulation, 
were  published  by  P.  dTnguimbert  at  Pome,  17,'!4-35 
(2  vols,  fol.),  and  by  Fessler  (Einsiedeln,  1863, 8vo). 

Bartholomew's  Day,  1,  a  festival  celebrated  on 
the  24th  day  of  August  (or  25th  at  Rome)  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  on  the  11th  of  June  in  the  Greek 
Church,  in  commemoration  of  the  apostle  Bartholo- 
mew. 

2.  The  day  has  been  rendered  infamous  in  history 

J  in  consequence  of  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  in 
France  in  1572.     The  principal  Protestants  were  in- 

I  vited  to  Paris,  under  a  solemn  oath  of  safety,  to  cele- 

I  brate  the  marriage  of  the  King  of  Navarre  with  the 

I  sister  of  the  French  king.  The  queen-dowager  of 
Navarre,  a  zealous  Protestant,  died  before  the  mar- 
riage was  celebrated,  not  without  suspicion  of  poison. 
The  massacre  commenced  about  twilight  in  the  morn- 
ing on  the  tolling  of  a  bell  of  the  church  of  St.  Ger- 
main.    Admiral  Coligni  was  basely  murdered  in  bis 

i  own  house,  and  then  thrown  out  of  a  window,  to  grati- 
fy the  malice  of  the  Duke  of  Guise.     His  head  was 

j  afterward  cut  oft*  and  sent  to  the  king  (Charles  IX) 

!  and  the  queen-mother,  the  bloody  Catherine  de  Medi- 
cis;  his  body,  after  a  thousand  indignities  offered  to 
it,  was  hung  up  by  the  feet  on  a  gibbet.     The  murder- 

■  ers  then  ravaged  the  whole  city  of  Paris,  and  put  to 
death  more  than  ten  thousand  of  all  ranks.  De  Thou 
says,  "  The  very  streets  and  passages  resounded  with 
the  groans  of  the  dying  and  of  those  who  were  about 
to  be  murdered.  The  bodies  of  the  slain  were  thrown 
out  of  the  windows,  and  with  them  the  courts  and 

j  chambers  of  the  houses  were  filled.  The  dead  bodies 
of  others  were  dragged  through  the  streets ;  and  the 

i  blood  flowed  down  the  channels  in  such  torrents  that 

I  it  seemed  to  empty  itself  into  the  neighboring  river. 

!  In  short,  an  innumerable  multitude  of  men,  women, 
and  children  were  involved  in  one  common  destruc- 
tion, and  all  the  gates  and  entrances  to  the  king's  pal- 

1  ace  wrere  besmeared  with  blood."  From  Paris  the 
massacre  spread  through  the  kingdom.  The  total 
number  that  fell  during  this  massacre  has  been  esti- 

'  mated  by  De  Thou  at  30,000,  by  Sully  at  60,000,  and 
by  Perefixe,  a  popish  historian,  at  100,000.  The  news 
of  this  atrocious  murder  was  received  at  Pome  with 
unrestrained  joy  and  delight;  a  universal  jubilee  was 
proclaimed  by  the  pope:  the  guns  of  St.  Angelo  were 

!  fired,  and  bonfires  lighted  in  the  streets.  A  medal 
was  struck  in  the.  pope's  mint,  with  his  own  head  on 
one  side,  and  on  the  other  a  rude  representation  of  the 
massacre,  with  an  angel  brandishing  a  sword,  and 
bearing  the  inscription  " Hvgonotorum  strages."     See 

j  Huguenots. 

Romanist  writers  treat  this  massacre  in  three  ways: 
(1.)  Some,  like  Caveirac,  De  Falloux,  and  Rohrbacher, 
justify  it ;  (2.)  others  affirm  that  the  Romanists  were 
only  following  the  example  set  by  Protestants ;  (3.) 
others  again,  like  Theiner,  in  his  new  volumes  of  the 
Annates  Ecclesiastici,  attribute  it  to  politics,  not  to  re- 
ligion.     Theiner's  view  is  refuted,  and  the  complicity 

|  of  the  Roman  Church,  with  the  pope  at  its  head,  in 
this  great  crime   is  shown  in  the   Christian  Remem- 


BARTHOLOMEW'S  GOSPEL       67: 

brancer,  xxiv,  245.  Lingard,  in  his  History  of  Eng- 
land, gives  a  favorable  view  of  the  facts  for  the  Roman 
side,  which  is  refuted  in  the  Edinburgh  Review,  vols, 
xlii,  liii ;  and  in  Lardner,  Hist,  of  England  (Cab.  Cy- 
clopaedia, vol.  iii.  See  Curths,  Die  Bartholomausnacht 
(Lpz.  1814);  Wachler,  Die  Pariser  Blutkochzeit  (Lpz. 
182G)  ;  Audin,  Hist,  de  la  St.  Barthelemy  (Paris,  1829) ; 
also,  Turner,  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  iii,  Appendix  ;  Cob- 
bin,  Historical  View  of  the  lief  Church  of  France  (Lond. 
1816)  ;  Weiss,  History  of  the  Prof.  Ref.  in  France  (New 
York,  1854,  2  vols.  12mo);  Shoberl,  Persecutions  of 
Popery,  ii,  1  sq. ;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  Papacy,  i,  27C,  424, 
491;  Gieseler,  Ck.  Hist,  iv,  304,  Smith's  ed. 

3.  On  St.  Bartholomew's  day  in  16G2,  the  year  in 
which  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (q.  v.)  was  passed,  two 
thousand  non-conforming  ministers  were  ejected  from 
their  benefices  in  England. — Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  iii, 
173  note. 

Bartholomew's  Gospel.  See  Bartholomew 
(Jh '  Apostle). 

Bartholomites,  1,  an  order  of  Armenian  monks. 
See  Armenia. 

2.  A  congregation  of  secular  priests,  who  take  their 
name  from  Bartholomew  Holshauser,  who  founded  the 
order  at  Salzburg,  August  1st,  1G40.  Pope  Innocent 
XI  approved  their  constitutions  in  1680  and  1684. 
This  congregation  was  established  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  good  priests  and  pastors,  and  was  governed 
by  a  chief  president,  whose  duty  it  was  to  maintain 
uniformity  of  discipline  throughout  the  congregation, 
and  by  diocesan  presidents,  who  were  to  attend  to 
the  same  thing  in  their  respective  dioceses,  b}'  watch- 
ing over  the  curates  and  other  ecclesiastics  belonging 
to  their  institution,  visiting  them  annually,  and  report- 
ing the  result  of  their  visitations  to  the  ordinary. 
Curates  belonging  to  this  institute  were  never  placed 
singly  in  any  cure;  an  assistant  priest  was  almost  al- 
ways appointed  with  each  curate,  who  was  paid  either 
out  of  the  revenues  of  the  parish,  or  by  the  revenues 
of  some  richer  parish,  likewise  filled  by  a  Bartholo- 
mite,  if  the  former  be  too  poor.  They  had  many  mem- 
bers in  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Hungary,  Poland,  and 
other  countries,  but  have  long  been  extinct.  See  Hel- 
yot,  Ord.  Religieux,  i,  373. 

Bartimae'us  (Baprijuaioc.for  the  Chald.  ^XHa  ^3? 
son  of  Timmai),  one  of  the  two  blind  beggars  of  Jericho 
who  (Mark  x,  46  sq. ;  comp.  Matt,  xx,  30)  sat  by  the 
wayside  begging  as  our  Lord  passed  out  of  Jericho 
on  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  A.D.  29.  Notwith- 
standing that  many  charged  him  to  be  quiet,  he  con- 
tinued crying,  "Jesus,  thou  son  of  David,  have  mercy 
on  me  !"  Being  called,  and  his  blindness  miraculous- 
ly cured,  on  the  ground  of  his  faith,  by  Jesus,  he  be- 
came thenceforward  a  believer. 


BARTON 

taught  rhetoric  for  four  years.  For  twelve  years  he 
exercised  the  ministry  of  preaching  in  the  principal 
towns  of  Italy,  and  died  at  Rome,  January  13th,  1685. 
Bartoli  is  considered  as  one  of  the  best  writers  of  his 
countn',  and  is  the  author  of  man)'  works,  all  written 
in  Italian,  but  of  which  Latin  and  other  translations 
have  been  published.  The  most  important  of  his 
works  is  the  History  of  the  Company  of  Jesus  (Istoria 
della  Compagnia  di  Gesu),  in  several  parts,  forming 
6  vols,  folio,  viz. :  (i.)  "The  Life  and  Institute  of  St. 
Ignatius"  (Rome,  1650).  (ii.)  "The  History  of  the 
Company  of  Jesus,"  Asia,  Part  I  (Rome,  1650).  (iii.) 
"History  of  Japan,"  Part  II  of  Asia  (Rome,  1660). 
(iv.)  "Histon'  of  China,"  Part  III  of  Asia  (Rome, 
1061).  (v.)  "  History  of  England,"  Part  of  Europe 
(Rome,  1667).  (vi.)  "  History  of  Italy,"  Part  I  of 
Europe  (Rome,  1673).  He  wrote  also  lives  of  Loyola, 
Caraffa,  and  other  Jesuits,  which,  with  the  work  above 
named,  are  repositories  of  facts  as  to  the  history  of 
the  Jesuits.  His  complete  works  were  published  by 
Marietti  (Turin,  1825, 12  vols.),  and  a  selection,  under 
the  title  Descrizioni  geograf  e  stor.,  by  Silvestri  (Milan, 
1826).— Landon,  Eccl.  Did.  ii,  55. 


Bartine,  David,  an  eminent  Methodist  preacher, 
was  born  in  Westchester  county,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  26,  1767. 
He  was  converted  at  twenty-one,  and  his  piety,  zeal, 
and  talent  early  drew  the  eyes  of  the  Church  toward 
him  as  one  called  to  preach  the  Gospel.  His  first  field 
of  labor  was  Salem  Circuit,  to  which  he  was  sent  by 
Bishop  Asbury.  The  next  year  (1793)  he  was  received 
into  the  travelling  connection,  and  from  that  time  till 
he  became  supernumerary  (1835)  he  labored  without 
intermission,  principally  in  New  Jersey.  His  natural 
talents  were  of  a  ver}'  high  order  ;  he  had  a  judgment 
clear  and  penetrating,  powers  of  perception  compre- 
hensive and  discriminating,  a  memory  acute  and  very 
retentive,  and  an  energy  which  insured  success.  In 
his  preaching  he  usually  addressed  the  understanding 
and  the  judgment,  and  yet  often,  in  the  application  of 
his  argument,  his  appeals  to  the  heart  were  peculiarly 
eloquent  and  impressive.  He  died  April  26th,  1850. 
—Minutes  of  Con f.  iv,  567;  K  J.  Conf.  Memorial,  183. 

Bartoli,  Daniel,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  born  at  Fer- 
rara  in  1608,  who  entered  the  company  in  1623,  and 


Barton,  Elizabeth,  the  "holy  maid  of  Kent," 
first  becomes  known  to  us  in  1525,  when,  while  a  ser- 
vant at  an  inn  at  Aldington,  in  Kent,  she  began  to  ac- 
quire a  local  reputation  for  sanctity  and  miraculous 
endowments.  She  was  subject  to  epileptic  fits,  and 
in  the  paroxysms  vented  incoherent  phrases,  which 
Richard  Master,  parson  of  Aldington,  took  advantage 
of  to  make  people  believe  that  she  was  an  instrument 
of  divine  revelation.  A  successful  prediction  lent  its 
aid  to  the  general  delusion.  A  child  of  the  master  of 
the  inn  happened  to  be  ill  when  Elizabeth  was  at- 
tacked by  one  of  her  fits.  On  recovering,  she  inquired 
whether  the  child  was  dead.  She  was  told  that  it 
was  still  living.  "  It  will  not  live,  I  announce  to 
you;  its  death  has  been  revealed  to  me  in  a  vision," 
was  the  answer.  The  child  died,  and  Elizabeth  was 
immediatelj-  regarded  as  one  favored  by  Heaven  with 
the  gift  of  prophecy.  She  soon  after  entered  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Sepulchre's  at  Canterbury,  and  became  a 
nun.  In  this  new  situation  her  revelations  multiplied, 
and  she  became  generally  known  as  the  "holy  maid 
of  Kent."  Bishop  Fisher  and  Archbishop  Warham 
countenanced  her  pretensions.  Led  by  her  zeal,  or 
more  probably  worked  upon  by  others,  she  boldly 
prophesied  in  reference  to  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII 
from  Catherine  and  his  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn, 
"that  she  had  knowledge  by  revelation  from  heaven 
that  God  was  highly  displeased  with  our  said  sovereign 
lord,  and  that  if  he  proceeded  in  the  said  divorce  and 
separation  and  married  again,  he  should  no  longer  be 
king  of  this  realm ;  and  that,  in  the  estimation  of  Al- 
mighty God,  he  should  not  be  king  one  hour,  and  that 
he  should  die  a  villain's  death."  The  prediction  was 
widely  diffused,  and  caused  great  popular  excitement. 

I  In  November,  1533,  the  nun,  with  five  priests  and  three 
lay  gentlemen,  her  accomplices,  were  brought  before 
the  Star  Chamber,  and  sentenced  to  do  public  penance 

1  as  impostors  at  St.  Paul's  Cross.  But  the  nun's  con- 
fession, whatever  were  its  motives,  availed  her  noth- 
ing. From  the  pillory  she  and  her  companions  were 
led  back  to  prison,  where  they  lay  till  the  following 
January,  when  they  were  attainted  of  high  treason. 

!  On  the" 21st  of  April,  1534,  the  nun  was  beheaded  at 
Tyburn,  together  with  the  five  priests.— English  Cy- 
clopadia;  Burnet,  History  of  Reformation,  i,  243-219. 

Barton,  John  B.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister 
I  and  missionary,  was  born  in  Savannah  1806,  convert- 
ed 1831,  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  the  Georgia 
Conference  1834,  and  was  sent  as  missionary  to  Africa, 
where  he  arrived  in  August,  1835,  and  was  appointed 
to  Bassa  Cove.  In  1837  he  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  married  Eleanor  Gilbert,  of  Charleston, 
S.  C.    In  1838  he  went  back  with  his  family  to  Africa, 


15AUT0N 


G78 


BARUCH 


and  was  stationed  .it  Monrovia  until  his  death,  which 
occurred  March  19,  1839.  He  was  much  loved  and 
honored  by  the  people  among  whom  he  labored.— Min- 
utes qfCi  nferences,  iii,  61. 

Barton,  Thomas,  M.A.,  an  early  Episcopal  min- 
ister in  America,  was  horn  in  Ireland  17.-'0,  and  edu- 
cati  d  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Soon  after  he  came 
to  America,  and  after  teaching  two  years  in  the  Acad- 
emy of  Philadelphia,  he  went  to  England  for  ordina- 
tion, and  in  1755  was  appointed  missionary  to  Hunt- 
ingdon. He  extended  his  held  of  labor  to  Carlisle, 
Shippensburgh,  and  York,  and  was  specially  interested 
in  the  Indians.  Me  served  the  Church  in  Lancaster 
twenty  years,  travelling  largely  to  preach  at  destitute 
points.  When  the  Revolution  broke  out  he  refused 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  had  to  pass  to  the  British 
lines  at  New  York,  lie  died  1780. — Spraguc,  Annals, 
v.  169. 

Ba'ruch  (Ileb.  Baruk',  7^*3,  Messed;  Sept.  Ba- 
i.p<'\.  Josephus  Bfmot'Yuc),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  The  faithful  friend  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (Jer. 
xxxii,  12  :  xxxvi,  4  sq.)  was  of  a  noble  family  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah  (Jer.  li,  59;  Bar.  i,  ]  ;  Joseph.  Ant.  x, 
6,  2  ;  9,  1),  and  generally  considered  to  be  the  brother 
of  the  prophet  Seraiah,  both  being  represented  as  sons 
of  Neriah  ;  and  to  Baruch  the  prophet  Jeremiah  dic- 
t  .!■  d  all  his  oracles.  Sec  Jeremiah.  In  the  fourth 
year  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiachim,  king  of  Judah  (B.C. 
605),  Baruch  was  directed  to  write  all  the  prophecies 
delivered  by  Jeremiah  up  to  that  period,  and  to  read 
them  to  the  people,  which  he  did  from  a  window  in  the 
Temple  upon  two  solemn  occasions  (Jer.  xxxvi).  He 
afterward  read  them  before  the  counsellors  of  the  king 
at  a  private  interview,  when  Baruch,  being  asked  to 
give  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  prophecy 
had  been  composed,  gave  an  exact  description  of  the 
mode  in  which  he  had  taken  it  down  from  the  prophet's 
dictation.  Upon  this  they  ordered  him  to  leave  the 
roll,  advising  that  he  and  Jeremiah  should  conceal 
themselves.  They  then  informed  the  king  of  what 
had  taken  place,  upon  which  he  had  the  roll  read  to 
him  ;  but,  after  hearing  a  part  of  it,  he  cut  it  with  a 
penknife,  and,  notwithstanding  the  remonstrances  of 
his  counsellors,  threw  it  into  the  fire  of  his  winter  par- 
lor, where  he  was  sitting.  He  then  ordered  Jeremiah 
and  Baruch  to  be  seized,  but  they  could  not  be  found. 
The  Jews  to  this  day  commemorate  the  burning  of  this 
roll  by  an  annual  fast.  See  Calendar  (Jewish). 
Another  roll  was  now  written  by  Baruch  from  the 
prophet's  dictation,  containing  all  that  was  in  the  for- 
mer, with  some  additions,  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  is  the  prophecy  respecting  the  ruin  of  Jehoia- 
chim and  his  house  as  the  punishment  of  his  impious 
act.  This  roll  is  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  which  we 
now  possess.  Baruch,  being  himself  terrified  at  the 
threats  contained  in  the  prophetic  roll,  received  the 
comforting  assurance  that  he  would  himself  be  deliv- 
ered from  the  calamities  which  should  befall  Judah  and 
Jerusalem  (Jer.  xlv).  During  the  siege  of  Jerusalem 
Baruch  was  selected  as  the  depositary  of  the  deed  of 
purchase  which  Jeremiah  had  made  of  the  territory 
of  Hanamecl,  to  which  deed  he  had  been  a  witnes's 
>'-  L2  m  ..  B.C.  589.  His  enemies  accused 
him  of  influencing  Jeremiah  in  favor  of  the  Chaldaans 
(Jer.  xliii,  .",;  comp.  xxxvii,  13);  and  he  was  thrown 
Into  prison  with  that  prophet,  where  he  remained  till 
ure  of  Jerusalem,  B.C.  588  (Joseph.  Ant.  x,  9, 
1  I.  !'•  the  permission  of  Nebuchadnezzar  he  remain- 
ed with  Jeremiah  at  Masphatha  (Joseph.  I.e.);  but  in 
the  fourth  yearofZedekiah  (B.C.  595)  Baruch  is  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  accompanied  Seraiah  to  Baby- 
lon, when  the  latter  attended  Zedekiah  with  the  proph- 
11  'i'"''1  in  Jeremiah,  ch.  1  and  li,  which  he  was 
commanded  by  Jeremiah  to  read  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  then  to  east  the  prophetic  roll  into  the 
river,  with  a  stone  attached  to  it,  to  signify  the  ever- 


lasting ruin  of  Babylon  (Jer.  li,  01).  At  least  Ba- 
ruch, in  the  book  which  bears  his  name  (in  the  Apoc- 
rypha), is  said  to  have  read  these  prophecies  at  Baby- 
lon, in  the  hearing  of  King  Jehoiachim  and  the  cap- 
tive Jews,  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  taking  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  Chaldaeans  (see  below),  which  must  have  been 
the  same  taking  of  it  in  which  Jehoiachim  was  madi 
prisoner ;   for  after  the  other  taking  of  Jerusalem,  in 

'  the  eleventh  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Zedekiah,  w  hen 
the  Jews,  after  their  return  from  Babylon,  obstinately 

;  persisted  in  their  determination  to  migrate  to  Egypt 
against  the  remonstrances  of  the  prophet,  both  Baruch 
and  Jeremiah  accompanied  them  to  that  country  (Jer. 
xliii,  6;  Joseph.  Ant.  x,  9,  6),  from  whence  there  is 
no  account  in  Scripture  of  Baruch's  return.  The  rab- 
bins, however,  allege  that  he  died  in  Babylon  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  the  exile  (see  Calmet's  Pre  fur).     Je- 

I  rome,  on  the  other  hand,  states,  "en  the  authority  of 

!  the  Jews"  (Hebrcti  tradunt),  that  Jeremiah  and  Ba- 

,  ruch  died  in  Egypt  "  before  the  desolation  of  the  eoun- 

I  try  by  Nabuehodor.osor"  (Coram,  in  Is.  xxx,  G,  7,  p. 

i  405).  Josephus  asserts  that  he  was  well  skilled  in 
the  Hebrew  language ;   and  that,  after  the  taking  of 

:  Jerusalem,  Nebuzaradan  treated  Baruch*vith  consid- 
eration from  respect  to  Jeremiah,  whose  misfortunes 
he  had  shared,  and  whom  he  had  accompanied  to  pris- 
on and  exile  (Ant.  x,  9,  1  and  2). — Kitto;  Smith. 

BARUCH,  BOOK  OF  (Apocryphae),  follows  next 
after  the  Book  of  Jeremiah  in  the  Septuagint  printed 
text,  but  in  MSS.  it  sometimes  precedes  and  some- 
times follows  Lamentations.      It  stands  between  Ec- 

;  clesiasticus  and  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children  in  the 

I  Engl.  Auth.  Vers.     See  Apocrypha. 

1.  ConUnts. — It  is  remarkable  as  the  only  hook  in 
( the  Apocrypha  which  is  formed  on  the  model  of  the 

Prophets ;  and,  though  it  is  wanting  in  originality,  it 
presents  a  vivid  reflection  of  the  ancient  prophetic  fire. 
|  The  subject  of  the  book  is  (1.)  an  exhortation  to 
wisdom  and  a  due  observance  of  the  law ;  (2.)  it  then 
introduces  Jerusalem  as  a  widow,  comforting  her  chil- 
dren with  the  hope  of  a  return  ;  (3.)  an  answer  follows 
in  confirmation  of  this  hope.  A  prologue  is  prefixed, 
stating  that  Baruch  had  read  his  book  to  Jeremiah  and 
the  people  in  Babylon  by  the  river  Sud  (Euphrates), 
by  which  the  people  were  brought  to  repentance,  and 
J  sent  the  book  with  a  letter  and  presents  to  Jerusalem. 
It  may  be  divided  into  two  main  parts,  i-iii,  8,  and 
i  iii,  9-end.  The  first  part  consists  of  an  introduction 
(i,  1-14),  followed  by  a  confession  and  prayer  (i,  15- 
'.  iii,  8).  The  second  part  opens  with  an  abrupt  address 
to  Israel  (iii,  9-iv,  30),  pointing  out  the  sin  of  the  peo- 
I  pie  in  neglecting  the  divine  teaching  of  wisdom  (iii,  9- 
j  iv,  8),  and  introducing  a  noble  lament  of  Jerusalem 
i  over  her  children,  through  which  hope  still  gleams 
j  (iv,  9-30).  After  this  the  tone  of  the  book  again 
changes  suddenly,  and  the  writer  addresses  Jerusalem 
in  words  of  triumphant  joy,  and  paints  in  the  glowing 
J  colors  of  Isaiah  the  return  of  God's  chosen  people  and 
their  abiding  glory  (iv,  30 -v,  9). 

II.  Text:  1.  Greek. — The  book  at  present  exists  in 
Greek,  and  in  several  translations  which  were  made 
from  the  Greek.  The  two  classes  into  which  the  Greek 
MSS.  may  be  divided  do  not  present  any  very  remark- 
able variations  (Fritzsche,  Einl.  §  7);  but  the  Syro- 
Hexaplaric  text  of  the  Milan  MS.,  of  which  a  complete 
edition  is  at  length  announced,  is  said  to  contain  ref- 
erences to  the  version  of  Theodoticn  (Eiehhorn,  Einl, 
in  die  Apoc.  Schrifl.  p.  388  note),  which  must  imply  a 
distinct  recension  of  the  Greek,  if  not  an  independent 
rendering  of  an  original  Hebrew  text.  Of  the  two  old 
Latin  versions  which  remain,  that  which  is  incorpo- 
rated in  the  Vulgate  is  generally  literal;  the  other 
(Cams,  Horn.  1688)  is  more  free.  The  vulgar  Syriac 
and  Arabic  follow  the  Greek  text  closely  (Fritzsth?, 
1.  c). 

2.  Hebrew. — Considerable  discussion  has  been  raised 
'  as  to  the  original  language  of  the  book.     Those  who 


BARUCH 


G79 


BARUCH 


advocated  its  authenticity  generally  supposed  that  it 
was  first  written  in  Hebrew  (Iluet,  Dereser,  etc. ;  but 
Jabn  is  undecided  :  Bertholdt,  Einl.  1755),  and  this 
opinion  found  many  supporters  (Bendtsen,  Griineberg, 
Movers,  Hitzig,  De  Wette,  Einl.  §  323).  Others  again 
have  maintained  that  the  Greek  is  the  original  text 
(Eichhorn,-&'»f.388sq.;  Bertholdt,  EM.  1757;  Haver- 
nick  ap.  De  Wette,  1.  c.)  The  truth  appears  to  lie  be- 
tween  these  two  extremes.  The  two  divisions  of  the 
book  arc  distinguished  by  marked  peculiarities  of  style 
and  language.  The  Hebraic  character  of  the  first  part 
(i-iii,  8)  is  such  as  to  mark  it  as  a  translation,  and  not 
as  the  work  of  a  Hebraizing  Greek  :  e.  g.  i,  14,  15,  22; 
ii,  4,  9,  25 ;  iii,  8 ;  and  several  obscurities  seem  to  be 
mistranslations:  c.  g.  i,  2,  8,  ii,  18,  29.  The  second 
part,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is  written  with  great- 
er freedom  and  vigor,  closely  approaches  the  Alexan- 
drine type.  The  imitations  of  Jeremiah  and  Daniel 
which  occur  throughout  the  first  part  (comp.  i,  15-18  = 
Dan.  ix,  7-10;  ii,  1,  2  =  Dan.  ix,  12, 13;  ii,  7-19  =  Dan. 
ix,  13-18)  give  place  to  the  tone  and  imagery  of  the 
Psalms  and  Isaiah.  The  most  probable  explanation 
of  this  contrast  is  gained  by  supposing  that  some  0113 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  Alexandrine  transla- 
tion of  Jeremiah,  perhaps  the  translator  himself  (Hit- 
zig, Fritzsche),  found  the  Hebrew  fragment  which  forms 
the  basis  of  the  book  alread3r  attached  to  the  writings 
of  that  prophet,  and  wrought  it  up  into  its  present 
form.  The  peculiarities  of  language  common  to  the 
Sept.  translation  of  Jeremiah  and  the  first  part  of 
Baruch  seem  too  great  to  be  accounted  for  in  any  other 
way  (for  instance,  the  use  of  ota/twr/jc,  c'nrocro\)), 
/3ojUj8/j(T(f  [_0Ofi/3ttv],  d—oiKirrpdc;,  fidvva,  dironrphpHv 
[_neut.~],  tpyd^taOai  nvi,  vvofia  tTracaXuaQai  tiri  run*) ; 
and  the  great  discrepanc^y  which  exists  between  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  texts  as  to  the  arrangement  of 
the  later  chapters  of  Jeremiah,  increases  the  proba- 
bility of  such  an  addition  having  been  made  to  the 
canonical  prophecies.  These  verbal  coincidences  ceasj 
to  exist  in  the  second  part,  or  become  very  rare ;  but 
this  also  is  distinguished  by  characteristic  words  :  c.  g. 
b  atioinoQ  b  uyiOQ,  iirdyuv.  At  the  same  time,  the  gen- 
eral unity  (even  in  language,  e.  g.  y«p/to<7<;i');)  and  co- 
herence of  the  book  in  its  present  form  point  to  th:s 
work  of  one  man.  (Fritzsche,  Einl.  §  5  ;  Hitzig,  Psalm. 
ii,  119 ;  Ewald,  Gesch.  d.  Volkes  Isr.  iv,  232  n.).  Ber- 
tholdt appears  to  be  quite  in  error  {Einl.  1743,  17G2)  in 
assigning  iii,  1-8  to  a  separate  writer  (De  Wette,  Einl. 
§  322).  (See  Siebenberger's  Ileb.  Comm.  Warsaw,  1840.) 

3.  The  Epistle  of  Jeremiah,  which,  according  to  the 
authority  of  some  Greek  MSS.,  stands  in  the  English 
version  as  the  6th  chapter  of  Baruch,  is  probably  the 
work  of  a  later  period.  It  consists  of  a  rhetorical  dec- 
lamation against  idols  (comp.  Jerem.  x,  xxix)  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  addressed  by  Jeremiah  "to  them  which 
were  to  be  led  captive  to  Babylon."  The  letter  is  di- 
vided into  clauses  by  the  repetition  of  a  common  bur- 
dan  :  they  arc  no  gods ;  fear  them  not  (vv.  10,  23,  29,  6G) : 
how  can  a  man  thin';  or  s  vj  that  they  are  gods?  (vv.  40, 
44,  5G,  G4).  The  condition  of  the  text  is  closely  analo- 
gous to  that  of  Baruch  ;  and  the  letter  found  the  same 
partial  reception  in  the  Church.  The  author  shows  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  idolatrous  worship ;  and 
this  circumstance,  combined  with  the  purity  of  the 
Hellenistic  dialect,  points  to  Egypt  as  the  country  in 
which  the  epistle  was  written. — Smith,  s.  v. 

4.  A  Syriac  first  Epistle  of  Baruch  "to  the  nine  and 
a  half  tribes"  (comp.  4  Esdr.  xiii,  40,  Arab.  Vers.)  is 
found  in  the  London  and  Paris  Polyglots.  This  is 
made  up  of  commonplaces  of  warning,  encouragement, 
and  exhortation.  Fritzsche  (Einl.  §  8)  considers  it  to 
be  the  production  of  a  Syrian  monk.  It  is  not  found 
in  any  other  language.  Whiston  (.4  Collection  of  Au- 
thentick  Records,  etc.,  London,  1727,  i,  1,  sq.,  25  sq.) 
endeavored  to  maintain  its  authenticity.  See  a  full 
introd.  by  Ginsburg,  in  the  new  ed.  of  Kitto's  <  '/,r/<y>. 

III.    Writer. — The  assumed  author  of  the  book  is 


undoubtedly  the  companion  of  Jeremiah,  but  the  de- 
tails are  inconsistent  with  the  assumption.  If  Baruch 
be  the  author  of  this  book,  he  must  have  removed  from 
Egypt  to  Babylon  immediately  after  the  death  of  Jere- 
miah, inasmuch  as  the  author  of  the  book  lived  in  Bab- 
ylon in  the  fifth  year  after  that  event,  unless  we  sup- 
pose, with  Eichhorn,  Arnold,  and  others,  that  the  refer- 
ence (Baruch  i,  1)  is  to  the  fifth  year  from  the  captivity 
of  Jehoiachim.  Jahn  (Introductio  in  Epitomen  redacta, 
§  217,  etc.)  considers  this  latter  opinion  at  variance 
with  the  passage  in  question,  since  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  is  there  spoken  of  as  having  already  taken 
place.  De  Wette  (Lehrbuch  der  Einleitung  in  das  A. 
I  und  N.  T.)  ingeniously  conjectures  that  tru  ()rear)  is 
a  mistake  or  correction  of  some  transcriber  for  prp>i 
(month) ;  and  there  is  no  question  that  the  present 
reading,  which  mentions  the  year,  and  the  day  of  the 
month,  without  naming  the  month  itself,  is  quite  un- 
accountable. If  the  reading  in  i,  1,  be  correct  (comp. 
2  Kings  xxv,  8),  it  is  impossible  to  fix  "the  fifth  year'" 
in  such  a  waj'  as  to  suit  the  contents  of  the  book, 
which  exhibits  not  only  historical  inaccuracies,  but 
also  evident  traces  of  a  later  date  than  the  beginning 
of  the  captivity  (iii,  9  sq. ;  iv,  22  sq. ;  i,  3  sq.  Comp. 
2  Kings  xxv,  27).  Its  so-called  Epistle  of  Jeremiah, 
however,  is  confessedly  more  ancient  than  the  second 
book  of  Maccabees,  for  it  is  there  referred  to  (2  Mace, 
ii,  2,  comp.  with  Baruch  vi,  4)  as  an  ancient  document. 
In  the  absence  of  any  certain  data  by  which  to  fix  the 
time  of  the  composition  of  Baruch,  Ewald  (1.  c.  p.  230) 
assigns  it  to  the  close  of  the  Persian  period ;  and  this 
may  be  true  as  far  as  the  Hebrew  portion  is  concern- 
ed ;  but  the  present  book  must  be  placed  considerably 
later,  probably  about  the  time  of  the  war  of  liberation 
(B.C.  cir.  1G0),  or  somewhat  earlier. 

IV.  Canonicity. — The  book  was  held  in  little  esteem 
among  the  Jews  (Jerome,  Prof,  in  Jerem.  p.  834  .  .  . 
nee  habetur  apud  Hebreeos ;  Epiphanius,  demens.  oil  Ktly- 
Tai  tTTiaroXai  [Bo-poi'v]  Trap  'Eiipaioic),  though  it  is 
stated  in  the  Greek  text  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions 
(v,  20, 1)  that  it  was  read,  together  with  the  Lamenta- 
tions, "  on  the  tenth  of  the  month  Gorpiaeus"  (i.  e.  the 
day  of  Atonement).  But  this  reference  is  wanting  in 
the  Syriac  version  (Bunsen,  Anal.  Ante-Nic.  ii,  187), 
and  the  assertion  is  unsupported  by  any  other  author- 
ity. There  is  no  trace  of  the  use  of  the  book  in  the 
New  Testament,  or  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  or  in 
Justin.  But  from  the  time  of  Irenams  it  was  fre- 
quently quoted  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  and 
generally  as  the  work  of  Jeremiah  (Irenaaus,  Ilcer.  v. 
35, 1,  " significant  Jermms,  Bar.  iv,  36-v ;"  Tertullian, 
Gnost.  8,  "  Ilieremim,  Bar.  [Epist.]  vi,  3;"  Clement, 
Peed,  i,  10,  §  91,  "  81a  'lepipiov,  Bar.  iv.  4 ;"  id.  Peed. 
ii,  3,  §  36,  "0«d  ypaQi),  Bar.  iii,  16,  19;"  Origen,  ap. 
Euseb.  //.  E.  vi,  25,  "'Itptpiag  avi'  Opi'ivoic.  Kai  ry 
t7n<TTo\y  [?]  ;"  Cyprian,  Test.  Lib.  ii,  G,  "apud  Hiere- 
miam,  Bar.  iii,  85,"  etc.).  It  was,  however,  "obelized" 
throughout  in  the  Sept.  as  deficient  in  the  Hebrew 
(Cod.  Chis.  ap.  Daniel,  etc.,  Eomre,  1772,  p.  xxi).  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  contained  as  a  separate  book  in  the 
pseudo-Laodicene  Catalogue,  and  in  the  Catalogues  of 
Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Athanasius,  and  Nicephorus ;  but  it 
is  not  specially  mentioned  in  the  Conciliar  catalogues 
of  Carthage  and  Hippo,  probably  as  being  included 
under  the  title  Jeremiah.  (Comp.  Athanasii  Syn.  S. 
Script,  ap.  Credner,  Zur  Gesch.  des  Kan.  138 ;  Hilary, 
Prol.  in  Psalm.  15).  It  is  omitted  by  those  writers 
who  reproduced  in  the  main  the  Hebrew  Canon  (e.  g. 
Melito,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Epiphanius).  Augustine 
quotes  the  words  of  Baruch  (iii,  16) as  attributed  "more 
commonly  to  Jeremiah"  (de  Civ.  xviii,  33),  and  else- 
where uses  them  as  such  (Faust,  xii,  43).  At  the  Council 
of  Trent  Baruch  was  admitted  into  the  Romish  Canon  ; 
but  the  Protestant  churches  have  unanimously  placed 
it  among  the  apocryphal  books,  though  Whiston  main- 
tained its  authenticity  (Authent.  Records,  i,  1,  sq.).  Cal- 
met  observes  that  its  "canonicity  had  been  denied  not 


BARULI 


680 


BASE 


only  by  the  Protestants,  but  by  several  Catholics," 
among"  whom  he  instances  Driedo,  I.yranus,  and  Dio- 
Dysius  of  ( larthage.  He  considers  that  Jerome  treats 
the  book  with  harshness  when  {Preface  to  Jeremiah) 
that  father  observes,  "  I  have  not  thought  it  worth 
while  to  translate  the  book  of  Baruch,  which  is  gener- 
allv  joined  in  the  Septuagint  version  to  Jeremiah,  and 
which  is  not  found  among  the  Hebrews,  nor  the  pseud- 
epigraphal  epistle  of  Jeremiah."  This  is  the  epistle 
forming  the  sixth  chapter  of  Baruch,  the  genuineness 
of  which  is  questioned  by  several  who  acknowledge 
that  of  the  former  part  of  the  book.  Most  modern 
writers  of  the  Roman  Church,  among  whom  are  Du 
Pin  (Canon  of  Scripture),  Calmet  (Commentary),  and 
Allber  (Ihrmeneutica  Generalis),  reckon  this  a  genuine 
epistle  of  Jeremiah's.  Jahn,  however,  after  Jerome, 
maintains  its  spurious  and  pseudepigraphal  character. 
This  he  conceives  sufficiently  attested  by  the  differ- 
ence of  style  and  its  freedom  from  Hebraisms.  He 
considers  it  to  be  an  imitation  of  the  Epistle  of  Jere- 
miah (ch.  xxix).  Grotius,  Eichhorn,  and  most  of  the 
German  writers  favor  the  idea  of  a  Greek  original. 
They  conceive  that  the  writer  was  some  unknown 
person  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Lagos,  who,  wishing  to 
confirm  in  the  true  religion  the  Jews  then  residing  in 
Egypt,  attributed  his  own  ideas  to  Baruch  the  scribe. 
There  appears,  however,  no  reason,  on  this  latter  hy- 
pothesis, why  the  author  should  speak  of  the  return  from 
Babylon.  Grotius  conceives  that  the  book  abounds  not 
only  in  Jewish,  but  even  in  Christian  interpolations 
(see  Eichhorn's  Einlcitung  in  die  Apokryph.  Sehriften). 
See  generally  (in  addition  to  the  literature  above 
referred  to),  Grilneberg,  De  Ubro  Baruchi  apocrypho 
(Gdtt.  1701))  ;  Whiston,  A  Dissertation  toprove  the  Apoc- 
ryphal Book  of  Baruch  canonical  (Lond.  1727)  ;  Bencl- 
sten,  Specimen  exercitationum  crit.  in  V.  T.  libros  apo- 
cryphos  (Gott.  1789)  ;  Movers,  in  the  Bonner  Zeitschr. 
1835,  p.  31  sq. ;  Havernick,  De  Ubro  Baruchi  commen- 
tatio  cntka  (Regiom.  1843);  Capellus,  Commentarii  et 
nota;  crit.  in  V.  T.  (Amst.  1689),  p.  564  ;  Ghisler,  Catence 
(Lugd.  1623)  :  Davidson,  in  the  new  ed.  (1856)  of 
Home's  Introduction,  ii,  1033  sq.     See  Apocrypha. 

2.  The  son  of  Col-hozeh  and  father  of  Maaseiah,  of 
the  descendants  of  Perez,  son  of  Judah  (Neh.  si,  5). 
B.C  ante  536. 

3.  The  son  of  Zabdai;  he  repaired  (B.C.  446)  that 
pirt  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  between  the  north-east 
an^le  of  Zion  and  Eliashib's  house  (Neh.  iii,  19),  and 
joined  in  Nehemiah's  covenant  (x.  6).     B.C.  410. 

Baruli,  heretics  of  the  twelfth  century  that  revived 
the  error  of  the  Origenists,  who  taught  "that  the  souls 
of  all  men  were  created  at  the  same  time  with  the  world 
itself,  and  that  they  sinned  all  together  after  the  crea- 
tion. These  heretics  seem  to  have  derived  their  name 
from  their  leader,  Barulus.— Moreri,  who  cites  Sande- 
rus,  /A'  r.  149 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  56. 

Barzel.     See  Ikon. 

Barzil'lai  (Ileb.  Barzillay',  "^"12,  of  iron,  i.  e. 
ftrong;  Sept.  Bep&AXi,  but  in  Ezra  Bepyt\\at,  Jose- 
phus  Bfp&AaToc,  Ant.  vii,  9,  8),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  A  Meholatnite,  father  of  Adriel,  which  latter  was 
the  Becond  husband  of  Michal,  Saul's  daughter  (2  Sam. 
xxi.  8).     B.C.  ante  1062. 

2.  A  wealthy  old  Gileadite  of  Rogclim,  who  distin- 
guished himself  by  Ms  loyalty  when  David  fled  be- 
yond the  Jordan  from  bis  son  Absalom,  B.C.  1023  (see 
Ewald,  /,■/-.  Gesch.  iii,  663  sq.).  He  sent  in  a  liberal 
BUpply  of  provisions,  beds,  and  other  conveniences  for 
the  us.'  of  the  king's  followers  (2  Sam.  xvii,  27).  On 
the  king's  triumphanl  return,  Barzillai  attended  him 
u  far  a-  the  .Ionian,  but  declined,  by  reason  of  Mb  ad- 
vanced age  land  probably,  also,  from  a  feeling  of  inde- 
pendence), to  proceed  to  Jerusalem  and  end  his  days 

at  court,  merely  recoi snding  (his  son)  Cbimham  as 

a  suitable  person  to  receive  the  royal  favors  (2  8am. 
xix,  32,  39).    On  his  death-bed  David  recalled  to  mind 


this  kindness,  and  commended  Barzillai's  children  to 
the  care  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  ii,  7). 

3.  A  priest  who  married  a  descendant  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  assumed  the  same  name ;  his  genealopy  in 
consequence  became  so  confused  that  his  descendants, 
on  the  return  from  the  captivity,  were  s,et  aside  as  un- 
fit for  the  priesthood  (Ezra  ii,  61).     B.C.  ante  536. 

Bas'aloth  (BauaXi/ji  v.  r.  Baa\ii3-,Vulg.  Lhasa- 
lon),  one  of  the  heads  of  "temple-servants"  whose 
"sons"  are  stated  (1  Esdr.  v,  31)  to  have  returned 
from  Babylon;  evidently  the  Bazluth  or  Bazlitii 
(q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii,  52 ;  Neh.  vii,  51). 

Basam.     See  Balm. 

Bas'cama  (>)  Barjicapa,  Joscphus  Baatca),  a  place 
in  Gilead  where  Jonathan  Maccabrcus  was  killed  by 
Trypho,  and  from  which  his  bones  were  afterward  dis- 
interred and  conveyed  to  Modin  by  his  brother  Simon 
(1  Mace,  xiii,  23 ;  Joseph.  A  nt.  xiii,  6,  6).  Schwarz 
supposes  it  to  be  the  Talmudical  Eashkar  (":»;)  or 
Basgar  (15&3)  "of  Arabia"  (Palest,  p.  236,  237>  The 
route  of  the  Syrian  murderer  is  given  with  so  much 
confusion  (see  Fritzsche,  in  loc.)  that  some  have  even 
supposed  the  Bozhath  of  Judah  to  be  meant. 

Bascom,  Henry  B.,  D.D.,  one  of  the  bishops  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in 
Hancock,  N.  Y.,  May  27,  17S6.  He  united  with  the 
Methodist  Church  in  Western  Pennsylvania  in  1811, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1813.  His  preaching 
soon  began  to  attract  attention,  and  before  many  years 
his  fame  as  a  pulpit  orator  was  widely  spread.  In 
1823  he  was  elected  chaplain  to  Congress.  In  1827  he 
was  called  to  the  presidency  of  Madison  College,  Pa., 
which  he  held  till  1829,  when  he  accepted  the  agency 
of  the  American  Colonization  Society.  In  1832  he  be- 
came Professor  of  Morals  in  Augusta  College,  and  in 
1842  President  of  Transylvania  University.  He  ed- 
ited the  Quarterly  Review  of  the  M.  E.  Church  South 
from  1846  to  May,  1850,  when  he  was  elected  bishop. 
Worn  out  with  toil,  he  died  Sept.  8, 1850.  Bishop  Bas- 
com's  course  of  labor  thus  embraced  almcst  everjT  ex- 
treme of  human  life.  In  his  early  career  he  is  said  to 
have  preached  in  one  year  400  times,  travelled  5000 
miles,  and  to  have  received  as  salary  during  that  time, 
$12  10.  At  one  period  he  was  unquestionably  the 
most  popular  pulpit  orator  in  the  United  States.  His 
sermons  seemed  invariably  delivered  memoriter,  though 
usually  long  enough  to  occupy  two  hours ;  if  he  did 
not  purposely  commit  them  to  memory,  yet  their  fre- 
quent repetition  fixed  in  his  mind  their  language  as 
well  as  their  train  of  thought.  They  were  evident- 
ly prepared  with  the  utmost  labor.  The  paragraphs 
often  seemed  to  be  separate  but  resplendent  masses  of 
thought,  written  at  intervals,  and  without  very  close 
relations.  His  published  Sermons  (Nashville,  1848-50, 
2  vols.  12mo)  give  no  just  idea  of  the  grandeur  of  his 
pulpit  orations ;  many  of  his  brilliant  passages  seem 
to  have  been  omitted  in  preparing  the  volumes  for  the 
press.  Some  of  his  other  productions,  in  which  his 
poetical  propensities  had  no  room  to  play,  show  that  if 
his  education  had  been  such  as  to  effectually  discipline 
his  imagination,  his  real  ability  would  have  been  great- 
ly enhanced.  His  most  important  writings,  besides 
those  prepared  for  the  pulpit,  are  his  "Bill  of  Rights," 
written  on  behalf  of  the  "reform"  movement  of  1828 ; 
the  "  Protest  of  the  Minority,"  in  the  memorable  Gen- 
eral Conference  of  1844;  the  "Report  on  Organiza- 
tion," at  the  formation  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South  ;  and  a  subsequent  elaborate  volume  in 
defence  of  the  Southern  Church,  entitled  "Methodism 
and  Slavery."  His  Works,  containing  Sermons  and 
Lectures,  are  collected  in  4  vols.  12mo  (Nashville,  1856). 
Sec  Henkle,  Life  of  Bascom  (Nashville,  1851,  12mo)  ; 
M<th.  Quart.  A'm\1852;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  534. 

Base  (as  a  noun)  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth. 
Vers,  of  two  Heb.  words :  1.  "j3,  ken,  the  foundation 


BASEL 


681 


BASHAN 


or  pedestal,  e.  g.  of  the  laver  (q.  v.)  in  the  temple-court  ■ 
("foot,"  Exod.  xxx,  18,  etc.);  then,  the  "base  over 
the  ledges"  (Oabfcj,  joints)  of  the  brazen  sea  (q.  v.),  in 
1  Kings  vii,  29,  apparently  explained  in  ver.  31  as  a 
"work  of  the  base"  CjSTl'OSO),  perhaps  a  ■pediment- 
like cornice  covering  the  joints ;  but  the  whole  descrip- 
tion is  exceedingly  obscure.  See  Ledge.  2.  WlSO, 
mekonah',  or  SlMSE,  mekunah',  a  foot-piece  or  stand 
upon  which  to  place  the  lavcrs  in  the  temple-service 
(1  Kings  vii,  27-43,  etc.).     See  Laver. 

Basel,  Confession  of.     Sec  Basle. 

Basel,  Council  of.     See  Basle. 

Ba'shan  (Heb.  Bashan',  "'r3,  usually  with  the 
art.,  "jUJart,  light  sandy  sail;  Samaritan  Ver.  "p3rO  J 
Targ.  "Dni3,  Psa.  lxviii,  13,  also  "jSna  ;  the  latter, 
Buxtorf  [Lex.  Talm.  col.  370]  suggests,  may  have  origi- 
nated in  the  mistake  of  a  transcriber,  yet  both  are 
found  in  Targ.  Jon.,  Deut.  xxxiii,  22;  Sept.  Baaav 
and  BcuravTrLS,  Josephus  [Ant.  ix,  8]  and  Eusebius 
[Onomast.  s.  v.]  Baravaia),  a  district  on  the  east  of 
Jordan,  the  modern  el-Bo'Aein  or  el-Beth?negeh  (Abul- 
feda,  Tab.  Syr.  p.  97).  It  is  not,  like  Argob  and  other 
districts  of  Palestine,  distinguished  by  one  designation, 
but  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  "land  of  Bashan" 
(1  Chron.  v,  11 ;  and  comp.  Num.  xxi,  33;  xxxii,  33), 
and  sometimes  as  "all  Bashan"  (Deut.  iii,  10,  13; 
Josh,  xii,  5  ;  xiii,  12,  30),  but  most  commonly  without 
any  addition.  The  word  probably  denotes  the  pecul- 
iar fertility  of  tin  soil ;  by  the  ancient  versions,  instead 
of  using  it  as  a  proper  name,  a  word  meaning  fruitful 
or  fat  is  adopted.  Thus,  in  Psa.  xxii,  13,  for  Bashan, 
we  find  in  Sept.  iriovfe,;  Aquila,  Xnrapoi ;  Symmachus, 
(Tirinroi ;  and  Vulg,  Pingues  (Psa.  lxvii,  16),  for  hill 
of  Bashan;  Sept.  opoc  tzIov  ;  Jerome  (see  Bochart, 
Hierozoicon,  pt.  i,  col.  531),  mons  pinguis.  The  rich- 
ness of  the  pasture-land  of  Bashan,  and  the  consequent 
superiority  of  its  breed  of  cattle,  are  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  Scriptures.  We  read  in  Deut.  xxii,  14,  of 
"rams  of  the  breed  (Heb.  sons)  of  Bashan."  (Rzek. 
xxxix,  18),  "Rams,  lambs,  bulls,  goats,  all  of  them 
f.itlings  of  Bashan."  The  oaks  of  Bashan  are  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  (Isa. 
ii,  13;  Zech.  xi,  2).  In  Ezekiel's  description  of  the 
wealth  and  magnificence  of  Tyre  it  is  said,  "Of  the 
oaks  of  Bashan  have  they  made  their  oars"  (xxvii, 
6).  The  ancient  commentators  on  Amos  iv,  1,  "the 
kine  of  Bashan,"  Jerome,  Theodoret,  and  Cyril,  speak 
in  the  strongest  terms  of  the  exuberant  fertility  of 
Bashan  (Bochart,  Hierozoicon,  pt.  i,  col.  306),  and 
modern  travellers  corroborate  their  assertions.  See 
Burekhardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  p.  286-288 ;  Bucking- 
ham's Travels  in  Palest,  ii,  112-117. 

The  first  notice  of  this  country  is  in  Gen.  xiv,  5. 
Chedorlaomer  and  his  confederates  "smote  the  Reph- 
aims  in  Ashtaroth  Karnaim."  Now  Og,  king  of  Ba- 
shan,  dwelt  in  Ashtaroth,  and  "was  of  the  remnant 
of  the  Rephaim"  (Auth.  Vers.  "  giants"),  Joshua  xii, 
4.  When  the  Israelites  invaded  the  Promised  Land, 
Argob,  a  province  of  Bashan,  contained  "sixty  fenced 
cities,  with  walls,  and  gates,  and  brazen  bars,  besides 
unwalled  towns  a  great  many"  (Deut.  iii,  4,  5  ;  1  Kings 
iv,  13).  All  these  were  taken  by  the  children  of  Israel 
after  their  conquest  of  the  land  of  Sihon  from  Anion  to 
Jabbok.  They  "turned"  from  their  road  over  Jordan 
and  "went  up  by  the  way  of  Bashan" — probably  very 
much  the  same  as  that  now  followed  by  the  pilgrims 
of  the  Haj  route  and  by  the  Romans  before  them — to 
Edrei,  on  the  western  edge  of  the  Lejah.  See  Edkei. 
Here  thejr  encountered  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  who 
"came  out"  probably  from  the  natural  fastnesses  of 
Argob  only  to  meet  the  entire  destruction  of  himself, 
his  sons,  and  all  his  people  (Num.  xxi,  33-85 ;  Deut. 
iii,  1-3).  Argob,  with  its  GO  strongly  fortified  cities, 
evidently  formed  a  principal  portion  of  Bashan  (Deut. 
iii,  4,  5),  though  still  only  a  portion  (ver.  13),  there 


being  besides  a  large  number  of  unwalled  towns  (ver. 
5).  Its  chief  cities  were  Ashtaroth  (i.  e.  Beeshterah, 
comp.  Josh,  xxi,  27  with  1  Chron.  vi,  71),  Edrei, 
Golan,  Salcah,  and  possibly  Mahanaim  (Josh,  xiii,  30). 
Two  of  these  cities,  viz.  Golan  and  Beeshterah,  were 
allotted  to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Gershom,  the 
former  as  a  "  city  of  refuge"  (Josh,  xxi,  27 ;  1  Chron. 
vi,  71).  The  important  district  was  bestowed  on  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  (Josh,  xiii,  29-31),  together 
with  "half  Gilead."  After  the  Manassites  had  assist- 
ed their  brethren  in  the  conquest  of  the  country  west 
of  the  Jordan,  they  went  to  their  tents  and  to  their 
cattle  in  the  possession  which  Moses  had  given  them 
in  Bashan  (xxii,  7,  8).  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
whether  the  limits  of  this  tribe  ever  extended  over  the 
|  whole  of  this  region.  See  Manasseh.  Solomon  ap- 
\  pointed  twelve  officers  to  furnish  the  monthly  supplies 
;'  for  the  ro3'al  household,  and  allotted  the  region  of  Ar- 
gob to  the  son  of  Geber  (1  Kings  iv,  13).  Toward  the 
close  of  Jehu's  reign,  Hazael  invaded  the  land  of  Israel, 
and  smote  the  whole  eastern  territory,  "even  Gilead 
and  Bashan"  (2  Kings  x,  33;  Joseph.  Ant.  ix,  8,  1); 
but  after  his  death  the  cities  he  had  taken  were  re- 
covered by  Jehoash  (Joash)  (2  Kings  xiii,  25),  who  de- 
feated the  Syrians  in  three  battles,  as  Elisha  had  pre- 
dicted (2  Kings  xiii,  19  ;  Joseph.  Ant.  ix,  8,  7).  After 
this  date,  although  the  "oaks"  of  its  forests  and  the 
wild  cattle  of  its  pastures — the  "  strong  bulls  of  Ba- 
shan"— long  retained  their  proverbial  fame  (Ezek. 
xxvii,  6 ;  Psa.  xxii,  12),  and  the  beaut}'  of  its  high 
downs  and  wide-sweeping  plains  could  not  but  strike 
now  and  then  the  heart  of  a  poet  (Amos  iv,  1 ;  Psa. 
I  lxviii,  15 ;  Jer.  1,  19 ;  Mic.  vii,  14),  yet  the  country  al- 
I  most  disappears  from  history ;  its  very  name  seems  to 
have  given  place  as  quickly  as  possible  to  one  which 
had  a  connection  with  the  story  of  the  founder  of  the 
nation  (Gen.  xxxi,  47-8),  and  therefore  more  claim  to 
use.  Even  so  early  as  the  time  of  the  conquest, 
"  Gilead"  seems  to  have  begun  to  take  the  first  place 
as  the  designation  of  the  country  beyond  the  Jordan, 
a  place  which  it  retained  afterward  to  the  exclusion  of 
Bashan  (comp.  Josh,  xxii,  9, 15,  32 ;  Judg.  xx,  1 ;  Psa. 
Ix.  7  ;  cviii,  8 ;  1  Chron.  xxvii,  21 ;  2  Kings  xv,  29). 
1  Indeed  "  Bashan"  is  most  frequently  used  as  a  mere 
accompaniment  to  the  name  of  Og,  when  his  overthrow 
is  alluded  to  in  the  national  poetry.  After  the  cap- 
tivity the  name  Batansea  was  applied  to  only  a  part 
of  the  ancient  Bashan ;  the  three  remaining  sections 
being  called  Trachonitis,  Auranitis,  and  Gaulanitis 
(Lightfoot's  Works,  x,  282).  All  these  provinces  were 
granted  by  Augustus  to  Herod  the  Great,  and  on  his 
death  Batanrea  formed  a  part  of  Philip's  tetrarchy 
(Joseph.  War,  ii,  6,  3;  Ant.  xviii,  4,  6).  At  his  de- 
[  cease,  A.D.  34,  it  was  annexed  by  Tiberius  to  the 
province  of  Syria;  but  in  A.D.  37  it  was  given  by 
Caligula  to  Herod  Agrippa,  the  son  of  Aristobulus, 
with  the  title  of  king  (Acts  xii,  1;  Joseph.  Ant.  xviii, 
6,  10).  From  the  time  of  Agrippa's  death,  in  A.D.  44, 
to  A.D.  53,  the  government  again  reverted  to  the  Ro- 
mans, but  it  was  then  restored  by  Claudius  to  Agrippa 
II  (Acts  xxv,  13;  Joseph.  Ant.  xx,  7,  1). 
j  The  ancient  limits  of  Bashan  are  very  strictly  de- 
fined. Ii  extended  from  the  "bordei  «f  Gilead"  on 
the  south  to  Mount  Hermon  on  the  north  (Deut.  iii,  3, 
10,  14;  Josh,  xii,  5;  1  Chron.  v,  23),  and  from  the 
Arabah  or  Jordan  valley  on  the  west  to  Salcah  and 
the  border  of  the  Geshurites  and  the  Maacathites  on 
the  east  (Josh,  xii,  3-5 ;  Deut.  iii,  10).  The  sacred 
writers  include  in  Bashan  that  part  of  the  country 
eastward  of  the  Jordan  which  was  given  to  half  the 
I  tribe  of  Manasseh,  situated  to  the  north  of  Gilead. 
I  Bochart  incorrectly  places  it  between  the  rivers  Jabbok 
j  and  Am  on,  and  speaks  of  it  as  the  allotment  of  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  (Num.  .xxxii,  33).  Of  the 
four  post-exilian  provinces,  Gaulanitis,  Auranitis,  Tra- 
chonitis, and  Batansea,  all  but  the  third  have  retained 
almost  perfectly  their  ancient  naires,  the  modern  Le- 


BASHAN-HAVOTH-JAIK 


685 


jah  alone  having  superseded  the  Argob  and  Traehoni- 
tia  Of  the  ( Hd  and  New  Testaments.  The  province  of 
Jaulan  is  the  most  western  of  the  four;  it  abuts  on  the 
Sea  of  <  iaUlee  and  the  Lake  of  Merom,  from  the  former 
of  which  it  rises  to  a  plateau  nearly  3000  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  This  plateau,  though  now  al- 
most wholly  uncultivated,  is  of  a  rich  soil,  and  its 
north-west  portion  rises  into  a  range  of  hills  almost 
everywhere  clothed  with  oak  forests  (Porter,  ii,  259). 
No  less  than  127  ruined  villages  are  scattered  over  its 
surface.  See  Golan.  The  Hauran  is  to  the  south- 
east of  the  last  named  province  and  south  of  the  Lejah; 
like  Jaulan,  its  surface  is  perfectly  flat,  and  its  soil 
esteemed  among  the  most  fertile  in  Syria.  It  too  con- 
tains an  immense  number  of  ruined  towns,  and  also 
many  inhabited  villages.  See  Haukan.  The  con- 
trast which  the  rocky  intricacies  of  the  Lejah  present 
to  the  rich  and  flat  plains  of  the  Hauran  and  the  Jaulan 
has  already  been  noticed.  See  Argob.  The  remain- 
ing district,  though  no  doubt  much  smaller  in  extent 
than  the  ancient  Bashan,  still  retains  its  name,  modi- 
tied  by  a  change  frequent  in  the  Oriental  languages. 
Ard  d-Balamyeh  lies  on  the  east  of  the  Lejah  and  the 
north  of  the  range  of  Jebel  Hauran  or  ed-Druze  (Porter, 
ii,  57).  It  is  a  mountainous  district  of  the  most  pic- 
turesque character,  abounding  with  forests  of  ever- 
green oak,  and  with  soil  extremely  rich ;  the  surface 
studded  with  towns  of  very  remote  antiquity,  deserted, 
it  is  true,  but  yet  standing  almost  as  perfect  as  the  Any 
they  were  built.  For  the  boundaries  and  characteris- 
tics of  these  provinces,  and  the  most  complete  re- 
searches yet  published  into  this  interesting  portion  of 
Palestine,  see  Porter's  Damascus,  vol.  ii ;  comp.  Schwarz, 
Potest,  p.  219;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit  Jan.  1852,  p.  263,  S64; 
July,  1854,  p.  282  sq.  ;  Porter,  Giant  Cities  (Lond. 
1865).— Kitto,  s.  v.  ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

Ba'shan-ha'votli- Ja'ir  (Heb.  hab-Bashan'  Chav- 
v  -'//  Yalr',  1^  nin  ",r?v?.  the  Bashan  of  the  vil- 
I  tffes  of  Jair;  Sept.  llatrav  AuibS  [v.  r.  8«i/w3]  'Imp), 
leral  name  imposed  by  Jair,  the  son  of  Manas- 
seh,  upon  the  region  of  Argob  (q.  v.),  conquered  by 
him  in  Bashan  (Deut.  iii,  14),  containing  sixty  cities, 
with  walls  and  brazen  gates  (Josh.  xiii,30;  1  Kings 
iv.  13).  It  is  elsewhere  (Num.  xxii,  41)  called  simply 
IIavotii-Jaik  (q.  v.). 

Bash'emath  (Heb.  Basmntk',  ^"?:-"3,  elsewhere 
more  correctly  Anglicized  "Basmatb,"  q.v.),  the  name 
Of  two  ('■males. 

1.  A  daughter  of  Ishmael,  the  last  married  (B.C. 
L92G)  of  the  three  wives  of  Esau  (Gen.xxxvi,  3,4,13), 
from  whose  son,  Reuel,  four  tribes  of  the  Edomites 
were  descended.  When  first  mentioned  she  is  called 
M  ilul.ith  (Gen.  xxviii,  9);  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  name  1! a  hemath  is  in  the  narrative  (Gen.  xxvi, 
34  )  given  to  another  of  Esau's  wives,  the  daughter  of 
Elon  the  Hittite.  It  is  remarkable  that  all  Esau's 
wives  receive  different  names  in  the  genealogical  table 
<>f  tb-  Edomites  (Gen.  xxxvi)  from  those  by  which 
they  have  been  previously  mentioned  in  the  history. 
Thus: 


UINI     i 

(G«n.  >■ 

1.    A'lnll.  ilalC'llti-I-  nt    |.|,,n. 

•J.   thollbaraab,  d.  of  Anah. 
i  ith,  d.  ><(  Ishmael 


(On.  „V|,  :;4,   xxviii,!)  ) 

2.  Bashemath,  d,  of  lilon. 

1.  Judith,  d.  of  Beeri. 

:;.  Mahalath,d.  of  Ishmael. 
Whatever  be  the  explanation  of  this  diversity  of 
lere  i^  every  reason  for  supposing  that  they 
i  ma  respectivelv,  and  we  may 
well  conclude  with  Hengstenberg  that  the  change  of 
all  the  nam  ;s  cannol  have  arisen  from  accident;  and, 
farther,  that  the  names  in  the  genealogical  table' 
whi.h  is  ea  entially  an  Edomitish  document, are  those 
which  these  women  respectively  bore  as  the  wives  of 
I  .n  (Hengstenberg,  Autk.  <1.  Pent,  ii,  277;  English 
transl.  ii.  22G).  This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  fact 
thai  the  Seirite  wife, who  is  called  Judith  in  the  nar- 
rative, appears  in  the  genealogical  account  under  the 


BASIL 

name  of  Aholibamah  (q.  v.),  a  name  which  appears  to 
have  belonged  to  a  district  of  Idumrea  (Gen.  xxxvi, 
41).  The  only  ground  for  hesitation  or  suspicion  of 
error  in  the  text  is  the  occurrence  of  this  name  Bashe- 
math  both  in  the  narrative  and  the  genealogy,  though 
applied  to  different  persons.  The  Samaritan  text  seeks 
to  remove  this  difficult}'  by  reading  Mahalath  instead 
of  Bashemath  in  the  genealogy.  We  might  with 
more  probability  suppose  that  this  name  (Bashemath) 
has  been  assigned  to  the  wrong  person  in  one  or  other 
of  the  passages  ;  but  if  so,  it  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine which  is  erroneous. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Esau. 

2.  A  daughter  of  Solomon  and  wife  of  one  of  his  of- 
ficers (1  Kings  iv,  15,  A.  V.  "Basjiatii"). 

Bashmuric  Version.   See  Egyptian  Versions. 

Basier.     See  Basire. 

Basil  (from  BamXtloc,  Basilius),  St.,  "the  Great," 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Greek  fathers,  was  born 
about  the  end  of  the  year  328,  probably  at  Neocsesarea. 
He  began  h;s  studies  at  Csesarea,  in  Palestine,  whence 
he  proceeded  to  Constantinople  to  hear  the  famous 
Libanius,  and  thence  to  Athens,  where  he  contracted 
an  intimate  friendship  with  Gregory  Nazianzen.  About 
355  he  returned  to  his  own  country,  but  soon  after  left 
his  home  again  and  travelled  into  Libya,  visiting  the 
famous  monasteries  of  those  countries.  Upon  his  re* 
turn  he  was  first  made  reader  in  the  church  of  Cajsarea, 
and  afterward  ordained  deacon.  But  about  the  year 
358  he  retired  into  a  solitude  of  Pontus,  where  he  built 
a  monastery  near  that  of  his  sister  Macrina  (q.  v.),  and 
with  his  brothers,  Peter  and  Naucratius,  and  several 
others,  he  followed  an  ascetic  life,  and,  drawing  up  a 
rule  for  his  community,  became  the  founder  of  the 
monastic  life  in  those  regions.  In  3G4  (or  362)  he  was 
ordained  priest  by  Eusebius,  and  in  309  or  370,  on  the 
death  of  Eusebius,  was  elected  bishop  of  Ca;sarea,  after 
great  opposition,  which  was  finally  overcome  only  by 
the  personal  efforts  of  the  aged  Gregory  of  Nazianzus. 
But  the  emperor  Valens  soon  began  to  persecute  him  be- 
cause he  refused  to  embrace  the  doctrine  of  the  Arians, 
of  which  he  and  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  were  strenuous 
opponents.  The  death  of  Valens's  son  gave  freedom 
of  action  to  Basil,  who  devoted  his  efforts  to  bring 
about  a  reunion  between  the  Eastern  and  "Western 
churches,  which  had  been  divided  upon  points  of  faith, 
and  in  regard  to  Meletius  and  Paulinus,  two  bishops 
of  Antioch.  The  Western  churches  acknowledged 
Paulinus  for  the  legal  bishop  ;  Meletius  was  supported 
by  the  Eastern  churches.  But  all  his  efforts  were  in- 
effectual, this  dispute  not  being  terminated  till  nine 
months  after  his  death.  Basil  was  also  engaged  in 
some  contests  relating  to  the  division  which  the  em- 
peror had  made  of  Oappadocia  into  two  provinces. 
Eustathius,  bishop  of  Sebaste,  had  been  a  friend  of  Ba- 
sil, and  had  planted  monasticism  in  Asia,  a  pursuit  in 
which  Basil  fully  sympathized ;  but  Eustathius  openly 
embraced  Arianism,  and  Basil  in  373  broke  with  him 
and  wrote  against  him.  He  also  wrote  against  Apol- 
linaris;  in  fact,  he  took  a  part  in  most  of  the  contro- 
versies of  his  age.  He  died  Jan.  1,  379,  with  these 
words  on  his  lips:  "0  Lord,  into  thy  hands  I  com- 
mend my  spirit."  Basil  was  a  man  of  great  piety, 
profound  learning,  and  great  eloquence.  During  the 
Arian  controversy  he  was  an  unflinching  champion  of 
the  orthodox  doctrine.  At  first,  through  fear  of  Sa- 
bellianism,  he  preferred  the  homuiimsian  formula;  but 
in  the  strifes  which  followed,  he  was  brought  to  clear- 
er apprehension  of  the  question,  and  acknowledged  the 
Nicene  Creed,  which  he  ever  afterward  steadfastly 
maintained.  For  a  statement  of  his  view  of  the  Trin- 
ity, see  1  torner,  /)  tctrine  «f  the  Pi  rson  of  Christ,  Edinb. 
ed.,  Div.  I,  vol.  ii.  p.  305  sq.  See  also  Arianism,  The 
(ireek  Church  honors  him  as  one  of  its  most  illustrious 
saints,  and  celebrates  his  festival  January  1st.  The 
works  of  Basil  were  first  published,  with  a  preface  of 
Erasmus,  at  Basle,  15:J2  ;  a  better  edition,  with  Latin 


BASIL 


6S3 


BASIL 


translation  and  notes,  was  published  l>y  the  Jesuits 
Fronton  la  Due  and  Morel  (Paris,  1G18,  2  vols,  fol., 
and  again  1G38,  3  vols.  fol.).  Valuable  contributions 
to  a  more  correct  edition  were  made  by  the  Dominican 
Combefis,  in  his  work  Basilius  Magnus,  ex  integro  re- 
cens'tus  (Paris,  1G79,  2  vols.  8vo).  The  most  complete 
edition  was  prepared  by  the  Benedictine  Gamier  (Par- 
is, 1721-1730,  3  vols,  folio),  reprinted  in  the  excellent 
Paris  edition  of  1839  (G  vols,  royal  8vo).  The  contents 
of  the  Benedictine  edition  (1721-30,  3  vols.)  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Tom.  i :  (1.)  Homilia}  in  llexaemeron  novem; 
(2.)  Homiliaj  in  quosdam  Psalmos,  viz. :  1,  7, 14  (part), 
23,  29,  32,  33,  44,  45,  48,  59,  CI,  104;  (3.)  Libri  adver- 
sus  Eunomium  5.  Appendix,  complectens  Opera  quas- 
dam  Basilio  falso  adscripts,  quibus  Opus  Eunomii  ad- 
jungitur.  Tom.  ii:  (1.)  Homilise  de  Diversis  24;  (2.) 
Ascetica,  viz. :  (i.)  Prasvia  Institutio  ascetica;  (ii.) 
Sermo  asceticus  de  Renunciatione  Saeculi,  etc. ;  (iii.) 
Sermo  de  ascetica  Disciplina,  etc. ;  (iv.)  Prooemium 
de  Judicio  Dei ;  (v.)  Sermo  de  Fide  ;  (vi.)  Index  Mo- 
ralium  ;  (vii.)  Initium  Moralium  ;  (viii.  and  ix.)  Sermo 
asceticus ;  (x.)  Prooemium  in  Regulas  fusius  tracta- 
tas;  (xi.)  Capita  Regularum  fusius  tractatarum  ;  (xii.) 
Regulas  fusius  tractate ;  (xiii.)  Pcenaj  in  Monachos 
delinquentes ;  (xiv.)  Epitimia  in  Canonicas;  (xv.) 
Capita  Constitutionum ;  (xvi.)  Constitutiones  Monas- 
tica? ;  (xvii.)  Homilia  de  Spiritu  S.  ;  (xviii.)  Homilia 
in  aliquot  Scrip.  Locis,  dicta  in  Lazicis  ;  (xix.)  Ho- 
milia in  Sanctam  Christi  Generationem  ;  (xx.)  Ho- 
milia de  Pcenitentia;  (xxi.)  Homilia  in  Calumniato- 
res  S.  Trinitatis ;  (xxii.)  Sermo  de  Libero  Arbitrio ; 
(xxiii.)  Homilia  in  illud,  "Ne  dederis  somnum  oculis 
tuis,"  etc.;  (xxiv.)  Homilia  3  de  Jejunio;  (xxv.) 
Sermo  asceticus;  (xxvi.)  Liber  1  de  Baptismo;  (xxvii.) 
Liber  2  de  Baptismo  ;  (xxviii.)  Liturgia  S.  Basilii 
Alexandrina;  (xxix.)  Liturgia  S.  Basilii  Coptica ; 
(xxx.)  Tractatus  de  Consolatione  in  Ad  rersis  ;  (xxxi.) 
De  Laude  solitariaj  Vitas ;  (xxxii.)  Adn.onitio  ad  Fili- 
um  Spiritualem ;  (3.)  Homilia?  [8]  S.  Basilii  quas 
transtulit  Ruffinus  e  Graeeo  in  Latinum ;  (4.)  Notaj  Fron- 
tonis  Ducrei ;  (5.)  Xota?  ct  Animad.  F.  Morclli.  T(  m. 
iii :  (1.)  Liber  de  Spiritu  Sancto  (Erasmus  was  the  first 
to  dispute  the  authenticity  of  this  book,  which  is  un- 
doubtedly tiie  work  of  St.  Basil. — See  Casaubon,  Ex- 
ercit.  xvi,  cap.  43.  —  Cave  ;  Dupin)  ;  (2.)  S.  Basilii 
Epistola?,  distributed  chronologically  into  three  class- 
es—  Class  1,  containing  those  which  were  written 
from  357  to  370,  i.  e.  before  his  episcopate,  to  which 
are  added  some  of  doubtful  date  ;  Class  2,  from  370  to 
378 ;  Class  3,  Epistles  without  date,  doubtful  and  spu- 
rious. Appendix  :  Sermones  24  de  Moribus,  per  Sym- 
eonen  Magistrum  et  Logothetam,  selecti  ex  omnibus 
S.  Basilii  operibus  ;  De  Virginitate  liber.  A.  Jahn 
published,  as  a  supplement  to  this  edition,  Animadver- 
siones  in  Basilii  M.  Opera  Fascic.  I  (Bern.  1842).  The 
best  selection  from  his  works,  containing  all,  indeed, 
that  ordinary  theological  students  need,  is  that  of 
Leipzic,  1854,  forming  the  second  volume  of  Thilo's 
Bibliotheca  Patrum  Grcecorum  Dogmatica.  His  writ- 
ings are  divided  into,  (1.)  polemical,  (2.)  liturgical, 
(3.)  exegetical,  (4.)  ascetic.  Among  his  polemical 
books,  that  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  five  books 
against  the  Eunomians,  are  the  most  important.  His 
liturgical  writings  are  of  great  value,  and  some  of  his 
services  are  still,  in  abridged  forms,  in  use  in  the 
Greek  Church.  Both  by  his  example  and  his  writings 
he  was  the  substantial  founder  of  monasticism  in  the 
East,  so  that  it  is  common,  though  erroneous,  to  call 
all  Oriental  monks  Basilians  (q.  v.).  A.  Jahn,  in  the 
treatise  Basilius  Ploiimzans  (1831),  tried  to  show  that 
Basil  had  largely  copied  from  Plotinus.  Ilis  Liturgia 
Alexandrina  Grasca  is  given  in  Renaudot,  Lit.  Orient. 
Collectw,  vol.  i.  For  a  list  of  his  genuine  writings,  as 
well  as  of  those  thought  to  be  spurious,  see  Cave,  Hist. 
Lit.  anno  370;  Lardner,  Works,  iv.  278.  See  also 
Feiffer,  Dissert,  de  Vita  Basilii  (Groning.  1828,  8vo) ; 
Bobringer,  Kirchcngeschichte  in  Biograj.hkn,  i,  2, 153 ; 


Dupin,  Eecl.  Writers,  cent,  iv;  Hermantius,  Vie  de  St. 
Basile  le  Grand  (Paris,  1574,  2  vols.  4to);  Klose,  Ba- 
silius der  Grosse  (Strals.  18;;5,  8vo) ;  Fialon,  Etude  hist, 
et  liter,  sur  St.  Basile  (Paris,  18GG);  Palmer,  Origans 
Liturgica,  i,  4(i;  Villemain,  Eloqumce  au  IV"*  Steele, 
p.  114  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  G2. 

Basil  or  Basilius,  some  time   a  phj'sieian,  was 
ordained  bishop  of  Ancyra  by  the  bishops  of  the  Euse- 
bian  party  in  the  room  of  Marcellus,  whom  they  had 
deposed  ;  but  Basil  was  himself  excommunicated,  and 
his  ordination  annulled,  in  the  council  of  Sardica  in 
I  347,  though  he  still  retained  the  see.     He  was  an  op- 
j  ponent  of  the  Arians,  but  was  still  considered  as  the 
'  head  of  the  Semi-Arians.    This  opinion  Basil  procured 
to  be  established  by  a  council  held  at  Ancyra  in  the 
year  358,  and  subsequently  defended  it  both  at  Selcu- 
cia  and   Constantinople  against  the  Eudoxians  and 
Acacians,  by  whom  he  was  deposed  in  3G0.     Jerome 
1  (De  Viris  Must.  89)  informs  us  that  Basil  wrote  a  book 
!  against  Marcellus,  his  predecessor,  a  treatise  De  Vir- 
\  ginitate,  and  some  other  smaller  pieces,  of  which  no 
remains  are  extant.     Basil  is  warmly  commended  by 
Theodoret  for  his  exemplary  life,  which  was  probably 
the  secret  of  his  influence  with  the  emperor  Constan- 
,  tius ;  and  Sozomen  speaks  of  him  as  celebrated  for 
learning  and  eloquence.      See  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno 
!  347;    Dupin,  Eecl.  Writers,  cent,  iv  ;  Theodoret,  Hist. 
i  Eccles.  ii,  27 ;  Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccles.  bk.  ii ;  Socrates, 
'<  Hist.  Eccles.  bk.  ii ;  Lardner,  Works,  iii,  589. 
!      Basil,  bishop  of  Seleucia  in  Isauria  (not  to  be  con- 
!  founded  with  the  Basil  who  was  the  intimate  friend 
!  of  Chrysostom).     At  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in 
448,  he  gave  his  vote  for  the  condemnation  of  Euty- 
!  ches ;  but  in  the  following  year,  at  the  robber-council 
of  Ephesus,  through  fear  of  the  threats  and  violence 
of  Dioscorus,  or  from  actual  weakness  and  fickleness 
of  judgment,  he  took  precisely  the  opposite  ground, 
and  anathematized  the  doctrine  of  two  natures  in  Je- 
sus Christ.     In  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  451,  Basil, 
together  with  the  other  leaders  in  the  assembly  at 
Ephesus,  was  deposed,  but  in  the  fourth  session  of  the 
council  he  was  restored  to  his   dignity.     He  wrote 
Forty-three  Bonn/its;  seventeen  on  the  Old,  and  twen- 
ty-six en  the  New  Testament  (Dupin  reckons  only 
forty).     These  were  published  in  Greek  at  Heidelberg 
(1596,  8vo)  ;  Greek  and  Latin,  with  notes,  by  Dausque 
(Heidelb.  1G04,  8vo),  together  with  the  Oratio  in  Trans- 
figurationem  Domini,  in  Greek  and  Latin.     The  fol- 
lowing are  supposed  to  be  spurious :  1.  A  Demonstra- 
tion of  the  Coming  of  Christ,  against  the  Jews,  in  Latin, 
ed.  by  Turrianus  (Ingolstadt,  1G1G,  4to);  Greek,  in  the 
Heidelberg  edition   of  the  Homilies  (159G).      This  is 
clearly,  from  its  style,  not  the  work  of  Basil,  and  is 
not  found  in   any  MS.  of  his  writings.     2.  Life  and 
Miracles  of  St.  Thecla,  virgin  and  martyr,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Caveare,  is  evidently  the  work  of  some 
Greek  monk  of  a  late  age,  edited  by  Pantinus,  Ant- 
werp (1608,  Gr.  and  Lat.).     All  the  above  were  pub- 
lished in  Greek  and  Latin  (Paris,  1622,  fol.),  with  the 
works  of  Gregory  Thauniaturgus.    See  Cave,  Hist.  Lit. 
anno  448;  Dupin,  Eccl.  Writers,  cent,  v,  p.  28 ;  Landon, 
Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Basil  or  Basilius,  chief  of  the  Bogomiles  of  the 
twelfth  centur}-.  This  sect  took  its  rise  in  Bulgaria. 
Though  it  is  likely  that  their  enemies  laid  false  charges 
against  them,  it  is  clear  that  the}-  held  many  corrupt 
I  ideas  and  practices.  From  their  habit  of  incessant 
praying  they  derived  the  name  of  Bogomili,  which  in 
the  Sclavonic  language  means  "God  have  mercy  upon 
us."  In  their  notions  they  resembled  the  Manichseans 
and  Paulicians,  which  last  sect  arose  about  the  same 
time.  They  denied  the  Trinity  ;  held  that  the  body  of 
Jesus  was  a  phantom,  and  that  Michael  the  archangel 
was  incarnate.  They  opposed  the  worship  of  the  Vir- 
gin, of  the  saints,  and  of  images.  They  affected  an 
appearance  of  extreme  sanctity,  and  wore  the  monkish 


BASIL 


684 


BASILIAN  MANUSCRIPT 


dress.  Basilius  was  a  physician,  and  had  twelve  prin-  | 
cipal  followers,  whom  he  designated  his  apostles,  and 
also  some  women,  who  went  about  spreading  the  poison 
of  his  doctrine  everywhere.  When  before  the  council 
called  by  the  patriarch  John  IX  in  1118  to  examine 
Into  the  matter,  Basilius  refused  to  deny  his  doctrine, 
and  declared  that  he  was  willing  to  endure  any  tor- 
ment, and  death  itself.  One  peculiar  notion  of  this 
sect  was  that  no  torment  could  affect  them,  and  that 
the  angels  would  deliver  them  even  from  the  fire._  Ba- 
silius himself  was  condemned  in  the  above-mentioned 
council,  and  burnt  in  this  year.  Several  of  his  follow- 
ers, when  seized,  retracted ;  others,  among  whom  were 
some  of  those  whom  he  called  his  apostles,  were  kept 
in  prison,  and  died  there.  Several  councils  were  held 
upon  this  subject.  See  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  555  sq. ; 
Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  67.     See  Bogomiles. 

Basil  (St.),  Liturgy  of,  one  of  the  three  litur- 
gies used  in  the  Greek  Church,  the  other  two  being 
those  of  St.  Gregory  and  St.  Chrysostom.  They  are 
read  at  distinct  seasons  of  the  year ;  that  of  Basil  be- 
ing read  on  the  five  Sundays  of  the  Great  Lent,  on  the 
Thursdays  and  Saturdays  of  the  Holy  Week,  on  the 
eves  of  Christmas  and  the  Epiphany,  and  on  the  first 
day  of  the  year.— Palmer,  Orig.  Liturg.  i,  46  sq.  See 
Basil;  Liturgies. 


Basilean  Manuscript  (Codex  Basilensis), 
the  name  of  two  important  MSS.  of  the  Greek  Test, 
now  in  the  public  library  of  Basle.  See  Manuscripts 
(Biblical). 

1.  An  uncial  cop}'  of  the  Four  Gospels,  with  a  few 
hiatus  (Luke  iii,  4-15  ;  xxiv,  47-53,  being  wanting  ; 
while  Luke  i,  60— ii,  4 ;  xii,  58-xiii,  12 ;  xv,  5-20,  are 
by  a  later  hand),  usually  designated  as  E  of  the  Gos- 
pels (technically  K,  iv,  35;  formerly  B,  vi,  21).  It  is 
written  in  round  full  letters,  with  accents  and  breath- 
ings, one  column  only  on  the  page,  with  the  Ammoni- 
an  sections  ;  but,  instead  of  the  Eusebian  canons,  there 
is  a  kind  of  harmony  of  the  Gospels  noted  at  the  foot  of 
each  page  by  a  reference  to  the  parallel  sections  in  the 
other  evangelists.  This  MS.  appears  to  belong  to  the 
eighth  century,  and  the  additions  of  a  subsequent  hand 
seem  to  indicate  that  they  were  made  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. It  appears  that  it  Was  formerly  used  as  a  church 
MS.  at  Constantinople,  and  it  may  be  considered  to  be 
one  of  the  best  specimens  of  what  has  been  called  the 
Constantinopolitan  class  of  texts.  It  was  presented 
to  a  monastery  in  Basle  by  Cardinal  de  Ragusio  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  Wetstein  collated  this  MS., 
and  this  was  also  done  (independently)  by  Tischen- 
dorf,  Miiller  of  Basle,  and  Tregelles.  It  has  never 
been  published  in  full.— Tregelles,  in  Home's  Introd., 
new  ed.  iv,  200  ;  Scrivener,  Introduction,  p.  103  sq. 


A 


3JB 


f[5AMMATG!C,TO  T\U>  CAN  6AW 
C  0  H  A^  ^5*  N  ,  6  Y  O  E>  O  y  NTWfAp 

TDSiA^ON  G1CHA06  K  A,SC4f 


Specimen  of  the  uncial  L'usle  Manuscript  (Luke  xxii,  2,  3  :  Kai  t£i;Toi'v  ol  up; 


Kuothpa* 


2.  A  cursive  MS.  of  the  entire  N.  T.  except  the 
Apocalypse,  numbered  1  of  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and 
Epistles  (technically  designated  as  K,  iii,  3 ;  formerly 
B,  vi,  27).  It  was  known  to  Erasmus,  who,  however, 
used  it  but  little,  although  his  associates  thought  high- 
ly of  it.  It  was  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Reuchlin,  who  borrowed  it  from  the  Dominican 
monks  at  Basle :  the  latter  received  it  from  Cardinal 
de  Ragusio.  Wetstein  was  the  first  who  thoroughly 
examined  it ;  he  used  it  with  great  commendation  at 
first,  but  afterward  disparaged  it.  The  reason  for 
these  discordant  opinions  is  doubtless  to  be  found  in 
the  character  of  the  MS.  itself,  which  differs  greatly 


Basilian  Manuscript  (Codex  Basiliaxus),  an 
uncial  copy  of  the  whole  Apocalypse  (of  which  it  is 
usually  designated  as  B),  found  among  ancient  hom- 
ilies of  Basil  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  valuable  from 
the  scarcity  of  early  MSS.  of  the  Revelation.  It  de- 
rives its  name  from  having  formerly  belonged  to  the 
Basilian  monaster}'  at  Rome  (then  designated  as  No. 
105),  but  it  is  now  deposited  in  the  Vatican  library 
(where  it  is  known  as  2066).  It  was  first  known  from 
a  notice  and  fac-simile  by  Blanchini  (Evangelariarum 
Quadruplex,  1748,  ii,  525).  Wetstein  requested  a  col- 
lation of  it  from  Cardinal  Quirini,  but  the  extracts  sent 
came  too  late  for  publication  in  his  N.  T.,  and  proved 


in  the  several  portions.  The  Acts  and  Epistles  con-  J  very  loose  and  defective.  When  Tischendorf  was  at 
tain  a  text  <>f  no  great  importance ;  but  the  text  of  the  j  Rome  in  1843,  although  forbidden  to  collate  it  anew, 
Gospels  (now  bound  at  the  end  of  the  vol.)  is  very  re-  i  he  was  permitted  to  make  a  few  extracts,  and  im- 
markable,  adhering  pretty  closely  to  the  oldest  class  j  proved  the  privilege  so  well  as  to  compare  the  whole 
of  uncials.  The  lasl  has  recently  been  collated  (in-  text  with  a  Greek  Test.  He  published  the  result  in 
dep  ndentlj  |  by  Tregelles  and  Dr.  Koth.  There  are  '  his  Monumenta  Sacra  Inedita  (1846,  p.  407-432),  which 
88  lines  in  each  page,  elegantly  and  minutely  written,  Tregelles,  who  was  allowed  to  make  a  partial  exami- 
witli  breathings,  accents,  and  iota  subscript*,  and  a  few  j  nation  of  the  codex  in  1845,  has  since  somewhat  cor- 
illuminations.  It.  has,  apparently  on  good  grounds,  j  rected.  Card.  Mai  has  published  it,  in  order  to  supply 
been  assigned  to  the  tenth  century.  Codex  118  of  the  j  the  text  of  the  Apocrypha  in  his  edition  of  the  Cod. 
Bodleian  Library  seems  to  be  a  copy  from  it. — Trc-  '  Vatieanus,  but  the  work  is  very  imperfectly  done.  In 
gelles,  ni  sup.  p.  Jos  Bq. .  Scrivener,  p.  142.  |  form  this  MS.  is  rather  an  octavo  than  a  folio  or  quar- 

to.    The  letters  are  of  a  peculiar  kind, 

die  place  between  the  square  and  the  ob- 
Iong  character.  Several  of  them  indi- 
cate that  they  belong  to  the  latest  uncial 
fashion.  The  breathings  and  accents 
are  by  the  first  hand,  and  pretty  correct. 
It  probably  belongs  to  the  beginning  of 
the  8th  century. — Tregelles,  in  Home's 


6-,oo  iroA-^-u-oo|y.X<lA)f  flxr 

-arp(^M^^GpcD//'our^pf'T-uC)0/'TU"-Ta0>(S  p 
S]i  ■<  i mi ti  of  tiie  cursive  i; 


lie  Manuscript  (Matt.  w.  1,  ! 

" "  '.  ■  '  u \iyov 

ipaiocw  twi  |  7rpccr/3t.Tfpa)i/  ' 


BASILTANS 


685 


BASILICA 


_nt  Habit  of  the  Nuns  of  St. 
Basil. 


Introd.,  new  ed.  iv,  20G  sq. ;  Scrivener,  Introduction,  p. 
140  sq.     See  Manuscripts,  Biblical. 

Basilians,  monks  and  nuns  following  the  rule  of 
St.  Basil  the  Great,  first  published  A.D.  363.  The  or- 
der spread  with  so  great  rapidity  that  it  is  said  to  have 
numbered  at  the  death  of  the  founder  about  90,000 
members.  In  the  West  it  established  convents  in 
Spain,  Italy,  Germany, 
and  Sarmatia,  and  the 
Basilian  rule,  up  to  the 
time  of  St.  Benedict, 
was  the  basis  of  all  mo- 
nastic institutions.  Af- 
ter the  separation  cf  the 
Greek  Church  from  the 
Roman,  the  Basilian  or- 
der remained  the  only 
one  in  the  Greek  church- 
es of  Russia  (where 
there  are  about  400  mon- 
asteries of  monks  with 
about  G000  monks,  and 
about  110  monasteries 
of  nuns  with  some  3000 
nuns),  Austria  (which 
in  1849  had  44  monas- 
teries of  monks  with  271 
members,  but  no  nuns), 
and  Greece,  and  in  the 
Armenian  Church.  In 
Turkey,  where  especial- 
ly the  monastic  estab- 
lishments of  Mt.  Athos  A 
(q.  v.)  are  celebrated, 
all  the  convents  of  the 

Greek  Church  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  on  Mts.  Sinai  and  Lebanon. 

In  the  Roman  Church,  the  monks  of  St.  Basil,  for- 
merly constituting  several  independent  communities, 
were  placed  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII,  in  1579,  under  an 
abbot-general.  They  were  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  Borne,  Calabria,  Sicily.  Spain,  Germany,  and  Po- 
land, and  followed  partly  the  Greek,  partlj'  the  Roman 
rite.  A  congregation  of  Reformed  Basilians  (Tardon- 
ites)  was  established  by  Mutteo  de  la  Fuente  in  Spain 
in  1557,  and  joined  by  a  part  of  the  Spanish  convents. 
In  Germany  and  Spain  they  disappeared  with  the  other 
convents.  In  Russia,  large  numbers  of  Basilians,  to- 
gether with  the  whole  body  of  United  Greeks,  sepa- 
rated from  the  Roman  Church  in  11-39.  At  present 
only  a  few  convents  of  Basilians  acknowledge  the  ju- 
risdiction of  the  pope.  They  arc  divided  into  four  con- 
gregations: (1.)  the  Ruthenian,  in  Russia,  Poland,  and 
Hungary,  with  24  houses;  (2.)  the  Italian,  the  princi- 
pal convent  of  which  is  that  of  St.  Saviour  at  Messina, 
in  Sicily,  which  still  preserves  the  Greek  rite ;  (3.) 
the  French,  which  has  its  principal  house  at  Viviers  ; 
(4.)  the  MelcMte,  in  the  United  Greek  Church  of  Asia 
Minor,  which  held,  a  few  years  ago,  a  general  chapter, 
under  the  presidency  of  the  popal  delegate  in  Syria. 
According  to  the  historians  of  the  order,  it  has  pro- 
duced 14  popes,  numerous  patriarchs,  cardinals,  and 
archbishops,  1805  bishops,  and  11,805  martyrs;  One 
house  of  Basilians  is  at  Toronto,  Canada.  Altogether 
there  arc  about  fifty  houses  with  10C0  members.  See 
Helyot,  Ordrcs  Reliyieux,  i,  379  sq. 

Basilica  (from  aroa  /3«ctiXi;>-/;,  one  of  the  porches 
or  colonnades  facing  the  Agora  at  Athens),  the  name 
of  an  ancient  secular  building,  afterward  applied  to 
Christian  church  edifices.  On  the  overthrow  of  the 
kings  at  Athens,  their  power  was  divided  among  sev- 
eral arclions.  The  remains  of  the  old  power  were, 
however,  too  strong  to  be  swept  all  away,  and  the 
charge  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  of  the  flower-feasts 
of  Bacchus,  of  all  legal  processes  concerning  matters 
of  religion,  and  of  all  capital  offences,  was  referred  to 
the  apx<*>v  fiacriXcvg  (comp.  with  rex  sacrorum  in  the 


republic  of  Rome).  This  archon  held  his  court  in  the 
sioa  basilica.  Basilicas  for  similar  purposes  were  built 
in  all  the  chief  cities  of  Greece  and  her  colonies,  and 
later  in  Rome  and  the  Roman  colonial  cities.  They 
were  built  with  as  great  splendor  and  architectural 
merits  as  the  temples  themselves.  Those  in  Italy 
were  devoted  to  purposes  of  business  (like  our  modern 
bourses  or  exchanges),  and  to  general  legal  processes. 
They  had  a  central  nave,  separated  from  two  side 
aisles  by  grand  colonnades.  This  space  was  devoted 
to  business.  Above  the  side  aisles  were  galleries  for 
spectators  and  others.  At  the  rear  end  was  a  semi- 
circular space,  separated  from  the  main  part  by  grat- 
ings when  court  was  held.  In  Rome  there  were  29 
(others  say  22)  of  these  basilicas. 


Ground-plan  of  Basilica  of  St.  Paul,  Rome. 

When  Christianity  took  possession  of  the  Roman 
empire,  these  basilicas  were  taken  as  models  for  church 
edifices.  The  pagan  temples  were  built  for  residences 
of  the  deities,  not  for  holding  large  bodies  of  people  ; 
and  also,  being  given  to  unholy  purposes,  could  not  be 
used  or  copied  in  Christian  churches.  The  basilicas, 
on  the  other  hand,  had  been  polluted  by  no  heathen 
rites,  and  corresponded  with  the  traditional  synagogue 
in  much  of  their  interior  construction.  Some  of  the 
basilicas  were  given  to  the  Church,  and  devoted  to  sa- 
cred purposes;  and  the  same  plan  of  building  was  fol- 
lowed in  new  church  edifices.  The  plan  included  a 
broad  central  nave  with  a  pointed  roof  (instead  of  the 
arched  roof  of  the  classic  Roman  basilica  or  the  cpen 
nave  of  the  Grecian),  and  on  each  side  were  one  or 
tvo  side  aisles,  covered  by  a  single  roof.  In  the 
semicircular  apsis,  opposite  the  entrance,  the  seats  of 
the  judges  were  appropriated  by  the  bishops.  In  front 
of  this,  and  under  the  round  arched  tribune,  was  the 
high  altar  over  the  crypt  (q.  v.).  Beyond  this  were 
two  pulpits,  one  on  each  side  of  the  nave,  for  reading 
the  Scriptures  and  preaching.  The  pillars  in  the. 
colonnades  separating  the  aisles  were  joined  by  round 
arches  instead  of  beams,  as  in  the  Roman  basilicas. 
During  the  lasilican  period  (A.D.  300  to  A.D.  700-800) 
no  towers  or  spires  were  built.  In  Rome  the  oldest 
basilicas  are  those  of  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul,  St.  John  Lat- 
eran,  St.  Clement,  Sta.  Maria  in  Trastevere,  and  St. 
Lawrence.  Others,  as  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  Sta.  Ag- 
nes, Sta.  Croce  in  Jerusalem,  were  built  after  the  true 
basilican  period,  as  were  also  the  present  edifices  of 
St.  Peter,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  John  Lateran.  St.  Cle- 
ment, and  SS.  Nereo  and  Achilleo,  preserve  most  dis- 
tinctly the  features  of  the  original  basilica.     Out  of 


BASILIDES 


686 


BASIN 


Rome,  the  best  preserved  ancient  basilicas  are  those 
of  St.  Apollinari  in  Classe  (near  Ravenna),  and  of  St. 
Apollinari  in  Ravenna,  Basilican  churches  were  built 
extensively  in  Asia  Minor,  other  parts  of  Italy,  and 
South  France,  and  in  these  last  two  this  style  has 
ever  exercised  almost  a  controlling  influence  on  eccle- 
siastical  architecture.  It  gave  also  the  general  ground- 
plan  and  many  other  elements  to  the  succeeding  Ro- 
manesque, and  even  to  the  contemporary  Byzantine 
Btvles.  In  the  same  general  style  are  the  churches 
of  St.  Boniface  (Roman  Catholic)  in  Munich,  and  of 
St.  Jacob  (Protestant)  in  Berlin,  both  built  within  the 
last  twenty  years.  There  is  no  prospect,  however, 
that  the  style  will  ever  be  generally  adopted  in  the 
erection  of  modern  churches.  Sec  Zestermann,  De  An- 
tic, ei  Christ.  Basilicis  (Brussels,  18-17);  Bunsen,  Die 
Christlichen  Basiliken  Roms  (Munich,  1843) ;  Kugler, 
Geschichii  <1  r  Baukunst  (Stuttgardt,  1859);  Ferguson, 
Dictionary  of  Architecture ;  Bingham,  Orlg.  Eccles.bk. 
viii,  eh.  i,  §  5.  See  also  Architecture;  Church 
Edii  tCES. 

Basilides,  the  chief  of  the  Egyptian  Gnostics  in 
the  second  century.  The  place  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known ;  some  call  him  a  Syrian,  others  a  Persian, 
others  an  Egyptian.  According  to  Clemens  Alex. 
{stmm.  vii,  17)  lie  appeared  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian ; 
li.ironius  and  Pearson  suppose  him  to  have  begun  his 
h  sresy  in  the  latter  part  of  the  first  century.  The 
probable  date  of  his  deatli  is  A.D.  125-130.  He  pub- 
lished  a  book  which  he  called  "the  Gospel,"  and  wrote 
also  24  hooks  exegetieal  of  the  Gospel,  but  whether  it 
was  a  comment  upon  his  own  "Gospel"  or  upon  the 
four  evangelists  is  uncertain.  He  left  a  son,  Isidorus, 
who  defended  his  opinions.  Fragments  of  both  Ba- 
silides and  Isidorus  are  given  in  Grabe,  Spkileg. 
saec.  ii,  p.  37,  G4.  (Burton,  Ecclcs.  Hist.  Lect.  xv; 
Burton,  Bampton  Lectures,  note  13.)  Our  knowledge 
of  Basilides  is  chiefly  derived  from  Irenseus  (Adv. 
II" r.  i,  24),  Epiphanius  (liar,  xxiv),  and  the  newly- 
discovered  Philiinphonmena  (bk.  vii)  of  Hippolytus 
(q.  v.).  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.  iv,  7)  speaks  of  a  refu- 
tation of  Basilides  by  Agrippa  Castor. 

He  taught  that  the  supreme  God,  perfect  in  wisdom 
and  goodness,  the  un begotten  and  nameless  Father, 
produced  from  his  own  substance  seven  ceons  of  a  most 
excellent  nature.  According  to  Irenajus  (Adv.  Hcer. 
i,  24),  from  the  Belf-existent  Father  was  born  NoCc, 
Intelligence;  from  Nous,  Adyor,  the  Word;  from  Lngos, 
.  Prud  snee;  from  Phronesis,  ~2.o<pia  and  Av- 
vafUQ,  Wisdom  and  Power;  from  Dunamis  and  Sophia, 
Powers,  Principalities,  and  Angels,  by  whom  the  first 
heaven  was  made ;  from  these  sprung  other  angels 
and  other  heavens  to  the  number  of  three  hundred 
and  sixty-five  of  each,  whence  are  so  man}'  days  in 
the  3  ■  ir.  The  angels  which  uphold  the  lower  heaven 
made  all  things  in  this  world,  and  then  divided  it 

a g  themselves;  the  chief  of  which  is  the  God  of 

the  Jews,  who  wished  to  bring  other  nations  into  sub- 
.i  i  tion  to  lli^  people, but  was  opposed.  The  self-ex- 
I  ther,  seeing  their  danger,  sent  his  first-begot- 
ten Nous,  the  Christ,  for  the  salvation  of  such  as  be- 
lieved  in  Him  :  1 1 < -  appeared  on  earth  as  a  man,  and 
wroughl  miracles,bu1  He  did  not  suffer.  The  man 
uffered,bu1  not  in  any  vicarious  sense;  the 
divine  justice  will  not  allow  one  being  to  Buffer  for 
another.  It  se  ims,  therefore,  thai  the  modern  ration- 
alistic views  as  to  the  espial  ion  of  Christ  arc  derived, 
""'  from  ih"  apostles, but  from  the  Gnostics.  (See 
Shedd,  Uistory  of  Dot  trines,  ii,  205. )  [renajus  charges 
Basilides  with  holding  that  Simon  ofCyrene  was  com- 
pelled to  bear  Christ's  cross,  and  was  crucified  for 
Him.;  that  be  ■  i  into  the  likeness  of  Je- 

*"-■  and  Jesus  took  the  form  of  Simon,  a. id  looked  on, 
laughing  at  the  folly  and  ignorance  of  the  Jews ;  after 
which  lie  ascended  into  heaven.  But  it  is  not  certain, 
or  even  likely,  thai  the  charge  is  well-founded.  Ba- 
silides farther  taught  thai  men  ought  not  to  confess 


to  him  who  was  actually  crucified,  but  to  Jesus,  who 
was  sent  to  destroy  the  works  of  the  makers  of  this 
world.  The  soul  only  was  to  be  saved,  not  the  body. 
The  prophecies  are  from  the  makers  of  the  world  ; 
the  law  was  given  by  the  chief  of  them,  who  brought 
the  people  out  of  Egypt.  It  is  said  that  the  fol- 
lowers of  Basilides  partook  of  things  offered  to  idols 
without  scruple,  and  all  kinds  of  lewdness  were  es- 
teemed indifferent,  and  that  they  practiced  magic  and 
incantations. 

One  of  the  most  marked  features  of  the  system  of 
Basilides  was  his  distribution  of  the  local  positions  of 
the  three  hundred  and  sixty -five  heavens,  according  to 
the  theories  of  mathematicians,  the  prince  of  which  is 
called  Abraxas,  a  name  having  in  it  the  number  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five.     See  Abraxas, 

The  system  has  been  thus  briefly  stated:  "Basili- 
des placed  at  the  head  of  his  system  an  incomprehen- 
sible God,  whom  he  called  non-existent  (oi'K  wv),  and 
the  ineffable  (appi)Toc),  the  attributes  of  whom  he 
made  living  personified  powers,  unfolded  from  his  per- 
fection ;  as  the  Spii-it,  Reason,  Thought,  Wisdom,  and 
Fccer,  who  were  the  executors  of  his  wisdom.  To 
these  he  added  the  moral  attributes,  showing  the  activ- 
ity of  the  Deity's  almighty  power,  namely,  Holiness 
and  Peace.  The  number  seven  was  a  holy  number 
with  Basilides ;  besides  these  seven  powers,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  seven  daj's  of  the  week,  he  supposed 
seven  similar  beings  in  every  stage  of  the  spiritual 
world,  and  that  there  were,  like  the  days  of  the  year, 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  such  stages  or  regions, 
which  were  represented  by  the  mystical  number  A  bi-ax- 
as,  the  symbol  of  his  sect.  From  this  emanation- 
world  sprung  the  divine  principles  of  Light ,  Life,  Soul, 
and  Go  d  but  there  was  an  empire  of  evil,  which  as- 
saulted the  divine  principles,  and  forced  a  union  of  un- 
divine  principles  opposed  to  each,  namely,  Darkness  to 
Light,  Death  to  Life,  Matter  to  Soul,  Evil  to  Good. 
The  Divine  Principle,  to  obtain  its  original  splendor, 
must  undergo  a  process  of  purification  before  it  can  ef- 
fect its  reunion  with  its  original  source ;  hence  arose  a 
kind 'of  metempsychosis,  in  which  the  soul  passed 
through  various  human  bodies,  and  even  through  an- 
imals, according  to  its  desert,  and  this  by  way  of  pun- 
ishment, Basilides  also  supposed  the  passage  of  the 
soul  through  various  living  creatures,  in  order  to  a 
gradual  development  of  spiritual  life.  The  Creator  of 
the  world  he  supposed  to  be-  an  angel  acting  as  an  in- 
strument under  the  supreme  God  ;  and  to  redeem  hu- 
man nature,  and  to  make  it  fit  for  communion  with 
Himself  and  the  higher  world  of  spirits,  He  sent  down 
the  highest  yEon  (Nous)  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  work 
of  redemption,  who  united  himself  to  the  man  Jesus  at 
his  baptism  in  Jordan;  but  the  Nous  did  not  suffer, 
only  the  man  Jesus."  The  sect  flourished  for  a  long 
time,  and  did  not  become  extinct  till  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  newly-discovered  MS.  of  Hippolytus  (q.  v.) 
gives  quite  a  thorough  account  of  the  doctrines  of  Ba- 
silides, which  is  set  forth  by  Jacobi,  in  Badlidis  Philos. 
GnosUci,  etc.  (Berlin,  1852),  and  Uhlhorn,  Das  Basili- 
dianiscke  System  (Gotting.  1855).  See  also  Neander, 
Genet.  EnUi-ichehmrj  d.  vorn.  Gncstisclun  Si/st.  (Berl. 
1818);  Ch.  Hist,  i,  413  sq ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  i,  143; 
Comm.  i,  41G-424  ;  Lardner,  Works,  viii,  349  sq. ;  Mat- 
ter, Llist.  du  (iiiosticisme.  ii,  G3 ;  Schaff,  Ch.  Llist.  i,  227- 
237;  Hase,  Church  History,  p.  694;  Dorner,  Person  of 
Christ,  Per.  I,  Epoch  1 ;  Gieseler,  in  Stud.  u.  Kr'U.  1830, 
p.  403.     Sec  Gnosticism. 

Basilisk.     See  Cockatrice. 

Basin  (in  the  old  editions  "bason").  The  follow- 
ing words  in  the  original  are  thus  rendered  in  the 
English  version  of  the  Bible.  See  also  Cur;  Bowl; 
Dish,  etc. 

1.  "5X,  aggan',  prop,  a  trough  for  washing,  a  laver 
(Exod.  xxiv,  6);  rendered  "goblet"  in  Cant,  vii,  2, 
where  its  shape  is   compared  to  the  human   navel  ; 


BASIRE 


687 


BASKET 


"cup"  in  Isa.  xxii,  24.     In  the  New  Test.  (John  xiii, 
5),  vmri)p,  a  ewer  (q.  v.). 

2.  "1123,  kephor',  from  the  etymology,  a  covered  dish 
or  urn,  spoken  of  the  golden  and  silver  vessels  of  the 
sanctuary  (1  Chron.  xxviii,  17;  Ezra  i,  10;  viii,  27). 

3.  p^?1?,  mizrak',  a  vase  from  which  to  sprinkle 
any  thing ;  usually  of  the  sacrificial  bowls  (and  so  oc- 
casionally translated);  twice  of  wine-goblets  ("bowl," 
Amos  vi,  6 ;  Zech.  ix,  15).  It  seems  to  denote  a  me- 
tallic vessel.  The  basins  for  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle were  of  brass  (Exod.  xxvii,  3),  but  those  of  the 
Temple  were  of  gold  (2  Chron.  iv,  8). 

4.  The  term  of  the  most  general  signification  is  "0, 
siph  (of  uncertain  etymology;  the  Sept.  renders  vari- 
ously), spoken  of  the  utensils  for  holding  the  blood  of 
victims  ("bason,"  Exod.  xii,  22;  Jer.lii,  10;  "bowl," 
2  Kings  xii,  13),  and  the  oil  for  the  sacred  candlestick 
("bowl,"  1  Kings  vii,  50);  also  of  "basons"  for  do- 
mestic purposes  (2  Sam.  xvii,  28),  and  specially  a 
drinking-"  cup"  (Zech.  xii,  2).  The  Targum  of  Jona- 
than renders  it  by  ?SD,  an  earthenware  v:tse,  but  in 
some  of  the  above  passages  it  could  not  have  been  of 
this  material. 

(n.)  Between  the  various  vessels  bearing  in  the 
Auth.  Vers,  the  names  of  basin,  bowl,  charger,  cup, 
and  dish,  it  is  scarcely  possible  now  to  ascertain  the 
precise  distinction,  as  very  few,  if  any,  remains  arc 
known  up  to  the  present  time,  to  exist  of  Jewish  earth- 
en or  metal  ware,  and  as  the  same  words  are  various- 
ly rendered  in  different  places.  We  can  only  conjec- 
ture their  form  and  material  from  the  analogy  of  an- 
cient Egyptian  or  Assyrian  specimens  of  works  of  the 
same  kind,  and  from  modern  Oriental  vessels  for  culi- 
nary or  domestic  purposes.  Among  the  smaller  ves- 
sels for  the  tabernacle  or  temple  service,  many  must 
have  been  required  to  receive  from  the  sacrificial  vic- 
tims the  blood  to  be  sprinkled  for  purification.  Moses, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  great  ceremony  of  purification 
in  the  wilderness,  put  half  the  blood  in  "the  basins," 
rOJXri,  or  bowls,  and  afterward  sprinkled  it  on  the 
people  (Exod.  xxiv,  6,  8  ;  xxxix,  21 ;  Lev.  i,  5  ;  ii,  15  ; 
iii,  2,  8,  13;  iv,  5,  34;  viii,  23,  24;  xiv,  14,25;  xvi,  15, 
19;  Heb.  ix,  19).  Among  the  vessels  cast  in  metal, 
Avhether  gold,  silver,  or  brass,  by  Hiram  for  Solomon, 
besides  the  laver  and  great  sea,  mention  is  made  of 
basins,  bowls,  and  cups.  Of  the  first  (D"1p"it'3,  marg. 
bowls)  he  is  said  to  have  made  100  (2  Chron.  iv,  8 ;  1 
Kings  vii,  45,  46;  comp.  Exod.  xxv,  29,  and  1  Chron. 
xxviii,  14,  17).  Josephus,  probablv  with  great  exag- 
geration, reckons  of  (jiuiXai  and  airovSela  20,000  in 
gold  and  40,000  in  silver,  besides  an  equal  number  in 
each  metal  of  tcparfjpEC,  for  the  offerings  of  flour  mixed 
with  oil  (Ant.  viii,  3,  7  and  8;  comp.  Birch,  Hist,  of 
Pottery,  i,  152). — Smith,  a.  v. 

(6.)  The  "basin"  from  which  our  Lord  washed  the 
disciples'  feet,  vnrri)i),  was  probably  deeper  and  larger 
than  the  hand-basin  fur  sprinkling,  "l^D  (Jer.  Iii,  18), 
which,  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  "caldrons,"  Vulg.  lebetes,  is 
by  the  Syr.  rendered  basins  for  washing  the  feet  (John 
xiii,  5).     See  Washing  (of  Feet  and  Hands). 

Basire,  Isaac,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine, 
was  born  in  the  island  of  Jersey  in  1607,  and  educated 
at  Cambridge.  He  was  made  prebendary  of  Durham 
1643,  archdeacon  of  Northumberland  1644.  When  the 
rebellion  broke  out  he  sided  with  the  king,  but  was  af- 
terward obliged  to  quit  England,  and  he  then  travelled 
to  the  Levant,  etc.,  to  recommend  the  doctrine  and 
constitution  of  the  English  Church  to  the  Greeks.  In 
the  Morea  he  twice  preached  in  Greek,  at  an  assembly 
of  the  bishops  and  clergy,  at  the  request  of  the  metro- 
politan of  Achaia.  He  made  acquaintance  with  the 
patriarch  of  Antioch,  visited  Jerusalem,  where  he  was 
respectfully  received  by  the  Latin  and  Greek  clergy, 
and  was  allowed  to  visit  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sep- 


ulchre in  the  character  of  a  priest.  On  his  return  he 
was  honored  with  a  chair  of  divinity  in  Transylvania, 
and  on  reaching  England  was  restored  to  his  prefer- 
ments. He  died  in  October,  1676.  His  principal  works 
are,  1.  Deo  et  Ecclesi  e  Sacrum,  or  Sacrilege  arraigned 
and  condemned  by  St.  Paul,  Rom.  ii,  22  (Lond.  1668, 
8vo)  : — 2.  Di  ttribu  de  Antiqua  Ecclesias  Britannicce  Lib- 
ertute: — -3.  The  ancient  Liberty  of  the  Britannic  Church 
(Lond.  1661,  8vo).  A  memoir  of  Basire,  with  his  cor- 
respondence, by  Dr.  Darnell,  was  published  in  1831 
(Lond.  8vo). — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  7.'!. 

Basket,  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the 
following  words : 

1.  Sal,  PO  (Sept.  usually  icixptvoc.  or  airunic,  as  in 
the  N.  T.),  the  most  general  term,  so  called  from  the 
twigs  of  which  it  was  originally  made;  specially  used, 
as  the  Greek  icavovv  (Horn.  Od.  iii,  442)  and  the  Latin 
caristrum  (Virg.  sEn.  i,  701),  for  holding  bread  (Gen. 
xl,  16  sq. ;  Exod.  xxix,  3,  23 ;  Lev.  viii,  2,  26,  31 ; 
Num.  vi,  15, 17, 19).  The  form  of  the  Egyptian  bread- 
basket is  delineated  in  Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egypt,  iii, 
226,  after  the  specimens  represented  in  the  tomb  of 
Barneses  III.  These  were  made  of  gold  (comp.  Horn. 
Od.  x,  355),  and  we  must  assume  that  the  term  sal 


Auciiut  Egyptian  Bread-baskets  of  Uuld. 

passed  from  its  strict  etymological  meaning  to  any 
vessel  applied  to  the  purpose.  In  Judg.  vi,  19,  meat 
is  served  up  in  a  sal,  which  could  hardly  have  been  of 
wicker-work.  The  expression  "  white  baskets,"  ^O 
I'lH  (Gen.  xl,  16),  is  sometimes  referred  to  the  mate- 
rial of  which  the  baskets  were  made  (Svmmachus, 
Kava.  fSaiva),  or  the  white  color  of  the  peeled  sticks, 
or  lastly  to  their  being  "  full  of  holes"  (A.  V.  margin), 
i.  e.  open-work  baskets.  The  name  Sallai  (Neh.  xi,  8 ; 
xii,  20)  seems  to  indicate  that  the  manufacture  of 
baskets  was  a  recognised  trade  among  the  Hebrews. 

2.  Salsilloth',  P'irsbs,  a  word  of  kindred  origin, 
applied  to  the  basket  used  in  gathering  grapes  (Jer. 
vi,  9). 


Ancient  Egyptian  Grape-baskets. 


3.  Te'ne,  X'12,  in  which  the  first-fruits  of  the  har- 
vest were  presented  (Deut.  xxvi,  2,  4).  From  its 
being  coupled  with  the  kneading-bowl  (A.  V.  "  store  ;" 
Dent,  xxviii,  5,  17),  we  may  infer  that  it  was  also 
used  for  household  purposes,  perhaps  to  bring  the  corn 
to  the  mill.  The  equivalent  term  in  the  Sept.  for  this 
and  the  preceding  Hebrew  words  is  KapraXXoQ,  which 
specifically  means  a  basket  that  tapers  downward 
(ko^ivoq  6E,i)Q  ra  kutio,  Suid.),  similar  to  the  Roman 
corbis.  This  shape  of  basket  appears  to  have  been  fa- 
miliar to  the  Egyptians  (Wilkinson,  ii,  401). 

4.  Kelub',  3^3,  so  called  from  its  similarity  to  a 
bird-ca2;e  or  trap  QcdpraXXog  is  used  in  the  latter  sense 
in  Ecclus.  xi,  30),  probably  in  regard  to  its  having  a 
lid.      From  the  etymology,  this  appears  to  have  been 


BASKET 


688 


BASLE 


an  interwoven  basket,  made  of  leaves  or  rushes.  In 
Jer.  v,  27,  however,  it  is  used  for  a  bird-cage,  which 
must  have  been  of  open  work,  and  probably  not  un- 
like our  own  wicker  bird-cages.  The  name  is  applied 
to  fruit-baskets  (Amos  viii,  1,  2,  where  the  Sept.  gives 
ayyur;  Symni.  more  correctly  Krt\a.Sw\Vulg.  uncinus), 
Egyptian  examples  of  which  are  presented  in  figs.  2 
ami  4  (which  contain  pomegranates)  of  the  annexed 
cut. 


m 


ui 


5g£3mu-_3i 


Various  l-'orms  of  Ancient  Kiryptiat  L'askets 
Monuments. 


the 


5.  Dun,  1W,  or  duday',  ^ftf,  used  like  the  Greek 
KaXadoc  (so  the  Sept.)  for  carrying  figs  (Jer.  xxiv,  1, 
2),  as  well  as  on  a  larger  scale  for  carrying  clay  to  the 
brick-yard  (Psa.  lxxxi,  G;  Sept.  koQivoc,  Auih.  Vers. 
pots),  or  for  holding  bulky  articles  (2  Kings  x,  7; 
Sept.  K-('ii)-aWoc) ;  the  shape  of  this  basket  and  the 
mode  of  carrying  it  usual  among  the  brickmakers  in 
Egypt  is  delineated  in  Wilkinson,  ii,  t'9,  and  aptly  il- 
lustrates Psa.  lxxxi,  G.  See  Brick.  In  fact,  very 
heavy  burdens  were  thus  carried  in  Egypt,  as  corn  in 
very  large  baskets  from  the  field  to  the  threshin^- 
floor,  and  from  the  threshing-door  to  the  granaries. 
They  wire  carried  between  two  men  by  a  pole  resting 
on  the  shoulders.  See  Agriculture.  In  1  Sam.  ii, 
II:  2  Chron.  xxxv,  10;  Job  xli,  20,  however,  the 
same  word  evidently  means  pots  for  boiling,  and  is 
translated  accordingly. 

In  most  places  where  the  word  basket  occurs,  we 
are  doubtless  to  understand  one  made  of  rushes,  simi- 
lar both  in  form  and  material  to  those  used  by  carpen- 
ter >  for  carrying  their  tools.  This  is  still  the  common 
kind  of  basket  throughout  Western  Asia;  and  its  use 
in  ancient  Egypt  is  shown  by  an  actual  specimen 
Which  was  found  in  a  tomb  at  Thebes,  and  which  is 
now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  carpen- 
ket,  ami  contained  his  tools  (tig.  1  above). 
Son fthe  Egyptian  baskets  are  worked  ornament- 
ally with  .dors  (figs.  :;,  5,  above;  also  the  modern 
examples,  figs.  2,  7,  below).  And  besides  these  the 
monuments  exhibit  a  large  variety  of  hand-baskets 
of  different  shapes,  and  0  extensively  employed  as  to 
:  bow  the  numerous  applications  of  basket-work  in  the 
remote  times  to  which  these  representations  extend. 
They  ure  mostly  manufactured,  the  stronger  and  larger 

sorts  of  the  tibres.  and   the   liner  of  the  leaves  of  the 

palm-tree,  ami  not  infrequently  of  rushes,  but  men' 

Of  reeils.       Kiit.,  -.  \  .  :    Smith,  S.  V. 


Modern  Oriental  Uaskets. 

In  the  N.  T.  baskets  are  described  under  the  three 
following  terms,  kuQiiwc,  eTrvpic,  and  ffapyavr/.  The 
last  occurs  only  in  2  Cor.  xi,  S3,  in  describing  Paul's 
escape  from  Damascus :  the  word  properly  refers  to 
any  thing  twisted  like  a  rope  (/Esck.  Svppl.  791),  or 
any  article  woven  of  rope  (irkkyjia  n  Ik  (T\oi)iov, 
Suid.);  fish -baskets  specially  were  so  made  (c'nro 
<r\oii'iov  TrXeyfidriov  etc  vtto$ox>)v  i\0vwr,  Etym. 
Mag.).  It  was  evidently  one  of  the  larger  and  strong- 
er description  (Hackett's  J /lustra,  of  Script,  p.  69). 
With  regard  to  the  two  former  words,  it  ma)-  be  re- 
marked that  KuifHvoi;  is  exclusively  used  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  miracle  of  feeding  the  five  thousand  (Matt. 


Mark 


48;  Luke  ix,  17;  John  vi, 


13),  and  oTrvpuj  in  that  of  the  four  thousand  (Matt. 
xv,  87  ;  Mark  viii,  8),  the  distinction  is  most  definitely 
brought  out  in  Mark  viii,  19,  20.  The  a-vpic  is  also 
mentioned  as  the  means  of  Paul's  escape  (Acts  ix,  25). 
The  difference  between  these  two  kinds  of  baskets  is 
not  very  apparent.  Their  construction  appears  to 
have  been  the  same;  for  ko^ivoq  is  explained  by  Sui- 
das  as  a  "  woven  vessel''  (ayytTov  TrXncTiiv),  while' 
(TTTvpuj  is  generally  connected  with  sowing  (rnrtli  a). 
The  (nrvpic  (Vulg.  sporta)  seems  to  have  been  most 
appropriatelj-  used  of  the  provision-basket,  the  Roman 
sporlula.  Ilesychius  explains  it  as  the  "grain-basket" 
(to  tCuv  TtvpCov  uyyoc,  compare  also  the  expression 
hlnvov  ti-u  GirvpifoQ,  Athen.  viii,  17).  The  kcQivoq 
seems  to  have  been  generally  larger  (Etym.  Mag. 
j3a6v  Kai  Kotkov  ^wpijjua);  since,  as  used  by  the  Ro- 
mans (Colum.  xi,  8,  p.  4G0),  it  contained  manure 
enough  to  make  a  portable  hot-bed  (sec  .Smith's  Diet, 
of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Cophinus)  ;  in  Rome  itself  it  was 
constantly  carried  about  by  the  Jews  (quorum  ccphinns 
fanumquc  svpellex,  Juv.  Sat.  iii,  14;  vi,  5421.  Gros- 
well  (Diss,  viii,  pt.  4)  surmises  that  the  use  of  the 
cophinus  was  to  sleep  in,  but  there  is  little  to  support 
this.  Baskets  probably  formed  a  necessary  article  of 
furniture  to  the  Jews,  who,  when  travelling  either 
among  the  Gentiles  or  the  Samaritans,  were  accus- 
tomed to  carry  their  provisions  witli  them  in  baskets, 
in  order  to  avoid  defilement. — Smith,  s.  v. 

Basle  (Basiled),  the  capital  ofa  canton  of  the  same 
name  in  Switzerland,  with  a  university.  In  1505  the 
people  of  Basic  entered  into  the  Swiss  alliance,  and, 
having  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  the  Reformation, 
drove  out  John  Philip,  their  bishop,  from  which  time  the 
Roman  bishops  of  Basle  made  Porentrui  their  residence, 
and  the  chapter  was  at  Freiburg,  in  Breisgau.  At 
present  the  bishops  of  Basle  have  their  residence  at 
Solothurn.  The  cathedral  church  contains  the  tomb 
of  Erasmus.  The  University  was  founded  in  1459  by 
Pope  Pius  II,  and  has  a  line  library.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  active  and  prosperous  Protestant  Missionary  Soci- 
ety. See  Missions.  The  bishop  was  a  prince  of  the 
German  empire.  Sec  Switzerland. — Landon,  Eccl. 
Diet.  s.  v. 

BASLE,  CONFESSION  OF,  a  Calvinistic  confes- 
sion adopted  by  the  Protestants  of  Basle  in  1581.  CEco- 
lampadius,  a  short  time  before  his  death,  introduced  a 


BASLE 


689 


BASLE 


short  confession  of  faith  in  a  speech  he  delivered  at  the 
opening  of  the  synod  of  Basle  in  Sept.  1531.  This 
short  confession  became  the  basis  of  the  Confession  of 
Basle,  which  latter  was  prepared,  probably  by  Myco- 
nius  (q.  v.),  between  1532  and  1534.  It  was  officially 
promulgated  Jan.  21st,  1534,  and  shortly  after  sent  to 
Strasburg  to  refute  some  objections  of  the  theologians 
of  that  place  on  the  articles  concerning  the  Eucharist 
(Letter  of  Myconius  to  Bullinger,  Oct.  14th,  1534).  The 
title  of  the  oldest  edition,  probably  printed  in  1534, 
reads,  Bekannthnus  misers  heyligen  christlichen  gloubens, 
■une  er  die  Kylch  zu  Basel  hnldt.  It  is  accompanied  by 
commentaries  in  Latin,  which  had  their  origin  proba- 
bly in  the  different  changes  the  Confession  underwent 
before  its  final  adoption  and  publication.  These  com- 
mentaries are  omitted  in  the  editions  after  1547.  Af- 
ter the  official  adoption  of  the  Confession,  an  order  was 
issued  to  all  citizens  to  assemble  in  the  corporations, 
and  to  declare  whether  they  were  prepared  to  accept 
and  uphold  this  Confession  by  all  means  in  their  power. 
Afterward  it  became  a  practice  in  the  city  to  have  the 
Confession  read  every  year  in  the  corporations  on  the 
Wednesday  of  Holy  Week.  Miilhausen  adopted  the 
same  Confession,  from  whence  it  also  received  the  name 
of  Confessio  MiiMhusana  (in  the  same  manner  as  the 
first  Helvetic  Confession  [q.  v.]  received,  on  account 
of  its  having  been  prepared  at  Basle,  the  name  of  sec- 
ond Confession  of  Basle).  It  is  also  found  in  Augusti, 
Corpus  Libror.  Symbolicor.  Reform  at  or  nm,  p.  103  sq. ; 
Hagenbach,  Kiitische  Gesch.  d.  Entstehung  u.  d.  Sehick- 
sale  d.  ersten  Basler  Confession  (Basel,  1827). 

BASLE,  COUNCIL'OF,  called  by  Pope  Martin  V, 
and  continued  by  Eugenius  IV.  It  was  opened  on  the 
23d  of  July,  1431,  by  Cardinal  Julian,  and  closed  on 
the  16th  of  May,  1413,  forty-five  sessions  in  all  having 
been  held,  of  which  the  first  twenty-five  are  acknowl- 
edged by  the  Gallican  Church.  The  Ultramontanes 
reject  it  altogether,  but  on  grounds  utterly  untenable. 
The  council,  in  its  thirtieth  session,  declared  that  "a 
general  council  is  superior  to  a  pope  ;"  and  in  1437  Eu- 
genius transferred  its  sessions  to  Ferrara  (q.  v.).  The 
council  refused  to  obey,  and  continued  its  sessions  at 
Basle.  The  principal  objects  for  which  the  council  was 
called  were  the  reformation  of  the  Church  and  the  re- 
union of  the  Greek  with  the  Roman  Church.  Man}' 
of  its  resolutions  were  admirable  both  in  spirit  and 
form  ;  and,  had  the  council  been  allowed  to  continue  its 
sessions,  and  had  the  pope  sanctioned  its  proceedings, 
there  would  have  ensued  a  great  and  salutary  change 
in  the  Roman  Church.  But  the  power  of  the  papacy 
was  at  stake,  and  the  reform  was  suppressed.  Its 
most  important  acts  were  as  follows.  In  the  first  ses- 
sion (Dec.  7,  1431),  the  decree  of  the  council  of  Con- 
stance concerning  the  celebration  of  a  general  council 
after  five  and  after  seven  years,  was  read,  together 
with  the  bull  of  Martin  V  convoking  the  council,  in 
which  he  named  Julian  president;  also  the  letter  of 
Eugene  IV  to  the  latter  upon  the  subject;  afterward 
the  six  objects  proposed  in  assembling  the  council  were 
enumerated  :  1,  The  extirpation  of  hcres}r ;  2,  the  re- 
union of  all  Christian  persons  with  the  Catholic  Church  ; 
3,  to  afford  instruction  in  the  true  faith  ;  4,  to  appease 
the  wars  between  Christian  princes ;  5,  to  reform  the 
Church  in  its  head  and  in  its  members  ;  6,  to  re-estab- 
lish, as  far  as  possible,  the  ancient  discipline  of  the 
Church.  It  soon  appeared  that  Pope  Eugene  was  de- 
termined to  break  up  the  council,  which  took  vigorous 
measures  of  defence.  In  the  second  session  (Feb.  15, 
1432)  it  was  declared  that  the  synod,  being  assembled 
in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  representing  the 
Church  militant,  derives  its  power  directly  from  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  that  all  persons,  of  whatever 
rank  or  dignity,  not  excepting  the  Roman  pontiff  him- 
self, are  bound  to  obey  it ;  and  that  any  person,  of 
whatsoever  rank  or  condition,  not  excepting  the  pope, 
who  shall  refuse  to  obey  the  laws  and  decrees  of  this 
or  of  any  other  general  council,  shall  be  put  to  penance 
Xx 


and  punished."  In  the  third  session  (April  29,  1432), 
Pope  Eugene  was  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
council  within  three  months.  In  August  the  pope 
sent  legates  to  vindicate  his  authority  over  the  coun- 
cil ;  and  in  the  eighth  session  (Dec.  18)  it  was  agreed 
that  the  pope  should  be  proceeded  against  canonically, 
in  order  to  declare  him  contumacious,  and  to  visit  him 
with  the  canonical  penalty ;  two  months'  delay,  how- 
ever, being  granted  him  within  which  to  revoke  his 
bull  for  the  dissolution  of  the  council.  On  the  16th  of 
Jan.  1433,  deputies  arrived  from  the  Bohemians  demand- 
ing (1)  liberty  to  administer  the  Eucharist  in  both  kinds ; 
(2)  that  all  mortal  sin,  and  especially  open  sin,  should 
be  repressed,  corrected,  and  punished,  according  to 
God's  law  ;  (3)  that  the  Word  of  God  should  be  preach- 
ed faithfully  by  the  bishops,  and  by  such  deacons  as 
were  fit  for  it;  (4)  that  the  clergy  should  not  possess 
authority  in  temporal  matters.  It  was  afterward 
agreed  that  the  clergy  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  should 
be  allowed  to  give  the  cup  to  the  laity  ;  but  no  recon- 
ciliation was  made.  In  April,  1433,  Eugene  signified 
his  willingness  to  send  legates  to  the  council  to  preside 
in  his  name,  but  the  council  refused  his  conditions. 
In  the  12th  sesdon  (July  14,  1433),  the  pope,  by  a  de- 
cree, was  required  to  renounce  within  sixty  days  his 
design  of  transferring  the  council  from  Basle,  upon 
pain  of  being  pronounced  contumacious.  In  return, 
Eugene,  irritated  by  these  proceedings,  issued  a  bull, 
annulling  all  the  decrees  of  the  council  against  himself. 
Later  in  autumn,  the  pope,  in  fear  of  the  council,  sup- 
ported as  it  was  by  the  emperor  and  by  France,  agreed 
to  an  accommodation.  He  chose  four  cardinals  to  pre- 
side with  Julian  at  the  council;  he  revoked  all  the 
bulls  which  he  had  issued  for  its  dissolution,  and  pub- 
lished one  according  to  the  form  sent  him  by  the  coun- 
cil [session  xiv].  It  was  to  the  effect  that,  although 
he  had  broken  up  the  Council  of  Basle  lawfully  assem- 
bled, nevertheless,  in  order  to  appease  the  disorders 
which  had  arisen,  he  declared  the  council  to  have  been 
lawfully  continued  from  its  commencement,  and  that 
it  would  be  so  to  the  end ;  that  he  approved  of  all  that 
it  had  offered  and  decided,  and  that  he  declared  the 
bull  for  its  dissolution  which  he  had  issued  to  be  null 
and  void  ;  thus,  as  Bossuet  observes,  setting  the  coun- 
cil above  himself,  since,  in  obedience  to  its  order,  he 
revoked  his  own  decree,  made  with  all  the  authority 
of  his  see.  In  spite  of  this  forced  yielding  Eugene 
never  ceased  plotting  for  the  dissolution  of  the  council. 
In  subsequent  sessions  earnest  steps  were  taken  toward 
reform ;  the  annates  and  taxes  (the  pope's  chief  rev- 
enues) were  abrogated  ;  the  papal  authority  over  chap- 
ter elections  was  restricted;  citations  to  Rome  on 
minor  grounds  were  forbidden,  etc.  These  move- 
ments increased  the  hatred  of  the  papal  party,  to 
which,  at  last,  Cardinal  Julian  was  won  over.  The 
proposed  reunion  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches 
made  it  necessary  to  appoint  a  place  of  conference 
with  the  Greeks.  The  council  proposed  Basle  or 
Avignon ;  the  papal  party  demanded  an  Italian  city. 
The  latter,  in  the  minority,  left  Basle,  and  Eugene 
called  an  opposition  council  to  meet  at  Ferrara  (q.  v.) 
in  1437.  After  Juli.in's  departure  the  Cardinal  Arch- 
bishop of  Aries  presided.  In  the  31s/:  session,  Jan.  24, 
1438,  the  council  declared  the  Pope  Eugene  contuma- 
cious, suspended  him  from  the  exercise  of  all  jurisdic- 
tion either  temporal  or  spiritual,  and  pronounced  all 
that  he  should  do  to  be  null  and  void.  In  the  34^A 
session,  June  25,  1439,  sentence  of  deposition  was  pro- 
nounced against  Eugene,  making  use  of  the  strongest 
possible  terms.  France,  England,  and  Germany  dis- 
approved of  this  sentence.  On  October  30,  Amadeus 
(q.  v.),  duke  of  Savoy,  was  elected  pope,  and  took  the 
name  of  Felix  V.  Alphonso,  king  of  Aragon,  the 
Queen  of  Hungary,  and  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria  and 
Austria,  recognised  Felix,  as  also  did  the  LTniversities 
of  Germany,  Paris,  and  Cracow  ;  but  France,  England, 
and  Scotland,  while  they  acknowledged  the  authority 


BASLE 


090 


BASSUS 


of  the  Council  of  Basle,  continued  to  recognise  Eugene 
as  the  lawful  pope.  Pope  Eugene  dying  four  years 
after,  Nicholas  V  was  elected  in  bis  stead,  and  recog- 
nised by  the  whole  Church,  whereupon  Felix  V  re- 
nounced the  pontificate  in  1449,  and  thus  the  schism 
ended.  For  the  acts  of  the  council,  see  Mansi,  vols. 
2g  |  ,  31.  See  also  Wessenberg,  Concilien  des  15  unci 
16  Jahrhundert,  2  vols. ;  Binterim,  Deutsche  National 
.  vol.  i  1 1-  — -  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils, 
71:  Palmer  On  the  Churchy  pt.  iv,  ch.  xi ;  Mosheim, 
Ci.  Hist.  cent,  sv,  pt.  ii,  11 ;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  Pap  icy, 
1,86,243. 

Basle,  MSS.  of.     See  Basilean  Manuscript. 

Bas'math  (Heb.  Basmath',  niOJSa,  fragrant),  the 
name  of  two  women. 

1.  (Sept.  UaamctS.)  One  of  ths  wives  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxvi,  34  :  xxxvi,  3,  4,  10,  13,  "  Bashemath"). 

2.  (Sept.  BaaEfifidS.)  A  daughter  of  Solomon,  and 
wife  of  Ahimaaz,  the  viceroy  in  Naphtali  (1  Kings  iv, 
15).     B.C.  post  HH4. 

Basnage,  the  name  of  a  French  family  which  has 
produced  many  distinguished  men.  (See  Haag,  La 
France  Protestante,  ii,  5-15.) 

1.  Benjamin,  was  horn  at  Carentan  in  1580,  and 
during  fifty-one  years  was  pastor  of  the  church  which 
his  lather  had  held  at  Carentan.  He  attended,  as 
provincial  deputy,  nearly  all  the  synods  of  the  Prot- 
estant churches  of  France  held  during  his  lifetime. 
He  presided  over  the  assembly  held  at  Roehelle  in 
1622,  which  decided  on  resisting  the  king.  He  also 
signed  the  project  of  defence  under  the  title  of  "  Mode- 
rateur  Ajoint,"  and  went  to  England  to  solicit  aid. 
On  the  termination  of  hostilities,  Basnage  returned  to 
France,  and  was  appointed  deputy  to  the  synod  at 
Charenton,  1623.  The  zeal  with  which  he  maintained 
the  reformed  religion  rendered  him  an  object  of  in- 
creasing suspicion  to  the  court.  The  king,  by  a  de- 
cree, forbade  him  to  take  part  in  the  synod  of  Charen- 
tuii  in  1631.  This  synod  made  remonstrances  against 
this  decree  so  forcibly  that  the  court  yielded,  and  Bas- 
nage was  admitted  to  the  synod,  in  which  he  exercised 
great  influence.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  na- 
tional synod  at  Aleneon  in  1G37.  He  died  in  1652. 
His  principal  work  was  a  treatise  on  the  Church  (De 
rested  visible  et  invisible  d  I'J'g'ise,  etc.,  Eochelle,  1G12, 
8vo).  He  left  imperfect  a  work  against  the  worship 
of  the  Virgin. 

2.  Antoine,  eldest  son  of  Benjamin,  was  born  in 
Kilo,  lie  was  minister  at  Bayeux,  and  during  the 
renewed  persecutions  of  the  Protestants  he  was,  at 
the  age  of  sixty-live,  placed  in  the  prison  of  Havre  de 
Grace ;  but  his  firmness  remained  unshaken.  After 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  he  escaped  to 
Holland  in  L685,  and  died  in  1691  at  Zutphen,  in  which 
place  be  had  held  a  pastoral  charge. 

3.  Samuel  (de  Flottemanville),  son  of  Antoine,  was 
born  at  Bayeux  in  1638.  He  preached  at  first  in  his 
native  place,  but  escaped  with  his  father  to  Holland  in 
1685.  He  died  a  preacher  at  Zutphen  in  1721.  His 
principal  works  were — L'Jiistoire  <!'■  la  Religion  des 

■  |  Rotterdam,  1690,  2  vols,  fob',  repub- 
lished 1699) :     /'-  Rebus  Sacris  </  Ecclesiasticis  exer- 
ico-critica  (Traject.  1692,  1717, 4to): — 
Pol  i  , ,,./;,  clesiasticiannorum  DCXLVa  C(tsare 
"<l  Phocam  (Rotterdam,  1706,  3  vols,  folio). 
Both  these  w..rk~  contain  masterly  criticisms  on  Baro- 
nius. 

4.  Ja<  qi  i  -,  de  Beauval,  eldest  son  of  Henri,  was 
born  at  Roui  ii.  August  8th,  1';,.::.  lb-  was  early  sent 
to  study  at   ."vminur  under   l.e   l'evrc;    theiier   he  went 

i  and  Sedan,  where  his  master  was  the  cele- 
brated Jurieu.  In  1676  he  became  a  minister,  and 
married  in  1684  a  daughter  of  Pierre  Dumoulin.  Upon 
the  revocation  of  the  Edid  of  Nantes  he  went  to  Rot- 
terdam, and  in  1691  he  was  appointed  a  minister  at  the 

Volt  ,ire  declared  him  fit  to  be  minister  of 


state  for  the  kingdom.  He  died  December  22d,  1723. 
His  principal  works  are — 1.  Histoire  de  VEglise  depuis 
Jesus-Christ  jusqu'a  present  (Rotterdam,  1699,  2  vols, 
fol.),  a  work  in  high  repute  :— 2.  Histoire  de  la  Religion 
des  Eglises  Reformees  (ibid.  1690,  2  vols.  4to).  These 
two  works  were  published,  together  with  great  addi- 
tions and  alterations,  at  Rotterdam,  1721,  5  vols.  8vo ; 
and  with  still  greater  augmentations  in  1725,  in  2  vols. 
4to.  The  latter  work  is  a  reply  to  Bossuefs  Varia- 
tions:— 3.  Histoire  des  Juifs  depids  Jesus-Christ  jusqiC 'a 
present  (1706,  5  vols.  12mo,  and  171G,  in  15  vols.  12mo), 
a  work  of  vast  learning  and  research,  which  the  Abbe 
Dupin  reprinted  anonymously  at  Paris,  with  great  al- 
terations and  mutilations.  This  caused  Basnage  to 
publish  a  work  in  vindication  of  his  claim  to  the  his- 
tory. There  is  an  English  translation  by  Taylor 
(Lond.  1708,  fol.)  made  from  the  first  edition  : — 4.  An? 
tiqui/es  Judalques  (as  a  supplement  to  the  treatise  of 
Cuneus)  (1713,  2  vols.  8vo) : — 5.  Dissertation  historique 
sur  les  Duels  et  les  Ordres  de  Chevalerie,  a  curious  work, 
reprinted  with  the  Histoire  des  Ordres  de  Chevalerie 
(1720,  8vo,  4  vols.):— G.  La  Communion  Sainie  (1C68, 
in  18mo).  A  seventh  edition  was  published  in  1708, 
with  the  addition  of  a  book  on  the  duties  of  those  who 
do  not  communicate.  This  work  was  so  much  liked 
by  others  besides  Protestants  that  it  was  printed  at 
Rouen  and  Brussels,  and  used  by  Eomanists: — 7.  His- 
toire de  VAncien  et  du  Kouveau  Testament  (Amst.  1705, 
2  vols,  fol.)  ;  often  reprinted,  and  recommended  by  the 
Abbe  Lenglet  to  readers  of  the  Roman  Communion. 
Basnage  also  reprinted  in  1727  the  great  collection  of 
Canisius,  entitled  Thesaurus  Monumentorum  Ecclesiasti- 
corum  et  Historicorum,  and  he  wrote  various  other  minor 
works. — Biog.  Univ.  iii,  493 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  77. 

5.  Heniu  (de  Beaural),  brother  of  Jacques,  was 
born  at  Rouen,  August  7, 1656,  and  followed  the  profes- 
sion of  his  father.  On  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  in  1687  he  took  refuse  in  Holland,  and  died 
there,  March  29, 1710,  aged  54  years.  He  wrote  Traite 
de  la  Tolerance  des  Religions  (1G84,  12mo),  and  edited 
E Histoire  des  Ouvrages  des  Savans,  a  widely-circulated 
journal,  which  was  commenced  in  September,  1687, 
as  a  continuation  of  Bayle's  Kourelles  de  la  Republique 
eles  Letlres,  and  terminated  in  June,  1709 ;  it  consists 
of  24  vols.  12mo.  Basnage  published  in  1701  an  im- 
proved edition  of  Furetiure*s  Dieticnarg ;  the  Diction- 
naire  de  Trevoux  (1704)  is  partly  a  reprint  of  this  work, 
without  mention  of  the  name  of  either  Furetiere  or 
Basnage. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale,  iv,  687-690. 

Bason.     See  Basin. 

Bass,  Edward,  D.D.,  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop 
of  Massachusetts,  was  born  at  Dorchester,  Nov.  23, 
1726.  He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1744,  and,  after  sev- 
eral years  of  teaching,  was  licensed  as  a  Congrega- 
tional minister.  In  1752  he  joined  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, was  ordained  in  England,  and  became  pastor  at 
Newburyport,  Mass.  In  1796  he  was  elected  bishop, 
ami  consecrated  in  17!»7.  His  episcopal  duties,  with 
those  of  his  parish  at  Newburyport,  were  diligently 
discharged  until  he  became  enfeebled  by  disease.  He 
died  Sept.  10,  1803.— Sprague,  Annals,  v,  114. 

Bas'sa  (Bo-o-<t«  v.  r.  Baoaat),  one  of  the  Israelitish 
family-heads  whose  "sons"'  (to  the  number  of  323)  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  16);  evidently 
the  Bezai  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii,  17; 
Neh.  vii,  23). 

Bassus,  the  name  of  several  Romans  mentioned 
by  Josephus. 

1.  <  .ii n.its,  a  knight,  and  probably  quaestor  in 
B.C.  59  (Cicero,  ad  Alt.  ii,  0).  He  espoused  Pompey's 
cause  in  the  civil  war,  and,  after  the  battle  of  Pharsa- 
lia  (B.C.  48),  fled  to  Tyre,  of  which  he  at  length  gain- 
ed possession.  He  defended  it  successfully  against 
Sextus  Cassar,  the  governor  of  Syria,  whom  he  treach- 
erously caused  to  be  slain  (Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  11  ; 
I  War,  i,  10,  10).     He  afterward  established  himelf  as 


BASTAI 


G91 


BASTINADO 


pnetor  in  Apamea  (B.C.  46),  which  he  defended  against 
Antistius  Vetus,  but  was  finally  brought  to  submis- 
sion by  Cassius,  B.C.  43. — Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog. 
s.  v. 

2.  Lucilius,  commander  of  the  fleet  of  Vitellius 
B.C.  70,  which  he  betrayed  to  Vespasian,  by  whom 
he  was  sent  to  quell  some  disturbances  in  Campania 
(Tacitus,  Hist,  ii,  100;  iii,  12,  36,  40;  iv,  3).  He  was 
the  successor  of  Ccrealis  Vitellianus  as  Roman  legate 
in  Judaea,  where  he  reduced  the  fortresses  of  Herodium 
and  Maclnerus  (Joseph.  Ant.  vii,  6,  1  and  4). 

3.  See  Ventidius. 

Bas'tai  (BavSai),  one  of  the  family-heads  of  the 
temple-servants  whose  "sons"  are  said  to  have  re- 
turned from  the  exile  (1  Esdr.  v,  31) ;  evidently  the 
Besai  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii,  49;  Neh. 
vii,  52). 

Bastard  (nothus,  one  born  out  of  wedlock),  (i.)  the 
rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the  Heb.  ITriE  (mam 
zer',  polluted),  which  occurs  only  in  Deut.  xxiii.  2  and 
Zech.  ix,  6.  But  Michaelis  (Mos.  Recht,  ii,  §  139)  reads 
the  word  with  a  different  pointing,  so  as  to  make  it 
a  compound  of  two  words,  "IT  3"1"2,  meaning  stain,  de- 
fect of  a  stranger;  implying  the  stain  that  would  be 
cast  upon  the  nation  by  granting  to  such  a  stranger 
the  citizen-right.  Some  understand  by  it  the  offspring 
of  prostitutes  ;  but  they  forget  that  prostitutes  were  ex- 
pressly forbidden  to  be  tolerated  by  the  law  of  Moses 
(Lev.  xix,  29;  Deut.  xxiii,  17).  The  most  probable 
conjecture  is  that  which  applies  the  term  to  the  off- 
spring of  heathen  prostitutes  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Palestine,  since  no  provision  was  made  by  Moses 
against  their  toleration  (Potter,  Archceol.  i,  354),  and 
who  were  a  sort  of  priestesses  to  the  Syrian  goddess 
Astarte  (comp.  Num.  xxv,  1  sq. ;  Gesenius,  Comment, 
ub  Jsaias,  ii,  339 ;  Hos.  iv,  14 ;  1  Kings  xiv,  24 ;  xv, 
12;  xxii,  47;  2  Kings  xxiii,  7  ;  Herodot.  i,  199).  That 
there  existed  such  bastard  offspring  among  the  Jews 
is  proved  by  the  history  of  Jephthah  (Judg.  xi,  1-7), 
who  on  this  account  was  expelled  and  deprived  of  his 
patrimony  (Kitto).  It  seems  (Heb.  xii,  8)  that  natural 
children  (voSoi)  among  the  Jews  received  little  atten- 
tion from  the  father.  In  the  former  of  the  above  pas- 
sages (Deut.  xxiii,  2),  illegitimate  offspring  in  the  or- 
dinary sense  (Sept.  ik  ttoovijc,  Vulg.  de  scorto  natits, 
and  so  the  Oriental  interpreters,  as  also  the  rabbins); 
but  so  severe  a  curse  could  hardly  with  justice  rest 
upon  such,  and  there  is  no  countenance  for  such  a  view 
in  the  Jewish  custom  of  concubinage.  See  Concu- 
bine. In  the  latter  passage  (Zech.  ix,  6 ;  Sept.  «AAo- 
ytvfig)  it  is  doubtless  used  in  the  sense  of  foreigner, 
predicting  the  conquest  of  Ashdod  by  the  Jews  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  or  perhaps  more  appropriately 
by  subsequent  heathen  invaders. 

(ii.)  Persons  of  illegitimate  birth  are  incapable,  by  the 
•canon  law,  of  receiving  any  of  the  minor  orders  with- 
out a  dispensation  from  the  bishop;  nor  can  they,  in 
the  Latin  Church,  be  admitted  to  holy  orders,  or  to 
benefices  with  cure  of  souls,  except  by  a  dispensation 
from  the  pope.  However,  the  taking  of  the  monastic 
vows  enables  such  a  one  to  receive  holy  orders  with- 
out dispensation  ;  but  persons  so  ordained  cannot  be 
advanced  to  any  ecclesiastical  dignity  without  dispen- 
sation. According  to  the  laws  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, a  bastard  cannot  be  admitted  to  orders  without  a 
dispensation  from  the  queen  or  archbishop ;  and  if  he 
take  a  benefice,  he  may  be  deprived  of  it  till  such  dis- 
pensation be  obtained.— Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  81. 

Bastholm,  Christopher,  a  Danish  theologian, 
born  at  Copenhagen  1740,  was  a  man  of  great  influence 
in  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Denmark.  He  wrote  several 
works  (in  a  rationalistic  vein)  of  great  learning,  e.  g. 
De  Natvrliche  Relgion  (Copcnh.  1784): — Mdiscke  Ge- 
schichte  (Copenh.  1777-82,  3  parts)  -.—Hist.-phi'os.  Un- 


tersuchungen  iib.  die.  relig.  u.philos.  Meinungen  d.  altestcn 
Volker  (Copenh.  1802).— Herzog,  Real-Ennjklop.  i,  718. 

Bastinado  (or  beating)  has  always  been  of  univer- 
sal application  as  a  punishment  of  minor  offences  in  the 
East,  and  especially  in  Egypt.  It  appears  to  be  desig- 
nated by  the  Heb.  phrase  "IDIE  'J2d,  she'bet  musar ', 
"rod  of  correction"  (Prov.  xxii,  15).  See  Ron.  The 
punishment  of  beating  with  sticks  or  rods,  termed 
"scourging"  (Levit.  xix,  20)  and  "chastising"  (Deut. 
xxii,  18),  was  very  common  among  the  Jews,  and  is 
ordained  in  the  law  for  a  variety  of  offences.  Thus 
stripes,  the  rod,  etc.,  frequently  occur  for  punishment 
of  any  kind  (Prov.  x,  13;  xxvi,  3).  The  dignity  or 
high  standing  of  the  person  who  had  rendered  himself 
liable  to  this  punishment  could  not  excuse  him  from 
its  being  inflicted.  He  was  extended  upon  the  ground, 
and  blows  not  exceeding  fort}'  were  applied  upon  his 
back  in  the  presence  of  the  judge  (Deut.  xxv,  2,  3). 
This  punishment  is  very  frequently  practised  in  the 
East  at  the  present  day,  with  this  difference,  however, 
that  the  blows  were  formerly  inflicted  on  the  back,  but 
now  on  the  soles  of  the  feet.  China  has  aptly  been 
said  to  be  governed  by  the  stick.  In  Persia,  also,  the 
stick  is  in  continual  action.  Men  of  all  ranks  and 
ages  are  continually  liable  to  be  beaten,  and  it  is  by  no 
means  a  rare  occurrence  for  the  highest  and  most  con- 
fidential persons  in  the  state,  in  a  moment  of  displeas- 
ure or  caprice  in  their  royal  master,  to  be  handed  over 
to  the  beaters  of  carpets,  who  thrash  them  with  their 
sticks  as  if  they  were  dogs  (Pict.  Bible,  note  on  Exod. 
vi,  14).  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  in  military  as 
well  as  civil  cases,  minor  offences  were  generally  pun- 
ished with  the  stick — a  mode  of  chastisement  still  great- 
ly in  vogue  among  the  modern  inhabitants  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile,  and  held  in  such  esteem  by  them  that, 
convinced  of  (or  perhaps  by)  its  efficacy,  the}'  relate 
"its  descent  from  heaven  as  a  blessing  to  mankind." 
If  an  Egyptian  of  the  present  day  has  a  government 
debt  or  tax  to  pay,  he  stoutly  persists  in  his  inability 
to  obtain  the  money  till  he  has  withstood  a  certain 
number  of  blows,  and  considers  himself  compelled  to 
produce  it;  and  the  ancient  inhabitants,  if  not  under 
the  rule  of  their  native  princes,  at  least  in  the  time  of 
the  Iioman  emperors,  gloried  equally  in  the  obstinacy 
they  evinced,  and  the  difficulty  the  governors  of  the 
country  experienced  in  extorting  from  them  what  they 
were  bound  to  pay ;  whence  Ammianus  Marcellinus 
tells  us,  "an  Egyptian  blushes  if  he  cannot  show  nu- 
merous marks  on  his  body  that  evince  his  endeavors 
to  evade  the  duties."  The  bastinado  was  inflicted  on 
both  sexes,  as  with  the  Jews.  Men  and  boys  were 
laid  prostrate  on  the  ground,  and  frequently  held  by 
the  hands  and  feet  while  the  chastisement  was  admin- 
istered ;  but  women,  as  they  sat,  received  the  stripes 
on  their  back,  which  was  also  inflicted  by  the  hand  of 
a  man.  Nor  was  it  unusual  for  the  superintendents 
to  stimulate  laborers  to  their  work  by  the  persuasive 
powers  of  the  stick,  whether  engaged  in  the  field  or 
in  handicraft  employments  :  and  boys  were  sometimes 
beaten  without  the  ceremony  of  prostration,  the  hands 
being  tied  behind  their  back  while  the  punishment  was 
applied.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
from  any  respect  to  the  person  that  this  less  usual 
method  was  adopted ;  nor  is  it  probable  that  any  class 
of  the  community  enjoyed  a  peculiar  privilege  on  these 
occasions,  as  among  the  modern  Moslems,  who,  ex- 
tending their  respect  for  the  Prophet  to  his  distant  de- 
scendants of  the  thirty-sixth  and  ensuing  generations, 
scruple  to  administer  the  stick  to  a  shereef  until  he  has 
>een  politely  furnished  with  a  mat  on  which  to  pros- 
trate his  guilty  person.  Among  other  amusing  privi- 
leges in  modern  Ervpt  is  that  conceded  to  the  gran- 
dees, or  officers  of  high  rank.  Ordinary  culprits  are 
punished  by  the  hand  of  persons  usually  employed  on 
rich  occasions ;  but  a  bey,  or  the  governor  of  a  dis- 
trict, can  onlv  receive  his  chastisement  from  the  hand 


BASTON 


692 


BAT 


Ancient  Egyptian  Bastinado:  1,  inflicted  upon  Boys;  2,  upon 
Meu  ;  3,  upon  Women. 

of  a  pacha,  and  the  aristocratic  daboss  (mace)  is  substi- 
tuted for  the  vulgar  stick.  This  is  no  trifling  privi- 
lege :  it  becomes  fully  impressed  upon  the  sufferer,  and 
renders  him,  long  after,  sensible  of  the  peculiar  honor 
he  has  enjoyed ;  nor  can  any  one  doubt  that  an  iron 
mace,  in  form  not  very  unlike  a  chocolate-mill,  is  a 
distingue  mode  of  punishing  men  who  are  proud  of 
their  rank  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Eg.  i,  210  sq.  abridgm.). 
See  Flagellation. 

The  punishment  of  tympanism,  rvfiiravtofios,  or  beat- 
ing upon  the  tympanum,  was  practised  by  Antiochus  ] 
toward  the  Jews  (2  Mace,  vi,  19,  28;  comp.  ver.  SO; , 
Auth.  Vers,  "torment"),  and  is  referred  to  by  Paul 
(Ilcb.  xi,  35;  Auth.  Vers,  "tortured").  The  "tym- 
panum" was  a  wooden  frame,  probably  so  called  from 
resembling  a  drum  or  timbrel,  on  which  the  sufferer 
was  fastened,  and  then  beaten  to  death  with  sticks. 
See  Corporal  Inflictions. 

Baston,  Guillaume-Andre-Rene,  a  French  Po- 
manisl  divine,  was  burn  at  1,'ouen,  Nov.  29, 1741.    Af- 
pli  ting  his  studies,  he  became  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Rouen,  emigrated  during  the  Revolution,  and 
"ii  his  return  became  grand-vicar  of  Rouen.     In  1813 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Seez,  but  had  to  give  up  his 
see  mi  Hi-  return  of  the  Bourbons.     He  died  at  St. 
Laurent,  Sept. 26, 1825.     Among  his  published  works 
;  de  Theohgie  (Paris,  177:;  1784);  Les  Entre- 
'«  iduPapi  GanganelU (177 7, 12mo) ;  Premiere  journee] 
i!  M.Votiain  dam  V  autre  Monde  (1119, 12mo);  L'Eglue 
M.  le  Maistre  (2  vols.  8vo,  1821-1824). 
— Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  iv,726. 

Bastwick,  John,  M.D.,  was  born  at  Writtle,  Es- 
I,  and  studiedat  Cambridge.     He  took  bis  de- 
gree of  M.D.  at  Padua,  and  settled  at  Colchester,  as 
physician,  in  1G24.    During  the  rest  of  his  life  he  seems 
1  >H  his  leisure  time  to  theological  study 
and  controversy.     His  first  publication  was  Elenchus 
nquapr6baturnequeApostolicam,n  qui 
CathoUcam,  imo  »..///-•  Romanam  esse  (Leyden,  1624). 
His   next    was   FlageUum    Pontificum  et  Episcoporum 
(  bond.  16  16,  and  again  1641 1      This  work  greatlj  of- 
f!  old  the  bishops;  In-  was  fined  £1000,  forbidden  to 
1  ractice  medicine,  and  imprisoned.    In  prison  he  wrote 
ApeiogeH  (1688,  8vo),  and  J%  New  Lit- 

mil/,  m  which  he  sharply  censured  the  bishops.     This 


made  matters  worse,  and  he  was  condemned  to  a  fine 
of  £5000,  to  the  pillory,  and  to  lose  his  ears.  He  was 
kept  in  a  prison  in  the  Scilly  Islands  till  1C40,  when 
the  Commonwealth  Parliament  released  him.  He  af- 
terward wrote  several  bitter  pamphlets  against  Inde- 
pendency, such  as  Independency  not  God's  Ordinance 
(Lond.  16-15)  ;  Banting  of  the  Army  of  Sectaries  (1616). 
He  died  about  1650  (?).— Darling,  Cyclop.  Biblhgraph- 
ica,  i,  196 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale,  iv,  726 ;  Allibone, 
Dictionary  of  A  nthors,  i,  139. 

Bat  (C]feMS,  atalhph';  Sept.  vvKrepig;  SyriacVers. 
peacock)  occurs  in  Lev.  xi,  19 ;  Deut.  xiv,  18 ;  Isa.  ii, 
20;  and  Baruch  vi,  22.  In  Hebrew  the  word  implies 
"flying  in  the  dark,"  which,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  sentence,  "  Moreover,  the  bat  and  every  craping 
thing  that  Jlieth  is  unclean  unto  you ;  they  shall  not  be 
eaten,"  is  so  clear,  that  there  cannot  be  a  mistake  re- 
specting the  order  of  animals  meant,  though  to  mod- 
ern zoology  neither  the  species,  the  genus,  nor  even 
the  famity  is  thereby  manifested  :  the  injunction  mere- 
ly prohibits  eating  bats,  and  may  likewise  include 
some  tribes  of  insects.  At  first  sight,  animals  so  di- 
minutive, lean,  and  repugnant  to  the  senses  must  ap- 
pear scarcely  to  have  required  the  legislator's  atten- 
tion, but  the  fact  evidently  shows  that  there  were  at 
the  time  men  or  women  who  ate  animals  classed  with 
bats,  a  practice  still  in  vogue  in  the  great  Australasian 
islands,  where  the  frugivorous  Pteropi  of  the  harpy  or 
goblin  family,  by  seamen  denominated  flying-dogs, 
and  erroneously  vampires,  are  caught  and  eaten  ;  but 
where  the  insectivorous  true  bats,  such  as  the  genera 
common  in  Europe,  are  rejected.  Some  of  the  species 
of  harpies  are  of  the  bulk  of  a  rat,  with  from  three  to 
four  feet  of  expanse  between  the  tips  of  the  wings  ; 
they  have  a  fierce  dog-like  head,  and  arc  nearly  all 
.marked  with  a  space  of  rufous  hair  from  the  forehead 
over  the  neck  and  along  the  back  (Kitto).  For  a  de- 
scription of  the  various  kinds  of  bats,  see  the  Penny 
Cyclopedia,  s.  v.  Cheiroptera. 

In  the  foregoing  enumeration  of  unclean  animals, 
the  bat  is  reckoned  among  the  birds,  and  such  ap- 
pears to  be  the  most  obvious  classification  ;  but  mod-  < 
era  naturalists  have  shown  that  it  has  no  real  affinity 
with  birds.  It  is  now  included  in  the  class  of  mammif- 
erous  quadrupeds,  characterized  by  having  the  tegu- 
mental'}' membrane  extended  over  the  bones  of  the 
extremities  in  such  a  manner  as  to  constitute  wings 
capable  of  sustaining  and  conveying  them  through  the 
air.  The  name  of  Cheiroptera,  or  hand-winged,  has 
therefore  been  bestowed  on  this  order.  It  comprises 
a  great  number  of  genera,  species,  and  varieties  ;  they 
are  all  either  purely  insectivorous  or  insecti-frugivo- 
rous,  having  exceedingly  sharp  cutting  and  acutely 
tuberculated  jaw  teeth,  and  the  whole  race  is  noctur- 
nal. They  vary  in  size  from  that  of  the  smallest 
common  mouse  up  to  that  of  the  vampire,  or  gigantic 
ternate  bat,  whose  body  is  as  large  as  that  of  a  squir- 
rel. The  smaller  species  are  abundantly  distributed 
over  the  globe  ;  the  larger  seem  to  be  confined  to  warm 
and  hot  regions,  where  they  exist  in  great  numbers, 
ami  are  very  destructive  to  the  fruits.     The  purely 


BAT 


693 


BATES 


Common  Bat. 


insectivorous  species  render  great  service  to  mankind 
by  the  destruction  of  vast  numbers  of  insects,  which 
they  pursue  with  great  eagerness  in  the  morning  and 
evening  twilight.  During  the  daytime  they  remain 
suspended  by  their  hinder  hooked  claws  in  the  lofts 
of  barns,  in  hollow  or  thickly-leaved  trees,  etc.  As 
winter  approaches,  in  cold  climates,  they  seek  shelter 
in  caverns,  vaults,  ruinous  and  deserted  buildings,  and 
similar  retreats,  where  they  cling  together  in  large 
clusters,  and  remain  in  a  torpid  condition  until  the  re- 
turning spring  recalls  them  to  active  exertions.  In 
the  texts  of  Scrip- 
ture, where  allusion 
is  made  to  caverns 
and  dark  places, 
true  Vespcrtilioni- 
dae,  or  insect-eating 
bats,  similar  to  the 
European,  are  clear- 
ly designated. 

The  well-known  habits  of  the  bat  afford  a  forcible 
illustration  of  a  portion  of  the  fearful  picture  drawn 
by  Isaiah  (ii,  20)  of  the  day  when  the  Lord  shall  arise 
"to  shake  terribly  the  earth  :"  "A  man  shall  cast  his 
idols  of  silver  and  his  idols  of  gold  to  the  moles  and  to 
the  bats,"  or,  in  other  words,  carry  his  idols  into  the 
dark  caverns,  old  ruins,  or  desolate  places,  to  which 
he  himself  shall  flee  for  refuge ;  and  so  shall  give  them 
up,  and  relinquish  them  to  the  filthy  animals  that  fre- 
quent such  places,  and  have  taken  possession  of  them 
as  their  proper  habitation.  Bats  are  very  common  in 
the  East  (Kitto,  Pict.  Bible,  note  on  Isa.  ii,  20).  Layard 
{Nineveh  and  Babylon,  p.  307)  describes  his  visit  to  a 
cavern  on  the  banks  of  the  Khabour  swarming  with 
bats.  "Flying  toward  the  light,"  he  adds,  "these 
noisome  beasts  compelled  us  to  retreat.  They  clung 
to  our  clothes,  and  our  hands  could  scarcely  prevent 
them  settling  on  our  faces.  The  rustling  of  their 
wings  was  like  the  noise  of  a  great  wind,  and  an  abom- 
inable stench  arose  from  the  recesses  of  the  c*ave." 
They  are  also  found  delineated  upon  the  Egyptian 
monuments  (Wilkinson,  i,  232,  234,  abridgm.).     Sev- 


Egyptian  Bats,  and  their  Heads  in  full  size.     1.  Tai'hozoua 
Perfomtus;  2.  Rliinolojihus  Tridzns. 


eral  species  of  these  animals  are  found  in  Egj'pt,  some 
of  which  occur  doubtless  in  Palestine.  Mo/ossus  Rup- 
pelii,  Vespertilio  pipistrellus  var.  Aegyp>tius,  V.  ouritus 
var.  Aegijpt.,  Taphozous  perforatus,  Nycteris  Thebaica, 
Rhinopoma  mieruphylhtm,  Rkinolophus  tridens,  occur  in 
the  tombs  and  pyramids  of  Egypt.     See  Zoology. 

Batanaea.     See  Bashan. 

Batchelder,  George  W.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  June  15, 1836.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Pennington  Seminary,  N.  J.,  and 
afterward  was  engaged  as  classical  teacher  at  Case- 
ville,  Pa.,  and  New  Egypt,  N.J.  In  1857  he  entered 
the  itinerant  ministry,  and  was  appointed  to  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.  Here  his  preaching  made  an  extraordinary 
impression,  and  Princeton  College  conferred  upon  him 
the  degree  of  A.M.  His  next  appointment  was  State 
Street,  Trenton,  and  his  last  Bayard  Street,  N.  Bruns- 
wick. He  died  of  consumption  at  Princeton,  March 
30, 1865.  He  was  a  young  man  of  rare  promise,  of 
deep  piety,  of  fine  culture,  and  of  extraordinary  elo- 
quence.— Minutes  of  Conferences,  1864,  p.  20. 

Batchelder,  William,  born  at  Boston,  March 
25,  1768,  was  a  Baptist  minister  of  considerable  note. 
His  parents  dying  when  he  was  but  13,  he  began  a 
roving  life,  in  the  course  of  which  he  had  many  re- 
markable adventures ;  among  others  was  the  being 
elected  captain,  or  master  of  a  ship  which  had  lost  its 
officers,  before  he  was  16.  Becoming  connected  with 
the  Baptist  Church,  after  some  years  spent  in  preach- 
i  ing,  he  was,  in  1796,  ordained  pastor  of  a  church  at 
J  Berwick,  which  place  he  chose,  it  is  said,  "as  the  least 
attractive,  where  the  greatest  good  could  be  done." 
In  1805  Mr.  Batchelder  removed  to  Haverhill,  -where 
he  labored  till  his  death,  April  8,  1818,  which  was 
'  caused  by  over-exertion  in  raising  funds  for  Water- 
vine  College.  Mr.  Batchelder  was  a  man  of  fine  pres- 
ence and  of  great  popularity. — Spraguc,  Annals,  vi, 
319. 

Bate,  James,  an  English  divine,  was  born  1703, 
educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  and 
in  1731  became  rector  of  Deptford.  He  died  1775, 
having  published  A  Rationale  of  tM  Literal  Doctrine 
of  Original  Sin  (Lond.  1766,  8vo),  with  a  number  of 
occasional  sermons. — Darling,  Cycl.  Bibl.  i,  197. 

Bate,  Julius,  brother  of  James,  born  about  1711, 
and  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  He  be- 
came rector  of  Sutton,  and  died  1771.  He  was  an  in- 
timate friend  of  Hutchinson,  whose  ethical  principles 
he  imbibed  and  defended.  He  wrote  An  Inquiry  into 
the  Similitudt  s  of  Cod  in  O.  T.  (Lond.  1756,  8vo) :— The 
Integrity  of  the,  Hebrew  Text  vindicated  against  Kennicott 
(Lond.  1754,  8vo): — .4  New  Translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, with  Notes  (Lond.  1773,  4to),  "so  literal  as  to  be 
nearby  unintelligible"  (Monthly  Rev.");  with  several 
controversial  essays  against  Warburton,  and  minor 
tracts. — Darling,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  s.  v. 

Bateman,  James,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Maryland  1775,  converted  in  1800,  enter- 
ed the  itinerant  "ministry  in  the  Philadelphia  Confer- 
ence in  1806,  located  in  1814,  re-entered  in  1817,  and 
preached  until  his  death  in  1830.  As  a  man  he  was 
amiable,  urbane,  and  generous  ;  as  a  Christian,  gentle, 
candid,  and  full  of  charity  ;  as  a  preacher,  sound,  ear- 
nest, and  warm  ;  and  as  a  presiding  elder,  discreet, 
firm,  and  wise.  His  life  was  useful  and  loving,  and 
his  death  triumphant. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  ii,  118. 

Bates,  Lewis,  an  American  Methodist  minister, 
died  in  Taunton,  Mass.,  March  24, 1865,  aged  85  years. 
He  was  a  descendant  in  the  seventh  generation  of  John 
Rogers,  the  martyr.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was 
converted,  and  in  1801  he,  with  two  others,  joined  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Springfield,  Vt..  thus 
originating  the  church  in  that  place,  and  on  Decem- 
ber 5,  1802,  he  consecrated  himself  to  the  ministry. 
In  1804  he  was  admitted  ou  trial  in  the  New  York 


BATES 


094 


BATHE 


Conference;  in  130C  he  was  admitted  into  full  con- 
nection in  the  New  England  Conference,  and  ordain- 
ed deacon  l>y  Bishop  Asbury,  and  appointed  to  Tuf- 
tonborough,  which  was  set  off  from  the  New  York 
Conference.  In  1807  he  was  at  Scarborough  and 
Livermore,  Me.  ;  in  1808,  ordained  elder,  and  sta- 
tioned for  the  third  time  at  Tuftonborough ;  in  1809, 
Pembroke  ;  1810,  Barnard,  Vt. ;  1811, 1812,  Salisbury 
and  <  rreenland  Circuit.  In  1813  he  located.  In  1817 
he  was  readmitted  to  the  New  England  Conference, 
and  sent  to  Vershire  Circuit,  Vt. ;  1818, 1819,  Landaff, 
N.  II.  :  1820,  New  London  Circuit.  In  1821  he  was 
appointed  to  Norwich;  1822,  Warwick,  R.  I.  ;  1823, 
1824,  Barnstable,  Mass.;  1825, 1826,  Wellfleet;  1827, 

i  em,  N.  II.  ;  1829,  Easton  and  Stoughton ; 
1830,  Easton  and  Bridgewater;  1831,  Bristol,  R.  I.; 
1832,  Mansfield;  1833,  1834,  East  Weymouth ;  1835, 
Saugus;  1836, 1837,  Pembroke ;  1838,  1839,  Scituate 
Harbor;  1840,  N.  W.  Bridgewater,  etc.;  1841,  Taun- 
ton First  Church  ;  1842,  Nantucket ;  1843,  Falmouth  ; 
1844,  S.  Dartmouth;  1845,  Pembroke;  1846,  1847, 
West  Sandwich  ;  1848,  Hull  and  Cohasset;  1849,  Chil- 
mark,  Martha's  Vineyard.  This  was  his  last  appoint- 
ment from  the  Conference.  In  1850  he  asked  a  super- 
annuated relation,  and  located  in  Taunton,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death,  beloved  and  respected  by  all 
who  knew  him.  His  ministry  was  every  where  ef- 
fective, and  many  were  converted  to  God  through  his 
labors;  among  them  several  who  became  preachers 
of  the  Gospel.  He  was  sixty-one  years  a  preach- 
er, forty-two  of  which  were  spent  as  an  itinerant, 
moving  almost  yearly,  most  of  the  time  with  a  large 
family.  During  the  years  he  was  superannuated, 
whenever  his  health  would  admit  he  was  active  in 
visiting  the  churches,  preaching,  and  attending  prayer 
and  class-meetings. — Christian  Advocate,  May  18,1865 ; 
Minutes,  1865,  p.  43. 

Bates,  William,  D.D.,  a  learned  Nonconformist, 
was  born  in  162.%  place  unknown.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  was  admitted  D.D.  in  1660. 
Soon  after  the  Restoration  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  Charles  II,  and  was  also,  for  some  time,  minister  of 
St.  Dunst. m's,  from  whence  he  was  ejected  by  the  Act 
of  Uniformity.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  at 
the  Savoy  Conference  in  1660  for  reviewing  the  Litur- 
gy, and  assisted  in  drawing  up  the  exceptions  against 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  He  was  likewise  chosen 
on  the  part  of  the  Nonconformist  ministers,  together 
with  Dr.  Jacomb  and  Mr.  Baxter,  to  manage  the  dis- 
pute with  Dr.  Pearson,  afterward  bishop  of  Chester,  Dr. 
Gunning,  afterward  bishop  of  Ely,  and  Dr.  Sparrow, 
afterward  bishop  of  Norwich.  The  object  of  this  con- 
ference  was  to  persuade  the  dissidents  to  fall  in  with 
ih"  requirements  of  the  Church  of  England  in  regard 
to  its  rituals  and  ceremonies.  But  to  the  reasonings 
of  Gunning,  who  seemed  disposed  to  forward  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  Church  ofEnglandandRome,Dr. 
B  i  is  urged  that,  on  the  very  same  grounds  on  which 
they  imposed  the  erueilix  and  surplice,  they  might 
bring  in  holy  water,  and  all  the  trumpery  of  popery. 
I»r.  Bates  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Lord-keeper 
Bridgman,  Lord-chancellor  Finch,  the  Earl  of  Notting- 
ham, and  Archbishop  Tillotson.  He  was  offered  the 
deanery  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry  at  the  Restoration, 
but  he  declined  the  offer;  and,  according  to  Dr.Cala- 
my,  he  might  have  been  afterward  raised  to  any  bish- 
opric in  the  kingdom,  could  he  have  conformed.  He 
resided  for  the  latter  part  of  bis  life  at  Hacknej',  where 
'"■  died  L9th  July,  1699.  According  to  Calamy,  "he 
was  generally   reputed   01 f  the  best  orators' of  the 

:  was  well  versed  in  the  politer  arts  of  learn- 
ing, which  bo  seasoned  hie  conversation  as  to  render  it 
highly  entertaining  to  the  more  sensible  part  of  man- 
kind*.    Hi*  apprehension  was  quick  and  clear,  and  Ids 

reasoning  faculty  acute,  prompt,  1  expert.     His 

judgment  was  penetrating  and  solid,  .stable  and  firm. 
Hit  memory  was   singularly  tenacious,  und  scarcely 


impaired  at  the  period  of  his  death.  His  language 
was  always  neat  and  fine,  but  unaffected.  His  method 
in  all  his  discourses  would  bear  the  test  of  the  severest 
scrutiny."  Dr.  Bates  was  one  of  the  best  thei  logical 
writers  of  his  time  ;  his  Harmony  of  the  Divine  A  ttributes 
in  the  Work  of  Man's  Redemption  is  still  deservedly 
popular,  and,  in  fact,  all  his  writings  are  in  demand. 
They  are  collected  in  his  Whole  Works,  u-ith  a  Memoir. 
by  F'armer  (Lond.  1815,  4  vols.  8vo).— Jones,  Chiist. 
Biog.  p.  30  ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  141. 

Bath.     See  Bathe. 

Bath  (Heb.  and  Chald.  id.,  »*2,  Sept.  %o~ivi^, 
icorvX)];  occurs  1  Kings  vii,  26,  38;  2  Chron.  ii,  10; 
iv,  5;  Isa.  v,  10;  Ezek.  xlv,  10,  14;  Ezra  vii,  22),  a 
Hebrew  measure  for  liquids,  as  wine  and  oil,  equal  to 
the  ephah  for  things  dry  (Ezek.  as  above),  each  being 
the  tenth  part  of  a  homer  (Ezek.  as  above).  In  Luke 
xvi,  6,  the  Greek  form  jSutoq  occurs,  where  it  is  render- 
ed "measure."  According  to  Josephus  fjSdooc)',  it 
contained  72  sextarii  (Ant.  viii,  2,  9).  Its  ordinary 
capacity  appears  to  have  been  8  galls.  3  qts.  See 
Measures. 

Bath  (Bathonia)  and  "Wells  CWellia,  Fontma,  an- 
ciently Tnd  ngtmi),  a  diocese  of  the  Church  of  England, 
combining  the  two  ancient  sees  of  Bath  and  Wells, 
which  were  united  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. The  episcopal  residence  and  chapter  are  now  at 
Wells;  the  chapter  consists  of  the  dean,  four  canons 
residentiary,  a  precentor,  treasurer,  three  archdeacons, 
a  sub-dean,  forty-four  canons  non-resident,  and  two 
minor  canons.  The  united  dioceses,  which  contain 
the  whole  county  of  Somerset  except  Bedminster  and 
Abbots-Leigh,  contain  four  hundred  and  forty-seven 
benefices.  The  present  bishop  is  Lord  Auckland,  ap- 
pointed in  1854. 

Bathe  (in  Heb.  yrn,  racliats',  Gr.  Xouw).  The 
bath  is  in  the  East,  on  account  of  the  hot  climate  and 
abundant  dust,  constantly  necessary  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  health,  especially  the  prevention  of  cutaneous 
disorders;  hence  it  was  among  the  Hebrews  one  of 
the  first  purificative  duties  (Neh.  iv,  23),  and  in  certain 
cases  of  (Levitical)  uneleanness  it  was  positively  pre- 
scribed by  the  Mosaic  law  (Lev.  xiv,  8  sq. ;  xv,  5, 13, 
18  ;  xvii,  16  ;  xxii,  6 ;  Num.  xix,  19  ;  Deut.  xxiii,  11), 
being  treated  as  a  part  of  religion,  as  with  the  ancient 
Egyptians  (Herod,  ii,  37)  and  modern  Mohammedans 
(Niebuhr,  Eeisen,  ii,  47;  Beschr.  p.  39).  The  Jews 
bathed  not  only  in  streams  (Lev.  xv,  13;  2  Kings  v, 
10 ;  on  Exod.  ii,  5,  comp.  St.  Irwin's  Trav.  p.  272  sq.), 
but  also  in  the  houses,  the  court-yard  of  which  always 
contained  a  bath  (2  Sam.  xi,  2 ;  Susan,  ver.  15) ;  and 
in  later  times,  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (Pot- 
ter, Gr.  Archceol.  ii,  654  sq. ;  Adam's  Rom.  Antiq.  ii, 
214  sq. ;  comp.  Fabric.  Bibliogr.  Antiq.  p.  1006),  there 
were  likewise  public  baths  (Talmud  fi1KSn*133)  in  the 
cities  of  Judasa  (Josephus,  Ant.  xix,  7,  5;  Mishna, 
Nedar.  v,  5;  comp.  Mikvaoth,  vi,  15;  Shebiith,  8,  5; 
Baba  Bathra,  iv,  6),  as  in  the  East  at  present  there 
universally  are  (see  the  descriptions  in  Mariti,  i,  125 ; 
Arvieux,  ii,  42 ;   Troilo,  p.  672 ;   Russell,  i,  172  sq. ; 


Ancient  Egyptian  Lady  in  the  Bath  with  her  Attendants. 
Fig.  1,  The.  lady,  seated  on  a  mat  or  carpet .  2,  An  attendant 
holding  a  flower  and  supporting  her;  3,  Rubs  her  arm  with 
the  hand,  ns  in  the  modern  Turkish  bath;  4,  i'oura  water 
over  her;  &,  Takes  cure  of  her  clothes  and  ornaments. 


BATHER 


695 


BATH-SHEBA 


D'Ohsson,  i,  264  sq. ;  Lane,  Mod.  Egypt,  ch.  xvi),  and 
p:ilaces  had  bathing-rooms  (Joseph.  Ant.  xiv,  15,  13). 
In  places  of  a  mixed  population  the  Jews  resorted  to 
the  heathen  baths  (Mishna,  Aboda  Sara,  iii,  4;  see 
Circumcision,  and  comp.  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  78). 
Besides  water,  persons  (females)  sometimes  used  bran 
for  ceremonial  cleansing  (Mishna,  Pesach,  ii,  7).  In 
like  manner,  the  modern  Arabs,  in  the  failure  of  water, 
universally  perform  their  lustrations  by  rubbing  them- 
selves with  sand,  a  usage  that  has  been  thought  (Ro- 
senmiiller,  Morgenl.  iii,  228  sq.)  to  explain  Naaman 
the  Syrian's  request  of  some  of  the  sacred  soil  of  Pales- 
tine (2  Kings  v,  17). —  "Winer,  i,  130.  The  cere- 
monial law  also  prescribed  bathing  after  mourning, 
which  always  implied  defilement  (e.  g.  Ruth  iii,  3;  2 
Sam.  xii,  20).  The  high-priast  at  his  inauguration 
(Lev.  xiii,  6)  and  on  the  day  of  atonement,  once  before 
each  solemn  act  of  propitiation  (xvi,  4,  24),  was  also 
to  bathe.  This  the  rabbins  have  multiplied  into  ten 
times  on  that  day.  Maimon.  {Constit.  de  Vasis  Sand. 
v,  3)  gives  rules  for  the  strict  privacy  of  the  high- 
priest  in  bathing.  There  were  bath-rooms  in  the  later 
Temple  over  the  chambers  Abtines  and  Happarvah  for 
the  priests'  use  (Lightfoot,  Descr.ofTemp.  24).  With 
sanitory  bathing  anointing  was  customarily  joined  ; 
the  climate  making  both  these  essential  alike  to  health 
and  pleasure,  to  which  luxury  added  the  use  of  per- 
fume (Susan.  17  ;  Jud.  x,  3 ;  Esth.  ii,  12).  The 
"pools,"  such  as  that  of  Siloam  and  Hezekiah's  (Neh. 
iii,  15,  16;  2  Kings  xx,  20;  Isa.  xxii,  11 ;  Johnix,7), 
often  sheltered  by  porticoes  (John  v,  2),  are  the  first 
indications  we  have  of  public  bathing  accommodation. 
Ever  since  the  time  of  Jason  (Prideaux,  ii,  168)  the  . 
Greek  usages  of  the  bath  probably  prevailed,  and  an 
allusion  in  Josephus  (Xovaoptvoc,  arpaTiMriKioTepov, 
War,  i,  17,  7)  seems  to  imply  the  use  of  the  bath 
(hence,  no  doubt,  a  public  one,  as  in  Rome)  by  legion- 
ary soldiers.  We  read  also  of  a  castle  luxuriously 
provided  with  a  volume  of  water  in  its  court,  and  of  a 
Herodian  palace  with  spacious  pools  adjoining,  in 
which  the  guests  continued  swimming,  etc.,  in  ver}' 
hot  weather  from  noon  till  dark  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  4, 
11 ;  xv,  3,  3).  The  hot  baths  of  Tiberias  (Pliny,  v, 
15),  or  more  strictly  of  Emmaus  (Euseb.  Onomast. 
AifJdp,  query  Aifta.9?  Bonfrerius)  near  it,  and  of  Cal- 
lirrhoe,  near  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  were 
much  resorted  to  (Reland,  i,  46;  Joseph.  Ant.  xviii, 
2;  xvii,  6,  5;  War,  i,  33,  5;  Amm.  Marcell.  xiv,  8; 
Stanley,  p.  375,  295).  The  parallel  customs  of  an- 
cient Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome  are  too  well  known  to 
need  special  allusion.  (See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and 
Rom.  Ant.  s.  v.  Balneae ;  Laurie,  Roman  or  Turkish 
Bath,  Edinb.  1864.)— Smith,  s.  v.     See  Water. 

Bather,  Edward,  A.M.,  an  English  divine,  born 
in  1770,  educated  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford;  became 
vicar  of  Meole  Brace  1S04,  and  afterward  archdeacon 
of  Salop.  Died  in  1847.  He  published  Sermons,  chief- 
ly practical  (Lond.  3  vols.  8vo,  1840),  which  are  praised 
in  the  British  Critic  (iii,  161). 

Bath-Gallim  (EPlrrrra,  "daughter  of  Gallim," 
Isa.  x,  30).     See  Gallim. 

Batll-Kol  (b"p~ra,  daughter  <]f  the  voice),  a  rabbin- 
ical name  for  a  supposed  oracular  voice,  which  Jewish 
writers  regard  as  inferior  in  authority  to  the  direct  reve- 
lation that  the  O.  T.  prophets  enjoyed  (Vitringa,  Observ. 
Sacr.  ii,  338),  although  the  Targum  and  Midrash  affirm 
that  it  was  the  actual  medium  of  divine  communication 
to  Abraham,  Moses,  David,  Nebuchadnezzar,  etc.  (Re- 
land,  Ant.  Sacr.  pt.  ii,  ch.  ix).  Neither  are  the  Jewish  au- 
thorities agreed  as  to  what  the  Bath-Kol  itself  was,  many 
maintaining  that  it  was  merely  the  echo  of  the  divine  ut- 
terance (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm.  s.  v.  M).  Some  scholars 
have  incorrectly  rendered  the  term  "daughter-voice," 
daughter's  voice  (Home,  Jntrod.  iv,  119;  Jennings, 
Jewish  Antiq.  bk.  i,  ch.  vi).  It  has  been  supposed  that 
Josephus  alludes  to  the  Bath-Kol  in  the  annunciation  to 


Hyrcanus  that  his  sons  had  conquered  Antiochus  {Ant. 
xiii,  10,  3),  and  the  awful  warning  voice  in  the  Tem- 
ple prior  to  its  destruction  {War,  v,  5,  3);  but  thefc 
and  other  instances  seem  to  fall  short  of  the  dignity 
required.  Prideaux,  however,  classes  them  all  with 
the  heathen  species  of  divination  called  Sortes  Vigili- 
ance  {Connection,  ii,  354),  and  Lightfoot  even  considers 
them  to  be  either  Jewish  fables  or  devices  of  the  devil 
{Hor.  Ileb.  ad  Matt,  iii,  17).  Yet  instances  of  voices 
from  heaven  very  analogous  occur  in  the  history  of 
the  early  Christian  Church,  as  that  which  was  instru- 
mental in  making  Alexander  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and 
that  which  exhorted  Polycarp  to  be  of  good  courage 
(Eusebius,  Hist.  Keel,  vi,  11 ;  iv,  15).  See  Danz,  De 
jilia  vocis  (Jen.  1716  ;  also  in  Meuschen's  Nov.  Test,  ex 
Tcdmude  illustr.  p.  351-378)  ;  Haner,  Be  blp  TQ  (Jen. 
1673)  ;  Metzler,  De  vocis  jilia  (Jen.  1673). 

Bathra.     See  Mishna. 

Bath-rab'bim  (Heb.  Bath-rabbim',  CPS^-Fa, 
daughter  of  many ;  Sept.  translates  literally  Svyariip 
iroWwv),  the  name  of  one  of  the  gates  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Ileshbon,  by  (5S)  which  were  two  "  pools,"  to 
which  Solomon  likens  the  eyes  of  his  beloved  (Cant, 
vii,  4  [5]).  The  "Gate  of  Bath-rabbim"  at  Heshbon 
would,  according  to  the  Oriental  custom,  be  the  gate 
pointing  to  a  town  of  that  name.  The  only  place  in 
this  neighborhood  at  all  resembling  Bath-rabbim  in 
sound  is  Kabbah  {Amman),  but  the  one  tank  of  which 
we  gain  any  intelligence  as  remaining  at  Heshbon  is 
on  the  opposite  (S.)  side  of  the  town  to  Amman  (Por- 
ter, Handbook,  p.  298).— Smith,  s.  v. 

Bath'-sheba  (Heb.  Bath-She'ba,  SniiTinS,  daugh- 
ter of  the,  oath,  or  of  seven  [sc.  years]  ;  Sept.  Br]paaj3tk, 
Josephus  BttdaarJi)  :  also  "TJT3,  Bath-Shu' a,  an- 
other form  of  the  same  name;  Sept.  as  before  ;  1  Chron. 
iii,  5;  in  ch.  ii,  3,  this  form  is  translated  "daughter  of 
Shua"  in  the  English  version),  daughter  of  Eliam  (2 
Sam.  xi,  3)  or  Ammiel  (1  Chron.  iii,  5),  the  grand- 
daughter  of  Ahithophel  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  34),  and  wife 
of  Uriah.  She  was  seduced  by  King  David  during 
the  absence  of  her  husband,  who  was  then  engaged  at 
the  siege  of  Rahhah  (2  Sam.  xi,  4,  5;  Psa.  Ii,  2).  B.C. 
1035.  The  child  thus  born  in  adultery  became  ill  and 
died  (2  Sam.  xii,  15-18).  After  the  lapse  of  the  period 
of  mourning  for  her  husband,  who  was  slain  by  the 
contrivance  of  David  (xi,  15),  she  was  legally  married 
to  the  king  (xi,  27),  and  bore  him  Solomon  (xii,  24 ;  1 
Kings  i,  11 ;  ii,  13;  comp.  Matt,  i,  6).  It  is  probable 
that  the  enmity  of  Ahithophel  toward  David  was  in- 
creased, if  not  caused,  by  the  dishonor  brought  by  him 
upon  his  family  in  the  person  of  Bath-sheba.  The  other 
children  of  Bath-sheba  were  Shimea  (or  Shammuah), 
Shobab,  and  Nathan,  named  in  2  Sam.  v,  14 ;  1  Chron. 
iii,  5.  When,  in  David's  old  age,  Adonijah,  an  elder 
son  by  Haggith,  attempted  to  set  aside  in  his  own  fa- 
vor the  succession  promised  to  Solomon,  Bath-sheba 
was  employed  by  Nathan  to  inform  the  king  of  the 
conspiracy  (1  Kings  i,  11, 15,  23).  After  the  accession 
of  Solomon,  she,  as  queen-mother,  requested  permis- 
sion of  her  son  for  Adonijah  (q.  v.)  to  take  in  mar- 
riage Abishag  (q.  v.)  the  Shunamite.  B.C.  1015.  This 
permission  was  refused,  and  became  the  occasion  of  the 
execution  of  Adonijah  (1  Kings  ii,  24,  25).    See  David. 

Bath-sheba  is  said  by  Jewish  tradition  to  have  com- 
posed and  recited  Prov.  xxxi  by  way  of  admonition 
or  reproof  to  her  son  Solomon  on  his  marriage  with 
Pharaoh's  daughter  (Calmct,  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Corn,  a  La- 
pid.  on  Prov.  xxxi).  The  rabbins  describe  her  as  a 
woman  of  vast  information  and  a  highly-cultivated 
mind,  to  whose  education  Solomon  owed  much  of  his 
wisdom  and  reputation,  and  even  a  great  part  of  the 
practical  philosophy  embodied  in  his  Proverbs  (q.  v.). 

A  place  is  still  shown  at  Jerusalem,  called  "the 
Pool  of  Bath-sheba,"  as  being  the  spot  where  she  was 
seen  bathing  by  David,  but  it  is  an  insignificant  pit, 


r.ATir-snrA  e 

evidently  destitute  of  any  claim  to  antiquity  (Biblioth. 
Sacra,  1843,  p.  33) Kitto,  b.  v.  ;  Smith,  s.  v. 

Bath'-shua,  a  variation  of  the  name  of  Bath-she- 
i;a  (q.  v.l,  mother  of  Solomon,  occurring  only  in  1  Chr. 
iii,  5.  It  is  perhaps  worth  notice  that  Shua  was  a  Ca- 
naanite  nunc  (comp.  1  Chr.  ii,  3,  and  Gen.  xxxviii,2, 12, 
where  "Bath-shua"  is  really  the  name  of  Judah's  wife), 
while  Bath-sheba'a  original  husband  was  a  Hittite. 

Bathurst,  Henry,  LL.D.,  bishop  of  Norwich,  Eng- 
land, was  horn  in  1744,  and  was  educated  at  Winches- 
ter and  New  College,  Oxford.  He  was  made  canon 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1775;  and  bishop  of  Nor- 
wich,1805.  He  died  in  London,  1837.  His  publica- 
tions were  few,  consisting  of  Charges  to  his  clergy, 
occasional  Sermons,  and  a  Letter  to  Wilberforce,  1818. 
11  is  Memoirs,  by  Archdeacon  Bathurst,  appeared  in 
1837,  2  vols.  8vo";  with  Supplement  in  1842,  8vo.— Dar- 
ling, Cyc.  Bib.  i,  202  ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  141. 

Bathurst,  Ralph,  an  English  physician  and  di- 
vine, was  born  in  Northampton,  1G20.  Having  studied 
physic,  he  was  made  a  naval  surgeon  under  Cromwell ; 
but  after  the  return  of  Charles  II  he  gave  himself  to 
divinity,  and  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  king.  In 
1664  he  was  elected  president  of  Trinity  College ;  in 
1G70,  dean  of  Wells  ;  in  1673,  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Oxford  ;  in  1G88,  president  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1691  he  refused  the  see  of  Bristol ;  died 
in  1704.  He  published  Prcekcliones  de  Respiratione, 
1654;  News  from  the  Dead  (an  account  of  Anne  Green, 
executed  in  1650,  and  restored  to  life),  1651,  4to;  and 
several  Latin  poems. — Warton,  Life  of  Bathurst,  17G1, 
8vo ;  New  Gen.  Biog.  Diet,  ii,  84. 

Bath-zachari'as  ( Baif>Za\apla  v.  r.  Josephus 
Bi0'^a\apia;  for  the  Heb.  iTn=f  I"Ha,  House  of  Zech- 
ariah),  a  place  named  only  in  1  Mace,  vi,  32,  33,  to 
which  Judas  Maccabasus  marched  from  Jerusalem,  and 
where  he  encamped  for  the  relief  of  Bethsura  (Bethzur) 
when  the  latter  was  besieged  by  Antiochus  Eupator. 
The  two  places  were  seventy  stadia  apart  (Joseph. 
Ant.  xii,  9,  4),  and  the  approaches  to  Bath-zacharias 
were  intricate  and  confined  (Joseph.  War,  i,  1,  5;  and 
compare  the  passage  cited  above,  from  which  it  is  evi- 
dent that  Josephus  knew  the  spot).  This  description 
is  met  in  e\«ery  respect  by  the  modern  Beit-Saharieh, 
which  has  been  discovered  by  Robinson  at  nine  miles 
north  of  Beit-Sur,  "on  an  almost  isolated  promontory 
or  tell,  jutting  out  between  two  deep  valleys,  and  con- 
nected with  tin-  high  ground  south  by  a  low  neck  be- 
tween the  heads  of  the  valleys,  the  neck  forming  the 
only  place  of  access  to  what  must  have  been  an  almost 
impregnable  position"  {Later  Researches,  p.  283,  284). 
The  place  lies  in  the  entangled  country  west  of  the 
Hebron  road,  between  four  and  five  miles  south  of 
Hcbrtfn. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Bethzur. 

Batman,  Stephen',  an  English  divine  and  poet, 
was  born  at  Bruton,  Somerset,  in  1537,  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, became  chaplain  to  Abp.  Parker,  and  died  in 
1587.  He  published  The  Travayl  d  Pilgrim.  "  an  alle- 
gorico-theological  romance"  of  human  life  (1560,  4to); 
.1  Cristall  Glass  of  Christian  Reformation  (1569,  4to); 
Joyful  News  m,t  of  Helvetia,  declaring  the  fall  of  the  Pa. 
pal  Dignity  (1570,  8vo);  Treatise  against  Usury  (1575, 
Bvo);  Golden  Bool  of  th  Leaden  Gods  (1577) ;  The 
Doom,  warning  all  men  to  Judgment  (1581,  8vo)._ Rose, 
Biog.  Did.  b.  v,  ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  141. 

Battelle,  Gobdon,  D.IX,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  in  Newport,  Ohio,  Nov.  14,  ism. 
He  entered  Marietta  College  in  1883,  and  graduated 
at  All.  ;hanj  College  in  1840.  In  1842 he  was  licensed 
to  preach;  and  from  1843  to  1851  he  was  head  of  an 
acade,,,v  a<  ( llarksburg,  Va.  Meanwhile  he  had  been 
ordained  deacon  in  1847,  and  elder  in  1849.  From  1851 
to  1860  he  labored  efficiently  as  preacher  and  presiding 
elder.  He  tfai  a  member  of  the  General  Conferences 
Of  1856  and  i860.     His  iafluenoe  iu  Western  Virginia 


6  BATTERING-RAM 

was  very  great,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion 
in  1861,  he  was  called  to  serve  as  visitor  to  the  military 
camps.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which 
framed  the  Constitution  of  West  Virginia,  and  to  him, 
more  largely  than  to  any  other  man,  is  due  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  in  that  region.  In  November,  1861,  he 
was  chosen  chaplain  of  the  1st  Va.  Regiment,  and  con- 
tinued in  the  service  till  his  death  of  typhoid  fever, 
Jan.  7,  1862.— Minutes  of  Conferences,  1863,  p.  34. 

Battering-ram  C"l3,  lar,  a  lamb,  Ezek.  iv,  2 ; 
xxi,  22;  and  so  Josephus,  icpioc,  War,  iii,  7,  19,  where 
the  instrument  is  described ;  but  Sept.  in  the  above 
passages  distinctively  fitXvoTao-ic. ;  Targ.  and  Kimchi, 
i?-p  ^rfO),  a  military  engine  for  forcing  a  breach  in 
walls  (comp.  1  Mace,  xiii,  43),  of  very  high  antiquity, 
being  in  use  by  the  Babjdonians  (Ezek.  1.  c),  and  ap- 
parently still  earlier  by  the  Israelites  in  the  siege  of 
Abel-Beth-Maachah  (2  Sam.  xx,  15);  it  may  have 
been  one  of  the  "engines"  of  war  employed  by  Uz- 
ziah,  king  of  Jud;.h  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  15).  This  machine 
was  a  long  beam  of  strong  wood,  usually  oak.  One 
end  was  made  of  iron,  shaped  like  a  ram's  head,  and 
when  driven  repeatedly  and  with  great  force  against 
the  wall  of  a  city  or  fortification,  either  pierced  it  or 
battered  it  down  (see  Diod.  Sic.  xii,  28;  Plinv,  vii, 
57,  p.  416,  ed.  Hard. ;  Vitruv.  x,  19  [13],  2).  There 
were  three  kinds  of 
battering-rams:  (1.) 
One  that  was  held 
in  suspension,  like 
a  scale-beam,  by 
means  of  cables  or 
chains  in  a  frame  of 
strong  timber.  This 
must  have  been  easy 
to  work  and  of  great 
power,  as  a  very 
heavy  body  suf- 
pended  in  the  air 
requires  no  great 
strength  to  move  it  with  much  force.  (2.)  In  an- 
other kind  of  ram,  the  mighty  instrument  acted  upon 
rollers,  and  its  power  appears  to  have  been  very 
great,  although  it  must  have  been  worked  with  more 
labor  than  the  preceding.  (3.)  There  was  another 
ram,  which  was  not  suspended  or  mounted  on  rollers, 
but  borne  and  worked  by  manual  strength.  The  ma- 
chine was  generally  covered  by  a  movable  shed  or 
roof,  which  protected  the  men  by  whom  it  was  worked. 
It  has  been  calculated,  that  the  momentum  of  a  bat- 
tering-ram 28  inches  in  diameter,  180  feet  long,  with 
a  head  of  a  ton  and  a  half,  weighing  41,112  pounds, 


Oldinary  Batttring- 


Ancitnt  Assyrian  Battering-ram  supporting  a  Tower  contain- 
ing Warriors. 


BATTLE 


697 


BATTLEMENT 


and  worked  by  a  thousand  men,  would  only  be  equal 
to  a  point-blank  shot  from  a  thirty-six  pounder.  The  ' 
ram  was  used  by  Nebuchadnezzar  against  Jerusalem, 
and  also  by  Titus,  with  terrible  force,  in  the  final  de-  J 
struction  of  that  city  (Ezek.  and  Josephus,  ut  sup.). 
It  was  a  favorite  method  of  attack  by  the  Romans 
(see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Aries),  and  no 
less  so  with  the  Babylonians  (Layard's  Nineveh,  ii, 
274).     See  Engine  ;  War  ;  Siege. 

Battle  (properly  tVQ'rib'O,  milckamah',  -KoXijioo). 
'Though  the  Hebrews  in  their  mode  of  conducting  war- 
like operations  varied  somewhat  in  the  course  of  ages, 
and  are  elsewhere  shown  to  have  been  swayed  by  the  \ 
practice  of  greater  and  more  military  nations,  still,  from 
the  period  when  the  institution  of  royalty  gave  rise  to 
an  organized  system,  it  was  a  maxim  to  spare  the  sol-  j 
diers  all  unnecessary  fatigue  before  an  engagement, 
and  to  supply  them  "liberally  with  food.  Their  arms 
were  enjoined  to  be  in  the  best  order,  and  when  drawn 
up  for  battle  they  formed  a  line  of  solid  squares  of  a  I 
hundred  men,  each  square  being  ten  deep,  and  with  | 
sufficient  interval  between  to  allow  of  facility  in  move-  ! 
ments,  and  the  slingers  to  pass  through.  The  archers  \ 
may  have  occupied  the  two  flanks,  or  formed  in  the  , 
rear,  according  to  the  intentions  of  the  commander  on 
the  occasion ;  but  the  slingers  were  always  stationed  in 
the  rear  until  they  were  ordered  forward  to  impede  a  ■ 
hostile  approach,  or  to  commence  the  engagement,  some-  J 
what  in  the  manner  of  modern  skirmishers.  Mean-  j 
time,  while  the  trumpets  waited  to  sound  the  last  sig- 
nal, the  king,  or  his  representative,  appeared  in  his 
sacred  dress  (rendered  in  our  version  "  the  beauty  of 
holiness"),  except  when  he  wished  to  remain  unknown, 
as  at  Megiddo  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  22)  ;  and  proceeded  to 
make  the  final  dispositions,  in  the  middle  of  his  chosen  j 
braves,  attended  by  priests,  who,  by  their  exhortations, 
animated  the  ranks  within  hearing.  It  was  now,  we 
may  suppose,  when  the  enemy  was  at  hand,  that  the 
slingers  would  be  ordered  to  pass  between  the  intervals 
of  the  line  of  solid  squares,  open  their  order,  and  with 
shouts,  let  fly  their  stone  or  leaden  missiles,  until,  by 
the  gradual  approach  of  the  opposing  fronts,  they  would 
be  hemmed  in,  and  be  recalled  to  the  rear  or  to  cover  j 
a  flank.  Then  would  come  the  signal  to  charge,  and 
the  great  shout  of  battle;  the  heavy  infantry,  receiv- 
ing the  order  to  attack,  would,  under  cover  of  their 
shields  and  levelled  spears,  press  direct  upon  the  front 
of  the  enemy ;  the  rear  ranks  might  then,  if  so  armed, 
cast  their  second  darts,  and  the  archers  from  the  rear 
shoot  high,  so  as  to  pitch  the  arrows  over  their  own 
main  line  of  spearmen  into  the  dense  masses  beyond 
them.  If  the  enemy  broke  through  the  intervals,  we 
may  imagine  that  a  line  of  charioteers  in  reserve, 
breaking  from  their  position,  might  in  part  charge 
among  the  disordered  ranks  of  the  foe,  drive  them 
back,  and  facilitate  the  restoration  of  the  oppressed 
masses,  or,  wheeling  round  a  flank,  fall  upon  the  en- 
emy, or  be  encountered  by  a  similar  manoeuvre,  and 
perhaps  repulsed.  The  king,  meanwhile,  surrounded 
by  his  princes,  posted  close  to  the  rear  of  his  line  of 
battle,  and  iii  the  middle  of  the  showered  missiles, 
would  watch  the  enemy  and  remedy  every  disorder.  : 
In  this  position  it  was  that  several  of  the  sovereigns 
of Judah  were  slain  (2  Chron.  xviii,  33,  and  xxxv,  23),  | 
and  that  such  an  enormous  waste  of  human  life  took 
place  ;  for  the  shock  of  two  hostile  lines  of  masses,  at 
least  ten  in  depth,  advancing  under  the  confidence  of 
breastplate  and  shield,  when  once  engaged  hand  to 
hand,  had  difficulties  of  no  ordinary  nature  to  retreat; 
because  the  hindermost  ranks,  not  feeling  personally 
the  first  slaughter,  would  not,  and  the  foremost  could 
not,  fall  back;  neither  could  the  commanders  disen- 
gage the  line  without  a  certainty  of  being  defeated. 
The  fate  of  the  day  was  therefore  no  longer  within  the 
control  of  the  chief,  and  nothing  but  obstinate  valor 
was  left  to  decide  the  victory.     Hence,  from  the  stub-  I 


born  character  of  the  Jews,  battles  fought  among  them- 
selves were  particularly  sanguinary,  such,  for  example, 
as  that  in  which  Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel,  was  defeat- 
ed by  Abijah  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xiii,  3,  17),  where, 
if  there  be  no  error  of  copyists,  there  was  a  greater 
slaughter  than  in  ten  such  battles  as  that  of  Leipsic, 
although  on  that  occasion  three  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  combatants  were  engaged  for  three  succes- 
sive days,  provided  with  all  the  implements  of  modern 
destruction  in  full  activity.  Under  such  circumstances, 
defeat  led  to  irretrievable  confusion ;  and  where  either 
party  possessed  superiority  in  cavalry  and  chariots  of 
war,  it  would  be  materially  increased ;  but  where  the 
infantry  alone  had  principally  to  pursue  a  broken  en- 
emy, that  force,  laden  with  shields,  and  preserving 
order,  could  overtake  very  few  who  chose  to  abandon 
their  defensive  armor,  unless  they  were  hemmed  in  by 
the  locality.  Sometimes  a  part  of  the  army  was  posted 
in  ambush,  but  this  manoeuvre  was  most  commonly 
practised  against  the  garrisons  of  cities  (Josh,  viii,  12; 
Judg  xx,  38).  In  the  case  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv,  16), 
when  he  led  a  small  body  of  his  own  people  suddenly 
collected,  and  fell  upon  the  guard  of  the  captives,  re- 
leased them,  and  recovered  the  booty,  it  was  a  surprise, 
not  an  ambush;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  suppose  that 
he  fell  in  with  the  main  army  of  the  enemy.  At  a 
later  period,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Hebrew  armies, 
in  imitation  of  the  Romans,  formed  into  more  than  one 
line  of  masses  ;  but  there  is  ample  evidence  that  they 
always  possessed  more  stubborn  valor  than  discipline; 
— Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Army  ;  War  ;  Siege,  etc. 

Battle-axe  (yS^O,  moppets',  breaker  in  pieces; 
Sept.  and  Vulg.  render  as  a  verb,  cia<TKO07ri'4'£ie,  colli- 
oils'),  a  mallet  or  heavy  war-club  (Jer.  Ii,  20 ;  comp.  the 
cognate  V"1?*?,  mephits',  "maul,"  Prov.  xxv,  18). 
The  ancient  Egyptian  battle-axes  were  of  two  kinds, 
both  answering  to  this  description,  being  adapted  to 
inflict  a  severe  blow  by  the  weight  no  less  than  to 
cut  with  the  edge.  Each  was  a  broad-axe  with  a  semi- 
circular blade,  that  of  the  one  being  usually  in  two 
segments  both  attached  to  the  handle  as  a  back ;  and 
that  of  the  other  projecting  beyond  the  handle,  with 
a  large  ball  attached  to  give  it  momentum  (see  figs. 
12  and  7  in  the  first  series  of  cuts  under  the  art.  Ar- 
mor, and  compare  Wilkinson's  Ane.  Eg.  i,  362,  363, 
abridgm.).    See  Axe;- Maul. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Warriors  hewing  a  Figure  to  Pieces. 

Battle-bow  (ircnb'a  fiUSj^,  Jce'sheth  mikhaitiah', 
bow  of  battle)  occurs  inZech.  ix,  10;  x,  4,  for  the  war- 
how  used  in  fighting.  See  Ar- 
mor. 

Among  the  Egyptians,  on 
commencing  the  attack  in  the 
open  field,  at  a  signal  made  by 
sound  of  trumpet,  the  archers 
drawn  up  in  line  first  discharged 
a  shower  of  arrows  on  the  ene- 
my's front,  and  a  considerable 
mass  of  chariots  advanced  to 
the  charge;  the  heavy  infan- 
try, armed  with  spears  or  clubs,  Ancient  Egyptian  Body 
and  covered  with  their  shields,  of  Archers. 


BATTLEMENT  6 

moved  forward  «t  the  same  time  in  close  array,  flank- 
ed by  chariots  and  cavalry,  and  pressed  upon  the  cen- 
tre and  wings  of  the  enemy,  the  archers  still  galling 
the  hostile  columns  with  their  arrows,  and  endeavor- 
ing to  create  disorder  in  their  ranks  (Wilkinson,  i,  405, 
abridgm.).     See  Battle. 
Battlement   (•"»£?;?, 
maakeh',    a    ledge;    Sept. 
trrupdvii),  a  balustrade  cr 
wall  surrounding  the  flat 
roofs    of   Oriental    houses 

[see  Ilorsi:],  required   by  _  :=--=- 

special  enactment  as  a  pro-      -- ~-~=,Jr_" 
tection    against   accidents      : 
(Deut.  xxii,  8).     InJer.v, 
10,  for  ir-J-fZ.  n  ishoth', 

tendrils;  Sept.  viroarnpiy-  j|  i» 

para),  the  p  irapet  of  a  city 
wall ;  and  SO  for  i'-u\'i,tr 
in  Ecclus.  ix,  13. 

Baudouin.  See  Bald- 
win. 

Bauer,  Georg  Lo- 
eknz.  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man theologian  in  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  horn  Aug. 
14th,  1755,  atHiltboltstein, 
near  Nurnberg  ;  became  in 
1787  conrector  at  Nurn- 
berg, in  1789  Professor  of 
Eloquence,  Oriental  Lan- 
guages, and  Ethics  at  the 
University  of  Altdorf,  and 
in  1805  Professor  of  Exe- 
getical  Theology  and  Ori- 
ental Literature  at  Heidel- 
berg,    lie  was  also  made 

a  Church  councillor  by  the  government  of  Baden.  He 
died  .Tan.  12th,  1806.  Among  his  numerous  writing?, 
the  following  are  the  most  important :  Ein'ekung  in  die 
Schriften  des  Allen  Testaments  (Nurnh  3d  ed.  180G): — 
Eermeneutica  sacra  V.  T.  (Leipz.  1797):  —  Bibliscke 
TheologU  des  Neuen  Test's  (Leipz.  1803-1805): — Lelir- 
buch  dcr  Hebraischen  Atterthumer  (2d  ed.  by  Rosen- 
miiller,  Leipz.  1«35).  He  also  continued  "Schulz's 
Scholia  in  V.  T.  (Numb.  1790-94,  vol.  iv  to  viii)  and 
Glassius's  /  hUologia  Sacra  (Leipz.  1793-97). 

Baumgarten,  Siegmund  Jacob,  an  eminent 
German  theologian,  was  born  March  14,  1706,  at 
Wollmirstadt.  His  early  education  was  conducted  by 
bis  father,  James  P>.,  pastor  at  Wollmirstadt.  He 
then  studied  at  Halle,  and,  after  filling  several  minor 
offices,  was  mad.'  professor  of  theology  at  Halle,  1734. 
His  lectures  were  very  popular,  and  he  secured  a  still 
wider  reputation  by  bis  writings.  Educated  in  the 
school  of  Spener  and  Franke,  he  retained  the  forms  of 
orthodoxy,  but  imbibed  Wolff 's  philosophy,  and  taught 
in  a  far  more  scientific  spirit  than  bad  characterized 
the  pietistic  school.  He  is  regarded  in  Germany  as 
the  forerunner  of  rationalism,  which,  indeed,  found  its 
first  free  exponent  among  theologians  in  his  disciple 
Bemler.  Hedied  I7.">7.  His  writings,  some  of  which 
are  posthumous,  are  chiefly  historical  and  exegetical; 
amongthese  are  r,,/  rricht  t>.d.Ausl  nungd.fa  If.  Schrift. 
<  Halle,  171-'.  8vo)  ■  Auslegung  d.  Briefe  Pauli  (  Halle, 
1749  1767):  Evangel.  Glaubenshhre,  ed.  Sender 
(Malic,  k.v.i  6  i.  3  v,  1-.  Ho):— Begriff.  ,/.  theol.  StrdUg- 
I.  Semler  (Halle,  1771, 8vo)  i—Theolog.  Beden- 
lcm  (Hall  1742  50.  ,  ■■!-.  gvo):  Geschichte  <l.  Reli- 
gionsparteien  (Halle,  it:,;..  8vo):  -Breviarhm  histories 
Christ,  in  'in;,  schol.  <  Halle,  1754,  8vo).  Semler  wrote 
a  sketch  of  the  life  of  Baumgarten,  which  contains  a 
full  list  of  hi,  writings  (Halle,  ]7.r,s,  «%•«.)— Herzog, 
Real-Encyklopadi  .  i.  ,  10;  Kahnis,  German  Protestant- 
ww,  p.  11.".;  Hut  i.  Hist,  of  Rationalism,  ch.  iv. 


8  BAUR 

Baumgarten-Crusius,  Lddwig  Friedrich  Ot- 
to, an  eminent  German  theologian,  was  born  July  31, 
1788,  at  Merseburg.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Leipsic,  and  in  1812  became  professor  extraordinarius 
of  theology  at  Jena,  after  which  his  rise  was  steady. 
After  a  life  of  unwearied  activity,  both  as  lecturer 


Oriuitnl  II" if,  v, 


and  writer  on  various  branches  of  theological  science, 
he  died  suddenly,  May  31,  1843,  leaving  a  great  repu- 
tation for  talent,  breadth  of  view,  and  industry.  His 
principal  works  are  Einleitung  in  das  Stud.  d.  Dog- 
matih (Leipz.  1820, 8vo) : — CJiristlichc  Sittrnh  lire  (  Leipz. 
1820,  8vo)  -.—Grundsiige  d.  Bib!.  Theologie  (Jena,  1828, 

;  8vo): — Geuissniffrciheit,  Iiationalismus,  etc.  (Berlin, 
1830,  Svo)  :  —  Lehrbuek  d.  christl.  Dogmengeschiehte 
(Jena,  1832,  8vo): — Compendium  d.  Dognungt xih'chte 
(Leipz.  1840 ;  revised  and  finished  by  Hase,  Jena,  1846, 
2  vols.  8vo);  also,  posthumous,  Exegetischi  Schriften 
mm  -Y.  T.  (Jena,  1844-48,  3  vols.  8vo,  covering  the 
Synoptical  Gospels,  with  Rom.,  Gal.,  Eph.,  Col.,  Phil., 
Thess.);  and  Tkeologische  Auslegung  d.  Johanneischen 
Schriften  (Jem,  1843-1845,  2  vols.  Svo ).— Herzog, 
ReaLEncyMop.  i,  741. 

Baur,  Ferdixand  Christian,  a  German  theolo- 
gian of  marked  influence  on  the  German  theology  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  was  born  June  21st,  1792;  be- 
came, in  1817,  Professor  at  the  Theological  Seminary 
of  Blaubeuern,  and  in  1826  Professor  of  Evangelical 
Theology  at  the  University  of  Tubingen.  He  died  at 
Tubingen  Dec.  3d,  I860.  '  Baur  is  the  author  of  nu- 
merous works  on  systematic  and  historic  theology. 
At  first  he  was  regarded  as  a  follower  of  Neander  and 
Schleiermacher.  But  he  afterward  embraced  Hegelian* 
ism,  developed  it  into  Pantheism,  and  for  many  years 
devoted  the  powers  of  his  great  intellect  to  the  subver- 
sion of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity.  He 
went,  step  by  step,  farther  from  the  positive  Christian 

j  faith  into  Gnostic  idealism,  and  in  a  series  of  writings 
endeavored  to  give  an  entirely  new  form  to  the  repre- 
sentation of  primitive  Christianity.  On  his  death-bed, 
the  Pantheist,  who  had  looked  upon  the  idea  of  a  per- 
son il  God  with  contempt,  prayed,  "Lord,  grant  me  a 
peaceful  end."  Baur  is  the  founder  of  the  so-called 
Tubingen  school  of  theology,  which  farther  developed 

I  his  views,  and  gained  a  sad  notoriety  by  its  attacks 


BAUR  6< 

on  the  authenticity  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Among  his  works  on  the  New  Testament,  the 
following  are  the  most  important:  Die  sogenannten 
Pastoral  Briefe  des  Apostels  Paulus  (Stuttg.  1835),  in 
which  he  denies  the  authenticity  of  all  Pauline  epis- 
tles except  those  to  the  Galatians,  Corinthians,  and 
Romans  : — Paulus,  der  Apostel  Jem  Christi  (Stuttg. 
1845)  : — Kritische  Enter suchungen  uber  die  Jcanon.  Evan- 
ge'Jen  (Tub.  1847),  in  which,  in  particular,  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Gospel  of  John  is  attacked  :—L)as  Marcus 
Evangelium  nach  seinem  Ursprung  und  Character  (Tub. 
1851).  "In  these  and  other  works  of  a  similar  nature, 
Baur  maintains  that  we  must  extend  our  notions  of 
the  time  within  which  the  canonical  writings  were 
composed  to  a  period  considerably  post-apostolic,  and 
which  can  only  be  determined  approximately  by  a 
careful  investigation  of  the  motives  which  apparently 
actuated  their  authors."  Another  class  of  his  works 
treat  of  the  history  of  Christian  doctrines  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  ancient  church.  Here  belong:  Bus  Man- 
irhiiixchi  Hi  ligi '< mssystem  (Tub.  1801;  one  of  his  best 
works)  : — Apollonius  von  Tyana  und  Christvs  (Tub. 
1823) : — Die  christliche  Gnosis  oder  die  christliche  Reli- 
gionsphilosophie  (Tub.  1835)  (The  Christian  Gnosis,  or 
the  Christian  Philosophy  of  Religion),  a  work  which 
makes  the  Christian  Gnosis  of  the  2d  and  3d  centuries 
the  starting-point  of  a  long  series  of  religio-philosophic- 
al  productions  traceable  uninterruptedly  down  through 
Middle-age  mysticism  and  theosophy  to  Schelling, 
Hegel,  and  Schleiermacher : — Ueber  den  Ursprung  des 
Episcopats  in  der  christlichen  Kirche  (Tub.  1838)  : — Die 
christliche  Lehre  von  der  Yersohnung  (Tub.  1839): — Die 
christliche  Lehre  von  der  Dreieinigkeit  und  Menschwer- 
dung  Gottes  (Tub.  1841-43,  3  vols.) :— Die  Epochen  der 
Icirchlichen  Geschichtssckreibung  (Tub.  1852):  —  Das 
Christenihum  und  die  christliche  Kirche  der  drei  ersten 
Jahrhunderts  (Tub.  1853 ;  2d  edit.  I860)  :— Die  christ- 
liche Kirche  vom  Anfange  des  vierten  bis  ziim  Ende  des 
secltsten  Jahrhunderts  (  Tub.  1859  )  :  —  Lehrbuch  der 
christi.  Dogmengesckichte  (Tub.  2d  ed.  1858).  Against 
the  famous  Symbolism  of  Mohler,  he  wrote,  Der  Gegcn- 
satz  des  Katholicismus  und  Protestantism/us  (Tub.  2d  ed. 
183G),  and  Eruidrung  gegen  Mahler's  neueste  Polemik 
(Tub.  1834).  On  the  results  of  the  works  of  the  Tubin- 
gen school  in  general,  he  wrote  an  epistle  to  Dr.  Ilase 
of  Jena,  An  Dr.  K.  Base  (Tub.  1855),  and  Die  Tubmger 
Sckule  (Tub.  1859).  Professor  Baur  left  behind  him 
several  works  on  the  church  history  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  of  modern  times  nearly  completed,  and  they 
have  been  published  by  his  son,  F.  F.  Baur,  and  Prof. 
E.  Zeller,  viz. :  Die  christliche  Kirche  des  Mittelalters 
in  den  Ilauptmomenten  Hirer  Entirieldung  (ed.  by  F.  F. 
Baur,  Tub.  18C1) ;  Kirchengeschichte  des  \Sten  Jahr- 
hunderts (edit,  by  E.  Zeller,  Tiib.  1862);  Kirchenge- 
schichte  der  neuern  Zeit  von  der  Reformation  bis  sum  Ende 
des  18ten  Jahrhunderts  (ed.  by  F.  F.  Baur,  Tub.  1863). 
Together  with  the  two  volumes  published  by  Prof. 
Baur  himself  on  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
from  its  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  6th  century,  these 
three  posthumous  works  constitute  a  complete  course 
of  historical  works,  extending  over  the  entire  history 
of  the  Christian  Church.  His  latest  volumes  of  church 
history  gave  great  offence  by  his  severe  criticism  on 
the  different  schools  of  German  theology  since  Schleier- 
macher. Another  work  left  by  Professor  Baur  and 
published  by  his  son  is  a  course  of  Lectures  on  the  The- 
ology of  the  New  Testament  (Vorkswtffen  uber  neutesta- 
mentliche  Theologie,  Leipzic,  1864),  in  which  the  author 
more  than  in  any  of  his  other  works  develops  his  views 
of  the  teaching  of  Jesus,  and  of  the  doctrinal  difference 
which  he  assumes  to  have  existed  between  the  dif- 
ferent apostles.  The  Litest  of  these  posthumous  is- 
sues is  Vorlesungen  uber  die  Christliche  Dogmengeschichte 
(part  I  of  vol.  i,  Leipz.  1865).  The  work  will  consist 
of  three  volumes,  the  first  of  which  will  embrace  the 
doctrines  of  the  ancient  Church,  the  second  those  of 
the  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  third  those  of 


BAVARIA 

the  Church  of  modern  times.  Part  I  extends  over  the 
period  from  the  apostolical  age  to  the  Synod  of  Nice. 
In  point  of  extent  and  completeness  this  work  of  Baur 
will  take  rank  among  the  foremost  works  in  this  de- 
partment of  German  theologj'. — Herzog,  lical-Ency- 
klopddie,  Supplem.  vol.  i ;  Fisher,  Essays  on  the  Super- 
natural Origin  of  Christianity,  131-285;  Illgen's  Zeit- 
schrift,  1866,  131 ;  Chambers's  Encyclopedia,  i,  759. 
See  Tubingen  School. 

Bausset,  Louis  Francois  de,  a  French  cardin- 
al, born  at  Pondicherry  Dec.  14,  1748,  died  June  21, 
1824.  Having  finished  his  theological  studies  in  the 
seminary  of  Saint  Sulpice,  he  obtained  an  appointment 
in  the  diocese  of  Frejus.  In  1770  he  was  deputed  to 
the  assembly  of  the  clergy,  and  in  1784  consecrated 
bishop  of  Alais.  Lie  was  sent  by  the  Estates  of  Lan- 
guedoc  to  the  two  assemblies  of  notables  in  1787  and 
1788.  In  1791  he  adhered  to  the  protest  of  the  French 
bishops  against  the  civil  constitution  of  the  French 
clergy.  Soon  after  he  emigrated,  but  in  1792  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  where  he  was  put  in  prison.  Being 
set  free  on  the  9th  of  Thermidor,  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  literature.  In  1806  he  obtained  a  canonry 
at  the  chapter  of  St.  Denys.  Abbe  Emery  having 
handed  over  to  him  all  the  manuscripts  of  Fenelon,  ho 
undertook  to  write  the  history  of  Fenelon.  This  work 
(Histoire  de  Fenelon,  1808-9,  3  vols.  8vo)  established 
the  editor's  literary  reputation,  and  in  1810  procured 
for  him  the  second  decennial  prize.  Bausset  compiled 
on  the  same  plan  the  Histoire  de  Eossuet  (Paris,  4  vols. 
8vo,  1814),  which,  however,  did  not  meet  w  ith  an  equal- 
ly favorable  reception.  "When  the  Council  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  was  reorganized,  Bausset  was  appoint- 
ed a  member.  On  the  return  of  Louis  XVIII  he  was 
appointed  president  of  this  council,  but  this  position 
he  lost  during  the  "Hundred  Days."  After  the  sec- 
ond restoration  he  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers ;  in 

1816  he  became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy;  in 

1817  he  received  the  cardinal's  hat,  and  was  minister 
of  state.  Besides  the  histories  of  Fenelon  and  Bossuet, 
Bausset  wrote  biographical  essays  on  the  Cardinal  of 
Boisgelin  (1804);  on  Abbe  Legris-Duval  (1820);  on 
Archbishop  Talleyrand,  of  Paris  (1821);  and  on  the 
Duke  of  Richelieu,  the  latter  of  which  was  read  in  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  by  the  Duke  of  Pastoret  on  June  8, 
1822.  Against  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  he 
compiled,  in  1796,  conjointly  with  Abbe  Emery,  a 
pamphlet  entitled  Reflexions  sitr  la  Declaration  e.n'gee 
des  Ministres  du  culte  par  la  hi  du  7  Vendemiaire  an  IV. 
In  1797,  this  pamphlet,  with  additions,  was  again  pub- 
lished under  the  title  Expose  du  principe  sur  le  r'erment 
de  Liberie,  et  d'Egalite,  et  sur  la  declaration,  etc.  Sec 
Hoefer,  Biographic  Generale,  iv,  834  ;  M.  de  Villencuve, 
Notice  historique  sur  le  Cardinal  de  Bausset  (Marseille, 
1824) ;  G.,  Notice  sur  Bausset  (Marseille,  1824,  8vo) ; 
De  Quelen,  Discours  sur  Bausset. 

Bav'ai  (Heb.  Bavvny',  ^2,  of  Persian  origin  ;  Sept. 
Bevtf),  a  son  of  Henadad,  and  ruler  ("iiB,  praefeet)  of 
the  half  (~^S,  district)  of  Keilah,  mentioned  as  repair- 
ing a  portion  of  the  branch  wall  along  the  eastern  brow 
of  Zion,  on  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  iii,  18). 
B.C.  446. 

Bavaria,  a  kingdom  in  South  Germany.  Its  area 
in  1864  was  29,637  square  miles,  and  its  population 
4,807,440.  In  consequence  of  the  war  with  Prussia  in 
1866,  Bavaria  had  to  cede  to  that  power  a  district  con- 
taining about  33,000  inhabitants.     See  Germany. 

I.  Church  History. — As  the  Romans  had  numerous 
settlements  near  the  Danube,  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced into  that  part  of  the  modern  Bavaria  earlier  than 
into  most  of  the  other  German  countries.  In  the  sec- 
ond century,  a  certain  Bishop  Lucius,  of  Rhsetia,  is 
said  to  have  preached  at  Augsburg  and  Ratisbon.  In 
304  St.  Afra  suffered  martyrdom  at  Augsburg,  which 
shows  the  existence  of  a  Christian  congregation  at 


BAVARIA 


700 


BAVARIA 


that  city.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Christian  emperors 
Christianity  soon  pained  the  ascendency,  but  pagans 
were  found  as  late  as  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. In  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  St.  Valentin, 
an  itinerant  bishop  of  the  two  Rha-tias,  is  known  to 
have  preached  and  labored  as  a  missionary  at  Passau, 
and  to  have  been  driven  away  by  the  pagans  and  Ari- 
ans.     About  the  same  time  St.  Severin  (454-482),  a 

combatant  against  Arianism.  preached  at  Pas- 
sau and  Kunzing.  The  people  to  whom  he  preached 
ccording  to  the  testimony  of  his  disciple  and 
I  iographer  Eugippius,  nearly  all  Catholics;  but  the 
tribes  of  the  Alemanni,  Herculians,  and  others,  which, 
after  the  death  of  Attila,  roamed  through  the  Danu- 
bian  countries,  were  either  pagans  or  Arians.  Severin 
established,  in  many  of  the  places  where  he  worked  as 
a  missionary,  monasteries.  Another  part  of  Bavaria, 
which  belonged  to  the  Roman  province  of  Noricum, 
early  had  a  centre  of  missionary  operations  in  the  cel- 
ebrated convent  of  Lorch.  St.  Maximilian,  probably 
an  itinerant  bishop,  who  died  about  288,  and  St.  Flo- 
rian,  a  Roman  officer,  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  304, 
arc  among  those  of  whose  lives  and  deaths  we  have 
some  information.  Among  the  missionaries  who,  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  labored  there,  were 
Boniface,  Rupert,  Emmeran,  Sturm,  Corbinian,  and 
Wilibald.  In  the  eighth  century,  Passau,  Freising, 
Wurzburg,  Regensburg,  Augsburg,  Eichstiidt,  and 
Neuburg  had  bishops  ,  at  the  head  of  the  church  was 
the  archbishop  of  Salzburg.  A  large  number  of  rich 
cloisters  arose.  The  Reformation  found  early  ad- 
herents. Many  priests,  and  also  the  diet,  declared 
themselves  in  favor  of  it.  But  after  Luther  had  been 
put  under  the  ban  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  1521,  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria  was  foremost  among  the  princes  of 
Germany  in  opposing  and  persecuting  it,  and  a  num- 
ber of  clergymen  and  laymen  were  put  to  death.  The 
dukes  remained  ever  after,  in  the  councils  of  the  Ger- 
man princes,  the  foremost  champions  of  the  Roman 
Church.  In  1549  the  Jesuits  were  called  to  Bavaria. 
though  the  number  of  Protestants  was  still  so  great 
that  the  diet  demanded  again,  in  1553,  "  the  introduc- 
tion of  their  pure  doctrine.''  The  dukes,  in  order  to 
suppress  Protestantism  more  effectually,  demanded 
from  every  officer  of  the  state  a  confession  of  faith. 
In  1609  Duke  Maximilian  founded  the  -'Catholic 
League,"  whose  influence  was  so  disastrous  to  the 
Protestant  interests  in  Southern  Germany.  A  better 
era  for  Protestantism  and  for  religious  liberty  com- 
menced under  Maximilian  Francis  l.who  took  from 
the  Jesuits  the  censorship  of  books,  reformed  the  con- 
vents,  and  improved  the  educational  system.     At  the 

do fthe  18th  century  Maximilian"  Joseph  II  and 

his  minister  Montgelas  introduced  religious  toleration 
and  suppressed  a  large  number  of  convents.  At  this 
tini"  Bavaria  received  a  number  of  possessions  which, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation,  had  been 
wholly  or  prominently  Protestant.  Among  these  were 
the  margraviates  of  Anspach  and  Baireutb,  and  the 
free  cities  of  Nurnberg,  Nordlingen,  Augsburg,  and 
others.     'Hie  constitution  of  1818  gave  to  the  Protes- 

[ual  rights  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  The 
year  bet,, re  tin-  king  bad  concluded  a  concordat  with 
the  pope,  by  which  tin-  Roman  Catholic  Church  was 

into  2  archbishoprics  and  6  bishoprics.     See 

DAT.  I  fader  the  reign  of  Louis  I  (1825-1849) 
the  ultramontane  party  made  many  attempts  to  cur- 
tail ih-  constitutional  rights  of  Protestants,  and  were 
partly  successful  under  the  ministry  of  Abel  (1837  to 
184;  ).  'lie-  Protestants  complained  especially  of  a  de- 
cree by  which  all  Boldiers,  without  distinction  of  re- 
ligion, were  ordered  to  kneel  before  the  Host.  Their 
remonstrances  against  this  decree  were  repeatedly  sup- 
ported by  the  Chamber  of  Representatives,  hut  rejected 
by  the  Dpper  Chamber  (Reichsrath).  In  1848  the  eon- 
waa  ended  by  a  compromise,  a  military  salu- 
tation of  the  Host  being  substituted  tor  kneeling.    The 


ultramontane  party  lost  the  favor  of  the  king  when 
the  ministry  resisted  the  demand  for  conferring  the 
rank  of  nobility  upon  Lola  Montez,  and  nine  of  the 
professors  of  Munich,  who  were  regarded  as  leaders  of 
the  party  (Dollinger,  Philips,  Hofler,  Lassaulx,  etc.), 
were  removed.  The  successor  of  Louis,  Maximilian 
II  (1849-1864),  never  favored  the  schemes  of  the  ul- 
tramontane part}'.  In  185G  a  great  excitement  sprang 
up  in  the  Lutheran  Church  in  consequence  of  several 
decrees  of  the  supreme  consistory  concerning  changes 
in  the  liturgy,  mode  of  confession,  catechism,  hymn- 
books,  etc.,  in  which  a  large  number  of  the  laity  fear- 
ed Romanizing  tendencies,  and  the  supreme  consistory 
had  to  allay  the  excitement  by  concessions  and  com- 
promises. Against  the  German  Catholic  and  Free 
congregations  the  government  was  for  many  years 
very  severe.  At  the  beginning  of  the  movement  the 
government  instructed  the  police  to  treat  it  as  high 
treason.  Some  rights  were  granted  to  them  in  1848 
and  1849,  but  revolved  in  1851.  In  the  Palatinate  a 
union  between  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Church 
was  introduced  in  1818.  Then  Rationalism  prevailed 
among  the  clergy  ;  subsequently  the  evangelical  party 
gained  the  ascendency,  and  introduced  orthodox  books 
(catechism,  hymn-book,  etc.)  instead  of  the  former  ra- 
tionalistic ones.      In  1860  the  government,  removed, 

|  however,  the  orthodox  heads  of  the  Church  (among 
whom  was  the  celebrated  theologian,  Dr.  Ebrard),  and 
the  Church  of  the  Palatinate  came  again  under  the  in- 

1  fluence  of  the  Liberal  (Rationalistic)  party.  At  the 
General  Synod  held  in  1863  the  Liberals  had  a  five- 

i  sixths  majority,  and  a  revised  Church  Constitution 
proposed  by  them  was  adopted  by  all  save  six  votes. 

!  At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Liberal  "  Protestant  As- 
sociation'' (Protestantigcher  Yerein),  it  was  reported  that 
the  association  counted  18  000  members. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics.  —  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  2  archbishoprics  (Munich  and  Bamberg) 
and  6  bishoprics  ( Passau,  Augsburg,  Regensburg, 
Wurzburg,  Eichstiidt,  and  Spires).  The  diocesan 
chapters  consist  of  1  provost,  1  dean,  and  8  or  10  can- 
ons. The  king  nominates  all  the  archbishops,  bish- 
ops, and  deans  ;  the  pope  appoints  the  provosts.  Con- 
vents are  very  numerous  :  there  were,  in  1856,  63  con- 
vents of  monks  with  951  members  40  convents  of  nuns 
with  882  persons,  besides  45  houses  of  sisters  of  mercy, 

1  and  05  houses  of  poor  school-sisters.    The  Jesuits  have 

;  not  been  admitted.     Theological  faculties  are  connect- 

'  ed  with  the  universities  of  Munich  and  Wurzburg,  and 
every  diocese  has  a  theological  seminary.  Many  of 
the  state  colleges  are  under  the  management  of  relig- 
ious orders,  especially  of  the  Benedictines.  There  is 
still  among  the  clergy  a  school  which  is  strongty  op- 
posed to  ultramontanism,  and  has  friendly  dispositions 
for  all  evangelical  Protestants  (see  Sailer),  but  it  is 
decreasing  in  number  and  influence.  But,  though  less 
conciliatory  toward  Protestants,  the  Roman  Catholic 
scholars  continued  to  be  too  liberal  for  Rome.  When, 
in  1863,  Dr.  Dollinger  and  Dr  Haneberg  called  a  meet- 
ing of  Roman  Catholic  scholars  of  Germany,  their  con- 
duct was  censured  by  the  pope  on  the  ground  that 
such  meetings  should  only  be  called  by  the  bishops. 
Two  other  members  of  the  same  faculty,  Dr.  Froh- 
sehammer,  a  writer  on  philosophical  subjects,  and  Dr. 
Pichler,  the  author  of  the  best  Roman  Catholic  work 
on  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Church,  had  their  works 
put  on  the  Index.  Dr  Frohschammer  refused  to  sub- 
mit, and  openly  defied  the  authority  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Index.  The  two  archbishops  and  one 
bishop  are  members  of  the  Upper  Chamber  (Reichs- 
rath). and  the  lower  clergy  elects  eleven  members 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Romanist  newspapers 
and  journals  are  not  very  numerous,  yet  among  them 
is  one  of  the  most  important  periodicals  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  <  liunh,  the  lUstorisch-rolitische  Blatter,  found- 
ed by  Gorres  and  Philips.  Among  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologians  and  scholars  of  Bavaria  in  the  nine- 


BAXTER 

teenth  century,  Dollinger,  Haneberg,  Franz  von  Baa- 
der  (q.  v.),  and  Gorres  (q.  v.),  are  best  known.  The 
Roman  Catholics  form  about  two  thirds  of  the  total 
population,  numbering  about  3,300,000  souls,  while  the 
number  of  Protestants  amounts  to  about  1,320,000. 

The  king,  though  a  Roman  Catholic,  is  regarded  as 
the  supreme  bishop  of  the  Protestant  Church.  He 
exercises  the  episcopal  power  through  a  supreme  con- 
sistory at  Munich,  which  consists  of  a  president,  four 
clerical  and  one  lay  councillor.  Subordinate  to  it  are 
two  Lutheran  provincial  consistories,  at  Anspach  and 
Baireuth,  consisting  of  one  director,  two  clerical  and 
one  lay  councillors,  and  one  consistory  of  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  at  Spires.  The  district  of  the  for- 
mer comprises  the  seven  provinces  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Rhine,  and  contains  27  deaneries  and  1036  par- 
ishes, of  which  seven  arc  Reformed.  The  district  of 
the  latter  is  the  Palatinate,  with  fourteen  dioceses. 
In  all  the  three  consistorial  districts  the  diocesan  syn- 
ods meet  annually.  The  laity  is  represented  at  them, 
but  not  by  deputies  of  their  choice.  The  ecclesiasti- 
cal boards  select  them  from  a  number  presented  by  the 
clergy  or  by  the  presbyteries.  Every  fourth  year  a 
general  synod  meets  in  each  of  the  three  districts. 
The  two  Lutheran  general  synods  of  Anspach  and 
Baireuth  were  united  into  one  in  18-19  and  1803,  but  in 
1857,  the  government,  fearing  excitement  in  discus- 
sion, ordered  them  again,  contrary  to  the  general  wish 
of  the  Church,  to  be  held  separately.  A  theological 
faculty  is  connected  with  the  University  of  Erlangen. 
The  present  faculty  (18G0)  is  known  for  its  attachment 
to  High  Lutheran  principles,  and  publishes  one  of  the 
leading  theological  magazines  of  Germany,  the  Zeit- 
scliriftfiir  I'rotestantismus  und  Kirche.  The  Palatinate 
has  a  few  old  Lutheran  congregations.  The  highest 
court  for  the  adjudication  of  the  marriage  affairs  of 
Protestants  is  a  commission  (senate)  of  Protestant 
members  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal  at  Bamberg. 
The  president  of  the  supreme  consistory  of  Munich 
is  a  member  of  the  Upper  Chamber  of  the  Diet,  and 
the  lower  clergy  elect  five  deputies  for  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Among  the  great  Protestant  theo- 
logians and  scholars  of  the  present  century  wc  men- 
tion Harless,  Hofmann,  Thomasius,  Delitzsch,  Schu- 
bert.— Buchner,  Geschich/e  von  Baiern  aus  den  Quellcn 
(Regensb.  1820-1855,  10  vols.);  Zschokke,  Bair.  Ge- 
sckickh  n  (Aarau,  2d  cd.  1821,  4  vols.)  ;  Matthes,  Kirch- 
liche  Chronik. 

Baxter,  George  Addison,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Presbyterian  divine,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1771,  and 
educated  at  Liberty  Hall,  Lexington,  of  which  institu- 
tion he  became  principal  in  1799.  Having  been  li- 
censed to  preach  two  years  before,  he  also  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Presbyterian  congregation  at  the  same  place, 
which  post  he  filled  for  over  thirty  years.  He  contin- 
ued his  connection  with  Liberty  Hall,  afterward  Wash- 
ington College,  until  1829,  and  received  the  degree  of 
D.D.  in  1812.  In  1832  he  became  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  there  la- 
bored until  his  death  in  18-11.  Dr.  Baxter  was  the 
author  of  various  sermons  and  essays. — Sprague,  An- 
nate, iv,  192. 

Baxter,  Richard,  a  celebrated  Nonconformist  di- 
vine, born  at  Rowton,  in  Shropshire,  Nov.  12th,  1615, 
of  pious  and  excellent  parents.  His  early  education 
was  obtained  under  indifferent  masters,  so  that  he  nev- 
er in  after  life  became  an  accurate  scholar,  although 
his  unrivalled  industry  and  talent  made  him  a  widely- 
learned  man.  Though  not  a  graduate  of  either  uni- 
versity, he  was  ordained  by  Mornborough,  bishop  of 
Worcester,  and  in  1640  became  vicar  of  Kidderminster. 
He  devoted  himself  to  his  work,  and  his  labors  were 
eminently  successful.  Not  satisfied  with  correcting 
the  more  flagrant  offences  of  the  inhabitants,  he  visit- 
ed them  at  their  houses,  gave  them  religious  instruc- 
tion in  private,  and  became  their  friend  as  well  as 


■01 


BAXTER 


their  paster.  By  these  means  he  wrought  a  complete 
change  in  the  habits  of  the  people.  His  preaching 
was  acceptable  to  all  ranks.  Wherever  he  went, 
large  audiences  attended  him ;  and,  notwithstanding 
his  feeble  health,  he  preached  three  or  four  times  a 
week.  During  the  civil  wars  Baxter  held  a  position 
bj-  which  he  was  connected  with  both  the  opposite  par- 
ties in  the  state,  and  yet  was  the  partisan  of  neither. 
His  attachment  to  monarch  v.was  well  known  ;  but  the 
undisguised  respect  paid  by  him  to  the  character  of 
some  of  the  Puritans  made  him  and  others,  who  were 
sincerely  attached  to  the  crown,  objects  of  jealousy  and 
persecution.  During  an  ebullition  of  party  excite- 
ment Baxter  spent  a  few  days  in  the  Parliamentary 
army,  and  was  preaching  within  sound  of  the  cannon 
of  the  battle  at  Edge  Hill.  Not  considering  it  safe  to 
return  to  Kidderminster,  he  retired  to  Coventry,  where 
he  lived  two  years,  preaching  regularly.  After  the 
battle  of  Naseby  in  1645,  he  passed  a  night  on  a  visit 
to  some  friends  in  Cromwell's  army,  a  circumstance 
which  led  to  the  chaplaincy  of  Colonel  Whalley's  regi- 
ment being  offered  to  him,  which,  after  consulting  his 
friends  at  Coventry,  he  accepted.  In  this  capacity  he 
was  present  at  the  taking  of  Bridgewater,  the  sieges 
of  Exeter,  Bristol,  and  AYoreester,  by  Colonels  Whal- 
\ey  and  Rainsborough.  He  lost  no  opportunity  of 
moderating  the  temper  of  the  champions  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, and  of  restraining  them  within  the  bounds 
of  reason;  but  as  it  was  known  that  the  check  pro- 
ceeded from  one  who  was  unfriendly  to  the  ulterior 
objects  of  the  party,  his  interference  was  coolly  re- 
ceived. After  his  recovery  from  an  illness  which  com- 
pelled him  to  leave  the  army,  we  find  him  again  at 
Kidderminster,  exerting  himself  to  moderate  conflict- 
ing opinions.  The  conduct  of  Cromwell  at  this  crisis 
exceedingly  perplexed  that  class  of  men  of  -whom 
Baxter  might  be  regarded  as  the  type.  For  the  sake 
of  peace  they  yielded  to  an  authority  Avhich  they  con- 
demned as  a  usurpation,  but  nothing  could  purchase 
their  approbation  of  the  measures  by  which  it  had  been 
attained  and  was  supported.  In  open  conference  Bax- 
ter did  not  scruple  to  denounce  Cromwell  and  his  ad- 
herents as  guilty  of  treason  and  rebellion,  though  he 
afterward  doubted  if  he  was  right  in  opposing  him  so 
strongly  (see  Baxter's  Penitent  Confessions,  quoted  in 
Orme).  The.  reputation  of  Baxter  rendered  his  coun- 
tenance to  the  new  order  of  things  highly  desirable, 
and  accordingly  no  pains  were  spared  to  procure  it. 
The  protector  invited  him  to  an  interview,  and  endeav- 
ored to  reconcile  him  to  the  political  changes  that  had 
taken  place  ;  but  the  preacher  was  unconvinced  by  his 
arguments,  and  boldly  told  him  that  "the  honest  peo- 
ple of  the  land  took  their  ancient  monarchy  to  be  a 
blessing  and  not  an  evil."  In  the  disputes  which  pre- 
vailed about  this  time  on  the  subject  of  episcopal  or- 
dination, Baxter  took  the  side  of  the  Presbyterians  in 
denying  its  necessity.  With  them,  too,  he  agreed  in 
matters  of  discipline  and  church  government.  He  dis- 
sented from  them  in  their  condemnation  of  episcopacy 
as  unlawful.  On  their  great  principle,  namely,  the 
sufficiency  of  the  Scriptures  to  determine  all  points  of 
faith  and  conduct,  he  wavered  for  some  time,  but  ulti- 
mately adopted  it  in  its  full  extent.  Occupying  as  he 
did  this  middle  ground  between  the  Episcopalians  and 
the  Presbyterians,  it  was  not  very  obvious  with  which 
of  the  two  parties  he  -was  to  be  classed.  Had  all  im- 
positions and  restraints  been  removed,  there  is  every 
reason  to  suppose  that  he  would  have  preferred  a  mod- 
erate episcopacy  to  any  other  form  of  church  govern- 
ment ;  but  the  measures  of  the  prelatical  party  were 
so  grievous  to  the  conscience  that  he  had  no  choice  be- 
tween sacrificing  his  opinions  or  quitting  their  commu- 
nion. He  was,  however,  compelled  to  quit  the  army 
in  1657,  in  consequence  of  a  sudden  and  dangerous  ill- 
ness, and  returned  to  Worcester.  From  that  place  he 
went  to  London  to  have  medical  advice.  He  was  ad- 
vised to  visit  Tunbridge  Wells ;  and  after  continuing 


BAXTER  ^02 

at  that  place  some  time,  and  finding  his  health  im- 
proved, he  visited  London  just  before  the  deposition 
(1f  Cromwell,  and  preached  to  the  Parliament  the  day 
previous  to  its  voting  the  restoration  of  the  king.  He 
preached  occasionally  about  the  city  of  London,  having  | 
a  license  from  Bishop  Sheldon.  He  was  one  of  the  j 
Tuesday  lecturers  at  Pinners'  Hall,  and  also  had  a 
Friday  lecture  at  Fetter  Lane.  In  1662  he  preached 
his  farewell  sermon  at  Blackfriar's,  and  afterward  re- 
tired to  Acton  in  .Middlesex.  In  1676  he  built  a  meet- 
ing-house in  Oxendon  Street,  and,  when  he  had  but 
once  preached  there,  the  congregation  was  disturbed, 
and  Mr.  Sedden,  then  preaching  for  him,  was  sent  to 
the  Gatehouse,  inst  sad  of  Baxter,  where  he  continued 
three  months.  In  1682  Baxter  was  seized,  by  a  war- 
rant, for  coming  within  five  miles  of  a  corporation, 
and  his  goods  and  books  were  sold  as  a  penalty  for  live 
Bermons  he  had  preached.  Owing  to  the  bad  state  of 
his  health,  he  was  not  at  that  time  imprisoned,  through 
the  kindness  of  Mr.  Thomas  Cox,  who  went  to  five  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  and  made  oath  that  Baxter  was  in  a 
bad  state  of  health,  and  that  such  imprisonment  would 
most  likely  cause  his  death.  In  KJtfo  he  was  sent  to 
the  King's  Bench  by  a  warrant  from  the  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Jeffries  for  some  passages  in  his  Paraphrase 
on  th<:  New  Testament ;  but,  having  obtained  from  King 
James,  through  the  good  offices  of  Lord  Powis,  a  par- 
don, he  retired  to  Charter-house  Yard,  occasionally 
preached  to  large  and  devoted  congregations,  and  at 
length  died,  December  8th,  1691,  and  was  interred  in 
Christ  Church. 

Baxter's  intellect  was  rather  acute  than  profound. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  successful  preachers  and  pas- 
ters the  Christian  Church  has  seen.  His  mind  was 
rich, discursive,  and  imaginative;  qualities  which  fitted 
him  admirably,  in  conjunction  with  his  deep  and  arden; 
piety,  to  write  books  of  devotional  and  practical  re- 
ligion. His  Saint's  Rest  abounds  in  eloquent  and  pow- 
erful writing  ;  perhaps  no  book  except  Kempis  and 
Pilgrim's  Progress  has  been  more  widely  read  or  mora 
generally  useful. 

Baxter's  theology  was  of  no  school,  but,  on  the 
■whole,  eclectic  and  undecided.  In  his  Jfethodus  The- 
ologies and  Univei-sal  Redemption  he  sets  forth  a  modi- 
fied scheme  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  election. 
But  the  real  author  of  the  scheme,  at  least  in  a  sys- 
tematized form,  was  Camero,  who  taught  divinity  at 
Sinmur,  and  it  was  unfolded  and  defended  by  his 
disciple  Amyraldus,  whom  Curcellseus  refuted.  See 
Amtra'ut;  Cahebo.  Baxter  says,  in  his  preface  to 
it's  Rest,  '-The  middle  way  which  Camero. 
Crocius,  Martinius,  Amyraldus,  Davenant,  with  all  the 
divines  of  Britain  and  Bremen  in  the  Synod  of  Dort, 
go,  I  think  is  nearest  the  truth  of  any"  that  I  know 
who  have  written  on  these  points."' 

(1.)  Baxter  first  differs  from  the  majority  of  Cal- 
vinists,  though  not  from  all,  in  his  statement  of  the 
j  of  satisfaction  :  "  Christ's  sufferings  were  not 
&  fulfilling  of  the  law's  threatening  (though  he  bore  its 
'  rial'y),  but  a  satisfaction  forour  not  fulfilling 
the  precept,  and  to  prevent  God's  fulfilling  the' 'threaten- 
<  Shrist  paid  not,  therefore,  the  idem,  but  the 
quivalens;  not  the  very  debt  which  we 
owed  and  the  law  required)  but  the  value  (else  it  were 
not  strictly  sitisfaction,  which  is  redditio  (equivalents 
I  the  rendering  of  an  equivalent  ] ) :  and  (it  being  im- 
prop  srly  called  the  paying  of  a  </■  bt,  hot  properly  a  suf- 
'  thi  guilty)  the  idem  is  nothing  but  suppli- 
aum  deltnquentis  [the  punishment  of  the  guilty  in- 
dividual!.    I,,  criminals,  'In,,,  alius  soloet  simul  aliud 
soloUur  [when   another   suffers,  it  is   another  thing 
u  Buffered].     The  law  knoweth  no  vicarius 
ubstitute  in  punishment],  though  the  law- 
m&er  may  admit  it,  as  he  is  above  law;  else  there 
were  no  place  for/iar&n,  if  theprojwrdefcbepaidand 
the  law  not  relaxed,  hut  fulfilled.     Christ  did  neither 
obey  nor  suffer  in  any  man's  stead,  by  a  strict,  proper 


BAXTER 


representation  of  his  person  in  point  of  law,  so  as  that 
the  law  should  take  it  as  done  or  suffered  by  the  party 
himself;  but  only  as  a  third  person,  as  a  midiator, 
he  voluntarily  bore  what  else  the  sinner  should  have 
borne.  To  assert  the  contrary  (especially  as  to  par- 
ticular persons  considered  in  actual  sin)  is  to  overthrow 
all  Scripture  theology,  and  to  introduce  all  Antinomi- 
anism  ;  to  overthrow  all  possibility  of  pardon,  and  as- 
sert justification  before  we  sinned  or  were  born,  and  to 
make  ourselves  to  have  satisfied  God.  Therefore,  Ave 
must  not  say  that  Christ  died  nostro  loco  [in  our  stead], 
so  as  to  personate  us,  or  represent  our  persons  in  lata 
sense,  but  only  to  bear  what  else  we  must  have  borne." 

(2.)  This  system  explicitly  asserts  that  Christ  made 
a  satisfaction  by  his  death  equally  for  the  sins  of  every 
man ;  and  thus  Baxter  essentially  differs  both  from 
the  higher  Calvinists,  and  also  from  the  Sublapsari- 
ans,  who,  though  they  ma)7'  allow  that  the  reprobate 
derive  some  benefits  from  Christ's  death,  so  that  there 
is  a  vague  sense  in  which  he  may  be  said  to  have  died 
for  all  men,  yet  they,  of  course,  deny  to  such  the  bene- 
fits of  Christ's  satisfaction  or  atonement  which  Baxter 
contends  for:  "Neither  the  law,  whose  curse  Christ 
bore,  nor  God,  as  the  legislator  to  be  satisfied,  did  dis- 
tinguish between  men  as  elect  and  reprobate,  or  as  be- 
lievers and  unbelievers,  depresenti  vel  defuturo  [with 
regard  to  the  present  or  the  future];  and  to  impose 
upon  Christ,  or  require  from  him  satisfaction  for  the 
sins  of  one  sort  more  than  of  another,  but  for  mankind 
in  general.  God  the  Father,  and  Christ  the  Mediator, 
now  dealeth  with  no  man  upon  the  more  rigorous 
terms  of  the  first  law  (obey  perfectly  and  live,  else  thou 
shall  die),  but  giveth  to  all  much  mercy,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  tenor  of  that  violated  law,  they  could 
not  receive,  and  c.Jlcth  thorn  to  repentance  in  order 
to  their  receiving  further  mercy  offered  them.  And 
accordingly  he  will  not  judge  any  at  last  according  to 
the  mere  law  of  works,  but  as  they  have  obeyed  or  not 
obeyed  his  conditions  or  terms  of  grace.  It  was  not 
the  sins  of  the  elect  only,  but  of  all  mankind  fallen, 
which  lay  upon  Christ  satisfying ;  and  to  assert  the 
contrary  injuriously  diminisheth  the  honor  of  his  suf- 
ferings, and  hath  other  desperate  ill  consequences." 

(3.)  The  benefits  derived  to  all  men  equally,  from 
the  satisfaction  of  Christ,  he  thus  states:  "All  man- 
kind, immedl  lehj  upon  Christ's  satisfaction,  are  re- 
deemed and  delivered  from  that  legal  necessity  of  per- 
ishing which  they  were  under  (not  by  remitting  sin  or 
punishment  directly  to  them,  but  by  giving  up  God's 
jus  puniendi  [right  of  punishing]  into  the  hands  of 
the  Redeemer;  nor  by  giving  any  right  directly  to 
them,  but  per  meram  resultantiam  [by  mere  conse- 
quence] this  happy  change  is  made  for  them  in  their 
relation,  upon  the  said  remitting  of  God's  right  and  ad- 
vantage of  justice  against  them),  and  they  are  given 
up  to  the  Redeemer  as  their  owner  and  ruler,  to  be 
dealt  with  upon  terms  of  mercy  which  have  a  tendency 
to  their  recovery.  God  the  Father  and  Christ  the 
Mediator  hath  freely,  without  any  prerequisite  condi- 
tion on  man's  part,  enacted  a  law  of  grace  of  universal 
extent  in  regard  of  its  tenor,  by  which  he  giveth,  as  a 
deed  or  gift,  Christ  himself,  with  all  his  following  hene^ 
fits  which  he  bestowcth  (as  benefactor  and  legislator)  ; 
and  this  to  all  alike,  without  excluding  any,  upon 
condition  they  believe  and  accept  the  offer.  By  this 
law,  testament,  or  covenant,  all  men  are  conditimaUy 
pardoned,  justified,  and  reconciled  to  God  already,  and 
no  man  absolutely ;  nor  doth  it  make  a  difference,  nor 
take  notice  of  uny,  till  men's  performance  or  non- 
performance of  the  condition  makes  a  difference.  In 
the  new  law  Christ  hath  truly  gimen  himself -with  a  con- 
ditional pardon,  justification,  and  conditional  right  to  sid- 
vition,  to  all  men  in  the  world,  without  exception." 

(4.)  But  the  peculiarity  of  Baxter's  scheme  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  farther  extracts:  "Though 
Christ,  died  equally  for  all  mm,  in  the  aforesaid  law 
serise,  as  he  satisfied  the  offended  legislator,  and  as  giv- 


BAXTER 


703 


BAYER 


ing  himself  to  all  alike  in  the  conditional  covenant,  yet 
he  never  properly  intended  or  purposed  the  actual  justify- 
ing and  saving  of  all,  nor  of  any  but  those  that  come  to 
be  justified  and  saved ;  he  did  not,  therefore,  die  for 
all,  nor  for  any  that  perish,  with  a  degree  of  resolution 
to  save  them,  much  less  did  he  die  for  all  alike,  as  to  this 
intent.  Christ  hath  given  faith  to  none  by  his  law  or 
testament,  though  he  hath  revealed  that  to  some  he 
will,  as  benefactor  and  Dominus  Absolutus  [absolute 
Lord],  give  that  grace  which  shall  infallibly  produce 
it ;  and  God  hath  given  some  to  Christ  that  he  might 
prevail  with  them  accordingly ;  yet  this  is  no  giving 
it  to  the  person,  nor  hath  he  in  himself  ever  the  more 
title  to  it,  nor  can  any  la}'  claim  to  it  as  their  due.  It 
belongeth  not  to  Christ  as  sutisfer,  nor  yet  as  l<  gidator, 
to  make  wicked  refusers  to  become  willing,  and  receive 
him  and  the  benefits  which  he  offers ;  therefore  he  may 
do  all  for  them  that  is  fore-expressed,  though  he  cure 
not  their  unbelief.  Faith  is  a  fruit  of  the  death  of 
Christ  (and  so  is  all  the  good  which  we  do  enjoy),  but 
not  directly,  as  it  is  satisfaction  to  justice ;  but  only  re- 
motely, as  it  proceedeth  from  that  jus  dominii  [right  of 
dominion]  which  Christ  has  received  to  send  the  Spirit 
in  what  measure  and  to  whom  he  will,  and  to  suc- 
ceed it  accordingly ;  and  as  it  is  necessary  to  the  at- 
tainment of  the  farther  ends  of  his  death  in  the  certain 
gathering  and  saving  of  the  elect." 

(5.)  Thus  the  whole  theory  amounts  to  this,  that, 
although  a  conditi.nal  sulfation  has  been  purchased  by 
Christ  for  all  men,  and  is  offered  to  them,  and  all  legal 
difficulties  are  removed  out  of  the  way  of  their  pardon 
as  sinners  by  the  atonement,  yet  Christ  hath  not  pur- 
chased for  an}-  man  the  gift  of  faith,  or  the  power  of 
performing  the  condition  of  salvation,  required;  but  gives 
this  to  some,  and  does  not  give  it  to  others,  by  virtue 
of  that  absolute  dominion  over  men  which  he  has  pur- 
chased for  himself,  so  that,  as  the  Calvinists  refer  the 
decree  of  election  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Father, 
Baxter  refers  it  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  Son;  one 
makes  the  decree  of  reprobation  to  issue  from  the  Cre- 
ator and  Judge,  the  other  from  the  Bedeemer  himself. 
The  Baxterian  theory,  with  modifications,  is  adopted 
by  many  of  the  English  and  American  Congregation- 
alists,  New  School  Presbyterians,  and  United  Presby- 
terians of  Scotland. 

Baxter's  chief  English  works  are,  1.  A  Narration 
of  his  men  Life  and  Times: — 2.  The  Saint's  Everlasting 
Rest: — 3.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament: — 4.  A 
Ccdl  to  the  Unconverted  (of  which  twenty  thousand 
copies  were  sold  in  one  year,  and  which  has  been 
translated  into  every  European  language) : — 5.  Lying 
Thoughts :— G.  The  Poor  Man's  Family  Book  .—7.  The 
Reformed  Pastor.  He  also  wrote  several  books  in 
Latin;  among  them — 1.  Epistola  de  generali  omnium 
Protestantium  unione  adversns  Papatum  : — 2.  Dissertaiio 
de  baptismo  Infantum  e  Scripiura  demonstrato: — 3.  Cate- 
chism us  Quake rianus  : — i.  Be  Regimine  Eccksiw  : — 5. 
De  Republica  Sancta  (against  the  Oceana  of  Harring- 
ton) : — C.  Be  Universcdi  Redemptione,  contra  Calvinum 
et  Bezam  : — 7.  Ilistoria  Conciliorum,  etc.  etc.  In  all, 
he  is  said  to  have  composed  one  hundred  and  forty- 
five  works  in  folio,  and  sixty-three  in  4to,  besides  a 
multitude  of  more  trifling  writings.  The  list  prefixed 
to  Orme's  Life  of  Baxter  includes  1G8  treatises.  His 
Practical  Works  were  reprinted  in  1830  (London,  23 
vols.  8vo)  ;  his  controversial  writings  have  never  been 
fully  collected,  and  many  of  them  are  very  scarce. 
His  fame  chiefly  rests  on  his  popular  works,  and  on 
his  Methodus  Theologiaz  and  Catholic  Tlienlogy,  in  which 
his  peculiar  views  are  embodied.  Baxter  left  behind 
him  a  Narrative  of  the  most  Memorable  Passages  of  his 
Life  and  Times,  which  was  published  in  a  folio  volume 
after  his  death  (169G)  by  Sylvester,  under  the  title 
Reliquice  Baxteriana.  It  is  here  that  we  find  that  re- 
view of  his  religious  opinions  written  in  the  latter  part 
of  his  life,  which  Coleridge  speaks  of  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  pieces   of  writing  that  have  come 


down  to  us.  See  Fisher's  articles  in  Bibl.  Sacra,  ix, 
135,  300 ;  and  reprint  of  Baxter's  End  of  Controversy  in 
Bibl.  Sacra,  April,  1855 ;  see  also  Sir  James  Stephen, 
Essays,  ii,  1 ;  Orme,  Life  and  Times  of  Baxter  (Lond. 
1830,  -1  vols.  8vo);  Watson,  Theol.  Institutes,  ii,  410 ; 
Nicholls,  Calvinism  an.  1 . 1  rminianism,  p.  714 ;  Eliu.  Her. 
lxx,  96;  Gerlach,  Rich.  Baxter  nach  seinem  Leben  und 
Wirken  (Berl.  1836)  ;  Tulloch,  English  Puritanism  (Ed- 
inb.  18G1)  ;  English  Cyclopwdia,  s.  v.  ;  Watson,  Diction- 
ary, s.  v. ;  Christian  Review,  viii,  1 ;  Wesley,  Works,  iii, 
5G8,  G35 ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  147. 

Bay  CP'^5,  lashon',  tongue;  Sept.  \o<pia')  is  spoken 
of  the  cove  or  estuary  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Jordan  (Josh,  xv,  5;  xviii,  19),  and  also  of  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  same  sea  (xv,  2),  forming 
the  boundary  points  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  De  Saulcy, 
however,  contends  (Narrative,  i,  250)  that  by  this  term 
are  represented,  respectively,  the  two  extreme  points 
of  the  peninsula  jutting  into  the  lake  on  the  opposite 
shore,  which  he  states  still  bears  the  corresponding 
Arabic  name  Lissan.  But  this  would  confine  the  ter- 
ritory of  Judah  to  very  narrow  limits  on  the  east,  and 
the  points  in  question  are  expressly  stated  to  be  por- 
tions of  the  sea  (and  not  of  the  land,  as  the  analogy  of 
our  phrases  "tongue  of  land,"  etc.,  would  lead  us  to 
suppose),  one  of  them  being  in  fact  located  at  the  very 
entrance  of  the  Jordan.  Moreover,  the  same  term  (in 
the  original)  is  used  with  reference  to  the  forked 
mouths  of  the  Nile  ("  the  tongue  of  the  Egyptian  Sea," 
Isa.  xi,  15)  as  affording  an  impediment  to  travellers 
from  the  East.     See  Dead  Sea. 

Bay  is  the  color  assigned  in  the  English  version  to 
one  of  the  span  of  horses  in  the  vision  of  Zechariah 
(vi,  3,  7).  The  original  has  D'^K'CX,  amutstsim' ,  strong 
(Sept.  -^«poi),  and  evidently  means  jleet  or  spirited. 
In  ver.  7  it  appears  to  be  a  corruption  for  D'^B'lX, 
adummim' ',  red,  as  in  ver.  2. 

Bay-TREE  (n^TX,  ezrach',  native;  Sept.  «i  icitcoi 
tov  Aifi&vov, apparently  by  mistake  for  i">t"iN)  occurs 
only  once  in  Scripture  as  the  name  of  a  tree,  namely, 
in  Psa.  xxxvii,  £5:  "I  have  seen  the  wicked  in  great 
power,  spreading  himself  like  a  green  bay-tree ;"  where 
some  suppose  it  to  indicate  a  specific  tree,  as  the  laurel ; 
and  others,  supported  by  the  Sept.  and  Vulg.  the  cedar 
of  Lebanon.  It  is  by  some  considered  to  mean  an 
evergreen  tree,  and  by  others  a  green  tree  that  grows 
in  its  native  soil,  or  that  has  not  suffered  by  trans- 
planting, as  such  a  tree  spreads  itself  luxuriantly  (so 
Gesenius,  Thes.  Ileb.  s.  v.  in  accordance  with  the  ety- 
mology). Others,  again,  as  the  unknown  author  of 
the  sixth  Greek  edition,  who  is  quoted  by  Celsius 
(i,  194),  consider  the  word  as  referring  to  the  "  in- 
digenous man,"  in  the  sense  of  self -sufficiency ;  and  this 
opinion  is  adopted  by  Celsius  himself,  who  states  that 
recent  interpreters  have  adopted  the  laurel  or  bay-tree 
for  no  other  reason  than  because  it  is  an  evergreen. 
Sir  Thomas  Browne,  indeed,  says,  "As  the  sense  of 
the  text  is  sufficiently  answered  by  this,  we  are  un- 
willing to  exclude  that  noble  plant  from  the  honor 
of  having  its  name  in  Scripture."  Isidore  de  Barriere, 
on  the  contrary,  concludes  that  the  laurel  is  not  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  because  it  has  been  profaned  by 
Gentile  fables.  But  the  abuse  of  a  thing  should  not 
prevent  its  proper  use;  and  if  such  a  principle  had 
been  acted  on,  we  should  not  have  found  in  Scripture 
mention  of  any  trees  or  plants  employed  by  the  Gen- 
tiles in  their  superstitious  ceremonies,  as  the  vine,  the 
olive,  and  the  cedar. — Kitto.     See  Native. 

Bayer,  Theophilus  Siegfried,  was  born  in  1G94 
at  Konigsberg,  where  he  acquired  his  first  knowledge 
of  the  Oriental  languages  under  Abraham  Wolf.  In 
1720  he  was  called  to  St.  Petersburg  to  fill  the  chair 
of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities.  He  died  Fob.  21, 
1738.  Among  his  numerous  works  arc  the  following 
— 1.  Ilistoria  cor.greyativnis  Cardinalium  de  Pnpnganda 


BAYLE 

Fid  (Petersburgj  1721,  4toj  a  satire  against  the  Church 
of  Borne)  : — -'.  I  'ualiciir  n  rbtirum  Ckristi,  Eli,  Eli,  Lama 
S iliacth  n/t  (1717j  Ito): — 3.  Eistoria  Regni  Grcecorum 
Bactriatd,  etc.  (1737);  and  many  works  relating  to 
Chinese  and  Oriental  literature. — Biog.  Univ.  iii,  603. 

Bayle,  Peteh,  was  horn  at  Carlat,  formerly  in  the 
Comte  de  i'oix.  November  18th,  1617,  his  father  being 
a  Prol  sstant  minister.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was 
Bent  to  the  college  at  Puy-Laurens,  where  he  studied 
from  1666  to  1669  with  an  ardor  that  permanently  in- 
jured bis  health.  Subsequently  he  was  sent  to  Tou- 
louse, where  he  put  himself  under  the  philosophical 
course  of  the  Jesuits.  The  end  of  this  was  his  conver- 
sion from  Protestantism,  but  for  a  time  only.  In 
August,  1G70,  he  made  a  secret  abjuration  of  Catholi- 
cism,  and  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  formed  an  ac- 
qu  lint  nice  with  many  eminent  men,  and  especially 
contracted  a  close  friendship  with  James  Basnage  and 
Minutoli.  At  Geneva  and  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  he 
lived  four  years,  supporting  himself  by  private  tuition. 
In  1674  he  removed  tirst  to  Rouen,  and  soon  after  to 
Paris.  The  treasures  of  the  public  libraries,  and  the 
easy  access  to  literary  society,  rendered  that  city 
agreeable  to  him  above  all  other  places.  He  corre- 
sponded freely  on  literary  subjects  with  his  friend 
Basnage,  then  studying  theology  in  the  Protestant 
University  of  Sedan,  who  showed  the  letters  to  the 
theological  professor,  M.  Jurieu.  By  these,  and  by 
the  recommendations  of  Basnage,  Jurieu  was  induced 
to  propose  Bayle  to  fill  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Se- 
dan, tn  which,  after  a  public  disputation,  he  was  elect- 
ed, November  2,  1675.  For  five  years  he  seems  to 
have  been  almost  entirely  occupied  by  the  duties  of 
his  office.  In  the  spring  of  1681,  however,  he  found 
time  to  write  his  celebrated  letter  on  comets,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  appearance  of  the  remarkable  comet  of 
1680,  which  had  excited  great  alarm  among  the  super- 
stitious. In  1681  the  college  at  Sedan  was  arbitrarily 
suppressed  by  order  of  the  king,  and  Bayle  went  to 
Rotterdam,  where,  in  1681,  he  was  called  to  fill  the 
same  chair.  Here  he  published  his  Critique  ginerale 
il  rilitt.'uv  da  C,i7ri>ii$mc  de  Mahnbourg,  a  work  ad- 
mired for  its  ability  by  both  Catholics  and  Huguenots, 
but  nevertheless  burnt  by  the  hands  of  the  hangman 
at  Paris.  About  this  time  a  work  appeared  called 
VAvis  aux  Refugies,  a  satirical  work,  which  treated  the 
Protestants  with  very  little  delicacy.  This  book 
Jurieu  (who  had  written  unsuccessfully  in  opposition 
to  the  Critijue  generate  above  mentioned,  and  had,  in 
consequence,  imbibed  a  bitter  hatred  against  Bayle) 
attributed  to  him;  and  although  Bayle,  in  more  than 
one  Apology,  denied  the  imputation,  succeeded  so  far 
in  raising  a  belief  that  Bayle  was  the  author,  that  in 
L69  I  h  ■  was  removed  from  his  professorship  at  Rotter-  ! 
dun.  Having  now  entire  leisure,  lie  commenced  his 
great  work,  the  Dktionnain  Historique  et  Critique,  the 
first  edition  of  which  was  published  in  2  vols.  fol.  in 
L696,  and  the  see, mil,  much  enlarged,  in  1702.  This 
edition,  and  that  of  1720  (both  in  6  vols,  fol.),  are  es- 
teemed the  l.e-t.  Tin:  last  edition  was  published  at 
Paris  L820  23,  16  vol..  The  English  edition  of  1735, 
••dit  id,  \s  it li  additions,  by  liirch  and  others  for  the  Lon- 
don booksellers,  is  more  valuable  than  even  the  original 
Him  work  was  undertaken  principally  to  rec- 
tify the  mistakes  and  Bupply  the  omissions  of  Moreri, 
hut  gave  great  ami  just  offence  in  many  parts  from 
,1'"  indecency  of  il  j  l  ingnage,  its  hold  leaning  toward 
Manicbasism,  and  the  captious  sophistries  which  ob- 
M"'"  ''"■  I'1'1""  I  truths  and  infuse  doubts  into  the 
"""ll  "'  ,!l "  reader.  Besides  Jurieu,  two  new  enemies 
appeared  on  this  occa  ion,  Jacquelot  and  Leclerc,  who 
both  attacked  Bayle's  supposed  infidelity.  His  contro- 
,.  .  5  with  them  lasted  until  near  the  period  of  his 
death,  which  happened  on  the  28th  of  September,  1706, 
in  bia  fifty-ninth  year.  Among  his  other  works  are, 
I.  Commentoiresurces paroles  d\  Pevangile:  Contraim-ks 
tPentrer  (1686):— 2.  La  Cabak  chimeriqw  (16:»1):—  3. 


'04 


BAZAAR 


Reponses  aux  Questions  aVun  Provincial  (5  vols.  12mo, 
1702,  1704)  : — 4.  Janua  Calorum  Reserata : — 5.  /Selected 
Letters  (best  ed.  3  vols.  1725) :— 6.  Entretiens  de  Max- 
ime  et  de  Themiste;  ou,  Reponse  ii  M.Leclerc  (1706) :— 7. 
Opuscules,  etc.  His  life  was  written  by  Des  Maizeaux, 
in  2  vols.  12mo,  1722,  and  by  Feuerbach  (Augsb.  1838). 
See  Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  ii,  60-63;  Rev.  des 
deux  Mondes,  Dec.  1835 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  i,  08. 

Bayley,  Solomon,  a  colored  preacher  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  in  Liberia.  He  was  born  a 
slave  in  Delaware,  and,  after  cruel  hardships,  gained 
his  freedom.  He  emigrated  to  Liberia  about  1832, 
and,  at  the  organization  of  the  Conference  in  1834,  was 
returned  supernumerary.  He  died  at  Monrovia  in 
great  peace  in  Oct.,  1839.  ' '  Father  Bayley  was  a  good 
preacher.  His  language  was  good,  his  doctrine  sound, 
and  his  manner  forcible ;  his  conversation  was  a  bless- 
ing, and  his  reward  is  on  high." — Mott,  Sketches  of 
Persons  of  Color  ,■  Minutes  of  Conferences,  iii,  62. 

Bayly,  Lewis,  a  Welsh  prelate,  was  born  at  Caer- 
marthen,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1616  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Bangor.  He  died  in  1632.  He 
is  worthy  of  mention  for  his  Practice  of  Piety,  one  of 
the  most  popular  religious  works  of  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries.  It  reached  its  51st  edition  in  1714. 
Baz.  See  Maiier-shalal-hash-baz. 
Bazaar,  an  Oriental  "  market-place."  In  the  ear- 
lier times  of  the  Jewish  history  it  appears  that  the 
markets  were  held  near  the  gates  of  towns,  sometimes 
within,  sometimes  without,  where  the  different  kinds 
of  goods  were  exposed  for  sale,  either  in  the  open  air 
or  in  tents.  See  Market.  But  we  learn  from  Jose- 
phus  that  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  the  markets,  at 
least  in  cities,  had  become  such  as  they  now  are  in  the 
East.  These  establishments  are  usually  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  towns,  and  do  not  bj'  any  means  an- 
swer to  our  notion  of  V  a  market" — which  is  usually 
appropriated  to  the  sale  of  articles  of  food — for  in  these 
bazaars  all  the  shops  and  warehouses  of  the  town  are 
collected,  and  all  the  trade  of  the  city  carried  on,  of 
whatever  description  it  may  be.  In  these  also  are  the 
workshops  of  those  who  expose  for  sale  the  products 
of  their  skill  or  labor,  such  as  shoe-makers,  cap-makers, 
basket-makers,  smiths,  etc. ;  but  every  trade  has  its 
distinct  place  to  which  it  is  generally  confined.  Hence 
one  passes  along  between  rows  of  shops  exhibiting  the 
same  kinds  of  commodities,  and  sometimes  extending 
to  the  length  of  a  moderate  street.  Other  rows  make 
a  similar  display  of  commodities  of  other  sorts.  The 
bazaar  itself  consists  of  a  series  of  avenues  or  streets, 
with  an  arched  or  some  other  roof,  to  afford  protection 
from  the  sun  and  rain.  These  avenues  are  lined  by 
the  shops,  which  are  generally  raised  two  or  three  feet 
above  the  ground  upon  a  platform  of  masonry,  which 
also  usually  forms  a  bench  in  front  of  the  whole  line. 
The  shops  are  in  general  very  small,  and  entirely  open 
in  front,  where  the  dealer  sits  with  great  quietness  and 
patience  till  a  customer  is  attracted  by  the  display  of 
his  wares.  No  one  lives  in  the  bazaar:  the  shops  are 
closed  toward  evening  with  shutters,  and  the  bazaar 
itself  is  closed  with  strong  gates,  after  the  shopkeepers 
have  departed  to  their  several  homes  in  the  town.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  a  part  of  the  bazaar  consists 
of  an  open  place  or  square,  around  which  are  shops 
under  an  arcade.  When  this  occurs  the  shops  are 
generally  those  of  fruiterers,  green-grocers,  and  other 
dealers  in  vegetable  produce,  the  frequent  renewals 
of  whose  bulky  stock  renders  it  undesirable  that 
their  shops  should  be  placed  in  the  thronged  and  nar- 
row avenues.  In  these  bazaars  business  begins  very 
early  in  the  morning — as  soon  as  it  is  light.  During 
the  day  it  seems  to  be  the  place  in  which  all  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  town  are  concentrated,  and  presents  a 
scene  remarkably  in  contrast  with  the  characteristic 
solitude  and  quietness  of  the  streets,  which  seem  ex- 
hausted of  tiicir  population  to  supply  the  teeming  con- 


BAZLITII 


705 


BDELLIUM 


s^m^M^ 


]  mure  man   piouauii 

\l  \  as  yet  unknown  in  i 

illy  he  would  certainly 

V  from  the  costly  con 


Bazaar  at  Alexandria. 

course  which  it  offers.  And  this  is  partly  true ;  for 
the  market  is  the  resort  not  only  of  the  busy,  but  of 
the  idle  and  the  curious — of  those  who  seek  discussion, 
or  information,  or  excitement,  or  who  desire  "to  be 
seen  of  men  ;"  and  where,  consequently,  the  exterior 
aspect  of  Oriental  life  and  manners  is  seen  in  all  its 
length,  and  breadth,  and  fulness. — Kitto,  Pict.  Bible, 
note  on  Mark  vii,  32.     See  Merchant. 

Baz'lith  or  Baz'luth  (Heb.  Batslitti  or  Batsluth', 
fl^OSSl  or  DSlPSS,  nakedness;  Sept.  BaaaXwS),  the  head 
of  one  of  the  families  of  Nethinim  that  returned  to 
Jerusalem  from  the  exile  (Ezra  ii,  52 ;  Neh.  vii,  54). 
B.C.  536. 

Bdellium  (nb"73,  bedo'lacli)  occurs  but  twice  in 
the  Scriptures — in  Gen.  ii,  12,  as  a  product  of  the  land 
of  Ilavilah,  and  Num.  xi,  7,  where  the  manna  is 
likened  to  it  and  to  hoar-frost  on  the  ground.  In  the 
Sept.  it  is  considered  as  a  precious  stone,  and  trans- 
lated (Gen.)  by  avOpaE,  and  (Num.)  liy  icpwraWoc  ; 
while  Aquila,  Symmachus,  Theodotion,  and  the  Vul- 
gate render  it  bdellium,  a  transparent  aromatic  gum 
from  a  tree.  Of  this  opinion  also  is  Josephus  {Ant. 
iii,  1,  6),  where  he  describes  the  manna — ojioiov  ry 
twv  dpufiaTOJV  fiSeWy,  i.  e.  similar  to  the  aromatic 
bdellium  (Num.  xi,  7).  See  Manna.  Reland  sup- 
poses it  to  be  a  crystal,  while  Wahl  and  Hartmann 
render  it  beryl  (reading  ttbia).  The  Jewish  rabbins, 
however,  followed  by  a  host  of  their  Arabian  trans- 
lators, and  to  whom  Bochart  (Hieroz.  iii,  593  sq.)  and 
Gesenius  (Thesaur.  i,  181)  accede,  translate  bedolach 
by  pearly  and  consider  Havilah  (q.  v.)  as  the  part  of 
Arabia,  near  Catipha  and  Bahrein,  on  the  Persian 
Gulf,  where  the  pearls  are  found. 

Those  who  regard  bedolach  as  some  kind  of  precious 

stone  rest  their  argument  on  the  fact  that  it  is  placed 

(Gen.  ii,  12)  by  the  side  of  "the  onyx-stone"  (EiTJ, 

shoham),  which  is  a  gem  occurring  several  times  in 

Yy 


the  Scriptures,  and  that  they  are  both 
mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  produc- 
tions of  the  land  Havilah.  But  if  this 
meaning  were  intended,  the  reading 
ought  to  be,  "there  is  the  stone  of  the 
onyx  and  of  the  bdellium,"  and  not 
"there  is  the  bdellium  and  the  stone 
of  the  onyy,"  expressly  excluding  bedo- 
lach from  the  mineral  kingdom.  Those 
who  translate  bedolach  by  "pearl"  refer 
to  the  later  Jewish  and  Arabian  ex- 
pounders of  the  Bible,  whose  authority, 
if  not  strengthened  by  valid  arguments, 
is  but  of  little  weight.  It  is,  moreover, 
more  than  probable  that  the  pearl  was 
the  time  of  Mosef,  »r 
not  have  excluded  it 
contributions  to  the  tab- 
ernacle, the  priestly  dresses,  or  even  the 
Urim  and  Thummim,  while  its  fellow 
shoham,  though  of  less  value,  was  va- 
riously used  among  the  sacred  ornaments 
(Exod.  xxv,  7  ;  xxxv,  9,  27  ;  xxviii,  20  ; 
xxxix,  13).  Nor  do  we  find  any  men- 
tion of  pearl  in  the  times  of  David  and 
Solomon.  It  is  true  that  Luther  trans- 
lates B^JPiS,  peninim' (Prov.  iii,  15;  viii, 
11 ;  x,  25 ;  xxxi,  10),  by  pearls,  but  this 
is  not  borne  out  by  Lament,  iv,  7,  where 
it  is  indicated  as  having  a  red  color. 
The  only  passage  in  the  Old  Test,  where 
the  pearl  really  occurs  under  its  true 
Arabic  name  is  in  Esth.  i,  6  ("fl,  dar); 
and  in  the  N.  T.  it  is  very  frequently 
mentioned  under  the  Greek  name  jiap- 
yaplrng.  See  Pearl.  It  is  therefore 
most  probable  that  the  Hebrew  bedolach 
is  the  aromatic  gum  bdellium,  which  issues  from  a 
tree  growing  in  Arabia,  Media,  r.nd  the  Indies.  Di- 
oscorides  (i,  80)  informs  us  that  it  was  called  //«- 
deXicov  or  fioXx^'i  and  Pliny  (xii,  19),  that  it  bore 
the  names  of  brochon,  malacham,  and  maldacon.  The 
frequent  interchange  of  letters  brings  the  form  very 
near  to  that  of  the  Hebrew  word ;  nor  is  the  similar- 
ity of  name  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek,  in  the  case 
of  natural  productions,  less  conclusive  of  the  nature 
of  the  article,  since  the  Greeks  probably  retained  the 
ancient  Oriental  names  of  productions  coming  from 
the  East.  Pliny's  description  of  the  tree  from  which 
the  bdellium  is  taken  makes  Ksempfer's  assertion 
(Amcen.  Exot.  p.  068)  highly  probable,  that  it  is  the 
sort  of  palm-tree  (borassus  j!ab"/'ifnrmis,  Linn.  ci.  6,  3, 
Trigynia)  so  frequently  met  with  on  the  Persian  coast 
and  in  Arabia  Felix. 

The  term  bdellium,  however,  is  applied  to  two  gum- 
my-resinous substances.  One  of  them  is  the  Indian 
bdellium,  or  false  myrrh  (perhaps  the  bdellium  of  the 
Scriptures),  which  is  obtained  from  Amt/r's  (balsamo- 
dendron?)  Commiphora.  Dr.  Roxburgh  QFlor.  hid.  ii, 
245)  says  that  the  trunk  of  the  tree  is  covered  with  a 
light-colored  pellicle,  as  in  the  common  birch,  which 
peels  off  from  time  to  time,  exposing  to  view  a  smooth 
green  coat,  which,  in  succession,  supplies  other  similar 
exfoliations.  This  tree  diffuses  a  grateful  fragrance, 
like  that  of  the  finest  myrrh,  to  a  considerable  distance 
around.  Dr.  Royle  (lllmt.  p.  170)  was  informed  that 
this  species  yielded  bdellium;  and,  in  confirmation  of 
this  statement,  we  may  add  that  many  of  the  speci- 
mens of  this  bdellium  in  the  British  Museum  have  a 
yellow  pellicle  adhering  to  them,  precisely  like  that 
of  the  common  birch,  and  that  some  of  the  pieces  are 
perforated  by  spiny  branches,  another  character  serv- 
ing to  recognise  the  origin  of  the  bdellium.  Indian 
bdellium  has  considerable  resemblance  to  myrrh. 
Many  of  the  pieces  have  hairs  adhering  to  them.  The 
other  kind  of  bdellium  is  called  African  bdellium,  and 


BEACH 


706 


BEAN 


Is  obtained  from  HeudolotM  Africana  (Richard  and 
Guillemin,  Fl.  >!,  Senegambie).  It  is  a  natural  pro- 
duction  of  Senegal,  and  is  called  by  the  natives,  who 
,,,  ,k  ■  tooth-picks  of  its  spines,  niottout.  It  consists  of 
rounded  or  oval  tears,  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diam- 
et  t.  of  a  dull  and  waxy  fracture,  which,  in  the  course 
of  time,  become  opaque,  and  are  covered  externally 
by  a  white  or  yellowish  dust.  It  has  a  feeble  but  pe- 
culiar odor,  and  a  bitter  taste.  Pelletier  (Ann.  de 
CAiin.lxxx,  39  i  found  it  to  consist  of  resin,  59.0  ;  solu- 
ble gum,  it.-' :  bassorin,  30.6  ;  volatile  oil  and  loss,  1.2. 
Resin  of  bdellium  (African  bdellium?)  consists,  ac- 
cording to  Johnstone,  of  carbon,  -10;  hydrogen,  31; 
oxygen,  5.     See  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. — Kitto,  s.v. 

Beach,  Abraham,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Cheshire,  Conn., 
1740,  graduated  at  Yale  College  1757,  passed  from  the 
Congregational  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
and  was  ordained  by  the  Bishop  of  London  1767.  His 
first  service  was  as  missionary  at  Piscataqua,  N.  J., 
where  he  served  up  to  the  Revolution,  when  his  church 
was  shut  up  on  account  of  the  troubles  of  the  time. 
In  1784  he  was  appointed  assistant  minister  at  Trinity 
Church,  N.  Y.  In  1789  ha  was  made  D.D.  by  Colum- 
bia ( lollege.  In  1813  he  resigned  his  charge  and  re- 
tired to  his  farm  on  the  Raritan,  where  he  died,  Sept. 
14,  1828.  He  was  a  strict  Episcopalian,  and  in  1783 
opposed  Dr.  (afterward  Bishop)  White's  proposal  to 
organize  the  Church  and  ordain  ministers  without  a 
consecrated  bishop. — Sprague,  Annals,  v,  2G5. 

Beach,  Jolin,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  minister, 
was  bom  in  1700,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1721.  For  several  years  he  served  in  the  Congrega- 
tional Church  at  Newtown,  Conn.,  but  in  1732  con- 
formed to  the  Church  of  England,  and  was  ordained  by 
the  Bishop  of  London  in  that  year.  He  served  as  mis- 
sionary at  Newtown  and  Reading  for  50  years,  and 
died  March  8,  1782.  He  published  several  tracts  in 
favor  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  a  number  of  oc- 
casional sermons. — Sprague,  Annuls,  v,  8-1. 

Beacon  ("pH,  to'reri),  Isa.  xxx,  17,  in  the  margin 
in  that  place,  and  in  the  text  in  chap,  xxiii,  23,  and 
Ezek.  xxvii,  5,  rendered  "mast."  It  probably  signifies 
a  poU  used  as  a  standard  or  "ensign"  (03,  nes),  which 
was  set  up  on  the  tops  of  mountains  as  a  signal  for  the 

assembling  of  the  ] pie,  sometimes  on  the  invasion 

of  an  enemy,  and  sometimes  after  a  defeat  (Isa.  v,  26; 
xi,  12 ;  xviii,  3 ;  lxii,  10).     See  Banner. 

Beads.  Strings  of  beads  are  used  in  the  Roman 
( ihurch  on  which  to  count  the  number  of  paters  or  aves 
recited.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
introduced  by  Peter  the  Hermit.  The  Saxon  word 
b  /  me  ins  a  prayer;  it  is  the  past  participle  of  biddan, 

ire,  to  bid.  Bt  ad-roll  was  a  list  of  those  to  be  pray- 
ed for  in  the  Church,  and  a  beadsman  one  who  prayed 
for  another.  From  this  use  beads  obtained  theirname. 
— Bergier,  s.  v.  Chapelet.     See  Rosary. 

Beale,  Oliver,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  Oct.  13, 1777,  convert- 
ed 18  (0,  and  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  at  Lynn, 
1801.  After  filling  several  of  the  most  impor- 
tant stations,  he  was  presiding  elder  from  1806  to 
1  during  the  nexl  ten  years,  while  effective, 
be  was  missionan  at  Piscataquis,  and  also  presiding 
f''1'1'-     He  was  made  "superannuate"  in   1833,  and 

'1'"-'1  •'<  Balti "  Dec.  30,  1836.     lie  was  a  devoted 

;  minister,  "and  did  more  to  plant  Meth- 
odism in  Maine  than  any  other  man"  (Rev.  T.  Mcr- 
i,  during  bis  long  and  faithful  service,  became 
well  known  to  the  <  hurch  as  a  wise  man  and  discreet 
counsellor.  He  was  five  times  a  delegate  to  the  Gen- 
eral  I  onfer  mi  i       1/  nub    oft  ovferencee,  ii,  493. 

Beali'ah  (Heb.  Btalyah',  n;'.rn,  whose  lordisJe- 
hovah}  remarkable  as  containing  the  names  of  both 


Baal  and  Jah ;  Sept.  BaaXia),  one  of  David's  thirty 
Benjamite  heroes  of  the  sling  during  his  sojourn  at 
Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii,  5).      B.C.  1054. 

Be'aloth  (Heb.  Bealoth' ',  PliiSSl,  the  plur.  fern, 
of  Baal,  signifying  prob.  citizens ;  Sept.  BaaXixiSr  v.  r. 
BaXioB  and  BaXpaivav),  the  name  of  two  places. 

1.  A  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Judah  (i.  e.  in 
Simeon),  mentioned  in  connection  with  Telem  and  Ha- 
zor  (Josh,  xv,  24)  ;  evidently  different  from  either  of 
the  two  places  called  Baalath  (ver.  9,  29),  but  probably 
the  same  as  the  Baalath-beer  (q.  v.)  of  chap,  xix,  8. 
Schwarz  (Pa'est.  p.  100)  thinks  it  is  a  "  Kulat  til-Baal 
situated  "i\  English  miles  S.E.  of  Telem  and  N.W.  of 
Zapha;"  but  no  such  names  appear  on  any  modern 
map,  and  the  region  indicated  is  entirely  south  of  the 
bounds  of  Palestine. 

2.  A  district  of  Asher,  of  which  Baanah  ben-Hushai 
was  Solomon's  commissariat  (1  Kings  iv,  16,  where 
the  Auth.  Vers,  renders  incorrectly  "in  Aloth,"  Sept. 
t  v  Baa\ w.&,  Vulg.  in  Baloth) ;  apparently  =  ' '  adjacent 
cities,"  i.  e.  the  sea-coast,  where  the  river  Belcus  (13/;- 
Atoc,  Joseph.  War,  ii,  x,  2)  ma)'  be  a  trace  of  the  name. 
See  Belus.  Schwarz  (Pa'est.  p.  237)  unnecessarily 
identifies  it  with  Baal-gad  or  Laish. 

Beam,  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the  fol- 
lowing words :  SIX,  e'reg,  a  web,  Judg.  xvi,  14  ;  "shut- 
tle," Job  ii,  6;  Tl3tt,  manor',  a.  yoke,  hence  a  weaver's 
frame,  or  its  principal  beam,  1  Sam.  xvii,  7 ;  2  Sam. 
xxi,  19;  1  Chron.  xi,  23;  xx,  5;  3.3,  neb,  a  board,  1 
Kings  vi,  9;  CE3,  Tcaphis',  a  cross-beam  or  girder 
(Sept.  KavStaooQ),  Habak.  ii,  11;  3>PS,  tsela' ,  a  rib, 
hence  a  joint,  1  Kings  vii,  3;  "board,"  vi.  15,  16; 
"plank,"  vi,  15 ;  iT^p,  hurah' ',  a  cross-piece  or  ?-afttr, 
2  Kings  vi,  2,  5 ;  2  Chron.  iii,  7  ;  Cant,  i,  17 ;  3S,  ab, 
a  projecting  step,  or  architectural  ornament  like  a 
moulding,  answering  for  a  threshold,  1  Kings  vii,  6 ; 
"thick  plank,"  Ezek.  xli,  25;  FiniS,  JcerutAoth', 
hewed  sticks  of  timber,  1  Kings  vi,  36;  vii,  2,  12; 
flip  (in  Piel),  to  jit  beams,  hence  to  frame,  Neb.  iii, 
3,  (I ;  Psa.  civ,  3 ;  of  no  Heb.  word  (being  supplied  in 
italics)  in  1  Kings  vi,  G;  Sokoq,  a  stick  of  wood  for 
building  purposes,  Matt,  vii,  3,  4,  5 ;  Luke  vi,  41,  42. 
In  these  last  passages,  Lightfoot  shows  that  the  ex- 
pressions of  our  Lord  were  a  common  proverb  among 
the  Jews,  having  reference  to  the  greater  sins  of  one 
prone  to  censure  the  small  faults  of  another.  The 
"»wfe,"  Kaptyoc,  may  be  understood  as  any  very  small 
dry  particle,  which,  by  lodging  in  the  eye,  causes  dis- 
tress and  pain,  and  is  here  given  as  the  emblem  of 
lesser  faults  in  opposition  to  a  beam  for  the  greater,  as 
also  in  the  parallel  proverb,  "Strain  [out]  a  gnat  and 
swallow  a  camel"  (Matt,  xxiii,  24). 

Bean  (bi%,pol;  Sept.  Kva/.ioc')  occurs  first  in  2  Sam. 
xvii,  28,  where  beans  are  described  as  being  brought 
to  David,  as  well  as  wheat,  barley,  lentils,  etc.,  as  is 
the  custom  at  the  present  day  in  many  parts  of  the 
East  when  a  traveller  arrives  at  a  village.  So  in 
Ezek.  iv,  9,  the  prophet  is  directed  to  take  wheat,  bar- 
ley, beans,  lentils,  etc.  and  make  bread  thereof.  This 
meaning  of  the  Heb.  word  is  confirmed  by  the  Arabic 
fitl,  which  is  applied  to  the  bean  in  modern  times,  as 
ascertained  by  Forskal  in  Egypt,  and  as  we  find  in  old 
Arabic  works.  The  common  bean,  or  at  least  one  of 
its  varieties,  we  find  noticed  by  Hippocrates  and  The- 
ophrastus  tinder  the  names  of  kvcijioq  iWrfVtKOC,,  or 
"Greek  bean,"  to  distinguish  it  from  jevafiog  ai-yinr- 
Tinc,  the  "Egyptian  bean,"  or  bean  of  Pythagoras, 
which  was  no  doubt  the  large  farinaceous  seed  of  Ne- 
lumbium  apeciomm  (Theophr.  Plant,  iv,  9;  Athen.  iii, 
73;  comp.  Link,  I'nnlt,  i,  224;   Billerbeek,  F'.or.  Class. 

'  p  139).  Beans  were  employed  as  articles  of  diet  by 
the  ancients,  as  they  are  by  the  moderns,  and  are  con- 

!  sidered  to  give  rise  to  flatulence,  but  otherwise  to  be 


BEAN 


707 


BEAR 


wholesome  and  nutritious  (comp.  Pliny,  xviii,  DO). 
Beans  are  cultivated  over  a  great  part  of  the  Old 
World,  from  the  north  of  Europe  to  the  south  of  India  ; 
in  the  latter,  however,  forming  the  cold-weather  culti- 
vation, with  wheat,  peas,  etc.  The}'  are  extensively 
cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Arabia.  In  Egypt  they  are 
sown  in  November,  and  reaped  in  the  middle  of  Feb- 
ruary (three  and  a  half  months  in  the  ground)  ;  but  in 
Syria  they  may  be  had  throughout  the  spring.  The 
stalks  are  cut  down  with  the  scythe,  and  these  are 
afterward  cut  and  crushed  to  fit  them  for  the  food  of 
camels,  oxen,  and  goats.  The  beans  themselves, 
when  sent  to  market,  are  often  deprived  of  their 
skins.  Basnagc  reports  it  as  the  sentiment  of  some 
of  the  rabbins  t'lat  beans  were  not  lawful  to  the  priests, 
on  account  of  their  being  considered  the  appropriate 
food  of  mourning  and  affliction  ;  but  he  does  not  refer 
to  the  authority ;  and  neither  in  the  sacred  books  nor 
in  the  Mishna  (see  Shebiith,  ii,  9)  can  be  found  any 
traces  of  the  notion  to  which  he  alludes  (see  Otho,  Lex. 
Rub.  p.  223).  So  far  from  attaching  any  sort  of  im- 
purity to  this  legume,  it  is  described  as  among  the 
first-fruit  offerings ;  and  several  other  articles  in  the 
latter  collection  prove  that  the  Hebrews  had  beans 
largely  in  use  after  they  had  passed  them  through  the 
mill  (Kitto,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Palestine,  p.  cccxix).  The 
paintings  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt  show  that  the 
bean  was  cultivated  in  that  country  in  very  early 
times  (comp.  Strabo,  xv,  822),  although  Herodotus 
states  (ii,  37 ;  comp.  Diog.  Laert.  viii,  34)  that  beans 
were  held  in  abhorrence  by  the  Egyptian  priesthood, 
and  that  they  were  never  eaten  by  the  people  (but  see 
Wilkinson,  Anc.  Eg.  i,  £23  abridgm.);  but  as  they 
were  cultivated,  it  is  probable  that  they  formed  an  ar- 
ticle of  diet  with  the  poorer  classes  (comp.  Horace,  Sat. 
ii,  3,  182;  ii,  G,  03)  ;  and  beans  with  rice,  and  dhourra 
bread,  are  the  chief  articles  of  food  at  this  day  among 
the  Fellah  population.  The}'  are  usually  eaten  steep- 
ed in  oil.  Those  now  cultivated  in  Syria  and  Pales- 
tine are  the  white  horse-bean  and  the  kidney-bean, 
called  by  the  natives  mash. — Kitto,  s.  v.  Pol. 

Be'an,  Children  of  (eioi  Baifiv;  Josephus,  viol 
roi'  Bacivov,  Ant.  xii,  8, 1),  a  tribe  apparently  of  pred- 
atory Bedouin  habits,  retreating  into  "towers"  (jrvp- 
yovc)  when  not  plundering,  and  who  were  destroyed  by 
Judas  Maccabseus  (1  Mac.  v,  4).  The  name  has  been 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  Beon  (Num.  xxxii,  2); 
but  this  is  a  mere  conjecture,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to 
tell  from  the  context  whether  the  residence  of  this 
people  was  on  the  east  or  west  of  Jordan. 

Bear  (afa  or  21,  dob,  in  Arabic  dub,  in  Persic  deeb 
and  dab ;  Greek  apicroe)  is  noticed  in  1  Sam.  xvii,  34, 
36,  37  ;  2  Sam.  xvii,  8  ;  2  Kings  ii,  24  ;  Prov.  xvii,  12 ; 
xxviii,  15;  Isa.  xi,  7  ;  lix,  11 ;  Lam.  iii,  10;  Hos.  xiii, 
8  ;  Amos,  v,  19 ;  Dan.  vii,  5 ;  Wisd.  xi,  17  ;  Ecclus. 
xlvii,  2;  Rev.  xiii,  2.     Although  some  moderns  have 


ulj^;  <  *-  ^  -:,_  *,,  ^ 


Syrian  Hoar. 

denied  the  existence  of  bears  in  Syria  and  Africa, 
there  cannot  be  a  doubt  of  the  fact,  and  of  a  species  of 
the  genus  Ursus being  meant  in  the  Hebrew  texts  above 
noted  (Thomson,  Land  and  Boole,  ii,  373).     David  de- 


fended his  flock  from  the  attacks  of  a  bear  (1  Sam. 
xvii,  34,  35,  3G),  and  bears  destroyed  the  youths  who 
mocked  the  prophet  (2  Kings  ii,  24).  Its  hostility  to 
cattle  is  implied  in  Isa.  xi,  7 — its  roaring  in  Isa.  lix, 
11 — its  habit  of  ranging  far  and  wide  for  food  in  Prov. 
xxviii,  15 — its  lying  in  wait  for  its  prey  in  Lam.  iii, 
HI ;  and  from  2  Kings  ii,  24,  Ave  may  infer  that  it  would 
attack  men.     See  Elisha. 

The  genus  Ursus  is  the  largest  of  all  the  plantigrade 
carnassiers,  and  with  the  faculty  of  subsisting  on  fruit 
or  honey  unites  a  greater  or  less  propensity,  according 
to  the  species,  to  slaughter  and  animal  food.  To  a  sul- 
len and  ferocious  disposition  it  joins  immense  strength, 
little  vulnerability,  considerable  sagacity,  and  the 
power  of  climbing  trees.  The  brown  bear,  Ursus  arc- 
tos,  is  the  most  sanguinary  of  the  species  of  the  Old 
Continent,  and  Ursus  Syriacus,  or  the  bear  of  Pales- 
tine, is  one  very  nearly  allied  to  it,  differing  only  in 
its  stature  being  proportionably  lower  and  longer,  the 
head  and  tail  more  prolonged,  and  the  color  a  dull 
buff  or  light  bay,  often  clouded,  like  the  Pyrenaean 
variety,  with  darker  brown  (Forskal,  Descr.  Anim.  iv, 
5,  No.  21).  On  the  back  there  is  a  ridge  of  long  semi- 
erect  hairs  running  from  the  neck  to  the  tail.  It  is* 
yet  found  in  the  elevated  woody  parts  of  Lebanon 
(Kitto,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Palest,  p.  ccclv).  In  the  time 
of  the  first  Crusades  these  beasts  were  still  numerous 
and  of  considerable  ferocity ;  for  during  the  siege  of 
Antioch,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  according  to  Math. 
Paris,  slew  one  in  defence  of  a  poor  woodcutter,  and 
was  himself  dangerously  wounded  in  the  encounter. 
See  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

The  sacred  writers  frequently  associate  this  formi- 
dable animal  with  the  king  of  the  forest,  as  being 
equally  dangerous  and  destructive  ;  and  it  is  thus  that 
the  prophet  Amos  sets  before  his  countrymen  the  suc- 
cession of  calamities  which,  under  the  just  judgment 
of  God,  was  to  befall  them,  declaring  that  the  removal 
of  one  would  but  leave  another  equally  grievous  (v, 
18,  19).  Solomon,  who  had  closely  studied  the  char- 
acter of  the  several  individuals  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
compares  an  unprincipled  and  wicked  ruler  to  these 
creatures  (Prov.  xxviii,  15).  To  the  fury  of  the  fe- 
male bear  when  robbed  of  her  young  there  are  several 
striking  allusions  in  Scripture  (2  Sam.  xvii,  8;  Prov. 
xvii,  12).  The  Divine  threatening  in  consequence  of 
the  numerous  and  aggravated  iniquities  of  the  king- 

i  dom  of  Israel,  as  uttered  by  the  prophet  Hosea,  is  thus 
forcibly  expressed  :  "I  will  meet  them  as  a  bear  be- 
reaved of  her  whelps"  (xiii,  8;  see  Jerome  in  loc), 
which  was  fulfilled  by  the  invasion  of  the  Assyrians 
and  the  complete  subversion  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
"  The  she-bear  is  said  to  be  even  more  fierce  and  ter- 
rible than  the  male,  especiallj'  after  she  has  cubbed, 
and  her  furious  passions  are  never  more  fiercely  ex- 
hibited than  when  she  is  deprived  of  her  young. 
When  she  returns  to  her  den  and  misses  the  object  of 
her  love  and  care,  she  becomes  almost  frantic  with 
rage.  Disregarding  every  consideration  of  danger  to 
herself,  she  attacks  with  great  ferocity  every  animal 

I  that  comes  in  her  way,  and  in  the  bitternesss  of  her 
heart  will  dare  to  attack  even  a  band  of  armed  men. 
The  Russians  of  Kamtschatka  never  venture  to  fire  on 
a  young  bear  when  the  mother  is  near;  for  if  the  cub 
drop,  she  becomes  enraged  to  a  degree  little  short  of 
madness,  and  if  she  get  sight  of  the  enemy  will  only 
quit  her  revenge  with  her  life.  A  more  desperate  at- 
tempt can  scarcely  be  performed  than  to  carry  off  her 
young  in  her  absence.  Her  scent  enables  her  to  track 
the  plunderer;  and  unless  he  has  reached  some  place 
of  safetj'  before  the  infuriated  animal  overtake  him, 
his  only  safety  is  in  dropping  one  of  the  cubs  and  con- 
tinuing his  flight ;  for  the  mother,  attentive  to  its 
safety,  carries  it  home  to  her  den  before  she  renews 
the  pursuit"  (Cook's  Voyages,  iii,  307). 

In  the  vision  of  Daniel,  where  the  four  great  mon- 
archies of  antiquity  are  symbolized  by  different  beasts 


BEARD  "OS 

of  prev,  whose  qualities  resembled  the  character  of 
veral  Btates,  the  Medo-Persian  empire  is  rep- 
resented by  a  bear,  which  raised  itself  up  on  one  side, 
and  had  between  its  teeth  three  ribs,  and  they  said 
thus  onto  it,  "  Arise,  devour  much  flesh"  (vii,  5).  All 
the  four  monarchies  agreed  in  their  fierceness  and  ra- 
Aacitj  :  bat  there  were  several  striking  differences  in 
the  subordinate  features  of  their  character  and  their 
mode  of  operation,  which  is  clearly  intimated  by  the 
different  character  of  their  symbolical  representatives. 
ian  monarchy  is  represented  by  a  bear  to  de- 
note its  cruelty  and  greediness  after  blood.  Bochart 
b  is  enumerated  several  points  of  resemblance  between 
racter  of  the  Medo-Persians  and  the  disposition 
of  the  bear  (Hieroz.  i,  806  sq.).  The  variety  of  the 
Asiatic  bear  which  inhabits  the  Himalayas  is  especial- 
ly ferocious,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  same  species 
among  the  mountains  of  Armenia  is  the  animal  here 
referred  to.  The  beast  with  seven  heads  and  ten 
horns  (Rev.  xiii,  2)  is  described  as  having  the  feet  of 
a  bear.  The  bear's  feet  are  his  best  weapons,  with 
which  he  fights,  either  striking  or  embracing  his  an- 
tagonist in  order  to  squeeze  him  to  death,  or  to  trample 
him  under  foot. 

For  the  constellation  Ursa  Major,  or  "the  Great 
Bear,"  see  Astronomy. 

Beard  (",pT,  zdkan';  Gr.  iruiyutv).  The  customs 
of  nations  in  respect  to  this  part  of  the  human  coun- 
tenance have  differed  and  still  continue  to  differ  so 
widely  that  it  is  not  easy  with  those  who  treat  the 
beard  as  an  incumbrance  to  conceive  properly  the  im- 
portance attached  to  it  in  other  ages  and  countries. 

I.  The  ancient  nations  in  general  agreed  with  the 
modern  inhabitants  of  the  East  in  attaching  a  great 
value  to  the  possession  of  a  beard.  The  total  absence 
of  it,  or  a  sparse  and  stinted  sprinkling  of  hair  upon 
the  chin,  is  thought  by  the  Orientals  to  be  as  great  a 
deformity  to  the  features  as  the  want  of  a  nose  would 
appear  to  us;  while,  on  the  contrary,  along  and  bushy 
beard,  flowing  down  in  luxuriant  profusion  to  the 
breast,  is  considered  not  only  a  most  graceful  orna- 
ment to  the  person,  but  as  contributing  in  no  small 
degree  to  respectability  and  dignity  of  character.  So 
much,  indeed,  is  the  possession  of  this  venerable  badge 
associated  with  notions  of  honor  and  importance,  that 
it  is  almost  constantly  introduced,  in  the  way  either 
of  allusion  or  appeal,  into  the  language  of  familiar  and 
daily  life.  In  short,  this  hairy  appendage  of  the  chin 
i-  um-t  highly  prized  as  the  attribute  of  manly  digni- 
ty ;  and  hence  the  energy  of  Ezekiel's  language  when, 
describing  the  severity  of  the  Divine  judgments  upon 
the  Jews,  he  intimates  that,  although  that  people  had 


BEARD 


Beard  ot  ancient  Assyrian  King. 


been  as  dear  to  God  and  as  fondly  cherished  by  him  as 
the  beard  was  by  them,  the  razor,  i.  e.  the  agents  of 
his  angry  providence,  in  righteous  retribution  for  their 
long-continued  sins,  would  destroy  their  existence  as  a 
nation  (Ezek.  v,  1-5).  With  this  knowledge  of  the 
extraordinary  respect  and  value  which  have  in  all 
ages  been  attached  to  the  beard  in  the  East,  we  are 
prepared  to  expect  that  a  corresponding  care  would  be 
taken  to  preserve  and  improve  its  appearance ;  and, 
accordingly,  to  dress  and  anoint  it  with  oil  and  per- 
fume was,  witli  the  better  classes  at  least,  an  indis- 
pensable part  of  their  daily  toilet  (Psa.  exxxiii,  2). 
In  many  cases  it  was  dyed  with  variegated  colors,  by 
a  tedious  and  troublesome  operation,  described  by  Mo- 
rier  (Journ.  p.  247),  which,  in  consequence  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air,  requires  to  be  repeated  once  every  fort- 
night, and  which,  as  that  writer  informs  us,  has  been 
from  time  immemorial  a  universal  practice  in  Persia. 
That  the  ancient  Assyrians  took  equally  nice  care  of 
their  beard  and  hair  is  evident  from  the  representa- 
tions found  everywhere  upon  the  monuments  discov- 
ered by  Botta  and  Laj'ard.  From  the  histoiy  of  Me- 
phibosheth  (2  Sam.  xix,  24),  it  seems  probable  that 
the  grandees  in  ancient  Palestine  "  trimmed  their 
beards"  with  the  same  fastidious  care  and  by  the  same 
elaborate  process  ;  while  the  allowing  these  to  remain 
in  a  foul  and  dishevelled  state,  or  to  cut  them  off,  was 
one  among  the  many  features  of  sordid  negligence  in 
their  personal  appearance  by  which  they  gave  outward 
indications  of  deep  and  overwhelming  sorrow  (Isa.  xv, 
2;  Jer.  xli,  5;  comp.  Herod,  ii,  36;  Suet.  Caligula,  5; 
Theocr.  xiv,  3).  The  custom  was  and  is  to  shave  or 
pluck  it  and  the  hair  out  in  mourning  (Isa.  1,  G ;  Jer. 
xlviii,  37 ;  Ezra  ix,  3 ;  Bar.  vi,  31).  David  resented 
the  treatment  of  his  ambassadors  by  Hanun  (2  Sam. 
x,  4)  as  the  last  outrage  which  enmity  could  inflict 
(comp.  Lucian,  Cynic.  14).  The  dishonor  done  by  Da- 
vid to  his  beard  of  letting  his  spittle  fall  on  it  (1  Sam. 
xxi,  13)  seems  at  once  to  have  convinced  Achish  of 
his  being  insane,  as  no  man  in  health  of  body  and 
mind  would  thus  defile  what  was  esteemed  so  honor- 
able. It  was  customary  for  men  to  kiss  one  another's 
beards  when  they  saluted,  for  the  original  of  2  Sam. 
xx,  9,  literally  translated,  would  read,  "And  Joab 
held  in  his  right  hand  the  beard  of  Amasa,  that  he 
might  give  it  a  kiss ;"  indeed,  in  the  East,  it  is  gener- 
ally considered  an  insult  to  touch  the  beard  except  to 
kiss  it  (comp.  Homer,  Iliad,  i,  501 ;  x,  4.54  sq.).  Among 
the  Arabs,  kissing  the  beard  is  an  act  of  respect ;  D' Ar- 
vieux  observes  (Coutumes  d?s  Arabes,  ch.  7)  that  "the 
women  kiss  their  husbands'  beards,  and  the  children 
their  fathers',  when  they  go  to  salute  them"  (see  Har- 
mar,  Obs.  ii,  77,  83;  iii,  179;  Bohlen,  Indien,  ii,  171; 
Deyling,  Obs.  ii,  14;  Lakemacher,  Obs.  x,  145;  Taver- 
nier,  ii,  100  ;  Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  317 ;  Kitto,  Pict.  Bi- 
ble, notes  on  1  Sam.  xxxi,  13;  2  Sam.  x,  4;  xix,  24; 
xx,  9;  1  Chron.  xix,  4;  Volney,  ii,  118;  Burekhardt, 
Arabia,  p.  01 ;  Lane,  Mod.  Egyptians,  i,  322).  See 
Hair. 

The  Egyptians,  on  the  contrary,  sedulously,  for  the 
most  part,  shaved  the  hair  of  the  face  and  head,  and 
compelled  their  slaves  to  do  the  like.  Herodotus 
(i,  36)  mentions  it  as  a  peculiarity  of  the  Egyptians 
that  they  let  the  beard  grow  in  mourning,  being  at 


Beards  of  various  ancient  Nations.    From  the  Egyptian 
Monuments. 


BEARD 


709 


BEAST 


Ancient  Egyptian  f:il*e 
Beards. 


all  other  times  shaved.  Hence  Joseph,  when  released 
from  prison,  "shaved  his  beard"  to  appear  before 
Pharaoh  (Gen.  xli,  14).  Egyptians  of  low  caste  or 
mean  condition  are  represented  sometimes,  in  the  spir- 
it of  caricature  apparently,  with  beards  of  slovenly 
growth  (Wilkinson,  ii,  127).  The  enemies  of  the 
Eg3rptians,  including  probably  many  of  the  nations 
of  Canaan,  Syria,  Armenia,  etc.,  are  represented  near- 
ly always  bearded.  The  most  singular  custom  of  the 
Egyptians  was  that  of  tying  a  false  beard  upon  the 
chin,  which  was  made  of  plaited  hair,  and  of  a  peculiar 
form,  according  to  the  person  by  whom  it  was  worn. 
Private  individuals  had  a  small  beard,  scarcely  two 
inches  long  ;  that  of  a  king  was 
of  considerable  length,  square 
at  the  bottom  ;  and  the  figures 
of  gods  were  distinguished  by 
its  turning  up  at  the  end  (Wil- 
kinson, iii,  362).  No  man  ven- 
tured to  assume,  or  affix  to  his 
image,  the  beard  of  a  deity ; 
but  after  their  death,  it  was  permitted  to  substitute 
this  divine  emblem  on  the  statues  of  kings,  and  all 
other  persons  who  were  judged  worthy  of  admittance 
to  the  Elysium  of  futurity,  in  consequence  of  their 
having  assumed  the  character  of  Osiris,  to  whom  the 
souls  of  the  pure  returned  on  quitting  their  earthly 
abode.  The  form  of  the  beard,  therefore,  readily  dis- 
tinguishes the  figures  of  gods  and  kings  in  the  sacred 
subjects  of  the  temples  ;  and  the  allegorical  connection 
between  the  sphinx  and  the  monarch  is  pointed  out  by 
its  having  the  kingly  beard,  as  well  as  the  crown  and 
other  symbols  of  royalty  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Eg.  suppl. 
plate  77,  pt.  ii). 

From  the  above  facts,  it  is  clear  that  the  Israelites 
maintained  their  beard  and  the  ideas  connected  with 
it  during  their  abode  among  the  Egyptians,  who  were 
a  shaven  people.  This  is  not  unimportant  as  one  of 
the  indications  which  evince  that,  whatever  they 
learned  of  good  or  evil  in  that  country,  they  preserved 
the  appearance  and  habits  of  a  separate  people.  As 
the  Egyptians  shaved  their  beards  off  entirely,  the  in- 
junction in  Lev.  xix,  27,  against  shaving  "the  cor- 
ners of  the  beard"  must  have  been  levelled  against  the 
practices  of  some  other  bearded  nation.  The  prohibi- 
tion is  usually  understood  to  apply  against  rounding 
the  corners  of  the  beard  where  it  joins  the  hair ;  and 
the  reason  is  supposed  to  have  been  to  counteract  a 
superstition  of  certain  Arabian  tribes,  who,  by  shaving 
off  or  rounding  away  the  beard  where  it  joined  the 
hair  of  the  head,  devoted  themselves  to  a  certain  deity 
who  held  among  them  the  place  which  Bacchus  did 
among  the  Greeks  (Herodot.  iii,  8 ;  comp.  Jer.  ix,  26 ; 
xxv,  23  ;  xlix,  32).  The  consequence  seems  to  have 
been  altogether  to  prevent  the  Jews  from  shaving  off 
the  edges  of  their  beards.  The  effect  of  this  prohibi- 
tion in  establishing  a  distinction  of  the  Jews  from 
other  nations  cannot  be  understood- unless  we  con- 
template the  extravagant  diversity  in  which  the  beard 
was  and  is  treated  by  the  nations  of  the  East.  See 
Corner.  The  removal  of  the  beard  was  a  part  of  the 
ceremonial  treatment  proper  to  a  leper  (Lev.  xiv,  9). 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Jews  compelled  their 
slaves  to  wear  beards  otherwise  than  they  won'  their 
own;  although  the  Romans,  when  they  adopted  the  fash- 
ion of  shaving,  compelled  their  slaves  to  cherish  their 
hair  and  beard,  and  let  them  shave  when  manumitted 
(Liv.  xxxiv,  52;  xlv,  44). — Kitto ;  Smith;  Winer. 

In  2  Sam.  xix,  24,  the  term  rendered  "beard"  is  in 
the  original  E2b,  sapham' ' ,  and  signifies  the  mustache 
(being  elsewhere  rendered  "upper  lip"),  which,  like 
the  beard,  was  carefully  preserved. 

II.  The  44th  canon  of  the  council  of  Carthage,  A.D. 
308,  according  to  the  most  probable  reading,  forbids 
clergymen  to  suffer  the  hair  of  their  heads  to  grow  too 
long,  and  at  the  same  time  forbids  to  shave  the  beard. 


Ckricus  nee  comim  nutriat  nee  barbam  radat.  Accord- 
ing to  Gregory  VII,  the  Western  clergy  have  not  worn 
beards  since  the  first  introduction  of  Christianity  ;  but 
Bingham  shows  this  to  be  incorrect. — Bingham,  Orig. 
Eccl.  bk.  vi,  ch.  iv,  §  15. 

Beard,  Thomas,  the  "protomartyr  of  Methodism," 
was  one  of  Mr.  Wesley's  first  assistants.  In  1744, 
during  the  fierce  persecutions  waged  against  the  Meth- 
odists, he  was  torn  from  his  family  and  sent  away  as 
a  soldier.  He  maintained  a  brave  spirit  under  his 
sufferings,  but  his  health  failed.  He  was  sent  to  the 
hospital  at  Newcastle  in  1774,  "where,"  says  Wesley, 
"he  still  praised  God  continually."  His  fever  be- 
came worse,  and  he  was  bled,  but  his  arm  festered, 
mortified,  and  had  to  be  amputated.  A  few  days  later 
he  died.  Charles  Wesley  wrote  the  hymn  Soldier  of 
Christ,  adieu  !  as  a  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Beard. — 
Wesley,  Works,  iii,  317 ;  Stevens,  Hist,  of  Methodism, 
i,  210 ;  Atmore,  Memorial,  p.  46. 

Beasley,  Frederick,  D.D.,  was  born  in  1777, 
near  Edenton,  N.  C.  After  graduating  at  Princeton, 
1797,  he  remained  there  three  years  as  tutor,  studying 
theolog}'  at  the  same  time.  In  1801  he  was  ordained 
deacon,  in  1802  priest ;  in  1803  he  became  pastor  of  St. 
John's,  Elizabethtown  ;  in  the  same  year  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  St.  Peter's,  Albany,  and  in  1809  to  St.  Paul's, 
Baltimore.  In  1813  he  became  provost  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania,  which  office  he  filled  with  emi- 
nent fidelity  and  dignity  until  1828.  He  served  St. 
Michael's,  Trenton,  from  1829  to  1836,  when  he  retired 
to  Elizabethtown,  where  he  died,  Nov.  1,  1845.  His 
principal  writings  are,  American  Dialogues  of  the  Bead 
(1815)  -.—Search  of  Truth  in  the  Science  of  the  Human 
Mind  (vol.  i,  8vo,  1822 ;  vol.  ii  left  in  MS.).  He  also 
published  a  number  of  pamphlets  and  sermons,  and 
was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  periodicals  of  the 
time. — Sprague,  Aimals,  v,  479. 

Beast,  the  translation  of  i~!^fj2,  behemah',  dumb 
animals,  quadrupeds,  the  most  usual  term;  also  of 
"P"3,  be'ir' ',  grazing  animals,  flocks  or  herds,  Exod. 
xxii,  5;  Num.  xx,  4,  8,  11;  Psa.  lxxviii,  48;  once 
beasts  of  burden,  Gen.  xlv,  17 ;  ill,  chay,  Chaldee 
N^n,  chaya',  a  wild  beast,  frequently  occurring ;  T^E3, 
nt'phesh,  creature  or  soul,  only  once  in  the  phrase 
"beast  for  beast,"  Levit.  xxiv,  18;  t"f2B,  te'bach, 
slaughter,  once  only  for  eatable  beasts,  Prov.  ix,  2;  and 
m*3~0,  Idrkaroth' ,  "swift  beasts,"  i.  e.  dromedaries, 
Isa.  Ix,  20  [see  Cattle]  ;  in  the  New  Test,  properly 
tyUiov,  an  animal;  Snoiov,  a  icild  beast,  often ;  kt\)voc, 
a  domestic  animal,  as  property,  for  merchandise,  Rev. 
xviii,  13 ;  for  food,  1  Cor.  xv,  39 ;  or  for  service,  Luke 
x,  34  ;  Acts  xxiii,  24 ;  and  otyayiai',  an  animal  for  sac- 
rifice, a  victim,  Acts  vii,  42.  In  the  Bible,  this  word, 
when  used  in  contradistinction  to  man  (Psa.  xxxvi,  6), 
denotes  a  brute  creature  generally;  when  in  contra- 
distinction to  creeping  things  (Lev.  xi,  2-7;  xxvii,  26), 
it  has  reference  to  four-footed  animals ;  and  when  to 
vMd  mammalia.,  as  in  Gen.  i,  25,  it  means  domesticated 
cattle.  Tsiyim',  fi^S  ("wild  beasts,"  Isa.  xiii,  21 ; 
xxxiv,  14 ;  Jer.  xl,  39),  denotes  wild  animals  of  the 
upland  wilderness.  Ochim',  CnS  ("doleful  crea- 
tures," Isa.  xiii,  21),  may,  perhaps,  with  more  propriety- 
be  considered  as  "poisonous  and  offensive  reptiles." 
Seirim',  D",1'1"b,  shaggy  ones,  is  a  general  term  for 
apes — not  satyrs  (Isa.  xiii,  21;  xxxiv,  14;  much  less 
"devils,"  2  Chron.  xi,  15),  a  pagan  poetical  creation 
unfit  for  Scriptural  language;  it  includes  Shedim', 
E^TwJ  ("devils,"  Deut.  xxxii,  17;  Psa.  cvi,  37),  as  a 
species.  See  Ape.  Tannim',  B^SFl,  are  monsters  of 
the  deep  and  of  the  wilderness — boas,  serpents,  croco- 
diles, dolphins,  and  sharks.     See  Animal. 

The  zoology  of  Scripture  may,  in  a  general  sense. 
be  said  to  embrace  the  whole  range  of  animated  na- 


BEAST 


710 


BEAST 


ture ;  but,  after  the  first  brief  notice  of  the  creation 
<.f  animals  recorded  in  Genesis,  it  is  limited  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  animals  found  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  Pal- 
estine, "Syria,  and  the  countries  eastward,  in  some 

those  beyond  the  Euphrates.  It  comprehends 
mammalia,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes,  and  invertebrate 
animals.  See  each  animal  in  its  alphabetical  order. 
Thus,  in  animated  nature,  beginning  with  the  lowest 
organized  in  the  watery  element,  we  have  first  "~}'^, 
She 'rets,  '-the  moving  creature  that  hath  life,"  ani- 
malcula,  Crustacea,  insecta,  etc. ;  second,  C^SP),  Tan- 
nini.m'.  fishes  and  amphibia,  including  the  huge  ten- 
ants of  the  waters,  whether  they  also  fiequent  the 
land  or  not,  crocodiles,  python-serpents,  ami  perhaps 
even  those  which  are  now  considered  as  of  a  more 
ancient  zoology  than  the  present  system,  the  great 
Saurians  of  geology  ;  and  third,  it  appears,  birds,  rp2, 
Opii,  "flying  creatures"  (Gen.  i,  20);  and,  still  ad- 
vancing (cetaceans,  pinnatipeds,  whales,  and  seals  be- 
ing excluded),  we  have  quadrupeds,  forming  three 
other  divisions  or  orders :  (1st.)  cattle,  ITCHa,  Beiie- 
maii'.  embracing  the  ruminant  herbivora,  generally 
gregarious  and  capable  of  domesticity;  (2d.)  wild 
beasts,  Fl^tl,  Chayaii',  carnivora,  including  all  beasts 
of  prey  ;  and  (3d.)  reptiles,  iU^H,  Re'mes.  minor  quad- 
rupeds, such  as  creep  by  means  of  many  feet,  or 
glide  along  the  surface  of  the  soil,  serpents,  annelides, 
etc. ;  finally,  we  have  man,  C1X,  Adam',  standing 
alone  in  intellectual  supremacy.  The  classification 
of  Moses,  as  it  may  lie  drawn  from  Deuteronomy,  ap- 
pears to  be  confined  to  Yertebrata  alone,  or  animals 
having  a  spine  and  ribs,  although  the  fourth  class 
might  include  others.  Taking  man  as  one,  it  forms 
five  classes:  (1st.)  Man;  (2d.)  Beasts;  (3d.)  Birds; 
(4th.)  Reptiles  ;  (5th.)  Fishes.  It  is  the  same  as  that 
in  Leviticus  xi,  where  beasts  are  further  distinguished 
into  those  with  solid  hoofs,  the  solipedes  of  systematists, 
and  those  with  cloven  feet  (bisulci),  or  ruminantia. 
But  the  passage  specially  refers  to  animals  that  might 
be  lawfully  eaten  because  they  were  clean,  and  to 
others  prohibited  because  they  were  declared  unclean, 
although  some  of  them,  according  to  the  common  be- 
lief of  the  time,  might  ruminate ;  for  the  Scriptures 
were  not  intended  to  embrace  anatomical  disquisitions 
aiming  at  the  advancement  of  human  science,  but  to 
convey  moral  and  religious  truth  without  disturbing 
the  received  opinions  of  the  time  on  questions  having 
little  or  no  relation  to  their  main  object.  The  Scrip- 
tures,  therefore,  contain  no  minute  details  on  natural 
history,  and  notice  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  ani- 
mals inhabiting  the  regions  alluded  to.  Notwith- 
standing the  subsequent  progress  of  science,  the  obser- 
vation of  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  is  still  in  a  great  measure 
true,  that  "of  a  few  animals  and  vegetables  we  are 
comparatively  certain,  but  of  the  great  majority  we 
know  almost  nothing,  (iuessing  and  conjecture  are 
endless,  and  they  have  on  these  subjects  been  already 
sufficiently  employed.  What  learning— deep,  solid, 
extensive  learnin  \  and  judgment  could  do,  has  already 

been  <\ by  the  incomparable  Bochart  in  his  Hiero- 

tmcon.  The  learned  reader  may  consult  this  work, 
and.  while  he  gains  much  general  information,  will 
<>< ''  be  can  apply  so  little  of  it  to  the 
main  and  gr  ind  question."  The  chief  cause  of  this  is 
doubtless  the  general   want  of  a  personal  and  exact 

1 f  natural  history  on  the  part  of  those  who 

have  discussed  these  questions  (Kitto).  SeeZooLOGT. 
The  Mosaic  regulations  respecting  domestic  animals 
exhibit  a  great  superiority  over  the  enactments  of 
other  ancient  nations  (for  those  of  the  Areopagus,  see 
« .'uint. I.  Juslit.  v,9,13;  forthose  of  the  Zend-avesta 
Bee  Rhode,  ffeU.  s  ,,  ,  ,,  ;:;*.  m,  W5),  and  contain 
the  following  directions:  1.  Beasts  of  labor  must  have 
rest  on  the  Sabbath  |  Exod.  xx.  10;  xxiii,  12),  and  in 
the  sabbatical  year  cattle  were  uliowed  to  roam  free 


and  eat  whatever  grew  in  the  unfilled  fields  (Exod. 
xxiii,  11  ;  Lev.  xxv,  7).  See  Sabbath.  2.  No  an- 
imal could  be  castrated  (Lev.  xxii,  24);  for  that  this 
is  the  sense  of  the  passage  (which  Le  Clerc  combats) 
is  evident  not  only  from  the  interpretation  of  Josephus 
{Ant.  v,  8,  10),  but  also  from  the  invariable  practice 
of  the  Jews  themselves.  See  Ox.  The  scruples  that 
may  have  led  to  the  disuse  of  mutilated  beasts  of  bur- 
den are  enumerated  by  Michaelis  (Mas.  Recht,  iii,  161 
sq.).  The  prohibition  itself  must  have  greatly  sub- 
served a  higher  and  different  object,  namely,  the  pre- 
vention of  eunuchs  ;  but  its  principal  ground  is  certain- 
ly a  religious,  or,  at  least,  a  humane  one  (see  Ilottin- 
ger,  Leges  Hebr.  p.  374  sq.).  3.  Animals  of  different 
kinds  were  not  to  be  allowed  to  mix  in  breeding,  nor 
even  to  be  yoked  together  to  the  plough  (Lev.  xix, 
19 ;  Deut.  xx,  10).  See  Diverse.  4.  Oxen  in  thresh- 
ing were  net  to  be  muzzled,  or  prevented  from  eating 
the  provender  on  the  floor  (Deut.  xxv,  4 ;  1  Cor.  ix, 
9).  See  Threshing.  5.  No  (domestic)  animal  should, 
be  killed  on  the  same  dajr  with  its  young  (Lev.  xxii, 
28),  as  this  would  imply  barbarity  (see  Jonathan's 
Targum  in  loc. ;  Philo,  Opp.  ii,  398).  The  Jews  ap- 
pear to  have  understood  this  enactment  to  apply  to  the 
slaughtering  (::nu.;)  of  animals  for  ordinary  use  as 
well  as  for  sacrifice  (Mishna,  Chollin,  ch.  v).  Respect- 
ing the  ancient  law  referred  to  in  Exod.  xxiii,  19,  see 
Victuals.  (Comp.  generally  Schwabe,  in  the  Kir- 
chenze.it.  1834,  No.  20).  Other  precepts  seem  not  to 
have  had  the  force  of  civil  statutes,  but  to  have  been 
merely  injunctions  of  compassion  (e.  g.  Exod.  xxiii, 
5 ;  Deut.  xxii,  4,  (5,  7).  The  sense  of  the  former  of 
these  last  prescriptions  is  not  very  clear  in  the  orig- 
inal (see  Rosenmi'iller  in  loc),  as  the  Jews  apply  it  to 
all  beasts  of  burden  as  well  as  the  ass  (see  Josephus, 
Ant.  iv,  8,  30;  comp.  Philo,  Opp.  ii,  39).  Deut.  vi,  7 
sq.,  however,  appears  to  be  analogous  to  the  other  reg- 
ulations under  this  class  (Winer,  ii,  610).  See  Fowl. 
The'word  "beast"  is  sometimes  used  figuratively 
for  brutal,  savage  men.  Hence  the  phrase,  "  I  fought 
with  wild  beasts  at  Ephesus,"  alluding  to  the  infuri- 
ated multitude,  who  may  have  demanded  that  Paul 
should  be  thus  exposed  in  the  amphitheatre  to  light  as 
a  gladiator  (1  Cor.  xv,  32;  Acts  xix,  29).  A  similar 
use  of  the  word  occurs  in  Psa.  xxii,  12,  16 ;  Eccl.  iii, 
18 ;  Isa.  xi,  6-8  ;  and  in  2  Pet.  ii,  12 ;  Jude  10,  to  de- 
note a  class  of  wicked  men.  A  wild  beast  is  the  sym- 
bol of  a  tyrannical,  usurping  power  or  monarchy,  that 
destroys  its  neighbors  or  subjects,  and  preys  upon  all 
about  it.  The  four  beasts  in  Dan.  vii,  3,  17,  23,  rep- 
resent four  kings  or  kingdoms  (Ezek.  xxxiv,  28;  Jer. 
xii,  9).  Wild  beasts  are  generally,  in  the  Scriptures, 
to  be  understood  of  enemies,  whose  malice  and  power 
are  to  be  judged  of  in  proportion  to  the  nature  and  mag- 
nitude of  the  wild  beasts  by  which  they  are  represent- 
ed ;  similar  comparisons  occur  in  profane  authors  (Psa. 
lxxiv,  1 !).  In  like  manner  the  King  of  Egypt  is  com- 
pared to  the  crocodile  (Psa.  lxviii,  31).  The  rising  of 
a  beast  signifies  the  rise  of  some  new  dominion  or  gov- 
ernment ;  the  rising  of  a  wild  beast,  the  rise  of  a  ty- 
rannical government;  and  the  rising  out  of  the  sea, 
that  it  should  owe  its  origin  to  the  commotions  of  the 
people.  So  the  waters  are  interpreted  by  the  angel 
(Rev.  xvii,  15).  In  the  visions  of  Daniel,  tho  four 
great  beasts,  the  symbols  of  the  four  great  monarchies, 
are  represented  rising  out  of  the  sea  in  a  storm  :  "  I 
saw  in  my  vision  by  night,  and  behold,  the  four  winds 
of  the  heaven  strove  upon  the  great  sea,  and  four  great 
beasts  came  up  from  the  sea"  (Dan.  vii,  2,  3).  In  va- 
rious passages  of  the  Revelation  (iv,  0,  etc.)  this  word 
is  improperly  used  by  our  translators  to  designate  the 
living  ci-i  n/ //ri.<  (.v., r )  that  symbolize  the  providential 
agencies  of  the  Almighty,  as  in  the  vision  of  Fzekiel 
(ch.  i).  The  "beast"  elsewhere  spoken  of  with  such 
denunciatory  emphasis  in  that  book  doubtless  denotes 
the  heathen  political  power  of  persecuting  Rome.  See 
Wemys's  Symbol.  Diet.  a.  v. 


BEATIFICATION" 


Til 


BEAUCIIAMP 


Beatification,  an  act  by  which,  in  the  Romish 
Church,  the  pope  declares  a  person  blessed  after  death. 
It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  canonization  (q.  v.),  in 
which  the  pope  professes  to  determine  authoritatively  on 
the  state  of  the  person  canonized  ;  but  when  he  beati- 
fies he  only  gives  permission  that  religious  honors  not 
proceeding  so  far  as  worship  should  be  paid  to  the  de- 
ceased. The  day  of  their  office  cannot  be  made  a  festi- 
val of  obligation.  Before  the  time  of  Pope  Alexander 
VII  beatification  was  performed  in  the  church  of  his 
order  if  the  person  to  be  beatified  was  a  monk;  and  in 
the  case  of  others,  in  the  church  of  their  country,  if 
there  was  one  at  Rome.  Alexander,  however,  ordered 
that  the  ceremony  should  in  future  be  always  in  the  ba- 
silica of  the  Vatican  ;  and  the  first  so  solemnized  was 
the  beatification  of  Francis  de  Sales,  January  8, 1662. 
At  present  the  custom  is  not  to  demand  the  beatification 
of  any  one  until  fifty  years  after  his  death.  See  Lam- 
bertini  (afterward  Benedict  XIV),  Ds  Servorum  Dei  Be- 
afficatione  el  Beaforum  Canonisatione,  lib.  i,  cap.  24,  39. 
— Farrar,  Eccl.  D.ct.  s.  v. ;  Christ.  Examiner,  Jan.  1855, 
art.  vii. 

Beatific  Vision,  a  theological  expression  used  to, 
signify  the  vision  of  God  in  heaven  permitt3d  to  the 
blessed. 

Beating.     See  Bastinado. 

Beatitudes,  the  name  frequently  given  to  the 
first  clauses  of  our  Saviour's  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (q. 
v.),  beginning  with  the  phrase  "  Blessed,"  etc.  (Matt, 
v,  3-11).  The  present  "Mount  of  th'.  Beatitudes"  on 
which  they  are  said  to  have  been  delivered  is  the  hill 
called  Kurun  Hnttin,  or  "Horns  of  Hattin,"  on  the 
road  from  Nazareth  to  Tiberias — a  not  unlikely  posi- 
tion (Hackett,  Illustr.  of  Script,  p.  313). 

Beaton,  Beatoun,  or  Bethune,  Cardinal  Da- 
vid, archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  notorious  as  a  perse- 
cutor, was  born  in  1491,  and  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Glasgow.  He  studied  the  canon  law  at  Paris. 
In  1523  he  was  made  abbot  of  Arbroath,  and  in  1525 
lord  privy  seal.  His  life  was  now  devoted  to  politics, 
which  he  endeavored  to  make  subservient  to  the  uses 
of  the  Papal  Church.  In  1537  he  was  promoted  to  the 
see  of  St.  Andrew's,  and  in  1538  was  made  cardinal  by 
Pope  Paul  III.  In  1543  he  obtained  the  great  seal 
of  Scotland,  and  was  also  made  legate  a  latere  ly  the 
pope,  thus  combining  civil  and  ecclesiastical  domin- 
ion in  his  own  person.  In  the  beginning  of  1545  46 
he  held  a  visitation  of  his  diocese,  and  had  great  num- 
bers brought  before  him,  under  the  act  which  had  pass- 
ed the  Parliament  in  1542-43,  forbidding  the  lieges  to 
argue  or  dispute  concerning  the  sense  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  Convictions  were  quickly  obtained;  and 
of  those  convicted,  five  men  were  hanged  and  one  wom- 
an drowned ;  some  were  imprisoned,  and  others  were 
banished.  He  next  proceeded  to  Edinburgh,  and  there 
called  a  council  for  the  affairs  of  the  Church  ;  and  hear- 
ing that  George  Wishart,  an  eminent  reformer,  was 
at  the  house  of  Cockburn  of  Ormiston,  Beaton  caused 
Wishart  to  be  apprehended,  carried  over  to  St.  An- 
drew's, and  shut  up  in  the  tower  there.  The  cardinal 
called  a  convention  of  the  clergy  at  St.  Andrew's,  at 
which  Wishart  was  condemned  for  heresy,  and  ad- 
judged to  be  burnt — a  sentence  which  was  passed  and 
put  in  force  by  the  cardinal  and  his  clergy,  in  defiance 
of  the  regent,  and  without  the  aid  of  the  civil  power. 
The  cardinal  afterward  proceeded  to  the  abbey  of  Ar- 
broath, to  the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter  by  Mrs. 
Marion  Ogilvv  of  the  house  of  Airly,  with  whom  he 
had  long  lived  in  concubinage,  and  there  gave  her  in 
marriage  to  the  eldest  son  of  the  Earl  of  Crawford, 
and  with  her  1000  mcrks  of  dowry.  He  then  returned 
to  St.  Andrew's,  where,  on  Saturday,  May  29, 1546,  he 
was  put  to  death  in  his  own  chamber  by  a  party  of 
Reformers,  headed  by  Norman  Leslie,  heir  of  the  noble 
house  of  Rothes,  who,  we  find,  had  on  the  24th  of  April, 
1545,  given  the  cardinal  a  bond  of  "  manrent"  (or  ad- 
mission of  feudal  homage  and  fealty),  and  who  had 


a  personal  quarrel  with  the  cardinal.  The  death  of 
Cardinal  Beaton  was  fatal  to  the  ecclesiastical  oli- 
garchy which  under  him  trampled  alike  on  law  and 
liberty.  Three  works  of  the  cardinal's  are  named: 
De  Legationibus  Suis,  De  Primatu  Petri,  and  Epidolm  ad 
Diverscs.  See  Engl.  Cyclopaedia;  Burnet,  Hist,  of  Engl. 
Reformation,  i,  491-540;  Hetherington,  Church  of  Scot- 
land, i,  42-52. 

Beatrix  or  Beatrice,  St.,  sister  of  Simplicius 
and  Faustinus,  who  were  beheaded  in  303,  and  their 
bodies  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  Beatrix  rescued  the 
bodies  from  the  water  and  buried  them,  for  which  she 
was  condemned ;  but  for  seven  months  she  escaped 
the  fury  of  her  persecutors.  She  was  eventually  ar- 
rested and  strangled  in  prison.  The  Poman  Church 
honors  these  martyrs  on  the  29th  of  July. — Landon, 
Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  105 ;  ^Butler,  Lives  of  Saints',  July  29. 

Beattie,  James,  poet  and  moralist,  was  the  son  of 
a  small  farmer,  and  was  born  at  Laurencekirk,  in  Kin- 
cardineshire, 5th  December,  1735.  After  pursuing  Lis 
studies  with  brilliant  success  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen,  he  was  appointed  usher  to  the  Grammar 
School  of  that  city,  1758,  where  he  enjoyed  the  society 
of  many  distinguished  men,  by  whose  aid  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  Marischal 
College  in  17G0.  In  the  same  year  he  made  his  first 
public  appearance  as  a  poet  in  a  volume  of  original 
poems  and  translations.  With  these  poems  he  was 
afterward  dissatisfied,  and  he  endeavored  to  suppress 
them.  His  Essay  on  Truth,  written  avowedly  to  con- 
fute Hume,  and  published  in  1770,  became  highly  pop- 
ular, and  procured  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  a  private  interview  and  a 
pension  from  George  III.  Solicitations  were  also 
made  to  him  to  enter  the  Church  of  England;  but  he 
■  declined,  in  the  fear  that  his  motives  might  be  misrep- 
I  resented.  In  the  same  year  he  gave  to  the  world  the 
;  first  book  of  the  Minstrel,  and  the  second  book  in  1774. 
This  work  gained  him  reputation  as  a  poet.  He  sub- 
sequently produced  Dissertations,  Moral  and  Critical 
I  (1783,  4to ;  1787,  2  vols.  8vo)  -.—Evidences  rf  the  (  hr  >- 
!  tian  Religion  (1786 ;  4th  ed.  1795,  2  vols.  12mo)  :— Ele- 
ments of  Moral  Science  (3d  ed.  with  Index,  1817,  2  vols. 
|8vo);  and  An  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  rf  his 
[eldest  Sen.  He  died  at  Aberdeen,  Aug.  18, 1803.  His 
Life  and  Letters,  by  Sir  William  Forbes,  appeared  in 
1807  (3  vols.  8vo).  It  is  honorable  to  Beattie  that, 
long  before  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  was  brought 
before  Parliament,  he  was  active  in  protesting  against 
that  iniquitous  traffic ;  and  he  introduced  the  subject  into 
his  academical  course,  with  the  express  hope  that  such 
of  his  pupils  as  might  be  called  to  reside  in  the  West  In- 
dies would  recollect  the  lessons  of  humanity  which  he 
inculcated.  Of  his  writings,  the  Minstrel  is  that  \\  hich 
probably  is  now  most  read.  It  is  not  a  work  of  any 
very  high  order  of  genius;  but  it  exhibits  a  strong 
feeling  for  the  beauties  of  nature ;  and  it  will  probably 
long  continue  to  hold  an  honorable  place  in  the  collec- 
tions of  minor  poetry.  Bcattie's  metaphysical  writings 
have  the  reputation  of  being  clear,  lively,  and  attrac- 
tive, but  not  profound.  The  Essay  on  Truth  was  much 
read  and  admired  at  the  time  of  its  publication. — 
Engl.  Cyclopadia,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i, 
147. 

Beauchamp,  William,  an  early  and  distinguish- 
ed MethodiVt  Episcopal  minister.  He  was  lorn  in 
Kent  County,  Del.,  April  26th,  1772;  joined  the  M. 
E.  Church  about  1788.  In  1790  he  taught  a  school  at 
Monongahela,  Va.,  began  to  preach  in  1791,  and  in 
1793  he  travelled  under  the  presiding  elder.  In  1794 
he  joined  the  itinerancy ;  and  in  1797  he  was  station- 
ed in  New  York,  and  in  1798  in  Boston.  In  1801  he 
located,  from  ill  health,  and  married  Mrs.  Russel, 
"one  of  the  most  excellent  of  women."  In  1807  he 
settled  on  the  Little  Kenawha,  Va.  Here  he  preach- 
ed with  great  success  until  1815,  when  he  removed  to 


BEAUMONT 


712 


BEAUTY 


Chilicothe,  Ohio,  to  act  as  editor  of  the  Western  Chris- 
Am  Monitor,  which  he  conducted  "  with  conspicuous 
ability,"  preaching  meantime  "with  eminent  success." 
In  1817  ho  removed  to  Mount  Carmel,  111.,  and  cn- 
gaged  in  founding  a  settlement,  in  every  detail  of 
which,  civil,  economical,  and  mechanical,  his  genius 

eminent  He  was  pastor,  teacher,  lawyer, 
and  engineer.  In  1822  he  re-entered  the  itinerancy, 
in  the  Missouri  Conference;  "in  1823,  was  appointed 
presiding  elder  on  Indiana  District,"  then  embracing 
nearly  the  h  hole  state.     In  1824  he  was  a  delegate  to 

til  Conference  at  Baltimore,  "and  lacked  but 
two  votss  of  an  election  to  the  episcopacy"  by  that 
body.  He  died  at  Paoli,  Orange  County,  Ind.,  Oct. 
7th,  182  I.  By  diligent  study,  often  pursued  by  torch- 
light in  his  frontier  life,  he  made  himself  master  of 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  "His  preaching  was 
chasl  •  and  dignified,  logical,  and  sometimes  of  over- 
powering force."  He  possessed  a  great  and  organizing 
mind,  and  a  peculiar  and  almost  universal  genius,  and, 
with  adequate  advantages  for  study,  would  certainly 
have  influenced  widely  the  history  of  this  country. 
His  Essays  on  the  Truth  of  tit?  Christian  Religion  is  "a 
work  of  decided  merit."  His  Letters  on  the  Itinerancy, 
with  a  memoir  by  Bishop  Soule,  were  published  after 
his  death,  and  he  left  several  fine  MSS.,  which  remain 
unpublished. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  i,  474;  Methodist 
Magazine,  1825;  Stevens,  Memorials  of  Methodism,  i, 
ch.  xxix;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  235. 

Beaumont,  Joseph,  M.D.,  one  of  the  most  em- 
inent preachers  in  the  Methodist  Church  of  England, 
was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Beaumont,  and  was  born 
at  Castle  Donington,  March  19,  1794.  He  received 
his  cdination  at  Kingswood  school,  and  was  there  con- 
verted  to  God.  After  some  years  spent  in  the  study 
of  medicine,  he  determined  to  enter  the  ministry  ;  and 
though  Ids  way  would  hive  been  opened  into  the  Es- 
tablished Church  by  tho  kindness  of  friends,  he  pre- 
ferred to  remain  with  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  and 
was  received  on  trial  by  the  Conference  of  1813.  He 
was  soon  recognised  as  a  preacher  of  more  than  com- 
mon  promise.  An  impediment  in  his  speech  appeared 
likely  to  hinder  his  success,  but  by  great  resolution 
he  surmounted  it,  and  became  a  fluent  and  effective 
speaker.  His  preaching  was  characterized  by  bril- 
liancy of  illustration,  by  repeated  bursts  of  impassion- 
ed eloquence,  and  an  earnestness  of  manner  and  deliv- 
er}' often  amounting  to  impetuosity.  For  many  years 
he  n  is  one  of  the  most  popular  pulpit  and  platform 
speakers  in  Great  Britain.  His  last,  appointment  was 
Hull,  where  he  died  suddenly  in  the  pulpit,  January 
21,  1855.  A  number  of  his  occasional  sermons  and 
arc  published;  a  specimen  of  them  will  be 
found  in  the  English  Pulpit,  1849,  p.  123.  His  Vfe, 
written  by  his  son,  appeared  in  1856. — Wesleyan  Min- 
utes (Lond.  1855 1 ;  London  /.'■  v.  July,  185G,  p.  564. 

Beausobre,  Is\.\c  de,  born  at  Niort,  March  8th, 
n  anci  Mit  family,  originally  of  Limousin.  His 
parents  were  Protestants,  and  educated  him  at  Sau- 
mur.  In  1683  he  u  is  ordained  minister  at  Chatillon- 
snr-Indr.',  iuTouraine.  The  French  government  caused 
his  church  to  be  sealed  up,  and  Beausobre  was  bold 
enough  to  break  tb  •  se  il,  for  which  he  was  compelled 
to  flee,  and  at  Rotterdam  he  became  chaplain  to  the 
Prince  of  \i.hah.  |„  [693  he  published  bis  Defence 
<f'h  Doctrin  nfthe  Reformers  (Defense  de  la  doct.  des 
Provid  nee, etc.),  in  which  he  treats  the 
Lutherans  with  some  severity,  and  defends  the  Synod 
1:1  1694  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  received 
many  appointments,  and  was  charged,  together  with 
I.'F.ui'mt.  with  the  work  oftranslatin  itheN.  T.  The 
n-w  version,  with  ample  prefaces  and  notes,  appeared 
at  Amsterdam  in  1718  (2  vols.  4to),and  again  in  1741, 
with  emendations.  The  Epistles  ofSt.Paul  were  the 
only  part  of  the  work  which  fell  to  the  share  of  Beau- 
sobrc.     The  notes  are  tinged  with  Socinianism.     He 


I  labored  during  a  large  portion  of  his  life  at  a  History 
of  the  Reformation,  from  the  Council  of  Basle  to  the 
period  of  the  publication  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg, 
and  it  was  this  undertaking  which  drew  from  him  his 
Critical  History  of  Manichceism  (Histoire  Critique  du 
Manicheisme,  Amst.  1734-39,  2  vols.  4to),  of  which  vol. 
ii  was  posthumous.  The  work  is  written  with  vast 
ability,  and  shows  that  many  of  those  who  are  charged 
with  Manichaeism  in  the  Middle  Ages  by  the  Papists 
are  falsely  charged.     The  Protestant  congregations  of 

I  Utrecht,  Hamburg,  and  the  Savoy,  at   London,  en- 

!  deavored  to  induce  Beausobre  to  become  their  pastor, 
but  the  King  of  Prussia  valued  him  too  highly  to  per- 
mit him  to  leave  Berlin.  His  Sermons  on  the  Resurrec- 
tion of  Lazarus  were  translated  by  Cotes  (Lond.  1822, 
8vo).  He  died  June  6th,  1738.  *Hc  left,  besides  the 
works  above  mentioned,  Remarques  critiques  et  philolo- 
giques  sur  le  N.  T.  (Hague  1742,  2  vols.  4to)  : — Histoire 
critique  du  Culte  des  Marts  parmi  ks  Chretiens  (t  les 
Paiens: — A  Supplement  to  U Enfant' s  History  ofth  Huss- 
ites (Lausanne,  1745.  4to)  : — A  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, from  1517  to  1630  (Berlin,  1785,  4  vols.  8vo).— 
Landon,  Heel.  Dct.  ii,  110;  Haag,  Li  France  Protss- 
tante,  ii,  123-127. 

Beautiful  Gate  (lonaia  7rv\n),  the  name  of  one 
of  the  ^ates  of  tha  Temple  (Acts  iii,  2).  It  was  the 
entrance  to  tli3  Court  of  the  Women,  immediately  op- 
posite the  Gate  of  Shushan,  the  eastern  portal  through 
the  outer  wall  into  Solomon's  Porch  (see  Strong's  Har- 
mony and  Erpisilion  ofths  Gospels,  App.  II,  p.  f  33,  and 
Map.)  It  is  evidently  the  saim  described  by  Josephus 
as  immensely  massive,  and  covered  with  plates  of  Co- 
rinthian bronze  (Ant.  xv,ll,  5;   War,  v,  5,  3;  vi,  5,  3). 

j  (See  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  Oct.  1867.)     See  Temple. 

Beauty  (represented  by  numerous  Hebrew  terms, 
which  in  our  version  are  frequently  rendered  by 
"comeliness,"  etc.).  The  Song  of  Solomon,  particu- 
larly the  sixth  and  seventh  chapters,  gives  us  some 

i  idea  of  what  were  then  the  notions  of  beauty  in  an 

I  Eastern  bride,  and  by  comparing  these  statements 
with  modern  Oriental  opinions,  we  may  perceive  many 
points  of  agreement.  Roberts  says,  ' '  A  handsome 
Hindoo  female  is  compared  to  the  sacred  city  of  Sced- 
ambaram.  Her  skin  is  of  the  color  of  ^old ;  her 
hands,  nails,  and  soles  of  the  feet  are  of  a  reddish  hue  ; 
her  limbs  must  be  smooth,  and  her  gait  like  the  statety 
swan.  Her  feet  are  small,  like  the  beautiful  lotus ; 
her  waist  as  slender  as  the  lightning;  her  arms  are 
short,  and  her  fingers  resemble  the  five  petals  of  the 
kantha  flower;  her  breasts  are  like  the  j'oung  cocoa- 
nut,  and  her  neck  is  as  the  trunk  of  the  areca-tree. 
Her  mouth  is  like  the  ambal  flower,  and  her  lips  as 
coral ;  her  teeth  are  like  beautiful  pearls ;  her  nose  is 
high  and  lifted  up,  like  that  of  the  chameleon  (when 
raised  to  snuff  the  wind) ;  her  eyes  are  like  the  sting 
of  a  wasp  and  the  Karnngu-valley  flower  ;  her  brows 
arc  like  the  bow,  and  nicely  separated ;  and  her  hair 
is  as  the  black  cloud."  Corpulency  and  stateliness  of 
manner  are  qualities  which  the  Orientals  admire  in 
their  women;   particularly  corpulency,  which  is  well 

j  known  to  be  one  of  the  most  distinguishing  marks  of 
beauty  in  the  East.  Niebuhr  says  that  plumpness  is 
thought  so  desirable  in  the  East,  that  women,  in  order 
to  become  so,  swallow  every  morning  and  every  even- 

j  ing  three  insects  of  a  species  of  tenebricm.es,  fried  in 
butter.  Upon  this  principle  is  founded  the  compli- 
ment of  Solomon  (Pant,  i,  9),  and  Theocritus,  in  his 
epithalamium  for  the  celebrated  Queen  Helen,  de- 
scribes her  as  plump  and  largo,  and  compares  her  to 
the  horse  in  the  chariots  of  Thessaly.  The  Arab 
women  whom  Mr.  Wood  saw  among  the  ruins  of  Pal- 
myra were  well  shaped,  and,  although  very  swarthy, 
yet  had  good  features.  Zenobia,  the  celebrated  queen 
of  that  renowned  city,  was  reckoned  eminently  beauti- 
ful, and  the  description  we  have  of  her  person  answers 
to  that  character;  her  complexion  was  of  a  dark  brown, 

!  her  eyes  black  and  sparkling,  and  of  an  uncommon 


BEBAI 


113 


BECHER 


;    her  countenance  animated  and  sprightly  in  a  I  been  added  since  the  corruption  of  the  text.     There 
r  high  degree;   her  person  graceful  and  stately;  ;  is,  however,  another  view  which  may  be  taken,  viz., 

that  1  Chr.  viii,  1,  is  right,  and  that  in  Gen.  xlvi,  21. 
and  1  Chr.  vii,  8,  "132,  as  a  proper  name,  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  132,  first-born,  and  so  that  Benjamin  had  no 
son  of  the  name  of  Becher.  In  favor  of  this  view,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  position  of  Becher,  immediately 
following  Bela  the  first-bcrn  in  both  passages,  is  just 
the  position  it  would  be  in  if  it  meant  "first-born;" 
that  Becher  is  a  singular  name  to  give  to  a  second  or 
fourth  son ;   and  that  the  discrepance  between  Gen. 


fire  . 

very  high  degree  ;  her  person  graceful 
her  teeth  white  as  pearl ;  her  voice  clear  and  strong. 
Females  of  distinction  in  Palestine,  and  even  farther 
east,  are  not  only  beautiful  and  well  shaped,  but  in 
consequence  of  being  kept  from  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
are  very  fair,  and  the  Scripture  bears  the  same  testi- 
mony of  Sarah,  of  Rebekah,  and  of  Rachel ;  that  they 
were"  "beautiful  and  well-favored."  The  women  of 
the  poorer  classes,  however,  are  extremely  brown  and 
swarthy  in  their  complexions,  from  being  much  ex- 


posed to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  It  is  on  this  account  |  ^y.  n  where  AshM  ig  the  tMrd  SQn^  and  x  chr>  viiij 
that  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  when  he  would  describe  a  ;  j  where  he  ig  expressly  called  the  second,  and  the  omis- 
beautiful  woman,  represents  her  as  one  that  keeps  at  ■  gion  of  Aghbel  m  x  Chr_  vii)  6j  would  all  be  accounted 
home    because   those  who    are   desirous   to  preserve  i  supposition  of  132  having  been  accidentally 

their  beautv  go  very  little  abroad.      Statelmess  ot  the  rr  .  o  j 

body  has  always  been  held  in  great  estimation  in  |  taken  for  a  proper  name  instead  ot  in  the  sense  of 
Eastern  courts/nor  do  they  think  any  one  capable  of  j  ^^T"  R  m%h*  acU*ed  tarther  .tlla  '  in  1  Chr; 
great  services  or  actions  to  whom  nature  has  not  ™,  38,  the  same  contusion  has  arisen  in  the  case  of 
vouchsafed  to  give  a  beautiful  form  and  aspect.  It  the  sons  of  Azel,  of  whom  the  second  is  in  the  Auth. 
still  is  and  has  always  been  the  custom  of  the  Eistern  j  Vers,  called  Bocheru,  in  Heb.  Sf"D2,  but  which  in  the 
nations  to  choose  such  for  their  principal  officers,  or  to  j  Sept.  is  rendered  TrpmroroKoc,  avrov,  another  name, 
wait  on  princes  and  great  personages  (Dan.  i,  4).  Sir  'Aau,  being  added  to  make  up  the  six  sons  of  Azel. 
Paul  Rycaut  observes  that  "the  youths  that  are  de-  !  And  that  the  Sept.  is  right  in  the  rendering  is  made 
signed  for  the  great  offices  of  the  Turkish  empire  must  j  highly  probable  by  the  very  same  form  being  repeated 
be  of  admirable  features  and  looks,  well  shaped  in  their  |  in  ver.  39,  "And  the  sons  of  Esliek  his  brother  were,  Ulam 
bodies,  and  without  any  defects  of  nature  ;  for  it  is  \  his  first-born  (\'y\2'3>\  Jehushthe  second"  etc.  The  sup- 
conceived  that  a  corrupt  and  sordid  soul  can  scarce  in-  j  portj  to0j  wn;ch  Becher,  as  a  proper  name,  derives  from 
habit  a  serene  and  ingenuous  aspect ;  and  I  have  ob-  |  the  occurrence  0f  the  same  name  in  Num.  xxvi,  35,  is 
sarved  not  only  in  the  seraglio,  but  also  in  the  courts  j  SOmevvhat  weakened  by  the  fact  that  Bered  (q.  v.) 
of  great  men,  their  personal  attendants  have  been  of  ]  seems  to  be  substituted  for  Becher  in  1  Chron.  vii,  20, 
comely  lusty  youths,  well  habited,  deporting  them-  anci  that  the  latter  is  omitted  altogether  in  the  Sept, 
selves  with  singular  modesty  and  respect  in  the  pres- 
ence of  their  masters  ;  so  that  when  a  pacha,  aga-spahi 
travels,  he  is  always  attended  with  a  comely  equipage, 
followed  by  flourishing  youths,  well  mounted." 

BEAUTY  OF  HOLINESS.  See  Holiness,  Beau- 
ty of. 

Beb'ai,  the  name  of  one  or  two  men,  and  a  place. 

1.  (Heb.  Bebay',  "U2,  from  the  Pehlvi  bob,  father; 
Sept.  j3a[3ai,  fitifiai,  pa/31,  and  /SjjjSi),  the  head  of  one 
of  the  families  that  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (B.C.  53G)  to  the  number  of  623  (Ezra  ii,  11 ; 
1  Esdr.  v,  13),  or  628  by  a  different  mode  of  reckoning 
(Neh.  vii,  16),  of  whom  his  son  Zechiriah,  with  28 
males,  returned  (B.C.  459)  under  Ezra  (Ezra  viii,  11 ; 
1  Esdr.  viii,  37).     Several  other  of  his  sons  are  men-  i 


version  of  Num.  xxvi,  35.  Moreover,  which  is  per- 
haps the  strongest  argument  of  all,  in  the  enumeration 
of  the  Benjamite  families  in  Num.  xxvi,  38,  there  is  no 
mention  of  Becher  or  the  Bachrites,  but  Ashbel  and 
the  Ashbclites  immediately  follow  Bela  and  the  Bela- 
ites.  This  last  supposition,  however,  is  decidedly  neg- 
atived by  the  mention  (1  Chron.  vii,  8)  of  the  distinctive 
sons  of  Becher  as  an  individual.  Becher  was  one  of 
Benjamin's  five  sons  that  came  down  to  Egypt  with 
Jacob,  being  one  of  the  fourteen  descendants  of  Rachel 
who  settled  in  Egypt.     See  Jacob. 

As  regards  the  posterity  of  Becher,  we  find  neverthe- 
less the  singular  fact  of  there  being  no  family  named  af- 
ter him  at  the  numbering  of  the  Israelites  in  the  plains 
of  Moab,  as  related  in  Num.  xxvi.     But  the  no  less 
tioned  in  chap,  x,  28.     He  (if  the  same)  subscribed  to  j  singular  circumstance  of  there  being  a  Becher,  and  a 
the  sacred  covenant  with  Nehemiah  ( Ezra  x,  15).    B.C.  I  family  of  Bachrites,  among  the  sons  of  Ephraim  (ver. 

gest  an  explanation.     The 
by  the  men  of  Gath, 
fthe  land  of  Goshen, 
imed  only  in  Judith  xv,  4.    It  is,  perhaps,  a  mere  rep-  j  m  that  border  affray  related  in  1  Chron.  vii,  21,  had 
etition  of  the  name  Chobai  (q.  v.),  ocurring  next  to  it.    sadly  thinned  the  house  of  Ephraim  of  its  males      The 
Beccarelli.     See  Mysticism  ;  Quietism.  |  daughters  of  Ephraim  must  therefore  have  sought  hus- 

Beccold.     See  Boccold.  |  bands  in  other  tribes,  and  in  many  cases  must  have 

been  heiresses.  It  is  therefore  possible  that  Becher, 
or  his  heir  and  head  of  his  house,  married  an  Ephraim- 
itish  heiress,  a  daughter  of  Shuthelah  (1  Chron.  vii,  20, 
21),  and  that  his  house  was  thus  reckoned  in  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  just  as  Jair,  the  son  of  Segub,  was  reckoned 


the  sacred  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (  Ezra  x,  15).    B.C.  I  tamny  oi  nacnrues,  among  uie  boi 

410.     Four  of  this  family  had  taken   foreign  wives    35)  has  been  thought  to  suggest  an 

(Ezra  x,  28  ;  1  Esdr.  ix,  29).  !  slaughter  of  the  sons  of  Ephraim  b 

2.  (Alex.  Bjj/3at,Vat.  omits ;  Vulg.  omits).    A  place  ;  who  came  to  steal  their  cattle  out  of 


Be'cher  (Heb.  Be'her,  132,  perh.  first-born,  but, 
according  to  Gesenius,  a  young  camel ;  so  Simonis,  Ono- 
mast.  p.  399),  the  name  of  one  or  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  Boyop  and  Bn\i'p.)  The  second  son  of 
Benjamin,  according  to  the  list  both  in  Gen.  xlvi,  21, 
and  1  Chr.  vii,  6;  but  omitted  in  the  list  of  the  sons 
of  Benjamin  in  1  Chr.  viii,  1,  2,  as  the  text  now  stands,  |  the ^phraimTtes"  viz],  just  before  the  entering  into  tl 


the  tribe  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  ii,  22 ;  Num.  xxxii, 
•10,  41).     The  time  when  Becher  first  appears  among 


unless,  as  seems,  on  the  whole,  most  probable,  he  is  isod  land    when  the  people  were  numbered   by 

there  called  Nohah,  the  fourth  son.^    rhere  is  also    ^nealogies  for  the  express  purpose  of  dividing  the  in- 

heritance    equitably  among  the   tribes,   is  evidently 


good  reason  to  identify  him  with  the  Ir  of  1  Chr.  vii 
12.  B.C.  1856.  No  one,  however,  can  look  at  the 
Hebrew  text  of  1  Chr.  viii,  1  (3b2TX  TiVlfi  "ja^ia 
brriX  11132),  without  at  least  suspecting  that  1132, 
his  first-born,  is  a  corruption  of  132,  Becher,  and  that 


highly  favorable  to  this  view.  (See  Num.  xxvi,  52- 
56;  xxvii.)  The  junior  branches  of  Becher' s  family 
would  of  course  continue  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 
Their  names,  as  given  in  1  Chron.  vii,  8,  were  Zemira, 
,  Joash,  Eliezer,  Elioenai,  Omri,  Jerimoth,  and  Abiah ; 
the  suffix  1  is  a  corruption  of  1,  and  belongs  to  the  other  branchea  possePsed  the  fields  around  Anathoth 
following  P2EJX,  so  that  the  genuine  sense,  in  that )  and  Alameth  (called  Alemeth  vi,  60,  and  Almon  Josh, 
case,  would  be,  Benjam'n  begat  Bela,  Beehr,  and  Ash-  xxi,  18).  As  the  most  important  of  them,  being  ances- 
bel,  in  exact  agreement  with  Gen.  xlvi,  21.  The  enu-  tor  to  King  Saul,  and  his  great  captain  Abner  (1  Sam. 
meration,  the  second,  the  third,  etc.,  must  then  have    xiv,  50),  the  last  named,  Abiah,  was  literally  Becher's 


KECIIORATH 


714 


BECKET 


son,  it  would  Been)  that  the  rest  (with  others  not  there 
named)  were  likewise.  See  Jacob.  The  generations 
appear  to  have  been  as  follows :  Becher— Abiah ;  then 
(after  a  long  interval,  see  .Sail)  Aphiah  (1  Sam.  ix, 
l)_Bechorath— Zeror— Abiel  (Jehiel,  1  Chron.  ix,  35) 
— Ner—  Kish—  Saul.  Aimer  was  another  son  of  Ner, 
brother  therefore  to  Kish,  and  uncle  to  Saul.  Abiel 
or  Jehiel  seems  to  have  been  the  first  of  his  house  who 
settled  at  Gibeon  or  Gibeah  (1  Chron.  viii,  29;  ix,  35), 
whicb  perhaps  he  acquired  by  his  marriage  with  Maa- 
chah,  and  which  became  thenceforth  the  seat  of  his 
family,  and  was  called  afterward  Gibeah  of  Saul  (1 
Sam.  xi,  4;  Isa.  x,  29).  From  1  Chron.  viii,  G,  it 
would  seem  that  before  this,  Gibeon,  orGeba,  had  been 
possessed  by  the  sons  of  Ehud  (called  Abihud  ver.  3) 
and  other  sous  of  Bela.  Another  remarkable  descend- 
ant of  Becher  was  Sheba,  the  son  of  Bichri,  a  Benjamite, 
who  headed  the  formidable  rebellion  against  David 
described  in  2  Sam.  xx  ;  and  another,  probably  Shimei, 
the  son  of  Gera  of  Bahurim,  who  cursed  David  as  he 
lied  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvi,  5),  since  he  is  said  to 
be  "a  man  of  the  family  of  the  house  of  Saul."  But 
if  so,  Gera  must  be  a  different  person  from  the  Gera  of 
Gen.  xlvi,  21  and  1  Chron.  viii,  3.  Perhaps  therefore 
~n~'l""2  is  used  in  the  wider  sense  of  trile,  as  Josh, 
vii,  17,  and  so  the  passage  may  only  mean  that  Shimei 
was  a  Benjamite. 

A  third  solution  of  both  the  above  difficulties  is  to 
transfer  from  the  35th  verse  to  the  38th  of  Num.  xxvi 
the  clause,  "  Of Becker  the  family  of  the  Backrites,"  in- 
serting  it  in  its  natural  place  between  Bela  and  his 
family  and  Ashbel  and  his  family;  the  38th  verse 
would  then  stand  thus:  uThe  sons  of  Benjamin,  after 
their  families  :  of  Bela,  the  family  of  the  Belaites;  of 
Becher,  the  family  of  the  Bachrites;  of  Ashbel,  the 
family  of  the  Ashbelites,"  etc.  This  conjectural 
emendation  is  in  part  confirmed  by  the  reading  of  the 
Sept.  Thus,  in  the  case  before  us,  we  have  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  described  (1)  as  it  was  about  the  time 
when  Jacob  went  down  into  Egypt,  or  rather  at  his 
death ;  (2)  as  it  was  just  before  the  entrance  into  Ca- 
naan :  (3)  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  David;  and  (4)  as 
it  was  eleven  generations  after  Jonathan  and  David, 
i.  e.  in  Hezekiah's  reign. — Smith.     See  Genealogy. 

2.  (Sept.  omits.)  The  second  son  of  Ephraim ;  his 
posterity  were  called  Bachrites  (Num.  xxvi,  35). 
In  1  Chron.  vii,  20,  Bered  seems  to  have"  been  his 
nephew  rather  than  the  same  person,  as  the  margin 
Bupposes.  B.C.  post  1874.  There  is  some  reason, 
however,  for  identifying  him  with  the  preceding  (see 
above). 

Becho'rath  (Heb.  BehoratV,  STrtiaa,  first-born ; 
Sept.  Bj  xwpaS  v.  r.  li,i\in),  the  son  of  Aphiah,  and  the 
great-grandfather  of  Ner,  the  grandfather  of  King  Saul 
(1  Sam.  ix,  1).     B.C.  long  ante  1093. 

Becker  for  Bekkeu),  Balthasar,  was  born  Mar. 
30,  1634,  in  Friesland,  and  became  a  minister  at  Am- 
Btefdam.  He  was  a  zealous  ( !artesian,  and  was  charged 
wiib  Socinianism.  His  reputation  chiefly  rests  upon  a 
work  in  Dutch,  entitled  /><  Betooverdt  Wereld,"The 
Enchanted  World"  (Amst.  1691-93),  which  undertakes 
to  show  that  the  devil  never  inspires  men  with  evil 
thoughts,  nor  tempts  them,  and  that  men  have  never 
iessed  will,  devils,  etc.  His  views  of  damion- 
i  ical  possession,  etc.,  arc  in  Bubstance  those  of  the  mod- 
i  ni  I:  itionalists,  of  whom  ho  was  a  forerunner  in  other 
doctrines  aswel]  asinthi  .  The  Consistory  of  Amster- 
,1:""  deposed  him  i„  LG92.  The  above  work  was  trans- 
1,1  ''  ""■■  I  rench  |  i  vols.  Amst.  1694),  into  German 
(by  Schwager,  Amst.  1693,  new  ed.  by  Sender,  Leipz. 
■  and  into  English.  Backer  died  June 
11,1698.  S-- /.;/:  bySchwabe(Kopenh.l780);  Mos- 
beim,  <t.  Uiti.  cent,  xvii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii.  s<  35;  Hagen- 
bach,  Hist,  of  /'  ■<■;,  ;,„  .  §  225  :  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet  ii 
116;  \\uv,\.  J/;,/., f /:,,;,,„„!; 

Becker,  Karl    Ludwig,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 


|  the  German  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Anhalt- 
Coethen,  Germany,  Nov.  17th,  1750.  He  pursued  his 
preparatory  studies  in  a  gymnasium  near  his  native 
place,  and  at  eighteen  entered  the  University  of  Halle, 
where  he  studied  four  years.  Thence  he  went  to 
Bremen,  where  he  spent  fourteen  years  as  a  candidjtits 
theolorjice,  preaching  occasional!}'  for  the  pastors  of  that 
city,  and  devoting  part  of  his  time  to  preparing  young 
men  for  the  universities.  "While  at  Bremen  he  pub- 
lished An  Eapzsition  rf  the  bM  Chapter  of  Isaiah,  a 
Treatise  on  the  btst  Mode  of  Converting  the  Jews,  and  two 
volumes  of  Sermons — all  able  works.  In  1793  he  em- 
igrated to  America,  bearing  with  him  the  most  flatter- 
ing testimonials  from  the  ministerium  of  Bremen.  He 
immediately  received  a  call  from  several  German  lie- 
formed  congregations  in  Northampton  Count}-,  Penn. 
In  March,  1795,  he  became  pastor  of  the  German  Re- 
formed congregation  in  Lancaster,  Penn.  In  180G  he 
took  charge  of  the  church  in  Second  Street,  Baltimore, 
Md.  In  1810  he  published  a  volume  of  Ser?nons,  which 
was  well  received.  He  died  suddenly,  July  12th,  1818. 
There  being  in  Dr.  Becker's  time  as  yet  no  theological 
seminary  in  the  German  Reformed  Church  in  America, 
many  of  its  ministers  pursued  their  theological  studies 
with  him.  He  possessed  a  strong  mind,  and  was  thor- 
oughly educated.  Ardent  and  impulsive,  he  was  fre- 
quently "caught  up,"  while  preaching,  into  an  over- 
whelming strain  of  impassioned  eloquence  and  tender 
feeling,  swaying  the  congregation  as  the  Mind  moves 
a  forest.  He  wrote  and  preached  only  in  the  German 
language. 

Becker,  Jacob  Christian,  D.D.,  a  German  Re- 
formed minister,  son  of  Dr.  C.  L.  Becker,  of  Baltimore, 
Md.  He  was  born  Jan.  14th,  1790.  lie  studied  the- 
ology with  his  father,  and  was  licensed  in  18<  8.  He 
labored  as  pastor  about  three  years  in  Manchester, 
Md.,  and  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Northampton  County, 
Penn.  In  1839  he  was  elected  by  the  synod  of  the 
German  L'eformed  Church  as  Professor  of  Theology  in 
its  seminary,  which  call  he  declined,  preferring  to  re- 
main a  pastor.  Many  German  Reformed  ministers 
studied  with  him.  He  was  a  learned  man  and  an  elo- 
quent preacher.     He  died  August  18th,  1858. 

Becket,  Thomas  a  (properly  Thomas  Becket, 
as  he  was  not  of  noble  birth),  was  the  son  of  a  London 
tradesman,  and  was  born  in  London  in  1117.  He  re- 
ceived a  collegiate  education  at  Oxford,  completed  by 
the  study  of  the  civil  and  canon  law  at  Bologna,  un- 
der the  patronage  of  Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  was  early  carried  to  preferment  by  his  un- 
doubted abilities,  aided  by  a  handsome  person  and  re- 
fined manners,  but  still  more  by  the  jealousy  which 
divided  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers  at  that  time. 
On  his  return  from  Italy,  Becket  was  appointed  arch- 
deacon of  Canterbury  by  his  patron,  and  soon  after  the 
accession  of  Henry  II  in  1154,  was  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  high  chancellor,  doubtless  by  the  influence  of 
the  prelacy  favoring  his  own  ambition.  At  this  time, 
it  should  be  remarked,  the  power  of  the  popes  had  risen 
to  an  arrogant  height,  and  the  dispute  about  investi- 
tures, the  subjection  of  the  clergy  to  lay  jurisdiction 
in  criminal  matters,  and  various  alleged  abuses  on 
either  side,  were  subjects  of  continual  and  bitter  strife 
between  the  Church  and  the  crowned  heads  of  Europe.! 
It  is  not  likely  that  Becket  was  ever  undecided  in  his 
own  views  on  any  of  these  subjects,  or  on  the  part  he 
was  destined  to  play  in  the  polities  of  the  period;  but 
it  is  easy  to  imagine  that  each  party  would  sec  the 
means  of  advancing  its  own  pretensions  in  the  splendid 
abilities,  the  acknowledged  purity  of  life,  and  the  court- 
ly manners  of  the  young  churchman.  As  chancellor 
he  served  the  king  so  faithfully,  and  was  so  pleasant 
a  companion  to  1dm,  both  in  his  business  and  in  his 
pleasures,  that  he  had  his  thorough  confidence  and  af- 
fection. On  the  death  of  Theobald  in  1162,  the  king 
was  urgent  for  his  elevation  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  ; 
but  many  of  the  bishops  opposed  it,  on  account  of 


BECON 


715 


BED 


Becket's  devotion  to  the  king.  But,  once  consecrated, 
it  devolved  upon  him  to  decide  whether  ho  would  serve 
the  Church  or  the  state,  and  he  declared  for  the  former 
without  hesitation.  The  king  and  his  late  minister 
were  equally  matched  for  their  inflexibility,  quickness 
of  resolution,  undaunted  courage,  and  statesmanlike 
abilities  ;  and  both  were  influenced,  farther  than  their 
own  consciences  extended,  by  the  spirit  of  the  age. 
Three  years  of  strife  led  to  the  council  of  Clarendon, 
convoked  by  Henry  in  1164,  when  Becket  yielded  to 
the  entreaties  or  menaces  of  the  barons,  and  signed  the 
famous  "  Constitutions  of  Clarendon"  [see  Clarendon], 
by  which  the  differences  between  the  Church  and  state 
were  regulated.  These  articles,  which  were,  in  real- 
ity, nothing  but  a  formal  statement  of  the  ancient 
usages  of  England,  not  only  rendered  the  state  su- 
preme in  all  that  concerned  the  general  government 
of  the  nation,  but  virtually  separated  England  from 
Borne,  so  far  as  the  temporal  authority  of  the  pope  was 
concerned.  The  pope,  therefore,  refused  to  ratify 
them,  and  Becket,  seeing  his  opportunity,  and  really 
repenting  of  the  compliance  that  had  been  wrung  from 
him,  refused  to  perform  his  office  in  the  Church,  and 
endeavored  to  leave  the  kingdom,  in  which,  at  last,  he 
succeeded,  only  to  draw  down  the  vengeance  of  Henry 
upon  his  connections.  The  progress  of  the  quarrel 
belongs  rather  to  the  history  of  the  times  than  a  single 
life.  Becket  remained  in  exile  six  years,  and,  mat- 
ters being  in  some  measure  accommodated,  returned 
to  England  in  1170,  shortly  after  the  coronation  of  the 
king's  son,  which  had  been  designed  by  Henry  as  a 
means  of  securing  the  succession.  Becket's  refusal  to 
remove  the  censures  with  which  the  agents  in  this 
transaction  had  been  visited,  his  haughty  contempt 
of  the  crown,  and  the  sentences  of  excommunication 
which  he  continued  to  fulminate  from  the  altar  of  Can- 
terbury cathedral,  provoked  anew  the  indignation  of 
the  king.  It  is  idle  to  judge  the  actions  of  men  in 
those  iron  times  by  the  formulas  of  the  present  day. 
The  question,  stripped  of  all  disguise,  was  simply  this  : 
whether  the  pope  or  Henry"  Plantagenet  was  hence- 
forth to  be  king  in  England;  whether  the  canon  law 
or  the  ancient  usages  should  govern  the  realm.  The 
Norman  lords  resolved  the  matter  in  their  own  rude 
way,  when  at  length  four  of  them  left  the  royal  pres- 
ence in  hot  anger,  after  hearing  of  some  fresh  indig- 
nity, and  determined  on  bringing  the  controversy  to 
a  bloodj-  close.  Becket  was  murdered  during  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  vesper  service  on  the  29th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1170.  He  was  canonized  by  Alexander  III  in 
1174.  The  pope  excommunicated  the  murderers  and 
their  accomplices,  and  the  king,  who  was  generally 
looked,  upon  as  implicated,  purchased  absolution  by 
conceding  to  Rome  the  freedom  of  its  judicial  proceed- 
ings, and  by  doing  penance  at  the  grave  of  Becket. 
Becket  soon  became  one  of  the  most  popular  English 
saints,  and  his  shrine  the  richest  in  England.  Four 
centuries  later  Henry  VIII,  1538,  had  proceedings  in- 
stituted against  him  for  treason,  his  bones  burned,  and 
the  gold  and  jewels  which  adorned  his  shrine  carried  to 
the  royal  treasury.  His  life  may  be  found  in  all  the 
English  histories,  which  give  various  views  of  his  char- 
acter, accordingto  the  ecclesiastical  views  of  the  writers. 
In  1859  Prof.  Hippeau,  of  Caen,  published  La  Vie  de 
Saint  Thomas  le  Martyr,  par  Gamier  de  Punt  Saint 
Mayence,  a  poem  of  the  12th  century,  now  issued  for 
the  first  time.  The  introduction  by 'the  editor  is  full 
of  interest.— Rich,  s.  v. ;  Giles,  Life  and  Letters  of  Th. 
a  Becket  (Lond.  184G,  2  vols.  8vo);  Opera,  ed. 'Giles 
(Lond.  1846-48,  5  vols.  8vo);  Southey,  Book  of  the 
Church ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  iii,  div.  iii,  §  52  ;  Hase, 
Ch.Hist.§  189;  Rule,  Studies  from  History,  i,  4-78 ; 
Buss,  Der  H.  Thomas  (Mentz,  1856,  8vo) ;  Bataille,  I  te 
de  St.  Th.  Becket  (Paris,  1843)  ;  English  Cychp.  s.  v. ; 
N.  Am.  Rev.  Ixiv,  118. 

Becon,  Thomas,  D.D.,  prebend   of  Canterbury, 
•was  born  1511  or  1512,  place  unknown.    He  graduated 


at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  1530,  was  ordained 
1538,  and  obtained  the  vicarage  of  Brensett,  Kent. 
He  had  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  from 
Stafford  and  Latimer  at  Cambridge,  but  was  cautious 
in  expressing  his  views,  publishing  under  the  name 
of  Theodore  Basil.  Nevertheless,  he  was  imprison- 
ed, and  in  1541  recanted  at  Paul's  Cross,  and  burned 
his  books.  On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI  he  was 
made  rector  of  bt.  Stephen's,  Walbrook,  1547,  and 
chaplain  to  Cranmer.  He  was  again  imprisoned  in 
Queen  Mary's  time,  but  escaped  in  1554  and  went  to 
Strasburgh.  His  writings  were  denounced  in  a  royal 
proclamation  of  1555.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth 
he  was  restored  to  his  old  rectory,  but  the  strong  Prot- 
estant principles  which  he  professed  hindered  his  ad- 
vancement under  a  government  which  persecuted  Pu- 
ritanism. He  died  at  Canterbury,  1563  (or  1567?). 
He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer  in  the  Reformation 
controversy,  and  his  vigor,  earnestness,  and  erudition 
have  kept  his  books  in  demand.  They  were  collected 
in  3  vols.  fol.  (Lond.  1563-4),  and  have  been  recently 
reprinted  by  the  Parker  Society  (Camb.  1843-4,  2  vols. 
8vo),  with  a  sketch  of  Becon's  life. — Princeton  Rev.  v, 
504. 

Bec'tileth,  the  plain  of  (t6  irecioi'  BaiicrikaiQ 
v.  r.  B{K7-£\s0  =  Heb.  T.b^p  rP3,  house  of  slaughter), 
mentioned  in  Judith  ii,  21,  as  lying  between  Nineveh 
and  Cilicia.  The  name  has  been  compared  with  Bac- 
tae.lla  (BtncraiaA.X//),  a  town  of  Syria  named  by  Ptole- 
my (lxix,  35)  as  situated  in  Castiotis  (v,  15) ;  Bactlali 
in  the  Peutinger  Tables,  which  place  it  21  miles  from 
Antioch  (comp.  the  /tin.  Antonin.).  The  most  impor- 
tant plain  in  this  direction  is  the  Bekaa,  or  valley  lying 
between  the  two  chains  of  Lebanon ;  and  it  is  possible 
that  Bectileth  is  a  corruption  of  that  well-known  name, 
if,  indeed,  it  be  a  historical  name  at  all.  See  Mannert, 
All.  Geog.  VI,  i,  450.— Smith,  s.  v. 

Bed,  properly  ftBO,  mittah' ',  kXivt],  either  for  rest 
at  night,  Exod.  viii,  3 ;  1  Sam.  xix,  13, 15,  16 ;  1  Kings 
xvii,  19  ;  2  Kings  iv.  10,  21 ;  xi,  2  ;  2  Chron.  xxii,  11 ; 
Psa.  vi,  6;  Prov.  xxvi,  14;  Mark  iv,  21  ;  Luke  viii, 
16;  xvii,  34;  or  during  illness,  Gen.  xlvii,  81;  xlviii, 
2;  xlix,  33;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  23;  2  Kings  i,  4,  6,  16; 
iv,  32  ;  Mark  vii,  30  ;  Rev.  ii,  22  ;  often  simply  a  sofa 
for  ease  and  quiet,  1  Sam.  xxviii,  23 ;  Esther  vii,  8 ; 
Amos  iii,  12  ;  vi,  4 ;  once  a  sedan  for  pleasure,  Cant. 
iii,  7 ;  in  the  New  Test,  frequently  a  mere  couch,  con- 
sisting of  a  litter  and  coverlet,  Matt,  ix,  2,  6 ;  Luke 
v,  18;  Acts  v,  15  (for  which  more  properly  the  dimin- 
utive kXivijSiov,  "couch,"  Luke  v,  19,  24;  or  /cpo/3- 
/3«-or,  frequently  occurring,  usually  "bed,"  once 
"  couch,"  Acts  v,  15  ;  and  once  in  the  sense  of  a  more 
permanent  sick-bed.  Acts  ix,  33) ;  used  also  for  bier 
for  dead  bodies,  2  Sam.  iii,  31 ;  and  specially  of  the 
triclinium,  or  dinner-lied,  Esther  i,  6;  Ezek.  xxiii,  41; 
"table,"  Mark  vii,  4.  Another  term  of  frequent  oc- 
currence is  3312373,  mishkab',  koitj],  which  almost  al- 
ways has  the  signification  of  marriage-bed,  or  some 
analogous  idea  (except  in  the  Chaldee  equivalent, 
n^'d'S  of  Dan.),  and  is  often  translated  by  terms  ex- 
pressive of  that  sense.  To  these  may  be  added  the 
poetic  SS1S*1,  yntsu'a,  Job  xvii,  13;  Psa.  lxiii,  6; 
exxxii,  3 ;  signifying  the  same  as  the  preceding  in 
Gen.  xlix,  4;  1  Chron.  v,  1 ;  and  "  chamber"  in  prose, 
1  Kings  vi,  5,  6,  10;  also  SSB,  matstsa' ',  Isa.  xxviii. 
20  ;  and,  finally,  ;C~*:",  <  r'es,  signifying,  as  the  deriva- 
tion shows,  a  canopied  bed  of  more  imposing  style,  for 
whatever  purpose,  Job  vii,  13;  Psa.  xli,  3;  exxxii,  3 
(in  the  original)  ;  Prov.  vii,  16;  Cant,  i,  16;  "couch"  in 
Psa.  vi,  6 ;  Amos  iii,  12  ;  vi,  4  ;  and  properly  rendered 
"  bedstead''  in  Deut.  iii,  11.  In  this  last-named  passage 
a  coffin  is  thought  by  some  to  be  meant.     See  Giant. 

"We  may  distinguish  in  the  Jewish  bed  the  follow- 
ing principal  parts  :  1.  The  bedstead  was  not  always 
necessary,  the  divan,  or  platform  along  the  side  or  end 


BED  AD  716 

of  an  Oriental  room,  sufficing  as  a  support  for  the  bed- 
ding. See  Bedchambeb.  Yet  some  slight  and  port- 
al. 1.-  frame  Beema  implied  among  the  senses  of  the 
word  ---.mitta/i',  which  is  used  for  a  "  bier"  (2  Sam. 
iii,  31  ).  and  for  the  ordinary  bed  (2  Kings  iv,  10),  for 
the  litter  on  which  a  sick  person  might  be  earned 
(1  Sam.  xix.  15),  for  Jacob's  bed  of  sickness  (Gen. 
xlvii.  :  1 ).  and  for  the  couch  on  which  guests  reclined 
at  a  banquet  (Esth.  i,  6).  See  Couch.  Thus  it  seems 
the  comprehensive  and  generic  term.  The  proper 
word  for  a  bedstead  appears  to  be  C"",  e'res,  used 
Deut.  iii,  11,  to  describe  that  on  which  lay  the  giant 
()_'.  whose  vast  bulk  and  weight  required  one  of  iron. 
See  Bedstead.  2.  The  substratum  or  bottom  portion 
of  the  bed  itself  was  limited  to  a  mere  mat,  or  one  or 
more  quilts.  3.  Over  this  a  quilt  finer  than  those  used 
for  the  under  part  of  the  bed.  In  summer,  a  thin 
blanket,  or  the  outer  garment  worn  by  day  (1  Sam. 
xix.  13),  sufficed.  This  latter,  in  the  case  of  a  poor 
prison,  often  formed  the  entire  bedding,  and  that  with- 
out a  bedstead.  Hence  the  law  provided  that  it  should 
not  be  kept  in  pledge  after  sunset,  that  the  poor  man 
might  not  lack  his  needful  covering  (Deut.  xxiv,  13). 
4.  The  bed-clothes.  The  only  material  mentioned 
for  this  is  that  which  occurs  1  Sam.  xix,  13,  and  the 
word  used  is  of  doubtful  meaning,  but  seems  to  signify 
some  fabric  woven  or  plaited  of  goat's  hair.  It  is 
clear,  however,  that  it  was  something  hastily  adopted 
to  serve  as  a  pillow,  and  is  not  decisive  of  the  ordinary 
use.  5.  In  Ezra  xiii,  18,  occurs  the  word  rp2,  he' ' seth 
(Sept.  -no<TKi<pd\atoi>),  which  seems  to  be  the  proper 
term.  Such  pillows  are  common  to  this  day  in  the 
E  ist,  formed  of  sheep's  fleece  or  goat's  skin,  with  a 
stuffing  of  cotton,  etc.  We  read  of  a  "pillow,"  f.lso, 
in  the  boat  in  which  our  Lord  lay  asleep  (Mark  iv,  38) 
as  he  crossed  the  lake.  The  block  of  stone,  such  as 
Jacob  used,  covered,  perhaps,  with  a  garment,  was  not 
unusual  among  the  poorer  folk,  shepherds,  etc.  See 
T'ili.i  i\v.  6.  The  ornamental  portions,  and  those  which 
luxury  added,  were  pillars  and  a  canopy  (Judith  xiii, 
9);  ivory  carvings,  gold  and  silver  (Joseph.  Ant.  xii, 
21,  14),  and  probably  mosaic  work,  purple  and  fine 
linen,  are  also  mentioned  as  constituting  parts  of  beds 
(Esth.  i.  G;  Cant,  iii,  9,  10),  where  the  word  "P'1",?>f;, 
appiryon'  (Sept.  (popelov),  seems  to  mean  "  a  litter"' 
(Prov.  vii,  16, 17 ;  Amos  xi,  4).  So  also  are  perfumes. 
—  Smith,  s.  v.      See  SLEEP. 

Be'dad  (Ileb.  Br  dad',  1^2,  separation,  otherwise 
for  -HX---:.  son  o/Adad;  Sept.  Bapad),  the  father  of 
Iladad,  a  king  in  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi,  35;  IChr.  i,  4C). 
B.C.  ante  1093. 

Be 'dan  (Ileb.  Bedan',  -,na,  signif.  doubtful;  see 
below),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  In  1  Sam.  xii,  11,  we  read  that  the  Lord  sent  as  | 
deliverers  of  Israel  Jerubbaal,  Bedan,  Jephthah,  Sam- 
uel.    Three  Of  these  we  know  to  have  been  judges  of 
Israel,  but  we  nowhere  find  Bedan  among  the  number. 

I  h  ■  Targum  understands  it  of  Samson,  and  so  Jerome 
an  1  the  generality  of  interpreters ;  but  this  interpreta- 
ti  >n  goes  on  the  supposition  that  the  name  should  be 
rendered  in  Dan,  i.  e.  one  in  Dan,  or  of  the  tribe  of 
Dan,  as  Samson  was.     In  this  sense,  as  Kiinehi  ob- 

would  have  the  same  force  as  Ben-Dan,  a  son 
of  Dan,  a  Danite.  Such  an  intermixture  of  proper 
n  itni  -  and  appellatives,  however,  is  very  doubtful;  and 

II  '-  to  I"-  noted  thai  Bedan  is  mentioned  before  Jeph- 
thah, whereas  Samson  was  after  him.  The  Septua- 
gint.  Syria.-,  and  Arabic  have  Barak,  which  many 
think  the  preferable  reading (comp.  Heb.  xi,  32).  Oth- 
ers think  there  was  an  actual  judge  of  this  name  not 
mentioned  In  the  <  >.  T. ;  but  this  view  is  subversive 
of  the  whole  history,  and  discountenanced  by  the  par- 
allel account  of  Josephus.  See  Judge.  A  man  of 
the  name  of  Bedan  occurs,  however,  among  the  poster- 


BEDE 

ity  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii,  17),  and  Junius,  follow- 
ed by  some  others,  thinks  that  the  judge  Jair  is  meant, 
and  that  he  is  here  called  Bedan  to  distinguish  him 
from  the  more  ancient  Jair,  the  son  of  Manasseh.  The 
order  in  which  the  judges  are  here  named  is  not  at  va- 
riance with  this  view  (Num.  xxxii,  41 ;  Judg.  x,  3,  4); 
but  surely,  if  Jair  had  been  really  intended,  he  might 
have  been  called  by  that  name  without  any  danger  of 
his  being,  in  this  text  (where  he  is  called  a  deliverer 
of  Israel,  and  placed  among  the  judges),  confounded 
with  the  more  ancient  Jair.  It  is  therefore  most  prob- 
able that  Bedan  is  a  contracted  form  for  the  name  of 
the  judge  Abdon  (q.  v.). 

2.  (Sept.  liavctft.)  The  son  of  Ullam,  the  great- 
grandson  of  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii,  17).  B.C.  post 
1856.     See  the  foregoing. 

Bedchamber  (rYlBXlh  ItJ  room  of  the  beds,  2 
Kings  xi,  2;  2  Chron.  xxii,  11 ;  elsewhere  aS^1?  "I^fi, 
sleeping-room,  Exod.  viii,  3;  2  Sam.  iv,  7;  2  Kings  vi, 
12 ;  Eccles.  x,  20).     Bedrooms  in  the  East  consist  of 
an  apartment  furnished  with  a  divan,  or  dais,  which 
is  a  slightly  elevated  platform  at  the  upper  end,  and 
often  along  the  sides  of  the  room.     On  this  are  laid 
the  mattresses  on  which  the  Western  Asiatics  sit  cross- 
legged  in  the  daytime,  with  large  cushions  against  the 
wall  to  support  the  back.     At  night  the  light  bedding 
is  usually  laid  out  upon  this  divan,  and  thus  beds  for 
many  persons  are  easily  formed.     The  bedding  is  re- 
moved in  the  morning,  and  deposited  in  recesses  in  the 
room  made  for  the  purpose.     This  is  a  sort  of  general 
sleeping-room  for  the  males  of  the  family  and  for  guests, 
none  but  the  master  having  access  to  the  inner  parts 
i  of  the  house,  where  alone  there  are  proper  and  distinct 
i  bedchambers.      In  these  the  bedding  is  either  laid  on 
the  carpeted  floor,  or  placed  on  a  low  frame  or  bed- 
j  stead.     This  difference  between  the  public  and  private 
I  sleeping-room,  which  the  arrangement  of  an  Eastern 
household  renders  necessary,  seems  to  explain  the  dif- 
ficulties which  have  perplexed  readers  of  travels,  who, 
j  finding  mention  only  of  the  more  public  dormitory,  the 
j  divan,  have  been  led  to  conclude  that  there  was  no 
other  or  different  one.     See  Divan. 


Josephus  (Ant.  xii,  4,  11)  mentions  the  bedchambers 
in  the  Arabian  palace  of  Hyrcanus.  The  ordinary 
furniture  of  a  bedchamber  in  private  life  is  given  in 
'2  Kings  iv,  10.  The  "bedchamber''  in  the  Temple 
where  Joash  was  hidden  was  probably  a  store-ch;  m- 
ber  for  keeping  beds,  not  a  mere  bedroom,  and  thus 
better  adapted  to  conceal  the  fugitives  (2  Kings  xi,  2; 
2  Chr.  xxii,  11).  The  position  of  the  bedchamber  in 
the  most  remote  and  secret  parts  of  the  palace  seems 
marked  in  Exod.  viii,  3;  2  Kings  vi,  12.     See  Bed. 

Bede,  "The  Venerable"  one  of  the  moft  eminent 
fathers  of  the  English  Church,  was  born  in  the  county 
of  Durham,  in  the  year  072  (073,  Collier).  His  early 
years  were  spent  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Paul  at  Jar- 
row,  and  his  later  education  was  received  in  that  of 
St.  Peter  at  Wearmouth.  In  these  two  monasteries, 
which  were  not  above  five  miles  apart,  he  spent  his 
life,  under  the  rule  of  Benedict  and  Ceolfride,  who  was 
the  first  abbot  of  Jarrow,  and  who,  after  the  death 


BEDE 


717 


BEDE 


of  Benedict,  presided  over  both  houses.  At  nineteen  !  following  is  the  catalogue  of  liis  writings  given  by 
years  of  age  he  was  made  deacon,  and  was  ordained  to  Cave  :  1.  D.i  Rerwn  Natura  Hber: — 2.  De  Temporum 
the  priesthood,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  at  thirty-  years  Itatione : — 3.  De  Sex  .Etntibus  Mundi  (separately,  at 
of  age,  by  John  of  Beverley,  Bishop  of  Hagustald  Paris,  1507 ;  Cologne,  1537): — 4.  De  tempuribus  ad  in- 
(Hexham).  Pope  Sergius  I  invited  him  to  Rome  to  |  telligendam  supputationem  temporum  S.  Script  urw : — 5. 
assist  him  with  his  advice;  but  Bede,  it  appears,  ex-  Si nt<  utia-  ex  Cicerone  et  Aristotele  : — G.  De  Proverliis : — 
cased  himself,  and  spent  the  whole  of  his  tranquil  life  7.  De  substantia  elementorum  : — 8.  Philosophic  lib.  IV: 
in  his  monastery,  improving  himself  in  all  the  learning  — 9.  De  Paschate  sine  yEquinoctio  liber: — 10.  Ep:slola 
of  his  age,  but  directing  his  more  particular  attention  de  divinatione  mortis  <t  rite: — 11.  De  Area.  No'e: — 12. 
to  the  compilation  of  an  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  De  Unguis  gentium: — 13.  Oraeula  Sibgllina  : — 14.  His- 
English  Nation  (Mstoria  Ecclesiastica,  etc.),  the  mate-  |  torice  Ecclesiasticce  Genlis  Anglorum  libri  V,  a  prima 
rials  for  which  he  obtained  partly  from  chronicles,  j  Ju.'ii  Ccesaris  in  Britanniam  adventu  ad  arm.  731  pertin- 
partly  from  annals  preserved  in  contemporary  con- 1 \  gentes  (Antwerp,  1550;  Heidelberg,  1587;  Cologne, 
vents,  and  partly  from  the  information  of  prelates  with  !  1G01,  8vo  ;  Cambridge,  1614  ;  Paris,  with  the  notes  of 
whom  he  was  acquainted.  Making  allowance  for  the  |  Chifflct,  1681,  4to)  : — 15.  Vita  S.  Cuthberti: — 16.  Vita 
introduction  of  legendary  matter,  which  was  the  fault  \SS.  Felicis,  Vedasti,  Columbani,  Attala',  Patricii,  Eus- 
of  the  age,  few  works  have  supported  their  credit  so  tasii,  Dcrtolfi,  ArnolpH  (or  Arnoldi),  Burgundoforce. 
long,  or   been   so   generally  consulted   as   authentic    Of  these,  however,  three  are  wrongly  attributed  to 


sources.  Bede  published  this  history  about  the  year 
734,  when,  as  he  informs  us,  he  was  in  his  fifty-ninth 
year,  but  before  this  he  had  written  man)'  other  books 
on  various  subjects,  a  catalogue  of  which  he  subjoined 
to  his  history.  So  great  was  his  reputation,  that  it 
was  said  of  him,  "  hominem,  in  extremo  orbis  angulo 
natum,  universum  orbem  suo  ingenio  perstrinxisse." 
He  had  a  multitude  of  scholars,  and  passed  his  life  in 
stud)',  in  teaching  others,  and  in  prayer,  thinking,  like 
his  master,  John  of  Beverley,  that  the  chief  business  of 
a  monk  was  to  make  himself  of  use  to  others.     In  the 


Bede  :  the  life  of  St.  Patrick  is  by.Probus  ;  that  of  St. 
Columbanus  by  Jonas  ;  and  that  of  St.  Arnolphus,  of 
Mctz,  by  Paul  the  Deacon  : — 17.  Carmen  de  Justini 
martyrio  (St.  Justin  beheaded  at  Paris  under  Diocle- 
tian) : — 18.  Marty  rologium.  Composed,  as  he  states, 
by  himself,  but  altered  and  interpolated  in  subsequent 
times.  See  the  Preface  of  the  Bollandists,  ad  Januar. 
cap.  4,  and  Prolog,  ad  Mensem  Mart.  torn,  ii,  sec.  5. 
The  corrupted  Martyrology  was  given  separately  at 
Antwerp  in  1564,  12mo  : — 19.  De  situ  Hierusalt  m,  <  t 
locorum  sanctorum: — 20.  Interpretatio  nominum  Ilebrai- 


yaar  735,  shortly  before  Easter,  he  was  seized  by  a  |  coruni  et  Gracorum  in  S.  Script,  occurrcntium : — 21. 
slight  attack  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  which  con-  i  Excerpta  et  Collectanea.  Unworthy  altogether,  in  the 
tinued  to  grow  worse  until  the  26th  of  May  (Ascension-  i  opinion  of  Cave  and  Dupin,  of  Bede : — 22.  In  Hexae- 
day).  He  was  continually  active  to  the  last,  and  par-  tneron,  taken  from  Sts.  Basil,  Ambrose,  and  Augustine : 
ticularly  anxious  about  two  works :  one  his  translation  —23.  In  Pentateuelium  et  libros  Regum : — 24.  In  Samu- 
of  John's  Gospel  into  the  Saxon  language,  the  other  ekm : — 25.  In  Esdram,  Tobiam,  Job  (not  by  Bede,  but 
some  passages  which  he  was  extracting  from  the  works  by  Philip  of  Syda,  the  presbyter),  Proverbia,  et  Canti- 
of  St.  Isidore.  The  day  before  his  death  he  grew  much  j  ca: — 26.  De  Tabernand.o.  ac  vasis  et  vestibus  ejus: — 27. 
worse,  and  his  feet  began  to  swell,  yet  he  passed  the  [  Commentaria  in  IV  Evangdia  et  Acta  Apost. : — 28.  De 
night  as  usual,  and  continued  dictating  to  the  person  I  nominibus  locorum  qui  in  Actis  Apost.  leguntnr : — 29. 
who  acted  as  his  amanuensis,  who,  observing  his  weak-  J  Commentaria  in  Epp.  Catho'.icas  et  Apocalgpsin  : — 30. 
ness,  said,  "There  remains  now  <  nly  one  chapter,  but  j  Retractationcs  et  Qnastiones  in  Acta  Apost. : — 31.  Corn- 
it  seems  difficult  to  you  to  speak."  To  which  he  an-  mentaria  in  omnes  Epist.  S.  Pauli;  a  work  almost  en- 
swered,  "  It  is  easy :  take  your  pen,  mend  it,  and  write  !  tirely  compiled  from  St.  Augustine.  (The  most  prob- 
quickly."  About  nine  o'clock  he  sent  for  some  of  his  j  able  opinion  is  that  this  is  a  work  of  Floras,  a  deacon 
brethren,  priests  of  the  monastery,  to  divide  among  of  Lyons,  whose  name  it  bears  in  three  or  four  MSS. 
them  some  incense  and  other  things  of  little  value  I  It  is,  however,  certain  [from  himself]  that  Bede  wrote 
which  he  had  preserved  in  a  chest.  While  he  was  |  such  a  commentary  as  the  present,  and  Mabillon  states 
speaking,  the  young  man,  Wilberch,  Avho  wrote  for  that  he  found  in  two  MSS.,  each  eight  hundred  years 
him,  said,  "Master,  there  is  but  one  sentence  want-    old,  A  Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  taken  from  St. 


ing;"  upon  which  he  bid  him  write  quick,  and  soon 
after  the  scribe  said,  "  Now  it  is  finished."  To  which 
he  replied,  "  Thou  hast  said  the  truth — consummatum 
est.  Take  up  my  head ;  I  wish  to  sit  opposite  to  the 
place  where  I  have  been  accustomed  to  pray,  and 
where  now  sitting  I  may  yet  invoke  my  Father." 
Being  thus  seated,  according  to  his  desire,  upon  the 
floor  of  his  cell,  he  said,  "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and 
to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost;"  and  as  he  pro- 
nounced the  last  word  he  expired  (Neandcr,  Light  in 
Dark  Places,  162).     He   died,  according   to  the  best 


Augustine,  and  attributed  to  Bede,  but  quite  different 
from  this  which  goes  under  his  name.  There  can, 
therefore,  be  little  doubt  that  the  latter  is  the  genuine 
work  of  Bede,  and  this  of  Floras)  :  —  32.  Homilice  de 
Tempore,  viz.,  83  for  the  summer,  32  for  the  summer 
festivals,  15  for  the  winter,  22  for  Lent,  16  for  the 
winter  festivals,  and  various  sermons  to  the  people 
(Cologne,  1534) : — 33.  Liber  de  muliere  forfi,  i.  e.  the 
Church: — 34.  De  Offieiis  liber: — 35.  Scintill.fr  sire  Loci 
Communes: — 3G.  Fragmenta  in  libros  Sapientialee  et 
Psalterii versus: — 37.  De  Temp'o  So'omonis: — 38.  Qua>s- 


opinion,  May  20th,  735,  though  the   exact   date  has  J  times  in  Octateuchum  et  IV  libros  Regum: — 39.  Quces- 
been  contested.  tiones  Varice: — 40.  Commentaria  in  Psalmos: — 41.   Vo- 

The  first  catalogue  of  Bede's  works,  as  we  have  be-  cabulorum  Psalterii  Expositio : — 42.  De  Diapsalmate  col- 
tore  observed,  we  have  from  himself,  at  the  end  of  his  |  lectio: — 43.  Sermo  in  id,  " Dominus  de  ccelo prospcxit .-" 
Ecclesiastical  History,  which  contains  all  he  had  writ-  j  —44.  Commentarii  in  Boethii  Libros  de  Trinitate : — 45. 
ten  before  the  year  731.  This  we  find  copied  by  Le-  De  septem  verbis  Christ!: — 4G.  Meditationes  Passionis 
land,  who  also  mentions  some  other  pieces  he  had  met  Christi,  per  septem  horas  diei: — 47.  De  Remediis  Pecca- 
with  of  Bede's,  and  points  out  likewise  several  that  \torum  (his  Penitential) :—  48.  Cunabula  grammatical 
passed  under  Bede's  name,  though,  in  Leland's  judg-  ar/is  Donati: — 49.  De  oeto  partibus  Orationis:—b0.  De 
ment,  spurious  (Leland,  D<>  Script.  Brit.  ed.  Hall,  Ox-  ;  Arte  Metricd :— 51 .  De  Orthographia:— 52.  De  schemali- 
ford,  1709,  i,  115).  Bale,  in  the  first  edition  of  his  \bus  S.  Script urw :  —53.  De  tropis  S.  Scriptural;  and 
work  on  British  writers  (4to,  Gippesw.  1548,  fol.  50),  j  various  works  relating  to  arithmetic,  astronomy,  etc. 
mentions  ninety-six  treatises  written  by  Bede,  and  in  :  etc.  All  these  works  were  collected  and  published  at 
his  last  edition  (fol.  1559,  p.  94)  swells  these  to  one  Paris,  in  3  vols,  fol.,  1545,  and  again  in  1554,  in  8 
hundred  and  forty-five  tracts,'  and  declares  at  the  vols. ;  also  at  Basle  in  1563 ;  at  Cologne  in  1612;  and 
close  of  both  catalogues  that  there  were  numberless  '  again  in  1688,  in  4  vols.  fol.  The  Cologne  edition 
pieces  besides  of  Bede's  which  he  had  not  seen.     The  |  of  1612  is  very  faulty.     There  is  also  a  pretty  com- 


BEDEIAII 


718 


BEDSTEAD 


plete  edition  in  Migne,  Patrohgia  Cursus,  vols.  90-90 
I  p.uis  L850,  6  vols.  8vo).  An  edition  of  the  historical 
and  theological  works  (edited  by  .1.  A.  Giles,  LL.D.) 
was  published  at  London  in  1842-3,  in  12  vols.  8vo. 
The  best  edition  of  the  Latin  text  of  the  Historia.  Ec- 
clesiastica  is  that  of  Stevenson  (London,  1838,  8vo), 
which  gives  also  a  Life  of  Bede,  (English  version  by 
Giles,  Li  mdon,  1810  and  1847,  8  vo).  Besides  the  above, 
we  have— 54.  Acta  S.  Cuthberti,  attributed  to  Bede, 
and  published  by  Canisius,  Ant.  Led.  v,  692  (or  ii,  4, 

nov.  cd.) : 55.  A  ri.</nt<  lis  Axiomata  exposita  (London, 

1592, 8vo;  Paris,  1004):— 56.  Hymns.  Edited  by  Cas- 
sander,  with  Scholia,  among  the  works  of  that  writer, 
L616:— 57.  Epistola  apologetica  ad  Plegirinum  Mona- 
chum- — 58.  Epistola  ad  Egbertum,  Ebor.  Antistilem: — 
69.  Vitm  V.  Abbatum  Priorum  Weremuthensium  et  Ger- 
via  nsium,  mentioned  by  William  of  Malmesbury,  lib.  i, 
cap.  3.  The  last  three  works  were  published  by  Sir 
James  Ware  at  Dublin,  1G04,  8vo :— GO.  Epistola  ad 
Albmum  (abbot  of  St.  Peter's  at  Canterbury),  given 
by  Mabillon  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Analecta:—  61. 
Martyrologium,  in  heroic  verse,  given  by  D'Achery, 
Spirit,  ii,  23.  Many  works  of  Bede  still  remain  in 
MS. ;  a  list  is  given  by  Cave.  See  Cave,  Hist.  Lit. 
anno  701;  Dupin,  Hist.  Eccl.  Writers,  ii,  28;  Landon, 
En  I.  Diet,  ii,  118;  Gehle,  De  Bcdae  vita  et  Scriptis 
(1838);  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  154  ;  North  Amer- 
ican  J;>  v.  July,  1861,  art.  iii ;  Biog.  Univ.  iv,  38 ;  Engl. 
Cyelopadia,  s.  v. 

Bede'iah(Heb.  Bedeyah',  H^S,  for  fi^" CS,  i.  q. 
"( >!  adiah,"  servant  of  Jehovah;  Sept.  Bao«fa),  one  of 
the  family  of  Bani,  who  divorced  his  foreign  wife  on 
the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezra  x,  35).     B.C.  458. 

Bedel],  derived  by  Spelman,  Vossius,  and  others 
from  Sax.  BvhJ,  which  signifies  a  crier;  thus  bishops, 
in  many  old  Saxon  MSS.,  are  called  the  "Bedells  of 
God,"  preecones  Dei.  The  name  is  now  applied  in  Eng- 
land almost  exclusively  to  the  bedells  of  the  univer- 
sities, who  carry  the  mace  before  the  chancellor  or 
vice-chancellor.  Martene  says  that  the  inferior  appar- 
itors, who  cited  persons  to  court,  were  also  called  be- 
dells.—-Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  121. 

Bedell,  Gregory  T.,  D.D.,  a 
distinguished  minister  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  was  born 
on  Staten  Island,  Oct.  28, 1793,  and 
graduated  at  Columbia  College  1811. 
After  studying  theology  under  Dr. 
How  of  Trinity,  he  was  ordained  1  y 
Bishop  Hobart  in  1814.  His  first 
chai  ;e  was  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  where 
he  remained  from  1815  to  1818,  when 
he  removed  to  Fayettevillc,  N.  C. 
Finding  the  climate  unfavorable,  he  removed  to  Phil- 
adelphia in  1822,  and  a  new  church  (St.  Andrew's) 
was  organized,  of  which  he  remained  the  faithful 
and  devoted  pastor  until  his  death  in  1834.  In  1830 
he  was  made  D.l).  at  Dickinson  College.  His  zeal 
devoured  his  strength;  no  labor  seemed  too  great, 
if  he  could  win  souls;  and  his  memory  is  precious 
among  <  Ihristians  of  all  churches  in  Philadelphia,  He 
vi  rote  a  number  of  small  religious  books,  and  was,  for 
ears,  editor  of  the"  Episcopal  Recorder."  His 
(Phil.  1835,  2  vols.  8vo)  were  edited  by  Dr. 
Tyng,  with  a  sketch  of  bis  life.— Sprague,  Annals,  v, 
556j  Bee  also  Tyng,  Memoir  of  th  Rev.  G.  T.  Bedell 
(Phil.  1836,  2d  ed.  I ;  Ulibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i.  154. 
Bedell,  William,  an  Irish  prelate,  was  bom  at 

Notley,    Essex,   1570,   and   educated   at   Emanuel   Col- 

loge,  Cambridge,  where  he  became  P>.1>.  1599.  His 
in-.t  preferment  was  St  Edmondsbury,  Suffolk,  which 
he  left  iii  1604  to  become  chaplain  to  Sir  Henry  Wot- 
ton,  ambassador  at  Venice.     At  Venice  he  spent  8 

nd  was  intimate  with  He  Dominis  (q.  V.)  and 
F.aher  Paul  Sarpi  (q.  v.);  and,  on  returning  to  Eng- 


land, he  translated  Father  Paul's  History  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  into  Latin.  In  1627  he  was  appointed  pro- 
vost of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  in  1629  bishop 
of  Kilmorc  and  Ardagh.  He  set  himself  to  reform 
abuses,  and  gave  an  example  by  relinquishing  one  of 
his  dioceses  (Ardagh).  Through  his  labors  many  Bo- 
manists,  including  priests,  were  converted;  and  he 
had  the  Bible  and  Prayer-book  translated  into  Irish. 
In  1641  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  rebels,  and  died  from 
his  sufferings,  Feb.  6.  His  Life,  with  the  Letters  h<  tween 
Waddesworth  and  Bedell,  was  published  by  Bishop  Bur- 
net (Lond.  1685,  8vo).     See  Coleridge,  Works,  v,  313. 

Bedford,  Arthur,  an  Oriental  scholar  of  some 
note,  was  born  in  Gloucestershire  1G68.  He  studied 
at  Brazenose  College,  Oxford,  where  he  passed  A.M. 
in  1691.  In  1692  he  became  vicar  of  Temple  Church, 
Bristol,  and  in  1724  he  was  chosen  chaplain  to  the 
Haberdashers'  Hospital,  London,  where  he  died  in  1745. 
Among  his  works  are,  1.  Evil  and  Danger  ofStoge-plays 
(Lond.  1706,  8vo)  :— 2.  The  Temple  Music  (Lond.  1706, 
8vo): — 3.  The  Great  Abuse  of  Music  (8vo) : — i.  An  Es- 
say on  Singing  David's  Psalms  (8vo): — 5.  Animadver- 
sions on  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Chronology  (Lond.  1728, 
8vo)  : — 6.  A  Sermon  at  St.  Botolph's,  Aldgate,  agmist 
Stage-plays (1730, 8vo): — 7 '.  Scripture  Chronology '(Lond. 
17S0,  fol.) : — 8.  Eight  Sermons  on  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trin- 
ity (Lond.  1740,  8vo)  ; — 9.  The  Doctrine  of  Justification 
by  Faith  stated  (1741,  8vo).— Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  ii,  217. 

Bedil.     See  Tin. 

Bedolach.     See  Bdellium. 

Bedstead  (lU'nS,  e'res,  Deut.  iii,  11 ;  elsewhere 
"couch,"  "bed").  The  couches  of  the  Jews  for  re- 
pose and  for  the  use  of  the  sick  were  usually  perhaps 
simply  the  standing  and  fixed  divans  such  as  those  on 
which  the  Western  Asiatics  commonly  make  their  beds 
at  night.  The  divan  is  probably  meant  in  2  Kings  i,  4  ; 
xxi,  2 ;  Psa.  exxxii,  4 ;  Amos  iii,  12  (Haeketfs  Illus- 
tra.  of  Script,  p.  58-60).  The  most  common  bedstead 
in  Egypt  and  Arabia  is  framed  rudely  of  palm-sticks 
such  as  was  used  in  Ancient  Egypt.  In  Palestine,  Syr- 
ia, and  Persia,  where  timber  is  more  plentiful,  a  bed- 
frame  of  similar  shape  is  made  of  boards.     This  kind 


Ancient  Egyptian  Lattice  Bedstead. 


of  bedstead  is  also  used  upon  the  house-tops  during  the 
season  in  which  people  sleep  there.  It  is  more  than 
likely  that  Og's  bedstead  was  of  this  description  (Deut. 
iii,  11).  In  the  times  in  which  he  lived  the  palm-tree 
was  more  common  in  Palestine  than  at  present,  and 
the  bedsteads  in  ordinary  use  were  probably  formed 
of  palm-sticks.  They  would  therefore  be  incapable 
of  sustaining  any  undue  weight  without  being  dis- 
jointed and  bent  awry,  and  this  would  dictate  the  ne- 
cessity of  making  that  destined  to  sustain  the  vast 
bulk  of  ( >g  rather  of  rods  of  iron  than  of  the  mid-ribs 
of  the  palm-fronds.  These  bedsteads  are  also  of  a 
length  seldom  more  than  a  few  inches  beyond  the  av- 
erage human  stature  (commonly  six  feet  three  inch- 
es), and  hence  the  propriety  witli  which  the  length 
of  Og's  bedstead  is  stated  to  convey  an  idea  of  his 
stature — a  fact  which  has  perplexed  those  who  sup- 
posed there  was  no  other  bedstead  than  the  divan,  see- 
ing that  the  length  of  the  divan  has  no  determinate 
reference  to  the  stature  of  the  persons  reposing  on  it. 
There  are  traces  of  a  kind  of  portable  couch  (1  Sam. 
xix,  15),  which  appears  to  have  served  as  a  sofa  for 


BEDSTEAD 


719 


BEE 


Ancient  Egyptian  Couch,  with  Head-rest  and  Step*. 

sitting  on  in  the  daytime  (1  Sam.  xxviii,  3 ;  Ezek. 
xxiii,  41 ;  Amos  vi,  4)  ;  and  there  is  now  the  less  rea- 
son to  doubt  that  the  ancient  Hebrews  enjoyed  this  con- 
venience. Such  couches  were  capable  of  receiving 
those  ornaments  of  ivory  which  arc  mentioned  in  Amos 
vi,  4,  which  of  itself  shows  that  the  Hebrews  had  some- 
thing of  the  kind,  forming  an  ornamental  article  of  fur- 
niture.    A  bed  with  a  tester  is  mentioned  in  Judith 


Ancient  Greek  Couch.     From  the  Sculptures  in  Asia  Minor. 

xvi,  23,  which,  in  connection  with  other  indications, 
and  the  frequent  mention  of  rich  tapestries  hung  upon 
and  about  a  bed  for  luxuriousness  and  ornament,  proves 
that  such  beds  as  are  still  used  by  royal  and  distin- 
guished personages  were  not  unknown  under  the  He- 
brew monarchy  (comp.  Esth.  i,  6 ;  Prov.  vii,  16  sq. ; 
Ezek.  xxiii,  41).     There  is  but  little  distinction  of  the 


iV^A^VVVXJ<,^2iE^yvvvbrgv^T 


m/MWMMmm 


Modern  Oriental  Bed,  with  Canopy. 

bed  from  sitting  furniture  among  the  Orientals ;  the 
same  article  being  used  for  nightly  rest  and  during 
the  day.  This  applies  both  to  the  divan  and  bedstead 
in  all  its  forms,  except  perhaps  the  litter.  Tbere  was 
also  a  garden- watcher's  bed,  il3;l?p,  inelunak',  render- 


ed variously  in  the  Autb.Ver.  "cottage" and 
"lodge,"  which  seems  to  have  been  slung 
like  a  hammock,  perhaps  from  the  trees  (Isa. 
i,  8 ;  xxiv,  20). — Kitto.  See  Bed  ;  Canopy. 
Bee  (flTD1?,  deborah',  Gr.  piXitjaa),  a 
gregarious  insect,  of  the  family  Apidce,  or- 
der [fymenoplera,  species  Apis  mell'ftca,  com- 
monly called  the  honey-bee,  one  of  the  most 
generally-diffused  creatures  on  the  globe. 
Its  instincts,  its  industry,  and  the  valuable 
product  of  its  labors,  have  attained  for  it 
universal  attention  from  the  remotest  times. 
A  prodigious  number  of  books  have  been 
written,  periodical  publications  have  ap- 
peared, and  even  learned  societies  have  been 
founded,  with  a  view  to  promote  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  bee,  and  increase  its  usefulness 
to  man.  Poets  and  moralists  of  every  age 
have  derived  from  it  some  of  their  most 
beautiful  and  striking  illustrations. 

The  following  is  a  mere  outline  of  the  facts  ascer- 
tained by  Swammerdam,  Maraldi,  Reaumur,  Schirach, 
Bonnet,  and  Huber: — Its  anatomy  and physiology,  com- 
prehending the  antennae,  or  tactors,  by  which  it  exer- 
cises at  least  all  the  human  senses ;  the  eye,  full  of 
lenses,  and  studded  with  hairs  to  ward  off  the  pollen 
or  dust  of  flowers,  and  the  three  additional  eyes  on  the 
top  of  the  head,  giving  a  defensive  vision  upward  from 
the  cups  of  flowers ;  the  double  stomach,  the  upper 
performing  the  office  of  the  crop  in  birds,  and  regurgi- 
tating the  honey,  and  the  lower  secreting  the  wax  into 
various  sacklets  ;  the  baskets  on  the  thighs  for  carry- 
ing the  pollen;  the  hooked  feet;  the  union  of  chem- 
ical and  mechanical  perfection  in  the  sting ;  its  organs 
of  progressive  motion  ;  its  immense  muscular  strength: 
— the  different  sorts  of  bees  inhabiting  a  hive,  and  com- 
posing the  most  perfect  form  of  insect  society,  from 


The  Honey-Bee.     1,  Female,  or  Queen:  2,  Male,  or  Drone;  8, 
Neuter,  or  Worker. 

the  stately  venerated  queen-regnant,  the  mother  of  the 
whole  population  and  their  leader  in  migrations,  down 
to  the  drone,  each  distinguished  by  its  peculiar  form 
and  occupations  : — the  rapidity  of  their  multiplication  ; 
the  various  transitions  from  the  egg  to  the  perfect  in- 
sect ;  the  amazing  deviations  from  the  usual  laws  of 
the  animal  economy ;  the  means  by  which  the  loss  of 
a  queen  is  repaired,  amounting  to  the  literal  creation 
of  another;  their  architecture  (taught  by  the  great 
Geometrician,  who  "made  all  things  by  number, 
weight,  and  measure"),  upon  the  principles  of  the 
most  refined  geometrical  problem ;  their  streets,  mag- 
azines, royal  apartments,  houses  for  the  citizens  ;  their 
care  of  the  young,  consultations  and  precautions  in 
sending  forth  a  new  colony;  their  military  prowess, 
fortifications,  and  discipline;  their  attachment  to  the 
hive  and  the  common  interest,  yet  patience  under  pri- 
vate wronirs;  the  subdivision  of  labor,  by  which  thou- 
sands of  individuals  co-operate  without  confusion  in  the 
construction  of  magnificent  public  works;  the  uses 
they  serve,  as  the  promoting  of  the  fructification  of 


BEE 


720 


BEECHER 


flowers;  the  amazing  number  and  precision  of  their 
instincts,  and  the  capability  of  modifying  these  by  cir- 
cumstances, bo  far  as  to  raise  a  doubt  whether  they  be 
not  endowed  with  a  portion,  at  least,  of  intelligence 
resembling  that  of  man. 

The  bee  is  first  mentioned  in  Dent,  i,  44,  where  Mo- 
ses alludes  to  the  irresistible  vengeance  with  which 
bees  pursue  their  enemies.  A  similar  reference  to 
their  fury  in  swarms  is  contained  in  Psa.  cxviii,  12. 
The  powerlessness  of  man  under  the  united  attacks  of 
these  insects  is  well  attested.  Pliny  relates  that  bees 
troublesome  in  some  parts  of  Crete  that  the 
inhabitants  were  compelled  to  forsake  their  homes, 
and  .Elian  records  that  some  places  in  Scythia  were 
formerly  inaccessible  on  account  of  the  swarms  of  bees 
with  which  they  were  infested.  Mr.  Park  {Travels,  ii, 
37)  relates  that  at  Doofroo,  some  of  the  people,  being  in 
search  of  hone}',  unfortunately  disturbed  a  swarm  of 
bees,  which  came  out  in  great  numbers,  attacked  both 
nun  and  beasts,  obliged  them  to  fly  in  all  directions, 
so  that  he  feared  an  end  had  been  put  to  his  journey, 
and  that  one  ass  died  the  same  night,  and  another  the 
next  morning.  Even  in  England  the  stings  of  two 
exasperated  hives  have  been  known  to  kill  a  horse  in 
a  few  minutes. 

In  Judg.  xiv,  5-8,  it  is  related  that  Samson,  aided 
by  supernatural  strength,  rent  a  young  lion  that  war- 
red against  him  as  he  would  have  rent  a  kid,  and  that 
' '  after  a  time. ' '  as  he  returned  to  take  his  wife,  he  turn- 
ed aside  to  see  the  carcass  of  the  lion,  "and,  behold, 
there  was  a  swarm  of  bees  and  honey  in  the  carcass  of 
the  lion."  It  has  been  hastily  concluded  that  this 
narrative  favors  the  mistaken  notion  of  the  ancients, 
possibly  derived  from  misunderstanding  this  very  ac- 
count, that  bees  might  be  engendered  in  the  dead  bod- 
ies of  animals  (Virgil,  Georg.  iv),  and  ancient  authors 
are  quoted  to  testify  to  the  aversion  of  bees  to  flesh, 
unpleasant  smells,  and  filthy  places.  But  it  may  read- 
ily be  perceived  that  it  is  not  said  that  the  bees  were 
LikI  in  the  body  of  the  lion.  Again,  the  frequently- 
recurring  phrase  "after  a  time,"  literally  "after 
days."  introduced  into  the  text,  proves  that  at  least 
sufficient  time  had  elapsed  for  all  the  flesh  of  the  ani- 
mal to  have  been  removed  by  birds  and  beasts  of  prey, 
ant-,  etc.  The  Syriac  version  translates  "the  bony 
carcass."  Bochart  remarks  that  the  Hebrew  phrase 
sometimes  signifies  «  whole  year,  and  in  this  passage  it 
would  seem  likely  to  have  this  meaning,  because  such 
was  the  length  of  time  which  usually  elapsed  between 
espousal  and  marriage  (see  ver.  7).  He  refers  to  Gen. 
iv.  .'. :  xxiv,  55  ;  Lev.  xxv,  'J'.),  30  ;  Judg.  xi,  4  ;  comp. 
with  ver.  10;  1  Sam.  i,  3;  comp.  with  ver.  7,  20;  and 
1  Sou.  ii,  19;  and  1  Sam.  xxvii,  7.  The  circumstance 
that  "/'  if  f/"  was  found  in  the  carcass  as  well  as  bees 
shows  that  sufficient  time  had  elapsed  since  their  pos- 
session  of  it  for  all  the  flesh  to  be  removed.  Nor  is 
such  an  abode  for  bees,  probably  in  the  skull  or  thon  ,x, 
more  unsuitable  than  a  hollow  in  a  rock,  or  in  a  tree, 
or  in  the  ground,  in  which  we  know  they  often  reside, 
or  those  clay  nests  which  they  build  for  themselves  in 
Brazil.  Nor  i-  the  fact  without  parallel.  Herodotus 
(v,  Hi  relates  that  a  swarm  of  bees  took  up  their 
the  skull  of  one  Silius,  an  ancient  invader  of 
Cyprus,  which  they  tilled  with  honey-combs,  after  the 
inhabitants  had  suspended  it  over  the  gate  of  their 
imilar    tory  is  told  by  Aldrovandus  (Z)e  In- 

11 f  -"in"  bees  that  inhabited  and  built 

their  combs  in  -.  human  skeleton  in  a  tomb  in  a  church 

:-         i.  3,  the  production  of  honey 

ind  it-  use  as  food,  arc  also  mentioned,      lice's 

mu  t  have  b(  •n  very  common  in  Palestine  to  justify 

""•  'i'1"  given  to  it  ..f  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and 

honey.      They  ar-   -till   abundant  there  (Shaw.  Trar. 

i-  :  Oedinann,  Samml.  vi,  136),  and  mentioned 

in  the  Talmud  i  (  h*  Urn,  wi,  7:  Sabb.  xxiv.  3 

Philo,  Qpp.  ii,  638;  Bochart,  iii.  352.     See  Honey. 

The   reference  to  the  bee  in  Isa,  vii,  IS,  has  been 


misunderstood:  "The  Lord  shall  hiss  for  the  fly  that 
is  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  river  of  Egypt,  end  for 
the  bee  that  is  i:i  the  land  of  Assyria."  Here  the  fly 
and  the  Lee  are  no  doubt  personifications  of  those  in- 
veterate enemies  of  Israel,  the  Egyptians  and  Assyri- 
ans, whom  the  Lord  threatened  to  excite  against  his 
disobedient  people.  But  the  hissing  for  them  has  been 
interpreted,  even  by  modern  writers  of  eminence,  as 
involving  "  an  allusion  to  the  practice  of  calling  out 
the  bees  from  their  hives,  by  a  hissing  or  whistling 
sound,  to  their  labor  in  the  fields,  and  summoning  them 
tn  n  (urn  when  the  heavens  begin  to  hirer,  or  the  shad  tics 
oft  V(  rang  to  fall"  (Dr.  Harris's  Natural  History  of  the 
Bible,  London,  1825).  No  one  has  offered  any  proof 
of  the  existence  of  such  a  custom,  and  the  idea  will  it- 
self seem  sufficiently  strange  to  all  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  habits  of  bees.  The  true  allusion  is,  no 
doubt,  to  the  custom  of  the  people  of  the  East,  and 
even  of  many  parts  of  Europe,  of  calling  the  attention 
of  any  one  in  the  street,  etc.,  by  a  significant  hiss,  or 
rather  hist,  as  Lowth  translates  the  word  both  here 
and  in  Isa.  v,  26,  but  which  is  generally  done  in  this 
country  by  a  short  significant  hem!  or  other  exclama- 
tion. Hissing,  or  rather  histing,  is  in  use  among  us 
for  setting  a  dog  on  an}'  object.  Hence  the  sense  of 
the  threatening  is,  I  will  direct  the  hostile  attention 
of  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians  against  you. — Kitto. 

In  the  Septuagint  version  there  is  an  allusion  to  the 
bee,  immediately  after  that  of  the  ant  (Prov.  vi,  8), 
which  may  be  thus  rendered — "Or  go  to  the  bee,  and 
learn  how  industrious  she  is,  and  what  a  magnificent 
work  she  produces ;  whose  labors  kings  and  common 
people  use  for  their  health.  And  she  is  desired  ;  nd 
praised  by  all.  And  though  weak  in  strength,  yet 
prizing  wisdom,  she  prevails."  This  passage  is  not 
now  found  in  any  Hebrew  copy,  and  Jerome  informs 
us  that  it  was  wanting  in  his  time.  Neither  is  it  con- 
tained in  any  other  version  except  the  Arabic.  It  is 
nevertheless  quoted  by  many  ancient  writers,  as  Clem. 
Alex.  Slrom.  lib.  i ;  Origen,  in  Num.  Horn.  27,  and  in 
'  Isai.  II<  m.  2;  Basil,  Hexameron,  Horn.  8;  Ambrose,  v, 
21;  Jerome,  in  Ezek.  iii;  Theodoret,  De  Providtntia, 
Oral.  5 ;  Antiochus,  Abbas  Sabba;,  Horn.  30 ;  and 
John  Damascenus,  ii,  89.  It  would  seem  that  it  was 
in  the  Ileb.  copy  used  by  the  Greek  translators.  The 
ant  and  the  bee  are  mentioned  together  by  many  writ- 
ers, because  of  their  similar  habits  of  industry  and 
economy.  For  the  natural  history  and  habits  of  the 
bee,  see  the  Penny  Cyclojmdia,  s.  v.     See  Swarm. 

Beecham,  John,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Meth- 
odist minister,  was  born  in  Lincolnshire,  1787.  Con- 
verted at  an  early  age,  he  united  with  the  Methodists, 
and  thereby  lost  the  patronage  of  some  friends  who 
designed  to  educate  him  for  the  ministry  in  the  Estab- 
lished Church.  In  1815  he  entered  the  Wesleyan  min- 
istry, and  for  sixteen  years  he  labored  in  circuits  with 
growing  usefulness  and  esteem.  His  studious  hab- 
its enabled  him  early  to  lay  deep  foundations  in  theo- 
logical knowledge,  and  his  fidelity  in  his  work  was 
equal  to  the  breadth  of  his  acquirements.  In  1831  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  general  secretaries  of  the 
Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  and  in  this  highly  re- 
sponsible office  he  continued  to  labor,  with  the  entire 
confidence  of  the  Church,  up  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
In  administering  foreign  missions  he  combined  large- 
ness of  views  with  careful  attention  to  detail ;  and  it 
is  not  too  much  to  Bay  that  the  wonderful  success  of 
the  Methodist  missions  during  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century  is  due  largely  to  his  skill  and  diligence.  In 
1855  be  visited  the  eastern  provinces  of  British  North 
America,  and  died  April  "22,  1856.  He  wrote  many 
of  the  missionary  reports,  and  also  An  Essay  on  tin' 
Constitution  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  (Lond.  1850,  8vo). 
—  Wesleyan  M'nutes\  Lond.  1850),  p.  30 ;  Wesleyan  Mag' 
azine,  July,  1856. 

Beecher,  Jacob,  a  minister  of  the  German  Be- 


BEECHER 


m 


BEECHER 


formed  Church,  was  born  near  Petersburg,  Adams 
Co.,  Penn.,  May  2d,  1799,  and  studied  first  at  an  acad- 
emy in  Hagerstown,  Md.,  and  afterward  in  Jefferson 
College,  Cannonsburg,  Penn. ;  pursued  his  theolog- 
ical studies  first  at  Princeton  Seminary,  and  afterward 
continued  them,  in  connection  with  the  German  lan- 
guage, in  the  newly-established  Theological  Seminary 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  then  located  at  Car- 
lisle, Penn.  He  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1826. 
lie  immediately  took  charge  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  of  Shepherdstown,  Va.,  together  with  several 
affiliated  congregations.  His  health  was  always  fee- 
ble. With  the  hope  of  improving  it,  he  spent  the 
winter  of  1830-31  in  the  South,  in  the  service  of  the 
American  Sunday  School  Union.  He  died  July  loth, 
1831.  Though  his  life  and  the  period  of  his  labors 
were  brief,  such  were  his  piet}'  and  zeal  that  few  min- 
isters are  more  sacredly  remembered  in  the  German 
Reformed  Church.  He  preached  both  in  the  German 
and  English  languages. 

Beecher,  Lyman,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  October 
12th,  1775.  His  father,  David  Beecher,  was  a  black- 
smith, "  whose  strong,  positive  character,  whose  many 
eccentricities,  and  whose  great  dark  ej'es  gave  him  a 
celebrity  in  all  the  country  round.  As  a  boy  he  was 
placed  with  his  uncle,  Lot  Benton,  to  learn  farming, 
but  it  was  soon  found  that  his  bent  did  not  lie  that 
way,  and  he  was  sent  to  Yale  College,  where  he  grad- 
uated A.B.  in  1797.  During  his  college  career  ho 
earned  no  distinction  by  scholarly  acquirements,  but 
was  early  noticed  as  a  remai'kably  vigorous  and  orig- 
inal thinker  and  reasoner.  In  a  debate  on  baptism, 
started  among  the  students,  he  took  the  Baptist  side, 
'  because,'  as  he  said,  '  no  one  else  would  take  it.'  He 
studied  theology  with  Dr.  Dwigl^t  for  one  year,  and 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  New  Haven  West  As- 
sociation in  1798.  In  1799  he  was  ordained,  and  in- 
stalled as  pastor  at  East  Hampton,  Long  Island,  where 
he  remained  eleven  years,  at  a  salary  of  $300  a  year. 
In  1810  he  removed  to  Litchfield,  Conn.,  then  the  seat 
of  a  famous  law-school,  in  which  many  of  the  states- 
man of  the  last  generation  were  trained.  Here  ho 
spent  sixteen  years  of  indefatigable  pastoral  labor, 
and  here,  too,  he  wrote  his  famous  '  Six  Sermons  on 
In/  m/i  ranee,'  which  were  suggested  by  the  sudden 
downfall  of  two  of  his  most  intimate  friends.  In 
1826'  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Hanover  Street  Church, 
Boston,  where  he  spent  six  years  of  immense  activity 
and  popularity,  distinguished  also  by  the  boldness  and 
success  with  which  heoppposed  Dr.  Channing  and  grap- 
pled Unitarianism,  which  has  never  since  been  as  donj- 
inant  in  Boston  as  before.  In  1832  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  Lane  Theological  Seminary,  Cincinnati, 
in  which  service,  and  that  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church,  Cincinnati,  he  remained  during  twenty  event- 
ful years.  In  1833  seventy  students  withdrew  from  the 
seminary  on  account  of  a  stupid  rule,  adopted  by  the 
trustees  in  Dr.  Beecher's  absence,  with  regard  to  the 
discussion  of  slavery,  and  this  secession  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  Oberlin  College.  Oddly  enough,  Dr.  Beecher, 
himself  an  abolitionist,  and  the  father  of  Abolitionists, 
was  now  the  head  of  an  institution  stigmatized  as  '  pro- 
slavery.'  The  doctrinal  views  of  Dr.  Beecher  had  al- 
ways been  moderately  Calvinistic,  and  he  was  charired 
by  some  of  the  stronger  Calvinists  with  heresy.  A  trial 
ensued,  ending  in  1835,  by  the  adoption  of  resolutions 
to  which  Dr.  Beecher  assented  ;  but  the  controversy 
went  on  until  at  last  the  Presbyterian  Church  (q.  v.) 
was  rent  in  twain  by  it.  In  1852  Dr.  Beecher  re- 
signed the  presidency  of  the  seminary  and  returned  to 
Boston.  His  declining  years  were  spent  in  Brooklyn, 
where  he  died  Jan.  10th,  1863.  He  was  three  times 
married,  and  was  the  father  of  thirteen  children,  of 
whom  several  have  risen  to  eminence  :  Edward,  Henry 
Ward,  Charles,  and  Thomas  as  preachers,  and  Catha- 
rine and  Harriet  (Mrs.  Stowe,  the  author  of  "  Uncle 
Zz 


Tom's  Cabin")  as  writers.  He  had  a  vigorous  organ, 
ization,  both  physical  and  mental,  and  was  equally 
noted  for  boldness  and  kindness.  As  an  orator,  he 
was  one  of  the  most  peculiar,  brilliant,  and  effective 
of  his  day.  By  nature  he  was  a  strong  reasoner,  yet 
he  reasoned  rather  in  the  style  of  an  advocate,  aiming 
at  a  point,  than  of  a  judge  or  a  statesman,  aiming  to 
cover  a  whole  field  of  discussion.  He  spoke  and  wrote 
always  for  some  immediate  purpose."  Albert  Barnes 
states  that  "  no  oratory  he  ever  heard  equalled  Beech- 
er's in  his  grand  flights."  Dr.  Noah  Porter  {New 
Englander,  xxiii,  354)  characterizes  Dr.  Beecher  as 
follows:  "As  a  preacher,  Dr.  Beecher  was  deservedly 
eminent.  But  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  account  him 
a  ranter,  or  a  fervid  declaimer,  or  an  energetic  exhort- 
er,  or  a  devout  rhapsodist.  He  was  a  thinker  and  a 
reasoner.  His  own  sturdy  and  thoughtful  intellect 
could  be  satisfied  with  no  aliment  less  substantial  than 
solid  reasoning  and  sound  common  sense,  and  he  could 
not  bring  himself  to  present  to  other  minds  any  ma- 
terial different  from  that  which  he  required  for  him- 
self. But  reasoning  in  a  sermon  for  the  sake  of  its 
ingenuity,  or  speculation  for  mere  speculation's  sake, 
his  own  soul  abhorred.  He  must  needs  bring  every 
argument  to  its  practical  conclusion,  and  then  press  it 
upon  the  conscience  and  the  heart  with  all  the  pow- 
er which  fervor,  and  energy,  and  tact  could  furnish. 
Plain  language,  apt  illustrations,  and  fervent  appeals, 
were  the  investments  with  which  his  nice  sense  of 
adaptation  and  his  apostolical  love  of  souls  led  him  to 
clothe  his  reasonings.  He  did  not  trust  exclusively 
or  chiefly  to  his  extemporary  power,  rare  and  service- 
able as  this  might  be.  On  many  single  discourses 
he  bestowed  the  labor  of  weeks,  and  the  felicity  and 
choiceness  of  the  language,  as  well  as  the  arrangement 
and  power  of  the  thoughts,  testify  to  the  value  of  the 
labor  and  time  expended.  Some  of  his  ablest  occa- 
sional discourses  will  never  cease  to  be  models  of  the 
noblest  kind  of  pulpit  eloquence.  As  a  reformer  he 
was  enterprising,  bold,  and  judicious.  The  secret  of 
his  power  and  success  lay  in  his  firm  faith  in  the  pow- 
er of  truth  as  adapted  to  change  the  moral  convictions 
of  men,  and  thus  to  reform  the  sentiments  and  prac- 
tices of  society,  and,  as  designed  in  the  purposes  of 
God,  to  accomplish  great  revolutions  by  means  of  its 
faithful  proclamation.  His  policy  was  bold,  because 
he  believed  in  God.  He  was  enterprising,  because  he 
was  assured  that  the  cause  was  not  his  own.  He  was 
judicious,  because  his  heart  was  set  upon  the  work  to 
be  accomplished,  and  not  upon  any  traditional  ways 
of  procedure  on  the  one  side,  or  any  novel  devices  on 
the  other.  Hence  he  was  inventive  and  docile ;  skil- 
ful by  his  quiet  discernment  to  judge  when  the  old 
methods  were  outworn,  and  fertile  to  devise  those  un- 
tried expedients  which  were  best  fitted  to  the  ends 
which  he  believed  could  and  should  be  accomplished. 
He  was  all  things  to  all  men,  in  the  good  sense  of  the 
phrase,  because  the  apostolic  feeling  was  eminent  in 
him,  that  by  any  means  he  might  save  forae.  But  in 
all  his  reforming  movements  his  public  spirit  was  con- 
spicuous in  a  large-hearted  sympathy  with  the  public 
interests,  and  an  intense  personal  concern  for  the 
Church,  his  country,  and  his  race.  This  led  him, 
when  in  an  obscure  parish  on  the  farthest  extremity 
of  Long  Island,  to  lay  upon  his  own  soul  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  practice  of  duelling,  and  to  sound  the 
I  trumpet  note  which  rung  throughout  the  land.  This 
I  induce  1  him  to  sympathize  with  the  feebler  churches 
j  in  the  thinly-peopled  and  decaying  towns  of  Connecti- 
cut, and  to  "lay  the  duty  of  sisterly  sympathy  and  aid 
upon  the  wealthier  parishes.  This  moved  him  to  see 
and  feel  the  wasting  desolations  of  intemperance,  not 
in  this  or  that  family  or  social  circle  in  Litchfield 
alone,  but  to  make  this  family  and  circle  the  image  of 
thousands  of  families  and  communities  throughout 
1  the  country,  till  the  word  of  the  Lord  was  a  fire  in  his 
I  bones,  and  "he  could  not  but  lift  his  voice  in  the  appall- 


EEEF 


722 


BEER-ELM 


ing  energy  of  a  commissioned  prophet.  The  preva- 
1  -I],- 1  of  dan  ;erous  error  depressed  and  vexed  his  spir- 
it till  it  found  relief  in  plans,  and  protests,  and  move- 
ments which  wriv  felt  through  New  England.  As  a 
theologian  he  was  thoroughly  practical,  and  bis  views 
of  theology  were  moulded  by  a  constant  reference  to 
its  manifest  adaptation  to  the  great  end  for  which  a 
revelation  was  given  to  man."  His  autobiography  and 
life,  edited  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Beecher,  appeared  in 
1864  5(N.  Y.  2  vols.  12mo).  His  writings,  chiefly  ser- 
mons, temperance  essays,  lectures,  and  review  arti- 
cles, were  collected  substantially,  and  published  un- 
der his  own  supervision,  in  the  Works  of  Lyman 
Beecher,  D.D.  (Boston,  1852,  3  vols.  8vo ;  vol.  i,  Lec- 
tures on  Political  Atheism  ;  vol.  ii,  Sermons;  vol.  iii, 
Views  in  Theology).— Wilson,  Presbyterian  Almanac, 
1861;  Amer.  Plirenolrgical  Journal,  Feb.  1863;  Auto- 
biography of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher  (N.  Y.  1864-5,  2  vols. 
12mo)  :  /;  bliotheca  Sacra,  April,  1852 ;  NewEnglander, 
April,  1864. 

Beef.     See  Ox  ;  Food. 

BeeTi'ada  (Heb.  Bcelyada',  r"i^?"3,  whom  Baal 
knows;  Sept.  'EXtaSs  v.  r.  BaWiada),  one  of  David's 
sons,  born  in  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  xiv,  7).  B.C.  post 
1045.  In  the  parallel  lists  (1  Sam.  v,  16;  1  Chron. 
iii.  8  i  he  is  called  by  the  equivalent  name  Eliada, 
El  being,  perhaps,  originally  in  the  name  rather  than 
Baal.     See  Baal-. 

Beel'sarus  (RnXaapoc),  one  of  the  chief  Israel- 
ites ("guides")  that  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ze- 
rubbabel  (1  Esdr.  v,  8)  ;  evidently  the  Bilshan  (q.  v.) 
of  the  genuine  texts  (Ezra  ii,  2;  Nell,  vii,  7). 

Beelteth'mus(B« Xrtfyioc  v.r.  BssXtsuujO,  Vulg. 
Balthemus  \  given  as  the  name  of  an  officar  of  Arta- 
xerxes  residing  in  Palestine  (1  Esdr.  it,  16,  25);  evi- 
dently a  corruption  of  U"'J  ??3i  lord  of  judgment,  A. 
V.  "  chancellor;"  the  title  of  Rehum,  the  name  imme- 
diately before  it  (Ezra  iv,  8). 

BeeT'zebub  (Btt\^tj3oi\,  Beelzebdx)  is  the 
name  assigned  (Matt,  x,  25;  xii,  24;  Mark  iii,  24; 
Luke  xi,  15  sq.)  to  the  prince  of  the  daemons.  It  is 
remarkable  that,  amid  all  the  daemonology  of  the  Tal- 
mud and  rabbinical  writers,  this  name  should  be  ex- 
clusively confined  to  the  New  Testament.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  the  reading  Beelzebul  is  the  one  which 
baa  the  support  of  almost  every  critical  authority;  and 
the  Beelzebub  of  the  Peskito  (if  indeed  it  is  not  a  corrup- 
tion, as  Michaelis  thinks,  Suppl.  p.  205),  and  of  the 
Vulgate,  and  of  some  modern  versions,  has  probably 
been  accommodated  to  the  name  of  the  Philistine  god 
Baal-zeihi;  (q.  v.).  Some  of  those  who  consider  the 
latter  to  have  been  a  reverential  title  for  that  god  be- 
lieve that  Beelzebul  is  a  wilful  corruption  of  it,  in 
order  to  make  it  contemptible.  It  is  a  fact  that  the 
.lens  are  very  fond  of  turning  words  into  ridicule  by 
such  changes  of  letters  as  will  convert  them  into  words 
qf  contemptible  signification  (e.g.  Sychar,  Beth-aven). 
Of  this  usage  Lightfoot  gives  many  instances  (Ilor. 
Hebr.  ad  Matth.  xii,  24).  Beelzebul,  then,  is  con- 
sidered to  in  -.in  bat  bS2,  i.  q.  dung-god.  Some  con- 
nect the  term  with  5^7,  habitation,  thus  making 
Beelzebul  oiKoounrornc.' (Matt,  x,  25),  the  lord  of 
,'/.  whether  as  the  "prince  of  the  power  of 

t1"'  :,i'  prince  of  the  lower 

world  (Paulus,  quoted  by  Olshausen,  Comment,  in 
M  '"■  '  ibiting  human  bodies  (Schleus- 

'"''■  '  •  •■  ■  « -'■  or  a  occupj  ing  a  mansion  in  the  sev- 
enth heaven,  Like  Saturn  in  Oriental  mythology  (Mo* 
*G0).  Hug  supposes  that  the  fly,  under 
which  Baalzebub  was  represented,  was  the  Scarabaw 
piUulariui,  or  dunghill  beetle,  in  which  case  Baalzebub 
and  Beelzebul  might  be  u8ed  indifferently.—  Kitto,  s. 

V  ;   Smith,  s.  v.      See  BAALIM  ;    I'm  . 

Be'Lr  (Heb.  /:<  /.  1N3,   a  aelT),  a  local  proper 


name,  denoting,  whether  by  itself  or  in  composition, 
Beer-,  the  presence  of  an  artificial  well  of  water.  See 
Well.  It  was  thus  distinguished  from  the  frequent 
pretix  En-  (q.  v.),  which  designated  a  natural  spring. 
There  were  two  places  known  by  this  name  simply. 
See  the  compounds  in  their  alphabetical  order. 

1.  (With  the  art.,  "lX3il;  Sept.  u  (ppiap.)  A  place  in 
the  desert,  on  the  confines  of  Moab,  where  the  Hebrew 
princes,  by  the  direction  of  Moses,  dug  a  well  with 
their  staves,  being  the  forty-fourth  station  of  the  He- 
brews in  their  wanderings  from  Egypt  to  Canaan 
(Num.  xxi,  16-18).  It  seems  to  have  been  situated 
in  the  south  part  of  the  plain  Ard  Ramadan,  not  very 
far  north-east  of  Dibon.  See  Exode.  The  "wilder- 
ness" ('"Q'TO),  which  is  named  as  their  next  starting- 
point  in  the  last  clause  of  vcr.  18,  may  be  that  before 
spoken  of  in  13,  or  it  maj-  be  a  copyist's  mistake  for 
TX2"2.  So  the  Sept.,  who  read  icai  enro  tpp'iaroQ — 
"and  from  the  well,"  i.  e.  "  from  Beer."  Probably  the 
same  place  is  called  more  fully  Beer-elim  in  Isa.  xv,  8. 
(See  Ortlob,  Defonte  baculisfosso,  Lpz.  1718.) 

According  to  the  tradition  of  the  Targumists — a  tra- 
dition in  part  adopted  by  the  apostle  Paul  (1  Cor.  x, 
-]),  this  was  one  of  the  appearances,  the  last  before  the 
entrance  into  the  Holy  Land,  of  the  water  which  had 
"  followed"  the  people,  from  its  first  arrival  at  Kephi- 
dim,  through  their  wanderings.  The  water,  so  the 
tradition  appears  to  have  run,  was  granted  for  the  sake 
of  Miriam,  her  merit  being  that,  at  the  peril  of  her 
life,  she  had  watched  the  ark  in  which  lay  the  infant 
Moses.  It  followed  the  march  over  mountains  and 
into  valleys,  encircling  the  entire  camp,  and  "furnish- 
ing water  to  every  man  at  his  own  tent  door.  This 
it  did  till  her  death  (Num.  xx,  1),  at  which  time  it  dis- 
appeared for  a  season,  apparently  rendering  a  special 
act  necessary  on  each  future  occasion  for  its  evocation. 
The  striking  of  the  rock  at  Kadesh  (Num.  xx,  1(1)  was 
the  first  of  these  ;  the  digging  of  the  well  at  Beer  by 
the  staves  of  the  princes,  the  second.  Miriam's  well 
at  last  found  a  home  in  a  gulf  or  recess  in  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  where  at  certain  seasons  its  water  flowed,  and 
was  resorted  to  for  healing  purposes  (Targums  of  Onkc- 
los  and  Pseudo-Jon.,  Num.  xx,  1 ;  xxi,  18,  and  also  the 
quotations  in  Lightfoot  on  John  v,  4). — Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  (Sept.  Vat.  Ban)p;  the  Alex,  entirely  alters  the 
passage — kcil  twopevOri  iv  oC(>i  Kai  i(pvytv  tig  'Papa; 
Vulg.  in  Bera.)  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  which 
Jotham  fled  for  fear  of  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix,  21).  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  B>ipa,  Beret)  place 
Beer  in  the  great  plain  eight  Roman  miles  north  of 
Eleutheropolis ;  perhaps  the  well  near  Deir  Dubban. 
By  many  this  place  is  identified  with  Beeroth  (q.  v.). 

Beii'ra  (Heb.  Beera',  J01X3,  a  Chaldaizing  form 
=  the  well;  Sept.  Btnpa),  the  last  son  of  Zophah,  a  de- 
scendant of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii,  37).  B.C.  long  post 
1612. 

Beii'rah  (Heb.  Be'erah' ',  "1^X3,  i.  q.  Becra,  the 
well;  Sept.  Btnpa  v.  r.  BtrjK),  the  son  of  Baal,  a  prince 
(JO'iUJ)  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  carried  into  captivity 
by  the  Assyrian  Tiglath-Pileser  (1  Chron.  v,  6).  B.C. 
cir.  738. 

Be'er-e'lim  (Heb.  Beer'E'im ',  E^?X  "X3,  veil  of 
heroes;  Sept.  to  tppiap  rov  AiXtiu  ;  Vulg. puteus Elim), 
a  spot  named  in  Isa.  xv,  8,  as  on  the  "  border  of  Moab," 
apparently  the  south,  Eglaim  being  at  the  north  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  name  points  to  the  well  dug  by 
the  chiefs  of  Israel  on  their  approach  to  the  promised 
land,  ch.se  by  the  "  border  of  Moab"  (Num.  xxi,  16; 
comp.  ver.  13),  and  such  is  the  suggestion  of  Gesenius 
(Jesaia.  p.  533).  See  Beer  simply.  Beer-Elim  was 
probably  chosen  by  the  prophet  out  of  other  places  on 
the  boundary  on  account  of  the  similarity  between  the 
sound  of  the  name  and  that  of  fi?b?— the  "  howling," 


BEERI 


T23 


BEEROTH-BENE-JAAKAX 


which  was  to  reach  even  to  that  remote  point  (Ewald, 
Proph.  p.  233). — Smith,  s.  v. 

Bee'ri  (Heb.  Beeri' ',  "1"1X3,  font 'anus,  according  to 
Gesen. ;  enlightener,  according  to  Fiirst ;  Sept.  Bt ))p  in 
Gen.,  Btijpti  in  Hos.),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  father  of  Judith,  one  of  the  wives  of  Esau 
(Gen.xxvi,  34).  B.C.  ante  1963.  See  Esau.  Judith, 
daughter  of  Beeri,  is  the  same  person  that  is  called 
in  the  genealogical  table  (Gen.  xxxvi,  2)  Aholibamah, 
daughter  of  Anah,  and  consequently  Beeri  and  Anah 
must  be  the  same  person.  See  Aholibamah.  Yet 
Beeri  is  spoken  of  as  a  Ilittite,  while  Anah  is  called  a 
Horite  and  also  a  Hivite.  See  Anah.  It  is  agreed 
on  all  hands  that  the  name  Horite  ("pH)  signifies  one 
who  dwells  in  a  hole  or  cave,  a  Troglodyte  ;  and  it 
seems  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Mount  Seir  were  so  designated  because  they 
inhabited  the  numerous  caverns  of  that  mountainous 
region.  The  name,  therefore,  does  not  designate  them 
according  to  their  race,  but  merely  according  to  their 
mode  of  life,  to  whatever  race  they  might  belong.  Of 
their  race  we  know  nothing,  except,  indeed,  what  the 
conjunction  of  these  two  names  in  reference  to  the  same 
individual  may  teach  us ;  and  from  this  case  we  may 
fairly  conclude  that  these  Troglodytes  or  Horites  be- 
longed in  part,  at  least,  to  the  widely-extended  Ca- 
naanitish  tribe  of  the  Hittites.  On  this  supposition 
the  difficulty  vanishes,  and  each  of  the  accounts  gives 
us  just  the  information  we  might  expect.  In  the  nar- 
rative, where  the  stress  is  laid  on  Esau's  wife  being 
of  the  race  of  Canaan,  her  father  is  called  a  Ilittite; 
while  in  the  genealogy,  where  the  stress  is  on  Esau's 
connection  by  marriage  with  the  previous  occupants 
of  Mount  Seir,  he  is  most  naturally  and  properly  de- 
scribed under  the  more  precise  terra  Horite. — Smith,  s. 
v.     See  Horite  ;  Hivite  ;  Hittite. 

2.  The  father  of  the  prophet  Hosea  (Hos.  i,  1). 
B.C.  ante  725. 

Be'er-lahai'-roi  (Heb.  Beer'  Lachay'  Pol',  *iX2 
^X"1  nr&,  signifying,  according  to  the  explanation  in 
the  text  where  it  first  occurs,  well  of  [to]  I'fe  of  vision 
[or,  of  the  living  and  seeing  God],  i.  e.  survivorship 
after  beholding  the  theophany  ;  but,  according  to  the 
natural  derivation,  well  of  the  (keel-bone  [i-och]  rf 
vision;  Sept.  in  Gen.  xvi,  14,  (ppiap  ov  tviinriov  fldov , 
in  Gen.  xxiv,  C2,  to  (pp'tap  ri)g  bpaveojQ  ;  Vulg.  puteus 
viventis  ct  videntis  me),  a  well,  or  rather  a  living  spring 
(A.  V.  "fountain,"  comp.  ver.  7),  between  Kadesh  and 
Bered,  in  the  wilderness,  "in  the  way  to  Shur,"  and 
therefore  in  the  "  south  country"  (Gen.  xxiv,  C2), 
which  seems  to  have  been  so  named  by  Hagar  because 
God  saw  her  (nXn)  there  (Gen.  xvi,  14).  From  the 
fact  of  this  etymology  not  being  in  agreement  with 
the  formation  of  the  name  (more  legitimately,  *Tb 
"'Xl),  it  has  been  suggested  (Gesenius,  Thes.  p.  175) 
that  the  origin  of  the  name  is  Lehi  (q.  v.)  (Judg.  xv, 
9,  19),  the  scene  of  Samson's  adventure,  which  was 
not  far  from  this  neighborhood.  By  this  Avell  Isaac 
dwelt  both  before  and  after  the  death  of  his  father 
(Gen.  xxiv,  62;  xxv,  11).  In  both  these  passages 
the  name  is  given  in  the  A.  V.  as  "  the  well  Lahai-roi." 
Mr.  Rowland  announces  the  discovery  of  the  well 
Lahai-roi  at  Moyle  or  Moilaki,  a  station  on  the  road  to 
Beersheba,  ten  hours  south  of  Ruheibeh,  near  which  is 
a  hole  or  cavern  bearing  the  name  of  Be't  Hagar  (Wil- 
liams, Holy  City,  i,  465);  but  this  requires  confirma- 
tion. This  well  is  possibly  the  same  with  that  by 
which  the  life  of  Ishmael  was  preserved  on  a  subse- 
quent occasion  (Gen.  xxi,  19),  but  which,  according 
to  the  Moslems,  is  the  well  Zem-zem  at  Mecca.— Smith. 
Bee'roth  (Heb.  Beeroth',  iTVhKa,  wells;  Sept. 
BqpwT,  Bnjoo^a,  B//pw3),  one  of  the  four  cities  of  the 
Hivites  who  deluded  Joshua  into  a  treaty  of  peace  with 
them,  the  other  three  being  Gibeon,  Chephirah,  and 


Kirjath-jearim  (Josh,  ix,  17).  Beeroth  was  with  the 
rest  of  these  towns  allotted  to  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii, 
25),  in  Avhose  possession  it  continued  at  the  time  of 
David,  the  murderers  of  Ishbosheth  being  named  as 
belonging  to  it  (2  Sam.  iv,  2).  From  the  notice  in 
this  place  (ver.  2,  3),  it  would  appear  that  the  original 
inhabitants  had  been  forced  from  the  town,  and  had 
taken  refuge  at  Gittaim  (Neh.  xi,  34),  possibly  a  Phi- 
listine city.  Beeroth  is  once  more  named  witli  Che- 
phirah and  Kirjath-jearim  in  the  list  of  those  who  re- 
turned from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii,  25;  Neh.  vii,  29;  1 
Esdr.  v.  19).  Besides  Baanah  and  Rechab,  the  mur- 
derers of  Ishbosheth,  with  their  father  Rimmon,  we 
find  Nahari  "the  Beerothite''  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  37),  or 
"the  Berothite"  (1  Chron.  xi,  39),  one  of  the  "  mighty 

men"  of  David's  guard Smith,  s.  v.     See  also  Bee- 

roth-Bene-Jaakan. 

The  name  of  Beeroth  is  the  plural  of  Beer,  and  it 
has  therefore  been  taken  by  many  for  the  same  place. 
Eusebius  and  Jerome,  however,  both  distinguish  it  from 
Beer  (Onomast.  s.  v.  BijpwB),  although  there  has  been 
much  misunderstanding  of  their  language  respecting 
it  (see  Eeland,  Palcest.  p.  618,  619).  The  former  says 
that  it  could  be  seen  in  passing  from  Jerusalem  to 
Nicopolis,  at  the  seventh  mile;  a  description  that  to 
this  day  is  true  of  a  place  still  bearing  the  correspond- 
ing name  of  el-Bireh,  which,  since  Maundrell's  time, 
has  been  identified  with  this  locality  (Journey,  March 
25).  According  to  Robinson  (Researches,  ii,  132),  the 
traveller  in  that  direction  sees  el-Bireh  on  his  right 
after  a  little  more  than  two  hours  from  Jerusalem. 
Jerome,  on  the  other  hand,  apparently  misconceiving 
Eusebius  as  meaning  that  Beeroth  was  on  the  road, 
from  which  he  says  it  is  visible,  changes  "  Nicopolis" 
to  "Neapolis,"  which  still  leaves  the  distance  and  di- 
rection sufficiently  exact.  Bireh  is  mentioned  under 
the  name  of  Bira  by  Brocard  (vii,  278),  in  whose  time 
it  was  held  by  the  Templars.  By  the  Crusaders  and 
the  later  ecclesiastics  it  was  erroneously  confounded 
with  the  ancient  Michmash.  Bireh  is  situated  on  the 
ridge,  running  from  east  to  west,  which  bounds  the 
northern  prospect,  as  behe'd  from  Jerusalem  and  its 
vicinity,  and  may  be  seen  '■'rom  a  great  distance  north 
and  south.  It  is  now  a  large  village,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  700  Moslems.  The  houses  are  low,  and  many 
of  them  half  underground.  Many  large  stones  and 
various  substructions  evince  the  antiquity  of  the  site  ; 
and  there  are  remains  of  a  fine  old  church  of  the  time 
of  the  Crusades  (Richter,  WaVfahrten,  p.  54).  Ac- 
cording to  modern  local  tradition  it  was  the  place  at 
which  the  parents  of  "the  child  Jesus"  discovered  that 
he  was  not  among  their  "company"  (Luke  ii,  43-45)  ; 
and  it  is  a  fact  that  the  spring  of  el-Bireh  is  even  to 
this  day  the  customary  resting-place  for  caravans  go- 
ing northward,  at  the  end  of  the  first  day's  journey 
from  Jerusalem  (Stanlev,  Palest,  p.  215;  Lord  Nugent, 
ii,  112). 

Bee'roth-be'ne- Ja'akan  (Heb.  Beeroth'  Beney'- 


}',!,i  I:, 


\ir~- 


■PX2,  wells  of  the  so7is  of  Jaa- 


Ican;  Sept.  Br)pw3  v'iSiV  'Iaici/t),  a  place  through  which 
the  Israelites  twice  passed  in  the  desert,  being  their 
twenty-seventh  and  thirty-third  station  on  the  way 
from  Egypt  to  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiii,  31,  32 ;  Deut.  x, 
6).  See  Exode.  From  a  comparison  of  these  pas- 
sages (in  the  former  of  which  it  is  called  simply  Bune- 
Jaakan,  and  in  the  latter  partly  translated  "Beeroth 
of  the  children  of  Jaakan"),  it  appears  to  have  been 
situated  in  the  vallej'  of  the  Arabah,  not  far  from 
Mount  Ilor  (Mosera  or  Moseroth)  in  the  direction  of 
Kadesh-Barnea,  and  may  therefore  have  well  repre- 
sented the  tract  including  the  modern  fountains  in 
that  region,  called  Ain  el-Ghamr,  Ain  el-Weibeh,  el- 
Hufeiry,  el-Buweirideh,  etc.,  lying  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  each  other.  Jaakan  (or  Aran)  was  a  de- 
scendant of  Seir  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi,  27;  1  Chr. 
i,  42),  and  the  territory  designated  by  the  name  of  his 


BEER0TfflT3 

children  may  therefore  naturally  be  sought  in  this 
vicinity  (see  Browne's  nr.l,  Soeclorum,  p.  270).  Dr. 
Robinson  (Researches,  ii,  583J  inclines  to  identify  this 
place  with  Moseroth,  on  account  of  the  statement  of 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.)  that  Beeroth 
Bene  Jaakan  was  extant  in  their  day  ten  Roman  miles 
from  1'etra,  on  the  top  of  the  mountain — probably  a 
conjectural  tradition.  Schwarz's  confusion  of  Wady 
and  Jebel  Araif  en-Ndkah  in  the  interior  of  the  desert 
ct- l'ih  with  this  place,  under  the  name  of  Anoka  (Pa- 
'  -'.  p.  213),  is  unworthy  of  farther  notice. 

Bee'rotliite  (Ileb.  Beerothi',  WhKS;  Sept.  Brj- 
owSaToc  v.  r.  BqSwpaio  •),  an  inhabitant  of  Beeroth 
(q.  v.)  of  Benjamin  f2  8am.  iv,  2  ;  xxiii,  37). 

Beer'-siieba  (Ileb.  Be/  She'la,  "3V3  1X3,  in 
pause  B(  i  /  Shaba,  2nd  "^2,  well  of  swearing,  or  well 
of  Si  D(  n  ;  Sept.  in  Gen.  Optap  rov  uoKtai-iov  or  rov  op- 
kov;  in  Josh,  and  later  books,  B^ptyajitt  ;  Josephus, 
4»<.  i,  12,  1,  Bqoffovfiai,  which  he  immediately  inter- 
prets by  opKiov  (ppsap),  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest 
places  in  Palestine,  and  which  formed  the  southern 
limit  of  the  country.  There  are  two  accounts  of  the 
origin  of  the  name.  According  to  the  first,  the  well 
was  dug  by  Abraham,  and  the  name  given,  because 
there  he  and  Abimelech,  the  king  of  the  Philistines, 
'•sware"  (WSttJS)  both  of  them  (Gen.  xxi,  31).  But 
the  compact  was  ratified  by  the  setting  apart  of  "  seven 
ewe  lambs;"  and  as  the  Hebrew  word  for  "seven"  is 
53ttJ,  8heba,  it  is  equally  possible  that  this  is  the  mean- 
ing of  the  name.  The  other  narrative  ascribes  the  ori- 
gin of  the  name  to  an  occurrence  almost  precisely  sim- 
ilar, in  which  both  Abimelech,  the  king  of  the  Philis- 
tines, and  Phichol,  his  chief  captain,  are  again  concern- 
ed, with  the  difference  that  the  person  on  the  Hebrew 
side  of  the  transaction  is  Isaac  instead  of  Abraham 
(lien,  xxvi,  31-33).  Here  there  is  no  reference  to  the 
"seven"  lambs,  and  we  are  left  to  infer  the  derivation 
of  Skibeah  (lnS3\a,  Shibah',  not  "Shcbah,"  as  in  the 
Auth.  Vers.)  from  the  mention  of  the  "swearing" 
l/'^'-V"  I  m  v«'r-  31.  Thcst  two  accounts,  however,  ap- 
pear to  be  adjusted  by  the  statement  in  ver.  18  that  this 
was  one  of  the  wells  originally  dug  by  Abraham,  to 
Which  Isaac,  on  reopening  them,  assigned  the  same 
names  given  them  by  his  father. 

Beersheba  appears  to  have  been  a  favorite  abode  of 
both  these  patriarchs.  After  the  digging  of  the  well 
Abraham  planted  a  "grove"  (brx,  E'slieV)  as  a  place 
for  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  such  as  constituted  the 
temples  of  those  early  times;  and  here  he  lived  until 
the  sacrifice  of  Isaac;  and  for  a  long  time  afterward 
(xxi,  33  xxii,  1,  111).  'Ibis  seems  to  imply  the  growth 
of  the  place  into  a  considerable  town.  Here  also  Isaac 
was  dwelling  at  the  tim  ■  of  the  transference  of  the 
birthright  from  Esau  to  Jacob  (xxvi,  33;  xxviii,  10), 
and  from  the  patriarchal  encampment  round  the  wells 
■  r  hi-  grandfather  Jacob  set  forth  on  the  journcv  to 
Mesopotamia  which  changed  the  course  of' liis  whole 

life.  Jacob  does  ,„,t  appear  to  have  revisited  the  place 
,mlil  '"'  "Bade  it  one  of  the  stages  of  his  journey  down 
to  Egypt,     lie  then  halted  there  to  oiler  sacrifice  to 

1    of  his    father,"  doubtless    under   the    sacred 

grove  of  Abraham.  From  this  time  till  the  conquest 
<•■  the  countrj  we  only  catch  a  momentary  glimpse  of 
Beersheba  in  the  lists  of  the  "cities"  in 'the  extreme 
south  oi  Judah  (xv.  is,  giVen  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon 
LChr.iv,28).  Samuel's  sons  were  appointed 
deputy  judges  for  the  southernmost  districts  in  Beer- 
Bheba(]  Sam.  viii,  2),  its  distance  no  doubl  precluding 
•  imongtbenumberofthe"holycities"(Sep1  ) 
to  which  he  himself  went  in  circuit  every  vear(vii  10)' 
By  the  times  of  the  monarchy  it  had  become  recognised 
a  the  most  southerly  place  ,,r  ,i„.  country.  Its  posi- 
tion, as  the  place  of  arrival  and  departure  for  the  cara- 
vans trading  between  Palestine  and  the  countries  ).■- 


"L'l 


BEER-SHEBA 


ing  in  that  direction,  would  naturally  lead  to  the  for- 
mation  of  a  town  round  the  wells  of  the  patriarchs,  and 
the  great  Egyptian  trade  begun  by  Solomon  must  have 
increased  its  importance.  Hither  Joab's  census  ex- 
tended (2  Sam.  xxiv,  7 ;  1  Chr.  xxi,  2),  and  here  Eli- 
jah bade  farewell  to  his  confidential  servant  (r"C^) 
before  taking  his  journey  across  the  desert  to  Sinai  (1 
Kings  xix,  3).  Erom  Dan  to  Beersheba  (Judg.  xx, 
1,  etc.),  or  from  Beersheba  to  Dan  (1  Chr.  xxi,  2; 
cornp.  2  Sam.  xxiv,  2),  now  became  the  established 
formula  for  the  whole  of  the  Promised  Land ;  just  as 
"  from  Geba  to  Beersheba"  (2  Kings  xxiii,  8),  or  "  from 
Beersheba  to  Mount  Ephraim"  (2  Chr.  xix,  4),  was  that 
for  the  southern  kingdom  after  the  disruption.  After 
the  return  from  the  captivity  the  formula  is  narrowed 
still  more,  and  becomes  "  from  Beersheba  to  the  Val- 
ley of  Hinnom"  (Neh.  xi,  30).  One  of  the  wives  of 
Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  Zibiah,  mother  of  Joash,  was 
a  native  of  Beersheba  (2  Kings  xii,  1 ;  2  Chr.  xxiv, 
1).  From  the  incidental  references  of  Amos,  we  find 
that,  like  Bethel  and  Gilgal,  the  place  was,  in  the  time 
of  Uzziah,  the  seat  of  an  idolatrous  worship,  apparent- 
ly connected  in  some  intimate  manner  with  the  north- 
ern kingdom  (Amos  v,  5;  viii,  14).  But  the  allusions 
are  so  slight  that  nothing  can  be  gathered  from  them, 
except  that,  in  the  latter  of  the  two  passages  quoted 
above,  we  have  perhaps  preserved  a  form  of  words  or 
an  adjuration  used  by  the  worshippers,  "Live  the  'way' 
of  Beersheba!"  After  this,  with  the  mere  menticn 
that  Beersheba  and  the  villages  round  it  ("  daughters") 
were  rcinhabited  after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi,  30),  the 
name  dies  entirely  out  of  the  Bible  records.  In  the  New 
Testament  it  is  not  once  mentioned ;  nor  is  it  referred  to 
as  then  existing  by  any  writer  earlier  than  Eusebius 
and  Jerome,  in  the  fourth  century,  who  describe  it  as 
a  large  village  (Chiomnsi.  icm/uj  /ityiari),  licus  gremlin), 
and  the  seat  of  a  Roman  garrison.  The  latter  clsc= 
where  {Qwest,  ad  Gen.  xvii,  30)  calls  it  a  "  town"  (op- 
pidum).  In  the  centuries  before  and  after  the  Mos- 
lem conquest  it  is  mentioned  among  the  episcopal  cit- 
ies of  Palestine  (Reland,  Palcest.  p.  G20),  but  none  of 
its  bishops  are  anywhere  named.  The  site  seems  to 
have  been  almost  forgotten  (see  Do  Vitriaco,  Gesta 
Dei  per  Francos,  p.  1070)  till  the  fourteenth  century, 
when  Sir  John  Maundeville,  Rudolf  dc  Suchcm,  and 
William  da  Baldensel  recognised  the  name  at  a  place 
which  they  passed  on  their  route  from  Sinai  to  Hebron. 
It  was  then  uninhabited,  but  some  of  the  churches 
were  still  standing.  From  that  time  till  the  recent 
visit  of  Dr.  Kobinson  the  place  remained  unvisited  and 
unknown,  except  for  the  slight  notice  obtained  by  Seet- 
zen  from  the  Arabs  (Zach's  Monatl.  Corresp.  xvii,  143). 
Dr.  Kobinson  gives  a  clear  idea  of  the  southernmost 
district  of  Palestine,  in  which  is  Beersheba,  and  with 
which  the  book  of  Genesis  has  connected  so  many  in- 
teresting associations.  Coming  from  the  south,  ho 
emerged  from  the  desert  by  a  long  and  gradual  ascent 
over  swelling  hills  scantily  covered  with  grass.  The 
summit  of  this  ascent  afforded  a  view  over  a  broad  bar- 
ren tract,  bounded  on  the  horizon  by  the  mountains 
of  Judah  south  of  Hebron  :  "  We  now  felt  that  the  des- 
ert was  at  an  end.  Descending  gradually,  we  came 
out  upon  an  open  undulating  country;  the  shrubs 
ceased,  or  nearly  so ;  green  grass  was  seen  along  the 
lesser  water-courses,  and  almost  greensward ;  while 
the  gentle  hills,  covered  in  ordinary  seasons  with  grass 
and  rich  pasture,  were  now  burnt  over  with  drought. 
In  three  quarters  of  an  hour  we  reached  Wady  es-Scba, 
a  wide  water-course  or  bed  of  a  torrent,  running  here 
W.S.W.,  upon  whose  northern  side,  close  upon  the 
bank,  arc  two  dee])  wells,  still  called  Bir  es-Seba,  the 
ancient  Beersheba.  We  had  entered  the  borders  of 
Palestine!"  (  Researches,  i,  301).  There  are  at  present 
on  the  spot  two  principal  wells,  and  five  smaller  ones. 
The  former,  apparently  the  only  ones  seen  by  Robin- 
son, lie  just  a  hundred  yards  apart,  and  are  so  placed 
as  to  be  visible  from  a  considerable  distance  (L'onar, 


BEESIITERAH 


725 


BEETLE 


Land  of  Prom.  p.  1).  The  larger  of  the  two,  which 
lies  to  the  east,  is,  according  to  the  careful  measure- 
ments of  Dr.  Robinson,  12i  feet  diam.,  and  at  the  time 
of  his  visit  (Apr.  12)  was  44^  feet  to  the  surface  of  the 
water;  the  masonry  which  encloses  the  well  reaches 
downward  for  28$  feet.  The  other  well  is  5  feet  diam., 
and  was  42  feet  to  the  water.  The  curb-stones  round 
the  mouth  of  both  wells  are  worn  into  deep  grooves  by 
the  action  of  the  ropes  of  so  many  centuries,  and  "  look 
as  if  frilled  or  fluted  all  round."  Round  the  larger 
well  there  are  nine,  and  round  the  smaller  five  large 
stone  troughs,  some  much  worn  and  broken,  others 
nearly  entire,  lying  at  a  distance  of  10  or  12  feet  from 
the  edge  of  the  well.  There  were  formerly  ten  of  these 
troughs  at  the  larger  well.  The  circle  around  is  car- 
peted with  a  sward  of  fine  short  grass,  with  crocuses 
and  lilies  (Bonar,  p.  5,  6,  7).  The  water  is  excellent, 
the  best,  as  Dr.  Robinson  emphatically  records,  which 
he  had  tasted  since  leaving  Sinai.  The  five  lesser 
wells,  apparently  the  only  ones  seen  by  Van  de  Velde, 
are,  according  to  his  account  and  the  casual  notice  of 
Bonar,  in  a  group  in  the  bed  of  the  wady,  not  on  its 
north  bank,  and  at  a  great  distance  from  the  other  two. 
No  ruins  are  at  first  visible;  but,  on  examination, 
foundations  of  former  dwellings  have  been  traced,  dis- 
persed loosely  over  the  low  hills,  to  the  north  of  the 
wells,  and  in  the  hollows  between.  They  seem  to  have 
been  built  chiefly  of  round  stones,  although  some  of  the 
stones  are  squared  and  some  hewn,  suggesting  the  idea 
of  a  small  straggling  city.  There  are  no  trees  or  shrubs 
near  the  spot.  The  site  of  the  wells  is  nearly  midway 
between  the  southern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Med- 
iterranean at  Raphsea,  or  twenty-seven  miles  south-east 
from  Gaza,  and  about  the  same  distance  south  by  west 
from  Hebron  (20  Roman  miles  in  the  Onomast. ;  comp. 
Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  13,  7).  Its  present  Arabic  name, 
Bir  es-Seba,  means  '"well  of  the  seven,"  which  some 
take  to  be  the  signification  also  of  Beersheba,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  seven  ewe-lambs  which  Abraham  gave  to 
Abimelech  in  token  of  the  oath  between  them.  There 
is  no  ground  for  rendering  it  by  "  seven  wells,"  as  some 
have  done. — Smith,  s.  v. ;  Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Siiebaii. 

Beesh'terah  (Ileb.  Eeeshterah',  l"Hnd"3,  prob. 
house  cfAstarte  ;  Sept.  y  Booopd  v.  r.  B« Qapd  ;  Vulg. 
Board),  one  of  the  two  Levitical  cities  allotted  to  the 
sons  of  Gershom,  out  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  beyond 
Jordan  (Josh,  xxi,  27).  In  the  parallel  list  (1  Chron. 
vi,  71)  it  appears  to  be  identical  with  Ashtaroth 
(q.  v.).  In  fact,  the  name  is  merely  a  contracted  form 
of  Beth- Ashtaroth,  the  "temple  of  Ashtoreth"  (Geseni- 
us,  Thes.  p.  196 ;  comp.  175). — Smith,  s.  v. 

Beetle  ('"Ol1  chargo1/,  q.  d.  "  leaper") occurs  only 
in  Lev.  xi,  22,  where  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of  four 
flying  creeping  things,  that  go  upon  all  four,  which  have 
legs  above  their  feet  to  leap  withal  upon  the  earth,  which 
the  Israelites  were  permitted  to  eat.  The  other  three 
are  the  locust,  the  bald  locust,  and  the  grasshopper,  re- 
spectively rendered  by  the  Sept.  ftpov\oc,  uttcucij,  and 
UKpiQ,  while  the}'  translate  chargol  by  ixpiopaxyc.  (q.  d. 
"serpent-fighter"),  which  Suidas  explains  as  being  a 
wingless  locitst  (fitioQ  dtcpicoe,  fiy  i'%ov  Trrtpo).  Pliny 
(xi,  29)  and  Aristotle  (Hist.  Anim.  ix,  6)  mention  locusts 
that  are  serpent-destroyers.  This  Heb.  word  cannot 
mean  the  beetle.  No  species  of  searaba?us  was  ever 
used  as  food  by  the  Jews,  or  perhaps  any  other  nation. 
Nor  does  any  known  species  answer  to  the  generic  de- 
scription given  in  the  preceding  verse  :  "  This  ye  may 
eat  of  every  winged  creeper  which  goeth  upon  four 
(feet) ;  that  which  hath  joints  at  the  upper  part  of  its 
hind  legs,  to  leap  with  them  upon  the  earth"  (comp. 
Niebuhr,  Descrip.  de  VArdbie,  Copenhague,  1773,  p.  33). 
Hence  it  is  plain  that  the  chargol  is  some  winged  creep- 
er, which  has  at  least  four  feet,  which  leaps  with  its  two 
hind  jointed  legs,  and  which  we  might  expect,  from 
the  permission,  to  find  actuallj'  used  as  food.  This  de- 
scription agrees  exactly  with  the  locust-tribe  of  insects, 


which  are  well  known  to  have  been  eaten  by  the  com- 
mon people  in  the  East  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
present  day.  This  conclusion  is  also  favored  by  tin- 
derivation  of  the  word,  which  signifies  to  gallop  like 
the  English  grassh'pper  and  French  sauterelle.  Al- 
though no  known  variety  of  locust  answers  the  above 
description  of  Pliny  and  Aristotle,  and,  indeed,  the  ex- 
istence of  any  such  species  is  denied  by  Cuvier  (Grand- 
saque's  ed.  of  Pliny,  Par.  1828,  p.  451,  note),  yet  a  sort 
of  ichneumon  locust  is  found  in  the  genus  Truxalis  (fierce 


Tnixaiis  Xusutvs. 


or  cruel),  inhabiting  Africa  and  China,  and  compre- 
hending many  species,  which  hunts  and  preys  upon 
insects.  It  is  also  called  the  Truxalis  nasutus,  or  long- 
nosed.  May  not,  then,  this  winged,  leaping,  insectiv- 
orous locust,  and  its  various  species,  be  "the  chargol, 
after  its  kind,"  and  the  o^tojtid^C  °f  the  Septuagint  ? 
or  might  the  name  have  arisen  from  the  similarity  of 
shape  and  color,  which  is  striking,  between  the  Truxalis 
nasutus  and  the  ichneumon  ;  just  as  the  locust  gener- 
ally is,  at  this  time,  called  cavalette  by  the  Italians,  on 
account  of  its  resemblance  in  shape  to  the  horse  ?  We 
know  that  the  ancients  indulged  in  tracing  the  many 
resemblances  of  the  several  parts  of  locusts  to  those  of 
other  animals  (Bochart,  Ilieroz.  pt.  ii,  lib.iv,  c.  5,  p. 475). 
It  may  be  observed  that  it  is  no  objection  to  the  former 
and  more  probable  supposition,  that  a  creature  which 
lives  upon  other  insects  should  be  allowed  as  food  to 
the  Jews,  contrary  to  the  general  principle  of  the  Mo- 
saic law  in  regard  to  birds  and  quadrupeds,  this  hav- 
ing been  unquestionably  the  case  with  regard  to  many 
species  of  fishes  coming  within  the  regulation  of  hav- 
ing "fins  and  scales," and  known  to  exist  in  Palestine 
at  the  present  time — as  the  perch,  carp,  barbel,  etc. 
(Kitto's  Physical  History  of  Palestine,  article  Fishes). 
The  fact  that  the  chargol  is  never  made  the  means  of 
the  divine  chastisements  (for  which  purpose  a  locust 
preying  upon  insects  could  scarcely  be  used),  concurs 
with  this  speculation. — Kitto;  Smith.  See  Locust. 
The  beetle,  however,  was  very  common  in  Egypt, 
and  is  the  species  called  by  Linnaeus  Blatta  Egypiiacus, 
thought  by  many  to  be  mentioned  in  Exod.  viii,  21, 
etc.,  under  the  name  2"15,  arob',  where  the  A.  V.  ren- 
ders it  "swarms  of  flies."  See  Fly.  Beetles  are,  by 
naturalists,  styled  coleopterous  insects,  from  their 
horny  upper  wings,  or  shard ;  the  species  are  exceed- 
ingly numerous,  differing  greatly  in  size  and  color, 
and  being  found  in  almost  every  country.  The  order 
of  Coleoptera  is  divided  into  many  families,  of  which 
the  scarabseidae  and  blatta?,  or  common  beetles  and 
cock-chaffers,  are  known  to  every  one.  These  crea- 
tures, like  many  others  in  the  insect  world,  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  ground,  where  they  are  hatched,  and 
the  appearance  of  their  progeny  rising  from  the  earth 
is  by  some  writers  supposed  to  have  suggested  to  the 
Egyptian  priesthood  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  Certain  it  is  that  beetles  were  very 
common  in  Egypt,  and  one  of  them,  thence  styled  by 
naturalists  Scarolions  sacer,  was  an  object  of  worship; 
and  this  fact  gives  strength  to  the  conjecture  that  this 
creature  is  meant  in  Exod.  viii,  as  the  sacred  charac- 
ter of  the  object  would  naturally  render  its  employ- 
ment as  a  plague  doubly  terrible.  Besides  its  being 
worshipped  as  a  divinity,  stones  cut  in  the  form  of  the 
beetle  6erved  as  talismans  among   the   Egyptians. 


BEEVE 


r26 


BEGINNING 


The  under  surface  was  filled  with  figures  cut  in  in- 
t  iglio  of  solar,  lunar,  and  astral  symbols  and  eharac- 
t  ■!-.  They  were  held,  according  to  Pliny,  to  inspire 
the  soldier  with  courage,  and  to  protect  his  person  in 
the  day  of  battle,  and  also  to  defend  children  from  the 
malign  influence  of  the  evil  eye.  There  is  little  rea- 
son to  doubt  that  the  Hebrews  learned  the  use  of  these 


things  in  Egypt,  but  they  were  prohibited  by  the  Mo- 
saic law.  The  Gnostics,  among  other  Egyptian  su- 
perstitions,  adopted  this  notion  regarding  the  beetle, 
and  gems  of  gnostic  origin  are  extant  in  this  form, 
especially  symbolical  of  Isis  (q.  v.). 

Beeve  ("£2,  bakar',  horned  animals,  Lev.  xxii, 
19,  21 ;  Num.  xxxi,  28,  30,  33,  38,  44 ;  elsewhere  ren- 
dered "ox,"  "bullock,"  "herd,"  etc.;  in  Arabic,  al- 
ii ikar),  cattle,  herds,  applicable  to  all  Ruminantia,  the 
camels  alone  excepted;  but  more  particularly  to  the 
Bovidae  and  the  genera  of  the  larger  antelopes.  See 
Ox;  Bull;  Deer;  Goat;  Antelope,  etc. 

Beg  (23pS,  bakash',  so  rendered  Fsa.  xxxvii,  25, 
elsewhere  "seek,"  etc.;  bxd,  shaal',  Psa.  cix,  10; 
Prov.  xx,  4;  elsewhere  "ask,"  etc.;  tirairiiu,  Luke 
xvi,  3 ;  TrpovaiTiw,  Mark  x,  46 ;  Luke  xviii,  35 ;  John 
ix,  8),  Beggar  ("P^X,  ebyon',  1  Sam.  ii,  8;  ttt^Q, 
Luke  xvi,  20,  22;  Gal.  iv,  9;  both  terms  elsewhere 
"poor,"  etc.).  Th?  laws  of  Moses  furnish  abundant 
evidence  that  great  inequality  of  condition  existed  in 
his  time  among  the  Hebrews,  for  recommendations  to 
tin-  rich  to  be  liberal  to  their  poorer  brethren  are  fre- 
quently met  with  (Exod.  xxiii,  11 ;  Dent,  xv,  11),  but 
no  mention  is  made  of  persons  who  lived  as  mendi- 
cants. The  poor  were  allowed  to  glean  in  the  fields, 
and  to  gather  whatever  the  land  produced  in  the  vear 
in  which  it  was  not  tilled  (Lev.  xix,  10;  xxv,  5,  6; 
Dent,  xxiv,  in).  They  were  also  invited  to 'feasts 
(Deut..xii,  12;  xiv,  29;  xxvi,  12).  The  Hebrew 
could  not  l>e  an  absolute  pauper.  His  land  Mas  in- 
alienable, except  for  a  certain  term,  when  it  reverted 
t  i  him  or  his  posterity.  And  if  this  resource  was  in- 
sufficient, he  could  pledge  the  services  of  himself  or 
hi-  family  for  a  valuable  sum.  Those  who  were  indi- 
gent through  bodily  infirmity  were  usually  taken  care 
of  by  their  kindred.  See  Poor.  In  the  song  of  Han- 
n  ih  1 1  Sam.  ii,  8),  however,  beggars  are  spoken  of,  and 
Mich  a  fate  is  predicted  to  the  posterity  of  the  wicked 
while  it  shall  never  befall  the  seed  of  the  righteous,  in 
the  Psalms  (xxxvii,  35;  cix,  10);  so  that  the  practice 
was  probably  then  not  uncommon.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament, also,  we  read  of  beggars  thai  were  blind  dis- 
'  maimed,  who  lay  at  the  doors  of  the  rich, 
by  the  waysides,  and  also  before  the  gate  of  the  Tem- 
ple (  Mark  x,  16;  Luke  xvi,  20,  21 ;  Acts  iii,  2).  But 
•  on  to  suppose  thai  there  existed  in  the 
'  i  hrist  that  class  of  persons  called  vagrant  beg- 

gars, who  present  their  supplications  for  alms  from 
doorto  door  and  who  are  found  at  tho  present  day  in 
.although  less  frequently  than  in  the  countries 
ol  Europe.  I  hat  the  custom  of  seeking  alms  by  sound- 
ing^ trumpet  or  horn,  which  prevails  among  a  class 
of  Mohammedan  monastics,  called  hal  ndar  or  larendal 
prevailed  abo  in  the  time  of  (  hrist,  has  been  bv  some 
inferred  from  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  original 
n  .NL.it.  vi.  •_>.  'I  her-  is  one  thing  characteristic  of 
those  Oriental!  who  follow  the  vocation  of  mendicants 


Modern  Oriental  Sunloii,  or  Religious  lie; 


which  is  worthy  of  being  mentioned;  they  do  not  ap- 
peal to  the  pity  or  to  the  almsgiving  spirit,  but  to  the 
justice  of  their  benefactors  (Job  xxii,  7;  xxxi,  1G; 
Prov.  iii,  27,  28).  Roberts,  in  his  Orient.  Illustrations, 
p.  5C4,  says  on  Luke  xvi,  3  ("I  cannot  dig;  to  beg  I 
am  ashamed"),  "  How  often  are  we  reminded  of  this 
passage  by  beggars  when  we  tell  them  to  work.  They 
can  scarcely  believe  their  ears ;  and  the  religious  men- 
dicants, who  swarm  in  every  part  of  the  East,  look  upon 
you  with  the  most  sovereign  contempt  when  you  give 
them  such  advice.  '  I  work  !  why,  I  never  have  done 
such  a  thing ;  1  am  not  able.' "     See  Alms. 

Eeghards  or  Eeguards,  a  religious  association  in 
the  Roman  Church,  which  formed  itself,  in  the  13th 
century,  in  the  Netherlands,  Germany,  and  France, 
after  the  example  of  the  Beguines  (q.  v.),  whom  they 
closely  imitated  in  their  mode  of  life  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  their  establishments.  They  supported  them- 
selves mostly  by  weaving,  but  became  neither  so  nu- 
merous nor  so  popular  as  the  Beguines.  More  gener- 
ally than  the  Beguines  they  associated  with  the  heret- 
ical Fraticelli  (q.  v.),  and  the  "Brethren  and  Sisters 
of  the  Free  Spirit."  They  were  suppressed  by  the 
council  of  Vienna  in  1311.  Most  of  them  joined  the 
third  orders  of  St.  Francis  or  St.  Dominic,  but  yet  re- 
tained for  a  long  time  their  name  and  their  mode  of 
life.  For  a  time  they  found  a  protector  in  the  Em- 
peror Louis,  but  new  decrees  were  issued  against  them 
by  Charles  IV  (1367)  and  Pope  Urban  V  (1369).  In 
1467  they  became,  by  taking  the  usual  solemn  vows, 
a  monastic  association,  which  gradually  united  with 
several  congregations  of  the  Franciscan  order.  Their 
1  ast  convents  and  the  name  itself  were  abolished  by 
Pope  Innocent  X  in  1650. 

The  name  Beghards  was  commonly  given  in  the 
13th  and  11th  centuries  (just  as  "Pietist"  and  "Meth- 
odist"  were  afterward  used)  to  persons  who  opposed  or 
revolted  from  the  worldly  tendencies  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  Waldenses,  Wickliffites,  and  Lollards, 
in  Trance  and  England,  were  so  named.  See  Nean- 
dcr,  t'li.  //>'.  iv,  303;  Mosheim,  De  Beghard.et  Begum. 
(Lips.  1790);  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist.  cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii,  ch. 
ii,  §  40.  Other  treatises  on  these  orders  have  been 
written  bv  Beier  (Jen.  1710),  Bruhns  (Lub.  1719), 
Gotze   (ib.  1719),  Houston   (Antw.  1628).      See   Be- 

<;riNi;s  ;    BbGUE. 

Beginning  (rvl:X^2,  "in  the  beginning,"  liter- 
ally ui  the  head,  Gen.  i,  1  ;  Sept.  and  New  Test.  iv 
Cipxjl)i  besides  its  ordinary  import,  was  with  the  He- 
brews an  idiomatic  form  of  expression  for  eternity,  q, 
d.  originally.  In  this  sense  it  is  employed  alike  by 
Moses  and  (in  its  (.reek  form)  by  the  evangelist  John 
(i,  1 1.     See  Creation. 

Our  Lord  is  also  emphatically  styled  the  Beginning 


BEGUARDS 


121 


BEHEMOTH 


('ApY;,)  1'oth  by  Paul  and  John  (Col.  i,  18;  Rev.  i,  8  ;  (1318)  and  Italy  (132G).  The  Reformation  put  an  end 
iii.  11),  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Greek  phi-  to  nearly  ;ill  the  beguinages  in  Germany  and  Switzer- 
losophers  expressed  the  First  Cause  of  all  things  L.y  Laid;  but  all  the  larger  towns  of  Belgium  except  Brus- 
the  same  word.     See  Logos.  I  sels  have  still  beguinages,  the  largest  of  which  is  that 

Beguards.     See  Beghards.  '  at  Ghent,  which  in  1857  counted  about  700  inmates.— 

Begue,  Lambert,  a  Trench  heretic,  lived  toward  Mosheim,  Be  Beghardis  et  Beguinabus  (Lipsise,  1790); 
the  close  of  the  12th  century.  Man,  he  said,  is  able  to  j  Kallmann,  Geschichte  d<  s  Vrsprunges  der  Belgixken  Be- 
attain  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  and  may  guinen  (Berlin,  1843).  See  Beghards. 
then  accord  to  his  body  all  he  wants.  He  also  denied  j  Behead  ("?",  aruph' ,  applied  to  an  animal,  to 
the  adoration  of  the  consecrated  wafer.  He  is  also  break  the  neck,  Deut.  xxi,  G ;  like  ttiXocuoj,  Rev.  xx, 
said  to  have  preached  against  the  corrupt  life  of  the  but  rf     ^^  ^  amKtfaXifrt  to  take 

clergy.    See  Beghards  and  BEGUiSES.-Hoefer,  B,  :         ■  ^  J  ^ 

ooranhie  &t m rale,  v,  lo..  „„   „„      T    ,  '  .      „.         '     '      ,      ,.        '       '  li"1,\    *i 

-    10,  2,1  ;   Luke  ix,  9),  a  method  of  taking  away  life, 


Beguinage  (Beguinarum  domus),  the  residence  of 
a  society  of  Beguines  (q.  v.). 

Beguines,  a  female  association  in  the  Reman 
Church.  The  origin  of  I  oth  the  name  and  the  associ- 
ation is  doubtful.  A  Belgian  writer  in  the  beginning 
of  the  13th  century  derives  it  from  a  priest  of  Liege, 
Lambert  le  Begue.  Later  some  beguinages  traced 
their  origin  to  St.  Begga,  daughter  of  Pipin  of  Landen, 
though   without   historical   grounds.      Other  writers! 


known  and  practised  among  the  Egyptians  (Gen.  xl. 
17-19).  This  mode  of  punishment,  therefore,  must 
have  been  known  to  the  Hebrews,  and  there  occur  in- 
dubitable instances  of  it  in  the  time  of  the  early  He- 
brew kings  (2  Sam.  iv,  8;  xx,  21,  22;  2  Kings  x,  6- 
8).  It  appears,  in  the  later  periods  of  the  Jewish  his- 
tory, that  Herod  and  his  descendants,  in  a  number  of 
instances,  ordered  decapitation  (Matt,  xiv,  8-12;  Acts 
2).     The   apostle  Paul  is  said  to  have  suffered 


have  derived  the  name  from  be,  a,  ii,  to  bet;,  though  the 

-r,       .        ,                    .              •JJ.       .         ,    ,              4.  martyrdom  by  beheading,  as  it  was  not  lawful  to  put 

Beguines  have  never  been  mendicants.     A  document  T,  J        .  .i.-7      .      .     .5'.                  .                    .„    .' 

e       j  ■     .i     i-.li                     ..  t-i        i    a  4.      n         t.  i    !  a  Roman  nti/.en  to  death  bv  scouriung  or  cruci  ixion. 

found  m  the  1 ,  th  century  at  V  llvorde  dates  the  estab-  p                                        J            a    & 

lishment  of  a  beguinage  at  105G,  and  seems  to  over-]  feee  *  UNISHMENT- 

throw  the  hypothesis   of  priest  Lambert  being  their  Behem.     See  Boheim. 

founder;  but  more  thorough  investigations  have  proved  Be'hemoth  (Ileb.  behemoth',  iliEilSi,  Job  xl,  15; 

it  to  be  spurious.     The  pretended  higher  age  of  some1  gept#  $l}oia .  m  Coptic,  according  to  Jablonski,  Pehe- 

German  beguinages  rests  on  their  being  confounded  mm(t)  ;s  regarded  as  the  plural  of  n^-2,  behem,,)/ 

witn  similar  institutions.                                                       I,         „  ,       ,  ...        .,,        .,      ...  ,.NT  7  = 

The  Beguines,  whose  number  at  the  beginning  of  (usually  rendered  "beast  or  "cattle  );  but  commen- 
ce thirteenth  century  amounted  to  about  1500,  spread  tators  are  bJ'  no,  means  *&***  as  to  !,ts  true  meaning. 
rapidly  over  the  Netherlands,  France,  and  Germany.  Among  those  who  adopt  ehphant  are  Lrusms,  Grotius, 
There"  were  often  as  many  as  2000  sisters  in  their  Schultens,  Michaelis,  etc.,  while  among  the  advocates 
beguinages  (!r  q„h„«ri,r,  beaninarue),  occupying  in  of  M1WP >t«mus  are  Bochart  (Hteroz.  ii,  754  sq.),  Lu- 
couples  a  small  separate  house.  A  hospital  and  church  dolf  (.But.  ^>><">P-  h  U),  and  Gesemus  (Thes.  Heb.  p. 
form  the  central  points  of  the  beguinage.  The  Be-  ls3>-  'lhc  arguments  of  the  last  in  favor  of  his  own 
guines  support  themselves,  and  also  furnish  the  chest  view  may  be  summed  up  thus  :  (1.)  The  general  pr.r- 
of  the  community,  and  the  support  of  the  priests,  the  Pose  and  plan  of  Jehovah  s  tw  o  discourses  with  Job  re- 
officers,  and  the  hospitals,  by  their  own  industry.  The  q,lirc  that  the  allll11il1  whlch  ™  tllls  second  discourse  is 
president  of  a  beguinage  is"  called  maglstra,  and  is  as-  dassed  with  tllc  crocodile  should  be  an  amphibious, 
sisted  by  curators  or  tutors,  usually  mendicant  friars.  »ot  *  terrestrial  animal,  the  first  discourse  (xxxviii, 
The  vows  are  simple,  viz.,  chastity  and  obedience  to  xxxix)  havlnS  1)een  hmlted  to  hmd-animals  and  birds. 
the  statutes;  and  any  beguine  can  be  freed  by  leav-  02-)  Tllc  crocodile  and  hippopotamus,  being  both  na- 
ing  the  community,  after  which  she  is  at  liberty  to  fives  of  Egypt  and /Ethiopia,  are  constantly  mentioned 
marry.     As  to  dress,  each  beguinage  chooses  its  "par-  together  by  the  ancient  writers  (see  Herod,  n,  69-71 ; 


")  It  seems  certain 
contrast 
in  which 


ticular  color,  brown,  gray,  or  blue,  with  a  white  veil  1>10tl-  •»  3o  '■>  Plm"  xxvllb  8)- 
over  the  head.  Black  has  become  their  general  color,  I  tnat  an  amphibious  animal  is  meant  from  th 
and  to  their  former  habit  is  added  a  cap  in  the  shape  '  between  vcr.  lo,  20,  21,  22,  and  ver.  23,  24, 
of  an  inverted  shell,  with  a  long  black  tassel.  The  the  argument  seems  to  be,  "Though  he  feedeth  upon 
association  made  itself  useful  by  receiving  wretched  ;  grass,"  etc.,  like  other  animals,  yet  he  liveth  and  de- 
females  by  mil- iiv  the  sick  '  lighteth  in  the  waters,  and  nets  are  set  for  him  there 
and  by  educating  °poor  chil-  as  for  fish'  which  h.v  llis  Sreat  strength  he  pierces 
dren.  .  In  Germany  they  were  ,  through.  (4.)  The  mention  of  his  tail  in  vcr.  17  does 
therefore  called  *•  ,ii!-v;>m,  u.  not  agree  with  the  elephant,  nor  can  1V\,  as  some  have 
Like  all  the  monastic  orders,    thought,  signify  the  trunk  of  that  animal;   and  (5.), 


their  community  was  invaded 
by  great  disorders,  and  the 
synod  of  Fritzlar  in  1244  for- 
badc  to  receive  any  sister  be- 
fore her  fortieth  j'ear  of  age. 
Many  were  also  drawn  into 
the  heresies  of  the  Frtttic,  Hi, 
and  the  whole  community  had 
to  atone  for  it  by  continued 
persecution,  ('lenient  V,  on 
the  council  of  Vienna,  in  1311, 
decreed  by  two  bulls  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Beguines  and 
Beghards  infected  with  here- 
sy ;  but  John  XXII  explain- 
ed these  bulls  as  referring 
merely  to  the  heretical  Be- 
ghards and  Beguines,  and  in- 
— 7?*~z=^-~~~£zj=r^-  terfered  in  favor  of  the  ortho- 
Leguine  of  Amsterdam,     dox    Beguines    in    Germany 


though  niEiia  may  be  the  plural  "majestatis"  of 
fTCll2,  beast,  yet  it  is  probably  an  Egyptian  word  sig- 
nifying sea-ox,  put  into  a  Semitic  form,  and  used  as  a 
singular. 

The  following  is  a  close  translation  of  the  poetical 
passage  in  Job  (xl,  15-24)  describing  the  animal  in 
question  : 
Lo,  now,  Behemoth  that  I  have  made  [alike]  with  thee! 
Grass  like  the  [neat-]  cattle  will  lie  eat. 

l.o!    n,i\v,  his  strength  [is]  in  his  loins, 
Even  hia  force  in  [the]  sinews  of  his  belly. 
lie  can  curve  hia  tail  [only]  like  a  cedar; 
The  tendons  of  his  haunches  must  bo  interlaced : 
llis  bones  [are  as]  tubes  of  copper, 
His  frame  like  a  welding  of  iron. 
//.-  [is  the]  master.piece  of  « rod  : 
llis  .Maker  [only]  can  supply  his  sword  [i.  e.  tusl'.ei  ]. 
1'nr  produce  will  (the]  mountains  be:ir  lor  lnia  ; 
Even  [though]  ;ill  [the]  animals  of  the  field  may  Fpors 
Beneath  [the]  lotuses  will  he  lie,  [there. 

In  [the]  covert  of  [the]  reedy  marsh  : 

Lotuses  shall  entwine  him  his  shade. 
Osier-  of  [the]  brook  shall  enclose  him. 


BEHEMOTH  728 


BEHISTUN 


Ix>!  [the]  river  may  swell— he  will  not  start; 

He  will  be  bold,  although  n  .Ionian  should  rush  to  his  mouth. 
In  hi-  [verv]  f\v  shoulil  lout')  takehirri. 
Through  [the]  snares  would  [his]  nose  pierce. 

"  But  in  some  respects  this  description  is  more 
api.liral.Ii'  to  the  elephant,  while  in  others  it  is  equally 
BO  to  both  animals.  Hence  the  term  behemoth,  taken 
intensively  (for  in  some  places  it  is  admitted  to  desig- 
nate cattle  in  general),  may  he  assumed  to  he  a  poeti- 
cal  personification  of  the  great  Pachydermata,  or  even 
Herbivora,  wherein  the  idea  of  hippopotamus  is  pre- 
dominant. This  view  accounts  for  the  ascription  to  it 
of  characters  not  truly  applicable  to  one  species;  for 
instance,  the  tail  is  likened  to  a  cedar  (provided  33T 
really  denotes  the  tail,  which  the  context  makes  very 
doubtful ;  see  Zeddel,  Beitr.  z.  Bill.  Zoologle),  which 
is  only  admissible  in  the  case  of  the  elephant;  again, 
"the  mountains  bring  him  forth  food;"  "he  trusteth 
that  he  can  draw  up  Jordan,"  a  river  which  elephants 
alone  could  reach;  "his  nose  pierceth  through  snares," 
certainly  more  indicative  of  that  animal's  proboscis, 
with  its  extraordinary  delicacy  of  scent  and  touch,  ever 
cautiously  applied,  than  of  the  obtuse  perceptions  of 
the  river-horse.  Finally,  the  elephant  is  far  more  dan- 
gerous as  an  enemy  than  the  hippopotamus,  which  nu- 
merous pictorial  sculptures  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt 
represent  as  fearlessly  speared  by  a  single  hunter  stand- 
ing on  his  float  of  log  and  reeds.  Yet,  although  the 
elephant  is  scarcely  less  fond  of  water,  the  description 
referring  to  manners,  such  as  lying  under  the  shade  of 
willows,  among  reeds,  in  fens,  etc.,  is  more  directly 
characteristic  of  the  hippopotamus.  The  book  of  Job 
appears,  from  many  internal  indications,  to  have  been 
written  in  Asia,  and  is  full  of  knowledge,  although  that 
knowledge  is  not  expressed  according  to  the  precise 
technicalities  of  modern  science ;  it  offers  pictures  in 
magnificent  outline,  without  condescending  to  minute 
and  labored  details.  Considered  in  this  light,  the  ex- 
pression in  Psa.  1,  10,  "For  every  beast  of  the  forest 
is  mine,  and  the  cattle  (behemoth)  upon  a  thousand 
hills,"  acquires  a  grandeur  and  force  far  surpassing 
those  furnished  by  the  mere  idea  of  cattle  of  various 
kinds.  ]f,  then,  we  take  this  plural  noun  in  the  sense 
here  briefly  indicated,  we  may,  in  like  manner,  con- 
sider the  Leviathan  (q.  v.)  its  counterpart,  a  similar- 
ly generalized  term,  with  the  idea  of  crocodile  most 
prominent ;  and  as  this  name  indicates  a  twisting  ani- 
mal, and,  as  appears  from  various  texts,  evidently  in- 
cludes the  great  pythons,  cetacea,  and  sharks  of  the 


surrounding  seas  and  deserts,  it  conveys  a  more  sub- 
lime conception  than  if  limited  to  the,  crocodile,  an  an- 
imal familiar  to  every  Egyptian,  and  well  known  even 
in  Palestine." — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Hippopotamus. 

Behistun  or  Bisuttm  (Lat.  Bagistanus;  Persian, 
Baghistdn,  Place  of  Gardens),  a  ruined  town  of  the 
Persian  province  of  Irak-Ajemi,  21  miles  east  of  Kir- 
manshah,  lat.  34°  18'  N.,  long.  47°  30"  E.  Behistun  is 
chiefly  celebrated  for  a  remarkable  mountain,  which  on 
,  one  side  rises  almost  perpendicularly  to  the  height  of 
1700  feet,  and  which  was  in  ancient  times  sacred  to 
Jupiter  or  to  Ormuzd.  According  to  Diodorus,  Sem- 
iramis,  on  her  march  from  Babylon  to  Ecbatana,  in 
Media  Magna,  encamped  near  this  rock,  and,  having 
cut  away  and  polished  the  lower  part  of  it,  had  her 
own  likeness  and  those  of  a  hundred  of  her  guards  en- 
graved on  it.  She  further,  according  to  the  same  his- 
torian, caused  the  following  inscription  in  Assyrian 
letters  to  be  cut  in  the  rock  :  "  Semiramis  having  piled 
up  one  upon  the  other  the  trappings  of  the  beasts  of 
burden  which  accompanied  her,  ascended  b_y  these 
means  from  the  plain  to  the  top  of  the  rock."  No  trace 
of  these  inscriptions  is  now  to  be  found,  and  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson  accounts  for  their  absence  by  the  supposi- 
tion that  they  were  destroyed  "  by  Khusrau  Parvis 
when  he  was  preparing  to  form  of  this  long  scarped 
surface  the  back  wall  of  his  palace."  Diodorus  also 
mentions  that  Alexander  the  Great,  on  his  way  to 
Ecbatana  from  Susa,  visited  Behistun.  But  the  rock  is 
especially  interesting  for  its  cuneiform  inscriptions  (q. 
v.),  which  within  recent  years  have  been  successfully 
deciphered  by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson.  The  principal  in- 
scription of  Behistun,  executed  by  the  command  of 
Darius,  is  on  the  north  extremity  of  the  rock,  at  an 
elevation  of  300  feet  from  the  ground,  where  it  could 
not  have  been  engraved  without  the  aid  of  scaffolding, 
and  can  now  only  be  reached  by  the  adventurous  an- 
tiquary at  considerable  risk  to  his  life.  The  labor  of 
polishing  the  face  of  the  rock,  so  as  to  fit  it  to  receive 
the  inscriptions,  must  have  been  very  great.  In  places 
wdiere  the  stone  was  defective,  pieces  were  fitted  in 
and  fastened  with  molten  lead  with  such  extreme 
nicety  that  only  a  careful  scrutiny  can  detect  the  arti- 
fice. "  But  the  real  wonder  of  the  work,"  says  Sir  H. 
Rawlinson,  "  consists  in  the  inscriptions.  For  extent, 
for  beauty  of  execution,  for  uniformity  and  correctness, 
they  are  perhaps  unequalled  in  the  world.  After  the 
engraving  of  the  rock  had  been  accomplished,  a  coat- 
ing of  silicious  varnish  had  been  laid  on,  to  give  a 


Book  Inscriptions  at  L$  hi.-itun  (Chambers'  Cyclop,  s.  v.). 


BEHMEN" 


729 


BELA 


clearness  of  outline  to  each  individual  letter,  and  to  ]  more  justly  observes  that  Ilera  is  the  female  counter- 
protect  the  surface  against  the  action  of  the  elements.  !  part  to  Zeus-Bel,  that  she  is  called  so  solely  because  it 
This  varnish  is  of  infinitely  greater  hardness  than  the  i  was  the  name  of  the  chief  Greek  goddess,  and  that  she 
limestone  rock  beneath  it."  Washed  down  in  some  and  Bel  are  the  moon  and  sun.  He  refers  for  con- 
places  by  the  rain  of  twenty-three  centuries,  it  lies  in  j  firmation  to  Berosus  (p.  50,  ed.  Richtcr),  who  states 
consistent  flakes  like  thin  layers  of  lava  on  the  foot-  !  that  the  wife  of  Bel  was  called  Omorca,  which  means 
ledge;  in  others,  where  time  has  honey-combed  the  moon;  and  to  Aminian.  Marcell,  xxiii,  '.\,  for  a  state- 
rock  beneath,  it  adheres  to  the  broken  surface,  still  ment  that  the  moon  was,  in  later  times,  zealously 
showing  with  sufficient  distinctness  the  forms  of  the  I  worshipped  in  Mesopotamia.  The  classical  writers 
characters.  The  inscriptions — which  are  in  the  three  generally  call  this  Babylonian  deity  by  their  names, 
forms  of  cuneiform  writing,  Persian,  Babylonian,  and  Zeus  and  Jupiter  (Herod,  and  Diod.  1.  c. ;  Plin.  Hist. 
Median — set  forth  the  hereditary  right  of  Darius  to  I  Nat.  vi,  30),  by  which  the}'  assuredly  did  not  mean 
the  throne  of  Persia,  tracing  his  genealogy,  through  I  the  planet  of  that  name,  but  merety  the  chief  god  of 
eight  generations,  up  to  the  Achoemenes  ;  they  then    their  religious  system.    Cicero,  however  (Be  A  'at.  Dear. 


enumerate  the  provinces  of  his  empire,  and  recount 
his  triumphs  over  the  various  rebels  who  rose  against 
him  during  the  first  four  years  of  his  reign.  The 
monarch  himself  is  represented  on  the  tablet  with  a 
bow  in  hand,  and  his  foot  upon  the  prostrate  figure  of 
a  man,  while  nine  rebels,  chained  together  by  the  neck, 
stand  humbly  before  him ;  behind  him  are  two  of  his 
own  warriors,  and  above  him,  another  figure  [see  cut]. 
The  Persian  inscriptions  which  Sir  II.  Kawlinson  has 
translated  are  contained  in  the  five  main  columns 
numbered  in  cut  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  The  first  column  con- 
tains 19  paragraphs,  and  96  lines.  Each  paragraph 
after  the  first,  which  commences,  "  I  am  Darius  the 
Great  King,"  begins  with,  ''Says  Darius  the  King." 
The  second  column  has  the  same  number  of  lines  in  16 
paragraphs  ;  the  third,  92  lines  and  14  paragraphs  ;  the 
fourth  has  also  92  lines  and  18  paragraphs ;  and  the 
fifth,  which  appears  to  be  a  supplementary  column,  ?>5 
lines.  A  transcription,  in  Roman  characters,  of  the 
Persian  part,  with  a  translation  in  English,  is  given  in 
Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  ii,  490  sq.  The  second,  fourth, 
and  fifth  columns  are  much  injured.  Sir  H.  Kawlinson 
fixes  the  epoch  of  the  sculpture  at  515  B.C.  See  Jour, 
of  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  x  ;  Norris,  Bekistun  Inscription. 

Behmen.     See  Boehme. 

Beirut.     See  Berytus. 

Be'kah  ("£3,  be'lca,  cleft,  i.  e.  part),  a  Jewish 
weight  of  early  use  (Exod.  xxxviii,  20),  being  half  a 
shekel  (q.  v.),  the  unit  of  value  (Gen.  xxiv,  22,  "  half- 
shekel").  See  Metrology.  Every  Israelite  paid  one 
bekah  (about  31  cents)  yearly  for  the  support  and  re- 
pairs of  the  Temple  (Exod.  xxx,  13).  See  Didrachma. 

Bekaim.     See  Mulberry. 

Bekker,  Balthasar.     See  Becker. 

Bekorah.     See  Mishna. 

Bel  (Heb.  id.  ^2,  contracted  from  P"2,  the  Aramaic 
form  of  hv~Z  ;  Sept.  B//X  and  B;/Aor)  is  the  name  under 
which  the  national  god  of  the  Babylonians  is  cursorily 
mentioned  in  Isa.  xlvi,  1;  Jer.  1,  2;  li,  44.  The  only 
passages  in  the  (apocryphal)  Bible  which  contain  any 
farther  notice  of  this  deity  are  Bar.  vi,  40,  and  the  ad- 
dition to  the  book  of  Daniel,  in  the  Sept.,  xiv,  1,  sq., 
where  we  read  of  meat  and  drink  being  daily  offered 
to  him,  according"  to  a  usage  occurring  in  classical 
idolatry,  and  termed  Lectisternia  (Jer.  li,  44?).  But 
a  particular  account  of  the  pyramidal  temple  of  Bel, 
at  Babylon,  is  triven  by  Herodotus,  i,  181-183.  See 
Babel.  It  is  there  also  stated  that  the  sacrifices  of 
this  god  consisted  of  adult  cattle  (-po/3fi~«),  °f  their 
young,  when  sucking  (which  last  class  were  the  only 
victims  offered  up  on  the  golden  altar),  and  of  incense. 
The  custom  of  providing  him  with  Lectisternia  may  be 
inferred  from  the  table  placed  before  the  statue,  but  it 


iii.  16),  recognises  Hercules  in  the  Belus  of  India,  which 
is  a  loose  term  for  Babylonia.  This  favors  the  identity 
of  Bel  and  Melkart.  See  Baal.  The  following  en- 
graving, taken  from  a  Babylonian  cylinder,  represents, 
according  to  Munter,  the  sun-pod  and  one  of  his  priests. 
The  triangle  on  the  top  of  one  of  the  pillars,  the  star 
with  eight  rays,  and  the  half  moon,  are  all  significant 
sj'mbols.     See  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 


Ancient  Worship  of  Bel. 

Bel  AND  THE  DRAGON,  History  of,  an  apoc- 
ryphal and  uncanonical  book  of  Scripture.  See  Apoc- 
rypha. It  was  always  rejected  by  the  Jewish  ( Jhurch, 
and  is  extant  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  the  Chaldee 
language.  Jerome  gives  it  no  better  title  than  that  of 
"  the  fable"  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  ;  nor  has  it  obtain- 
ed more  credit  with  posterity,  except  with  the  divines 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  who  determined  that  it  should 
form  part  of  the  canonical  Scriptures.  The  design  of 
this  fiction  is  to  render  idolatry  ridiculous,  and  to  exalt 
the  true  God  ;  but  the  author  has  destroyed  the  illusion 
of  his  fiction  by  transporting  to  Babylon  the  worship 
of  animals,  which  was  never  practised  in  that  country. 
This  book  forms  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Daniel  in  the 
Latin  Vulgate;  in  the  Greek  it  was  called  the  proph- 
ecy of  Habald-ul;  the  son  of  Jesus,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi; 
but  this  is  evidently  erroneous,  for  that  prophet  lived 
before  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  events 
pretended  to  have  taken  place  in  this  fable  are  assign- 
ed to  the  time  of  Cyrus.  There  are  two  Greek  texts 
of  this  fragment;  that  of  the  Septuagint,  and  that 
found  in  Theodotion's  Greek  version  of  Daniel.  The 
former  is  the  most  ancient,  and  has  been  translated 
into  Syriac.  The.  Latin  and  Arabic  versions,  together 
with  another  Syriac  translation,  have  been  made  from 
the  text  of  Theodotion. — Davidson,  in  Home's  Introd, 
new  ed.  i,  G39.  See  Daniel  (Apocryphal  Addi- 
tions to). 

Be'la  (Heb.  id.  "^3,  a  thing  swallowed),  the  name 
of  one  place  and  three  men. 

1.  (Sept.  BaXatc.)  A  small  city  on  the  shore  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  not  far  from  Sodom,  afterward  called  Zoar, 


is  not  expressly  mentioned.  Diodorus  (ii,  9)  gives  a  !  to  which  Lot  retreated  from  the  destruction  of  the 
similar  account  of  this  temple;  but  adds  that  there  |  cities  of  the  plain,  it  being  the  only  one  of  the  five  that 
were  large  golden  statues  of  Zeus,  Hera,  and  Rhea  oil  was  spared  at  his  intercession  (Gen.  xix,  20,  30).  It 
its  summit,  with  a  table,  common  to  them  all,  before  lay  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  on  the 
them.  Gesenius,  in  order  to  support  his  own  theory,  j  frontier  of  Moab  and  Palestine  (Jerome  on  Isa.  xv), 
endeavors  to  show  that  this  statue  of  Zeus  must  have  :  and  on  the  route  to  Egypt,  the  connection  in  which  it 
been  that  of  Saturn,  while  that  of  Rhea  represented  I  is  found  (Isa.  xv,  5;  Jer.  xlviii,  34;  Gen.  xiii,  Id), 
the  sun.      Hitzia,  however,  in  his  note  to  Isa.  xvii,  8,  i  We  first  read  of  Bela  in  Gen.  xiv,  2,  8,  where  it  is 


BE  LA 


730 


BELGIUM 


<iamed  with  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Adman,  and  Zeboiim, 
as  forming  a  confederacy  under  their  respective  kings, 
in  the  vale  of  Siddim,  t 1  resist  the  supremacy  of  the 
King  of  Shinar  and  his  associates.  It  is  singular  that 
the  King  of  Bela  is  the  only  one  of  the  five  whose  name 
is  not  given,  and  this  suggests  the  probability  of  Bela 
havm"  been  his  own  name,  as  well  as  the  name  of 
his  city,  which  may  have  been  so  called  from  him. 
The  tradition  of  the  Jews  was  that  it  was  called  Bela 
from  having  been  repeatedly  ingulfed  by  earthquakes ; 
and  in  the  passage  Jer.  xlviii,  34,  "From  Zoar  even 
unto  Horonaim  (have  they  uttered  their  voice)  as  an 
heifer  of  three  years  old,"  and  Isa.  xv,  5,  they  absurd- 
ly fancied  an  allusion  to  its  destruction  by  three  earth- 
quakes  (Jerome,  Qucest.  Heb.  in  Hen.  xiv).  There  is 
nothing  improbable  in  itself  in  the  supposed  allusion 
to  the  swallowing  up  of  the  city  by  an  earthquake, 
which  "22  exactly  expresses  (Num.  xvi,  30);  but  the 
repeated  occurrence  of  "^2,  and  words  compounded 
with  it,  as  names  of  men,  rather  favors  the  notion  of 
the  city  having  been  called  Bela  from  the  name  of  its 
founder.  This  is  rendered  yet  more  probable  by  Bela 
being  the  name  of  an  Edomitish  king  in  Gen.  xxxvi, 
32.  For  further  information,  see  De  Saulcy's  Xarra- 
t  '»■  ,  i.  157-481,  and  Stanley's  rah  stine,  p.  285. — Smith, 
s.  \ .     S.-e  Zoar. 

2.  (Sept.  BaXa,  Ba\L)  The  eldest  son  of  Benja- 
min, according  to  Gen.  xlvi,  21  (where  the  name  is 
Anglicized  "Belah");  Num.  xxvi,  38;  1  Chron.  vii, 
6;  viii,  1,  and  head  of  the  family  of  the  Belaites. 
!!.('.  post  1856.  The  houses  of  his  family,  according 
to  1  Chron.  viii,  3-5,  were  Addar,  Gera,  Abihud  (read 
Akihud),  Abishua,  Naaman,  Ahoah,  Shupham,  and 
Huram.  The  exploit  of  Ehud,  the  son  of  Gera,  who 
shared  the  peculiarity  of  so  many  of  his  Benjamite 
brethren  in  being  left-handed  (Judg.  xx,  16),  in  slay- 
ing Eglon,  the  king  of  Moab,  and  delivering  Israel 
from  tlu'  Moabitisb  yoke,  is  related  at  length,  Judg. 
iii.  1 1  30.  It  is  perhaps  worth  noticing  that  as  wc 
have  Husham  by  the  side  of  Bela  among  the  kings  of 
Edom,  Gen.  xxxvi,  34,  so  also  by  the  side  of  Bela,  son 
of  Benjamin,  we  have  the  Benjamite  family  of  Hushim 
(1  Chron.  vii,  12),  sprung  apparently  from  a  foreign 
woman  of  that  name,  whom  a  Benjamite  took  to  wife 
in  the  land  of  Moab  1 1  Chr.  viii,  8-11).     See  Becher. 

3.  (Sept.  Ba\ae.)  A  king  of  Edom  before  the  in- 
stitution of  royalty  among  the  Israelites;  he  was  a 
son  of  Beor,  and  his  native  city  was  Dinhabah  (Gen. 
xxxvi,  32,  33;  1  Chron.  i,  43).  B.C.  perhaps  cir. 
1618.  Bernard  Hyde,  following  some  Jewish  com- 
mentators i  Simon,  Onom  ist.  p.  1 12,  note),  identifies  this 
Bela  with  Balaam,  the  son  of  Beor;  but  the  evidence 
from  the  name  does  not  seem  to  prove  more  than  iden- 
tify of  family  and  race.  There  is  scarcely  anything 
to  guide  us  as  to  the  age  of  Beor,  or  Bosor,  the  founder 
of  the  house  from  which  Bela  and  Balaam  sprung.  As 
regards  the  name  of  Bela's  royal  or  native  city  Din- 
habah, which  I'iir-t  and  Gesenius  render  "the  place 
of  plunder,"  it  may  be  suggested  whether  it  may  not 

b    a  form  "f--n-i,  the  Chaldeo  for  gold,  after 

of  the  frequent  Chaldee  resolution  of  the 

i   nun.      There  are  several  names  of 

'  I  persons  in  rdumsea  which  point  to  gold  as 

f"""'1111  r"     as  Dizahab,  Deut.  i,  1,  "place  of  gold;" 

Mezahab,  ••  waters  of -old,"  or  "gold-streams,"  Gen. 

-TXX"-:;;'-      C "v    Dehebris,  the   ancient   nunc    of 

1  <" 9  for  its  yellow  waters.  If  this  deri- 
vation for  Dinhabah  be  true,  its  Chaldee  for,,,  would 
,,"t  ''•  'lll!""lt  io  account  for,  and  would  supply  an 

additional  eviden, fthe  early  conquests  of  tho  Chal- 

'"'  direction  of  [dumasa.     The  ,,  ime  of  Bel  i's 
ancestor  Hen,-  is  of  a  decidedly  Chaldeo  or  Aramasan 

form.  Ilk.  Peor,  Pet  Ira-,  Rehob,  and  other,;  and  we 
are  expressly  told  that  Balaam,  the  son  of  Beor,  dwelt 
m  Pethor,  which  C  by  the  river  of  the  land  ofthe  chil- 
dren of  hi-,  people,  i.  e.  ,1,..  riv,.r  Euphrates;  and  he 


himself  describes  his  home  as  being  in  Aram  (Num. 
xxii,  5;  xxiii,  7).  Saul  again,  who  reigned  over 
Edom  after  Samlak,  came  from  Behoboth  by  the  river 
Euphrates  ((Jen.  xxxvi,  37).  We  read  in  Job's  time 
of  the  Chaldseans  making  incursions  into  the  land  of 
Uz,  and  carrying  off  the  camels,  and  slaying  Job's 
servants  (Job  i,  17).  In  the  time  of  Abraham  we  have 
the  King  of  Shinar  apparently  extending  his  empire 
so  as  to  make  the  kings  on  the  borders  of  the  Dead 
Sea  his  tributaries,  and  with  his  confederates  extend- 
ing his  conquests  into  the  very  country  which  was 
afterward  the  land  of  Edom  (Gen.  xiv,  6).  Putting 
all  this  together,  we  may  conclude  with  some  confi- 
dence that  Bela,  the  son  of  Beor,  who  reigned  over 
Edom,  was  a  Chaldoean  by  birth,  and  reigned  in  Edom 
by  conquest.  He  may  have  been  contemporary  with 
Moses  and  Balaam.  Hadad,  of  which  name  there, 
were  two  kings  (Gen.  xxxvi,  35,  39),  is  probably  an- 
other instance  of  an  Aramasan  king  of  Edom,  as  we 
find  the  name  Ben-hadad  as  that  of  the  kings  of  Syria 
or  Aram  in  later  history  (1  Kings  xx).  Compare  also 
the  name  of  Hadad-ezer,  king  of  Zobah,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood ofthe  Euphrates  (2  Sam.  viii,  3,  etc.). — Smith, 
s.  v.     See  Edom  ;  Chaldean. 

4.  (Sept.  BaXhc.)  A  son  of  Azaz,  a  Beubenite  (1 
Chron.  v,  8).  B.C.  post  1618.  It  is  remarkable  that 
his  country  too  was  "in  Aroer,  even  unto  Nebo  and 
Baal-meon  ;  and  eastward  he  inhabited  unto  the  enter- 
ing in  of  the  wilderness  from  tho  river  Euphrates" 
(8,  9). 

Be'lall,  a  less  correct  mode  of  Anglicizing  (Gen. 
xlvi,  21)  the  name  of  Bela  (q.  v.),  the  son  of.  Benja- 
min. 

Be'laite  (Heb.  with  the  art.,  Inb-BaW ,  "'"bar?; 
Sept.  6  BttAai),  the  patronymic  of  the  descendants  of 
Bela  (q.  v.),  the  son  of  Benjamin  (Num.  xxvi,  38). 

Belcher,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  Baptist 
minister,  was  born  at  Birmingham,  England,  in  1794, 
settled  in  the  United  States,  and  died  July  10th,  1859. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are:  The  Clergy  of  Amer- 
ica:— The  Baptist  Pulpit  of  the  United  States: — Iiel'g- 
ious  Denominations  ofthe  United  Slates : — George  Whit- 
field, a  Biography.  He  also  edited  The  complete  Works 
of  Andrew  Fuller,  and  the  Works  of  Robert  Hall,  and 
was  engaged  in  several  other  literary  labors. 

Bel'emus  (B/;\f//oc),  one  of  the  Samaritans  who 
wrote  hostile  letters  to  the  Persian  king  concerning 
the  returned  Jews  (1  Esdr.  ii,  16)  ;  evidently  the  Bish- 
LAM  (q.  v.)  ofthe  genuine  text  (Ezra  iv,  7). 

Belgic  Confession  (Confessio  BeJg'ca),  a  confes- 
sion of  faith  framed  by  Guido  de  Bres,  of  Brabant,  and 
others,  about  A.D.  1561  in  French,  and  based  on  Cal- 
vinistic  principles.  It  was  translated  into  the  vernac- 
ular in  1563,  and  was  received  as  a  symbolical  book 
by  the  synods  of  Antwerp  in  1566,  of  Dort  in  1571, 
1576,  1579,  1581,  and  1619;  and  recognised  by  that  of 
the  Hague  in  1651.  The  copy  recognised  by  the  synod 
of  Jliddclburg  in  1581  is  an  abridgment  ofthe  original 
by  Festus  Hommius,  which  afterward  became  the  rule 
of  flic  Synod  of  Dort.  Both  have  the  same  number 
of  articles,  and  differ  only  in  form,  not  in  spirit.  The 
shorter  form  is  given  by  Augusti,  ('•  rpus  L)'>r<<r.  Sym- 
bolicor.  (Elberf.  1827,  8vo);  the  longer  in  Niemeyer, 
Coll.  Confessionum  (Leips.  1840,  8vo).  See  Confes- 
sions. 

Belgium,  a  minor  state  of  Europe,  situated  be- 
tween France,  Holland,  and  Prussia.     See  Europe. 

I.  Church  IFixtory. — ( Ihistianity  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  into  Bolgium  as  early  as  A.D.  42,  through 
Ivichariiis.  one  ofthe  seventy  disciples  ;  but  Maternus 
(died  130)  is  generally  honored  as  the  apostle  of  Bel- 
eium,  through  the  whole  extent  of  which  he  planted 
( Jhristian  churches.  During  the  Crusades  the  Belgian 
nobility  distinguished  themselves  by  their  zeal  (see 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon).     In  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth, 


BELGIUM 


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BELGIUM 


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LONCITUDE       EAST 


GREENWICH 


Map  of  Belgii 


and  fifteenth  centuries,  Belgium  was  the  chief  seat  of 
the  reformatory  movements  within  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  produced  several  religious  communities, 
whose  discipline  and  life  formed,  by  their  more  BiMi- 
cal  and  spiritual  character,  a  favorable  contrast  to  the 
gross  superstitions  of  the  majority  of  monastic  institu- 
tions. To  these  belonged  the  Beghards  and  Beguines, 
the  Lollards,  and  especially  the  Fratres  Communis 
Vitae  {Brethren  of  the  Common  Life).  The  Reforma- 
tion.of  the  sixteenth  century  was  opposed  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louvain,  and  later  also  by  Erasmus,  but 
found  many  adherents  among  the  people  ;  and  its  first 
martyrs,  John  Esch  and  Henry  Vos,  who  were  burned 
at  Brussels  July  1,  1523,  were  Belgians.  The  Inquisi- 
tion introduced  by  Philip  I  was  unable  to  crush  out 
the  Reformation,  and  led  to  the  revolution  of  the  seven 
northern  provinces.  See  Holland.  In  the  southern 
provinces  the  predominance  of  the  Roman  Church  was 


secured  by  Alexander  of  Tarma,  and  fortified  by  the 
Jesuits.  Jansenism  (q.  v.)  arose  in  Belgium,  but  did 
not  long  survive,  as  a  distinct  organization,  the  first 
condemnatory  decrees  of  the  pope.  The  edict  of  tol- 
eration (Oct.  13,  1781),  by  which  Joseph  II  restrained 
the  spiritual  authority  of  the  pope,  declared  marriage 
a  civil  contract,  and  suppressed  all  monastic  societies, 
merging  them  into  one  "Fraternity  of  Charity,"  met 
with  a  violent  opposition.  The  states  were  against 
him  and  refused  to  pay  taxes,  and  the  emperor  had  to 
make  important  concessions.  The  union  of  Belgium 
with  Holland  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Napoleonic 
rule  greatly  dissatisfied  the  Roman  Catholic  party, 
which  united  with  the  Liberal  opposition  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  Dutch  rule  and  the  establishment  of  an 
independent  kingdom  of  Belgium  (ls'30).  The  new 
Constitution,  a  compromise  between  the  two  par- 
ties, gave  to  the  Roman  Catholic  party  the  greatest 


BELGIUM 


732 


BELIEF 


independence  of  the  state  and  a  liberal  support,  but 
compelled  it,  on  the  other  hand,  to  consent  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  unlimited  liberty  of  religion.  The 
Bubsequent  history  of  Belgium  is  a  strife  of  these  par- 
tially with  regard  to  the  support  which  the 
state  is  to  give  to  the  Church  in  questions  of  hoth  an 
ecclesiastical  and  political  nature  (education,  charitable 
institutions,  etc.).  The  "Catholic"  party  is  numeri- 
cally stronger  than  in  any  other  European  Parliament. 
Among  its  distinguished  men  belong  l)c  Merode,  Count 
(!<■  Theux,  Dechamps,  Malou,  Dedecker.  It  split,  how- 
ever, into  two  subdivisions,  one  of  which,  the  more 
ultramontane,  wished  to  overthrow  the  compromise 
with  the  Liberals  and  put  an  end  to  religious  tolera- 
tion, while  the  other,  the  Constitutional,  declared  them- 
selves for  a  faithful  adherence  to  the  Constitution. 
This  latter  view  is  by  far  the  most  prevailing. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics. —  The  total  population 
of  Belgium  was,  at  December  31,  1*58,  4,623,089.  In 
1846  the  non-Catholic  population  was  stated  as  10,323 
(of  a  total  population  of  4,337,196),  among  whom  were 
6678  Protestants,  Lutherans,  and  Reformed,  790  An- 
glicans, lo.'jii  Jews,  1019  promiscuous,  and  600  of  no 
religious  persuasion.  Since,  the  number  of  Protestants 
has  increased  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  Roman 
Catholics,  and  a  number  of  Protestant  congregations 
have  been  formed,  consisting  entirely  of  converts  from 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (one  in  Brussels  alone 
counts  more  than  one  thousand  converts).  Helfferich 
(see  below,  the  literature  on  Belgium)  estimated  the 
Protestant  population  in  1848  at  about  25,000,  which 
statement  may  have  been  a  little  too  high,  though 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Protestant  population 
at  present  amounts  to  over  20,000  souls.  There  are 
two  different  nationalities  in  Belgium,  the  Flemish 
(German)  and  Walloon  (French).  'I  he  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  has  her  strong-hold  among  the  former. 
Of  the  four  universities,  one,  Louvain,  is  Free  Catho- 
lic, established  and  controlled  entirely  by  the  bishops; 
one,  Brussels,  is  Liberal  and  anti-Catholic;  two,  Ghent 
and  Liege,  are  state  universities,  in  which,  therefore, 
professors  of  both  parties  are  to  be  found.  There  is 
one  archbishop  at  Mechlin,  and  five  bishops  (Bruges, 
Namur,  Tournay,  Liege,  and  Ghent).  There  are  six 
larger  and  six  smaller  seminaries  for  the  training  of 
the  clergy.  The  appropriations  made  for  all  religious 
denominations  acknowledged  by  the  state  amounted 
i:i  1859  to  4,051,942  fr.  75  cts.  '  The  religious  orders 
are  very  numerous,  and  many  of  them,  especially  the 
Jesuits,  very  rich.  The  Jesuits  at  Brussels  continue 
the  greatest  literary  work  ever  undertaken  by  the  or- 
der, the  Acta  Sanett  rum  (q.  v.").  The  religious  orders 
conduct  a  large  number  of  boarding-schools,  and  the 
primary  instruction  is  almost  everywhere  in  their 
hands  (in  particular,  in  the  hands  of  the  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools).  The  number  of  the  members 
of  the  religious  associations  was,  in  1856, 14,853,  viz., 
n  and  12,330  women,  and  it  is  rapidly  increas- 
;'  leading  periodicals  of  the  Roman  Catholics 
u  Catholique  de  Louvain;  Precis  historiques ret 
ttteraires,  a  Bemi-monthly,  published  by  the  Jesuits  in 
Brussels;  the  Journal  kistoriqvt  et  Vtteraire,  a  monthly, 
published  at  Liege  by  Kersten.  The  most  influential 
among  the  many  political  organs  of  the  Catholic  party 
is  the  Journal  de  BruxeUes. 

The  largest  body  0f  Protestants  is  the  Protestant 
Union,  which  is  recognised  and  supported  by  the  Mate, 
and  in  1854  embraced  fourteen  congregations,  two  of 
uliiel,  i  Mary  Hoorbecke,  near  Ghent,  and  Dour,  in  Hen- 
late  from  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  The 
number  of  preachers  in  1859  was  sixteen.  The  annual 
synod  consists  of  all  the  preachers  and  two  or  three  lay 
-  of  every  congregation.  I  he  Evangelical  So- 
ciety (SocitU  Evangelique  Belg,  .,  whirl,  formed  itself  in 
Brussels  in  1885,  after  the  model  of  the  evangelical 
societies  of  Paris  and  Geneva,  has  established  a  con- 
siderable number  of  congregations,  which  increases 


annually.  It  had,  in  1864,  20  churches  and  stations, 
18  pastors  and  evangelists,  12  schools  attended  by  075 
children,  and  a  membership  of  from  G000  to  7000.  *  The 
Episcopal  Church  of  England  has  four  congregations, 
the  Lutherans  one,  at  Brussels,  in  which  city  there  are 
also  two  independent  rcdigious  associations."  The  Bi- 
ble Society  had  distributed  (up  to  1850)  about  two 
hundred  thousand  copies  of  the  Bible. 

III.  Literature. — Dufau,  La  Belg.  Ckretienne  (Liege, 
1847,  incomplete,  reaching  as  far  as  the  time  of  the  Car- 
lovingians)  ;  Helfferich,  Belgien  in  p  ilitischer,  k'rchlich- 
er,  p  id  igogischer  und  artistiscker  Beziehung  (Pforzheim, 
1848 ) ;  Horn,  Statist.  Gemalda  cles  Kbnigr.  Belgien  (Des- 
sau, 1853)  ;  Schem,  Keel.  Year-book  for  1859,  p.  130, 197. 

Be'lial  stands  often,  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  (after  the 
Vulg.),  as  a  proper  name  for  the  Heb.  word  ~^''-2 
{Belitja'dl,  Sept.  usually  translates  Xotftoc,  irapavo- 
pia,  etc.),  in  accordance  with  2  Cor.  vi,  15.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  where  it  is  connected  with  the 
expressions  b^N,  man  of,  or  "3,  son  of;  in  other  in- 
stances it  is  translated  by  "  wicked,"  or  some  equivalent 
term  (Deut.  xv,  9;  Psa.  xli,  8;  ci,  3;  Prov.  vi,  12;  xvi, 
27  ;  xix,  28  ;  Nah.  i,  11, 15).  There  can  be  no  question, 
however,  that  the  word  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  prop- 
er name  in  the  O.  T. ;  its  meaning  is  icorthlessness,  and 
hence  recklessness,  lawlessness.  Its  etymology  is  uncer- 
tain :  the  first  part,  ^?2,  =  without ;  the  second  part  has 
been  variously  connected  with  ?i",  yoke,  as  in  the 
Vulg.  (Judg.  xix,  22),  in  the  sense  of  unbridled,  rebel- 
lious; with  FOV,  to  ascend,  as  =  without  ascent,  that  is, 
of  the  loicest  condition;  and  lastly  with  is*1,  to  be  useful, 
as  =  without  usefulness,  that  is,  good  for  noth'ng  (Gese- 
nius,  Thesaur.  p.  209).  The  latter  appears  to  lie  the  most 
probable,  not  only  in  regard  to  sense,  but  also  as  ex- 
plaining the  unusual  fusion  of  the  two  words,  the  ">  at 
the  end  of  the  one  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  other 
leading  to  a  crasis,  originally  in  the  pronunciation,  and 
afterward  in  the  writing.  The  expression  son  or  man 
of  Belial  must  be  understood  as  meaning  simply  a 
worthless,  lawless  fellow  (Sept.  7rapeh>opoc).  It  oc- 
curs frequently  in  this  sense  in  the  historical  books 
(Judg.  xix,  22;  xx,  13;  1  Sam,  i,  16;  ii,  12;  x,  27; 
xxv,  17,  25;  xxx,  22;  2  Sam.  xvi,  7;  xx,  1;  1  Kings 
xxi,  10 ;  2  Chr.  xiii,  7),  and  only  ence  in  the  earlier 
books  (Deut.  xiii,  13).  The  adjunct  OX  is  occasion- 
ally omitted,  as  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,  6,  and  Job  xxxiv,  18, 
where  ~V*52  stands  In'  itself,  as  a  term  of  reproach. 
The  later  Hebrews  used  paKc'i  and  pups  in  a  similar 
manner  (Matt,  v,  22)  ;  the  latter  is  perhaps  the  most 
analogous  ;  in  1  Sam.  xxv,  25,  Nabal  (b~3  =  fiwpocj 
is  described  as  a  man  of  Belial,  as  though  the  terms 
were  equivalent. 

In  the  N.  T.  the  term  appears  (in  the  best  MSS.)  in 
the  form  BtXiap,  and  not  BtXi'oX,  as  given  in  the  Auth. 
Vers.  (So  in  the  T<  st.  XII  Pair.  p.  539,  587,  G19,  etc.) 
The  change  of  X  into  p  was  common ;  we  have  an 
instance  even  in  Biblical  Hebrew,  Mazzaroth  (Job 
xxxviii,  32)  for  mazzaloth  (2  Kings  xxiii,  5);  in  Chal- 
dee  we  meet  with  N^"n  for  L'S-n,  and  various  other 
instances:  the  same  change  occurred  in  the  Doric  dia- 
lect {ijiavpoQ  for  ipavXoc),  with  which  the  Alexandrine 
writers  were  most  familiar.  The  term,  as  used  in  2 
Cor.  vi,  15,  is  generally  understood  as  an  appellative  of 
Satan,  as  the  personification  of  all  that  was  bad;  Ben- 
gel  {[Gnomon,  in  loc.)  explains  it  of  Antichrist,  as  more 
strictly  the  opposite  of  Christ.  By  some  it  is  here  ex- 
plained as  referring  to  a  daemon  (Castell,  Lex.  s.  v. 
Beliar),  or  Satan  himself  (com p.  Ephes.  ii,  2);  but  in 
the  i ».  T.  it  never  has  this  meaning  (Michaelis,  Sup- 
plem.  p.  1119) — Smith,  s.  v. 

Belief,  in  its  general  acceptation,  denotes  a  persua- 
sion or  an  assent  of  the  mind  to  the  truth  of  any  prop- 
osition.    "  In  this  sense  belief  does  not  relate  to  any 


BELIEF 


733 


BELIEF 


particular  kind  of  means  or  arguments,  but  may  be 
produced  by  any  means  whatever :  thus  we  are  said 
to  believe  our  senses,  to  believe  our  reason,  to  believe 
a  witness.  Belief,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  denotes 
that  kind  of  assent  which  is  grounded  only  on  the  au- 
thority or  testimony  of  some  person.  In  this  sense 
belief  stands  opposed  to  knowledge  and  science.  "VVe 
do  not  say  that  wc  believe  snow  to  be  white,  but  that 
we  know  it  is  white. 

In  the  original  structure  of  our  mental  constitution, 
a  firm  foundation  has  been  laid  for  the  perception  of 
truth.  We  set  out  in  our  intellectual  career  with  be- 
lieving, and  that,  too,  on  the  strongest  of  all  evidence, 
so  far  as  we  are  concerned — the  evidence  of  conscious- 
ness. Dr.  Reid,  in  his  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind, 
seems  to  think  that  we  have  been  endowed  with  two 
original  principles — a  principle  of  veracity  and  a  prin- 
ciple of  credulity — both  of  which  he  regards  as  origin- 
al instincts.  The  first  of  these  is  a  propensity  to  speak 
and  to  use  the  signs  of  language,  so  as  to  convey  our 
real  sentiments.  "When  I  reflect  upon  my  actions 
most  attentively,"  says  Dr.  Reid,  "  I  am  not  conscious 
that,  in  speaking  truth,  I  am  influenced  on  ordinary 
occasions  by  any  motive,  moral  or  political.  I  find 
that  truth  is  always  at  the  door  of  my  lips,  and  goes 
forth  spontaneously  if  not  held  back.  It  requires 
neither  good  nor  bad  intention  to  bring  it  forth,  but 
only  that  I  be  artless  and  undesigning.  There  may, 
indeed,  be  temptations  to  falsehood  which  would  be 
too  strong  for  the  natural  principle  of  veracity,  unaided 
by  the  principles  of  honor  and  virtue;  but,  where 
there  is  no  such  temptation,  we  speak  truth  by  in- 
stinct." That  there  is  such  an  original  tendency  both 
to  speak  the  truth  and  to  believe,  we  readily  admit ; 
and  it  is  the  possession  of  such  a  principle  which  fits 
us  for  appreciating  evidence  and  feeling  the  force  of 
argument.  If  by  the  word  instinct  be  meant  an  origi- 
nal principle  of  our  nature,  we  are  not  disposed  to 
object  to  the  use  of  the  expression  by  Dr.  Reid  in 
speaking  of  our  tendency  to  believe;  but  there  seems 
to  be  no  necessity  for  the  assertion  of  two  original  prin- 
ciples, the  one  leading  us  to  speak,  and  the  other  to  be- 
lieve the  truth.  It  is  enough,  surely,  that  we  set  out  at 
first  with  a  tendency  to  believe  dogmatically  and  firm- 
ly, and  are  thus  far  unacquainted  with  doubt  or  error. 
If  such  be  the  original  framework  of  our  constitution, 
truth  will  ever,  while  we  retain  our  nature,  be  our 
native  element,  and  therefore  always  more  familiar  to 
us  than  falsehood.  There  may  be  temptations  to  for- 
get this  characteristic  element  of  nature,  and  to  trans- 
gress the  boundary  of  truth ;  but  in  doing  so  we  are 
violating  the  original  law  of  our  mental  structure,  and 
the  moment  that  the  unnatural  pressure  is  removed, 
the  mind  will  return  to  its  former  tendency  to  speak 
truth  rather  than  falsehood.  Thus  formed,  we  are  pre- 
pared to  believe,  in  the  first  instance,  every  thing  in- 
discriminately;  but  when  reluctantly  compelled  to 
admit  the  existence  of  falsehood,  we  do  not,  because 
we  cannot,  part  with  the  original  tendency  to  believe. 
Hesitation  and  doubt  are  introduced,  not  so,  however, 
as  to  destroy  our  nature ;  but,  still  retaining  our  par- 
tiality for  the  truth,  we  come  precisely  into  that  situa- 
tion which  is  the  best  fitted  for  balancing  probabilities, 
and  weighing  the  evidence  for  and  against  any  state- 
ment which  is  presented  to  us.  Wc  still  incline  de- 
cidedly toward  the  truth,  and  yet  we  arc  aware  of  the 
existence  of  falsehood,  and  to  some  extent,  therefore, 
guarded  against  it.  There  is  no  necessity,  however, 
for  an  original  principle  of  credulity  in  opposition  to 
that  of  veracity.  It  is  sufficient  that  truth  is  the  rule, 
falsehood  the  exception;  and  if  the  inclination  pre- 
ponderates in  favor  of  the  rule,  wc  require  no  more 
than  a  simple  knowledge  that  there  ai-e  exceptions. 
Thus  it  is  that  man  has  been  provided  by  his  Creator 
with  a  standard  by  means  of  which  he  may  juds^e  of 
the  truth  and  reality  of  things.  And  while,  therefore, 
we  define  belief  to  be  the  agreement  or  disagreement 


of  objects  and  qualities  with  this  state  of  things,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  primary  laws  of  con- 
sciousness, the  ultimate  conditions  of  thought,  are  the 
means  according  to  which  this  agreement  or  disagree- 
ment is  ascertained.  The  standard  of  truth  lies  deep 
in  the  constitution  of  man,  and  if  he  fails  to  judge 
rightly  in  reference  to  any  statement,  the  error  is  to 
be  found,  not  in  the  standard,  but  in  a  perverse  mis- 
application of  the  standard.  And  herein  lies  the  dif- 
ference in  the  opinions  of  men.  They  are  each  of 
them  provided  with  an  unerring  standard  in  so  far  as 
they  are  concerned.  They  do  not,  because  the}'  can- 
not disbelieve  the  primary  laws  of  thought  or  self- 
consciousness  ;  but  in  the  application  of  these  they 
commence  a  system  of  error,  and  therefore  of  doubt, 
leading  at  length  to  disbelief.  The  original  belief  is 
certain,  because  the  standard  is  certain  on  which  it  is 
grounded ;  and  could  all  other  facts  and  events  be 
brought  back  to  the  same  standard,  the  judgment,  as 
to  their  truth  or  falsehood,  would,  so  far  as  we  are  con- 
cerned, be  unerring.  Now  the  great  design  for  which, 
in  every  case  of  doubt  or  disputation,  evidence  and  ar- 
guments of  every  kind  are  adduced  is,  that  the  appeal 
may  be  carried  through  a  variety  of  different  steps  to 
this,  the  highest,  the  purest,  the  most  certain  of  all 
earthly  tribunals — the  reason,  not  of  an  individual  man, 
but  of  humanity.  This  is  the  common  platform  on 
which  men  of  all  characters,  of  all  sects,  of  all  opin- 
ions, may  meet  in  cordial  agreement.  The  principles 
are  the  common  property  of  the  race  in  general ;  they 
are  tie  conditions  in  virtue  of  which  they  assert  their 
position  in  the  world  as  rational  and  intelligent  crea- 
tures. Without  such  common  principles  all  evidence 
would  bo  powerless,  all  argument  unavailing.  With- 
out an  original  standard  of  truth  in  his  own  breast, 
this  world  would  have  become  a  state  of  universal 
scepticism;  nay,  rather,  for  such  a  state  of  things  is 
impossible,  there  would  have  been  no  ground  for  either 
belief  or  doubt,  affirmation  or  denial"  (Gardner,  Cydo- 
piedia).  On  the  relation  of  the  will  to  belief  we  cite 
the  following  from  Hopkins  (Lowell  Lecturts,  1844). 
"  It  is  true  within  certain  limitations,  and  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  and  with  respect  to  certain  kinds  of 
truth,  that  we  are  not  voluntary  in  our  belief;  but 
then  these  conditions  and  limitations  are  such  as  en- 
tirely to  sever  from  this  truth  any  consequence  that 
we  are  not  perfectly  read}'  to  admit.  We  admit  that 
belief  is  in  no  case  directly  dependent  on  the  will ; 
that  in  some  cases  it  is  entirely  independent  of  it ;  but 
lie  must  be  exceedingly  bigoted,  or  unobservant  of 
what  passes  around  him,  who  should  affirm  that  the 
will  has  no  influence.  The  influence  of  the  will  here 
is  analogous  to  its  influence  in  many  other  cases.  It 
is  as  great  as  it  is  over  the  objects  which  we  see.  It 
does  not  depend  upon  the  will  of  any  man,  if  he  turns 
his  eyes  in  a  particular  direction,  whether  lie  shall  see 
a  tree  there.  If  the  tree  be  there  he  must  see  it,  and 
is  compelled  to  believe  in  its  existence  ;  but  it  was  en- 
tirely within  his  power  not  to  turn  his  eyes  in  that  di- 
rection, and  thus  to  remain  unconvinced,  on  the  high- 
est of  all  evidence,  of  the  existence  of  the  tree,  and 
unimpressed  by  its  beauty  and  proportion.  It  is  not 
by  his  will  directly  that  man  has  any  control  over  his 
thoughts.  It  is  not  by  willing  a  thought  into  the  mind 
that  he  can  call  it  there,  and  yet  we  all  know  that, 
through  attention  and  habits  of  association,  the  subjects 
of  our  thoughts  are  to  a  great  extent  directed  by  the 
will.  It  is  precisely  so  in  respect  to  belief;  and  he 
who  denies  this,  denies  the  value  of  candor,  and  the 
influence  of  party  spirit,  and  prejudice,  and  interest  on 
the  mind.  So  great  is  this  influence,  however,  that  a 
keen  observer  of  human  nature,  and  one  who  will  not 
be  suspected  of  leaning  unduly  to  the  doctrine  I  now 
advocate,  has  supposed  it  to  extend  even  to  our  belief 
of  mathematical  truth.  'Men,'  says  Hobbes,  'appeal 
from  custom  to  reason,  and  from  reason  to  custom,  as 
it  serves  their  turn,  receding  from  custom  when  their 


BELIEVERS 


7.34 


BELL 


interest  requires  it,  and  setting  themselves  against 
reason  as  oft  as  reason  is  against  them,  which  is  the 
cause  that  the  doctrine  of  right  and  wrong  is  perpetu- 
ally disputed  both  by  the  pen  and  the  sword;  whereas 
the  doctrine  of  lines  and  figures  is  not  so,  because  men 
care  not,  in  that  subject,  what  is  truth,  as  it  is  a  thing 
that  crosses  no  man's  ambition,  or  profit,  or  lust.  For, 
J  doubt  not,  if  it  had  been  a  thing  contrary  to  any 
m  m's  ri_;lit  of  dominion,  or  to  the  interest  of  men  who 
have  dominion,  that  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle 
should  be  equal  to  two  angles  of  a  square,  that  doc- 
trine should  have  been,  if  not  disputed  yet  by  the  burn- 
ing of  all  books  of  geometry,  suppressed,  as  far  as  he 
whom  it  concerned  was  able.'  'This,'  says  Hallam, 
fnmi  whose  work  I  make  the  quotation,  'does  not  ex- 
aggerate the  pertinacity  of  mankind  in  resisting  the 
evidence  of  truth  when  it  thwarts  the  interests  or  pas- 
sions of  any  particular  sect  or  community.'  Let  a 
man  who  hears  the  forty-seventh  proposition  of  Euclid 
announced  for  the  first  time  trace  the  steps  of  the  dem- 
onstration, and  he  nwst  believe  it  to  be  true ;  but  let 
him  know  that  as  soon  as  he  does  perceive  the  evi- 
dence of  that  proposition,  so  as  to  believe  it  on  that 
ground,  he  shall  lose  his  right  eye,  and  he  will  never 
trace  the  evidence,  or  come  to  that  belief  which  re- 
sults from  the  force  of  the  onty  proper  evidence.  You 
may  tell  him  it  is  true,  but  he  will  reply  that  he  does 
not  know — he  doss  not  see  it  to  be  so.  So  far,  then, 
from  finding  in  this  law  of  belief,  the  law  by  which  it 
is  necessitated  on  condition  of  a  certain  amount  of  evi- 
dence perceived  by  the  mind,  an  excuse  for  any  who 
do  not  receive  the  evidence  of  the  Christian  religion, 
it  is  in  this  very  law  that  I  find  the  ground  of  their 
condemnation.  Certainly,  if  God  has  provided  evi- 
dence as  convincing  as  that  for  the  forty-seventh  prop- 
osition of  Euclid,  so  that  all  men  have  to  do  is  to  ex- 
amine it  with  candor,  then  they  must  be  without  ex- 
cuse if  they  do  not  believe.  This,  I  suppose,  God  has 
done.  He  asks  no  one  to  believe  except  on  the  ground 
of  evidence,  and  such  evidence  as  ought  to  command 
assent.  Let  a  man  examine  this  evidence  with  en- 
tire candor,  laying  aside  all  regard  for  consequences 
or  results,  simply  according  to  the  laws  of  evidence, 
and  then,  if  he  is  not  convinced,  I  believe  God  will  so 
far  forth  acquit  him  in  the  great  day  of  judgment. 
But  if  God  has  given  man  such  evidence  that  a  fair, 
and  full,  and  perfectly  candid  examination  is  all  that 
i-  needed  to  necessitate  belief,  then,  if  men  do  not  be- 
lieve, it  will  be  in  this  verj'  law  that  we  shall  find  the 
ground  of  their  condemnation.  The  difficulty  will  not 
lie  in  their  mental  constitution  as  related  to  evidence, 
nor  in  the  want  of  evidence,  but  in  that  moral  condi- 
tion, that  state  of  the  heart,  or  the  will,  which  prevent- 
ed a  (.roper  examination.  'There  seems,'  says  But- 
ler, '  no  possible  reason  to  be  given  why  we  may  not 
be  in  a  state  of  moral  probation  with  regard  to  the  ex- 
erciseofour  understanding  upon  the  subject  of  religion, 
as  we  are  with  regard  to  our  behavior  in  common  af- 
fairs. The  former  is  a  thing  as  much  within  our  power 
and  choice  as  the  latter.'  "  On  the  relations  of  Beiief 
to  Faith,  sec  Faith. 

Believers.  In  the  early  Church  this  term  (tthtt-oi, 
;  •  applied  strictly  to  the  believing  or  baptized 
buiy,  in  contradistinction  to  the  clergy  or  the  catechu- 
mens. Thej  had  many  titles,  honors,  and  privileges, 
which  raised  them  above  the  catechumens.  They  were 
called  "the  illuminated,"  "the  initiated,"  "the  per- 
fect, '  "the  favorites  of  heaven."  They  alone  could 
partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  catechumens  being 
previously  dismissed;  theyjoinedin  all  the  praversof 
the  Church;  thej  alone  used  the  Lord's  Prayer,  for  the 
catechumens  were  not  allowed  to  Bay  "Our  Father;" 
and  they  were  auditors  of  all  discourses  made  in  the 
church.— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  i,  ch.  3  and  4. 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Boston, 
June  4,  1,  II,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  17G2.     In 


1767  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  Dover,  N.H.,  where  he  labored  for  over  20 
years.  In  1787  he  became  pastor  at  Boston,  where  he 
died,  June  20,  1799.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  and  devoted  much 
of  his  time  to  the  promotion  of  its  objects.  Among  his 
writings  are  the  History  of  New  Hampshire  (1784-1792, 
3  vols.)  ;  American  Biography  (1794-1798,  2  vols.};  and 
a  number  of  political  and  religious  tracts,  besides  occa- 
sional sermons. — Allen,  Blog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Bell  CpOSS,  paamon',  something  struck;  Sept. 
po'ivKoc.  ;  Vulg.  tintinnabuhim ;  Exod.  xxviii,  33,  34  ; 
xxxix,  25,  2G  ;  also  ■"teX'S,  metsillali ',  tinkling;  Sept. 
XaAiVoc;  Zech.  xiv,  20). 

I.  The  first  bells  known  in  history  are  those  small 
golden  bells  which  were  attached  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  blue  robe  (the  robe  of  the  ephod)  which  formed  part 
of  the  dress  of  the  high-priest  in  his  sacerdotal  minis- 
trations (Exod.  xxviii,  33,  34;  comp.  Ecclus.  xlv,  11). 
They  were  there  placed  alternately  with  the  pomegran- 
ate-shaped knobs,  one  of  these  being  between  every 
two  of  the  bells.  The  number  of  these  bells  is  not 
mentioned  in  Scripture  ;  but  tradition  states  that  there 
were  sixt\-six  (Clem.  Alex.  Stromaia,  p.  563),  or,  ac- 
cording to  the  Jews,  seventy-two  (Jarchi,  in  loc.)  We 
need  not  seek  any  other  reason  for  this  rather  singular 
use  of  bells  than  that  which  is  assigned  :  "  His  sound 
shall  be  heard  when  he  goeth  into  the  holy  place  be- 
fore the  Lord,  and  when  he  cometh  out,  that  he  die 
not"  (Exod.  xxviii,  35);  by  which  we  may  under- 
stand that  the  sound  of  the  bells  manifested  that  he 
was  properly  arrayed  in  the  robes  of  ceremony  which 
he  was  required  to  wear  when  he  entered  the  presence- 
chamber  of  the  Great  King;  and  that  as  no  minister 
can  enter  the  presence  of  an  earthly  potentate  abrupt- 
ly and  unannounced,  so  he  (whom  no  human  being 
could  introduce)  was  to  have  his  entrance  harbingered 
by  the  sound  of  the  bells  he  wore.  This  sound,  heard 
outside,  also  notified  to  the  people  the  time  in  which  he 
was  engaged  in  his  sacred  ministrations,  and  during 
which  they  remained  in  prayer  (Luke  i,  9,  10).  No 
doubt  they  answered  the  same  purpose  as  the  bells 
used  by  the  Brahmins  in  the  Hindoo  ceremonies,  and 
by  the  Roman  Catholics  during  the  celebration  of  mass 
(comp.  Luke  i,  21).  To  this  day  bells  are  frequently 
attached,  for  the  sake  of  their  pleasant  sound,  to  the 
anklets  of  women.  See  Anklet.  The  little  girls  of 
Cairo  wear  strings  of  them  round  their  feet  (Lane,  Mod. 
Egypt,  ii,  370),  and  at  Koojar  Mungo  Park  saw  a  dance 
"  in  which  many  performers  assisted,  all  of  whom  were 
provided  with  little  bells  fastened  to  their  legs  and 
arms." 

"Bells  of  the  Horses"  arc  mentioned  in  Zech. 
xiv,  20,  and  ma}-  have  been  such  as  were  attached  to 
the  bridles  or  foreheads,  or  to  belts  around  the  necks 
of  horses  trained  for  war,  that  they  might  thereby  be 
accustomed  to  noise  and  tumult,  and  not  by  their  alarm 
expose  the  riders  to  danger  in  actual  warfare.  Hence 
a  person  who  had  not  been  tried  or  trained  up  to  any 
thing  was  by  the  Greeks  called  aKbiSwviaroQ,  "one 
not  used  to  the  noise  of  a  bell,"  by  a  metaphor  taken 
from  horses.  The  mules  employed  in  the  funeral  pomp 
of  Alexander  had  at  each  jaw  a  golden  bell.  It  does 
not  appear,  however,  that  this  was  a  use  of  horse-bells 
with  which  the  Jews  were  familiar.  The  Hcbr.  woid 
is  almost  the  same  as  C^03^"3,  mtisi'tayhn,  "a  pair 
of  cymbals  ;"  and  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  inscribed 
with  the  words  "Holiness  unto  the  Lord,"  it  is  more 
probable  that  they  are  not  bells,  but  "concave  or  ilat 
pieces  of  brass,  which  were  sometimes  attached  to 
horses  for  the  sake  of  ornament"  (Jahn,  Bib/.  Arch. 
§  96).  Indeed,  they  were  probably  the  same  as  the 
d^jHftltf,  sakarmim',  "ornaments;"  Sept.  fnjviaicot 
(Isa.  iii,  18;  Judg.  viii,  21),  lunuhv  of  gold,  silver,  or 
brass  used  as  ornaments,  and  hung  b}r  the  Arabians 


BELL 


735 


BELL 


round  the  necks  of  their  camels,  as  we  still  see  them  in 
England  on  the  harness  of  horses.  They  were  not  only 
ornamental,  but  useful,  as  their  tinkling  tended'to  en- 
liven the  animals ;  and  in  the  caravans  they  thus  served 
the  purpose  of  our  modern  sheep-bells.  '1  he  laden  an- 
imals, being  without  riders,  have  bells  hung  from  their 
necks,  that  they  may  be  kept  together  in  traversing 
by  night  the  open  plains  and  deserts,  by  paths  and 
roads  unconfined  by  fences  and  boundaries,  that  they 
may  be  cheered  by  the  sound  of  the  bells,  and  that,  if 
any  horse  strays,  its  place  may  be  known  by  the  sound 
of  its  bell,  while  the  general  sound  from  the  caravan 
enables  the  traveller  who  has  strayed  or  lingered  to 
find  and  regain  his  party,  even  in  the  night  (Rosen- 
miiller,  Morgenl.  iv,  441).  That  the  same  motto,  Holi- 
ness to  the  Lord,  which  was  upon  the  mitre  of  the  hi.Lih- 
priest,  should,  in  the  happy  days  foretold  by  the  proph- 
et, be  inscribed  even  upon  the  Liells  of  tho  horses,  man- 
ifestly signifies  that  all  things,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  should  in  those  days  be  sanctified  to  God  (Hack- 
ett's  Illustra.  of  Script,  p.  77) — Kitto.     See  Bridle. 

It  is  remarkable  that  there  is  no  appearance  of  bells 
of  any  kind  on  the  Egyptian  monuments.  Quite  a 
number  of  bronze  bells,  with  iron  tongues,  were  dis- 
covered, however,  among  the  Assyrian  ruins  in  a  cal- 


Ancient  Assyrian  Tells. 

dron  at  Nimroud  by  Mr.  Layard,  and  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  They  vary  in  size  from  about  2  to 
3  inches  in  height,  and  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  and 
in  shape  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  now  in  use 
among  us  (see  Layard's  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  p.  150). 
II.  Bells  were  not  introduced  into  the  Christian 
Church  till  a  comparatively  late  period.  Several  in- 
ventions were  common  before  the  introduction  of  bells. 
In  Egypt  they  seem  to  have  used  trumpets,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Jews ;  and  the  same  custom  prevailed  in 
Palestine  in  the  sixth  century.  In  some  monasteries 
they  took  the  office  by  turns  of  going  about  to  every 
one's  cell,  and  calling  the  monks  to  their  devotions  by 
the  sound  of  a  hammer:  this  instrument  was  called 
the  night  signal  and  awakening  instrument.  Paulinus, 
the  bishop  of  Nola,  in  Campania,  who  died  A.D.  431, 
is  usually  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  bells  ;  and  hence 
the  terms  nola  and  campana  are  supposed  to  be  de- 
rived. There  is  reason,  however,  to  believe  that  this 
is  a  mistake,  as  it  is  remarkable  that  no  mention  of 
bells  is  made  in  his  epistles,  in  his  poems,  or  in  the 
account  of  his  life,  which  was  compiled  from  his  own 
works  and  the  panegyrics  of  his  contemporaries.  The 
word  campana  is  probably  derived  from  a>s  Campantem, 
mentioned  by  Pliny,  the  metal  preferred  for  bells. 
The  use  of  bells  was  not  known  in  the  Eastern  Church 
till  the  year  865.  when  Ursus  Patrisiacus  made  a  pres- 
ent of  some  to  Michael,  the  Creek  emperor,  who  first 
built  a  tower  in  the  church  of  Sancta  Sophia  in  which 
to  hang  them.  It  is  generally  thought  that  Sabinianus, 
who  succeeded  Gregory  the  Great  in  004,  introduced 
them  into  the  Latin  Church,  and  applied  them  to  ec- 
clesiastical purposes.  Baronius  speaks  of  the  use  of 
the  Tintinnabida  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church 
{Ann.  A.D.  58  and  G4),  and  Giraldus  Cambrensis  says 
that  portable  bells  were  used  in  England  in  the  time 
of  SS.  Germanus  and  Lupus,  i.  e.  about  430.    From  all 


which  it  appears  that  small  portable  bells  were  in  use 
in  the  Church  in  very  ancient  times,  and  that  the  large 
church-bells  were  not  introduced  until  a  later  period. 
Certain  it  is,  however,  that  there  were  bells  in  the 
church  of  St.  Stephen,  at  Sens,  in  610,  the  ringing  of 
which  frightened  away  the  besieging  army  of  King 
Clothaire  II,  which  knew  not  what  they  were.  Yet 
Bede,  in  his  Ecclesiastical  History  (lib.  iv,  c.  23),  about 
670,  says,  "audivit  subito  in  aere  notum  campana;  sc- 
num  quo  ad  orationes  excitari  solebant."  A  form  of 
speaking  which  would  imply  that  they  were  at  that 
period  in  general  use  ;  and  Stavely  refers  to  Spelman's 
Concil.  torn,  i,  fol.  62,  64,  where  it  is  stated  that  Oudo- 
ceus,  bishop,  or  archbishop,  of  LlandafF,  about  A.D. 
550,  took  down  tho  bells  and  crosses  of  his  church  as 
part  of  a  sentence  of  excommunication.  Ingulphus 
relates  how  Turketul,  abbot  of  Croyland,  who  died 
about  870,  gave  one  notable  great  bell  to  the  abbey- 
church,  which  he  called  Guthlac,  and  afterward  abbot 
Egelric  gave  six  more,  named  Bartholomew,  Bettelimis, 
Terketul,  Taticyn,  Pega,  and  Bega ;  and  he  adds,  "Non 
erat  tunc  tanta  consonantia  campanarum  in  tota  An- 
glia."  (See  Maitland,  Dark  Ages,  p.  251.)  Proofs  ex- 
ist that  bells  were  common  in  France  as  early  as  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries.  During  the  reign  of 
Charlemagne  they  became  com- 
mon in  France  and  German}'. 
Bells  were  first  hung  in  towers 
separate  from  the  church  (cam-' 
panili) ;  later,  the  tower  was  join- 
ed to  the  church.  In  Italy, 
Greece,  the  Ionian  Isles,  and 
Sweden,  the  towers  are  yet  usu- 
ally separate.  As  early  as  the 
eighth  century  bells  were  dedi- 
cated with  religious  ceremonies 
very  similar  to  those  used  in  bap- 
tism. They  were  sprinkled  with 
holy  water;  exorcism  was  sj  o- 
ken  over  them,  to  free  them  from 
the  power  of  evil  spirits ;  a  name  was  given  them  (as 
early  as  the  tenth  century)  ;  a  blessing  was  pro- 
nounced ;  and  they  were  anointed.  Later,  their  ring- 
ing was  supposed  to  drive  away  evil  spirits,  pestilence, 
and  thunder-storms.  Being  thus  made  objects  of  re- 
ligious faith  and  affection,  they  were  ornamented  in 
the  highest  style  of  the  sculptor's  art  with  scenes  from 
the  Bible  and  other  religious  subjects.  The  largest 
bells  are:  the  one  at  Moscow,  488,000  lbs.;  at  Tou- 
louse, 66,000  lbs. ;  at  Vienna,  40,000  lbs. ;  Paris,  38,000 
lbs. ;  Westminster  Abbey,  37,000  lbs.  The  usual  com- 
position of  bells  is  four  parts  of  copper  and  one  of  tin. 
The  proportions  arc  sometimes  varied,  and  bismuth 
and  zinc  added.  Legends  of  large  parts  of  silver  in 
certain  bells,  as  at  Rouen,  have  been  found  by  chemical 
analysis  to  be  fabulous.  Strength  of  tone  in  bells  ds- 
pends  upon  the  weight  of  metal,  depth  of  tone  upon 
the  shape.  By  varying  these  chimes  are  produced. 
(See  Thiers,  Des  Cloches  (Paris) ;  Harzen,  Die  Clock- 
giesserie  (Weimar,  1854)  ;  Otto,  Clockenlunde  (Leipzig, 
1857);  Chrysander,  Historische  Nachrkhtcn  von  Kirch- 
engloclcn). 

The  Blessing  of  Bells  in  the  Romish  Church  is  a 
most  extraordinary  piece  of  superstition.  They  are  said 
to  be  consecrated  to  <  Sod,  that  he  may  bestow  upon  them 
the  power,  not  of  striking  the  ear  only,  but  also  of 
touching  the  heart.  When  a  bell  is  to  be  blessed,  it  is 
hung  up  in  a  place  where  there  is  room  to  walk  round 
it.  Beforehand,  a  holy-water  pot,  another  for  salt, 
napkins,  a  vessel  of  oil,  incense,  myrrb,  cotton,  a  basin 
and  ewer,  and  a  crumb  of  bread,  arc  prepared.  There 
is  then  a  procession  from  the  vestry,  and  the  officiating 
priest,  having  seated  himself  near  the  bell,  instructs 
the  people  in  the  holiness  of  the  action  he  is  going  to 
perform,  and  then  sings  the  Miserere,  Next,  he  bless- 
es some  salt  and  water,  and  offers  a  prayer  that  the 
bell  may  acquire  the  virtue  of  guarding  Christians 


BELL  736 

from  the  stratagems  of  Satan,  of  breaking  the  force  of 
t  impests,  and  raising  devotion  in  the  b  art.  etc.    He 

then  mixes  salt  and  water,  and,  crossing  the  hulls  thrice, 
in  the  name  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
pronounces  over  each,  "God  he  with  you."  This 
being  done,  he  dips  the  aspergillum,  or  sprinkler,  in 
the  holy  water,  and  with  it  washes  the  hell;  during 
this  ablution  psalms  are  sung.  After  this,  a  ves- 
ge]  containing  what  they  call  oil  for  the  infirm,  is 
'  v  the  dean,  into  whieh  the  officiating  priest 
dip.  the  thumb  of  his  right  hand,  and  applies  it  to 
the  middle  of  the  bell,  signing  it  with  the  sign  of 
the  cross.  The  twenty-eighth  psalm  being  then  sung, 
tli'  hell  is  marked  with  seven  other  crosses,  during 
w  hieh  the  priest  honors  the  bell  with  a  sort  of  baptism, 
consecrating  it  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity,  and  naming 
some  particular  saint,  who  stands  godfather  to  the 
hell,  and  from  that  time  it  bears  his  name.  It  is  then 
perfumed  with  incense  and  myrrh,  which,  in  a  prayer 
used  on  the  occasion,  is  called  the  dew  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
For  the  full  forms,  see  Migne,  Liturgie  Catholique,  p. 
363;  Boissonnet,  Diet,  des  Ceremonies,  i,  880.  The 
practice  of  consecrating  and  baptizing  bells  is  a  mod- 
ern invention.  Baronius  refers  the  origin  to  the  time 
of  John  XIII,  A.D.  968,  who  consecrated  the  great 
bell  of  the  Lateran  Church,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 
John.  The  practice,  however,  appears  to  have  pre- 
vailed at  an  earlier  period  ;  for  in  the  capitulars  of 
Charles  the  Great  it  is  censured  and  prohibited.  The 
rituals  of  the  Romanists  tell  us  that  the  consecration 
of  bells  is  designed  to  represent  that  of  pastors ;  that 
the  ablution,  followed  by  unction,  expresses  the  sane- 
tification  acquired  by  baptism  ;  the  seven  crosses  show 
that  pastors  should  exceed  the  rest  of  Christians  in 
the  graces  of  the  Holy  Ghost ;  and  that  as  the  smoke 
of  the  perfume  rises  in  the  bell,  and  tills  it,  so  a  pas- 
tor, adorned  with  the  fulness  of  God's  spirit,  receives 
the  perfume  of  the  vows  and  prayers  of  the  faithful. 

The  Tolling  of  bells  at  funerals  is  an  old  practice. 
It  was  a  superstitious  notion  that  evil  spirits  were 
hovering  round  to  make  a  prey  of  departing  souls, 
and  that  the  tolling  of  bells  struck  them  with  terror. 
In  the  Council  of  Cologne  it  is  said,  "  Let  bells  be 
11  sed,  as  the  trumpets  of  the  church  militant,  by 
which  the  people  are  assembled  to  hear  the  word  of 
God,  the  clergy  to  announce  his  mercy  by  day,  and 
his  truth  in  their  nocturnal  vigils  ;  that  by  theirsound 
the  faithful  may  be  invited  to  prayers,  and  that  the 
spirit  of  devotion  in  them  may  he  increased."  The 
fathers  have  also  maintained  that  daemons,  affrighted 
sound  of  bells  calling  Christians  to  prayer, 
would  flee  away,  and  when  they  fled  the  persons  of 
tie-  faithful  would  be  secure;  that  the  destruction  of 
li  (htnings  and  whirlwinds  would  be  averted,  and  the 
spirits  of  the  .storm  defeated.  Durand  says,  in  his 
Rational  of  the  Roman  Church,  "that  for  expiring 
persons  bells  must  lie  tidied,  that  people  may  put  up 
their  prayers.  This  must  be  done  twice  for  a  woman 
and  thrice  I'm-  a  m  in  ;  for  an  ecclesiastic  as  many 
times  as  he  had  orders;  and  at  the  conclusion  a  peal 
Of  all  tin-  b  11-  must  be  given,  to  distinguish  the  qual- 
ity of  tie-  persons  for  whom  the  people  are  to  offer  up 
their  prayers."  The  uses  of  bells,  according  to  the 
Romish  idea,  are  summed  up  in  the  following  distich, 
oft  n  inscribed  on  bells: 

rum;  plebem  v„cn;  contjreqo clerum; 
''■'""  '  •<„,!„:  festaqu   honoro." 

"I  praise  the  true  God;  I  call  the  people;  I  assemble 
tin-  clergy;  I  Umenl  the  dead;  I  drive  away  infec- 
tion; I  honor  tin-  festivals."  The  following  are  the 
n  "in-,  kind-,  and  offices  of  bells  used  in  churches  and 
"religious  hous  is:"  l.  Squtila  or  scilla,  a  little  hell 
hung  in  tie-  refectory,  near  tie-  abbot's  seat,  which  he 
ran:  h.  signify  the  end  of  tin-  repast.  It  was  also 
used  to  procure  Bilence  when  there  was  too  much  noise. 
'-'■  Cymbcdum,  need  in  the  cloister.  3.  Nola,  in  the 
choir.    1.  Oampan  i,  in  tin-  Campanile  (q.  v.);  perhaps 


BELL 


used  when  there  was  only  one  church-bell.  5.  Signum, 
in  the  church-tower.  The  Campana  sancta,  vulgarly 
called  in  the  country  the  "  Sance-bell,"  was  rung  when 
the  priest  said  the  Sanctus,  sanctus,  sanctus,  Dommus 
Deus  Sabaoth.  Matthew  Paris  says  that  it  was  forbid- 
den to  ring  the  bells  during  a  period  of  mourning; 
and  the  Church  of  Rome  retains  to  this  day  the  cus- 
tom of  not  suffering  the  bells  to  sound  during  the  pe- 
riod from  Good  Friday  to  Easter  Day.  For  an  amus- 
ing paper  on  "Bells,"  see  Southey's  Doctor,  vol.  i.— 
Bergier,  s.  v.  "Cloche;"  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk. 
viii,  ch.  vii,  §  15;  Martene,  De  Ant.  Eccles.  Uitibus,  t. 
ii;  Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary,  s.  v.  "Bells;"  Cole- 
man, Ancient  Christianity,  ch.  xiii,  §  9;  Quarterly  Re- 
view (Lond.),  Oct.  1854,  art.  ii. 

Bell,  Andrew,  D.D. ,  inventor  of  what  is  called  the 
Lancas/erian  School  System,  was  born  at  St.  Andrew's, 
1752,  and  educated  at  the  University  there.  Taking 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  he  was  appointed 
chaplain  at  Fort  St.  George,  and  minister  of  St.  Mary's 
church  at  Madras.  Here  he  commenced  instructing 
gratuitously  the  orphan  children  of  the  military  asy- 
lum, and  made  the  first  attempt  at  the  system  of  mu- 
tual instruction.  On  his  return  to  England  he  pub- 
lished in  London,  in  1797,  An  Experiment  made  at  the 
Male  Asylum  at  Ma  Iras,  suggesting  a  Systi  m  by  which  a 
School  or  Family  may  teach  itself  und  r  th  >  superintend- 
ence of  the  Master  or  Parent.  The  pamphlet  attracted 
but  little  attention  until,  in  the  following  year,  Joseph 
Lancaster  opened  a  school  in  Southwark  for  poor  chil- 
dren, supported  by  subscription,  and  conducted  upon 
this  system.  It  was  so  successful  that  similar,  schools 
were  established  elsewhere.  The  education  of  the 
poor  being  undertaken  on  so  large  a  scale  by  a  secta- 
rian, the  subscribers  being  also  in  the  main  dissidents 
from  the  Church  of  England,  caused  some  alarm  in  the 
leading  members  of  that  church.  Bell  was  opposed 
to  Lancaster,  and  in  1807  was  employed  to  establish 
schools  where  the  Church  doctrine  would  he  taught, 
and  to  prepare  books  for  them.  Funds  were  provided, 
and  the  rivalry,  by  stimulating  both  parties  to  exer- 
tion, resulted  in  nothing  but  good;  though  the  par- 
ticular feature,  that  of  mutual  instruction  with  the 
help  of  a  master  only,  has  been  found  to  require  very 
material  modifications.  Dr.  Bell,  as  a  reward  for  his 
labors,  was  made  a  prebendary  of  Westminster.  He 
died  at  Cheltenham,  January  28,  1832,  leaving  over 
$600,000  for  educational  purposes. — English  <  yclopcedia. 
Bell,  "William,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  born 
about  1731,  and  was  educated  at  Magdalen  College, 
Cambridge.  He  became  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  and 
throughout  a  long  life  was  noted  for  his  piety,  learn- 
ing, and  benevolence.  In  1810  he  founded  eight  new 
scholarships  at  Cambridge  for  the  benefit  of  sons  of 
poor  clergymen.  He  died  at  Westminster  in  1816. 
His  writings  include  An  Inquiry  into  th'  d'vine  Mission 
of  John  the  Baptist  and  of  Christ  (Lond.  1761,  8vo  ;  3d 
e'd.  1K1K);  Defence  of  Revelation  (1750,  8vo);  Author- 
ity, Nature,  and  Design  of  the  Lord's  Supper  ( !  780,  8vo) ; 
Sermons  on  various  Subjects  (Lond.  1817,  2  vols.  8vo). 
— Darling,  Cycli>p>rdin  /Jiblingraphica,  i,  233;  Allibone, 
Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  101. 

Bell,  Book,  and  Candle.  In  the  Romish  Church 
the  ceremony  of  excommunication  was  formerly  at- 
tended with  great  solemnity.  Lamps  or  candles  were 
extinguished  by  being  thrown  on  the  ground,  with  an 
imprecation  that  those  against  whom  the  excommuni- 
cation was  pronounced  might  be  extinguished  by  the 
judgment  of  God.  The  summons  to  attend  this  cere- 
mony was  given  by  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  and  the  curses 
accompanying  it  were  pronounced  out  of  a  book  by  the 
!  priest.  Hence  the  phrase  of  "cursing  by  bell,  book, 
and  candle."  The  following  account,  from  the  arti- 
cles of  the  General  Great  Curse,  found  at  Canterbury 
A.D.  1502,  as  it  is  sot  down  by  Thomas  Becon,  in  the 
I  Reliqucs  of  Rome,  is  taken  from  Eadie,  s.  v.      This  was 


BELLAMY 


737 


BELLARMINE 


solemnly  thundered  out  once  in  every  quarter — that  is, 
as  the  old  book  saitli . — "''The  Fyrst  Sunday  of  Ad- 
vent, at  eomyng  of  our  Lord  Jhesu  Cryst :  'i  he  fyrst 
Sunday  of  Lenteen  :  The  Sonday  in  the  Feste  of  thj 
Trynyte :  and  Sonday  within  the  Utas  (Octaves)  of 
the  Blessed  Vyrgin  our  Lady  St.  Mary.'  At  which 
Action  the  Prelate  stands  in  the  Pulpit  in  his  Aulbe, 
the  Cross  being  lifted  up  before  him,  and  the  Candles 
lighted  on  both  sides  of  it,  and  begins  thus,  '  By  Au- 
thority God,  Fader,  Son,  and  Holy-Ghost,  and  the  glo- 
rious Mother  and  Mayden,  our  Lady  St.  Mary,  and  the 
Blessed  Apostles  Peter,  and  Paul,  and  all  Apostles, 
Martyrs,  Confessors,  Vyrgyne,  and  the  hallows  of  God; 
All  thos  byn  accursed  that  purchases  YVritts,  or  Let- 
ters of  any  Leud  Court,  or  to  let  the  Processe  of  the 
Law  of  Holy  Chirch  of  Causes  that  longcn  skilfully  to 
Christen  Court,  the  which  should  not  be  denied  by  none 
other  Law:  And  all  that  maliciously  bereaven  Holy 
Chirch  of  her  right,  or  maken  Ho\y  Chirch  lay  fee, 
that  is  hallowed  and  Blessed.  And  also  all  thos  that 
for  malyce  or  wrathe  of  Pi.tsou,  Vicare,  or  Priest,  or 
of  any  other,  or  for  wrongfull  covetyse  of  himself  with- 
holden  rightful  Tyths,  and  Offerings,  Rents,  or  Mortu- 
aries from  her  own  Parish  Chirch,  and  by  way  of 
covet}'se  fals  lyche  taking  to  God  the  worse,  and  to 
hemself  the  better,  or  else  torn  him  into  another  use, 
then  hem  oweth.  For  all  Chrysten  Man  and  Women 
been  hard  bound  on  pain  of  deadty  Sin,  not  onlycheby 
ordinance  of  Man,  but  both  in  the  ould  Law,  and  also 
in  the  new  Law,  fur  to  pay  trulyche  to  God  and  holy 
Chirch  the  Tyth  part  of  all  manner  of  encrease  that 
they  winnen  trulyche  by  the  Grace  of  God,  both  with 
her  travell,  and  alsoe  with  her  craftes  whatsoe  they  be 
truly  gotten.'  And  then  concludes  all  with  the  ( lurse 
it  self,  thus,  'And  now  b}r  Authoritie  aforesaid  we  De- 
nounce all  thos  accursyd  that  are.  so  founden  guyltie, 
and  all  thos  that  maintaine  hem  in  her  Sins  or  gyven 
hem  hereto  either  help  or  councell,  soe  they  be  depart- 
ed froe  God,  and  all  holi  Chirch  :  and  that  they  have 
noe  part  of  the  Passyon  of  our  Lord  Jhesu  Cryst,  ne 
of  noe  Sacraments,  ne  no  part  of  the  Prayers  among 
Christen  Folk :  But  that  they  be  accursed  of  God, 
and  of  the  Chirch,  froe  the  sole  of  her  Foot  to  the 
crown  of  her  hede,  sleaping  and  waking,  sitting  and 
standing,  and  in  all  her  Words,  and  in  all  her  Wcrks; 
but  if  they  have  noe  Grace  of  God  to  amend  hem  here 
in  this  Lyfe,  for  to  dwell  in  the  pain  of  Hell  for  ever 
withouten  End  :  Fiat  :  Fiat.  Doe  to  the  Boke  : 
Quench  the  Candles  :  Ring  the  Bell :  Amen,  Amen.' 
And  then  the  Book  is  clapped  together,  the  Candles 
blown  out,  and  the  Bells  rung,  with  a  most  dreadful 
noise  made  by  the  Congregation  present,  bewailing  the 
accursed  persons  concerned  in  that  Black  Doom  pro- 
nounced against  them." 

Bellamy,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  eminent  New  Eng- 
land divine,  was  born  at  New  Cheshire,  Conn.,  1719, 
and  graduated  at  Yale  College  1735.  He  began  to 
preach  at  18,  and  in  1740  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
church  in  Bethlehem,  Conn.  In  the  great  revival 
which  soon  after  spread  over  New  England,  he  was 
widely  useful  as  an  itinerant  evangelist.  His  later 
years  were  spent  (in  addition  to  his  pastoral  labors)  in 
teaching  theology  to  students,  who  resorted  to  him  in 
numbers.  He  was  accustomed  to  give  his  pupils  a  set 
of  questions,  and  also  lists  of  books  on  the  subjects  of 
the  questions  ;  they  were  afterward  made  topics  of  ex- 
amination on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  of  essays  or 
sermons  by  the  pupil.  Many  of  the  most  prominent 
divines  of  New  England  in  the  last  generation  were 
Bellamy's  students.  He  was  less  successful  as  a  writer 
than  as  a  teacher,  though  some  of  his  books  are  still 
published.  His  True  Relifi'wn  delin>ated  (Boston,  1750) 
went  through  many  editions  in  this  country  and  in 
Great  Britain.  lie  also  published  Thtron,  Paulinug, 
and  Aspasia,  or  Letters  and  Dialogues  upon  tin  Natan 
of  Lore  to  God,  etc.  (1759)  ;  an  Essay  on  tin  Xatvre  and 
Glory  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  etc.  (1762) ;    The 

A  A  A 


Half-way  Covenant  (17G9);  and  a  number  of  occasional 
sermons,  with  various  controversial  pamphlets,  all  of 
which  may  be  found  in  his  Works  (N.  Y.  1811,  3  vols. 
8vo ;  2d  ed.  Boston,  2  vols.  8vo),  with  memoir.  A 
careful  review  of  his  writings,  by  Dr.  Woodbridge,  is 
given  in  the  Literary  and  Theological  Review,  ii,  58. — 
Sprague'  Ann.  i,  504.  See  New  England  Theology. 
Bellarmine,  Robert,  cardinal-archbishop  of  Cap- 
ua, was  born  at  Monte  Pulciano,  in  Tuscany,  October 
4,  1542,  being  nephew,  on  his  mother's  side,  of  Pope 
Marcellus  II.  His  father,  intending  him  for  civil  life, 
sent  him  to  the  University  of  Padua;  but  the  bent  of 
bis  mind  was  toward  theology,  and  in  1560  he  entered 
the  society  of  the  Jesuits.  His  remarkable  talents  and 
progress  in  knowledge  induced  his  superiors  to  order 
him  to  preach  while  as  yet  he  was  only  a  deacon  ;  and 
at  Mondovi,  Florence,  Padua,  and  Lou  vain,  his  talents 
as  a  preacher  were  first  known.  In  1569  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  priesthood,  and  in  the  year  following  lec- 
tured on  theology  at  Louvain,  being  the  first  Jesuit 
who  had  done  so.  He  preached  also  in  Latin  with 
great  repute.  Upon  his  return  to  Rome  in  1576,  Pope 
Gregory  XIII  appointed  him  lecturer  in  controversial 
divinity  in  the  new  college  {Collegium  Romanum)  which 
he  had  just  founded  ;  and  Sixtus  V  sent  him  with  Car- 
dinal Cajetan  into  France,  in  the  time  of  the  League, 
to  act  as  theologian  to  that  legation,  in  case  any  con- 
troversy should  arise  with  the  Protestants,  for  which 
his  studies  during  his  residence  in  the  Netherlands  had 
eminently  fitted  him.  In  1598  he  was  elevated  to  the 
purple  by  Clement  VIII,  and  in  1601  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Capua.  This  see  he  held  only  four  years, 
and  resigned  it  on  being  appointed  librarian  of  the  Vat- 
ican, refusing  to  retain  a  bishopric  at  which  he  could 
not  reside.  He  would  have  been  elected  pope  had  not 
the  cardinals  feared  the  degree  of  power  which  the 
Jesuits  might  have  attained  with  one  of  their  body  on 
the  papal  throne.  Bellarmine  died  on  the  17th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1621,  aged  sixty-nine,  with  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  most  learned  controversialists  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  curious  that  the  favorite  maxim  of  such 
an  acute  and  learned  controversialist  was,  "that  an 
ounce  of  peace  is  worth  a  pound  of  victory."  The 
chief  work  of  Bellarmine  is  his  Body  of  Controversy 
("  De  Controversiis  Christiana?  fidei,"  etc.),  first  print- 
ed at  Ingoldstadt,  in  3  vols,  fob,  1587-88-90.  Another 
edition,  corrected  by  himself,  appeared  at  Venica, 
which  was  reprinted  at  Paris  in  160?,  In  1608  an- 
other edition  (that  of  the  Triadelphi)  was  put  forth  at 
Paris,  corrected  and  augmented  upon  a  Memoir  pub- 
lished by  the  author  at  Rome  in  1607,  entitled  Recog- 
nitio  Ubrorum  omnium  R.  E.  ab  ipso  edita.  In  this 
celebrated  work  Bellarmine  generally  lays  down  the 
positions  of  his  adversaries  fairly,  without  concealing 
their  strength — a  candor  which,  as  Mosheim  says,  has 
exposed  him  to  the  reproaches  of  many  writers  of  his 
own  communion  ;  and  as,  at  the  same  time,  he  states  the 
claims  and  dogmas  of  Rome  unreservedly  he  is  a  much 
better  source  of  information  as  to  real  Roman  doctrine 
than  such  advocates  as  Bossuet  and  Mohler.  Of  this 
celebrated  work  vol.  i  contains  three  general  contro- 
versies:  (1.)  On  the  Word  of  God,  which,  he  says,  is 
either  written  or  unwritten ;  the  written  word  is  con- 
tained in  the  New  and  Old  Testaments,  the  canonicity 
of  which  lie  defends.  He  maintains  that  the  Church 
alone  is  the  lawful  interpreter.  (2.)  Of  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Head  of  the  Church;  in  which  he  proves  the  di- 
vinity of  our  ],<  rd  against  the  Arians;  defends  the 
Trinity  :  est  iblishes  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
and  justifies  the  addition  of  the  word  Filioque  to  the 
Creed.  (3.)  Of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  where  he  main- 
tains that  the  government  of  the  Church  is  purely 
monarchical ;  that  St.  Pet  :r  was  the  head  of  the  Church, 
and  that  the  popes  succeed  him  in  that  quality  ;  that 
the}'  are  infallible  in  their  dogmatic  judgments;  that 
thej'  have  an  indirect  power  over  the  temporal  author- 
ity of  kings,  etc.     Vol   ii  contains  four  heads  :   (1.) 


BELLAY 


138 


BELLOWS 


Of  the  Councils  and  the  Church :  among  general 
Council*  he  reckODS  eighteen  approved,  eight  disap- 
proved, and  -ix  only  partly  approved  (among  which 
are  Frankfort,  Constance,  and  Basle),  and  one  (Pisa, 
1509)  neither  approved  nor  disapproved.  lie  gives  to 
the  pope  the  authority  to  convoke  and  approve  coun- 
cils, and  makes  him  superior  to  a  general  council.  In 
the  third  book  he  treats  of  the  visibility  and  indefecti- 
bility  of  the  Church,  and  of  the  Notes  of  the  Church. 
( '_'.  i  <  (fthe  Members  of  the  Church,  viz.,  clerks,  monks, 
and  laymen.  (3.)  Of  the  Church  in  Purgatory:  in 
thi<  he  states,  and  endeavors  to  prove,  the  Roman  doe- 
trine  of  purgatory.  (1.)  Of  the  Church  Triumphant, 
relating  to  the  beatitude  and  worship  of  the  saints. 
Vol.  iii  relates  to  the  sacraments  in  general  and  in  par- 
ticular; and  vol.  iv  treats  of  original  sin;  the  necessi- 
ty of  grace,  free-will,  justification  ;  the  merit  of  good 
works,  especially  of  prayer,  fasting,  ami  alms-giving; 
various  matters  disputed  among  the  scholastic  theolo- 
gians, etc.  Besides  these  works,  we  have  of  Bellar- 
mine  3  vols.  fol.  of  Opera  Diversa,  published  at  Co- 
logne in  1017,  containing,  1.  Commentaries  on  the 
Psalms,  and  Sermons: — 2.  A  Treatise  of  Ecclesiastical 
Writers  (often  reprinted): — 3.  Treatises  on  the  Trans- 
lation if  the  Empire;  on  Indulgences;  the  Worship  of 
Images  (against  the  synod  of  Paris);  and  on  the  judg- 
ment on  a  Look  entitled  the  "Concord  of  the  Lutherans." 
Also,  -1.  Four  Writings  on  the  Affairs  of  Venice: — 5. 
Tiro  Writings  against  James  I  of  England : — 6.  A  Trea- 
tise, De  pott  state  svmmi  ponfifcis  in  rebus  temporal  Hits, 
against  William  Barclay,  condemned  in  1G10  by  the  Par- 
liament: — 7.  Some  Devotional  Pieces : — 8.  Treatises  on 
the  Duties  of  Bishops  (reprinted  at  Wurzburg  in  1749, 
4to): — 9.  His  Catechism,  or  Christian  Doctrine,  which 
has  been  translated  into  many  different  languages :  it 
was  suppressed  at  Vienna  by  the  Empress  Maria  The- 
resa. In  his  treatise  De  potestate  summi  Pontificis  cen- 
tra Barelcdam  (Rom.  lflO,  8vo),  he  maintains  the  in- 
direct temporal  authority  ut  the  pope  over  princes  and 
governments.  '1  he  best  edition  of  his  whole  works  is 
that  of  Cologne,  1620  (7  vols.  fol.).  The  De  Contro- 
versiis  was  reprinted  at  Rome,  1832-40  (4  vols.  4to). 
A  good  Life  of  Bellarmine  is  given  in  Rule's  Cele- 
brated Jesuits  (Lond.  1854,  3  vols.  18mo).  An  Italian 
biography  of  Bellarmine,  based  on  his  autobiography,  ' 
was  published  by  Fuligatti  (Rome,  1624).  S?e  also  J 
Frizon,J7<  du  Cardinal  Bellarmin  (Nancy,  1708,  4to); 
Niceron,  Memoires,  vol.  xxxi ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Crit.  s.  v.  ; 
Bellarmine's  Notes  of  the  Church  Refuted  (Lond.  1840, 
8vo)j  Boefer,  Biog.  Generate,  v,  222 ;  Herzog,  Real- 
Encyklop&du ,  s.  v. ;  Landon,  Eceies.  Diet,  ii,  128. 

Bellay,  Jean  dd,  an  eminent  French  cardinal,  was 
born  in  1492;  was  made  bishop  of  Bayonne,  and  in 
1532  bishop  of  Paris.  In  153:5  he  returned  from  Eng- 
land, whither,  in  1527,  he  had  been  sent  as  ambassador 
to  llenrv  VIII,  who  was  then  on  the  point  of  a  rup- 
ture with  the  court  of  Rome,  but  who  promised  Du 
I;.  II  ,\  thai  he  would  not  take  the  final  step  provided 
that  he  were  allowed  time  to  defend  himself  by  his 
proctor.  Du  Bellay  hastened  to  Rome,  where  lie  ar- 
rived in  1584,  and  obtained  th.3  required  delay  from 
Clement  VII.  which  he  sent  instantly  by  a  courier  to 
England ;  but  the  courier  not  returning  by  the  day 
fixed  bj  the  pope,  sentence  of  excommunication  was 
pronounced  against  Henry,  and  his  kingdom  laid  un- 
der an  interdict,  in  -j.ite  of  the  protestations  of  Du 
Bellay,  at  tie-  instigation  .if  the  agents  of  Charles  V. 
The  courier  arrived  two  days  afterward.  In  1535  the 
bishop  was  made  cardinal, and  served  Francis  I  so  ef- 
fectually ae  hi-  lieutenant  general  (!)  that  be  made  him 
ely  bishop  of  Limoges  (1541),  archbishop  of 
Bordeaux  (1544),  and  bishop  of  Mans  (1546).  After 
the  death  of  Francis  Du  Bellay  was  superseded  by  the 
Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  and  retire.)  to  Rome,  when  he 
<!  •  bishop  of  (Mia.  and  die,)  February  Kith, 
1560  Bellay  was  a  friend  ,,f  letters,  and  united  with 
n    in  urging  Francis  1  to  establish  the  College 


de  France.  He  wrots  Poems,  printed  by  Stephens 
(1500)  ;  Epistola  Apologetica  (1543,  8vo)  ;  and  many- 
letters. — Biog.  Univ.  torn,  iv,  p.  !)4  ;  Niceron,  Memoires, 
torn,  xvi :  Hoefer,  Bi<>g.  Generate,  v,  227. 

Bellegarde,  Gabriel  du  Bac  de,  a  French 
theologian,  was  born  Oct.  17,  1717.  He  was  early 
made  canon  of  Lyons,  but  his  Port-Royalism  and  his 
severe  principles  shut  him  out  from  preferment  and 
lost  him  his  canonry.  He  retired  to  Holland,  where 
he  collected  Memoires  sur  I'histoire  de  lei  Bulk  Unigen- 
itus  dans  les  Pays  Bas  (4  vols.  12mo,  1755).  He  also 
wrote  UHistoire  abregee  de  VEglise  iV  Utrecht  (1765, 
12mo);  editsd  the  works  of  Van  Espen,  with  a  life 
(Lyons,  5  vols.  fol.  1778),  and  a  complete  edition  of 
the  works  of  Arnauld  (Lausanne,  1775-82,  with  pref- 
aces, notss,  etc.,  45  vols,  in  4to). — Hoefer,  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  v,  238. 

Bellegarde,  Jean  Baptiste  Morvan  de,  a 
laborious  French  writer,  known  as  the  Abbe  de  Belle- 
garde, was  born  at  Pihyriac,  August  30th,  1648.  He 
was  a  Jesuit  16  years,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  the  so- 
ciety on  account  of  his  Cartesianism.  He  translated 
the  Letters  and  Sermons  of  Basil,  the  Sermons  of  As- 
terius,  the  Moralia  of  Ambrose,  many  of  the  woi  ks  of 
Leo,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chrysostom,  the  Imita- 
tio  Christi  and  other  works  of  Thomas  &  Keinpis,  and 
various  other  writings.  His  translations  betray  great 
negligence.  He  died  April  26,  1734. — Hoefer,  Biog. 
Generede,  v,  39. 

Bellegarde,  Octave  de,  a  French  prelate,  was 
born  in  1585,  and  nominated  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Sens  in  1623.  He  maintained  with  firmness  the  im- 
munities of  the  French  clergy  at  the  Assembly  of 
Mantes  in  1640,  and  was  exiled  by  the  offended  court. 
In  1639  he  subscribed  the  condemnation  of  the  two 
works  entitled  Trails  des  Droits  et  Liberies  de  VEglise 
Gallicane,  and  Preures  of  the  same  rights  and  liberties. 
He  approved  and  defended  the  sentiments  of  Arnauld 
expressed  in  bis  book  De  lei  frequente  Commiin'on.  He 
wrote  St.  Avgustinus  per  se  ipsum  docens  Catholicos  et 
rincens  Pelagietnos,  and  died  in  1646. — Hoefer,  Bieg. 
Generale,  v,  239. 

Bellermann,  Johann  Joachim,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Erfurt  on  Sept.  23,  1754.  After 
finishing  his  studies  at  the  University  of  Gottingen, 
he  accepted  in  1778  a  position  as  a  private  tutor  in 
Russia.  On  his  return  in  1782  he  became  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Erfurt.  After  the 
suppression  of  this  university  he  was  called  to  Berlin 
as  director  of  one  of  the  colleges  ("gymnasia"),  and 
was  at  the  same  time  appointed  extraordinary  profess- 
or at  the  L'niversity  and  consistorial  councillor.  He 
died  Oct.  25,  1824.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous 
philological  and  theological  works.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  the  latter  are  Handbuch  der  biblisehen  Literatur 
(Erfurt.  4  vols.  1787)  ;  I 'ersueh  eint  r  Metrik  der  Ilebraeer 
(Berlin,  1813) ,  Nachrichten  <tu.<  dem  Alter/hume  iiber 
Essaeer  und  Therapeuten  (Berlin,  1821);  Urim  und 
Thummim,  die  dltesten  Gemmen  (Berlin,  1824),  Ueber 
die  Gemmen  der  Alien  mit  elan  Abra.rasbileh  (3  pam- 
phlets, Berlin,  1817-'19). — Brockhaus,  Conrerscdionslex- 
icon,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer,  Biographie  Generale,  v,  251. 

Belle-vue,  Armani*  de,  a  Dominican,  who  took 
his  doctor's  degree  in  theology  about.  1325,  and  was 
made  master  of  the  Sacred  Palace  in  1327.  He  died 
in  1334,  and  left  ninety-eight  Conferences  on  the  Psalms 
(Paris,  1519;  Lyons,  1525;  Brixen,  1010),  with  the  ti- 
tle, "  Sermones  plane  Divini."  Also  a  collection  of 
Prayers,  mid  Mia Italians  em  the  Life  of  our  Lord  (May- 
ence,  1503). — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Bellows  (ns"2,  mappu'ach,  blower;  Sept.  r/>?.wj- 
ri]o)  only  occurs  in  Jer.  yi,  29,  and  with  reference  to 
the  casting  of  metal.  As  fires  in  the  East  are  always 
of  wood  or  charcoal,  a  sufficient  heat  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses is  soon  raised  by  the  help  of  fans,  and  the  use  of 
bellows  is  confined  to  the  workers  in  metal.     Such 


BELLOY 


739 


BELPAGE 


was  the  case  anciently;  and  in  the  mural  paintings  of 
Egypt  we  observe  no  bellows  but  such  as  are  used  for 
the  forge  or  furnace.  They  occur  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Moses,  being  represented  in  a  tomb  at  Thebes  which 
bears  the  name  of  Thothmes  III.  They  consisted  of 
a  leathern  bag  secured  and  fitted  into  a  frame,  from 
which  a  long  pipe  extended  for  carrying  the  wind  to 
the  fire.  They  were  worked  by  the  feet,  the  operator 
standing  upon  them,  with  one  under  each  foot,  and 
pressing  them  alternately,  while  he  pulled  up  each  ex- 
hausted skin  with  a  string  he  held  in  his  hand.  In 
one  instance,  it  is  observed  from  the  painting  that 
when  the  man  left  the  bellows  they  were  raised  as  if 
tilled  with  air,  and  this  would  imply  a  knowledge  of 
the  valve.  The  earliest  specimens  seem  to  have  been 
simply  of  reed,  tipped  with  a  metal  point  to  resist  the 
action  of  the  fire  (Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egyptians,  iii,  338). 


k  I  m 

Two  Forms  of  ancient  Egyptian  Bellows, 
cr,  &,  ifc,  the  leather  case;  r,  I,  the  pipes  conveying  the  wind  to 
the  fire;  rf,  m,  the  fire;  A,  g,  charcoal ;  k  is  raised  as  if  full 
of  air ;  ?,  p,  r,  crucibles. 

Bellows  of  an  analogous  kind  were  early  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  Homer  (//.  xviii,  470)  speaks 
of  20  (puaai  in  the  forge  of  Hepha>stus,  and  they  are 
mentioned  frequently  by  ancient  authors  (Smith's  Diet, 
of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Follis).  The  ordinary  hand-bellows 
now  used  for  small  fires  in  Egypt  are  a  sort  of  bag 
made  of  the  skin  of  a  kid,  with  an  opening  at  one  end 
(like  the  mouth  of  a  common  carpet  bag),  where  the 
skin  is  sewed  upon  two  pieces  of  wood ;  and  these  be- 
ing pulled  apart  by  the  hands  and  closed  again,  the 
bag  is  pressed  down,  and  the  air  thus  forced  through 
the  pipe  at  the  other  end. 

Belloy,  Jean  Baptiste  de,  cardinal-archbishop 
of  Paris,  was  born  October  9th,  1709,  at  Morangles, 
near  Senlis.  He  entered  the  Church  at  an  early  age, 
was  made  archdeacon  of  Beauvais,  and  in  1751  became 
bishop  of  Glandeves.  He  was  deputed  to  the  Assem- 
bly of  the  clergy  in  1755,  where  he  sided  with  the 
moderate  prelates,  or  Feuillunts,  as  they  were  called, 
from  their  leader,  the  Cardinal  de  la  Rochefoucault, 
who  was  minister  de  lafeuille  des  binificcs.  The  oppo- 
site party  were  called  Theatines,  from  the  old  bishop 
of  Mirepoix,  who  belonged  to  that  order.  M.  Belloy 
was  afterward  made  bishop  of  Marseilles,  which  dio- 
cese he  governed  for  forty-five  years.  The  revolution 
drove  him  into  retirement  at  Chambly,  near  his  native 
place,  where  he  lived  till  1802,  when  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Paris,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was 
created  cardinal.  He  died  June  loth,  1808,  and  Napo- 
leon, who  permitted  his  burial  in  the  vault  of  his  pred- 


ecessors by  a  special  privilege,  desired  that  a  monu- 
ment should  be  erected  "to  testify  the  singular  con- 
sideration which  he  had  for  his  episcopal  virtues." — 
Biog.  Univ.  torn,  iv,  p.  128  ;  Landon,  Eccles.  Dictionary, 
s.  v. 

Belly  (usually  "US,  be'ten,  KoiMa,  especially  the 
womb;  also  D',""5,  me'im' ,  yaari'ip,  especially  the  bow- 
els'). Among  the  Hebrews  and  most  ancient  nations, 
the  belly  was  regarded  as  the  seat  of  the  carnal  affec- 
tions, as  being,  according  to  their  notions,  that  which 
first  partakes  of  sensual  pleasures  (Titus  i,  2;  Phil,  iii, 
9;  Rom.  xvi,  18).  It  is  used  likewise  symbolically 
for  the  heart,  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  soul  (Prov. 
xviii,  8  ;  xx,  27  ;  xxii,  18).  The  expression  embitter- 
ing of  the  belly  signifies  all  the  train  of  evils  which 
may  come  upon  a  man  (Jer.  iv,  19;  ix,  15;  comp. 
Num.  xviii,  27).  The  "  belly  of  hell"  signifies  the 
grave,  or  the  under  world.  It  is  a  strong  phrase  to 
express  Jonah's  dreadful  condition  in  the  deep  (Jon. 
ii,  2). 

Bel'maim  (BAOf/i  v.  r.  Kt\ftaif.i,  Vulg.  Belmd), 
a  place  which,  from  the  terms  of  the  passage,  would 
appear  to  have  been  south  of  Dothaim  (Judith  vii,  3). 
Possibly  it  is  the  same  as  Belmen  (q.  v.),  though 
whether  this  is  the  case,  or,  indeed,  whether  either  of 
them  ever  had  any  real  existence,  it  is  at  present  im-  ' 
possible  to  determine.  See  Judith.  The  Syriac  has 
A  bel-meehola. 

Belmas,  Louis,  bishop  of  Cambray,  was  born  at 
Montreal  (Aude).  At  the  time  of  the  Revolution  he 
was  one  of  the  priests  who  took  the  oath  demanded  by 
"the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy."  In  1801  he 
was  appointed  coadjutor  to  the  "constitutional"  bishop 
of  Carcassonne,  and  in  1802  bishop  of  Cambray.  When 
Napoleon  was  crowned,  Belmas  signed  a  formula  of 
retractation.  His  pastoral  letters  during  the  reign  of 
Napoleon  showed  him  to  be  a  very  devoted  partisan 
of  imperialism.  When,  according  to  the  Concordat  of 
1817,  Cambray  was  to  be  made  an  archbishopric,  the 
pope  opposed  it  on  account  of  the  former  views  of  Bel- 
mas. After  the  Revolution  of  1830  the  government 
again  intended  to  make  him  an  archbishop,  but  the 
design  was  once  more  abandoned  on  account  of  the  op- 
position of  Rome.  In  1811  he  issued  a  pastoral  letter 
strongly  urging  sincere  submission  to  and  recognition 
of  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe.  This  letter  made 
a  profound  sensation  in  France,  and  greatly  offend- 
ed the  Legitimists.  Belmas  died  on  July  21, 1811,  at 
Cambray.  He  was  the  last  of  the  "constitutional" 
bishops. — See  Hoefer,  Biognqdiie  Generate,  v,  290. 

Bel'men  (R^A/ifi/  v.  r.  Be\^aiv  and  BtX/zai'/t ; 
Vulg.  omits),  a  place  named  among  the  towns  of  Sa- 
maria as  lying  between  Bethhoron  and  Jericho  (Judith 
iv,  4).  The  Hebrew  name  would  seem  to  have  been 
A  bel-maim,  but  the  only  place  of  that  name  in  the  O. 
T.  was  far  to  the  north  of  the  locality  here  alluded  to. 
See  Abel-maim.  The  Syriac  version  has  Abel-meho- 
lah,  which  is  more  consistent  with  the  context.  See 
Abel-meholaii  ;  Belmaim. 

Belomancy.     See  Divination. 

Belpage,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Seces- 
sion Church  of  Scotland,  was  born  at  Falkirk,  May  24, 
1774,  where  his  father  was  minister  of  the  Associate 
Church.  He  entered  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in 
17*0,  and  made  his  theological  studies  under  Dr.  Law- 
son,  at  the  secession  seminar}'  in  Selkirk.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  at  19,  and  was  ordained  as  colleague 
to  his  father  in  1794,  whom  he  succeeded  as  full  pas- 
tor in  1798.  His  pulpit  labors  were  very  successful ; 
he  was  one  of  the  most  popular  and  useful  ministers 
of  the  day  in  Scotland.  In  1814  he  published  Sacra- 
mental Addresses  and  Meditations  (12mo,  5th  edition, 
1841,  Edinb.);  in  1817,  Practical  Discourses  for  the 
Young  (8vo ;  several  editions  issued) ;  in  1821,  Sacra- 


BELSIIAM 


740 


BELSHAZZAR 


mental  Discourses,  2d  series  ;  1822,  Sketches  of  Life  and 
•'.•  1823,  Discourses  on  Domestic  Life  (12mo) ; 
1826,  Discourses  to  the  Aged;  besides  a  number  of 
smaller  works,  catechisms,  etc.  He  died  Sept.  16, 
183  L— Jamieson,  ( yclopadia  ofRelig.  Biography,  p.  42. 

Belsham,  Thomas,  a  Socinian  divine  of  note,  was 
born  at  Bedford,  England,  April  15,  1750.  In  1778 
he  was  settled  as  pastor  of  a  dissenting  congregation 
at  "Worcester,  from  which,  however,  he  removed  in 
1781  to  take  charge  of  the  Daventry  Academy.  Here 
his  Bentiments  underwent  a  change  so  far  that,  in 
1789,  In'  avowed  himself  a  Unitarian  of  the  school  of 
Priestley.  He  resigned  his  station,  and  immediately 
took  charge  of  Hackney  College,  a  Unitarian  institu- 
tion, which  in  a  few  years  sunk  for  want  of  funds. 
In  1805  he  became  minister  of  Essex  Street  Chapel, 
London,  where  he  remained  during  the  rest  of  his  life, 
lie  died  at  Hampstead,  Nov.  11,  1820.  After  Dr. 
Priestley  he  was  regarded  as  the  leader  of  Unitarian- 
ism  in  England.  The  "Unitarian  Societ}'  for  pro- 
moting Christian  Knowledge"  was  founded  at  his  sug- 
gestion. He  aided  largely  in  preparing  the  Improved 
Version  of  the  N.  T.  (Unitarian;  Lond.  1808,  8vo). 
His  principal  writings  are,  A  Calm  Inquiry  into  the 
Scripture  Doctrine  concerning  the  Person  of  Christ,  etc. 
(Loud.  1811,  8vo): — Evidences  of  Christianity : — Epis- 
tles of  Pan!  translated,  with  Exposition  and  Xotes  (Lond. 
1822,  2  vols.  4to) ;  Discourses  Doctrinal  and  Practical ; 
Review  of  American  Unitarianism  (1815,  8vo):  Letters 
to  >h  Bishop  of  London  in  Vindication  of  the  Unitarians 
(1815,  Svo).  His  Life  and  Letters,  by  J.  Williams,  was 
published  in  1833  (Lond.  8vo). — Darling,  Cyclop.  Biblio- 
graphica,  i,  238;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Author?,  i,  1G3  ; 
Christ/nn  Examiner,  xv,  GO;  Bennett,  Hist,  of  Dissent- 
ers (Lond.  1830,  8vo). 

Belshaz'zar  (Heb.  and  Chald.  Belshatstsar'  [on 
the  signif.  see  below],  ^2X'.y?2;  Sept.  YSaXraoap)  is 
the  name  given  in  the  book  of  Daniel  to  the  last  king 
of  the  Chaldees,  under  whom  Babylon  was  taken  by 
the  Medes  and  Persians  (chap,  v,  1 ;  vii,  1 ;  viii,  1). 
B.C.  538.  Herodotus  calls  this  king,  and  also  his  fa- 
ther, Labynetus,  which  is  undoubtedly  a  corruption  of 
Nabonnedus,  the  name  by  which  he  was  known  to  Be- 
rosus,  in  Joseph,  contr.  Apion.  i,  20.  Yet  in  Josephus 
(.1///.  x,  11,  2)  it  is  stated  that  Baltasar  was  called 
Naboandel  by  the  Babylonians.  Naoonad'.us  in  the 
Canon  of  Ptolemy,  Nabonedus  in  Euseb.  Chron.  Armen. 
i,  GO  (from  Alexander  Polyhistor),  and  Xabonnidochus 
in  Euseb.  Prop.  Evang.  ix,  41  (from  Megasthenes),  are 
evidently  other  varieties  of  his  name.  The  only  cir- 
cumstances  recorded  of  him  in  Scripture  are  his  im- 
pious feast  and  violent  death  (Dan.  v).  During  the 
period  that  the  .lews  were  in  captivity  at  Babylon,  a 
variety  of  singular  events  concurred  to  prove  that  the 
sins  which  brought  desolation  on  their  country,  and 
subjected  them  for  a  while  to  the  Babylonish  yoke,  had 
not  dissolved  that  covenant  relation  which,  as  the  God 
of  Abraham,  Jehovah  had  entered  into  with  them; 
and  that  any  act  of  indignity  perpetrated  against  this 
afflicted  people,  or  any  insult  cast  upon  the  service  of 
their  temple,  would  !»■  regarded  as  an  affront  to  the 
Majesty  of  Heaven,  and  not  suffered  to  pass  with  im- 
punity. The  fate  of  Belshazzar  affords  a  remarkable 
instance  of  this.  He  had  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
in  the  case  of  his  ancestors  how  hateful  pride  is,  even 
in  royalty  itself;  how  instantly  (led  can  blast  the  dig- 
nity of  the  brightest  crown,  and  consequently,  how 
much  the  prosperity  of  kings  and  the  stability  of  their 
thrones  depend  upon  acknowledging  that  "the  Most 
High  ruleth  in  the  kingdom  of  men,  and  giveth  it  to 
■  *er  he  will."  Bui  this  solemn  lesson  was 
lost  upon  Belshazzar.  According  to  the  views  of 
some,  I-aiah.  in  representing  the  Babylonian  dynasty 
courge  of  Palestine,  Btyles  Nebuchadnezzar  a 
"serpent,"  Evil-Merodach  a  "cockatrice,"  and  Bel- 
shazzar a  "  fiery  Hying  serpent."  the  worst  of  all  (Isa. 


xiv,  4-20) ;  but  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing  the 
prophet  in  this  passage  to  allude  to  any  other  event 
than  the  overthrow  of  the  Philistines  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah  (see  Henderson,  Comment,  in  loc). 

The  Scriptural  narrative  states  that  Belshazzar  was 
warned  of  his  coming  doom  by  the  handwriting  on  the 
wall  that  was  interpreted  by  Daniel,  and  was  slain 
during  a  splendid  feast  in  his  palace.  Similarly  Xeno- 
phon  (Cyrop.  vii,  5,  3)  tells  us  that  Babylon  was  taken 
by  Cyrus  in  the  night,  while  the  inhabitants  were  en- 
gaged in  feasting  and  revelry,  and  that  the  king  was 
I  killed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  narratives  of  Berosus 
in  Josephus  {Apion,  i,  20)  and  of  Herodotus  (i,  184  sq.) 
differ  from  the  above  account  in  some  important  par- 
!  ticulars.  Berosus  calls  the  last  king  of  Babylon  Na- 
bonnedus  or  Nabonadius  (Xabu-nit  or  Xabo-nahit,  i.  e. 
;  Nebo  blesses  or  makes  prosperous),  and  says  that  in  the 
17th  year  of  his  reign  Cyrus  took  Babylon,  the  king 
having  retired  to  the  neighboring  city  of  Borsippus  or 
Borsippa  (Birs-i-Nimrud ),  called  by  Niebuhr  {Lcct.  on 
' Anc.  Hist,  xii)  "the  Chaldsean  Benares,  the  city  in 
which  the  Chaldeans  had  their  most  revered  objects 
I  of  religion,  and  where  they  cultivated  their  science." 
Being  blockaded  in  that  city,  Nabonnedus  surrendered, 
his  life  was  spared,  and  a  principality  or  estate  given 
to  him  in  Carmania,  where  he  died.  According  to 
Herodotus,  the  last  king  was  called  Labynetus,  a  name 
easy  to  reconcile  with  the  Nabonnedus  of  Berosus, 
and  the  Nabanuidochus  of  Megasthenes  (Euseb.  Prop. 
Evang.  ix,  41).  Cyrus,  after  defeating  Labynetus  in 
the  open  field,  appeared  before  Babylon,  within  which 
the  besieged  defied  attack  and  even  blockade,,  as  they 
had  walls  300  feet  high  and  75  feet  thick,  forming  a 
square  of  15  miles  to  a  side,  and  had  stored  up  previ- 
ously several  years'  provision.  But  he  took  the  city 
by  drawing  off  for  a  time  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  then  marching  in  with  his  whole  army  along  its 
bed,  during  a  great  Babvdonian  festival,  while  the  peo- 
ple, feeling  perfectly  secure,  were  scattered  over  the 
whole  city  in  reckless  amusement.  These  discrepan- 
cies have  lately  been  cleared  up  by  the  discoveries  of 
Sir  Henry  Bawlinson  ;  and  the  histories  of  profane 
writers,  far  from  contradicting  the  scriptural  narra- 
tive, are  shown  to  explain  and  confirm  it.  In  1854  he 
deciphered  the  inscriptions  on  some  cylinders  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Um-Kir  (the  ancient  Ur  of  the  Chaldees), 
containing  memorials  of  the  works  executed  by  Na- 
bonnedus {Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  1854,  p.  252;  Jan.  1862). 
From  these  inscriptions  it  appears  that  the  eldest  son 
of  Nabonnedus  was  called  Bel-shar-tzar,  and  admitted 
by  his  father  to  a  share  in  the  government.  This 
name  is  compounded  of  Bel  (the  Babylonian  god),  Sh  ir 
{a  king'),  and  the  same  termination  as  in  Nabopolossar, 
Nebuchadnezzar,  etc.,  and  is  contracted  into  Belshaz- 
zar, just  as  Neriglissar  (again  with  the  same  termina- 
tion) is  formed  from  Nergal-sharezar.  In  a  communi- 
cation to  the  Athenwum,  No.  1377,  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson 
says,  "We  can  now  understand  how  Belshazzar,  as 
joint  king  with  his  father,  may  have  been  governor  of 
Babylon  when  the  city  was  attacked  by  the  combined 
forces  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  and  may  have  per- 
ished in  the  assault  which  followed  :  while  Nabonnedus 
leading  a  force  to  the  relief  of  the  place  was  defeated, 
and  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Borsippa,  capitulating 
after  a  short  resistance,  and  being  subsequently  as- 
signed, according  to  Berosus,  an  honorable  retirement 
in  Carmania."  In  accordance  with  this  view,  we  ar- 
range the  last  Chaldsean  kings  as  follows :  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, his  son  Evilmerodach,  Neriglissar,  Labroso- 
archad  (his  son,  a  boy,  killed  in  a  conspiracy),  Nabon- 
ncdus  or  Labynetus,  and  Belshazzar.  Herodotus  says 
thai  Labynetus  was  the  son  of  Queen  Nitocris;  and 
Megasthenes  (Euseb.  Chr.  Arm.  p.  60)  tells  us  that  he 
succeeded  Labrosoarchad,  but  was  not  of  his  family. 
In  Dan.  v,  2,  Nebuchadnezzar  is  called  the  father  of 
Belshazzar.  This,  of  course,  need  only  mean  grandfa- 
ther or  ancestor.     Now  Neriglissar  usurped  the  throne 


BELTESIIAZZAK 


741 


BEN- 


on  the  murder  of  Evilmcrodach  (Beros.  ap.  Joseph. 
Apion,  i):  we  may  therefore  well  suppose  that  on  the 
death  of  his  son  Labrosoarchad,  Nebuchadnezzar's  fam- 
ily was  restored  in  the  person  of  Nabonnedus  or  La- 
bynetus.  possibly  the  son  of  that  king  and  Nitocris, 
and  father  of  Belshazzar.  The  chief  objection  to  this 
supposition  would  be,  that  if  Neriglissar  married  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's daughter  (Joseph,  c.  Ap.  i,  21),  Nabon- 
nedus would  through  her  be  connected  with  Labroso- 
archad. This  difficulty  is  met  by  the  theory  of  Rawlin- 
son {Herod.  Essay  viii,  §  25),  who  connects  Belshazzar 
with  Nebuchadnezzar  through  his  mother,  thinking  it 
probable  that  Nebu-nahit,  whom  he  does  not  consider 
related  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  would  strengthen  his  posi- 
tion by  marrying  the  daughter  of  that  king,  who  would 
thus  be  Belshazzar' s  maternal  grandfather.  A  totally 
different  view  is  taken  by  Marcus  Niebuhr  (Geschichtt 
Assur's  und  Babel's  sett  Pkul,  p.  91),  who  considers  Bel- 
shazzar to  be  another  name  for  Evilmcrodach,  the  son 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  He  identifies  their  characters  by 
comparing  Dan.  v  with  the  language  of  Berosus  about 
Evilmerodach  (jrpoGTac.  ruv  irpayfiartov  avopaig  Kai 
ciGtXywc).  He  considers  that  the  capture  of  Babylon 
described  in  Daniel  was  not  by  the  Persians,  but  by 
the  Medes,  under  Astyages  (i.  e.  Darius  the  Mede), 
and  that  between  the  reigns  of  Evilmerodach  or  Bel- 
shazzar, and  Neriglissar,  we  must  insert  a  brief  period 
during  which  Babylon  was  subject  to  the  Medes.  This 
solves  a  difficulty  as  to  the  age  of  Darius  (Dan.  v,  31 ; 
comp.  Rawlinson,  Essay  iii,  §  11),  but  most  people  will 
probably  prefer  the  actual  facts  discovered  by  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson  to  the  theory  (though  doubtless  very 
ingenious")  of  Niebuhr.  On  Rawlinson's  view,  Bel- 
shazzar died  B.C.  538,  on  Niehuhr's  B.C.  559  (Gobel, 
De  Belsasaro,  Laub.  1757). — Smith.  See  Babylonia. 
Eelteshaz'zar  (Heb.  Belteshatstsar' ',  ISSMBB^a, 
BeVs  prince,  that  is,  whom  Bel  favors;  Sept.  BaAr«<7a()),_ 
the  Chaldee  or  Assyrio-Babylonish  name,  given  to 
'  Daniel  at  the  court  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  Babylon 
(Dan.  i,  7,  etc).     See  Daniel. 

Belus  (B/)\o<_).  1.  According  to  classical  my- 
thology, a  son  of  Poseidon  by  Libya  or  Eurynome. 
He  was  twin  brother  of  Agenor,  and  father  of  ^Egyptus 
and  Danaus.  He  was  believed  to  be  the  ancestral 
hero  and  national  divinity  of  several  Eastern  nations, 
from  which  the  legends  about  him  were  transplanted 
to  Greece,  and  became  mixed  up  with  Greek  myths. 
(See  Apollod.  ii,  1,  4;  Diod.  i,  28;  Servius,  ad  JEn.  i, 
733.)     See  Baal. 

2.  The  father  of  the  Carthaginian  queen  Dido,  oth- 
erwise called  Pygmalion,  lie  conquered  Cyprus  and 
then  gave  it  to  Teucer.  (See  Virgil,  Mn.  i,  621 ;  Serv- 
ius, ad  Ain.  i,  625,  646.)  By  some  he  was  thought 
to  be  the  Tyrian  king  Eth-baal  (q.  v.),  father  of  the 
Israelitish  queen  Jezebel  (1  Kings  xvi,  31),  from  whose 
period  (she  was  killed  B.C.  883)  this  docs  not  much 
differ,  for  Carthage  was  founded  (according  to  Jose- 
phus,  Apion,  i,  18)  B.C.  861. 

Belus  (BijXivc),  called  also  Pagida  by  Pliny  (v, 
19),  a  small  river  of  Palestine,  described  by  Pliny  as 
taking  its  rise  from  a  lake  called  Cendcvia,  at  the  roots 
of  Mount  Carmel,  which,  after  running  five  miles,  en- 
ters the  sea  near  Ptolemais  (xxxvi,  26),  or  two  stadia 
from  the  city  according  to  Josephus  {War,  x,  2).  It 
is  chief!}'  celebrated  among  the  ancients  for  its  vitreous 
sand  ;  and  the  accidental  discovery  of  the  manufacture 
of  glass  ( q.  v.)  is  ascribed  by  Pliny  to  the  banks  of  this 
river,  which  he  describes  as  a  sluggish  stream  of  un- 
wholesome water,  but  consecrated  to  religious  cere- 
monies (comp.  Tacitus,  Hist,  v,  7).  It  is  now  called 
Nahr  Xaaman,  but  the  Lake  Cendevia  has  disappear- 
ed. It  is  an  ingenious  conjecture  of  Roland  (Palcest. 
p.  290)  that  its  ancient  appellation  may  be  connected 
with  the  Greek  name  for  glass  (i'lXor  or  vaXoc),  and 
it  is  possible  that  the  name  appears  in  the  Scriptural 
one,  Bcaloth  (q.  v.),  incorrectly  rendered  "in  Aloth" 


(1  Kings  iv,  16).     For  the  temple  of  Belus,  see  Ba- 
bel. 

Bema  (firjfia,  rostrum),  the  third  or  innermost  part 
of  the  ancient  churches,  corresponding  to  what  we  now 
call  the  chancel.  The  bema  was  the  whole  space  where 
stood  the  altar,  the  bishop's  throne,  and  the  seats  of 
the  priests  ;  in  which  sense  Bingham  understands  the 
fifty-sixth  canon  of  Laodieca,  which  forbids  priests  to 
go  into  the  bema  and  take  their  scats  there  before  the 
bishop  comes  (see  Chrysost.  Horn.  35,  de  Pentecost,  torn, 
v,  p.  553).  The  name  bona  arose  from  its  being  more 
exalted  than  the  rest  of  the  church,  and  raised  upon 
steps.  As  the  bema  was  especially  devoted  to  the 
clergy,  they  were  called  sometimes  oi  rov  /3?'//if<-or, 
and  ra^ie,  too  ftqparoc,  or  "the  Order  of  the  Bema." 
— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  viii,  eh.  vi ;  Suicer,  The- 
saurus, i,  682  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  143. 

Bsmo,  John,  a  Seminole  Indian,  converted  to 
Christianity,  and  afterward  instrumental  in  great  good 
to  his  tribe.  He  was  born  in  the  year  1825,  in  Florida. 
When  quite  .young  he  was  brought  to  St.  Augustine  by 
his  father,  who  perished  there  through  the  brutality  of 
the  whites.  Bemo  was  kidnapped  by  a  ship's  crew, 
and  carried  on  a  several  years'  voyage,  visiting  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  and  Africa.  During  this  voyage  he  was 
thoroughly  converted,  through  the  agency  of  a  pious 
sailor.  After  other  voyages  he  attended  school  a  year 
with  the  "Friends"  in  Philadelphia,  and  then  com- 
menced laboring  with  great  success  among  his  people, 
at  their  new  location  in  the  West,  and  by  his  appeals 
in  the  Eastern  cities  he  kept  them  alive  when  threat- 
ened with  starvation.  Further  facts  are  wanting. 
He  was  a  greatly  wronged  boy,  but  an  apostolic  and 
blessed  man. — Thomson,  Biographical  Sketches,  p.  133. 

Ben  (Hab.  id.  "2,  son;  Sept.  omits;  Vulg.  Ben),  a 
Levite  "of  the  second  degree,"  one  of  the  porters  ap- 
pointed by  David  to  the  service  of  the  ark,  apparently 
as  an  assistant  musician  (1  Chr.  xv,  18).     B.C.  1043. 

Ben-  (""3,  son  of)  is  often  found  as  the  first  ele- 
ment of  Scriptural  proper  names  (see  those  following), 
in  which  case  the  word  which  follows  it  is  always  to 
be  considered  dependent  on  it,  in  the  relation  of  our 
genitive.  The  word  which  follows  Ben-  may  either 
be  of  itself  a  proper  name,  or  be  an  appellative  or  ab- 
stract, the  principle  of  the  connection  being  essential- 
ly the  same  in  both  cases.  Comp.  Ab-.  As  to  the 
first  class,  the  Syro-Arabian  nations  being  all  particu- 
larly addicted  to  genealogy,  and  possessing  no  sur- 
names, nor  family  names  in  our  sense,  they  have  no 
means  of  attaching  a  definite  designation  to  a  person 
except  by  adding  some  accessory  specification  to  his 
distinctive,  or,  as  we  would  term  it,  Christian  name. 
This  explains  why  so  man}'  persons,  both  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  are  distinguished  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  names  of  their  father.  The  same  usage  is 
especially  frequent  among  the  Arabs ;  but  they  have 
improved  its  definiteness  by  adding  the  name  of  the 
person's  child,  in  case  he  has  one.  In  doing  this,  they 
always  observe  this  arrangement — the  name  of  the 
child,  the  person's  own  name,  and  the  name  of  his  fa- 
ther. Thus  the  designation  of  the  patriarch  Isaac 
would  in  Arabic  run  thus:  Father  of  Jacob,  Isaac,  son 
of  Abraham  (Abu  Ja'qub,  Ishaq,  ben  Ibrahim).  As 
to  the  latter  class,  there  is  an  easy  transition  from  this 
strict  use  of  son  to  its  employment  in  a  figurative  sense, 
to  denote  a  peculiar  dependence  of  derivation.  The 
principle  of  such  a  connection  not  only  explains  such 
proper  names  as  Bcn-Chosed  (son  of  mercy),  but  ap- 
plies to  many  striking  metaphors  in  other  classes  of 
words,  as  sous  of  the  bow,  a  son  of  seventeen  years 
(the  usual  mode  of  denoting  age),  a  hill,  the  son  of  oil 
(Isa.  v,  2),  and  many  others,  in  which  our  translation 
effaces  the  Oriental  type  of  the  expression.  All  prop- 
er names  which  begin  with  Ben  belong  to  one  or  tho 
other  of  these   classes.     Ben-Aminadab,  Ben-Gaber, 


BEX-ABIXADAB  742 

and  Ben-Chesed  (1  Kings  iv,  10,  11),  illustrate  all  the  I 
possibilities  of  combination  noticed  above.  In  these 
names  "  Ben"  would,  perhaps,  be  better  not  trans- 
lated, as  it  is  in  our  version  ;  although  the  Vulgate  has 
preserved  it,  as  the  Sept.  also  appears  to  have  once 
done  in  ver.  8,  to  judge  by  the  reading  there.— Kitto. 

These  remarks  apply  also  in  part  to  Bar-  (q.  v.),  the 
Aramaic  synonyme  of  Ben-,  as  in  the  name  Bar-Abbas. 

The  following  arc  instances  in  -which  our  transla- 
tors  have  doubted  whether  the  prefix  Ben-  should  not 
be  transcribed,  and  have  therefore  placed  it  in  the 
margin,  gi\  ing  "«  »"  in  the  text:  Ben-Hur,  Ben-De- 
kar.  Ben-Hesed,  Ben-Abinadab,  Ben-Geber  (1  Kings 
iv.  8  13)  [for  each  of  these,  see  the  latter  part  of  the 
name].  Of  the  following  the  reverse  is  true:  Ben- 
Hanan,  Ben-Zoheth  (1  Chron.  iv,  20;  Ben-o  (1  Chron. 
xxi  v.  26,  27) :  Ben-jamite  (Psa.  vii,  title  ;  Judg.  ii,  15 ; 
xix,  1G ;  1  Sam.  ix,  1,  4 ;  2  Sam.  xx,  1 ;  Esth.  ii,  5). 

Ben-Abinadab.     See  Ben-. 

Benai'ah  (Ileb.  Benayah',  !T32,  built  [i.  e.  made 
or  sustained]  by  Jehovah,  2  Sam.  xx,  23;  1  Chron.  iv, 
36;  xi,  22,  31;  xxvii,  14;  2  Chron.  xx,  14;  Ezra  x, 
25,  30,  35,  43 ;  Ezek.  xi,  23 ;  elsewhere  and  oftener  in 
the  prolonged  form,  IJVOa,  Benayahu;  Sept.  gener- 
ally [also  Josephus,  Ant.  vii,  11, 8]  Bavaiac,  in  Chron. 
occasionally  v.  r.  Bavaia,  and  in  Ezra  Bavata,  rarely 
anj-  other  v.  r.,  e.  g.  Bavaiac,  Bavai),  the  name  of  a 
large  number  of  men  in  the  0.  T. 

1.  The  son  of  Jehoiada  the  chief-priest  (1  Chron. 
xxvii,  5),  and  therefore  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  though  a 
native  of  Kabzeel  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20  ;  1  Chron.  xi,  22), 
in  the  south  of  Judah ;  set  by  David  (1  Chron.  xi,  24) 
over  his  body-guard  of  Cherethites  and  Pelethites  (2 
Sam.  viii,  18;  1  Kings  i,  38 ;  1  Chron.  xviii,  17;  2 
Sam.  xx,  23),  and  occupying  a  middle  rank  between 
the  first  three  of  the  Gibborim,  or  "  mighty  men,"  and 
the  thirty  "  valiant  men  of  the  armies"  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
22,  30;  1  Chron.  xi,  24;  xxvii,  G  ;  and  see  Kennieott, 
Diss.  p.  177).  The  exploits  which  gave  him  this  rank 
are  narrated  in  2  Sam.  xxiii,  20,  21;  1  Chron.  xi,  22: 
he  overcame  two  Moabitish  champions  ("lions  of 
God"),  slew  an  Egyptian 'giant  with  his  own  spear, 
and  went  down  into  an  exhausted  cistern  and  destroj'- 
ed  a  lion  which  had  fallen  into  it  when  covered  with 
snow,  lie  was  captain  of  the  host  for  the  third  month 
(1  Chron.  xxvii,  5).  B.C.  104G.  Benaiah  remained 
faithful  to  Solomon  during  Adonijah's  attempt  on  the 
crown  ( 1  Kings  i,  8,  10,  26),  a  matter  in  which  he  took 
part  in  his  official  capacity  as  commander  of  the  king's 
body-guard  (1  Kings  i,  32,  36,  38,  44);  and  after  Ado- 
nijah  and  Joab  had  both  been  put  to  death  by  his  hand 
(  2  Kings  ii,  25,  29,  30,  34),  as  well  as  Shimei  (2  Kings 
ii.  Ii.  i.  he  was  raised  by  Solomon  into  the  place  of  Joab 
a-  commander-in-chief  of  the  whole  armv  (ii,  35;  iv, 
4).     B.C.  1015.     See  David. 

Benaiah  appears  to  have  bad  a  son  called,  after  his 
grandfather,  Jehoiada,  who  succeeded  Ahithophel  about 
the  person  of  the  king  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  34).  But  this 
i-  possibly  a  copyist's  mistake  for  "Benaiah,  the  son 
of  Jehoiada."— Smith,  s.  v. 

2.  A  Pirathonite  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  one  of 
David's  thirty  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  :'.0;  1  Chron. 
xi.  ::i  i.  and  the  captain  of  the  eleventh  monthly  course 
(1  Chron.  xxvii,  14).     B.C.  1044.     See  David. 

3.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  David,  who  "played 
with   a   psaltery  on   Alamoth"   at   the  removal  of  the 

ark  il  Chron.  xv,  18,  20;  xvi,  6).     B.C.  1048. 

4.  A  priest  in  the  time  of  David,  appointed  to  blow 

the  trumpet  before  the  ark  when  brought  to.Ierusalcm 
(1  Chron.  xv,  2-1  ;  xvi,  6).      B.C.  I'M.;. 

5.  'I'll-  -on  of  Jeiel,  and  father  of  Zechariah,  a  Le- 
vite ot  the  Bona  of  Asaph  (2  Chron.  xx,  14).  B.C, 
considerably  ante  890. 

6.  A    Levite   in   the   time   of  Hezekiah,  one  of  the 

'•overseer-  c-n-ps)  of  offerings"  (2  Chron.  xxxi 
13).     B.C.  720. 


BENEDICT 


7.  One  of  the  "  princes"  (r^X'ip)  of  the  families 
of  Simeon  who  dispossessed  the  Amalekites  from  the 
pasture-grounds  of  Gedor  (1  Chron.  iv,  CO).  B.C.  cir. 
713. 

8.  The  father  of  Pelatiah,  which  latter  was  "a 
prince  of  the  people"  in  the  time  of  Ezekiel  (xi,  1, 13). 
B.C.  ante  571. 

9.  One  of  the  "  sons"  of  Parosh,  who  divorced  his 
Gentile  wife  after  the  return  from  Babvlon  (Ezra  x, 
25).     B.C.  458. 

10.  Another  Israelite,  of  the  "sons"  of  Pahath- 
moab,  who  did  the  same  (Ezra  x,  30).      B.C.  458. 

11.  Another,  of  the  "sons"  of  Bani,  who  did  like- 
wise (Ezra  x,  35).      B.C.  458. 

12.  A  fourth,  of  the  "sons"  of  Nebo,  who  did  the 
same  (Ezra  x,  43).     B.C.  458. 

Ben-am'mi  (n12t'"'2,  son  of  my  kindred,  i.  e.  born 
of  incest;  Sept.  repeats,  'Afifiav,  nioc  yivovg  fiov),  the 
original  form  of  the  name  Ammon  (q.  v.),  the  son  of 
Lot  by  his  younger  daughter  (Gen.  xix,  38). 

Bench  (-^p,  lce'resli),  a  j>lank  (usually  rendered 
"board"),  once  the  deck  of  a  Tyrian  ship,  represented 
(Ezek.  xxvii,  6)  as  inlaid  with  box-wood.     See  Ash- 
lrite. 
Ben-Dekar.     See  Ben-. 

Bene-b'erak  (Heb.  Beney' -  Berak' ,  p"13"0:2, 
sons  of  Berak  or  lightning  [comp.  Boanerges] ;  Sept. 
BavtijSapaK  v.  r.  BavaijiaKar;  Vulg.  et  Bane  et  Ba- 
rucK),  one  of  the  cities  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  mentioned 
only  in  Josh,  xix,  46,  between  Jehud  and  Gath-rim- 
mon.  The  paucity  of  information  wdiich  we -possess 
regarding  this  tribe  (omitted  entirely  from  the  lists  in 
1  Chron.  ii— viii,  and  only  one  family  mentioned  in 
Num.  xxvi)  makes  it  impossible  to  say  whether  the 
"sons  of  Berak,"  who  gave  their  name  to  this  place, 
belonged  to  Dan,  or  were,  as  we  may  perhaps  infer 
from  the  name,  earlier  settlers  dispossessed  by  the 
tribe.  The  reading  of  the  Syriac,  Baal-debac,  favors 
this  latter  foreign  origin,  but  is  not  confirmed  by  any 
other  version.  It  is  evidently  the  Baraca,  a  "village 
in  the  tribe  of  Dan  near  Azotus,"  mentioned  by  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome  (in  the  Onomasticon,  s.  v.  Barath, 
BapaKcii),  although  the}-  speak  confusedly  of  its  then 
existing  name  (Bareca,  Bapftd').  It  is  doubtless  the 
present  Moslem  village  Burdka  (Robinson,  Researches, 
iii,  App.  p.  118),  a  little  north  of  Ashdod  (Van  do 
Velde,  Map).  The  same  place  appears  to  be  referred 
to  in  the  Talmud  (Sanhedr.  xxxii,  1),  and  was  the  res- 
idence of  the  famous  Rabbi  Akiba  (q.  v.).  Schwarz, 
however,  disputes  this  location  (Palest,  p.  141). 
Benedet.     See  Benezet. 

Benedicite,  or  "the  song  of  the  three  Hebrew 
children,"  is  a  canticle  appointed  by  the  rubric  of  the 
Church  of  England  to  be  said  or  sung  at  the  morning 
service,  instead  of  the  hymn  Te  Deum,  whenever  the 
minister  may  think  fit.  It  is  a  paraphrase  of  the  forty- 
eighth  Psalm.  In  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  pub- 
lished under  the  sanction  of  Edward  VI,  it  was  ordered 
that  the  Te  Deum  should  be  said  daily  throughout  the 
year,  except  in  Lent,  when  the  Benedicite  was  to  be 
"used.  The  minister  had  no  choice  according  to  this 
appointment;  but  in  the  subsequent  revision  of  the 
Prayer  Book,  the  choice  was  left  to  the  option  of  the 
minister  to  read  the  Te  Deum  or  the  Benedicite.  This 
hymn  was  sung  as  early  as  the  3d  century.  Chrysos- 
tom  speaks  of  it  as  sung  in  all  places  throughout  the 
world.— Bingham,  Grig.  Eccles.  bk.  xiv,  ch.  xi,  §  6  ; 
Procter,  On  Common  Prayer,  p.  221. 

Benedict  I,  Pope,  surnamed  Bonosvs,  a  Roman, 
elected  to  the  papal  see  after  John  III,  June  3, 
574.  He  occupied  the  see  about  four  years,  dying 
in  578.  During  his  pontificate  Rome  suffered  great- 
ly from  the  inroads  of  the  Lombards  and  from  fam- 
ine. Like  his  predecessors,  he  confirmed  the  fifth 
oecumenical  council.     An  epistle  to  the  Spanish  bish- 


BENEDICT 


743 


BENEDICT 


op  David,  which  has  been   ascribed  to   him,  is   not 
genuine. 

II,  Pope,  also  a  Roman,  succeeded  Leo  II,  26th 
June,  684,  and  died  7th  May,  G85.  His  incumbency 
was  marked  by  nothing  of  note. 

III,  Tope,  elected  Sept.  1,  855.  His  title  was  dis- 
puted by  Anastasius,  who  was  supported  by  the  em- 
perors Lothaire  and  Louis,  whose  deputies  entered 
Rome,  forcibly  ejected  Benedict,  and  imprisoned  him. 
Rome  was  thrown  into  consternation  at  these  acts ; 
and  the  bishops,  assembling  in  spits  of  the  threats  of 
the  emperor's  deputies,  refused  to  recognise  Anasta- 
sius. Benedict,  removed  from  the  church  where  he  had 
been  imprisoned,  was  carried  in  triumph  by  the  people 
to  the  palace  of  Later  an.  In  unison  with  Ethel  wolf, 
king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  he  established  an  English 
school  at  Rome.  He  confirmed  the  deposition  of  Bish- 
op Gregory  of  Sj-racuse,  pronounced  in  85-1  by  a  syn- 
od of  Constantinople,  which  occasioned  soon  after  the 
Greek  schism.  There  are  still  extant  four  of  bis  epis- 
tles (Mansi,  xv,  110-120).  He  held  the  see  only  two 
years  and  a  half,  and  died  March  10th,  858. 

IV,  Pope,  succeeded  John  IX,  April  6,  900,  and 
held  the  papacy  nearly  rive  years,  dying  Oct.  20,  004. 
He  crowned,  in  901,  Louis,  King  of  Provence,  as  Ro- 
man Emperor.  There  are  still  extant  two  of  his  epis- 
tles, one  addressed  to  the  bishops  and  princes  of  Gaul, 
and  the  other  to  the  clergy  and  people  of  Langres, 
whose  exiled  bishop  he  reinstated  (Mansi,  xviii,  233- 
236). 

V,  Pope,  elected  in  964.  John  XII,  his  predeces- 
sor, who  had  been  protected  by  the  Emperor  Otho  the 
Great  against  Berenger  and  Adalbert,  ungratefully 
took  the  part  of  the  emperor's  enemies.  Otho,  justly 
irritated  by  this  conduct,  convoked  a  council  at  Rome 
in  963,  where  John  was  deposed  and  Leo  VIII  elected. 
John  soon  after  repaired  to  Rome,  held  another  coun- 
cil in  964,  and  in  his  turn  .deposed  Leo;  but  soon  after 
this  John  was  assassinated,  and  his  part}'  elected  Bene- 
dict V  to  succeed  him.  Otho  soon  appeared  again  on 
the  scene,  laid  siege  to  Rome,  and  carried  away  Bene- 
dict (who  consented  to  bis  deposition)  captive  into 
Germany.  Leo  VIII  died  at  Rome  in  April,  9G5  ;  the 
people  demanded  Benedict  as  his  successor,  and  the 
emperor  would  probably  have  granted  their  request, 
but  Benedict  died  in  July  of  the  same  year.  The  his- 
torians of  the  Church  of  Rome  are  naturally  very  much 
puzzled  in  deciding  whether  Benedict  was  a  lawful 
pope  or  not ;  but  the  question  is  generally  compromised 
by  recognising  both  Leo  and  Benedict. 

VI,  Pope,  son  of  Hildebrand,  supposed  to  have  been 
elected  pope  on  the  death  of  John  XIII,  A.D.  972. 
On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Otho,  he  was  strangled 
or  poisoned  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  974.  The 
papacy  about  this  time  was  in  a  most  degraded  con- 
dition. 

VII,  Tope,  son  of  a  count  of  Tusculum,  ascended 
the  pontifical  throne  in  975,  and  died  July,  981.  lie 
held  two  councils  at  Rome  ;  in  the  one  he  excommuni- 
cated the  antipope  Boniface  VIII;  in  the  ether,  all 
those  guilty  of  simony.  A  letter  in  which  he  confirms 
certain  prerogatives  of  the  bishop  of  Lorch  is  found  in 
Lambecii,  Billioih.  Cws.  lib.  ii.  Several  other  bulls  on 
the  privileges  of  certain  diocesan  churches  are  given 
by  Mansi,  torn.  xix. 

VIII,  Pope,  son  of  Gregory,  count  of  Tusculum, 
succeeded  Sergius  IV,  July  20,  1012.  He  was  driven 
from  Rome  by  his  competitor  Gregory,  who  in  turn 
was  expelled  by  Henry,  King  of  Germany.  In  1014 
Benedict  crowned  Henry  Roman  Emperor,  and  pre- 
sented him  with  a  globe  surmounted  by  a  cress,  which 
became  henceforth  one  of  the  emblems  of  the  empire. 
The  emperor  confirmed  to  the  Church  of  Rome  all  the 
donations  made  by  Charlemagne  and  the  Othos,  de- 
clared that  the  election  of  a  pope  would  not  require  any 
longer  the  confirmation  of  the  emperor,  and  reserved 

and  his  successors  only  the  right  of  send- 


ing commissaries  to  the  consecration  of  the  pope.  At 
the  request  of  the  emperor,  Benedict  ordered  the  reci- 
tal of  the  Constantinopolitan  symbol  during  the  mass, 
hoping  that  it  would  facilitate  a  reunion  with  the 
Greek  Church.  In  1016  the  Saracens  made  an  irrup- 
tion into  Italy,  but  were  defeated  by  an  army  collect- 
ed by  Benedict's  energy.  He  died  July  10,  1024. — 
Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist,  period  iii,  div.  ii,  §  22. 

IX,  the  boy-pope,  one  of  the  worst  monsters  that 
ever  held  the  papal  throne.  He  was  elected  aloit 
June,  1033,  but  his  vile  conduct  excited  the  Romans 
to  expel  him  in  1015,  and  Silvester  III  was  elected, 
who  held  it  for  about  three  months,  when  Benedict, 
through  the  influence  of  his  family,  succeeded  for  a 
time  in  recovering  his  dignity.  However,  he  was 
again  compelled  to  floe,  and  Johannes  Gratianus  was, 
A.D.  1045,  put  into  his  place,  who  took  the  style  of 
Gregory  VI.  It  is  said,  indeed,  that  Gratian  bovgM 
his  elevation  from  Benedict,  who  wished  to  marry  tn 
Italian  princess.  Thus  there  were  three  popes  actual- 
ly living  at  the  same  time,  and  Rome  was  tilled  with 
brawls  and  murders.  To  remedy  this,  Henry  the 
Black,  king  of  Germany,  convoked  a  council  at  Sutri, 
near  Rome,  in  December,  1046,  where  Gregory  VI  was 
deposed,  and,  by  the  common  consent  of  Germans  and 
Romans,  Suidgcr  was  elected  pope,  and  consecrated 
under  the  name  of  Clement  II.  He,  however,  died  at 
the  end  of  nine  months,  i.  c.  October  9th,  1047 ;  upon 
which  Benedict  came  to  Rome  for  the  third  time,  where 
he  held  his  ground  till  July,  1048,  when  he  was  replaced 
by  Damasus  II,  the  nominee  of  the  emperor.  Noth- 
ing is  known  for  certain  concerning  him  after  this  pe- 
riod, but  he  is  believed  to  have  died  in  1051. — Biog. 
Univ.  iv,  183. 

X  (John,  bishop  of  Velletri)  was  raised  to  the  pope- 
dom by  a  faction  in  March,  1058,  the  instant  Pope 
Stephen  IX  had  closed  his  eyes.  Benedict  was  so  ig- 
norant and  obtuse  that  he  obtained  the  surname  of 
Mincio,  stupid.  Hildebrand,  upon  his  return  from 
Germany  in  1059,  caused  Gerard  to  be  elected  under 
the  name  of  Nicholas  II,  to  whom  Benedict  quickly 
yielded.  He  died  in  confinement  in  1059.  —  Biog. 
Univ.  iv,  183. 

XI,  Pope  (Nicholas  Boccasini),  was  born  at  Treviso 
in  1240,  entered,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  the  order  of 
1  )ominicans,  and  became  later  the  general  of  his  order. 
Under  Boniface  he  was  made  cardinal  and  bishop  of 
Ostia.  He  was  elected  pope  October  27,  1303,  upon 
the  death  of  Boniface  VIII.  When  elected  to  the 
papal  throne  he  was  cardinal-bishop  of  Ostia.  His 
pontificate  was  short,  extending  only  to  eight  months. 
He  took  off  the  sentence  of  excommunication  pro- 
nounced against  the  King  of  Denmark,  and  the  in- 
terdict laid  upon  his  kingdom,  and  annulled  the  hulls 
of  Boniface  VIII  against  Philippe-le-Bol  of*  France. 
He  died  of  poison  at  Perugia  on  the  6th  or  7th  of 
July,  1304,  and  was  enrolled  among  the  saints  by  Pope 
Clement  XII,  April  21th,  1730,  his  festival  being  mark- 
ed on  the  7th  of  July.  He  left  Commentaries  on  Job, 
the  Psalms,  the  Apocalypse,  and  Matthew,  besides 
some  volumes  of  Sermons  and  his  Bulls. 

XII  (.originally  Jacob  de  Novellis),  a  native  of  Sa- 
verdun,  and  monk  of  Citeaux,  afterward  bishop  of  Pa- 
miers  and  of  Mirepoix,  pope  from  Dec.  1334,  to  April, 
1312,  was  the  third  of  the  Avignon  (q.  v.)  popes,  the 
friend  of  Petrarch,  and  one  of  the  most  virtuous  <>l  the 
pontiffs.  Scarcely  was  he  elevated  to  the  pontificate 
when  a  deputation  was  sent  to  him  from  Rome  pressing 
him  to  return  to  the  ancient  seat;  but  circumstances 
induced  him  to  remain  at  Avignon.  He  addressed  the 
Castilian  clergy  on  the  necessity  of  reforming  their 
lives,  and  endeavored,  though  with  little  success,  to 
correct  some  of  the  more  glaring  evils  of  the  Romish 
system.  He  died  April  25,  1342,  at  Avignon.  See 
his  life  in  Baluzo,  Vies  dea  Papes  <V Avignon. 

XIII  (A),  Pope,  was  of  a  noble  family  of  Aragon. 
His  name  was  Pedro  do  Luna,  and  in  1375  he  was  mado 


BENEDICT 


T44 


BENEDICT 


cardinal  by  Gregory  IX.     On  the  death  of  Gregory 

XI  began  the  great  Western  schism,  by  the  election 
of  Urban  VI  at  Rum  >  and  of  Clement  VII  at  Avignon. 
Pedro  de  Lima  took  part  with  the  latter,  who  made  him 
his  1  »gate  in  Spain.  Upon  the  death  of  Clement,  Pe- 
dro was  chosen  by  the  cardinals  attached  to  the  party 
at  Avignon  to  Bucceed  him  on  the  28th  of  September, 
139  1.  and  in  the  mean  time  Boniface  VIII  had  ascend- 
ed  Hi'  throne  at  Rome.  To  put  an  end  to  the  schism,  | 
it  was  agreed  by  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  except 
the  king  of  Aragon,  that  a  cession  of  the  p\pal  digni- 
ty should  he  m.dc  by  both  parties,  hut  both  Benedict 
and  Boniface  refused  to  resign;  whereupon,  in  a  na- j 
tional  council  held  at  Paris  May  22d,  1398,  it  was 
agreed  to  withdraw  from  the  obedience  of  Benedict. 
This  example  having  been  followed  in  almost  all  the 
countries  of  Europe,  sixteen  of  the  cardinals  who  had 
adhered  to  Benedict  deserted  him.  He  was  besieged 
at  Avignon  by  the  Marechal  de  Boucicault,  and  with 
difficulty  escaped.  After  this  the  aspect  of  his  affairs 
for  a  time  brightened ;  but  at  length,  in  the  council 
of  Pisa,  convoked  in  140!),  both  Benedict. and  Gregory 

XII  were  excommunicated  and  deposed.  Benedict, 
driven  from  Avignon,  retired  to  the  little  castle  of 
Peniscola,  in  Valencia,  retaining  the  support  of  Ara- 
gon, Castile,  and  Scotland.  Thus  the  schism  still  re- 
mained ;  and  it  was  necessary  to  call  another  council, 
which  met  at  Constance  in  141-1,  where  Ottoneo  Colon- 
na  was  elected  pope  under  the  name  of  Martin  V,  who 
anathematized  Benedict,  but  without  producing  any 
effect,  since  he  continued  in  his  rebellion  till  his  death, 
which  happened  at  Peniscola  November  17th,  1424. 
So  far  did  he  carry  his  resolution  to  prolong  the  schism, 
that  he  exacted  a  promise  from  the  two  cardinals  who 
continued  with  him  that  they  would  elect  another  pope 
to  succeed  him  after  his  death :  this  was  done  in  the 
person  of  Clement  VIII.— Hist,  of  the  Pojxs,  p.  280. 

XIII  (ft),  Pope,  originally  Peter  Francis  Orsini, 
was  born  in  1G49,  and  was  raised  to  the  papal  chair 
May  29th,  1724.  He  was  pious,  virtuous,  and  liberal ; 
but.  unfortunately,  placed  too  much  confidence  in 
Cardinal  Coscia,  his  minister,  who  shamefully  op- 
pressed the  people.  A  fruitless  attempt  which  he 
made  to  reconcile  the  Romish,  Greek,  Lutheran,  and 
Calvinist  churches  bears  honorable  testimony  to  his 
tolerant  spirit.  His  theological  works,  including  Hom- 
ilies on  Exodus,  etc.,  were  published  at  Rome  (1728,  3 
vols.  fol.).  He  died  in  2730.  His  Life  was  written 
by  Alessandro  Borgia  (Uom.  1741). — Mosheini,  Eccl. 
Hist,  ii,  305,  370. 

XIV,  Pope,  originally  Prospero  Lambertini,  of  a 
nobl  •  family  of  Bologna,  was  born  in  1G75,  became  in 
1727  bishop  of  Ancona,  in  1728  cardinal,  in  1731  arch- 
1  ishop  of  Bologna,  and  succeeded  Clement  XII  Au- 
gust 17th,  1740.  He  was  a  man  of  great  ability, 
learning,  and  industry,  and  was  especially  distinguish- 
ed in  the  canon  and  civil  law.  He  died  May  4th,  1758, 
after  having  signalized  his  pontificate  by  the  wisdom 
of  bis  government,  and  his  zeal  for  the  propagation  of 
Romanism.  During  the  eighteen  years  of  his  reign 
Rome  enjoyed  peace,  plenty,  and  prosperity,  and  half 
a  century  after  his  death  the  pontificate  of  Lambertini 
ill  remembered  and  spoken  of  at  Pome  as  the 
last  period  of  unalloyed  happiness  which  the  country 
had  enjoyed.  His  tolerance  was  remarkable;  indeed, 
ed  him  to  the  censure  of  the  rigorists  among 
the  college  of  cardinals.  Without  exhibiting  any  thing 
like  Indifference  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of 
which  he  was  the  head,  he  showed  urbanity  and  friond- 
Uness  toward  all  Christians  of  whatever  denomination, 
whether  kin^s  or  ordinary  travellers,  who  visited  his 
capital;  and  in  Germany,  France,  and  Naples  his  in- 
fluence was  constantly  exerted  to  discourage  persecu- 
tion, and  to  restrain  tic  abuse  of  ee<  losiastical  power. 
Benedict  was  learned  not  only  in  theology,  but  in  his- 
tory, in  the  classical  writer-,  and  in  (lee'ant  literature, 

and  he  had  a  taste  fur  the  line  arts.     His  works  were 


published  at  Rome  in  12  vols.  4to  (1747).  The  most 
remarkable  are  his  treatise  He  Nervorum  Dei  Beatifica- 
tione  et  Beatorum  Canonizatione,  in  four  books,  a  work 
full  of  historical  and  theological  learning : — De  Synodo 
Hiocesann,  which  is  also  much  esteemed: — Institutiones 
EcclesiasHcae : — De  Jlfissai  Officio,  libri  iii ;  besides  his 
Bullarium,  or  collection  of  bulls  issued  by  him,  and 
several  letters  and  dissertations  in  Italian.  Benedict 
was  always  opposed  to  the  Jesuits,  and,  when  he  died, 
was  preparing  to  suppress  the  order. — Vie  die  pape 
Benoit  XI V  (Paris,  1775);  Ranke,  Hist,  of Papicy,  ii, 
287. 

Benedict  of  Ncrsia,  the  great  organizer  of 
Western  monastieism,  was  born  at  Nursia  (or  Korci .), 
in  Spoleto,  of  wealthy  parents,  about  A.D.  480.  He 
was  educated  at  Rome,  but  at  17  years  of  age  he  de- 
termined to  devote  himself  to  a  monastic  life.  He  tied 
secretly  from  Rome,  and  retired  to  the  desert  of  Subi- 
aco,  about  forty  miles  distant,  where  he  shut  himself 
up  in  a  dismal  cave.  There  he  continued  for  three 
years,  unknown  to  any  person  save  a  monk  (Romanus), 
who  let  down  bread  to  him  by  a  rope.  By  that  time 
his  fame  had  become  spread  abroad,  and  he  was  chosen 
by  the  monks  of  a  neighboring  monastery  for  their  ab- 
bot ;  but  he  shortly  returned  to  his  solitude,  whither 
multitudes  flocked  to  see  him  and  hear  him  preach. 
His  hearers  soon  became  his  disciples,  and,  with  his 
consent,  continued  with  him.  So  great  were  the  num- 
bers who  did  so,  that  in  a  short  time  there  were  no  less 
than  twelve  monasteries  formed  on  the  spot.  Benedict 
occupied  now  too  exalted  a  position  to  escape  attacks ; 
he  was  menaced  and  persecuted,  and  his  life  even 
threatened  by  poison.  .  This,  after  a  time,  compelled 
him  to  remove,  and  he  led  his  little  army  of  followers 
to  Monte  Cassino,  where  he  converted  the  temple  of 
Apollo  into  an  oratory,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  an 
order  which,  in  an  incredibly  short  time,  spread  itself 
over  Europe.  See  Monte  Cassino.  Benedict  died,  as 
Mabillon  thinks,  March  21st*,  543,  though  others  place 
his  death  in  the  year  542,  or  as  late  as  547.  His  body 
remained  at  Monte  Cassino  until  the  irruption  of  the 
Lombards,  who  burned  and  destroyed  the  monaster}', 
when,  in  all  probability,  his  relics  were  lost,  although 
the  possession  of  them  has  been  made  a  subject  of  great 
dispute  between  the  Italian  and  Gallican  monks.  His 
Life,  written  by  Gregory  (Dialog,  lib.  ii),  is  full  of  ex- 
traordinary and  absurd  accounts  of  miracles.  Ac- 
cording to  Dupin,  the  "Rule  of  St.  Benedict,"  Regula 
Monachorum,  is  the  only  work  extant  which  is  trulj- 
his.  This  Rule  is  divided  into  seventy-seven  chapters, 
and  is  distinguished  from  others  which  preceded  it  by 
its  mildness.  A  summary  of  it  is  given  by  Dupin 
(v,  45) ;  see  also  Martene.  Coram,  in  Regulam  S.  P. 
Benedicti  (Paris,  1G90, 4to).  It  required  no  extraordina- 
ry macerations  and  mortifications,  and  contained  such 
principles  of  conduct  as  were  most  likely  to  lead  to  the 
peace,  happiness,  and  well-being  of  a  community  of 
men  living  like  monks.  "  Three  virtues  constituted 
the  sum  of  the  Benedictine  discipline :  silence  (with 
solitude  and  seclusion),  humility,  and  obedience,  which, 
in  the  strong  language  of  its  laws,  extended  to  impos- 
sibilities. All  is  thus  concentrated  on  self.  It  was  the 
man  isolated  from  his  kind  who  was  to  rise  to  a  lonely 
perfection.  All  the  social,  all  patriotic  virtues  were 
excluded  ;  the  mere  mechanical  observance  of  the  rules 
of  the  brotherhood,  or  even  the  corporate  spirit,  are 
hardly  worthy  of  notice,  though  they  are  the  only 
substitutes  for  the  rejected  and  proscribed  pursuits  of 
active  life.  The  three  occupations  of  life  were  the 
worship  of  God,  reading,  and  manual  labor.  The  ad- 
ventitious advantages,  and  great  they  were,  of  these 
industrious  agricultural  settlements  were  net  contem- 
plated by  the  founder;  the  object  of  the  monks  was 
not  to  make  the  wilderness  blossom  with  fertility,  to 
extend  the  arts  and  husbandry  of  civilized  life  into 
barbarous  regions,  but  solely  to  employ  in  engrossing 
occupation  that  portion  of  time  which  could  not  be 


BENEDICT  74 

devoted  to  worship  and  to  study."  "In  the  Rule, 
Benedict  distinguishes  four  sorts  of  monks:  (1)  Coeno- 
bites, living  under  an  abbot  in  a  monastery;  (2)  An- 
chorites, who  retire  into  the  desert;  (3)  Sarabaites, 
dwelling  two  and  three  in  the  same  cell.  (4)  Gyro- 
vagi,  who  wander  from  monastery  to  monastery :  the 
last  two  kinds  he  condemns.  His  Rule  is  composed 
for  the  Coenobites.  First,  he  speaks  of  the  qualifica- 
tions of  abbots.  Then  he  notes  the  hours  for  divine 
service,  day  and  night,  and  the  order  of  it.  After  this 
he  treats  of  the  different  punishment-',  i.  e.  separation 
from  the  brethren,  chastisement,  or  expulsion.  He 
directs  that  a  penitent  shall  be  received,  after  expul- 
sion, as  far  as  the  third  time ;  that  the  monks  shall 
have  all  things  in  common,  and  that  every  thing  shall 
be  at  the  disposal  of  the  abbot.  The  monks  are  to 
work  by  turns  in  the  refectory  and  kitchen  ;  to  attend 
and  be  kind  to  the  sick ;  to  perform  manual  labors  at 
stated  hours,  and  to  all  wear  the  same  dress." — Cave, 
Hist.  Lit.  anno  530;  Milman,  Lathi  Christianity,  i,  414— 
426;  Neander,  Ck.  Hist,  ii,  262  ;  Dupin,  Eccl.  Writers, 
v,  45;  Lechler, Leben  des  he'd. Benedict (Regensb.  1857); 
Montalembert,  Moines  d'Occident  (Paris,  I860,  torn,  ii, 
1-73) ;  Journal  of  Sac.  LJt.  July,  1862,  art.  iv. ;  Lan- 
don,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  152.      See  Benedictines. 

Benedict,  Biscop,  St.,  was  born  of  noble  parents 
in  Northumberland  about  the  year  628.  He  was  orig- 
inally bred  to  the  profession  of  arms,  and  served  un- 
der king  Oswy,  who  made  him  his  minister,  with  an 
estate  suited  to  his  rank ;  but  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  he  took  leave  of  the  court,  and  made  a  voyage  to 
Rome,  and  upon  his  return  Ik  me  devoted  himself  to 
study  and  exercises  of  piety.  About  six  years  after- 
ward he  again  travelled  to  Rome  with  Alfred,  king 
Oswy's  son,  and  subsequently  retired  into  the  monas- 
tery of  Lerins  in  France,  where  he  took  the  vows.  Hav- 
ing spent  two  years  in  this  retirement,  he  returned  to 
England,  upon  occasion  of  Theodore's  journey  thither, 
who  had  been  nominated  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  and 
upon  his  arrival  was  made  abbot  of  St.  Augustine's 
at  Canterbury.  In  671  we  find  him  again  at  Rome, 
when  ho  brought  back  to  England  many  liturgical 
works.  Soon  after  this,  i.  e.  in  674,  he  retired  into 
the  county  of  Northumberland,  and  there  founded  the 
monastery  of  St.  Peter  at  Weremouth,  and,  ten  years 
later,  that  of  St.  Paul  at  Jarrow.  After  this  he  again 
visited  Rome  and  many  of  the  Italian  monasteries, 
seemingly  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  books,  etc., 
and  learning  the  customs  and  discipline  of  those  houses. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  introduced  into  England  the 
Gregorian  method  of  chanting,  and  for  that  purpose 
to  have  brought  with  him  from  Rome  the  abbot  John, 
precentor  of  St.  Peter's.  During  the  last  years  of  his 
life  Benedict  was  afflicted  with  palsy,  and  to  such  an 
extent  that  his  body  was  quite  deprived  of  all  power 
of  motion.  In  this  state  he  continued  for  about  three 
years,  and  died  on  the  14th  of  January,  COO.  He  wrote 
a  "Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Celebrating  Festivals," 
and  some  other  liturgical  works,  which  are  lost. — Bede, 
Vitce  Beatorum  Ablatum ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  235; 
Hook,  Eccl.  Bioff.  ii,  256. 

Benedict  of  Aniane,  or  Acnana,  a  monastic  re- 
former, was  born  in  Languedoc  in  750.  In  774,  be- 
ing saved  from  drowning,  he  resolved  to  abandon  the 
world,  and  retired  into  the  monastery  of  St.  Sequanas, 
near  Dijon.  His  fastings,  prayers,  and  mortifications 
were  almost  incredible ;  but  be  soon  saw  the  folly  of 
excess,  and  moderated  his  extravagance.  In  780  he 
returned  into  Languedoc,  and  a  little  hermitage  near, 
on  the  Aniane.  Here  a  monastery  was  soon  built,  and 
the  brotherhood  became  eminent  for  sanctity  ;  a  large 
cloister  and  magnificent  church  were  built,  where,  lie- 
fore  long,  more  than  three  hundred  monks  were  gath- 
ered together.  All  the  monasteries  of  the  region  now 
regarded  him  as  their  father  and  superior,  and  he  took 
advantage  of  this  feeling  toward  him  to  introduce  the 


)  BENEDICTINES 

needful  reforms  into  the  various  houses,  and  thus  be- 
came the  celebrated  renovator  of  religious  discipline  in 
France.  He  collected  a  large  library,  and  encouraged 
his  monks  to  multiply  copies  of  the  books ;  and  many 
of  the  secular  clergy,  induced  by  the  fame  of  the  estab- 
lishment, repaired  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Sauveur,  on 
the  Aniane,  to  learn  the  duties  of  their  calling.  He 
obtained  great  influence  with  Charlemagne,  and  used 
it  to  promote  monkery.  In  779  and  780  Charlemagne 
sent  him,  with  Leidradus  of  Lyons  and  Nephridius  of 
Narbonne,  to  Felix  of  Urgel ;  and  he  composed  several 
treatises  on  the  Adoptianist  (q.  v.)  controversy  (given 
by  Baluze,  Miscell.  v,  1-62).  In  814  he  became  abbot 
of  the  monastery  of  Inda,  built  by  Louis  near  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  on  purpose  to  have  Benedict  at  hand.  He 
used  his  clerical  and  political  influence  in  behalf  of 
monkery  up  to  his  death  in  821.  His  principal  writ- 
ings are,  1.  Codex  Rcgidarum,  edited  by  Holstenius  at 
Rome  (1661;  Paris,  1664,  4to):— 2.  Concordia  Regu- 
larnm,  cd.  Menard  (Paris,  1638)  : — 3.  Modus  diversarum 
panitentiarian  (ed.  Baluze,  at  the  end  of  the  Capitulaf 
ria  of  Charlemagne). — Cave,  HistL  Lit.  anno  801  ;  Mos- 
heim,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  75 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  155. 
Benedict,  Rene.  See  Benoit. 
Benedict,  Joel,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Salem,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  8,  17-15,  and  graduated 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  1765.  In  1771  he  was 
made  pastor  of  the  church  in  Ncwent,  Conn.  On  ac- 
count of  ill  health  he  resigned  in  1782,  but  on  partial 
recovery  he  became  pastor  of  the  church  in  Plainfield, 
Dec.  21,  1784.  He  was  made  D.D.  at  Union  College, 
1808,  and  died  Feb.  13, 1816.  He  published  a  funeral 
sermon  on  Dr.  Hart,  1811. — Sprague's  Annals,  i,  682. 
Benedictines,  a  monastic  order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  founded  by  Benedict  of  Nursia  in  515 
(according  to  others,  529)  in  Monte  Cassino.  The 
leading  ideas  in  the  monastic  rule  of  St.  Benedict  wero 
[see  Benedict  of  Nursia],  that  the  monks  should 
live  in  common  a  retired  life,  remain  poor,  and  ren- 
der unlimited  obedience  to  their  superiors.  Benedict 
states  explicitly  (ch.  lxxiii)  that  his  rule  can  lead  only 
to  the  beginning  of  a  holy  life,  while  he  refers  his  monks 
for  perfectness  to  the  Scriptures  and  the  fathers.  His 
aim  was  to  give  to  repentant  and  religious  men  of  the 
world  a  house  of  refuge,  but  he  had  no  projects  for  a 
universal  mission  in  the  Church  such  as  those  enter- 
tained by  the  later  mendicant  orders.  He  received 
children  into  his  convents,  who,  under  the  common 
superintendence  of  all  the  monks,  and  clothed  in  the 
monastic  habit,  were  educated  for  the  monastic  life. 

The  spread  of  the  order  was  very  rapid.  As  early 
as  541  it  was  introduced  into  Sicily,  and  in  543  into 
France.  The  order  began  to  take  extraordinary  di- 
mensions through  the  exertions  of  Pope  Gregory  the 
Great,  who  lent  the  whole  weight  of  his  vast  influence 
to  its  diffusion.  Augustine  introduced  it  into  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  and  the  followers  of  Cassian  and 
Columban  in  large  number  exchanged  their  former 
rules  for  those  of  Benedict.  When,  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, the  bulk  of  the  Cjermanic  world  entered  into  con- 
nection with  the  Ionian  Catholic  Church,  the  promi- 
nent influence  of  Boniface,  himself  a  Benedictine,  se- 
cured for  the  principles  of  his  order  almost  general 
adoption  by  the  rising  monastic  institutions  of  Germa- 
ny. As  its  wealth  and  power  advanced,  the  Bene- 
dictine order  by  degrees  almost  monopolized  the  sci- 
ence and  learning  in  the  Christian  Chinch,  and  estab- 
lished a  large  number  of  distinguished  schools.  Their 
many  Irish  teachers  (known  under  the  name  of  Scots) 
were  the  first  to  lay  the  foundation  of  the  scholastic 
theology.  As  many  of  the  convents  amassed  great 
riches,  the  strict  rule,  and  primitive  purity  of  morals 
disappeared,  and  attempts  at  reform  were  called  forth. 
The  most  remarkable  among  these  were  that  of  Bene- 
dict of  Aniane  (q.  v.)  in  the  eighth  century,  of  Ab- 
bot Benno  at  Clugny  910,  at  Hirschau  1069,  at  Val- 


E.EXEDICTINES 


746 


BENEDICTINE  NUNS 


lontbrosa  in  the  eleventh  century,  at  Bursfield  in 
1425.  These  reforms  intro- 
duced among  the  followers 
of  Benedict  the  congregation- 
al system,  combining  sever- 
.-.1  convents  into  a  congrega- 
tion, with  a  common  govern- 
ment. The  congregation  of 
English  Benedictines  found- 
ed by  Augustine  was  reform- 
Mi  by  St.  Dunstan  in  900, 
again  by  Lanfr.mc  in  1072, 
and  finally  suppressed  by 
Henry  VIII.  The  congrega- 
tional government  has  since 
remained  that  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, who  have  never  had 
a  general  and  central  govern- 
ment like  the  other  orders. 
The  efforts  to  introduce  a 
greater  centralization  led, 
from   the   end  of  the   tenth 

csnturv,  to  the  establishment 
Early  Benedictine  ,         •  '     ,  „, 

ot  new  orders.     Thus  arose, 

on  the  basis  of  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  but  with  many 

alterations,  the  orders  of  Camaldoli  [see  Camaldu- 

LES],  Fontevrault  (q.  v.),  Chartreux  (q.  v.),  Citeaux 

[see  Cistercians],  Humiliates,  Olivet  ins,  Tironene- 

ans  [see  Bernard  of  Tiros],  and  others. 


English  Benedictine? :  I,  at  Home;  2,  at  Church. 

Benedict  XII,  in  133G,  divided  the  Benedictines  into 
ar,  provinces,  and  decreed  the  regular  holding  of  tri- 
ennial provincial  chapters  and  annual  general  chap- 
t  rs,  but  this  Constitution  could  never  be  carried 
through.  The  rise  of  the  mendicant  orders  (q.  v.)  de- 
prived the  Benedictines  of  a  great  deal  of  their  influ- 
ence, and  their  subsequent  distinction  lay  almost  whol- 
ly in  the  field  of  literary  production.  The  Reforma- 
tion reduced  the  number  of  their  convents  from  15,000 
,"  6000.  After  the  Reformation,  piety  and  discipline 
continued  to  be  generally  at  a  very  low  ebb  through- 
out the  Benedictine  community,  when;  it  was  more 
difficult  than  with  other  orders  to  find  a  remedy,  as 
frequently  Laymen  were  made  abbots  {commendatory 
•>  account  of  the  rich  revenues  of  the  monas- 
3tUl,  it  put  forth  some  flourishing  new  branch- 
es, amon;  which  the  congregation  of  St.  Vanne  and 
81.  Uidulph,  established  by  Didier  de  la  Cceur  1 1550 
1623),  and  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur  [see  Maui, 
St.],  the  mo  i  learned  of  all  monastic  confraternities 
in  Hi"  historj  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  are  the 
most  remarkable. 

The  reign  of  Joseph  II  in  Austria,  the  French  Rev- 
olution, and  the  suppression  of  monasticism  generally 


in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Sardinia,  reduced  also  the 
number  of  Benedictine  convents  greatly.  In  Austria, 
however,  the  order  was  restored  in  1802,  and  at  pres- 
ent more  than  one  half  of  its  members  are  living  in 
Austrian  convents.  In  Bavaria,  the  order  received, 
by  a  rescript  of  1834,  the  charge  of  several  state  col- 
leges. In  France  an  attempt  at  reviving  the  congre- 
gation of  St.  Maur  was  made  in  1833  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Benedictine  community  at  Solesme.  These 
new  St.  Maurines  have  already  developed  a  great  liter- 
ary activity,  but  have  as  yet  neither  been  able  to  ex- 
tend themselves  nor  to  attain  the  celebrity  of  their 
predecessors.  In  Switzerland  the  order  has,  besides 
several  other  convents,  the  convent  of  Einsiechln,  one 
of  the  most  famous  places  of  pilgrimages  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  order  has  also  been  re-estab- 
lished in  England  and  Belgium.  In  the  United  States 
they  have  St. Vincent's  Abbey,  in  the  diocese  of  Pitts- 
burg, which  in  1858  elected  for  the  first  time  an  abbot 
for  lifetime.  Most  of  the  Austrian  abbeys  followed, 
until  very  recently,  a  mitigated  rule ;  and  the  endeav- 
ors of  papal  delegates,  aided  by  the  state  govern- 
ment, to  force  a  stricter  rule  upon  them,  led  in  1858  to 
protracted  and  serious  disturbances.  At  the  general 
chapter  of  the  congregation  of  Monte  Cassino  in  1858, 
to  which  also  the  convent  of  St.  Paul's  in  Rome  be- 
longs, it  was  resolved  to  re-establish,  for  the  benefit 
of  all  the  monks  of  the  Benedictine  family  who  wish 
to  study  in  Rome,  the  college  of  St.  Anselm,  such  as  it 
had  been  under  the  foundation  of  Pope  Innocent  XI. 

According  to  the  calculation  of  Fessler,  the  Bene- 
dictines count  among  their  members  15,700  authors, 
4000  bishops,  10J0  archbishops,  200  cardinals,  24  popes, 
and  1560  canonized  saints.  Among  the  great  literary 
names  that  adorn  the  order  are  those  of  D'Achery, 
Mabillon,  and  Montfaucon,  all  St.  Maurines.  The 
principal  sources  of  information  on  the  Benedictines 
are,  Mabillon,  Annates  Orel  S.  Benedicti  (Paris,  1703-39, 
6  vols,  [carries  the  history  up  to  1157]);  Ziegelbauer, 
Historiu  rei  literarim  Ord.  S.  Bened.  (Aug.  Vind.  1754, 
4  vols.  fol.).  See  also  Helyot,  Ordres  Religieur,  i,  425 
sq. ;  Montalembert,  Les  Moines  d*  Occident  (Paris,  18G0). 

Benedictine  Nuns,  nuns  following  the  order  of 
Benedict.  They  claim  St.  Scholastics,  the  sister  of 
Benedict,  as  their  founder,  but  without  historical 
grounds.  All  previous  orders  were  gradually  forced 
to  adopt  the  Benedictine  rule,  and  so  it  spread  widely 
throughout  Christendom.  In  France  they  possessed 
one  hundred  and  sixteen  priories  and  abbeys  in  the 
gift  of  the  king  alone,  and  in  England  seventy-four 
houses.  In  some  of  these  houses  the  nuns  followed 
the  strictest  rules,  never  touching  meat,  wearing  no 


Reformed  Benedictine  Nun:  1,  at  Home;  2,  at  Church, 


BENEDICTION 


141 


BENEFICE 


linen,  and  sleeping  on  the  bare  boards.  Others  ad- 
mitted some  relaxation  of  this  severity.  The  Bene- 
dictine nunneries  were  rarely  united  in  congregations, 
but  remained  single,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  dio- 
cesan bishops,  rarely  under  that  of  the  Benedictine 
monks.  Irregularities  and  disorder  spread  among 
them  earlier  and  more  generally  than  among  the 
monks ;  a  great  preference  was  given  to  the  nobility, 
and  some  of  the  richest  monasteries  even  changed 
themselves  into  secular  institutions  of  ladies  of  nobili- 
tjr,  which  retained  of  the  Benedictine  order  nothing 
but  the  name.  Several  congregations  of  reformed 
Benedictine  nuns  were  founded,  among  which  the  most 
important  were  the  congregation  of  Mount  Calvary, 
founded  in  1G17,  and  the  congregation  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration  of  the  Sacred  Sacrament,  who,  in  addition 
to  other  austerities,  are  obliged  to  have  perpetually 
one  of  their  number  kneeling  day  and  night  before  the 
sacrament !  They  were  founded  by  Catherine  de  Bar, 
a  native  of  St.  Die,  in  Lorraine,  in  1015,  and  ratified 
by  Innocent  XI  in  1676.  Both  have  in  recent  times 
re-established  several  monasteries  in  France,  the  lat- 
ter also  in  Italy,  Austria,  and  Poland. 

Benediction,  (1.)  in  the Bomish  Church,  an  ecclesi- 
astical ceremony,  whereby  a  thing  is  rendered  sacred 
or  venerable.  It  differs  from  consecration,  in  which 
unction  is  used.  The  Romanists  consecrate  the  chal- 
ice and  bless  the  pyx.  Superstition  in  the  Romish 
Church  has  introduced  benedictions  fur  almost  every 
thing.  There  are  forms  of  benediction  for  wax  can- 
dles, for  boughs,  for  ashes,  for  church  vessels  and  orna- 
ments, for  flags  and  ensigns,  arms,  first-fruits,  houses, 
ships,  paschal  eggs,  hair-cloth  of  penitents,  church- 
yards, etc.  In  general,  these  benedictions  are  per- 
formed by  aspersions  of  holy  water,  signs  of  the  cross, 
and  forms  of  prayer,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
ceremony.  The  forms  of  benediction  are  found  in  the 
Roman  Pontifical  and  in  the  Missal.  The  beatic  benedic- 
tion (benedictio  beat  tea)  is  the  viaticum  given  to  dying 
persons.  For  the  history  and  forms  of  Romanist  bene- 
diction, see  Boissonnet,  Diet,  des  Ceremonies,  i,  246  sq. ; 
Migrie,  Liturgie  Catholique,  p.  149  sq. 

(2.)  In  the  Protestant  Churches,  the  blessing  of  the 
people  bjr  the  minister  during  divine  service  and  at  its 
close.  In  the  Church  of  England  it  is  given  at  the 
end  of  the  communion  service  as  well  as  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  worship.  The  minister  does  not  pretend  to 
impart  any  blessing,  but  in  effect  prays  that  the  "  peace 
of  God"  may  keep  the  "  hearts  and  minds"  of  the  peo- 
ple. Christ  says  to  his  Church,  "My  peace  I  give 
unto  you"  (John  xiv,  27)  :  the  officiating  minister,  the 
Church's  organ,  proclaims  the  gift  in  general,  and 
prays  that  it  may  descend  upon  the  particular  part  of 
Christ's  Church  then  and  there  assembled.  The  bene- 
diction most  used,  at  the  close  of  worship,  in  Protes- 
tant churches,  is  taken  chiefly  from  Scripture  ;  the 
first  part  of  it  from  Phil,  iv,  7,  and  the  latter  part  be- 
ing a  paraphrase  upon  Num.  vi,  24,  25,  viz.:  "The 
peace  of  God,  which  passeth  all  understanding,  keep 
your  heart  and  minds  in  the  knowledge  and  love  of 
God,  and  of  his  Son  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord ;  and  the 
blessing  of  God  Almighty,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Ghost,  be  amongst  you  and  remain  with  you 
always.  Amen."  The  great  Christian  benediction 
is  the  apostolical  one:  "The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  communion  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  be.  with  you  all"  (2  Cor.  xiii,  14).  In  the 
ancient  Church,  short  benedictions,  such  as  "Blessed 
be  God,"  "Blessed  be  the  name  of  the  Lord"  (never 
the  Ave  Maria,  q.  v.),  were  often  used  before  sermon. 
After  the  Lord's  Prayer,  in  the  Eucharist,  the  bene- 
diction, "The  peace  of  God  be  with  you  all,"  was  pro- 
nounced. See  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  xiv,  ch.  iv, 
§  16  ;  bk.  xv,  ch.  iii,  §  29  ;  Coleman,  Primitive  Church, 
ch.  xiv  ;  Bibiiotheca  Sacra,  1862,  p.  707. 

Benefactor  (tvtpyiTiio).     "The  kings  of  the  Gen- 


tiles exercise  lordship  over  them  ;  and  they  that  exer- 
cise authority  upon  them  are  called  benefactors"  (Luke 
xxii,  25).  This  word  was  employed  as  a  title  of  hon- 
or to  kings  and  princes,  corresponding  to  the  Latin 
pater  patriae.  Ptolemy  Ettergetes,  king  of  Egypt,  af- 
fords an  instance  of  the  application  of  the  word"  in  this 
sense.  According  to  Josephus  and  Philo,  it  was  fre- 
quently applied  to  the  Roman  emperors  (see  Josephus, 
War,  iii,  9,  8 ;  Diod.  Sic.  xi,  26  ;  Xen.  Anab.  vii,  6,  38). 
Benefice.  I.  Definition.— Benefice  is  defined  by 
the  canonists  to  be  "Jus  perpetuum  percipiendi  fruc- 
tus  ex  bonis  ecclesiasticis,  clerico  competens  propter 
ofneium  aliquod  spirituale."  This  term  was,  in  its 
origin,  applied  to  the  lands  which  were  given  by  the 
Romans  to  deserving  soldiers  out  of  the  territories  ac- 
quired by  conquest.  These  soldiers  were  called  mililes 
beneficiarii,  and  the  lands  so  given  beneficium.  Hence 
the  term  came  in  time  to  be  applied  to  the  possessions 
of  the  Church,  when  certain  portions  were  appropriated 
to  individuals  to  enjoy  during  their  life  as  a  recom-' 
pense  for  their  services.  The  word  is  now  applied  to 
all  preferments  in  the  Church  of  England  except  bish- 
oprics, though  more  commonly  used  to  signify  such 
churches  as  are  endowed  with  a  revenue  for  the  per- 
formance of  divine  service  ;  it  is  also  used  for  the  rev- 
enue itself.  The  incumbents  are  said  to  enjoy  the  rev- 
enue of  a  living  ex  mero  beneficio  (from  the  pure  kind- 
ness) of  the  patron. 

II.  In  the  Roman  Church  benefices  are  divided  by  the 
canon  law(l.)  into  secular  and  regular.  "  Secular"  ben- 
efices are  those  held  by  secular  clerks,  e.  g.  bishoprics, 
and  the  dignities  in  cathedral  chapters,  viz.  the  offices 
of  dean,  archdeacon,  chancellor,  precentor,  canon,  pre- 
bend, etc. ;  also  perpetual  vicarages,  simple  cures, 
chapels,  etc.  All  benefices  are  held  to  be  secular  in 
the  absence  of  proof  or  long  possession  to  the  contrary, 
and  secular  benefices  may  be  held  by  regulars  elevated 
to  the  episcopate.  "Regular"  benefices  are  those  which 
are  conferred  only  on  monks.  Such  are  titular  ab- 
bej-s,  all  claustral  offices  enjoying  an  appropriated  rev- 
enue, e.  g.  those  of  titular  conventual  prior,  almoner, 
hospitaller,  sacristan,  cellarer,  etc.  (2.)  Into  double 
(dupliciti)  and  simple  (simplicia).  "Double"  benefices 
are  those  to  which  is  annexed  the  cure  of  souls,  or  any 
pre-eminence  or  administration  of  the  property  of  the 
Church,  e.  g.  pope,  cardinal,  dean,  etc.  "  Simple"  ben- 
efices are  such  as  only  carry  the  obligation  to  say  the 
breviary  or  celebrate  masses,  such  as  secular  priories, 
chapelries,  etc.  (3.)  Into  benefices  titular  (ti/u/aria) 
and  benefices  in  commendam.  The  former  are  those 
which  are  given  in  perpetuity ;  the  latter  for  a  time 
only,  until  a  clerk,  capable  of  discharging  the  duties, 
can  be  found.  There  are,  however,  perpetual  comvun- 
dams,  i.  e.  where  the  temporal  revenues  of  a  regular 
benefice  are  given  to  a  secular  clerk  to  hold  perpetually. 

There  are  six  lawful  ways  of  obtaining  a  bene- 
fice, viz. :  1.  By  the  presentation  of  the  patron,  and 
subsequent  institution  ;  2.  by  election,  and  the  subse- 
quent confirmation  of  the  person  elected;  3.  by  popu- 
lation, and  the  subsequent  confirmation  of  the  person 
postulated  ;  4.  by  free  and  voluntary  collation  ,•  5.  by 
exchange;  6.  by  resignation  in  favor  em,  followed  by 
collation. — Landon,  Peel.  Diet,  ii,  164 

III.  In  the  Church,  of  England  parochial  benefices 
with  cure  are  defined  by  the  canon  law  to  be  a  distinct 
portion  of  ecclesiastical  rights,  set  apart  from  any  tem- 
poral interest,  and  joined  to  the  spiritual  function,  and 
to  these  no  jurisdiction  is  annexed  ;  but  it  is  otherwise 
as  to  archdeacons  and  deans,  for  they  have  a  jurisdic- 
tion, because  they  formerly  took  the  confession  of  the 
chapter,  and  visited  them.  It  is  essential  to  a  paro- 
chial benefice  that  it  be  bestowed  freely  (reserving 
nothing  to  the  patron),  as  a  provision  for  the  clerk, 
who  is  only  a  usufructuary,  and  has  no  inheritance 
in  it;  that  it  have  something  of  spirituality  annexed 
to  it,  for  where  it  is  given  to  a  layman  it  is  not  prop- 
erly a  benefice ;  that  in  its  own  nature  it  be  jierpetual 


EEXEFIELD 


748 


BENEZET 


— that  is.  forever  annexed  to  the  church ;  and  all  man- 
ner of  contracts  concerning  it  are  void. 

Beuefield,  Sebastian,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Calvin- 
istie  divine,  was  born  August  12th,  1559,  at  Preston- 
bury,  Gloucestershire,  and  educated  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford.  In  1G08  he  was  chosen  Margaret  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  university.  Dr.  Beneiield  was 
well  versed  in  the  fathers  and  schoolmen,  and  was  re- 


an  inference  hearing  on  an  affinity  of  race,  and  thence 
on  the  growth  of  the  Semitic  languages.  (4)  1  Kings 
iv,  30,  "  Solomon's  wisdom  excelled  the  wisdom  of  all 
the  children  of  the  East  country."  (5)  From  Isa.  xi, 
14,  it  is  difficult  to  deduce  an  argument,  but  in  Ezek. 
xxv,  4,  10,  Amnion  is  delivered  to  the  "men  of  the 
East,"  and  its  city,  Kabbah,  is  prophesied  to  become 
"  a  stable  for  camels,  and  the  Ammonites  a  couching- 


markable  for  strictness  of  life  and  sincerity.     He  died  P  yf  for  >cfe  -     referring   apparently,  to  the  habits 
August  24,  1630.     His  principal  writings  are,  Dodrina  ?i  the  wandering  Arabs  ;  while  "  palaces"  and  "  dwell- 

1  'hHstiana  (Oxford,  1610,  4to)  :—Sermons(0  xf.  1614-15,  j  m«s>    also  mentioned  and  thus  rendered  in  the  Auth. 

2  vols.  iU>y.-Exposkion  of  Amos  (Oxf.  and  Lond,  1613,   ^  ers;<  ™*T  be  bft,ter/  rfyd  "  ««*/»"  and  "  '«**•"    The 
1620  1629  4to).— Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  164.  words  of  J^einiah  (xhx,  28)  strengthen  the  supposi- 

_,_',„,  .   .,  ,  ,.  .      .      tion  just  mentioned:    "  Concerning  Kcdar,  and  con- 

Benefit  Of  Clergy,   a   privilege   by  which,   m  cerning  Hazor,  which  Nebuchadrezzar,  king  of  Baby- 
countries  where  popery  prevailed   persons  in  holy  or- ,  j        ghall  gmit     thug  saith  the  Lord   Aris  ' 

ders  were  exempted,  either  wholly  or  partially,  from  ,  to  Kedar?  and  gpoil  the  men  of  the  Eagt      ,f  heir  ^ 
the  jurisdiction  of  lay  tribunals.      The  privilege  was  and  theh.  flocks  shall  they  take  .  they  ghaU  tak(j 

created  out  of  regard  to  the  c  er.cal  order  but  it  was  t0  themselves  their  curtains  [i.  e.  tents,,  and  all  their 
soon  abused.     It  was  originally  designed  for  clencti  vesseiS)  and  their  cameis» 

(clerks),  and  at  first  none  could  be  admitted  to  it  but  |      Opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  extension  of  the  ap- 
euch  as  had  the  usual  distinction,  habitus  et  tonsura  I     llation  0f  Bene-Kedem ;  some  (as  Rosenmuller  and 
dertcalts;  but  subsequently  in  England,  all  persons   wincr)  holdi      that  it  came  tQ  g>    ;fv  fte  A].abg 
who  could  read  were  by  law  declared  to  be  clerks,  and  erall         From  a  consideration  of  the"  a£ovo 

the  number  of  claimants  almost  indefinitely  increased.  dted  and  that  which  makeg  menti  of  the  ]and  f 
™  ab0?lshid.  ^  **  'A  and  8th  of  Geo  IV  c  28.  |Ked  Qen  xx  G  [gpc  Ishmael]  we  think  (with 
In  America  tins  privilege  has  been  formally  abolish-  Gesenius)  that  it  primarily  signified  the  peoples  of  the 

ed  in  some  ot  the  states,  and  allowed  onlv  in  one  or1  .„„,■ A        ,    /      .     ~  f,  ,     ..  ■■  T '  -^        - 

.,  ,.'    .      .,  ,J ..  ,  ;  Arabian  deserts  (east  of  Palestine  and  Lower  Egv lit ■), 

two  cases  m  others ;  while  in  others,  again,  it  does  not       A    \-  a    ^     i m        e  t  u       i       i    c  r  *      t 

,    ,         ,      '  ,    „     '   °      '    .      °         and  chieflv  the  tribes  oi  Ishmael  and  of  Keturah,  ex- 


.i  r  the  tribes  of  Ishmael 
appear  to  have  been  known  at  all.     By  the  act  of  Con-  I  *     j-         *  v  ,      „  . 

f  a     -i  on   -I-™   -.  •  \   -,  ,,    .  7\      \.      „  i tending  perhaps  to   Mesopotamia  and 

gress  of  April  30,  1,90,  it  is  enacted  that  'benefit  of  \     ,  •  *"  '  '  „    i  i 

,    '         .  '.  '  „         ,  .    .        which  we  mav  suppose  kedem  to  applv 


Babylonia  (to 

may  suppose  Kedem  to  apply  in  Num.  xxiii, 

7,  as  well  as  in  Isa.  ii,  6) ;  and  that  it  was  sometimes 

applied   to  the   Arabs   and  their   country   generally. 
States,  the  punishment  is  or  shall  be  declared  to  be  mY.         ,  .     .  e  ..  •    ,   ..     J  ■      -P     .- 

i     4.u  »  »      o      t>i     i    .  sr  ,     ■  Ihe  onlv  positive  instance  oi  this  1  itter  signification 

death.  See  Blackstone,  Comuu  ntnriis.  iv.  28.  .  T-    ,  .  ™       ,  ,lt.     i 


clergy  shall  not  be  used  or  allowed,  upon  conviction 
of  any  crime  for  which,  by  any  statute  of  the  Uni 


stone,  Commentaries,  iv,  28 
Be'ne-ja'akan  (Heb.  Beney'  Yaakan',  "p"?  "OSl 
Children  of  Jaakan;  Sept.  Bavaia  v.  r.  Bavticav ;  Vulg. 
Benpjaacari),  a  tribe  who  gave  their  name  to  certain 
wells  in  the  desert  which  formed  one  of  the  halting- 
places  of  the  Israelites  on  their  journey  to  Canaan 


of  Kedem  occurs  in  Gen.  x,  30,  where  "  Sephar,  a 
mount  of  the  East,"  is  by  the  common  agreement  of 
scholars  situate  in  Southern  Arabia.  Sec  Arabia; 
Sephar. 

In  the  O.  T.,  2^",  "Arabia,"  with  its  conjugate 
forms,  seems  to  be  a  name  of  the  peoples  otherwis 


(Num.  xxxiii,  31,  32).  See  Beeroth-bene-Jaakan.  j  called  Bene-Kedem,  and  with  the  'same  limitations, 
'I  he  tribe  doubtless  deriv 3d  its  name  from  Jaakan,  the  The  same  mav  be  observed  of »/  avardki),  "  the  East," 
son  of  Ezer,  son  of  Seir  the  Horite  (1  Chr.  i,  42).  See  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt,  ii,  1  sq.).  The  Heb.  word  "  Ke- 
Akan  ;  Jakan.  In  the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome  dem,"  with  its  adjuncts  (in  the  passages  above  referred 
v.  'Iofra'/^Beroth  fil.  Jacin),  the  spot  was  to),  is  translated  by  the  Sept.  and  in  the  Vulg.,  and 


shown  ten  miles  from  Petra,  on  the  top  of  a  mountain. 
Robinson  suggests  the  small  fountain  et-Tavjilxh,  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pass  er-Rubay  under  Petra,  a  short 


sometimes  transcribed  (Ktcifi}  by  the  former,  except 
the  Sept.  in  1  Kings  iv,  30,  and  Sept.  and  Vulg.  in 
Isa.  ii,  6,  where  they  make  Kedem  to  relate  to  ancient 


word  "Beeroth,"  however,  suggests,  not  a  spring,  but 
a  group  of  artificial  wells.  In  the  Targum  of  Pseu- 
do-Jonathan the  name  is  given  in  Numbers  as  Ahta 
(N~P?  ^T?)-  Tne  assemblage  of  fountains  near 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Arabah  is  no  doubt  re- 
ferred to.      See  EXODB. 


Bene-Kedem  (Heb.  Beney' -Ke' dem,  Q"!p-i:a  nounce< 
"Children  of  the  East"),  an  appellation  given  toapeo-|at  whi( 
pie,  or  to  peoples  dwelling  to  the  east  of  Palestine.  iVI11)  ^ 


Benevent,  a  town  in  Southern  Italy,  and  see  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  archbishop.     A  considerable  number 
of  councils  have  been  held  there,  among  which  the  fid- 
lowing  are  the  most  important :  1087,  at  which  the  An- 
tipope  Guibert  was  excommunicated,  and  the  investi- 
ture bj'  laymen  forbidden ;    1108,  which  again  pro- 
■d  against  the  investiture  by  laymen  ;  and  1117, 
ich  Bishop  Mauritius  Verdinus  (later  Gregory 
i,  or  to  peoples  dwelling  to  the  east  of  Palestine.  I  v  11Jt->  was  excommunicated. 

J!  '"':  »n^f  Allowing  passages  of  the  O.  T. :  (1)       Benevolence,  due  (//  o^iXouIw;  tvvoia,  but  best 

,",'!■  X.MX:  ,,' .   '';"/    ,  Came  mt"  the  land  of  the  lleoI,lc  I  MSS.  simply  >)  oAe^rj),  a  euphemism  for  marital  duty 
of  the  East      ,n  which  was  therefore  reckoned  Haran.  i  (1  Cor.  vii  33/    ^ec  Cohaditation. 
(-  1  Job  1,  .,,  Job  was  "the  greatest  of  all  the  men  of  j 

""■  East."  See  Job.  (3)  Judg.  vi,  3,  33 :  vii,  12  ;  Benezet,  or  Benedet,  St.,  born  at  Hermillion; 
viii,  10.  In  the  first  three  passages  the  Bene-Kedem  ■  shepherd.  The  popes,  during  their  residence  at 
are  mentioned  together  with  the  Midianites  and  the  Avignon,  authorized  bis  worship.  "Benezet  is  said 
Amalekites  ;  and  in  the  fourth  the  latter  peoples  seem  to  have  been  directed  by  inspiration  to  proceed  to  the 
to  be  included  in  this  common  name:  ''Now  Zebah  bishop  of  Avignon,  in  September,  1176,  and  tell  him 
and  Zalmunna  [  were]  in  Karkor,  and  their  hosts  with  'that  bis  mission  was  to  build  the  bridge  of  that  city 
them,  abouJ  fifteen  thousand  [men],  all  that  were  left  over  the  Rhone.  The  bishop,  very  naturally  thinking 
"r  :l11  ,l'"  '"'•|-  of  the  children  of  the  East."  In  the  I  him  out  of  his  mind,  ordered  him  to  be  whipped. 
events  to  which  these  passages  of  Judges  relate,  we  Benezet,  however,  is  said  to  have  shown  his  divine 
'""'  a  curious  reference  to  the  language  spoken'  by  mission  by  supernatural  proofs ;  and  the  bridge  was 
tin-  ■  I',  istern  tribes,  which  was  understood  by  Gideon  commenced  in  1177,  and  finished  in  1188.  He  died  in 
.-.nd  his  Bervant  (or  one  of  them)  as  they  listened  to'  1184,  and  was  buried  on  the  bridge,  where  afterward 
the  talk  in  the  camp ;  and  from  this  it  is  to  be  inferred |»  little  chapel  was  built  over  his  remains.  Subse- 
that  they  spoke  a  dialed  intelli   ii.lr  to  an  [sraelite— •  I Iquently  a  hospital  was  added,  and  a  confraternity  es- 


BENEZET 


•40 


BENGEL 


tablished  for  the  care  of  his  worship  and  of  the  repair 
of  the  bridge.  These  things  are  said  to  be  'amply 
verified  by  the  Acts  drawn  up  at  the  time.'  When 
the  tomb  was  opened  in  1670,  owing  to  its  ruinous 
state,  it  appears  that  the  body  was  found  in  a  perfect 
condition.  The  body  was  but  four  feet  and  a  half 
long."  This  is  a  specimen  of  the  so-called  "lives  of 
the  Saints !" — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Benezet,  Anthony,  an  eminent  philanthropist 
and  opponent  of  slavery,  was  born  at  St.  Quentin, 
Picardy,  France,  January  31, 1713.  His  parents,  driv- 
en from  France  by  Popish  persecution,  removed  to 
London  in  February,  1715,  and  during  their  residence 
there  became  Quakers.  The  family  came  to  Philadel- 
phia in  November,  1731.  Anthony  began  a  mercantile 
career  early;  but  soon  after  his  marriage,  in  1740, 
when  his  affairs  were  in  a  prosperous  situation,  he 
left  the  mercantile  business,  and  in  1742  he  accept- 
ed the  appointment  of  head  of  the  Friends'  English 
school  of  Philadelphia,  which  he  held  till  1782,  when 
he  resigned  it  to  devote  himself  to  teaching  a  school  of 
colored  children.  "So  great  was  his  sympathy  with 
every  being  capable  of  feeling  pain,  that  he  resolved 
toward  the  close  of  his  life  to  eat  no  animal  food. 
This  change  in  his  mode  of  living  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  occasion  of  his  death.  His  active  mind  did 
not  yield  to  the  debility  of  his  body.  He  persevered 
in  his  attendance  upon  his  school  till  within  a  few 
days  of  his  decease,  Ma}'  3, 1784."  Men  of  all  classes 
of  society,  and  of  all  churches,  as  well  as  many  hun- 
dred negroes,  followed  his  remains  to  the  grave.  An 
officer  who  had  served  in  the  army  during  the  war 
with  Britain  observed  at  this  time,  "I  would  rather 
be  Anthony  Benezet  in  that  coffin  than  George  Wash- 
ington, with  all  his  fame."  "  Few  men  since  the  days 
of  the  apostles  ever  lived  a  more  disinterested  life; 
yet  upon  his  death-bed  he  expressed  a  desire  to  live  a 
little  longer,  'that  he  might  bring  down  self.'  The 
last  time  he  ever  walked  across  his  room  was  to  take 
from  his  desk  six  dollars,  which  he  gave  to  a  poor 
widow  whom  he  had  long  assisted  to  maintain.  By 
his  will  he  devised  his  estate,  after  the  decease  of  his 
wife,  to  certain  trustees,  for  the  use  of  the  African 
school."  The  chief  object  of  Benezet's  life,  for  many 
years,  was  to  excite  public  opinion  against  slavery  and 
the  slave-trade.  On  the  return  of  peace  in  1783,  he 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  queen  of  Great  Britain  to  so- 
licit her  influence  on  the  side  of  humanity.  At  the 
close  of  this  letter  he  says,  "  I  hope  thou  wilt  kindly 
excuse  the  freedom  used  on  this  occasion  by  an  ancient 
man,  whose  mind,  for  more  than  forty  years  past,  has 
been  much  separated  from  the  common  course  of  the 
world,  and  long  painfully  exercised  in  the  considera- 
tion of  the  miseries  under  which  so  large  a  part  of 
mankind,  equally  with  us  the  subjects  of  redeeming 
love,  are  suffering  the  most  unjust  and  grievous  op- 
pression, and  who  sincerely  desires  the  temporal  and 
eternal  felicity  of  the  queen  and  her  royal  consort." 
He  published  many  tracts  on  the  subject,  and  also  an 
Account  of  that  Part  of  Africa  inhabited  by  Negroes 
(17G2)  ;  a  Cautiem  to  Great  Britain  and  her  Colonies,  in 
a  shirt  Representation  of  the  Calamitous  State  of  the 
Enslaved  Negroes  in  the  British  Dominions  (17G7)  ;  His- 
torical Account  of  Guinea,  with  an  Inquiry  into  the  Rise 
and  Progress  of  the  Slave-trade  (1771) ;  Short  Account 
of  the  Religii.us  Society  of  Friends  (1780)  ;  Disss  rtation 
on  the  Plainness  and  Simplicity  of  the  Christian  Religion 
(1782)  ;  Observations  on  the  Indian  Natives  of  this  Con- 
tinent (1784).  It  is  said  that  Benezet's  writings  first 
awakened  Thomas  Clarkson's  attention  to  the  question 
of  slavery. — Allen's  Biographical  Dictionary:  Alli- 
bone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  1G9;  Le  Bas,  Diet.  En- 
cyc.  de  la  France. 

Ben-Geber.     See  Ben-. 

Bengel,  John  Albert,  a  German  theologian  of 
profound  critical  judgment,  extensive  learning,  and 


solid  piety.  He  was  born  June  24, 1687,  at  Winnen- 
den,  Wurtemberg,  where  his  father  was  pastor;  and 
from  him  the  boy  received  his  earl}'  education.  After 
the  death  of  his  father  he  was  received  into  his  tutor's 
house ;  and  from  1699  to  1703  he  studied  at  the  Gym- 
nasium of  Stuttgardt,  then  admirably  kept.  Thor- 
oughly prepared  in  philological  elements,  he  entered 
the  University  of  Tubingen  in  1703,  and  devoted  him- 
self especially  to  the  study  of  the  sacred  text.  From 
his  childhood  he  had  been  earnestly  pious  ;  and  his  fa- 
vorite reading,  while  at  the  university,  apart  from  his 
severer  studies,  consisted  of  the  pietist  writers,  Arndt, 
Spener,  and  Franke.  At  the  same  time,  lie  did  not 
neglect  philosophy.  According  to  his  own  account, 
he  studied  Spinoza  thoroughly,  and  it  was  not  without 
mental  struggles  that  he  arrived  at  clearness  of  view 
on  the  relations  of  philosophy  to  faith.  In  1705  he 
was  brought  very  low  by  a  severe  illness  at  Maul- 
bronn;  but  he  was  strengthened  against  the  fear  of 
death  by  Psa.  cxviii,  17,  "  I  shall  not  die,  but  live,  and 
declare  the  works  of  the  Lord."  He  returned  to  his 
studies  with  greater  zeal,  and  with  a  deeper  religious 
life.  After  a  year  spent  in  the  ministry  as  vicar  at 
Metzingen,  he  became  theological  repetent  at  Tubin- 
gen ;  and  in  1713  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
cloister-school  of  Denkendorf,  a  seminary  for  the  early 
training  of  candidates  for  the  ministry.  During  this 
year  he  made  a  literary  journey,  visiting  several  of 
the  schools  of  Germany,  and  among  them  those  of  the 
Jesuits.  His  theological  culture,  by  all  these  means, 
became  many-sided.  An  illustration  of  the  spirit, 
both  of  his  studies  and  of  his  teaching,  is  afforded  by 
the  theme  chosen  for  his  inaugural  at  Denkendorf, 
viz.  "True  godliness  the  surest  road  to  true  science." 
He  remained  in  this  post  for  twenty-eight  years — years 
of  labor,  zeal,  and  success  as  teacher,  preacher,  stu- 
dent, and  writer.  Here  he  published,  for  the  use  of 
his  pupils,  an  edition  of  Ciceronis  Epist.  ad  Familiares, 
with  notes  (Stuttgardt,  1719) ;  also,  Gregorii  Thauma- 
tuigi  Panegyrlcus  ad  Origenem,  Gr.  et  Lat.  (1722)  ;  and 
Chrysostomi  libr.  vi.  de  Sacerdotio  (1725).  Put  his 
chief  toil  was  given  to  the  New  Testament;  for  the 
results  of  which,  see  below.  In  1749  he  was  appoint- 
ed councillor  and  prelate  of  Alpirsbach,  witli  a  resi- 
dence in  Stuttgardt,  where  he  died,  Nov.  2, 1751. 

Bengel  was  the  first  Lutheran  divine  who  applied 
to  the  criticism  of  the  New  Testament  a  grasp  of 
mind  which  embraced  the  subject  in  its  whole  ex- 
tent, and  a  patience  of  investigation  which  the  study 
required.  While  a  student,  he  was  much  perplexed 
by  the  various  readings,  which  led  him  to  form  the 
determination  of  making  a  text  for  himself,  which  lie 
executed  in  a  very  careful  and  scrupulous  manner,  ac- 
cording to  very  rational  and  critical  rules,  excepting 
that  he  would  not  admit  any  reading  into  the  text 
which  had  not  been  previous]}^  j  rinted  in  some  edition. 
In  the  book  of  Revelation  alone  he  deviated  from  this 
rule.  His  conscientious  piety  tended  greatly  to  allay 
the  fears  which  had  been  excited  among  the  clergy 
with  respect  to  various  readings,  and  to  him  belongs 
the  honor  of  having  struck  out  that  path  which  lias 
since  been  followed  1  y  Wetstein,Griesbach,  and  others. 
His  Gnomon  N.  T.  was  so  highly  valued  by  John  Wes- 
ley that  he  translated  most  of  its  notes  and  incorporated 
them  into  his  Explanatory  Notes  en  the  N.  T.  The  least 
valuable  part  of  Bengel'sexegetical  labors  is  that  which 
he  spent  on  the  Apocalypse.  His  chief  works  are  :  1. 
Apparatus  Criticus  ad  X.  T.  ed.  secunda,  cur.  P.  D. 
Burkii  (Tubing.  17G3,  4to) :— 2.  Gnomon  Novi  Testa- 
m,  ri/i.  3d  ed.  adjuv.  Steudel  (Tubing.  1850,  2  vols.  8vo): 
—3.  An  Explication  of  the  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  St. 
John  (Stuttg.  1710,  1746,  8vo);  translated  by  Robert- 
son  (Lond.  1757,  8vo) :— 4.  Harmony  of  the  Gospels 
(Tubing.  173G,  1747,  1766,  8vo): — 5.  Ordo  temporum  a 
principio  per  periodos  asconomite  diviner,  etc.  (Stuttg. 
1753)  : — 0.  Cyclus  sive  de  anno  magno  soils,  ad  incremen- 
tum  doctrines  prophetica  (Ulm,  1745,  Svo).     His  chro- 


J3EX-IIADAD 


750 


BEN-HAD  AD 


nological  works,  endeavoring  to  fix  the  "number  of 
the  beast,"  the  date  of  the  "millennium"  (he  was  posi- 
tive in  fixing  the  beginning  of  the  millennium  at  the 
peat  1836),  etc.,  have  rather  detracted  from  his  repu- 
tation for  solidity  of  judgment.  His  fame  will  perma- 
nently rest  on  his  Gnomon,  which,  as  a  brief  and  sug- 
gestive  commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  remains 
unrivalled.  New  editions,  both  in  Latin  (Berlin,  I860; 
Tubingen,  1860;  Stuttgard,  I860)  and  German,  have 
recently  appeared,  and  an  English  translation  was 
published  in  Clark's  Library  (Edinburgh,  1857-58,  5 
vols.  8vo),  of  which  a  greatly  improved  and  enlarged 
edition  lias  been  issued  in  this  country  by  Professors 
Lewis  and  Vincent  (Philadelphia,  1800-G1,  2  vols.  8vo). 
lli>  Ufi  and  Letters,  by  Burk,  translated  by  Walker, 
appeared  in  Ls37  (London,  8vo) ;  and  a  brief  biogra- 
phy,  by  Fausset,  is  given  in  the  5th  volume  of  the 
English  translation  of  the  Gnomon.  An  able  article 
on  his  peculiar  Sgn[ficancg  as  a  Theologian  was  pub- 
lished in  the  J  ah  rb  rich*  r  fur  devtsche  Theologie,  1861, 
and  translated  in  the  British  and  Foreign  Evangelical 
Review,  April,  1862.  A  new  L[fe  has  just  appeared 
(1865)  under  the  title  J.  A .  Bengel  Lebensabriss,  Char- 
acter, etc.,  von  Dr.O."Wiichter(Stuttgardt,  8vo),  which 
gives  a  large  amount  of  new  material,  found  in  Ben- 
gel's  MS.  diary  and  other  papers,  which  have  only  re- 
cently been  given  up  by  his  family  for  publication. 
Among  other  curious  facts,  it  appears  that  Bengel  had 
the  use  of  but  one  eye  during  his  life-long  studies,  and 
that  he  sedulously  concealed  this  privation  even  from 
his  wife  !  In  a  supplement  to  the  volume  are  given  a 
number  of  Bengel's  sermons,  addresses,  and  poems. 
Dr.  Wachter  also  published  a  volume  containing  "  Re- 
marks on  Bengel  as  an  exegetical  writer,  and  in  par- 
ticular on  the  Gnomon"  (Beitrage  zu  J.  A.  BenjeVs 
SchrifterUarring,  etc.,  Leipzic,  1865).  See  Hagenbaei', 
German  Rationalism,  12G ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop'klic , 
ii,  57. 

Ben'-hadad  (Heb.  Ben-Hadad',  bTltl"*?.  *ow  °f 
Eadad;  Sept.  vibq  "Adtp),  the  name  of  three  kings  of 
Damascene-Syria.  As  to  the  latter  part  of  this  name, 
Hadad,  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  is  the  name  of  the 
Syrian  god  Hadad  (q.  v.).  probably  the  Sun  (Macrob. 
Saturnalia,  i,  23),  still  worshipped  at  Damascus  in  the 
time  of  Josephus  (Ant.  ix,  4,  6),  and  from  it  several 
Syrian  names  are  derived,  as  Hadadezer,  i.  e.  Hadad 
has  helped.  The  expression  son  of  Hadad,  which  de- 
notes dependence  and  obedience,  not  only  accords  with 
the  analogies  of  other  heathen  names,  but  is  also  sup- 
ported by  the  existence  of  such  terms  as  "sons  of  God" 
among  the  Hebrews  (comp.  Psa.  lxxxii,  6).  On  ac- 
count of  the  nationality  of  this  name, the  term  "palaces 
of  Ben-hadad"  came  to  be  equivalent  to  Damascus  it- 
self (Jer.  xlix,  27 ;  Amos  i,  4).     See  Damascus. 

1.  The  king  of  Syria,  who  was  subsidized  by  Asa, 
king  of  Judah,  to  invade  Israel,  and  thereby  compel 
Baasha  (who  had  invaded  Judah)  to  return  to  defend 
bis  own  kingdom  (1  Kin^s  xv,  18).  B.C.  928.  See 
-\-\.  This  Ben-hadad  has,  with  some  reason,  been 
Bupposedtobe  Hadad  the  Edomite  who  rebelled  against 
Solomon  il  Kings  xi,  25).  Damascus,  after  having 
been  taken  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii,  5,  6),  was  delivered 
from  subjection  to  his  successor  by  Rezon  (1  Kings  xi, 
21  i,  wlio  '•  was  an  adversary  to  Israel  all  the  days  of 
Solomon."  This  Ben-hadad  Mas  either  son  or  grand- 
son to  Etezon,  and  in  his  time  Damascus  was  supreme 
in  Syria,  the  various  smaller  kingdoms  which  sur- 
rounded it  being  gradually  absorbed  into  its  territory. 
Ben-hadad  musi  have  been  an  energetic  and  powerful 
sovereign,  as  his  alliance  was  courted  by  Baasha  of 
Israel  and  A -a  of  Judah.  He  finally  closed  with  the 
latter  on  receiving  a  large  amount"  of  treasure,  and 
conquered  a  great  part  or  the  north  of  [srael,  thereby 
enabling  Asa  to  pursue  his  victorious  operations  in  the 
BOUth.  From  1  Kings  X\,  34,  it  would  appear  that 
he  continued  to  make  war  upon  Israel  in  Omri's  time, 


and  forced  him   to  make  "  streets"  in  Samaria  for 
Syrian  residents.  — Kitto  ;  Smith.      See  Ahab. 

2.  Another  king  of  Syria,  son  of  the  preceding. 
Some  authors  call  him  grandson,  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  unusual  in  antiquity  for  the  son  to  inherit  the  fa- 
ther's name.  But  Ben-hadad  seems  to  have  been  a 
religious  title  of  the  Syrian  kings,  as  we  see  by  its  re- 
appearance as  the  name  of  Hazael's  son,  Ben-hadad 
III.  Long  wars  with  Israel  characterized  the  reign 
of  Ben-hadad  II,  of  which  the  earlier  campaigns  are  de- 
scribed under  Ahab.  His  power  and  the  extent  of 
his  dominion  are  proved  by  the  thirty-two  vassal  kings 
who  accompanied  him  to  his  first  siege  of  Samaria. 
B.C.  cir.  906.  He  owed  the  signal  defeat  in  which 
that  war  terminated  to  the  vain  notion  which  assimi- 
lated Jehovah  to  the  local  deities  worshipped  by  the 
nations  of  Syria,  deeming  Him  "a  God  of  the  hills," 
but  impotent  to  defend  his  votaries  in  "the  plains" 
(1  Kings  xx,  1-30).  Instead  of  pursuing  his  victory, 
Ahab  concluded  a  peace  with  the  defeated  Ben-hadad. 
Some  time  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  probably  owing  to 
the  diffiulties  in  which  Jehoram  of  Israel  was  involved 
by  the  rebellion  of  Moab,  Ben-hadad  renewed  the  war 
with  Israel ;  but  all  his  plans  and  operations  were 
frustrated,  being  made  known  to  Jehoram  by  the 
prophet  Elisha  (2  Kings  vi,  8).  B.C.  cir.  894.  After 
some  years,  however,  he  renewed  the  war,  and  be- 
sieged Jehoram  in  his  capital,  Samaria,  until  the  in- 
habitants were  reduced  to  the  last  extremities  and 
most  revolting  resources  by  famine.  The  siege  was 
then  unexpectedly  raised,  according  to  a  prediction  of 
Elisha,  through  a  panic  infused  into  the  besiegers, 
who,  concluding  that  a  noise  which  they  seemed  to 
hear  portended  the  advance  upon  them  of  a  foreign 
host  procured  by  Jehoram  from  Egypt  or  some  Canaan- 
itish  cities,  as  Tyre  of  Ramoth,  thought  only  of  saving 
themselves  by  flight.  Jehoram  seems  to  have  follow- 
ed up  this  unhoped-for  deliverance  by  successful  of- 
fensive operations,  since  we  find  from  2  Kings  ix,  1 
that  Ramoth  in  Gilead  was  once  more  an  Israelitish 
town.  See  Ahab.  The  next  year  Ben-hadad,  learn- 
ing that  Elisha,  through  whom  so  many  of  his  designs 
had  been  brought  to  naught,  had  arrived  at  Damascus, 
sent  an  officer  of  distinction,  named  Hazael,  with  pres- 
ents, to  consult  him  as  to  his  recovery  from  an  illness 
under  which  he  then  suffered.  The  prophet  answered 
that  his  disease  was  not  mortal,  but  that  he  would 
nevertheless  certainly  die,  and  he  announced  to  Haza- 
el that  he  would  be  his  successor,  with  tears  at  the 
thought  of  the  misery  which  he  would  bring  on  Israel. 
On  the  day  after  Hazael's  return  Ben-hadad  was  mur- 
dered, as  is  commonly  thought,  by  this  very  Hazael, 
who  smothered  the  sick  monarch  in  his  bed,  and  mount- 
ed the  throne  in  his  stead  (2  Kings  viii,  7-15).  See 
j  Elisha  ;  Jehoram.  The  attributing  of  this  murder 
to  Hazael  himself  has  been  imagined  by  some  to  be 
inconsistent  with  his  character  and  with  Elisha's  sug- 
gestion of  the  act.  Ewald,  from  the  Hebrew  text  and 
a  general  consideration  of  the  chapter  (Gesch.  des  V.  I. 
iii,  523,  note"),  thinks  that  one  or  more  of  Ben-hadad's 
own  servants  were  the  murderers  :  Taylor  (Fragm.  in 
Calmet)  believes  that  the  wet  cloth  which  caused  his 
death  was  intended  to  effect  his  cure,  a  view  which  he 
supports  by  a  reference  to  Bruce's  Travels,  iii,  33. 
There  appears,  however,  to  be  no  good  reason  for  de- 
parting from  the  usual  and  more  natural  interpretation 
(so  Josephus,  "AcaPoc,  Ant.  ix,  4,  6)  which  assigns  the 
deed  to  Hazael  himself.  See  Hazael.  Hazael  suc- 
ceeded him  perhaps  because  he  had  no  natural  heirs, 
and  with  him  expired  the  dynasty  founded  by  Rezon. 
Ben-hadad's  death  was  about  B.C.  890,  and  he  must 
have  reigned  some  thirty  years.  See  Syria.  The 
Scriptural  notices  of  this  king  are  strikingly  confirm- 
ed by  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  (q.  v.)  on  the  black 
obelisk  found  among  the  Assyrian  monuments  atNim- 
rtul  (see  Rawlinson's  Hist.  Evidences,  p.  113),  and 
translated  by  Dr.  Hincks  {Dublin  Univ.  Magaz  ne,  Oct. 


BEN-HAIL 


Vol 


BENJAMIN 


1853).  According  to  these  annals,  the  Assyrian  king  | 
Shalmanubar  (reigned  apparently  B.C.  cir.  900-8G0  or 
850)  had  several  campaigns  against  the  nations  of  Pal- 
estine and  its  vicinity  (in  his  Gth,  11th,  14th,  and  18th 
years),  among  which  the  Hittites  (Khatti)  and  Ben- 
idri  (i.  e.  Ben-hader;  comp.  the  Sept.  uioc  "Afiep,  for 
Ben-hadad),  king  of  Damascus,  are  particularly  named, 
the  latter  being  represented  as  defeated,  although  al- 
lied with  at  least  twelve  neighboring  princes,  and  at 
the  head  of  an  immense  army,  consisting  largely  of 
cavalry  and  chariots  (Rawlinson's  Herodotus,  i,  371). 

3.  A  third  king  of  Damascus,  son  of  the  above-men- 
tioned Hazael,  and  his  successor  on  the  throne  of  Syr- 
ia.    His  reign  was  disastrous  for  Damascus,  and  the  j 
vast  power  wielded  by  his  father  sank  into  insignifi- 
cance.    In  the  striking  language  of  Scripture,  "  Jeho-  , 
ahaz  (the  son  of  Jehu)  besought  the  Lord,  and  the  Lord 
hearkened  unto  him,  for  He  saw  the  oppression  of  Is-  | 
rael,  because  the  King  of  Syria  oppressed  them ;  and  i 
the  Lord  gave  Israel  a  saviour"  (2  Kings  xiii,  4,  5). 
This  saviour  was  Jeroboam  II  (comp.  2  Kings  xiv,  27); 
hut  the  prosper^  of  Israel  began  to  revive  in  the  reign 
of  his  father  Jehoash,  the  son  of  Jehoahaz.     When 
Ben-hadad  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Hazael,  Jehoash, 
in  accordance  with  a  prophecy  of  the  dying  Elisha,  re-  ■ 
covered  the  cities  which  Jehoahaz  had  lost  to  the  Syr- 
ans,  and  beat  him  in  Aphek  (2  Kings  viii,  17),  in  the  ! 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  where  Ahab  had  already  defeated  j 
Ben-hadad  II.     B.C.  835.     Jehoash  gained  two  more  | 
victories,  but  did  not  restore  the  dominion  of  Israel  on  j 
the  east  of  Jordan.     This  glory  was  reserved  for  his 
successor  Jeroboam.      The  misfortunes  of  Ben-hadad 
III  in  war  are  noticed  by  Amos  (i,  4) — Smith,  s.  v. 

Ben-ha'il  (Heb.  Ben-Cha'yil,  ^"3,  son  of 
strength,  i.  e.  warrior;  Sept.  translates  o\  viol  rwv  Sv- 
var&v),  one  of  the  "princes"  of  the  people  sent  by  Je- 
hoshaphat  to  teach  the  inhabitants  of  Judah,  and  car- 
ry out  the  reformation  begun  by  him  (2  Chron.  xvii, 
7).     B.C.  910. 

Ben-ha'nan  (Heb.  Ben-Chanan,  "Jin- *jS,  son  of 
one  gracious;  Sept.  v'wq  'Avdv  v.  r.  <t>ai'a),  the  third 
named  of  the  four  "sons"  of  Shimon  (?  Shammai),  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  20).  B.C.  prob.  post 
1612.  Perhaps  the  name  ought  to  be  translated  "son 
ofllanan."     See  Ben-. 

Ben-Hesed,  Ben-Hur.  See  Bex-. 
Ben'inu  (Heb.  Beninu',  ^"3,  our  son;  Sept.  con- 
founds with  Bani  preceding,  and  translates  both  viol 
Bavovat  v.  r.  Bavovaiai),  one  of  the  Levites  who  seal- 
ed the  covenant  on  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  x, 
13).     B.C.  410. 

Benitier,  the  French  name  for  the  vessel  for  hold- 
ing the  so-called  holy  water,  placed  at  the  entrance  of 
Romanist  places  of  worship.     See  Holy  Water. 

Ben'jamin  (Heb.  Bvnyamin',  "pallia,  i.  q.  Felix 
[see  below]  ;  Sept.,  Joseph.,  and  New  Test.  B&viaplv), 
the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  The  youngest  son  of  Jacob  by  Rachel  (Cen.xxxv, 
18),  and  the  only  one  of  the  thirteen  (if  indeed  there 
were  not  more;  comp.  "all  his  daughters,"  Gen. 
xxxvii,  35;  xlvi,  7)  who  was  born  in  Palestine.  His 
birth  took  place  on  the  road  between  Bethel  and  Beth- 
lehem, a  short  distance — "a  length  of  earth" — from 
the  latter.  B.C.  1880.  His  mother  died  immediately 
after  he  was  born,  and  with  her  last  breath  named  him 
"1iiS,"*|3,  Ben-Oni  ("son  of  my  pain"),  which  the  fa- 
ther changed  into  Benjamin,  a  word  of  nearly  the 
same  sound,  but  portending  comfort  and  consolation, 
"son  o/* my  right  hcrno7,"  probably  alluding  to  the  sup- 
port and  protection  he  promised  himself  from  this,  his 
last  child,  in  his  old  ape.  See  Jamix.  This  supposi- 
tion is  strengthened  when  we  reflect  on  the  reluctance 
with  which  he  consented  to  part  with  him  in  very  try- 
ing circumstances,  yielding  only  to  the  pressure  of 


famine  and  the  most  urgent  necessity  (Gen.  xlii).  This 
interpretation  is  inserted  in  the  text  of  the  Vulgate  and 
the  margin  of  the  A.V.,  and  has  the  support  of  Gese- 
nius  (Thes.  p.  219).  On  the  other  hand,  the  Samaritan 
Codex  gives  the  name  in  an  altered  form  as  0^33, 
"son  of  days,"  i.  e.  "son  of  my  old  age"  (comp.  Gen. 
xliv,  20),  which  is  adopted  by  Philo,  Aben-ezra,  and 
others.  Both  these  interpretations  are  of  compara- 
tively late  date,  and  it  is  notorious  that  such  explana- 
tory glosses  arc  not  only  often  invented  long  subse- 
quently to  the  original  record,  but  are  as  often  at  va- 
riance with  the  real  meaning  of  that  record.  The 
meaning  given  by  Josephus  (ha  tj)v  t7r'  avr(ij  ytvo- 
fjtiv7]v  6Svvt}v  t?j  juryrpi,  Ant.  i,  21,  3)  has  reference 
only  to  the  name  Ben-Oni.  However,  the  name  is  net 
so  pointed  as  to  agree  with  the  usual  signification, 
"son  of,"  being  "23,  and  not  ~'3.  But  the  first  vow- 
el has  here  probably  supervened  (for  ~33)  merely  be- 
cause of  the  perfect  coalescence  of  the  two  elements  into 
a  single  word.  Moreover,  in  the  adjectival  forms  of 
the  word  the  first  syllable  is  generally  suppressed,  as 
"0i?0i-i;3  or  ^jPa*1!-!,  i.  e.  "sons  of  Yemini'"  for  sons 
of  Benjamin;  ^a?  d^X,  "man  of  Yemini"  for  man 
of  Benjamin  (1  Sam.  ix,  1;  Esth.  ii,  5);  laiffi  ""]X, 
"  land  of  Yemini"  for  land  of  Benjamin  (1  Sam.  ix,  4) ; 
as  if  the  patriarch's  name  had  been  originally  "pa^, 
Yamin  (comp.  Gen.  xlvi,  10),  and  that  of  the  tribe 
Yeminites.  These  adjectival  forms  are  carefully  pre- 
served in  the  Sept.  The  prefix  Ben  seems  to  be  mere- 
ly omitted  in  them  for  brevity,  as  being  immaterial  to 
the  reference.  Usually,  however,  the  posterity  of 
Benjamin  are  called  Benjamites  (Gen.  xxxv,  18; 
xlix,  27  ;  Deut.  xxxiii,  12 ;  Josh,  xviii,  21-28  ;  1  Kings 
xii,  16-24 ;  Judg.  iii,  15 ;  xix,  16,  etc.). — Smith,  s.  v. 
See  Ben-;  Jemini. 

Until  the  journeys  of  Jacob's  son«  and  of  Jacob  him- 
self into  Egypt  wo  hear  nothin  ,-  of  Benjamin,  and,  so 
far  as  he  is  concerned,  those  well-known  narratives 
disclose  nothing  beyond  the  very  strong  affection  en- 
tertained toward  him  by  his  father  and  his  whole-broth- 
er Joseph,  and  the  relation  of  fond  endearment  in  which 
he  stood,  as  if  a  mere  darling  child  (comp.  Gen.  xliv, 
20),  to  the  whole  of  his  family.  Even  the  harsh  na- 
tures of  the  elder  patriarchs  relaxed  toward  him. 

In  Gen.  lvi,  21  sq.,  the  immediate  descendants  of 
Benjamin  are  given  to  the  number  of  ten,  whereas  In 
Num.  xxvi,  38-40,  only  seven  are  enumerated,  and 
some  even  under  different  names.  This  difference 
may  probably  be  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  some 
of  the  direct  descendants  of  Benjamin  had  died  either 
at  an  early  period  or  at  least  childless.  Considerable 
difficulty  occurs  in  the  several  Biblical  lists  of  the  sons 
and  grandsons  of  Benjamin  (Gen.  xlvi,  21 ;  Num. 
xxvi,  38-40 ;  1  Chron.  vii,  6-12  ;  viii,  1-7),  which  may 
be  removed  by  the  following  explanations.  As  Ben- 
j  jamin  was  quite  a  youth  at  the  time  of  the  migration 
I  to  Canaan  (Gen.  xliv,  20.  22),  the  list  in  Gen.  xlvi 
cannot  be  merely  of  Jacob's  descendants  at  that  time, 
since  it  contains  Benjamin's  children  (comp.  the  chil- 
dren of  Pharez,  ver.  12,  who  was  at  that  time  a  mere 
child,  see  ch.  xxxviii,  1),  but  rather  at  the  period  of 
his  death,  seventeen  years  later  (ch.  xlvii,  28).  See 
Jacob.  Yet  the  list  could  not  have  been  made  up  to 
a  much  later  period,  since  it  does  not  contain  the  grand- 
children of  Benjamin  subsequently  born  (1  Chron.  viii, 
3  sq.).  The  sons  of  Benjamin  are  expressly  given  in 
1  Chron.  viii,  1,  2,  as  being  five,  in  the  following  or- 
der: Bela  (the  same  in  the  other  accounts),  Ashbel 
(otherwise  perhaps  Jediael),  Aharah  (evidently  the 
same  with  Ahiran  of  Num.,  and  probably  the  Aher  of 
1  Chron.  vii,  12,  since  this  name  and  Ir  are  given  ap- 
parently in  addition  to  the  three  of  ver.  6,  and  prob- 
ably also  the  Ehi  of  Gen.),  Nohah  (who  is  therefore 
possibly  the  same  with  Becher,  and  probably  also  with 
Ir,  since  Shupham  [Shuppim  or  Muppim  of  the  other] 


BENJAMIN 


752 


BENJxVMIN 


and  Hapham  [Huppim],  enumerated  as  the  sons  of  the 
latter,  although  they  do  not  appear  in  the  list  of  Be- 
cher's  sons,  must  be  Buch  under  other  names,  but — like 
Bela's  in  the  same  list — undistinguishable,  as  Jediael 
had  but  one  son.  and  the  restare  otherwise  identified), 
and  finally  Kapha  (who  vnn  then  be  no  other  than 
Bosh).      See  all  the  names  in  their  alphabetical  place. 

Tribe  of  Benjamin. — The  history  of  Benjamin  to 
the  time  of  the  entrance  into  the  Promised  Land  is  as 
meagre  as  it  is  afterward  full  and  interesting.  We 
hnow  indeed  that  shortly  after  the  departure  from 
Egypt  it  was  the  smallest  tribe  but  one  (Num.  i,  36; 
comp.  verse  1)  ;  that  during  the  march  its  position  was 
on  the  west  of  the  tabernacle,  with  its  brother  tribes  of 
Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (Num.  ii,  18-24).  In  the  desert 
it  counted  35,400  warriors,  all  above  twenty  years  of 
age  (Num.  i,  36;  ii,  22),  and,  at  the  entrance  of  Israel 
into  Canaan,  even  as  many  as  45,600.  We  have  the 
names  of  the  "captain"  of  the  tribe  when  it  set  forth 
<m  its  long  march  (Num.  ii,  22);  of  the  "ruler"  who 
went  up  with  his  fellows  to  spy  out  the  land  (xiii,  9); 
of  the  families  of  which  the  tribe  consisted  when  it 
was  marshalled  at  the  great  halt  in  the  plains  of  Moab 
by  Jordan-Jericho  (Num.  xxvi,  38-41,  63),  and  of  the 
"  prince"  who  was  chosen  to  assist  in  the  dividing  of 
the  land  (xxxiv,  21).  But  there  is  nothing  to  indicate 
what  were  the  characteristics  and  behavior  of  the  tribe 
which  sprang  from  the  orphan  darling  of  his  father  and 
brothers.  No  touches  of  personal  biography  like  those 
with  which  we  are  favored  concerning  Ephraim  (1  Chr. 
vii,  20-23);  no  record  of  zeal  for  Jehovah  like  Levi 
(Exod.  xxxii,  26) ;  no  evidence  of  special  bent  as  in  the 
case  of  Reuben  and  Gad  (Num.  xxxii).  The  only  fore- 
shadowing of  the  tendencies  of  the  tribe  which  was  to 
produce  Ehud,  Saul,  and  the  perpetrators  of  the  deed  of 
Gibeah,  is  to  be  found  in  the  prophetic  gleam  which 
lighted  up  the  dying  Jacob,  "  Benjamin  shall  raven  as 
a  wolf;  in  the  morning  he  shall  devour  the  prey,  and  at 
night  he  shall  divide  the  spoil"  (Gen.  xlix,  27).  From 
this  passage  some  have  inferred  that  the  figure  of  a 
wolf  was  the  emblem  on  the  tribal  standard. 

1.  Geography. — The  proximity  of  Benjamin  to  Ephra- 
im during  the  march  to  the  Promised  Land  was  main- 
tained in  the  territories  allotted  to  each.  Benjamin  lay 
immediately  to  the  south  of  Ephraim,  and  between  him 
and  Judah.  The  situation  of  this  territory  was  highly 
favorable.  It  formed  almost  a  parallelogram,  of  about 
26  miles  in  length  by  12  in  breadth.  Its  eastern  hound 
ary  was  the  Jordan,  and  from  thence  it  mainly  ex 
tended  to  the  wooded  district  of  Kirjath-jearim,  about 
six  miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  while  in  the  other  direc- 
tion it  stretched  from  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  under  the 
"  Shoulder  of  the  Jebusite"  on  the  south,  to  Bethel  on 
the  north.  Thus  Dan  intervened  between  this  tribe 
and  the  Philistines,  while  the  communications  with  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  were  in  its  own  power.  On  the 
south  the  territory  ended  abruptly  with  the  steep 
slopes  of  the  hill  of  Jerusalem;  on  the  north  it  almost 
melted  into  the  possessions  of  the  friendly  Ephraim. 
See  Tribe.  In  Josh,  xviii,  from  verse  12  to  14,  is 
Bketched  the  northern  boundary-line  (mostlv  repeated 
in  chap.  xvi.  1-5),  and  from  15  to  20  the  southern  (re- 
peat.-d  in  chap,  xv,  i;  9,  in  a  reverse  direction).  With- 
in llio  boundaries  described  in  these  few  verses  lava 
district  rather  small,  but  highly  cultivated  and  natu- 
rally fertile  (Josephus,  Am.  v,  1,  22;  Reland,  p.  637), 
containing  twenty-six  chief  towns  (with  their  villages, 

in  tWO  main  Bections),  which  are  named  in  Josh,  xviii, 

-1  28;  and  the  principal  of  which  were  Jericho,  Beth- 
hogla,  Bethel,  Gibeon,  Ramab,  and  Jebus  or  Jerusalem. 
This  latter  place  subsequently  became  the  capital  of 
the  whole  Jewish  empire,  but  was,  after  die  division 

Of  the  land,  still  in  possession  of  the  Jebusites.  The 
Benjamitea  had  indeed  beencharged  to  dispossess  them, 
and  occupy  that  important  town  ;  but(Judg.  i,  21)  the 
Benjamitea  are  reproached  with  having  neglected  to 

drive  them  from  thence,  that  is,  from  the  vpper,  well- 


fortified  part  of  the  place  Zion,  since  the  loicer  and  less 
fortified  part  had  already  been  taken  by  Judah  (Judg. 
i,  8),  who  in  this  matter  had  almost  a  common  inter- 
est with  Benjamin.  The  Jebusite  citadel  was  finally 
taken  by  David  (2  Sam.  v,  6  sq.).  A  trace  of  the  pas- 
ture-lands may  be  found  in  the  mention  of  the  "  herd" 
(1  Sam.  xi,  5) ;  and  possibly  others  in  the  names  of 
some  of  the  towns  of  Benjamin,  as  hap-Parah,  "the 
cow;"  Zela-ha-eleph,  "the  ox-rib''  (Josh,  xviii,  23, 
28).  In  the  degenerate  state  of  modern  Palestine 
few  evidences  of  the  fertility  of  this  tract  survive. 
But  other  and  more  enduring  natural  peculiarities  re- 
main, and  claim  our  recognition,  rendering  this  posses- 
sion one  of  the  most  remarkable  among  those  of  the 
tribes. 

(1.)  The  general  level  of  this  part  of  Palestine  is 
very  high,  not  less  than  2000  feet  above  the  maritime 
plain  of  the  Mediterranean  on  the  one  side,  or  than 
3000  feet  above  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jordan  on  the 
other,  besides  which  this  general  level  or  plateau  is 
surmounted,  in  the  district  now  under  consideration, 
by  a  large  number  of  eminerices — defined,  rounded 
hills — almost  every  one  of  which  has  borne  some  part 
in  the  history  of  the  tribe.  Many  of  these  hills  carry 
the  fact  of  their  existence  in  their  names.  Gibeon, 
Gibeah,  Geba  or  Gaba,  all  mean  "hill;"  Eamah  and 
Ramathaim,  "eminence;"  Mizpeh,  "Watch-tower;" 
while  the  "ascentof  Beth-horon,"  the  " cliff  Rimmon," 
the  "pass  of  Michmash"  with  its  two  "teeth  of  rock," 
all  testify  to  a  country  eminently  broken  and  hilly. 
The  special  associations  which  belong  to  each  of  these 
eminences,  whether  as  sanctuary  or  fortress,  many  of 
them  arising  from  the  most  stirring  incidents  in  the 
history  of  the  nation,  will  be  best  examined  under  the 
various  separate  heads. 

(2.)  No  less  important  than  these  eminences  are  the 
torrent  beds  and  ravines  by  which  the  upper  country 
breaks  down  into  the  deep  tracts  on  each  side  of  it. 
They  formed  then,  as  they  do  still,  the  only  mode  of 
access  from  either  the  plains  of  Philistia  and  of  Sharon 
on  the  west,  or  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jordan  on  the 
east — the  latter  6teep  and  precipitous  in  the  extreme, 
the  former  more  gradual  in  their  declivity.  Up  these 
western  passes  swarmed  the  Philistines  on  their  incur- 
sions during  the  time  of  Samuel  and  of  Saul,  driving 
the  first  king  of  Israel  right  over  the  higher  district 
of  his  own  tribe,  to  Gilgal,  in  the  hot  recesses  of  the 
Arabah,  and  establishing  themselves  over  the  face  of 
the  country  from  Michmash  to  Ajalon.  Down  these 
same  defiles  they  were  driven  by  Saul  after  Jonathan's 
victorious  exploit,  just  as  in  earlier  times  Joshua  had 
chased  the  Canaanites  down  the  long  hill  of  Beth- 
horon,  and  as,  centuries  after,  the  forces  of  Syria  were 
chased  by  Judas  Maccabams  (1  Mace,  iii,  16-24).  It  is 
perhaps  hardly  fanciful  to  ask  if  we  may  not  account 
in  this  way  for  the  curious  prevalence  among  the 
names  of  the  towns  of  Benjamin  of  the  titles  of  fribfs. 
Ha-Avvim,  the  Avites;  Zemaraim,  the  Zemarites;  ha- 
Ophni,  the  Ophnitc  ;  Chephar  ha-Ammonai,  the  village 
of  the  Ammonites ;  ha-Jebusi,  the  Jebusite,  are  all 
among  the  names  of  places  in  Benjamin  ;  and  we  can 
hardly  doubt  that  in  these  names  is  preserved  the 
memory  of  many  an  ascent  of  the  wild  tribes  of  the 
desert  from  the  sultry  and  open  plains  of  the  low  level 
to  the  fresh  air  and  secure  fastnesses  of  the  upper  dis- 
trict. 

The  passes  on  the  eastern  side  are  of  a  much  more 
difficult  and  intricate  character  than  those  on  the  west- 
ern. The  principal  one,  which,  now  unfrequented,  was 
doubtless  in  ancient  times  the  main  ascent  to  the  in- 
terior, leaves  the  Ghor  behind  the  site  of  Jericho, 
and,  breaking  through  the  barren  hills  with  many  a 
wild  bend  and  steep  slope,  extends  to  and  indeed  be- 
yond the  very  central  ridg;c  of  the  table-land  of  Ben- 
jamin, to  the  foot  of  the  eminence  on  which  stand  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  Beeroth.  At  its  lower  part  this 
valley  bears  the  name  of  Wady  J'/'i/nlr,  but  for  the 


BENJAMIN 


753 


BENJAMIN 


greater  part  of  its  length  it  is  called  Wady  Suweinit. 
It  is  the  main  access,  and  from  its  central  ravine  branch 
out  side  valleys,  conducting  to  Bethel,  Michmash,  Gib- 
eah,  Anatlioth,  and  other  towns.  After  the  fall  of 
Jericho  this  ravine  must  have  stood  open  to  the  victo- 
rious Israelites,  as  their  natural  inlet  to  the  country. 
At  its  lower  end  must  have  taken  place  the  repulse 
and  subsequent  victory  of  Ai,  with  the  conviction  and 
stoning  of  Achan,  and  through  it  Joshua  doubtless 
hastened  to  the  relief  of  the  Gibeonites,  and  to  his 
memorable  pursuit  of  the  Canaanites  down  the  pass 
of  Beth-horon,  on  the  other  side  of  the  territory  of 
Benjamin.  Another  of  these  passes  is  that  which  since 
the  time  of  our  Saviour  has  been  the  regular  road  be- 
tween Jericho  and  Jerusalem,  the  scene  of  the  parable 
of  the  Good  Samaritan.  Others  lie  farther  north,  by 
the  mountain  which  bears  the  traditional  name  of 
Quarantania  ;  first  up  the  face  of  the  cliff,  afterward 
less  steep,  and  finally  leading  to  Bethel  or  Taiyibeh, 
the  ancient  Ophrah.  These  intricate  ravines  may  well 
have  harbored  the  wild  beasts  which,  if  the  derivation 
of  the  names  of  several  places  in  this  locality  are  to  he 
trusted,  originally  haunted  the  district — zeboim,  hyamas 
(1  Sam.  xiii,  18),  shual  and  skaalb.'m,  foxes  or  jackals 
(Judg.  i,  35;  1  Sam.  xiii,  17),  ajalon,  gazelles.  (See 
Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palestine,  ch.  iv.) 

Such  were  the  limits  and  such  the  character  of  the 
possession  of  Benjamin  as  fixed  by  those  who  origi- 
nally divided  the  land.  But  it  could  not  have  been 
long  before  they  extended  their  limits,  since  in  the 
early  lists  of  1  Chron.  viii  we  find  mention  made  of 
Benjamites  who  built  Lod  and  Ono,  and  of  others  who 
were  founders  of  Aijalon  (12,  13),  all  which  towns  were 
beyond  the  spot  named  above  as  the  westernmost  point 
in  their  boundary.  These  places,  too,  were  in  their 
possession  after  the  return  from  the  captivity  (Neh. 
xi,  35). — Smith,  s.  v. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  all  the  Scriptural  localities 
in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  with  their  probable  modern 
representatives,  except  those  connected  with  the  to- 
pography of  Jerusalem  (q.  v.). 

See  RF.Tii-noGLAn. 
Tel  el-Hajar. 

[W.ofWadySidr]? 

Alrriit. 

See  BAAT.-TAMAr.. 

[Spring  N.E.  of  el-Jib]? 

livil-llanhia? 
A  nata. 

See  Betii-abac.aii. 
hing-iloor.  Si  e  Acfi.-mizraim. 
See  I5f.tu-avex. 
See  Ai. 
[Hizmeh']  ? 
See  Hazc-3. 
[Jebcl  A  hj]  ? 
[Krkah] : 

J)rir  is-Sidt 

El-Bireh. 

IKuir-najlc]? 

Bltrj-Beitint 

See  Azmavf.tii. 
See  EBENEZEB. 
Beitin. 

A  in  llajln. 

In  Wady  Suweinit. 

lAin-Yebruct]? 

Kefir. 

Wady  Kelt  ? 

IKhurbet  el-Bistum? 

IBtddtql 

See  Betiiet,. 

[Katanum]? 

El-Kubeibeht 

Birel-Khott 

SeeOrmJAii; 

See  Gf.i-.a. 

IKhurbet  HaiyeJn? 

Jib,,, 

[Kl-lsaitii/rh]? 
Sor  Cm.cai.. 

[Bir-Xebalcq* 

Tuleil  el-Ful 

El- Jib. 

[N.E.  <>f  Michmash]  ? 

Moharfert 

See  Ai. 


Abel-mizraim. 

Village. 

Ai. 

Town. 

Ajephim. 

Village. 

Alemeth'. 

Town. 

Allon-bachuth. 

Oak. 

Amman. 

Hill. 

Ananiah. 

Town. 

Anatlioth. 

do. 

Arabah. 

do. 

Atad. 

Threshin 

Aven. 

Town. 

Avim. 

do. 

Azmaveth. 

do. 

Baal-hazor. 

do. 

Baal-perazim. 

inn. 

Baal-tamar. 

Town. 

Bahurim. 

do. 

Beeroth. 

do. 

Beth-arabah. 

do. 

Beth-aven. 

do. 

Beth-azmaveth. 

do. 

Beth-car. 

Hill. 

Beth-eL 

Town. 

Beth-hoglah. 

do. 

Bozez. 

Cliff. 

Chephar-haammonai. 

Town. 

Cliephirah. 

do. 

Cherith. 

Brook. 

Cliidon. 

Threshh 

Ebenezer. 

Stone. 

El-Bethel. 

Town. 

Eleph. 

do. 

Emmaus. 

do. 

En-shemesh. 

Spring. 

Ephraim,  or  Ephron. 

Town. 

Gaba. 

do. 

Gallim. 

do. 

Geba. 

do. 

Gebim. 

do. 

Geliloth. 

do. 

Giah. 

Village. 

Gjbeah. 

Town. 

Gibeon. 

do. 

Gidom. 

Plain. 

Gilgal. 

Town. 

Hai. 

do. 

Bb  b 

Ilnzor. 

Town. 

TellAzur? 

Helkath-hazzurim. 

Plain. 

E.  of  El-Jib? 

Irpeel. 

Town. 

IKustulJ  ? 

(Town. 

W.  of  er-lUha. 

Jericho. 

■{  Waters. 

Ain  es- Sultan. 

(Plain. 

lEl-Wadiyeh] 

Jerusalem. 

City. 

El-Khuds. 

Keziz. 

Valley. 

Wady  el-Kaziz. 

Menukah. 

Town. 

[Hill  K.  ot'Gibeah]? 

Michmash. 

do. 

Mukmax. 

Migron. 

do. 

[Ruin*  S.  of  Deir  D\- 
wan]  ? 

Mizpeh. 

do. 

X<''"l  S'iniiril  f 

Moza. 

do. 

Kulcnieh? 

Naarath,  or  Naaran. 

do. 

lEl-NejanehJi 

Xaiufli. 

do. 

See  Ramaii. 

Nob. 

do. 

[Kurazeh]? 

Ophni. 

do. 

Jifna. 

Ophrah. 

do. 

Tayibeh  t 

Parah. 

do. 

Farah. 

Ramah. 

do. 

Er-Iiam. 

Rekeni. 

do. 

\Deir  Yesiri]  ? 

Rephaim. 

Valley. 

Plain  S.W.  of  Jertraw 

Eimmon. 

Rock. 

Rummon. 

Sechu. 

Well. 

See  Ramaii. 

Sench. 

Cliff. 

In  Wady  Suweinit? 

Shalim. 

Region. 

Pee  Shual. 

Shen. 

Rock. 

[Btit  Enaiql 

Shual. 

Region. 

[El-Aliiay; 

Taralah.  . 

Town. 

[licit  Krs«]? 

Zelah  or  Zelzah. 

do. 

Beit  Jala. 

Zsmaraim. 

City  and  Hill. 

Es-Sumrah  ? 

2.  History. — In  the  time  of  the  Judges  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  became  involved  in  a  civil  war  with  the 
other  eleven  tribes  for  having  refused  to  give  up  to 
justice  the  miscreants  of  Gibeon  that  had  publicly  vio- 
lated and  caused  the  death  of  a  concubine  of  a  man  of 
Ephraim,  who  had  passed  with  her  through  Gibeon. 
This  war  terminated  in  the  almost  utter  extinction  of 
the  tribe,  leaving  no  hope  for  its  regeneration  from 
the  circumstance  that  not  only  had  nearly  all  the 
women  of  that  tribe  been  previously  slain  by  their 
foes,  but  the  eleven  other  tribes  had  engaged  them- 
selves by  a  solemn  oath  not  to  marry  their  daughters 
to  any  man  belonging  to  Benjamin.  When  the  thirst 
of  revenge,  however,  had  abated,  they  found  means  to 
cvads  the  letter  of  the  oath,  and  to  revive  the  tribe 
again  by  an  alliance  with  them  (Judg.  xix,  20,  21). 
That  frightful  transaction  was  indeed  a  crisis  in  the 
history  of  the  tribe;  the  narrative  undoubtedly  is  in- 
tended to  convey  that  the  six  hundred  who  took  refuge 
in  the  cliff  Eimmon,  and  who  were  afterward  provided 
with  wives  partly  from  Jabesh-gilead  (Judg.  xxi,  10), 
partly  from  Shiloh  (xxi,  21),  were  the  only  survivors. 
The  revival  of  the  tribe,  however,  was  so  rapid  that, 
in  the  time  of  David,  it  already  numbered  59,434  able 
warriors  (1  Chron.  vii,  G-12) ;  in  that  of  Asa,  280,000 
(2  Chron.  xiv,  8) ;  and  in  that  of  Jehoshaphat,  200,000 
(2  Chron.  xvii,  17).     See  under  < 'iii.naaxaii. 

This  tribe  had  also  the  honor  of  giving  the  first  king 
to  the  Jews,  Saul  being  a  Benjamite  (1  Sam.  ix,  1,  2). 
After  the  death  of  Saul,  the  Benjamites,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  declared  themselves  for  his  son  Ish- 
bosheth  (2  Sam.  ii,  8  sq.),  until,  after  the  assassination 
of  that  prince,  David  became  king  of  all  Israel.  David 
having  at  last  expelled  the  Jebusites  from  Zion,  and 
made  it  his  own  residence,  the  close  alliance  that  seems 
previously  to  have  existed  between  the  tribes  of  Ben- 
jamin and  Judah  (Judg.  i,  8)  was  cemented  by  the 
circumstance  that,  while  Jerusalem  actually  belonged 
to  the  district  of  Benjamin,  that  of  Judah  was  imme- 
diately contiguous  to  it.  Thus  it  happened  that,  at 
the  division  of  the  kingdom  after  the  deatli  of  Solomon, 
Benjamin  espoused  the  cause  of  Judah,  and  formed,  to- 
gether with  it.  a  kingdom  by  themselves.  Indeed,  the 
two  tribes  stood  always  in  such  a  close  connection  as 
often  to  be  included  under  the  single  term  Judah  (1 
Kings  xi,  13;  xii,  20).  After  the  exile,  also,  these 
two  tribes  constituted  the  flower  of  the  new  Jewish 
colony  in  Palestine  (comp.  Ezra  xi,  1 ;  x,  9).— Kitto. 

3.  Characteristics. — The  contrast  between  the  war- 
like character  of  the  tribe  and  the  peaceful  image  of 
its  progenitor  has  been  already  noticed.     That  lierce- 


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ness  and  power  are  not  less  out  of  proportion  to  the 
smallness  of  its  numbers  and  of  its  territory.  This 
comes  out  in  many  scattered  notices,  (rt)  Benjamin 
wis  the  only  tribe  that  seems  to  have  pursued  arch- 
cry  to  any  purpose,  and  their  skill  in  the  how  (1  Sam. 
xx,  20,  36;  2  Sam.  i,  22;  1  Chron.  viii,  40;  xii,  2;  2 
Chron.  xvii,  17)  and  the  sling  (Judg.  xx,  16)  are  cele- 
brated. (6)  When,  after  the  first  conquest  of  the 
country,  the  nation  began  to  groan  under  the  miseries 
of  a  foreign  yoke,  it  is  to  a  man  of  Benjamin,  Ehud, 
the  son  of  Gera,  that  they  turn  for  deliverance.  The 
Btory  seems  to  imply  that  he  accomplished  his  purpose 
on  Eglon  with  less  risk,  owing  to  his  proficiency  in 
the  peculiar  practice  of  using  his  left  hand — a  practice 
apparently  confined  to  Benjatnites,  and  by  them  great- 
ly employed  (Judg.  iii,  15,  and  see  xx,  10;  1  Chron. 
xii,  •_•).  (r)  Baa  in  h  and  Rechab,  ''the  sons  of  Rim- 
mon  th  •  Beerothite,  of  the  children  of  Benjamin,"  are 
the  only  Israelites  west  of  the  Jordan  named  in  the 
whole  history  as  captains  of  marauding  predatory 
"bands"  (Q'HVia) ;  and  the  act  of  which  they  were 
gnilty — the  murder  of  the  head  of  their  house — hardly 
need  sd  the  summary  vengeance  inflicted  on  them  by 
David  to  testify  the  abhorrence  in  which  it  must  have 
been  held  by  all  Orientals,  however  warlike,  (d)  The 
dreadful  deed  recorded  in  Judg.  xix,  though  repelled 
by  the  whole  country,  was  unhesitatingly  adopted  and 
defended  by  Benjamin  with  an  obstinacy  and  spirit 
truly  extraordinary,  ( >l'  their  obstinacy  there  is  a  re- 
markable trail  in  1  Sam.  xxii,  7  18.  '  Though  Saul 
was  not  only  the  king  of  the  nation,  but  the  head  of 
the  tribe,  and  David  a  member  of  a  family  which  had 
M  vet  no  claims  on  the  friendship  of  Benjamin,  yet 

the  Benjatnites  resisted  the  sti gesl  appeal  of  Saul 

to  betray  the  movements  of  David;  and  after  those 

1 tmenta  bad  I „  revealed  by  Doeg  the  Edomite 

(worthy  member     ag  |,..  „,,,.,   ha'v„  Beeme<]  tl,  them— 

of  an  act  uraed  race!)  they  still  firmly  refused  to  lift  a 
band  against  those  who  bad  assisted  him  (sec  Niemey- 
cr,  Charaktt  rift,  iii,  565  sq,  . 

Several  circumsl  tnces  may  have  conduced  to  the 
relative  importance  of  this  small  tribe  (see  Plesken, 
jamin   parvo,  Wittenb.  1720).     The   Taberna- 
cle was  at  Shiloh,  In  Ephraim,  during  the  time  of  the 
last  judge,  but  tlio  urk  was  near  Benjamin,  at  Kir- 


ibe  of  Benjamin. 

jath-jearim.  Ramah,  the  official  residence  of  Samuel, 
and  containing  a  sanctuary  greatly  frequented  (1  Sam. 
ix,  12,  etc.),  Mizpeh,  where  the  great  assemblies  of 
"  all  Israel"  took  place  (1  Sam.  vii,  5),  Bethel,  per- 
haps the  most  ancient  of  all  the  sanctuaries  of  Pales- 
tine, and  Gibeon,  specially  noted  as  "the  great  high 
place"  (2  Chron.  i,  3),  were  all  in  the  land  of  Benja- 
min. These  must  gradually  have  accustomed  the 
people  who  resorted  to  these  various  places  to  as- 
sociate the  tribe  with  power  and  sanctity,  and  they 
tend  to  elucidate  the  anomaly  which  struck  Saul  so 
forcibly,  "that  all  the  desire  of  Israel"  should  have 
been  fixed  on  the  house  of  the  smallest  of  its  tribes  (1 
Sam.  ix,  21). 

The  struggles  and  contests  that  followed  the  death 
of  Saul  arose  from  the  natural  unwillingness  of  the 
tribe  to  relinquish  its  position  at  the  head  of  the  na- 
tion, especially  in  favor  of  Judah.  Had  it  been  Ephra- 
im, the  case  might  have  been  different;  but  Judah  had 
as  yet  no  connection  with  the  house  of  Joseph,  and 
was,  besides,  the  tribe  of  David,  whom  Saul  had  pur- 
sued with  such  unrelenting  enmity.  The  tact  and 
sound  sense  of  Abner,  however,  succeeded  in  overcom- 
ing these  difficulties,  though  he  himself  fell  a  victim 
in  the  very  act  of  accomplishing  his  purpose;  and  the 
proposal  that  David  should  be  "king  over  Israel"  was 
one  which  "seemed  good  to  the  whole  house  of  Benja- 
min," and  of  which  the  tribe  testified  its  approval  and 
evinced  its  good  faith  by  sending  to  the  distant  capi- 
tal of  Hebron  a  detachment  of  3000 men  of  the  "breth- 
ren of  Saul"  (1  Chron.  xii,  29).  Still,  the  insults  of 
Sliimei  and  the  insurrection  of  Sheba  are  indications 
that  the  soreness  still  existed,  and  we  do  not  hear  of 
any  cordial  co-operation  or  firm  union  between  the  two 
tribes  until  a  cause  of  common  quarrel  arose  at  the 
disruption,  when  Rehoboam  .assembled  "all  the  house 
of  Judah,  with  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  to  light  against 
the  bouse  of  Israel,  to  bring  the  kingdom  again  to  the 
son  of  Solomon"  (1  Kings  xii,  21 ;  2  Chr.  xi,  1).  Pos- 
sibly the  seal  may  have  been  set  to  this  bj'  the  fact  of 
Jeroboam  having  just  taken  possession  of  Bethel,  a 
city  of  Benjamin,  for  the  calf-worship  of  the  northern 
kingdom  (1  Kings  xii,  29).  Bethel,  however,  was  on 
the  very  boundary-line,  and  centuries  before  this  date 
was  inhabited  by  both  Ephraimites  and  Benjatnites 


BENJAMITE 


755 


BENOIT 


(Judg.  xix,  16).  On  the  other  hand,  Rehoboam  forti- 
fied and  garrisoned  several  cities  of  Benjamin,  and 
wisely  dispersed  the  members  of  his  own  family  through 
them  (2  Chron.  xi,  10-12).  The  alliance  was  farther 
strengthened  by  a  covenant  solemnly  undertaken  (2 
Chron.  xv,  9),  and  by  the  employment  of  Benjamites 
in  high  positions  in  the  army  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xvi, 
17).  But  what,  above  all,  must  have  contributed  to 
strengthen  the  alliance,  was  the  fact  that  the  Temple 
was  the  common  property  of  both  tribes.  True,  it  was 
founded,  erected,  and  endowed  by  princes  of  "  the  bouse 
of  Judah,"  but  the  city  of  "the  Jebusite"  (Josh,  xviii, 
28),  and  the  whole  of  the  ground  north  of  the  Valley 
of  Hinnom,  was  in  the  lot  of  Benjamin.  In  this  latter 
fact  is  literally  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  Moses  (Deut. 
xxxiii,  12):  Benjamin  "dwelt  between"  the  "shoul- 
ders" of  the  ravines  which  encompass  the  Holy  City 
on  the  west,  south,  and  east  (see  a  good  treatment  of 
this  point  in  Blunt's  Uncles.  Coincidences,  pt.  ii,  §  xvii). 

Although  thereafter  the  history  of  Benjamin  becomes 
merged  in  that  of  the  southern  kingdom,  yet  that  the 
tribe  still  retained  its  individuality  is  plain  from  the 
constant  mention  of  it  in  the  various  censuses  taken 
of  the  two  tribes,  and  on  other  occasions,  and  also  from 
the  lists  of  the  men  of  Benjamin  who  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii ;  Xeh.  vii),  and  took  possession 
of  their  old  towns  (Xeh.  xi,  31-35).  At  Jerusalem 
the  name  must  have  been  always  kept  alive,  if  by 
nothing  else,  by  the  name  of  "  the  high  gate  of  Benja- 
min" (Jer.  xx,  2).  (See  below.)  That  the  ancient 
memories  of  their  house  were  not  allowed  to  fade  from 
the  recollections  of  the  Benjamites,  is  clear  also  from 
several  subsequent  notices.  The  genealogy  of  Saul, 
to  a  late  date,  is  carefully  preserved  in  the  lists  of  1 
Chr.  (viii,  33-40 ;  ix,  39-44) ;  the  name  of  Kish  recurs 
as  the  father  of  Mordecai  (Esth.  ii,  5),  the  honored  de- 
liverer of  the  nation  from  miseries  worse  than  those 
threatened  by  Nabash  the  Ammonite.  The  royal 
name  once  more  appears,  and  "Saul,  who  also  is  call- 
ed Paul,"  has  left  on  record  under  his  own  hand  that 
he  was  "  of  the  stock  of  Israel,  of  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min." It  is  perhaps  more  than  a  mere  fancy  to  note 
how  remarkably  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  tribe 
are  gathered  up  in  his  one  person.  There  was  the 
fierceness  in  his  persecution  of  the  Christians,  and 
there  were  the  obstinacy  and  persistence  which  made 
him  proof  against  the  tears  and  prayefs  of  his  converts, 
and  "ready  not  to  be  bound  only,  but  also  to  die  for 
the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus"  (Acts  xxi,  12, 13).  There 
were  the  force  and  vigor  to  which  natural  difficulties 
and  confined  circumstances  formed  no  impediment; 
and,  lastly,  thsre  was  the  keen  sense  of  the  greatness  of 
his  house  in  his  proud  reference  to  his  forefather  "Saul, 
the  son  of  Cis,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin." — Smith. 

Gate  of  Benjamin  (Jer.  xxxvii,  13;  xxxviii,  7; 
"Benjamin's  gate,"  Zech.  xiv,  10;  "  hi^h  gate  of  Ben- 
jamin," Jer.  xx,  2)  was  doubtless  on  the  northern  side 
of  Jerusalem,  probably  the  same  elsewhere  called  "the 
gate  of  Ephraim"  (1  Kings  xiv,  13),  and  apparently 
coinciding  nearly  in  position  with  the  present  "Da- 
mascus Gate"  (Strong's  Harmony  and  Expos,  of  the  Gos- 
pels, App.  ii,  ]).  IS).     See  Jerusalem. 

2.  A  man  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  second  named 
of  the  seven  sons  of  Bilhan.  and  the  head  of  a  family 
of  warriors  (1  Chron.  vii,  10).     B.C.  perh.^cir.  1016. 

3.  An  Israelite,  one  of  the  "sons  of  Harim,"  who 
divorced  his  foreign  wife  after  the  exile  (Ezra  x,  32). 
B.C.  458,  He  seems  to  be  the  same  person  who  had 
previously  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusa- 
lem (in  connection  with  Haehub),  opposite  his  house 
on  Zion  (Xeh.  iii,  23). 

Ben'jamite  (Heb.  prop.  Ben-Ycmini' ',  *:""C"'""3, 
son  ofjetnim,  1  Sam.  ix,  21 ;  xxii,  7  ;  2  Sam.  xvi,  11  ; 
xix,  17;  1  Kings  ii,  8 ;  1  Chron.  xxvii,  12;  "of  Ben- 
jamin," Psa.  vii,  title;  but  simply  Yetnini' ,  "j^"\  in 
Judg.  iii,  15;  xix,  10;  1  Sam.  ix,  1,  4;  2  Sam.  xx,  1; 


Esth.  ii,  5;  elsewhere  the  usual  name  Benjamin  with 
some  other  prefix,  see  Benjamin),  the  patronymic  title 
of  the  descendants  of  the  patriarch  Benjamin  (q.  v.). 

Bemiet,  Benjamin,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Wellesburgh,  Leicestershire,  1074,  and  was  for 
many  years  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. He  was  an  industrious  and  suc- 
cessful pastor,  and  still  more  eminent  as  a  writer.  Ho 
published  Memorials  of  the  Reformation  (Lond.  2d  ed. 
1721,  8vo);  Ire?iicum,  a  Review  of  Controversies  on  the 
Trinity,  Church  Authority,  etc.  (1722,  8vo) ;  Christian 
Oratory,  or  ike  Divot  ions  of  the  Closet  (many  editions); 
Discourses  against  Popery  (1714,  8vo)  ;  Sermons  on  In- 
spiration (1730,  8vo). — Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliographica, 
i,  243;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  165. 

Bennet,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Salisbury  in  1673.  He  took  his 
M.A.  degree  at  Cambridge  in  1694.  He  was  made 
rector  of  St.  James's  at  Colchester  1700,  and  in  1716 
vicar  of  St.  Giles's  in  London,  where  he  died  in  1728. 
He  was  highly  esteemed  by  Hoadley,  although  he  dif- 
fered from  him  in  his  opinions.  He  wrote  various 
works  against  the  Romanists  and  Dissenters,  An  Es- 
say on  the  Thirty-nine  A  rticles  (Lond.  1715,  8vo),  A  Par- 
aphrase on  the  Book  of  Comnu  n  Prayer  (Lond.  1709, 
8vo),  Brief  History  of  Forms  of  Prayer  (Camb.  1708, 
8vo),  etc. — Biog.  Britannica. 

Benno,  St.,  descended  from  the  counts  of  Wolden- 
burgh  in  Saxony,  was  born  at  Hildesheim  in  1010,  and 
became,  in  1060,  bishop  of  Meissen.  He  eagerly  ex- 
erted himself  for  the  conversion  of  the  pagan  Sclavo- 
nians.  In  the  struggle  between  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV  and  Gregory  VII  he  was  an  unflinching  adherent 
of  the  latter,  and  therefore  expelled  by  the  emperor 
from  his  see  in  1085,  but  afterward  reinstated.  He 
died  June  16, 1107.  His  canonization,  in  1523,  called 
forth  the  spicy  pamphlet  of  Luther,  Against  the  new 
Idol  and  old  Devil,  who  is  to  be  set  vp  in  Afeissen.  His 
Life  was  written  by  Emser  (Leipz.  1512).  See  also 
Seyffarth,  Ossiligium  Bennonis  (Munich,  1765)  ;  Kanke, 
History  of  the  Reformation,  i,  90. 

Be'llO  (Heb.  Bene/,  1*32,  his  son;  Sept.  inoi  Boi'i'i 
in  ver.  26,  and  translates  literally  viol  abroii  in  ver. 
27)  is  given  as  the  only  son,  or  the  first  of  the  four 
sons  of  Jaaziah  the  Levite,  of  the  family  of  Merari,  in 
1  Chron.  xxiv,  26,  27  ;  but  there  is  much  confusion  in 
the  whole  passage.     B.C.  perh.  1014.     See  Ben-. 

Benoit,  Elie,  a  Protestant  French  theologian, 
was  born  at  Palis  on  Jan.  20,  16-10.  Having  studied 
theology  at  Paris  and  Montauban,  he  became,  in  1665, 
minister  at  Alencon.  Here  he  had  repeatedly  theo- 
logical disputations  with  Roman  Catholic  priests,  espe- 
cially the  Jesuit  La  Rue,  who  tried  to  excite  the  mob 
against  the  Protestants.  In  consequence  of  the  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  he  had  to  leave  France ; 
he  went  to  Holland,  and  became  pastor  at  Delft,  where 
he  died  Nov.  15,  1728.  He  was  highly  esteemed  as  a 
meek,  peaceable  man,  who  did  not  seek  controversies, 
but  did  not  flee  from  them  when  forced  upon  him. 
His  chief  work  is  the  History  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
(Hisloire  de  V Edit  de  Nantes,  Delft,  1693-95,  5  vols.  4to). 
This  work  is  distinguished  for  its  accuracy,  and  still 
remains  a  chief  source  for  the  history  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  France.  Among  his  other  works  are  the 
following:  IlisU.ire  et  Apologie  de  la  Retraite  des  Pas- 
teurs  (Francfort,  1687, 12mo ;  and  a  defence  of  this 
Apology,  Francfort,  Kiss,  12mo);  M*-lmiye  de  Re- 
marques  critiques,  hi&trriques,  phUosophiques,  et  theolo- 
giques  cmln  deux  ecrits  de  Loland  (Delft,  1712,  8vo).— 
Herzog,  Supplement,  i,  174;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  v, 
394. 

Benoit  or  Benedict,  Rene,  curate  of  the  church 
of  St.  Eustache  at  Paris,  was  born  near  Ansrers  in 
1521.  In  1566  he  distinguished  himself  by  a  French 
translation  of  the  Bibie,  published  in  that  year  at  Paris 


BEX-ONI 


756 


BENTHAM 


in  fol.,  and  in  1588  in  2  vols.  4to.  He  was  accused 
of  having  pretended  to  make  his  translation  from  the 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  of -which  languages  he  knew  noth- 
ing and  of  having,  in  feet,  followed  the  Geneva  Bi- 
ble, making  a  few  verbal  alterations.  In  spite  of  his 
defence,  he  was  expelled  from  the  faculty  of  theology 
by  a  decree  dated  October  1st,  1572,  and  the  censure 
passed  by  that  Bociety  on  his  works  was  confirmed  by 
I  XIII;    the  author  was  subsequently  com- 

pelled to  Buhmit,  was  readmitted  into  the  faculty,  and 
made  dean.  Benoit  had  been  confessor  to  the  unhap- 
pv  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  whom  be  accompanied  into 
Scotland.  He  died  at  Paris  March  7th,  1C08.  He 
*  published  an  immense  number  of  works,  among  which 
may  be  specified,  1.  Stromata  in  Uuirersa  Biblia  (Co- 
logne. 1508,  8vo) :— 2.  .1  Catholic  Apology  (showing 
that  the  profession  of  the  Protestant  faith  was  not  a 
sufficient  and  lawful  reason  for  excluding  the  heir  from 
the  throne  of  France)  :— 3.  Exami  n  pacifique  de  la  Doc- 
,  Huguenots.  (This  curious  work  was  printed 
at  Caen  in  1590,  and  is  intended  to  show  that  the 
Council  of  Trent,  not  having  heen  fully  received  in 
Frame,  was  not  of  sufficient  authority  there  to  con- 
demn the  Huguenots.)— Hoefer,  Biog.  Gen.  v,  395. 

Ben-o'ni  (Heb.  Ben-Oni',  "OIX"?,  son  of  my  sor- 
row, otherwise  of  my  strength,  i.  e.  of  my  last  effort, 
Ililler.  Onomast.  p.  300;  Sept.  translates  vibg  oSivne 
/ioi/),  the  name  given  by  Rachel  in  her  expiring  breath 
1,,  her  youngest  son,  in  token  of  the  death-pangs  that 
gave  him  birth  (Gen.  xxxv,  18);  afterward  changed 
by  his  father  to  Benjamin  (q.  v.). 

Benson,  George,  D.D.,  a  learned  and  eminent 
English  Dissenter,  was  born  at  Great  Salkeld  1G99 ; 
studied  at  Glasgow,  and  settled  as  pastor  at  Abingdon 
about  1721.  In  1729  he  went  to  London,  and  in  1740 
was  chosen  pastor  of  the  church  in  Crutched  Friars, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1703.  He  was 
trained  a  Calvini*t,  but  his  views  in  later  years  were 
tinged  with  Arianism.  He  published  The  Design  arid 
Pray<  r  (Lond.  1737,  8vo,  2d  ed.) :— Paraphrase 
and  Notes  on  PauVs  Epistles,  after  Locke's  Manner 
(Lond.  1752-56,  2  vols,  ito,  best  ed.)-.— History  of  the 
first  Planting  of  th  Christian  Religion  (Lond.  1756,  2 
vols.  4to,  best  ed.).  After  his  death,  his  Life  of  Christ, 
with  a  memoir  of  the  author  bj'  Amory,  appeared 
|  Lond.  1701,  Ito).— Allibone,  Lfict. of  Authors,  i,  166. 

Benson,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
early  Methodist  ministers  in  England,  was  born  at 
Melmerby,  in  Cumberland,  .Tan.  25,  1748.  His  father 
d  isigned  him  for  tin-  ministry  in  the  Established 
Church,  and  had  him  taught  Greek  and  Latin  by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Dean,  of  Parkhead,  under  whom  he  made 
great  proficiency.  At  sixteen  he  fell  in  for  the  first 
time  witli  the  Methodists  and  was  converted.  In  1700 
Mr.  Wesley  appointed  him  classical  master  at  Kings- 
v. I  School.  He  devoted  himself  closely  to  philoso- 
phy and  theology,  studying  constantly  and  zealously. 
In  1769  he  was  made  head-mast  r  of  Lady  Hunting- 
don's  Theological  <  lollege  at  Trevecca  ;  but  in  1771  he 
1  -ft  it,  because  of  its  becoming  a  thoroughly  Calvinis- 
I.  Mr.  B  ii -on  was  th  sn,  and  always  after,  a 
decided  Arminun.  While  engaged  in  these  semi- 
naries  h  ■  -till  regularly  kept  his  terms  at  St.  Edmund 
Hall,  i  Ki'or  1.  la  August,  1771.  he  was  admitted  into 
tb  ■  M  ithodist  Conference,  and  soon  became  one  of  the 
in  the  body.  He  filled  the  chief  sta- 
tion.. Bueh  as  Edinburgh,  Newcastle,  Sheflield,  Hull, 
Birmingham,  and  London,  ami  crowds  attended  his 
og  wherever  he  went.  After  a  life  of  great 
( leric  il  and  literarj  industry,  he  died  Feb.  10,  1821,  at 

I don.     Dr.  Clarke  oalla  him  "a  sound  scholar,  a 

powerful  .and  able  preacher,  and  a  profound  theolo^i- 
an."  Besides  editing  for  many  years  the  M<th>d:st 
Magvunt,  he  published  .1  Drfenci  of  the  Methods 
(Lond.  17:i:j,  12mo):— A  Farther  Defence  of  the  Metho- 
dists (1791,  12inu);  —  Vwdiqatfan  of  the-  Methodists 


(Lond.  1S00,  8vo)  : — Apology  for  the  Methoelists  (Lond. 
180],  12 mo)  :  —  Sermons  on  various  Occasions  (Lond. 
1836,  2d  edit.  2  vols.  12mo) :— A  Commentary  on  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (Lond.  1848,  6th  edit.  6  vols.  8v<  )  :— 
Life  of  John  Fit  tcht  r  (New  York,  1  vol.  8vo).  His  life 
has  been  twice  written,  once  by  Macdonald  (New  York, 
8vo),  and  again  by  Treffry  (New  York,  12mo). 

Bentham,  Edward,  was  born  at  Ely  in  1707, 
and  was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  from 
whence,  in  1723,  he  removed  to  Corpus  Christi  College, 
and  in  1731  was  chosen  fellow  of  Oriel.  In  1743  he 
obtained  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Hereford.  In 
1749  he  proceeded  to  D.D.,  and  in  1754  was  made  can- 
on in  his  cathedral.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  Fanshaw  he 
was  nominated  regius  professor  of  divinit}'  in  the  uni- 
versity. He  died  in  1776.  Besides  some  single  ser- 
mons, Dr.  Bentham  published,  1.  An  Introduction  to 
Moral  Philosophy,  8vo: — 2.  A  Letter  to  a  young  Gentle- 
man on  Study ;  with  a  Letter  to  a  Fellow  of  a  College, 
8vo: — 3.  Advice  to  a  young  Man  of  Rank  upon  coming 
to  the  University : — 4.  Refections  on  Logic,  with  a  Vindi- 
cation of  the  same,  8vo : — 5.  Funeral  Eulogies  upon  mil- 
itary Men,  from  the  Greek,  8vo: — 6.  De  Studiis  Theo- 
logicis  J  'rm/ectio : — 7.  Refections  upon  the  Study  of  Di- 
vinity, with  Heads  of  a  Course  of  Lectures,  8vo: — 8.  De 
Vita  1 1  Moribus  Johannis  Burton,  S.  T.  I'. : — 9.  An  In- 
troduction to  Logic,  8vo. — 10.  De  Tumultibus  America- 
ids  deque  eorum  concitatoribus  similis  meditalh. — Biog. 
Brit. ;  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  ii,  250. 

Bentham,  Jeremy,  was  born  in  London,  Febru- 
ary 15,  1748.  He  received  his  early  education  at 
Westminster  School;  and  when  yet  a  boy,  being  little 
more  than  twelve  years  of  age,  he  went  to  Owen's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  where  he  took  his  master's  decree  in 
1766.  He  studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1772,  but  devoted  himself  entirely  to  study,  and  be- 
came an  able  and  voluminous  writer  on  government 
and  legislation.  His  name  is  mentioned  here  in  view 
of  his  writings  on  morals,  which,  however,  are  less  orig- 
inal and  valuable  than  those  on  government.  In  all 
his  writings,  utility  is  the  leading  and  pervading  prin- 
ciple ;  and  his  favorite  vehicle  for  its  expression  is  the 
phrase,  "  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  num- 
ber," which  was  first  coined  by  Priestley,  though  its 
prominence  in  politics  has  been  owing  to  Bentham. 
"In  this  phrase,"  he  says,  "I  saw  delineated  for  the 
first  time  a  plain  as  well  as  a  true  standard  for  what- 
ever is  right  or  wrong,  useful,  useless,  or  mischievous 
in  human  conduct,  whether  in  the  field  of  morals  or 
politics."  Accordingly,  the  leading  principle  of  his 
ethical  writings  is,  "that  the  end  of  all  human  actions 
and  morality  is  happiness.  By  happiness,  Bentham 
means  pleasure  and  exemption  from  pain  ;  and  the 
fundamental  principle  from  which  he  starts  is,  that 
the  actions  of  sentient  beings  are  wholly  governed  by 
pleasure  and  pain.  He  held  that  happiness  is  the 
'summum  bonum,'  in  fact,  the  only  thing  desirable  in 
itself;  that  all  other  things  are  desirable  solely  as 
means  to  that  end  ;  that  therefore  the  production  of 
the  greatest  possible  amount  of  happiness  is  the  only 
fit  object  of  all  human  exertion."  He  died  in  "West- 
minster, June  6,  1882.     See  Ethics;  Morals. 

Bentham,  Thomas,  bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Cov- 
entry, was  born  in  Yorkshire  about  1513.  He  became 
a  follow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1513,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  Hebrew.  He  early  sided 
with  the  Reforming  party, and  became  prominent  as  a 
zealous  opponent  of  the  superstitions  of  popery.  ( In 
the  accession  of  Mary,  he  disdained  to  conceal  or  re- 
tract his  sentiments,  anil  he  was  deprived  of  his  fellow- 
ship in  1558  and  compelled  to  tro  abroad.  At  Zurich 
and  Basle,  he  preached  to  the  English  exiles.  Even 
during  the  heipht  of  Mary's  persecutions  he  returned 
to  London  to  take  charge  of  a  Protestant  congregation. 
In  the  second  year  of  Queen  Elizabeth  he  was  raised 
to  the  see  cf  Lichfield  and  Coventry,  and  was  conse- 


BENTLEY 


757 


BEOR 


crated  in  1559.  Had  Bentham  been  supreme,  the  Eng- 
lish Reformation  would  have  been  far  more  thorough 
than  it  was,  and  the  Christian  Church  would  have 
avoided  much  evil.  He  died  Feb.  19, 1578.  He  trans- 
lated the  Psalms,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel  in  the  "Bishop's 
Bible." — Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  ii,  249. 

Bentley,  Richard,  D. IX,  called  from  his  eminence 
in  philological  criticism  "the  British  Aristarchus," 
was  born  at  Wakefield  16G1,  and  admitted  at  St. 
John's  College  1676.  He  accepted  the  mastership  of 
the  grammar-school  of  Spalding,  in  Lincolnshire,  early 
in  1632.  In  1683  he  became  private  tutor  to  the  son 
of  Dr.  Stillingfleet,  afterward  bishop  of  Worcester. 
He  accompanied  his  pupil  to  Oxford,  where  he  was  ad- 
mitted M.A.  At  Oxford  he  had  access  to  the  MSS. 
of  the  Bodleian  Library.  At  this  time  he  meditated 
two  very  laborious  undertakings — a  complete  collec- 
tion of  Fragments  of  the  Greek  Poets,  and  an  edition  of 
the  three  principal  Greek  lexicographers,  Hesychius, 
Suidas,  and  the  Etymalogicum  Magnum,  to  be  printed 
in  parallel  columns  on  the  same  page.  Neither  scheme, 
however,  was  carried  into  effect.  To  the  edition  of 
Callimachus,  published  by  Graevius  in  1697,  Bentley 
contributed  a  collection  of  the  fragments  of  that  poet. 
Bat  his  reputation  for  scholarship  was  established  by 
a  performance  of  a  much  more  confined  nature — a  dis- 
sertation on  an  obscure  chronicler  named  Malala, 
which  was  published  as  an  Appendix  to  Chilmead  and 
Mill's  edition  of  the  author  in  1691.  This  showed 
such  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Greek  literature, 
especially  the  drama,  that  it  drew  the  eyes  of  foreign  as 
well  as  British  scholars  upon  him,  and  obtained  a  warm 
tribute  of  admiration  from  the  great  critics  Grsevius 
and  Spanheim  to  this  new  and  brilliant  star  of  British 
literature.  Bentley  was  ordained  deacon  in  March, 
1690.  In  1692,  having  obtained  the  first  nomination 
to  the  Boyle  lectureship,  he  chose  for  his  subject  the 
confutation  of  atheism,  directing  his  arguments  more 
especially  against  the  system  of  Hobbes.  In  these 
lectures  Bentley  applied  the  principles  and  discoveries 
of  Newton's  Principia  to  the  confirmation  of  natural 
theology.  ."The  Principia  had  been  published  about 
six  years ;  but  the  sublime  discoveries  of  that  work 
were  yet  little  known,  owing  not  merely  to  the  obsta- 
cles which  oppose  the  reception  of  novelty,  but  to  the 
difficulty  of  comprehending  the  proofs  whereby  they 
are  established.  To  Bentley  belongs,  as  bishop  Monk 
remarks,  the  undoubted  merit  of  having  been  the  first 
to  lay  open  these  discoveries  in  a  popular  form,  and  to 
explain  their  irresistible  force  in  the  proof  of  a  Deity. 
This  constitutes  the  subject  of  his  seventh  and  eighth 
sermons  —  pieces  admirable  for  the  clearness  with 
which  the  whole  question  is  developed,  as  well  as  for 
the  logical  precision  of  their  arguments.  Among  oth- 
er topics,  he  shows  how  contradictor}'  to  the  principles 
of  philosophy  is  the  notion  of  matter  contained  in  the 
solar  system  having  been  once  diffused  over  a  chaotic 
space,  and  afterward  combined  into  the  large  bodies 
of  the  sun,  planets,  and  secondaries  by  the  force  of 
mutual  gravitation;  and  he  explains  that  the  planets 
could  never  have  obtained  the  transverse  motion, 
which  causes  them  to  revolve  round  the  sun  in  orbits 
nearly  circular,  from  the  agency  of  any  cause  except 
the  arm  of  an  almighty  Creator.  From  these  and 
other  subjects  of  physical  astronomy,  as  well  as  from 
the  discoveries  of  Boyle,  the  founder  of  the  lecture,  re- 
specting the  nature  and  properties  of  the  atmosphere, 
a  conviction  is  irresistibly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of 
the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the  Deity.  We  are 
assured  that  the  effect  of  these  discourses  was  such 
that  atheism  was  deserted  as  untenable  ground;  or, 
to  use  his  own  expression,  the  atheists  were  'silent 
since  that  time,  and  sheltered  themselves  under  de- 
ism.' "  This  work  gave  him  great  reputation,  and  in 
1692  he  was  made  canon  of  Worcester  by  bishop  Stil- 
lingfleet. In  1699  he  was  appointed  master  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge ;  and  in  the  following  year  the 


archdeaconry  of  Ely  was  conferred  upon  him.  Of  his 
contributions  to  Greek  literature  we  have  not  room  to 
speak;  but,  in  the  midst  of  personal  quarrels,  his  liter- 
ary activity  for  many  years  was  wonderful.  In  1713 
he  published,  under  the  signature  of  Philoleutheros 
Lipsiensis,  a  reply  to  Collins's  Discourse  of  Frt  >  think- 
ing; and  in  none  of  his  writings  are  his  accurate  learn- 
ing and  matchless  faculty  of  disputation  more  signally 
displayed.  In  1717  he  was  chosen  regius  professor  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge.  In  1720  he  issued  proposals 
for  a  new  edition  of  the  N.  T.  in  Greek,  with  the  Latin 
version  of  Jerome.  Taking  up  that  father's  observa- 
tion that  in  the  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  "the 
very  order  of  the  words  is  mystery,"  he  conjectured 
that  if  the  most  ancient  Greek  manuscripts  were  com- 
pared with  Jerome's  Latin,  they  might  be  found  to 
agree  with  that  version  both  in  the  words  and  order ; 
and,  upon  trial,  his  ideas  were  realized  even  beyond 
his  expectations.  He  stated  also  in  these  proposals 
that  he  believed  he  had  recovered,  with  very  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  exemp'ar  of  Origeh,  the  great  standard  of 
the  most  learned  fathers  for  more  than  two  hundred 
years  after  the  Council  of  Nice ;  and  observed  that,  by 
the  aid  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  the  text 
of  the  original  might  be  so  far  settled  that,  instead  of 
thirty  thousand  different  readings,  found  in  the  best 
modern  editions,  not  more  than  two  hundred  would 
deserve  much  serious  consideration.  But  so  much  op- 
position was  made  to  his  plan  that  he  dropped  it. 
Bentlejr  died  July  14,  1742.  His  Works,  collected  and 
edited  by  the  Rev.  Alexander  Dyce,  were  published  in 
London  in  1836  (3  vols.  8vo),  but  unfortunately  the 
collection  is  incomplete.  His  Life  and  Writings,  by 
bishop  Monk,  were  published  in  London  in  1830;  and 
his  Correspondence,  edited  by  Wordsworth,  in  1842  (2 
vols.  8vo).  See  Foreign  Quarterly  Rerieu;  July,  1839; 
North  American  Review,  xliii,  -158;  Edinburgh  Review, 
li,  321  ;  Allibone,  i,  169 ;  Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Bicgra- 
phy,  ii,  253. 

Benzel,  Erich,  a  prominent  Swedish  theologian, 
was  born  in  1642  at  Benzeby ;  became  in  1665  Profes- 
sor of  History  and  Ethics,  and  in  1666  Professor  of 
Theology,  at  Upsala ;  in  1677  bishop  of  Stregnas,  and 
in  1700  archbishop  of  Upsala,  where  he  died  in  1709. 
He  wrote,  among  other  works,  Breviarium  historic  ec- 
clesiastics V.  et  N.  Testament.  (Ups.  3d  ed.  1717).  He 
also  superintended  the  printing  of  the  Swedish  Bible 
translation  under  Charles  XII.  One  of  his  sons,  whose 
name  was  likewise  Erich,  became  in  1726  bishop  of 
Gothenburg,  and  died  as  archbishop  of  Upsala  in  1743. 

Ben-zo'heth  (Heb.  Ben-Zocheth' ',  nniT"|2,  son 
ofZoheth;  Sept.  translates  viol  ZwajS  v.  r.  Zwy«/3),  a 
person  named  (1  Chron.  iv,  20)  as  the  second  of  the 
sons  of  Ishi,  a  descendant  of  Judah  (B.C.  apparently 
post  1856),  the  other  being  given  as  Zoheth  simply  ; 
but  either  the  true  name  of  the  son  of  the  Zoheth  pre- 
ceding seems  to  have  fallen  out  of  the  text,  or  this  in- 
dividual is  only  mentioned  patronymically  as  the 
grandson  of  Ishi,  being  son  of  Zoheth  himself.  See 
Ben-. 

Be'on  (Heb.  Beon  ,  )i'2,  apparently  an  early  error 
of  transcription  for  Meon  [q.  v.]  ;  Sept.  Bumv  v.  r. 
Ba/(o),  one  of  the  places  fit  for  pasturage  given  by 
Joshua  to  the  tribes  on  the  east  of  Jordan  (Num.  xxxii, 
3).  It  is  elsewhere  more  properly  called  Beth-Baal- 
Meon  (Josh,  xiii,  17),  or  more  briefly  Baal-Meon 
(Num.  xxxii,  38),  and  Beth-Meon  (Jer.  xlviii,  23), 
for  which  this  name  may  be  a  contraction. 

Be'or  (Heb.  Bear',  "li"2,  a  torch;  Sept.  Tittup), 
the  name  of  two  men.     See  Balaam. 

1.  The  father  of  Bela  (q.  v.),  one  of  the  kings  of 
Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi,  32 ;  1  Chron.  i,  43).  B.C.  appar- 
ently ante  1618. 

2.  The  father  of  Balaam,  the  backsliding  prophet 
(Numb,  xxii,  5  ;  xxiv,  3,  15  ;  xxxi,  8  ;  Josh,  xiii,  22  ; 


BERA  W 

xxiv,  9  :  Mic.  vi,  5 ;  Deut.  xxiii,  4).  In  2  Pet.  ii,  15, 
he  is  called  Boson  (q.  v.  I.     B.C.  ante  1618. 

Be  ra  (Heb.  id.  Sf?)  llf1'  otherwise  excellence, 
but  more  prob.  for  "~~"|2,  son  of  evil;  Sept.  BaWd ; 
Josephus,  BaAAae,  -<"'•  »»  9>  *)>  king  of  Sodom  at  the 
time  of  the  invasion  of  the  five  kings  under  Chedor- 
laomer  (q.  v.  i.  which  was  repelled  by  Abraham  (Gen. 
xiv.  2 :  also  17  and  21).     B.C.  cir.  2077. 

Ber'achaii  (Heb.  Berakah',  !"I213,  a  blessing), 
the  name  of  a  valley  and  also  of  a  man. 

1.  (Sept.  translates  tuXoyiaS)  A  valley  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Tekoa,  so  called  as  being  the  place  where  Je- 
hoshaphat  celebrated  the  miraculous  overthrow  of  the 
Moabites  and  Ammonites  (2  Chron.  xx,  26).  It  is 
still  called  Wady  Bereikut,  near  the  ruined  village  of 
the  same  name  south  of  Tekua  (Robinson's  Researches, 
ii,  189  i.  first  identified  by  Wolcott  {B'Mioth.  Sac.  1*43, 
p.  43;  comp.  Wilson,  LaSiels  of  Bible,  i,  38G).  See 
Jeruel ;  Caphar-barucha. 

2.  (Sept.  Bspyia.)  One  of  the  thirty  Benjamite  war- 
riors "Saul's  brethren,"  who  joined  David  while  in 
retirement  at  Ziklag  (1  Chron.  xii,  3).     13.C.  1054. 

Berachi'ah  (1  Chron.  vi,  C9).     See  Berechiah. 

Berakoth.     See  Mishna. 

Berai'ah  (Heb.  Berayah',  !~rx~2,  created  by  Je- 
hovah; Sept.  Bapaia),  next  to  the  last  named  of  the 
nine  sons  apparently  of  Shimhi,  and  a  chief  Benjamite 
of  Jerusalem  (1  Chron.  viii,  21).     B.C.  perhaps  588. 

Be'rea  (Bipsa),  a  place  in  Judea  apparently  not 
very  far  from  Jerusalem,  where  Baechides,  the  general 
of  Demetrius,  encamped  shortly  before  the  engage- 
ment in  which  Judas  Maccabants  was  slain  (1  Mace. 
ix,  4).  Other  copies,  however,  read  Berza/h  (Berfp^ad, 
BiT)pSa£,  lu/olV/3-,  etc.,  see  Grimm,  in  loc),  from  which 
Behind  conjectures  (Paleest.  p.  G24)  that  it  may  be  the 
Bezeth  (q.  v.)  of  1  Mace,  vii,  19,  especially  as  Jose- 
phus,  in  his  parallel  account  (Ant.  xii,  11,  4),  calls  the 
place  in  question  Bethzetho  (Bny^>fiw,  Ant.  xii,  11,  1  ; 
comp.  10,  2).     See  also  Bercea. 

Bereans,  a  small  sect  of  dissenters  from  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  who  profess  to  follow  the  example  of  the 
ancient  Berceans  (Acts  xvii,  11)  in  building  their  sys- 
tem upon  the  Scriptures  alone,  without  regard  to  any 
human  authority.  The  sect  was  founded  in  1773  by  a 
clergyman  Darned  Barclay,  who  was  excluded  from 
the  parish  of  Fettercairn.  They  hold  the  Calvinistic 
creed,  with  the  following  peculiarities:  1.  They  reject 
natural  religion  as  undermining  the  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity. 2.  They  consider  faith  in  Christ  and  assur- 
ances of  salvation  as  inseparable,  or  rather  as  the  same 
thing,  because  (say  they)  '-Cod  hath  expressly  de- 
clared, lie  that  believeth  shall  be  saved  ;  and  therefore 
i;  is  not  only  absurd,  but  impious,  and  in  a  manner 
calling  God  a  liar,  for  a  man  to  say  I  believe  the  Gos- 
pel, but  have  doubts,  nevertheless,  of  my  own  salva- 
tion." ;;.  They  say  that  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  nothing  else  but  unbelief;  and  that  the  ex- 
pression,  "  It  shall  not  be  forgiven,  neither  in  this 
world,  nor  th  it  which  is  to  come,"  means  only  that  a 

pen lying  in  unbelief  would  not  be  forgiven,  neither 

under  the  former  dispensation  by  Moses,  nor  under  the 
Gospel  dispensation,  which,  in  respect  of  the  Mosaic, 
'■'•'■  a  kind  of  future  world,  or  world  to  come.  4. 
They  interpret  the  Old  Testament  prophecies,  and  es- 
pecially tic  Psalms,  as  typical  or  prophetic  of  Christ, 
ami  never  apply  them  to  the  experience  of  private 
Christians.     There  are  still   some  congregations  of 

Bereans  in  Scotland,  and  a  few,  it  is  believed,  in  Amer- 
-        II  i  i.  HIB80NIAH8. 

Berechi'ah  (Heb.  Berekyah',  rrz-z.  blessed  by 
Jehovah;  also  in  the  prolonged  form  Berekya'hu, 
~"z~z,  in  1  Chron.  vi,39;  w.  17  ;  2  Chron.  xxviii, 
12;  Zech.  i,  7:  Sept.  Bapay/ac,  often  Bapay/a),  the 


»8  BERENGARIUS 

name  of  six  men.  See  also  Barachiah  and  Bara- 
ciiias. 
\  1.  The  son  of  Shimea  and  father  of  Asaph,  the  cel- 
ebrated musician  ;  he  was  one  of  the  Levites  who  Lore 
the  ark  to  the  tent  prepared  for  it  by  David  (1  Chrcn. 
vi,  39,  where  the  name  is  Anglicized  "Berachiah ;" 
xv.  17,  23).     B.C.  1043. 

2.  The  son  of  Meshillemeth,  and  one  of  the  seven 
Ephraimite  chieftains  who  enforced  the  prophet  Oded's 
prohibition  of  the  enslavement  of  their  Judaite  cap- 
tives  by  the  warriors   of  the   northern   kingdom  (2 

I  Chron.  xxviii,  12).     B.C.  7i9. 

3.  The  fourth  named  of  the  five  brothers  of  Zerub- 
babel  (q.  v.),  of  the  royal  line  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iii, 


Strong's  Harmony  anl  Expos,  of  the  Gospels. 


20; 

p.  17,  note  m).     B.C.  536. 

4.  A  son  of  Asa,  and  one  of  the  Levites  that  dwelt 
in  the  villages  of  the  Netophathites  on  the  return  from 
Babylon  (1  Chron.  ix,  16).     B.C.  post  536. 

5.  The  son  of  Iddo  and  father  of  the  prophet  Zech- 
ariah  (Zech.  i,  1,  7).     B.C.  ante  500. 

6.  A  son  of  Meshezabeel  and  the  father  of  Meshul- 
lam,  which  last  repaired  a  part  of  the  walls  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Neh.  iii,  4,  CO;  vi,  18).     B.C.  ante  446. 

Be'red  (Heb.  id.  IIS,  hail,  in  pause  Bo.' reel,  T*2, 
Gen.  xvi,  14 ;  Sept.  always  Booac"),  the  name  of  a 
place  and  of  a  man. 

1.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Palestine,  between  which 
and  Kadesh  lay  the  well  Lahai-roi  (Gen.  xvi,  14  ; 
comp.  ver.  7).  The  name  is  variously  given  in  the 
ancient  versions:  Syriac,  Gcular  [?  -  Gerar]  ;  Arab. 
Tared,  probably  a  mere  corruption  of  the  Hebrew 
name ;  Onkelos,  Char/ra,  505H  (elsewhere  employed 
in  the  Targums  for  "Shur");  Ps. -Jonathan,  Chalutsa, 
RS^PJl,  i.  e.  the  Elusa,  "E\ovca,  of  Ptolemy  and  the 
ecclesiastical  writers,  now  eLKhulasah,  on  the  Hebron 
road,  about  12  miles  south  of  Beersheba  (Robinson,  i, 
296 ;  Stewart,  p.  205  ;  Beland,  p.  755).  We  have  the 
testimony  of  Jerome  {Vita  S.  Hilarionis)  that  Elusa 
was  called  by  its  inhabitants  Barec,  which  would  be 
an  easy  corruption  of  Bered,  ~  being  read  for  1.  Cha- 
luza  is  the  name  elsewhere  given  in  the  Arabic  ver- 
sion for  "shur"  and  for  "  Gerar-" — Smith.   See  Elisa. 

2.  A  son  of  Shuthelah  and  grandson  of  Ephraim 
(1  Chron.  vii,  20)  ;  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
identical  with  Becher  in  Num.  xxvi,  35,  b}'  a  mere 

i  change  of  letters  ("C2  for  112),  but  with  little  prob- 
ability from  the  context.     B.C.  post  1856. 

Berengarians,  the  followers  of  Berengarius,  who 
taught,  in  the  eleventh  century,  that  the  bread  and 
wine  in  the  Lord's  Supper  were  not  really  and  essen- 
tially, but  figuratively,  changed  into  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ.     See  Berengarius. 

Berengarius  or  Berenger,  archdeacon  of  An- 
gers, was  born  at  Tours  in  the  beginning  of  the  elev- 
enth century,  and  studied  first  in  the  school  of  St. 
Martin,  and  subsequently  at  Chartres,  under  the  cele- 
brated Fulbert.  Upon  his  death  Berenger  left  Char- 
tres and  returned  to  Tours,  where  he  taught  pul  lic- 
ly  at  St.  Martin's.  He  very  early  manifested  a  lib- 
eral spirit  of  inquiry,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  pi- 
ety as  well  as  for  his  industry  in  study.  He  quitted 
this  city  again  and  repaired  to  Angers,  where  he  was 
well  received  by  Hubert  de  Ycndome,  who  administer- 
ed the  church  of  Angers  at  that  period,  and  who  made 
Berenger  archdeacon.  Scholars  flocked  to  him  from 
all  parts  of  France.  Some  time  between  1040  and 
1050  he  besran  to  publish  his  sentiments  on  the  Eucha- 
rist, in  which  he  opposed  the  doctrine  of  Tasehasius  on 
transubstantiation.  Lanfranc,  who  was  then  in  Nor- 
mandy, and  who  had  been  the  intimate  friend  of  Be- 
renger, entered  into  a  controversy  with  him  on  the 
subject.  Berenger  answered  Lanfranc  in  a  letter  (see 
Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  iii,  §  19),  in  which  he  blamed 


BERENICE 


759 


BERIAH 


him  for  charging  Scotus  with  heresy  for  his  opinion 
that  the  bread  and  wine  are  not  changed  in  substance 
by  consecration  in  the  Eucharist,  and  declared  that  in 
doing  so  he  equally  condemned  Ambrose,  Jerome,  Au- 
gustine, and  others  of  the  fathers.  This  letter  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Pope  Leo  IX,  who  convened  a  council  at 
Rome  in  April,  1050,  when  Berenger  was  excommuni- 
cated. He  was  also,  in  this  year,  condemned  in  the 
synods  of  Brienne  and  Vercelli.  In  this  last  council, 
which  was  held  in  September,  the  books  of  Scotus 
were  burned.  In  October  in  the  same  year  he  was 
synodically  condemned,  for  the  fourth  time,  at  Paris. 
Berenger  appears  to  have  adhered  to  his  views  until 
1055,  when,  being  cited  before  a  synod  held  at  Tours, 
where  Hildebrand  acted  as  legate  to  Victor  II,  he 
signed  a  confession  of  faith,  which,  though  not  a  com- 
plete retraction,  was  satisfactory  to  the  prelates  pres- 
ent, who  according!}'  received  him  into  communion. 
He  had  not,  however,  changed  his  opinions,  and  still 
continued  to  defend  in  writing  his  real  views,  where- 
upon he  was  again  cited  before  a  council,  held  at  Rome 
in  1059,  where  he  again  retracted,  and  signed  a  con- 
fession drawn  up  by  Cardinal  Humbertus.  Upon  his 
return  into  France  he  ag  tin  retracted  his  recantation, 
and  published  another  work  in  defence  of  his  original 
opinion.  This  work  Lanfranc  endeavored  to  answer, 
but  without  any  effect  so  far  as  Berenger  was  con- 
cerned, who  also,  by  letter,  assured  Pope  Alexander 
II  that  his  opinion  was  unalterable.  Thus  another 
synod  was  held  against  him  at  Rouen  in  10G3,  another 
at  Poitiers  in  1073,  another  at  St.  Maixent  in  1075,  an- 
other at  Rome  in  1078,  where  he  confessed  the  doctrine 
of  fcransubstantiation  to  save  his  life,  but  withdrew  his 
confession  as  soon  as  he  was  safe  in  France.  He  died 
in  communion  with  the  Church  in  the  island  of  Come, 
near  Tours,  January  5th,  1088,  at  the  age  of  ninety. 
Berenger  was  greatly  in  advance  of  his  age  both  in- 
tellectually and  morally,  though  he  had  not  physical 
to  equal  his  moral  courage.  The  injustice  with  which 
he  was  treated  at  Rome  caused  him  to  use  the  follow- 
ing language  of  Leo  IX :  "In  him  I  found  by  no  means 
a  saint,  by  no  means  a  lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  ;  not 
even  an  upright  man.  To  be  declared  a  heretic  by 
him  I  account  as  nothing."  He  styled  the  doctrine 
of  transubstantiation  an  inepta  vecordia  vu'gi  From 
his  great  reputation  as  a  teacher,  his  views  were  wide- 
ly diffused,  not  only  in  France,  but  in  other  countries. 
Much  light  has  been  recently  thrown  upon  the  history 
and  character  of  Berenger  by  the  publication  of  Beren- 
garius  Turonensis,  oder  tine  Sammlung  Urn  lctrejf'<n<ler 
Briefe  herausg.  von  Dr.  H.  Sudendorf  (Berlin,  1850). 
This  collection  of  his  letters  shows  him  as  a  worthy 
man,  a  loving  Christian,  and  a  man  of  tender  and 
placable  nature.  It  shows  also  that  his  learning  em- 
braced a  wide  ran_;e :  he  was  a  most  zealous  student 
of  the  fathers,  he  practised  medicine  as  a  physician, 
and  was  much  admired  as  an  orator.  It  shows  far- 
ther, what  was  not  before  known,  that  ho  was  in  inti- 
mate relations  with  some  of  the  foremost  men  in  France ; 
and  that,  in  particular,  Godfrey  of  Anjou  was  his  friend 
and  protector.  Wc  also  learn  a  great  deal  from  this 
book  of  Gregory's  conduct  during  his  stay  in  France, 
ami  find  that  a  very  general  sympathy  with  Berenga- 
rius's  views  existed  among  the  chief  clergy  of  France 
and  of  the  neighboring  German  border.  Dr.  Suden- 
dorf s  historical  explanations  are  both  acute  and  thor- 
ough.—Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  503-522;  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist,  i,  285-291;  Hagenbachj  Hist ory  of  Doctrines,  ii, 
75-88;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  lbO. 

Berenice.     Sec  Bernice. 

Bergier,  Nicolas  Silvestre,  D.D.,  was  born  at 
Darnaj',  in  Lorraine,  December  81,  1718,  and  became 
successively  euro  of  Flange-Bouche,  in  Franche-Comte, 
canon  of  Notre-Dame,  Paris,  and  confessor  to  the  king. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  formidable  opponents  of  the 
modern  philosophical  spirit.     In  1708  he  published  La 


Certitude  d?s  Preuvcs  du  Ckristianisme,  which  passed 
through  three  editions  in  one  year,  and  was  translated 
into  Italian  and  Spanish.  Voltaire  replied  to  it  by 
his  Conseils  raisonables,  and  Bergier  rejoined.  Anu- 
charsis  Cloots  published,  in  opposition  to  the  work  of 
Bergier,  his  Certitude  des  Preuvcs  de  Makometisme. 
Bergier  afterward  published  Le  Deisme  refute  par  lul~ 
meme  (Paris,  17G5-66-68,  2  vols.  12mo,  which  contains 
an  examination  of  the  opinions  of  Rousseau)  : — Apolo- 
gie  de  la  Religion  Chretienne  (against  d'Holbach  :  Paris, 
17G9,  2  vols.  12mo): — Examen  du  Materialisme  (Paris, 
1771,  2  vols.  12mo): — Traite  de  la  vraie Religion  (Paris, 
last  ed.  1854,  8  vols.  8vo): — VOrigine  des  d'eux  dn 
Paganisme  (Paris,  1774,  2  vols.  12mo).  He  also  wrota 
for  the  Encylopedie  his  Dictionnaire  de  Theohgu  (best 
ed.  Paris,  1854,  6  vols.  8vo,  edited  by  Archbishop  Gous- 
set),  to  which  the  editors  of  this  Cyclopaedia  are  much 
indebted.  Bergier  died  April  19,  1790.  His  works 
above  named  are  constantly  appearing  in  new  editions 
in  Paris. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Gi>n.  v,  515. 

Bergius,  Johannes,  a  Reformed  theologian,  was 
born  at  Stettin  1587,  and  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Stras- 
burg,  and  Dantzic.  In  1616  he  was  made  professor  of 
theology  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder.  In  theology  he 
opposed  Supralapsarian  Calvinism,  and  declined  to  at- 
tend the  Synod  of  Dort,  whose  cruel  treatment  of  the 
Arminians  he  reprobated  (see  Limborch,  Vita  Epis- 
copii,  p.  210).  He  taught  "free  grace"  in  his  treatise 
In  r  WiUe  Gottes  v.  aller  Menschen  Sel'gkrit  (1653).  He 
represented  Brandenburg  at  the  Leipsic  Conference 
(1631)  and  at  the  Thorn  Colloquium  (1642).  He  died 
1658. — Herzog,  Real-Enct/klop.  s.  v. 

Be'ri  (Heb.  Ben',  "na,  q.  d.fonlanus,  for  'nxa, 
Beeri;  Sept.  Bapi  v.  r.  BopiV),  a  chief  warrior,  the 
fourth  named  of  the  eleven  sons  of  Zophah,  a  descend- 
ant of  Asher  (1  Chron.  vii,  36).     B.C.  perh.  1016. 

Beri'ali  (Heb.  Beriah',  on  the  signif.  see  below), 
the  name  of  four  men. 

1.  (Sept.  Brcpia.)  The  last  named  of  the  four  sons 
of  Asher,  and  the  father  of  Heber  and  Malchiel  (Gen. 
xlvi,  17).  B.C.  1856.  His  descendants  were  called 
Beriites  (Num.  xxvi,  44,  45). 

2.  (Sept.  Rania  v.  r.  Bspiw.)  A  son  of  Ephraim,  so 
named  on  account  of  the  state  of  his  father's  house 
when  he  was  born.  "  And  the  sons  of  Ephraim  ; 
Shuthelah,  and  Bered  his  son,  and  Tahath  his  son,  and 
Eladah  his  son,  and  Tahath  his  son,  and  Zabad  his 
son,  and  Ezer,  and  Elead,  whom  the  men  of  Gath  [that 
were]  born  in  [that]  land  slew"  [lit.  "and  the  men 
.  .  .  slew  them"],  "because  they  came  down  to  take 
away  their  cattle.  And  Ephraim  their  father  mourn- 
ed many  days,  and  his  brethren  came  to  comfort  him. 
And  when  he  went  in  to  his  wife,  she  conceived,  and 
bare  a  son,  and  he  called  his  name  Beriah,  because  it 
went  evil  with  his  house"  [lit.  "because  in  evil"  or 
"a  gift"  "was  to  his  house:"  falM  "r^n  iTS^a  ^S; 
Sept.  on.  h>  kokoIq  ty'hviro  iv  o'iK(>)  fion;  Vulg.  "  eo 
quod  in  malis  domus  ejus  ortus  esset"]  (1  Chron.  vii, 
20-23).  With  respect  to  the  meaning  of  the  name, 
Gesenius  prefers  the  rendering  "in  evil"  to  "a  gift," 
as  probably  the  right  one.  In  this  case,  rt"l2  in  the 
explanation  would  be,  according  to  him,  flSI  with 
Beth  essentia  (Thes.  s.  v.\  It  must  be  remarked,  how- 
ever, that  the  supposed  instances  of  Beth  essentia-  lining 
prefixed  to  the  subject  in  the  O.  T.  are  few  and  incon- 
clusive, and  that  it  is  disputed  by  the  Arabian  gram- 
marians if  the  parallel  "redundant  Be"  of  the  Arabic 
be  ever  so  used  (eomp.  Thes.  p.  174,  175,  where  this 
use  of  "  redundant  Be"  is  too  arbitrarily  denied).  The 
Sept.  and  Vulg.  indicate  a  different  construction,  with 
an  additional  variation  in  the  case  of  the  former  ("my 
house"  for  "his  house"),  so  that  the  rendering  "in 
evil"  does  not  depend  upon  the  construction  proposed 
by  Gesenius.     Michaelis   suggests   that   ~^'7?   mav 


BERIAH 


760 


BERITE 


meat'  a  spontaneous  gift  of  God,  beyond  expectation  I 
and  the  law  of  nature,  as  a  son  born  to  Ephraim  now 
growing  old  might  be  called  (Suppl.  p.  224,  225).  In 
favor  of  this  meaning,  which,  with  Gesenius,  we  take 
in  the  simple  sense  of  "gift,"  it  may  be  urged  that  it 
is  unlikely  that  four  persons  would  have  borne  a  name 
of  an  unusual  form,  and  that  a  case  similar  to  that  here 
supposed  is  found  in  the  naming  of  Seth  (Gen.  iv,  25). 
Furst  (Hi  b.  Handw.  s.  v.)  suggests  what  appears  a  still 
better  derivation,  namely,  a  contraction  of  rtJ^"*|3 
for  nSTia,  son  of  evil,  i.  e.  unlucky. 

This  short  notice  is  of  no  slight  historical  impor- 
tance, especially  as  it  refers  to  a  period  of  Hebrew 
historv  respecting  which  the  Bible  affords  us  no  other  I 
like  information.  The  event  must  be  assigned  to  the 
time  between  Jacob's  death  and  the  beginning  of  the  op- 
pression. B.C.  post.  185C.  The  indications  that  guide 
us  are,  that  some  of  Ephraim's  sons  must  have  attain- 
ed to  manhood,  and  that  the  Hebrews  were  still  free. 
The  passage  is  full  of  difficulties.  The  first  question 
is,  What  sons  of  Ephraim  were  killed?  The  persons 
mentioned  do  not  all  seem  to  be  his  sons.  Shuthelah 
occupies  the  first  place,  and  a  genealogy  of  his  de- 
scendants follows  as  far  as  a  second  Shuthelah,  the 
words  "his  son"  indicating  a  direct  descent,  as  Hou- 
bigant(ap.  Barrett,  Synopsis,  in  loc.)  remarks,  although 
he  very  needlessly  proposes  conjecturally  to  omit  them. 
A  similar  genealogy  from  Beriah  to  Joshua  is  given  in 
ver.  25-27.  As  the  text  stands,  there  are  but  three 
sons  of  Ephraim  mentioned  before  Beriah — Shuthelah, 
Ezer,  and  Elead,  all  of  whom  seem  to  have  been  killed 
by  the  men  of  Gath,  though  it  is  possible  that  the  last 
two  are  alone  meant,  while  the  first  of  them  is  stated  to 
have  left  descendants.  In  the  enumeration  of  the  Is- 
raelite families  in  Numbers  four  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim 
are  mentioned,  sprung  from  his  sons  Shuthelah,  Becher, 
and  Tahan,  and  from  Eran,  son  or  descendant  of  Shu- 
thelah (xxvi,  35,  3G.)  The  second  and  third  families 
are  probably  those  of  Beriah  and  a  younger  son,  unless 
the  third  is  one  of  Beriah,  called  after  his  descendant 
Tahan  (1  Chron.  vii,  25) ;  or  one  of  them  may  be  that 
of  a  son  of  Joseph,  since  it  is  related  that  Jacob  deter- 
mined that  sons  of  Joseph  who  might  be  born  to  him 
after  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  should  "be  called  after 
the  name  of  their  brethren  in  their  inheritance"  (Gen. 
xlviii,  C).  See,  however,  Becher.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  land  in  which  the  men  of  Gath  were 
born  is  the  eastern  part  of  Lower  Egypt,  if  not  Goshen 
itself.  It  would  be  needless  to  say  that  they  were 
born  in  their  own  land;  but  as  this  was  not  Gath  it- 
self, they  must  have  been  called  "men  of  Gath" 
(q.  (1.  Gittites)  as  being  descended  from  natives  of 
that  place.  At  this  time  very  many  foreigners  must 
have  been  settled  in  Egypt,  especially  in  and  about 
Goshen.  Indeed,  Goshen  is  mentioned  as  a  non- 
Egyptian  country  in  its  inhabitants  (Gen.  xlvi,  34), 
and  its  own  name,  as  well  as  nearly  all  the  names  of  its 
cities  and  places  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  save  the  cities 

built  in  tl ppression,  are  probably  Semitic.     In  the 

Book  of  Joshua,  Shihor,  the  Nile,  here  the  Pelusiac 
branch,  is  the  boundary  of  Egj'pt  and  Canaan,  the 
Philistine  territories  apparently  being  considered  to 
extend  from  it  (Josh,  xiii,  2,  3).  It  is  therefore  very 
probable  that  many  Philistines  would  have  settled ina 
part  of  Egypt  so  accessible  to  them  and  so  similar  in 
its  population  to  Canaan  as  Goshen  and  the  tracts  ad- 
joining it.     Or  else  these  men  ofGath  may  have  been 

rcenariea  like'  the  Cherethim  (in  Egyptian  "  Shay- 

ratana")  who  were  in  the  Egyptian  service  at  a  later 
time,  as  in  David's,  and  to  whom  lands  were  probably 
allotted  as  to  the  native  army.  Some  suppose  that 
the  men  ofGath  were  the  aggressors,  a  conjecture  not 
at  variance  with  the  words  used  in  the  relation  of  the 
cause  of  the  death  of  Ephraim's  sons,  since  we  may 
read  "when  ("~i  they  came  down,"  etc.,  instead  of 
"  because,"  etc.  (Bagster's  Bible,  in  loc),  but  it  must 


be  remembered  that  this  rendering  is  equally  consist- 
ent with  the  other  explanation.  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  Israelites  at  this  time  may  not 
have  sometimes  engaged  in  predatory  or  other  war- 
fare. The  warlike  habits  of  Jacob's  sons  are  evident 
in  the  narrative  of  the  vengeance  taken  by  Simeon  and 
Levi  upon  Hamor  and  Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiv,  25-29), 
and  that  the  same  traits  existed  in  their  posterity  ap- 
pears from  the  fear  which  the  Pharaoh  who  began  to 
oppress  them  entertained  lest  they  should,  in  the  event 
of  war  in  the  land,  join  with  the  enemies  of  his  people, 
and  thus  escape  out  of  the  country  (Exod.  i,  8-10).  It 
has  been  imagined, according  as  either  side  was  supposed 
to  have  acted  the  aggressor,  that  the  Gittites  descended 
upon  the  Ephraimites  in  a  predatory  excursion  from  Pal- 
estine, or  that  the  Ephraimites  made  a  raid  into  Pales- 
tine. Neither  of  these  explanations  is  consistent  with 
sound  criticism,  because  the  men  of  Gath  are  said  to 
have  been  born  in  the  land,  that  is,  to  have  been  settled 
in  Egypt,  as  already  shown,  and  the  second  one,  which 
is  adopted  by  Bunsen  (Egypt's  Place,  i,  177,  178),  is  in- 
admissible on  the  ground  that  the  verb  used,  "I  j^1,  "  he 
went  down,"  or  "descended,"  is  applicable  to  going 
into  Egypt,  but  not  to  coming  from  it.  The  rabbini- 
cal idea  that  these  sons  of  Ephraim  went  to  take  the 
Promised  Land  needs  no  refutation.  (For  these  vari- 
ous theories,  see  Poole's  Synopsis,  in  loc.) — Smith,  s.v. 

3.  (Sept.  Bepid  v.  r.  Bapiya.)  A  Benjamite,  and  ap- 
parently son  of  Elpaal ;  he,  with  his  brother  Shimea, 
were  founders  of  Ajalon,  and  expelled  the  Gittites  (1 
Chron.  viii,  13).  B.C.  prob.  1612.  His  nine  sons  are 
enumerated  in  ver.  14-16. 

4.  (Sept.  Bctpu't  v.  r.  BtpiaJ)  The  last  named  of  the 
four  sons  of  Shimei,  a  Levite  of  the  family  of  Ger shorn 
(1  Chron.  xxiii,  10).  B.C.  1014.  His  posterity  was 
not  numerous  (ver.  11). 

Beri'ite  (Heb.  with  the  art.,  hab-Berii',  >1">1'"2ij  ; 
Sept.  6  Baptal),  the  patronymic  title  of  the  fami- 
lv  of  Beriah  (q.  v.),  the  son  of  Asher  (Num.  xxvi, 
44). 

Berington,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  prolific  Ro- 
man Catholic  writers  of  Great  Britain,  was  born  in  1743 
in  Shropshire,  and  died  in  1827.  He  was  sent  by  his 
parents  for  education  to  the  College  of  St.  Omer,  in 
France.  For  many  years  he  exercised  the  priestly 
functions  in  France,  and  in  1814  was  appointed  pastor 
at  Buckland,  near  Oxford.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
works  on  the  history,  present  state,  and  rights  of  his  co- 
religionists. He  was  regarded  as  a  liberal  Romanist, 
and  many  of  his  expressions  were  considered  by  his 
superiors  as  little  orthodox.  His  principal  work  is  a 
Literary  History  of  the  Middle  Ages — from  the  reign  of 
Augustus  to  the  fifteenth  century  (Lond.  1814;  new 
ed.,  with  index,  by  D.  Bogue,  Lond.  1846). 

Be'rite  (Heb.  only  in  the  plur.,  and  with  the  art., 
hab-Berim' ,  d"H2il,  derivation  uncertain  [Gesenius 
and  Furst  both  overlook  the  word  altogether],  if  in- 
deed the  text  be  not  corrupt ;  Sept.  tv  Xappi,  but  most 
copies  omit),  a  tribe  or  place  named  with  Abel  of  Beth- 
maachah — and  therefore  doubtless  situated  in  the  north 
of  Palestine — only  as  having  been  visited  by  Joab  in 
his  pursuit  after  Sheba,  the  son  of  Bichri  (2  Sam.  xx, 
14).  The  expression  is  a  remarkable  one,  "all  the 
Beritcs"  (comp.  "all  the  Bithron").  The  Vulgate  has 
a  different  rendering — omnes  viri  elect! — apparently  for 
C^na,  i.  c.  young  men,  and  this  is,  in  Ewald's  opin- 
ion, the  correct  reading  (Isr.  Gesch.  iii,  249,  note). 
Schwarz,  however,  is  inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  collec- 
tive term  for  several  places  of  similar  name  mentioned 
in  Joseplms  and  the  Talmud  as  lying  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Mcrom  (Palest,  p.  203) ;  and  Thomson  (Land 
and  I  Utah-,  i,  425)  conjectures  that  it  may  specially  des- 
ignate the  Beroth  (Bqob&q)  of  Upper  Galilee,  where, 
according  to  Josephus  (Ant,  v,  1,  18),  the  Canaanitish 
kings  encamped  against  Joshua  (comp.  Josh,  xi,  5). 


BERITH 


m 


BERNARD 


and  which  he  identifies  with  Bin'a,  a  short  distance 
north  of  Safed  (Van  de  Velde,  Map). 

Be'rith  (Heb.  Berith',  fY^S,  covenant;  Sept.  unites 
the  three  terms,  "the  house  of  the  god  Berith,"  into 
one,  Bai3/3>;A/3foi'3),  stands  alone  in  Judg.  ix,  46,  for 
BAAii-BEKmi  (q.  v.). 

Berkeley,  George,  bishop  of  Cloyne,  was  born 
at  Kilcrin  March  12, 1G84,  and  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  In  1707  he  published  A  ritlnnetlca  absque 
A  'gebra  aut  Euclide  demonstrate ;  and  in  1709  appeared 
his  well-known  Theory  of  Vision,  the  first  work  in 
which  an  attempt  was  made  to  distinguish  the  imme- 
diate operations  of  the  senses  from  the  deductions 
which  we  habitually  draw  from  our  sensations.  In 
1710  appeared  his  Principles  of  Human  Know',  dffe,  in 
which  he  propounded  the  novel  doctrine  that  what  we 
call  matter  has  no  actual  existence,  and  that  the  im- 
pressions which  we  believe  that  we  receive  from  it  are 
not,  in  fact,  derived  from  any  thing  external  to  our- 
selves, but  are  produced  within  us  by  a  certain  dispo- 
sition of  the  mind,  the  immediate  operation  of  God. 
In  1724  he  was  made  dean  of  Deny,  and  in  the  year 
following  published  his  propositions  for  the  conversion 
of  the  American  savages  by  means  of  a  college  in  the 
Bermudas.  The  design  was  received  with  favor  by 
the  government  and  by  individuals,  and  great  prom- 
ises of  money  were  made  to  him,  such  as  to  induce  him 
to  resign  his  living,  worth  £1100  a  year,  and  to  embark 
with  his  wife  in  order  to  purchase  land  for  the  intend- 
ed College  of  St.  Paul  and  to  prepare  for  its  foundation 
Landing  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  he  remained  there  for  two 
years,  and,  finding  all  his  expectations  of  assistance 
vain,  he  was  compelled  to  return  to  England,  and  thus 
ended  a  noble  scheme,  to  complete  which  he  had  spent 
seven  years  of  his  life,  resigned  his  actual  preferment, 
and  refused  a  bishopric,  declaring  that  he  would  rath- 
er have  the  office  of  superior  in  the  new  college  of  St. 
Paul  than  bo  primate  of  all  England,  this  superiorship 
being  actually  worth  to  him  £100  a  year.,  In  1732  he 
published  Alciphron,  2  vols.  8vo,  the  design  of  which 
work  was  to  refute  the  various  systems  of  atheism,  fa- 
talism, and  scepticism.  At  length,  in  1734,  he  was 
raised  to  the  see  of  Cloyne.  He  continued  to  put  forth 
from  time  to  time  works  calculated  to  advance  the 
cause  of  Christianity  and  his  counuy,  refused  to  ex- 
change his  see  for  that  of  Clogher,  although  the  income 
was  twice  as  great,  and  died  at  Oxford  in  1753.  His 
Works,  with  a  Life  of  the  A  uthor,  by  Wright,  were  re- 
printed, with  a  translation  of  the  Latin  essays,  in  1843 
(London,  2  vols.  8vo).  Mackintosh  says  that  Berke- 
ley's writings  afford  the  finest  models  of  philosophical 
style  since  Cicero.  His  style  is  very  clear,  and  his 
bold  method  of  thinking,  and  absence  of  all  adhesion 
to  great  authorities,  make  his  works  even  now  valua- 
ble to  the  student.  These  same  qualities  make  them 
difficult  to  describe,  and  the  peculiar  nature  of  the 
subjects  which  he  treated  has  caused  them  to  bo  mis- 
represented, so  that  their  true  scope  is  less  understood 
than  that  of  any  other  writings  of  his  day. — Landon, 
Eccl.  Did.  ii,  188  ;  New  Englander,  vii,  474  ;  Engl.  Cy- 
clopcedia;  Sprague,  Annuls,  v,  03;  Tennemann,  Man- 
ual Hist.  Phil.  §  349;  Mackintosh,  History  of  Ethics,  p. 
130,  North  Amer. Rev. Jan.  1855 ;  Chris/ion  Eetf.April, 
1861,  art.  7 ;  Lewes,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  ii,  281,  3d  ed. 

Beikenmeyer,  William  Christopher,  a  Lu- 
theran minister,  of  whose  parentage  and  early  life  lit- 
tle is  known.  He  arrived  in  America  in  1725,  and 
became  minister  to  the  Lutheran  congregation  of  Quas- 
saik  Parish.  His  residence  was  at  Loonenburgh  (now 
Athens,  N.  Y.),  but  his  itinerant  labors  extended  over 
a  large  part  of  the  colony  of  New  York.  He  was  re- 
garded as  a  man  of  great  learning  in  his  time,  and 
tradition  still  speaks  of  his  great  zeal  and  industry  as 
a  minister.  He  gave  special  care  to  the  negro  race. — 
Evang.  Rtv.  April,  18G2  ;  Doc.  Hist,  of  N.  Y.  vol.  iii. 


Berlebtirg  Bible  (Berkburger  Bibel),  an  edition 
of  the  Bible  published  at  Berleburg,  Germany,  1726- 
29,  by  anonymous  editors.  It  gives  an  entirely  new 
translation,  with  a  running  exposition,  giving  the  lit- 
eral, spiritual,  and  hidden,  or  mystical  interpretation. 
It  was  edited  in  the  spirit  of  pietism  of  a  mystical  ten- 
dency (Walch,  Biblioth.  Theol.  iv,  187). 

Bernard  of  Mentone  (or  or  Aosta),  St.,  was 
born  in  923,  near  Annecy.  He  is  memorable  as  the 
founder  of  two  establishments  of  Hospitallers,  where 
for  more  than  nine  hundred  years  travellers  have 
found  an  asylum  against  the  perils  of  the  Alps.  He 
was  archdeacon  of  Aosta,  and  grand-vicar  of  the  dio- 
cese. In  his  journeys  he  had  opportunities  of  seeing 
the  sufferings  to  which  the  pilgrims  were  exposed  in 
crossing  the  Alps,  and  he  conceived  the  project  of  es- 
tablishing two  hospitals,  one  on  Mount  Joux  (3fons 
Jovis),  the  other  in  a  pass  in  the  Greek  Alps,  called 
Colona  Jou,  on  account  of  a  pile  of  stones  raised  on  the 
spot  to  point  out  the  road  to  travellers.  Upon  these 
summits  he  raised  the  two  hospitals  known  as  the 
Great  and  Little  St.  Bernard,  which  he  confided  to  the 
regular  canons  of  St.  Augustine,  who,  from  that  time 
down  to  the  present,  have  continued  to  fulfil  with  a 
zeal  and  charity  beyond  all  praise  the  merciful  inten- 
tions of  the  founder.  The  chief  monaster)'  is  on  the 
Great  St.  Bernard,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  highest 
dwelling  in  Europe,  and  there,  amid  perpetual  snows, 
the  monks  exercise  their  hospital >le  labors.  Bernard 
died  at  Novara  May  28, 1008.  His  festival  is  celebra- 
ted on  June  15,  the  day  of  his  interment.  His  life  is 
given  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  June  15. — Landon,  Eccl. 
Diet,  ii,  189  ;  Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  June  15. 

Bernard  of  Tiron,  St.,  founder  of  a  new  congre- 
gation of  Benedictines  (q.  v.),  viz.  the  Tironensians 
(q.  v.),  was  born  at  Ponthieu  about  A.D.  1040.  He 
was  at  first  abbot  of  St.  Cyprian's,  but  in  1109  found- 
ed the  abbey  of  Tiron  and  the  new  congregation  named 
from  the  place.  The  monks  gave  themselves  to  si- 
lence, manual  labor,  prayer,  and  psalmody,  and  their 
dress  was  of  the  commonest  material.  Bernard,  be- 
fore long,  found  himself  surrounded  by  more  than  five 
hundred  disciples  of  both  sexes.  Each  one  was  set 
to  perform  whatever  art  he  best  excelled  in,  and  thus 
were  found  carpenters,  smiths,  goldsmiths,  painters, 
vine-dressers,  agriculturists,  writers,  men  of  all  call- 
ings, glad  to  exercise  their  talents  in  obedience  to  their 
superior.  A  noble  monastery  soon  arose  in  the  soli- 
tude. Congregations  were  soon  established  in  France, 
Britain,  and  elsewhere  ;  eleven  abbeys  were  founded, 
subject  to  the  chief  of  the  order  at  Tiron ;  of  these 
eight  were  in  France,  one  in  Wales,  in  the  diocese  of 
St.  David's,  called  the  abbey  of  St.  Mary  de  Cameis, 
and  one  in  Scotland,  at  Roxburgh.  Bernard  died  on 
the  14th  of  April,  1116.  He  has  not  been  canonized 
by  the  Church,  but  the  Martyrologies  of  the  Benedic- 
tines and  of  France  mention  him  on  the  14th  of  April. 
His  life  is  given  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  April,  t.  ii. — 
Baillet,  Vies  des  Saints,  14  Aprilis;  Helyot,  Ordres  Pe- 
ligieux,  iii,  674. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  St.,  one  of  the  most  em- 
inent names  in  the  Mediaeval  Church,  was  born  of  no- 
ble parents  near  Dijon,  in  the  year  1091.  He  had  five 
brothers  and  one  sister,  all  of  whom  he  persuaded  to 
the  same  course  of  religious  life  with  himself;  and, 
after  having  lived  for  some  time  in  seclusion  in  their 
father's  house,  the  brothers  all  left  if:  together  in  111", 
and  repaired  to  Citeaux,  where  they  demanded  of  the 
abbot  Stephen  to  be  admitted.  Besides  his  brothers, 
he  took  with  him  other  companions,  making  in  all 
thirty.  Having  distinguished  himself  by  his  piety, 
devotion,  and  learning,  he  was  commissioned,  in  1114, 
to  conduct  a  colony  of  monks  to  Clairvaux,  where, 
having  built  their  monastery,  he  was  appointed  the 
first  abbot.  His  learning  and  consummate  abilities 
could  not  be  long  concealed  in  the  cloister,  and  very 


BERNARD  76 

Boon  he  was  called  upon  to  take  part  in  all  the  impor- 
tant affairs  of  the  Church.  In  1128  he  was  present 
in  the  Synod  of  Troyes,  convoked  by  the  legate  Mat-  j 
thew,  cardinal  bishop  of  Albano,  where,  by  his  means,  j 
the  order  of  the  Knights  Templars  was  confirmed,  as 
well  as  the  rule  for  their  observation.  In  the  schism  j 
between  Innocent  II  and  Anacletus,  Bernard  took  the 
side  of  the  former.  In  11-10  we  find  him  strenuously 
opposing  Abelard  (q.  v.),  whom,  both  by  word  and  by 
his  writings,  he  resisted,  especially  in  the  Council  of 
Sens  held  in  that  year.  His  arbitrary  and  persevering 
persecution  of  Abelard  is  one  of  the  greatest  stains  upon  | 
his  reputation.  "About  the  year  1140,  Bernard  was  | 
involved  in  an  important  controversy  concerning  what 
was  called  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  Several  churches  in  France  began  about  that 
time  to  celebrate  the  festival  consecrated  to  this  pre- 
tended conception.  It  is  reported  by  some  authors  that 
it  had  been  introduced  into  the  Church  of  England 
before  this  period,  in  consequence  of  the  exhorta- 
tions of  archbishop  Anselm.  The  Church  of  Lyons 
was  the  first  which  adopted  this  new  festival  in  France, 
which  no  sooner  came  to  the  knowledge  of  St.  Bernard 
than  he  severely  censured  the  canons  of  Lyons  on  ac- 
count of  this  innovation,  and  opposed  the  immaculate 
conception  of  the  Virgin  with  the  greatest  vigor,  as  it 
supposed  her  to  be  honored  with  a  privilege  which  be- 
longed to  Christ  alone.  Upon  this  a  warm  contest 
arose,  some  siding  with  the  canons  of  Lyons,  and 
adopting  the  new  festival,  while  others  adhered  to  the 
more  orthodox  sentiments  of  St.  Bernard.  The  con- 
troversy, notwithstanding  the  zeal  of  the  contending 
parties,  was  carried  on  during  this  century  with  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  decency  and  moderation.  But  in  after 
times,  as  Mosheim  remarks,  when  the  Dominicans 
were  established  in  the  Academy  of  Paris,  the  contest 
was  renewed  with  the  greatest  vehemence,  and  the 
same  subject  was  debated  on  both  sides  with  the  ut- 
most animosity  and  contention  of  mind.  The  Domin- 
icans declared  for  St.  Bernard,  while  the  Academy  pat- 
ronized the  canons  of  Lyons,  and  adopted  the  new  fes- 
tival." (See  Immaculate  Conception.)  It  was  in 
the  year  114o  that  information  was  received  in  Europe 
of  the  perilous  condition  of  the  newly-established  king- 
dom in  the  Fast.  Edessa  was  taken  by  the  Saracens; 
Antioch  and  Jerusalem  were  threatened.  The  news 
excited  universal  sorrow.  Louis  the  Seventh,  king 
of  France,  in  a  penitential  spirit,  was  the  first  who  pre- 
pared to  arm  in  defence  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The 
French  king's  determination  was  approved  by  the 
pope,  Eugenius  III;  and  Bernard  was  commissioned 
to  travel  through  France  and  Germany  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  an  army  of  crusaders.  The  success  of 
Bernard  was  marvellous.  The  unwilling  emperor, 
Conrad  III.  yielded  at  length  to  his  impassioned  elo- 
quence.  In  his  management  of  Conrad,  the  tact  and 
good  taste  of  Bernard  were  conspicuous.  It  was  at 
Frankfort-on-Maine  that  he  had  Ids  first  private  au- 
dience.  Winn  the  emperor  then  gave  him  to  under- 
stand bow  little  interest  he  took  in  the  matter,  Bernard 
pressed  the  subject  no  farther,  but  awaited  another  op- 
portunity. After  having  succeeded  in  making  peace 
between  several  ofthe  princes  of  the  empire,  he  preach- 
ed the  crusade  publicly,  exhorting  the  emperor  and 
princes  to  participate  in  it, at  the  diet  held  at  Christ- 
mas in  the  city  of  Spires.  Three  days  after  this  he 
again  addressed  the  emperor  in  private,  and  exhorted 
him,  in  a  friendly  and  affectionate  manner,  not  to  lose 
the  opportunity  of  so  short,  R0  easy,  and  so  honorable 
a  mode  of  penance.  ( lonrad.  already  more  favorably 
disposed  to  the  undertaking,  replied  that  he  would  ad- 
vise With  his  councillors,  and  give  him  an  answer  on 
the  following  day.  The  „ext  .lay  Bernard  officiated 
at  the  holy  communion,  to  which   be  unexpectedly 

added  a  sermon  in  reference  to  the  crusade.  Toward 
the  conclusion  of  his  discourse,  be  turned  to  the  em- 
peror, and  addressed  him  frankly,  as  though  he  hud 


2  BERNARD 

been  a  private  man.  He  described  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, when  the  men  who  had  received  such  innumera- 
ble benefits  from  God,  and  yet  had  refused  to  minister 
to  Him  to  the  utmost  of  their  power,  would  be  left 
without  reply  or  excuse.  He  then  spoke  of  the  lless- 
ings  which  God  had  in  such  overflowing  measure  pour- 
ed upon  the  head  of  Conrad — the  highest  worldly  do- 
minion, treasures  of  wealth,  gifts  of  mind  and  body — 
till  the  emperor,  moved  even  to  tears,  exclaimed,  '  I 
acknowledge  the  gifts  of  the  divine  mercy,  and  I  will 
no  longer  remain  ungrateful  for  them.  I  am  ready  for 
the  service  which  He  Himself  hath  exhorted  me.'  At 
these  words  a  universal  shout  of  joy  burst  from  the  as- 
sembly ;  the  emperor  immediately  received  the  cross, 
and  several  of  the  nobles  followed  his  example."  On 
this  occasion  he  went  so  far  as  to  claim  inspiration,  and 
to  prophesy  the  success  ofthe  undertaking.  This  is  the 
most  reprehensible  part  of  his  career,  and  he  attempted 
to  cover  the  failure  of  his  prophecy  ly  a  poor  quil  hie. 
In  the  same  year  a  council  was  held  at  Chartres,  where 
the  Crusaders  offered  Bernard  the  command  of  the 
army,  which  he  refused.  In  1147,  at  the  Council  of 
Paris,  he  attacked  the  doctrine  of  Gilbert  de  la  Porree, 
bishop  of  Poitiers,  on  the  Trinity ;  and  in  the  following 
year,  at  the  Council  of  Rheims,  procured  its  condem- 
nation. He  was  an  earnest  and  zealous  advocate  of 
practical  religion,  and  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  ho- 
liest men  of  his  time.  But  it  must  be  confessed  that 
he  was  misled  by  the  love  of  ecclesiastical  conformity 
to  false  pretensions  and  persecuting  principles.  All 
ecclesiastical  dignities  he  constantly  refused ;  hut  his 
virtues  and  talents  gained  him  a  higher  influence  in 
the  Christian  world  than  was  possessed  even  by  the 
pope  himself,  and  the  disputes  of  the  Church  were 
often  referred  to  his  arbitration.  Luther  says  of  him, 
"  If  there  has  ever  been  a  pious  monk  who  feared  God, 
it  was  St.  Bernard;  whom  alone  I  hold  in  much  high- 
er esteem  than  all  other  monks  and  priests  throughout 
the  globe."  His  devotional  Meditations  are  still  read 
and  admired,  even  among  Protestants.  They  were 
translated  into  English  by  Stanhope.  There  can  be 
no  question  but  that  he  saw  with  sorrow  many  of  the 
errors,  corruptions,  and  defilements  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  nor  did  he  hesitate  to  do  all  in  his  power  to  cor- 
rect them.  In  the  j'ear  115:?,  just  before  his  death,  he 
put  forth  his  Libri  de  Considtratione,  addressed  to  Pope 
Eugenius  III,  in  which  he  handles  the  subject  at  large, 
and  strongly  urges  it.  In  the  first  book  of  this  work 
he  inveighs  against  the  abuses  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts.  In  the  second  he  admonishes  Eugenius  to  con- 
sider, as  to  his  person,  who  he  is,  and,  as  to  the  digni- 
ty of  his  office,  what  he  is.  He  reminds  him  that  he 
is  not  set  over  others  to  domineer  over  them,  but  to 
minister  to  them  and  watch  over  them  ;  that  he  had 
indeed  given  to  him  the  charge  of  all  the  churches,  but 
no  arbitrary  dominion  over  them,  which  the  Gospel 
disallows.  "To  you,"  he  says,  'indeed  the  keys  of 
heaven  have  been  intrusted,  but  there  arc  other  door- 
keepers of  heaven  and  other  pastors  besides  you ;  yet 
arc  you  so  much  the  more  above  them  as  you  have  re- 
ceived the  title  after  a  different  manner.  They  have 
eveiy  one  a  particular  flock,  but  you  are  superinten- 
dent over  them  all ;  you  are  not  only  supreme  pastor 
over  all  flocks,  but  likewise  over  all  the  shepherds." 
In  the  third  book  he  treats  of  his  duty  toward  infe. 
riors,  and  complains  heavily  of  the  grievance  cause  i 
b}'  the  appeals  to  Borne,  which,  he  says,  were  the  oc- 
casion of  incalculable  mischief,  and,  justly,  a  source 
of  murmuring  and  complaint.  He  further  inveighs 
against  the  multitude  of  exemptions  which  destroyed 
the,  ecclesiastical  hierarchy.  In  the  fourth  book  he 
admonishes  the  pope  to  mind  his  duty  toward  the  cler- 
gy, cardinals,  and  other  officers  of  his  court,  and  to  re- 
press their  intrigues,  luxury,  and  sumptuousness.  He 
advises  him  as  to  the  qualifications  of  those  whom  he 
should  retain  near  his  person,  and,  lastly,  makes  a  re- 
capitulation of  the  qualities  requisite  for  the  due  ful- 


BERNARD 


BERXARDIN 


filment  of  the  papal  office  :  "  Consider  that  the  Church 
of  Rome,  over  which  God  hatli  placed  you  as  supreme, 
is  the  mother,  and  not  the  mistress  of  other  churches  ; 
and  that  you  are  not  a  sovereign  lord  over  the  other 
bishops,  but  only  one  among  them  ,•  that  you  are  a  broth- 
er of  those  that  love  God,  and  a  companion  of  such  as 
fear  him,"  etc.  "His  meditations  have  been  transla- 
ted by  Dean  Stanhope.  His  sermons  have  been  the 
delight  of  the  faithful  in  all  ages.  '  The}'  are,'  says 
Sixtus  of  Sienna,  'at  once  so  sweet  and  so  ardent  that 
it  is  as  though  his  mouth  were  a  fountain  of  honey, 
and  his  heart  a  whole  furnace  of  love.'  The  doctrines 
of  St.  Bernard  differ  on  soma  material  points  from  that 
of  ths  modern  Church  of  Home  ;  he  did  not  hold  those 
refinements  and  perversions  of  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation which  the  school  divinity  afterward  introduced, 
and  the  Reformers  denounced;  he  rejected  the  notion 
of  supererogatory  works  ;  he  did  not  hold  the  modern 
purgatorial  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Borne;  neither 
did  he  admit  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  blessed 
Virgin.  He  maintained  the  doctrine  of  the  real  pres- 
ence, as  distinguished  from  the  Romish  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation.  In  his  discourse  on  the  Lord's 
Supper,  he  joins  together  the  oalw  irdform  of  the  sacra- 
ment, and  the  spiritual  efficacy  of  it,  as  the  shell  and  ths 
kernel,  the  sacred  sign,  and  the  tiling  signified;  the 
one  he  takes  out  of  the  words  of  the  institution,  and 
the  other  out  of  Christ's  sermon  in  the  sixth  of  St. 
John.  And  in  the  same  place  explaining  that  sacra- 
ments are  not  things  absolute  in  themselves  without  any 
relation,  but  mysteries,  wherein,  by  the  gift  of  a  vis- 
ible sign,  an  invisible  and  divine  grace  with  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  is  given,  he  saith  'that  the  visible 
sign  is  as  a  ring,  which  is  given,  not  for  itself  or  abso- 
lutely, but  to  invest  and  give  possession  of  an  estate 
made  over  to  one.'  Now,  as  no  man  can  fancy  that 
the  ring  is  substantially  changed  into  the  inheritance, 
whether  lands  or  houses,  none  also  can  say  with  truth, 
or  without  absurdity,  that  the  bread  and  wine  are  sub- 
stantially changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
Rut  in  his  sermon  on  the  Purification  I13  speaks  yet 
more  plainly:  'The  bod)'  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament 
is  the  food  of  the  soul,  not  of  the  bell}',  therefore  we 
cat  Him  not  corporally  ;  but  in  the  manner  that  Christ 
is  meat,  in  the  same  manner  we  understand  that  He  is 
eaten.'  Also  in  his  sermon  on  St.  Martin:  'To  this 
day,'  saith  he, '  the  same  flesh  is  given  to  us,  but  spir- 
itually, therefore  not  corporally.'  For  the  truth  of 
things  spiritually  present  is  certain  also."  Bernard 
died  August  20,  1153,  leaving  one  hundred  and  sixty 
monasteries  of  his  order,  all  founded  by  his  exertions. 
The  brief  character  of  him  given  by  Erasmus  is  this: 
"Christians  doctus,  sancte  facundus  et  pie  festivus." 
He  was  canonized,  with  unexampled  splendor,  twenty 
years  after  his  death,  by  Alexander  III,  and  the  Ro- 
man Church  celebrates  his  memory  on  the  20th  of  Au- 
gust. Of  all  the  editions  of  his  works,  by  far  the  best 
is  that  by  Mabillon  (Paris,  1690,  2  vols.  fol. ;  reprint- 
ed, witli  additions,  Paris,  1839,  4  vols.  imp.  8vo). — 
Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  ii,  308  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist,  i,  301  -333;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist.  vol.  iv,  passim  ; 
Neander,  Der  Heilige  Bernard  und  sein  Zeitn'ter  (Ber- 
lin, 1813,  8vo);  Neander,  Life  of  Bernard,  trans],  by 
Matilda  Wrench  (bond.  1843,  12mo);  Ellendorf,  Der 
heil.  Bernh  trd  (Essen,  1837);  Ratisbonne,  Hist,  de  St. 
Bern.  (Paris,  2  vols.  1843,4th  ed.  I860);  Morison,  Lfe 
and  Times  of  Bernard  (1803,  8vo)  ;  and  Niedner,  Zeii- 
schrift  (1862,  pt.  ii,  art.  i,  by  Plitt) ;  Bobringer,  Kircke 
Christi,  ii,  43G  ;  L»nd.  Quar.  Rev.  July,  18G3  ;  Christian 
Remembrancer,  1861,  i. 

Bernard  of  Ch.vrtres,  a  celebrated  philosopher 
and  theologian  of  the  12th  century.  Little  is  known 
of  his  life  except  that  he  was  the  head  of  the  school  of 
Chartres  at  the  same  time  that  Guillaume  de  Chartres 
was  the  head  of  the  school  of  St. Victor.  His  writings 
and  his  philosophical  views  were  likewise  unknown 
until  Mr.  Cousin  discovered  in  the  Imperial  Library 


one  of  his  manuscripts,  a  kind  of  poem,  followed  by 
verse  and  prose,  and  divided  into  two  parts,  the  one 
called  Megacosmus  (great  world),  and  the  other  Micro- 
cosmus  (little  world ;  a  treatise  on  man).  The  system 
of  Bernard  was  a  Platonism,  sometimes  interpreted 
according  to  the  genius  of  the  Alexandrines. — Hoefer, 
Biog.  Generale,  v,  572;  Cousin,  Introduclim  au£  frag- 
ments inedits  d'Abailard. 

Bernard  of  Thuringia,  a  German  visionary  who 
lived  toward  the  close  of  the  12th  century,  but  of  whose 
life  nothing  else  is  known.  On  the  ground  of  some 
passage  in  the  Revelation  he  announced  the  end  of 
the  world  as  close  at  hand,  and  produced  a  wonderful 
commotion  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe.  Many 
were  induced  to  leave  all  they  had  and  to  emigrate  to 
Palestine,  where  Christ  was  to  descend  from  heaven  to 
judge  the  quick  and  the  dead.  The  secular  authority 
had  great  difficulty  in  checking  this  movement. — Hoe- 
fer, Biog.  Generale,  v,  558. 

Bernard,  Ptolomei,  St.,  founder  of  the  Olivetans 
(q.  v.),  was  born  at  Sienna  1272,  died  August  20, 1318. 
He  descended  from  one  of  the  first  families  of  Sienna, 
and  had  filled  the  highest  positions  in  his  country.  In 
consequence  of  a  vow  to  leave  the  world  if  he  should 
be  cured  from  a  sore  eye,  he  sold  all  he  had,  distribu- 
ted the  money  among  the  poor,  withdrew  to  a  desert  ten 
miles  from  Sienna,  and  then  practiced  extraordinary 
austerities.  He  was  soon  joined  by  some  followers ; 
and  when  the  pope  counselled  him  to  connect  himself 
with  one  of  the  monastic  orders  of  the  Church,  ho 
adopted  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  and  a  white  habit. 
The  congregation  established  by  him  is  known  under 
the  name  of  Congregation  of  the  Virgin  Mary  of  Mount 
Olivet,  and  was  approved  by  several  popes. —Hoefer, 
Biog.  Generale,  v,  375. 

Bernard,  Jacques,  a  Reformed  minister  of 
France,  was  born  at  Nions,  in  Dauphine,  September  1, 
1658,  and  died  April  27,  1718.  His  father,  who  was  a 
Reformed  minister,  sent  him  to  Geneva  to  pursue  his 
theological  studies.  On  his  return  he  was  himself  or- 
dained minister,  and  preached  publicly,  notwithstand- 
ing the  prohibitive  laws.  He  was  soon  compelled  to 
flee,  and  went  first  to  Lausanne,  where  he  remained 
until  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Then  he 
went  to  Holland,  where  he  established  a  school  of  belles 
lettres,  philosophy,  and  mathematics.  He  undertook, 
in  1691,  to  continue  the  publication  of  the  Bibtioth&ue 
Universe  lie,  begun  by  Jean  Leclerc.  In  1693  he  suc- 
ceeded Bayle  as  editor  of  the  journal  La  Ripublique 
dss  Lettres.  He  wrote,  besides  a  number  of  historical 
works,  Trait  e  de  la  Repentance  tardive  (Amsterdam, 
1712,  12mo),  and  Traite  de  I' Excellence  de  la  Religion 
(Amsterdam,  1714).— Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale,  v,  584. 

Bernard,  Richard,  a  Puritan  divine,  was  born 
1566  or  1567,  died  in  1611.  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  the  following  :  Plain  Evidence  that  the  Church 
of  England  is  Apostolical  (bond.  1610);  A  Key  for 
Opening  the  Mysteries  of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John 
(bond.  1617);  The  fabulous  Foundation  of  the  Popedom, 
showing  that  St.  Peter  was  never  at  Rome  (Oxford,  1619) ; 
and  several  other  works  against  the  Church  of  Rome  ; 
The  Isle  of  Man,  or  legit  Proceedings  in  Manshire 
against  Sin  (Lond.  1627,  10th  edit.  1635),  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  the  germ  of  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's 
Progress;  A  Guide  /"  Grand  Jurymen  with  regard,  to 
Witches  (Lond.  1627,  12mo).— Hoefer,  Biog.  Generale, 
v,  592 ;  Allibone,  Did.  of  Authors,  i,  179. 

Bernardin,  St.,  of  Sienna,  descended  from  the  fam- 
ily Albiceschi,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  in  the  re- 
public of  Sienna,  was  bom  in  1 380  at  Massa-Carrara,  and 
entered  the  Franciscan  order  in  1101.  He  became  one 
of  the  boldest  and  most  famous  preachers  against  the 
prevailing  corruptions  of  the  times;  was  appointed  in 
1438  vicar  general  of  his  order,  and  successfully  ex- 
erted himself  for  the  restoration  of  the  strict  monastic 


BERNARDIX 


764 


BERNICE 


role,  lie  died  in  1444  at  Aqnila,  where  his  relics  are 
still  kept,  and  was  canonized  in  1450.  He  is  com- 
memorated by  the  Roman  Church  on  March  20.  His 
works  are  mostly  of  a  mystical  character;  among 
them  is  a  commentary  cm  the  Revelation.  His  com- 
plete works  have  been  often  published  (Yen.  1591, 
4  vols,  lto  ;  Paris,  1636,  5  vols.  fol. ;  Yen.  1745,  5  vols. 

fol.). 

Bernardiu  de  Sahagun,  a  Spanish  Franciscan, 
lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  lGth  century.  He 
spent  many  years  in  the  West  Indies  and  Mexico,  and 
composed  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  the  language 
of  the  latter  country,  and  many  other  works  for  the 
use  of  the  missionaries  and  native  Christians.  He 
wrote  in  Spanish  a  history  of  the  religion,  the  govern- 
ment, and  the  customs  of  the  natives  of  the  West  In- 
dies, and  an  essay  on  the  conquest  of  New  Spain  or 
■Mexico. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  v,  GOG. 

Bernardine  Monks  (the  same  with  the  Cister- 
cians), so  called  after  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  who  great- 
ly extended  the  order.     See  Bernard  and  Cister- 

t   IA.NS. 

Berne,  Conference  or  Disputation  of,  a  name 
given  especially  to  a  conference  held  in  1528,  which 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Reformation  in  that 
city.  The  soil  of  Berne,  not  originally  favorable  to 
the  reform,  was  suddenly  prepared  for  it  by  the  jug- 
gling doings  of  the  Dominicans  (1507-1509),  and  by 
Sampson's  bold  traffic  in  indulgences  (Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist,  iii,  13,  27).  The  reform  movement  was  earnest- 
ly preached  by  Kolb,  Hallcr,  etc.  (q.  v.).  The  bishop 
of  Lausanne  demanded  the  indictment  of  the  heretical 
preachers,  but  the  council  of  the  city  refused  to  inter- 
fere. Great  excitement  arose  (D'Aubigne,  Hist,  of 
Ref.  1  k.  viii).  The  mandates  of  I "iti and  Jlodesti  (Jure 
15,  1523)  were  intended  to  mediate  between  the  par- 
tics,  and  the  council  forhade  any  preaching,  "whether 
of  doctrine  given  out  by  Luther  or  other  doctors,  in 
the  way  of  disputation,  apart  or  aside  from  proof  out 
of  the  Word  of  God."  For  two  years  the  cause  of 
reform  fluctuated  between  advance  and  retreat.  In 
1526  the  "Baden  Disputation"  was  held,  audits  issue 
seemed  likely  to  be  fatal  to  the  reformers.  But  the 
decisions  of  Baden  were,  too  severe  and  partial  for  the 
patience  of  the  Bernese,  to  whom  Haller  and  Kolb 
were  still  preaching.  On  November  17th,  1527,  the 
great  council  decided  to  hold  a  conference  at  Berne 
to  settle  the  disputes  by  appeals  to  the  Word  of  God. 
They  invited  the  bishops  of  Constance,  Basle,  the 
Yalais,  and  Lausanne,  and  the  Leagues  of  both  parties 
were  requested  to  send  "delegates  and  learned  men." 
The  bishops  declined  the  invitation,  and  the  emperor, 
Charles  V,  sent  a  dissuasive,  advising  trust  and  re- 
course to  the  anticipated  general  council.  Neverthe- 
less, there  was  a  large  assembly  that  opened  on  the 
6th  of  January,  152,':,  the  majority  being  reformers, 
and  among  them  Bucer,  Capito,  CEcolampadius,  and 
Zuingle.  A  graphic  account  of  the  discussion  is  given 
by  D'A\ib\gn6(HistoTyofRef  mint:,  n,  I  k.xv).  Among 
the  results  of  this  disputation  were  the  abrogation  of 
the  mass,  the  removal  of  images,  etc.,  from  the  church- 
es, and  the  Reformation  Edict  of  Feb.  7th,  1528,  an- 
nulling the  authority  of  the  bishops,  settling  questions 
of  Church  order,  etc  For  Heme,  and,  in  fact,  for 
Switzerland,  this  conference  was  the  turning-point  of 
the  Reformation.  See  D'Aubigne,  as  above-cited,  and 
Fis<  In-.-.',,  tchkhd  d.  Disputation  u.  ft  formation  in  /:>  m 
'Berne,  1828);  Herzog,  ReaUEncykbp.  ii,  81 ;  Ruchat, 
Reformation  in  ISw  /.  Hand,  ch.  iv. 

Berne,  Synod  op,  an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of 
Berne,  Switzerland,  to  consolidate  the  work  of  the 
Reformation,  held  in  1532.  It  was  the  first  of  the  Re- 
formed synods  of  Berne,  and  was  attended  by  230  of 
the  clergy,  June  l.  1  I,  1532.  A  Church  Director}'  and 
Manual  fur  Pastors  were  adopted,  cont  lining  many  ex- 
cellent regulations,  and  full  of  the  Christian  spirit,  as 


are  the  Acts  of  the  Synod.  They  were  published  in 
Basle,  1532  ;  and  again  enjoined  in  1728  and  1775  ;  re- 
published, Basle,  1830,  8vo,  with  a  German  version.— 
Herzog,  lual-EneyJdopiidie,  ii,  87. 

Berni'ce  (Bspvi'wj  in  Acts,  also  in  Josephus ;  Bere- 
nice =  <PepeviK>i,  see  Sturz,  Dial.  Maced.  p.  31 ;  the  form 
Beronice  is  also  found,  comp.  Eustath.  ad  II.  x,  192 ; 
Yalckenaer,  ad  Herod,  p.  477 ;  Niebuhr,  Kl.  Schr.  i, 
237),  the  name  of  several  Egyptian  princesses  (see 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v.  Berenice),  and  also 
of  several  Jewish  females  of  royal  connection  named  in 
Josephus,  and  one  of  them  in  the  New  Testament. 

1.  The  daughter  of  Costabarus  and  Salome,  and 
niece  of  Herod  the  Great.  She  was  married  to  Aristo- 
bulus,  the  son  of  Herod,  who,  proud  of  his  descent 
from  the  Maccabees  through  his  mother  Mariamne,  is 
said  to  have  taunted  her  with  her  comparatively  low 
origin  ;  and  her  consequent  complaints  to  her  mother 
served  to  increase  the  feud,  which  resulted  in  the 
death  of  Aristobulus  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  5,  4;  xvi, 
1,  2;  4,  1 ;  7,  3 ;  War,  i,  23,  1;  24,  3).  See  Aristo- 
bulus. After  his  execution,  B.C.  6,  Bernice  became 
the  wife  of  Theudion,  maternal  uncle  to  Antipater,  the 
eldest  son  of  Herod — Antipater  having  brought  about 
the  marriage,  with  the  view  of  conciliating  Salome 
and  disarming  her  suspicions  toward  himself  (Joseph. 
Ant.  xvii,  1,1;  War,  i,  28,  1).  Josephus  does  not 
mention  the  death  of  Theudion,  but  it  is  probable  that 
he  suffered  for  his  share  in  Antipater's  plot  against  the 
life  of  Herod  (.4  n<.  xvii,  4,  2;  War,  i,  30,  5):  See  An- 
tipater. Bernice  certainly  appears  to  have  been 
again  a  widow  when  she  accompanied  her  mother  to 
Rome  with  Archelaus,  who  went  thither  at  the  com- 
mencement of  his  reign  to  obtain  from  Augustus  the 
ratification  of  his  father's  will  (Joseph.  Ant.  xvii,  9,  3; 
War,  ii,  2,  1).  See  Archelaus.  She  seems  to  have 
continued  at  Rome  the  rest  of  her  life,  enjoying  the  fa- 
vor of  Augustus  and  the  friendship  of  Antonia  (q.  v.), 
the  wife  of  the  elder  Drusus.  The  affection  of  Antonia 
for  Bernice,  indeed,  exhibited  itself  even  after  the  lat- 
ter's  death,  and  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  in  offices 
of  substantial  kindness  to  her  son  Agrippa  I  (q.  v.), 
whom  she  furnished  with  the  means  of  discharging  his 
del.it  to  the  imperial  treasury  (Strabo,  xvi,  7G5 ;  Jose- 
phus, Ant.  xviii,  6,  1-6). 

2.  The  eldest  daughter  of  Agrippa  I  (q.  v.)  by  his 
wife  Cypros :  she  was  espoused  at  a  very  early  age  to 
Marcus,  son  of  Alexander  the  Alabarch ;  but  he  died 
before  the  consummation  of  the  marriage,  and  she  then 
became  the  wife  of  her  uncle  Flerod,  king  of  Chalcis, 
by  whom  she  had  two  sons  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii,  5, 
4;  xix,  5, 1 ;  9, 1 ;  xx,  5,  2;  7,  3;  War,  ii,  2,  6).  After 
the  death  of  this  Herod,  A.D.  48,  Bernice,  then  but 
20  years  old,  lived  for  a  considerable  time  with  her 
own  brother,  Agrippa  II  (q.  v.),  and  not  without  just 
suspicion  of  an  incestuous  commerce  with  him,  to 
avoid  the  scandal  of  which  she  induced  Polemon,  king 
of  ( 'ilieia,  to  marry  her ;  but  she  soon  deserted  him  and 
returned  again  to  her  brother  (Joseph.  Ant.  xx,  7,  3; 
Juvenal,  vi,  156),  in  connection  with  whom  she  is  men- 
tioned Acts  xxv,  13,  23 ;  xxvi,  30,  as  having  visited 
Festus  at  Ca?sarea  on  his  appointment  as  procurator  of 
Judaea,  when  Paul  defended  himself  before  them  all. 
A.D.  55.  About  A.D.  65  we  hear  of  her  being  at 
Jerusalem  (whither  she  had  gone  in  pursuance  of  a 
vow),  and  interceding  for  the  Jews  with  the  procura- 
tor Florus,  at  the  risk  of  her  life,  during  his  cruel 
massacre  of  them  (Joseph.  War,  ii,  15,  1).  Together 
with  her  lirother  she  endeavored  to  divert  her  country- 
men from  the  purpose  of  rebellion  (Joseph.  War,  ii, 
1G,  5)  ;  and,  having  joined  the  Romans  with  him  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  final  war,  she  gained  the  favor  of  Yes- 
pasian  by  her  munificent  presents,  and  the  love  of 
Titus  by  her  beauty.  Her  connection  with  the  latter 
continued  at  Ro  no,  whither  she  went  after  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem,  and  it  is  even  said  that  he  wished  to 
make  her  his  wife ;  but  the  fear  of  offending  the  Ro- 


BERODACH-BALADAN 


765 


BEROTHAH 


mans  by  such  a  step  compelled  him  to  dismiss  her. 
and,  though  she  afterward  returned  to  Rome,  he  still 
avoided  a  renewal  of  their  intimacy  (Tacitus,  Hist,  ii, 
2,  81 ;  Sueton.  Til.  7;  Dio  Cass,  lxvi,  15,  18).  Quin- 
tilian  (Inst.  Omt.  iv,  1)  speaks  of  having  pleaded  her 
cause  on  some  occasion  not  otherwise  alluded  to,  on 
•which  she  herself  sat  as  judge.  See  Nolde,  Hist. 
lilum.  p.  403  sq. 

3.  The  daughter  of  Archclaus  son  of  Chelcias,  and 
Mariamne  daughter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I  (Josephus, 
Ant.  xx,  7,  1). 

Bero'dach-bal'adan  (I-Ieb.  Berodak'  Baladan', 
T7  - .  ?  ~^^"1?  i  Sept.  Bapwcux  [v-  r-  Mapuoax] 
BaXaSdv;  Vulg.  Berodach  Baladan),  the  king  of 
Babylon  who  sent  the  friendly  deputation  to  Hezekiah 
(2  Kings  xx,  12),  called  in  the  parallel  passage  (Isa, 
xxxix,  1),  apparently  more  correctly,  Merodach 
Baladan  (q.  v.). 

Berce'a  (liipoia,  also  -written  Btppoia  according 
to  Vossius,  Thucyd.  i,  01,  the  Macedonian  for  <&epoia), 
the  name  of  two  cities  mentioned  in  Scripture. 

1.  A  city  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  mentioned  in 
2  Mace,  xiii,  4,  in  connection  with  the  invasion  of 
Judaea  by  Antiochus  Eupator,  as  the  scene  of  the  mis- 
erable death  of  Menelaus.  This  seems  to  be  the  city 
in  which  Jerome  says  that  certain  persons  lived  who 
possessed  and  used  Matthew's  Hebrew  Gospel  (De  Vir. 
Illust.  c.  3).  This  city  (the  name  of  which  is  written 
also  Bepor) ;  comp.  Beroansis,  Plin.  v,  23)  was  situated 
in  Syria  (Strabo,  xvi,  751),  about  midway  between 
Antioch  and  Hieropolis  (Ptol.  v,  15),  being  about  two 
daj's'  journey  from  each  (Julian,  Epist.  xxvii ;  Theo 
doret,  ii,  22).  Chosroes,  in  his  inroad  upon  Syria,  A.U 
540,  demanded  a  tribute  from  Beroea,  which  he  remit- 
ted afterward,  as  the  inhabitants  were  unable  to  p:iy 
it  (Procop.  Bell.  Pa-s.  ii,  7;  Le  Beau,  Biu  Empire,  ix, 
13) ;  but  in  A.D.  Oil  he  occupied  this  city  (Gibbon, 
viii,  225).  It  owed  its  Macedonian  name  Beroea  to 
Seleucus  Nicator  (Niceph.  Hist.  Eccl.  xiv,  39),  and 
continued  to  be  called  so  till  the  conquest  of  the  Arabs 
under  Abu  Obeidah,  A.D.  G38,  when  it  resumed  its  an- 
cient name,  Chalsb  or  Chalybon  (Schultcns,  Index 
Geogr.  s.  v.  Haleb).  It  afterward  became  the  capital 
of  the  sultans  of  the  race  of  Hamadan,  but  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  tenth  century  was  united  to  the  Greek 
empire  by  the  conquests  of  Zimisces,  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, with  which  city  it  at  length  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens.  It  is  now  called  by  Europeans 
Aleppo  (Hardouin,  ad  Plin.  ii,  2G7),  but  by  the  natives 
still  Halab,  a  famous  city  of  the  modern  Orient  (Man- 
nert,  VI,  i,  514  sq. ;  Busching,  Erdbeschr.  V,  i,  285). 
The  excavations  a  little  way  eastward  of  the  town  are 
the  only  vestiges  of  ancient  remains  in  the  neighbor- 
hood: they  are  very  extensive,  and  consist  of  suites 
of  large  apartments,  which  are  separated  by  portions 
of  solid  rock,  with  massive  pilasters  left  at  intervals  to 
support  the  mass  above  (Chesney,  Euphrat.  Exped.  i, 
435).  Its  present  population  ife  somewhat  more  than 
100,000  souls  (see  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.  Haleb; 
M'Culloch,  Geogr.  Diet.  s.  v.  Aleppo;  Russel's  Nat. 
Hist.  <•/ Aleppo,  passim).     See  Helbon. 


Coin  of  Bercea  in  Syria,  with  the  Heart  of  Trajan. 

2.  A  city  of  Macedonia,  to  which  the  apostle  Paul 
retired  with  Silas  and  Timotheus,  in  the  course  of  his 
first  visit  to  Europe,  on  being  persecuted  in  Thessaloni- 
ca  (Acts  xvii,  10),  and  from  which,  on  being  again  per- 


secuted by  emissaries  from  Thessalonica,  he  withdrew 
to  the  sea  for  the  purpose  of  proceeding  to  Athens  (ib. 
14, 15).  The  community  of  Jews  must  have  been  con- 
siderable in  Bercea,  and  their  character  is  described  in 
very  favorable  terms  (ib.  11 ;  see  Conybeare  and  How- 
son,  St.  Paul,  i,  339).  Sopater,  one  of  Paul's  mission- 
ary companions,  was  from  this  place  (Bipoialog,  Acts 
xx,  4;  comp.  Bererus,  Liv.  xxiii,  39).  Bercea  was  sit- 
uated in  the  northern  part  of  the  province  of  Macedon 
(Plin.  iv,  10),  in  the  district  called  Emathia  (Ptolem. 
iii,  13,  39),  on  a  river  which  flows  into  the  Haliacmon, 
and  upon  one  of  the  lower  ridges  of  Mount  Bermius 
(Strabo,  vii,  p.  390).  It  lay  30  Roman  miles  from 
Fella.  (Pent.  Tab.),  and  51  from  Thessalonica  (Itin.  An- 
tonin.),  and  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
thema  of  Macedonia  (Constant.  De  Them,  ii,  2).  Coins 
of  it  are  rare  (Rasche,  i,  1492 ;  Eckhel,  ii,  69).  Bercea. 
was  attacked,  but  unsuccessfully,  by  the  Athenian 
forces  under  Callias,  B.C.  432  (Thucyd.  i,  Gl).  It  sur- 
rendered to  the  Roman  consul  after  the  battle  of  Pyd- 
na  (Liv.  xliv,  45),  and  was  assigned,  with  its  territory, 
to  the  third  region  of  Macedonia  (Liv.  xlv,  29).  B.C. 
1G8.  It  was  a  large  and  populous  town  (Lucian,  Asi- 
nus,  34),  being  afterward  called  Irenopolis  (Cellarii  Nc- 
tit.  i,  1038),  and  is  now  known  as  Verria  or  Kara-Ver- 
ria,  which  has  been  fully  described  by  Leake  (Xorth- 
ern  Greece,  iii,  290  sq.)  and  by  Cousinery  (Voyage  dins 
la  Macedoine,  i,  69  sq.).  Situated  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Olympian  mountain  range,  with  an  abundant 
supply  of  water,  and  commanding  an  extensive  view 
of  the  plain  of  the  Axius  and  Haliacmon,  it  is  regard- 
ed as  one  of  the  most  agreeable  towns  in  Rumili,  and 
has  now  15,000  or  20,000  inhabitants.  A  few  ancient 
remains,  Greek,  Roman,  and  Byzantine,  still  exist 
here.  Two  roads  are  laid  down  in  the  itineraries  be- 
tween Thessalonica  and  Bercea,  one  passing  by  Pella. 
Paul  and  his  companions  may  have  travelled  by  either 
of  them.  Two  roads  also  connect  Beroea  with  Diurri, 
one  passing  by  Pydna.  It  was  probably  from  Dium 
that  Paul  sailed  to  Athens,  leaving  Silas  and  Timothe- 
us behind  ;  and  possibly  1  Thess.  iii,  2  refers  to  a  jour- 
ney of  Timotheus  from  Bercea,  not  from  Athens.  See 
Timothy. 

Berosh ;  Beroth.     See  Fir. 

Berosus  (perhaps  from  Bar-Osea,  the  son  of  Oseas), 
a  priest  of  Belus  and  historian  at  Babylon,  lived,  ac- 
cording to  some,  at  250  B.C.,  according  to  others,  at 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He  wrote  a  history 
of  Chaldrea,  which  he  compiled  from  the  temple  ar- 
chives of  Babylon,  of  which  he  was  the  keeper.  This 
work,  which  was  highly  valued  by  the  ancients,  was 
still  extant  at  the  time  of  Josephus,  who  used  it  to  a 
considerable  extent  for  his  Antiquities.  Other  frag- 
ments may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Eusebius  and 
others.  Fabrieius,  in  his  Biblioth.  Grceca  (torn,  xiv), 
has  collected  the  least  doubtful  fragments  of  Berosus. 
Other  collections  of  these  fragments  were  made  by 
Richter,  Berosi  Clmhh'nrum  hi  sin  rice  quie  supersunt 
(Leipz.  1825),  and  by  Didot  (1848).  A  work  with  the 
title  A  nti quit  at  urn  libri  quinque  cum  comment  ariis  Joan- 
nis  Annii,  which  first  appeared  at  Rome  1498  (again 
Heidelb.  1599,  Wittenb.  1612),  is  a  forgery  of  the  Do- 
minican Giovanni  Nanni,  of  Viterbo.  Whether  the 
historian  Berosus  is  the  same  person  as  the  astronomer 
is  still  a  controverted  question.  The  astronomer  Be- 
rosus, who  is  likewise  called  a  Chaldaean  and  priest  of 
Belus  at  Babylon,  left  his  native  country,  and  estab- 
lished a  school  on  the  island  of  Cos.  See  Vossius,  Be 
Hist.  Grate,  xiii ;  Fabricius,  JBibl.  Grceca,  iv,  163;  Biogr. 
Generate,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Be'roth  (Bjjpd)5  v.  r.  B?;pa>y),  a  place  named  in 
connection  with  Caphira,  to  which  exiles  returned  from 
Babylon  belonged  (1  Esdr.  v.  19);  evidently  the  Bee- 
roth  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Ezra  ii,  25). 

Bero'thah  (Ileb.  id.  Str-ina,  as  if  meaning  "to 


BEROTIIITE 


'GO 


BERRY 


Beroth,"  or  toward  the  vxlls;  Sept.  in  most  copies  has  I 
a  mass  of  undistinguishable  names,  but  some  read  Bi/-  | 
pa&d  or  Bijpw&a/x;  Vulg.  Berotha)  and  Ber'othai 
(Heb.  Berothay',  *?hS,  >»y  wells\  SePt-  «'  &*»«*« 
7roXeic;  Vulg.  Beroth).  The  first  of  these  two  names, 
each  of  which  occurs  once  only,  is  given  by  Ezekiel 
(xl\  ii.  16),  in  connection  with  Hamath  and  Damascus, 
as  forming  part  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  prom- 
ised land  as  restored  in  his  vision.  The  second  is 
mentioned  (2  Sam.  viii,  8)  as  the  name  of  a  city  of  Zo- 
bah  taken  by  David  (from  which  he  brought  away 
great  quantities  of  "brass"  as  spoil),  also  in  connection 
with  Hamath  and  Damascus.  The  slightness  of  these 
references  makes  it  impossible  to  identify  the  names 
with  any  degree  of  probability',  or  even  to  decide  wheth- 
er they  refer  to  the  same  locality  or  not  (Hassel,  Volst. 
Erdb.  xiii,  3-15).  The  well-known  city  Beirid  (Beby- 
tis)  naturally  suggests  itself  as  identical  with  one, 
at  least,  of  the  names;  Lut  in  each  instance  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  seem  to  require  a  position  far- 
ther east,  since  Ezekiel  places  Berothah  between  Ha- 
math and  Damascus,  and  David's  war  with  the  King 
of  Zobah  led  him  away  from  the  sea-coast  toward  the 
Euphrates  (2  Sam.  viii,  3).  In  the  latter  instance,  the 
difficulty  is  increased  by  the  Hebrew  text  reading  in 
1  Chr.  xviii,  8,  Chun  (q.  v.)  instead  of  Berothai,  and 
by  the  fact  that  both  in  Samuel  and  Chronicles  the 
Greek  translators,  instead  of  giving  a  proper  name, 
translate  by  the  phrase  ' '  from  the  choice  cities  ;"  clear- 
ly showing  that  they  read  either  the  same  text  in  each 
passage,  or  at  least  words  which  bore  the  same  sense. 
Furst  regards  Berothah  and  Berothai  as  distinct  places, 
and  identifies  the  first  with  Berytus.  Mislin  (Sat; 
IJevx,  i,  244)  derives  the  name  from  the  wells  (Bee- 
rotk),  which  are  still  to  be  seen  bored  in  the  solid  rock 
at  Beirut.  Against  this  identification,  however,  there 
is  this  farther  objection,  that  the  proper  boundaries  of 
the  tribes  (q.  v.)  never  extended  so  far  north  as  Bery- 
tus (q.  v.),  nor  did  David  ever  molest  the  Phoenician 
sea-coast  in  his  wars.  Both  Berothah  and  Berothai 
are  therefore  probably  to  be  sought  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  springs  that  form  the  source  of  the  Nahr  Hasba- 
ny,  near  the  present  Hasbeya.      See  Hazak-ejjan. 

Be'rothite  (Heb.  Berothi',  ^n'l2 ;  Sept.  B>ipwSL 
v.  r.  Bnmi.i),  an  epithet  of  Naharai,  Joab's  armor-bear- 
er (1  Chr.  xi,  19),  doubtless  as  being  a  native  of  the 
Beeeotii  (q.  v.)  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xi,  17). 

Berquin,  I.nns,  a  French  nobleman,  was  born  in 
1489.  His  friend  Erasmus  states  that  he  was  high- 
ly respected  at  the  French  court,  and  that  he  was 
a  religious  man,  but  hated  the  monks  on  account 
of  their  ignorance  and  fanaticism.  When  he  transla- 
ted  Luther's  work,  De  \'<>tis  Monasticis,  he  was  de- 
nounced by  the  Sorbonne  as  a  heretic.  In  1523  the 
Parliament  of  Paris  had  his  books  seized,  and  ordered 
Berquin  to  abjure  his  opinions,  and  to  pledge  himself 
neither  to  write  nor  to  translate  any  more  books 
against  the  Church  of  Kome.  On  bis  refusal  he  was 
sent  before  the  ecclesiastical  tribunal  of  the  diocese. 
Francis  I  liberated  him  from  prison,  anil  submitted  his 
case  to  the  chancellor  of  his  council,  who  demanded 
of  Berquin  the  abjuration  of  some  heretical  opinions, 
with  which  the  latter  complied.  In  1525,  two  coun- 
cillors of  the  court  of  Rome  denounced  him  as  having 
relapsed  into  heresy,  but  he  was  again  set  free  through 
the  interposition  of  Francis  I.  In  1528  he  was  again 
arrested,  and  tried  Kef. re  a  commission  of  twelve  mem- 
bers of  the  Parliament,  which  decreed  that  his  books 
should  be  burned,  his  tongue  pierced,  and  that  he 
should  be  imprisoned  for  life.  From  this  judgment 
Berquin  appealed  to  Francis  I ;  but  the  commission, 
ring  this  appeal  as  a  new  crime,  ordered  him 
t*.  I-  burned,  but,  in  consideration  of  his  nobility,  to 
be  previously  strangled.  This  sentence  was  execu- 
ted on  April  22, 1629.— Hoefer,  BiograpMt  Generate,  v, 
658. 


Berridge,  John,  one  of  the  Methodist  reformers 
of  the  Church  of  England,  was  1  orn  at  Kingston  1716, 
and  entered  at  Clare  Hall  1734,  and  in  1755  became 
vicar  of  Everton.  In  1758  he  invited  Wesley  to  visit 
his  parish,  and  a  widespread  reformation  broke  out, 
attended  by  some  irregularities  r.nd  excesses,  Ber- 
ridge  soon  began  to  itinerate,  and  Everton  was  for 
some  years  the  centre  of  a  wide  sphere  of  evangelical 
labors.  He  preached  ten  or  twelve  sermons  a  week, 
often  in  the  open  air.  His  theological  opinions  allied 
him  with  Whitefield.  and  he  became  a  notable  cham- 
pion of  Calvinistic  Methodism.  He  was  rich,  but  lib- 
eral to  excess,  and  rented  preaching-houses,  supported 
lay  preachers,  and  aided  poor  societies  with  an  unspar- 
ing hand.  He  was  a  laborious  student,  and  nearly  as 
familiar  with  the  classical  languages  as  with  his  native 
tongue.  Like  most  good  men  whose  temperament 
renders  them  zealous,  he  had  a  rich  vein  of  humor, 
and  his  ready  wit  played  freely  but  harmlessly  through 
both  his  public  and  private  discourse.  He  died  1793. 
His  Christian  World  Unmasked,  with  his  Life,  Letters, 
etc.,  was  reprinted  in  1824  (Lond.  8vo). — Stever.s, 
History  of  Methodism,  i,  3*2 ;  Wesley,  Works,  iv,  25. 

Berrirnan,  William,  D.D.,  an  English  divine, 
was  lorn  in  London  1688,  and  educated  at  Oriel  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He.  became  rector  of  St.  Andrew-Cn- 
dershaftand  Fellow  of  Eton  1729.  His  studies  were  ex- 
tensive, especially  in  the  Oriental  languages.  He  died 
1749.  His  principal  writings  are,  Eight  Sermons  on 
the  Trinity  (Lond.  1726,  8vo)  :— Gradual  Bcvtlatkn  of 
the  Gospel's  (Boyle  Lectures  for  1730. 1731, 1732) :— Ser- 
mons on  Christian  Doctrines  and  Duties  (Lond,  1751, 
2  vols.  8vo).— Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  ii,  330. 

Berniyer,  Joseph  Isaac,  born  November  7th, 
1681,  at  Rouen ;  became  a  Jesuit,  and  died  at  Paris  in 
1758,  after  having  made  much  stir  in  the  world  by  his 
\IIistoire  d%  Peuple  de  Dim.  The  first  part,  the  O.  T., 
app3ared  in  1728  (7  vols.  4to).  The  work  is  shocking, 
not  only  from  its  almost  infidelity,  but  from  its  style, 
the  0.  T.  history  being,  in  fact,  turned  into  a  romance, 
in  many  cases  irreconcilable  with  decency  and  pro- 
priety.    The  general  of  the  order  commanded  the.  writ- 


er to  put  forth  a  new  edition,  which  appeared  in  1733 
(8  vols.  4to),  but  it  was  still  very  far  from  satisfactory. 
|  The  second  part,  containing  the  N.  T.,  or,  at  least,  part 
|  of  it,  in  style  and  matter  even  worse  than  the  first,  ap- 
peared in  1753  (4  vols.  4to).  The  superiors  of  the  three 
Jesuit  establishments  at  Paris,  seeing  the  storm  which 
the  book  had  raised,  immediately  put  forth  a  declara- 
tion to  the  effect  that  the  work  had  appeared  without 
their  knowledge,  and  compelled  the  author  to  sign  an 
act  of  submission  to  the  episcopal  mandate.  A-  formal 
censure  on  the  part  of  the  faculty  of  theology,  and  then 
a  papal  brief,  and,  lastly,  a  bull  of  Benedict  XIV,  pro- 
scribing the  book  in  whatever  language  it  might  ap- 
pear, followed.  The  third  part  appeared  in  1758  at 
Lyons,  containing  a  paraphrase  of  the  epistles,  filled 
with  absurdities,  and  even  outraging  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity.  Clement  XIII  condemned  it  in  1758. 
The  publication  of  this  work  produced  a  violent  com- 
motion among  the  Jesuits.  Father  Tourneminc,  the 
head  of  the  opposition  parly,  denounced  the  work  to 
the  superiors  in  a  very  forcible  tract;  the  opposite  party 
replied  ;  the  dispute  waxed  hott  t  and  hotter,  but  ulti- 
mately, by  the  death  of  Tournemine,  the  party  of  Ber- 
niyer gained  the  upper  hand,  and  his  infamous  book 
is  still  reprinted. — Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  204. 

Berry,  LuciEN  W.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  was  born  at  Alburg,Vt,,  in  1815. 
He  began  to  preach  in  1833,  and  by  his  diligence  as 
preacher,  pastor,  and  student,  he  gradually  acquired 
wide  reputation  and  influence.  lie  entered  the  travel- 
ling ministry  in  the  Ohio  Conference,  and  succeeded 
I>r.  Simpson  in  the  presidency  of  the  Indiana  Asbury 
University  in  1848.  After  remaining  for  about  six 
years  in  charge  of  this  institution,  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  Iowa  Wesleyan  University  at  Mount 


BEKTIIIER  r 

Pleasant.  He  remained  in  connection  with  this  insti- 
tution for  about  three  years.  In  the  summer  of  1857 
he  resigned  his  place  at  Mount  Pleasant,  and  took 
charge  of  the  university  of  Missouri  at  Jefferson  City. 
He  labored  with  great  zeal  and  energy  to  build  up  the 
university;  but  in  November,  1857,  he  was  attacked 
with  erysipelas,  which  was  subsequently  followed  by 
paralysis,  and  he  died  in  peace,  after  great  suffering, 
July  23,  1858,  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  lie  was  "a  pro- 
found divine,  a  critical  scholar,  an  orator  of  uncom- 
mon power,  and  an  eminently  holy  man." — Minutes 
of  Conferences,  1859,  p.  126. 

Berthier,  Guillaume  Francois,  a  Jesuit  writer, 
born  April  7th,  1704.  He  was  first  professor  of  the 
Humanities  at  Blois,  and  afterward  of  theology  at 
Paris.  The  talent  which  he  displayed  caused  him  to 
be  appointed  to  succeed  Brumoy  in  1742  as  continuator 
of  the  history  of  the  Gallican  Church  (Histoire  de  Veglise 
Gallicane),  of  which  he  published  six  volumes,  carry- 
ing the  history  to  A.D.  1520.  In  1745  his  superiors 
intrusted  him  with  the  direction  of  the  Journal  de 
Trevouz,  which  he  edited  until  the  suppression  of  the 
company.  While  thus  employed  he  was  necessarily 
brought  into  collision  with  Voltaire,  whose  works  he 
freely  criticised  and  stigmatized.  In  1764  the  ex- 
Jesuits  were  banished  from  court,  whereupon  he  re- 
tired beyond  the  Rhine,  and  died  at  Bourges  Decem- 
ber loth,  1782.  After  his  death  appeared  his  (Euvres 
Spirituelles  (5  vols.  12mo,  best  ed.  Paris,  1811)  : — 
Psaumes  et  Esaie,  trad,  avec  reflexions  et  Notes  (Paris, 
1788,  5  vols.  12mo).— Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  v,  507. 

Berthold,  a  Calabrian  who  went  to  Mount  Carmel 
about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century  and  founded  the 
order  of  Carmelites  (q.  v.). 

Berthold,  the  apostle  of  Livonia,  died  in  1198. 
After  the  death  of  the  first  missionary  and  bishop  of 
the  Livonians,  Meinhard  (1196),  Berthold,  who  was  at 
that  time  abbot  of  the  Cistercian  convent  Loccum, 
was  ordained  missionary  bishop  for  the  Livonians  by 
Archbishop  Hartwig  of  Bremen  and  Hamburg.  Hav- 
ing arrived  at  Yxkull  on  the  Dana,  he  at  first  tried  to 
win  over  the  Letts  by  clemency,  but  was  forced  to 
leave  the  country.  He  then  returned  at  the  head  of 
an  army  of  crusaders  from  Lower  Saxon}',  and  tried 
to  conquer  the  Letts,  and  compel  them  by  force  of 
arms  to  submit  to  baptism.  In  a  battle  in  1198,  Ber- 
thold was  slain  ;  but  the  crusaders  were  victorious,  and 
the  Letts  had  for  a  time  to  submit ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
crusaders  had  left  their  country  they  returned  to  pa- 
ganism.— Brockhaus,  Conversations- Lexicon,  s.  v. 

Berthold  of  Ratisbon,  also  called  Berthold  the 
Franciscan,  a  Franciscan  monk,  and  one  of  the  most 
powerful  preachers  that  ever  spoke  in  the  German 
tongue.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1225 
in  Regensburg,  where  he  died  in  1272.  His  theological 
education  he  received  chief!}'  in  the  Franciscan  con- 
vent of  Ratisbon,  where  a  pious  and  learned  mystic, 
Brother  David  of  Augsburg,  was  professor  of  theology 
and  master  of  the  novitiate.  It  is  doubtful  whether, 
as  has  been  asserted  by  some  (Dr.  Schmidt,  in  Studien 
iniil  Kritiken,  see  below),  he  continued  his  studies  in 
Paris  and  Italy.  His  first  public  appearance,  as  far 
as  we  know,  was  in  the  year  1246,  when  the  papa] 
legate,  Philippus  of  Ferrara,  charged  him,  Brother  Da- 
vid, and  two  canons  of  Ratisbon,  with  the  visitation 
of  the  convent  of  Niedermiinster.  His  labors  as  a 
travelling  preacher  began  in  1250  (according  to  others 
in  1251  or  1252)  in  Lower  Bavaria,  and  extended  to 
Alsatia,  Alemannia  (Baden),  Switzerland,  Austria, 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  Thuringia,  Franconia,  and 
perhaps  Hungary.  When  he  was  unacquainted  with 
the  language  of  the  country  he  used  an  interpreter. 
Rudelbach,  in  the  Zeits.  fur  Luth.  Theol.  1859,  calls 
Berthold  "the  Chrysostom  of  the  Middle  Ages."  No 
church  was  large  enough  to  hold  the  multitudes  that 
flocked  to  hear  him  ;  from  a  pulpit  in  the  fields  he  often 


07  JJEIITI 

addressed  60,000  hearers.  He  fearlessly  rebuked  sin- 
ners of  all  ranks.  He  was  especially  severe  against 
the  preachers  of  indulgences,  whom  he  styled  "  penny 
preachers"  and  "the  devil's  agents."  A  volume  of  his 
sermons,  edited  by  Kling,  was  published  at  Berlin  in 
1824  (/?.  d  s  Franciscam-r's  I'n  digteu).  The  first  com- 
plete edition  of  his  sermons  was  published  by  F.  Pfeif- 
fer  (Vienna,  2  vols.  1862  sq.).  A  translation  of  his 
sermons  from  medieval  into  modern  German  was  pub- 
lished by  Gobel,  with  an  introduction  by  Alban  Stolz 
(2  vols.  8vo).  Recently  the  German  jurists  have 
found  that  the  sermons  of  Berthold  are  of  the  greatest 
importance  for  the  history  of  the  German  law.  The 
passages  in  these  sermons  which  agree  with  the  popu- 
lar law-book  called  the  Sch/ndienyjiii  gel  are  so  numer- 
ous that  some  (as  Laband,  Be  it  rage  zur  Geschichte  des 
Schcabeiupi<g:'ls,  Berlin,  1861)  have  regarded  Berthold 
as  its  author.  The  best  treatise  on  Berthold  is  by 
Schmidt,  B.  der  Francisaaner  in  Studien  und  Kritiken 
(1864,  p.  7-82).  See  also  Kling,  in  Herzog,  ReaJ-En- 
cyMop.  ii,  101,  and  Wagenmann,  in  Herzog,  Supplem. 
i,  183;  Jakrhucher  fur  deutsche  Theol  gie,  1863,  p.  386 
sq. ;  Piper,  Ernng.  Kalend.for  1853  ;  Pleiffer,  Deutsche 
Mystiker  (vol.  i,  p.  xxvi  sq.)  ;  Kehrein,  Gesch.  dt  r  hath. 
Kanzelbercdsamkeit  (2  vols.  Ratisbon,  1843) :  Neander, 
Ch.IIist.iv,  318,  351. 

Berthold  of  Rohrbach,  a  layman  wdio  preached 
at  Wurzburg  about  1336  against  the  bad  practices  of 
I  the  clergy.  Having  been  arrested  by  the  Inquisition, 
!  he  recanted  and  was  released.  Preaching  again  at 
i  Spires,  he  was  condemned  and  burnt  in  135G.  His 
teachings  seem  to  have  been  of  a  mystical  and  extrav- 
agant tendency ;  e.  g.  that  man  can  reach  such  a  de- 
]  gree  of  perfection  in  this  life  that  prayer  and  fasting 
I  are  no  longer  necessary  for  him.  Trithemius  calls 
him  a  Beghard  (q.  v.);  Mosheim  classes  him  with  the 
"  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit"  (q.  v.).  See  Mosheim, 
J  De  Beghanli.i,  p.  325  sq.  :  Landon,  s.  v. 

!  Berthold,  bishop  of  Chiemsee,  whose  original  name 
j  was  Pirstinger,  was  born  in  1465,  at  Salzburg.  He 
was  for  some  time  a  canon  at  Salzburg,  and  in  1508 
was  elected  bishop  of  Chiemsee,  where  lie  displayed 
j  an  indefatigable  zeal  for  the  reformation  of  the  de- 
!  moralized  clergy.  He  is  the  author  of  the  celebrated 
j  work  entitled  Dewtsch  Thenlogey,  one  of  the  best  works 
of  the  Middle  Ages  on  scientific  theology  (latest  edi- 
I  tion,  with  notes,  a  dictionary,  and  a  biography  of 
Berthold,  ed.  by  W.  Reithmeier,  with  a  preface  by  Dr. 
Fr.  Windishmann,  Munich,  1852).  He  is  probably, 
also,  the  author  of  the  Opus  Ecclesia;  a  description  of 
the  corruption  pervading  the  whole  Church  (Landshut, 
1524;  last  edit.  1620).— Pierer,  Univ.  Lex.  xix,  811. 

Berthold,  Leonhard,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  May  8,  1774,  at  Emskirchen,  in  Bavaria.  He 
became  in  1805  professor  in  the  philosophical,  and  in 
1806,  in  consequence  of  his  commentary  on  Daniel 
(Erlangen,  2  vols.  8vo,  1806-'08),  in  the  theological 
I  faculty  of  the  University  of  Erlangen.  He  was  a 
prominent  representative  of  the  Rationalistic  school. 
His  foremost  works  are  an  Introduction  into  the  Bible 
{[list.  Kritische  Einleitung  in  die  sdmmtlichen  kanon- 
ischen  und  apocry)  hischen  Schriften  des  A.  und  X.  Testa- 
ments, 5  vols.  Erlangen,  1812-19.  8vo);  Theolog.  11 7s- 
senschnftskunde  od.  Ein'eitung  in  die  ih<  «l.  W  i  ssenschafU  n 
(Erlangen,  1821-22, 2  vols.  8vo) ;  A  History  of  Doctrines 
(//miilhiich  der  Dogmengeschichte  ( Erlangen,  1822-23, 
j  2  vols.  8vo).  He  died  on  March  31,  1822.  In  1814 
Berthold  became  editor  of  the  Kritische  Journal  der 
neuesten  deutschen  Theolor/ie,  of  which  he  published  vol. 
v  to  vol.  xiv.  A  collection  of  his  "  Opuscula  Academ- 
ica"  was  published  by  his  successor  Winer  (Leipzic, 
1824,  8vo).— Herzog,  Supplem.  i,  185. 

Berti,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  an  Augustinian  monk, 
born  1696,  in  Tuscany.  He  was  called  by  the  Grand- 
duke  of  Tuscany  to  the  chair  of  theology  at  Tisa,  where 


BERTIUS 

he  died,  May  26,  1766.  His  principal  work  is  a 
course  of  theology,  printed  at  Rome,  from  1739  to 
17!:..  in  8  vols.  It",  under  the  title  De  Theologieis 
DUciplinis  (also  Naples,  1776,  10  vols.  4to).  He  was 
charged  with  Jansenism,  and,  by  order  of  the  pope, 
print  il.  at  the  Vatican,  in  1749,  an  apology,  under  tine 
title  Augustinianum  systema  de  gratia,  de  iniquu  Baian- 
ismi  it  Jansenism*  erroris  insimtdaUone  vindlcatum  (2 
vols.  It. 1 1.  Against  Archbishop  Languet,  who  repeated 
the  same  charge,  and  denounced  him  to  Pope  Benedict 
X  I  V,  li  ■  wrote  the  work,  In  Opusadum  Inscriptum  J.  J. 
Languet,  Judicium  de  operibus  Theologicis  Belleli  et  Ber- 
'ulatio  (Leghorn,  1756).  Berti  also  wrote  an 
ftical  History  (7  vols.  4 to  ;  afterward  abridged, 
N  ip]  ss,  17  IS);  and  a  work  on  the  life  and  writings 
of  Augustine  (De  Rebus  gest  is  S.  Augusthv,  librisqm-  <,b 
eodem  conscript  is,  Venice,  1756). — Biographic  Unicer- 
selle.  iv,  361. 

Bertius,  Petkus,  born  in  Flanders,  November  14, 
1565,  became  regent  of  the  college  of  the  States  at 
Leyden,  and  professor  of  philosophy.  Having  em- 
braced the  opinions  of  Arminius,  he  drew  upon  him- 
self the  enmity  of  the  Gomarists,  and  was  stripped  of 
his  employments.  Upon  this  he  removed  to  France, 
where,  in  1620,  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  was  nominated  to  the  professorship  of  eloquence 
in  the  college  of  Boncourt.  He  afterward  became  his- 
toriographer to  the  king,  and  died  October  3,  1629. 
Among  his  works  are,  1.  Notitia  Episcopatuum  Gallia, 
(Paris,  1625,  fob): — 2.  Theatrum  Geographic  veteris 
(Amst.  1618-19,  2  vols.  fob).  See  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist. 
iii,  300. 

Bertram,  monk  of  Corbie.  See  Ratramncs. 
Bertram,  Cornelius  Bonaventura,  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Geneva  and  Lausanne,  was  born  at  Thouars 
in  1531,  and  died  at  Lausanne  in  1594.  He  published 
a  translation  of  the  Bible  from  the  original  Hebrew 
into  French,  which  is  in  high  repute  among  the  French 
Calvinists.  He  also  published  De  Rqwblira  Hihra>- 
orum  (Lugd.  Bat.  1641),  which  is  given  in  the  Critici 
Sacri,  vol.  v.— Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  212. 

Berulle,  Pierre  de,  institutor  and  first  superior 
general  of  the  "congregation  of  priests  of  the  Ora- 
tory" in  Frame,  was  born  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Troyes,  in  Champagne,  February  4,  1575.  After  es- 
tablishing the  Carmelites  in  France,  he  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  tb"  "Congregation  of  the  Oratory"  which 
raised  a  great  storm  on  the  part  of  the  Jesuits.  He, 
however,  bad  the  concurrence  of  the  pope  and  of  the 
king,  Louis  XIII,  and  on  the  4th  of  November,  1611, 
the  Oratory  [see  ObATOEIANS]  was  established.  In 
1 ' ■  - 7  Urban  VIII  made  him  cardinal.  He  died  sud- 
denly at  the  altar,  Oct.  2,  1629,  not  without  suspicion 
of  having  been  poisoned  by  Richelieu.  He  left  many 
controversial  and  devotional  works,  published  at  Paris 
(1644,  L657,  2  vols.  fol.).  His  Life  was  written  by  Hu- 
bert i  Paris,  1746)  and  Tabaraud  (new  cd.  Paris,  1817, 
2  vols.).-    Biog.  Univ.  iv,  379-384 ;   Landon,  ii,  214. 

Beryl  is  the  uniform  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers, 
only  of  the  11. 'b.  d^fihR,  tarshish'  (so  called,  accord- 
resenius,  as  being  brought  from  Tarshish),  and 
.</..,  ,\\,,,-,  a  precious  stone,  the  tirst  in  the 
fourth  row  on  the  breastplate  of  the  high-priest  (Exod. 
xxviii,  20;  xxxix,  13).     The  color  of  the  wheels  in 
i   •■.  i  as  the  color  of  a  beryl-stone  (Ezck. 
!.  16;  x,  9);  ii  i    mentioned  among  the  treasures  of 
-  of  Tyre  in  Ezek.  xxviii,  13,  where  the  mar- 
ginal reading  is  chrysoliu  ,•  in  Cant.  v,  14,  as  being  set 
in  rings  of  gold;  and  in  Dan.  x,  6,  the  body  of  the 
man  whom  Daniel  saw  in  vision  is  said  to  belike  the 
ben  I.     In  Rev.  x-.i,  19,  the  beryl  is  the  8th  founda- 
tion of  the  city,  the  chrysolite  being  the  7th.     InTobit 
xiii,  17,  is  a  prophetic  praj'er  that  the  streets  of  Jeru- 
salem maybe  paved  with  beryl.     In  Exod. xxviii, 20 
the  Sept.  ren.l-r,  tarshish  by  "chrysolite,"  xpvir6\i9o§} 


168 


BERYTUS 


while  they  render  the  11th  stone,  fittiU,  skoham,  by 
"beryl,"  (3npv\\iov.  In  Ezek.  i,  16,  they  have  8ap- 
ffei'j,' ;  in  x,  9,  \i6oe.  avOpanoc. ;  and  xxviii,  13,  avOpali , 
in  Cant,  v,  14,  and  in  Dan.  x,  6,  Bapaic-  This  variety 
of  rendering  shows  the  uncertainty  under  which  the 
old  interpreters  labored  as  to  the  stone  actually  meant. 
See  Gem.  Josephus  takes  it  to  have  been  the  chryso- 
lite, a  golden-colored  gem,  the  topaz  of  more  recent 
authors,  found  in  Spain  (Plin.  xxxvii,  109),  whence  its 
name  tarshish  (see  Braun,  de  Vest.  -Sac.  H<b.  lib.  ii,  c. 
18,  §  193).  Luther  suggests  turquoise,  while  others 
have  thought  that  amber  was  meant.  Kalisch,  in  the 
two  passages  of  Exodus,  translates  tarshish  by  chrys- 
olite, which  he  describes  as  usually  green,  but  with 
different  degrees  of  shade,  generally  transparent,  but 
often  only  translucent — harder  than  glass,  but  not  so 
hard  as  quartz.  The  passage  in  Rev.  xxi,  20,  is  ad- 
verse to  this  view.  Schleusner  (i,  446)  says  the  /3/j- 
nvWoc,  is  aqua-marine.  "The  beryl  is  a  gem  of  the 
genus  emerald,  but  less  valuable  than  the  emerald. 
It  differs  from  the  precious  emerald  in  not  possessing 
any  of  the  oxide  of  chrome.  The  colors  of  the  beryl 
are  grayish-green,  blue,  yellow,  and  sometimes  nearly 
white"  (Humble,  Diet.  Geol.  p.  30). — Penny  Cyclopedia, 
s.  v. ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.s.v.  Beryllus.  See 
Onyx. 

Beryllus,  bishop  of  Bostra,  in  Arabia,  3d  century. 
Our  only  definite  knowledge  of  him  is  derived  from  a 
passage  in  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.  vi,  33),  which  says 
that  he  held  that  "our  Lord  did  not  exist,  in  the 
proper  sense  of  existence,  before  he  dwelt  among  men  ; 
neither  had  he  a  proper  divinity,  only  that  divinity 
which  dwelt  in  him  from  the  Father."  Eusebius  goes 
on  to  say  that  Origen,  by  discussion  with  Beryllus, 
brought  him  back  to  the  faith.  There  has  been  much 
discussion  of  late  as  to  the  real  nature  of  the  heresy 
of  Beryllus.  See  an  article  of  Schleiermacher,  trans- 
lated in  the  Biblical  Repository,  vi,  14 ;  see  also  Nean- 
der,  Ch.  History,  i,  593  sq. ;  Domer,  Doctrine  of  the  Per- 
son of  Christ,  div.  i,  vol.  ii,  p.  35. 

Berytus  (Bjjpurot),  a  town  of  Phoenicia  (Dionys. 
Per.  v,  911;  Pomp.  Mela,  i,  12,  §  5;  Amm.  Marc,  xiv, 
8,  §  9 ;  Tacit.  Hist,  ii,  81 ;  Anton.  Itin.  and  Peut.  Tab.), 
which  has  been  (apparently  without  good  foundation) 
identified  with  the  Berothah  (q.  v.)  or  Berothai  of  Scrip- 
ture (2  Sam.  viii,  8 ;  Ezek.  xlvii,  16 ;  comp.  2  Chron. 
viii,  3).  It  lay  on  the  sea-shore,  about  twenty-five 
miles  north  of  iSidon  (comp.  Ptolem.  v,  15;  Strabo,  xvi, 
755;  Mannerr,  VI,  i,  378  sq.).  After  its  destruction 
by  Tryphon,  B.C.  140  (Strabo,  xvi,  756),  it  was  reduced 
by  the  Roman  Agrippa,  and  colonized  by  the  veterans 
of  the  fifth  '-Macedonian  legion,"  and  seventh  "Au- 
gustan," and  hence  became  a  Roman  colonia  (Pliny,  v, 
17),  under  the  name  of  Julia  Felix  (Orelli,  /user.  n.  514 ; 
Eckhel,  Num.  iii,  356  ;  Marquardt,  IJandb.  d.  Ram.  Alt. 
p.  199),  and  was  afterward  endowed  with  the  rights  of 
an  Italian  city  (Ulpian,  Dig.  xv,  1,  §  1 ;  Pliny,  v,  10). 
It  was  at  this  city  that  Herod  the  Great  held  the  pre- 
tended trial  of  his  two  sons  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  11, 1-6). 
The  elder  Agrippa  greatly  favored  the  city,  and  adorn- 
ed it  with  a  splendid  theatre  and  amphitheatre,  besides 
baths  and  porticoes,  inaugurating  them  with  games 
and  spectacles  of  every  kind,  including  shows  of  glad- 
iators (Josephus,  Ant.  xix,  7,  5).  Here,  too,  Titus  cel- 
ebrated the  birthday  of  his  father  Vespasian  by  the  ex- 
hibition of  similar  spectacles,  in  which  many  of  the 


('..in  ..I'  Berytus. 
captive  Jews  perished  (Josephus,  liar,  vii,  3,  1 ;  comp. 


BERYTUS  7G9 

5, 1).  Coins  of  the  imperial  period,  both  Roman  and 
native,  are  not  uncommon  (see  Rasche,  Lex.  Num.  i, 
1492).  Afterward  Berytus  became  renowned  as  a 
school  of  Greek  learning,  particularly  of  law,  to  which 
scholars  repaired  from  a  distance.     Its  splendor  may 


BESOR 


PLM1    OEF 

Jiuij  Fanzar 


BEIRUT 


/  33?.  40  [JT. 
135.  33.  S. 


Ljr<£ 


/ 


'Tr«ta* 


**&. 


_  Br.r?  S!Gcorar, 
£tit  ItnAtoh&H 

MUd  (he  dragon 


in  the  rock  outside  the  south-western  wall.     The  city 
lies  on  a  gradual  slope,  so  that  the  streets  have  a  de- 
scent toward  the  sea  ;  but  back  of  the  town  the  ground 
toward  the  south  rises,  with  more  rapidity,  to  a  consid- 
erable elevation.    Here,  and  indeed  all  around  the  city, 
is  a  succession  of  gardens 
and  orchards  of  fruit  and 
of    countless    mulberry  - 
trees,      sometimes      sur- 
rounded  by    hedges    of 
prickly-pear,  and  giving 
to  the  gardens  of  Beirut  an 
aspect  of  great  verdure 
and   beauty,  though  the 
soil  is  perhapsless  rich  and 
the  fruits  less  fine  than  in 
the  vicinity  of  Sidon." 

Berze'lus  (fccrjj&X- 
SaloQ  v.  r.  Zop^iWcuog, 
Vulg.  Phargefcri),  the  fa- 
ther of  "Augia,"  who 
was  married  to  the  pseu- 
do-priest Addns  (1  Esdr. 
v,  38 )  ;  evidently  the 
Barzillai  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Heb.  text  (Ezra  ii,  CI). 

Ee'sai  (Heb.  Besay",  hCS,  subjugator,  from  613  ; 
or,  according  to  Bohlen,  from  Sanscrit  bagaya,  victory, 
Sept.  Batri,  and  Bijal  v.  r.  13>/<rfi),  one  of  the  family- 
heads  of  the  Nethinim  whose  posterity  returned  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  ii,  49  ;  Neh.  vii,  52).     B.C.  ante  536. 

Besam;  Besem.     See  Balm. 

Besodei'ah  (Heb.  Besodyah' ',  il^i&Sl,  in  the 
council  of  Jehovah  ;  according  to  Fiirst,  son  of  trust  in 
Jehovah;  Sept.  Batrw&'a),  the  father  of  Meshullam, 
which  latter  repaired  "the  old  gate"  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii,  6).     B.C.  ante  446. 

Besoigne,  Jerome,  a  French  Jansenist  theolo- 
gian, was  born  in  Paris  in  1686,  and  became  profcfsi  r 
of  theology  at  the  college  Dn  Plessis.     He  was  one  <  f 


Houses    cm  d 
"MulVeny  (iardeni 


be  computed  to  have  lasted  from  the  third  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixth  century  (Milman's  Gibbon,  iii,  51). 
Eusebius  relates  that  the  martyr  Appian  resided  lure 
some  time  to  pursue  Greek  secular  learning  {De  Mart. 
Palcest.  c.  4),  and  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  repaired  to 
Berytus  to  perfect  himself  in  civil  law  (Socrates,  Hist. 
Pecks,  iv,  27).  A  later  Greek  poet  describes  it  in  this 
respect  as  "  the  nurse  of  tranquil  life"  (Xonnus,  Dionys. 
xli,  fin.).  Under  the  reign  of  Justinian,  it  was  laid  in 
ruins  by  an  earthquake,  and  the  school  removed  to  Si- 
don, A.D.  551  (Milman's  Gibbon,  vii,  420).  During 
the  Crusades,  under  the  name  of  Baurim  (Alb.  A  q.  v, 
40  ;  x,  8),  it  was  an  object  of  great  contention  between 
the  Christians  and  Moslems,  and  fell  successively  into 
the  hands  of  both.      In  A.D.  1110  it  was  captured  by 

Baldwin  I  (Wilken,  Kreuz.  ii,  212),  and  in  A.D.  1187  j  the  appellants  (q.  v.)  against  the  bull  Unigenitus,  and 
by  Salah-ed-din  (ib.  Ill,  ii,  295).  It  was  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Berytus  that  the  scene  of  the  combat  be- 
tween St.  George  (who  was  so  highly  honored  in  Syria) 
and  the  dragon  is  laid.  The  place  is  now  called  Beirut 
(Abulfeda,  Syr.  p.  48,  94),  and  is  commercially  the 
most  important  place  in  Syria  (Niebuhr,  Rtisen,  ii,  469 
sq. ;  Joliff'e,  p.  5).  It  is  the  centre  of  operations  of 
the  American  missionaries  in  Palestine,  and  altogether 
the  most  pleasant  residence  for  Franks  in  all  Syria,  be- 
ing accessible  by  a  regular  line  of  steamers  from  Alex- 
andria (see  M'Culloch's  Geogr.  Diet.  s.  v.  Beyrout). 
The  population  is  nearly  80,000  souls  (Biideker,  Pal- 
estine and  Syria,  p.  441).  In  the  middle  of  September, 
1840,  it  was  bombarded  by  the  combined  English  and 
Austrian  fleets  for  the  ejectment  of  the  troops  of  Mc- 
hemet  Ali  from  Syria ;  but  it  has  now  recovered  from 
the  effects  of  this  devastation  (Wilson,  Bible  Lands,  ii, 
205  sq.). 

The  modern  city  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  Robinson 
{Researches,  iii,  437  sq.):  "Beirut  is  situated  on  the 
north-west  coast  of  the  promontory  of  the  same  name, 
about  an  hour  distant  from  the  cape,  directly  upon  the 
sea-shore.  There  was  once  a  little  port,  now  filled  up, 
so  that  vessels  can  anchor  onlj'  in  the  open  road.  The 
town  is  surrounded  on  the  land  side  by  a  wall  of  no 
great  strength,  with  towers.  The  houses  are  high,  and 
solidly  built  of  stone.  The  sheets  are  narrow  and 
gloomy,  badly  paved,  or  rather  laid  with  large  stones, 
with  a  deep  channel  in  the  middle  for  animals,  in 
which  water  often  runs.  The  aspect  of  the  city  is 
quite  substantial.     I  went  twice  into  the  town,  and 


therein  drew  upon  himself  many  persecutions  from 
the  Jesuit  party.  He  died  in  Paris  January  25,  1763. 
His  writings  were  very  numerous;  among  them  are 
IJistoire  dal'abbaye  d?'  Port  Iioyal  (Cologne,  1756,  8 
vols.  12mo),  including  also  lives  of  Arnaud,  Nicole, 
and  other  Jansenists  ;  Concord  des  epitres  de  St.  Paul  ct 
des  epitres  Canoniques  (Paris,  1747,  12mo)  ;  Principes  de 
la  perfection  Chretienne  (Paris,  1748,  12mo);  Principes 
de  la  Penitence  et  de  la  Conversion  (Paris,  1762, 12mo). 
— Hoefer,  Now.  Biog.  Generale,  v,  800. 

Besold,  Christopher,  was  born  in  Tubingen 
1577,  and  educated  for  the  law,  but  combined  theolog- 
ical with  legal  studies.  In  1610  he  became  professor 
of  law  at  Tubingen,  and  lectured  with  great  accep- 
tance. When,  after  the  battle  of  NGrdlingen,  1634, 
Protestantism  in  Wurtemberg  seemed  likely  to  be 
overthrown,  he  went  over  to  Rome  publicly.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  he  had  privately  joined  the  Roman 
Church  four  years  before.  He  became  professor  at 
Ingolstadt  1637,  and  died  there  Sept.  15,  1638,  cryin:-, 
"Death  is  a  bitter  herb." — Mosheim,  Ck.  Hist.  c.  xvii. 
§  2,  pt.  i,  ch.  i ;  Herzog,  Reed-EncyMop.  ii,  111. 

Besom  (X-X^"C,  maiate,  a  sweeper),  occurs  only 
in  the  phrase  "besom  of  destruction,"  i.  e.  desolating 
broom,  with  which  Babylonia  is  threatened  (Isa.  xiv, 
23);  a  metaphor  frequent  still  in  the  East  for  utter 
ruin  (Roberts,  Orient.  Jlluslr.  in  loc). 

Be'sor  (Heb.  only  with  the  art.,  kab-Besor', 
TiU33il,  the  cool;  Sept.  Borron  ;  Josephus,  JiamXog, 
Ant.  Vi,  14,  6),  a  torrent-bed  (5PI3,  "brook")  or  ra- 


saw  the  only  remains  of  antiquity  which  are  now  point-  !  vine  in  the  extreme  south-west  of  Judah  or  Simeon, 
edout,  viz.,  the  numerous  ancient  columns  lying  as  a  i  where  two  hundred  of  David's  men  staid  behind,  be- 
foundation  beneath  the  quay,  and  the  ancient  road  cut  |  ing  faint,  while  the  other  four  hundred  pursued  the 
C  c  c 


BESSARION 


T70 


BETAH 


Amalekites,  who  bad  burnt  the  town  of  Ziklag,  not 
far  distant  1 1  Sam.  xxx.  9,  10,  21).  Sanutus  derives 
its  source  from  the  interior  Carmel,  nc;ir  Hebron,  and 
Btates  thai  it  enters  the  sea  near  Gaza  (JLiber  Secreto- 

rinn,  p.  252).  For  other  slight  ancient  notices,  see 
Reland,  Potest,  p.  288.  It  is,  without  doubt,  the  same 
that  Richardson  crossed  on  approaching  Gaza  from  the 
south,  and  which  he  calls  "  Oa di  Gaza"  (  Wady  Gaza). 

The  bed  was  thirty  yards  wide,  and  its  stream  was, 
early  in  April,  already  exhausted,  although  some  stag- 
nant water  remained.  The  upper  part  of  this  is  called 
Wady  Sfo  riah,  and  is  doubtless  the  brook  Besor,  being 
the  principal  one  in  this  vicinity  (Van  de  Yelde,  Me- 
moir, p.  293  ;  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  52,  78). 

Bessarion,  Johannes,  patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple, and  cardinal,  was  born  at  Trebizond  in  1389  (or, 
according  to  Bandini,  in  1305).  He  studied  under 
Gemislius  Pletho,  who  was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce 
the  study  of  Plato  in  the  West.  He  took  the  habit  of 
St.  Basil,  and  spent  twenty-one  years  in  a  monastery 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  occupied  with  his  literary  and 
theological  studies,  becoming  one  of  the  most  eminent 
scholars  of  the  age.  "When  the  emperor  John  Palaeo- 
logus  resolved  to  attend  the  Council  of  Ferrara  (q.  v.), 
he  withdrew  Bessarion  from  his  retreat,  made  him 
archbishop  of  Nicxa,  and  took  him  to  Italy,  with  Mar- 
cus Eugenius,  archbishop  of  Ephesus,  and  others.  At 
the  Council  of  Ferrara,  and  also  at  its  adjourned  ses- 
sion at  Florence,  the  two  most  distinguished  speakers 
present  were  Marcus  and  Bessarion — the  former  firm 
and  resolute  against  any  union  with  Rome  on  the  terms 
proposed  ;  the  latter,  at  first  vacillating,  at  last  declared 
for  the  Latins.  He  was  immediately  employed  by  the 
pope  to  corrupt  others;  and  by  rewards,  persuasions, 
threats,  and  promises,  eighteen  of  the  Eastern  bishops 
were  induced  to  sign  the  decree  made  in  the  tenth  ses- 
sion, declaring  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceedeth  from 
the  Father  and  the  Son  ;  that  the  Sacrament  is  validly 
consecrated  in  unleavened  ..s  well  as  in  leavened  bread; 
that  there  is  a  purgatory;  and  that  the  Roman  pon- 
tiff is  primate  and  head  of  the  whole  church.  The  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople  (who  died  at  the  council), 
Mark  of  Ephesus,  the  patriarch  of  Heraclea,  and  Atha- 
nasius,  remained  uncorrupted.  The  Greek  deputies 
returned  to  Constantinople,  and  were  received  there 
witli  a  burst  of  indignation.  The  Greek  Church  in- 
dignantly rejected  all  that  had  been  done,  and  in  a 
council  at  ( 'onstantinople,  held,  according  to  their  own 
account,  a  year  and  a  half  after  the  termination  of  that 
of  Florence,  all  the  Florentine  proceedings  were  de- 
clared null  ami  void,  and  the  synod  was  condemned. 
Bessarion  was  branded  as  an  apostate,  and  found  his 
native  home  so  uncomfortable  that  he  returned  to  Ita- 
ly, where  Eugenius  IV  created  him  cardinal;  Nicolas 
V  made  him  archbishop  of  Siponto  and  cardinal-bishop 
of  Sabina;  and  in  1463,  Pius  II  conferred  upon  him 
the  rank  of  titular  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  He 
was  even  thought  of  as  the  successor  of  Nicolas,  and 
would  have  been  elevated  to  the  papal  throne  but  for 
tie'  intrigues  of  cardinal  Allan,  lie  was  again  within 
a  little  of  being  elected  upon  the  death  of  Pius,  lie 
died  at  Ravenna,  November  19,  1472,  and  his  body  was 
transported  to  Pome.  His  writings  are  very  numer- 
ous, and,  for  the  most  part,  remain  unpublished.  A 
catalogue  <•{'  them  i<  given  by  Fabricius,  Bibliolkeca 

■■'<.  124.  His  life  was  written  by  Bandini 
i  Rome,  K77.  lto).  Among  his  published  writings  is  a 
treatise,  Contra  Calumniatorem  Platonis  (Rome,1469), 

against  George  of  Trebis 1.  who  bad  attacked  Plato. 

His  treatise  /><   Sacramento  Eucharistice  is  given  in 

ca  Patrum,  vol.  xvi.      In  this  he  asserts  that 

tl"'  bread  and   wine  become  tie'  body  and  bl 1  of 

Christ,  nol  through  the  prayer  of  the  priest,  but  by 
virtue  ofthe  words  ofChrist.  Other  theological  work's 
Of  Bessarion   may  be  found  in  the  acts  ofthe  Council 

of  Constance  by  Labbeand  Hardouin.-  Landon,  Eccks. 
Dictionary,  ii.  222;  Hook,  Eccks.  Biography,  ii,  346. 


Bessel,  Gottfried  von,  a  learned  Benedictine, 
was  born  Sept.  5,  1062,  at  Buehheim,  in  the  archbish- 
opric of  Mayence.  In  1G92  he  entered  the  Benedic- 
tine convent  of  Gottweich,  near  Vienna.  Being  called 
to  the  court  of  Lother  Franz,  elector  of  Mainz,  he  was 
employed  for  diplomatic  missions  to  Vienna,  Rome, 
and  Wblfenbuttel.  He  prevailed  in  1710  upon  the  old 
and  vain  Duke  Anton  Ulrich,  of  Brunswick,  to  go  over 
to  the  Church  of  Pome,  the  latter  having  previously 
urged  his  granddaughter  Elizabeth  to  take  the  same 
step  in  order  to  become  the  wife  ofthe  Emperor  Charles 
VI.  On  this  occasion  Bessel  compiled  the  work  Quin- 
quaginta  Romanocatholicam  fidem  omnibus  aliis  prafe- 

\  rendi  motiva ;  also,  in  German,  Funfzig  Bedenkin,  etc. 
(Mayence,  1708).  The  work  purports  to  be  written 
by  a  former  Protestant,  and  has,  therefore,  been  wrong- 
ly ascribed  —  for  instance,  by  Augustin  Theiner  —  to 

■  Duke  Anton  Ulrich  himself.  H.e  also  began  the  publi- 
cation of  the  Chroniccn  Godicicense,  a  work  of  great 
importance  for  the  early  church  history  of  Austria ; 
but  he  finished  only  the  1st  vol.  of  it  (Tegernsee,  1732, 

j  fol.). — Herzog,  Eeal-Encyklop.  ii,  114. 

Bessin,  Guillaume,  a  French  Romanist  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Glos-la-Fcrtc,  in  the  diocese  of  Ev- 
reux,  March  27, 1654.  In  1074  he  entered  the  order 
of  Benedictines,  and  afterward  taught  philosophy  and 
theology  in  the  abbeys  of  Bee,  Seez,  and  Fecamp.  He 
was  also  made  syndic  ofthe  monasteries  of  Normandy. 
He  died  at  Rouen,  October  18,  1736.  He  wrote  Re- 
flexions sur  le  nouveau  systeme  du  R.  P.  Lami,  who 
maintained  that  our  Lord  did  not  celebrate  the  Jewish 
Passover  on  the  eve  of  his  death.  "He  is,  however, 
chiefly  known  by  the  Concilia  Rotomagensis  1'roiint  iw, 
1717,  fol.  It  was  first  printed  in  1677,  and  was  the 
work  of  Dom  Pommeraye.  Dom  Julien  Bellaise  un- 
dertook a  new  edition,  which  he  greatly  enlarged,  but 
died  before  its  completion,  and  Bessin  finished  it,  add- 
ed the  preface,  and  published  it  under  his  own  name." 

\  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  works  of  Gregory  the 

J  Great  (1705,  4  vols.  fol.). — Landon,  Ecclesiastical  Dic- 
tionary,  ii,  224 ;  Hoefer,  Nouvelle  Biographle  Generate, 

j  v,  819. 

Besson,  Joseph,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary,  was 
born  at  Carpcntras  in  1607,  and  entered  the  Society  of 

I  Jesus  in  1623.  He  became  professor  of  philosophy, 
and  rector  of  the  college  at  Nismes  ;  but  finally  offered 
himself  as  a  missionary,  and  was  sent  to  Syria,  where 
he  spent  many  years.  He  died  at  Aleppo,  March  17, 
1691,  leaving  La  Syrie  Sainte,  ou  des  Missions  des  J 'ires 

i  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus  en  Syrie  (Paris,  1660,  8vo). — 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bug.  Ginirale,  v,  821. 

i  Best,  David,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  born 
in  Ireland,  who  emigrated  to  America  at  the  age  of 
'  22,  and  joined  the  Philadelphia  Conference  ofthe  Mcth- 
1  odist  Episcopal  Church  in  1801.  He  filled  various  ap- 
pointments, with  honor  to  himself  and  profit  to  his  peo- 
ple, until  in  the  spring  of  1835  he  took  a  supernumera- 
ry relation.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  mind,  sound 
judgment,  and  unflinching  firmness,  and,  as  a  preach- 
er, his  talents  were  more  than  ordinary.  He  died  in 
Dec,  1841,  in  the  41st  year  of  his  ministry  and  C7th 
of  his  age. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  iii,  250. 

Bestead,  an  old  English  word,  signifying  to  place 
in  certain  circumstances  good  or  ill,  and  used  once  in 
the  Auth.  Vers.  ("  hardly  bestead,"  Isa.  viii,  21)  for  the 
Hcb.  flttJp,  kasliah' ,  to  oppress. 

Be'tah  (Heb.  Be'tach,  n^3  ;  Sept.  Bard\  v.  r.  Mr- 
TtficiK  [quasi  rastt],  and  M«o-/3«y,  Vulg.  Bete),  a,  city 
belonging  to  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah,  mentioned 
with  Berothai  as  having  yielded  much  spoil  of  brass 
to  David  (2  Sam.  viii,  8).  In  the  parallel  account  (1 
Chr.  xviii,  8)  the  name  is  called,  by  an  inverson  of  let- 
ters, Tibhath  (q.  v.).  Ewald  (Gesch.  ii,  195)  pro- 
nounces the  latter  to  be  the  correct  reading,  and  com- 
pares it  with  Tebaii  (Gen.  xxii,  24). — Smith,  s.  v. 


BETANE 


771 


BETHANY 


Bet/and  (Btrdvi)  v.  r.  BXiratRf,  i.  c.  prob.  B«(r«- 
vi);  Vulg.  omits),  a  place  apparently  south  of  Jerusa- 
lem (Judith  i,  9),  and,  according  to  Keland  (Palast.  p. 
C25),  identical  with  the  AlN  (q.  v.)  of  Josh,  xxi,  10', 
and  the  Bethanin  (BnOaviv)  of  Eusebius  (Onom.  'Apt, 
A  in),  two  miles  from  the  Terebinth  of  Abraham  and 
four  from  Hebron.  Others,  with  less  probability,  com- 
pare it  with  Betex  (q.  v.).      See  under  Chellus. 

Be'ten  (Heb.  id.  "122,  belly,  i.  e.  hollow;  Sept. 
B:-fi'  v.  r.  BuiOuk  and  Barv't),  one  of  the  cities  on  the 
border  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Josh,  xix,  25,  only).  By 
Eusebius  (Onom.  s.  v.  Barvcu)  it  is  said  to  have  been 
then  called  Bebetin  (\iif3triv'),  and  to  have  lain  eight 
miles  east  of  Ptolemais  ;  but  this  distance  is  too  little, 
as  the  place  appears  to  be  the  "  Ecbatana  of  Syria" 
(Cellar.  Not  it.  iii,  3,  13,  74),  placed  by  Pliny  (v,  17)  on 
Carmel ;  apparently  the  present  village  with  ruins 
called  el-Bahnch,  live  hours  east  of  Akka  (Van  de 
Velde,  Narrat.  i,  285). 

Betll-  (Heb.  Beytk,  the  "construct  form"  of  Fl*1?, 
ba'yith,  according  to  Fiirst,  from  1^2,  to  lodge  in  the 
night;  according  to  Gesenius,  from  il52,  to  build,  as 
So/iug,  domus,  from  ci/no),  the  name  of  the  second  let- 
ter of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  corresponding  to  our  B, 
which  was  derived  from  it.  As  an  appellative,  it  is 
the  most  general  word  for  a  house  or  habitation.  Strict- 
ly speaking,  it  has  the  force  of  a  settled  stable  dwell- 
ing, as  in  Gen.  xxxiii,  17,  where  the  building  of  a 
"house"  marks  the  termination  of  a  stage  of  Jacob's 
wanderings  (comp.  also  2  Sam.  vii,  2,  6,  and  many 
ether  places) ;  but  it  is  also  employed  for  a  dwelling 
of  any  kind,  even  for  a  tent,  as  in  Gen.  xxiv,  02,  wdiere 
it  must  refer  to  the  tent  of  Laban ;  also  Judg.  xviii, 
31;  1  Sam.  i,  7,  to  the  tent  of  the  tabernacle,  and  2 
Kings  xxiii,  7,  where  it  expresses  the  textib  materials 
(A.  V.  "hangings")  for  the  tents  of  Astarte.  From 
this  general  force  the  transition  was  natural  to  a  house 
in  the  sense  of  a  family,  as  Psa.  cvii,  41,  "  families," 
or  a  pedigree,  as  Ezraii,  5!).  In  2  Sam.  xiii,  7, 1  Kings 
xiii,  7,  and  ether  places,  it  has  the  sense  of  "house," 
i.  e.  "to  the  house."  Beth  also  has  some  collateral 
and  almost  technical  meanings,  similar  to  those  which 
we  apply  to  the  wTord  "house,"  as  in  Exod.  xxv,  27, 
for  the  "places"  or  sockets  into  which  the  bars  for 
carrying  the  table  were  "  housed ;"  and  others.  Like 
JEdes  in  Latin  and  Doni  in  German,  Beth  has  the 
special  meaning  of  a  temple  or  house  of  worship,  in 
which  sense  it  is  applied  not  only  to  the  tabernacle 
(see  above)  or  temple  of  Jehovah  (1  Kings  iii,  2  ;  vi,  1, 
etc.),  but  to  those  of  false  gods — Uagon  (Judg.  xvi,  27  ; 
1  Sam.  v,  2),  Rimmon  (2  Kings  v,  18),  Baal  (2  Kings 
x,  21),  Nisroch  (2  Kings  xix,  37),  and  other  gods  (Judg. 
ix,  27).  "Bajith"  (q.  v.)  in  Isa.  xv,  2  is  really  hab- 
Bajith  =  "the  Temple" — meaning  some  well-known 
idol  fane  in  Moab.  Beth  is  more  frequently  employed 
as  the  first  clement  of  the  names  of  places  than  cither 
Kirjath,  Hazer,  Beer,  Ain,  or  airy  other  word.  See 
those  following.  In  some  instances  it  seems  to  be  in- 
terchangeable (by  euphemism)  for  Baal  (q.  v.).  In  all 
such  compounds  as  Beth-el,  etc.,  the  latter  part  of  the 
word  must  be  considered,  according  to  our  Occidental 
languages,  to  depend  on  the  former  in  the  relation  of 
tlte  genitive;  so  that  Bethel  can  only  mean  "house 
of  God."  The  notion  of  house  is,  of  course,  capable 
of  a  wide  application,  and  is  used  to  mean  temple,  hab- 
itation, place,  according  to  the  sense  of  the  word  with 
which  it  is  combined.  In  some  instances  the  Auth. 
Vers,  has  translated  it  as  an  appellative ;  see  Beth- 
eked;  Betii-hag-gan;  Beth-eden. — Smith,  s.  v. 

Bethab'ara  (B>;9a/3nn«,  quasi  WIS  tVB,  house 
cf  the  ford  or  ferry-),  a  place  beyond  Jordan  Qrc&pav 
tov  'lop.),  in  which,  according  to  the  Received  Text 
of  the  N.  T.,  John  was  baptizing  (John  i,  28),  appar- 
ently- at  the  time  that  he  baptized  Christ  (comp.  ver. 
29,  39,  35).     If  this  reading  be  the  correct  one,  Beth- 


abara  may  be  identical  with  Beth-barah  (q.  v.),  the 
ancient  ford  of  Jordan,  of  winch  the  men  of  Ephraim 
took  possession  after  Gideon's  defeat  of  the  Midianites 
(Judg.  vii,  24)  ;  or  possibly  with  Beth-NIMKAH  (q.  v.), 
on  the  east  of  the  river,  nearly  opposite  Jericho.  But 
the  oldest  MSS.  (A,  B)  and  the  Vulgate  have  not 
"  Bethabara,"  but  Bethany  (BrfSavia),  a  reading  which 
Origen  states  (Opp.  ii,  13(1,  ed.  Huet)  to  have  obtained 
in  almost  all  the  copies  of  his  time  (cryicW  Trdi'ra  ra 
avriypcupa),  though  altered  by  him  in  his  edition  of  the 
Gospel  on  topographical  grounds  (see  Kuinul,  in  loc). 
In  favor  of  Bethabara  are  (a)  the  extreme  improba- 
bility of  so  familiar  a  name  as  Bethany  being  changed 
by  copyists  into  one  so  unfamiliar  as  Bethabara,  while 
the  reverse— the  change  from  an  unfamiliar  to  a  famil- 
iar name — is  of  frequent  occurrence,     (b)  The   fact 

i  that  Origen,  while  admitting  that  the  majority  of  MSS. 
were  in  favor  of  Bethany,  decided,  notwithstanding, 

;  for  Bethabara.  (c)  That  Bethabara  was  still  known 
in  the  daA's  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomasiicon, 
B?]Saafia(>a,  Bethbaara,  which  is  expressly  stated  to 

j  have  been  the  scene  of  John's  baptism),  and  greatly 
resorted  to  by  persons  desirous  of  baptism.     Still  the 

I  fact  remains  that  the  most  ancient  MSS.  have  "Beth- 

I  any,"  and  that  name  has  been  accordingly  restored  to 
the  text  by  Lachmann,  Tischendorf,  and  other  modern 

j  editors.  The  locality  must,  therefore,  be  sought  by 
this  name  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Jordan.  — ■  Smith,  s. 
v.     See  Bethany. 

Beth-anab  (q.  d.  23"T:'12,  house  offys)  is  proba- 
bly the  correct  name  of  a  village  mentioned  by  Euse- 
bius and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  'Avwfi,  Anob)  under 

I  the  form  MtToaiwdic  or  Betkoannaba,  as  lying  four  Ro- 
man miles  east  of  Diospolis  (Lydda),  while  Jerome  (ibJ) 
speaks  of  still  another  name,  Bethannaba,  as  belonging 

j  to  a  village  eight  miles  in  the  same  direction.  Van 
dc  Velde  {Memoir,  p.  293)  ingeniously  reconciles  these 
statements  by  assigning  the  first  locality  as  that  of  the 
modern  Annabeh,  and  the  second  as  Beit-Nuba,  which 
lie  respectively  at  the  required  distances  south-east  of 
Ludd.     Comp.  Anae. 

Beth'-anath  (Heb.  Beyth-Anath',  r:"T"2,  house 
!  of  response ;  Sept.  Bifiavaiy  v.  r.  Bai^Ba/je  and  BaiSta- 
va\),  one  of  the  "fenced  cities"  of  Xaphtali,  named 
with  Bethshemesh  (Josh,  xix,  38) ;  from  neither  of 
which  were  the  Canaanites  expelled,  although  made 
tributaries  (Judg.  i,  S3).  It  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  BaOpd,  Bethnath),  who, 
however,  elsewhere  (s.  v.  BqSavaSra,  Bethana)  speak 
of  a  village  (apparently  in  Asher,  ib.  s.  v.  'Aveip,  Aniel) 
called  Bttuniru  (Baravaia,  Bathanroa;  Bairoavaia, 
Betoanea),  fifteen  miles  eastward  of  Cassarea  (Diocas- 
sarea  or  Sepphoris),  and  reputed  to  contain  medicinal 
springs.  It  is  perhaps  the  present  village  A  inata,  north 
of  Bint-Jebeil  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  293).  Schwarz 
{Palest,  p.  184)  confounds  it  with  the  site  of  Beten. 

Beth'-anoth  (Heb.  Beyih-Anoth' ,  ni"5?-ni2,  house 
'  of  ansicers,  i.  e.  echo;  Sept.  Br]&av<i)S  v.  r.  BaiSava/.i), 
a  city  in  the  mountain  district  of  Judah,  mentioned  be- 
tween Maarath  and  Eltekon  (Josh,  xv,  59).  It  has 
i  been  identified  by  Wolcott  (Bibl.  Sacra,  1843,  p.  58) 
with  the  present  village  Beit-Anun,  first  observed  by 
Robinson  (Researches,  ii,  186),  about  one  and  a  half 
hours  north-east  of  Hebron,  on  the  way  to  Tekoa  (Van 
de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  293),  containing  extensive  ruins 
of  high  antiquity  (Wilson,  Lands  of  Bible,  i,  384  sq.), 
which  are  described  by  Robinson  (Later  Bib.  Res.  p. 
281).     Compare  Betane. 

Beth/any  (Btftavia  ;  according  to  Simonis,  Onom. 
N.  T.  p.  42,  for  the  Heb.  rlJ3S  m2,  house  of  depres- 
sion ;  but,  according  to  Lightfoot,  Reland,  and  others, 
for  the  Aramaean  "^"i"!  FP3,  house  of  dates;  comp.  the 
Talmudic  N^PiX,  an  unripe  date,  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm. 
col.  38),  the  name  of  two  places. 


BETHANY 


772 


BETIIARAMPTHA 


1.  Instead  of  Bethabara  (BijSafiapd),  in  John,  i,  28 
(where  the  text  was  altered  since  Origen's  time ;  see 
Crome.  Beitr.  i,  91  sq.),  the  reading  in  the  oldest  and 
b  -t  MSS.  I  also  in  Nonnius's  Paraphr.  in  loc.)  is  Beth- 
any, H'/ -<»■'•'  (see  De  Dieu,  Crit.  Sacr.  p.  491),  which 
appears  to  have  been  the  name  of  a  place  east  of  Jor- 
dan (against  the  interpretation  of  Kuinol,  Comment,  in 
loc..  that  Titpav  signifies  on  this  side;  see  Liicke,  in 
Krit.  Journ.  iii,  383 ;  Crome,  Beitr.  i,  82  sq. ;  while  the 
punctuation  of  Paulus,  Samml.  i,  287,  who  places  a  pe- 
riod after  iykvfro,  Comment,  iv,  129,  is  not  favored  by 
the  context').  Possin  (Spicil.  Evanrj.  p.  32)  supposes 
that  the  place  went  by  both  names  (regarding  "Beth- 
abarah"  —  rn2"_  n^a,  domus  transitu!,  ferry-house ; 
and  "Bethany"  =  tt*3X,  domus navis,  boat-house').  See 
Bethabara.  The  spot  is  quite  as  likely  to  have  been 
not  far  above  the  present  "'pilgrims'  bathing-place" 
as  any  other,  although  the  Greek  and  Roman  traditions 
differ  as  to  the  exact  locality  of  Christ's  baptism  (Rob- 
inson, Researches,  ii,  2G1).  The  place  here  designated 
is  apparently  the  same  as  the  Beth-darah  (q.  v.)  of 
Judg.  vii,  24,  or  possiblv  the  same  as  Beth-nimrah 
(q.v.). 

2.  A  town  or  village  in  the  eastern  environs  of  Je- 
rusalem, so  called  probably  from  the  number  of  palm- 
trees  that  grew  around,  and  intimately  associated  with 
many  acts  and  scenes  of  the  life  of  Christ.  It- was  the 
residence  of  Lazarus  and  his  sisters  Mary  and  Martha, 
and  Jesus  often  went  out  from  Jerusalem  to  lodge 
there;  it  was  here  that  he  raised  Lazarus  from  the 
dead;  from  Bethany  he  commenced  his  "triumphal 
entry"'  into  Jerusalem;  here,  at  the  house  of  Simon 
the  leper,  the  supper  was  given  in  his  honor ;  and  it 
was  in  this  vicinity  that  the  ascension  took  place 
(.Matt,  xxi,  17;  xxvi,  6;  Mark  xi,  11,  12;  xiv,  3; 
Luke  xxiv,  oil;  John  xi,  1;  xii,  1).  It  was  situated 
'•at"  (irpoc)  the  Mount  of  Olives  (Mark  xi,  1;  Luke 
xix,  29),  about  fifteen  stadia  from  Jerusalem  (John  xi, 
18),  on  or  near  the  usual  road  from  Jericho  to  the  city 
(Luke  xix,  29,  comp.  1 ;  Mark  xi,  1,  comp.  x,  46),  and 
close  by  and  east  (?)  of  another  village  called  Beth- 
phage  (q.  v.).  There  never  appears  to  have  been 
any  doubt  as  to  the  site  of  Bethany,  which  is  now 
known  by  a  name* derived  from  Lazarus — el-  Azar'iyeh, 
or  simply  Lazarieh.  It  lies  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  fully  a  mile  beyond  the  summit,  and 
not  very  far  from  the  point  at  which  the  road  to  Jeri- 
cho begins  its  more  sudden  descent  toward  the  Jordan 
valley  (  Lindsay,  p.  91 ;  De  Saulcy,  i,  120).  The  spot 
i-  a  woody  hollow  more  or  less  planted  with  fruit-trees 
— olives,  almonds,  pomegranates,  as  well  as  oaks  and 
carobs ;  the  whole  lying  below  a  secondary  ridge  or 
hump,  of  sufficient  height  to  shut  out  the  village  from 
tie'  summit  of  the  mount  (Robinson,  ii,  100  sq. ;  Stan- 
ley, p.  189  ;  lionar,  p.  138,  139).  From  a  distance  the 
village  is  "remarkably  beautiful" — "the  perfection 
of  retirement  and  repose"— "of  seclusion  and  lovely 

Bonar,  p.  139,  230,  310,  337  ;  and  see  Lindsay, 
p.  69) ;  but  on  a  nearer  view  is  found  to  be  a  ruinous 
and  wretched  village,  a  wild  mountain  hamlet  of  some 
twenty  families,  the  inhabitants  of  which  display  even 
leas  than  tic  ordinary  Eastern  thrift  and  industry 
(Robinson,  ii,  102;  Stanley,  p.  IS!);  lionar,  p.  810). 
In  the  village  are  shown  the  traditional  sites  of  the 
house  and  tomb  of  Lazarus,  the  former  the  remains  of 

a  square  tower  apparently  of  old  date,  though  certain- 
ly qoI  of  the  age  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  to  which  De 
Saulcj  assigns  it  <i,  128)— the  latter  a  deep  vault  ex- 
cavated  in  the  limestone  rock,  the  bottom  reached  by 

twenty-Six    BtepS.        The    hOUSe    of   Simon    the    leper    i< 

also  exhibited.  As  to  the  real  age  and  character  of 
these  remain-,  there  is  at  present  no  information  to 
guide  ns.  Sch war/,  maintain-.  eUAzariyeh  to  lie  A/.ai., 
and  would  fix  Bethany  at  a  spot  which,  he  says,  the 
Arabs  'all  lieth-hatian,  on  the  .Mount  of  <  tffence  above 

Siloam  (p.  263,  L35).     These  traditional  spots  are  first 


heard  of  in  the  fourth  century,  in  the  Jtinerarj/  of  the 
Bourdeaux  Pilgrim,  and  the  Onomasticon  of  Eusebius 
and  Jerome,  and  they  continued  to  exist,  with  certain 
varieties  of  buildings  and  of  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments in  connection  therewith,  down  to  the  sixteenth 
century,  since  which  the  place  has  fallen  gradually 
into  its  present  decay  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  102, 
103).  By  Mandeville  and  other  mediaeval  travellers 
the  town  is  spoken  of  as  the  "Castle  of  Bethany,"  en 
expression  which  had  its  origin  in  castellum  being  cm- 
ployed  in  the  Vulgate  as  the  translation  of  /cw/<;/  in 
John  xi,  1. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Jerusalem. 

Beth-ar'abah  (Heb.  Beyth  ha-Arabah',  fV^a 
fl2*l3n,  house  of  the  desert ;  Sept.  Brftdpafia  v.  r. 
BatSapaj3d  and  Bapa)3adp ;  in  Josh,  xviii,  22,  lb/.~- 
«/3«p«  v.  r.  Ba&a/3apa),  one  of  the  six  cities  of  Judah 
which  were  situated  in  the  Arabah,  i.  e.  the  sunk  val- 
ley of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea  ("wilderness,"  Josh, 
xv,  Gl),  on  the  north  border  of  the  tribe,  and  apparent- 
ly between  Beth-hoglah  and  the  high  land  on  the  west 
of  the  Jordan  valley  (xv,  G).  It  was  afterward  in- 
cluded in  the  list  of  the  towns  of  Benjamin  (xviii,  22). 
It  is  elsewhere  (Josh,  xviii,  18)  called  simply  Arabah 
( q.  v.).  It  seems  to  be  extant  in  the  ruins  called  Kusr 
Hajla,  a  little  south-west  of  the  site  of  Beth-hojlah 
(q.  v.). 

Beth'-aram  (Heb.  Betfh  Jlaram ',  t^ft  tVa, 
house  of  the  height  [for  the  syllable  ha-  is  prob.  merely 
the  def.  art.],  q.  d.  mountain-house ;  Sept.  Btfsaou 
\  v.  r.  Ba&appd  and  BaiSrapdv),  one  cf  the  towns 
i  ("fenced  cities")  of  Gad  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  de- 
scribed as  in  "the  valley"  (paSM,  not  to  be  confound- 
j  ed  with  the  Arabah  or  Jordan  valley),  Josh.  xiii.  27, 
i  and  no  doubt  the  same  place  as  that  named  Beth-ha- 
■  rax  in  Num.  xxxii,  36.  Eusebius  (Onomnst.  s.  v.)  re- 
;  ports  that  in  his  day  its  appellation  ("by  the  Syrians"  ) 
was  Bethramtha  (Bi)dpaj.i(pBd  [prob.  for  the  Chaldaic 
form  XFlEl'1  T'Z]  ■  Jerome,  Bcthiram~),  and  that  it  was 
also  named  Livias  (Aiflidg,  Libias;  Jerome  adds,  "by 
|  Herod,  in  honor  of  Augustus").  Josephus's  account 
(Ant.  xviii,  2,  1)  is  that  Herod  (Antipas),  on  taking 
I  possession  of  his  tetrarchy,  fortified  Sepphoris  and  the 
I  city  (-oA(c)  of  Betharamphtha  (BriSrapapQSa),  build- 
j  ing  a  Avail  round  the  latter,  and  calling  it  Julias  Clov- 
Xu'iq;  different  from  the  Julias  of  Gaulonitis,  War,  ii, 
9,  1\  in  honor  ef  the  wife  of  the  emperor.  As  this 
could  hardly  be  later  than  B.C.  1,  Herod  the  (Ireat, 
the  predecessor  of  Antipas,  having  died  in  B.C.  4,  and 
as  the  Empress  Livia  did  not  receive  her  name  of  Julia 
until  after  the  death  of  Augustus,  A.D.  14,  it  is  prob- 
able that  Josephus  is  in  error  as  to  the  new  name  given 
to  the  place,  and  speaks  of  it  as  having  originally  re- 
ceived that  which  it  bore  in  his  own  day  (see  Ant.  xx, 
8,  4  :  War,  ii.  13,  2).  It  is  curious  that  he  names  Liv- 
ias (  \ir>idr)  long  before  (Ant.  xiv,  1,  4)  in  such  con- 
nection as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  be  alludes  to  the  same 
place.  L/ndcr  the  name  of  Amathus  (q.  v.)  he  again 
mentions  it  (Ant.  xvii,  10,  G;  comp.  War,  ii.  4,  2),  and 
the  destruction  of  the  royal  palaces  there  by  insurgents 
from  Peraea.  At  a  later  date  it  was  an  episcopal  city 
(Reland,  Pakest.  p.  874).  For  Talmudical  notices,  sea 
Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  231.  Ptolemy  gives  the  locality 
of  Livias  (At/3idc)  as  31°  26'  lat",  and  G7°  10'  long. 
(Ritter,  Krdk.  xv,  ,"73  >;  and  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
<  (Onomnst.  s.  v.  Brfivafipdv,  Bethamnaram)  state  thai 
it  was  live  miles  south  of  liethnahris  or  Bethamnaris 
1  (i.  c.  Beth-nimrah  ;  see  Josephus,  War,  iv,  7,  4  and  G). 
This  agrees  with  the  position  of  the  Wady  Seir  or  Sir, 
which  falls  into  the  Ghor  opposite  Jericho,  and  half 
way  between  Wady  Hesban  and  Wady  Shoaib.  Seet- 
zen  heard  that  it  contained  a  castle  and  a  large  tank 
in  masonry  (Reisen,  1854,  ii,  3bv).  According  to  Van 
de  Velde  (Memoir,  p.  296),  the  ruins  are  still  called 

Beit-Uaran Smith,  s.  v. 

Betharamptiia.     See  Betii-aram. 


BETII-ARBEL  773 

Beth-ar'bel  (Heb.  Beyth  Ariel',  Jj&fa'lK  PPa, 
house  of  God's  court  or  courts),  a  place  only  alluded  to 
by  the  prophet  Hosea  (x,  14)  as  the  scene  of  some 
great  military  exploit  known  in  his  day,  but  not  re- 
corded in  Scripture:  "All  thj'  [Israel's]  fortresses 
shall  be  spoiled,  as  Shalman  spoiled  Beth-arbel  (Sept. 
wq  upxuiv  2a\afiav  t/c  rov  oikov  'IspofiaaX  [v.  r. 
'ltpofiodfi  and  Apj&i'/X])  in  the  day  of  battle."  In 
the  Vulgate,  Jerome  (following  the  Sept.)  has  trans- 
lated the  name  "e  domo  ejus  quijudicavit  Baal,"  i.  e. 
Jerubbaal,  understanding  Salman  as  Zalmunna,  and 
the  whole  passage  as  a  reference  to  Gideon's  victory 
(Judg.  viii);  but  tliis  is  fanciful.  Most  modern  com- 
mentators follow  the  Jewish  interpreters  (see  Hender- 
son, in  loc),  who  understand  the  verse  to  relate  to 
Shalman  (q.  v.),  or  Shalmanezer,  as  having  gained 
a  battle  at  Beth-Arbel  against  Hoshea,  king  of  Israel. 
As  to  the  locality  of  this  massacre,  some  refer  it  to  the 
Arbela  of  Assyria  (Strabo  xvi,  1,  3),  the  scene  of  Alex- 
ander's famous  victory ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  of 
any  such  occurrences  as  here  alluded  to  in  that  place. 
It  is  conjectured  by  Hitzig  (in  loc.)  to  be  the  place 
called  Arbela  ('Ap/jjjXw)  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  in 
the  Onomasticon  (s.  v.),  where  it  is  jilaced  near  Bella, 
east  of  Jordan ;  but  as  it  is  spoken  of  in  Hosea  as  a 
strong  fortress,  the  probability  is  rather  that  the  noted 
locality  in  N.W.  Palestine,  called  Arbela  (rd  "Ap/3»jXa) 
by  Josephus  and  the  Apocrypha,  is  meant.  This  -was 
a  village  in  Galilee,  near  which  were  certain  fortified 
caverns.  They  are  first  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  march  of  Bacchides  into  Judcea,  at  which  time 
they  were  occupied  by  many  fugitives,  and  the  Syrian 
general  encamped  there  long  enough  to  subdue  them 
(Ant.  xii,  11,  1 ;  1  Mace,  ix,  2).  At  a  later  period 
these  caverns  formed  the  retreats  of  banded  robbers, 
who  greatly  distressed  the  inhabitants  throughout  that 
quarter.  Josephus  gives  a  graphic  account  of  the 
means  taken  by  Herod  to  extirpate  them.  The  cav- 
erns were  situated  in  the  midst  of  precipitous  cliffs, 
overhanging  a  deep  vallej',  with  only  a  steep  and  nar- 
row path  leading  to  the  entrance  ;  the  attack  was  there- 
fore exceeding  difficult.  Parties  of  soldiers,  being  at 
length  let  down  in  large  boxes,  suspended  by  chains 
from  above,  attacked  those  who  defended  the  entrance 
with  fire  and  sword,  or  dragged  them  out  with  long 
hooks  and  dashed  them  down  the  precipice.  In  this 
way  the  place  was  at  length  subdued  (Ant.  xiv,  15,  4, 
5;  War,  i,  1C,  2—4).  These  same  caverns  were  after- 
ward fortified  by  Josephus  himself  against  the  Romans 
during  his  command  in  Galilee.  In  one  place  he 
speaks  of  them  as  the  caverns  of  Arbela,  and  in  an- 
other as  the  caverns  near  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth 
(Life,  37;  War,  ii,  20,  6).  According  to  the  Tal- 
mud, Arbela  lay  between  Sepphoris  and  Tiberias 
(Lightfoot,  Chorog.  Cent.  c.  8.")).  These  indications 
leave  little  doubt  that  Arbela  of  Galilee,  with  its  forti- 
fied caverns,  may  be  identified  with  the  present  Kulat 
ibn  Maan  and  the  adjacent  ruins  now  known  as  Irbid 
(probably  a  corruption  of  Jrbil,  the  proper  Arabic  form 
of  Arbela).  The  latter  is  the  site  which  Pocockc  (ii, 
58)  supposed  to  be  that  of  Bethsaida,  and  where  he 
found  columns  and  the  ruins  of  a  large  church,  with 
a  sculptured  doorcase  of  white  marble.  The  best  de- 
scription of  the  neighboring  caves  is  that  of  Burck- 
hardt  (p.  333  I,  who  calculates  that  they  might  afford 
refuge  to  about  COO  men. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Akbela. 

Beth-a'ven  (Hob.  Beyth  A'ren,  "^x  ~"z,  house 
of  nothingness,  i.  e.  wickedness,  idolatry;  Sept.  usual- 
ly BatStwv  v.  r.  BtjScivv),  a  place  on  the  mountains  of 
Benjamin,  east  of  Bethel  (Josh,  vii,  2,  Sept.  Baif)i)\  ; 
xviii,  12),  and  lying  between  that  place  and  Michmash 
(1  Sam.  xiii,  5.  Sept.  BacSaptr  v.  r.  Baiiiono'iv;  also 
xiv,  23,  Sept.  rrjv  Ba/tw0).  In  Josh,  xviii,  12,  the 
"wilderness"  (Midbar=  pasture-land)  of  Beth-aven  is 
mentioned.  In  Hosea  iv,  15  ;  v,  8;  x,  5,  the  name  is 
transferred,  with  a  play  on  the  word  very  characteris- 


BETII-BARAII 

tic  of  this  prophet,  to  the  neighboring  Bethel — once 
the  "house  of  God,"  but  then  the  house  of  idols,  of 
"naught."  The  Talmudists  accordingly  everywhere 
confound  Beth-aven  with  Bethel  (coinp.  Schwarz,  Pal- 
est, p.  89),  the  proximity  of  which  may  have  occasioned 
the  employment  of  the  term  as  a  nickname,  after  Beth- 
el became  the  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  golden  calves. 
See  Bethel.  The  name  Beth-aven,  however,  was 
properly  that  of  a  locality  distinct  from  Bethel  (Josh. 
vii,  2,  etc.),  and  appears  to  have  been  applied  to  a  vil- 
lage located  on  the  rocky  eminence  Burj  Beitin,  twenty 
minutes  south-east  of  Beitin  (Bethel),  and  twenty  min- 
utes west  of  Tell  el-Hajar  (Ai)  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir, 
p.  294). 

Beth-az'maveth  (Heb.  Beyth- Azma'vcth,  -JV3 
rf21V,houseofAzmavetk;  Sept.  BaiSartfjwd  v.r.  B))5), 
a  village  of  Benjamin,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  to  the 
number  of  forty-two,  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
Babylon  (Neh.  vii,  28).  In  Neb.,  xii,  29 ;  Ezra  ii,  24, 
it  is  called  simply  Azmaveth  (q.  v.). 

Beth-ba'al-me'on  (Heb.  Beyth  Ba'al  Mean', 
"l""*2  P?2  n^a,  house  of  Baal-Meon;  Sept.  oiKovg 
BesX^uv  v.  r.  oIkoq  MitXfiwS;  Vulg.  oppidum  Baxd- 
maon),  a  place  in  the  possession  of  Reuben,  on  the 
Mishor  (~lid""2)  or  downs  (Auth.  Vers,  "plain")  east 
of  Jordan  (Josh,  xiii,  17).  At  the  Israelites'  first  ap- 
proach its  name  was  Baal-meon  (Num.  xxxii,  38,  or  in 
its  contracted  form  Beon,  xxxii,  3),  to  which  the  Beth 
was  possibly  a  Hebrew  prefix.  Later  it  would  seem 
to  have  come  into  possession  of  Moab,  and  to  be  known 
either  as  Beth-meon  (Jer.  xlviii,  23)  or  Baal-meon 
(Ezek.  xxv,  9).  It  is  possible  that  the  name  contains 
a  trace  of  the  tribe  or  nation  of  Meon — the  Maonites  or 
Meunim.  See  Maon  ;  Mehunim.  The  name  is  still 
attached  to  a  ruined  place  of  considerable  size  a  short 
distance  to  the  south-west  of  Hesban,  and  bearing  the 
name  of  "the  fortress  of  AlVun"  according  to  Burck- 
hardt  (p.  8G5),  or  Maein  according  to  Seetzen  (Reisen, 
i,  408),  which  appears  to  give  its  appellation  to  Wady 
Zerka  Main  (jb.  p.  402). — Smith.     See  Baal-meon. 

Beth-ba'rali  (Heb.  Beyth  Barak',  rria  fi^a, 
prob.  for  "T^a?  H^a,  Beih-Abarah,  i.  e.  house  of  cross- 
ing, q.  A.  ford;  Sept.  Bififiiipd  v.  r.  BaiSnjpd),  a  place 
named  in  Judg.  vii,  24  as  a  point  apparently  south  of 
the  scene  of  Gideon's  victory  (which  took  place  at 
about  Bethshean),  and  to  which  spot  "the  waters" 
(CI'HJl)  were  "taken"  by  the  Ephraimites  against 
Midian,  i.  c.  the  latter  were  intercepted  from  crossing 
the  Jordan.  Others  have  thought  that  these  "  waters" 
were  the  wadys  which  descend  from  the  highlands  of 
Ephraim,  presuming  that  they  were  different  from  the 
Jordan,  to  which  river  no  word  but  its  own  distinct 
name  is  supposed  to  be  applied.  But  there  can  hard- 
ly have  been  any  other  stream  of  sufficient  magnitude 
in  this  vicinity  to  have  needed  guarding,  or  have  been 
capable  of  it,  or,  indeed,  to  which  the  name  "fording- 
place"  could  be  at  all  applicable.  Beth-barah  seems 
to  have  been  the  locality  still  existing  by  that  name 
in  the  time  of  Origen,  which  he  assigned  as  the  scene 
of  John's  baptism  (John  ii,  28),  since,  as  being  a  cross- 
ing rather  than  a  town,  the  word  would  be  equally 
applicable  to  both  sides  of  the  river.  See  Betha- 
BARA.  The  pursuit  of  the  Midianites  may  readily 
have  reached  about  as  far  south  as  the  modern  upper 
or  Latin  pilgrims'  bathing-place  on  the  Jordan.  The 
fugitives  could  certainly  not  have  been  arrested  any 
where  so  easily  and  effectually  as  at  a  ford;  and  such 
a  spot  in  the  river  was  also  the  only  suitable  place  for 
John's  operations;  for,  although  on  the  east  side,  it  was 
yet  accessible  to  Judaea  and  Jerusalem,  and  all  the 
"region  round  about,"  i.  e.  the  oasis  of  the  South  Jor- 
dan at  Jericho.  See  Bethany.  If  the  derivation  of 
the  name  given  above  be  correct,  Bcth-barah  was 
probably  the  chief  ford  of  the  district,  and  may  there- 


BETHBASI 


774 


BETH-EKED 


fore  b  iw  been  that  by  which  Jacob  crossed  on  his  re- 
turn from  Mesopotamia,  near  the  Jabbok,  below  Suc- 
coth  Oifii.  xxxii,  22;  xxxiii,  17),  and  at  which  Jeph- 
thab  Blew  the  Ephraimites  as  they  attempted  to  pass 
..vcr  from  Gilead  (Judg.  xii,  6).  This  can  hardly 
u  any  other  than  that  now  extant  opposite 
Kurn  Surtabeh,  being  indeed  the  lowest  easy  crossing- 
place.  The  water  is  here  only  knee-deep,  while  re- 
mains of  an  ancient  bridge  and  of  a  Roman  road,  with 
other  ruins,  attest  that  this  was  formerly  a  great  thor- 
oughfare and  place  of  transit  (Van  de  Yelde,  Memoir, 
-     Ford. 

Beth'basi  (BatOfiaai),  a  town  which,  from  the 
mention  of  its  decays  ( ra  Ka9r)pv/iiva),  must  have  been 
originally  fortified,  lying  in  the  desert  (rij  tpry/uy),  and 
in  which  Jonathan  and  .Simon  Maccabseus  took  refuge 
from  Bacchides  (1  Mace,  ix,  62,  64).  Josephus  (Ant. 
xiii.  1,  5)  has  Bethalaga,  Bt)9a\aya  (Beth-hogla),  but 
a  reading  of  the  passage  quoted  by  Belaud  (Palcest.  p. 
632)  presents  the  more  probable  form  of  Beth-keziz. 
Either  alternative  fixes  the  situation  as  in  the  Jordan 
valley  not  far  from  Jericho. — Smith.     See  Keziz. 

Beth-bir'ei  (Heb.  Beyth  Bin',  ifcOa  rv»3,  house 
of  my  cnation  or  cistern  ;  Sept.  o7voc-  Bapovp  v.  r.  o'Ikov 
Bapovotwpifi  [by  inclusion  of  the  next  name],  Vulg. 
Bt  thberai),  a  town  in  the  extreme  south  of  Simeon,  in- 
habited by  the  descendants  of  Shimei  (1  Chr.  iv,  31) ; 
by  comparison  with  the  parallel  list  in  Josh,  xix,  G,  it 
appears  to  have  had  also  the  name  of  Beth-lebaotii 
(q.  v.),  or  LEBAOTH  simply  (Josh,  xv,  32).— Smith. 

Beth'car  (Heb.  Beyth  Kar',  "I3  T"2,  sheep-house, 
i.  e.  pasture;  Sept.  Bat£yop  v.  r.  BeXy/p),  a  place 
named  as  the  point  to  which  the  Israelites  pursued  the 
Philistines  from  Mizpeh  on  a  memorable  occasion  (1 
Sam.  vii,  11),  and  therefore  west  of  Mizpeh  ;  apparent- 
ly a  Philistine  guard-house  or  garrison.  From  the 
unusual  expression  "under  (nHFlE)  Beth-car,"  it 
would  seem  that  the  place  itself  was  on  a  height,  with 
the  road  at  its  foot.  Josephus  (Ant.  vi,  2,  2)  has  "as 
far  as  Corrhaea"  (ii.=  \.«  Koppaiiav),  and  goes  on  to  say 

(in  a. rdance  with  the  above  text)  that  the  stone  Eb- 

enezer  was  set  up  at  this  place  to  mark  it  as  the  spot 
to  which  the  victory  had  extended.  See  Eben-ezer  ; 
("i.i.r.  Schwarz's  attempted  identification  (Palest. 
p.  136)  is  not  sustained  by  accurate  maps. —  Smith,  s.  v. 

Beth-da'gon  (Heb.  Beyth  Dagon',  y\ifil  r^2,  house 
[i.  e.  tempi  ]of Dagon),  the  name  of  at  least  two  cities, 
one  or  the  other  of  which  may  lie  the  place  called  by 
this  name  in  the  Apocrypha  (B&daywv,  1  Mace,  x, 
63  ;  eoni]i.  Josephus,  .1  at.  xiii,  4,  4),  unless  this  be  sim- 
ply Dagon's  temple  at  Ashdod  (1  Sam.  v,  2;  1  Chron. 
x,  10).  The  corresponding  modern  name  Beit-Dejan 
is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Palestine;  in  addition  to 

those  iced  below,  one  was  found  by  Robinson  (/.'<- 

si  trches,  iii,  102)  east  of  Nablous.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  in  the  occurrence  of  these  names  we  have 
indications  of  the  worship  of  the  Philistine  god  having 
spread  far  beyond  the  Philistine  territory.  Possibly 
these  are  the  sites  of  towns  founded  at  the  time  when 
this  warlike  people  had  overrun  the  face  of  the  country 
to  "Michmash,  eastward  of  Bethaven"  on  the  south, 
:""1  Gilboa  on  the  north—that  is,  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  heights  n  hich  overlook  the  Jordan  valley— driving 
"the  Hebrews  over  Jordan  into  the  laud  of  Gad  and 
Gilead" (1  Sam. xiii, 6  7;  comp.  17,18;  xxix,l;  xxxi 
Dagon  i  hoi  se  cm  ). 

1.  I  Sept.  li,,--,-,,;,,/,,.  v.  r.  BayaoHjX.)  A  city  in  the 
Iowcountry(5Af/efaA)0fJudah  (Josh,  xv,  41,  where  il 
i-  oamed  between  Gederoth  and  Naamah),  and  there. 
for.-  not  f.„-  from  the  Philistine  territory,  with  which 
it-  name  implies  o  connection.  From  the  absence  of 
the  copulative  conjunction  bofore  this  name,  ii  has  liecn 
d  that  it  should  be  taken  with  the  preceding, 
" '  sroth-Bethdagon ;"  In  that  case,  probably,  distin- 
guishing Gederoth  from  thu  two  place:,  uf  similar  name 


in  the  neighborhood.  But  this  would  leave  the  enu- 
meration "sixteen  cities"  in  ver.  41  deficient;  and  the 
conjunction  is  similarly  omitted  frequently  in  the  same 
list  (e.  g.  between  ver.  38  and  39,  etc.).  The  indica- 
tions of  site  and  name  correspond  quite  well  to  those 
of  Bt  it-J(  rja,  marked  on  Van  de  Yelde's  Map  5|  miles 
S.E.  of  Ashkelon. 

i  2.  (Sept.  Br/SrSaywv  v.  r.  BaiSreyeviSt.")  A  city  near 
the  S.E.  border  of  the  tribe  of  A sher,  between  the  mouth 
of  the  Shihor-libnath  and  Zebulon  (Josh,  xix,  27) ;  a 
position  which  agrees  with  that  of  the  modern  ruined 
village  Bqjeli,  marked  on  Van  de  Yelde's  Map  about 
3i  miles  S.E.  of  Athlit.  See  Tkibe.  The  name  and 
the  proximity  to  the  coast  point  to  its  being  a  Philis- 
tine colony.  Schwarz's  attempt  at  a  location  (Palest. 
p.  192)  is  utterly  destitute  of  foundation. 

3.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Bicaywv, 
Bethdagon)  speak  of  a  "large  village"  by  this  name 
(llapaSaywv,  Caphardago)  as  extant  in  their  day  be- 
tween Diospolis  (Lydda)  and  Jamnia ;  without  doubt 

I  the  present  Beit-Dejan  (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  30 ; 
Tobler,  Topiog.  ii,  405 ;  yet  Schwarz  says  [Palest,  p. 

I  104],  "  not  a  vestige  can  be  found!"). 

Betli-diblatha'im  (Heb.  Beyth Diblatha'yim,  tVa 
E^rsiH,  house  of  Diblathahn  ;  Sept.  o7«>e  AifiXaSaifi 
[v.  r.  A«//3Art3«i'/(]),  a  city  of  Moab  upon  which  the 
prophet  denounces  destruction  (Jer.  xlviii,  22).  It  is 
called  Almon-Diblathaim  in  Num.  xxxiii,  46.  It 
is  different  from  the  Diblath  of  Ezek.  vi,  14.  Sec  Di- 
elatiiaim;  Riblah. 

Beth-e'den  (Heb.  Beyth  E'den,  )"}"  fl*»a,  house 
of  pleasantness;  Sept.  confusedly  translates  civvptg 
\appdv;  Vulg.  clomus  voluntatis),  apparently  a  city  of 
Syria,  situated  on  Mount  Lebanon,  the  seat  of  a  na- 
tive king,  threatened  with  destruction  by  the  prophet 

I  (Amos  i,  5,  where  the  Auth.  Vers,  renders  it  "  house 
of  Eden");  probably  the  name  of  a  country  residence 
of  the  kings  of  Damascus.  Michaelis  (Suppl.  ad  Leg. 
Hebr.  s.  v.),  following  Laroque's  description,  and  mis- 
led by  an  apparent  resemblance  in  name,  identified  it 
with  Ehdeh,  about  a  day's  journey  from  Baalbek,  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Libanus,  and  near  the  old 
cedars  of  Bshirrai.  Baur  (Amos,  p.  224),  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Mohammedan  tradition  that  one  of  the 
four  terrestrial  paradises  was  in  the  valley  between 
the  ranges  of  the  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus,  is  in- 
clined to  favor  the  same  hypothesis.  But  Grotius, 
with  greater  appearance  of  probability,  pointed  to  the 
Paradise  (nanactiaoc,  park)  of  Ptolemy  (v,  15)  as  the 
locality  of  Eden.     The  village  Jushh  el-Kadimeh,  a 

:  site  with  extensive  ruins,  about  H  hour  S.E.  of  Kib- 
lah,  near  the  Orontes,  but  now  a  paradise  no  longer, 
is   supposed   by   Dr.  Robinson    (Later  Researches,  p. 

|  556)  to  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  Paradisus  ;  and 
his  suggestion  is  approved  by  Mr.  Porter  (Hondo,  p. 
577),   but   doubted  by  Bitter  (Erdh.  xvii,    997-999). 

!  Again,  it  has  been  conjectured  that  Beth-Eden  is  no 

|  other  than  Beit-Jenn,  "the  house  of  Paradise,"  not 
far  to  the   south-west  of  Damascus,  on  the  eastern 

j  slope  of  the  Hermon,  and  a  short  distance  from  Medjel. 
It  stands  on  a  branch  of  the  ancient  Pharpar,  near  its 
source  (Bosenmuller,  Bill.  Alt.  ii,  291;  Hitzig,  Amos, 
in  loc. ;  Porter,  Damascus,  i,  :'<!! ). 

Beth-e'ked  (Heb,  Beyth-E'Iced,  -<\:?—-Z.  house 
of  the  binding,  se.  of  sheep ;  Sept.  BaSrcucc'tZ- ;  Vulg. 
camera;  Targum  X;~"  "'■t"?  ~"5?  place  of  shep- 
herds' gathering),  the  name  of  a  place  near  Samaria. 
being  the  "shearing-bouse"  at  the  pit  or  well  ("12) 
of  which  the  forty-two  brethren  of  Ahaziah  were  slain 
by  Jehu  (•_'  Kings  x,  12,  14,  in  the  former  of  which  oc- 
curr  nees  it  is  fully  Br.Tii-E'KED-IlARo'iM,  having  the 
addition  Dh5*li1,  h'i-Itii>in'.  <f  the  shepherds,  Sept.  -o,v 
—Di/i  \vtov,  for  which  no  equivalent  appears  in  the  Auth. 
Vers.).     It  lay  between  Jezrccl  and  Samaria,  acconl- 


BETHEL 


115 


BETH-EL 


ing  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  BaiSaicaS,  ' 
Bethachad),  15  miles  from  the  town  of  Legio,  and  in 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  It  is  doubtless  the  Beit-Kad 
noticed  by  Robinson  {Researches,  iii,  157)  on  the  edge 
of  "the  j^reat plain,"  east  of  Jenin,  and  located  on  Van 
de  Velde's  Map  along  the  south  face  of  Mt.  Gilboa,  5i 
miles  west  of  Beisan,  at  the  exact  distance  (in  Roman 
miles)  from  Lejjun  indicated  in  the  Onamastkon. 

Beth'-el  (lleb.  Btyth-El' ,  S^TPS,  house  of  God 
[see  below]  ;  Sept.  usually  haiSrfjX  ;  Josephus  [r«] 
lii)Si]\a,  or  [</]  H;y.j/;,\;y),  the  name  of  one  or  two  towns. 

1.  A  city  of  central  Palestine,  memorable  as  a  holy 
site  from  early  times.  Many  have  inferred  (from 
Judg.  i,  23,  2G;  Josh,  xviii,  13)  that  it  was  the  same 
place  originally  called  Luz  (q.  v.),  but  from  other  pas- 
sages it  appears  that  they  were  different,  although 
contiguous  (see  below).  Of  the  origin  of  the  name 
Bethel  there  are  two  accounts  extant:  1.  It  was  be- 
stowed on  the  spot  by  Jacob  under  the  awe  inspired 
by  the  nocturnal  vision  of  God  when  on  his  journey 
from  his  father's  house  at  Bcershcba  to  seek  his  wife 
in  Haran  (Gen.  xxviii,  19).  He  took  the  stone  which 
had  served  for  his  pillow  and  put  (p'^)  it  for  a  pillar, 
and  anointed  it  with  oil ;  and  he  "  called  the  name  of 
that  place  (Sffl  C'^p^)  Bethel ;  but  the  name  of  'the' 
city  (T^in)  was  called  Luz  at  the  first."  The  ex- 
pression in  the  last  paragraph  of  this  account  is  cu- 
rious, and  indicates  a  distinction  between  the  early 
Canaanite  "city"  Luz  and  the  "place,"  as  yet  a  mere 
undistinguished  spot,  marked  only  by  the  "stone"  or 
the  heap  (Joseph,  role,  \i8oig  ov/.trpopovpivoic,')  erected 
by  Jacob  to  commemorate  his  vision.  2.  But,  accord- 
ing to  the  other  account,  Bethel  received  its  name  on  < 
the  occasion  of  a  blessing  bestowed  by  God  upon  Ja- 
cob after  his  return  from  Padan-aram,  at  which  time 
also  (according  to  this  narrative)  the  name  of  Israel 
was  given  him.  Here  again  Jacob  erects  (3£??)  a  : 
"pillar  of  stone,"  which,  as  before,  he  anoints  with 
oil  (Gen.  xxxv,  14,  15).  The  key  of  this  story  would 
seem  to  be  the  fact  of  God's  "speaking"  with  Jacob. 
"  God  went  up  from  him  in  the  place  where  He  '  spake' 
with  him" — "Jacob  set  up  a  pillar  in  the  place  where 
He  'spake'  with  him,"  and  "called  the  name  of  the 
place  where  God  spake  with  him  Bethel."  Although 
these  two  narratives  evidently  represent  distinct 
events,  yet,  as  would  appear  to  be  the  case  in  other 
instances  in  the  lives  of  the  patriarchs,  the  latter  is  i 
but  a  renewal  of  the  original  transaction.  It  is  per- 
haps worth  notice  that  the  prophet  Hosea,  in  the  only 
reference  which  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  contain  to  this 
occurrence,  had  evidently  the  second  of  (,hc  two  nar- 
ratives before  him,  since  in  a  summary  of  the  life  of 
Jacob  lis  introduces  it  in  the  order  in  -which  it  occurs 
in  Genesis,  laying  full  ami  characteristic  stress  on  the 
key- word  of  the  story:  "lie  had  power  over  the  angel 
and  prevailed;  he  wept  and  made  supplication  unto 
him  ;  He  found  him  in  Bethel,  and  there  Ho  spake  with 
us,  even  Jehovah,  God  of  hosts"  (IIos.  xii,  4,  5).  Both 
these  accounts  agree  in  omitting  any  mention  of  town 
or  buildings  at  Bethel  at  that  early  period,  and  in  draw- 
ing a  marked  distinction  between  the  "city"  of  Luz 
and  the  consecrated  "place"  in  its  neighborhood 
(comp.  Cen.  xxxv,  7).  Even  in  the  ancient  chroni- 
cles of  the  conquest  the  two  are  still  distinguished 
(Josh,  xvi,  1,  2);  and  the  appropriation  of  the  name 
j>f  Bethel  to  the  city  appears  not  to  have,  been  made 
till  yet  later,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  after  which  the  name  of  Luz  occurs  no  more 
(Judg.  i,  22-26).  If  this  view  be  correct,  there  is  a 
strict  parallel  between  Bethel  and  Moriah,  which  (ac- 
cording to  the  tradition  commonly  followed)  received 
its  consecration  when  Abraham  offered  up  Isaac,  but 
did  not  become  the  site  of  an  actual  sanctuary  till  the 
erection  of  the  Temple  there  by  Solomon.  See  Mo- 
BiAH.     The  actual  stone  of  Bethel  itself  is  the  sub- 


ject of  a  Jewish  tradition,  according  to  which  it  was 
removed  to  the  second  Temple,  and  served  as  the  ped- 
estal for  the  ark,  where  it  survived  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple  by  the  Romans,  and  was  resorted  to  by  the 
Jews  in  their  lamentations  (Reland,  Palcesl.  p.  638). 

At  a  still  earlier  date,  according  to  Gen.  xii,  c*,  the 
name  of  Bethel  would  appear  to  have  existed  at  this 
spot  even  before  the  arrival  of  Abram  in  Canaan  :  he 
removed  from  the  oaks  of  Morch  to  "  '  the'  mountain 
on  the  east  of  Bethel,"  with  "  Bethel  on  the  west  and 
Hai  on  the  east."  Here  he  built  an  altar  ;  and  hither 
he  returned  from  Egypt  with  Lot  before  their  separa- 
tion (xiii,  3,  4).  In  these  passages,  however,  the  name 
seems  to  lie  used  proleptically,  with  reference  to  the 
history  of  Jacob.  After  his  prosperous  return,  Bethel 
became  a  favorite  station  with  Jacob ;  here  he  built  an 
altar,  buried  Deborah,  received  the  name  of  Israel  (for 
the  second  time),  and  promises  of  blessing;  and  here 
also  he  accomplished  the  vow  which  he  had  made  en 
his  going  forth  (Gen.  xxxv,  1-15  ;  comp.  xxxii,  28, 
and  xxviii,  20-22).  Although  not  a  town  in  those 
early  times,  at  the  conquest  of  the  land  Bethel  (unless 
this  be  a  different  place  [see  below])  is  mentioned  as  a 
royal  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Josh,  xii,  1C).  It  became 
a  boundary  town  of  Benjamin  toward  Ephraim  (Josh. 
xviii,  22),  and  was  actually  conquered  by  the  latter 
tribe  from  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  i,  22-26).  In  the 
troubled  times  when  there  Mas  no  king  in  Israel,  it 
was  to  Bethel  that  the  people  went  up  in  their  distress 
to  ask  counsel  of  God  (Judg.  xx,  18,  31 ;  xxi,  2;  in 
the  A.  V.  the  name  is  translated  "house  of  God)." 
At  this  place,  already  consecrated  in  the  time  of  the 
patriarchs,  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was,  apparently  for 
a  long  while,  deposited  [see  Ark],  and  probably  the 
tabernacle  also  (Judg.  xx,  26;  comp.  1  Sam.  x,  3), 
under  the  charge  of  Phinehas,  the  grandson  of  Aaron, 
with  an  altar  and  proper  appliances  for  the  offering  of 
burnt-offerings  and  peace-offerings  (xxi,  4);  and  the 
unwonted  mention  of  a  regular  road  or  causeway  as 
existing  between  it  and  the  great  town  of  Shechem  is 
doubtless  an  indication  that  it  was  already  in  much 
repute.  It  was  also  one  of  the  places  at  which  Samuel 
held  in  rotation  his  court  of  justice  (1  Sam.  vii,  16). 
After  the  separation  of  the  kingdoms  Bethel  was  in- 
cluded in  that  of  Israel,  which  seems  to  show  that  al- 
though originally,  in  the  formal  distribution,  assigned 
to  Benjamin,  it  had  been  actually  possessed  by  Ephraim 
in  right  of  conquest  from  the  Canaanites,  a  fact  that 
may  have  been  held  by  that  somewhat  unscrupulous 
tribe  as  determining  their  right  of  possession  to  a  place 
of  importance  close  on  their  own  frontier.  Jerol  oam 
made  it  the  southern  seat  (Dan  being  the  northern)  of 
the  worship  of  the  golden  calves  ;  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  the  chief  seat  of  that  worship  (1  Kings  xii,  28-.r3  : 
xiii,  1).  The  choice  of  Bethel  was  probably  determined 
by  the  consideration  that  the  spot  was  already  sacred 
in  the  estimation  of  the  Israelites,  not  only  from  patri- 
archal consecration,  but  from  the  more  recent  presence 
of  the  ark  ;  which  might  seem  to  point  it  out  ;  s  a 
proper  seat  for  an  establishment  designed  to  rival  that 
of  Jerusalem.  This  appropriation,  however,  complete- 
ly desecrated  Bethel  in  the  estimation  of  the  orthodox 
Jews ;  and  the  prophets  name  it  with  abhorrence  and 
contempt — even  applying  to  it,  1  ly  a  sort  of  jeu  de  mot,  the 
name  of  Betii-avex  (house  of  idols')  instead  of  Beth-el 
(house  of  God)  (Amos  v,  5  ■  llos.  iv,  15;  v,  8;  x,  5,  8). 
Tho  town  was  taken  from  Jeroboam  by  Abijah,  king 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xiii,  10);  but  it  again  reverted  to 
Israel  (2  Kings  x,  28),  being  probably  recovered  by 
Baasha  (2  Chron.  xvi,  1).  It  then  remains  unmen- 
tioned  for  a  long  period.  The  worship  of  Baal,  intro- 
duced by  the  Phoenician  queen  of  Ahab  (1  Kings  xvi, 
31),  bad  probably  alienated  public  favor  from  the  sim- 
ple erections  of  Jeroboam  to  more  gorgeous  shrines 
(2  Kings  x,  21,  22).  Samaria  had  been  built  (1  Kings 
xvi,  24),  and  Jezreel,  and  these  things  must  have  all 
tended  to  draw  public  notice  to  the  more  northern  part 


BETHEL  1 

of  the  kingdom.  It  was  during  this  period  that  Elijah 
visited  Bethel,  and  that  we  hear  of  "sons  of  the 
prophets"  as  resident  there  (2  Kings  ii,  2,  3),  two  facts 
apparently  incompatible  with  the  active  existence  of 
tli  •  <  alf-worship.  The  mention  of  the  bears  so  close  to 
t!i  •  town  (Hi,  23,  25)  looks,  too,  as  if  the  neighborhood 
;  much  frequented  at  that  time.  But  after  his 
dastruction  of  the  Baal  worship  throughout  the  coun- 
try, Jehu  appears  to  have  returned  to  the  simpler  and 
more  nation  d  religion  of  the  calves,  and  Bethel  comes 
once  more  into  view  (2  Kings  x,  29).  Under  the  de- 
scendants of  this  king  the  place  and  the  worship  must 
have  greatly  flourished,  for  by  the  time  of  Jeroboam 
II,  the  great-grandson  of  Jehu,  the  rude  village  was 
a:ain  a  royal  residence  with  a  "king's  house"  (Amos 
vii,  13);  there  were  palaces  both  for  "winter"  and 
"summer,"  "great  houses"  and  "houses  of  ivory" 
(iii,  15),  and  a  very  high  degree  of  luxury  in  dress, 
furniture,  and  living  (vi,  4-6).  The  one  original  altar 
was  now  accompanied  by  several  others  (iii,  14;  ii,  8); 
and  the  simple  "incense"  of  its  founder  had  developed 
into  the  "burnt-offerings"  and  "meat-offerings"  of 
"solemn  assemblies,"  with  the  fragrant  " peace-offer- 
ings" of  "fat  beasts"  (v,  21,  22). 

Bethel  was  the  scene  of  the  paradoxical  tragedy  of 
the  prophet  from  Judah,  who  denounced  the  divine 
vengeance  against  Jeroboam's  altar,  and  was  after- 
ward slain  by  a  lion  for  disobeying  the  Lord's  injunc- 
tions, being  seduced  by  the  false  representations  of 
another  prophet  residing  there,  by  whom  his  remains 
were  interred,  and  thus  both  were  eventually  preserved 
from  profanation  (1  Kings  xiii ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  16-18). 
Josephus  gives  the  name  of  the  prophet  from  Judah  as 
.Tad  m,  and  adds  an  extended  account  of  the  character 
of  the  old  Bethelite  prophet  {Ant.  viii,  9),  which  he 
paints  in  the  darkest  hues  (see  Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Must. ; 
Patrick's  ami  Clarke's  Comment.,  in  loe.)  The  lion 
probably  issued  from  the  grove  adjoining  Bethel  (comp. 
2  K  ings  ii,  23,  24).  (See  Keil,  Com.  on  Josh.  p.  180-182 ; 
Stiebritz,  be  prophet  a  a  leone  necato,  Hal.  1733). 

After  the  desolation  of  the  northern  kingdom  by  the 
King  of  Assyria,  Bethel  still  remained  an  abode  of 
priests,  who  taught  the  wretched  colonists  "how  to 
fear  Jehovah,"  "the  God  of  the  land"  (2  Kings  xvii, 
28,  J'.»  i.  The  buildings  remained  till  all  traces  of  this 
illegal  worship  were  extirpated  by  Josiah,  king  of 
Judah,  who  thus  fulfilled  a  prophecy  made  to  Jeroboam 
850  years  before  (2  Kings  xiii,  i,  2;  xxiii,  15-18). 
Th  •  place  was  still  in  existence  after  the  captivity, 
and  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Benjamites  (Ezra  ii, 
28;  Noli,  vii,  32),  who  returned  to  their  native  place 
while  continuing  their  relations  with  Nehemiah  and 
the  restored  worship  (Neh.  xi,  31).  In  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees  Bethel  was  fortified  by  Bacehides  for  the 
King  of  Syria  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xiii,  1,  1:',).  It  is  not 
n  on  sd  in  tlm  New  Testament,  but  it  still  existed  and 
v.a-  taken  by  Vespasian  (Josephus,  War,  iv,  9,  9). 
Bethel  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  in  the 
Mem  (<.  v.  H«(3ri//\,  Bethel)  as  12  miles  from 
Jerus  dem,  on  the  right  hand  of  the  road  to  Sichem. 

B  -lb  ■]  and  its  name  were  believed  to  have  perished 
until  within  these  few  years;  yet  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained by  the  Protestant  missionaries  at  Jerusalem 
that  th-  name  ami  a  knowledge)  of  the  site  still  existed 

among  the  i pie  of  the  laud.     The  name  was  indeed 

preserved  in  the  f- »nu  of  Beifin—iha  Arabic  termina- 
tion ,„  for  tic-  Hebrew  el  beingnot  an  unusual  change. 

Its  identity  with  Bethel  had  been  r< gnised  by  the 

Oriental  Christian  priests,  who  endeavored  to  bring 
int..  us  s  the  Arabic  form  Beitil,  as  being  nearer  to  the 
original;  bul  it  had  not  ton, id  currency  beyond  the 
chrcle  of  their  influence.  The  situation  of  Beit'in  cor- 
responds very  exactly  with  the  intimations  afforded 
bios  and  others,  the  distance  fr.au  Jerusalem 
lieing  :s ;  hours.  Th.-  nun-  ,,,,,,  „,•  a  >|i;„.(. ,,,- ..  ,1,,.,,,,  , ,. 
four  acres,"  and  oonaist  of  •■very  many  foundations 
und  half-standing  walla  uf  houses  and  other  buildings," 


6  BETHER 

"  They  lie  upon  the  front  of  a  low  hill,  between  the 
heads  of  two  hollow  wadys,  which  unite  and  run  off 
into  the  main  valley  es-Suweinit"(Robinson,/?ese«/(7w, 
ii,  125, 126).  Dr.  Clarke,  and  other  travellers  since  his 
visit,  have  remarked  on  the  "  stony"  nature  of  the  soil 
at  Bethel  as  perfectly  in  keeping  with  the  narrative 
of  Jacob's  slumber  there.  When  on  the  spot  little 
doubt  can  be  felt  as  to  the  localities  of  this  interesting 
place.  The  round  mount  S.E.  of  Bethel  must  be  the 
"mountain"  on  which  Abrain  built  the  altar,  and  or. 
which  he  and  Lot  stood  when  the}'  made  their  division 
of  the  land  (Gen.  xii,  7;  xiii,  10).  It  is  still  thickly 
strewn  to  its  top  with  stones  formed  by  nature  for  the 
building  of  an  "  altar"  or  sanctuary.  (See  Stanley,  Si- 
nai and  Palest,  p.  217-223).  The  spot  is  shut  in  by  high- 
er land  on  every  side.  The  ruins  are  more  considerable 
than  those  of  a  "large  village,"  as  the  place  was. in 
the  time  of  Jerome  ;  and  it  is  therefore  likely  that,  al- 
though unnoticed  in  history,  it  afterward  revived  and 
was  enlarged.  The  ruined  churches  upon  the  site  and 
beyond  the  valley  evince  that  it  was  a  place  of  import- 
ance even  down  to  the  Middle  Ages.  Besides  these, 
there  yet  remain  numerous  foundations  and  half-stand- 
ing walls  of  houses  and  other  buildings  :  on  the  highest 
part  are  the  ruins  of  a  square  tower,  and  in  the  western 
valley  arc  the  remains  of  one  of  the  largest  reservoirs 
in  the  country,  being  314  feet  in  length  by  217  in 
breadth.  The  bottom  is  now  a  green  grass-plat,  hav- 
ing in  it  two  living  springs  of  good  water.  (See  Hack- 
ett's  Illustra.  of  Script,  p.  171-178). 

Professor  Robinson  {Biblioth.  Sac.  1843,  p.  456  sq.) 
thinks  that  Bethel  may  be  identical  with  the  Bether, 
not  far  from  Jerusalem,  where  the  revolt  under  Bar- 
cocheba  (q.  v.),  in  the  time  of  Adrian,  was  finally  ex- 
tinguished (Euseb.  Hist.  Ecc.  iv,  6)  ;  the  Betarum,  which 
lay  18  Roman  miles  from  CVsarea  toward  Lydda  {Itin. 
Ant.  p.  150),  and  differently  named  and  located  by 
other  ancient  notices.  This  place,  he  shows,  is  once 
called  Bethel  (Jerome,  Comment,  in  Zach.  iii,  13) ;  and 
Bethel  is  once  called  Bethar  (Bourdeaux  Pilgrim,  Itin. 
Hieros.  p.  588).     See  Bether. 

2.  A  town  in  the  south  part  of  Judah  (1  Sam.  xxx, 
27,  where  the  collocation  of  the  name  is  decisive  against 
its  being  the  well-known  Bethel ;  many  copies  of  the 
Sept.  read  RaiOaovp,  i.  e.  Bethzur).  Perhaps  the  same 
city  is  denoted  in  Josh,  xii,  16 ;  but  comp.  ch.  viii,  17. 
By  comparison  of  the  lists  of  the  towns  of  Judah  and 
Simeon  (Josh,  xv,  30 ;  xix,  4  ;  1  Chron.  v,  29,  30),  the 
place  appears  to  have  borne  also  the  names  of  Chesil, 
Bethul  (q.  v.),  and  Bethuel. 

Beth/elite  (Ileb.  Beythha-EU',  "O^ri  rl^S;  Sept. 
6  Bn(3-(/Xir/;c),  a  designation  of  Iliel,  who  rebuilt  Jeri- 
cho, and  experienced  the  curse  pronounced  long  before 
(1  Kings  xvi,  34)  ;  doubtless  a  native  of  Bethel  in  Ben- 
jamin. 

Beth-e'mek  (Heb.  Beyth  ha-E'mel,  pOSri  11^3, 
house  of  the  valley ;  Sept.  BaiScnpe k  v.  r.  BaiSpi),  a 
city  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  apparently  near  its  S.E. 
border  (Josh,  xix,  27).  Dr.  Robinson  found  a  village 
called  Amkah  about  eight  miles  X.E.  of  Akka  {Biblioth, 
Sacra,  1*53,  p.  121),  which  is  probably  the  place  in 
question,  although  he  suggests  that  the  above  text 
seems  to  requiro  a  position  south  of  the  "valley  of 
Jiphthah-el" or  Jefat  {Later  Bib.  Researches,  p.  103,  i 08 '. 
The  identification  proposed  by  Schwarz  {Palest,  p.  192) 
with  the  modern  Amiuka  (according  to  him  also  no- 
ticed in  the  Talmud),  12  miles  N.N.W.  of  Safed,  is  al- 
together out  of  the  region  indicated. 

Be'ther  (Ileb.  id.  "£),  the  name  of  certain 
"mountains"  mentioned  only  in  Cant,  ii,  17.  The 
word  moans,  properly,  dissection  (as  in  Gen.  v,  10; 
Jer.  xxxiv,  18,  19,  "  piece")  ;  the  mountains  of  Bether 
may  therefore  he  mountains  of  disjunction,  of  separation, 
that  is,  mountains  cut  up,  divided  ly  ravines,  etc. 
The  Sept,  gives  ppn  KoiXioparwi',  inountaius  of 'hollows. 


BETHESDA 


V77 


BETHESDA 


in  this  sense.  They  may  he  the  same  with  those  ren- 
dered "mountains  of  spices"  in  viii,  14,  from  the  growth 
of  trees  from  which  odorous  gums  distilled.     See  Bitii- 

RON. 

If  it  be  the  name  of  a  place,  it  may  possibly  be  iden- 
tical with  the  Bether  where  the  impostor  Barcocheba 
(q.  v.)  was  at  last  overcome  by  Hadrian  (sec  the  Ze- 
mach  DavU,  cited  by  Eisenmenger,  Entdeck.  Judenth. 
ii,  65G),  a  strongly  fortified  city  (see  Buxtorf,  Lex. 
Talm.  col.  371,  where  the  Heb.  form  is  given  "ir"1^, 
Either,  Chald.  X1P3,  Bithra;  the  correct  pointing 
being  perhaps  "irn?i  i.  e.  Baethar,  for  *iFrrPSl,  Beth- 
Tar,  Lat.  Bethei;  Biter,  etc.),  not  far  from  Jerusalem 
(B&Sripa,  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  iv,  6).  For  the  his- 
tory of  the  campaign  at  this  place,  see  Munter,  Jud. 
Krieg.  §  20,  translated  under  the  title  "Jewish  War 
under  Adrian,"  in  the  Biblioth"ca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  393 
sq.  ;  and  for  notices  of  the  place,  see  the  editor's  re- 
marks appended  to  the  translation,  p.  456  sq.  The 
locality  is  thought  by  Dr.  Robinson  (Later  Bib.  Re- 
searches, p.  26(3-271)  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the 
Benjamite  Bethel  (q.  v.),  the  modern  Beitin;  but  Wil- 
liams (Ho'y  City,  ii,  210)  and  Stewart  (Tent  and  Khan, 
p.  347),  apparently  with  better  reason,  fix  it  in  the 
present  village  Bittir,  two  hours  W.S.W.  of  Jerusalem 
(Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  295).  This  latter  position 
also  seems  to  agree  with  that  of  a  Bether  (Bat&r/p,  i.  e. 
Bcether,  v.  r.  Qrj^fjp)  mentioned  by  the  Sept.  in  Josh. 
xv,  59,  among  the  names  of  an  additional  group  of 
eleven  towns  near  Bethlehem,  in  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(q.  v.),  thought  by  some  to  have  accidentally  dropped 
from  the  Heb.  text  (see  Keil,  Comment,  in  loc). 

Evidently  different  from  this  place  was  a  Bether 
(with  the  same  orthography)  mentioned  in  the  Talmud 
as  lying  four  Roman  miles  from  the  sea  (see  Reland, 
Palcest.  p.  639),  the  Betarum  (of  the  Itin.  Anton,  and 
Hieros.)  on  the  way  from  Cresarea  to  Antipatris ;  now 
probably  the  village  of  Barin,  about  1^  hour  south  of 
Kakun  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  144 ;  Van  de  Velcle,  Me- 
moir, p.  295). 

Bethes'da  (Bifierred,  for  Chald.  inSH  PHS,  house 
of  the  mercy,  q.  d.  charity-hospital ;  or,  according  to 
others,  for  Chald.  XTIJX  rP3,  place  of  the  fuming,  sc. 
of  water),  the  name  of  a  reservoir  or  tank  (koXwjujS^- 
6pa,  i.  e.  swimming-pool),  with  five  "  porches"  (rTroat), 
close  upon  the  sheep-gate  or  "market"  (ttri  ry  7rpo- 
(iariKy — it  will  be  observed  that  the  word  "market" 
is  supplied)  in  Jerusalem  (John  v,  2).  The  porches — 
i.  e.  cloisters  or  colonnades — were  extensive  enough  to 
accommodate  a  large  number  of  sick  and  infirm  people, 
whose  custom  it  was  to 
wait  there  for  the  "troub- 
ling of  the  water."  One 
of  these  invalids  is  re- 
corded to  have  been  cured 
by  Christ  in  the  above 
passage,  where  also  we 
are  told  that  an  angel 
went  down  at  a  certain 
season  into  the  pool  and 
troubled  the  water,  and 
then  whoever  first  step- 
ped in  was  mad  i  whole. 
There  seems  to  have  been 
no  special  medicinal  vir- 
tue in  the  water  itself,  and 
only  he  who  first  stepped 
in  after  the  troubling  was 
healed.  It  may  be  re- 
marked that  the  evan- 
gelist, in  giving  the  ac- 
count of  the  descent  of 
the  angel  into  the  pool 
and  the  effects  following, 
does  not  seem  to  do  any 


more  than  state  the  popular  legend  as  he  found  it, 
without  vouching  for  its  truth,  except  so  far  as  it  ex- 
plained the  invalid's  presence  there. 

Eusebius  and  Jerome — though  unfortunately  they 
give  no  clew  to  the  situation  of  Bethesda — describe  it 
in  the  Onomasticon  (s.  v.  BnZ,a$d,  Bethesda)  as  exist- 
ing in  their  time  as  two  pools,  the  one  supplied  by  the 
periodical  rains,  while  the  water  of  the  other  was  of  a 
reddish  color,  due,  as  the  tradition  then  ran,  to  the 
fact  that  the  flesh  of  the  sacrifices  was  anciently  wash- 
ed there  before  offering,  on  which  account  the  pool 
was  also  called  "the  Sheep-pool"  (Pecualis,  IIpo- 
fiaTiKif).  See,  however,  the  comments  of  Lightfoot 
on  this  view,  in  his  Exercit.  on  St.  John,  v,  2.  Euse- 
bius's  statement  is  partly  confirmed  by  the  Bordeaux 
Pilgrim  (A.D.  333),  who  mentions  in  his  Itinerary 
"twin  fish-pools,  having  five  porches,  which  are  called 
Bethsaida"  (quoted  in  Barclay,  p.  299).  The  large 
reservoir  called  by  the  Mohammedans  Birket  Israil, 
within  the  walls  of  the  city,  close  by  the  St.  Stephen's 
gate,  and  under  the  north-east  wall  of  the  Haram  area, 
is  generally  considered  to  be  the  modern  representa- 
tive of  Bethesda.  This  tradition  reaches  back  cer- 
tainly to  the  time  of  Sacwulf,  A.D.  1102,  who  mentions 
it  under  the  name  of  Bethsaida  (Early  Trav.  p.  41).  It 
is  also  named  in  the  Citez  de  Jherusalem,  A.D.  1187 
(sect,  vii),  and  in  more  modern  times  by  Manndrell 
and  all  the  h.te  travellers.  The  pool  measures  360 
feet  in  length,  130  feet  in  breadth,  and  75  in  depth  to 
the  bottom,  besides  the  rubbish  which  has  accumu- 
lated in  it  for  ages.  Although  it  has  been  <\xy  for 
above  two  centuries,  it  was  once  evidently  used  as  a 
reservoir,  for  the  sides  internally  have  been  cased  over 
with  small  stones,  and  these  again  covered  with  plas- 
ter ;  but  the  workmanship  of  these  additions  is  coarse, 
and  bears  no  special  marks  of  antiquity.  The  west 
end  is  built  up  like  the  rest,  except  at  the  south-west 
corner,  where  two  lofty  arched  vaults  extended  west- 
ward, side  by  side,  under  the  houses  that  now  cover 
this  part.  Dr.  Robinson  was  aide  to  trace  the  contin- 
uation of  the  work  in  this  direction  under  one  of  these 
vaults  for  100  feet,  and  it  seemed  to  extend  much 
farther.  Tins  gives  the  whole  a  length  of  KJ0  feet, 
equal  to  one  half  of  the  whole  extent  of  the  sacred  en- 
closure under  which  it  lies.  Mr.  Wolcott,  writing 
since,  says,  "  The  southern  vault  extends  130  feet,  and 
the  other  apparently  the  same.  At  the  extremity  of 
the  former  was  an  opening  for  drawing  up  water. 
The  vaults  are  stuccoed"  (JJib/iotheca  Sacra,  1843,  p. 
33).  It  would  seem  as  if  the  deep  reservoir  formerly 
extended  farther  westward  in  this  part,  and  that  these 
vaults  were  built  up  in  and  over  it  in  order  to  support 


Traditionary  "  Pool  of  Bethesda. 


BETII-EZEL 


778 


BETH-HOGLA 


the  structures  above.  Dr.  Robinson  considers  it  prob- 
able that  this  excavation  was  anciently  carried  quite 
through  the  ridge  of  Bezetha,  along  the  northern  side 
ofAntonia  to  its  N.W.  corner,  thus  forming  the  deep 
trench  which  separated  the  fortress  from  the  adjacent  kill 

(Bib.  Res hes,  i,  133,  434).     'ihe  little  that  can  be 

said  on  the  subject,  however,  goes  nearly  as  much  to 
confirm  as  to  invalidate  the  traditionary  identification. 
^i  i  On  the  one  hand,  the  most  probable  position  of  the 
Bheep-gate  is  at  the  cast  part  of  the  city.  See.  Sheep- 
gate.  ( )n  the  other  hand,  the  Birlcet  Israil  exhibits 
none,  of  the  marks  which  appear  to  have  distinguished 
the  water  of  Bethcsda  in  the  records  of  the  Evangelist 
and  of  Eusebius  ;  it  certainly  is  neither  pentagonal  nor 
double.  (2)  The  construction  of  the  Eirlcch  is  such 
as  to  .-how  that  il  was  originally  a  water-reservoir, 
and  not  the  moat  of  a  fortress.  See  Jerusalem.  (3) 
There  is  certainly  a  remarkable  coincidence  between 
the  name  as  given  by  Eusebius,  Bezatha,  and  that  of 
the  north-east  suburb  of  the  city  at  the  time  of  the 
Gospel  history — Bezetha  (q.  v.).  (-i)  There  is  the 
difficulty  that  if  the  Birhet  Israil  be  not  Bethesda, 
which  of  the  ancient  "pools"  does  it  represent?  On 
the  whole,  however,  the  most  probable  identification  of 
the  ancient  Bcthesda  is  that  of  Dr.  Robinson  (i,  508), 
who  suggests  the  "fountain  of  the  Virgin,"  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Kedron,  a  short  distance  above  the  Pool  of 
Siloam.  In  favor  of  this  arc  its  situation,  supposing 
the  sheep-gate  to  be  at  the  south-east  of  the  city,  as 
Lightfoot,  Rol  linson,  and  others  suppose,  and  the  strange 
intermittent  "troubling  of  the  water"  caused  by  the 
periodical  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  supply.  Against 
it  are  the  confined  size  of  the  pool,  and  the  difficulty  of 
finding  room  for  the  five  stose.  (Sec  Barclay's  de- 
tailed account,  City  of  the  Great  King,  p.  516-524,  and 
325,  6.)     See  Jerusalem. 

For  rabbinical  allusions  to  this  subject,  see  Light- 
foot,  in  loc.  Joh. ;  for  a  discussion  of  the  medical  qual- 
ities of  the  water,  see  Bartholin,  De  paralytic.  N.  T.  p. 
898;  Mead,  Med.  Sacr.  c.  8;  Witsius,  Miscell.  ii,  2-19 
sq. ;  D'Outrein,  in  the  Biblioth.  Brem.  i,  597  sq. ;  Rus, 
Harmon.  Evang.  i,  G80 ;  Eschenbach,  Scripta  Med.  Bibl. 
p.  GO  sq. ;  Stiebriz,  An  piscina  Beths.  calidis  aquis  nu- 
merari  queat  (Hal.  1739) ;  Reis,  Joseph]  s'dentium  ev. 
histories  mm  noxium  (Altorf.  1730),  p.  17  sq. ;  Richter, 
]i<  balneo  animali  (in  his  Dissert.  Med.  Gott.  1775,  p. 
107)  ;  Schulze,  in  the  Berlin  verm.  Abhandl.  ii,  146  sq. ; 
Jungmarker,  Bdliesdei  hand  balm  um  animate  (Gryph. 
1766)  ;  on  the  miracle,  treatises  are  by  Harenberg  (in 
tli-  Bibl.  Brem.  r,  vi,  p.  82  sq.),  Olearius  (hips.  1706), 
Ziebich  (Gerl.  1768),  Schelgvig  (Gcdan.  1681,  1701); 
also  general  treatises,  De  piscina  Bethesda,  by  Arnold 
(Jen.  1661),  Frischmuth  (den.  1661),  Hottingcr  (Tigur. 
1705),  Sommelius  (Lund.  1767),  Wendeler  (Viteb. 
1676).  The  place  has  been  described  more  or  less 
fully  by  nearly  every  traveller  in  Jerusalem.  (See 
especially  De  Saulcy,  Dead  Sea,  ii,  244  sq.) 

Beth-e'zel(I!eb.  Beyth  ha-E'tsel,  fesitfl  r^S,  house 
of  ilr  firm  root,  i.  c.  fixed  dwelling;  Sept.  translates 
oIkoq  i  xpptvoc,  avrije,  "neighboring  house,"  as  in  our 
margin),  a  town  in  Judsea,  mentioned  Mic.  i,  11,  where 
there  i,  an  allusion  to  Die  above  etymology.  Ephraem 
Svru  understands  a  place  near  Samaria;  but  the  con- 
text Beems  to  locate  ii  in  the  Philistine  plain,  perhaps 
•it  the  modern  Beit-Affa  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  369, 
miles  S.E.of  Ashdod  (Van  de  Veldc's  Map). 

Beth-ga'der  i  lie!,.  Beytk-Gader',  "Hr.-r^/tQwse 
o/the  wall}  Sept.  Qa&yiSwp  v.  r.  B&yi Stop),  a  place 
in  tbc>  tribe  of  Judah,  of  which  Hareph  is  named  as 
'■father''  or  founder  (1  Cbron.  ii,  51) ;  apparently  the 
same  with  the  GEDER  (q.  v.  )  of. I,,, |,.  xii,  1.'!,  and  prob- 
ably identical  also -with  theGEDOR(q.  v.)  of  Josh,  xix, 
5s.  a-  il    Mem-  (from  the  associated  names)  to  have 


been  in  the  mountains. 
Beth-ga'mul   (Heb. 


Beyth   Gamul',  Vi1 


house  of  the  weaned,  or  possibly  camel-honsc  ;  Sept.  oucoc 
Vaij-ioiX  v.  r.  FafiGtka),  a  city,  apparently  in  the  "  plain 
country"  of  Moab,  denounced  by  the  prophet  (Jcr. 
xlviii,  23).  Dr.  Smith  suggests  (Biblical  Researches, 
iii,  Append,  p.  153)  that  it  is  the  modern  Um-Jemal, 
a  ruined  site  on  the  road  (south  according  to  Burck- 
hardt,  p.  100)  from  Busrah  to  Dera  (his  Edrei)  ;  which 
is  probably  correct,  although  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  Moab  ever  extended  so  far  north.     See  Bozkaii. 

Beth-gaii.     Sec  Beth-haggax. 

Betll-gil'gal  (Heb.  Beylh  hag-Gilgal' ',  iaisil  IT'S; 
house  of  ihe  Gilgal ;  Sept.  omits,  but  some  copies  have 
Ba,Srya\ya\  v.  r.  Bi]Sayya\yd\),  a  place  from  which 
the  inhabitants  gathered  to  Jerusalem  for  the  purpose 
of  celebrating  the  rebuilding  of  the  walls  on  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Nch.  xii,  29,  where  the  name  is  tranf- 
lated  "house  of  Gilgal);"  doubtless  the  same  else- 
where called  simply  Gilgal  (q.  v.),  probably  that 
near  Bethel  (2  Kings  ii,  2). 

Eetli-hac'cerem  (Heb.  Beyth  hah-Ke'rem,  fl^3 
C")2ij,  house  of  thi.  vineyard;  Sept.  BifiaKxapip  [v.  r. 
Br/Bayyapip,  Biyjayyajiapii^C]  and  Bai^a\aojie'i  [v.  r. 
BrfiSaxap,  BnSaxappaJ),  a  place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
not  far  from  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii,  14),  where  the  chil- 
dren of  Benjamin  were  to  set  up  a  beacon  when  they 
blew  the  trumpet  of  warning  at  Tekoa  against  the  in- 
vading army  of  Babylonians  (Jer.  vi,  1).  From  the  no- 
tice in  Nehemiah,  it  appears  that  the  town,  like  a  few 
other  places,  was  distinguished  by  the  application  to 
it  of  the  word  pelek  ("r?Q,  Auth.  Vcr.  "part"),  and 
that  it  had  then  a  "ruler"  (""lb).  According  to  Je- 
rome (Comment,  in  loc.  Jer.),  there  was  a  village  call- 
ed Bethacharma,  situated  on  a  mountain  between  Jeru- 
salem and  Tekoa.  The  name  also  occurs  in  the  Tal- 
mud (Nidda  ii,  7;  Middoth.  iii,  4)  as  belonging  to  a 
valley  containing  a  quarry.  Hence  Pococke  (East, 
ii,  42)  suggests  that  this  was  the  fortress  Herodium 
(Uiithiiov  cr  'Hpwdaov), founded  by  Herod  the  Great 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xvi,  2,  1;  War,  i,  13,  8;  21,  10),  and 
where  he  died  (Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,  8,  3),  being  200 
stadia  from  Jericho  (Josephus,  War,  i,  £3,  8  ;  coir.p.  iii, 
3,  5),  and  identical  with  the  modern  "Frank  Moun- 
tain," or  Jebel  Furtidis  (Woleott,  in  the  BibUoiheea 
Sacra,  1843,  p.  69,  70) ;  but  this  is  denied  by  Robin- 
son (Researches,  ii,  174),  although  affirmed  by  "Wilson 
(Lands  of  Bible,  i,  £96),  Bonar  ( Mission  to  Jetcs,  p.  247), 
Stanley  (Sinai  and  Palest,  p.  163,  164),  and  Van  de 
Velde  (Narrative,  ii,  39).      See  Herodium. 

Beth-haccerem  (i.  e.  Beth-Kerem)  appears  also  to  be 
identical  with  Carem  (q.  v.),  one  of  the  towns  added 
in  the  Sept.  to  the  Hebrew  text  of  Josh,  xv,  59,  as  in 
the  mountains  of  Judah,  in  the  district  of  Bethlehem. 

Beth'-haggan  (Heb.  Beyth-hag-Gan',  'Jrj  r^3, 
house  of  the  garden ;  Sept.  BaiByc'iv;  Auth.  Vers,  "the 
garden-house,"  2  Kings  ix,  27),  one  of  the  spots  which 
marked  the  flight  of  Ahaziah  from  Jehu.  It  is  doubt- 
less the  same  place  as  En-gannim  (q.  v.)  of  Issachar 
(Josh,  xix,  21),  "  spring  of  gardens,"  the  modern  Jen'm, 
on  the  direct  road  from  Samaria  northward,  and  over- 
looking the  great  plain  (Stanley,  Palest,  p.  319,  note). 

Beth-lianan.     See  Eeon-betii-hanan. 

Beth-ha'ran  (Heb.  Beyth  Harem',  "JIM  rh2,  a 
variation  of  Beth-Haram;  Sept.  ?'/  Ba&apav),  one  of 
the  "fenced  cities"  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  "built"  by 
the  Gadites  (Num.  xxxii,  £6).  It  is  named  with  Beth- 
ninirah,  ami  therefore  is  no  doubt  the  same  place  as 
Beth-aram  (q.  v.),  accurately  Beth-harain  (Josh.  xiii. 
27).  The  name  is  not  found  in  the  lists  of  the  towns 
of  Moal>  in  Isaiah  (xv,  xvi),  Jeremiah  (xlviii),  and 
Ezckiel  (xxv,  9). 

Beth-hog'la  (Josh,  xv,  6)  or  Beth-hog'lah 
(Heb.  Beyth  Choghh',  n?:n  T\^,  partridge -house; 
though  Jerome  \_Onomast.  s.  v.  Area-atad,  where  he 


BETH-HOROX 


119 


BETH-HOROX 


states  that  Betagla  was  three  miles  from  Jericho  and  I 
two  from  the  Jordan]  gives  another  interpretation, 
locus  gyri,  reading  the  name  fibs;."  T^3,  and  connect- 
ing it  with  the  funeral  races  or  dances  at  the  mourn- 
ing for  Jacob  [see  Atad]  ;  Sept.  BtfiayXd  v.  r.  Bai9ay- 
\aap,  BeOtydiw,  BcuGaAaya),  a  place  on  the  border  of 
Judah  (Josh,  xv,  6)  and  of  Benjamin  (xviii,  19),  to 
which  latter  tribe  it  was  reckoned  as  belonging  (xviii, 
21).  Eusebius  and  Jerome  speak  (Onomast.  s.  v. 
BtiSraXaifi,  Bethagld)  of  two  villages  of  this  name,  but 
they  assign  them  both  to  the  vicinity  of  Gaza.  Jose- 
phus  (Ant.  xiii,  1,  5)  reads  Bethagla  (Br)Sa\aya,  doubt- 
less for  B>fiaya\d)  instead  of  the  Bethuasi  (q.  v.)  of 
1  Mace,  ix,  62.  Dr.  Robinson  found  a  ruined  site, 
doubtless  the  same,  called  by  the  Arabs  Kusr-Hajla, 
twenty  minutes  S.W.  by  W.  of  a  fine  spring  in  this 
region  called  by  the  same  name  (Ain-Hajla),  although 
he  saw  no  ruins  at  the  spring  itself  (Researches,  ii,  268). 
It  was  also  visited  by  M.  de  Saulcy,  who  states  that  he 
picked  up  large  cubes  of  primitive  mosaic  at  the  place, 
indicating,  in  his  opinion,  the  existence  of  a  Biblical 
city  in  the  neighborhood  (Narrative,  ii,  35) ;  comp. 
Wilson,  Lands  of  Bible,  ii,  15;  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  94. 

Beth-ho'ron  (Heb.  Beyth  Clwron' ',  "jinn  rP3  or 
"pin  ma,  once  [1  Kings  ix,  17]  "pH  FPSl,  in  Chron. 
fully  'j'hin  rP2,  house  of  the  hollow;  Sept.  BijSwpwv 
or  BaiSr ojpwv ;  BcuS'wp'w,  BatSrwpa,  and  BtScopov),  the 
name  of  two  towns  or  villages  (2  Chron.  viii,  5),  an 
"upper"  ("P"1?"^)  and  a  "nether"  Cji^Plfiftrt)  (Josh, 
xvi,  3,  5 ;  1  Chron.  vii,  24),  on  the  road  (2  Chron.  xxv, 
13  ;  Judith  iv,  4)  from  Gibeon  to  Azekah  (Josh,  x,  10, 
11)  and  the  Philistine  Plain  (1  Sam.  xiii,  18  ;  1  Mace, 
iii,  24).  Beth-horon  la}'  on  the  boundary-line  between 
Benjamin  and  Ephraim  (Josh,  xvi,  3,  5,  and  xviii,  13, 
14),  was  counted  to  Ephraim  (Josh,  xxi,  22;  1  Chron. 
vii,  24),  and  given  to  the  Kohathites  (Josh,  xxi,  22 ; 
1  Chron.  vi,  68  [53]).  In  a  remarkable  fragment  of 
early  history  (1  Chron.  vii,  24)  we  are  told  that  both 
the  upper  and  lower  towns  wen  built  by  a  woman  of 
Ephraim,  Sherah,  who  in  the  present  state  of  the  pas- 
sage appears  as  a  granddaughter  of  the  founder  of  her 
tribe,  and  also  as  a  direct  progenitor  of  the  great  lead- 
er with  whose  history  the  place  is  so  closely  connected. 
Nether  Beth-horon  lay  in  the  N.W.  corner  of  Benja- 
min; and  between  the  two  places  was  a  pass  called 
both  the  ascent  and  descent  of  Beth-horon,  leading 
from  the  region  of  Gibeon  (el-Jib)  down  to  the  western 
plain  (Josh,  xviii,  13,  14;  x,  10,  11;  1  Mace,  iii,  16, 
24).  Down  this  pass  the  five  kings  of  the  Amorites 
were  driven  by  Joshua  (Josh,  x,  11;  Ecclus.  xlvi,  6). 
The  upper  and  lower  towns  were  both  fortified  by 
Solomon  (1  Kings  x,  17  ;  2  Chron.  viii,  5).  At  one  of 
them  Nicanor  was  attacked  by  Judas  Maecabseus  ;  and 
it  was  afterward  fortified  by  Bacchides  (1  Mace,  vii, 
39  sq.  ;  ix,  50;  Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  10,  5;  xiii,  1,  3). 
Cestius  Gallus,  the  Roman  proconsul  of  Syria,  in  his 
march  from  Caesarea  to  Jerusalem,  after  having  burn- 
ed Lydda,  ascended  the  mountain  by  Beth-horon  and 
encamped  near  Gibeon  (Joseph.  War,  ii,  19,  1)  ;  and  it 
was  near  this  place  that  his  army  was  totally  cut  up 
(Joseph.  War,  ii,  19,  8  and  9).  In  the  time  of  Eusc 
bius  and  Jerome  (Onomast.  s.  v.  Bi/3.&onwi',  Bethoron) 
the  two  Beth-horons  were  small  villages,  the  upper 
Beth-horon  being  12  Roman  miles  from  Jerusalem; 
according  to  Josephus  (comp.  War,  ii,  12,  2,  with  Ant. 
xx,  4,  4)  it  was  100  stadia  from  thence,  and  50  stadia 
from  Gibeon.  From  the  time  of  Jerome  (Kpit.  run/. 
3)  the  place  appears  to  have  been  unnoticed  till  1801, 
when  Dr.  E.  I).  Clarke  recognised  it  in  the  present 
Beit-Ur  (Travels,  vol.  i,  pt.  ii,  p.  028);  after  which  it 
appears  to  have  remained  unvisited  till  1838,  when  the 
Rev.  J.  Paxton,  and,  a  few  days  after,  Dr.  Robinson 
arrived  at  the  place.  The  Lower  Beit-Ur  is  upon  the 
top  of  a  low  ridge,  which  is  separated  by  a  wady,  or 
narrow  valley,  from  the  foot  of  the  mountain  upon 


which  the  Upper  Beit-Ur  stands.  Both  are  now  in- 
habited villages.  The  lower  is  very  small,  but  foun- 
dations of  large  stones  indicate  an  ancient  site — doubt- 
less that  of  the  Nether  Beth-horon.  The  Upper  Beit- 
Ur  is  likewise  small,  but  also  exhibits  traces  of  ancient 
walls  and  foundations.  In  the  steep  ascent  to  it  the 
rock  is  in  some  parts  cut  away  and  the  path  formed 
into  steps,  indicating  an  ancient  road.  On  the  first 
offset  or  step  of  the  ascent  are  foundations  of  huge 
stones,  the  remains  perhaps  of  a  castle  that  once  guard- 
ed the  pass.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  places  are  still 
distinguished  as  Beit-Ur  el-Foka  (the  Upper),  and 
Beit-Ur  el-Tahta  (the  Lower),  and  there  can  be  no 
question  that  they  represent  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Beth-horon.  "In  the  name,"  remarks  Dr.  Robinson 
(iii,  59),  "we  find  the  rather  unusual  change  from  one 
harsh  Hebrew  guttural  to  one  still  deeper  and  more 
tenacious  in  Arabic ;  in  all  other  respects  the  name, 
position,  and  other  circumstances  agree"  (compare 
Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  140,  146).     See  Gibeon. 

The  importance  of  the  road  on  which  the  two  Beth- 
horons  are  situated,  the  main  approach  to  the  interior 
of  the  country  from  the  hostile  districts  on  both  sides 
of  Palestine — Philistia  and  Egypt  on  the  west,  Moab 
and  Amnion  on  the  east — at  once  explains  and  justifies 
the  frequent  fortification  of  these  towns  at  different 
periods  of  the  history  (1  Kings  ix,  17 ;  2  Chron.  viii, 
5  ;  1  Mac.  ix,  50 ;  Judith  iv,  4,  5).  The  road  is  still  the 
direct  one  from  the  site  which  must  have  been  Gibeon 
(el-Jib),  and  from  Michmash  (Mukhmas)  to  the  Phi- 
listine plain  on  the  one  hand,  and  Antipatris  (Joseph. 
War,  ii,  19,  9)  on  the  other.  On  the  mountain  which 
lies  to  the  southward  of  the  nether  village  is  still  pre- 
served the  name  (YahV)  and  the  site  of  Ajalon,  so  closely 
connected  with  the  proudest  memories  of  Beth-horon ; 
and  the  long  "descent"  between  the  two  remains  unal- 
tered from  what  it  was  on  that  great  day,  "  which  was 
like  no  clay  before  or  after  it."  From  Gibeon  to  the  Up- 
per Beth-horon  is  a  distance  of  about  4  miles  of  broken 
asceni  and  descent.  The  ascent;  however,  predomi- 
nates, and  this  therefore  appears  to  be  the  "going  up" 
to  Beth-horon  which  formed  the  first  stage  of  Joshua's 
pursuit.  With  the  upper  village  the  descent  com- 
mences; the  road  rough  and  difficult  even  for  the  moun- 
tain-paths of  Palestine  ;  now  over  sheets  of  smooth  rock 
flat  as  the  flagstones  of  a  city  pavement;  now  over 
the  upturned  edges  of  the  limestone  strata;  and  now 
among  the  loose  rectangular  stones  so  characteristic 
of  the  whole  of  this  district.  There  are  in  many  places 
steps  cut,  and  other  marks  of  the  path  having  been 
artificially  improved.  But,  though  rough,  the  way  can 
hardly  be  called  "precipitous;"  still  less  is  it  a  ravine 
(Stanley,  p.  208),  since  it  runs  for  the  most  part  along 
the  back  of  a  ridge  or  water-shed  dividing  wadys  on 
either  hand.  After  about  three  miles  of  this  descent, 
a  slight  rise  leads  to  the  lower  village  standing  on  its 
hillock — the  last  outpost  of  the  Benjamite  hills,  and 
characterised  by  the  date-palm  in  the  enclosure  of  the 
village  mosque.  A  short  and  sharp  fall  below  the 
village,  a  few  undulations,  and  the  road  is  among  the 
dura  of  the  great  corn-growing  plain  of  Sharon.  This 
rough  descent  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  Beit-Ur  is 
the  "  going  down  to  Beth-horon"  of  the  Bible  narrative. 
Standing  on  the  high  ground  of  the  upper  village,  and 
overlooking  the  wild  scene,  we  may  feel  assured  that 
it  was  over  this  rough  path  that  the  Canaanites  fled 
to  their  native  lowlands.  This  road,  still,  as  in  ancient 
times,  "the  great  road  of  communication  and  heavy 
transport  between  Jerusalem  and  the  sea-coast"  (Rob- 
inson, iii,  61),  though  a  route  rather  more  direct, 
known  as  the  "Jaffa  road,"  is  now  used  by  travellers 
with  light  baggage,  leaves  the  main  north  road  at 
Tuleil  el-Ful,  3£  miles  from  Jerusalem,  due  west  of 
Jericho.  Bending  slightly  to  the  north,  it  runs  by 
the  modern  village  of  el-Jib,  the  ancient  Gibeon,  and 
then  proceeds  by  the  Beth-horons  in  a  direct  line  due 
west  to  Jimzu  (Gimzo)  and  Ludd  (Lydda),  at  which 


BETII-JESIIIMOTH 


780 


BETH-LEIIEM 


it  parts  into  three,  diverging  north  to  Caphar-Saba 
(Antipatris),  south  to  Gaza,  and  west  to  Jaffa  (Joppa). 
Beth-jesh'imoth  or  (as  it  is  less  correctly  Angli- 
cized in  Num.  xxxiii,  49)  Beth-jes'imoth  (Heb. 
Beyth  h  i-Yednmoth' ,  r'-Z-^Ti  r"3  [in  Num.  xxxiii, 
49,  r^'w^n  r*2~},  house  of  the  wastes  ;  Sept.  Ati/h.;3' 
[v.  r.  AioifHi&l,  but  BqSaeLfiwS  in  Josh,  xiii,  20,  and 
BtiSiaoi/xovS  [v.  r.  'laaifwiB,  B>j3a<xi^oi''j]  in  Ezek. 
xxv.  '.'),  a  town  or  place  not  far  east  of  Jordan,  near 
Abel-Shittim,  in  the  "deserts"  (TQ^S)  of  MoaL — that 
is,  on  the  lower  level  at  the  south  end  of  the  Jordan 
valley  (Num.  xxxiii,  40) — and  named  with  Ashdoth- 
pisgah  and  Beth-pcor.  It  was  one  of  the  limits  of  the 
encampment  of  Israel  before  crossing  the  Jordan.  It 
lay  within  the  territory  of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites 
(Josh,  xii,  3),  and  was  allotted  to  Reuben  (Josh,  xiii, 
20),  but  came  at  last  into  the  hands  of  Moab,  and  form- 
ed one  of  the  cities  which  were  "the  glory  of  the  coun- 
try" (Ezek.  xxv,  9).  According  to  Eusebius  and  Je- 
rome (Onomast.  s.  v.  ErjBaaifiovB,  Bethsimutb)  it  was 
still  called  by  the  same  name  (juttoi  rJ/c  'lafiovSr,  Do- 
iraiM  fsimutlt),  being  "opposite  Jericho,  10  miles  to  the 
south,  near  the  Dead  Sea,"  meaning  apparently  south- 
east, and  across  the  Jordan.  It  is  evidently  the  Besi- 
moth  (BtiaifiwS)  captured  by  Placidus,  the  general  of 
Vespasian  (Josephus,  War,  iv,  7,  0).  Schwarz  (Pal- 
est, p.  228)  states  that  there  are  still  "the  ruins  of  a 
Beih-Jisimuth  situated  on  the  north-easternmost  point 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  half  a  mile  from  the  Jordan  ;"  a  lo- 
cality which,  although  reported  by  no  other  traveller, 
cannot  be  far  from  correct  (Van  dc  Velde,  Memoir,  p. 
290). 

Beth-Joab.     See  Ataroth  (beth-Joab). 

Beth-leapb/rah  (Heb.  Beyth  le-Aphrah',  tVa 
rl^BS?,  house  [to,  i.  e.]  of  'the  fawn;  Sept.  and  Vulg. 
falsely  translate  oIkoc;  Kara  yeXiora  i/xiLv,  domus  pul- 
veris;  Auth.  Vers,  "house  of  Aphrah"),  a  place  named 
(only  in  Mic.  i,  10,  where  there  is  evidently  a  play 
upon  the  word  as  if  for  IBS,  dust)  in  connection  with 
other  places  of  the  Philistine  coast  (e.  g.  Gath,  Acclio 
["weep  ye"],  Saphir,  etc.),  and  not  to  be  confounded 
(as  by  Henderson,  in  loc,  after  Gesenius  and  Winer) 
with  the  Benjamite  Ophrah  (Josh,  xviii,  23),  but  prob- 
ably identical  with  the  present  village  Beit-Afla,  G 
miles  south-east  of  Ashdod  (Robinson's  Researches,  ii, 
3C9  note ;  Van  de  Velde,  Map). 

Beth-leb'aoth  (Heb.  Beyth  Lebaotk',  lTriK&  n^S, 
house  of  lionesses,  Sept.  Bq&XEjSawS-  v.  r.  Bcn&a\(3a& 
and  BaSapwS),  a  town  in  the  lot  of  Simeon  (Josh, 
xix,  6),  and  therefore  in  the  extreme  south  of  Judah 
(xv,  32,  where  it  is  called  simply  Lebaoth  [q.  v.]), 
probably  in  the  wild  country  to  which  its  name  bears 
witness.  In  the  parallel  list  in  1  Chron.  iv,  31,  the 
name  is  given  Beth-bikei.  Reland  (Palast.  p.  648) 
conjectures  that  it  may  have  been  the  "toparchy  of 
Bethleptephse"  (Bf&Xtiirrri^Ctv),  mentioned  by  Jose- 
phus (  War,  iv,  8,  li  and  Pliny  (Betlepiephene,  v,  15), 
Boutfa  of  Jerusalem;  but  this  is  hardly  probable  (see 
also  lb-  improbable  Burmise  of  Korb  in  Jahn's  Jahrb. 
f.  Phi!.,!,  iv,  114  sq.). 

Beth'  lehem  (Heb.  Beylh-Le'chem,  cnVn^S, 
housi  of  bread,  perh,  from  the  fertility  of  the  region; 
Sept.  and  N.  T.  li#/'-.W/i  [but  v.  r.  BatSr/jiav  in  Josh, 
xix,  1"> ;  btSXftft  in  Ezra  ii,  21  ;  Ba&aXefi  in  Neh.  vii, 
26];  Josephus,  \>„^\f/l,<;  Steph.  Byz.  B//-\f/<«),  the 
name  of  two  places. 

1.  One  of  the  towns  in  Palestine,  already  in  exist- 
ence  at  the  time  of  Jacob's  return  to  the  country, 
when  its  nam.'  was  Ephrath  or  Ephratah  (see  Gen. 
xxxv,  10;  xhiii,  7;  Sept.  at  Josh,  xv,  59),  which 
seen  s  not  only  to  have  been  the  ancient  name  of  the 
city  itself,  but  also  of  the  surrounding  region;  its  in- 
habitants being  likewise  termed  EphrathiteS  (Ruth 


l  i,  2).  It  is  also  called  "  Beth-lehem-Epiiratah" 
(Mic.  v,  2),  and  "  Betii-lehem-Judah"  (1  Sam.  xvii, 

I  12),  and  "  Beth-leiiem  of  Judaea"  (Matt,  ii,  1),  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  town  of  the  same  name  in 

j  the  tribe  of  Zebulun  (Josh,  xix,  15),  and  also  "  the 
city  of  David"  (Luke  ii,  4 ;  John  vii,  42).  The  inhab- 
itants are  called  Beth-lehemites  (1  Sam.  xvi,  1, 18; 
xvii,  58).     It  is  not,  however,  till  long  after  the  occu- 

1  pation  of  the  country  by  the  Israelites  that  we  meet 
with  it  under  its  new  name  of  Bethlehem.  Here,  as 
in  other  cases  (comp.  Bethmcon,  Bethdiblathaim,  Beth- 
peor),  the  "Beth"  appears  to  mark  the  bestowal  of  a 

i  Hebrew  appellation ;  and,  if  the  derivations  of  the  lex- 

!  icons  are  to  be  trusted,  the  name  in  its  present  shape 
appears  to  have  been  an  attempt  to  translate  the  ear- 

I  lier  Ephrata  into  Hebrew  language  and  idiom,  just  as 
the  Arabs  have,  in  their  turn,  with  a  further  slight 

I  change  of  meaning,  converted  it  into  Beit-lakm  (house 
of  flesh).    However  this  may  be,  the  ancient  name  lin- 

'  gered  as  a  familiar  word  in  the  mouths  of  the  inhabit- 

j  ants  of  the  place  (Ruth  i,  2 ;  iv,  11 ;  1  Sam.  xvii,  12), 
and  in  the  poetry  of  the  psalmists  and  prophets  (Psa. 
exxxii,  6 ;  Mic.  v,  2)  to  a  late  period.  In  the  genea- 
logical lists  of  1  Chron.  it  recurs,  and  Ephrath  appears 

!  as  a  person — the  wife  of  Caleb  and  mother  of  Hur 
(~!in)  (ii,  19,  51 ;  iv,  4);  the  title  of  "father  of  Beth- 
lehem" being  bestowed  both  on  Hur  (iv,  4)  and  on  Sal- 

'  ma,  the  son  of  Hur  (ii,  51,  54).     The  name  of  Salma 

I  recalls  a  very  similar  name  intimately  connected  with 
Bethlehem,    namely,    the    father    of    Boaz,    Salmah 

j  (-Tcbr,  Ruth  iv,  20;  Auth.  Vers.  "Salmon")  or  Sal- 
mon CjiTOPtt),  ver.  21).  Hur  is  also  named  inExod. 
xxxi,  2,  and  1  Chron.  ii,  20,  as  the  father  of  Uri,  the 
father  of  Bezaleel.  In  the  East  a  trade  or  calling  re- 
mains fixed  in  one  family  for  generations,  and  if  there 
is  any  foundation  for  the  tradition  of  the  Targum  that 
Jesse,  the  father  of  David,  was  "a  weaver  of  the  veils 
of  the  sanctuary"  (Tare).  Jonathan  on  2  Sam.  xxi,  19), 

j  he  may  have  inherited  the  accomplishments  and  the 

I  profession  of  his  art  from  his  forefather,  who  was  "fill- 

|  ed  with  the  Spirit  of  God,"  "to  work  all  manner  of 
works,"  and  among  them  that  of  the  embroiderer  and 
the  weaver  (Exod.  xxv,  35).     At  the  date  of  the  visit 

.  of  Benjamin  of  Tudela  there  were  still  "twelve  Jews, 

I  dyers  by  profession,  living  at  Beth-lehem"  (Benj.  of 
Tudela,  ed.  Asher,  i,  7i>).  The  above  tradition  may 
possibly   elucidate    the    allusions    to    the    "weaver's 

j  beam"  (whatever  the  "beam"  may  be)  which  occur 
in  the  accounts  of  giants  or  mighty  men  slain  by  Da- 
vid or  his  heroes,  but  not  in  any  unconnected  with  him. 
After  the  conquest  Bethlehem  fell  within  the  terri- 
tory of  Judah  (Judg.  xvii,  7  ;  1  Sam.  xvii,  12  ;  Ruth 
i,  1,  2).  As  the  Hebrew  text  now  stands,  however,  it 
is  omitted  altogether  from  the  list  of  the  towns  of  Judi.h 
in  Joshua  xv,  though  retained  by  the  Sept.  in  the  elev- 
en names  which  that  version  inserts  between  verses  £9 
and  60.  Among  these  it  occurs  between  Theko  (Te- 
koa),  Qikco  (comp.  1  Chron.  iv,  4,  5),  and  Phagor 
(?  Peor,  <t>aywp).  This  omission  from  the  Hebrew 
text  is  certainly  remarkable,  but  it  is  quite  in  keep- 

!  ing  with  the  obscurity  in  which  Bethlehem  remains 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  sacred  history.  Not  to 
speak  of  the  nativity,  which  has  made  the  name  of 
Bethlehem  so  familiar  to  the  whole  Christian  and  Mus- 
sulman world,  it  was,  as  the  birthplace  of  David,  a  place 
of  the  most  important  consequence  to  ancient  Israel. 
And  yet,  from  some  cause  or  other,  it  never  rose  to  any 
eminence,  nor  ever  became  the  theatre  of  any  action  or 
business.  It  is  difficult  to  say  why  Hebron  and  Jeru- 
salem, with  no  special  associations  in  their  favor,  were 
tixed  on  as  capitals,  while  the  place  in  which  the  great 
ideal  king,  the  hero  and  poet  of  the  nation,  drew  his 
first  breath  and  spent  his  youth  remained  an  ' '  ordinary 
Judsean  village."  No  doubt  this  is  in  part  owing  to 
what  will  lie  noticed  presently — the  isolated  nature  of 
its  position ;   but  that  circumstance  did  not  prevent 


BETII-LEIIEM 


781 


BETH-LEHEM 


Gibeon,  Ramah,  and  many  other  places  situated  on 
eminences  from  becoming  famous,  and  is  not  sufficient 
to  account  entirely  for  such  silence  respecting  a  place 
so  strong  by  nature,  commanding  one  of  the  main 
roads,  and  the  excellence  of  which  as  a  military  posi- 
tion may  be  safely  inferred  from  the  fact  that  at  one 
time  it  was  occupied  by  the  Philistines  as  a  garrison 
(2  Sam.  xxiii,  14;  1  Chron.  xi,  1G).  Though  not 
named  as  a  Levitical  city,  it  was  apparently  a  residence 
of  Levites,  for  from  it  came  the  young  man  Jonathan, 
the  son  of  Gershom,  who  became  the  lirst  priest  of  the 
Danites  at  their  new  northern  settlement  (J udg.  xvii, 
7  ;  xviii,  30),  and  from  it  also  came  the  concubine  of 
the  other  Levite,  whose  death  at  Gibeah  caused  the  de- 
struction of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (xix,  1-9).  The 
Book  of  Buth  is  a  page  from  the  domestic  history  of 
Bethlehem  ;  the  names,  almost  the  very  persons  of  the 
Bethlehemites  are  there  brought  before  us  ;  wo  are  al- 
lowed to  assist  at  their  most  peculiar  customs,  and  to  wit- 
ness the  very  springs  of  those  events  which  have  con- 
ferred immortality  on  the  name  of  the  place.  Many  of 
these  customs  were  doubtless  common  to  Israel  in  gener- 
al, but  one  thing  must  have  been  peculiar  to  Bethlehem. 
"What  most  strikes  the  view,  after  the  charm  of  the 
general  picture  has  lost  its  first  hold  on  us,  is  the  inti- 
mate connection  of  the  place  with  Moab.  Of  the  ori- 
gin of  this  connection  no  record  exists,  no  hint  of  it 
has  yet  been  discovered;  but  it  continued  in  force  for 
at  least  a  century  after  the  arrival  of  Buth,  till  the 
time  when  her  great-grandson  could  find  no  more  se- 
cure retreat  for  his  parents  from  the  fury  of  Saul  than 
the  house  of  the  King  of  Moab  at  Mizpeh  (1  Sam.  xxii, 
3,  4).  But,  whatever  its  origin,  here  we  find  the  con- 
nection in  full  vigor.  When  the  famine  occurs,  the 
natural  resource  is  to  go  to  the  country  of  Moab  and 
"  continue  there  ;"  the  surprise  of  the  city  is  occasion- 
ed, not  at  Naomi's  going,  but  at  her  return.  Buth  was 
"  not  like"  the  handmaidens  of  Boaz :  some  difference 
of  feature  or  complexion  there  was,  doubtless,  which 
distinguished  the  "children  of  Lot"  from  the  children 
of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob ;  but  yet  she  gleans  after 
the  reapers  in  the  field  without  molestation  or  remark  ; 
and  when  Boaz,  in  the  most  public  manner  possible, 
proclaims  his  intention  of  taking  the  stranger  to  be  his 
wife,  no  voice  of  remonstrance  is  raised,  but  loud  con- 
gratulations are  expressed;  the  parallel  in  the  life  of 
Jacob  occurs  at  once  to  all.  and  a  blessing  is  invoked 
on  the  head  of  Buth  the  Moabitess,  that  she  may  be 
like  the  two  daughters  of  the  Mesopotamian  Nahor, 
"  like  Rachel  and  like  Leah,  who  did  build  the  house 
of  Israel."  This,  in  the  face  of  the  strong  denuncia- 
tions of  Moab  contained  in  the  law,  is,  to  say  the  least, 
very  remarkable  (see  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  ii, 
,500  sq.).  Moab  appears  elsewhere  in  connection  with 
a  place  in  Judah,  .fas/nib -\ehem  (1  Chr.  iv,  22).  We 
might  bo  tempted  to  believe  the  name  merely  another 
form  of  7)V//)-lehem,  if  the  context — the  mention  of  Ma- 
reshah  and  Chozeba,  places  on  the  extreme  west  of  the 
tribe — (lid  not  forbid  it. 

The  elevation  of  David  to  the  kingdom  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  aft'ected  the  fortunes  of  his  native  pi  ice. 
The  residence  of  Saul  acquired  a  new  title  specially 
from  him,  by  which  it  was  called  even  down  to  the 
latest  time  of  Jewish  history  (2  Sam.  xxi.  G  ;  Josephus, 
War,  v,  2,  1,  ra/3a9oaov\n),  but  David  did  nothing 
to  dignify  Bethlehem,  or  connect  it  with  himself. 
The  only  touch  of  recollection  which  he  manifests  for 
it  is  that  recorded  in  the  statement  of  his  sudden  long- 
ing for  the  water  of  the  well  by  the  gate  of  his  child- 
hood (2  Sam.  xxiii,  15).  Bethlehem  was  fortified  by 
Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi,  G),  but  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  a  place  of  much  importance  ;  for  Micah,  ex- 
tolling the  moral  pre-eminence  of  Bethlehem,  says, 
"Thou,  Bethlehem-Ephratah,  1h  mgh  thou  he  littk  among 
the  thousands  of  Judah,"  etc.  (Micah  v,  2).  Matthew 
quotes  this  as,  "And  thou,  Bethlehem  of  Jndah,  art 
not  the  least  of  the  cities  of  Judah,"  etc.  (Matt,  ii,  G), 


which  has  the  appearance  of  a  discrepancy.  But  it  is 
answered  that  a  city  may  be  littk  without  being  the 
least,  or  that  the  evangelist  may  have  quoted  from 
memory,  and  hence  the  slight  difference  in  expression, 
while  the  sense  remains  the  same.  By  the  time  of  the 
captivity,  the  inn  of  Chimham  by  (b^IN  =  "  close  to") 
Bethlehem  appears  to  have  become  the  recognised 
point  of  departure  for  travellers  to  Egypt  (Jer.  xli,  17) 
— a  caravanserai  or  khan  (WIS ;  see  Stanley,  App. 
§  90),  perhaps  the  identical  one  which  existed  there  at 
the  time  of  our  Lord  (KaTuXiifia),  like  those  which  still 
exist  all  over  the  East  at  the  stations  of  travellers. 
Lastly,  "children  of  Bethlehem"  to  the  number  of 
123  returned  from  Bain  Ion  (Ezra  ii,  21),  which,  with 
the  56  from  the  neighboring  Netophah,  slightly  differs 
from  the  sum  IMS  of  the  parallel  passage  (Neh.  vii,  26). 
In  the  New  Testament  Bethlehem  retains  its  distinc- 
tive title  of  Bethlehem-judah  (Matt,  ii,  1,  5),  and  once, 
in  the  announcement  of  the  angels,  the  "  city  of  Da- 
vid" (Luke  ii,  4;  and  comp.  John  vii,  42;  Kw^rj;  cas- 
tellwn).  Its  connection  with  the  history  of  Christ  is 
too  familiar  to  all  to  need  any  notice  here  ;  the  remark 
should  merely  be  made,  that  as  in  the  earlier  history 
less  is  recorded  of  the  place  after  the  youth  of  David 
than  before,  so,  in  the  later,  nothing  occurs  after  the 
birth  of  our  Lord  to  indicate  that  any  additional  im- 
portance or  interest  was  fastened  on  the  town.  In 
fact,  the  passages  just  quoted  and  the  few  which  fol- 
low exhaust  the  references  to  it  in  the  N.  T.  (Matt, 
ii,  6,  8, 16 ;  Luke  ii,  15). 

After  this  nothing  is  heard  of  it  till  near  the  middle 
of  the  2d  century,  when  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of  our 
Lord's  birth  as  having  taken  place  "in  a  certain  cave 
very  close  to  the  village,"  which  cave  he  goes  on  to 
say  had  been  specially  pointed  out  hy  Isaiah  as  "a 
sign."  The  passage  from  Isaiah  to  which  he  refers  is 
xxxiii,  13-19,  in  the  Sept.  version  of  which  occurs  the 
following  :  "  He  shall  dwell  on  high  ;  His  place  of  de- 
fence shall  be  in  a  lofty  cave  of  the  strong  rock" 
(Justin.  Dial.  c.  Tryph.  §78,  70).  Such  is  the  earliest 
supplement  we  possess  to  the  meagre  indications  of 
the  narrative  of  the  Gospel ;  and  while  it  is  not  possi- 
ble to  say  with  certainty  that  the  tradition  is  true, 
there  is  no  certainty  in  discrediting  it.  There  is  noth- 
ing in  itself  very  probable — nor  certainly  is  there  in  mo? t 
cases  where  the  traditional  scenes  of  events  are  laid  in 
caverns — in  the  supposition  that  the  place  in  which 
Joseph  and  Mary  took  shelter,  and  where  was  the 
"manger"  or  "stall"  (whatever  the  Q&rvT)  may  have 
been),  was  a  cave  in  the  limestone  rock  of  which  the 
eminence  of  Bethlehem  is  composed.  Yet  it  is  not  nec- 
essary to  assume  that  Justin's  quotation  from  Isaiah  is 
the  ground  of  an  inference  of  his  own  ;  it  may  equally 
be  an  authority  happily  adduced  by  him  in  support  of 
the  existing  tradition.  Still  the  step  from  the  belief 
that  the  nativity  may  have  taken  place  in  a  cavern,  to 
the  belief  that  the  present  subterraneous  vault,  or  crypt 
is  that  cavern,  is  an  equally  doubtful  one.  (See  below.) 
Even  in  the  loOj'ears  that  had  passed  when  Justin  wrote, 
so  much  had  happened  at  Bethlehem  that  it  is  difficult 
to  believe  that  the  true  spot  could  have  been  accurately 
preserved.  In  that  interval  not  only  had  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Jerusalem  been  overrun  and  devastated  Iv  (lie 
Romans  at  the  destruction  of  the  city,  but  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  amongotherdesecrations,  is  saidto  have  plant- 
ed a  grove  of  Adonis  at  the  spot  (h/riis  hntmhrabat .  I  dm,  '- 
dis,  Jerome,  Ep.  Paid.).  Tins  grove  remained  at  Beth- 
lehem for  no  less  than  180  years,  viz.  from  A.D.  135 
till  315.  After  this  the  place  was  purged  of  its  abom- 
inations by  Constant inc,  who,  about  A.D.  330,  erected 
the  present  church  (Euseb.  Vit.  Const.  3,  40.  See  Tob- 
ler,  p.  102,  note').  The  brief  notice  of  Eusehius  in  the 
Onomasticon  (s.  v.  BiftXti/i}  locates  it  6  miles  S.  of  Je- 
rusalem, to  which  Jerome  (i'>.  s.  v.  Bethlehem)  adds  a 
reference  to  the  "  tcwer  of  Edar"  and  his  own  cell  in  the 
locality.    The  Crusaders,  on  their  approach  to  Jcrusa- 


BETII-LEIIEM 


782 


BETH-LEHEM 


lem,  first  took  possession  of  Bethlehem,  at  the  entreaty 
of  its  Christian  inhabitants.  In  A.D.  1110,  King 
Baldwin  I  erected  it  into  an  episcopal  see,  a  dignity 
it  had  never  before  enjoyed;  but,  although  this  was 
confirmed  by  Pope  Pascal  II,  and  the  title  long  re- 
tained in  tin'  Romish  Church,  yet  the  actual  possession 
of  thv  see  appears  not  to  have  been  of  long  continu- 
ance. In  A.D.  1244,  Bethlehem,  like  Jerusalem,  was 
desolated  by  the  wild  hordes  of  the  Kharismians. 
'I  here  was  formerly  a  Mohammedan  quarter,  but,  af- 
ter the  rebellion  in  1834,  this  was  destroyed  by  order 
of  Ibrahim  Pasha  (Tobler,  Bethlehem,  Bern,  1849). 

There  never  has  been  any  dispute  or  doubt  about 
the  site  of  Bethlehem,  which  has  always  been  an  in- 
habited place,  and,  from  its  sacred  associations,  has 
been  visited  by  an  unbroken  series  of  pilgrims  and 
travellers.  The  modern  town  of  Beit-lakm  lies  to  the 
E.  of  the  main  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron,  4i 
miles  from  the  former.  It  covers  the  E.  and  N.E. 
parts  of  the  ridge  of  a  "long  gray  hill"  of  Jura  lime- 
stone, which  stands  nearly  due  E.  and  W.,  and  is  about 
a  mile  in  length.  The  hill  has  a  deep  valley  on  the 
N.  and  another  on  the  S.  The  west  end  shelves  down 
gradually  to  the  valley ;  but  the  east  end  is  bolder, 
and  overlooks  a  plain  of  some  extent.  The  slopes  of 
the  ridge  are  in  many  parts  covered  by  terraced  gar- 
dens, shaded  by  rows  of  (dives  with  figs  and  vines,  the 
terraces  sweeping  round  the  contour  of  the  hill  with 
great  regularity.  The  many  olive  and  fig  orchards, 
and  vineyards  round  about,  are  marks  of  industry  and 
thrift  j  and  the  adjacent  fields,  though  stony  and  rough, 
produce,  nevertheless,  good  crops  of  grain.  On  the 
top  of  the  hill  lies  the  village  in  a  kind  of  irregular 
triangle,  at  about  150  yards  from  the  apex  of  which, 
and  separated  from  it  by  a  vacant  space  on  the  ex- 
treme eastern  part  of  the  ridge,  spreads  the  noblo 
basilica  of  St.  Helena,  "half  church,  half  fort,"  now 
embraced  by  its  three  convents,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Armenian.  It  is  now  a  large  and  straggling  village, 
with  one  broad  and  principal  street.  The  houses  have 
not  domed  roofs  like  those  of  Jerusalem  and  Ramleh ; 
they  are  built  for  the  most  part  of  clay  and  bricks; 
and  every  house  is  provided  with  an  apiary,  the  bee- 
hives of  which  arc  constructed  of  a  series  of  earthen 
pots  ranged  on  the  house-tops.  The  inhabitants  are. 
said  to  be  3000,  and  were  all  native  Christians  at  the 
time  of  the  most  recent  visits  ;  for  Ibrahim  Pasha, 
finding  that  the  Moslem  and  Christian  inhabitants 
were  always  at  strife,  caused  the  former  to  withdraw, 
and  left  the  village  in  quiet  possession  of  the  latter, 
whose  numbers  had  always  greatly  predominated 
(Wilde's  Narrative,  ii,  111).  The  chief  trade  and  man- 
ufacture of  the  inhabitants  consist  of  beads,  crosses, 
and  other  relics,  which  are  sold  at  a  great  profit. 
Smiie  of  the  articles,  wrought  in  mother-of-pearl,  are 
carved  with  more  skill  than  one  would  expect  to  find 
in  that  remote  quarter.  The  people  are  said  to  lie  rc- 
markable  for  their  ferocity  and  rudeness,  which  is  in- 
ch ed  the  common  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  most 
of  the  places  accounted  holy  in  the  East.  Travellers 
remark  the  good  looks  of  the  women,  the  substantial, 
clean  appearance  of  the  houses,  and  the  general  air  of 
comfort  I  for  an  Eastern  town)  which  prevails. 

At  tie-  farthest  extremity  of  the  town  is  the  Latin 
convent,  connected  with  which  is  the  Church  of  the 
Nativity,  Baid  to  have  been  built  by  the  Empress 
Helena.  It  has  suffered  much  from  time,  but  still 
be.-irs  manifest  traces  of  its  Grecian  origin,  and  is  al- 
leged to  lie  the  most  chaste  architectural  building  now 
remaining  in  Palestine.     It  is  a  spacious  and  handsome 

hall,  consisting  Of  a  central  nave  amid  aisles  separated 
from  each  other  by  rows  of  tall  Corinthian  pillars  of 
gray  marble.  As  there  is  no  ceiling,  the  lofty  roof  is 
exposed  to  view,  composed  (according  to  some)  of  the 
cedars  of  Lebanon,  Btillingood  preservation,  ami  affords 
a  One  specimen  of  the  architecture  ofthatage.  Two 
spiral  Staircases  lead  to  the  cave  called  the  "Grotto 


of  the  Nativity, "  which  is  about  20  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  church.  This  cave  is  lined  with  Italian  mar- 
bles, and  lighted  by  numerous  lamps.  Here  the  pil- 
grim is  conducted  with  due  solemnity  to  a  star  inlaid  in 
the  marble,  marking  the  exact  spot  where  the  Saviour 
was  born,  and  corresponding  to  that  in  the  firmament 
occupied  by  the  meteor  which  intimated  that  great 
event;  he  is  then  led  to  one  of  the  sides,  where,  in  a 
kind  of  recess,  a  little  below  the  level  of  the  rest  of  the 
rloor,  is  a  block  of  white  marble,  hollowed  out  in  the 
form  of  a  manger,  and  said  to  mark  the  place  of  the 

|  one  in  which  the  infant  Jesus  was  laid.  His  attention 
is  afterward  directed  to  the  "  Sepulchre  of  the  Inno- 
cents;" to  the  grotto  in  which  St.  Jerome  passed  the 
greater  portion  of  his  life  ;  and  to  the  chapels  dedicated 
to  Joseph  and  other  saints.  There  has  been  much 
controversy  respecting  the  claims  of  this  cave  to  be 
regarded  as  the  place  in  which  our  Lord  was  born. 

1  Tradition  is  in  its  favor,  but  facts  and  probabilities  are 
against  it.  It  is  useless  to  deny  that  there  is  much 
force  in  a  tradition  regarding  a  locality  (more  than  it 
would  have  in  the  case  of  a  historical  fact),  which 
can  be  traced  up  to  a  period  not  remote  from  that  of 
the  event  commemorated  ;  and  this  event  was  so  im- 
portant as  to  make  the  scene  of  it  a  point  of  such  un- 
remitting attention,  that  the  knowledge  of  that  spot 
was  not  likely  to  be  lost.  This  view  would  be  greatly 
strengthened  if  it  could  be  satisfactorily  proved  that 
Adrian,  to  cast  odium  upon  the  mysteries  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  not  only  erected  statues  of  Jupiter  and 
Venus  over  the  holy  sepulchre  and  on  Calvary,  but 
placed  one  of  Adonis  over  the  spot  of  the  Nativit}'  at 
Bethlehem.  But  against  tradition,  whatever  may  be 
its  value,  we  have  in  the  present  case  to  place  the  utter 
improbability  that  a  subterranean  cavern  like  this,  with 
a  steep  descent,  should  ever  have  been  used  as  a  stable 
for  cattle,  and,  what  is  more,  for  the  stable  of  a  khan  or 
caravanserai,  which  doubtless  the  "inn"  of  Luke  ii,  7 
was.  Although,  therefore,  it  is  true  that  cattle  are, 
and  always  have  been,  stabled  in  caverns  in  the  East, 

j  yet  certainly  not  in  such  caverns  as  this,  which  appears 
to  have  been  originally  a  tomb.  Old  empty  tombs 
often,  it  is  argued,  afford  shelter  to  man  and  cattle; 
but  such  was  not  the  case  among  the  Jews,  who  held 
themselves  ceremonially  defiled  by  contact  with  sepul- 
chres. Besides,  the  circumstance  of  Christ's  having 
been  born  in  a  cave  would  not  have  been  less  remark- 
able than  his  being  laid  in  a  manger,  and  was  more 
likely  to  have  been  noticed  by  the  evangelist,  if  it  had 
occurred  ;  and  it  is  also  to  be  observed  that  the  present 
grotto  is  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  whereas 
Christ  appears  to  have  been  born  in  the  town;  and, 
whatever  may  be  the  case  in  the  open  country,  it  has 
never  been  usual  in  towns  to  employ  caverns  as  stables 
for  cattle.  To  this  we  may  add  the  suspicion  which 
arises  from  the  fact  that  the  local  traditions  seem  to 
connect  with  caverns  almost  even'  interesting  event 
recorded  in  Scripture,  as  if  the  ancient  Jews  had  been 
a  nation  of  troglodytes.  See  Cave.  All  that  can  be 
said  about  the  "holy  places"  of  Bethlehem  has  been 
well  said  by  Lord  Nugent  (i,  13-21),  and  Mr.  Stanley 
(p.  438-442).  (See  also,  though  interspersed  with  mu<  h 
irrelevant  matter,  Stewart,  p.  246,  334  sq.)  Of  the  ar- 
chitecture of  the  church  very  little  is  known  ;  for  a 
resume  of  that  little,  see  Fergusson's  Handbook  <f  Ar- 
chitecture, p.  524 ;  also  Salzmann's  Photographs  and 
the  Etude  accompanying  them  (p.  72).  Mr.  Stanley 
states  that  the  present  roof  is  constructed  from  English 
oak  given  to  the  church  by  Edward  IV  {Sin.  and  Pal. 
p.  Ill,  439).  Tobler,  p.  104  note,  adduces  the  authority 
of  Eutychius  that  the  present  church  is  the  work  of  Jus- 
tinian, who  destroyed  that  of  Constantino  as  not  suf- 
ficiently magnificent.  One  fact  is  associated  with  a 
portion  of  the  crypt  of  this  church,  namely,  that  here, 
"beside  what  he  believed  to  be  the  cradle  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith,"  St.  Jerome  lived  for  more  than  30  years, 
leaving  a  lasting  monument  of  his  sojourn  (as  is  ccm- 


BETHLEHEM 


783 


BETHLEIIEMITES 


mnnlv  believed)  in  the  Vulgate  translation  of  the  Bi- 
ble (Werner.  Be  Bethl.  op.  Bieron,  Stade,  1769). 

On  the  north-east  side  of  the  town  is  a  deep  valley, 
alleged  to  be  that  in  which  the  angels  appeared  to  the 
shepherds  announcing  the  birtli  of  the  Saviour  (Luke 
ii,  8).  It  is  situated  in  the  plain  below  and  east  of  the 
convent,  about  a  mile  from  the  walls  ;  and  adjacent  is  a 
very  small,  poor  village,  called  Beit-Sahur,  to  the  east  of 
which  are  the  unimportant  remains  of  a  Greek  church. 
These  buildings  and  ruins  are  surrounded  by  olive 
trees  (Seetzen,  ii,  41,  42).  Here,  in  Arculf 's  time,  "  by 
the  tower  of  Ader,"  was  a  church  dedicated  to  the  three 
shepherds,  and  containing  their  monuments  (Arculf, 
p.  6).  But  this  plain  is  too  rich  ever  to  have  been  al- 
lowed to  lie  in  pasturage,  and  it  is  more  likely  to  have 
been  then  occupied,  as  it  is  now,  and  as  it  doubtless 
was  in  the  days  of  Kuth,  by  corn-fields,  and  the  sheep 
to  have  been  kept  on  the  hills. — Smith,  s. v.;  Kitto,  s.v. 
In  the  same  valley  is  a  fountain,  said  to  be  that  for 
the  water  of  which  David  longed,  and  which  three  of 
his  mighty  men  procured  for  him  at  the  hazard  of  their 
lives  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  15-18).  Dr.  Clarke  stopped  and 
drank  of  the  delicious  water  of  this  fountain,  and  from 
its  correspondence  with  the  intimations  of  the  sacred 
historian  and  of  Josephus  {Ant.  vii,  12,  -J),  as  well  as 
from  the  permanency  of  natural  fountains,  he  con- 
cludes that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  identity.  (See 
Hackett's  Illustra.  of  Script,  p.  294-300.)  Others  find 
the  traditional  well  of  David  in  a  group  of  three  cis- 
terns, more  than  half  a  mile  away  from  the  present 
town,  on  the  other  side  of  the  wady  on  the  north.  A 
few  yards  from  the  western  end  of  the  village  are  two 
apertures,  which  have  the  appearance  of -wells ;  but 
they  are  merely  openings  to  a  cistern  connected  with 
the  aqueduct  below,  and,  according  to  Dr.  Robinson 
{Researches,  ii,  158),  "there  is  now  no  well  of  living 
water  in  or  near  the  town."     See  Well. 

Bethlehem  has  been  more  or  less  fully  described  by 
most  travellers  in  Palestine  (comp.  also  Keland,  Palsest. 
p.  643  sq. ;  Rosenmuller,  Alterth.  II,  ii,  276  sq.  ;  Ver- 
poortenn,  Fascic.  Dissert.  Coburg,  1739 ;  Spanheim, 
Be  prcesepi  Bom.  nostri,  Berl.  1695  ;  Wernsdorf,  Be 
Bethlehemo  ap.  Hieron.  Vitsb.  1769).  Treatises  on  va- 
rious points  connected  with  the  place,  especially  as  the 
scene  of  the  Nativity,  have  been  written  by  Ammon 
(Gott.  1779),  Buddeus  (Jen.  1727),  Ernesti  (Lips.  1776), 
Feuerlein  (Gott.  1744),  Frischmuth  (Jen.  1662),  K6- 
nigsmann  (Schlesw.  1807),  Krause  (Lips.  1699),  Mid- 
ler (Rost.  1652),  Oetter  (Niirnb.  1774),  Osiander  (Tub. 
1722),  Rehkopf  (Helmst.  1772),  Scalden  (Otium  tkeol. 
p.  795  sq.),  Scherf  (Lips.  1704),  Schwarz  (Cob.  1728), 
same  (ib.  1732),  same  (ib.  eod.),  Strauch  (Viteb.  1661), 
same  (ib.  1683),  Vogel  (Regiom.  1706),  Wegner  (Bran- 
deb.  1690),  Ziebich  (Viteb.  1751)  ;  Cundis (Jen.  1730). 

2.  A  town  in  the  portion  of  Zebulun,  named  only  in 
connection  with  Idalah  in  Josh,  xix,  15.  It  has  been 
discovered  by  Dr.  Robinson  (Bibliotheca  tSacra,  1853,  p. 
121)  at  Beit-Lahm,  about  six  miles  west  of  Nazareth, 
and  lying  between  that  town  and  the  main  road  from 
Akka  to  Gaza  (comp.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  172).  Robin- 
son characterizes  it  as  "a  very  miserable  village,  none 
more  so  in  all  the  country,  and  without  a  trace  of  an- 
tiquity except  the  name"  (Bib.  Res.  new  ed.  iii,  113). 

Bethlehem,  Council  of,  held  at  Bethlehem  in 
March,  1672,  but  commonly  named  the  Council  of  Je- 
rusalem. It  seems  to  have  been  brought  about  by 
French  influence,  with  the  aim  of  procuring  from  the 
Greeks  a  confession  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion  (Covel,  Greek  Church,  p.  146).  Dionysius,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  at  the  suggestion  ofDositheus, 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  in  January,  1672,  prepared  an 
encyclical  letter,  which  was  sent  round  to  the  various 
prelates  for  the  approval  of  those  who  should  be  una- 
ble to  attend  the  council.  Tt  asserts,  in  the  first  place, 
the  seven  sacraments,  and  declares  an  unequivocal  be- 
lief that  the  living  body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is 


invisibly  present  with  a  real  presence  in  the  blessed 
Eucharist,  and  that  the  bread  is  really,  and  truly,  and 
properly  changed  into  the  very  body  of  our  Saviour 
Christ,  and  that  it,  the  holy  Eucharist,  is  offered  up  as 
a  sacrifice  for  all  Christians,  both  quick  and  dead.  It 
then  asserts  the  doctrine  of  baptism ;  denies  the  doc- 
trine of  final  perseverance,  maintains  the  necessity  of 
episcopacy  to  a  church,  the  superiority  of  virginity  to 
matrimony,  the  infallibility  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
the  invocation  of  saints,  the  use  of  images,  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  fasting.  This  letter  received  the  signatures 
of  forty-six  metropolitans  and  bishops,  including  that 
of  Dionysius.  In  March  the  council  assembled  at 
Bethlehem,  Dositheus  of  Jerusalem  presiding.  The 
first  act  of  the  council  was  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
exculpate  Cyril  Lucar  from  the  charge  of  Calvinism 
brought  against  him,  and  to  deny  the  authenticity  of 
the  confession  attributed  to  him.  The}'  then  proceed 
to  declare  that  the  confession,  whoever  was  its  author, 
was  never  that  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  they  repeat 
and  authenticate  the  synods  of  Constantinople  and 
Jassy,  concluding  with  a  confession  of  faith  founded 
on  that  of  Peter  Mogilas,  though  in  many  respects 
differing  from  it.  Its  contents  are :  Art.  1.  On  the 
Trinity  and  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from 
the  Father  alone.  2.  On  the  authority  of  the  Church 
to  interpret  Holy  Scriptures.  3.  Against  the  doc- 
trine of  irrespective  predestination.  4.  Against  those 
who  call  God  the  author  of  evil.  5.  On  the  same ; 
and  on  Divine  Providence  in  turning  evil  into  good. 
6.  On  original  sin.  7.  On  the  incarnation  and  pas- 
sion. 8.  That  there  is  but  one  Mediator,  Jesus  Christ ; 
nevertheless,  that  the  Church  may  and  ought  to  have 
recourse  to  the  intercession  of  the  blessed  Virgin 
and  other  saints.  9.  That  faith  working  by  love,  i.  e. 
by  the  fulfilment  of  the  commandments,  justifies.  10. 
That  there  is  a  visible  Catholic  Church  ;  that  epis- 
copacy is  essential  to  it,  and  that,  it  is  an  order  en- 
tirely distinct  from  the  priesthood.  11.  Of  members 
of  the  church  living  in  sin.  12.  Of  the  teaching  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  by  the  fathers  and  by  the  oecumen- 
ical Church.  13.  Of  good  works.  14.  Of  free  will. 
15.  That  there  are  seven  sacraments.  16.  Of  the  ne- 
cessity of  regeneration  in  baptism.  17.  Of  the  Holy 
Eucharist;  asserts  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation, 
and  condemns  consubstantiation.  18.  Clearly  admits 
the  Latin  doctrine  of  purgatory.  As  to  the  canon  of 
Scripture,  the  council  admitted  the  title  of  the  apocry- 
phal books  to  be  considered  as  canonical.  It  assented 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  second  Council  of  Nicrea  with 
regard  to  images.  The  acts  are  signed  by  Dositheus, 
the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  Nectarius,  the  ex-patri- 
arch, seven  other  prelates,  and  the  proxj'  of  one  ab- 
sent ;  also  by  sixty-one  other  ecclesiastics  ;  ten  signed 
in  Arabic,  the  rest  in  Greek ;  the  date  is  March  20, 
1672.— Neale,  History  of  the  Oriental  Church ;  Landon, 
j  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  *80  sq. ;  rainier,  Dissertations  on 
\the  Orthxlox  Communion  (Lond.  1853);  Christian  Re- 
I  membrancer,  July,  1853,  p.  90. 

Beth'lehemite  (Heb.  Beyth  hal-Lachmi',  fVa 
"'"Cn'sn,  Sept.  B?/2fXefju(V/;c  or  BatSXten'tTijc,  occasion- 
ally tug  Br)S\etfi  or  iv  tij  BT}S\dfi),  an  inhabitant  of 
Bethlehem  (q.  v.)  in  Judah  (1  Sam.  xvi,  1, 18;  xvii, 
58;  2  Sam.  xxi,  19). 

Bethlehemites.  1.  An  order  of  knights,  estab- 
lished by  Pope  Pius  II.  on  Jan.  18, 1459.  The  chief 
mission  of  this  order  was  to  fight  against  the  Turks, 
and  to  oppose  their  farther  advance  in  Europe.  Their 
chief  seat  was  to  lie  at  Lemnos.  They  were  to  have 
an  elective  grand  master,  and  to  embrace  knights  and 
priests.  Their  costume  was  to  be  white,  with  a  red 
cross,  and  for  their  support  the  pope  assigned  to  them 
the  property  of  several  military  orders  which  he  sup- 
pressed. As  the  Turks  soon  after  retook  Lemnos,  the 
order  of  the  knights  of  Bethlehem  was  suppressed. 
,  See  Bictiunnaire  des  Ordres  Reliyieux,  i,  472. 


BETIILEIIEMITES 


784 


BETH-MARCABOTH 


2.  An  order  of  English  monks.  Our  information 
of  this  order  is  very  meagre.  According  to  Matthew 
Paris  {Hist.  Anglic.  p.  G3D),  they  obtained  in  1257  a 
residence  at  Cambridge,  England,  and  had  a  costume 
similar  to  that  of  the  Dominicans,  with  the  only  ex- 
ception that  they  wore  on  the  breast  a  red  star  with 
live  rays  and  a  small  disc  of  blue  color,  in  memory 
of  that  star  which,  according  to  the  Scriptures,  guided 
the  Eastern  magi  to  Bethlehem  at  the  Lirth  of  the 
Saviour.  The  time  of  the  foundation  of  the  order, 
its  subsequent  development,  and  its  specific  object  are 
not  kimwn.  All  the  authors  which  speak  of  it  confine 
themselves  to  a  description  of  the  costume,  and  even 
with  regard  to  this  there  is  a  discrepancy  in  their 
statements,  as  Sehoonebeck  (Ilistoire  des  Ordres  Reli- 
ffieux)  reports  that  it  was  black.  One  author  (Hadri- 
an Dammand)  speaks  of  star-wearing  knights,  and  it 
has  therefore  been  doubted  whether  the  "star-wear- 
ing knights"  and  the  Bethlehemites  were  the  same  or- 
der (with  different  costumes),  cr  two  different  orders. 
— Wetzer  und  Welte,  i,  687. 


after  some  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Franciscans, 
was  approved  by  the  bishop.  The  main  object  of  this 
order  is  to  look  after  and  attend  to  the  sick  in  hos- 
pitals. Pope  Innocent  XI  approved  of  the  order  in 
1687,  and  commanded  the  Hospitallers,  or  brethren 
of  the  order,  to  follow  the  rule  of  Augustine.  They 
wear  round  the  neck  a  medal  representing  the  birth 
of  Jesus  Christ  at  Bethlehem;  and  as  to  their  drers, 
they  follow  the  Capuchins,  but  wear  shoes,  and  have  a 
leathern  girdle  round  the  waist.  A  female  Branch  of 
the  order  was  founded  at  the  same  time  by  Mary  Ann 
del  Galdo.  The  parent-house  is  at  Guatemala,  and  there 
are  about  forty  houses  in  Central  and  South  America. — 
Helyot,  Ord.  Religieux,  i,  477;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  i,  G88. 


Betlilehemite  Monk  in  Ing'and. 

3.  An  order  of  monks  and  nuns  in  Central  America, 
founded  at  Guatemala  about  1660.  rJ  he  founder  of 
the  order  was  Pierre  de  Betencourt,  born  in  1G19  at 
Teneriflfe,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands.  He  showed 
from  boyhood  a  great  predilection  for  an  ascetic  life. 
In  1650  he  made  a  voyage  to  Guatemala,  and  while 
there  resolved  to  enter  the  priesthood,  and  to  become 
a  missionary  in  Japan.  To  that  end  he  studied  for 
three  years  in  the  college  of  the  Jesuits;  but,  making 
no  satisfactory  progress  in  bis  studies,  be  became  a 
tailor,  and  subsequently  a  sexton.  In  1655  he  distrib- 
uted his  savings,  twenty  piastres,  among  the  poor, 
entered  the  third  order  of  the  Franciscans,  and  estab- 
lished a  free-school  for  poor  children.  Soon  after  he 
established  a  hospital  and  several  more  schools,  and 
began  to  receive  associates,  whom  he  organized  into  a 
"<  ongregation  of  Bethlehem."  He  died  April  25, 
omc  time  bi  fore  bis  death  he  had  sent  Broth- 
er Anthony  of  the  Cross  to  Spain  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  royal  sanction  of  Ids  hospital.  The 
patent  did  no)  arrive  at  Guatemala  until  eight  days 
after  bis  death.  It  commanded  the  Spanish  authori- 
ties not  only  to  protect  the  new  congregation,  but  to 
seek  t  >  enlarge  it.  The  bishop  of  the  diocese  received 
similar  orders,  and  be  accordingly  granted  to  them 
the-  right  of  publicly  celebrating  in  their  church  the 
mass.  After  the  death  of  Betencourt,  Brother  An- 
thony became  his  successor  as  chief  of  the  congrega- 
tion, and  gave  tn  it.  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of 
the  founder,  a   regular   monastic   constitution,  which, 


Iiethleliemltj  Me.nk, 


I'llileliendte  Nun. 


Beth'-lehem-Ju'dah  (Heb.  BeytkLe'chem  Ycku- 
dah,  rn^irr  Dr&  rV3,  Sept.  B?/3X«/i  'Ioi'cYi),  a  more 
distinctive  "title  (Judg.  xvii,  7,  8,  9;  xix,  1,  18;  Ruth 
i,  1 ;  1  Sam.  xvii,  12)  for  the  place  usually  called 
simply  Bethlehem  (q.  v.),  in  the  tribe  of  Judah. 

Beth-leptepha  (Reland,  Palcest.  p.  648),  the  cap- 
ital of  Bethlepthephene  (Pliny,  v,  15),  a  district  oppo- 
site Pella,  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  (Josephus,  ll'«r, 
iv,  8,  1) ;  perhaps  identical  with  the  ruined  site  Beit- 
I/fa,  at  the  north  base  of  Mt.  Gilboa  (Van  de  Velde, 
Narrative,  ii,  S66).     See  Bethdlia. 

Bethlo'mon  (Bai3v\w//£i),  an  incorrect  form  (1 
Esdr.  v,  17)  of  the  name  Bethlehem  in  Judah  (comp. 
Ezra  ii,  21). 

Beth-ma'achah  (Heb.  Beyth  Maakah'  [or  ham- 
MaMalS],  [or  SWart]  •"!=""?  T'Z,  house  of  [the] 
Maachah ;  always  with  the  prefix  A  bel  or  A  belah ;  Sept. 
Brt(,37i<(\rt,  or  BaiSruaaxd  v.r.  Baftaa\a,  etc.),  a  place 
named  in  2  Sam.  xx,  14,  15,  and  there  occurring  more 
as  a  definition  of  the  position  of  Abet,  than  for  itself; 
more  fully  called  Abel-beth-maachah  (q.  v.)  in  2 
Kings  xv,  29.  In  the  absence  of  more  information, 
we  can  only  conclude  that  it  is  identical  with  Maa- 
chah, or  Akam-maachah,  one  of  the  petty  Syrian 
kingdoms  in  the  north  of  Palestine.     Sec  Aram. 

Beth-mar'caboth  (Heb.  Beyth  Markaboth',  F^S 
iTYiaa'HTa,  house  of  chariots,  in  Chron. ;  Sept.  Ba&uap- 
\<i;)c'j  v.  r.  Bat$uapiuii& ;  or  with  the  art.  in  Josh., 
7)'<  th-hara-marhaboth' ,  ra2"i"sn~n*a,  house  of  the  char- 
iots; Sept.  B/;5<(/(tpY«/3oj^  v.  r.  BaiSrf.iaxto.ij'i,  and 
Bai&afxuapxdafiwSi),  one  of  the  towns  of  Simeon,  sit. 
uated  to  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  with  Ziklag  and 
Ilormah  (Josh,  xix,  5;  1  Chron.  iv,  31).  What 
"chariots"'  can  have  been  in  use  i:i  this  rough  and 


BETHMAUS 


785 


BETIIPIIAGE 


thinly-inhabited  part  of  the  country,  at  a  time  so  early 
as  that  at  which  these  lists  of  towns  purport  to  have 
been  made  out,  we  know  not.  At  a  later  period — that 
of  Solomon — "chariot  cities"  are  named,  and  a  regu- 
lar trade  with  Egypt  in  chariots  was  carried  on  (1 
Kings  ix,  19  ;  2  Chron.  viii,  G ;  1  Kings  x,  29 ;  2  Chron. 
i,  17),  which  would  naturally  require  depots  or  stop- 
ping-places on  the  road  "  up"  to  Palestine  (Stanley,  p. 
ICO).  In  the  parallel  list,  Josh,  xv,  30,  31,3Iadman- 
H.VH  (q.  v.)  occurs  in  place  of  Beth-marcaboth  ;  possi- 
bly the  latter  was  substituted  for  the  former  after  the 
town  had  become  the  resort  of  chariots. — Smith,  s.  v. 
Comp.  Hazar-SUSAH. 

Bethmaiis  (B/puaouc),  a  place  located  by  Jose- 
phus  {Life,  §  12)  at '12  stadia  from  Tiberias,  toward 
Sepphoris,  and  thought  by  Lightfoot  (Chorogr.  eh.  78) 
to  be  the  Beth-Maon  (-,1310  Pl-D)  of  the  Talmud  (Tot- 
sephath  Shebiith,  ch.  vii),  in  Lower  Galilee ;  probably 
the  present  ruins  Kulat  Ibn-Maan,  a  little  west  of 
Mejdel  (Magdala),  alont;  the  S?a  of  Galilee  (comp. 
Schwarz,  p.  177).     Comp.  Beth-meon  ;  Maon. 

Beth-ms'on  (Heb.  Beyth  Meon',  "jiSB  nn2,  house 
of  habitation  or  of  Baal-J/core;  Sept.  oIkoq  Mawv  v.  r. 
MaiitB),  a  place  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Jer.  xlviii,  23)  ; 
elsewhere  (Josh,  xiii,  17)  ^riven  in  the  full  form  Betii- 
baal-meon  (q.  v.).     See  also  Betiim  vi'p. 

Beth-mer'hak  (Heb.  Beyth  him-Merchak',  rVi2 
pni"2ll,  house  of  the  remoteness;  Sept.  translates  oIkoc, 
6  fiaicpdv,  Vulg.  procul  a  domo;  A.  V.  "a  place  that 
was  far  off"),  apparently  the  proper  name  of  a  locality 
near  Jerusalem,  and  not  far  beyond  the  brook  Kidron, 
where  King  David  first  halted  in  his  exit  from  the 
city  on  the  rebellion  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xv,  17); 
doubtless  a  designation  of  the  environs  outside  the 
city  wall,  in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  as  being  the 
extreme  limit  of  the  houses. 

Beth-mil'lo  (Heb.  Beyth  Mlllo  ,  afea  r.^2,  [or 
S<2"2,]  wall-house;  Sept.  oIkoq  Maakw  or  MprWw; 
Villi-,  oppidum  [or  domus]  Mello;  Auth.  Vers,  "house 
of  Millo"),  the  name  of  two  localities.     See  Millo. 

1.  A  fortress  (or,  according  to  the  Turgum,  a  vil- 
lage) near  Shechem  (Judg.  ix,  20);  apparenth'  the 
same  with  the  citadel  (5^5 "3,  tower)  of  the  place  (Judg. 
ix,  46  49).     See  Shechem. 

2.  A  castle  or  fortification  of  Jerusalem,  where  King 
Jehoash  was  slain  (2  Kings  xii,  20,  where  it  is  defined  as 
being  situated  "  on  the  descent  to  Sillo,"  q.  v.)  ;  proba- 
bly in  the  quarter  of  the  same  name.     See  Jerusalem. 

Beth-nim'rah  (Heb.  Beyth  Nimrah',  tVvgi  r"H2, 
house  of  limpid  water  ;  Sept. »'/  Nn/i/3p«  and  BrjSrva/jipci, 
with  many  var.  readings),  one  of  the  "  fenced  cities" 
on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  taken  and  "built"  by  the 
tribe  of  Gad  (Num.  xxxii,  36),  and  described  as  lying 
"in  the  valley"  (paSS)  beside  Bsth-haran  (Josh, 
xiii,  27).  In  Num.  xxxii,  3,  it  is  named  simply  Nim- 
rah (q.  v.).  The  "Waters  of  Nimrim,"  which  are 
named  in  the  denunciations  of  Moab  by  Isaiah  (xv,  C) 
and  Jeremiah  (xlviii,  34),  must,  from  the  context,  be 
in  the  same  locality.  Sec  Nimrim.  By  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  (Onom.  s.  v.  BrjSvaPpav,  Bethamnaram)  the 
village  (called  by  them  Bethnabris,  Bi^vojioiv,  Beth- 
amnaris)  is  said  to  have  been  still  standing  five  miles 
north  of  Livias  (Beth-haran).  The  Talmudists  call  it 
also  Beth  Nimrin  ("p"i~3  T^2,  comp.  Targum  on  Num. 
xxxii,  3)  or  Beth-Xamer  ("ir3  rn3,  ?"  panther-house," 
Penh,  iv,  5 ;  comp.  Schwarz,  p.  232).  The  name  still 
survives  in  the  Nahr-Nimrln,  the  Arab  appellation  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  Wady  Shoaib,  where  the  waters 
of  that  valley  discharge  themselves  into  the  Jordan 
close  to  one  of  the  regular  fords  a  few  miles  above 
Jericho  (Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  355).  It  has  been  seen 
by  Seetzen  (Reisen,  1854,  ii,  318)  and  Robinson  (Re- 
searches,  ii,  279),  but  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ex-  I 

D  D  D 


plored,  and  all  that  is  known  is  that  the  vegetation  is 
very  thick,  betokening  an  abundance  of  water.  The 
Wady  Shoaib  runs  back  up  into  the  eastern  moun- 
tains as  far  as  es-Salt.  Its  name  (the  modern  fomi 
of  Hobab?)  connects  it  with  the  wanderings  of  the 
children  of  Israel,  and  a  tradition  still  clings  to  the 
neighborhood  that  it  was  down  this  valley  they  de- 
scended to  the  Jordan  (Seetzen,  ii,  377). 

It  seems  to  have  escaped  notice  how  nearly  the  re- 
quirements of  Beth  aba  k  a  (q.  v.)  are  met  in  the  cir- 
cumstances of  Bethnimrah — its  abundance  of  water 
and  its  situation  close  to  "  the  region  round  al  out  Jor- 
dan" (//  Trtpi\i.opo(;  tov  'lopddvov,  i.  e.  the  ClCCAR  of 
the  0.  T.,  the  Oasis  of  Jericho),  immediately  accessi- 
ble to  "Jerusalem  and  all  Judaea"  (John  i,  28  ;  -Matt. 
iii,  5 ;  Mark  i,  5)  by  the  direct  and  ordinary  road  from 
the  capital.  Add  to  this  that  in  the  Sept.  the  name 
of  Bethnimrah  is  found  very  nearly  assuming  the  form 
of  Bethabara — Bai&av«/3j)d,  Bifiafiiid,  BtSrapufid  (see 
Holmes  and  Parsons'  text). — Smith,  s.  v. 

Betho'ron  (Ba&mpwv),  a  Grascized  form  (Judith 
Jv,  4)  of  the  town  Beth-horon  (q.v.). 

Beth-pa'let  (Heb.  Beyth  Pe'kt,  dbs  P^3,  house 
of  escape,  but  found  only  "in  pause,"  Beyth  Pa  let, 
-33  pl^S  [or  "f^S]  ;  Sept.  Bifity'tXiS  and  ti>fi(pa\ciT 
or  BaiScpaXdS),  one  of  the  towns  in  the  extreme  south 
of  Judah  (i.  e.  assigned  to  Simeon),  named  between 
Heshmon  and  Hazar-shual  (Josh,  xv,  27),  and  inhab- 
ited after  the  captivity  (Neh.  xi.  26,  where  it  is  Angli- 
cized "  Beth-phelet").  It  corresponds  possibly  to  the 
"considerable  ruin"  on  Till  el-Kuseifeh  (Robinson's 
Researches,  ii,  620),  a  short  distance  N.E.  of  Moladah 
(Van  dc  Velde,  Map). 

Beth-paz'zez  (Heb.  Beyth  Puts/sets',  ^23  tVja, 
house  of  'dispersion ;  Sept.  BnS<patr!ig  v.  r.  BiipvaQf/r),  a 
town  (?  near  the  border)  of  Issachar,  named  in  connec- 
tion with  En-haddah  (Josh,  xix,  21);  possibly  the  ru- 
ined site  Beit-Jenn,  about  five  miles  west  of  the  south 
end  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee  (Van  do  Velde,  Map). 

Beth-pe'or  (Heb.  Beyth  Peor',  "T]VQ  V*3,  hov.-e 
of  Peor,  i.  e.  temple  of  Baal-Peor;  Sept.  oIkoi;  4>oytijp, 
but  in  Josh.  Bty&^oywp  or  Bai9(poywp),  a  place  in  Moab, 
no  doubt  dedicated  to  the  god  Baal-peor,  on  the  east 
of  Jordan ;  according  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (J)nouuut. 
s.  v.  BeSnpoyop,  Bcthfogo),  it  lav  opposite  Jericho,  and 
six  miles  above  Livias  or  Beth-haran.  It  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Josh,  xiii,  20).  In 
the  Pentateuch  the  name  occurs  in  a  formula  by  which 
one  of  the  last  halting-places  of  the  children  of  Israel 
is  designated — "the  ravine  (^KSrt)  over  against  fa~) 
Beth-poor"  (Deut.  iii,  29  ;  iv,  46).  In  this  ravine  Moses 
was  probably  buried  (Deut.  xxxiv,  6).  It  appears  to 
have  been  situated  on  the  slope  of  the  eminence  (Nebo 
or  Peor),  about  half  way  between  Heshbon  and  the 
north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Here,  as  in  other  cases,  the  Beth-  may  be  a  Hebrew 
substitution  for  Baal-,  or  the  name  may  be  an  abbre- 
viation of  Baal-peor  (q.  v.). — Smith,  s.  v. 

Beth'phage  (Bj/^ayij  and  Bifirpayt},  prob.  for 
Syro-Chald.  iGQ  P"1?,  h  ruse  of  the  unripe  fig),  the 
name  of  a  village  (iciopij)  on  the  Mount  of  Olive, 
along  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho,  and  situated 
at  a  fork  of  the  road,  where  our  Lord,  on  his  way 
from  Bethany  to  Jerusalem,  procured  an  ass  just  be- 
fore reaching  the  summit  of  the  Mount  of  Olives 
(Matt,  xxi,  1 ;  Mark  xi,  1 ;  Luke  xix,  29).  From  the 
two  being  twice  mentioned  together  (.Mark  xi,  1  ; 
Luke  xix,  29),  it  was  apparently  close  to  Bethany 
(q.  v.),  and  it  appears  (from  Matt,  xxi,  1)  to  have  1  een 
nearer  to  the  city.  The  fact  of  our  Lord's  making 
Bethany  his  nightly  lodging-place  (Matt,  xxi,  17,  etc.) 
is  no  confirmation  of  its  direction  from  Bethphage,  since 
he  would  doubtless  take  up  his  abode  in  a  place  where 
he  had  friends,  even  though  it  were  not  the  first  place 


BETH-PHELET 


786 


BETHSAIDA 


at  whirl)  he  arrived  on  the  road.  Dr.  Robinson  argues 
(Researches,  ii,  103)  from  the  order  of  the  names  in 
these  pass  iges  thai  Bethphage  lay  to  the  east  of  Beth- 
any  instead  of  westward,  as  the  local  tradition  states; 
but  his  view  has  evidently  been  biassed  by  his  arrange- 
ment of  the  gospel  narrative  at  that  point,  by  which 
he  places  this  event  on  the  way  from  Jericho  instead 
<>f  after  the  feast  at  Bethany  (see  his  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels  compared  with  Strong's  Harmony  and  Exposi- 
tion). The  name  of  Bethphage  occurs  often  in  the 
Talmud  (Buxtorf,  Lex  Talm.  col.  1691);  and  the  Jew- 
ish glossarists  misled  (see  Hug,  Einl.  i,  18,19)  Light- 
foot  (Ckoroff.  Cent.ch.  xli)  and  Otho  (Lex.  Rabb.  p.  101 
sq.)  to  regard  it  as  a  district  extending  from  the  foot 
of  the  Mount  of  Olives  to  the  precincts  of  Jerusalem, 
and  including  the  village  of  the  same  name  (comp. 
Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  257).  By  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
(Onomast.  -.  v.),  and  also  by  Origen  (see  Biisching, 
Harmonie  d.  Evang.  p.  35),  the  place  was  known,  though 
no  indication  of  its  position  is  given  ;  they  describe  it 
as  a  village  of  the  priests,  possibly  deriving  the  name 
from  "Beth-phace,"  signifying  in  Syriac  the  "house 
of  the  jaw,"  as  the  jaw  in  the  sacrifices  was  the  portion 
of  the  priests  (Reland,  p.  653).  Schwarz  (p.  263  sq.) 
appears  to  place  Bethphage  on  the  southern  shoulder 
of  the  "  Mount  of  Offence,"  above  the  village  of  Siloam, 
and  therefore  west  of  Bethany.  No  remains  which 
could  answer  to  such  a  position  have  been  found  (Rob- 
inson.  ii,  103),  and  the  traditional  site  is  above  Betha- 
ny, half  way  between  that  village  and  the  top  of  the 
mount  (see  Feustel,  De  Bethphage,  Lips.  1686).  Dr. 
Olin  mentions  (Trav.  ii,  257)  having  seen  foundations 
of  houses  and  a  cistern  hewn  in  the  rock  at  that  place. 
Dr.  Barclay,  however  {City  of  the  fire  if  King,  p.  66), 
identities  Bethphage  with  traces  of  foundations  and 
cisterns  on  the  rocky  S.W.  spur  of  Olivet,  a  few  hun- 
dred yards  to  the  south  of  the  Jericho-Jerusalem  road, 
between  Bethany  and  the  Ivdron  (comp.  Stewart,  Tent 
and  Khan,  p.  332).  The  name  of  Bethphage,  the  sig- 
nification of  which,  as  given  above,  is  generally  accept- 
ed, is,  like  those  of  Bethany,  Caphenatha,  Bezetha,  and 
the  Mount  of  Olives  itself,  a  testimony  to  the  ancient 
fruitfulness  of  this  district  (Stanley,  p.  187). 

Beth'-plielet  (Neh.  xi,  26).     Sec  Beth-palet. 

Beth'-rapha  (Heb.  Beyth  Rapha',  NSn  ma, 
aottst  <>f  Rapha,  or  r/"the  giant;  Sept.  Ba9pt(pd  v.  r. 
Badpata  .  a  name  occurring  in  the  genealogy  of  Judah 
as  apparently  the  eldest  of  the  three  sons  of  Eshton, 
'•  men  of  Rechah"  (1  Ohron.  iv,  12).  B.C.  post  1618. 
There  is  a  Rapha  in  the  line  of  Benjamin  and  else- 
where, but  no  apparent  connection  exists  between 
those  and  this,  nov  has  the  name  been  identified  as  be- 
longing to  any  place. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Refhaim. 

Beth'-rehob  (Heb.  Beyth-Rechob',  airrrlVa, 
how  of  Rehob;  Sept.  o7i>-oc  'Poo>/3  [v.  v.  'Pat  ;  I  and 
BatSrpowfi  \  v.  r.  'Po<i/3,  BaiBpaafi,  and  even  Tw/3]),  a 
place  mentioned  as  having  near  it  (lie  valley  in  which 
lav  the  town  of  Laish  or  Dan  (Judg.  xviii,  28).  It 
was  "iie  of  the  little  kingdoms  of  Aram  or  Syria,  like 
/ot  ali.  Maachah,  and  [sh-tob,  in  company  with  which 
it  was  hire  1  I  \  the  Ammonites  to  fight  against  David 
(2  Sam.  •  .  ■  i.  See  Aram.  In  ver.  8  the  name  oc- 
curs in  the  shorter  form  of  Rehob,  in  which  form  it  is 
doubtless  again  mentioned  in  Num.  xiii,  21.  Being, 
however,  "far  from  Sidon"  (Judg.  xviii,  28),  this 
I'l""  "in  t  nol  he  confounded  with  two  towns  of  the 
n  on o  ■  f  Rehob  in  the  territory  of  Asher.  See  Rehob. 
Robinson  conjectures  t./.a/<r  Researches,  p.  .".71")  that 
this  ancient  plai  e  U  represented  by  the  modern  Hunin, 
a  fortress  commanding  the  plain  of  the  Iluleh.in  which 
the  city  of  Dan  (Tell  el-Kadi  |  lay.  See  Oesarea- 
Piiii.ii-it.  Hadadezer,  the  King  of  Zobah,  is  said  to 
have  i  eeri  the  g0n  of  Rehob  2 Sam.;  iii  :;,  12 1.— Smith. 

Eetfceai'da  (JltjSaaiSa,  for  the  Aramaean  ma 
ffl,,S,  fithingJoicn,   Buxtorf,  /.,.,-.  Talm.  col.  1894),  a 


name  which  nearly  all  writers  on  Palestinian  geog- 
raphy since  Reland  have  assigned  to  two  places,  not 
far  from  each  other,  on  the  opposite  shores  near  the 
head  of  Lake  Tiberias  (sec  Raumer,  Palasiina,  p.  109), 
but  which  there  appears  to  be  no  good  reason  for  dis- 
tinguishing from  each  other  (sec  Thomson,  L'.nd  and 
Book,  ii,  31  sq.). 

1.  A  town  (ttoXic,  John  i,  45)  in  Galilee  (John  xii, 
21),  apparently  on  the  western  side  of  the  sea  of  Tibe- 
rias, being  in  "  the  land  of  Gennesareth"  (q.  v.),  and 
yet  toward  the  northern  extremity  of  the  lake  (Mark 
vi,  45).  It  was  the  native  place  of  Peter,  Andrew, 
and  Philip,  and  the  frequent  resort  of  Jesus  (John  i, 
44;  xii,  21,  etc.).  It  was  evidently  in  near  neighbor- 
hood to  Capernaum  and  Chorazin  (Matt,  xi,  21  ;  Luke 
x,  13;  and  comp.  Mark  vi,  45  with  John  vi,  16),  and, 
if  the  interpretation  of  the  name  is  to  be  trusted,  close 
to  the  water's  edge.  By  Jerome  (Cumm.  in  Esai.  ix, 
1)  and  Eusebius  (Onom.)  these  towns  and  Tiberias  are 
all  mentioned  together  as  lying  on  the  shore  of  the 
lake.  Epiphanius  (adv.  Harr.  ii)  says  of  Bethsaida 
and  Capernaum  that  they  were  not  far  apart.  AVili- 
bald  (A.D.  722)  went  from  Magdakim  to  Capernaum, 
thence  to  Bethsaida,  and  then  to  Chorazin.  These 
ancient  notices,  however,  though  they  fix  its  general 
situation,  none  of  them  contain  any  indication  of  its 
exact  position,  and  as,  like  the  other  two- towns  just 
mentioned,  its  name  and  all  memory  of  its  site  have 
perished,  no  positive  identification  can  be  made  of  it. 
It  is  true  that  Pococke  (ii,  99)  finds  Bethsaida  at  Irbid; 
Seetzen  at  Khan  Minyeh  (Zaeh's  Monatl.  Corresp. 
xviii,  348);  Nau  at  Mejdd  (Voyage,  p.  578;  Quares- 
mius,  ii,  866),  apparently  between  Khan  Minyeh  and 
Mejdel ;  and  others  at  Tabi;Ji:di  (so  Robinson — all 
different  points  en  the  western  shore  of  the  lake.  The 
Christians  of  Nazareth  and  Tiberias  are  indeed  ac- 
quainted with  the  name,  as  well  as  that  of  Capernaum, 
from  the  New  Testament ;  and  they  have  learned  to 
apply  them  to  different  places  according  to  the  opin- 
ions of  their  monastic  teachers,  or  as  may  best  suit 
their  own  convenience  in  answering  the  inquiries  of 
travellers.  It  is  thus  that  Dr.  Robinson  (Bibl.  He- 
searches,  iii,  295)  accounts  for  the  fact  that  travellers 
have  sometimes  heard  the  names  along  the  lake. 
Whenever  this  has  not  been  the  consequence  of  direct 
leading  questions,  which  an  Arab  would  always  an- 
swer affirmatively,  the  names  have  doubtless  been 
beard  from  the  monks  of  Nazareth,  or  from  the  Arabs 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  dependent  upon  them.  The 
position  of  this  Bethsaida  mainly  depends  upon  that 
of  Capernaum,  from  which  it  was  not  far  distant,  to 
the  north,  on  the  shore  (Robinson,  new  ed.  of  Re- 
*<  an-h(.o,  iii,  358,  359).  If  Capernaum  be  fixed  at  Khan 
Minyeh,  then  Bethsaida  was  probably  at  '.1///  cl-Tabig- 
hah  ;  but  if  (as  on  some  accounts  is  more  likely)  Caper- 
naum is  to  be  located  at  'Ain  el-Mudawarah,  then 
Bethsaida  itself  must  be  placed  at  Khun  el-Minyeh; 
and  in  that  case  it  may  have  sprung  up  as  a  restoration 
of  the  more  ancient  Cinnereth,  but  nearer  the  shore. 
See  Capernaum. 

2.  Christ  fed  the  5000  "near  to  a  city  called  Beth- 
saida" (Luke  ix,  10);  but  it  has  been  thought  from 
the  parallel  passages  (Matt,  xiv,  13;  Mark  vi,  32-45) 
that  this  event  took  place,  not  in  Galilee,  but  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  lake.  This  was  held  to  be  <  ne  of 
the  greatest  difficulties  in  i  acred  geography  (Cellar. 
Nolit.  Orb.  ii,  536)  till  the  ingenious  Reland  scented  to 
have  afforded  materials  for  a  satisfactory  solution  of  it 
by  distinguishing  two  Bethsaidas,  one  on  the  western 
and  the  other  on  the  north-eastern  border  of  the  lake 
(I'lilnxt.  p.  653).  The  former  was  undoubtedly  "the 
city  of  Andrew  and  Peter;"  and,  although  Reland  did 
not  himself  think  that  the  other  Bethsaida  is  men-  ' 
tioned  in  the  New  Testament,  it  has  been  thought  by 
later  writers  to  be  more  in  agreement  with  the  sacred 
text  to  conclude  that  it  was  the  Bethsaida  near  which 

(  hrist  fed  the  5000,  and  also,  probably,  where  the  blind 


BETHSAIDA 


787 


BETH-SHEAN 


man  was  restored  to  sight.  This  appears  also  to  have 
been  the  Bethsaida  of  Gaulonitis,  afterward  called  Ju- 
lias, which  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat,  v,  15)  places  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  the  lake  and  of  the  Jordan,  and  which  Jo- 
sephus  describes  as  situated  in  Lower  Gaulonitis,  just 
above  the  entrance  of  the  Jordan  into  the  lake  (  War, 
ii,  9,  1 ;  iii,  10,  7).  It  was  originallj'  only  a  village, 
called  Bethsaida  (BtiSraa'ida),  but  was  rebuilt  and  en- 
larged by  Philip  the  Tetrarch  not  long  after  the  birth 
of  Christ,  and  received  the  name  of  Julias  in  honor  of 
Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augustus  (Josephus,  Ant.  xviii, 
2,  1).  Philip  seems  to  have  made  it  his  occasional  res- 
idence ;  and  here  he  died,  and  was  buried  in  a  costly 
tomb  (Ant.  xviii,  4,  G).  At  the  northern  end  of  the 
lake  of  Gennesarcth  the  mountains  which  form  the 
eastern  wall  of  the  valley  through  which  the  Jordan 
enters  the  lake,  throw  out  a  spur  or  promontory  which 
extends  for  some  distance  southward  along  the  river. 
This  is  known  by  the  people  on  the  spot  by  no  other 
name  than  et-Tell  (the  hill).  On  it  are  some  ruins, 
which  were  visited  by  the  Kev.  Eli  Smith,  and  proved 
to  be  the  most  extensive  of  any  in  the  plain.  The 
place  is  regarded  as  a  sort  of  capital  by  the  Arabs  of 
the  valley  (the  Ghawarineh),  although  they  have  lost 
its  ancient  name,  and  now  occupy  only  a  few  houses 
in  it  as  magazines.  The  ruins  cover  a  large  portion 
of  the  tell,  but  consist  entirely  of  unhewn  volcanic 
stones,  without  any  distinct  trace  of  ancient  architec- 
ture (Robinson,  Bibl.  Researches,  iii,  308).  M.  De  Saul- 
cy,  however,  objects  to  this  location  of  Dethsaid  I,  that 
in  et-Tell  there  are  only  what  may  be  called  ruins  of 
a  barbarous  age,  and  not  such  as  would  mark  the  re- 
mains of  the  splendid  structures  of  Julias ;  that  it  is 
situated  too  far  from  the  lake  to  be  properly  called  a 
"fishing-town,"  and  that  this  position  is  inconsistent 
with  Josephus's  account  of  his  military  operations 
against  Sylla  (Life,  §  72).  He  therefore  thinks  that 
Bethsaida  was  located  at  Tell-lloum,  formerly  regard- 
ed as  the  site  of  Capernaum  (Narrativs,  ii,  377).  But 
this  position  is  inconsistent  with  his  own  identification 
of  other  neighboring  localities,  and  fails  also  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  scriptural  texts. 

Of  this  Bethsaida  we  have  certainly  one,  and  prob- 
ably two  mentions  in  the  Gospels:  (1.)  That  named 
above,  of  the  feeding  of  the  5000  (Luke  ix,  in).  The 
miracle  took  place  in  a  r<)7roc  tpm-iog,  a  vacant,  loneLy 
spot,  somewhere  up  in  the  rising  ground  at  the  back 
of  the  town,  covered  with  a  profusion  of  green  grass 
(John  vi,  3,  10;  Mark  vi,  39;  Matt,  xiv,  19);  and  in 
the  evening  the  disciples  went  down  to  the  water  and 
went  home  across  the  lake  (fig  rii  iripav)  to  Bethsaida 
(Mark  vi,  45),  or,  as  John  (vi,  17)  and  Matthew  (xiv, 
31)  more  generally  express  it,  toward  Capernaum,  and 
to  the  land  of  Gcnnesareth.  The  coincidence  of  the 
two  Bethsaidas  occurring  in  the  one  narrative,  and 
that  on  the  occasion  of  the  only  absolutely  certain 
mention  of  the  eastern  one,  is  extraordinary.  In  the 
very  ancient  Syriac  recension  (the  Xitrian)  just  pub- 
li<hel  by  Mr.  Cureton,  the  words  in  Luke  ix,  10,  "be- 
longing to  the  city  called  Bethsaida"  arc  omitted. 

(2.)  The  other,  highly  probable,  mention  of  this 
place  is  in  Mark  viii,  22,  where  it  is  called  a  "  vil- 
lige*'  (Kibfirj).  If  Dalmanutha  (viii,  10)  or  Magdala 
(.Matt,  xv,  3D)  was  on  the  west  side  of  the  like,  then 
wis  Bethsaida  on  the  east,  because  in  the  interval 
Christ  had  departed  by  ship  to  the  other  side  (Mark 
viii,  Li).  And  with  this  well  accords  the  mention  im- 
mediately after  of  the  villages  of  Csesarea-Philippi 
(v.-r.  27),  and  of  the  "high  mountain"  of  the  transfig- 
uration (ix,  2),  which  was  not  the  traditional  spot 
(Mt.  Tabor),  but  a  part  of  the  Hermon  range  some- 
where above  the  source  of  the  Jordan. 

3.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether,  after  all,  there 
exists  any  real  necessity  for  supposing  two  places  of 
this  name.  As  they  could  not  have  been  very  far 
from  each  other,  the  assumption  is  in  itself  a  very  im- 
probable one,  especially  as  the  name  nowhere  occurs 


with  any  epithet  or  note  of  distinction,  and  neither  ,To- 
!  sephus  nor  any  other  ancient  writer  speaks  of  such  a  dif- 
|  ference  or  duplication.  In  fact,  all  the  circumstances 
under  which  every  mention  of  the  locality  occurs, 
whether  in  Scripture  or  elsewhere,  may  be  met  by  a 
location  at  the  mouth  of  the  Upper  Jordan  on  the  lake  : 
(1.)  This  corresponds  to  the  only  definite  mention  of 
the  spot  by  Josephus  (.1m/.  xviii,  2, 1),  as  being  "situate 
at  Lake  (7rpu<;  \ifivg)  Gennesareth."  (2.)  This  would 
be  popularly  called  a  part  of  Galilee  (John  xii,  21), 
and  j'et  might  very  easily  be  reckoned  as  belonging  to 
1  Lower  Gaulonitis  (Joseph.  War,  ii,  9,  1),  since  it  was 
really  on  the  border  between  these  two  districts.  (3.) 
I  It  would  thus  lie  directly  on  the  route  from  the  west- 
|  ern  shore  of  the  lake  to  Caesarea-Philippi  (Mark  viii, 
22,  comp.  with  10  and  27).  (4.)  Such  a  position  readi- 
ly reconciles  the  statements  in  the  accounts  of  Christ 
recross'ing  the  lake  after  both  miracles  of  the  loaves : 
[1.]  In  Mark  vi,  32  (comp.  John  vi,  1),  the  passage 
was  directly  across  the  northern  end  of  the  lake  from 
Capernaum  to  a  retired  spot  on  the  shore  somewhat 
S.E.  of  Bethsaida  ;  thence  the  disciples  started  to  cross 
merely  the  N.E.  corner  of  the  lake  to  Bethsaida  itself 
(Mark  vi,  45),  but  were  driven  by  the  head-wind  dur- 
ing the  night  to  a  more  southerly  point,  and  thus 
reached  Capernaum  (John  vi,  17,  21,  24),  after  having 
traversed  the  plain  of  Gennesareth  (Matt,  xiv,  34  ; 
Mark  vi,  53).  [2.]  In  Mark  viii,  10,  the  passage  was 
likewise  directly  across  the  upper  portion  of  the  lake, 
but  in  an  opposite  direction,  from  the  Decapolis  (ver. 
31)  to  the  vicinity  of  Magdala  (Matt,  xv,  39),  thence 
along  the  shore  and  around  the  N.W.  head  of  the  lake 
to  Bethsaida  (Mark  viii,  22),  and  so  on  northward  to 
the  scene  of  the  transfiguration  in  the  region  of  Cse- 
sarea-Philippi (Matt,  xvi,  13).  [3.]  The  position  of 
ct-Tell  is  too  far  from  the  shore  to  correspond  with 
the  notices  of  Bethsaida  and  Livias,  which  require  a 
situation  corresponding  to  that  of  the  modern  ruined 
village  el-Araj,  containing  some  vestiges  of  antiquity 
(Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  304),  immediately  east  of  the 
debouchure  of  the  Upper  Jordan.  (Sec  Forbiger,  Situs 
desertorum  Bethsaida,  Lips.  1742). 

Beth'Eamos  (BaiidT^uou  v.  r.  BaiSarr/iw^,  a 
place  of  which  42  inhabitants  are  stated  to  have  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr.  v,  18) ;  evidently 
the  Beth-Azmavetii  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine  text  (Neb. 
vii,  28  ;  simply  Azmaveth  in  Ezra  ii,  24). 

Beth'san  (Ba&aav),  a  Graecized  form  (1  Mace, 
v,  52  ;  xii,  40,  41)  of  the  name  of  the  city  Beth-shan 
(q.  v.). 

Beth'-shan  (Heb.  Beyth-Shan,  yJ-rP2,  Sept. 
BaiSradv  v.  r.  BaiSaa^),  an  abridged  form  (1  Sam. 
xxxi,  10, 12 ;  2  Sam.  xxi,  12)  of  the  name  of  the  city 
Beth-shean  (q.  v.). 

Beth-she'an  (Heb.  Beyth  Shewn',  "N'i  r*2,  house 
of  security;  Sept.  Bifiadv,  also  [in  1  Kings  iv,  12]  Bjj3-- 
aaaf,  and  oIkoc  "2.aav,  and  [in  1  Chron.  vii,  29]  Brn.?- 
aavv.v.  Ba&aaav;  in  Samuel  Beth-shan,  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha BfeTHSAN,  in  Josephus  Biftoava  or  B(5<jdi»i  ; 
in  the  Talmud  Bcisan,  "S"3  [but  see  Otho,  Lex.  Rabb. 
p.  10"]  ;  in  Steph.  Byz.  [p.  675]  Baiowv ;  in  the  Ono- 
masticon,  Euseb.  B//3-<Trtr,  Jerome  Bethsan ;  also  [ac- 
cording to  Sell  war/.,  Palest,  p.  118,  note]  in  1  Kings 
xxii,  39,  the  "  ivory-house"  of  Solomon,  '""ij  r,"2, 
Bey'h  hash-Shen,  house  of  the  tooth;  Sept.  o7icoc  i\e- 
<pavrivo£),  a  city  which,  with  its  "daughter"  towns, 
belonged  to  Manasseh  (1  Chr.  vii,  29),  though  within 
the  original  limits  of  Issachar  (Josh,  xvii,  11),  and 
therefore  on  the  west  of  Jordan  (comp.  1  Mace,  v,  52). 
It  was  not  subdued,  however,  by  either  tribe,  but  re- 
mained for  a  long  time  in  the  hands  of  the  Canaanites 
and  Philistines  (Judg.  i,  17).  The  corpses  of  Saul  and 
his  sons  were  fastened  up  to  the  wall  of  Bethshean 
by  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxxi,  10,  12)  in  the  open 
"street"  or  space  (2I"H),  which — then  as  now — fronted 


BETH-SHEAN  K 

the  gate  of  an  Eastern  town  (2  Sam.  xxi,  !2).  In  Sol- 
omon's time  it  seems  to  have  given  its  name  to  a  dis- 
trict extending  from  the  town  itself  to  Abel-meholah ; 
and  "all  Bethshean"  was  under  the  charge  of  one  of 
his  commissariat  officers  (1  Kings  iv,  12).  From  this 
time  we  lose  sight  of  Bethshean  till  the  period  of  the 
Maccabees,  in  connection  with  whose  exploits  it  is 
mentioned  more  than  once  in  a  cursory  manner  (1 
Mace.  \.  52;  cum]).  1  Mace,  xii,  40,  41).  Alexander 
Jannseus  had  an  interview  here  with  Cleopatra  (Jose- 
phus,  .1/i/.  xiii,  13,  3)  ;  Pompey  marched  through  it  on 
hi-  way  from  Damascus  to  Jerusalem  (ib.  xiv,  3,  4); 
Galliums  fortified  it  (ib.  xiv,  5,  3)  ;  and  in  the  Jewish 
war  13,000  Jews  were  slain  by  the  Scythopolitans 
(  11".//-.  ii.  18,  3).  It  was  600  stadia  from  Jerusalem  (2 
Mace,  xii,  29),  120  from  Tiberias  (Josephus,  Life,  Go), 
and  1G  miles  from  Gadara  (Itin.  Anion.;  comp.  Am- 
jnian.  Marc,  xix,  12).  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  place 
had  become  desolate,  although  it  still  went  by  the 
name  of  Metropolis  Palcestince  tertia  (Will.  Tyr.  p.  74'.), 
1034;  Vitriacus,  p.  1119).  We  lind  bishops  of  Scy- 
thopolis  at  the  councils  of  Chalcedon,  Jerusalem  (A.D. 
536),  and  others.  During  the  Crusades  it  was  an  arch- 
bishopric, which  was  afterward  transferred  to  Naza- 
reth (Raumer's  Palastina,  p.  147-149). 

Bethshean  also  bore  the  name  of  Scythopolis  CZkvSuv 
ro\u\  2  Mace,  xii,  29),  perhaps  because  Scythians  bad 
settled  there  in  the  time  of  Josiab  (B.C.  631),  in  their 
passage  through  Palestine  toward  Egypt  (Herod,  i, 
205;  comp.  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  v,  1G,  20;  Georg.  Syncel- 
1  n - .  p.  214).  Phis  hypothesis  is  supported  by  2  Mace. 
xii.  30,  where  mention  is  made  of  "Jews  who  lived 
among  the  Scythians  (2f«;3o7roA?~«()  (in  Bethshan")  ; 
and  by  the  Septuagint  version  of  Judg.  i,  27  (\laiGodv, 
i'l  tan  "2.kvBuv  7ro\ic).  In  Judith  iii,  2,  the  place  is 
also  called  Scythopolis  CZkvQmv  —  okig),  and  so  like- 
wise by  Josephus  {Ant.  v,  1,  22;  xii,  8,  5;  xiii,  G,  ]) 
and  others  (Strabo,  xvi,  763 ;  Ptolemy,  v,  15,  23).  The 
supposition  that  these  were  descendants  of  the  Scythi- 
ans in  Palestine  (comp.  Ezek.  xxxix,  11)  renders  more 
intelligible  Coloss.  iii,  11,  where  the  Scythian  is  named 
with  the  Jew  and  Greek  ;  and  it  also  explains  why  the 
ancient  rabbins  did  not  consider  Scythopolis  (Beisan) 
a.-  a  Jewish  town  (comp.  Joseph.  Life,  G),  but  as  one 
of  an  unholy  people  (Havcrcamp,  Observed,  ml  Joseph. 
Antiq.  \ .  1.  22  I.  On  coins  the  place  is  called  Sei/thop- 
olis  and  Nysa  i  so  Pliny,  v,  16),  with  figures  of  Bacchus 
and  the  panther  (Eckhel,  p.  438-440;  comp.  Reland, 
]..  !'!» '.  sq. ).  As  Succoth  lay  somewhere  in  the  vicini- 
ty east  of  the  Jordan,  some  would  derive  Scythopolis 
from  Succoihop  lis  (Reland,  p.  992  sq. ;  Gcser.ius,  in 
Burckhardt,  p.  1053,  German  edit.).  It  has  also,  with 
a-  little  probability,  been  supposed  to  be  the  same  as 
Beth-shittim  (Judg.  vii,  22).  Josephus  does  not  ac- 
count Scythopolis  as  belonging  to  Samaria,  in  which 
ir  geographically  lay.  But  to  Decapolis,  which  was 
chiefly  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  of  which  he 
calls  it  the  largest  town  (War,  iii,  9,  7).     Sea  Scr- 

THOPOLIS. 

The  ancient  native  name,  as  well  as  the  town  itself, 
still  exists  in  the  fiei'sanofthe  present  day  (Robinson, 
Researches,  iii.  171).  It  stands  on  a  rising  ground 
somewhat  above  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  or  in  the 
valley  of  Jezreel  where  it  opens  into  the  Jordan  val- 
ley. It  i-  ..ii  lie'  mid  from  Jerusalem  to  Damascus, 
and  i-  about  three  miles  from  the  Jordan,  fourteen 
& th  ■  southern  end  of  Lake  Gennesareth,  and  six- 
teen from  Nazareth.  The  site  of  the  town  is  on  the 
brov.  of  the  descent  hy  which  the  great  plain  of  Es- 
draelon  drops  down  to  the  level  of  the  Gbor.  A 
few  miles  to  the  west  are  the  mountains  of  Gilboa, 
ami  close  besid  tie-  town,  on  tin-  north,  runs  the 
water  of  the  Ain-Jalud,  the  fountain  of  which  is  in 
Jezreel,  and  is  in  all  probability  the  spring  by  which 
the  Israelites  encamped  before  the  battle  in  which 
Saul  was  killed  (1  Sam.  xxix,  1).  Three  other  large 
brooks  pass  through  or  by  the  town;  and  in  the  fact 


S  BETH-SHEMESH 

of  the  abundance  of  water,  and  the  exuberant  fertility 
of  the  soil  consequent  thereon,  as  well  as  in  the  power 
of  using  their  chariots,  which  the  level  nature  of  the 
country  near  the  town  conferred  on  them  (Josh,  xvii, 
1G),  resides  the  secret  of  the  hold  which  the  Canaan  it  es 
retained  on  the  place.  So  great  was  this  fertility,  that 
it  was  said  by  the  rabbins  that  if  Paradise  was  in  tie 
land  of  Israel,  Beth-shean  was  the  gate  of  it,  for  its 
fruits  were  the  sweetest  in  all  the  land  (sec  Light- 
foot,  Char.  Cent.  lx).  If  Jabesh-Gilead  was  where  Dr. 
Robinson  conjectures — at  ed-Deir  in  Wady  YaLii — the 
distance  from  thence  to  Beisan,  which  it  took  the  men 
of  Jabesh  "all  night"  to  traverse,  cannot  be  much  be- 
yond ten  miles.  The  modern  Beisan  is  a  poor  place 
containing  not  more  than  sixty  cr  seventy  houses. 
The  inhabitants  are  Moslems,  and  are  described  ly 
Richardson  and  others  as  a  set  of  inhospitable  and  law- 
less fanatics.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  are  of  con- 
siderable extent.  It  was  built  along  the  banks  of  the 
rivulet  which  waters  the  town  and  in  the  valleys  form- 
ed by  its  several  branches,  and  must  have  been  nearly 
three  miles  in  circumference.  The  chief  remains  are 
large  heaps  of  black  hewn  stones,  with  many  founda- 
tions of  houses  and  fragments  of  a  few  columns  (Burck- 
hardt, p.  243).  The  principal  olject  is  the  theatre, 
which  is  quite  distinct,  but  now  completely  filled  up 
with  weeds;  it  measures  across  the  front  al  out  180 
feet,  and  has  the  singularity  of  possessing  three  oval 
recesses  half  way  up  the  building,  which  are  men- 
tioned by  Yitruvius  as  being  constructed  to  contain 
the  brass  sounding-tubes.  Pew  theatres  had  such  an 
apparatus  even  in  the  time  of  this  author,  and  they 
are  scarcely'  ever  met  with  now.  The  other  remains 
are  the  tombs,  which  lie  to  the  north-east  of  the  Acrop- 
olis, without  the  walls.  The  sarcophagi  still  exist  in 
some  of  them ;  triangular  niches  for  lamps  have  ab o 
been  observed  in  them ;  and  some  of  the  doors  con- 
tinue hanging  on  the  ancient  hinges  of  stone  in  re- 
markable preservation.  Two  streams  run  through  the 
ruins  of  the  city,  almost  insulating  the  Acropolis. 
There  is  a  fine  Roman  bridge  over  the  one  to  the  south- 
west of  the  Acropolis,  and  beyond  it  may  be  seen  the 
paved  way  which  led  to  the  ancient  Ptolcmais,  now 
Acre.  The  Acropolis  is  a  high  circular  hill,  on  the  t<  p 
of  which  are  traces  of  the  walls  which  encompassed  it 
(Irby  and  Mangles,  Travels,  p.  301-203).  See  also 
Robinson,  Later  Bib.  Res.  p.  329  sq. ;  Van  de  Velde, 
Narrative,  ii,  359-3G3 ;  Thomson,  Lund  and  Boole,  ii, 
172  sq. 

Beth'-shemesh(rleb.  Z>p^  She'mesh,  C5E13  r.^3, 
house  ';/'the  sun  ,•  in  pause  Beyth  Sha'mesh,  C£C3  ~"  ; 
Sept.  in  Josh,  xv,  10,  ttoXiq  yXiov,  elsewhere  in  Josh, 
and  Judg.  B»;3r7«/<fc,  inSam.  and  Chron:  BaiSaa/jin?, 
in  Kings  BitiZau/ur,  in  Jer.  'H\ioi>-o\tc  ;  Josephrs 
Wifzoaju].  Ant.  vi,  1,  3),  the  name  of  four  places.     See 

HlCLIOPOLIS. 

1.  A  sacerdotal  city  (Josh,  xxi,  1G;  1  Sam.  vi,  15,; 
1  Chron.  vi,  59)  in  the  tribe  of  Dan,  on  the  northern 
border  (between  Chcsalon  and  Timnath)  of  Judah 
(Josh,  xv,  10),  toward  the  land  of  the  Philistines  (1 
Sam.  vi,  9,  12),  probably  in  a  lowland  plain  (2  Kings 
xiv,  11),  and  placed  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Ono- 
mast.  s.  v.  EtiSoa/ite,  Bethsamis)  ten  Roman  miles 
from  Eleutheropolis,  in  the  direction  of  the  road  to 
Xieopolis.  The  expression  "went  down"  in  Jcsh. 
xv,  10  ;  1  Sam.  vi,  21,  seems  to  indicate  that  the  posi- 
tion of  the  town  was  lower  than  Kirjath-jearim ;  and 
it  is  in  accordance  with  the  situation  that  there  was 
a  valley  (p-OS)  of  corn-fields  attache  d  to  the  place  (1 
Sam.  v,  13).  It  was  a  "suburb  city"  (Josh.  xxi'lG; 
1  Chron.  vi,  59),  and  it  is  named  in  one  of  Solomon's 
commissariat  districts  under  the  charge  of  Ben-Dekar 
(1  Kings  iv,  II).  It  was  the  scene  of  an  encounter  be- 
tween Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  and  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah,  in  which  the  latter  was  worsted  and  made  pris- 
oner  (2   Kings   xiv,  11,  13;    2  Chron.  xxv,  21,  23). 


BETII-SIIEMESH 


789 


BETHUEL 


Later,  in  the  days  of  Ahaz,  it  was  tiken  and  occupied 
by  the  Philistines,  together  with  several  other  places 
in  this  locality  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  18). 

From  Ekron  to  Beth-shemesh  a  road  (""H,  bdoc.) 
existed  along  which  the  Philistines  sent  back  the  ark 
by  milch-kine  after  its  calamitous  residence  in  their 
country  (1  Sam.  vi,  9,  12) ;  and  it  was  in  the  field  of 
"Joshua  the  Betk-shemite"  (q.  v.)  that  the  " great j 
Abel"  (whatever  that  may  have  been,  prob.  a  stone  ; 
ssa  Abel-)  was  on  which  the  ark  was  set  down  (1 
Sain,  vi,  18).  On  this  occasion  it  was  that,  according 
to  the  present  text,  "  fifty  thousand  and  threescore 
and  ten  men"  were  miraculously  slain  for  irreverently 
exploring  the  sacred  shrine  (1  Sam.  vi,  19).  This 
number  has  occasioned  much  discussion  (see  Schram, 
Deplaga  Bethschemitarum,  Herb.  17. .).  The  numeral 
in  the  text  has  probably  been  erroneous!}'  transcribed. 
See  Abbreviation.  The  Syriac  a-nd  Arabic  have 
5070  instead  of  50070,  and  this  statement  agrees  with  i 
1  Cod.  Kennicott  (comp.  Gesenius,  Gesch.  der  Ilebr. 
Sprache,  p.  174).  Even  with  this  reduction,  the  num- 
ber, for  a  provincial  town  like  Beth-shemesh,  would  j 
still  be  great.  We  may  therefore  suppose  that  the  j 
number  originally  designated  was  570  only,  as  the  ab- 
sence of  any  intermediate  denomination  between  the  ] 
first  two  digits  would  seem  to  indicate.  The  fact  it- 
self has  been  accounted  for  on  natural  principles  by 
some  German  writers  in  a  spirit  at  variance  with  that 
of  Hebrew  antiquity,  and  in  which  the  miraculous 
part  of  the  event  has  been  explained  away  by  ungram- 
matical  interpretations.     See  Number. 

By  comparison  of  the  lists  in  Josh,  xv,  10 ;  xix,  41, 
43,  and  1  Kings  iv,  9,  it  will  be  seen  that  Ir-siiemesii 
(q.  v.),  "city  of  the  sun,"  must  have  been  identical 
with  Beth-shemesh,  Ir  being  probably  the  older  form 
of  the  name ;  and  again,  from  Judg.  i,  35,  it  appears 
as  if  Har-cheres,  "mount  of  the  sun,"  were  a  third 
name  for  the  same  pi  ice,  suggesting  an  early  and  ex- 
tensive worship  of  the  sun  in  this  neighborhood. — Kit- 
to,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v.     See  Heres. 

Beth-shemesh  is  no  doubt  the  modern  Ainshems 
found  by  Dr.  Robinson  in  a  position  exactly  according 
with  the  indications  of  Scripture,  on  the  north-west 
slopes  of  the  mountains  of  Judah — "a  low  plateau  at 
the  junction  of  two  fine  plains"  {Later  Researches,  p. 
153) — about  two  miles  from  the  great  Philistine  plain, 
and  seven  from  Ekron  {Researches,  iii,  17-20 ;  comp. 
Schwarz,  Pa'est.  p.  98).  It  is  a  ruined  Arab  village 
constructed  of  ancient  materials.  To  the  west  of  the 
village,  upon  and  around  the  plateau  of  a  low  swell  or 
mound,  are  the  vestiges  of  a  former  extensive  city, 
consisting  of  many  foundations  and  the  remains  of  an- 
cient walls  of  hewn  stone.  With  respect  to  the  ex- 
change of  Beth  for  Ain,  Dr.  Robinson  remarks  (iii, 
19)  :  "  The  words  Beit  (Beth)  and  Ain  are  so  very  com- 
mon in  the  Arabic  names  of  Palestine,  that  it  can  ex- 
cite no  wonder  there  should  be  an  exchange,  even  with- 
out an  obvious  reason.  In  the  same  manner  the  an- 
cient Beth-shemesh  (Ileliopolis  of  Egypt)  is  known 
in  Arabian  writers  as  Aiu-shems"  (sec  below).  See 
Beth-;  En-. 

2.  A  city  near  the  southern  border  of  Issachar,  be- 
tween Mount  Tabor  and  the  Jordan  (Josh,  xix,  '22)  ; 
probably  the  same  with  the  present  village  Kaukab 
("the  stir')  el-Hawa  (Schwarz,  Palest,  \>.  1C7),  which 
is  also  identical  with  the  Belvoir  of  the  Crusaders  (see 
Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  22C). 

3.  One  of  the  "fenced  cities"  of  Naphtali,  named 
(Josh,  xix,  38 ;  Judg.  i,  33)  in  connection  with  Beth- 
anath,  from  neither  of  which  places  were  the  Canaan- 
lte  inhabitants  expelled,  but  became  tributaries  to  Is- 
rael. Jerome's  expression  (Onom.  Bethsainis)  in  ref- 
erence to  this  is  perhaps  worthy  of  notice,  "  in  which 
the  original  inhabitants  (cultores,  ?  worshippers)  re- 
mained ;"  possibly  glancing  at  the  worship  from  which 
the  place  derived  its  name.     Keil  (Comment  on  Josh. 


p.  440)  confounds  this  place  with  the  foregoing.  M. 
De  Saulcy  suggests  (Narrative,  ii,  422)  that  it  may 
have  been  identical  with  a  village  called  Medjel  esh- 
Shems,  seen  by  him  on  the  brow  of  a  hill  west  of  the 
road  from  Banias  to  Lake  Phiala;  it  is  laid  down  on 
Van  de  Velde's  Map  at  2i  miles  north  of  the  latter. 

4.  By  this  name  is  mentioned  (Jer.  xliii,  13)  an 
idolatrous  temple  or  place  in  Egypt,  usually  called  Ile- 
liopolis (q.  v.)  or  On  (Gen.  xli,  45).  In  the  Middle 
Ages  Heliopolis  was  still  called  by  the  Arabs  Ain- 
Shems,  which  is  the  modern  name  (Robinson,  R<  s<  arch- 
es, i,  36).     See  Aven  ;  On. 

Beth'-shemite  (Heb.  Beyth  hish-Shimshi' ',  rP2 
nw,"C'i*l7  ;  Sept.  tK  BaiSroafxvg,  o  BaiS<ra/zvfftV?jc),  an 
inhabitant  (1  Sam.  vi,  14,  18)  of  the  Beth-shemesh 
(q.  v.)  in  Judaea; 

Bath-shit'tah  (Heb.  Beyth  hash  -  Shittuh' ,  n^2 
H^'^n,  house  of  the  acacia  ;  Sept.  B)]5a<jt  ttc'i  v.  r.  Btfi- 
(TicV  and  Boaairra),  a  place  near  the  Jordan  (comp. 
Josephus,  who  only  names  it  as  a  "valley encompassed 
with  torrents,"  Ant.  v,  6,  5),  apparently  between  Beth- 
shean  and  Abel-meholah,  or  at  least  in  the  vicinity  of 
(Heb.  toward)  Zarerath,  whither  the  flight  of  the  Mid- 
ianites  ext3nded  after  their  defeat  by  Gideon  in  the 
valley  of  Esdraelon  (Judg.  vii,  20) ;  probably  the  vil- 
lage of  Shutta  discovered  by  Robinson  (Researches,  iii, 
219)  south-east  of  Jebel  Duhy  (Schwarz  says,  incor- 
rectly, one  mile  west,  Palest,  p.  163),  and  east  of  Jez- 
reel  (De  Saulcy,  Bead  Sea,  ii,  307) ;  although  this  is 
west  of  Bethshean,  and  farther  from  the  Jordan  than 
wc  should  expect.     See  Shittim. 

Bethso  (BjjSww),  a  place  mentioned  by  Josephus 
(War,  v,  4,  2)  as  "so  named"  (icaXov/itvoc,'),  through 
which  the  old  or  first  wall  of  Jerusalem  ran  southward 
from  the  Gate  Gennath  around  Mount  Zion,  and  before 
reaching  the  Gate  of  the  Essenes.  It  is  apparently 
for  the  Heb.  fiSOS  rP3,  Beyth-Tsoah' \  house  of  dung, 
q.  d.  dunghill ;  probably  from  the  adjoining  Dung-gate 
(q.  v.),  through  which  ordure  seems  to  have  been  car- 
ried to  the  valley  of  Hinnom.  Schwarz  (Palest,  p. 
254)  incorrectly  locates  it  on  the  north-east  part  of  the 
city.     See  Jerusalem. 

Bethsu'ra  (//  or  tu  Ba&aovpa),  a  Graecizcd  form 
(1  Mace,  iv,  29,  61 ;  vi,  7,  26,  31,  49,  50 ;  ix,  52;  x,  14 ; 
xi,  65 ;  xiv,  7,  33 ;  2  Mace,  xi,  5 ;  xiii,  19,  22)  of  the 
Beth-zur  (q.  v.)  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  58). 

Beth-tap'puah  (Heb.  Beyth-Tappu  itch.  "FPS 
man,  apple-house,  i.  e.  orchard;  Sept.  BifiScnrcpovi.  v. 
r.  B«<3-n Yoi>),  a  town  of  Judah,  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict, and  near  Hebron  (Josh,  xv,  53;  comp.  1  Chr.  ii, 
43),  where  it  has  been  discovered  by  Robinson  (Re- 
searches, ii,-428)  under  the  modern  name  of  Tejpuh, 
If  hour,  about  five  miles,  west  of  Hebron,  on  a  ridge 
of  high  table-land.  The  terraces  of  the  ancient  culti- 
vation still  remain  in  use;  and  though  the  "apples" 
have  disappeared,  yet  olive-groves  and  vineyards,  with 
fields  of  grain,  surround  the  place  on  every  side 
(Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  105).— Smith,  s.  v.      See  Apple. 

The  simple  name  of  Tappuah  was  borne  by  another 
town  of  Judah,  which  lay  in  the  rich  lowland  of  the 
Shefela  (Josh,  xiv,  34).  See  Tappuah.  Also  by  one 
on  the  border  between  Manasseh  and  Ephraim  (Josh, 
xvi,  8).      See  En-tappuah. 

Betlru'el  (Heb.  Bethuel' ',  bx^a),  the  name  of  a 
man  and  also  of  a  place. 

1.  (For  ?X_:ir*0,  individual  of  God  [see  Methu-]  ; 
Sept.  Ba&ovi]\,  Josephus  Ba$ovr}\oc.)  The  son  of 
Nahor  by  Milcali,  nephew  of  Abraham,  and  father  of 
Rebekah  (Gen.  xxii,  22,  23;  xxiv,  15,  24,  47  ;  xxviii, 
2).  In  xxv,  20,  and  xxviii,  5,  he  is  called  "  Bethuel 
the  Syrian"  (i.  e.  Aramite).  Though  often  referred 
to  as  above  in  the  narrative  of  Rebekah's  marriage, 
Bethuel  only  appears  in  person  onco  (xxiv,  50),  fur 


BETIH'L 


790 


BETHUXE 


her  brother  Laban  takes  the  leading  part  in  the  trans-  (Robinson,  ii,  172),  but  this  is  very  much  too  far  to  the 
action.  Upon  this  an  ingenious  conjecture  is  raised  south  to  suit  the  narrative.  Modern  tradition  has  as- 
by  Blunt  (ficnmadimce. 


4  i  that  he  was  the  subject  of    sumed  it  to  be  Safed  in  North  Galilee  (Robinson,  iii, 


Borne  imbecility  «r  other  incapacity.  The  Jewish  tra- 
dition, as  given  in  the  Targum  l's. -Jonathan  on  Gen. 
xxiv.  55  (comp.  33),  is  that  he  died  on  the  morning 
after  the  arrival  of  Abram's  servant,  owing  to  his  hav- 
ing eaten  a  sauce  containing  poison  at  the  meal  the 
evening  before,  and  that  on  that  account  Laban  re- 
quested  that  his  sister's  departure  might  be  delayed 

for  a    year  or  ten  months.      Josephus  was  perhaps    are  on  an  "isolated  rocky  hill,"  wi 
aware  of  this  tradition,  since  he  speaks  of  Bethuel  as    siderable  extent  to  the  east,  and,  so 
dead  {Ant.  i,  16,  2).     B.C.  2023.— Smith.    See  Sister. 
2.  (For  ">X~r^2,  house   of  God;   Sept.   Baiovi)\ 
v.  r.  BaBovX.)  A  southern  city  of  Judah,  i.  e.  Simeon 
ii    Chron.   iv,   30),  elsewhere    (Josh,   xix,  4)    called 

BETHl  l.  (q.  V.). 

Beth'ul  (Heb.  Betkul',  ^ra,  contracted  for  Bethu- 
el; Sept.  BaSovK  v.  r.  BouXo),' a  town  of  Simeon  in 
the  south,  named  with  Eltolad  and  Hormah  (Josh,  xix, 
4).  In  the  parallel  lists  in  Josh,  xv,  30,  and  1  Chron. 
iv,  9,  the  name  appears  under  the  forms  of  Chesil 
and  Bethuel,  and  probably  also  under  that  of  Bethel 
in  Josh,  xii,  16.  Calmet  incorrectly  supposes  it  to  be 
also  the  Bethulia  of  Judith  (iv,  5  ;  vi,  1).  He  has  some- 
what greater  probability,  however,  in  identifying  it 
with  the  Bethelia  (BqSTjAia)  of  which  Sozomen  speaks 
(Eccl.  Hist,  v,  15),  as  a  town  belonging  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Gaza,  well  peopled,  and  having  several  temples  I  ruined  village  Beit-Ufa,  on  the  northern  declivity  of 
remarkable  for  their  structure  and  antiquity  ;  particu-  Mt.  Gilboa,  containing  rock  graves,  sarcophagi,  and 
larlv  a  pantheon  (or  temple  dedicated  to  all  the  gods),  other  marks  of  antiquity,  and  having  a  fountain  near 
situated  on  an  eminence  made  of  earth,  brought  thith-  (comp.  Ritter,  Erdk.  xv,  423  sq. ;  Gross,  in  the  Zeitschr. 
er  for  the  purpose,  which  commanded  the  whole  city.  d.  mora.  Gesch.  iii,  58,  50).  Dr.  Robinson  (Later  Bib. 
He  conjectures  that  it  was  named  (house  of  God)  from  lies.  p.  337),  with  his  usual  pertinacity,  disputes  this 
this  temple.  Jerome  (Vita  8.  Hilarionis,  p.  84)  al-  conclusion.  See  BETii-LEniTEPHA. 
ludes  to  the  same  place  (Betulhi) ;  and  it  is  perhaps  the  Bethune,  George  W.,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  Dutch 
episcopal  city  Betulium  (BijtovXwv,  Eeland,  Palcest.  p.  minister  and  eminent  orator,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
639).  There  is  a  Beit-Ula  extant  a  little  south  of  the  j  New  York  in  1805.  His  father,  Divie  Bethune,  was 
road  from  Jerusalem  toward  Gaza  (Robinson's  Res.  ii,  an  eminent  merchant,  noted  for  his  piety  and  philan- 
342  note),  about  seven  miles  N.W.  of  Hebron  (Van  de  thropy.  His  mother  was  the  daughter  of  Isabella 
Velde's  Map);  but  this  is  entirely  too  far  north  for   Graham  (q.  v.),  whose  saintly  virtues  she  inherited. 


152),  which  again,  if  in  other  respects  it  would  ;^gree 
with  the  story,  is  too  far  north.  Von  Eaumur  (Pa  'list. 
p.  135)  suggests  Saniir,  which  is  perhaps  nearer  to 
probability,  especially  since  the  discovery  of  Dothan 
(q.  v.),  which  is  probably  meant  by  the  Dothaim  of 
Judith  (see  Schubert,  iii,  161;  Stewart,  p.  421  ;  Y;.n 
de  Velde,  Narrative,  i,  367).  The  ruins  of  thtit  town 
hill,"  with  a  plain  of  con- 
far  as  situation  is 
concerned,  naturally  all  but  impregnable  (Robinson, 
iii,  325).  It  is  about  three  miles  from  Dothan,  and 
some  six  or  seven  from  Jenin  (Engannim),  which 
stand  on  the  very  edge  of  the  great  plain  of  Enlraelon. 
Though  not  absolutely  commanding  the  pass  which 
leads  from  Jenin  to  Sebustieh,  and  forms  the  only 
practicable  ascent  to  the  high  country,  it  is  yet  suffi- 
ciently near  to  bear  out  the  somewhat  vague  statement 
of  Judith  v,  6.  Nor  is  it  unimportant  to  remember 
that  Saniir  actually  endured  a  siege  of  two  months 
from  Djezzar  Pasha  without  yielding,  and  that  on  a 
subsequent  occasion  it  was  only  taken  after  a  three 
or  four  months'  investment  by  a  force  very  much  out 
of  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  place  (Robinson,  iii, 
152).  The  most  complete  identification,  however,  is 
that  by  Schultz  (in  Williams's  Holy  City,  i,  Append,  p. 
46.1),  who  finds  Bethulia  in  the  still  extant  though 


the  region  indicated,  which  requires  a  location  in  the 
extreme  S.W.,  possibly  at  the  present  water-pits  call- 


After  an  academical  education  in  New  York,  he  pur- 
sued his  collegiate  studies  at  Dickinson  College.  Car- 


ed Themail  (Robinson,  i,  209),  or  rather  the  ruins  just  Hsle,  Pennsylvania,  at  that  time  under  the  presidency 
north  of  them,  and  four  miles  south  of  Beer-sheba  (Van  0f  Dr.  Mason,  and,  after  graduating,  entered  the  The- 
de  Velde,  Map).  According  to  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  ological  Seminary  at  Princeton  in  1822.  In  1825  he 
113),  it  is  identical  with  a  hill  (Jcbel  Hassy,  Van  de  I -was  licensed  by  the  New  York  Presbytery,  and  or- 
Velde,  Memoir,  p.  295)  S.  W.  of  Eleutheropolis,  which  \  dained  to  the  ministry.  After  serving  a  year  as  naval 
he  says  is  still  called  Bethulia ;  but  this  lacks  confirma-  j  chaplain  at  Savannah,  he  accepted  the  pastoral  charge 
fcion,  and  is  also  too  far  north.  j  of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  church  at  Rhinebeck, 

Bethu'lia  (or  rather  Betylua,  BervXova,  for  the  where  he  remained  until  1830,  when  he  was  called  as 

Heb.  rT&ina  [Simonis,  Churn.  N.  r.p.41]  or  n^W3  fe"  t0  U?*' J™?,  there*e  wef  to  Philadelphia 

.■'■■■'-  J  T  (1834)  as  pastor  ofthe  Crown  Street  church.   He  resign- 

for  fiJPKWa,  house  of  God  Jehovah),  a  place  men-  ed  his  charge  in  &e  latter  city  in  1849)  and  rernoved to 

tioned  only  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith  (iv,  G;   Brooklyn,  where  a  new  church  was  built  expressly  for 

him,  and  in  which  he  ministered  until  1859, when  illness 
compelled  him  to  resign  and  spend  a  year  in  Europe. 
On  his  return  he  became  associate  pastor  of  Dr.  Van 
Nest's  church  in  New  York,  but,  his  strength  continu- 
ing to  decline,  he  was  again  compelled  to  go  to  Europe 
in  search  of  health.  On  this  tour  he  died  at  Florence, 
Italy,  April  27, 1862,  of  congestion  of  the  brain.     Dr. 


10,  11, 14  ;  vii,  1,  3,  C,  13,  20  ;  viii,  3,  11 ;  x,  6 
19;  xii.  7;  xiii,  10;  xv,  3,  6;  xvi,  21,  23),  of  which 
it  was  the  principal  scene,  and  where  its  position  is 
minutely  described.  It  was  near  Dothaim  (iv.  0),  on 
a  hill  which  overlooked  (dirkvavn)  the  plain  of  Es- 
draelon  (vi,  11,  13,  11:  vii,  7,  10 ;  xiii,  10),  and  com- 
manded the  passes  from  that  plain  to  the  hill  country 
of  Manasseh  i  h 


Holofernes  abandoned  the  idea  of  taking  it  by  attack 
and  determined  to  reduce  it  by  possessing  himself  of 
the  two  s|irine;s  or  wells  (iriiyai)  which  were  "under 
the  city,"  in  tin-  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  eminence 
on  which  it  was  built,  and  from  which  the  Inhabitants 
derived  tJieir  chief  Bupply  of  water  (vi,  11 ;  vii,  7,  13, 
2]  i.  Notwithstanding  this  detail,  however,  the  iden- 
tilieation  of  the  site  of  Bethulia  has  hitherto  been  so 
great   a    puzzle  as   to  form  an  important  argument 


1  |,  in  a  position  so  strong  that    Bethune  was  one  of  the  leading  men  ofthe  Reformed 


Dutch  Church.     All  the  boards  ofthe  Church  shared 

bis  sympathies  and  labors,  but,  in  particular,  he  devo- 
ted himself  to  the  service  ofthe  Board  of  Publication. 
He  was  of  opinion  that  a  sound  religious  literature, 
doctrinal  as  well  as  practical,  was  needed,  and  must 
be  brought  down  to  the  means  ofthe  masses,  and  that 
treatises  on  special  doctrines,  which  general  societies 
could  not  publish,  should  be  prepared  and  issued.  To 
show  his  interest  in  this  work,  he  made  over  to  the 


against  the  historical  truth  of  the  bopk  of  Judith  (see  board  several  of  his  own   works  of  high   character. 

CeUarii  No**,  iii.  18,  4).     See  Judith.     In  the  Mid-  Though  always  a  conservative  m  polities,  he  was  a de- 

dle  Ages  the  name  of  Bethulia  was  given  to  "the  termined  opponent  of  slavery,  and  it  was  principally 

Frank  Mountain,"  bctweon  Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem  due  to  him  that  the  General  Synod  declined  receiving 


BETII-ZECHAPJAH 


191 


BETOMASTHEM 


the  chassis  of  North  Carolina  into  the  body.  "When  ' 
Jamos  Buchanan  was  elected  president,  Dr.  Bethune 
-wrote  a  long  letter  to  that  gentleman,  with  whom  he 
had  close  personal  relations,  imploring  him,  as  he  loved 
his  country,  and  would  prevent  the  calamity  of  a  civil 
war,  to  use  his  great  influence,  when  in  the  prcsiden-  [ 
tial  chair,  to  arrest  the  march  of  the  slave  power.  Dr. 
Bethune  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished ornaments  of  the  American  pulpit.  He  was 
exceedingly  effective,  and  always  popular  on  the  plat- 
form and  before  a  lyceum  ;  but  the  place  in  which, 
above  all  others,  he  loved  to  appear,  was  the  pulpit, 
and  the  themes  on  which  he  delighted  to  expatiate 
were  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  the  old  theology  of 
Scotland  and  Holland.  As  a  writer  he  was  luminous 
and  vigorous,  with  a  rare  grace  of  style.  His  theo-  j 
logical  acquirements  were  large  and  solid,  and  his 
general  culture  rich  and  varied.  As  a  belles-lettres 
scholar  he  had  few  superiors.  Himself  a  poet,  he  had  | 
rare  critical  taste,  as  was  shown  in  his  British  Female 
Poets,  with  Biographical  and  Critical  Notices.  He  also 
edited  "Walton's  Complete  Angler  with  a  loving  devo- 
tion. His  works  also  include  Lays  of  Love  and  Faith 
(12mo)  ;  Early  Lost,  Early  Saved  (Philad.  18mo)  ;  His- 
tory of  a  Penitent  (18mo);  Fruits  of  the  Spirit  (Philad. 
8vo)  ;  Sermo7is  (Philad.  1846, 12mo)  ;  Life  of  Mrs.  Be-  j 
thune  (N.  Y.  186,3,  12mo) :  Lectures  on  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism  (N.  Y.  1864,  2  vols.  12mo). 

Beth-Zechariah.     See  Bath-Zacharias. 

Beth'-zur  (1Kb.  Eeyth-Tmr',  l^-rva,  house  of 
the  rock ;  Sept.  Bijjaoi'p,  in  2  Chron.  BcaBcroi'pa,  in 
1  Chron.  v.  r.  BatSaoi/p  ;  Apocrypha  and  Josephus 
B&vovpa'),  a  town  in  the  mountains  of  Judah,  named 
between  Halhul  and  Gedor  (Josh,  xv,  58).  So  far 
as  any  interpretation  can,  in  their  present  imperfect 
state,  be  put  on  the  genealogical  lists  of  1  Chron.  ii, 
42-40,  Beth-zur  would  appear  from  verse  45  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  people  of  Maon,  which  again  had 
derived  its  origin  from  Hebron.  However  this  may 
be,  Beth-zur  was  "built,"  i.  e.  probably  fortified,  by 
Rchoboam,  with  other  towns  of  Judah,  for  the  defence 
of  his  new  kingdom  (2  Chron.  xi,  7).  After  the  cap- 
tivity the  people  of  Beth-zur  assisted  Nehemiah  in  the 
rebuilding  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Nch.  iii,  16) ;  the 
place  had  a  "ruler"  ("V£),  and  the  peculiar  word  Pe- 
lelc  (7j?E)  is  employed  to  denote  a  district  or  circle  at- 
tached to  it,  and  to  some  other  of  the  cities  mentioned 
here.  See  Topographical  Terms.  In  the  wars  of 
the  Maccabees,  Beth-zur  or  Beth-sura  (then  not  a  large 
town,  TToXixv)},  Joseph.  War,  i,  1,  4)  plaj'ed  an  impor- 
tant part.  It  was  "the  strongest  place  in  Judaea"  (Jo- 
seph. Ant.  xiii,  5,  6),  having  been  fortified  by  Judas  and 
his  brethren  "that  the  people  might  have  a  defence 
against  Idumaea,"  and  they  succeeded  in  miking  it 
"very  strong,  and  not  to  be  taken  without  great  diffi- 
culty" (Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  9,  4)  ;  so  much  so  that  it  was 
able  to  resist  for  a  length  of  time  the  attacks  of  Simon 
Mac.  (1  Mace,  xi,  65)  and  of  Lysias  (2  Mace,  xi,  5),  the 
garrison  having  in  the  former  case  capitulated.  Be- 
fore Beth-zur  took  place  one  of  the  earliest  victories 
of  Judas  over  Lysias  (1  Mace.  iv.  29),  and  it  was 
in  an  attempt  to  relieve  it  when  besieged  by  An- 
tiochus  Eupator  that  he  was  defeated  in  the  passes 
between  Beth-zur  and  Bath-zacharias,  and  his  brother 
Eleazar  killed  by  one  of  the  elephants  of  the  king's 
army  (1  Mace,  vi,  M2-47;  Joseph.  Ant.  xii,  9,  3).  Ac- 
cording to  Eusebiua  and  Jerome  (Oncmasticcn,  s.  v. 
BtSaoi'p,  Bethsur),  it  was  still  called  Bethsoron  (Ib/5- 
oopuiv'),  a  village  twenty  miles  from  Jerusalem,  on  the 
road  to  Hebron,  containing  a  fountain  at  the  foot  of  a 
hill,  said  to  he  that  where  Philip  baptized  the  officer 
of  queen  Candaee.  The  distance  of  five  stadia  from 
Jerusalem  in  2  Mace,  xi,  5,  is  too  small  (Cellarii 
Notit.  ii,  565).  The  traditional  Beth-sur  of  the  Cru- 
saders, near  Bethlehem,  where  the  fountain  of  St. 
Philip  is  pointed  out  (Cotovic.  p.  247  ;  Pococke,  ii,  67  ;  ; 


Maundrell,  p.  116),  cannot  be  the  real  place,  for  Euse- 
bius  places  it  much  more  to  the  south,  and  is  in  this 
supported  by  its  history,  which  shows  that  it  lay  on 
what  was  the  southern  border  of  the  Jordan  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  when  the  Idumajans  had  taken 
possession  of  the  southernmost  part  of  the  country  and 
made  Hebron  their  chief  town.  In  those  times,  in- 
deed, Beth-zur,  or  Bethsur,  appears  to  have  been  the 
corresponding  fortress  on  the  Jewish  side  of  the  foun- 
tain to  that  of  Hebron  on  the  side  of  Idumroa,  standing 
at  a  short  distance,  and  probably  over  against  it,  as 
many  similar  fortresses  are  found  to  do  at  the  present 
day.  Near  Hebron  there  is  another  well,  called  Bir 
es-Sur,  which  also  gives  name  to  the  wady  :  this  place 
may  have  been  the  ancient  Beth-zur.  However,  here 
is  no  trace  of  ancient  ruins  (Robinson's  lirse.tnh  .■■,  iii, 
14).  M.  De  Saulcy  states  that  he  heard  of  a  modern 
village,  corresponding  in  name  to  Beth-Zur,  lying  a 
short  distjnee  to  the  west  of  the  road,  soon  after  he 
left  Hebron  in  passing  northward,  opposite  Halhul, 
but  he  did  not  visit,  it  {Xurnttkr,  i,  451 ).  It  is  there- 
fore nearly  certain  that  Beth-zur  is  near  the  modern 
ed-Dlrweh,  notwithstanding  the  distance  (about  five 
Roman  miles)  of  this  latter  place  from  Hebron  ;  it  has 
a  ruined  tower,  apparently  of  the  time  of  the  Crusades, 
and  close  by,  a  fountain  with  ruins  as  of  an  ancient  for- 
tress, built  of  very  large  stones  upon  rocks  hewn  away 
to  a  perpendicular  face  (Robinson,  Researches,  i,  320). 
Mr.  Wolcott  learned  that  this  hill  still  retained  among 
the  natives  the  name  B  it-Sur  {Bib.  Sac.  1843,  p.  56). 
The  recovery  of  the  site  of  Beth-zur  (Robinson's  Lattr 
Researches,  p.  277)  explains  its  impregnability,  and  also 
the  reason  for  the  choice  of  its  position,  since  it  com- 
mands the  road  from  Beershcba  and  Hebron,  which  has 
always  been  the  main  approach  to  Jerusalem  from  the 
south.  A  short  distance  from  the  tell,  on  which  are 
strewn  the  remains  of  the  town,  is  a  spring,  A  in  edh- 
Dhirweh,  which  in  the  days  of  Jerome  and  later  was  re- 
garded as  the  scene  of  the  baptism  of  the  eunuch  by 
Philip.  The  tradition  has  apparently  confounded  this 
place  with  another  Beth-zur  (JJi3-r70i'(i)i  which  the  Onn- 
masdeon  (ut  sup.)  locates  one  mile  from  Eleutheropo- 
lis  ;  it  may  be  noticed  that  Beitsur  is  not  near  the  road  to 
Gaza  (Acts  viii,  26  ),  which  runs  much  more  to  the  north- 
west. See  Gaza.  This  identification  of  Beth-zur  is 
adopted  by  Wilson  (Lands  of  the  Bible,  i,  386),  and  ap- 
parently coincides  with  that  of  Schwarz  {Palest,  p.  107). 

Betkiiis,  Joachim,  a  German  pastor,  noted  for 
fervent  piety  in  a  time  of  spiritual  declension,  was  born 
in  Berlin  1601,  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  was  pastor 
of  the  village  of  Linum  for  30  years.  He  died  1663. 
Me  was  one  of  the  few  German  pastors  of  his  time  (be- 
fore the  rise  of  Pietism  [q.  v.])  who  preached  and  en- 
joyed a  deep  religious  life.  His  favorite  ejaculation 
was,  "Lord,  thou  knowest  that  I  love  thee."  He  pul  - 
lished  Cliristi mismus  Kthicus  (Berlin,  1633): — Myste- 
rium  cruris  (Berlin,  1637)  : — Sacerdotium,  i.  e.  N.  T. 
Kingly  Priesthood  (Berlin,  1640,  4to) :  —Mensio  Chris- 
tianismi  et  Ministerii  Germanice  (Measure  of  the  Chris- 
tianity and  Ministry  of  Germany  by  the  ( Jhristian  stand- 
ard ;  Berlin,  1648,  6th  ed.) :— Antichristenthum  (Amst. 
1650) : — Irenicum,  seu  fortitudn  pads  (Amst.  1760):— 
Excidium  Germanice  (Amst.  1766).  He  charged  the 
religion  of  his  age  as  being  anti-Christian,  partly  from 
the  faults  and  negligence  of  the  pastors,  and  partly 
from  the  preaching  of  justification  as  if  there  were  no 
sanctilication. — Herzog,  Heal-EncyHop/ldie,  ii,  123, 

Betogabris.     See  Eeeutheropoi.is. 

Beto'lius  (BtroXtof),  a  place  of  which  52  Jews 
that  returned  from  Babylon  were  inhabitants  (1  Esdr. 
v,  21);  evidently  the  Bethel  (q.  v.)  of  the  Hebrew 
texts  (Ezra  ii,  28  ;  Neh.  vii,  32). 

Betomas'them  (Bairo/iaaSraip.,  Judith  xv,  4),  o'f 
Betomes'tham  (Bero/twffS'm'ju,  Judith  iv,  6),  a  place 
mentioned  only  in  tho  apocryphal  book  of  Judith,  as  a 
!  town  "over  against  Esdraelon,  facing  the  plain  that 


BETOXDI 


792 


BEVERIDGE 


is  near  Dothaim"  (Judith  iv,  G),  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
"  Beliai,  Chobai,  and  ( tola,  in  the  coasts  of  Israel"  (xv,  t 
1  "i.  [,-,  in  the  manner  of  its  mention,  it  would  seem  to 
have  been  of  equal  importance  with  Bethulia  (q.  v.)  it- 
self, bul  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  indicates  any  histor-  ' 
ical  locality  whatever.     See  Judith. 

Bet'onim  (Heb.  Betonim',  t^JbS,  pistachio-nuts 
[comp.  the  botrdm,  Gen.  xliii,  11,  and  the  Arabic  butm 

terebinth]';  Sept.  Boravifjt),  a  town  in  the  trihe  ■ 
of  Gad,  mentioned  in  connection  with  Ramath-mizpeh  | 
and  Mahanaim  (Josh,  xiii,  26)  ;  probably  identical  with  | 
a  ruined  village  Batneh  (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  Ap-  ■ 
p  >nd.  p.  169),  on  Mt.  Gilead,  about  five  miles  west  of 
cs-Salt  (Van  de  Velde,  Map). 

Betray  (TrapaBidwpi),  a  term  used  especially  of  j 
the  act  of  Judas  in  delivering  up  his  Master  to  the 
Jews  (Matt,  x,  4 ;  xxvii,  4,.etc).  See  Judas.  Mon- , 
•  ■graphs  on  several  circumstances  of  the  transaction  ■ 
have  been  written  by  Krackewitz  (Kost.  170!!),  Oedcr 
(in  his  Misceli.  Sacr.  p.  50:5-20),  Opitius  (Kilon.  1710), 
Sommel  (Lund.  1796),  Gurlitt  (Hamb.  1S05). 

Betroth  (properly  w^N,  arash',  fivnortvofiaC).  A 
man  and  woman  were  betrothed  or  espoused,  each  to 
the  other,  when  the}'  were  engaged  to  he  married. 
See  Espouse.  Among  the  Hebrews  this  relation  was 
usually  determined  by  the  parents  or  brothers,  without 
consulting  the  parties  until  they  came  to  be  betrothed. 
The  engagement  took  place  very  early,  as  is  still  the 
case  in  Oriental  countries,  though  it  was  not  consum- 
mated by  actual  marriage  until  the  spouse  was  at  least 
twelve  years  of  age.  The  betrothing  was  performed  a 
twelvemonth  or  more  before  the  marriage,  either  in 
writing,  or  by  a  piece  of  silver  given  to  the  espoused 
before  witnesses,  as  a  pledge  of  their  mutual  engage- 
ments. Sometimes  a  regular  contract  was  made,  in 
which  the  bridegroom  always  hound  himself  to  give  a 
certain  sum  as  a  portion  to  his  bride.  From  the  time 
of  espousal,  however,  the  woman  was  considered  as  the 
lawful  wife  of  the  man  to  whom  she  was  betrothed: 
the  engagement  could  not  he  ended  by  the  man  with- 
out a  I 'ill  of  divorce  ;  nor  could  she  be  unfaithful  with- 
out being  considered  an  adulteress.  Tims  Mary,  after 
she  was  betrothed  to  Joseph,  might,  according  to  the 
rigor  of  the  law,  have  been  punished  if  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  had  not  acquainted  Joseph  with  the  mystery  of 
the  incarnation  (Dent,  xxviii,  30;  Judg.  xiv,  2,  8; 
Matt,  i,  18-21).     See  Marriage. 

Betsel.     See  Onion. 

Betser.     See  Gold. 

Between-the-Logs.  See  Missions,  Metho- 
dist. 

Beu'Iah  (Heb.  Beiilah',  FftlSSL,  married;  Sept. 
paraphrases  oiKovpevrf)  occurs  in  Isa.  lxii,  -1,  meta- 
phorically of  Judroa,  as  of  a  land  desolated,  but  again 
filled  with  inhabitants,  when  "the  land  shall  be  mar- 
ried (b"zr),"  referring  to  the  return  from  Babylon; 
or  it  may  be  applied  to  the  Jewish  Church  to  denote 
the  intimacy  of  its  relation  to  God. 

Beiishim.     See  Grapes,  Wild. 

Bevan,  Joseph  Gcrney,  one  of  the  ablest  writers 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  He  Is  the  author  of  a  num- 
bi  r  of  Hi  sological  works,  among  which  the  following 
are  the  most  important :  l.  .1  Refutation  of  some  of  the 
most  n""f  ni  Misn  /  n  s<  ntations  of  the  Socu  ty  oj  Frii  mis, 
■  i  called  Quakers,  with  a  Life  of  James  Nayler 

(L I.  1800):— 2.  The  Lift  of  the  Apostle  Paul(Lond. 

1*07).  The  latter  work  is  highly  recommended  in 
Home's  Introduction,  and  the  geographical  notes  are 
said  to  stamp  a  r.-al  value  on  the  book. 

Bevans,  John,  a  theological  writer  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  He  wn.te:  |  Defend  oft/u  Christian  Doc- 
trines oftht  Society  of  Friends  against  tht  Charge  of  So- 
cinianism  |  Lond.  1805): — A  brief  View  of  the  Doctrines 
of  tht  Christian  Religion  as  professed  ly  the  Society  «f 


Friends  (Lond.  1811)  :— A  Vindication  of  the  Authenticity 
if  the  Xarra/ivet  contained  in  the  first  two  Chapters  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  (Lond.  1*22).  The 
latter  work  is  directed  against  the  objections  of  the  ed- 
itors of  the  Unitarian  version  of  the  New  Testament. 

Beverage.  The  ordinary  drink  of  the  Jews  was 
water,  which  was  drawn  from  the  public  wells  and 
fountains  (John  iv,  6,  7),  and  which  was  to  be  refused 
to  no  one  (Matt,  xxv,  35).  Water  also  was  the  usual 
beverage  of  the  Egyptians.  Modern  travellers  attest 
that  the  water  of  the  Nile,  after  it  has  been  deposited 
in  jars  to  settle,  is  particularly  wholesome  and  pleas- 
ant, and  is  drunk  in  large  quantities;  while  that  from 
the  few  wells  which  are  to  be  met  with  in  that  country 
is  seldom  palatable,  being  unpleasant  and  insalubrious. 
When  the  modern  inhabitants  of  Egypt  depart  thence 
for  any  time,  they  speak  of  nothing  but  the  pleasure 
they  shall  find  on  their  return  in  drinking  the  water 
of  the  Nib.  The  knowledge  of  this  circumstance 
gives  a  peculiar  energy  to  the  words  of  Moses,  when 
he  announced  to  Pharaoh  that  the  waters  of  the  Nile 
should  be  turned  into  blood,  even  in  the  very  filtering 
vessels;  and  that  the  Egyptians  should  "loathe  to 
drink  of  the  water  of  the  river"  (Exod.  vii,  17-19) ; 
that  is,  they  should  loathe  to  drink  of  that  water 
which  they  used  to  prefer  and  so  eagerly  to  long  for. 
The  common  people  among  the  Mohammedans  drink 
water;  the  rich  and  noble  drink  a  beverage  called 
sherbet,  which  was  formerly  used  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xl, 
11),  where  something  like  our  ale  or  beer,  termed  bar- 
ley-wine, was  also  used,  though  probably  not  so  far 
back  as  the  time  of  Moses.  The  strong  drink,  "I30, 
shekar' ',  or  aliCEpa,  of  Luke  i,  15,  mentioned  Levit.  x,  9, 
means  any  sort  of  fermented  liquors,  whether  prepared 
from  corn,  dates,  apples,  or  an}'  other  kind  of  fruits 
and  seeds.  After  the  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in 
Canaan  they  drank  wine  of  different  sorts,  which  was 
preserved  in  skins.  Red  wine  seems  to  have  been  the 
most  esteemed  (Prov.  xxiii,  31).  In  the  time  of  Sol- 
omon spiced  wines  were  used,  mingled  with  the  juice 
of  the  pomegranate  (Cantic.  viii,  2),  and  also  with 
myrrh.  Wine  was  also  diluted  with  water,  which  was 
given  to  the  buyer  instead  of  good  wine,  and  was  con- 
sequently used  figuratively  for  any  kind  of  adultera- 
tion (Isa.  i,  22).  Wine  in  the  East  was  frequently 
diluted  after  it  was  bought,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
two  Arabic  verbs,  which  still  remain  to  indicate  its 
dilution.  From  the  pure  wine  there  was  made  an 
artificial  drink,  VEM,  chamets',  which  was  taken  at 
meals  with  vegetables  and  bread.  It  was  also  a  com- 
mon drink  (Num.  vi,  3),  and  was  used  by  the  Roman 
soldiers  (Matt,  xxvii,  48).  Medicated  wines,  it  seems, 
were  given  to  those  who  were  to  be  crucified,  in  order 
to  blunt  the  edge  of  pain  .and  lessen  the  acuteness  of 
sensibility,  which  may  explain  the  passage  in  Matthew 
xxvii,  34.     See  Wine. 

The  vessels  used  for  drinking  among  the  Jews  were 
at  first  horns ;  but  these  were  afterward  used  only  for 
the  purpose  of  performing  the  ceremony  of  anointing. 
The  other  drinking  vessels  were  cups  and  bowls.  See 
Cup.  The  cup  was  of  brass  covered  with  tin,  in  form 
resembling  a  lily,  though  sometimes  circular;  it  is 
used  by  travellers  to  this  day,  and  may  be  seen  in 
both  shapes  on  the  ruins  of  Porsepolis.  The  bowl  in 
Conn  generally  resembled  a  lily  (Exod.  xxv,  33),  al- 
though it  may  have  varied,  for  it  had  many  names. 
Some  had  no  cover,  and  were  probably  of  a  circular 
shape,  as  the  Hebrew  names  seem  to  indicate.  Bowls 
of  this  kind  which  belonged  to  the  rich  were,  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  made  of  silver  and  gold,  as  appears 
from  Num.  vii,  84.  The  larger  vessels  from  which 
wine  was  poured  out  into  cups  were  called  urns,  hot- 
ties,  small  bottles,  and  a  bottle  of  shell,  13,  lead,  with 
a  small  orifice. — Jahn,  Archaeology,  §  144.    See  Drink. 

Beveiidge,  Thomas  H.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 


BEVEKIDGE 


793 


BEWLEY 


was  born  in  March,  1830.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  j 
Dr.  Thomas  Beveridge,  professor  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  in  Xenia, 
Ohio.  He  graduated  at  Jefferson  College,  and  was 
ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1853  by  the  Associate 
Presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  Dec.  1854,  install- 
ed pastor  of  the  Third  Associate  congregation  of  Phila- 
delphia. He  was  clerk  of  his  presbytery  from  the 
time  of  his  ordination,  assistant  clerk  of  the  general 
assemblies  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1859 
and  1860,  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  his  denomination,  as  also  of  the  executive  commit- 
tee of  the  Presbyterian  Historical  Society.  He  was  a 
man  of  fine  literary  attainments,  and  for  several  years 
the  able  editor  of  the  Evangelical  Repository,  a  United 
Presbyterian  monthly.  He  died  suddenly  of  conges- 
tion of  the  brain,  Aug.  15,  18C0.  See  Evangel.  Re- 
pository, Sept.  18G0. 

Beveridge,  William,  D.D.,  bishop  of  St.  Asaph, 
was  born  at  Barrow,  Leicestershire,  in  1038.  He  was 
educated  at  Oakham,  and  entered  the  College  of  St. 
John,  Cambridge,  in  May,  1653.  He  was  not  ordain- 
ed until  after  the  Restoration,  an  interval  which  he 
probably  employed  in  the  investigation  of  the  subject] 
to  which  the  temper  and  tumult  of  the  times  directed 
so  many  other? — the  primitive  records  and  history  of 
the  Church,  lie  applied  himself  in  the  first  instance 
to  the  Oriental  languages;  and  his  first  publication, 
when  he  was  only  twenty  years  of  age,  was  entitled 
Ue  Linguarum  Orientalium,  etc.,  pi-cestantia  et  usu,  cum 
Crammalica  Syriaca  (Lond.  1G58,  again  in  1G84,  8vo). 
In  1GG1  he  was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of  Ealing, 
r.nd  in  1G72  to  the  living  of  St.  Peter's,  Cornhill.  In 
IGG9  he  published  Insiiiutt.  Chronol.  libri  duo  (Lond. 
1669,  4to).  In  1681  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Col- 
chester, and  in  1G91  he  was  offered  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells,  from  which  Ken  had  been  expelled  by  the  gov- 
ernment. This  see  Beveridge  refused  ;  but  in  1704 
he  accepted  that  of  St.  Asaph,  which  he  held  till  his 
death,  March  5th,  1708.  In  every  ecclesiastical  sta- 
tion which  be  held  he  exhibited  all  the  qualifications 
and  virtues  which  ought  to  distinguish  an  ecclesiastic. 
He  was  a  man  cf  a  very  religious  mind,  and  has  been 
styled  "the  great  reviver  and  restorer  cf  piinritive 
piety."  His  profound  erudition  is  sufficiently  evi- 
denced by  his  works,  which  include,  besides  those 
named  above,  1.  ~2.vv6Bikov  sire  Pandectm  C  tnonum  SS. 
Apostolorum  et  Conciliorum,  necnon  canonicarum  SS.  Pa- 
trum  epistolarum,  cum  scholis  (Oxf.  1G72,  2  vols.  fob). 
Vol.  i  contains  the  Prolegomena,  canons  apostolical,  and 
those  of  the  ancient  councils,  together  with  the  Com- 
mentaries of  Balsamon,  Zonaras,  and  Aristenes,  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  in  double  columns  ;  the  Arabic  para- 
phrase of  Joseph  the  Egyptian  on  the  first  four  coun- 
cils, and  a  translation  by  Beveridge.  Vol.  ii  contains 
the  Canons  of  Dionysius,  Peter  of  Alexandria,  St. 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  St.  Athanasius,  St.  Basil,  and 
St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  together  with  the  Scholia  of 
the  Greek  Canonists,  the  Syntagma  of  Matthew  Blas- 
tires,  and  tin-  Remarks,  etc.,  of  Beveridge  :— 2.  Codex 
Canonum  Eccl.  Primitive  vindicaivs  et  il/ustratiis  (Lond. 
1G78): — 3.  An  Explication  of  the  Church  Catechism  (5th 
cd.  1714,  12mo):— 4.  Private  Thoughts  (Lond.  1709: 
written  iti  his  youth,  but  not  printed  until  after  his 
death):— 5.  Sermons  (2  vols.  fol.  1720;  and  besides 
many  other  editions,  in  1842,  Oxf.  8vo) :— 6.  Thesaurus 
Th<  ologicus  (Lond.  1711,  4  vols.  8vo ;  Oxf.  1820,  2  vols. 
8vo).  His  writings  were  collected  into  a  new  edition 
by  T.  Hartwell  Home  (Lond.  1824,  9  vols.  8vo),  also 
in  a  more  complete  edition  in  the  "Anglo-Catholic 
Library"  (Oxf.  1844-1848, 12  vols.  8vo). 

Beverley,  John  of,  a  celebrated  English  ecclesi- 
astic of  the  7th  and  8th  centuries.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  scholars  of  his  age,  having  been  instructed  in  the 
learned  languages  by  Theodore,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  he  was  himself  tutor  of  the  Venerable  Bedc. 


The  following  works  arc  attributed  to  him :  1.  Pro 
Lucd  Etponendo,  an  essay  toward  an  exposition  of  St. 
Luke,  addressed  to  Bede  :— 2.  Homilice  in  Evangelia: 
— 3.  Epistolce  ad  Herebaldum,  Andenum,  it  Bertinum:— 
4.  Epistoloe  ad  Holdam  Abbatissam.  He  was  advanced 
to  the  see  of  Haguetold,  or  Hexham,  by  Alfred,  king 
of  Northumberland ;  and  on  the  death  of  Bosa,  arch- 
bishop of  York,  in  G87,  he  was  translated  to  the  vacant 
see.  In  704  he  founded  a  college  at  Beverley  for  sec- 
ular priests.  In  717  he  retired  from  his  archiepiscopal 
functions  to  Beverley,  where  he  died,  May  7th,  721. — 
Fuller,  Worthies;  Engl.  Cyclopedia. 

Bewitch  signifies  to  deceive  and  lead  astray  by 
juggling  tricks  and  pretended  charms  (Acts  viii,  9, 11), 
where  the  Greek  verb  jgun-tyxi  means  literally  to  put 
out  of  one's  self,  to  be  out  of  one's  mind.  See  Simon 
(Magus).  The  word  used  by  the  apostle,  in  the  pas- 
sage Gal.  iii,  1,  "O  foolish  Gal.itians,  who  bath  be- 
witched you  ?"  is  fiaaKaivw,  which  may  be  understood 
to  mislead  by  pretences,  as  if  by  magic  arts,  to  fascinate. 
See  Sorcery. 

Whan  Christianity  was  first  promulgated,  the  nations 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  which  comprehend- 
ed the  larger  part  of  the  civilized  world,  were  greatly 
addicted  to  mysterious  practices,  supposing  that  thera 
existed  in  nature  certain  influences  which  they  could 
control  and  manage  by  occult  signs,  expressed  in  dif- 
ferent ways  and  on  different  materials,  and  among  the 
nations  niost  notorious  for  these  opinions  were  the 
Jews  and  th2  Egyptians.  It  is  not,  therefore,  surpris- 
ing that  some  should  hive  brought  with  them  and  en- 
grafted on  Christianity  such  opinions  and  practices  as 
they  had  formerly  entertained.  Accordingly,  we  see 
that  the  apostles  found  it  necessary  very  early  to  guard 
their  converts  against  such  persons,  cautioning  them 
to  avoid  "profane  and  vain  babblings  and  oppositions 
of  science,  falsely  so  called"  (1  Tim.  vi,  20);  and  in 
several  other  passages  there  are  evident  allusions  to 
similar  errors  among  the  first  professors  of  Christiani- 
ty. Nordic!  the  evil  cease  as  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel 
expanded  themselves  :  a  number  of  persons  in  succes- 
sion, for  two  centuries  afterward,  are  recorded  as  dis- 
tinguished leaders  of  these  wild  opinions,  who  mixed 
up  the  sacred  truths  of  the  Gospel  with  the  fantastic 
imaginations  of  a  visionary  science.  See  Possessed 
(with  a  Devil)  ;  Superstition. 

Bewley,  Anthony,  one  of  the  Methodist  anti- 
slaverv  martyrs  of  America,  was  born  in  Tennefsee, 
May  22, 1804.  In  1829  be  was  admitted  on  trial  for 
the' Methodist  ministry  in  the  Tennessee  Conference, 
and  in  1843  he  entered  the  Missouri  Conference.  On 
the  division  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
1844  on  the  slavery  question,  Mr.  Bewley  refused  to 
join  the  Missouri' Conference  in  its  secession,  and 
preached  for  several  years  independently,  supporting 
himself  and  his  family  by  the  labor  of  his  own  hands. 
Other  preachers,  faithful  to  the  Church,  gathered  about 
him,  and  he  was,  by  common  consent,  their  "presid- 
ing elder."  In  1848  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  Missouri  was  reorganized,  and  Mr.  Bewley  entered 
its  service.  Persecution  of  the  "abolitionist"  preach- 
ers sprang  up  every  where  in  the  South-west,  foment- 
ed by  politicians  of  the  slaveholding  class.  But  Mr. 
Bewley  held  on  his  way,  and  in  1858  was  appointed  to 
Texas.  He  was  compelled  by  violence  to  leave  his 
work,  but  returned  to  it  in  1860.  His  friends  sought 
to  dissuade  him,  but  bis  reply  was  to  all,  ':Let  them 
hang  or  burn  me  on  my  return  if  they  choose,  hun- 
dred" will  rise  up  out  of  my  ashes."  Accordingly  he 
and  his  family,  including  his  two  sons-in-law,  one  of 
whom  lived  in  Kansas  and  the  other  in  Missouri,  re- 
turned to  Texas.  Within  a  few  weeks  an  increased 
excitement  broke  out,  when  he  was  threatened  anew 
bv  the  people,  and  he  concluded  to  leave  Texas,  be. 
lfeving  he  could  do  no  good  there ;  for.  as  mob  law 
had  been  established  by  the  Legislature,  he  remember- 
ed the  injunction  of  our  Lord,  "When  they  persecute 


BEWRAY 


T94 


BEZA 


you  in  one  city,  flee  to  another."     After  his  departure 

a  reward  of  ^1 »  was  offered  for  his  capture.     He 

D  in  Missouri  in  September,  1860,  and  carried 
back  to  Texas,  and  hanged  on  a  tree  at  Fort  Worth 
by  the  mob,  on  Sept.  13,1860.—  Methodist  Quarterly 
Review,  Oct.  1863,  p.  626. 

Bewray  (in  Isa.  xvi,  3,  nbs,  galah',  to  reveal,  or 
disclose,  as  elsewhere  rendered  ;  in  Prov.  xxix,  24,  IM, 
nagad',  to  tell,  as  elsewhere  ;  in  Prov.  xxvii,  16,  SO£, 
torn',  to  call,  i.  e.  proclaim,  as  elsewhere;  in  Matt. 
xx\  i,  73,  woikw  5rj\ov,  to  make  <  v \l<  nt),  an  old  English 
Word  equivalent  to  "betray." 

Bexley,  Lord  (Nicholas  Vaxsittart),  was  the 
son  of  Henry  Vansittart,  Esq.,  governor  of  Bengal. 
He  was  born  April  29, 17G6,  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1791. 
He  entered  Parliament  for  Hastings  in  1796.  In  1801 
he  was  sent  to  Denmark  as  minister  plenipotentiary, 
and  alter  his  return  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the 
treasury  in  Ireland,  and  in  1805  secretary  to  the  lord 
lieutenant,  and  also  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council. 
He  was  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under  Lord  Liv- 
erpool until  January,  1823,  when  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  under  the 'title  of  Lord  Bexley,  of  Bexley, 
Kent.  Lord  Bexley  was  a  constant  supporter  of  many 
«f  the  great  religious  institutions  of  our.  age.  He  was 
a  liberal  contributor  to  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
and  his  services  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety, especially  amid  its  early  difficulties,  were  of  pre- 
eminent value.  On  the  decease  of  Lord  Teignmouth, 
February,  1834,  he  was  chosen  by  the  unanimous  vote 
of  the  committee  President  of  the  Bible  Society,  an 
office  which  he  held  until  his  death  in  1850,  giving 
constant  attention  to  the  interests  of  the  institution. 
A  few  weeks  before  his  decease  he  presented  to  it  a 
donation  of  £1000.— Timpson,  Bible  Triumphs,  p.  379. 

Beyond.  The  phrase  "  beyond  Jordan"  (~\"2$ 
•jl-^n,  iripav  tov  'lopcc'ivov)  frequently  occurs  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  to  ascertain  its  meaning  we  must,  of 
com'-",  attend  to  the  situation  of  the  writer  (see  Kuinol, 
( 'omrm  nt.  in  John  i,  28).  With  Moses  it  usually  signi- 
fies the  country  on  the  western  side  of  the  river,  as  he 
wrote  upon  its  eastern  bank  (Gen.  i,  10,  11;  Deut.  i, 
1.5;  iii,  8,  20;  iv,  46);  but  with  Joshua,  after  he  had 
crossed  the  river,  it  means  the  reverse  (Josh,  v,  1 ;  xii, 
7  ;  xxii,  7).  In  Matt,  iv,  15,  it  means  "  by  the  side 
of  the  Jordan."  See  Atad. 
Beyrout.  See  Berytus. 
Beytsah.     SccMishna. 

Beza  (Theodore  de  Bkze),  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  the  Reformers,  the  friend  and  coadjutor  of  Cal- 
vin, wa8bornatVezelai,inthe  Nivernais,  June  24, 1519. 
lie  passed  the  iirst  years  of  his  life  with  his  uncle,  Nich- 
olas de  Beza,  counsellor  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  who 
sent  him,  before  he  was  ten  years  old,  to  study  at  Or- 
leans, where  his  preceptor  was  Melcbior  Wolmar,  a 
converl  to  Protest  mtism.  Beza  accompanied  Wolmar 
to  the  University  of  Bourges,  and  remained,  in  the 
whole,  fur  seven  years  under  his  tuition.  During  this 
tine-  he  became  an  excellent  scholar,  and  he  afterward 
acknowledged  a  deeper  obligation  to  his  tutor  for  hav- 
ing "imbued  him  with  the  knowledge  of  true  piety, 
drawn  from  the  limpid  fountain  of  the  Word  of  God." 
in  1635  Wolmar  returned  to  Germany,  and  Beza  re- 
paired  t"  » irleana  to  study  law  ;  but  his  attention  was 
chiefly  directed  to  the  classics  and  the  composition  of 
verses.  [lis  verses,  published  in  15  is,  under  the  title 
Juvenilia,  were  chiefly  written  during  this  period  of  his 
life,  and  their  indecency  caused  him  many  a  bitter  pang 
in  afterlife.  Beza  obtained  his  degree  as  licentiate  of 
civil  law  in  1539,  upon  which  he  went  to  Paris,_where 
he  spent  nine  years,  tie  was  young,  handsome,  and 
of  ample  means ;  for,  though  not  in  the  priesthood,  he 
enjoyed  the  proceeds  of  two  good  benefices,  amounting, 


he  says,  to  700  golden  crowns  a  year.  The  death  of  a 
brother  added  to  his  income,  and  an  uncle,  who  was 
abbot  of  Froidmond,  expressed  an  intention  of  resign- 
ing that  preferment,  valued  at  15,000  livres  yearly,  in 
his  favor.  Thus,  in  a  city  like  Paris,  he  was  exposed 
to  strong  temptation,  and  his  conduct  has  incurred  great 
censure.  That  his  life  was  grossly  immoral  he  denies  ; 
but  he  formed  a  private  marriage  with  a  woman  of 
birth,  he  says,  inferior  to  his  own.  He  was  to  marry 
her  publicly  as  soon  as  the  obstacles  should  be  removed, 
and,  in  the  mean  time,  not  to  take  orders,  a  thing  en- 
tirely inconsistent  with  taking  a  wife.  Meanwhile  his 
relatives  pressed  him  to  enter  into  the  Church ;  his 
wife  and  his  conscience  bade  him  avow  his  marriage 
and  his  real  belief;  his  inclination  bade  him  conceal 
both  and  stick  to  the  rich  benefices  which  he  enjoyed; 
and  in  this  divided  state  of  mind  he  remained  till  ill- 
ness brought  him  to  a  better  temper.  On  his  recov- 
er}' he  fled  to  Geneva,  at  the  end  of  October,  1548,  and 
there  publicly  solemnized  his  marriage  and  avowed 
his  faith.  After  a  short  residence  at  Geneva,  and  sub- 
sequently at  Tubingen,  Beza  was  appointed  Greek 
professor  at.  Lausanne:  During  his  residence  there  he 
took  every  opportunity  of  going  to  Geneva  to  hear  Cal- 
vin, at  whose  suggestion  he  undertook  to  complete 
Marot's  translation  of  the  Psalms  into  French  verse. 
Marot  had  translated  50,  so  that  100  Psalms  remained : 
these  were  first  printed  in  France,  with  the  royal  li- 
cense, in  1561.  Beza,  at  this  time,  employed  his  pen 
in  support  of  the  right  of  punishing  heresy  by  the  civil 
power.  His  treatise  De  Hatretids  a  Civili  Magistraiu 
punimdis  is  a  defence  of  the  execution  of  Servetus  at 
Geneva  in  1553.  Beza  was  not  singular  in  maintain- 
ing this  doctrine;  the  principal  churches  of  Switzer- 
land, and  even  Melancthon,  concurred  in  justifying  by 
their  authority  that  act  which  has  been  so  fruitful  of 
reproach  against  the  party  by  whom  it  was  perpetrated. 
His  work  De  Jure  M<ig;s!ratuum,  published  at  a  much 
later  time  in  his  life  (about  1572),  presents  a  curious 
contrast  to  the  work  De  Hcereticis,  etc.  In  this  later 
work  he  asserted  the  principles  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty,  and  the  rights  of  conscience;  but,  though  he 
may  lie  considered  as  before  most  men  of  his  age  in  the 
boldness  of  his  opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  civil  author- 
ity, his  views  of  the  sovereign  power  are  confused  and 
contradictory.  During  his  residence  at  Lausanne,  Be- 
za published  several  controversial  treatises,  which  his 
biographer,  Antoine  la  Faye,  confesses  to  be  written 
with  a  freer  pen  than  was  consistent  with  the  gravity 
of  the  subject.  To  this  part  of  Beza's  life  belongs  the 
translation  of  the  N.  T.  into  Latin,  completed  in  1556, 
and  printed  at  Paris  by  R.  Stephens  in  1557.  It  con- 
tains the  commentary  of  Camerarius,  as  well  as  a  co- 
pious body  of  notes  by  the  translator  himself.  For  this 
edition  he  used  a  manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  which 
in  1581  he  gave  to  the  University  of  Cambridge.  It 
is  generally  known  as  Beza's  Codex,  and  a  fac-simile 
edition  of  it  was  published  in  1793.  After  ten  years' 
residence  at  Lausanne,  Beza  removed  to  Geneva  in 
1559,  and  entered  into  holy  orders.  At  Calvin's  re- 
quest he  was  appointed  to  assist  in  giving  lectures  in 
theology;  and  when  the  University  of  Geneva  was 
founded  he  was  appointed  rector  upon  Calvin  declining 
that  office.  At  the  request  of  some  leading  nobles 
among  the  French  Protestants,  he  undertook  a  journey 
to  Nerac  in  hope  of  winning  the  King  of  Navarre  to 
Protestantism.  His  pleading  was  successful,  and  he 
remained  at  Nerac  until  the  beginning  of  156],  and,  at 
the  King  of  Navarre's  request,  attended  the  Conference 
of  Poissy,  opened  in  August  of  that  year,  in  the  hope 
of  effecting  a  reconciliation  between  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  churches  of  France.  Beza  was  the  chief 
speaker  on  behalf  of  the  French  churches.  He  man- 
aged his  cause  with  temper  and  ability,  and  made  a  fa- 
vorable impression  on  both  Catherine  of  Medicis  and 
<  iardinal  Lorraine,  who  said,  "  I  could  well  have  wished 
either  that  this  man  had  been  dumb  or  that  we  had  been 


BEZA 


'95 


BEZA 


deaf."  Catharine  requested  him  to  remain  in  France  on 
the  plea  that  his  presence  would  tend  to  maintain  tran- 
quillity, and  that  his  native  country  had  the  best  title 
to  his  services.  He  consented,  and  after  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  edict  of  January,  1562,  often  preached  pub- 
licly in  the  suburbs  of  Paris.  He  soon  after  greatly 
distinguished  himself  at  the  Conference  of  St.  Ger- 
mains,  where  the  queen-mother  summoned  a  number 
of  Romanist  and  Protestant  divines  to  discuss  the  sub- 
ject of  images.  In  a  memorial  to  the  queen,  he  dis- 
cussed the  question  with  a  force  and  vigor  never  sur- 
passed. "In  reply  to  the  customary  argument  that 
honor  is  not  directed  to  the  image,  but  to  that  which 
the  image  represents,  Beza  triumphantly  inquired  (and 
the  inquiry  has  never  yet  been  answered)  why  then  is 
any  local  superiority  admitted?  Why  is  one  image 
considered  more  holy  and  more  potent  than  another? 
Why  are  pilgrimages  made  to  distant  images,  when 
there  are  others,  perhaps  of  far  better  workmanship, 
near  at  hand?  Again,  is  it  tolerable  that  in  a  Chris- 
tian Church  an  image  of  the  Virgin  Mary  should  be 
addressed  in  terms  appropriate  solely  to  the  Almighty 
Father,  '  omnibus  es  omnia  V  If  the  Virgin  were  yet 
alive  and  on  earth,  how  would  the  humility  and  lowli- 
ness of  heart,  which  she  ever  so  conspicuously  evinced, 
be  shocked  by  the  hourly  impious  appeals  to  her  sup- 
posed maternal  authority  over  her  blessed  Son  :  ' Roga 
Palrem,  jube  Natum !'  '■Jure  Matris  imperaP  Then, 
adverting  to  the  reputed  miracles  performed  by  im- 
ages, he  contended  that,  by  the  evidence  of  judicial  in- 
quiries, most  of  them  had  been  indisputably  proved 
impostures ;  and  even  with  regard  to  such  as  remained 
undetected,  it  was  detracting  honor  from  God,  the  sole 
author  of  miracles,  to  attribute  any  hidden  virtue  or 
mystic  efficacy  to  wood  or  stone.  Passing  on  to  a  re- 
view of  the  long  controversy  about  images  maintained 
in  the  Greek  Church,  he  concluded  1  y  affirming  that 
not  less  idolatry  might  be  occasioned  by  crucifixes 
than  by  images  themselves.  The  propositions  append- 
ed to  this  document  were  that  images  should  be  alto- 
gether abolished  ;  or,  if  that  incisure  were  thought  too 
sweeping,  that  the  king  would  consent  to  the  removal 
of  all  representations  of  the  Trinity  or  its  separate  Per- 
sonages ;  of  all  images  which  were  indecorous,  as  for 
the  most  part  were  those  of  the  Virgin  ;  of  such  as 
were  profane,  as  those  of  beasts  and  many  others,  pro- 
duced by  the  fantastic  humors  of  artists;  of  all  public- 
ly exhibited  in  the  streets,  or  so  placed  at  altars  that 
they  might  receive  superstitious  veneration ;  that  no 
offerings  or  pilgrimages  should  be  made  to  them  ;  and 
finally,  that  crucifixes  also  should  be  removed,  so  that 
the  only  representation  of  the  passion  of  our  Lord  might 
be  that  lively  portrait  engraved  on  our  hearts  by  the 
word  of  Holy  Scripture. 

"  Beza  had  converted  the  king  of  Navarre  so  far  as 
to  make  him  a  partisan  of  Calvinism  ;  but  the  royal 
convert  remained  as  profligate  when  a  Calvinist  as  he 
had  been  when  he  professed  Romanism,  and  the  court 
soon  found  means  to  bring  him  back  once  more  to  the 
established  church.  His  hostility  to  Beza  was  shown 
at  an  audience  Beza  had  with  the  queen-mother,  when 
deputed  by  the  Huguenot  ministers  to  lay  their  com- 
plaint before  her  with  reference  to  the  violations  which 
had  occurred  of  the  edict  of  January,  to  which  allusion 
has  been  made  before.  The  king  of  Navarre,  sternly 
regarding  Beza,  accused  the  Huguenots  of  now  attend- 
ing worship  with  arms.  Beza  replied  that  arms,  when 
borne  by  men  of  discretion,  were  the  surest  guarantee 
of  peace  ;  and  that,  since  the  transactions  at  Vassy 
(where  a  fracas  had  taken  place  between  the  retainers 
of  the  duke  of  Guise  and  a  Huguenot  congregation, 
the  duke's  people  being  the  aggressors),  their  adoption 
had  become  necessary  till  the  Church  should  receive 
surer  protection — a  protection  which  he  humbly  re- 
quested, in  the  name  of  those  brethren  who  had  hith- 
erto placed  so  great  dependence  on  his  majesty.  The 
cardinal  of  Ferrara  here  interrupted  him  by  some  in- 


correct representation  of  the  tumult  at  St.Medard,  but 
he  was  silenced  by  Beza,  who  spoke  of  those  occurren- 
ces as  an  eye-witness,  and  then  reverted  to  the  mena- 
cing advance  of  the  duke  of  Guise  upon  Paris.  The 
king  of  Navarre  declared  with  warmth  that  whoever 
should  touch  the  little  finger  of  '  his  brother,'  the  duke 
of  Guise,  might  as  well  presume  to  touch  the  whole  of 
his  own  body.  Beza  replied  with  gentleness,  but  with 
dignity  ;  he  implored  the  king  of  Navarre  to  listen  pa- 
tiently, reminded  him  of  their  long  intercourse,  and 
of  the  special  invitation  from  his  majesty  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  had  returned  to  France  in  the  hope 
of  assisting  in  its  pacification.  '  Sire,'  he  concluded  in 
memorable  words,  '  it  belongs,  in  truth,  to  the  chur<*h 
of  God,  in  the  name  of  which  I  address  you,  to  suffer 
blows,  not  to  strike  them.  But  at  the  same  time  let 
it  be  your  pleasure  to  remember  that  the  Church  is 

AN  ANVIL  WHICH  HAS  WORN  OL'T  MANY  A  HAMMER.' 

Well  would  it  have  been  if  Beza  and  his  partisans  had 
always  remembered  this,  and,  instead  of  taking  up 
arms  to  defend  their  cause,  had  maintained  it  like  the 
primitive  Christians  by  patient  suffering.  Perhaps 
they  would  then  have  led  to  the  gradual  reformation 
of  the  Church  of  France,  whereas  now  the}'  took  the 
sword,  and  perished  by  the  sword.  Each  party  armed. 
With  the  leaders  of  the  Protestants  Beza  acted,  and 
he  was  kept  by  the  prince  of  Conde  near  his  person ; 
but  the  leaders,  for  the  most  part,  abstained  from  en- 
couraging the  cruelties  of  their  followers,  although 
they  excited  the  people  to  rise  up  in  arms  against  the 
government.  Beza  continued  with  the  insurgents, 
following  the  prince  of  Conde  in  all  his  marches, 
cheering  him  by  his  letters  when  in  prison,  and  reani- 
mating the  Huguenots  in  their  defeats,  until  his  ca- 
reer as  a  herald  of  war  was  terminated  by  the  battle 
of  Dreux.  At  that  battle,  fought  on  the  19th  of  De- 
cember, 1562,  in  which  the  Huguenots  were  defeated, 
Beza  was  present ;  but  he  did  not  engage  in  the  bat- 
tle, he  was  merehr  at  hand  to  advise  his  friends. 

"In  the  following  February  the  duke  of  Guise,  the 
lieutenant  general  of  the  kingdom,  was  assassinated 
before  Orleans.  When  the  assassin  was  seized,  he 
accused  Beza,  among  other  leading  Huguenots,  as 
having  been  privy  to  his  design.  Beza  declared  that, 
notwithstanding  the  great  and  general  indignation 
aroused  against  the  duke  of  Guise  on  account  of  the 
massacre  at  Vassy,  he  had  never  entertained  an  opin- 
ion that  he  should  be  proceeded  against  otherwise  than 
by  the  methods  of  ordinary  justice.  He  admitted  that 
since  the  duke  had  commenced  the  war,  he  had  exhort- 
ed the  Protestants,  both  by  letters  and  sermons,  to  use 
their  arms,  but  he  had  at  the  same  time  inculcated 
the  utmost  possible  moderation,  and  had  instructed 
them  to  seek  peace  above  all  things  next  to  the  honor 
of  God." 

After  the  peace  of  15G3,  Beza  returned  to  Geneva, 
and  in  1564,  upon  the  death  of  Calvin,  was  called  to 
succeed  to  all  his  offices.  Beza  did  not  return  to 
France  till  1568,  when  he  repaired  to  Vezelai  on  somo 
family  business.  He  visited  his  native  country  again 
to  attend  and  preside  over  a  Huguenot  synod  which 
assembled  at  La  Rochelle  in  1571.  Never  had  any 
Huguenot  ecclesiastical  meeting  been  attended  by  so 
many  distinguished  personages  as  graced  this  synod. 
"There  were  present,"  says  the  report  of  its  acts, 
"Joane,  by  the  grace  of  God,  queen  of  Navarre ;  the 
high  and  mighty  prince  Henry,  prince  of  Navarre; 
the  high  and  mighty  prince  Henry  de  Bourbon,  prince 
of  Conde ;  the  most  illustrious  prince  Louis,  count  of 
Nassau  ;  Sir  Caspar,  count  de  Coligni ;  the  admiral  of 
France,  and  divers  other  lords  and  gentlemen,  besides 
the  deputies  who  were  members  of  the  Church  of  God." 
At  this  assembly  the  Huguenot  confession  of  faith  was 
confirmed,  and  two  copies  of  it  were  taken,  one  of 
which  was  deposited  at  Rochelie,  the  other  in  the  ar- 
chives of  Geneva.  After  the  execrable  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew's  Eve,  Beza  honorably  exerted  him- 


BEZA 


196 


BEZEK 


self  to  support  those  of  the  French  whom  the  fear  of 
death  drove  from  their  native  land;  he  interested  in 
their  behalf  the  princes  of  Germany.  He  also  found- 
ed a  French  hospital  at  Geneva. 

In  1572  he  assisted  at  an  assembly  of  the  Huguenots 
at  Nismes,  where  he  opposed  John  Morel,  who  de- 
sired to  introduce  a  new  discipline.  The  prince  of 
Condo  caused  him  to  come  to  him  at  Strasburg  in  the 
year  1571,  to  send  him  to  prince  John  Casimir,  admin- 
istrator of  the  palatinate.  In  1586  he  was  employed 
in  the  conference  of  Montbeliard  against  John  An- 
dreas, a  divine  of  Tubingen.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty-six,  October  13th,  1605.  Among  his  numerous 
works  may  be  specified  —  1.  Confessio  Christiana'  ftdei 
(1560): — 2.  Histoire  Ecdmastique  desEglises  Reformees 
tin  rovaume  de  France,  from  1521  to  1563  (1580,  3  vols. 
8vo): — 3.  Icones  vlrorum  illustrium  (1580,  4to)  : — 4. 
TractaLio  d>  rejmdiis  et  divortiis,  acadit  iractahis  de 
p  tlygamia  (Geneva,  1590,  8vo)  : — 5.  Novum  D.  N.  Jesu 
( 'hristi  Testamentum  (often  reprinted)  : — 6.  A  nnotationcs 
ad  Novum  Testamentum  (best  edition  that  of  Cambridge, 
1642,  fol.).  Beza  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  quick- 
ness and  fertility  of  intellect,  as  well  as  of  profound 
and  varied  learning.  His  life  has  been  often  written, 
e.  g.  by  Bolzec  (Paris,  1577);  Taillepied  (Paris,  1577)  ; 
Zeigenbein  (Hamb.  1789);  Schlosser  (Heidelb.  1809)  ; 
the  latest  and  most  elaborate  is  Theodor  Beza  nach 
n  utiifihrifliiihiii  and  andercn  gleichzeitigen  Quelh-n,  by 
Professor  Baum,  of  Strasburg  (1843-1851,  2  vols.),  but 
it  only  extends  to  1563.  See  also  Haag,  La  France 
Protestante,  ii,  259-284.  Perhaps  no  one  of  the  reform- 
ers has  been  more  foully  and  constantly  calumniated 
by  the  Romanists  than  Beza. 

Beza  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  his  letters  were  (and  still  are) 
very  unpalatable  to  the  High-Church  party  there.  Dr. 
Hook  quotes  largely  from  his  letters  to  Bullinger  and 
Grindal  to  prove  that  Beza  "regarded  the  Church  of 
England  in  Elizabeth's  time  as  Popish."  In  his  let- 
ter to  Grindal,  dated  June  27,  1566,  he  complains  that 
he  has  heard  of  "divers  ministers  discharged  their 
p  Irishes  by  the  queen,  the  bishops  consenting,  because 
they  refused  to  subscribe  to  certain  new  rites;  and 
that  the  sum  of  the  queen's  commands  were,  to  admit 
again  not  only  those  garments,  the  signs  of  Baal's 
priests  in  popery,  but  also  certain  rites,  which  also 
were  degenerated  into  the  worst  superstitions — as  the 
signing  with  the  cross,  kneeling  in  the  communion, 
and  such  like  ;  and,  which  was  still  worse,  that  women 
should  baptize,  and  that  the  queen  should  have  a 
power  of  superintending  other  rites,  and  that  all  power 
should  lie  given  to  the  bishop  alone  in  ordering  the 
matters  of  the  Church;  and  no  power,  not  so  much  as 
that  of  complaining,  to  remain  to  the  pastor  of  each 
church  ;  that  the  queen's  majesty,  and  many  of  the 
learned  and  religious  bishops,  had  promised  far  better 
things  ;  and  that  a  great  many  of  those  matters  were, 
at  Least  as  it  seemed  to  him,  feigned  by  some  evil- 
meaning  men,  and  wrested  some  other  way;  but 
withal  be  beseeched  the  bishop  that  they  two  might 
confer  a  little  together  concerning  these  things.  He 
knew,  as  lie  wont  on,  there  was  a  twofold  opinion  con- 
cerning the  restoration  of  the  Church:  first,  of  some 
who  thought  nothing  ought  to  be  added  to  the  apostol- 
ical simplicity;  and  so  that,  without  exception,  what- 
soever the  apostles  did  ought  to  be  done  by  us;  and 
whatsoever  the  Church  thai  succeeded  the  apostles 
added  to  the  first  rites  were  to  be  abolished  at  once; 
that,  on  the  other  side,  there  were  some  who  were  of 
opinion  that  certain  ancient  rites  besides  ought  to  lie 
retained,  partly  as  profitable  and  necessary,  partly,  if 
not  necessary,  yet  to  be  tolerated  for  concord  sake; 
that  he  himself  was  of  opinion  with  the  former  sort; 
and.  in  line,  that  he  had  not  yet  Learned  by  what  right 
(whether  one  looks  into  God's  Word  or' the  ancient 
canons)  either  the  civil  magistral  ■  of  himself  might 
superinduce  any  new  rites  upon  the  churches  already 


constituted,  or  abrogate  ancient  ones ;  or  that  it  was 
lawful  for  bishops  to  appoint  any  new  thing  without 
the  judgment  and  will  of  their  presbytery." — Eiig.Cyc; 
Bib.  Sac.  1850,  p.  501 ;  Cunningham,  Reformers,  Essay 
vii(Edinb.  1862,  8vo);  Hook,  Eccles.  hi>g.  ii,  3^4  sq. 

Beza's  MS.     See  Cambridge  Manuscript. 

Be'zai  (Heb.  Betsay',TJL2,  probably  the  same  name 
as  Besai  ;  Sept.  Bacaov,  Baai,  and  I3jj<t£i',  v.  r.  Baa- 
<7)';c,  Beast,  and  Bijm),  the  head  of  one  of  the  families 
who  returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity  to  the 
number  of  324,  including  himself  (Ezra  ii,  17;  Nell. 
vii.  23).  B.C.  536.  He  was  perhaps  one  of  those 
that  sealed  the  covenant  (Neh.  x,  18).     B.C.  410. 

Bezal'eel  (Heb.  Betsalel',  'bs'b^a,  m  [otherwise 
son  cf,  q.  d.  "3]  the  shadow  of  God,  i.  e.  under  his 
protection;  Sept.  Bto-tXei/X  v.  r.  [in  Ezra]  BeatXi'iX  and 
Bter(7t<\///\),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  The  artificer  to  whom  was  confided  "by  Jehovah 
the  design  and  execution  of  the  works  of  art  required 
for  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness  (Exod.  xxxi,  2; 
xxxv,  00 ;  xxxvii,  1 ;  2  Chron.  i,  5).  B.C.  1657.  His 
charge  was  chiefly  in  all  works  of  meti.l,  wood,  and  stone, 
Aholiab  being  associated  with  him  for  the  textile  fab- 
rics; but  it  is  plain  from  the  terms  in  which  the  two 
arc  mentioned  (xxxvi,  1,  2;  xxxviii,  22),  as  well  as 
from  the  enumeration  of  the  works  in  Bezaleel's  name 
in  xxxvii  and  xxxviii,  that  he  was  the  chief  of  the 
two,  and  master  of  Aholiab's  department  as  well  as  his 
own.  Bezaleel  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  the  son  of 
Uri,  the  son  of  II ur  (or  Chur).  Hur  was  the  offspring 
of  the  marriage  of  Caleb  (one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  great 
family  of  Pharez)  with  Ephrath  (1  Chron.  ii,  20^50), 
and  one  of  his  sons,  or  descendants  (comp.  Ruth  iv, 
20),  was  Salma  or  Salmon,  who  is  handed  down  under 
the  title  of  "  father  of  Bethlehem,"  and  who,  as  the 
great-grandfather  of  Boaz,  was  the  direct  progenitor 
of  king  David  (1  Chron.  ii,  51,  54;  Ruth  iv,  21).— 
Smith,  s.  v.      See  Bethlehem  ;  Hur. 

2.  One  of  the  sons  of  Pahath-moab,  who  divorced 
the  foreign  wife,  whom  he  had  taken  after  the  exile 
(Ezra  x,  30).     B.C.  458. 

Be'zeh  (Heb.  id.  pt3,  lightning;  Sept.  Bi'CcK  and 
B«£ek),  the  name  apparently  of  two  places  in  Pales- 
tine. 

1.  The  residence  of  Adoni-bezek,  i.  e.  the  "lord  of 
Bezek"  (Judg.  i,  5),  in  the  "lot  (b~}Z)  of  Judah"  (verse 
3),  and  inhabited  by  Canaanites  and  Perizzites  (verse 
4).  This  must  have  been  in  the  mountains  ("up"), 
not  far  from  Jerusalem  (ver.  7)  ;  possibly  on  the  emi- 
nence near  Deir  el-Ghafr,  marked  by  Van  de  Yelde 
(Map)  at  four  miles  S.W.  of  Bethlehem  (comp.  Robin- 
son, Researches,  ii,  337,  £38).  Sand  (Itincr.  p.  182) 
mentions  a  village  Bezek  two  miles  west  of  the  site  of 
Beth-zur,  but  this  lacks  confirmation.  Others  propose 
other  identifications,  even  the  Bezetha  on  the  north  of 
Jerusalem.     See  Bezeth. 

2.  The  rendezvous  where  Saul  numbered  the  forces 
of  Israel  and  Judah  before  going  to  the  relief  of  Ja- 
besh-gilead  (1  Sam.  xi,  8).  From  the  terms  of  the 
narrative  this  cannot  have  been  more  than  a  day's 
march  from  Jabesh,  and  was  therefore  doubtless  some- 
where in  the  centre  of  the  country,  near  the  Jordan 
valley.  In  accordance  with  this  is  the  mention  by 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  (Ont  mast.  s.  v.  BtZiic,  Btzecli)  cf 
two  places  of  this  name  seventeen  miles  from  Neapolis 
(Shechem),  on  the  road  to  Bcth-shean.  This  would 
place  it  at  Khulat-MaUh,  on  the  descent  to  the  Jordan, 
near  Succoth.  The  Sept.  inserts  iv  Boyui  after  the 
name,  possibly  alluding  to  some  "  high  place"  at  which 
this  solemn  muster  took  place.  This  Josephus  gives 
as  Bala  (BaXa,  Ant.  vi,  5,  3).  Schwarz  (rales/,  p. 
158)  says  that  "Bezek  is  the  modern  village  Azhik, 
Wxz  English  miles  south  of  Bcth-shean  ;"  but  no  other 
traveller  speaks  of  such  a  name. 


BEZEL! 


797 


BIBLE 


Be'zer  (Ileh.  Bt'tser,  '1X3,  ore  of  gold  or  silver, 
as  in  Psa.  lxxvi,  13),  the  name  of  a  place  and  also  of 
a  man. 

1.  (Sept.  Boaop  or  Bu'erop.)  A  place  always  called 
"Bezer  in  the  wilderness"  ("13"I532),  being  a  city  of 
the  Reubenites,  with  "suburbs,"  in  the  Mishor  cr 
downs,  set  apart  by  Moses  as  one  of  the  three  cities  of 
refuge  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  (Dent,  iv,  43;  Josh, 
xx,  8),  and  allotted  to  the  Merarites  (Josh,  xxi,  ,-JG; 
1  Chron.  vi,  78).  In  the  last  two  passages  the  cx:;ct 
specification,  ""liSifilSl,  "in  the  plain  country,"  of  the 
other  two  is  omitted,  but  traces  of  its  former  presence 
in  the  text  in  Josh,  xxi,  16  are  furnished  us  by  the 
reading  of  the  Sept.  and  Vulg.  (rt)v  Boaop  ii>  rij  ipt]- 
11(7),  T))v  M  i  a  lit  [Alex.  Miawp]  Kai  to.  Tripttnropia  ; 
Bosor  in  solitudine,  Misor  et  Jascr).  Bezer  ma}'  be  the 
Bosoit  (q.  v.)  of  1  Mace,  v,  26,  30.  Reland  rashly 
identifies  it  with  the  Bozra  of  Arabia  Deserta  (Palast. 
p.  661)  ;  and  Sehwarz  (Palest,  p.  229)  makes  it  to  be  a 
Talmudical  Kenathirin  Cp*"lT02),  which  he  finds  in 
"an  isolated  high  mound  called  Jebel  Kuwetta,  S.E. 
of  Aroer,  near  the  Anion,"  meaning  doubtless  Jebel- 
Ghuweiteh,  which  lies  entirely  without  the  bounds  of 
Reuben.  Bezer  seems  to  correspond  in  position  and 
name  with  the  ruined  village  Burazin,  marked  on  Van 
de  Velde's  Map  at  12  miles  N.  of  E.  from  Heshbon 
(comp.  Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  Append,  p.  170). 

2.  (Sept.  Baodp  v.  r.  Baadv.)  The  sixth  named  of 
the  eleven  sons  of  Zophah,  of  the  descendants  of  Asher 
(1  Chron.  vii,  36).     B.C.  post  1658. 

Be'zeth  (Bi£i6),  a  place  at  which  Bacchides  en- 
camped after  leaving  Jerusalem,  and  where  there  was 
a  "great  pit"  (rb  typiap  to  /i<sy«,  1  Mace,  vii,  19).  By 
Josephus  (Ant.  xii,  10,  2)  the  name  is  given  (in  the  ac- 
count parallel  with  1  Mace,  ix,  4)  as  "the  village 
Beth-zetho"  (koj/uj  B>j0£jj0w  Xiyopivi)),  which  recalls 
the  name  applied  to  the  Mount  of  Olives  in  the  early 
Syriac  recension  of  the  N.  T.  published  by  Mr.  Cure- 
ton — Beth-Zaith  (which,  however,  is  simply  a  transla- 
tion of  the  name  =  Heb.  I"HT  t"P3,  olive-house^.  The 
name  may  thus  refer  either  to  the  main  body  of  the 
Mount  of  Olives,  or  to  the  eminence  opposite  it  to  the 
north  of  Jerusalem,  which  at  a  later  period  was  called 
Bezetiia  (q.  v.).  Pococke  (East,  II,  i,  19)  speaks  of 
seeing  "a  long  cistern"  in  this  quarter  of  the  city, 
and  several  tanks  are  delineated  here  on  modern  plans 
of  Jerusalem. — Smith,  s.  v. 

Bezetha  (BC&d),  the  name  of  the  fourth  hill  on 
which  a  part  of  Jerusalem  was  built,  situated  north  of 
Antonia,  from  winch  it  was  separated  by  a  deep  fosse, 
but  not  enclosed  till  the  erection  of  the  third  wall  by 
Agrippa,  according  to  Josephus  (War,  v,  4,  2),  who 
interprets  the  name  as  equivalent  to  "New  City" 
(kchvi)  7ro\u),  perhaps  regarding  it  as  the  Heb.  rP2 
rtw'in  ;  but  as  this  can  hardly  be  considered  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  name,  and  as  Josephus  elsewhere 
(  War,  ii,  19,  4)  seems  expressly  to  distinguish  Bezetiia 
from  Ccenopolis  or  the  New  City  (ti')v  re  BtL,e$di>  iipon- 
ayoptvoptvrjv  Kai  r>)v  KaivoiroXiv,  unless,  as  Reland 
suggests,  Palest,  p.  855,  we  should  read  r>)v  i:ai  Kai- 
vu7To\u>,  making  them  identical),  we  may  perhaps 
better  adopt  the  derivation  given  above  under  the 
Bezetii  ((«.  v.)  of  1  Mace,  vii,  19.  The  general  posi- 
tion of  thi'  hill  is  clear;  but  it  has  been  nevertheless 
disputed  whether  it  should  be  regarded  as  the  emi- 
nence north  of  the  present  Damascus  gate  (Robinson, 
Bibl.  Res.  i,  392;  Bib.  Sue.  1846,  p.  438  sq.)  or  (as  is 
more  probable)  that  immediately  north  of  the  present 
Haram  enclosure  (Williams,  Holy  City,  ii,  50).  See 
Jerusalem. 

Beziers,  one  of  the  earliest  episcopal  sees  in  France. 
Quite  a  number  of  synods  have  been  held  at  Beziers  : 
A.D.  356,  on  account  of  the  Ariaus;   1234  and  1243, 


against  the  Albigenses  ;  and  in  1279,  1299,  and  1351, 
on  account  of  other  ecclesiastical  controversies. 

Bi'atas  ($>taSdg  v.  r.  QaXiae.,  Vulg.  Philias),  one 

'  of  the  Levites  that  expounded  the  law  to  the  Jews  at 
Jerusalem  as  read  by  Ezra  (1  Esdr.  ix,  48);  evidently 
a  corruption  for  the  Pelaiaii  (q.  v.)  of  the  genuine 
text  (Neh.  viii,  7). 

Biathan^ti  (from  ftia,  violence,  and  Bdvaror,  <l<:tti, ). 
Among  other  reproachful  epithets  applied  by  the  pa- 
gans to  Christians  in  the  first  centuries  we  find  Bi  t- 
ihanati,  self-murderers,  imposed  in  consequence  of  their 
contempt  of  death,  and  cheerful  endurance  of  all  kinds 
of  suffering  for  Christ's  sake.  AVe  also  meet  with  the 
term  Biothanati  Qiioc,  I' ft),  men  who  expect  to  live 
after  death.  The  enemies  of  the  ( Ihristians  might  em- 
ploy this  phrase  to  ridicule  the  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead.  It  is  recorded  in  Bede's  Martyr- 
olory  that  when  the  seven  sons  of  Symphorosa  were 
martyred  under  Hadrian,  their  bodies  wore  cast  into 
one  pit  together,  which  the  temple-priests  named  from 
them  Ad  septem  Biothanutos. — Bin-ham,  Orig.  Eccles. 
bk.  i,  eh.  ii,  §  8 ;  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Bibbighaus,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Ger- 
man Kel'ornied  Church,  was  born  in  Bucks  County, 
Penn.,  Aug.  2d,  1777.  He  was  first  merchant,  then 
farmer;  later,  organist,  and  teacher  of  a  parochh.1 
school  in  Philadelphia.     He  studied  theology  private- 

1  ly ;  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1824,  in  the  forty- 
eighth  year  of  his  age.  He  became  past*  r  of  the 
German  Reformed  Salem  Church,  Philadelphia,  where 
he  continued  to  labor  with  great  zeal  and  success  till 
his  death,  Aug.  20th,  1851.  He  is  remembered  as  a 
mild,  modest,  venerable  father  in  the  Church.  He 
was  a  good  preacher,  a  faithful  pastor,  and  always  ex- 
erted a  strong  and  happy  influence  in  the  judicatories 

:  of  the  Church.  He  preached  only  in  the  German 
language. 

Bibb-ins,  Elisha,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Hampton,  N.  Y.,  July  10,  1790;  was  con- 
verted November  8,  1805;  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
January,  1812,  and  was  admitted  on  trial  in  the  Gen- 
esee Conference  in  JuPy  of  the  same  year.  He  was 
for  twelve  years  of  his  ministry  in  the  effective  ranks, 
three  years  a  supernumerary,  and  thirty-two  years 
a  superannuated  preacher.  Mr.  Bibbins  was  a  man 
of  good  natural  abilities.  His  powers  of  perception 
were  quick,  and  his  reasoning  faculties  vigorous.  His 
sensibilities  were  strong  and  well  disciplined.     He  had 

I  a  strong  sense  of  the  ludicrous.     He  was  always  in 

'  earnest,  a  quality  which  gave  almost  overwhelming 
power  to  his  sermons,  exhortations,  and  prayers.  He 
was  a  good  theologian,  but  a  better  preacher.  In  his 
best  moods  he  poured  out  a  torrent  of  eloquence  which 
was  very  effective,      lie  was  a  man  of  noble  impulses, 

j  of  a  genial  nature,  of  a  lofty  spirit,  of  a  strong  will, 
and  of  inexhaustible  patience.  He  died  at  Scranton, 
Penn.,  on  the  6th  of  July,  1859,  of  disease  of  the  heart. 
—Peck,  Early  Metho  lism  (N.  Y.  1800,  12mo,  p.  489). 

Bibbins,  Samuel,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, one  of  the  fathers  of  the  Black  River  Conference. 
He  was  born  about  1708,  preached  for  about  fifty  years, 
and  died  in  Brutus,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  1836.  "As  a  preach- 
er he  was  eminently  owned  of  God,"  and  revivals  gen- 
erally attended  his  ministry.  His  death  was  espe- 
cially triumphant. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  ii,  410. 

Bible  (Anglicized  from  the  Greek  Bi/3Xi'a,  i.  e. 
little  books,  libelli;  Latinized  Biblid),  the  popular  des- 
ignation (usually  in  the  phrase  "Holy  Bible")  now 
everywhere  current  for  the  Sacred  Scriptures  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  in  their  present  collected 
form.  The  sacred  books  were  denominated  by  the 
|  Jews  the  writing  (3"ir.?,  kethib',  written,  or  N^I??, 
mikra',  recitation),  a  name  of  the  same  character  as 
that  applied  by  the  Mohammedans  (Koran)  to  denote 
their  sacred  volume.     See  Scriptures,  Holy. 


BIBLE  79 

The  Bible  is  divided  into  the  Old  and  New  Testa-  ' 

meats,  ij  -aXatd,  Kai  r)  (caiVJj  n-jft/kv;.  The  name 
Old  Testament  is  applied  to  the  books  of  Moses  by 
Paul  (2  Cor.  iii,  1  1  >.  inasmuch  as  the  former  covenant 
comprised  the  whole  scheme  of  the  Mosaic  revelation, 
and  the  history  of  this  is  contained  in  them.  This 
phrase,  ••  Look  of  the  covenant,"  taken  probably  from 
Exod.  xxiv,  7  ;  1  Mace,  i,  57  Q3i(i\iov  £uxQi]Kr)c),  was  j 
transferred  in  the  course  of  time  by  a  metonymy  to 
signify  the  writings  themselves.  The  word  aciUljici] 
signifies  either  a  testament  or  a  covenant,  but  we  now 
render  it  testament,  because  the  translators  of  the  old 
Latin  version  have  always  rendered  it  from  the  Sept., 
even  when  it  was  used  as  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew, 

; Q,  Berith'  (covenant),  by  the  word   Testamentum. 

The  names  given  to  the  Old  Testament  were  the  Scrip- 
tures  (Matt,  xxi,  42),  Scripture  (2  Pet.  i,  20),  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (Rom.  i,  2),  the  sacred  letters  (2  Tim. 
iii,  15),  the  holy  books  (Sanhed.  xci,  2),  the  law  (John 
xii,  34),  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  psalms  (Luke 
xxiv,  44),  the  law  and  the  prophets  (Mutt,  v,  17),  the 
law,  the  prophets,  and  the  other  books  (Prol.  Ecclus.), 
the  books  of  the  old  covenant  (Neb.  viii,  8),  the  book 
of  the  covenant  (1  Mace,  i,  57  ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  2).— Kit- 
to,  s.  v.     See  Testament. 

The  other  books  (not  in  the  canon)  were  called 
apocryphal,  ecclesiastical,  and  deuterocanonieal.  The 
term  New  Testament  has  been  in  common  use  since 
the  third  century,  and  is  employed  by  Eusebius  in  the 
same  sense  in  which  it  is  now  commonly  applied  (Hist. 
Eccles.  iii,  23).  Tertullian  employs  the  same  phrase, 
and  also  that  of  "the  Divine  Instrument"  in  the  same 
signification.     See  Axtilegosiena  ;  Apocrypha. 

I.  Appropriation  of  the  term  "Bible." — 1.  In  its  Greek 
farm.—  The  application  of  the  word  Bt/3Xi'a,  the  Bunk*, 
specially  to  the  collected  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  is  not  to  be  traced  farther  back  than  the 
5th  century.  The  terms  which  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  use  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  arc  y  ypa<{ii] 
(2  Tim.  iii,  1G;  Acts  viii,  32  ;  Gal.  iii,  '22),  al  ypatfai 
(.Matt,  xxi,  42  ;  Luke  xxiv,  27),  -a  itpa  ypaftfiara 
(2  Tim.  iii.  15).  Bi/3Ai'oi'  is  found  (2  Tim.  iv,  13;  Rev. 
x,  2;  v,  1),  but  with  no  distinctive  meaning;  nor  does 
the  use  of  ret  Xoi-.i  tuv  /-Jt/SAiW  for  the  Hagiographa 
in  the  Preface  to  Ecclesiasticus,  or  of  ni  itpal  jiijiXci  in 
Josephus  (  Ant.  i,  0",  2),  indicate  any  thing  as  to  the  use 
of  -u  f3i(3\ia  alone  as  synonymous  with  t)  ypa^u).  The 
words  employed  by  early  Christian  writers  were  nat- 
urally derived  from  the  language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  the  old  terms,  witli  epithets  like  9ua,  <"yi«, 
anil  the  like,  continued  to  be  used  by  the  Greek  fathers, 
as  the  equivalent  "Scriptura"  was  by  the  Latin.  The 
use  of  //  iraXaia  SiaOrjicri  in  2  Cor  iii,  14,  for  the  law  as 
read  in  the  synagogues,  and  the  prominence  given  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Heb.(vii,22;  viii,  6;  ix,  15)  to  the 
contrast  between  the  -uXtu't  and  the  rain),  led  gradu- 
ally to  the  extension  of  the  former  to  include  the  other 
books  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  to  the  application 

of  the  latter  as  of  the  former  to  a  book  or  collection  of 

1 ks.     i  if  tlie  Latin  equivalents  which  were  adopted 

by  different  writ  srs  (Jnstrumentum,  Testamentum),  the 
latter  in. ;  with  the  most  general  acceptance,  and  per- 
petuated itself  in  the  language  of  modern  Europe. 
One  passage  in  Tertullian  (adv.  Man-,  iv,  1)  illustrates 
the  growing  popularity  of  the  word  which  eventually 
prevailed,  "instrument]  vel  quod  magis  in  usu  est 
di(  ire,  testamenti."  The  word  was  naturally  used  by 
Creek  writers  in  speaking  of  the  parts  of  these  two 
collections.  They  enumerate  (e.  g.  Athan.  Si/nop.  s<ir. 
Script.)  ra  flifiXia  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament; 
and  .-,-  these  were  contrasted  with  the  apocryphal 
I ka  circulated  by  heretics,  there  was  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  the  appropriation  of  the  word  as  limited  by 
the  article  to  the  whole  collection  of  the  canonical 
Scriptures.  Jerome  substitutes  for  these  expressions 
the  term  Bibliotheca  Divma  (see  Hieronymi  Opera, 
ed.  Martianav,   vol.  i,   Proleg.),  a    phrase    which    this 


8  BIBLE 

learned  father  probably  borrowed  from  2  Maccabees, 
ii,  13,  where  Nehemiah  is  said,  in  "  founding  a  library" 
(J3i/3\ioQr)Krj), to  have  "gathered  together  the  acts  of 

the  kings,  and  the  prophets,  and  of  David,  and  the 
epistles  of  the  kings  concerning  the  holy  gifts."  But 
although  it  was  usual  to  denominate  the  separate  books 
in  Greek  by  the  term  Biblia,  which  is  frequently  so  ap- 

\  plied  by  Josephus,  we  first  find  it  simply  applied  to 
the  entire  collection  by  St.  Chrysostom  in  his  Second 

'  Homily,  "The  Jews  have  the  books  (j8i/3Xia),  but  we 
have  the  treasure  of  the.  books  ;  they  have  the  letters 
(ypafifiara),  but  we  have  both  spirit  and  letter."  And 
again,  Horn,  ix  in  Epist.  ad  Coloss.,  "Provide  your- 
selves with  books  (jii/iXia),  the  medicine  of  the  soul, 

!  but  if  you  desire  no  other,  at  least  procure  the  new 

j  (k(uv)'i),  the  Apostolos,  the  Acts,  the  Gospels."  He 
also  adds  to  the  word  fii/lXia  the  epithet  divine  in  his 

!  Tinth  Homily  mi  Genesis:   "Taking  before  and  after 

i  meals  the  divine  books"  (ra  6tTa  /lijlXia),  or,  as  we 
should  now  express  it,  the  Holy  Bible.  It  is  thus 
applied  in  a  way  which  shows  this  use  to  have  already 
become  familiar  to  those  to  whom  he  wrote.  The 
liturgical  use  of  the  Scriptures,  as  the  worship  of  the 
Church  became  organized,  would  naturally  favor  this 

'application.  The  MSS.  from  which  they  were  read 
would  be  emphatically  the  books  of  each  church  or 
monastery.  And  when  this  use  of  the  word  was  es- 
t  iblished  in  the  East,  it  was  natural  that  it  should  pass 
gradually  to  the  Western  Church.  The  terminology 
of  that  Church  bears  witness  throughout  (e.  g.  Epis- 
copus,  Presbyter,  Diaconus,  Litania,  Liturgia,  Mona- 

!  chus.  Abbas,  and  others)  to  its  Greek  origin,  and  the 
history  of  the  word  Biblia  has  followed  the  analog}'  of 
those  that  have  I  een  referred  to.  Here,  too,  there  was 
less  risk  of  its  being  used  in  an)'  other  than  the  higher 

j  meaning,  because  it  had  not,  in  spite  of  the  introduc- 
tion even  in  classical  Latinity  of  Bibliotheca,  Bibliopola, 
taken  the  place  of  libri,  or  libelli,  in  the  common  speech 

i  of  men. 

I      2.  The  English  Form. — It  is  worthy  of  note  that  "  Bi- 

l  hie"  is  not  found  in  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  though 
B'.bliothece  is  given  (Lye,  Anglo-Sax.  Diet.)  as  used  in 
the  same  sense  as  the  corresponding  word  in  mediaeval 
Latin  for  the  Scriptures  as  the  great  treasure-house  of 
books  (Du  Cange  and  Adelung,  s.  v.).  If  we  derive 
from  our  mother-tongue  the  singularly  happy  equiva- 
lent of  the  Greek  tvayyiXiov,  we  have  received  the 
word  which  stands  on  an  equal  eminence  with  "Gos- 
pel" as  one  of  the  later  importations  consequent  on  the 
Norman  Conquest  and  fuller  intercourse  with  the  Con- 
tinent. When  the  English  which  grew  out  of  this 
union  first  appears  in  literature,  the  word  is  already 
naturalized.  In  P.  Brunne  (p.  290),  Piers  Plowman 
(1016,  4271),  and  Chaucer  (Prol.  437),  it  appears  in  its 
distinctive  sense,  though  the  latter,  in  at  least  one  pas- 
sage (House  of  Fame.,  bk.  iii),  uses  it  in  a  way  which  in- 
dicates that  it  was  not  always  limited  to  that  meaning. 
From  that  time,  however,  the  higher  use  prevailed  to 
the  exclusion  of  any  lower ;  and  the  choice  of  it,  rather 
than  of  any  of  its  synonymes,  by  the  great  translators 
of  the  Scriptures,  Wickliffe.  Luther,  Coverdalc,  fixed  it 
beyond  all  possibility  of  change.  The  transforma- 
tion of  the  word  from  a  plural  into  a  singular  noun  in 
all  the  modern  languages  of  Europe,  though  originat- 
ing probably  in  the  solecisms  of  the  Latin  of  the  12th 
century  (Du  Cange,  s.  v.  Biblia),  has  made  it  fitter  than 
it  would  otherwise  have  been  for  its  high  office  as  the 
title  of  that  which,  by  virtue  of  its  unity  and  plan,  is 
emphatically  the  Book. 

1 1.  The  Bt  ok  as  a  Whole.—  The  history  of  the  growth 
of  the  collections  known  as  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment respectively  will  be  found  fully  under  Canox. 
It  falls  within  the  scope  of  the  present  article  to  indi- 
cate  in  what  way  and  by  what  steps  the  two  came  to 
be  looked  on  as  of  co-ordinate  authority,  and  therefore 
as  parts  of  one  whole — how,  i.  e.  the  idea  of  a  completed 
Bible,  even  before  the  word  came  into  use,  presented 


BIBLE 


799 


BIBLE 


Itself  to  the  minds  of  men.  As  regards  a  large  portion 
of  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  they  claim  an  authority  not  lower, 
nay,  even  higher  than  the  Old.  That  which  had  not 
been  revealed  to  the  "prophets"  of  the  Old  dispensa- 
tion is  revealed  to  the  prophets  of  the  New  (Eph.  iii,  5). 
The  apostles  wrote  as  having  the  Spirit  of  Christ  (1  Cor. 
vii,  40),  as  teaching  and  being  taught  "  I  y  the  revela- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ"  (Gal.  i,  12).  Where  they  make 
no  such  direct  claim  their  language  is  still  that  of  men 
who  teach  as  "having  authority,"  and  so  far  the  old 
prophetic  spirit  is  revived  in  them,  and  their  teaching 
differs,  as  did  that  of  their  Master,  from  the  traditions 
of  the  scribes.  As  the  revelation  of  God  through  the 
Son  was  recognised  as  fuller  and  more  perfect  than 
that  which  had  been  made  TroXvptpoJc,  icai  TroXvrpoirujr 
to  the  fathers  (Heb.  i,  1),  the  records  of  what  He  had 
done  and  said,  when  once  recognised  as  authentic, 
could  not  be  regarded  as  less  sacred  than  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Jews.  Indications  of  this  arc  found  even 
within  the  N.  T.  itself.  Assuming  the  genuineness  of 
the  2d  Epistle  of  Peter,  it  shows  that  within  the  life- 
time of  the  apostles,  the  Epistles  of  Paul  had  come 
to  be  classed  among  the  ypatyai  of  the  Church  (2  Pet. 
iii,  10).  The  language  of  the  same  Epistle  in  relation 
to  the  recorded  teaching  of  prophets  and  apostles  ( iii.  2  ; 
comp.  Eph.  ii,  20;  iii,  5;  iv,  11)  shows  that  the  Traaa 
irpixprirtia  ypatpije.  can  hardly  be  limited  to  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Old  Testament.  The  command  that  the 
letter  to  the  Colossians  was  to  be  read  in  the  church 
of  Laodicea  (Col.  iv,  16),  though  it  does  not  prove  that 
it  was  regarded  as  of  equal  authority  with  the  ypayi) 
Oeutti'evgtoc,,  indicates  a  practice  which  would  natural- 
ly lead  to  its  being  so  regarded.  The  writing  of  a  man 
who  spoke  as  inspired  could  not  fail  to  be  regarded  a:'. 
participating  in  the  inspiration.  It  is  part  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  same  feeling  that  the  earliest  records 
of  the  worship  of  the  Christian  Church  indicate  the 
liturgical  use  of  some  at  least  of  the  writings  of  the 
New,  as  well  as  of  the  Old  Testament.  Justin  (Apol. 
i,  GG)  places  rd  (i7ropi'ijpovcvfiaTa  tojv  cnroaroXuiv  as 
read  in  close  connection  with,  or  in  the  place  of  ra  trvy- 
ypafifiara  twp  irpo<pi]Twv,  and  this  juxtaposition  cor- 
responds to  the  manner  in  which  Ignatius  had  previ- 
ously spoken  of  ax  Trpo<pi]Tiicu,  vopoQ  Mwnkoc,  -<) 
ivayytXtov  (Ep.  ad  Smym.  c.  7).  It  is  not  meant,  of 
course,  that  such  phrases  or  such  practices  prove  the 
existence  of  a  recognised  collection,  but  they  show 
with  what  feelings  individual  writings  were  regarded. 
They  prepare  the  way  for  the  acceptance  of  the  whole 
body  of  the  N.-T.  writings,  as  soon  as  the  Canon  is 
completed,  as  on  a  level  with  those  of  the  Old.  A  lit- 
tle farther  on  and  the  recognition  is  complete.  Thc- 
opfailus  of  Antioch  (ad  Autolyc.  bk.  iii),  Irenams  (ado. 
Hcer.  ii,  27;  iii,  1),  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Stromata, 
iii,  10;  v,  5),  Tertullian  (adv.  Prax.  15,  20),  all 
speak  of  the  New  Testament  writings  (what  writings 
they  included  under  this  title  is  of  course  a  distinct 
question)  as  making  up,  with  the  Old,  fit  a  yvcZmg 
(Clem.  Al. I.  c),  "totum  instrumentum  utriusque  test- 
amenti"  (Tert.  1.  c),  universal  scriptura.  As  this  was 
in  part  a  consequence  of  the  liturgical  usage  referred 
to,  so  it  reacted  upon  it,  and  influenced  the  transcribers 
and  translators  of  the  books  which  were  needed  for  the 
instruction  of  the  Church.  The  Syriac  Peshito  in  the 
3d,  or  at  the  close  of  the  2d  century,  includes  (with  the 
omission  of  some  of  the  avriXsyopiva)  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  well  as  the  Old.  The  Alexandrian  Codex, 
presenting  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word  a  complete 
Bible,  may  be  taken  as  the  representative  of  the  full 
maturity  of  the  feeling  which  we  have  seen  in  its  ear- 
lier developments.  The  same  ma}'  lie  said  of  the  Co- 
dex Sinaiticus,  lately  brought  to  light  by  Prof.  Tischen- 
dorf. 

III.  Order  of  the  Books. — The  existence  of  a  collec- 
tion of  sacred  books  recognised  as  authoritative  lead.' 
naturally  to  a  more  or  less  systematic  arrangement 


The  arrangement  must  rest  upon  rome  principle  of 
classification.  The  names  given  to  the  several  1  ooks 
will  indicate  in  some  instances  the  view  taken  of  their 
contents,  in  others  the  kind  of  notation  applied  both  to 
the  greater  and  smaller  divisions  of  the  sacred  vol- 
umes. The  existence  of  a  classification  analogous  to 
that  adopted  by  the  later  Jews  and  still  retained  in  the 
printed  Hebrew  Bibles,  is  indicated  even  before  the 
completion  of  the  O.  T.  Canon  (Zech.  vii,  12).  When 
the  Canon  was  looked  upon  as  settled,  in  the  period 
covered  by  the  books  of  the  Apocrypha,  it  took  a  more 
definite  form.  The  Prologue  to  Ecclcsiasticus  men- 
tions "the  law  and  the  prophets  and  the  other  books." 
In  the  N.  T.  there  is  the  same  kind  of  recognition. 
"The  Law  and  the  Prophets"  is  the  shorter  |  Matt,  xi, 
13  ;  xxii,  40;  Acts  xiii,  15,  etc.)  ;  "  the  Law,  the  Proph- 
ets, and  the  Psalms"  (Luke  xxiv,  44),  the  fuller  state- 
ment of  the  division  popularly  recognised.  The  ar- 
rangement of  the  books  of  the  Heb.  text  under  these 
three  heads  requires,  however,  a  farther  notice. 

1.  The  Law,  Torah',  iT"HFl,  j'o/joc,  naturally  con- 
tinued to  occupy  the  position  which  it  must  have  held 
from  the  first  as  the  most  ancient  and  authoritative 
portion..  Whatever  questions  may  be  raised  as  to  the 
antiquity  of  the  whole  Pentateuch  in  its  present  form, 
the  existence  of  a  book  bearing  this  title  is  traceable 
to  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Israelites 
(Josh.  i,*8  ;  viii,  34 ;  xxiv,  2G).  The  name  which  must 
at  first  have  attached  to  those  portions  of  the  whole 
book  was  applied  to  the  earlier  and  contemporaneous 
history  connected  with  the  giving  of  the  law,  and  as- 
cribed to  the  same  writer.  The  marked  distinctness 
of  the  five  portions  which  make  up  the  Torah  shows 
that  they  must  have  been  designed  as  separate  books  ; 
and  when  the  Canon  was  completed,  and  the  books  in 
their  present  form  made  the  object  of  stud}',  names  for 
each  book  were  wanted  and  were  found.  In  the.  He- 
brew classification  the  titles  were  taken  from  the  initial 
words,  or  prominent  words  in  the  initial  verse  ;  in  that 
of  the  Sept.  they  were  intended  to  be  significant  of  the 
subject  of  each  book,  and  so  we  have — 

(1.)  r.i'isoa  .   .   .   .   rii'iaic,  Genesis. 

(2.)  rrrara  (rtbxi)  .  "e$ocoq,  Exodus. 

(3.)  Stlp1?! An/'iYucoV,  Leviticus. 

(4.)  12TC3 'AmOfioi,  Numbers. 

(5.)  O"1"!— 'n Atvrtpovojituv,  Deuteronomy. 

The  Greek  titles  were  adopted  without  change,  except 
as  to  the  fourth,  in  the  Latin  versions,  and  from  them 
have  descended  to  the  Bibles  of  modern  Christendom. 

2.  The  Prophets. — The  next  group  presents  a  more 
singular   combination, 
follows : 

r 


The  arrangement   stands 


JV<  hum' . 
Prophetaj. 


(priorcs) 


(posteriores)  | 


r  Joshua. 
I  Judges. 
j  land 2  Samuel. 
(  1  and  2  Kings. 
^       (Isaiah. 
:     -  Jeremiah, 
(majores)   (EzekieL 

p     ( The  twelve  mi- 

(ininores)  1    nor  prophets. 


The  Hebrew  titles  of  these  books  corresponding  to 
those  of  the  English  Bibles  ;  so  also  in  the  Septuagint, 
except  that  this  version  (like  the  Vulgate)  reckons  1 
and  2  Sam.  as  1  and  2  Kings,  and  1  and  2  Kings  as  3 
and  4  Kings. 

The  grounds  on  which  books  simply  historical  were 
classed  under  the  same  name  as  those  which  contained 
the  teaching  of  prophets,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the 
word,  are  not,  at  first  sight,  obvious,  but  the  O.  T.  pre- 
sents some  facts  which  may  suggest  an  explanation. 
The  sons  of  the  prophets  (1  Sam.  x,  5 ;  2  Kings  v,  22; 
vi,  1),  living  together  as  a  society,  almost  as  a  caste 
(Amos  vii,  14),  trained  to  a  religious  life,  cultivating 


BIBLE 


800 


BIBLE 


sacred  minstrelsy,  must  have  occupied  a  position  as  I 
instructors  of  the  people,  even  in  the  absence  of  the 
Bpecial  calling  which  sent  them  as  God's  messengers 
to  the  people.  A  body  of  men  so  placed  naturally  be- 
come historians  and  annalists,  unless  intellectual  activ- 
ity is  absorbed  in  asceticism.  The  references  in  the 
historical  hooks  of  the  0.  T.  show  that  they  actually 
were  such.  Nathan  the  prophet,  Gad,  the  seer  of  David 
^1  Chron.  xxix,  29),Ahijah  and  Iddo(2  Chron.  ix,  29),  \ 
Isaiah  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  22;  xxxii,  32),  arc  cited  as 
chroniclers.  The  greater  antiquity  of  the  earlier  his- 
torical hooks,  and  perhaps  the  traditional  belief  that 
they  had  originated  in  this  way,  were  likely  to  co-op-  ' 
crate  in  raising  them  to  a  high  place  of  honor  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  Jewish  canon,  and  so  they  were 
looked  upon  as  having  the  prophetic  character  which 
was  denied  to  the  historical  books  of  the  Hagiographa. 
The  greater  extent  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  no  less  than  the  prominent  position 
which  they  occupied  in  the  history  of  Israel,  led  natu- 
rally to  their  being  recognised  as  the  Prophetaa  Ma-  | 
jores.  The  exclusion  of  Daniel  from  this  subdivision 
is  a  more  remarkable  fact,  and  one  which  has  been  ! 
differently  interpreted,  the  Rationalistic  school  of  later 
criticism  (Eiehhorn,  De  Wette,  Bertholdt)  seeing  in  it 
an  indication  of  later  date,  and  therefore  of  doubtful 
authenticity,  the  orthodox  school  on  the  contrary,  as  ] 
represented  by  Hengstenhcrg  (Dissert,  on  Ban.  ch.  ii, 
§  iv,  v),  maintaining  that  the  difference  rested  only  on 
the  ground  that,  though  the  utterer  of  predictions,  he 
had  not  exercised,  as  the  others  had  done,  a  prophet's 
office  among  the  people.  Whatever  may  have  been 
its  origin,  the  position  of  this  book  in  the  Hagiographa 
led  the  later  Jews  to  think  and  speak  slightingly  of  it, 
and  Christians  who  reasoned  with  them  out  of  its  pre- 
dictions were  met  by  remarks  disparaging  to  its  au- 
thority (Hengstenberg,  /.  c).  The  arrangement  of 
the  Prophetas  Minores  docs  not  call  for  special  notice, 
except  so  far  as  they  were  counted,  in  order  to  1  ring 
the  whole  list  of  canonical  books  within  a  memorial 
number,  answering  to  that  of  the  letters  in  the  Hebrew 
alphabet,  as  a  single  volume,  and  described  as  to  Scjcc- 
Kairp6tj>r]Tov± 

3.  The  Hagiographa. — Last  in  order  came  the 
group  known  as  Kethubim',  C^DS  (from  2rS,  to 
write),  ypatytia,  ayloypatpa,  i.  e.  "holy  writings,"  in- 
cluding the  remaining  hooks  of  the  Hebrew  canon,  ar- 
ranged in  the  following  order,  and  subordinate  di- 
visions:  (a)  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job.  (b)  'J  he  Song 
of  Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Eeclesiastes,  Esther, 
(c)  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  1  and  2  Chronicles. 

Of  these,  (a)  were  distinguished  by  the  memorial 
word  r"X,  "truth,"  formed  from  the  initial  letters  of 
the  three  books;  (.//)  as  r"ir.yc  -~n,  the  Jive  rolls,  as 
being  written  for  use  in  the  synagogues  on  special  fes- 
tivals cm  five  separate  rolls.  Of  the  Hebrew  titles  of 
ks,  thi  se  which  are  descriptive  of  their  con- 
tents are:  E"r~?,  Tehillim',  the  Psalms;  "&iao, 
Dfishley',  Proverbs;  ~:"X,  Eykah',  Lamentations 
(from  the  opening  word  of  wailing  in  i,  1);  the  Song 
of  Songs,  -  —  -y~  --J,  Shir  hash-Shirim' ';  Eeclesias- 
tes, Tbnp,  Kohe'h  h.tl><  Preacher}  1  and 2  Chronicles, 
c"" '"  "~-"',  Dibrey'  h  iy-yamim',  words  of  the  days 
= records. 

The  Sept.  presents  the  following  titles  of  these  last: 
¥a\uoi,  napoipiai,  a,,,,.,,,  *Aff/ti«  aofidrotv,  'EkkXv- 
otaorric,  U.apa\tiir6ixtva (i.  e.  things  omitted,  as  being 
supplementary  to  the  books  of  Kings).  The  Latin  ver- 
sion imports  xane  of  the  titles,  and  translates  others; 
Psalmi,  Proverbia,  Threni,  Canticum  Canticorum,  Ee- 
clesiastes, Paralipomenon,  and  tlie.se  in  their  translated 
form  have  determined  the  received  titles  of  the  look  in 
our  English  Bibles—  Eeclesiastes,  in  which  the  Greek 
title  is  retained,  and  Chronicles,  in  which  the  Hebrew 


and  not  the  Greek  title  is  translated,  being  exceptions. 
The  Sept.  presents  also  some  striking  variations  in 
the  order  of  the  books  (we  follow  the  Sixt.  ed. — MSS. 
differ  greatly).  Both  in  this  and  in  the  insertion  of 
the  (ivrtXtyofiti'a,  which  we  now  know  as  the  Apocry- 
pha, among  the  other  books,  we  trace  the  absence  of 
that  strong  reverence  for  the  Canon  and  its  traditional 
order  which  distinguished  the  Jews  of  Palestine.  The 
Law,  it  is  true,  stands  first,  but  the  distinction  between 
the  greater  and  lesser  prophets,  between  the  Prophets 
and  the  Hagiographa,  is  no  longer  recognised.  Daniel, 
with  the  Apocryphal  additions,  follows  upon  Ezekiel ; 
the  Apocryphal  1st  or  Cd  look  of  Esdras  comes  in  as  a 
1st,  preceding  the  canonical  Ezra.  Tohit  and  Judith 
are  placed  after  Nehemiah,  Wisdom  (Eotpia  2a\o[iii>v) 
and  Ecclesiasticus  (Socti'cr  Saofiv)  after  Canticles,  Ba- 
ruch  before  and  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah  after  Lam- 
entations, the  twelve  lesser  prophets  before  the  four 
i  greater,  and  the  two  books  of  Maccabees  at  the  close 
;  of  all.  The  common  Vulg.  follows  nearly  the  same  or- 
der, inverting  the  relative  position  of  the  greater  and 
lesser  prophets.  The  separation  of  the  doubtful  hooks 
under  the  title  of  Apoerj'pha  in  the  Protestant  versions 
[  of  the  Scriptures  left  the  others  in  the  order  in  which 
,  wc  now  have  them.     See  Septuagint  ;  Vulgate. 

4.  The  history  of  the  arrangement  of  the  1  ooks  of  the 
1  New  Testament  presents  some  variations,  not  with- 
out interest,  as  indicating  differences  of  feeling  or 
modes  of  thought.  The  four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  uniformly  stand  first.  They  are  thus 
to  the  New  what  the  Pentateuch  was  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. They  do  not  present,  however,  in  them- 
|  selves,  as  the  books  of  Moses  did,  any  order  "of  suc- 
\  cession.  The  actual  order  does  not  depend  upon  the 
rank  or  function  of  the  writers  to  whom  they  are  as- 
signed. The  two  not  written  by  apostles  are  pre- 
'  ceded  and  followed  by  one  which  was,  and  it  seems  as 
if  the  true  explanation  were  to  be  found  in  a  traditu  n- 
al  belief  as  to  the  dates  of  the  several  Gospels,  accord- 
ing to  which  Matthew's,  whether  in  its  Greek  cr  He- 
brew form,  was  the  earliest,  and  John's  the  latest. 
The  arrangement  once  adopted  would  naturally  con- 
firm the  belief,  and  so  we  find  it  assumed  by  Irenaeus, 
Origen,  Augustine.  The  position  of  the  Acts  as  an 
intermediate  book,  the  sequel  to  the  Gospels,  the  prel- 
ude to  the  Epistles,  was  obviously  a  natural  one. 
After  this  we  meet  with  some  striking  differences. 
The  order  in  the  Alexandrian,  Vatican,  and  Ephraem 
MSS.  (A,  B,  C)  gives  precedence  to  the  catholic  Epis- 
tles, and  as  this  is  also  recognised  by  the  Council  of 
Laodicea  (Can.  60),  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (Catech.  iv,  35), 
and  Athanasius  (Epist.  Fist.  ed.  Bened.  i,  £61),  it 
would  appear  to  have  been  characteristic  of  the  East- 
ern churches.  Lachmann  and  Tischendorf  (7th  ed.)  fol- 
low this  arrangement.  (The  Sinaitic  MS.  places  Paul's 
Epistles  even  before  the  Acts.)  The  Western  (  hureh, 
on  the  other  hand,  as  represented  by  Jerome.  Augus- 
tine, and  their  successors,  gave  priority  of  position  to 
the  Pauline  Epistles;  and  as  the  order  in  which  these 
were  given  presents,  (1.)  those  addressed  to  churches 
arranged  according  to  their  relative  importance,  (2.) 
those  addressed  to  individuals,  the  foremost  place  was 
naturally  occupied  by  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 
The  tendency  of  the  Western  Church  to  recognise 
Rome  as  the  centre  of  authority  may  perhaps,  in  part, 
account  for  this  departure  from  the  custom  <  f  the  Etst, 
The  order  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  themselves,  however, 
is  generally  the  same,  and  the  only  conspicuously  dif- 
ferent arrangement  was  that  of  Marcion,  who  aimed 
at  a  chronological  order.  In  the  four  MSS.  above  re- 
ferred to,  Hebrews  comes  after  2 Thessalonians  (in  that 
from  which  Cod.  B  was  copied  it  seems  to  have  stood 
between  Gal.  and  Ephes.).  In  those  followed  by  Je- 
rome, it  stands,  as  in  the  English  Bihle  and  the  Textus 
Receptus,  after  Philemon.  Possibly  the  absence  of 
Paul's  name,  possibly  the  doubts  which  existed  as  to  his 
being  the  sole  author  of  it,  possibly  its  approximation  to 


BIBLE 


801 


BIBLE 


the  character  of  the  catholic  Epistles,  may  have  de- 
termined the  arrangement.  The  Apocalypse,  as  might 
be  expected  from  the  peculiar  character  of  its  contents, 
occupied  a  position  by  itself.  Its  comparatively  late 
recognition  may  have  determined  the  position  which  it 
has  uniformly  held  as  the  last  of  the  sacred  books. 

IV.  Division  into  Chapters  and  Verses. — As  soon  as 
any  break  is  made  in  the  continuous  writing  which  has 
characterized  in  nearly  all  countries  the  early  stages 
of  the  art,  we  get  the  germs  of  a  system  of  division. 
But  these  divisions  may  be  used  for  two  distinct  pur- 
poses. So  far  as  they  are  used  to  exhibit  the  logical 
relations  of  words,  clauses,  and  sentences  to  each  oth- 
er, they  tend  to  a  recognised  punctuation.  So  far  as 
they  are  used  for  greater  convenience  of  reference,  or 
as  a  help  to  the  memory,  they  answer  to  the  chapters 
and  verses  of  our  modern  Bibles.  At  present  we  are 
concerned  only  with  the  latter. 

1.  The  Eebrexo  of  the  Old  Testament.— It  is  hardly 
possible  to  conceive  of  the  liturgical  use  of  the  Looks 
of  the  Old  Testament  without  some  kind  of  recognised 
division.  In  proportion  as  the  books  were  studied  and 
commented  on  in  the  schools  of  the  rabbins,  the  division 
would  become  more  technical  and  complete,  and  hence 
the  existing  notation  which  is  recognised  in  the  Tal- 
mud (the  Gemara  ascribing  it  to  Moses  [Hupfeld,  Stud, 
und  Kril.  1830,  p.  827])  may  probably  have  originated 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  growth  of  the  synagogue 
ritual.  The  New-Testament  quotations  from  the  Old 
are  for  the  most  part  cited  without  any  more  specific 
reference  than  to  the  book  from  which  they  come. 
The  references,  however,  in  Mark  xii,  26,  and  Luke 
xx,  37  (i/n  ti)c  fidrov),  Rom.  xi,  2  (tV  'R\ia~),  and 
Acts  viii,  32  (//  TTepio\))  tT)Q  ypatpijc),  indicate  a  division 
which  had  become  familiar,  and  show  that  some,  at 
least,  of  the  sections  were  known  popularly  by  titles 
taken  from  their  subjects.  In  like  manner,  the  exist- 
ence o{some  cycle  of  lessons  is  indicated  by  Luke  iv,  17; 
Acts  xiii,  15  ;  xv,  21 ;  2  Cor.  iii,  14  ;  and  this,  whether 
identical  or  not  with  the  later  rabbinic  cycle,  must 
have  involved  an  arrangement  analogous  to  that  sub- 
sequently adopted. 

(1.)  The  Talmudic  division  is  on  the  following  plan. 
[1.]  The  Law  was,  in  the  first  instance,  divided  into  fif- 
ty-four T\l'*ti~)%,  parshiyoth' = sections,  so  as  to  provide 
a  lesson  for  each  Sabbath  in  the  Jewish  intercalary 
year,  provision  being  made  for  the  shorter  year  by  the 
combination  of  two  of  the  shorter  sections.  Coexist- 
ing with  this,  there  was  a  subdivision  into  lesser  par- 
shiyoth, which  served  to  determine  the  portions  of  the 
sections  taken  by  the  several  readers  in  the  syna- 
gogues. The  lesser  parshiyoth  themselves  were  classed 
under  two  heads — the  "open"  (nireriQ,  pethuehoth'), 
which  served  to  indicate  a  change  of  subject  analogous 
to  that  between  two  paragraphs  in  modern  writing,  and 
began  accordingly  a  fresh  line  in  the  MS.,  and  the 
"closed"  (nTSWp,  sethumoth'),  which  corresponded 
to  minor  divisions,  and  were  marked  only  by  a  space 
within  the  line.  The  initial  letters  3  and  0  served  as 
a  notation,  in  the  margin  or  in  the  text  itself,  for  the 
two  kinds  of  sections.  The  threefold  initial  S5S  or 
OCO  was  used  when  the  commencement  of  one  of  the 
parshiyoth  coincided  with  that  of  a  Sabbath  lesson 
(comp.  Keil,  Einkitung  in  das  A.  T.  §  170,  171). 

[2.]  A  different  terminology  was  employed  for  the 
Propheta;  Priores  and  Posteriores,  and  the  division  was 
less  uniform.  The  tradition  of  the  Jews  that  the 
Prophets  were  first  read  in  the  service  of  the  syna- 
gogue, and  consequently  divided  into  sections,  because 
the  reading  of  the  Law  had  been  forbidden  by  Antio- 
chus  Epiphanes,  rests  upon  a  very  slight  foundation ; 
but  its  exigence  is,  at  any  rate,  a  proof  that  the  Law 
was  believed  to  have  been  systematically  divided  be- 
fore the  same  process  was  applied  to  the  other  books. 
The  name  of  the  sections  in  this  case  was  ni"i^sn 
Eee 


(haphtaroth' ,  from  1^?,  to  dismiss).  If  the  name 
were  applied  in  this  way  because  the  lessons  from  the 
Prophets  came  at  the  close  of  the  synagogue  service, 
and  so  were  followed  by  the  dismissal  of  the  people 
(Vitringa,  De  Synag.  iii,  2,  20),  its  history  would  pre- 
sent a  curious  analogy  to  that  of  "Missa,"  "Mass," 
on  the  assumption  that  this  also  was  derived  from  the 
"  Ite  missa  est,"  by  which  the  congregation  was  in- 
formed of  the  conclusion  of  the  earlier  portion  of  the 
service  of  the  Church.  The  peculiar  use  of  Missa 
shortly  after  its  appearance  in  the  Latin  of  ecclesias- 
tical writers  in  a  sense  equivalent  to  that  cf  haphtaroth 
("  sex  Missas  de  Propheta  Esaia  facite,"  Caesar  Arelat. 
and  Aurelian  in  Bingham,  Ant.  xiii,  1)  presents  at 
least  a  singular  coincidence.  The  haphtaroth  them- 
selves were  intended  to  correspond  with  the  larger 
parshiyoth  of  the  Law,  so  that  there  might  be  a  dis- 
tinct lesson  for  each  Sabbath  in  the  intercalary  year 
as  before;  but  the  traditions  of  the  German  and  the 
Spanish  Jews,  both  of  them  of  great  antiquity,  pre- 
sent a  considerable  diversity'  in  the  length  of  the  di- 
visions, and  show  that  they  had  never  been  determ- 
ined by  the  same  authority  as  that  which  had  settled 
the  parshiyoth  of  the  Law  (Van  der  Hooght,  Prcefat. 
in  Bib.  §35). 

(2.)  Of  the  traditional  divisions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
however,  that  which  has  exercised  most  influence  in  the 
received  arrangement  of  the  text  was  the  subdivision 
of  the  larger  sections  into  verses  (D^J^OQ,  pesukim'). 
These  do  not  appear  to  have  been  used  till  the  post- 
Talmudic  recension  of  the  text  by  the  Masoretes  of  the 
9th  century.  The}'  were  then  applied,  first  to  the  prose, 
and  afterward  to  the  poetical  books  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  superseding  in  the  latter  the  arrangement 
of  otiyoi,  KU)\a,  KoppctTci,  lines  and  groups  of  lines, 
which  had  been  based  upon  metrical  considerations. 
The  verses  of  the  Masoretic  divisions  were  preserved 
with  comparatively  slight  variations  through  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  and  came  to  the  knowledge  of  translators  and 
editors  when  the  attention  of  European  scholars  was  di- 
rected to  the  study  of  Hebrew.  In  the  Hebrew  MSS. 
the  notation  had  been  simply  marked  by  the  "  Soph- 
Pasuk"  (:)  at  the  end  of  each  verse ;  and  in  the  earlier 
printed  Hebrew  Bibles  (Sabionetta's,  1557,  and  Plan- 
tin's,  15G0)  the  Hebrew  numerals  which  guide  the  read- 
er in  referring  are  attached  to  every  fifth  verse  only. 
The  Concordance  of  Rabbi  Nathan,  1450,  however,  had 
rested  on  the  application  of  a  numeral  to  each  verse, 
and  this  was  adopted  by  the  Dominican  Pagninus  in 
his  Latin  version,  1528,  and  carried  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  coinciding  sub- 
stantially, as  regards  the  former,  with  the  Masoretic, 
and  therefore  with  the  modern  division,  but  differing 
materially,  as  to  the  New  Testament,  from  that  which 
was  adopted  by  Robert  Stephens,  and  through  his  wide- 
ly circulated  editions  passed  into  general  reception. 

(3.)  The  chief  facts  that  remain  to  be  stated  as  to  the 
verse  divisions  of  the  Old  Testament  are  that  they  were 
adopted  by  Stephens  in  his  edition  of  the  Vulgate,  1555, 
and  by  Frellon  in  that  of  1556  ;  that  they  appeared,  for 
the  first  time  in  an  English  translation,  in  the  Geneva 
Bible  of  15G0,  and  were  thence  transferred  to  the  Bish- 
ops' Bible  of  15G8  and  the  Authorized  Version  of  1611. 
In  Coverdale's  Bible  we.  meet  with  the  older  notation, 
which  was  in  familiar  use  for  other  books,  and  retain- 
ed, in  some  instances  (e.  g.  in  references  to  Plato),  to 
the  present  times.  The  letters  A  B  C  D  are  placed  at 
equal  distances  in  the  margin  of  each  page,  and  the 
reference  is  made  to  the  page  (or,  in  the  case  of  Scrip- 
ture, to  the  chapter)  and  the  letter  accordingly. 

2.  The  Septuagint  translation,  together  with  the 
Latin  versions  based  upon  it,  have  contributed  very 
little  to  the  received  division  of  the  Bibles.  Made 
at  a  time  when  the  rabbinic  subdivisions  were  not  en- 
forced, hardly  perhaps  existing,  and  not  used  in  the 
worship  of  the  synagogue,  there  was  no  reason  for  the 


BIBLE 


802 


BIBLE 


scrupulous  oaro  which  showed  itself  in  regard  to  the 
Hel  rru  t  sxt.     The  language  of  TertulHan  (Seorp.  ii) 

and  Jerome  (in  Mir.  vi,  9;  Zeph.  iii,  4)  implies  the 
existence  of  "capitula"  of  some  sort;  but  the  word 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  used  in  any  more  definite 
sense  than  "locus"  or  "passage."  The  liturgical 
use  of  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  would  lead  to  the 
employment  of  some  notation  to  distinguish  the  dva- 
yvwafiara  or  "lectiones,"  and  individual  students  or 
transcribers  might  adopt  a  system  of  reference  of  their 
own  ;  I  nit  we  find  nothing  corresponding  to  the  fully 
organized  notation  which  originated  with  the  Talmad- 
i-ts  or  Masoretes.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  the  gen- 
eral use  of  Lectionaria— in  which  the  portions  read  in 
the  Church  services  were  written  separately  — may 
have  hindered  the  development  of  such  a  system. 
Whatever  traces  of  it  we  find  are  accordingly  scanty 
and  fluctuating.  The  sticho-metric  mode  of  writing 
(i.  e.  the  division  of  the  text  into  short  lines  generally 
with  very  little  regard  to  the  sense)  adopted  in  the  4th 
or  5th  centuries  (see  Prolegom.  to  Breitinger's  Seplua- 
gint,  i,  6),  though  it  may  have  facilitated  reference,  or 
been  useful  as  a  guide  to  the  reader  in  the  half-chant 
commonly  used  in  liturgical  services,  was  too  arbitrary 
(except  where  it  corresponded  to  the  parallel  clauses 
of  the  Hebrew  poetical  books)  and  inconvenient  to  be 
generally  adopted.  The  Alexandrian  MSS.  present  a 
partial  notation  of  KHpaXaia,  but  as  regards  the  Old 
Testament  these  are  found  only  in  portions  of  Deuter- 
onomy and  Joshua.  Traces  exist  (Monum.  Eccles. 
Cider,  in  Breitinger,  Proleg.  ut  sup.)  of  a  like  division 
in  Numbers,  Exodus,  and  Leviticus,  and  Latin  MSS. 
present  frequently  a  system  of  division  into  "tituli" 
or  "  capitula,"  but  without  any  recognised  standards. 
In  the  13th  century,  however,  the  development  of 
theology  as  a  science,  and  the  more  frequent  use  of  the 
Scriptures  as  a  text-book  for  lectures,  led  to  the  general 
adoption  of  a  more  systematic  division,  traditionally 
ascribed  to  Stephen  Langton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(Triveti  Annal.  p.  182,  ed.  Oxon.),  but  carried  out  by 
Cardinal  Hugh  de  St.  Cher(Gibert  Genebrard,  Chronol. 
iv,  C44),  and  passing  through  his  Commentary  (Postil- 
la  in  Universa  Biblia,  and  Concordance,  cir.  1240)  into 
general  use.  No  other  subdivision  of  the  chapters  was 
united  with  this  beyond  that  indicated  by  the  margin- 
al letters  A  B  C  D,  as  described  above. 

3.  As  regards  the  Old  Testament,  then,  the  present 
arrangement  grows  out  of  the  union  of  Cardinal 
Hugo's  capitular  division  and  the  Masoretic  verses. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  verses  in  the  authorized 
English  Bible  occasionally  differ  from  those  of  the 
Ilcb.  Masoretic  text,  especially  in  the  Psalms  (where 
the  Heb.  reckons  the  titles  as  ver.  1)  and  some  chap- 
ters of  the  Chronicles  (perhaps  through  the  influence 
of  the  Sept.).  A  tabular  exhibit  of  these  variations 
may  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  Englishman's  Iltb.  Con- 
cordance  (Lond.  1843).  Such  discrepancies  also  (hut 
less  frequently)  occur  in  the  N.  T.  The  Apocnphal 
books,  to  which,  of  course,  no  Masoretic  division  was 
applicable,  did  not  receive  a  versicular  division  till  the 
Latin  edition  ofPagninus  in  1528,  nor  die  division  now 
in  use  till  Stephen's  edition  of  the  Vulgate  in  1555. 

4.  The  history  of  the  New  Testament  presents  some 
additional  facts  of  interest.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Old,  tbe  system  of  notation  grew  out  of  the  neces- 
sities of  Btudy. 

(1.)  Tic  comparison  of  the  Gospel  narratives  gave 
ittempts  to  exhibit  the  harmony  between  them. 
Of  these,  the  first  of  which  we  have  any  record  was 
the  Diatesgarm  of  Tatian  in  the  2d  century  (Euseb. 
//.  A',  iv,  29).  This  was  followed  by  a  work  of  like 
character  from  Ammonias  of  Alexandria  in  the  3d 
(Euseb.  Epist.adCarpiammi).  'I  he  system  adopted  by 
Ammonius,  however,  thai  of  attaching  to  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew  the  parallel  passages  of  the  ether  three, 
and  inserting  those  which  \\<re  net  parallel,  destroyed 
tlie  outward  form  in  which  the  Gospel  history  had  been 


recorded,  and  was  practically  inconvenient.  Nor  did 
their  labors  have  any  direct  effect  on  the  arrangement 
of  the  Greek  text,  unless  we  adopt  the  conjectures  of 
Mill  and  Wetstein  that  it  is  to  Ammonius  or  Tatian 
that  we  have  to  ascribe  the  marginal  notation  of  Ke^cl- 
\aia,  marked  by  A  B  PA,  which  are  found  in  the  older 
MSS.  The  search  after  a  more  convenient  method  of 
exhibiting  the  parallelisms  of  the  Gospels  led  Eusebius 
of  Cassarea  to  form  the  ten  canons  (itavovtc,  registers) 
which  bear  his  name,  and  in  which  the  sections  of  the 
Gospels  are  classed  according  as  the  fact  narrated  is 
found  in  one  Evangelist  only,  or  in  two  or  more.  In 
applying  this  system  to  the  transcription  of  the  Gos- 
pels, each  of  them  was  divided  into  shorter  sections  of 
variable  length,  and  to  each  of  these  were  attached 
two  numerals,  one  indicating  the  canon  under  which 
it  would  be  found,  and  the  other  its  place  in  that  canon. 
Luke,  iii,  21,  22,  e.  g.  would  represent  the  13th  section 
belonging  to  the  first  canon.  This  division,  howev- 
er, extended  onljr  to  the  books  that  had  come  under 
the  study  of  the  Harmonists.  The  Epistles  of  Paul 
j  were  first  divided  in  a  similar  manner  by  the  unknown 
bishop  to  whom  Euthalius  assigns  the  credit  of  it  (cir. 
396),  and  he  himself,  at  the  instigation  of  Athanasius, 
applied  the  method  of  division  to  the  Acts  and  the 
I  Catholic  Epistles.  Andrew,  Bishop  of  Csesarea  in  Cap- 
padocia,  completed  the  work  by  dividing  the  Apoca- 
l  lypse  (cir.  500).  See  Harmonies  (of  the  Gospels). 
|  Of  the  four  great  uncial  MSS.  extant  prior  to  the 
recent  discovery  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  by  Dr.  Tis- 
chendorf,  A  presents  the  Ammonian  or  Eusebian  nu- 
I  merals  and  canons,  C  and  D  the  numerals  without  the 
!  canons.  B  has  neither  numerals  nor  canons,  but  a 
notation  of  its  own,  the  chief  peculiarity  of  which  is, 
that  the  Epistles  of  Paul  are  treated  as  a  single  book, 
and  brought  under  a  continuous  capitulation.  After 
passing  into  disuse  and  so  into  comparative  oblivion, 
the  Eusebian  and  Euthalian  divisions  have  recently 
(since  1827)  again  become  familiar  to  the  English  stu- 
dent through  Bishop  Lloyd's  edition  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament, and  other  critical  editions. 

(2.)  With  the  New  Testament,  however,  as  with  the 
Old,  the  division  into  chapters  adopted  by  Hugh  de  St. 
Cher  superseding  those  that  had  been  in  use  previous- 
ly, appeared  in  the  early  editions  of  the  Vulgate,  was 
transferred  to  the  English  Bible  by  Coverdale,  and  so 
became  universal.  The  notation  of  the  verses  in  each 
chapter  naturally  followed  the  use  of  the  Masoretic 
verses  for  the  Old  Testament.  The  superiority  of 
such  a  division  over  the  marginal  notation  "A  B  C  D" 
in  the  Bible  of  St.  Cher  led  men  to  adopt  an  analogous 
system  for  the  New.  See  Chapters.  In  the  Latin 
version  of  Pagninus  accordingly,  there  is  a  versieular 
division,  though  differing  from  the  one  subsequently 
used  in  the  greater  length  of  its  verses.  The  absence 
of  an  authoritative  standard  like  that  of  the  Masoretcs 
left  more  scope  to  the  individual  discretion  of  editors 
or  printers,  and  the  activity  of  the  two  Stephenscs 
caused  that  which  they  adopted  in  their  numerous  edi- 
tions of  the  Greek  Testament  and  Vulgate  to  be  gen- 
erally received.  In  the  preface  to  the  Concordance, 
published  by  Henry  Stephens,  1594,  he  gives  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  the  origin  of  this  division.  His  fa- 
ther, he  tells  us,  finding  the  hoiks  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment already  divided  into  chapters  (j-ju^ictrcr,  or  sec- 
tion-), proceeded  to  a  farther  subdivision  into  verses. 
The  name  versiculi  did  not  commend  itself  to  him.  He 
would  have  preferred  r/ujfta-ia  or  sectiunculse,  but  the 
preference  of  others  for  the  former  led  him  to  adopt  it. 
The  whole  work  was  accomplished  "  inter  equitandum" 
on  his  journey  from  Paris  to  Lyons.  While  it  was  in 
progress  men  doubted  of  its  success.  No  sooner  was 
it  known  than  it  met  with  universal  acceptance.  The 
edition  in  which  this  division  was  first  adopted  was 
published  in  1551,  another  came  from  the  same  press 
in  1555.  It  was  used  for  the  Vulgate  in  the  Antwerp 
,  edition  of  Iientenms  in  1559,  for  the  English  version 


BIBLE,  ATTRIBUTES  OF 


803 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


published  in  Geneva  in  1560,  and  from  that  time,  with 
slight  variations  in  detail,  has  been  universally  recog- 
nised. The  convenience  of  such  a  system  for  reference 
is  obvious ;  but  it  may  be  questioned  whether  it  has  not 
been  purchased  by  too  great  a  sacrifice  of  the  percep- 
tion by  ordinary  readers  of  the  true  order  and  connec- 
tion of  the  books  of  the  Bible.  In  some  cases  the  di- 
vision of  chapters  separates  portions  which  are  very 
closely  united  (see  e.  g.  Matt,  ix,  38,  and  x,  1 ;  xix,  30, 
and  xx,  1;  Mark  ii,  23-28,  and  iii,  1-5;  viii,  38,  and 
ix,  1 ;  Luke  xx,  45-47,  and  xxi,  1-4  ;  Acts  vii,  GO,  and 
viii,  1 ;  1  Cor.  x,  33,  xi,  1 ;  2  Cor.  iv,  18,  v,  1 ;  vi,  18, 
and  vii,  1),  and  throughout  gives  the  impression  of  a 
formal  division  altogether  at  variance  with  the  con- 
tinuous flow  of  narrative  or  thought  which  character- 
ized the  book  as  it  came  from  the  hand  of  the  writer. 
The  separation  of  verses  has  moreover  conduced  large- 
ly to  the  habit  of  building  doctrinal  sj'stems  upon  iso- 
lated texts.  The  advantages  of  the  received  method 
are  united  with  those  of  an  arrangement  representing 
the  original  more  faithfully  in  the  structure  of  the  Par- 
agraph BiMes,  lately  published  by  different  editors, 
and  in  the  Greek  Testaments  of  Lloyd,  Lachmann, 
and  Tischendorf.  The  student  ouj;ht,  however,  to  re- 
member, in  using  these,  that  the  paragraphs  belong  to 
the  editor,  not  the  writer,  and  are  therefore  liable  to 
the  same  casualties  rising  out  of  subjective  peculiari- 
ties, dogmatic  bias,  and  the  like,  as  the  chapters  of  our 
common  Bibles.  Practically  the  risk  of  such  casualties 
has  been  reduced  almost  to  a  minimum  by  the  care  of 
editors  to  avoid  the  errors  into  which  their  predecessors 
have  fallen,  but  the  possibility  of  the  evil  exists,  and 
should  therefore  be  guarded  against  by  the  exercise  of 
an  independent  judgment.  (Davidson,  in  Horne'slntrcd. 
new  ed.  ii,  27  sq. ;  Tregelles,  ibil.  iv,  30  sq. ;  Davidson, 
Bib.  f  'riticism,  i,  60 ;  ii,  21.)— Smith,  s.  v.  See  Verses. 
Bible,  Attributes  of  (Affectiones  Scripturm),  a 
title  b}r  which,  in  the  16th  century,  Protestant  theo- 
logians designated  certain  true  views  of  Scripture  as 
opposed  to  Romish,  Socinian,  and  other  errors.  They 
are  divided  into  two  classes  : 

1.  Primary  attributes  (affections  primaries),  i.  e. 
such  as  directly  flow  from  the  divina  origin  and  canon- 
icity  of  the  Scriptures.  The}'  are,  (1)  A  uthority  (auc- 
toritas), as  opposed  on  the  one  hand  to  the  Socinian 
undervaluing  of  the  O.  T.,  and  on  the  other  to  the 
Roaiish  doctrine  that  the  Church  settles  the  authority 
of  Scripture.  It  is  divided  into  (a)  auctoritas  normri- 
tiea,  i.  e.  the  authority  of  the  Bible  to  bind  men  to  be- 
lieve and  do  whatever  it  teaches  or  commands;  (b) 
auctoritas  judicialis,  as  the  Bible  is  the  final  appeal  in 
questions  of  faith  and  practice.  (2)  Sufficiency  (sufh- 
cientia  or  perfectio),  as  the  Bible  contains  all  things 
necessary  for  faith  and  practice,  opposed  to  the  Quaker 
doctrine  of  special  inspiration  or  the  "inner  light," 
and  to  the  Roman  demand  for  traditional  and  Church 
teaching  in  addition  to  Scripture.  (3)  Tntelligibhness 
(perspicuitas),  opposed  to  the  Romish  doctrine  that 
the  Bible  cannot  be  understood  without  the  Church's 
exposition  of  it.  (4)  Efficacy,  i.  e.  of  its  doctrines  and 
principles  for  the  salvation  of  men. 

2.  Secondary  attributes,  such  as  flow  indirectly  from 
the  same  sources  :  (1)  Necessity  of  Scripture,  as  the 
truth  could  be  preserved  and  handed  down  neither  by 
tradition  nor  by  the  "  inner  light."  (2)  Integri'y,  i.  c. 
that  no  part  essential  to  the  canon  has  been  lost.  (3) 
Purity,  i.  e.  the  uncorrupted  preservation  of  the  text. 
(4)  Freedom  (legendi  omnibus  concessa  licentia),  i.  e. 
the  unrestrained  reading  of  the  Bible  by  all  Christians, 
lay  as  well  as  clerical. — Knapp,  Theology,  §  xi.  See 
Bidle,  Use  of  by  the  Laity. 

Bible,  Manuscripts  of.  See  Manuscripts, 
Biblical. 

Bible  Societies,  associations  for  the  printing, 
translation,  and  circulation  of  the  Word  of  God.  They 
are  given  in  this  article  in  the  following  order,  viz. : 


(I.)  Bible  Societies  of  Great  Britain  ;  (II.)  Bible  So- 
cieties on  the  Continent  of  Europe;  (III.)  American 
Bible  Society;  (IV.)  American  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety (Baptist)  ;  (V.)  American  Bible  Union  (Baptist)  ; 
(VI.)  Bible  Revision  Association  (Baptist). 
I  1.  Bible  Societies  of  Great  Britain.— By  far 
the  most  important  among  the  Bible  Societies  of  Great 
Britain  is  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
founded  March  7th,  1804. 

I.  Preparation. — A  number  of  societies  with  cog- 
nate design  had  preceded  it,  e.  g.  (1)  the  Society  for 

J  promoting  Christian  Knowledge  (1698),  which  included 
1  among  its  objects  the  spread  of  Bibles,  Prayer-books, 
tracts,  and  missions,  especially  in  India :  it  printed 
|  Bibles  in  English,  Welsh,  Manks,  and  Arabic;  (2) 
the  Society  for  propagating  the  Gospel  in  foreign  Parts 
(1701),  with  similar  objects  in  special  reference  to  the 
American  colonies;  (3)  the  Scottish  Society  for  proper 
gating  Christian  Knowledge  (1709),  whose  field  included 
the  Highlands,  the  Scottish  Islands,  and  part  of  North 
America ;  (4)  the  Society  for  promoting  Religious  Knowl- 
i  edge  among  the  Poor  (1750)  ;  (5)  Naval  and  Military  Bi- 
i  ble  Society  (1780) ;  and,  in  the  same  year,  (6)  the  French 
Bible  Society,  for  publishing  French  Scriptures,  which 
soon  died  out.  Timpson  (Bible  Triumj)hs,  p.  102  sq.) 
:  mentions  twenty  societies  (including  some  of  the 
I  above),  all  anticipatory  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society. 

II.  Origin. — The  idea  of  a  general  and  comprehen- 
:  sive  Bible  Society  was  first  suggested  in  December, 

1802,  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  found  a  Bible  So- 
ciety for  Wales,  where  the  demand  for  Bibles  was  then 
extremely  urgent.  This  was  in  London,  Dec.  1802. 
The  question  was  under  discussion  in  a  committee  of 
'  the  Tract  Society,  when  suddenly  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Hughes  (Baptist),  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Tract 
j  Society,  remarked,  "  Certainly  such  a  society  might  be 
!  formed;  and  if  for  Wales,  why  no*  for  the  world?" 
This  broad  idea  took  deep  hold  of  the  minds  of  the 
men  who  were,  with  its  author,  laboring  for  the  salva- 
tion of  the  world.  It  was  at  once  made  public  in  a 
call  by  Mr.  Hughes  for  a  meeting  to  consider  the  sub- 
ject, which  was  attended  on  March  7th,  1804,  at  the 
London  Tavern,  by  about  300  persons  of  all  denomina- 
tions, save  that  the  Church  of  England  clergy  refused 
at  first  to  co-operate  with  dissenters.  But,  persuaded 
j  by  the  pathos  of  the  Rev.  C.  F.  A.  Steinkopff,  the  Rev. 
i  John  Owen  first  gave  in  his  adhesion,  which  step  was 
j  soon  after  approved  by  Bishop  Porteus.  Organization 
was  at  once  effected ;  Lord  Teignmouth  was  chosen 
president,  the  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt  (Church  of  England) 
and  Rev.  Joseph  Hughes  (Baptist)  were  appointed  sec- 
I  retaries.  Bishop  Porteus  and  other  prelates  became 
j  members  ;  and  Wilberforce,  Granville  Sharpe,  and  oth- 
er distinguished  public  men  gave  their  names  and  influ- 
ence to  the  undertaking.  Dr.  Steinkopff  was  after- 
ward  added  to  the  number  of  secretaries.  The  object 
of  the  society  was  declared  to  be  "to  promote  the  cir- 
culation of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  without  note  or  com- 
ment, both  at  home  and  in  foreign  lands."  An  exec- 
utive committee  was  formed  consisting  of  36  laymen, 
viz.,  15  members  of  the  Established  Church,  15  dis- 
senters, and  6  resident  foreigners.  To  this  committee 
is  intrusted  the  management  of  the  business  of  the  so- 
ciety. The  annual  membership  fee  is  one  guinea,  and 
clerical  members,  whether  of  the  Established  Church 
or  Dissenting  churches,  have  a  seat  and  vote  in  ses- 
sions. This  organization  was  first  framed  in  uth<> 
counting-room,  Old  Swan  Stairs,  Upper  Thames  Street, 
belonging  to  Joseph  Ilardcastle,  Esq.,  Treasurer  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  whose  plans  of  benevo- 
lence, as  well  as  those  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society, 
and  tin;  Hibernian  Society,  were  formed  in  the  same 
room"  (Timpson,  Bib.  Triumphs,  p.  128). 

III.  Operatons.—  The  attention  of  the  society  was 
first  turned  to  Wales,  and  25,000  Bibles  and  Testa- 
ments were  printed  in  Welsh  and  distributed  there. 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


804 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


From  England  it  turned  its  energy  to  Continental 
Europe,  where  multitudes  of  Bibles  were  distributed. 

Bible  Societies  were  soon  formed  on  the  Continent ;  an 
account  of  them  will  be  found  under  the  next  head  of 
this  article.  Turkey  and  the  Levant  were  canvassed, 
and  the  seven  apostolic  churches,  in  which  the  Bible 
was  almost  forgotten,  were  visited  once  more  by  the 
Word  of  Cod.  In  India  the  Bible  Society  found  per- 
manent foothold,  and  extended  its  operations  to  a  very 
wide  field.  Much  had  been  undertaken  here  by  vari- 
ous denominations  and  societies,  and  several  transla- 
tions were  in  languid  progress ;  but  the  vigor  of  the 
London  Society  soon  changed  the  state  of  affairs,  and 
a  comprehensive  and  effective  work  began.  Even  Ro- 
manists co-operated,  and  eight  auxiliary  societies  soon 
sprung  up,  some  of  them  in  Oceanica  and  Africa.  The 
great  Bible  Societies  of  America  were  also  its  legit- 
imate though  indirect  result,  and  active  auxiliaries 
were  organized  in  the  Canadas.  In  South  America  it 
was  less  successful,  but  "no  society  ever  spread  so  rap- 
idly or  so  far."  The  work  of  translation  was  begun 
at  an  early  period  :  its  extent  will  be  seen  from  the  ta- 
ble below  marked  b. 

The  career  of  the  B.  and  F.  B.  Society  has  not  been 
without  vigorous  opposition.  The  first  attack  came 
from  the  High-Church  clergy  of  the  Establishment, 
"specially  Ur.  Wordsworth,  Bishop  Randolph,  and  aft- 
erward Bishop  Marsh.  These  assaults  had  no  other 
effect  than  to  diminish  the  interest  of  the  Established 
Church  in  the  society  ;  in  spite  of  which,  it  has  always 
had  the  support  of  the  most  zealous  evangelical  clergy 
and  laity  in  that  body.  In  India,  after  the  return  of 
Lord  ^'ellesley  (1806),  the  governors  general  for  a 
series  of  years  opposed  the  society  ;  but  all  they  could 
do  was  to  impede,  not  to  prevent  its  work  of  translat- 
ing and  circulating  the  Scriptures.  About  1811  a  dis- 
pute arose  at  home  concerning  the  publication  of  the 
Apocrypha,  which  was  circulated  on  the  Continent  with 
the  Billies  issued  by  the  society.  This  dispute  agitated 
the  society  until  1826,  when,  by  a  final  decision,  the 
printing  and  circulation  of  the  Apocrypha  was  stopped. 
This  decision  caused  above  50  of  the  societies  on  the 
Continent  to  separate  from  the  B.  and  F.  B.  Society ; 
but  agencies  were  substituted  for  auxiliaries,  and  the 
work  went  on.  At  the  semi-centennial  jubilee  in 
1853,  the  devoted  Dr.  Steinkopff  alone  remained  of  all 
the  men  who  were  so  active  in  its  foundation.  Others, 
however,  had  succeeded  to  their  places,  and  the  enter- 
prise  was  --till  most  ably  sustained. 

IV.  Statistics. — (a.)  Finance — 

Receipts. 

First  year $10,648  03 

Tenth  year 4-J1.7'-'">  44 

Twentieth  year 47-J.1. .      12 

Thirtieth  year 406,061  49 

Fortieth  year 47T,067  !  8 

Fiftieth  year 528,334  40 

Sixty-second  year 700,907  o4 

Total  from  beginning ij-23,355,704  40 

'1  his  exhibit  does  not,  however,  show  the  real  ratio  of 
growth,  as  the  receipts  of  the  society  for  some  of  the 
years  were  much  greater  than  for  other  subsequent 
yean  here  mentionod,  but  it  shows  the  relative  periodic 
Btatus.  It  also  shows  that  its  receipts  always  exceed- 
ed it-  expenditures. 

(6.)  Versions.— The  B.  and  F.  B.  S.,  from  its  organ- 
ization until  1866,  caused  the  translation,  publication, 
or  circulation  of  the  Holy  Sriptures,  entire  or  in  parts, 
in  languages  and  dialects  as  follows,  viz. : 

.      „.  ,  I -'"-    »'   I  LnnC.  Rnd  Dial. 

in  Western  Europe 13  In  North  and  Cent.  India. .  -'4 

'"  Northern      "      Mi,  South  India 10 

in  Central        "      Kt  In  Ceylon :s 

In  Southern       "      p:  i„  |i,,[,,-j  :hinese  countries.     '.) 

'" 

In  Caucasian   and  border 

countries 


Expenditure. 
$3,31  1  38 
409,015  68 
433,143  12 
340,750  36 
400,!  Is  96 
577,203  SS 
S0;>,SG5  ss 


In  Semitic  Languages. 

In  Persia 

In  India  (general)  ... 


15  In  <  hinese  Empire. 

iln  Hither  Polynesia 7 

7  in  Farther       "       10 

Bin  Africa 20 

B  In  America io 

2'  Total na 


Of  these  173  languages  and  dialects,  the  B.  and  F.  B.  S. 
has  aid^rthe  translation,  printing,  or  distribution  of 
the  Scriptures  directly  in  129,  indirectly  44 — total  157. 
"  The  number  of  versions  (omitting  those  in  different 
characters  only)  is  "213,  and  of  these  161  were  prepared 
since  1804." 

V.  Present  Condition. — The  number  of  Bible  Socie- 
ties connected  with  the  B.  and  F.  B.  S.  was  in  1866 — 

IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Auxiliaries,  GTi;  branches,  417;  associations,  2S37— total,  3C51. 

IN  THE  COLONIES  ANt>  ELSEWHERE. 

Auxiliaries  127  ;  branches,  S33;  associations,  200— total,  1 1of>. 
Grand  total,  5111. 
The  society  had  also,  in  Europe  and  America,  thirteen 
foreign  agencies,  which  have  the  superintendence  of 
depots  of  the  Scriptures.  There  are  also  numerous 
other  depots  in  Asia  and  the  Levant.  During  the  year 
ending  March  31,  1866,  the  society  issued  Bibles  and 
parts  of  the  Bible  as  follows,  viz. : 

From  London,  1,471.044;  on  the  Continent,  8:5,0S6— total, 
Grand  total  from  heginning—  [2,596,130. 

FromLondon,35,4S(j,419;  on  Continent.,14,79  \2  -0=50, 2S5, 703. 

The  grants  of  the  society  of  Bibles,  Testaments,  ver- 
sions, materials,  and  money  to  various  institutions,  as- 
sociations, and  individuals,  in  nearly  all  countries  on 
the  globe,  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  18G6,  alone 
amounted  to  upward  of  £52,314  (see  Report  for  186G). 
This  noble  institution  has  recently  closed  the  most 
prosperous  and  effective  3-ear  of  its  splendid  history. 
Its  object  is  the  purest  Christian  charity  to  all  mankind, 
and  Heaven  is  crowning  its  efforts  with  a  success  com- 
mensurate with  its  design. — Timpson,  Bible  Triumphs 
(Lond.  12mo,  1853) ;  Reports  of  Brit,  and  For.  Bible 
Society;  Owen,  Hist,  cf  Brit,  and  For.  Bible  Society  (3 
vols.  8vo). 

Other  Bible  Societies  of  Great  Britain  are,  (1.)  the 
Trinitarian  Bible  Society,  which  separated  from  the 
B.  and  F.  B.  S.  in  1831,  when  the  resolution  to  make 
the  belief  in  the  triune  God  a  term  of  membership  was 
rejected.  It  is  now  mostly  supported  by  the  Irving-* 
ites.  Its  income  for  the  year  I860  amounted  to  £1703. 
(2.)  The  Bible  Translation  Society,  a  Baptist  Societ}', 
which  has  for  its  object  "to  aid  in  printing  and  circu- 
lating those  translations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  from 
which  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  with- 
drawn its  assistance  on  the  ground  that  the  words  re- 
lating to  the  ordinance  of  baptism  have  been  trans- 
lated by  terms  signifying  immersion;  and  farther,  to 
aid  in  producing  and  circulating  other  versions  of  the 
Word  of  God  similarly  faithful  and  complete."  Its 
income  in  I860  amounted  to  £1815.  (3.)  The  Hiber- 
nian Bible  Society.-  the  income  for  the  year  closing 
April,  1860,  was  £5063— an  increase  of  £938  over  the 
preceding  year.  The  issues  of  the  last  year  were 
107,G94  copies;  the  total  issue  2,8-13,115  copies.  (4.) 
In  Scotland,  where  the  Bible  Society  has  hitherto  c  b- 
tained  less  support  than  in  other  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
a  "National  Bible  Society  for  Scotland"  was  organ- 
ized in  May,  1860.  The  General  Board  of  Direction  is 
to  be  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  is  to  be  located 
in  Edinburgh,  and  the  other  in  Glasgow.  See  Evan- 
gelical Christendom,  .lime  1,  1860. 

2.  Iiir.LE  Societies  on  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope.—1.  The  Cans/tin  J  ibk  Institute  was  founded  in 
1710  by  the  Marquis  of  Canstein,  to  print  and  circu- 
late the  Word  of  God  at  a  cheap  rate.  Up  to  18-13  it 
had  circulated  nearly  live  millions  of  Bibles,  and  near- 
ly three  millions  of  Testaments.      See  Canstein. 

2.  The  Nun  mbt  rg  Bible  Society  was  formed  May  10, 
1804,  th'e  B.  and  F.  15.  S.  contributing  £100  toward  its 
foundation.  The  friends  of  the  Bible  cause  in  Basle 
united  at  first  with  this  society.  In  1806  it  was  re- 
moved to  Basle,  and  became  the  Bash  Bible  Society. 

3.  The  Ratifbem  (Roman  Catholic)  Bible  Soci/ty  was 
formed  in  1805-6  under  Dr.  Wittmann.  It  was  after- 
ward suppressed. 


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805 


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4.  The  Berlin  Bible  Society  obtained  the  sanction  of 
the  King  of  Prussia  Feb.  11,  1806.  It  was  merged  into 
the  greater  Prussian  Bible  Society  in  1814,  which  had 
circulated,  up  to  the  year  1855,  about  two  million  cop- 
ies of  the  Bible.  A  number  of  other  German  Bible 
Societies  have  since  been  established,  as  the  Bible  So- 
ciety of  Saxon}',  in  1813,  which  had  in  1859  thirty-two 
branch  associations ;  the  Bible  Society  of  Sleswick- 
Holstein,  since  1826;  the  Hessian  Bible  Society,  and 
many  others.  Most  of  the  German  societies  retain 
the  Apocrypha  in  their  editions  of  the  Bible. 

5.  The  Zurich  and  Wurtemberg  Bible  Society  follow- 
ed in  1812,  1813,  and  in  a  few  years  many  organiza- 
tions sprang  up  in  Switzerland. 

6.  The  formation  of  the  Danish  Bible  Society  took  place 
at  Copenhagen,  May  22, 1814.  The  King  of  Sweden, 
in  a  full  council  of  state,  July  6, 1814,  consented  to  be- 
come the  p  itron  of  the  Swedish  Bible  Society. 

7.  The  Russian  Bible  Society  was  authorized  by  an 
imperial  ukase,  Jan.  14,  1813.  The  Greek,  the  Roman 
Catholic,  the  Lutheran,  the  Reformed,  and  the  Arme- 
nian churches  were  represented  in  this  society,  in  or- 
der to  spread  the  Bible  in  the  entire  Russian  empire. 
In  1826  the  number  of  branch  associations  amounted 
to  289,  the  annual  income  to  400,000  rubles,  and  the 
number  of  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  which  had  been 
circulated  in  thirty-two  different  languages,  to  411,000. 
The  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  modern  Russian, 
and  the  large  circulation  of  this  translation  among  the 
country  people,  aroused  an  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  Russian  clergy,  which  soon  led  to  the  suppression 
of  the  society  by  the  Emperor  Nicholas  (1826;.  In  its 
place  a  Protestant  Russian  Bible  Society  was  organized 
at  Petersburg,  which  had  to  restrict  its  operations  to 
the  Protestant  population.  It  has  existed  ever  since, 
and  circulated  more  than  200,00(1  Bibles.  The  Emperor 
Alexander  II  has  shown  himself  more  favorable  to  the 
circulation  of  the  Scriptures  than  his  father,  and  the 
hope  is  generally  entertained  that  the  Bible  colporteurs 
will  soon  have  again  free  access  to  the  members  of  the 
Greek  Church. 

8.  In  Finland  a  society  was  formed  at  Abo,  1812,  and 
Norway  followed  in  1815. 

9.  The  United  Netherlands  Bible  Society,  formed  in 
1813,  soon  had  auxiliaries  in  most  parts  of  Holland. 

10.  In  1818  the  Paris  Protestant  Bible  Society  was 
authorized  by  the  French  government,  and  it  went  on 
in  spite  of  great  opposition  from  the  Abbe  de  la  Men- 
nais  and  others.  Other  French  Bible  Societies  are  at 
Colmar  (founded  in  1820)  and  at  Strasburg  (founded 
in  1816). 

11.  In  Southern  Europe,  the  Malta  Bible  Society  was 
founded  May  26,  1817,  and  became  highly  important 
as  the  station  for  supplying  the  Scriptures  to  various 
people,  from  the  isles  of  the  Archipelago  to  the  banks 
of  the  Euphrates.  These  objects  were  promoted  by 
the  travels  of  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Jowett,  Connor,  and 
Burckhardt.  Farther  detail  can  be  found  in  the  Re~ 
port  i  of  the  B.  and  F.  B.  8. ;  Owen's  Hist,  of  the  B.  and 
F.  B.  S.  (3  vols.  8vo)  ;  Timpson,  Bible  Triumphs  (Lond. 
1853,  8vo). 

3.  American  Bible  Society,  "a  voluntary  asso- 
ciation, which  has  for  its  object  the  circulation  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  in  the  commonly  received  version, 
without  note  or  comment."  Its  centre  is  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  but  it  is  ramified  by  means  of  auxiliaries 
over  the  entire  United  States  and  Territories. 

I.  Organization. — This  society  was  suggested  by  the 
success  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  That 
society  had  been  found  to  supply  a  great  want  in  the 
mother  country,  and  a  similar  association  was  perhaps 
still  more  needed  in  America.  During  the  Revolution- 
ary War,  such  was  the  scarcity  of  Bibles  that  Congress 
in  1777  voted  to  print  30,000  copies;  and  when  it  was 
found  impracticable,  for  want  of  type  and  paper,  it  di- 
rected the  Committee  on  Commerce  to  import  20,000 
from  Europe,  giving  as  a  reason  that  "  its  use  was  so 


universal  and  its  importance  so  great."  When  this, 
too,  in  consequence,  of  the  embargo,  was  found  imprac- 
ticable, Congress  passed  a  resolution  (1782)  in  favor  of 
an  edition  of  the  Bible  published  by  the  private  enter- 
prise of  Mr.  Robert  Aitkin,  of  Philadelphia,  which  it 
pronounced  "a  pious  and  laudable  undertaking,  sub- 
servient to  the  interests  of  religion."  Such  was  the 
language  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Bible  in  the  year  1782.  But  the  work  of 
printing  the  Holy  Scriptures  went  on  very  slowly.  It 
did  not  meet  the  demand.  Besides,  the  books  were 
sold  at  prices  beyond  the  reach  of  the  poor.  Other 
means  were  required  to  supply  this  deficiency.  The 
older  society  in  Great  Britain  had  led  the  way  in  1804, 
and  kindred  associations  were  soon  organized  in  different 
parts  of  this  country.  The  societies  first  formed  were 
local,  independent  bodies,  having  no  connection  nor  in- 
tercommunication ;  they  could  therefore  take  no  meas- 
ures to  supply  the  destitute  beyond  their  immediate  lo- 
calities. The  inconvenience  was  still  greater  when  mis- 
sionary societies  were  formed,  and  the  living  teacher  was 
sent  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  pagan  lands.  The  remedy 
was  first  suggested  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  J.  Mills,  who 
proposed  uniting  all  Bible  Societies  into  one  centraL 
institution.  In  1815,  the  Bible  Society  of  New  Jer- 
sey, prompted  by  the  venerable  Elias  Boudinot,  is- 
sued a  circular  to  the  several  Bible  Societies  in  the 
country,  inviting  them  to  send  delegates  to  meet  in 
the  city  of  New  York  the  ensuing  j'ear.  The  New 
York  Bible  Society  entered  cordially  into  the  measure. 
A  convention  was  held  in  New  York  on  the  second 
Wednesday  in  May,  1816,  composed  of  sixty  delegates, 
representing  thirty-five  Bible  Societies  in  ten  states  and 
the  District  of  Columbia.  Joshua  Wallace,  of  Bur- 
lington, N.  J.,  was  chosen  president;  Joseph  C.  Horn- 
blower,  LL.D.,  of  Newark,  vice-president;  Rev.  Lj-man 
Beecher,  D.D,  and  Rev.  John  B.  Romej-n,  secretaries. 
Gentlemen  of  nearly  all  Christian  denominations  were 
present  as  members. 

II.  Constitution  and  Officers.  —  A  constitution  was 
adopted  and  officers  of  the  society  were  elected.  The 
Hon.  Elias  Boudinot,  LL.D.,  though  not  at  the  con- 
vention, was  chosen  president,  and  twenty-three  vice- 
presidents  were  chosen  from  various  states  in  the 
Union ;  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  M.  Mason  was  elected  secre- 
tary for  foreign  correspondence,  Rev.  Dr.  J.  B.  Ro- 
meyn  domestic  secretary,  and  Richard  Yarick,  Esq., 
treasurer.  The  labors  of  these  gentlemen  were  all 
given  gratuitously. 

III.  Managers. — The  board  of  managers  was  com- 
posed of  thirty-six  laymen,  it  being  provided  that  ever}' 
minister  of  the  Gospel  becoming  a  life-member  should 
be  an  honorary  manager,  as  well  as  every  life-director, 
lay  or  clerical.  The\"  were  entitled  to  meet  with  the 
board,  and  vote,  and  have  the  same  power  as  a  man- 
ager. The  thirty-six  managers  were  divided  into  four 
classes,  each  of  which  was  to  go  out  of  office  each  year, 
but  were  re-eligible.  It  resulted,  as  was  no  doubt  in- 
tended, in  securing  a  permanent  body,  members  going 
out  actually  only  by  death,  resignation,  or  removal  for 
cause,  as  is  the  case  generally  witli  kindred  institutions. 
From  these  managers,  honorary  or  elect,  standing  com- 
mittees were  appointed,  on  whom  devolve,  in  great 
measure,  the  actual  doings  of  the  board,  the  latter  con- 
firming or  annulling  their  transactions. 

IV.  Committees. — The  standing  committees,  as  now 
existing,  are  on  publication,  finance,  versions,  distri- 
bution, agencies,  legacies,  nominations,  anniversary, 
and  auditing.  The  titles  sufficiently  designate  their 
functions.  The  committee  on  nominations,  composed 
of  one  member  from  each  of  the  principal  denomina- 
tions represented  in  the  board,  was  designed  to  secure 
impartiality  in  nominations  to  office  or  otherwise,  the 
denominations  being  unequally  represented  in  the 
board,  but  standing  on  a  par  as  to  number  in  the  com- 
mittee which  has  the  power  to  nominate  and  recom- 
mend to  election.     This  is,  therefore,  a  provision  for 


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806 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


the  safety  of  the  smaller  bodies,  or  those  having  the 
feebler  representation  in  the  board.  These  committees, 
as  w  ell  as  the  board,  usually  meet  once  a  month,  though 
some  of  them,  as  those  on  legacies  and  finance,  oftener, 
and  the  sessions  are  from  one  to  two  hours,  or  some- 
times longer.  These  services  are  rendered  without 
compensation,  only  the  officers  who  give  their  entire 
time  and  labor  to  the  society  receiving  any  salary. 

V.  Text  circulated. — The  constitution  declares  that 
"the  sole  object  of  this  society  shall  be  to  encourage  a 
v,  ider  circulation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  without  note 
or  comment;"  and  "the  only  copies  in  the  English 
language  to  be  circulated  by  the  society  shall  be  of  the 
version  now  in  common  use,"  meaning  by  that  what  is 
commonly  called  King  James's  Version.  And  as  this 
was  then,  as  it  is  now,  the  version  universally  received 
by  the  Christian  churches  using  the  English  tongue, 
so  it  was  to  be  the  common  bond  of  the  churches  com- 
bined in  this  association.  When  the  society  extended 
its  labors  into  foreign  countries,  and  was  called  on  to 
appropriate  funds  to  print  the  Scriptures  as  translated 
into  other  languages,  the  same  general  rule  was  adopt- 
ed. The  principles  of  the  English  Bible  were  to  be 
followed,  at  least  so  far  as  this,  that  the  version  should 
be  catholic,  so  that  all  denominations  might  use  it  as 
they  do  our  English  L?il  le.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  com- 
mittee on  versions  to  see  that  this  rule  is  followed  in 
every  new  version  for  the  printing  of  which  funds  are 
solicited  from  this  society.  It  also  devolves  on  this 
committee  to  correct  any  verbal  inaccuracies  that  may 
creep  into  the  society's  editions,  or  to  determine  on  the 
(  olivet  reading  when  the  several  editions  differ.  This 
is,  of  course,  a  very  delicate  and  difficult  function,  re- 
quiring great  judgment  and  -wisdom  as  well  as  compe- 
tent scholarship. 

VI.  .1  iirilit tries. — It  was  soon  found  that  the  central 
society  could  do  but  little  by  its  own  unaided  efforts 
toward  supplying  the  wants  of  the  country.  Accord- 
ingly, arrangemer.ti  were  made  for  receiving  auxilia- 
ries into  connection  with  the  parent  society.  Circu- 
lars were  issued  calling  on  the  friends  of  the  Bible  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  to  organize  auxiliary  so- 
cieties, but  circulars  and  letters  did  not  accomplish 
the  object.  Auxiliaries  were  not  organized  in  suffi- 
cient numbers;  whether  for  want  of  interest  on  che 
part  of  pastors,  the  want  of  knowledge  and  experience, 
or  want  of  appreciation  of  the  work,  it  is  of  no  use  to 
attempt  to  decide:  such  was  the  fact. 

VII.  Agents. — To  accomplish  this  work,  it  became 
necessary  to  appoint  agents.  In  1815  the  Bev.  R.  D. 
Hall  was  appointed  agent  for  this  purpose,  and  from 
that  time  others  have  been  added,  as  the  work  of  the 
society  has  extended  over  a  wider  region  of  country. 
In  1865  there  were  thirty-seven  agents,  extending 
over  the  entire  United  States  and  Territories,  including 
California,  Oregon,  Washington,  Kansas,  and  Minne- 
sota.    An  agent  has  been  sent  also  to  Utah.     Besides 

era!  agents  are  employed  in  foreign  countries. 
I  ader  the  labors  of  these  agents  auxiliary  Bible  Soci- 
eties |,:lv,.  been  organized  in  every  part  of  the  land, 
the  number  of  which,  with  their  branch  societies,  now 
exceeds  5000.  These  societies  are  the  chief  means  of 
distributing  the  books,  each  being  expected  to  supply 
the  wants  of  its  own  territory.  The  effort  of  the 
agents  i-  continually  directed  to  keeping  them  engaged 
in  t  hi-  work. 

VIII.  Paid  Secretaries. — The  original  executive  of- 
ficer- received  no  remuneration  for  their  service.  The 
first  paid  officer  was  Mr.  John  Nitchie,  agent  and  ac- 
countant Iron,  1810,  clergymen  of  New  York  render- 
in-  voluntary  service  as  secretaries  until  1826,  when 
Mr.  John  C,  Brigham,  now  the  Rev.  Dr.  Brigham, 
wis  employed  first  as  assistant  secretary,  and  subse- 
quently as  corresponding  secretary,  Such  he  remain- 
ed, laboring  in  conjunction  with  unpaid  secretaries 
with  great  diligence  and  sucoess  until  1840,  at  which 
time  the  society  had  made  great  advancement,     This 


year  its  receipts  amounted  to  $97,355  09,  and  its  issues 
to  157,"2G1  volumes.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
at  their  General  Conference  of  1836,  agreed  to  disband 
their  denominational  Bible  Society  and  unite  with  the 
national  institution.  In  view  of  this,  another  secretary 
was  employed,  selected  in  1840  from  that  body,  and 
no  man  could  better  have  served  the  purpose  than  the 
Bev.  E.  S.  Janes,  afterward  bishop  of  the  Church 
which  he  has  served  with  such  faithfulness  and  dis- 
tinguished ability.  In  1814  the  Rev.  N.  Levings  was 
chosen  his  successor,  and  after  five  years'  successful 
toil  died  in  1849,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  Bev. 
Joseph  Holdich,  D.D.  In  1837,  Joseph  Hyde,  Esq.,  was 
made  general  agent,  and  Mr.  Nitchie  was  made  treas- 
urer. The  latter  died  in  1838,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Abraham  Keyser,  Esq.  The  treasurer  in  1806  was  Win. 
VVhitlock,  Jr.,  Esq.  In  I860  the  society  had  three  sec- 
retaries, Bev.  Dr.  Holdich,  Bev.  Dr.  Taylor,  and  Rev. 
T.  Ralston  Smith  ;  an  assistant  treasurer,  Henry  Ush- 
er. Esq. ;  and  Mr.  Caleb  Rowe,  general  agent.  The 
other  officers  and  memhers  of  the  board,  not  devoting 
all  their  time  to  the  society,  receive  no  pay. 

IX.  Buildings,  etc. — The  business  of  the  society  was 
transacted  for  some  years  in  rooms  in  the  N.  Y.  Hos- 
pital, lent  to  them  for  the  purpose  by  the  governors, 
and  afterward  in  the  rooms  of  the  N.  Y'.  Historical  So- 
ciety. In  1822  the  Bible  House  in  Nassau  Street  was 
erected.  This  was  enlarged  from  time  to  time  until 
it  could  be  extended  no  farther.  In  1852  the  mana- 
gers erected  the  present  spacious  and  commodious  edi- 
fice in  Astor  Place.  It  was  erected  partly  by  special 
subscriptions,  chiefly  in  the  city  of  New  Y'ork,  and 
partly  by  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  old  premises. 
The  remainder  was  raised  by  a  loan,  the  rent  of  the 
rooms  not  immediately  wanted  for  the  society's  pur- 
poses paying  the  interest  and  gradually  liquidating 
the  debt.  The  whole  debt  will  probably  be  paid  off 
before  the  society  will  require  the  use  of  the  entire 
building.  Not  a  dollar  was  drawn  from  the  regular 
income  of  the  society  for  erecting  the  Bible  House. 
There  are  at  present  17  power-presses  employed,  with 
about  400  persons.  With  the  present  force  the  society 
makes  from  3000  to  4000  vols,  a  day,  and  issues  from 
700,000  to  800,000  vols,  per  annum  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. 

X.  Finances  and  Issues. — The  receipts  of  the  socie- 
tj'  vary  somewhat  with  the  state  of  the  times  and  ac- 
cording to  the  legacies  received.  In  1865  the  receipts 
from  all  sources,  including  sales,  donations,  and  lega- 
cies, were  upward  of  $642,000.  These  funds  are  ex- 
pended in  supplying  the  destitute  at  home,  and  in 
printing  and  circulating  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  foreign 
parts.  The  number  of  volumes  issued  by  this  society 
in  the  year  1865,  as  shown  in  the  annual  report,  was 
over  951,000,  while  over  $40,000  were  expended  en 
printing  and  circulating  the  Scriptures  in  foreign 
countries,  besides  what  was  expended  in  preparing 
Bibles  at  home  for  foreign  use. 

XI.  The  Baptist  Difficult \y.—la  1835  a  serious  diffi- 
culty arose  in  the  society.  The  Baptist  missionaries 
in  Burmah  published,  with  funds  drawn  from  the  soci- 
ety, a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Burmese,  in  which 
the  Greek  words  (3aTrrttrfi6c  and  ficnrTtZio  were  ren- 
dered by  words  signifying  immersion  and  to  immerse. 
When  this  came  to  the  knowledge  of  the  managers 
they  refused  to  make  appropriations  for  publishing 
such  versions,  on  the  ground  that  to  take  the  funds 
contributed  by  persons  who  did  not  believe  the  doc- 
trine taught,  to  circulate  what  they  held  to  be  error, 
would  have  been  a  violation  of  truth.  Besides,  the 
constitution  forbids  the  publication  of  any  other  than 
a  catholic  Bible,  or  such  a  Bible  as  all  Christians  can 
use  in  common.  The  new  rendering  had  the  force  of 
a  comment.  This  decision  gave  great  offence  to  many 
of  the  Baptist  churches,  and  a  warm  and  protracted 
controversy  arose.  Into  the  merits  of  this  controversy 
we  do  not  enter.     It  ended  in  the  alienation  of  a  large 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


807 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


portion  of  this  influential  and  numerous  body  of  Chris- 
tians from  the  interests  of  the  society.  It  is  under- 
stood, however,  that  many  leading  men  in  that  Church 
remained,  and  still  continue  fast  friends  of  the  A.  B.  S. 
It  is  to  he  hoped  that  some  mode  of  reconciliation  may 
be  discovered  and  adopted,  as  the  division  of  the  Bible 
Society  cannot  but  be  regretted  by  all  who  value  Chris- 
tian love  and  harmony.  The  Bible  is  the  common 
bond  of  the  Protestant  churches,  and  there  ought  to  be 
but  one  general  Bible  Society. 

XII.  The  ffl  vision  Difficulty.— In  1857  a  new  difficul- 
ty arose  in  regard  to  the  English  version.  About  184-', 
the  managers,  learning  that  numerous  discrepancies 
and  typographical  errors  existed  in  the  various  edi- 
tions of  the  Bible  issued  by  them,  referred  the  subject 
to  the  Committee  on  Versions  for  investigation.  It 
was  finally  resolved  that  the  committee  should  make 
corrections  according  to  a  set  of  rules  submitted  by 
them  to  the  board.  This  was  accomplished  by  a  very 
learned  and  able  body  of  men  in  about  three  years,  and 
was  approved  by  the  board,  who  directed  that  as  fast 
as  the  old  stereotype  plates  were  worn  out,  the)'  should 
be  replaced  by  new  ones  containing  the  corrections. 
The  work  seemed  to  give  general  satisfaction,  and 
many  of  the  plates  were  recast  according  to  the  new 
"standard."  Six  years  after  the  "  standard"  was  fin- 
ished, it  was  objected  that  unwarranted  changes  had 
been  made  in  the  text,  and  in  the  headings  of  the  chap- 
ters, and  in  the  running  heads  of  the  columns.  Those 
in  the  text  were  confessed  to  be  very  few  and  of  small 
account.  The  changes  in  the  headings  were  more 
numerous  and  important.  It  ma)'  seem  strange  that 
what,  was  in  itself  so  small  a  matter  should  have  cre- 
ated difficulty,  but  such  was  the  fact.  Many  auxil- 
iaries, some  covering  entire  states,  refused  to  receive 
or  circulate  the  new  standard.  The  managers  were 
puzzled.  The  subject  was  debated  long  and  earnestly, 
until  at  length  the  board  resolved  to  refer  the  matter 
to  a  special  committee  of  able  and  distinguished  men, 
of  different  professions  and  various  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions, for  their  mature  and  ample  consideration.  The 
result  was  the  adoption  by  the  board  of  the  following 
resolutions,  passed  January  28th,  1858  : 

"Resolved,  That  this  society's  present  standard 
English  Bible  be  referred  to  the  standing  committee 
on  versions  for  examination ;  and  in  all  cases  where 
the  same  differs  in  the  text  or  its  accessories  from  the 
Bibles  previously  published  by  the  society,  the  com- 
mittee are  directed  to  correct  the  same  by  conforming 
it  to  previous  editions  printed  by  this  society,  or  by 
the  authorized  British  presses,  reference  being  also 
had  to  the  original  edition  of  the  translators  printed 
in  1611 ;  and  to  report  such  corrections  to  this  board, 
to  the  end  th  it  a  new  edition,  thus  perfected,  may  be 
adopted  as  the  standard  edition  of  the  society. 

" Resolved,  That  until  the  completion  and  adoption 
of  such  new  standard  edition,  the  English  Bibles  to 
be  issued  by  this  society  shall  be  such  as  conform  to 
the  editions  of  the  society  anterior  to  the  late  revision, 
so  far  as  may  lie  practicable,  and  excepting  cases 
where  the  persons  or  auxiliaries  applying  for  Bibles 
shall  prefer  to  be  supplied  from  copies  of  the  present 
standard  edition  now  on  hand  or  in  process  of  manu- 
facture."    See  Authorized  English  Vebsion. 

Accordingly,  the  committee  on  versions  is  now  en- 
gaged in  their  work  of  revision  on  the  plan  adopted 
by  the  board.  It  is  hoped  that,  as  all  the  valuable  cor- 
rections made  in  the  late  standard  edition  that  were 
the  result  of  simple  collations  of  the  editions  published 
by  the  society  will  lie  retained,  the  final  result  of  the 
new  revision  will  be  a  Bible  more  generally  ace<  ptable 
to  the  Christian  community  than  any  former  edition. 

4.  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (Bap- 
tist).— This  society  grew  out  of  the  difficulty  men- 
tioned above  (American  Bible  Society,  §  11).  The 
resolution  of  the  A.  B.  S.  passed  in  May,  183G,  was  as 
follows : 


I  "  Resolnd,  That  in  appropriating  money  for  the 
!  translating,  printing,  or  distributing  of  The  sacred 
I  Scriptures  in  foreign  languages,  the  managers  feel  at 
libert}'  to  encourage  only  such  versions  as  conform  in 
the  principle  of  their  translation  to  the  common  Eng- 
lish version,  at  least  so  far  as  that  all  the  religious 
denominations  represented  in  this  society  can  consist- 
ently use  and  circulate  said  versions  in  their  several 
schools  and  communities." 

The  Rev.  S.  H.  Cone,  D.D.  (q.  v.),  an  eminent  Bap- 
tist, had  once  been  a  secretary  of  the  board,  and  was 
at  this  time  a  manager.  He  resisted  this  resolution 
ably  and  strenuously  (see  Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  649). 
In  April,  1837,  a  large  convention,  held  in  Philadel- 
phia, formed  a  Baptist  B.  S.  under  the  title  of  "The 
[American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society."  The  new  so- 
ciety took  the  ground  that  aid  for  the  translating,  print- 
ing and  distributing  of  the  Scriptures  in  foreign  lan- 
guages should  be  afforded  to  "such  versions  only  as 
I  are  conformed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  original  text 
in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek."  The  special  aim  here  was 
the  rendering  of  licnrriZ<o  by  "immerse"  instead  of 
"baptize."  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  distribution  of 
the  Scriptures  in  the  English  language,  it  was  agreed 
that  the  commonly  received  version  should  be  used 
until  otherwise  directed  by  the  society.  The  latter 
'point  led  to  a  new  split  in  1850,  one  party  demanding 
that  the  principle  of  circulating  only  translations  which 
should  be  "conformed  to  the  original"  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  English  versions  also,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, the  common  English  version  should  be  re- 
vised. Resolutions  rejecting  this  principle  were  adopt- 
ed in  the  meeting  of  the  society  in  1850,  and  led  to  the 
resignation  of  Dr.  Cone,  who,  until  then,  had  been  the 
president.  A  new  society  was  formed,  which  under- 
took the  revision  of  the  English  version  on  the  above 
■  principle  (see  American  Bible  Union).  According 
|  to  the  constitution  of  the  A.  and  F.  B.  S.,  a  contribu- 
tion of  $3  constitutes  one  a  member,  a  contribution  of 
630  a  life  member,  and  a  contribution  of  $150  a  life 
director.  Up  to  1859  the  number  of  life  members  and 
life  directors  had  been  8515,  of  whom  104  were  made 
such  in  the  financial  year  1865-'6.  The  society  pub- 
lishes a  monthby,  entitled  The  Bible  Advocate.  For 
the  year  1865-6  the  total  receipts  were  $40,896  40. 
The  Scriptures  were  printed  and  circulated  in  fifty  dif- 
ferent languages  and  dialects,  embracing  various  parts 
of  India,  China,  France,  Africa,  and  America.  Twen- 
ty-four colporteurs  were  employed  in  Germany  and 
America,  who  had  made  54,395  visits. 

5.  American  Bible  Union,  a  Bible  Society  organ- 
ized by  seceders  from  the  American  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  (q.  v.).  The  object  of  the  society,  according  to 
its  constitution,  is  "  to  procure  and  circulate  the  most 
faithful  versions  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  alllanguages 
throughout  the  world."  A  special  aim  of  the  society 
was  consequently  to  revise  the  common  English  ver- 
sion. The  most  striking  point  in  their  revision  thus  far 
is  the  rendering  of  /Jajrriffjudc  by  "  immersion,"  and  of 
(IcnrriZtiv  by  "immerse;"  and  this  the  great  majority 
of  American  churches  believe  to  have  been  the  real 
object  of  the  organization.  The  society  has  met  with 
strong  opposition  even  among  the  Baptists.  Its  plan 
provided  for  a  revision  of  the  New  Testament  by  schol- 
ars acting,  in  the  first  instance,  independently  of  each 
other,  eacli  working  on  separate  parts  assigned  to  them 
under  contract  by  the  board.  In  this  way,  one  set  of 
scholars  wore  employed  in  Europe  and  another  in 
America.  All  books  needed  for  the  work  were  pro- 
vided at  the  expense  of  the  Union.'  The  revisers  were 
chosen  from  their  supposed  fitness,  upon  recommenda- 
tion of  those  to  whom  they  were  known.  These  schol- 
ars, in  this  capacity,  were  responsible  to  no  ecclesiasti- 
cal body.  The  revisions  were  to  be  subjected  to  gen- 
eral criticism,  and  for  this  purpose  the  Gospels,  Acts, 
Galatians,  Ephesians,  Hebrews,  Thessalonians,  Phile- 
mon, Timothy,  Titus,  Epistles  of  John.  Jude,  and  Reve- 


BIBLE,  TRANSLATIONS  OF 


803 


BIBLIANDER 


lation,  have  been  printed  with  the  common  English 
version  and  the  Greek  text  in  parallel  columns,  with 
the  authorities  for  the  proposed  changes,  and  the  re- 
maining portions  of  the  New  Testament  are  rapidly  ap- 
pearing. All  these  incipient  revisions  are  placed  in 
the  hands  of  a  linal  college  of  revisers  for  the  perfect- 
ing of  the  work  designed  for  popular  use.  The  plan 
provides  for  five  or  more  members  in  the  final  col- 
lege. Rev.  T.  J.  Conant,  D.U.,  Rev.  II.  B.  Hackett, 
D.D.,  in  America,  and  Prof.  Rodiger,of  the  University 
of  Halle,  Germany,  have  been  announced  as  members 
of  the  final  college.  The  revision  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  mainly  committed  to  Rev.  T.  J.  Conant,  D.D., 
Rev.  G.  R.  Bliss,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  H.  B.  Hackett,  D.D. 
Proverbs,  Job,  and  part  of  Genesis  have  been  pub- 
lished,  and  much  of  the  remaining  portion  is  maturing 
for  the  press.  The  Union  has  done  much  for  foreign 
Scripture  distribution,  aiding  largely  the  German, 
Karen,  Spanish,  Italian,  Burman,  and  Siamese  depart- 
ments. It  has  prepared  and  published  new  revisions 
of  the  Italian  and  the  Spanish  New  Testament.  The 
membership  of  the  Union  embraces  about  thirty  thou- 
sand persons,  including  those  who  co-operate  with  it 
through  the  "Bible  Revision  Association"  of  Louis- 
ville, Kentucky,  having  the  same  objects  and  acting 
in  concert  with  it.  Thirty  dollars  constitute  a  person 
a  member,  and  one  hundred  dollars  a  director  for  life. 
The  Union  meets  annually  in  October,  in  New  York. 
Its  business  is  conducted  by  a  board  of  thirty-three 
managers  and  five  executive  officers.  The  board 
meets  monthly,  and  occupies  the  Bible  Rooms,  No.  3.r.0 
Broome  Street,  N.  Y.  The  receipts  of  the  year  18C6 
exceeded  $-10,000.  Four  octavo  volumes,  500  pages 
each,  containing  a  republication  of  the  official  docu- 
ments of  the  Union,  bring  down  its  history  to  the  pres- 
ent date  (I860).  The  organ  of  the  society  is  "  The 
Bible  Union  Quarterly."  On  a  controversy  about  the 
management  of  the  society,  see  Judd,  Review  of  the 
A  m  rican  Bible  Union  (N.  Y.  1857,  8vo),  and  the  replies 
by  the  organs  of  the  Union. 

6.  Biele  Revision  Association.  See  Ameri- 
can Bible  Union  (above). 

Bible,  Translations  of.     Sec  Veesions. 

Bible,  Use  of  by  the  Laity.  The  Word  of 
God  is  intended  for  the  use  of  all  classes  of  men.  In 
the  early  ages  of  the  Church  its  universal  perusal  was 
not  only  allowed,  l  at  urged  by  bishops  and  pastors. 
It  was  not  until  the  general  reading  of  the  Bible  was 
found  to  interfere  with  the  claims  of  the  papacy  that 
its  "perils  for  the  common  mind"  were  discovered. 
As  the  use  of  Latin  disappeared  among  the  people,  the 
Vulgate  Bible  became  less  and  less  intelligible  to  them, 
and  this  fact  was  early  welcomed  as  an  aid  to  the 
Bchemea  of  the  Roman  hierarchy.  In  the  11th  century 
Gregory  VII  (Epigt.  vii,  11 1  thanks  God  for  it,  as  tend- 
ing to  Bave  the  people  from  misunderstanding  the  Bi- 
ble. The  reforming  and  heretical  sects  (Cathari,  Al- 
bigenses,  Waldenses,  etc.)  of  the  1:2th  and  pith  centu- 
ries appealed  to  the  Bible  in  all  their  disputes,  thus 
furnishing  the  hierarchy  an  additional  reason  for  shut- 
tin-  up  the  Word  of  God.  In  1229,  the  Council  of  Tou- 
louse, in  its  1  lib  canon,  "forbids  the  laity  to  have  in 

their  1 1 sion  any  copy  of  the  books  of  the  Old  and 

New  Testament,  except  the  Psalter,  and  such  portions 
of  tin  mi  .i-  are  contained  in  the  Breviary,  or  the  Hours 
of  the  Virgin;  and  most  Btrictly forbids  these  works  in 
the  vulgar  tongue."  The  Council  ofTarracone  (1242) 
ordered  all  vernacular  versions  to  be  brought  to  the 
bishop  to  be  burnt.  Similar  prohibitions  were  issued 
from  time  to  time  in  the  next  two  centuries  by  bishops 
and  synod-,  especially  in  France  and  Germany,  though 
with  little  direct  effect.  In  the  "  Ten  Rules  concerning 
Prohibited  Rooks,"  drawn  up  by  order  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  and  approved  by  Pius  IV  (Bucklev,  Canons 
and  Decrees  of  Trent,  p,  864),  we  find  the  following: 
In  Pule  111  versions,  of  O.  T.  may  bo  ■•allowed  only 


to  pious  and  learned  men  at  the  discretion  of  the  bish- 
op ;"  in  Pule  IV  it  is  stated  that  "if  the  sacred  books 
be  permitted  in  the  vulgar  tongue  indiscriminately, 
more  harm  than  utility  arises  therefrom  by  reason  of 
the  temerity  of  men."  The  bishop  or  inquisitor  may 
grant  permission  to  safe  persons  to  read  them ;  all 
booksellers  selling  to  unauthorized  persons  arc  to  be 
punished.  The  Jansenist  movement  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  especially  the  publication  of  Quesnel's  N.  T. 
in  French  'Paris,  1699),  gave  rise  to  new  stringency, 
of  which  the  bull  Unigenitus  (q.  v.)  was  the  organ.  In 
the  18th  century  there  was  a  reaction,  and  the  publica- 
tion and  reading  of  vernacular  versions  was  even  en- 
couraged by  the  better  class  of  Roman  bishops.  The 
establishment  of  the  Bible  Societies  (q.  v.)  in  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  gave  new  alarm  to  the  Roman 
hierarchy.  Ordinances  or  encyclicals  forbidding  the 
diffusion  of  Protestant  Bibles  were  issued  by  Pius  VII 
(1816),  Leo  XII  (1824),  and  Gregory  XVI  (1832). 
Though  the  animus  of  these  encyclicals  is  hostile  to  the 
free  use  of  the  Bible,  they  yet  do  not,  in  terms,  pro- 
hibit it.  At  this  day  it  is  well  understood,  and  admit- 
ted by  all  intelligent  Romanists  themselves,  that  the 
laity  are  not  only  not  required,  but  also  not  expected  to 
read  the  Word  of  God  for  themselves  by  the  Roman 
Church.  For  the  earlier  history  of  the  question,  see 
Arnauld,  De  la  lecture  de  Vecriture  sainte ;  Hegelmeyer, 
Geschickie  ds  Bibelverbotes  (1783);  Van  Ess,  Ueb.  d. 
no'hirendifje  u.  niitzHche  Bibellesen  (Leipz.  1808,  8vo) ; 
and  for  the  later,  Elliott,  Delineation  of  Romanism,  bk. 
i,  ch.  xvi. 

Biblia  Pauperum  {Bible  of  the  Poor').  (I.)  The 
title  given  to  a  Bible  Manual,  or  Picture-Bible,  pre- 
pared in  the  Middle  Ages  for  the  use  of  children  of  the 
poor,  whence  its  name.  It  consisted  of  forty  to  fifty 
pictures,  giving  the  events  of  the  life  of  Christ,  and 
some  O.  T.  events,  each  picture  being  accompanied  by 
an  illustrative  text  or  sentence  in  Latin.  Nicolas  of 
Hanapis,  the  last  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  who  died  in 
1291,  is  said  to  have  written  the  first  of  the  Latin  texts 
for  pictures.  A  similar  work  on  a  more  extended 
scale,  and  with  the  legend  or  text  in  rhyme,  was  called 
Speculum  Humana  Sdvationis,  i.  e.  the  "Mirror  of  Hu- 
man Salvation."  Before  the  Reformation,  these  two 
books  were  the  chief  text-books  used,  especially  by 
monks,  in  preaching,  and  took  the  place  of  the  Bible 
with  the  laity,  and  even  clergy.  The  lower  orders 
of  the  regular  clergy,  such  as  the  Franciscans,  Car- 
thusians, etc.,  took  the  title  of  "  Pauperes  Christi," 
Christ's  poor.  Many  manuscripts  of  the  Biblia  Pau- 
perum and  of  the  Mirror  of  Sulfation,  several  as  old 
as  the  thirteenth  century,  are  preserved  in  different 
languages,  but  they  are  nearly  all  imperfect.  The 
pictures  of  this  series  Avere  copied  in  sculptures,  in 
wall  and  glass  painting,  altar-pieces,  etc.,  and  thus 
become  of  importance  in  the  art  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
After  the  discover}'  of  printing,  the  Biblia  Pauperum 
was  perhaps  the  first  book  that  was  printed  in  the 
Netherlands  and  Germany,  first  with  wooden  blocks, 
and  then  with  types.  (II.)  The  name  of  Biblia  Pau- 
perum is  also  given  to  a  work  of  Bonaventura,  in  which 
the  Biblical  events  were  alphabetically  arranged,  and 
accompanied  by  notes — some  of  them  very  eccentric — 
for  the  benefit  of  preachers,  thus  attempting  to  relieve 
their  intellectual  shortcomings. — Pierer,  Universal  Lex- 
ikon,  ii,  734 ;  Home,  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures,  Bibl. 
Appendix,  Section  vi,  §  1. 

Bibliander,  Theodore,  a  Swiss  divine  of  the 
Reformation  period,  whose  proper  name  was  Bueh- 
iiwnn.  He  was  born  in  Thurgau  about  1500.  After 
studying  theology  ho  became  assistant,  to  Myeonius  at 
Zurich,  and  afterward,  in  1532,  professor  of  theology 
and  Biblical  literature.  He  died  of  the  plague  at  Zu- 
rich in  1564,  He  was  eminent  especially  for  Hebrew 
and  Oriental  learning.  He  was  the  only  Swiss  divine 
j  who  openly  and  strenuously  opposed  Calvinism,  and 


BIBLICAL  CRITICISM 


809 


BIBLICAL  THEOLOGY 


for  this  he  was  dismissed  from  his  office  in  1560.  His 
chief  work  is  Machumetis  Saracenorumprincipis  ejtisnue 
successirum  litre,  doctrini  ac  ipse  Alcoran,  etc.  (Basil, 
1543,  fol.),  a  Latin  version  of  the  Koran,  with  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  documents  on  Mohammedanism.  To- 
gether with  Pellican  and  Collin,  he  completed  and 
edited  the  so-called  Zurich  Bible  Translation  of  Leo 
Jndffi.  Many  of  his  numerous  works  have  never  been 
printed,  but  are  preserved  as  manuscripts  in  the  libra- 
ry of  the  cathedral  of  Zurich. — Meusel,  Bibliotheca  his- 
torica,  ii,  1,  226  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  v,  938. 

Biblical  Criticism.     See  Criticism,  Biblical. 

Biblical  Exegesis,  or  Interpretation.  See 
Hermeneutics. 

Biblical  Introduction.  See  Introduction 
to  the  Scriptures. 

Biblical  Theology  is  the  name  given,  especial- 
ly in  Germany,  to  a  branch  of  scientific  theology, 
which  has  for  its  object  to  set  forth  the  theology  of 
the  Bible  without  reference  to  ecclesiastical  or  dogmat- 
ical formulas  or  creeds.  (We  make  large  use  in  this 
article  of  Nitzsch's  article  in  Herzog's  Iteal-Encyklo- 
pddie,\o\.  i.) 

The  name  Biblical  theology  can  be  takon  (as  is  the 
term  theology  in  genera!)  in  a  narrower  and  a  wider 
sense,  the  narrower  including  only  the  sum  of  relig- 
ious doctrine  contained  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Scriptures;  the  wider  comprehending  the  science  of 
the  Bible  in  all  the  respects  in  which  it  may  be  made 
the  object  of  investigation.  Usually  it  is  taken  in  the 
narrower  sense,  and  some  writers  prefer,  therefore,  the 
name  Biblical  dogmatics. 

As  maybe  seen  from  the  definition,  Biblical  theology 
has  a  very  clearly  defined  relation  to  exegetical  and 
historical  theology  no  less  than  to  systematic  theology. 
It  is  the  flower  and  quintessence  of  all  exegetical  inves- 
tigations, for  the  very  object  of  exegesis  is  to  find  out, 
with  entire  clearness,  the  true  teaching  of  the  word 
of  God  with  regard  to  His  own  nature  and  the  rela- 
tions of  man  to  Him.  Its  relation  to  historical  theolo- 
gy is  that  of  the  foundation  to  the  superstructure,  for 
both  the  History  of  Doctrines  and  the  History  of  the 
Church  must  sat  out  with  a  fixed  view  of  the  teaching 
of  the  Scriptures  as  to  the  fundamental  questions  of 
religion.     So,  too,  Systematic  Theology,  while  it  in 


which,  in  accordance  with  Scripture,  should  be  applied 
to  them,  and  the  best  arguments  in  their  defence." 
His  was  accordingly  the  first  attempt  to  treat  Biblical 
theology  as  a  separate  branch  of  theological  science, 
independently  of  systematic  theology.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Huffnagel  (Bib/.  Theologie,  Erlang.  1785- 
89),  Amnion  (Bibl.  Thiol.  Erlang.  1792),  and  Baum- 
garten-Crusius,  among  the  Rationalists;  and  by  Store 
and  Flatt  (1803),  translated  by  Schmucker  (Andover, 
183G,  2d  edition,  8vo),  Supranaturalist.  The  position 
which  Biblical  theology  now  generally  occupies  in 
German  theology  was  first  defined  by  Gabler  (Dejusto 
discrimine  Theol.  bibl.  et  dogmatica?,  Altorf,  1787,  4to). 
Tholuck  (MS.  Lectures,  transl.  by  Park,  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  1844,  552)  remarks  as  follows  on  the  state  of 
Biblical  theology  up  to  that  time:  "In  this  depart- 
ment wc  have  no  satisfactory  treatise  for  students. 
The  older  writers,  as  Zacharia?,  are  prolix  and  de- 
void of  taste.  Storr  and  Knapp  have  given  us,  on 
the  whole,  the  best  text-books  of  Biblical  theology  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  phrase.  Since  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century,  the  name  Biblical  Dogmatic  The- 
ology has  been  applied  to  the  science  which  is  more 
properly  called  Dogmatic  History.  Certain  theolo- 
gians, who  take  a  Rationalistic  view  of  Christian  doc- 
trine, have  considered  the  various  teachings  of  the 
Bible,  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to  that  of  Jesus  and 
the  apostles,  as  the  product  of  human  reason  in  its 
course  of  gradual  improvement;  and,  in  this  view, 
Biblical  theology  has  for  its  object  to  exhibit  the  grad- 
ual development  of  reason  in  its  application  to  religion, 
as  it  kept  pace  with  the  advance  of  the  times  in  which 
the  writers  of  the  Bible  lived.  The  Biblical  Dog- 
matics of  Von  Amnion,  De  Wette,  Baumgarten-Cru- 
sius,  and  Von  Colin  are  written  in  this  Rationalistic 
spirit"  (see  De  Wette,  Biblische  Dogmatih  Alten  wid 
Neuen  Testaments  (Berlin,  1813,  and  often) ;  Baumgar- 
ten-Crusius,  Grundziige  der  Bibl.  Theologie  (Jena,  18^8); 
and  Colin,  Bibl.  Theolcgie  (Feips.  183G,  2  vols.  8vo)). 
Nitzsch,  in  his  Christliche  Lehre  (6th  ed.  1851;  trans- 
lated (badly),  Edinburgh,  Clark's  Library),  develops 
his  own  view  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible  in  sys- 
tematic form,  apart  from  all  dogmatical  creeds.  But 
he  distinguishes  (§  4)  "  Christian  doctrine"  from  "  Bib- 
lical theology"  in  this,  that  the  former  seeks  to  inter- 
pret "  the  period  of  completed  revelation,  and  of  Chris- 


eludes  the  statements  of  doctrine  made  in  the  creeds    tian  faith  and  life  in  its  finished  form,  as  set  forth  by 

the  apostles,  finally  and  for  all  time;  while  the  latter 
ought  to  take  note  of  the  development  of  revelation, 
in  its  various  stages,  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to  that 
of  the  apostles."  He  therefore  makes  Biblical  theol- 
ogy bear  the  same  relation  to  the  "system  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine"  that  the  History  of  Dogmas  bears  to 
dogmatics.  The  work  of  S.  Lutz  (Bibl.  Dogmatik, 
1847)  is  valuable  for  systematic  method  no  less  than 
for  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  contents  of  the 
Bible. 

Biblical  theolo  jy,  in  the  narrower  sense,  has  been 
again  subdivided  into  the  theology  of  the  Old  and 
the  theology  of  the  New  Testament.  Works  on  the 
former  have  been  published  by  Vatke  (Die  Rili<iii>n 
des  A.  T.  1st  vol.  Berl.  1835)  and  Bruno  Bauer  (Die 
Religion  des  A.T.2  vols.  1S38).  Both  are  strongly 
influenced  by  Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Religion.  A 
better  work  is  Hilvernick,  Vorlesungen  fiber  d.  The- 
ologie des  Alten  Bundes  (posthumous  ;    Frankf.  1863). 


and  formulas  of  the  Church,  must  yet  rest  ultimately 
upon  the  authorit}'  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  beginning  of  Biblical  theology  may  be  said  to 
he  coeval  with  theology  itself,  for  Scripture  proofs  were 
always  needed  and  made  use  of  against  heathens,  her- 
etics, and  Jews.  But  when  tradition  came  to  be  rec- 
ognised as  a  rule  of  faith,  equally  important  as  the 
Scripture,  and  the  Church  claimed  for  her  doctrinal 
decisions  and  her  interpretations  of  the  Bible  the  same 
infallibility  as  for  the  authority  of  the  Bible  itself,  the 
cultivation  of  strictly  Biblical  theology  fell  into  dis- 
credit. The  Reformation  of  the  16th  century  under- 
took to  purify  the  Church  by  the  restoration  of  the 
Christianity  of  the  Bible,  and  the  catechisms  and  con- 
fessions of  the  Reformed  churches  may  therefore  be 
regarded  as  attempts  to  arrange  the  doctrines  of  the 
Bible  into  a  system.  The  early  Protestant  works  on 
systematic  theology  sought  to  prove  the  doctrines  of 
the  several  churches  bv  Biblical  texts;  at  the  head  of 


each  article  of  doctrine  a  Biblical  text  was  placed  and  j  From  the  Roman  Catholic  side  we  have  Scholz,  Hand 
thoroughly  explained.  Zacharia?  (f  1777),  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Kiel,  wrote  Biblische 
Theolog'e,  oder  Uiitersnchiing  des  hiblischen  Grundes  der 
vornehmsten  theologischen  Lehrcn  (Gott.  u.  Kiel,  1771-75; 
last  part  edited  by  Vollborth,  1786).  Zacharia;  under- 
stood by  Biblical  Theology,  "not  that  theology  the  sub- 
stance of  which  is  taken  from  Scripture,  for  in  this 
sense  every  theological  system  must  be  biblical,  but 
more  generally  a  precise  definition  of  all  the  doctrines 


buch  d.  Theologie  des  Alten  Bundes  (Regensb.  1862, 
vols.  8vo).  On  the  theology  of  the  New  Testament 
we  have  works  from  C.  F.  Schmidt  (Bibl.  Theol.  des  X. 
T.  Erlang.  1853;  2d  edit.  publ.  by  Weizs&cker,  1859), 
G.  L.  Hahn  (Die  Theologie  des  N.  T.  Leipz.  1854,  1st 
vol.),  and  a  posthumous  work  by  F.  C.  Baur  (Vorle- 
nmgen  after  JV.  Testament&che  Theolcgie,  Leipz.  1864). 
The  teachings  of  the  different  writers  of  the  N.  T.  have 
been  made  the  subjects  of  special  works.     The  Pauline 


treated  of  in  systematic  theology,  the  correct  meaning  |  system  has  been  treated  of  by  Usteri  (Entwiclxlungdes 


PUBLICISTS 


810 


BIBLIOTHECA  PATRUM 


^Zurich,  1824, 1829, 3831, 1832) 
and  Dahne  (Entrvich  '■■  ng  des  paid.  Lekrbegriffs,  Leipz. 
1886);  theJohannean  by  Kostlin  (Lehrb(  griff vnd  Brief e 
Johamds,  Berl.  1843)  and  Frtmuiann  (Joh.  Lehrbrgriff, 
Halle,  L839).-  Hagenbach,  Kwyclopadie  (7th  edition, 
i  365);  Mercersburg Review,  1862;  Knapp, Theol- 

slator'a  Preface);  Herzog,  Real-Encyk.i,  222. 
Sec  Theology. 

Biblicists,  or  Bible  Doctors,  "an  appellation 
given  by  some  writers  of  the  Church  of  Home  to  those 
who  profess  to  adhere  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  the 
sole  rule  of  faith  and  practice.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  twelfth  century  the  Christian  doctors  were  divided 
into  two  parties,  the  Biblici,  or  Bible  doctors,  and  the 
Scholastit  i.  The  former  interpreted  the  sacred  volume 
in  their  schools,  though  for  the  most  part  very  misera- 
bly; they  explained  religious  doctrines  nakedly  and 
artlessly,  without  calling  reason  and  philosophy  to 
their  aid,  and  confirmed  them  by  the  testimonies  of 
Scripture  and  tradition.  The  latter,  or  Scholastics,  did 
in. thing  but  explain  the  Master  of  the  Sentences,  or 
Peter  Lombard  ;  and  thej-  brought  all  the  doctrines  of 
faith,  as  well  as  the  principles  and  precepts  of  practical 
religion,  under  the  dominion  of  philosophy.  And  as 
these  philosophical  or  scholastic  theologians  were 
deemed  superior  to  the  others  in  acumen  and  ingenui- 
ty, young  men  admired  them,  and  listened  to  them 
with  the  greatest  attention  ;  while  the  Biblical  doc- 
tors, or  doctors  of  the  sacred  page  (as  they  were  call- 
ed i,  had  very  few,  and  sometimes  no  pupils.  Several 
persons  of  eminent  piety,  and  even  some  Roman  pon- 
tiff's, in  the  thirteenth  century,  seriously  admonished 
the  scholastic  theologians,  more  especially  those  of 
1'aris,  to  teach  the  doctrines  of  salvation  according  to 
the  Scriptures,  Avith  simplicity  and  purity;  but  their 
admonitions  were  fruitless.  The  Holy  Scriptures,  to- 
gether with  those  who  studied  them,  fell  into  neglect 
and  contempt ;  and  the  scholastic)  or  schoolmen,  who 
taught  the  schola;  tic  theology  with  all  its  trifling  suh- 
tleties,  prevailed  in  all  the  colleges  and  universities  of 
Europe  down  to  the  time  of  Luther  (Mosheim's  Eccl. 
Hist.,  by  Murdoch, bk.  iii,  cent,  xii,  pt.  ii,  ch.iii,  §  8,  and 
cent,  xiii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  7)." — Eadie,  Eccl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Bibliomancy  (JiifiXlov,  uavrda),  divination  (q. 
v.)  by  means  of  the  Bible;  sometimes  called,  also, 
8ortes  biblical  or  sortes  sacrat.  It  consisted  in  taking 
passages  of  Scripture  at  hazard,  and  drawing  thence. 
indications  of  future  things.  It  was  used  occasionally 
in  the  consecration  of  bishops,  and  was  evidently  bor- 
rowed from  the  heathen,  who  were  accustomed  to  draw 
prognostications  from  the  works  of  Homer  and  Virgil. 
We  find  the  practice  condemned  by  several  councils, 
and  the  persons  adopting  it  were  ordered  to  be  put  out 
of  the  <  linrch.  But  in  the  12th  century  it  was  so  far 
encouraged  as  to  be  employed  in  the  detection  of  her- 
etics. In  the  Gallican  Church  it  was  long  used  in  the 
election  of  bishops;  children  being  employed  on  be- 
balf  of  each  candidate  to  draw  slips  of  paper  with  texts 
on  them,  and  that,  which  was  thought  most  favorable 
decided  the  choice.  In  the  Greek  church  we  find  the 
prevalence  of  this  custom  at  the  time  of  the  consecra- 
tion of  Atlianasius,  on  whose  behalf  the  presiding  prel- 
ate) Caracalla,  archbishop  of  Nicomedia,  opened  the 
Go  |  Is  on  the  words,  "  For  the  devil  and  liis  angels." 
The  bishop  of  Nicaea  saw  them,  and  adroitly  turned 
over  to  another  verse,  which  was  instantly  read  aloud, 
"The  birds  of  the  air  came  and  lodged  in  the  branch- 
es thereof."  Bui  this  passage  Beeming  irrelevant,  the 
former  became  gradually  known,  and  the  result  ap- 
peared in  considerable  agitation-,  and  fatal  divisions. 

A  Bpecies  of  bibliomancy  in  use  among  the  Jews 
!  in  appealing  to  the  very  first  words  heard 
from  any  ono  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  regarding 
th.a,,  as  a  voice  from  heaven.  The  following  is  an  in- 
Btance  :  Babbi  A.cher,  having  committed  many  crimes, 
was  led  into  thirteen  synagogues ;  iii  each  synagogue 


a  disciple  was  interrogated,  and  the  verse  he  read  was 
examined.  In  the  tirst  school  the  following  words  of 
the  prophet  Isaiah  were  read  :  "  There  is  no  peace  unto 
the  wicked"  (Isa.  xlviii,  22);  in  another,  these  words  of 
the  Psalmist :  "  Unto  the  wicked,  God  saith,  What  hast 
thou  to  do  to  declare  my  statutes,  or  that  thou  shouldest 
take  my  covenant  in  thy  mouth  ?"  (Psa.  1,  16).  Sim- 
ilar sentences  being  heard  in  all  the  synagogues  against 
Acher,  it  was  concluded  that  he  was  hated  by  God! 
(Basnagc's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  p.  1C5).     See  Bath-Kol. 

In  former  times,  among  the  common  people  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  the  Bible  was  consulted  on  New 
Year's  day  with  special  formality,  each  member  of  the 
house,  before  he  had  partaken  of  food,  walking  up  to  it, 
opening  it,  and  placing  his  finger  at  random  on  a  verse 
— that  verse  declaring  his  fortune  for  the  next  twelve 
months.  The  Bible,  with  a  sixpence  inserted  into  the 
book  of  Euth,  was  placed  under  the  pillows  of  young 
people,  to  give  them  dreams  of  matrimonial  divination. 
In  some  parts  of  Scotland  the  sick  were  fanned  with 
the  leaves  of  the  Bible,  and  a  Bible  was  put  under  the 
head  of  women  after  childbirth,  and  into  the  cradle  of 
new-born  children.  A  Bible  and  key  were  sometimes 
employed  to  detect  a  thief;  nay,  more  than  all,  a  sus- 
pected witch  was  taken  to  church,  and  weighed  against 
the  great  church  Bible.  If  she  outweighed  the  Bible, 
she  was  acquitted  ;  but  if  the  Bible  outweighed  her, 
she  was  condemned  (Brand's  Popular  Antiqu'ties,  iii, 
2"2).  Some  well-meaning  people  among  Protestants 
practise  a  kind  of  bibliomancy  in  order  to  determine 
I  the  state  of  their  souls  or  the  path  of  duty.  It  prevail- 
ed among  the  Moravians,  along  with  the  use  of  lots ; 
and  John  Wesley  sometimes  made  use  of  it.  But  the 
Word  of  God  was  never  meant  to  operate  as  a  charm, 
nor  to  be  employed  as. a  lot-book.  It  can  only  truly 
guide  and  edify  when  rightly  and  consistently  under- 
I  stood.  See  Bingham,  One/.  Eccles.  bk.  xvi,  ch.  iv,  §  3; 
Buck,  Tkeol.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Wes- 
ley, Works,  v,  316,  318. 

Bibliotheca  Maxima  Patrum.  See  Bieli- 
otheca  Patrum. 

Bibliotheca  Patrum,  a  collection  of  the  work3 
of  the  early  ecclesiastical  writers. 

(I.)  The  title  was  first  applied  to  the  work  which 
originated  with  M.  cle  la  Bir/ne,  who  formed  the  idea 
of  a  collection  of  the  fathers  with  a  viewr  of  opposing 
the  doctrines  of  the  French  Protestants.  This  scheme 
met  with  the  approbation  of  his  superiors  in  the  Sor- 
bonne,  and  the  first  eight  volumes  appeared  at  Paris 
in  1575,  and  the  9th  in  1579.  It  is  entitled  Biblio- 
theca Veterum  Patrum  ef  Antiquorum  Scriplorum  Ecele- 
siasticorum  Eatine,  and  it  contained  about  200  writers. 
The  2d  ed.,  somewhat  improved,  was  published  at  Paris 
in  1589,  9  vols.  fol.  The  3d  cd.  (Paris,  1609,  11  vols, 
fol.)  has  the  addition  of  an  Auctuarium.  In  these  edi- 
tions the  writers  are  classed  according  to  subjects. 
The  -1th  cd.,  or,  rather,  a  new  work  by  the  professors 
of  Cologne,  has  the  writers  arranged  in  chronological 
order.  It  was  printed  at  Cologne  1608,  in  14  vols,  fol., 
to  which  in  1622  a  supplement  in  one  vol.  was  added. 
The  5th  ed.  (or  4th  of  De  la  Bigne)  was  published  at 
Paris  in  162-1,  in  10  vols,  fol.,  with  the  addition  of  an 
Auctuarium  Grceco-Latlnum  compiled  by  Le  Due  (the 
Jesuit  Pronto  Ducceus),  and  in  1629  a  Supplement/an  La- 
tinum  in  two  vols,  was  added.  The  6th  ed.  (or  5th  of 
De  la  Bigne),  printed  at  Paris  in  1634,  in  17  vols,  fol., 
contains  the  preceding,  with  the  .  1  uctuarium  and  Sup- 
ph  ,m  ii'iiiii  incorporated.  The  7th  ed.  in  1654  is  mere- 
ly a  reprint  of  the  last. 

(II.)  In  1648  Francois  Combefis  published  at  Paris, 
in  two  vols,  fol.,  Graco-Eat.  Patrum  Bibliotheca  Novum 
Auctu  vrium,  and  iii  1672  his  Bibliotheca'  Gnecorum  Pa- 
trum Auctuarium  Novlssimum,  in  two  parts. 

(III.)  In  1677  appeared  at  Lyons  (27  vols,  fol.)  the 
Bibliotheca  Patrum,  which  generally,  and  deservedly, 
bears  the  name  of  Bibliotheca  Maxima  Patrum  Lugdu- 
ntnsis.     It  contains  nearly  all  the  writers  found  in  the 


BICIIRI 


811 


BIDDULPII 


preceding  works,  together  with  many  others  (Latin 
only),  chronologically  arranged. 

(IV.)  After  this  gigantic  undertaking,  no  similar 
work  appeared  until  that  of  Andre  Galland  was  pub- 
lished, under  the  title  of  Bibliotheca  veterum  Patrum 
atitiquorumque  Scriptorum  /■><  l  siasticorum postremd  Lug- 
dunensi  multo  locupletior  atque  accunttior,  in  14  vols.  fol. 
(Venice,  17G6,  1781).  Galland  omits  many  authors 
given  in  the  Bibl.  Max.,  but  adds  also  180  not  given  in 
it.  There  are  many  other  collections  of  the  fathers 
not  bearing  the  name  Bibliotheca.     See  Fathers. 

Bich'ri  (Heb.  Btitri',  ^23,  first-born  or  youthful, 
perhaps  Becherite;  Sept.  Bo\oni ;  Vulg.  Bichri),  ap- 
parently a  Benjamite,  father  of  Sheba,  the  revolter 
from  David  (2  Sam.  xx,  1  sq.).  B.C.  ante  101G.  See 
Becher. 

Bickell,  Johann  Wilhelm,  a  learned  writer  on 
ecclesiastical  law,  was  born  at  Marburg  in  1799,  be- 
came in  1820  privatdocent,  and  in  1824  professor  of 
law  at  Marburg.  In  1846  he  was  the  representative 
of  Hesse-Cassel  at  the  Protestant  General  Conference 
of  Berlin,  and  soon  after  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
ministry  of  justice  in  the  Electorate  of  Hesse.  He 
died  at  Cassel  in  1848.  He  is  the  author  of  a  history 
of  ecclesiastical  law  (Geschichte  tics  Kirchenrechts,  Gies- 
sen,  1843).  Among  his  other  works  are  Ueber  die  Re- 
form dei-  Proiestantischen  Kirchenvi  rfassung  (Marb. 
1831),  and  Ueber  die  Yerpflichlung  der  evangel ischen 
Geistlichen  aufdie  symbolischen  Schriften  (Marb.  1839). 

Bickersteth,  Edward,  was  born  March  19, 178C, 
at  Kirkby  Lonsdale,  Westmoreland.  He  received  his 
early  education  at  the  grammar-school  of  Kirkby 
Lonsdale,  then  spent  five  years  in  an  attorney's  office 
in  London,  and  commenced  business  as  a  solicitor  at 
Norwich  in  1812.  "While  yet  in  business  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  various  religious  movements.  He 
wrote  and  published  in  1814  A  Help  to  the  Study  of  (he 
Scriptures,  which  in  its  enlarged  form  has  had  an  enor- 
mous circulation.  His  strong  religious  feelings  led 
him  to  devote  himself  to  the  ministerial  office,  and  in 
1815  he  was  ordained  deacon  ;  the  Bishop  of  Norwich 
having  been  induced  to  dispense  in  his  case  with  the 
usual  university  training,  in  consequence  of  its  being 
represented  to  him  that  the  Church  Missionary  Society 
were  anxious  to  obtain  his  services  to  reorganize  the 
stations  of  the  society  in  Africa,  and  to  act  afterward 
as  their  secretary.  A  fortnight  later  the  Bishop  of 
Gloucester  admitted  him  to  full  orders,  and  he  almost 
immediately  departed  with  his  wife  to  Africa.  He  re- 
turned in  the  following  autumn,  having  accomplished 
the  purposes  of  his  visit.  He  continued  in  the  secre- 
taryship for  fifteen  years,  and  in  the  course  of  his  of- 
ficial journeys  he  acquired  great,  influence  and  popu- 
larity. In  1830  he  resigned  his  offic?,  and  accepted 
the  rectory  of  Watton,  in  Hertfordshire,  where  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life.  He  was  during  the  whole  of  that 
time  in  constant  request  as  the  advocate,  by  sermons 
and  speeches,  not  only  of  the  missionary,  but  of  al- 
most every  other  religious  society  connected  with  the 
Church  of  England,  or  in  which,  as  in  the  Bible  Society 
and  the  Evangelical  Alliance  (of  which  he  was  one  of 
the  founders),  Church  of  England  men  and  members 
of  other  churches  associate.  He  also  produced  dur- 
ing his  residence  at  Watton  a  constant  succession  of 
religious  publications,  which  were  for  the  most  part 
read  in  the  circles  to  which  they  were  chiefly  address- 
ed with  the  greatest  avidity.  He  was  earnest  in  de- 
nouncing the  spread  of  Traetarian  opinions  in  the 
Church  of  England.  In  his  later  years  he  manifested 
a  growing  interest  in  the  stud)'  of  prophecy.  The  un- 
fulfilled prophecies  were  made  the  frequent  subject  of 
his  discourses,  and  he  published  several  treatises  on 
the  prophetic  writings.  Among  his  literary  labors 
ought  to  be  mentioned  the  Christi  in  Family  Library, 
which  he  edited,  and  which  extended  to  50  vols.  Mr. 
Bickersteth  was  in  1841  attacked  by  paralysis,  but  re- 


covered. In  184G  he  was  thrown  from  his  chaise  under 
a  laden  cart,  the  wheels  of  which  passed  over  him  ; 
but,  though  dreadfully  injured,  he  was  after  a  time  re- 
stored to  health  and  activity,  and  survived  till  Feb. 
24,  1850,  when  he  died  of  congestion  of  the  brain. 
His  writings  are  characterized  by  earnest  religious 
feeling  rather  than  by  power  or  depth  of  thought. 
They  are  collected  in  an  edition  published  in  1853  (16 
vols,  fcp;  8vo).  See  Birk's  Memoirs  of  per.  E.  Bicker- 
steth (New  York,  1851,  2  vols.  12mo) ;  Eng.  Cyclop,  p.  v. 

Eidding  Prayer.  One  of  the  offices  of  deacons 
in  the  early  Church  was  to  direct  the  people  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  their  public  devotions.  They  were  accustom- 
ed to  use  certain  forms  of  words,  to  give  notice  when 
each  part  of  the  service  began,  and  to  exhort  the  peo- 
ple to  join  attentively.  This  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
KtipvTTUv,  and  by  the  Latins  pnrdicare,  which  means 
performing  the  office  of  a  nijoct,  or  pram.  By  some 
writers  the  deacons  are  called  hpoKrjpvKse,  the  holy 
criers  of  the  Church,  as  those  who  gave  notice  to  the 
church  or  congregation  to  pray  and  join  in  the  several 
parts  of  the  service.  The  form,  "Let  us  pray,"  re- 
peated before  several  prayers  in  the  English  liturgy,  is 
derived  from  this  ancient  practice  in  the  Church.  l!ur- 
net  gives  the  form  used  before  the  Reformation  as  fol- 
lows:  After  the  preacher  had  named  and  opened  his 
text,  he  called  on  the  people  to  go  to  their  prayers,  and 
told  them  for  what  they  should  pray.  Ye  shall  pray, 
says  he,  for  the  king,  the  pope,  etc.  After  this,  all  the 
people  said  their  beads  in  a  general  silence ;  and  the 
minister  also  knelt  down  and  said  his.  They  were 
to  say  a  paternoster,  an  ave  maria,  etc.,  and  then  the 
sermon  proceeded  (Burnet,  Hist,  of  Reformation,  ii, 
20).  Not  only  did  the  deacons  call  the  people  to  pray, 
but  they  gave  direction  as  to  the  particulars  they  were 
to  pray  for.  In  the  apostolical  constitutions  we  have 
a  bidding  prayer  for  the  communicants,  in  which  are 
specified  upward  of  twenty  subjects  for  prayer.  The 
prayer  at  the  commencement  of  the  communion  ser- 
vice, and  also  the  litany  of  the  Common  Prayer-Book, 
bear  a  close  affinity  to  the  bidding  prayers  in  the  apos- 
tolical constitutions.  The  formulary  which  the  Church 
of  England,  in  the  55th  canon,  directs  to  be  used,  is 
called  the  bidding  prayer,  because  in  it  the  preacher  is 
directed  to  bid  the  people  to  pray  for  certain  specified 
objects. — Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  ii,  ch.  xx,  §  10, 
and  Ik.  xv,  ch.  i,  §  1 ;  Procter  on  Common  Prayer,  p. 
171 ;  Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Biddle,  John,  one  of  the  first  preachers  of  Socin- 
ianism  in  England,  and  cruelly  persecuted  on  that  ;;c- 
count.  He  was  born  at  Wotton,  Gloucestershire,  in 
1615.  In  1041  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford, 
and  was  appointed  master  of  the  grammar-school  of 
Gloucester.  He  soon  began  to  exhibit  his  Socinian 
bias,  and  was,  in  consequence,  imprisoned  and  exam- 
ined by  commissioners  appointed  for  the  purpose.  He 
published,  in  1647,  Twelve  Arguments,  etc.,  against  the 
Deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (I.ond.  4to),  which  was  burned 
by  the  hangman ;  and  in  1648  he  put  forth  a  Confession 
of  Faith  concerning  tJw  Trinity,  for  which  he  was  a  sec- 
ond time  imprisoned.  In  1654  he  issued  a  Brief  Scrip- 
ture Catechism  (Lond.  8vo),  which  was  answered  by 
John  Owen  in  his  Yindicve  Erangt lictr.  Cromwell 
banished  him,  in  1665,  to  the  Scilly  Islands,  but  after 
three  years  he  was  recalled,  and  became  minister  of 
some  congregation  of  Independents.  In  the  reign  of 
Charles  II  he  was  in  trouble  again,  and  was  a  third 
time  put  into  prison,  where  he  died  in  1662.  See  Toul- 
min,  Life  and  Character  of  Biddle  (Lond.  1789, 12mo). 

Biddulph,  Thomas  T.,  M.A.,  was  born  in  Wor- 
cestershire, England,  1763,  studied  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  and  became  minister  of  St.  James's,  Bristol, 
1798.  He  was  laborious  as  pastor  and  writer,  and  died 
1838.  Among  his  published  works  are  Practical  Es- 
says on  the  Liturgy  (bond.  3d  ed.  1822,  3  vols.  8vo) : — 
Baptism  a  Seal  of  the  Covenant  (Lond.  1816,  8vo) : — 


BIDKAU 


812 


BILDAD 


Sermons  (Lond.  1838,  12mo):— Theology  of  the  Patri- 
archs (Lond.  2  vols.  svo). 

Bid'kar  (Heb.  Bidkar',  "J?"'3!  according  to  Ge- 
senius, for  *lp"7""|3,  son  of  stabbing,  i.e.  assassin;  ac- 
cording  lo  Furst,  for  "IjS — 13?,  servant  [i.  e.  inhabitant] 
(/the  city;  Sept.  Kavticdp;  Josephus,  BdduKpoc),  Je- 
hu's "captain"  (Obd;  Josephus,  o  r/)c  rpiYnc  juo/pec 
fiyifttov,  Ant.  ix,  6,  3),  originally  his  fellow-officer  (2 
Kings  ix,  25),  who  completed  the  sentence,  on  Jeho- 
r  im.  son  of  Ahab,  by  casting  his  body  into  the  field  of 
Nabotb  after  Jehu  had  transfixed  him  with  an  arrow. 
B.C.  882.     See  Jehu. 

Bidlack,  Benjamin,  a  Methodist  preacher  of  the 
( iHeida  <  inference,  was  horn  in  1759.  Little  is  known 
of  his  early  life.  He  was  a  soldier  under  Washington, 
and  fought  at  Boston  and  Yorktown.  The  date  of  his 
conversion  is  unknown,  but  he  entered  the  itinerant 
ministry  in  1799.  He  was  in  the  effective  work  lifteen 
years,  located  four  years,  and  superannuated  twenty- 
six  years,  forty-five  in  all.  "Ho  was  distinguished 
for  energy  of  character.''  He  died  in  great  peace  at 
Kingston,  Penn.,  1815. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  iv, 
50;  Peck,  Early  Methodism. 

Biel,  Gabriel,  commonly  called  "the  last  of  the 
schoolmen,"  a  native  of  Spires,  called  also,  from  his 
work  on  Peter  Lombard,  by  the  name  of  Collector,  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  theology  in  the  University 
of  Tubingen.  He  died  in  1195,  leaving,  1.  Expositio 
sacris  canonis  Misste;  copied,  with  a  few  alterations, 
from  Eggelin  (Angelus)  of  Brunswick  (Tub.  1188)  :— 2. 
Sermones  (1199,  fob,  Brescia,  1583,  4to)  :— 3.  Epitome 
Scripti  Guil.  de  Occam,  et  coll'ctorium  circa  ivlibros  Sen- 
tentiarum  in  academia  Tubingend  edit  urn  (printed  before 
1500,  without  place  or  date,  again  at  Basle,  1512).  Biel 
denied  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the  pope,  declared 
that  the  priest's  absolution  does  not  remit  sins,  and  de- 
fended the  (  onneil  of  Basle  as  valid  and  authoritative. 
See  Linsenmann,  Tub.  Theol.  Quarterlschrift.  1865,  p. 
195  sq. ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  iii,  div.  v,  eh.  iv,  §  143. 

Bier  (n2"2,  mit/ah',  a  bed,  as  elsewhere,  2  Sam. 
iii,  31 ;  aopag,  a  funereal  urn,  hence  an  open  coffin  or 
burial-coucn,  Luke  vii,  11).     See  Burial. 

Bigamist  or  Digamist  (Bigamus  or  Digamus).  A 
man  who  hail  married  two  wives  in  succession  was  so 
styled  at  one  period  of  the  Church.  It  was  forbidden 
by  the  canons  to  admit  such  a  one  to  holy  orders  (can. 
lxix,  Carthage,  398).  The  orLin  of  this  law  was  the 
interpretation  of  the  words  of  Paul  to  Titus,  i,  6.  Chry- 
BOStom  and  Theodoret  explain  the  passage  as  meaning 
those  who  had  only  one  wife  at  a  time,  and  therefore 
as  directed  against  the  polygamy  of  the  Jews  and 
heathen.  It  appears,  moreover,  from  the  epistles  of 
Siricins (ep.  i,  cap.  8)  and  Innocentius(ep.  xxii,  adepts. 
i/aced.  c.  1)  that  the  bishops  of  Spain  and  Greece  did 
not  scruple  to  ordain  men  who  had  been  twice  mar- 
ried. See  Theodoret,  op.  110,  ad  Domnum;  Bingham, 
Orig.  Err',;,  lib.  iv,  cap  5,  sec.  1,  2,  3 ;  Landon,  ii,  2G2. 

Bigamy.     Sec  Marriage. 

Bigelow,  Noah,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  boni  in  Max.  1783,  eon  verted  1803,  entered  the 
New  5fork  Conference  in  1810,  was  transferred  to  the 
New  England  Conference  in  1813,  readmitted  to  the 
New  fork  Conference  in  1823,  superannuated  1827, 
effective  from  1828  to  1836,  superannuated  till  his 
death  in  Aug.  L850.  In  the  outset  of  his  career  he  en- 
dured great  opposition  from  his  father  and  relatives, 
but  God  rewarded  his  constancy  with  a  Ion-  and  use- 
ful life.  As  minister  and  presiding  elder  |  into  which 
office  Bishop  M'Kendree  put  him  to  relieve  Elijah  aft- 
erward Bishop  Heddinz),  he  was  abundant  in  labors 
and  fruit.— Minutes  of  Conferences,  iv,  -115. 

Bigelow,  Russel,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
and  useful  ministers  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  ohi,,.     lie  was  born  in  Chesterfield,  N.  II.,  in  1793 


converted  in  Vermont  at  nine,  removed  to  Worthing- 
ton,  O.,  in  1812,  and  at  nineteen  received  license  to 
exhort.  His  first  circuit  was  in  Kentucky  in  1814. 
After  filling  with  honor  every  office  in  the  Church  but 
that  of  bishop,  he  died  in  triumph  at  Columbus,  Ohio, 
in  1835.  His  early  education  was  limited  by  his  cir- 
cumstances, but  his  application  in  after  life  made  large 
amends.  He  was  distinguished  for  modesty,  zeal,  and 
courage.  His  eloquence  was  of  a  rare  and  extraordi- 
nary kind.  Dr.  Thomson  says  of  him,  "  As  a  preach- 
er, take  him  all  in  all,  I  have  yet  to  hear  his  equal. 
Thousands  of  souls  will  rise  up  in  judgment  and  call 
him  blessed,  and  his  name  will  long  be  like  precious 
ointment  to  the  churches."  See  Thomson,  Biog. 
Sketches;  Min.  of  Con.  ii,  404;  Sprague,  Ann.  vii,  540. 

Big'tha  (Heb.  Bigtha',  Xr53,  Gesenius  thinks 
perhaps  gard:n,  comp.  Bigvai  ;  but,  according  to 
Fiirst  \_Hinuhcort.  s.  v.],  the  first  syllable  "3  appears 
to  be  the  Bay-  so  often  met  with  in  Persian  prop. 
names  [  e.  g.  Bagorazus,  Bagoas;  comp.  also  Bigthan, 
Abagtiia],  possibly  connected  with  the  Zend,  baga 
and  Sanscrit  Ih  tg  i,  fortune  ;  while  the  termination 
XP~  or  "T~  for  X2P~  may  be  the  -rdvng  likewise  oc- 
curring in  Persian  prop,  names  [e.  g.  Otanes,  Catanes, 
Petanes],  from  the  Sanscrit  tanu,  Zend,  ten,  body  or 
life;  Sept.  Bapa£i,  but  other  copies  [by  confusion  with 
one  of  the  other  names]  'Lr]8ai)abd ;  Vulg.  Bagatlui), 
the  fourth  named  of  the  seven  eunuchs  (D^p^iO, 
"chamberlains"),  having  charge  of  the  harem  of  Xerx- 
es ("Ahasuerus"),  and  commanded  to  bring  in  Vashti 
to  the  king's  drinking-party  (Esth.  i,  10).     B.C.  483. 

Big'than  (Heb.  Bigthan',  "r.'3,  on  the  signif.  sec 
Bigtiia;  Esth.  ii,  21;.  Sept.  omits;  Vulg.  Bagithan) 
or  Big'thana  (Heb.  Bigtha'na,  N5T.'2,  prob.  the  full 
form  :  Gesenius  here  well  compares  the  Sanscrit  baga- 
dma,  fortune-given ;  Sept.  here  also  omits  ;  Vulg.  again 
Bagathan),  the  first  named  of  the  eunuchs  (Auth.  Vers. 
again  "chamberlains")  in  the  court  of  Xerxes  (Ahas- 
uerus) "who  kept  the  door"  (tnarg.  "threshold,"  Sept. 
apxKnJfiaroipvXaKsg)',  lie 'conspired  with  Teresh,  one 
of  his  coadjutors,  against  the  king's  life.  The  con- 
spiracy was  detected  by  Mordecai,  and  the  culprits 
hung.  B.C.  479.  Prideaux  (Conn,  i,  363)  supposes 
that  these  officers  had  been  partially  superseded  by 
the  degradation  of  Vashti,  and  sought  revenge  by  the 
murder  of  Ahasuerus.  This  suggestion  falls  in  with 
that  of  the  Chaldee  version  and  of  the  Sept.  (which  in 
Esth.  ii,  21  interpolates  the  words  tkvTn'iOnoai1  ei  Suo 
iui>ov\oi  -ov  (3ao-i\eiog  .  ...  on  7rpo))xQil  Mop^o- 
Xaior).    This  person  may  be  the  same  as  the  foregoing. 

Big'vai  (Heb.  Bigvay',  *^3,  perhaps  from  Chald. 
"Ii«2,  husbandman;  comp.  Pers.  and  Syr.  bagh,  a  gar- 
den ;  or  i.  q.  Pers.  Bayaioc,  Herod,  iii,  128  ;  according 
to  Bohlcn,  from  Sanscrit  bagi,  happy;  according  to 
Fiirst,  for  "1'i\~"|3  =  ^iy~'j2,  son  of  the  nation,  i.  q.  citi- 
zen; Sept.  Bayooai,  Bayovc,  Bayovaf,  Boyoi'ia,  and 
Bnyoi),  the  head  of  one  of  the  families  of  Israelites 
who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  B.C.  536 
(Ezra  ii,  2;  Neh.  vii,  7),  with  a  large  number  of  his 
retainers  (computed  at  2056  in  Ezra  ii,  14,  and  2067  in 
Neh.  vii,  19),  besides  72  males  subsequently'  under  Ezra 
(viii,  14),  B.C.  459.  He  (if  the  same)  subscribed  the 
covenant  with  Nchemiah  (x.  16).     B.C.  410. 

Bikkurah;  Bikkurim.     See  Mishna. 

Bikrah.     Sec  Fig  ;  Camel. 

Bil'dad  (Heb.  Bildad' ,  1-^3,  according  to  Ge- 
senius, for  "nb"",2,  son  of  contention,  i.  e.  quarrelsome; 
according  to'lurst,  for  Tli<-b2,  Bel-Adad,  but  less 
likely;  Sept.  BrtXcW),  "'the  Shuhite,"  one  of  the 
friends  of  Job,  and  the  second  of  his  opponents  in  the 
disputation  (Job  ii,  11 ;  viii,  1  ;  xviii,  1 ;  xxv,  1)  The 
Shuah  of  which  the  Sept.  makes  Bildad  the  prince  or 


BILEAM 


813 


BILNEY 


patriarch  (<j  E«nv*w  Tvpavvoc)  was  probabl}'  the  dis- 
trict assigned  to  Shuah,  the  sixth  son  of  Abraham  by 
Keturah,  and  called  by  his  name  (Gen.  xxv,  2).  This 
was  apparently  in  Arabia  Petraja,  if  Shuah  settled  in 
the  same  quarter  as  his  brothers,  of  which  there  can 
be  little  doubt ;  and  to  this  region  we  are  to  refer  the 
town  and  district  to  which  he  gave  his  name,  and  in 
which  Bildad  was  doubtless  a  person  of  consequence, 
if  not  the  chief. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Shuah. 

Bildad  takes  a  share  in  each  of  the  three  controver- 
sial scenes  in  the  Book  of  Job.  He  follows  in  the  train 
of  Eliphaz,  but  with  more  violent  declamation,  less 
argument,  and  keener  invective  (Wemyss,  Job  and  Ms 
Times,  p.  111).  His  address  is  abrupt  and  untender, 
and  in  his  very  first  speech  he  cruelly  attributes  the 
death  of  Job's  children  to  their  own  transgressions, 
and  loudly  calls  on  Job  to  repent  of  his  supposed 
crimes.  His  second  speech  (xviii)  merely  recapitu- 
lates his  former  assertions  of  the  temporal  calamities 
of  the  wicked.  On  this  occasion  he  implies,  without 
expressing,  Job's  wickedness,  and  does  not  condescend 
to  exhort  him  to  repentance.  In  the  third  speech 
(xxv),  unable  to  refute  the  sufferer's  arguments,  he 
takes  refuge  in  irrelevant  dogmatism  on  God's  glory 
and  man's  nothingness;  in  reply  to  which  Job  justly 
reproves  him  both  for  deficiency  in  argument  and  fail- 
ure in  charitable  forbearance  (Ewald,  Djs  Buch  /job). 
— Smith,  s.  v.     See  Job. 

Bil'eam  (Heb.  Bilam  ,  Bl'33,  same  name  as  Ba- 
laam [q.  v.];  Sept.  'ltpfiXdav  v.  r.  'I/3X«a/i ;  Vulg. 
Baalam),  a  town  in  the  western  half  of  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh,  named  in  1  Chron.  vi,  20  as  being  given 
(with  its  "suburbs")  to  the  Kohathites.  In  the  lists 
in  Josh,  xvii  and  xxi  this  name  does  not  appear,  but 
Ibleam  (q.  v.)  and  Gath-rimmon  are  substituted  for 
it,  the  former  by  an  easy  change  of  letters,  the  latter 
uncertain.  Compare,  also,  the  Belamon  (BtAn/twi') 
of  Judith  viii,  3. 

Bil'gah  (Ilcb.  Bilgak',  Ha!?a,  prob.  cheerful,  but 
according  to  Furst,  jirst-born;  Sept.  BtAyfic  and  Bn\- 
yac),  the  name  of  two  priests. 

1.  The  head  of  the  fifteenth  sacerdotal  course  for 
the  temple  service,  as  arranged  by  David  (1  Chron. 
xxiv,  14).     B.C.  1043. 

2.  A  priest  who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Ze- 
rubbabel  and  Jeshua  (Neh.  xii,  5, 18),  B.C.  53G ;  per- 
haps the  same  as  the  Bilgai  of  Neh.  x,  8. 

Bil'gai  (Ileb.  Bilgai/,  "'ftipS,  prob.  same  signif.  as 
Bilgah ;  Sept.  BsKyai),  one  of  the  priests  that  scaled 
the  covenant  after  the  restoration  from  Babylon,  B.C. 
410  (Neh.  x,  8) ;  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  Bilgah  2. 

Bil'hah  (Heb.  Bilhah',  rvribl,  faltering,  i.  e.  perh. 
bashful),  the  name  of  a  woman  and  of  a  place. 

1.  (Sept.  BrtWtt.)  The  handmaid  (Gen.  xxix,  29) 
whom  the  childless  Rachel  bestowed  as  a  concubine 
upon  her  husband  Jacob,  that  through  her  she  might 
have  children.  B.C.  1917.  Bilhah  thus  became  the 
mother  of  Dan  and  Naphtali  (Gen.  xxx,  3-8  ;  xxxv, 
25;  xlvi,  25;  1  Chron.  vii,  13).  Her  stepson  Reuben 
afterward  lay  with  her  (Gen.  xxxv,  22),  B.C.  cir.  1899, 
and  thus  incurred  his  father's  dving  reproof  (Gen. 
xlix,  4). 

2.  (Sept.  BnXon.)  A  place  belonging  to  the  tribe 
of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv,  29),  called  Balah  (q.  v.)  in 
Josh,  xix,  3;  and  it  seems  to  be  the  same  which  is 
called  Baalah  in  Josh,  xv,  29. 

Bil'han  (Heb.  Bilhan',  "^?2  ;  Sept.  BnXnri/i,  Bn- 
\aav;  Balaan,  Balan;  the  same  root  [nba,  to  fail] 
as  Bilhah,  Gen.  xxx,  3,  etc.  The  final  "  is  evidently 
a  Horite  termination,  as  in  Zaavan,  Akan,  Dislian, 
Aran,  Lotan,  Alvan,  Hemdan,  Eshban,  etc.,  but  is  also 
found  in  Heb.  names). 

1.  A  Horite  chief,  son  of  Ezer,  son  of  Seir,  dwell- 


ing in  Mount  Seir,  in  the  land  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi, 
27 ;  1  Chron.  i,  42).     B.C.  cir.  1963. 

2.  A  Benjamite,  son  of  Jediael,  and  father  of  seven 
sons  (1  Chron.  vii,  10).  B.C.  ante  1658.  It  does  not 
appear  clearly  from  which  of  the  sons  of  Benjamin 
Jediael  was  descended,  as  he  is  not  mentioned  in  Gen. 
xlvi,  21,  or  Num.  xxvi.  But  as  he  was  the  father  of 
Ehud  (1  Chr.  vii,  10),  and  Ehud  seems,  from  1  Chr. 
viii,  3,  6,  to  have  been  a  son  of  Bela,  Jediael,  and  con- 
sequently Bilhan,  were  probably  Belaitcs.  The  occur- 
rence of  Bilhan  as  well  as  Bela  in  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min— names  both  imported  from  Edom — is  remark- 
able.— Smith,  s.  v.     Sec  Benjamin. 

Bill  (*2&,  se'pher,  /3ifi\ioi>),  any  thing  written, 
and  usually  rendered  book.  The  passage  in  Job  xxxi, 
35,  "Oh!  that  one  would  hear  me!  .  .  .  .that  mine 
I  adversary  had  written  a  book,"  would  be  more  prop- 
I  erly  rendered,  "  that  mine  adversary  had  given  me  a 
J  written  accusation,"  or,  in  modern  phraseology,  "a 
bill  of  indictment."  In  other  places  we  have  the, 
1  word  "bill,"  as  "bill  of  divorcement"  (Deut.  xxiv, 
I  1,  3;  Isa.  1,  1;  Jer.  iii,  8;  Matt,  xix,  7;  Mark  x,  4) 
i  [see  Divorce],  and  in  Jer.  x.\xii,  10-16,  44,  "the  ev- 
;  idence,"  or,  as  in  the  margin,  "  the  book,"  which  there 
j  implies  a  legal  conveyance  of  landed  property. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  word  ypd/ifia  (properly 
a  written  mark)  is  translated  "bill"  in  the  parable  of 
the  unjust  steward  (Luke  xvi,  6,  7).  Here,  too,  a  le- 
gal instrument  is  meant,  as  the  lord's  "debtors"  are 
•  presumed  to  have  been  tenants  who  paid  their  rents  in 
I  kind.  The  steward,  it  would  appear,  sought  their 
good-will,  not  merely  by  lowering  the  existing  claim 
for  the  year,  but  by  granting  a  new  contract,  under 
which  the  tenants  were  permanently  to  pay  less  than 
they  had  previously  done.  He  directed  the  tenants  to 
write  out  the  contracts,  but  doubtless  gave  them  valid- 
ity by  signing  them  himself.  This,  like  the  Hebrew 
j  term,  signifies  a  "  letter"  or  written  communication 
I  (1  Kings  xxi,  8  ;  2  Kings  v,  5  ;  x,  1 ;  xix,  14  ;  xx,  12  ; 
|  2  Chron.  xxxii,  17 ;  Esther  i,  22  ;  iii,  13 ;  viii,  5,  etc. ; 
Acts  xx  viii,  21;  Gal.  vi,  11). 

I  Billican  (Billicanus  or  Pillicanus),  Theobald, 
j  was  born  at  Billigheim  near  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  His  real  name  was  Gerlach,  but  he  took  his 
I  surname  from  his  birthplace.  He  passed  A.B.  at 
!  Heidelberg,  1512.  In  1518  (April  26)  Luther  disputed 
j  in  the  convent  of  the  Augustinians  at  Heidelberg  with 
several  Romish  orators.  Billican  attended,  with  Brentz 
(q.  v.)  and  Schnepf,  and  was  so  impressed  by  Luther 
|  that  he  at  once  joined  his  side  of  the  controversy.  His 
j  lectures  in  the  university,  as  well  as  those  of  Brentz, 
found  great  favor  with  the  students,  but  an  inquiry 
I  into  his  teaching  was  soon  ordered  by  the  authorities. 
He  left  Heidelberg  in  1522  for  Weil,  and  was  driven 
from  thence  to  Ndrdlingen,  where  he  remained  as  pas- 
tor till  1535.  His  preaching  was  very  useful  to  the 
Reformation.  In  the  controversy  about  the  Eucharist 
he  sided  with  Luther  against  Zuingle.  In  1535  he  re- 
turned to  Heidelberg,  where  he  was  allowed  to  lecture 
on  the  Decretals  and  the  Jusfeudale  till  1544,  when  he 
was  driven  away  from  the  university,  and  imprisoned 
for  a  time  at  Dilsberg.  His  last  j-ears  were  spent  as 
Professor  of  Rhetoric  at  Marburg,  and  he  died  there 
!  August  8th,  1554.— Herzog,  Real-Encyklvp.  ii,  238. 

Billroth,  Joiiaxx  Gustav  Friedricii,  a  German 
theologian,  was  born  in  1808  at  Lubeck,  became  in 
i  1834  professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle,  and  died  there  in 
i  1836.  He  wrote,  among  others,  the  following  works : 
Beitrage  zur  wisst  nsch  ftlichen  Kritik  der  herrschenden 
Theohgk  ( Leipz.  1813) ;  Commentar  zu  denBriefen  des 
Apostels  Paulus  an  die  Korinthier  (Leipz.  1833);  Vor~ 
lesungen  fiber  Religionsphilosuplm,  published  after  his 
death  by  Erdmann  (Leipz.  1837). 

Bilney,  Thomas,  one  of  the  English  reformers  and 
martyrs,  was  born  at  Norfolk  about  1500,  and  educated 


IULSIIAN 


S14 


BINGHAM 


at  Cambridge.  From  his  boyhood  he  was  remarkable 
for  bis  pious  bent,  and  he  Bought  aid  in  the  way  of  ho- 
liness  from  his  confessor  and  other  priests  in  the  Rom- 
ish Church.  But  he  sought  in  vain  until,  by  reading 
the  N.  T.  in  the  translation  of  Erasmus,  he  was  deliv- 
ered from  the  errors  of  popery  and  the  bondage  of  sin; 
and,  leaving  the  study  of  human  law,  devoted  himself 
wholly  to  the  study  of  divinity.  lie  soon  began  to 
preach,  ami  his  ministry  was  wonderfully  successful. 
M.my  gownsmen,  among  whom  was  Latimer,  were  led 
by  his  instrumentality  to  the  Saviour.  He  continued 
his  labors  witli  great  effect  until  Wblsey,  alarmed  by 
his  success,  arrested  him,  Nov.  25,  1527,  and  brought 
him  to  trial  for  preaching  the  doctrines  of  Luther. 
After  four  appearances  before  his  judges,  his  firmness 
was  overcome  rather  by  the  persuasions  of  his  friends 
than  from  conviction,  and  he  signed  a  recantation,  De- 
cember 7,  1529.  After  this  he  returned  to  Cam1, ridge ; 
but  the  consideration  of  what  he  had  done  brought  him 
to  the  brink  of  despair.  Being  restored,  however,  by 
•the  grace  of  God  to  peace  of  conscience,  he  resolved  to 
give  up  his  life  in  defence  of  the  truth  lie  had  sinfully 
abjured.  Accordingly,  in  1531,  he  went  into  Norfolk, 
and  there  preached  the  Gospel,  at  first  privately  and  in 
houses,  afterward  openly  in  the  fields,  bewailing  his 
former  recantation,  and  begging  all  men  to  take  warn- 
ing  by  him,  and  iv  r<  r  to  trust  the  counsels  of  friends,  so 
•  ■  dL  d,  when  their  purpose  is  to  draw  them  from  the  true 
religion.  Being  thrown  into  prison,  Drs.  Call  and 
Stokes  were  sent  to  persuade  him  again  to  recant;  but 
the  former  of  these  divines,  by  Bilney's  doctrine  and 
conduct,  was  greatly  drawn  over  to  the  side  of  the  Gos- 
pel. Finding  him  inflexible,  his  judges  condemned 
him  to  be  burned.  At  the  stake  he  rivalled  the  no- 
blest martyrs  of  antiquity  in  courage  and  constancy. 
His  friend  Dr.  Warner,  who  had  accompanied  him,  in 
taking  his  last  leave  of  his  beloved  friend,  was  so  much 
affected  that  he  could  say  '  ut  little  for  his  tears.  Bil- 
ney  accosted  him  with  a  heavenly  smile,  thanked  him 
kindly  for  all  his  attentions,  and,  bending  toward  him, 
whispered,  in  a  low  voice,  his  farewell  words,  of  which 
it  is  hard  to  say  whether  they  convey  more  of  love  to 
his  friend  or  faithfulness  to  his  Master:  "  Pa  see  grc- 
'i<  m  /nun},  p  isce  gregem  tuum .-  itt  cum  venerit  Dominus, 
inveniat  te  sic  facientem:  Fad  your  flock,  feed  your 
flock;  /hit  the  Lord,  when  he  cometh,  may  find  you  so 
doing."  The  fagots  were  then  applied,  and  the  body 
of  the  dying  martyr  was  consumed  to  ashes,  A.D.  1531. 
— Middleton,  Evang.  Bog.;  Fox,  Book  of  Martyrs; 
Burnet,  Hist,  of  Reformation,  i,  53,  268;  Collier,  .Eccl. 
//i<>.  of  England,  p.  70,  184;  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  ii,  406. 

Bil'shan  (Ileb.  Bilshan' ',  "|1ZJ!?2,  son  of  the  tongue, 
i.  e.  eloquent;  Sept.  BaXaaav  and  BaXcrav),  a  man  of 
rank  who  returned  from  the  Babylonian  captivity  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii,  2;  Neh.  vii,  7).     B.C.  536. 

Bilson,  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  was  of 
German  descent,  but  was  born  at  Winchester  in  1547. 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester,  and  was  elected  in 
1565  to  New  College,  of  which  he  afterward  became 
warden.  In  1585  he  published  ins  True  Difference  be- 
in-  i>  Christian  Subjection  and  unchristian  Rebellion; 
.■ml  in  1593,  his  Perpetual  Government  of  Christ  his 
Church  (reprinted  Oxford,  1842,  8vo).  He  was  ele- 
rated  '"  lh"  see  of  Worcester  in  1596,  and  transferred 
to  that  of  Winchester  May  13th,  1597,  when  he  was 
made  a  privy  councillor.  His  most  celebrated  work 
is  Ins  Survey  of  the  Sujf\  rings  ofChristfor  the  Redemp- 
tion nj  Man,  and  of  his  Des*  ut  into  Hellforour  Deliver- 
"'"'■'  "•"»<'•  1604,  fol.),  which  is  a  learned  work  against 
Calvin  and  the  Puritans.  To  him,  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Miles  Smith,  was  intrusted  the  care  of  re- 
vising the  new  translation  of  the  Bible  made  in  the 
reign  of  dames  [.     Re  attended  the  Hampton  Court 

conference,  and  was  one  of  the -t  zealous  advocates 

of  the  prerogatives  of  the  Church.  He  was  a  person 
of  great  learning,  and  specially  well  read  in  the  fa- 


thers and  schoolmen.  He  died  June  18,  1616.  His 
Perpetual  Government  is  considered  by  High  Church- 
men as  one  of  the  ablest  defences  of  apostolical  suc- 
cession ever  published. — Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  ii,  422. 

Bim'hal  (Heb.  Bimhal' ,  bnra,  son  of  circumcision, 
i.  e.  circumcised ;  Sept.  Ba/ta/yA),  a  son  of  Japhlet  and 
great-great-grandson  of  Ashcr  (1  Chron.  vii,  33).  B.C. 
cir.  1658. 

Bind  (represented  by  numerous  Heb.  words).  To 
bind  and  to  loose  (ciio  and  Xvoj)  are  figurative  expres- 
sions, used  as  synonymous  with  command  and  forbid; 
they  are  also  taken  for  condemning  and  absolving  (Mutt, 
xvi,  19).  Binding  and  loosing,  in  the  language  of  the 
Jews,  expressed  permitting  or  forbidding,  or  judicially 
declaring  any  thing  to  be  permitted  or  forbidden  (comp. 
John  xx,  23 ;  xvi,  13).  In  the  admission  of  their  doc- 
tors to  interpret  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  they  put  a 
key  and  a  table-book  into  their  hands,  with  these  words; 
"  Receive  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing,"  to  which 
there  seems  to  be  an  allusion  in  Luke  xi,  52.  (See 
Lightfoot,  I/or.  Heb.  in  loc.)  So  Christ  says,  "  I  am 
not  come  to  destroy,"  to  unloose  or  dissolve,  "  the  law, 
but  to  fulfil  it,"  that  is,  to  confirm  and  establish  it 
(Matt,  v,  17).  The  expression  "  to  bind  the  law  upon 
one's  hand  for  a  sign,"  etc.,  is  figurative,  and  implies 
an  acquaintance  with  it,  and  a  constant  regard  to  its 
precepts ;  but  the  Jews  construed  the  phrase  literally, 
[  and  bound  parts  of  the  law  about  their  wrists;  hence 
!  the  custom  of  wearing  phylacteries.  Rolls  or  volumes 
of  writing  were  tied  up ;  hence  the  expression  in  Isa. 
viii,  16.  See  Phylactery. 
|  Bill'ea  (Heb.  B'na  and  BinaV,  JC'33  and  nr?3 
[the  latter  in  the  first  occurrence],  according  to  Si- 
monis,  by  transposition  for  i"!>23,  a  gushing  forth,  i.  c. 
fountain  ;  according  to  Fiirst,  for  n;"a"*2,  son  of  dis- 
sipation, i.  e.  scatterer;  Sept.  Boom  v.  r.  Bavc'i),  a 
Benjamite,  son  of  Moza  and  father  of  Rapha,  of  the 
descendants  of  King  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii,  37;  ix,  43). 
B.C.  cir.  850. 

Bingham,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
laborious  divines  the  Church  of  England  has  ever 
produced,  was  born  in  1668  at  Wakefield,  in  York- 
shire. He  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became  a  fellow 
of  University  College,  where  he  had  for  his  pupil 
Potter,  who  afterward  was  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
When  called  upon  to  preach  before  the  university, 
he  chose  for  the  subject  of  his  sermon  the  myste- 
ry of  the  Trinity,  and  some  expressions  which  were 
thought  to  be  heretical  raised  a  great  storm,  which 
eventually  induced  him  to  quit  the  university,  lie 
received  the  rectorj"  of  Havant,  in  Hampshire,  and 
died  in  1723,  the  victim  of  excessive  toil  in  pursuing 
his  literary  labors,  which,  owing  to  his  large  family 
and  narrow  income,  were  necessary  to  his  support. 
In  1708  lie  published  the  first  volume  of  his  celebrated 
work,  Origines  Ecclesiast:ar,  or  Antiquities  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  which  was  completed  in  eight  vols.  8vo, 
the  last  of  which  appeared  in  1722.  He  was  employ- 
ed in  correcting  and  amending  this  work  at  his  death, 
which  amended  edition  was  afterward  contained  in  the 
collection  of  his  works  published  at  London  in  two 
vols,  fol.,  1726.  His  Origines  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  J.  H.  Grichow,  with  a  preface  and  notes  by 
J.  F.  Buddaeus,  and  printed  at  Halle  in  1724-38,  and 
again  in  1751-61  (10  vols.  4to).  This  great  work  is  a 
perfect  repertory  of  facts  in  ecclesiastical  archa?ology, 
and  lias  not.  been  superseded  or  even  approached  in 
its  own  line  by  any  book  since  produced.  Its  High- 
Church  views  make  it  very  acceptable  to  the  Romanists, 
who  have  printed  a  revised  German  translation  of  it 
for  their  own  use  (Augsburg,  1788-96,  4  vols.  8vo).  A 
very  convenient  and  cheap  edition  of  Bingham  for  the 
use  of  students  was  published  in  London  in  1852 
(Bohn,  2  vols,  royal  8vo).  The  best  complete  edition 
is  that  of  Pitman  (Lend.  1840,  9  vols.  8vo),  which  gives 


BINIUS 


815 


BIRD 


the.  citations  in  full  from  the  originals,  together  with  a 
life  of  the  author.     See  Archeology. 

Binius  (commonly  Bini),  Severin,  born  in  Ju- 
liers,  was  a  canon  and  professor  of  theology  at  Cologne, 
where  he  died  in  1(341.  He  is  known  by  his  "Collec- 
tion of  Councils,"  Concilia  Genitalia  et  Provinciidia 
Greeca  et  Latina  (Cologne,  4  vols,  fol.,  160G;  9  vols., 
1G18;  10  vols.,  Paris,  1636).  The  notes  appended  to 
it  are  taken  from  Baronius,  Bellarmine,  and  Suarez, 
and  are  strongly  imbued  with  the  ultramontane  views 
of  those  writers.  Usher,  in  his  Ant'q.  Brit.,  calls 
him  Contaminator  Concdiorum,  from  the  fact  of  li Is  per- 
mitting himself  to  make  alterations,  which  he  calls 
corrections,  in  many  places  of  the  old  councils,  after  his 
own  fancy,  without  any  attention  to  the  MSS.  His 
collections  are  to  a  large  extent  superseded  by  those 
of  Labbe  and  others. — Biog.  Univ.  iv,  501.  See  Coun- 
cils. 

Bin'nui  (Heb.  Binnu'y,  "^23,  a  building),  a  fre- 
quent name  after  the  exile.     See  also  Bunni. 

1.  (Sept.  Bavovt.)  The  head  of  one  of  the  families 
of  Israelites,  whose  followers  to  the  number  of  C48  re- 
turned from  Babylon  (Neh.  vii,  15).  In  Ezra  ii,  10  he 
is  called  Bani  (q.  v.),  and  his  retainers  arc  numbered 
at  642. 

2.  (Sept.  Bavi,  Bavaiov,  and  Bavovt.')  A  Levite, 
son  of  Henadad,  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
Babylon,  B.C.  536  (Neh.  xii,  8)  ;  he  also  (if  the  same) 
assisted  in  repairing  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  B.C.  446 
(Neh.  iii,  24),  and  joined  in  the  religious  covenant, 
B.C.  410  (Neh.  x,  9). 

3.  (Sept.  Bai/afrt.)  The  father  of  the  Levite  Noa- 
diah,  who  was  one  of  those  that  assisted  in  weighing 
the  silver  and  gold  designed  for  the  divine  service  on 
the  restoration  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii,  £3).  B.C. 
459. 

4.  (Sept.  Bavovt.')  One  of  the  "  sons"  of  Pahath- 
moab,  who  put  away  his  Gentile  wife  on  the  return 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  x,  30).     B.C.  458. 

5.  Another  Israelite,  one  of  the  "  sons"  of  Bani, 
who  did  the  same  (Ezra  x,  38).     B.C.  458. 

Binterim,  Anton  Joseph,  a  very  prolific  Poman 
Catholic  writer,  was  born  at  Dusseldorf,  entered  the 
order  of  Franciscans  in  1796,  and  became  in  1805  pas- 
tor at  Bilk,  a  suburb  of  Dusseldorf,  which  office  he  re- 
tained until  his  death  in  1855.  In  1838  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  six  months'  imprisonment  for  having  cen- 
sured in  his  sermons  the  Prussian  law  respecting  mix- 
ed marriages.  The  most  important  of  his  numerous 
works  is  Die  rorz>iglichsfen  Denl-iriirdigkeiten  cler  chrisi- 
lick-lcatholischen  Kirche  (Mentz,  1821-  33,  7  vols.),  an  en- 
larged translation  of  Pellicia's  work  on  Christian  an- 
tiquities. See  Archaeology.  Among  his  other  works 
are  a  history  of  all  the  German  councils  (Gesrhichteder 
deutschen  National-,  Prorinzial-,  mid  Dibcesanconcil  en, 
Mentz,  1835-13,  7  vols.),  and  a  history  of  the  archdio- 
cese of  Cologne. 

Biothanati.     See  Biathanati. 

Birch,  Thomas,  D.D.,  was  born  in  London  Nov. 
23d,  1705,  of  Quaker  parents.  For  several  years  he 
acted  as  usher  in  different  schools,  and  pursued  his 
studies  assiduously.  He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1730, 
priest  in  1731,  by  Bishop  Hoadley,  without  h.-ving  at- 
tended either  of  the  universities.  He  owed  his  ad- 
vancement to  the  patronage  of  Lord-chancellor  Hard- 
wicke,  to  whom  he  had  been  recommended  early  in 
life.  In  1734  he  became  vicar  of  Ulting,  in  Essex; 
rector  of  St.  Margaret's,  London,  1746 ;  rector  of  Dep- 
den,  Essex,  1701.  In  1734  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society,  and  in  1752  he  became  one  of  its 
secretaries.  In  1753  the  University  of  Aberdeen  made 
him  D.D.  Dr.  Birch  was  indefatigable  in  literary 
pursuits.  The  first  work  of  importance  in  which  he 
was  engaged  was  the  General  Dictionary,  Historical  and 
Critical,  in  which  he  was  assisted  bv  Lockman,  Ber- 


nard, Sale,  and  others  (10  vols.  fol.  1734-1741).  It  in- 
cluded a  new  translation  of  Bayle,  besides  a  vast  quan- 
tity of  fresh  matter.  In  1742  he  published  Thurloe's 
State  Papers  (7  vols.  fol.).  He  published  Livis  of 
Abp.  TiUotson  and  the  Hon.  Rob.  Boyle  in  a  separate 
form,  and  edited  new  editions  of  their  works.  He  also 
published  and  edited  a  number  of  works  in  biography 
and  general  history.  His  biographer  remarks  that 
Dr.  Birch's  habit  of  early  rising  alone  enabled  him  to 
get  through  so  much  work.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  between  London  and  Hampstead,  Jan- 
uary 9th,  1766.  The  "General  Dictionary"  is  still  a 
very  valuable  and  useful  work.  It  has  been  of  great 
service  in  the  compilation  of  this  "Cyclopaedia." — 
Jones,  Christian  Biography ;  Eng.  Cyclopaedia. 

Bird.  Birds  may  be  defined  oviparous  vertebrated 
animals,  organized  for  flight.  The  common  Heb. 
name  1*BX,  tsippor',  opvtov,  is  used  of  small  birds 
generally,  and  of  the  sparrow  in  particular  (as  it  is 
rendered  in  Psa.  cii,  7) ;  Cji",  oph,  -kithvov  or  irrrjvov, 
of  frequent  occurrence,  usually  translated  "  fowl," 
properly  means  flyer ;  13??,  a'yit,  a  bird  of  prey 
('AETO'S,  an  eagle),  rendered  "  fowls"  in  Gen.  xv,  11 ; 
Job  xxviii,  7  ;  and  Isa.  xviii,  6  ;  in  Jer.  xii,  9,  il  birds;" 
and  in  Isa.  xlvi,  11,  and  Ezek.  xxxix,  4,  '"ravenous"'' 
birds.  E^S"!?,  barburim  ,  denotes  fatted  gallina- 
cea;  it  occurs  only  in  1  Kings  iv,  23  [v,  3],  and  is 
there  translated  "  fowls,"  though  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  domestic  fowls  are  mentioned  in  any  part  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible.  See  Cock.  Gesenius  applies  the 
word  to  geese.     See  Fowl  ;  Fledgling. 

In  the  Mosaic  law  birds  were  distinguished  as  clean 
and  unclean  :  the  first  being  allowed  for  the  table,  be- 
cause they  fed  on  grain,  seeds,  and  vegetables;  and 
the  second  forbidden,  because  they  subsisted  on  flesh 
and  carrion.  Clean  birds  were  offered  in  sacrifice 
on  many  occasions  (Lev.  i,  14-17;  v,  7-10;  xiv,  4-7). 
TI13  birds  most  anciently  used  in  sacrifice  were,  it 
seems,  turtle-doves  and  pigeons.  Birds,  however, 
were  not  ordinarily  deemed  valuable  enough  for  Jew- 
ish sacrifices  ;  but  the  substitution  of  turtle-doves  and 
pigeons  was  permitted  to  the  poor,  and  in  the  sacrifice 
for  purification.  The  way  of  offering  them  is  detailed 
in  Lev.  i,  15-17,  and  v,  8 ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  notice 
that  the  practice  of  not  dividing  them,  which  was  tho 
case  in  other  victims,  was  of  high  antiquity  (Gen.  xv, 
10).  See  Harbaugh,  Birds  of  the  Bible  (Phil.  1854)  ; 
Anon.  Birds  mentioned  in  the  Bibl',  (Lond.  1858). 

The  abundance  of  birds  in  the  East  has  been  men- 
tioned by  many  travellers.  In  Curzon's  Monasteries 
of  the  Levant,  and  in  Stanley's  Sinai  and  l'n'<  stine,  this 
abundance  is  noticed  ;  by  the  latter  in  connection  with 
his  illustration  of  the  parable  of  the  sower  (Matt,  xiii, 
4).  (Comp.  Rosenmiiller,  Morgenl.  v,  59.)  They  arc 
often  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  (sea 
Wilkinson's  Anc.  Eg.  i,  231,  232,  abridgm.,  where  fig- 
ures are  given  of  many  of  them).  The  following  is  a 
list  of  all  the  birds  (including  the  bat,  but  excluding 
all  insects)  named  in  Scripture,  in  the  alphabetical 
order  of  their  true  English  names  (so  far  as  can  be 
judged  of  their  identity),  with  the  Hebrew  or  Greek 
term  in  italics  (see  Kitto,  Pict.  Bible,  on  Lev.  1.  c.) : 

Clean. 
Cock,  A  Icktor. 

lien,  Ornift. 

Peacocks  <'/),  Tvkfa'yim. 
Poultry,  Barburim. 
Quail,  Selav. 

*p—  {SSL. 


Doubtful. 

Stork,  Chasidah. 


Unclean. 
Bat,  Allalleph  (animal). 
Bittern  (?),  Kippod. 
Cormorant,  Shalek. 
Crane  (?),  Yanslmph. 

CXesher\  (general 
i?„„i„    '  Actus  (  term). 
h*SlB-)A znimhC  Pea-eagle* 

[Pm^crossifrage). 
Gull  (?),  Shochaph. 

fXct.i  (general  term), 

I  Avah  (falcon). 
Hawk  -l,  Daa  h   ) 

|  r/ta</i]  Hkite). 

iDayah  ) 
Heron  (?),  A  naphali. 


BIRDSEYE 


I'm  i.i:an. 


816 


BIRTH 


u  i-„„„  f  Kanth. 
U-"an,TlnshemethO). 

Swallow  {^r. 
Vulture,  liachanu 


Lapwing,  T)nkij>liah. 
Night-hawk^),  Tachmas. 

,  )'.(  n  (male). 
Ostrich-   Vaanah  (female). 

I  /,'-  natiah  (?). 

Unl    (A/y. 

Birds  are  mentioned  as  articles  of  food  in  Deut.  xiv, 
11,  "20.  the  intermediate  verses  containing  a  list  of  un- 
clean birds,  which  were  not  to  he  eaten.  There  is  a 
similar  list  in  Lev.  xi,  13-19.  From  Job  vi,  G;  Luke 
xi,  12,  we  find  that  the  eggs  of  birds  were  also  eaten. 
Quails  and  pigeons  are  edible  birds  mentioned  in  the 
O.  T.  Our  Saviour's  mention  of  the  hen  gathering  her 
chickens  under  her  wing  implies  that  the  domestic 
fowl  was  known  in  Palestine.  The  art  of  snaring  wild 
birds  is  referred  to  in  Psa.  exxiv,  7;  Prov.  i,  17;  vii, 
23;  Amos  iii,  5;  Ilos.  v,  1;  vii,  12.  See  Fowling. 
The  cage  full  of  birds  in  Jer.  v,  27,  was  a  trap  in  which 
decoy-birds  were  placed  to  entice  others,  and  furnish- 
ed with  a  trap-door  which  could  be  dropped  by  a  fowl- 
er watching  at  a  distance.  See  Cage.  This  practice 
is  mentioned  in  Ecclus.  xi,  30  (lrtpSiK  Qi]ptvT>)g  iv 
KapraWqi;  comp.  Arist.  Hist.  Anim.  ix,  8).  In  Deut. 
xxii,  6,  it  is  commanded  that  an  Israelite,  finding  a 
bird's  nest  in  his  path,  might  take  the  young  or  the 
eggs,  but  must  let  the  hen-bird  go.  By  this  means 
the  extirpation  of  any  species  was  guarded  against 
(comp.  Phocvl.  Citrm.  p.  80  sq.).  The  nests  of  birds 
were  readily  allowed  by  the  Orientals  to  remain  in 
their  temples  and  sanctuaries,  as  though  they  had 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  God  (comp. 
Herod,  i,  159  ;  .Elian,  V.  II.  v,  17).  There  is  probably 
an  allusion  to  this  in  Psa.  lxxxiv,  3.  See  Nest.  The 
seasons  of  migration  observed  by  birds  are  noticed  in 
•ler.  viii,  7.  Birds  of  song  are  mentioned  in  Psa.  civ, 
12;  Eccl.  xii,  4.     See  Zoology. 

Birdseye,  Nathan,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  Stratford,  Conn.,  Aug.  19, 1714,  graduated 
at  Yale  1736,  and  became  pastor  of  the  church  in  West 
Haven  1742.  He  resigned  June,  1758,  and  retired 
to  a  farm  in  the  town,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  Once,  after  he  was  a  hundred  years  old,  he  con- 
ducted devotional  services  in  the  church.  He  died 
Jan.  28,  1818.— Sprague,  Annuls,  i,  4CG. 

Birei.     See  Beth-bieei. 

Birgitta,  St.     See  Bridget. 

Birgittines.     See  Biugittines. 

Bir'sha  (Heb.  Birska',  "'r"i3,  for  S01"*ja,  son  of 
ss  ;  Sept.  Baorrcl),  a  king  of  Gomorrah,  succor- 
<  d  by  Abraham  in  the  invasion  by  Chedorlaomer  (Gen. 
xiv,  2).     B.C.  cir.  2080. 

Birth.  (The  act  of  parturition  is  properly  express- 
ed in  the  original  languages  of  Scripture  by  some  form 
of  the  verbs  1P^,  yalad',  ri'xrw,  rendered  "bear,"  "trav- 
ail," "bring forth," etc.).  In  the  East  (q.  v.)  child- 
birth is  usually  attended  with  much  less  pain  and  diffi- 
culty than  in  more  northern  regions,  although  <  Iriental 
females  arc  not  to  be  regarded  as  exempt  from  the 
common  doom  of  woman,  "  in  sorrow  shalt  thou  bring 
forth  children"  (Gen.  iii,  1G).  It  is,  however,  uncer- 
tan.  whether  the  difference  arises  from  the  effect  of 
climate  or  from  the  circumstances  attending  advanced 
civilization;  perhaps  both  causes  operate,  to  a  certain 
degree,  in  producing  the  effect.  Climate  must  have 
t ;  but  it  is  observed  that  the  difficulty  of 
childbirth    --ii-.-l  r  trjy  ihir.cte   increases  with  tlr   a;l  ■ 

v;" f  civilization,  and  that  in  any  climate  the  class 

on  whirl,  the  advanced  condition  of  society  most  oper- 
ates finds  the  pangs  ..f  childbirth  the  most  severe 
Such  consideration  maj  probably  account  for  the  fact 
that  the  Hebrew  women,  after  they  had  long  been 
under  the  influence  of  the  Egyptian  climate,  passed 
through  the  childbirth  pangs  with  much  more  facility 
than  the  women  of  Egypt,  whose  habits  of  life  were 


more  refined  and  telf-indulgent  (Exod.  i,  19).  There 
were,  however,  already  recognised  Hebrew  midwives 
while  the  Israelites  were  in  Egypt ;  and  their  office 
appears  to  have  originated  in  the  habit  of  calling  in 
some  matron  of  experience  in  such  matters  to  assist 
in  cases  of  difficulty.  A  remarkable  circumstance  in 
the  transaction  which  has  afforded  these  illustrations 
(Exod.  i,  1G)  will  be  explained  under  Stool. 

The  child  was  no  sooner  born  than  it  was  washed  in 
a  bath  and  rubbed  with  salt  (Ezek.  xvi,  4)  ;  it  was  then 
tightly  swathed  or  bandaged  to  prevent  those  distor- 
tions to  which  the  tender  frame  of  an  infant  is  so  much 
exposed  during  the  first  days  of  life  (Job  xxxviii,  9; 
Ezek.  xvi,  4  ;  Luke  ii,  7,  11).  This  custom  of  bandag- 
ing or  swathing  the  new-born  infant  is  general  in 
Eastern  countries.  It  was  also  a  matter  of  much  at- 
tention with  the  Greeks  and  Bomans  (see  the  citations 
in  Wetstein  at  Luke  ii,  7),  and  even  in  our  own  coun- 
try was  not  abandoned  till  the  last  century,  when  the 
repeated  remonstrances  of  the  physicians  seem  to  have 
led  to  its  discontinuance. 

It  was  the  custom  at  a  very  ancient  period  for  the 
father,  while  music  celebrated  the  event,  to  clasp  the 
new-born  child  to  his  bosom,  and  by  this  ceremony  he 
was  understood  to  declare  it  to  be  his  own  (Gen.  1,  23; 
Job  iii,  3 ;  Psa.  xxii,  11).  This  practice  was  imitated 
by  those  wives  who  adopted  the  children  of  their  hand- 
maids (Gen.  xvi,  2 ;  xxx,  3-5).  The  messenger  who 
brought  to  the  father  the  first  news  that  a  son  was 
born  to  him  was  received  with  pleasure  and  reward- 
ed with  presents  (Job  iii,  3;  Jer.  xx,  15).  as  is  still  the 
custom  in  Persia  and  other  Eastern  countries.  The 
birth  of  a  daughter  was  less  noticed,  the  disappoint- 
ment at  its  not  being  a  son  subduing  for  the  time  the 
satisfaction  which  the  birth  of  any  child  naturally  oc- 
casions. 

Among  the  Israelites,  the  mother,  after  the  birth  of 
a  son,  continued  unclean  seven  days;  and  she  remain- 
ed at  home  during  the  thirty-three  days  succeeding 
the  seven  of  uncleanness,  forming  altogether  forty 
days  of  seclusion.  After  the  birth  of  a  daughter  the 
number  of  the  days  of  uncleanness  and  seclusion  at 
home  was  doubled.  At  the  expiration  of  this  period 
she  went  into  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  and  presented 
a  yearling  lamb,  or,  if  she  was  poor,  two  turtle-doves 
and  two  young  pigeons,  as  a  facrifice  of  purification 
(Lev.  xii,"  1-8 ;  Luke  ii,  22).  On  the  eighth  day  after 
the  birth  of  a  son  the  child  was  circumcised,  by  which 
rite  it  was  consecrated  to  God  (Gen.  xvii,  10 ;  comp. 
with  Bom.  iv,  11). — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Child. 

Roberts  says,  "When  a  person  has  succeeded  in 
gaining  a  blessing  which  he  has  long  desired,  he 
says,  '  Good !  good !  the  child  is  born  at  last.'  Has  a 
person  lost  his  lawsuit  in  a  provincial  court,  he  will 
go  to  the  capital  to  make  an  appeal  to  a  superior  court; 
and  should  he  there  succeed,  he  will  say,  in  writing  to 
a  friend,  '  Good  news  !  good  news !  the  child  is  born.' 
When  a  man  has  been  trying  to  gain  an  office,  his 
friend,  meeting  him  on  his  return,  does  not  always 
ask,  'Is  the  child  born?'  or  '  Did  it  come  to  the  birth  ?' 
but,  '  Is  it  a  male  or  a  female  ?'  If  he  say  the  former, 
he  has  gained  his  object;  if  the  latter,  he  has  failed. 
The  birth  of  a  son  is  always  a  time  of  great  festivity 
in  the  East;  hence  the  relations  come  together  to  con- 
gratulate the  parents,  and  to  present  their  gifts  to  the 
little  stranger.  Some  bring  the  silver  anklets;  others 
the  bracelets  or  ear-rings,  or  silver  cord  for  the  loins; 
others,  however,  take  gold,  and  a  variety  of  needful 
articles.  When  the  infant  son  of  a  king  is  shown,  the 
people  make  their  obeisance  to  him"  (Orient.  I/lns.). 
This  illustrates  the  offerings  of  the  Maui,  who  came  to 
Bethlehem  to  worship  the  infant  Messiah,  as  recorded  in 
Matt,  ii,  11  :  "  When  they  had  opened  their  treasures, 
they  presented  unto  him  gifts  ;  gold,  and  frankincense, 
and  myrrh." 

The  disease  called  empneumatosis,  or  false  conception, 
docs  not  appear  to  have  been  so  unfrequent  among  the 


BIRTH 


817 


BIRTHRIGHT 


Hebrew  women  as  among  tlwse  of  Europe.     If  it  had  i 
been  so,  it  probably  would  not  have  made  its  appear- 
ance on  the  pages  of  Hebrew  writers  in  the  shape  of  a 
figure  of  speech.     The  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to 
expect,  after  severe  calamities,  a  season  of  prosperity 
and  joy.     They  accordingly  compared  a  season  of 
misfortune  and  calamity  to  the  pains  of  a  woman  in 
travail ;   but  the  better  destiny  which  followed  they  | 
compared  to  the  joy  which  commonly  succeeds  child- 
birth (Isa.  xiii,  8 ;  xxvi,  17  ;  2  Kings  xix,  3 ;  Jer.  iv,  i 
31 ;  xiii,  21 ;  xxii,  23  ;   xxx,  G  :   Mic.  iv,  9,  10  ;  John 
xvi,  21,  22).      But  they  cany  the  comparison  still  far- 
ther.    Those  days  of  adversity,  which  were  succeeded 
by  adversity  still  more  severe  ;  those  scenes  of  sorrow,  j 
which  were  followed  by  sorrow  j^et  more  acute,  were  j 
likened  to  women  who  labored  under  that  disease  of  : 
the  system  which  caused  them  to  exhibit  the  appear- 
ance and  endure  the  pains  of  pregnancy,  the  result  of 
which  was  either  the  production  of  nothing — to  use  the 
words  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  when  it  "  brought  forth 
wind,"  or  when  it  terminated  in  the  production  of  a 
monster  (Isa.  xxvi,  18  ;  Psa.  vii,  14).    On  this  disorder, 
which  is  well  known  to  medical  men,  see  Michaelh's 
Syntagma  Comment,  ii,  165.     See  Disease. 

BIRTHDAY  (r^rt  Q"n,  Gen.  xl,  20;  tu  yevsma, 
Matt,  xiv,  G;  Mark  vi,'21).  The  observance  of  birth- 
days may  be  traced  to  a  very  ancient  date;  and  the 
birthday  of  the  first-born  son  seems  in  particular  to 
have  been  celebrated  with  a  degree  of  festivity  propor- 
tioned to  the  joy  which  the  event  of  his  actual  birth 
occasioned  (Job  i,  4,  13,  18).  The  birthdays  of  the 
Egyptian  kings  were  celebrated  with  great  pomp  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xl,  20).  These  days 
were  in  Egypt  looked  upon  as  holy ;  no  business  was 
done  upon  them,  and  all  parties  indulged  in  festivities 
suitable  to  the  occasion.  Every  Egyptian  attached 
much  importance  to  the  da}%  and  even  to  the  hour  of 
his  birth  ;  and  it  is  probable  that,  as  in  Persia  (Herodot. 
i,  133  ;  Xenoph.  Cyrop.  i,  3,  9),  each  individual  kept  his 
birthday  with  great  rejoicings,  welcoming  his  friends 
with  all  tl)3  amusements  of  society,  and  a  more  than 
usual  profusion  of  delicacies  of  the  table  (Wilkinson, 
v,  290).  In  the  Bible  there  is  no  instance  of  birthday 
celebrations  among  the  Jews  themselves  (hut  see  Jer. 
xx,  15).  The  example  of  Herod  the  tetrarch  (Matt. 
xiv,  G),  the  celebration  of  whose  birthday  cost  John 
the  Baptist  his  life,  can  scarcely  he  regarded  as  such, 
the  family  to  which  he  belonged  being  notorious  for  its 
adoption  of  heathen  customs.  In  fact,  the  later  Jews 
at  least  regarded  birthday  celebrations  as  parts  of 
idolatrous  worship  (Lightfoot,  Hor.  Hehr.  ad  Mutt,  xiv, 
G),  and  this  probably  on  account  of  the  idolatrous  rites 
with  which  they  were  observed  in  honor  of  those  who 
were  regarded  as  the  patron  gods  of  the  day  on  which 
the  party  was  born Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  proper  Greek  term  for  a  birthday  festival  is  tu  \ 
yevcOXui  (and  hence  in  the  earl}'  writers  the  day  of  a  i 
martyr's  commemoration),  but  tc\  ytrtaia  seems  to  be  j 
used  in  this  sense  by  a  Hellenism,  for  in  Herod,  iv,  2G,  ; 
it  means  a  day  in  honor  of  the  dead.  It  is  not  impossi-  j 
ble,  however,  that  in  Matt,  xiv,  G,  the  feast  to  com- 
memorate Herod's  accession  is  intended,  for  we  know  j 
that  such  feasts  were  common  (especially  in  Herod's  j 
family,  Josephus,  Ant.  xv,  11,  3;  sec  Blunt's  Comci-\ 
diners,  Append,  vii),  and  were  called  "the  day  of  the  j 
king"  (Hos.  vii,  5).  The  Gemarists  distinguish  ex-  j 
presslv  between  the  d^ab^  V4J  tOO^H  QT1,  dies  ytv- 
vicia  rer/ni,  and  the  X;!??  CI"1,  or  birthday  (Lightfoot, 
Hor.  Ilebr.  1.  c.).— Smith,  s.  v. 

Treatises  on  birthday  celebrations  have  been  written 
in  Latin  by  Braen  (Hafn.  1702),  Esenbreck  (Altdorf, 
1732),  Funcke  (Gorliz.  1G77),  same  (ibid.  1G95),  llildc- 
brand  (Helmst.  1661),  Khode  (Regiom.  1716),  Roa  j 
(Lugd.  Bat.  1604),  Spangenberg  (Goths,  1722),  Weber 
(Vimar.  1751),  Wend  (Viteb.  1687).  I 

E  F  F 


Birthright  (?TV1=3,  lekorah' ';  Sept.  and  N.  T.  to. 
TrpojToroKia)  denotes  the  special  privileges  and  ad- 
vantages belonging  to  the  first-born  (q.  v.)  among  the 
Hebrews.  These  were  not  definitely  settled  in  the  pa- 
triarchal times,  but  gradually  became  defined  to  in- 
clude the  following  peculiar  rights  : 

1.  The  functions  of  priesthood  in  the  family.  The 
eldest  son  naturally  became  the  priest  in  virtue  of  his 
priority  of  descent,  provided  no  blemish  or  defect  at- 
tached to  him.  The  theory  that  he  was  the  priest  of 
the  family  rests  on  no  scriptural  statement,  and  the 
rabbins  appear  divided  on  the  question  (see  Hottingcr's 
Note  on  Goodwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  i,  1 ;  Ugolini,  iii, 
53).  Great  respect  was  paid  to  him  in  the  household, 
and,  as  the  family  widened  into  a  tribe,  this  grew  into 
a  sustained  authority,  undefined  save  by  custom,  in  all 
matters  of  common  interest.  Thus  the  "princes"  of 
the  congregation  had  probably  rights  of  primogeniture 
(Num.  vii,  2;  xxi,  18;  xxv,  14).  Reuben  was  the 
first-born  of  the  twelve  patriarchs,  and  therefore  the 
honor  of  the  priesthood  belonged  to  his  tribe.  God, 
however,  transferred  it  from  the  tribe  of  Reuben  to  that 
of  Levi  (Num.  iii,  12,  13;  viii,  18).  Hence  the  first- 
born of  .the  other  tribes  were  redeemed  from  serving 
God  as  priests  by  a  sum  not  exceeding  five  shekels. 
Being  presented  before  the  Lord  in  the  temple,  they 
were  redeemed  immediately  after  the  thirtieth  day  from 
their  birth  (Num.  xviii,  15,  1G;  Lukeii,  22).  It  is  to 
be  observed  that  only  the  first-born  who  were  fit  for 
the  priesthood  (i.  e.  such  as  had  no  defect,  spot,  or  blem- 
ish) were  thus  presented  to  the  priest. 

2.  A  "double  portion"  of  the  paternal  property  was 
allotted  by  the.  Mosaic  law  (Deut.  xxi,  15-17),  nor 
could  the  caprice  of  the  father  deprive  him  of  it.  There 
is  some  difficulty  in  determining  precisely  what  is 
meant  by  a  double  portion.  Some  suppose  that  half 
the  inheritance  was  received  by  the  elder  brother,  and 
that  the  other  half  was  equally  divided  among  the  re- 
maining brethren.  This  is  not  probable.  The  rab- 
bins believe  that  the  elder  brother  received  twice  as 
much  as  any  of  the  rest,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
the  correctness  of  this  opinion.  When  the  first-born 
died  before  his  father's  property  was  divided,  and  left 
children,  the  right  of  the  father  descended  to  the  chil- 
dren, and  not  to  the  brother  next  of  age.  Such  was 
the  inheritance  of  Joseph,  his  sons  reckoning  with  his 
brethren,  and  becoming  heads  of  tribes.  .  This  seems 
to  explain  the  request  of  Elisha  for  a  "  double  portion" 
of  Elijah's  spirit  (2  Kings  ii,  9).  Reuben,  through  his 
unlilial  conduct,  was  deprived  of  the  birthright  (Gen. 
xlix,  4  ;  1  Chron.  v,  1).  It  is  likely  that  some  remem- 
brance of  this  lost  pre-eminence  stirred  the  Reubenite 
leaders  of  Korah's  rebellion  (Num.  xvi,  1,2;  xxvi,  5- 
9 ).  Esau's  act,  transferring  his  right  to  Jacob,  was  al- 
lowed valid  (Gen.  xxv,  33). 

3.  The  first-born  son  succeeded  to  the  official  author- 
ity possessed  by  his  father.  If  the  latter  was  a  king, 
the  former  was  regarded  as  his  legitimate  successor, 
unless  some  unusual  event  or  arrangement  interfered 
(2  Chron.  xxi,  3).  After  the  law  was  given  through 
Moses,  the  right  of  primogeniture  could  not  be  trans- 
ferred from  the  first-born  to  a  3'oungex  child  at  the  fa- 
ther's option.  In  the  patriarchal  age,  however,  it  was 
in  the  power  of  the  parent  thus  to  convey  it  from  the 
eldest  to  another  child  (Deut.  xxi,  15-17;  Gen.  xxv, 
31,  32).  David,  nevertheless,  by  divine  appointment, 
excluded  Adonijah  in  favor  of  Solomon,  which  deviation 
from  rule  was  indicated  by  the  anointing  (Goodwin, 
1.  c.  4,  with  Hottingcr's  notes).  The  first-born  of  a 
line  is  often  noted  in  the  early  scriptural  genealogies, 
e.g.  (Jen.  xxii,  21;  xxv,  13;  Num.  xxvi,  5,  etc. 

4.  The  Jews  attached  a  sacred  import  to  the  title  of 
primogeniture  (see  Schottgen,  Ilor.  Ilebr.  i,  922),  and 
this  explains  the  peculiar  significance  of  the  terms 
"first-born"  and  "first-begotten"  as  applied  to  the 
Messiah.    Thus  in  Rom.  viii,  29,  it  is  written  concern- 


BIRZAVITH 


818 


BISHOP 


ing  the  Son,  "That  he  might  he  the  first-born  among 
nianv  brethren;"  and  in  Coloss.  i,  18,  "Who  is  the 
beginning,  the  first-born  from  (he  dead;  that  in  all 
things  he  might  have  the  pre-eminence"  (see  also  Heb. 

i.  1. '"'.  6).  As  the  first-born  hart  a  double  portion,  so 
the  Lord  Jesus,  as  Mediator,  has  an  inheritance  supe- 
rior to  his  brethren  ;  he  is  exalted  to  the  right  hand  of 
the  Majesty  on  high,  where  he  reigns  until  all  his  en- 
i  ill  lie  subdued.  The  universe  is  his  rightful 
dominion  in  his  mediatorial  character.  Again,  he  alone 
is  a  true  priest ;  he  fulfilled  all  the  functions  of  the  sa- 
cerdotal office;  and  the  Levites,  to  whom,  under  the 
law,  the  priesthood  was  transferred  from  all  the  first- 
born of  Israel,  derived  the  efficacy  of  their  ministra- 
tions from  their  connection  with  the  great  high-priest 
(Jahn's  Biblical  Archaeology,  §  1G5).  —  Kitto,  s.  v. ; 
Smith,  s.  v.     See  Piumogeniture. 

Bir'zavith  (Heb.  Birza'vith,  n^T*i3,  prob.  in  pause 
for  n^f'ia,  Birza'yith,  as  in  the  margin,  or  ni'Ha, 
Birzoth' ',  as  some  would  point,  meaning  apparently 
olive  well;  Sept.  Bep^aiB  v.  r.  BepZaii,  Vulg.  Bars  dth\ 
a  name  occurring  in  the  genealogies  of  Asher  (1  Chron. 
vii,  31),  as  the  (?)  son  of  Malchiel,  being  the  son  of 
Beriah  and  great-grandson  of  Asher  (B.C.  cir.  1658); 
and  perhaps  also,  from  the  mode  of  its  mention,  the 
founder  of  a  place  in  Palestine  known  by  the  same 
name  (comp.  the  similar  expression,  "father  of  Beth- 
lehem," "father  of  Tekoa,"  etc.,  in  chaps,  ii  and  it). 
Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  158)  identifies  it  with  the  ruined 
village  Bir-zeit  ("well  of  oil"),  still  extant  and  inhab- 
ited by  Christians,  a  short  distance  X.  of  Jufna  or 
Ophir  (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  79);  but,  striking  as 
is  the  agreement  in  name,  the  position  (near  the  south 
border  of  Ephraim)  seems  to  preclude  the  identity, 
notwithstanding  the  support  claimed  by  Schwarz  in 
the  possible  coincidence  of  the  adjoining  Japhlet  (1 
Chron.  vii,  32,  33)  with  Japhleti  (Josh,  xvi,  3). 

Bish'lam  (Heb.  Bishlam',  dbpa,  for  B'3'd  "JSJ,  son 
of  peace,  i.  e.  peaceful;  Sept.  translates  iv  elpijvy,  so 
most  other  versions,  but  Vulg.  Beselani),  apparently 
an  officer  or  commissioner  (comp.  1  Esrtr.  ii,  16)  of 
Artaxerxes  (i.  e.  Smerrtis)  in  Palestine  at  the  time  of 
the  return  of  Zerubbabel  from  captivity,  and  active 
in  the  remonstrance  sent  to  the  Persian  court  against 
the  Jews  in  their  efforts  to  rebuild  their  temple  (Ezra 
iv,  7).     B.C.  522. 

Bishop,  a  term  derived  through  the  Saxon  (biscop) 
from  the  Greek  (tTrimcoTrog,  episcopus,  overseer)  as  a 
title  of  office  in  the  Christian  ministry.  In  the  Septua- 
gint  the  word  designates  a  holder  of  public  office,  wheth- 
er civil  or  religious  (e.  g.  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  12,  17 ;  Isa. 
xl,  1 i ).  In  classical  use  the  word  ordinarily  has  a  po- 
litical meaning ;  Cicero  is  called  episcopus  ores  and  cam- 
"The  inspectors  or  commissioners  sent  by 
Athens  to  her  subject  states  were  tirimoiroi  (Aristoph. 
Av.  1022),  and  their  office,  like  that  of  the  Spartan 
!l  " •»,  authorized  them  to  interfere  in  all  the  polit- 
ical arrangements  of  the  state  to  which  they  were  sent. 
The  title  was  still  current  and  beginning  to  be  used 
by  the  Romans  in  the  later  (lavs  of  the  republic  (Cic. 
ad  Itt,  vii,  11).  The  Hellenistic  Jews  found  it  era- 
ployed  in  the  Sept. ,  though  with  no  very  definite  import, 
tor  ..Hirers  charged  with  certain  functions  (Num.  iv  16  • 
xxxi,  14;  2  Kings  xi,  16,  19;  Judg.  ix,  28;  for  Heb! 
■Wpn,  etc.  ;  so  in  Wisd.  i,  6;  1  Mace,  i,  53;  comp.  Jo- 
se,,!,. Ant.  xii,  5,  4).  When  the  organization  of  the 
<  nnsti  in  churches  in  I  (entile  cities  involved  the  assign- 
meat  of  the  work  of  pastoral  superintendence  to  a  dis- 
tinct class,  the  title  lirioKoirog  presented  itself  as  atonce 
convenient  and  familiar,  and  was  therefore  adopt)  rt  as 
readily  as  the  word  elder  (irow/ftrtpoc)  had  been  in 
the  mother  church  of  Jerusalem"  (Smith,  Dictionary  of 
th,  Bible,  s.  v.).  J  J 

In  the  early  Church,  the  title  was  employed  cither 
in  relation  to  the  pastor  of  one  church  or  assembly  of  I 


Christians,  or  to  the  superintendent  of  a  number  of 
churches.  The  former  is  the  meaning  attached  to 
the  word  by  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists, 
and  the  latter  by  the  various  Episcopal  churches  of 
Christendom,  viz.,  the  Roman  Church,  the  Greek 
Church,  the  other  Oriental  churches  (Armenian,  Cop- 
tic, Jacobite,  Nestorian,  Abyssinian),  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  England  and  Ireland,  the  Episcopal  Church 
of  Scotland,  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the 
United  States,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  churches,  the 
Lutheran  Church  (in  Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway,  Rus- 
sia, and  several  German  states),  the  Moravians,  tho 
Mennonites.  In  some  Protestant  churches,  those  of 
Prussia  and  Nassau,  where  the  consistorial  constitu- 
tion prevails,  the  name  designates  more  a  title  of  hon- 
or conferred  on  the  superintendents  general  than  a  dis- 
tinct office. 

"Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  and  Congregational- 
ists agree  in  one  point,  viz.,  that  it  is  lawful  for  Chris- 
tians to  take  a  step  for  which  they  have  no  clear  prec- 
edent in  the  Scripture,  that  of  breaking  up  a  Church, 
when  it  becomes  of  unwieldy  magnitude,  into  fixed  di- 
visions, whether  parishes  or  congregations.  The  ques- 
tion then  arises  whether  the  organic  union  is  to  be  still 
retained  at  all.  To  this  (1)  Congregationalists  reply 
in  the  negative,  saying  that  the  congregations  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  great  city  no  more  need  to  be  in  or- 
ganic union  than  those  of  two  different  cities  ;  (2) 
Presbyterians  would  keep  up  tho  union  by  means  of  a 
synod  of  the  elders  ;  (3)  Episcopalians  desire  to  unito 
the  separate  churches  by  retaining  them  under  the  su- 
pervision of  a  single  head — the  bishop.  It  seems  im- 
possible to  refer  to  the  practice  of  the  apostle's  as  de- 
ciding in  favor  of  any  one  of  these  methods,  for  the 
case  had  not  yet  arisen  which  could  have  led  to  the  dis- 
cussion. The  city  churches  had  not  jret  become  so 
large  as  to  make  subdivision  positively  necessary,  and, 
as  a  fact,  it  did  not  take  place.  To  organize  distant 
churches  into  a  fixed  and  formal  connection  by  synods 
of  their  bishops  was,  of  course,  a  much  later  process ; 
but  such  unions  are  by  no  means  rejected,  even  by 
Congregationalists,  so  long  as  they  are  used  for  delib- 
eration and  advice,  not  as  assemblies  for  ruling  and 
commanding.  The  spirit  of  Episcopacy  depends  far 
less  on  the  episcopal  form  itself  than  on  the  size  and 
wealth  of  dioceses,  and  on  the  union  of  bishops  into 
synods,  whose  decisions  are  to  be  authoritative  on  the 
whole  Church,  to  say  nothing  of  territorial  establish- 
ment and  the  support  of  the  civil  government"  (Kitto, 
Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.).  For  the  controversy  as  to  tho  office 
of  bishops,  see  Episcopacy  ;  here  we  simply  give, 
first,  Biblical  applications  of  the  word  in  connection 
with  Trpfcrfivrtpoc,  ;  and,  secondly,  the  names,  classes, 
insignia,  duties,  election,  and  consecration  of  bishops 
in  ancient  and  modern  churches. 

I.  New  Testament  Uses  of  the  Term  "Bishop:"  1. 
Origin  of  the  Office. — "  The  apostles  originally  appoint- 
ed men  to  superintend  the  spiritual,  and  occasionally 
even  the  secular  wants  of  the  churches  (Acts  xiv,  23 ; 
xi,  30 ;  see  also  2  Tim.  ii,  2),  who  were  ordinarily  called 
Trpeajivripot,  elders,  from  their  age.  ;  sometimes  i~ ia- 
kotvoi,  overseers  (bishops),  from  their  office.  They  are 
also  said  ttpoioraodai,  to  preside.  (1  Thess.  v,  12 ;  1 
Tim.  v,  17) ;  never  ap\tn>,  to  ruk,  which  has  far  too 
despotic  a  sound.  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xiii, 
7, 17,  24)  they  are  named  t'/yovfievoi,  leading  -men  (comp. 
Arts  xv,  22),  and  figuratively  iroipii'ic,  shepherds 
(Ephes.  iv,  11).  These  presbyters  were  the  regular 
teachers  of  the  Church,  expounding  Scripture,  admin- 
istering the  sacraments,  and  exercising  pastoral  care 
and  discipline.  They  were  to  be  married  men  with 
families  (1  Tim.  iii,  4),  and  with  converted  children 
(Tit.  i,  6).  In  the  beginning  there  had  been  no  time 
to  train  teachers,  and  teaching  was  at  first  regarded 
far  more  in  the  light  of  a  gift  than  an  office  ;  yet  Paul 
places  '  ability  to  teach'  among  episcopal  qualifications 
(1  Tim.  iii,  2 ;  Titus  i,  9 ;  the  latter  of  which  passages 


BISHOP 


81! 


BISHOP 


should  he  translated,  'That  lie  may  be  able  both  to  ex- 
hort men  by  sound  teaching,  and  also  to  refute  oppos- 
ers').  That  teachers  had  obtained  in  Paul's  day  a  fixed 
official  position  is  manifest  from  Gal.  vi,  6,  and  1  Cor. 
ix,  14,  where  he  claims  for  them  a  right  to  worldly  main- 
tenance :  in  fact,  that  the  shepherds  ordered  to  '  feed  the 
flock,'  and  be  its  '  overseers'  (1  Pet.  v,  2),  were  to  feed 
them  with  knowledge  and  instruction,  will  never  be 
disputed,  except  to  support  a  hypothesis.  The  leaders 
also,  in  Heb.  xiii,  7,  are  described  as  'speaking  unto 
you  the  word  of  God.'  Ecclesiastical  history  joins  in 
proving  that  the  two  offices  of  teaching  and  superin- 
tending were,  with  few  exceptions,  coml lined  in  the 
same  persons,  as,  indeed,  the  nature  of  things  dictated. 

"  That  during  Paul's  lifetime  no  difference  between 
elders  and  bishops  yet  existed  in  the  consciousness  of 
the  Church  is  manifest  from  the  entire  absence  of  dis- 
tinctive names  (Acts  xx,  17-28 ;  1  Pet.  v,  1,  2).  The 
mention  of  bishops  and  deacons  in  Phil,  i,  1,  and  1  Tim. 
iii,  without  any  notice  of  elders,  proves  that  at  that 
time  no  difference  of  order  subsisted  between  bishops 
and  elders.  A  formal  ceremony,  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved, was  employed  in  appointing  elders,  although  it 
does  not  appear  that  as  yet  any  fixed  name  was  appro- 
priated to  the  idea  of  ordination.  (The  word  ordained 
is  inexcusably  interpolated  in  the  English  version  of  \ 
Acts  i,  22.  In  Titus  i,  5,  the  Greek  word  is  Karacr!)-  ' 
aye,  set,  or  set  vp ,-  and  in  Acts  xiv,  23,  it  is  x^'porovi)- 
traiTEC,  having  elected,  properly  by  a  show  of  hands ; 
though,  abusively,  the  term  came  to  mean  simply  hav- 
ing chosen  or  nominated  [Acts  x,  41]  ;  yet  in  2  Cor.  viii, 
19,  it  seems  to  have  its  genuine  democratic  sense.)  In 
1  Cor.  xvi,  15,  we  find  the  house  of  Stephanas  to  have 
volunteered  the  task  of  'ministering  to  the  saints;' 
and  that  this  was  a  ministry  of  '  the  word'  is  evident 
from  the  apostle's  urging  the  Church  '  to  submit  them- 
selves to  such.'  It  would  appear,  then,  that  a  formal 
investiture  into  the  office  was  not  as  yet  regarded  es- 
sential. Be  this  as  it  may,  no  one  doubts  that  an  or- 
dination by  laying  on  of  hands  soon  became  general  or 
universal.  Hands  were  first  laid  on,  not  to  bestow  an 
office,  but  to  solicit  a  spiritual  gift  (1  Tim.  iv,  14;  2 
Tim.  i,  6 ;  Acts  xiii,  3 ;  xiv,  26 ;  xv,  40).  To  the  same  j 
effect  Acts  viii,  17;  xix,  0 — passages  which  explain; 
Heb.  vi,  2.  On  the  other  hand,  the  absolute  silence 
of  the  Scriptures,  even  if  it  were  not  confirmed,  as  it 
is,  by  positive  testimony,  would  prove  that  no  idea  of 
consecration,  as  distinct  from  ordination,  at  that  time 
existed  at  all;  and  consequently,  although  individual 
elders  may  have  really  discharged  functions  which 
would  afterward  have  been  called  episcopal,  it  was  not; 
by  virtue  of  a  second  ordination,  nor,  therefore,  of  j 
episcopal  rank. 

"  The  apostles  themselves,  it  is  held  by  some,  were 
the  real  bishops  of  that  day,  and  it  is  quite  evident  that 
they  performed  many  episcopal  functions.      It  may  ; 
well  be  true  that  the  onty  reason  why  no  bishops  (in 
the  modern  sense)  were  then  wanting  was  because  the 
apostles  were  living;  but  it  cannot  be  inferred  that  in 
any  strict  sense  prelates  are  co-ordinate  in  rank  with  the 
apostles,  and  can  claim  to  exercise  their  powers.      The 
later  "  bishop"  did  not  come  forward  as  a  successor  to 
the  apostles,  but  was  developed  out  of  the  presbyter ; 
much  less  can  it  be  proved,  or  alleged  with  plausibil- 
ity, that  the  apostles  took  any  measures  for  securing 
substitutes  for  themselves  (in  the  high  character  of 
apostles)  after  their  decease.      It  has  been  with  many 
a  favorite  notion  that  Timothy  and  Titus  exhibit  the 
episcopal  type  even  during  the  life  of  Paul;  but  this  . 
is  an  obvious  misconception.     They  were  attached  to 
the  person  of  the  apostle,  and  not  to  any  one  church.  ; 
In  the  last  epistle  written  by  him  (2  Tim.  iv,  9),  he  ' 
calls  Timothy  suddenly  to  Home  in  words  which  prove  j 
that  the  latter  was  not,  at  least  as  yet,  bishop,  either  i 
of  Ephesus  or  of  any  other  Church.     That  Timothy 
was  an  evangelist  is  distinctly  stated  (2  Tim.  iv,  5),  and 
that  he  had  received  spiritual  gifts  (i,  G,  etc.) ;  there  I 


is  then  no  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  authority 
vested  in  him  (1  Tim.  v,  1 ;  xix,  22),  without  imagin- 
ing him  to  have  been  a  bishop,  which  is,  in  fact,  dis- 
proved even  by  the  same  epistle  (i,  3).  That  Titus, 
moreover,  had  no  local  attachment  to  Crete,  is  plain 
from  Titus  iii,  13,  to  say  nothing  of  the  earlier  epistle, 
2  Cor.  jiassim;  nor  is  it  true  that  the  episcopal  power 
]  developed  itself  out  of  wandering  evangelists  any  more 
than  out  of  the  apostles. 
|  "On  the  other  hand,  it  would  seem  that  the  bishop 
began  to  elevate  himself  above  the  presbyter  while 
the  apostle  John  was  yet  alive,  and  in  churches  to 
Which  he  is  believed  to  have  peculiarly  devoted  him- 
self. The  meaning  of  the  title  angel  in  the  opening 
chapters  of  the  Apocalypse  has  been  mystically  ex- 
plained by  some,  but  its  true  meaning  is  clear,  from 
1  the  nomenclature  of  the  Jewish  synagogues.  In  them, 
we  are  told,  the  minister  who  ordinarily  led  the  pray- 
ers of  the  congregation,  besides  acting  as  their  chief 
functionary  in  matters  of  business,  was  entitled  !~pbb 
"ASlS  [see  Synagogue],  a  name  which  may  be  trans- 
lated literally  envoy  of  the.  congregation,  and  is  here  ex- 
pressed by  the  Greek  ayytkoQ.  The  substantive 
rtxbp  also  (which  by  analogy  would  be  rendered 
j  dyyeXia,  as  "XS'O  is  oyytXoc)  has  the  ordinary  sense 
I  of  work,  service,  making  it  almost  certain  that  the  '  an- 
gels of  the  churches'  are  nothing  but  a  harsh  Hebra- 
ism for  'ministers  of  the  churches.''  We  therefore 
here  see  a  single  officer  in  these  rather  large  Christian 
communities  elevated  into  a  peculiar  prominence  which 
has  been  justly  regarded  as  episcopal.  Nor  does  it  sig- 
nify that  the  authorship  of  the  Apocalypse  is  disputed, 
since  its  extreme  antiquity  is  beyond  a  doubt ;  wc  find, 
therefore,  the  germ  of  episcopacy  here  planted,  as  it 
were,  under  the  eyes  of  an  apostle. 

"  Nevertheless,  it  was  still  but  a  germ.  It  is  vain 
to  ask  whether  these  angels  received  a  second  ordina- 
tion, and  had  been  promoted  from  the  rank  of  presby- 
ters. That  this  was  the  case  is  possible,  but  there  is 
no  proof  of  it;  and  while  some  will  regard  the  ques- 
tion as  deeply  interesting,  others  will  think  it  unim- 
:  portant.  A  second  question  is  whether  the  angels 
were  overseers  of  the  congregation  only,  or  of  the 
presbyters  too,  and  whether  the  Church  was  formed 
of  main'  local  unions  (such  as  we  call  parishes)  or  of 
one.  Perhaps  both  questions  unduly  imply  that  a  set  • 
of  fixed  rules  was  already  in  existence.  No  one  who 
reads  Paul's  own  account  of  the  rebuke  he  uttered 
against  Peter  (Gal.  ii)  need  doubt  that  in  those  days 
a  zealous  elder  would  assume  authority  over  other 
elders  officially  his  equals  when  he  thought  they  were 
dishonoring  the  Gospel;  and,  a  fortiori,  he  would  act 
thus  toward  an  official  inferior  even  if  this  had  not 
previously  been  defined  or  understood  as  his  duty.  So, 
again,  the  Christians  of  Ephesus  or  Miletus  were  prob- 
ably too  numerous  ordinarily  to  meet  in  a  single  as- 
sembly, especially  before  they  had  large  buildings 
erected  for  the  purpose;  and  convenience  must  have 
led  at  a  very  early  period  to  subordinate  assemblies 
(such  as  would  now  be  called  "  chapels  of  ease"  to  the 
mother  Church) ;  yet  we  have  no  ground  for  supposing 
that  any  sharp  division  of  the  Church  into  organic 
portions  had  yet  commenced"  (Kitto,  Cyclop,  s.  v.). 

2.  The  ti/'i'  Bishop,  as  compared  with  Presbyter,  or 
Elder. — '■  That  the  two  titles  were  originally  equiv- 
alent is  <lear  from  the  following  facts  :  (1.)  i^ia- 
Koirot  and  TrpeafivTtpoi  arc  nowhere  named  together 
as  being  orders  distinct  from  each  other.  (2.)  tnia- 
KOTroi  and  dioiKOVOt  are  named  as  apparently  an  ex- 
haustive division  of  the.  officers  of  churches  addressed 
by  Paul  as  an  apostle  (Phil,  i,  1 ;  1  Tim.  iii,  1,  8).  (3.) 
The  same  persons  are  described  by  both  names  (Acts 
xx,  17,  18;  Tit.  i,  5,  8).  (4.)  irptafivripot  discharge 
functions  which  are  essentially  episcopal,  i.  e.  involv- 
ing pastoral  superintendence  (1  Tim.  v,  17;  1  Pet.  v, 
1,  2).     The  age  which  followed  that  of  the  apostles 


bishop 


S20 


BISHOP 


witnessed  a  gradual  chaii^  ■  in  th  ■  application  of  the 
■words,  and  in  the  epistles  of  Ignatius,  even  in  their 
least  interpolated  or  must  mutilated  form,  the  bishop 
is  recognised  as  distinct  from,  and  superior  to,  the  pres- 
byters  (Ep.  ml  Smyrn.  viii;  ad  Trail,  ii,  iii,  viii;  ad 
Magn.  vi).  In  those  of  Clement  of  Rome,  however, 
the  two  words  are  still  dealt  with  as  interchangeable 
(1  Cor.  xlii,  xliv,  lvii).  The  omission  of  any  mention 
of  an  iiriaicoiroc  in  addition  to  the  irotTjivTipoi  and  cia- 
kovoi  in  Polycarp's  Epistle  to  the  Pliilippians  (c.  v), 
and  the  enumeration  of  'apostoli,  cpiscopi,  doctores, 
ministri,'  in  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas  (i,  3,  5),  are  less 
decisive,  but  indicate  a  transition  stage  in  the  history 
of  the  word.  Assuming  as  proved  the  identity  of  the 
bishops  and  elders  of  the  N.  T.,  we  have  farther  (in 
this  connection)  only  to  inquire  into,  1,  the  relation 
which  existed  between  the  two  titles;  2,  the  func- 
tions and  mode  of  appointment  of  the  men  to  whom 
both  titles  were  applied  ;  3,  their  relations  to  the  gen- 
eral government  and  discipline  of  the  Church.  See 
also  Elder. 

"(I.)  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  7rpfrr/3i'rf  pot  had 
the  priority  in  order  of  time.  The  existence  of  a  body 
bearing  that  name  is  implied  in  the  use  of  the  correla- 
tive oi  vtwTipm  (comp.  Luke  xii,  26;  1  Pet.  v,  1,  5)  in 
the  narrative  of  Ananias  (Acts  v,  6).  The  order  itself 
is  recognised  in  Acts  xi,  30,  and  takes  part  in  the  de- 
liberations of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  in  Acts  xv. 
It  is  transferred  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  the  Gentile 
churches  in  their  first  missionary  journey  (Acts  xiii, 
23).  The  earliest  use  of  tTrioKowot,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  in  the  address  of  Paul  to  the  elders  at  Miletus  (Acts 
xx,  18),  and  there  it  is  rather  descriptive  of  functions 
than  given  as  a  title.  The  earliest  epistle  in  which  it 
is  formally  used  as  equivalent  to  izpfajlvripoi  (except 
on  the  improbable  hypothesis  that  1  Timothy  belongs 
to  the  period  following  on  Paul's  departure  from  Ephe- 
sus  in  Acts  xx,  1)  is  that  to  the  Philippians,  so  late  as 
the  time  of  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome.  It  was 
natural,  indeed,  that  this  should  be  the  order;  that  the 
word  derived  from  the  usages  of  the  synagogues  of  Pal- 
estine, every  one  of  which  had  its  superintending  el- 
ders (D"1?!?! ;  comp.  Luke  vii,  3),  should  precede  that 
borrowed  from  th'j  constitution  of  a  Greek  state.  If 
the  latter  was  afterward  felt  to  be  the  more  adequate, 
it  in  ay  have  ben  because  there  was  a  life  in  the  organ- 
ization of  the  Church  higher  than  that  of  the  syna- 
gogues, and  functions  of  pastoral  superintendence  de- 
volving on  the  elders  of  the  Christian  congregation 
which  were  unknown  to  those  of  the  other  periods.  It 
had  the  merit  of  being  descriptive  as  well  as  titular;  a 
'nomen  officii'  as  well  as  a  'nonien  dignitatis.'  It 
could  be  associated,  as  the  other  could  not  be,  with 
the  thought  of  the  highest  pastoral  superintendence— 
of  Christ  himself  as  the  iroipiiv  teal  tirimcoirog  (1  Pet. 
ii,  25). 

"  (II.)  Of  the  order  in  which  the  first  ciders  were  ap- 
pointed, as  of  th.?  occasion  which  led  to  the  institution 
of  the  office,  we  have  no  record.  Arguing  from  the 
analogy  of  the  seven  in  Acts  vi,  5,  G,  it  would  seem 
probable  that  they  were  chosen  by  the  members  of  the 
<  Ihurch  collectively  (possibly  to  take  the  place  that  had 
bee,,  filled  by  tie-  seven;  comp.  Stanley's  Apost.  Age, 
p.  64),  and  then  set  apart  to  their  office  by  the  laying  on 
of  the  apostles'  hands.  l„  th.;  case  of  Timothy(l  Tim. 
jj>  1,:  -  liln-  h  6),  the  7rpe<rj3urlp«oj/,  probably  the 
body  „f  the  elders  at  Lystra,  had  taken  part  with  the 
apostle  in  this  act  of  ordination;  but  here  it  remains 
doubtful  whether  the  office  to  which  Timothy  was  ap- 
pointed was  that  of  the  bishop-elder  or  one  derived  from 
th-  special  commission  with  which  the  two  epistles  ad- 

to  him  show  him  to  have  been  intrusted.  The 
connection  of  1  Tim.  v,  22,  is,  „„  t|„.  ,V|„,],N  agam8t 
our  referring  the  laying  on  of  hands  there  spoken  of  to 
the  ordination  of  elders  (comp.  Hammond,  in  loc),  and 
tie-  same  may  be  said  of  Heb.  vi,  •_'.  The  imposition 
of  hands  was  indeed  the  outward  sign  of  the  communi- 


cation of  all  spiritual  Y«p«rr/jor«,  as  well  as  of  func- 
tions for  which  such  '  gifts'  were  required,  and  its  use 
for  the  latter  (as  in  1  Tim.  iv,  14 ;  2  Tim.  i,  G)  was  con- 
nected with  its  instrumentality  in  the  bestowal  of  the 
former.  The  conditions  which  were  to  be  observed  in 
choosing  these  officers,  as  stated  in  the  pastoral  epis- 

j  ties,  are  blameless  life  and  reputation  among  those 
'that  are  without'  as  well  as  within  the  Church,  fit- 
ness for  the  work  of  teaching,  the  wide  kindliness  of 
temper  which  shows  itself  in  hospitality,  the  being 
'  the  husband  of  one  wife'  (i.  e.  according  to  the  most 

;  probable  interpretation,  not  divorced  and  then  married 
to  another;  but  comp.  Hammond,  Estius,  Ellicott,  in 

,  loc. ;   see  Hasaeus,  De  Episcopo  SevTipoyapiji  [Brem. 

!  n.  d.]  ;  Walch,  De  Episcopo  unius  uocoiis  vivo  [Jen. 
1733]),  showing  powers  of  government  in  his  own 
household  as  well  as  in  self-control,  not  being  a  re- 
cent and  therefore  an  untried  convert.  When  ap- 
pointed, the  duties  of  the  bishop-elders  appear  to  have 
been  as  follows:  1.  General  superintendence  over  the 
spiritual  well-being  of  the  flock  (1  Pet.  v,  2).  Ac- 
cording to  the  aspects  which  this  function  presented, 
those  on  whom  it  devolved  were  described  as  Troipivtg 
(Eph.  iv,  11),  TrpoioTwTic  (1  Tim.  v,  17),  TrpoKTrd^uvoi 
(1  Thess.  v,  12).  Its  exercise  called  for  the  \dpi<yna 
KvfiEpvhoewQ  (1  Cor.  xii,  28).  The  last  two  of  the 
above  titles  imply  obviously  a  recognised  rank,  as 
well  as  work,  which  would  show  itself  naturally  in 
special  marks  of  honor  in  the  meetings  of  the  Church. 

2.  The  work  of  teaching,  both  publicly  and  privately 
I  (1  Thess.  v,  12;  Tit.  i,  9 ;  1  Tim.  v,  17).     At  first,  it 

appears  from  the  description  of  the  practices  of  the 
Church  in  1  Cor.  xiv,  26,  the  work  of  oral  teaching, 
whatever  form  it  assumed,  was  not  limited  to  any  body 
of  men,  but  was  exercised  according  as  each  man  pos- 
sessed a  special  Ya'piT^ia  for  it.  Even  then,  however, 
there  were,  as  the  warnings  of  that  chapter  show,  some 
inconveniences  attendant  on  this  freedom,  and  it  was 
a  natural  remedy  to  select  men  for  the  special  function 
of  teaching  because  they  possessed  the  vr/picr/jo,  and 
then  gradually  to  confine  that  work  to  them.  The 
work  of  preaching  (Ki]pva(riiv)  to  the  heathen  did  not 
belong,  apparently,  to  the  bishop-elders  as  such,  but 
was  the  office  of  the  apostle-evangelist.  Their  duty 
was  to  feed  the  foci;  teaching  publicly  (Tit.  i,  9),  op- 
posing errors,  admonishing  privately  (1  Thess.  v,  12). 

3.  The  work  of  visiting  the  sick  appears  in  James  v,  14 
as  assigned  to  the  elders  of  the  Church.  There,  in- 
deed, it  is  connected  with  the  practice  of  anointing  as 
a  means  of  healing,  but  this  office  of  Christian  sym- 
pathy would  not,  we  may  believe,  be  confined  to  the 
exercise  of  the  extraordinary  Yrtpi<xp«,rt  ia/idrtov,  and 
it  is  probablj'  to  this,  and  to  acts  of  a  like  kind,  that 
we  are  to  refer  the  dvTi\aj.ifidvicQai  rwv  aaBevoivrwv 
of  Acts  xix,  34,  and  the  «jT(X//i//f(c  of  1  Cor.  xii,  28. 

4.  Among  these  acts  of  charity  that  of  receiving  stran- 
gers occupied  a  conspicuous  place  (1  Tim.  iii,  2 ;  Tit. 
i,  8).  The  bishop-elder's  house  was  to  be  the  house 
of  the  Christian  who  arrived  in  a  strange  city  and 
found  himself  without  a  friend.  5.  Of  the  part  taken 
by  them  in  the  liturgical  meetings  of  the  Church  we 
have  no  distinct  evidence.  Reasoning  from  the  lan- 
guage of  1  Cor.  x,  xii,  and  from  the  practices  of  the 
post-apostolic  age,  we  may  believe  that  they  would 
preside  at  such  meetings,  that  it  would  belong  to  them 
to  bless  and  to  give  thanks  when  the  Church  met  to 
break  bread. 

"  The  mode  in  which  these  officers  of  the  Church 
were  supported  or  remunerated  varied  probably  in  dif- 
ferent cities.  At  Miletus  Paul  exhorts  the  elders  of  the 
Church  to  follow  his  example  and  work  for  their  own 
livelihood  (Acts  xix,  34).  In  1  Cor.  ix,  14,  and  Gal. 
vi,  6,  he  asserts  the  right  of  the  ministers  of  the  Church 
to  be  supported  by  it.  In  1  Tim.  v,  17,  he  gives  a 
special  application  of  the  principle  in  the  assignment 
of  a  double  allowance  (r</<//,  comp.  Hammond,  in  loc.') 
to  those  who  have  been  conspicuous  for  their  activity. 


BISHOP 


821 


BISHOP 


"  Collectively  at  Jerusalem,  and  probably  in  other 
churches,  the  body  of  bishop-elders  took  part  in  delib- 
erations (Acts  xv,  6-22;  xxi,  18),  addressed  other 
churches  (ibid,  xv,  23),  were  joined  with  the  apostles 
in  the  work  of  ordaining  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  (2 
Tim.  i,  G).  It  lay  in  the  necessities  of  any  organized 
society  that  such  a  body  of  men  should  be  subject  to  a 
power  higher  than  their  own,  whether  vested  in  one 
chosen  by  themselves  or  deriving  its  authority  from 
some  external  source  ;  and  we  find  accordingly  that  it 
belonged  to  the  delegate  of  an  apostle,  and,  a  fortiori, 
to  the  apostle  himself,  to  receive  accusations  against 
them,  to  hear  evidence,  to  admonish  where  there  was 
the  hope  of  amendment,  to  depose  where  this  proved 
unavailing"  (1  Tim.  v,  19  ;  iv,  1 ;  Tit.  iii,  10)  (Smith, 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.). 

It  seems  therefore  to  be  certain  that  not  only  were 
the  titles  "bishop"  and  "presbyter"  uniformly  inter- 
changeable in  the  New  Testament,  but  also  that  but 
one  office  was  designated  by  these  two  names.  The 
"  bishop"  of  the  N.  T.  is  not  to  be  thought  of  as  a  di- 
ocesan bishop,  such  as  those  of  the  Roman  or  other 
churches  of  later  times,  but  only  as  an  authorized  officer 
of  the  Church  and  congregation.  "  The  identity  of 
presbyters  and  bishops  in  the  Apostolic  Church  was 
acknowledged  by  the  most  learned  Church  fathers,  on 
exegetical  grounds,  even  after  the  Catholic  episcopal 
system  (whose  origin  was  referred  to  the  Apostolate) 
had  come  to  its  full  form  and  force.  We  confine  our- 
selves to  the  most  important.  Jerome  says,  ad  Tit.  i, 
7  :  Idem  est  ergo  presbj'ter  qui  episcopus,  etantequam 
diaboli  instinctu  studia  in  religione  fierent.  .  .  .  com- 
muni  presbyterorum  consilio  ecclesia;  gubernabantur. 
Again,  Epist.  85,  ad  Eoagrium  (in  the  later  copies,  ad 
Evangelum):  Nam  quum  apostolus  perspicue  doceat 
eosdem  esse  presbyteros  et  episcopos,  etc.  Finally, 
Ep.  82,  ad  Oceanum  (al.  83)  :  In  utraque  epistola  (the 
first  to  Timothy  and  that  to  Titus)  sive  episcopi  sive 
presbyteri  (quamquam  apud  veteres  iidem  episcopi  et 
presbyteri  fuerint,  quia  illud  nomen  dignitatis  est,  hoc 
aetatis)  jubentur  monogami  in  clerum  elegi.  So  Am- 
brosiaster,  adEph.  iv,  11,  and  the  author  of  the  Pseudo- 
Augustinian  Qucestiones  V.  et  N.  T.  qu.  101.  Among 
the  Greek  fathers,  Chrysostom,  Horn.  I.  in  Ep.  ad 
Philipp.  says  :  2cj'£7rt(T/co7ro(c  (so  he  reads  Phil,  i,  1, 
instead  of  avv  s7no7C()7roie)  Kai  diaicovoig.  ri  tovto  ; 
/.nag  iroXeuig  7ro\\of  tTrioKoiroi  i\aav  ;  Ovdapwg  aXXa 
tovq  wpeafivTipovg  ovrcog  tKciXeaf  Tort  yap  rscoc  iicoi- 
Viovovv  rolg  ovouaai,  Kai  SuiKoi'og  6  tTriaicoirog  tXiye- 
to,  k.  t.  X.  Still  more  plainly  Theodoret,  ad  Phil,  i,  1 : 
.  .  .  'tTTKJKo-Kovg  St  roiig  TrpsafivTipovg  tcaXH,d^(pvnpa 
yap  a%ov  kut  tKtXvov  rbv  Kaipbv  ra  ovopara,  for 
which  he  quotes  texts  already  given.  So  again  ad 
Tim.  iii,  1 :  tiviaKoirov  de  tvravSa  tov  TtptofivTtpov 
Xkyu,  k.  r.  X.  Even  theologians  of  the  Middle  Ages 
maintained  this  view,  among  whom  Pope  Urban  II 
(A.D.  1091)  is  especially  worthy  of  note :  Sacros  au- 
tem  ordines  dicimus  diaconatum  et  presbyteratum. 
Hos  siquidem  solos  primitiva  legitur  ecclesia  habuisse  ; 
super  his  solum  prajceptum  habemus  apostoli.  Among 
the  later  Roman  Catholic  expositors,  Mack  (Pastoral- 
briefe  des  Ap.  Paulus,  Tub.  1836,  p.  60  sq.)  grants  in 
full  the  identity  of  the  N.  T.  presbyters  and  bishops  ; 
he  sees  in  them  the  later  presbyters,  and  takes  the  later 
bishops,  on  the  contrary,  for  the  successors  of  the  apos- 
tles and  their  immediate  assistants.  This  last  view  is 
undoubtedly,  from  the  Roman  Catholic  stand-point,  the 
only  tenable  derivation  of  the  episcopate.  Among  Pro- 
testant interpreters  and  historians,  this  identity  has  al- 
ways been  asserted ;  and  this  even  by  many  learned 
Episcopalians,  e.  g.  Dr.  Whitby,  who,  on  Phil,  i,  1,  ad- 
mits :  '  Both  the  Greek  and  Latin  fathers  do  with  one 
consent  declare  that  bishops  were  called  presbyters 
and  presbyters  bishops  in  apostolic  times,  the  names 
being  then  common.'  See  also,  as  a  recent  authority, 
Bloomfield  on  Acts  xx.  17  (Grk.  Test.  Eng.  Notes,  etc., 
vol.  i,  p.  560,  Phil,  ed.)."  —  Schaff,  Apost.  Ch.  §  132; 


Stanley,  Ap.  Age,  63-77;  Neander,  Planting,  etc.,  i,  168; 
Cunningham, Hist.  Theol. ch.viii.  Seealso Episcopacy. 
II.  Ecclesiastical  Usages  respecting  J 'lishops. — 1.  Names 
and  Titles. — In  the  early  centuries  the  following  titles 
were  employed  with  reference  to  the  bishops:  The 
scriptural  appellations  Trpdiarafxtvoi,  TtpotaTwrtg  (see 
1  Thess.  v,  12;  1  Tim.  v,  17)  were  translated  into 
Latin  by  praqjositi  (whence  our  word  provost),  and 
were  retained  by  the  Greek  fathers.  We  have  also 
antistites  and  jmesules,  used  in  the  same  signification. 
In  nearly  the  same  sense  was  the  term  irpotdpoi,  praz- 
sidentes,  presidents,  used ;  t(popoi,  inspectors ;  angeli  ec- 
clesia, angels  of  the  churches.  Summi  sacerdotes  and 
pontifices  maximi  owe  their  origin  to  the  practice  of  de- 
ducing the  ecclesiastical  constitution  from  the  priest 
of  the  Hebrew  temple.  They  are  also  called  patrcs, 
patres  ecclesia',  patres  clericorum,  and  patres  patrum, 
fathers,  fathers  of  the  Church,  fathers  of  the  clergy, 
and  fathers  of  the  fathers.  In  early  times  they  were 
called  patriarchs,  as  being  the  superiors  of  the  presby- 
ters; afterward  the  title  became  equivalent  to  arch- 
bishop. In  allusion  to  their  appointment  by  Christ, 
they  were  called  vicars  of  Christ.  This  title  was  as- 
sumed by  many  bishops  before  its  exclusive  appropri- 
ation by  the  bishop  of  Rome.  In  some  early  writers 
we  meet  with  the  term  dpxovreg  ii;icXi](Tuov,  governors 
or  rulers  of  the  churches.  Various  other  epithets  are 
applied  to  them,  such  as  blessed,  most  blessed,  holy,  most 
holy.  In  the  Roman  Church,  the  English  Church,  and 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  America,  bishops 
are  now  styled  right  reverend.  In  England  they  belong 
to  the  House  of  Lords,  and  are  styled  lord.  In  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  they  are  simply  styled  rev- 
erend, like  other  ordained  ministers. 

2.  Classes. — The  episcopal  order  in  some  churches 
is  divided  into  four  degrees,  the  same  as  to  order,  but 
differing  in  jurisdiction,  viz. :  (1.)  Patriarchs  of  Rome, 
Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem, 
etc. ;  (2.)  Primates,  as  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
etc.  ;  (3.)  Metropolitans,  bishops  of  capital  cities ;  and 
(4.)  Simple  bishops.  The  Roman  Church  recognises 
in  the  pope  &  fifth  order,  that  of  sovereign  pontiff,  or 
head  of  the  whole  Church.  We  meet  also  with  classes 
of  inferior  bishops.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
vacui,  vacantes,  bishops  without  cures.  Some  of  these 
had  vacated  their  office  in  times  of  persecution  or  re- 
ligious commotion.  Titular  bishops,  episcopi  in  parti- 
bus,  or  in  partibas  infidelium,  are  invested  with  office, 
but  with  no  stated  charge  or  diocese.  Suffragans  are 
such  as  are  appointed  to  act  as  the  assistants  or  sub- 
stitutes of  the  metropolitans.  They  derive  their  name 
either  from  the  fact  that  they  cannot  be  consecrated 
without  the  suffrage  of  the  metropolitan,  or  because 
they  possess  the  right  of  suffrage  in  the  synods  (see 
Dufresne,  s.  v.  Suffragid).  Diocesan  bishops  who  are 
impeded  by  sickness  or  old  age  from  discharging  their 
duties  receive  a  coadjutor,  who,  as  long  as  he  has  not 
received  the  episcopal  consecration,  is  called  episcopus 
designatus.  The  term  country  bishops,  Ywp£7T<Wo7rot, 
rural  bishops,  occurs  in  the  older  writers.  They  ap- 
pear to  have  been  subject  to  a  city  bishop,  and  to  have 
acted  as  his  colleagues.  The  derivation  of  the  word  is 
disputed  ;  some  derive  it  from  chorus,  xopoc,  a  choir  of 
singers  ;  others  from  the  appellation  cor  episcopi,  heart 
of  the  bishop,  as  the  archdeacon  was  sometimes  called. 
The  true  etymon  seems  to  be  \o>pa  or  ywpiov,  a  coun- 
try. Their  peculiar  duties  were  to  give  letters  of  peace 
or  testimonials;  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  the  Church 
in  their  district ;  to  appoint  ecclesiastical  officers,  read- 
ers, exorcists,  etc. ;  and  to  ordain  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons, but  not  without  the  permission  of  the  city  bishop. 
The  name  ceases  to  be  found  in  history  about  the 
twelfth  century,  and  their  place  was  supplied  by  arch- 
deacons and  rural  deans. 

3.  Insignia. — The  insignia  of  the  episcopal  office  were 
a  ring,  emblematical  of  the  bishop's  espousals  to  the 
Church — it  was  called  annulus  sponsalitius ;  the  pastor- 


BISHOP 


822 


BISHOP 


ul  staff,  bent  or  crooked  at  the  top;  the  mitre  or  fillet,  j  vacant  see,  in  the  early  ages,  was  with  the  clergy  and 
sometimes  called  crown,  diadem,iiara; gl>  r, s,  chirothccce,  j  people  of  the  diocese  (Balsamon,  ad  Can.  13  Cone. 
always  worn  daring  the  performance  of  any  religious  .  Laod.  p.  834),  who,  having  made  their  choice,  referred 


office  :  sandals — no  one  could  celebrate  the  Eucharist 
without  these  ;  caliga,  or  boots— in  ancient  warfare 
they  were  a  part  of  the  soldier's  equipments,  and,  when 
worn  by  a  bishop,  pointed  out  the  spiritual  warfare  on 
which  he  bad  entered  ;  pallium,  the  pall;  pectorals,  the 
breastplate.  The  pallium  was  so  peculiar  and  distinc- 
tive that  its  name  was  often  used  to  denote  the  person 
or  office  of  a  bishop.  It  was  first  worn  by  bishops, 
but  afterward  by  archbishops,  metropolitans,  and  pa- 
triarchs only.  The  form  of  the  pallium  in  the  earli- 
est  times  is  not  known;  subsequently  it  was  made  of 
wliite  linen,  without  seam,  and  was  worn  hanging 
down  over  the  shoulders.  In  the  twelfth  century  it 
was  made  of  wool.  Previous  to  the  eighth  century  it 
bad  four  purple  crosses  on  it,  and  was  fastened  by 
three  gold  pins.  The  cross,  like  the  Hebrew  pectoral, 
was  worn  on  the  neck  or  breast,  and  was  also  carried 


it  to  the  bishops  of  the  province,  the  consent  of  all  of 
whom  was  required  to  the  election;  after  which  the 
bishop  elect  was  confirmed  and  consecrated  by  the 
metropolitan.  In  the  Roman  Church  bishops  arc'nom- 
inated  by  the  chapter  of  the  Cathedral ;  in  some  coun- 
tries by  the  clergy  of  the  diocese,  and  in  others  by 
the  prince  of  the  country  (this  case,  however,  is  re- 
stricted to  Roman  Catholic  princes) ;  but  the  pope  must 
confirm  the  nomination  and  grant  his  bull  for  the  con- 
secration (Cone.  Trid.  sess.  xxiv,  de  Ref.  ch.  i).  At 
consecration  the  bishop  elect  must  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  pope.  In  England  the  election  of 
bishop  lies  theoretically  with  the  chapter,  but  the 
choice  is  practically  vested  in  the  crown.  In  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  bishops  are  elected  by  the 
General  Conference  (Diseijiline,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  13),  and 
in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  by  the  Diocesan 


in  public  processions,  and  thus  became  a  twofold  badge  Convention  (Canon  II,  1844).  All  the  bishops  of  the 
of  the  bishop's  office.  Most  of  these  insignia  are  still  Lutheran  churches  are  appointed  by  the  princes  of 
used  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches. — Farrar,  s.  v.    their  several  countries. 

4.  Duties. — The  duties  of  the  bishop  in  the  ancient  G.  Consecration  (1.)  In  the  Roman  Church  three 
Church  included  the  celebration  of  Divine  worship  bishops  are  required  for  the  rite;  one  (who  must  al- 
and the  discipline  and  government  of  the  Church,  i  ways  be  a  bishop)  to  consecrate,  the  two  others  (who 
His  principal  duties,  though  not  performed  by  him  ex-  |  may  be  mitred  abbots,  and,  incases  of  emergenc}-,  oth- 
clusively,  were  catechising  and  preaching.  Others,  or  prelates,  or  simply  priests)  to  assist.  [1.]  After  the 
exclusively  belonging  to  him,  were  the  confirmation  J  consecrator  has  examined  the  elect  and  administered 
of  baptized  persons,  by  which  they  Mrere  admitted  as  |  the  oath  of  obedience,  the  candidate  is  habited  in  the 
acknowledged  members  into  the  Church,  the  ordina-  j  pontifical  vestments,  and  the  Litany  having  been  sung, 
tion  of  presbyters  and  inferior  ministers,  the  restora-  !  the  three  bishops  place  upon  the  head  and  shoulders 
tion  of  penitents,  and  various  acts  of  consecration  and  of  the  elect  the  Book  of  the  Gospels  open,  nothing  lie- 
benediction.  As  to  discipline,  while  at  times  the  pre-  ing  spoken.  [2.]  The  three  bishops  then  lay  their 
rogatives  of  the  bishop  were  restricted,  he  remained  hands  upon  the  head  of  the  elect,  saying,  "Receive 
the  source  and  centre  of  ecclesiastical  authority  with-  I  thou  the  Holy  Ghost."  [3.]  The  consecrator  prays 
,in  his  diocese.  The  diocesan  clergy  were  dependent  !  for  grace  for  the  newly-made  bishop.  [4.]  He  anoints 
upon  him,  and  the  regulations  of  the  churches  were  ,  him  with  the  chrism  on  the  head  and  hands,  saying, 
directed  by  him.  His  authority  was  seen  in  the  fol-  "Ungatur  et  consecretur  caput  tuum,"  etc.  [5.]  He 
lowing  particulars :  In  the  superintendence  of  religious  places  in  his  hands  the  pastoral  staff,  ring,  and  Book 
worship  ;  in  the  oversight  of  all  the  members  of  the  j  of  the  Gospels,  saying,  "Accipe  Baculum . . .  ,"  etc. 
Church  throughout  a  diocese  in  spiritual  and  ecclesi-  ;  [G.]  Mass  is  completed,  and  the  new  bishop  commnni- 
astical  matters;  in  the  control  of  all  subordinate  spir-  J  cates  in  both  kinds.  Of  these  ceremonies,  the  imposi- 
itual  persons  and  ecclesiastical  officers;  in  the  visita-  j  tion  of  hands  and  accompanying  prayer  are  the  onby 
tion  of  the  clergy,  churches,  schools,  and  religious  parts  which  are  considered  essential  to  episcopal  ordi- 
bouses  ;  in  the  presidency  over  all  synods  within  the  j  nation.  See  Boissonnet,  Diet,  des  Ceremonies,  i,  1294. 
diocese,  and  even  in  the  management  and  distribution  !  (2.)  In  the  Greek  Church  the  following  is  the  order, 
of  all  the  property  of  the  Church  (Farrar,  s.  v.).  Most  as  given  in  Goar's  Euchologion:  Mass  having  com- 
of  these  powers  are  retained  in  the  Greek  and  Ro-  menced,  the  elect,  accompanied  bv  the  priests  and  oth- 
man  churches  to  this  day.  The  bishops  of  the  Roman  i  er  clerks,  stands  at  the  lower  end  of  the  church;  the 
Church  assume  some  special  duties  toward  the  pope  \  consecrating  bishops,  who  must  be  three  at  least,  in 
by  the  oath  of  obedience  which  is  administered  to  their  pontifical  vestments,  sit  in  their  stalls,  the  chief 
them  before  their  consecration  (see  below).  The  most  eclebrator  sitting  between  the  assistants.  The  gos- 
important  of  the  duties  enumerated  in  the  formula  of  a  peller  cries  "  Attendamus  /"  upon  which  one  of  the 
bishop's  oath  are,  to  be  faithfully  attached  to  the  pope  :  clerks  (uprce  reliquis  literatissimusn)  makes  the  first 
and  to  bis  successors,  not  to  enter  into  any  plot  against  \  presentation  of  the  elect,  who  is  led  by  the  clergy  as 
him,  not  to  divulge  a  plan  which  the  pope  may  com-  far  as  the  tail  of  an  eagle  delineated  on  the  floor  of  the 
to  him;  to  preserve,  defend,  increase,  and  church.  The  consecrator  then  asks  him  what  he  has 
the  n  rhts,  honors,  privileges,  and  authority  come  to  request,  to  which  the  elect  replies  that  he 
«f  the  Roman  See;  to  observe,  and  to  have  observed  seeks  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  the  bishops.  He 
v  others,  the  entire  canonical  law;  to  persecute  and  is  then  questioned  concerning  his  faith.  After  this, 
'.'  :  '  '"  ;/"  besi  °fM*  oMity,  the  heretics,  schismat-  the  consecrating  bishop  gives  him  the  benediction,  with 
who  may  rebel  against  the  pope  or  his  sue-  the  crosier.  And  then  follows  a  second  presentation, 
hasreticos,  Bchismaticos  et  rebelles  eidem  the  elect  having  advanced  to  the  middle  of  the  eagle, 
raino  nostro  v.  1  successoribus  prsBdictis  pro  posse  lie  now  gives  a  fuller  account  of  his  faith,  is  again 
rsequar  et  impugnabo"),  and  to  visit  Rome  in  person  blessed  by  the  bishop,  and  then  advances  to  tbe  bead 
.•n  ery  Kurd  year.  ,,i  order  to  give  an  account  of  the    of  the  eagle.    Here  the  consecrator,  for  the  third  time, 

? "  ,'  ",,         '' ","■     '"  "'"  Church  of  England  and    demands  an  explication  of  his  faith,  desiring  him  now 

nt  Episcopal  Church,  the  bishops  alone    toexpls'    " 


am  his  views  on  the  subjects  of  the  Incarnation, 
of  the  Substance  of  the  Son  and  Word  of  God,  and  how 
i  many  Natures  there  are  in  Christ.     After  his  replv  he 
era  ana  autms  of  the  bishops  of  the  Methodist  Episco-    receives  the  benediction,  the  consecrator  savin-  "Gra- 
t  Huron  ore  those  of  a  general  itinerant  superin-    tia  S.  Spiritus  per  meam  medioeritatem  promovet  te 
ndency,  including  ordination,  appointment  of  minis-    Deo  amantissimum  Sacerdotem  et  electron  N. . . .  in 


have  the  power  to  ordain  and  to  confirm,  and  their  au 

»-is  confined  to  their  proper  dioceses.     The  pow 


ters  to  their  fields  of  lal 


lapor,  etc.,  and  are  fully  defined    Episcopum  a  Deo  custodita  civitatis  N, 


in  the  Methodist  "  Discipline,"  pt  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  13. 
i.   Election  of  Bishops*— The  right  of  election  to 


H< 


then  led  to  the  altar,  and  there,  in  front  of  the  table, 
kneels  before  the  bishops,  the  eldest  of  whom  lays  the 


BISHOP 


823 


BISHOP 


Gospels  on  his  head,  the  other  bishops  at  the  same  time 
holding  it.  The  consecrator  declares  him  to  be  bish- 
op, and,  while  the  others  continue  to  hold  the  Gospels, 
makes  three  crosses  on  his  head,  blessing  him  in  the 
name  of  the  Holy  Trinity;  then,  laying  his  hand  (all 
the  other  bishops  doing  the  same)  on  him,  he  prays : 
"0  Lord  God,  who  rulest  over  all,  who  by  Thy  holy 
apostle  Paul  hast  ratiiicd  the  series  of  orders  and  de- 
grees appointed  for  those  who  wait  at  Thy  holy  altar 
and  minister  in  Thy  spotless  and  venerable  im'steries, 
first  apostles,  secondly  prophets,  thirdly  teachers :  do 
Thou,  O  Lord  of  all,  by  the  presence,  the  power,  and 
the  grace  of  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  confirm  him  who  has 
been  elected  and  counted  worthy  to  receive  the  evan- 
gelical yoke  and  pontifical  dignity  at  the  hand  of  me 
a  sinner,  and  those  of  the  ministers  and  bishops  who 
stand  with  me,  as  Thou  didst  strengthen  the  holy  apos- 
tles and  prophets,  as  Thou  didst  anoint  the  kings,  and 
as  Thou  didst  consecrate  the  priests.  Exhibit  in  him 
a  blameless  pontificate  ;  and,  adorning  him  with  every 
virtue,  grant  to  him  such  holiness  that  he  may  be 
worthy  to  ask  of  Thee  whatsoever  the  salvation  of  his 
people  requireth,  and  to  receive  it  from  Thee."  This 
form  differs  little  from  the  order  of  consecrating  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  in  use  in  the  Russian  Church,  ac- 
cording to  the  form  printed  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1725. 

(3.)  In  the  Protestant  churches  the  form  of  consecra- 
tion is  simple.  That  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
may  be  found  in  the  Discipline,  (pt.  iv,  ch.  vi) ;  that  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  Prayer-book. 
As  both  these  forms  are  modifications  of  that  of  the 
Church  of  England,  we  give  the  latter  (omitting  the 
Scripture  lessons,  collects,  etc.). 

When  all  things  are  duly  prepared  in  the  church  and  set  in 
order,  after  morniny  prayer  is  aided,  the  archbishop  (or  some 
other  bishop  appointed)  shall  bey  in  the.  Communion  service, 
in  lohich  this  shall  be  the  collect  [here  the  collect  is  said]. 
And  another  bishop  shall  read  the  epistle,  1  Tim.  iii,  1 ;  or 
Acta  xx,  17.  Then  another  bixhoji  shall  rend  the  gospel,  John 
xxi,  15 ;  or  John  xx,  19 ;  or  Matt,  xxviii,  IS. 

After  the  gospel,  and  the  S  ie  -nc  Creed,  and  the  sermon  are 
ended,  the  elected  bishop  (nested  with  his  rochet)  shall  be  pre- 
sented by  tiro  bishops  unto  the  archbishop  of  that  province 
(or  to  some  other  bishop  appointed  by  lawful  commission),  the 
arehhislm/i  sitting  in  his  chair  near  the  holy  table,  and  the 
bishops  that  present  him  saying:  "Must  reverend  father  in 
God,  we  present  unto  you  this  godly  and  well-learned  man  to 
be  ordained  and  consecrated  bishop." 

Then  shall  the  archbishop  demand  the  queen's  mandate  for 
the  consecration  and  cause  it  to  be  read;  and  the  oath  touch- 
ing the  acknowledgment  of  the  queen's  supremacy  shall  be 
ministered  to  the  persons  electa/,  as  it  is  set  down  before  in 
the  form  for  the  ordering  of  deacons;  and  then  shall  also  be 
ministered  unto  them  the  oath  of  due  obedience  to  the  arch- 
bishop, asfolloweth :  "  In  the  name  of  God,  Amen.  I,  N.,  cho- 
sen bishop  of  the  church  and  see  of  .V.,  do  profess  and  promise 
all  due  reverence  and  obedience  to  the  archbishop  and  to  the 
metropolitan  church  of  ,V.  and  to  their  successors  :  so  help  me 
God,  through  Jesus  Christ."  This  oath  shall  not  be  made  at 
the  consecration  of  an  archbishop. 

Then  the  archbishop  shad  move  the  congregation  present  to 
pray,  saying  tints  to  them  [here  the  address]."  A  nd  then  shall 
be  said  the  Litany,  as  before  in  the  ordering  of  deacons,  save 
only  that  after  the  place,  "That  it  may  please  thee  to  illumi- 
nate all  bishops,"  etc.,  the  proper  suffrage  there  following 
shall  he  omitted,  and  this  inserted  instead  of  it :  "  That  it  may 
please  thee  to  bless  this  brother  elected,  and  to  send  thy  grace 
upon  him,  that  he  may  duly  execute  the  office  whereunto  he 
is  called,  to  the  edifying  of  thy  Church,  and  to  the  honor, 
praise,  and  gb.ry  of  thy  name.  Answer.  We  beseech  thee  to 
hear  us,  good  Lord."  Then  shall  be  said  this  prayer  follow- 
ing [hen-  the  prayer]. 

Then  the  arehiiixhop,  sitting  in  his  chair,  shall  say  to  him 
that  is  to  be  consecrated:  "Brother,  forasmuch  as  the  holy 
Scriptures  and  the  ancient  canons  command  that  we  should 
not  1)0  hasty  in  laying  on  hands,  and  admitting  any  person 
to  government  in  the  Church  of  Christ,  which  lie  hath  pur- 
chased with  no  less  price  than  the  effusion  of  his  own  blood, 
before  I  admit  you  to  this  administration  I  will  examine  you 
in  certain  articles,  to  the  end  that  the  congregation  present 
may  have  a  trial  and  bear  witness  how  you  be  minded  to  be- 
have yourself  in  the  Church  of  Cod.  Are  you  persuaded  that 
you  be  truly  called  to  this  ministration,  according  to  the  will 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  order  of  this  realm?  An- 
swer. I  am  so  persuaded.  The  Archbishop.  Are  you  persua- 
ded that  the  holy  Scriptures  contain  sufficiently  all  doctrine 
required  of  necessity  for  eternal  salvation  through  faith  in  Je- 
sus Christ?  And  are  you  determined  out  of  the  same  holy 
Scriptures  to  instruct  the  people  committed  to  your  charge; 
and  to  teach  or  maintain  nothing  as  required  of  necessity  to 


salvation  but  that  which  you  shall  be  persuaded  may  be  con- 
cluded and  proved  by  the  same?  Answer.  I  am  so  persuaded 
and  determined,  by  God's  grace.  The  Archbishop.  Will  you 
then  faithfully  exercise  yourself  in  the  same  holy  Scriptures, 
and  call  upon  God  by  prayer  for  the  true  understanding  of  the 
same,  so  as  you  may  be  able  by  them  to  teach  and  exhort  with 
wholesome  doctrine,  and  to  withstand  and  convince  the  gain- 
sayers?  Answer.  I  will  so  do,  by  the  help  of  God.  The  Anli- 
bishop.  Are  you  ready,  with  all  faithful  diligence,  to  banish 
and  drive  away  all  erroneous  and  strange  doctrine  contrary  to 
God's  word  ;  and  both  privately  and  openly  to  call  upon  and 
encourage  others  to  the  same?  Answer.  I  am  ready,  the 
Lord  being  my  helper.  The  Archbishop.  Will  you  deny  all 
ungodliness  and  worldly  lusts,  and  live  soberly,  righteously, 
and  godly  in  this  present  world,  that  you  may  show  yourself 
in  all  things  an  example  of  good  works  unto  others,  that  the 
adversary  may  be  ashamed,  having  nothing  to  say  against 
you?  Answer.  I  will  so  do,  the  Lord  being  my  helper.  The 
Archbishop.  Will  you  maintain  and  set  forward,  as  much  as 
shall  lie  in  you,  quietness,  love,  and  peace  among  all  men ; 
and  such  as  be  unquiet,  disobedient,  and  criminous  within 
your  diocese  correct  and  punish,  according  to  such  authority 
as  you  have  by  God's  word,  and  as  to  you  shall  be  committed 
by  the  ordinance  of  this  realm?  Answer.  I  will  do  so,  by  the 
help  of  God.  The  Archbishop.  Will  you  be  faithful  in  or- 
daining, sending,  or  laying  hands  upon  others?  Answer.  I 
will  do  so  by  the  help  of  God.  The  Archbishop.  Will  you 
show  yourself  gentle,  and  be  merciful  for  Christ's  sake  to  poor 
and  needy  people,  and  to  all  strangers  destitute  of  help? 
Answer.  I  will  so  show  myself,  by  God's  help.  Tlien  the 
archbishop,  standing  up,  shall  say:  "  Almighty  God,  our  heav- 
enly Father,  who  hath  given  you  a  good  will  to  do  all  these 
things,  grant  also  unto  you  strength  and  power  to  perform  the 
same ;  that,  he  accomplishing  in  you  the  good  work  which  he 
hath  begun,  you  may  be  fouud  perfect  and  irreprehensible  at 
the  latter  day,  through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord.     Amen." 

Then  shall  the  bishop  elect  put  on  the  rest  of  the  episcopal 
habit,  and,  kneeling  down,\eni,  Creator  Spiritus,  shall  be  said 
or  sung  over  him,  the  presiding  bisliop  beginning,  and  the 
bisliops,  with  otfiers  that  are  present,  answering  by  verses,  as 
followeth: 

Come,  Holy  Ghost,  our  souls  inspire, 

And  lighten  with  celestial  fire: 

Thou  the  anointing  Spirit  art, 

117io  dost  tliy  s  ■voifnld  gifts  impart: 

Thy  blessed  unction  from  above. 

Is  comfort,  life,  and  fire  of  love:  etc. 

Then  follows  prayer. 

Then  the  archbishop  and  bishops  present  shall  lay  their 
hands  upon  the  head  of  the  elected  bishop,  kneeling  be  tore  them 
on  his  knees,  the  archbishop  sailing:  "  Receive  tlie  Holy  Ghost 
for  the  office  and  work  of  a  bishop  in  the  Church  of  God,  now 
committed  unto  thee  by  the  imposition  of  our  hands;  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Amen.  And  remember  that  thou  stir  up  the  grace  of  God 
which  is  given  thee  by  this  imposition  of  our  hands ;  for  God 
hath  not  given  us  the  spirit  of  fear,  but  of  power,  and  love, 
and  soberness."  Then  the  arciibishnp  shall  deliver  him  the 
Uible,  saying:  "Give  heed  unto  reading,  exhortation,  and 
doctrine.  Think  upon  the  things  contained  in  this  book.  Be 
diligent  in  them,  that  the  increase  coming  thereby  may  be 
manifest  unto  all  men.  Take  heed  unto  thyself,  and  to  doc- 
trine, and  be  diligent  in  doing  them ;  for  by  so  doing  thou 
shalt  both  save  thyself  and  them  that  hear  thee.  Be  to  the 
flock  of  Christ  a  shepherd,  not  a  wolf;  feed  them,  devour  them 
not.  Hold  up  the  weak,  heal  the  sick,  bind  up  the  broken, 
bring  again  the  outcasts,  seek  the  lost.  Be  so  merciful  that 
you  be  not  too  remiss;  so  minister  discipline  that  you  forget 
not  mercy ;  that  when  the  Chief  Shepherd  shall  appear  you 
may  receive  the  never-fading  crown  of  glory,  through  Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord.     Amen." 

Then  the  arehbisho])  shall  proceed  in  the  Communion  ser- 
vice, with  whom  the  new  consecrated  bishop  (with  others)  shall 
also  communicate. 

Then  follow  prayer  and  the  benediction. 
See  Bergier,  s.  v.  Eveque ;   Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles. 
bk.  iv,  ch.  ii ;  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist.  §  108, 109 ;  Landon,  Ec- 
cles. Dictionary,  s.  v. ;    Herzog,  ReaLEneyklopddie,  ii, 
341. 

In  the  Supplement  a  complete  list  of  all  bishoprics 
throughout  the  world  will  be  given.  See  Archbish- 
op ;  Ei'iscopacy  ;  Metropolitan. 

Bishop,  Robert  Hamilton,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Presbyterian  minister,  born  in  Scotland  in  1777,  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1802,  and  emigrated  to  America 
in  the  same  year,  joining  the  Associate  Reformed  Syn- 
od. He  settled  at  Ebenezer,  Ky.,  at  the  same  time 
accepting  a  professorship  in  Transylvania  University. 
In  consequence  of  difficulties  with  his  synod,  Mr.  Bish- 
op, in  1819,  joined  the  West  Lexington  Presbytery,  in 
connection  with  the  Central  Assembly,  and  in  1824 
accepted  the  presidency  of  Miami  University,  receiv- 
ing at  the  same  time  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity. 


BISHOP 


824 


BITHYNIA 


In  1841  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  the  university, 
but  retained  a  professorship  until  1844,  in  which  year 
he  removed  to  Pleasant  Hill,  near  Cincinnati,  where 
he  died  in  1855.  In  addition  to  various  sermons,  Dr. 
Bishop's  works  are  M>  moirs  of  David  Hire,  1824  ;  Kle- 
in, rife  of  Logic,  1833 ;  Philosophy  of  the  Bible,  1833 ;  Sci- 
,  ,„■,  of  Govt  rnrm  nt,  1839  ;  Western  Peacemaker,  1839. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  320. 

Bishop,  Samuel,  M.A.,  a  Church  of  England 
minister,  was  horn  in  London,  1731,  and  educated  at 
Merchant  Taylors'  School,  and  at  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford.  He  entered  Merchant  Tailors'  School  as 
master  in  1758,  and  was  made  head-master  in  1783. 
He  also  held  the  rectory  of  Ditton,  Kent,  and  of  St. 
Martin  Outwich,  London.  He  died  in  1795.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  poems,  collected  in  his  Poetical  Works, 
with  his  Life  by  Clare  (Lond.  1796,  2  vols,  4to);  and 
left  also  Sermons  on  Practical  Subjects  (Lond,  1798, 
8vo).— Darling,  Cyclop.  BMiograpUca,  i,  322;  Alli- 
bone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  194. 

Bishop,  "William,  bishop  of  Chalcedon  in  parti- 
bus  infiddium,  and  vicar  apostolical  of  the  pope  in  Eng- 
land, the  first  English  Romanist  bishop  after  the  Ref- 
ormation, was  born  at  Brayles,  in  Warwickshire,  in 
1553,  and  educated  at  Oxford,  Rheims,  and  Rome. 
He  was  then  sent  missionarj'  to  England,  but  was  ar- 
rested at  Dover,  and  confined  in  London  till  the  end 
of  1584.  On  his  release  he  retired  to  Paris,  but  re- 
turned to  England  in  1591.  The  Romish  party  in 
England  had  long  desired  a  bishop,  but  the  Jesuit  Par- 
sons (q.  v.)  desired  to  rule,  through  Blackwell  (q.  v.), 
as  archpnest,  and  it  was  not  till  Parsons's  death  that 
the  pope  agreed  to  appoint  Dr.  Bishop  to  the  episcopa- 
cy. After  his  ordination  as  bishop  (1623)  he  created 
a  chapter  and  nominated  grand  vicars,  archdeacons, 
and  rural  deans  in  most  of  the  counties.  He  died 
April  16,  1624,  and  left  an  edition  of  the  work  of  Pits, 
or  Pitseus,  De  Illustribus  Anglice  Scriptoribus (1623),  and 
others,  named  in  Wood,  Athence.  Oxo?i,vo\.  ii. — Landon, 
Eceles'  Dictionary,  s.v.;  Hook,  Pedes.  Biog.  ii,  452. 
Bishops'  Bible.  See  Authorized  Version. 
Bishops'  Book,  a  book  compiled  by  a  commission 
of  bishops  and  ministers  of  the  English  Church,  in 
1537,  otherwise  called  The  Institution  of  a  Christian 
Man.  It  contains  an  exposition  of  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Seven  Sacraments,  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  of  the  doctrines  of  jus- 
tification and  purgatory.  It  may  be  found  in  Formu- 
laries of  Faith  put  firth  by  authority  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII  (Oxford,  1823).— Hardwick,  Reformation, 
ch.  iv.  ;  Burnet,  Reformation  in  England,  i,  471,  485. 

Bishopric  (liriffKoiri),  oversight,  Acts  i,  20),  minis- 
terial charge  in  the  Church.  In  later  times  it  came 
to  mean  (1)  the  office  and  function  of  a  bishop  (q.  v.), 
and  (2)  the  district  over  which  he  has  jurisdiction. 
See  Diocese;  Episcopacy. 

Bisse,  Thomas,  a  Church  of  England  divine,  was 
born  at  Oldbury,  Gloucestershire,  about  1675,  and  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  passed  M.A.  in  1698  and 
D.l>.  in  1712.  In  1715  he  was  appointed  preacher  at 
the  Rolls  (Impel,  and  in  1716  became  chancellor  of 
Hereford  and  prebendary  in  the  cathedral  there.  He 
gave  Kr'';it  attention  to  the  choral  service  of  the  cathe- 
dral, and  advocated  chanting  and  intoning,  with  great 
skill  of  argument.  His  writings  include  The  Beauty 
of  Holiness  in  tht  Common  Prayer  (Lond.  1728, 8vo,  8th 
cd.t.  a  work  highly  esteemed  to  this  dayj  Sermons 
acy  and  Order  in  Worship  (Lond,  1723,  8vo); 
8t rmons  on  tht  Lord's  Prayt r  (Oxford,  1740,  8vo).  He 
died  April  22, 1731 — Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliographica, 
i,  321 ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  ii,  464. 

Bit  (3P)a,  me'theg,  Psa.  xxii,  9;  ^aXii/of,  Jas.  iii, 
B;  both  elsewhere  "  bridle"  i,  the  curb  put  into  horses' 
mouths  to  guide  and  restrain  them.      See  Bridle. 
Bithi'ah  (Heb.  Bithyah,  iTJfta,  prob.  for  FP~n2, 


daughter  [i.  e.  worshipper]  of  Jehovah ;  Sept.  BeBBia 
v.  r.  BirSia),  daughter  of  a  Pharaoh,  and  wife  of 
Mered,  a  descendant  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  18),  by 
whom  she  had  several  sons  (prob.  those  enumerated  in 
the  latter  part  of  ver.  17).  B.C.  cir.  1658.  The  date 
of  Mered  is  not  positively  determined  by  the  genealogy 
in  which  his  name  occurs,  some  portion  of  it  having 
apparently  been  lost.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
he  should  be  referred  to  the  time  before  the  Exodus, 
or  to  a  period  not  much  later.  Tharaoh  in  this  place 
might  be  conjectured  not  to  be  the  Egyptian  regal 
title,  but  to  be  or  represent  a  Hebrew  name ;  but  the 
name  Bithiah  probably  implies  conversion,  and  the 
other  wife  of  Mered  seems  to  be  called  "  the  Jewess." 
Unless  we  suppose  a  transposition  in  the  text,  or  the 
loss  of  some  of  the  names  of  the  children  of  Mered' s 
wives,  we  must  consider  the  name  of  Bithiah  under- 
stood before  "she  bare  Miriam"  (ver.  17),  and  the  lat- 
ter part  of  ver.  18  and  ver.  19  to  be  recapitulatory; 
but  the  Sept.  does  not  admit  any  except  the  second  of 
these  conjectures.  See  Mered.  The  Scriptures,  as 
well  as  the  Egyptian  monuments,  show  that  the  Pha- 
raohs intermarried  with  foreigners ;  but  such  alliances 
seem  to  have  been  contracted  with  royal  families  alone. 
Hence  Mered  would  seem  to  have  been  a  person  of 
some  distinction.  It  is  possible  that  Bithiah  was  only 
an  adopted  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  or  she  may  have  be- 
come the  wife  of  Mered  in  some  way  through  captivity. 
There  is,  however,  no  ground  for  considering  her  to 
have  been  a  concubine  ;  on  the  contrary,  she  is  shown 
to  be  a  wife,  from  her  taking  precedence  of  one  special- 
ly designated  as  such. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Hodijaii. 

Bith'ron  (more  accurately  "the  Bithron,"  Heb. 
hab- Bithron  ,  ■j'Tltlilil,  thebrolcen  or  divided  place,  from 
1F3,  to  cut  vp ;  Sept.  »)  7rapartii'ovaa  ;  Vulg.  Beth- 
horon),  a  place — from  the  form  of  the  expression,  "all 
the  Bithron,"  doubtless  a  district — in  the  Arabah  or 
Jordan  valley,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  (2  Sam.  ii, 
29).  The  spot  at  which  Abner's  party  crossed  the  Jor- 
dan not  being  specified,  we  cannot  fix  the  position  of 
the  Bithron,  which  lay  between  that  ford  and  Maha- 
naim.  So  far  as  we  know,  the  whole  of  the  country  in 
the  Ghor,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  is  of  the  broken 
and  intersected  character  indicated  by  the  derivation 
of  the  name.  It  appears,  therefore,  to  be  the  designa- 
tion of  that  region  in  general  rather  than  of  any  specific 
locality. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Bether. 

Bithyn'ia  (Bidvria,  derivation  unknown  ;  for  an 
attempted  Semitic  etymology,  see  Bochart,  Canaan,  i, 
10 ;  Sickler,  Handb.  p.  544),  a  province  of  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  Euxine  Sea  and  Propontis  (Plin.  v,  40;  Ptol. 
v,  1 ;  Mel.  i,  19),  bounded  on  the  west  by  Mysia,  on 
the  south  and  east  by  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  and  on  the 
east  by  Paphlagonia  (see  Mannert,  VI,  iii,  515  sq.). 
See  Asia  (Minor).  The  Bithynians  were  a  rude  and 
uncivilized  people,  Thracians  who  had  colonized  this 
part  of  Asia,  and  occupied  no  towns,  but  lived  in  vil- 
lages (Kwpo7r6\iic,  Strabo,  p.  566).  On  the  east  its 
limits  underwent  great  modifications.  The  province 
was  originally  inherited  by  the  Roman  republic  (B.C. 
74)  as  a  legacy  from  Nicodemus  III,  the  last  of  an  in- 
dependent line  of  monarchs,  one  of  whom  had  invited 
into  Asia  Minor  those  Gauls  who  gave  the  name  of 
Galatia  to  the  central  district  of  the  peninsula.  On 
the  death  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  B.C.  63,  the 
western  part  of  the  Pontic  kingdom  was  added  to  the 
province  of  Bithynia,  which  again  received  farther  ac- 
cessions on  this  side  under  Augustus  A.D.  7.  Thus 
the  province  is  sometimes  called  "Pontus  and  Bithyn- 
ia" in  inscriptions;  and  the  language  of  Pliny's  let- 
ters is  similar.  The  province  of  Pontus  was  not  con- 
stituted till  the  reign  of  Nero.  It  is  observable  that 
in  Acts  ii,  9,  Pontus  is  in  the  enumeration  and  not 
Bithynia,  and  that  in  1  Pet.  i,  1,  both  are  mentioned. 
(See  Marquardt's  continuation  of  Becker's  Rom.  Alter* 
thiimer,  III,  i,  146.)     For  a  description  of  the  country, 


BITTER 


825 


BITTER 


which  is  mountainous,  well  wooded,  and  fertile,  Hamil- 
ton's Researches  in  Asia  Minor  may  be  consulted ;  also 
a  paper  by  Ainsworth  in  the  Roy.  Geog.  Journal,  vol. 
ix.  The  course  of  the  River  Rhyndacus  is  a  marked 
feature  on  the  western  frontier  of  Bithynia,  and  the 
snowy  range  of  the  Mysian  Olympus  on  the  south- 
west. (See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v.)  That 
Christian  congregations  were  formed  at  an  early  pe- 
riod in  Bithynia  is  evident  from  the  apostle  Peter 
having  addressed  the  first  of  his  Epistles  to  them  (1 
Pet.  i,  1).  The  apostle  Paul  was  at  one  time  inclined 
to  go  into  Bithynia  with  his  assistants  Silas  and  Timo- 


Coins  of  liitliynia,  with  the  Heads  of  Roman  Emperors. 


thy,  "but  the  Spirit  suffered  him  not"  (Acts  xvi,  7). 
(See  Conybeare  and  Howson's  Life  and  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  i,  240.)  This  province  of  Asia  Minor  became  il- 
lustrious in  the  earlier  parts  of  post-apostolic  history 
through  Pliny's  letters  and  the  council  of  Nicsea  (q.  v.). 
It  had  two  regular  metropolitans,  at  Nicomedia  and  Ni- 
csea,  and  a  titular  one  at  Chalcedon  (see  Wiltsch,  Hand- 
book of  the  Geogr.  and  Statist,  of  the  Church,  i,  161  sq. ; 
443  sq.).  Bithynia  now  forms  one  of  the  districts  of 
Turkish  Anatolia,  and  is  the  nearest  province  to  Turkey 
in  Europe,  being  separated  from  it  by  only  the  narrow 
strait  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus  opposite  Constanti- 
nople, and  contains  one  of  the  suburbs  of  that  city 
called  Scutari,  a  short  distance  from  which  is  Chalce- 
don. A  considerable  proportion  of  the  population  of 
Bithynia  belongs  to  the  Greek  and  Armenian  churches. 
(For  a  full  account  of  this  district,  see  Penny  Cyclo- 
paedia, s.  v.) 

Bitter  (always  some  form  of  the  root  "H^,  marar' ' , 
m/cpoc).  Bitterness  (Exod.  i,  14;  Ruth  C  20 ;  Jer. 
ix,  15)  is  symbolical  of  affliction,  misery,  and  servi- 
tude. It  was  for  this  reason  that,  in  the  celebration 
of  the  Passover,  the  servitude  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt 
was  typically  represented  by  bitter  herbs  (see  below). 
On  the  day  of  bitterness  in  Amos  viii,  10,  comp.  Tibul- 
lus,  ii,  4,  11 — "Nunc  et  amara  dies,  et  noctis  amarior 
umbra  est."  In  Habakk.  i,  G,  the  Chaldseans  are 
called  "  that  bitter  and  swift  nation,"  which  Schultens 
illustrates  by  remarking  that  the  root  merer  in  Arabic 
(answering  to  the  Hebrew  word  for  bitter)  is  usually 
applied  to  strength  and  courage.  The  gall  of  bitterness 
(Acts  viii,  23)  describes  a  state  of  extreme  wickedness, 
highly  offensive  to  God  and  hurtful  to  others.  A  root 
of  bitterness  (Heb.  xiii,  15)  expresses  a  wicked  or  scan- 
dalous person,  or  any  dangerous  sin  leading  to  apos- 
tasy (Wemyss's  Claris  Symbolica,  etc.).  The  "waters 
made  bitter"  (Rev.  viii,  11)  is  a  symbol  of  severe  po- 
litical or  providential  events.  See  Wormwood.  On 
the  bitter  wafers  of  jealousy,  or  what  may  be  termed  the 
ordeal  oath  (Num.  v,  11-24),  see  Adultery  (trial  of). 
On  the  "bitter  clusters"  of  Sodom  (Deut.  xxxii,  32), 
6ee  Apple;  Hemlock. 


Bitter  Herbs  (B^TS,  merorim',  literally  bitters; 
Sept.  niKi/totc. ;  Vulg.  laciucm  agrestes),  occurs  in  two 
places  in  Scripture,  both  having  reference  to  the  Pas- 
chal meal.     In  Exod.  xii,  8,  Moses  commanded  the 
Jews  to  eat  the  lamb  of  the  Passover  "with  unleav- 
ened bread,  and  with  bitter  herbs  (merorim)  they  shall 
eat  it."     So  at  the  institution  of  the  second  Passover, 
in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  (Num.  ix,  11),  "The  four- 
teenth day  of  the  second  month  at  even  they  shall 
keep  it,  and  eat  it  with  unleavened  bread  and  bitter 
herbs."     The  word  merorim,  which  is  here  translated 
"bitter  herbs,"  is  universally  acknowledged  to  signify 
bitter,  and  the  word  herbs  has  been  supplied  to  com- 
plete the   sense.      In  Arabic,  murr,  "bitter,"  plur. 
murar,  signifies  a  species  of  bitter  tree  or  plant ;  as 
does  maru,  a  fragrant  herb  which  has  always  some  de- 
gree of  bitterness.     Murooa  is  in  India  applied  both 
to  the  bitter  artemisia,  or  wormwood,  and  to  the  fra- 
grant ocynum  pilosum,  a  species  of  basil ;  in  Arabia  to 
the  bitter  centaury,  according  to  Forskal.     There  has 
been  much  difference  of  opinion  respecting  the  kind 
of  herbs  denoted  by  this  word  (Bochart,  Hieroz.  i,  1.  ii, 
c.  50).      On  this  subject  the  reader  may  consult  Carp- 
zov,  Apparat.  p.  404  sq.     See  Passover.     It  how- 
ever seems  very  doubtful  whether  any  particular  herbs 
were  intended  by  so  general  a  term  as  bitters ;  it  is  far 
more  probable  that  it  denotes  whatever  bitter  herbs, 
obtainable  in  the  place  where  the  Passover  was  eaten, 
might  be  fitly  used  with  meat.     This   seems  to  be 
established  by  the  fact  that  the  first  directions  respect- 
ing the  Passover  were  given  in  Egypt,  where  also  the 
first  Passover  was  celebrated ;   and,  as  the  esculent 
vegetables  of  Egypt  are  very  different  from  those  of 
Palestine,  it  is  obvious  that  the  bitter  herbs  used  in 
the  first  celebration  could  scarcely  have  been  the  same 
as  those  Avhich  were  afterward  employed  for  the  same 
purpose  in  Canaan.     According  to  the  Mishna  (Pesa- 
chim,  ii,  6),  and  the  commentators  thereon,  there  were 
five  sorts  of  bitter  herbs,  any  one  or  all  of  which  might 
be  used  on  this  occasion.     These  were,  (1.)  r^TH, 
chaze'reth,  supposed  to  be  wild  lettuce,  which  the  Sep- 
tuagint  and  Vulgate  make  stand  for  the  whole ;  (2.) 
"pd^",  uleshin' ',  endives;  or,  according  to  some,  wild 
endives;  (3.)  tl3"?P,  tamkah' ,  which  some  make  the 
garden  endive,  others  horehound,  others  tansy,  others 
the  green  tops  of  the  horseradish,  while,  according  to 
De  Pomis,  in  Zemach  David,  it  is  no  other  than  a  spe- 
cies of  thistle  (carduus  marrabium);   (4.)  "p33nin, 
charchabinin  ,  supposed  to  be  a  kind  of  nettle,  but 
which  Scheuchzer  shows  to  be  the  chamomile ;  (5.)  Tna, 
maror',  which  takes  its  name  from  its  bitterness,  and 
is  alleged  by  the  Mishnic  commentators  to  be  a  spe- 
cies of  the  most  bitter  coriander,  otherwise  the  dande- 
lion.    All  these  might,  according  to  the  Mishna,  be 
taken  either  fresh  or  dried,  but  not  pickled,  boiled,  or 
cooked  in   any  way.     All  these  translations  betray 
their  European  origin.     To  interpret  them  with  any 
thing  like  accuracy,  it  is  requisite,  in  the  first  place,  to 
have  a  complete  flora  of  the  countries  from  Egypt  to 
Syria,  with  the  Arabic  names  of  the  useful  plants,  ac- 
companied by  a  notice  of  their  properties.      Science  is 
as  yet  far  from  having  any  thing  of  the  kind.     We 
have  seen  that  the  succory  or  endive  was  early  selected 
as  being  the  bitter  herb  especially  intended ;  and  Dr. 
Geddes  justly  remarks  that  "  the  Jews  of  Alexandria, 
who  translated  the  Pentateuch  could  not  be  ignorant 
what  herbs  were  eaten  with  the  Paschal  lamb  in  their 
days."     Jerome  understood  it  in  the  same  manner; 
and   Pseudo-Jonathan   expressly   mentions   horehound 
and  lettuce.      Forskal   informs   us  that  the  Jews  at 
Sana  and  in  Egypt  eat  lettuce  with  the  Paschal  lamb. 
I  Lad)'  Calcott  inquires  whether  mint  was  originally  one 
|  of  the  bitter  herbs  with  which  the  Israelites  ate  the 
I  Paschal,  as  our  use  of  it  with  roast  lamb,  particularly 
i  about  Easter-time,  inclined  her  to   suppose   it  was. 


BITTERN 


826 


BITUMEN 


Aben  Ezra,  as  quoted  by  Eosenmuller,  states  that  the 
Egyptians  UBed  bitter  herbs  in  every  meal ;  so  in  India 
some  of  the  bitter  cucurbitacece,  as  kurella,  are  con- 
stantly employed  as  food.  See  Gourd.  It  is  curious 
that  the  two  sets  of  plants  which  appear  to  have  the 
greatest  number  of  points  in  their  favor  are  the  fra- 
grant and  also  bitter  labiate  plants.  It  is  important 
to  observe  that  the  artemisia,  and  some  of  these  fra- 
grant labiate,  arc  found  in  many  parts  of  Arabia  and 
Syria — that  is,  in  warm,  dry,  barren  regions.  The 
endh  e  is  also  found  in  similar  situations,  but  requires, 
upon  the  whole,  a  greater  degree  of  moisture.  Thus 
it  is  evident  that  the  Israelites  would  be  able  to  obtain 
suitable  plants  during  their  long  wanderings  in  the 
desert,  though  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  select  any  one 
out  of  the  several  which  might  have  been  employed 
by  them.     Sec  Botany  ;  Herb. 

Bittern  C"IBp  or  llSp,  kippocf;  Sept.  t\ivoc,  i.  e. 
hedgehog)  occurs  but  three  times  in  Scripture,  in  con- 
nection with  the  desolations  of  Babylon,  Idumaea,  and 
Nineveh  (Isa.  xiv,  23;  xxxiv,  11;  Zeph.  ii,  14),  and 
has  been  variously  interpreted  owl,  osprey,  tortoise, 
porcupine,  otter,  and,  in  the  Arabic,  bustard.  Bochart, 
Shaw,  Lowth,  and  other  authorities,  have  supported 
the  opinion  that  it  refers  to  the  porcupine  (see  espe- 
cially Keith,  Evidence,  ed.  1840,  p.  435,  490),  making 
the  first  syllable  to  be  derived  from  i"I3£,  Icaneh' ', 
"  spine  ;"  in  confirmation  of  which,  Bochart,  with  his 
wonted  learning,  cites  the  Chaldee,  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
and  Ethiopian  names  of  the  porcupine  and  hedgehog, 
which  apparently  confirm  his  opinion,  while  Gesenius 
defends  the  same  identification,  although  by  a  different 
derivation,  from  ^2^,  Jcaphad',  "to  contract,"  i.  e. 
into  a  ball ;  but  this  meaning  is  utterty  irreconcilable 
with  the  context.  In  Isa.  xiv,  23,  "  I  will  make  it  a 
possession  for  the  bittern,  and  pools  of  water,"  etc.,  the 
words  are  plain  and  natural.  Marshes  and  pools  arc 
not  the  habitation  of  hedgehogs,  for  they  shun  water. 
In  Isa.  xxxiv,  11,  it  is  said,  the  cormorant  and  the 
bittern  shall  possess  it,  the  owl  also  and  the  raven  shall 
dwell  in  it,"  etc.,  that  is,  in  the  ruins  of  Idumaea. 
Hero,  again,  the  version  is  plain,  and  a  hedgehog  most 
surely  would  be  out  of  place.  Zeph.  ii,  14,  "  Both  the 
cormorant  and  the  bittern  shall  lodge  in  the  upper  lin- 
tels of  it,  and  their  voice  shall  sing  in  the  windows," 
etc.  Surely  here  kippod  cannot  mean  the  hedgehog, 
a  nocturnal,  grovelling,  worm-eating  animal,  entirely 
or  nearly  mute,  and  incapable  of  climbing  up  walls; 
one  that  does  not  haunt  ruins,  but  earthy  banks  in 
wooded  regions,  and  that  is  absolutely  solitary  in  its 
habits.  The  arguments  respecting  the  Heb.  term  it- 
self, drawn  from  indications  of  manners,  such  as  the 
Beveral  texts  contain,  are,  on  the  contrary,  positive, 
and  leave  no  doubt  that  the  animal  meant  is  not  a 
hedgehog,  nor  even  a  mammal,  but  a  bird,  and  that  of 
some  aquatic  species.  Hence  the  word  must  bear  an 
interpretation  which  is  applicable  to  one  of  the  feath- 
ered  tribes,  probably  to  certain  wTading  species,  which 
hive,  chiefly  on  the  neck,  long  pointed  feathers,  more 
or  less  speckled.  This  is  confirmed  by  the  Arabic 
version,  which  has  Al-hmibam,  the  name  of  a  bird 
Which,  according  to  Shaw,  is  of  the  size  of  a  capon,  but 
of  a  longer  habit  of  body.  The  bittern  answers  these 
conditions,  and  is  a  solitary  bird,  loving  marshy 
j  ground.  Its  scientific  name  is  Botaurus  slellaris,  and 
J  it  belongs  to  the  GruidsB,  or  cranes.  The  Arabian  bus- 
tard, in;,:  houbara,  might  be  selected  if  it  were  not  that 
bustards  keep  always  in  dry  deserts  and  uplands,  and 
thai  they  never  roost-  their  feet  not  admitting  of 
perching— but  rest  on  the  ground.  The  term  seems 
most  applicable  to  the  heron  tribes,  whose  beaks  are 
formidable  Bpikes  that  often  kill  hawks— a  fact  well 
known  to  Eastern  hunters.  Of  these,  Xi/cticorax  Eu- 
or  common  night-heron,  with  its  pencil  of 
white  feathers  in  the  Crest,  is  a  Bpecies  not  uncommon 
in  the  marshes  of  Western  Asia  ;   and  of  several  species 


of  bittern,  the  Ardea  (botaurus)  stellaris  has  pointed 
long  feathers  on  the  neck  and  breast,  freckled  with 
black,  and  a  strong  pointed  bill.  After  the  breeding- 
season  it  migrates,  and  passes  the  winter  in  the  south, 
frequenting  the  marshes  and  rivers  of  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope, where  it  then  roosts  high  above  ground,  uttering 
a  curious  note  before  and  after  its  evening  flight,  very 
distinct  from  the  booming  sound  produced  by  it  in  the 
breeding-season,  and  while  it  remains  in  the  marshes. 
Though  not  building,  like  the  stork,  on  the  tops  of 
houses,  it  resorts,  like  the  heron,  to  ruined  structures, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  seen  on  the  summit  of  Tank 
Kesra  at  Ctesiphon.  The  common  bittern  is  a  hird 
nearly  of  the  size  of 
the  common  heron, 
but  differing  from 
it  greatlj'in  the  col- 
or of  its  plumage. 
The  crown  of  the 
head  is  black,  with 
a  black  spot  also  on 
each  side  about  the  —=«^^ 
angle  of  the  mouth ;  ^_ 
the  back  and  upper 
part  are  elegantly 
variegated  with  dif- 
ferent colors,  black, 
brown,  and  gray,  in 
beautiful  arrange- 
ment. This  species 
of  bird  is  common  Bittern, 

only  in  fenny  countries,  where  it  is  met  with  skulking 
about  the  reeds  and  sedge;  and  its  sitting  posture  is 
with  the  head  and  neck  erect,  and  the  beak  pointed  di- 
rectly upward.  It  permits  persons  to  approach  near 
to  it  without  rising.  It  flies  principally  toward  the 
dusk  of  the  evening,  and  then  rises  in  a  very  singular 
manner,  by  a  spiral  ascent,  till  quite  out  of  sight.  It 
makes  a  curious  noise  when  among  the  reeds,  and  a 
very  different,  though  sufficiently  singular  one,  as  it 
rises  on  the  wing  in  the  night.  (See  Penny  Cyclopcedia, 
s.  v.)     See  Porcupine. 

Bitumen  is  doubtless  denoted  by  the  Heb.  term 
^n,  chemar'  (Auth.  Vers,  "slime,"  only  occurs  in 
Gen.  xi,  3;  xiv,  10;  Exod.  ii,  3),  so  called  from  its 
boiling  up  as  an  earth-resin  from  subterranean  foun- 
tains not  far  from  Babylon,  also  anciently  in  the  vale 
of  Siddim,  and  occasionally  from  the  bottom  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  which  is  thence  called  Lacus  Asphaltites — 
the  lake  of  bitumen.  There  are  two  or  three  kinds,  hut 
each  have  nearly  the  same  component  parts.  It  is 
usually  of  a  blackish  or  brown  hue,  and  hardens  more 
or  less  on  exposure  to  the  air.  In  its  most  fluid  state 
it  forms  naphtha ;  when  of  the  consistence  of  oil,  it  be- 
comes petroleum;  at  the  next  stage  of  induration  it  be- 
comes elastic  bitumen ;  then  maliha  ,•  and  so  on  until  it 
becomes  a  compact  mass,  and  is  then  called  asphaltum. 
All  these  substances  are  remarkable  for  their  inflamma- 
ble character;  the  bituminous  oils  are  of  late  extensive- 
ly used  for  illumination  and  lubrication,  that  naturally 
produced  being  commonly  called  "  petroleum,"  while 
that  manufactured  from  this  is  termed  "kerosene." 
Neither  the  inventions  of  art  nor  the  researches  of 
science  have  discovered  any  other  substance  so  well 
adapted  to  exclude  water  and  to  repel  the  injuries  of 
worms  as  the  mineral  pitch  or  bitumen.  According 
to  Gen.  xi,  3,  bitumen  was  used  instead  of  lime  or  ce- 
ment for  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel.  Hit,  the 
ancient  Is,  upon  the  Euphrates,  says  Mr.  Ainsworth, 
"  has  been  celebrated  from  all  antiquity  for  its  never- 
failing  fountains  of  bitumen,  and  they  furnished  the 
imperishable  mortar  of  the  Babylonian  structures" 
(Resea?rhes,  p.  89).  Prof.  Eobinson,  in  183S',  examined 
the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea.  He  says:  "  In  the  same 
plain  were  slime-pits,  that  is  to  say,  wells  of  bitumen 
or  asphaltum,  the  Hebrew  word  being  the  same  as  the 


BIZJOTIIJAH 


827 


BLACKBURN 


word  used  in  describing  the  building  of  the  walls  of 
Babylon,  which  we  know  were  cemented  with  bitumen 
(Gen.  xiv,  10  ;  xi,  3).  These  pits  or  fountains  appear 
to  have  been  of  considerable  extent.  The  valley  in 
which  they  were  situated  is  indeed  called  Siddim ;  but 
it  is  said  to  have  been  adjacent  to  the  salt  sea,  and  it 
contained  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  (Gen.  xiv,  2,  3,  10- 
12).  The  streams  that  anciently  watered  the  plain  re- 
main to  attest  the  accuracy  of  the  sacred  historian, 
but  the  pits  of  asphaltum  are  no  longer  to  be  seen. 
Dili  they  disappear  in  consequence  of  the  catastrophe 
of  the  plain?"  (Bib.  Researches,  ii,  G03).  In  ancient 
times  bitumen  was  a  valuable  article  of  commerce, 
and  found  a  ready  market  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  used 
in  large  quantities  for  embalming  the  dead;  it  was 
also  occasionally  employed  as  a  substitute  for  stone. 
The  Egyptians,  according  to  Pliny,  made  use  of  bitu- 
men in  making  water-tight  the  small  boats  of  platted 
papyrus-reed  which  are  commonly  used  on  the  Nile  : 
the  same  is  done  at  this  day  to  the  Geiser  (or  Gopher) 
boats  of  the  Euphrates,  and  the  asphaltic  coracles  of 
the  Tigris.  The  little  reed-boat  in  which  the  mother 
of  Moses  exposed  her  child  on  the  Nile  (Exod.  ii,  3) 
was  made  tight  with  pitch  of  this  kind.  There  are 
also  remarkable  bituminous  wells  along  the  Upper  Jor- 
dan, three  miles  west  of  Hasbeiya  (Thomson,  Land  and 
Book,  i,  335).     See  Asphaltum. 

Bizjoth'jah  (Ileb.  Bizyotheyak',  i"Pfri"iT3,  accord- 
ing to  Gesenius,  contempt  of  Jehovah ;  according  to 
Fiirst,  for  FPT"PT~n'12,  house  of  the  olives  of  Jehovah, 
i.  e.  superior  olive-yard ;  Sept.  Bi£t wSt'a,  but  most  cop- 
ies omit;  Vulg.  Baziothia),  a  town  in  the  south  of  Ju- 
dah  (i.  e.  in  Simeon),  named  in  connection  with  Beer- 
sheba  and  Baalah  (Josh,  xv,  28)  in  such  a  way  (the 
copulative  being  omitted)  as  to  make  it  identical  with 
the  Litter  =  Bizjothjah-Baalah,  and  so  the  enumera- 
tion in  ver.  32  requires;  compare  the  parallel  passage, 
ch.  xix,  2,  3,  where  the  simple  Balaii  (doubtless  the 
same)  occurs  in  almost  precisely  the  same  order.  See 
Judaii.  In  ch.  xix,  8  it  is  also  called  Baalath-beer, 
which  is  there  farther  identified  with  "  Ramath  of  the 
south,"  and  is  elsewhere  mentioned  under  still  other 
similar  names  (Baal,  Bilhah),  and  yet  again  as  Leiii 
(q.  v.) ;  from  all  which  titles  we  may  conclude  that  it 
lay  on  an  eminence  (Ramah)  near  a  well  (Beer),  in  a 
fruitful  spot  (Bizjoth),  and  was  at  one  time  a  site  of 
the  worship  of  Baal  (Baalath),  whose  name  (as  in  some 
other  instances)  was  eventually  replaced  by  that  of 
Jah.     See  Ramath-Nekeb. 

Biz'tha  (Heb.  Bizlha ',  £<r*2,  according  to  Ge- 
senius, for  the  Persian  beste,  "castrated;"  but  Fiirst 
compares  the  last  syllable  with  the  Sanscrit  zata, 
"horn;"  the  termination  -tha  is  evidently  Persic; 
comp.  Bigtha  ;  Sept.  WaZta  v.  r.  Ba'£dv),  the  second 
of  the  seven  eunuchs  ("chamberlains")  of  the  harem  of 
Xerxes  (Ahasuerus)  who  were  ordered  to  bring  Vashti 
forth  for  exhibition  (Esth.  i,  10).     B.C.  483. 

Black  (usually  some  form  of  Tip,  hadar',  to  be 
dushj,  or  "iHd,  shachor' ,  swarthy  ;  fteXacj.  Although 
the  Orientals  do  not  wear  black  in  mourning,  yet,  like 
the  ancient  Jews,  they  regard  the  color  as  a  symbol  of 
affliction,  disaster,  and  privation.  In  fact,  the  custom 
of  wearing  black  in  mourning  is  a  sort  of  visible  ex- 
pression  of  what  is  in  the  East  a  figure  of  speech.  In 
Scripture  blackness  is  used  as  symbolical  of  afflictions 
occasioned  by  drought  and  famine  (Job  xxx,  30;  Jer. 
xiv,  2  ;  Lam.  iv,  8  ;  v,  10).  "Whether  this  be  founded 
on  any  notion  that  the  hue  of  the  complexion  was 
deepened  by  privation  has  not  been  ascertained;  but 
it  has  been  remarked  by  Chardin  and  others  that  in 
the  periodical  mourning  of  the  Persians  for  Hossein 
many  of  those  who  take  part  in  the  ceremonies  appear 
with  their  bodies  blackened,  in  order  to  express  the 
extremity  of  thirst  and  heat  which  Hossein  suffered, 
and  which,  as  is  alleged,  was  so  great  that  he  turned 


black,  and  the  tongue  swelled  till  it  protruded  from  his 
mouth.  In  Mai.  iii,  1-1,  we  read,  "What  profit  is  it 
that  we  keep  his  ordinances,  and  that  we  have  walked 
in  blackness  (Auth.  Vers,  "mournfully")  before  the 
Lord  of  Hosts ;"  meaning  that  they  had  fasted  in 
sackcloth  and  ashes.  "Black"  occurs  as  a  symbol  of 
fear  in  Joel  ii,  G:  "All  faces  shall  gather  blackness," 
or  darken  with  apprehension  and  distress.  This  use 
of  the  word  may  be  paralleled  from  Virgil  (+-En.  ix, 
719 ;  Georg.  iv,  468).  The  same  expression  which  Joel 
uses  is  employed  by  Nahum  (ii,  111)  to  denote  the  ex- 
tremity of  pain  and  sorrow.  In  Zech.  vi,  2-6,  four 
chariots  are  represented  drawn  by  horses  of  different 
colors,  which  have  usually  been  supposed  to  denote  the 
four  great  empires  of  the  world  in  succession  :  the  As- 
syrian or  Babylonian,  the  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Bo- 
man,  distinguishable  both  by  their  order  and  attri- 
butes ;  the  black  horses  in  that  case  seeming  to  denote 
the  Persian  empire,  which,  by  subduing  the  Chaldseans, 
and  being  about  to  inflict  a  second  heavy  chastisement 
on  Babylon,  quieted  the  spirit  of  Jehovah  (v.  8)  with 
respect  to  Chaldaea,  a  country  always  spoken  of  as  ly- 
ing to  the  north  of  Judaea.  But  the  color  here  is  prob- 
ably, as  elsewhere,  only  symbolical  in  general  of  the 
utter  devastation  of  Babylon  by  the  Persians  (see  Hen- 
derson, Comment,  in  loc).  The  figure  of  a  man  seat- 
ed on  a  black  horse,  with  the  balance  to  weigh  corn 
and  the  other  necessaries  of  life,  is  employed  in  Rev. 
vi,  5  to  signify  great  want  and  scarcity,  threatening 
the  world  with  famine,  a  judgment  of  God  next  to 
the  sword.  Also,  "The  sun  became  black  as  sack- 
cloth of  hair"  (Rev.  vi,  12)  is  a  figure  employed,  as 
some  think,  to  describe  the  state  of  the  Church  during 
the  last  and  most  severe  of  the  persecutions  under  the 
heathen  Roman  empire.  Great  public  calamities  are 
often  thus  figuratively  described  by  earthquakes, 
eclipses,  and  the  like,  as  if  the  order  of  nature  were 
inverted.  In  connection  with  this  subject  it  may  be 
remarked  that  black  is  studiously  avoided  in  dress  by 
all  Orientals,  except  in  certain  garments  of  hair  or 
wool,  which  are  naturally  of  that  color.  Black  is  also 
sometimes  imposed  as  a  mark  of  humiliating  distinc- 
tion by  dominant  nations  upon  subject  or  tributary 
tribes,  the  most  familiar  instance  of  which  is  the  obli- 
gation laid  upon  the  Jews  in  Turkey  of  wearing  black 
turbans. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Color. 

Black,  "William,  a  Methodist  missionary,  was 
born  in  Huddersfield,  Eng.,  in  17G0,  and  removed  with 
his  parents  to  Nova  Scotia  1775.  In  1786  he  entered 
the  ministry.  He  made  up  by  industry  for  the  lack 
of  early  education,  and  acquired  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
languages  after  commencing  his  ministry.  After  sev- 
eral years'  faithful  and  successful  ministry,  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  superintendent  of  the  "Wesleyan  Mis- 
sions in  British  America.  He  continued  in  this  service 
through  life,  and  is  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of 
Methodism  in  that  region.  He  died  in  peace,  Sept.  8, 
1834. —  Wesleyan  Minutes  (Lond.  1835);  Lives  of  Early 
Methodist  Minister/,  iii,  115. 

Blackall,  Offspring,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Exeter, 
was  born  in  London  1654,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 
After  successive  pastorates  at  Okenderi,  Essex,  and  St. 
Mary's,  London,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Exeter  1707, 
and  died  1716.  He  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  best  preachers  of  his  age.  His  sermons  on  the 
Sufficiency  <f  11<  relation  and  on  the  Sermon  an  the 
Mount  are  collected  in  his  Works,  with  Life  of  the  Au- 
thor, by  Archbishop  Uawcs  (Lond.  1723,  2  vols.  fob). 
There  is  also  an  edition  of  the  Practical  Discourses  (8 
vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1717). — Darling,  Cyclop.  Bible,  s.  v. 

Blackburn,  Andrew,  a  minister  of  the  United 
Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  Jefferson  County,  Tenn.,  Sept.  28,  1827, 
studied  at  Maryville  College  and  the  South-western 
Seminary,  and  was  licensed  by  Union  Presbytery, 
Tennessee,  1850.      In  the  same  year  he  was  also  or- 


BLACKBURN 


828 


BLAINS 


daiiied  as  a  ruling  elder  of  Westminster  church,  and 
was  a  lay  commissioner  to  the  I  ieneral  Assembly.  On 
his  return  he  took  charge  of  the  church  at  Chattanoo- 
ga, Teim.  He  had  been  for  some  time  editing,  with 
others,  the  Calvinistic  Magazine,  when  the  Synod  of 
Tennessee,  Oct.,  1850,  resolved  to  establish  the  Pres- 
bylei-Um  Witness,  and  made  him  one  of  the  editors.  For 
several  years  he  sustained  the  latter  paper,  not  only 
by  his  talents, bat  with  his  money,  and,  when  the  paper 
went  down  in  1858,  he  revived  it;  but,  his  health  fail- 
ing, he  had  soon  to  dispose  of  it.  From  1856  to  1859 
lie  was  Btated  supply  for  Bristol,  Tenn.,  and  during  a 
portion  of  1855  he  acted  as  agent  for  the  Home  Mis- 
sionary Society.  He  died  Aug.  22, 1859,  of  consump- 
tion, at  Maryville. — Wilson,  Preshyt.  Histor.  Almanac 
for  1861. 

Blackburn,  Francis,  an  English  divine,  was 
horn  in  1705,  at  Richmond,  Yorkshire,  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  ordained  1739,  when  he  became  rec- 
tor of  Richmond.  In  1750  he  was  made  archdeacon 
of  Cleveland,  and  it  was  after  that  period  that  he  be- 
gan to  be  known  as  the  advocate  of  what  is  called  "  re- 
ligious liberty."  In  17G6  he  wrote  his  Confessional 
against  subscriptions  to  articles  and  creeds,  a  work 
which  elicited  a  hot  controversy,  and  called  forth 
more  than  seventy  pamphlets.  Blackburn  was  a  bit- 
ter opponent  of  the  Romanists,  and  wrote  against 
them.  He  died  in  1787.  He  was  for  some  time  en- 
gaged in  the  controversy  concerning  the  intermediate 
state.  His  writings  are  collected  under  the  title  Works, 
Tli-oloffiral  and  Miscellaneous  (Camb.  1804,  7  vols.  8vo), 
with  a  life  of  the  author  by  his  son  in  vol.  i. 

Blackburn,  Gideon,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, born  in  Augusta  Co.,  Va.,  in  1772,  and  instruct- 
ed in  theology  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Henderson,  was  li- 
censed to  preach  in  1792,  and  labored  actively  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  West  until  1827,  when  he  became 
president  of  Centre  College,  Ky.  He  left  this  post  in 
1830,  however,  and  employed  himself  in  collecting 
funds,  with  which,  after  his  death,  the  Blackburn  The- 
ological Seminary  at  Carlinville,  111.,  was  established. 
In  the  division  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  Dr.  Black- 
burn went  with  the  New  School.  He  died  in  1838,  at 
Carlinville.  As  an  educator  and  disciplinarian  he 
stood  in  the  first  rank,  and  few  excelled  him  in  power 
of  extemporaneous  preaching.  —  Sprague,  Annals,  iv, 
43. 

Blackfriars,  a  name  given  to  the  Dominicans  in 
England  from  the  color  of  their  garments.  A  paro- 
chial district  in  London  in  which  they  established  their 
second  English  house  still  bears  the  name.  See  Do- 
minicans. 

Blacklock,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  divine  and  poet,  was 
horn  at  Annan,  Scotland,  in  1721,  and  lost  his  sight 
by  the  small-pox  when  he  was  about  six  months  old. 
To  amuse  and  instruct  him,  his  father  and  friends 
used  to  read  to  him,  and  by  this  means  he  acquired  a 
fund  of  information,  and  even  some  knowledge  of 
Latin.  Through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Stevenson,  of 
Edinburgh,  he  studied  several  years  at  Edinburgh,  and 
became  well  acquainted  with  Creek,  Latin,  French,  and 
Italian.  In  176§  he  was  ordained  minister  of  Kircud- 
bright, but,  being  opposed  by  the  parishioners,  ho  re- 
tire.! alt:  r  two  years  on  an  annuity,  and  received  stu- 
dents at  Edinburgh  as  boarders,  and  assisted  them  in 
their  studies,  lie  died  July  7, 1791.  His  poems  will 
or  referred  to  on  account  of  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances  under  which  they  were  written;  but,  al- 
tliou  li  marked  by  a  vein  of  placid  elegance,  they  are 
wanting  alike  in  rigor  of  thought  and  force  of  imagi- 
nation. Dr.  Blacklock  published  An  Essay  toward 
Universal  Etymology  (8vo,  1756):-  Paraclesis,  «r  Con- 
BolatfotlS  (hihicid  from  Natural  it,„l  Hn-tnled  Relifum 
(1767):— .1  Panegyric  on  Great  Britain,  a  poem  (8vo, 
1773): — The  Graham,  a  heroic  poem,  in  four  cantos 
(4to.  1771 1.     In  1793  a  posthumous  edition  of  his  poems 


was  published  by  Mackenzie,  author  of  the  "Man  of 
Feeling,"  with  a  life.  There  is  also  an  edition  of  his 
poems,  with  life,  by  Professor  Spence  (Lond.  1756,  4to, 
2d  ed.).— Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  196. 

Blackman,  Learner,  an  eminent  pioneer  of 
American  Methodism,  was  horn  in  New  Jersey,  and 
entered  the  ministry  in  1800  at  about  19  years  of  age. 
After  a  few  j'ears  spent  in  itinerant  labors  in  the  East- 
ern States,  he  was  sent  in  1805  on  a  mission  to  Missis- 
sippi, then  a  wild  countrj',  inhabited  by  Indians  and 
frontiersmen.  His  labors  laid  the  foundations  of 
Methodism  through  a  large  region  of  country.  He 
was  drowned  in  the  Ohio  River  in  1815. — Minutes  of 
Conferences,  i,  274 ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  324. 

Blackmore,  Sir  Richard,  was  horn  in  1650,  and 
died  in  1729.  He  was  active  in  the  revolution  which 
elevated  William  III,  whose  physician  he  was,  to  the 
throne.  Besides  several  medical  and  poetical  works, 
he  wrote  Just  Prejudices  against  the  A  rian  Hypothesis 
(1725),  Natural  Theology  (1728),  Creation,  a  philosoph- 
ical poem  (1712,  4th  ed.  1718),  which  Addison  pro- 
nounced one  of  the  noblest  productions  in  English 
verse ;  and  poetical  paraphrases  on  Job,  the  songs  of 
Moses,  Deborah,  and  David,  on  four  select  psalms,  on 
chapters  of  Isaiah,  and  the  third  chapter  of  Habakkuk. 

Blackwall,  Anthony,  an  industrious  author,  was 
born  in  Derbyshire,  1674,  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  All -Saints,  Derby,  about 
1698.  In  1722  he  was  made  master  of  the  Grammar- 
school  of  Market-Bosworth,  which  he  left  to  take  the 
parish  of  Clapham,  in  Surrey  ;  but  in  1729  he  returned 
to  Market-Bosworth,  where  he  died  in  1731.  His  chief 
work  is  The  Sacred  Classics  Defended  and  Illustrated 
(Lond.  1727-31,  2  vols.  8vo),  in  which  he  defends  cer- 
tain passages  in  the  N.  T.  usually  held  to  be  barbarisms. 
—Allibone,  Diet,  of  A  uth.  i,  199 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Blade  stands  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  for  the  following 
words:  ~<lb,  la' hah,  a, flume,  applied  to  the  glittering 
point  of  a  spear  (Job  xxxix,  23)  or  sword  (Nah.  iii,  3), 
and  hence  to  the  "blade"  of  a  dagger,  Judg.  iii,  22; 
iTMEJ,  shikmah' ,  the  "  shoulder-blade,"  Job  xxxi,  22; 
Xoproc,  grass  as  growing  for  provender,  hence  the  ten- 
der "  blade"  of  cereals,  Matt,  xiii,  26 ;  Mark  iv,  28. 

Blain,  George  W.,  A.M.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  and  professor  in  Randolph  Macon  College, 
Va.,  was  born  in  Albemarle  county,  Va.,  1815,  convert- 
ed at  a  camp-meeting  in  1832,  graduated  at  Randolph 
Macon  College  in  1837,  entered  the  ministry  in  the 
Virginia  Conference  1838,  was  elected  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Randolph  Macon  College  in  1840, 
superannuated  on  account  of  pulmonary  disease  in 
1842,  and  died  in  great  peace  in  1843.  In  college  his 
talents,  industry,  and  piety  won  him  golden  opinions, 
while  as  a  minister  his  zeal  and  devotion  were  con- 
spicuous.— Minutes  of  Conferences,  iii,  460. 

Blains  (ri'2"2X,  abahvMh' ;  Sept.  <p\vKriSic,  ; 
Vulg.  vesica?)  occurs  only  in  the  account  of  the  sixth 
plague  of  Egypt  (Exod.  ix,  9, 10),  where  it  is  described 
as  "a  boil  breaking  forth  into  blains,"  i.  e.  violent 
ulcerous  inflammations  (from  5*13,  to  boil  up).  The 
ashes  from  the  furnaces  or  brick-kilns  were  taken  by 
Moses,  a  handful  at  a  time,  and  scattered  to  the  winds ; 
and  wherever  a  particle  fell,  on  man  or  beast,  it  caused 
this  troublesome  and  painful  disease  to  appear.  It  is 
called  in  Deut.  xxviii,  27,  35,  "the  botch  of  Egypt" 
(comp.  Job  ii,  7).  It  seems  to  have  been  the  -ipwpd 
dypia,  or  black  leprosy,  a  fearful  kind  of  elephantiasis 
(comp.  Plin.  xxvi,  5).  It  must  have  come  with  dread- 
ful intensity  on  the  magicians  whose  art  it  baffled,  and 
whose  scrupulous  cleanliness  (Herod,  ii,  36)  it  render- 
ed nugatory,  so  that  they  were  unable  to  stand  in  the 
presence  of  Moses  because  of  the  boils.     See  Boil. 

Other  names  for  purulent  and  leprous  eruptions  are 
TXU  r"?!na  {Morphea  alba'),  r.H2D  {Morphea  nigra), 


BLAIR 


829 


BLANDRATA 


and  the  more  harmless  scab,  FrlBb^O,  Lev.  xiii,  passim  ! 
(Jahn,  Bibl.  Arch.  §  189).     See  Leprosy. 

Blair,  Hugh,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  April 
7,  1718.     After  highly  distinguishing  himself  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  he  was  in  1742  made  minis- 
ter of  Collesy  in  Eifeshire,  and  soon  after  of  Canon- 
gate  in  Edinburgh.      In  1758  he  was  appointed  chief 
minister  of  the  High  Church  in  that  city.     In  1777  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  Sermons,  which,  while  ' 
in  M.S.,  mot  with  the  approval  of  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
when  published  acquired  an  extraordinary  popularity. 
Soon  afterward  the  three  following  volumes  appeared, 
though  at  different  times.     The  success  of  these  ser-  : 
mons  was  prodigious,  and,  except  that  their  moral  tone 
was  felt  to  be  an  improvement  upon  the  metaphysical 
disquisitions  which  in  the  wa)'  of  sermons  had  pre- 
ceded  them,  inexplicable.     For  the  later  volumes  he 
was  paid  at  the  rate  of  £600  per  vol.     Numerous  edi-  \ 
tions  have  been  printed  at  London,  in  5  vols.  8vo  and  1 
12mo.     They  have  been  translated  into  French  (Lau-  | 
sanne,  1791,  and  Paris,  another  translation,  1807,  5  ■ 
vols.  8vo),   Dutch,  German   (by  Sack   and   Schleier- 
macher,  Leipz.   1781-1802,  5  vols.),    Sclavonic,  and 
Italian.      Blair's  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  the  Belles- 
Lettres,  first  published  in  1783,  attained  the  like  unde- 
served celebrity.     The  Sermons  appeared  at  a  time 
when  the  elegant  and  polished  style,  which  is  their 
chief  characteristic,  was  less  common  than  at  present ;  ■ 
and  to  this  merit,  such  as  it  is,  they  chiefly  owed  their 
success.     They  are  still  read  by  many  people  with 
pleasure,  on  account  of  their  clear  and  easy  style,  and 
the  vein  of  sensible  though  not  very  profound  obser- 
vation which  runs  through  them ;  but  they  have  no  i 
claim  to  be  ranked  among  the  best  specimens  of  ser-  I 
mon-writing,  while  they  are  lamentably  deficient  in 
evangelical  thought  and  feeling.     The  Lectures' have 
not  been  less  popular  than  the  Sermons,  and  were  long 
considered  as  a  text-book  for  the  student.     They  are, 
however,  like   the  Sermons,  feeble  productions,  and 
show  neither  depth  of  thought  nor  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  best  writers,  ancient  and  modern,  nor 
do  they  develop  and  illustrate,  as  a  general  rule,  any 
sound  practical   principles.     Dr.  Blair  died  Dec.  27, 
1800.— Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  200. 

Blair,  James,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Scotland  1656, 
and  died  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  1743.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  eminent  of  the  earlier  Episcopalian  ministers 
in  America.  Having  been  sent  as  missionary  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1685,  he  rendered  himself  highly  acceptable, 
and  in  1689  was  appointed  commissary — the  highest 
ecclesiastical  office  in  the  province.  He  was  the  found- 
er and  first  president  of  William  and  Mary  College,  re- 
ceiving the  latter  appointment  in  1692.  Dr.  Blair  was 
for  some  time  president  of  the  council  of  the  colony 
and  rector  of  Williamsburg.  Many  traditions  are  ex- 
tant which  testify  to  the  excellence  of  his  character 
and  the  usefulness  of  his  life.  In  1722  he  published 
an  Exposition  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Jfounl  (4  vols.  8vo  ; 
also  London,  1724,  5  vols.  8vo).  It  was  again  printed 
1740  (4  vols.  8vo),  with  a  commendatory  notice  by  Wa- 
terland,  and  is  highly  commended  by  Doddridge. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  v,  7 ;  Hawks,  Ecclesiastical  Contribu- 
tions, vol.  i  ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  201. 

Blair,  John,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  brother  of 
Samuel  Blair  (q.  v.),  was  born  in  Ireland  1720,  and 
emigrated  in  his  youth  to  America.  He  studied  at 
the  "Log  College,"  and  in  1712  was  ordained  pastor 
of  three  churches  in  Cumberland  Co.,  Pa.  In  1757  he 
removed  to  Fosrg's  Manor.  In  1767  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  divinity  and  vice-president  of  the  college 
at  Princeton.  In  1769  he  became  pastor  at  Walkill, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  Dec.  8, 1771. 
He  published  a  Treatise  on  Regeneration,  another  on 
Terms  of  A  dmission  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  several 
sermons. — Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  118. 


Blair,  John,  a  native  cf  Edinburgh,  and  relative 
of  Hugh  Blair  (q.  v.).  He  removed  at  an  early  age 
to  London,  where  he  received  some  valuable  prefer- 
ments, and  became  at  last  prebendary  of  Westminster. 
He  died  in  1782.  He  is  the  author  of  an  important 
work  on  The  Chronology  and  Ilistoi'y  of  the  World  from 
the  Creation  to  A. I).  1753  (Lond.  1754,  fob),  which  has 
passed  through  a  large  number  of  editions  (a  recent  ed. 
Lond.  1844,  with  additions  and  corrections  by  Sir  H. 
Ellis  ;  again,  Lond.  1851),  and  is  still  considered  a  very 
valuable  book.  He  also  wrote  lectures  on  the  Canon 
cf  the  Old  Testament,  published  after  his  death  (Lond. 
1785),  and  comprehending  a  learned  dissertation  on  the 
Septuagint  version. — Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  202. 

Blair,  Robert,  remembered  as  the  author  of  The 
Grave,  a  poem,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1699,  and 
educated  there  and  on  the  Continent.  In  1731  he  was 
ordained  minister  of  Athelstaneford,  in  East  Lothian, 
where  he  died  in  1746.     His  Grave  is  still  reprinted. 

Blair,  Samuel,  brother  of  John,  an  eminent  Pres- 
byterian divine,  was  born  in  Ireland  June  14,  1712, 
and  emigrated  to  America  in  his  youth.  After  study- 
ing at  the  "Log  College,"  Neshaminy,  he  was  ordain- 
ed pastor  at  Middletown,  N.  J.,  1733."  In  1740  he  re- 
moved to  Londonderry  (Fogg's  Manor);  Pa.,  where  ho 
labored  as  pastor,  and  also  as  head  of  a  seminary  in 
which  a  number  of  ministers  were  educated.  In  the 
"  revival"  controversy  he  took  sides  with  Gilbert  Ten- 
nent,  and  ranked  high  among  the  so-called  "New 
Lights."  He  died  July  5,  1751.  His  writings,  in- 
cluding a  Treatise  on  Predestination  and  Reprobation, 
with  several  sermons,  were  published  1754. — Sprague, 
Annals,  iii,  64. 

Blake,  John  L.,  a  learned  divine  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Northwood,  N.  H.,  in 
1788,  and  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1812. 
He  was  for  about  twelve  years  the  principal  of  a  young 
ladies'  school,  during  which  time  he  published  a  num- 
ber of  popular  text-books.  A  peculiar  feature  of  his 
books,  and  which  greatly  contributed  to  their  popular- 
ity, was  the  introduction  of  printed  questions  at  the 
bottom  of  each  page,  a  plan  which  has  since  been  fre- 
quently adopted.  Blake  was  also  the  author  of  many 
sermons  and  numerous  theological  orations  and  ad- 
dresses, of  a  Family  Encyclopedia,  and  a  General  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  (9th  ed.  1857).  He  was,  in  suc- 
cession, rector  of  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  at 
Providence,  Concord,  and  Boston.  He  died  at  Orange, 
N.  J.,  July  6, 1857.— Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  s.  v. 

Blandlna,  one  of  the  forty-eight  martyrs  of  Lyons, 
A.D.  177,  was  a  slave,  of  weakly  body  and  little  natu- 
ral fortitude  ;  yet  she  was  exposed,  tied  to  a  cross,  to 
1  savage  beasts,  burned  with  fire,  and  at  length,  being 
fastened  up  in  a  net,  was  tossed  repeatedly  by  a  furious 
I  bull,  and  finally  dispatched  by  having  her  throat  cut. 
During  all  her  tortures  she  continued  to  exclaim,  "  I 
i  am  a  Christian  ;  we  do  not  allow  ourselves  in  any 
crime."  She  is  honored  in  the  Roman  Church  above 
the  other  martyrs  of  Lyons,  and  her  festival  is  observed 
June  2. — Eusebius,  Hist.  Lccl.x,  1;  Butler,  Lives  of 
Saints,  June  2  ;  Landon,  s.  v. 

Blandrata  (or  Biandrata),  Georgio,  one  of 
the  first  of  the  modern  Arians,  with  Gentilis  and  Faus- 
tus  Socinus,  was  born  about  1515.  He  at  first  prac- 
tised medicine  with  success.  Having  exposed  himself 
to  the  Inquisition  by  his  free  criticisms  upon  Roman- 
ism, he  fled  to  Geneva,  where,  in  his  conversations 
with  Calvin,  he  showed  that  the  germs  of  Socinianism 
were  already  in  his  mind.  From  there  he  repaired 
first  to  Germany,  and  subsequently  to  Poland,  where 
he  was  elected  one  of  the  superintendents  of  the  Hel- 
vetian churches  of  Little  Poland,  and  successfully 
spread  his  Antitrinitarian  views.  He  travelled^  in 
Poland,  Germany,  and  Transylvania,  and  becoming 
physician  to  the  Queen  Bona,  of  Savoy,  he  communi- 


BLASPHEMY 


S30 


BLASPHEMY 


cated  his  errors  to  the  King  of  Poland,  Sigismund  Au- 
gustus. He  afterward  went  to  the  court  of  John  Si- 
gismund, prince  of  Transylvania,  and  in  15GG  he  held 
at  Wei  senburg  (Alba  Julia')  a  public  conference  with 
the  Lutherans,  and  with  such  success  that  he  persuaded 
that  prince  and  man}-  of  the  nobility  of  the  province 
to  embrace  his  heresy.  See  Transylvania.  After 
the  death  of  Sigismund  he  returned  once  more  to  Po- 
land, and  became  physician  to  the  king,  Stephen  Ba- 
thori.  Socinus  complained  that  Blandrata,  in  his  later 
years,  favored  the  Jesuits.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
at  last  strangled  by  his  nephew  in  a  quarrel  between 
1585  and  1592. — Biog.  Univ.  iv,  572;  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist.  cent,  xvi,  sec.  iii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  iv,  §  13;  Henke,  G. 
■'■"  roii/i'ssin  Antitrinitaria,  ejusque  confutatio, 
auctore  Matthia  Flacio  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Blasphemy  is  an  Anglicized  form  of  the  Greek 
•word  ji\aa<pi]ixia,  and  in  its  technical  English  sense 
signifies  the  speaking  evil  of  God  (in  Heb.  U'd  2j?3 
(TllTP,  to  curse  the  name  of  the  Lord),  and  in  this  sense 
it  is  found  Psa.  lxxiv,  18 ;  Isa.  Hi,  5 ;  Rom.  ii,  24,  etc. 
But,  according  to  its  derivation  (jSXanrw  <p<)^y  quasi 
jSAaif^n/tifaj),  it  may  mean  any  species  of  calumny 
and  abuse  (or  even  an  unlucky  word,  Eurip.  Ion.  1187) ; 
see  1  Kings  xxi,  10 ;  Acts  xviii,  6;  Jude  9,  etc.  Hence 
in  the  Sept.  it  is  used  to  render  ~"?3,  Job  ii,  5;  tj'ia,  2 
Kings  xix,  6;  H3^,  2  Kings  xix,  4;  and  3SP,  Hos. 
vii,  16,  so  that  it  means  "  reproach,"  "derision,"  etc. ; 
and  it  has  even  a  wider  use,  as  2  Sam.  xii,  14,  where 
it  means  "to  despise  Judaism,"  and  1  Mace,  ii,  6, 
where  f3\aff<j>t]itia  =  idolatry.  In  Sir.  iii,  18  we  have 
it  applied  to  filial  impiety,  where  it  is  equivalent  to 
"accursed"  (Schleusner,  Thesaur.  s.  v.).  In  the  Auth. 
Engl.  Vers,  "blaspheme,"  etc.,  occasionally  represent 
the  following  Heb.  words:  tPS,  barak' ;  "HS,  ga- 
daph' ;  Cj'lH,  charaph' ;  2J?3,  nakaV ;  VW,  naats'. 

I.  Among  the  Israelites  injurious  language  toward 
Jehovah  was  punished,  like  a  heathenish  and  enpit  .1 
crime,  with  stoning,  as  in  the  case  of  the  son  of  Shelc- 
niith  (Lev.  xxv,  16;  Josephus,  Ant.  iv,  8,  6;  comp. 
Otho,  Lex.  Rabb.  p.  104  sq.).  This,  however,  did  not 
include  any  prohibition  of  blasphemy  against  foreign 
deities  (Exod.  xxii,  28 ;  Lev.  xxiv,  15),  as  Philo  (Opp. 
ii.  166,  219)  and  Josephus  (Ant.  iv,  8, 10;  Apion,  ii,  33) 
suppose,  the  practice  of  which  among  the  Jews  seems 
to  be  alluded  to  by  Pliny  (xiii,  9:  "gens  contumelia 
numinum  insignis").  The  injunction  against  disre- 
spect in  Exod.  xxii,  28,  refers  to  magistrates  (DiflPN)  ; 
comp.  Selden,  Jus  nat.etgent.  ii,  13;  Michaelis,  Mos. 
I;  <  It.  v,  158  sq.  The  Jews  interpreted  the  command 
in  Lev.  xxiv,  16  as  prohibiting  the  utterance  of  the 
divine  name  under  any  circumstance  (comp.  Num.  i, 
17;  see  Hartmann,  Verbind.  d.  A.  unci  N.  T.  p.  49  sq., 
434  ;  also  Philo,  Opp.  ii,  166),  and  hence  never  pro- 
nounce  the  word  Jehovah  (q.  v.),  a  superstition  that 
still  lias  its  analogous  customs  in  the  East  (see  Eosen- 
muller  on  Exod.  iii,  13;  Michaelis,  Mos.  RecM,  v,  163 
Bq.  i.  They  also  construed  Exod.  xxiii,  13  so  as  to 
hold  themselves  bound  to  give  nicknames  to  the  hea- 
then deities ;  hence  their  use  of  Bosheth  for  Baal,  Beth- 
aven  for  Bethel,  Beelzebnl  for  Beelzebub,  Hos.  iv,  5, 
etc.  When  a  person  heard  blasphemy  lie  laid  his  hand 
on  the  head  of  the  offender,  to  symbolize  his  sole  re- 
sponsibility f,,r  the  guilt,  and,  rising  on  his  feet,  tore 
his  robe,  which  might  never  again  be  mended.  (On 
the  mystical  reasons  for  these  observances,  sec  Light- 
foot,  Ear.  ffebr.  Matt,  xxvi,  65.) 

II.  Blasphemy,  in  the  theological  sense,  consists  in 
irreverent  or  insulting  language  toward  God  or  his 
perfections <  Blasph  mia  >  si  locutio  cowtum  Uosa  inDeum; 
and  AagUBtine,  De  Morib.  Munich,  lib.  ii,  c.  11,  Jam 
vero  Blasphemia  non  accipitur  nisi  mala  verba  de  Deo 
dicere).  Primarily,  according  to  Dr.  Campbell,  blas- 
phemy denotes  calumny,  detraction,  reproachful  or 
almsive  language,  against  whomsoever  it  be  vented. 


It  is  in  Scripture  applied  to  reproaches  not  aimed 
against  God  only,  but  man  also  (Rom.  iii,  8  ;  xiv,  16 ; 
1  Pet.  iv,  4,  Gr.).  It  is,  however,  more  peculiarly  re- 
strained to  evil  or  reproachful  words  offered  to  God. 
According  to  Lindwood,  blasphemy  is  an  injury  offer- 
ed to  God  by  denying  that  which  is  due  and  belonging 
to  him,  or  attributing  to  him  what  is  not  agreeable  to 
his  nature.  "Three  things,"  says  a  divine,  "are  es- 
sential to  this  crime :  1,  God  must  be  the  object ;  2, 
the  words  spoken  or  written,  independently  of  conse- 
quences which  others  may  derive  from  them,  must  be 
injurious  in  their  nature ;  and,  3,  he  who  commits  the 
crime  must  do  it  knowingly.  This  is  real  blasphemy ; 
but  there  is  a  relative  blasphemy,  as  when  a  man  may 
be  guilty  ignorantly,  by  propagating  opinions  which 
dishonor  God,  the  tendency  of  which  he  does  not  per- 
ceive. A  man  may  be  guilty  of  this  constructively; 
for  if  he  speak  freely  against  received  errors  it  will  be 
construed  into  blasphemy."     See  Cavils. 

There  can  be  no  blasphemy,  therefore,  where  there 
is  not  an  impious  purpose  to  derogate  from  the  Divine 
Majesty,  and  to  alienate  the  minds  of  others  from  the 
love  and  reverence  of  God.  The  blasphemer  is  no 
other  than  the  calumniator  of  Almighty  God.  To  con- 
stitute the  crime,  it  is  also  necessary  that  this  species 
of  calumny  be  intentional.  He  must  be  one,  therefore, 
who  by  his  impious  talk  endeavors  to  inspire  others 
with  the  same  irreverence  toward  the  Deity,  or,  per- 
haps, abhorrence  of  him,  which  he  indulges  in  himself. 
And  though,  for  the  honor  of  human  nature,  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  very  few  arrive  at  this  enormous  guilt,  it 
ought  not  to  be  dissembled  that  the  habitual  profana- 
tion of  the  name  and  attributes  of  God  by  common 
swearing  is  but  too  manifest  an  approach  toward  it. 
There  is  not  an  entire  coincidence  :  the  latter  of  these 
vices  may  be  considered  as  resulting  solely  from  the 
defect  of  what  is  good  in  principle  and  disposition,  the 
former  from  the  acquisition  of  what  is  evil  in  the  ex- 
treme ;  but  there  is  a  close  connection  between  them, 
and  an  insensible  gradation  from  the  one  to  the  other. 
To  accustom  one's  self  to  treat  the  Sovereign  of  the 
universe  with  irreverent  familiarity  is  the  first  step, 
malignly  to  arraign  his  attributes  and  revile  his  prov- 
idence is  the  last. — Watson,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

As  blasphemy  by  the  old  law  (Exod.  xx,  7 ;  Lev. 
xix,  12;  xxiv,  10;  Deut.  v,  11)  was  punished  with 
death,  so  the  laws  of  Justinian  also  directed  that  blas- 
phemers should  be  put  to  death.  The  Church  ordered 
their  excommunication.  In  the  Church  of  Rome  cases 
of  notorious  blasphemy  are  reserved.  By  the  laws  of 
England  and  of  many  of  the  United  States,  blasphemies 
of  Gcd,  as  denying  His  being  or  providence,  and  all 
contumelious  reproaches  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  pro- 
fane scoffing  at  the  Holy  Bible,  or  exposing  it  to  con- 
tempt, are  offences  punishable  by  fine,  imprisonment, 
etc.  (Blackstone,  Commentaries,  bk.  iv,  ch.  iv).  By 
the  statute  of  9  and  10  William  III,  ch.  32,  if  any 
one  shall  deny  either  of  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity  to  be 
God,  or  assert  that  there  are  more  than  one  God,  or 
deny  Christianity  to  be  true,  for  the  first  offence,  is 
rendered  incapable  of  any  office;  for  the  second,  ad- 
judged incapable  of  suing,  being  executor  or  guardian, 
receiving  any  gift  or  legacy,  and  to  be  imprisoned  for 
!  years.  According  to  the  law  of  Scotland,  blasphemy 
is  punished  with  death :  these  laws,  however,  in  the 
present  age,  are  not  enforced ;  and  by  the  statute  of 
!  53  George  III,  ch.  160,  the  words  in  italics  were  omit- 
ted, the  Legislature  thinking,  perhaps,  that  spiritual 
offences  should  be  left  to  be  punished  by  the  Deity, 
and  not  by  human  statutes. — Buck,  s.  v. 

The  early  Christians  distinguished  blasphemy  as  of 
three  kinds:  1.  The  blasphemy  of  apostates  and  lap- 
si,  whom  the  heathen  persecutors  had  obliged  not 
only  to  deny,  but  to  curse  Christ.  2.  The  blasphemy 
of  heretics  and  other  profane  Christians.  3.  The  blas- 
phemy against  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  first  kind  is  re- 
ferred to  in  Pliny,  who,  in  giving  Trajan  an  account 


BLASPHEMY 


831 


BLAU 


of  some  Christians  that  apostatized  in  time  of  persecu- 
tion, says,  "They  all  worshipped  his  image,  and  the 
image  of  the  gods,  and  also  cursed  Christ."  That  this 
■was  the  ordinary  mode  of  renouncing  the  Christian  re- 
ligion appears  from  the  demand  which  the  proconsul 
made  to  Polycarp,  and  Polycarp's  reply.  He  bade  him 
revile  Christ,  to  whom  Polycarp  replied,  "These  eighty- 
six  years  I  have  served  him,  and  he  never  did  me  any 
harm :  how,  then,  can  I  blaspheme  my  King  and  my 
Saviour?"  Heresy  was  sometimes  reputed  blasphemy, 
and  was  punished  by  the  same  penalty. — Buck,  s.  v. 

III.  The  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  is  variously 
understood.  Some  apply  it  to  the  sin  of  lapsing  into 
idolatry ;  others  to  a  denial  of  the  proper  Godhead  of 
Christ ;  others  to  a  denial  of  the  divinity  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Others  place  this  sin  in  a  perverse  and  mali- 
cious ascribing  of  the  works  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  the 
power  of  the  devil.  Augustine  resolves  it  into  obstina- 
cy in  opposing  the  methods  of  divine  grace,  and  con- 
tinuing in  this  obduracy  to  the  end  of  life.  The  pas- 
sages in  the  N.  T.  which  speak  of  it  are  Matt,  xii,  31, 
32 ;  Mark  iii,  28,  29 ;  Luke  xii,  10.  These  passages 
are  referred  by  many  expositors  to  continued  and  ob- 
stinate resistance  of  the  Gospel,  which  issues  in  final 
unbelief.  This,  they  argue,  is  unpardonable,  not  be- 
cause the  blood  of  Christ  cannot  cleanse  from  such  a 
sin,  nor  because  there  is  any  thing  in  its  own  nature 
which  separates  it  from  all  other  sins,  and  places  it 
beyond  the  reach  of  forgiveness,  but  simply  because 
so  long  as  a  man  continues  to  disbelieve  he  volunta- 
rily excludes  himself  from  mercy.  In  this  sense,  ev- 
ery sin  may  be  styled  unpardonable,  because  forgive- 
ness is  incompatible  with  an  obstinate  continuance  in 
sin.  One  principal  objection  to  this  view  is  that  it 
generalizes  the  sin,  whereas  the  Scripture  represents  it 
as  specific,  and  discountenances  the  idea  that  it  is  of 
frequent  occurrence.  The  case  referred  to  by  Christ 
is  this:  He  cured  a  dagmoniac  who  was  blind  and 
dumb.  The  Pharisees  who  stood  by  and  witnessed 
the  miracle,  unable  to  deny  the  fact,  ascribed  it  to  the 
agenc}'  of  the  devil.  Not  only  did  they  resist  the  ev- 
idence of  the  miracle,  but  they  were  guilty  of  the 
wicked  and  gratuitous  calumny  that  Christ  was  in 
league  with  the  powers  of  darkness.  It  was  not  only 
a  sin  of  thought,  but  one  of  open  speech.  It  consisted 
in  attributing  to  the  power  of  Satan  those  unquestion- 
able miracles  which  Jesus  performed  by  "  the  finger 
of  God,"  and  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  nor  have 
we  any  safe  ground  for  extending  it  to  include  all  sorts 
of  willing  (as  distinguished  from  wilful)  offences,  be- 
sides this  one  limited  and  special  sin.  In  both  the 
cases  referred  to,  speaking  against  is  mentioned  as  the 
sin.  "Whosoever  speaketh  a  word  against  the  Son 
of  Man ;"  "  Whosoever  speaketh  against  the  Holy 
Ghost."  The  Spirit  dwells  in  Christ,  and,  therefore, 
such  imputations  were  calumnies  against  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  sin  betokened  a  state  of  mind  which,  by 
its  awful  criminality,  excluded  from  all  interest  in 
Christ.  There  is  no  connection  between  this  awful 
sin  and  those  mentioned  in  Heb.  vi,  4-8;  x,  26-31. 
There  may  be  dangerous  approximations  to  such  a  sin. 
When  men  can  ridicule  and  contemn  religion  and  its 
ordinances  ;  when  they  can  sport  with  the  work  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  on  the  human  heart;  when  they  can  per- 
sist in  a  wilful  disbelief  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
cast  contemptuous  slanders  upon  Christianity,  which  is 
"  the  ministration  of  the  Spirit,"  thej'  are  approaching 
a  fearful  extremity  of  guilt,  and  certainly  in  danger 
of  putting  themselves  beyond  the  reach  of  the  arm  of 
mercy.  Some  persons,  when  first  awakened  to  discover 
the  awful  nature  and  aggravations  of  their  own  sins, 
have  been  apprehensive  that  thej-  have  fallen  into  this 
Sin,  and  in  danger  of  giving  themselves  up  to  despair. 
This  is  a  device  of  the  devil  to  keep  them  from  Christ. 
The  very  fear  is  a  proof  they  are  free  from  the  awful 
crime.  The  often  misunderstood  expression,  "It  shall 
not  be  forgiven  him,  neither  in  this  world,"  etc.,  is  a 


direct  application  of  a  Jewish  phrase  in  allusion  to  a 
Jewish  error,  and  will  not  bear  the  inferences  so  often 
extorted  from  it.  According  to  the  Jewish  school  no- 
tions, the  person  blaspheming  the  name  of  God  could 
not  be  pardoned  by  sacrifice,  nor  even  the  day  of 
atonement,  but  could  only  be  absolved  by  death.  In 
refutation  of  this  tradition,  our  Lord  used  the  phrase  to 
imply  that  "  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  shall 
not  be  forgiven  ;  neither  before  death,  nor,  as  you  va in- 
ly dream,  by  means  of  death"  (Ligbtfoot,  Hor.  Hebr.  ad 
loc).  It  is  difficult  to  discover  the  "sin  unto  death" 
noticed  by  the  apostle  John  (1  John  v,  1G),  although 
it  has  been  generally  thought  to  coincide  with  the  blas- 
phemy against  the  Holy  Spirit;  but  the  language  of 
John  does  not  afford  data  for  pronouncing  them  one 
and  the  same.  The  first  three  Gospels  alone  describe 
the  blasphemy  which  shall  not  be  forgiven  :  from  it  the 
"  sin  unto  death"  stands  apart.  (See  Liicke,  Briefe 
d.  Apostels  Johannes,  2d  ed.  305-317  ;  Campbell,  Prelim- 
inary Diss.  Diss,  ix,  pt.  ii ;  Olshausen,  Comm.  pt.  453 
sq.  Am.  ed.  ;  Watson,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Princeton  Rev. 
July,  184G,  art.  ii).     See  Unpardonable  Sin. 

Blast,  as  a  noun  (in  the  sense  of  current  of  air),  is 
the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  Mtw),  rushamah, 
(2.  Sam.  xxii,  1G  ;  Psa.  xviii,  15),  "breath,"  as  else- 
where, or  of  n*H,  ru'ach  (Exod.  xv,  G  ;  Josh,  vi,  5  ;  2 
Kings  xix,  7 ;  Job  iv,  9 ;  Isa.  xxv,  4 ;  xxxvii,  7), 
"wind"  or  "spirit,"  as  elsewhere;  as  a  verb,  etc.  (in 
the  sense  of  blighting),  it  represents  the  Heb.  roots 
Cj'ld,  shadaph',  or  D'TO,  shad 'am' ,  always  spoken  of  the 
blasting  of  crops  (Deut.  xxviii,  22 ;  1  Kings  viii,  37 ; 
2  Chron.  vi,  28;  Amos  iv,  9;  Hag.  ii,  17),  especially 
of  grain  (Gen.  xii,  6,  23,  27),  often  sudden  (2  Kings 
xix,  26;  Isa.  xxxvii,  27),  apparently  by  a  hot  wind 
(Hackett,  Illustra.  of  Script,  p.  135). 

Blastares,  Matth.eus,  a  Basilian  monk,  who,  in 
the  year  1335,  made  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  can- 
ons and  constitutions,  to  which  he  added  another  of 
the  civil  law,  and  arranged  them  alphabetically  under 
303  heads  ;  he  called  the  whole  Syntagma.  This  work 
is  given,  Gr.  and  Lat.,  by  Beveridge,  in  his  PandectcB 
Canonum.  Another  work  by  him,  De  caussis  seu  qutcs- 
tionibus  matrimonii,  is  printed  in  Leunclavius's  Jus 
Graco-Romanum. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Genirale,  vi,  218. 

Blastus  (BXaoroc),  a  man  who  was  "chamber- 
lain" (cubicidarius,  6  t7r£  rov  koitujvoq,  i.  e.  chief  eu- 
nuch) to  King  Herod  Agrippa,  or  who  had  the  charge 
of  his  bed-chamber  (Acts  xii,  20).  A.D.  44.  Suclj 
persons  had  usually  great  influence  with  their  masters, 
and  hence  the  importance  attached  to  Blastus's  favor- 
ing the  peace  with  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

Blatchford,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  cler- 
gyman, born  in  England  in  1767,  became  a  Non-con- 
formist minister  in  1791,  four  years  later  emigrated  to 
America,  and  settled  at  Bedford,  N.  Y.  From  here 
he  removed  successively  to  Greenfield,  Conn.,  Strat- 
ficld,  now  Bridgeport,  and  Lansingburg,  N.  Y.,  where 
he  resided  from  1804  till  his  death  in  182s,  part  of  the 
time  taking  charge  of  the  Lansingburg  Academy.  In 
1808  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Williams 
College.  Dr.  Blatchford  was  the  translator  of  Mom's 
Greek  Grammar,  to  which  he  added  various  notes. 
"As  a  preacher,  he  was  distinguished  for  ease  and 
naturalness,  for  appropriate  and  useful  thoughts,  and 
an  impressive  and  somewhat  imposing  manner."  — 
Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  158. 

Blau,  Felix  Antoine,  professor  of  theology  at 
Mentz,  was  born  1754.  Though  a  Romanist,  lie  wrote 
a  powerful  work  against  the  pretensions  of  Pome,  enti- 
tled "A  critical  History  of  Ecclesiastical  Infallibility" 
(Krit.  Geschichte  d.  kirchl.  Unfehlbarhit,  Frankf.  1791, 
8vo).  He  was  imprisoned  on  account  of  the  part  he 
took  at  Mentz  in  1793  in  favor  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, was  released,  and  died  Dec.  23,  1798,  leaving 


BLAUKER 


832 


BLESS 


other  hooks,  especially  on   Worship.— Biog.  Univ.  iv, 
575;   Landon,  Eecl.  Diet,  ii,  291. 

Blaurer  (or  Blarer,  Blaarer),  Ambrosius,  one 
of  the  Swiss  Reformers,  was  born  at  Constance  in  1492. 
He  became  a  Benedictine  at  an  early  age,  and  prior  of 
the  monastery  at  Alpirsbach.  In  1515  he  began  to  teach 
the  Lutheran  doctrines  in  his  monastery.  In  1521  he 
left  the  monastery  and  renounced  the  monastic  vows. 
lie  labored  with  (Ecolampadius  and  Bucer  in  spreading 
the  Gospel,  and,  in  connection  with  them,  organized 
Protestantism  in  Ulm.  Under  the  protection  of  Duke 
Ulric  of  Wurtemberg,  he  was  largely  instrumental  in 
establishing  the  Reformation  in  that  country.  In  1538 
he  removed  to  Constance,  and  made  that  city  the  cen- 
tre of  his  active  and  disinterested  labors.  In  1548  he 
removed  to  Winterthur,  and  labored  as  minister  there, 
and  in  Biel  and  other  places,  until  his  death  at  Win- 
terthur, Dec.  6, 15G4. — Keim,  A.  Blarer,  der  schwiibische 
tor  (Stuttg.  1860)  ;  Pressel,  A.  Blaurer 's,  des 
schwabiscken  Reformaiors,  Lebm  und  Sehriften  (Stuttg. 
1860)  ;  Studienu.  Kritiken,  1861,  Heft.  2. 

Blayney,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and 
professor,  was  educated  at  Worcester  College,  Oxford. 
In  1787  he  there  took  his  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity, 
and  became  regius  professor  of  Hebrew.  He  was  ako 
canon  of  Christ's  Church,  and  rector  of  Polshot  in 
Wiltshire,  where  he  died  in  1801.  Dr.  Blayney  was 
eminent  as  a  Hebrew  critic.  He  took  great  pains  in 
editing  the  Oxford  Bible  (1769,  4to),  and  greatly  im- 
proved the  marginal  references.  Among  his  writings 
are  A  Dissertation  by  Way  of  Inquiry  into  Daniel's  Sev- 
enty Weeks  (Oxford,  1775,  4to): — Jeremiah  and  Lam- 
entations;  a  new  Translation,  with  Notes  (3d  ed.  Bond. 
1836,  8vo) : — Zechariah  ;  a  new  Translation,  with  Notes, 
critical,  phil  logical,  etc.  (Oxford,  1797,  4to). 

Bleek,  Friedeich,  a  distinguished  German  theo- 
logian, born  in  1793  at  Arensbok  in  Holstein,  died  at 
Bonn  Feb.  21,  1859.  He  studied  theology  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Kiel  and  Berlin ;  in  the  latter  place  under 
De  Wette,  Schleiermacher.  and  Neander.  In  1818  he 
commenced  giving  theological  lectures  at  Berlin,  was 
appointed  in  1823  extraordinary  professor,  and  in  1829 
ordinary  professor  at  the  University  of  Bonn.  His 
writings  are  especially  distinguished  for  keenness  of 
investigation.  His  principal  work  is  Der  Brief  an  die 
Ilebrder,  a  German  translation  of  and  commentary 
on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (Berl.  1828-40,  4  vols). 
In  another  work,  Beitriige  zur  Evanyelienk-ntik  (Berl. 
1846),  he  defended  the  authenticity  of  the  Gospel  of 
John  against  the  attacks  of  the  Tubingen  school.  Be- 
sides these  two  larger  works,  Bleek  wrote  many  valu- 
able articles  for  theological  journals.  Several  impor- 
tant works  of  Bleek  were  published  after  his  death,  viz. : 
Tntrod.  to  the  O.  T.  (Einleit.  in  das  A.  T. ,•  ed.  by  J.  F. 
Bleek  and  A.  Kamphausen,  Berl.  1860) ;  Intrad.  to  the 
v.  /'.  </;;„/,  U.  in  das  N.  T. ;  ed.  by  J.  F.  Bleek,  Berl. 
'"mm.  on  three  first  Gospels  (Synopt.  Erhlarung 
d  rdreiersten  Ew»»£.;ed.byH.Holtzman,  Lpz.  1862); 
Led.  on  tic  /:■  vt  lotion  |  I  'orlesungen  uberdie  Apoc.  ,•  ed.  by 
1  h.  Hossbach,  Berl.  1862).— Herzog,  Svpplem.  i,  207. 

Blemish  (-""2,  fi&poQ  ;  once  bi^Pl,  blear-eyed, 
Lev.  xxi.  i'n).  There  were  various  kinds  of  blemishes, 
i.  e.  imperfections  or  deformities,  which  excluded  men 

frn.u  the  priestl i,  ami  animals  from  being  offered  in 

I  hese  blemishes  arc  described  in  Lev.  xxi, 
17  23;  --.-.ii.  !:>  25;  Dent,  xv,  21.  We  learn  from 
the  MUhna  (Zebachim,  xii.  1  ;  Becoroth.  vii,  1)  that 
temporary  blemishes  excluded  a  man  from  the  priest- 
hood  '.nly  as  Inn-  as  those  blemishes  continued.  The 
rule  concerning  animals  was  extended  to  imperfections 
of  the  inward  parts:  thus,  if  an  animal,  free  from  out- 
ward  blemish,  was  found,  after  being  slain,  internally 
defective,  it  was  not  offered  in  sacrifice.  The  natural 
feeling  that  only  that  which  was  in  a  perfecl  condition 
was  lit  for  sacred  puqwses,  or  was  a  becoming  offering 


to  the  gods,  produced  similar  rules  concerning  blem- 
ishes among  the  heathen  nations  (comp.  Pompon.  Laet. 
De  Sacerdot.  cap.  6 ;  Herodot.  ii,  38 ;  Iliad,  i,  66 ;  Ser- 
vius,  ad  Virg.  JEn.  ii,  4) Kitto,  s.  v. 

Bless  (Tpa,  barak' ;  evXoyioj).  There  are  three 
or  four  points  of  view  in  which  acts  of  blessing  may 
be  considered. 

1.  When  God  is  said  to  bless  his  people.  Without 
doubt  the  inferior  is  blessed  by  the  superior.  When 
God  blesses,  he  bestows  that  virtue,  that  efficacy,  which 
renders  his  blessing  effectual,  and  which  his  blessing 
expresses.  His  blessings  are  either  temporal  or  spirit- 
ual, bodily  or  mental ;  but  in  every  thing  they  are 
productive  of  that  which  they  import.  God's  bless- 
ings extend  into  the  future  life,  as  his  people  are  made 
partakers  of  that  blessedness  which,  in  infinite  fulness, 
dwells  in  himself  (Gen.  i,  22;  xxiv,  35;  Job  xlii,  12; 
Psa.  xlv,  2 ;  civ,  24,  28  ;  Luke  xi,  9-13 ;  James  i,  17).  • 

2.  When  men  are  said  to  bless  God,  as  in  Psa.  ciii, 
1,  2 ;  cxlv,  1-3.  We  are  not,  then,  to  suppose  the  di- 
vine Being,  who  is  over  all,  and  in  himself  blessed  for- 
evermore,  is  capable  of  receiving  any  augmentation  of 

!  his  happiness  from  any  of  the  creatures  which  he  has 
made  :  such  a  supposition,  as  it  would  imply  something 
of  imperfection  in  the  divine  nature,  must  ever  be  re- 
1  jected  with  abhorrence;  and  therefore,  when  creatures 
bless  the  adorable  Creator,  they  only  ascribe  to  him 
that  praise  and  dominion,  and  honor,  and  glory,  and 
blessing  which  it  is  equally  the  duty  and  joy  of  his 
creatures  to  render.  So  that  blessing  on  the  part  of 
man  is  an  act  of  thanksgiving  to  God  for  his  mercies, 
or  rather  for  that  special  mercy  which,  at  the  time, 
occasions  the  act  of  blessing;  as  for  food,  for  which 
thanks  are  rendered  to  God,  or  for  any  other  good. 
j  3.  Men  are  said  to  bless  their  fellow-creatures  when, 
1  as  in  ancient  times,  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy  they  pre- 
j  dieted  blessings  to  come  upon  them.  From  the  time 
that  God  entered  into  covenant  with  Abraham,  and 
promised  extraordinary  blessings  to  his  posterity,  it 
1  appears  to  have  been  customaiy  for  the  father  of  each 
j  family,  in  the  direct  line,  or  line  of  promise,  immedi- 
'  ately  previous  to  his  death,  to  call  his  children  around 
him,  and  to  inform  them,  according  to  the  knowledge 
which  it  had  pleased  God  to  give  him,  how  and  in 
what  manner  the  Divine  blessing  conferred  upon  Abra- 
j  ham  was  to  descend  among  them.  Upon  these  occa- 
sions the  patriarchs  enjoyed  a  Divine  illumination, 
and  under  its  influence  their  benediction  was  deemed 
a  prophetic  oracle,  foretelling  events  with  the  utmost 
certainty,  and  extending  to  the  remotest  period  of  time 
(see  Bush,  Notes  en  Gen.  in  loc).  Thus  Jacob  blessed 
his  sons  (Gen.  xlix,  1-28  ;  Heb.  xi,  21),  and  Moses 
the  children  of  Israel  (Deut.  xxiii,  1-29).  The  bless- 
ings of  men  were  also  good  wishes,  personal  or  official, 
and,  as  it  were,  a  peculiar  kind  of  prayer  to  the  Author 
of  all  good  for  the  welfare  of  the  subject  of  them  ;  thus 
Melchisedek  blessed  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv,  19:  Heb. 
vii,  1,  6,  7).  The  form  of  blessing  prescribed  in  the 
Hebrew  ritual  (Num.  vi,  23-27)  which  Jehovah  com- 
manded Moses  to  instruct  Aaron  and  his  descendants 
to  bless  the  congregation,  is  admirably  simple  and  sub- 
lime :  "The  Lord  bless  thee,  and  keep  thee :  the  Lord 
make  his  face  to  shine  upon  thee,  and  be  gracious  unto 
thee  :  the  Lord  lift  up  his  countenance  upon  thee, 
and  give  thee  peace"  (Hiiner,  De  benedictione  sacerd. 
Jen.  1712).  It  was  pronounced  standing,  with  a  loud 
voice,  and  with  the  hands  raised  toward  heaven  (Luke 
xxiv,  50).  National  blessings  and  cursings  were  some- 
times pronounced  (Deut.  xxvii,  12-26 ;  xxviii,  i,  68). 

■1.  David  says,  "I  will  take  the  cup  of  salvation, 
and  call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord"  (Psa.  cxvi,  13). 
The  phrase  appears  to  be  taken  from  the  custom  of  the 
Jews  in  their  thank-offerings,  in  which  a  feast  was 
made  of  the  remainder  of  their  sacrifices,  when,  among 
other  rites,  the  master  of  the  feast  took  a  cup  of  wine 
in  his  hand,  and  solemnly  blessed  God  for  it,  and  for 


BLESSING,  VALLEY  OF 


833 


BLOMFIELD 


the  mercies  which  were  then  .acknowledged,  and  give 
it  to  all  the  guests,  every  one  of  whom  drank  in  his 
turn.  See  Cup.  To  this  custom  it  is  supposed  our 
Lord  alludes  in  the  institution  of  the  cup,  which  is  also 
called  "the  cup  of  blessing"  (1  Cor.  x,  1C).  See  Pass- 
over. At  the  family  feasts  also,  and  especially  that 
of  the  Passover,  both  wine  and  bread  were  in  this  sol- 
emn and  religious  manner  distributed,  and  God  was 
blessed,  and  his  mercies  acknowledged.  They  blessed 
God  for  their  present  refreshment,  for  their  deliver- 
ance out  of  Egypt,  for  the  covenant  of  circumcision, 
and  for  the  law  given  by  Moses ;  they  prayed  that 
God  would  be  merciful  to  his  people  Israel,  that  he 
would  send  the  prophet  Elijah,  and  that  he  would  ren- 
der them  worthy  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah.  In 
the  Mosaic  law,  the  manner  of  blessing  was  appointed 
by  the  lifting  up  of  hands,  and  we  see  that  our  Lord 
lifted  up  his  hands  and  blessed  his  disciples.  See 
Benedictiox. 

Blessing,  Valley  of.     See  Beraciiah. 

Blind  (1W,  icver',  tvQXoc).  The  frequent  occur- 
rence of  blindness  in  the  East  has  always  excited  the 
astonishment  of  travellers.  Yolney  says  that  out  of 
a  hundred  persons  in  Cairo  he  has  met  twenty  quite 
blind,  ten  wanting  one  eye,  and  twenty  others  having 
their  eyes  red,  purulent,  or  blemished  (Travels  in  Egypt, 
i,  224).  This  is  principally  owing  to  the  Egyptian 
ophthalmia,  which  is  endemic  in  that  country  and  on 
the  coast  of  Syria.  Small-pox  is  another  great  cause 
of  blindness  in  the  East  (Volney,  /.  c).  Still  other 
causes  are  the  quantities  of  dust  and  sand  pulverized 
by  the  sun's  intense  heat;  the  perpetual  glare  of  light; 
the  contrast  of  the  heat  with  the  cold  sea-air  on  the 
coast,  where  blindness  is  specially  prevalent;  the  dews 
at  night  while  people  sleep  on  the  roofs  ;  old  age,  etc. ; 
and  perhaps,  more  than  all,  the  Mohammedan  fatalism, 
which  leads  to  a  neglect  of  the  proper  remedies  in  time. 
Ludd,  the  ancient  Lydda,  and  Ramleh,  enjoy  a  fearful 
notoriety  for  the  number  of  blind  persons  they  contain. 
The  common  saying  is  that  in  Ludd  every  man  is 
either  blind  or  has  but  one  eye.  Jaffa  is  said  to  con- 
tain 500  blind  out  of  a  population  of  5000  at  most. 
There  is  an  asylum  for  the  blind  in  Cairo  (which  at 
present  contains  300),  and  their  conduct  is  often  tur- 
bulent and  fanatic  (Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  i,  30,  292). 

In  the  New  Testament  blind  mendicants  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  (Matt,  ix,  27  ;  xii,  22;  xx,  30;  xxi, 
24;  John  v,  3),  and  "opening  the  eyes  of  the  blind" 
is  mentioned  in  prophecy  as  a  peculiar  attribute  of  the 
Messiah  (Isa.  xxix,  18,  etc.).  The  Jews  were  special- 
ly charged  to  treat  the  blind  with  compassion  and  care 
(Lev.  xix,  4 ;  Dent,  xxvii,  18).  The  blindness  of  Bar- 
Jesus  (Acts  xiii,  0)  was  miraculously  produced,  and 
of  its  nature  we  know  nothing.  Some  have  attempt- 
ed (on  the  ground  of  Luke's  profession  as  a  physician) 
to  attach  a  technical  meaning  to  «ya<'c  all<l  vkotoq 
(.Tahn,  Bibl.  Arch.  §  201),  viz.  a  spot  or  "thin  tunicle 
over  the  cornea,"  which  vanishes  naturally  after  a 
time  ;  for  which  the  same  term,  (t\\vc,  is  made  use  of 
by  Hippocrates  (UpoppnriKuv,  ii,  215,  ed.  Kiihn),  who 
says  that  a%\vic  will  disappear  provided  no  wound 
has  been  inflicted.  Before  such  an  inference  can  be 
drawn,  wo  must  be  sure  that  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  were  not  only  acquainted  with  the  writings 
of  Hippocrates,  but  were  also  accustomed  to  a  strict 
medical  terminology.  In  the  same  way  analogies  are 
quoted  for  the  use.  of  saliva  (Matt,  viii,  23,  etc.)  and 
offish-gall  in  the  case  of  the  \tvKiofia  of  Tobias;  but, 
whatever  ma}'  be  thought  of  the  latter  instance,  it  is 
very  obvious  that  in  the  former  the  saliva  was  no  more 
instrumental  in  the  cure  than  the  touch  alone  would 
have  been  (Trench,  On  the  Miracles  at  Matt,  ix,  27). 
The  haziness  implied  by  the  expression  a\\rc  may  re- 
fer to  the  sensation  of  the  blind  person,  or  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  eye,  and  in  both  cases  the  haziness 
may  have  been  referrible  to  any  of  the  other  trans- 

G  G  G 


parent  media  as  well  as  to  the  cornea.  Examples  of 
blindness  from  old  age  occur  in  Gen.  xxvii,  1;  1  Kings 
xiv,  4  ;  1  Sam.  iv,  15.  The  Syrian  army  that  came  to 
apprehend  Elisha  was  suddenly  smitten  witli  blindness 
in  a  miraculous  manner  (2  Kings  vi,  18),  and  so  also 
was  Paul  (Acts  ix,  9).  Blindness  is  sometimes  threat- 
ened in  the  Old  Testament  as  a  punishment  (q.  v.)  for 
disobedience  (l)eut.  xxviii,  28;  Lev.  xxvi,  1G;  Zeph. 
i,  17).  Blindness  wilfully  inflicted  for  political  or 
other  purposes  was  common  in  the  East,  and  is  alluded 
to  in  Scripture  (1  Sam.  xi,  2;  Jer.  xxii,  12).  That 
calamities  are  always  the  offspring  of  crime  is  a  preju- 
dice which  the  depraved  nature  of  man  is  but  too 
prone  to  indulge  in,  and  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord  were  greatly  under  the  power  of  this  prejudice. 
A  modern  traveller  says,  "The  Hindoos  and  Ceylon- 
cse  very  commonly  attribute  their  misfortunes  to  the 
transgressions  of  a  former  state  of  existence,  and  I  re- 
member being  rather  struck  with  the  seriousness  of  a 
cripple,  who  attributed  his  condition  to  the  unknown 
faults  of  his  former  life."  On  seeing  a  man  who  had 
been  born  blind,  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  fell  into  the 
ramc  mistake,  and  asked  him,  "  Who  did  sin,  this  man 
or  his  parents,  that  he  was  born  blind?"  (John  ix,  2). 
Jesus  immediately  solved  the  difficulty  by  miraculous- 
ly giving  him  the  use  of  his  sight.     See  Eye. 

Blindness  is  a  term  often  used  in  Scripture  to  denote 
ignorance  or  a  want  of  discernment  in  divine  things, 
as  well  as  the  being  destitute  of  natural  sight  (Isa.  vi, 
10 ;  xlii,  18, 19  ;  Matt,  xv,  14).  "  Blindnesc  of  heart" 
is  the  want  of  understanding  arising  from  the  influ- 
ence of  vicious  passions,  while  "hardness  of  heart"  is 
stubborness  of  will  and  absence  of  moral  feeling  (-cJ- 
pwene,  Mark  iii,  5 ;  Rom.  xi,  25 ;  Eph.  iv,  18). 

Blindfold  (/rfnov«\i>7r7-(d,  to  cover  about,  sc.  the 
eyes).  This  treatment  which  our  Saviour  received 
from  his  persecutors  originated  from  a  sport  which  was 
common  among  children  in  ancient  times,  in  which  it 
was  the  practice  first  to  blindfold,  then  to  strike,  then 
to  ask  who  gave  the  blow,  and  not  to  let  the  person  go 
until  he  had  named  the  one  who  had  struck  him.  It 
was  used  in  reproach  of  our  blessed  Lord,  as  a  prophtt 
or  divine  teacher,  and  to  expose  him  to  ridicule  (Luke 
xxii,  64). 

Blomfield,  Charles  James,  bishop  of  London, 
was  born  in  1786  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Suffolk,  where 
his  father  was  a  schoolmaster.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  graduated  in  1808  us 
third  wrangler.  The  first  published  fruit  of  his  phi- 
lological studies  was  an  edition  of  the  Prometheus  of 
./Eschylus,  which  appeared  in  1810.  This  was  follow 
ed  by  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  1812,  the  /'<  mans,  the 
Ckoephorce,  and  the  Agamemnon.  A  valuable  edition 
of  Cattimachus  was  published  under  his  supervision  in 
1824.  In  1812  he  edited,  in  connection  with  Kennel, 
the  Mum  Cantabrigienses,  and  with  Monk  the  Posthu- 
mous Tracts  of  Porson,  a  work  which  he  followed,  two 
years  later,  by  editing  alone  the  Adversaria  Porsoni. 
But,  besides  these,  he  is  known  to  have  written  numer- 
ous critical  papers  on  Greek  literature,  some  of  them 
of  a  rather  trenchant  character,  in  the  quarterly  re- 
views and  classical  journals,  and  he  compiled  in  1828 
a  Greek  grammar  for  schools.  His  first  preferment 
was  to  the  living  of  Warrington,  1810,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  received  that  of  Dunton  in  Essex.  In  1819 
he  became  chaplain  to  Ilowley,  bishop  of  London,  and 
very  soon  after  became  rector  of  St.  Botolph,  Bishops- 
gate,  London,  and  archdeacon  of  Colchester.  In  1824 
lie  was  raised  to  the  bench  as  bishop  of  Chester,  and 
in  1828  he  succeeded  Dr.  Ilowley  as  bishop  of  L<  n- 
don,  in  which  see  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1856. 
During  his  incumbency  there  were  built  in  his  dio- 
cese a  number  of  churches  beyond  all  comparison 
greater  than  in  the  presidency  of  any  other  bishop 
since  the  Reformation;  and  one  of  his  latest  public 
acts  was  an  earnest  appeal,  seconded  by  a  large  6ub- 


BLOXDEL 


834 


BLOOD 


pcription,  to  raise  funds  tr>  construct  as  many  churches 
as  the  <  lensus  Report  showed  to  be  needed  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  metropolis.     His  theological  writings  arc 
Fhh    Lectures  on  John's  Gospel  (Lona.  1823, 12mo)  :— 
Tm  be  /.<  dun  s  on  the  A  c/s  (Lond.  1828,  8vo,  which  edi- 
tion includes  also  the  Lectures  on  John): — Sermons  at 
8t.  Jiiitn/ji h's,  (  Lond.  1829, 8vo): — Sermonsonthe  Church  j 
(Lond.  1842,  8vo);  besides  various  occasional  sermons,  ] 
charges,  pamphlets,  etc.     See  Biber,  Bishop  Biomfield  \ 
and  his  Times  (Lond.  1857)  ;  Memoir  of  Bp.  Blomfield, 
by  his  Sun  (Lond.  1862);  Christ.  Remembrancer,  xliv, 
386;  English  Cyclopaedia,  6.  v. 

Blondel,  David,  one  of  the  most  learned  theolo-  | 
gians  of  a  learned  age,  was  born  at  Chalons-sur-Marne 
in  1591,  and  became  a  minister  among  the  French  I 
Protestants  in  1614.     In  1619  he  published  his  Modeste 
declaration  de  la  sincerite  et  virile  des  eglises  reformees 
(8vo).     In  1631  he  was  nominated  professor  at  Saumur. 
The  synod  of  Charenton  in  1645  fixed  him  at  Paris 
with  a  pension  of  1000  livres,  in  order  that  he  might 
have  means  and  leisure  to  write  for  the  Protestant 
cause.     In  1G50  he  was  invited  to  Amsterdam  to  suc- 
ceed Vossius  in  the  chair  of  history,  and  there  he 
caught  a  cold  in' the  eyes,  which  deprived  him  of  sight 
for  the  rest  of  his  da}-s.     He  died  April  6,  1655.     His  | 
writings,  both  polemical  and  historical,  are   still  of  I 
great  value  to   Protestantism.     Among  them  are,  1. 
Familier  icbiircissement,  etc. ;  a  treatise  on  the  debated 
question  about  the  existence  of  "Pope  Joan,"  which  | 
he  decides  in  the  negative  (Amsterdam,  1647,  1649, 
8vo)  : — 2.  Pseudo-Isidorus  et  Turrianus  rapulantcs ;  to  i 
prove  the  falsity  of  the  decretals  attributed  to  the  an-  j 
cient  popes  (Geneva,  1628,  4to) : — 3.  Apologia  pro  sen-  < 
but  in  Hitruiiymi  de  episctpis  et  preslyteris ;  an  able  de-  j 
fence  of  Presbyterianism  (Amsterdam,  1646): — 4.  De  j 
la  primaute  dans  VEglise  (1641);  against  Cardinal  Du- 
perron,  perhaps  the  greatest  of  his  works  : — 5.  A  Trea- 
tise of  the  .Sibyls,  translated  (Lond.  fol.  1661).     A  full 
list  is  given  by  Niceron,  viii,  48;  see  also  Haag,  La 
France  Protestante,  ii,  306. 

Blood  (p\  dam  ;  alua  :  both  occasionally  used,  by 
Hebraism,  in  the  plural  with  a  sing,  sense),  the  red 
fluid  circulating  in  the  veins  of  men  and  animals.  The 
term  is  employed  in  Scripture  in  a  variety  of  senses. 

1.  As  Food. — To  blood  is  ascribed  in  Scripture  the 
mysterious  sacredness  which  belongs  to  life,  and  God 
reserved  it  to  Himself  when  allowing  man  the  domin- 
ion over  and  the  use  of  the  lower  animals  for  food,  etc. 
(See  Thomson,  Land  and  Boole,  i,  136.)  In  Gen.  ix, 
4,  where  the  use  of  animal  food  is  allowed,  it  is  first 
absolutely  forbidden  to  eat  "flesh  with  its  soul,  its 
blood;"  which  expression,  were  it  otherwise  obscure, 
is  explained  by  the  mode  in  which  the  same  terms  arc 
employed  in  Dent,  xii,  23.  In  the  Mosaic  law  the 
prohibition  is  repeated  with  frequency  and  emphasis, 
although  it  is  generally  introduced  in  connection  with 
sacrifices,  as  in  Lev.  iii,  7  ;  vii,  26  (in  both  which  places 
blood  is  coupled  in  the  prohibition  with  the  fat  of  the 
victims);  xvii,  10-14;  xix,  2:  Dent,  xii,  16-23;  xv, 
23.  In  cases  where  the  prohibition  is  introduced  in 
connection  with  the  lawful  and  unlawful  articles  of 
diet,  the  reason  which  is  generally  assigned  in  the 
t  '■•'  is  thai  "the  blood  is  the  soul,"  and  it  is  ordered 
that  it  lie  poured  on  the  ground  like  water.  But  where 
it  i-  introduced  in  reference  to  the  portions  of  the  vic- 
tim which  were  to  be  offered  to  the  Lord,  then  the 
addition  to  the  former  reason,  insists  that 
"the  blood  e  ipiates  U  the  soul"  |  Lev.  xvii,  11,  12). 
This  strict  injunction  not  only  applied  to  the  Israel- 
ites, bul  i  \en  to  the  strangers  residing  among  them. 
I  he  penalty  assigned  to  it-  transgression  was  the  be- 
ing "cut  off  fri  m  the  people,"  by  which  the  punish- 
ment of  d  tatfa  appears  to  be  intended  (com]..  Ileb.  x, 
28),  although  it  is  difficult  to  asci  rtain  whether  it  was 
inflicted  by  the  sword  or  by  stoning.  It  is  observed 
by  Michaelis  (Atot.  Recht.  iv,  45)  that  the  blood  of 


fishes  does  not  appear  to  be  interdicted.  The  words 
in  Lev.  vii,  26,  only  expressly  mention  that  of  birds 
and  cattle.  This  accords,  however,  with  the  reasons 
assigned  for  the  prohibition  of  blood,  inasmuch  as  fishes 
could  not  be  offered  to  the  Lord,  although  they  formed 
a  significant  offering  in  heathen  religions.  To  this  is 
to  be  added  that  the  apostles  and  elders,  assembled  in 
council  at  Jerusalem,  when  desirous  of  settling  the  ex- 
tent to  which  the  ceremonial  observances  were  bind- 
ing upon  the  converts  to  Christianity,  renewed  the  in- 
junction to  abstain  from  blood,  and  coupled  it  with 
things  offered  to  idols  (Acts  xv,  29).  It  is  perhaps 
worthy  of  notice  here  that  Mohammed,  while  profess- 
ing to  abrogate  some  of  the  dietary  restrictions  of  the 
Jewish  law  (which  he  asserts  were  imposed  on  account 
of  the  sins  of  the  Jews,  Sura  iv,  158),  still  enforces, 
among  others,  abstinence  from  blood  and  from  things 
offered  to  idols  {Koran,  Sur.  v,  4 ;  vi,  146,  ed.  Flugel). 

In  direct  opposition  to  this  emphatic  prohibition  of 
blood  in  the  Mosaic  law,  the  customs  of  uncivilized 
heathens  sanctioned  the  cutting  of  slices  from  the  liv- 
ing animal,  and  the  eating  of  the  flesh  while  quivering 
with  life  and  dripping  with  blood.  Even  Saul's  army 
committed  this  barbarity,  as  we  read  in  1  Sam.  xiv, 
32;  and  the  prophet  also  lays  it  to  the  charge  of  the 
Jews  in  Ezek.  xxxiii,  25.  This  practice,  according  to 
Bruce's  testimony,  exists  at  present  among  the  Abys- 
sinians.  Moreover,  pagan  religions,  and  that  of  the 
Phoenicians  among  the  rest,  appointed  the  eating  and 
drinking  of  blood,  mixed  with  wine,  as  a  rite  of  idola- 
trous worship,  and  especially  in  the  ceremonial  of 
swearing.  To  this  the  passage  in  Psa.  xvi,  4  appears 
to  allude  (comp.  Michaelis,  Critisck.  Colkg.  p.  108, 
where  several  testimonies  on  this  subject  are  collected). 

Among  Christians  different  views  have  been  enter- 
tained respecting  the  eating  of  blood,  some  maintain- 
ing that  its  prohibition  in  the  Scriptures  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  merely  ceremonial  and  temporary,  Avhile 
others  contend  that  it  is  unlawful  under  any  circum- 
stances, and  that  Christians  are  as  much  bound  to  ab- 
stain from  it  now  as  were  the  Jews  under  the  Mosaic 
economy.  This  they  found  en  the  facts  that  when  an- 
imal food  was  originally  granted  to  man,  there  was  an 
express  reservation  in  the  article  of  the  blood :  that 
this  grant  was  made  to  the  new  parents  of  the  whole 
human  family  after  the  flood,  consequently  the  tenure 
by  which  any  of  mankind  are  permitted  to  eat  animals 
is  in  every  case  accompanied  with  this  restriction ; 
that  there  never  was  any  reversal  of  the  prohibition  ; 
that  most  express  injunctions  were  given  on  the  point 
in  the  Jewish  code ;  and  that  in  the  New  Testament, 
instead  of  there  being  the  least  hint  intimating  that  we 
are  freed  from  the  obligation,  it  is  deserving  of  partic- 
ular notice  that  at  the  very  time  when  the  Holy  Spirit 
declares  by  the  apostles  (Acts  xv)  that  the  Gentiles 
are  free  from  the  yoke  of  circumcision,  abstinence  from 
blood  is  explicitly  enjoined,  and  the  action  thus  pro- 
hibited is  classed  with  idolatry  and  fornication.  After 
the  time  of  Augustine  the  rule  began  to  be  held  mere- 
ly as  a  temporary  injunction.  It  was  one  of  the 
grounds  alleged  by  the  early  apologists  against  the 
calumnies  of  the  enemies  of  Christianity  that,  so  far 
were  they  from  drinking  human  blood,  it  was  unlaw- 
ful for  them  to  drink  the  blood  even  of  irrational  ani- 
mals. Numerous  testimonies  to  the  same  effect  arc 
found  in  after  ages  (Bingham,  Orig.  Feci.  bk.  xvii,  ch. 
v,  §  20).     See  Food. 

2.  Sacrificial. — It  was  a  well-established  rabbinical 
maxim  (Mishna,  Yoma,  v,  1 ;  Menachoth,  xciii,  2)  that 
the  blood  of  a  victim  is  essential  to  atonement  ("pX 
CIS  X5N  rt"£I,  i.  c.  "there  is  no  expiation  except  by 
blood"),  a  principle  recognised  by  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (vcjoir-  al/iareicxwrias  ov  yivt- 
TOi  dipemc.,  ix,  22).  See  Biihr,  Symbol,  ii,  201  sq.  Sec 
Expiation.  The  blood  of  sacrifices  was  caught  by 
the  Jewish  priest  from  the  neck  of  the  victim  in  a  ba- 


BLOOD 


835 


BLOOD 


sin,  then  sprinkled  seven  times  (in  the  case  of  birds  at 
once  shed  out)  on  the  altar,  i.  e.  on  its  horns,  its  base, 
or  its  four  corners,  or  on  its  side  above  or  below  a  line 
running  round  it,  or  on  the  mercy-seat,  according  to  the 
quality  and  purpose  of  the  offering ;  but  that  of  the 
l'assover  on  the  lintel  and  door-posts  (Exod.  xii ;  Lev. 
iv,  5-7 ;  xvi,  14-19 ;  Ugolini,  Thes.  vol.  x  and  xiii). 
There  was  a  drain  from  the  Temple  into  the  brook  Ce- 
dron  to  carry  off  tlie  blood  (Maimon.  apud  Cramer  de 
Ard  Exter.  Ugolini,  viii).  It  sufficed  to  pour  the  ani- 
mal's blood  on  the  earth,  or  to  bury  it,  as  a  solemn 
rendering  of  the  life  to  God.     See  Sacrifice. 

'."•.  Homicidal. — In  this  respect  "blood"  is  often  used 
for  life :  God  "will  require  the  blood  of  man  ;"  he  will 
punish  murder  in  what  manner  soever  committed 
(Gen.  ix,  5).  "  His  blood  be  upon  us"  (Matt,  xxvii, 
25),  let  the  guilt  of  his  death  be  imputed  to  us.  "  The 
voice  of  thy  brother's  blood  crieth  ;"  the  murder  com- 
mitted on  him  crieth  for  vengeance  (Gen.  iv,  10). 
"The  avenger  of  blood;"  he  who  is  to  avenge  the 
death  of  his  relative  (Num.  xxxv,  24,  27).  The  priests 
under  the  Mosaic  law  were  constituted  judges  between 
"blood  and  blood,"  that  is,  in  criminal  matters,  and 
when  the  life  of  man  was  at  stake  ;  they  had  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  murder  were  casual  or  voluntary, 
whether  a  crime  deserved  death  or  admitted  of  remis- 
sion (Deut.  xvii,  8).  In  case  of  human  bloodshed,  a 
mysterious  connection  is  observable  between  the  curse 
of  blood  and  the  earth  or  land  on  which  it  is  shed, 
which  becomes  polluted  by  it;  and  the  proper  expia- 
tion is  the  blood  of  the  shedder,  which  every  one  had 
thus  an  interest  in  exacting,  and  was  bound  to  seek 
(Gen.  iv,  10 ;  ix,  4-6 ;  Num.  xxxv,  33 ;  Psa.  cvi,  38). 
See  Avenger  of  Blood.  In  the  case  of  a  dead  body 
found  and  the  death  not  accounted  for,  the  guilt  of 
blood  attached  to  the  nearest  city,  to  be  ascertained  by 
measurement,  until  freed  by  prescribed  rites  of  expia- 
tion (Deut.  xxi,  1-9).  The  guilt  of  murder  is  one  for 
which  a  satisfaction"  was  forbidden  (Num.  xxxv,  31). 
Si 2  Murder. 

4.  In  a  slightly  metaphorical  sense,  "blood"  some- 
times means  race  or  nature,  by  virtue  of  relationship 
or  consanguinity:  God  "hath  made  of  owe  blood  all 
nations  of  men"  (Acts  xvii,  26).  It  is  also  used  as 
the  symbol  of  slaughter  and  mortality  (Isa.  xxxiv,  3; 
Ezek.  xiv,  19).  It  also  denotes  every  kind  of  prema- 
ture death  (Ezek.  xxxii,  6;  xxxix,  18).  "The  bold 
imagery  of  the  prophet,"  says  Archbishop  Newcome, 
"  is  founded  on  the  custom  of  invitations  to  feasts  after 
sacrifices  ;  kings,  princes,  and  tyrants  being  expressed 
by  rams,  bulls,  and  he-goats."  Blood  is  sometimes 
put  for  sanguinary  purposes,  as  in  Isa.  xxxiii,  15,  "  He 
that  stoppeth  his  ears  from  hearing  of  blood,"  or,  more 
properly,  who  stoppeth  his  ears  to  the  proposal  of  blood- 
shed. To  "wash  the  feet  in  blood"  (Psa.  lviii,  10)  is 
to  gain  a  victory  with  much  slaughter.  To  "build  a 
town  with  blood"  (Hab.  ii,  12)  is  by  causing  the  death 
of  the  oppressed  laborers  as  slaves. 

Wine  is  called  the  blood  of  the  grape  ;  "  He  washed 
his  garments  in  wine,  and  his  clothes  in  the  blood  of 
grapes"  (Gen.  xlix,  11).  Here  the  figure  is  easily 
understood,  as  any  thing  of  a  red  color  may  be  com- 
pared to  blood.     See  Wemyss,  Symbol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Flesh  and  Blood  are  placed  in  opposition  to  a  su- 
perior or  spiritual  nature:  "  Flesh  and  blood  hath  not 
revealed  it  unto  thee,  but  my  Father  who  is  in  heaven" 
(Matt,  xvi,  17).  Flesh  and  blood  are  also  opposed  to 
the  glorified  bod}':  "Flesh  and  blood  cannot  inherit 
the  kingdom  of  God"  (1  Cor.  xv,  50).  They  are  op- 
posed to  evil  spirits:  "We  wrestle  not  against  flesh 
and  blood,"  against  visible  enemies  composed  of  flesh 
and  blood,  "but  against  principalities  and  powers," 
etc.  (Eph.  vi,  12).     See  Eucharist. 

Blood  and  Water  (John  xix,  34)  are  said  to  have 
issued  from  our  Lord's  side  when  the  soldier  pierced 
him  on  the  cross.  The  only  natural  explanation  that 
can  be  offered  of  the  fact  is  to  suppose  that  some  effu- 


sion had  taken  place  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and 
that  the  spear  penetrated  below  the  level  of  the  fluid. 
Supposing  this  to  have  happened,  and  the  wound  to 
have  been  inflicted  shortly  after  death,  then,  in  addi- 

j  tion  to  the  water,  blood  would  also  have  trickled  down, 
or.  at  any  rate,  have  made  its  appearance  at  the  mouth 
of  the  wound,  even  though  none  of  the  large  vessels 
had  been  wounded.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  suppose 
that  the  pericardium  was  pierced;  and,  if  effusion  had 
taken  place  there,  it  might  also  have  taken  place  in 
the  cavities  of  the  pleura  ;  but,  during  health,  neither 

:  the  pericardium  nor  the  pleura  contains  fluid,  being 
merely  lubricated  with  moisture  on  their  internal  or 
opposing  surfaces,  so  as  to  allow  of  free  motion  to  the 
heart  and  lungs. 

It  is  more  probable,  however,  from  all  the  symptoms 
in  the  case,  that  the  immediate  pathological  cause  of 
Christ's  death  was  a  proper  rupture  of  the  heart.  The 
chief  of  these  particulars  are  the  following:  (1.)  The 
suddenness  of  his  death,  which  so  surprised  Pilate 
(Mark  xv,  44),  who  was  accustomed  to  see  sufferers 
linger  for  days  upon  the  cross.  See  Crucify.  (2.) 
The  loud  cries  just  before  expiring,  which  usually  ac- 

;  company  the  sense  of  suffocation  resulting  from  the 

I  congestion  of  blood  at  the  heart  in  such  cases.  (3.) 
The  sanguineous  effusion  from  the  pores  that  occurred 
in  the  garden  the  preceding  night  during  a  similar 
paroxysm  of  mental  and  physical  tension.  (4.)  The 
separation  of  the  serum  ("water")  from  the  erassainen- 
tum  (clotted  "blood")  in  this  case,  which  can  only  be 
medically  accounted  for  by  this  supposition,  as  other- 

j  wise  the  blood  would  have  become  coagulated  in  the 
veins,  and  no  such  effusion  as  above  could  have  occur- 
red. (See  Physical  Cause  of  the  Death  of  Christ,  by 
Wm.  Stroud,  M.D.,  London,  1847,  p.  399-420.) 

The  puncture  by  the  soldier's  spear  was  therefore 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  pericardium  itself,  on  the  left 
side,  as  would  most  naturally  have  resulted  from  a 
thrust  with  the  right  hand  of  one  standing  on  the 
ground  and  opposite ;  this  alone,  had  not  Christ  been 
already  dead,  would  necessarily  have  been  a  fatal 
wound. 

Treatises  on  this  subject  have  been  written  in  Latin 
by  Bartholin  (Lugd.  B.  1648,  Lips.  1683  and  since), 
Jacobi  (Lips.  166°.),  Loescher  (Viteb.  1697),  Quenstedt 
(ib.  1678),  Saubert  (Helmst.  1676),  Sagittarius  (Jen. 
1673),  Schertzer  (Tusc.  Disputt.  8),  Suanten  (Post. 
1686),  Triller  (Viteb.  1775),  Wedel  (Jen.  1686),  Calon 
(Viteb.  1679,  1736),  Dreschler  (Lips.  1678),  Eschen- 
bach  (Rost.  1775),  Derschow  (Jen.  1661),  Haferung 
(Viteb.  1732),  Koeher  (Dresd.  1698),  Meisner  (Viteb. 
1662),  Quenstedt  (Viteb.  1663),  Wegner  (Reg.  1705), 
Hopfner  (Lips.  1621),  Loescher  (Viteb.  1681),  Quen, 
stedt  (Viteb.  1681),  Schuster  (Chemn.  1741).  See 
Bloody  Sweat. 

BLOOD-BAPTISM.     In  the  early  Church,  one  de- 

\  voted  to  martyrdom  without  baptism  was  reckoned 
among  the  catechumens;  martyrdom,  being  regarded 
as  a  full  substitute,  was  therefore  styled  blood-baptism. 
This  notion  was  derived  from  several  passages  of 
Scripture  (Matt,  x,  39  ;  Luke  xii,  50).     When  baptism 

J  was  reckoned  essential  to  salvation,  martyrdom  was 

I  also  considered  a  passport  to  heaven.  It  was  there- 
fore made  a  substitute  for  baptism.  See  Bingham, 
Oiia.  Eccles.  bk.  x,  ch.  ii,  §  20. 

BLOOD,  ISSUE  OF  (in  Heb.  M  SIT),  is  in  Scrip- 
ture applied  only  to  the  case  of  women  under  menstru- 
ation or  the  jluxus  uteri  (Lev.  xv,  19-30  ;  Matt,  ix,  20, 
yi<}>>)  ai/xoppoovoa  ;  Mark  v,  25,  and  Luke  viii,  43,  ovna 
Iv  pvtret  u'ipa-oc).  The  latter  caused  a  permanent 
legal  uncleanness,  the  former  a  temporary  one,  mostly 
for  seven  days;  after  which  the  woman  was  to  be  pu- 
rified by  the  customary  offering.  The  "bloody  flux" 
(oucrevTipia')  in  Acts  xxviii,  8,  where  the  patient  is  of 
the  male  sex,  is  probably  a  medically  correct  term 
(see  Bartholini,  De  Morbis  Biblicis,  17).     In  Matt,  ix, 


BLOOD 


836 


BLOOD 


20.  the  disease  alluded  to  is  hemorrhage;  but  we  are 
not  obliged  to  suppose  that  it  continued  unceasingly 
for  twelve  years.  It  is  a  universal  custom,  in  speak- 
in-  of  the  duration  of  a  chronic  disease,  to  include  the 
intervals  of  comparative  health  that  may  occur  during 
its  course;  so  that  when  a  disease  is  merely  stated 
to  have  lasted  a  certain  time,  we  have  still  to  learn 
Whether  it  was  of  strictly  a  continuous  type,  or  wheth- 
er it  intermitted.  In  the  present  case,  as  this  point 
is  left  undecided,  we  are  quite  at  liberty  to  suppose 
that  the  disease  did  intermit,  and  can  therefore  under- 
stand why  it  did  not  prove  fatal  even  in  twelve  years. 
It  was  most  likely  uterine  in  this  instance,  and  hence 
the  delicacy  of  the  woman  in  approaching  Christ,  and 
her  confusion  on  being  discovered.     See  Flux. 

BLOOD-REVENGE,  or  revenge  for  bloodshed,  was 
regarded  among  the  Jews,  as  among  all  the  ancient 
and  Asiatic  nations,  not  only  as  a  right,  but  even  as  a 
duty,  which  devolved  upon  the  nearest  relative  of  the 
murdered  person,  who  on  this  account  was  called  >X"< 
Cnn,  goel'  had-da in ',  the  reclaimer  of 'blood,  or  one  who 
demands  restitution  of  blood,  similar  to  the  Latin  san- 
guinem  repetere.     See  Avenger  of  Blood. 

1.  Jewish. — The  Mosaic  law  (Num.  xxxv,  81)  ex- 
pressly forbids  the  acceptance  of  a  ransom  for  the  for- 
feited life  of  the  murderer,  although  it  might  be  saved 
by  his  seeking  an  asylum  at  the  altar  of  the  taberna- 
cle in  case  the  homicide  was  accidentally  committed 
(Exod.  xxi,  13;  1  Kings  i,  50;  ii,  28).  When,  how- 
ever, in  process  of  time,  after  Judaism  had  been  fully 
developed,  no  other  sanctuary  was  tolerated  but  that 
of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  the  chances  of  escape  for 
such  a  homicide  from  the  hands  of  the  avenger  ere  he 
reached  the  gates  of  the  Temple  became  less  in  propor- 
tion to  the  distance  of  the  spot  where  the  murder  was 
committed  from  Jerusalem ;  six  cities  of  refuge  were 
in  consequence  appointed  for  the  momentary  safety  of 
the  murderer  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom,  the 
roads  to  which  were  kept  in  good  order  to  facilitate 
his  escape  (Deut.  xix,  3).  Thither  the  avenger  durst 
not  follow  him,  and  there  he  lived  in  safety  until  a 
proper  examination  had  taken  place  before  the  author- 
ities of  the  place  (Josh,  xx,  6,  9),  in  order  to  ascertain 
whether  the  murder  was  a  wilful  act  or  not.  In  the 
former  case  he  was  instantly  delivered  up  to  the.  goel, 
against  whom  not  even  the  altar  could  protect  him 
( Exod.  xxi,  14 ;  1  Kings  ii,  29) ;  in  the  latter  case, 
though  lie  was  not  actually  delivered  into  the  hands 
of  the  goel,  he  was  notwithstanding  not  allowed  to  quit 
the  precincts  of  the  town,  but  was  obliged  to  remain 
there  all  his  lifetime,  or  until  the  death  of  the  high- 
priest  (Num.  xxxv,  G;  Deut.  xix,  3;  Josh,  xx,  1-6), 
if  he  would  not  run  the  risk  of  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  avenger,  and  be  slain  by  him  with  impunity 
(Num.  xxxv,  26;  Deut.  xix,  G).  That  such  a  volun- 
tary exile  was  considered  more  in  the  light  of  a  pun- 
ishment for  manslaughter  than  a  provision  for  the  safe 
retreat  of  the  homicide  against  the  revengeful  designs 
of  the  goel,  is  evident  from  Num.  xxxv,  32,  where  it 
ressly  forbidden  to  release  him  from  his  confine- 
ment on  any  condition  whatever.  That  the  decease 
of  the  bigh-priest  should  have  been  the  means  of  re- 
storing him  to  liberty  was  probably  owing  to  the  gen- 
eral custom  anion-  the  ancients  of  granting  free  par- 
don to  certain  prisoners  at  the  demise  of  their  legiti- 
mate prime  or  sovereign,  whom  the  high-priest  repre- 
sented, in  a  spiritual  Bense,  anion-  the  Jews.  These 
wise  regulations  of  the  Mosaical  law,  so  far  as  the 
spirit  of  the  age  allowed  it,  prevented  all  family  ha- 
tred, persecution,  and  war  from  ever  taking  place,  as 

was  inevitably  the  case  among  the  oilier  nations,  where 
any  bloodshed  whatever,  «  hether  wilful  or  accidental, 
laid  the  homicide  open  to  the  duty  of  revenge  by  the 

relatives  and  family  of  the  slain  person,  who  again, 
in  their  turn,  were  then  similarly  watched  and  limited 
by  the  opposite  party,  until  a  family-war  of  extermi- 


nation had  legally  settled  itself  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration, without  the  least  prospect  of  ever  being  brought 
to  a  peaceful  termination.  Nor  do  we  indeed  find  in 
the  Scriptures  the  least  trace  of  any  abuse  or  mischief 
ever  having  arisen  from  these  regulations  (ecnip.  2 
8am.  ii,  1!)  sq. ;  iii,  2G  sq.).  The  spirit  of  all  legisla- 
tion on  the  subject  has  probably  been  to  restrain  the 
license  of  punishment  assumed  by  relatives,  and  to 
limit  the  duration  of  feuds.  The  law  of  Moses  was 
very  precise  in  its  directions  on  the  subject  of  retalia- 
tion.    See  Goel. 

(1.)  The  wilful  murderer  was  to  be  put  to  death 
without  permission  of  compensation.  The  nearest 
relative  of  the  deceased  became  the  authorized  avenger 
of  blood  (bX5,  the  redeemer,  or  avenger,  as  next  of  kin, 
Gesen.  s.  v.  p.  254,  who  rejects  the  opinion  of  Mi- 
chaelis,  giving  it  the  sig.  of  "polluted,"  i.  e.  till  the  mur- 
der was  avenged;  Sept.  o  ciyy^iaTiviDv;  Vulg. propin- 
quus  occisi;  Num.  xxxv,  19),  and  was  bound  to  execute 
retaliation  himself  if  it  lay  in  his  power.  The  king, 
however,  in  later  times  appears  to  have  had  the  power 
of  restraining  this  license.  The  shedder  of  blood  was 
thus  regarded  as  impious  and  polluted  (Num.  xxxv, 
16-31;  Deut.  xix,  11 ;  2  Sam.  xiv,  7,  11 ;  xvi,  8,  and 
iii,  29,  with  1  Kings  ii,  31,  33 ;  1  Chron.  xxiv,  22-35). 
(2.)  The  law  of  retaliation  was  not  to  extend  beyond 
the  immediate  offender  (Deut.  xxiv,  16  ;  2  Kings  xiv, 
6;  2  Chron.  xxv,  4;  Jer.  xxxi,  29,  30;  Ezek.  xviii, 
20;  Joseph.  Ant.  iv,  8,  39). 

(3.)  The  involuntary  shedder  of  blood  was  permit- 
ted to  take  flight  to  one  of  six  Levitical  cities,  special- 
ly appointed  out  of  the  48  as  cities  of  refuge, 'three  on 
each  side  of  the  Jordan  (Num.  xxxv,  22,  23;  Deut. 
xix,  4-6).  The  cities  were  Kedesh,  in  Mount  Naph- 
tali;  Shechem,  in  Mount  Ephraim  ;  Hebron,  in  the  hill- 
country  of  Judah ;  on  the  east  side  of  Jordan,  Bezcr  in 
Reuben  ;  Ramoth,  in  Gad  ;  Golan,  in  Manasseh  (Josh. 
xx,  7,  8).  The  elders  of  the  city  of  refuge  were  to 
hear  his  case  and  protect  him  till  he  could  be  tried  be- 
fore the  authorities  of  his  own  city.  If  the  act  were 
then  decided  to  have  been  involuntary,  he  was  taken 
back  to  the  city  of  refuge,  round  which  an  area  with 
a  radius  of  2000  (3000,  Patrick)  cubits  was  assigned  as 
the  limit  of  protection,  and  was  to  remain  there  in 
safety  till  the  death  of  the  high-priest  for  the  time 
being.  Beyond  the  limit  of  the  city  of  refuge  the 
revenger  might  slay  him,  but  after  the  high-priest's 
death  he  might  return  to  his  home  with  impunity 
(Num.  xxxv,  25,  28;  Josh,  xx,  4,  6).  The  roads  to 
the  cities  were  to  be  kept  open  (Deut.  xix,  3). 

To  these  particulars  the  Talmudists  add,  among 
others  of  an  absurd  kind,  the  following;  at  the  cross- 
roads posts  were  erected  bearing  the  word  ti^pO,  ref- 
uge, to  direct  the  fugitive.  All  facilities  of  water  and 
situation  were  provided  in  the  cities;  no  implements 
of  war  or  chase  were  allowed  there.  The  mothers  of 
high-priests  used  to  send  presents  to  the  detained  per- 
sons to  prevent  their  wishing  for  the  high-priest's 
death.  If  the  fugitive  died  before  the  high-priest,  his 
bones  were  sent  home  after  the  high-priest's  death 
(P.  Fagius  in  Targ.  Onk.  Ap.,  Rittershus.  de  Jure 
Asyli,  in  the  Crit.  Sucr.  viii,  159;  Lightfoot,  Cent, 
Chorogr.  c.  50,  Op.  ii,  208). 

(4.)  If  a  person  were  found  dead,  the  elders  of  the 
nearest  city  were  to  meet  in  a  rough  valley  untouched 
by  the  plough,  and,  washing  their  hands  over  a  be- 
headed heifer,  protest  their  innocence  of  the  deed,  and 
deprecate  the  anger  of  the  Almighty  (Deut.  xxi,  1-9) 
See  Homicide. 

2.  Other  Ancient  Nations. — The  high  estimation  in 
which  blood-revenge  stood  among  the  ancient  Arabs 
may  be  judged  of  from  the  fact  that  it  formed  the  sub- 
ject  of  their  most  beautiful  and  elevated  poetry  (comp. 
the  Scholiast  TaurisA  to  the  16th  poem  in  Schultens' 
Excerp.  Hamas').  Mohammed  did  not  abolish,  but 
modified,  that  rigorous  custom,  by  allowing  tho  accept- 


BLOOD 


837 


BLOOD 


anec  of  a  ransom  in  money  for  the  forfeited  life  of  the 
murderer  {Koran,  ii,  173-175),  and  at  the  worst  forbid- 
ding the  infliction  of  any  cruel  or  painful  death  (ibid. 
xvii,  35).  It  was,  and  even  still  is,  a  common  prac- 
tice among  nations  of  patriarchal  habits,  that  the  near- 
est of  kin  should,  as  a  matter  of  duty,  avenge  the  death 
of  a  murdered  relative.  The  early  impressions  and 
practice  on  this  subject  may  be  gathered  from  writings 
of  a  different  though  very  earl}-  age  and  of  different 
countries  (Gen.  xxxiv,  30;  Horn.  II.  xxiii,  84,  88; 
y.xiv,  480,  482;  Od.  xv,  270,  27G ;  Muller  on  ^Eschyl. 
i'.um.  c.  ii,  A  and  B).  Compensation  for  murder  is 
allowed  by  the  Koran,  and  he  who  transgresses  after 
this  by  killing  the  murderer  shall  suffer  a  grievous 
punishment  (Sale,  Koran,  ii,  21,  and  xvii,  230). 
Among  the  Bedouins  and  other  Arab  tribes,  should 
the  offer  of  blood-money  be  refused,  the  "  Thar,"  or 
law  of  blood,  comes  into  operation,  and  any  person 
within  the  fifth  degree  of  blood  from  the  homicide  may 
be  legally  killed  by  any  one  within  the  same  degree 
of  consanguinity  to  the  victim.  Frequently  the  hom- 
icide will  wander  from  tent  to  tent  over  the  desert,  or 
even  rove  through  the  towns  and  villages  on  its  bor- 
ders with  a  chain  found  his  neck  and  in  rags,  begging 
contributions  from  the  charitable  to  pay  the  appor- 
tioned blood-money.  Three  days  and  four  hours  are 
allowed  to  the  persons  included  within  the  "  Thar" 
for  escape.  The  right  to  blood-revenge  is  never  lost, 
except  as  annulled  by  compensation :  it  descends  to 
the  latest  generation.  Similar  customs,  with  local  dis- 
tinctions, are  found  in  Persia,  Abyssinia,  among  the 
Druses  and  Circassians  (Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  V Arable 
p.  28,  30;  Voyage,  ii,  350;  Burckhardt,  Notes  on  the 
Btdndm,  p.  66,  85;  Travels  in  Arabia,  i,  409,  ii,  330; 
Syria,  p.  540, 113,  643 ;  Layard,  Nin.  and  Bab.  p.  305- 
307;  Chardin,  Voyages,  vi,  107-112).  Money-com- 
pensations for  homicide  are  appointed  by  the  Hindoo 
law  (Sir  W.  Jones,  vol.  iii,  chap,  vii) ;  and  Tacitus  re- 
marks that  among  the  German  nations  "a  homicide  is 
atoned  by  a  certain  number  of  sheep  or  cattle"  {Germ. 
21).  By  the  Anglo-Saxon  law  also,  money-compensa- 
tion for  homicide,  icer-gild,  was  sanctioned  on  a  scale 
proportioned  to  the  rank  of  the  murdered  person  (Lap- 
penberg,  ii,  336;  Lingard,  i,  411,  414). 

Of  all  the  other  nations,  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
alone  seem  to  have  possessed  cities  of  refuge  (Serv.  ad 
.■En.  viii,  342  ;  Liv.  i,  8 ;  Tac.  Ann.  iii,  60),  of  which 
Daphne,  near  Antioch,  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
most  prominent  (2  Mace,  iv,  34  ;  comp.  Potter's  Greek 
Archceol.  i,  480),  and  to  have  served  as  a  refuge  even 
for  wilful  murderers.  The  laws  and  customs  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  in  cases  of  murder  may  be  gathered 
from  the  principle  laid  down  by  Plato  on  that  head 
il>'  Legib.  ix,  in  t.  ix,  p.  28  sq.):  "Since,  according 
to  tradition,  the  murdered  person  is  greatly  irritated 
ag.iinst  the  murderer  during  the  first  few  months  after 
the  perpetration  of  the  deed,  the  murderer  ought  there- 
fore to  inflict  a  punishment  upon  himself  by  exiling 
himself  from  his  country  for  a  whole  year,  and  if  the 
murdered  be  a  foreigner,  by  keeping  away  from  his 
country.  If  the  homicide  subjects  himself  to  such  a 
punishment,  it  is  but  fair  that  the  nearest  relative 
should  be  appeased  and  grant  pardon  ;  but  in  case  he 
does  not  submit  to  that  punishment,  or  dares  even  to 
enter  the  temple  while  the  guilt  of  blood  is  still  upon 
his  hands,  the  avenger  shall  arraign  him  before  the  bar 
of  justice,  where  he  is  1 1  be  punished  with  the  infliction 
of  a  double  fine.  But  in  case  the  avenger  neglects  to 
proceed  against  him,  the  guilt  passes  over  to  him  (the 
avenger),  and  any  one  may  take  him  before  the  judge, 
who  passes  on  him  the  sentence  of  banishment  for  five 
years." — Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v.      See  Asyu'm. 

3.  In  Christendom. — That  such  institutions  are  alto- 
gether at  variance  with  the  spirit  of  Christianity  may 
be  judged  from  the  fact  that  revenge,  so  far  from  be- 
ing counted  a  right  or  duty,  was  condemned  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles  as  a  vice  and  passion  to  be  shunned 


(Acts  vii,  60 ;  Matt,  v,  44 ;  Luke  vi,  28 ;  Rom.  xii,  14 
sq. ;  comp.  Rom.  xiii,  where  the  power  of  executing 
revenge  is  vested  in  the  authorities  alone). 

In  Europe  the  custom  of  blood-revenge  is  still  prev- 
alent in  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  where,  however,  it  is 
more  the  consequence  of  a  vindictive  character  than 
of  an  established  law  or  custom.  A  Corsican  never 
passes  over  an  insult  without  retaliation,  either  on  the 
offender  or  his  family,  and  this  cruel  and  un-Christian 
custom  (vendetta  traversa,  mutual  vengeance)  is  the 
source  of  many  assassinations.  The  celebrated  Gen- 
eral Paoli  did  his  best  to  eradicate  this  abominable 
practice,  but  his  dominion  was  of  too  short  duration 
for  the  effective  cure  of  the  evil,  which  has  gained 
ground  ever  since  the  first  French  Revolution,  even 
among  the  female  sex.  It  is  calculated  that  about 
four  hundred  persons  yearly  lose  their  lives  in  Sar- 
dinia by  this  atrocious  habit  (Simonot,  Lettres  sur  la 
Corse,  p.  314).     See  Murder. 

BLOODY  SWEAT.  According  to  Luke  xxii,  44, 
our  Lord's  sweat  was  "as  great  drops  of  blood  falling 
to  the  ground."  Michaelis  takes  the  passage  to  mean 
nothing  more  than  that  the  drops  were  as  large  as  fall- 
ing drops  of  blood  (Anmerk.  fur  Ungclehrte,  ad  loc). 
This,  which  also  appears  to  be  a  common  explanation, 
is  liable  to  some  objection.  For,  if  an  ordinary  ob- 
server compares  a  fluid  which  he  is  accustomed  to  see 
colorless,  to  blood,  which  is  so  well  known  and  so  well 
characterized  by  its  color,  and  does  not  specify  any 
particular  point  of  resemblance,  he  would  more  natu- 
rally be  understood  to  allude  to  the  color,  since  it  is  the 
most  prominent  and  characteristic  quality. 

There  are  several  cases  recorded  by  the  older  medi- 
cal writers  under  the  title  of  bloody  sweat.  With  the 
exception  of  one  or  two  instances,  not  above  suspicion 
of  fraud,  they  have,  however,  all  been  cases  of  general 
hemorrhagic  disease,  in  which  blood  has  flowed  from 
different  parts  of  the  body,  such  as  the  nose,  eyes,  ears, 
lungs,  stomach,  and  bowels,  and,  lastly,  from  various 
parts  of  the  skin.  The  greater  number  of  cases  de-. 
scribed  by  authors  were  observed  in  women  and  chil. 
dren,  and  sometimes  in  infants.  The  case  of  a  young 
lady  who  was  afflicted  with  cutaneous  haemorrhage  is 
detailed  by  Mesaporiti  in  a  letter  to  Valisneri.  She  is 
noticed  to  have  been  cheerful,  although  she  must  have 
suffered  greatlv  from  debility  and  febrile  symptoms 
(Ph:l.  Trans.  No.  303,  p.  2114).  The  case  of  an  infant, 
onlv  three  months  old,  affected  with  the  same  disease, 
is  related  by  Du  Gard  (Phil.  Trans.  No.  109,  p.  193). 
A  similar  case  is  described  in  the  Nov.  Act.  Acad.  Nate 
Cur.  iv,  193.  See  also  Eph.  Acad.  Nat.  Cur.  obs.  41; 
and,  for  other  references,  Copland's  Diet,  of  Med.  ii, 
72.  Where  haemorrhage  diathesis  exists,  muscular 
exertion,  being  a  powerful  exciting  cause  of  all  kinds 
of  haemorrhage,  must  likewise  give  rise  to  the  cutane- 
ous form  of  the  disease. — Kitto,  s.  v. 

The  above  are  all  instances  of  a  chronic  nature,  re- 
sulting from  a  general  diseased  state  of  the  blood- 
vessels, and  are  therefore  little  in  point  as  illustrating 
the  case  of  our  Saviour,  whose  emotions  were  the  i  ause 
of  this  temporary  phenomenon  while  in  full  health. 
See  Agony,  a"  late  ingenious  and  careful  writer, 
whose  profession  qualifies  him  to  judge  in  the  matter 
(The  Physical  Cause  of  the  Deal,  of  Christ,  by  Win. 
Stroud,  itf.D.,  London,  1847),  thus  maintains  the  pos- 
sibility of  proper  bloody  sweat,  under  strong  mental 
exertion,  especially  in  cases  of  anxiety  and  terror. 
The  author,  in  brief,  gives  us  the  rationale  of  this 
phenomenon,  and  then  cites  a  number  of  cases  in 
which  it  has  actually  occurred:  "Perspiration,  both 
sensible  and  insensible,  takes  place  from  the  mouths 
of  small  regularly  organized  tubes,  which  perforate 
the  skin  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  terminating  in  blind 
extremities  internally,  and  by  innumerable  orifices  on 
the  outer  surface.  These  tubes  are  surrounded  by  a 
'  net-work  of  minute  vessels,  and  penetrated  by  the  ul- 
i  timate  ramifications  of  arteries  which,  according-  to  the 


BLOOD 


838 


BLUE 


force  of  the  local  circulation,  depending  chiefly  on  that 
of  the  heart,  discharge  either  the  watery  parts  of  the 
blood  in  the  state  of  vapor,  its  grosser  ingredients  in 
the  form  of  a  glutinous  liquid,  or,  in  extreme  cases, 
the  entire  blood  itself.  The  influence  of  the  invigor- 
ating passions,  more  especially  in  exciting  an  increased 
flow  of  blood  to  the  skin,  is  familiarly  illustrated  03' 
the  process  of  blushing,  either  from  shame  or  anger; 
f, ,r  during  this  state  the  heart  beats  strongly,  the  sur- 
face  of  the  body  becomes  hot  and  red,  and,  if  the  emo- 
tion is  very  powerful,  breaks  out  into  a  warm  and 
copious  perspiration,  the  first  step  toward  a  bloody 
sweat"  (Physical  Cause,  p.  85,  86).     See  Sweat. 

The  following  instances  of  diapedesis,  or  sweating 
of  blood,  show  that  the  author's  philosophy  is  not 
without  its  accompanying  facts.  Brevity  allows  us 
only  a  condensed  statement  of  a  few  of  the  instances 
cited  by  him  (p.  379  sq.).  An  Italian  officer,  in 
1552,  threatened  with  a  public  execution,  "was  so 
agitated  at  the  prospect  of  an  ignominious  death  that 
he.  sweated  blood  from  every  part  of  his  body."  A 
young  Florentine,  unjustly  ordered  to  be  put  to  death 
by  Pope  Sixtus  V,  when  led  to  execution,  "through 
excess  of  grief,  was  observed  to  shed  bloody  tears,  and 
to  discharge  blood  instead  of  sweat  from  his  whole 
bod}' :  a  circumstance  which  many  regarded  as  certain 
proof  that  nature  condemned  the  severity  of  a  sentence 
so  cruelly  hastened,  and  invoked  vengeance  against 
the  magistrate  himself,  as  therein  guilty  of  murder." 
In  the  Ephemerides,  it  is  stated  that  "a  young  boy, 
who,  having  taken  part  in  a  crime  for  which  two  of 
his  older  brothers  were  hanged,  was  exposed  to  public 
view  under  the  gallows  on  which  they  were  executed, 
and  was  there  observed  to  sweat  blood  from  his  whole 
body."  Maldonato  mentions  "a  robust  and  healthy 
man  at  Paris,  who,  on  hearing  sentence  of  death  passed 
upon  him,  was  covered  with  a  bloody  sweat."  Other 
instances  of  the  same  kind  also  are  on  record.  Schenck 
gives  the  case  of  "a  nun  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  sol- 
diers ;  and  on  seeing  herself  encompassed  with  swwds 
and  diggers,  threatening  instant  death,  was  so  ter- 
rified and  agitated  that  she  discharged  blood  from 
every  part  of  her  body,  and  died  of  hemorrhage  in  the 
sight  of  her  assailants."  The  case  of  a  sailor  is  also 
given,  who  "  was  so  alarmed  by  a  storm  that  through 
fear  he  fell  down,  and  his  face  sweated  blood,  which, 
during  the  whole  continuance  of  the  storm,  returned 
like  ordinary  sweat."  Catharine  Merlin,  of  Chamberyr 
at  the  age  of  forty-six,  being  strong  and  hale,  received 
a  kick  from  a  bullock  in  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  which 
was  followed  by  vomiting  blood.  This  having  been 
suddenly  stopped  by  her  medical  attendants,  the  blood 
made  its  way  through  the  pores  of  various  parts  of 
her  body,  the  discharge  recurring  usually  twice  in 
t  v\  enty-four  hours.  It  was  preceded  by  a  prickly  sen- 
sation, ami  pressure  on  the  skin  would  accelerate  the 
How  and  increase  the  quantity  of  blood.  The  Medico- 
Chirurgical  Review  for  Oct.  1831,  gives  the  case  of  a 
female  subject  to  hysteria,  who,  when  the  hysteric 
paroxysm  was  protracted,  was  also  subject  to  this 
bloody  perspiration.  And  in  this  case  she  continued 
at  different  times  to  be  affected  with  it  for  three 
months,  when  it  gave  way  to  local  bleeding  ami  oth- 
er Btrong  revulsive  measures.  Rut  the  case  of  the 
wretched  <  lharles  I X  of  France  isone  of  the  most  strik- 
ing thai  has  as  yet  occurred.  The  account  is  thus 
given  by  De  Mezeray:  "After  the  vigor  of  his  youth 
and  the  energy  of  his  courage  hail  long  struggled 
against  hi-  disease,  be  was  at  length  reduced  by  it  to 
his  bed  ,-,t  the  castle  of  Vincennes,  about  the  Nth  of 
May.  1674.  During  the  last  two  weeks  of  his  life  his 
constitution  made  strange  efforts,  lie  was  affected 
with  spasms  and  convulsions  of  extreme  violence. 
l  ami  agitated  himself  oontinually,  and  his 

blood  gashed  from  all  tl utlets  of  his  body,  even 

from  the  pores  of  his  skin  ;  m.  that  on  one  occasion  lii- 
was  found  bathed  in  a  bloody  sweat."     Prom  these 


and  other  instances  that  might  be  cited,  it  is  clearly 
evident  that  the  sweating  of  blood  may  be  produced 
by  intense  mental  emotion.  The  instances  of  it  are 
comparatively  rare,  it  is  true,  but,  nevertheless,  per- 
fectly well  authenticated.     See  Blood  and  Water. 

Blossom  (usually  "3,  nets),  the  flower  of  a  tree 
(Gen.  xl,  10).  The  almond  rod  of  Aaron,  which,  by 
the  miraculous  power  of  God,  was  made  to  bud  and 
blossom  and  bring  forth  almonds  (Num.  xvii,  8),  was, 
in  the  opinion  of  some  commentators,  a  very  suitable 
emblem  of  Him  who  first  arose  from  the  grave;  and 
as  the  light  and  warmth  of  the  vernal  sun  seems  first 
to  affect  this  symbolical  tree  (Jer.  i,  11),  it  was  with 
great  propriety  that  the  bowls  of  the  golden  candle- 
stick were  shaped  like  almonds.  Most  commentators 
think  that  the  rod  of  Aaron  continued  to  retain  its 
leaves  and  fruit  after  it  was  laid  up  in  the  tabernacle  ; 
and  some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  idea  of  the 
thyrsus,  or  rod  encircled  with  vine  branches,  which 
Bacchus  was  represented  to  bear  in  his  hand,  was  bor- 
rowed from  some  tradition  concerning  Aaron's  rod  that 
blossomed.     See  Aaron  ;  Bod. 

Blot.  To  blot  out  (fin^,  waehxh')  signifies  to  ob- 
literate ;  therefore  to  blot  out  living  things,  or  the 
name  or  remembrance  of  any  one,  is  to  destroy  or  to 
abolish,  as  in  Gen.  vii,  4,  where  for  "destroy"  we 
should  read,  as  in  the  margin,  "blot  out."  Also  a 
sinful  stain,  a  reproach,  is  termed  a  blot  in  Job  xxxi, 
7 ;  Prov.  ix,  7.  To  blot  out  sin  is  fully  and  finally  to 
forgive  it  (Isa.  xliv,  22).  To  blot  men  out  of  God's 
book  is  to  deny  them  his  providential  favors,  and  to 
cut  them  off  by  an  untimely  death  (Exod.  xxxii,  32, 
33 ;  Psa.  lxix,  28).  When  Moses  says,  in  the  passage 
referred  to  above,  "  Blot  me,  I  pray  thee,  out  of  thy 
book  which  thou  hast  written,"  we  are  to  understand 


1  the  written  book  merely  as  a  metaphorical  expression, 
alluding  to  the  records  kept  in  the  courts  of  justice, 

'.  where  the  deeds  of  criminals  are  registered,  and  wdiich 
signifies  no  more  than  the  purpose  of  God  in  reference 

;  to  future  events ;  so  that  to  be  cut  off  by  an  untimely 

J  death  is  to  be  blotted  out  of  this  book.     The  not  blot- 

'  ting  the  name  of  the  saints  out  of  the  book  of  life  (Rev. 

j  iii,  5)  denotes  their  final  happiness  in  heaven. 

Blount,  Chari.es,  a  noted  English  Deist,  horn  111 
Upper  Holloway  in  1654.  In  1679  he  published  his 
Anima  mundi,  containing  a  historical  account  of  the 
opinions  of  the  ancients  concerning  the  condition  of 
the  soul  after  death.  This  pamphlet  created  a  violent 
stir,  and  was  condemned  by  Compton,  bishop  of  Lon- 
don. In  1680  he  published  his  most  celebrated  work, 
viz.,  the  first  two  books  of  Philostratus,  containing  the 
life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  with  philological  notes. 
This  work,  said  to  have  been  tak"en  from  the  papers  of 
Lord  Herbert  of  Cher  bury,  was  suppressed  as  soon  as 
it  appeared,  but  it  was  translated  into  French  and  pub- 
lished in  that  country.  In  1683  his  Relifjio  Laici  ap- 
peared anonymously.  Blount  was  a  vulgar  man,  of 
limited  learning,  and  a  great  plagiarist.  He  shot  him- 
self in  1693,  in  despair  at  the  refusal  of  his  first  wife's 

i  sister  to  marry  him.  His  Miscellaneous  Work.*,  with 
a  biography,  appeared  in  1695  (Lond.  12mo). — Macau- 
lay,  Hist.  'Kwj.  iv,  281;    Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  267; 

j  Leland,  Deisticid  Writers,  ch.  iv ;  Landon,  ii,  295. 
Blue  (rS:rn,  teka'lelh),  almost  constantly  asso- 
ciated with  purple,  occurs  repeatedly  in  Exod.  xxv- 
xxxix;  also  in  Num.  iv,  6,  7,  9,  11,  12;  xv,  88;  2 
Chron.  ii,  7,  14;  iii,  14;  Esth.  i,  6;  vifi,  15;  Jer.  x.  0; 
Ezek.  xxiii,  6;  xxvii,  7,  24;  Sept.  generally  vukivQoq, 
vaicivOlVOC,  and  in  Ecclus.  xl,  4:  xlv,  10;  1  Mace,  iv,  ' 
2.'!;  and  so  Josephus,  Philo,  Aquila.  Symmaehus,  The- 
odotion,  Vulgate,  and  Jerome.  (In  Esth.  i,  (I,  the 
word  translated  "  blue"  is  the  same  elsewhere  render- 
ed "linen.")  This  color  is  supposed  to  have  been  ob- 
tained from  a  purple  shell-fish  of  the  Mediterranean, 
the  conchyUum  of  the  ancients,  the  Jlelic  ianthina  of 


BLUaIIIARDT 


839 


BOAR 


Linnanis  (Syst.  Nat.  t.  i,  pt.  vii,  p.  3645  ;  and  see 
Forskal's  Descriptio  Animal,  p.  127),  called  chilzm' 
(■"itipn)  by  the  ancient  Jews.  Thus  the  Pseudo-Jona- 
than, in  Deut.  xxxiii,  19,  speaks  of  the  Zebulonites, 
who  dwelt  at  the  shore  of  the  great  sea,  and  caught 
chilzon,  with  whose  juice  they  dye  thread  of  a  hya- 


lliiix  Ianthina. 
cinthine  color.  The  Scriptures  afford  no  clew  to  this 
color;  for  the  only  passages  in  which  it  seems,  in  the 
English  version,  to  lie  applied  to  something  that  might 
assist  our  conceptions  are  mistranslated,  namely,  "The 
blueness  of  a  wound"  (Prov.  xx,  SO),  and  "A  blue 
mark  upon  him  that  is  beaten"  (Ecclus.  xxiii,  10), 
there  being  no  reference  to  color  in  the  original  of 
either.  The  word  in  the  Sept.  and  Apocrypha  refers 
to  the  hyacinth  ;  but  both  the  flower  and  stone  so 
named  by  the  ancients  arc  disputed,  especially  the 
former.  Yet  it  is  used  to  denote  dark-colored  and  deep 
purple.  Virgil  speaks  of ferruglneos  hyac'nthos,  and 
Columella  compares  the  color  of  the  flower  to  that  of 
clotted  blood,  or  deep,  dusky  red,  like  rust  (Dc  Pe  Bust. 
x,  305).  Hesychius  defines  vukivQivov  vTto^iiXari- 
Z,ov,  Trop<bvpic,ov.  It  is  plainly  used  in  the  Greek  of 
Ecclus.  xl,  4,  for  the  royal  purple.  Josephus  evident- 
ly takes  the  Hebrew  word  to  mean  "sky-color;"  for 
in  explaining  the  colors  of  the  vail  of  the  Temple,  and 
referring  to  the  blue  (Exod.  xxvi,  31),  he  says  that  it 
represented  the  air  or  sky  (War,  v,  4);  he  similarly 
explains  the  vestment  of  the  high-priest  (Ant.  iii,  7,  7; 
and  see  Philo,  Vita  Mods,  iii,  148;  t.  ii,  ed.  Mangey). 
These  statements  may  be  reconciled  by  the  fact  that, 
in  proportion  as  the  sky  is  clear  and  serene,  it  assumes 
a  dark  appearance,  which  is  still  more  observable  in 
an  E  istern  climate.     See  Purple. 

The  chief  references  to  this  color  in  Scripture  are  as 
follows:  The  robe  of  the  high-priest's  ephod  was  to  be 
all  of  blue  (Exod.  xxviii,  31)  ;  so  the  loops  of  the  cur- 
tains to  the  tabernacle  (xxvi,  4) ;  the  ribbon  for  the 
breastplate  (xxviii,  28),  and  for  the  plate  for  the  mitre 
(ver.  37;  comp.  Ecclus.  xlv,  10);  blue  cloths  for  va- 
rious sacred  uses  (Num.  iv,  6,  7,  9,  11,  12);  the  people 
commanded  to  wear  a  ribbon  of  blue  above  the  fringe 
of  their  garments  (Num.  xv,  38)  ;  it  appears  as  a  color 
of  furniture  in  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i,  G), 
and  part  of  the  royal  apparel  (viii,  15);  array  of  the 
idols  of  Babylon  (Jer.  x,  9);  of  the  Assyrian  nobles, 
etc.  (Ezra  xxiii,  6 ;  see  Braunius,  De  Vestitu,  i,  9  and 
13 ;  Bochart,  iii,  670).     See  Color. 

Blumhardt,  Christian  Gottlieb,  a  German  the- 
ologian, was  born  at  Stuttgardt  in  1779,  became  in 
1803  secretary  of  the  "Deutsche  Christenthumsgcsell- 
Bchaft"  of  Basel,  and  in  1816  director  of  the  Basel 
Missionary  Society.  He  died  in  1838.  He  wrote, 
among  other  works,  a  History  of  Christian  Missions 
(Versuch  einer  ally  mcin<  a  Missionsycschichte  tier  Kirche 
Christi,  Basel,  1828-37,  3  vols.),  and  was  for  twenty- 
three  years  editor  of  the  Basel  Missionsmagazin. 

Blunt,  Henry,  A.M.,  a  popular  preacher  and 
writer  in  the.  Church  of  England,  for  many  years  in- 
cumbent of  Trinity  Church,  Upper  Chelsea,  was  made 
rector  of  Streatham,  Surrey,  in  1835,  and  died  184:;. 
His  writings  are  chiefly  expository,  and  include  Lec- 
tures on  the  History  of  Abraham  (Lond.  1884,  12mo,  7th 
ed.) : — Lecture*  on  Jacob  (bond.  1828, 12mo,  2d  ed.)  :— 
Lectures  on  Elisha  (Lond.  1846,  5th  ed.  12mo)  -.—Lec- 
tures on  the  Life  of  Christ  (Lond.  1846, 10th  ed.  3  vols. 


12mo)  -.—Lectures  on  Peter  (Lond.  1830,  5th  ed.  12mo)  : 
—Lectures  on  St.  Paul  (Lond.  1845,  10th  cd.  2  vols. 
12mo)  : — Exposition  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Ckurchts 
(Lond.  1838,  3d  ed.  12mo) : — Exposition  of  the  Penta- 
teuch (Lond.  1844,  3  vols.  12mo)  : — Sermons  in  Trinity 
Church  (Lond.  1843,  12mo,  5th  ed.) — Posthumous  Ser- 
mons (Lond.  1844-5,  2d  ed.  2  vols.  12mo). 

Blunt,  John  James,  an  English  divine  and  vo- 
luminous writer,  was  born  in  Newcastle  1794,  and  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  cf  which  he 
became  fellow  in  1816.  In  1821  he  became  curate  of 
Hodnet  (to  Reginald  Hebei),  in  1834  rector  of  Great 
Oakley,  Essex,  and  in  18S9  Lad}-  Margaret  professor 
of  divinity  at  Cambridge.  He  died  in  18l5.  Among 
his  writings  arc,  Sketch  of  the  Reformation  in  Er gland 
(15  editions,  18m o)  : — I'mh siymd  ('(incidences  in  the 
Writings  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  an  Argu- 
ment  of  their  Veracity  (Lond.  1850,  8vo,  Td  edition  ;  also 
New  York,  12mo).  This  edition  includes  three  works 
previously  published,  viz.  The  Veracity  of  the  Pools  of 
Mos?s  (Lond.  1835,  8vo)  : — The  Veracity  of  the  Histori- 
cal Boohs  ofO.  T.  (Hulsean  Lect.  1831):— The  Veracity 
cf  the  Gospels  and  Acts  (1828).  He  also  wrote  Intro- 
ductory Lect  arts  on  the  Early  Fathers  (1842,  8vo): — 
Sermons  before  the  University  of  Cambridge  (Lond.  18.f6- 
19,  3  vols.  8vo).  His  writings  are  not  ephemeral,  but 
have  substantial  value  for  the  science  of  Apologetics. 

Blythe,  James,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  North  Carolina  Oct.  28,  1765, 
and  graduated  at  Hampden  Sydney  College  1789.  In 
1793  he  was  ordained  paster  of  Pisgah  Church,  Ky., 
and  he  preached  there  partly  as  pastor,  partly  as  stated 
supply,  for  40  years.  In  17C'8  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  Transylvania  University,  and 
he  was  afterward  acting  president  for  a  numl  cr  of 
years.  In  1832  he  was  made  president  of  South  Han- 
over College,  Ind.,  which  office  he  held  till  1836,  when 
he  accepted  the  pastoral  charge  of  New  Lexingtt  n 
Church,  which  he  held  until  his  death,  May  20,  li  42. 
— Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  591. 

Boaner'ges  (Boavepytg,  explained  by  viol  ftfxr- 
rrjg,  sons  of  thunder,  Mark  iii,  17),  a  surname  given  1  y 
Christ  to  James  and  John,  probably  on  account  of  their 
fervid,  impetuous  spirit  (cemp.  Luke  ix,  54,  and  see 
Olshausen  thereon  ;  see  also  Mark  ix,  38 ;  comp.  Matt. 
xx,  20  sq.).  The  word  boanerges  has  greatly  perplex- 
ed philologists  and  commentators.  It  seems  agreed 
that  the  Greek  term  does  not  correctly  represent  the 
original  Syro-Chaldee  word,  although  it  is  disputed 
what  that  word  was.  (See  Gurlitt,  Ueb.  d.  Bedeutumg 
d.  Beinamens  fioavepyke,  in  the  Theol.  Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1829,  iv,  715  sq.  ;  Jungendres,  Etymon,  roc.  fioav., 
Norimb.  1748.)  It  is  probably  for  VJfr3*3,  Boyani'- 
Pe gets' ,  a  Galilean  pronunciation  of  TJH  h32,  Beney'- 
Reyaz',  "  sons  of  commotion,"  or  of  C'i"  "X,  /  i  ney'- 
Re'gesh,  "sons  of  tumult."     See  James;  John. 

Boar  p^Tn,  chazir',  in  Arabic  chizrori)  occurs  in 
Psa.  lxxx,  13,  the  same  word  being  rendered  "  swine" 
in  even-  other  instance  :  in  Lev.  xi,  7  ;  Deut.  xiv,  8 : 
Prov.  xi,  22;  Isa.  lxv,  4;  lxvi,  3,  17.  The  Hebrew, 
Egyptian,  Arabian,  Phoenician,  and  other  neighboring 
nations  abstained  from  hogs'  flesh,  and  consequently, 
excepting  in  Egypt  and  (at  a  later  period)  beyond  the 


BOARD 


840 


BOAZ 


Sea  of  Galilee,  no  domesticated  swine  were  reared.  I 
In  Egypt,  where  swine-herds  were  treated  as  the  low- 
est of  men,  even  to  a  denial  of  admission  into  the  tem- 
ples, and  where  to  have  been  touched  by  a  swine  de- 
filed the  person  nearly  as  much  as  it  did  a  Hebrew,  it 
is  difficult  to  conjecture  for  what  purpose  these  animals  | 
were  kept  so  abundantly  as  it  appears  by  the  monu- 
mental pictures  they  were;  for  the  mere  service  of 
treading  down  seed  in  the  deposited  mud  of  the  Nile  | 
when  the  inundation  subsided,  the  only  purpose  al- 
leged, cannot  be  admitted  as  a  sufficient  explanation 
of  the  fact  Although  in  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Phoeni- 
cia hogs  were  rarely  domesticated,  wild  boars  are  often 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  they  were  frequent  in 
the  time  of  the  Crusades ;  for  Richard  Cceur-de-Lion 
encountered  one  of  vast  size,  ran  it  through  with 
his  lance,  and,  while  the  animal  was  still  endeavoring 
to  gore  his  horse,  he  leaped  over  its  back,  and  slew  it : 
with  his  sword.  At  present  wild  boars  frequent  the 
marshes  of  the  Delta,  and  are  not  uncommon  on  Mount 
Carmel  and  in  the  valley  of  Ajalah.  They  are  abun- 
dant about  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  and  lower  down, 
where  the  river  enters  the  Dead  Sea.  The  Koords  and 
other  wandering  tribes  of  Mesopotamia,  and  on  tho 
banks  of  both  the  great  rivers,  hunt  and  eat  the  wild 
boar,  and  it  may  be  suspected  that  the  half  human 
satyrs  they  pretend  sometimes  to  kill  in  the  chase  dc-  I 
rive  their  cloven-footed  hind-quarters  from  wild  boars, 
and  offer  a  convenient  mode  of  concealing  from  the 
women  and  public  that  the  nutritive  flesh  thej'  bring 
home  is  a  luxury  forbidden  by  their  law.  The  wild 
boar  of  the  East,  though  commonly  smaller  than  the 
old  breeds  of  domestic  swine,  grows  occasionally  to  a 
very  large  size.  It  is  passive  while  unmolested,  but  j 
vindictive  and  fierce  when  roused.  The  ears  of  the 
species  are  small,  and  rather  rounded,  the  snout  broad,  j 
the  tusks  very  prominent,  the  tail  distichous,  and  the 
color  dark  ashy,  the  ridge  of  the  back  bearing  a  profu- 
sion of  long  bristles.  It  is  doubtful  whether  this  spe- 
cies is  the  same  as  that  of  Europe,  for  the  farrow  are 
not  striped ;  most  likely  it  is  identical  with  the  wild 
hog  of  India.  The  wild  boar  roots  up  the  ground  in  a 
different  manner  from  the  common  hoi; ;  the  one  turns 
up  the  earth  in  little  spots  here  and  there,  the  other 
ploughs  it  up  like  a  furrow,  and  does  irreparable  dam- 
age in  the  cultivated  lands  of  the  farmer,  destroying 
tb  ■  roots  of  the  vine  and  other  plants.  "The  chief 
abode  of  the  wild  boar,"  says  Forbes,  in  his  Oriental 
Memoirs,  "is  in  the  forests  and  jungles;  but  when  tho 
grain  is  nearly  ripe,  he  commits  great  ravages  in  tho 
li  1  Is  and  sugar  plantations.  The  powers  that  sub- 
v  srtcd  the  Jewish  nation  are  compared  to  tho  wild  boar, 
and  the  wild  beast  of  the  field,  by  which  the  vine  is 
wasted  and  devoured;  and  no  figure  could  be  more  ; 
happily  chosen  (Psa.  lxxx,  13).  That  ferocious  and 
d  sstructive  animal,  not  satislied  with  devouring  the 
fruit,  lacerates  and  breaks  with  bis  sharp  tusks  the. 
branches  of  the  vino,  or  with  his  snout  digs  it  up  by 
the  root3  and  tramples  it  under  his  feet."  Dr.  Pococke 
observed  very  large  herds  of  wild  boars  on  the  side  of 
the  Jordan,  where  it  flows  out  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias, 
il  of  them  on  the  other  side  lying  among  the 
reedf  of  the  sea.  The  wild  boars  of  other  countries  de- 1 
light  in  like  moist  retreats.  These  shady  marshes, 
then,  it  would  seem,  are  called  in  the  Scripture 
"wood-,"'  for  it  calla  these  animals  "the  wild  boars 
of  tb"  woods/'  This  habit  of  lurking  in  reeds  was 
known  to  the  Assyrians,  and  sculptured  on  their  mon- 
uments (see  Layard,  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  p.  109). 
The  Heb.  ~"in  is  from  an  unused  root  "ijn  (chazarf, 
to  roll  in  the  miro).  The  Sept.  rondors  it  ovq  or  5c, 
but  in  the  N\  T.  ,\"'/'"'-'  i-  used  for  swine.  See  Swine. 
Board  Is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the 
following  words  I  fJO,  lu'dch  (a  tablet,  usually  "ta- 
il.on  of  the  enclosing  mat-rials  of  the  altar, 
Exod.   xxvii,  fcj ;   xx.wiii,  7;   of  .sculptured  slabs,   1 


Kings  vii,  3G  ("ledge");  of  writing  tablets  ("table"), 
Isa.  xxx,  8;  Jer.  xvii,  1  ;  Hab.  ii,  2;  of  the  valve  of 
folding-doors,  Cant,  viii,  9  ;  of  the  deck  of  a  ship,  Ezek. 
xxvii,  5;  "bs,  tse'la,  a  "rib,"  hence  a  beam  (q.  v.),  1 
Kings  vi,  15,  16 ;  ttJ^j?,  ke'resh,  a  plank,  i.  e.  of  the 
tabernacle,  Exod.  xxvi,  15-29 ;  xxv,  11 ;  xxxvi,  20- 
34;  xxxix,  33;  xl,  18;  Num.iii,  36;  iv,  31 ;  "bench," 
i.  e.  deck,  Ezek.  xxvii,  6 ;  iTn'lb,  sederah',  a  row,  e.  g. 
of  stones,  1  Kings  vi,  9;  of  soldiers  ("ranges"),  2 
Kings  xi,  8,  15;  aaviq,  a  plank  of  a  vessel,  Acts 
xxvii,  -il. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  A.M.,  an  American 
Baptist  missionary,  called  "  the  apostle  of  the  Karens," 
was  born  at  Livermore,  Maine,  where  his  father  was 
pastor  of  a  Baptist  church,  Feb.  8,  1801.  He  studied 
at  Waterville  College,  where  he  was  converted  in 
1820.  His  attention  while  in  college  was  strongly 
turned  to  the  work  of  foreign  missions,  and  he  offered 
himself  to  the  Baptist  Board  in  April,  1823,  and  was 
accepted.  After  a  period  spent  in  study  at  Andover, 
he  was  ordained,  and  sailed  from  Philadelphia  for  Cal- 
cutti,  July  16,  1825.  After  some  time  spent  in  Cal- 
cutta, on  account  of  the  war  in  Burmah,  he  reached 
his  destined  port,  Maulmain,  in  1827.  In  1828  he  was 
chosen  to  found  a  new  station  at  Tavoy,  and  in  three 
years  he  gathered  a  Christian  Church  of  nearly  100 
converted  Karens.  He  died  Feb.  11,  1831.  On  his 
tombstone  at  Tavoy  are  these  words  :  "  Ask  in  the 
Christian  villages  of  yonder  mountains,  Who  taught 
you  to  abandon  the  worship  of  demons  ?  Who  raised 
you  from  vice  to  morality  ?  Who  brought  you  your  Bi- 
bles, your  Sabbaths,  and  your  words  of  prayer?  Let 
the  reply  be  his  eulogy.  ' : — King,  Memoir  of  Board- 
man  (Boston,  1836,  12mo)  ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  733. 

Boardman,  Richard,  one  of  the  first  Methodist 
ministers  in  America,  was  born  in  England  in  1738, 
and  became  a  Wesleyan  preacher  in  1763.  In  1769, 
in  answer  to  a  call  from  Mr.  Wesley,  he  volunteered 
as  missionary  for  America.  After  several  years' 
faithful  service,  he  returned  to  England  in  1774,  and 
continued  his  itinerant  labors  in  England  and  Ireland 
till  his  death  at  Cork,  Oct.  4, 1782.  He  was  a  very  suc- 
cessful preacher. — Sandford,  Wesley's  Missionaries  in 
A  merica,  p.  22 ;  Myles,  Chronological  History,  p.  294  ; 
Wakely,  Heroes  of  Methodism,  p.  175 ;  Stevens,  Hist,  of 
M.  E.  Church,  i,  95, 197 ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  8. 

Boat  (usually  irXouipiov,  a  small  ship  [see  Ship]  ; 
the  word  does  not  occur  in  the  Old  Test,  except  in  tho 
translation  "ferry-boat"  [see  Ferry]).  In  the  nar- 
rative of  the  shipwreck  of  Paul,  recorded  in  the  17th 
chapter  of  the  Acts,  it  is  stated  v.  17,  "We  had  much 
work  to  come  by  the  boat"  (oxa</jr/,  a  skiJjT).  Every 
ship  had  a  boat,  as  at  present,  but  it  was  not  taken  up 
at  the  commencement  of  the  voyage  and  secured  on  the 
deck,  but  left  on  the  water,  attached  to  the  stern  by  a 
rope ;  the  difference  may  be  thus  accounted  for :  The 
modern  navigator  bids  adieu  to  land,  and  has  no  further 
need  for  his  boat;  but  the  ancient  mariner,  in  creep- 
ing along  the  coast,  maintained  frequent  intercourse 
with  the  land,  for  which  the  boat  was  always  kept 
ready.  When,  however,  a  storm  arose,  and  danger 
was  apprehended,  and  that  the  boat  might  be  dashed 
to  pieces  against  the  sides  of  the  ship,  it  was  drawn 
close  up  under  the  stern.  In  the  above  passage  we 
are  to  understand  that  this  was  done,  and  that  there 
was  much  difficulty  in  thus  securing  the  boat.  See 
Shipwreck. 

Bo'az  (Heb.  id.  T"in,  alacrity),  the  name  probably 
of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  and  N.  T.  Booi',  Josephus  BSiaZoc.)  A 
wealthy  Bcthlehemite,  kinsman  to  Elimelech,  the  hus- 
band of  Naomi.  See  Ruth.  Finding  that  the  kins- 
man of  Ruth,  who  stood  in  a  still  nearer  relation  than 
himself,  was  unwilling  to  perform  the  office  of  go'el,  lie 
had  those  obligations  publicly  transferred  with  the 


BOCCAS 


841 


BOEHLER 


usual  ceremonies  to  his  own  discharge ;  and  hence  it 
became  his  duty  by  the  "levirate  law"  (q.  v.)  to  marry 
Ruth  (although  it  is  hinted,  Ruth  iii,  10,  that  he  was 
much  her  senior,  and  indeed  this  fact  is  evident  what- 
ever system  of  chronology  we  adopt),  and  to  redeem 
the  estates  of  her  deceased  husband  Mahlon  (iv,  1  sq. ; 
Jahn,  Bill.  Arch.  §  157).  B.C.  prob.  cir.  1360.  He 
gladly  undertook  these  responsibilities,  and  their  hap- 
py union  was  blessed  by  the  birth  of  Obed,  from  whom 
in  a  direct  line  our  Lord  was  descended.  No  objec- 
tion seems  to  have  arisen  on  the  score  of  Ruth's  Mo- 
abitish  birth;  a  fact  which  has  some  bearing  on  the 
date  of  the  narrative  (comp.  Ezra  ix,  1  sq.). — Smith, 
s.  v.     See  Bethlehem. 

Boaz  is  mentioned  in  the  genealogy,  Matt,  i,  5 
("Booz"),  as  the  sen  of  Salmon  by  Rahab,  but  there 
is  some  difficulty  in  assigning  his  date.  The  gene- 
alogy in  Ruth  (iv,  18-22)  only  allows  ten  generations 
for  the  833  years  from  Judah  to  David,  and  only  four 
for  the  535  years  between  Salmon  and  David,  if  (as  is 
almost  certain  from  Matthew  and  from  Jewish  tradi- 
tion) the  Rahab  mentioned  is  Rahab  the  harlot.  If 
Boaz  be  identical  with  the  judge  Ibzan  (q.  v.),  as  is 
stated  with  little  shadow  of  probability  by  the  Jerusa- 
lem Talmud  and  various  rabbins,  several  generations 
must  be  inserted.  Dr.  Kennicott,  from  the  difference 
in  form  between  Salmah  and  Salmon  (Ruth  v,"'20,  21), 
supposes  that  by  mistake  two  difl'erent  men  were  iden- 
tified (Dissert,  i,  543);  but  we  seem  to  want  at  least 
three  generations,  and  this  supposition  gives  us  only 
one.  Hence,  even  if  we  interpolate  two  generations 
before  Boaz  and  one  after  0!;ed,  still  wc  must  suppose 
each  was  the  youngest  son  of  his  father,  and  that  they 
did  not  marry  till  an  advanced  age  (Dr.  Mill,  On  the 
Genealogies;  Lord  Hervey,  Id.  p.  262,  etc.;  Browne, 
Ordo  Sceclorum,  p.  263).     See  Genealogy  ;  David. 

2.  (Sept.  BoXoj^,  and  in  the  latter  passage  translates 
'IrrviV,  strength).  The  name  given  to  the  left-hand  one 
of  the  two  brazen  pillars  which  Solomon  erected  in 
the  court  of  the  Temple  (1  Kings  vii,  21 ;  2  Chron.  iii, 
17) ;  so  called,  either  from  the  architect  or  (if  it  were 
a  votive  offering)  from  the  donor.  It  was  hollow,  and 
surmounted  by  a  chapiter  five  cubits  high,  ornament- 
ed with  net-work  and  100  pomegranates.  The  appar- 
ent discrepancies  in  stating  the  height  of  it  arise  from 
the  including  or  excluding  of  the  ornament  which 
united  the  shaft  to  the  chapiter,  etc.     See  Jachin. 

Boc'cas  (Borneo),  the  son  of  Abisum,  and  father 
of  Samias,  in  the  genealogy  of  Ezra  (1  Esdr.  viii,  2); 
evidently  the  same  elsewhere  (Ezra  vii,  4,  etc.)  called 

BUKKI  (q.  v.). 

Boccold,  John  (otherwise  called  BoclihM,  Bocb-1, 
Beccold,  or  John  of  Leyden),  was  born  at  Leyden  in 
1510.  He  was  first  a  tailor,  afterward  an  actor.  He 
joined  the  Anabaptists  in  Amsterdam,  and  went  in 
1533  to  Minister,  where  he  usurped,  after  the  death  of 
Matthiesen,  the  dignity  of  prophet,  and  later  that  of 
King  of  Zion.  After  Minister  had  been  taken  by  the 
bishop  in  1535,  Boccold  was  put  to  death  on  Jan.  23, 
1536.     See  Anabaptists. 

Bochart,  Samuel,  one  of  the  most  eminent  schol- 
ars of  the  Protestant  Church,  was  born  at  Rouen  in 
1599,  and  was  nephew  on  his  mother's  side  to  the  cel- 
ebrated Pierre  Dumoulin.  He  studied  at  Sedan  and 
Leyden,  and  his  talent  and  proficiency  showed  itself 
very  early.  In  September,  1628,  he  held  disputations 
with  Veron,  the  Jesuit,  before  a  large  audience  of 
learned  and  noble  men.  Soon  after  appeared  Ids  Geo- 
graphia  Sacra  (1646),  which  obtained  for  him  such  a 
high  reputation  that  Queen  Christina  of  Sweden  wrote 
to  him  to  invite  him  to  come  to  Stockholm,  and,  when 
there,  loaded  him  with  distinctions.  It  is  of  little 
value,  in  the  present  state  of  science.  On  his  return 
to  Caen  (1653)  he  married,  and  had  one  daughter,  who 
was  attacked  with  a  slow  disorder;  this  affected  Bo- 
chart so  fearfully  that  he  died  suddenly  on  the  16th  of 


May,  1667.  He  was  a  man  of  almost  unrivalled  eru- 
dition, acquainted  with  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee,  and 
Arabic.  When  old,  he  endeavored  to  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  Ethiopian  tongue  under  Ludolf.  His  other 
most  important  work  is  Hierozoican,  s/iv  Iliatoria  aui- 
malium  S.  Scriptures,  of  which  a  modern  edition  was 
printed  at  Leipsic  1793-1796,  in  3  vols.  4to,  with  notes 
by  Rosenmuller,  3  vols.  4to.  His  complete  works  have 
been  edited  at  Leyden  by  Johannes  Leusden  and  Pc- 
trus  de  Yillemandy,  under  the  title  Opera  omnia,  hoc 
est,  Fhalcg,  Chanaan,  et  Hierczoicon,  quibus  aceesstrunt 
Dissertationes  Varies,  etc.  Pramittitur  Vita  Aintiu-it:  it 
Stephana  Merino  scripta,  editio  quarta  (1712,  3  vols, 
fob).  See  "Life  and  Writings  of  Bochart"  in  Essays 
on  Biblical  Literature  (N.  Y.,  1829);  Haag,  La  France 
Protestante,  ii,  318. 

Boch'eru  (Heb.  Bokeru' ',  1^23,  the  Jirsl-born  is 
he;  Sept.  translates  7rpw7-('ro/>-or  avrov),  one  of  the  six 
sons  of  Azel,  a  descendant  of  King  Saul  (1  Chron.  viii, 
38 ;  ix,  44).     B.C.  much  post  1037.     See  Becher. 

Bo'chim  (Heb.  Bolim',  CC2,  weepers,  in  the  first 
occurrence  with  the  art.,  d"C2il,  hah-Bolim,  where  the 
Sept.  translates  6  KXavStfiwv,  in  the  other  passages 
KXav^um-eg  or  KXavSrfidiv),  the  name  given  to  a  place 
(apparently  the  site  of  an  altar)  where  an  ''angel  of 
the  Lord"  reproved  the  assembled  Israelites  for  their 
disobedience  in  making  leagues  with  the  inhabitants 
of  the  land,  and  for  their  remissness  in  taking  posses- 
sion of  their  heritage.  This  caused  a  bitter  weeping 
among  the  people,  from  which  the  place  took  its  name 
(Judg.  ii,  1,  5).  "  Angel"  is  here  usually  taken  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  "messenger,"  and  he  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  prophet,  which  is  strengthened  by  his  1  e- 
ing  said  to  have  come  from  Gilgal ;  for  it  was  not 
usual  to  say  that  an  angel  came  from  another  place, 
and  Gilgal  (q.  v.)  was  a  noted  station  and  resort  of 
holy  men.  Most  of  the  Jewish  commentators  regard 
this  personage  as  Phinehas,  who  was  at  that  time  the 
high-priest.  There  are  many,  however,  who  deny 
that  an}'  man  or  created  angel  is  here  meant,  and  af- 
firm that  no  other  than  the  Great  Angel  of  the  Cov- 
enant is  to  be  understood — the  same  who  appeared  to 
Moses  in  the  bush,  and  to  Joshua  as  the  captain  of 
Jehovah's  host.  This  notion  is  grounded  on  the  fact 
that  "the  angel,"  without  using  the  usual  formula  of 
delegation,  "Thus  saith  the  Lord,"  says  at  once,  "/ 
made  you  to  go  up  out  of  Egypt,"  etc.  As  the  Gilgal 
near  the  Jordan  is  doubtless  meant,  and  as  the  place 
in  question  lay  on  higher  ground  ("  came  up"),  proba- 
bly near  Shiloh,  where  the  tabernacle  then  was,  we 
may  conjecturally  locate  Bochim  at  the  head  of  one  of 
the  valleys  running  up  between  them,  possibly  at  the 
present  ruins  of  Khurh  l  ./<  radeh,  a  little  south-east  of 
Seilun  (Van  de  Yeldc,  Map). 

Bodenstein.     See  Caklostadt. 

Body  (represented  by  numerous  Ilcb.  terms  ;  Gr. 
au>fia),  the  animal  frame  of  man  as  distinguished  from 
his  spiritual  nature.  Body  is  represented  as  opposed 
to  shadow  or  figure  (Col.  ii,  17).  The  ceremonies  of 
the  law  arc  figures  and  shadows  realized  in  Christ  and 
the  Christian  religion.  "The  body  of  sin"  (Bom.  vi, 
6),  called  also  "the  body  of  this  death"  (Rom.  vii,  24), 
is  to  lie  understood  of  the  system  and  habit  of  sin  be- 
fore conversion,  and  which  is  afterward  viewed  as  a 
loathsome  burden.  The  apostle  speaks  of  a  spiritual 
body  in  opposition  to  the  animal  (1  Cor.  xv,  44).  The 
term  also  indicates  a  society  ;  the  Church  with  its  dif- 
ferent members  (1  Cor.  xii,  20-27). 

Boeheim.     See  Boheim. 

Boehler,  Peter,  an  eminent  Moravian  minister, 
was  born  Dec.  31,  1712,  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and 
was  educated  at  Jena.  On  the  16th  of  1  >ecember,  1737, 
Boehler  received  ordination  as  a  minister  from  the 
hands  of  Count  Zinzendorf,  with  whose  benedictions 


BCEHME 


842 


BCEHME 


and  instructions  ho  was  dispatched,  via  London,  on  a 
mission  to  the  negro  population  of  Carolina  and  Geor- 
gia. On  reaching  London  lie  met  John  Wesley,  and 
ran  an  intimacy  which  had  great  results  in 
fixing  Wesley's  religious  experience.  See  Wesley. 
Boehler's  mission  was  not  very  successful  in  Georgia; 
and  the  colonists,  under  his  direction,  removed  to  Penn- 
sylvania about  1740.  At  the  forks  of  the  Delaware  he 
was  joined  by  Count  Zinzcndorf,  Bishop  Nitzschmann, 
David  Nitzschmann,  and  his  daughter  Anna,  who 
were  engaged  in  the  visitation  of  the  North  American 
churches,  and  whom  he  accompanied  in  their  perilous 
enterprise.  In  the  toils  and  privations  peculiar  to  the 
earli  sst  missionary  settlements  among  the  savages  of 
North  America,  Boehler  took  his  full  share.  His  most 
peaceful  labors  were  those  in  Iiethlehcm,  where  he 
labored  as  pastor  with  great  diligence  and  success. 
Returning  to  England,  he  received  ordination  as  a 
bishop.  He  had  already  been  recognised  as  one  of 
the  superintendents  of  the  North  American  congrega- 
tions, and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  a  director 
of  the  Brethren's  "Unity" — offices  of  no  ordinary  trust 
and  responsibility.  His  episcopal  visitations  were  ex- 
tensive, including  the  oversight  of  the  Brethren's  con- 
gregations in  England,  Ireland,  and  Wales.  He  also 
attended,  officially,  several  foreign  synods,  and  took 
part  in  their  important  deliberations.  The  archives 
of  several  settlements  contain  affectionate  mention  of 
the  holy  influence  by  which  his  public  ministrations 
and  pastoral  counsels  were  attended.  The  March  and 
April  of  the  year  in  which  he  died  were  spent  in  the 
visitation  of  the  settlement  at  Fulneck.  A  stone  in 
the  Moravian  cemetery  at  Chelsea  bears  the  following 
inscription:  "  Petrus  Boehler,  a  Bishop  of  the  Unitas 
Fratrum,  departed  April  27th,  1775,  in  the  sixty-third 
year  of  his  age." — Wesleyan  Magazine,  Aug.  1854; 
Stevens,  History  of  Methodism,  i,  100  ;  Wesley,  Works, 
iii,  61,  62,  etc. ;  Moravian  (newspaper),  Nov.  and  Dec. 
18G1 ;'  Stevens,  Hist,  of  M.  E.  Church,  i,  34. 

Boshme,  Christopher  FredericZx,  a  German 
theologian,  was  born  in  Eisenberg  in  17G6;  in  1793  he 
became  professor  of  the  gymnasium  at  Altenberg  ;  in 
1800  he  was  made  pastor  o'f  the  Church  of  Magdalene, 
and  in  1813  head  pastor  of  Lucka.  lie  diedln  1844. 
Among  his  numerous  works  are i,  Die  Sache  d.  rationalen 
,s:i,„  rnaturalismus  |  Neust.  ab.  Oder  1823) ;  Die  Religion 
Jesu  I  Halle,  1825,  2d  ed.  1827);  Die  AV,V  m  ,1.  Ajioste' 
Jesu  (Halle,  1820);  Die  Reliqion  d.  chrisflichen  Kircha 
unserer  Zdt  (Halle,  1832);  Die  Lekre  v.  d.  efdltlichen 
tften  |  1821,  2d  ed.  1826);  Brie/e  Pauli  a.  d. 
Romer  (Leipz.  1806)  ;  and  a.  d.  Hebraer  (Leipz.  1825). 

Baehme,  Jacob  (Germ.  Boiime;  often  written 
Beiimen  in  English),  a  theosophist  or  mystical  enthu- 
siast, was  born  at  old  Seidenburgh,  a  >'hort  distance 
from  GSrlitz,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  1575.  His  parents 
being  poor,  he  was  employed  in  tending  cattle  from  a 
very  early  age,  and  afterward  apprenticed  to  a  shoe- 
maker, a  business  which  he  continued  to  follow  after 
his  marria  ;e  in  1594.  Ho  had  (lie  good  fortune,  for 
one  in  his  station  at  that  period,  to  learn  reading  and 
writing  at  the  village  school,  and  this  was  all  the  edu- 
c  itioo  he  received  ;  the  terms  from  the  dead  languages 
introduced  into  his  writings,  and  what  knowledge  he 
I1'"'  "'  alchemy  or  the  other  sciences,  being  acquired 
in  his  own  rule  v.av  subsequently,  chiefly,  perhaps, 
fn.m  conversation  with  men  of  learning,  or  a  little 
reading  in  the  works  of  Paracelsus  and  Fludd.  He 
iral  marvellous  stories  of  his  boyhood:  one  of 
""■'"  '8,  that  a  stranger  of  a  severe  but  friendly  coun- 
tenance e.nu.  t j   meter's  shop  while  he  was  vet 

an  apprentice,  and  warned  bin,  of  the  great  work  to 
"be  I,  God  should  appoint  him.  His  religious  habits 
; ""  " "  lered  llil"  <-<>u>pieuo,,s  among  his  profane  fel- 
low-townsmen; and  he  carefully  studied  the  Bible 
especially  the  Apocalypse  and  the  writings  of  Paul' 
!l        <  P  began  to  believe  himself  inspired',  and  about 


1GG0  deemed  himself  the  subject  of  special  revelations. 
Acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  doctrines  of  Paracelsus, 
Fludd,  and  the  Rosicrucians,  he  devoted  himself  also 
to  practical  chemistry,  and  made  good  progress  in 
natural  science.  Revolving  these  things  in  his  mind, 
and  believing  himself  commissioned  to  reveal  the  mys- 
teries of  nature  and  Scripture,  he  imagined  that  ho 
saw,  by  an  inward  light,  the  nature  and  essences  of 
things.  Still  he  attended  faithfully  to  the  duties  cf 
his  humble  home,  publishing  none  of  his  thoughts  until 
1610,  when  he  had  a  fresh  "revelation,"  the  substance 
of  which  he  wrote  in  a  volume  called  Aurora,  or  the 
Morning-Red,  which  was  handed  about  in  MS.  until 
the  magistrates,  instigated  by  Richter,  dean  of  Gor- 
litz,  ordered  Bcehmc  to  "stick  to  his  last"  and  give 
over  writing  books.  In  seven  years  he  had  another 
season  of  "inward  light,"  and  determined  no  longer 
to  suppress  his  views.  In  five  years  he  wrote  all  tho 
books  named  below,  but  only  one  appeared  during  his 
life,  viz.  Der  ]Vcg  zu  Christo  (1G24,  translated  into 
English,  The  Way  to  Christ,  Lond.  17G9, 12mo).  .Rich- 
ter  renewed  his  persecutions,  and  at  last  the  magis- 
trates requested  Bcehme  to  leave  his  home.  To  avoid 
trouble  Bcehmc  went  to  Dresden.  It  is  said  that  ho 
had  not  been  there  long  before  the  Elector  of  Hanover 
assembled  six  doctors  of  divinity  and  two  profess- 
ors of  the  mathematics,  who,  in  presence  of  the  elec- 
tor, examined  Bcehme  concerning  his  writings  and 
the  high  mysteries  therein.  "  They  also  proposed  to 
him  many  profound  queries  in  divinity,  philosophy, 
and  the  mathematics,  to  all  which  he  replied  with 
such  meekness  of  spirit,  depth  of  knowledge,  and  ful- 
ness of  matter,  that  none  of  those  doctors  and  profess- 
ors returned  one  word  of  dislike  or  contradiction." 
Soon  after  Boshme's  return  to  Gorlitz,  his  adversary 
Richter  died ;  and  three  months  after,  on  Sunday, 
November  18,  1624,  early  in  the  morning,  Bcehme 
asked  his  son  Tobias  if  he  heard  the  excellent  music. 
The  son  replied  "No."  "Open,"  said  he,  "the 
door,  that  it  may  be  better  heard."  Afterward  he 
asked  what  the  clock  had  struck,  and  said,  "Three 
hours  hence  is  my  time."  When  it  was  near  six  he 
took  leave  of  his  wife  and  son,  blessed  them,  and  said, 
"Now  go  I  hence  into  Paradise;"  and,  bidding  his  son 
to  turn  him,  he  fetched  a  deep  sigh  and  departed.  His 
writings  (all  in  German)  are  as  follows:  1.  Aurora- 
—2.  Of  the  Three  Pnncples  (1619)  :— 3.  Of  the  Threefold 
L'fe  of  Man  (1620): — 1.  Answers  to  the  Forty  Questions 
of  tli"  Soul: — 5.  Of  the  Incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ;  Of 
the  Suffering,  1)  ath,  and  Resurrection  of  Christ;  Of  the 
Tree  of  Faith: — G.  Of  the  Six  Points,  great  and  small: 
— 7.  Of  the  Heavenly  and  Earthly  Mystery: — 8.  Of  the 
Last  Times,  to  P.  K. : — 9.  De  Signatura  Rerum: — io.  A 
Consolatory  Booh  of  the  Four  Complexions: — 11.  An 
Apology  to  Balthasar  TilWn,  in  two  parts : — 12.  Con- 
siderations  up  n  IsaiasSHefel'8JBook:—13.  Of  True  Rc- 
pentanct  1 1622): — 14.  Of True  Resignation: — 15.  A  Booh 
of  Regeneration: — 16.  .1  Book  of  Predestination  and 
Election  of  God  (1G23)  :— 17.  .1  Compendium  of  Repent- 
ance:— 18.  Mgsterium  Magnum,  or  an  Exposition  upon 
Genesis:—^.  A  Table  of  the  Principles,  or  a  Keg  of  his 
Writings:— 20.  Of  the  Supersensual  Ufe:— 21.  Of  the 
Divine  Vision.: — 22.  Of  the  Tiro  Testaments  of  Christ, 
Baptism  and  ///■■  Supper: — 23.  .1  Dialogue  between  the 
Fn!igh/en<d  ami  Unenlightened  Soul: — 21.  An  Apology 
f>r  ///  i  pool:  on  True  Repentance,  against  a  Pa  nip  hi  t  of 
Gregory  Richter: — 25.  .1  Book  of  111  Theosophic  Ques- 
ti'ii/s: — 2G.  An  Epitome  of  the  Mysd  ri  urn  ilfuynum: — 27. 
The  Holy  Weeks,  or  the  Prayer  Book:— 28.  A  Table  of 
the  Dl  fine  Manifestation  .-—29.  Of  the  Errors  of  the  Sects 
of  Ezekiel  Meths  and  Isaias  Stiefel,  or  Antist/efelius  II: 
—30.  J  Book  of  the  Last  Judgment: — 31,  Letters  to 
Divers  Persons,  with  Keys  for  Hidden  ]\'ords.  These 
works  certainly  contain  many  profound  philosophical 
truths,  but  they  are  closely  intermingled  with  singu- 
lar and  extravagant  dreams  respecting  the  Deity  and 
the  origin  of  all  things.      He  delivered  these  as  Divine 


BOERNER  MANUSCRIPT        843 


BOGATZKY 


revelations.  Swedenborg,  St.  Martin,  and  Baader 
are  his  legitimate  successors.  A  large  part  of  the  mat- 
ter of  his  books  is  sheer  nonsense.  After  his  death 
his  opinions  spread  over  Germany,  Holland,  and  Eng- 
land. Even  a  son  of  his  persecutor  Richter  edited  at 
his  own  expense  an  epitome  of  Bcehme's  works  in 
eight  volumes.  The  first  collection  of  his  works  was 
published  by  Heinrieh  Betke  (Amst.  1G75,  4to).  They 
wcre  translated  into  Dutch  by  Van  Beyerland,  and 
published  by  him  (12mo,  8vo,  and  4to).  More  com- 
plete than  Beyerland's  is  the  edition  by  Gichtel  (10 
vols.  8vo,  Amst.  1GS2).  This  was  reprinted  with 
Gichtel'a  manuscript  Marginalia  (Altona,  1715,2  vols. 
4to),  and  again,  with  a  notice  of  former  editions  and 
some  additions  from  Gichtel's  Memorialia(173G').  More 
recently  an  edition  of  his  complete  works  was  publish- 
ed by  Schiebler  (Leipz.  1831-47,  7  vols. ;  new  edit. 
1859  sq.).  The  best  translation  of  his  works  into  Eng- 
lish is  that  by  the  celebrated  William  Law  (Lond. 
17G4,  2  vols.  4to).  Several  accounts  of  his  views  were 
published  about  the  end  of  the  17th  century ;  among 
these  the  following  may  be  mentioned  :  Jacob  Bcehme's 
T/ieosipJ/ic  PIii/os< ]>//>/,  unfdded  by  Edward  Taylor,  with 
a  short  Account  of  the  Life  of  J.  B.  (Lond.  1G91-4). 
The  preacher  and  physician  John  Pordage,  who  died 
in  London  1698,  endeavored  to  systematize  the  opin- 
ions of  Bcehmc  in  Mctuplujsica  vera  et  divina,  and  sev- 
eral other  works.  The  Metcphysiea  was  translated 
into  German  in  three  volumes  (Francf.  and  Leipzig, 
1725-28).  Henry  More  also  wrote  a  Censura  Philoso- 
phies Teidonicce  on  the  mystical  views  of  Bcehmc. 
Among  the  most  zealous  supporters  of  Bcehme's  the- 
osophy  in  England  were  Charles  and  Durand  Hotham, 
who  published  Ad  Philosophiam  Teutonicam,  a  Carlo 
Hotham  (1G48) ;  and  Mystcrium  Magnum,  with  Life  of 
Jacob  Behmen,  by  Durand  Hotham,  Esq.  (1654,  4to). 
We  have  also  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Death,  Burial,  and 
Wonderful  Writings  of  Jacob  Behmen,  by  Francis  Oke- 
h',  formerly  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge  (North- 
ampton, 1780,  8vo).  Claude  St.  Martin  published 
French  translations  of  several  of  Bcehme's  writings. 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  William  Law,  Schelling.  and  Hegel 
wrere  all  readers  of  Bcehme.  William  Law,  in  the 
app.  to  the  2d  ed.  of  his  Appeal  to  all  that  Doubt  or  Dis- 
believe the  Truths  of  the  Gospel  (1756),  mentions  that 
among  the  papers  of  Newton  were  found  many  auto- 
graph extracts  from  the  works  of  Bcehmc.  Law  con- 
jectures that  Newton  derived  his  system  of  funda- 
mental powers  from  Bcehme,  and  that  he  avoided  men- 
tioning Boehme  as  the  originator  of  his  system,  lest  it 
should  come  into  disrepute  ;  but  this  may  well  be 
doubted.  It  is  said  that  Schelling  often  quotes  Bcehme 
without  acknowledgment.  Bcehme's  writings  have 
certainly  influenced  both  theology  and  philosophy  to 
a  considerable  extent.  In  Germany  he  has  followers 
still.  For  modern  expositions  of  his  system,  more  or 
less  correct,  see  Hegel,  Gesch.  d.  Philosophic,  iii,  300- 
."•27  ;  Baur,  Chris//.  Gnosis,  558  sq. ;  Fouquc,  ./.  llvhme, 
ein  biog.  Denkstein  (Greiz,  1831);  Umbreit,  ./.  Bbhme 
(Hcidelb.  1835);  Hamberger,  Die  Lehre  J.  Bbhme's, 
etc.  (Munich,  1844) ;  Fechner,  J.  Bbhme  (Gorlitz,  1857) ; 
Peip,  J.  Bbhme,  der  deutsche  Philosoph  (Leipz.  I860). 
See  also  Wesley,  Works,  iii,  254;  iv,  71,  400;  v,  GG9, 
699,  7C3;  Hagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines,  ii,  1G8,  et 
al.  ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  391;  Tcnnemann,  Man. 
Hist.  Phil.  §  331 ;  Hurst,  History  of  Rationalism,  ch.  i; 
Dorner,  Person  of  Christ,  div.  ii,  vol.  ii,  319  sq. ;  Eng- 
lish Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Boerner  Manuscript  (Codex  Boernerianus), 
an  important  uncial  IMS.  of  the  Greek  Test.,  contain- 
ing (with  some  lacuna?)  Paul's  epistles  (of  which  it  is 
generally  designated  as  cod.  G),  with  an  interlinear 
Latin  version.  It  belonged  to  Paul  Junius,  of  Ley- 
den,  at  whose  death  (1670)  it  became  the  property  of 
Peter  Francius,  professor  at  Amsterdam  ;  at  the  sale 
of  his  books  in  1705,  it  was  bought  at  a  high  price  by 
C.  F.  Boerner,   professor  at  Leipzig,  from   whom  it 


takes  its  name.  He  lent  it  in  1719  to  Bentley,  who 
kept  it  for  rive  years,  endeavoring  in  vain  to  purchase 
it.  It  is  now  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  king  of 
Saxony  at  Dresden.  Kettig  has  proved  that,  as  it  is 
exactly  of  the  same  size  and  style  with  the  Codex 
Sangallensis  (A  of  the  Gospels),  the  two  once  formed 
one  volume  together,  being  probably  written  toward 
the  end  of  the  ninth  century  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Gall  by  some  of  the  Irish  monks  who  flocked  thither, 
one  of  whom  has  left  a  curious  Celtic  epigram  on  one 
of  the  leaves.  See  Gall  (St.)  Manuscript.  Scriv- 
ener has  likewise  shown  its  remarkable  affinity  with 
the  Codex  Augicnsis  (F  of  the  Pauline  Epistles),  im- 
plying that  they  were  both  copied  from  the  same  ven- 
erable archetype,  as  they  either  supply  each  other's 
defects,  or  fail  at  the  same  passages.  Kuster  first  pub- 
lished readings  from  it  in  his  reprint  of  Mill's  Gr.  Test. 
Among  Bentley's  papers  has  been  found  a  transcrip- 
tion of  the  whole  of  it,  but  not  in  his  own  handwriting. 
It  was  very  accurately  published  in  full  by  Matthsei 
in  1791,  in  common  type,  with  two  fac-simile  pages. 
Anger,  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  Bottiger,  and  Scrivener 
have  since  carefully  collated  it.  It  betrays  certain 
marks  of  having  been  copied  with  a  polemical  view, 
but,  in  connection  with  the  two  MSS.  named  above,  it 
forms  a  valuable  aid  to  textual  criticism. — Tregelles, 
in  Home's  Tntrod.  iv,  199  ;  Scrivener,  Introd.  p.  135  sq. 
See  Manuscripts,  Biblical. 

Boethius  (Amcius  Manlius  Torquatus  Severi- 
nus),  a  celebrated  Roman  statesman  and  philosopher. 
Sprung  from  an  illustrious  house,  he  was  born  at  Pome 
about  470,  and  went  (according  to  one  account)  to  study 
at  Athens  in  480.  His  father's  death  compelled  him, 
in  490,  to  return  to  Rome.  He  was  once  elected  con- 
sul (A.I).  510),  was  happily  married,  and  had  two  sons, 
who  in  522  were  elevated  to  the  consulate.  He  for  a 
time  enjoyed  the  high  favor  of  Theodoric;  but  about  523, 
having  been  accused  of  treasonable  attempts  against 
the  emperor,  and  of  sacrilege  and  magic,  he  was  con- 
demned to  exile  and  sent  to  Pavia,  where  he  was  cast 
into  prison.  Here  he  spent  his  solitary  hours,  amid 
the  miseries  and  confinement  of  his  cell,  in  literary  la- 
bors, and  during  this  period  were  composed  his  books 
h  C'insidafiiine  Philosiph'er.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  beheaded  in  his  prison.  Baronius  relates,  upon 
the  authority  of  Julius  Marcianus,  that  after  the  head 
of  Boethius  had  been  struck  off,  he  took  it  up  in  his  two 
hands  and  carried  it  to  an  adjoining  church,  when  he 
sank  upon  his  knees  before  the  altar  and  expired! 
Well  may  Cave  add,  "Nugatur  plane  infra  viri  pru- 
dentis  gravitatem,  purpura  sua;  dignitatem  Card.  Ba- 
ronius!" His  works  are — 1.  In  Porphyrium  a  Victori- 
no  translatum  dicdogi  II : — 2.  In  Porphyi  ium  a  st  Latins 
versum  librill: — 3.  InCategorias  Aristotelis  Hbri  If,  and 
other  Commentaries  on  Aristotle: — 4.  Introductio  ad 
Catholicos  syllogismos,  etc. : — 5.  De  Consolationt  I  hib  So- 
phias tibri  V  (Lyons,  1502,  4to,  with  the  commentaries 
of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas;  ibid.  1514  ;  Basle,  1536,  8vo, 
by  Murmellius ;  Antwerp,  1607,  8vo;  Lyons,  1G33,  and 
with  the  Annotations  of  Renatus  Vallinus,  1656  ;  Riga, 
1794,  lyFreitag;  Linz,  1827,  by  Weingartner ;  Jena, 
1843,  by  Obbarius).  The  Saxon  version,  by  king  Al- 
fred, was  published  at  Oxford,  by  Rawlinson,  in  1698, 
from  a  modern  transcript  of  the  Cottonian  MS.,  of 
which  a  few  fragments  only  were  saved.  A  number 
of  theological  treatises  (especially  three  on  the  Trinity) 
are  attributed  to  Boethius;  but  they  were  probably 
written  by  some  other  writer  of  the  same  name.  It  is 
not  even  satisfactorily  established  that  he  was  a  Chris- 
tian at  all.  The  I)<  ( 'miso/afinne  was  translated  into 
English  by  Preston  (1695),  and  into  German  by  F  rev- 
tag  (Riga,  1794).  The  works  of  Boethius  were  col- 
lected and  published  at  Venice,  1491 ;  Basle,  1546, 
and,  with  variorum  commentaries,  in  1570(2  vols,  fob); 
Leyden,  1G71;  Paris,  1680.—  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  300. 

Bogatzky,  Charles  Henry,  a  German  writer 


BOGERMAXX 


844 


BOHAX 


was  born  at  Jankow,  Silesia,  Sept.  7, 1690.  His  father 
designed  him  for  the  army;  but,  having  been  taught 
by  a  pious  mother,  his  religious  life  was  decided  at  an 
early  age,  and  he  refused  to  be  a  soldier.  He  studied 
law' at  Jena  and  theology  at  Halle.  In  1718  he  re- 
turned to  Silesia,  and  lived  for  several  years  in  noble 
families,  every  where  leading  men  to  Christ.  He 
finally  returned  to  Halle,  and  remained  there,  doing 
works  of  charity,  and  writing  hymns  and  books  of  de- 
votion, until  his  death,  June  15, 1774.  He  is  chiefly  re- 
numbered for  his  hymns,  and  for  his  Goldenes  Schatz- 
./'.  Kinder  Gottes  (Breslau,  1718),  which  has  had 
an  immense  circulation.  It  is  translated  into  English 
—Golden  Treasury  of  the  Children  of  God  (York,  1821, 
and  many  editions— one  by  the  American  Tract  Soci- 
etv,  X.  Y.).  His  autobiography  Avas  published  by 
Knapp  (C.  II.  von  Bogatzkys  Lebenslauf  von  ikm  selbst 
beschrieben,  Halle,  1801).  See  also  Ledderhose,  Das 
Leben  K.  If.  von  Bogatzkys  (Heidelb.  184G). 

Bogermann,  Johann,  a  Dutch  theologian,  noted 
as  president  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  was  born  in  1576, 
at  Oplewert,  in  Friesland.  "  He  took  a  violent  part  in 
the  religious  controversies  which  inflamed,  with  un- 
wonted tire,  the  Dutch  mind  at  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  His  hatred  of  Arminianism  ex- 
tended itself  (as  theological  hatred  generally  does)  to 
the  persons  who  upheld  it,  and  his  zeal  was  on  various 
occasions  gratified  by  securing  the  punishment  of  those 
who  had  the  misfortune  to  differ  in  opinion  from  him." 
He  translated  Beza's  book,  Be  la  Partition  des  Ilere- 
tiques  (Punishment  of  Heretics'),  and  assailed  Grotius  in 
a  polemical  treatise,  Annotation.es  contra  H.  Grotium. 
In  1618  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Synod  of  Dort; 
"  but  his  conduct  there  does  not  seem  to  have  given 
satisfaction  to  the  Frieslanders  who  had  delegated 
him,  for  he  was  accused  on  his  return  of  having  ex- 
ceeded his  instructions."  His  most  useful  work  was 
the  translation  of  the  Bible.  Four  other  persons  were 
associated  with  him  in  the  task,  but  the  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  is  chiefly  his  work,  and  is  charac- 
terized by  taste,  fidelity,  and  purity  of  language.  It 
is  still  used  in  the  Dutch  churches.  He  died  Sept.  11, 
1637,  at  Franeker,  in  the  university  of  which  he  was 
professor  of  divinity. — Iloefer,  Biographic  Generale,vi, 
379 ;  Chambers,  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. 

Bogomiles,  an  important  sect  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, kindred  to  the  Massilians  (q.  v.),  or  perhaps  the 
same.  They  seem  to  have  represente  I  parts,  at  least, 
of  the  Paulician  (q.  v.)  heresy.  Their  name  is  derived 
by  some  from  their  constant  use  of  the  prayer  "  Bog 
Milui"  (Lord  have  mercy);  by  others  from  the  Slavic 
word  Bogomil  (Beloved  of  God).  Our  knowledge  of 
them  rests  chiefly  on  the  Panoplia  of  Euthymius  Ziga- 
benus,  published  by  Gieseler  (Gottingen,  1852).  Issu- 
ing  from  Thrace,  they  obtained  a  footing  in  the  patri- 
archate of  Constantinople  and  in  some  dioceses  of 
Egypt  (Neale,  Eastern  Church,  ii,  240). 

Their  theological  system  was  a  modified  or  quasi 
dualism  ;  admitting,  indeed,  but  one  Supreme  princi- 
ple, the  good,  but  holding  that  the  Supreme  had  two 
sons,  Satanacl  and  Jesus.  Satanael,  th3  first-born, 
had  the  government  of  the  world,  but,  becoming  in- 
toxicated witli  the  pride  of  power,  he  rebelled,  in  order 
to  organize  a  kingdom  of  his  own,  and  many  celestial 
spirits  joined  him.  Driven  from  heaven,  he  formed 
the  e  irtli  from  pre-existing  elements,  and  also  created 
man.  The  human  sold,  however,  was  inspired  direct- 
ly by  the  Lord  of  Heaven,  Satanael  having  sought  in 
vain  to  animate  the  works  without  help  from  the  Au- 
thor of  all  Good.  The  very  excellencies  now  apparent 
in  mankind  inflamed  the  envy  of  Satanael.  He  se- 
duced Eve;  and  Cain,  their  godless  issue,  became  the 
root  and  representative  of  evil;  while  Abel,  the  son 
of  Adam,  testified  to  the  better  principle  in  man.    This 

principle,  however,  was  iparatively  inefficacious, 

owing  to  the  craft  of  the  Tempter ;  and  at  length  an 


act  of  mercy  on  the  part  of  God  was  absolutely  needed 
for  the  rescue  and  redemption  of  the  human  soul.  The 
agent  whom  he  singled  out  was  Christ.  A  spirit,  call- 
ed the  Son  of  God,  or  Logos,  and  identified  with  Mi- 
chael the  Archangel,  came  into  the  world,  put  on  the 
semblance  of  a  body,  baffled  the  apostate  angels,  and, 
divesting  their  malignant  leader  of  all  superhuman  at- 
tributes, reduced  his  title  from  Satanael  to  Satan,  and 
curtailed  his  empire  in  the  world.  The  Saviour  was 
then  taken  up  to  heaven,  where,  after  occupying  the 
chief  post  of  honor,  he  is,  at  the  close  of  the  present 
dispensation,  to  be  reabsorbed  into  the  essence  out  of 
which  his  being  is  derived.  The  Holy  Spirit,  in  like 
manner,  is,  according  to  the  Bogomiles,  an  emanation 
only,  destined  to  revert  hereafter  to  the  aboriginal 
source  of  life. 

The  authors  of  this  scheme  had  many  points  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  mediaeval  sects.  They  looked  on 
all  the  Church  as  anti-Christian,  and  as  ruled  by  fall- 
en angels,  arguing  that  no  others,  save  their  own 
community,  were  genuine  "citizens  of  Christ.''  The 
strong  repugnance  which  they  felt  to  every  thing  that 
savored  of  Mosaism  urged  them  to  despise  the  ritual 
system  of  the  Church :  for  instance,  they  contended 
that  the  only  proper  baptism  is  a  baptism  of  the  Spirit. 
A  more  healthy  feeling  was  indeed  expressed  in  their 
hostility  to  image-worship  and  exaggerated  reverence 
of  the  saints,  though  even  there  the  opposition  rested 
mainly  on  Docetic  views  of  Christ  and  his  redemp- 
tion. These  opinions  had  been  widely  circulated  in 
the  Eastern  empire  when  Alexius  Comnenus  caused 
inquiries  to  be  made  respecting  them,  and,  after  he 
had  singled  out  a  number  of  the  influential  misbe- 
lievers, doomed  them  to  imprisonment  for  life.  An 
aged  monk,  named  Basil  (q.  v.),  who  came  forward  as 
the  leader  of  the  sect,  resisted  the  persuasions  of  Alex- 
ius and  the  patriarch.  He  ultimately  perished  at  the 
stake  in  Constantinople  in  1119.  His  creed,  however, 
still  survived,  and  found  adherents  in  all  quarters, 
more  especially  in  minds  alive  to  the  corruptions  of 
the  Church  and  mystic  in  their  texture. — Hardwick, 
Ch.  Hist.  p.  302-305 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iv,  552  sq. ; 
Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  iii,  div.  iii,  §  93;  Gieseler,  De 
BoqomUis  Commentaiio ;  Engelhardt,  De  Oiigine  Bogo- 
mUorum  (Erlang.  1828).     See  Cathaei. 

Bogue,  David,  D.D.,  an  Independent  minister  of 
England,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  was  born  at  Halydown,  Berwickshire, 
March  1, 1750.  He  was  sent  in  1762  to  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  where  he  remained  nine  years,  and 
graduated  A.M.  in  1771.  Soon  after,  he  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  and  he  was  ordained 
at  Gosport  June  18, 1777.  He  remained  pastor  of  the 
Independent  congregation  in  that  place  for  fifty  years. 
In  1789  he  opened  a  theological  school  at  Gosport, 
which  was  afterward  adopted  as  the  training-school 
for  missionaries  sent  out  by  the  London  Missionary 
Society.  Besides  his  share  in  founding  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  he  was  one  of  the  chief  originators 
of  the  "Religious  Tract  Society,"  and  wrote  the  first 
tract  published  by  that  institution.  He  died  at  Brigh- 
ton Oct.  25,  1825.  He  wrote,  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Bennett,  a  History  of  the  Dissenters  from  the  Revolution 
0/1688  to  1808  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1833,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Essay 
mi  I!,,  Divine  Authority  of  the  Xeir  Testament  (Lond. 
1802,  8vo)  ;  Discourses  on  the  Millennium  (2  vols.  1816). 
His  Life  was  written  by  Dr.  Bennett,  and  there  is  also 
a  full  memoir  in  Morrison,  Missionary  Fathers,  p.  156- 
213. 

Bo'han  (Heb.  Bohan  ,  'v~\'^,  a  thumb;  Sept.  Baiwi-), 
a  L'eubenite  [see  Bex-Bohan],  in  whose  honor  a  stone 
was  erected  which  afterward  served  as  a  boundary- 
mark  on  the  frontier  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh, 
xv,  6;  xviii,  17).  It  does  not  appear  from  the  text 
whether  this  stone  was  a  sepulchral  monument,  or  set 
up  to  commemorate  some  creat  exploit  performed  by 


BOHEMIA 


845 


BOHEMIA 


this  Bohan  in  the  conquest  of  Canaan  (comp.  1  Sam. 
vii,  12).  See  Stone.  Bunting  (Itinera?:  lot.  8.  Scrip/. 
p.  144),  mentioning  Bahurim,  says  that  near  to  it,  in 
the  valley,  is  a  stone  called  Bohan,  of  extraordinary 
size,  and  shining  like  marble  ;  but  this  wants  confirma- 
tion (yet  comp.  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  94).  It  was  situ- 
ated in  the  valley  of  Achor,  between  Beth-Axabah  and 
Debir,  apparently  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  present 
Wad)-  Dahr  running  into  the  Dead  Sea.     See  Trim:. 

Boheim  for  Behem),  Hans,  a  forerunner  of  the 
Peasant  War  in  Germany,  was  born  at  Niklashausen, 
in  Baden,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
In  his  youth  he  was  a  farm-servant  and  a  drummer  at 
wakes  and  fairs.  Awakened  by  the  preaching  of  a 
Franciscan,  he  burnt  his  drum.  He  believed  that  the 
Virgin  appeared  to  him,  and  revealed  certain  ascetic 
and  extravagant  doctrines  to  him,  which  about  1476 
he  began  to  preach.  He  soon  gained  influence  among 
the  lower  classes  by  preaching  against  the  vices  of 
priests  and  princes,  and  against  Purgatory.  He  prob- 
ably had  heard  the  teachings  of  the  Hussites.  Multi- 
tudes were  stirred  to  enthusiasm  by  his  preaching. 
He  was  burnt  at  the  stake  in  1482. — Ullmann,  Reform- 
ers before  the  Reformation,  i,  384  sq. 

Bohemia  (Boiemum,  Boiohemum,  Boemia;  Germ. 
Bbhmen,  Bohcint),  a  kingdom  of  Germany,  in  the  Aus- 
trian dominions,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Misnia  and 
Lusatia,  east  by  Silesia  and  Moravia,  south  by  Aus- 
tria, and  west  by  Bavaria.  Two  thirds  of  the  inhab- 
itants are  Sclavonians,  and  call  themselves  Czechs ; 
the  remainder  are  chiefly  Germans.  As  early  as  845, 
many  Bohemians  had  embraced  Christianity  through 
the  medium  of  the  Germans  and  Romans,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  wars  of  the  German  king  Lewis.  In  871, 
Duke  Borzivoy,  upon  a  visit  to  Swatopluk,  governor 
of  the  Moravians,  became  acquainted  with  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  and  he,  his  wife  Ludmila,  and  their  at- 
tendants, received  baptism,  probably  at  Olmiitz.  On 
that  occasion  lie  became  acquainted  with  Methodius, 
a  monk  and  painter,  who  had  been  sent  in  8C2  from 
Constantinople  to  Moravia  as  missionary,  with  his 
brother  monk  Cyrillus,  who  invented  the  Sclavonic 
alphabet.  Methodius  accompanied  the  Bohemian  duke 
to  his  own  country,  where  many  were  converted  and 
several  churches  built.  The  pood  work  which  Borzi- 
voy had  begun,  Drahomira,  the  heathen  wife  of  his 
son  Wratislaw,  sought  afterward  to  destroy.  Lud- 
mila, Borzivoy \s  widow,  and  her  grandson,  Duke  Wen- 
zel,  fell  victims  to  her  fury.  It  was  not  till  the  reign 
of  Boleslav  the  Pious  (907-990)  that  Christianity  ob- 
tained security  and  peace  in  Bohemia. 

In  968  a  distinct  bishopric  was  formed  at  Prague  for 
Bohemia,  which  until  that  period  had  been  subject  to 
the  Bishop  of  Regensburg;  and  Hatto,  archbishop  of 
Mayence,  consecrated  the  Saxon  Dethmar  bishop  of 
Bohemia.  Then  the  pope  required  (though  the  Chris- 
tianity brought  in  by  Methodius  was  properly  derived 
from  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  Sclavonian  liturgy 
had  been  introduced  in  several  places) that  cveiy  thing 
should  be  arranged  in  conformity  with  the  Romish 
ritual.  The  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  divine  ser- 
vice, the  celibacy  of  the  priests,  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
without  the  cup,  were  especially  enforced.  Hut  the 
Bohemians  made  preat  resistance,  and  in  977  the  Bo- 
hemian delegates  obtained  a  temporary  permission  fur 
the  use  of  the  liturgy  in  the  Sclavonic  language.  But 
it  was  soon  afterward  resolved  at  Rome  that  the  vul- 
gar tongue  should  lie  expelled  from  the  churches.  An 
order  to  that  effect  by  Pope  Gregory  VII,  1079,  asserts 
that  "  it  is  the  pleasure  of  Almighty  God  that  divine 
worship  should  be  held  in  a  private  language,  though 
all  do  not  understand  it;  for,  were  the  singing  general 
and  loud,  the  language  might  easily  fall  into  contempt 
and  disgust."  Nevertheless,  both  liturgies  continued 
in  use  up  to  the  middle  of  the  14th  century. 

In  1353,  under  the  archbishop  of  Prague,  Ernst  de 


Pardubitz  (commonly  called  Arnestus),  the  communion 
ui/hout  the  cup  was  again  insisted  upon.  Foreign  pro- 
fessors and  students,  who  had  been  accustomed  in  their 
native  country  to  the  Lord's  Supper  under  one  form, 
promoted  this  innovation  in  Prague.  Nevertheless, 
in  1390,  the  communion  under  both  forms  was  for  some 
time  allowed  at  Kuttenberg  by  Boniface  IX,  probably 
because  these  mountaineers  had  always  been  treated 
with  much  forbearance.  Under  Archbishop  Ernst, 
Romish  customs  were  generally  adopted  in  Bohemia. 
But  there  were  many  opponents  of  Romish  perversions 
in  the  14th  century.  Wycliffc's  writings  had  impress- 
ed many  of  the  noblest  minds,  both  clergy  and  laity. 
Prominent  among  them  were  Milicz  (q.  v.)  and  Stiek- 
na,  cathedral  preachers  at  Prague,  Matthias  Janow 
(q.  v.),  confessor  to  Charles  IV,  all  of  whom  were  ex- 
iled. After  them  arose  Hrss  (q.  v.),  martyred  III"', 
and  Jerome  ok  Prague  (q.  v.),  1416,  whose  bloody 
deaths  aroused  the  spirit  of  the  Bohemians.  In  1420, 
the  Hussites,  having  taken  up  arms,  were  excommu- 
nicated by  the  pope ;  the  Emperor  Sigismund  sent  an 
arm}'  into  Bohemia.  The  bravery  and  terrible  deeds 
ofZiska,  the  Hussite  leader,  protracted  the  contest  for 
many  years.  Fearful  cruelties  were  practised  on  both 
sides.  The  painful  division  of  the  Reformers  into  Ca- 
lixtincs  (q.  v.)  and  Taborites  (q.  v.)  gave  great  advan- 
tage to  the  papal  party.  In  1432  the  pope  convoked  a 
council  at  Basle,  which  was  attended  by  300  Bohemian 
delegates.  An  accommodation  was  made  by  granting 
the  cup  (communio  sub  utraque'),  and  the  Calixtinc  Ro- 
kyzan  was  made  archbishop  of  Prague.  This  arrangc- 
jment  satisfied  the  Romanizing  Calixtines,  or  XJtra- 
quists,  as  they  were  called,  but  not  the  Taborites,  who 
jwere,  in  the  main,  thorough  Protestants.  They  con- 
tinued unmoved  by  arguments  or  threats,  by  flatteries 
or  sufferings,  and,  having  gradually  remodelled  their 
ecclesiastical  discipline,  became  known  by  the  name 
! of  the  Bohemian  Brethren.  The  peculiarities  of 
their  religious  belief  are  exhibited  in  their  Confession 
of  Faith  (A.D.  150-1),  especially  their  opinion  as  to  the 
Lord's  Supper.  They  rejected  the  idea  of  transubstan- 
tiation,  and  admitted  only  a  mystical  spiritual  presence 
of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist.  On  all  points  they  profess- 
ed to  take  the  Scriptures  as  the  ground  of  their  doc- 
trines;  and  for  this,  but  more  especially  for  the  con- 
stitution and  discipline  of  their  churches,  they  received 
the  approbation  of  the  reformers  of  the  10th  century. 
The}-  distributed  their  members  into  three  classes,  the 
beginners,  the  proficients,  and  the  perfect.  To  carry 
on  their  system  they  had  clergy  of  different  degrees : 
bishops  (seniors  and  conseniors  or  assistants) ;  pres- 
byters and  deacons :  and,  of  lay  officers,  a?diles  and 
acolytes,  among  whom  the  civil,  moral,  and  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  were  judiciously  distributed.  Their  first 
bishop  received  his  ordination  from  a  Waldensian  bish- 
op, though  their  churches  held  no  communion  with 
the  Waldenses  in  Bohemia.  They  numbered  200 
churches  in  Bohemia.  Persecution  raged  against  them 
even  up  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  and  thou- 
sands of  the  best  citizens  of  Bohemia  were  driven  into 
Poland  and  Prussia.  The}-  subsequently  obtained  tol- 
eration, and  entered  into  agreement  with  the  Polish 
Lutherans  and  Calvinistic  churches.  Those  who  re- 
mained in  Bohemia  and  Moravia  recovered  a  certain 
degree  of  liberty  under  Maximilian  II,  and  had  their 
principal  residence  at  Fulncck,  in  Moravia,  and  hence 
have  been  called  Moravian  Brethren.  See  Mora- 
vians. Though  the  Old  Bohemian  Brethren  must  be 
regarded  as  now  extinct,  this  society  deserves  ever  to 
be  had  in  remembrance  as  one  of  the  principal  guar- 
dians of  Christian  truth  and  piety  in  times  just  emerg- 
ing from  the  barbarism  of  the  Dark  Ages,  and  as  the 
parent  of  the  United  Brethn  n.  Their  <  iatechism  has 
been  republished  by  Dr.  Von  Zezsehwitz  (Die  Cute- 
chismen  <l<  r  WcMi  ns<  r  n.  Bohmischen  Bruck  r,  Erlangen, 
1863).  The  Jesuits,  supported  by  Ferdinand  II,  car- 
ried through  the  "counter-Reformation"  in  Bohemia 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN         846 


BOLTON 


effectually  in  the  17th  century.  Protestantism  was 
crashed  at  the  expense  of  civilization.  There  was  no 
legal  toleration  for  it  until  the  philosophical  emperor 
Joseph  II  issued  his  '-Edict  of  Toleration,"  Oct.  13, 
ITS]  |  Pescheck,  ii,  335).  Protestant  congregations, 
both  Lutheran  and  Reformed,  soon  sprang  up. 

The  Soman  Church  is  now  very  powerful  in  Bohe- 
mia. Its  hierarchy  includes  one  archbishop  (Prague), 
three  bishops  (Leitmeritz,  Koniggratz,  and  Budweis), 
a  titular  bi.-hop.  and  twelve  prelates  of  the  rich  orders 
of  Knights  of  the  Cross  and  Premonstratenses.  The  regu- 
lar clergy  have  75  monasteries  and  0  convents  of  nuns. 
The  Protestants  are  found  chiefly  in  north-eastern  Bo- 
hemia  ;  they  number  from  75,000  to  100,000,  of  whom 
37  churches  follow  the  Reformed  confession,  and  17 
the  Lutheran ;  and  there  are  perhaps  7000  to  10,000 
Mennonites  and  smaller  sects.  See  Pescheck,  Eefor- 
malion  in  Bohemia  (transl.  Bond.  1846,  2  vols.  8vo); 
Hardwick,  Ch.  Hist.,  Middle  Age,  p.  124.  See  Aus- 
tria. 

Bohemian  Brethren.     See  Bohemia. 

Botler,  Petek.     Sec  Eoeiiler. 

Eoies,  Ar.TEM.vs,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Blandford,  Mas?.,  Sept.  8,  1702,  and  graduated 
at  Williams  College  1816.  In  1819  he  was  ordained 
pastor  in  Wilmington,  N.  C.  In  1821  he  accepted  a 
call  from  Charleston ;  on  account  of  ill  health,  he  re- 
signed 1823.  In  1824  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
church  in  South  Hadley,  Mass.  In  1834  he  went  to 
Boston  as  pastor  of  Pine  Street  Church,  which  position 
he  resigned  in  1840,  and  in  1841  removed  to  Mew  Lon- 
don, where  he  remained  until  his  death,  Sept.  25, 1844. 
He  published  a  Thanksgiving  Si  rmt  n,  Characteristics  of 
the  Times  (1828),  and  an  Address  before  ike  Society  <f 
Inquiry  in  Amherst  College  (1884).— Sprague,  Annul*, 
ii,  C64. 

Boil  CpttD,  shechin,  rendered  "botch"  in  Deut. 
xxviii,  27,  35),  a  burning  sore  or  inflamed  ulcer  of  an 
aggravated  description,  either  local  (as  in  the  case  of 
Hezekiah,  2  Kings  xx,  7 ;  Isa.  xxxviii,  21),  or  cover- 
ing an  extensive  surface  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, Exod.  ix,  0.  10,  11;  Dent,  xxviii,  27,  35).  See 
Plains.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  ulcerated  spots  in- 
dicative of  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii,  18,  10,  20,  23),  and  is  the 
term  used  to  designate  the  disease  of  Job  (Job  ii,  7), 
probal  ly  the  elephantiasis,  or  black  leprosy.     See  Lep- 

EOST. 

Bois,  du.     See  Dubois. 

Boliugbroke.      See  Deism  and  Infidelity. 

Bolivia,  a  republic  of  South  America.  Its  area 
is  about  350,000  square  miles.  Population  in  1855, 
1,447,000,  exclusive  of  about  700,000  Indians.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  recognised  as  the  state 
church,  yet  other  denominations  are  tolerated.  The 
convents  have  the  right  of  receiving  novices  only  on 
condition  that  they  are  at  any  time  at  liberty  to  leave 
again  the  monastic  life.  The  chamber  of  senators  ex- 
ercises the  right  of  superintending  the  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  At  the  head  of  the  Church  is  the  archbishop 
of  Charcas,  who  resides  at  Chuquisaca,  and  three  bish- 
ops, at  Santa  Cruz  do  la  Sierra.  La  Paz,  and  Cocham- 
ba.  There  is  a  university  at  Chuquisaca,  besides  sev- 
eral colleges.  A  large  majority  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion are  of  Indian  descent,  and  still  show  a  strong  at- 
tachment to  the  Jesuits,  who  were  expelled  from  their 
missions  March  27,  1707.  In  the  eastern  plains  sev- 
eral tribe  till  live  together  in  the  missions.  There 
were  in  1830,  among  the  Chiquitos,  ten  missions,  with 
15,816  inhabitants;  among  the  Mojos,  thirteen,  with 
23,951  inhabitant-      See  America. 

Bolland  or  Bollandus,  John,  born  in  Brabant 
in  15:10,  and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1612.  He 
was  chosen  by  his  fraternity  to  carry  into  effect  Ross- 
weide's  plan  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  or  Lives  of  the 
Saints.     See  Acta  Sanctokim.     11c  died  in  1005. 


A  memoir  of  his  life  is  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  of 
the  Acta  Sanctorum  for  March. 

Bollandists,  a  society  of  Jesuits  at  Antwerp,  so 
called  as  the  continuators  of  the  Acta  Sanctorum  after 
the  death  of  Bolland.  From  1665  to  1782,  twenty-two 
editors  in  succession  were  engaged,  and  published  one 
hundred  and  seventy-three  volumes.  These  were  all 
Jesuits ;  and  after  the  suppression  of  that  order,  canons 
regular,  Benedictines,  and  others  devoted  themselves 
to  the  continuation  of  this  work.  The  renewal  of  it 
was  undertaken  in  1838  by  several  Jesuits  at  Brus- 
sels. Some  idea  of  the  vast  extent  of  this  work,  still 
in  progress,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the 
lives  of  more  than  two  thousand  saints  remain  to  com- 
plete the  year,  and  more  than  lift}-  additional  volumes 
in  folio  must  be  published  before  the  completion  of  the 
work.     See  Acta  Sanctorum. 

Boiled  (5""^y,  rjiboV ',  the  calyx  or  corolla  of  flow- 
ers), a  participial  adjective  from  the  old  word  boll,  sig- 
nifying pod  or  capsule ;  applied  to  the  blossoms  of  flax 
(q.  v.)  in  Exod.  ix,  31. 

Bolsec,  Jerome,  a  French  CaTnelits  monk  of  the 
16th  century,  who  appears  to  have  embraced  the  re- 
formed opinions,  and  fled  from  Paris  to  Ferrara,  where 
he  was  almoner  to  the  duchess.  From  thence  he  went 
to  Lyons  and  Geneva,  avowed  himself  a  Protestant,  and 
began  to  practise  as  a  physician.  In  1551  he  declaim- 
ed against  predestination  in  a  public  assembly.  Bolsec 
was  imprisoned,  convicted  of  sedition  and  Pelagianism, 
and  banished  (Dee.  23,  1551).  He  returned  to  France 
and  again  embraced  Romanism.  In  1577  he  publish- 
ed Histolre  de  la  Vie.  Mmwrs,  etc.,  de  Jem  Calvin,  a  vio- 
lently abusive  book,  which  he  followed  with  a  slander- 
ous Life  of  Beza  in  1582.  He  died  about  1585. — Mos- 
heim,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  19  i ;  Haag,  La  France  Proteslante, 
ii,  360. 

Bolster  (niEJX'np,  meraashotk',  something  at  the 
head)  occurs  Gen.  xxviii,  11,  18,  where  it  is  rendered 
"pillows  ;"  1  Sam.  xix,  13, 16;  xxvi,  7, 11, 16,  a  pillow. 
These  were  stuffed  with  wool  or  some  soft  substance 
(Ezek.  xiii,  18,  21)  ;  the  poorer  classes,  instead  of  these, 
made  use  of  skins.  The  "  pillow  of  goats'  hair  for  his 
bolster,"  placed  by  Michal  (1  Sam.  xix,  13),  seems  to 
convey  the  impression  that  in  those  remote  times  it  was 
not  usual  for  any  but  sick  persons  to  use  bolsters  or  pil- 
lows to  support  the  head  when  in  bed  ;  and  that,  accord- 
ingly, Michal  put  one  stuffed  with  goats'  hair  under  the 
head  of  the  Teraphim,  to  confirm  the  notion  she  wished 
to  convey  that  David  lay  there  sick.  She  would  then 
cover  the  head  and  bolster  with  a  cloth,  it  being  usual 
in  the  East  for  people  to  cover  their  heads  while  in  bed. 
The  Septuagint  and  Josephus  make  out  that  it  was  a 
goat's  liver,  the  use  of  which,  as  explained  by  the  latter 
(Ant.  vi,  11, 4),  was,  that  the  liver  of  a  goat  had  the  prop- 
erty of  motion  some  time  after  being  taken  from  the  an- 
imal, and  therefore  gave  a  motion  to  the  bed-clothes, 
which  was  necessary  to  convey  the  idea  that  a  living 
person  lay  in  the  bed.  The  Targum  says  that  it  was 
a  goat-skin  bottle ;  if  so,  it  was  most  likely  inflated 
with  air.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  term  ren- 
dered "bolster"  is  merely  an  adverbial  phrase,  and 
should  be  rendered  literally  in  all  cases,  as  it  actually 
is  in  1  Sam.  xxvi,  7-10.     See  Bed. 

Bolton,  Robert,  a  Puritan  divine,  was  born  in 
1572,  and  died  in  1631.  He  was  especially  famous  as 
a  reliever  of  afflicted  consciences.  He  professed  on 
his  death-bed  that  he  never  in  his  sermons  taught  any 
thing  but  what  he  had  first  sought  to  work  on  his  own 
heart.  He  is  the  author  of  .1  Discourse  on  Happiness 
(Loud.  1611,  4to;  6  editions  during  the  authors  life- 
time) ;  hut  ructions  n  lafivt  to  afflict  d  Consciences  (1631, 
4to)  ;  //<  Ips  to  Humiliation  (Oxford,  1031,  8vo) ;  On  the 
four  last  Things  (London,  1633,  4to);  Devout  Prayers 
(1638,  8vo).  —  Middleton.  Evangelical  Biography,  iii, 
18. 


BOMBAY 


847 


BONAVENTURA 


Bombay,  the  capital  of  a  British  presidency  in  In- 
dia of  the  same  name,  had  in  1845  a  population  of 
'235,000  souls,  of  which  two  thirds  were  Hindoos,  20,000 
Parsees,  and  the  rest  Mussulmans,  Jews,  and  Chris- 
tians. It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, whose  diocese  comprised  in  1859  53  clerg}-men, 
including  one  archdeacon.  It  is  also  the  see  of  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  bishop. — Clergy  List  for  1860  (Lond. 
18G0,  8vo).     See  India. 

Bona,  John,  a  distinguished  writer,  and  cardinal  of 
the  Romish  Church,  was  born  at  Mondovi,  in  Pied- 
mont, Oct.  10, 1609.  Having  distinguished  himself  in 
his  studies,  he  entered,  in  1625,  the  order  of  the  Fenil- 
lans,  and  in  1651  he  was  made  general  of  his  congre- 
gation. Pope  Alexander  VI I  employed  him  in  many 
ways,  and  made  him  Consultor  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Index,  Qualificator  of  the  Holy  Office  ;  and  in  1669 
(lenient  IX  made  him  cardinal.  He  died  at  Rome 
Oct.  27,  1674,  after  he  had  made  a  revision  of  all  his 
works,  the  chief  of  which  are — 1.  De  Divina  Psalmodia, 
ejusque  causis,  mystcri.'s,  tt  disciplind,  which  treats  of  all 
matters  relating  to  the  holy  office  (Rome  and  Paris, 
1663,  4to)  :■ — 2.  Manuductio  ad  caelum: — 3.  Via  compendii 
ad  Deum : — 1.  Tractates  asceticus  de  discn  tione  Spiritu- 
urn : — 5.  De  Sacrificio  Missce : — 6.  Horologium  asceticum : 
— 7.  De  principiis  vitiv  Christiana; : — 8.  De  rebus  Lilur- 
fficis,  containing  all  information  concerning  the  rites, 
prayers,  and  ceremonies  of  the  mass  (Rome,  1671,  fol. ; 
Paris,  1672,  4to);  it  was  afterward  revised  and  aug- 
mented by  a  dissertation  on  the  use  of  fermented  bread 
at  the  mass.  All  his  works  (except  his  poems  and  let- 
ters) have  been  collected  in  3  vols.  8vo.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  his  works  is  that  of  Sala  (Turin,  1747-53,  4  vols. 
fol.). 

Bonald,  Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,  Vicomto  de, 
one  of  the  principal  writers  of  the  ultra-papal  party  in 
the  Roman  Church  of  the  nineteenth  century,  was  born 
in  1760  at  Monna.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution,  he  showed  himself  at  first  attached  to  the 
revolutionary  ideas,  but  soon  (1791)  became  one  of  their 
most  ardent  opponents.  He  therefore  emigrated  from 
France  in  1791,  but  returned  under  the  reign  of  Napo- 
leon, who,  in  1808,  made  him  councillor  at  the  Univer- 
sity. After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  was  for 
some  time  the  leader  of  the  ultramontane  party  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  was  made,  in  1823,  a  peer 
of  France  ;  in  1830,  after  the  revolution  of  July,  he  re- 
tired from  political  life,  and  died  at  his  castle  in  Mon- 
na in  1840.  Among  his  works,  the  following  are  prized 
by  his  adherents  as  the  most  important :  1.  Theorie  du 
pouvo'r  politique  ct  religieux  (Paris,  1796,  3  vols.)  : — 
2.  Legislation  primitive  (Paris,  1802,  3  vols.) :— 3.  Re- 
cherches  p'l'luii/i/ri/rii  s  stir  les premiers  objets  de  cennais- 
srmces  morales  (Paris,  1808,  2  vols.). 

Bonaventura,  St.,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the 
scholastic  divines  of  the  thirteenth  century,  called  also 
"  the  Seraphic  Doctor,"  was  born  at  Bagnarea,  Tuscan}', 
in  1221.  His  family  name  was  Giovanni  Fidanza. 
In  1243  he  entered  the  Franciscan  order,  and  studied 
at  Paris  under  Alexander  de  Hales :  afterward  he 
taught  divinity  in  the  same  university,  and  took  his 
doctor's  degree,  together  with  Thomas  Aquinas,  in 
1255.  In  the  following  year,  upon  the  death  of  John 
of  Parma,  he  was  elected  general  of  his  order,  where- 
upon lie  labored  to  reform  its  decayed  discipline,  and 
defended  it  warmly  against  the  attacks  of  Ciraldus  of 
Abbeville  and  William  de  St.  Amour.  At  a  general 
chapter  of  the  order,  held  at  Tisa,  he  directed  the  Mi- 
norites every  where  to  exhort  the  people,  in  their  ser- 
mons, to  pray  to  the  Virgin  and  worship  her  when 
they  heard  the  sound  of  the  bell  after  compline.  He 
also  first  introduced  the  establishment  of  religious  con- 
fraternities, or  sodalities  of  laymen,  which  he  set  on 
foot  at  Rome  in  1270.  In  1272  he  had  the  singular 
privilege  conferred  upon  him  of  nominating  to  the 
popedom,  the  cardinals  being  unable  to  come  to  any 


conclusion  among  themselves,  and  unanimously  agree- 
ing to  leave  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  Bonaventura, 
who  named  Theodore,  archdeacon  of  Liege,  known  as 
Pope  Gregory  X.  This  pope,  in  gratitude,  made  him 
cardinal-bishop  of  Albano  in  1274.  He  attended  the 
first  sessions  of  the  Council  of  Lyons,  but  died  before 
its  conclusion,  July  15th,  1274.  He  was  canonized  by 
Pope  Sixtus  IV  in  1482.  In  philosophy,  as  well  as 
theology,  he  was  pre-eminent  in  his  time.  His  special 
aim  was  to  reconcile  Aristotle  with  the  Alexandrians. 
"In  his  commentary  on  Lombardus  he  contracts  the 
sphere  of  speculation,  and  studies  to  employ  the  prin- 
ciples of  Aristotle  and  the  Arabians,  not  so  much  for 
the  satisfaction  of  a  minute  and  idle  curiosity,  as  for 
the  resolution  of  important  questions,  and  to  reconcile 
opposite  opinions,  especially  in  the  important  inquiries 
respecting  individuation  and  free-will.  Occasionally 
he  rests  his  arguments  rather  on  the  practical  destina- 
tion of  man  than  on  theoretical  notions — for  instance, 
respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
The  Supreme  Good  he  affirms  to  be  union  with  the  De- 
ity, by  which  alone  mankind  can  attain  a  perception 
of  truth,  and  the  enjoyment  of  happiness.  This  leads 
him  to  ascribe  all  knowledge  to  illumination  from  on 
high  (Redhetio  actionum  ad  Tin  ologiam),  which  he  distin- 
guishes into  four  species — exterior,  inferior,  interior, 
and  superior.  He  defines  also  six  degrees  whereby 
man  may  approximate  the  Deity,  and  refers  to  these 
six  as  many  distinct  faculties  of  the  soul — an  ingenious 
idea,  and  copiously  detailed,  but  in  a  great  degree  ar- 
bitrary and  forced  (Itinerarium  mentis  ad  Deum).  Find- 
ing speculation  insufficient  for  the  attainment  of  the 
Supreme  Good,  he  abandoned  himself  with  all  his  heart 
to  Mysticism."  "  In  the  scholastic  theology,  Bona- 
ventura ranks  after  Thomas  Aquinas  in  point  of  fertil- 
ity and  of  speculative  acuteness ;  while,  as  a  mystic, 
he  lacks  the  independence  of  the  school  of  St.  Victor. 
His  characteristic  merits  are  his  ample  comprehen- 
siveness, both  of  thought  and  feel  in : .,  and  his  imagin- 
ative power,  which,  however,  was  always  united  with 
strict  logical  faculty.  According  to  his  scholastic 
principle,  he  set  out  with  the  purpose  to  bring  the 
whole  of  human  knowledge  within  the  sphere  of  theol- 
ogy (De  reductione  artium  in  theologiam)"  (Ilerzog, 
Real-Encyldopiid'e,  ii,  291).  The  worst  feature  of  Bo- 
naventura's  influence  was  the  impulse  he  gave  to  Mari- 
olatry  (Elliott,  Delhi,  of  Romanism,  bk.  iv,  ch.  iv,  p.  763, 
Lond.  ed.  8vo).  The  beautiful  hymn,  Recordare  sanctas 
crucis,  was  written  by  him  ;  it  is  given,  with  a  trans- 
lation, by  the  Rev.  II.  Harbaugh,  in  the  Mercersburg 
Review,  1858,  p.  480.  Among  his  other  works  on  sys- 
tematic  theology,  the  Brevilcquium  and  Centiloquium 
are  the  most  important.  The  former  is  called  by 
Baumgarten-Crusius  the  best  manual  of  systematic 
theology  produced  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  it  is  by  Hefele  (Tub.  1845).  He  also  wrote 
many  mystico-practical  treatises,  e.  g.  De  septi  m  if  inn. 
ceternitatis :  —  Stimulus  Amor  is .-  —  Incendium  Amoris, 
etc.  Neander  declares  that  "  his  great  mind  grasped 
the  whole  compass  of  human  knowledge  as  it  existed 
in  his  time."  His  writings  are  collected  under  the 
title  Opera,  Sirti  V,  Pont.  Max.,jussu  emendata,  etc. 
(Rome,  1588-96,  8  vols.  fol. ;  also  Venice,  1751, 13  vols. 
4to).  Contents,  vol.  i :  Principium  S.  Scriptures ,-  Expo- 
sitio  seu  Sermcnes  33  in  JI<  xa>  m  run  ;  ExposiHo  in  Psal- 
terium,  in  Ecclesiasten,  in  Sapientiam  et  in  Threnos  Hi- 
eremioe.  Vol.  ii  ■  Expositio  in  caput  vi  S.  Matthcd,  et 
in  Evang.  S.  Lucce;  Postilla  in  Evang.  S.  Johannis  et 
Collationes  in  eundem.  Vol.  Ill  r  Sermones  de  Tempore 
et  de  Sanctis.  Vols,  iv,  v:  Commen'aria  in  iv  libros 
St  nti  ntiarum  Pt  tri  Lombardi.  Vol.  vi  contains  parts  1 
and  2  of  the  Opuscula,  viz. :  (1.)  De  reductione  artium 
ad  theologiam ;  (2.)  Breviloquium ;  (3.)  Centiloquium ; 
(4.)  Pharetra ;  (p.)Declaratioterminorum  theofogiee;  (6.) 
Principium  compendiosum  in  libros  Sententiarum ;  (J.~)iv 
libri  Sententiarum  carmine  digesti;  (8.)  De  iv  virtutibus 
cardinalibus ;  (9.)  Di  vii  donis  S.  S.;  (.1°-)  be  Hi  ter- 


BOND 


848 


BONDAGE 


nariis  peccatorum;  (11.)  De  resurrections  ad  gratiam; 
(12.)  Diata  Salutis;  (13.)  De  Ecclesiastica  HierarcAia. 
(1.)  So  Uoquium  ;  (2.)  De  uoditatioiir  vita  B.N.J.  C; 
(3.)  Libellus  meditationum ;  (4.)  De  vii  gradibus  contem- 
pfationis;  (p.)  De  v  festirititibus  piten  Jesu;  (G.)  Offi- 
ciutn  d(  Pa  ;si  w<  D  nninica  ;  (7.)  De  &  Cracc,  laudatio; 
(8.)  fljpwian  '■'/",-  (9.)  Speculum  <!<  laudibus  B.  Marim ; 
(10.)  De  Corona  B.  Marim;  (11.)  De  compassione  ejus- 
2. )  Philomela  passioni  1><  mini  aptataper  vii  ho- 
rns: (13.)  De  '•"  verbis  Domini  in  Cruet;  (14.)  Psalte- 
rium  II.  Mario-  majus;  (15.)  Id.  minus;  (10.)  /w  £«/«- 
tationem  angeUcam;  {11.)  In  "Salve  liegina."  Vol. 
vii  contains  part  3  of  the  Opvscula,  viz. :  (1.)  De  insii- 
tutione  vitm  Christianas;  (2.)  De  rcgimine  animce;  (3.) 
Speculum  animi;  (-1.)  De  x  prreceptis;  (b.)  De  gradibus 
virtutum;  (6.)  Itinerarium  mentis  ad  Deum ;  (J.)Devii 
itineribus  oeternitatis ;  (8.)  Stimulus  Divini  amoris;  (9.) 
parvum  bonum,  s'i\-  invindium  amoris;  (10.)  Amatori- 
us;  (11.)  £>.  rcHi'iriini  Spiriiualium  libellus  ;  (12.)  F<K- 
ctcB&inus,  (13.)  Epistolce  xxv  memoralia  complechns; 
(ll.>  Cm,/,  .-.,<;, hi  :le;  (15.)  Z>e  ratione  confitendi;  (1C.) 
De  puritaU.  conscientice ,  (17.)  Be  praparatione  Sacerdo- 
tis  ad  Missnm;  (18.)  K.rpositio  Missce;  (19.)  Z>e  n  «?/s 
Chiriihiui;  (20.)  D  vi  alls  Seraphim.  Vol.  viii  contains 
the  Opuscida  relating  to  monachism,  viz. :  (1.)  Z>e  £np- 
//  Jsfcrfu  religiosorum ;  (2.)  Speculum  disciplines ;  (3.)  ax 
p  mus  Nomtiorum;  (4.)  /w  regulam  ncvitiorum;  (5.)  Z)e 
processu  religionis;  (G.)  De  contemptu  saculi;  (7.)  De 
reformation'1  mentis  ;  (8. )  .1  //>//«?«  ftwn  ftorei  mowiclii  •  (  9.) 
Zic  perfectione  vita;  (10.)  Beclaratio  regulce.  minorum; 
(11.)  CV'rai  eandem  regulam;  (12.)  Quare  fratres  mino- 
res  prcedicent ;  (13.)  De  paupertate  Christi;  (14.)  Q«od 
Christ  us  el  Apostoli  nudis  pedibus  incedebant ;  (15.) 
Apologia  evangelicce paupertat's ;  (16.)  Contra  calumni- 
atorem  reguhe  Franciscance ;  (17.)  Apolog.  in  eos  qui  Ord. 
Min.  adcersantur ;  (18.)  De  nonfreqnentandis  Qucstion- 
ibus;  (19.)  (Mart.  WW.  ad  Frat  Tolosatcs  (doubtful): 
(20.)  De  rtfonnan'iis  Fratribus;  (21.)  Compendium  theo- 
logice :  (22.)  De  es«  nft'a,  invisibilifate,  1 1  immensilate  Dei  ; 
(23.)  De  mystica  theologia.  His  life  was  written  by 
Fessler  (Beri.  1807).— Neander,  CA.  ///.<rf.  iv,  421;  Mos- 
lieim,  CA.  DVsi.  i,  356,  365;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas, 
p.  541,  577  et  al. ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  anno  1255;  Dupin, 
Hist.  Eel.  vol.  xi,  ch.  iv;  Tennemann,  Manual.  Hid. 
Phil.  §  265;  Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  ii,  319;  Hollenberg, 
Studien  zu  Bonaventura  (Berlin,  1862,  8vo). 

Bond  ("i5N,  esar',  or  ^l&K,  issar',  a  moral  oblgci- 
fithi  .-  Siopoe,  a  physical  means  of  restraint)  is  used  for 
an  obligation  of  any  kind  in  Numbers  xxx,  2,  4,  12 
[  sec  Vow];  metaphorically,  the  word  signifies  oppres- 
sion, captivity,  affliction  (Psa.  cxvi,  16;  Phil,  i,  7) 
See  Captivity.  The  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
arc  called  the  bond  of  peace  (Ephes.  iv,  3).  Charity 
or  Christian  love  is  called  the  bond  of  perfectness,  be- 
cause  i!  completes  the  Christian  character  (Col.  iii,  14). 
Bonds  are  also  hands  or  chains  worn  by  prisoners 
(Acts  xx,  23;  xxv,  1  1)  hound  or  subjected  to  slavery 
(1  Cor.  xii,  13;  Rev.  vi,  15).     Sec  Prison. 

Bond,  John  Wesley,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
.  was  horn  in  Baltimore,  Dec.  11,  17*4,  enter- 
ed the  Baltimore  ('(inference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1810,  and  was  appointed  successively  to 
Calvert,  Fairfax,  and  Great  Falls  Circuits,  after  which 
he  travelled  as  comp  mion  to  the  venerable  Bishop  As- 
burv  until  the  death  <.f  the  latter,  h,  1816  b.3  was  ap- 
pointed to  Severn  Circuit,  and  in  1817  to  Harford. 
Here  he  contracted  the  fever  of  which  he  died,  Jan. 
22,  1819.  Mr.  Bond  wis  a  man  of  clear  understand- 
ing and  sound  judgment,  and  diligent  in  all  the  duties 
of  his  Christian  and  ministerial  profession. — Minutes 
of  Conferences,  i,  324. 

Bond,  Thomas  Emerson,  M.D.,  distinguished 
as  physician,  editor,  and  preacher,  was  born  in  Balti- 
more in  February,  1782.  His  parents  removed  to 
Buckingham  county,  Va.,  and  his  cariy  education  was 
received   there   and   in    Baltimore.      After   studying 


medicine  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he  re- 
turned to  Baltimore  to  practise  medicine,  becoming 
M.D.  of  the  University  of  Maryland.  He  rose  rapid- 
ly to  distinction  in  practice,  and  was  called  to  a  profes- 
sorship in  the  university,  which,  from  a  failure  of  his 
health,  he  never  occupied.  From  his  boyhood  he  had 
been  a  diligent  student  of  the  English  classical  writ- 
ers, and  had  modelled  upon  them  a  chaste,  masculine, 
and  nervous  English  style.  He  was  also  curious  in 
theological  questions,  and  brought  to  their  study  a 
mind  of  singular  acuteness,  disciplined  to  severity  by 
his  studies  in  physical  science.  At  an  early  ae.e  he 
joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Harford 
county,  Maryland ;  and,  while  practising  medicine  in 
Baltimore,  he  was  licensed  as  a  local  preacher.  From 
1816  to  1830  the  Church  was  agitated  by  questions  of 
reform  in  its  government,  and  Dr.  Bond  took  a  very 
active  part  in  the  discussion.  In  1827  he  published 
an  Appeal  to  the  Methodists  (8vo),  in  opposition  to  the 
proposed  changes,  and  in  1828  a  Narrative  and  Bi fence 
(8vo)  of  the  course  of  the  Church  authorities.  From 
1830  to  1831  he  edited  the  Itinerant,  a  newspaper  pub- 
lished in  Baltimore  for  the  defence  of  the  Church.  In 
all  these  publications  Dr.  Bond  showed  himself  a  mas- 
ter of  the  subject,  as  well  as  of  the  art  of  controversy, 
and  his  writings  contributed  signally  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  so-called  Radical  reformers.  In  1840  he  was 
chosen  editor  of  the  Christian  Advornte  end  Journal, 
published  in  New  York,  the  chief  weekly  organ  of  the 
Church.  Here  for  twelve  years  he  found  his  greatest 
field  of  activity,  and  achieved  the  greatest  success  of 
his  life.  In  skill  of  editorial  writing  he  has  yet  been 
surpassed,  it  is  thought,  by  no  person  engaged  on  the 
public  press  in  America.  The  Methodist  Quarterly  also 
contains  several  important  contributions  from  his  pen. 
He  died  in  New  York  14th  March,  1856. 

Bondage  (some  form  of  the  root  *!?",  abad',  to 
toil,  or  of  "C~±i,  bakash',  to  subjugate;  Gr.  SovXiia),  a 
state  of  slavery  (Exod.  i,  14),  servitude  in  captivity 
(Ezra  ix,  8,  9).     See  Slavery  ;  Captivity. 

Bondage  in  Egypt. — The  pretended  fear  of  Tha- 
raoh,  lest  in  the  event  of  war  the  Hebrews  might  make 
common  cause  with  the  enemy,  was  a  sufficient  pretext 
with  his  own  people  for  oppressing  the  Jews,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  had  the  effect  of  exciting  their  preju- 
dices against  them.  Affecting,  therefore,  seme  alarm 
at  their  numbers,  he  suggested  that  so  numerous  a 
bodj'  might  avail  themselves  of  the  absence  of  the 
Egyptian  troops,  and  endanger  the  tranquillity  and 
safety  of  the  country,  and  that  prudence  dictated  the 
necessity  of  obviating  the  possibility  of  such  an  occur- 
rence (Exod.  i,  10).  "With  this  view  they  were  treated 
like  the  captives  taken  in  war,  and  were  forced  to  un- 
dergo the  gratuitous  labor  of  erecting  public  granaries 
and  other  buildings  for  the  Egyptian  monarch  (Exod. 
i,  11).  These  were  principally  constructed  of  crude 
brick;  and  that  such  materials  were  commonly  used 
in  Egypt  we  have  sufficient  proof  from  the  walls  and 
other  buildings  of  great  size  and  solidity  found  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  country,  many  of  which  are  of  a  very 
earl}'  period.  The  bricks  themselves,  both  at  Thebes 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Memphis,  frequently  bear  the 
names  of  the  monarch  a  who  ruled  Egypt  during  r.nd 
prior  to  this  epoch.  The  crude  brick  remains  about 
Memphis  are  principally  pyramids;  those  at  Thebes 
consist  of  walls  enclosing  sacred  monuments  and 
tombs,  and  some  are  made  with  and  others  without 
straw.  Many  have  chopped  barley  and  wheat  straw, 
others  bean  haulm  and  stubble  (Exod.  v,  12).  In  the 
tombs  we  find  the  process  of  making  them  represent- 
ed among  the  sculptures.  But  it  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed any  of  these  bricks  are  the  work  of  the  Israel- 
ites, who  were  never  occupied  at  Thebes;  and  though 
Josephus  affirms  they  were  engaged  in  building  pyra- 
mids, as  well  as  in  making  canals  and  embankments, 
it  is  very  improbable  that  the  crude  brick  pyramids  of 


BONE 


849 


BONIFACE 


Memphis,  or  of  the  Arsino'ite  nome,  were  the  work  of 
the  Hebrew  captives  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egyptians).  See 
Brick. 

Bone  (prop.  dSS,  e'tsem;  u<rreoi>),  the  hard  parts 
of  animal  bodies  (Exod.  xii,  46).  The  expression 
"  bone  of  my  bone,  and  flesh  of  my  flesh"  (Gen.  ii,  23), 
"of  his  flesh,  and  of  his  bones"  (Ephes.  v,  30),  may 
be  understood  as  implying  the  same  nature,  and  being 
united  in  the  nearest  relation  and  affection.  Iniquities 
are  said  to  be  metaphorically  in  men's  bones  when 
their  body  is  polluted  by  them  (Job  xx,  11).  The 
"valley  of  dry  bones"  in  Ezekiel's  vision  represents  a 
state  of  utter  helplessness,  apart  from  Divine  interpo- 
sition and  aid  (Ezek.  xxxvii,  1-14).  The  Psalmist 
says,  "Our  bones  are  scattered  at  the  grave's  mouth" 
(Psalm  cxli,  7).  This  appears  to  be  a  strongly  figura- 
tive expression ;  hut  that  it  may  be  strictly  true,  the 
following  extract  from  Bruce  demonstrates  :  "  At  five 
o'clock  we  left  Garigana,  our  journey  being  still  to  the 
eastward,  and  at  a  quarter  past  six  in  the  evening  ar- 
rived at  the  site  of  a  village  whose  inhabitants  had  all 
perished  with  hunger  the  year  before ;  their  wretched 
bones  being  all  unburied,  and  scattered  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  where  the  village  formerly  stood. 
We  encamped  among  the  bones  of  the  dead ;  no  space 
could  be  found  free  from  them."  The  judgment  of  the 
Lord  is  denounced  against  the  King  of  Moab,  "  because 
he  burnt  the  bones  of  the  King  of  Edom  into  lime" 
(Amos  ii,  1),  or,  as  the  Chaldee  paraphrase  explains 
it,  "to  plaster  the  walls  of  his  house  with  it,"  which 
was  a  cruel  insult.  A  piece  of  barbarity  resembling 
this  is  mentioned  by  Sir  Paul  Rycaut,  that  the  wall 
of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  was  made  by  the  bones  of 
the  besieged  by  the  prince  who  took  it  by  storm. 
The  passage  in  Amos  vi,  9, 10,  Eoberts  says,  "alludes 
to  the  custom  of  burning  human  bodies,  and  to  that  of 
gathering  up  the  half  calcined  bones,  and  to  the  putting 
them  into  an  earthen  vessel,  and  then  to  the  carrying 
back  these  fragments  to  the  house,  or  into  some  out- 
building, where  they  are  kept  till  conveyed  to  a  sacred 
place.  In  India  this  is  done  by  a  son  or  a  near  rela- 
tion ;  but  in  case  there  is  not  one  near  akin,  then  any 
person  who  is  going  to  the  place  (as  to  the  Ganges) 
can  take  the  fragments  of  bones,  and  thus  perform  the 
last  rites." 

Boniface  I,  elected  pope,  or  rather  bishop  of  Rome, 
Dec.  30,  418,  as  successor  of  Zosimus.  Eulalius,  elect- 
ed by  another  faction,  was  at  first  supported  by  the 
Emperor  Honorius,  but  Boniface  was  finally  establish- 
ed in  the  see,  which  he  held  till  his  death  in  422. 
During  his  short  tenure  he  used  ever)'  means  to  ex- 
tend the  influence  of  the  Roman  see.  He  is  commem- 
orated by  the  Roman  Church  as  a  saint  on  Oct.  25. 

II,  a  Goth,  succeeded  Felix  IV  in  October,  530, 
though  it  is  said  that  his  rival,  Dioscorus,  was  as  well 
entitled  to  the  see  as  he.  The  deacon  Vigilius  was 
hishop,  in  fact,  from  his  great  influence.  Boniface 
died  Nov.  8,  532.  He  is  the  first  bishop  of  Rome  whose 
name  cfoes  not  occur  in  the  Roman  Martyrologium. 

III,  was  elected  bishop  of  Rome  Feb.  16,  606. 
Through  his  influence  the  Emperor  Phocas  decreed 
that  the  title  of  "  universal  bishop"  should  be  given 
only  to  the  Pope  of  Rome.  In  a  synod  held  at  Rome, 
he  forbade,  under  anathema,  that  a  bishop  should  ap- 
point his  own  successor.      He  died  Nov.  12,  606. 

IV,  elected  pope  in  607  or  608.  He  obtained  of  the 
Emperor  Phocas  that  the  Pantheon  which  Agrfppft  had 
built  in  honor  of  all  the  gods  should  be  converted  into 
a  Christian  church  under  the  invocation  of  the  Virgin, 
and  called  Sancta  Maria  Rotunda.     He  died  in  615. 

V,  Pope,  elected  Dec.  24,  618,  on  the  death  of  De- 
odatus,  and  died  Oct.  25,  625.  He  enacted  the  decree 
by  which  the  churches  became  places  of  refuge  for 
criminals. 

VI,  Pope,  a  Roman,  elected  after  the  death  of  For- 
mosus,  April  11,  896.     He  was  an  abandoned  charac- 

Hhh 


ter,  and  died  at  the  expiration  of  fifteen  days.     Ac- 
cording to  Baronius,  his  election  was  not  regular. 

VII  (Cardinal  Franco  or  Francone),  elected  in  a 
popular  tumult,  when  Benedict  VI  was  seized  and 
strangled  in  974.  Boniface  himself  was  expelled  from 
Rome  in  the  following  year,  having  incurred  general 
detestation  through  his  licentiousness  and  cruelty. 
Boniface  is  not  considered  a  legitimate  pope,  though 
his  name  is  registered  as  such  in  most  chronological 
tables.  He  returned  to  Rome  in  985,  and  put  John 
XIV  in  prison,  where  he  died  of  hunger,  as  it  is  re- 
ported. Boniface  again  assumed  the  papal  dignity, 
which  he  retained  till  his  death  near  the  close  of  985. 
His  corpse  is  said  to  have  been  treated  with  great  in- 
dignity.    He  was  succeeded  by  John  XV. 

VIII,  Pope,  originally  named  Benedictus  Cajetanus 
or  Gaetanus,  so  called  from  Gaeta,  a  town  of  Naples, 
where  his  parents  had  resided.  He  himself  was  born 
at  Anagni,  and  was  raised  to  the  papacy  upon  the  ab- 
dication of  Celestine  V,  Dee.  24,  1294.  He  had  been 
previously  canon  of  Paris  and  Lyons,  and  made  cardi- 
nal by  Pope  Martin  IV,  and  is  suspected  of  having 
by  his  artifices  compelled  the  resignation  of  his  pred- 
ecessor, Celestinus,  whom  he  kept  imprisoned  until 
his  death.  He  had  a  bold,  avaricious,  and  domineer- 
ing spirit,  and  carried  his  schemes  for  the  enlargement 
of  the  papal  power  to  the  verge  of  frenzy.  Happily  he 
found  a  bold  antagonist  in  Philip  le  Bel  of  France, 
against  whom  he  thundered  the  celebrated  bull  Unam 
Sunctam,  and  who  caused  him,  in  1303,  to  be  seized  and 
imprisoned.  Being  liberated  by  an  insurrection  of  the 
people,  he  returned  to  Rome,  but  became  insane,  and 
died  a  miserable  death.  Boniface  was  a  skilful  civil 
and  canon  lawyer,  and  to  him  we  owe  the  collection 
of  decretals  entitled  the  Sextus  Decretalium,  so  called 
because  it  was  supplementary  to  the  five  volumes  of 
decretals  previously  published  by  Gregory  IX.— Tosti, 
StoriadiBon.  VIII (Rom.  1846);  Drumann,  Gescldchte 
Bon.  VIII  (Konigsb.  1852,  2  vols.);  History  of  fhs 
Pqp*s,  p.  255,  262 ;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  v,  3-io.  See 
Unam  Sanctam. 

IX,  Pope,  created  cardinal  in  1381,  succeeded  Urban 
VI,  Nov.  2,  1389.  The  cardinals  at  Avignon  at  the 
same  time  elected  Clement  VII,  afterward  Benedict 
XIII.  .  Boniface  quarrelled  with  Richard  of  England 
on  the  subject  of  the  collation  of  benefices,  and  estab- 
lished the  perpetual  annates.  His  great  passion  was  to 
get  gold  for  himself  and  to  enrich  his  relations,  and  his 
legates  tormented  England  and  Germany  with  their 
exactions.  He  died  Oct.  1,  1404,  having  sat  fourteen 
years  and  eleven  months. — Biog.  Univ.  v,  115. 

Boniface  or  Bonifacius,  archbishop  of  Mayence, 
the  papal  Apostle  of  Germany.  His  baptismal  name 
was  Winfred.  He  was  born  at  Crediton,  England, 
about  680.  At  thirty  years  of  age  he  was  ordained 
priest,  and  in  716  he  passed  over  into  Friesland,  to  as- 
sist the  aged  Wilbrod,  then  at  Utrecht.  He  returned 
shortly  after  to  England,  but  in  718  departed  a  second 
time  for  Hessen  and  Friesland,  taking  with  him  let- 
ters commendatory  from  Daniel,  bishop  of  Winchester. 
In  the  autumn  of  this  year  he  went  to  Rome,  and  was 
appointed  by  Gregory  II  missionary  for  the  Germans 
eastward  of  the  Rhine.  He  commenced  his  labors  in 
Thuringia  and  Bavaria,  after  which  he  passed  through 
Hessen  and  Saxony,  baptizing  the  people  and  conse- 
crating churches.  In  723  Pope  Gregory  recalled  him 
to  Rome  and  consecrated  him  bishop,  whereupon  ho 
took  the  name  of  Bonifacius.  In  732  ho  received  the 
jv (Ilium,  together  with  the  primacy  over  all  Germany, 
and  power  to  erect  such  bishoprics  as  he  thought  fit. 
In  virtue  of  this  authority,  he  founded  the  sees  of 
Freisingen  and  Ratisbon,  in  Bavaria  (in  addition  to  the 
original  see  of  Paesau);  Erfurt,  in  Thuringia;  Baraburg 
(afterward  Paderbora),  in  Westphalia  ;  Wtirtzburg,  in 
Franconia;  Eichstadt,  in  the  Palatinate  of  Bavaria; 
and  re-established  Juvavia,  or  Saltzburg.    In  745  he 


BONI  HOMINES 


850 


BOOK 


was  raised  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Mayence.  Ten 
years  after  this  he  returned  to  his  apostolical  labors  in 
Friesland,  where  he  preached,  and  converted  many 
thousands  ;  but,  while  he  was  preparing  to  give  to  them 
the  rite  of  confirmation,  he  was  suddenly  attacked  by 
a  furious  troop  of  pagans  at  a  place  called  Dockum, 
where  he  perished,  together  with  fifty-two  of  his  com- 
panions, June  5,  755.  He  is  commemorated  by  the  Ro- 
man Church  on  June  5.  The  biographies  of  Boniface 
are  numerous  :  among  them  Gieseler,  Leben  Bonifacius 
(Erlangen,  1800);  Loftier,  Bonifacius,  hist.  Nachr.  v. 
st  h»  m  Ia  ben  (Gotha,  1812)  ;  Schmerbauch,  Bonifacius, 
Apostd  d.  Deutschen  (Erfurdt,  1827);  Seiters  (II.  C), 
Bonifacius  Apostel  der  Teutschcn  (Mainz.  1845,  8vo). 
A  graphic  and  genial  popular  sketch  of  him  is  given 
by  Neander  {Light  in  Dark  Places,  p.  217).  The  writ- 
ings ascribed  to  Boniface  are  collected  in  Opera  qum  ex- 
tant omnia,  ed.  J.  A.  Giles,  LL.D.  (Bond.  1844,  2  vols. 
8vo).— Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  C;  Neander,  Ch.  Hist,  iii, 
46-119;  Bohringer,  Kirch,  in  Biogr.  ii,  03;  Soames,  Lat. 
Ch.  in  A  ng.-Sax.  Times,  228  sq. ;  Landon,  Ecc.  Die.  ii,  327. 

Boni  Homines  or  Bons-hommes,  (I.)  monks 
established  in  England  by  I>rince  Edmund  in  P259. 
They  professed  to  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine, 
after  the  institution  of  John  Be-Bon.  There  is  not 
much  satisfactory  information  respecting  them.  They 
are  said  to  have  worn  a  blue  dress,  and  to  have  had 
two  houses  in  England  :  Esseray  in  Buckinghamshire, 
and  Edington  in  Wiltshire.  (IB)  In  France,  the  Min- 
ims founded  by  Francis  de  Faule,  who,  in  addition  to 
the  two  monastic  vows,  added  a  third,  to  observe  a 
perpetual  Bent,  were  called  Bons-hommes ;  some  say, 
because  Bouis  XI  was  accustomed  to  give  the  title 
bo-n-homme  to  their  founder.  (III.)  The  Albigenses, 
Cathari,  and  Waldenses  were  at  different  periods  call- 
ed Boni  homines. 

Bonner,  Edmund,  bishop  of  Bondon,  and  stj'led, 
from  his  persecuting  spirit,  "  Bloody  Bishop  Bonner," 
and  the  "  ecclesiastical  Nero  of  England,"  was  the 
son  of  humble  parents  at  Hanley,  in  Worcestershire, 
and  was  educated  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  He 
at  first  favored  the  Reformed  views,  and  advocated  the 
divorce  of  the  king.  Henry  VIII  made  him  his  chap- 
lain, bishop  of  Hereford,  and  then  of  Bondon,  and  em- 
ployed him  on  embassies  to  Franco,  Germany,  and  the 
pope.  But  when  death  had  removed  the  despot  whose 
ungovernable  temper  seems  to  have  obtained  submis- 
sion even  from  men  of  virtue  and  of  ordinary  firmness, 
Bonner's  Protestantism  ceased ;  he  protested  against 
Cranmer'a  injunctions  and  homilies,  and  scrupled  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy.  For  these  offences  he 
was  committed  to  the  Fleet,  from  which,  however,  he 
was  soon  after  released.  From  this  time  Bonner  was 
so  negligent  in  all  that  related  to  the  Reformation  as 
to  draw  on  himself  in  two  instances  the  censure  of  the 
Privy  Council ;  but  as  he  had  committed  no  offence 
which  subjected  him  to  prosecution,  the  council,  ac- 
cording to  the  bad  practice  of  those  times,  required 
him  tn  do  an  act  extraneous  from  his  ordinary  duties, 
knowing  that  he  would  be  reluctant  to  perform  it. 
They  made  him  preach  a  sermon  at  St.  Paul's  Cross 
on  four  points.  One  of  these  Bonner  omitted,  and 
commissioners  were  appointed  to  try  him,  before  whom 
lie  appeared  during  seven  days.  At  the  cud  of  Octo- 
ber, 1649,  he  was  committed  to  the  Marshalsea,  and 
deprived  of  his  bishopric.  After  the  death  of  Edward 
VI  Bonner  was  restored  by  Queen  Mary.  His  first 
acts  wen-  tci  deprive  the  married  priests  in  Ins  diocese, 
"and  set  up  the  mass  in  St.  Paul's"  before  the  queen's 
ordinance  to  that  effect.  It  would  he  tedious  to  follow 
him  in  all  the  long  list  of  executions  for  religion  which 
make  the  history  of  that  reign  a  mere  narrative  of 
blood.  Fox  enumerates  125  persons  burnt  in  his  dio- 
cese, and  through  bis  agency,  during  this  reii  n  ;  and  a 
letter  from  him  to  Cardinal  Pole  (dated  at  Fulha.n  De- 
cember 20,  1550)  ia  copied  by  Holinshed,  in  which  Bon- 


ner justifies  himself  for  proceeding  to  the  condemnation 
of  twenty-two  heretics  who  had  been  sent  up  to  him 
from  Colchester.  These  persons  were  saved  by  the 
influence  of  Cardinal  Pole,  who  checked  Bonner's  san- 
guinary activity.  When  Queen  Elizabeth  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  Bonner  was  made  the  single  exception 
to  the  favorable  reception  given  to  the  bishops.  In 
May,  1559,  he  was  summoned  before  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, and  died  in  confinement,  Sept.  5, 1509.  Bonner  was 
a  good  scholar,  skilled  in  the  canon  law  and  in  scholas- 
tic theology,  but  a  man  of  a  severe  and  cruel  nature, 
and  of  a  base  and  mean  spirit.  Maitland  endeavors  to 
vindicate  his  memory  from  some  of  the  charges  which 
stain  it  in  his  Essays  on  Subjects  connected  with  the  Ref- 
ormation (Bondon,  1849).  See  Burnet,  Hist,  of  Ref.  i, 
195 ;  ii,  430 ;  Life  and  Def.  ofBp.  Bonner  (Bond.  1842). 
Bonnet.  There  are  two  Heb.  words  thus  render- 
ed in  the  authorized  version.  Sec  also  Crown; 
Head-dress. 

1.  "1X3  {peer',  literally  an  ornament,  and  so  trans- 
lated in  lsa.  lxi,  10;  "beauty"  in  ver.  3;  "goodly" 
in  Exod.  xxix,  28 ;  "  tire"  in  Ezek.  xxiv,  17,  23)  was 
a  simple  head-dress,  tiara,  or  turban,  worn  by  females 
(lsa.  iii,  20),  priests  (Exod.  xxix,  28 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  18), 
a  bridegroom  (lsa.  lxi,  10),  or  generally  in  gala  dress 
(lsa.  lxi,  3 ;  Ezek.  xxiv,  17,  23).  It  appears  to  have 
consisted  merely  of  a  piece  of  clcth  tastefully  folded 
about  the  head.  In  the  case  of  females  it  was  prob- 
ably more  compact  and  less  bulging  than  with  men. 
See  Turban. 

2.  Fi"35"2  {mirjlabth' ,  literally  convexities')  is  spo- 
ken only  of  the  sacred  cap  or  turban  of  the  common 
priests  (Exod.  xxviii,  40 ;  xxix,  9  ;  xxxix,  2,  8 ;  Bev. 
viii,  13),  in  distinction  from  the  mitre  of  the  high- 
priest,  for  which  another  term  is  used.     Sec  Priest. 

Bonney,  Isaac,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister  of 
the  New  England  Conference,  born  in  Hard  wick,  Mass., 
Sept.  26,  1782  ;  converted  1800  ;  entered  the  itineran- 
cy 1808 ;  superannuated  1850 ;  died  1855.  He  was  a 
devoted  Christian,  an  eloquent  and  useful  minister, 
and  an  able  theologian.  He  was  several  times  elected 
a  member  of  the  General  Conference. — Minutes  of  Con- 
ferences, vi,  36  ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  452. 

Bonosus,  bishop  of  Sardica  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fourth  century,  opposed  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  and 
other  Roman  novelties,  and  was,  in  consequence,  un- 
justly branded  as  a  heretic.  His  followers  seem  to 
have  embraced  Arianism.  Walch  published  a  treatise, 
De  Bonoso  Ha-retico  (Gott.  1764). — Mosheim,  Eccl.  Hist. 
cent,  iv,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v,  §  25,  note  ;  Bardner,  Works,  iv, 
244. 

Eons-Hommes.     See  Boni  Homines. 

Bonzes,  priests  of  Buddha  or  Fo,  particularly  in 
Japan.  They  live  together  in  monasteries  under  a 
vow  of  celibacy,  and  the  system  agrees  in  many  re- 
spects with  that  of  the  Romanists.  They  do  penance, 
and  pray  for  the  sins  of  the  laity,  who  secure  them 
from  want  by  endowments  and  alms.  The  female 
bonzes  may  be  compared  to  the  Christian  nuns,  as  the 
religion  of  Fo  admits  of  no  priestesses,  but  allows  of 
the  social  union  of  pious  virgins  and  widows,  under 
monastic  vows,  for  the  performance  of  religious  exer- 
cises.— Buck,  Theolog.  Dictionary,  s.  v.  See  Buddh- 
ism ;  China  ;  Japan. 

Boolr  (120,  se'pher;  Gr.  /3</3Xi'oj',  Bat.  liber).  This 
Heb.  term  is  more  comprehensive  than  the  correspond- 
ing English  word  with  us.  It  signifies  properly  a 
writing,  either  the  art  (lsa.  xxix,  11,  12)  or  the  form 
(Dan.  i,  4);  then  whatever  is  written,  e.  g.  a  bill  of 
sale  (Jer.  xxxii,  12),  of  accusation  (Job  xxxi,  35),  of 
divorce  (Deut.  xxiv,  1,  3) ;  hence  a  letter  or  epistle  (2 
Sam.  xi,  14;  2  Kings  x,  6;  xix,  14,  etc.);  and  finally 
a  volume  (Exod.  xvii,  14  ;  Deut.  xxviii,  58  ;  xxix,  20, 
20;  1  Sam.  x,  25;  Job  xix,  23,  and  often),  i.  e.  a  roll 


BOOK 


551 


BOOK 


(Jer.  xxxvi,  2,  4;  Ezek.  ii,  9),  often  with  reference  to 
the  contents  (e.  g.  of  the  law,  Josh,  i,  8  ;  viii,  M4 ;  2 
Kings  xxii,  8;  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  14;  of  the  covenant, 
Exod.  xxiv,  7 ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  2,  21 ;  of  the  kings,  2 
Chron.  xvi,  11;  xxiv,  27;  of  annals,  or  of  an  individ- 
ual reign  or  personal  history),  especially  and  by  way 
of  eminence  of  the  sacred  Word  or  Law  (q.  v.). 

Books  are  mentioned  as  known  so  early  as  the  time 
of  the  patriarch  Job  (xix,  23).  They  were  written  on 
skins,  or  linen,  or  cotton  cloth,  or  the  Egyptian  papy- 
rus ;  the  latter  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  oldest 
material  for  writing  on,  whence  our  word  paper  is  de- 
rived. Tablets  of  wood,  of  lead,  and  of  brass  were 
also  employed,  the  latter  of  which  were  considered  the 
most  durable.     See  Writing. 

If  the  book  were  large,  it  was,  of  course,  formed  of  a 
number  of  skins,  etc.,  connected  together.  The  leaves 
were  generally  written  in  small  columns,  called  mrb'l, 
delathoth',  "  doors"  or  valves  (Jer.  xxxvi,  23),  and 
were  rarely  written  over  on  both  sides  (Ezek.  ii,  10), 
except  when  the  inside  would  not  contain  all  the  writing. 

Books,  among  the  Hebrews,  being  usually  written  on 
very  flexible  materials,  were  rolled  round  a  stick  or 
cylinder ;  and  if  they  were  very  lon<r,  round  two  cylin- 
ders from  the  two  extremities.  The  reader  therefore 
unrolled  the  book  to  the  place  which  he  wanted  (see 
fig.  1),  and  rolled  it  up  again  when  he  had  read  it 
(Luke  iv,  17-20),  whence  the  name  megillah  (Isa.  xxxiv, 
4).  The  leaves  thus  rolled  round  the  stick,  and  bound 
with  a  string,  could  be  easily  sealed  (Isa.  xxix,  11 ; 
Dan.  xii,  4).     Those  books  which  were  inscribed  on 


^— wj. 

] 

Hi 

Tfl^X 

^3   hj  / 

/^/../ 

^^77 

f^fcS 

^^v// 

|, 

1 

Ancient  To  >k*:   1,  Hull ;  '.',  Tablets. 


tablets  (see  fig.  2)  were  sometimes  connected  together 
by  rings  at  the  back,  through  which  a  rod  was  passed  to 
carry  them  by. 

At  first  the  letters  in  books  were  only  divided  into 
lines,  then  into  separate  words,  which  by  degrees  were 

I  marked  with  accents,  and  distributed  by  points  and 
stops  into  periods  and  paragraphs.     Among  the  Orien- 

:  tals  the  lines  began  from  the  right  hand  and  ran  on  to 
the  left  hand  ;  with  the  Northern  and  Western  nations, 

|  from  the  left  to  the  right  hand ;  but  the  Greeks  some- 
times followed  both  directions  alternately,  going  in  the 
one  and  returning  in  the  other,  which  they  termed 
boustixiphcdon,  because  it  was  after  the  manner  of  oxen 
turning  when  at  plough  ;  an  example  of  this  occurs  in 
the  Sigean  and  some  of  the  Etruscan  inscriptions.  In 
Chinese  books  the  lines  run  from  top  to  bottom.  See 
Bible. 

J  The  Orientals  took  great  pleasure  in  giving  figura- 
tive or  enigmatical  titles  to  their  books.  The  titles 
prefixed  to  the  56th,  GOth,  and  80th  Psalms  appear  to 
be  of  this  description  ;  nor  can  there  be  a  doubt  that 

'  David's  elegy  upon  Saul  and  Jonathan  (1  Sam.  i,  18) 
is  called  the  bow  in  conformity  with  this  peculiar  taste. 
See  Psalms. 

In  times  of  war,  devastation,  and  rapine,  it  was  nec- 
essary  to  bury  in  the  earth  whatever  was  thought  de- 
sirable to  be  preserved.  With  this  view  Jeremiah 
ordered  the  writings  which  he  delivered  to  Baruch  to 
be  put  into  an  earthen  vessel  (Jer.  xxxii,  14).  In  the 
same  manner  the  ancient  Egyptians  made,  use  of  earth- 
en pots  of  a  proper  shape,  hermetically  sealed,  for  con- 
taining whatever  they  wanted  to  bury  in  the  earth, 
and  which,  without  such  care,  would  have  been  soon 
destroyed.  Erom  the  paintings  on  the  monuments,  it 
would  appear  that  the  Egyptian  scribes  wrote  on  tab- 
lets composed  of  some  hard  material  (perhaps  wood), 
though  it  cannot  be  precisely  determined  what  it  was. 
The  remark  of  the  wise  man  in  Eccl.  xii,  12,  on  the 
subject  of  making  books,  is  supposed  to  amount  to  this : 
That  the  propensity  of  some  men  to  write  books,  and 
of  others  to  collect  and  amass  them  for  libraries,  is  in- 
satiable ;  that  it  is  a  business  to  which  there  is  no  end. 
Innumerable  treatises  have  been  written  on  all  kinds 
of  subjects,  and  no  one  subject  is  yet  exhausted;  the 
designation  of  one  leading  to  that  of  another,  and  that 
again  of  another,  and  so  on  interminably  ;  and  that 
the  "much  study"  connected  with  this  endless  labor 
and  "weariness  of  the  flesh"  may  render  its  votary  a 
fit  subject  of  the  admonition,  that  "the  conclusion  of 
the  whole  matter,"  or  the  great  end  of  life,  is  to  "fear 
God  and  keep  his  commandments."  (See  Clarke, 
Comment,  in  loc.) 

j  A  sealed  book  (Isa.  xxix,  11 ;  Rev.  v,  1-3)  is  a  book 
whose  contents  are  secret,  and  have  for  a  very  lung 
time  been  so,  and  are  not  to  be  published  till  the  seal 
is  removed.  A  book  or  roll  written  within  arid  without, 
i.  e.  on  the  back  side  (Piev.  v,  1),  may  be  a  book  con- 
taining a  long  series  of  events,  it  not  being  the  custom 
of  the  ancients  to  write  on  the  hack  side  of  the  roll  un- 

1  less  when  the  inside  would  not  contain  the  whole  of 
the  writing  (comp.  Horace,  Ep.  i,  20,  3).  To  eat  a 
book  signifies  to  consider  it  carefully  and  digest  it  well 
in  the  mind  (Jer.  xv,  Ifi;  Ezek.  ii"  8-10;  iii,  1-3,  14; 
Rev.  x,  9).  A  similar  metaphor  is  used  by  Christ  in 
John  vi,  where  he  repeatedly  proposes  himself  as  "the 
Bread  of  Life"  to  lie  eaten  by  his  people. 

Book  ok  tiik  Generation  signifies  the  genealog- 
ical history  or  records  of  a  family  or  nation  (Gen.  v, 
1 ;  Matt,  i,  1).  See  Genealogy  ;  History  ;  Chron- 
icle. 

P»ook  of  .TrncMENT.  The  allusion  here  (Dan.  vii, 
10)  is  probably  either  to  the  practice  of  opening  hooks 
o.f  account  to  settle,  with  servants  or  laborers,  or  to  a 

1  custom  of  the  Persians,  anions  whom  it  was  a  constant 
practice  every  day  to  write  down  the  special  services 
rendered  to  the  king,  and  the  rewards  given  to  those 

I  who  had  performed  them.     Of  this  we  6ee  an  instance 


BOOK 


S52 


BOOS 


in  the  history  of  Ahasuerus  and  Mordecai  (Esth.  vi, 
1-3).  It  also  appears  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  methods 
of  human  courts  of  justice  (Rev.  xx,  12),  referring  to 
the  proceeding  which  will  take  place  at  the  day  of 
God's  final  judgment. 

Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord.  This  appears 
to  Lave  been  an  ancient  document  known  to  the  He- 
brews,  Imt  not  preserved  in  the  sacred  canon.  It  is 
quoted  or  alluded  to  by  Moses  in  Num.  xxi,  14.  Sev- 
eral of  those  ancient  documents  were  in  existence  in 
the  time  of  Moses,  which  he  used  in  the  compilation 
of  some  parts  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  inspired  au- 
thority  of  the  Pentateuch  is  in  no  wise  affected  by  this 
theory,  for,  as  Jahn  has  well  remarked,  some  of  the 
documents  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  could  have 
been  derived  only  from  immediate  revelation  ;  and  the 
whole,  being  compiled  by  an  inspired  writer,  have  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  an  equal  de- 
gree with  his  original  productions.  See  Moses  ;  also 
the  Names  of  the  live  books  of  Moses.  Similar  ancient 
and  also  later  documents,  by  unknown  writers,  were 
used  in  the  compilation  of  other  parts  of  the  sacred 
volume,  such  as  the  book  of  Jasher  (Josh,  x,  13 ;  2 
Sam.  i.  18)  and  the  books  of  the  Chronicles  of  the 
kings  of  Israel  and  of  Judah  (1  Kings  xiv,  19,  29). 
SeeJASHEE;  Enoch;  Chronicles. 

BOOK  OF  LIFE.  In  Phil,  iv,  3,  Paul  speaks  of 
Clement  and  other  of  his  fellow -laborers,  "whose 
names  are  written  in  the  book  of  life.'"  On  this  Hein- 
richs  (Annotat.  in  Ep.  J  It  Hipp.)  observes  that,  as  the 
future  life  is  represented  under  the  image  of  a  ttoAi- 
rtvfia  (citizenship,  community,  political  society)  just 
before  (iii,  20),  it  is  in  agreement  with  this  to  suppose 
(as  usual)  a  catalogue  of  the  citizens'  names,  both  nat- 
ural and  adopted  (Luke  x,  20;  Rev.  xx,  15;  xxi,  27), 
and  from  which  the  unworthy  are  excluded  (Rev.  iii,  5). 
See  Citizenship.  Thus  the  names  of  the  good  are 
often  represented  as  registered  in  heaven  (Matt,  iii,  5). 
But  this  by  no  means  implies  a  certainty  of  salvation 
(nor,  as  Doddridge  remarks,  does  it  appear  that  Paul 
in  this  passage  had  any  particular  revelation),  but  only 
that  at  that  time  the  persons  were  on  the  list,  from 
which  (as  in  Rev.  iii,  5)  the  names  of  unworthy  mem- 
bers might  be  erased.  This  explanation  is  sufficient 
and  satisfactory  for  the  other  important  passage  in 
Rev.  iii,  a,  where  the  glorified  Christ  promises  to  "  him 
that  overcometh"  that  he  will  not  blot  his  name  out  of 
the  book  of  life.  Here,  however,  the  illustration  has 
been  Bought  rather  in  military  than  in  civil  life,  and 
the  passage  has  been  supposed  to  contain  an  allusion 
to  the  custom  according  to  which  the  names  of  those 
Who  were  cashiered  for  misconduct  were  stricken  from 
the  muster-roll. 

When  God  threatened  to  destroy  the  Israelites  alto- 
g<  tin  I-,  and  make  of  Moses  a  great  nation,  the  legisla- 
tor implored  forgiveness  for  them,  and  added,  "  If  not, 
blot  me,  I  pray  thee,  out  of  the  book  which  thou  hast 
written''  (I'.xod.  xxxii,  34).  By  this  he  meant  noth- 
ing so  foolish  or  absurd  as  to  offer  to  forfeit  eternal 
life  in  the  world  to  come,  but  only  that  he,  and  not 
they,  should  lie  cut  off  from  the  world,  and  brought  to 
an  untimely  end.  This  has  been  regarded  as  an  allu- 
sion to  the  records  kept  in  the  courts  of  justice,  where 
the  deeds  of  criminals  are  registered,  and  hence  would 
signify  no  more  than  the  purpose  of  God  with  reference 
to  future  events  ;  so  that  to  be  cut  off  by  an  untimely 
deatb  i,-  to  be  blotted  out  of  this  book.— Kitto,  s.  v. 

BOOK  of  THE  (AXON'S  (fiifiXoe  ko.v6vm>,  Co- 
des  ( 'anomm  I,  a  collection  of  the  various  canons  enact- 
ed in  the  councils  ,<(  Nicrea,  Ancyra,  Neoercsarea,  La- 
odicea,  Gangra,  Antioch,  Constantinople,  Ephesus, 
and  Chaloedon,  numbering  in  all  one  hundred  and 
Beventy-eight  canons,  It-  Hate  U  uncertain,  but  it 
was  probably  never  universally  authoritative.  It  was 
published  by  Justellus  in  1610  (Codex  Canonum  Eccles. 
litis,  8vo),  with  a  Latin  version  and  notes. 
Tor  a  fuller  account,  bee  Canons.  II. 


Boone,  William  Jones,  D.D.,  bishop  of  the 
American  Mission  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
at  Shanghai,  China.  He  was  born  in  South  Carolina, 
July  1, 1811 ;  graduated  at  the  university  of  th  it  state, 
and  then  studied  law  under  chancellor  De  Saussure. 
After  taking  his  degree,  he  entered  the  Seminary  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  at  Alexandria,  Va., 
where  he  pursued  his  theological  course,  and  afterward 
studied  medicine,  to  prepare  himself  more  fully  for  the 
mission  field.  He  then  offered  himself  to  the  Foreign 
Committee  for  the  work  in  China.  He  was  appointed 
January  17,  1837,  and  sailed  from  Boston  in  July. 
Under  his  incessant  toil  in  the  study  of  the  language, 
his  health  gave  way,  and  in  18-10  he  went  to  Macao,  in 
China.  He  left  Macao  for  Amoy  in  February,  1842, 
and  settled  with  his  family  on  the  island  of  Kulangsu ; 
and  in  August,  1842,  his  wife  died,  and  was  buried  on 
that  island.  He  returned  to  this  country,  and  was 
consecrated  missionary  bishop  to  China  m  October, 
1844.  In  December,  1844,  he  sailed  for  Canton.  In 
1845  the  city  of  Shanghai  was  selected  as  the  seat  of 
the  mission.  In  184G  the  bishop  began  the  translation 
of  the  Prayer-book,  and  engaged  in  a  revision  of  the 
N.  T. ;  and  in  1847  was  chosen  one  of  the  committee 
of  delegates  from  the  several  missions  to  review  the 
translation  of  the  Bible.  It  was  in  this  work,  and  in 
1  the  discussion  which  grew  out  of  it,  that  his  eminent 
ability  as  a  scholar  was  displayed ;  so  eminent,  indeed, 
!  as  to  challenge  the  admiration  of  those  most  compe- 
tent to  judge  in  such  matters.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  1853,  and  again  in  1857,  where  he  re- 
j  mained,  prostrated  in  health,  until  1859.  He  sailed 
!  from  New  York  July  13,  1859,  and  died  at  Shanghai 
;  on  the  17th  of  July,  "l864.— Church  Review,  18G5  ;  Ste- 
vens, Memorial  Sermon  on  Bishop  Boone,  Phila.,  1865. 

Boos,  Martin,  an  evangelical  divine  in  the  Church 
of  Rome,  who  was  the  instrument  of  a  religious  awak- 
ening in  German}'  similar  to  those  of  Whitfield  and 
Wesley  in  England  and  America,  was  born  at  Ilutten- 
ried,  Bavaria,  Dec.  25,  1762,  and  educated  for  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Church  at  the  University  of  Dillingen, 
where  Sailer  had  already  introduced  an  evangelical 
movement.  He  imbibed  the  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith,  and  found  peace  in  believing.  His  first  charge 
was  Gruenbach,  in  the  province  of  Kempten,  and  there 
he  began,  as  he  termed  it,  "to  preach  Christ  for  us 
and  in  us."  The  impression  produced  by  the  simple 
exhibition  of  this  Gospel  truth  was  as  life  from  the 
dead.  Those  who  had  been  agitated  by  doubts  had 
their  difficulties  dispelled;  those  who  had  been  har- 
assed by  fear  attained  peace  in  believing.  The  ex- 
citement spread  like  an  epidemic ;  many  gross  sinners 
suddenly  reformed,  and  multitudes  could  speak  of  the 
love  of  Christ  and  the  happiness  of  his  service.  The 
Romish  authorities  regarded  Boos  as  a  fool  or  a  fanatic, 
and  deprived  him  of  his  pastoral  charge.  The  day  on 
which  he  was  thrust  out  of  his  parsonage  he  remained 
a  long  time  on  the  highway,  uncertain  what  to  do  or 
whither  to  go;  and  at  length  spying  an  uninhabited 
hut  on  the  roadside,  he  entered  it,  and,  throwing  him- 
self down  on  the  floor,  prayed  earnestly  for  light  and 
guidance  from  heaven.  The  calumnies  circulated 
against  his  character  and  ministry  having  been  proved 
groundless,  he  was  recalled  from  his  retirement,  and 
appointed  to  the  curacy  of  Wiggensbach,  ac  joining 
his  former  parish.  As  his  faith  became  stronger,  his 
zeal  in  preaching  the  Gospel  increased,  and  produced 
a  great  and  extensive  religious  awakening.  A  dis- 
course which  ho  preached  on  New  Year's  day,  1797,  on 
repentance,  was  accompanied  with  such  penetrating 
energy  that  "forty  persons,  whose  consciences  were 
roused,  fainted  away  and  had  to  bo  carried  out." 
While  many  revered  the  preacher  as  a  man  of  God, 
the  opposition  of  others  was  violently  roused.  This 
latter  party  secretly  influenced  the  vicar,  who  was 
himself  disposed  to  be  the  friend  of  the  pious  curate, 
but  whoso  kindly  intentions  were  overborne.     The 


BOOTH 


853 


BOOTY 


simple  converts,  in  admiration  of  Boos,  spread  so  wide- 
ly the  story  of  his  character  and  doctrines  that  the 
clergy  joined  in  clamors  against  him  as  a  heretic. 
From  that  moment  persecution  raged,  and  Boos  was 
obliged  to  leave  Wiggensbaeh.  In  a  friend's  house 
he  obtained  shelter ;  but  his  retreat  having  been  dis- 
covered, he  was  surprised  one  day  by  the  sudden  ap- 
pearance of  an  agent  from  the  Inquisition  at  Augs- 
burg, who,  after  rifling  his  writing-desk,  carried  away 
all  his  sermons  and  letters.  On  the  10th  of  Feb.  1797, 
he  appeared  before  the  Inquisition,  where  he  refuted 
all  the  charges  brought  against  him.  Nevertheless, 
he  was  sentenced  to  a  year's  confinement  in  the  cler- 
ical house  of  correction  ;  but  the  keeper  of  that  prison, 
like  the  Philippian  jailer,  was,  with  his  whole  family, 
converted  by  the  pious  conversation  of  Boos,  lie- 
leased  from  prison  at  the  end  of  eight  months,  Boos, 
after  passing  through  many  vicissitudes,  obtained  per- 
mission to  enter  into  the  diocese  of  Lintz  in  Upper 
Austria,  where  the  bishop,  Joseph  A.  Gall,  welcomed 
him,  and  gave  him  the  populous  parish  of  Peyerbach, 
where  for  five  years  "he  ceased  not  to  warn  every 
man  day  and  night."  In  1806  he  removed  to  the  still 
more  populous  parish  of  Gallneukirchen,  where,  how- 
ever, he  labored  for  more  than  four  years  without  any 
visible  fruits  of  his  ministry  appearing.  Surprised 
and  pained  by  the  deadness  of  the  people,  he  gave 
himself  to  earnest  prayer  for  the  influences  of  the 
Spirit.  His  own  fervor  was  kindled,  and  he  dwelt 
more  prominently  on  the  justifying  righteousness  of 
Christ.  One  sermon  preached  in  Gallneukirchen  pro- 
duced an  excitement  more  extraordinary  than  ever. 
In  that  discourse  having  declared  that  there  were  few 
real  Christians  in  the  parish,  some,  who  were  offended 
by  the  statement,  accused  him  at  the  tribunal  of  Coun- 
cillor Bertgen  (1810).  That  magistrate,  having,  in  the 
course  of  private  conversation  with  Boos,  been  brought 
to  a  saving  knowledge  of  the  truth,  threw  his  official 
protection  over  the  pious  preacher;  and,  although  he 
died  shortly  after,  another  came  to  the  aid  of  Boos  in 
the  person  of  professor  Sailer  (1811).  But  the  excite- 
ment in  the  parish  was  not  allayed  till  Boos  preached 
a  sermon  on  Trinity  Sunday  from  Matt,  xxviii,  18-20, 
in  which  he  brought  out  such  views  of  the  reality  and 
power  of  religion  that  multitudes  came  to  him  eagerly 
asking  what  they  must  do  to  be  saved.  Persecution 
again  followed.  He  was,  in  181G,  confined  in  a  con- 
vent; and,  although  his  parishioners  petitioned  the 
emperor  for  his  release,  it  was  secretly  determined 
that  he  should  leave  the  Austrian  dominions.  After 
an  exile  of  seventeen  years  he  was  permitted  to  return 
to  his  native  Bavaria,  prematurely  gray  with  care  and 
hardships.  After  residing  for  some  time  as  tutor  in  a 
family  of  rank  near  Munich,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Prussian  government  professor  at  Dusseldorf,  which, 
however,  he  soon  resigned  for  the  vicarage  of  Sayn,  to 
which  he  was  elected  by  the  magistrates  of  Coblentz. 
Boos  was  engaged  in  the  same  work,  and  brought  to 
it  the  same  lion-like  spirit  as  Luther,  though  he  re- 
mained in  the  Church  of  Rome  until  his  death,  Aug. 
29,  1825.  See  Jamieson,  Religions  Biography,  p.  00; 
Gossner,  Life  and  Persecution  of  Martin  Boos  (Loud. 
1830,  12mo). 

Booth (n~0,  suhhah',  often  rendered  "tabernacle" 
or  "pavilion"),  a  hut  made  of  branches  of  trees,  and 
thus  distinguished  from  a  tent  properly  so  called. 
Such  were  the  booths  in  which  Jacob  sojourned  for  a 
while  on  his  return  to  the  borders  of  Canaan,  whence 
the  place  obtained  the  name  of  Succoth  (Gen.  xxxiii, 
17);  and  such  were  the  temporary  green  sheds  in 
which  the  Israelites  were  directed  to  celebrate  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Lev.  xxiii,  42,  43).  See  Suc- 
coth; Tabernacles,  Feast  of.  As  this  observance 
was  to  commemorate  the  abode  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness,  it  has  been  rather  unwisely  concluded  by 
some  that  they  there  lived  in  such  booths.     But  it  is 


evident  from  the  narrative  that,  during  their  wander- 
ings, they  dwelt  in  tents;  and,  indeed,  where,  in  that 
treeless  region,  could  they  have  found  branches  with 
which  to  construct  their  booths?  Such  structures  are 
only  available  in  well-wooded  regions ;  and  it  is  ob- 
vious that  the  direction  to  celebrate  the  feast  in  tooths, 
rather  than  in  tents,  was  given  because,  when  the  Is- 
raelites became  a  settled  people  in  Palestine  and  ceased 
to  have  a  general  use  of  tents,  it  was  easier  for  them 
to  erect  a  temporary  shed  of  green  branches  than  to 
provide  a  tent  for  the  occasion. — Kitto.  See  Cottaoe. 
Booth,  Abraham,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister, 
born  at  Blackwell,  Derbyshire,  1734.  His  parents 
were  poor,  and  he  had  no  early  opportunities  of  educa- 
tion. He  became  a  Baptist  when  quite  young,  and  in 
earl}r  manhood  was  received  as  a  preacher  among  the 
General  (Arminian)  Baptists.  He  afterward  imbibed 
Calvinistic  views,  and  took  charge  of  a  congregation 
of  Particular  Baptists  in  London  1769,  in  which  charge 
he  continued  till  his  death  in  1806.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  his  miscellaneous  writings  are  his  Reign  of 
Grace  and  Essay  on  the  Kingdom  of  Christ,  both  to  be 
found  in  his  collected  works  (London,  1813,  3  vols. 

j  8vo).  In  the  Baptist  controversy  he  wrote  /'.  dobap- 
tism  Examined  (1784): — A  Defence  of  Pt-dobaptism  Ex- 
amined (1792)  : — An  Apology  for  the  Baptists,  collected 
into  3  vols.  8vo  (1828).  Booth  is  regarded  by  the  Bap- 
tists as  one  of  their  most  able  and  important  writers. 

Boothroyd,  Benjamin,  LL.D.,  a  learned  English 
Dissenting  minister,  born  in  1768.  He  was  a  minister 
and  bookseller  at  Pontefract  from  1794  to  1818,  when 
he  was  called  to  Highfield  Chapel  at  Huddersfield, 
which  he  served  until  his  death  in  18S6.  He  was  a 
respectable  Hebrew  scholar,  and  in  his  commentary 
happily  blended  critical  disquisition  with  practical  in- 
struction. His  publications  are:  1.  A  New  Family 
Bible  and  Improved  Version,  from  corrected  texts  of 
the  original,  with  notes  critical  and  rxplanatory  (Pon- 

I  tefract,  1818,  3  vols.  4to) :— 2.  Biblui  llebraica,  or  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  of  the  O.  T.,  without  points,  after 
the  text  of  Kennicott,  with  the  chief  various  readings, 
and  accompanied  with  English  notes,  critical,  philo- 
logical, and  explanatorv,  etc.  (Pontefract,  1810-16,  2 
vols.  4to). 

Booty  ("2,  baz,  Jer.  xlix,  32,  elsewhere  usually 
"prey;"'  FlIpPO,  malko'dck,  Num.  xxxi,  32,  else- 
where usually  "prey;"  TKD'Z'O,  meshissah',  Hab.  ii, 
G;  Zeph.  i,  13,  elsewhere  "spoil").  This  consisted  of 
captives  of  both  sexes,  cattle,  and  whatever  a  captured 
city  might  contain,  especially  metallic  treasures  (Mi- 

j  chaelis,  Mos.  Revht,  iii,  235  sq.).  Within  the  limits 
of  Canaan  no  captives  were  to  be  made  (Deut.  xx,  14 
and  16)  ;  beyond  those  limits,  in  case  of  warlike  resist- 
ance, all  the  women  and  children  were  to  be  made 
captives,  and  the  men  put  to  death.  A  special  charge 
was  given  to  destroy  the  "  pictures  and  images"  of  the 
Canaanites,  as  tending  to  idolatry  (Num.  xxxiii,  52). 
The  case  of  Amalek  was  a  special  one,  in  which  Saul 
was  bidden  to  destroy  the  cattle.  So  also  was  that  of 
the  expedition  against  Arad,  in  which  the  people  took 
a  vow  to  destroy  the  cities,  and  that  of  Jericho,  on 
which  the  curse  of  God  seems  to  have  rested,  and  the 
gold  and  silver,  etc.,  of  which  were  viewed  as  reserved 
wholly  for  Him  (1  Sam.  xv,  2,  3;  Num.  xxi,  2;  Josh. 
vi,  19).  See  ACCURSED.  The  law  of  booty  was  that 
it  should  be  divided  equally  between  the  army  who 
won  it  and  the  people  of  Israel,  but  of  the  former  half 
one  luad  in  every  500  was  reserved  to  God,  and  appro- 
priated to  the  priests,  and  of  the  latter  one  in  every  5(1 
was  similarly  reserved  and  appropriated  to  the  Levites 
(Xuni,  xxxi,  2(1-47).  As  regarded  the  army,  David 
added  a  regulation  that  the  baggage-guard  should 
share  equally  with  the  troops  engaged.  The  present 
made  liy  David  out  of  his  booty  to  the  elders  of  towns 
in  Judah  was  an  act  of  grateful  courtesy  merely, 
though  perhaps  suggested  by  the  law,  Num.  1.  c.      So 


BOOZ 


854 


BOREEL'S  MANUSCRIPT 


the  spoils  devoted  by  him  to  provide  for  the  Temple 
must  be  regarded  as 'a  free-will  offering  (1  Sam.  xxx, 
24-26;  2  Sam.  viii,  11;  1  Chron.  xxvi,  27).  These 
doubtless  were  the  host  of  the  booty  [see  Akrothini- 
oh]  (comp.  Herod,  viii,  121 ;  Pausan.  i,  28,  2;  Livy,  x, 
46;  Flor.  i,  7)  which  fell  to  the  king.     See  Spoil. 

Bo'oz  (Boii:),  the  Groecized  form  (Matt,  i,  5)  of  the 
Bethleheniite  BoAZ  (q.  v.). 

Bor.     See  Soap. 

Bora  (or  Bohra,  or  Boiiren),  Cathakina  von, 
the  wife  of  Luther,  was  born  at  Loeben,  Saxony,  Jan. 
21),  1499 ;  died  Dec.  20, 1552.  While  still  quite  young, 
she  was  placed  in  the  convent  of  Nimpkchen,  where 
she  became  deeply  interested  in  the  writings  of  Lu- 
ther. She  asked  the  aid  of  Luther  in  liberating  her- 
self and  eight  of  her  friends  from  the  convent,  and  at 
the  request  of  Luther,  Leonhard  Kopp  aided  their  es- 
cape in  the  night  of  April  4, 1523.  Luther  wrote  to 
the  parents  of  the  nuns  to  take  them  back,  and,  when 
this  was  refused,  he  provided  for  them  otherwise. 
Catharine  found  a  home  with  the  burgomaster  of 
Eeichenbach,  and  on  June  13,  1525,  she  married  Lu- 
ther. The  writings  of  Luther  are  a  conclusive  proof 
that  the  marriage  was  a  very  happy  one.  After  the 
death  of  Luther,  Catharine  received  support  from  the 
elector  John  Frederick  of  Saxony  and  Christian  III, 
king  of  Denmark.  See  Walch,  Geschichte  der  Cath. 
von  B.  (2  vols.  Halle,  1752-54) ;  Beste,  Gesch.  Cath. 
von  B.'s  (Halle,  1843)  ;  Hoefer,  Biographic  Generate,  v, 
C73. 

Borborites  or  Borborianiaiis  {Borboritm  and 
Borboriani,  so  called  from  /3op/3oooc,  i.  q.  dirt-eaters'), 
a  sect  of  the  Gnostics  of  the  second  century,  said  to  be 
followers  of  the  Nicolaitans.  They  held  to  Dualism 
and  Antinomianism,  and  denied  the  last  judgment  and 
the  resurrection.  Epiphanius  charges  them  with  the 
vilest  crimes. — Epiphanius,  Uteres,  p.  25,  26;  Landon, 
s.  v. 

Borceos.     See  Cephar-Barc.e. 

Bordas-Dumoulin,  Jean-Baptiste,  a  French 
philosopher,  and  stanch  advocate  of  the  rights  and  lib- 
erties of  the  Galliean  Church,  was  born,  Feb.  18,  1798, 
at  Montagnac-la-Crempse,  and  died  1859.    He  endeav- 
ored to  reconcile  all  the  political  and  social   conse- 
quences of  the  French  Revolution  with  the  religious 
traditions  of  Gallicanism.     His  principal  works  are  : 
1.  Lfttres   siir  i'er/t  ctisme  et   le    doctrinarisme    (Paris, 
1833): — 2.  Le  Carteaianisme,  on  la  Veritah'e  renovation 
ices  (  Paris,  1843,  2  vols.),  a  prize  essay,  which 
was  declared  by  the  French  Academy  of  Moral  and 
Political  Sciences  one  of  the  most  remarkable  philo- 
sophical writings  of  the  age  : — 3. 
Melanges  philosophiques  et   reli- 
g'eux  (Paris,  1846),    containing    ft  Ffc 
also  an  Eloge  de  Pascal,  to  which  (    .J 
a   prize  had  been   awarded  (in   \ 
1842)  by  the  French  Academy: 
—4.  Essais  de  reform  catkolique 
(Paris,  1856),  in   which  he  se- 
ven-Is- attacks  the  condition  of 
the  Roman  Church  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.— Huet,  Hist,  de  ' 
la  Vie  et  des  Ouvrages  de  B.-D. 
(Paris,  I860). 

Bordeaux,  the  see  of  a  Ro- 
man  archbishop  in  France.  The 
establishment  of  an  episcopal  see 
reaches  probably  as  far  back  as 
the  year  300;  later,  the  bishopric 
was  changed  into  an  archbishop- 
ric. In  1  itl  the  city  received  a 
university.  Four  councils  ( ( !on- 
cilia  Burdigalensia)   have   been  „     .  #1.     _  . 

held  at  Bordeaux:  ii  884,  against  *"*3  23££l 


K 


the  Priscillianists ;  in  670,  for  the  restoration  of  peace 
and  for  the  improvement  of  Church  discipline ;  in  1080, 
against  Berengar ;  and  the  last  in  1255. 

Border  is  generally  the  rendering  of  some  form  of 
the  Heb.  PISS,  gebul' ',  Gr.  ookoc,  a  boundary-line,  es- 
pecially in  the  plural ;  also  of  several  other  Heb.  words 
in  a  similar  sense  ;  but  in  Exod.  xxv,  25,  27  ;  xxxvii, 
12, 14,  it  represents  r.^50-,  misge'reth,  a  margin,  e.  g. 
ornaments  on  the  brazen  stands  or  pedestals  of  the 
lavers,  apparently  square  shields  decorated  with  sculp- 
tures on  the  sides,  1  Kings  vii,  28-36;  2  Kings  xvi, 
17  ;  and  in  Num.  xv,  38,  it  stands  for  C33,  kanaph',  a 
wing,  i.  c.  hem  or  fringe  of  a  garment,  like  KpuoTTeSov 
in  Matt,  xxiii,  5  ;  while  in  Cant,  i,  11,  it  is  "lift,  tor,  a 
row  or  string  of  pearls  or  golden  heads  for  the  head- 
dress. 

Boreel's  Manuscript  (Codex  Boreeli),  an 
important  uncial  MS.  of  the  N.  T.,  containing  (with 
many  lacunce~)  the  Gospels,  of  which  it  is  usually  des- 
ignated as  Cod.  F.  .  It  derives  its  name  from  having 
once  belonged  to  John  Boreel,  Dutch  ambassador  to 
the  court  of  king  James  I.  Soon  after  Boreel's  death 
in  1629,  some  man  of  learning,  whose  name  is  un- 
known, made  extracts  from  this  MS.  as  far  as  Luke 
x ;  this  collation  was  communicated  to  Wetstein  by 
Isaac  Verburger  in  1730,  and  "Wetstein  used  it  in  his 
Critical  Apparatus,  but  could  not  discover  where  the 
MS.  was  at  that  time.  In  1830  it  was  discovered  at 
Arnheim,  and  Prof.  Heringa  speedily  made  a  careful 
collation  of  its  text,  which  appeared  in  1843,  after  his 
death,  with  a  description  and  fac-simile,  under  the  edi- 
torial care  of  Vinkc  (Disputatio  de  Codice  Boreeliano). 
Some  of  the  sheets,  however,  appear  in  the  mean- 
while to  have  been  lost.  It  is  now  in  the  University 
library  at  Utrecht.  It  consists  of  204  leaves  and  a 
few  fragments,  written  in  two  columns  of  about  nine- 
teen lines  to  a  page,  in  a  tall,  oblong  form,  with  large, 
upright,  compressed  characters.  It  has  the  usual  in- 
dications of  the  Ammonian  sections  in  the  margin,  but 
without  the  Eusebian  canons.  The  breathings  and  ac- 
cents are  fully  and  not  incorrectly  given.  In  Luke 
there  are  no  less  than  twenty-four  gaps ;  in  Wetstein's 
collation  it  began  with  Matt,  vii,  6,  but  now  with  Matt. 
ix,  1 :  other  hiatuses  are  Matt,  xii,  1^44  ;  xiii,  55-xiv, 
9  ;  xv,  20-31 ;  xx,  18-xxi,  5  ;  Mark  i,  43-ii,  8  ;  ii,  23- 
iii,  5;  xi,  6-26;  xiv,  54-xv,  5;  xv,  39-xvi,  19;  John 
iii,  5-14;  iv,  23-38;  v,  18-38;  vi,  39-63;  vii,  28-viii, 
10;  x,  32-xi,  3;  xi,  40-xii,  3;  xii,  14-25:  it  ends  at 
John  xiii,  34.  It  is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  ninth 
or  tenth  century. — Tregelles,  in  Home's  Tntrod.  iv, 
200;  Scrivener,  Introduction,  p.  104  sq.  See  Manu- 
scripts, Biblical. 


limited)  tftN 

hnfnTMky 


TAIintTlMWN 

Boreelianua  (Maik  x,  18  [Ammonian  section  only,  P?  or  106]: 
uLTii  TrvLidia  I  \v  ii|»t)Tai  ai\ru)v'  oi  <5t  /uatfnl-rai  tirer/flW.) 


BOREL 


855 


BORKI 


Borel.     See  Borrelists. 

Borgia,  Caesar,  was  "one  of  the  greatest  mon- 
sters of  a  time  of  depravity,  when  the  court  of  Home 
was  the  scene  of  all  the  worst  forms  of  crime.  He 
was  the  son  of  Alexander  VI  and  Catharine  Va- 
nozza,  who  made  him  archbishop  of  Valencia  at  an 
early  age,  and  afterward  cardinal  in  1493.  He  un- 
scrupulously made  use  of  the  most  sacred  things  as 
means  to  the  most  iniquitous  ends.  His  father  hav- 
ing conferred  upon  his  brother  Giovanni  the  duchy  of 
Benevento,  with  the  counties  of  Terracina  and  Ponte- 
corvo,  Caesar,  as  was  believed,  moved  with  envy, 
caused  his  brother  to  be  assassinated.  He  obtained 
the  duchy  and  counties  for  himself,  and  was  permitted 
by  his  father  to  resign  the  purple  and  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  profession  of  arms.  He  was  sent  in  1498  to 
France,  to  convey  to  Louis  XII  a  bull  of  divorce  and 
dispensation  from  his  marriage  with  Anne  of  Brittany. 
Louis  rewarded  him  for  the  pope's  complaisance  with 
the  duchy  of  Valentinois,  a  body-guard  of  100  men, 
20,000  livres  of  yearly  revenue,  and  a  promise  of  sup- 
port in  his  schemes  of  ambition.  In  1499  Caesar  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  the  king  of  Navarre,  and  accom- 
panied Louis  XII  to  Italy,  where  he  undertook  the 
conquest  of  the  Romagna  for  the  Holy  See.  The  right- 
ful lords  of  that  country,  who  fell  into  his  hands,  were 
murdered,  notwithstanding  that  their  lives  had  been 
guaranteed  by  his  oath.  In  1501  he  was  named  by  his 
father  duke  of  Romagna.  In  the  same  year  he  wrest- 
ed the  principality  of  Piombino  from  Jacopo  d'Appia- 
no,  but  failed  in  an  attempt  to  acquire  Bologna  and 
Florence.  He  took  Camerino,  and  caused  Giulio  di 
Varano,  the  lord  of  that  town,  to  be  strangled  along 
with  his  two  sons.  By  treachery  as  much  as  by  vio- 
lence he  made  himself  master  of  the  duchy  of  Urbino. 
A  league  of  Italian  princes  was  formed  to  resist  him, 
but  he  kept  them  in  awe  by  a  body  of  Swiss  troops, 
till  he  succeeded  in  winning  some  of  them  over  by  ad- 
vantageous offers,  employed  them  against  the  others, 
and  then  treacherously  murdered  them  on  the  day  of 
the  victory,  31st  December,  1502,  at  Sinigaglia.  He 
now  seized  their  possessions,  and  saw  no  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  his  being  made  king  of  Romagna,  of  the 
March,  and  of  Umbria,  when,  on  August  17th,  1503, 
his  father  died,  probably  of  poison  which  he  had  pre- 
pared for  twelve  cardinals.  Csesar  also,  who  was  a 
part}'  to  the  design  (and  who,  like  his  father,  had  long 
been  familiar  with  that  mode  of  dispatching  those  who 
stood  in  the  way  of  his  ambition,  or  whose  wealth  he 
desired  to  obtain),  had  himself  partaken  of  the  poison, 
and  the  consequence  was  a  severe  illness,  exactly  at  a 
time  when  the  utmost  activity  and  presence  of  mind 
were  requisite  for  his  affairs.  Enemies  rose  against 
him  on  all  hands,  and  one  of  the  most  inveterate  of 
them  ascended  the  papal  throne  as  Julius  II.  Caesar 
was  arrested  and  conveyed  to  the  castle  of  Medina  del 
Campo,  in  Spain,  where  he  lay  imprisoned  for  two 
years.  At  length  he  contrived  to  make  his  escape  to 
the  king  of  Navarre,  whom  he  accompanied  in  the  war 
against  Castile,  and  was  killed  on  the  12th  of  March, 
1507,  by  a  missile  from  the  castle  of  Biano.  With  all 
his  baseness  and  cruelty,  he  loved  and  patronized 
learning,  and  possessed  a  ready  and  persuasive  elo- 
quence. Machiavelli  has  delineated  his  character  in 
his  Principe.''1 — Chambers,  Encyclopaedia,  s.  v.;  Hoefer, 
Biog.  Generate,  vi,  711 ;  Kanke,  History  of  (he  Popes. 

Borgia,  Francis.     See  Francis  Borgia. 

Borgia,  Roderigo.    See  Alexander  VI  (Pope). 

Borgian  Manuscript  (Codex  Borgianus),  a 
valuable  uncial  fragment  of  some  thirteen  leaves  of  the 
Greek  Gospels  (of  which  it  is  usually  designated  as 
Cod.  T),  with  a  Thebaic  or  Sahidic  version  on  the  op- 
posite (left)  page.  It  derives  its  name  from  having 
belonged  to  the  Velitian  Musseum  of  "  Prsesul  Stcph. 
Borgia,  collegii  urbani  de  propaganda  fide  a  secretis," 
and  is  now  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  Propaganda 


at  Rome.  Each  page  consists  of  two  columns  ;  a  sin- 
gle point  indicates  a  break  in  the  sense,  but  there  are 
no  other  divisions.  The  breathings,  both  rough  and 
smooth,  are  present.  It  contains  the  following  pas- 
sages :  Luke  xxii,  20-xxiii,  20 ;  John  vi,  28-67 ;  vii, 
6-viii,  32  (in  all  177  verses,  since  John  vii,  53-viii,  11 
are  wanting).  The  portion  belonging  to  John,  both  in 
I  Greek  and  Egyptian,  was  carefully  edited  at  Rome  in 
[  1789  by  Giorgi,  an  Augustinian  eremite,  with  a  fac- 
;  simile.  Birch  had  previously  collated  the  Greek  text. 
J  The  Greek  fragment  of  Luke  was  first  collated  for  the 
4th  ed.  of  Alford's  Commentary  by  his  brother,  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  suggestion  by  Tregelles,  from  a  hint  by 
Zoega  {Gated,  cedd.  copt.  qui  in  Museo  Borgiano  Velitris 
adservantur,  Rom.  1810,  p.  184).  A  few  leaves  in  Greek 
and  Thebaic,  which  once  belonged  to  "Woide,  and  were 
printed  with  his  other  Thebaic  fragments  (in  Ford's 
Appendix  to  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  Oxford,  1799),  ev- 
idently once  formed  part  of  the  Codex  Borgianus 
(Tischendorf,  New  T<st.  ed.  1859,  p.  clxvii).  They  con- 
tain 85  additional  verses:  Luke  xii,  15-xiii,  £2;  John 
viii,  33-42.  The  Borgian  MS.  has  been  referred  to  the 
fourth  or  fifth  century.  It  appears  that  the  knorant 
monk  who  brought  it  from  Egypt  to  Europe  carelessly 
lost  the  greater  part  of  it,  so  that  what  is  left  is  but  a 
sample. — Tregelles,  in  Home's  Introd.  new  ed.  iv,  180; 
Scrivener,  Introduction,  p.  116.  See  Manuscripts, 
Biblical. 

Bor-Has'sirah(Heh.  Borkas-Sirak',  tT^Sn  112, 
cistern  of  the  Hrcth;  Sept.  translates  eppiap  tov  Sapf/ju), 
a  place  in  the  southern  part  of  Palestine,  where  Joab's 
messengers  found  Aimer  (2  Sam.  iii,  26,  where  our 
version  renders  "well  of  Sirah"),  probably  the  same 
as  Besira  (B)jrripa)  of  Josephus  (Ant.  vii,  1,  5),  twenty 
stadia  from  Hebron.     See  Sirah. 

Borith.     See  Nitre  ;  Soap. 

Bo'rith  (Lat.  Borith,  for  the  Gr.  text  is  not  extant) 
is  given  (2  [Vulg.  4]  Esdr.  i,  2)  as  the  son  of  Abisei, 
and  father  of  Ozias,  in  the  genealogy  of  Ezra  ;  evident- 
ly a  corruption  of  Bukki  (q.  v.),  as  in  Ezra  vii,  4. 

Borkath.     See  Carbuncle. 

Born  again,  or  Born  of  God.  See  Regenera- 
tion. 

Borre  or  Borrhius,  Adrian  van  den,  a  distin- 
guished Remonstrant.  On  the  death  of  Arminins 
(q.  v.),  his  ability  and  piety  gave  him  great  influence 
among  the  followers  of  that  great  man.  He  was  one 
of  the  six  Remonstrant  ministers  who  took  part  in  the 
conference  at  the  Hague,  1611 ;  he  also  assisted  at  the 
Delft  Conference,  1613.  When  subscription  to  the 
decretals  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  was  enforced,  he  gave 
up  all  his  worldly  interests  for  conscience'  sake,  and 
joined  Episcopius  and  others  at  Antwerp,  where  he  was 
one  of  the  directors  of  the  affairs  of  the  Remonstrants. 
He  wrote  the  Explicatio  delucida  crip.  IX  ad  Rom.,  con- 
tained in  pt.  ii  of  Acta  et  Scrvpta  Ministrorum  Remon- 
strantium  (1620). — Limborch,  Vita  Rpiscopii  (cd.  1701, 
p.  213) ;  Morison,  On  Romans  IX,  p.  56. 

Borrelists,  a  Dutch  sect,  named  from  their  leader, 
Adam  Borrel  or  Borel,  a  Zealandcr,  born  1603,  died 
1667.  They  lived  an  austere  life,  and  laid  great  stress 
upon  abundant  almsgiving ;  they  also  decried  all  the 
outward  forms  of  the  Church,  denied  the  efficacy  of  the 
sacraments,  and  maintained  that  the  Bible  should  be 
read  without  any  commentary  whatever.  They  taught 
that  private  worship  is  more  important  than  public. 
Borel  wrote  a  treatise,  Ad  Legem  (t  testimonium,  main- 
taining that  the  written  Word  of  God,  without  human 
exposition,  is  the  only  means  and  the  adequate  means 
of  awakening  faith  in  the  heart  of  man.  See  Arnold, 
Kirchen-  it.  Ketzerhistorie,  pt.  iii,  ch.  vi. 

Borri,  Josefo  Francesco  (Bnrms),  an  impostor, 
born  at  Milan  May  4,  1627.  He  was  educated  in  the 
Jesuits'  Seminary  at  Rome,  after  which  he  gave  him- 
self to  the  study  of  medicine  and  chemistry.     He  soon 


BORROMEO 


856 


BORROWING 


abandoned  himself  to  a  life  of  extreme  irregularity  and 
viciousness,  which  he  cloaked  under  the  appearance  of 
extreme  seriousness  and  devotion.  He  pretended  even 
that  he  was  inspired  by  God  to  effect  a  reformation 
among  men  ;  declaring  it  to  be  the  will  of  God  that 
there  should  be  but  one  fold  on  earth,  under  the  pope, 
and  that  all  who  refused  to  enter  it  should  be  put  to 
death.  To  these  he  added  the  most  atrocious  blasphe- 
mies, declaring  the  Virgin  to  be  the  daughter  of  the 
Father,  as  Christ  is  his  Son,  and  in  all  things  equal 
to  the  Son ;  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  incarnate  in  her, 
etc.  The  Inquisition  took  proceedings  against  him, 
and  sentenced  him  to  be  burned  January  3,  1661 ;  but 
he  escaped  to  Strasburg,  and  afterward  to  Amsterdam 
and  Hamburg.  Here  he  ingratiated  himself  with 
Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  who  spent  large  sums  un- 
der his  dictation  in  the  search  for  the  philosopher's 
stone.  Thence  he  went  to  Copenhagen,  where  Fred- 
erick III  patronized  him.  On  the  death  of  that 
prince  he  determined  to  go  to  Turkey,  but  was  arrest- 
ed on  the  way  at  Goldingen,  in  Moravia,  and  handed 
over  to  the  pontifical  government,  on  condition  that 
his  punishment  should  not  be  capital.  The  Inquisi- 
tion kept  him  in  prison  till  the  day  of  his  death,  Aug. 
10,  1695. — Biog.  Univ.  torn,  v,  p.  193 ;  Hoefer,  Biog.  Ge- 
nerate, v,  735. 

Borromeo,  Carlo,  cardinal  of  the  Roman  Church 
and  archbishop  of  Milan,  was  born  of  noble  parents  at 
the  castle  of  Arona,  on  the  banks  of  the  Lago  Maggi- 
ore,  Oct.  2, 1538.  His  family  was  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient in  Italy,  tracing  its  origin  to  the  family  of  Ani- 
cius  in  ancient  Rome.    His  mother  was  a  sister  of  Pius 

IV.  He  studied  at  Milan  and  at  Pavia,  and  at  both 
was  distinguished  for  personal  virtue  and  for  diligence 
in  study.  His  youth  was  devoted,  not  to  the  ordinary 
pleasures  of  that  age,  but  to  religion  and  charitable 
exercises ;  and  the  great  wealth  at  his  command  did 
not  in  the  least  affect  his  moral  or  religious  character 
injuriously.  Pius  IV,  his  uncle,  adopted  him  as  a  son, 
and  made  him  archbishop  of  Milan  in  1560.  But,  on 
the  death  of  his  brother  Frederick,  his  relations,  and 
even  the  pope  himself,  besought  him  to  marry  in  or- 
der to  preserve  the  line  of  the  family,  which  seemed 
in  danger  of  extinction.  His  mind,  however,  was 
made  up ;  and,  to  escape  farther  importunity,  he  was 
privately  ordained  in  1565,  and  at  once  devoted  him- 
self to  the  reform  of  abuses  in  his  diocese.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  (Sess.  xxiv,  de  ref.  7)  having  recommend- 
ed the  preparation  of  an  authoritative  Catechism,  Pius 
intrusted  t  he  work  to  his  nephew,  who,  associating 
with  himself  three  eminent  ecclesiastics,  completed  in 
1566  the  celebrated  Catechismus  Tridentinus,  Cateckis- 
iii  a, t  Romania,  or  Catechismus  ad  parockos.  See  Cate- 
CHISMS  ;  Greeds.  To  carry  out  his  plans  of  reform, 
he  gave  up  every  other  benefice,  abandoned  his  pater- 
nal property,  and  divided  his  diocesan  revenues  into 
three  portions :  one  for  the  poor,  another  for  the 
Church,  and  the  third  for  himself,  of  the  use  of  which 
In'  gave  a  rL'id  account  to  his  synod.  In  his  palace 
lie  in  nli'  a  like  reformation.  In  the  enforcement  of 
discipline,  he  held,  at  different  periods,  six  provincial 
councils  and  eleven  diocesan  synods;  and,  to  see  that 
the  regulations  of  these  councils  were  enforced,  he 
regularly  visited  in  person  the  churches  of  his  vast 
province.  These  reforms  excited  powerful  resistance. 
The  Humiliati  (q.  v.)  induced  a  friar  of  the  order, 
named  Farina,  to  attempt  the  life  of  Borromeo.  The 
assassin  fired  at,  the  archbishop  as  lie  was  at  prayers 
before  the  altar,  but  the  bullet  only  grazed  the  s'kin. 
The  assassin  and  his  two  accomplices  were  put  to  death, 
and  the  order  of  the  Humiliati  was  suppressed  by  Pins 

V.  During  the  plague  at  Milan,  1576,  he  threw  him- 
self int..  the  danger,  giving  service  in  every  form  to 
the  bodies  and  si. ids  of  the  dying,  at.  the  peril  of  his 
life.  He  died  tfov.3,1584.  On  the  whole, his  life  is 
singularly  remarkable  for  purity  in  the  midst  of  a  cor- 
rupt and  degraded  ( Ihurch.    His  talents,  proper!  v,  and 


life  were  entirely  consecrated  to  the  service  of  Chris  • 
tianity  through  the  Church,  whose  interests  were  al- 
ways to  him  more  sacred  than  any  earthly  considera- 
tions. In  1610  he  was  canonized  by  Paul  V.  His 
works  were  published  at  Milan  in  1747  by  Jos.  Ant. 
Saxius,  containing  his  Instructions  to  Confessors,  his 
Sermons,  and  the  Acta  Ecclesice  Mediolanensis  (5  vols, 
fol.).  The  latter  work  was  originally  printed  at  Milan 
in  1599  (2  vols.  fol.).  In  1758  there  was  published  at 
Augsburg,  in  two  vols,  fol.,  an  edition  of  the  Homilies, 
Discourses,  and  Sermons,  together  with  the  Nodes  Vati- 
cance,  notes  by  Saxius,  and  a  Life,  translated  into  Latin 
from  the  Italian  of  Giussano.  His  life  has  been  sev- 
eral times  written :  see  Godeau,  Vie  de  C.  Borromeo 
(Paris,  17-18,  2  vols.  12mo)  ;  Touron,  Vie  de  St.  Charles 
Borromee  (Paris,  1761,  3  vols.  12mo) ;  Sailer,  Der  heil. 
Karl  Borromeo  (Augsb.  1823)  ;  Giussano,  Leben  dzs  heil. 
Borromeo  (Augsb.  1836,  3  vols.)  ;  Dieringer,  Der  heilige 
Carl  Borromaeus  (Cologne,  1846). — Biog.  Univ.  v,  197; 
Butler,  Lives  of  Sai?ils,  x,  366 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diction- 
arii,  s.  v. 

In  Germany  an  Association  of  St.  Borromeo  was 
founded  in  1846  for  promoting  the  circulation  of  Ro- 
man Catholic  books.  It  counted,  in  1857,  697  branch 
associations,  and  its  receipts  amounted  to  51,000  tha- 
lers. 

Borromeo,  Federico,  cousin  of  Cardinal  Borro- 
meo, was  born  at  Milan  in  1564.  "  He  resided  first  at 
Bologna  and  then  at  Pavia,  and  afterward  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1587.  He 
was  both  a  classical  and  Oriental  scholar,  and  was 
intimate  at  Rome  with  Baronio,  Bellarmine,  and  the 
pious  philanthropist  Filippo  Neri.  In  1595  he  was 
made  archbishop  of  Milan,  where  he  adopted  the  views 
of  his  cousin  and  predecessor  St.  Charles,  and  enforced 
his  regulations  concerning  discipline  with  great  suc- 
cess. He  used  to  visit  by  turns  all  the  districts,  how- 
ever remote  and  obscure,  in  his  diocese,  and  his  zeal- 
ous labors  have  been  recently  eloquently  eulogized  by 
Manzoni  in  his  'Promessi  Sposi.'  He  was  the  found- 
er of  the  Ambrosian  Library,  on  which  he  spent  very 
large  sums  ;  and  he  employed  various  learned  men, 
who  went  about  several  parts  of  Europe  and  the  East 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  manuscripts.  About 
9000  manuscripts  were  thus  collected.  Cardinal  Bor- 
romeo established  a  printing-press,  annexed  to  the  li- 
brary, and  appointed  several  learned  professors  to  ex- 
amine and  make  known  to  the  world  these  literary 
treasures.  He  also  established  several  academies, 
schools,  and  charitable  foundations.  His  philanthro- 
pe, charity,  and  energy  of  mind  were  exhibited  espe- 
cially on  the  occasion  of  the  famine  which  afflicted  Mi- 
lan in  1627-28,  and  also  during  the  great  plague  of 
16o0.  He  died  September  22,1631."— English  Cyclo- 
pedia, s.  v. 

Borromeo,  Society  of  St.     See  Borromeo. 

Borrowing.  On  the  general  subject,  as  a  matter 
of  law  or  precept,  see  Loan. 

In  Exod.  xii,  35,  we  are  told  that  the  Israelites,  when 
on  the  point  of  their  departure  from  Egypt,  "  borrowed 
of  the  Egyptians  jewels  of  silver,  and  jewels  of  gold, 
and  raiment;"  and  it  is  added  that  "the  Lord  gave 
the  people  favor  in  the  sight  of  the  Egyptians,  so  that 
the)'  lent  unto  them  such  things  as  they  required.  And 
they  spoiled  the  Egyptians."  This  was  in  pursuance 
of  a  divine  command  which  had  been  given  to  them 
through  Moses  (Exod.  iii,  22 ;  xi,  2).  This  has  sug- 
gested a  difficult}',  seeing  that  the  Israelites  had  cer- 
tainly no  intention  to  return  to  Egypt,  or  to  restore  the 
valuables  which  thejr  thus  obtained  from  their  Egyp- 
tian "neighbors."  (See  Justi,  Ueb.  die  den  JEgyptien 
von  den  Israeli  fen  In  i  Hirer  Abreise  ahgeforderten  Gerathe, 
Frfct.  a.  M.  1777  :  Danville  Rev.  Sept.  1864  ;  Ev.  Quar. 
Rev.  [Gettysb.]  Jan.  1865.)  It  is  admitted  that  the  gen- 
eral acceptation  of  the  word  here  (but  not  usually  else- 
where) rendered  borrow  (^NC,  shaal"),  is  to  request  or 


BOS 


857 


BOSSUET 


demand;  although  there  are  places  (Exocl.  xxii,  14;  1 
Sam.  i,  28 ;  2  Kings  vi,  5)  where  borrowing  is  certain- 
ly denoted  by  it.  Some  therefore  allege  that  the  Is- 
raelites did  not  borrow  the  valuables,  but  demanded 
them  of  their  Egyptian  neighbors,  as  an  indemnity  for 
their  services,  and  for  the  hard  and  bitter  bondage 
which  they  had  endured.  But  this  does  not  appear 
to  us  to  mend  the  matter  much ;  for  the  Israelites  had 
been  public  servants,  rendering  certain  onerous  ser- 
vices to  the  state,  but  not  in  personal  bondage  to  indi- 
vidual Egyptians,  whom  nevertheless  they,  according 
to  this  account,  mulcted  of  much  valuable  property 
in  compensation  for  wrongs  committed  by  the  state.  I 
These  individual  Egyptians  also  were  selected  not  i 
with  reference  to  their  being  implicated  more  than 
others  in  the  wrong  treatment  of  the  Israelites :  they 
were  those  who  happened  to  be  their  "  neighbors,"  and, 
as  such,  open  more  than  others  to  the  exaction.  Hence 
we  incline  to  the  interpretation  (Clarke,  Comment,  on 
Exod.  iii,  22)  that  the  Israelites  simply  requested  the 
valuables  of  the  Egyptians,  without  any  special  (ex- 
cept a  tacit)  understanding  on  the  part  of  the  latter 
that  they  were  to  be  restored.  This  agrees  with  the 
fact  that  the  professed  object  of  the  Hebrews  was  not 
to  quit  Egypt  forever,  but  merely  to  withdraw  for  a 
few  days  into  the  desert,  that  they  might  there  cele- 
brate a  high  festival  to  their  God.  See  Exode.  At 
such  festivals  it  was  usual  among  all  nations  to  appear 
in  their  gayest  attire,  and  decked  with  many  orna- 
ments ;  and  this  suggests  the  grounds  on  which  the 
Israelites  might  rest  the  application  to  their  Egyptian 
neighbors  for  the  loan  of  their  jewels  and  rich  raiment. 
Their  avowed  intention  to  return  in  a  few  days  must 
have  made  the  request  appear  very  reasonable  to  the 
Egyptians  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  Orientals  are,  and  always 
have  been,  remarkably  ready  and  liberal  in  lending 
their  ornaments  to  one  another  on  occasions  of  relig- 
ious solemnity  or  public  ceremony.  It  would  seem, 
also,  as  if  the  avowed  intention  to  return  precluded  the 
Hebrews  from  any  other  ground  than  that  of  borrow- 
ing ;  for  if  they  had  required  or  demanded  these  things 
as  compensations  or  gifts,  it  would  have  amounted  to 
an  admission  that  they  were  quitting  the  country  al- 
together. Turn  which  way  we  will  in  this  matter, 
there  is  but  a  choice  of  difficulties ;  and  this  leads  us 
to  suspect  that  we  are  not  acquainted  with  all  the  facts 
bearing  on  the  case,  in  the  absence  of  which  we  spend 
our  strength  for  naught  in  laboring  to  explain  it.  One 
of  the  difficulties  is  somewhat  softened  by  the  conjec- 
ture of  Professor  Bush,  who,  in  his  Note  on  Exod.  xi, 
2,  observes,  "We  are  by  no  means  satisfied  that  Moses 
was  required  to  command  the  people  to  practise  the  de- 
vice here  mentioned.  We  regard  it  rather,  as  far  as 
they  were  concerned,  as  the  mere  prediction  of  a  fact 
that  should  occur."  It  will  further  relieve  the  diffi- 
culty if  we  consider  that  it  was  a  principle  universally 
recognised  in  ancient  times,  that  all  property  belong- 
ing to  their  opponents  in  the  hands  of  any  nation 
against  which  war  was  declared  became  forfeited ;  and, 
in  accordance  with  this  supposed  right,  the  jewels,  pre- 
cious vases,  etc.,  which  were  borrowed  by  the  Hebrews 
from  the  Egyptians,  became,  when  Pharaoh  commenced 
war  upon  them,  legal  spoil.  It  is  evident  that  the 
Egyptians  were  but  too  glad  to  get  rid  of  their  danger- 
ous captives  at  last  to  hesitate,  or  even  stipulate  for  a 
restoration  of  the  ornaments;  nor  did  the  Hebrews 
themselves  at  the  time  positively  know  that  they  should 
never  return  them. — Hengstenberg,  Pentat,  ii,  417  sq. 
Bos,  Lambert,  an  eminent  scholar,  was  born  at 
Workum,  in  Friesland,  Nov.  23,  1G70,  and  studied  at 
the  University  of  Franeker,  where  lie  devoted  himself 
to  Greek.  His  progress  was  so  great  that  in  1697  he 
was  appointed  lecturer  in  Greek,  and  in  1703  professor. 
He  died  in  1717.  His  chief  work  is  the  Ellipses  Gree- 
ce?, which  appeared  first  in  1702;  but  the  fullest  and 
best  edition  is  that  of  Schaefer  (Leipsic,  1809).  Among 
his  other  works  ar3  his  Exercitationes  philological  ad 


loca  nonnulla  Novi  Foederis  (Franeker,  1700,  8vo,  and 
1713,  with  additions):  —  Observationes  miscellanem  ad 
loca  quccdam,  etc.  (Ibid.  1707,  8vo,  and  1731): — Vetus 
Teslamenlum  ex  vers.  LXX  interpretum  cum  variis  lec- 
tionibus,  etc.  (Franeker,  1709,  4to). — Biog.  Univ.  v,  206. 
Bos'cath  (2  Kings  xxii,  1).  See  Bozkath. 
Bosem  ;  Boser  ;  Boshah.  See  Balsam  ; 
Grape;  Cockle,  respectively. 

Boskoi  (/3o(tkoi),  monks  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia 
who  lived  upon  roots  and  herbs.  They  inhabited  no 
houses,  nor  ate  flesh  or  bread,  nor  drank  wine.  They 
professed  to  spend  their  time  in  the  worship  of  God,  in 
prayers  and  in  hymns,  till  eating-time  arrived ;  then 
every  man  went,  with  his  knife  in  his  hand,  to  provide 
himself  food  of  the  herbs  of  the  field.  This  is  said  to 
have  been  their  only  diet,  and  constant  way  of  living. 
See  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  vii,  ch.  ii,  §  ii. 

Bosom  (properly  p^n,  cheyle,  koKttoq).  It  is  usu- 
al with  the  Western  Asiatics  to  carry  various  sorts  of 
things  in  the  bosom  of  their  dress,  which  forms  a  some- 
what spacious  depository,  being  wide  above  the  girdle, 
which  confines  it  so  tightly  around  the  waist  as  to  pre- 
vent any  thing  from  slipping  through.  Aware  of  this, 
Harmer  and  other  Biblical  illustrators  rather  hastily 
concluded  that  they  had  found  an  explanation  of  the 
text  (Luke  vi,  38),  "  Good  measure,  pressed  down,  and 
shaken  together,  and  running  over,  shall  men  give 
into  your  bosom."  All  these  expressions  obviously 
apply,  in  the  literal  sense,  to  corn ;  and  it  is  certain 
that  "corn  and  things  measured  in  the  manner  described 
are  never  carried  in  the  bosom.  They  could  not  be 
placed  there,  or  carried  there,  nor  taken  out,  without 
serious  inconvenience,  and  then  only  in  a  small  quan- 
tity. The  things  carried  in  the  bosom  are  simply  such 
as"  Europeans  would,  if  in  the  East,  carry  in  their 
pockets.  Yet  this  habit  of  carrying  valuable  property 
may  indicate  the  origin  of  the  imago,  as  an  image,  into 
the  bosom,  without  requiring  us  to  suppose  that  every 
thing  described  as  being  given  into  the  bosom  really  was 
deposited  there. — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Dress. 

To  have  one  in  our  bosom  implies  kindness,  secrecy, 
intimacy  (Gen.  xvi,  5 ;  2  Sam.  xii,  8).  Christ  is  in 
(n'c,  into)  the  bosom  of  the  Father;  that  is,  possesses  the 
closest  intimacy  with,  and  most  perfect  knowledge  of, 
the  Father  (John  i,  18).  Our  Saviour  is  said  to  carry 
his  lambs  in  his  bosom,  which  touchingly  represents 
his  tender  care  and  watchfulness  over  them  (Isa.  xl. 
11).     See  Abraham's  Bosom. 

Bo'sor  (Boffdp),  the  Graxized  form  of  the  name  of 
a  place  and  of  a  man. 

1.  A  city,  both  large  and  fortified,  on  the  east  of 
Jordan,  in  "the  land  of  Gilead  (Galaad),  named  with 
Bozrah  (Bosora),  Carnaim,  and  other  places,  in  1  Mace, 
v,  26,  36.  It  is  probably  the  Bezer  (q.  v.)  of  Num. 
iv,  43  (see  Grimm,  E.reg.  Handb.  in  loc). 

2.  The  Aramaic  mode  of  pronouncing  the  name  of 
Beor  (q.  v.),  the  father  of  Balaam  (2  Pet.  ii,  15),  in 
accordance  with  the  substitution,  frequent  in  Chaldee, 

I  of  2  for  S  (see  Gesenius,  Tkes.  p.  1144). 

Bos'ora  (Boaapa  and  Booojfya),  a  strong  city  in 
Gilead,  taken  by  Judas  Maccabaeus  (1  Mace,  v,  26,  28), 
doubtless  the  same  as  the  Bozrah  (q.  v.)  of  Moab 
(Jer.  xlviii,  24).     But  see  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  223. 

Boss  (~J,  gab,  literally  the  bach  or  gibbous  part 
of  any  thing,  spoken  elsewhere  of  earthen  bulwarks 
["bodies"]  or  ramparts,  Job  xiii.  12;  the  vault  ["em- 
inent place,"  etc.]  of  a  brothel,  Ezek.  xvi,  24;  xxxi, 
39;  the  eye-"6>-ows,"  Lev.  xiv,  9;  the  rim  or  "nave" 
of  a  wheel,  1  Kings  vii,  33),  the  exterior  convex  part 
of  a  buckler,  Job  xv,  26  (comp.  Schultens,  Comm.  in 
loc).     See  Shield. 

Bossuet,  Jacques  Benigne,  bishop  of  Meaux, 
was  born  at  Dijon,  Sept.  27,  1627,  of  an  eminent  legal 
family.  He  studied  first  at  Dijon,  under  the  Jesuits, 
and  thence  proceeded  to   Paris,  where  he  soon  sur- 


BOSSUET 


858 


BOSTON" 


passed  his  teachers  by  his  acquirements.  He  took 
the  doctor's  bonnet  May  16,  1652,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  received  into  priest's  orders.  He  passed 
some  time  in  retreat  at  St.  Lazare,  and  afterward  re- 
moved to  Metz,  of  winch  cathedral  he  was  canon. 
Daring  his  frequent  visits  to  Paris  on  affairs  connected 
with  the  chapter  of  Metz,  he  preached  often  with  mar- 
vellous effect.  His  sermons  were  almost  entirely  ex- 
tempore  ;  he  took  to  the  pulpit  a  few  notes  on  paper, 
but  a  mind  filled,  by  previous  meditation,  with  his 
subject.  From  1660  to  1GG9  Bossuet  gradually  rose  to 
his  high  pitch  of  eminence  among  the  divines  of  the 
Gallican  Church.  During  that  period  he  composed 
his  celebrated  Exposition  de  la  doctrine  Caiholique,  which 
had  to  wait  nine  years  for  the  pope's  "imprimatur." 
The  points  on  which  he  chiefly  lays  stress  are  the  an- 
tiquity and  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church;  the  accu- 
mulated authorities  of  fathers,  councils,  and  popes ; 
ami  the  necessity  of  a  final  umpire  in  matters  of  doc- 
trine and  discipline.  On  all  these  points,  however, 
he  was  ably  answered  by  the  venerable  John  Claude 
and  other  ministers  of  the  French  Calvinists,  as  well 
as  by  Archbishop  Wake,  who,  in  his  "Exposition  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England,"  exposes  much 
management  and  artifice  in  the  suppression  and  alter- 
ation of  Bossuet's  first  edition.  In  1669  he  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  see  of  Condom  ;  and  it  was  about  this 
time  that  his  celebrated  Funeral  Discourses  were  deliv- 
ered. These  sermons  are  only  six  in  number,  but, 
according  to  Laharpe,  *'ce  sont  des  chefs-d'oeuvre 
dune  eloquence  qui  ne  pouvait  pas  avoir  de  modele 
dans  l'antiquite,  et  que  personnc  n'a  egalee  depuis." 
But,  in  truth,  these  "orations  are  rather  master- 
pieces of  rhetorical  skill  than  specimens  of  Christian 
preaching."  The  king  having,  in  1670,  appointed  him 
preceptor  of  the  dauphin,  Bossuet  resigned  his  bishop- 
ric, his  duties  at  court  being  incompatible  with  his 
ideas  of  what  the  episcopal  office  demanded  of  him. 
His  office  with  the  dauphin  being  completed  in  1681, 
he  was  presented  to  the  see  of  Meaux,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  produced  his  Traitede  la  Communion  sous  Irs 
di  ux  Especes.  In  1688  appeared  the  Histoire  des  Vari- 
ations dp  VegUsi  Protestante.  The  first  live  books  nar- 
rate the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Reformation  in  Ger- 
main- ;  the  6th  treats  of  the  supposed  sanction  given 
by  Luther  and  Melancthon  to  the  adulterous  marriage 
of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  ;  the  7th  and  8th  books  con- 
tain the  ecclesiastical  history  of  England  during  the 
reigns  of  Henry  VIII  and  of  Edward  VI,  and  a  con- 
tinuation of  that  of  German y.  The  French  Calvinists 
are  discussed  in  book  ix,  and  the  assistance  afforded 
to  them  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  on  the  avowed  principle 
that  subjects  might  levy  war  against  their  sovereign 
on  account  of  religious  differences  (a  doctrine  which 
Bossuet  asserts  to  have  been  inculcated  by  the  reform- 
ers),  forms  the  groundwork  of  book  x.  Book  xi  treats 
of  the  Albigenses  and  other  sects  from  the  0th  to  the 
12th  centuries,  who  are  usually  esteemed  precursors 
of  the  reformed.  Books  xii  and  xiii  continue  the  Hu- 
guenot history  till  the  synod  of  Gap.  Book  xiv  gives 
an  account  of  the  dissensions  at  Dorr,  Charenton,  and 
:  and  book  xvand  last  endeavors  to  prove  the 
divine  authority,  and  therefore  the  infallibility  of  the 
true  ( Jhurch,  and  to  exhibit  the  marks  by  which  Borne 
asserts  her  claim  to  that  title.  Basnage,  Jurieu,  and 
Bishop  linnet  replied  to  the  Variations,  but  perhaps 
the  sharpest  reply  is  Archbishop  Wake's  (given  in  Gib- 
Bon's  Prest  rvativi  ay  linsi  Popery),  in  which  Bossuet  is 
convicted  not  merely  of  inaccuracy,  but  also  of  false 
quotations.  In  1689  Bossuet  published  the  Explica- 
tion >/  V Apocalypse,  and  in  the  same  year  the  first  of 
til-  Avertissemens  <mx  Protestans;  the  five  others  fol- 
lowed in  tie-  subsequent  year.  These  Avertissemens 
are  replies  to  tie-  pastoral  letters  of  Jurieu,  attacking 
tic  Histoire  d  i  Variations.  While  the  bishop  was  writ- 
ing  these  replies  the  general  answer  to  the  Variations 
by  Basn.ige  appeared,  to  which  he  rejoined  in  his  De- 


fense des  Variations  in  1694.  In  all  these  works  he 
wrote  with  great  earnestness  against  Protestantism, 
although  he  was  no  advocate  for  the  infallibility  of  the 
pope,  or  his  power  of  deposing  kings,  both  which  pre- 
tensions he  zealously  opposed  in  his  elaborate  defence 
of  the  Four  Articles  promulgated  in  the  celebrated  as- 
sembly of  the  Gallican  clergy  in  1682,  as  containing 
the  view  held  by  the  French  Church  on  the  papal  au- 
thority. (See  Gallicax  Church.)  It  was  written 
in  1683-84,  but  was  not  published  until  1730,  when  it 
appeared  at  Luxembourg,  in  two  vols.  4to,  and  has 
since  been  inserted  in  the  Index  Prohibitorius  :  it  is  en- 
titled Defensio  Declnrationis  celeberrimce  quam  de  Po- 
testate  Ecclesiastica  sanxit  Clerus  Gallicanus  19  Martii, 
1682.  Bossuet  refused  the  cardinal's  hat,  which  was 
offered  him  by  Pope  Innocent  XI  as  an  inducement  for 
him  to  remain  silent  on  those  points.  He  died  at  Par- 
is, April  12, 1704.  His  complete  works  have  often  been 
published ;  the  best  editions  are  those  of  Paris,  1825, 
59  vols.  12mo,  and  1836, 12  vols,  roj'al  8vo.  A  com- 
plete list  of  his  works  is  given  in  Biog.  Univ.  v,  237, 
and  by  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  i,  372  sq.  Bossuet's 
intellect  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  grandest  which 
has  ever  adorned  the  Roman  Church.  His  sermons, 
most  of  which  were  never  fully  written  out  by  himself, 
abound  in  noble  thoughts,  expressed  in  vigorous  and 
elevated  language.  But  his  assaults  on  Protestantism 
are  often  as  unfair  and  unjust  as  the)'  are  violent.  His 
treatment  of  Fenelon  (q.  v.),  and  his  personal  share  in 
persecuting  the  Protestants  of  France,  will  always  re- 
main a  blot  upon  his  fame  (see,  especially,  Methodist 
Quarterly  Review,  Jan.  1866,  p.  127).  The  best  life  of 
him  (which,  nevertheless,  is  more  a  panegyric  than  a 
biography)  is  by  Bausset,  Hist,  de  Bossuet  (Paris,  1828, 
5th  ed.  4  vols.  12mo),  with  Tabaraud ,  Supplement  aux 
histoires  de  Bossuet  et  de  Fenelon  (Paris,  1822,  8vo). 
There  is  also  an  English  life  by  C.  Butler,  in  his 
Works,  vol.  iii.  The  History  of  Variations,  in  Eng- 
lish, appeared  in  Dublin,  1829  (2  vols.  8vo).  See 
Quarterly  Review,  x,  409 ;  Christian  Remembrancer, 
xxvii,  118  ;  Hare,  Vindication  of  Luther,  p.  16,  272 ; 
English  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. ;  Poujoulat,  Lettres  sur  Bos- 
suet f Paris,  1854);  Landon,  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary, 
ii,  350. 

Boston,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian  divine 
and  voluminous  writer,  was  born  in  Dunse,  Berwick- 
shire, 7th  March,  1676.  He  received  his  school  train- 
ing at  his  native  place,  and  afterward  attended  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  Lie  was  ordained  in  1699 
minister  of  the  parish  of  Simprin,  near  his  native  place, 
and  in  1707  he  removed  to  Ettrick.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  General  Asscmblj'  of  1703.  He  was  op- 
posed to  the  oath  of  abjuration,  and  in  general  to  all 
measures  which  created  restrictions  on  the  Church. 
He  joined  those  who  supported  the  doctrines  of  The 
Marrow  <f  Modern  Divinity  in  the  controversy  in  the 
Scottish  Church  on  that  work.  He  died  on  the  20th 
of  May,  1732.  Boston's  writings  are  eminently  popu- 
lar in  Scotland  and  among  the  Presbyterians  in  Eng- 
land. Llis  well-known  Fourfold  State,  which  was  first 
printed  in  1720,  had  a  curious  literary  fate.  It  had 
been  so  far  reconstructed  bjr  a  person  whom  he  had 
engaged  to  correct  the  press,  that  the  author,  scarcely 
recognising  his  own  work,  repudiated  the  book  till  he 
issued  a  genuine  edition.  The  title  of  this  book  in 
full  is  "Human  Nature  in  its  Fourfold  State:  of  primi- 
tive integrity  subsisting  in  the  parents  of  mankind  in 
Paradise ;  entire  depravation  subsisting  in  the  unre- 
generate;  begun  recovery  subsisting  in  the  regener- 
ate ;  and  consummate  happiness  or  misery  subsisting 
in  all  mankind  in  the  future  state."  In  1776  appeared 
Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Time,  and  Writings  of  Thomas 
Boston,  divided  into  twelve  periods,  written  by  him- 
self, and  addressed  to  his  children.  The  Fourfold 
State,  which  is  a  strongly  Calvinistic  book,  has  passed 
through  many  editions,  and  is  constantly  reprinted. 
Boston  wrote  also  other  practical  and  controversial 


BOSTRA 


859 


BOTANY 


pieces,  which  are  gathered  in  M'Millan's  edition  of  the 
Complete  Works  of  the  Rev.  T.  Boston  (Lond.  1852,  12 
vols.  8vo).— Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  221. 

Bostra,  an  ancient  episcopal  see  of  Arabia,  whose 
first  bishop  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  seventy  dis- 
ciples. In  241  (according  to  others,  247)  a  celebrated 
council  was  held  there,  under  the  presidency  of  Origen, 
against  Bervllus,  a  Monarchian  (q.  v.)  and  Patripassian 
(q.  v.).  Origen  not  only  refuted  him,  but  brought 
him  back  from  his  errors.     See  Bozrah. 

Bostrenus  (Bo<n-p»fi/oc),  the  "graceful"  river 
upon  whose  banks  Sidon  was  situated  (Dionys.  Per. 
p.  913);  being  the  modern  Nahr  eUAuhy,  a  stream 
rising  in  Mount  Lebanon  from  fountains  an  hour  and  a 
half  beyond  the  village  el-Baruk ;  it  is  at  first  a  wild 
torrent,  and  its  course  is  nearly  south-west  (Burck- 
hardt,  Syria,  p.  206 ;  Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  429 ; 
Chesney,  Euphrat.  Exped.  i,  4G7). 

Bostwick,  Siiadrach,  an  early  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  in  Maryland,  educated  as  a 
physician,  and  entered  the  itinerancy  in  1791.  For 
fourteen  years  he  travelled  extensively  in  Delaware, 
Maryland,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Connecticut,  Mas- 
sachusetts, and  Ohio.  In  1798-9  he  was  presiding  el- 
der on  New  London  District,  Conn.  In  1803  he  he- 
came  the  pioneer  of  Methodism  on  the  Western  Re- 
serve, Ohio,  then  a  wilderness,  where  his  labors  were 
of  great  and  permanent  value.  In  1805  he  located, 
and  resumed  the  practice  of  medicine.  The  "intel- 
lectual and  evangelical  power  of  his  sermons"  gave 
him  great  popularity  wherever  he  travelled.  His 
piety  was  deep,  and  his  bearing  noble. — Minutes  of 
Conferences,  vol.  i  (appointments) ;  Bangs,  History  of 
Methodism,  ii,  80 ;  Stevens,  Memorials  of  Methodism, 
vol.  i,  ch.  xxvi  ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  200. 

Botany,  the  science  that  treats  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  The  only  trace  of  a  systematic  classifica- 
tion on  this  subject  in  the  Scriptures  is  found  in  the 
account  of  the  creation  (Gen.  i,  11,  12),  where  the 
following  distinctions  are  made:  1.  De'shu,  KtU^T, 
"grass,"  i.e.  the  first  shoots  of  herbage ;  2.  F/seb, 
3©5,  "herb,"  i.  e.  green  or  tender  plants;  3.  Ets,  yv, 
"  tree,"  i.  e.  woody  shrubs  and  trees.  These  divisions 
correspond  in  general  to  the  obvious  ones  of  grassy, 
herbaceous,  and  arborescent  forms  of  vegetable  growth, 
the  two  former  comprising  annuals  and  those  destitute 
of  a  firm  stem.  Solomon  is  said  to  have  written,  or, 
at  least,  discoursed  on  botanical  productions  ranging 
"from  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  to  the  hyssop  that  spring- 
eth  out  of  the  wall"  (1  Kings  iv,  33)  ;  but  of  his  trea- 
tise or  effusions  nothing  is  now  extant  or  further  al- 
luded to,  if  indeed  this  be  any  thing  more  than  a  hy- 
perbolical mode  of  representing  his  general  compass 
of  knowledge  (comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  2,  5)  accord- 
ing to  the  then  unscientific  standard.  See  SciEN<  E. 
A  large  number  and  considerable  variety,  however,  of 
trees  and  plants  are  more  or  less  referred  to  in  the  Bi- 
ble, but  of  many  of  these  there  exist  very  slight  means 
of  identifying  the  exact  species  according  to  modern 
botanical  systems.  The  following  is  a  list  of  all  the 
individuals  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  of  scriptural  oc- 
currence, in  the  alphabetical  order  of  their  Hebrew  or 
Greek  names,  with  their  probable  modern  equivalents, 
and  renderings  in  the  Authorized  English  Version. 
See  these  last  each  in  its  proper  place  in  this  work. 
"melons." 


Apsinthos,  Wormwood, 

A  rabim',  Osier, 

Ashur',  Cedar  (?), 

Baton,  Palm, 

Easam',  Eesam',  or  Be' sem,  Balsa 


Abattichim',  Melon, 

A  biiion  ih\  <  taper-plant, 

Arliu',  Sedge, 

Adash',  Lentil, 

A  gam',  Heed, 

Agmon',  Reed, 

Agrielains,  Oleaster, 
Ahalim'  and  Ahaloth',         Aloe, 

Akanlha,  Bramble, 
AVwrnmim'  or  Almuggim',  Sandal-tree, 

Allah'  or  Allon',  Terebinth, 

Aide,  Aloe, 

Anithon,  Dill, 


"flag,    etc 

"lentil." 

"reed." 

"  bulrush,"  etc. 

"  wild  olive." 

"  aloes." 

"thorn." 

"  almug  -  trees," 

"oak,"  etc.    [etc. 

"  aloes." 

"  anise." 


Batoz, 

Bekaim', 

Berosh'  or  Berolh', 

Be'tsel, 

Beushvm', 

Likkurah', 

P.o'ser, 

Boshah.', 

Botnim', 

Emxos  or  Bute, 

ChabatxtH-'Wh, 

Challaimtth, 

Charcy'-  Yonim', 

Chartsan', 

Charul', 

Chatsir', 

Che'dek, 

Chclbenah', 

Chittah'  and  CMntin', 

Cho'ach, 

Chor  and  Chur, 

Dardar', 

Dochan', 

Dudalm', 

Ebeh', 

Utah'  or  Eton', 

Elaia, 

E'rez, 

E'shel, 

Ets-slic'men, 

EzoV, 

Gad, 

Go'me, 

Go'pher, 

Iladas', 

Hedtwsmon, 

Ilolmi', 

Hus&ypos, 

KaUimot; 

Kali', 

Kalulaios, 

Ramon', 

Kaneh', 

Karkom', 

Karpas', 

Ka'yits, 

Keratton, 

Ke'Uach, 

Ketsiyah', 

Kikayon', 

Eimmosh'  or  Kimosh', 


Bramble, 
Gum-tree, 

Cypress, 

(Inien, 

Poison-berry, 

Early  Fig, 

Unripe  Grape, 

Weed, 

Pistachio, 

Linen, 

Meadow  Saffron, 

Purelain, 

Kale, 

Sour  Grape, 

Bramble, 

Greens, 

Mad-apple, 

Galfaanum, 

Wheat, 

Thorn, 

Linen, 

Weed, 

Millet, 

Love-apple, 

Papyrus, 

Terebinth  (''), 

Olive, 

Cedar, 

Tamarisk, 

Olive, 

Hyssop, 

Coriander, 

Papyrus, 

Cypress, 

Myrtle, 

Mint, 

Ebony, 

Hyssop, 

Besd, 

Boasted  grains, 

Olive, 

Cummin, 

Cane, 

Saffron, 

Cotton  (?), 

Fig, 

Carol), 

Fennel-flower, 

Cassia, 

Castor-plant, 

Thistle, 


1  worrmvood." 
'willows." 
1  Ashurites." 
'  branch." 
'  spice." 
'bush,"  ete. 
'  mulberry." 
'  fir." 
'Onion.'' 
'wild  grapes." 
'first  ripe,"  etc. 
'sour  grapes." 
'  cockle." 
'nuts." 
'fine  linen." 


'egg. 

'doves'  dung. 
'  kernels." 
'nettle." 
'  leeks." 
'thorn,"  "brie 
'  galba 


Kinamon'    and    Kinamb-  Cinnamon, 


vwn, 

Kil']  nth' 


Kislishu', 
Ko'pher, 

Eots, 

Krinon, 

Krilhe, 

Kam'inon, 

Kitsxe'meth, 

Libdnos  and  Libonah'. 

Libneh', 

Lot,    ' 

Luz, 

Mallu'uch, 

Man  and  Manna, 

Mor, 

Xardos, 

Kataph', 

Olunthos, 

O'ren, 

Pag, 

Pa' knot!,', 

Pegdnon, 

Pe'ftheth  or  Pixhtah', 

Phoinix, 

Pol, 

Rimmon', 

Posh, 

Ro'them, 

Sallun'  or  Sillon', 

Seneh', 

Sri. rah', 

Shaked', 

Shamir', 

Sha'yith, 

Shesh, 

Shittah'  or  SMttim', 

Shoshan',  Shushan',  e 

Shum, 

Sindpi, 

Sir, 

Sirpad', 


Palm,  ' 

Cucumber,  ' 

Cyprus-flower,    ' 

Thorn,  ' 

Lily, 

Barley, 

Cummin, 

Spelt, 

frankincense, 

Poplar, 

Flax, 

Ladanum, 

Almond, 

Sea  I'urslain, 

Manna, 

Myrrh, 

Spikenard, 

Aromatics, 

1'nripo  Fig. 

I'inei.o. 

Unripe  Fig, 

Wild  Cucumber, 

Rue, 

Flax, 

Palm, 
Lean, 

Pomegranate, 
Poppy  (?), 

Spanish  Broom, 

Prickle, 

Bramble, 

Barley. 

Almond, 

Brier, 

Thorn, 

Linen, 

Acacia, 

Lily, 

Garlic, 

Mustard, 

Thorn, 

Kettle, 


it." 


'millet." 
'  mandrake." 
'swift." 

'oak." 
'olive." 
'cedar." 
'  grove,"  etc. 
'  oil-tree." 

•  hyssop." 

1  coriander." 

'  rush,"  etc. 

'gopher." 

'myrtle." 

'mint." 

'ebony." 

'hyssop." 

'  reed,"  etc. 

'  parched  corn." 

'good  olive." 

'cummin." 

'  reed,"  etc. 

'  saffron." 

'green." 

'  summer." 

'  husk." 

'  fitches." 

'cassia." 

'  gourd." 

'  nettle." 

•cinnamon." 

'  branch." 

'  cucumber." 

'pitch,"  etc. 

'thorn,"  "brier." 

'lily." 

'barley." 

'cummin." 

'  rye,"  etc. 

'  frankincense." 

'poplar." 

'linen." 

'myrrh." 

1  hazi  1." 

'  mallows." 

'  manna." 

'myrrh." 

'spikenard." 

1  staete." 

'  untimely  figs." 

•ash." 

•'green  figs." 

'  wild  gourd." 

'flax." 

•  palm." 

■'  beans." 

•L  pomegranate." 

■'gall,"  etc. 
"juniper." 

•'thorn,"  "brier." 

"bush." 

"barley." 

"almond." 

"brier." 

"  thorn." 

•'fine  linen,"  etc. 

"shittah,"  etc. 

"lily." 

"garlic." 

"  mustard." 

"  thorn." 

"  brier." 


BOTCH 


860 


BOTTLE 


Sitds, 

Grain, 

"wheat,"  "cor 

Skuhps, 

Brier, 

"thorn." 

Smurna, 

Myrrh, 

u  myrrh." 

Sorek', 

( rrape, 

"vine." 

Staph&le, 

Grape, 

11  bunch." 

Sub  or  Silicon, 

rig, 

"fig." 

- 

Sycamore, 

"sycamore." 

Suph, 

Vamar'ot  Timmorah', 

Sea-weed, 

"  weed,"  etc. 

Palm, 

"  palm." 

Tappu'ach, 

Apple  c:\ 

"apple." 

Teunah', 

Plantain, 

"fig." 

Teiixlishur', 

Cedar, 

"box." 

Thula, 

Citron  ('?), 

"  thyine." 

Tidha> ', 

Holm  (?), 

"  pine." 

Tirzah', 

Ilex  (?) 

"  cypress." 

T,  fWfog, 

Caltrop, 

"brier." 

rs't]>hfsaphah\ 
TSeelim', 

■Willow, 

"willow." 

Lotus, 

"  shady." 

Tsimmuk', 

Raisins, 

"  raisins." 

Txinnim'  or  Tsininim', 

Prickly  shrubs, 

"  thorns." 

Tsori', 

Halm, 

"  balm." 

Za'mth, 

Olive, 

"olive." 

Ze'plteth, 

Pitch, 

"pitch." 

Zizania, 

Darnel, 

"  tares." 

See  Ursini  Arboretum  Biblicum  (Norimberg,  1685, 
12mo);  Hiller,  Hierophyticon  (Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1725, 
4to);  Forskal,  Flora  yEgyptiaco  -  Arabica  (Haunias, 
1775,  4to) ;  Celsius,  Hierobotanicum  (Upsal,  1745,  2 
vols.  8vo);  Russell,  Nat.  Hist,  of  Aleppo  (Lond.  1714, 
2  vols.  4to)  ;  Bruce,  Travels  (vol.  iii,  Edinb.  1805,  4to) ; 
Kitto,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Palest,  (vol.  ii,  Lond.  1843,  8vo); 
Osborne,  Plants  of  the  Holy  Land  (Phila.  1860,  4 to); 
Calcott,  Script.  Herbal  (Lond.  1842,  8vo)  ;  Rosenmiiller, 
Bib.  Botany  (tr.  from  the  German  (Edinb.  1846, 12mo). 
Comp.  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt,  abridg.  ii,  20-38.  See 
Plant;  Tree;  Fritt;  Flower;  Natural  History. 

Botch  CpHl£5,  shechin',  elsewhere  "boil"),  a  name 
applied  (Deut.  xxviii,  27,  35)  to  the  Egyptian  plague  of 
cutaneous  inflammatory  eruptions  (Exod.  ix,9  sq.),  a 
disease  at  that  time  preternaturally  induced,  hut  appar- 
ently also  endemic  in  that  country  from  Sept.  to  l>ec, 
according  to  some  travellers,  and  breaking  out  in  pus- 
tules that  sometimes  prove  fatal  in  a  few  days  (Gran- 
ger,  Voyage  de  VEgypte,  p.  22).  Others  (comp.  Rosen- 
miiller, Alterthumsk.  ii,  222  sq.)  understand  a  kind  of 
eruptive  fever  engendered  by  the  effluvia  after  the  in- 
undation of  the  Nile ;  but  this  disease  would  hardly 
attack  cattle.  Jahn  (Archiiol.  I,  ii,  384)  thinks  it  was 
the  black  leprosy  or  melandria.     See  Boil. 

Botnim.     See  Nut. 

Botrys  (Borpuc ;  in  Or.  this  word  means  a  bunch 
of  grapes;  Roarpve  in  Theophan.  Chorogr.  p.  193; 
comp.  Pomp.  Mela,  i,  12,  3),  a  town  of  the  Phoenician 
coast,  twelve  Roman  miles  north  of  Byblus  (Tab. Petit."), 
and  a  fortress  of  the  robber  tribes  of  Mount  Libanus 
(Strabo,  xvi,  p.  755),  founded  by  Ethbaal,  king  of 
Tyre  (Menander  in  Josephus,  Ant.  viii,  13,  2).  It  was 
taken,  with  other  cities,  by  Antiochus  the  Great  in  his 
Phoenician  campaign  (Polyb.  v,  68).  It  is  still  ex- 
tant tinder  the  name  Batrun,  a  small  town,  with  a  port 
and  300  or  400  houses,  chiefly  of  Maronites  (Chesney, 
Evphrat.  Exped.  i,  454). 

Eottle  is  the  word  employed  by  our  translators  for 
several  terms  in  the  original.  The  most  proper  of 
these  appears  to  be  IN:  (nod,  so  called  from  being 
shaken  in  churning  [see  Putter]),  Gr.  (Woe,  a  ves- 
sel made  of  skin,  used  fur  milk  (Judg.  iv,  19),  or  wine 
(Josh,  ix,  I.  11;  1  Sam.  xvi,  20;  Matt,  ix,  17;  Mark 
ii,  22  :  Luke  v.  37,  38).  For  preserving  the  latter  free 
from  insects,  they  were  often  suspended  in  the  smoke 
(  Psa.  cxix,  83).  The  term  occurs  in  a  figurative  sense 
in  Psa.  hi,  8.  r-cn  (che'meth,  so  called  from  its  usu- 
al  rancidity)  was  also  a  leathern  or  skin  bottle  for 
holding  water  (Gen.  xxi,  14,  15,  19)  or  strong  drink 
(  Bos.  ii,  16).  Eartlien  vessels  for  liquids  are  denoted 
by  P"^^?  (bakbuk',  .ler.  xix,  1-10;  "  cruse"  of  honey, 
1  Kings  xiv,  8)  and  fen?  or  feaj.  (ne'bd,  Isa.  xxx,  14; 
for  wine,  1  Sam.  i,  24  ;  x,  3;  xxv,  18;  2  Sam.  xvi,  1 ; 
■ler.  xiii,  12;  xlviii.12;  figuratively,  Job xxxviii, 37 ; 
"pitchers,"  Lam.  iv,  2).     The  term  employed  in  Job 


xxxii,  19,  is  SIX  (ob,  strictly  a  water-skin),  and  evi- 
dently refers  to  a  wine-skin  as  bursting  by  fermenta- 
tion. The  word  fTCn  (chemah'),  rendered  "bottle" 
of  wine  in  Hos.  vii,  5,  signifies  rather  its  heat  or  in- 
toxicating strength,  as  in  the  margin  and  elsewhere. 
See  Cruse;  Cup;  Flagon;  Pitcher;  Bowl,  etc. 

1.  The  first  bottles  were  probably  made  of  the  skins 
of  animals.  Accordingly,  in  the  fourth  book  of  the 
Iliad  (1.  247),  the  attendants  are  represented  as  bear- 
ing wine  for  use  in  a  bottle  made  of  goat-skin  (avKtp 
iv  aiyii'ij).  In  Herodotus  also  (ii,  121)  a  passage  oc- 
curs by  which  it  appears  that  it  was  customary  among 
the  ancient  Egyptians  to  use  bottles  made  of  skins  ; 
and  from  the  language  employed  bj'  him  it  may  be  in- 
ferred that  a  bottle  was  formed  by  sewing  up  the  skin, 
and  leaving  the  projection  of  the  leg  and  foot  to  serve 
as  a  cock ;  hence  it  was  termed  TcoStwv.  This  aperture 
was  closed  with  a  plug  or  a  string.  In  some  instances 
every  part  was  sewed  up  except  the  neck ;  the  neck 


Ancient  Egyptian  Skin-bottles  :  1,  apparently  containing  wine, 
balanced  by  another  in  a  case,  4,  on  a  pole;  2,  3,  slung  on 
the  shoulder :  5,  G,  earned  by  hand ;  7,  adapted  to  be  sus- 
pended in  a  tree  by  laborers. 

of  the  animal  thus  became  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  (See 
AVilkinson,  Ane.  Eg.  i,  148-158.)  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  also  were  accustomed  to  use  bottles  made  of 
skins,  chiefly  for  wine  (see  Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq. 
s.  v.  Vinum).     See  Skix-bottle. 


Ancient  Italian  Skin-bottles.    From  the  dtlineationa  m  ller- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii. 

Skin-bottles  doubtless  existed  among  the  Hebrews 
even  in  patriarchal  times  ;  but  the  first  clear  notice  of 
them  does  not  occur  till  Josh,  ix,  4,  where  it  is  said 
that  the  Gibeonites,  wishing  to  impose  upon  Joshua  as 
if  they  had  come  from  a  long  distance,  took  "old  sacks 
upon  their  asses,  and  wine-bottles,  old,  and  rent,  and 
bound  up."  So  in  the  thirteenth  verse  of  the  same 
chapter:  "these  bottles  of  wine  which  we  filled  were 
new,  and,  behold,  they  be  rent;  and  these  our  garments 
and  our  shoes  are  become  old  'by  reason  of  the  very 
long  journey."  Age,  then,  had  the  effect  of  wearing 
and  tearing  the  bottles  in  question,  which  must  conse- 


BOTTLE 


861 


BOTTLE 


quently  have  been  of  skin  (see  Hackett's  Ilhtstr.  of 
Scripture,  p.  44,  45).  To  the  same  effect  is  the  passage 
in  Job  xxxii,  19,  "My  belly  is  as  wine  which  hath  no 
vent ;  it  is  ready  to  burst  like  new  bottles."  Our  Sav- 
iour's language  (Matt,  ix,  17;  Luke  v,  37,  38;  Mark 
ii,  22)  is  thus  clearly  explained  :  "  Men  do  not  put  new 
wine  into  old  bottles,  else  the  bottles  break  and  the 
wine  runneth  out,  and  the  bottles  perish;"  "New  wine 
must  be  put  into  new  bottles,  and  both  are  preserved." 
To  the  conception  of  an  English  reader,  who  knows  of 
no  bottles  but  such  as  are  made  of  clay  or  glass,  the 
idea  of  bottles  breaking  through  age  presents  an  insu- 
perable difficulty;  but  skins  may  become  "old,  rent, 
and  bound  up;"  they  also  prove,  in  time,  hard  and  in- 
elastic, and  would,  in  such  a  condition,  be  very  unfit 
to  hold  new  wine,  probably  in  a  state  of  active  fer- 
mentation. Even  new  skins  might  be  unable  to  re- 
sist the  internal  pressure  caused  by  fermentation.  If, 
therefore,  by  "new"  is  meant  "untried,"  the  passage 
just  cited  from  Job  presents  no  inconsistency. 

As  the  drinking  of  wine  is  illegal  among  the  Mos- 
lems who  are  now  in  possession  of  Western  Asia,  little 
is  seen  of  the  ancient  use  of  skin-bottles  for  wine,  un- 
less among  the  Christians  of  Georgia,  Armenia,  and 
Lebanon,  where  they  are  still  thus  employed.  In 
Georgia  the  wine  is  stowed  in  large  ox-skins,  and  is 
moved  or  kept  at  hand  for  use  in  smaller  skins  of  goats 
or  kids.  But  skins  are  still  most  extensively  used 
throughout  Western  Asia  for  water.  The  Arabs,  and 
all  those  that  lead  a  wandering  life,  keep  their  water, 
milk,  and  other  liquors  in  leathern  bottles.     These  are 


Modern  Oriental  Water-skins. 
made  of  goat-skins.  When  the  animal  is  killed,  they 
cut  off  its  feet  and  its  head,  and  they  draw  it  in  this 
manner  out  of  the  skin  without  opening  its  belly.  In 
Arabia  they  are  tanned  with  acacia  bark,  and  the  hairy 
part  left  outside.  If  not  tanned,  a  disagreeable  taste 
is  imparted  to  the  water.  They  afterward  sew  up  the 
places  where  the  legs  were  cut  off  and  the  tail,  and 
when  it  is  filled  they  tie  it  about  the  neck.  The  great 
leathern  bottles  are  made  of  the  skin  of  a  he-goat,  and 
the  small  ones,  that  serve  instead  of  a  bottle  of  water  on 
the  road,  are  made  of  a  kid's  skin.  These  bottles,  when 
rent,  are  repaired  sometimes  by  setting  in  a  piece,  some- 
times by  gathering  up  the  wounded  place  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  purse ;  sometimes  they  put  in  a  round  flat 
piece  of  wood,  and  by  that  means  stop  the  hole  (Char- 
din,  ii,  405;  viii,  409;  Wellsted,  Arabia,  i,  89;  ii,  78; 
Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  ii,  c.  1;  Harmer,  ed.  Clarke,  i,  284). 
Bruce  gives  a  description  of  a  vessel  of  the  same  kind, 
but  larger.  ':  A  gerba  is  an  ox's  skin  squared,  and 
the  edges  sewed  together  by  a  double  seam,  which  does 
not  let  out  water.  An  opening  is  left  at  the  top,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  bung-hole  of  a  cask  ;  around  this 
the  skin  is  gathered  to  the  size  of  a  large  handful, 
which,  when  the  gerba  is  full  of  water,  is  tied  round 
with  whip-cord.  These  gerbas  contain  about  sixty 
gallons  each,  and  two  of  them  are  the  load  of  a  camel. 
They  are  then  all  besmeared  on  the  outside  with 
grease,  as  well  to  hinder  the  water  from  oozing  through 
as  to  prevent  its  being  evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun  upon  the  gerba,  which,  in  fact,  happened  to  us 
twice,  so  as  to  put  us  in  danger  of  perishing  with 
thirst"  {Travels,  iv,  334).  Chardin  says  that  wine  in 
Persia  is  preserved  in  skins  saturated  with  pitch,  which, 


when  good,  impart  no  flavor  to  the  wine  (T"o 

75).     Skins  for  wine  or  other  liquids  arc  in  use  to  this 

day  in  Spain,  where  they  are  called  borraehas. 

2.  It  is  an  error  to  represent  bottles  as  being  made 
exclusively  of  dressed  or  undressed  skins  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews  (Jones,  Biblical  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v.). 
Among  the  Egyptians  ornamental  vases  were  of  hard 
stone,  alabaster,  glass,  ivory,  bone,  porcelain,  bronze, 
silver,  or  gold  ;  and  also,  for  the  use  of  the  people  gen- 
erally, of  glazed  pottery  or  common  earthenware.  As 
early  as  Thotmes  III,  only  two  centuries  later  than 
the  Exodus,  B.C.  1490,  vases  arc  known  to  have  exist- 
ed of  a  shape  so  elegant  and  of  workmanship  so  supe- 
rior as  to  show  that  the  art  was  not,  even  then,  in  its 
infancy  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Eg.  ii,  59,  60).     Glass  bot- 


Ancient  Egyptian  Bottles  properly  so  calle;l :   1  to  7,  of  glass; 
S  to  11,  of  earthenware.     From  the  British  Museum. 

ties  of  the  third  or  fourth  century  B.C.  have  been 
found  at  Babylon  by  Mr.  Layard.  At  Cairo  many 
persons  obtain  a  livelihood  by  selling  Nile  water,  which 
is  carried  by  camels  or  asses  in  skins,  or  by  the  carrier 
himself  on  his  back  in  pitchers  of  porous  gray  earth 
(Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  ii,  153,  155;  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p. 
Gil ;  Maundrell,  Journey,  p.  407,  Bohn).     See  Glass. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Glass  Bottles, 


From  the  British  Museum. 


Among  the  Israelites,  as  early  as  the  days  of  the 
Judges  (iv,  19 ;  v,  25),  bottles  or  vases  composed  of 
some  earthy  material,  and  apparently  of  a  superior 
make,  were  in  use;  for  what  in  the  fourth  chapter  is 
termed  "a  bottle,"  is  in  the  fifth  designated  "a  lordly 
dish."  Isaiah  (xxx,  14)  expressly  mentions  ''the  bot- 
tle of  the  potters,"  as  the  reading  in  the  margin  gives 
it,  being  a  literal  translation  from  the  Hebrew,  while 
the  terms  which  the  prophet  employs  shows  that  he 
could  not  have  intended  any  thing  made  of  skin  :  "  He 
shall  breeik  it  as  the  breaking  of  the  potter's  vessel  that 
is  br-oken  in  pieces,  so  that  there  shall  not  lie  found  in 
the  bursting  of  it  a  sherd  to  take  fire  from  the  hearth, 
or  to  take  water  out  of  the  pit."  In  Jeremiah  xix,  1, 
he  is  commanded,  "Go  and  get  a  potter's  earthen  bot- 
tle;" and  (ver.  10)  "break  the  bottle;"  "Even  so, 
saith  the  Lord  of  Hosts  (ver.  IT),  will  I  break  this  peo- 
ple ami  this  city  as  one  brcakcth  a  potter's  vessel,  that 
cannot  be  made  whole  again"  (see  also  Jer.  xiii.  12- 
14).  Metaphorically  the  word  bottle  is  used,  especial- 
ly in  poetry,  for  the  clouds  considered  as  pouring  out 
and  pouring  down  water  (Job  xxxviii,  37),  "  Who  can 
stay  the  bottles  of  heaven?"  The  passage  in  the 
Psalms  (lvi,  K),  "Put  thou  my  tears  in  a  bottle,"  that 
is,  "treasure  them  up,"  "have  a  regard  to  them  as 


BOTTOMLESS  PIT 


S62 


BOURGES 


something  precious,"  is  illustrated  by  the  custom  of 
tying  u]i  in  bags  or  small  bottles,  and  secure  -with  a 
seal,  articles  of  value,  such  as  precious  stones,  neck- 
laces, and  other  ornaments. — Kitto;  Smith.  See  Tear. 

Bottomless  Pit.     See  Abyss. 

Boucher,  Jonathan,  one  of  the  early  Episcopal 
ministers  in  America,  was  born  at  Blencogo,  England, 
1738.  At  sixteen  he  came  to  America,  and  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  rectorship  of  Hanover  parish,  Va.,  in  1761. 
He  served  in  succession  the  parishes  of  St.  Mary's,  St. 
Ainu's,  and  Queen  Ann's  in  Maryland;  and  from 
this  Last  he  was  ejected  in  1775  for  refusing  to  omit 
from  the  service  the  prayers  for  the  king.  Returning 
to  England,  he  became  vicar  of  Epsom  1784.  In  1799 
he  removed  to  Carlisle,  where  he  died  in  1804.  He 
published  A  View  of  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  the 
A  in,  rican  Revolution  (Lond.  1797,  8vo),  and  some  pam- 
phlets. His  later  years  were  spent  on  a  Glossary  of 
Provincial  and  Archaeological  Words,  which  remained 
in  MS.,  and  was  purchased  in  1831  by  the  English 
publishers  of  Webster's  Dictionary. — Sprague,  Annals, 
v,  211 ;  Allen,  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Boudinot,  Elias,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  Christian 
philanthropist,  was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1740.  He 
early  gained  a  great  reputation  as  a  lawyer,  and  was 
appointed,  in  1777,  commissary  general  of  the  prison- 
ers. In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and 
became  its  chairman  in  1782,  in  which  capacity  he 
signed  the  preliminaries  of  peace  with  Great  Britain. 
In  1789  he  was  again  called  to  Congress,  where  he 
served  for  six  years  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
In  1796  Washington  appointed  him  superintendent  of 
the  mint,  an  office  which  he  held  until  1805.  In  1812 
he  became  a  member  of  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions,  and  in  1816  the  first 
president  of  the  American  Bible  Society  (q.  v.).  These 
two,  as  well  as  many  other  religious  societies,  received 
from  him  rich  donations.  He  died  Oct.  24,  1821,  at 
Burlington.  He  wrote :  A ge  of  Revelation,  or  the  Age 
of  Reason  an  Age  of  Infidelity  (1790)  : — Second  Advent 
of  the  Mi  ssiah  1 1815)  -.—Star  in  the  West  (1810).  In  the 
last  work  he  tried  to  show  that  the  North  American 
Indians  are  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel.  He  also  publish- 
ed (anonymously  in  the  Evangelical  Intelligencer  for 
1806)  a  memoir  of  the  remarkable  William  Tennent 

(q.  v.). 

Bough  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  sev- 
eral words  that  require  no  special  elucidation,  but  in 
Isa.  xvii,  0,  9,  it  stands  as  the  representative  of  "I"1  ^N, 
amir'  (Sept.  iir  apKov  [iiTtiopov  in  ver.  6,  and  ol 
'Afioppaloi  in  ver.  9;  Vulg.  summitqte  rami;  Auth. 
Vers.  "  uppermost  bough"),  a  word  that  occurs  no- 
where else,  and  is  usually  derived  from  an  Arabic  root 
signifying  a  general  or  emir,  and  hence,  in  the  present 
text,  the  higher  or  upper  branches  of  a  tree.  Gesenius 
{Comment,  in  loc.)  admits  that  this  interpretation  is 
unsatisfactory;  and  Lee,  who  regards  it  as  very  fanci- 
ful, endeavors  {Lex.  s.  v.)  to  establish  that  it  denotes 
the  caul  or  sheath  in  which  the  fruit  of  the  date-palm 
is  enveloped.  According  to  this  view,  he  translates 
tin-  verse  thus :  "  Tim  or  three  berries  in  the  head  (or 
upper  part)  of  the  raid  (or  pod,  properly  sheath),  four 
or  Jive  m  Us  fissures"  This  is  at  least  ingenious;  and 
if  it  \«-  admitted  as  a  sound  interpretation  of  a  passage 
confessedly  difficult,  this  text  is  to  lie  regarded  as  af- 
fording i!m-  only  scriptural  alluBion  to  the  fact  that  the 
fruit  of  the  date-palm  is, during  its  growth,  contained 
in  a  Bheath,  which  rends  as  the  fruit  ripens,  and  at  first 
partially,  and  afterward  more  fully  exposes  its  precious 


of  the  Date-palm. 


contents.  See  Pai.m.  Nevertheless,  Furst  {Lex.  s.  v.) 
and  Henderson  {Comment,  in  loc.)  adhere  to  the  other 
interpretation. 

Boulogne,  Etienne  Antoine,  a  prominent  pulpit 
orator,  and  bishop  of  the  Roman  Church  in  France,  was 
born  in  1747  at  Avignon.  He  early  displayed  a  re- 
markable oratorical  talent.  In  1808  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  Troves.  At  the  Episcopal  Synod  of  Paris  in 
1811  he  was  elected  one  of  the  four  secretaries,  spoke 
with  great  decision  against  the  appointment  of  the 
bishops  by  the  government  without  a  papal  confirma- 
tion, and  was  deputed  with  two  other  bishops  to  pre- 
sent the  address  of  the  council  to  the  emperor.  He 
was  therefor  imprisoned,  and  could  not  return  to  his 
episcopal  see  until  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  In 
1821  the  pope  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  archbishop. 
He  died  in  1825.  His  complete  works  (Paris,  8  vols. 
1827  sq.)  comprise  four  volumes  of  sermons,  one  volume 
of  pastoral  letters  and  instructions,  and  three  volumes 
of  miscellaneous  essays,  with  a  biographical  notice  of 
the  author  by  Picot. — Nouv.  Birgr.  Univ. 

Boundary.     See  Border  ;  Landmark. 

Bourdaloue,  Louis,  "the  prince  of  French  preach- 
ers," was  born  at  Bourges,  Aug.  20, 1632,  and,  having 
at  sixteen  entered  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits,  soon  so 
distinguished  himself  in  the  provinces  that  his  supe- 
riors in  16C9  called  him  to  Paris.  His  first  sermons  in 
that  city  had  a  prodigious  success,  and  he  was  ordered 
to  preach  before  the  court  at  ten  different  seasons  be- 
tween 1670  and  1693,  a  thing  altogether  without  prec- 
edent. "He  possessed  ever}'  advantage,  physical  and 
mental,  that  is  required  for  an  orator.  A  solid  founda- 
tion of  reasoning  was  joined  with  a  lively  imagina- 
tion, and  a  facility  in  giving  interest  and  originality 
to  common  truths  was  combined  with  a  singular  power 
of  making  all  he  said  to  bear  the  impress  of  a  strong 
and  earnest  faith  in  the  spiritual  life.  His  was  not 
the  beauty  of  style  or  art ;  but  there  is  about  his  writ- 
ing a  body  and  a  substance,  together  with  a  unity  and 
steadiness  of  aim,  that  made  the  simplest  language 
assume  the  power  and  the  greatness  of  the  highest  ora- 
tory." At  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  was 
commissioned  to  preach  to  the  Protestants.  Toward 
the  close  of  his  life  he  abandoned  the  pulpit,  and  con- 
fined his  ministrations  to  houses  of  charity,  hospitals, 
and  prisons.  lie  died  May  13,  1704.  His  Works, 
collected  by  Bretonneau,  a  Jesuit,  appeared  in  two  edi- 
tions, one  in  14  vols.  8vo  (Paris,  1707),  the  other  in  15 
vols.  12mo  (Liege,  1784).  The  best  modern  edition  is 
that  of  Paris  (1822-20,  17  vols.  8vo).  A  series  of  his 
sermons  was  translated  into  English  and  published  in 
London  in  1776  (4  vols.  12mo).  A  -biography  of  Bour- 
daloue has  been  published  by  Pringy  (Paris,  1705). 
On  his  character  as  a  preacher,  see  Christian  Remem- 
brancer, July,  1854;  Eclectic  Review,  xxix,  277  ;  Fish, 
Masterpieces  of  Pulpit  Eloquence,  ii,  45. 

Bourges,  the  see  of  a  Roman  archbishop  in  France. 
Bourges  was  one  of  the  earliest  episcopal  sees  of 
France.  A  metropolitan  of  Bourges  is  mentioned  for 
the  first  time  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  A 
university  was  established  there  in  1463.  Councils 
(Concilia  Bituricensia)  were  held  at  Bourges  in  1031, 
1225, 1276, 1286, 1336,  with  regard  to  church  discipline; 
another,  the  most  importantof  all,  in  1438  [see  Bourges, 
Pragmatic  Sanction  of];  and  the  last,  in  1528, 
against  Luther  and  the  Reformation. — Wiltsch,  Geogr. 
anil  Statist,  of  the  Chunk. 

Bourges,  Pragmatic  Sanction  of,  a  settle- 
ment drawn  up  at  the  Synod  of  Bourges,  1438  (con- 
voked by  Charles  VII,  and  to  which  Pope  Eugene  IV 
and  the  fathers  of  the  Council  of  Basle  sent  legates), 
for  the  purpose  of  remedying  abuses  in  the  matter  of 
election  to  bishoprics.  The  French  clergy  had  sent 
petitions  on  this  point  to  the  Council  of  Basle  (q.  v.), 
which  in  return  sent  several  decrees  to  the  King  of 
France  on  the  subject.     These  decrees  form  the  basis 


BOURIGNONLSTS 


863 


BOW 


of  the  "  Pragmatic  Sanction."  It  is  styled  by  some  j 
writers  the  rampart  of  the  Galilean  Church,  and  takes  . 
from  the  popes  very  nearly  the  whole  of  the  power 
they  possessed  of  presenting  to  benefices  and  of  judg- 
ing ecclesiastical  causes  within  the  kingdom.  They 
form  part  of  the  "fundamental  law"  of  the  French  state 
and  of  the  Galilean  Church.  In  1-13'.)  the  most  impor- 
tant of  them  were  also  accepted  by  a  German  Diet  at 
Mayence.  Twenty-three  articles  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  were  founded  upon  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Basle,  and  hence  the  papal  sanction  of  those  'de- 
crees also  approved  twenty-one  of  these  articles.  Art. 
1.  Relates  to  the  authority  of  oecumenical  councils;  2. 
Relates  to  the  power  and  authority  of  the  Council  of 
Basle ;  3.  Relates  to  elections,  and  enjoins  freedom  of 
election,  etc.  ;  4.  Abolishes  all  reservations  of  bene- 
fices, etc. ;  5.  Relates  to  collations  and  benefices,  and 
forbids  expective  graces,  etc. ;  6.  Relates  to  judgment 
and  causes;  orders  that  all  causes  [except  the  greater 
causes]  which  happen  at  places  more  than  four  days' 
journey  from  Rome  shall  be  decided  on  the  spot ;  7. 
Relates  to  frivolous  appeals,  and  confirms  the  decree 
of  the  20th  September  of  Basle ;  8.  Confirms  the  de- 
cree of  the  21st  session  of  Basle,  "de  pacificis  posses- 
soribus ;"  9.  Limits  the  number  of  cardinals  (twenty- 
third  decree  of  Basle)  ;  10.  Relates  to  the  annates  ;  11. 
Contains  regulations  relating  to  divine  service,  and 
enjoins  that  the  laudable  customs  of  particular  churches 
in  France  shall  be  observed ;  12-19.  Relate  to  the  econ- 
omy of  Cathedral  churches ;  20.  Relates  to  concubinary 
clerks;  21.  Relates  to  excommunications;  22.  Treats 
of  interdicts ;  23.  Concerns  the  pope's  bulls  and  let- 
ters. These  articles  were"  confirmed  by  the  French 
Parliament  July  13th,  1139.  The  popes  made  vigor- 
ous attacks  upon  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  which  were 
as  vigorously  resisted  by  the  king,  the  Parliament,  and 
the  bishops.  Louis  XI  (successor  of  Charles)  consent- 
ed to  its  abolition,  but  the  Parliament  resisted  it.  It 
was  repealed  by  the  Lateran  Council,  1512,  and  re- 
nounced by  Francis  I  in  his  Concordat  (q.  v.)  of  1516, 
with  the  understanding  that  the  Concordat  guarded  the 
rights  of  the  French  government  on  the  points  in  ques- 
tion.— Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  85. 

Bourignonists,  the  followers  of  a  visionary  in 
France  called  Antoinette  Bourijnion,  who  was  born  at 
Lille  1610,  and  died  at  Franeker  1680.  She  taught  that 
man  is  perfectly  free  to  resist  or  receive  divine  grace ; 
that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  foreknowledge  or  elec- 
tion;  that  God  is  ever  unchangeable  love  toward  all 
his  creatures,  and  does  not  inflict  any  arbitrary  punish- 
ment, but  that  the  evils  they  suffer  are  the  natural 
consequences  of  sin ;  that  religion  consists  not  in  out- 
ward forms  of  worship  nor  systems  of  faith,  but  in  an 
entire  resignation  to  the  will  of  God,  and  those  inward 
feelings  which  arise  from  communion  with  God.  She 
held  many  extravagant  notions,  such  as  the  follow- 
ing: that  Adam,  before  the  fall,  possessed  the  nature 
of  both  sexes ;  that,  when  she  was  in  an  ecstasy,  God 
represented  Adam  to  her  mind  in  his  original  state; 
as  also  the  beauty  of  the  first  world,  and  how  he  had 
drawn  it  from  the  chaos ;  and  that  every  thing  was 
bright,  transparent,  and  darted  forth  life  and  ineffable 
glory ;  that  Christ  has  a  twofold  manhood,  one  formed 
of  Adam  before  the  creation  of  Eve,  and  another  taken 
from  the  Virgin  Mary ;  that  this  human  nature  was 
corrupted  with  the  principle  of  rebellion  against  ( iod's 
will.  Her  works  were  collected  and  published  under 
the  title  Toufes  les  oeuvres  de  Millie.  A .  Bourigrwn  (Amst. 
1679-1684,  19  vols.  12mo),  by  her  disciple  Poiret,  who 
also  wrote  her  life  (2  vols.  12mo,  1679).  Many  of  her 
writings  have  been  translated  and  published  in  Eng- 
land. She  had  more  disciples  in  Scotland  than  in  any 
other  country,  and  in  1701  the  General  Assembly  con- 
demned her  writings  as  "freighted  with  damnable 
doctrines."  See  Apology  for  M.  A  id.  Bourignon  (Lond. 
1699,  8vo) ;  The  Light  of  the  World  |  Lond.  1696,  8vo); 
The  Academy  of  Learned  Divines  (Lond.  1708,  8vo); 


Confusion  of  the  Builders  of  Babel  (Lond.  170S,  8vo). 
— Mosheim,  Eccl.  Hist,  iii,  480,  481 ;  Stowell,  Work  of 
the  Spirit,  268  sq  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  359; 

Bourne,  George,  Lev.,  was  born  and  educated  in 
England.  After  emigrating  to  the  United  States  he 
became  a  minister  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  in 
1833.  He  held  no  pastoral  charge,  but  was  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  literary  and  theological  pursuits  in  connec- 
tion with  publishing  houses  and  the  press.  An  ardent 
and  learned  controversialist,  he  was  the  author  of  works 
on  Romanism  and  slavery,  an  earnest  preacher,  and  a 
faithful  champion  of  the  Protestant  cause.  He  died  in 
1845,  in  New  York,  at  an  advanced  age. 

Bourne,  Hugh,  founder  of  the  "  Primitive  Meth- 
odist Connection,"  was  born  April  3d,  1772,  in  Staf- 
fordshire, England.  He  was  brought  up  a  Wesleyan 
Methodist,  and  became  an  active  and  zealous  preacher. 
When  about  thirty  years  of  age  he  associated  himself 
with  William  Clowes  and  some  other  preachers  of  the 
Wesleyan  body  in  reviving  open-air  religious  services 
and  camp -meetings.  These  proceedings,  although 
common  enough  in  the  early  days  of  Methodism,  and 
found  very  useful  in  America,  were  discountenanced 
by  the  Conference,  which  in  1807  passed  a  resolution 
to  the  following  effect :  "  It  is  our  judgment  that,  even 
supposing  such  meetings  (camp-meetings)  to  be  allow- 
ed in  America,  they  are  highly  improper  in  England, 
and  likely  to  be  productive  of  considerable  mischief, 
and  we  disclaim  all  connection  with  them."  This  led 
to  Mr.  Bourne's  separation  from  the  Conference,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Primitive  Methodist  Connec- 
tion, the  first  class  of  which  was  formed  at  Standley, 
Staffordshire,  in  1810.  The  difference  between  the 
Primitive  Methodists  and  the  Wesleyan  Methodists 
consists  chiefly  in  the  free  admission  of  laymen  to  the 
Conference  of  the  former  body.  See  Methodists, 
Primitive.  In  1844  Mr.  Bourne  visited  the  United 
States  of  America,  where  his  preaching  attracted  large 
congregations.  From  his  youth  he  was  a  rigid  ab- 
:  stainer  from  intoxicating  drinks,  in  which  respect  . 
many  of  the  preachers  and  members  of  the  Primitive. 
Methodist  Connection  have  followed  his  example.  He 
|  died  at  Bemersley,  in  Staffordshire,  October  11,  1852. 
Bow  (nrp,  he'shcth  ;  ro^or),  one  of  the  most  ex- 
tensively employed  and  (among  primitive  nations)  ef- 
ficient implements  of  missile  attack.  See  Armor.  It 
is  met  with  in  the  earliest  stages  of  history,  in  use  both 
for  the  chase  (Gen.  xxi,  20 ;  xxvii,  3)  and  war  (xlviii, 
22).  In  later  times  archers  accompanied  the  armies 
of  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxxi,  3;  1  Chron.  x,  3)  and 
of  the  Syrians  (1  Kings  xxii,  34).  Among  the  Jews 
its  use  was  not  confined  to  the  common  soldiers,  but 
captains  high  in  rank,  as  Jehu  (2  Kings  ix,  21),  and 
even  kings'  sons  (1  Sam.  xviii,  -1),  carried  the  bow, 
and  were  expert  and  sure  in  its  use  (2  Sam.  i,  22). 


Ancient  Egyptian  "treading"  the  Bow, 


BOW 


864 


BOWEN 


The  tribe  of  Benjamin  seems  to  have  been  especially 
addicted  to  archery  (1  Chron.  viii,  -JO  ;  xii,  2;  2  Chron. 
xiv,  8"  xvii,  7),  but  there  were  also  bowmen  among 
Reuben,  Gad,  Manasseh  (1  Chron.  v,  18),  and  Ephraim 

(  Psa.  lxxviii.  9).  The  bow  seems  to  have  been  bent 
with  the  aid  of  the  foot,  as  now,  for  the  word  common- 
ly used  for  it  is  ~~~,  to  trend  (1  Chron.  v,  18;  viii, 
40;  2  Chron.  xiv,  8;  Isa.  v,  18;  Psa.  vii,  12,  etc.). 
Bows  of  steel  (or  perhaps  copper,  SlUMI"!?)  are  mention- 
ed as  if  specially  strong  (2  Sam.  xxii,  5;  Psa.  xviii, 
34).  The  string  is  occasionally  named  ("IP?,  ye'iher, 
or  ~r"2,  meythar').  It  was  probably  at  first  some 
bind- weed  or  natural  cord,  since  the  same  word  is  used 
in  Judg.  xvi,  7-9,  for  "green  withs."  In  the  allusion 
to  bows  in  1  Chron.  xii,  2,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
sentence  in  the  original  stands  "could  use  both  the 
right  hand  and  the  left  in  stones  and  arrows  out  of  a 
bow,"  the  words  "hurling"  and  "shooting"  being  in- 
terpolated by  the  translators.  It  is  possible  that  a 
kind  of  bow  for  shooting  bullets  or  stones  is  here  al- 
luded to,  like  the  pellet-bow  of  India,  or  the  "stone- 
bow"  in  use  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  to  which  allu- 
sion is  made  by  Shakspcare  {Twelfth  Nifjht,  ii,  5),  and 
which  in  Wisd.  v,  22,  is  employed  as  the  translation 
of  7TETpofi6\og.  This  latter  word  occurs  in  the  Sept. 
text  of  1  Sam.  xiv,  14,  in  a  curious  variation  of  a  pas- 
sage which  in  the  Hebrew  is  hardly  intelligible — iv 
fioXiai,  Kcti  iv  7rf-no  JoAofC,  ecri  iv  KoykaZji  too  irtciov  : 
"  with  things  thrown,  and  with  stone-bows,  and  with 
flints  of  the  field."  If  this  be  accepted  as  the  true 
reading,  we  have  here,  by  comparison  with  xiv,  27,  43, 
an  interesting  confirmation  of  the  statement  (xiii,  19- 
22)  of  the  degree  to  which  the  Philistines  had  deprived 
the  people  of  arms,  leaving  to  the  king  himself  noth- 
ing but  his  faithful  spear,  and  to  his  son  no  sword,  no 
shield,  and  nothing  but  a  stone-bow  and  a  staff  (Auth. 
Vers.  "rod'").     See  Bowman. 

The  Arrows  C^Sln,  chitstsim')  were  carried  in  a 
quiver  i"~r.  teli',  Gen.  xxvii,  3;  or  ns'rN,  ashpach', 
Psa.  xxii,  6;  xlix,  2;  exxvii,  5).  From  an  allusion 
in  .Toll  vi,  4,  they  would  seem  to  have  been  sometimes 
poisoned  :  and  the  "sharp  arrows  of  the  mighty  with 
coals  of  juniper,"  in  Psa.  exx,  4,  may  point  to  a  prac- 
tice of  usin?;  arrows  with  some  burning  material  at- 
tached to  them. — Smith.     See  Archer. 

The  bow  is  frequently  mentioned  symbolically  in 
Scripture.  In  Psa.  vii,  12,  it  implies  victory,  signi- 
fying judgments  laid  up  in  store  against  offenders.  It 
is  sometimes  used  to  denote  lying  and  falsehood  (Psa. 
lxiv,  4  ;  exx,  4;  Jer.  be,  :;)■  probably  from  the  many 
circumstances  which  tend  to  render  a  bow  inoperative, 
especially  in  unskilful  hands.  Hence  also  "a  deceitful 
bow" |  l'sa.  lxxviii.  57  ;  IIos.  vii,  16"),  with  which  eom- 
pare  Virgil's  "Perfidusensisfrangitur"  (-/■.'».  xii,  731). 
The  bow  also  signifies  any  kind  of  arms.  The  bow  and 
the  spear  are  most  frequently  mentioned,  because  the 
ancients  used  these  most  (l'sa.  xliv,  (I;  xlvi,  9;  Zech. 
x,  !;  Josh,  xxiv,  12).  In  Ilabak.  iii,  9,  "thy  bow 
was  mint'  hare"  means  that  it  was  drawn  out  of  its 
case.  The  Orientals  used  to  carrV  their  bows  in  a 
case  bung  on  their  girdles.  See  WTemysa,Sym.lJic.  s.v. 

In  _'  Sain.  i.  18,  (he  Auth.  Vers,  has  "Also  he  (Da- 
vid )  bade  them  teach  the  children  of  Judah  the  use  of 
the  bow."  ••  Here,"  Bays  Professor  Robinson  (Addit. 
t<>  Calmet),  "the  words  'the  use  of  an'  not  in  the  lie- 
brew,  and  convey  a  sense  entirely  false  to  the  English 
reader.  It  should  be  'teach  them  the  bow,'  i.  e.  the 
.s  >/</ <y'j  m :  bow,  from  the  mention  of  this  weapon  in 
ver.  22.  This  mode  of  selecting  an  inscription  to  a 
poem  <>r  work  is  common  in  the  East ;  so  in  the  Koran 
the  Becond  Sura  is  entitled  the  cow,  from  the  incidental 
mention  in  it  of  the  red  heifer;  comp.  Num.  xix,  2. 
In  a  similar  manner,  the  names  of  the  books  of  the 
Pentateuch  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles  are  merely  the  first 
word  in  eaeb  book."— Kitto.    See  Poetry  (Hebrew) 


For  the  "Bow  in  the  Cloud,"  see  Rainbow. 

Bowden,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1751.  At 
an  early  age  he  came  to  America,  and  soon  after  en- 
tered Princeton  College,  where  he  remained  two  years, 
and  then  returned  to  Ireland.  On  his  second  visit  to 
America  he  entered  King's  (now  Columbia)  College, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  graduated  in  1772,  and  then  repaired 
to  England  for  ordination.  In  1774  he  became  assist- 
ant minister  of  Trinity  Church,  N.  Y. ;  but  after  the 
commencement  of  the  Revolution  he  retired  to  Nor- 
walk,  Conn.,  and  thence  to  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  where  he 
occasionally  officiated.  In  1784  he  accepted  the  rec- 
torship of  the  church  at  Norwalk,  and  in  1789  went 
to  St.  Croix,  West  Indies.  Returning  to  the  United 
States,  he  settled  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  taking  charge 
of  the  Episcopal  Academy  in  Cheshire.  In  1796  he 
declined  the  episcopate  for  the  diocese  of  Connecticut 
in  consequence  of  delicate  health,  and  in  1802  became 
professor  of  moral  philosophy,  belles-lettres,  and  logic 
in  Columbia  College,  where  he  remained,  discharging 
the  duties  of  his  office  "with  great  fidelity  and  accept- 
ance," till  1817,  when,  on  the  31st  of  Juh-,  he  died  at 
Ballston  Spa.  He  published  a  Treatise  on  Episcopacy 
(N.  Y.,  1807,  and  often,  2  vols.  12mo) :— A  Full-length 
Portrait  of  Calvinism,  besides  a  number  of  pamphlets, 
chiefly  on  Episcopacy  and  Ordination. — Sprague,  An- 
nals, v,  306. 

Bowels  (C"1"^,  meim' ;  -**crP,  raehamim' ; 
tT7rX«7X*'")  are  often  Put  Dy  t,le  Hebrew  writers  for 
the  internal  parts  generally,  the  inner  man,  and  so 
also  for  heart,  as  we  use  that  term.  Hence  the  bowels 
are  made  the  seat  of  tenderness,  mercj%  and  compas- 
sion; and  thus  the  scriptural  expressions  of  the  bowels 
being  moved,  bowels. of  mercy,  straitened  in  the  bow- 
els, etc.  By  a  similar  association  of  ideas,  the  bowels 
are  also  sometimes  made  the  seat  of  wisdom  and  under- 
standing (Job  xxxviii,  36  ;  Psa.  Ii,  10;  Isa.  xvi,  11). 

Bowen,  George  Dixon,  M.D.,  a  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  in  Indiana  1823,  converted  at 
fourteen,  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  the  Phila- 
delphia Conference  1844,  and  emigrated  to  Davenport, 
Iowa,  1857,  at  which  appointment  he  died  in  May, 
1858.  "  He  was  an  able  minister  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  a  skilful  defender  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church."  His  labors  were  a  "succession  of  triumphs." 
— Minutes  of  Conferences  for  1858,  p.  235. 

Bowen,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  was  born  in  Bedford  county,  Pa.,  June  8, 
1793,  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1820.  in  1823  he  was 
admitted  on  trial  in  the  Baltimore  Conference  ;  ordain- 
ed a  deacon  by  Bishop  Soule,  April  10,  1825,  and  an 
elder  by  Bishop  Roberts,  April  15,  1827.  During  two- 
and-forty  years  he  fulfilled  this  ministry  which  he  had 
received  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  to  testify  the  Gospel  of  the 
grace  of  God  ;  twenty-three  in  Pennsylvania,  fourteen 
in  Maryland  (including  nearly  four  years  of  superan- 
nuation), and  Wxq  in  Virginia.  Twenty-six  of  these 
years  were  on  large  circuits,  and  twelve  in  stations. 
He  died  Nov.  18.  1864.— Minutes  <f  Conferences,  1865, 
p.  11 ;   Christian  Advocate,  May  11,*1805. 

Bowen,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  bishop  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  South  Carolina,  was  born  in 
Boston  June  29,  1779,  and  educated  at  Charleston 
College,  where  he  graduated  in  1794.  In  1801  he  be- 
came chaplain  to  the  Orphan  House  in  Charleston  ; 
thence  he  removed  to  Providence,  R.  I.,  as  rector  of 
St.  John's.  Subsequently  he  became  rector  of  St. 
Michael's,  Charleston,  and  afterward  of  Grace  Church, 
New  York,  where  he  remained  from  1809  to  1818. 
Early  in  1818  he  accepted  the  episcopate  of  South  Car- 
olina, "without,"  as  lie  expresses  himself,  "pride  of 
distinction."  and  solemnly  impressed  with  the  convic- 
tion that  "  humility  is  the  indispensable  requisite  of 
elevated  station  in  the  ministry."  In  1831  he  visited 
England,  not  merely  for  purposes  of  relaxation,  but 


BOWER 


8G5 


BOWL 


with  a  view  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  Church. 
After  his  return  his  duties  were  fully  discharged,  as 
far  as  failing  health  would  allow,  until  his  death,  Aug. 
25,  1839.  He  published  Christian  Consolation  (1831); 
Private  Prayers  (Charleston,  1837),  and  several  occa- 
sional sermons  and  addresses.  After  his  death  a  se- 
lection from  his  Sermons  appeared  (N.  Y.,  2  vols  8vo). 
— Sprague,  Annals,  v,  471. 

Bower,  Archibald,  was  born  at  Dundee  1G86, 
and  educated  at  Douay.  In  early  life  he  went  to 
Rome  and  became  a  Jesuit;  came  to  England  17-6, 
and  soon  after  joined  the  Established  Church  ;  became 
a  Jesuit  again  in  1744,  and  again  turned  Protestant. 
He  died  in  176(5.  He  wrote  the  most  copious  History 
of  the  Popes  that  has  ever  appeared  in  English,  but, 
unfortunately,  his  vacillating  character  has  deprived 
it  of  even  its  just  reputation  (Lond.  1750,  7  vols.4to). 
Bishop  Douglas,  of  Salisbury,  wrote  a  very  severe  re- 
view of  Bower,  showing  that  he  had  borrowed  largely 
from  Tillemont  without  acknowledgment  (Boner  and 
Tillemont  compared,  Lond.  1757,  8vo). 

Bowing  (some  form  of  the  verb  ttiTd,  skachah', 
7rpoaicvviio).  This  was  a  very  ancient  mode  of  show- 
ing respect.  "  Abraham  stood  up,  and  bowed  himself 
to  the  people  of  the  land,  even  to  the  children  of  Heth" 
(Gen.  xxiii,  7).  So  also  Jacob,  when  he  came  to  meet 
his  brother  Esau,  "bowed  himself  to  the  ground  seven 
times,  until  he  came  near  to  his  brother"  (Gen.  xxxiii, 
3) ;  and  the  brethren  of  Joseph  bowed  themselves  be- 
fore him  as  the  governor  of  the  land  (Gen.  xliii,  28). 
The  attitude  of  bowing  is  frequently  represented  in 
the  paintings  on  the  tombs  of  Egypt,  particularly  of 
captives  brought  before  a  king  or  conqueror.  The 
gestures  and  inflections  of 
the  body  used  in  salutation 
differed  at  different  times, 
varying  with  the  dignity 


Oriental  Bowing:  1.  Bending;  '-'.  Kneeling;  3.  Prostrate. 

and  station  of  the  person  who  was  saluted,  as  is  the 
case  among  the  Orientals  to  this  da}'.  In  the  pres- 
ence of  the  great  and  noble  the  Orientals  incline 
themselves  almost  to  the  earth,  kiss  their  knees,  or 
the  hems  of  their  garments,  and  place  them  upon  their 
forehead.  When  in  the  presence  of  kings  and  princes 
more  particularly,  they  even  prostrate  themselves  at 
full  length  upon  the  ground :  sometimes,  with  their 
knees  bent,  they  bring  their  forehead  to  the  earth, 
and,  before  resuming  an  erect  position,  either  kiss  the 
earth,  or  the  feet  of  the  king  or  prince  in  whose  pres- 
ence they  are  permitted  to  appear.  These  customs 
prevailed  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  (Exod.  iv,  31 ; 
1  Kings  i,  53;  "ii,  19;  1  Sam.  xxiv,  8).  Besides  its 
use  as  a  courteous  demeanor,  bowing  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  as  an  act  of  adoration  to 
idols  (Josh,  xxiii,  7 ;  2  Kings  v,  18 ;  Judg.  ii,  19 ;  Isa. 
xliv,  15, 17, 19 ;  xlvi,  6) ;  and  also  to  the  supreme  God 
In 


(Josh,  v,  14;  Psa.  xxii,  29;  lxxii,  9;  Mic.  vi,  6;  Psa. 
xcv,  6 ;  Eph.  iii,  14).     See  Attitudes. 

BOWING  AT  THE  NAME  OF  JESUS,  a  prac- 
tice derived  from  the  Romish,  and  still  remaining  in 
the  English  Church.  It  is  practised  in  the  repetition 
of  those  parts  of  the  creeds  in  which  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ  occurs,  though  the  18th  canon  of  the  rubrics 
allows  the  more  general  use  of  the  practice.  The 
practice  is  sometimes  made  to  rest  upon  scriptural  au- 
thority, but  erroneously,  the  expression  (Phil,  ii,  10) 
"  that  at  the  name  of  Jesus  every  knee  should  bow" 
being  purely  figurative;  enjoining,  therefore,  inward 
submission  to  Christ's  authority,  not  any  outward  to- 
ken of  such  a  feeling. — Eden,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

BOWING  TOWARD  THE  EAST,  a  practice  in 
the  early  Christian  churches.  "Its  origin  is  thus 
stated  :  The  sun  being  a  symbol  of  Christ,  the  place  of 
its  rising  was  a  fitting  though  imaginary  representa- 
tion of  heaven,  whence  Christ  descended,  and  to  which 
he  ascended  in  glory  as  the  mediator  between  God  ami 
man.  The  heathens  charged  the  Christians  with  wor- 
shipping the  rising  sun  ;  but  St.  Augustine  repudiates 
such  an  .idea  when  he  says,  '  We  turn  to  the  east, 
whence  the  heavens,  or  the  light  of  heaven  arises,  not 
as  if  God  was  only  there,  and  had  forsaken  all  other 
parts  of  the  world,  but  to  put  ourselves  in  mind  of  turn- 
ing to  a  more  excellent  nature,  that  is,  to  the  Lord.' 
Turning  to  the  east  as  a  symbol  of  turning  to  God 
has  reference  to  some  of  the  ceremonies  connected  with 
baptism  in  ancient  times.  When  the  persons  to  be 
baptized  entered  the  baptistery,  where  they  were  to 
make  their  renunciation  of  Satan  and  their  confessions 
of  faith,  they  were  placed  with  their  faces  toward  the 
west,  and  commanded  to  renounce  Satan  with  som: 
gesture  or  rite ;  this  they  did  by  striking  their  hands 
together  as  a  token  of  abhorrence,  by  stretching  out 
their  hands  against  him,  by  exsufflation,  and  by  spit- 
ting at  him  as  if  he  were  pre  cut.  They  were  then 
turned  round  to  the  east,  and  desired  to  lift  up  their 
hands  and  eyes  to  heaven,  and  enter  into  covenant 
with  Christ,  the  Sun  of  Righteousness.  'The  west,' 
says  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  '  is  the  place  of  darkness,  and 
Satan  is  darkness,  and  his  strength  is  in  darkness. 
For  this  reason  ye  symbolically  look  toward  the  west 
when  ye  renounce  that  prince  of  darkness  and  horror.' 
To  this  we  add  from  St.  Jerome,  '  First  we  renounce 
him  that  is  in  the  west,  who  dies  to  us  with  our  sins; 
and  then,  turning  about  to  the  east,  we  make  a  cove- 
nant with  the  Sun  of  Righteousness,  and  promise  to  lie 
his  servants.'  Bowing  toward  the  east  is  practised  in 
those  churches  of  the  Establishment  where  the  congre- 
gations are  instructed  to  turn  their  faces  in  that  direc- 
tion at  the  recital  of  the  creed."  This  custom  has 
been  revived  of  bite  by  some  of  the  so-called  Puseyites 
in  England  and  America.  It  is  the  practice  in  the 
Romish  Church  to  bow  toward  the  altar,  that  is,  to- 
ward the  east,  in  entering  or  leaving  the  church. — 
Chambers,  Encyclopedia,  s.  v. ;  Eadie,  Eccles,  Encyclo- 
paedia, s.  v. 

Bowl  is  given  in  the  Authorized  Version  as  the 
rendering  of  several  Heb.  words,  the  distinction  be- 
|  tween  which  is  not  very  clear,  and  which  arc  often 
translated  by  words  expressive  of  different  forms. 
Compare  Basin.  It  most  frequently  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  the  golden  candlestick  of  the  tabernacle, 
the  sockets  for  the  separate  lamps  of  which  are  designa- 
ted by  V^Zl'  {jgehi'a^  a  cvp,  Exod.  xxv,  31,  33,  31  ; 
xxxvii,  17,  19,20;  elsewhere  a  drinking-" cup,"  Gen. 
xliv,  2,  12,  16, 17;  or  wine-"  pot,"  Jer.  xxxv,  5),  taken 
by  some  to  mean  ornaments  in  the  shape  of  the  calix 
of  a  flower,  a  sense  confirmed  by  the  usage  of  the  term 
in  the  cognate  languages,  and  by  its  expressed  resem- 
blance to  an  almond  blossom  (in  the  passage  last  cited). 
The  words  bj  and  i~&a  (got  and  guttah'),  used  by  the 
prophet  Zechariah  (iv,  2,  3)  in  his  vision  of  the  caudle- 


BOWL 


866 


BOWYER 


6tick,  signify  a  central  reservoir  for  oil,  from  which 
pipes  lead  to  each  lamp.  The  other  terms  thus  ren- 
dered are  mostly  vessels  used  in  the  services  of  the 
altar;  these  are,  PTfcjMB  (menakMyolh' ,  used  for  liba- 
tions, Exod.  xxv,  29 ;  xxxvii,  16 ;  Num.  iv,  7  ;  Jer.  lii, 
19),  together  with  p"}lV  (mizrak')  and  Cjp  (saph),both 
used  for  sprinkling  the  sacrificial  blood,  these  latter 
terms  being  elsewhere  usually  rendered  "bason."  The 
only  remaining  word  thus  translated  is  bpp  (se'phel, 
Judg.  vi,  38,  a  low  flat  "dish,"  as  it  is  rendered  in  v, 
25).     See  Cup;  Dish,  etc. 

Bowls,  we  may  suppose,  in  the  most  early  times, 
were  made  of  wood,  and  of  the  shells  of  the  larger 
kinds  of  nuts,  as  they  are  among  uncivilized  tribes  at 
this  day.  The  art  of  working  in  metal  was  practised 
by  the  Hebrews  at  an  early  period ;  this  art  they 
learned  of  the  Egyptians  during  their  residence  among 
them.  The.  "bowls  of  pure  gold"  (Exod.  xxv,  29)  for 
the  service  of  the  sanctuary  were  most  probably  vases 
of  elegant  workmanship,  similar  to  those  we  find  de- 
picted on  the  Egyptian  monuments.  The  Egyptian 
vases  were  exceedingly  elegant,  and  of  various  forms 


Ancient  Egyptian  Bowls  and  Vase.-'. 

(see "Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt,  abridgm.  i,  147-158).  See 
Bottle.  The  favorite  form  of  the  Egj'ptian  bowl 
was  the  lotus,  while  that  of  the  Hebrews  resembled 
a  lily  (Num.  vii,  13 ;  1  Kings  x,  21 ;  Judg.  v,  25). 
Bowls  would  probably  be  used  at  meals  for  liquids,  or 
broth,  or  pottage  (2  Kings  iv,  40).  Modern  Arabs  are 
content  with  a  few  wooden  bowls.  In  the  British 
Museum  are  deposited  several  terra-cotta  bowls  with 
Chaldaean  inscriptions  of  a  superstitious  character,  ex- 
pressing charms  against  sickness  and  evil  spirits,  which 
may  possibly  explain  the  "divining-cup"  of  Joseph 
(Gen.  xliv,  5).  The  bowl  was  filled  with  some  liquid 
and  drunk  off  as  a  charm  against  evil.  See  a  case  of 
Tippoo  Sahib  drinking  water  out  of  a  black  stone  as 
a  charm  against  misfortune  (Gleig,  Life  of  Munro, 
218).  One  of  the  British  Museum  bowls  still  retains 
the  stain  of  a  liquid.  These  bowls,  however,  are 
thought  by  Mr.  Birch  not  to  be  very  ancient  (Birch, 
Anc.  Pottery,  i,  154;  comp.  Shaw,  Trav.  p.  231)  A 
modern  traveller  informs  us  that  the  bowls  and  dishes 
of  the  modern  Arabs  are  of  wood ;  those  of  their  emirs 
are  not  unfrequently  of  copper,  very  neatly  tinned 
At  a  collation  given  by  the  grand  emir  of  the  Arabs 
whom  he  visited,  there  were  large  painted  basins  and 
bowls  of  wood  placed  before  him;  their  being  painted 
was.  without  doubt,  a  mark  of  honor  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  ordinary  wooden  bowls.  The  "lordly 
dish''  mentioned  in  Judg.  v,  25  was  probably  some- 
thing of  this  kind.  Similar  dishes  of  the  most  elegant 
construction,  in  bronze,  have  lately  been  discovered  in 
tlic  Assyrian  ruins  at  Nimroud  (Layard's  2d  Expedi- 
tion, p.  181  sq.).  There  are  also  curious  relics  of  this 
kind  found  at  Babylon,  containing  Hebrew  inscriptions 
thai  Beem  to  date  them  at  the  time  of  the  Talmudists 
(///.]>.  518  Bq.).     See  Yi  bsel. 


Ancient  Lartliciiwaro  r.nwls,  cnntainiiu;  Jcwii-h  Inscriptions. 
I  rom  the  lUiins  uf  Babylon. 


Bowles,  "William  Lisle,  M.A.,  poet  and  preach, 
er,  was  born  at  King's  Sutton  1762,  aim  educated  at 
"Winchester,  whence,  in  1781,  he  was  elected  a  scholar 
of  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  He  became  vicar  of  Chick- 
lade  1792,  rector  of  Dumbleton  1797,  vicar  of  Brem- 
hill  and  prebendary  of  Salisbury  1804,  canon  residen- 
tiary 1828.  He  died  1850.  His  sonnets  are  among  the 
best  in  the  English  language ;  and  he  is  of  note  in  the 
history  of  English  literature  as  the  harbinger  of  the 
"natural"  school  of  poetry,  as  opposed  to  the  artificial 
school  of  Pope  and  Dryden.  His  "  Sonnets"  have  ap- 
peared in  many  editions.  The  "Missionary"  is  per- 
haps the  best  of  his  longer  poems.  He  published  also 
Ten  Plain  Parochial  Sermons  (8vo,  1814)  : — Paulus  pa~ 
rochialis  ;  or,  a  plain  View  of  the  Objects  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Bath,  1826, 12mo)  :— The  Life  of 
Bishop  Ken. 

Bowman  0"uTp  •"!'?"\  a  caster  of  the  bow,  archer, 
Jer.  iv,  29),  Bow-shot  (ncp.  ^OBa),  drawers  of 
the  bow,  archers,  Gen.  xxi,  16).     See  Bow. 

Bowman,  Samuel,  assistant  bishop  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  of  the  diocese  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, was  born  at  "Wilkesbarre,  Pennsylvania,  on 
May  21,  1800.  He  at  first  studied  law,  but  by  the 
sudden  death  of  his  father  was  led  to  prepare  for  the 
ministry.  He  was  ordained  deacon  August  25,  1823, 
and  soon  afterward  took  charge  of  two  country  church- 
es in  Lancaster  county.  In  1824  he  was  ordained 
priest.  In  1825  he  accepted  a  call  to  Easton,  but 
soon  returned  to  his  old  charge  in  Lancaster  coun- 
ty. In  1827  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  associate  rector- 
ship of  St.  James's  Church,  Lancaster,  a  charge  which 
he  continued  to  hold  for  34  years,  and  which  was  term- 
inated only  by  his  death.  Some  years  afterward  he 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  from 
Geneva  College,  New  York.  In  1847  Dr.  Bow  man  was 
elected  bishop  of  Indiana,  but  declined  the  office.  He 
was  afterward  strongly  urged  to  consent  to  be  a  can- 
didate for  the  office  of  provisional  bishop  of  New  York, 
but  positively  refused  to  allow  his  name  to  be  used. 
He  was  greatly  attached  to  his  church  in  Lancaster, 
which  by  untiring  energy  he  made  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  parishes  in  the  diocese  of  Pennsylvania. 
He  established,  in  particular,  an  orphan  asylum,  pa- 
rochial schools,  a  church  home,  and  a  free  church. 
In  1858  Dr.  Bowman  was  elected  assistant  bishop  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  died  suddenly  in  July,  1861,  while 
en  a  tour  through  the  western  part  of  the  diocese,  of  a 
chronic  affection  of  the  heart.  Bishop  Bowman  was 
highly  esteemed  for  purity  of  life,  suavity  of  manners, 
and  amiability  of  character.  These  qualities  gave 
him  a  great  influence  in  deliberative  bodies,  and,  though 
he  spoke  rarety  in  Conventions,  such  was  the  weight 
of  his  reputation  that  his  vote  was  worth  more  than 
most  men's  speeches.  In  his  theological  opinions 
Bishop  Bowman  was  ranked  as  a  moderate  High- 
Churchman.  But  while  in  doctrine  he  never  depart- 
ed from  his  original  position,  yet  in  some  points  of 
practice  he  was  disposed  of  late  years  to  be  less  rigid 
than  he  had  been.  This  appeared  in  particular  in  a 
sermon  preached  before  the  Convention  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1855,  and  published  by  request.  A  few  weeks 
before  his  death  Bishop  Bowman  published  an  Ameri- 
can edition  of  a  short  Life  of  Sargent,  the  biographer 
of  Henry  Martyn,by  Bishop  Wilberforce,  of  Oxford. — 
American  Church  Review,  Jan.  1862,  p.  499-521. 

Bowyer,  "William,  F.S.A.,  the  "  last  of  the  learn- 
ed English  printers,"  was  born  in  London  1699,  and 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  en- 
tered into  business  as  a  printer  with  his  father  1722, 
and  died  in  1777.  Besides  editing  a  great  number  of 
important  works  in  classical  and  general  literature,  he 
published  Critical  Conjectures  and  Observations  on  the 
\i  ir  '/',  st inni  ii/,  collided  from  various  Authors  (4th  ed. 
Lond.  1812,  4to). 


BOX 

Box  (TjS,  pal/ ,  rendered  ' 
a  flask  or  bottle  for  holding 
oil  and  perfumery  (2  Kings 
ix,  1) ;  like  the  akaj^aargov, 
or  alabaster  "box"  of  oint- 
ment in  Mark  xiv,  3.  See 
Alabaster;  Oil;  Bottle. 
Among  the  Egyptians,  simi- 
lar small  boxes,  made  of  wood 
or  ivory,  were  numerous,  and, 
like  the  vases,  of  many  forms; 
and  some,  which  contained  cos- 
metics of  divers  kinds,  served 
to  deck  the  dressing-table  or 
a  lady's  boudoir.  They  were 
carved  in  various  ways,  and 
loaded  with  ornamental  devi- 
ces in  relief;  sometimes  rep- 
resenting the  favorite  lotus- 
flower,  with  its  buds  and  stalks, 
a  goose,  gazelle,  fox,  or  other 
animal.  Many  were  of  con- 
siderable length,  terminating 
in  a  hollow  shell,  not  unlike 
a  spoon  in  shape  and  depth, 
covered  with  a  lid  turning  on 
a  pin  ;  and  to  this,  which  may 
properly  be  styled  the  box, 
the  remaining  part  was  mere- 
ly an  accessory,  intended  for 
ornament,  or  serving  as  a  han- 
dle (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egyp- 
tians, abridgm.  i,  158-164). 

Box-tree  represents,  in 
the  Auth.  Vers.,  the  Heb. 
^li'XFl,  teashshur',  which  oc- 
curs in  three  places  in  Scrip- 
ture, but  great  uncertainty  has 


867 


BOY  BISHOP 


'vial"  in  1   Sam.  x,  1), 


"rum    the  Berlin 


true  meaning  (Celsius,  Hiero-      Museum, 
hot.  ii,  153).     The  old  versions 

and  interpreters  express  it  variously  by  that  of  the  ce- 
dar, poplar,  and  fir ;  the  Vulgate  (so  bunts  in  2  [4] 
Esd.  xiv,  24),  the  Chaldee  paraphrase  ('pS'HSttJN  ;  see 
Maimon.  ad  Chelim,  xii,  8;  Bartenora  ad  Negaim,,  ii, 
1),  and  several  Hebrew  commentators,  render  it  by 
box-tree,  which  view  our  translators  have   adopted. 


Branch  of  the  Box-tree  (Bums  Sempervirens). 


There  is  no  philological  proof  of  this  conclusion,  but 
yet  there  is  nothing  in  the  tree  indicated  unsuitable  to 
the  several  contexts.  Thus,  with  reference  to  the  fu- 
ture Temple,  it  is  said  (Isa.  Ix,  13),  "  The  glory  of 
Lebanon  shall  come  unto  thee,  the  fir-tree,  the  pine- 
tree,  and  the  box  (Sept.  Ktdpoc)  together;"  and  at  xli, 
19,  "I  will  set  in  the  desert  the  fir-tree,  and  the  pine, 
and  the  box  (Sept.  confounds  with  several  interpolated 
kinds)  together."  Further,  in  Ezek.  xxvii,  6,  in  the 
account  of  the  arts  and  commerce  of  Tyre,  we  read, 
' '  Of  the  oaks  of  Bashan  have  they  made  thine  oars, 
and  the  benches  of  the  rowers  are  made  of  ashur-icood 
("TON \  ashur' ;  Sept.  translates  unintelligibly;  Engl. 
Vers.  "  Ashurites"  [q.  v.]),  inlaid  with  ivory,"  as  it  is 
now  usually  interpreted.  The  ashur-vrood,  moreover, 
is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  the  isles  of  Chittim, 
that  is,  of  Greece.  According  to  most,  however,  who 
argue  from  the  derivation  of  the  word  (from  idNI, 
ashar' ' ,  to  be  erect),  the  teashshur  is  a  species  of  cedar 
called  sherbin  (so  the  Syriac),  to  be  recognised  by  the 
small  size  of  the  cones  and  the  upward  tendency  of 
the  branches  (see  Niebuhr's  Arab.  p.  149).  Robinson, 
in  his  latest  volume  of  Researches  in  Palestine,  men* 
tions  a  grove  near  el-Hadith  which  only  the  natives 
speak  of  as  Arez  (Heb.  T"?X,  erez,  cedar),  though  the 
tree  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the  cedar,  and  is 
probably  the  sherbin  (see  Celsii  H'terob.  i,  74,  79;  Frey- 
tag,  Lex.  ii,  408 ;  Robinson,  iii,  593).     See  Cedar. 

The  box  (Buxus  sempervircns)  is  an  eversreen,  which 
in  our  gardens  is  generally  seen  only  as  a  dwarf  shrub. 
In  the  East,  however,  its  native  country,  it  attains  the 
size  of  a  forest-tree,  and  often  forms  a  very  beautiful 
feature  in  the  landscape.  It  is  a  native  of  most  parts 
of  Europe.  It  grows  well  in  moderate  climates,  while 
that  from  the  Levant  is  most  valued  in  commerce,  in 
consequence  of  being  highly  esteemed  by  wood-en- 
gravers. Turkey  box  is  yielded  by  Buxus  Balearica, 
a  species  which  is  found  in  Minorca,  Sardinia,  and 
Corsica,  and  also  in  both  European  and  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, and  is  imported  from  Constantinople,  Smyrna, 
and  the  Black  Sea.  Box  is  also  found  on  Mount  Cau- 
casus, and  a  species  extends  even  to  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  Hence  it  is  well  known  to  Asiatics,  and 
is  the  shumshad  of  the  Arabs.  It  is  much  employed 
in  the  present  day  by  the  wood-engraver,  the  turner, 
carver,  mathematical  instrument-maker,  and  the  comb 
and  flute  maker.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  Romans, 
as  described  by  Pliny  (xvi,  33).  Virgil  {.En.,  x,  135) 
alludes  to  the  practice  of  its  being  inlaid  with  ivory 
(comp.  Theocrit.  xxiv,  108  ;  Athen.  v,  207 ;  Pliny, 
xvi,  66;  Virg.  Georg.  ii,  449;  Juv.  xiv,  194).  The 
box-tree,  being  a  native  of  mountainous  regions,  was 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  calcareous  formations  of 
Mount  Lebanon,  and  therefore  likely  to  be-  brought 
from  thence  with  the  coniferous  woods  for  the  build- 
ing of  the  Temple,  and  was  as  well  suited  as  the  fir 
and  the  pine  trees  for  changing  the  face  of  the  desert 
(see  Penny  Cyclojxedia,  s.  v.  Buxus).     See  Botany. 

Boy  (Tj!?,  ye'led,  one  born,  Joel  iii,  3 ;  Zech.  viii,  5  ; 
elsewhere  usually  "child;"  "it'3,  na'ar,  a  youth,  Gen. 
x,xv,  27;  elsewhere  "lad,"  "young  man,"  etc.  See 
Child. 

Boy  Bishop,  "the  principal  person  in  an  extraor- 
dinary sacred  frolic  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  down  to 
the  period  of  the  Reformation.  On  St.  Nicholas's  day, 
the  6th  of  December,  the  boys  forming  the  choir  in 
cathedral  churches  elected  one  of  their  number  to  the 
honor  of  bishop,  and  robes  and  episcopal  symbols  were 
provided  for  him,  while  the  other  boys,  assuming  the 
dress  of  priests,  took  possession  of  the  church,  and  went 
through  all  the  ecclesiastical  ceremonies  but  that  of 
mass.  This  strantre  reversal  of  power  lasted  till  Inno- 
cents' day,  the.  28th  of  the  same  month.  In  Sarum, 
on  the  eve  of  that  day,  the  boy  went  through  a  splen- 
did caricature  of  processions,  chantings,  and  other  fes- 


BOYD 


868 


BOYLE 


tive  ceremonies.  Dean  Colet,  in  his  statutes  for  St.  1 1845  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  itinerancy.  He 
Paul's  School  London,  ordains  that  the  boys  should  |  then  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New 
come  to  St.  Paul's  Church  and  hear  the  '  divide'  bish-  Jersey;  but  as  soon  as  his  health  would  justify  it  he 
op's  sermons  and  each  of  them  present  him  with  a  pen-  j  returned  to  the  ministry,  laboring  in  a  city  minion  in 
ny  By  a  proclamation  ofHenryVIII,  1542,  this  show  Philadelphia  from  1854  to  1856,  when  a  haamorrhage 
was  abolished  ;  but  it  was  revived  under  Mary,  and  in  j  compelled  him  again  to  silence.  He  then  became  ed- 
1556  the  boy  bishops  still  maintained  some  popularity,  itor  of  a  newspaper  in  Elk  county,  Pa.,  and  was  very 
The  similar  scenes  in  France  were  yet  more  extrava-  useful  in  planting  the  Church  in  that  region.  When 
cant  and  often  indecent.  The  Council  of  Paris,  in  the  rebellion  broke  out  in  1861,  he  enlisted  a  company 
1212'  interdicted  the  pastime,  and  the  theological  fac-  '  and  entered  the  army  as  captain.  He  served  through 
ultyof  the  same  city,  in  1414,  make  loud  complaints  of  the  campaign  in  Virginia  with  great  distinction,  and 
the'  continuance  of  the  diversion.  In  Scotland  similar  rose  to  the  rank  of  major.  At  the  terrible  battle  of 
saturnalia  also  prevailed,  as  Scott  has  described  in  his  Chattanooga,  Oct.  29,  1863,  his  regiment  held  a  post 
Abbot,  connected  with  'those  jocular  personages,  the  ;  which  was  considered  the  key  of  the  field  against  6000 
pope  of  fools,  the  boy  bishop,  and  the  abbot  of  unrea-  [  of  the  enemy,  and  he  was  shot  through  the  head.— 
Bon.'     This  custom  is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  j  Christian  Advocate,  Dec,  1864. 

the  ceremony  of  the  Montem  at  Eton.  Bishop  Hall,  in  J  Boyle.  Robert,  one  of  the  most  eminent  philoso- 
liis  Triumphs  of  Rome,  says,  'What  merry  work  it  was  |  phers  and  Christians  of  modern  times,  was  the  seventh 
here  in  the  days  of  our  holy  fathers  (and  I  know  not  I  son  and  fourteenth  child  of.the  "  Great  Earl  of  Cork," 
whether,  in  some  places,  it  may  not  be  so  still),  that  j  and  was  born  at  his  father's  seat,  Lismore  Castle,  in 
upon  St.  Nicholas,  St.  Catharine,  St.  Clement,  and  j  the  province  of  Munster,  Ireland,  January  26,  1626. 
Holy  Innocents'  day,  children  were  wont  to  be  arrayed  I  After  studying  for  four  years  at  Eton,  and  subsequent- 
in  chimers,  rochet's,  surplices,  to  counterfeit  bishops  j  ly  at  Geneva,  he  travelled  over  various  parts  of  the 
and  priests,  and  to  be  led,  with  songs  and  dances,  from  |  Continent,  and  finally  settled  in  England,  and  devoted 
house  to  house,  blessing  the  people,  who  stood  grinning  himself  to  science,  especially  to  natural  philosophy  and 
in  the  way  to  expect  tliat  ridiculous  benediction.  Yea,  1  to  chemistry.  After  the  accession  of  Charles  II,  in 
t'.iat  boys  in  that  holy  sport  were  wont  to  sing  masses,  1 1660,  he  was  urged  to  enter  the  Church,  but  he  de 


and  to  climb  into  the  pulpit  to  preach  (no  doubt  learn- 
edly and  edifyintrly)  to  the  simple  auditory." — Eadie, 
Ec'cles.  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v.     See  Mysteries. 

Boyd,  Robert,  a  Scotch  divine,  was  born  in  1578, 
and  studied  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Passing 
over  to  France,  he  was  made  professor  at  the  Protestant 
Seminary  of  Montauban,  and  in  1608  professor  at  San 


clined  on  the  ground  that  he  had  no  divine  call  to  the 
ministry.  He  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Royal  Society,  but  he  declined  the  office  of  provost  of 
Eton  College.  "In  1666  his  name  appears  as  attest- 
ing the  miraculous  cures  (as  they  were  called  by 
many)  of  Valentine  Greatraks,  an  Irishman,  who,  by  a 
sort  of  animal  magnetism,  made  his  own  hands  the 


Returning  to  Scotland,  he  became  professor  of    to«lium  of  giving  many  patients  almost  instantaneous 


theology  at  Glasgow  1615,  and  died  in  1627.  He  wrote 
la  Epist.  ad  K]>hes.  Prwlectiones  (London,  1652,  fol.). — 
Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  r,  231 ;  Darling,  Cyclo- 
paedia Bibliographica,  i,  403. 

Boyd,  Zachary,  a  Scotch  divine,  was  born  early 
in  the  17th  century,  studied  theology,  was  appointed 
minister  of  the  Barony  parish,  and  professor  in  Glas- 
gow College  in  1623.  He  distinguished  himself  as  an 
opponent  both  of  Prelacy  and  Independency.  During 
Cromwell's  invasion  of  1650,  when  the  ministers,  mag- 
istrates, and  other  officials  fled  in  consternation  from 
Glasgow,  Boyd  alone  had  the  courage  to  continue  at 
his  post,  and  preaching  as  usual,  to  use  the  words  of 
Baillie,  "he  railed  at  Cromwell  and  his  men  to  their 
very  faces  in  the  High  Church,  who,"  adds  the  his- 
torian, "took  it  all  in  very  good  humor."  Boyd  pos- 
sessed some  poetical  gifts,  and  being  desirous  to  em- 
ploy them  in  the  service  of  the  Church,  he  had  pre- 
pared a  metrical  version  of  the  whole  Book  of  Psalms, 
which  was  examined  by  order  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly, and  found  unfit  for  publication.  Notwithstanding 
this  great  disappointment,  Mr. Boyd  persevered  in  ren- 
dering the  whole  Bible  into  a  sort  of  metrical  version, 
a  copy  of  which,  in  manuscript,  is  deposited  in  the  li- 
brary of  Glasgow  College.  It  is  a  great  curiosity  in 
its  way,  full  of  grotesque  images  and  rhymes.  Mr. 
Boyd  wrote  many  devotional  works,  among  them  The 
/,,.</  Battle  of  the  Soul  in  Death,  in  Eir/M  Conferences 
(  1629,  2  vol-).  During  the  troubles  in  Scotland  in  the 
17th  century  Mr. Boyd  went  over  to  France,  where, 
having  been  appointed  professor  in  one  of  the  colleges, 
ded  for  sixteen  years.  He  died  in  1654,  leaving 
some  valuable  bequests  to  the  College,  of  Glasgow, 
with  which  he  was  long  connected. — Jamieson,  Cyclop. 
ofRelig  Biography,  b.  v. 

Boyle,  John  Alexander,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born   May  1::,  1816,  at  Baltimore,  Md. 

His  early  years  were  spent  in  Philadelphia,  and  he  en- 
tired  the  itinerant  ministry  in  the  Philadelphia  Con- 
ference in  [839.  lie  soon  became  marked  as  a  preach- 
er of  vigor  and  promise;  but  his  health  failed,  and  in 


relief.  At  the  same  time,  in  illustration  of  what  we 
shall  presently  have  to  say  on  the  distinction  between 
Boyle  as  an  eye-witness  and  Boyle  as  a  judge  of  evi- 
dence, we  find  him  in  1669  not  indisposed  to  receive, 
and  that  upon  the  hypothesis  implied  in  the  words,  the 
'true  relation  of  the  things  which  an  unclean  spirit  did 
and  said  at  Mascon  in  Burgundy,'  etc.  That  he  should 
have  been  inclined  to  prosecute  inquiries  about  the 
transmutation  of  metals  needs  no  excuse,  considering 
the  state  of  chemical  knowledge  in  his  day."  Much 
of  his  leisure  was  given  to  theological  studies  and  to 
the  advancement  of  religion,  for  which  latter  object  he 
expended  very  considerable  sums.  He  "  had  been  for 
years  a  director  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  we 
find  a  letter  of  his  in  1676  pressing  upon  that  body  the 
duty  of  promoting  Christianity  in  the  East.  He  caused 
the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  be  trans- 
lated into  Mala}-,  at  his  own  cost,  by  Dr.  Thomas  Hyde, 
and  he  promoted  an  Irish  version.  He  also  gave  a 
large  reward  to  the  translator  of  Grotius's  '  De  Veri- 
tate,'  etc.,  into  Arabic;  and  would  have  been  at  the 
whole  expense  of  a  Turkish  Testament  had  not  the 
East  India  Company  relieved  him  of  a  part.  In  the 
year  1680  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Soci- 
ety, a  post  which  he  declined,  as  appears  by  a  letter  to 
Hooke  (Works,  i,  p.  74),  from  scruples  of  conscience 
about  the  religious  tests  and  oaths  required.  In  1688 
he  advertised  the  public  that  some  of  his  manuscripts 
had  been  lost  or  stolen,  and  others  mutilated  by  acci- 
dent ;  and  in  1689,  finding  his  health  declining,  he  re- 
fused most  visits,  and  set  himself  to  repair  the  loss." 
In  his  critical  and  theological  studies  he  had  the  as- 
sistance of  Pocock,  Hyde,  and  Clark,  all  eminent  Ori- 
entalists. In  view  of  the  poverty  to  which  Sanderson 
bad  been  reduced  by  his  attachment  to  the  royal  cause, 
Bojde  gave  him  a  stipend  of  £50  a  year.  This  stipend 
was  given  as  an  encouragement  to  that  excellent  mas- 
ter of  reasoning  to  apply  himself  to  the  writing  of 
"Cases  of  Conscience;"  and  accordingly  he  printed 
his  lectures  "  De  Obligatione  Conscientiae,"  which  he 
read  at  Oxford  1647,  and  dedicated  them  to  his  friend 
and  patron.     Among  his  pious  acts  was  the  founding 


BOYLE  LECTURES 


869 


BOZKATH 


of  a  lecture  for  the  defence  of  natural  and  revealed  re- 
ligion. See  Boyle  Lectures.  The  characteristics 
of  Boyle  as  a  theological  writer  are  much  the  same  as 
those  which  appertain  to  him  as  a  philosopher.  lie 
does  not  enter  at  all  into  disputed  articles  of  faith,  and 
preserves  a  quiet  and  argumentative  tone  throughout ; 
but  the  ver}r  great  prolixity  into  which  he  falls  renders 
him  almost  unreadable.  The  treatises  On  Seraphic 
Love,  Considerations  on  the  Style  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
On  the  great  Veneration  that  Man's  Intellect  vires  to  God, 
have  a  place  in  the  Index  Ubrorum  prohibitorum  of  the 
Roman  Church.  Boyle  was  never  married.  He  died 
on  the  30th  of  December,  1691.  Bishop  Burnet,  in 
his  funeral  sermon  on  Boyle,  declares  that  "  his  knowl- 
edge was  of  so  vast  an  extent  that,  if  it  were  not  for 
the  variety  of  vouchers  in  their  several  sorts,  I  should 
be  afraid  to  say  all  I  know.  He  carried  the  study  of 
Hebrew  very  far  into  the  rabbinical  writings  and  the 
other  Oriental  tongues.  He  had  read  so  much  of  the 
fathers  that  he  had  formed  out  of  it  a  clear  judgment 
of  all  the  eminent  ones.  He  had  read  a  vast  deal  on  the 
Scriptures,  had  gone  very  nicely  through  the  various 
controversies  in  religion,  and  was  a  true  master  of  the 
whole  body  of  divinity.  He  read  the  whole  compass 
of  the  mathematical  sciences;  and,  though  he  did  not 
set  himself  to  spring  any  new  game,  yet  he  knew  even 
the  abstrusest  parts  of  geometry.  Geography,  in  the 
several  parts  of  it  that  related  to  navigation  or  travel- 
ling, history,  and  books  of  novels,  were  his  diversions. 
He  went  very  nicety  through  all  the  parts  of  physic ; 
only  the  tenderness  of  his  nature  made  him  less  able 
to  endure  the  exactness  of  anatomical  dissections,  es- 
pecially of  living  animals,  though  he  knew  these  to  be 
most  instructing.  But  for  the  history  of  nature,  an- 
cient and  modern,  of  the  productions  of  all  countries, 
of  the  virtues  and  improvements  of  plants,  of  ores  and 
minerals,  and  all  the  varieties  that  are  in  them  in  dif- 
ferent climates,  he  was  by  much — by  very  much — the 
readiest  and  the  perfectest  I  ever  knew."  The  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  1772  (Lond.  6  vols.  4to), 
the  first  volume  of  which  contains  his  Life  by  Birch. 
— Jones,  Relic/.  Biography ;  English  Cyelopcedia,  s.  v. ; 
New  General  Dictionary,  ii,  374. 

Boyle  Lectures,  a  foundation  under  the  will  of 
the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle  in  1691,  which  charged  upon 
his  dwelling-house  in  St.  Michael's,  Crooked  Lane, 
London,  an  annual  stipend  for  "a  divine  or  preaching 
minister  to  preach  eight  sermons  in  the  year  for  prov- 
ing the  Christian  religion  against  Atheists,  Deists,  Pa- 
gans, Jews,  and  Mohammedans,  not  descending  to  any 
controversies  among  Christians  themselves."  The 
lecturer  is  to  be  "assisting  to  all  companies,  and  en- 
couraging them  in  any  undertaking  for  propagating 
the  Christian  religion,  and  is  farther  to  be  ready  to 
satisfy  such  real  scruples  as  any  have  concerning  such 
nutters."  This  provision  shows  that  Boyle  desired  to 
m:ike  England's  then  increasing  colonies  a  means  of 
extending  Christianity.  The  preacher  is  elected  for  a 
period  not  exceeding  three  years.  A  collection  of  the 
lectures  delivered  up  to  1732  was  published  in  1739 
(Lond.  3  vols,  fol.),  and  over  fifty  volumes  have  been 
printed  of  those  since  preached.  The  most  important 
are,  Bentley,  Confutation  of  Atheism  (1692);  Kidder, 
Demonstration  of  Messiah  (1694);  Williams,  On  Divine 
/,',  ut  lation  (1696)  ;  Gastrell,  Certainty  and  Necessity  of 
Religion  (1697);  Harris,  Refutation  of  Atheism  (1698); 
Bradford,  Credibility  of  Revelation  (1700);  Blackball, 
Suffici  nry  of  Revelation  (1717) ;  Stanhope,  Truth  of  the 
Cliristian  Religion  (1702);  Clarke,  Demons/ration  of 
Being  of  God  (1705) ;  Hancock,  Being  of  God  (1707) ; 
Turner,  Wisdom  rf  God  in  Redemption  (1709);  Wood- 
ward, Divine  Excellency  of  Christianity  (1712) ;  Derliam, 
rhysi co-Theology  (1711-12);  Benjamin,  On  Free-think- 
ing (1727) ;  Clarke,  Origin  of  Evil  (1720-21)  ;  Gurdon, 
Difficulties  no  Excuse  for  Infidelity  (1723)  ;  Burnet,  Dem- 
onstration of  True  Religion  (1726);  Berriman,  Gradual 
Revelation  of  the  Gospel  (1733);    Biscoe,  On  the  Acts 


'(1736-8;  reprinted  1829);  Stebbing,  Controversy  be- 
tween   Christians    and   Deists   (1747-49)  ;     Heathcote, 

■  Against  Atheists  (1763);  Worthington,  Evidence  of 
Christianity  (1766-8);  Owen,  Ore  Scripture  Miracles 
(1769-71);  Williamson,  Comparison  of  Revelation  with 
Operation  of  the  Unman  Mind  (1778-80) ;  Van  Mildert, 
Rise  and  Progress  of  Infidelity  (1802  ;  reprinted  1838); 
Harness,  Connection  of  Christianity  with  1/ajij  im  ss 
(1821) ;  Maurice,  Religions  of  the  World  in  their  Rela- 
tions to  Christianity  (1846). — Darling,  Cyclopadia  Bib- 

■  liographica,  i,  406. 

|  Boys,  or  Bois,  John,  a  Church  of  England  divine, 
I  was  born  at  Nettlestead,  Suffolk,  Jan.  30,  156!'.  He 
was  so  precocious  that  at  five  years  old  he  could  read 
the  Bible  in  Hebrew.  At  fourteen  he  entered  St. 
John's,  Cambridge,  of  which  college  he  became  fellow 
and  studied  medicine.  Fancying  himself  to  have  ev- 
er}' disease  he  read  of,  he  quitted  medicine  for  theol- 
ogy, and  in  1583  was  ordained  priest,  becoming  some 
time  afterward  rector* of  Boxworth.  When  the  new 
translation  of  the  Holy  Bible  was  resolved  on,  under 
King  James  I,  Bois  was  fixed  upon  to  undertake  the 
Apocrypha,  which  he  completed,  together  with  the  por- 
tion assigned  to  some  other  party  whose  name  is  not 
known.  He  assisted  Sir  H.  Savile  largely  in  his  edi- 
tion of  Chrysostom,  and  in  1615  was  presented  by 
Bishop  Andrewes  with  a  stall  in  Ely  Cathedral,  which 
he  held  till  his  death,  Jan.  11,  1643.  He  left  many 
MSS.,  but  his  only  published  work  was  Veterum  In- 
terpretatio  cum  Beza  aliisque  recent,  collatio  (London, 
1655,  8vo),  a  vindication  of  the  Vulgate  version  of 
the  New  Testament. — Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  ii,  26. 

Boys,  John,  dean  of  Canterbury,  was  born  in 
1571,  and  was  educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  ( Jam- 
bridge.  In  1597  hew  as  presented  by  his  uncle  to  the 
j  livings  of  Bettishanger  and  Tilmanstone.  Archbish- 
op Abbot  made  him  rector  of  Great  Mongeham  in  1619, 
and  in  1619  James  I  made  him  dean  of  Canterbury. 
He  died  Sept.  26,  1625,  leaving  a  great  reputation  both 
as  preacher  and  scholar.  He  was  especially  noted  for 
i  his  stanch  Protestantism.  He  wrote  an  Exposition  of 
i  the  Scriptures  used  in  the  Liturgy;  An  Exposition  of  the 
Epistles  and  Gospels  in  the  Liturgy;  An  Exposition  of 
the  Psalms;  Lectures  and  Sermons,  all  collected  in  his 
Works  (Lond.  1629,  fol.).  A  new  edition  of  his  Expo- 
]  sition  of  the  Gospels,  Festivals,  and  Epistles  was  issued 
|  in  Philadelphia  (1849).— Hook,  Eccl.  Biography,  ii,  27  ; 
Allione,  Diet,  of  Authors,  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibli- 
ographica,  i,  407. 

Boyse,  Joseph,  a  Dissenting  minister,  was  born  at 
Leeds,  Yorkshire,  1660,  and  was  educated  at  Stepney 
Academy.  In  1663  he  became  pastor  of  a  congrega- 
tion in  Dublin,  and  died  1728.  He  wrote  A  Vindica- 
tion of  the  Deity  of  Christ  (Lond.  1703,  8vo)  ;  A  clear 
Account  of  ancient  Episcopacy,  which,  with  other  writ- 
ings and  a  number  of  sermons,  are  collected  in  his 
Works  (Lond.  1728,  2  vols.  fol.). 

Bo'zez  (Heb.  Botsets',  "3*3,  shining,  according  to 
Gesenius,  but  height  according  to  Fiirst;  Sept.  Bwm'/c 
v.  r.  Bnfffc),  the  name  of  one  of  the  two  "sharp  rocks" 
(Heb.  "teeth  of  the  clilt"")  "between  the  passages" 
by  which  Jonathan  entered  the  Philistine  garrison,  ap- 
parently a  crag  on  the  north  side  of  the  ravine  between 
Michmash  and  Gibeah  (1  Sam.  xiv,  4,  5).  Robinson 
noticed  two  hills  of  blunt  conical  form  in  the  bottom 
of  Wady  Suweintt,  just  below  Mukmas  (Researches  ii, 
116,  also  new  oil.  iii,  289),  which  are  doubtless  those 
referred  to,  although  Stanley  could  not  make  them  out 
(Palest,  p.  205,  note"). 

Boz'kath  (Heb.  Botskath',  fl^SSl,  stony  region  or 
hill;  Sept.  in  Josh.  ttanticaS  v.  r.  BaoedwS  and  Ma<r- 
XaSr;  in  Kings  BaamSr  v.  r.  BaffovpwSr;  Josephus 
MofTKi-Sr,  Ant.  x,  4,  1),  a  town  "in  the  plain"  of  Judah, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Lachish  and  Eglon  (Josh,  xv,  39): 
it  was  the  native  place  of  Adaiah,  the  maternal  grand- 


BOZXAI 


870 


BRACELET 


father  of  King  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxii,  1,  where  it  is  An- 
glicized "Boscath").  It  is  possibly  the  ruined  site 
Tett  Hessy,  marked  by  Van  de  Velde  (Map)  at  a  mile 
and  a  half  south-east  of  Ajlan  (Eglou). 

Boznai.     See  Shethak-boznai. 

Boz'rah  (Heb.  Botsrah',  •V?'43,  apparently  mean- 
ing enclosure;  Sept.  Boaoppa  in  Gen.  and  Chron.,  else- 
where Boaop,  but  ninits  in  Jer.  xlix,  13,  bxvp&fiara  in 
Jer.  xlix,  22,  Tti\ta  in  Amos,  SrXiipic  in  Mic.),  the  name 
apparently  of  more  than  one  place  east  of  Jordan. 
Others,  however,  contend  that  we  should  regard  them 
as  the  same  city ;  for,  in  consequence  of  the  continual 
wars,  incursions,  and  conquests  which  were  common 
among  the  small  kingdoms  of  that  region,  the  posses- 
sion of  particular  cities  often  passed  into  different 
hands  (Kitto,  Pict.  Bible,  note  on  Jer.  xlix,  13). 

1.  In  Edom,  the  city  of  Jobab,  the  son  of  Zerah,  one 
of  the  early  kings  of  that  nation  (Gen.  xxxvi,  33  ;  1 
Chron.  i,  44).  This  is  doubtless  the  place  mentioned 
in  later  times  by  Isaiah  (xxxiv,  6;  lxiii,  l,in  connec- 
tion with  Edom"),  and  by  Jeremiah  (xlix,  13,  22),  Amos 
(i.  12),  ami  Micah  (ii,  12,  "sheep  of  Bozrah,"  comp. 
Isa.  xxxiv,  G;  the  word  is  here  rendered  by  the  Vul- 
gate "fold,"'  "the  sheep  of  the  fold;"  so  Gesenius  and 
Furst).  It  was  known  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  who 
speak  of  it  in  the  Onomasticon  (Boenop,  Bosor)  as  a  city 
of  Esau,  in  the  mountains  of  Idumsea,  in  connection 
with  Isa.  lxiii,  1,  and  in  contradistinction  to  Bostra  in 
Pera;a.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  modern 
representative  of  Bozrah  is  el-Busseirah,  which  was  first 
visited  by  Burckhardt  (Syria,  p.  407),  and  lies  on  the 
mountain  district  to  the  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
about  half  way  between  it  and  Petra  (see  also  Raumer, 
Paldst.  p.  243 ;  Bitter,  Erdk.  xv,  127 ;  xiv,  993,  101 
sq. ;  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  209).  Irby  and  Mangles  men- 
tion it  under  the  name  of  Ipseyra  and  Bsaida  (eh.  viii). 
The  "  goats*'  which  Isaiah  connects  with  the  place 
were  found  in  large  numbers  in  this  neighborhood  by 
Burckhardt  (Syria.,  p.  405).  It  is  described  by  Dr. 
Kobinson  (Researches,  ii,  570)  as  lying  about  six  miles 
south  of  Tophel,  and  "now  a  village  of  about  fifty 
houses,  situated  on  a  hill,  on  the  top  of  which  is  a  small 
castle." 

2.  In  his  catalogue  of  the  cities  of  the  land  of  Moab, 
Jeremiah  (xlviii,  24)  mentions  a  Bozrah  as  in  "the 
plain  country"  (ver.  21,  "lib"1'a'n  "jT"iN;),  i.  e.  apparent- 
ly the  high  level  downs  on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea 
and  of  the  lower  Jordan,  the  Belka  of  the  modern 
Arabs,  where  lay  Heshbon,  Nebo,  Kirjathaim,  Dib- 
lathaim,  and  the  other  towns  named  in  this  passage. 
Yet  Bozrah  lias  been  sought  at  Bostra,  the  Roman  city 
in  Bashan,  full  sixty  miles  from  Heshbon  (Porter's 
Damascus,  ii,  1G3,  etc.),  since  the  name  stands  by  it- 
-i  If  in  this  passage  of  Jeremiah,  not  being  mentioned 
in  any  of  the  other  lists  of  the  cities  of  Moab,  e.g. 
Num.  xxxii;  Josh,  xiii ;  Isa.  xvi;  Ezek.  xxv;  and  the 
catalogue  of  Jeremiah  is  expressly  said  to  include  cities 
both  "far  and  near"  (xlviii,  21 1.  See  KERIOTH. 
eight  also  is  due  to  the  consideration  of  the  im- 
probability that  a  town  at  a  later  date  so  important 
and  in  >u  excellent  a  situation  should  lie  entirely  omit- 
ted  from  the  Scripture.  Still,  in  a  country  where  the 
very  kings  were  "sheep-masters"  (2  Kings  iii,  4),  a 
name  signifying  a  sheepfold  may  have  been  of  com- 
iii""  occurrence.  This  Bozrah  is  also  mentioned  in 
tin'  Talmud  (see  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  223),  and  is  ap- 
parently the  Bosora  (q.  v.)  of]  Marc,  v,  26-28  (comp. 
//  Boooppa,  Josephus,  Ant.  xii,  8,  3).  Reland  incor- 
rectly identifies  it  |  Palasst.  p.  655)  with  the  Beeshterah 
of  Josh.  xxi.  27  (comp.  .A.///-.  Sac.  Lit.  Jan.  1852,  p. 
30 1 1.     Sit  Mishor. 

The  present  i:>/smh  is  situated  in  an  oasis  of  the 
Syro-Arabian  desert,  about  tin  miles  south  of  Damas- 
cus, and  40  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  southern  part  of 
tb"  II  auran,  of  which  it  has  formed  the  chief  city  since 
the  days  of  Almlfeda.     In  the  time  of  the  Romans  it 


as  an  important  place,  and  was  called  by  them  Bostra 
(Gr.  ?)  or  to.  Bu'crrpfl).  Cicero  mentions  it  as  having 
an  independent  chieftain  (ad  Q.  F.  ii,  12).  The  city 
was  beautified  by  Trajan,  who  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  Roman  province  of  Arabia,  as  is  commemorated  on 
its  coins  of  a  local  era  thence  arising,  and  dating  from 
A.D.  102  (Chron.  Pasch.  p.  253,  ed.  Paris;  p.  472,  cd. 
Bonn  ;  Eckhel,  Doctr.  Num.  iii,  500).  Under  Alex- 
ander Severus  it  was  made  a  "colony"  (Damascius, 
ap.  Phot.  Cod.  p.  272).  The  Emperor  Philip,  who  was 
a  native  of  this  city,  conferred  upon  it  the  title  of  "me- 
tropolis," it  being  at  that  time  a  large,  populous,  and 
well-fortified  city  (Amm.  Marc,  xiv,  8).  It  lay  24 
Roman  miles  north-east  of  Adraa  (Edrei),  and  four 
days'  journey  south  of  Damascus  (Eusebius,  Onomast. 
s.  v. ;  Hierocl.  Notit.).  Ptolemy  (v,  17,  7 ;  viii,  20,  21) 
mentions  it  among  the  cities  of  Arabia  Petroea,  with 
the  surname  of  Legio  (AtyiW),  in  allusion  to  the  "  Le- 
gio  III  Cyrenalca,"  whose  head-quarters  were  fixed 
here  by  Trajan ;  it  is  also  one  of  that  geographer's 
points  of  astronomical  observation.  Ecclesiastically, 
it  was  a  place  of  considerable  importance,  being  the 
seat  first  of  a  bishopric  and  afterward  of  au  archbish- 
opric, ruling  over  twenty  dioceses  (Ada  Concil.  Xic. 
Ephes.,  Chaleedon,  etc.),  and  forming  apparently  the  cen- 
tre of  Nestorian  influence  (Assemani's  Biblioth.  Orient. 
Ill,  ii,  595,  730).  See  Bostra.  The  site  still  contains 
extensive  vestiges  of  its  ancient  importance,  consisting 
of  temples,  theatres,  and  palaces,  which  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Burckhardt  (Syria,  p.  326  sq.).  It  lies  in 
the  open  plain,  being  the  last  inhabited  place  in  the 
south-east  extremity  of  the  Hauran,  and  is  now,  in- 
cluding its  ruins,  the  largest  town  in  that  district.  It 
is  of  an  oval  shape,  its  greatest  length  being  from  east 
to  west ;  its  circumference  is  three  quarters  of  an  hour. 
Many  parts  of  its  ancient  wall,  especially  on  the  west 
side,  still  remain,  showing  that  it  was  constructed  with 
stones  of  a  moderate  size  strongly  cemented  together. 
The  principal  buildings  in  Bozrah  were  on  the  east 
side,  and  in  a  direction  from  thence  toward  the  middle 
of  the  town.  The  south  and  south-east  quarters  are 
covered  with  rains  of  private  dwellings,  the  walls  of 
many  of  which  are  still  standing,  but  most  of  the  roofs 
have  fallen  in.  On  the  west  side  are  numerous  springs 
of  fresh  water.  The  castle  of  Bozrah  is  a  most  im- 
portant post  to  protect  the  harvests  of  the  Hauran 
against  the  hungry  Bedouins,  but  it  is  much  neglect- 
ed by  the  pashas  of  Damascus.  Of  the  vineyards  for 
which  Bozrah  was  celebrated,  not  a  vestige  remains. 
There  is  scarcely  a  tree  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
town ;  and  the  twelve  or  fifteen  families  who  now  in- 
habit it  cultivate  nothing  but  wheat,  barley,'  horse- 
beans,  and  a  little  dhoura.     See  Hauran, 

Bracelet  (Sept.  ^XiflW),  a  name,  in  strict  pro- 
priety,  as  applicable  to  circlets  worn  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  arm  as  to  those  w^orn  on  the  wrist;  but  it  \r, 
practically  so  exclusively  used  to  denote  the  ornament 
of  the  wrist,  that  it  seems  proper  to  distinguish  1  y 
armlet  (q.  v.)  the  similar  ornament  which  is  worn  on 
the  upper  arm.  See  also  Anklet.  There  is  also  this 
difference  between  them,  that  in  the  East  bracelets  are 
generally  worn  by  women,  and  armlets  only  by  men. 
The  armlet,  however,  is  in  use  among  men  only  as  one 
of  the  insignia  of  sovereign  power.  The  term  "arm- 
let" should  also  perhaps  be  regarded  as  properly  des- 
ignating such  as  consist  of  a  complete  circle,  while 
"bracelet"  more  appropriately  refers  to  those  with  an 
opening  or  clasp  to  admit  of  passing  more  readily  over 
the  hand ;  but  as  the  other  distinction  is  neglected  in 
the  Auth.  Vers,  (as  in  common  use),  so  this  does  not 
appear  to  be  observed  in.  the  ornaments  of  this  descrip- 
tion delineated  on  the  ancient  monuments,  where  wc 
find  both  kinds  used  almost  indifferently  both  for  the 
wrist  and  upper  part  of  the  arm. 

There  are  fwc  different  Hebrew  words  which  the 
English  Bible  renders  by  bracelet,  besides  the  Greek 
term  xKtdwv,  which  is  thus  rendered  twice  in  the  Apoc- 


BRACELET 


871 


BRACELET 


rypha  (Judith  x,  4;  Ecclus.  xxi,  21).  These  are,  (1.) 
(T15SX,  etsadah'  (properly  a  step-chain  or  anklet), 
which  occurs  in  Num.  xxxi,  50;  2  Sam.  i,  10,  and  with 
reference  to  men  only.  (2.)  TVQX,  tsamid'  (literally  a 
fastener),  which  is  found  in  Gen.  xxiv,  22,  80,  47 ; 
Num.  xxxi,  50 ;  Ezek.  xvi,  11 ;  xxiii,  42.  Where 
these  two  words  occur  together  (as  in  Num.  xxxi,  50), 
the  first  is  rendered  by  "chain,"  and  the  second  by 
"bracelet."  (3.)  FlilttJ,  she  roth' ,  chains  (so  called 
from  being  wreathed),  which  occurs  only  in  Isa.  iii, 
19;  but  compare  the  expression  "wreathen  chains" 
in  Ex.  xxviii,  14,  22.  Bracelets  of  fine  twisted  Vene- 
tian gold  are  still  common  in  Egypt  (Lane,  ii,  3GS, 
Append.  A  and  plates).  The  first  we  take  to  mean 
armlets  worn  bj'  men ;  the  second,  bracelets  worn  by 
women  and  sometimes  by  men ;  and  the  third,  a  pe- 
culiar bracelet  of  chain-work  worn  only  by  women. 
It  is  observable  that  the  first  two  occur  in  Num.  xxxi, 
50,  which  we  suppose  to  mean  that  the  men  offered  their 
own  armlets  and  the  bracelets  of  their  wives.  In  the 
only  other  passage  in  which  the  first  word  occurs  it  de- 
notes the  royal  ornament  which  the  Amalekite  took 
from  the  arm  of  the  dead  Saul,  and  brought  with  the 
other  regalia  to  David.  There  is  little  question  that 
this  was  such  a  distin- 
guishing band  of  jewel- 
led metal  as  we  still  find 
worn  as  a  mark  of  roy- 
alty from  the  Tigris  to 
the  Ganges.  The  Egyp- 
tian kings  are  represent- 
ed with  armlets,  which 
were  also  worn  by  the 


Ancient  Egyptian  Bracelets:  1.  Bronze  Bangle; 
Bracelet  of  Gold. 

Egyptian  women.  These,  however,  are  not  jewelled, 
but  of  plain  enamelled  metal,  as  was  in  all  likelihood  the 
case  among  the  Hebrews.  (4.)  i~in  (chah,  properly  a 
hook  or  ring),  rendered  "  bracelet"  in  Exo'l.  xxxv,  22, 
elsewhere  "hook"  or  "  chain,"  is  thought  by  some  to 
designate  in  that  passage  a  clasp  for  fastening  the 
dress  of  females,  by  others  more  probably  a 
nose-ring  or  jewel.  See  Eau-ring.  (SEPT'S 
(patkil',  athread),  rendered  "bracelet"  in  the 
account  ofJudah's  interview  with  Tamar  (Gen. 
xxxviii,  18,  25  ;  elsewhere  rendered  "  lace," 
"line,"  etc.),  probably  denotes  the  ornamental 
cord  or  safe-chain  with  which  the  signet  was 
suspended  in  the  bosom  of  the  wearer.  See 
Sigxet.  Men  as  well  as  women  wore  brace- 
lets, as  we  see  from  Cant,  v,  14,  which  may  be 
rendered,  "His  wrists  are  circlets  of  gold  full 
setwith topazes."  Layard  says  oftheAssyrian 


kings,  "The  arms  were  encircled  by  armlets,  and  the. 
wrists  by  bracelets,  all  equally  remarkable  for  the  taste 
and  beauty  of  the  design  and  workmanship.  In  the 
centre  of  the  bracelets  were  stars  and  rosettes,  which 
were  probably  inlaid  with  precious  stones"  {Nineveh,  ii, 
323).  The  ancient  ladies  of  Rome  were  likewise  accus- 
tomed to  wear  bracelets,  partly  as  amulets  (q.  v.)  and 
partly  for  ornament ;  the  latter  chiefly  by  women  of 


Ancient  Roman  Bracelets:  1.  A  Lady's,  having  a  Rosette  in 
the  centre,  with  holes  at  each  end  where  others  tvi  iv  once 
attached  (found  at  Rome);  2.  Composed  of  two  gold  Wirea 
twisted  together,  with  a  peculiar  Clasp;  3.  A  heavy  (/oil, 
evidently  a  military  Token  of  Honor. 

considerable  rank,  whose  jewels  of  this  kind  were  often 
of  immense  value,  being  enriched  with  the  most  costly 
gems.  Bracelets  were  also  occasionally  given  among 
the  Romans  to  soldiers  as  a  reward  of  extraordinary 
prowess  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Armilla). 
Bracelets  are,  and  always  have  been,  much  in  use 
among  Eastern  females.  Many  of  them  are  of  the 
same  shapes  and  patterns  as  the  armlets,  and  are  often 


Ancient  Assyrian  Bracelets  and  Bracelet  Clasp. 
From  the  Ninevite  Sculptures. 


Modern  Oriental  Bracelets,  each  half  the  real  Size:  1.  A  ride  View  of  a 
Diamond  Bracelet,  with  a  front  View  of  the  mine;  2.  Front  and  side 
View  of  the  most  fashionable  kind  of  gold  Bracelet,  formed  of  a  simpla 

Twist;  3.  A  very  common  kind  of  twisted  Gold;  4.  A  Band  of  Gold. 


BRACKENBURY 


872 


BRADISH 


of  such  considerable  weight  and  bulk  as  to  appear  J 
more  like  manacles  than  ornaments.  Many  are  often 
worn  one  above  the  other  on  the  same  arm,  so  as  to 
occupy  tin-  greater  part  of  the  space  between  the  wrist  { 
anil  the  elbow.  The  materials  vary  according  to  the 
condition  of  the  wearer,  but  it.  seems  to  be  the  rule 
that  bracelets  of  the  meanest  materials  are  better  than 
none.  Among  the  higher  classes  they  are  of  mother- 
of-pearl,  of  line  flexible  gold,  and  of  silver,  the  last 
being  the  most  common.  The  poorer  women  use 
plated  steel,  horn,  brass,  copper,  beads,  and  other  ma-  | 
terials  of  a  cheap  description.  Some  notion  of  the  size  i 
and  value  of  the  bracelets  used  both  now  and  in  an- 
cient times  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  those 
which  were  presented  by  Eliezer  to  Rebekah  weighed 
ten  shekels  (Gen.  xxiv,  22).  The  bracelets  are  some- 
times flat,  but  more  frequently  round  or  semicircular, 
except  at  the  point  where  they  open  to  admit  the  hand,  i 
where  they  are  flattened.  They  are  frequently  hol- 
low, giving  the  show  of  bulk  (which  is  much  desired) 
without  the  inconvenience.  Bracelets  of  gold  twisted 
rope-wise  are  those  now  most  used  in  Western  Asia ; 
but  we  cannot  determine  to  what  extent  this  fashion 
may  have  existed  in  ancient  times.     See  Attire. 

Brackenbury,  Robert  Carr,  an  English  gen- 
tleman of  wealth  and  family,  one  of  the  earliest  Wes- 
levan  Methodist  ministers,  was  born  in  Lincolnshire, 
England,  in  1752.  After  studying  at  St.  Catharine's 
Hall,  Cambridge,  with  the  intention  of  entering  the 
Established  Church,  he  was  converted,  and  joined  the 
Methodist  Society.  He  frequently  itinerated  in  com- 
pany with  Mr.  Wesley,  who  esteemed  him  highly,  and 
in  1782  was  sent  as  preacher  to  the  Channel  Islands. 
In  17x9  he  returned  to  England,  and  continued  his  em- 
inently useful  ministry  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try until  his  death  in  1818.  See  Raithby  Hall,  or  Me- 
morial Sketches  of  Robert  Carr  Brackenbury,  Esq.  (Lond. 
1859). 

Bradburn,  Samuel,  a  distinguished  Wesleyan 
minister,  was  born  at  Gibraltar,  where  his  father's  reg- 
iment was  stationed,  October  5,  1751,  and  settled  at 
Chester,  England.  He  became  a  local  preacher  in 
1773,  and  an  itinerant  in  1784.  He  soon  became  re- 
markably popular,  and  was  considered  one  of  the  first 
preachers  of  the  land.  Adam  Clarke  says  of  him,  "  I 
have  never  heard  his  equal ;  I  can  furnish  you  with 
no  adequate  ideas  of  his  powers  as  an  orator;  we  have 
not  a  man  among  us  that  will  support  any  thing  like 
a  comparison  with  him."  After  a  long  and  pre-emi- 
nently popular  career,  he  died  on  the  24th  of  July, 
1816.— Wesleyan  Mag.  181(3 ;  Wakeley,  Heroes  of  Mi  th- 
odism,  p.  209 ;  Life  if  Sam.  Bradburn,  by  his  daugh- 
ter (Lond.  1816,  12mo). 

Bradbury,  Thomas,  an  English  Dissenting  min- 
ister, born  at  Wakefield  in  1G77,  was  educated  at 
Leeds,  and  became  pastor  in  Fetter  Lane  in  1709.  In 
1727  he  succeeded  Daniel  Burgess  in  Care}'  Street 
Chapel,  and  was  said  to  be  an  imitator  of  that  eminent 
preacher's  style  of  pulpit  eloquence.  He  died  1759. 
lie  wrote  The  Mystery  of  Godliness,  61  Sermons  on  1 
Tim.  iii,  16  (Edinb.  1795,  2  vols.  Svo) : — Justification 
Explained  (  Lond.  1710,  12mo): — Duty  and  Doctrine  of 
Baptism  (Lond.  1749,  8vo) : — Sermons  (10  vols.  8vo, 
n.  v.). 

Bradford,  John,  an  English  divine  and  martyr,  was 
born  at  Manchester  soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry 
VIII.  He  received  a  good  education,  and  about  1547 
began  to  study  in  the  Temple,  intending  to  pursue  the 
law  as  a  profession,  but  in  1548  he  changed  his  plan, 
proceeded  to  Cambridge,  and  entered  at  Catharine 
Hall.  In  1552  he  received  the  appointment  of  chap- 
lain to  Edward  VI.  He  held  this  post  only  a  short 
time,  the  king's  death  following  soon  after.  Upon 
Mary's  accession,  he.  together  with  all  those  who  es- 
poused tie-  cause  of  the  Reformation,  fell  into  disgrace, 
and,  upon  a  trumped-up  charge  of  raising  a  tumult  at 


Paul's  Cross,  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  Here 
ho  remained,  but  not  in  strict  confinement,  until  1554, 
when  he  was  removed  to  Southwark,  and  examined 
before  Gardiner,  Bonner,  and  some  others.  Condemn- 
ed to  death,  his  life  was  for  some  time  spared,  under 
the  hope  that  he  might  be  won  over  to  the  Roman  doc- 
trines. This,  however,  he  steadily  refused  to  listen  to, 
preferring  death  to  a  dishonest  profession.  He  was 
cruelly  burned  at  Smithfield,  July  1,  1555,  as  a  here- 
tic, together  with  John  Lyefe.  His  writings,  edited 
by  Townsend,  have  been  republished  by  the  "Parker 
Society"  (Camb.  1848,  8vo).  See  also  Stevens,  Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  and  Martyrdom,  of  Bradford  (Lond. 
1832,  8vo);  Burnet,  Hist,  of  Reformation,  ii,  379,  488. 

Bradford,  John  M.,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Danbury, 
Conn.,  May  15,  1781,  graduated  at  Brown  University, 
and  studied  theology  with  Rev.  Dr.  Ashbel  Green  of 
Philadelphia.  He  was  pastor  of  the  North  Ref.  Dutch 
church  at  Albany  from  1805  to  1820.  Dr.  Bradford 
was  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  distinguished  pulpit 
orators  of  his  day.  Two  sermons  are  all  of  his  produc- 
tions now  in  print,  one  entitled  The  Word  of  Life,  and 
the  other  The  School  of  the  Prophets.  They  are  master- 
pieces of  pulpit  eloquence.  He  died  in  1827  at  the  age 
of  forty-six  years. 

Bradford,  Joseph,  the  travelling  companion  of 
John  Wesley,  was  for  38  years  an  itinerant  Methodist 
minister,  dying  at  Hull  in  1808.  He  was  a  man  of  in- 
tegrity and  perseverance,  and  a  very  successful  preach- 
er. He  was  honored  in  1803  by  being  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  British  Conference. — Wakeley,  Heroes  of 
Methodism,  p.  211. 

Bradford,  Samuel,  a  divine  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  born  in  1652,  became  bishop  of  Carlisle 
in  1718,  was  translated  to  Rochester  iii  1723,  and  died 
in  1731.  He  published  a  work  on  The  Credibility  of  the 
Christian  Religion — one  of  the  Boyle  Lectures  (Lond. 
1699,  4to;  1739,  fol.) — and  a  number  of  sermons,  and 
also  assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  works  of  Arch- 
bishop Tillotson  (q.  v.). 

Bradford,  William  H.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Cooperstown,  N.  Y.,  August,  1814.  He 
was  educated  for  the  law,  but  was  led  to  change  his 
purpose  ;  and,  having  studied  divinity  at  the  Theolog- 
ical Seminary,  Auburn,  he  was  licensed  by  the  Cay- 
uga Presbytery.  His  only  charge  was  the  church  at 
Berkshire,,  N.  Y.,  where  he  remained  two  years.  In 
1840  he  became  connected  with  the  New  York  Evan- 
gelist as  assistant,  and  at  times  sole  editor.  This  po- 
sition he  held  for  seventeen  years,  proving  himself  an 
accomplished  scholar,  an  able  writer,  and  a  courteous 
gentleman.  He  died  April  1st,  1861,  of  heart  disease. 
— Wilson,  Presbyterian  Almanac,  1862. 

Bradish,  Luther,  president  of  the  American  Bible 
Society,  was  born  at  Cummington,  Mass.,  in  1783, 
graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1804,  and  was  short- 
ly afterward  admitted  to  the  New  York  bar.  He! 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  war  of  1812.  In  1820  he 
rendered  very  efficient  aid  to  the  government  in  the 
negotiation  of  the  treaty  with  Turkey.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  acquiring  information  for  the  government  pre- 
paratory to  this  negotiation,  he  travelled  through  the 
greater  portion  of  the  dominions  of  the  sultan.  Short- 
ly after  his  return  to  this  country,  after  an  absence  of 
six  years,  he  was  honored  with  a  seat  in  the  State 
Legislature,  and  again  in  1835.  In  1838  he  -was 
Speaker  of  the  Assembly,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
chosen  lieutenant  governor  of  the  state,  and  again  in 
1840.  In  1842  he  was  the  Whig  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor, but  failed  of  election.  During  the  administra- 
tion of  president  Fillmore  Mr.  Bradish  received  the 
appointment  of  United  States  assistant  treasurer  for 
New  York.  From  that  time  he  took  no  active  part  in 
political  life,  but  devoted  his  ample  leisure  to  literary 
and  benevolent  institutions.     In  1844  he  was  elected 


BRADLEY 


!v3 


BRAIIM 


first  vice-president  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society, 
and  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Gallatin  in  1849,  was  elected 
president.  He  was  chosen  vice-president  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society  in  1847,  and  succeeded  to  the  pres- 
idency of  that  institution  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Freling- 
huysen  in  1861.  He  died  at  Newport  6n  August  20, 
1863.  He  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church. 

Bradley,  Joshua,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in 
Randolph,  Mass.,  July  5,  1773.  He  joined  the  Bap- 
tist Church  in  1790,  was  graduated  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity in  1799,  and  was  ordained  associate  pastor  of  the 
Second  Baptist  Church  in  Newport  in  1801.  In  1807 
lie  removed  to  Mansfield,  Conn.,  and  two  years  later 
opened  an  academy  in  Wallingford,  in  the  same  state. 
Mr.  Bradley  removed  in  1813  to  Windsor,  Vt.,  and 
thence  in  succession  to  various  places  in  the  states  of 
N.  Y.,  Ohio,  Penn.,  111.,  Mo.,  Ky.,  Ind.,  Va.,  and  Min- 
nesota, preaching,  teaching,  and  establishing  semina- 
ries, colleges,  and  churches,  which  course  he  continued 
till  his  death  in  1855,  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.  Mr.  Bradley 
was  the  author  of  two  small  volumes  on  "Revivals" 
and  "Free-masonry,"  besides  various  pamphlets. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  400. 

Bradshaw,  William,  a  distinguished  Puritan  di- 
vine, was  born  in  1571,  became  minister  of  Chatham, 
Kent,  in  1G01,  subsequently  lecturer  of  Christ  Church, 
London,  and  died  in  1618.  His  work  on  English  Puri- 
tanism (Bond.  1605)  is  valuable  as  showing  the  differ- 
ence between  the  principles  of  the  ancient  and  modern 
Nonconformists.  He  also  wrote,  besides  other  works, 
a  Treatise  of  Justification  (Lond.  1615 ;  in  Lat.,  Leyd. 
1618,  12mo;  Oxf.  1658,  8vo). 

Bradwardine,  Thomas,  denominated  doctor  pro- 
fundus, an  eminent  English  scholastic  divine,  was  born 
at  Hartfield,  in  Cheshire,  in  1290,  and  educated  at 
Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  was  the  confessor  of 
Edward  III,  and  attended  him  to  France.  In  1319  he 
was  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  but  died  six 
weeks  subsequently.  Bradwardine  was  scarcely  less 
eminent  as  a  mathematician  than  as  a  theologian. 
His  treatise  De  Causa  Dei  adrersus  Pelagium  (Lond. 
1618,  fol.)  is  a  connected  series  of  reasonings,  in  strict- 
\y  mathematical  form,  in  favor  of  Augustinism.  "  He 
places  the  whole  and  each  part  of  the  universe  under 
an  unconditional  necessity.  Every  tiling  which  hap- 
pens is  a  necessary  fulfilment  of  the  divine  plan  of  the 
universe.  The  divine  will  is  the  efficient  cause,  to 
which  every  thing  else  is  alike  subservient;  even  the 
actions  of  rational  beings  are  not  exempt  from  this 
universal  law.  Hence  he  impugns  the  distinction  of 
a  divine  will  and  a  divine  permission  in  reference  to 
evil,  and  endeavors  to  show  that  even  this  forms  a  nec- 
essary part  of  the  divine  plan,  but  that  moral  imputa- 
tion is  not  thereby  nullified,  since  evil  subjectively 
contradicts  the  will  of  God.  He  strives  to  set  aside 
all  the  subterfuges  of  his  opponents  for  vindicating 
any  meritum  whatever,  even  a  merdtum  de  congrno;  he 
even  opposes  those  who  admitted  a.  gratia  praw  niens, 
and  only  maintained  that  it  depended  on  the  recep- 
tivity of  man  to  accept  it  or  not.  From  this  system  it 
strictly  followed  that  the  independence  and  contin- 
gency of  the  free  will  are  only  a  semblance ;  and,  since 
this  applies  to  the  fall,  supralapsarianism  would  be  in- 
volved in  it."  Bradwardine  has  been  regarded  by 
some  writers  as  a  precursor  of  the  Reformation.  His 
doctrine  of  the  will  is  nearly  identical  with  that  of 
Jonathan  Edwards.  —  Mosheini,  Keel.  Hist,  ii,  365; 
Cave,  Hist.  Lit.  A.D.  1348  ;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  iii,  109 ; 
Meander,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  p.  609. 

Brady,  Nicolas,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
born  Oct.  28th,  1659,  at  Ban. Ion,  Ireland.  Ho  gradu- 
ated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  Bishop  Wettenhall,  by  whose  patronage 
he  obtained  a  prebend  in  the  Cathedral  of  Cork.  On 
the  establishment  of  William  and  Mary,  he  was  de- 


puted to  present  to  the  English  Parliament  a  petition 
for  redress  of  grievances  ;  and,  remaining  in  London, 
he  became  minister  of  the  church  of  St.  Catharine 
Cree,  and  lecturer  of  St.  Michael's,  in  Wood  Street. 
He  died  May  20, 1726,  the  same  year  in  which  he  pub- 
lished by  subscription  his  Translation  of  the  JEnad  of 
Virgil  (4  vols.  8vo),  which  is  now  almost  entirely  un- 
known. But  the  reputation  of  Dr.  Brady  rests  solely 
upon  his  share  in  the  Metrical  Version  of  the  Psalms, 
known  as  Tate  and  Brady's,  of  the  merits  or  demerits 
of  which  every  one  who  possesses  an  English  Prayer- 
book  may  judge  for  himself. 

Braga,  the  see  of  a  Roman  archbishop  in  Portugal. 
The  bishopric  of  Braga  was  established  soon  after  the 
conquest  of  Portugal  by  the  Suevi,  and  somewhat  later 
it  was  changed  into  an  archbishopric.  Three  councils 
(Concilia  Bracarensia)  were  held  there  :  in  563,  against 
the  Priscillianists  and  Arians  (this  council  completed 
the  conversion  of  the  Suevi  from  Arianism  to  ortho- 
doxy) ;  in  572  and  672,  on  church  discipline. 

Bragdon,  C.  P.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Acton,  Maine,  September  9,  1808.  In 
1830  he  was  converted,  and  soon  after  went  to  the 
seminary  at  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.,  to  prepare  for  the  min- 
istry. In  1834  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  in  the  Maine  Conference,  and 
filled  various  churches  there  for  ten  years,  when  his 
health  broke  down,  and  he  retired  to  Auburn,  N.  Y. 
He  resumed  his  labors  in  New  England  in  a  few  years, 
and  then  removed  to  the  Rock  River  Conference,  as 
better  suited  to  his  health.  Here  he  labored  effective- 
ly for  several  years,  his  last  station  being  Evanston, 
Illinois.  He  died  January  8, 1861.  In  the  pulpit  he 
"seemed  like  one  of  the  old  prophets  risen  again  with 
the  commission  of  God  to  deplore  the  desolations  of 
Zion,  and  to  denounce  the  sin  of  the  people,  urging 
the  alternative  of  penitence  or  peril.  Many  mistook 
this  for  unnecessary  severity.  The  mistake  was  in 
not  fully  knowing  this  ambassador  of  God.  They  did 
not  see  that  he  forgot  that  he  was  anything;  that 
God's  honor  was  to  him  everything,  and  that  the  deep 
ethical  spirit  within  him  rose  to  indignation  that  God's 
honor  and  claims  should  be  so  flagrantly  violated." — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  1861,  p.  207. 

Bragdon,  Edmund  E.  E.,  D.D.,  was  born  in 
Shapley,  Maine,  Dec.  1, 1812.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Cazenovia  and  Maine  Wesleyan  seminaries,  and  at  the 
Wesleyan  University,  where  he  passed  A.B.  in  1841. 
After  spending  three  years  in  teaching,  he  entered  the 
itinerant  ministry,  and  was  appointed  to  Wolcott,  N. 
York.  He  was  successively  principal  of  the  Mexico 
Academy  and  of  the  Fulton  Academy;  pastor  of  Yes- 
try  Street  Church,  New  York  ;  professor  of  languages 
in  Ohio  University  ;  in  Indiana,  Asbury  University. 
He  held  this  latter  post  from  1854  to  185s,  when  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  languages  in  Genesee  College, 
N.  Y.,  which  post  he  held  till  the  day  of  his  death, 
March  20,1862.  "He  was  a  constant  and  faithful 
servant  of  Cod.  Whether  engaged  in  the  regular 
work  of  the  Gospel  minister  or  in  that  of  a  Christian 
educator,  one  object  only  was  in  view — the  salvation 
of  souls.  His  preaching  and  teaching  were  alwaj  s  to 
this  end,  and  scores,  both  of  parishioners  and  pupils, 
can  date  their  first  religious  impressions  to  the  faithful 
dealings  of  brother  Bragdon  with  (heir  souls,  and  his 
earnest  pleading  with  God  in  their  behalf.  His  death 
made  a  vacancy  in  the  college  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected, and  in  the  Church  and  Conference,  of  which  be 
was  a  most  valued  member,  (hut  cannot  be  easily  fill- 
ed."—Minutes  of  Coif  mice;  1862,  p.  111. 

Brahm  (the  absolute,  the  supreme)  is  the  name  of 
the  highest  purely  spiritual  divine  essence  in  the  re- 
ligion of  India,  of  whom  the  other  gods  are  but  ser- 
vants. He  is  not  an  object  of  worship,  but  is  revealed 
in  the  triad — Brahma,  the  creator;  Vishnu,  the  pre- 
server; and  Siva,  the  destroyer.     The  Indians  glorify 


BRAHMINS 


874 


BRAINERD 


him  by  innumerable  surnames,  such  as  Abyiagoni  (cre- 
ator of  the  clouds  and  the  seas),  Anadi  (he  who  had  no 
beginning),  Narayana  (mover  of  the  original  waters), 
Parabrama  (the  endless),  Parama  (the  benefactor),  Su- 
ayambhu  (he  who  exists  by  himself),  etc. 
"  Brahma  is  the  first  manifestation  of  Brahm,  and 
represents  the  creative  power  which  created  the  world 
and  man,  and  is  the  first  lawgiver  and  teacher  of  the 
Indians  (therefore  the  author  of  the  Vedas).  Accord- 
ing to  the  book  of  Mann,  God's  will  first  created  the 
fluids,  and  in  them  was  contained  an  egg  shining  like 
gold  (Brahmanda),  from  which  Brahm  himself  was 
born  as  Brahma.  His  will  broke  the  shell  of  the  egg, 
and  from  it  he  created  all  other  things,  men,  spirits, 
and  gods,  after  which  he  retired  again  into  identity 
with  Brahm.  He  lived  ICO  years  of  3G5  days  and  as 
many  nights,  each  of  1000  sadriyugams;  but  every 
four  jugas  are  equivalent  to  4,320,000  human  years, 
consequently  His  life  lasted  315,360,000,000,000  of  our 
years.  The  destruction  and  reconstruction  of  the  world 
are  connected  with  his  loss  of  activity  at  the  end  of  his 
period  of  life  and  his  awakening  hereafter.  Finally, 
his  death  will  result  in  universal  destruction,  until 
a  new  Brahma  will  be  created,  who,  in  his  turn  shall 
create  another  universe.  Thus  far  Brahma  has  died 
and  come  to  life  again  1001  times.  Brahmi  is  his  daugh- 
ter and  mate.  Brahma  is  represented  with  four  heads 
and  the  same  number  of  arms,  each  bearing  a  different 
symbol,  as  those  of  his  immortality,  omnipotence,  and 
law-giving  power.  The  swan  is  consecrated  to  him, 
and  is  his  usual  steed.  His  Paradise  (Brahmaloga)  is 
on  Mount  Moru ;  here  he  receives  his  true  followers, 
and  they  bathe  in  the  sea  of  Behra,  whose  waters,  en- 
dow them  with  perpetual  youth.  It  is  also  the  site  of 
the  city  of  Brahma,  Brahmapatnam,  out  of  the  four 
doors  of  which  flow  the  streams  Sadalam,  Sadasson, 
Fatram,  and  Acaguey.  Brahma  is  also  called  Attima- 
boh  (the  good  spirit),  Bisheshrik  (flower  of  creation), 
Kamalasana  (sitting  under  the  lotus),  Widhada  (father 
of  fate),  etc.  For  a  fuller  treatment  of  the  subject,  see 
Hinduism;  India. 

Brahmins  (the  sons  of  Brahma,  the  divines)  are 
the  priests  of  India,  and  form  the  highest  caste;  they 
are  considered  as  having  sprung  from  the  head  of 
Brahma,  and,  as  such,  considered  holy,  inviolable,  and 
the  only  ones  worthy  of  fulfilling  the  priestly  offices. 
Their  distinctive  marks  are  the  jagnapavadan  or  pu- 
nal,  a  shoulder-girdle  composed  of  nine  threads  long 
enough  to  go  108  times  around  the  closed  hand,  and 
the  kudumi,  a  small  bunch  of  hair  which  is  left  at  the 
back  of  the  head  when  shaving  it.  On  the  forehead, 
breast,  and  arms  they  wear  the  holy  sign  of  Siva,  "=", 
or,  in  honor  of  Vishna,  the  simple  sign  kuri,  j,  on  the 
forehead.  They  have  two  rules :  the  exterior  (Ya- 
man)  contains  five  duties  :  always  to  speak  the  truth  ; 
not  to  take  the  life  of  any  creature ;  never  to  steal 
any  thing;  to  observe  the  most  rigorous  chastity;  not 
to  marry  after  the  death  of  their  wife.  The  inner 
rule  (Niyama)  also  enjoins  five  duties:  to  preserve 
the  utmost  inward  purity;  to  aim  at  inward  peace; 
to  live  in  continual  penitence  and  contemplation  of 
the  divinity;  to  acquire  the  most  perfect  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  God,  and  to  make  use  of  that  knowl- 
ed  e  ■  continually  to  think  of  Siva  as  the  highest 
god.  Their  occupations  consist  in  reading  and  teach- 
ing the  Vedas,  to  officiate  in  the  temples,  particular- 
ly in  offering  sacrifices,  to  give  alms,  to  sit  in  judg- 
ment, and  to  act  as  physicians.  Their  decisions  are 
in  every  case  final,  and  disobedience  to  them  is  most 
severely  punishable  ;  the  king  himself  must  show  them 
the  greatest  respect,  even  when  they  follow  the  hum- 
bles! callings.  The  life  of  the  Brahmin  is  divided 
into  four  parts:  1st,  Brahmachari,  or  scholar,  when  the 
Brahmin,  by  the  application  of  the  punal,  is  received 
into  the  caste,  and  studies  the  Vedas;   he  binds  himself 

to  punctual  obedience,  continence,  purity  of  heart,  and 

discretion  ;  after  twelve  years  he  becomes,  2dlv,  Gri- 


hasthen,  when  he  is  appointed  priest  of  a  pagoda  or 
of  a  private  family,  or  else  devotes  himself  to  other  oc- 
cupations, principally  to  agriculture  ;  in  the  3d  part  he 
becomes  Vanaprasthen,  from  40  or  50  years  of  age  to 
72.  The  Brahmin  must  then  leave  his  home  and  retire 
to  the  woods,  there  to  live  as  a  hermit,  laying  aside  all 
comforts  or  mental  enjoyments ;  he  must  fast,  and 
wear  a  dress  of  bark  or  of  the  skin  of  the  black  ante- 
lope, and  let  his  hair  and  nails  grow  without  ever  cut- 
ting them.  He  takes  only  the  sacred  fire  with  him, 
and  presides  at  all  festive  offerings.  In  the  4th  part 
the  Brahmin  becomes  Bhikshii  or  Sannyasi,  and  is 
then  to  devote  himself  to  the  contemplation  of  God, 
previous  to  going  back  to  him  after  death.  He  there- 
fore renounces  all  that  belongs  to  him,  and  leaves  all 
his  goods  to  his  family.  His  hair  is  all  cut  off,  his 
dress  consists  only  of  a  white  cloth,  and  he  receives  a 
brass  vessel  in  which  he  is  to  keep  some  water  for  the 
purpose  of  washing  what  food  he  may  get;  he  also  re- 
ceives a  stick  called  dandam,  with  seven  natural  knots, 
to  remind  him  of  the  seven  great  saints.  lie  thus  lives 
on  alms,  bathes  three  times  every  day,  and  covers  his 
forehead  and  breast  with  ashes ;  he  is  in  the  highest 
odor  of  sanctity,  and  any  one  who  approaches  him 
must  respectfully  bow  before  him.  After  his  death, 
he  is  buried  sitting  in  a  quantity  of  salt;  his  head  is 
broken  with  a  cocoanut,  and  his  brains  distributed 
among  those  present.     See  Hinduism  ;  India. 

Brahminism.     See  Hinduism. 

Brainerd,  David,  a  celebrated  missionary  to  the 
Indians,  was  born  at  Haddam,  Conn.,  April  20, 1718. 
From  his  earliest  j'ears  be  had  strong  impressions  of 
religion.  In  1739  he  entered  Yale  College,  where  he 
was  distinguished  for  general  propriety  and  devotion 
to  study.  An  indiscreet  remark  that  one  of  the  tutors 
was  as  "destitute  of  grace  as  the  chair,"  led,  in  1742, 
to  Brainerd's  expulsion.  He  continued  without  in- 
terruption the  study  of  divinity,  and,  having  been  li- 
censed to  preach,  he  received  from  the  Scotch  Socie- 
ty for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge  an  appointment 
as  their  missionary  to  the  Indians.  In  1743  he  la- 
bored among  a  Kaunameek  tribe  and  the  Delaware 
Indians.  Receiving  ordination  in  1744,  he  settled  in 
Crossweeks,  N.  J.  His  Indian  interpreter,  having 
been  converted,  proved  a  most  valuable  assistant. 
Deep  impressions  were  made  on  his  savage  hearers,  so 
that  it  was  no  uncommon  spectacle  to  see  the  whole 
congregation  dissolved  in  tears.  In  the  course  of  a 
year  not  less  than  seventy-seven  Indians  were  bap- 
tized, of  whom  thirty -eight  were  adults,  and  maintain- 
ed a  character  for  Christian  consistency.  Leaving, 
this  little  church  under  the  care  of  William  Tennent, 
Brainerd  repaired,  in  the  summer  of  174G,  to  the  Sus- 
quehanna tribe  of  Indians,  but  his  previous  labors 
had  so  much  impaired  his  health  that  he  was  obliged 
to  relinquish  his  work.  In  July,  1747,  he  returned  to 
Northampton,  where  he  found  a  hospitable  asylum  in 
the  house  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  and  died  there,  Octo- 
ber 9,  1747.  Such  was  the  brief  but  active  career  of 
Brainerd  the  missionary.  The  love  of  Christ,  and  a 
benevolent  desire  for  the  salvation  of  men,  burned  in 
his  breast  with  the  ardor  of  an  unquenchable  flame. 
No  opposition  could  daunt,  no  difficulties  overcome  his 
resolution  or  exhaust  his  patience.  Obstacles  that 
would  have  cooled  the  zeal  of  any  ordinary  mind 
proved  no  discouragement  to  him.  And  perhaps  no 
one  in  the  list  of  the  most  devoted  missionaries  that 
the  Church  has  ever  known  undertook  so  great  labors 
and  submitted  to  so  severe  privations  and  self-denia] 
as  Brainerd.  He  was  a  man  of  great  natural  power.i 
of  mind,  an  acute  and  penetrating  understanding,  a 
fertile  imagination,  a  retentive  memory,  and  no  com. 
mon  powers  of  easy,  artless,  persuasive  eloquence. 
President  Edwards  prepared  a  biography  of  Brainerd, 
but  the  best  life  is  that  by  Dwight,  including  Brainerd's 
Journals  (New  Haven,  1822). — Sparks,  A  mer.  Bity. 


BRAINERD 


\15 


BRAMHALL 


viii,  259;  Jamieson,  Relig.  Biog,  art.  i,  p.  68  ;  Bacon,  j 
Christian  Spectator,  vii,  324. 

Brainerd,  John,  brother  of  David,  was  born  in  J 
Haddam,  Conn.,  Feb.  28,  1720,  and,  like  his  brother, 
was  brought  up  in  a  strictly  religious  household,  and 
was  educated  at  Yale  College.  David,  before  his  death, 
requested  John  to  take  his  place  in  New  Jersey  as  mis- 
sionary to  the  Indians.  Accordingly,  he  was  licensed 
in  1748  as  a  preacher  by  the  Presbyter}'  of  New  York, 
and  entered  the  missionary  service  (under  the  Scottish 
Society)  in  New  Jersey,  in  which  labor  he  spent  eight 
years.  During  this  period  he  was  pressed  by  pecuni- 
ary trouble,  his  salary  being  too  small  to  provide  even 
the  necessaries  of  life.  In  1752  ho  married.  An  at- 
tempt to  transfer  his  Indian  flock  to  Wyoming,  on  the 
Susquehanna,  failed.  In  1754  he  was  elected  a  trustee 
of  Princeton  College,  and  the  year  after  the  Scotch 
Society  dismissed  him,  because  the  Indians,  having 
parted  with  their  lands,  would  soon  be  obliged  to  move. 
Soon  after  he  received  a  call  to  succeed  president  Burr 
in  the  church  at  Newark,  accepted  it,  again  engaged 
with  the  Scotch  Society  for  the  Indians,  was  dismissed 
a  second  time,  in  September,  1757,  and  then  finally 
resolved  to  accept  the  call  of  the  congregation  at  New- 
ark. In  the  summer  of  1759  he  was  at  Crown  Point, 
during  the  Canada  war,  as  army  chaplain,  and  had 
served  in  that  capacity  for  a  short  time  in  1756.  He 
was  moderator  of  the  Synod  of  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia, at  Philadelphia,  in  May,  1762.  He  took 
charge  of  the  church  at  Deerfield,  N.  J.,  in  1777,  after 
the  church  at  Mount  Holly  had  been  burned  down  by 
the  British.  From  the  time  of  his  settlement  at  New- 
ark in  1757  until  his  death,  he  never  lost  sight  of  his 
poor  Indians  or  their  spiritual  and  temporal  welfare, 
and  "  his  Indians  clung  to  him  with  affectionate  attach- 
ment to  the  last."  He  died  at  Deerfield,  N.  J.,  March, 
1781.— Brainerd,  Life  of  John  Brainerd  (Philad.  1865). 

Brainerd,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  divine  of  the  New 
School  Presbyterian  Church,  was  born  in  1804,  in 
Weston,  New  York,  and  while  a  child  lived  near  Rome, 
Oneida  Count}'.  After  graduating  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, after  a  short  study  of  law,  he  devoted  his  life  to 
the  ministry,  and  studied  theology  at  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Andover,  Mass.  After  graduating,  he 
removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  at  times  preached  for  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Patterson  in  the  First  Presbyterian  church  of 
the  Northern  Liberties.  Subsequently  removing  to 
Cincinnati,  Dr.  Brainerd  became  an  assistant  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Lyman  Bsecher.  In  addition  to  these  labors, 
he  edited  with  ability  a  child's  paper,  a  youths'  maga- 
zine, the  weekly  Christian  Herald,  published  at  Cin- 
cinnati, and  the  Presbyterian  Quarterly  Review,  in  which 
the  Rev.  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  then  a  young  man,  as- 
sisted, and  thus  a  mutual  friendship  was  founded  on 
affection  and  esteem  between  the  two  great  families  of 
divines.  In  1836,  Dr.  Brainerd,  in  response  to  an  ear- 
nest call  from  the  congregation  of  the  Pine  Street  Pres- 
byterian church,  as  successor  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  E.  S. 
Ely,  became  their  pastor.  During  his  ministerings, 
for  over  thirty  years,  he  endeared  himself  to  the  suc- 
cessive generations  who  worshiped  in  this  time-hon- 
ored church  by  his  benignant  love  and  devotedncss. 
Dr.  Brainerd,  while  conscientiously  fulfilling  every  de- 
mand upon  his  time,  labored  industriously  and  well  in 
'contributing  to  literary  monthlies.  He  published  va- 
rious sermons  and  tracts.  In  addition,  some  months 
before  his  death,  he  issued  The  Life  of  John  Brainerd, 
the  brother  of  David  Brainerd,  and  his  successor  as  Mis- 
sionary to  the  Indians  of  New  Jersey  (Philadelphia, 
1865),  which  was  most  favorably  received.  He  died 
suddenly  from  apoplexy  at  the  house  of  his  son-in-law, 
in  Scranton,  Pennsylvania,  in  August,  1866.  Dr.  Brain- 
erd was  one  of  the  most  active  and  persevering  pas- 
tors in  the  Church,  and  inspired  his  people  with  the 
same  spirit.  As  a  platform  speaker  upon  anniversary 
occasions  he  was  always  happy  and  effective,  and  as  a 


Christian  gentleman  he  was  respected  and  loved  by  all 
with  whom  he  came  in  contact.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  committee  of  conference  appointed  on  the  part  of 
the  New  School  Assembly  at  its  meeting  in  May,  1866, 
to  meet  a  similar  committee  from  the  Old  School. — 
American  Presbyterian  (newspaper). 

Bramble  is,  in  Isa.  xxxiv,  13,  the  rendering  of 
the  Heb.  nin,  cho'ach,  a  thorn  in  general  (rendered 
elsewhere  "thistle"  or  "thorn"),  as  in  Luke  vi,  44,  it 
stands  for  the  Greek  /3«ror,  in  the  similar  sense  of 
any  prickly  shrub;  but  in  Judg.  ix,  $4,  15,  it  repre- 
sents the  term  *1I3X,  atad'  (Psa.  lviii,  9,  "  thorn"), 
which  is  generally  thought  to  denote  the  Southern 
buckthorn  ("spina  Christi,"  or  Christ's  thorn,  from  the 
tradition  that  it  furnished  the  thorny  crown  for  our 
Saviour  before  his  crucifixion),  the  Rhamnus  paliurus 
of  Linn.,  a  brier-bush  indigenous  in  Egypt  (Cyrenaica 
according  to  Pliny,  xiii,  33)  and  Syria,  shooting  up 
from  the  root  in  many  branches  (10  to  15  feet  high), 
armed  with  spines,  and  bearing  leaves  resembling 
those  of  the  olive,  but  light-colored  and  moro  slender, 
with  little  whitish  blossoms  that  eventually  produce 
small,  black,  bitter  berries  (see  Prosp.  Alpin.  Plantt. 
^Eg.  c.  5).  The  Arabs  still  call  it  atad  (more  com- 
monly ausi/J),  a  name  that  appears  to  have  been  in  use 
among  the  Africans  (i.  e.  Carthaginians),  according  to 
Dioscorides  (6Voss.  i,  119,  pa/jvog,  'A^ipoi  'Araiir). 
Rauwolf  (Trav.  p.  460)  found  it  growing  at  Jerusalem. 


Southern  Buckthorn  (Pali-urns  Acuh'atus>),  or  "Spina 
Christi." 

It  was  employed  for  hedges  ;  the  Hebrews  used  it  for 
fuel  (Psa.  lviii,  10).  In  the  apologue  or  fable  of  Jo- 
tham  (q.  v.),  which  has  always  been  admired  for  its 
spirit  and  application  (Judg.  ix,  8-15),  and  has  boon 
considered  the  oldest  allegory  of  the  kind  extant,  this 
thorn-bush  is  the  emblem  of  a  tyrant.  The  word  else- 
where occurs  only  in  the  name  Atad  (den.  1,  10,  11). 
See  generally  Celsii  Hierobot,  i,  199  sq. ;  Sprengel,  ad 
Dioscor.  ii,  397;  Kitto,  Phys.  Hist,  of  /''if,  st.  p.  ecxxxvi ; 
Penny  Cyclopa<</i<i,  s.  v.  Paliurus.     See  Thorn. 

Bramhall,  John,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  was  born 
at  Pontefract,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1693,  and  studied  at 
Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  where  lie  passed 
A.B.  1612,  and  A.M.  1616.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
presented  to  a  living  in  York.  In  1623  he  held  two 
disputations  with  a  Romish  priest  and  a  Jesuit  at  North- 
allerton, in  which  lie  obtained  so  unquestionable  a  vic- 
tory that  archbishop  Matthews,  having  heard  it,  called 
him  to  his  side,  and  made  him  his  chaplain,  adding  to 
that  other  ecclesiastical  preferments.  AYhile  in  this 
situation  he  became  known  to  Sir  Thomas  Wentworth 
(afterward  Earl  of  Strafford),  deputy  of  Ireland,  who 
induced  him,  in  1633,  to  go  over  into  Ireland  to  be  his 


BKAMIIALL 


876 


BRAMWELL 


chaplain,  deeming  him  well  fitted  to  assist  him  in  his 
schemes  for  the  restoration  and  improvement  of  the 
Church  in  that  country.  In  1634  he  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Londonderry,  which  he  greatly  improved,  so  far 
as  even  to  double  the  yearly  profits  of  the  bishopric. 
He  likewise  did  great  service  to  the  Irish  Church  by 
his  exertions  to  get  such  impropriations  as  remained 
in  the  crown,  vested  by  Charles  I  on  the  several  in- 
cumbents, after  the  expiration  of  the  leases,  as  well  by 
his  vast  purchases  of  impropriations,  either  with  his 
own  money  or  by  remittances  from  England.  About 
the  same  time  lie  was  mainly  instrumental  in  obtain- 
ing the  reception  by  the  Irish  clergy  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  of  the  Synod  of  London,  A.D.  1562.  He  also 
chiefly  compiled  a  book  of  canons  for  the  Church  of 
Ireland.  Bishop  Bramhall  was  not,  however,  left  un- 
disturbed to  pursue  his  labors,  and  was  soon  involved 
in  the  troubles  of  the  kingdom.  On  the  4th  of  March, 
164(M1,  articles  of  impeachment  were  exhibited  against 
him  in  the  Irish  House  of  Lords,  to  answer  which, 
reckless  of  the  cautious  advice  of  his  friends,  who  dis- 
suaded him  from  it,  he  repaired  to  Dublin,  and  was 
there  made  a  close  prisoner.  Through  the  king's  ex- 
ertions, he  was  at  length  released,  not  a  single  charge 
being  proven  against  him,  and  he  embarked  for  Eng- 
land, whence,  when  the  royal  cause  became  lost,  he 
repaired  to  Hamburgh,  and  thence  to  Brussels,  where 
he  chiefly  continued  till  1648,  when  he  returned  to  Ire- 
land. After  great  perils  and  dangers  he  again  fled 
from  that  country,  in  October  in  that  year  was  at  Rot- 
terdam, and  continued  abroad  until  the  Restoration. 
Several  of  his  most  important  works,  especially  those 
in  defence  of  the  Church  of  England,  were  written  in 
his  exile.  "Among  these  we  maj'-  especially  mention 
his  'Answer  to  M.de  Milletiere  his  impertinent  dedi- 
cation of  his  imaginary  triumph  :  intitled,  the  Victory 
of  Truth;  or  his  epistle  to  the  king  of  Great  Britain, 
wherein  he  invited  his  majesty  to  forsake  the  Church 
of  England  and  to  embrace  the  Roman  Catholic  relig- 
ion :  with  the  said  Milletiere's  epistle  prefixed.'  This 
was  first  published  at  the  Hague  in  1654, 12mo,  but  not 
by  the  author.  It  was  occasioned  by  the  fact  that  the 
Romanists  endeavored  to  persuade  King  Charles  II, 
during  his  exile,  to  expect  his  restoration  1  y  embrac- 
ing their  religion,  and  for  that  purpose  employed  Mille- 
tiere, councillor  in  ordinary  to  the  king  of  France,  to 
write  him  this  epistle.  We  may  here  mention  that 
Xheophile  Brachet,  Sieur  de  la  Milletiere,  was  origin- 
ally a  member  of  the  French  Reformed  congregations, 
and  sufficiently  distinguished  among  them  to  be  select- 
ed  as  a  deputy  and  secretary  to  the  Assembly  of  La 
Rochelle  in  1621.  lie  entered  subsequently  into  the 
plans  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  for  the  union  of  the  R<  man 
Catholic  and  Reformed  churches  in  France;  published 
a  great  number  of  letters,  pamphlets,  and  treatises  upon 
the  doctrines  in  dispute  between  them,  assimilating 
gradually  to  the  Roman  Catholic  tenets ;  was  suspend- 
ed in  consequence  by  the  Synod  of  Alencon  in  1G37, 
and  expelled  by  that  of  Charenton  in  1645  from  the  Re- 
formed communion  ;  and  finally  became  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic 'of  necessity,  that  he  might  be  of  some  religion.' 
lie  was  a  vain  and  shallow  man,  full  of  himself,  and 
persuaded  that  nothing  approached  to  his  own  merit 
and  capacity;'  and,  after  bis  change  of  religion,  'was 
perpetually  playing  the  missionary  and  seeking  con- 
ferences, although  he  was  always  handled  in  them 
with  a  severity  sufficient  to  have  damped  his  courage, 
had  he  not  been  gifted  with  a  perversity  which  nothing 
could  conquer'  <  Benoit,  Hist,  de  VEdit  de  Nantes,  torn. 
ii,  liv.  x,  p.  51 1  516).  'I  he  work  to  which  Bramhall  re- 
plied seems  fully  to  bear  out  the  truth  of  this  sketch 
of  his  character"  (Hook).  In  June,  1660,  we  find  him 
again  in  London;  and  in  January,  1660-61,  he  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Armagh,  not  long  after  which 
he   consecrated   in    one   day  two   archbishops  and   ten 

bishops.     As  archbishop,  he  exerted  all  his  powers 
for  the  good  and  welfare  of  the  Church.     A  little  be- 


fore his  death  he  visited  his  diocese,  provided  for  the 
repairs  of  his  cathedral,  and  returned  to  Dublin  about 
the  middle  of  May,  1662.  He  died  January  25,  1663. 
Jeremy  Taylor  preached  his  funeral  sermon.  He  was 
a  High-Church  divine,  but  very  laborious  and  zealous 
for  Protestant  Christianity  as  well  as  for  the  Church 
of  England.  The  most  important  passage  in  his  liter- 
ary history  was  the  controversy  with  Hobbes,  an  ac- 
count of  which  will  be  found  in  The  Question  concerning 
Liberty,  etc.,  between  Bishop  Bramhall  and  Mr.  Holies 
(Lond.  1C56),  and  also  in  Bramhall's  Works.  "The 
controversy  between  Bramhall  and  Hobbes  took  its 
rise  from  a  conversation  that  passed  between  them 
at  an  accidental  meeting,  in  1G45,  at  the  house  of  the 
Marquis  of  Newcastle  in  Paris.  It  appears  that  the 
bishop  subsequently  committed  his  thoughts  upon  the 
subject  to  writing,  and  transmitted  his  'discourse' 
through  the  marquis  to  Hobbes.  This  called  forth  an 
answer  from  the  latter,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the 
marquis  (dated  Rouen,  Aug.  20, 1645),  to  be  communi- 
cated '  only  to  my  lord  bishop ;'  to  which  Bramhall  re- 
plied in  a  second  paper,  not,  however,  until  the  middle 
of  the  following  year,  and  privately  as  before.  Here 
the  controversy  rested  for  more  than  eight  years,  hav- 
ing been  hitherto  carried  on  with  perfect  courtesy  on 
both  sides.  In  1654,  however,  a  friend  of  Hobbes  pro- 
cured without  his  knowledge  a  copy  of  his  letter,  and 
published  it  in  London  with  Hobbes's  name,  but  with 
the  erroneous  date  of  1C52  for  1645  ;  upon  which  Bram-' 
hall,  finding  himself  thus  deceived,  rejoined  in  the  next 
year  by  the  publication  of  the  Defence,  etc.  (Lond.  1655, 
8vo),  consisting  of  his  own  original  '  discourse,'  of 
Hobbes's  answer,  and  of  his  own  reply,  printed  sen- 
tence by  sentence,  with  a  dedication  to  the  Marquis  of 
Newcastle,  and  an  advertisement  to  the  reader  ex- 
plaining the  circum:  tances  under  which  it  was  pub- 
lished." His  works  were  collected  in  one  vol.  fol., 
and  published  at  Dublin  in  1676,  again  in  1677,  and 
lately  at  Oxford  in  the  "Library  of  Anglo-Catholic 
Theology"  (Oxford,  1842-45,  5  vols.  8vo).  They  are 
distributed  into  four  volumes,  viz. :  1.  Discourses  against 
the  Romanists;  2.  His  Writings  against  the  English  Sec- 
taries ;  3.  His  Writings  against  Mr.  Hobbes ;  4.  Miscel- 
laneous. A  sketch  of  bis  life,  with  a  list  of  his  writings, 
is  given  in  vol.  i  of  the  late  Oxford  edition  of  his  works. 

Jeremy  Tajdor,  in  his  funeral  sermon  on  Bishop 
Bramhall,  says  of  him  :  "  To  sum  up  all,  he  was  a  wise 
prelate,  a  learned  doctor,  a  just  man,  a  true  friend,  a 
great  benefactor  to  others,  a  thankful  beneficiary  where 
he  was  obliged  himself.  He  was  a  faithful  servant  to 
his  masters,  a  loyal  subject  to  the  king,  a  zealous  as- 
sertor  of  his  religion,  against  Popery  on  one  side  and 
fanaticism  on  the  other.  The  practice  of  his  religion 
was  not  so  much  in  forms  and  exterior  ministeries,  al- 
though he  was  a  great  observer  of  all  the  public  rites 
and  ministeries  of  the  Church,  as  it  was  in  doing  good 
to  others.  It  will  be  hard  to  find  his  equal  in  all  things. 
For  in  him  were  visible  the  great  lines  of  Hooker's  ju- 
diciousness, of  Jewel's  learning,  of  the  acuteness   of 

Bishop  Andrewcs He  showed  his  equanimity 

in  poverty,  and  his  justice  in  riches;  ho  was  useful  in 
his  country,  and  profitable  in  his  banishment."  See 
Hook,  Feci.  B'og.  iii,  52  ;  Landon,  Dccl.  Diet,  ii,  £82. 

Biamwell,  William,  one  of  the  most  successful 
preachers  of  English  Methodism,  was  born  at  Elswich, 
Lancashire,  in  1759.  His  early  education  was  limited 
to  the  advantages  afforded  by  the  village  school  of 
Elswich.  His  parents  trained  him  to  religious  habits, 
and  his  exemplary  life,  while  apprenticed  to  a  currier 
at  Preston,  secured  him  general  respect,  but  the  de- 
mands of  bis  conscience  were  not  satisfied.  After  long 
sufferings  and  struggles  he  joined  the  Methodists,  much 
against  the  wish  of  his  parents,  and  soon  after,  during 
a  sermon  of  Wesley,  became  assured  of  his  acceptance 
with  God.  lie  at  once  began  to  display  a  great  ac- 
tivity in  religious  labors;  he  conducted  prayer-meet- 
ings at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning  for  the  acconimo- 


BRAN 


877 


BRANDT 


dation  of  working-people ;  he  became  a  class-leader, 

and  by  his  instrumentality  such  a  religious  interest 
was  excited  in  Preston  that  the  Methodist  Society  was 
quickly  doubled.  He  entered  upon  the  itinerant  min.- 
istry  in  1785,  and  in  the  following  3'ear  was  recognised 
by  the  Conference.  For  thirty  years  he  then  labored 
as  a  Methodist  preacher,  and  was  a  "revivalist"  in  the 
best  sense  of  the  word.  It  is  said  that  few  men,  per- 
haps no  man  of  his  day,  gathered  more  converts  into 
the  communion  of  Methodism.  In  1791  he  was  the 
instrument  of  a  widespread  revival  in  Dewsbury  cir- 
cuit, which  followed  him,  1792,  to  Bristol  circuit,  where 
about  500  souls  were  added  to  the  societies.  He  la- 
bored with  similar  success  on  the  other  circuits  to 
which  he  was  successively  appointed,  reporting  at  al- 
most every  conference  additions  to  the  societies  of  not 
merely  scores,  but  hundreds.  He  died  suddenly,  while 
attending  the  Conference  at  Leeds  in  1818.  "The 
records  of  Methodism  are  crowded  with  examples  of 
saintly  living,  but  from  among  them  all  no  instance 
of  profounder  piety  can  be  cited  than  that  of  William 
Bramwell.  His  energy  was  tireless,  his  understand- 
ing masculine,  his  decision  of  character  unswerving, 
his  voice  singularly  musical,  his  command  over  the 
passions  of  his  hearers  absolute.  He  was  ascetic  ;  an 
early  riser  for  study  and  prayer;  reading  some,  study- 
ing more,  and  praying  most.  He  acquired  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  Greek  and  the  French,  and  translated  from 
the  latter  a  good  work  on  preaching.  He  was  scrupu- 
lous to  a  fault,  and  charitable  to  excess,  giving  even 
the  clothes  from  his  person  to  the  poor.  The  quick- 
ness and  clearness  of  his  discriminations  of  character 
were  marvellous,  and  led  both  himself  and  his  friends 
to  suppose  that  he  possessed  the  power  of  'discerning 
spirits'  "  (Stevens,  Hist.  Of  Method,  ii,  310).  A  J/<  moir 
of  the  Life  and  Ministry  if  Win.  Bramwell,  written  by 
Rev.  James  Sigston  (1st  edit.  1820),  has  had  an  im- 
mense circulation  both  in  England  and  America,  and 
is  still  a  popular  work  of  Methodist  literature.  See 
Stevens,  Hist,  of  Meth.  ii,  308  sq. ;  iii,  113,  178,  216 
sq.,  266  sq. 

Bran  (7riTvpci)  occurs  only  in  the  account  of  the 
Babylonian  women  in  the  apocryphal  Epistle  of  Jere- 
miah (Baruch  vi,  43),  with  reference  to  some  idola- 
trous custom  not  elsewhere  distinctly  mentioned  (see 
Fritzsche,  Handb.  in  loc.)  :  "The  women  also,  with 
cords  about  them,  sitting  in  the  ways,  burn  bran  for 
perfume,"  etc.,  referring  to  the  infamous  practice  of 
prostitution  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (i,  199).  See 
Babylon. 

Branch  (represented  by  various  Heb.  and  Greek 
words).  As  trees  in  Scripture  denote  great  men  and 
princes,  so  branches,  boughs,  sprouts,  or  plants  denote 
their  offspring.  In  conformity  with  this  way  of  speak- 
ing, Christ,  in  respect  of  his  human  nature,  is  styled  a 
rod  from  the  stem  of  Jesse,  and  a  branch  out  of  his 
roots  (Isa.  xi,  1),  that  is,  a  prince  arising  from  the 
family  of  David.  This  symbol  was  also  in  use  among 
the  ancient  poets  (Sophocles,  Electra,  iv,  18;  Homer, 
Iliad,  ii,  47,  170,  211,  252,  349;  Pindar,  Oh/mp.  ii,  6, 
etc.).  And  so,  even  in  our  English  tongue,  the  word 
imp,  which  is  originally  Saxon  and  denotes  a  plant,  is 
nsed  to  the  same  purpose,  especially  by  Fox  the  mar- 
tyrologist,  who  calls  King  Edward  the  Sixth  an  imp 
of  great  hope  ;  and  by  Thomas  Cromwell,  carl  of  Es- 
sex, in  his  dying  speech,  who  has  the  same  expression 
concerning  the  same  prince  (Wemyss,  Clams  Symboli- 
ca).  "The  prophet,"  as  Lowth  observes,  "having 
described  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  army  under 
the  image  of  a  mighty  forest,  represents,  by  way  of 
contrast,  the  great  person  who  makes  the  subject  of 
this  chapter  as  a  slender  twig,  shooting  out  from  the 
trunk  of  an  old  tree,  cut  down,  lopped  to  the  very  root, 
and  deca3_ed,  which  tender  plant,  so  weak  in  appear- 
ance, should  nevertheless  prosper.  The  aged  trunk 
denoted  the  royal  house  of  David,  at  that  time  in  a 


forlorn  and  contemptible  condition,  like  a  tree  of  which 
nothing  was  left  but  a  stump  underground"  (Jer.  xxiii, 
5 ;  xxxiii,  15 ;  Zech.  iii,  8 ;  vi,  12).  Christ's  dis- 
ciples are  called  branches  with  reference  to  their  union 
with  him  (John  xv,  5,  6).  Thus  a  branch  is  the  sym- 
bol of  kings  descended  from  royal  ancestors,  as  branch- 
es from  the  root  (Ezek.  xvii,  3,  10;  Dan.  xi,  7).  As 
only  a  vigorous  tree  can  send  forth  vigorous  branches, 
a  branch  is  used  as  a  general  symbol  of  prosperity 
(Job  viii,  16).  From  these  explanations  it  is  easy  to 
see  how  a  branch  becomes  the  symbol  of  the  Messiah 
(Isa.  xi,  1;  iv,  2;  Jer.  xxiii,  15;  Zech.  iii,  8;  vi,  12; 
and  elsewhere).     See  Messiah  ;  Palm. 

Branch  is  also  used  as  the  symbol  of  idolatrous  wor- 
ship (Ezek.  viii,  17),  probably  in  allusion  to  the  gen- 
eral custom  of  carrying  branches  as  a  sign  of  honor. 
Hence  God  complains  by  the  prophet  that  the  Jews 
carried  branches  as  if  they  did  him  honor,  but  they 
held  them  to  their  noses  like  mockers;  that  is,  they 
mocked  him  secretly  when  they  worshipped  him  pub- 
licly ;  they  came  with  fair  pretences  and  wicked  hearts. 
Dathe  remarks  that  a  writer  on  the  religion  of  the. 
Persians  enumerates  among  the  sacred  furniture  a 
bundle  of  twigs,  called  barsom  in  the  old  Persic  lan- 
guage, which  they  hold  in  their  hands  while  praying. 
Michaelis  says  that  they  held  it  before  the  face,  oppo- 
site to  the  holy  fire.  Spencer  also  observes  that  the 
heathen,  in  the  worship  of  their  deities,  held  forth  the 
branches  of  those  trees  which  were  dedicated  to  them. 
An  abominable  branch  (Isa.  xiv,  19)  means  a  tree  on 
which  a  malefactor  has  been  hanged.  In  Ezek.  xvii, 
3,  Jehoiachim  is  called  the  highest  branch  of  the  cedar, 
as  being  a  king.  Branches  are  mentioned  in  many 
other  places  in  Scripture;  in  some  cases  as  symbols 
of  prosperity,  in  others  of  adversity  (Gen.  xlix,  22 ; 
Job  xv,  32;  Psa.  viii,  11,  15;  Isa.  xxv,  5;  Ezek. 
xvii,  G).     See  Bough. 

Erand,  in  Zech.  iii,  2,  "elX,  ud,  a  wooden  poker  for 
stirring  the  fire,  hence  a  burnt  piece  of  wood  or  fire- 
brand (as  rendered  elsewhere,  Isa.  vii,  4  ;  Amos  iv,  11); 
in  Judg.  xv.  4  (ver.  5  "fire-brand"),  a  lamp  or  torch, 
as  elsewhere  rendered.  On  the  practice  of  branding 
slaves  (Rev.  xiii,  16),  see  Mark. 

Brandenburg,  Confession  of,  a  formulary  or 
confession  of  faith,  drawn  up  in  the  city  of  Branden- 
burg by  order  of  the  elector,  with  a  view  to  reconcile 
the  tenets  of  Luther  with  those  of  Calvin,  and  to  put 
an  end  to  the  disputes  occasioned  by  the  Confession 
of  Augsburg.     See  Augsburg  Confession. 

Brandeum,  a  term  used  by  ecclesiastical  writers 
of  the  Middle  Ages  to  signify  the  covering,  of  silk  or 
linen,  in  which  the  bodies  of  the  saints  or  their  relics 
were  wrapped.  The  name  was  also  applied  to  linen 
clothes  which  had  been  simply  laid  on  the  bodies. 
Before  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (A.D.  600)  it 
was  the  custom  to  give  away  no  part  of  the  relics 
of  the  saints,  but  simply  to  send  in  a  case  a  portion 
of  one  of  these  Branded  or  Corporals. — Bergier,  s.  v. 
Rel/qiic ;  Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  ii,  385. 

Brandt,  the  name  of  a  family  in  Holland  eminent 
for  learning  and  piety.  They  were  all  Arminians, 
and  have  contributed  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
Arminian  and  Remonstrant  controversies. 

1.  Gerard,  professor  of  divinity,  was  born  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1626.  After  a  thorough  theological  educa- 
tion, he  became  pastor  of  the  Remonstrant  church  in 
Nienkoop  ;  in  1660  he  removed  to  Doom,  and  to  Am- 
sterdam 1667.  Here  he  continued  in  pastoral  and  lit- 
erary labors  till  his  death,  Dec.  11,  1685.  His  great 
work  is  the  Hist,  der  Reformatio  in  en  Ontrt  nt  <l<  Nit  <l<  r- 
landen  (Rott.  1  vols.  4to,  1671-1704),  of  which  the  last 
two  volumes  were  edited  by  J.  Brandt.  It  was  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Chamberlayne,  History  of  the  Ref- 
ormation in  ih'  Low  Countries  iboinl.17-.Mi  23,4  vols. 
fol.) ;  abridged  in  French  (Amst.  1730,  3  vols.  12mo). 


BRANTLY  ff 

TTe  published  also  a  Life  of  Barneveldt,  a  Life  of  De 
Ruyter,  etc.  His  Reformation  is  a  magazine  of  facts; 
and  tin-  candor  and  truthfulness  of  the  book,  as  well 
as  its  value  arc  now  generally  acknowledged. — Winer, 
J%  ol.  Lik  niter,  i,  824  ;  Haes,  Life  of  Brandt  (in  Dutch, 
1740,  4to)  ;  Cattenburgh,  Biblioiheca  Remonstrant  mm. 
2.'  Caspar,  son  of  Gerard,  was  born  in  Rotterdam 
June  25,  1653.  After  a  careful  training  under  his  fa- 
ther and  at  the  university,  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Remonstrant  church  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  died  Oct. 
Be  wrote  Hist.  Vital  Jac.  Arrnmii  (Amst.  1724, 
8vo),  enlarged  and  corrected  by  Mosheim  (Brunsw.  1725, 
8vo),  translated  by  Guthrie,  Life  of  Arminius  (Lond. 
1854,  18mo);  Hist  v.  h.  Leven  d.  Hug.  Ik  Groot  (Gro- 
Hus),  (Dort,  1732,  2d  ed.,  2  vols.  8vo).— Winer,  Theol. 
/.it.  i,  765,  862. 

3.  John,  youngest  son  of  Gerard,  was  born  at  Nien- 
koop  1660,  and  was  successively  minister  at  Hoorn, 
the  Hague,  and  Amsterdam,  and  died  1708.  He  wrote 
Vita  £T  Pauli  (4to),  and  edited  the  Epistohe  Prcestan 
tium  Virorum  (Amst.  1684),  which  throws  great  light 
on  the  history  of  Arminianism. 

4.  Gerard,  son  of  Caspar,  minister  at  Amsterdam, 
edited  the  Vita  Arminii  written  by  his  father  and  pub- 
lished in  1724. 

Brantly,  William  Theophilus,  D.D.,  a  distin- 
guished Baptist  minister,  was  born  in  Chatham  Co., 
N.  C,  Jan.  23, 1787,  and  graduated  with  honor  at  South 
Carolina  College  in  1808.  After  some  time  spent  in 
teaching  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  he  became  in  1811  pastor 
of  the  Baptist  Church  at  Beaufort,  S.  C.  In  1819  he 
returned  to  Augusta,  and  established  a  Baptist  Church 
there.  In  1826  he  was  called  to  the  First  Baptist 
Church  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  labored  till  his  health 
compelled  him  to  remove  to  the  South  in  1838,  when 
he  settled  as  pastor  at  Charleston,  S.  C,  also  accepting 
ths  presidency  of  the  college  at  that  place.  In  1844 
he  was  attacked  by  paralysis,  but  lingered  till  March 
28,  1845,  when  he  died,  after  having  been  removed  to 
Augusta.  Mr.  Brantly  received  the  degree  of  D.D. 
from  Brown  University  in  1831.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  volume  of  sermons  published  in  1837. — Sprague, 
Annals,  vi,  497  ;  Funeral  Sermon  by  Dr.  Fuller,  Chris- 
tian Review,  x,  591. 

Brass  occurs  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the  0.  T.  as  the 
rendering  of  t"ul3M3,  neclw'sheth  (i.  e.  the  shining),  and 
other  kindred  forms,  but  doubtless  inaccurately,  as 
hrass  is  a  factitious  metal,  and  the  Hebrews  were  not 
acquainted  with  the  compound  of  copper  and  zinc 
known  by  that  name.  In  most  places  of  the  O.  T.  the 
correct  translation  would  be  copper,  although  it  may 
sometimes  possibly  mean  bronze  (\a\Kug  tceicpafikvoQ), 
a  compound  of  copper  and  tin,  as  in  the  Chaldee  form 
(~~3,  nechashf)  used  by  Daniel.  Indeed,  a  simple 
metal  was  obviously  intended,  as  we  see  from  Dent, 
viii,  9,  "out  of  whose  hills  thou  mayst  dig  brass:" 
and  .lul)  xxviii,  2,  "  lirass  is  molten  out  of  the  stone  ;" 
and  Dent,  xxxiii,  25,  "Thy  shoes  shall  be  iron  and 
brass,"  which  seems  to  be  a  promise  that  Asher  should 
have  a  district  rich  in  mines,  which  we  know  to  have 
been  the  case,  since  Eusebius  (viii,  15, 17)  speaks  of  the 
Christians  being  condemned  to  work  in  them  (roic, 
Kara  <baivo)  n)r  WakaiarivtiQ  x«X^ou  fii-aWoic, 
Lightfoot,  Cent.  Chorogr.  c.  99).  Some  such  alloy  as 
bronze  is  probably  also  the  metal  denoted  in  the  N.  T. 
by  \o,\/,-.'.r.  as  this  was  used  for  coin,  the  ces  of  the 
Romans.  The  ••  line  brass"  of  Rev.  i,  15  ;  ii,  18,  how- 
ever, is  xa\Ko\ifiavov,  the  chashtnal'  ("?'~<j)  of  the 
Hebrews,  a  brilliant  compound,  probably  of  gold  and 
Bilver,  like  the  famous  "  Corinthian  brass."     Sec  Am- 

BKR. 

Copper  was  known  at  a  very  early  period,  and  the 
invention  of  working  it  is  attributed  to  Tubal-Cain 
(Gen.  iv.  •-!;  comp.  Wilkinson,  Ane.  Egypt,  iii,  243; 
corop.  '•  Prius  ceria  erat  quam  ferri  cognitus  usus," 


3  BRAY 

Lucr.  v.  1292).  Its  extreme  ductility  (vaX^-dc,  from 
XaXacj)  made  its  application  almost  universal  among 
the  ancients  (see  Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Aid.  s.  v.  ^Es). 
See  Copper. 

The  same  word  is  used  for  money  in  both  Testa- 
ments (Ezek.  xvi,  36;  Matt,  x,  9,  etc.).     See  Coin. 

Brass  (to  retain  the  word)  is  in  Scripture  the  sym- 
bol of  insensibility,  baseness,  and  presumption  or  ob- 
stinacy in  sin  (Isa.  xlviii,  4  ;  Jer.  vi,  28;  Ezek.  xxii, 
18).  It  is  often  used  in  metaphors,  e.  g.  Lev.  xxvi, 
9,  "I  will  make  your  heaven  as  iron  and  your  earth 
as  brass,"  i.  e.  dead  and  hard.  This  expression  is  re- 
versed in  Dent,  xxviii,  23  (comp.  Coleridge's  "All  in 
a  hot  and  copper  sky,"  etc.,  Anc.  Mar.).  "Is  my 
flesh  of  brass,"  i.  e.  invulnerable,  Job  vi,  12.  Brass 
is  also  a  symbol  of  strength  (Psa.  cvii,  16 ;  Isa.  xlviii, 
4 ;  Mic.  iv,  13 ;  Zech.  vi,  1,  etc.).  So  in  Jer.  i,  18, 
and  xv,  20,  brazen  walls  signify  a  strong  and  lasting 
adversary  or  opponent.  The  description  of  the  Mace- 
donian empire  as  a  kingdom  of  brass  (Dan.  ii,  39)  will 
be  better  understood  when  we  recollect  that  the  arms 
of  ancient  times  were  mostly  of  bronze;  hence  the  fig- 
ure forcibly  indicates  the  warlike  character  of  that 
kingdom.  Hence  the  "brazen  thighs"  of  the  mystic 
image  in  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  were  a  fit  symbol 
of  the  "brazen-coated  Greeks"  ("Axaioi  yaAKOYi'rwrir, 
as  Homer  usually  styles  them).  The  mountains  of 
brass,  in  Zech.  vi,  1,  are  understood  by  Vitringa  to  de- 
note those  firm  and  immutable  decrees  by  which  God 
governs  the  world,  and  it  is  difficult  to  affix  an}'  other 
meaning  to  the  phrase  (comp.  Psa.  xxxvi,  6). — Kit- 
to,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v.     See  Metal  ;  Brazen. 

Brattle,  William,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  in  Boston  1662.  After  his  graduation  at  Har- 
vard, 1680,  he  remained  as  tutor  and  fellow  a  number 
of  years.  He  was  installed  pastor  in  Cambridge,  Nov. 
25,  1696,  in  which  place  he  remained  until  his  death, 
Feb.  15,  1717.  He  published  a  Compendium  Logicce  se- 
cundum principia  D.  Renati  Cartesii  plcrumque  efforma- 
tum  et  catechistice propositum ,  which  was  used  as  a  text- 
book in  Harvard. — Sprague,  Annals,  i,  236. 

Braunius,  John,  D  D.,  professor  of  theology  and 
Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Groningen,  was  born  at 
Kaiserslautern  1G28,  died  at  Groningen  1709.  His 
works  discover  an  extensive  and  accurate  knowledge 
of  Jewish  rites  and  customs,  and  great  rabbinical 
learning.  In  theology  he  followed  Cocceius.  His 
works  are,  1.  Selecta  Sacra  (Amst.  1700,  4to).  They 
embrace  various  things  relating  to  the  Epistles ;  the 
7th  seal ;  holiness  of  the  high-priest ;  weeping  for  Tha- 
muz,  Ezek.  viii;  various  dissertations.  2.  De  Yestitu 
Sacerdotum.  Hebrecorum  (Lug.  Bat.  1680,  4to).  This 
work,  on  the  clothing  of  the  Jewish  priests,  is  a  kind 
of  commentary  on  Exod.  xxviii,  xxix.  3.  Commenta- 
rius  in  Epistolam  ad  Hebrwos  (1705,  4to).  Carpzov 
calls  this  one  of  the  best  commentaries  on  the  Hebrews. 
It  contains  a  dissertation  on  the  eternal  generation  of 
the  Son  of  God. — Home,  Bibliography,  pt.  ii,  ch.  v. 

Bravery,  a  term  used  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  only  in 
its  early  sense  of  finery  for  the  Heb.  r^NSP,  tipe'reth, 
female  ornament,  Isa.  iii,  18.  So  in  the  Apocrj'pha 
(Judith  x,  4)  "  decked  herself  bravely"  stands  for  gayly, 
as  a  rendering  of  tKaWioTriaaro,  presented  a  fine  ap- 
pearance. 

Bray,  signifying  in  Old  English  to  pound,  stands 
in  the  Auth.  Vers,  at  Prov.  xxvii,  22,  for  1TP.3,  la- 
tlias//',  to  beat  to  pieces  in  a  mortar  (q.  v.).  This  pun- 
ishment is  still  in  use  among  Oriental  nations.  Rob- 
erts observes,  "Cruel  as  it  is,  this  is  a  punishment  of 
the  state ;  the  poor  victim  is  thrust  into  the  mortar, 
and  beaten  with  the  pestle.  The  late  King  of  Kandy 
compelled  one  of  the  wives  of  his  rebellious  chiefs  thus 
to  beat  her  own  infant  to  death.  Hence  the  saying, 
'Though  you  beat  that  loose  woman  in  a  mortar,  she 
will  not  leave  her  w-ays ;'  which  means,  though  you 


BRAY 


BRAZEN  SERPENT 


chastise  her  ever  so  much,  she  will  never  improve." 
See  Pitnishment. 

As  the  appropriate  word  for  the  voice  of  the  ass, 
"bray"  represents,  in  Job  vi,  5  (figuratively  in  xxx, 

7),  pn3,  nahak'.     See  Ass. 

Bray,  Thomas,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Shropshire  1656, 
ami  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1690  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  livings  of  Over-Whitacre  and  Sheldon.  Here 
he  composed  his  Catechetical  Lectures,  a  work  which 
so  pleased  Bishop  Compton  that  he  selected  the  writer 
to  act  as  his  commissary  to  settle  the  Church  affairs  of 
Maryland.  He  arrived  in  America  March  12th,  1700, 
and  for  two  years  devoted  himself  to  the  labors  assign- 
ed to  him,  in  the  face  of  the  most  harassing  opposition. 
He  then  returned  to  England,  became  incumbent  of  St. 
Botolph's,  Aldgate,  and  died  Feb.  15th,  1730,  aged  sev- 
enty-three. In  1707  he  published  Bibliotheca  Paro- 
chialis  (1  vol.  8vo),  and  in  1712  one  vol.  of  his  Martyr- 
o'ogt/,  or  Papal  Usurpation  (fob),  designing  to  follow  it 
up  by  another,  which  he  left  unfinished.  In  172G  ap- 
peared his  Directorium  Missionarium  and  his  Primor- 
dia  Bibliothecaria.  One  of  his  chief  objects  in  Mary- 
land had  been  to  establish  parochial  libraries  in  each 
parish  for  the  use  of  the  clergyman,  a  plan  which  was 
afterward  extended  to  England  and  Wales  ;  and  a  so- 
ciety still  exists  under  the  title  of  the  "  Associates  of 
Dr.  Bray."  The  Report  of  the  Bray  Associates  for  1847 
contains  a  memoir  of  Dr.  Bray. — New  Gen.  Bioff.  Diet. 
v,  26 ;  Sprague,  Ann.  v,  17 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  387. 

Brazen  Sea  (TUZJnSfi  C^,yamhan-nec7w' 'sheth,  sea 
of  copper,  2  Kings  xxv,  13;  1  Chron.  xviii,  8;  alsoE"1 
pX!ra,  mo/ten  sea,  1  Kings  vii,  23;  or  simply  E*n,  the 
sea,  1  Kings  vii,  24,  29;  2  Kings  xvi,  17;  2  Chron. 
iv,  3  sq.),  the  great  round  laver,  cast  of  metal  ("  brass" 
[q.  v.]),  placed  in  the  priests'  court  of  Solomon's  Tem- 
ple (1  Kings  vii,  23-26;  2  Chron.  iv,  2-5;  see  Jose- 
phus,  Ant.  viii,  3,  5;  compare  a  similar  basin  of  stone 
discovered  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  Midler,  Archilol. 
p.  292).  See  generally  Reland,  Antiq.  Sacr.  i,  6,  7 
sq. ;  Schacht,  ad  Iken,  p.  415  sq. ;  Keil,  Tempel  Sol. 
p.  118  sq. ;  especialh'  Thenius,  Alihebr.  Ldngen  it.  llohl- 
maase,  p.  19  sq.,  61  sq. ;  also  his  Komment.  in  Kan.  ad 
fin.  It  was  5  cubits  high,  and  had  at  the  brim  a  cir- 
cumference of  30  cubits,  or  a  diameter  of  10  cubits.  The 
rim  was  finished  off  with  the  cups  of  flowers  (lilies), 
and  below  these  ran  a  double  row  of  gourd-shaped 
bosses  ("knobs"  [q.  v.]).  The  edge  was  a  hand- 
breadth  in  thickness,  and  the  vessel  was  capable  of 
containing  2000  (according  to  Chron.  3000)  baths  (q. 
v.).  This  immense  basin  rested  upon  twelve  bullocks, 
also  cast  of  "  brass,"  tluir  hinder  parts  being  turned 
inward  in  a  radiate  form.  It  was  designed  for  ablu- 
tion of  the  priests  (2  Chron.  iv,  6),  i.  e.  their  hands 
and  feet  (Exod.  xxx,  18  sq.).  At  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple  it  was  broken  into  pieces  by  the  Chaldas- 
ans,  and  so  taken  in  fragments  to  Babylon  (2  Kings 
xxv,  13;  Jer.  lii,  17).  A  few  points  deserve  especial 
consideration. 

1.  The  diameter  being  given  as  10  cubits,  in  math- 
ematical strictness  the  periphery  woidd  have  been 
31  §  cubits;  or  the  circumference,  if  of  exactly  30  cu- 
bits, would  yield  a  diameter  of  9;V^4  cubits.  Yet  we 
have  no  occasion,  in  order  to  confute  infidel  objections 
(Spinoza,  Tractat.  theol.  polit.  c.  2,  p.  181,  ed.  Jen.),  to 
resort  to  any  artificial  hypothesis,  c.  g.  cither  that  the 
basin  was  hexagonal  (Reyher,  Mathesis  Mos.  p.  715; 
Deyling,  Observatt.  i,  125),  or  that  the  diameter  was 
measured  quite  over  the  rim,  and  the  circumference 
just  below  its  flange  or  lip  (Schmidt.  Jiiblishi  r  Mulh  m. 
p.  160).  See,  however,  Nicolai,  Diss,  de  gymmetria 
maris  trnei  (Viteb.  1717).  The  breadth  across  was 
doubtless  10  cubits,  and  the  perimeter  is  given  merely 
in  round  numbers,  as  sufficiently  exact. 

2.  The  capacity  of  the  basin,  as  given  in  1  Kings  vii, 
26  (comp.  also  Joseph.  1.  c),  is  certainly  more  reliable 


than  that  in  2  Chron.  iv,  6,  and  the  number  in  the  lat- 
ter passage  may  be  only  a  corruption  (see  Mover-,  JJeb. 
d.  Chronik.  p.  63).  The  older  archseologers  understand 
that  the  3000  baths  designate  the  maximum  contents, 
but  that  there  were  usually  only  2000  baths  actually  in 
it,  lest  otherwise  the  priests  should  be  in  danger  (so 
Deyling,  ut  sup.)  of  drinking  from  it!  For  other,  and, 
for  the  most  part,  strange  views,  see  Thenius  (tit  sup. 
p.  Ill  sq.).— Winer,  ii,  68. 

3.  The  figure  of  the  vessel  is  not  given  in  detr.il  in 
the  sacred  document,  and  Keil  (in  loc.)  has  pronounced 
the  older  investigations  on  this  point  in  vain.  As  the 
text  gives  but  a  single  diameter,  most  writers  have 
thought  only  of  a  cylindrical  form  ;  but  this  would  be 
unusual  for  such  a  vessel,  and  Josephus  appears  to  rep- 
resent it  as  having  a  hemispherical  or  bowl-like  shape, 
which  certainly  would  lie  far  more  elegant.  The  ques- 
tion, however,  can  only  be  determined  with  certain- 
ty by  means  of  a  calculation  upon  the  elements  of  the 
height  (5  cubits)  and  the  capacity  (2000  baths).  The 
depth  confirms  the  supposition  that  it  was  semi-sphe- 
roidal in  shape,  for  it  is  exactly  equal  to  the  radius, 
being  one  half  the  diameter,  computing  the  admeas- 
urements internally.  If  now,  in  accordance  with  the 
best  authenticated  estimates,  we  reckon  the  ancient  cu- 
bit at  20.625  inches,  and  the  Hebrew  bath  as  equivalent 
to  8.875  gallons  (wine  measure,  the  gallon  =  231  cubic 
inches),  the  brazen  sea,  if  perfectly  hemispherical,  with 
a  radius  of  5  cubits,  would  contain  2,296,089  cubic  inch- 
es, or  9940  gallons,  or  1120  baths  ;  if  a  cylinder,  with  cor- 
responding dimensions,  its  capacity  would  be  one  half 
more,  i.  e.  1680  baths.  This  proves,  first,  that  the  read- 
ing 2000  is  the  true  one,  being  sufficiently  correct  for  a 
round  number,  as  it  evidently  is ;  and,  secondly,  that 
the  vessel  was  nearer  a  cylindrical  than  a  semi-globu- 
lar form,  rendering  indeed  a  considerable  swell  toward 
the  bottom  requisite,  in  order  to  make  up  its  utmost 
capacity  to  a  close  approximation  to  the  lesser  figure 
given  in  the  text.  For  other  calculations,  see  Bockh, 
Metrol.  Untersuch.  p.  261  sq. 


(Joiijectii 


4.  How  the  priests  used  this  huge  bowl  for  washing 
in,  the  Bible  does  not  inform  us.  It  was  probably  fur- 
nished with  faucets,  by  means  of  which  the  water  was 
drawn  out  as  occasion  required.  This  latter  contri- 
vance is  supplied  in  most  representations  of  the  brazen 
sea;  it  rests,  however,  upon  no  better  authority  than 
mere  conjecture.     See  Sea,  Moi.ticn. 

Brazen  Serpent  (TUana  ttJTO,  net-hash'  necho'- 
sheth,  serpent  of  copper,  o0t£  j^aXicouc).  On  the  way 
from  .Mount  Hor  to  the  Elanitic  Gulf,  the  Israelites 
were  bitten  by  venomous  serpents  (&"»SHto,  seraphm/), 
and  many  of  them  died.  SeeSBBPENT.  Moses  theie- 
fore,  at  the  Divine  command,  erected  (hung  on  a  pole) 
the  metallic  (••brazen,"  I.  e.  copper-cast)  figure  of  one 
(such)  serpent,  and  everyone  that  had  been  bitten  who 
looked  toward  it  was  cured  (Num.  xxi,  6  sq. ;  comp. 
Wisd.  xvi,  5  Sq. ;  John  iii,  11).  This  ••brazen  ser- 
pent" was  still  (under  the  name  "'ITin,  hati-Xe- 
chushtan),  in  the  time  of  Hczekiah,  an  object  of  idola- 
trous reverence  among  the  Israelites  (2  Kings  xviii, 
4).     This  miraculous  relief  is  interpreted  by  the  Jews 


BRAZIL 


880 


BREAD 


(comp.  Wisd.  xvi,  7)  as  the  result  of  a  lively  faith  in 
Jehovah  on  the  part  of  the  beholders  (see  Onkelos,  the 
Targums,  Jerome,  and  the  rabbins,  in  the  younger 
Buxtorf's  Hist,  s  rpentis  cm.  v,  5,  in  his  Exercitt.  p. 
while  others  of  them  regard  this  serpent-form 
as  a  talisman  which  Moses  was  enabled  to  prepare,  from 
his  knowledge  of  astrology  (see  Rabbi  Sam.  Zirza  in 
Deyling's  Observatt.  ii,  p.  "210).  From  the  notice  in 
the  Gospel  (John  Hi,  14),  most  Christian  interpreters 
have  rightly  inferred  that  the  "brazen  serpent"  was 
inl  "I  d  as  a  type  of  Christ  as  the  Redeemer  of  the 
world  (see  Menken.  Ueb.  die  ekerne  Schlange,  Brem. 
1812;  Kerns,  in  Bengel's  Archiv.  v,  77  sq.,  SCO  sq., 
508  sq.).  For  various  futile  attempts  to  explain  this 
miracle  on  natural  principles,  see  Bauer,  Jlebr.  O'esck. 
ii.  320;  also  Ausf&hrl.  Erldar.  der  Wunder  des  A.  T. 
i.  228;  Paulas,  Comment.  IV,  i,  108  sq. ;  Hoffmann, 
in  Scherer's  Schriflforsch.  i,  576  sq.     See  Moses. 

Parallels  more  or  less  complete  have  been  traced 
between  the  brazen  serpent  and  similar  ideas  among 
other  nations,  which,  although  not  strictly  illustrative 
of  the  Biblical  narrative,  are  yet  interesting,  as  show- 
ing that  the  fact  was  not  at  variance  with  the  notions 
of  antiquity.  From  2  Kings  xviii,  4,  it  would  seem 
to  have  been  eventually  looked  upon  by  the  degenerate 
Jews  themselves  as  a  symbol  of  curative  power  (comp. 
Ewald,  1st.  Gesck.  ii,  177);  as  among  the  ancients  the 
ligurc  of  a  serpent  appears  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  East  as  a  type  of  Esculapius,  i.  e.  health  (Macrob. 
Sat.  i.  20;  see  Junker,  in  Meusel's  Museum,  ii,  127 
sq. ;  Muller,  Archaol.  p.  507).  In  the  Egyptian  the- 
ology the  (innocuous)  serpent  was  early  an  emblem 
of  anatory  virtue  ;  such  were  worshipped  in  the  The- 
baid  (Herod,  ii,  74),  and  they  appear  on  the  monument- 
al delineations  in  various  connections,  sometimes  with 
the  beneficent  Isis,  sometimes  ingrafted  upon  the  fig- 
ure of  Serapis  [?  as  a  benign  deity]  (Creuzer,  Symbol. 
i,  504  sq. ;  ii,  303).  So  Philo  interprets  the  serpent 
of  the  wilderness  (TUHppoavvrj  dXt^iicaKoc').  See  fur- 
ther Punk,  De  Ntchustane  et  JEsculapii  serpente  (Berol. 
182  : ) :  Wbchter,  Natures  et  Scriptures  concordia  (Leips. 
1752),  p.  11G;  Nova  Biblioth.  Lubec.  iii,  1  sq.  ;  Heng- 
stenberg,  Beitr.  i,  164.— Winer.     See  Nehusiitan. 

Brazil,  an  empire  of  South  America.  See  Amer- 
ica. 

I.  Church  History. — In  1500  Brazil  was  taken  pos- 
session of  by  a  Portuguese  admiral,  who  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  some  Franciscan  monks,  most  of  whom  were, 
however,  killed  by  the  Indian  tribes.  In  1540  the  first 
Jesuits  came  to  Brazil,  who  succeeded  in  establishing 
a  large  number  of  missions.  The  most  celebrated 
among  them  were  Anchieta  (q.  v.)  and  Vieyra  (q.  v.). 
The  Inquisition  never  gained  a  firm  footing  in  Brazil. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  French  philosophy  found 
m  my  adherents,  and  even  among  the  clergy  a  part}' 
was  formed,  led  by  Father  Peiso,  which  demanded  the 
abolition  of  celibacy  and  other  radical  reforms.  The 
government  nominated  a  member  of  this  party,  Dr. 
Moura,  for  the  bishopric  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  but  the 
pope  refused  to  confirm  the  appointment,  and,  as  in 
this  question  Home  was  sustained  by  the  Brazilian 
I  bambers,  the  government  had  to  yield.  Of  late 
yens  the  Roman  party  has  gained  in  strength,  and 
several  Roman  Catholic  (ultramontane)  newspapers 
have  been  printed.  Still  a  majority  of  the  Brazilian 
paper-  are  liberal,  and  oppose  all  extreme  ultramon- 
i  me  ■  iews. 

The  first  Protestants  settled  in  Brazil  in  the  16th 
and  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  while  a  part  of 
the  country  was  under  the  rule  of  the  French  and  the 
Dutch,  but  after  the  re-establishn  eat  of  Hie  Portuguese 
dominion  (1654)  Protestantism  was  entirely  extermi- 
nated. From  that  time  until  1808  Protestants  were 
forbidden  t<>  Bettle  in  Brazil.  They  then  received  the 
liberty  to  build  churches,  but  only  on  condition  of 
making  no  proselytes.      Greater  rights  were  conceded 


to  the  German  and  Swiss  emigrants,  who  were  invited 
and  encouraged  by  the  government  to  settle  in  the  ag- 
ricultural districts.  The  government  promised  to  pay 
to  the  Protestant  clergymen  and  teachers  a  salary,  and 
to  establish  a  Supreme  Protestant  Consistory  at  Rio. 
The  number  of  the  Protestant  immigrants  is  already 
considerable — the  whole  immigration  amounted  in  1858 
to  about  30,000  souls  in  44  colonies— and  forms,  next 
to  the  British  and  Dutch  possessions  in  Guiana,  the 
largest  nucleus  of  a  native  Protestant  population  in 
South  America. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — The  area  of  Brazil  is 
about  4,000,000  square  miles;  its  population  in  1856 
amounted  to  7,677,800,  of  which  only  23  per  cent,  are  of 
European  descent.  The  entire  native  population,  ex- 
cept the  free  Indians  (about  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  pop- 
ulation), belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which 
has  one  archbishop,  viz.  of  Bahia,  and  11  bishops,  viz. 
of  Ceara,  Cuyaba,  Diamantina,  Goyas,  Maranhao,  Mi- 
nas,  Para,  Pernambuco,  S.  Paulo,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  The  Church  has  no  property  of 
her  own,  but  bishops  and  priests  are  paid  by  the  state. 
The  number  of  priests  is  very  small,  and  all  the  bish- 
ops complain  of  the  difficulty  of  finding  a  sufficient 
number  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood.  The  num- 
ber of  convents  is  limited.  There  are  eleven  theolog- 
ical seminaries,  and  the  erection  of  two  theological  fac- 
ulties has  been  resolved  upon.  The  ecclesiastical  ju- 
risdiction of  the  bishops,  which  was  formerly  very  ex- 
tensive, is  now  (since  1834)  very  limited. 

The  English  congregation  of  Rio  dates  with  the  cen- 
tury, and  numbers  4000  to  5000.  There  are  English 
congregations  at  Bahia  and  Pernambuco.  The  German 
Protestants  in  Rio  in  1863  hid  a  school,  and  numbered 
about  2500  members.  The  largest  Protestant  congre- 
gation is  in  San  Leopoldo,  which  has  12,000  (German) 
inhabitants,  and  three  Protestant  ministers.  The  O.  S. 
Presb.  Church  occupied  Rio  as  a  station  in  1860,  and 
had,  in  1865,  stations  at  San  Paulo  and  Rio  Clara.  In 
Dec,  1865,  the  members  of  the  mission  formed  the 
"  Presbytery  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,"  which  in  Sept.,  1866, 
was  connected  with  the  Synod  of  Baltimore.  Alto- 
gether, in  1863,  Brazil  had  24  Protestant  clergymen 
(3  English,  5  American,  and  12  German)  in  25  congre- 
gations (3  English,  5  American,  and  17  German).  See 
Kidder  and  Fletcher,  Brazil  and  the  Brazilians  (Phil. 
1857,  8vo);  Schem,  Eccl.  Year-book,  1850,  p.  179;  20/fi 
Ann.  Rep.  of  Board  of  For.  Miss,  of  (O.  £.)  Presb.  Ch. 
(N.  Y.  1866) ;  Amer.  Annual  Cyclopaedia,  1864,  p.  189. 

Bread  (Cnb,  le'chem;  aproc),  a  word  of  far  more 
extensive  meaning  among  the  Hebrews  than  at  pres- 
ent with  us.  There  are  passages  in  which  it  appears 
to  be  applied  to  all  kinds  of  victuals  (Luke  xi,  3) ;  but 
it  more  generally  denotes  all  kinds  of  baked  and  pastry 
articles  of  food.  It  is  also  used,  however,  in  the  more 
limited  sense  of  bread  made  from  wheat  or  barley,  for 
rye  is  little  cultivated  in  the  East.  The  preparation 
of  bread  as  an  article  of  food  dates  from  a  very  early 
period  :  it  must  not,  however,  be  inferred  from  the  use 
of  the  word  lechem  in  Gen.  iii,  19  ("bread,"  A.  V.) 
that  it  was  known  at  the  time  of  the  fall,  the  word 
there  occurring  in  its  general  sense  of  food:  the  earliest 
undoubted  instance  of  its  use  is  found  in  Gen.  xviii,  6. 

1.  Materials. — The  corn  or  grain  ("OS?,  she'ber,  "J1!, 
dagan")  employed  was  of  various  sorts:  the  best  bread 
was  made  of  wheat,  which,  after  being  ground,  pro- 
duced the  "flour"  or  "meal"  (J"toj3,  ke'mach;  dXiv- 
pov  ;  Judg.  vi,  19 ;  1  Sam.  i,  24 ;  1  Kings  iv,  22;  xvii, 
12, 14),  and  when  sifted  the  "fine  flour"  (rbb,  so'leth, 
more  fully  b^BH  T^b,  Exod.  xxix,  2;  or  Thb  n^p, 
Gen.  xviii,  6;  aepiSaKig)  usually  employed  in  the 
sacred  offerings  (Exod.  xxix,  40;  Lev.  ii,  1;  Ezek. 
xlvi,  14),  and  in  the  meals  of  the  wealthv  (1  Kings  iv, 
22  ;  2  Kings  vii,  1 ;  Ezek.  xvi,  13, 19;  Rev.  xviii,  13). 
"  Barley"  was  used  only  by  the  very  poor  (John  vi, 


BREAD 


881 


BREAD 


9,  13),  or  in  times  of  scarcity  (Ruth  iii,  15,  compared  ' 
withi,  1;  2  Kings  iv,  38,  42  ;  Rev.  vi,  6  ;  Joseph.  War, 
v,  10,  2) :  as  it  was  the  food  of  horses  (1  Kings  iv,  28), 
it  was  considered  a  symbol  of  what  was  mean  and  in- 
significant (Judg.  vii,  13;  comp.  Joseph.  Ant.  v,  G,  4,  [ 

f.UlL,aV    Kpi9u'))V,   VTT     IVTtXtictQ     CtpdpWTTOtC,     llfiptOTOV  \ 

Liv.  xxvii,  13),  as  well  as  of  what  was  of  a  mere  ani- 
mal character,  and  hence  ordered  for  the  ottering  of  ! 
jealousy  (Num.  v,  15  ;   comp.  Hos.  iii,  2 ;   Philo,  ii, 
307).      "Spelt"   (n^S3,  htsse'meth;   oXvpa,  lia;  A.\ 
V.  rye,  fitches,  spelt)  was  also  used  both  in  Egypt  (Exod. 
ix,  32)  and  Palestine  (Isa.  xxviii,  25;  Ezek.  iv,  9;  1 
Kings  xix,  6;  Sept.  tyicpvfiag  6XvpiT>]t:)  :  Herodotus 
indeed  states  (ii.  36)  that  in  the  former  country  bread  j 
was  made  exclusively  of  olyra,  which,  as  in  the  Sept.,  | 
he  identifies  with  zea;  but  in  this  he  was  mistaken,  as 
wheat  was  also  used  (Exod.  ix,  32 ;  comp.  Wilkinson, 
Anc.  Eg.  ii,  397).     Occasionally  the  grains  above  men-  \ 
tioned   were  mixed,  and  other  ingredients,  such   as 
beans,  lentils,  and  millet,  were  added  (Ezek.  iv,  9 ; 
comp.  2  Sam.  xvii,  28) ;  the  bread  so  produced  is  call- 
ed "barley  oakes"  (Ezek.  iv,  12;   A.  V.  "«s  barley 
cakes"),  inasmuch  as  barley  was  the  main  ingredient. 
The  amount  of  meal  required  for  a  single  baking  was 
an  ephah  or  three  measures  (Gen.  xviii,  G;  Judg.  vi, 
19  ;  1  Sam.  i,  24  ;  Matt,  xiii,  33),  which  appears  to  have 
been  suited  to  the  size  of  the  ordinary  oven.      Grain  is 
ground  daily  in  the  East.     See  Mill. 

2.  Preparation. — After  the  wheaten  flour  is  taken 
from  the  hand-mill,  it  is  made  into  a  dough  or  paste  in 
a  small  wooden  trough.  See  Kneading-trough. 
The  process  of  making  bread  was  as  follows  :  the  flour 
was  first  mixed  with  water,  or  perhaps  milk  (Burck- 
hardt's  Notes  on  the  Bedouins,  i,  58) ;  it  was  then  knead- 
ed (ltJ^V)  with  the  hands  (in  Egypt  with  the  feet  also; 
Herod,  ii,  3G ;  Wilkinson,  ii,  386)  in  a  small  'wooden 
bowl  or  "kneading-trough"  (HTX'ip,  mishe'reth,  a 
term  which  ma}',  however,  rather  refer  to  the  leathern 
bag  in  which  the  Bedouins  earn-  their  provisions,  and 
which  serves  both  as  a  wallet  and  a  table ;  Nicbuhr's 
Voyage,  i,  171 ;  Harmer,  iv,  366  sq. ;  the  Sept.  inclines 
to  this  view,  giving  iyKaTaXti/ifiaTa  [A.  V.  "store"] 
in  Deut.  xxviii,  5,  17;  the  expression  in  Exod.  xii, 
34,  however,  "bound  up  in  their  clothes,"  favors  the 
idea  of  a  wooden  bowl),  until  it  became  dough  (pip, 
batsek' ;  oraig,  Exod.  xii,  34,  39;  2  Sam.  xiii,  8;  Jer. 
vii,  18;  Hos.  vii,  4;  the  term  "dough"  is  improperly 
given  in  the  A.  V.  for  niD"1"!",  grits,  in  Num.  xv,  20, 
21 ;  Neh.  x,  37 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  30).  When  the  kneading 
was  completed,  leaven  ("iXb,  seo/;  Zofirf)  was  gener- 
ally added ;  but  when  the  time  for  preparation  was 
short,  it  was  omitted,  and  unleavened  cakes,  hastily 
baked,  were  eaten,  as  is  still  the  prevalent  custom 
among  the  Bedouins  (Gen.  xviii,  6;  xix,  3;  Exod.  xii, 
39;  Judg.  vi,  19;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  24).  See  Leaven. 
Such  cakes  were  termed  HISS,  matstsoth'  (Sept.  u^v/xci), 
a  word  of  doubtful  sense,  variously  supposed  to  convey 
the  ideas  ofthiimess  (Fiirst,  Lex.  s.  v.),  sweetness  (Gesen. 
Tliesaur.  p.  815),  or  purity  (Knobel,  Comm.  in  Exod. 
xii,  20),  while  leavened  bread  was  called  "^n,  chamets" 
(lit.  sharpened  or  soured;  Exod.  xii,  39;  Hos.  vii,  4). 
Unleavened  cakes  were  ordered  to  be  eaten  at  the 
Passover  to  commemorate  the  hastiness  of  the  depart- 
ure (Exod.  xii,  15;  xiii,  3,  7;  Deut.  xvi,  3),  as  well 
as  on  other  sacred  occasions  (Lev.  ii,  11 ;  vi,  16 ;  Num. 
vi,  15).  The  leavened  mass  was  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  time  (Matt,  xiii,  33  ;  Luke  xiii,  21),  sometimes 
for  a  whole  night  ("their  baker  sleepeth  all  the  night," 
Hos.  vii,  6),  exposed  to  a  moderate  heat  in  order  to 
forward  the  fermentation  ("he  ceaseth  from  s^Vhwy;" 
[l^rp ;  A.  V.  "raising"]  the  fire  "  until  it  be  leaven- 
ed," Hos.  vii,  41.  The  dough  was  then  divided  into 
round  cakes  (DPI?  W*133,  lit.  circles  of  bread;  dproi ; 
A.  V.  "loaves;"   Exod.  xxix,  23;    Judir.  viii,  5;   1 

K  K   K 


Sam.  x,  3;  Prov.  vi,  26;  in  Judg.  vii,  13,  fe^S,  roll; 
fiayic.),  not  unlike  flat  stones  in  shape  and  appearance 
(Matt,  vii,  9 ;  comp.  iv,  3),  about  a  span  in  diameter 
and  a  finger's  breadth  in  thickness  (comp.  Lane's  Mod- 
ern Egyptians,  i,  164)  :  three  of  these  were  required  for 
the  meal  of  a  single  person  (Luke  xi,  5),  and  conse- 
quently one  was  barely  sufficient  to  sustain  life  (1  Sam. 
ii,  36,  A.  V.  "morsel;"  Jer.  xxxvii,  21,  A.  V.  "piece"), 
whence  the  expression  Trnb  Dtlb,  "bread  of  afflic- 
tion" (1  Kings  xxii,  27 ;  Isa.  xxx,  20),  referring  not 
to  the  quality  (pane  plebeio,  Grotius),  but  to  the  quan- 
tity ;  two  hundred  would  suffice  for  a  party  for  a  rea- 
sonable time  (1  Sam.  xxv,  18 ;  2  Sam.  xvi,  1).  The 
cakes  were  sometimes  punctured,  and  hence  called  i"l£H, 
ehallah'  (icoXXvpic.  ;  Exod.  xxix,  2,  23;  Lev.  ii,  4;  viii, 
26  ;  xxiv,  5  ;  Num.  xv,  20  ;  2  Sam.  vi,  19),  and  mixed 
with  oil.  Similar  eakes,  sprinkled  with  seeds,  were 
made  in  Egypt  (Wilkinson,  ii,  386).  Sometimes  they 
were  rolled  out  into  wafers  (p^p"!,  rakik' ;  Xayavov ; 
Exod.  xxix,  2,  23;  Lev.  ii,  4;  Num.  vi,  15-19),  and 
merely  coated  with  oil.  Oil  was  occasionally  added  to 
the  ordinary  cake  (1  Kings  xvii,  12).  A  more  delicate 
kind  of  cake  is  described  in  2  Sam.  xiii,  6,  8,  10 ;  the 
dough  (A.  V.  "flour")  is  kneaded  a  second  time,  and 
probably  fried  in  fat,  as  seems  to  be  implied  in  the 
name  ni^"1^?,  lebiboth' ',  q.  d.  dough-nuts  (from  -^b,  to 
be  fat,  kindred  with  3^b,  heart;  compare  our  expres- 
sion hearty  food;  Sept.  KoXXvpidec.;  Vulg.  sorbitiunculce). 
(See  below.) 


Loaves  of  Bread  found  at  Pompeii. 

3.  Baling. — The  cakes  were  now  taken  to  the  oven  ; 
having  been  first,  according  to  the  practice  in  Egypt, 
gathered  into  "  white  baskets"  (Gen.  xl,  16),  Wn  i|&, 
salley'  chori' ,  a  doubtful  expression,  referred  by  some 
to  the  whiteness  of  the  bread  (Sept.  kuvo.  xovdpirmv; 
Aquil.  Ko(pii'oi  yvpiuje.  ;  Vulg.  canistra  farinm),  by 
others,  as  in  the  A.  V.,  to  the  whiteness  of  the  baskets, 
and  again,  by  connecting  the  word  "HH  with  the  idea 
of  a  hole,  to  an  open-work  basket  {margin,  A.  V.),  or, 
lastly,  to  bread  baked  in  a  hole.  The  baskets  were 
placed  on  a  tray  and  carried  on  the  baker's  head  (Gen. 
xl,  16;  Herod,  ii,  35;  Wilkinson,  ii,  386).  See  Bas- 
ket. 

The  baking  was  done  in  primitive  times  by  the  mis- 
tress of  the  house  (Gen.  xviii,  G)  or  one  of  the  daugh- 
ters (2  Sam.  xiii,  8)  ;  female  servants  were,  however, 
employed  in  large  households  (1  Sam.  viii,  13):  it  ap- 
pears always  to  have  been  the  proper  business  of 
women  in  a  family  (Jer.  vii,  18;  xliv,  19;  Matt,  xiii, 
33;  comp.  Plin.  xviii,  11,  28).  Baking,  as  a  profes- 
sion, was  carried  on  by  men  (Hos.  vii,  4,  G).  In  Je- 
rusalem the  bakers  congregated  in  one  quarter  of  the 
town,  as  we  may  infer  from  the  name  "  bakers'  street" 
(Jer.  xxxvii,  21),  and  "tower  of  the  ovens"  (Neh.  iii, 
11;  xii,  38);  A.  V.  "furnaces."  In  the  time  of  the 
Herods,  bakers  were  scattered  throughout  the  towns 
of  Palestine  (Joseph.  Ant.  xv,  9,  2).  As  the  bread 
was  made  in  thin  cakes,  which  soon  l>ecame  dry  and 
unpalatable,  it  was  usual  to  bake  daily,  or  when  re- 
quired (Gen.  xviii,  6  ;  comp.  Harmer's  Observations, 
i,  483) :  reference  is  perhaps  made  to  this  in  the  Lord's 


BREAD 


882 


BREAD 


prayer  (Matt,  vi,  11 ;  Luke  xi,  3).  The  bread  taken 
by  persons  on  a  journey  (Hen.  xiv,  23;  Josh,  ix,  12) 
was  probably  a  kind  of  biscuit.     See  Bake. 

The  methods  of  baking  (flSX,  aphak")  were,  and  still 
are,  very  various  in  the  East,  adapted  to  the  various 
styles  of  life.  In  the  towns,  where  professional  ba- 
kers resided,  there  were  no  doubt  fixed  ovens,  in  shape 
and  size  resembling  those  in  use  among  ourselves; 
but  nunc  usually  each  household  possessed  a  portable 
oven  (""?,  tannur'- ;  icXijiai'oc),  consisting  of  a  stone 
or  metal  jar  about  three  feet  high,  which  was  heated 
inwardly  with  wood  (1  Kings  xvii,  12;  Isa.  xliv,  15; 
Jer.  vii,  18)  or  dried  grass  and  flower-stalks  (yoo7-oc, 
Matt,  vi,  30) ;  when  the  fire  had  burned  down,  the 
cakes  were  applied  either  inwardly  (Herod,  ii,  92)  or 
outwardly:  such  ovens  were  used  by  the  Egyptians 
(Wilkinson,  ii,  385),  and  by  the  Easterns  of  Jerome's 
time  (Comment,  in  Lam.  v,  Id),  and  are  still  common 
among  the  Bedouins  (Wellsted's  Travels,  i,  350 ;  Nie- 
buhr's  Descript.  ele  VA  rabie,  p.  45,  46).  The  use  of  a 
single  oven  by  several  families  only  took  place  in 
time  of  famine  (Lev.  xxvi,  26).  Another  species  of 
oven  consisted  of  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  the  sides 
of  which  were  coated  with  clay  and  the  bottom  with 
pebbles  (Harmer,  i,  487).  Jahn  (Arckaol.  i,  9,  §  140) 
thinks  that  this  oven  is  referred  to  in  the  term  Q"}"3"*"?, 
hira  >jim  (Lev.  xi,  35)  ;  but  the  dual  number  is  an  ob- 
jection to  this  view ;  the  term  "l*"iFl  above  (Gen.  xl, 
16)  has  also  been  referred  to  it.     See  Oven. 

Other  modes  of  baking  were  specially  adapted  to  the 
migratory  habits  of  the  pastoral  Jews,  as  of  the  mod- 
ern Bedouins ;  the  cakes  were  either  spread  upon 
stones,  which  were  previously  heated  by  lighting  a 
fire  above  them  (Burckhardt's  Notes,  i,  58)  or  beneath 
them  (Bclzoni's  Travels,  p.  84) ;  or  they  were  thrown 
into  the  heated  embers  of  the  fire  itself  (Wellsted's 
Travels,  i,  350;  Niebuhr,  D.  script,  p.  46);  or,  lastly, 
they  were  roasted  by  being  placed  between  layers  of 
dung,  which  burns  slowly,  and  is  therefore  specially 
adapted  for  the  purpose  (Ezra  iv,  12,  15 ;  Burckhardt's 
Notes,  i,  57 ;  Niebuhr's  Descript.  p.  46).  The  terms 
by  which  such  cakes  were  described  were  !"!;•".  uggah' 
(Gen.  xviii,  6;  Exod.  xii,  89;  1  Kings  xvii,  13;  Ezra 
iv,  12;  IIos.  vii,  8),  51"*;,  maog'  (1  Kings  xvii,  12; 
Psa.  xxxv,  16),  or  more  fully  t3""B3"*l  MS,  uggath' 
retsaphim'  (1  Kings  xix,  6,  lit.  on  the  stones,  "coals," 
A.  V.),  the  term  firO  referring,  however,  not  to  the 
mode  of  baking,  but  to  the  rounded  shape  of  the  cake 
(Gesen.  Thesaur.  p.  997) :  the  equivalent  terms  in  the 
Sept.  iyKiwtyiac,  and  in  the  Vulg.  subcinericius  poods, 
have  direct  reference  to  the  peculiar  mode  of  baking. 
The  cakes  required  to  be  carefully  turned  during  the 
process  (IIos.  vii,  8;  Harmer,  i,  488).  Other  meth- 
ods were  used  for  other  kinds  of  bread;  some  were 
baked  on  a  pan  ("H"  ;  rf/yavov  ;  sartago:  the  Greek 
term  survives  in  the  lajen  of  the  Bedouins),  the  result 
being  similar  to  the  k/iubz  still  used  among  the  latter 
people  (Burckhardt's  Notes,  i,  58),  or  like  the  Greek 
rayi'irua,  which  were  baked  in  oil,  and  eaten  warm 
with  honey  (Athen.  xiv,  55,  p.  646);  such  cakes  ap- 
peared to  have  been  chiefly  used  as  sacred  offerings 
(Lev.  ii,  5;  vi.ll;  vii,  9;  1  Chron.  xxiii,  29).  A  sim- 
ilar cooking  utensil  was  used  by  Tamar  (2  Sam.  xiii,  9, 
rVjtt)73;  Ttiyavov),  in  which  she  baked  the  cakes  and 
then  emptied  them  out  in  a  heap  (p"!"1,  not  "  poured," 
as  if  it  had  been  broth)  before  Amnion.  A  different 
kind  of  bread,  probably  resembling  the  ftita  of  the 
Bedouins,  a  patty  substance  (  Burckhardt's  Notes,  i,  57), 
was  prepared  in  a  Baucepan  (r"in~"c  ;  ttryapa  ;  crati- 
cuta;  A.  7.  frying-pan;  none  of  which  meanings,  how- 
ever, correspond  with  the  etymological  sense  of  the 
word,  which  is  connected  with  boiling");  this  was  also 
reserved  for  sacred  offerings  (Lev.  ii,  7  ;  vii,  9).     As 


the  above-mentioned  kinds  of  bread  (the  last  excepted) 
were  thin  and  crisp,  the  mode  of  eating  them  was  by 
breaking  (Lev.  ii,  6 ;  Isa.  lviii,  7  ;  Lam.  iv,  4  ;  Matt, 
xiv,  19  ;  xv,  36  ;  xxvi,  26;  Acts  xx,  11 ;  comp.  Xen. 
Anab.  vii,  3,  §  22,  aorovc.  cukXu),  whence  the  term 
CnQ,  to  break=to  give  bread  (Jer.  xvi,  7)  ;  the  pieces 
broken  for  consumption  were  called  cXatr/utra  (Matt. 
xiv,  20 :  John  vi,  12).  Old  bread  is  described  in  Josh, 
ix,  5,  12,  as  crumbled  (Q"1"Ij7>3,  nihhudim' ;  Aquil. 
t\pa0vpii>jiivog  ;  in  frusta  comminuii ;  A.  V.  "mould}-," 
following  the  Sept.  evpeoniov  iced  /3f/3pw/t«ror),  a  term 
which  is  also  applied  (1  Kings  xiv,  3)  to  a  kind  of  bis- 
cuit, which  easily  crumbled  (KoXXupig;  A.  V.  "crack- 
nels").— Smith,  s.  v.     See  Cake. 

4.  Figurative  Uses  of  the  term  "Bread." — As  the 
Hebrews  generally  made  their  bread  very  thin,  and  in 
the  form  of  little  flat  cakes  (especially  their  unleavened 
bread),  they  did  not  cut  it  with  a  knife,  but  broke  it, 
which  gave  rise  to  that  expression  so  usual  in  Scrip- 
ture of  breaking  bread,  to  signify  eating,  sitting  down 
to  table,  taking  a  repast  (Lam.  iv,  4 ;  Matt,  xiv,  19 ; 
xv,  36).  In  the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  oui 
Saviour  broke  the  bread ;  whence  to  break  bread,  and 
breaking  of  bread,  in  the  New  Testament,  are  used  some 
times  for  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  (Matt,  xxvi, 
26),  and  also  the  celebration  of  the  agapai,  or  love- 
feast  (Acts  ii,  46).      (See  below.) 

"Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters"  (Eccl.  xi,  1), 
may  allude  to  the  custom  practised  in  some  countries 
of  sowing  bread-corn  or  rice  upon  a  soil  well  irrigated, 
or,  as  some  think,  against  the  rainy  season;  or,  in  a 
figurative  sense,  it  may  be  an  exhortation  to  disinter- 
ested liberality,  with  a  promise  of  receiving  its  due 
recompense. 

The  figurative  expressions  "bread  of  sorrows"  (Psa. 
exxvii,  2)  and  "bread  of  tears"  (Psa.  xliii,  3)  mean 
the  portion  of  every  day  as  one's  daily  bread.  So  the 
"bread  of  wickedness"  (Prov.  iv,  17)  and  "bread  of 
deceit"  (Prov.  xx,  17)  denote  not  only  a  living  or  estate 
obtained  by  fraud  and  sin,  but  that  to  do  wickedly  is  as 
much  the  portion  of  a  wicked  man's  life  as  to  eat  his 
daily  bread.     See  Daily  Bread  ;  Life  (Bread  of). 

Shew-bread  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers, 
of  the  Heb.  D"0Q  Etj?,  le 'chem  panim' ',  the  brad  of 
the  face,  or  of  the  presence,  because  it  was  set  forth 
before  the  face  or  in  the  presence  of  Jehovah  in  his 
holy  place.  It  is  also  called  "the  bread  arranged  in 
order"  and  "the  perpetual  bread,"  because  it  was  never 
absent  from  the  table  (Lev.  xxiv,  6,  7  ;  1  Chron.  xxiii, 
29).  In  the  outer  apartment  of  the  tabernacle,  on  the 
right  hand,  or  north  side,  stood  a  table  made  of  acacia 
(shittim)  wood,  two  cubits  long,  one  broad,  and  one 
and  a  half  high,  and  covered  with  lamina?  of  gold. 
The  top  of  the  leaf  of  this  table  was  encircled  by  a  bor- 
der or  rim  of  gold.  The  frame  of  the  table  immedi- 
ately below  the  leaf  was  encircled  with  a  piece  of  wood 
of  about  four  inches  in  breadth,  around  the  edge  of 
which  was  a  rim  or  border  similar  to  that  around  the 
leaf.  A  little  lower  down,  but  at  equal  distances  frcm 
the,  top  of  the  table,  there  were  four  rings  of  gold  fast- 
ened to  the  legs,  through  which  staves  covered  withl 
gold  were  inserted  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it  (Exod. ' 
xxv,  23-28;  xxxvii,  10-16).  These  rings  were  not 
found  in  the  table  which  was  afterward  made  for  the 
Temple,  nor  indeed  in  any  of  the  sacred  furniture, 
where  they  had  previously  been,  except  in  the  ark  of 
the  covenant.  Twelve  unleavened  loaves  were  placed 
upon  this  table,  which  wore  sprinkled  with  frankin- 
cense (the  Sept.  adds  salt;  Lev.  xxiv,  7).  The  num- 
ber twelve  represents  the  twelve  tribes,  and  was  not 
diminished  after  the  defection  often  of  the  tribes  from 
the  worship  of  God  in  his  sanctuary,  because  the  cov- 
enant with  the  sons  of  Abraham  was  not  formally  ab- 
rogated, and  because  there  were  still  many  true  Is- 
raelites among  the  apostatizing  tribes.  The  twelve 
loaves  were  also  a  constant  record  against  them,  and 


BREAKFAST 


8S3 


BREASTPLATE 


served  as  a  standing  testimonial  that  their  proper 
place  was  before  the  forsaken  altar  of  Jehovah.  The 
loaves  were  placed  in  two  piles,  one  above  another, 
and  were  changed  every  Sabbath  day  by  the  priests. 
The  frankincense  that  had  stood  on  the  bread  during 
the  week  was  then  burned  as  an  oblation,  and  the  re- 
moved bread  became  the  property  of  the  priests,  who, 
as  God's  servants,  had  a  right  to  eat  of  the  bread  that 
came  from  his  table ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  eat  it 
in  the  hoi}'  place,  and  nowhere  else.  No  others  might 
lawfully  eat  of  it ;  but,  in  a  case  of  extreme  emergen- 
cy, the  priest  incurred  no  blame  if  he  imparted  it  to 
persons  who  were  in  a  state  of  ceremonial  purity,  as 
in  the  instance  of  David  and  his  men  (1  Sam.  xxi, 
4^6 ;  Matt,  xii,  4).— Kitto. 

Wine  also  was  placed  upon  the  "table  of  shew- 
bread"  in  bowls,  some  larger  and  some  smaller;  also 
in  vessels  that  were  covered  and  in  cups,  which  were 
probably  employed  in  pouring  in  and  taking  out  the 
wine  from  the  other  vessels,  or  in  making  libations. 
Gesenius  calls  them  "  patera?  libatorim,"  and  they  ap- 
pear in  the  Authorized  Version  as  "  spoons"  (see  gen- 
erally Exod.  xxv,  20,  30;  xxxvii,  10-16;  xl,  4,  24; 
Lev.  xxiv,  5-9 ;  Num.  iv,  7).     See  Siiew-bread. 

BREAD  IN  THE  EUCHARIST.  Whether  leav- 
ened or  unleavened  bread  should  be  used  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper  has  been  the  subject  of  a 
spirited  dispute  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches. 
The  former  contended  for  the  use  of  leavened,  the  lat- 
ter for  that  of  unleavened  bread.  See  Azymites.  In 
the  Romish  Church  bread  is  called  the  host,  Iwstia. 
It  consists  of  cakes  of  meal  and  water,  made  small,  cir- 
cular, and  thin  like  wafers,  and  by  this  name  it  is  fre- 
quently called.  This  form  seems  to  have  been  adopt- 
ed at  the  time  of  the  controversy  with  the  Greek 
Church  in  1053.  One  of  the  ceremonies  used  in  the 
consecration  of  the  elements  was  breaking  the  bread. 
This  was  done  in  conformity  with  our  Lord's  example. 
Man}'  ancient  authors  have  alluded  to  this  custom. 
In  times  of  superstition  the  Greeks  began  to  break  it 
into  four  parts,  the  Latins  into  three.  The  Mosarabic 
Liturgy  directs  that  it  be  broken  into  nine  parts. — 
Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  xv,  ch.  ii,  §  5-34. 

Breakfast.     See  Meal. 

Breast  (prop.  Td,  shad,  or  li£,  shod,  the  female 
teat;  occasionally  the  cognate  t'^'l'l,  dadda'yim,  the 
two  paps,  Ezek.  xxiii,  3,  8,  21;  Prov.  v,  19;  but  HTH, 
chazeh',  the  breast  or  front  part  of  an  animal,  as  first 
seen,  Exod.  xxix,  26,  27 ;  Lev.  vii,  30,  31 ;  ix,  20,  21). 
See  Bosom.  Females  in  the  East  are  more  desirous 
than  those  of  colder  climates  to  have  a  full  and  swell- 
ing breast,  and  study  embonpoint  to  a  degree  unusual 
among  northern  nations.  This  was  also  the  case  among 
the  ancient  Hebrews  (Cant,  viii,  10).  See  Beauty. 
In  Nah.  ii,  7,  it  is  said  that  the  women  of  Nineveh 
shall  be  led  into  captivity  "  tabering  upon  their  breasts" 
— that  is,  beating  their  breasts  in  token  of  anguish,  as 
if  they  were  playing  on  the  tabret.  Sec  Geief.  The 
waving  of  the  breast  of  the  animal  offered  in  sacrifice 
(Lev.  vii,  30)  is  supposed  to  be  typical  of  giving  up  to 
God  the  heart  and  the  affections.     See  Sacrifice. 

Breastplate,  a  term  applied  in  the  Auth.  Vers. 
to  two  very  different  pieces  of  equipment. 

I.  Sacerdotal. — The  official  pectoral  of  the  Jewish 
high-priest  is  called  "J'^Jn,  ckofshen,  prop,  ornament,  1  ic- 
ing a  gorget  adorned  on  the  outside  with  twelve  gems, 
and  hollow  within,  where  were  deposited  the  sacred 
lots  "Urim  and  Thummim"  (q.  v.)  ;  hence  more  fully 
called  the  breastplate,  of  judgment  (Exod.  xxviii,  15 
sq. ;  Lev.  viii,  8;  Sept.  \oytlov;  Philo,  \6ywv\  I  rat 
fully  \oyi~inv  tcpiaewc  in  Ecclus.  xl,  10).  See  Ephod. 
It  was  a  piece  of  very  rich  embroidered  work,  about 
ten  inches  square,  and  made  double  with  a  front  and 
lining,  so  as  to  answer  for  a  pouch  or  bag,  in  which, 
according  to  the  rabbins,  the  Urim  and  Thummim  were 


Supposed  Style  of  the  High-priest's  Breastplate. 


enclosed.  The  front  of  it  was  occupied  by  the  twelve 
precious  stones,  on  each  of  which  was  engraved  the 
name  of  one  of  the  tribes.  They  were  placed  in  four 
rows,  and  divided  from  each  other  by  the  little  golden 
squares  or  partitions  in  which  they  were  set.  The 
two  upper  corners  of  the  breastplate  were  fastened  to 
the  ephod,  from  which  it  was  never  to  be  loosed  (Exod. 
xxviii,  28),  and  the  two  lower  corners  to  the  girdle. 
The  rings,  chains,  and  other  fastenings  were  of  gold 
or  rich  lace.  It  was  called  the  memorial  (Exod.  xxviii, 
12,  29),  inasmuch  as  it  reminded  the  priest  of  his  rep- 
resentative character  in  relation  to  the  twelve  tribes. 
Josephus  repeats  the  description  (Ant.  iii,  7,  5),  Gra;- 
cizing  the  Heb.  term  by  taaiji'i]^,  and  translating  it  by 
^oytov.  A  full  discussion  of  the  subject  may  lie  found 
in  Braunii  Vestilus  Sacerdotum  Hebrmorum,  pt.  ii,  ch. 
vii. — Calmet.     See  High-pkiest. 

II.  Military.— As  a  piece  of  defensive  armor  "breast- 
plate" is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth. Vers,  only  of|"-,r, 
shiryan' ',  prob.  gleaming  (Isa.  lix,  17;  ''harness,"  1 
Kings  xxii,  34;  2  Chron.  xviii,  33),  apparently  a  full 
coat  <if  mail  (q.  v.),  but  according  to  the  Sept.  (&wpa£, 
which  is  the  term  thus  rendered  in  Eph.  vi,  11;  1 
Thess.  v,  8 ;  Rev.  ix,  9),  a  breastplate.  Kindred  and 
probably  equivalent  are  the  terms  "jl'^'lttj,  shiryon 
('.'coat  of  mail,"  1  Sam.  xvii,  5,  38;  "habergeon,"  2 
Chron.  xxvi,  14;  Neh.  iv,  10  [10]),  and  STniO,  shir- 
yah'  ("  habergeon,"  Job  xli,  28  [16]).  The*  full  form 
occurs  in  the  description  of  the  arms  of  Goliath — 
diTBjSiBg  "■P'l  123,  a  "coat  of  mail,"  literally  a  "  breast- 
plate of  scales"  (1  Sam.  xvii,  5;  comp.  ver.  88).  See 
MAIL.  It  may  be  noticed  that  this  passage  contains 
the  most  complete  inventory  of  the  furniture  of  a  war- 
rior to  be  found  in  the  whole  of  the  sacred  history. 
Goliath  was  a  Philistine,  and  the  minuteness  of  the  de- 
scription of  his  equipment  may  be  due  either  to  the 


BRECHIN" 


884 


BREMEN 


fact  that  the  Philistines  were  usually  better  armed 
than  the  Hebrews,  or  to  the  impression  produced  by 
the  contrast  on  this  particular  occasion  between  this 
fully-armed  champion  and  the  wretchedly  appointed 
soldiers  of  the  Israelite  host,  stripped  as  they  had  been 
virv  shortly  before  both  of  arms  and  of  the  means  of 
supplying  them  so  completely  that  no  smith  could  be 
found  in  the  country,  nor  any  weapons  seen  among 
the  people,  and  that  even  the  ordinary  implements  of 
husbandry  had  to  be  repaired  and  sharpened  at  the 
forges  of  the  conquerors  (1  Sam.  xiv,  19-22).  The 
passage  in  2  Chron.  xviii,  33  is  very  obscure ;  the  A. 
A",  follows  the  Syriac  translation,  but  the  real  meaning 
is  probably  "  between  the  joints  and  the  breastplate." 
Ewald  reads  "  between  the  loins  and  the  chest;"  Sept. 
and  "Vulgate,  "between  the  lungs  and  the  breastbone." 
This  word  has  furnished  one  of  the  names  of  Blount 
Hermon  (see  Deut.  iii,  9;  Stanley,  Palest,  p.  403),  a 
parallel  to  which  is  found  in  the  name  Owpni;  given  to 
Mount  Sipylus  in  Lydia.  It  is  thought  by  some  that 
in  Deut.  iv,  48,  Sion  ("jSt"1^)  is  a  corruption  of  Shir- 
yon.     See  Armor. 

A  similar  piece  of  defensive  armor  was  the  tachara' 
(N~nP),  which  is  mentioned  but  twice — namely,  in 
reference  to  the  me'il  or  gown  of  the  priest,  which  is 
said  to  have  had  a  hole  in  the  middle  for  the  head,  with 
u  hem  or  binding  round  the  hole  "  as  it  were  the 
'mouth'  of  an  habo-geori"  (N^np),  to  prevent  the  stuff 
from  tearing  (Exod.  xxviii,  32).  The  English  "haber- 
geon" was  the  diminutive  of  the  "hauberk,"  and  was 
a  quilted  shirt  or  doublet  put  on  over  the  head.— Smith. 
See  Habergeon. 

In  its  metaphorical  application,  as  the  breastplate  is 
a  piece  of  defensive  armor  to  protect  the  heart,  so  the 
breastplate  of  God  is  righteousness,  which  renders  his 
whole  conduct  unassailable  to  any  accusation  (Isa.  lix, 
17).  Christians  are  exhorted  to  take  to  themselves 
"the  breastplate  of  righteousness"  (Eph.  vi,  14),  and 
"the  breastplate  of  faith  and  love"  (1  Thess.  v,  8). 
Being  clothed  with  these  graces,  the}'  will  be  able  to 
resist  their  enemies,  and  quench  all  the  hery  darts  of 
the  wicked  one  ;  a  beautiful  simile. 

Brechin  (Tirechiniuni),  Scotland  (Angusshire),  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  founded  about  1150  by  David  I. 
The  cathedral  church  is  now  ruinous,  but  part  of  it  is 
still  used  for  divine  service.  The  revenues  at  the 
Reformation  amounted  to  about  £700  per  annum.  The 
Culdees  had  here  a  conventual  house,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  said  still  to  exist.  The  present  incumbent 
is  Alexander  Forbes,  D.C.L.,  consecrated  1847. 

Breck,  Robert,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Dec.  7th,  1682,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  1700.  After  preaching  on  Long  Isl- 
and, he  settled  as  pastor  in  Marlborough,  Mass.,  Oct. 
25th,  1701,  and  remained  until  his  death,  Jan.  Gth, 
1731.  He  published  an  Election  Sermon  (1728);  and 
a  sermon,  The  Dangt  r  of  Ft ill ling  away  after  a  Profes- 
sion (1728). — Sprague,  Annuls,  i,  25G. 

Breck,  Robert,  Jr.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Marlborough,  Mass.,  July  25th,  1713,  and 
graduated  from  Harvard  1730.  He  was  ordained  pas- 
tor of  a  church  in  Springfield  July  26,  1736,  and  died 
April  26,  17M.  He  published  several  occasional  ser- 
mons.— Sprague,  Annals,  i,  385. 

Breckemidge,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Cabell's  Dale,  Ky.,  July  4th,  1797. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1815,  and  was  at  once 
tutor  in  the  college  and  student  in  the  theological 
Bchool  there  from  1819  to  1821.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1822.  and  was  chaplain  to  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, Washington,  1822-28.  In  1823  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in  Lexing- 
ton, Ky. ;  removed  to  Baltimore  in  182G,  and  in  1831 
became  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  (Philadelphia).     From  1836  to 


1838  he  was  professor  of  theology  at  Princeton ;  1838 
to  1840,  secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions.  He  died  while  on  a  visit  to  his  friends  in 
Kentucky,  Aug.  4,  1841.  He  was  a  man  of  great  vig- 
or of  mind  and  force  of  will,  and  was  pre-eminent  as 
an  extempore,  preacher.  His  publications  were  few; 
among  them  are,  Controversy  with  Bishop  Hughes  (18S0) ; 
Memorial  of  Mrs.  Breckenridge  (1839). 

Breeches  is  the  uniform  rendering  in  the  Auth. 
Vers,  solely  of  the  Heb..  Q^03:^3,  miknesa'yim,  tiro 
draioers  (from  033,  to  wrap  up),  Sept.  ■7ript(jKt\fi  (so 
Ecelus.  xlv,  8)  or  ireptGictXtc,  Vulg.  femincdia,  made 
of  linen,  and  worn  by  the  Jewish  priests  to  hide  the 
parts  of  shame  while  ministering  at  the  altar  (Exod. 
xxviii,  42 ;  xxxix,  28  ;  Lev.  vi,  10  ;  xvi,  4  ;  Ezek. 
xliv,  18).  The  description  of  Josephus  (mairtpn  aval,- 
vpiotc,  Ant.  iii,  7,  1)  agrees  with  this,  making  this  ar- 
ticle (which  he  Grrecizes  fiavaxaoij)  of  sacerdotal  dress 
to  be  an  under-garment  for  the  loins  and  thighs  only. 
See  Braun,  Be  Vestitu  Sacerd.  Ilebr.  lib.  ii,  ch.  i,  p. 
345  sq.     See  Priest  ;  Attire. 

Breithaupt,  Joachim  Justus,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Nordheim  1658,  and  educated  pri- 
vately at  Helmstadt.  A  visit  to  Spener  deepened 
his  religious  convictions  and  gave  character  to  his 
whole  life.  In  1685  he  went  to  Meiningen  as  court- 
preacher  and  consistorial  councillor.  Here  his  labors 
were  eminently  useful,  and  in  1G87  he  went  to  Erfurt 
to  be  pastor  and  also  professor  of  theology  in  the  uni- 
versity. In  1691  he  removed  to  Halle  as  professor  of 
theology  in  the  new  university,  where  he  taught  in 
happy  union  with  Francke.  lie  died  March  IB,  1732. 
His  writings  include  Jnstitt.  Theologic.  lib.  ii  (Halle, 
1695,  8vo);  Be  Credendis  et  Agendis  (Halle,  1716-32, 
3  pts.  4to),  besides  minor  writings.  His  influence  all 
went  in  favor  of  vital  piety;  and  he  is  ranked  with. 
Spener  and  Francke  as  a  pietist. — Baumgarten,  Memo- 
via  Breithaupt ;  Herzog,  Real-EneyMopadie,  ii,  349. 

Bremen  QBrema),  a  free  town  of  Germany,  and 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser.     See  Germany. 

I.  Church.  History. — Originally  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  founded  by  Charlemagne  in  787,  and  suffra- 
gan to  the  metropolitan  of  Cologne  ;  but  about  850  the 
archbishopric  of  Hamburg  was  removed  hither,  the 
prelate,  Anschar,  being  driven  from  that  city  by  the 
Normans.  Hermann,  archbishop  of  Cologne,  opposed 
this  infringement  of  his  rights,  and  in  the  Council  of 
Tribur,  895,  obtained  a  decree  that  both  the  united 
churches  should  be  subject  to  him.  This  was  after- 
ward annulled  by  Pope  Sergius.  In  1284  the  city  of 
Bremen  threw  off  the  rule  of  the  archbishop  and  be- 
came a  free  city,  while  the  archbif  hep  remained  the 
sovereign  of  the  duchy  of  Bremen  (now  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Hanover),  and,  as  such,  a  prince  of  the 
German  empire.  The  united  archbishopric  became, 
under  Otho  II  and  his  successors,  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful in  German}',  and  was  loaded  with  gifts  and  priv- 
ileges. Under  Archbishop  Christopher  (1511-1558) 
the  Reformation  found  many  adherents,  and  when  the 
archbishop  opposed  it  he  was  deposed  by  the  Cathedral 
chapter  and  shut  up  in  a  convent.  His  successor, 
George  (died  1560),  joined  the  Lutheran  Church  him- 
self, and  Bremen  remained  a  Lutheran  archbishopric 
until  1648,  when  its  whole  territory  was  ceded  to  the 
Swedes,  and  the  archbishopric  suppressed. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Statistics. — The  city  of  Bremen, 
with  a  small  territory  comprising  a  space  of  1(16  square 
miles,  had  a  population,  in  1864,  of  104,091  souls,  the 
large  majority  of  which  arc  Lutherans,  about  15,000  Re- 
formed, 2000  Roman  Catholics,  100  Jews.  The  Meth- 
odist Church  had,  in  1865,  within  the  territory  of  Bre- 
men about  433  members.  Only  recently  the  members 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  have  received  equal  rights  with 
the  Reformed,  who  formerly,  though  in  a  minority, 
were  alone  eligible  to  public  offices.  The  senate  of  the 
republic  exercises  the  supreme  episcopal  rights  through 


BRENTIUS 


885 


BRETHREN 


a  commission,  and  only  occasionally  delegates  clergy- 
men for  this  purpose.  There  are  six  Lutheran  clergy- 
men in  the  city  and  eleven  in  the  country.  The  minis- 
ters in  the  city  constitute  the  Venerandum  Ministerium, 
•which  body  has  to  examine  and  to  ordain  candidates 
for  the  ministry.  The  Roman  Catholics  are  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  Minister,  Prussia.  Brem- 
en has  a  large  number  of  religious  associations,  and 
is  the  centre  of  the  North  German  Missionary  Society. 
The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  has  established  there 
a  book  concern,  which  issues  3  periodicals,  and  a  Mis- 
sionary Institute  for  the  training  of  German  Metho- 
dist preachers.  Bremen  is  thus  the  centre  of  the  nour- 
ishing Methodist  missions  in  Germany. — Reports  of 
Miss.  Soc.  qfMeth.  Ep.  Ch. 

Brentius,  Andreas.     See  Altiiamer. 

Brentius  or  Brenz,  Johann,  one  of  the  German 
reformers,  was  born  at  Weil,  in  Suabia,  June  24, 1499. 
He  received  his  education  at  Heidelberg,  and  was  led 
by  the  perusal  of  Luther's  writings,  and  especially  by 
the  impression  made  on  him  by  Luther  at  the  Heidel- 
berg disputation  of  1518,  to  espouse  the  Reformation. 
He  became  a  very  popular  preacher,  and  was  appoint- 
ed pastor  at  Halle  in  his  twenty-third  year.  In  1530 
he  attended  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.  The  emperor 
Charles  V  having  declared  that  he  would  destroy  the 
city  of  Halle  if  Brentius  were  not  given  up  to  him,  he 
was  compelled  to  seek  safety  in  flight.  He  found  an 
asylum  with  duke  Ulrich  of  Wurtemberg  and  his  suc- 
cessor Christopher  at  Stuttgard,  and  at  the  request  of 
the  latter  drew  up  the  Confession  of  Wurtemberg.  In 
1557  he  attended  the  conferences  at  Worms,  and  died 
at  Stuttgard,  Sept.  11, 1570.  He  taught  the  doctrine 
of  the  ubiquity  of  the  bod}'  of  our  Lord  ;  hence  his  fol- 
lowers were  called  Ubiquitarians  (q.  v.).  His  opinions, 
in  the  main,  agreed  with  those  of  Luther.  Brenz  was 
a  man  of  immense  capacity  for  work,  as  preacher,  re- 
former, administrator,  and  author.  His  works  were 
printed  at  Tubingen  in  1576-1590  (8  vols,  fol.),  and 
again  at  Amsterdam  (1666).  They  consist  chiefly  of 
commentaries  on  the  O.  and  N.  T.  in  the  form  of  lec- 
tures or  sermons,  and  are  still  held  in  great  esteem. 
See  Hartmann  and  Jager,  Joh.  Brentz  (Hamb.  1840-42, 
2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Hartmann,  Joh.  Brenz.  Leben  u.  ausg. 
Schriften  (Elberfeld.  18G2)  ;  D'Aubigne,  Hist,  of  lief. 
ormation,  i,  11 ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  iv,  pt.  ii,  §  37. 

Brenton,  Samuel,  was  born  in  Gallatin  county, 
Ky.,  in  1810.  He  was  converted  in  early  life,  and 
was  admitted  into  the  Illinois  Conference  of  the  M.  E. 
Church  in  1830.  In  1834  he  located  because  of  ill 
health,  and  continued  as  a  local  preacher  until  1841, 
during  which  time  he  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  In  1841,  his  health  having  been  restored, 
he  returned  to  the  itinerant  ministry,  and  in  1848  was 
a  delegate  to  the  General  Conference.  During  this 
year  he  lost  the  use  of  the  right  side  of  his  body  by 
palsy,  resigned  his  work,  and  was  appointed  register 
of  the  land-oflice  at  Fort  Wayne.  In  1851  he  was 
elected  representative  in  Congress  from  the  tenth  Con- 
gressional district  of  Indiana,  and  served  two  sessions  ; 
in  1853  elected  president  of  the  Fort  Wayne  College, 
and  served  with  great  acceptability;  in  1854  elected 
again  to  Congress,  and  served  two  sessions;  and  in 
185(5  was  again  re-elected  to  Congress.  Mr.  Brenton 
died  on  the  29th  of  March,  1857.— Minutes  of  Confer- 
ences, vi,  249. 

Brethren  (adeXfoi),  one  of  the  common  appella- 
tions of  Christians.  It  occurs  frequently  in  the  N. 
T.,  and  was  current  at  the  date  of  the  apostolical  epis- 
tles. Subsequently  it  became  a  title  of  respect  and 
affection  by  which  the  baptized,  or  faithful,  or  complete 
members  of  the  Church  were  distinguished  from  the 
catechumens.  They  were  accosted  or  described  by 
other  titles,  such  as  "the  enlightened,"  "  the  initiated," 
"the  perfect,"  "elect,"  "beloved,"  "sons  of  God," 
"  beloved  in  Christ,"  etc.     See  Brother. 


Brethren,  Bohemian.     See  Bohemia. 

Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  (Fratrei  Vita 

Communis),  a  religious  fraternity  which  arose  about 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  was  formed  by 
Gerard  de  Groot  at  Deventer  (1374  ?),  and  began  to 
flourish  after  it  had  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance.  It  was  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
lettered  brethren,  or  clerks,  and  the  illiterate :  they 
lived  in  separate  habitations,  but  maintained  the  closest 
fraternal  union.  The  former  devoted  themselves  to 
preaching,  visiting  the  sick,  circulating  books  and 
tracts,  etc.,  and  the  education  of  youth,  while  the  lat- 
ter were  employed  in  manual  labor  and  the  mechanical 
arts.  They  lived  under  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and 
were  eminently  useful  in  promoting  the  cause  of  relig- 
ion and  education.  Thomas  a.  Kempis  was  one  of  the 
luminaries  of  the  order.  On  the  death  of  Gerard,  his 
disciple  Florentius  Radewins  became  head  of  the  order 
(1384).  More  active  than  Gerard,  he  spread  the  order 
widely,  founding  a  central  cloister,  or  monastery  of 
regular  canons,  at  Windisheim,  another  in  St.  Agnes- 
berg,  near  Zwoll,  to  which  Kempis  belonged,  and  ad- 
ditional ones  at  Deventer.  He  was  greatly  assisted  1  >y 
Zerbol-t  (died  1398),  who  labored  earnestly  to  introduce 
the  use  of  the  vernacular  Bible  among  the  common 
people,  and  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue  instead  of 
Latin  in  the  prayers.  The  theory  of  this  community 
was  that  unity  should  be  sought  rather  in  the  inward 
spirit  than  in  outward  statutes.  Vows  were  not  bind- 
ing for  life.  Property  was  surrendered,  not  on  com- 
pulsion, but  voluntarily.  All  the  brother-houses  were 
kept  in  communion  with  each  other,  and  the  heads  of 
houses  met  annually  for  consultation.  Particulars  of 
their  rule,  domestic  arrangements,  etc.,  may  be  found 
in  Dllmann,  Reformers  before  the  Reform' itiav,  ii,  si) 
sq.  Luther  and  Melancthon  spoke  with  approval  and 
sympathy  of  the  brotherhood  in  their  time.  Its  flour- 
ishing period  extended  from  1400  to  1500.  Most  of 
their  houses  were  built  between  1425  and  1451,  and 
the}'  had,  in  all,  some  thirty  to  fifty  establishments. 
During  the  sixteenth  century  the  Reformation  broke 
them  down,  in  common  with  other  monkish  establish- 
ments, or,  rather,  they  crumbled  to  pieces  as  needless 
amid  the  new  developments  of  the  age.  By  the  mid- 
dle of  the  seventeenth  century  the  brotherhood  was 
ended.  Man}'  of  the  brothers  became  Protestants,  the 
rest  were  absorbed  by  the  Roman  orders,  especially  the 
Jesuits. — Ullmann,  Reformers  before  the  Reformation, 
ii,  57,  184;  Bohringer,  Kirchen-fleschichte  in  Biograph- 
ien,  vol.  ii,  pt.  iii ;  Delprat,  (/.  Briiderschaft  d.  gemein- 
samen  Lebens  (Leipz.  1840)  ;  Bibl.  Sacra,  ii,  201. 

Brethren  of  the   Free   Spirit,  a  fraternity 

which  sprung  up  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  which 
gained  many  adherents  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany. 
They  took  their  designation  from  the  words  of  St.  Paul, 
Rom.  viii,  2,  14,  and  maintained  that  the  true  children 
of  God  were  invested  with  perfect  freedom  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  law.  In  their  principles  they  were 
Pantheists,  and  in  practice  the}-  were  enthusiasts.  In 
their  aspect,  dress,  and  mode  of  life  they  resembled  the 
Beghards,  and  were  sometimes  called  after  them.  In 
their  extreme  pantheistical  creed  they  held  that  every 
thing  (even  formalities)  is  God ;  that  rational  souls 
are  a  portion  of  God  ;  that  sin  lias  separated  man 
from  God,  but  by  the  power  of  contemplation  man  is 
reunited  to  the  Deity,  and  acquires  thereby  a  glorious 
and  sublime  liberty,  both  from  sinful  lusts,  ami  from 
the  common  instincts  of  nature.  Hence  that  a  person 
thus  absorbed  in  the  abyss  of  Deity  is  the  son  of  God 
in  the  same  sense  and  manner  that  Christ  was,  ami 
freed  from  the  obligation  of  all  laws,  human  and  di- 
vine. They  treated  with  contempt  Christian  ordi- 
nances, and  all  external  acts  of  religion,  as  unsuitable 
to  the  state  of  perfection  to  which  they  had  arrived. 
From  1300  to  1350  they  were  found  largely  on  the 
Rhine  from  Cologne  to  Strasburg.     In  Brussels  they 


BRETHREN 


88G 


BREVIARY 


appeared  as  homines  mtelligentue.  Many  edicts  were 
published  against  them  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  se- 
verities which  they  suffered,  they  continued  till  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  They  were  called 
by  several  names,  such  as  Schwestriones,  Picards, 
Adamites,  and  Turlujuns.  Gieseler  traces  the  sect  to 
Amalric  of  Bena  (q.  v.)  ;  Mosheim  (De  Beghardis)  as- 
signs their  origin  to  Italy.— Mosheint,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  351, 
304  :  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist.  per.  iii,  div.  iii,  §  87. 
Brethren,  Plymouth.  See  Plymouth. 
Brethren,  United,  or  Brethren  of  the  Law 
of  Christ.     See  Moravians. 

Erethren,  United  in  Christ  {German  Method- 
ists).    See  United  Brethren  in  Christ. 

Brethren,  White,  the  followers  of  an  unknown 
1  :ader,  said  by  some  writers  to  be  from  Scotland,  who 
appeared  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Alps  about  the 
year  1399,  and  proclaimed  himself  commissioned  to 
preach  a  new  crusade.  He  named  his  followers  Peni- 
tents, but  from  their  white  dresses  the}'  were  more  com- 
monly called  Fratres  Albati,  or  White  Brothers,  or 
White  Penitents  (Ital.  Bianchi).  Boniface  IX,  suspect- 
ing the  leader  of  insidious  designs,  caused  him  to  be 
apprehended  and  committed  to  the  flames,  upon  which 
bis  followers  dispersed,  and  the  sect  became  extin- 
guished.—Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  4G7. 

Bretschneider,  Charles  Gottlieb,  a  German 
rationalistic  divine,  was  born  in  Gersdorf,  Feb.  11, 177G, 
and  educated  at  Chemnitz  and  the  University  of  Leip- 
zig. He  was  designed  for  the  Church  at  an  early  age, 
but  he  inclined  more  to  belles-lettres,  and  showed  a 
strong  sceptical  turn  at  the  university.  In  1807  he 
became  pastor  at  Schneeburg,  in  1808  superintendent 
in  Annaberg.  In  1812  he  disputed  on  Capita  theolo- 
r/i.i  JuJiiurum  digmaticce,  and  from  this  time  devoted 
himself  more  completely  to  theology.  In  1810  he  was 
made  general  superintendent  at  Gotha,  which  office  he 
held  till  his  death,  Jan.  22,  1848.  His  activity  as  a 
writer  was  very  great,  and  covered  the  fields  of  exe- 
gesis, text  of  Scripture,  dogmatics,  and  history.  From 
1824  lie  shared  in  the  editorship  of  the  Theol.  Litera- 
turblatt  (Darmstadt),  and  contributed  largely  to  other 
periodicals.  His  most  important  publications  are  the 
Corpus  Reformatorum,  a  collection  of  the  writings  of 
the  German  Reformers,  continued  after  his  death  by 
Bindseil  (the  first  28  vols.,  Halle,  1834-1800,  comprise 
the  works  of  Melancthon)  : — Lexici  in  V.  T.,  max.  a/mc- 
rnp.  spirit,  ilium  {  Leips.  1805,  8vo)  : — De  Evang.  ct  Epist. 
.Ink, inn.  origine  <  t  indole  (Leips.  1820, 8vo) : — Hist.  Doom. 
.  I  us/i  (jimxj  des  N.  T.,  etc.  (Leips.  1806,  8vo)  : — Lexicon 
Manuale  Gr.  Lat.  in  N.  T.  (1824,  8vo;  best  ed.  Leips. 
1841,  8vo): — Systemat.  Entwickelung  alter  i.  d.  Dogm. 
vorhmmenden  Beariffe  n.  d.  Syrrib.  Bi'aher  d.  LiAher. 
Kircke  (Leips.  1805,  1819,  1825,  1841,  8vo) :— Drgm. 
u.  Mnrid  d.  apocryph.  Schrift.  d.  A.  T.  (Leips.  1805, 
6vd):—Dogmatik  it.  Evang.  Lath.  Kirche  (Leips.  4th 
cd.  2  vols.  8vo,  1838) : — Gnmdlage  d.  Evang.  Pktis- 
mus  (Leips.  1833,  8vo): — V.  Sinmnismus  (Leips.  1852, 
Bvo  I.  In  all  the.  theological  controversies  of  his  stormy 
took  large  part.  His  position  in  theology  is 
that  of  rational  svpernaiuralism,  admitting  revelation, 
yet  subjecting  it  to  the  supremacy  of  reason.  His 
writings,  though  generally  evincing  candor,  industry, 
and  great  acuteness,  are  devoid  of  religious  life.  Ills 
autobiography,  published  by  his  son  Horst  (Gotha.  1851, 
8vo),  i-  translated,  in  part,  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra, 
vols,  ix,  x.  A  transl.  of  his  Views  of  Schleiermacher's 
Theology  (Bibl.  Sacra,  -Lily,  1853)  gives  a  good  speci- 
men of  his  critical  talent. 

Brett,  Philip  Milledoler,  D.D.,  a  divine  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church,  was  born  in  New  York.  July 
13,  1817,  graduated  at  Rutgers'  College,  and  studied 
theology  in  the  theological  seminary  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, lie  was  licensed  by  the  New  York  Classis  in 
1838,  ordained  in  the  same  year,  and  installed  as  pas- 


tor of  the  church  at  Nyaek,  N.  Y.  In  1842  he  supplied 
the  church  at  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  iu  184G 
he  became  pastor  at  Mt.  Pleasant  Church,  N.  Y.,  and 
in  1851  he  removed  to  Tompkinsville,  L.  I.,  where  he 
died,  Jan.  14,  I860,  of  an  internal  cancer.  He  was  a 
man  of  ardent  piety,  and  affectionate  in  his  intercourse 
with  his  people.  He  exerted  a  good  influence  in  St. 
Thomas,  and  his  memory  is  fondly  cherished  in  his  de- 
nomination. He  was  the  author  of  a  volume  of  ser- 
mons. 

Brett,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  a  Nonjuror,  was  born  at 
Bettishanger,  Kent,  1G07,  graduated  at  Corpus  Christi, 
Cambridge,  1689,  and  received  deacon's  orders  in  the 
following  year.  In  1703  he  became  rector  of  Bettis- 
hanger, and  two  years  after  of  Rucking.  After  this 
period  he  began  to  entertain  scruples  of  the  lawfulness 
of  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary ;  and 
he  entered  the  communion  of  the  Nonjurors  under 
Bishop  Ilickes,  July  1,  1715.  He  lived  in  obscurity 
after  this,  and  died  March  5,  1743.  He  was  learned 
and  indefatigable  ;  of  his  numerous  writings  we  men- 
tion, An  Account  of  Church  Government  and  Governors 
(Lond.  1707,  8vo ;  best  ed.  1710,  8vo)  :— The  Honor  of 
the  Christian  Priesthood  (new  ed.  Oxf.  1838)  : — Various 
Works  on  Lay  Baptism: — Six  Sermons  (1715): — The 
Independency  of  the  Church  upon  the  State  as  to  its  Spirit- 
ual Powers  (Lond.  1717,  8vo): — The  Divine,  Bight  of 
Episcopacy  (1718,  2d  ed.  1728,  8vo) :—  A  Collection  of 
and  Dissertation  on  the  Principal  Liturgies  used  in  the 
Christian  Church  (1720,  8vo). — New  Gen.  Biog.  Diet,  v, 
44;  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  iii,  92-115. 

Breviary  (Breviariuiri),  the  daily  service-book  of 
the  priests  of  the  Roman  Church.  It  was  originally 
called  the  Cursus.  The  origin  of  the  name  Breviary 
is  not  very  certain ;  the  most  likely  derivation  is  from 
brevis,  denoting  that  the  service-book  called  Breviary 
was  originally  an  abridged  one,  as  contrasted  with 
Plenarium  officium.  It  contains  pravers  for  Matins, 
Lauds  (3  A.M.),  Prime  (6  A.M.),  Tierce,  Sext  (all  be- 
fore 12  M.),  Nones,  Vespers  (P.M.),  and  Compline  (be- 
fore going  to  sleep).  Kocturn  was  properly  a  night 
service.  The  custom  of  saying  prayers  at  these  dif- 
ferent hours  is  very  ancient.  The  author  of  the  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions  directs  that  prayer  should  be  made 
"  Mane,  Tertiei,  Sexta,  Nona,  Vesjwe,  atq.  ad  galli  can- 
turn"  (Const.  8).  Basil  speaks  of  seven  distinct  ap- 
pointed hours  of  prayer,  and  Tertullian  mentions 
Tierce,  Sext,  and  None,  which  he  calls  apostolical  hours 
of  prayer  (lie  Jejuniis,  c.  11).  Cyprian  also  speaks  of 
-Ilnrir  initie/iiitus  obserratee  orandi"  (De  Orat.  Domin.\ 
Gregory  VII  (1074)  compiled  the  first  Breviary  which 
came  into  general  use.  As  most  churches  possessed 
compilations  of  the  offices  severally  in  use  among  them, 
there  are  various  Breviaries  differing  one  from  another. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  amend  the  Breviary  at 
different  times,  and  so  there  are  many  differences 
among  them  in  different  dioceses.  That  of  Rome, 
however  (Bririariuin  Bimittniini),  is  most  widely  circu- 
lated, and  of  late  has  been  introduced  into  many  dio- 
ceses which  long  resisted  it.  It  consists  of  four  parts : 
the  Psul/eriuni,  or  psalms  for  the  canonical  hours  ;  Pro- 
pria m  de  Tempore,  for  Advent  and  other  festivals  com- 
memorative of  Christ ;  Proprium  de  Sanctis,  for  saints' 
davs ;  Commune  Sanctorum,  for  festivals  to  which  no 
special  hours  of  prayer  are  assigned.  Besides  psalms, 
lessons,  homilies,  and  prayers,  it  contains  many  foolish 
legends  and  absurd  stories  about  saints,  which  are 
cause  of  scandal  to  the  better  sort  of  Romanists.  In 
fact,  a  proverb  in  use  among  scholars  of  the  Roman 
( 'hurch  says  of  a  liar,  Mentitnr  sicut  secundus  nocturnus. 
As  to  the  dutj'  of  using  the  Breviary,  it  was  at  first  en- 
joined on  both  clergy  and  laity;  but,  by  degrees,  the 
obligation  was  reduced  to  the  clergy  only,  who  are  re- 
quired, under  penalty  of  mortal  sin  and  ecclesiastical 
censures,  to  recite  it  at  home  when  they  can  not  attend 
in  public  (Cone.   Trid.  sess.  xxiv,  cap.  12).     In  the 


BREVINT 


837 


BRICK 


fourteenth  century  there  was  a  reserve  granted  in  fa- 
vor of  bishops,  who  were  allowed,  on  particular  occa- 
sions, to  pass  three  days  without  rehearsing  the  Brevi- 
ary. One  of  the  best  editions  of  the  Breviarium  Ro- 
manuni  is  that  of  Mechlin,  1836  (4  vols.  12mo).  For  a 
full  account  of  its  history  and  contents,  see  Lewis,  Bi- 
ble, Missal,  and  Breviary  (Edinb.  1853,  2  vols.  8vo). 

The  Breviary  of  the  Greeks,  which  they  call  by  the 
name  ilpoXoyiov  (horologiuni),  dial,  is  the  same  in  al- 
most all  the  churches  and  monasteries  which  follow  the 
Greek  rites.  The  Greeks  divide  the  Psalter  into  twen- 
ty parts,  called  KaQivfiara  (sedilla),  seats,  because  they 
are  a  kind  of  pauses  or  rest's.  In  general,  the  Greek 
Breviary  consists  of  two  parts,  the  one  containing  the 
office  for  the  evening,  the  other  that  for  the  morning, 
divided  into  matins,  lauds,  first,  third,  sixth,  ninth, 
•vespers,  and  the  compline ;  that  is,  of  seven  different 
hours,  on  account  of  that  saying  of  David,  "Seven 
times  in  the  day  will  I  praise  Thee."  The  compline  is 
the  last  office  at  night,  by  which  the  work  of  the  day 
is  complete  (Fr.  compline,  Lat.  completinum). — Bergier, 
s.  v.  Office  Divin;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccl.  bk.  xiii,  ch. 
ix,  §  8 ;  Procter,  On  Common  Prayer,  p.  11.  See  Lit- 
urgy. 

Brevint,  Daniel,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Jersey  in 
1G16,  and  studied  first  at  Saumur,  and  afterward  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  became  a  fellow  of  Jesus  College  1G38. 
Being  ejected  for  refusing  the  Covenant,  he  went  to 
France,  and  was  employed  in  the  negotiations  for  con- 
ciliating the  members  of  the  Church  of  Pome  and  Prot- 
estants. After  the  Restoration,  he  became  prebendary 
of  Durham  1661,  and  dean  of  Lincoln  1681.  He  died 
in  1695.  Brevint  was  a  learned  divine,  especially  in 
the  Romish  controversy.  He  w rote  Missale  Romano- 
rum,  or  the  Depth  and  Misery  of  the  Roman  Mass  laid 
open  (Oxford,  1672,  8vo)  : — The  Christian  Sacrament  and 
Sacrifice  (1672);  both  these  are  reprinted  under  the 
title  Brevint  on  the  Mass  (Oxford,  1838,  8vo)  -.—Ecclesice 
Prim.  Sacramentum  et  Sacrifirium  a  pnntijiciis  corrup- 
telis,  etc.  .  .  .  liberum.  Waterland  (Works,  viii,  167) 
speaks  in  the  highest  terms  of  Brevint. 

Bribe  ("iniy,  shochad',  a  present,  i.  e.  gift  or  re- 
ward, as  often  rendered,  especially  in  the  corrupt  sense, 
a  "  bribe  ;"  also  "133,  ko'pher,  a  ransom  or  satisfaction, 
as  generally  rendered,  once  "bribe,"  1  Sam.  xii,  3),  a 
valuable  consideration  given  or  taken  for  perverting 
justice  ;  a  frequent  practice  in  the  East,  both  by  judge 
and  witnesses.     See  Gift. 

Brick  (""133,?,  lebenah',  so  called  from  the  whitish 
c\a.y  of  which  bricks  arc  made,  as  described  by  Vitrnv. 
ii,  3;  rendered  "tile"  in  Ezek.  iv,  1;  hence  the  de- 
nominative verb  "|3b,  laban ,  to  make  brick,  Gen.  xi, 
5  ;  Exod.  v,  7,  11).  Bricks  compacted  with  straw  ami 
dried  in  the  sun  are  those  which  are  chiefly  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures.  Of  such  bricks  the  Tower  of  Babel 
was  doubtless  composed  (Gen.  xi,  3),  and  the  making 
of  such  formed  the  chief  labor  of  the  Israelites  when 
bondsmen  in  Egypt  (Exod.  i,  13,  14). 

1.  Babylonian. — Herodotus  (i,  179),  describing  the 
mode  of  building  the  walls  of  Babylon,  says  that  the 
clay  dug  out  of  the  ditch  was  made  into  bricks  as  soon 
as  it  was  carried  up,  and  burnt  in  the  kilns,  Kafiivoioi. 
The  bricks  were  cemented  with  hot  bitumen  (atxpak- 
roe),  and  at  every  thirtieth  row  crates  of  reeds  were 
stuffed  in.  This  account  agrees  with  the  history  of 
the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Confusion,  in  which  the 
builders  used  bricks  instead  of  stone,  and  slime  (TCH  ; 
aatpdkroc')  for  mortar  (Gen.  xi,  3;  Joseph.  Ant.  i,  4, 
3).  In  the  alluvial  plain  of  Assyria,  both  the  mate- 
rial for  bricks  and  tho  cement,  which  bubbles  up  from 
the  ground,  and  is  collected  and  exported  by  the  Arabs, 
were  close  at  hand  for  building  purposes ;  but  the  Baby- 
Ionian  bricks  were  more  commonly  burned  in  kilns 
than  those  used  at  Nineveh,  which  are  chiefly  sun- 
dried,  like  the  Egyptian.     Xcnophon  mentions  a  wall 


called  the  wall  of  Media,  not  far  from  Babylon,  made 
of  burned  bricks  set  in  bitumen,  20  feet  wide  and  100 
feet  high  ;  also  another  wall  of  brick  50  feet  wide 
(Diod.  ii,  7,  8,  12;  Xen.  A  nub.  ii,  4,  12;  iii,  4,  11; 
Nah.  iii,  14  ;  Layard,  Nineveh,  ii,  46,  252,  278).  While 
it  is  needless  to  inquire  to  what  place  or  to  whom 
the  actual  invention  of  brickmaking  is  to  be  ascribed, 
there  is  perhaps  no  place  in  the  world  more  favora- 
ble for  the  process,  none  in  which  the  remains  of  orig- 
inal brick  structures  have  been  more  largely  used  in 
later  times  for  building  purposes.  The  Babylonian 
bricks  are  usually  from  12  to  13  in.  square,  and  3|  in. 
thick.  (American  bricks  are  usually  8  in.  long,  3|  to 
4  wide,  and  2i  thick.)  They  most  of  them  bear  the 
name  inscribed  in  cuneiform  character  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, whose  buildings,  no  doubt,  replaced  those  of 
an  earlier  age  (Layard,  Xin.  and  Baby!,  p.  505,  531). 
They  thus  have  more  of  the  character  of  tiles  (Ezek. 


Ancient  Babylonian  Brick,  with  Cuneiform  Inscriptions. 

iv,  1).  They  were  sometimes  glazed  and  enamelled 
with  patterns  of  various  colors.  Semiramis  is  said  by 
Diodorus  to  have  overlaid  some  of  her  towers  with  sur- 
faces of  enamelled  brick  bearing  elaborate  designs  (l)i- 
odor.  ii,  8).  Enamelled  bricks  have  been  found  at  Nim- 
roud  (Layard,  ii,  312).  Pliny  (vii,  56)  says  that  the 
Babylonians  used  to  record  their  astronomical  observa- 
tions on  tiles  (coctilibus  laterculis).  He  also,  as  well 
as  Yitruvius,  describes  the  process  of  making  bricks  at 
Rome.  There  were  three  sizes :  (a),  li  ft.  long,  1  ft. 
broad;  (b),  4  (Greek)  palms  long,  12.135  in.;  (c),  5 
palms  long,  15.16875  in.;  the  breadth  of  these  latter 
two  the  same.  He  says  the  Greeks  preferred  brick 
walls  in  general  to  stone  (xxxv,  14;  Vitruv.  ii,  3,  8). 
Bricks  of  more  than  3  palms  length,  and  of  less  than 
IJr  palm,  are  mentioned  by  the  Talmudists  (Baba  Me- 
zia,  c  x,  fol.  1176;  Baba  Baihra,  i,  '■'■  a).     See  Tilk. 

2.  Egyptian. — The  use  of  crude  brick,  baked  in  the 
sun,  was  universal  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  both  for 
public  and  private  buildings;  and  the  brick-field  gave 
abundant  occupation  to  numerous  laborers  throughout 
the  country.  These  simple  materials  were  found  to 
be  particularly  suited  to  the  climate,  and  the  ease,  ra- 
pidity, and  cheapness  with  which  they  were  made  af- 
forded additional  recommendations.  The  Israelites, 
in  common  with  other  captives,  were  employed  by  the 
Egyptian  monarchs  in  making  bricks  and  in  building 


BRICK 


BRICK 


yiiM/j 


p^tutyK 


12  11        10  e  0 

G 


joins 


5  4  3 

Foreign  Captives  employed  in  making  Bricks  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
1,  Man  returning  after  carrying  the  bricks;  3,  C,  Taskmasters;  4,  5,  Men  carrying  bricks;  7,  9,  12,  13,  Digging  and  mixing 
the  clay  or  mud;  8,  10,  Making  bricks  with  a  wooden  mould,  d, /;  14,  15,  Fetching  water  from  the  tank,  h.     At  e  the 
bricks  (tobi)  are  said  to  be  made  at  Thebes. 


(Exod.  i,  14;  v,  7).  Kiln-bricks  were  not  generally 
used  in  Egypt,  but  were  dried  in  the  sun,  and  even 
without  straw  are  as  firm  as  when  first  put  up  in  the 
reigns  of  the  Amunophs  and  Thotmes  whose  names 
they  bear.  The  usual  dimensions  vary  from  20  in.  or 
17  in.  to  14  J  in.  long ;  8|  in.  to  6|  in.  wide ;  and  7  in.  to 
4h  in.  thick.  When  made  of  the  Nile  mud  or  alluvial 
deposit,  they  required  (as  they  still  require)  straw  to 
prevent  cricking ;  but  those  formed  of  clay  taken  from 
the  torrent  beds  on  the  edge  of  the  desert  held  together 
without  straw ;  and  crude  brick  walls  had  frequently 
the  additional  security  of  a  layer  of  reeds  and  sticks, 
placed  at  intervals  to  act  as  binders  (Wilkinson,  ii,  194, 
abridgm. ;  Birch,  Ancient  Pottery,  i,  14  ;  comp.  Herod, 
i,  179).  B  iked  bricks,  however,  were  used,  chiefly  in 
places  in  contact  with  water.  The}'  are  smaller  than 
the  sun-dried  bricks  (Birch,  i,  23).  A  brick-kiln  is 
mentioned  as  in  Egypt  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (xliii, 
9).  A  brick  pyramid  is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (ii, 
1:30)  as  the  work  of  King  Asychis.  Sesostris  (ii,  138) 
is  said  to  have  employed  his  captives  in  building. 
Numerous  remains  of  buildings  of  various  kinds  exist, 
constructed  of  sun-dried  bricks,  of  which  many  speci- 
mens are  to  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum  with  in- 
scriptions indicating  their  date  and  purpose  (Birch,  i, 
11,  17).  Among  the  paintings  at  Thebes,  one  on  the 
tomb  of  Rckshara,  an  officer  of  the  court  of  Thotmes 
III  (B.C.  cir.  1100),  represents  the  enforced  labors  in 
brick-making  of  captives,  who  arc  distinguished  from 
the  natives  by  the  color  in  which  they  arc  drawn. 
Watching  over  the  laborers  arc  "task-masters,"  who, 
armed  with  sticks,  arc  receiving  the  "tale  of  bricks" 
and  urging  <>n  the  work.  The  processes  of  digging  out 
the  cla\-.  of  moulding,  and  of  arranging,  arc  all  duly 
represented  ;  and,  though  the  laborers  cannot  be  deter- 
mined to  I"'  Jews,  yet  the  similarity  of  employment  il- 
lustrates the  Bible    history  in  a   remarkable   degree 


(Wilkinson,  ii,  197;  Birch,  i,  19;  see  Aristoph.  Av. 
1133,  AlyvnTiog  ir\n/6o(p6pog  ;  Exod.  v,  17,  18).  En- 
closures of  gardens  or  granaries,  sacred  circuits  encom- 
passing the  courts  of  temples,  walls  of  fortifications 
and  towns,  dwelling-houses  and  tombs,  in  short,  all 
but  the  temples  themselves,  were  of  crude  brick ;  and 
ro  great  was  the  demand  that  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment, observing  the  profit  which  would  accrue  from  a 
monopoly  of  them,  undertook  to  supply  the  public  at  a 
moderate  price,  thus  preventing  all  unauthorized  per- 
sons from  engaging  in  the  manufacture.  And  in  or- 
der the  more  effectually  to  obtain  this  end,  the  seal  of 
the  king  or  of  some  privileged  person  was  stamped 
upon  the  bricks  at  the  time  they  were  made.  This 
fact,  though  not  positively  mentioned  by  any  ancient 
author,  is  inferred  from  finding  bricks  so  marked  both 
in  public  and  private  buildings  ;  some  having  the  ovals 
of  a  king,  and  some  the  name  and  titles  of  a  priest,  or 
other  influential  person  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  these 
which  bear  no  characters  belonged  to  individuals  who 
had  obtained  a  license  or  permission  from  the  govern- 
ment to  fabricate  them  for  their  own  consumption. 
The  employment  of  numerous  captives  who  worked  as 
slaves  enabled  the  government  to  sell  the  bricks  at  a 
lower  price  than  those  who  had  recourse  solely  to  free 
labor ;  so  that,  without  the  necessity  of  a  prohibition, 
thej'  speedily  became  an  exclusive  manufacture ;  and 
we  find  that,  independent  of  native  laborers,  a  great 
many  foreigners  were  constantly  engaged  in  the  brick- 
fields at  Thebes  and  other  parts  of  Egypt.  The  Jews, 
of  course,  were  not  excluded  from  this  drudgery  ;  and, 
like  the  captives  detained  in  the  Thebaid,  they  were 
condemned  to  the  same  labor  in  Lower  Egypt.  They 
erected  granaries,  treasure-cities,  and  other  public 
buildings  for  the  Egyptian  monarch :  the  materials 
used  in  their  construction  were  the  work  of  their  hands  ; 
and  the  constant  employment  of  brick-makers  may  be 


BRICK  8! 

accounted  for  by  the  extensive  supply  required  and 
kept  by  the  government  for  sale  (Wilkinson's  Ancient 
Egyptians,  ii,  97,  98).     See  Bondage. 

Captive  foreigners  being  thus  found  engaged  in 
brick-making,  Biblical  illustrators  (c.  g.  Hawkes, 
Egypt  and  its  Monuments,  p.  225  sq.),  with  their  usual 
alacrity,  jumped  to  the  conclusion  that  these  captive 
foreigners  were  Jews,  and  that  the  scenes  represented 
were  those  of  their  actual  operations  in  Egypt.  Sir  J. 
G.  Wilkinson  satisfactorily  disposes  of  this  inference 
by  the  following  remark :  "  To  meet  with  Hebrews  in 
the  sculptures  cannot  reasonably  be  expected,  since 
the  remains  in  that  part  of  Egypt  where  they  lived 
have  not  been  preserved ;  but  it  is  curious  to  discover 
other  foreign  captives  occupied  in  the  same  manner, 
and  overlooked  by  similar  'task-masters,'  and  per- 
forming the  very  same  labors  as  the  Israelites  described 
in  the  Bible ;  and  no  one  can  look  at  the  paintings  of 
Thebes  representing  brick-makers  without  a  feeling 

of  the  highest  interest It  is  scarcely  fair  to 

argue  that,  because  the  Jews  made  bricks,  and  the 
persons  here  introduced  are  so  engaged,  they  must 
necessarily  be  Jews,  since  the  Egyptians  and  their 
captives  are  constantly  required  to  perform  the  same 
task ;  and  the  great  quantity  made  at  all  times  may 
be  justly  inferred  from  the  number  of  buildings  which 
still  remain  constructed  of  these  materials ;  but  it  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  more  bricks  bearing  the  name  of 
Thotmes  III  (who  is  supposed  [by  some]  to  have  been 
the  king  at  the  time  of  the  Erode)  hare  been  discovered 
than  at  any  other  period,  owing  to  the  many  prisoners 
of  Asiatic  nations  employed  by  him,  independent  of 
his  Hebrew  captives."     See  Exode. 

The  process  of  manufacture  indicated  by  the  repre- 
sentations in  the  foregoing  cuts  does  not  materially 
differ  from  that  which  is  still  followed  in  the  same 
country.  The  clay  was  brought  in  baskets  from  the 
Nile,  thrown  into  a  heap,  thoroughly  saturated  with 
water,  and  worked  up  to  a  proper  temper  by  the  feet 
of  the  laborers.  And  here  it  is  observable  that  the 
watering  and  tempering  of  the  clay  is  performed  en- 
tirely by  the  light-colored  laborers,  who  are  the  cap- 
tives, the  Egyptians  being  always  painted  red.  This 
labor  in  such  a  climate  must  have  been  very  fatiguing 
and  unwholesome,  and  it  consequently  appears  to  have 
been  shunned  by  the  native  Egyptians.  There  is  an 
allusion  to  the  severity  of  this  labor  in  Nahuni  iii,  14, 
15.  The  clay,  when  tempered,  was  cut  by  an  instru- 
ment somewhat  resembling  the  agricultural  hoe,  and 
moulded  in  an  oblong  trough;  the  bricks  were  then 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  some,  from  their  color,  appear  to 
have  been  baked  or  burned,  but  no  trace  of  this  opera- 
tion has  yet  been  discovered  in  the  monuments  (Dr. 
W.  C.  Taylor's  Bible  Illustrated,  p.  82).  The  writer 
just  cited  makes  the  following  pertinent  remarks  on 
the  oijder  of  the  king  that  the  Israelites  should  collect 
the  straw  with  which  to  compact  (not  burn)  their 
bricks  :  "  It  is  evident  that  Pharaoh  did  not  require  a 
physical  impossibility,  because  the  Egyptian  reapers 
only  cut  away  the  tops  of  the  grain.  See  Agricul- 
ture. We  must  remember  that  the  tyrannical  Pha- 
raoh issued  his  orders  prohibiting  the  supply  of  straw 
about  two  months  before  the  time  of  harvest.  If, 
therefore,  the  straw  had  not  been  usually  left  stand- 
ing in  the  fields,  he  would  have  shown  himself  an 
idiot  as  well  as  a  tyrant;  but  the  narrative  shows 
us  that  the  Israelites  found  the  stems  of  the  last 
year's  harvest  standing  in  the  fields ;  for  by  the 
word  'stubble'  (Exod.  v,  12)  the  historian  clearly 
means  the  stalks  that  remained  from  the  last  j'ear's 
harvest.  Still,  the  demand  that  they  should  com- 
plete their  tale  of  bricks  was  one  that  scarcely  could 
be  fulfilled,  and  the  conduct  of  Pharaoh  on  this  occa- 
sion is  a  perfect  specimen  of  Oriental  despotism." 
— Kitto,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  s.  v.     See  Egypt. 

3.  Jewish  Bricks.— The  Jews  learned  the  art  of  brick- 
making  in  Egypt,  and  we  find  the  use  of  the  brick-kiln 


BRIOONNET 

("(a^"3,  malben)  in  David's  time  (2  Sam.  xii,  31),  and 
a  complaint  made  by  Isaiah  that  the  people  built  altars 
of  brick  instead  of  unhewn  stone  as  the  law  directed 
(Isa.  lxv,  3;  Exod.  xx,  25).     See  Potteby. 

Bricormet,  Denis,  son  of  the  cardinal  of  St. 
Malo,  was  made  successively  bishop  of  Toulon  and  of 
St.  Malo.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
1511,  and  of  that  of  the  Lateran,  1514.  His  reputation 
for  virtue  and  kindness  was  very  great ;  anil  toward 
the  end  of  his  life  lie  gave  up  his  episcopal  office,  for 
fear  that  he  should  not  be  able  faithfully  to  fulfil  its 
duties  in  his  old  age.  He  died  in  153G. — Hoefer,  Biog. 
Generale,  vii,  378. 

Bricoimet,  Guillaume,  cardinal  of  St.  Malo,  be- 
gan his  career  under  Louis  XI,  who,  on  his  death-bed, 
commended  him  to  bis  son  Charles  VIII.  Under  that 
monarch  he  became  finance  minister,  and  almost  ruler 
of  France.  Having  lost  his  wife,  he  added  to  his  other 
honors  the  episcopacy,  taking  orders,  it  is  said,  with 
the  understanding  that  ho  should  lie  made  cardinal. 
At  Rome  he  brought  about  a  reconciliation  between 
Charles  and  the  pope,  and  the  cardinal's  hat  was  his 
reward.  On  the  death  of  Charles  VIII  he  was  dis- 
placed iii  the  French  cabinet  by  Cardinal  d'Amboise, 
and  retired  to  Pome ;  but  Louis  XII  employed  him 
to  get  up  a  council  at  Pisa  composed  of  the  cardinals 
opposed  to  Pope  Julius  II,  in  order  to  "reform  the 
Church  in  its  head  and  members."  He  obeyed,  but 
was  excommunicated  by  the  pope  and  deprived  of  his 
purple.  Leo  X  restored  him.  lie  died  archbishop  of 
Narbonne,  14th  December,  1514. — Hoefer,  Biog.  Gene* 
rale,  vii,  377. 

Bricormet,  Guillaume,  a  French  bishop  and 
quasi  Reformer,  was  the  son  of  the  cardinal  of  St.  Malo, 
archbishop  of  Rheims.  His  father  trained  him  for  the 
priestly  office,  and  had  ample  opportunities  to  promote 
the  son.  "  Rich  benefices  were  heaped  upon  him.  He 
was  made  archdeacon  of  Rheims  and  of  Avignon,  then 
abbot  of  the  same  rich  foundation  of  St.  Germain  which 
his  father  had  obtained,  and  finally  he  entered  the 
episcopate  as  bishop  of  Lodeve,  whence  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  see  of  Meaux,  an  important  town  in  Brie, 
nearly  thirty  miles  eastward  of  Paris,  of  which  Bos* 
suet  was,  at  a  later  clay,  bishop.  Brioonnet  was  a  man 
of  considerable  learning,  of  singular  fondness  for  the 
subtleties  of  a  refined  mysticism,  and  of  a  kind  and 
gentle  temper.  While  at  Rome,  whither  he  went  as 
royal  ambassador  just  before  entering  upon  his  duties 
as  bishop  of  Meaux,  ho  had  become  more  and  more 
convinced  of  the  thorough  reform  which  was  needed 
throughout  the  whole  Church.  His  first  acts  in  his 
diocese  were  those  of  a  reformer.  He  called  upon  the 
ecclesiastics  who,  neglecting  their  charges,  bad  been 
in  the  habit  of  spending  their  time  in  pleasure  at  the 
capital,  to  return  to  their  pastoral  duties.  He  took 
steps  to  initiate  a  reformation  of  manners  and  morals 
among  the  clergy.  He  forbade  the  Franciscan  monks 
to  enter  the  pulpits  of  the  churches  under  his  super- 
vision." He  invited  from  Paris,  in  1521,  Jacques  Le- 
fevre,  of  Etaples  (q.v.),  ami  Fare!  (q. v.),  who  were 
employed  in  disseminating  the  N.  Testament,  and  in 
preaching,  throughout  the  diocese  for  nearly  two  years. 
Briconnet  himself  was  very  active;  and  once,  preach- 
ing to  his  people,  warned  them  in  these  words:  "Even 
should  I,  your  bishop,  change  my  teaching,  beware 
that  you  change  not  witli  me."  But.  Ins  perseverance 
was  not  equal  to  the  occasion.  The  Franciscans, 
whom  he  had  offended,  "  called  upon  the  Parisian  Uni- 
versity and  Parliament  to  interpose;  ami  the  bishop, 
who  at  first  had  given  tokens  of  courage,  and  had  ven- 
tured to  denounce  the  doctors  of  theology  as  Pharisees 
and  false  prophets,  at  length  wavered  and  trembled 
before  the  storm  he  had  raised.  Three  years  (1523- 
1525)  witnessed  the  gradual  but  sure  progress  of  his 
apostasy  from  the  profession  of  his  convictions.  Be- 
ginning with  the  mere  withdrawal  of  his  permission 


BRIDAIXE 


890 


BRIDGE 


accorded  to  'the  evangelical  doctor?,'  as  they  were 
called,  to  preach  within  his  diocese,  he  ended  by  pre- 
siding over  a  synod  of  his  own  clergy,  in  which  the 
reading  of  the  works  of  Luther  was  prohibited  on  pain 
of  excommunication,  and  by  giving  a  public  sanction 
to  the  abases  against  which  he  had  so  loudly  protested. 
The  rapid  advance  of  his  conformity  with  the  requisi- 
tions of*  the  Papal  Church  was  doubtless  owing  not  a 
little  to  fresh  complaints  against  his  orthodoxy,  and  a 
summons  to  appear  before  an  inquisitorial  commission 
appointed  by  the  Parliament,  which,  however,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  satisfying  in  respect  to  his  future,  if  not  as 
to  his  past  course.  Meanwhile,  although  himself  the 
instrument  of  persecution  in  the  hands  of  the  fanatical 
portion  of  the  French  clergy,  it  is  probable  that  Bri- 
connet  still  retained  his  early  sentiments.  Such,  at 
least,  was  the  belief  of  the  early  reformers."  He  died 
at  the  chateau  of  Esmont  in  1533.  See  Bretonneau, 
Hist.  General  de  la  Maison  de  B>ironnet;  Dyer,  Life  of 
Ctrfrin,  p.  20;  Kanke,  History  of  the  Reformation,  i, 
190 ;  Baird,  in  Methodist  Quarterly  Review,  1864,  p.  439. 

Bridaine  or  Brydane,  Jacques,  a  celebrated 
French  preacher,  was  born  March  21, 1701,  at  Chuslan 
(department  of  the  Gard).  He  first  studied  at  the 
Jesuits'  College  at  Avignon,  and  afterward  at  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Missions  of  Sainte-Croix.  His  teach- 
ers soon  saw  that  he  gave  indications  of  extraordinary 
eloquence,  and  they  exercised  his  talent  by  causing 
him  to  catechise  the  children.  After  receiving  first 
orders,  he  was  sent  to  Aiguemortes  to  preach  during 
Lent.  Finding  the  people  slow  in  attending  church 
on  Ash-Wednesday,  he  sallied  forth  in  his  surplice, 
ringing  a  bell ;  and  no  sooner  had  he  gathered  a  crowd 
than  he  commenced  to  pour  upon  them  the  thunders 
of  his  eloquence,  which  soon  produced  silence,  atten- 
tion, and  terror.  At  that  time  he  had  written  but 
three  sermons;  and  he  began  to  extemporise  with  so 
great  success  that  he  finished  his  Lent  series  in  that 
way.  He  was  aft  rward  sent  as  a  missionary  into  the 
Cevennes,  Provence,  Languedoc,  Le  Comptat  d'Avig-  | 
non,  and  other  provinces.  In  1744  he  came  to  Paris, 
where,  by  his  eloquence,  he  caused  the  rich  and  power- 
ful to  tremble.  Cardinal  Maury  has  preserved  the  fa- 
mous exordium  of  this  preacher  on  the  subject  of  eter- 
nity, in  the  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  before  an  imposing 
congregation  :  "  Eh !  savez-vous  ce  que  e'est  que  Peter-  j 
nite?  <  "est  une  pendule  dont  lc  balancier  dit  et  redit,  j 
.  ces  deux  mots  seulement,  dans  le  silence  des 
tombeaux,  lToujours;  Jamais! — Jamais;  ToujoursP  Et 
toujours  pendant  ces  effroyables  revolutions,  un  reprou-  j 
ve  s'ecrie  :  '  Quelle  heure  est  UV  ct  la  voix  d'une  autre 
miserable  lui  repond,  l'L,eterniti!'  "  "Do  you  know 
what  eternity  is?  It  is  a  pendulum,  ever  swinging, 
and,  as  it  vibrates,  saying,  amid  the  silence  of  the 
tombs,  Forever,  never;  forever,  never.  And  ever,  as  ! 
these  vibrations  keep  their  ceaseless  motion,  a  wretch- 
ed voice  may  be  heard  from  the  condemned,  What  hour 
is  it?  and  another  condemned  soul  replies,  Eternity." 
But  Poujoulat  (in  his  Cardinal  Maury,  sa  vie  et  ses 
ceuvres,  Paris,  1859)  asserts  that  this  famous  exordium 
is  not  Bridaine's  alter  all,  but  that  it  can  be  clearly 
proved  to  be  Maury's  own  composition!  Bridaine 
died  of  the  stone,  Dec.  22, 1707.  He  has  left  some 
'  :  Spirituels  a  Vusage  des  missions  du  diocese 

tFAlais,  which  in  1812  had  gone  through  forty-seven 
editions.  The  abbe  Carron  wrote  his  life  under  the 
title  /..  Afodek  des  Pretres  (Paris,  1804,  12mo).  His 
Sermons  appeared  at  Avignon  (1823,  5  vols.  12mo). 


Bridal  Crown  or  "Wreath  (n-^u'trwfut).  To 
crown  a  pair  about  to  be  married  with  a  garland  of 
flowers,  or  even  of  metals  and  precious  stones,  is  a  very 
ancient  pari  of  the  marriage  ceremony,  both  in  pa- 
ganism and  Christendom.  The  usage  was  adopted  in 
the  early  ( 'hureh,  but  not  without  opposition.  Tertul- 
lian  called  it  "an  idolatrous  rite"  (J)e  ear.  mi/it.  c. 
13-15.     See  also  Justin,  Jpul.  c.  ix).     At  a  later  pe-  | 


riod  it  became  general,  and  it  is  spoken  of  with  ap- 
proval by  the  fathers  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.  Chry- 
sostom  mentions  the  ceremony  as  follows:  "-Crowns 
are  therefore  put  upon  their  heads  as  symbols  of  vic- 
tory ;"  i.  e.  it  was  supposed  that  the  betrothed  persons 
had,  before  nuptials,  striven  virtuously  against  all 
manner  of  uncleanness  (Chrysostom,  Horn.  IX  in  1 
Tim.).  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  honor  of  crown- 
ing was  not  given  to  fornicators  when  they  married ; 
nor  was  the  ceremony  used  in  second  or  third  mar- 
riages, because,  though  not  held  to  be  unlawful,  they 
were  not  reckoned  as  honorable  as  first  marriages. 
"  The  chaplets  were  usually  made  of  myrtle,  olive,  am- 
aranth, rosemary,  and  evergreens,  intermingled  with 
cypress  and  vervain.  The  crown,  appropriately  so  call- 
ed, was  made  of  olive,  myrtle,  and  rosemary,  variegated 
with  flowers,  and  sometimes  with  gold  and  silver,  pearls, 
precious  stones,  etc.  These  crowns  were  constructed 
in  the  form  of  a  pyramid  or  tower.  Both  the  bride  and 
the  bridegroom  were  crowned  in  this  manner,  together 
with  the  groomsman  and  the  bride-maid.  The  bride 
frequently  appeared  in  church  thus  attired  on  the  day 
when  proclamation  of  the  banns  was  made.  Chap- 
lets  were  not  worn  by  the  parties  in  case  of  second 
marriage,  nor  by  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  im- 
propriety before  marriage.  In  the  Greek  Church  the 
chaplets  were  imposed  by  the  officiating  minister.  He 
placed  the  nuptial  crowns,  wThich  had  been  lying  on 
the  altar,  first  upon  the  head  of  the  bridegroom  and 
then  upon  that  of  the  bride,  saying,  '  This  servant  of 
the  Lord  hereby  crowns  this  handmaid  of  the  Lord  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end,  Amen.'  This  cere- 
mony was  followed  by  prayers,  doxologies,  and  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptures,  particular^  Ephes.  v,  20-33, 
and  John  ii,  1-11,  and  the  alternate  prayers  of  the 
priest  and  the  deacon.  Upon  the  eighth  day  the  mar- 
ried pair  present  themselves  again  in  the  church,  when 
the  minister,  with  appropriate  prayer,  lays  off  the  nup- 
tial crown,  and  dismisses  them  with  a  blessing."  In 
the  Western  Church  veils  gradually  took  the  place  of 
bridal  crowns,  though  both  are  sometimes  used.  In 
Germany  the  wreaths  are  still  very  generally  used. — 
Coleman,  Ancient  Christianity,  ch.  xxiv,  §  4;  Bing- 
ham, Oriff.  Eccles.  bk.  xxii,  ch.  iv,  §  G;  Herzog,  Real- 
Encyk.  ii,  34G  ;  Siegel,  Handb.  eler  Altcrthumer,  ii,  13. 

Bridal  Ring.     See  Ring. 

Bride,  St.     See  Bridget. 

Bride  (nibs,  kallah';  vvp^rf ;  both  also  "  daugh- 
ter-in-law").    See  Bridegroom. 

Bride-chamber  (yv/ujiwv),  a  bridal  room  (Suid. 
KoiTior)  where  the  nuptial  bed  was  prepared,  usually 
in  the  house  of  the  bridegroom,  whither  the  bride  was 
brought  in  procession.  See  Wedding.  It  occurs 
only  in  the  New  Testament,  in  the  phrase  "sons  of 
the  bride-chamber"  (Matt,  ix,  15;  Mark  ii,  19;  Luke 
v,  34).  These  were  the  companions  of  the  bridegroom, 
bridemen,  called  by  the  Greeks  paranymphs  (Rabbin. 
D^iSttJiO),  just  as  the  bride  had  also  her  companions 
or  bridemaids  (Matt,  xxv,  1-12).     See  Marriage. 

Bridegroom  (""",  chaihan',  also  "son-in-law;" 
vvfifiocj.  In  the  typical  language  of  Scripture,  the 
love  of  the  Redeemer  to  the  Church  is  vividlj'  alluded 
to  in  the  expression  "the  bride,  the  Lamb's  wife" 
(Lev.  xxi,  9).  Christ  himself  is  also  called  "the 
bridegroom"  in  the  same  sense  (John  iii,  29).  The 
figure,  under  various  and  extended  forms,  is  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  O.  T.,  to  denote  the  union  be- 
tween Jehovah  and  the  Jewish  nation.  See  Canti- 
cles; Nuptials. 

Bride-maid,  Bride-man.     Sec  PARANYjirn. 

Bridge  (yi<pi'oa,  2  Mace,  xii,  13)  does  not  occur  in 
the  canonical  Scriptures  unless  indirectly  in  the  prop- 
er name  Geshuf  (q.  v.),  a  district  in  Bashan  north-east 


BRIDGE 


891 


BRIDGE  BRETHREN 


of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Not  far  from  this  region  still 
exists  the  most  noted  artificial  stone  bridge  in  Pales- 
tine. It  is  mentioned  by  B.  de  la  Brocquiere  A.D. 
1432,  and  a  portion  of  one  by  Arculf,  A.D.  700  (Early 
Trav.  in  Pal.  p.  8,  300 ;  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  315  ;  Rob- 
inson, Researches,  iii,  361).  It  crosses  the  Upper  Jordan 
about  two  miles  below  the  lake  Huleh.  The  river  here 
flows  rapidly  through  a  narrow  bed ;  and  here  from 
the  most  remote  ages  has  lain  the  high-road  to  Damas- 
cus from  all  parts  of  Palestine,  which  renders  it  like- 
ly that  a  bridge  existed  at  this  place  in  very  ancient 
times,  although  of  course  not  the  one  which  is  now 
standing.  The  bridge  is  called  "  Jacob's  Bridge" 
(Jissr  Yakoub),  from  a  tradition  that  it  marks  the  spot 
where  the  patriarch  Jacob  crossed  the  river  on  his  re- 
turn from  Padan-Aram.  But  it  is  also  sometimes  call- 
ed Jissr  Benl  Yakoub,  "the  Bridge  of  Jacob's  Sons," 
•which  may  suggest  that  the  n.i  :ie  is  rather  derived 
from  some  Arab  tribe  called  the  Beni  Yakoub.  It 
is  still  oftener  termed,  however,  Jisr  Benat  Yakoub, 
"  Bridge  of  Jacob's  Daughters."  The  bridge  is  a 
very  solid  structure,  well  built,  with  a  high  curve  in 
the^niddle  like  all  the  Syrian  bridges,  and  is  com- 
posed of  three  arches  in  the  usual  style  of  these  fab- 
rics. Close  by  it  on  the  east  is  a  khan  much  frequent- 
ed by  travellers,  built  upon  the  remains  of  a  fortress 
which  was  erected  by  the  Crusaders  to  command  the 
passage  of  the  Jordan.  A  few  soldiers  are  now  sta- 
tioned here  to  collect  a  toll  upon  all  the  laden  beasts 
which  cross  the  bridge. 

Permanent  bridges  over  water  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  used  by  the  Israelites  in  their  earlier  times,  but 
we  have  frequent^mention  made  of  fords,  and  of  their 
military  importance  (Gen.  xxxii,  22 ;  Josh,  ii,  7  ; 
Judg.  iii,  28;  vii,  24;  xii,  5;  Isa.  xvi,  2).  West  of 
the  Jordan  there  are  few  rivers  of  importance  (Amm. 
Marc,  xiv,  8;  Reland,  p.  284);  and  perhaps  the  policy 
of  the  Jews  may  have  discouraged  intercourse  with 
neighboring  tribes,  for  it  seems  unlikely  that  the  skill 
of  Solomon's  architects  was  unable  to  construct  a 
bridge.  Though  the  arch  (q.  v.)  was  known  and  used 
in  Egypt  as  earl)'  as  the  15th  century  B.C.  (Wilkin- 
son, ii,  302  sq. ;  Birch,  i,  14),  the  Romans  were  the  first 
constructors  of  arched  bridges.  They  made  bridges 
over  the  Jordan  and  other  rivers  of  Syria,  of  which 
remains  still  exist  (Stanley,  Palest,  p.  296;  Irby  and 
Mangles,  p.  90,  91,  92,  142,  143).  There  are  traces  of 
ancient  bridges  across  the  .Ionian  above  and  below 
the  Lake  of  Gennesareth,  and  also  over  the  Arnon  and 
other  rivers  which  enter  the  Jordan  from  the  east ;  and 
some  of  the  winter  torrents  which  traverse  the  west- 
ernmost plain  (the  plain  of  the  coast)  are  crossed  by 
bridges,  also  the  Litany,  the  Owely,  etc.     But  the  old 


more  recent  date  (see  Thom- 
son, Landand  Book,  i,  62,  122, 
253).  TheChaldee  paraphrase 
renders  "gates,"  in  Nahum  ii, 
0.  "  bridges,"  where,  however, 
dikes  or  weirs  are  to  be  under- 
stood, which,  being    burst    by 

inundation,  destroyed  the  walls 

of  Nineveh  (Diod.  ii,  27).  Ju- 
das Maccabffiua  is  said  to  have 
intended  to  make  a  bridge  in 
order  to  besiege  the  town  of 
Casphor  or  <  !aspis,  situate  near 
a  lake  (2  Mace,  xii,  13).  Jo- 
sephus  (.1;//.  v,  1,3),  speaking 
of  thi'  Jordan  at  the  time  of 
the  passage  of  the  Israelites, 
says  it  had  never  been  bridged 
before  (ovk  t^tvKTo  irooripov), 
as  if  in  his  own  time  I  nidges 
had  been  made  over  it,  which 
under  the  Romans  was  the 
case.  In  Isa.  xxxvii,  25,  "ttp, 
dig  for  water,  is  rendered  by  the  Sept.  "  to  bridge,"  yi<pv- 
p'av  ri%u.  The  bridge  (yifin.a)  connecting  the  Tem- 
ple with  the  upper  city  of  which  Josephus  speaks  (War, 
vi,  6,  2;  Ant.  xv,  11,  5)  seems  to  have  been  an  arched 
viaduct  (Robinson,  i,  425  ;  also  new  ed.  iii,  224).  See 
Jerusalem.  Herodotus  (i,  186)  describes  a  bridge 
consisting  of  stone  piers,  with  planks  laid  across,  built 
bv  Nitocris  B.C.  circ.  600,  connecting  the  two  portions 
of  Babylon  (see  Jer.  Ii,  31,  32 ;  1,  38),  and  Diodorus 
speaks  of  an  arched  tunnel  under  the  Euphrates  (ii,  9). 
Bridges  of  boats  are  described  also  by  Herodotus  (iv, 
88;  vii,  36;  comp.  iEsch.  Pers.  69,  Xwuckt/wc  a\tiia) 
and  by  Xenophon  (Anab.  ii,  4, 12).  A  bridge  over  the 
Zab,  made  of  wicker-work  connecting  stone  piers,  is 
described  by  Layard  (i,  192),  a  mode  of  construction 
used  also  in  South  America.— Kitto;  Smith. 

Bridge,  Jonathan  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Northfield,  Mass.,  1812,  converted 
at  seventeen,  and  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in  the 
New  England  Conference  1834.  After  tilling  a  num- 
ber of  important  stations,  he  was  made  presiding  elder 
in  1854,  and  died  1856.  By  his  energy,  industry,  and 
ability,  he  made  up  to  a  large  extent  for  a  deficient 
education,  and  rose  to  be  a  good  scholar,  ami  was 
"long  an  honor  and  ornament"  to  the  Conference. 
As  a  preacher  he  was  earnest  and  ardent  to  a  degree 
beyond  his  physical  strength.  His  impulsive  temper- 
ament made  him  also  a  vigorous,  though  not  always  a 
careful  writer.  He  wrote  largely  for  periodicals.— 
Minutes  of  Conference,  vi,  241 ;  Sherman,  JV<  w  Eng- 
land Divines,  p.  350. 

Bridge,  William,  a  Non-conformist  divine,  was 
born  in  1600,  and  educated  at  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge.  After  preaching  in  Essex  and  Norwich, 
he  was  silenced  for  non-conformity  and  went  to  Rotter- 
dam, where  he  was  pastor  in  Robinson's  Congrega-; 
gational  church.  Returning  to  England,  he  obtained 
a  church  at  Yarmouth  in  the  time  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, but  was  ejected  in  1662.  He  died  1670.  Ho 
was  a  learned  and  industrious  man  :  in  theology  a  ( 'al- 
vinist.  His  Works,  consisting  chiefly  of  sermons,  were 
first  collected  in  1649  (  I  vols.  4to),  before  his  death. 
A  new  and  complete  edition  has  recently  appeared 
(Lond.  1845,  5  vols.  8vo).  Sec  Calamy,  Ejected  Mm> 
isiers,  ii,  478. 

Bridge  Brethren  (Fratres  pontifices,  Freres  pon- 
tifes'),  the  name  of  a  fraternity  founded  toward  the 
end  of  the  12th  century  by  St.  Benedict  after  his 
building  the  bridge  of  Avignon.  They  were  to  serve 
in  hospitals  when  needed,  but  were  more  especially 
intended  to  devote  themselves  to  the  building  of 
bridges  and  roads.     In  this  capacity  they  did   great 


est  of  these  appears  to  be  of  Romaii  origin,  and  some  of  I  service  in  the  south  and  east  of  France,  directing  the 


BRIDGET 


892 


BRIDLE 


workmen,  working  themselves,  and  often  defraying 
the  expenses  out  of  their  own  funds  or  by  collections. 
They  were  officially  recognised  by  Pope  Clement  III, 
organized  on  the  plan  of  the  knightly  orders,  and  each 
brother  was  distinguished  by  wearing  a  small  hammer 
on  tlic  breast.  They  did  not  altogether  disappear  be- 
fore 1789,  although  their  efficiency  ceased  long  before 
that  time.  See  Recherches  hist,  sur  les  Freres  pontifes 
(Par.  1818). 

Bridget  (Brigid  or  Bride),  a  Romish  saint,  and 
the  patroness  of  Ireland,  was  born  about  the  middle  of 
tin-  .Mh  century.  Marvellous  and  absurd  accounts  of 
her  miracles  are  given  in  the  modern  lives  of  her.  Her 
festival  is  observed  on  Febr.  1,  on  which  day,  A.D.  521 
or  523,  she  is  said  to  have  died.  See  Mant's  Bistort/ 
of  the  Irish  Church,  vol.  i,  p.  58  ;  vol.  ii,  p.  145. 

Bridget  (Biugitta  or  Birgitta),  a  saint  of  the 
Romish  Calendar,  and  daughter  of  Birgir,  prince  of 
Sweden.  She  was  born  in  1304,  and  married  Ulpho, 
prince  of  Nericia,  in  Sweden,  by  whom  she  had  eight 
children.  After  the  birth  of  these  Bridget  and  her 
husband  resolved  to  lead  a  life  of  continence.  They 
undertook  a  pilgrimage  to  Compostella;  and  Ulpho 
died  shortly  after  their  return  to  Sweden,  in  1344. 
Bridget  then  built  the  great  monastery  of  Wastein,  in 
the  diocese  of  Linkoping,  in  which  she  placed  sixty 
nuns,  and,  separated  from  them  entirely,  thirteen 
friars,  priests,  in  honor  of  the  twelve  apostles  and  St. 
Paul,  four  deacons,  representing  the  four  doctors  of 
the  Church,  and  eight  lay  brothers.  See  Briget- 
tines.  Bridget,  having  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land,  died  at  Rome  on  her  return,  July  23,  1373. 
She  was  canonized  by  Bonifacius  IX,  Oct.  7, 1391,  and 
her  festival  appointed  to  be  kept  on  the  day  follow- 
ing. Her  Romish  biographers  tell  of  many  revelations 
which  she  is  said  to  have  had  concerning  the  sufferings 
of  our  Saviour,  and  about  political  affairs.  John  de 
Torquemada,  by  order  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  exam- 
ined the  book  of  Bridget's  revelations,  and  declared  it 
to  lie  profitable  for  the  instruction  of  the  faithful  (?). 
It  was  consequently  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Basle 
and  the  popes  Gregory  XI  and  Urban  VI,  but  Bene- 
dict XIV  explained  this  confirmation  as  meaning  only 
that  the  book  contained  nothing  contrary  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Roman  Church.  Her  Revelations  were 
published,  Lfibeck,  1492, and  Rome,  1848.— Butler,  Lives 
qf  Saints,  Oct.  8;  Hammerich,  Leben  BrigitteCs  (18G3). 

Bridgetines.     See  Brigittines. 

Bridge-water  Treatises.  The  last  Earl  of 
Bridgewater  (who  died  in  1829),  by  his  will,  dated 
February  25,  1825,  left  £8000  to  be  at  the  disposal  of 
the  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  to  be 
paid  to  the  person  or  persons  nominated  by  him  to 
write,  print,  and  publish  1000  copies  of  a  work  "On 
the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God,  as  manifest- 
ed in  the  creation  ;  illustrating  such  work  by  all  rea- 
sonable  arguments,  as,  for  instance,  the  variety  and 
formation  of  God's  creatures  in  the  animal,  vegetable, 
ami  mineral  kingdoms,  the  effect  of  digestion,  the  con- 
striction of  the  hand  of  man,  and  an  infinite  variety 
of  other  arguments ;  as  also  by  discoveries,  ancient  and 
modern,  in  arts,  sciences,  and  the  whole  extent  of  lit- 
erature." He  also  desired  that  the  profits  arising  from 
the  sale  of  the  works  so  published  should  be  paid  to 
Hi-  authors  of  the  works.  The  then  president  of  the 
Royal  Society,  Davies  Gilbert,  requested  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  of  the  Bishop 
of  Loudon  in  determining  on  the  best  mode  of  carrying 
into  effect  the  intentions  of  the  testator.  Acting  with 
their  advice,  he  appointed  eight  gentlemen  to  write 
Beporate  treatises  on  the  different  branches  of  the  sub- 
jeet,  which  treatises  lia.ve  been  published,  and  are  as 
follows:  1.  By  the  [lev. Thomas  Chalmers,  I). I).,  The 
Adaptation  of  External  Naturt  to  the  Moral  and  Intel- 
lectual Constitution  of  Man  (Glasgow,  1889,  2  vols.  8vo). 
2.  By  John  Kidd,  M.D.,  The  Adaptation  of  External 


Nature  to  the  Physical  Condition  of  Man  (Lond.  1837, 
8vo).  3.  By  the  P.ev.  William  Whewell,  Astronomy 
and  General  Physics  considered  with  Reference  to  Natu- 
ral Theology  (Lend.  1839,  8vo).  4.  By  Sir  Charles 
Bell,  The  Hand,  its  Mechanism  and  Vital  Endowments, 
as  evincing  Des'gn  (Lond.  1837,  8vo).  5.  By  Peter 
Mark  Roget,  M.D.,  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology, 
considered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology  (Lond. 
1840,  2  vols.  8vo).  6.  By  the  Rev.  Dr.  Buckland,  On 
Geology  and  Mineralogy  (Lond.  1837,  2  vols.  8vo).  7. 
By  the  Rev.  William  Kirby,  On  the  History,  Habits, 
and  Instincts  of  Animals  (Lond.  1825,  2  vols.  8vo).  8. 
By  William  Prout,  M.D.,  Chemistry,  Meteorology,  and 
the  Function  of  Digestion,  considered  with  Reference  to 
Natural  Theology  (Lond.  1834,  8vo).  All  these  trea- 
tises have  been  reprinted  in  a  cheaper  form  as  a  por- 
tion of  Bonn's  "Standard  Library,"  and  the  most  of 
them  had  before  this  been  republished  in  America 
(Phila.  7  vols.  8vo).  A  German  translation  of  them 
has  been  published  at  Stuttgardt  (1836-1838,  9  vols.). 
Bridle  (prop.  "G"!,  re' sen,  a  halter,  Isa.  xxx,  28; 
hence  generally  a  rein,  Psa.  xxxii,  9;  Job  xxx,  11; 
specially  the  Jaws,  Job  xli,  5  [13]  ;  also  iTfO,  me'theg, 
2  Kings  xix,  28;  Prov.  xxvi,  3;  Isa.  xxvii,  29;  strict- 
ly the  bit,  as  rendered  in  Psa.  xxxii,  9;  so  \a\ivoc, 
Rev.  xiv,  20;  1  Esdr.  iii,  C;  2  Mace,  x,  29;  "bit," 
James  iii,  3;  likewise  \a\a>ay wy'tw , to  curb,  James  i,  26; 
iii,  2;  once  Dionp,  machsom',  a  muzzle,  Psa.  xxix,  2), 
the  headstall  and  reins  by  which  a  rider  governs  his 
horse  (Psa.  xxxii,  9).  In  connection  with  Isa.  xxxvii, 
29,  it  is  remarkable  to  find  from  Theodoret  that  it  was 
customary  to  fix  a  sort  of  bridle  or  muzzle  of  leather 
on  refractory  slaves.  Even  freemen  were  thus  treat. 
ed  when  the}'  became  prisoners  of  war.  See  Zede- 
kiah.  Thus,  when  Cambyses  conquered  Egypt,  the 
son  of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  with  ten  thousand  other 
youths  of  the  highest  rank,  were  condemned  to  death, 
and  were  conducted  to  execution  in  procession  with 
ropes  around  their  necks  and  bridles  in  their  mouths 
(Herodotus,  iii,  14).  Compare  the  act  of  Benhadad's 
"  princes"  in  putting  halters  about  their  heads  in  token 
of  submission  to  Ahab  (1  Kings  xx,  32).  According 
to  Layard  (ii,  275),  the  Assyrians  ornamented  their 
bridles  in  a  high  degree;  but  in  their  trappings  and 
harness  the  Kouyunjik  horses  differ  completely  from 
those  represented  in  the  bas-reliefs  of  Nimroud  :  their 
heads  were  generally  surmounted  by  an  arched  crest, 
and  bells  or  tassels  were  hung  around  their  necks ;  or, 
as  at  Khorsabad,  high  plumes,  general]}' three  in  num- 
ber, rose  between  their  ears.     See  Horse. 


Head-dress  of  an  ancient  Assyrian  Riding-horse. 

The  restraints  of  God's  providence  are  metaphori- 
cally called  his  "bridle"  and  "hook"  (2  Kings  xix, 
28).  The  "  bridle  in  the  jaws  of  the  people  causing 
them  to  err"  (Isa.  xxx,  28)  is  God's  permitting  the  As- 
syrians to  be  directed  by  foolish  counsels,  that  they 
might  never  finish  their  intended  purpose  against  Je- 


BRIEF 


893 


BRIMSTONE 


rusalem  (Isa.  xxxvii,  29).  The  restraints  of  law  and 
humanity  are  called  a  bridle,  and  to  let  it  loose  is  to 
act  without  regard  to  these  principles  (Job  xxx,  11). 

Brief  (Lat.  breve,  used  in  later  Latin  for  a  writ- 
ing or  letter).  Briefs  apostolical  are  pontifical  letters 
from  the  court  of  Home,  subscribed  by  the  secre- 
tary of  briefs,  who  is  usually  a  bishop  or  cardinal. 
They  differ  in  main'  respects  from  bulls.  Briefs  are 
issued  from  the  Roman  court  by  the  apostolic  secre- 
tary, sealed  by  the  fisherman's  ring  with  red  wax ; 
bulls  are  issued  by  the  apostolic  chancellor,  under  a 
seal  of  lead,  having  on  one  side  impressed  the  likeness 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  on  the  other  the  name 
of  the  reigning  pope.  Briefs  are  written  on  fine  and 
white  skins  ;  bulls  on  those  that  are  thick  and  coarse. 
Briefs  are  written  in  Roman  character,  in  a  legible  ami 
fair  manner;  bulls,  though  in  Latin,  are  in  old  Gothic 
characters,  without  line  or  stop.  Briefs  are  dated  a  die 
nativitatis ;  bulls,  a  die  incamationis.  Briefs  have  the 
date  abbreviated  ;  bulls  have  it  at  full  length.  Briefs 
begin  with  the  name  of  the  pope,  thus,  "Clemens,  Papa 
XII,"  etc.;  bulls  begin  with  the  words  "(Clemens) 
Episenpus  sermis  servorum,'"  by  way  of  distinct  heading. 
Briefs  may  be  issued  before  the  pope's  coronation, 
but  bulls  not  till  afterward.  Both  are  equally  acts 
of  the  pope  ;  but  a  greater  weight  is  generally  attach- 
ed to  the  bull,  on  account  of  its  more  formal  character. 
See  Bull. 

Brier  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the 
following  words  in  certain  passages,  most  of  them  be- 
ing rendered  "  thorn"  in  others.     See  Thorn. 

1.  p"in,  chedek  (from  its  slinging),  Mic.  vii,  4 ; 
"thorn,"  Prov.  xv,  19  ;  apparently  the  Arabic  ckaddk 
thought  to  be  the  Melongsna  spinosa,  i.  e.  Solarium  in 
sanum  of  Linn.,  or  "  prickly  mad-apple"'  (Abulfadli 
ap.  Celsii  Hierob.  ii,  40  sq.).  From  both  passages  it 
appears  that  the  Ileb.  word  denotes  a  species  of  thorn 
shrubs  which  were  used  for  enclosures  or  hedges.  Yet 
this  characteristic  is  much  too  general  to  determine 
from  it  with  any  precision  what  particular  species  of 
thornj'  plants  is  denoted  by  the  Hebrew  word.  But 
the  plant  whose  fruit  is  the  love-apple  or  mad-apple 
(a  species  of  small  melon)  is  of  the  family  of  night- 
shades (solanese),  and  not  at  all  suitable  for  making  a 
hedge. 

2.  "plsS,  sallon'  ("thorn,"  Ezek.  ii,  G),  or  "jisD,  sil- 
lon  (so  called  as  being  a  pendulous  or  twig-like  extrem- 
ity), Ezek.  xxviii,  24;  prop,  a  prickle,  such  as  are 
found  on  the  shoots  of  the  palm-tree,  and  called  in 
Arabic  sullan,  being  the  thorns  that  precede  the  put- 
ting forth  of  the  foliage  and  branches. 

3.  *12"13,  sirpad',  in  Isa.  lv,  13;  "instead  of  the 
brier  shall  come  up  the  myrtle-tree."  The  Sept.  has 
Kovv^a,  which  is  a  strong-smelling  plant  of  the  endive 
kind,  flea-bane,  Inula  hdenium,  Linn.  (Aristotle,  Hist. 
An.  iv,  8,  28;  Diosc.  iii,  126).  The  Peshito  has  zetur, 
satureia,szvory,Yf]\A  thyme,  Thymus  serpyllum,  a  plant 
growing  in  great  abundance  in  the  desert  of  Sinai  ac- 
cording to  Burckhardt  (Syr.  ii).  Gesenius  |  Thes.  s.  v.) 
rejects  both  these  on  etymological  grounds,  and  pre- 
fers urlica  (the  rendering  of  the  Vulg.)  or  netl'e,  con- 
sidering the  Heb.  name  to  be  a  compound  of  r~3,  to 
burn,  and  123,  to  sting.  He  also  notices  the  opinion 
of  Ewald  Qlram.  Crif.  p.  520)  that  Sinapi  album,  the 
'white  mustard,  is  the  plant  meant,  after  the  suggestion 
'of  Simonis,  who  compares  the    Syriac   name  of  this 

plant,  shephla. 

4.  "I^OO,  shamir'  (from  its  sharpness),  the  most  fre- 
quent term,  and  always  so  rendered  (Isa.  v,  (i;  vii. 
23,  24,  25;  ix,  18;  x,*17;  xxvii,  4;  xxxii,  13),  ap- 
parently a  collective  term  for  thorny  Oriental  shrubs; 
comp.  the  Arabic  shamura,  the  Egyptian  thorn-tree. 
It  is  merely  spoken  of  as  springing  up  in  desolated 
lands;   in  two  passages  (x,  17;  xxvii,  4),  it  is  put 


metaphorically  for  troublesome  men.  The  Sept.  ren- 
ders usually  cbcavSra,  sometimes  x<J(>T0C  or  aypojaroe 
%npa. 

5.  In  Heb.  vi,  8,  the  Gr.  word  is  rn</3o/\o<;  (three- 
pronged),  tribulus,  the  land  caltrop  ("thistle,"  Matt. 
vii,  10),  a  low  thorny  shrub,  so  called  from  the  resem- 
blance of  its  spikes  to  the  military  "crow-foot,"  an 
instrument  thrown  on  the  ground  to  impede  cavalry ; 
the  Tribulus  terrestris  of  Linnaeus. 

Neither  of  the  remaining  Heb.  words  so  rendered  ap- 
pear to  designate  any  species  of  plant.  One  of  these  is 
E"1?!?"??)  barkaniin'  (Judg.  viii,  7,  1G ;  Sept.  merely 
Grascizes  fiapicavifi),  mentioned  as  one  of  the  instru- 
ments by  which  Gideon  punished  the  elders  of  Suc- 
coth  ;  probably  thn  shing-sl  dges,  so  called  from  the  bot- 
tom being  set  with  flint-stones,  which  the  word  seems 
prop,  to  denote.  The  other  is  3"2."3,  sarabim'  (ap- 
parently from  the  Chald.  root  2^3,  to  be  refractory), 
rebels,  which  arc  compared  with  thorns,  Ezek.  ii,  G 
(Sept.  TrapoirTTijo-ovo-iv,  as  if  for  323  ;  Vulg.  ineredidi). 
Some  of  the  rabbins  understand  thorns,  and  Castell 
(in  his  Lex.  Ilepfagl.)  renders  nettles;  but  the  other  in- 
terpretation is  defended  by  Celsius  (Hierob.  ii,  222). 

Brigandine  is  an  old  English  word,  signifying  a 
coat  of  scale  armor,  but  now  obsolete  in  this  sense ; 
used  in  Jer.  xlvi,  4;  li,  3,  for  the  Heb.  ■)"i*~p,  siryon' 
(occurring  only  in  these  passages),  doubtless  the  same 
as  the  "i*"1-1'^,  shiryon,  a  "coat  of  mail"  (1  Sam.  xvii, 
5,  38)  or  corselet.     See  Breastplate. 

Brigitta.     See  Bridget. 

Brigittines  (Birgittines  or  Bridgettines),  a 
monastic  order  in  the  Roman  Church,  also  called  Ordo 
Saloatoris,  founded  in  1344  by  Brigitta  (Birgitta  or 
Bridget)  at  Wadstena,  in  Sweden,  and  confirmed  in 
1370  b}'  Urban  V.  The  nuns  and  monks  lived  to- 
gether under  one  roof,  yet  without  seeing  each  other. 
There  were  to  be  in  every  convent  GO  nuns,  13  priests 
(in  honor  of  the  twelve  apostles  and  St.  Paul),  four 
deacons  (to  represent  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Gregory, 
and  Jerome),  and  8  lay  brothers.  They  lived  on  alms, 
were  principally  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  and  were  governed  by  an  abbess,  who  was  as- 
sisted by  a  confessor  chosen  among  the  priests.  Both 
sexes  wore  gray  cowls ;  the  nuns  a  crown  of  three 
white  stripes  with  five  red  spots,  the  monks  red  and 
white  crosses.  Denmark,  Norway,  the  Netherlands, 
Germany,  Portugal,  and  several  other  countries  had 
convents  of  this  order,  most  of  which  were  swept  away 
by  the  Reformation.  England  had  only  one  convent, 
the  Sion  House,  founded  by  Henry  V  in  1113,  sup- 
pressed by  Henry  VIII,  restored  by  Queen  alary,  and 
again  suppressed  by  Elizabeth.  The  mosl  celebrated 
member  of  this  order  was  John  (Ecolampadius,  the 
celebrated  reformer  of  Switzerland.  At  present  the 
Brigittine  monks  are  entirely  extinct,  while  a  few 
convents,  inhabited  by  nuns  only,  were  still  found  in 
18G0  in  Bavaria,  Poland,  Holland,  and  England.  A 
congregation  of  Brigittine  (or  Birgittan)  nuns  of  the 
Recollection  was  founded  in  the  seventeenth  century 

by  .Maria  of  Escobar  at  Yalladolid,  in  Spain,  which  in 
the  eighteenth  century  had  four  convents. — I'ehr,  Gesch. 
der  Monchsorden,  nach  Henrion,  i,  413  sq. ;  Butler,  Lives 
of  Saints,  Oct.  8;   Helyot,  Ord.  Religieux,  i,  484  sq. 

Brim,  i"ISp,  hatseh',  the  extremity  or  edge  of  the 
water,  Josh,  iii,  15;  nji,  srrphah',  the  lip  or  rim  of  a 
cup  or  basin,  1  Kings  vii,  23,  2G ;  2  Chron.  iv,  2,  5; 
avui,  up  to  the  top  of  a  vessel,  John  ii,  7. 

Brimstone  (tV*lB&,  gnphrith' ;  Otlov,  sulphur). 
The  Hebrew  word  is  connected  with  1B3,  gv'pher,  ren- 
dered "gopher-wood"  in  Gen.  vi,  14,  and  probably 
signified  in  the  first  instance  the  gum  or  resin  that  ex- 
uded  from  that  tree;  hence  it  was  transferred  to  all 
inflammable  substances,  and  especially  to  sulphur — a 


BRINK 


894 


BROKESBY 


well-known  simple  mineral  substance,  crystalline  and 
fusible,  but  without  a  metallic  basis.  It  is  exceed- 
ingly inflammable,  and  when  burning  emits  a  peculiar 
suffocating  smell.  It  is  found  in  great  abundance 
near  volcanoes  and  mineral  wells,  more  particularly 
near  hot  wells,  and  it  is  spread  nearly  oyer  the  whole 
earth.  In  Gen.  xix,  24,  25,  we  are  told  that  the  cities 
of  the  plain  were  destroyed  by  a  rain  (or  storm)  of  fire 
and  brimstone.  There  is  nothing  incredible  in  this, 
even  if  we  suppose  natural  agencies  only  were  em- 
ployed in  it.  The  soil  of  that  region  abounded  with 
sulphur  and  bitumen  ;  and  the  kindling  of  such  a  mass 
of  combustible  materials  through  volcanic  action  or 
bv  lightning  from  heaven,  would  cause  a  conflagration 
sufficient  not  only  to  engulf  the  cities,  but  also  to  de- 
stroy the  surface  of  the  plain,  so  that  "the  smoke  of 
the  country  would  go  up  as  the  smoke  of  a  furnace," 
and  the  sea,  rushing  in,  would  convert  the  plain  into 
a  tract  of  waters.  See  Sodom.  Small  lumps  of  sul- 
phur are  still  found  in  many  places  on  the  shores  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  See  Sulphur.  The  word  brimstone 
is  often  figuratively  used  in  the  Scriptures  (apparently 
with  more  or  less  reference  to  the  above  signal  exam- 
ple) to  denote  punishment  and  destruction  (Job  xviii, 
15;  Isa.  xxx,  33;  xxxiv,  9;  Deut.  xxix,  23 ;  Psa.  xi, 
C;  Ezek.  xxxviii,  22).  Whether  the  word  is  used  lit- 
erally or  not  in  the  passages  which  describe  the  future 
and  everlasting  punishment  of  the  wicked,  we  ma}-  be 
sure  that  it  expresses  all  which  the  human  mind  can 
conceive  of  excruciating  torment  (Rev.  xiv,  10 ;  xix, 
20;  xx,  10;  xxi,  8).     See  Hell. 

Brink,  some  Heb.  words  elsewhere  rendered  some- 
times "brim"  (q.  v.). 

Brisbane,  a  town  of  Eastern  Australia,  New  South 
Wales,  and  see  of  a  bishop  of  the  Church  of  England, 
which  was  erected  in  1859.  The  town  ceased  to  be  a 
penal  settlement  in  1842,  and  has  since  become  a  thriv- 
ing place.  The  number  of  the  clergy  in  1859  was 
seven.  See  Clergy  List  for  18G0  (London,  1860,  8vo). 
See  Australia. 

Brison,  Samuel,  born  in  Frederick  county,  Vir- 
ginia, in  1797,  entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  1821,  and  labored  in  its 
ranks  with  great  acceptance  and  success  until  his  death 
at  Baltimore,  Oct.  13,  185:5.  He  was  twice  presiding 
elder  :  1838-1841  of  the  Rockington  district,  and  1845- 
1848  of  the  Northumberland  district.  His  personal 
character  was  noble  and  elevated,  and  his  ministry 
eminently  acceptable  and  useful. — Minutes  of  Confer- 
ences, v,  331. 

Bristol,  in  Gloucestershire,  England,  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric'  of  the  Church  of  England,  founded  by  Henry 
VIII,  who  in  1542  converted  the  abbey-church  of  the 
Augustine  monks  into  a  cathedral,  dividing  the  abbey 
lands  between  the  bishop  and  the  chapter,  which  he 
made  to  consist  of  a  dean  and  six  secular  canons  or 
prebendaries.  The  church  was  also  served  by  an 
archdeacon,  six  minor  canons,  a  deacon  and  subdeacon, 
six  lay  clerks,  and  six  choristers.  This  see  is  now 
united  to  that  of  Gloucester,  and  the  bishop  is  styled 
of  Gloucester  ami  Bristol.  The  las£  bishop  of  Bristol, 
Dr.  Allen,  was  transferred  to  Ely  in  1836.  The  pres- 
ent bishop  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  (1861)  is  Charles 
Baring,  consecrated  1856. 

Britain.     See  England,  Church  of. 

Broad  Church.     See  England,  Church  of. 

Broacldus,  Andrew,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
in  Caroline  enmity,  Virginia,  in  1770.  At  eighteen, 
against  his  father's  commands,  he  joined  the  Baptists 
and  began  to  preach.  Being  ordained  in  1791,  he  la- 
bored for  the  rest  of  his  life  (except  six  months  in 
Richmond)  in  the   counties   of  Caroline,   King  and 

Qi n,  and    King  William,  in   Virginia,  though  often 

called  to  other  and  more  important  fields.  In  1<S.'!2, 
and   fur   many   years    afterward,   Mr.  Broaddus    was 


chosen  moderator  of  the  Dover  Association  of  Baptist 
Churches.  He  died  Dec.  1,  1848.  His  publications 
are,  A  History  of  the  Bible,  8vo  ;  A  Catechism  ;  A  Form 
of  Church  Discipline ;  The  Dover  and  Virginia  Collections 
of  Hymns ;  and  various  Letters  and  Sermons.— Sprague, 
Annals,  vi,  290;  Jeter's  Memoir. 

Brocard,  Jacopo,  a  native  of  Venice,  who  became 
a  Protestant  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  of  a  visionary  turn,  and  sought  to  show 
that  the  principal  events  of  his  time  had  been  predict- 
ed in  the  Bible.  He  labored  to  effect  a  union  of  all 
Protestant  states,  at  the  head  of  which  his  plan  was  to 
place  Henry  IV  of  France.  He  wrote  a  Mystical  and 
Prophetical  Interpretation  of  Genesis  (Leyden,  1584,  4  to), 
and  a  similar  Interpretatio  of  Leviticus  (8vo).  He 
died  at  Nuremberg  in  1600.  —  Landon,  Ecclesiastical 
Dictionary,  ii,  416. 

Brock,  John,  a  Congregational  minister,  was  a 
native  of  Stradbrook,  Suffolk  Co.,  Eng.  His  parents 
came  to  New  England  when  he  was  about  17.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  1646.  He  preached  at  Rowley 
and  the  Isle  of  Shoals,  which  place  he  left  to  be  ordain- 
ed pastor  at  Redding,  1662,  where  he  lived  until  his 
death,  June  18,  1688.  He  was  eminent  for  piety  and 
usefulness. — Sprague,  Annals,  i,  134. 

Brodhead,  Jacob,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church,  was  born  at  Marblehead,  New 
York,  in  1782.  He  graduated  at  Union  College,  where 
he  became  a  tutor  in  1802.  In  1804  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  at  Rhinebeck,  and  was 
afterward  successively  one  of  the  pastors  of  the  Colle- 
giate Church  of  New  York  City  in  1809,  pastor  of  the 
First  Reformed  Dutch  Church  of  Philadelphia,  which 
he  established  in  1813,  and  of  the  church  in  Broome 
Street,  New  York,  in  1826.  In  1837  he  became  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Flatbush  ;  in  1841  he  removed  to  Brook- 
lyn as  minister  of  the  Central  Reformed  Protestant 
Dutch  Church  of  that  city.  He  relinquished  pastoral 
service  in  1847,  and  died  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  June 
5th,  1855.  Great  tenderness  of  feeling  characterized 
his  preaching  and  his  pastoral  intercourse. 

Brodhead,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister 
of  importance,  born  in  Monroe  Co.,  Penn.,  Oct.  22,1770, 
travelled  two  years,  from  1794,  in  N.  J.  and  Md.,  emi- 
grated to  New  England  in  1796,  and  was  a  pioneer  and 
founder  of  Methodism  there  and  in  Canada.  In  1811 
he  settled  at  New  Market,  N.  H.  He  was  several 
times  elected  member  of  Congress  from  N.  Hampshire. 
He  died  April  7, 1838.  He  was  a  '■'■good  man,"  and  "  a 
prince  in  Israel." — Minutes  of  Conferences,  vi,  579; 
Stevens's  Memorials;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  240. 

Broidered,  prop.  i"l"Cp"),  rikmah',  variegated  work 
or  embroidery;  once  (Exod.  xxviii,  4)  VSSJfl,  tosh- 
bets';  tesselated  stuff,  i.  e.  cloth  (byssus),  woven  in 
checker-work.     See  Embroidery. 

The  "broidered  hair"  (TrXiypa,  twist)  of  1  Tim.  ii, 
9,  refers  to  the  fashionable  custom  among  the  Roman 
ladies  of  wearing  the  hair  platted,  and  fixed  with  crisp- 
ing-pins  (comp.  1  Pet.  iii,  3).  "The  Eastern  females," 
says  Sir  J.  Chardin,  "wear  their  hair  very  long,  and 
divided  into  a  number  of  tresses.  In  Barbary,  the  la- 
dies have  their  hair  hanging  down  to  the  ground,  which, 
after  they  have  collected  into  one  lock,  they  bind  and 
plat  with  ribbons.  The  women  nourish  their  hair  with 
great  fondness,  which  they  endeavor  to  lengthen,  by 
tufts  of  silk,  down  to  the  heels."     See  Head-dress. 

Brokesby,  Francis,  an  English  Non-juror,  was 
born  at  Stoke  in  Leicestershire  1637,  and  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  afterward  received  holy  orders,  and 
became  rector  of  Rowley  in  Yorkshire.  He  followed 
the  fortunes  of  the  Non-jurors,  and  died  in  1715.  His 
works  are,  A  Life  of  Jesus  Christ: — A  History  of  the 
Government  of  the  Christian  Church  for  the  -first  three 
Centuries  mid  the  Beginning  of  the  Fourth  (1712,  8vo): — 
On  Education  (1710,  8voj:—  A  Lfe  of  Henry  Dodwell 


BROMLEY 


S95 


BROTHER 


(1715,  2  vols.  12mo).  He  is  said  to  have  assisted  Nel- 
son in  the  compilation  of  his  "Fasts  and  Festivals." 
— Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  iii,  130;  Landon,  Eccl.  Dict.il,  416. 

Bromley,  Thomas,  one  of  the  English  followers 
of  Jacob  Bohme  (q.  v.),  was  born  in  Worcester  1G29, 
and  was  fellow  of  All-Soul's,  Oxford,  in  Cromwell's 
time.  On  the  Restoration,  he  was  deprived  for  non- 
conformity, and  lived  afterward  with  Pordage  (q.  v.), 
with  whom  he  joined  the  Philadelpiiian  (q.  v.) 
Society  of  Mystics  established  by  Jane  Leade  (q.  v.). 
He  wrote  many  mystical  works,  especially  The  Way 
to  the  Sabbath  of  Rest ;  Journey  of  the  Chi/dn  n  of  Is- 
rael, etc.  He  went  beyond  Bohme  in  pronouncing 
marriage  unlit  for  perfect  Christians.  Bromley  died 
in  1691.  His  works,  in  German,  were  published  at 
Frankfort,  1719-32  (2  vols.  Svo).  —  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist. 
iii,  481. 

Brood,  l'onaia,  a  nest  of  young  birds,  e*.  g.  of  chick- 
ens (q.  v.),  Luke  xiii,  34. 

Brook  (very  generally  bpl3,  nachal' ' ;  Sept.  and  N. 
T.  xf'/*«PPO£'),  rather  a  torrent.  It  is  applied,  1.  to 
small  streams  arising  from  a  subterraneous  spring  and 
flowing  through  a  deep  valley,  such  as  the  Arnon,  Jab- 
bok,  Kidron,  Sorek,  etc.,  and  also  the  brook  of  the  wil- 
lows, mentioned  in  Isa.  xv,  7  ;  2.  to  winter-torrents  ari- 
sing from  rains,  and  which  are  soon  dried  up  in  the 
warm  season  (Job  vi,  15, 19).  Such  is  the  noted  river 
(brook)  of  Egypt  so  often  mentioned  as  at  the  south- 
ernmost border  of  Palestine  (Num.  xxxiv,  5 ;  Josh, 
xv,  4,  47)  ;  and,  in  fact,  such  are  most  of  the  brooks 
and  streams  of  Palestine,  which  are  numerous  in  win- 
ter and  early  spring,  but  of  which  very  few  survive 
the  beginning  of  the  summer.  3.  As  this  (Heb.)  word 
is  applied  both  to  the  valley  in  which  a  brook  runs 
and  to  the  stream  itself,  it  is  sometimes  doubtful  which 
is  meant  (see  Gesenius,  Thes.  p.  873).     See  Stream. 

To  deal  "deceitfully  as  a  brook,"  and  to  pass  away 
"as  the  stream  of  brooks"  (Job  vi,  15),  is  to  deceive 
our  friend  when  he  most  needs  our  help  and  comfort; 
because  brooks,  being  temporary  streams,  are  dried  up 
in  the  heats  of  summer,  and  thus  the  hopes  of  the  trav- 
eller are  disappointed  (see  Hackett's  Illustra.  of  Scrip- 
ture, p.  1G).     See  Rivee. 

Broth,  pyi,  marak',  soup,  Judg.  vi,  19,  20;  p'HQ, 
parak',  fragments  of  bread  over  which  broth  is  poured, 
Isa.  lxv,  4.     See  Eating. 

Brother  (Heb.  !~IX,  ach  [see  Ach-]  ;  Gr.  a6t\<f>6c), 
a  term  so  variously  and  extensively  applied  in  Scrip- 
ture that  it  becomes  important  carefully  to  distinguish 
the  different  acceptations  in  which  it  is  used.  1.  It 
denotes  a  brother  in  the  natural  sense,  whether  the 
offspring  of  the  same  father  onlv  (Gen.  xlii,  15  ;  xliii, 
3 ;  Judg.  ix,  21 ;  Matt,  i,  2 ;  Luke  iii,  1,  19),  or  of  the 
same  mother  only  (Judg.  viii,  19),  or  of  the  same  fa- 
ther and  mother  (Gen.  xlii,  4;  xliv,  20;  Luke  vi,  14, 
etc.)  2.  A  near  relative  or  kinsman  by  blood,  e.  g.  a 
nephew  (Gen.  xiv,  1G  ;  xiii,  8 ;  xxiv,  12,  15),  or  in 
general  a  cousin  (Matt,  xii,  46;  John  vii,  :'>;  Acts  i, 
14 ;  Gal.  i,  19),  or  even  a  husband  (Cant,  iv,  9).  3. 
One  of  the  same  tribe  (2  Sam.  x,  13),  e.  g.  a  fellow- 
Levite  (Num.  viii,  26;  xvi,  10;  Neb.  iii,  1).  4.  One 
born  in  the  same  country,  descended  from  the  same 
stock,  a  fellow-countryman  (Judg.  xiv,  3;  Ezek.  ii, 
11;  iv,  18;  Matt,  v,  47;  Acts  iii,  2.';  Heb.  vii,  5),  or 
even  of  a  cognate  people  (Gen.  ix,  25  ;  xvi,  12  ;  xxv, 
18;  Num.  xx,  14).  5.  One  of  equal  rank  and  dignity 
(Prov.  xviii,  9 ;  Matt,  xxiii,  8).  G.  Disciples,  follow- 
ers, etc.  (Matt,  xxv,  40;  Heb.  ii,  11,  12).  7.  One  of 
the  same  faith  (Isa.  lxvi,  10;  Acts  ix,  30;  xi,  29;  1 
Cor.  v,  xi) ;  from  which  and  other  texts  it  appears 
that  the  first  converts  to  the  faith  of  Jesus  were  known 
to  each  other  by  the  title  of  brethren,  till  the  name  of 
Christians  was  given  to  them  at  Antioch  (Acts  xi,  20). 
8.  An  associate,  colleague  in  office  or  dignity,  etc. 
(Ezra  iii,  2 ;  1  Cor.  i,  1 ;  2  Cor.  i,  1,  etc.).     9.  One  of 


the  same  nature,  a  fellow-man  (Gen.  xiii,  8;  xxvi,  31; 
Matt,  v,  22,  23,  24  ;  vii,  5 ;  Heb.  ii,  17  ;  viii,  11).  10. 
One  beloved,  i.  e.  as  a  brother,  in  a  direct  address  (Acts 
ii,  29;  vi,  3;  1  Thess.  v,  1).  11.  An  ally  of  a  con- 
federate nation  (Amos  i,  9).  12.  A  friend  or  associate 
(Job  vi,  15;  comp.  xix,  1:1;  1  Kings  xix,  13;  Neb.  v, 
10,  14).  13.  It  is  a  very  favorite  Oriental  metaphor, 
as  in  Job  xxx,  29,  "I  am  become  a  brother  to  the 
jackals."  14.  It  is  even  applied  (in  the  Heb.)  to  in- 
animate things  in  the  phrase  "one  another"  (lit.  a  man 
Its  brother),  e.  g.  of  the  cherubim  (Exod.  xw,  2d; 
xxxvii,  9).  The  term  is  still  used  in  tin-  East  with 
the  same  latitude  (Hackett's  Illustra.  of  Script,  p.  118). 
The  Jewish  schools,  however,  distinguish  between 
"brother"  and  "neighbor;"  "brother"  meant  an  Is- 
raelite by  blood,  "neighbor"  a  proselyte.  Tiny  al- 
lowed neither  title  to  the  Gentiles  ;  but  (  hrist  and  the 
apostles  extended  the  name  "brother"  to  all  Chris- 
tians, and  "neighbor"  to  all  the  world,  1  Cor.  v,  11; 
Luke  x,  29,  30  (Lighttbot,  llor.  JJebr.  ad  Matt,  v, 
22). 

BROTHERS  OF  OUR  LORD.— In  Matt,  xiii,  55, 
James,  Joses,  Simon,  and  Judas  are  mentioned  as  the 
brothers  of  Jesus,  and  in  the  ensuing  verse  sisters  are 
also  ascribed  to  him.  The  Protestant  spirit  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  Popish  notion  about  the  perpetual  virginity 
of  Mary  has  led  man}'  commentators  to  contend  that 
this  must  be  taken  in  the  literal  sense,  and  that  these 
persons  are  to  be  regarded  as  children  whom  she  bore 
to  her  husband  Joseph  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  On 
the  whole,  we  incline  to  this  opinion,  seeing  that  such 
a  supposition  is  more  in  agreement  with  the  spirit  and 
letter  of  the  context,  than  any  other,  and  as  the  force 
of  the  allusion  to  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  Jesus 
would  be  much  weakened  if  more  distant  relatives  are 
to  be  understood.  Nevertheless,  there  are  some  grounds 
for  the  other  opinion,  that  these  were  not  natural  broth- 
ers and  sisters,  but  near  relations,  probably  cousins  of 
Christ.  In  Matt,  xxvii,  5G,  a  James  and  Joses  are  de- 
scribed as  sons  of  Mary  (certainly  not  the  Virgin); 
and  again  a  James  and  Judas  are  described  as  sons  of 
Alphanis  (Luke  vi,  15, 16),  which  Alphaus  is  probably 
the  same  as  Cleopbas,  husband  of  Mary,  sister  of  the 
Virgin  (John  xix,  25).  If,  therefore,  it  were  clear  that 
this  James,  Joses,  and  Judas  are  the  same  that  are 
elsewhere  described  as  the  Lord's  brothers,  this  point 
would  be  beyond  dispute  ;  but  as  it  is,  much  doubt 
must  always  hang  over  it.  See  Jour.  Sac.  Literature, 
July,  1855  ;  Stud.  ».  AY/7. 1812,  i,  71  sq.,  124.— Kitto. 

I.  It  should  be  observed  that  in  arguing  at  all  against 
their  being  the  real  brethren  of  Jesus,  far  too  much 
stress  has  been  laid  on  the  assumed  indeliniteness  of 
meaning  attached  to  the  word  "brother"  in  Scripture. 
In  all  the  adduced  cases  (see  above),  it  will  be  perceived 
that,  when  the  word  is  used  in  any  but  its  proper  sense, 
the  context  prevents  the  possibility  of  confusion  ;  and, 
indeed,  in  the  only  two  exceptional  instances  (not 
metaphorical),  vi/..  those  in  which  Lot  and  Jacob  are 
respectively  called  "brothers"  of  Abraham  and  Laban, 
the  word  is  only  extended  so  far  as  to  mean  "nephew;" 
and  it  must  be  remembered  that  even  these  exceptions 
are  quoted  from  a  single  book,  seventeen  centuries 
earlier  than  the  Gospels.  If,  then,  the  word  "breth- 
ren," as  repeatedly  applied  to  James,  etc..  really  mean 
"cousins"  or  "kinsmen,"  it  will  lie  the  only  instance 
of  such  an  application  in  which  no  data  arc  given  to 
correct  the  laxity  of  meaning.  Again,  no  really  paral- 
lel case  can  be  quoted  from  the  N.  T..  except  in  mere- 
ly rhetorical  and  tropical  passages';  whereas,  when 
"nephews"  are  meant,  they  are  always  specified  as 
such,  as  in  Col.  iv,  10;  Acts  xxiii,  1G  (Kitto.  The 
Apostles,  etc.  p.  165  sq.).  There  is  therefore  no  ade- 
quate warrant  in  the  language  alone  to  take  "breth- 
ren" as  meaning  "relatives,"  and  therefore  tin'  a 
priori  presumption  is  in  favor  of  a  literal  acceptation 
of  the  term.  We  have  dwelt  the  more  strongly  on 
this  point,  because  it  seems  to  have  been  far  too  easily 


BROTHER 


896 


BROTHER 


assumed  that  no  importance  is  to  be  attached  to  the 
mere  fact  of  their  being  invariably  called  Christ's 
brethren,  whereas  this  consideration  alone  goes  far  to 
prove  that  they  really  were  so. 

II.  There  are,  however,  three  traditions  respecting 
them.  They  are  first  mentioned  (Matt,  xiii,  56)  in  a 
manner  which  would  certainly  lead  an  unbiassed  mind 
to  conclude  that  they  were  our  Lord's  uterine  brothers. 
"  Is  not  this  the  carpenter's  son  ?  is  not  his  mother  called 
Mary?  ami  his  brethren  James,  and  Joses,  and  Judas, 
and  .Simon  ?  and  his  sisters,  are  they  not  all  with  us  ?" 
But  since  we  find  that  there  was  a  "  Mary,  the  mother 
of  James  and  Joses"  (Matt,  xxviii,  36),  and  that  a 
"James  and  Judas  (?)"  were  sons  of  Alphams  (Luke 
vi,  15, 16),  the  most  general  tradition  is,  (I.)  That  they 
were  all  our  Lord's  first  cousins,  the  sons  of  Alphaeus 
(or  Clopas — not  Cleopas,  see  Alford,  Gk.  Test.  Matt, 
x,  3)  and  Mary,  the  sister  of  the  Virgin.  This  tra- 
dition is  fully  accepted  by  Jerome  {Cat.  Script.  Ecc. 
2),  Augustine,  and  the  Latin  Church  generally,  and 
is  now  the  one  most  commonly-  received.  Yet  there 
seem  to  be  forcible  arguments  against  it;  for  (1.)  The 
reasoning  depends  on  three  assumptions,  viz.  a.  that 
"his  mother's  sister"  (John  xix,  25)  must  be  in  appo- 
sition with  "Mary,  the  wife  of  Cleophas,"  which,  in 
case  sisters-german  are  meant,  would  be  improbable, 
if  only  on  the  ground  that  it  supposes  two  sisters  to 
have  had  the  same  name,  a  supposition  substantiated 
by  no  parallel  cases  [Wieseler  (comp.  Mark  xv,  40) 
thinks  that  Salome,  the  wife  of  Zebedee,  is  intended  by 
"  his  mother's  sister"],  b.  That  "  Mary,  the  mother  of 
James,"  was  the  wife  of  Alphams,  i.  e.  that  the  James 
intended  is  "James  [the  son]  of  Alphaeus"  (  Icacwfiog 
6  'AXtpaiov').  c.  That  Cleophas,  or,  more  correctly, 
Clopas,  whose  wife  Mary  was,  is  identical  with  Al- 
phajus  ;  which,  however  possible,  cannot  be  positively 


proved.  See  Alph.eus.  (2.)  If  his  cousins  only  were 
meant,  it  would  be  signally  untrue  that  "neither  did 
his  brethren  believe  on  him"  (John  vii,  5  sq.),  for  in 
all  probability  three  out  of  the  four  (viz.  James  the 
Less,  Simon  [i.  e.  Zelotes],  and  Jude,  the  brother  [?] 
of  James)  were  actual  apostles.  (3.)  It  is  quite  unac- 
countable that  these  "brethren  of  the  Lord,"  if  they 
were  only  his  cousins,  should  be  always  mentioned  in 
conjunction  with  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  never  with 
their  own  mother  Mary,  who  was  both  alive  and  in 
constant  attendance  on  our  Lord.  (4.)  They  are  gen- 
erally spoken  of  as  distinct  from  the  apostles ;  see  Acts 
i,  14  ;  1  Cor.  ix,  15 ;  and  Jude  (17)  seems  almost  to 
imply  that  he  himself  was  not  an  apostle. 

(II.)  A  second  tradition,  accepted  by  Hilary,  Epi- 
phanius,  and  the  Greek  fathers  generally,  makes  them 
the  sons  of  Josejih  by  a  former  marriage  with  a  certain 
Escha  or  Salome,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  indeed,  Epi- 
phanius  {Hares.  29,  §  4)  even  mentions  the  supposed 
order  of  birth  of  the  four  sons  and  two  daughters. 
But  Jerome  {Com.  in  Matt,  xii,  49)  slights  this  as  a 
mere  conjecture,  borrowed  from  the  "deliramenta 
Apocryphorum,"  and  Origen  says  that  it  was  taken 
from  the  Gospel  of  St.  Peter.  The  only  ground  for 
its  possibility  is  the  apparent  difference  of  age  between 
Joseph  and  the  Virgin. 

(III.)  They  are  assumed  by  many  to  have  been  the 
offspring  of  a  Levirate  marriage  between  Joseph  and 
the  wife  of  his  deceased  brother  Clopas.  This,  al- 
though a  mere  hypothesis,  is  the  only  one  that  actual- 
ly meets  all  the  conditions  of  the  problem.  For  the 
discussion  of  the  details  of  this  adjustment,  see  James  ; 
Mary.  The  accompanying  table  exhibits  the  whole 
subject  in  one  view,  with  the  passages  bearing  upon  it, 
and  the  adjustment  proposed  of  this  difficult  question 
(see  Meth.  Quar.  Revieic,  1851,  p.  671-672). 


PROBABLE  SCHEME  OF  CUBIST'S  IMMEDIATE  BELATIVES. 


FAMILY   OF   AARON. 

FAMILY    OF    PA  VII). 

Some 

pi-ii'-t 

Some  priest  1 

Matthan 

1     Matthat 

A 

1 
son 

riah1 

7     1     i 

A  son       to  A  daughter 

Unknown  1                     Jacob 

Anna  to     Eli 

Zecht 

to        Elizabeth'-^ 

Mary3  to  Alphseus,*  then  to  Joseph,5  who  to  Mary  (the  aVirgin")$ 

1 
John  {the  Baptist) 

1                                                  1 
James  ('he  "Less")7            Daughters8 
Simon  (the  '■•Zealot'")'3                and 
Jude  (or  uLcblo3its''')10         younger 
Josesii                                     Brothers12 

Jescs 

1  T.ukc  i,  5. 

2  Luke  i,  5,  36. 

3  Ma 

4  Jul 

rk  xvi,  1.         i  Matt. 
n  xix,  25.        6  Luke  i 

10.        7 

27.          8 

Matt,  x,  3;  xiii,  55;  Gal.  i,  19.          9  Luke  vi,  15 
Matt,  xiii,  55.                                     1"  Mark  vi,  3; 

Mark  vi,  3.        1 1   Mark  vi,  40. 
Lake  vi,  10.       l->  John  vii,  5;  Acts  i,  14. 

III.  The  arguments  against  their  being  the  sons  of  i 
the  Virgin  after  the  birth  of  our  Lord  are  founded  on 
(l.i  the  almost  constant  tradition  of  her  perpetual  vir- 
ginity (auirapQtvia).  St.  Basil  {Serm.de  S.  Xatir.) 
even  records  a  story  that  "Zechary  was  slain  by  the  i 
Jews  between  the  porch  and  the.  altar"  for  affirming 
her  to  be  a  virgin  after  as  well  as  before  the  birth  of 
her  most  holy  Son  (Jer.  Taylor,  Duct.  Dubit.  ii,  3,  4).  j 
Still,  the  tradition  was  not  universal :  it  was  denied,  for 
instance,  by  large  numbers  called  Antidicomarianitae 
and  Helvidiani.  To  quote  Ezek.  xliv,  2,  as  any  argu- 
ment on  Hi-  question  is  plainly  idle.  (2.)  On  the  fact 
that  upon  the  cross  Christ  commended  his  mother  to 
of  the  apo  tie  John;  but  this  is  easily  ex- 
plicable  on  the  ground  of  his  brethren's  apparent  dis- 
belief in  him  al  that  time,  though  they  seem  to  have 
been  converted  very  Boon  afterward;  or  better,  per- 
haps, on  the  ground  of  their  youth  at  the  time.  (•">.) 
On  the  identity  of  their  names  with  those  of  the 
sons  of  Alphsus.  Whatever  force  there  may  be  in 
this  argument  is  retained  by  the  above  Levirate 
scheme. 

On  the  other  hand,  1 1 » < -  arguments  for  their  being 

our  Lord's  uterine  brothers  are   numerous,  an  1,  taken 
collectively,  to  an  unprejudiced  mind  almost  irresistible, 


although  singly  they  are  open  to  objections :  e.  g.  (1.) 
The  words  "first-born  son"  {irpioroTOKor  vioc'),  Luke 
ii,  7.  (-2.)  Matt,  i,  25,  "knew  her  not  till  she  had 
brought  forth"  {oi>k  tyiyvuiOKEV  ai>Tt)v  f'we.  ov  iVt/ctr), 
etc.,  to  which  Alford  justly  remarks  only  one  mean- 
ing could  have  been  attached  but  for  preconceived  the- 
ories about  the  Virginity.  (3.)  rIhe  general  tone  of 
the  Gospels  on  the  subject,  since  they  are  constantly 
spoken  of  with  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  with  no  shadow 
of  a  hint  that  they  were  not  her  own  children  (Matt, 
xii,  46  ;  Mark  iii,  31,  etc.).  It  can,  we  think,  be  hard- 
ly denied  that  any  one  of  these  arguments  is  singly 
stronger  than  those  produced  on  the  other  side. — Smith 
s.  v.     See  Jesus. 

"BROTHER"  {Frater)  was  the  common  appella. 
tion  given  by  Christians  to  each  other  in  the  early 
Church.  See  Brethren.  In  the  Roman  Church  it 
came  to  be  especially  applied  to  monks.  When  those 
monks  who  were  priests  assumed  the  name  of  Fathers 
(Patres),  the  name  brothers  was  reserved  to  the  mem- 
bers who  were  not  ordained.  Since  the  13th  century 
I  this  title  has  also  been  given  to  the  begging  monks, 
in  distinction  from  the  other  orders  of  monks.  In  the 
Protestant  churches  it  is  common  for  ministers  to  ad- 
dress each  other  bv  the  name  brother. 


BROTHERS  897 


BROWN 


Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction.  See 
School  Brothers,  Congregations  of. 

Brothers  of  St.  Joseph.  See  Joseph,  St., 
Brothers  of. 

Brothers  of  the  Society  of  Mary.  See  Mary, 
Brothers  of  the  Society  of. 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine.  See 
School  Brothers,  Congregations  of. 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  See 
School  Brothers,  Congregations  of. 

Brothers  of  the  Holy  Family.  See  Holy 
Family,  Brothers  of  the. 

Brothers,  Richard,  an  enthusiast  and  pretended 
prophet,  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  British  navy,  which 
he  quitted  in  1789.  Declining  to  take  the  oath  re- 
quired on  receipt  of  half  pay,  he  was  very  near  dying 
of  hunger,  and  was  ultimately  taken  to  a  workhouse. 
From  the  year  1790  Brothers  dates  his  first  call.  On 
May  12,  1792,  he  sent  letters  to  the  king,  ministers 
of  state,  and  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  stating 
that  he  was  commanded  hy  God  to  go  to  the  Parlia- 
ment-house on  the  17th  of  that  month,  and  inform  the 
members  for  their  safety  that  the  time  was  come  for 
the  fulfilment  of  the  7th  chapter  of  Daniel.  Accord- 
ingly, on  the  day  named,  he  presented  himself  at  the 
door  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and,  according  to  his 
own  account,  met  with  a  very  scurvy  reception.  Hav- 
ing some  time  after  prophesied  the  death  of  the  king, 
the  destruction  of  the  monarchy,  and  that  the  crown 
should  be  delivered  up  to  him,  he  was  committed  to 
Newgate,  where,  if  his  statement  be  true,  he  was  treat- 
ed with  great  cruelty.  On  his  liberation,  he  continued 
what  he  denominated  his  ministry  with  renewed  ener- 
gy, and  obtained  many  followers.  While  the  more 
rational  part  of  the  community  were  laughing  at  the 
prophet,  there  were  some  persons  of  liberal  education 
and  of  good  ability  who  maintained  the  divinity  of  his 
mission.  Among  these,  Nathaniel  Brassey  Ilalhed, 
Esq.,  M.  P.  for  Lymington,  and  Mr.  Sharp,  an  emi- 
nent engraver,  were  the  most  zealous:  they  published 
numerous  pamphlets  and  testimonials  in  his  favor,  and 
others  to  the  same  effect  appeared  by  Bryan,  Wright, 
Mr.  Weatherall,  an  apothecary,  and  a  Mrs.  Green. 
Among  other  things,  Halhed  bore  testimony  to  his 
prophesj'ing  correctly  the  death  of  the  three  emperors 
of  Germany.  Among  several  strange  letters  which 
Brothers  published  was  one  entitled  "A  Letter  from 
Mr.  Brothers  to  Miss  Cott,  the  recorded  Daughter  of 
King  David,  and  future  Queen  of  the  Hebrews,  with 
an  Address  to  the  Members  of  his  Britannic  Majesty's 
Council"  (1798).  Such  an  effect  had  these  and  other 
similar  writings  on  people  of  weak  understanding,  that 
many  persons  sold  their  goods  and  prepared  them- 
selves to  accompany  the  prophet  to  his  New  Jerusa- 
lem, which  was  to  be  built  on  both  sides  of  the  River 
Jordan,  and  where  he  was  to  arrive  in  the  year  1795. 
Jerusalem  was  then  to  become  the  capital  of  the  world ; 
and  in  the  year  1798,  when  the  complete  restoration 
of  the  Jews  was  to  take  place,  he  was  to  be  revealed 
as  the  prince  and  ruler  of  the  Jews,  and  the  governor 
of  all  nations,  for  which  office  he  appears  to  have  had 
a  greater  predilection  than  for  that  of  president  of  the 
council  or  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  which  he  said 
God  offered  for  his  acceptance.  Taken  altogether,  the 
writings  of  Brothers  are  a  curious  jumble  of  reason  and 
insanity,  with  no  small  number  of  contradictions.  He 
was  placed  in  a  lunatic  asylum,  from  which  be  was  re- 
leased in  1800,  and  died  in  1824.  <  me  of  his  disciples, 
Finlayson,  published  in  1849  a  book  called  The  Ln.it 
Trumpet,  more  fanciful,  if  possible,  than  Brothers' s  own 
book.  There  are  still  a  i'rw  of  his  disciples  left  in 
England. — English  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Brother's  Wife  (r~2^,  yehtfmeth,  Dent,  xxv,  7; 

41  sister-in-law,"  Ruth,  i,  15).     See  Affinity. 
Lll 


Broughton,  Hugh,  was  born  at  Oldbury,  Shrop- 
shire, 1549,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  be- 
came  conspicuous  for  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  lie 
afterward  proceeded  to  London,  where  he  became  a 
popular  preacher.  In  1588  he  published  his  Concent 
of  Scripture,  a  kind  of  Scripture  chronology  and  gen- 
ealogies. Broughton  was  desirous  of  translating  the 
New  Testament  into  Hebrew,  but  received  no  encour- 
agement. Lightfoot  pronounces  a  high  eulogium  on 
his  rabbinical  learning.  lie  was  certainly  one  of 
the  best  Hebrew  scholars  of  his  time,  and  had  trans- 
lated the  Apocrypha  into  Hebrew;  but  his  pride  and 
ill  temper  hindered  his  advancement  in  the  Church. 
He  died  in  London,  Aug.  4, 1612.  Most  of  his  works 
were  collected  under  the  title,  The  Works  of  the  great 
A Ibionean  Divine,  renowned  in  many  Lands  for  rare 
SHU  in  Sali m's  and  Athens1  Tongues,  etc.  (Lond.  1662, 
fol.). — New  Gen.  Bibg.  Dirt,  v,  97  ;  Allibone,  i,  255 ; 
Darling,  Cyclopaedia  BibliograpJiica,  i,  447. 

Broughton,  Richard,  a  Romanist,  born  at  Stuke- 
ley,  Huntingdonshire,  and  educated  at  Rheims.  He 
took  priest's  orders  in  1593 ;  was  sent  into  England  as 
a  missionary,  and  died  in  1G34.  His  principal  works 
are,  An  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Great  Britain,  from  the 
Nativity  to  the  Conversion  of  the  Saxons  (Douay,  1G33, 
fol.): — .1  true  Memorial  of  the  ancient  religious  State 
of  Great  Britain  in  the  Time  of  the  Britons  (1C50,  8vo)  : 
— Monasticon  Britannienm  (1655,  8vo). — New  Gen.  Biog. 
Diet,  v,  97  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  418. 

Broughton,  Thomas,  a  learned  divine,  born  in 
London  July  5,  1704,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Cam- 
bridge, received  orders  in  1727.  After  various  pref- 
erments he  became  vicar  of  Bedminster,  1744,  and 
prebendary  of  Salisbury.  He  died  December  21,  1774. 
Among  his  works  is  Christianity  distinct  from  the  /.'<- 
ligion  of  Nature,  a  reply  to  the  infidel  work  "Chris- 
tianity as  old  as  the  Creation"  (Lond.  1732,  8vo)  ;  va- 
rious lives  in  the  Biographia  J'ritonnica,  and  the  liibli- 
otheca  Historico-Sacra,  a  historical  dictionary  of  all  re- 
ligions (Lond.  1737-39,  2  vols,  fol.).— New  Gen.  Biog. 
Diet,  v,  97  ;   Landon,  Led.  Diet,  ii,  418. 

Brousson,  Claude,  a  French  Protestant  advocate 
and  martyr,  born  at  Nismes  1647.  In  his  house  at 
Toulouse  the  deputies  of  the  Protestant  churches  as- 
sembled in  Ills:!,  when  it  was  resolved  that  the  relig- 
ious meetings  of  the  Protestants  should  be  continued 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Brousson 
retired  to  Geneva  and  Lausanne,  and,  having  been  or- 
dained, preached  from  place  to  place  in  France,  Hol- 
land, and  Germany.  His  labors  led  finally  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  "Churches  of  the  Desert."  See 
Court,  Anthony.  Being  arrested  at  (Heron  in  1698, 
he  was  broken  on  the  wheel  at  Montpellier.  He  left, 
among  other  writings,  L'etat  des  Rtfbrmes  di  France 
(Switzerland,  1684;  Hague,  1665) : — Lettres  an  cJergi 
de France: — Lettres  des  protestans  dt  Frana  ii  tousles 
autres  protestans  <l<  V Europe  (Berlin,  1688) : — Relation 
sommaire  des  m*  rvtUles  </>"  l>i<  n  fait  <  n  Frana  dans  lea 
Cevennes  (1694,  8vo).  See  Peyrat,  Hist,  des  Pasteurs  de 
desert  (Paris,  1842,  2  vols.');  Weiss,  liistmre  des  Refu- 
gies  Protestants. — Hoofer,  Biog.  Generate,  v,  538. 

Brow  (n^"2,  me'tsach,  Isa.  xlviii,  4,  the  forehead, 

as  elsewhere  rendered  ;  o<f>pvg,  the  edge  of  a  hill,  Luke 
iv,  29).     See  Eye. 

Brown  (DIM,  chum,  literally  scorched),  i.  e.  black, 
the  term  applied  to  dark-colored  sheep  in  a  flock  (Gen. 
xxx,  32  40).      See  Color. 

Brown,  Alexander  Blaine,  D.D.,  a  Presby- 
terian minister,  sun  of  the  Rev.  Matthew  Brown,  1  >.!>., 
was  limn  Aug.  1,  1808,  at  Washington,  Pa.,  and  grad- 
uated at  Jefferson  College  in  1825.  He  studied  theol- 
ogy at  Alleghany,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  Octo- 
ber, 1831.  After  spending  some  time  as  a  missionary 
in  Virginia,  he  became  pastor  at  Birmingham,  near 


BROWN 


898 


BROWN 


Pittsburgh,  in  1833  ;  he  afterward  served  the  churches 
in  Niles,  Michigan,  and  Portsmouth,  Ohio,  till  1841, 
when  he  became  professor  of  Belles-Lettres  in  Jefferson 
College.  In  October ,  1847,  he  became  president  of  the 
college,  and  served  with  great  fidelity  and  success  un- 
til 1856,  when  ill  health  compelled  him  to  resign.  He 
died  at  Centre,  September  8, 1863.  As  a  teacher  he 
was  accurate,  instructive,  and  systematic.  As  a  preach- 
er he  was  always  edifying,  and  he  rose  occasionally  to 
the  highest  eloquence. — Wilson,  Presbyterian  Almanac, 
1861,  p.  98. 

Brown,  Francis,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Chester,  N. 
II.,  Jan.  11,  1784.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege 1806,  and  a  year  after  his  graduation  became  tu- 
tor in  the  college,  where  he  remained  till  1809.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  in  North  Yarmouth,  Me.,  in  1810. 
In  1815  he  was  elected  president  of  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, and  remained  in  this  position  until  his  death, 
July  27,  1820.  He  was  made  D.D.  1819  by  Hamilton 
ami  Williams  colleges.  He  published  Calvin  and  Cal- 
vinism, defended  against  certain  injurious  Representations 
contained  in  a  Pamphlet  entitled  ' '  A  Sketch  of  the  Life 
and  Doctrine  of  the  celebrated  John  Calvin"  (1815) ; 
.4  R<ply  to  the  Rev.  Martin  Ruter's  Letter  relating  to 
Calvin  and  Calvinism  (1815);  and  several  occasional 
sermons. — Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  516. 

Brown,  Isaac  V.,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Somerset  Co.,  N.  J.,  Nov.  4, 1784 ;  gradu- 
ated at  Nassau  Hall,  Princeton,  and  studied  theology 
with  Dr.  Woodhull,  of  Freehold ;  was  ordained  by  the 
New  Brunswick  Presbytery  as  pastor  at  Lawrence- 
ville,  N.  J.,  where  he  established  the  now  celebrated 
Lawrenceville  Classical  and  Commercial  Boarding- 
school.  He  remained  at  its  head  until  1833,  when  he 
removed  to  Mount  Holhy.  He  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  that  vicinity,  preaching,  but  especially 
devoted  to  literary  labors.  He  died  April  19,  1861. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Coloniza- 
tion Society,  and  labored  for  it  earnestly.  He  pub- 
lished Life  of  Robert  Finley,  D.D.,  a  work  on  The  Uni- 
ty of  the  Human  Race,  and  A  Historical  Vindication  of 
the  Abrogation  of  the  Plan  of  Union  by  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  A. — Wilson,  Presbyterian  Almanac, 
1862. 

Brown,  James  Caldwell,  D.D.,  a  minister  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  (O.  S.),  was  born  at  St.  Clairs- 
ville,  Ohio.  In  his  16th  year  he  entered  Jefferson  Col- 
lege, Pa.,  as  a  freshman,  and  while  there  he  united  with 
the  Church.  From  Jefferson  College  he  passed  to  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary  at  Alleghany,  Pa., 
where  he  remained  two  years,  and  finally  graduated 
at  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Columbia,  S.  C.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Harmony, 
S.  C.  He  went  in  1839  to  Indiana,  to  do  missionary 
work  in  the  wild  counties  lying  along  the  southern 
end  of  Lake  Michigan.  He  settled  at  Valparaiso,  Por- 
ter County,  where  he  preached  for  twenty-one  years, 
and  built  up  the  largest  Presbyterian  Church  in  North- 
ern Indiana.  In  fact,  nearly  every  Presbj'terian 
Church  within  a  circuit  of  thirty  miles  was  organized 
by  him.  In  1859  he  received  the  decree  of  D.D.  si- 
multaneously from  Jefferson  and  Hanover  colleges. 
In  1860  he  resigned  his  charge  in  Valparaiso  to  be- 
come tlie  general  agent  of  the  Theological  Seminary 
of  the  Northwest  at  Chicago,  Illinois.  Before  resign- 
ing his  charge, he  initiated  measures  which  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  a  Presbyterian  institution. 
Tl atbreak  of  the  rebellion  hindered  him  from  ac- 
complishing any  thing  as  general  agent  of  the  Theo- 
[ogica]  Seminary.  In  the  winter  of  1861  he  preached 
as  n  BUpply  to  the.  church  in  South  Bend,  Ind.,  and 
while  there  In'  was  elected  chaplain  of  the  48th  Indi- 
ana Volunteers.  He  joined  his  regiment  in  May,  1862, 
and  was  with  it  in  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  and  Alabama. 
Being  attacked  with  camp  diarrhoea,  he  was  ordered 
home  to  recruit  his  health,  but  was  only  able  to  reach 


Paducah,  Ky.,  where  he  died  July  14, 1862.— Wilson, 
Presbyterian  Almanac,  vol.  v,  1863. 

Brown,  James  Moore,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of 
the  Old  School  Presbyterian  Church,  was  born  in  the 
Valley  of  Virginia,  Sept.  13, 1799.  He  was  educated 
at  Washington  College,  Lexington,  Va.,  where  he  also 
studied  theology  under  Dr.  Geo.  A.  Baxter.  He  was 
licensed  by  Lexington  Presbytery  at  Mossy  Creek 
Church,  Rockingham  County,  Va.,  April  13, 1824.  On 
Sept.  30,  1826,  he  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor 
over  the  churches  of  Gerardstown,  Tuscarora,  and 
Falling  Waters,  in  Berkeley  County,  Va.,  within  the 
bounds  of  Westchester  Presbytery.  The  bounds  of 
his  congregation  extended  about  thirty  miles  along 
the  base  of  North  Mountain,  and  there  he  labored,  like 
an  apostle,  faithfully  and  successfully,  exploring  and 
establishing  preaching  places  in  destitute  places  around 
him,  until,  in  1835,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  the 
synods  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  he  undertook 
an  agency  for  the  cause  of  missions,  and  removed  to 
Prince  Edward  County  as  a  more  central  location  for 
his  work.  In  April,  1837,  he  received  and  accepted  a 
call  to  the  church  of  Kanawha,  West  Virginia,  where 
he  labored  for  twenty-five  years.  On  a  journey  home 
from  Frankfort,  Va.,  where  he  had  attended  the  death- 
bed of  his  daughter,  he  was  taken  sick  at  Lewisburg, 
and  there  died,  June  8,  1862. — Wilson,  Presbyterian 
Almanac,  1863. 

Brown,  John,  D.D.,  Vicar  of  Newcastle,  born  in 
Northumberland  1715,  and  educated  at  Cambridge, 
was  made  rector  of  Great  Horkeseley,  Essex,  1715,  and 
vicar  of  St.  Nicholas,  Newcastle,  1758.  He  commit- 
ted suicide,  in  a  fit  of  insanity,  1766.  He  was  an  in- 
genious writer,  of  more  talent  than  learning.  He 
wrote  An  Estimate  of  the  Manners  and  Principles  of  the 
Times  (Lond.  1757-58,  2  vols.  8vo),  which  was  very 
popular ;  Sermons  on  Various  Subjects  (Lond.  1764, 
8vo);  Essays  on  Shaftesbury's  Characteristics  (Lond. 
1784,  5th  ed.)  ;  and  other  minor  works. 

Brown,  John,  of  Haddington,  was  born  at  Ker- 
poo,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  1722.  His  early  education 
was  neglected,  and  he  taught  school  to  support  him- 
self during  his  preparatory  studies.  In  the  Burgher 
(q.  v.)  schism  in  the  Secession  Church  he  joined  the 
moderate  party ;  and,  after  studying  under  Ebenezer 
Erskine,  he  was  licensed  in  1750.  His  parochial  du- 
ties being  limited,  he  adopted  a  plan  of  daily  study 
to  which  he  kept  rigidly  through  life.  By  patient  in- 
dustry he  became  acquainted  with  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages, as  well  as  the  classical  and  modern :  but  he 
applied  all  his  learning  to  divinity  and  Biblical  litera- 
ture. In  1768  he  became  professor  of  divinity  to  the 
Associate  Synod,  and  held  the  office  till  his  death  in 
1787.  His  chief  works  are  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(Lond.  1769,  2  vols.  8vo ;  often  reprinted)  -.—Self-inter- 
preting Bible  (Lond.  4to  ;  often  reprinted)  : — Compen- 
dious history  of  the  British  Churches  (Edinb.  1823,  new 
ed.  2  vols.  8vo) :  —  Concordance  to  Scripti/re  (Lond. 
1816,  18mo)  : — Harmony  of  Prophecies  (Lond.  1800, 
12mo,  new  ed.) ;  besides  minor  writings. — Jamieson, 
Relig.  Biog.  p.  71 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  257. 

Brown,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Co.  Antrim,  Ireland,  June  16,  1763.  His  fa- 
ther emigrated  to  South  Carolina,  and  the  son's  early 
education  was  limited.  At  16  he  entered  the  Revolu- 
tionary army  as  a  volunteer.  After  the  war  he  stud- 
ied theology,  and  in  1783  was  licensed  to  preach,  and 
became  pastor  of  Waxhaw  Church,  S.  C.  In  1809  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the 
College  of  S.  C,  and  in  1811  president  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Georgia.  He  was  made  D.D.  at  Princeton 
1811.  His  services  in  the  university  were  faithfully 
discharged  for  many  years,  and  on  retiring  he  devoted 
himself  again  to  pastoral  work  in  Georgia.  He  died 
Dec.  11, 1842.— Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  536. 

Brown,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the  German 


BROWN 


S99 


BROWNE 


Reformed  Church,  was  born  near  Bremen,  July  21st, 
1771.  He  was  early  pious,  and  from  boyhood  had  a 
strong  desire  to  go  to  America,  and  emigrated  in  1797. 
He  studied  theology  with  Rev.  Philip  Stoeck,  in  Cham- 
bersburg,  Penn.,  was  licensed  by  the  Synod  of  the 
German  Reformed  Church  in  1800,  and  ordained  in 
1803.  He  took  charge  of  long-neglected  and  scattered 
congregations  in  the  Valley  of  Virginia.  1 1  is  labors 
extended  over  a  wide  field,  including  six  counties,  and 
in  the  earlier  part  of  his  ministry  he  travelled  to  his 
appointments  on  foot,  staff  in  hand.  Though  often 
tempted  by  calls  from  abroad,  he  labored  in  the  same 
field — having  been  relieved  of  parts  of  it  from  time  to 
time  by  other  ministers  coming  to  his  assistance  —  up 
to  the  time  of  his  death,  Jan.  26th,  1850,  almost  half  a 
century.  In  1818  he  published,  in  the  German  lan- 
guage, a  volume  of  400  pages,  being  a  kind  of  Pastoral 
Address  to  the  Germans  of  Virginia,  which  exerted  a 
happy  influence  on  the  minds  and  hearts  of  those  for 
whose  good  it  was  intended.  Dr.  Brown  was  possess- 
ed of  fine  talents,  earnestly  pious,  mild,  affectionate, 
and  patriarchal  in  his  spirit,  widely  useful  and  greatly 
beloved  wherever  he  was  known.  He  preached  only 
in  the  German  language. 

Brown,  John,  D.D.  (grandson  of  Brown  of  Had- 
dington), one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  Scottish 
divines,  was  born  in  1783  at  Whitburn,  Scotland,  and 
educated  in  literature  and  theology  in  the  "  Secession 
School."  Soon  after  he  was  licensed  as  a  probationer, 
and  he  received  a  call  from  the  Burgher  congregation 
at  Biggar,  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  which  he  was  or- 
dained in  1806.  In  1821  he  became  pastor  of  the  Uni- 
ted Secession  Church,  Rose  Street,  Edinburgh,  and, 
on  the  death  of  Dr.  James  Hall,  he  succeeded  that  min- 
ister as  pastor  of  Broughton  Place  Church,  Edinburgh. 
The  Burgher  and  Anti-burgher  Seceders  having  uni- 
ted in  1820  under  the  name  of  the  United  Associate 
Synod,  Dr.  Brown  was  chosen  one  of  their  professors 
of  divinity  in  1835.  The  body  to  which  he  belonged 
was  merged  in  1849  in  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
(q.  v.).  He  held  his  post  as  professor,  with  the  pastoral 
charge  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  Broughton 
Place,  Edinburgh,  till  his  death,  Oct.  13th,  1857.  Dr. 
Brown  was  greatly  respected  and  loved  as  an  eminent 
pulpit  orator,  and  his  sterling  Christian  character  and 
amiable  and  warm  piety  commended  him  to  the  esteem 
and  affection  of  all  the  people  of  God  who  knew  him, 
however  separated  among  men  by  different  names. 
"What  Dr.  Chalmers  was  in  the  Free  Church,  what 
Dr.  Wardlaw  was  among  Congregationalists,  what  Dr. 
Bunting  was  among  Wesleyans,  that  was  Dr.  Brown 
among  United  Presbyterians.  All  these  great  men 
belonged,  in  one  sense,  specially  to  their  respective 
denominations,  but  in  another  and  far  higher  sense 
they  belonged  to  the  Christian  world,  and  were  equal- 
ly esteemed  and  beloved  by  Christians  of  all  denomi- 
nations. He  was  a  very  voluminous  writer,  as  he  was 
in  the  habit  of  publishing  his  Divinity  Lectures,  and 
also  many  of  his  congregational  lectures.  In  theology 
he  is  probably  to  be  classed  with  moderate  Calvinista 
or  Baxterians",  and  this  type  of  doctrine  prevails  in  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church.  His  writings  include 
Tlie  Law  of  Christ  respecting  Civil  Obedience  (Lond. 
is;:;).  3d  ed.  8vo)  : — Expository  Lectures  on  1  Pet(  r  (Ed- 
inl).  2d  ed.  1849,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  N.  Y.  8vo)  :— Discourses 
and  Sayings  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Edinb.  1850,  3 
vols.  8vo;  N.  Y.  1854,  2  vols.  8vo)  r  —  Exposition  of 
Lord's  Prayer  (Lond.  1850,  8vo)  -.—Sufferings  and  Glo- 
ries of  Messiah  (N.  Y.  8vo,  1855),  besides  a  number 
of  practical  treatises.— Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  p.  454; 
Meth.  Qu.  Rev.  1854,  p.  464  ;   .\  .  Brit.  i:<  o.  Aug.  I860. 

Brown,  John,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  bom  in  Brooklyn,  Ccnn.,  July  1,  1786,  and  grad- 
uated in  Dartmouth  in  lx()9.  In  1811  lie  was  appoint- 
ed tutor  in  Dartmouth,  where  he  remained  two  years. 
On  Dec.  8,  1813,  he  was  ordained  pastor  in  Cazenovia, 
N.Y.     He  was  made  D.D.  by  Union  College  1827. 


In  1829  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  Pine  Street  Church, 
Boston.  He  removed  to  Hadley,  Mass.,  1831,  and  la- 
bored there  as  pastor  until  his  death,  March  22,  1889. 
Two  sermon*  on  baptism  are  his  only  publications. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  589. 

Brown,  Matthew,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  Northumberland  Co..  Pa.,  in 
1776.  He  graduated  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle, 
in  1794,  commenced  the  study  of  theology  about  1796, 
and  was  licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  Carlisle  Oct.  3, 
1799.  After  having  for  some  time  had  the  charge  of 
the  congregation  of  Mifflin  and  Lost  Creek,  he  became 
in  lso")  pastor  of  the  congregation  of  Washington, 
Pa.,  and  principal  of  the  Washington  Academy,  the 
latter  being  in  1806  merged  in  the  Washington  Col- 
lege. Mr.  Brown  was  elected  first  president  of  the 
college,  which  situation  he  filled  until  Dec,  1816,  still 
remaining  pastor  of  his  congregation.  After  leaving 
AVashmt^ton  College,  he  declined  the  presidency  of 
Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky. ;  yet  in  1822  he  accept- 
ed that  of  Jefferson  College  at  Cannonsburg,  which 
office  he  filled  with  distinguished  success  for  twenty- 
three  years.  In  1823  he  was  made  D.D.  by  the  Col- 
lege of  N.  J.,  and  subsequently  LL.D.  by  Lafayette 
and  Jefferson  colleges.  After  a  time  he  became  also 
pastor  of  the  congregation  at  Cannonsburg,  and  con- 
tinued as  such  until  his  health  compelled  him  to  tender 
his  resignation  of  the  presidency  of  the  college  in  1845 ; 
yet  his  labors  in  the  pulpit  did  not  wholly  cease  till 
near  the  close  of  life.  He  died  at  Pittsburg  July 
29,  1853.  He  published  A  Memoir  of  the  Rev.  Oba- 
diah  Jennings,  D.D.  (1832)  -.—Extract-!  from  Lectures 
by  Dr.  Chas.  Nisbet,  President  of  Dickinson  <  'nil,,/,  ,  with 
Remarks  from  other  Writers  (1840),  with  a  number  of 
occasional  sermons  and  addresses. — Sprague,  Annals, 
iv,  256. 

Brown,  Robert.     See  Brownists. 

Brown,  William  Lawrence,  D.D.,  an  emi- 
nent Scotch  divine,  born  in  1755,  was  educated  at  St 
Andrew's,  Aberdeen,  and  at  Utrecht.  In  1778  he  be- 
came minister  of  the  English  Church  in  Utrecht;  in 
1795  he  removed  to  Scotland  and  became  professor 
of  divinity  at  Aberdeen,  and  afterward  principal  of 
Marischal  College.  He  died  in  1830.  His  writings 
include  Sermons  (Edinb.  1803,  8vo): — Comparison  of 
Christianity  with  other  Forms  of  Religion  (Edinb.  1826, 
2  vols.  8vo) : — Essay  on  the,  Existence  of  a  Supreme 
Creator  (Edinb.  1816,  8vo),  which  obtained  the  Burnet 
prize  of  £1250. 

Browne,  Arthur,  the  only  Episcopalian  minister 
in  New  Hampshire  till  after  the  Revolution,  was  born 
in  Drogheda,  Ireland,  in  1699,  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  and  emigrated  as  missionary  to  America 
in  1729,  becoming  rector  of  King's  Chapel  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  L,  in  the  following  year.  In  1736  he  re- 
moved to  Portsmouth,  N.  II.,  where,  he  labored  for  :'>7 
years.  He  died  in  1773  much  lamented. — Sprague, 
Annals,  V,  76. 

Browne,  George,  D.D.,  archbishop  of  Dublin, 
the  first  prelate  who  embraced  the  Reformation  in  Ire- 
land. He  was  originally  a  friar  of  the  order  of  St. 
Augustine,  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  1584,  and  in 
1535  was  made  archbishop  of  Dublin.  When  Henry 
the   Eighth  ordered  the   monasteries  to  be  destroyed. 

Archbishop  Browne  immediately  ordered  thai  every 
vestige  of  superstitious  relics,  of  which  there  were 
many  in  the  two  cathedrals  of  Dublin,  should  bo  re- 
moved. He  afterward  caused  the  same  to  be  done  in 
th"  other  churches  of  Ins  diocese,  and  supplied  their 
places  with  the  Creed,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  In  1545,  a  command  having  been 
issued  that  the  Liturgy  of  King  Edward  the  Sixth 
should  be  compiled,  it  was  violently  opposed,  and  only 
by  Browne's  party  received.  Accordingly,  on  Easter 
day  following,  it  was  read  in  Christ  Church,  Dublin, 
in  the  presence  of  the  mayor  and  the  bailiffs  of  that 


BROWNE 


900 


BROWN  ISTS 


city ;  -alien  the  archbishop  delivered  a  judicious,  learn- 
ed." and  aide  sermon  against  keeping  the  Bible  in  the 
Latin  tongue  and  the  worship  of  images.  In  October, 
1551,  the  title  of  primate  of  all  Ireland  was  conferred 
on  Browne.  On  account  of  his  zeal  in  the  Reforma- 
tion, he  was  deprived  of  his  see  by  Queen  Mary  in 
1554.  He  died  in  the  year  1556. — Jones,  Christian 
Bioff.  p.  71 ;  Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  iii,  175. 

Browne,  Simon,  a  Dissenting  minister  of  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  1680  at  Shepton  Mallet,  Somerset- 
shire. He  served  Dissenting  congregations  of  Ports- 
mouth and,  afterward,  of  London  until  1723,  when 
grief  for  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  his  son  made  him  de- 
ranged on  the  subject  of  Christ's  humanity,  concern- 
ing which  he  maintained  that  the  Supreme  Being, 
though  retaining  the  human  shape  and  the  faculty  of 
speaking,  "had  all  the  while  no  more  notion  of  what 
he  said  than  a  parrot."  He  gave  up  his  charge,  and 
refused  to  join  in  any  act  of  worship.  Yet  while  under 
this  delusion  he  wrote  vers-  able  works  against  Wool- 
ston  {Remarks  on  Mr.Woolston's  Fifth  D'scourse  on  the 
Miracles  of  ovr  Saviour,  1732),  and  against  Tindal 
( 1 1  fi  race  of  the  Religion  of  Nature  and  the  Christian  Rev- 
,  lation,  1732),  besides  a  Greek  and  a  Latin  Dictionary. 
Previously  he  had  published  several  other  works. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  M.D.,  the  distinguished 
author  of  the  Religio  Medici,  was  born  in  London  1605. 
His  early  education  was  received  at  AVinchester  and 
Oxford.  He  studied  medicine  subsequently,  and  took 
his  degree  at  Leyden  in  1033.  In  1036  he  settled  at 
Norwich',  where  he  remained  as  a  practitioner  during 
the  rest  of  his  life.  His  famous  work,  the  Religio 
Mi  did,  was  lirst  published  surreptitiously  1012,  but 
afterward  given  to  the  world  in  a  new  edition  by  the 
author  himself.  This  work,  on  its  first  appearance, 
drew  down  upon  the  author  many  grave  charges 
against  his  orthodoxy  and  even  his  Christian  belief, 
which  were  triumphantly  refuted  by  Browne,  who  was 
the  most  sincerely  religious  of  men.  It  has  been  very 
often  reprinted.  The  Religio  Medici  was  followed  by 
the  Treatise  on  Vulgar  Errors  (1646),  the  Hydriotaphia, 
or  a  Treatise  on  Urn  Burials  (1618),  and  the  Garden 
of  Cyrus  (1658).  His  Christian  Morals  was  published 
after  his  death  by  Dr.  Jeffrey  (1716).  Browne  died 
in  1682.  The  works  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne  are  mark- 
ed with  the  odd  conceits  and  errors  of  his  age,  but  are 
remarkable  for  their  majestic  eloquence  and  wealth  of 
illustration.  His  life  bj'  Dr.  Johnson  was  prefixed  in 
1756  to  a  second  edition  of  Christian  Morals.  The 
Anglo-Latinity  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne  is  believed  to 
have  had  a  great  influence  on  the  style  of  Dr.  John- 
son. It  is  a  style  too  peculiar  and  idiomatic  ever  to 
1  ■  generally  liked,  but  Browne  wrote  at  a  time  when 
our  language  was  in  a  state  of  transition,  and  had 
scarcely  assumed  any  fixed  character.  If  it  be  blamed 
as  too  Latinized,  it  may  be  answered  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  substitute  adequate  English  words  for  those 
which  he  has  employed,  and  that  "lie  by  no  means  seeks 
to  give  false  elevation  to  a  mean  idea  by  sounding 
phrases,  but  that  he  is  compelled,  by  the  remoteness 
of  thai  idea  from  ordinary  apprehensions,  to  adopt  ex- 
traordinary  modes  of  speech.  Coleridge  {Literary  Re- 
mams,  vol.  ii)  has  borne  strong  testimony  to  the  great 
intellectual  power,  as  well  as  to  the  quaint  humor,  ex- 
tensive  learning,  and  striking  originality  of  the  "phi- 
i  of  Norwich."  Browne  was  in  his  own  day 
I  ■■'. ith  scepticism,  and  the  charge  has  been  re- 
peal sd  in  later  times,  but  many  passages  occur  in  the 
Religio  Medici  and  elsewhere,  which  show  Browne  to 
be  a  linn  and  Bincere  Christian,  although,  perhaps,  not 
free  from  certain  fanciful  prejudices.  His  Inquiry  into 
Vulg  n-  Errors  may  be  almost  received  as  an  encyclo- 
pedia of  contemporary  knowledge.  For  critical  re- 
mark- on  Browne,  besides  the  writers  above  named, 
io.  Rir.  Ixiv,  1 ;  North  Am. Rev.  xxi,  19;  Meth. 
i>n.  Hi  r.  1851,  p.  2ND.  His  writings  are  collected  in  his 
Works,  with  Life  and  C<>rn.<j>.  (bond.  1836,  -1  vols.  8vo). 


Brownell,  Thomas  C.  D.D.,  bishop  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  the  State  of  Connecticut, 
was  born  at  Westport,  Mass.,  October  19,  1779.  He 
entered  the  College  of  Rhode  Island  (now  Brown  Uni- 
versity) in  1800 ;  removed,  with  President  Maxcy,  to 
Union  College  in  1802,  and  graduated  there  in  1804. 
His  mind  had  before  this  time  been  drawn  to  the  study 
of  theology,  but  the  difficulties  of  the  Calvinistic  sys- 
tem perplexed  and  repelled  him  from  the  ministry. 
When  the  Rev.  Dr.  Nott,  under  whose  direction  he  had 
placed  himself  in  his  theological  studies,  was  elevated 
to  the  presidency  of  Union  College,  he  (Brownell)  was 
made  tutor  in  Latin  and  Greek.  Two  years  later  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Belles-Lettres  and  Moral 
Philosophy,  and  after  two  years  was  transferred  to  the 
chair  of  Chemistry  and  Mineralogy.  In  1809  he  visited 
Europe,  and  spent  a  year  in  attending  lectures  and  trav- 
elling over  Great  Britain,  chiefly  on  foot.  It  was  dur- 
ing these  pedestrian  peregrinations  that  he,  with  a  com- 
panion, was  on  one  occasion  arrested  on  suspicion  of  be- 
ing concerned  in  a  robbery  and  murder — a  charge  ludi- 
crously inconsistent  with  his  harmless  character.  In 
1810  he  returned  to  America,  and  entered  on  the  duties 
of  his  professorship.  He  had  been  bred  a  Congregation- 
alism but  in  1813  he  united  with  the  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church.  In  1816  he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest, 
and  some  time  after  became  one  of  the  ministers  of  Trin- 
ity Church,  New  York.  In  1819  he  was  elected  bishop 
of  Connecticut,  and  was  consecrated  on  the  27th  day  of 
October.  His  administration  of  his  diocese  was  emi- 
nently wise  and  successful.  In  the  interest  of  domes- 
tic missions,  he  made  a  laborious  journey  to  survey 
the  Mississippi  country  as  far  as  New  Orleans.  In 
1821  he  was  the  chief  instrument  in  founding  Wash-' 
ington  College  (now  Trinity  College),  of  which  he  was 
president  until  1831.  When,  in  that  year,  the  pressing 
duties  of  the  episcopate  compelled  him  to  relinquish 
the  presidency  of  the  college,  he  was  made  its  chancel- 
lor, and  continued  to  occupy  that  dignit}'  up  to  the 
time  of  his  death.  In  1851,  when  the  burden  of  age  and 
the  sense  of  growing  infirmities  admonished  him  to  re- 
tire from  active  service,  an  assistant  bishop  was  chosen 
at  his  request.  In  1852,  the  death  of  Bishop  Chase  ele- 
vated him  to  the  dignity  of  presiding  bishop,  and  he 
held  it  for  thirteen  years.  His  last  years  were  spent 
in  peaceful  retirement,  and  he  died  at  Hartford,  Jan- 
uary 13,  1865.  Among  his  publications  are,  A  Com- 
mentary on  the  Common  Prayer  (N.  Y.  18J6,  and  often, 
imp.  8vo)  :  Consolation  for  the  Afflicted,  18mo  ;  Chris- 
tian s  Walk  and  Consolation,  18mo  ;  Exhortation  to  Re- 
pentance, 18mo;  Family  Prayer-book  ,•  and  some  small- 
er practical  works. — American  Church  Review,  July, 
1865,  p.  261 ;   Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  266. 

Brownists,  a  sect  of  Puritans  so  called  from  their 
leader,  Robert  Brown.  He  was  born,  it  is  sup- 
posed, at  Totthorp,  Rutland,  and  educated  at  Bennet 
College,  Cambridge.  His  Puritanism  was  first  of  the 
school  of  Cartwright,  but  he  soon  went  far  beyond  his 
master.  1  Ie  went  about  the  country  inveighing  against 
the  discipline  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  exhorting  the  people  by  no  means  to  comply 
with  them.  In  the  year  1580  the  Bishop  of  Norwich 
caused  him  to  be  taken  into  custody,  but  he  was  soon 
released.  In  1582  be  published  a  book  entitled  The 
Life  mill  Manners  if  true  Christians,  to  which  was 
prefixed,  -1  Treatise  if  Reformation  without  tarrying 
fir  anil,  lie  was  again  taken  into  custody,  but  re- 
leased on  the  intercession  of  his  relative  the  lord  treas- 
urer. For  years  afterward  he  travelled  through  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country,  preaching  against  bishops, 
ceremonies,  ecclesiastical  courts,  ordaining  of  minis- 
ters, etc.,  for  which,  as  he  afterward  boasted,  he  had 
been  committed  to  thirty-two  prisons,  in  some  of  which 
he  could  not  see  his  hand  at  noon-day.  At  length  he 
formed  a  separate  congregation  on  his  own  principles; 
but,  being  forced  to  leave  the  kingdom  by  persecution, 
they  accompanied  Brown  to  Middleburg  in  Holland. 


BROWNLEE 


901 


BRUCE 


Neal  observes  that  "when  this  handful  of  people  wore 
delivered  from  the  bishops,  they  crumbled  into  parties 
among  themselves,  insomuch  that  Brown,  being  weary 
of  his  office,  returned  into  England  in  the  year  1589, 
and,  having  renounced  his  principles  of  separation, 
became  rector  of  a  church  in  Northamptonshire.  Here 
be  lived  an  idle  and  dissolute  life  (according  to  Fuller, 
bk.  x,  p.  263),  far  from  that  Sabbatarian  strictness 
that  his  followers  aspired  after.  He  had  a  wife,  with 
whom  he  did  not  live  for  many  years,  and  a  church  in 
which  he  never  preached.  At  length,  being  poor  and 
proud,  he  struck  the  constable  of  his  parish  for  de- 
manding a  rate  of  him  ;  and  being  beloved  by  nobody, 
the  officer  summoned  him  before  Sir  Rowland.  St.  John, 
who  committed  him  to  Northampton  jail.  The  de- 
crepit old  man,  not  being  able  to  walk,  was  carried 
thither  upon  a  feather-bed  in  a  cart,  where  he  fell  sick 
and  died  in  the  year  1630,  and  eighty-first  year  of  his 
age."  After  Brown's  death  his  principles  continued 
to  gather  strength  in  England.  The  Brownists  were 
subsequently  known  both  in  England  and  Holland  by 
the  name  of  Independents.  But  the  present  very  large 
and  important  eommunit)'  known  as  the  Independents 
do  not  acknowledge  Brown  as  the  founder  of  the  sect ; 
they  assert,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  distinguishing 
sentiments  adopted  by  Brown  and  his  followers  had 
been  professed  in  England,  and  churches  established 
in  accordance  with  their  rules,  before  the  time  when 
Brown  formed  a  separate  congregation.  Ncal  enu- 
merates the  leading  principles  of  the  Brownists  as  fol- 
lows ;  "  The  Brownists  did  not  differ  from  the  Church 
of  England  in  any  articles  of  faith,  but  they  were  very 
rigid  and  narrow  in  points  of  discipline.  The}-  denied 
the  Church  of  England  to  be  a  true  Church,  and  her 
ministers  to  be  rightly  ordained.  They  maintained 
the  discipline  of  the  Church  of  England  to  be  popish 
and  anti-Christian,  and  all  her  ordinances  and  sacra- 
ments invalid.  They  apprehended,  according  to  Scrip- 
ture, that  ever}^  church  ought  to  be  confined  within 
the  limits  of  a  single  congregation,  and  that  the  gov- 
ernment should  be  democratical.  The  whole  power 
of  admitting  and  excluding  members,  with  the  decid- 
ing of  all  controversies,  was  in  the  brotherhood.  Their 
church  officers,  for  preaching  the  word  and  taking  care 
of  the  poor,  were  chosen  from  among  themselves,  and 
separated  to  their  several  offices  by  fasting  and  prayer, 
and  imposition  of  the  hands  of  some  of  the  brethren. 
They  did  not  allow  the  priesthood  to  be  a  distinct  or- 
der, or  to  give  a  man  an  indelible  character ;  but  as 
the  vote  of  the  brotherhood  made  him  an  officer,  and 
gave  him  authority  to  preach  and  administer  the  sacra- 
ments among  them,  so  the  same  power  could  discharge 
him  from  his  office,  and  reduce  him  to  the  state  of  a 
private  brother.  Every  church  or  society  of  Chris- 
tians meeting  in  one  place  was,  according  to  the  Brown- 
ists, a  body  corporate,  having  full  power  within  itself 
to  admit  and  exclude  members,  to  choose  and  ordain 
officers,  and,  when  the  good  of  the  society  required  it, 
to  depose  them,  without  being  accountable  to  classes, 
convocations,  synods,  councils,  or  any  jurisdiction 
whatsoever."- — Ncal,  Hist,  of Puritans,  i,  245-6;  Mos- 
heim,  Ch.  History,  iii,  181,  412.  See  Congeegation- 
ai.ists;  Independents. 

Brownlee,  William  ('.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minis- 
ter of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  was  born  al  Tor- 
foot,  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in  1784.  Be  pursued  bis 
course  of  studies  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  for  live 
years,  when  he  took  his  degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  and 
united  with  the  Church  in  early  life.  Immediately 
after  receiving  his  license  to  preach  in  1808  he  married 
and  emigrated  to  America,  and  was  first  settled  in  two 
associate  churches  of  Washington  Co.,  Penn.  Thence 
he  was  called  (1813)  to  the  Associate  Church  in  Phila- 
delphia. In  1815  he  became  rector  of  the  grammar- 
school  in  what  is  now  Rutgers  College,  New  Bruns- 
wick. In  1817  he  was  called  to  the  pastorate  of  the 
Presbyterian    Church   at    Baskinridge,   New  Jersey. 


In  182G  he  was  installed  as  one  of  the  ministers  of  the 
Collegiate  Reformed  Dutch  Church  in  New  York. 
About  1843  Dr.  Brownlee  was  prostrated  by  an  apo- 
plectic stroke,  which  paralyzed  one  side  of  his  body. 
From  this  he  slowly  and  gradually  recovered,  resum- 
ing a  certain  degree  of  mental  and  bodily  health,  but 
was  never  after  able  to  engage  in  active  duty.  He 
died  in  New  York,  Feb.  10,  18G0.  Dr.  Brownlee  was 
a  very  earnest  opponent  of  Romanism,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  the  controversy  witli  Bishop  Hughes  and 
others  for  years.  Among  his  publications  are  .1 
Treatise  on  Popery  (N.  Y.  18mo):— The  Roman  Catholic 
Controversy  (Pliila.  8vo)  : — Lights  and  Shadows  of  <  'hris- 
tian  lift  (X.  York,  12mo) : — Inquiry  into  tin  Principles 
of  the  Quakers  (12mo) : — Christian  Youths'  Book  (18mo): 
— Brownlee  on  Baptism  (24mo) : — Christian  Father  at 
Home  (12mo): — On  the  Deity  of  Christ  C-'lmo),  etc., 
and  several  pamphlets  and  premium  tracts,  besides 
editing  the  Dutch  Church  Magazine  through  four  con- 
secutive volumes.  "  Stored  with  knowledge,  familiar 
with  almost  even'  department  of  learning,  he  possess- 
ed a  ready  facility  in  bringing  his  enlarged  resources 
to  bear  on  matters  of  practical  utility  with  great  effect; 
and,  pioneer  in  the  Catholic  controversy,  he  was  main- 
ly instrumental  in  rousing  the  attention  of  the  com- 
munity to  a  system  then  regarded  by  him,  and  now 
regarded  by  very  many,  as  fraught  with  danger  to  our 
cherished  liberties.  In  this  cause  his  zeal  was  ardent, 
his  courage  indomitable,  his  efforts  unmeasured,  and 
his  ability  and  eloquence  admitted  by  all.  His  ser- 
mons and  lectures  were  from  year  to  year  listened  to 
by  eager  crowds.  Dr.  Brownlee  usually  preached 
without  being  trammelled  1  y  the  use  of  notes,  either 
extemporaneously,  or  having  written  and  committed 
his  discourses  to  memory.  The  general  character  of 
his  i  reaching  was  argumentative,  but  enlivened  and 
illustrated  by  flashes  of  fancy,  brilliant  and  beautiful. 
His  views  of  Christian  doctrine  were  thoroughly  of 
the  Calvinistic  school." — Dr.  Knox,  in  the  Christian 
Tntelligencer,  Feb.  1G,  1860;  Memorial  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Brownlee  (N.  Y.  1860). 

Brownrig,  Ralph  (Lat.  Brunricus),  bishop  of 
Exeter,  was  born  at  Ipswich  in  1592,  and  educated  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  master  of  Catharine 
Hall.  In  l(i"21  he  became  prebendary  of  Ely,  and  in 
1631  archdeacon  of  Coventry.  In  1641  he  was  nomi- 
nated to  the  see  of  Exeter,  and  elected  March  31, 
1642.  In  1645  he  was  ejected  from  his  mastership  on 
account  of  a  loyal  sermon  which  he  preached  before 
the  university  ;  and  haying  been  also  deprived  by  the 
Parliament  of  the  free  exercise  of  his  episcopal  powers, 
and  of  the  revenues  of  his  sec,  he  was  obliged  to  retire 
to  the  house  of  Mr.  Rich,  in  Berkshire,  where  he  lived 
in  private  until  the  year  before  his  death,  when  he 
was  permitted  to  preach  at  the  Temple.  He  died  Dec. 
7,  1659.  He  was  an  excellent  scholar  and  preacher; 
his  sermons  were  edited  by  his  successor,  Bishop  Gau- 
den,  with  a  life  of  Brownrig  (Fond.  1665,  2  vols,  fol.), 
reprinted  with  25  Other  sermons  (1674,  3  vols.  fol.). — 
Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  iii,  184;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet,  ii,  420. 

Bruce,  Philip,  a  native  of  North  Carolina,  of 
Huguenot  descent,  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution,  entered 
the  Methodist  ministry  in  1781,  and  travelled  exten- 
sively, filling  the  most,  important  stations  until  he  be- 
came superannuated  in  1817.  He  closed  his  useful 
life  in  Tennessee.  May,  1826,  the  oldest  travelling 
preacher  in  his  connection  in  the  United  States  with 
one  exception.  While  in  the  ministry  he  was  very 
efficient  as  a  preacher,  presiding  elder,  and  in  many 

important  positions  in  the  Church.  The  Virginia  <  'in- 
ference, of  which  he  was  one  of  the  fathers,  delighted 
to  honor  him  while  he  lived,  and  delegated  one  of  its 
members  to  build  his  tomb  when  he  died. — Minutes 
of  ( 'onf  r<  na  s,  i,  541;  Sprague,  .  I  mals,  vii,  73. 

Bruce,  Robert,  an  eminent  Scotch  preacher,  was 
born  1559,  and  educated  at  St.  Andrews.     In  1587  he 


BRUCKER 


902 


BRUNO 


became  one  of  the  ministers  of  Edinburgh,  where  his 
eloquence,  boldness,  and  piety  gave  him  great  popu- 
larity and  influence.  He  died  1631.  A  collection  of 
his  sermons  was  printed  in  1790,  and  has  recently  been 
reprinted  for  the  Wodrow  Society  (Edinb.  1843,  8vo). 

Brucker,  Johx  James,  a  German  divine,  was  born 
at  Augsburg,  Jan.  22,  1696,  and  educated  at  Jena. 
After  serving  as  pastor  at  Kaufbeuren,  he  died  minis- 
ter at  St.  Ulric's,  in  his  native  city,  in  1770.  He  is 
considered  the  father  of  the  science  called  "the  His- 
tory of  Philosophy,"  as,  before  his  Historia  Critica 
Philosophic  (2d  ed.  Lip's.  1767,  6  vols.  4to),  no  work  of 
the  sort  existed.  Dr.  Enfield  published  an  English 
abridgment  of  it.  It  is  an  elaborate  and  methodical 
work,  and,  though  surpassed  by  later  writers  in  method, 
it  is  still  pre-eminent  for  learning.  As  a  collection  of 
materials  it  has  great  value.  Among  his  other  publi- 
cations are,  Ehrentempel  der  Deutschen  Gelehrsamkeit 
(1747,  4to)  ;  Miscellanea  Philosophica  (1748,  8vo)  ;  Der 
He'd.  Schrift  nebst  ein.  Erkldrung  aus  d.  England. 
Schriftsteller  (1758,  fob). — Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  vii, 
567  ;  Tennemann,  Hist.  Phil.  Introd.  ch.  i. 

Bruegglers,  a  sect  of  enthusiasts  founded  in  the 
village  of  Brueggle,  canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland,  in 
1746,  by  two  brothers,  Christian  and  Jerome  Koler. 
These  impostors,  while  yet  mere  boys,  succeeded  in 
gaining  many  adherents  among  the  country  people. 
They  prophesied  the  coming  of  the  last  day  for  Christ- 
mas, 1748,  and  then  claimed  to  have  obtained  its  post- 
ponement by  their  prayers.  The  disorders  they  occa- 
sioned by  their  teachings  led  to  their  being  banished, 
and  Jerome  having  been  caught,  underwent  capital 
punishment  at  Bern  in  1753.  His  followers  awaited 
his  resurrection  on  the  third  day,  and  the  sect  disap- 
peared soon  after,  to  be  reproduced  in  the  Buchanites 
(q.  v.)  and  Millerites  (q.  v.)  of  later  times. 

Bruen,  Matthias,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  April  11,  1793.  After  an  ex- 
cellent religious  and  academical  education,  he  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  1812.  In  1816  he  was  li- 
censed to  preach,  but,  on  account  of  ill  health,  he  went 
to  Europe,  where  he  remained  nearly  three  years,  dur- 
ing six  months  of  which  he  preached  at  "the  Ameri- 
can Chapel  of  the  Oratory"  in  Paris.  Returning  in 
1819,  he  again  visited  Europe  in  1821.  In  1822  he  en- 
tered on  home  missionary  work  in  New  York,  and  un- 
der his  labors  a  church  grew  up  in  Bleecker  Street,  of 
which  he  became  pastor  in  1825.  He  died  Sept.  6, 
1829,  after  a  short  illness.  He  published  Essays  de- 
scriptive of  Scenes  in  Italy  and  France  (Edinburgh), 
and  contributed  to  various  periodicals.  A  memoir  of 
him  by  Mrs.  Duncan,  of  Scotland,  was  published  in 
1831. — Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  544. 

Bruis,  Pierre  de.     See  Petrobrussians. 

Bruise  (the  rendering  of  several  Ileb.  words)  is 
used  in  Scripture  in  a  variety  of  significations,  but  im- 
plies figuratively  doubts,  fears,  anguish  on  account  of 
the  prevalence  of  sin.  Satan  is  said  to  bruise  the  heel 
of  Christ  (Gen.  iii,  15).  Christ  is  said  to  bruise  the 
bead  of  Satan  when  he  crushes  his  designs,  despoils 
him  of  his  power,  and  enables  his  people  to  tread  his 
temptations  undertheir  feet  (Rom.  xix,  20).  Our  Lord 
was  bruised  when  he  had  inflicted  on  him  the  fearful 
punishment  due  to  our  sins  (Tsa.  liii,  5).  The  King 
<>f  Bgj  ]it  is  called  a  bruised  reed,  to  mark  the  weak  and 
broken  state  of  his  kingdom,  and  his  inability  to  help 
such  as  depended  on  him  (2  Kings  xviii,  21).  Weak 
saints  are  bruised  reeds  which  Christ  will  not  break 
(Isa.  xlii,  3;  Luke  iv,  18).     See  Reed. 

Bruit,  a  French  word  signifying  noise,  is  the  ren- 
dering in  Jer.  x,  22 ;  Nab.  iii,  19,  of  3>»!U  or  hS1»125 
a  sound.  T       : 

Brulius,  reformer  and  martyr,  succeeded  Calvin 
as  pastor  of  the  church  in  Strasburg,  on  the  Rhine 


and  was  much  esteemed  by  the  people.  There  pre- 
vailed at  this  time  throughout  the  Netherlands  the 
most  earnest  desire  to  be  instructed  in  the  Reformed 
religion,  so  that  in  places  where  the  truth  was  not  or 
dared  not  to  be  preached,  private  invitations  were  sent 
to  the  ministers  who  resided  in  towns  where  the  pure 
Gospel  was  preached  openly.  Some  people  in  Tour- 
nay  accordingly  invited  Brulius  from  Strasburg.  He 
complied  with  their  request,  and  came  to  Tournay, 
September,  1544,  and  was  most  joyfully  received. 
After  staying  some  time,  he  made  an  excursion  to 
Lille  for  the  same  object,  and  returned  to  Tournay  in 
October.  The  governors  of  the  city  ordered  strict 
search  for  him,  and  his  friends  let  him  over  the  wall 
by  a  rope,  Nov.  2, 1544.  On  his  reaching  the  ground, 
a  stone  fell  on  his  leg  and  broke  it.  He  was  seized, 
put  in  prison,  and,  notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the 
senate  of  Strasburg  and  of  the  Protestant  princes,  he 
was  put  to  death,  Feb.  19, 1545.  He  suffered  terribly, 
being  burned  in  a  slow  fire !  But  nothing  could  tri- 
umph over  his  faith,  and  he  testified  to  the  truth  to  the 
very  last. — Middleton,  Evangelical  Biography,  i,  154. 

Brumoy,  Pierre,  a  Jesuit  writer,  was  born  at 
Rouen  in  1688,  and  settled  at  Paris,  where  he  took  part 
in  the  Journal  de  Trevoux.  He  undertook,  at  the  com- 
mand of  his  superiors,  a  continuation  of  the  Ilistoire 
de  VEglise  Gal'icane  by  Longueval  and  Fontenay.  He 
lived  but  to  write  two  volumes  (the  11th  and  12th), 
and  died  April  16,  1742.  He  is  perhaps  best  known 
by  his  Theatre  des  Grecs,  containing  translations  of  the 
Greek  tragedians,  with  observations,  etc.  (last  edit, 
much  enlarged,  Paris,  1825, 16  vols.  8vo). — Biog.  Univ. 
vi,  99 ;  Landon,  Eccles.  Diet,  ii,  425. 

Brun.     See  Le  Brun. 

Bruno,  archbishop  of  Cologne  and  duke  of  Lor- 
raine, son  of  the  Emperor  Henry  the  Fowler  and 
brother  of  Otho  I,  was  born  in  925.  He  was  well  read 
in  classical  literature,  and  was  a  patron  of  learned  men, 
and  of  education  generallj-.  Having  been  employed 
by  his  brother  in  many  important  negotiations,  he  died 
at  Rheims  Oct.  11,  965.  His  life,  written  by  Ruotger, 
a  Benedictine  who  lived  with  him,  is  given  in  Surius, 
Oct.  11,  and  in  Pertz,  Monum.  Germ.  Hist,  iv,  252. 
The  Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Lives  of  the 
Saints,  sometimes  attributed  to  him,  were  probably  the 
work  of  Bruno  of  Segni.  More  recentby  his  life  has 
been  written  by  the  Bollandists  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum, 
Oct.,  torn,  v  (Bruss.  1786),  and  by  Pieler,  Bruno  I, 
Erzbishofvon  Kbln  (Arnsberg,  1851). 

Bruno,  called  also  Boniface,  apostle  of  the  Prus- 
sians, by  extraction  a  Saxon  nobleman,  was  born  970, 
and  was  called  by  the  Emperor  Otho  III  to  his  court, 
and  appointed  his  chaplain  about  990.  Romualdus  the 
monk  (founder  of  the  Camaldules)  came  to  court,  and 
Bruno,  at  his  own  request,  was  admitted  into  his  or- 
der, and  departed  with  him  (A.D.  1000).  Having 
spent  some  time  at  Monte  Cassino,  and  at  Piramm, 
near  Ravenna,  he  was  sent  forth  to  preach  to  the  infi- 
dels, and  the  pope  made  him  "Archbishop  of  the  Hea- 
then." He  labored  incessantly,  exposed  to  every  peril 
and  privation,  among  the  Poles  and  Prussians;  but, 
after  meeting  with  some  success  and  converting  a 
prince  of  the  country,  he  was  martyred,  together  with 
eighteen  companions,  in  1009.  He  is  mentioned  in 
the  Roman  Martyrology  on  the  15th  Oct.,  and  again 
as  St.  Boniface  on  the  19th  June.  See  his  life  in  Ma- 
billon,  Sac.  Bened.  vi,  79. — Pertz,  Monum.  Germ,  vi, 
577  sq. ;  Butler,  Lives  ofSai?its,  June  19,  ii,  600;  Mos- 
heim,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  139;  Voigt,  Geschichte  Preussens,  i, 
280  sq. 

Bruno,  founder  of  the  order  of  Carthusians,  was 
born  at  Cologne  about  1040,  of  rich  parents.  In  1073 
he  became  chancellor  of  the  Church  at  Rheims  and 
professor  of  divinity,  having  direction  of  the  studies  in 
all  the  great  schools  of  the  diocese.    Among  his  pupils 


BRUNO 


903 


BUCER 


was'Odo,  afterward  Urban  II.  About  1077  he  joined 
in  an  accusation  against  Manasses,  the  simoniaeal 
archbishop  of  Rheims,  who  deprived  him  of  his  canon- 
ry.  Disgusted  with  the  corruptions  of  the  clergy  and 
of  the  times,  Bruno  retired  into  solitude  and  built  a 
hermitage,  which  afterward  became  the  celebrated 
monastery  of  the  Chartreuse.  Bruno  lived  but  six 
years  at  the  Chartreuse  ;  at  the  end  of  that  period  he 
was  called  to  Rome  by  Urban  II  ;  and,  having  re- 
fused the  bishopric  of  Reggio,  retired,  in  1095,  into 
Calabria,  where  he  died,  Oct.  6,  1101,  at  La  Torre. 
He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Leo  X  in  1514,  and  his  fes- 
tival is  kept  on  the  6th  of  October.  The  works  at- 
tributed to  him  were  published  at  Paris  in  1524,  and 
again  at  Cologne  (1011,  3  vols,  fol.).— Hook,  Eccl.  Biog. 
iii,  185 ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  178  note  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generate,  vii,  030.     See  Carthusians. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  a  philosopher  of  great  bold- 
ness and  genius,  was  born  at  Nola  about  1550.  Hav- 
ing entered  the  Dominican  order,  he  soon  began  to 
doubt  the  Romish  theology,  and  had  to  quit  his  con- 
vent. He  fled  to  Geneva  in  1580,  where  he  lived  two 
years.  The  rigor  of  Calvin  did  not,  however,  suit  his 
sceptical  temper,  and  he  departed  for  Paris.  Here  he 
gave  lectures  on  philosophy,  in  which  he  openly  at- 
tacked the  Aristotelians.  Having  made  himself  many 
enemies  among  the  professors,  as  well  as  among  the 
clergy,  he  went  to  England  in  1583,  where  he  gained 
the  protection  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  to  whom  he  dedi- 
cated his  Spaccio  della  bestia  trionfante,  an  allegorical 
work  against  the  court  of  Rome,  with  the  Cena  delte 
Ceneri,  or  "  Evening  Conversations  on  Ash- Wednes- 
day," a  dialogue  between  four  interlocutors.  He  also 
wrote  Bella  causa,  principio  ed  uno,  and  DelV  infinito 
universo  e  mondi,  in  which  he  developed  his  ideas  both 
on  natural  philosophy  and  metaphysics.  His  system 
is  a  form  of  pantheism :  he  asserted  that  the  universe 
is  infinite,  and  that  each  of  the  worlds  contained  in  it 
is  animated  by  the  universal  soul,  etc.  Spinoza  bor- 
rowed some  of  his  theories  from  Bruno.  Buhle  {His- 
tory of  Modem  Philosophy')  gives  an  exposition  of  Bru- 
no's system  ;  see  also  Jacobi's  Preface  to  the  Letters  on 
the  Doctiine  of  Spinoza.  In  his  next  work,  Cabala  del 
carnl  Pegaseo  con  Vaggiunta  deW  asino  Cillenico,  he  con- 
tends that  ignorance  is  the  mother  of  happiness,  and 
that  "  he  who  promotes  science  increases  the  sources 
of  grief."  Bruno's  language  is  symbolic  and  obscure  ; 
he  talks  much  about  the  constellations,  and  his  style 
is  harsh  and  inelegant.  After  remaining  about  two 
years  in  England,  during  which  he  visited  Oxford, 
and  held  disputations  with  the  doctors,  he  passed  over 
to  Paris,  and  thence  to  Wittemberg,  and  lectured  there 
and  in  Frankfort  till  1592,  when  he  returned  to  Padua, 
and  thence  to  Venice.  The  Inquisition  arrested  him, 
and  retained  him  in  prison  for  six  years,  vainly  at- 
tempting to  reduce  him  to  recantation.  On  the  9th 
of  February,  1G00,  he  was  excommunicated,  and  deliv- 
ered to  the  secular  magistrate.  He  was  burnt  Feb.  10, 
1600.  Bruno  wrote  very  largely.  His  Italian  writ- 
ings were  collected  and  published  at  Leipzig  in  2  vols. 
8vo,  in  1830 ;  the  Latin  writings  at  Stuttgardt,  under 
the  title  Jordani  Bruni  Scripta  qu<v.  Lot.  red.  omnia 
(1834,  8vo).  The  best  works  on  the  life  and  the  writ- 
ings of  Bruno  are  by  Bartholmess  (Par.  1846,  2  vols.), 
and  by  Clemens  (Bonn.  1847).  —  Tennemann,  Man. 
Hist.  Phil.  §  300  ;  Eclectic  Magazine,  xvii,  307 ;  Saisset, 
in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  June,  1847 ;  Cousin,  in  the 
same,  Dec.  1843;  Dallam,  Literature  of  Europe,  vol.  ii, 
ch.  3 ;  Fleson,  G.  Bruno  (Hamburg,  1846,  8vo). 

Brunswick,  a  German  duchy,  with  an  area  of  72 
German  square  miles,  and  a  population,  in  1864,  of 
292,708  souls.  In  the  city  the  Reformation  was  in- 
troduced as  early  as  1526,  but  in  the  country  districts 
not  until  1568,  after  the  deatli  of  duke  Henry,  one  of 
the  most  violent  opposers  of  Luther.  The  Reformed 
Church  has  3  churches  and  2  other  meeting-places, 


with  (in  1861)  993  souls.  They  form  a  synod  con- 
jointly  with  several  congregations  of  Hanover  and 
Lippc-Schaumburgh.  The  Roman  Catholics  have  3 
churches,  with  2633  souls  (in  1861) ;  they  belong  to 
the  diocese  of  Hildeshcim,  Hanover.  The  Jews  count 
about  1000  souls,  and  have  4  synagogues.  The  rest 
are  Lutherans.  The  Supreme  Ecclesiastical  Board  of 
the  Lutherans  is  the  Consistory  of  Wolfenbuttel,  con- 
sisting of  one  president,  one  clerical  director,  four  cler- 
ical councillors,  one  assessor,  and  two  councillors.  Sub- 
ordinate to  the  consistory  are  7  superintendents  gen- 
eral, 30  superintendents,  253  clergymen.  The  number 
of  congregations  is  224,  besides  which  there  are  260 
chapels.  The  Preachers'  Seminary  at  Wolfenbuttel 
was  reorganized  in  1836,  and  vestries  established  in 
all  congregations  in  1851.  See  Ilerzog;  Schem,  Ec- 
cles.  Year-book  for  1859,  p.  115  sq.     See  Germany. 

Brusson,  Claude.     See  Brousson. 

Bruys,  Peter  de.     See  Petrourussians. 

Bryant,  Jacob,  was  born  at  Plymouth  in  1715, 
and  graduated  at  King's  College,  Cambridge,  1740. 
The  Duke  of  Marlborough  gave  him  a  lucrative  place 
in  the  Ordnance  Department.  He  settled  at  Cypen- 
ham,  in  Berkshire,  and  died  Nov.  4,  1804,  of  a  morti- 
fication in  the  leg,  occasioned  by  falling  from  a  chair 
in  getting  a  book  in  his  library.  Bryant  was  an  inde- 
fatigable and  a  learned  writer,  but  fond  of  paradox. 
His  writings  are  often  acute,  but  at  the  same  time  ec- 
centric and  fanciful.  He  wrote  one  work  to  maintain 
the  authenticity  of  the  pseudo  Rowley's  poems  (1781, 
2  vols.  12mo),  and  another  to  prove  that  Troy  never 
existed  (1796,  4to).  His  principal  production  is  a 
New  System  or  Analysis  of  Ancient  Mytholoqu  (Lond. 
1774,  1776,  3  vols.  4to ;  3d*ed.  Lond.  1807,  6  vols,  8vo), 
and  among  his  other  works  are  Observations  relative 
to  Ancient  flistorj/  (Camb.  1787,  4to) : — A  Treatise  on 
the  Authenticity  of  the.  Scriptures  (Lond.  1792,  8vo): — 
Observations  on  the  Plagues  of  Egypt  (Lond.  1794,  8vo): 
— and  Observations  on  the  Prophecy  of  Balaam,  etc. 
Lond.  1803,  4to). — Davenport,  s.  v. ;  Darling,  s.  v. 

Brydane.     See  Bkidain. 

Bubastis.     See  Pi-beseth. 

Bucer,  Martin,  an  eminent  coadjutor  of  Luther, 
was  born  at  Schlettstadt,  in  Alsace,  in  1491.  His  real 
name  was  probably  Butzer,  but  some  say  that  it  was 
Kuhhorn,  for  which,  agreeably  to  the  taste  of  his  age, 
he  suIjsI  ituted  the  Greek  synonym  Bucer  (jlovc,  tcepac). 
He  assumed  the  habit  of  the  Dominicans  when  only 
fifteen  years  of  age,  and  studied  at  Heidelberg  for  sev- 
eral years.  The  writings  of  Erasmus  first  shook  his 
faith  in  Romanism,  and  afterward,  falling  in  with  some 
of  Luther's  writings,  and  hearing  Luther  himself  dis- 
puting with  the  Heidelberg  doctors,  April  26, 1518,  he 
was  so  impressed  as  to  adopt  the  doctrines  of  the  Refor- 
mation. To  escape  persecution,  he  took  refuge,  in 
1519,  with  Franz  von  Sickingcn  ;  and  in  15"J0  the  elec- 
tor palatine  Frederick  made  him  his  chaplain.  In 
1520  he  was  freed  from  the  obligations  of  the  Domini- 
can order  by  the  archbishop  of  Speyer,  on  the  ground 
that,  joining  at  so  early  an  age  as  fifteen,  he  had  been 
per  vim  el  m<  turn  comptdstu.  In  1522  he  became  pas- 
tor at  Landstuhl,  in  Sickingen'a  domain,  ami  in  the 
same  year  married  Elizabeth  Pallast,  thus,  like  Lu- 
ther, condemning  in  .his  own  practice  the  unscriptural 
Romanist  notion  of  clerical  celibacy.  In  1524  he  be- 
came pastor  of  St.  Aurelia's,  in  Strashurg,  and  for 
twenty  years  lie  was  one  of  the  great  leaders  of  the 
Reformation  in  that  city,  and  indeed  throughout  Ger- 
many, as  preacher  and  professor.  His  great  object 
throughout  life  was  to  promote  union  among  the  differ- 
ent Protestant  bodies.  In  1529  lie  was  deputed  by  the 
four  towns  of  Strashurg,  Memmingen,  Landau,  and 
Constance  to  the  conferences  appointed  by  Philip, 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  to  lie  held  at  Marburg.  Here  Bu- 
cer exhibited  all  the  astonishing  6ubtilty  and  fertility 


BUCIIAXAX 


904 


I3UCIIANITES 


of  bis  mind,  equalling  the  most  refined  of  the  scholas- 
tic theologians  in  subtilty  and  ingenuity.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  effecting  a  kind  of  conciliation  between  the 
Lutherans  and  Zuinglians  on  the  question  of  the  real 
presence  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  afterward  attended 
other  conferences  on  the  same  subject,  and  drew  up 
the  concordat  of  Wittemberg  in  1536,  but  endeavored 
in  vain  to  bring  over  the  Swiss  churches.  In  1548,  at 
Augsburg,  he  refused  to  sign  the  celebrated  Interim  of 
Charles  V.  This  act,  exposing  him  to  many  difficul- 
ties and  dangers,  made  him  the  more  ready  to  accept 
the  invitation  sent  to  him  by  Cranmer  of  Canterbury 
to  come  over  into  England,  where  he  was  appointed 
divinity  professor  at  Cambridge.  When  Hooper,  al- 
though he  had  accepted  the  bishopric  of  Gloucester, 
refused  to  wear  the  vestments  ordered  for  the  episco- 
pal order,  Bucer  wrote  to  him  a  wise  and  moderate  let- 
ter, which  incidentally  gives  a  deplorable  picture  of 
the  state  of  the  Anglican  Church  at  this  period.  The 
services,  he  says,  were  said  in  so  cold  and  unintelligi- 
ble a  manner  that  they  might  as  well  have  been  said 
in  the  Indian  tongue ;  neither  baptism  nor  marriage 
were  celebrated  with  decency  and  propriety;  there 
were,  he  says,  no  catechetical  instructions,  no  private 
admonitions,  no  public  censures.  In  1550  he  wrote 
his  Censura,  or  Animadversions  on  the  Booh  of  Common 
Prayer,  Cranmer  having  desired  to  have  his  opinion  of 
the  book,  which  was  for  that  purpose  translated  into 
Latin  by  Ales  (q.  v.).  Although  in  the  beginning  of 
his  work  he  declares  that  he  found  nothing  in  the  book 
which  was  not  either  plainly  taken  out  of  Holy  Writ, 
©r  at  least  agreeable  to  it,  he  urges  pretty  large  alter- 
ations to  avoid  Romanist  perversions,  many  of  which 
were  happily  carried  into  effect.  Bucer  died  Feb.  28, 
1551,  at  Cambridge,  and  was  followed  to  the  grave  by 
3000  persons.  Five  years  afterward  (in  Mary's  time) 
his  body  was  dug  up  and  publicly  burned  as  that  of  a 
heretic.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer.  A  full  list 
of  his  works  is  given  by  Ilaag,  La  France  Prot.  iii,  G8. 
A  bitterly  prejudiced  account  of  him  is  given  by  Hook, 
Eccl.  B'wg.  iii,  190-218.  His  Scripta  Anglicana,  pub- 
lished at  Basel  (1577,  fol.),  contains  a  biography  of 
him.  An  edition  of  his  works,  which  was  to  comprise 
10  volumes,  was  commenced  by  K.  Hubert  (Basel, 
1577),  but  only  one  volume  appeared.  The  first  good 
biography  of  Bucer  was  published  by  Baum,  Capito 
und  Bucer;  Leben  und  ausgewiihlte  Schriften  (Elberf. 
1860). — Procter,  On  Common  Prayer,  p.  32,  41 ;  Burnet, 
Hist,  of  Reformation,  ii,  139,  247,  538 ;  Mosheim,  Ch. 
Hist,  iii,  162, 167;  Herzog,  Real-EncyklopMie,  ii,  420; 
Landon,  Feci.  Dictionary,  ii,  432. 

Buchanan,  Claudius,  D.D.,  vice-provost  of  the 
College  of  Fort  William,  in  Bengal,  well  known  for 
his  exertions  in  promoting  an  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ment in  India,  and  for  his  active  support  of  mission- 
ary and  philanthropic  labors,  was  born  on  the  12th  of 
March,  1766,  at  Cambuslang,  a  village  near  Glasgow. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  made  his  way  to  London, 
where  he  succeeded  in  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
Rev.  John  Newton,  by  whose  influence  he  was  sent  to 
Cambridge,  where  lie  was  educated  at  the  expense  of 
Henry  Thornton,  Esq.,  whom  he  afterward  repaid. 
Buchanan  went  out  to  India  in  1796  as  one  of  the  East 
India  Company's  chaplains,  and,  on  the  institution  of 
the  I  lollege  of  Fort  William  in  Bengal  in  1800,  he  was 
made  professor  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  clas- 
sics, and  vice-provost.  During  his  residence  in  India 
he  published  his  Christian  Researches  in  Asia  (5th  ed. 
Lend.  1812,  8vo),  a  book  which  attracted  considerable 
attention  at  the  time,  and  which  lias  gone  through  a 
Dumber  of  editions.  In  1804  and  1805  he  gave  vari- 
ous sums  of  money  to  the  universities  of  England  and 
Scotland,  to  be  awarded  as  prizes  for  essays  on  the 
diffusion  of  Christianity  in  India.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1808,  and  during  the  remainder  of  his  life 
continued,  through  the  medium  of  the  pulpit  and  the 
press,  to  enforce  his  views.     His  reply  to  the  state- 


ments of  Charles  Buller,  Esq.,  M.P.,  on  the  worship 
of  the  idol  Juggernaut,  which  was  addressed  to  the 
East  India  Company,  was  laid  on  the  table  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1813  and  printed.  He  died  at 
Broxbourne,  Herts,  February  9,  1815,  being  at  the  pe- 
riod of  his  death  engaged  in  superintending  an  edition 
of  the  Scriptures  for  the  use  of  the  Syrian  Christians 
who  inhabit  the  coast  of  Malabar.  He  published  also 
The  Colonial  Ecclesiastical  Establishment  (2d  ed.  Lond. 
1803,  8vo)  -.—Sermons  (Edinb.  1812,  8vo)  .—An  Apolo- 
gy for  promoting  Christianity  in  India  (Lond.  1813,  8vo). 
j  His  Lfe,  by  the  Rev.  Hugh  Pearson,  was  published  in 
1819  (Lond.  2  vols.  8vo ;  5th  ed.  1846). 

Buchanan,  George,  was  born  in  1506  at  Kil- 
lairn,  in  Dumbartonshire,  and,  after  having  studied  at 
the  University  of  Paris  and  served  for  a  year  in  the 
army,  he  passed  A.B.  at  St.  Andrew's  1525.  In  1532 
he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Earl  of  Cassilis,  with 
whom  he  remained  in  France  during  five  years.  Re- 
turning from  Paris  with  the  earl,  he  was  made  tutor 
to  the  natural  son  of  James  V.  Two  satires,  Palinodia 
and  Franciscanus,  which  he  wrote  on  the  monks,  soon 
drew  down  their  vengeance  upon  him,  and  he  was  im- 
prisoned, but  was  fortunate  enough  to  escape.  Once 
more  visiting  the  Continent,  he  successively  taught 
at  Paris,  at  Bordeaux,  and  at  Coimbra,  at  which  latter 
city  the  freedom  of  his  opinions  again  caused  his  im- 
prisonment. He  next  spent  four  years  at  Paris  as  tu- 
tor to  the  Marshal  de  Brissac's  son.  During  this  Con- 
tinental residence  he  translated  the  Medea  and  Alces- 
tis  of  Euripides,  and  began  his  Latin  Version  of  the 
Psalms.  In  1560  he  returned  to  his  native  land,  and 
embraced  Protestantism.  In  1566  he  was  made"  prin- 
cipal of  St.  Leonard's  College  at  St.  Andrew's,  and  in 
1567  was  chosen  as  preceptor  to  James  VI.  When 
subsequently  reproached  with  having  made  his  royal 
pupil  a  pedant,  Buchanan  is  said  to  have  replied  that 
"it  was  the  best  he  could  make  of  him."  Buchanan 
died  poor,  in  1582.  His  principal  work  is  Historia  Re~ 
rum  Scoticarum  (Edinb.  1582,  fol. ;  in  English,  Lond. 
1690,  fol.).  As  a  Latin  poet,  he  ranks  among  the  high- 
est of  the  modern,  especially  for  his  version  of  the 
Psalms.  All  his  writings  are  given  in  Opera  omnia, 
historica,  etc.,  curante  Rud.limanno  (Edinb.  1715,  2  vols. 
4to)  ;  another  complete  edition  was  published  by  Bur- 
man  (Lugd.  Bat.  1725,  2  vols.). 

Buchanites,  a  fanatical  sect  wbich  arose  in  Scot- 
land 1783.  An  ignorant  but  shrewd  woman,  named 
Elspeth  Buchan  (born  1738),  gave  out  that  she  was 
the  Spirit  of  God,  the  mysterious  woman  in  Rev.  xii 
in  whom  the  light  of  God  was  restored  to  men.  She 
professed  to  communicate  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  pre- 
tended that  she  had  brought  forth  a  man-child,  "who 
was  to  rule  with  a  rod  of  iron,"  in  the  person  of  the 
Rev.  Hugh  White,  minister  of  the  Relief  Presbytery 
at  Irvine,  who,  though  an  educated  man,  gave  him- 
self up  to  this  delusion.  A  number  of  persons  joined 
them.  Driven  from  Irvine  by  a  popular  tumult,  they 
made  a  settlement  at  New  Cample,  enjoying  commu- 
nity of  goods,  and  living  in  concubinage  and  adultery. 
Mrs.  Buchan  promised  her  deluded  followers  "trans- 
lation" instead  of  death,  but  unfortunately  died  her- 
self March  29,  1791.  The  community  held  together 
for  a  while,  but  Mr.  White  left  them  in  1792  and  went 
to  Virginia,  where  he  became  a  Universalist  preacher. 
The  establishment  was  removed  to  Crocketford,  where 
its  last  survivor,  Andrew  Innes,  died  in  1845. — Train, 
The  Buchanites  from  first  to  last  (Edinb.  1846, 18mo). 

Buck,  Charles,  an  English  Independent  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  1771.  He  served  the  churches  at 
Shcerness,  Hackney,  and  London,  and  died  in  1815. 
He  is  the  author  of  A  Theological  Dictionary  (Lond. 
1802,  2  vols.  8vo),  which  has  since  been  considerably 
enlarged  by  Dr.  Henderson  (Lond.  1847,  8vo),  arid  has 
had  a  wide  circulation  both  in  England  and  America. 
Though  too  small  to  suffice  as  a  book  of  reference,  it 


BUCKERIDGE 


905 


BUCKLE 


displays  a  remarkable  talent  for  clearness  of  definition 
and  description.  It  has  been  of  much  use  in  the  prep- 
aration of  this  Cyclopaedia.  His  Anecdotes,  Religious, 
Moral,  and  Entertaining  (Lond.  1799,  12mo ;  10th  cd. 
1842),  has  likewise  gained  a  great  popularity. — Alli- 
bone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  270. 

Buckeridge,  John,  a  Church  of  England  divine 
and  prelate,  was  born  near  Marlborough,  date  un- 
known. He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  was 
made  D.D.  there  in  1590.  He  was  afterward  rector 
of  North  Fambridge,  and  prebendary  of  Hereford ;  in 
1G04  he  became  archdeacon  of  Northampton,  and  vicar 
of  St.  Giles's,  Cripplegate.  Becoming  chaplain  to  the 
king,  he  grew  rapidly  in  favor;  became  president  of 
St.  John's  College,  1605  ;  canon  of  Windsor,  1G0G  ; 
bishop  of  Rochester,  1G11,  whence  he  was  translated  to 
Ely  in  162G,  and  died  May  23, 1631.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  learning  and  piety.  His  writings  include  De 
potestate  Payee,  in  rebus  temporalibus  sive  in  regibus  de- 
ponendis  usurpata,  etc.  (Lond.  1G14,  4to)  ;  a  Discourse 
on  kneeling  at  the  holy  Communion ;  and  Sermons  (1G18). 
— Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  ii,  222;  Allibone,  Dictionary 
of  Authors,  i,  277. 

Bucket  O'b'n,  deli',  or  •$)%  doll',  from  hanging 
down),  a  vessel  to  draw  water  with  (Isa.  xl,  15);  so 
ctVT\rJna,  in  John  iv,  11  ;  spoken  metaphorically  of  a 
numerous  issue  (Num.  xxiv,  7).     See  Water. 


Ancient  Assyrian  'Warrior  rutting  a  Bucket  from  a  Hope 
hanging  from  a  Pulley  in  a  Fortress. 

Buckland,  William,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English 
geologist.     Dr.  Buckland  was  born  at  Axminster,  in 

Devon,  in  the  year  1784.  He  received  his  early  edu- 
cation at  Winchester,  and  in  1801  obtained  a  scholar- 
ship in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford.  He  took  his 
degree  of  B.A.  in  1803,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his 
college  in  1808.  At  this  time  Oxford  was  the  most 
unpromising  school  in  the  world  for  natural  science. 
The  tastes  of  young  Buckland  led  him  to  the  study  of 
mineralogy,  and  in  1813  we  find  him  appointed  to  the 
readership  of  mineralogy,  and  in  1818  to  the  reader- 
ship of  geology.  In  these  positions  he  succeeded  in 
attracting  attention  to  the  departments  of  physical 
science  which  he  taught.  But  as  he  excited  interest  he 
also  excited  opposition,  and  every  onward  step  that  he 
made  toward  giving  the  science  of  geology  a  position 


in  the  University,  raised  an  opponent  to  its  claims. 
Through  li is  long  life  he  had  to  fight  for  his  science 
in  his  Alma  Mater  But  he  gained  the  victor}-,  and 
Strickland  and  Phillips,  his  successors,  have  obtained 
a  universal  recognition  of  the  value  and  importance 
of  their  teachings.  In  1820  Dr.  Buckland  delivered  a 
lecture  before  the  University  of  Oxford,  which  was 
afterward  published  under  the  title  of  Vindicia  Geo- 
logicm;  or,  the  Connection  of  Religion  with  Geology  ex- 
plained (Lond.  1823).  In  this  work  he  showed  that 
there  could  be  no  opposition  between  the  works  and 
the  word  of  God.  In  1823  he  published  ReUquia  Di- 
luviance;  or,  Observations  on  th  Organic  Remains  attest- 
ing the  Action  of  a  universal  Deluge.  His  contribu- 
tions to  the  Proceedings  of  the  (ii-nlngical  ,So< ic/y  were 
very  numerous,  and  in  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Bib- 
liographia  Geologise  et  Zoologise,"  published  by  the 
Ray  Society  in  1848,  we  find  references  to  sixty-one 
distinct  works  and  memoirs.  In  1825  Dr.  Buckland 
accepted  from  his  college  the  living  of  Stoke  Charity, 
near  Whitchurch,  Hants;  in  the  same  year  he  was 
promoted  to  a  canonry  in  the  cathedral  of  Christ 
Church,  and  married  Miss  Mary  Morland,  of  Abing- 
don. In  1818  he  had  been  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  ;  and  in  1829  he  was  chosen  a  member 
of  the  council  of  that  body,  and  was  re-elected  on  each 
successive  occasion  till  his  illness  in  1849.  In  1813 
he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Geological  Society,  and  was 
twice  elected  president  of  that  body.  He  took  an  ac- 
tive interest  in  the  foundation  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  the  advancement  of  science,  and  was  one  of 
those  who  took  the  bold  step  of  inviting  this  body  to 
hold  its  second  meeting  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 
On  this  occasion  he  was  president  of  the  association. 
From  that  time  to  1848  he  was  constantly  present  at 
the  meetings  of  the  body,  and  read  many  of  his  papers 
before  them.  In  1847  Dr.  Buckland  was  appointed  a 
trustee  of  the  British  Museum,  and  to(  k  an  active  part 
in  the  development  of  that  department  more  especially 
devoted  to  geology  and  palaeontology.  His  only  con- 
tribution to  any  branch  of  theology  is  his  Bridgewater 
treatise  on  Geology  and  Mineralogy  considered  unth  ref- 
erence to  Natural  Theology  (Lond.  1837,  2d  cd.  2  vols. 
8vo;  Philadel.  1  vol.  12mo;  also  in  Bohn's  Library, 
12mo).  His  brain  gave  way  from  excessive  labor  in 
1850,  but  he  lingered  till  Aug.  11,  1856,  when  he  died 
at  Clapham. — London  Athene  um,  No.  1504. 

Buckle  (iropmj),  a  clasp  or  branch,  in  this  instance 
of  gold,  sent  by  Alexander  Balas  to  Jonathan  Macca- 
bauis  as  a  present  of  honor,  in  conformity  with  customs 
of  royal  courtesy  (1  Mace.  x.  89;  N-i.  58;  romp,  xiv, 
44:  SO  Josephus,  iropirn,  Ant.  xiii.  1,  1:  5,4).  A  sim- 
ilar usage  is  referred  to  byTrebellius  Pollio(in  clam/.), 
and  the  use  of  such  ornaments  is  illustrated  by  Pliny 
(xxxiii,  .">);  comp.  Sehleusiier.  Lex.s.v.;  Smith, Did. 
of  Class.  Ant.  s.  v.  Fibula. 


Ancient  Roman  Brooches. 

Buckler  stands  in  the  authorized  version  as  the 
representative  of  the  following  Heb.  words:  1.  "<~z, 
magen'  \  protecting'),  a  smaller  and  more  portable  shield 
(2  Sam.  xxii,  31;  1  Chron.  v.  18;  Job  xv,  26;  Psa 
xviii.  2,  30;  1'rov.  ii,  7;  Cant,  iv,  4;  Jer.  xlvi,  3; 
elsewhere  "shield").  2.  IT^rib,  socherah'  (from  its 
surrounding  the  person),  occurs  but  once  figuratively 


BUCKLER 


906 


BUDDEUS 


(Psa.  xci,  4).  3.  ilSS,  tsinnah'  (a  covering),  a  large 
shield  protecting  the  whole  body  ("buckler,"  Psa. 
xxxv,  2  ;  Ezek.  xxiii,  -4  ;  xxvi,  8  ;  xxxviii,  4  ;  xxxix, 
9;  elsewhere  "shield''  or  "target,"  the  c'tcnrig  of 
Ecclus.  xxxvii,  5).  4.  !T2"i,  ro'mach  (from  its pierc- 
ing), a  lance  or  spear  (as  it  is  often  rendered,  improp- 
erly "  buckler"  in  1  Chron.  xii,  8).     See  Armor. 

The  buckler  or  shield  was  a  principal  piece  of  pro- 
tective armor  with  ancient  warriors,  being  worn  in 
connection  both  with  the  spear  and  the  bow  (2  Chron. 
xiv,  8 ;  xvii,  17  ;  Jer.  vi,  23).  Of  the  above  names 
for  this  implement,  the  socherah,  according  to  Jahn, 
designates  the  targe  or  round  form  (see  Gesenius,  Thes. 
p.  947).  Two  others  of  these  terms  (combined  in  Ezek. 
xxxix,  9:  Jer.  xlvi,  3)  appear  to  denote  respectively 
the  small  (mageri)  and  the  large  {tsinnah)  kind,  the  lat- 
ter screening  the  entire  person  (Virg.  sEn.  ii,  227 ; 
Tyrta?i  Carm.  ii,  23  sq.),  as  is  evident  from  1  Kings 
x*  1C,  17  ;  2  Chron.  ix,  16.  The  Mishna  (Chelim,  xxiv, 
1)  names  three  species  of  shield,  the  large  (O^in 
~"2-n),  the  middle,  used  in  discipline,  and  the  small 
(S"1"1""1"!"!  r:£^"l).  The  larger  kind  probably  pro- 
tected even  the  head  (Josephus,  Ant.  vi,  5,  1;  comp. 
Biod.  Sic.  v,  30).  In  like  manner,  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  a  small  shield  was  called  Srvptoc,  (oaxoc. 
in  Homer),  scutum,  and  a  large  one  comic,  clypeus 
(comp.  Josephus,  War.  iii,  5,  5).  It  is  uncertain,  how- 
ever, whether  the  Ileb.  shields  were  of  the  same  form ; 
we  only  know  that  the  later  Jews  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans  carried  oval  shields  (see  Jahn,  Archaol.  II,  ii, 
pi.  11,  6,  8 ;  those  of  the  Egyptians  being  rounded  only 
at  the  top,  Wilkinson,  i,  298  sq.).  The  word  B^IE 
she'let,  which  the  old  translators  give  very  variously, 
designates  probably  the  shield,  and  indeed  those  used 
on  state  occasions  (Jer.  Ii,  11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  11 ;  Cant, 
iv,  4),  rather  than  quiver.  The  (larger)  shields  were 
generally  of  wood  (comp.  Pliny,  xvi,  77 ;  Virg.  JEn. 
vii,  C32),  and  covered  with  thick  leather  (especially 
hippopotamus  hide,  Pliny,  viii,  39;  but  the  skins  of 
other  pachydermatous  animals  are  still  employed  in 
Africa;  see  Riippell,  Arab.  p.  34;  Pallme,  Beschreib. 
von  Kordqfan,  p.  42)  or  metal.  Leather  shields  (Iliad, 
v,  452 ;  xii,  425)  consisted  either  of  simple  undressed 
ox  (or  elephant)  hide  (Herod,  vii,  91 ;  Strabo,  xvii,  p. 
820,  828),  or  of  several  thicknesses  of  leather,  some- 
times also  embossed  with  metal  (Iliad,  vii,  219  sq. ; 
xii,  294  sq.)  ;  hence  those  captured  from  foes  might  be 
burnt  (Ezek.  xxxix,  9).  The  leather  of  shields  re- 
quired oiling  (2  Sam.  i,  21 ;  Isa.  xxi,  5 ;  comp.  "  lseves 
clypei,"  Virg.  JSn.  vii,  026),  so  that  they  should  not 
injure  by  moisture ;  hence  they  gleamed  in  the  dis- 
tance;  sometimes  they  were  even  smeared  with  blood 
(Nali.  ii,  4  [?]),  so  as  to  present  a  frightful  appear- 
ance. Copper  ("brazen")  shields  were,  as  it  appears 
(1  Sam.  xvii.  6;  1  Kings  xiv,  27),  also  in  use  (comp. 
XaXtcaoiriSiQ  for  heavy-armed  troops,  in  Polyb.  iv,  69, 
4 ;  v,  91,  7) ;  as  even  gold  ones  in  the  equipment  of 
the  general  (1  Mace,  vi,  39),  i.e.  probably  studded 
with  gold ;  although  those  named  in  1  Kings  x,  16  sq. ; 
xiv,  26,  as  shields  of  parade  (comp.  the  silver  shields 
of  Pliny,  viii,  82),  borne  before  the  king  in  festive  pro- 
cessions (1  Kings  xiv,  28),  may  well  have  been  of  mass- 
ive metal  (comp.  the  golden  shields  of  the  Carthagin- 
ian-. Pliny,  xxxv,  .",;  on  the  overlaying  of  shields 
[with  gold,  ivory,  etc],  sec  Athen.  xii,  534;  among 
tin-  Humans  every  shield  was  inscribed  with  the  sol- 
dier's name.  \V  et.  Milit.  ii,  18).  The  same  custom 
appears  also  in  the  gold  shields  sent  as  gifts  of  honor 
to  Home  (1  Mace,  xiv,  24;  XV,  18;  comp.  1  Mace,  vi, 
'.':  Josephus,  A i>i.  xiv,  8,  5;  Sueton.  Caiig.  16).  Bur- 
in- a  march  the  Soldiers  carried  their  shields  (covered 

with  a  leather  case,  aayfta  or  ZXvrpov,  involucra,  as  a 
protection  from  dust,  Isa.  xx,  6;  comp.  the  Schol.  ad 
Ari8toph.  Acharn.  571;  Plutarch,  Lucvtt.  26;  Csesar, 
Bell.  Gall,  ii,  21 ;  Cicero,  Nat.  Dear,  ii,  14)  hanging  on 


their  shoulder  (Iliad,  xvi,  803)  ;  but  in  the  camp  by  a 
strap  on  the  left  arm  (Iliad,  xvi,  802 ;  Virg.  JEn.  ii, 
671  sq. ;  'Pliny,  xxxiii,  4 ;  ^Elian,  Var.  Hist,  xi,  9 ; 
hence  the  phrase  {-k  aa-nica,  Xenoph.  Ci/rop.  vii,  5,  6; 
Arrian,  Alex,  i,  6, 12,  means  on  the  shield  side,  or  left, 
comp.  Anab.  iv,  3,  26).  See  generally  Ortlob,  De  scu- 
tis  et  clypeis  Hebr.  (Lips.  1718) ;  Caryophilus,  De  cly- 
peis  veil.  (Lugd.  Bat.  1751);  Spanheim,  ad  Julian,  p. 
241;  Jahn,  Archaol.  II,  ii,  401  sq. ;  on  the  Homeric 
shield,  Kopke,  Kriegswes.  der  Griech.  p.  108  sq.  The 
decoration  of  the  Jewish  palaces  (1  Kings  x,  16 ;  xiv, 
26 ;  Cant,  iv,  4 ;  comp.  Philo,  Opp.  ii,  591)  and  Tem- 
ple (1  Mace,  iv,  57  ;  vi,  2 ;  comp.  Strabo,  xiii,  600 ; 
Arrian,  Alex,  vi,  9,  6;  Pliny,  xxxv,  3)  with  golden 
shields  was  a  peculiar  practice.  In  the  Temple  at  Je- 
rusalem the  shields  of  David  were  suspended  as  me- 
mentoes (2  Kings  x,  10) ;  see  Rexrath,  De  clypeis  in 
loco  sacro  suspensis  (Lips.  1737).  The  suspension  of 
the  shields  of  Tyre  in  Ezek.  xxvii,  10, 11,  is  a  military 
allusion,  by  way  of  ostentation,  to  the  ensigns  of  for- 
eign nations  displayed  as  allies  (see  Henderson,  Com- 
ment, in  loc).     See  Shield. 

Buckley,  Theodore  William  Alois,  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  writer,  was  born  in  1825,  and  was 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  became 
chaplain.  Being  inclined  to  literature  rather  than 
the  pastoral  work,  he  removed  to  London,  where  his 
life  was  chiefly  spent  in  writing  books,  and  in  prepar- 
ing editions  of  the  classics  for  the  booksellers,  and  in 
making  translations.  He  also  published  a  History  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  (Lond.  1852,  small  8vo— the  best 
small  manual  on  that  subject  extant);  the  Canons  and 
Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Lond.  1851,  sm.  8vo). 
He  died  in  1856.  See  Gentleman's  Magazine,  March, 
1856;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  278. 

Buckminster,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Con- 
gregational minister,  was  born  at  Rutland,  Mass., 
Oct.  14,  1751,  and  graduated  at  Yale  in  1770.  He 
spent  three  years  in  study,  and  was  then  chosen  tutor 
in  the  college,  which  position  he  filled  for  four  years, 
and  in  1779  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  "North 
Church,"  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  which  station  he  occu- 
pied until  his  death,  June  10,  1812.  He  was  made 
D.D.  by  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  1803.  His  publi- 
cations consist  of  a  memoir  of  Dr.  M'Clintock  and  a 
number  of  occasional  discourses.  He  had  a  noble 
spirit  and  a  delicately  organized  nervous  system,  from 
disorder  of  which  he  suffered  intensely  at  several  pe- 
riods of  his  life.  His  Life  was  written  by  his  daugh- 
ter, Mrs.  Lee  (Boston,  1851, 12mo). — Sprague,  Annals, 
ii,  108. 

Buckminster,  Joseph  S.,  D.D.,  son  of  Joseph, 
was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1784.  He  was  care- 
full)'  educated,  first  by  his  father,  afterward  at  Har- 
vard, and  studied  for  the  ministry.  In  1808  he  became 
pastor  of  a  Congregational  Church  at  Boston ;  in  1811 
he  was  appointed  lecturer  in  Biblical  Criticism  at  Har- 
vard. His  earh'  death,  June  8,  1812  (two  days  before 
his  father's  death),  was  deeply  lamented  throughout 
the  country.  In  theology  he  was  a  Unitarian  with 
evangelical  proclivities ;  as  a  preacher,  his  eminent 
eloquence  gave  him  great  popularity ;  his  gentle  man- 
ners and  faithful  labors  made  him  very  useful  and  ac- 
ceptable as  a  pastor.  His  Sermons  (1826,  8vo)  were 
reprinted  in  London  ;  they  were  reprinted,  with  addi- 
tions, in  Ins  Works  (Boston,  1839,  2  vols.  12mo).  His 
Life  will  be  found  in  Memoirs  of  the  Buchninsters,  Fa- 
ther and  Son,  by  his  sister,  Mrs.  Lee  (Boston,  1851, 
12mo). 

Budaeus.     See  Bude. 

Buddeus,  Johann  Franz,  one  of  the  most  uni- 
versally learned  theologians  of  his  time,  was  born  at 
Anclam,  Pomcrania,  June  25,  1667.  After  studying 
at  Griefswald,  he  entered  the  University  of  Wittem- 
berg,  1685,  where  he  became  assistant  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  1C87.      In  1G89  he  went  to  Jena,  and  1692 


BUDDHA 


907 


BUDDHA 


to  Coburg  as  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin.  In  1G93 
he  became  professor  of  moral  and  political  philosophy 
in  the  new  University  of  Halle,  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Jena  in  1705.  lie  died  Nov.  19,  1729.  His 
vast  studies  ranged  over  the  fields  of  law  and  morals 
as  well  as  of  theology.  His  theology  was  Biblical, 
tending  rather  toward  pietism  than  rationalism  ;  his 
philosophy  was  eclectic  and  moderate.  His  principal 
works  are,  Ekmenta  philosophic  practices  (Halle,  1679)  : 
—Institut.  Philosophic  Eckctica  (Halle,  1705,  2  vols.): 
—Historia  ecclesiastic  iVet.  Test.  (Halle,  1726-29,  2  vols. 
4to)  -.—Isagoge  ad  Theologiam  (Lips.  17o0,  2  vols.  4to)  : 
—lnstitutiones  Theolog'ue  (Lips.  1724,  4to)  .—Institt.  The- 
ol.  Moralis  (Lips.  1711, 4to) :— Misa  Uanea  Sacra  (Jen. 
1727,  2  vols.  4to): — Theses  de.  Atheismo  it  Superstiticne 
(Jena,  1716)  :—Hist.  Crit.  theolog.  dogm.  et  mor.  (Frkft. 
1725,  4to): — Compendium,  Historic  Philosophicc  (Halle, 
1731,  Svo).  He  was  a  distinguished  contributor  to  the 
Acta  Eruditorum  of  Leipzig.  His  writings  in  the  way 
of  disputations,  etc.,  are  very  voluminous,  and  may  be 
counted  by  the  hundred. — Hoefer,  Bicg.  General?,  vii, 
718;  Brucker,  Hist.  Phil.  vol.  v;  Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
klopiidie,  ii,  428. 

Buddha,  Buddhism.  Buddha,  the  "sage,"  the 
"enlightened"  (from  the  Sanscrit  buddh,  to  know),  is 
the  title  of  honor  given  to  the  hermit  Gotama  (Gau- 
tama) or  Sakyamuni  (the  "hermit  of  Sakya"),  the 
founder  of  Buddhism,  the  prevailing  form  of  religion 
in  Eastern  Asia. 

I.  His  life,  the  system  of  his  doctrines,  and  the  his- 
tory of  their  diffusion  are  still  involved  in  great  ob- 
scurity. Until  recently  the  sources  of  information 
respecting  both  Buddha  and  the  early  history  of  Bud- 
dhism were  almost  exclusively  of  secondary  rank, 
the  original  authentic  documents  which  are  written  in 
Sanscrit  not  having  been  fully  examined.  Another 
cause  of  difficulty  lies  in  the  apparently  insoluble  dif- 
ferences between  the  statements  of  various  Buddhist 
nations.  A  thorough  investigation  of  some  of  the 
most  important  authentic  documents  has  of  late  cor- 
rected many  errors  and  shed  much  new  light  on  the 
subject.  Still  greater  results  are  expected  from  the 
future,  especially  respecting  the  evolution  of  the  his- 
toric truth  from  the  religious  myths  of  a  number  of 
conflicting  traditions.  In  India,  Buddha  was  regarded 
as  the  ninth  incorporation  of  Vishnu  as  a  sage,  or  the 
continuation  of  his  incarnation  as  Krishna.  Accord- 
ing to  others,  he  was  an  emanation  from  Brahma,  for 
the  reformation  of  Brahmanism  and  the  abolition  of 
the  differences  of  caste.  He  is  regarded  as  the  su- 
preme ruler  of  the  present  period  of  the  world,  and  re- 
ceives as  such  divine  honors  under  different  names  in 
India,  Tibet,  China,  Japan,  Burmah.  Some  Buddhas 
appeared  before  him  ;  others  will  appear  after  him ; 
the  total  number  of  Buddhas,  until  the  dissolution  of 
the  world  into  nothing,  being  assumed  by  some  as  one 
thousand,  by  others  as  only  twenty  two.  The  founder 
of  Buddhism  is  counted  as  the  fourth.  According  to 
the  traditions  of  the  Tibetans,  he  left  the  divine  resi- 
dence Damba  Togar,  and  came  into  the  kingdom  of 
Magadha,  in  Southern  Behar,  where,  in  the  following 
year,  he  entered  as  a  five-colored  ray  the  womb  of 
Maha-Maya,  the  virgin  wife  of  Ssodadani,  and  was 
born  in  the  grove  of  Lomba,  through  the  right  armpit  of 
his  mother.  According  to  others  he  was  from  Ceylon, 
according  to  others  from  an  unknown  country.  Prom 
his  seventh  (according  to  others,  tenth)  year  he  received 
instruction  in  all  sorts  of  knowledge;  at  the  age  of 
sixteen  (others  say  twenty)  lie  married  a  noble  virgin, 
by  whom  he  had  two  children,  a  son,  Raholi,  and  a 
daughter.  In  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  his  life  the 
four  great  spirit  kings  carried  him  off  to  the  most  holy 
temple,  where  he  consecrated  himself  to  a  clerical  life. 
Then  he  lived  six  years  as  a  penitent  hermit,  and  ob- 
tained, under  the  name  of  Sakyamuni  (i.  c.  the  devotee 
of  the  house  of  Sakya),  as  a  full  Buddha,  the  highest 
degree  of  sanctity.     Henceforth  be  worked  without 


interruption  for  the  propagation  of  his  doctrines.  The 
j  name  of  the  disciple  who  principally  assisted  him  was 
Mahakadja.  Buddha  died  in  the  eighty-fifth  year  of 
his  age.  The  time  of  his  life  falls,  according  to  the 
I  chronology  of  the  Tibetans  and  Mongols,  in  the  years 
j  B.C.  2214  to  2184 ;  according  to  the  Japanese,  lie  was 
born  B.C.  1027  ;  according  to  other  statements,  lie  died 
B.C.  543.  The  last  statement  is  the  one  now  gener- 
ally adopted. 

The  main  facts  which  the  recent  investigations,  after 
comparing  the  discrepant  traditions,  have  established 
as  highly  probable,  are  the  following  :  Sakyamuni  was 
the  son  of  an  Indian  king,  in  the  6th  century  B.C., 
educated  in  the  luxury  of  an  Oriental  court.  Yet  ho 
ignored  the  pleasures  of  life,  and  preferred  to  wander 
about  as  a  beggar,  in  order  to  get  the  instruction  of 
the  Brahmins.  He  assumed  the  preaching  of  a  new 
religion  as  the  great  task  of  his  life,  and  carried  it 
through  with  great  perseverance,  notwithstanding 
the  incessant  persecution  of  the  Brahmins.  He  com- 
bated principally  against  the  hierarchy  and  the  dog- 
matic formulas  of  Brahniaism,  in  the  place  of  which  he 
made  a  simple  ethical  principle  the  central  doctrine  of 
his  system,  while  at  the  same  time  be  recognised  the 
equal  rights  of  all  men,  without  distinction  of  birth, 
rank,  and  sex.  He  addressed  the  people  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  people,  and  taught  that  the  suppression 
of  passion  was  the  only  road  to  a  union  with  the  world- 
soul.  The  aim  of  life,  according  to  him,  is  to  remove 
from  one's  own  life,  as  well  as  from  the  lives  of  others, 
the  obstacles  to  a  suppression  of  passions,  and  by  love 
and  meekness  to  assist  others  in  the  work  of  self-de- 
liverance. When  he  died  his  bones  were  scattered 
all  over  India,  and  a  religious  worship  rendered  to 
them.  His  teachings  and  rules  of  wisdom  were  col- 
lected in  writing  at  first  in  India  (Nepaul),  in  Sanscrit, 
and  afterward  in  Ceylon,  in  the  Bali  language.  Ilis 
disciples  and  successors  have  given  to  his  teachings 
more  and  more  of  a  dogmatic  shape,  in  which  the  orig- 
inal simplicity  is  lost.  Gotama,  or  the  Buddha,  is 
generally  represented  in  statues  as  seated,  with  his 
legs  crossed,  as  if  in  contemplation,  as  contemplative 
thought  is  one  of  the  highest  virtues  in  the  system, 
and  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  obtaining  nirvana  (see 
below),  the  Buddhist  heaven. 


jaal  Gotama  near  Amarapura,  Burmah 


II.  System  of  Buddhism,  (a)  Theology.— Buddhism 
rejected  Brahma  as  the  ruling  spirit  of  the  world,  and 
admits  no  Almighty  creator.     "It  admits  no  beings 

with  greater  supernatural  D0W6T  than  man  can  reach 
by  virtue  and  knowledge  ;  in  fact,  several  of  the 
Buddhist  nations  have  no  word  in  their  languages  to 
express  the  idea  of  God."  Buddha  takes  the  place  of 
God,  for  all  practical  purposes,  in  the  worship  and  life 
of  the  people.  "  In  India,  Buddhism  is  so  mixed  with 
Brahniaism  that  it  is  hard  to  discern  the  truth,  but 
wherever  it  is  pure  it  recognizes  no  God,  no  Supreme 


BUDDHISM 


90S 


BUDDHISM 


Intelligence — the  primary  idea  of  Gotama  being  that 
to  predicate  any  Self,  any  Ego,  is  an  absurdity— no 
soul,  no  future  life,  except  as  one  among  a  myriad 
stages  of  terminable  existence.  It  is  not  revealed, 
but  discovered  by  man,  any  human  being  who  can  so 
far  conquer  his  'natural  self— his  affections,  desires, 
fears,  and  wants — as  to  attain  to  perfect  calm,  being 
capable  of  'intuitions'  which  are  absolute  truth 
wherefore  Gotama,  though  he  argued  against  other 
creeds,  never  proved  his  own  by  argument,  simply  as- 
serting '  I  know.'  Its  sole  motors  are  npudan,  the  'at 
tachment  to  stfnsuous  objects,'  as  Mr.  Hardy  calls  it; 
or,  as  we  should  describe  it,  nature,  and  karmma,  lit- 
erally,  work,  the  aggregate  action  which  everything 
in  existence  must  by  virtue  of  its  existence  produce, 
and  which  ex  rerum  naturd  cannot  die.  For  example  : 
fruit  comes  because  there  is  a  tree;  not  because  the 
tree  wills  it,  but  because  its  karmma,  its  inherent  ag- 
gregate of  qualities,  necessitates  fruit,  and  its  fruit 
another  tree  in  infinite  continuity.  There  is  a  final 
cause,  but  it  is  not  sentient.  All  existences  are  the 
result  of  some  cause,  but  in  no  instance  is  this  forma- 
tive cause  the  working  of  a  power  inherent  in  any  be- 
ing that  can  be  exercised  at  will.  All  beings  are  pro- 
duced from  the  updddna,  attachment  to  existence,  of 
some  previous  being  ;  the  manner  of  its  exercise,  the 
character'of  its  consequences,  being  controlled,  direct- 
ed, or  apportioned  by  karmma;  and  all  sentient  exist- 
ences are  produced  from  the  same  causes,  or  from  some 
cause  dependent  on  the  results  of  these  causes;  sc 
that  updddna  and  karmma,  mediately  or  immediate- 
ly, are  the  cause  of  all  causes,  and  the  source  whence 
all  beings  have  originated  in  their  present  form." 
Buddhism  recognizes  most  of  the  lower  gods  of  the 
Indian  religions,  especially  the  incarnation  of  Vish- 
nu, without,  however,  rendering  them  a  particular 
worship.  (b)  Cosmology,  Pnmmatology,  and  Anthro- 
pology.— The  world-mass,  Loga,  has  arisen  from  the 
empty  space  according  to  unchangeable  natural  laws. 
The  precipitate  of  it  forms  matter,  an  evil,  from 
which  springs  a  constant  change  of  birth,  accord- 
ing to  unalterable  laws  grounded  in  that  evil.  Thus 
the  germs  of  good  and  evil  were  developed.  Each 
found  its  reward  or  punishment  in  a  circular  course  of 
innumerable  births,  which,  according  to  the  present 
state  of  development,  are  divided  into  six  realms  or 
degrees  of  birth,  viz.,  those  of  the  pure  spirits  (whose 
head  is  Khormoorda),  of  impure  (the  greatest  of  which 
is  Beematchee  Dahree),  of  men,  animals,  limbo-mon- 
sters, and  hellish  creatures.  Each  of  these  six  divis- 
ions has  again  subdivisions,  through  which  all  beings 
have  to  wander  until  their  reunion  with  the  divine 
essence  (migration  of  souls).  The  seventh  highest 
degree  is  the  dignity  of  a  Buddha,  who  is  above  all 
change  of  birth.  The  aim  of  the  appearance  of  Bud- 
dha is  to  restore  the  unity  of  the  empty  space  which 
has  been  disturbed  by  this  development,  and  gradu- 
ally to  raise  the  beings  of  all  classes  to  the  Buddha  de- 
gree. Then  all  that  is  now  separate  will  be  united, 
ami  even  Buddha  lie  dissolved  in  the  great  unity, 
which,  however,  will  only  take  place  after  many  mil- 
lions of  years.  Those  who  are  elevated  above  the  earth 
are  called  Nat,  in  three  divisions:  1.  Jama,  who  have 
coarse  bodies,  with  sexual  distinction  and  propagation ; 
2.  Rupa,  with  liner  bodies,  without  sexual  distinction 
Mel  propagation  ;  and.  B.A rupa, bodiless  beings.  Above 
tin-  earth  are  twenty-six  heavens,  corresponding  to  the 
orb  of  the  earth  ami  of  equal  size.  ,six  <,f  these  heav- 
ens belong  to  .lama.  The  lowest  of  them  is  inhabited 
by  the  Nat  Zatamaharit,  the  duration  of  whose  lives  i< 
nine  millions  of  years.  Their  heaven  is  divided  into 
four  realms,  each  of  which  has  a  king.  These  four 
kings  are  the  tutelary  gods  of  the  world.  The  life  of 
the  inhabitants  of  each  of  ih-  succeeding  heavens  is 
as  long  again  and  as  happy  again  as  that  of  the  prece- 
ding. The  Rupa  have  sixteen,  the  Arupa  four  hcav-, 
ens.     Men  who  observe  the  moral  law  are  received! 


into  the  lowest  heaven,  and  can  continue  to  ascend 
until  they  attain  the  final  goal  of  Buddhistic  salvation, 
i.  e.  until  they  pass  into  nirvana.  The  signification 
of  this  term  became  early  a  source  of  hot  controversy 
among  the  various  schools  of  Buddhists.  It  comes 
from  the  Sanscrit  root  vd'  (to  bloic),  and  nir  (out,  away 
from)  ;  and  all  agree  that  it  means  the  highest  enfran- 
chisement from  evil ;  but  the  schools  disagree  whether 
this  liberation  of  the  soul  takes  place  by  absorption  into 
God  or  into  naught.  The  prevalent  view  seems  to  be 
that  nirvana  is  not  only  an  emancipation  from  suffer- 
ing, but  also  cessation  of  existence.  "Penetrated 
with  the  idea  that  existence,  though  a  natural  conse- 
quence of  a  natural  law,  is  mere  misery — that  the  nat- 
ural man  is  wretched  as  well  as  evil — Gotama  declared 
that  if  man,  by  subduing  all  the  natural  affections, 
could,  as  it  were,  break  the  chain,  kill  the  updddna, 
or  attachment  to  sensuous  things,  he  would,  as  a  re- 
ward, pass  out  of  existence — would  either  cease  to  be. 
or — for  this  is  doubtful — cease  to  be  conscious  of  be- 
ing. The  popular  notion  that  nirvana  is  absorption  is 
incorrect,  for  there  is  nothing  to  be  absorbed  into,  no 
supreme  spirit,  no  supreme  universe,  nothing,  and 
into  this  nothing  the  man  who  has  attained  nirvana 
necessarily  passes.  To  attain  it  he  may  have  to  pass 
through  a  myriad  states  or  forms,  each  less  attached 
to  sense  than  the  last,  hence  transmigration ;  but  when 
it  is  reached  the  perfect  result  is  simply  annihilation, 
or,  rather,  the  loss  of  being,  for  the  components  of  be- 
ing, if  we  understand. Buddha,  could  not  die.  A  drear- 
ier system  of  thought  was  never  devised,  and  we  can 
account  for  its  rapid  spread  only  by  assuming  what  we 
believe  to  be  the  fact,  that  the  Asiatic  who  was  below 
philosophy  understood  by  nirvana  not  annihilation, 
but  that  state  of  suspended  being  in  which  one  ex- 
ists, but  neither  hop  s,  fears,  thinks,  nor  feels"  (Spec- 
tator, March  10,  1866).  (c)  Ethics. — The  prominent 
characteristic  which  distinguished  primitive  Buddhism 
from  Brahmaism  was  the  importance  attributed  to  mo- 
rality. The  main  object  of  a  Buddhist  was  to  acquire 
merit.  For  the  great  germinating  power  (karmma), 
which  determines  whether  the  new  being  to  be  pro- 
duced shall  be  an  insect  or  a  worm,  a  fowl,  a  beast,  a 
man,  or  a  deva  (the  highest  of  sentient  beings),  is  the 
sum  of  merit  and  demerit.  Each  soul  inherits  the 
fruits  of  the  karmma,  and  the  office  of  liberating  and 
purifying  its  predecessors.  As  evil  was  considered  to 
be  connected  with  all  passing  phenomena,  asceticism 
(celibacy,  poverty,  mortification  of  the  senses)  was  in- 
culcated as  indispensable  for  salvation.  The  Five  Com- 
mandments of  Buddhism  are,  not  to  kill  any  living  be- 
ing; not  to  steal ;  not  to  commit  adultery  ;  not  to  lie, 
slander,  or  swear ;  to  avoid  drunkenness.  These  five 
commandments  are  obligator}'  upon  all  men ;  there 
are  other  five,  specially  binding  upon  sramanas  (i.  e. 
upon  persons  who  give  themselves  up  to  a  religious 
life  in  order  to  a  direct  attainment  of  7iirvana),  viz., 
' '  to  abstain  from  food  out  of  season  —  that  is,  after 
midday  ;  to  abstain  from  dances,  theatrical  representa- 
tions, songs,  and  music ;  to  abstain  from  personal  or- 
naments and  perfumes ;  to  abstain  from  a  lofty  and 
luxurious  couch ;  to  abstain  from  taking  gold  and  sil- 
ver. For  the  regular  ascetics  or  monks  there  are  a 
number  of  special  observances  of  a  very  severe  kind. 
They  are  to  dress  only  in  rags,  sewed  together  with 
their  own  hands,  and  to  have  a  yellow  cloak  thrown 
over  the  rags.  They  are  to  eat  only  the  simplest  food, 
and  to  possess  nothing  except  what  they  get  by  col- 
lecting alms  from  door  to  door  in  their  wooden  bowl. 
The}'  are  allowed  only  one  meal,  and  that  must  be 
eaten  before  midday.  For  a  part  of  the  year  they 
are  to  live  in  forests,  with  no  other  shelter  except  the 
shadow  of  a  tree,  and  there  they  must  sit  on  their  car- 
pet even  during  sleep,  to  lie  down  being  forbidden. 
They  are  allowed  to  enter  the  nearest  village  or  town 
to  beg  food,  but  they  must  return  to  their  forests  before 
night."     (Chambers's  Encyclopedia,  s.  v.)     As  to  the 


BUDDHISM 


909 


BUDDHISM 


nature  and  tendency  of  the  Buddhist  system  of  ethics, 
the  Spectator  (March  10,  18G6)  has  the  following  just 
remarks:  "Strictly  speaking,  the  Buddhist  creed,  by 
reducing  every  thing  to  the  natural  law  of  cause  and  ef- 
fect, should  kill  morals,  but  it  does  not.  Of  sin,  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  Scriptures  speak  of  it,  the  Buddh- 
ist knows  nothing.  There  is  no  authoritative  law- 
giver, nor  can  there  possibly  be  one ;  so  that  the  trans- 
gression of  the  precepts  is  not  an  iniquity,  and  brings 
no  guilt.  It  is  right  that  we  should  try  to  get  free 
from  its  consequences,  in  the  same  way  in  which  it  is 
right  for  us  to  appease  hunger  or  overcome  disease, 
hut  no  repentance  is  required ;  and  if  we  are  taught 
the  necessity  of  being  tranquil,  subdued,  and  humble, 
it  is  that  our  minds  may  go  out  with  the  less  eager- 
ness after  those  things  that  unsettle  their  tranquillity. 
If  we  injure  no  one  by  our  acts,  no  wrong  has  been 
done ;  and  if  they  are  an  inconvenience  to  ourselves 
only,  no  one  else  has  any  right  to  regard  us  as  trans- 
gressors. Nevertheless  self-denial  is  the  sum  of  prac- 
tical ethics,  and  Gotama,  having  set  up  the  killing  of 
attachment  to  sense  as  the  object,  and  self-denial  as 
the  means,  has  produced  a  noble  theoretic  system  of 
ethics.  No  act  is  in  the  Buddhist  system  sin — the  very 
idea  is  unknown— but  then  a  bad  act  produces  a  bad 
consequence,  just  as  a  rotten  substance  will  produce 
stench,  and  bad  acts  are  therefore  to  be  avoided.  As 
to  what  is  good,  everything  is  good,  because  in  se  ev- 
erything is  indifferent;  but,  nevertheless,  that  is  bad 
relatively  to  its  consequence  which  produces  injury  to 
another.  If  it  produces  injury  to  one's  self,  no  matter, 
because  each  existence  is  its  own  irresponsible  lord; 
but  if  to  another,  then  nirvana  is  by  that  injurious  act 
postponed,  and  ho  who  commits  it  is  lower  than  he 
who  does  not.  There  is  no  sin,  but  there  is  unkind- 
ncss,  and  unkindness  produces  fruit  just  as  a  tamarind 
produces  fruit.  It  would  be  a  crime  to  hurt  any  living 
thing,  and  strict  Buddhists  still  refuse  to  swallow  ani- 
malcule ;  but  it  would  not  be  a  crime  to  commit  adul- 
tery if  the  husband  consented,  a  deduction  formally 
drawn  and  acted  on  in  Ceylon,  1  ccause  no  one  is  in- 
jured. In  practice  the  id-^a  works  in  two  ways :  the 
really  devout  pass  lives  of  the  monastic  kind,  absorbed 
in  themselves,  and  apart  from  the  world  ;  and  the 
worldly  follow  their  own  inclinations,  thinking  the  re- 
ward of  virtue  a  great  deal  too  distant  and  too  shad- 
owy—  a  hunt  after  nothing.  So  keenly,  indeed,  is 
this  felt,  that  in  most  Buddhist  countries  there  is  a 
sub-creed,  not  supposed  to  be  at  variance  with  the  Es- 
tablished Church,  but  to  work  in  a  less  refined  but 
quicker  way.  When  a  Singhalese,  for  example,  feels 
the  need  of  supernatural  help,  he  worships  a  devil  to 
get  it,  not  as  disbelieving  Buddhism,  but  as  supposing 
that  devils  may  exist  as  well  as  any  tiling  else,  and 
may,  if  kindly  treated,  be  as  useful  as  any  other  allies. 
Of  course  the  race  which  holds  such  a  system  has,  as 
a  race,  rather  a  better  chance,  of  being  decent  than  a 
really  pagan  one,  for  it  only  half  understands  its  own 
creed,  and  the  stock  texts  being  all  very  benevolent 
and  philosophical,  it  takes  them  for  a  theoretic  rule  of 
life,  and,  though  it  does  not  fully  obey  the  rule,  it  is 
decidedly  better  than  if  the  rule  were  a  bad  one.  The 
Burmese,  for  example,  are  on  the  whole  distinctly  a 
better  people  than  the  Hindoos,  more  especially  lie- 
cause,  as  human  affairs  must  go  on,  they  make  rules 
for  holding  society  together,  which  are  quite  inde- 
pendent of  any  divine  rule  at  all,  and  which  happen  in 
Burmah  to  be  decently  wise."  The  commandments 
enjoin  upon  man  to  refrain  from  ten  deadly  sins,  which 
are  again  divided  into  three  classes.  Five  deadly  sins 
(patricide,  matricide,  the  murder  of  an  arhat  ["  vener- 
able priest"],  wounding  the  person  of  Buddha,  and 
causing  a  schism  among  the  priesthood)  shut  a  man 
forever  out  of  nirvana.  Charity  or  self-sacrifice  for 
the  good  of  others  is  specially  inculcated. 

III.  Worship.— The  Buddhists  retain  many  of  the 
ceremonies  of  Brahmaism,  but  do  not  recognise  the 


precepts  of  the  Vedas.  The  sanctuary  in  their  tem- 
ples, which  contains  the  relic  of  a  saint,  is  called  dagop. 
Prayers  are  directed  to  Buddha,  to  the  hermit  Gotama, 
and,  in  general,  to  those  who  have  attained  the  digni- 
ty of  a  Buddha.  Sacrifices,  consisting  of  flowers,  fruits, 
and  slaughtered  animals,  are  offered  to  the  Buddhas 
and  the  lower  gods.  "The  adoration  of  the  statues 
of  the  Buddha  and  of  his  relics  is  the  chief  external 
ceremony  of  the  religion.     The  centres  of  the  worship 

j  are  the  temples  containing  statues,  and  the  topes  or 
tumuli  erected  over  the  relics  of  the  Buddha  or  of  his 
distinguished  apostles,  or  on  spots  consecrated  as  the 
scenes  of  the  Buddha's  acts.  The  central  object  in  a 
Buddhist  temple,  corresponding  to  the  altar  in  a  Ro- 
man Catholic  church,  is  an  image  of  the  Buddha,  or  a. 

I  dagoba  or  shrine  containing  his  relics."  Sacred  is  the 
mystic  word  Om.  The  priests  are  called  lamas  among 
the  Mongols,  bonzes  in  China  and  Japan,  rahana  in 
Burmah,  talapoins  in  Siam.  They  wear  the  tonsure, 
live  in  celibacy,  and  frequently  in  monastic  communi- 

[  ties.     The  visible  head  of  Buddhism  lived  formerly  in 

j  China,  but  since  the  fourteenth  century  in  Tibet,  vt  here 
he  is  called  Dalai  Lama  (see  L.AMAIBM).      The  sacred 

j  books  of  Buddhism  treat  of  cosmogony,  dogmatics, 
ethics,  asceticism,  and  liturgy,  and  are  very  numer- 
ous. Buddha  is  said  to  have  preached  84,000  sermons. 
The  Ganjour  (tradition)  consists  of  11(5  volumes,  and 
with  the  commentaries  (Dandsour),  of  "jo8  volumes. 
They  were  originally  composed  in  Sanscrit,  but  were 
later  translated  into  the  languages  of  the  other  Buddh- 
ist nations.  The  form  of  religious  worship  Ci  ntains 
many  points  (veneration  of  relics,  auricular  confession, 
beads,  processions,  etc.)  which  bear  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  practices  of  the  Roman  Church,  acknowl- 
edged by  all,  but  explained  differently.  The  tidiest 
information  on  these,  points  will  be  found  in  Hardy, 
Eastern  Monackism  |  London,  1850). 

IV.  History.  —  St.  Hilaire  (I)ii  Bouddkisme,  Par- 
is, 1855,  8vo),  following  principally  M.  Eugene  Bur- 
nouf,  fixes  a  minimum  date  for  the  birth  of  the 
Buddha  in  the  7th  century  B.C.     It  is  true  that  the 

!  contents  of  the  Buddhist  works  themselves  supply  no 
dates,  and  the  inferences  are  uncertain  by  which  any 
date  of  the  lifetime  of  Sakyamuni  himself  can  lie  de- 
duced. If  the  indications  of  the  Singhalese  documents 
be  followed,  the  death  of  the  Buddha  is  placed  in  B.C. 
543.  According  to  deductions  from  Chinese  authori- 
ties, it  might  have  taken  place  much  earlier;  and  if 

J  the  Buddhist  character  of  the  rock  inscriptions  at  Guir- 
nar,  Delhi,  and  Bhabra  be  acknowledged,  the  spread  of 
the  religion  in  those  countries  from  '-'on  to  100  years 
before  the  Christian  era  is  established.  Megasthenes 
met  with  Buddhists  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges;  and 
time  must  be  allowed  for  the  rise  of  Buddhism  in  its 
original  seat  in  Central  India,  fin-  its  expulsion  as  a 
heresy  from  the  bosom  of  Brahmaism,  its  develop- 
ment as  a  specific  religion,  and  its  distribution,  not  in 
a  line,  but  on  an  immense  arc  of  countries  contermi- 
nous with  India  proper.  The  creed  of  Buddhism  was 
fixed  and  developed  by  oecumenical  councils,  the  first 
df  which  was  held  by  Casyapa,  a  disciple  of  Buddha, 
and  largely  attended.  "'I  he  Buddha  bad  written 
nothing  himself;  but  his  chief  followers,  assembled  in 
council  immediately  after  bis  death,  proceeded  to  re- 
duce his  teaching  to  writing.  These  canonical  writ- 
ings an-  divided  into  three  classes,  forming  the  Tripi- 
taka,  or  'triple  basket.'      The  first  class  consist  of  the 

Soutras,  or  discourses  of  the  Buddha;  the  second  con- 
tains the  Vinaya,  or  discipline;  and  the.  third  the  Ab- 
hidkarma,  or  metaphysics.     The  first  is  ev;d<  ntly  the 

fundamental  text,  out  of  which  all  the  subsequent 
writings  have  been  elaborated.  The  other  two  coun- 
cils] robably  revised  and  expanded  the  writings  agree  d 

upon  at  the  first,  adding  voluminous  commentaries. 

As  to  the  dates  of  the  other  two  councils  there  are  ir- 
reconcilable discrepancies  in  the  accounts  ;  but,  at  all 
[  events,  the  third  was  not  later  than  1'lU  B.C.,  so  that 


BUDDHISM 


910 


BUDDHISM 


the  Buddhist  canonical  Scriptures,  as  they  now  exist, 
were  fixed  two  centuries  and  a  half  before  the  Christian 
era.  The  Buddhist  religion  early  manifested  a  zeal- 
ous missionary  spirit,  and  princes  and  even  princesses 
became  devoted  propagandists."  It  also  established 
foreign  missions,  most  of  which  were  highly  success- 
ful. In  consequence  of  its  great  extension,  Buddhism 
split  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  branch,  the  former 
of  which,  embracing  the  Buddhist  churches  of  Nepaul, 
China,  Corea,  Japan,  Tartary,  Mongolia,  and  Tibet,  ad- 
mitted much  of  the  former  mythologies  of  these  coun- 
tries into  their  creed;  the  southern  Church  extended 
from  Ceylon  over  the  whole  of  Farther  India.  In 
the  land"  of  its  birth,  India,  Buddhism  had  to  endure 
a  long-continued  persecution,  and  was  at  last  entirely 
driven  out,  after  it  had  flourished  there  about  twelve 
hundred  years.  The  time  of  its  introduction  into  the 
other  countries  is  as  uncertain  as  its  early  history  in 
general.  It  is  said  to  have  made  its  first  appearance 
in  China  about  B.C.  217,  but  it  was  not  actually  estab- 
lished before  about  A.D.  GO.  It  suffered  several  per- 
secutions, in  the  third  of  which,  in  845,  4600  monas- 
teries were  destroyed,  together  with  40,000  smaller 
edifices.  A  census,  taken  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
stated  the  number  of  temples  at  42,318,  of  priests  and 
monks  at  213,418.     In  Japan  it  spread  in  the  fifth  or 


fiery  Saivas  and  the  bigoted  Mussulmans,  has  been 
half  ruined  by  the  blundering  excavations  of  amateur 
antiquaries.  .  .  .  The  great  tope  itself  is  a  solid  dome 
of  stone  and  brick,  106  feet  in  diameter,  and  42  feet  in 
height,  springing  from  a  plinth  of  14  feet,  with  a  pro- 
jection of  oi  feet  from  the  base  of  the  building,  and  a 
slope  of  2J  feet.  The  plinth  or  basement  formed  a 
terrace  for  the  perambulation  of  worshippers  of  the  en- 
shrined relic  ;  for,  on  the  right  pillar  of  the  north  gate- 
way there  is  a  representation  of  a  tope  and  of  two  wor- 
shippers walking  round  it,  with  garlands  in  their 
hands.  The  terrace  was  reached  by  a  double  flight 
of  steps  to  the  south,  connected  by  a  landing  10  feet 
square.  The  apex  of  the  dome  was  flattened  into  a 
terrace  34  feet  in  diameter,  surrounded  by  a  stone  rail- 
ing of  that  style  so  peculiar  to  Buddha  monuments 
that  I  will  venture  to  call  it  the  'Buddhist  Bailing.' 
.  .  .  Many  of  the  pillars  of  this  colonnade  are  now  ly- 
ing at  the  base  of  the  monument,  and  several  portions 
of  the  coping  or  architrave  prove  that  the  enclosure 
was  a  circular  one.  .  .  .  Within  the  upper  enclosure 
there  was  a  square  altar  or  pedestal,  surrounded  by 
pillars  of  the  same  description,  but  much  taller,  some 
of  which  are  still  lying  on  the  top  of  the  dome.  .  .  . 
The  total  height  of  the  building,  including  the  cupo- 
las, must  have  been  upward  of  100  feet.     The  base  of 


sixth  century  after  Christ.  Into  Tibet  it  was  intro-  the  tope  is  surrounded  by  a  massive  colonnade,  144| 
duced  in  the  fifth  century,  and,  after  several  persecu-  feet  in  diameter  from  west  to  east,  and  15H  feet  in  di- 
tions,  re-established  in  the  tenth.  Among  the  Mon-  ameter  from  north  to  south.  This  enclosure  is  there- 
gols  it  gained  a  firm  footing  in  the  thirteenth  century.  I  fore  elliptical,  the  greater  diameter  exceeding  the  less- 
It  was  also  adopted  by  several  tribes  in  Asiatic  Bus-  er  by  7  feet.  By  this  arrangement  a  free  passage  is 
sia.  It  has  for  many  centuries  become  stationary  in  obtained  round  the  southern  staircase,  and  a  greater 
most  countries,  only  in  Bussia  it  is  visibly  on  the  de-  breadth  at  the  foot  of  the  ascent.     The  breadth  of  the 


cline.      It  still  counts  about  300,000,000  of  adherents 

V.  Monuments  and  Remains. — Scattered  through  In- 
dia are  numerous  remains  of  caves,  funereal  monu- 
ments, and  Topis,  or  religious  edifices,  none  of  which 
last  are  believed  to  be  of  later  date  than  the  third  cen- 
tury B.C.  The  cave  temples  were  probabby  con- 
structed during  the  persecutions  of  the  first  eight  cen- 
turies of  our  era.  These  remains  are  found  in  Afghan- 
istan, near  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges,  and  around 


cloister  on  the  north-west  and  north-east  sides  aver- 
ages 9  feet  7  inches,  the  several  measurements  only 
differing  by  a  few  inches.  From  east  to  south  the 
cloister  increases  rapidly  in  width;  the  breadth  at  the 
east  being  only  9  feet  11  inches,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
staircase  13  feet  8  inches." 

VI.  Sources  of  Information. — From  reasons  stated 
above,  the  former  works  on  Buddhism  have  lost  much 
of  their  worth  by  the  more  thorough  and  coniprehen- 


Bhilsa,  in  Central  India.  These  last  are  described  in  |  sive  study  of  the  Buddhist  literature  during  the  last 
The  Bhilsa  Topes,  or  Buddhist  Monuments  of  Central  few  years.  The  best  among  the  older  works  are  Boh- 
India,  by  Major  Cunningham  (Lond.  1853).  I  len  (Prof,  at  Koenigsberg),  De  Buddaismi  origins  et 

estate  (1827);  Hodgson, 
Sketch  of  Buddhism  (in 
the  Trans,  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  ii,  1);  E. 
Burnouf,  Introductione  a 
I'histoire  du  JSuddhisme 
Indien  (Paris,  1844).  The 
fullest  account  of  the 
doctrines  and  worship  of 
Buddhism,  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  is  given 
y  the  Rev.  R.  Spence 
I  lardy  (for  more  than  20 
years  Wesleyan  mission- 
ary in  Ceylon)  in  his 
Eastern  Monachism(Lon- 
don,  1850),  his  ^4  Manu- 
A  general  idea  of  one  of  these  singular  monuments    al  of  Buddhism  (Lond.  1853),  and  his  Legends  and  The- 


" 1 


may  be  gained  from  the  following  extract  from  Cun- 
ningham :  "The  great  Sancbi  Tope  is  situated  on  the 
western  ed  ■  of  the  hill.  The  ground  has  once  been 
carefully  leveled  by  cutting  away  the  surface  rock  on 
the  east,  and  by  building  up  a  retaining  wall  on  the 
west  The  court  (as  it.  now  exists)  averages  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  yards  in  length,  and  is  "exactly  one 
hundred  yards  in  breadth.  In  the  midst  stands  the 
Great  Chaitya,  surrounded  by  a  massive  colonnade. 
The  bald  appearance  of  the  solid  dome  is  relieved  by 
the  lightness  and  elegance  of  the  highly  picturesque 

git-ways.  ( )n  all  sides  are  ruined  temples,  fallen  col- 
umns, and  broken  sculptures;  and  even  the  tope  it- 
self, which  had  withstood  the  destructive  rancor  of  the 


ories  of  the  Buddhists  (Lond.  1865).  Among  the  re- 
cent works,  based  on  a  more  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  the  sources,  are.  Neve,  Le  Boudhisme,  son  Fondateur 
et  ses  Ecritures  (Paris,  1854)  ;  Koppen,  Die  Religion  des 
Buddha  (1st  vol.  Berlin,  1857,  2d  vol.  [on  Lamaism] 
1869  i ;  Barthelemy  St.  Hilaire,  Le  Bouddah  et  sa  Reli- 
gion (Paris,  1859) ;  and  a  Russian  work  by  Wassiljew, 
on  Buddhism:  its  Doctrines,  History,  and  IMerature 
(St.  Petersburg,  1859  sq. ;  German  transl.  Der  Buddh- 
ismus,  etc.,  Leipz.  1860  sq.).  A  copious  list  of  books 
on  Buddhist  literature  is  given  by  Schlagintweit, 
Buddhism  in  Tibet  (LeipSi  and  Lond. 1863).  _  See  also 
Mi  rcershwg  I!<  view,  x,  294  ;  Edinburgh  Review,  April, 
1862;  Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  En- 


BUDDICOM 


911 


BUGENHAGEN 


cyclopedia,  s.  v. ;  and  the  articles  Gotama  ;  India  ; 
China  ;  Japan. 

Buddicom,  Robert  PEDDER,  a  learned  clergy- 
man of  the  Church  of  England,  studied  at  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  as  eighth  wrangler,  1806.  After 
passing  some  time  as  fellow  of  Queen's  College,  he  be- 
came incumbent  of  St.  George's,  Everton,  1814,  and 
principal  of  St.  Bee's  College,  1840.  He  died  in  1846. 
His  writings  include  Friendship  villi  Cud  illustrated  in 
the  Life  of  Abraham  (Lond.  1839,  2  vols,  12mo)  :— The 
Christian  Exodus  (2d  ed.  Liverpool,  1839,  2  vols.  12mo)  : 
• — Sermons,  chief/// practical  (Lond.  2  vols.  12mo,  n.  d.): 
—The  Atonement  (Liverpool,  1839,  8vo). 

Budnaeus,  or  Budny,  Simon,  a  Polish  theologi- 
an in  the  second  half  of  the  16th  century,  was  minister 
at  Klecenie,  and  afterward  at  Lost.  Becoming  a  dis- 
ciple of  Servetus,  he  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ  and 
his  miraculous  conception,  and  anticipated  in  many 
respects  the  later  rationalism.  Being  a  man  of  tal- 
ents, he  made  many  disciples,  especially  in  Lithuania. 
In  1582  he  was  excommunicated  by  the  Synod  of 
Luclau  :  and  this,  with  other  causes,  led  him  to  greater 
moderation  of  language,  if  not  of  sentiment,  and  he 
united  with  the  Pinczovians,  a  Socinian  sect.  He 
published  a  Polish  translation  of  the  Bible  ;  also  Libil- 
lus  de  duabus  naturis  in  Christo ;  Apologia  Polonica. 
See  Bock,  Jlistoria  Antitrinitariorum;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generate,  vii,  729. 

Buell,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Coventrj',  Conn.,  Sept.  1,  171G,  entered 
Yale  College  in  1737,  and  graduated  in  1741.  lie  was 
ordained  in  1743,  and,  after  laboring  for  some  time  as 
an  evangelist,  received  a  call  from  the  church  at  Last 
Hampton,  L.  I.,  and  was  installed  there  as  pastor  Sep- 
tember 19,  1746.  He  was  made  D.D.  by  Dartmouth 
College  in  1791,  and  died  on  the  19th  of  July,  1798. 
The  great  characteristic  of  his  preaching  was  fervor. 
There  were  three  periods  of  great  religious  awakening 
in  his  congregation — in  1764,  1785,  and  1791.  As  a 
theologian,  he  belonged  to  the  school  of  Edwards  and 
Bellani}'.  During  the  Revolutionary  War  his  urban- 
ity and  discretion  gained  him  influence  with  some  of 
the  British  officers,  and  operated  to  the  advantage  of 
the  town  and  neighborhood.  A  few  years  before  his 
death  he  was  instrumental  in  establishing  Clinton 
Academy,  East  Hampton,  which  is  still  considered 
there  as  a  monument  of  his  public  spirit  and  philan 
thropy.  Dr.  Buell  published  a  number  of  occasional 
sermons. — Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  102. 

Buffalo  (Bos  bubalus),  an  animal  of  the  ox  kind 
but  different  from  the  American  bison,  usually  termed 
"buffalo,"  being  distinguished  by  the  shape  of  the 
horns  and  of  the  head,  as  well  as  of  the  body  generally, 
and  being  also  found  in  very  different  situations.  (See 
Brande,  Cyclop,  s.  v.)  This  animal  is  often  regarded  as 
the  same  with  the  wild  bull  (EN~),  reem  ,  or  D"1^,  reyni) 


k^--' 


Male  Buffalo  of  Palestine. 


of  Scripture  (Num.  xxiii,  22;  Psa.  xciLll;  Job  xxxix, 
9;  Isa.  xxxiv,  7,  etc.).  See  Unicorn.  This  opinion 
is  lately  advocated  in  extenso  by  Dr.  Conant  (Book  <>f 
Job,  in  loc);  while  Dr.  Thomson  (Land  ami  Book,  i, 
384  s<p)  prefers  to  identify  the  Oriental  buffalo  with 
the  Behemoth  (q.  v.)  of  Job  (xl,  15),  on  account  of 
his  wallowing  in  the  mire  and  reeds  of  Jordan.  See 
Ox ;  Bill. 

Buffet  {KuXatyiZw),  to  box  about  or  slop  with  the 
hand  or  list,  whether  in  derision  (Matt,  xxvi,  67 ; 
Mark  xiv,  64),  opposition  (2  Cor.  xii,  7),  affliction  (1 
Cor.  iv,  11),  or  punishment  (.1  Pet.  ii,  20). 

Buffier,  Claude,  a  Jesuit  philosopher  and  volu- 
minous writer,  was  born  of  French  parents  in  Poland 
May  25,  1661,  but  brought  up  at  Rouen.  He  died  at 
Paris  May  17,  1737.  He  was  associated  witli  the 
waiters  of  the  Mimoires  d<-  Trevovx,  and  left  an  im- 
mense number  of  other  works  on  a  variety  of  subjects, 
of  which  the  most  important  is  Cours  des  Sciences  (Par. 
1732,  fob),  a  work  of  vast  learning,  and  showing  a  lu- 
minous power  of  philosophical  analysis.  Sir  James 
Mackintosh  (Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy,  §  &)  speaks 
of  the  just  reputation  of  Burner's  Treatise  on  First 
Truths  (contained  in  the  Cours  des  Sciences),  and  adds 
that  his  philosophical  writings  are  remarkable  for  per- 
fect clearness  of  expression. — Hoefer,  Bug.  <■ 
vii,  733. 

Bugenhagen  (Bdgenhagius),  Johann  (called 
also  Br.  Pomeranus),  was,  perhaps,  next  to  Melanc- 
thon,  the  most  active  and  useful  coadjutor  of  Luther  in 
spreading  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  lie  was 
born  at  Wollin,  in  Pomerania,  June  24, 1485.  His  ed- 
ucation in  theology  and  classics  was  obtained  at  Greifs- 
wald,  and  his  proficiency  in  classical  studies  was  so 
great  that  at  twenty  he  was  appointed  master  of  the 
school  at  Treptow,  which  he  taught  with  great  reputa- 
tion. The  writings  of  Erasmus,  to  which,  as  a  classi- 
cal student,  he  was  naturally  drawn,  led  him  to  see  the 
need  of  a  reformation  in  the  Church.  He  lectured,  in 
his  school,  on  the  Psalms,  Matthew,  Timothy,  and  the 
Creed;  and  in  1519  he  was  invited  by  the  neighboring 
abbot  of  Belbuck  to  teach  the  monks  in  a  Collegium 
Presbyteromm  which  he  had  established  for  their  cul- 
ture ;  and  here  he  compiled  a  Gospel  Harmony.  (  ail- 
ed by  prince  Iiogislas  X  to  prepare  an  account  of  Pom- 
crania,  he  wrote  Pomerania  in  IV  lib.  divisa  (Greifs- 
wald,  1728,  Itci),  full  of  learning,  and  showing  a  zeal 
for  religion.  In  1520,  Luther's  book  on  the  "  Baby- 
lonish Captivity"  reached  Treptow.  Having  looked 
over  a  few  leaves,  he  said,  "There  never  was  a  more 
pestilent  heretic  than  the  author  of  that  book."  Put 
a  few  days  after,  having  read  it  with  great  diligence 
and  attention,  his  mind  was  changed,  ami  he  made  this 
recantation:  "What  shall  I  say  of  Luther?  All  the 
world  hath  been  blind  and  in  darkness;  only  this  one 
man  has  found  out  the  truth."  The  new  views  of 
Bugenhagen  respecting  the  law  and  gospel,  jus- 
tification by  faith,  etc,  being  publicly  preached 

with    great    SUCCeSS,    the    prince    ami    the    bishop 

stirred  up  a  persecution.  Upon  this  Bugenhagen 
went  to  Wittemberg,  and  forme.d  a  personal  ac- 
quaintance with  Luther  in  1521.  Here  lie  was 
Boon  employed  to  lecture  on  tlie  Psalms,  and  the 
course  was  afterward  printed  (Basel,  1524).  In 
the  dispute  with  Carlstadl  (q.  v.),  Bugenhagen 
sustained  Luther  and  Melanethon.  In  1 523  he 
was  chosen  pastor  of  the  church  in  Wittemberg, 

ami  held  Ibis  post,  through  many  \  icissitudes,  for 
86  years.  lie  aided  Luther  in  translating  the 
Bible,  and  himself  translated  it  into  the  Low  Sax- 
on dialect (Lubeck,  1533).  Bui  perhaps  his  chief 
service  to  the  Reformation  was  that  of  organizing 

Churches,  for  which  he  bail  a  special  talent.      He 

organized  Protestantism  in  Prunsw  iek.  Hamburg, 
Lubeck,  and  in  many  parts  of  Pomerania  and  I  •en- 
mark.  He  reorganized  the  University  of  Denmark 


BUGG 


912 


BULGARIA 


in  1 538,  ami  served  a  while  as  its  rector.  The  death  of 
Luther  and  the  disputes  of  the  Interim  (q.  v.)  saddened 
his  later  years,  and  he  died  April  20,  1558.  Besides 
the  numerous  practical  writings  of  Bugenhagen,  and 
his  many  directories  for  worship,  Christian  life,  etc., 
he  wrote  Historie  des  Leidens  und  der  Auferstehung  J. 
('.  (1530;  often  reprinted): — Van  dem  Christen  Cloven 
und  /■>  chti  n  guU  n  Wercken  (Wittenb.  152G) : — Anmerk. 
zn  (1  a  Buck.  Hist.  Dent.,  Sam.,  etc. ;  Annot.  in  Epist.  ad 
Gal.,  //•//..  Philipp.,  etc.  (Strasburg,  1524) :  —Exp lie. 
Psalmorum  (Basel,  1524),  with  regard  to  which,  Luther 
declared  that  Bugenhagen  was  the  first  that  deserved 
the  name  of  "commentator  on  the  Psalms."  On  the 
influence  of  Bugenhagen  on  the  development  of  the 
Church  constitutions  of  Germany,  see  Richter,  Die 
evang.  Kirchen  Ordnungen  des  16tkJahrhunderts(2  vols. 
Weimar,  1 8 15) ;  Geschichte  der  evang.  Kirchen  verfassung 
(Leips.  1851),  and  Jaeger,  Bedeutung  der  altera  Bvgen- 
hagischen  Kirchen  Ordnungen  (in  Theolog.  Stud.  1853). 
A  sketch  of  him  by  Melancthon  is  given  in  the  Corpus 
Reformatqrum,  xii,  295.  See  also  Adami,  Vita  Germ. 
Theol. :  Mosheim,  Ck.  Hist,  iii,  4G,  137;  Engelken,  Bu- 
g\  nhagi  n  Pomeranus  (Berlin,  1817,  8vo) ;  Zietz,  Bugen- 
hagen,  zweiter  Apostel  des  Nordens  (Leipz.  1834,  8vo); 
Bellermann,  Leben  des  J.  Bugenhagen  (Berlin,  1860). 

Bugg,  Francis,  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
which  he  left  in  later  life,  and  whose  principles  he  then 
combated  in  a  number  of  treatises.  Among  them  are, 
2V<  a-  Rome  arraigned  (Lond.  1691)  : — Picture  of  Quaker- 
ism (Lond.  1697,  12mo)  :  —  Quakerism  Withering  and 
Christianity  Ui  riring  (  Lond.  1091)  : — Quakers  set  in  their 
true  Light  (Lond.  1096)  :  —  The  Pilgrim's  Progress  from 
Quakerism  to  Christianity  (Lond.  1098),  etc. — Allibone, 
Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  279. 

Building  (properly  some  form  of  the  verbs  In: 2, 
banali,  olicoSopiU}).  Historical  and  monumental  data 
do  not  exist  to  enable  us  to  trace  accurately  the  grad- 
ual improvement  and  peculiar  character  of  Jewish 
architecture,  (i  e  Bardwell,  Temples  Ancient  and 
Moth  rn,  Lond.  1837.)  Its  style  was  probably  borrow- 
ed in  the  first  instance  from  the  Egyptians,  next  from 
the  Phoenicians  (comp.  Michaelis  in  the  Comment,  nov. 
Soc.  GoetHng.  i,  1771 ;  Stieglitz,  Gesck.  der  Baukunst 
der  alien,  Leipz.  1792;  Midler,  Archaeol.  p.  289  sq. ; 
Schaase,  Gesck.  der  Bild.  Kvnste,  i,  248  sq.),  and  final- 
ly from  the  Greeks.     See  Architecture. 

<  If  building  tools,  besides  common  implements  such 
as  the  axe,  saw,  etc.,  there  arc  mentioned  the  compass 
(rW7T;)  and  plumb-line  (TUX),  Amos  vii,  7  sq.,  the 
rule  or  measuring-line  (1p),  the  awl  (1^;C).  etc  (see 
the  Mishna,  Chellm,  xiv,  3).  See  these  instruments  in 
their  place.  (See  Schmidt,  I'ibl.  Mathematicus,  217 
sq. ;  Bellerman,  Handb.  i,  189  sq.)     See  House. 

Besides  its  proper  and  literal  signification,  the  word 
"build"  is  used  with  reference  to  children  and  a  nu- 
merous posterity  (Exod.  i,  21 ;  Ruth  iv,  11).  The 
prophet  Nathan  told  David  that  Cod  would  build  his 
house,  that  is,  give  him  children  and  successors  (2 
Sam.  vii.  27").  Any  hind  of  building  implies  the  settle- 
ment of  a  family,  or  the  acquisition  of  some  new  honor. 
kingdom,  or  power,  and  its  peaceful  enjoyment  (Psa. 
Cvii,  4,  7  ;  Mir.  v,  4).  Cod's  Church  is  called  a  build- 
ing, and  the  architect  is  the  master-builder  (1  Cor.  iii, 
9-17).  So  also  the.  heavenly  home  of  Christians  is 
compared  to  a  building  in  contrast  with  the  temporary 
tabernacle  of  the  earthly  body  (2  Cor.  v,  1). 

Buk'ki  (Heb.  Bukki',  "£2,  waster,  otherwise  a 
contracted  form  of  BukkiaK),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  Bokki  v.  r.  \\i,K\if).)  Son  of  Jogli  and 
"prince"  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  appointed  by  Moses  as 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  partition  the  land  of  Pales- 
tine (Num.  xxxiv,  22).      B.C.  1G18. 

2.  (Sept.  BivKai  v.  r.  Bonnet.)  Son  of  Abishua  and 
father  of  U/./.i,  being  great-great-grandson  of  Aaron 
(1  Chron.  vi,  5,  51).     B.C.  cir.  1450.     Compare  the 


genealogy  of  Ezra  (vii,  4,  Sept.  Bokki)  and  the  apoc- 
ryphal Boccas  (1  Esdr.  viii,  2)  or  Borith  (2  Esdr.  i,  2). 
Epiphanius,  in  his  list  of  the  ancestors  of  Jehoiada, 
whom  he  fancifully  supposes  to  be  brother  of  Elijah 
the  Tishbite,  omits  both  Bukki  and  Abishua  (Advers. 
Melchizedec,  iii).  Josephus  (Ant.  viii,  1,  3)  expressly 
says  that  all  of  Aaron's  line  between  Joseph  (Abishua) 
the  high-priest,  and  Zadok,  who  was  made  high-priest 
in  the  reign  of  David,  were  private  persons  (iSmrtv- 
aavrfc),  i.  e.  not  high-priests,  and  mentions  by  name 
"Bukki  (Bom:iae),  the  son  of  Joseph  the  high-priest," 
as  the  first  of  those  who  lived  a  private  life,  while  the 
pontifical  dignity  was  in  the  house  of  Ithamar.  But 
elsewhere  (Ant.  v,  11,  5)  he  says  as  expressly  that 
Abishua  (there  called  Abiezer),  having  received  the 
high-priesthood  from  his  father  Phinehas,  transmitted 
i  it  to  his  own  son  Bukki  (Boiwci),  who  was  succeeded 
by  TJzzi,  after  whom  it  passed  to  Eli.  We  may  con- 
clude therefore  that  Josephus  had  no  more  means  of 
knowing  for  certain  who  were  high-priests  between 
Phinehas  and  Eli  than  we  have,  and  may  adopt  the 
opinion  that  those  named  in  the  scriptural  lists  are 
given  as  making  up  the  succession  during  this  inter- 
val. For  an  account  of  the  absurd  fancies  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  statements  of  Christian  writers  relative  to  the 
succession  of  the  high-priests  at  this  period,  see  Sol- 
den,  De  Success,  in  Pontif.  Jlebr.;  Hervey,  Genealog. 
of  our  Lord,  ch.  x. — Smith,  s.  v.     See  High-priest. 

Bukki'ah  (Heb.  Bukkiya'hu,  lifjsa,  wasted  by  Je- 
hovah; Sept.  BoKKictQ  v.  r.  BovKtac),  a  Kohathite  Le- 
vite,  of  the  sons  of  Ilcman,  one  of  the  musicians  in 
the  Temple,  being  appointed  by  David  the  leader  of 
the  sixth  band  or  course  in  the  service,  consisting  of 
himself  and  eleven  of  his  kindred  (1  Chron.  xxv,  4, 
13).     B.C.  1014. 

Bui  (Heb.  id.  ?"2,  for  PIS},  rain,  from  the  season 
of  the  year ;  Sept.  Ba«X),  the  eighth  ecclesiastical 
month  of  the  Jewish  year  (1  Kings  vi,  38),  answering 
in  general  to  October  [see  Calendar  (Jewish)'],  and 
corresponding,  according  to  the  rabbins  (Rosh  Hash- 
ana,  c.  2 ;  Tanchum  Hieros.  in  loc),  to  Marchesvan 
(q.  v.).  According  to  Benfey  (Ueb.  die  Monatsnamen 
einiger  alien  Volker,  p.  18),  it  may  have  derived  its 
name  from  the  worship  of  Baal  (comp.  the  Sept.  ren- 
dering), as  other  months  appear  to  have  been  in  like 
manner  consecrated  to  special  deities.     See  Month. 

Bulgaria,  a  country  of  European  Turkey,  named 
from  the  Bulgarians,  who,  in  the  fifth  century,  quitting 
Asiatic  Sarmatia,  crossed  the  Danube  and  settled  here, 
subjugating  the  Slavic  (q.v.)  inhabitants,  and  in  proc- 
ess of  time  adopting  their  language.  Later  Slavic 
writers  claim  that  the  Bulgarians  originally  belonged 
to  the  Slavic  family,  and  the  modern  Bulgarians  claim 
to  be  Slavonians.  Through  the  missionary  labors  of 
Methodius,  brother  of  Cyril  (q.  v.),  a  prince  of  the  coun- 
try named  Bogoris,  or  Boris,  was  baptized  about  A.D. 
861,  and  took  the  name  of  Michael ;  upon  this  many  of 
the  Bulgarians  received  the  faith.  This  Michael  sent 
to  pope  Nicholas  I  legates,  who  propounded  to  the  Holy 
See  certain  interesting  questions  (see  Responsa  ad  Con- 
s/d/a  Bulgarorum,  ed.  Hardouin,  Acta  Coneiliorum,  v, 
353-380),  and  asked  to  be  supplied  with  bishops  and 
priests.  The  pope  sent  Paul,  bishop  of  Populonia, 
and  Formosus,  bishop  of  Porto,  about  8G6.  Upon  the 
ground  that  the  Bulgarians  had  received  the  episcopal 
succession  from  Borne,  the  popes  claimed  jurisdiction 
over  the  country,  but  were  resisted  by  the  patriarchs 
of  ( Constantinople.  King  Michael  sent  ambassadors  to 
Constantinople  in  869  to  lay  the  case  before  the  council 
then  sitting  for  the  restoration  of  Ignatius.  The  coun- 
cil decided  that  Bulgaria  by  right  belonged  to  the  pa- 
triarchal see  of  Constantinople.  Modern  Bulgarian 
writers  claim  that  the  Bulgarian  dioceses  were  only 
nominally  subject  to  Constantinople,  and  the  author  of 
the  book  called  "  Tsarstvennik"  gives  a  complete  list 
of  a  succession  of  independent  Bulgarian  patriarchs. 


BULGARIANS 


913 


BULL 


"When  the  schism  between  East  and  West  was  confirm- 
ed, the  Bulgarians  remained  in  communion  with  Con- 
stantinople. They  were  finally  subjugated  by  the  Turks 
in  1491.  In  1707  the  sultan,  Bajazet  II,  instigated,  it 
is  said,  by  the  Greek  patriarch,  put  to  death  many  Bul- 
garian nobles,  and  placed  the  Bulgarian  churches  un- 
der the  exclusive  control  of  the  Greek  patriarch.  The 
persistent  policy  of  the  Greek  clergy  in  attempting  to 
denationalize  the  Bulgarian  people,  suppressing  their 
language  and  literature,  etc.,  finally  brought  about  a 
concerted  action  for  the  restoration  of  the  Bulgarian 
hierarchy.  The  contest  has  not  yet  been  settled.  The 
Bulgarians  have  repeatedly  complained  of  the  extor- 
tions of  the  Greek  clergy,  and  prayed  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  national  patriarch  independent  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  Ottoman  government,  refusing  to  admit 
national  distinctions  among  its  subject  races,  refused  to 
grant  the  request ;  ami  when,  in  1860,  the  Greek  patri- 
arch excommunicated  Ilarion  (Hilary),  the  Bulgarian 
bishop  of  Balat,  Constantinople,  for  insubordination, 
the  Turkish  government  sent  the  bishop  into  exile. 
Strenuous  exertions  have  been  made  by  the  Church 
of  Rome  to  induce  the  Bulgarians  to  unite  with  them, 
and  in  1861  an  organization  was  effected,  styled  "The 
United  Bulgarian  Church,"  acknowledging  the  su- 
premacy of  the  pope,  but  retaining  the  Slavic  liturgy, 
and  Bulgarian  usages  as  to  divine  service,  married 
priests,  etc.  A  Bulgarian  monk,  named  Joseph  Sokol- 
skyr,  was  consecrated  by  the  pope  as  the  patriarch  of 
the  new  organization.  After  a  few  months  he  desert- 
ed them,  followed  by  several  priests,  and  the  move- 
ment was  thereby  retarded. 

Protestant  missions  to  the  Bulgarians  were  com- 
menced in  1857  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and 
by  the  American  Board.  In  18G7  the  former  had  two 
missionaries  at  Constantinople  and  Tultcha  ;  the  latter 
had  five,  at  Constantinople,  Sophia,  Eski  Zagra,  and 
Philippopolis,  in  the  last  two  places  having  schools. 
Several  editions  of  the  New  Testament  in  Bulgarian 
have  been  published  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  and  at  least  fifteen  thousand  copies  have  been 
sold  within  a  few  years.  A  new  version,  prepared  by 
the  missionaries  of  both  Boards  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  was.  published  at 
Constantinople  in  1866,  and  was  electrotyped  in  paral- 
lel pages  with  the  Slavic  version  at  the  Bible  House  in 
New  York  by  the  American  Bible  Society  in  1867. 

Danubian  Bulgaria  in  1865  was  formed  into  one 
province-  called  Tuna  Eyaleti,  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  a  governor  general,  who  resides  at  Rustchnk.  The 
Bulgarians  are  estimated  to  number  about  6,000,000, 
of  whom  about  4,500,000  live  in  European  Turkey.— 
Schem's  Year-book,  1868  ;  Reports  of  A.R.  C.  F.  M.  i 
Reports  of  the  Miss.  <S'»<\  of  the  Meth.  Epis.  Church; 
Hilferding,  Geschichte  tier  Serben  und  Buljaren;  Scha- 
farik,  Slavische  Alterthiimer. 

Bulgarians,  a  name  given  to  the  Cathari,  Albi- 
genses,  Petrobrussians,  and  other  sects  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  because  their  origin  was  supposed  traceable  to 
Bulgaria.     See  the  several  titles. 

Bulgaris,  Eugen,  a  Russian  archbishop,  was  burn 
in  Corfu  1716.  He  ent  >rcd  in  early  life  the  priesthood 
of  the  Greek  Church,  ami  subsequently  continued  his 
studies  in  Italy.  On  his  return  he  assumed  in  17-12 
the  direction  of  a  school  at  Janina;  later  he  taught 
successively  at  Kohani,  on  Mount  Atlios,  and  in  Con- 
stantinople. The  encouragement  which  bo  gave  to 
philosophy  found  many  enemies  and  led  to  charges  "f 
heterodoxv,  on  account  of  which  he  had  to  quit  his 
position  both  at  Janina  and  on  Mount  Athos.  He  left 
Constantinople  in  1768,  in  consequence  of  the  war  of 
Russia  against  Turkey,  and  went  to  Russia,  where 
Catharine.  II  appointed  him  archbishop  of  Kherson. 
This  position  he  only  retained  a  few  years,  and  the 
last  years  of  his  life  he  spent  in  St.  Petersburg,  occu- 
pied with  literary  labors.    He  died  in  that  city  in  I-  06. 

M  M  M 


Bulgaris  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  scholars  of  the 
modern  Greek  Church,  and  has  exercised  a  lasting  in- 
fluence upon  the  progress  of  Eastern  Europe  in  both 
secular  and  religious  literature.  His  works,  mostly 
in  the  ancient  Greek  language,  are  numerous.  His 
Manual  of  Logics  has  ever  since  remained  a  favorite 
text-book  in  the  Greek  schools.  Among  his  theolog- 
ical writings  are  several  volumes  of  funeral  sir is 

and  eulogies  on  saints.  He  also  published  a  transla- 
tion of  the  work  of  Adam  Semicavius  on  the  Proces- 
sion of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  hitter  work  is  one  of  the 
standard  works  of  the  Greek  Church  on  the  much  dis- 
puted doctrine,  and  the  Roman  Congregation  for  the 
Union  of  the  Eastern  churches  with  the  Church  of 
Rome  (Sacra  Congregatio  >/<  Propaganda  Fid  pro  ne~ 
gotiis  ritus  Orientalis)  specially  instructed  one  of  its 
consultors,  Dr.  Laemmer  I  subsequently  appointed  pro- 
fessor at  Breslau)  to  refute  it.  Dr.  Laemmer  conse- 
quently undertook  the  publication  of  the  Scriptorum 
<;  ran  ir  orthodoxce  bibliotkeca  selecta  (Freiburg,  vol.  i, 
1865:  contains  Prolegomena;  two  sermons  by  Nicepho- 
rus  Blemmida ;  the  work  of  the  Patriarch  Johannes 
Yeccus,  of  Constantinople.  J)<  unione  Ecclesiarum,  as 
well  as  the  Senlentia  synod  ilia  and  the  Apologia  of  the 
same  author). — Sec  Pierer,  iii,  445 ;  Laemmer,  Script. 
Grac.  07-th.  bib/,  set.  vol.  i. 

Bulkley,  Charles,  a  Dissenting  minister,  was 
born  in  London  1710,  and  educated  under  Doddridge  at 
Northampton.  His  first  pastoral  service  was  among 
the  Presbyterians,  but  he  finally  joined  the  General 
Baptists,  and  became  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  Lon- 
don, where  he  died  1707.  He  published  Discourses 
(Lond.  1752,  8vo) : — Notes  mi  Bolingbroke's  Writings 
(Lond.  1755,  8vo): — The  Economy  of  the  Gospel  |  Loud. 

1 1764,  4to) : — Discourses  mi.  tin    Parables  and  Miracles 

i  (Lond.  1771,  4  vols.  8vo) : — Notes  on  tht  Bible  (Lond. 
1802,  3  vols.  8vo).— Darling,  Cyc.  Bib.  i,  476. 

Bulkley,  Peter,  a  Congregational  minister,  born 
at  Odell,  Bedfordshire,  England,  Jan.  :.l.  1582.  lie 
was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
entered  the   ministry   of  the   Established  Church,  in 

i  which  he  remained  twenty-one  years,  and  was  silenci  1 
by  Archbishop  Laud  for  non-conformity.  In  1635  he 
came  to  New  England,  and  in  July,  1636,  collected  a 

|  church  at  Concord,  where  he  died  March  '.',  1659.  lie. 
published  llf  Cnsjiel  ( ',  .n  mint,  or  tin  <  'or,  mutt  if  I, nice 
Opened,  etc.  (Lond.  1646).— Sprague,  Annals,  i,  52. 

Bull,  as  distinguished  from  "Ox,"  occurs  but  once 
in  the  Bible  (Job  xxi,  10),  as  the  translation  of  "HO 
(shor,  from  his  strength),  which  elsewhere  denote-  any 
animal  of  the  ox  species,  and  is  variously  translated 
accordingly.  See  Hillock,  etc.  Other  terms  oc- 
casionally thus  rendered  are  ""X  {ubbir' ,  mighty'), 
Psa.  1,  13;  lxviii,  SO;  I.-a.  xxxiv,  7;  Jer.  L  U  ;  "2 
(bakar',  a  beeue),  Jer.  Iii,  20;  IB  or  "IB  (par,  a  bul- 
lock), Gen.  xxxii,  15;  Psa.  xxii,  12;  and  in  the  New 
Test,  -acnoc,  Heb.  ix,13;  x,  1:  "ox"  in  Matt,  xxii, 
4;  Acts  xiv,  13.  See  BeevE;  Beast.  The  XTl 
(to),  or  "wild  bull"  of  Isa.  li.  20,  IS  but  another  form 
Of  iXFl  (/"-',  '•  wild  ox,"  Dent,  xiv,  5),  a  large  species 

of  oryx  or  ox-deer.     See  Antelope. 

The  rearing  of  horned  cattle  was  encouraged  by  the 
people  of  Israel.  These  animals  were  protected  in 
some  cases  by  express  provisions  of  the  law;  they 
were  held  (dean,  being  the  u-ual  sacrifice  of  consid- 
eration, and  the  chief  article  of  tlesh  diet,  of  the  popu- 
lation. See  Food.  It  is  contended  that  the  e.i-tra- 
tion  of  no  animal  was  practised  among  the  Hebrews 
(Josephus,  Ant.  iv,  8,40).     If  that  was  the  case,  other 

methods  than  those  generally  alluded  to  must  have 
been  adopted  to  break  oxen  to  labor ;  for  the  mere  ap- 
plication Of  a  metal  ring  through  the  cartilage  of  the 
nostrils,  although  it  might  have  greatly  restrained  the 
ferocity  of  the  beasts,  would  not  assuredly  have  render- 
ed them  sufficiently  docile  to  the  yoke  and  goad  of  a 


BULL 


914 


BULL 


surrounded  me  on  every  side,"  says  the  Psalmist  (Psa. 
xxii,  12,  and  lxviii,  30).  "Rebuke  the  beast  of  the 
reeds  (Auth.  Vers.  "  spearmen"),  the  multitude  of  the 
bulls;"  Lord,  smite  in  thy  wrath  these  animals  which 
feed  in  large  pastures,  these  herds  of  bulls  (Psa.  lxiii, 
30).  Isaiah  says  (xxxiv,  7),  "  The  Lord  shall  cause 
his  victims  to  be  slain  in  the  land  of  Edom  ;  a  terrible 
slaughter  will  he  make ;  he  will  kill  the  unicorns  and 
the  bulls,"  meaning  those  proud  and  cruel  princes  who 
oppressed  the  weak.     See  Cattle. 

Bull,  George,  D.D.,  bishop  of  St.  David's,  was 
born  in  Wells,  Somersetshire,  March  25,  1C.34,  and  en- 
tered at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  1G48.  His  first  liv- 
ing was  that  of  St.  George's,  near  Bristol,  and  in  1G58 
he  was  presented  to  Suddington.  In  16G9  he  publish 
ed  his  Harmonia  Apostolica.  The  object  of  this  book 
was  to  explain  and  defend,  in  Part  I,  the  doctrine  of 
St.  James,  and  in  Part  II,  to  demonstrate  the  agree- 
ment with  him  of  St.  Paul,  it  being  more  particularly 
the  aim  of  the  first  dissertation  to  show  "that  good 
works,  which  proceed  from  faith,  and  are  conjoined 
with  faith,  are  a  necessary  condition  required  from  us 
by  God.  to  the  end  that  by  the  New  Evangelical  Cov- 
enant, obtained  by  and  sealed  in  the  blood  of  Christ, 
the  mediator  of  it,  we  may  be  justified  according  to  his 
free  and  unmerited  grace."  In  the  second,  "having, 
in  the  first  place,  established  this  one  point  for  his 
foundation,  '  That  St.  Paul  is  to  be  interpreted  by  St. 
James,  and  not  St.  James  by  St.  Paul,'  in  consent  with 
many  of  the  ancients  (and  particularly  of  St.  Augustine 
himself),  who  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  General  Epis- 
tle of  St.  James,  the  first  of  St.  John,  and  the  second 
of  St.  Peter,  with  that  of  St.  Jude,  were  written  against 
those  who,  by  misinterpreting  St.  Paul's  epistles,  had 
imbibed  a  fond  notion,  as  if  faith  'without  works'  were 
sufficient  to  save  them,  he  showeth  whence  this  ob- 
See  Unicokn.  The  Asiatic  scurity  and  ambiguity  in  the  terms  of  St.  Paul  might 
Greece  till  the  time  of  Aris-  probably  arise,  which  was  the  occasion  that  persons 
totle,  who  first  speaks  of  it  by  the  name  of  the  Aracho-  not  well-grounded  came  to  mistake  or  pervert  the 
sian  ox.  No  species  of  Bos  Bubalus  is  known  even  at  game."  Bull  attempts  to  prove  that  where  St.  Paul 
this  day  in  Arabia,  although  travellers  speak  of  meet-  speaks  of  justification  by  faith,  he  intends  the  whole 
ing  them  in  Palestine  in  a  domesticated  state  [see  Buf-  condition  of  the  Gospel  covenant ;  that  the  faith  re- 
falo]  ;  but  in  Egypt  the  Asiatic  species  has  been  in-  quired  implies  obedience ;  that  it  cannot  be  separated 
troduced  in  consequence  of  the  Mohammedan  conquests  from  obedience  ;  and  that  obedience  is  made  necessary 
in  the  East.  The  indigenous  buffaloes  of  Africa,  :  to  justification.  The  publication  raised  much  dispute 
amounting,  at  least,  to  two  very  distinct  species,  ap-  among  divines.  The  first  open  antagonist  was  IMr. 
pear  to  have  belonged  to  the  south  and  west  of  that  John  Truman,  a  Non-conformist  minister.  Dr.  Mor- 
continent,  and  only  at  a  later  period  to  have  approach-  I  ley,  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  Dr.  Barker,  the  one 
ed  Egypt  as  far  as  the  present  Bornou ;  for  none  are  .from  the  divinity  chair  at  Oxford,  and  the  other  in  a 
figured  on  any  known  monument  in  either  Upper  or  charge  to  his  clergy,  forbade  the  reading  of  the  book 
Lower  Egypt.     With  regard,  however,  to  wild  oxen   as  a  rash  intrusion  into  things  too  high  for  such  dis- 


people whose  chief  dependence  for  food  was  in  the 
produce  of  the  plough.     See  Ox. 

Judging  from  Egyptian  remains,  there  were  two 
great  breeds  of  straight-backed  cattle,  the  long-horned 
and  the  short-horned;  and  in  Upper  Egypt  at  least, 
there  was  ..ne  without  horns.  Another  hunched  spe- 
cies  existed,  which  served  to  draw  chariots,  yoked  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  Brahminee  bulls  of  India  are 
at  present.  It  is  still  abundant  in  Nubia,  and,  under 
the  name  of  Bos  sacer,  or  Indicus,  notwithstanding  it 
lire  ils  with  the  common  species,  is  yet  considered  dis- 
tinct. Its  calf  is  born  with  teeth ;  and,  although  in 
Central  Africa,  India,  and  China  it  is  mixed  with  the 
other  species,  and  when  low  in  flesh  is  almost  deprived 
of  its  hunch,  the  natural  characteristics  nevertheless 
continue ;  and  from  the  evidence  of  ancient  Egyptian 
pictures  and  written  documents  it  must  have  been  prop- 
agated for  above  3000  years.  In  Egypt  the  straight- 
backed  or  common  cattle  appear,  from  the  same  evi- 
dence, to  have  formed  a  very  handsome  breed  with  lu- 
nate horns.  They  were  generally  spotted  black  or  red 
upon  a  white  ground,  and  there  were,  besides,  others 
white,  red,  or  black.  They  all  served  for  common 
use,  but  those  without  red  "were  selected  when  new 
sacred  bulls,  Apis  or  Mnevis,  were  to  be  supplied;  for 
they  alone  had  the  colors  which  could  show  the  marks 
made  by  chance  or  by  art,  and  required  to  fit  the  ani- 
mal for  the  purpose  intended.  See  Aris.  In  Pales- 
tine the  breed  of  cattle  was  most  likely  in  ancient 
times,  as  it  still  is,  inferior  in  size  to  the  Egyptian  ; 
and  provender  must  have  been  abundant  indeed  if  the 
number  of  beasts  sacrificed  at  the  great  Jewish  festi- 
vals, mentioned  in  Josephus,  be  correct,  and  could  be 
sustained  for  a  succession  of  years.     See  Sacrifice. 

Unless  the  name  be  taken  synonymously  with  that 
of  other  species,  there  is  not  in  the  Bible  any  clear  in. 
dication  of  the  buffalo, 
species  was  not  known 


of  the  true  Taurine  genus,  some  ma}',  at  a  very  remote 
period,  have  been  found  in  Bashan,  evidently  the  ori- 
gin of  the  name,  a  region  where  mountain,  wood,  and 
water,  all  connecting  the  Syrian  Libanus  with  Tau- 
rus, were  favorable  to  their  existence;  but  the  wild 
bulls  of  the  district,  mentioned  in  Psa.  xxii,  12,  and 
in  various  other  passages,  appear,  nevertheless,  to  re- 
fer to  domestic  species,  probably  left  to  propagate  with- 
out much  human  superintendence,  except  annually 
marking  the  increase  and  selecting  a  portion  for  con- 
sumption, in  the  same  manner  as  is  still  practised  in 
some  parts  of  Europe.  For  although  the  words  "fat 
bulls  of  Bashan  close  me  in  on  every  side"  are  an  in- 
dication of  wild  manners,  the  word  "fat"  somewhat 
weakens  the  impression;  and  we  know  that  the  half- 
wild  white  breed  of  Scotland  likewise  retains  the  char- 
acter of  encompassing  objects  that  excite  their  distrust. 
It  was  therefore  natural  that  in  Palestine  wild  grega- 
rious instincts  should  have  still  remained  in  operation, 
where  real  dangers  beset  herds,  which  in  the  time  of 
David  «ere  still  exposed  to  lions  in  the  hills  around 
them.  See  C.\i. i'.  Baal  (q.  v.)  is  said  to  have  been 
worshipped  in  the  form  of  a  beeve,  and  Moloch  to  have 
had  a  calf's  or  steer's  head.-  Kit  to,  s.  v. 

Bull,  in  a  figurative  sense,  is  taken  for  powerful, 
fierce,  insolent  enemies.     "  Fat  bulls  (bulls  of  Bashan  ) 


cussion.  In  1675  Bull  issued  his  Examen  einsurn>  and 
Apologia  pro  Harmonia ,-  and  in  1680,  at  Oxford,  his 
Dcfensio  jid<  i  Nica  nee  (also  at  Pavia,  1784,  with  notes 
by  Zola).  Preferment  flowed  in  upon  Bull  after  1G84  ; 
and  the  University  of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the 
degree  of  D.D.,  although  he  had  never  taken  any  oth- 
er academical  degree.  In  1G94  appeared  his  Judicium 
Erclcsiw  Cafkolicw,  in  defence  of  the  anathema  decreed 
by  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  for  which  he  received  the 
thanks  of  the  assembly  of  the  Gallican  clergy  at  St. 
Germain's.  His  last  treatise  was  his  Pi  imifiva  it  Apos- 
tolica Tradiiio,  against  David  Zuicker,  Leclerc,  and 
others,  who  held  that  the  apostles  and  their  immediate 
successors  taught  that  our  blessed  Lord  was  merely  a 
man.  In  theology  he  was  an  Arminian.  His  defence 
of  the  Trinity  is  one  of  the  great  works  of  theology  not 
likely  to  lie  superseded.  Grabe  collected  all  his  Latin 
works  (Loud.  1703,  fol.).  His  Sermons  were  edited, 
with  a  Life,  by  Nelson  (Lond.  1703,  3  vols.  8vo).  He 
was  seventy-one  years  of  age  when  the  see  of  St.  Da- 
vid's was  offered  to  him.  He  at  first  refused  it.  but  was 
at  length  persuaded  to  consent,  and  was  consecrated  at 
Lambeth  April  29,  1705.  He  died  Feb.  17,  1710.  A 
new  translation  of  the  Dejensio  appeared  in  the  "  Li- 
1  rary  of  Anglo-Catholic  theology"  (Oxford,  1851,  2 
vols.  8vo).     Bull's  Works  have  been  collected  anew 


BULL 


915 


BULLINGER 


by  Burton  (Oxford,  1827,  8  vols.  8vo,  and  again  in 
1846).  — Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Biography,  iii,  229-258; 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vi,  102 ;  Dorner,  Person  of  ( 'hzist,  v, 
042  sq. 

Bull  (Papal).  Bulls  are  pontifical  letters  from 
the  Pope  of  Home,  written  in  old  Gothic  characters 
upon  stout  and  coarse  skins,  and  issued  from  the  apos- 
tolic chancery,  under  a  seal  (India)  of  lead,  which  seal 
gives  validity  to  the  document,  and  is  attached,  if  it  be 
a  " Bull  of  Grace,"  by  a  cord  of  silk,  and  if  it  be  a 
"Bull  of  Justice,"  by  a  cord  of  hemp.  The  word  is 
from  Lat.  bulla,  a  drop  or  bubble,  used  in  later  Latin 
to  signify  a  pendent  metallic  seal.  It  is  properly  the 
pendent  seal  which  is  the  bull :  it  is  impressed  on  one 
side  with  the  heads  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  on 
the  other  with  the  name  of  the  pope  and  the  year  of  j 
his  pontificate.  The  bull  is  divided  into  live  parts  : 
the  narrative  of  the  fact,  the  conception,  the  clause, 
the  date,  and  the  salutation,  in  which  the  pope  styles  \ 
himself  servus  servorum,  servant  of  servants.  All  bulls 
bear  the  name  and  title  of  the  pope — for  example  :  Gre- 
gorius  Episcopus  Servus  Servorum  Dei,  etc.,  is  prefixed ; 
then  follows  a  genei-al  introduction,  of  which  the  ini- 
tial words  are  used  to  give  a  distinct  name  to  the  bull, 
as  in  the  examples  :  the  bull  Exsurge  Dominc,  issued  by 
Pope  Leo  X  against  Luther  in  1520;  the  bull  In  Ccena 
Djmini,  the  celebrated  bull  against  heretics,  often  re- 
issued since  1536;  the  famous  Uuigenitus,  or  bull 
against  Quesnel's  writings,  1713 ;  the  Dominus  ac  Re- 
dsmptor  Nbster,  or  bull  for  the  abolition  of  the  order 
of  Jesuits;  the  Ecclesia  Chrisli,  or  the  bull  which  com- 
pleted the  Concordat  with  France  in  1801;  the  /><  Sa- 
lute Animarum,  or  the  bull  for  the  regulation  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Prussia."  The  instruments,  be- 
sides the  lead  hanging  to  them,  have  a  cross  with  some 
text  of  Scripture  or  religious  motto  around  them. 
Those  issued  by  Lucius  III  have  this  device,  Adjuva 
nos,  Deus  salutaris  nosier;  the  device  of  Urban  III 
was,  Ad  te,  D 'amine,  levari  animam  meam;  and  that 
of  Alexander  III,  Vias  tuas,  Pontine,  demonstra  mild. 
Bulls  are  granted  for  the  consecration  of  bishops,  the 
promotion  to  benefices,  the  celebration  of  jubilees,  etc. 
Bullarium  is  a  collection  of  papal  bulls.  The  bull  is 
dated  from  "the  day  of  incarnation,"  but  briefs  are 
dated  from  "  the  nativity." — Farrar,  Ecclcs.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Chambers,  Encyclopaedia,  s.  v.  SccBiuek;  BULLA- 
RIUM. 

BULL  IN  CCENA  DOMINI,  the  name  given  to  a 
bull  in  the  Church  of  Rome  which  is  publicly  read  on 

the  day  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  viz.,  Thursday,  by  a 
cardinal  deacon  in  the  pope's  presence,  accompanied 
with  the  other  cardinals  and  the  bishops.  It  excom- 
municates all  that  are  called,  by  that  apostate  Church, 
heretics,  stubborn  and  disobedient  to  the  holy  see. 
After  the  reading  of  this  bull  the  pope  throws  a  burn- 
ing torch  into  the  public  place,  to  denote  the  thunder 
of  this  anathema.  It  is  declared  expressly,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  bull  of  Pope  Paul  III  of  the  year  1536, 
that  it  is  the  ancient  custom  of  the  sovereign  pontiffs 
to  publish  this  excommunication  on  Holy  Thursday, 
to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  to 
keep  the  union  of  the  faithful;  but  the  origin  of  this 
ceremony  is  not  stated  in  it.  The  principal  heads 
of  this  bull  concern  heretics  and  their  upholders;  pi- 
rates, imposers  of  new  customs;  those  who  falsify  the 
bulls  and  other  apostolic  letters  ;  those  who  abuse  the 
prelates  of  the  Church;  those  that  trouble  or  would 
restrain  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  even  under  pretence 
of  preventing  some  violence,  though  they  might  lie 
counsellors  or  advocates,  generals  to  secular  princes, 
whether  emperors,  kings,  or  dukes;  those  who  usurp 
the  goods  of  the  Church,  etc.  The  content-;  of  the 
bull  have  been  inserted  by  degrees.  Luther's  name 
was  inserted  1521.  For  a  fuller  statement,  sec  In 
CtENA  Domini. 

BULL  UNIGENITUS.     See  Unigenitus. 


Bull,  "William,  an  English  Independent  minis. 
ter,  was  horn  Dee.  22,  1738,  in  Irthlingborough,  North- 
amptonshire, and  was  educated  at  the  Dissenting  acad- 
emy at  Daventry.  In  1704  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Independent  church  at  Newporfr-Pagnel,  where  he  was 
the  intimate  of  Cowper  and  of  John  Newton.  A  train- 
ing academy  for  ministers  was  founded  at  Newport 
through  Mr.  Bull's  activity,  and  he  superintended  it 
for  years.  He  died  in  1814.  "lie  was  an  excellent 
preacher,  his  sermons  being  at  once  original,  fervid, 
and  impressive." — Memorials  of  the  Rev.  W.  Bull(LonA. 
1804). 

Billiard,  AkTEMAS,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Northbridge,  Mass.,  June  :(,  1802,  studied 
at  Amherst  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1826,  ami 
thence  went  to  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover. 
He  was  licensed  in  May,  1828,  ami  ordained  April  20, 
1831.  In  1830  he  visited  the  West  in  the  employ  of 
the  Massachusetts  Sabbath  School  Union,  going  as 
far  as  Illinois,  and  while  there  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  "American  Hoard"  for  the  Valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. He  removed  to  Cincinnati  in  October,  1832. 
In  1838  he  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
at  St.  Louis.  He  was  made  D.D.  in  1841  by  Marion 
College.  He  attempted  in  1845,  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  Synod,  to  raise  a  fund  of  $10,000  for  the  erec- 
tion of  churches  in  Missouri.  His  health  having  be- 
come enfeebled,  he  was  chosen  by  his  fellow-citizens 
as  their  representative  at  the  World's  Peace  Conven- 
tion, and  spent  six  months  travelling  in  Europe  in 
1850.  After  his  return  he  was  the  chief  promoter  of 
the  institution  of  Webster  College  at  St.  Louis.  Dr. 
Bullard  was  killed  in  the.  accident  which  occurred  at 
the  inauguration  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  Nov.  1, 1855. 
He  published  three  or  four  occasional  sermons.  He 
was  a  preacher  of  great  power,  and  was  very  useful 
and  influential  in  St.  Louis. — Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  748. 

Bullarium  Romanum  Magrtvim,  a  collection 
of  papal  bulls  from  the  time  of  Leo  the  Great,  be- 
gun (1580)  by  Cherubini,  and  continued  by  various 
editors.  The  Bullarium  Magnum  of  Maynardus  (Lux- 
emb.  1739  to  1768,  19  vols,  fol.)  contains  the  bulls  from 
Leo  the  Great  to  Benedict  XIV.  Simultaneously  with 
it  appeared  the  collection  of  Cocquclines  (Horn.  1737 
sq.,  14  vols.  fob).  A  continuation  of  these  collections 
is  Benedicts  XIV  Bullarium  t  Rom.  1751  sq.,  4  torn.  fol. ; 
new  ed.  Mechlin,  1826,  13  vols.).  The  most  recent 
continuation,  which  is  to  comprise  the  bulls  of  Clem- 
ent XIII  and  tin;  following  popes,  was  commenced 
by  Barberi  (Home,  1835);  of  it  15  vols.  fol.  have  ap- 
peared, bringing  the  work  down  to  the  year  1821.  A 
new  complete  collection  of  all  the  bulls  from  Leo  the 
Great  to  the  present  time  has  been  commenced  by  To- 
massetti  (Turin,  vol.  i,  1857).-Landon,  Ecclesiastical 
Died,  mini,  s.  v. 

Bullinger,  Hkinuich,  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  Swiss  reformers,  was  born  at  Bremgarten,  near 
Zurich,  where  his  father  was  parish  priest,  .Inly  18, 
1504.      In  1516  he  was  sent  to  seliool  at  Emmerich,  ill 

Cleves,  where  Mosellanus  was  one  of  the  masters.  In 
order  to  train  the  boy  to  careful  habits,  Ids  father  gave 
him  no  money,  and' he  was  compelled  to  sing  in  the 
streets  for  bread  like  Luther.  lie  was  inclined,  while 
at  Emmerich,  to  enter  the  order  of  Carthusians ;  but  his 
brother  kept  him  from  doing  SO,  anil  in  151'.)  he  went  to 
Cologne, where  he  became  bachelor  (.farts  in  1620. 
lie  began  to  study  the  scholastic  theology, but  was 

soon  disgU8ted,  and  even  wrote  against  the  BCholasticS. 

He  then  took  up  the  fathers,  especially  Chrysostom 

and  St.  Augustine,  and  finding  that  they  drew  their 
premises   from    Scripture,  lie    set   himself  earnestly   to 

study  the  N.T.  The  writings  of  Erasmus  led  him  to 
the  study  of  the  classics.  He  was  thus  quite  ready  to 
be  impressed  by  Luther's  writings  when  they  fell  in  his 
way;  and  the  0«  Captivitate  Babybmea  and  /'    Boms 

Operi'jus  of  Luther,  with  the  Loci  Communes  of  Mclanc- 


BULLIXGER 


01 


thon,  satisfied  him  that  the  Roman  Church  needed 
reformation.  In  1522,  after  taking  his  master's  de- 
gree, he  returned  to  Switzerland,  and  was  called  by 
Wolfgang  Rupli,  abbot  of  Cappel,  to  teach  in  the  clois- 
ter school  of  his  abbey.  Here  he  lectured  on  the  N. 
T.  and  on  the  Loci  Communes  of  Melancthon.  In  1527 
he  was  Bent  by  his  abbot  to  Zurich,  and  there  he  at- 
tended for  live  months  the  preaching  and  lectures  of 
the  celebrated  Zuinglius,  while  he  perfected  his  knowl- 
edge of  (ireek,  and  commenced  the  study  of  Hebrew 
under  IVllicanus.  On  his  return  to  Cappel,  the  abbot 
and  his  monks  adopted  fully  the  reformation,  to  which 
they  had  been  before  inclined.  In  1528  he  went  with 
Zuinglius  to  the  disputation  at  Berne.  In  1529  he  was 
made  pastor  at  Bremgarten,  his  native  place,  and  mar- 
ried Ann  Adlischweiter,  a  nun  retired  from  the  con- 
vent at  Zurich.  At  Bremgarten  he  engaged  in  con- 
troversy  with  the  Anabaptists,  against  whom  he  wrote 
six  books.  In  1531,  after  the  battle  of  Cappel,  where 
Zuinglius  fell,  and  with  him,  for  a  time,  the  cause  of 
reform,  Bullinger  was  compelled  to  leave  Bremgarten, 
and  was  elected  successor  to  Zuinglius  at  Zurich  as 
antistes,  or  chief  pastor.  He  began  his  work  with  a 
conflict.  The  Council  of  Berne,  on  the  very  day  of 
his  election,  demanded  a  pledge  that  the  clergy  of 
Berne  should  refrain  from  all  political  discussions. 
Bullinger  defended  the  freedom  of  the  pulpit  with  so 
much  energy  that  the  council  yielded.  His  suprem- 
acy as  a  leader  of  the  reform  was  soon  acknowledged. 
Luther  attacked  Zuinglius  and  his  doctrine  of  the 
sacraments  with  great  bitterness ;  Bullinger  defended 
both  with  calm  but  earnest  arguments,  in  a  series  of 
writings  on  the  sacraments  extending  over  many 
years.  Bucer's  (q.  v.)  attempts  to  reconcile  Luther's 
views  with  those  of  the  reformed  at  first  met  with  Bul- 
linger's  sympathy  and  approval;  but  he. came  at  last 
to  doubt  Bucer's  sincerity,  or,  at  least,  his  thorough- 
ness of  conviction.  In  the  midst  of  all  his  controver- 
sies he  continued  his  faithful  pastoral  labors,  and  by 
these,  with  his  powerful  and  popular  preaching,  he  es- 
tablished the  Reformation  firmly  in  Zurich.  His  the- 
ology was  Augustinian,  but  of  a  milder  type  than  Cal- 
vin's. When  division  was  threatened  (1547)  between 
the  Reformed  churches  of  Zurich  and  Geneva  on  the 
sacramental  question,  Bullinger  and  Calvin,  by  corre- 
spondence and  personal  conference,  came  to  an  agree- 
ment of  views,  which  was  expressed  in  the  Consensus 
Tigurinus  (1549),  in  which  the  corporal  presence  is  de- 
nied, but  a  real  and  spiritual  communication  in  the 
Supper  of  Christ  to  the  believer  is  admitted.  Bullin- 
ger was  long  in  close  correspondence  with  many  men 
of  note  in  the  English  Church,  with  whom  he  became 
acquainted  during  their  sojourn  abroad  while  the  Ma- 
rian persecution  lasted,  and  his  influence  contributed 
greatly  toward  settling  the  doctrines  of  the  English 
reformers.  Many  of  their  letters  and  of  his  own  arc 
preserved  in  the  library  of  the  city  of  Zurich.  One 
of  the  most  important  labors  of  his  later  life  was  the 
preparation  of  the  Confessio  <  t  Expositio  6n  vis,  etc.  (the 
Seco ud  Helvetic  Confession),  adopted  as  authoritative 
in  156G.  (See  Confessions.)  After  severe  Buffering 
from  calculus,  he  died  Sept.  17,  1575,  repeating  the 
Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  several  of  the  Psalms 
just  before  his  departure.  Ilis  son-in-law,  Simlex, 
preached  his  funeral  sermon,  afterward  printed  {Be 
I  "il.i ,  I  Obi/,  i  liiiHiiii/i ;/').  Many  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English,  viz..  One  hundred  Sermons  on 
ihr  Apocalypsi  1 1 561 .  4to):-  -  Tm  nty-six  s,  rmons  on  Jere- 
miah (1588,  Ito)  :-  /■'.<//•  rtation  to  Ministers (1575, 4to) : 
\onplaa  j  of  Christian  Religion  (.1572,  ito):— The 
Sum  of  the  Four  Evangelists;  Fifty  godly  and  learned 
1 1577,  Itni.  Hia  works  as  collected  and  pub- 
lished amount  to  ten  folio  vols.  <  Zurich).  Such  was  the 
reputation  of  bis  writings  In  England  that  Archbishop 
Whitgift  obtained  an  order  in  convocation  that  every 
clergyman  should  procure  a  copy  of  his  sermons  and 
read  one  of  them  once  a  week.     A  new  edition  of  his 


BULLOCK 

Decades,  from  the  edition  of  1787,  was  printed  for  the 
Parker  Society  in  1849  (Camb.  4  vols.  8vo).  There  is 
also  a  reprint  of  the  Sermons  on  the  Sacrament  (Camb. 
1840,  8vo).  See  also  Bullinger' s  Leben  u.  ausgewahlte 
Schriflen,  nach  handschrift.  it.  gldchzeitigen  Quellen  von 
C.  Pestalozzi  (Elberfeld,  1857,  8vo);  Hess,  Lehensga- 
schichte  Bulllnger's;  Franz,  Zi'tge  aus  dem  Leben  Bul- 
linger's  (1828)  ;  Mosheim,  Ch.  History,  iii,  192  ;  Burnet, 
Hist,  of  Reformation,  iii,  302,  et  al. ;  Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
klopiidie,  ii,  452. 

Bullions,  Peter,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister 
and  classical  scholar,  was  born  at  Moss-side,  near  Perth, 
Scotland,  in  December,  1791.  He  was  bred  to  farm 
labor,  but  in  1810  he  entered  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, supporting  himself  partly  by  his  previous  sav- 
ings and  partly  by  teaching.  In  the  same  way  he 
supported  himself  during  his  theological  studies  under 
Professor  Paxton  from  1813  to  1817,  when  he  was  li- 
censed to  preach  by  the  Presbytery  of  Edinburgh, 
and  sailed  to  America.  In  1818  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  at  Argyle,  N.  Y.,  and  in 
1824  Professor  of  Languages  at  the  Albany  Academy. 
He  held  this  place  till  1848,  when  he  gave  himself 
wholly  to  the  pastoral  charge.  His  literary  activity 
was  chiefly  devoted  to  the  preparation  of  elementary 
classical  works,  in  which  he  was  eminently  successful. 
In  addition,  he  published  a  memoir  of  his  relative,  Dr. 
Alexander  Bullions,  besides  contributing  to  several 
periodicals.  "  His  pupils,  who  are  widely  scattered 
through  the  land,  bear  a  grateful  testimony  to  his  abil- 
ity and  fidelity.  His  exact  and  critical  knowledge  of 
the  classics  made  him  not  only  a  most  competent  but 
most  successful  teacher.  He  died  February  13, 1864. 
— Wilson,  Presbyterian  Almanac,  1865. 

Bullock  is  a  frequent  translation  of  the  following 
Heb.  words:  properly  '"IS  or  IB,  par,  strictly  a  steer, 
often  with  the  addition  (in  the  original)  of  the  qualify- 
ing clause,  "(T2  *3,  son  of  a  beeve,  rendered  "young" 
in  our  version ;  Tlttj,  shor,  Chaldee  TlPl,  tor  (Gr. 
tuvooq),  usually  rendered  "ox;"  and  MS,  e'gel,  Jer. 
xxi,  18 ;  xlvi,  21;  elsewhere  "  calf."  See  Bull.  The 
word  "bullock,"  indeed,  seems  to  be  used  almost 
changeable  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  with  the  term  "ox," 
to  designate  a  male  of  the  beeve  kind  ;  but  the  follow- 
ing distinctions  of  the  Heb.  terms  may  properly  be  in- 
dicated.    See  Cattle. 

1.  Bakar',  ""Ipa,  is  properly  a  generic  name  for 
horned  cattle  when  of  full  age  and  fit  for  the  plough. 
Accordingly,  it  is  variously  rendered  "bullock"  (Isa. 
lxiv,  25),  "  cow"  (Ezek.  iv,  15),  "  oxen"  (Gen.  xii, 
16).  Hence,  in  Deut.  xxi,  3,  the  female  young  (p7XP 
"ip3)  is  a  heifer;  in  Exod.  xxix,  1,  the  male  young 
(~~2~"2  IB,  or  in  Gen.  xviii,  7,  simply  1pa"**3, 
rendered  "calf"  in  the  A.  V.)  is  a  young  bullock. 
This  word  is  derived  from  an  unused  root,  1j?!3,  bakar'-, 
to  cleave,  hence  to  plough,  as  in  Latin  armentum  is  for 
aramentum. 

2.  Shor,  1123,  differs  from  the  foregoing  term  in 
the  same  way  as  i"TO;  a  sheep,  from  "jitis,  a  flock  of 
sheep.  It  is  a  generic  name,  but  almost  always  signi- 
fies one  head  of  horned  cattle,  without  distinction  of  age 
or  sex.  It  is  very  seldom  used  collectively.  The 
Chaldee  form  of  the  word  tor,  11  PI,  occurs  in  Ezra  vi, 
9,  17;  vii,  17;  Dan.  iv,  25,  etc.  (Plutarch,  Sull.  c.  17, 
says  Otlip  oi  3>oi'i'j*mc  rrjv  jivvr  KoXovffi).  It  is  prob- 
ably the  same  word  as  ravpog,  taurus,  Germ,  stier; 
Engl,  steer.  The  root  in  Heb.  is  not  used,  but  in  Ara- 
bic signifies  to  paw  up  the  dust,  a  very  natural  deriva- 
tion of  the  word. 

3.  F/gel,  b"«"  (fern,  nbs"),  a  caJf  properly  of  the 
first  year,  derived,  as  Gesenius  thinks,  from  an  ./Ethi- 
opic  word  signifying  embryo,  while   others  derive  it 


BULRUSH 


917 


BUNSEN 


from  blV,  aga!',  to  roll.  The  (fem.)  word  is  used  of 
a  trained  heifer  (Hos.  x,  11),  of  one  giving  milk  (Isa. 
vii,  21,  22),  of  one  used  in  ploughing  (Judg.  xiv,  18), 
and  of  one  three  years  old  (Gen.  xv,  9  i. 

4.  Par,  *1S,  almost  synonymous  with  the  last,  and 
signifying  generally  a  young  bull  of  two  years  old, 
though  in  one  instance  (Judg.  vi.  25)  possibly  a  boll 
of  seven  years  old.  It  is  the  customary  term  for  bulls 
offered  in  sacrifice,  and  hence  is  used  metaphorically 
in  Hos.  xiv,  3,  uso  will  we  render,  'as  bullocks,'  our 
lips."—  Smith,  s.  v.     See  Ox. 

Bulrush  is  used  synonymously  with  "  Rush"  in 
the  A.  V.  as  the  rendering  of  two  Heb.  words.  See 
Reed. 

1.  Agmon ',  "|TC-"X,  in  Isa.  ix,  13;  xix,  15,  in  the 
proverbial  expression  "  branch  and  rush,"  equivalent 
to  high  and  low  alike  (the  Sept.  has  fikyav  Kai  fiiicpov 
in  one  passage,  ap\i)v  Kut  ri-'/oc  in  the  other),  and  in 
Isa.  lviii,  6,  the  Heb.  term  is  rendered  "  bulrush." 
The  word  is  derived  from  CSX,  again' ,  a  marsh,  be- 
cause the  bulrush  grows  in  marshy  ground.  The  bul- 
rush was  platted  into  ropes  (A.  V.  "  hook"),  as  appears 
from  Job  xli,  2  (see  Bochart,  Hit  roz.  ii,  772 ;  comp. 
Plin.  Xat.  Hist,  xix,  2).  The  Sept.  has  epi'icoc  in  the 
latt?r  passages.     Sec  Rush. 

2.  Gome  ,  X*2'<  (from  X~.',  to  drink  up,  referring  to 
the  porous  nature  of  the  plant,  as  absorbing  moisture  : 
hence  the  Latin  name  biblus;  comp.  "bibula  papyrus" 
in  Lucan,  iv,  136),  occurs  Exod.  ii,  3  (where  Sept. 
omits);  Isa.  xviii,  2  (Sept.  /8«'/3aoc);  xxxv,  7  (Sept. 
i'Aoc) ;  Job  viii,  11  (Sept.  ir&Trvpoc;) ;  in  the  first  two 
of  which  passages  it  is  translated  in  our  version  by 
"  bulrush,"  and  in  the  last  two  by  "rush,"  and  is  un- 
doubtedly the  Egyptian  papyrus  (papyrus  NUoticd),  so 
famous  in  the  history  of  writing,  and  from  which  the 
word  paper  is  derived.  It  is  the  Cyperus  p  pyrus  of 
modern  botany.  It  was  anciently  very  abundant  in 
Egypt,  but  is  now  very  scarce  there.  It  is  found  in 
great  abundance,  however,  in  Syria  and  Abyssinia. 
The  Egyptians  used  this  plant  for  garments,  shoes, 
baskets,  various  kinds  of  utensils,  and  especially  for 
boats.  It  was  the  material  of  the  ark  (q.  v.)  in  which 
Moses  was  exposed,  and  of  it  the  vessels  mentioned  in 
Isa.  xviii,  2  were  formed.  This  practice  is  referred  to 
by  Lucan  (iv,  136)  and  by  Pliny  (xiii,  11,  s.  22). 
(Comp.  Celsius,  Ilierob.  ii,  137-152.)     Sec  Papyrus. 

Bulwark  is  the  representative  in  the  Autb.  Vers, 
of  several  Heb.  words  :  b^rt,  chcgl  (lit.  strength,  or  an 
army,  as  in  2  Kings  xviii.  17),  an  intrenchment,  espe- 
cially the  breastwork  which  protects  the  trench  (Isa. 
xxvi,  1;  elsewhere  "trench,"  "rampart,"  "wall," 
etc.");  also  rOT,,  ch  ylah' ',  the  same  (Psa.  xlviii,  14); 
m"£*2,  matsor'  (once  TlStf,  matsod',  prob.  by  an  error 
of  transcription,  Eccles.  ix.  14),  lit.  straitness,  hence  a 
mound  erected  by  the  besiegers  1  Deut.  xx,  20;  else- 
where "siege,"  etc.);  rii3,  pinnah',  a  pinnacle  or 
turn  1 1  2  Chron.  xxvi,  15 ;  elsev  here  "  corner").  The 
"bulwarks"  spoken  of  in  Scripture  appear  to  have 
been  mural  towers,  which  answered  the  purposes  of 
the  modern  bastion.  Bulwarks  were  erected  al  cer- 
tain distances  alone;  the  walls,  usually  at  the  corners, 
and  upon  them  were  placed  the  military  engines.  The 
wall  between  the  bulwarks,  instead  of  running  in  a 
straight  line,  curved  inward,  thus  giving  the  greatest 
possible  extent  in  flanking  the  enemy  from  the  projec- 
tions. They  are  said  t<>  have  been  introduced  by  King 
TJzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  15;  Zeph.  i,  16;  Psa.  xlviii, 
13;    Isa.  xxvi,  1).      See  FORTIFICATION. 

Bu'nah  (Heb.  Bunafi',  rWS,  discretion;  Sept. 
B««!'<f  v.  r.  Bavaa),  the  second  son  of  Jerahmeel,  th 
grandson  ..f  1'harez  the  son  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  26). 
B.C.  ante  1658. 

Bunch,  i~n;s,  aguddah',t\  bundle  of  hyssop  (Exod. 


xii,  22;  elsewhere  "burden"  or  yoke,  Isa.  lviii,  6'j 
"troop"  df  men,  2  Sam.  ii,  25);  p'IBIS,  tsimmuk' ,  a  bunch 
of  dried  raisins  (2  Sam.  wi,  1 ;  1  Chron.  xii,  m  j  els  - 
where  "cluster  of  raisins");  HOS^i  dabbe'sheth,  the 
hump  of  a  camel  (Isa.  xx\,  6),  so  called  from  the  sqfU 
nets  of  the  flesh,  being  a  mere  lump  of  fat  (see  Burck- 
hardt,  Notes  on  tin  Bedouins,  ii,  82  sq.). 

Bundle  ("HX,  tseror' ;  dsofitj),  signifies  any  thing 
bound  together  and  tied  up  for  future  disposal  (Cant. 
i,  13;  Matt,  xiii,  30 ;  .lob  xiv,  17).  [t  is  also  used  of 
a  sum  of  money  in  a  purn  (Gen.  xiii.  35;  Prov.  vii, 
20).  See  Bag.  The  speech  of  Abigail  to  David  il 
Sam.  xxv,  29)  may  be  thus  rendered:  "The  life  of 
my  master  is  bound  up  in  the  bundle  of  the  living  by 
Jehovah,"  or  written  in  the  look  of  the  living.  In 
Acts  xxviii,  3,  the  original  word  is  jrX^Sof,  an  ann- 
ful,  literally  a  "multitude,"  as  elsewhere  rendered. 

Bunn,  Sf.i.i.y,  one  of  the  most  notable  of  the 
pioneer  Methodist  preachers  in  America,  was  born  in 
Poughkeepsie,  X.  Y.,  in  17r>5.     I  lis  parents  removed 

to  Berkely  Co.,  Ya.,  where  he  was  converted  and  be- 
came a  Methodist  in  1789.  lie  entered  the  ministry 
in  1792,  and  for  20  years  labored  incessantly,  enduring 
the  great  fatigues  and  perils  of  frontier  work  with 
equanimity  and  patience;  risking  his  lite  by  exposure 
to  the  savages  and  by  night-sleeping  in  the  forests. 
In  1X14  he  became  superannuated.  His  death  was  oc- 
casioned by  a  fall  from  his  gig  in  the  year  1833. — Min- 
utes of  Conferences,  ii,  279. 

Bunney,  Edmund,  a  divine  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  1510,  educated  at  Oxford,  became 
probationer  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  and  later 
chaplain  to  Archbishop  Grindall.  He  died  in  1(117. 
Among  his  works  are.  The  uhole  Sum  ttftht  Christian 
];>  ligkm  I  Loud.  1576,  8vo) : — An  Abriagmt  nt  of  Calvin's 
Institutions  (Lend.  1580,  8vp),  ami  several  controver- 
sial pamphlets  against  the  Jesuit  Parsons. 

Bun'ni,  the  name  of  two  Levites. 

1.  (Heb.  ""2.  Biami',  either  considerate,  or  the 
same  name  as  Binnui  ;  Sept.  Bovvd.)  The  great-great- 
grandfather of  One  Shemaiah,  w  Inch  latter  was  appoint- 
ed an  overseer  of  the  Temple  after  the  captivity  (Neh. 
xi,  15).     B.C.  long  ante  536. 

2.  (Heb.  "'Z,  Bunni',  built,  Sept.  translates  v'lOQ, 
v'tot.)  One  of  those  who  pronounced  the  public  prayer 

and  thanksgiving,  and  sealed  the  covenant  on  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon  (Neh.  ix.  4;   x,  15).      B.C.  410. 

3.  Bunni  is  said  to  have  been  the  Jewish  name  of 
Nicodemus   (Lightfoot  on   John   iii,   1  ;    Ewald,    hr. 

(,'t-sr/i.  v,  233).       See  NlCODEMI  -. 

Bunsen,  Christian  Charles  Josiab,  was  bom 
at  Korbach,  in  the  German  principality  of  Waldeck, 

Aug.  25,  1791.  and  studied  at  Marburg  and  (iottingon. 
In  the  latter  university  he  came  especially  under  the 
influence  of  the  great  philologist  Heyne,  whose  in- 
structions and  example  gave  a  bent  to  the  youthful 
studies  of  Bunsen,  and  affected  his  career  through  life. 
At  twenty  he  had  so  distinguished  himself  thai  lie  ob- 
tained a  professorship  in  the  gymnasium  of  GCttingen. 

In  1813  he  published  a  dissei  tation.  /'.  .Inr,  Mlnii'tiii- 
sinm  htereditario,  which  made  his  name  known  widely 
among  the  savans  of  Germany.  Soon  after  he  under- 
took a  journey  to  Holland  and  Denmark,  in  which  lat- 
ter country  lie  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  disciple,  if 
not  a  descendant,  of  MagnUBSen,  who  taught  him   the 

Icelandic  tongue.  After  a  while  Bunsen  made  his 
way  to  Berlin,  and  there  commenced  his  first  acquaint- 
ance with  Xiobuhr,  who  was  afterward  to  I  e  Iii-  I  I  t 
patron  and  friend.  Niebubr  suggested  to  the  young 
man  to  visit  Paris  where  he  studied,  under  the  cele- 
brated Orientalist  He  Sacy.  Arabic,  Persian,  and  San- 
scrit. Iii  1*17  he  went  to  Rome,  where  Niebuhr  was 
I'rus>ian  ambassador.  Niebuhr  in  1818  appointed  him 
his  private  secretary,  and  speedily  procured  him   the 


BUXTIXG 


918 


BUXTIXG 


place  of  secretary  of  embassy.  A  couple  of  years  after 
his  appointment,  King  Frederick  William  III  arrived 
at  Home,  and  Bunsen  became  his  cicerone.  The  king 
was  struck  with  the  erudition  of  his  young  official,  and 
marked  him  out  for  promotion.  In  1824  he  made  him 
his  charge  d'affaires  at  Rome,  and  in  1827  his  minister 
re-id  int.  While  enjoying  this  almost  sinecure,  Bun- 
sen  devoted  himself  to  philological  and  antiquarian 
studies,  and  formed  an  enduring  friendship  with  Cham- 
pollion  and  his  own  countrymen  Lepsius  and  Gerhard. 
He  devoted  himself  alternately  to  Egyptian  hieroglyph- 
ics, to  the  topography  of  ancient  Rome,  and  to  ancient 
Greek  literature,  more  especially  to  the  study  of  Plato. 
He  also  took  a  great  interest  in  the  Protestant  Church 
and  worship  at  Rome.  In  1838  he  was  recalled,  on 
account  of  a  difficulty  between  the  papal  court  and 
that  of  Prussia  about  certain  extravagances  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne.  In  1841  Bunsen  was  appoint- 
ed ambassador  to  England,  and  remained  in  that  post 
until  1854.  His  political  ideas  being  too  liberal  for 
the  times,  he  was  recalled  home  in  that  year,  and  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  his  favorite  studies,  chiefly 
at  Heidelberg,  where  he  hid  a  charming  home,  in 
which  all  visitors,  and  especially  English  and  Ameri- 
can travellers,  were  received  with  a  free  and  cordial 
hospitality.  He  died  at  Bonn  on  Oct.  29,  1860.  As 
a  fruit  of  his  residence  in  Italy,  he  furnished  a  largo 
part  of  the  material  for  Cotta's  Beschreibung  von  Bom, 
and  in  1843  he  published,  under  his  own  name,  Die 
/»''.< '//".■, ,/.  ,/,',■  Chrisf'ichm  Boms  (Munich,  Svo).  His 
Verfassung  dir  Kirche  der  Zukunft  (Hamb.  1845)  was 
translated  into  English,  and  published,  both  in  London 
and  New  York,  under  the  title  of  The  Church  of  thi 
Fu'ure  (12mo).  In  1845  he  commenced  the  publica- 
tion of  his  ZEgyptens  Stelle  in  der  IVeltgsschichte,  the 
fifth  and  last  volume  of  which  appeared  in  1857.  Part 
of  this  work  has  been  translated  into  English,  under 
the  title  Egypt's  P'ice  in  Universal  History.  It  is  a 
vast  repertory  of  facts  and  fancies,  not  a  thoroughly 
digested  book  of  science.  He  issued  his  Ignatius  von 
Antiochkn  u.  seine  Ztit  in  1847,  and  his  Briefe  des  Ig- 
natius in  the  same  year.  His  Zeichen  der  Zed  appear- 
ed in  1855-6,  and  was  translated  into  English  as  Tin 
fiigns  of  the  Tim"s  (London  and  New  York).  This 
work  is  a  powerful  plea  in  behalf  of  the  principle  of 
religious  liberty,  and  was  principally  directed  against 
the  intolerant  views  of  Stahl  and  Hengstenberg.  It 
led  to  a  very  violent  controversy  with  Stahl,  in  which 
a  number  of  the  leading  theologians  of  Germany  took 
part  on  both  sides.  His  Gott  in  dsr  Gesckickte  (1857) 
has  not,  we  think,  been  translated.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  of  late  years  is  his  H'ppolytus  (Loud.  1851, 
1  vols,  svo  i,  afterward  republished  in  1854  in  a  fuller 
form,  as  Christianity  and  Mankind:  Heir  Beginnings 
and  Prospects  (Lond.  7  vols.  8vo),  which  contains,  hi- 
de sd,  a  vast  deal  of  learned  lumber,  and  of  vague  and 
conjectural  dissertation,  but  is  yet  a  very  valuable 
contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  early  Church  histo- 
ry. At  the  time  of  his  death  lie  was  engaged  upon 
bis  Vollstandiges  BibeUvxrk  fur  dir  <,,  „„;„.■/..  of  which 
tb  ■  first  half  volume  appeared  in  1858.  The  preface 
show-  the  character  of  the  work  fully.  It  was  to  be 
completed  in  eight  volumes,  four  of  which  were  to 
consist  of  bis  new  version  of  the  Bible  in  German, 
three  of  BM  Docum  tits,  and  one  of  Bible  History.  It 
;|1 n|-  in  proofs  of  learning,  but,  like  the  other  theo- 
logical writings  of  Bunsen,  it  is  entirely  wanting  in 
sobriety  and  discrimination,  and  has  called  forth  very 
decided  remonstrances  on  the  part  of  the  evangelical 
tns  of  Germany  as  well  as  of  other  countries. 
M.  Pressense,  in  the  Revtu  Chretienne,  Dec.  1 800,  gives 

0  touching  description  of  the  last  days  and  the  death 
of  Bunsen,  which  has  been  translate, 1  in  many  English 
and  American  journals.  See  also  (ietzer.  Buns  n  ah 
Staatsman  und  Schriftstelh  r  (Gotha,  186] ), 

Bunting,  Jabkz,  1>.  I>.,  the  most  eminent  of  mod- 
ern English  Wesleyans,  was  burn  at  .Manchester,  May 


13th,  1779.  His  parents  early  resolved  that  he  should 
have  the  best  education  they  were  able  to  procure. 
At  the  excellent  school  where  he  was  consequently 
placed,  he  was  for  a  time  exposed  to  annoyance  as  a 
Methodist ;  but  his  talents  and  manliness  speedily  won 
the  respect  of  his  schoolfellows,  especially  of  a  son  of 
Dr.  Percival,  of  Manchester,  into  whose  family  he  was 
received  without  premium  as  a  student  of  medicine. 
His  parents  made  it  an  essential  condition  that  his 
nights  and  Sundays  should  be  spent  at  home.  Dr. 
Percival  was  an  anti-Trinitarian,  and  they  felt  bound 
to  guard  their  son  from  influences  which  might  have 
weakened  his  attachment  to  evangelical  truth.  He 
had  thus  a  twofold  education,  adapted  to  prepare  him 
for  a  great  career.  In  his  Christian  home  he  received 
a  training  of  the  conscience  and  the  heart,  which  by 
grace  had  an  abiding  influence  on  his  religious  course ; 
while,  by  liberal  studies  and  good  society,  his  intellect 
was  exercised,  and  his  social  habits  were  formed  in  a 
way  which  fitted  him  for  the  high  position  to  which  he 
was  early  raised  by  his  talents  and  virtues.  His  faith 
in  the  great  truths  of  the  Gospel  was  determined  by 
his  conversion  when  he  was  about  sixteen.  At  nine- 
teen he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  1799  received 
his  first  appointment  from  the  Conference  (Oldham), 
lie  was  not  long  in  gaining  a  power  and  influence 
among  his  brethren  which  he  maintained  through  life. 
He  regarded  Methodism  as  a  great  work  of  God,  form- 
ed to  be  of  signal  benefit  to  the  world,  and  he  gave 
himself  with  all  his  powers,  to  promote  its  efficiency. 
He  well  understood  its  principles,  and  saw  to  what 
beneficial  results  those  principles  would  lead  if  vigor- 
ously carried  out;  and  his  youthful  mind  very  early 
ret  itself  to  clear  away  obstructions,  and  create  new 
facilities  for  its  successful  action.  To  Bunting's  prac- 
tical wisdom  mainly  is  due  the  organization  of  the 
Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  and  his  powerful  elo- 
quence aroused  and  sustained  the  ardor  with  which  it 
was  supported.  For  some  eighteen  years  he  was  one 
of  the  secretaries  of  the  society.  He  was  four  times 
chosen  president  of  the  Conference,  and  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Wesleyan  Theological  Institution  in  1834 
till  his  death  he  was  president  of  that  seminary.  For 
man}'  years  his  word  was  law  in  the  Wesleyan  Con- 
ference, and  he  achieved  this  distinction  by  purity 
of  character,  devotion  to  Christ's  work,  and  pre-emi- 
nent organizing  and  administrative  talent.  Though 
Dr.  Bunting  gave  himself  devotedly  to  Methodism,  he 
did  not  restrict  his  affectionate  regards  nor  his  services 
to  his  own  community.  lie  was  ever  ready  to  unite 
with  Christian  men  of  other  names  to  advance  objects 
of  ( Christian  philanthropy,  and  promote  the  conversion 
of  the  world  to  Christ.  How  those  of  other  denomina- 
tions generally  regarded  him  may  be  gathered  from 
an  entry  in  one  of  the  journal-letters  of  Dr.  Chalmers, 
written  when  on  his  last  visit  to  London,  not  quite  a 
month  before  his  death.  Dr.  Bunting  heard  Dr.  Chal- 
mers preach  on  Sunday  morning,  May  9th,  1847.  and 
called  to  see  him  in  the  afternoon.  Dr.  Chalmers 
writes:  "  Delighted  with  a  call  after  dinner  from  Dr. 
Bunting,  with  whom  I  and  Mr.  Mackenzie  were  left 
alone  for  an  hour  at  least.  Most  exquisite  intercourse 
with  one  of  the  best  and  wisest  of  men.  Mr.  M.  and  I 
both  love  him  to  the  uttermost."  A  considerable  part 
of  the  last  year  of  his  life  was  passed  in  weakness  and 
pain.  His  mind  retained  its  clearness,  and  his  spirit 
was  humbly  resigned,  but  the  flesh  was  weak.  His 
feelings  were  depressed,  but  his  faith  prevailed.  As 
death  approached,  his  consolations  through  Christ  be- 
came rich  and  satisfying.  When  the  power  of  speech 
was  almost  k°»c,  he  was  heard  to  say,  "  Perfect  peace." 
His  last  words  were,  "Victory,  victory,  through  the 
blood  of  the  Lamb  ! "  He  died  June  1 6, 1858.  The  first 
vol.  of  his  Life,  by  his  son,  T.  P.  Bunting,  Esq.,  appear- 
ed in  1859;  his  .posthumous  Sermons  (2  vols".  12mo)  in 
1861.— London  Rev.  Julv,  1859,  p.  447;  Wesl.  Minutes 
(Lond.  1858)  ;  Meth.Qu'.Uee.  18C0,  p.  20;  1862,  p.  52G. 


BUN Y AN 


919 


BURCH 


Bunyan,  John,  "the  immortal  tinker,"  was  born 
in  1628,  at  Elstow,  near  Bedford.    His  early  education 

was  neglected.  In  bis  youth  lie  was  dissolute  and 
profligate,  and  he  joined  the  Parliamentary  army,  lie 
was  converted  from  his  evil  ways  in  1G5J,  and  in  1G55 
became  a  Baptist.  For  preaching  to  the  Baptist  con- 
gregation at  Bedford  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  where 
he  "tagged  laces"  twelve  years  and  a  half  (1660-1672), 
and  composed  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  a  work  which  has 
already  gone  through  more  than  fifty  editions,  and  has 
been  translated  into  many  foreign  languages.  Before 
be  was  taken  to  jail  he  had  begun  to  use  his  pen,  chief- 
ly in  controversy  with  the  Quakers ;  and  writing  proved 
an  ample  solace  to  him  in  his  cell.  Several  w<  rks,  in- 
cluding his  (! race  Abounding,  and  what  is,  next  to  the 
"Pilgrim,"  his  best-known  work,  The  //(■/;/  War,  which 
were  eagerly  read  then  and  long  afterward,  were  the 
fruit  of  his  imprisonment.  During  the  later  years  of 
his  confinement  he  was  allowed  much  freedom  :  could 
go  into  town  at  pleasure,  and  once  was  permitted  to 
visit  London,  though  for  permitting  that  the  jailer  re- 
ceived a  severe  censure.  During  these  years  Bunyan 
appears  to  have  preached  and  exhorted  pretty  nearly 
as  freely  as  though  he  had  not  been  a  prisoner.  In 
the  last  year  of  his  imprisonment  he  was  elected  pas- 
tor of  the  Baptist  church  in  Bedford  (Mr.  Gilford's), 
and  be  was  able  to  attend  regularly  to  his  ministerial 
duties.  At  length,  en  the  13th  of  September,  1(171',  he 
was  set  at  liberty.  After  his  release  Bunyan  set  about 
putting  his  private  affairs  and  those  of  his  church  in 
order.  The  chapel  in  which  he  preached  was  great- 
ly enlarged  in  order  to  accommodate-  the  increasing 
congregation.  He  commenced  the  organization  of 
branch  meetings  and  what  might  be  called  preaching 
circuits,  and  soon  acquired  such  extended  authority 
and  influence  that  he  came  to  be  commonly  known  as 
Bishop  Bunyan.  He  used  to  make  frequent  visits  to 
Loudon,  where  the  announcement  of  a  sermon  by  him 
was  certain  to  collect  an  immense  congregation.  The 
close  of  his  life  is  thus  related  by  Southey:  "  Beading 
was  a  place  where  be  was  well  known.  ...  In  a  visit 
to  that  place  ha  contracted  the  disease  which  brought 
him  to  the  grave.  A  friend  of  his  who  resided  there 
had  resolved  to  disinherit  his  son;  the  young  man  re- 
quested Bunyan  to  interfere  in  his  behalf;  he  did  so 
with  good  success,  and  it  was  his  last  labor  of  love; 
for,  returning  to  London  on  horseback  through  heavy 
rain,  a  fever  ensued,  which  after  ten  days  proved  fatal. 
He  died  at  the  house  of  his  friend  Mr.  Stradwick,  a 
grocer,  at  the  sign  of  the  Star  on  Snow  Hill,  and  was 
buried  in  that  friend's  vault  in  Bunhill  Fields'  burial- 
ground."  His  tomb-stone  states  his  death  to  have  oc- 
curred on  the  12th  of  August,  1688,  but  the  correct  dale 
appears  to  be  August  the  :sist.  The  first  collected  edi- 
tion of  Bunyan's  Works  was  published  in  1692  i  Bed- 
ford, 1  vol.  fob);  the  last  and  most  carefully  collated 
edition  of  The  Works  of  John  Bunyan,  with  en  Introduc- 
tion, Notes,  and  Sketch  of  his  Life  and  Contemporaries, 
b3r  George  Offor,  appeared  in  London  in  1*.~>:'>  (3  vols, 
imp.  8vo).  The  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  attained  quick 
popularity.  "The  first  edition  was  'printed  for  Nath. 
Ponder,  at  the  Peacock  in  the  Poultry,  1678,'  and  lie- 
fore  the  year  closed  a  second  edition  was  called  for. 
In  the  four  following  years  it  was  reprinted  six  times. 
The  eighth  edition,  which  contains  the  last  improve- 
ments made  by  the  author,  was  published  in  Ids:',  the 
ninth  in  1684,  and  the  tenth  in  1685.  In  Scotland  and 
the  colonies  it  was  even  more  popular  than  in  England. 
Bunyan  tells  that  in  New  England  his  dream  was  the 
daily  subject  of  conversation  of  thousands,  and  was 
thought  worthy  to  appear  in  the  most  superb  binding. 
It  had  numerous  admirers,  too,  in  Holland,  and  among 
the  Huguenots  in  France.  Yet  the  favor  and  the 
enormous  circulation  of  the  'Pilgrim's  Progress'  were 
limited  to  those  who  read  for  religious  edification  and 
made  no  pretence  to  critical  taste.  When  the  literati 
spoke    of  the    book,   it  was   usually    with   contempt 


Swift  observes  in  his  'Letter  to  a  young  Divine,'  'I 
have  been  entertained  and  more  informed  by  a  few- 
pages  in  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress"  than  by  a  long  dis- 
course upon  the  will  and  intellect,  and  simple  and 
complex  ideas;'  but  we  apprehend  the  remark  was  de- 
signed rather  to  depreciate  metaphysics  than  to  exalt 
Bunyan.  Young,  of  the  'Night  Thoughts,'  coupled 
Bunyan's  prose  with  D'Urfe's  doggerel,  and  in  the 
'Spiritual  Quixote'  the  adventures  of  Christian  are 
classed  with  those  of  Jack  the  Giant-killer  and  John 
Hickathrift.  But  the  most  curious  evidence  of  the 
rank  assigned  to  Bunyan  in  the  eighteenth  century 
appears  in  Cowper's  couplet,  written  so  late  as  1782  : 
"  '  I  name  thee  Dot,  1  st  BO  despised  a  name 
Should  move  a  bh  it  at  thy  deserved  fame.1 
It  was  only  with  the  growth  of  purer  and  more  catho- 
lic principles  of  criticism  toward  the  close  of  the  Lot 
century  and  the  beginning  of  the  present  that  the 
popular  verdict  was  affirmed,  and  the  '  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress' registered  among  the  choicest  of  English  class- 
ics. N\  ith  almost  every  Christmas  there  now  appears 
one  or  mora  editions  of  the  Pilgrim,  sumptuous  in  ty- 
pography, paper,  and  binding,  and  illustrated  by  fav<  r- 
ite  artists.  Ancient  editions  are  sought  for  by  collect- 
ors; but,  strange  to  say,  only  one  perfect  copy  of  ltiT.S 
is  known  to  be  extant.  Originally  published  for  one 
shilling,  it  was  bought  a  few  years  ago,  in  its  old 
sheepskin  cover,  for  twenty  guineas.  It  is  probable 
that,  if  offered  again  for  sale,  it  would  fetch  twice  or 
thrice  that  sum." — Book  of  Days.  Of  recent  editions, 
perhaps  that  by  Southey,  with  his  gracefully  written 
L\fe  of  Bunyan  prefixed,  is  one  of  the  best.  The  "  Pil- 
grim's Progress"  has  been  translated  into  every  lan- 
guage and  almost  every  dialect  of  civilized  Europe, 
and  it  has  been  a  favorite  exercise  of  missionaries  to 
translate  it  into  the  languages  of  the  people  to  whom 
they  have  been  sent;  hence  the  "  Pilgrim"  of  the  El- 
Stow  tinker  has  been  rendered  into  more  languages 
than  any  other  uninspired  writ  r.  And  it  deserves  all 
the  labor  that  has  been  expended  upon  it.  Beyond 
dispute  it  is  the  first  in  rank  of  its  class.  Written  I  y 
a  plain,  uneducated  man  for  plain,  uneducated  people, 
it  has  ever  found  its  way  straight  home  to  their  hearts 
and  imaginations.  But  it  has  not  less  delighted  and 
instructed  the  most  highly  educated  and  intellectual. 
Macaulay,  in  his  "  Essay  on  Southey's  Bunyan"  (writ- 
ten in  1831,  Edlnb.  A'"-,  liv,  450),  affirmed  that  he  "  was 
not  afraid  to  say  that,  though  there  were  many  clever 
men  in  England  during  the  latter  half  of  the  1 71  h  cen- 
tury, there  were  only  two  great  creative  minds:  one 
of  these'  minds  produced  the  'Paradise  Lost,'  the  other 
the  'Pilgrim's  Progress.'"  This  is  high,  it  might  al- 
most seem  extravagant  praise;  yet  twenty  years  later 
the  same  great  authority  reiterates  in  his  "History" 

(ill.  viilthe  eulogy  which  he  might  be  thought  to  have 

carelessly  thrown  out  in  the  pages  of  a  review  :  "Bun- 
yan is  as  decidedly  the  first  of  allegorists  a-  Demi  -- 

thenes  is  the  first  of  orators,  or  Shak.-peare  the  firsl  of 
dramatists.  Other  allegorists  have  shown  great  inge- 
nuity, but  no  other  allegorist  has  ever  been  able  mi  to 

touch  the  heart,  ami  to  make  abstractions  objects  of 
terror,  of  pity,  and  of  love."  There  are  many  lives 
of  Bunyan.      Besides  Southey's.  see  Philip's  If    and 

Tin/is  <>f  Bunyan  I  Lond.  1839,  8vo);  Eng.  Cyclcpcedia; 
Cheever,  Lectures  on  Pilgrim's  Progress;  North  Amer. 
Rev.  xxxvi,  449;  Christian  Renew,  iv,  594 ;  dfeth.  Qu. 
Review,  ix,  466;  Lond.  Quart. Review,  xliii,469;  Pres- 
!»,/  rimi  Quarterly,  Jan.  1862,  art.  ■}. 

Burch,  Robert,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ireland,  about  1777.  and 
emigrated  t < •  America  with  his  brother  Thomas  while 
very  young.  lb'  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in 
the  Baltimore  Conference  in  1804;  from  1811  to  1815 
he  was  presiding  elder  on  Carlisle  District,  and  in  1816 
was  transferred  t'i  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  and 
stationed  in  Philadelphia,  While  in  the  Baltimore 
Conference  he  was  repeatedly  stationed  in  that   city. 


BURGH 


920 


BURDER 


nnd  was  for  some  time  the  travelling  companion  of 
Bishop  Asbury.  After  filling  the  most  important  ap- 
pointments in  the  Philadelphia  Conference,  he  was  set 
off  with  the  new  Genesee  Conference,  where  he  filled 
the  principal  districts  and  stations  until  1837,  when  he 
took  the  superannuated  relation.  He  died  at  Canan- 
daigua,  X.  Y. ,  duly.  1855.  He  Mas  a  man  of  command- 
ing powers  and  devoted  piety,  and  one  of  the  most  la- 
borious and  efficient  pioneers  of  American  Methodism. 
—Minutes  of  Conferences,  v,  594. 

Burch,  Thomas,  one  of  the  earlier  Methodist 
preachers  in  America,  was  lorn  in  Tyrone  county,  Ire- 
land, August  30,  1778.  In  1801  he  was  awakened  and 
converted  under  the  preaching  of  Gideon  Ouseley,  the 
great  Irish  missionary.  In  1803  lie  emigrated  to  the 
United  States,  and  about  a  year  after  was  licensed  to 
preach,  and  in  1805  was  admitted  en  trial  in  the  Phil- 
adelphia Conference.  He  regularly  graduated  in  the 
office  of  deacon  and  elder,  and  soon  became  eminent  as 
a  preacher.  lie  was  elected  a  member  of  the  first  del- 
egated Ceneral  Conference  of  1812,  held  in  New  York, 
lie  was  afterward  stationed  in  Montreal,  Lower  Cana- 
da, and  continued  there,  occasionally  visiting  Quebec, 
during  the  war  with  Great  Britain.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  contin- 
ued in  the  itinerant  ranks,  filling  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant appointments,  until  disease  prevented  him  from 
laboring  efficiently,  when,  in  1835,  he  took  a  supernu- 
merary relation  in  the  New  York  Conference.  In  this 
relation  he  continued  until  1840,  when  he  resumed  his 
efficient  service,  but  was  able  to  continue  in  it  only 
four  vears,  when  he  was  again  returned  supernumerary. 
Mr.  Burch  died  suddenly  Aug.  22,  1849.— Minutes  of 
Conferences,  iv,  444  ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vii,  421. 

Burchard  (Burchardus),  St.,  first  bishop  of 
Wi'irtzburg  (Hcrbipulis),  in  Franconia,  was  born  in 
England,  and  about  732,  together  with  Lullus,  went 
over  from  England  to  assist  Bonifacius,  archbishop  of 
Mayence,  upon  his  invitation  to  labor  for  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Germans.  He  was  sent  to  Borne  by  Pepin, 
king  of  France,  to  plead  his  cause  before  the  pope  ; 
and,  in  consequence  of  his  success,  Pepin  gave  him  the 
new  see  of  Wiirtzburg,  in  Franconia,  where  St.  Kilian 
had  preached  about  fifty  3rears  previously.  Having 
at  the  expiration  of  ten  years  entirely  exhausted  his 
strength  by  his  labors,  he  resigned  his  see  in  752,  and 
retired  to  Hoy m burg,  on  the  Mayne,  where  he  died 
shortly  after.  He  was  afterward  canonized,  and  is 
celebrated  in  the  Romish  Church  on  the  14th  of  Octo- 
ber.— Butler,  Lives  of  Saints,  Oct.  14  ;  Baillet,  Vies  dis 
s  lints,  <  )ct.  10. 

Burckhardt,  John  Lewis,  an  enterprising  Afri- 
can traveller,  is  mentioned  here  because  of  the  value 
of  his  travels  to  Biblical  geography.  The  following 
account  is  taken  from  Chambers  s  F.ncyrlopwdia.  He 
was  horn  at  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  Nov.  24,1784. 
In  180G  he  eame  to  London,  and  was  introduced  by- 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  to  the  African  Association,  which 
accepted  bis  services  to  explore  the  route  of  Horne- 
ni ami  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  he  embarked  for 
Malta,  Feb.  11,  1*09.  He  had  previously  qualified 
himself  for  tic  undertaking  by  a  study  of  Arabic,  and 
also  by  inuring  himself  to  hunger,  thirst,  and  expos- 
are.  From  Malta  he  proceeded,  under  the  disguise 
of  an  Oriental  dross  and  name,  to  Aleppo,  where  he 
studied  about  two  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he 
had  become  so  proficient  in  the  vulgar  Arabic  that  he 
could  safely  travel  in  the  disguise  of  an  Oriental  mer- 
chant. He  visited  Palmyra,  Damascus,  Lebanon,  and 
other  remarkable  places,  and  then  went  to  Cairo,  his 
object  being  io  proceed  from  thence  to  Fezzan,  and 

then  across  the  Sahara  to  Sudan.  No  Opportunity  of- 
fering itself  at  the  time  for  that  journey,  lie  went  into 
Nubia.  No  European  traveller  had  before  passed  the 
l>err.  In  1814  he  travelled  through  the  Nubian  des- 
ert to  the  shore  of  the  lied  Sea  and  to  Jcddah,  whence 


he  proceeded  to  Mecca,  to  study  Islamism  at  its  source. 
After  staying  four  months  in  Mecca,  he  departed  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Mount  Arafat.  So  completely  had  he 
acquired  the  language  and  ideas  of  his  fellow-pilgrims 
that,  when  some  doubt  arose  respecting  his  Moham- 
medan orthodox}',  he  was  thoroughly  examined  in  the 
Koran,  and  was  not  only  accepted  as  a  true  believer, 
but  also  highly  commended  as  a  great  Moslem  scholar. 
In  1815  he  returned  to  Cairo,  and  in  the  following  year 
ascended  Mount  Sinai.  The  Fezzan  caravan,  for  which 
he  had  waited  so  long,  was  at  last  about  to  depart,  and 
Burckhardt  had  made  all  his  preparations  for  accom- 
panying it,  when  he  was  seized  with  dysentery  at  Cai- 
ro, which  terminated  his  life  in  a  few  days,  Oct.  15, 
1817,  at  the  early  age  of  33.  As  a  holy  sheik,  he  was 
interred  with  all  funereal  honors  by  the  Turks  in  the 
Moslem  burial-ground.  His  collection  of  Oriental 
MSS.,  in  350  volumes,  was  left  to  the  University  of 
Cambridge.  His  journals  of  travel,  remarkable  alike 
for  their  interest  and  evident  truthfulness,  were  pub- 
lished by  the  African  Association.  Burckhardt  was  a 
man  born  to  be  a  traveller  and  discoverer ;  his  inher- 
ent love  of  adventure  was  accompanied  by  an  observ- 
ant power  of  the  highest  order.  His  personal  charac- 
ter recommended  him  to  all  with  whom  he  came  in 
contact,  and  his  loss  was  greatly  deplored,  not  only  in 
England,  but  in  Europe.  His  works  are :  Travels  in 
Nubia,  1819 : — Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land, 
1822 : — Travels  in  Arabia,  1829 : — Notes  on  the  Bedouins 
and  Wahabis,  1830  : — and  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Modern  Egyptians,  1830. 

Burden  (X1!^,  massa' ,  a  lifting  up,  i.  e.  of  the 
voice;  Sept.  usually  \i)iifia).  This  term,  besides  its 
common  meaning  of  a  load  (for  which  several  other 
terms  were  also  used),  frequently  occurs  in  the  pro- 
phetical writings  in  the  special  signification  of  an  ora- 
cle from  God.  It  was  sometimes  understood  in  the 
sense  of  a  denunciation  of  evil  (Isa.  xiii,  1 ;  Nab.  i.  1); 
yet  it  did  not  exclusively  imply  a  grievous  and  heavy 
!  burden,  but  a  message,  whether  its  import  were  joyous 
or  afflictive  (Zech.  ix,  1 ;  xii,  1 ;  Mai.  i,  1). 

Burder,  George,  was  born  in  London  May  25 
!  (O.  S.),  1752.  About  1773  Mr.  Burder  became  a  stu- 
dent in  the  Royal  Academy ;  but  shortly  afterward  he 
began  to  preach,  and  at  length  determined  to  relin- 
quish his  profession  of  artist,  and  to  devote  himself  to 
the  Christian  ministry.  In  1778  he  became  pastor  of 
an  Independent  Church  at  Lancaster;  in  1783  he  re- 
moved to  Coventry,  during  his  residence  in  which  city 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society ;  and  in  1803  he  accepted  a  call  to 
the  pastorship  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Fetter 
Lane,  London,  and  also  to  undertake  the  office  of  sec- 
retary to  the  London  Missionary  Society  and  editor  of 
the  Evangelical  Magazine.  The  duties  of  these  offices 
were  performed  by  Burder  with  much  zeal  and  talent, 
until  increasing  years  and  infirmities  compelled  him 
to  resign  them.  He  died  May  29,  1832.  His  numer- 
ous publications  consisted  chiefly  of  essays  and  ser- 
mons. Of  these,  the  Village  Sermons,  of  which  six 
volumes  appeared  at  various  times  between  1799  and 
1812  (new  ed.  Lond.  1838,  8  vols.),  and  which  have 
been  repeatedly  reprinted  and  translated  into  several 
European  languages,  are  perhaps  the  best  known. 
Of  forty-eight  Cottage  Sermons,  Sea  Sermons,  and  Ser- 
mons to  the  Aged,  written  for  the  Religious  Tract  So- 
ciety for  gratuitous  distribution  or  sale  at  a  very  cheap 
rate,  the  aggregate  circulation  during  his  life  amount- 
ed to  little  short  of  a  million  copies.  Among  his 
other  publications  were  Evangelical  Truth  defended 
(1788,  8vo):— The  Welsh  Indians,  or  a  Collection  of  Pa- 
pers respecting  a  People  whose  Ancestor*  emigrated  from 
Wales  to  America,  in  1710  with  Prince  Modoc,  and  u-ho 
arc  said  no/r  to  inhabit  a  beautiful  Country  on  the  rvest 
Sidr  of  the  Mi.fs:ssippi  (8vo,  1799): — Missionary  Anec- 
dotes (1811,   12mo);    see  the  Memoir  by  Henry  For- 


BURGESS 


921 


BURIAL 


sier  Burder,  D.D.  (Lond.  1833).  See  Morison,  Mis- 
sionary Fathers,  268  :  English  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Burgess,  Anthony,  u  Nonconformist  divine,  who 
held  the  living  of  Sutton,  in  Warwickshire,  from  which 
he  was  ejected  at  the  Restoration.  His  writings  are 
much  valued,  and  have  become  very  scarce.  The 
most  important  are  Vindicia  Legis  (Lund.  1646,  lto)s 
—  True  Doctrine  of  Justification  (Lond.  1655,  4to): — 
Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  (Lond.  1659,  fol.): — Expository 
Sermons  on  John  xvii  (Lond.  1656,  fol.) :  —  Spiritual 
Refining*,  161  Sermons  (Lond.  1658,  fol.  2d  ed.). 

Burgess,  Daniel,  an  Independent  divine,  was 
born  at  Staines,  Middlesex,  1045 ;  was  educated  at 
Oxford ;  from  1007  to  1674  he  lived  in  Ireland  as  chap- 
lain and  schoolmaster,  and  afterward  was  an  exceed- 
ingly popular  minister  for  many  years  in  London.  He 
died  in  1712.  "  His  piety  and  learning  were  alloyed  by 
too  much  of  humor  and  drollery.  In  one  sermon  he 
declared  that  the  reason  why  the  descendants  of  Jacob 
were  named  Israelites  was  that  God  would  not  have 
his  chosen  people  called  Jacobite.*.  In  another  he  ex- 
claimed, if  you  want  a  cheap  suit,  you  will  go  to  .Mon- 
mouth Street ;  if  a  suit  for  life,  you  will  go  to  the 
Court  of  Chancer}' ;  but  for  an  eternally  durable  suit 
you  must  go  to  the  Lord  Jesus  and  put  on  his  robe  of 
righteousness." — Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  s.  v.  ;  A 1 1  i- 
bone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  s.  v. 

Burgess,  George,  D.D.,  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  Maine,  was  born  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
Oct.  31,  1800;  graduated  at  Brown  University,  and 
studied  afterward  for  two  years  in  the  Lniversities  of 
Gcittingen,  Bonn,  and  Berlin.  lie  was  rector  of  Christ 
Church,  in  Hartford,  from  1831  to  1847,  when  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Maine.  He  publish- 
ed The  Book  of  Psalms  in  Eng.  Verse  (N.  Y.  12mo  I ;  / '.  up  s 
from  tin-  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New  England  (Boston, 
1847,  limo)  ;  77c  last  Enemy  conquering  ami  conquered 
(Philad.  1850,  12mo) ;  and  Sermons  >>n  tin  christian 
Life  (Philad.  1*57,  12mo).  In  certain  departments  of 
literature  Bishop  Burgess  was  second  to  no  other  man 
in  his  Church.  In  his  later  years  his  health  declined. 
He  died  while  on  a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies,  under- 
taken in  hopes  of  its  restoration,  on  board  tic  liri^c 
Jan;',  April  23, 186G.—Amer. Church \Review,  July,  1866. 

Burgess,  Thomas,  I).  I).,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  was 
born  at  Oldham,  Hampshire,  1756,  and  educated  at  <  !or- 
pus  Christi,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  fellow  1783. 
After  various  preferments,  he  was  made  bishop  of  St. 
David's  1803,  and  transferred  to  Salisbury  1825.  He 
died  1837.  Diligent  as  pastor  and  bishop,  be  was  also 
very  industrious  as  a  writer.  His  publications  number 
over  a  hundred,  most  of  them  sermons  and  small  tract- 
ates.   See  Harford,  Life  of  Bishop  Burgess  (Lond.  1*41). 

Burgh,  James,  was  born  at  Madderty,  Perth,  in 
1714,  and  was  educated  at  St.  Andrew's.  After  an  un- 
successful attempt  at  the  linen  trade,  he  went  up  to  Lon- 
don, and  became  corrector  of  the  press.  In  1740  he  lie- 
came  assistant  in  a  grammar-school  at  Marlow,  and  in 
1747  set  up  a  school  at  Stoke  Newington.  In  1771  he 
retired  to  Islington,  where  he  died  in  1775.  He  pub- 
lished An.  Ess/yon  the  Dignity  of  Human  Nature  (Lond. 
1754,  4to;  1767,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  Britain's  Remembrancer 
(Lond.  1745,  often  reprinted) ;  Thoughts  on  Education 
(Lond.  1747,  8vo);  .1  Hymn  to  the  Creator  (  Lond.  1760, 
2d  ed.);  Political  Disquisitions  (Lond.1775,  ■"•  vols.8vo); 
Crito,  <>,■  Essays  (  Lond.  1766,  12mo);  Warning  to  Dram- 
drinkers  1 1751.  12mo),  with  other  tracts, etc.— Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibl.  i,  498;  Allibone,  Diet,  nf  Authors,  i,  287. 

Burgh,  William,  LL.D.,  was  born  in  Scotland  in 
1741,  ami  became  a  member  of  Parliament.  lie  died 
in  1808 ;  having  published  .1  Scriptural '  'onfutation  of 
Lindsay's  Arguments  agtinst  the  ant  Godhead  of  Father, 
Son,  ami  Holy  Ghost  (York,  1779,  3d  ed.8vo);  An  In- 
quiry into  the  Belief  of  the  Chris/ions  ofihi  the,,  first 
Centuries  respi  ctiny  tin-  (an/load  of  tin  Father,  Son,  and 
Iio'y  Ghost  (York,"  1778,  8vo),  a  work  which  procured 


the  author  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Oxford. — Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibliog.  i,  L!  8. 

Burghers.     See  Anti-bcbghebs. 

Burgundians,  theib  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity.—  The  Burgundians  were  one  of  the  warlike 
trilics  of  Vandal  origin  which,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
tit'th  century,  left  their  abode  in  Germany  and  invaded 
Gaul.  They  were  heathen;  their  religious  system 
being  governed  by  a  high-priest  elected  for  life,  and 
bearing  the  title  of  Sinist.  They  settled  in  the  coun- 
try extending  upward  from  Mayence  as  far  as  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Alemanni.  They  soon  became  converts 
to  Christianity.  ( Irosius  mentions  them  as  all  Chris- 
tians A.D.  417  (Ammian.  Marecll.  1.  7,  c.  32).  Soc- 
rates (Hist  Eccl.  1.  7,  c.  30)  dates  their  conversion 
about  430.  After  the  death  of  their  king  Gundeuch 
about  473,  Gundobald,  one  of  bis  sons,  having  defeated 
and  killed  his  three  brothers,  became  sole  kin-.  Be 
was  an  Arian,  but  did  not  persecute  the  ( latholics.  Sev- 
eral conferences  took  place  between  the  tun  parties, 
one  of  which  meetings,  held  at  Lyons  A.D.  500,  result- 
ed in  the  conversion  of  a  large  number  of  Arians.  The 
king  himself  offered  secretly  to  join  the  Catholic  party, 
but  A  Vitus  objecting  to  this  condition,  the  matter  was 
dropped.  Gundobald's  son  and  successor,  Sigismund, 
however,  embraced  openly  the  Catholic  tenets.  A 
synod  was  held  by  his  order  at  Epaone  (q.  v.  1  in  517. 
He  died  in  524,  and  Burgundy  was  shortly  afterward 
annexed  to  France. — Wetzer  und  Welte.     Sec  tiiiii- 

MAXY. 

Burial  (iTHGp,  heburah,  Eccles.  vi,  3;  Jcr.  xxii, 
19;  elsewhere  "grave;"  tv-atyiaonoc,  Mark  xiv,  8; 
John  xii,  7).     See  Funeral. 

I.  Jewish. — Abraham,  in  his  treaty  for  the  cave 
of  Machpelah,  expressed  his  anxiety  to  obtain  a  secure 
place  in  which  "to  bury  his  dead  out  of  his  sight;" 
and  almost  every  people  has  naturally  regarded  this 
as  the  most  proper  mode  of  disposing  of  the  dead.  Two 
instances,  indeed,  we  meet  with  in  sacred  history  of 
the  barbarous  practice  of  burning  them  to  ashes:  the 
one  in  the  case  of  Saul  and  his  sons,  whose  bodies  were 
probably  so  much  mangled  as  to  preclude  their  receiv- 
ing the  royal  honors  of  embalmment  (1  Sam.xxxi,  12); 
the  other,  mentioned  by  Amos  (vi,  10),  appears  to  refer 
to  a  season  of  prevailing  pestilence,  and  the  burning 
of  those  who  died  of  plague  was  probably  one  of  the 
sanatory  measures  adopted  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
contagion.  Among  the  ancient  Romans  this  was  the 
usual  method  of  disposing  of  dead  bodies.  Bui  through- 
out the  whole  of  their  national  history  the  people  of 
Cod  observed  the  practice  of  burial.  It  was  deem- 
ed not  only  an  act  of  humanity,  bur  a  sacred  duty 
of  religion    to   pay   the   last    honors   to    the   departed; 

while  to  be  deprived  of  these,  as  was  frequently  the 
fate  of  enemies  at  the  hands  of  ruthless  conquerors  (2 
Sam.  xxi,  0  14;  2  Kings  xi.  11  10;  I'si.  lxxix,  2; 
Eccles.  vi,  3),  was  considered  the  greatest  calamity 
and  disgrace  whicb  a  person  could  suffer.  By  the  an- 
cient Greeks  and  Romans  this  was  held  to  be  essential 
even  to  the  peace  of  the  departed  spirits  (Bee  Smith's 
Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Punus).     <>n  the  death  of 

any  member  of  a  family,  preparations  were  forthwith 
made  for  the  burial,  which,  among  the  .leu-,  were  in 
many  respects  similar  to  those  which  are  common  in 
th«-  Bast  at  the  present  day.  and  were  more  or  less  ex- 
pensive according  to  circumstances.  After  the  solemn 
ceremony  of  the  last  kiss  and  closing  the  eyes,  the 
corp-e,  which  was  perfumed  by  the  nearest  relative, 
having  been  laid  out  and  the  head  covered  by  a  nap- 
kin, was  subjected    to  entire  .ablution   in    warm   water 

(Acts  ix,  87),  a  precaution  probably  adopted  to  guard 
against  premature  interment.  But,  besides  this  tirst 
and  indispensable  attention,  other  cares  of  a  more 
elaborate  and  costly  description  were  among  certain 
,]  isses  bestowed  on  the  remains  of  deceased  friends, 
the  origin  of  which  is  to  be  traced  to  a  fond  and  aatu- 


BURIAL 


922 


BURIAL 


m        IIP 

1      m 


mMvmmmu 


Ancient  Jewish  Fu.cral  Frocession :  Costume,  Modern  Syrian. 

ral,  though  foolish  anxiety  to  retard  or  defy  the  proc-  waste  in  lavishing  such  a  quantity  of  costly  perfumes 
oss  of  decomposition,  and  all  of  which  may  be  in-  on  a  person  in  the  circumstances  of  Jesus,  the  liberal- 
eluded  under  the  general  head  of  embalming.  No-  it}'  of  those  pious  disciples  in  the  performance  of  the 
wli  -iv  was  this  operation  performed  with  so  religious  rites  of  their  country  was  unquestionably  dictated  by 
car.'  and  in  so  scientific  a  manner  as  in  ancient  Egypt,  the  profound  veneration  which  they  cherished  for  the 
which  could  boast  of  a  class  of  professional  men  train-  memor}'  of  their  Lord.  Ncr  can  we  be  certain  but 
ed  to  the  business;  and  such  adepts  had  these  "  physi-  the}'  intended  to  use  the  great  abundance  of  perfumes 
cians"  become  in  the  art  of  preserving  dead  bodies,  !  they  provided,  not  in  the  common  way  of  anointing 
that  there  are  mummies  still  found  which  must  have  the  corpse,  but,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  princes  and 
existed  for  many  thousand  years,  and  are  probably  the  very  eminent  personages,  of  preparing  "a  bed  of 
remains  of  subjects  of  the  early  Pharaohs.  The  bodies  spices,"  in  which,  after  burning  them,  they  might  de- 
of  Jacob  and  Joseph  underwent  this  eminently  Egyp-  posit  the  body  (2  Chron.  xvi,  14;  Jer.  xxxiv,  5).  For 
tian  preparation  for  burial,  which  on  both  occasions  unpatriotic  and  wicked  princes,  however,  the  people 
was  (1  mbtless  executed  in  a  style  of  the  greatest  mag-  :  made  no  such  burnings,  and  hence  the  honor  was  de- 


niticonce  (Gen.  1,  2,  26).  Whether  this  expensive 
method  of  embalming  was  imitated  by  the  earlier  He- 
brews, we  have  no  distinct  accounts  ;  but  we  learn 
from  their  practice  in  later  ages  that  they  had  some 
observance  of  the  kind,  only  they  substituted  a  simpler 
and  more  expeditious,  though  it  must  have  been  a  less 
efficient  process,  which  consisted  in  merely  swathing 
the  corpse  round  with  numerous  folds  of  linen,  and 
sometimes  a  variety  of  stuffs,  and  anointing  it  with  a 


nicd  to  Jchoram  (2  Chron  xxi,  19).     See  Embalming. 


Modern  Oriental  Gr.m  -clothes 


The  corpse,  after  receiving  the  preliminary  atten- 
tions, was  enveloped  in  the  grave-ciothes,  which  were 
mixture  of  aromatic,  substances,  of  which  aloes  and  sometimes  nothing  more  than  the  ordinary  dress,  or 
myrrh  were  the  chief  ingredients.  A  sparing  use  of  ,  folds  of  linen  cloth  wrapped  round  the  body,  and  a 
spices  on  such  occasions  was  reckoned  a  misplaced  and  napkin  about  the  head ;  though  in  other  cases  a  shroud 
discreditable  economy ;  and  few  higher  tokens  of  re-  was  used,  which  had  long  before  been  prepared  by  the 
spect  could  be  paid  to  the  remains  of  a  departed  friend  individual  for  the  purpose,  and  was  plain  or  ornament- 
than  a  profuse  application  of  costly  perfumes.  Thus  al,  according  to  taste  or  other  circumstances.  The 
we  are  told  by  the  writers  of  the  Talmud  (Massecheih    body,  thus  dressed,  was  deposited  in  an  upper  chamber 

-—  -'■    'Mali™!    m  s°lenm  state,  open  to  the  view  of 
jL.  '.     all  visitors  (Acts  ix,  37). 

From  the  moment  the  vital  spark 
1    was  extinguished,  the   members   of 
H    the  family,  especially  the  females,  in 
the  violent   style   of  Oriental  grief, 
burst  out  into  shrill,  loud,  and  dole- 
ful lamentations,  and  were  scon  join- 
ed by   their   friends   and   neighbors, 
who,  on  hearing  of  the  event,  crowded 
to  the  house  in   such  numbers  that 
Mark  describes  it  by  the  term  Bi'pr- 
[loc,  a  tumult  (v,  38).      By  the  bet- 
ter classes,  among  whom  such  liber- 
ties were   not  allowed,  this  duty  of 
sympathizing  with  the  bereaved  fam- 
ily was,  and  still  is,  performed  by  a 
class  of  females  who  engaged  them- 
selves as  professional  mourners,  and 
who,  seated  amid  the  mourning  circle, 
studied,  by  vehement  sobs  and  ges- 
ticulations, and  by  singing  dirges  in 
'.  viii)  that  not  less  than  eighty  pounds  weight    which  they  eulogized  the  personal  qualities  or  virtuous 
wire  used  at  the  funeral  of  Rabbi  Gamaliel,    and  benevolent  actions  of  the  deceased  (Acts  ix,  39),  to 
an  cldir:   and  by  Josephus  (Ant.  xvii,  8,  3)  that,  in  '  stir  the  source  of  tears,  and  give  fresh  impulse  to  the 
the   Bplendid  funeral  procession  of  Herod,  500  of  his    grief  of  the  afflicted  relatives.     Numbers  of  these  sing- 
servanta  attended  as  spice-bearers.     Thus,  too,  after    ing  men  and  women  lamented  the  death  of  Josiah  (i 
the  crucifixion,  Sicodemus  and  Joseph  of  Arimathaea,    Chron.  xxxv,  25).     The  effect  of  their  melancholy  dit, 
two  men  of  wealth,  testified  their  regard  for  the  sacred    tics  was  sometimes  heightened  by  the  attendance  cl' 
body  of  the  Saviour  by  "  bringing  a  mixture  of  myrrh    minstrels  (auXj/rai,  properly  pipers) ;  and  thus  in  sol- 
ami  aloes,  about  a  hundred  pounds  weight"  (John  xix,    emu  silence,  broken  only  at  intervals  by  vocal  and  hu 
39,  40);  while,  unknown  to  them,  the  two  Marys,  to-    strumental  strains  suited  to  the  mournful  occasion,  the 
gether  with  their  associates,  were  prepared  to  render    time  was  passed  till  the  corpse  was  carried  forth  to  the 
the  same  office  of  friendship  on  the  dawn  of  the  first    grave.      See  MoTJBNIXG. 

day  of  the  week.     Whatever  cavils  the  Jewish  doctors    ^  The  period  between  the  death  and  the  burial  wis 
have  made   at  their  extravagance   and   unnecessary    much  shorter  than  custom  sanctions  in  our  country. 


Interior  of  an  Egyptian  Mummy-pit 


citing  for  Orna 


BURIAL 


923 


BURIAL 


for  a  long  delay  in  the  removal  of  a  corpse  would  have 
been  attended  with  much  inconvenience,  from  the  heat 
of  the  climate  generally,  and,  among  the  .lews  in  par- 
ticular, from  the  circumstance  that  every  one  thai 
came  near  the  chamber  was  andean  for  a  week.  In- 
terment, therefore,  where  there  was  no  embalming, 
was  never  postponed  beyond  twenty-four  hours  after 
death,  and  generally  it  took  place  much  earlier.  It  is 
still  the  practice  in  the  East  to  have  burials  soon  over; 
and  there  are  two  instances  in  sacred  history  where 
consignment  to  the  grave  followed  immediately  after 
decease  (Acts  v,  G,  10). 

Persons  of  distinction  were  deposited  in  cof- 
fins. Among  the  Egyptians,  who  were  the  in- 
ventors of  them,  these  chests  were  formed 
most  commonly  of  several  layers  of  paste- 
board glued  together,  sometimes  of  stone, 
more  rarely  of  sycamore  wood,  which  was  re- 
served for  the  great,  and  furnished,  it  is  prob- 
able, the  materials  of  the  coffin  which  received 
the  honored  remains  of  the  vizier  of  Egypt. 
There  is  good  reason  to  believe  also  that  the 
kings  and  other  exalted  personages  in  ancient 
Palestine  were  buried  in  coffins  of  wood  or 
stone,  on  which,  as  additional  marks  of  hon- 
or, were  placed  their  insignia  when  they  were 
carried  to  their  tombs:  if  a  prince,  his  crown 
and  sceptre ;  if  a  warrior,  his  armor ;  and  if  a  rabbi 
his  books.     See  Coffin. 


ants  (Ilackett's  TUustr.  of  Script,  p.  112),  On  such  an 
humble  vehicle  was  the  widow's  son  of  Nain  carried 
(Luke  vii,  10,  and  "this  mode  of  performing  funeral 
obsequies,"  says  an  intelligent  traveller,  "obtains 
equally  in  the  present  day  among  the  .lews,  Moham- 
medans, and  Christians  of  the  Last."  The  nearest 
relatives  kept  dose  ly  the  bier,  and  performed  the  of- 
fice of  bearers,  in  which,  however,  they  were  assisted 
by  the  company  in  succession.  For  if  the  deceased 
was  a  public  character,  or.  though  in  humble  life,  had 
been  much  esteemed,  the  friends  and  neighbors  show- 


Ancient  Sarcophagi  in  Palestine. 

But  the  most  common  mode  of  carrying  a  corpse  to 
the  grave  was  on  a  bier  or  bed  ("2  Sam.  iii,  31),  which 
in  some  cases  must  have  been  furnished  in  a  costly 
and  elegant  style,  if,  as  many  learned  men  conclude 
from  the  history  of  Asa  (2  Chron.  xvi.l  -l")  and  ofHerod 
(Josephus,  Ant.  xvii,8,  8),  these  royal  personages  were 
conveyed  to  their  tombs  on  their  own  beds.  The  bier, 
however,  in  use  among  the  common  and  meaner  sort 
of  people  was  nothing  but  a  plain  wooden  board,  on 
which,  supported  by  two  poles,  the  body  lay  concealed 
only  by  a  slight  coverlet  from  the  view  of  the  attend- 


ed their  respect  by  volunteering  attendance  in  great 
numbers";  and  hence,  in  the  story  of  the  affecting  in- 
cident at  Nain,  it  is  related  that  ''much  people  of  the 
city  were  with  the  widow."  In  cases  where  the  ex- 
pense could  be  afforded,  hired  mourners  accompanied 
the  procession,  and  by  every  now  and  then  lifting  the 
covering  and  exposing  the  corpse,  gave  the  signal  to 
the  company  to  renew  their  shouts  of  lamentation.  A 
remarkable  instance  occurs  in  the  splendid  funeral 
cavalcade  of  Jacob.  Those  mercenaries  broke  out  at 
intervals  into  the  most  passionate  expressions  of  grief, 
but  especially  on  approach::;  the  boundaries  of  Canaan 


Ancienl  Egyptian  Bier. 


Modern  <  Irii  ntal  \\  omen  at  :i  Tomb. 
and  the  site  of  the  sepulchre  ;   the  iiinm  n  16  com- 
pany halted  for  seven  days,  and,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  mourning  attendants,  indulged  in  the 
most  violent  paroxysms  of  sorrow.      See  ( ,i.n  i  . 

Sepulchres  were,  as  they  still  are  in  the  East— 
y  a  prudential  arrangement  sadly  neglected  in 

oiir  country-  situated  without  the  precincts  of  cit- 
ies.     Among  the  .lews,    in   the   case  of   l.evitieal 

cities,  the  distance  required  was  2000  cubits,  and 

in  all  it  was  considerable.  Nobody  was  allowed 
to  be  buried  within  the  walls,  Jerusalem  forming 
the  only  exception,  and  even  there  the  privilege 
was  reserved  for  the  royal  family  of  David  and  a 
few  persons  of  exalted  character  ( 1  Kings  ii.  1":  - 
Kings  xiv,  I'll).  In  the  vicinity  of  tin-  capital 
were  public  cemeteries  for  the  general  accommo- 
dation of  the  inhabitants,  besides  a  field  appropri- 
ated to  the  burial  of  stranger s.     See  Aceldama. 


BURIAL 


924 


BURIAL 


It  remains  only  to  notice  that,  daring  the  first  few 
weeks  after  a  burial,  members  of  a  family,  especially 
the  females,  paid  frequent  visits  to  the  tomb.  This 
affecting  custom  still  continues  in  the  East,  as  groups 
of  women  may  be  seen  daily  at  the  graves  of  their  de- 
ceased relatives,  strewing  them  with  flowers,  or  pour- 
ing over  them  the  tears  of  fond  regret.  And  hence, 
in  the  interesting  narrative  of  the  raising  of  Lazarus, 
when  Mary  rose  abruptly  to  meet  Jesus,  whose  ap- 
proach had  been  privately  announced  to  her,  it  was 
natural  for  her  assembled  friends,  who  were  ignorant 
of  her  motives,  to  suppose  "  she  was  going  to  the  grave 
to  weep  there"  (John  xi,  31;  see  Hackett's  Illustra. 
of  Scrtpt.  p.  111). — Kitto,  s.  v.     See  Sepulchre. 

II.  Cuuisti.vx. — (I.)  Ancient  Usages.  Among  the 
ceremonies  of  the  early  Christians  we  observe  invaria- 
bly a  remarkable  care  for  the  dead,  and  a  becoming 
gravity  and  sorrow  in  conducting  the  funeral  solemni- 
ties. The  Christian  Church  manifested  from  the  first  a 
decided  preference  for  the  custom  of  bury 'ng  the  dead, 
though  the  practice  of  burning  the  dead  prevailed 
throughout  the  Roman  empire.  The  liomans  used  to 
conduct  their  funeral  solemnities  in  the  night;  but  the 
Christians,  on  the  contrary,  preferred  the  daytime, 
retaining,  however,  the  custom  of  carrying  lighted 
tap  -rs  in  the  funeral  procession.  In  times  of  perse- 
cution they  were  often  compelled  to  bury  their  dead 
in  the  night,  for  the  sake  of  security  (Euseb.  Ch.  Hist. 
vii,  22).  It  was  usual  for  friends  or  relatives  to  close 
the  eyes  and  mouth  "of  the  dying,  and  to  dress  them 
in  proper  grave-clothes  (usually  made  of  fine  linen). 
Eusebius  tells  us  that  Constantine  was  wrapped  in  a 
purple  robe,  with  other  magnificence  (Vit.  Const,  iv, 
<)H).  Jerome  alludes,  with  indignation,  to  the  custom 
of  burying  the  rich  in  costly  clothes,  as  gold  and  silk 
(Vita  /'(/"/).  Augustine,  in  several  passages,  com- 
mends the  practice  of  decently  and  reverently  burying 
tli-  bodies  of  the  dead,  especially  of  the  righteous,  of 
whose  bodies  he  says,  "  the  Holy  Spirit  hath  made  use, 
as  instruments  and  vessels,  for  all  good  works"  (De 
Civit.  I>  /,  lib.  i,  cap.  13).  He  says  further,  in  another 
passage,  that  we  are  not  to  infer  from  the  authorities 
given  in  Holy  Scripture  for  this  sacred  duty  that  there 
is  any  sense  or  feeling  in  the  corpse  itself,  but  that 
even  the  bodies  of  the  dead  are  under  the  providence 
of  God,  to  whom  such  pious  offices  are  pleasing,  through 
faitli  in  the  Resurrection.  Ths  body  was  watched  and 
attended  till  the  time  fixed  for  the  funeral,  when  it 
was  carried  to  the  grave  by  the  nearest  relatives  of 
the  deceased,  or  by  persons  of  rank  or  distinction,  or 
by  individuals  appointed  for  that  purpose.  Appropriate 
hymns  were  sung;  and  the  practice  of  singing  on  such 
occasions  was  explained  and  defended  by  Chrysostom, 
who  says  (Ham.  iv  in  Ili'hr.),  "  What  mean  our  hymns  ? 
Do  we  not  glorify  God,  and  give  him  thanks  that  he 
bi.li  crowned  him  that  is  departed,  that  he  hath  de- 
livered him  from  trouble,  and  hath  set  him  free  from 
all  fear?  Consider  what  thou  singest  at  that  time: 
'Turn  again  unto  thy  rest,  O  my  soul,  for  the  Lord 
hath  rewarded  thee.'  And  again,"'  I  will  fear  no  evil ; 
for  ilea  art  with  me.'  And  again,  'Thou  art  my 
refuge  from  the  affliction  that  encompasseth  me.'  <  !on- 
sidcr  what  these  psalms  mean.  If  thou  believest  the 
things  that  thou  sayest  to  be  true,  why  dost  thou  weep 
•'""'  lament,  and  make  a  mere  mock  and  pageantry  of 
th\  singing?  If  thou  believest  them  not  to  be  true. 
Why  dost  thou  play  the  hypocrite  so  much  as  to  sing?" 
None  ,,f  tin-  moving  of  the  funeral  procession  was 
sometimes  given  by  the  /„/„,;  or  boards,  used  before 
tli-'  introduction  of  bells,  were  struck  together;  and  in 
Later  times  bells  were  tolled.  As  early  as  the  fourth 
century  it  was  usual  to  carry  in  the  procession  palm 
and  olive  branches,  us  symbols  of  victory  and  joy,  and 
t"  barn  incense.     Rosemary  was  „ot  used  till  a  later 

period  ;    laurel  and  ivy  leaves  ware  sometimes  put  into 

th.-  coin,,  :  but  cypress  was  rejected,  as  being  symbol- 
ical of  sorrow  and  mourning.      It  was  also  customary 


to  strew  flowers  on  the  grave.  Funeral  orations,  in 
praise  of  those  who  had  been  distinguished  during  life 
by  their  virtues  and  merits,  were  delivered.  Several 
of  these  orations  are  extant.  In  the  early  Church 
it  was  not  uncommon  to  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper 
at  the  grave,  by  which  it  was  intended  to  intimate 
the  communion  between  the  living  and  the  dead,  as 
members  of  one  and  the  same  mystical  body,  while 
a  testimony  was  given  by  the  fact  that  the  deceased 
had  departed  in  the  faith.  Prayers  for  the  dead  were 
offered  when  it  became  customary  to  commend  the 
souls  of  the  deceased  to  God  at  the  grave,  and  into 
this  serious  error  some  eminent  men  fell.  Chrysostom 
and  Jerome  have  both  been  quoted  as  adopting  this 
unscriptural  practice  (Bingham,  Grig.  Eccl.  xv,  iii,  17). 
See  Dead,  Prayers  for  the.  "In  England,  burial 
in  some  part  of  the  parish  church-yard  is  a  common 
law  right,  without  even  paying  for  breaking  the  soil, 
and  that  right  will  be  enforced  by  mandamus.  But 
the  body  of  a  parishioner  cannot  be  interred  in  an  iron 
coffin  or  vault,  or  even  in  any  particular  part  of  a 
church-yard,  as,  for  instance,  the  family  vault,  without 
the  sanction  of  the  incumbent.  To  acquire  a  right  to 
be  buried  in  a  particular  vault  or  place,  a  faculty  must 
be  obtained  from  the  ordinary,  as  in  the  case  of  a  pew 
in  the  church.  But  this  right  is  at  an  end  when  the 
family  cease  to  be  parishioners.  By  the  canons  of  the 
Church  of  England,  clergymen  cannot  refuse  to  delay 
or  bury  any  corpse  that  is  brought  to  the  church  or 
church-yard ;  on  the  other  hand,  a  conspiracy  to  pre- 
vent a  burial  is  an  indictable  offence,  and  so  is  the  wil- 
fully obstructing  a  clertrgman  in  reading  the  burial 
service  in  a  parish  church.  It  is  a  popular  error  that 
a  creditor  can  arrest  or  detain  the  body  of  a  deceased 
debtor,  and  the  doing  such  an  act  is  indictable  as  a 
misdemeanor.  It  is  also  an  error  that  permitting  a 
funeral  procession  to  pass  over  private  grounds  creates 
a  public  right  of  way.  By  the  3  Geo.  IV,  c.  126,  §  32, 
the  inhabitants  of  any  parish,  township,  or  place,  when 
going  to  or  returning  from  attending  funerals  of  per- 
sons in  England  who  have  died  and  are  to  be  buried 
there,  are  exempted  from  any  toll  within  these  limits. 
And  by  the  4  Gao.  IV,  c.  49,  §  36,  the  same  regulation 
is  extended  to  Scotland  :  the  only  difference  being  that 
in  the  latter  case  the  limitation  of  the  district  is  de- 
scribed by  the  T,vord  parish  alone.  The  6  and  7  Will. 
IV,  c.  86,  regulates  the  registry  of  deaths.  The  4 
Geo.  IV,  c.  52,  abolished  the  barbarous  mode  of  bury- 
ing persons  found  felo  de  se,  and  directs  that  their  bur- 
ial shall  take  place,  without  any  marks  of  ignominy, 
privately  in  the  parish  church-yard,  between  the  hours 
of  nine  and  twelve  at  night,  under  the  direction  of  the 
coroner.  The  burial  of  dead  bodies  cast  on  shore  is 
enforced  by  48  Geo.  Ill,  c.  75  (see  Wharton's  Law 
Lexicon).  In  Scotland,  the  right  of  burial  in  a  church- 
yard is  an  incident  of  property  in  the  parish  ;  hut  it  is 
a  mere  right  of  burial,  and  there  is  not  necessarily  any 
corresponding  ownership  in  the  solum  or  ground  of  the 
church-yard.  In  Edinburgh,  however,  the  right  to 
special  burial  places  in  church-yards  is  recognized 
(Chambers,  Encyclopaedia). 

As  to  the  place  of  burial:  for  the  first  three  centuries 
it  was  without  the  cities,  generally  in  vaults  or  cata- 
combs, made  before  the  city  gates.  The  Emperor 
Thcodosius,  by  an  edict,  expressly  forbade  to  bury 
within  a  church  or  even  within  a  town.  Chrysostom 
(Horn.  37  [al.  74],  in  Matt.)  confirms  this  view.  In 
cases  where  the  Donatists  had  buried  their  martyrs 
(circumcelliones)  in  churches,  we  find  that  the  bodies 
were  afterward  removed.  This  is  the  first  instance 
we  find  of  burials  within  the  church,  and  it  was,  as  we 
see,  declared  to  be  irregular  and  unlawful.  The  first 
thing  which  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  burying  in 
churches,  was  the  practice  which  sprung  up  in  the 
fourth  century  of  building  oratories  or  chapels,  called 
Martyria,  Propheteia,  Apostolcea,  over  the  remains  of 
the  apostles,  prophets,  or  martyrs.      Still,  however, 


BURIAL 


925 


BURMAH 


the  civil  canon  law  forbade  any  to  be  buried  within 
the  walls  of  a  church;  and,  although  kings  and  em- 
perors latterly  had  the  privilege  given  them  of  burial 
in  the  atrium,  or  in  the  chureh-yard,  it  was  not  until 
the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  that  the  people  seem 
to  have  been  admitted  to  the  same  privilege  ;  and  even 
as  late  as  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  canons  were  en-' 
acted  (as  at  Mentz,  813,  chap.  52),  which  forbade  the 
burial  of  any  persons  within  the  church  except  on  spe- 
cial occasions,  as  in  the  ease  of  bishops,  abbots,  priests, 
and  lay  persons  distinguished  for  sanctity.  Thus,  also,  j 
in  the  canons  which  accompany  the  Ecclesiastical] 
Canons  of  King  Edgar,  and  which  were  probably  made 
about  960,  we  find,  Can.  29,  that  no  man  might  l>e 
buried  in  a  church  unless  he  had  lived  a  life  pleasing^ 
in  the  sight  of  God.  (See  Spelman,  Cone,  i,  451.) 
Eventually,  it  seems  to  have  been  left  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  bishops  and  priests  ( <  louncil  of  Meaux,  845, 
Can.  72).  By  the  ecclesiastical  laws  of  England  no 
one  can  be  buried  within  the  church  without  the  li- 
cense of  the  incumbent,  whose  consent  alone  is  re- 
quired.    See  Catacombs. 

(II.)  Modern  Usages.  1.  Roman. — The  ceremonies 
of  the  Roman  Church  at  burials  are  the  following: 
When  the  time  is  come,  the  bell  tolls,  and  the  priest, 
stoled,  with  the  exorcist  and  cross-hearer,  proceed  to 
the  house  of  the  deceased,  where  the  corpse  is  laid  out 
with  its  feet  toward  the  street,  and,  when  it  can  be. 
surrounded  by  four  or  six  wax  tapers.  The  officiating 
priest  then  sprinkles  the  body  thrice  in  silence,  after 
which  the  psalm  DeProfundis  is  chanted,  and  a  prayer 
for  the  rest  of  the  soul  pronounced  ;  this  is  followed  by 
an  anthem,  and  then  the  Miserere  is  commenced,  after 
which  they  proceed  with  the  body  to  the  burial-ground, 
with  the  tapers  carried.  When  the  body  is  arrived 
at  the  church  door,  the  Requiem  is  sung  and  the  an- 
them Exultabant  Domino  ossu.  In  the  church,  the  body 
of  a  clerk  is  placed  in  the  chancel,  that  of  a  layman 
in  the  nave,  and  the  clergy  range  themselves  on  ei- 
ther side  ;  then  the  office  for  the  dead  and  mass  are 
said.  After  farther  prayers  and  chanting,  the  body, 
having  been  thrice  sprinkled  with  holy  water,  and 
thrice  incensed,  is  carried  to  the  grave,  the  officiating 
clerks  chanting  psalms.  The  priest  blesses  the  grave, 
sprinkles  and  incenses  both  it  and  the  body,  sings  the 
anthem  Ego  sum  Resurrectio,  and  concludes  with  the 
Requiem.  Some  other  minor  ceremonies  conclude  the 
service.  The  poor  are  exempted  from  every  charge, 
and  the  priest  of  the  parish  is  bound  to  furnish  the  ta- 
pers for  their  burial.  All  ecclesiastical  persons  are 
buried  in  the  vestments  of  their  order  (Rituale  Roma- 
num,  p.  178,  de  Exequiis). 

2.  In  the  Greek  Church,  the  priest,  having  come  to 
the  house,  puts  on  his  epitraeheUon  or  stole,  and  in- 
censes the  dead  body  and  all  present.  After  this,  a 
brief  litany  having  been  sung  for  the  repose  of  the 
soul  of  the  deceased,  the  priest  again  begins  the  bene- 
diction "Blessed  he  our  Cod;"  and  the  TrUagion  hav- 
ing been  said,  the  body  is  taken  up  and  carried  to  the 
church,  the  priest  going  before  with  a  taper,  and  the 
deacon  with  the  censer.  The  body  is  then  set  down 
in  the  narthex  or  porch  (in  Russia  it  is  carried  into  the 
church),  and  the  ninety-lirst  psalm  chanted,  which  is 
followed  by  a  succession  of  prayers  and  hymns,  the 
Beatitudes,  and  the  epistle  and  gospel  i  1  TheSS.  iv.  1.! 

is,  and  John  v, 24  31).    Then  follows  the  aoiraopoc.  or 

kiss,  the  priests  first,  ami  afterward  the  relatives  and 
'friends,  kissing  cither  the  body  or  the  coffin,  as  their 
last  farewell,  during  which  are  sung  various  hymns, 
divided  into  stanzas,  relating  to  the  vanity  of  human 
life.  Then  follows  the  absolution  of  the  deceased  by 
the  priest;  after  which  the  body  is  carried  to  the 
grave,  the  priests  singing  the  Trisagion,  Lord's  Pray- 
er, etc.  When  the  body  is  laid  in  tic  grave,  the 
priest  casts  gravel  cross-wise  upon  it.  Baying,  •■The 
earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness  thereof."  etc.  He 
then  pours  out  some  oil  from  a  lamp,  and  scatters  some 


incense  upon  it;  after  which  trpparia  for  the  rest  of 
the  soul  are  sung,  and  the  grave  is  Idled  up. 

:>.  In  Protestant  lands  the  forms  of  burial  an'  gen- 
erally simple.  The  order  of  the  Church  of  England 
is  observed  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  and  Protestant 
Episcopal  churches  in  America,  in  the  former  some- 
what abridged.  The  forms  used  by  the  various  church- 
es may  be  found  in  their  books  of  order  and  discipline. 
— Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles.  bk.  xxiii,  ch.  ii,  iii ;  Duran- 
dus, DeRit.  Eccl.Cath.  i,  23 ;  Landori,  Eccl.  Din.  i.  1 1*. 

Burkitt,  William,  M.A..  a  pious  and  learned  di- 
vine of  the  Church  of  England,  was  born  at  Hitcham, 
in  Suffolk,  duly  25,  1650,  and  was  admitted  :■■  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge,  in  1664.  Prom  the  college  he 
came  to  Bilston  Hall,  in  Suffolk,  and  was  chaplain 
there.  In  1(571  he  was  settled  in  Milden,  in  Suffolk, 
whero  he  remained  twenty-one  years,  as  curat  ■  and 
rector,  eminently  acceptable  and  useful.  In  1692  he 
became  vicar  ofDedham,  in  Essex,  where  he  died  17' :;. 
His  most  important  work  is  Expository  Notes  >>"  V.  '/'.. 
which  has  passed  through  many  editions,  and  is  still 
constantly  reprinted  I  X.  V.  2  vols.  8vo).  His  l.'f  .  I  y 
Parkhurst,  was  published  in  London  (1704,  8vo). 

Bui'mah,  a  kingdom  (formerly  called  an  empire) 
of  Farther  India.  Before  the  English  conquests  in 
1826,  it  included  Burmah  Proper,  Cathay,  Arracan, 
Pegu,  Tenasserim,  and  the  extensive  country  of  the 
Shan  tribes.  By  those  conquests  and  the  subsequent 
war  of  1853  Arracan,  Pegu,  and  Tenasserim,  with  the 
entire  sea-coast  of  the  country,  have  been  incorporated 
into  the  British  territory.  The  population  of  the  en- 
tire country  probably  amounts  to  five  or  six  millions, 
and  belongs  to  various  tribes,  among  which  the  Pur- 
mans,  the  Karens,  the  Peguans  or  Talaings,  and  Shans 
are  the  principal. 

I.  Religion. — "Buddhism  (q.V.)  is  the  prevailing  re- 
ligion of  Burmah,  where  it  has  been  preserved  in  great 
purity.  Its  monuments,  temples,  pagodas,  and  mon- 
asteries are  innumerable  ;  its  festivals  arc  carefully 
observed,  and  its  monastic  system  is  fully  established 
in  every  part  of  the  kingdom.  While  directing  the 
reader  to  the  special  article  on  Bi  ddhism  for  an  ac- 
count of  its  doctrines,  history,  etc.,  we  may  here  glance. 
at  its  development,  institutions,  and  edifices  among  the 
Burmans.  The  members  of  the  monastic  fraternity 
are  known  in  Burmah  as  pon-gyees,  meaning  'gnat 
glory  ;'  but  the  Pali  word  is  rah  in,  or  holy  man.  The. 
pon-gyees  are  not  priests,  in  the  usual  acceptation  of 
the  term,  but  rather  monks.  Their  religious  ministra- 
tions are  confined  to  sermons,  and  they  do  not  inter- 
fere with  the  worship  of  the  people.  They  are  a  very 
numerous  class,  living  in  monasteries,  or  kyotmgs,  and 
may  at  once  lie  known  by  their  yellow  robes  (the  color 
of  mourning),  shaven  heads,  ami  bare  feci.  'I  hey  sub- 
sist wholly  by  the  charily  of  the  people,  which,  how- 
ever, they  well  repay  by  instructing  the  boys  of  the 
country.  The  kyoungs  are  thus  converted  into  na- 
tional schools,  'the  vows  of  a  pon-gyee  include  celi- 
bacy, poverty,  and  the  renunciation  of  the  world;  but 
from  these  he  may  at  any  time  lie  released  and  return 
to  a  secular  life.  Hence  oearlj  every  youth  assumes 
the  yellow  robe  for  a  lime,  as  a  meritorious  ad  or  lor 
the  purpose  of  study,  and  the  ceremony  of  making  a 

pon-gyee  is  one  of  great  importance.      1 1 stensible 

object'  of  tiie  brotherhood  i-  the  more  perfect  observ- 
ance of  the  laws  of  Buddha.  The  order  is  composed 
of  live  classes— viz.,  young  men  who  wear  the  3 1  How 
robe  and  live  in  the  kyoungs,  but  are  not  professed 

members;   those  on  whom   the  title  and  character  of 

pon-gyees  have  been  solemnly  conferred  with  the 
usual  ceremonies;  the  heads  or  governors  of  the  sev- 
eral communities;  provincials,  whose  jurisdiction  ex- 
tends over  their  respective  provinces;  and.  lastly,  a 
superior  general,  or  great  master,  who  directs  the  af- 
fairs of  the  order  throughout  the  empire.  No  provi- 
sion is  made  for  religion  by  the  government,  but  it 


BUltMAH 


926 


BURMAH 


meets  with  liberal  support  from  the  people.  A  pon- 
gvee  is  held  in  profound  veneration ;  his  person  is  sa- 
ered,  and  he  is  addressed  by  the  lordly  title  of  pra  or 
pkra;  nor  does  this  reverence  terminate  with  his  death. 
On  the  decease  of  a  distinguished  member  his  body  is 
embalmed, while  his  limbs  are  swathed  in  linen,  var- 
nished, and  even  gilded.  The  mummy  is  then  placed 
on  a  highly-decorated  cenotaph,  and  preserved,  some- 
times for  months,  until  the  grand  day  of  funeral.  The 
Burman  rites  of  cremation  are  very  remarkable,  but 
we  cannot  here  enlarge  upon  them.  On  the  whole,  a 
favorable  opinion  may  be  passed  on  the  monastic  fra- 
ternity of  Burmah ;  although  abuses  have  crept  in, 
discipline  is  more  lax  than  formerly,  and  many  doubt- 
less assume  the  yellow  robe  from  unworthy  motives. 
In  Burmah,  the  last  Buddha  is  worshipped  under  the 
name  of  Gotama.  His  images  crowd  the  temples,  and 
many  are  of  a  gigantic  size.  The  days  of  worship  are 
at  the  new  and  full  moon,  and  seven  days  after  each ; 
but  the  whole  time,  from  the  full  moon  of  July  to  the 
full  moon  of  October,  is  devoted  by  the  Burmans  to  a 
stricter  observance  of  the  ceremonies  of  their  religion. 
During  the  latter  month  several  religious  festivals 
take  place,  which  are  so  many  social  gatherings  and 
occasions  for  grand  displays  of  dress,  dancing,  music, 
and  feasting.  At  such  times  barges  full  of  gayly- 
dressed  people,  the  women  dancing  to  the  monotonous 
dissonance  of  a  Burman  band,  may  be  seen  gliding 
along  the  rivers  to  some  shrine  of  peculiar  sanctity. 
The  worship  on  these  occasions  has  been  described  by 
an  e)re-witness,  in  1857,  as  follows :  '  Arrived  at  the 
pagodas  and  temples,  the  people  suddenly  turn  from 
pleasure  to  devotion.  Men  bearing  ornamental  paper 
umbrellas,  fruits,  flowers,  and  other  offerings,  crowd 
the  image-houses,  present  their  gifts  to  the  fav< rite 
idol,  make  their  shek-ho,  and  say  their  prayers  with  all 
dispatch.  Others  are  gluing  more  gold-leaf  on  the 
face  of  the  image,  or  saluting  him  with  crackers,  the 
explosion  of  which  in  nowise  interferes  with  the  seren- 
ity of  the  worshippers.  The  women  for  the  most  part 
remain  outside,  kneeling  on  the  sward,  just  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  temple,  where  a  view  can  be  obtained  of 
the  image  within.'  On  another  occasion  we  read: 
'The  principal  temple,  being  under  repair,  was  much 
crowded  by  bamboo  scaffolding,  and  new  pillars  were 
being  put  up,  each  bearing  an  inscription  with  the 
name  of  the  donor.  .  .  .  The  umbrellas  brought  as 
offerings  were  so  numerous  that  one  could  with  diffi- 
culty thread  a  passage  through  them.  Some  were 
pure  white,  others  white  and  gold,  while  many  boasted 
all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  They  were  made  of  pa- 
per, beautifully  cut  into  various  patterns.  There  were 
numerous  altars  and  images,  and  numberless  little  Go- 
tamas;  but  a  deep  niche  or  cave,  at  the  far  end  of 
which  was  a  fat  idol,  with  a  yellow  cloth  wrapped 
round  him,  seemed  a  place  of  peculiar  sanctity.  This 
recess  would  have  been  quite  dark  had  it  not  been  for 
the  numberless  tapers  of  yellow  wax  that  were  burn- 
ing before  the  image.  The  closeness  of  the  place,  the 
smoke  from  the  candles,  and  the  fumes  from  the  quan- 
tity of  crackers  constantly  being  let  off,  rendered  res- 
piration almost  impossible.  An  old  pon-gyee,  how- 
ever, the  only  one  I  ever  saw  in  a  temple,  seemed 
quite  in  his  element,  his  shaven  bristly  head  and 
coarse  features  looking  ugly  enough  to  serve  for  some 
favorite  idol,  and  he  seemed  a  fitting  embodiment  of 
bo  senseless  and  degrading  a  worship.  Offerings  of 
flowers,  paper  ornaments,  flags,  and  candles  were  scat- 
tered about  in  profusion.  The  beating  a  bell  with  a 
deer's  horn,  the  explosion  of  crackers,  and  the  rapid 
muttering  of  prayers,  made  up  a  din  of  sounds,  the 
suitable  accompaniment  of  so  misdirected  a  devotion.' 
The  rosary  is  in  general  use,  and  the  Pali  words  Ami- 
1ya!  doka!  anatta!  expressing  the  transitory  nature 
of  all  sublunary  things,  are  very  often  repeated.  The 
Burman  is  singularly  free  fr<  in  fanaticism  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  his  religion,  and  his  most  sacred  temples  may 


be  freely  entered  by  the  stranger  without  offence  ;  in- 
deed, the  impartial  observer  will  hardly  fail  to  admit 
that  Buddhism,  in  the  absence  of  a  purer  creed,  pos- 
sesses considerable  influence  for  good  in  the  country 
under  consideration.  Reciprocal  kindnesses  are  pro- 
moted, and  even  the  system  of  merit  and  demerit — the 
one  leading  to  the  perfect  state  of  nirvana,  the  other 
punishing  by  a  degrading  metempsychosis  —  has  no 
doubt  some  moral  effect.  The  religious  edifices  are  of 
three  kinds  :  1.  The  paged)  (Zadce  or  Tsa-dee),  a  mon- 
ument erected  to  the  last  Buddha,  is  a  solid,  bell- 
shaped  mass  of  plastered  brickwork,  tapering  to  the 
summit,  which  is  crowned  by  the  tee,  or  umbrella,  of 
open  iron-work.  2.  The  temple,  in  which  are  many 
images  of  Gotama.  The  most  remarkable  specimen 
of  Burman  temple-architecture  is  the  Anunda  of  Pa- 
gan. The  ground-plan  takes  the  form  of  a  perfect 
Greek  cross,  and  a  tapering  spire,  with  a  gilded  tee  at 
the  height  of  1G8  feet  from  the  foundation,  crowns  the 
whole.  3.  The  bjoung  is  generally  constructed  with  a 
roof  of  several  diminishing  stages,  and  is  often  adorn- 
ed with  elaborate  carved  work  and  gilding.  Burman 
architecture  'differs  essentially  from  that  of  India  in 
the  frequent  use  of  the  pointed  arch,  not  only  for  doors 
and  windows,  but  also  in  the  vaulted  coverings  of 
passages.'  The  civilization  of  Burmah,  if  not  retro- 
grade— which  the  ruins  of  Pagan  would  almost  seem 
to  indicate — is  stationary  and  stereotyped,  like  that  of 
China.  All  the  wealth  of  the  country  is  lavished  on 
religious  edifices,  £10,000  sterling  being  sometimes 
expended  on  the  gilding  and  beautifying  of  a  single 
pagoda  or  temple,  while  roads,  bridges,  and  works  of 
public  utility  are  neglected.  The  vernacular  tongue 
of  Burmah  belon.  s  to  the  monosyllabic  class  of  lan- 
guages, and  is  without  inflection;  the  character  is 
formed  of  circles  and  segments  of  circles.  It  is  en- 
graved on  prepared  strips  of  palm-leaf,  and  a  number 
of  these  form  a  book.  Printing  is  unknown,  except 
where  introduced  by  missionaries.  Pali  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  religious  literature"  (Chambers,  Encyclo- 
pwdia,  s.  v.). 

II.  Missions. — Burmah  has  become  in  the  nineteenth 
century  the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  flourishing  Protest- 
ant missions.  In  1813  the  Rev.  Adoniram  Judson 
(q.  v.),  an  American  Baptist  missionary  at  Rangoon, 
published  a  tract  and  a  catechism  in  the  Burman  lan- 
guage, and  translated  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  In 
1819  he  baptized  and  received  into  the  mission  church 
the  first  Burman  convert,  Moung  Kan.  In  the  winter 
of  the  same  year  he  went  to  Amarapura  (or  Ummera- 
poora),  the  seat  of  the  imperial  government,  to  obtain, 
if  possible,  toleration  for  the  Christian  religion,  but  his 
petition  was  contemptuously  rejected.  The  arrival  of 
Dr.  Price,  a  physician  as  well  as  a  minister,  procured 
to  him  and  Dr.  Price  an  invitation  from  the  king  to  re- 
side at  Ava.  The  war  between  Burmah  and  England 
(1824  to  1826)  led  to  the  conquest  of  a  considerable 
part  of  Burmah  by  England.  This  part  became  the 
centre  of  the  Burman  mission,  though  a  little  church 
was  maintained  at  Rangoon.  In  1828  the  first  convert 
from  the  tribe  of  the  Karens,  who  are  found  in  great 
numbers  in  all  parts  of  Burmah  and  the  neighboring 
kingdom  of  Siam,  was  baptized.  A  Karen  mission 
was  thus  founded,  which  has  outgrown  in  extent  the 
mission  to  the  Burman  tribe,  and  whose  success  has 
scarcely  been  equalled  by  any  other  of  modern  times. 
The  Karen  language  at  this  time  had  not  been  reduced 
to  writing,  and  one  of  the  missionaries,  Mr.  Wade,  un- 
dertook in  1832  to  make  an  alphabet  of  its  elemental 
sounds,  to  compile  a  spelling-book,  and  to  translate 
two  or  three  of  the  tracts  already  printed  in  Burman 
into  the  Karen  language.  In  1832  there  were  fourteen 
American  missionaries  in  Burmah,  and  the  reception 
of  two  additional  printing-presses,  with  a  large  font  of 
types  and  the  materials  for  a  type  foundry,  enabled 
them  to  print  tracts  and  portions  of  the  Scriptures  in 
the  Burman,  the  Karen,  and  the  Talaing  or  Peguan 


BURMAH 


ru: 


BURMAII 


languages.  In  1834  Mr.  Judson  completed  his  liur- 
man  translation  of  the  Bible,  which  was  carefully  re- 
vised by  him,  and  published  as  revised  in  U  10.  'I  he 
successful  attempt  to  unite  the  scattered  Karens  into 
compact  villages  greatly  advanced  the  prosperity  of 
the  mission.  In  Burmah  Proper  a  new  persecution 
broke  out  against  the  Christian  Karens  in  1843,  ami 
many  of  them  sought  refuge  in  the  British  possessions. 
Attempts  have  been  repeatedly  made  by  the  mission- 
aries to  obtain  a  perman<  nt  footing  in  Burmah  Proper, 
or  at  least  to  secure  toleration,  but  without  success. 
In  the  British  part  of  Burmah  the  work  was  very  i  ros- 
perous.  Mr.  Abbott,  on  bis  return  fr<  m  the  United 
States  in  1847,  was  met  by  thirty-three  native  preach- 
ers, who  reported  not  less  than  1200  converts  in  their 
several  districts.  In  1851  the  missionaries  received 
marks  of  the  royal  favor,  and  were  allowed  to  com- 
mence a  mission  at  Ava,  which  was  interrupted  by  the 
war  between  Burmah  and  Great  Britain  in  1852.  On 
December  20,  1852,  the  entire  southern  portion  of  Bur- 
mah, including  the  ancient  province  of  Pegu,  was  in- 
corporated with  British  India,  and  thus  laid  open  to 
the  free  influence  of  Christianity.  'J  he  missions  in 
Burmah,  till  recently,  were  maintained  I  y  the  An  er- 
ican  Baptist  Missionary  Union.  In  185:!  a  deputation 
from  the  Union  visited  Burmab,  and  eventually  some 
differences  arose  respecting  the  measures  then  adopt- 
ed, and  the  reports  subsequently  made  in  America,  the 
result  of  which  was  that  some  missionaries  broke  off 
their  connection  with  the  Baptist  Union.  They  were, 
in  18G6,  in  connection  with  the  "American  Baptist 
Free  Mission  Society."  In  1859  the  American  mis- 
sionaries were  again  invited  by  the  king  to  come  and 
live  with  him.  Commissioner  Phayre,  of  Pegu,  in  the 
same  year  stated  in  a  report  to  the  government  of  In- 
dia that  of  the  Karens,  whose  number  he  estimates  at 
about  50,000,  over  20,000  souls  are  either  professed 
Christians,  or  under  Christian  instruction  ami  influ- 
ence. At  the  50th  annual  meeting  of  the  Missionary 
Union,  held  in  18(34  in  Philadelphia,  a  paper  was  read 
on  the  "  Retrospective  and  Prospective  Aspects  of  the 
Missions,"  in  which  was  suggested  as  among  the  agen- 
cies of  the  future  the  formation  of  a  general  conven- 
tion for  Burmab,  corresponding  with  similar  associa- 
tions in  the  United  States,  the  body  to  be  without 
disciplinary  power,  purely  missionary  in  its  character, 
to  which  should  at  once  be  transferred  the  responsibil- 
ity and  care  of  many  details  hitherto  devolved  on  the 
executive  committee;  the  membership  to  he  made  up 
of  the  missionaries  and  delegates  from  native  churches 
and  local  associations,  the  latter  being  much  more  nu- 
merous than  the  former,  and  occupying  a  prominent 
place  in  its  transactions,  the  avowed  object  and  aim 
being  to  form  on  the  field  an  agency  that  should  in 
time  assume  the  sole  responsibility  of  evangelizing  the 
country.  The  proposal  received  the  cordial  indorse- 
ment of  the  Missionary  Union,  and  the  executive  com- 
mittee accordingly  addressed  a  circular  to  the  mission- 
aries, recommending  the  formation  of  a  Burmah  Asso- 
ciation. Circumstances  occurred  which  delayed  the 
meeting  of  the  missionaries  and  native  helpers  until 
Oct.  15, 1865,  when  it  assembled  in  Rangoon.  Nearly 
all  the  American  missionaries  (including  three  not 
connected  with  the  Missionary  Union)  were  present, 
together  with  seventy  native  preachers  and  "elders." 
The  Constitution  adopted  for  permanent  organization 
is  as  follows  : 

Preamble.— We,  Christians  of  various  races  residing  in 
British  Burmah  Mini  now  assembled  in  Rangoon,  in  gratitude 
to  on-  Redei  m  t  for  hit  saving  grace,  In  obedience  to  his  Inst 
commission  to  his  Church  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  crea- 
ture, and  with  unfeigned  love  :,ird  compassion  i  i  our  fellow- 
men,  yet  ignorant  of  tin-  (jospcl,  do  now,  in  humble  r.  haicy 
upon  the  promised  •/'■ace  of  <  hrbt.  f  nu  uur-olvos  into  a  ho,  i- 
etyforthe  more  effectual  advancement  of  l.i-  l,iu.-',,ui  in  this 

land;  and  fa- this  purpose  we  unite  In  adopting  the  following 

Art,  I.   This  society  shall  be  called  the  Burmah  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Convention.  ...  ,      .      , 
Art."ll.  All  missionaries,  ordained  ministers,  and  authorized 


preachers  of  the  Gospel,  who  are  in  the  fellowship  ..four  de- 
nomination,  and  who  agree  tot  hi-  (  on -t  nation,  -linll  he  mem- 
bers of  the  Convention,  together  with  such  lay  del  gat 

maj  i>e  a]  point.  ,1  by  the  ehun  he.-,  in  the  ratio  .,t  oni  delegate 
to  each  church,   Willi  an   additional   delegate    for  every    titty 

members. 
Art.  III.  The  object  of  this  Convention  shall  beta 

and  unite  the  liapiist  chin,  lies  of  lturinah  ill  mutual  love  and 

the  Christian  faith,  and  to  extend  the  work  of  evangelization 

to  all  regions  within  our  reach  which  do  not  receive  the  Gos- 
pel from  other  agencies. 

Ait.  IV.    The    attainment    of  this    twofold    object    shall   he. 

Bought  by  the  personal  Intercourse  of  Christians  representing 
onr  churches;  by  the  collection  of  reports  and  Btati 

ting  forth  the  state  of  the  Churches  ami  the  results  of  Chris- 
tian labor  in  Burmah;  by  united  representations  to  Christians 

in  this  and  other  lands  of  the  religions  and  educational  wants 
of  the  various  races  and  Bections  of  Kurmali  J  and,  la-tly.  by 
calling  forth  and  combining  the  prayers  and  efforts  ,,f  all  the 
native  (  hri-tiaus  in  the  common  object  of  saving  their  breth- 
ren, the  heathen,  from  sin  and  everlasting  death  by  the  Gos- 
pel. 

Art.V.  This   Convention  shall  assume    DO   ecclesiastical  or 

disciplinary  power. 

Art.  VI.  Moneys  which  may  at  any  time  be  confided  to  the 
disposal  of  this  Convention  shall  bs  faithfully  a], plied  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  objl  CtS  of  the  Convention  and  the  ,  :-.pr,--ed 

wishes  of  the  donors. 

Art.  vii.  The  officers  of  this  Convention  shall  bo  s  presi- 
dent, four  vice-presidents,  recording  and  correspondin 
taries,  and  a  treasurer,  who,  together  with  twelve  other  mem- 
bers, shall  he  a  committee  of  management  to  conduct  the  af- 
fairs of  the  Convention  in  the  intervals  of  its  regular  met  lings. 
Seven  members  of  the  Convention  present  at  any  me,  ting  reg- 
ularly called  by  the  chairman  and  01 f  th     -,  ,  .,  taiies  shall 

be  a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  busini  bs. 

Art    VIII.    This  Convention  shall  meet  annually,  at  such  time 

and  place  as  it  shall  appoint,  for  prayer,  conference,  and 

preaching,  with  special  reference  to  the  objects  of  the  I  oni  I  D 
t i i .ii.  and  for  the  transaction  of  its  busine-s.  At  these  meet- 
ings the  committee  of  management  shall  present  a  faithful  re- 
port Of  their  doings  during  the  previous  year,  and  officers  shall 

be  i  feted  and  all  needful  arrangi  ments  made  for  the  year  en- 
suing. 

Art.  IX.  The  recording  secretaries  shall  keep  a  faithful  rec- 
ord of  the  proceedings  at  the  annual  meeting.  'I'll re- 
sponding secretaries  shall  record  the  doings  of  th  ■  committee 
at.  tin  ir  meetings,  conduct,  the  eorro-poudetiee  ol  the  Commit- 
tee, and  preserve  copies  of  important  let!  IT -. 

Art.  X.  Thii  Constitution  may  be  ame  m  ed  by  a  vote  of  two 

thirds  of  the  members  present  at  any  annual  meeting  of  the 
( ', invention,  notic  ■  of  the  proposed  change  having  been  given 
at  a  previous  annual  meeting. 

President,  Rev.  C.   Bennett:    Vice-presidents,   K  \.    J.    S. 
Beecher,  Syah  K»  I'Jn,  Thrah  Quala,  Thrah  l'<>  Kway;  Re- 
cording Secretaries,  Ewilisli,  Kev.  C.  II.  Carpenter:   ,' 
Ko  Yaeoh;  Karen,  Thrah  Tay  ;  Corrosp  ,  tiding  so, -ret  a  ry.  lev. 

A.  T.  I  ;ose  ;  Treasurer,  Rev.  D.  L.  Bray  ton;  Committee, 
Rev.  E.  A.  Stevens  D.D.,  Rev.  D.  A.  W.  smith.  Thrah  Sah 

Mai,  Kev.  ,1.  1,  ll,,ugla-s,  llev.  1!.  C.  Thomas,  Thrah  Thah 
<)o,  Thrah  Tab  Poo,  Ko  Too,  Syah  Ko  Shway  A,  Ko  Aing, 
Shway  Noo,  Mining  O. 

III.  Statistics.— In  that  part  of  Burmah  which  is  un- 
der British  rule  there  are  now  nine  different  missions: 
1.  Mission  of  Toungoo. — The  name  of  Christ  was  first 
proclaimed  in  this  province  in  October,  1853,  and  it 
embraces  now  2  associations,  mi  stations,  I  ■_•  churches, 
101  village  schools,  103  native  preachers  and  teachers, 
3  ordained  native  preachers,  2426  pupils  in  village 
schools,  and  2640  members.  In  1857  a  Karen  Educa- 
tion Society  was  funned,  which  has  in  its  charge  two 
boarding-schools,  a  National  Female  School,  and  a 
Young  Men's  Normal  School,  open  to  all  the  native 

tribes  of  Burmah.  Kightv-sK  chiefs  have  pledged 
themselves  and  thousands  of  their  people  to  support 
permanently  the  Institute.  The  Education  Society  is 
entirely  independent  of  every  missionary  association. 
In    August,  1857,   il    held   a   convention   and    chose   a 

hoard  of  managers,  consisting  of  one  paku,  one  man- 
niopgha,  one  mopgha,  one  tunic  bghai ;  Captain  Doy- 
ly, deputy  commissioner,  Toungoo,  agreeing  to  act  .as 
president.  A  great  confusion  was  created  in  this  mis- 
sion by  the  peculiar  teat  hinge  of  one  of  the  American 
missionaries,  Mrs.  Mason,  which  were  supported  by  Iter 

husband.  Kev.  Dr.  Mason,  but  emphatically  repudiated 

by  the  Missionary  Union.  The  result  was  a  division  in 
many,  if  not  most  of  the  churches,  the  maji  rity  in  some 
instances   taking    -ides   with  one   party,   and   in   other 

instances  with  the  other.  A  return,  made  in  January, 
1865,  reported  about  10  churches  and  a  membership  of 
about  2000.    2.  Maulmdm  Burman  Mission  had,  in  1865, 


BURMANN" 


928 


BURNET 


•1  missionaries,  G  native  assistants,  1  church,  130  mem- 
bers, 2  Anglo-vernacular  boys'  schools,  containing  to- 
gether about  130  pupils,  and  2  girls'  schools,  with 
about  100  pupils.  The  mission  has  one  out-station  and 
a  Tamil  department.  .">.  Matdmain  Karen  Mission 
had  11  out-stations,  2  missionaries.  9  ordained  native 
assistants,  836  members,  10  village  schools,  and  1  nor- 
mal school.  1.  Tavoy  Mission  had  19  native  assist- 
ant-. 19  churches,  790  members,  1  normal  school. 
There  is  also,  again,  a  Burmese  department,  with  1 
church  and  1  school.  5.  Schwaygyeen  Mission  had  1 
missionary,  18  churches,  946  members.  G.  Rangoon 
Mission. — The  Burmese  department  sustained  2  preach- 
ing-places in  Rangoon  and  6  in  villages,  together  with 
about  157  communicants,  and  a  small  vernacular 
school  for  girls.  Rangoon  has  also  an  English  church, 
and  a  Chinese  mission  with  about  25  members.  The 
Karen  Theological  Seminar}'  numbered,  in  1865  (its 
13th  term),  45  scholars.  The  mission  press  at  Ban- 
goon  issued,  from  1863  to  1865,  8.751,900  pages;  and 
from  1855  to  1865,  109,615  Scriptures  and  parts  of 
Scriptures.  The  Pwo  Karen  Department  had  12 
churches,  367  members,  1  normal  school.  7.  Bassein 
Mission. — (The  district  has  an  area  of  8900  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  275,000.  Of  these,  176,555 
are  Burmese,  and  83,295  Karens.  Of  the  latter,  about 
40,000  are  Pwo  Karens.)  The  Sgau  Karen  depart- 
ment had,  in  1865,  52  churches,  5572  communicants, 
50  pastors,  11  native  missionaries,  2013  Christian  fam- 
ilies, 33  village  schools,  787  scholars.  This  depart- 
ment was  in  connection  with  the  American  Baptist 
Free  Mission  Society,  but  the  Missionary,  Mr.  Beech- 
cr,  in  1865,  joined  the  Burmah  Baptist  Mission  Associ- 
ation. The  Pwo  Karen  department  had  15  churches, 
600  communicants,  13  pastors,  12  native  missionaries, 
100  converts  (during  the  past  year)  from  heathenism, 
10  village  schools,  219  scholars.  The  Burmese  de- 
partment had  2  churches,  72  communicants,  2  pastors, 
31  Christian  families,  68  pupils.  8.  Henthada Mission. 
— The  Karen  department  had  59  churches,  6G  preach- 
ers and  teachers,  1831  members,  1  normal  school,  with 
33  pupils;  4  high  schools,  with  an  aggregate  attend- 
ance of  112;  41  primary  schools,  with  495  pupils. 
The  Burmese  department,  which  was  established  in 
1854,  bad  50  church  members,  1  school,  25  scholars,  4 
licentiates,  1  ordained  pastor,  2  out-stations.  9.  Prome 
Mission,  6  missionaries,  298  members,  205  scholars. 
10.  Mission  to  tin  .S/tons. — This  mission  was  begun  in 
1861.  According  to  a  report  presented  by  the  mis- 
sionary, Mr.  Bixby,  in  October,  1865,  ten  different 
tribes  or  races  had  been  visited,  and  a  few  converts 
gathered  from  nearly  all  of  them.  Three  mountain 
tribes — the  Geckhos,  Saukoos,  and  Padoungs — called 
Shan  Karens,  living  north-east  of  Toungoo,  on  the 
borders  of  Shanland,  were  building  chapels,  and  al- 
ready six  young  men  had  been  stationed  among  them. 
Three  churches  bad  been  gathered  from  the  Burmans, 
Shan-,  and  mountain  tribes,  containing  an  aggregate 
membership  of  102.  The  mission  had  10  chapels,  10 
assistants,  and  as  many  primary  schools,  with  about 
200  pupils.  In  Toungoo  there  were  two  schools  of  a 
higher  grade:  one  in  the  Burmese  town,  taught  by  a 
European,  assisted  by  a  native,  when  the  wants  of  To- 
ungoo  for  general  education  were  partially  met.  This 
B<  bool  received  500  rs.  annually  from  the  government. 
The  other  is  a  training-school  for  teachers  and  preach- 
er-, in  which  instruction  is  given  in  the  Burmese  lan- 
guage, ;,,id  mainly  in  the  Scriptures.  More  than  50 
pupils  had  been  in  attendance  up  to  1865.  Matrices 
for  casting  type  in  the  Shan  language  were,  in  1865, 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  and  sent  to  Ran- 
tfewcomb,  Cyclopcedia  of  Missions;  Mrs.Wylie, 
Thi  Gospel  in  Burmah  (N.  Y.  1860,  8vo);  Reports  of 
Baptist  Missionary  Union.     See  India. 

Burmaim,  Francis,  son  of  a  Protestant  minis- 
ter, was  lorn  in  L632  at  Leyden,  where  he   received 
ition.      Having  officiated  to  a  Dutch  congre- 


gation at  Hanau,  in  Hessen,  he  returned  to  his  native 
!  city,  and  was  nominated  regent  of  the  college  in  which 
(  he  had  before  studied.  Not  long  afterward  he  was 
elevated  to  the  professorship  of  divinity  at  Utrecht, 
where  he  died  November  10, 1679,  having  established 
considerable  reputation  as  a  linguist,  a  preacher,  and 
a  philosopher.  His  works  include  (in  Dutch)  Com- 
mentaries  on  the  Pentuteuch  (Utrecht,  1660,  8\o,  and 
1668,  4to)  :  Commentaries  on  Joshua,  JMh,  and  Judges 
(Ibid.  1675,  4to)  : — Commentaries  on  Kings,  Chronicles, 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther  (Amst.  1683,  4to)  : — Com- 
mentary on  the  Booh  of  Samuel  (Utrecht,  1678,  4to). 
He  also  wrote,  in  Uatin,  Synopsis  Theolcgica  (Amst. 
1699,  2  vols.  4to),  and  other  works. — Bi< g.  Univ.  vi, 
327  ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Burmann,  Francis,  Jr.,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1671,  where  he  taught  theology 
until  his  death  in  1719.  He  wrote,  among  other  works, 
Theologus,  sire  de  Us  quce  ad  verum  et  consummatum  Thc- 
ologum  requiruntur  (Utrecht,  1715,  4to)  : — De  persecu- 
tione  Diocletiani  (Ibid.  1719,  4to). 

Burn,  Richard,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
writer  on  ecclesiastical  law,  was  born  in  1720  at  Win- 
ton,  "Westmoreland,  and  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford.  He  was  for  forty-nine  years  rector  at  Orton, 
where  he  died,  Nov.  20, 1789.  He  was  also  chancellor 
of  the  diocese  of  Carlisle.  His  Ecclesiastical  Law 
(Lond.  1760,  2  vols.  4to ;  9th  ed.  enlarged  by  R.  Phil- 
limore,  Lond.  1842,  4  vols.  8vo)  is  recommended  by 
Blackstone  as  one  of  the  "  very  few  publications  on  the 
subject  of  ecclesiastical  law  on  which  the  reader  can 
rely  with  certainty."  Equall}-  celebrated  is  his  work, 
Justice  of  the  Peace  and  Parish  Officer  (Bond.  1755,  2 
vols.  8vo ;  29th  ed.  by  Bere  and  Chitty,  Lond.  1845,  G 
vols. ;  suppl.  by  Wise,  1852). — Hook,  Eccl.  Biog.  iii,  279. 

Burnaby,  Andrew,  an  English  clergyman  and 
traveller,  was  Lorn  at  Ashfordly,  1732,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  passed 
M.A.  in  1757.  In  1759  and  1760  he  travelled  in  North 
America,  and  afterward  published  Travels  through  the 
Middle  Settlements  of  North  America  (Lond.  1775,  4to). 
He  then  became  British  chaplain  at  Leghorn,  end 
travelled  in  Corsica,  of  which  he  wrote  an  account  in 
Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Corsica  in  1766  (Lond.  1804).  In 
1760  he  became  vicar  of  Greenwich,  and  archdeacon 
of  Leicester  in  1786.  He  died  in  1812.  Besides  the 
works  above  named,  he  published  Occasional  Sermons 
and  charges  (Deptford,  1805,  8vo). — Rose,  New  Biog. 
Dictionary ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors,  i,  296. 

Burnap,  George  Washington,  a  Unitarian  di- 
vine and  writer,  was  born  in  Merrimac,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Nov.  30,  1802,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1824,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church  in 
Baltimore  April  23,  1828,  and  continued  its  pastor  un- 
til his  death,  Sept.  8,  1859.  In  1849  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  Harvard  College.  He  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  various  periodicals,  and  the  au- 
thor of  a  large  number  of  books,  among  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important:  1.  Lectures  on  the  Doc- 
trines of  Controversy  between  Unitarians  and  other  De- 
nominations of  Christians  (1835):— 2.  Lectures  to  Young 
Mm  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Mind  (Baltimore,  1840, 
12mo)  : — 3.  Expository  Lectures  on  the  principal  Texts  >f 
tin  Bibl  which  relatt  to  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (Bos- 
ton, 1845)  : — 4.  Popular  Objections  to  Unitarian  Chris- 
tianity consider/  d  and  answered  (1848)  : — 5.  Christianity, 
its  Essence  anil  Eridi  nee  (1855). 

Burnet,  Gilbert,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  was  born 
in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  IS,  1643,  his  father  being  an  Epis- 
copalian, and  his  mother  a  Presbyterian.  He  was 
educated  at  Aberdeen,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  in 
the  Scotch  Church  1661.  After  travelling  in  Eng- 
land, Holland,  and  France,  he  returned  to  Scotland  in 
1665,  and  was  ordained  priest  by  Wishart,  bishop  of 
Edinburgh,  and  appointed  to  the  parish  of  Saltoun, 
where  he  soon  trained  the  good-will  ofthe  people  bv  his 


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929 


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faithful  labors  both  as  pastor  and  preacher.  Here  he 
published  an  attack  upon  the  remissness  and  wrong- 
doings of  the  bishops  of  the  Scotch  Church,  which 
brought  him  the  ill-will  of  Archbishop  Sharp.  In  1669 
he  was  made  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow,  and  in 
that  year  he  published  his  Modest  and  Free  Conference 
between  a  Conformist  and  a  Non-conformist.  In  1673 
Charles  II  made  him  his  chaplain  ;  but  he  soon  after- 
ward, through  the  misrepresentations  of  Lauderdale, 
fell  into  disgrace,  and  his  appointment  was  cancelled, 
whereupon  lie  resigned  his  professorship  at  Glasgow 
and  settled  in  London,  where  he  was  made  preacher  at 
the  Rolls  and  lecturer  at  St.  Clement's.  In  1G75  he 
published  vol.  i  of  bis  History  of  the  Reformation  of  the 
Church  of  England,  which  was  received  with  much 
favor,  and  had  the  extraordinary  honor  of  the  thanks 
of  both  houses  of  Parliament.  In  1680  appeared  the 
most  carefully  prepared  of  all  his  writings,  entitled 
Borne  Passages  in  the  L'fe  and  Death  of  tin-  Earl  of 
■Rochester,  being  an  account  of  his  conversation  with 
that  nobleman  in  his  last  illness.  In  1081  he  publish- 
ed vol.  ii  of  his  History  of  the  Reformation,  and  in  16*2 
his  Life  of  Sir  Matthew  Hale.  Overtures  wore  now 
again  made  to  him  by  the  court,  and  he  was  offered  the 
bishopric  of  Chichester  by  the  king  "  if  lie  would  en- 
tirely come  into  his  interests."  lie  still,  however,  re- 
mained steady  to  his  principles.  About  this  time  also 
he  wrote  a  celebrated  letter  to  Charles,  reproving  him 
in  the  severest  style  both  for  his  public  misconduct  and 
hi*  private  vices.  His  majesty  read  it  twice  over,  and 
then  threw  it  into  the  fire.  At  the  execution  of  Lord 
Russell  in  1683,  Burnet  attended  him  on  the  scaffold, 
immediately  after  which  he  was  dismissed  both  from 
his  preachership  at  the  Rolls  and  his  lecture  at  St. 
Clement's  by  order  of  the  king.  In  1685  he  published 
his  L>fe  of  Dr.  William  Bedell,  bishop  of  Kilmore,  in 
Ireland.  In  1685,  upon  the  accession  of  James  II,  he 
passed  through  France  to  Rome,  where  he  was  at  first 
favorably  received  by  Pope  Innocent  XI,  but  was  soon 
afterwanl  ordered  to  quit  the  city.  Invited  by  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  he  settled  down  at  the  Hague,  where 
he  devoted  his  time  chiefly  to  English  politics,  and  was 
entirely  in  the  confidence  of  the  Protestant  party.  In 
1688  In-  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  England, 
and  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne  as  William  I, 
Burnet  was  appointed  to  the  bishopric  of  Salisbury; 
an  appointment  which  appeared  so  objectionable  to 
Sancroft,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  that  he  refused 
to  consecrate  him  in  person,  but  authorized  his  ordina- 
tion by  a  commission  of  bishops,  March  31,  1689.  In 
his  diocese  he  was  zealous  and  painstaking;  he  tended 
his  flock  with  a  diligence  and  disinterestedness  worthy 
of  the  purest  ages  of  the  Church.  Finding  the  gener- 
al character  of  his  clergy  to  be  not  such  as  became 
their  high  office,  he  devised  the  plan  of  forming  a  ci  m- 
nuinity  of  young  clergymen,  whom  he  clothed  and 
kept  at  his  own  expense,  and  instructed  them  and  pre- 
pared them   for  the  exercise  of  the   sacerdotal   office. 

Unhappily,  the  University  of  Oxford  took  ofience  at 
this  institution,  and  he  was  compelled  to  break  it  up. 
He  died  March  17. 171"'.  He  was  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing, and  even  violent  in  his  zeal  against  Romanism. 
Lowth,  who  opposed  him,  accused  him  of  maintaining 

that  bishops  and  priests  hold  their  jurisdiction  from  the 
Sovereign  as  supreme  head;  that  these  two  orders 
were  originally  one;  that  ordination  is  simply  an  edi- 
fying ceremony;  and  that  the  submission  of  the  first 
Christians  to  the  apostles  was  altogether  voluntary. 
The  truth  and  exactness  of  his  great  work,  the  History 
of  the  lltformaiinii.  has  been  the  subject  of  many  criti- 
cisms; but  it  now  stands  in  higher  credit  than  ever. 
It  was  translated  into  Latin  (by  Mittelhorzer,  fol.  Gene- 
va, 1686)  and  into  other  languages.  I  lis  Expositu  »  of 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  was  published  in  1699,  in  folio, 
and  was  condemned  by  tin'  Lower  House  oft  '(invocation 
(best  ed.  Page's,  Land.  1843, ^vo).  He  also  published, 
among  other  works,  History  of  the  JJeath  ofj'ersecutors 

N  N  N 


(translated  from  Lactantius)  : — Memoirs  of  the  Ihil  s 
of  Hamilton  (Lond.  1673,  fol.) :— Pastoral  Care  (1692): 
—  Four  Discourse  t  to  his  t  '!•  rgy  (1693) : — Sermon*  \  1 706 
.">  vols,  -lto): — Exposition  of  the  Church  Catechism: — 
8(  rmons,  ami  an  Essay  toward  a  n<  w  ln»>k  of  Homilies 
(1713).  The  most  remarkable  of  his  works  appeared 
soon  after  his  death,  viz.  History  of  his  Own  Time,  from 
tie  Restoration  of  King  Charles  II  to  tin  Conclusion  >>f 
the  Treaty  of  Peace  at  Utrecht  (2  vols.  fol.).  It  was 
published  by  his  son  Thomas,  who  prefixed  to  it  an 
account  of  his  father's  life.  At  the  end  of  subsequent 
editions  there  is  given  "A  Chronological  and  particu- 
lar Account  of  Burnet's  Works."  This  list  contains 
58  published  sermons,  13  discourses  and  tracts  in  di- 
vinity, 18  tracts  against  popery,  -6  tracts  polemical, 
political,  and  miscellaneous,  and  25  historical  wolks 
and  tracts.  Burnet's  works  in  general  do  honor  both 
to  his  head  and  heart,  lie  was  not.  in  general,  a  good 
writer;  but,  besides  his  want  of  taste,  he  rarely  al- 
lowed himself  sufficient  time  either  for  the  collection 
and  examination  of  his  materials,  or  for  their  effective 
arrangement  and  exposition.  Yet,  with  randy  any 
thing  like  elegance,  there  is  a  fluency  and  sometimes 
a  rude  strength  in  his  style  which  make  his  works, 
upon  the  whole,  readable  enough.  Dryden  has  intro- 
duced him  in  his  "Hind  and  Panther"  in  the  charac- 
ter of  King  Buzzard,  and  sketched  him  personally, 
morally,  and  intellectually  in  some  strong  lines.  The 
delineation,  however,  is  that  of  a  personal  as  well  as 
a  political  enemy.  The  best  editions  of  the  History 
<>/  th,  Reformation  are  those  published  at  Oxford,  in 
7  vols.  8vo  (the  index  forming  the  last),  in  1829,  with 
a  valuable  preface  by  Dr.  E.  Nares  (reprinted,  Lond. 
1839,  4  vols.  8vo);  in"  1852  by  Dr.  Routh,  and  in  1865 
(7  vols.)  by  Pocock,  who  has  verified  the  references 
throughout,  and  collated  the  records  with  their  orig- 
I  inals.  Of  the  History  of  his  Own  Time  there  is  a  new 
\  ed.  (Oxf.  1833,  6  vols.  8vo).  Cheap  editions  :  History 
\ofthe  Reformation  (N.  Y.  :'■  vol.*.  8vo): — Exposition  <>/' 
I  the  39  A  rticles  (N.  Y.  8vo).  See  Macaulay,  Hist,  of  Eng- 
land, iii,  60,  61 ;  English  Cyclopaedia. 
[  Burnet,  Matthias,  I). P.,  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, was  born  at  Bottle  Hill,  X.  J.,  .Ian.  24, 1749,  and 
graduated  1769  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  In 
April,  1775,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  Jamaica,  L.I.  His  sympathy  with  England 
during  the  Revolutionary  War  rendered  him  unpopu- 
lar, and  he  resigned  May,  1785.  On  the  2d  of  Novem- 
ber he  was  made  pastor  of  the  church  in  Norwalk, 
Conn.,  where  he  labored  until  his  death,  June  30,1806. 
He  was  made  D.D.  by  Yale  College  1785.  He  pub- 
lished a  few  sermons  in  the  American  Preacher,  1791. 
— Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  92. 

Bvirnet,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Croft, 
Yorkshire.  1685,  and  educated  at  ('ami. ridge,  where 
he  became  fellow  of  Christ's,  1657.  In  1680  lie  pub- 
lished the  first  part  of  his  Telluris  Theoria  Sacra  (4to; 
best  ed.  1699),  treating  of  the  physical  changes  the 
earth  has  gone  through,  etc  Burnet  himself  trans- 
lated it  into  English,  and  in  1726  this  translation  had 
gone  through  six  editions.  The  work  was  attacked 
by  Herbert  in  1685,  Warren  in  1690, and  by  Dr.Keill, 
Savilian  professor,  in  1698.  Archbishop Tillotson,  who 
was  a  great  patron  of  Unmet,  procured  for  him  I  lie  of- 
fice of  chaplain  to  tlie  Ling;  but  the  general  dissatis- 
faction occasioned  by  the  publication  of  bis  Archceolo- 
gia  philosophica,  sive  doctrina  antiqua  d  rerum  <>rigin'- 
bus,  in   1692,  in  which  the  Mosaic  account   of  the   ball 

was  treated  with  at  bast  apparent  Levity,  and  which 

was  not  only  ini  lured  by  the  clergy,  but  applauded  by 
Charles  l'dount,  compelled  him  to  resign  bis  place  and 
retire  from  court.  He  also  wrote  De  fid  <t  officii* 
( 'hristianorum,  and  De  statu  mortui  nnn  it  resurgi  ntium, 
two  posthumous  publications  (Lond.  1723,  8vo).  He 
died  Sept.  27.  1715.  '-lew  woiks  have  called  forth 
higher  contemporary  eulogy  than  1 1><  Sacred  Theory 


BURNETT  PRIZES 


930 


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of  the  Earth.  It  will  not  indeed  stand  the  test  of  be- 
ing confronted  with  the  known  facts  of  the  history  of 
the  earth ;  and  Flamstead  observed  of  it  that  he  '  could 
overthrow  its  doctrine  on  one  sheet  of  paper,  and  that 
there  went  more  to  the  making  of  the  world  than  a 
line-turned  period.'  Its  mistakes  arise  from  too  close 
adherence  to  the  philosophy  of  Des  Cartes,  and  an  ig- 
norance of  those  facts  without  a  knowledge  of  which 
such  an  attempt,  however  ingenious,  can  only  be  con- 
sidered as  a  visionary  system  of  cosmogony;  but, 
whatever  may  be  its  failure  as  a  work  of  science,  it  has 
rarely  been  exceeded  in  splendor  of  imagination  or  in 
high  poetical  conception"  (Eng.  Ci/clopcedici).  Addi- 
son wrote  a  Latin  ode  in  praise  of  the  book  (1699), 
which  is  prefixed  to  most  editions  of  it.  Warton,  in 
his  Essay  on  Pope,  classes  Burnet  with  the  very  few  in 
whom  the  three  great  faculties,  viz.  judgment,  imagi- 
nation, and  memory,  have  been  found  united.  As  a 
theologian,  Burnet  is  not  distinguished.  In  his  trea- 
tise De  Statu  Mortunrum  he  advocates  Millenarian  doc- 
trines, and  also  the  limited  duration  of  future  punish- 
ment.— Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  iii,  300 ;  Retrospective 
Review,  vi,  133;  Allibone,  Diet.' of  Authors,  i,  298. 

Burnett  Prizes,  The,  are  two  theological  premi- 
ums, founded  by  Mr.  Burnett,  of  Dens,  Aberdeenshire. 
This  gentleman  (born  1729,  died  1784)  was  a  general 
merchant  in  Aberdeen,  and  for  many  years  during  his 
lifetime  spent  £300  annually  on  the  poor.  On  his 
death  he  bequeathed  the  fortune  he  had  made  to  found 
the  above  prizes,  as  well  as  for  the  establishment  of 
funds  to  relieve  poor  persons  and  pauper  lunatics,  and 
to  support  a  jail-chaplain  in  Aberdeen.  He  directed 
the  prize-fund  to  be  accumulated  for  40  years  at  a 
time,  and  the  prizes  (not  less  than  .£1200  and  £400)  to 
be  awarded  to  the  authors  of  the  two  best  treatises  on 
the  evidence  that  there  is  a  Being  all-powerful,  wise, 
and  good,  by  whom  everything  exists ;  and  particu- 
larly to  obviate  difficulties  regarding  the  wisdom  and 
goodness  of  the  Deity,  and  this  independent  of  written 
revelation  and  of  the  revelation  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  and 
from  the  whole  to  point  out  the  inferences  most  neces- 
sary and  useful  to  mankind.  The  competition  is  open 
to  the  whole  world,  and  the  prizes  are  adjudicated  by 
three  persons  appointed  by  the  trustees  of  the  testator. 
together  with  the  ministers  of  the  Established  Church 
of  Aberdeen,  and  the  principals  and  professors  of 
King's  and  Marischal  Colleges,  Aberdeen.  On  the 
first  competition,  in  1815,  50  essays  were  given  in ;  and 
the  judges  awarded  the  first  prize,  £1200,  to  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Lawrence  Brown,  principal  of  Marischal  College 
and  University  of  Aberdeen,  for  an  essay  entitled  The 
Kris/:  nee  of  a  Supreme  Creator;  and  the  second  prize, 
£-100,  to  the  Rev.  John  Bird  Sumner,  afterward  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  for  an  essay  entitled  Records  of 
Creation.  On  the  second  competition,  in  1855,  £08 
essays;  were  given  in ;  and  the  judges,  Rev.  Baden 
Powell,  Mr.  Henry  Kogers,  and  Mr.  Isaac  Taylor, 
awarded  the  first  prize,  £1800,  to  the  Eev.  Robert 
Anchor  Thompson,  Lincolnshire,  for  an  essay  entitled 
Christian  Theism;  and  the  second  prize,  £G00,  to  the 
Rev.  Dr.  John  Tulloch,  principal  of  St.  Mary's  College, 
St.  Andrew's,  for  an  essay  on  Theism.  The"  above  four 
essays  have  been  published  in  accordance  witli  Mr. 
Burnett's  deed. — Chambers,  Encyclopaedia;  Thompson, 
Christian  Theism  (preface). 

Burnham,  ABRAHAM,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  horn  at  Dumbarton,  N.  II.,  Nov.  IS, 
177.".,  and  graduated  at  Dartmouth,  1801.  He  became 
pastor  at  Pembroke,  X.  II.,  in  1808,  and  remained  in 
the  same  charge  until  I860, when  he  resigned  on  ac- 
count of  feeble  health.  He  died  Sept.  24,  1852.  lie 
was  for  sixteen  years  secretary  of  the  New  Hampshire 
Missionary  Society.— Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  514. 

Burning  i  the  representative  of  many  Hob.  words). 
Burning  alive  is  a  punishment  of  ancient  date,  which 
was  not  originated,  though  retained  by  Moses.     Thus, 


when  Judah  was  informed  that  his  daughter-in-law 
Tamar  was  pregnant,  he  condemned  her  to  be  burnt 
(Gen.  xxxviii,  24),  although  the  sentence  was  not  ex- 
ecuted. Burning  was  commanded  to  be  inflicted  on 
the  daughters  of  priests  who  should  prove  unchaste 
(Lev.  xxi,  9).  and  upon  a  man  who  should  marry  both 
the  mother  and  the  daughter  (Lev.  xx,  14).  The  rab- 
bins suppose  that  this  burning  consisted  in  pouring 
melted  lead  down  the  throat,  a  notion  which  may  be 
considered  as  merely  one  of  their  dreams.  Many  ages 
afterward  we  find  the  Babylonians  or  Chaldaeans  burn- 
ing certain  offenders  alive  (Jer.  xxix,  22 ;  Dan.  iii,  C), 
and  this  mode  of  punishment  was  not  uncommon  in 
the  East,  even  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Sir  J. 
Chardin  ssys,  "During  the  dearth  in  1688,  I  ,saw 
ovens  heated  on  the  royal  square  in  Ispahan  to  terrify 
the  bakers,  and  deter  them  from  deriving  advantage 
from  the  general  distress."     See  Punishment. 

Burning  at  the  stake  has  in  all  ages  been  the  fre- 
quent fate  of  Christian  martyrs  (q.  v.).  See  Auto- 
da-Fe. 

BURNING-BUSH  was  that  in  which  Jehovah  ap- 
peared to  Moses  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Horeb  (Exod.  iii, 
2).  Such  was  the  splendor  of  the  Divine  Majesty  that 
its  effulirence  dazzled  his  sight,  and  he  was  unable  to 
behold  it,  and,  in  token  of  humility,  submission,  and 
reverence,  "Moses  hid  his  face."  When  the  Hebrew 
lawgiver,  just  before  his  death,  pronounced  his  blessing 
upon  the  chosen  tribes,  he  called  to  mind  this  remark- 
able event,  and  supplicated  in  behalf  of  the  posterity  of 
Joseph  "  the  good-will  of  Him  that  dwelt  in  the  bush" 
(Deut.  xxxiii,  1G);  words  which  seem  to  indicate  in 
this  transaction  something  of  an  allegorical  or  mystical 
import,  though  there  are  various  opinions  as  to  the  par- 
ticular thing  it  was  destined  to  shadow  forth.  "  This 
fire,"  says  Bishop  Patrick,  "might  be  intended  to  show 
that  God  would  there  meet  with  the  Israelites,  and 
give  them  his  law  in  fire  and  lightning,  and  yet  not 
consume  them."  (See  Kichmaver,  De  rubro  ardente, 
Rot.  1692 ;  Schroder,  id.  Amst.  1*714.)     See  Bush. 

Burns,  Francis,  D.D.,  missionary  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  Africa,  was  born  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  December  5,  1809.  His  parents  were  so 
poor  that  at  five  years  of  age  he  was  indentured  as  a 
servant.  At  fifteen  he  was  converted,  and  soon  after 
entered  the  Lexington  Heights  Academy  to  obtain  the 
education  necessary  to  fit  him  for  the  ministry.  After 
serving  as  an  exhorter  and  local  preacher,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Mission  in  Liberia,  Africa,  in  1834,  and 
landed  in  Monrovia  October  18th.  The  first  post  as\ 
signed  him  was  as  a  teacher  at  Cape  Palmas,  under 
Rev.  A.  D.  Williams.  In  1838  he  joined  the  Liberia 
Mission  Conference;  from  1840  to  1842  was  stationed 
as  assistant  on  the  Bassa  Circuit ;  in  1843,  '44,  in  Mon- 
rovia; was  ordained  deacon  at  Brooklyn,  New  York, 
in  the  morning,  and  elder  at  New  York  in  the  after- 
noon, in  the  Mulberry  Street  church,  on  the  36th  of 
June,  184-1,  by  Bishop  E.  S.  Janes ;  returned  to  Liberia 
the  same  year,  and  at  the  next  session  of  the  Confer- 
ence was  appointed  presiding  elder  of  the  Cape  Palmas 
District;  in  1851,  by  the  direct  order  of  the  Board  in 
New  York,  he  was  removed  to  Monrovia  to  open  the 
Monrovia  Academy  and  act  as  superintendent  of  the 
Mission.  On  the  14th  of  October,  1858,  he  was  or- 
dained at  Perry,  Wyoming  county,  New  York,  by  the 
Pev.  Bishops  .Janes  and  Baker,  at  the  session  of  the 
Genesee  Conference,  according  to  the  provision  made 
by  the  General  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  held  in  1856,  to  the  office 
and  work  of  a  missionary  bishop.  He  returned  to  Li- 
beria during  that  year,  and  for  nearly  live  years  Bish- 
op Burns  devoted  himself  unceasingly  in  behalf  of  the 
Church,  until  advised  by  his  physician  to  return  to 
America.  The  voyage  did  not  benefit  him  ;  and  he 
died  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  April  19,  1S63.  See  M  miles 
of  Conferences,  1863.  p.  237 ;  Report  of  Miss.  Soc.  of 
M.  E.  Church,  1864. 


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BURNT-OFFERING 


Burnt-offering  (nV-r,  olah' ,  from  fibv,  alah',  to 
ascend;  Chalcl.  Xnbr),  a  sacrifice  which  owed  its  He- 
brew  name  to  the  circumstance  that  the  whole  of  the 
offering  was  to  be  consumed  by  fire  upon  the  altar, 
and  to  rise,  as  it  were,  in  smoke  toward  heaven.  There 
was  in  use  also  the  poetical  term  ^3,  halW,  perfect 
(Deut.  xxxiii,  10 ;  1  Sam.  vii,  9  ;  Psa.  li,  '21 ;  comp. 
Judg.xx,40);  Chald.  B^ttS;  Gr.  oAojeaurwpa  (Mark 
xii,  33;  Heb.  x,  6;  also  6\oKavrw<nc,  seldom  bXoieap- 
TrwTicor  bXoKaoTTiDpa,  in  Philo  oXoieavorov,  holocaust  >. 
entire  bwrnt-tffering,  alluding  to  the  feet  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  skin,  nothing  of  the  sacrifice  came  to 
the  share  of  the  officiatin  jc  priest  or  priests  in  the  way 
of  emolument,  it  being  whoVg  mil  entirely  consumed 
by  fire.  Such  burnt-offerings  are  among  the  most  an- 
cient (Philo,  ii,  211)  on  record  (Hesiod,  77/  ogn.  535  sq.). 
We  find  them  already  in  use  in  the  patriarchal  times; 
hence  the  opinion  of  some  that  Abel's  offering  (Gen. 
iv,  4)  was  a  burnt-offering  as  regarded  the  firstlings 
of  his  flock,  while  the  pieces  of  fat  which  he  offered 
were  a  thank-offering,  just  in  the  manner  that  Moses 
afterward  ordained,  or,  rather,  confirmed  from  ancient 
custom  (Lev.  i,  sq.).  It  was  a  burnt-offering  thai  Noah 
offered  to  the  Lord  after  the  Deluge  (Gen.  viii,  20). 
Throughout  the  whole  of  the  book  of  Genesis  (sec  xv, 
9,  17 ;  xxii,  2,  7,  8,  13)  it  appears  to  be  the  only  sacri- 
fice referred  to;  afterward  it  becam  •  distinguished  as 
one  of  the  regular  classes  of  sacrifice  under  the  Mosaic 
law.  As  all  sacrifices  are  divided  (see  Heb.  v,  1)  into 
"gifts"  and  "sacrifices  for  sin"  (i.  e.  eucharistic  and 
propitiatory  sacrifices),  of  the  former  of  these  the  burnt- 
offering  was  the  choicest  specimen.  Accordingly  (in 
Psa.  xl,  8,  9,  quoted  in  Heb.  x,  5),  we  have  first  (in 
ver.  8)  the  general  opposition  as  above  of  sacrifices 
(Qvaiat,  propitiatory)  and  offerings  (-rpoafopai)  ;  and 
then  (in  ver.  9)  "burnt-offering,"  as  representing  the 
one,  is  opposed  to  "sin-offering,"  as  representing  the 
other.  Similarly,  in  Exod.  x,  25  (less  precisely), 
"  burnt-offering"  is  contrasted  with  "sacrifice."  (So 
in  1  Sam.  xv,  22 ;  Psa.  1,  8 ;  Mark  xii,  33.)  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  distinguished  from  "meat-offerings" 
(which  were  unbloody)  and  from  "peace-offerings" 
(both  of  the  eucharistic  kind),  because  only  a  portion 
of  them  were  consumed  (sec  1  Kings  iii,  15;  viii,  64, 
etc.).  In  accordance  with  this  principle,  it  was  enact- 
ed that  with  the  burnt-offering  a  "meat-offering"  (of 
flour  and  oil)  and  "drink-offering"  of  wine  should  be 
offered,  as  showing  that,  with  themselves,  men  dedi- 
cated also  to  God  the  chief  earthly  gifts  with  which 
He  had  blessed  them  (Lev.  viii,  18,  22,  26  ;  ix,  16,  17  ; 
xiv,  20;  Exod.  xxix,  -10;  Num.  xxviii,  1,  5).  See 
each  of  these  terms  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

Originally  and  generally  all  offerings  from  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  seem  to  have  passed  under  the  name  of 
olah,  since  a  portion  at  least  of  <  m  rt)  sacrifice,  of  what- 
ever kind — nay,  that  very  portion  which  constituted 
the  offering  to  God — was  consumed  by  fire  upon  the 
altar.  In  process  of  time,  however,  when  the  sacri- 
fices became  divided  into  numerous  classes,  a  more 
limited  sense  wras  given  to  the  term  !"I5"',  it  being 
solely  applied  to  those  sacrifices  in  which  the  priests 
did  not  share,  and  which  were  intended  to  propitiate 
the  anger  of  Jehovah  fur  some  particular  transgres- 
sion. Only  oxen,  male  sheep  or  goats,  or  turtle-doves 
and  young  pigeons,  all  without  blemish,  were  lit  for 
burnt-offerings.  The  offerer  in  person  was  obliged  to 
carry  this  sacrifice  first  of  all  into  the  fore-court  as  far 
as  the  gate  of  the  tabernacle  or  t  smple,  where  the  ani- 
mal was  examined  by  the  officiating  priest  to  ascer- 
tain that  it  was  without  blemish.  The  offerer  then 
laid  his  hand  upon  the  victim,  confessing  his  sins,  and 
dedicated  it  as  his  sacrifice  to  propitiate  the  Almighty. 
The  animal  was  then  killed  (which  might  be  done  by 
the  offerer  himself )  toward  the  north  of  the  altar  (Lev. 
i,  11),  in  allusion,  as  the  Talmud  alleges,  to  the  com- 


ing of  inclement  weather  (typical  of  the  Divine  wrath) 
from  the  northern  quarter  of  the  heavens.  Alter  this 
began  the  ceremony  of  taking  up  the  blood  and  sprink- 
ling it  around  the  altar,  that  is,  upon  the  lower  part 
of  the  altar,  not  immediately  upon  it,  lest  it  should 
extinguish  the  tire  thereon  (Lev.  iii.  2;    Deut.  xii,  27; 

2  Chron.  xxix,  22),  See  Sacrifice.  In  the  Talmud 
(tract  Zebachim,  see.  i,  eh.  li  various  laws  arc  pre- 
scribed concerning  this  sprinkling  of  the  blood  of  the 
burnt-offering;  among  others,  that  it  should  be  per- 
formed about  the  middle  of  tile  altar,  below  the  red 
line,  and  only  twice,  so  as  to  form  the  figure  of  the 
Greek  V:  also,  that  the  priest  must  first  take  his 
stand  east  of  the  altar,  sprinkling  in  that  position  first 
to  the  east  and  then  to  the  west;  which  done,  he  was 
to  shift  his  position  to  the  west,  sprinkling  again  to  the 
east  and  west  ;  and,  lastly,  only  round  about  the  altar, 
as  prescribed  in  Lev.  i,  5.  The  next  act  was  the  skin- 
ning or  flaying  of  the  animal,  and  the  cutting  of  it  into 
pieces — actions  winch  the  offerer  himself  was  allowed 
to  perform  (Lev.  i,  (J).  The  skin  alone  belonged  to 
the  officiating  priest  (Lev.  vii,  8).  The  dissection  "f 
the  animal  began  with  the  head,  legs,  etc..  and  it  was 
divided  into  twelve  pieces.  The  priest  then  took  the 
right  shoulder,  breast,  and  entrails,  and  placing  them 
in  the  hands  of  the  offerer,  he  put  his  own  hands  be- 
neath those  of  the  former,  and  thus  waved  the  sacri- 
fice up  and  down  several  times  in  acknowledgment  of 
the  all-powerful  presence  of  God  (tract  Cholin,  i.  3), 
The  officiating  priest  then  retraced  his  steps  to  the  altar. 
placed  the  wood  upon  it  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  light- 
ed the  fire.  The  entrails  and  legs  being  cleansed  with 
water,  the  separated  pieces  were  placed  together  upon 
the  altar  in  the  form  of  a  slain  animal.  Poor  people 
were  allowed  to  bring  a  turtle-dove  or  a  young  pigeon 
as  a  burnt-offering,  these  birds  being  very  common 
and  cheap  in  Palestine  (Maimonides,  Moreh  7V<  vochim, 
iii,  46).  With  regard  to  these  latter,  nothing  is  said 
about  the  sex,  whether  they  were  to  be  males  or  fe- 
males. The  mode  of  killing  them  was  by  nipping  off 
the  head  with  the  nails  of  the  hand.  The  following 
kinds  of  burnt-offering  may  lie  distinguished. 

1.  Standing  public  bnritt-nff  rings  were  those  used 
daily  morning  and  evening  (Num.  xxviii.  :'<■,  Exod. 
xxix.  38),  and  on  the  three  great  festivals  (Lev.  xxiii, 
37;  Num.  xxviii,  11  27;  xxix,  2-22;  Lev.  xvi,  3; 
comp.  2  Chron.  xxxv,  12-16).  Thus  there  were,  (1.) 
The  daily  bin;)/-,,;;  ring,  a  lamb  of  the  first  year,  sacri- 
ficed every  morning  and  evening  (with  an  offering  of 
flour  and  wine)  for  the  people  (Exod.  xxix.  38  12; 
Num.  xxviii,  3-8).     (2.)   The  Sabbath   bumUoffering, 

|  double  of  that  which  was  offered  every  day  (Num. 
xxviii,  8  10).     (3.)  The  offering  at  the  new  moon,  at  the 

\three  great  festivals,  ih  great  1>  ig  of  Atonement,  and 
feast  of  trumpets:  generally  two  bullocks,  a  ram,  and 
seven  lambs.      (See  Num.  xxviii,  11-xxix,  39.) 

2.  Private  burnt-offerings  were  appointed  at  the  con- 
secration of  priests  (Exod.  xxix,  15;  Lev.  viii,  18; 
ix,  12),  at  the  purification  of  women  (Lev.  xii,  6,  8), 
at  the  cleansing  of  Lepers  (  Lev.  xiv,  19),  and  remov- 
al of  other  ceremonial  uncleanness  (xv,  15,  80),  on 
any  accidental  breach  of  the  Nazaritic  vow,  or  at  its 
conclusion  (Num.  vi ;  comp.  Acts  xxi,  26),  etc. 

.'!.  But  fr<  i  -irill  hnrnt-ii \j'<  rings  were  offered  and  ac- 
cepted by  God  on  any  solemn  occasion-,  as.  for  ex- 
ample, at  the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle  (Num.  vii) 
and  of  the  Temple  (1  Kings  viii.  CD.  when  they  were 
offered  in  extraordinary  abundance.  But,  except  on 
Bueh  occasions,  the  nature,  the  extent,  and  the  place 
of  the  sacrifice  were  expressly  limited  by  God,  SO  that. 
while  all  should  be  unblemished  and  pure,  there  should 
be  no  idea  (as  among  the  heathen  i  of  buying  His  favor 

by  costliness  of  sacrifice.      ( )f  this  law  Jephthah's  VOW 

I  if.  as  some  think,  his  daughter  be  the  sacrifice  meant  i 
was  a  transgression,  consistent  with  the  semi-heathen- 
ish character  of  his  early  day-  (see  Judg.  \i.  '■'•.  24). 

The  sacrifice  of  cows  in  1  Sam.  vi,  11  was  also  a  formal 


BURNT-OFFERING 


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BURNT-OFFERING 


infraction  of  it,  excised  by  the  probable  ignorance  of 
the  people  and  the  Bpeci  il  nature  of  the  occasion.     In 
short,  burnt-offering  were  ill  use  almost  on  all  impor- 
tant occasions,  events,  and  solemnities,  whether  pri- 
vate or  public,  and  often  in  very  large  numbers  (comp. 
Judg.  xx,  26 ;  1  Sam.  vii.  9;  2  Chron.  xxxi,  2;  1  Kings 
iii,  4:  1  Chron.  xxix,  21;  2  Chron.  xxix,  21;   Ezra 
vi,  17;  viii,  35).     Heathens  also  were  allowed  to  offer 
burnt-offerings  in  the  temple,  and  Augustus  gave  or- 
ders to  sacrifice  for  him  every  day  in  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  a  burnt-offering,  consisting  of  two  lambs 
and  one  ox  (Philo,  Opp.  ii,  592;  Josephus,  War,  ii,  17, 
2  :  Apian,  ii,  6).     See  Reland,  Antiq.  Sacr.  iii,  2,  p.  294 
m[.  ;  Lightfoot,  Minister.  Templi,  viii,  1;  Bauer,  Gottesd. 
Verfass.  i,  174  sq. ;  Sperbach,  De  Htbrcpor.  holocaustis 
(Viteb.  1769).—  Kitto ;  Smith.     See  Offering. 

BlTiXT-OFFERIXG,  ALTAR  OF.  It  does  not 
appear  that  any  peculiar  form  of  altar  had  been  deliv 
ered  to  the  true  worshippers  of  God  down  to  the  period 
of  the  giving  of  the  law  ;  and,  as  far  as  can  be  gathered 
from  the  records  of  the  patriarchal  religion,  the  simplest 
structures  seem  to  have  been  deemed  sufficient.  But 
at  the  institution  of  the  tabernacle  worship  specific  in 
structions  were  given  for  the  erection  of  the  altar,  or 
of  the  two  altars,  that  of  burnt-offering  and  that  of  in- 
cense. It  was  the  former  of  these,  however,  that  was 
emphatically  called  the  altar,  as  it  was  on  it  that  all 
sacrifices  of  blood  were  presented,  while  the  other  was 
simply  placed  as  a  stand  or  table  within  the  taberna- 
cle for  the  officiating  priest  to  use  in  connection  with 
the  pot  of  incense.  With  regard  to  this  altar,  prior  to 
any  instructions  concerning  the  erection  of  the  taber- 
nacle, and  immediately  after  the  delivery  of  the  ten 
commandments  from  Sinai,  the  following  specific  di- 
rections were  given:  "An  altar  of  earth  shalt  thou 
make  unto  me,  and  shalt  sacrifice  thereon  thy  burnt- 
offerings,"  etc. ;  "And  if  thou  wilt  make  me  an  altar 
of  stone,  thou  shalt  not  make  it  of  hewn  stone  ;  for  if 
thou  lift  up  thy  tool  upon  it  thou  hast  polluted  it;  nei- 
ther shalt  thou  go  up  by  steps  unto  mine  altar,  that 
thy  nakedness  be  not  discovered  thereon"  (Exod.  xx, 
24-26).  There  is  here  an  evident  repudiation  of  all 
pomp  and  ornament  in  connection  with  this  altar  of 
burnt-offering — the  preferable  material  to  be  used  in  it 
being  earth,  or,  if  stone,  yet  stone  unhewn,  and  con- 
sequently not  graven  by  art  or  man's  device.  The 
reason  of  this  cannot  be  sought  in  any  general  dislike 
to  the  costly  and  ornamental  in  divine  worship,  for  in 
the  structure  of  tli3  tabernacle  itself,  and  still  more, 
afterward,  in  the  erection  of  the  temple,  both  the  rich- 
est materials  and  the  most  skillful  artificers  were  em- 
ployed. It  is  rather  to  be  sought  in  the  general'pur- 
port  and  design  of  the  altar,  which  was  such  as  to  con- 
sist best  with  the  simplest  form,  and  materials  of  the 
plainest  description;  for  it  was  peculiarly  the  monu- 
ment and  remembrancer  of  man's  sin  —  the  special 
meeting-place  between  God  and  his  creatures,  as  sin- 
ful; (in  which  account  it  must  be  perpetually  receiv- 
ing the  blood  of  slain  victims,  since  the  way  to  fellow- 
ship with  God  for  guilty  beings  could  only  be  found 
through  an  avenue  of  death  (Fairbairn,  Ttmoloqii,  ii. 

In  the  directions  afterward  given  (Exod.  xxvii,  1-8) 
fox  the  construction  of  the  altar  that  was  to  be  placed 
in  the  outer  court  of  the  tabernacle,  it  may  seem 
Strange  that  no  explicit  mention  is  made  either  of 
earth  or  of  stone.  It  was  to  be  made  of  shittim  or 
acacia  WOOt^  overlaid  with  brass;  to  be  in  form  a 
square  of  five  cubits,  in  height  three  cubits,  and  with 
projecting  points  <ir  "horns"  at  each  of  the  four  cor- 
ners. It  was  to  In-  made  '•hollow  with  boards,"  and 
Jewish  writers  have  held  that  this  hollow  space  be- 
tween the  boards  was  to  be  filled  with  earth  or  stones 
when  the  altar  was  fixed  in  a  particular  place  ;  so  that 
thy  original  direction  applied  also  to  it.  and  the  boards 
mighl  lie  regarded  a-  having  their  chief  use  in  holding 
the  earth  or  stones  together,  and  supporting  the  fire- 


Altar  of  Burnt-offering— according  to  Meyer. 
A,  the  space  between  the  boards,  over  which  the  utensils  fir 
fire  and  ashes  were  placed,  while  within  were  stones  or 
earth  ;  B  B,  the  net-work  grating,  with  the  projecting  ledge, 
as  described  in  Kxod.  xxvii,  4,  5;  C,  the  carenh  or  ledge  it- 
self, projecting  from  the  middle  of  the  altar ;  II,  the  incline 
toward  it  on  one  side,  for  the  officiating  priest  to  ascend  by, 
formed  of  earth  or  stones;  abed,  the  horns  or  corner  pro- 
jections of  the  altar. 

place,  with  the  fuel  and  the  sacrifice.  Having  an  ele- 
vation of  no  more  than  4i  or  5  feet,  no  steps  could  be 
required  for  the  officiating  priest;  a  mere  ledge  or 
projecting  border  on  the  side  would  be  quite  sufficient, 
with  a  gentle  incline  toward  it,  formed  of  earth  or 
stones.  This  seems  really  to  have  been  provided  by 
the  original  construction  of  the  altar  according  to  the 
now  commonly  received  interpretation  of  Exod.  xxvii, 
4,  5,  where  it  is  said,  "And  thou  shalt  make  for  it  [the 
altar]  a  grate  of  net-work  of  brass  ;  and  upon  the  net 
shalt  thou  make  four  brazen  rings  in  the  four  corners 
thereof;  and  thou  shalt  put  it  under  the  compass 
[—""IS,  karkob',  circuit  or  border,  as  the  word  seems 
to  mean]  of  the  altar  beneath,  that  the  net  may  be 
even  to  the  midst  of  the  altar;"  that  is,  as  Yon  Meyer 
has  explained  (Bibeldentunc/en,  p.  201),  there  was  a  sort 
of  terrace  or  projecting  board  half  way  up  the  altar 
and  compassing  it  about,  on  which  the  priests  might 
stand,  or  articles  connected  with  the  sacrifice  might  be 
laid;  and  this  was  to  be  supported  by  a  grating  of 
brass  underneath,  of  net-like  construction,  as  exhibited 
in  the  preceding  cut.  See  Grate.  This  pattern 
probably  approaches,  nearer  than  any  other  that  has 
been  presented,  to  the  altar  originally  formed  to  ac- 
company' the  tabernacle.  The  older  and  still  very 
prevalent  idea  of  its  structure  differs  chiefly  with  re- 
gard to  the  network  of  brass,  which  it  regards  as  the 
grating  for  the  fire,  and  as  furnished  with  four  rings, 
that  it  might  be  sunk  down  within  the  boards  and  at 
some  distance  from  them ;  as  exhibited,  for  example, 
in  the  annexed  cut,  which  is  essentially  the  represen- 


Altar  of  Burnt-offering— according  to  Friederich  (SmnboHlc). 

tation  of  Witsius  (Miseell.  Sacra,  i,  333),  often  repro- 
duced with  little  variation.  The  chief  objection  to  this 
form  is  that  it  places  the  net-work  of  brass  near  the 
top  and  within  the  boards,  instead  of  making  it,  as  the 
description  seems  to  require,  from  the  ground  upward 
to  the  middle,  and  consequently  outside — a  support,  in 
short,  for  the  projecting  karkob,  or  margin,  not  for  the 
fire  and  the  sacrifice.  The  articles  connected  with  the 
fire  are  not  minutely  described,  but  are  included  in  the 
enumeration  given  at  ver.  3:  "And  thou  shalt  make 
his  pans  to  receive  his  ashes,  and  his  shovels,  and  his 
basins,  and  his  flesh-hooks,  and  his  fire-pans;  all  the 
vessels  thereof  thou  shalt  make  of  brass."  The  prob- 
ability is  that  there  was  no  grating  upon  the  top,  but 
simply  the  pans  for  fire  and  ashes  resting  upon  stones 
or  earth  within  the  boards;  and  thus  these  might 


BURR 


933 


BURTON 


easily  be  scraped  or  removed  for  cleaning,  as  occasion 
required. — Fair  bairn.     See  Pan. 

In  the  arrangements  made  for  adapting  the  instru- 
ments of  worship  to  the  larger  proportions  of  the  tem- 
ple, the  altar  of  burnt-offering  necessarily  partook  of 
the  general  character  of  the  change.  It  became  now 
a  square  of  20  cubits  instead  of  5,  and  was  raised  to 
the  height  of  10  cubits ;  it  was  made  also  entirely  of 
brass,  but  in  other  respects  it  was  probably  much  the 
same.  The  altar  attached  to  the  temple  of  Herod,  we 
learn  from  Josephus,  again  greatly  exceeded  in  di- 
mensions that  of  the  temple  of  Solomon.  "  Before 
the  temple,"  says  lie  (War,  v,  5, 6),  "stood  the  altar, 
15  cubits  high,  and  equal  in  length  and  breadth,  being 
each  way  50  cubits.  It  was  built  in  the  figure  of  a 
square,  and  it  had  corners  like  horns  (literally,  jutting 
up  into  horn-shaped  corners — KeparottSiic  wpoavlYuw 
yuviac~),  and  the  passage  up  to  it  was  by  an  insensible 
acclivity."  This  was,  no  doubt,  with  the  view  of 
meeting  the  requirement  in  Exod.  xx,  2(5 ;  and  in  like 
manner,  for  the  purpose  of  complying  with  the  in- 
struction to  avoid  any  hewn  work,  it  was,  we  are  told, 
"formed  without  any  iron  tool,  nor  was  it  ever  so 
much  as  touched  by  such  iron  tool."  In  this  latter 
statement  the  Mishna  agrees  with  Josephus ;  but  it 
differs  materially  as  to  the  dimensions,  making  the 
base  only  a  square  of  32  cubits,  and  the  top  of  2G,  so 
that  it  is  impossible  to  pronounce  with  certainty  upon 
the  exact  measurement.  But  there  can  be  little  doubt 
it  was  eonsiderablj'  larger  than  Solomon's,  as  it  was  a 
leading  part  of  Herod's  ambition,  in  his  costly  repara- 
tion of  the  temple,  to  make  all  his  external  proportions 
superior  to  that  which  had  preceded.  It  also  had,  we 
are  informed,  what  must  in  some  form  have  belonged 
to  the  altar  of  the  first  temple,  a  pipe  connected  with 
the  south-west  horn,  for  conveying  away  the  blood  of 
the  sacrifices.  This  discharged  itself  by  a  subterra- 
nean passage  into  the  brook  Kedron  [Marcus,  Be  sacer- 
dot.  IIebro?or.  quibusd.  c.  altaris  snfit.functhmibus  (Jena, 
1700)  ;  Schlichter,  Be  suffitu  sacro  Hebreeorum  (Halle, 
1754);  Elijah  ben-Hirsch,  HStrri  tYtta  bv  Itt&W 
(Freft.  a.  M.  1714)  ;  Gartmann,  Be  Ilebncorum  altari 
suffitus  (Wittenb.  1699-1700)].     See  Ai.tak. 

Burr,  Aaron,  a  distinguished  Presbyterian  divine 
and  father  of  the  Vice-president  of  the  same  name,  was 
born  in  Fairfield,  Conn.,  Jan.  4,  171G,  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1735,  and  received  license  to  preach 
in  the  following  year.  Having  labored  eleven  years 
in  Hanover  and  Newark,  he  became  president  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey  in  1747.  He  discharged  the 
duties  of  both  president  and  pastor  until  1755,  when 
the  pastoral  relation  was  dissolved,  and  he  gave  his 
whole  lime  to  the  service  of  the  college.  In  1752  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  who   sur 


never  vigorous,  failed,  and  in  1855  he  took  a  super- 
annuated relation.  In  the  same  year  be  was  elected 
president  of  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Female  College,  in 
which  office  he  remained  until  his  health  failed  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1856.  He  resigned  and  returned  to  Ithaca, 
where  he  died  in  May,  1856.  "As  a  preacher  he  was 
able  and  eloquent,  but  peculiarly  fervent  and  self-sac- 
rificing."— Minutt  s  of  Conferences,  vi,  93 ;  Peck,  Early 
Methodism  (N.  V.  I860, 12mo). 

Burrough,  Edward,  a  persecuted  Quaker,  was 
born  at  Kendal,  Westmoreland,  in  K>:'4,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Church  of  England,  but  became  first  a 
Presbyterian  and  afterward  a  Quaker.  He  devoted 
himself  earnestly  to  the  propagation  of  the  principles 
of  the  Friends,  and  was  imprisoned  in  1G54.  On  re- 
gaining his  liberty,  he  went  to  Ireland  and  labored 
there,  and  afterward  returned  to  London.  During 
Cromwell's  time,  though  he  did  not  spare  the  Protect- 
or, he  was  unmolested  ;  but  the  government  of  Charles 
II,  as  is  usual  witli  monarchical  governments,  was 
less  generous,  and  Burrough  was  put  into  Newgate, 
and  kept  there  till  his  death.  His  writings,  including 
The  Trumpet  of  the  Lord,  and  numerous  controversial 
tracts,  were  collected  in  1672  (1  vol.  fob). — Kose,  New 
Biographical  Dictionary. 

Burroughes,  Jekemiah,  a  learned  Puritan  divine, 
was  born  1599,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  whence  he 
was  ejected  for  nonconformity.  In  1631  he  was  made 
rector  of  Titshall,  but  was  deprived  in  1036,  when  he 
went  to  Rotterdam,  and  became  pastor  of  an  English 
congregation  there.  Returning  to  England,  he  be- 
came pastor  of  two  of  the  most  important  independent 
congregations  in  London.  He  died  1646.  His  chief 
work  is  Exposition  of  Rosea  (Lond.  1643-51,  4  vols. 
4to;  new  ed.  Lond.  1842,  imp.  8vo).  Besides  this  he 
published  Sermons  on  Christian  Contentment  (Lond. 
1650,  4to) :— The  Choice  of  Moses  (Lond.  1650,  4to)  :— 
Gospel  Reconciliation  (Lond.  1657,  4ti.) :  — 'Sermons  on 
Gospel  Worship  (Lond.  1658,  4to)  :  —  Gospel  fit  mission. 
(Lond.  1654,  4to): — The  Saint's  Happiness,  Lectures  <-n 
the  Beatitudes  (Lond.  1660,  4to) ;  and  several  other  ex- 
cellent practical  treatises. 

Burroughs,  Geokge,  a  Congregational  minister, 
the  time  and  place  of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  1670.  He  became  pastor  in  Salem 
Village,  Nov.  25,  1680,  having  previously  preached  in 
Falmouth,  Me.  He  resigned  in  1685,  and  returned  to 
Falmouth,  where  he  remained  until  1690,  after  which 
his  place  of  residence  is  not  certainly  known.  <  >n  the 
3d  of  August,  1692,  he  was  tried  for  witchcraft  in  Bos- 
ton, and  executed  on  "Gallows  Hill,"  Aug.  19,  Cot- 
ton Mather  aiding  and  abetting!— Sprague,  Annuls, 
i,  ISO. 

Bursfelde,  a  Benedictine  abbey  near  Gottingen, 


vived  him  about  ayear.      He  died  Sept.  24 1/67.    Mr.  ,  Q  f()Umkd  m  lm.     The  abbot,  John  von  11a- 

Uurr  entered  warmly  into  the  great  revival  that 'took  •         organized    a    congregation   here   for  the 

place  in  the  early  part  of  h,8  mrn.s  ry,  and  was  mm     &J     ^^^  (l],s,rvaU(.(,  aI1(1  the  ruW  of  his 
innate  relations  with  Whrtefield   the  Tennen  s,  and  i<m  „,,,.,  received  in  136  convents  and  many 

many  other  promoters  of    he  work.      He  was  the  an-  »     •  congelation    was   approved   by  the 

thorofa  "Latin Grammar    and  of  several  pamphlets.   r()Um.n  <lfI?aslc  in  ,.,-.„,;  :ui(Hinallv  bv  Pius  II.     Af- 
-Sprague,  Annals,  in,  68.  ^  ^  -t  a(.lli(,V(,(1  ^,„t  distinction,    'it  existed  until 

Burr,  Jonathan,  a  Congregational  minister,  born   m)^  wben  thc  ^  conventa  belonging  to  it  were  sup- 
Since  the  Reformation  the  abbey  of  Burs- 


in  Redgrave,  Suffolk  Co:,  England.  He  preached  in 
Reckingshal,  Suffolk  Co.,  until  silenced  for  non-con- 
formity, and  in  1639  he  came  to  New  England.  In 
Feb.  1640,  he  became  associate  pastor  of  the  church  in 
Dorchester,  and  died  Aug.  9,  1641.— Sprague,  Annals, 
i,  123. 

Burritt,  Charles  D.,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1828,  of 
pious  parents.  In  1841  he  entered  the  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity,  and  distinguished  himself  there  for  thorough- 
ness, especially  in  the  exact  sciences.  In  1844  he  was 
made  tutor,  and  occupied  that  post  for  a  year  and  a 
half  with  great  success.  In  1846  he  entered  the  itine- 
rant ministry  in  the  Oneida  Conference  ;  but  his  health, 


pressed. 

felde  has  had  a  Lutheran  abbot. 

Eurton,  Asa,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
born  at  Stoningtoii,  Conn.,  Aug.  26,  1752.  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  1777.  In  177'.t  he  was  installed  pastor 
in  Thetford,  where  he  labored  with  signal  success  un- 
til  his  death,   May  1,   1886.      Be   was   made    I'.D.   by 

Middlebnry  College,  1804.     lie  published  Essays  on 
some  of  the  fist  Principle  s  of  Metaphysics,  Ethics,  and 

T/i<ol',/>/  (1824,  8vo),  and  a  number  of  occasional  ser- . 
mons. — Sprague,  Annals,  ii,  140. 

Burton,  Edward,  D.D.,  professor  of  divinity  at 
Oxford,  was  bom  at  Shrewsbury,  1794,  educated  at 


BURTON 


934 


BUSH 


ChrL-t  Church,  Oxford,  became  select  preacher  to  the 
University  in  1.S24,  and  professor  in  1829.  He  died  in 
1836.  Dr.  Burton  was  a  most  untiring  student,  and 
his  writings  are  of  decided  value  both  in  theology  and 
Church  history.  The  chief  of  them  are,  Inquiry  into 
the  Heresies  of  the  Apostolic  Age  (Bampton  Lecture, 
0x£  1829,  8vo): — Testimonies  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fa- 
thers to  thi  Divinity  of  Christ  and  to  the  Trinity  (Oxf. 
1829  and  1831,  2  vols.  8vo):— History  of  the  Church 
from  the  Ascension  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  Conversion  of 
Constantine  (Lond.  1836,  small  8vo,  8th  ed.  l!-'50)  :— 
8  rm  jus  preached  before  the  University  (Lond.  1832, 
8\-o) :— The  Greek  Testament,  with  English  Notes  (1830, 
2  vols.  8vo): — An  Attempt  to  ascertain  the  Chronology 
of  the  Acts  and  Pauline  Epistles  (1830,  8vo):—  Lectures 
on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  'he  first  Three  Centuries 
(1833,  2  vols.  8vo;  3d  ed.  Oxf.  18-1 5,  8vo);  also  edi- 
tions of  Cranmer's  Catechism,  Pearson  on  the  Creed, 
Bishop  Bull's  Works,  and  the  Canons  of  Eusebius. 
An  edition  of  his  works,  with  a  memoir,  has  been  pub- 
lished by  Parker  (Oxford,  5  vols.). 

Burton,  Henry,  a  Puritan  divine,  was  born  at 
Birsall,  Yorkshire,  1579,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  appointed  clerk  of  the 
closet  to  prince  Charles,  but  was  dismissed  in  1625  for 
criticizing  Laud's  popish  tendencies.  In  1626  he  be- 
came rector  of  St.  Matthew's,  in  Friday  Street,  Lon- 
don, and  was,  in  December,  1636,  summoned  before  the 
Star-Chamber  for  two  ''seditious  sermons."  He  was 
suspanded,  sentenced  to  be  imprisoned  for  life,  to  lose 
his  ears  in  the  pillory,  and  to  pay  a  line  of  £5000. 
Burton  bore  his  sufferings  in  the  pillory  with  great 
firmness,  amid  the  sympathetic  cries  of  the  bystand- 
ers. He  was  released  from  imprisonment  in  1640  by 
the  Long  Parliament,  which  restored  him  to  the  exer- 
cise of  his  orders  and  to  his  benefice.  He  afterward 
became  an  Independent,  and  died  Jan.  7,  1648.  His 
controversial  writings  were  very  numerous ;  a  list  of 
seventy  is  given  \ry  Anthony  Wood.  See  Life  of 
Henry' Burton  (Lond.  1643,  4to). 

Burton,  Hezekiah,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge,  of  which 
he  became  fellow  and  tutor.  In  1667  he  was  made 
chaplain  to  lord-keeper  Bridgman,  who  also  appointed 
him  prebendary  of  Norwich  and  rector  of  St.  Mary's, 
Southwark.  In  1668  he  shared  with  Tillotson  and 
StiUingfleet  in  the  Bridgman  treaty,  designed  to  com- 
prehend dissenters  in  the  Church  of  England.  The 
plan,  though  favored  by  the  more  enlightened  church- 
men, and  also  by  Bates  and  Baxter,  fell  through  from 
the  bigotry  of  extreme  partisans  on  both  sides.  In 
1680  lie  became  rector  of  Barnes,  Surrey,  and  died  in 
1681,  leaving  Discourses  (2  vols.  8vo,  Lond.  1684),  pub- 
iished  by  Tillotson,  with  an  Introduction,  after  Bur- 
ten's  death. — Hook,  Eccl.  Biography,  ii,  304;  Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibliographica,  i,  520. 

Burton,  John,  an  English  divine,  was  born  at 
Wembworthy,  Devonshire,  in  1696,  and  studied  at 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  where  he  became  tu- 
tor in  171:;.  In  1733  he  became  fellow  of  Eton,  and 
Boon  after  obtained  the  living  of  Mapledurham,  in  Ox- 
fordshire. He  became  rector  of  Worplesdon  in  1766, 
and  died  Feb.  11.  1771.  His  works  include  Sermons 
(2  vols.  8vo):  —  Dissertations  ««  Samuel:  —  Opuscula 
Miscellanea  Thcologica: — Genuineness  of  Lord  Claren- 
don's History,  against  Oldmixon  (Lond.  1744) : — Papists 
an  l  Pharisees  compared,  in  opposition  to  Philips' s  Life 
of  Poll  (Lond.  1766).  His  name  is  also  ^iven  to  an 
excellent  edition  of  jive  Greek  plays,  called  ThePenta- 
logia  (2  vols.  8vo);  but  it  was  really  by  Bingham,  one 
of  his  pupils,  who  died  early,  and  was  brought  out  after 
Ms  de  ith  by  Burton.— Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  ii,  312. 

Burton,  Robert,  was  born  at  Lindley,  Feb.  8, 
1576,  studied  at  Oxford,  and  died  in  Jan.",  1639-40; 
he  was  student  of  Christ  Church,  vicar  of  St.  Thomas, 
in  Oxford,  and  rector  of  Seagrave,  in  Leicestershire. 


He  is  only  known  as  the  author  of  the  celebrated  Anat- 
omy of  Melancholy,  first  published  in  1621,  4to,  of  which 
many  editions  have  been  printed,  and  which  still  holds 
a  foremost  place  in  literature.  Sterne  often  borrows 
from  it  without  acknowledgment. 

Bury,  Arthur,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Devon,  and  was 
educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  be- 
came principal.  He  was  ejected  by  the  Parliament, 
but  at  the  Restoration  he  was  reappointed,  and  also 
made  prebendary  of  Exeter  and  chaplain  to  Charles 
II.  When  William  III  was  seeking  to  unite  the  dif- 
ferent Protestant  bodies,  Bury  wrote  a  book  called 
The  Naked  Gospel  (Lond.  1600,  4to),  in  which  he  re- 
duced both  doctrine  and  practice  to  their  simplest 
forms,  in  order  to  furnish  a  common  platform  for  all 
parties.     As  is  usual  with  mediators,  he  pleased  no- 

,  bod_v ;  and  besides,  having  asserted  in  his  book  that  a 
belief  in  the  divinity  of  Christ  was  not  essential  to  sal- 
vation, he  brought  a  storm  upon  himself  which  drove 

,  him  from  his  preferments.     His  book  was  burnt  by 

I  order  of  the  University.  He  afterward  had  a  bitter 
controversy  with  Jurieu.     The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 

\  known. — Rose,  Neio  Biog.  Dictionary. 

Busby,  Richard,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Lutton,  in 
Lincolnshire,  Sept.  22,  1606.  He  was  educated  at 
Westminster  School  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.     "  So 

I  low  were  his  finances  that  his  fees  for  the  degrees  of 
bachelor  and  master  of  arts  were  defrayed  by  donation 
from  the  parish  of  St.  Margaret,  Westminster,  £5  hav- 
ing been  given  him  for  the  former,  and  £6  13s.  4(7.  for 

;  the  latter.  This  favor  he  gratefully  acknowledged  in 
his  will  bj'  leaving  £50  to  the  poor  housekeepers  in 
that  parish,  having  already  bequeathed  to  the  parish 
for  charitable  purposes  an  estate  of  £525  per  annum, 
and  very  nearly  £5000  in  personal  property.     In  1619 

:  he  was  admitted  to  the  prebend  and  rectory  of  Cud- 
worth  in  the  church  of  Wells,  and  on  the  13th  of  De- 
cember in  the  following  year  he  was  appointed  head 
master  of  Westminster  School,  in  which  occupation  he 

j  labored  more  than  half  a  century,  and  by  his  diligence, 
learning,  and  assiduity  has  become  the  proverbial  rep- 
resentative of  his  class.  In  Jul}-,  1660,  he  was  in- 
stalled as  prebendary  of  Westminster,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing August  he  became  canon  residentiary  and 
treasurer  of  Wells.  At  the  coronation  of  Charles  II 
in  1661,  he  had  the  honor  of  carrying  the  ampulla. 
His  benefactions  were  numerous  and  most  liberal,  and 

|  he  was  a  man  of  great  personal  piety.     He  died  April 

t  6, 1695,  full  of  years  and  reputation,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  His  works  were  principally 
for  the  use  of  his  school,  and  consist  for  the  most  part 
either  of  expurgated  editions  of  certain  classics  which 
he  wished  his  boys  to  read  in  a  harmless  form,  or 
grammatical  treatises,  chiefly  in  a  metrical  form.  The 
severity  of  his  discipline  is  traditional,  but  it  does  not 

I  appear  to  rest  upon  any  sound  authority ;  and,  strange 

I  as  it  may  appear,  no  records  are  preserved  of  him  in 
the  school  over  which  he  so  long  presided."' — English 
Cyclopaedia;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biography,  ii,  320. 

Busenbaum,  Hermann,  a  Jesuit  writer  on  mor- 
al theology  of  great  repute  in  the  Roman  Church, 
born  1600,'in  Westphalia,  and  died  in  1688.  His  Me- 
dulla Theologice  Mpralis  (Paris,  1669)  carried  out  the 
true  ultramontane  theory  of  the  pope's  authority  over 
human  governments  and  over  the  lives  of  kings  so 
fully  that  it  was  burnt  in  1761  by  order  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris.  It,  has  passed  through  50  editions,  and 
is  still  reprinted.  It  was  enlarged  by  Lacroix  to  2 
vols.  fol.  (Col.  1758). 

Bush  (iPttb,  seneh';  Sept.  and  N.  T.  fiuroc)  oc- 
curs in  the  account  of  the  burning-bush,  in  which  Je- 
hovah manifested  himself  to  Moses  at  Horeb  (Exod. 
iii,  2,  3,  4;  Deut.  xxxiii,  16;  2  Esdr.  xiv,  1,  3;  Matt, 
xii,  26;  Acts  vii,  30)T  and  signifies  a  thorn,  more  par- 
ticularly the  bramble  (q.  v.).  But  Pococke  observes 
that  the  bramble  does  not  at  all  grow  in  these  regions. 


BUSH 


935 


BUTLER 


Gcsenius  states  that  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  word  seneh,  I 
which  is  the  same  as  the  Hebrew,  denotes  the  ft  nna, 
folia  sennas.  We  know  that  this  plant  is  an  indigene 
of  Arabia.  Rosenmuller  inclines  to  tin;  opinion  that 
the  holy  bush  was  of  the  hawthorn  species.  Prof.  Rob- 
inson, in  1838,  saw  on  the  mountains  of  I  lord)  a  wil- 
low and  two  hawthorns  growing,  with  many  shrubs,  and 
great  quantities  of  fragrant  hyssop  and  thyme.  What 
particular  plant  or  bush  seneh  denotes  it  is  difficult  to 
say.  See  Thorn.  The  professor,  while  resting  at 
the  ancient  convent  of  Sinai,  saw  the  great  church. 
He  says,  "Back  of  the  altar  we  were  shown  the  chap- 
el covering  the  place,  where  the  burning-bush  is  said 
to  have  stood,  now  regarded  as  the  most  holy  spot  in 
the  peninsula;  and  as  Moses  put  off  his  shoes  in  or- 
der to  approach  it,  so  all  who  now  visit  it  must  do  the 
same.  The  spot  is  covered  with  silver,  and  the  whole 
chapel  richly  carpeted.  Near  by  they  show  also  the 
well  from  which  (as  they  say)  Moses  watered  Jethro's 
flocks"  (Researches,  i,  144).     See  Burning-bush. 

The  Hebrew  word  rendered  '•bushes"  in  Job  xxx, 
4,  7,  is  nnb  (si'acA),  and  means  shrubs  in  general,  as 
in  Gen.  ii,  5;  xxi.  15.  The  only  ether  word  so  ren- 
dered (~"V~~:,  nahahlim',  margin,  "commendable 
trees")  in  our  version  of  Isa.  vii,  10,  signifies  pastures. 

Bush,  George,  D.D.,  was  born  in  Norwich,  Vt., 
June  17,  1796.  He  entered  Dartmouth  College  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  passed  through  a  course  of  theological 
study  at  Princeton,  in  1824  was  appointed  a  mission- 
ary at  the  West,  and  became  settled  as  the  pastor  of  a 
Presbyterian  church  at  Indianapolis.  He  resigned  ( 
this  charge  and  came  to  New  York  in  1829.  In  1831  j 
he  was  elected  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  liter- 
ature in  the  University  of  New  York,  and  immediate- 
ly entered  upon  a  literary  career  which  won  for  him 
the  reputation  of  profound  scholarly  ability.  His  first 
published  work,  issued  from  the  press  of  the  Harpers 
in  1832,  was  a  L'f  of  Mohammed (18mo).  In  the  same 
year  he  published  a  Treat  is>'  <  //  ///•■  Milh  nnium  (reprint- 
ed, Salem,  1842,  12mo).  In  1840  he  began  a  series  of 
Bible  commentaries,  which,  under  the  title  of  Notes  mi 
Genesis,  Exodus,  etc.,  down  to  Judges,  still  remains  an 
acknowledged  authority  (N.  Y.  1840-1852,  7  vols.). 
In  1844  the  publication  of  another  of  his  works  (Anas- 
tasis,  or  the  Doctrine  of  the  Resurrection),  in  which,  by 
arguments  drawn  from  reason  and  revelation,  he  de- 
nied the  existence  of  a  material  body  in  a  future  life, 
raised  a  vigorous  opposition  against  him.  Undaunted 
by  the  fierceness  of  his  critics,  he  replied  to  their  as- 
saults by  the  issue  of  two  new  works,  The  Resurrection 
of  Christ,  in  answer  to  the  question,  ''Kid  Christ  rise 
witli  a  body  spiritual  and  celestial,  or  terrestrial  and 
material?"  and  Th"  Soul;  an  Inquiry  into  Scriptural 
Psychology  (X.  Y.  1845,  12mo).  In  these  later  works 
it  was  very  apparent  that  his  mind  had  become  unset- 
tled, and  all  confidence  in  his  early  beliefs  had  for- 
saken him.  About  this  time  he  became  enamored  of 
the  vagaries  of  mesmerism  and  animal  magnetis  n. 
lie  at  last  became  a  Swedenborgian,  and  edited  The 
New  Church  Repository  with  decided  ability,  lb'  also 
published,  in  the  interest  of  his  new  faith.  New  Church 
Misa  Uaniesi  X.  Y.  bv5-">,  l2mo).  Among  his  other  Swe- 
denborgian works,  are,  Statement  of  Reasons;  Letters  to 
a  Trinitarian}  Memorabilia;  Meaner  and  Swedenborg 
(a  partial  defence  of  .Mesmerism,  giving  rise  to  a  long 
discussion  with  Tayler  Lewis  about  the  "  Poughkeep- 
sie  seer,"  Davis,  etc.);  A  Reply  to  Dr.Woods  <>n  Swe- 
denborgianism ;  Priesthood  ami  the  Clergy  unknown  to 
Christianity  (1857),  which  excited  commotion  among 
the  Swedenborgians.  "  He  was  an  enthusiastic  schol- 
ar and  a  popular  author.  His  ardent  and  versatile 
temperament  led  him  to  frequent  changes  of  opinion  ; 
but  no  one  ever  doubted  that  he  was  conscientious  in 
his  convictions,  anil  willing  to  make  any  sacrifice  for 
the  cause  of  truth.  His  life  was  the  life  of  a  scholar." 
He  died  at  Rochester,  N.Y.,  Sept.  19, 1858.— Men  'ft';. 


Time,  p.  74  ;  X.  T.  Observer;  Fernald,  .Ifrmnirs  ami  Rem- 
inisci  nces  of  the  bar  Prof.  G.  Bush  |  Boat  1860),  consist- 
ing to  a  great  extent  of  letters  and  contributions  from 
friends  of  the  d. 'ceased,  viz.,  Rufus  Choatc,  W.  S.  Hay- 
don,  Dr.  Bellows,  and  others. 

Bushel  is  used  in  the  Auth.  Yers.  to  express  the 
Greek  fioSiog,  Latin  mooUus,  a  Roman  measure  f<  r  dry 
articles,  equal  to  one  sixth  of  the  Attic  medimnus  (see 
Smith's  Diet,  if  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Modius),  and  con- 
taining 1  gall.  7.857G  pints,  or  nearly  om  /»  ck  English 
measure  (Matt,  v,  15 ;  Mark  iv,  21 ;  Luke  xi,  33).  See 
Measure. 

Bussey,  Thomas  II.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Washington,  D.  C,  181  1,  and  pious- 
ly educated.  In  1837  he  entered  tlie  itinerant  minis- 
try in  tlie  Baltimore  Conference,  in  which  he  contin- 
ued until  the  year  of  his  death,  tilling  a  number  of 
the  most  important  circuits  and  stations.  He  died  in 
Washington,  April  19,  1856.  He  was  a  man  of  ear- 
nest and  courageous  nature,  a  zealous,  faithful,  and 
successful  preacher.  —  Minutes  of  Conferences,  vi,  202. 

Busy-body  (7rfiiui;yor,  officious,  1  Tim.  v,  13;  "cu- 
rious," Acts  xix,  19;  irtpupya^ouai,  to  be  over-busy, 
2  Thess.  iii,  11;  dAAorp«7riffK07ro£,  interftring  in  other 
pecple's  concerns,  1  Pet.  iv,  15),  a  person  of  meddlesome 
habits,  emphatically  condemned  in  the  above  texts  of 
the  N.  T.  as  being  akin  to  the  tattler  and  scandal- 
monger. 

Butler,  an  honorable  officer  in  the  household  of 
Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt  (Gen.  xl,  1, 13).  The  original 
word  fi'p'^'2,  mashkeh',  properly  signifies  cap-bearer, 
as  it  is  elsewhere  translated  (1  Kin^s  x,  5;  2  Chron. 
ix,  4).  The  Sept.  renders  it  «()\<ou'o\_ooc,  "chief 
wine-pourer,"  implying  him  who  had  the  charge  of 
the  rest,  which,  as  appears  from  ver.  2,  is  the  true 
meaning.  It  was  his  duty  to  till  and  bear  the  cup  or 
drinking-vessel  to  the  king.  Nehemiab  was  cup-bear- 
er (q.  v.)  to  King  Artaxcrxes  |  Xeh.  i,  11 ;  ii,  1).  See 
Banquet. 

Btitler,  Alban,  a  Romanist  writer,  born  in  1710, 
and  educated  at  Douai,  where  he  early  attained  in  suc- 
cession to  the  offices  of  professor  of  philosophy  and 
theology.  Returning  to  England,  he  was  appointed 
to  a  mission  in  Staffordshire,  where  he  commenced 
Th"  Lives  of  the  Saints,  which  was  completed  during 
his  subsequent  sojourn  at  Paris,  and  there  published 
(1715,  5  vols.  Ito).  In  1779  or  1780,  an  edition  in  12 
vols.  8vo,  was  published  at  Dublin:  and  in  1799,1800, 
another  edition,  by  Charles  Butler,  his  nephew,  ap- 
peared at  Edinburgh.  An  edition  appeared  at  Derby 
in  L843,  in  12  vols.  12mo,  and  an  American  edition  in 
1846  (New  York,  12  vols,  in  four,  8vo).  He  died  May 
15,  1773. 

Butler,  Charles,  a  Romanist  writer,  was  horn  in 
London  1756,  educated  at  Douai,  and  practised  law  in 
London  for  many  years.  Besides  writing  and  editing 
a  number  of  law  books,  he  wrote  flora  Biblica  (2  vols. 
8vo),  containing  an  account  of  the  literary  history  of 
the  i  ill  and  New  Testament,  and  of  the  sacred  books 

of  the    Mohammedans,   Hindoo-.  Chinese,    Parsees.  etc. 

It  has  gone  through  many  editions.  After  1806  bis 
pen  was  largely  employed  on  Subjects  regarding  his 
own  Church, which  are  collected  in  his  general  works. 
Among  them  arc  lives  of  BoSSUet,  of  l'Ynelon,  of  Abbe 

<lc  Ranee,  abbot  of  LaTrappe;  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
of  Erasmus,  of  Grotius,  of  Benrie  Marie  de  Boudon, 
of  Thomas  a  Kempis.  of  the  Chancellor  L'Hopital,  etc., 

and  of  hi-  own  uncle,  the  Lev.  Alban  Butler,  author 
of  Lives  of  the  Saints,  a  work  which  Mr.  Butler  himself 
continued.     He  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  Roman 

Catholic  emancipation,  and   much   of  the   progress  of 

that  measure  is  t"  be  attributed  to  his  Historical  Me- 
moirs of  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scottish  Catholics  1 1819). 
Hitherto  lie  bad  abstained  from  controversy,  but  the 
appearance  of  Dr.  Southey'a  Booh  of  ///>■  church  en- 


BUTLER 


936 


BUTLER 


gaged  him  in  a  series  of  letters  to  that  writer,  and  af- 
terward in  two  replies  to  Bishop  Blomfield  (q.  v.)  of 
( Ihester  and  to  the  Rev.  George  Townsend,  Book  of  the 
It.  C.  Church  (Lond.  1826,  8vo);  Vindication  of  the  Book 
of  the  JR.  C.  Church  (Lond.  1826,  8vo).  His  principal 
writings  are  gathered  in  live  vols.  8vo  (Lond.  1817). 
As  he  takes  the  Gallican  stand-point  throughout,  his 
arguments  for  Romanism  are  held  in  no  great  repute 
among  Roman  theologians. 

Butler,  David,  D.D.,  was  born  at  Harwinton, 
Conn.,  in  1763  ;  served  as  a  soldier  in  the  Revolution, 
ami  afterward  entered  into  business.  He  was  bred  a 
Congregationalist,  but  became  an  Episcopalian,  and 
studied  for  the  ministry  under  the  Rev.  Ashbel  Bald- 
win. He  was  ordained  deacon  in  1792,  and  priest  in 
1793.  In  1791  he  became  rector  of  St.  Michael's, 
Litchfield,  and  in  1804  of  St.  Paul's,  Troy.  He  con- 
tinued in  this  parish,  laboring  also  as  a  missionary, 
and  very  useful  in  spreading  the  principles  of  his  de- 
nomination, until  1831,  when  ill  health  compelled  him 
to  resign  his  charge.  He  died  Jul}' 11, 1812.  He  pub- 
lished a  Sermon  before  the  Freemasons  (1804),  and  sev- 
eral occasional  discourses.  His  son,  the  Rev.  C.  M. 
Butler,  D.D.,is  an  eminent  minister  and  professor  in 
the  Prot.  Epis.  Church. — Sprague,  Annals,  v,  390. 

Butler,  Ezra,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in  Lan- 
caster, Mass.,  in  Sept.  1763.  In  1790  he  was  convert- 
ed and  baptized,  and  in  1800  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Baptist  Church  in  Waterbury,  Vt.,  where  he  re- 
mained for  over  thirty  years.  With  that  of  preacher 
Mr.  Butler  united  various  civil  offices  ;  among  them 
judge  of  the  County  Court  in  1805,  member  of  Congress 
from  1813  to  1815,  governor  of  the  state  from  1820  to 
1828,  and  presidential  elector  in  1836.  His  adminis- 
tration as  governor  was  chiefly  distinguished  by  a  suc- 
cessful effort  for  the  suppression  of  lotteries,  and  by 
some  essential  improvements  in  the  system  of  common 
school  education.  Daring  a  considerable  part  of  his 
life  Mr.  Butler  was  subject  to  much  bodily  infirmity, 
and  especially  for  some  years  previous  to  his  death, 
which  occurred  July  12, 1838. — Sprague,  Annals,v'\,41\. 

Butler,  Francis  E.,  a  Presbyterian  minister  and 
martyr  to  the  cause  of  liberty,  was  born  in  Suffield, 
Conn.,  February  7, 1825.  He  engaged  in  mercantile 
business  in  New  York  at  an  earl)'  age,  and  was  mark- 
ed for  his  piety  and  for  his  active  services  in  all  benev- 
olent enterprises.  At  29  he  abandoned  business  and 
entered  Yale  College,  where  he  graduated  in  1857. 
He  studied  theology  at  Princeton,  and  in  1862  became 
chaplain  of  the  25th  N.  J.  Volunteers.  His  labors 
were  unprecedentedly  successful.  He  organized  a 
flourishing  regimental  church.  To  this,  during  the 
last  three  months  of  his  life,  no  less  than  thirteen  were 
added  on  confession  of  their  faith,  while  a  still  larger 
number  were  seeking  Christ.  Some  of  these  cases 
were  of  great  interest,  and  it  is  only  the  want  of  space 
that  prevents  their  insertion  here.  His  whole  time 
anil  thoughts  were  given  to  the  men,  in  caring  both  for 
their  temporal  and  eternal  interests.  He  believed  it 
his  duty  to  go  wherever  the  men  were  called  to  go. 
In  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg  he  was  at  his  post  car- 
ing fnr  the  wounded,  though  the  bullets  were  flying 
thick  around  him.  About  noon  he  learned  that  some 
of  his  own  men,  wounded  while  skirmishing  at  some 
distance  from  the  place  occupied  by  the  chaplains  and 
surgeons,  were  suffering  for  the  want  of  immediate 
care.  He  volunteered  to  go  with  a  surgeon  to  their 
relief.  In  order  to  do  this  duly,  they  had  to  cross  an 
open  field  which  was  exposed  to'the  lire  of  the  enemy's 
sharp-shooters,  lie  was  told  of  the  danger,  but  his 
sense  of  duty  was  not  to  be  overcome  by  the  fear  of 
death.  While  crossing  this  field  a  minie-ball  struck 
him  and  passed  through  his  body.  In  twenty-four 
hours  he  was  dead.— Wilson,  Presbyt.  Historical  Alma- 
fuze,  vol.  vi,  p.  100. 

Butler,  Joseph,  LL.D.,  bishop  of  Durham,  was 


born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  in  1092,  and  brought 
up  as  a  Presbyterian,  his  father  being  a  respectable 
shopkeeper  of  that  persuasion.  He  was  educated  by 
a  Presbyterian  named  Jones,  who  kept  a  school  first 
at  Gloucester  and  afterward  at  Tewkesbury,  and  who 
numbered  among  his  students,  at  the  same  time,  Seek- 
er and  Butler.  Here  his  aptitude  for  metaphysical 
speculations  and  accuracy  of  judgment  first  manifested 
themselves.  He  finally  determined  to  conform  to  the 
Church  of  England,  and  on  the  17th  of  March,  1714, 
removed  to  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  In  1718  he  was 
appointed  preacher  at  the  Rolls,  where  he  continued 
until  1726.  In  the  mean  time  he  was  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  Houghton,  near  Darlington,  and  to  that  of 
Stanhope  (in  1725),  to  which  he  retired  when  he  re- 
signed the  preachership  of  the  Rolls  Chapel,  and  lived 
there  seven  years.  About  1732  the  Lord  Chancellor 
Talbot,  at  the  instigation  of  Seeker,  appointed  Butler 
his  chaplain,  and  four  years  afterward  he  became  clerk 
of  the  closet  to  Queen  Caroline,  in  which  year  he  pre- 
sented to  her  his  celebrated  work,  The  Analog;/  of  Re- 
liffion,  Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Constitution  and 
\  Course  of  Nature,  previously  to  its  publication.  In 
11738  he  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Bristol;  and,  after 
various  other  preferments,  was  translated  to  Durham 
in  1750,  upon  the  death  of  Chandler,  who  had  also  been 
!his  fellow-pupil  at  the  Dissenting  academy  at  Tewkes- 
bury. Owing  to  a  charge  which  he  delivered  to  his 
clergy  of  the  diocese  of  Durham,  in  which  he  exhorted 
them  to  be  careful  to  maintain  the  outward  form  and 
jface  of  religion  with  decency  and  reverence,  he  was 
foolishly  charged  with  "  Romanizing  tendencies ;"  and 
one  anonymous  writer  did  not  scruple,  fifteen  years  af- 
ter the  good  bishop's  death,  to  slander  him  as  having 
died  in  the  Romish  communion.  He  died  June  16, 
1752.  Besides  the  immortal  "Analogy,"  he  left  a 
volume  of  Sermons,  in  which  the  true  theory  of  ethics 
was  first  fully  set  forth.  His  contributions  to  a  cor- 
rect theory  of  morals  consist,  1.  In  his  distinction  be- 
tween self-love  and  the  primary  appetites ;  and,  2.  In 
jhis  clear  exposition  of  the  existence  and  supremacy 
of  conscience.  The  objects  of  our  appetites  and  pas- 
sions are  outward  things,  which  are  sought  simply  as 
ends;  thus  food  is  the  object  of  hunger,  and  drink  the 
object  of  thirst.  Some  of  the  primary  desires  lead  di- 
rectly to  our  private  good,  and  others  to  the  good  of 
the  community.  Hunger  and  thirst,  above  cited,  are 
instances  of  the  former;  the  affection  for  one's  child 
is  an  instance  of  the  latter.  They  may  be  considered 
;as  so  many  simple  impulses  which  are  to  be  guided 
and  controlled  by  our  higher  powers.  Pleasure  is  the 
concomitant  of  their  gratification,  but,  in  their  original 
|  state,  is  no  separate  part  of  the  aim  of  the  agent.  All 
these  primary  impulses  are  contemplated  by  self-love, 
as  the  material  out  of  which  happiness  is  to  be  con- 
structed. Self-love  is  a  regard  for  our  happiness  as  a 
whole  :  such  a  regard  is  not  a  vice,  but  a  commenda- 
ble quality.  Self-love  is  not  selfishness.  Selfishness 
is  destructive  of  human  happiness,  and,  as  such,  self- 
love  condemns  it.  The  so-called  benevolent  affections 
are  consequently  disinterested,  as  likewise  are  (in  their 
incomplex  manifestations)  our  physical  appetites  and 
malevolent  feelings.  But,  besides  these  principles  of 
our  nature,  there  is  one  which  is  supreme  over  all  oth- 
ers— this  is  conscience.  Shaftesbury  had  before  point- 
ed out  the  emotional  character  of  conscience  under  the 
term  moral  sense,  but  its  distinguishing  attribute  of 
supremacy  he  had  failed  to  notice.  Butler,  acknowl- 
edging the  correctness  of  his  lordship's  partial  view, 
combined  with  it  the  element  necessary  to  make  an 
entire  truth — the  character  of  conscience,  as  the  high- 
est tribunal  of  man's  nature,  "which  surveys,  ap- 
proves, or  disapproves  the  several  affections  of  our 
mind,  and  passions  of  our  lives."  The  practical  weak- 
ness of  conscience  does  not  destroy  its  authority,  and, 
though  its  mandates  are  often  disregarded,  yet  the  ob- 
ligations to  render  it  obedience  remain  unimpaired. 


BUTLER 


937 


buttp:ii 


In  this  view  of  the  several  principles  within  us,  and 
their  relations  to  each  ether,  virtue  may  be  said,  in 
the  language  of  the  ancients,  to  consist  in  following 
nature  ;  that  is,  nature  correctly  interpreted  and  un- 
derstood. 

In  the  Analogy  of  RtVigiim,  Butler  vindicates  the 
truths  both  of  natural  religion  and  of  Christianity  by 
showing  that  they  are  paralleled  by  the  facts  of  our 
experience,  and  that  nature,  considered  as  a  revelation 
of  God,  teaches  (though  to  a  more  limited  extent  and 
in  a  more  imperfect  way)  the  same  lessons  as  the 
Scriptures.  He  proves  that  the  evidence  is  the  same 
as  that  upon  which  we  act  in  our  temporal  concerns, 
and  that  perhaps  it  is  left  as  it  is,  that  our  behavior 
with  regard  to  it  may  be  part  of  our  probation  for  a 
future  life.  Nor  does  the  aim  of  the  "  Analogy"  stop 
here.  The  opinion  has  very  extensivel}'  prevailed 
that  the  utility  of  the  work  consists  solely  in  answer- 
ing objections.  Dr.  Reid,  the  Scotch  philosopher,  has 
so  expressed  himself.  Of  a  like  purport  is  the  happi- 
ly-conceived language  of  Dr.  Campbell :  "  Analogical 
evidence  is  generally  more  successful  in  silencing  ob- 
jections than  in  evincing  truth.  Though  it  rarely  re- 
futes, it  frequently  repels  refutation  ;  like  those  weap- 
ons which,  though  they  cannot  kill  the  enemy,  will 
ward  his  blows."  The  outward  form,  of  the  "Analo- 
gy," to  be  sure,  gives  some  countenance  to  this  view, 
for  the  objector  is  followed  through  all  the  mazes  of 
his  error.  But,  besides  the  effect  of  particular  analo- 
gies, there  is  the  effect  of  the  "Analogy"  as  a  whole — 
of  the  likeness  so  beautifully  developed  between  the 
system  of  nature  and  the  system  of  grace.  Every  one 
who  has  received  the  total  impression  of  the  argument 
is  conscious  that  he  has  derived  therefrom  new  convic- 
tions of  the  truth  of  religion,  and  that  these  convic- 
tions rest  on  a  basis  peculiarly  their  own.  On  this 
point  Butler's  own  language  is  quite  definite:  "This 
treatise  will  be,  to  such  as  are  convinced  of  religion 
upon  the  proof  arising  out  of  the  two  last-mentioned 
principles  [liberty  and  moral  fitness],  an  additii  nal 
proof,  and  a  confirmation  of  it ;  to  such  as  do  not  ad- 
mit those  principles,  an  original  proof  of  it,  and  a  con- 
firmation of  that  proof.  Those  who  believe  will  here 
find  the  scheme  of  Christianity  cleared  of  objections, 
and  the  evidence  of  it  in  a  peculiar  manner  strength- 
ened;  those  who  do  not  believe  will  at  least  be  shown 
the  absurdity  of  all  attempts  to  prove  Christianity 
false,  the  plain,  undoubted  credibility  of  it,  and,  I  hope, 
a  good  deal  more"  (part  ii,  chap.  viii).  His  books  are 
more  pregnant  with  thought  than  any  uninspired  vol- 
umes of  their  size  in  the  English  language.  He  was 
an  Arminian  in  theology.  The  best  edition  of  the 
"Analogy"  is  that  edited  by  B.  Emory  and  G.  R. 
Crooks  (New  York,  Harper  &  Brothers),  to  which  is 
prefixed  a  thoroughly  logical  analysis,  of  the  Eth- 
ical Discourses,  a  new  and  excellent  edition,  by  Pass- 
more,  appeared  in  Philadelphia  in  1855.  It  was  the 
opinion  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh  that  the  truths  con- 
tained in  these  sermons  are  "more  worthy  of  the  name 
of  discovery  than  any  other  with  which  we  are  acquaint- 
ed, if  we  ought  net,  with  some  hesitation,  to  except 
the  first  steps  of  the  Grecian  philosophers  toward  a 
theorv  of  morals."  The  best  edition  of  his  Complete 
Works  is  thatof  Oxford  (1849,  2  vols.  8vo).  See  .Mack- 
intosh, Hist,  of  Etli.  Phil.,  p.113;  Whewell,  iKrf.o/J/or- 
als, lect.  viii ;  Land.  Qu.  R<  v.  xliii,  182 ;  bar,  L83  ;  .'/<  th. 
(in.  Rev.  i,  556;  iii,  128;  xi,  247;  Am,  Bib.  Repos.  x, 
317;  Christ.  Rev.  ix,199;  Hart  let  ;t,  Mem.  of  Butler  (Lona. 
1839,  8vo) ;  Brit.  Qu.Sev.,  July,  1868,  art.  vi ;  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Authors,  i,312;  Am.Presb.  Rev.,  Oct,  1P68. 

Butler,  Samuel,  D.D.,  an  English  Bcholar  and 
prelate,  was  born  at  Kenilworth  1774,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  Colic  re,  <  lambridge,  where  he  be- 
came fellow  in  1797.  In  1798  he  was  made  head  mas- 
ter of  Shrewsbury  School,  where  his  scholarship  and 
skill  made  him  eminent  as  an  instructor.  The  senate 
of  Cambridge  appointed  him  to  prepare   a   complete 


edition  of  JEschylus,  which  was  published  in  4  vols. 
8vo  (1809-1816).  In  1*11  he  was  made  D.I),  at  Cam- 
bridge; in  1836  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Litchfield. 
He  published  a  number  of  books  in  classics,  and  his 
Classical  Geography  and  Attn*  continues  to  this  day  to 
be  a  standard  work.— Hoefer,  Biog.  Generate,  vii,  906; 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  315. 

Butler,  William,  was  born  in  the  county  of  An- 
trim, Ireland,  in  1783,  and  in  17m!  emigrated  with  his 
father's  family  to  the  United  States,  and  settled  in 
Cumberland  county,  Penn.  Having  joined  the  Meth- 
odist Church  in  180l>,  he  was  received  on  trial  in  the 
Baltimore  Conference  in  1807,  and  travelled  in  its 
bounds  for  nearly  30  years,  Ins  last  appointment  being 
to  Lewistown  Circuit  in  18-13,  from  which  time  till  the 
day  of  his  death  he  sustained  a  supernumerary  rela- 
tion to  the  Conference.  It  appears  from  his  own  diary 
that  under  his  ministry  nearly  four  thousand  souls 
were  added  to  the  Church.  Mr.  Butler  was  a  man  of 
deep  piety,  and  of  great  consistency  of  character.  Be 
died  Jan.  11,  1852,  at  Carlisle,  Penn.,  where  he  had 
been  converted  fifty  years  before. — Minutes  of  Confer- 
ences, 1852,  p.  8. 

Butler,  William  Archer,  M.A.,  was  born  at 
Annesvillc,  Ireland,  1*14,  and  brought  up  a  Romanist. 
Convinced  of  the  errors  of  Rome,  he  became  a  Protes- 
tant, and  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  his 
eminent  talents  were  so  conspicuous  that  in  1837,  wdien 
a  professorship  of  Moral  Philosophy  was  established, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chair.  His  lectures  were  great- 
ly applauded,  and  his  pulpit  talents  and  zeal  at  the 
same  time  gave  him  great  popularity.     He  died  in 

1848.  After  his  death  appeared  Sermons,  Devotional 
and  Practical,  with  Memoir  by  Woodward  (Dublin, 

1849,  1850,  2  vols.;  Phil.  2  vols.  12mo) :— Letters  on 
Development,  in  Reply  to  Newman  (Dublin,  1850,  8vo; 
2ded.  Cambridge,  1858,  8vo) :— Lectures  on  History  of 
Philosophy  (Dublin  and  Cambridge,  1856,  "_'  vols.  8vo; 
Phil.  1857,  2  vols,  liino).  The  sermons  are  among 
the  best  that  have  been  printed  in  the  last  30  years. 
On  his  work  on  1><  a  lopm  nt,  see.  Lon  Ion  Review,  Oct. 
1859. 

Buts.     Sec  Linen. 

Butter  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of 
nx*2n,  chemah'  (after  the  Sept.  fiovrvpov,  Vulg.  bw 
tyru'm),  wherever  it  occurs  (in  Job  xxix,  6,  the  form 
is  iTQH;  in  Psa.lv,  21,  it  is  PSWrra,  machamaothT) ; 
but  critics  agree  that  usually,  at  least,  it  signifies  cur- 
il'i  d  milk  ( from  an  obsolete  root,  fran,  chamah,  to  grow 
thick).  Indeed,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  denotes 
butter  in  any  place  besides  Dent,  xxxii,  14,  "butter 
of  kine,"  and  Prov.  x\x,  :!:;,  "the  churning  of  milk 
bringeth  forth  butter,"  as  all  the  other  texts  will  apply 
better  to  curdled  milk  than  to  butter.  In  Gen.  xviii, 
8,  "butter  and  milk"  are  mentioned  among  the  things 
which  Abraham  se(  before  his  heavenly  guests  (comp. 
Judg.  v,  25;  2  Sun.  xvii,  29).  Milk  is  generally  of- 
fered to  travellers  in  Palestine  in  a  curdled  or  sour 
state,  ulebben,"  thick,  almost  like  butter  (comp.  Josc- 
phus's  rendering  in  Judg.  iv,  19,  ya\a  5u(p9op6c  f)Sn). 
In  Deut.  xxxii,  15,  we  find  among  the  blessings  which 
Jeshurun  had  enjoyed  milk  of  kine  contrasted  with 
milk  of  sheep.  The  two  passages  in  Job  (xx,  17 ;  xxix, 
8)  where  the  «r>nl  cht  mah  occurs  are  also  best  satisfied 
by  rendering  it  milk;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Psa. 
Iv,  21,  which  should  be  compared  with  Job  xxix,  (i. 
[n  Prov.  xxx,  33,  Gesenius  thinks  that  cheesi  is  meant, 
the  associated  word  ""*-  signifying  pressun  rather 
than  "churning."  Jarchi  (on  Gen.  xviii, 8)  explains 
chemah  to  be  cream,  and  Vitringa  and  Eitzig  give  this 
meaning  to  the  word  in  Isa.  vii,  15  22.     See  Milk. 

Butter  was,  however,  doubtless  much  in  use  among 
the  Hebrews,  and  WO  may  be  SUTC  that  it  '.\as  prepared 
in  the  same  manner  as  at  this  day  among  the  Arabs 


BUTTEliWOUTH 


938 


BUXTORF 


and  Syrians.  Butter  was  not  in  use  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  except  for  medicinal  purposes,  but  this 
fact  is  of  no  weight  as  to  its  absence  from  Palestine. 
Robinson  mentions  the  use  of  butter  at  the  present  da)' 
(Bib.  Res.  ii.  127),  and  also  the  method  of  churning  (ii, 
180;  iii,  315);  and  from  this  we  may  safely  infer  that 
the  art  of  butter-making  was  known  to  the  ancient  in- 
habitants of  the  land,  so  little  have  the  habits  of  the 
people  of  Palestine  been  modified  in  the  lapse  of  cen- 
turies. Burckhardt  (Travels  in  Arabia,  i,  52)  men- 
tions the  different  uses  of  butter  by  the  Arabs  of  the 
Hejaz.  The  milk  is  put  into  a  large  copper  pan  over 
a  slow  fire,  and  a  little  leben  or  sour  milk  (the  same  as 
the  curdled  milk  mentioned  above),  or  a  portion  of  the 
dried  entrails  of  a  lamb,  is  thrown  into  it.  The  milk 
then  separates,  and  is  put  into  a  goat-skin  bag,  which 
is  tied  to  one  of  the  tent  poles,  and  constantly  moved 
backward  and  forward  for  two  hours.  The  buttery 
substance  then  coagulates,  the  water  is  pressed  out, 
and  the  butter  put  into  another  skin.  In  two  days 
the  butter  is  again  placed  over  the  fire,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  quantity  of  burgoul  (wheat  boiled  with  leaven 
and  dried  in  the  sun),  and  allowed  to  boil  for  some 
time,  during  which  it  is  carefully  skimmed.  It  is 
then  found  that  the  burgoul  has  precipitated  all  the 
foreign  substances,  and  that  the  butter  remains  quite 
clear  at  the  top.  This  is  the  process  used  by  the  Bed- 
ouins, and  it  is  also  the  one  employed  by  the  settled 
people  of  Syria  and  Arabia.  'Ihe  chief  difference  is 
that,  in  making  butter  and  cheese,  the  townspeople  em- 
ploy the  milk  of  cows  and  buffaloes,  whereas  the  Bed- 
ouins, who  do  not  keep  these  animals,  use  that  of  sheep 
and  goats.  The  butter  is  generally  white,  of  the  color 
and  consistence  of  lard,  and  is  not  much  relished  by 
English  travellers.  It  is  eaten  with  bread  in  large 
quantities  by  those  who  can  afford  it;  not  spread  out 
thinly  over  the  surface  as  with  us,  but  taken  in  mass 
with  the  separate  morsels  of  bread.  See  Foon.  The 
butter  of  the  Hebrews,  such  as  it  was,  might  have 
been  sometimes  clarified  and  preserved  in  skins  or  jars, 
as  at  the  present  day  in  Asia,  and,  when  poured  out, 
resembles  rich  oil  (Job  xx,  17).  By  this  process  it 
acquires  a  certain  rancid  taste,  disagreeable,  for  the 
most  part,  to  strangers,  though  not  to  the  natives. 
All  Arab  food  considered  well  prepared  swims  in  but- 
ter, and  large  quantities  of  it  are  swallowed  indepen- 
dently. The  place  of  butter,  as  a  general  article  of 
food  in  the  East,  was  supplied  in  some  measure  by  the 
vegetable  oil  which  was  so  abundant.  Butter  and 
hone}-  were  used  together,  and  were  esteemed  anions 
the  richest  productions  of  the  land  (Isa.  vii.  15);  and 
travellers  toll  us  that  the  Arabs  use  cream  or  newbut- 
tei  mixed  with  honev  as  a  principal  delicacy.  See 
Oil. 

Butterworth,  John,  an  English  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  in  Lancashire,  Dec.  13,  1727.  At  an  early 
age  he  was  converted  under  the  preaching  of  John 
Nelson,  the  Methodist  Evangelist,  but  he  afterward 
became  a  Calvinistic  Baptist.  In  1751  he  accepted 
the  call  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Coventry,  and  there 
labored  until  his  death  in  1803.  He  prepared  a  Coti- 
aerdana  in  the  Bible  (8vo),  which  is  cheap  and  accu- 
rate, an. 1  has  passed  through  many  editions.  There 
is  a  Memoir  of  him  by  bis  wife. 

Buxa,  in  the  Roman  Church,  a  pyx  or  reliquary 
containing  the  relics  of  a  saint. 

Buxton,  Jarvis  Barry,  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
minister,  was  horn  at.  Newbern,  N.  ('.,  Jan.  17,  1792. 
Though  educated  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  he  was  for 

WJ time  >t rongly  inclined  i,,  Methodism,  but  a  change 

in  his  associations  recalled  him  to  his  own  Church. 
He  was  ordained  in  1*27  at  Elizabeth  City,  where  lie 
continued  till  1831,  when  be  removed  to  I'ayettcville, 
the  BCene  of  his  after  labors.  He  was  a  zealous  preach- 
er and  revivalist.  lie  died  on  the  30th  of  .Max  .  1851. 
His  works,  containing  Discourses,  were  published  by 


his  son,  with  a  brief  Memoir  (1853,  8vo). — Sprague, 
Annals,  v,  079. 

Buxton,  Sir  Thomas  Fowell,  was  born  April 
1st,  1786,  at  Castle  Hedingham,  in  Essex,  and  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  highly  distin- 
guished himself.  His  uncles  were  large  brewers,  and 
he  entered  the  business  in  1811.  His  first  appearance 
in  public  was  at  a  meeting  of  the  Norfolk  Auxiliary 
Bible  Society,  in  September,  1812.  In  1816  he  took 
a  prominent  part  at  a  meeting  held  at  the  Mansion 
House,  to  relieve  the  distress  of  Spitalfields  ;  and  about 
£44,000  were  collected  for  the  Spitalfields  weavers. 
His  attention  was  also  directed  to  prison  discipline  ;  he 
inspected  many  prisons,  and  published  an  Inquiry  into 
the  subject,  illustrated  by  descriptions  of  several  jails, 
and  an  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Ladies'  Com- 
mittee in  Newgate,  the  most  active  of  whom  was  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  Fry,  his  sister-in-law.  In  1818  he  was 
elected  member  of  Parliament  for  Weymouth  ;  and  in 
1819  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates  on  prison 
discipline,  the  amelioration  of  the  criminal  law,  the 
suppression  of  lotteries,  and  the  abolition  of  the  prac- 
tice of  burning  widows  in  India.  He  continued  to 
represent  the  borough  of  Weymouth  for  nearly  twenty 
years,  during  which  period  he  was  assiduous  in  the 
performance  of  his  parliamentary  duties,  and  always 
active  in  every  humane  enterprise.  On  the  death  of 
Wilberforce,  Buxton  succeeded  him  as  the  acknowl- 
edged leader  of  the  emancipationists.  On  the  15th  of 
May,  1823,  Mr.  Buxton  brought  forward  a  resolution 
to  the  effect  "  that  the  state  of  slavery  is  repugnant  to 
the  principles  of  the  British  Constitution  and  of  the 
Christian  religion,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  gradually 
abolished  throughout  the  British  colonies  with  as  much 
expedition  as  may  be  found  consistent  with  a  due  re- 
gard to  the  well-being  of  the  parties  concerned."  Mr. 
Canning,  on  the  part  of  government,  carried  certain 
amendments,  one  of  which  asserted  the  anxiety  of  the 
House  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  "at  the  earli- 
est period  that  shall  be  compatible  with  the  well-being 
of  the  slaves  themselves,  with  the  safety  of  the  colo- 
nies, and  with  a  fair  and  equitable  consideration  of 
the  rights  of  private  property."  During  the  struggles 
and  agitations,  both  at  home  and  in  the  colonies,  for 
the  ensuing  ten  or  twelve  years,  Mr.  Buxton  was 
steadily  engaged  in  the  prosecution  of  the  cause  of 
freedom,  encouraged  and  supported  by  the  moral  feel- 
ing of  the  country,  and  in  Parliament  by  Brougham, 
Lushington,  Macaulay,  and  a  few  other  earnest  oppo- 
nents of  slavery.  At  length,  when,  in  1833,  the  secre- 
tary for  the  colonies,  Mr.  Stanley  (now  Earl  of  Derby), 
brought  forward  his  plan  for  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
Mr.  Buxton,  although  dissatisfied  with  the  apprentice- 
ship and  compensation  clauses,  gladly  accepted  the 
measure,  and  he  had  very  soon  the  additional  satisfac- 
tion of  finding  the  apprenticeship  abandoned  by  the 
slaveholders  themselves.  In  1837  he  lost  his  election 
for  Weymoutih,  and  from  that  time  refused  to  be  again 
put  in  nomination.  In  1838  he  was  chiefly  occupied 
with  the  preparation  of  a  work  entitled  The  African 
Slave-trade  and  its  Remedy  (Lond.  1840,  8vo).  In 
1839-40  the  state  of  his  health  caused  him  to  seek  re- 
laxation in  a  Continental  tour.  At  Rome  he  visited 
the  prisons,  and  suggested  improvements.  On  his  re- 
turn in  1840  he  was  knighted.  On  the  1st  of  June  a 
public  meeting  in  behalf  of  African  civilization  was 
held  in  Exeter  Hall,  at  which  Prince  Albert  presided, 
and  the  first  resolution  was  moved  by  Sir  T.  F.  Bux- 
ton. The  result  of  this  movement  was  the  well-meant 
but  disastrous  expedition  to  the  Niger  in  1841.  Dur, 
ing  1843  and  1844  his  health  declined,  and  he  died 
Fehuary  19,  1845.  See  Memoirs  of  Buxton,  by  his  son 
(Lond.  1849,  2d  cd.  8vo);  Quarterly  Rev.  lx^xiii,  127; 
English  Cyclop.;  X.  Amu-.  Rev.  lxxi,  1;  West m.  Rev. 
xxxiv,  125;  N.  Brit.  Rev.  ix,  209. 

Buxtorf,  John,  the  head  of  a  family  which  for 


BUXTOKF 


939 


BYFIELD 


more  than  a  century  was  eminent  in  Hebrew  litera- 
ture. He  wars  lioni  at  Camen,  in  Westphalia,  Dee.  25, 
1564,  of  which  parish  his  father  was  minister.  Ik- 
studied  first  at  Marpurg  and  Herborn  under  Piscator, 
and  afterward  at  Basle,  Zurich,  and  Geneva,  under 
Grynseus,  Bullinger,  and  Beza.  In  1590  he  became 
Hebrew  professor  at  Basle,  and  filled  the  chair  of  He- 
brew literature  until  his  death,  Sept.  13,  1629.  Ik- 
was  the  first  Protestant  rabbinical  scholar,  and  his 
contributions  to  Hebrew  literature  were  of  vast  im- 


The  paronomasia  (as  found  in  both  the  above  con- 
nections) of  the  names  //"-  or  Uz  and  Buz  is  by  no 
means  so  apparent  in  the  Hebrew  ("r".  ""'):  but  it 
is  quite  in  the  oriental  taste  to  give  to  relations  these 
rhyming  appellatives;  comp.  [shun  and  [shui  (Gen. 
xlvi,  17>,  Mehujael  and  Methusael  (Gen.  iv),  Uzziel 
and  Ozzi  1 1  I  'In- hi.  vii,  7) ;  and  among  th  ■  Arabians, 
Harut  and  Marut,  the  rebel  angels,  Easan  and  I !>.- 
seyn,  th  •  sons  of  Ali,  etc.  The  Koran  abounds  in 
such  homoioteleuti,  and  so  pleasing  are  they  to  the 


East.— Smith,  s.  v.      See  I'/.. 

\,  ;  :-ir.'.)  The  father  of  Ja'n- 
of  Gad  (1  Chron.  v,  14).     B.C.  long 


portance.  His  works  are  numerous,  but  the  following  Araba  that  they  even  call  Cain  and  Abel  Kabil  and 
are  the  chiet :  S:inn<j ,,,„  Judaica,  in  German  (Basle,  Habil  (Weil's  £3f.  UgewU,  p.23;  also  Southey's  JVbfea 
1603),  Lat.(Hanov.  1604) :— Epitovu  radicum  Hebrm-  ,„  Thalabd),  or  Habll  and  Habid  (see  Stanley,  p.  413). 
car^tCkaMaicar.  (Basle,  160< )  -.—Lexicon  Hebraicum  The  same  ldiora  is  f()und  m  Mabratta  and  the  modern 
et  Lhald.  (Basle,  1607,  8vo;  the  best  edition  is  that  of  ian!rU.,,r,.,  „f  ti,„  ) 
1676): — Thesaurus  Grammaticus  Ling.  Heb.: — Inslitu-  £  (S-pt  I ;,,/."  v 
iio  Epistolaris  Hebraic.,  etc.  (Basle,  1603,  1610,  1629,  do  0f  the 
etc.): — De  abbreviatwU  Hebraorum  (Basle,  1613  and  ant(1  ji,():> 
1640;  the  ed.  of  Herborn,  1708,  is  the  best):— Biblia 
Htbrcea  rabbinica  (Basle,  1618,  1619,  1  vols,  fol.):— Ti- 
berias, a  Commentary  on  the  Massorah  (1665): — Lexi- 
con Chaldaicum  Talmudicum  et  Rabbin.  (Basle,  1639, 
fol.)  • — Concordantue  Bibliorum  Hebraicce,  finished  and 
published  by  his  son  John  (Basle,  1632  and  1636 ; 
Frankfort  [abridged],  1676;  Berlin,  1677).  —  Bicg. 
Univ.  vi,  405 ;  Landon,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 


Btixtorf,  John,  Jr.,  son  of  the  preceding,  and, 
like  him,  an  eminent  Helraist,  was  born  Aug.  13, 
1599.     Taught  by  his  father,  he  made  great  proticien- 


Bu'zi  (Heb.  Buzi',  *T"2,  prop,  a  Buzite;  Sept. 
B.hC'i),  a  priest,  the  father  of  the  prophet  Ezckiel 
(Ezek.  i,  3).     B.C.  ants  598. 

Buz'ite  (Heb.,  with  the  art.,  hab-BuzV,  "" zr, ; 
Sept.  6  Bov£t),  the  patronymic  of  Elihu,  one  of  Job's 
interlocutors  (Job  xxxii,  2,  6);  prob.  as  being  a  de- 
scendant of  Buz  (q.  v.),  the  relative  of  Abraham  (<  Jen. 
xxii,  21). 

Byblus  (Bv(3\oc  in  Steph.  Byz.,  Bi/3Xo£  in  Zo- 
zim.    i,   58),   a  city  of  Phoenicia,  seated  on  a  rising 


ev  in  youth.  In  1630  he  was  made  Hel  rew  professor  ground  near  the  sea,  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  between 
at  Basle;  1647,  professor  of  controversial  theology;  and  Sidon  and  the  promontory  Theoprosopon  (Strabo,  xvi, 
1654,  of  Old  Test,  literature.  He  is  best  known  for  his  '^-  21  mil<*s  fn,m  Berytus  I  Pliny,  v.  20  ;  Pomp.  Mela, 
defence  of  his  father's  notions  on  the  antiquity  of  the  '•  J2.  3 )  I  according  to  Ptolemy  (v,  lo,  4),  <i,  J  40  and 
vowel  points  in  Hebrew,  which  appeared  in  his  True  ,33  5(5  ■  Jt  was  celebrated  for  the  birth  and  worship 
tdtiisdepunctorum,vocaUum,etaccentuumorigmeetauc.  of  Adonis  (A-  v0,  *"'■'  Syrian  Tammuz  (Eustath.  ad 
toritate  (Basle,  1648),  and  other  works.     On  this  sub-   Dmwjs.  v,  912;  Lucian.2)  a  Syra,  p.  6;  Nonnus,  Dumye. 

ject  he  had  a  bitter  controversy  with  Capellus  (q.  v.).    •".  109)-     u  seema  f mentioned  in   Scripture  as 

Besides  other  works,  be  published  Leah,,,,  chuhhU-um  '"the  laml  of  t,,e  ''■''>"<  ^  '  "Inch  was  assigned  to  the 
it  Svriacum  (Basle,  1622,  4to).    lie  died  Aug.  16,  1664.    Israelites  (Josh,  xiii,  5),  but  of  which  they  never  took 

possession.  Its  inhabitants  were  famous  as  "stone- 
Bustorf,  John  James,  son  of  the  last,  was  torn  squarers»  (]  Kings  v,  18),  and  supplied  -caulkers- 
Sept.  14,  1645.  He  made  rapid  progress  in  his  Ftudies  for  tlie  Tyrian  fleet  (  Ezek<  xxviL  <IK  Enylus,  king 
under  Hoffman  and  Wetstein,  and  learned  Hebrew  0f  Byblus,  when  he  learned  that  his  town  was  in  pl- 
under his  father,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  professor's  sessj'„„  of  Alexander,  cam.-  up  with  his  vessels  and  join- 
chair  at  Basle.  In  1664  be  was  appointed  adjunct  to  ed  tl)e  Macedonian  tie  -t  ( Arrian.  Anab.  ii,  15,  8;  20, 1). 
his  father,  and  afterward  Hebrew  professor.  Travel-  Byblus  seems  afterward  to  hive  fallen  into  the  hands 
ling  through  Holland  and  England,  he  was  .very-  0f  a  petty  tyrant,  since  Porapey  is  described  as  giving 
where  received  with  distinction.  He  published  noth-  ;t  freedom  by  beheading  th  •  tyranl  |  Strabo,  xvi,  755). 
ing  of  his  own,  but  he  edited  the  Tiberias  and.  Synagoga  This  town,  then  called   Giblih  (Abulfed.  Tab.  Syr.  p. 

94;  Schultens'  Index  Vil.  Salad,  b.  v.  Sjibila),  after 
having  been. the  see  of  a  bishop  (Behind.  PalcBSt.  p. 
216),  fell  under  Moslem  rule  (see  Richter,  WaUf.  p. 
118;  Reise  emer  Wien  rin.  ii.  201  ;  Michaelis,  Suppl. 
p.  251  sq.;  Hamelsweld,  iii,  275).  The  modern  town 
is  named  Jubeil,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  wall  of  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  circumference,  apparently  of  the 
time  of  the  Crusades  (Chesney,  Euphrat.E  ped.  i.  153). 

It  contains  the  remains  of  an  ancient   Roman  theatre; 

the  "cavea"   is   nearly  perfect,  with   its  concentric 


of  his  grandfather,  and  died  in  1704.— Landon,  s, 

Buxtorf,  John,  3d,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  Jan.  8,  1663,  and  became  Hebrew  professor 
at  Basle  in  1704,  and  held  the  office  with  great  credit 
till  his  death,  1732.  He  published  Cataikcta  PhUolog- 
ico-theolcgica,  containing  epistles  from  Casauhon,  Ush- 
er, Walton,  and  other  eminent  Hebraists,  to  the  Bux- 
torfs  (Basle,  1707,  12mo). 

Buz  (Heb.  id.  M3,  contempt),  the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.   B  <-.•/-,  but  'Pwc  i"  Jer.  xxv,  23.)    The  ranks   of  seats,  divided    by   their   "  prsecinctiones," 

second  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah,  and  brother  of  Huz    »cunei,"  etc.,  quite  distinguishable  (Thorns in  the 

(Gen.  xxii,  21).    B.C.  2050.    Elihu,  the  Buzite  (q.  v.),    Bibliotheca  Sacra,  v,  259).     Many  fragments  of  fine 
one  of  Job's  friends,  who  is  distinguished  as  an  Ara- 
maean or  Syrian  (dob  xxxii,  2),  was  doubtless  d<  s<  end- 


ed from  this  Buz.  Judgments  are  denounced  upon 
the.  tribe  of  Buz  by  Jeremiah  (xxv,  23);  and  from  the 
context  this  tribe  appears  to  have  been  Located  in  Ara- 
bia Deserta,  being  mentioned  in  connection  with  Te- 
nia and  Dedan:  this  may  render  it  uncertain  whether 


granite  columns  are  lying  about  (Burckhardt,  Syria, 
p.  180).  Byblus  was  the  birthplace  of  the  Philo  who 
translated  Sanchoniatho  into  Greek.  The  coins  of 
Byblus  bear  frequently  the  type  of  Astarte;  also  of 
Isis,  who  came  hither  in  search  of  the  bodj  of  Osiris 
(Eckhel,  iii,  859;  Mem.  de  VAcad.  dee  Inter,  xxxiv, 
252).     See  Gebal.      Another  city  called  Jabala,ia 


the  descendants  of  Nahor's  son  are  intended,  although  p.„)(ij(.,.;1  (Abulf.  Syria,  p.  L09  Bq.),  must  not  be  con- 

a  migration  south  of  the  Euphrates  is  ly  no  means  un-  f()ini,1(.,i  uini  ,|„.  above,  as  it  lay  entirelj  beyond  the 

likely,  and  had  perhaps  already  occurred  in  the  time  ion  ,,,-  Palestine.     See  Giblite. 
of  Elihu.      Some  connect   the   territory  of  Buz  with 

Busan  a  Roman  fort  mentioned  in  Ainm.  Marc,  xviii,  Byfield,  Nicholas,  a  Puritan  divine,  was  bom  in 

10    and  others  with  Batta   in  Arabia    lvtra-a  (see  Warwickshire,  1679,  and  entered  Exeter 'CdUga  Ox- 

Schwarz    Palest,  p.  209),  which,  however,   has  only  ford,  1596.     After  serving  as  rector  of  St.  Peters, 

the  first  letter  in  common  with  it.     See  ABABIA.  Chester,  he  became  vicar  of  Isleworth  in  1615,  and 


BYFIELD 


940 


BZOVIUS 


died  in  1G22.  "  He  had  an  excellent  character  for 
learning,  sound  judgment,  quick  invention,  and  suc- 
cess in  the  ministry."  He  published  A  Commentary 
on  1  Peter,  Chapters  i-iii  (Lond.  1G37,  fol.):  —  The 
Promises  (Loud.  1647, 12  mo) :— Exposition  of  the  Colos- 
sians  (  Lond.  1615,  fol.)  : — Assurance  of  God's  Love  and 
Man's  Salvation  (Lond.  1614,  8 vo)  : — Exposition  of  the 
ApostU  .<  <  '/■'  < </  (Lond,  1626,  4to).— Darling,  Cyclopxdia 
Bibli  graphica,  i,  535 ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Authors, 
i,  317. 

Byfield,  Richard,  an  English  Nonconformist, 
brother  of  Nicholas,  was  born  in  Worcestershire,  stud- 
i  td  at  Cambridge,  and  became  curate  of  Isleworth. 
lie  held  the  living  of  Long-Ditton  during  the  Com- 
monwealth, and  was  ejected  at  the  Restoration.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines,  and  a  vig- 
orous opponent  of  prelacy  and  superstition.  He  died 
1664.  Among  his  writings  were  The  Light  of  Faith 
(Lond.  1630,  8vo)  -.—The  Doctrine  of  the  Sabbath  (Lond. 
1632,  4to):—  The  Power  of  the  Christ  of  God  (Lond. 
1641,  4  to) : — The  Gospel's  Glory  without  Prejudice  to  the 
Law  (Lond.  1659,  sm.  8vo). — Darling,  Cyclop.  Biblio- 
graphica,  i,  535  ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  i,  317. 

Byles,  Mather,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  Boston,  March  26,  1706,  graduated  at 
Harvard  1725,  and  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Hollis 
Street  church  Dec.  20,  1733.  He  was  made  D.D.  at 
Aberdeen  1765.  He  was  a  Tory  in  politics,  and  was 
therefore  dismissed  from  his  charge  in  1776.  He  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  private  life,  and  died  July 
5, 1788.  Dr.  Byles  was  distingui:-hed  for  literary  taste 
and  exuberant  wit.  He  published  a  Poem  on  the  Death 
of  George  I  and  the  A  cvession  of  George  II  (1727)  : — an 
Elegy  on  the  Death  of  Hon.  Daniel  Oliver  (1732): — a 
Poetical  Epistle  to  Gov.  Belcher  on  the  Death  of  his  Lady 
(1736):— a  Poem  on  the  Death  of  the  Queen  (1738):— 
Poems:  The  Conflagration,  The  God  of  Tensest  and 
Earthquake  (1744);  and  a  number  of  essays  and  occa- 
sional sermons. — Sprague,  Annals,  i,  376. 

Bynaeus,  Anthony,  a  Dutch  divine  and  scholar, 
was  born  at  Utrecht,  Aug.  6, 1654,  and  studied  the  an- 
cient languages  under  Graevius.  After  his  ordination 
to  the  Protestant  ministry  be  devoted  himself  to  the 
Oriental  languages,  and  became  an  eminent  scholar  in 
Hebrew  and  Syriac.  He  died  at  Deventer,  Nov.  8, 
1698.  Among  his  writings  are  De  Calceis  Hebra>orum 
(Dort,  1682,  12mo)  : — Explicatio  Hist.  Evang.  de  Natiri-  j 
tate  Christi  (Dort.  1688,  4to) :— De  Natali  Jesu  Christi 
(Amst.  1689,  4to) ;  with  sermons  and  commentaries  in  i 
the  Dutch  language. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
vii,  931. 

Byssus.     See  Linen. 

Bythner,  Victorinus,  a  native  of  Poland,  who 
came  to  England,  matriculated  at  the  University  of 
Oxford,  and  read  lectures  on  Hebrew  there  for  years. 
He  then  passed  some  time  in  Cambridge,  and  about 
16  'A  settled  in  Cornwall,  where  he  practised  medicine, 
ile  died  in  1670.  Among  his  writings  are  Lethargy  of 
tin  Soul  1 1636,  8vo)  : — Tabula  Directorial  Linguce  Sanctm 
(<  Ixford,  1637,  8vo)  -.—Manipulus  Missis  Magna  (Lond. 
1639,  8vo):— Clams  Lingua  Sanctce  (Camb.  1648,  8vo): 

Lyra  Prophetica  Davidis  Regis  (Lond.  1645,  12mo; 
1660,  8vo),  containing  a  grammatical  explanation  of 
all  tin-  Hebrew  words  in  the  Psalms;  often  reprinted; 
translated  into  English  by  Dee,  under  the  title  The 
Lyre  of  David  (Lond.  1836,  8vo;  1847,  8vo).     Home 


calls  it  the  "  most  valuable  help  to  the  critical  and 
grammatical  study  of  the  Psalms." — Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  vii,  956;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors, i,  324. 

By-ways  (nfepV)??  ^n'??,  orachoth'  ahalkal- 
loth' ,  tortuous  paths;  Sept.  vcoi  Suarpa^uivai).  There 
are  roads  in  Palestine,  but  it  is  very  easy  to  turn  out 
of  them  and  go  to  a  place  by  winding  about  over  the 
lands,  when  such  a  course  is  thought  to  be  safer.  Dr. 
Shaw  mentions  this  in  Barbary,  where  he  says  they 
found  no  hedges,  or  mounds,  or  enclosures  to  retard  or 
molest  them.  To  this  Deborah  doubtless  refers  in 
Judges  v,  6,  "  In  the  days  of  Jael,  the  high-ways  were 
unoccupied,  and  the  travellers  walked  through  by- 
ways," or  "  crooked  ways,"  as  in  the  margin.  Bishop 
Pococke  says  that  the  Arab  who  conducted  him  to  Je- 
rusalem took  him  by  night,  and  not  by  the  high  road, 
but  through  the  fields ;  "  and  I  observed,"  he  remarks, 
"  that  he  avoided,  as  much  as  he  could,  going  near  any 
village  or  encampment,  and  sometimes  stood  still,  as  I 
thought,  to  hearken."  The  same  insecurity  to  travel- 
lers exists  in  modern  times  in  Palestine  when  an}-  dis- 
turbance of  the  government  occurs.     See  Eoad. 

By-word  represents  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  the  follow- 
ing Heb.  words :  n'Sw,  millah'  (Job  xxx,  9),  a  word  or 
speech  (as  elsewhere  rendered)  ;  3'^,  mashal'  (Psa. 
xliv,  14),  a  proverb  or  parable  (as  elsewhere) ;  so  the 
kindred  PlS'O,  meshol'  (Job  xvii,  6)  ;  but  properly 
it:"1: C,  sheninah',  sharp  words  in  derision  (Deut.  xxviii, 
37;  1  Kings  ix,  7 ;  2  Chron.  vii,  20;  "taunt,"  Jer. 
xxiv,  9). 

Byzantine  Church.     See  Greek  Church. 

Byzantine  Recension,  the  text  of  the  Greek 
N.  T.  in  use  at  Constantinople  after  it  became  the  metro- 
politan see  of  the  Eastern  empire.  The  readings  of 
this  recension  are  those  which  are  most  commonly 
found  in  the  common  printed  Greek  text,  and  are  also 
most  numerous  in  the  existing  manuscripts  which  cor- 
respond to  it,  a  very  considerable  additional  number 
of  which  have  recentby  been  discovered  and  collated 
by  Professor  Scholz.  The  Byzantine  text  is  found  in 
the  four  Gospels  of  the  Alexandrian  manuscript ;  it 
was  the  original  from  which  the  Sclavonic  version  was 
made,  and  was  cited  by  Chrysostom  and  by  Theophy- 
lact,  bishop  of  Bulgaria. — Home,  Introduction,  pt.  i, 
ch.  ii,  §  2.     See  Recension  (of  MSS.). 

Bzovius  (Bzowski),  Abraham,  a  Polish  Roman- 
ist divine,  was  born  at  Proczovic  in  1567.  He  studied 
at  Cracow,  where  he  became  a  Dominican.  He  subse- 
quently taught  philosophy  at  Milan,  and  theology  at 
Bologna.  On  his  return  into  Poland  he  became  prior 
of  the  Dominicans  at  Cracow,  and  contributed  greatly 
to  the  extension  of  the  order.  Pope  Pius  V  called  him 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  employed  on  a  continuation  of 
the  Annals  of  Baronius  from  A.D.  1198  to  1532;  and 
he  completed  nine  volumes  (xiii  to  xxi),  which  were 
printed  at  Cologne,  from  1616  to  1630,  and  at  Rome  in 
1672.  Among  his  other  writings  are  Historia  Ecclesi- 
astica  ex  Baronii  annalibus  historiis  excerpta  (Col.  1617, 
3  vols,  fol.) : — XL  Sermones  super  Canticum  Salre  Re- 
gina  (Venice,  1598) : — Sacrum  Pancarpium  {Sermons)  : 
— De  rebus  gestis  Summorum  Pontifcum  (Col.  1619  and 
1622,  4to).  He  died  at  Rome,  Jan.  31, 1637.— Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  vii,  959. 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  I. 


Aalar Page 

Aaron,  brother  of  Mo- 


1  Abiathar  . 

1  Abib 

Abibaa . . . 

1  Abida.... 

Aaron,  Acharon 2  Abidah. . . 

Aaron,  Ariscon 2  Abidan  . . 

Aaron  ben-Aser 2  Abiel,  1  . . 

Aaron  ben-Chayim. .  3  Abiel, '-'  . . 

Aaron  ben-Joseph  fa-  Abiezer,  1  . 

son 3 1  Abiezer,  2 . 

Aaron  Zalaha :;  Abiezrite  . 

Aaronite 

Aazrak 

Ab 

Ab- 

Abacus 

Abaddon  

Abadias 

Abail  y  (jnerpeo  . 

Abagtha  ..." 4  Abihud,  1 

Abana 4  Abihnd,  2 

Aliarim 4  Alii  jab,  1 . 

Abauzit 4  Abi'jah,  •_'. 

Abba 5  Abijah,  3. 

Abbadie 5  Abijah,  4. 

Abbas,  1 5  Abijah,  5. 

6  Abijah,  6. 

5  Abijah,  7. 

.r>  Abijah,  S. 

Abbey 0  Abijam  . . 

Abbo 0  Abila,  1. 


Page 


3  Abigail,  1  . 
::  Abigail,  2 
3  Abihail,  1 

3  Abihail,  2  . 
3  Abihail,  3  . 
3  Abihail,  4  . 

3  Abihail,  5. 

4  Abihu   


15  Abstemii Page  37  Ad Page  03  Adonijah,  1  ...Page 

15  Abstinence 38  Adad o;;  Adoni'jah.  2 

15  Abstinenta 39  Adadah 03  Ad..nijah,  ■; 

15  Ab-us 39  Adah,  1 03  Adontkam 

15  Abubua 

15  Abul-faraj 

16  Abuna 

l.">  Abyss 

L5  Abyssinian  Church 

10  Acaciana 41  Adaiah,  5 

10  Acaciu-  of  <:«>saiva. .    41  Adaiah,  0 


39  Adah,  2 63  Ado 

39  Adaiah,! 63  Adonis 

39  Adaiah,  2 63  Adonists 

39  Adaiah,  3 63  Adoni-zedek. 

19  Adaiah,  4 63  Adoptianista, 

63  Adoption    ... 

64  Adora. 


Abbas, 
Abbe 


16j  Acacius  of  Berea 41  Adaiah,  7 04  Adoraim 70 

16  Academics 41  Adaiah,  S 64  Adoram 79 

l6!Acatan 41  Adalbert  of  Prague..  01  Adoration 7'.» 

16  Acatholici 41  Adalbert  of  Bremen.  04  Adrammelech,  1....  B0 

16  A. cad 41  Adaldagus 64  Adrammelech,  -'.. ..  BO 

10  Aecaron 42  Adalgar (it  Adramvttium 81 

10  Ai-i-rnsorii '. .  42  Adalliard 04  Adrias 81 

16  Accent 42  Adalia 04]  Adrian  of  Neridan..  -1 

16  Accept 43  Adam,  the  first  man.  04  Adrian  I 81 

16   Acceptance 43  Adam,  tin- city 69  Adrian  II BS 

10  Acceptants 43  Adam  of  Bremen. 

16  Acceptation 43  Adam,  Helchior  . 

(0  Access 43  Adam,  Thomas  . . 

10  Accho 43  Adamah 

17  Accident 45  Adamannus 

17  Acclamation 40  Adamant OOlAdrichomius 8i 

17  Accolti 40  Adami 00  Adri.l S3 

17  Accommodation 40  Adamites 70  Aduel 63 


09  Adrian  III 62 

0i  Adrian  IV S3 

09  Adrian  V ^2 

o  I  Adrian  VI 32 

69  Adrianists BS 


17  Accos 47 


Abbot,  Abiel,  2 
Abbot,  George . 

Abbot,  Robert 7  Abimael 

Abbott 

Abbreviation  . 
Abbreviator . . 

Abda,  1 

Alula,  2 8  Abimelech, : 

Abdas 8  Abinadab,! 

Abdeel 8  Abinadab,  2 

Abdi,  1 8  Abinadab, 

Abli,  2 " 

Abdi,  3 

All  lias,  1 

Abdias,  2 

Abdiel 

Ab  Ion,  1 

Abdon,2 

Ab  b.n,  3 

Abdon,  4 

Abdon,  5 

Abecedarians   

Abecedarian  Hymns. 

Abednego 

Abeel,  David 9 

Abeel,  John  Nelson. .     9 

Abel,  sou  of  Adam 

Abel- lu  Abjuration 

Abelard 10  Able,  Thomas 

Abel-beth-maachah .   11  Ablution 

Abel-ceramin 12  Aimer 


Abila,  2c 
Abilene  . 


7  Abimelech,  1 

7  Abimelech,  2 

8  Abimelech,  3 
8  Abimelech,  4 


S  Abinadab,  4 

8|Abinoam  . . . 
8  Abiram,  1 . . 
8  Abiram,  2  .. 

8  Ahiron 

S  Abisei 

8  Abishag 

s  Abishai 

8  Abishai  om. . 
8  Abi-hua.l.. 
8  Abishua,2.. 

S  Abishur 

8  Abisnm 

Abila' 

Abitnb , 

Ahiud 


17  AccoZ 

is  Accubation 

Is  Accursed.  . 

is  Accusi  r... 
is  Aceldama.. 
IS  Acephali .. 
19  Acesius  . . . 
19  Achabara.. 

19  Achad 

20  Achaia. . . . 

211 
20 
•Jo 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 

20 
21 
21 
21 
23 


Adams,  Eliphalet ...   70 
Adams,  Hannah  ....  70 

Adams,  Jasper 70 

Allan.-,  John 7o 

Adams,  Samuel 70 

Adams,  'I  I 


Adullam 83 

Adullam,  Cave  .-! 

Adullamite "I 

Adultery si 

Adummim 7 

...    70  Advent 83 

50  Adam-.  William 70  Advontisis B9 

50  Adamson 70  Adversary s  I 

50Adar,l 70  Advocate S3 

50  Adar,  2 71  Advocate      of     the 

BOAdasa 71      Church so 

Achaicus 51  Adauctns 71  Advocatus  Diaboli 

Aelian 51  Adbeel 71  Advowson BO 

Achar 51  Addan 71  Adytum B3 

Achaz 51  Addar 71  Aedias B3 

Achbor,  1 51  Adder 71  L/Egidius SD 

Achbor,  2 51  Addi,  1 71 -Kifric    of   Canter- 

Achery 51  Addi,  2 71      bury SO 

Achiaeharus r.i  Addison 71  .P.lfric  of  Abinga 

Achias 6]  Add.. 71  .  Eneas B9 

Aihim 51 1  Addon 72  .Enoa-  Gaza   is....  90 

51  Addlis,  1 72  .Eneas  of  Paris 00 


Addus.  2 72  .Emm  .. 

VI.  laido 72  /Eon.  .  . 

Adelbert 72  -Kpinus 

Adeodatus 72  .Era  . . . 

Ader 72  .Kie  ... 

Adessenaril 72  Aerian 

Adiabene 


Abelites 

Abelli 

Abel-maim  ... 
Abel-meholah  . 
Abel-mizraim. . 

Abel-shittim... 

Abendana 

-Ezra 


12  Al 

12  Abomination 

12  Abomination   of  I  )<•-- 

12     olation 

12  Ahrabmol 

13  Abracadabra 

13  Abraham,  the   patri- 

Aben-Ezra 13     arch 

Abererombie,  Jam ■■-.  13  Abraham's  Bosom... 

ibie,  Jolin  . .  IS  Abraham    a    Sancta 

Aberdeen  13     Clara 

Aber.ieeu.Ureviary of  13  Abraham,  Usque.... 

Abernethy 13  Abrahamitea 

Abeyance 1 1  Abram 

Abez 14  A  brtt  x  as 

Abgarus 14  Abrech 

Abi 14  Absalom,  1 

Abi- 14  Absalom's  Tomb 

Abia 14  Absalom,  2 

Abiah 14  Absalom,  3 

Abi-albon 14  Absalon 

Abiasaph 14  Absolution 


Achior  . . . 

Ael.i-h,  1 52 

Achish,  2 52 

Achitob 52 

Aehmetha 52 

Achor 53 

Ail. -a 53 

Achsah  53 

Achshaph 54  Adiapliora 

Achterfeldt 54  Adiaphoristict  lontro- 

Ach/.ib.  1 54 

Achzib,2 54 

Acipha 54 

23  Acitho 54 

24  Ackermann 54 

21  Accemetse 51 

Ac  .Mb 54 

25  Acoutiua 65 

27  Acosta,  Gabriel 65 

27  Acosta,  Joseph 66 

Acra 

27    Aeial.battitle.   1 


...  DO 

.  .  .  DO 

...  DO 

...  '.0 

...  01 

...  11 

Aetiana !  1 

...  M 


33  Acrabbattine 

Aire 

S3  Acrostic 

33    Acta  Marlyruin BO   \dmi 

33  Acta  Sanctorum 57  Adm< 

33  Action  Sermon 57  Adnn 

33  Acta  of  the  Apo  ties.  67  Adna. 

::i  Acts,  Spurious 60  Adna 

3i  Acta  of  Christ 60  Adnah 

30  Act-  of  Apostles,  Spn- 

36     rioua 62 

36  Acts  ofPilate 62 

30  Acua 63 

30  Aciib 03 


Affectii 

Affendofulo 99 

versiea 72  Affinity D2 

A.iida 72  Affirmative 92 

A.li.l.l    73  Attn- 

VH.1,2 73  Afghanistan '33 

A.liel,3 73  Afra 03 

Adin 73  Africa  03 

Adina 73  African M.E.Church    97 

A. lino 7:.  African   M.  E.  Zion 

Adinua 73     Church 07 

Adithaim 73  Africanua 

..  Adjuration 73  Afternoon 

5  Adlai 7.:  Agaba,  a  pel  son  .. .     '.  ■ 


55  Nonr.h  74  Agaba,  a  place 

r^;  Ad  mat  ha 7  1  Agabua 

66  Admedera 7: 


4  Agag.2 9S 

tion 74  At.-a.ile 00 

7  1   Agape    00 

100 

74  Agapetus  I 100 

1 71  Agapetua  II 101 

Adnah,  2 71  Agir 1»1 

Ad.. 71  Agard 1M 

Adonal 71  Agarene l»l 

Adoni-bezek 71  Agate 101 

Adonicam "5  Agatha 101 


942 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  I 


Agatho Pag 

Agathopolls 

Age 

Age,  Old 

Age,  <  lanonical  . . . 

A'_'i',  Adult 

Agea  of  the  World. 

Agee 

Agelliua 

e  lot 

Ahlai,  2 rage  122 

Alexander,  10. Page 

143 

All-Saints'Day.Pag 

;.10s< 

Ambrose  the  Carnal 

.  101  Ahoah 

122 

Alexander,  11 

143 

All-Souls'a  Day 

Ids 

dule Page  195 

.  101  Ahohite 

122 

Alexander,  12 

143 

Allut 

id- 

Ambrose,  Autpert. 

192 

.  101  Aholah 

12  2 

Alexander,  13  .... 

143 

Allwoerden 

Ids 

Ambrose,  Isaac  . . . 

192 

.  102  Aholiah 

122 

Alexander,  14 

143 

Allyn 

169 

Ambrose  of  Moscow  193 

.   102  Aholibah 

122 

Alexander,  15 

144 

Almain 

169 

Ambrosiaster 

193 

102  Aholibaniah 

123 

Alexander,  16 

144 

Almeida 

169 

Ambrosius-ad-Ne 

102  Ahnmai 

12.; 

Alexander,  17 

114 

Almericians 

169 

nras 

193 

102  Ahuzam 

123 

Alexander  I 

144 

Almeyda 

163 

Ambuscade 

193 

123 

Alexander  II 

114 

Almici 

169 

Amedians 

194 

Aggie  la 

Agier 

102Ai,l 

123 

Alexander  III 

144 

Almodad 

169 

Amen 

194 

12  1 

Alexander  IV 

145 

Almon 

170 

Amenites 

194 

Agion 

Agnes,  St 

Agooi  Ub 

103  Aiah 

124 

Alexander  V 

145 

Almond 

170 

America 

194 

103  Aiath 

124 

Alexander  VI 

145 

Almon-diblathaim 

17n 

Am.  and  For.  Cbr 

103  Aii'hnialotarch 

124 

Alexander  VII  ... 

146 

Almoner 

170 

Union 

196 

Agnus  l>ci 

Agobard 

Agonistici 

Agonizants 

103  Aldan 

124 

Alexander  VI 1 1... 

140 

Alms 

171 

Amerytha 

197 

103!Aigenler 

124 

Alexander,  St 

140 

Almug 

173 

Ames 

197 

103'Aijah 

124 

Alexander  of  Alex 

Alnathan 

173 

Amethyst 

197 

li)4  Aijalon 

124 

andria 

146 

Aloe 

173, 

Amharie  Language 

198 

Agony 

Agreda 

Agricola,  Francis  . 

104  Aijaleth  Shahar. .. 

124 

Alexander    of  Con- 

Alogi  

174 

Ami 

198 

lOSAilly 

124 

stantinople  

140 

Alombrados 

174 

Amianthus 

19S 

105  Aih-edus 

125 

Alexander  of  llier 

Aloth 

174 

Amiatine        Manu 

198 

Agricola,  John. . . . 

105  Aimon 

125 

apolis 

146 

Aloysius 

174 

script 

193 

Agriculture 

106!  Ain  (a  spring)  .... 

125 

Alexander   the   Ac 

Alpha 

174 

Amice 

IPS 

Agrippa,  1 

113;Ain,l 

125 

coemete 

146 

Alphabet 

175 

Aminadab 

193 

Agrii  ]'■-   

Agrippa,  3 

114  Ain,  3 

126 

Alexander  Alesius  . 

147 

Alphseus,  1 

176 

Aminon 

19S 

114  Ainsworth,  Henry. 

126 

Alexander  N'evski. . 

147 

Alphaeus,  2 

177 

Amittai 

198 

Agrippa, Marcus  Vip 

Vinsworth,  Laban. 

126 

Alexander,     Archi 

Alphage 

177 

Ammah 

198 

saniua 

114 

Air 

126 

bald 

148 

Alphen 

177 

Ammi 

199 

Agrippa,  Fonteius. 

114 

Airus  

126 

Alexander,  Caleb  . 

lis 

Alphery 

177 

Ammianus  Marcelli 

-  199 

Agrippa,IIenryCor 

Msle 

126 

Alexander,JamesW 

148 

Alphitomancy 

177 

nus 

199 

nelius 

114 

\ix-la-Chapelle. .  . 

12T 

Alexander,      Josepl 

Alphonso  de  Alcala 

177 

Ammidioi 

199 

Agrippinaa 

115 

Ajah,  1 

127 

Addison 

14S 

Alphonso  de  Zamora  177 

Ammiel,  1 

199 

Ague 

115 

Ajah,  2 

127 

Alexandra,  1 

149 

Alstedius 

177 

Animiel,  2 

199 

AguiiTe 

115 

Ajalon,  1 

127 

Alexandra,  2 

149 

Altanseus 

177 

Ammiel,  3 

199 

Agar     

115 

ajalon,  2 

127 

Alexandra,  3 

149 

Altar 

177 

Ammiel,  4 

199 

Agynians 

115 

Ijephim 

127 

Alexandria 

149 

Al-taschith 

184 

Ammihud,  1 

i:;9 

Ah- 

115 

Akan 

127 

Alexandria,  Church 

Alter 

184 

Ammihud,  2 

199 

Ahab,  1 

115 

Mciba 

127 

of 

153 

Althamer 

1S4 

Ammihud,  3 

199 

Ahab,2 

110 

\kins 

127 

Alexandria,     Patri- 

A1  ting,  James 

1-1 

Ammihud,  4 

199 

Aharab 

116 

\kkub,l 

128 

archate  of 

154 

Alting,  John  Henry  1S4 

Ammihud,  5 

199 

Aharhel 

116 

\kkiib,  2 

12S 

Alexandria,     Coun 

Alush 

1S5 

Amminadab,  1 

199 

Ahasai 

116 

-Vkkub,  3 

12s 

cils  of 

154 

Alva  y  Astorga  . . . 

1S5 

Amminadab,  2. . . . 

199 

Abasbai 

116 

Akrabbim 

12S 

Alexandrian 

154 

Alvah 

1S5 

Amminadab,  3. .  . . 

199 

Ahasuerua,  1 

116 

Ykiothinion 

12S 

Alexandrian  Chron- 

Alvan  

isr, 

Amminadib 

199 

Ahasuerua,  2 

111 

Alabama 

128 

icle  

154 

Alvarez  of  Cordova,  1S5 

Ammishaddai 

200 

Ahasuerua,  3 

117 

Alabareh 

12S 

Alexandrian   Libra- 

Alvarez, Diego  . . . 

185 

Ammizabad 

200 

Ahasuerus,  4 

117 

Alabaster 

129 

ry  

155 

Alverson 

185 

Ammon : . . . 

200 

Ahava  

117 

Alabaster,  William 

129 

Alexandrian  Manu 

Alypius  of  Tagaste 

185 

Amnion, Christopher 

Ahaz.l 

IIS 

Alameth 

130 

script  

155 

Alypius  the  Stylite 

185 

Frederick 

200 

Ahaz,  2 

118 

Alammeleeh 

130 

AlexandrianScbools 

156 

Amad 

1S6 

Ammonite 

200 

Ahaziah,  1 

US 

Alamoth 

130 

Alexandrium 

159 

Amadatha 

1st; 

Ammonitess 

201 

Abaziah,  2 

119 

Alan  de  1'  Isle 

130 

Alexandroschene. . 

159 

Amal 

ISO 

Ammonius 

201 

Ahban 

119 

Alan  de  Podio  .... 

130 

Alexas 

159 

Amalarius 

186 

Ammonius  Saccas. 

202 

Aher 

119 

Alan  of  Flanders.. 

130 

Alexians  

160 

Amalek 

1S6 

Amnon,  1 

202 

AM,  1 

119 

Alarm 

130 

Alfred  the  Great.. 

160 

Amalekite 

1S6 

Amnon,  2 

202 

AM,  2 

119 

Alb 

130 

Algeria  

160 

Amalric 

1S7 

Amok 

202 

Ahiah 

119 

Alban,  St 

131 

Algum 

160 

Amam 

ls7 

Amolo 

202 

Attain 

119 

Albanensea 

131 

Aliah 

160 

Amama 

1S7 

Amomum 

202 

Ahian 

119 

Albati 

131 

Alian 

160 

Aman 

188 

Amon,  1 

202 

Ahiezer,  1 

119 

Aider,  Erasmus. . . 

131 

Alien 

160 

Amana,  1 

188 

Anion,  2 

202 

Attezer,  2 

119 

Alber,  John    Nepo 

Alisgema 

161 

Amana,  2 

18S 

Amon,  3 

202 

Ahilmd,  1 

119 

mulz 

"  131 

Alkali 

101 

Anianah 

1SS 

Amon,  4 

203 

Ahihud,  2 

119 

Alber,  Matthew. . . 

131 

Allah 

161 

Amandus 

188 

Amorite 

203 

Ahijab,  1 

119 

Albeit,  St 

132 

Allan 

101 

Amaranthine 

ISS 

Amort 

204 

AMjah,  2 

119 

Albert  the  Great  . 

132 

Allatiua 

101 

Amariah,  1 

18S 

Amory 

204 

Ahijah,  3 

119 

Albert  of  Magdeburg  133 

Allegory 

10. 

Amariah,  2 

1S8 

Amos,  1 

204 

AMjah,  4 

120 

Alberti,  John 

13,3 

Alleine 

162 

Amariah,  3 

ISS 

Amos,  Book  of 

205 

Ahjjah,5 

120 

Alberti,  Leander . . 

133 

Alleluiah 

10. 

Amariah,  4 

ISS 

Amos,  2 

205 

AM]  ih,6 

120 

Albertini 

133 

Allenianni 

165 

Amariah,  5 

18S 

Amoz 

205 

Ahijah,  7 

120 

Albigenaea 

.  133 

Allen,  Benjamin . . 

163 

Amariah,  0 

ISs 

Amphibalum 

200 

Ahijah,8 

.  120 

Alliums 

134 

Allen,  David  Oliver  161 

Amariah,  7 

ISS 

Aniphilochius 

£00 

Ahijah,  9 

120 

Albizzi,  Anthony.. 

134 

Allen,  James 

163 

Amariah,  S 

18S 

Amphipolis 

206 

Ahikan 

120 

Albizzi,     Barthok 

Allen,  John,  1 

163 

Amariah,  9 

ISs 

Amphora 

206 

Ahilud 

.  120 

mew 

"  134 

Allen,  John,  2 

163 

Amarias 

ISS 

Amplias 

200 

Ahimnaz,  1 

120 

Albrights 

135 

Allen,  John,  3 

163 

Amasa,  1 

ISS 

Ampulla 

206 

Ahimaaz,  2 

.   L20 

Alcantara, <  li'ders  nf  135 

Allen,  John,  4  . .  . . 

163 

Amasa,  2 

189 

Amram,  1 

200 

Alum  laz,  3 

.   120  Alcimua 

13;, 

Allen,  Moses 

in: 

Amasai,  1 

189 

Amram,  2 

207 

AWman,l 

120  Alcuin 

135 

Allen,  Kichard 

164 

Amasai,  2 

is; 

Amram,  3 

207 

Ahiman,  2 

.   120  Aides,  Noah 

137 

Allen,  Solomon  . . . 

164 

Amasai,  3 

1S9 

Amramite 

307 

Ahimelech,  1 

.   121 

Alden,  Timothy. . . 

137 

Allen,  Thomas,  1  . 

16-1 

Amasai,  4 

is-; 

Amraphel 

207 

Aliiniilnh,  2 

.    121 

Aldhelm 

137 

Allen,  Thomas,  2  . 

164 

Amashai 

is; 

Amsdorf. 

207 

Ahimoth 

.   121 

Aldrich 

.   137 

Allen,  Thomas,  3  . 

164 

Amasiah 

189 

Amulet 

207 

Ahlnadab 

.   121 

Aleander 

.    137 

Allen,  William,  1  . 

164 

Amasia 

ISO 

Amyot 

209 

AMnoam,  1 

.   121 

Alegarabe 

.    137 

Allen,  William,  2  . 

164 

Amatha 

is: 

Amyraut 

209 

Ahiiwiuii,  2 

.    121 

Alema 

.  137 

Allenites 

164 

Amatheis 

IS! 

Anizi,  1 

210 

Alii..,    1 

.  121 

Alembert 

.    137 

Allestrce 

16£ 

AmatMs 

189 

Amzi,  2 

210 

Ahio,  2 

.  121 

Alemeth,  1 

.   138 

Alley 

165 

Amathitis 

Is; 

Anab 

210 

AM  ■■  3 

.    121 

Alemeth,  2 

.    13s 

Allianc  • 

161 

Amathus 

IS! 

Anabaptists 

210 

Ahlra 

.    121 

Alemeth,  8 

.    13s 

Alliance,  Holy 

167 

Amaziab,  1 

18S 

Anachorets 

211 

Vhiram 

.   121 

Ales 

.  138 

Allison,  Burgess  . . 

Ki- 

Amaziah, 2 

189 

Anacletus  I 

211 

AMramite 

.    121 

Alexander,  1 

.  138 

Allison,  Krancia  .. 

lo: 

Amaziab,  3 

190 

Anacletus  II 

211 

AhUamach 

.    121 

Alexander,  2 

.    IK 

Allison,  Patrick. . . 

167 

Amaziah,  4 

191 

Anael 

212 

AMahahar 

.    12! 

Alexander,  3 

.  141 

Allix 

167 

Ambassador 

191 

Anagnostes 

212 

Ahlthophel 

.    121 

Alexander,  4 

.    141 

Allocution 

167 

Amber 

191 

Anagogical 

212 

Ahltub,l 

.   122 

Alexander,  B 

.     142 

Allnm 

Ids 

Ambivius 

191 

Anah,  1 

212 

AMtub,2 

.   122 

Alexander,  0 

.  142 

Alton,  1 

10s 

Ambo 

191 

Anah,  2 

212 

AMtub.3 

.   122 

Alexander,  7 

.142  Alton,  2 

LC8 

Ambrose  of  Alexan 

Anaharath 

212 

AMab 

.  122 

Alexander,  8 

.   142  Allbn-bachuth 

.  168 

dria 

191 

Anaiah 

212 

Ahh.i.l 

.  122 

(Alexander,  9  . .. . 

.  14'. 

lAllophyli 

.  16S 

Ambrose  of  Milan . 

191 

Anak 

212 

LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  I. 


Anakim Page 

Analogy 

Anam 

Anaraira 

Anammelech 

Anan 

Ananelus 

Anani 

Ananiah,  1 

Ananiah,  2 

Ananias,  1 

Ananias,  2 

Ananias,  3 

Ananias,  4 

Ananias,  5 

Ananias,  0 

Ananias,  7 

Ananias,  8 

Ananias,  i) 

Ananias,  10 

Ananias,  11 

Ananias,  12 

Ananias,  13 

Ananias,  14 

Ananiel 

Ananus,  1 

Ananus,  2 

Ananus,  3 

Ananus,  4 

Anaphora 

Anastasia 

Anastasius  I 

Anastasius  II 

Anastasius  III 

Anastasiua  IV 

Anastasius,  Anti- 
pope  

Anastasius,  St.,  of 
Antioch 

Anastasius,  St.,  As- 
tric 

Anastasius  Sinai ta. 

Anastasius,  the  Mar- 
tyr  

Anastasius  of  the 
Vatican 

Anath.. 

Anathema 

Anathoth,  1 

Anathoth,  2 

Anathoth,  3 

Anatoliua 

Anchieta 

Anchor 

Ancient  of  Days  . . . 

Ancillon,  David. . . . 

Ancillon,  Jean  I'ierre 
Fred 

Ancyra 

Anderson,  Christo- 
pher  

Anderson,  John 

Anderson,  Lars  .... 

Anders. .n,  Peyton. . 

Andrada 

Andrade.Diego  Pay- 
vad' 

Andrade      (Thomas 

de  -I  !sas) 

Andrea 

Andreas 

Andreas  «  retenala. . 

Andreas  of  ('rain  .  . 

Andreas,  John  Val- 
entine   

Andrew,  the  Vpostle 

Andrew  of  <  Isesarea 

Andrewea 

Andrews,  I'.lisha  . . . 

Andrews,  Jede  liah. 
Andrews,  Lorin .... 

Andrew's,  st  

Andronicians 

Andronicus,  1  

Andronicns, 2 

Andronicus,  3 

Andrus 

Anecdota 

Ancm 

Aner,  1 

Aner,  2 

Anethothite 

Angareuo 

Angel 

Angela 

Angelical  Hymn  .. . 

Angelici 

Angelia 

Angelites 


212'Angelua  (the  pray- 
213     er) Page 

213  An-elus, Christopher 

214  Angsr 

■J14  Angers 

214  Angilbert 

214  Angilram 

214  Anglican  Church  .. 

214  Angling 

2141  Anglo -Catholic 

214     Church 

214' Anglo  -  Saxon    Vor- 

214       sinus 

214  Anglus 

215  Angela 

215  Anhalt 

215  Aniam 

215  Anianus 

215  Anicetus  . . 
215  Anim 


'Anti  lomlana  .  .Page 
229  Antioch  in  Syria  . . . 

229  Antioch,  Councils  of 

230  Antioch,       Fatriar- 
chate  of 

Antioch,  School  of. . 
Antioch  in  Pisidia. . 

Antioehia 

Antiochian 

Antiochia 

Antiochus 

Antioch  us  Theos  . . . 
Antiochus  the  Ureat 
Antiochua    Kpipha- 


2:  iu 


Anima  Mundi  . . . 

Animal 

Animal  Worship. 

Animates 

Anise 

Anklet 

Anna,  1 


210  Anna,  2., 
210  Anna,  St. 
216  Annaaa  . 
216  Annas  . . 

216  Annas  . . . 
216  Annates. 
210 

2  10 


Annesley 

Annihilation  

Annihilationists  . . . 

Annius 

Anniversary 

Anno 

Annual  Conference. 

Annulus 

Annunciad 

Annunciade,  1 

Annunciade,  2 

Annunciation 

Anniuia 

Anoint 

Anointing  <  >il 

Anointed,  the 

AnoniT?an.i 

Anns 

Ansayrians 

Anschar 

Ansegis, 

Ansegis,  2 

\11sel111    of  Canter- 

hury 
Anselm  Badnarius  . 
Anselm  of  Ascania. 
Anselm  of  Laon 
Answer 
Answer   of  a    good 

science 
Ant 

221  Antaradus 

Antediluvians 

Antelope 

Antelucani 

Anterus 

Anthedon 

Anthem 

Anthimua  of  Nico- 

media 

Anthimua  of  Trebi- 

znnde 

Anthologion 

Anthony  the  <  Iceno- 

bite 

Anthony's  (St.  1  Fire 
Anthony  of  Padua  . 
Anthony  de  Kosellis 

Anthony  of  Nebrija 


Antiochus  Kupator. 

Antiochus  Kpiph. 
Dionysus 

Antiochus  Sidetes.. 

Antiochus  Grypus  . 

Antiochus  Cyzice- 
nus 

Antiochus  Euaebea . 

Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes  II 

AntiochusCallinicua 

Antiochus  of  Coin- 
magene 

Antiochua  of  1'tole- 
niais 

Antiochus  of  St.  Saba 

Antipaedobaptists. . . 

Anti  pas,  1 

Antipas,  2 

Autipas,  3 

Antipater,  1 

Antipater,  2 

Antipater,  3 

Antipater,  4 

Antipater,  5 

Antipater,  G 

Antipatris 

Antiphilus 

Antiphon 

Antiphonarium 

Antipop  3 

Antiquities 

Anti-Sabbatarians  . 

Anti  tact  83 

Antitrinitarians  . .. 

Antitype 

Antoine 

Antonia,  1 

242|Antonia,  2 

242 1  Antonia  (tower) 

Antonians 

242  Antoniewicz 

244  Antoninus,  emperor 
244  Antoninus   of  Flor- 

24  t     ence 

244  Antoninus  of  Pa- 
in iers 

244  Antoninus  of  Pales- 

245  tine 

240  Antoninus   Honora- 

240[     tus 

248  Antonio,   Augustine 

250  Antonio,  .loan 

260  Antonio  of<  lordova. 

Antonio     of    Santa 


2T5 


264'Aphekah Pago 

266  Apherra 

Aphiah 

Aphik 

Aphrah 

Aphsea 

Aphthartodocetse  . . 

Apion 

Apia 

Apncalyp  e,  Knights 

of..; 

Apocaritse 

Apocatastesia 

Apocrisiariua 

Apocrypha 

Apollinaria  Claudius 
Apollinaria  of  I.ao- 

273  dicea 

27-4  Apollo 

274  Apollodotus 

Apollonia   of  Mace- 
donia   

ApoDonia  of  Pales- 
tine  

Apollonia,  martyr. . 

275  Apollonius,  1 

Apollonius,  2 

Apollonius,  3 

Apollonius,  4 

Apollonius,  5 

Apollonius,  senator. 
Apollonius  of  1'yana 

Apollophanes 

Apolloa 

Apollyon 

Apologetics 

Apology 

Apostasy 

Apostate 

_.    Apostle 

270{Apostolic 

276  Apostolic  Age 


943 

2S8|Arabia,         Council 

268     of Page  345 

286  Arabian 345 

28S  Arabians 346 

2SS  Vrabic  Language  . .  346 

2S-  Arabic  Vci'.-ioiis :,.Yi 

is,  Arad,l 352 

288  Arad,2 352 

288  Aradus 352 

Arah,  1 352 

289  Arab,  2 352 

Aram,  1 353 

Iranian 353 

Aram-llammesek  .  .  353 

Aram-Maakah 353 

Aram-beth-Rechob .  353 

Aram-Tsobah 353 

Arani-Naharaim  .  .  .  353 

Aram,  2 354 

Aram,  3 354 

Aram,  4 354 

Aramaean  Language  354 

Aramaic,  Kastern  . .  355 

Aramaic,  Western, .  356 

Aramaic,  Samaritan  356 

Aramaic,  Nazorean.  350 

Aramaic,  I'almyrene  350 

Aramaic,  Kgyptian.  350 

Aramitesa 

Aram-Xaharaim  . . . 

Aran 

Ararat 

Ararath  


2:11 


222 

223 

22:1 

221 

22  I 

22  1 

221  Anthony,  St,  Ord 

221     of 

225  AnthropolatrsB 

225  Anthropology 

225  Anthropomorphism 
225  Anthropomorphitee. 

225  ^ntibaptists 

225  Antiburghers 

225  Antichrist 

225  Antichristianism. . . 
225  Antidicomarianitea. 

225'Antidoron 

229  Antigonus,  1 

229  Antigonus,  2 

229  Antigua 

229  Antilegomena  

229  AntUibanua 

229  Antimeusium 


Maria 

Antonio  of  the  Holy 

Spirit 

IntOniUS,  Lucius. .  . 
AntoniUB,  Marcus.  . 

25n  Antonius,  captain. . 
Antonius  of  Lithu- 

250  ania 

'.'■I  Antonius  Meli-sa  ..  . 

251  Antonius,  Paul  .... 
251  Antony 

251  Vntothijah 

Antothite 

252  Anub 

252  Anubia 

252  Anus 

253  Apamea  of  Syria. . . 

263  Apamea  Cibotua 

253  Apathy 

251  Ape 

264  Apel 

201  Apelles 

•r.l  Apelles  sene\  . . 

201  Aphaca 

261   Iphaerema    .... 
261  Apharsachites  .. 

261  Apharsites 

261  Aphek,l 

204  Aphek,  2 

204Apbek,3 


Apostolical  Church. 

Apostolical  Church 
Directory 

Apostolical  Council. 

Apostolical  Fathers. 

Apostolical  King  . . . 

Apostolical  Men  . . . 

Apostolici 

281  Apostolides 

281  Apostolicity 

281  Apostolini 

281  Apostolius 

281  Apostool 

281  Apotactici 

282  Apothecary 

282  Appaim 

Apparel 

2S2  Apparition 

Apparitor 

Appeal 

Appearances        of 

Christ 

Appearance  to  Mary 

Magdalen 

Appellant 

283  Apphia 

283  Apphus 

Appii-forum 

Apple 

Apples  of  Sodom  . . . 

Appleton,  Jesse 

283  Appleton,  Nathaniel 

283  Approbation         of 
383      Hooks 

Appropriation 

284  Apron 

284  Apse 

284  Apthorp 

2-4  Aquaril 

2-4  Aqoaviva 

2s4  Aquila  the  <  ihri8tiau 
864  Aquila  the  Jew 

284  Aquila,  <  laspar  . . . . 
286  Aqnileia 

285  Aquinas 

286  Aquino 


357 
357 
367 
357 

300 
\ratus 3G0 


:;oi> 

300 
360 


2-3 


286  Ara 

286  Arab 

286  \raha 

2-7  Arabah,  the 

2-7  Arabah  (town) 

2-7  Arabattine 

287  Arabia 

2-7  Arabia  Felix 

2-7  Arabia  De-erla  ... 
287  Arabia  1'.  tr.oa  . .  .  . 
2SslArabia,  Church  of. 


Araunah  . . . 

Arba 

Arbathite. . . 

Arbattis 300 

Arbela  of  Galilee...  3G0 
Arbela  ofPersea....  361 
Arbite 361 

\rbonai 361 

\rbris.-el 301 

Arbuthuot 3G1 

Arcade 3G1 

Vrcss  Custodea 362 

\reani  Discipliua  . .  302 

Arch 303 

Archaeology  . , 305 

Archangel 367 

Archbishop 308 

Archdale 309 

Archdeacon 30!) 

Archebiis 370 

Archelaus,    son     of 

Herod 370 

Archelaus,  1 371 

Archelaus,  2 371 

Archelaus,  3 371 

Archelaus  of  Carrha  371 
Archelaus  of  I  Isesa- 
rea   371 

Archer 371 

Arches,  Court  of...    372 

Archevite 372 

Arclii 372 

ArcliicapeilaniiB. . . .  372 

3-4  Archiereua 379 

8  '4  Archimandrite 372 

324  Archippus 372 

324  Archiaynagogus. . . .  372 

324   U.liiio 372 

826  Architecture 372 

320  Architriclinus 380 

Archon 381 

826  Archontici 381 

320  Archpreabyter 381 

320  Arcimboldi 881 

826  Arcturua 381 

327  Arcudiua 882 

327  Ard 382 

:::7  Ardath 382 

327  Ardite 389 

327  Ard. .11 3S2 

828  \ieii  :  -2 

328  Arelite 382 

32-  Areopagite 389 

331  Areopagus 382 

831  Ares 885 

331  Aretae,  l 386 

331  Aretas,2 866 

332  Aretas,8 385 

1 386 

334    Vn  ta 

334  Aretiua 3-0 

334  Areus 886 

885  Argenteus,  Codex . .  380 

.;..'.   \i .',  ntineCotifeder- 

835     ation 3S7 

345  Argentre 387 


944 

Argon,  1 rage  3S7 

Argob,2 S8S 

Argyle 38S 

Ariald.ua 3S8 

Arianism 388 

Ariarathes 393 

Arias  Montanus 39:5 

Ariath 394 

Aridai 394 

Aridatha 394 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  I. 


\it:,u 


Roderigo        lAsherah  . 
Page  4r,5  Asherite 


\rn>w 435  As 

Arrowsmith 436  Ashima 400 

Arsacea 4  :0  Ashkelon 401 

Arsareth 4  10  Ashkenaz 40: 

Arsenal 430  Ashmead 402 


Arieh 

Ariel,  1 

Ariel.  '2 

Arimatluea  .... 

Arindela 

Arioch,  1 

Ariocta,  2 

Arioch,  3 

Ariaai 

Aristarchua . 

Ariateaa 

Aristides 

Aristobulus,  1 395 

Aristobulus,  2 390 

Aristobulus,  3 390 

Aristobulus,  4. . 
Aristobulus,  5. . 
Aristobulus,  0. . 
Aristobulus,  7. . , 
Aristobulus,  8. . 

Aristotle 

Arithmetic 

Alius 400 

Ark  of  Noah 400 

Ark  of  bulrushes. . .  4i>2 
Ark  of  Covenant. .  .   402 

Arkite 404 

Aries 405 

Arm 405 

Armageddon 405 

Armagh 405 

Armenia 405 

Armenia,  Ararat. . .  405 
Armenia,  Minni. .  . .  405 
Armenia,  Togarmah  400 
Armenian  Church. .  40S 
Armenian  Language  411 
Armenian  Version. .  411 
Arm-hole 412 


Arseuiua  the  anchor- 
ite   437 

Arsenius  Antorianus  437 
Arsenius  of  Klasso. .  437 

Art,  sacred 437 

Arts,  Jewish 439 

Artaba 439 

Artaxerxea 439 

Artaxerxes,  Smerdis  440 
Artaxerxea     Longi- 

manus 440 

Artemas. .... 
Artemon  ... 


Ashmun 402 

Ashnah,  1 40: 

Ashnah,  2 402 

A>h|ieuaz 402 

Asliriel 403 

Ashtaroth 403 

Ashterathite 403 

Ashteroth-Karnaim  403 

Ashton 403 

Ashtoreth 403 

Ashuath 405 

411;Ashur 405 

441jAshurite 


Pag'"  459' Astronomy  .. .  Page  499 

400  Astruc 500 

400  Astyages 501 

Asuppim 501 

Asylum 501 

Asyncritus 502 

Atad 502 

Atarah 502 


Artemonites 441  Ash-Wednesday  . . 

Article,  in  Grammar  4411  Ash  well 

Article  of  agreement  441|Asia  , 


Articles  of  Faith  .  . 
Articles,  Lambeth. 
Articles  of  Perth . . 
Articles   of  Schmal 

kald 

Articles,  Six , 

Articles, Twenty-five  443 


441  Asia,  Continent  of. . 

441  Asia  Minor , 

442  Asia,  Proconsular  . . 
Asia,  Seven  Church 

es  of 

Asiarch 470 

Asiatic  I'.rcthren...   471 


44.' 


470 


U-ticles,Thirtv-nine  444  Asibias 471 

Artificer 447  Asiel,  1 471 

Artillery 44S  Asiel,  2 471 

Artomachv 44s  Asina>us 4T1 

Artotyritae 44S  Asipha 471 

Vrts 449;Askelon 471 

Vruboth 449  Askew 471 

\ruch 443  Aslac ,.  471 

Amman 449;Asmoda3us 471 

449!  Asmonsean 472 

Arvad 449  Asnah  472 

Arvadite 450'Asnapper 472 

Arza 450  Asoni 472 


Asa,  1.. 
Asa,  2  . . 
\sadias 

AsiBlS.. 

Asael  . . 

Asahel,  1 451  Aspers 

Arminianism 412  Asahel,  2 451  Asphaltum 

Arminius 412  Asahel,  3 451  Asphar 


450  Asor 472 

451  Asp 473 

451  Aspalathns 473 

451  Aspatba 474 

451  Aspergillum 474 

.  474 

.  474 

.  474 


Armlet 4 . 8  Asahel.  4 451  Aspharasus 475 

Armoni 419  Asaiah,  1 451  Aspland 475 

Armor 419  Asaiah,  2 451  Asriel 475 

Armor-hearer 425  Asniah,  3 451  Asa 475 

An •>- 425  Asaiah,  4 451 Ass's  Head 477 

Armstrong,  .bums.  .   425  Asamon 451  Ass  of  Balaam 477 

Armstrong,  John .. .    425  Asana 451  Assabias 478 

Armstrong, Wm.  J..  4  !5  Asaph,  1 451  Assalimoth 47s 

Army 420  Asaph,  2 451  Assam 478 

Arna 4-'7  Asaph,  3 451  Assanias 478 

Arnald 427  Asaph's 451  Assassins 478 

Aruan 427  Asareel 451  Assemani,  Joseph  S.  479 

Arnaud 427  Asarelah 451  Assemani,  Joseph  A.   479 

Arnauld,  Angelique  429  Aabury,  Daniel 452  j  Assemani,  Stepb.  E.  479 

Arnauld,  Antoine . .  428  Asbury,  Francia 452  [Assembly 479 

Arnauld,  I  lenri  ....  429  Ascalon 453  Assemblies,  Masters 

Arnauld,  Robert  ...   429  Ascension 453      of 479 

Arnd 429  Ascension  Day 454  Assembly,  General  .    480 


Atarg.itis 502 

Ataroth,  1 503 

Ataroth,2 503 

Ataroth,  3 503 

Ataroth,  4 503 

Atbach 503 

Athbash 503 

Albam 

Ater,  1 504 

Ater,  2 594 

Ater,  3 504 

Aterezias 504 


patri- 


Athach 

Athaiah  .  . 
Athaliah,  1 
Athaliah,  2 
Athaliah,  3 
Athanasius 
arch  .... 
Athanasius,  priest 
Athanasius  Junior 

Atharias 59S 

Atharim 508 

Atheism  508 

Athenagoras 511 

Athenian 511 

Athenobius 511 

Athens 511 

Athlai 514 

Athos 514 

Athronges 514 

Atipha 515 

Uonement 515 

Atonement,  Day  of.   523 

Atrium 520 

A  troth 520 


\ttai,  1  .. 

520 

Attai,  2  . . 

520 

Attai,  3  . . 

520 
520 
520 
527 

Vtterbui'v, 

Francis 

Uterlur  v, 

Lewis,  1 

528 

Atterbury, 

Lewis,  2 

52fi 

Attersoll  . 

528 

Attharatea 

Atticus. . . 

52S 
598 

Attila 

,V"I 

r-o 

Utitiuh  s. 

534 

Attrition  . 

530 

Atwater. . 

I  30 

Arndt 

Arno 43U 

Arnobius,  the  Elder  430 
Arnobiua,theYouug- 

er 130 

Arnold  of  Brescia  ..    4311 

Arnold  of  Villeneuve  431 
Godfrey  ...  431 
Nichol 


Arm 


Ascent 454  Asser,  rabbi 4S0 

Asceterium 451  Asser,  monk 4S0 

A-e.-tir-i-m 454  Assessment 4S0 

\scitaj    455  Asshur 4S1 

A-Tjiimh 455  Asshurim 483 

Asebebia 455  Assidipan 48. 


Asebia  . 

Asenath 

..  132  Vser... 

Aniobi,  smith 139  Aserer  . 

Arnol  I,  Thomas....  432  Ugill .. 
Arnoldi,  Aug.  Wilh.  132 
Arn.l  li,     Bartholo- 
mew   

Am  ildists 433 

Anion 4i  :  Ashhea. 

An 1 433  Aslibel  . 

Arnulphus 4  ::;  Ashbelito 

ATOd 4   3  A.h-cake 

Aroer,  I 133  Uhchenaz 

-' 4    I  Aslmod 

Aroer,3 434  Ashdodite 

Aroerite 434  Ashdothite 

Arot.i 431  Ashdoth-Pisgah 

Aromatica 404  Ashdowne 

Arpad 435  Ashe 

Arph.-.xad,  1 185  Asher  Ben-Jechiel. .  457  Asterius  of  Petra. 

Arphaxad,  2 435  Asher,  1 45s  Asterius  of  Amasea 

Arrhabon   435  Asher,  Tribe  of 45S  A-t<>rga 

Arriaga,  Paul  Joseph  Asher,  2 45:»  Astrologer 

dc 435  Asher,  3 459  Astroh  >gv 


.  455  Assir,  1 493 

.  455  Assir,  2 493 

.   455  Assir,  3 483 

.   455  Associated  Baptists.  4>3 

.  455  Assos 4S3 

Ash 455  Assuerus 4S4 

A-h,  St.Georga 456  Assumption    of  the 

Ash,  John 450      Virgin 48  : 

Ashan 450  Assumption  of  Moses  4^  -' 

450  Assur,  1 4S4 

450  Assur,  2 4S4 

150  Assurance 4S4 

450  Assyria 480 

450  Assyria  Proper 4S7 

456  Assyrian  Empire...  489 

457  Astaroth 498 

457  Astarte 498 

157  Astatb 499 

15,  Asterius   of  Cappa- 

4.57     docia 499 

499 

49' 


Auberlen 530 

Aul)<  rtin 537 

Aubigne 537 

Anchor 537 

Audseans 537 

Andientia  Episcopa- 

lis 537 

Audin 537 

Auditores 538 

Augia 53S 

Augian  Manuscript.  53s 

Augsburg       Conies-  538 

sion 53S 

Augusta 53.9 

Augitsti 540 

Augustine,  St 540 

Augustine  of  Canter- 
bury    5(4 


Authorized        Ver- 
sion   Page  554 

Autocephali 566 

Auto  da  Fe 567 

Auvergne,         Guil- 

laumed' 567 

Auvergne,  Pierre  d'.  507 
Auxentius  of  Milan.  567 
Auxentius  of  Syria.  567 

Ava £G7 

Avalonius 567 

Ayaran 5G7 

Avarice 508 

Avaris 56S 

Avatar 563 

Ave  Maria 508 

Aven,  1 56S 

Aven,  2 56S 

Aven,  3 569 

Avenarius 509 

Avenger  of  Blood  . .  569 

Avignon 509 

Avignon, Councils  of  5G9 

Avila 569 

Avim 569 

Avis 569 

Avite,  1 509 

Avite,  2 570 

Avith 570 

A  Vitus 570 

Avoidance 570 

Avillon 570 

Awakening 570 

Awe 571 

Axe 571 

Axioramus 572 

Axle , 572 

Axtell 573 

Avdelott 573 

Ayliffe 573 

Aylmer 573 

Aylworth 573 

Avmon 573 

Azael 573 

Azaelus 573 

Azal 573 

Azaliah 573 


Augustinian  Monks.   545 


Augustinian?,     Dia- 
calceated 510 

Augustinian  Nuns. .   54( 
\iigustinism 546 


Augustus. 
Augustus'  Band 

Aunt 

Aurandt 


Aurelius 

Aureola 

Auricular  Confession  549 

Austin,  David 

Austin,  Samuel  . . . 

Australasia 

Australia 

Austria 

Auteas 


Authenticity 
Authority  . . . 


Azaniab 573 

Azaphion 573 

Azarah 573 

Azarael 573 

Azareel,  1 574 

Azareel,2 574 

Azareel,  3 574 

Azareel,  4 574 

Azareel,  5 574 

Azariah,  1 574 

Azariah,  2 574 

Azai  iah,  3 574 

Azariah,  4 574 

Azariah,  5 574 

Azariah,  0 574 

Azariah,  7 574 

Azariah,  8 574 

riah,  9 574 

Azariah,  10 574 

Azariah,  11 574 

Azariah,  12 574 

Azariah,  13 574 

Azariah,  14 574 

Azariah,  15 574 

Azariah,  10 574 

Azariah,  17 574 

Azariah,  IS 574 

Azariah,  19 574 

Azarias,  1 574 

Azarias,  2 575 

Azarias,  3 575 

Azarias,  4 575 


Azarias,  5 575 

Azarias,  6 575 

Azarias,  7 575 

Azaz 575 

Azazel 575 

Azaziah,  1 576 

A/.aziah,  2 576 

Azaziah,  3 570 

Azbazareth 576 

Azbuk 570 

Azekah 570 

Azel 570 

5501  Azem 570 

550  Azephurith 576 

551  Azetas 570 

551  Azgad 576 

551  Azia 576 

553  Aziei 570 

553  Aziel 570 

553  Aziza 577 

553  Azizus 577 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  I. 


Azmaveth,  1 . .  Page 

Azmaveth,  2 

Azmaveth,  3 

Azmaveth,  4 

Azmon 

Aznoth-tabor 

Azor 

Azor,  John 

Azotus 

Azotus,  Mount 

Azricl,  1 

Azriel,  2 

Azriel,  3 

Azrikam,  1 

Azrikam,  2 

Azrikam,  3 

Azrikam,  4 , 

Azubah,  1 

Azubali,  2 

Azur 

Azuran 

Azymites 

Azzah 

Azzan 

Azzur,  1  

Azzur,  2 

Azzur,  3 


577  Babylonian  ...Page 
577  Babylonish        Gar- 

577     ment 

577  Baca  

577  Baccalaureus 

577  Itaccanarists 

577  Baechides,  1 

577  Baechides,  2 

577  l'.aechurus 

577  Bacchus 

57 1   Baeenor 

577  Bachrite 

577  Backbite 

577  Backslide 

577  l'.:irkus,  Azel 

577  Backus,  Charles.... 

577  Backus,  Isaac 

577  Bac Francis 


600  Bamoth-banl  .  .Page 

Bampton  Lectures. . 

006  Ban,  1 


Ban,  2 

Banaias 

Bancroft,  Aaron. . . 
Bancroft,  Richard. 
Band,  1 


riaailer 

Baal 

Baal,  1 

Baal,  2 

Baal,  3 

Baal,  -1 

Baal- 

Baalah,  1 

Baalah,  2 

Baalah,  3 

Baalath 

Baalath-beer  . . 

Baalbek 

Baal-berith 

Baale 

Baal-gad 

Baal-hamon  . . . 
Baal-hanan,  1. . 
Baal-hanan,2. . 

Baal-hazor 

Baal-hermon,  1 
Baal-hermon,  2 

Baali 

Baalim 

Baal-Berith 

Baal-Zebub 

Baal-Peor 

Baal,  The 

Baal-Gad 

Baal-IIamon. . . 
Baal-Chatsor  . . 
Baal-Chermon  . 

Baal-Meon 

Baal-Peratsim . 
Baal-Tsephon. . 
Baal-Shalishah 
Baal-Tamar . . . 


Baal-meon 

Baal-peor 
Baal-perazim . 
Baal-shalisha . 
Baal-tamar . .  . 

Baaltis 

Baal-zcbub. .  . 
Baal-zephon . . 

Baana,  1 

Baana,  2 

Baana,  3 

Baana,  4 

Baanah,  1 

Baanah,  2  . . . . 

Baanah,  3 

Baanah,  4 

Baanias 

Baanites 

Baara 

Baaras 

Baaseiah 

Baasha 

Babas 

Babe 

Babel 

Babi 

Babists 

Babington. . . . 

Babylaa 

Babylon,  1 

Babylon,  2. . . . 

Babylon,  3 

Babylon,  4. . . . 
Babylonia 


Bacon,  John 

Bacon,  Roger 

Bacon,  Thomas  . . . 
Bacon,  William  . .  . 

Bacularii 

Badby 

Badcock 

Baden  

Bader 

Badger 


r,i  if, 
607 
f,<>7 
r,07 
0H7 
0ii7 

607[Bandinel 

60S  Bands 

60S  Hanging 

00S|  Bangor 

60S  Bangorian     Conti 

60S      versy 

60S  Bangs,  John 

60S  Bangs,  Nathan. . . 

609  Bang-,  Stephen  B. 

610  Bangs,  Win.  McK. 

OlOiBani,  1 

612  Bani,  2 

612  Bani,  3 

612 1  Bani,  4 

012  Bani,  5 

612  Banid 


630  Barley Page 

630  Barlow, Thomas  ... 

631  Barlow,  William .. . 

631  Barn 

6  :i  Barnabas 

031  Barnabas,  Epistle  of 

631  Barnabas,  <  tospel  of 

631  Barnabites 

631  Barnard 

63S  Barnes,  Daniel  II... 

632  Barnes,  John 

632  Barnes,  Robert 

032;  Barnes,  William... 

Baro 

63BBarodis 


rger. 


Bago. 


Bagoi , 

Bagoses 

Bagot 

Bagshaw 
Baharumite  . . 

Bahr 

Bahrat 

Bahurim 

Baier 

Bail 

Bailey,  Jacob  . 
Bailey,  John . . 

Baillet 

Baillie 

Bainbridge . . 

Baines 

Baird 

Baiin 

Bajitli 

Bakbakkar . . 

Bakbuk 

Bakbukiah  . . 


Bake-m_>ats 

Baker,  Charles 

Baker,  Daniel 

Bakers 

Balaam 

Balac 

Baladan,  1 

Baladan,  2 

Balah 

Balak 

Balamo 

Balances 

Balasamus 

Bald 

Baldachin 

Balde 

Baldwin  of  Canter- 
bury   

Baldwin,  Ebenezer. 

Baldwin,  l'.lilm 

Baldwin,  Thomas  . . 

Bale 

Balfour 

Balguy,  John 

Balgnv,  Thomas  . .  . 

Ball 

Ball,  John,  1 

Ball,  John,  2 

Balle 

Ballerini 

5S8  Ballimathte 

589  Ballou 

Balm 

Balmes 

Balmus 

Balsam 

Balsamon 

Balthasar,  1 

Balthasar,  2 


025 


612 

613  Bank 

014  Bannaia 

015  1  tanner 

016  Banns 

610  Bannus 

010  Banquet 

616  Banuas 

010  Baphomet 

010  Baptism 

010,  Baptism,  Jewish  . .. 
010  Baptism,  John's  . . . 
010  Baptism  of  Jesus... 

616  Baptism  by  Christ'; 
G16|     disciples  

617  Baptism,  Christian 
017- 
017 
017 
017 
017 
618 
(US 
018 
618 
619 
010 
619 
619 
010 
621 
621 
021 
621 
621 
623 
623 
623 
02:; 
623 

0,23 
024 
02  I 
021 
625 
625 


Lay 

Baptism  for  the  Dead 
Baptism  of  the  Dead 

Baptism  of  Fire 

Baptismal  Formula. 

Baptistery 

Baptists 

Baptists,  Free-Com- 
munion   

Baptists,  Five-Will. 
Baptists,  German . . 

Baptists,  Old-SchO  ,1 

Bapti-ts,  Seventh- 
Day 

Baptists,  Seventh- 
Day,  German   .  . . 

Baptists,  Six-Princi- 
ple   


Bar- 

Barabbas . . 
Barachel  . . 
Barachiah . 
Barachias  . 

Barak 

Baratier. . . 


Baronias 

Barre,  Joseph 

Barre,  Louis  F.  J. 
do  la 

Barrel 

Barren  

Barrington 

1 '.arrow,  Isaac 

Barrow,  William. .  . 

Barsabas,  1 

Barsabas,  2 

Barsuma 

Barsumas 

Bartacus  . . .  K 

Barth 

Barthel 

Bartholomew,  the 
Apostle 

Bartholomew's  Gos- 
pel  

Bartholomew         of 


945 

067  Baston Page  602 

667  Bastwick 692 

oos  Bat • 602 

668  Batchelder,  Sea  W.  693 
o.os  Batchelder,  William  603 

6T0  Bate,  James 693 

072  Bate,  Julius 693 

072  Itateman.. 603 

672  Bates,  Lewis 003 

672  Bates,  William 604 

072  Bath 694 

072  Bath  and  Wells....  694 

072  Bathe 6  4 

673!Bather 605 

073  Bath-Gallim 005 

673  Bath-Kol 605 

073  Bath-rabbim 698 

Bath-sheba 695 

073  Bath-shua 000 

0,73  Bathuret,  Henry  ...  696 

074  Bathurst.  Kalph  ..  .   O'.iO 
074  Bath-zacharias  ....   6.16 

07  1  Batman 006 

074  Battelle 696 

675  Battering-ram  . 


Bartholomew  of  Cot- 
ton   

Bartholomew  of 
Glanville 

Bartholomew  dos 
Martyrea 

Bartholomew's  Day. 

Bartholoniites 

Bartimseus 

Bartine 

Bartoli 

Barton,  Elizabeth.  . 

Barton,  John  B.  ... 

Barton,  Thomas 

Baruch,  1 

Baruch,  Book  of. 

Baruch, 2  

Baruch,  3 


Baltus  ..  . 
Baluze  . . . 
Bamah . . . 

Bambas  . . 
Bambino. 
Bamoth  . . 


Barbara 

Barbarian 

Barbelo 

Barber 

Barber,  John 

025  Barbets 

0251  Barcelona 

025,  Itar-cepha 

625  Barckhausen 

626  Barclay,  Alexander 

620  Barclay,  Henry 

620  Barclay,  John,  1 

626  Barclay,  John,  2 

626  Barclay,  Robert 

620  Barclay,  William  .. 

626  Bar-cocheba 

626  Bardesanea 

626  Barefoot 

627  Bargain 

627|Barger 

628  Barhumite 

0'SBari 

628  ltariah 

Baris,  1 

Barifl,  2 

Bar-jesus 

Bar-jona 

629  Barker 

630  Barkos 

630  Barlaam  of  Syria... 
630  Barlaam  of  Calabria 
G30.BarIetta 


002 


Barzillai,  1  . 
Barzillai,  2  , 
Barzillai,  3  . 
Basaloth  . . 
Bascama  . . 
Bascom 


075 

Battle 

.  007 

075 

0'iV 

075 

Battle-bow 

.  607 

675 

Battlement 

0.  « 

675 

Bauer 

O'.K 

675 

Baumgarten 

Baumgarten  -  Cru- 

.  oos 

07  F, 

.  698 

.   698 

670 

Bansset 

690 

Itavai 

699 

676 

Bavaria 

.  699 

Baxter,  George  A. . 

701 

676 

Baxter,  Richard. . . 

.  701 

Bav  (of  water) 

.  703 

676 

-Bay  (a  color) 

.  703 

Bav-tree 

.  703 

070 

Bayer 

703 

070 

Bayle 

.  704 

077 

Bayley 

704 

077 

Bayly 

704 

07", 

Bazaar 

7i '4 

077 

Bazlith 

705 

0,77 

Bdellium 

.   705 

677 

Beach,  Abraham. . 

.   \M 

67s 

Beach,  John 

.  '.06 

07- 

70IS 

67S 

706 

(Nil 

Beale 

.   706 

INI 

Bealiah 

.  7m; 

6S(1 

Bealoth,  1 

7(16 

(Ml 

700 

0SO 

Beam 

706 

Osn 

700 

(Ml 

707 

OSil 

.  707 

oso 

Beard 

.  T08 

Base 

Itashan 

Bashan-havoth-jair. 

Bashemath,  1 

Bashemath,  2 

Basil  the  Great 

Basil  of  Ancyra 

Basil  of  Selencia  . . . 
Basil  the  Bogomile. 
Liturgy  of. 


(Ml 


Beard,  Thomas  . 
Beasley 


Beatification. .. 
Beatific  Vision 
Beatitudes 
Beaton  


Basilean  Ms., uncial 
Basilean  MS.,  cur- 
sive  

Basilian  Manuscript 

Basillans 

Basilica 

Basilides 

Basin 

Basire 

Basket 

Basle 

Baale,  Confession  of 
666  Baale,  Council  of.. . 

666  Basmath,  1 

061  lliasmath,  2 

600  Basnage,  Benjamin. 
coo  Basnage,  Antoine. . 
600  Basnage,  Samuel. . . 

ooo  Basnage,  Jacques  . . 
ooo  Basnage,  Henri 

666  Bass  

ooo  Bassa 

666  Bassus.Csecilius 

007  Bassns,  Lucilius 

007  Bastai 

007  Bastard 

607  Bastholm 

007,  Bastinado 


7  12 


Beattie 

Beauchamp. 

6-4  Beaumont. . 
Beausobre . . 

684  Beautiful  Gate 712 

684  Beauty 712 

685  Bebai,  1 713 

osr,  Bebai,  2 713 

686  Becher,  1 713 

686  Becher,  2 714 

6S7  Bechorath 714 

687  Becker,- Karl  1 714 

68S  Becker,  Jacob  C.  . . .  714 

688  Becket 714 

689  Becon 715 

690  Bectileth 715 

690  Bed 715 

090  Bedad 716 

090  Bedan,  1 716 

090  Bedan,  2 716 

090  Bedchamber 710 

000  Bede 716 

600  Bedeiah 7 is 

690  Bedell T18 

600  Bedell.  Gregory  T..  "is 

091  Bedell,  William....   7  IS 
6   1  Bedford 71S 

col  Bedstead T18 

691  Bee 719 

091  Beecham 720 


Ooo 


946 

Boeeher,  Jacob.  Pag3 
Beecher,  Lyman  .. . 

Beeliada 

Beelsarus 

Beeltethmua 

Beelzebub 

Beer,l 

Beer,  2 

Beera 

Beerah 

Beer-elim 

Beeri,  1 

Beeri,  2 

Beer-lahai-roi 

Beeroth 

Beeroth-bene-Jaakan 

Beerothite 

l?eer-sheba 

Beeahterah 

Beetle 

B    C'Vl' 

Beg 

Begharda 

Beginning 

Begue 

Begninage 

Beguines 

Behead  

Behemoth 

Behiatun 

Bekah 

Bel 

Bel  and  the  Drag- 
on   

Belli,  1 

Bela,  2 

Bela,  3 

Bela,  4 

Belah 

Belaite 

Belcher 

Belemus 

Belgic  Confession  . . 

Belgium 

Belial 

Belief 

Believers 

Belknap 

Bell 

1  Sells  of  the  Horses  . 

J;  slls,  Blessing  of. . . 

Bells,  Tolling  of 

Bell,  Andrew 

Bell,  William 

Bell,  Book,  and  Can- 
dle  

Bellamy 

Bellarmine 

Bellay 

Bellegarde,  Gabriel 
da  Bac  de 

Bellegarde,  Jean  1!. 

M.  de 

Bellegarde,    Octave 

de 

Bellermann 

Belle-vue 

Bellows 

Bolloy 

Belly". 

Belmaim 

Belmaa 

Belmen 

Belpage 

Belaham 

Belshazzar 

Bi  Iteshazzar 

Belus,  1 

Belus,  2 

Belus,  the  river.  . 

Bema 

Bemo 

Ben 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IN  VOL.  I. 


720  Benedict  I Page 

721  Benedict  II 

722 1  Benedict  III 

722  Benedict  IV 

T22  Benedict  V 

722  Benedict  VI 

722  Benedict  Vn 

722  Benedict  VIII 

Benedict  IX 

Benedict  X 

Benedict  XI 

Benedict  XII 

Benedict  XIII,  A... 
Benedict  XIII,  B. . . 

Benedict  XIV 

Benedict  of  Nursia  . 
Benedict,  Biscop  . . . 
Benedict  of  Aniane. 

Benedict,  Joel 

Benedictines 

Benedictine  Nuns.. 

Benediction 

Benefactor 


742  Bernard  of  Thurin- 

743  gia Page 

74:'.  Bernard,  l'tolemei  . 
743  Bernard,  Jacques. . . 
743  Bernard,  Richard  .. 

743  Bernardiu,  St 

743  Bernardin  de  Saha- 

743!     gun 

74::  Bernardino  Monks.. 
743  Berne,  Conference  of 

74:;  Berne,  Synod  of 

743  Bernice,  1 

7  43  Bernice,  2 


Bernice,  3 

Berodach-baladan  . . 

Beroea  of  Palestine . 

Bercea  of  Macedonia 
745 
745  Beroth 


Benefield 

Benefit  of  Clergy. . . 

Bene-jaakan 

Bene-Kedem 

Benevent 

Benevolence 

Benezet,  St 

Benezet,  Anthony. . 

Bengel 

Ben-hadad,  1 

Ben-hadad, 2  

Ben-hadad,  3 

Ben-hail 

Ben-hanan 


Berothah 

Berothite 

Berquin 

Berridge 

Berriman 

Berruyer 

Berry 

Berthier 

Berthold    the 

melite 

74s  Berthold  of  Li 


•ulna 


Benjamin,  1 

Benjamin,  Tribe  of. . 
Benjamin,  Gate  of. . 

Benjamin,  2 

Benjamin,  3 

Benjamite 

Bennet,  Benjamin.. 
Bennet,  Thomas  . . . 


Benaiah,  1  — 

Beoaiah,2 

Benaiah,  3 

Benaiah,  4. . . . 
Benaiah,  5.  . . . 
B  naiah,  o. . . . 
Benaiah,  7. . . . 

Benaiah,  8 

Benaiah,  9  — 
Benaiah,  10, . . 
Benaiah,  11... 
Benaiah,  12. . . 

Ben-ammi 

Bench 

Bene-berak. . . 
Banedicite. . ., 


Beno 

Benoit,  Elie 

Benoit,  Renj 

36  Benoni 

3C  Benson,  George 

Benson,  Joseph 

36  Bentham,  Edward. . 

37  Bentham,  Jeremy. . 
37  Bentham,  Thomas. . 


Ben-zoheth 

Boon 

Beor,  1 

Beor,  2 

Bera 

Berachah,  1 

Berachah, 2 

Berachiah 

Beraiah 

Berea  

Bereans 

Berechiah,  1 

Berechiah,  2 

Berechiah,  3 

Berechiah,  4 

Berechiah,  5 

Berechiah,  0 

Bered,  1 

Bered,  2 

Berengarians 

Berengarius 

Bergier 

Bergiua  

Beri 

Beriah,  I 

Beriah,  2 

Beriah,  3 

Beriah,  4 

Beriite 

Beringtou 

Berite 

Berith  

Berkeley 

Berkenmeyer 

Bernard  of  Mentone 
Bernard  of  Tiron... 
Bernard    of    Clair- 

vaux 

B  ruai.i  nf  Chai'tres 


Berthold  of  Ratisbon 
Berthold  of  Rohrbach 
Berthold  of  Chiemsee 
Berthold,  Leonhard. 

Berti 

Bertius 

Bertram 

Berulle 

Beryl  

Beryllus 

Berytus 

Berzelus  


Bessariou 
Bessel. . .. 
Bessin . 


750  Best 
750 


750  Betah 

750  Betane 

750  Betcn 

750  Beth- 

757  Bethabara... 
757  Beth-anab. . . 
757  Beth-anath.. 
757  Beth-anoth.. 
757  Bethany,  1  . . 
757  Bethany.  2  . . 
75s  Beth-arabah. 
75S  Beth-aram  . . 
753  Beth-arbel. . . 


■!h- 


th.... 
on 


75S  Bethbasi 

75S  Betb-birei 

75S  Bethcar  

758  Beth-dagon 

758  Beth-dagon,  1 

75S  Beth-dagon,  2 

75s  Beth-dagon,  3 

753  Beth-diblathaim  . . . 

75s  Beth-e den  

75S  Beth-eked 

759  Beth-el,  1 

759  Bethel.  2 

759  Bethelitc 

759  Beth-emek 

7511  Bether 

760  Bethesda 

700  Beth-ezel 

760  Beth-gader 

700  Beth-gamul 

700  Beth-gilgal 

761  Beth-haccerem 

70,1  Beth-haggan 

701  Beth-haran 

70,1  Beth-hogla 

70,1  Beth-horon 

70,1  Beth-jeshimoth  . . . , 

iBeth-leaphrah 

703  Beth-lebaoth 

703  Bath-lehem,  1 


7S3  Bickersteth 

783  Bidding  Prayer. 

7S4Biddle 

784|Biddulph 

784  Bidkar 


Beth-lehem,  2.. Pag?  7«3  Bichri. . 
Bethlehem.Councilof  783  Bickell . 
Bethlehemite  ..... 
[Jethlehemites,  1  . 
Bethlehemites,  2  .. 
Betlilehemites,  3  . , 
Beth-lehem- Judah 

Brth-leptepha 7S4  Bidlaek 

Bethlomon 7S4;Biel..., 

Beth-maachah 784  Bier 

Beth-marcaboth  ...  784 

Bethmaus 7S5 

Beth-moon 785 

Beth-merhak 

Betb-millo,  1 785 

Betli-millo,  2 7S5 

Beth-nimrah 7S5 

Bethoron 785 

Beth-palet 7S5 

Beth-pazzez 7S5 

Beth-peor 785 

Bethphage 785 

Beth-phelet 7S6 

Beth-rapba 7S6 

Beth-rehob 786 

Bethsaida 786 

Bethsamos 787 

Baths.-m 787 


Page 


Beth-shan 787 

Beth-shean 787 

Beth-shemesh,l....  7SS 

Betli-shemesh,  2 789 

Beth-shemesh,  3 7S9 

Beth-shemesh,4 7S9 

Beth-shemite 7S9 

Beth-shittah 789 

Bethso 7S9 

Bethsura 7S9 

Beth-tappuah 789 

Bethuel,  1 789 


Bethuel,  2 . 

Bethul 

Bethulia  . . 
Betbune. . . 
Beth-zur  . . 
Betkius  . . . 


Betolius 791 

Betomasthein 791 

Betonim 792 

Betray 792 

Betroth 792 

Beulah 792 

Bevan 792 

Bevans 792 

Beverage 792 

Beveridge,  Tims.  II.  792 
Beveridge,  William.  702 

Beverley 793 

Bewitch 793 

Bewley 793  j  Bithiah 

Bewray 794  Bithron 

Bexley 794  Bithynia  . . . 

Beyond 7:4  Bitter 

Beza 7:>4  Bitter  Herbs 

Bezai 790  Bittern 

Bezaleel,  1 790  Bitumen  .  . . 

Bezaleel,  2 790  Bizjothjah  . , 

Bezek,  1 796  Biztha 

Bezek,  2 790  Black  ....... 

Bezer,  1 797  Black,  Williti 


Bigamist 

Bigelow,  Noah . 
Bigelow,  Russel 

Bigtha 

Bigthan 

Bigvai , 

Bildad 

Bileam 

Bilgah,  1 

Bilgah,  2 , 

Bilgai 

Bilhah,  1 

Bilhah,  2 

Bilhan,  1 

Bilhan,  2 

Bill 

Billican 

Billroth 

Bilney 

Bilshan 


Biinhal. 
Bind . . . 


Bingham 

Binius  

Binnui,  1 

Binnui,  2 

Binnui,  3 

Binnui,  4 

Binnui,  5 

Binterim 

Birch 

Bird 

Birdseye 

Birsha 

Birth 

Birthday 

Birthright 

Birzavith 

Bishlam 

Bishop 

Bishop,  Robert  H. . 
Bishop,  Samuel  . . . 
Bishop,  William. . . 
Bishop's  Book 

Bishopric 

Bisse 


Blackall 

Blackburn,  Andrew. 

Blackburn,  Francis. 

Blackburn,  Gideon. 

Blackfriars 

Blacklock 

Blackman 

797Blackmore 

797  Blackwall 


Bezetli 79 1 

Bezetha 797 

Beziers 797 

Biatas 797 

Biatbanati 797 

Bibbighaus 797 

Bibbins,  Elisha  . 
Bibbins,  Samuel 

Bible 797  Blade 

Bible,  Attributes  of.   SOS  Blain 

Bible  Societies 803  Blains 

Bible     Societies    of         , Blair,  Hugh  . .. 

Great  Britain 833  Blair,  James. . . 

Bible  Societies  on  the  Blair,  John,  1 .  . 

Continent 8041  Blair,  John,  2.. 

Bible  Society,  Amer-  Blair,  Robert  . . 

iran : S05  Blair,  Samuel. . 

Bible    Society,   Am.         |  Blake 

and  For.  Bapt S07  Blandina 

Bible  Union,  Ameri-         Blandrata 

can S07  Blasphemy 

Bible,  Use  of  by  the         Blast 

Laity 80S  Blastares 

Biblift Pauper um...  808  Blastus 

Bibliander SOS  Blatchford 

Biblical  Theology  . .  809|  Blau 

Biblicists ski  Blaurer 

Bibliomancy 810  Blayney 

Bibliotheca  I'atrum  S10  Bleek 


813 
S13 
si:: 
813 
S13 
813 
si:; 
813 
813 
813 
813 
813 
sit 
814 
814 
814 
S14 
Ml 
815 
815 
815 
815 
815 
815 
S15 
815 
S15 
S10 
816 
S10 
S17 
817 
818 


823 
824 
824 
S24 
824 
824 
824 
824 
S24 
S24 
825 
825 
826 

s-J7 
S27 
827 
827 
827 
S27 
S2S 
S2S 
S2S 
S2S 
828 


s2S 

SI'S 

829 
829 
829" 
829 
829 
S20 
829 

S-J'J 

830 
831 
s:;i 
831 
831 
831 


LIST  OF  ARTICLES  IX  VOL.  I. 


Blemish Page 

Bless 

Blind 

Blindfold 

Blomfield 

Blondel 

Blood 

Blood,  Flesh  and  . . 
Blood  and  Water  . . 

Blood-baptism 

Blood,  Issue  of. . ... 

Blood-revenge 

Bloody  Sweat 

Blossom 

Blot 

Blount 

Blue 

Blumhardt 

Blunt,  Henry 

Blunt,  John  James. 

Blythe 

Boanerges 

Boar 

Board 

Boardtnan,    George 

D 

Boardman,  Richard 

Boat 

Boaz,  1 

Boaz,  2 

Boccas 

Boccold 

Bochart 

Bocheru 

Boehim 

Body 

Boehler 

Boe!ime,Christopher 

F 

Boehme,  Jacob 

Boerner  Manuscript 

BoSthiua 

Bogatzsky 

Bogermann 


.Tage 


532  Bo:>z 

832  Bora 

533  Borhorites 

833  Bordas-Dumoulin. . 

833  Bordeaux 

834  Border 

534  Boreel's  Manuscript 

Borgia 

Borgian  Manuscript 

Bor-Hassirah 

Borith 

Borre 

Borrelists 

Borri 

835  Borromeo,  Carlo  . . . 
S3S;  Borromco,Frederico 
8 .is  Borrowing 

S39|Bos 

S39  Boscath... 


Bohan  . . , 
Boheim . . 
Bohemia . 

Boies 

Boil 

Bolivia... 


Bolster. 


Bombay 

Bona 

Bonald 

Bonaventura 


Boskoi . . 
Bosom . . 
Bosor,  1. 
Bosor,  2. 
Bosora . . 

Boss 

Bossuet . 
Boston . . 
Bostra  .  . 


85' 


Bostwick. 
Botany  . . 

Botch 

Botrys... 
Bottle.... 


Boucher  

Boudinot 

Bough  

Boulogne 

Bourdaloue 

Bourges 

Bourges,  Pragmatic 

Sanction  of 

Bourignonista 

Bourne,  George. . . . 

Bourne,  Hugh 

Bow 

Bowden 

Bowels 

Bowen,  George  D.  . 

Boweu,  John 

Bowen,  Nathaniel. . 


Bowing 

Bowing  at  the  Name 

of  Jesus 

Bowing  toward  the 

East 

Bowl 

Bowles 

Bowman 

Bowman,  Samuel  . . 


854  Brahmins  ....  Tage 
s,r>4  Brainerd,  David  ... 

851  Brainerd,  John 

854  Brainerd, Thomas. . 

Bramble 

Bramliall 

Bramwell 

Bran 

Branch 

Brand  

Brandenburg,  Con- 
fession of 

Brandeium 

Brandt,  Gerard,  1.. 

Brandt,  Caspar  .... 

Brandt,  John 

Brandt,  Gerard,  2. . 

Brantly 

Brass 

Brattle 

Braunius 

Bravery  

Bray 

Bray,  Thomas 

Brazen  sea 

Brazen  Serpsnt 

S5S  Brazil 

Bread 

Shew-bread 

Bread  in  the  Eucha- 
rist   - 

Breast 

Breastplate 

Brechin 

Breck,  Robert 

Breck,  Robert,  Jr.  . 

Breckenridge 

Breeches 

Breithaupt 

Bremen 

l'.rentius 

Brenton 

Brethren 

Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life 

B reth ren  of  the  Free 
Spirit 

Brethren,  White.  . . 

Bretschneider 

Brett,  Philip  M.  . . . 

Brett,  Thomas 

Breviary 

Brevint 

Bribe 

Brick 

Briconnet,  Denis  . . 
865  Briconnet,        Guil- 

865     laume,  1 

SUi;  Briconnet,        Guil- 

866 1     laume,  2 

S66 


Brother    ( Christian 

title) Page 

Brothers 

Brother's  Wife 

Broughton,  Hugh. . 
Broughton,  Richard 
Broughton,  Thomas 


Bond, John  W.  ... 
Bond,  Thomas  E.  . . 

Bondage , 

Bondage  in  Egypt 


Boniface  I 

Boniface  II 

Boniface  III 

Boniface  IV 

Boniface  V 

Boniface  VI 

Boniface  VII 

Boniface  VIII 

Boniface  IX 

Boniface  of  May  ence 

Boni  Homines 

Bonner. 

Bonnet 

Bonney  

Bonosus 

Bonzes 

Book 

I '...ok  of  Generation. 
Book  of  Judgment. . 
Book  of  Wars  of  the 

Lord 

Book  of  Lite 

Book  of  Canons. . . . 

Boone 

Boos 

Booth 

Bootli,  Abraham  . . . 

Boothroyd 

Booty 


Bowyer 

Box 

Box-tree 

Boy 

Boy  Bishop 

Boyd,  Robert 

Boyd,  Zachary 

Boyle,  John  A 

Boyle,  Robert 

Boyle  Lectures 

Boys,  John,  1 

Boys,  John,  2 

Boyse 

Bozez  

Bozkatta 

Bozrali,  1 

Bozrah,  2 

Bracelet 

850|Brackenbury 

850|Bradburn 

850  Bradbury 

850  Bradford",  Joint  .... 
850  Bradford,  John  M. . 

850  Bradford,  Joseph  .. 

851  Bradford,  Samuel. . 
Bradford,  Wm.  II.  . 

Bradlsh 

Bradley 

Bradshaw 

Bradwardine 

Brady 


Brow 

Brown 

Brown,  Alex.  B.  . . . 

Brown,  Francis 

Brown,  Isaac  V. . . . 

Brown,  James  C 

Brown,  James  M. . . 
Brown,  John,  1  . . . . 
Brown,  John,  2  . . . . 
Brown,  John,  3  . . .. 
Brown,  John,  4 . . . . 

Brown,  John,  5 

Brown,  John,  6 

Brown,  Matthew.. . 
Brown, William  L.  . 
Browne,  Arthur  . . . 
Browne,  George  . . . 

Browne,  Simon 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas 

Brownell 

Brownist3 


852  Bragdon,  C.  P 

853  Bragdon,     Edmund 

8531     E.  E 

s53,Brahm 


Bride-chamber  .... 

Bridegroom 

Bridge 

Bridge,  Jonathan  D. 
Bridge,  William  . . . 
Bridge  Brethren  . . . 

Bridget,  1 

Bridget,  2 

Bridgewater  Treat- 
ises  

Bridle 

Brief 

Brier 

Brigandine 

Brigittinea 

Brim 

Brimstone 

Brink 

Brisbane 

Brison 

Bristol 

Broaddus 

Brocard  

Brock 

Brodhead,  Jacob. . . 

Brodhead,  John 

Broidered 

Brokesby  

Bromley 

Brood 

Brook 

Broth 

Brother 

Brothers  of  cur  Lord 


Brownrig 

Bruce,  Philip 

Bruce,  Robert 

Brucker 

Bruegglers 

Bruen  

Bruise 

Bruit 

Brulius 

Brumoy 

Bruno  of  Cologne  . . 

Bruno  the  Camul- 
dule   ". 

Bruno  the  Carthu- 
sian   

Bruno,  Giordano. . . 

Brunswick 

Bryant  

Bucer 

Buchanan,  Claudius 

Buchanan,  George  . 

Buclianites 

Buck 

Buckeridge 

Bucket 

Buckland 

Buckle 

Buckler 

Buckley 

BuckmiUBter,  Jos.  . 

Buckminster,  Jos.  S. 

Buddeus 

Buddha 

Buddhism 

Buddicom 

Budnajus 

Buell 

Buffalo 

Buffet 

Huffier 

Bugenhagen 

Bugg 

Building 

Bukki,  1 

Bukki,  2 

Bnkkiah 

Bui 

Bulgaria 

Bulgarians 

Bulgaria 

Bulkley,  Charles.. . 

Bulklev,  Peter 

Bull 

Bull,  George 

Bull,  Papal 

Bull  in  Ccena  Dom- 


Bull,  Willis 
Bullard..., 
Bullarium. 

Bullinger  . 
Bullions  . . 
Bullock  . . . 
Bulrush. . . 
Bulwark  . . 

Bunah . 

BuBch  


928 

928 
92S 

SILAS 

92!) 
929 
030 
930 


947 

iBundle Tage  917 

890  Bunn 917 

897'Bunney 917 

S97  Bunni,  1 917 

897  Bunni,  2 917 

897  Bunni,  3 917 

Si7  Bunsen 917 

897  Bunting 918 

897  Bunyan 919 

897  Burch,  Robert 919 

s97  Burch,  Thomas 920 

S:»S  Burchard 920 

898  Burckhardt 920 

Burden 920 

Burder 920 

Burgess,  Anthony.  .  921 

Burgess,  Daniel. .  . .  921 

Burgess,  George  . . .  921 

Burgess,  Thomas  ..  '.'21 

Burgh,  James 921 

Burgh,  William 921 

Burgundians 921 

Burial 921 

Burkitt 925 

Burmah 925 

Burmann,  Francis  .  928 
Burmann,    Francis, 

Jr 

Burn 

Buruaby 

Bitmap 

Burnet,  Gilbert. . 
Burnet,  Matthias 
Burnet,  Thomas  . 
Burnett  Prizes. . . 

Burnham 

Burning 930 

Burning  Bush 930 

Burns 930 

Burnt-offering 931 

Burnt- offering,  Al- 
tar of  932 

Burr,  Aaron 933 

Burr,  Jonathan  ....  933 

Burritt 933 

Burrough 933 

Burroughes 933 

Burroughs 913 

Bursfelde 9:13 

Burton,  Asa 933 

Burton,  Edward  ...  933 

Burton,  Henry 934 

Burton,  Hezekiah. . 

Burton,  John 

Burton,  Robert 

Bury 

Busby 

Buseubaum 

Bush 

Bush,  George 

Bushel 

ITussey 

Busv-budy !.'3i> 

Butler 935 

Butler,  Allian 935 

Butler,  Charles 935 

Butler,  David 936 

Butler,  Ezra 936 

Butler,  Francis  E.  .  98C 

Butler,  Joseph 936 

Butler,  Samuel 937 

Butler,  William....  937 

Butler,  William  A. .  937 

Butter 93.7 

Butterworth 93S 

Buxa 938 

Buxton,  Jarvis  B. . .  938 
Buxton,  Sir  Thomas 


-■'.)•.' 


911 


934 
93,4 
934 
934 
'.•34 
934 
93.4 
935 
9: 5 
9!  5 


BoNtorf,  John 938 

Buxtorf,  John,  Jr.  .  939 
Buxtorf,  John  James  939 
Buxtorf,  John,  3d  . .   939 

Buz,  1 939 

Buz,  2 939 

Bu/.i 939 

Buzite 939 

Bvblus 939 

Bvfield,  Nicholas  ..  939 
Bvfield,  Richard...  940 

Byles 941) 

Byneeus 940 

Bythner 940 

By-ways 940 

By-word 940 

ByzantineRecensiou  940 


917|Bzovius 910 


END    OF    VOL.  I. 


664  S 


%vm* 


m 


W 


mm 


£2M 


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^ 


s 


il 


^•W 


